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Presented  to  the 
library  of  the 

UNIVERSITY  OF  TORONTO 

by 
Prof.  Harvey  Olnick 


UK  1)1 

.ist. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2007 


http://archive.org/details/dictionaryofmusi02grovuoft 


A    DICTIONARY 


OF 


MUSIC    AND    MUSICIANS. 


DICTIONARY 


OF 

MUSIC    AND    MUSICIANS 

(A.D.  1450-1889) 

BY  EMINENT  WRITERS,   ENGLISH   AND   FOREIGN. 

WITH    ILLUSTRATIONS    AND    WOODCUTS. 

EDITED   BT 

SIR  GEORGE   GROVE,   D.C.L. 

SOMETIME    DIRECTOR    OF    THE    ROYAL    COLLEGE    07    MUSIC,    LONDON. 

WITH  APPENDIX,  EDITED  BY 

J.    A.    FULLER    MAITLAND,    M.A. 

AND  INDEX  BT 

MRS.    EDMOND    WODEHOUSE. 

IN    FOUR    VOLUMES. 

VOL.    II. 

HonDon 
MACMILLAN  AND  CO.,  Limited 

NEW   YORK:   THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 
1900 

[The  Right  of  Translation  and  Reproduction  it  reserved.] 


I/,  2- 


This  Dictionary  was  originally  published  between  the  dates  1877  and  18S9,  and  the  Patis 
have  since  been  reprinted  from  plates,  with  corrections  as  required. 


OXFORD  :    HORACE    HART,    PRINTER   TO   THE    UNIVERSITY 


LIST   OF   CONTRIBUTORS. 

Sir  Julius  Benedict     ..  ..         ..         ..  ..         ,.:  B. 

Joseph  Bennett,  Esq.   . .  . .         . .         . .  . .         . .  J.  B. 

James  R.  Sterndale-Bennett,  Esq.  ..         ..         ..  ..  J.  R.  S.-B. 

David  Baptie,  Esq.,  Glasgow   . .  . .  . .         . .         . .  D.  B. 

Mrs.  Walter  Carr       . .  . .  . .  . .  . .         . .  M.  C.  C. 

William  Chappell,  Esq.,  F.S.A W.  C. 

Alexis  Chitty,  Esq.       . .         . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  A.  C. 

M.  Gustave  Chouquet,  Keeper  of  the  Museum  of  the  Con- 
servatoire de  Musique,  Paris      . .  . .  . .  . .  G.  C. 

Arthur  Duke  Coleridge,  Esq.,  Barrister-at-Law     . .         . .  A.  D.  C. 

Frederick  Corder,  Esq.,  Mendelssohn  Scholar,   1875-79     ..  F.  C. 

George  Arthur  Crawford,  Major      ..         ..         ..         ..  G.  A.  C. 

William  H.  Cummings,  Esq . .         . .         . .  W.  H.  C. 

W.  G.  Cusins,  Esq.,  Conductor  of  the  Philharmonic  Society; 

Master  of  the  Music  to  the  Queen        . .  . .  . .  W.  G.  C. 

Edward  Dannreuther,  Esq.    . .         . .  . .         . .         . .  E.  D. 

Herr  Paul  David         . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  P.  D. 

James  W.  Davison,  Esq.  . .  . .  . .         . .         . .  J.  W.  D. 

Edward  H.  Donkin,  Esq.         . .  . .  . .  . .         . .  E.  H.  D. 

H.  Sutherland  Edwards,  Esq.  . .         . .  . .  . .  H.  S.  E. 

Henry  Frederick  Frost,  Esq.,  Organist  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  Savoy  H.  F.  F. 

J.  A.  Fuller-Maitland,  Esq.  . .         . .         . .  . .         . .  J.  A.  F.-M. 

Charles  Alan  Fyffe,  Esq.,  Barrister-at-Law  . .  . .  C.  A.  F. 

Dr.  Franz  Gehring,  Vienna     . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  F.  G. 

J.  C.  Griffith,  Esq.      . .  . .         . .  . .  . .  . .  J.  C.  G. 

Rev.  Thomas  Helmore,  Master  of  the  Children  of  the  ChapelB  Royal     T.  H. 

George  Herbert,  Esq.  . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  G.  H. 

Dr.  Ferdinand  Hiller,  Cologne  . .  . .  . .  . .  H. 

A.  J.  Hipkins,  Esq.        . .  . .  . .  . .         . .  A.  J.  H. 

Edward  John  Hopkins,  Esq.,  Organist  to  the  Temple        . .  E.  J.  H. 


VI 


LIST  OF   CONTRD3UTOES. 


Rev.  T.  Percy  Hudson 

Francis  Hueffer,  Esq. 

John  Hullah,  Esq.,  LL.D. 

William  H.  Husk,  Esq.,  Librarian  to  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society 

F.  H.  Jenks,  Esq.,  Boston,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 

James  Lecky,  Esq. 

Henry  J.  Lincoln,  Esq. 

Stanley  Lucas,  Esq.,  late  Secretary  to  the  Philharmonic  Society 

George  Alexander  Macfarren,  Esq.,  Mus.  Doc,  Professor 

of  Music  in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  &c,  &c. 
Charles  Mackeson,  Esq.,  F.S.S. 
Herr  A.  Maczewski,  Concert-director,  Kaiserslautern 
Julian  Marshall,  Esq. 
Mrs.  Julian  Marshall 
Russel  Martineau,  Esq. 

Edwin  G.  Monk,  Esq.,  Mus.  Doc,  Organist  of  York  Cathedral 
Sir  Herbert  S.  Oakeley,  Mus.  Doc,  Professor  of  Music  in 

the  University  of  Edinburgh 
Rev.  Sir  Frederick  A.  Gore   Ouseley,  Bart.,  Mus.  Doc, 

Professor  of  Music  in  the  University  of  Oxford 
C.  Hubert  H.  Parry,  Esq.,  Mus.  Doc. 
Herr  Ernst  Pauer 

Edward  John  Payne,  Esq.,  Barrister-at-Law. 
Rev.  Hugh  Pearson,  Canon  of  Windsor 
Edward  H.  Pember,  Esq.,  Q.O. 
Miss  Phillimore 
Herr  C.  Ferdinand  Pohl,  Librarian 

Musikfreunde,  Vienna 
William  Pole,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  Mus.  Doc 
Victor  de  Pontigny,  Esq. 
Ebenezer  Prout,  Esq. 
Rev.  William  Pulling 
Charles  H.  Purday,  Esq. 
Edward  F.  Rimbault,  Esq.,   LL.D. 
Luigi  Ricci,  Esq. 
W.  S.  Rockstro,  Esq.  .. 


to  the 


Gesellschaft  der 


T.  P.  H. 

F.  H. 

J.  H. 

W.  H.  H. 

F.  H.  J. 

J.  L.- 

H.J. L. 

S.L. 

G.A.M. 

CM. 

A.M. 

J.  M. 

F.  A.M. 

R.M. 

E.  G.  M. 

H.  S.  0. 

F.A.G.O 

C.  H.  H.  P. 

P. 

E.  J.  P. 

H.P. 

E.  H.  P. 

C.  M.  P. 

C.  F.  P. 

W.  P. 

V.  DE  P. 

E.  P. 

W.  Pg. 

C.  H.  P. 

E.  F.  R. 

L.R. 

W.  S.  R. 

LIST   OF   CONTRIBUTORS,  vii 

W.  Barclay  Squire,  Esq. 
H.  H.  Statham,  Esq.  .. 
Sir  Robert  P.  Stewart,   Mus.  Doc,   Pro  lessor  of  Music  in 

Dublin  University 
William  H.  Stone,  Esq.,  M.D. 
Arthur  Seymour.  Sullivan,   Esq.,  Mus.    Doc,   Principal  of 

the  National  Training  School  of  Music 
Franklin  Taylor,  Esq. 
Alexander  W.  Thayer,  Esq.,  United  States  Consul,  Trieste, 

Author  of  the  Life  of  Beethoven 
Miss  Bertha  Thomas 

C.  A.  W.  Troyte,  Esq.  

Colonel   H.  Ware,   Public   Library,    Boston,  Mass.,   U.S.A. 
Mrs.  Edmond  Wodehouse 
The  Editor 

Bedford  Street,  Covent  Garden. 
Oct.  i,  1880. 


W.  B.  S. 

H.  H.  S. 

R.  P.  S. 

W.  H.  S. 

S. 

F.  T. 

A.  W.  T. 

B.T. 

C.  A.  W.  T. 

H.  W. 

A.  H.  W. 

G. 

DICTIONARY 


OF 


MUSIC   AND   MUSICIANS. 


IMPROPERLY,  i.e.  'The  Reproaches.'  A 
series  of  Antiphons  and  Responses,  forming  part 
of  the  solemn  Service,  which,  on  the  morning  of 
Good  Friday,  is  substituted  for  the  usual  daily 
Mass  of  the  Roman  Ritual. 

The  text  of  the  Improperia,  written  partly  in 
Latin,  and  partly  in  Greek,  is  designed  to  illus- 
trate the  sorrowful  remonstrance  of  our  Lord  with 
His  people,  concerning  their  ungrateful  return  for 
the  benefits  He  has  bestowed  upon  them.  The 
touching  words  in  which  these  remonstrances 
are  expressed  were  originally  sung  to  well-known 
Plain  Chaunt  melodies,  preserved  in  the  Graduate 
Jtomanum,  and  still  retained  in  very  general  use, 
both  in  England,  and  on  the  Continent :  but, 
since  the  Pontificate  of  Pope  Pius  TV,  they 
have  been  invariably  chaunted,  in  the  Sistine 
Chapel,  to  some  simple,  but  exquisitely  beautiful 
Faux  bourdons,  to  which  they  were  adapted,  by 
Palestrina,  in  the  year  1 560.  In  depth  of  feeling, 
true  pathos,  and  perfect  adaptation  of  the  music 
to  the  sense  of  the  words,  these  wonderful  Im- 
properia have  never  been  exceeded,  even  by 
Palestrina  himself.  We  may  well  believe,  indeed, 
that  he  alone  could  have  succeeded  in  drawing, 
from  the  few  simple  chords  which  enter  into 
their  construction,  the  profoundly  impressive 
effect  they  never  fail  to  produce ;  an  effect  so 
strictly  in  accordance  with  that  of  the  solemn 
Ceremony  with  which  they  are  associated  that 
we  can  only  hope  to  render  the  one  intelligible 
by  describing  it  in  connexion  with  the  other. 

A  small  Crucifix  having  been  laid  upon  the 
Altar  Step,  the  Clergy,  first,  and  afterwards  the 
people,  kneel  down  to  kiss  its  Feet.  While  they 
are  slowly  approaching  the  Sanctuary,  by  two 
and  two,  for  this  purpose,  the  Improperia  are 
sung,  very  softly,  and  without  any  accompani- 
ment whatever,  by  two  Antiphonal  Choirs,  which 
answer  each  other,  by  turns,  in  Greek,  and  Latin, 
sometimes  in  full  Chorus,  and  sometimes  em- 
ploying  the  Voices  of  a  few  leading  Choristers 

VOL.  II. 


only,  on  either  side.  After  the  last '  Reproach,' 
and  the  Response  which  follows  it,  the  two  Choirs 
unite  in  singing  the  first  Verse  of  the  Psalm, '  Deus 
misereatur  nostri,'  preceded,  and  followed,  by  the 
Antiphon, '  Crucem  tuam  adoramus.'  The  Hymn 
'  Pange  lingua '  is  then  sung,  entire,  with  the  Verse, 
'  Crux  fidelis,'  divided  into  two  portions,  which  are 
sung,  alternately,  between  the  other  Strophes. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  Mattre  de  Chapelle  to  take 
care  that  this  music  occupies  exactly  the  same 
time  as  the  ceremony  of  '  Creeping  to  the  Cross ' 
(as  it  was  formerly  called,  in  England).  Should 
there  be  but  few  people  present,  he  is  at  liberty 
to  omit  any  portion  of  it :  should  there  be  many, 
he  may  cause  as  much  as  he  considers  necessary 
to  be  sung  over  again.1  In  either  case,  when  all 
present  have  kissed  the  Crucifix,  the  Candles  on 
the  Altar  are  lighted :  a  new  Procession  is  formed : 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  carried,  with  great 
solemnity,  from  the  Chapel  in  which  it  has  been 
reserved  since  the  Mass  of  Holy  Thursday,  to 
the  High  Altar,  the  Choir  singing  the  Hymn, 
'  Vexilla  regis,'  as  they  precede  it  on  its  way :  and 
the  Service  called '  The  Mass  of  the  Presanctified' 
then  proceeds  in  accordance  with  directions  con- 
tained in  the  Missal. 

No  printed  copy  of  the  Improperia  was  issued, 
either  by  Palestrina  himself,  or  the  assignees  of 
his  son,  Igino.  They  were  first  published  in 
London,  by  Dr.  Burney ;  who,  on  the  authority 
of  a  MS.  presented  to  him  by  the  Cavaliere 
Santarelli,  inserted  them,  in  the  year  1771,  in  » 
work  entitled  '  La  Musica  della  Settimana  Santa,' 
which  has  now  become  very  scarce.  Alfieri  also 
printed  them  among  his  Excerpta,  published, 
at  Rome,  in  1840;  and,  in  1863,  Dr.  Proske 
included  them  in  the  fourth  volume  of  his  Musica 


>  Mendelssohn,  who.  In  the  year  1831,  wu  much  Impressed,  both  by 
the  musks,  and  the  Ceremony.  laments.  In  hU  well-known  letter  to 
Zelter,  that,  the  crowd  not  being  Tery  (real,  he  had  not  an  oppor- 
tunity of  bearing  the  Responses  repeated  to  often  as  he  could  bare 
wished. 

B 


IMPROPER!  A. 


INCLEDON. 


Divina.     These  three  editions  differ  from  each 
other  very  considerably.     That  of  Proske, 


P 


^a» 


ter  -   ra       M  -  gyp  -  ti:       etc 

«:    *    «:    ^    ^a. 


H 


copied  from  the  Altamps-Otthoboni  MS.  pre- 
served in  the  Vatican  Library,  may  fairly  be 
assumed  to  represent  the  work  exactly  in  the 
condition  in  which  Palestrina  left  it:  but  the 
varied  readings  of  Burney  (1771), 


IN 


■a  fgl 


PP§ 


r    i 


£?, 


ter  -  ra     .E 


="ff 


3^} 


,4^+ 


and  of  Alfieri  (1840), 


s=s: 


ter  -  ra     .35  -  gyp 

.£2.  -C2.  £2. 


wm 


ise 


r 


t 


.&- 


Ail 


& 


are  both  valuable  and  interesting,  as  records  of 
the  abellimenti  used  in  the  Pontifical  Chapel  at 
the  time  of  their  transcription.  Burney's  version 
was  reproduced,  by  Choron,  among  his  examples 
of  the  Great  Masters,  in  1836;  and  again,  in 
1 840,  by  Vincent  Novello,  in  'The  Music  of  Holy 
Week,'  which  is  still  in  print.  [W.S.R.] 

IMPROVISATION,  an  equivalent  term  for  Ex- 
tempore Playing  or  Extemporising.  Moscheles 
has  left  a  curious  account  of  the  way  in  which 
Mendelssohn  and  he  used  to  amuse  themselves 
by  improvising  A  quatre  mains,  a  feat  already 
mentioned  in  respect  to  Beethoven  and  Wolffl 
under  Extempore.  'We  often,'  says  he  (Life, 
i.  274),  'improvise  together  on  his  magnificent 
Erard,  each  of  us  trying  to  dart  as  quick  as 
lightning  on  the  suggestions  contained  in  the 
other's  harmonies  and  to  make  fresh  ones  upon 
them.  Then,  if  I  bring  in  a  theme  out  of  his 
music,  he  immediately  cuts  in  with  one  out  of 
mine ;  then  I  retort,  and  then  he,  and  so  on  ad 
infinitum,  like  two  people  at  blind  man's  buff 
running  against  each  other.' 

Nottebohm  remarks  in  his  '  Beethoveniana ' 
(p.  54)  that  of  all  Beethoven's  string  quartets 
that  in  Cfl  minor  (op.  131)  has  most  the  character 
of  an  Improvisation,  but  at  the  same  time  he 
quotes  alterations  from  the  sketchbooks  (15  of 
one  passage  only)  which  show  that  the  work  was 
the  very  reverse  of  an  impromptu,  and  the  result 
of  more  than  ordinary  labour  and  vacillation, 
thus  corroborating  the  remark  made  in  the  article 
on  Beethoven  in  this  Dictionary  (p.  1 74  a)  that 
the  longer  he  worked  at  his  phrases,  the  more 
apparently  spontaneous  did  they  become.       [G.] 


INCLEDON,  Charles  Benjamin, — the  se- 
cond of  which  names  he  despised  and  seldom 
used, — was  the  son  of  a  medical  practitioner  at 
St.  Kevern,  Cornwall,  where  he  was  born  in 
1763.  At  8  years  of  age  he  was  placed  in  the 
choir  of  Exeter  Cathedral,  where  he  received  his 
early  musical  education,  first  from  Richard  Lang- 
don  and  afterwards  from  William  Jackson.  In 
1779  ne  entered  on  board  the  Formidable,  man- 
of-war,  98  guns,  under  Capt.  (afterwards  Rear- 
Admiral)  Cleland.  On  the  West  India  station 
he  changed  his  ship  for  the  Raisonable,  64  guns, 
Captain  Lord  Hervey.  His  voice  had  now  be- 
come a  fine  tenor,  and  his  singing  attracted  the 
attention  of  Admiral  Pigot,  commander  of  the 
fleet,  who  frequently  sent  for  him  to  join  himself 
and  Admiral  Hughes  in  the  performance  of  glees 
and  catches.  Incledon  returned  to  England  in 
1783,  when  Admiral  Pigot,  Lord  Mulgrave,  and 
Lord  Hervey  gave  him  letters  of  introduction  to 
Sheridan  and  Colman.  Failing  to  obtain  an  en- 
gagement from  either  manager  he  joined  Collins's 
company  and  made  his  first  appearance  at  the 
Southampton  Theatre  in  1784  as  Alphonso  in 
Dr.  Arnold's  'Castle  of  Andalusia.'  In  the 
next  year  he  was  engaged  at  the  Bath  Theatre, 
where  he  made  his  first  appearance  as  Belville  in 
Shield's  'Rosina.'  At  Bath  he  attracted  the 
attention  of  Rauzzini,  who  gave  him  instruction 
and  introduced  him  at  his  concerts.  In  1786  he 
made  his  first  appearance  in  London  at  Vauxhall 
Gardens  with  great  success,  and  during  the  next 
three  years  he  was  engaged  there  in  the  summer 
and  at  Bath  in  the  winter.  On  Sept.  1 7,  1 790, 
he  made  his  first  appearance  at  Covent  Garden 
Theatre  as  Dermot  in  Shield's  'Poor  Soldier,' 
and  from  that  time  for  upwards  of  30  years  held 
a  high  position  in  public  favour,  singing  not  only 
at  the  theatre  and  Vauxhall,  but  also  at  con- 
certs, the  Lenten  oratorios,  and  the  provincial 
music  meetings.  In  181 7  he  visited  America, 
and  made  a  tour  through  a  considerable  part  of 
the  United  States,  where  he  was  received  with 
great  applause  During  the  latter  years  of  his 
life  he  travelled  through  the  provinces  under  the 
style  of  '  The  Wandering  Melodist,'  and  gave  an 
entertainment  which  was  received  with  much 
favour.  Early  in  1826  he  went  to  Worcester  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  his  entertainment,  where 
he  was  attacked  by  paralysis,  which  terminated 
his  existence  on  Feb.  11.  He  was  buried  at 
Hampstead,  Middlesex.  Incledon's  voice  and 
manner  of  singing  were  thus  described  by  a  con- 
temporary : — '  He  had  a  voice  of  uncommon 
power  both  in  the  natural  and  falsette.  The 
former  was  from  A  to  G,  a  compass  of  about 
fourteen  notes ;  the  latter  he  could  use  from  D 
to  E  or  F,  or  about  ten  notes.  His  natural  voice 
was  full  and  open,  neither  partaking  of  the  reed 
nor  the  string,  and  sent  forth  without  the  smallest 
artifice ;  and  such  was  its  ductility  that  when  he 
sung  pianissimo  it  retained  its  original  quality. 
His  falsette  was  rich,  sweet  and  brilliant,  but 
totally  unlike  the  other.  He  took  it  without 
preparation,  according  to  circumstances  either 
about  D,  E,  or  F,  or  ascending  an  octave,  which 


INCLEDON. 

was  his  most  frequent  custom ;  he  could  use  it 
with  facility,  and  execute  ornaments  of  a  certain 
class  with  volubility  and  sweetness.  His  shake 
was  good,  and  his  intonation  much  more  correct 
than  is  common  to  singers  so  imperfectly  edu- 
cated. .  .  .  He  had  a  bold  and  manly  manner  of 
singing,  mixed  however  with  considerable  feeling, 
which  went  to  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen.  He 
Bang  like  a  true  Englishman.  .  .  .  His  forte  was 
ballad,  and  ballad  not  of  the  modern  cast  of 
whining  or  wanton  sentiment1,  but  the  original 
manly  energetic  strain  of  an  earlier  and  better 
age  of  English  poesy  and  English  song-writing, 
■uch  as  'Black-eyed  Susan'  and  'The  Storm,' 
the  bold  and  cheering  hunting  song,  or  the  love 
song  of  Shield,  breathing  the  chaste  and  simple 
grace  of  genuine  English  melody.'  All  who  had 
heard  Incledon's  singing  of  '  The  Storm '  (which 
he  sang  in  character  as  a  sailor)  were  unanimous 
in  pronouncing  it  unique,  both  as  a  vocal  and  an 
histrionic  exhibition.  Of  the  songs  written  ex- 
pressly for  him  it  may  suffice  to  mention  Shield's 
'  Heaving  the  lead '  and  '  The  Arethusa.' 

Charles  Venanzio  Incledon,  his  eldest  son, 
originally  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits,  but 
on  Oct.  3,  1 829,  appeared  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre 
as  Young  Meadows  in  '  Love  in  a  Village,'  and 
shortly  afterwards  played  Tom  Tug  in  Dibdin's 
'Waterman.'  Meeting  however  with  but  very 
moderate  success  he  returned  to  his  former 
avocation,  and,  it  is  believed,  emigrated  to  one 
of  the  colonies.  [W.  H.  H.] 

INGANNO,  i.e.  Deception.  Any  fals^  or 
deceptive  Cadence,  in  which  the  Bass  proceeds, 
from  the  Dominant,  to  any  other  note  than  the 
Tonic  :— 


[W.S.R.] 
INGLOTT,  William,  born  1554,  became  or- 
ganist of  Norwich  Cathedral.  He  was  distin- 
guished for  his  skill  as  a  performer  on  the  organ 
and  virginals.  He  died  in  Dec.  162 1  aged  67, 
and  was  buried  Dec.  31  in  the  cathedral,  where 
on  the  west  side  of  the  southern  pillar  adjoining 
the  entrance  to  the  choir  a  painted  monument  to 
his  memory  was  placed  June  15,  1622.  Nearly 
90  years  afterwards  the  monument,  having 
become  dilapidated,  was  restored  at  the  expense 
of  Dr.  Croft.  An  engraving  of  it  in  its  restored 
state  is  given  in  '  The  Posthumous  Works  of  Sir 
Thomas  Browne,'  1 71 2.  [W.H.H.] 

INITIALS,  ABSOLUTE.  Though  it  is  not 
necessary  that  a  Plain  Chaunt  Melody  should 
begin  on  the  Final,  Dominant,  or  even  Mediant, 
of  the  Mode  in  which  it  is  written,  the  choice  of 
the  first  note  is  not  left  entirely  to  the  Composer's 
discretion.  He  can  only  begin  upon  one  of  a 
series  of  sounds,  selected  from  the  Regular  or 

'  ThUwuwritUn  In  1818,  during  Ineledon'i  abxnce  In  America. 


IN  NOMINE.  3 

Conceded  Modulations  of  the  Scale  in  which  he 
writes,  and  invariably  occupying  the  first  place 
in  all  Plain  Chaunt  Melodies  referable  to  that 
Scale.  These  sounds  are  called  Absolute  Initials. 
Their  number  varies,  in  different  Modes ;  no 
Tonality  possessing  less  than  three,  or  more  than 
six :  and,  among  them,  there  are  a  few,  which, 
though  freely  permitted,  by  law,  are,  in  practice, 
very  rarely  used. 

In  the  following  Table,  the  letters,  enclosed  in 
brackets,  denote  the  more  unusual  Initials  :  while 
those  printed  in  Italics  indicate  that  the  sounds 
they  represent  are  to  be  taken  in  the  lower 
Octave,  even  though  they  should  thus  be  brought 
beyond  the  normal  bounds  of  the  Mode. 

Mods  I.  C.  D.  P.  G.  A. 

Mode  II.  A.  C.  D.  F.  [E.] 

Mode  m.  E.  [F  ]  G.  C. 

Mode  IV.  C.  D.  E.  F.  [G.J  [AJ 

Mode  V.  F.  A.  C. 

Mode  VL  F.  [C]  [D.] 

Mode  VTI.  G.  [A  ]  B.  C.  D. 

ModeVTir.  C.  D.  F.  G.  A.C. 

Mode  IX.  O.  A.  C.  D.  E. 

Mode  X.  E.  G.  A.  C.  [B] 

(Mode  XI.)  B.  [C]  D.  G. 

{Mode  XII.)  G.  A.  B.  C.  [D.]  [E.] 

Mode  XIII.  C.  [D.]  E.  G. 

Mode  XIV.  [6.]  [A.]  C.  [D.] 

The  selection  of  some  of  these  sounds  may 
seem,  at  first  sight,  a  little  arbitrary :  but,  in 
truth,  it  is  sometimes  very  difficult  to  decide 
upon  a  suitable  first  note.  This  is  particularly 
the  case  with  regard  to  Antiphons,  the  first  notes 
of  which  exercise  a  marked  effect  upon  the  Tones 
to  which  the  corresponding  Psalms  are  sung.  It 
will  be  remembered  that  the  entire  Antiphon  is 
always  repeated,  immediately  after  the  Psalm. 
It  follows,  therefore,  that,  unless  care  be  taken 
to  bring  the  last  note  of  the  Ending  of  the  Psalm 
Tone  into  true  melodic  correspondence  with  the 
first  note  of  the  Antiphon,  forbidden  intervals 
may  arise.  By  a  careful  arrangement  of  the  Abso- 
lute Initials,  the  earlier  writers  on  Plain  Chaunt 
did  their  best  to  reduce  the  danger  of  introducing 
such  intervals  to  a  minimum.  [See  Antiphon  ; 
Modes,  the  ecclesiastical.]  [W.  S.  R.] 

INNIG.  A  word  used  by  Beethoven  during 
his  German  fit  (op.  101,  ist  movement;  109, 
last  do.;  121  b),  and  Schumann  (op.  12,  *  Des 
Abends ' ;  op.  24,  No.  9 ;  op.  56,  Nos.  2  and  4, 
Manfred  music,  No.  2,  etc.)  to  convey  an  intensely 
personal,  almost  devotional,  frame  of  mind.    [G.] 

IN  NOMINE.  A  somewhat  vague  name, 
bestowed,  by  old  English  writers,  on  a  certain 
kind  of  Motet,  or  Antiphon,  composed  to  Latin 
words.  It  seems  to  have  been  used,  in  the  first 
instance,  for  compositions  the  text  of  which  began 
with  the  words  in  question,  or  in  which  those 
words  were  brought  prominently  forward  :  such 
as  the  Introit,  'In  nomine  Jesu';  the  Psalm, 
'Deus,  in  nomine  tuo';  and  other  similar  cases. 
But  its  signification  certainly  became  more  ex- 
tended :  for  Butler,  writing  in  1636,  commends 
'  the  In  nominee  of  Parsons,  Tye,  and  Taverner,' 
just  as  we  should  commend  the  Madrigals  of 
Weelkes,  or  Morley,  or  Gibbons.  The  name  is 
even  employed  for  instrumental  pieces. 

B2 


IN  NOMINE. 


INSCRIPTION. 


The  term,  In  nomine,  is  also  very  reasonably 
applied  to  a  Fugue,  in  which  the  solmisation  of 
the  answer  does  not  correspond  with  that  of  the 
subject,  and  which,  therefore,  is  a  fugue  in  name 
only.     [See  Hexachord.]  [W.S.R.] 

IN  QUEST  A  TOMBA  OSCURA.  A  song  of 
Beethoven's  for  contralto,  with  P.  F.  accompani- 
ment, to  words  by  Carpani,  written  probably  at 
the  invitation  of  the  Countess  von  Rzewuska,  and 
forming  one  of  sixty-three  compositions  to  the 
same  words  by  various  musicians,  professional  and 
amateur.  Among  the  most  eminent  of  the  con- 
tributors are  Salieri,  Sterkel,  Cherubini,  Asioli, 
Righini,  Zingarelli,  Weigl,  Dionis  Weber,  Toma- 
schek,  Alois  Forster,  Paer,  Eberl,  Czerny.  Zinga- 
relli sent  ten  versions  with  quartet  accompani- 
ment. Czerny's  single  setting  occupied  n  folio 
pages.  Beethoven's  was  the  last  in  the  volume, 
and  is  the  only  one  which  has  survived.  The 
Allgemeine  Musik.  Zeitung  for  Oct.  19,  1808, 
in  announcing  the  publication,  prints  two  of  the 
settings,  by  Salieri  and  Sterkel,  and  in  Jan.  1810, 
two  more  by  Reichardt.  For  another  joint-stock 
volume  in  which  Beethoven  took  part,  see  Va- 

TERLANDISCHE  KUNSTLERVEEEIN.  [G.] 

INSCRIPTION  (Lat.  Inscriptio,  Ital.  Motto). 
A  Motto,  or  Sign,  or  combination  of  both,  placed 
at  the  beginning  of  a  Canon,  to  indicate,  more  or 
less  clearly,  the  manner  of  its  Resolution. 

During  the  latter  half  of  the  15th  century,  the 
founders  of  the  Flemish  School — by  whom  the 
more  abstruse  forms  of  Imitation  were  assidu- 
ously cultivated — seem  chiefly  to  have  aimed  at 
rendering  the  solution  of  their  Enimme,  or  ^Enig- 
matical Canons,  impossible.  Some  of  their  most 
extravagant  conceits  are  presented  in  the  shape 
of  Crosses,  Circles,  Squares,  Triangles,  Rainbows, 
Chess-boards,  Sun-dials,  and  other  equally  fan- 
tastic designs,  without  the  addition  of  any  clue 
whatever  to  their  hidden  meanings.  (See  ex- 
amples in  Hawkins,  Hist.  chap.  67.)  But,  more 
frequently,  they  are  written  in  a  single  line — 
called,  the  Guida — headed  by  some  old  proverb, 
or  well-known  quotation  from  Holy  Scripture, 
which,  though  ostensibly  vouchsafed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  the  student  some  little  insight  into 
the  secret  of  their  construction,  tends  rather,  as 
a  general  rule,  to  increase  his  perplexity.  Head- 
ings, such  as  these,  are  called  Inscriptions  :  and  so 
obscure  is  their  occasional  meaning,  that  even 
Glareanus  calls  one  of  them  rfjs  otpiyyos  alviffxa. 

Foremost  among  the  composers  of  these  in- 
genious works,  and  high  above  them  all,  stands 
Josquin  des  Pres,  the  refinement  of  whose  scholar- 
ship is  as  clearly  proved,  by  the  grace  of  his 
Motti,  as  his  quite  exceptional  genius  is  by  the 
smooth  flow  of  the  Canons  to  which  they  are 
prefixed.  In  the  second  Agnus  Dei  of  his  '  Missa 
L'Ami  baudichon,'  he  intimates  that  the  Tenor 
is  to  be  silent,  by  the  pretty  Inscription,  '  Agnus 
secundum  non  est  cum  grege.'  In  another  place, 
he  veils  the  same  meaning  under  the  Greek 
proverb,  P&rpaxos  ex  2epi<pov,  in  allusion  to 
iElian's  statement  that  the  frogs  on  the  Island 
of  Seriphos  do  not  croak.  Other  writers  have 
contented  themselves  with  •  Vox  faucibus  hsesit.' 


To  shew  that  the  second  Voice  is  to  begin  at 
the  end,  and  sing  backwards,  Hobrecht  says, 
plainly  enough,  '  Ut  prius,  sed  dicitur  retrograde.' 
Pierre  de  la  Rue  more  sternly  exclaims,  'Vade 
retro,  Sathanas.'  Another  quaint  old  Composer 
writes,  'Canit  more  Hebrseorum';  referring  to 
the  custom  of  reading  Hebrew  from  right  to  left. 
Josquin  sums  up  the  whole  matter  in  a  single 
word — 'Cancriza,'  i.e.  walk  like  a  crab.  Equally 
terse  is  the  motto  prefixed  to  the  third  Agnus 
Dei  in  his  '  Missa  L'Omme  arme" ' ;  where  the 
omission  of  all  rests,  in  one  of  the  parts,  is  in- 
dicated by  the  direction  'Clama  ne  cesses.* 
Sometimes  he  gives  us  a  French  motto,  as  in  his 
'  Missa  de  Beata  Virgine,'  where  '  Vous  jeunerez 
les  quatre  temps '  shews  that  one  part  is  to  wait 
four  semibreves,  before  taking  up  the  Subject — 
a  direction  which  is  less  poetically  expressed  by 
another  writer,  in  the  words  'Fuga  in  epidiapason, 
post  duo  tempora' — 'a  Canon  in  the  Octave  above, 
after  two  Semibreves.' 

Some  of  Hobrecht's  Inscriptions  are  very  ob- 
scure. '  Accidens  potest  inesse  et  abesse  praeter 
subjecti  corruptionem'  implies  that  the  part  may 
be  sung,  or  omitted,  at  will,  without  injury  to 
the  music.  'Decimas  reddo  omnia  quae  possideo* 
shews  that  the  (unwritten)  Bass  must  sing  a 
Tenth  below  the  Discant.  '  Tu  tenor  cancriza,  et 
per  antifrasin  canta'  indicates  that  the  Tenor  is 
to  sing  backwards,  and,  with  all  the  intervals 
inverted.  Not  less  oracular  is  Mouton's  'Duo 
adversi  adverse  in  unum,'  which  means  that  two 
singers  are  to  stand  opposite  each  other,  with  the 
Canon  between  them,  each  reading  it  upside  down 
from  the  other's  point  of  view — an  arrangement 
which  is  also  dictated  by  'Respice  me,  ostende 
mihi  faciem  tuam.'  More  mysterious  still  is 
'  Justitia  et  Pax  osculatae  sunt ' — indicating  that 
the  two  performers  are  to  begin  at  opposite  ends, 
and  meet  in  the  middle. 

When  black  notes  are  to  be  sung  in  the  time 
of  white  ones,  we  sometimes  find  'Nigra  sum, 
sed  formosa';  or,  'Noctem  in  diem  vertere';  or, 
'Dum  habetis  lucem  credite  in  lucem.'  By 
'Crescit  in  duplum'  (or  'triplum')  we  under- 
stand that  the  notes  are  to  be  sung  in  Double 
(or  Triple)  Augmentation.  'Tres  dent  sex 
voces'  means,  that  each  of  the  three  written 
parts  is  to  be  doubled,  in  Canon,  so  as  to  form  a 
composition  for  six  Voices. 

The  list  of  these  hard  sayings  is  interminable ; 
and  the  hardness  of  many  of  them  is  increased 
by  the  Signs  of  Mode,  Time,  and  Prolation,  with 
which  they  are  sometimes  accompanied.  For 
instance,  a  Semicircle,  a  Semicircle  with  a  Bar 
drawn  through  it,  and  a  Circle  with  a  Point  in 
the  centre,  would,  if  placed  one  above  the  other, 
at  the  beginning  of  a  Stave,  serve  to  indicate 
that  one  Voice  was  to  sing  four  Crotchets  in  a 
Bar,  another,  four  Minims,  and  the  third,  three 
Semibreves.  In  the  last  Agnus  Dei  of  Pierre  de 
la  Rue's  '  Missa  L'homme  arme",'  we  find  a  com- 
bination of  no  less  than  four  such  Signs. 

Following  the  example  of  Palestrina,  the  great 
Composers  of  the  'Golden  Age'  cast  all  these 
pedantries  aside,  and  wrote  their  really  beautiful 


INSCRIPTION. 

Canons  in  notation  which  any  singer  could  readily 
understand.  Falestrina  himself  delights  in  making 
two  Voices  sing  in  Canon,  while  three  or  four 
others  carry  on  the  Subject  in  close  Imitation,  or 
complicated  Free  Fugue ;  as  in  the  lovely  second 
Agnus  Dei  of  his  'Missa  Brevis,'  and  many 
others,  equally  beautiful.  In  all  these  cases,  the 
Voices  to  which  the  Canon  is  committed  are 
expected  to  sing  from  a  single  part ;  but,  the 
Inscription  prefixed  to  that  part  is  so  plain,  that 
they  find  no  difficulty  whatever  in  doing  so. 
Thus,  'Symphonizabis'  (Missa  Brevis  as  above) 
indicates  a  Canon  in  the  Unison.  'Canon  in 
Diapason'  or  '  Epidiapason,'  a  Canon  in  the 
Octave  above,  and  so  on.  The  sign,  fit,  or 
some  similar  figure — called  the  Presa — indi- 
cates the  place  at  which  the  second  Voice  is  to 
begin;  and  a  pause,  "\  is  placed  over  the  note 
on  which  it  ends.  The  two  Voices  can,  therefore, 
sing  just  as  easily  from  a  single  part,  as  from  two 
separate  copies. 

In  modern  editions,  the  matter  is  still  farther 
simplified,  by  writing  out  the  Canon  in  full ; 
though,  in  the  best  copies,  the  Inscription  is  still 
carefully  retained.  [W.S.R.] 

INSTITUT,  PRIX  DE  L',  a  prize  of  20,000 
francs  founded  by  Napoleon  III.  in  1859,  in 
place  of  the  '  Prix  triennal '  instituted  by  the 
decree  of  April  1855.  By  a  second  decree,  of 
Dec.  22,  i860,  it  was  enacted  that  from  and 
after  1861  the  prize  should  be  biennial,  and 
should  be  awarded  to  such  work  or  discovery,  of 
the  ten  years  previous  to  the  award,  as  should  be 
deemed  most  honourable  or  useful  to  the  nation, 
in  the  department  of  each  of  the  five  Academies 
of  the  Institute  successively — r Academic  Fran- 
caise,  l'Acade'mie  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles 
lettres,  des  Sciences,  des  Beaux- Arts,  des  Sciences 
morales  et  politiques.  The  first  prize  was  ad- 
judged to  M.  Thiers,  as  the  representative  of 
the  Acade'mie  Francaise,  in  1861.  In  1867  the 
turn  of  the  Acade'mie  des  Beaux  Arts  arrived, 
and  the  prize  was  then  awarded  to  Felicien  Da- 
vid, the  only  musician  who  has  obtained  it,  the 
award  on  the  second  occasion,  1877,  having  been 
made  to  a  sculptor— M.  Chapu.  [G.  C] 

INSTRUMENT  (Lat.  Insirumentum,  Ital. 
Slromento).  In  general  language,  a  tool,  that 
by  means  of  which  work  is  done;  hence,  in  music, 
an  apparatus  for  producing  musical  sounds.  Nu- 
merous as  are  the  various  kinds  of  instruments 
in  practical  use  at  the  present  day,  they  form 
but  a  small  proportion  of  the  immense  number 
which  have  been  invented  and  used  from  time 
to  time.  Out  of  nearly  340  different  kinds 
mentioned  in  a  list  in  Koch's  Mimihalisches 
Lexicon  (art.  'Instrument')  only  67  are  given 
as  being  in  use  at  present,  and  some  even  of 
these  are  merely  varieties  of  the  same  genus. 
Various  causes  have  contributed  to  the  survival 
of  certain  instruments  and  the  extinction  of  others. 
Quality  of  tone  would  of  course  be  a  powerfully 
operating  cause,  and  practicableness  in  a  mechani- 
cal sense  would  be  scarcely  less  so ;  but  besides 
♦his.  the  various  ways  of  combining  instruments  in 
performance  which  prevailed  at  different  periods, 


INSTRUMENT.  5 

had  the  effect  of  proving  certain  of  them  to  be 
unnecessary,  and  bo  indirectly  tended  to  abolish 
them.  Thus  before  the  time  of  Lully  it  was  cus- 
tomary for  the  most  part  to  combine  instruments 
of  the  same  class  only,  and  we  read  of  a  '  Con- 
cert of  Violins,'  'Concert  of  Flutes,'  etc.;  this 
fact  rendered  necessary  flutes  of  deeper  compass 
than  are  now  used,  and  accordingly  we  find 
tenor  and  bass  flutes,  extending  downwards  to 
F  on  the  fourth  line  of  the  bass  stave.1  So  soon 
however  as  the  combination  of  wind  and  stringed 
instruments  was  found  to  be  preferable,  the  feeble 
bass  of  the  flute  would  be  insufficient  and  un- 
necessary, and  the  larger  kinds  of  flutes  naturally 
enough  fell  into  disuse. 

All  musical  sounds  are  the  result  of  atmo- 
spheric vibrations ;  and  such  vibrations  are  excited 
either  directly,  by  blowing  with  suitable  force 
and  direction  into  a  tube,  or  indirectly,  by 
agitating  an  elastic  body,  such  as  a  stretched 
string,  whereby  it  is  thrown  into  a  state  of 
vibration,  and  communicates  its  own  vibrations 
to  the  surrounding  air.  One  or  other  of  these  two 
is  the  acting  principle  of  every  musical  instru- 
ment. On  tracing  the  history  of  the  two  it  does 
not  appear  that  either  is  of  earlier  date  than  the 
other ;  indeed  tradition  with  respect  to  both 
carries  us  back  from  history  into  myth  and  fable, 
the  invention  of  the  earliest  form  of  stringed  in- 
strument, the  Lyre,  being  attributed  to  the  god 
Mercury,  who  finding  the  shell  of  a  tortoise  cast 
upon  the  bank  of  the  Nile,  discovered  that  the 
filaments  of  dried  skin  which  were  stretched  across 
it  produced  musical  sounds  ;  while  the  invention 
of  the  tibia  or  pipe — the  earliest  form  of  which 
is  said  to  have  been  made  (as  its  name  implies) 
from  the  shank -bone  of  a  crane — is  variously 
ascribed  to  Pan,  Apollo,  Orpheus  and  others. 

To  attempt  to  describe,  however  briefly,  all 
the  various  kinds  of  instruments  which  have 
been  in  use  from  the  earliest  ages  to  the  present 
day,  would  extend  this  article  far  beyond  its  due 
limits.  It  will  only  be  possible  to  mention  those 
which  are  still  of  practical  importance,  referring 
the  reader  for  a  fuller  description  to  the  articles 
under  the  headings  of  their  various  names,  and  for 
the  earlier  and  now  obsolete  kinds  to  Hawkins's 
History3  of  Music,  which  contains  copious  ex- 
tracts from  the  works  of  Blanchinus,  Kircher, 
Luscinius,  and  others,  illustrated  by  wood-cuts. 

In  all  essential  respects,  instruments  may  be 
divided  into  three  classes ;  namely,  wind  instru- 
ments, the  descendants  of  the  pipe ;  stringed 
instruments,  descended  from  the  lyre ;  and  instru- 
ments of  percussion.  This  classification,  which 
is  of  considerable  'antiquity,  is  not  entirely 
satisfactory,  as  there  are  certain  modern  in- 
struments which  can  scarcely  be  classed  under 
any  one  of  its  heads  without  confusion — for 
instance  the  Harmonium,  which  although  played 
by  wind,  is  not  strictly  a  wind -instrument,  since 

■  In  Lullj'i  ballet '  La  trlomphe  do  1'amour.'  Pari*.  MM.  there  U  a 
quartet  of  flutes,  the  lowest  part  of  which  U  <m\j  poatlble  on  a  bata 

'  Heprlnted  bj  Ncvello  and  Co.  In  2  rail.  8ra.  IKS. 
>  Casalodorus,  writing  in  the  6th  century,  give*  Uie  lame  three  dl- 
tlslons,  uudcr  the  names  mjlalilia,  taml/ilia,  and  ptm—umalia. 


INSTRUMENT. 


INSTRUMENT. 


its  sounds  are  produced  not  from  pipes  but  from 
elastic  reeds.  Nevertheless  the  old  arrangement 
is  sufficiently  comprehensive,  and  appears  more 
practical  than  any  other. 

i.  Wind  instruments  (Ger.  Blasinstrumente ; 
Ital.  Stromenti  da  venio ;  Fr.  Instruments  a  vent). 
These  are  of  two  kinds ;  namely,  those  in  which 
a  separate  pipe  or  reed  is  provided  for  each  note, 
and  those  in  which  the  various  notes  are  pro- 
duced from  a  single  tube,  either  by  varying  its 
length,  or  by  the  action  of  the  lip  in  blowing. 
In  the  first  kind  the  wind  is  provided  by  means 
of  bellows,  and  is  admitted  to  each  individual 
pipe  or  reed  by  the  action  of  a  key.  The  in- 
struments of  this  kind  are  the  Organ,  Harmonium, 
Concertina,  and  Accordion.  The  only  members 
of  this  class  which  differ  from  the  others  are  the 
Syrinx  or  Pan's-pipes  (which  although  it  possesses 
a  pipe  for  each  sound  has  neither  keys  nor 
bellows,  but  is  blown  directly  with  the  breath) 
and  the  Northumbrian  and  Irish  Bag-pipes, 
which  are  provided  with  bellows,  but  have  their 
pipes  pierced  with  holes,  as  in  the  flute.  Wind- 
instruments  which  have  but  a  single  tube  are 
made  of  either  wood  or  metal  (generally  brass), 
and  the  various  sounds  of  which  they  are  capable 
are  produced,  in  the  case  of  two  of  the  metal 
instruments — the  Horn  and  Trumpet, — by  simply 
altering  the  tension  of  the  lips  in  blowing, 
while  in  the  others  and  in  the  wood  instruments 
this  alteration  is  supplemented  and  assisted  by 
varying  the  length  of  the  tube.  In  brass  in- 
struments the  length  of  the  tube  is  altered  in 
three  different  ways  ;  first,  by  means  of  a  slide, 
one  part  of  the  tube  being  made  to  slip  inside 
the  other,  after  the  manner  of  a  telescope ; 
secondly,  by  valves,  which  when  pressed  have 
the  effect  of  adding  a  small  piece  of  tube  to  the 
length  of  the  circuit  through  which  the  wind 
passes  ;  and  thirdly,  by  keys,  which  uncover  holes 
in  the  tube,  and  so  shorten  the  amount  of  tube 
which  is  available  for  the  vibrating  column  of  air. 
The  brass  instruments  with  slide  are  the  Trom- 
bone '  and  Slide  Trumpet ;  those  with  valves  are 
the  Cornet  a  pistons,  Valve  Horn,  Valve  Trumpet, 
Fliigelhorn  or  Valve  Bugle,  Saxhorn,  Valve 
Trombone,  Euphonium,  Bombardon,  Bass  Tuba, 
and  Contrabass  Tuba  ;  while  those  with  keys  are 
the  Key -bugle  or  Kent  Bugle  and  the  Ophicleide. 
All  these  are  played  with  a  cup-shaped  mouth- 
piece. Wood  wind-instruments  have  the  tube 
pierced  with  holes,  which  are  covered  by  the 
fingers  or  by  keys,  and  the  uncovering  of  the  holes 
shortens  the  amount  of  tube  available  for  vibration 
and  so  gives  notes  of  higher  pitch.  Some  of  them 
receive  the  breath  directly  through  a  suitably 
shaped  opening;  these  are  the  Flute,  Piccolo 
(i.  e.  fiauto  piccolo,  a  small  flute),  Fife,  and  the 
Flageolet  and  the  toy  'tin  whistle,'  which  two 
last  are  survivors  of  the  now  obsolete  family  of 
flutes  a  bee.  In  others  the  sound  is  produced 
from  the  vibrations  of  a  split  reed,  which  is 
either  single  and  fixed  in  a  frame  or  mouthpiece, 
as  in  the  Clarinet  and  Bassethorn  [see  Clarinet], 

1  Mr.  Ford's  Slide-Horn  Is  highly  spoken  of  (tee  p.  794  a),  bat  It  hu 
oat  yet  come  Into  actual  use. 


or  double,  consisting  of  two  reeds  bound  together 
so  as  to  form  a  tube  with  the  upper  end  flattened 
out,  as  in  the  Oboe,  Cor  Anglais  or  Oboe  di 
Caccia,  Bassoon,  and  Contrafagotto  or  Double 
Bassoon.  One  wind-instrument  of  wood  remains 
to  be  mentioned,  the  use  of  which  is  becoming 
rare,  though  it  is  still  occasionally  met  with 
in  military  bands.  This  is  the  Serpent,  which 
differs  from  all  other  wood  instruments  in  having 
a  cup-shaped  mouthpiece,  similar  to  that  of  the 
trumpet.  It  is  the  only  remaining  member  of  a 
now  extinct  family  of  German  wood  instruments 
called  Zinken  (Ital.  Cometti),  which  were  for- 
merly much  used  in  the  Church  service,  and 
were  in  use  as  late  as  171 5  for  playing  chorales 
at  the  top  of  church  towers.2 

2.  Stringed  Instruments  (Ger.  Saiten-instru- 
mente ;  Ital.  Stromenti  da  corde ;  Fr.  Instruments 
a  cordes).  In  all  these  the  sound  is  produced  from 
stretched  strings  of  either  catgut,  wire,  or  occa- 
sionally silk,  the  naturally  feeble  resonance  of 
which  is  in  all  cases  strengthened  by  a  sound- 
board. As  with  the  wind-instruments,  some 
of  these  are  provided  with  a  separate  string  for 
each  note,  while  in  others  the  various  sounds  are 
obtained  by  shortening  the  strings,  of  which  there 
are  now  never  fewer  than  three,  by  pressure  with 
the  fingers.  Stretched  strings  are  thrown  into 
vibration  in  three  different  ways — friction,  pluck- 
ing, and  percussion. 

The  mode  of  friction  usually  employed  is  that  of 
a  bow  of  horse-hair,  strewn  with  powdered  rosin 
(see  Bow),  and  instruments  so  played  are  called 
'bowed  instruments'  (Ger.  Streichinstrumcnte). 
They  are  the  Violin,  Viola  or  Tenor,  Violoncello, 
and  Contrabasso  or  Double  Bass  ;  and  an  humble 
though  ancient  member  of  the  *ame  family  is 
occasionally  met  with  in  the  Hurdy-gurdy,  in 
which  the  friction  is  produced  by  the  edge  of  a 
wooden  wheel  strewn  with  rosin  and  revolving 
underneath  the  strings.  In  this  instrument  the 
stopping  or  shortening  of  the  strings  is  effected 
by  means  of  a  series  of  keys,  which  are  pressed 
by  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  while  the  right 
hand  turns  the  wheel.     [See  Huedt-Gdedt.] 

The  instruments  played  by  plucking  are  the 
Harp,  in  which  each  note  has  a  separate  string, 
and  the  Guitar,  Mandoline,  and  Banjo,  in  which 
the  strings  are  '  stopped'  by  pressure  with  the  fin- 
gers upon  a  finger-board,  provided  with  slightly- 
raised  transverse  bars,  called  frets.  In  the  Cither 
or  Zither,  an  instrument  much  used  in  Switzerland 
and  the  Tyrol,  4  of  the  29  strings  are  capable  of 
being  stopped  with  the  fingers,  while  the  remaining 
25  are  played  'open,'  giving  but  one  sound  each. 
In  most  of  these  instruments  the  plucking  takes 
place  with  the  tips  of  the  fingers  {pizzicato),  but 
in  the  Zither  the  thumb  of  the  right  hand  is 
armed  with  a  ring  bearing  a  kind  of  metal  claw. 
In  the  now  obsolete  Harpsichord  and  Spinet  the 
strings  were  also  played  by  plucking,  each  key  be- 
ing provided  with  a  small  piece  of  quill  or  stiff 
leather.   [Jack.]    Only  two  stringed  instruments 

>  In  1636  was  published  in  Paris  a  '  Phantasle  a  cinq  parties,  pour  les 
Cornets,  par  H.  Lejeune.'  1.  S.  Bach  occasionally  uses  theni  in  his 
Church  Cantatas. 


INSTRUMENT. 


INTERMEZZO. 


are  played  by  percussion — the  Pianoforte  and  the 
Dulcimer ;  in  the  former  the  strings  are  struck 
by  hammers  attached  to  the  keys,  and  in  the 
latter  by  two  hammers  held  in  the  hands. 

3.  Instruments  of  Percussion  (Ger.  Schlag- 
instrumente ;  Ital.  Stromenti  per  la  percussione ; 
Fr.  Instruments  &  percussion).  These  are  of  two 
kinds,  those  whose  chief  use  is  to  mark  the 
rhythm,  and  which  therefore  need  not,  and  in 
many  cases  do  not,  give  a  note  of  any  definite 
pitch,  and  those  which  consist  of  a  series  of 
vibrating  bodies,  each  giving  a  definite  note,  so 
that  the  whole  instrument  possesses  a  scale  of 
greater  or  less  extent.  Of  the  instruments  of 
indefinite  pitch,  some  are  struck  with  drumsticks 
or  other  suitable  implements ;  these  are  the  Bass 
Drum,  Side  Drum,  Tambour  de  Provence,  Gong 
or  Tam-tam,  and  Triangle ;  others,  such  as  Cym- 
bals and  Castagnettes,  are  used  in  pairs,  and 
are  played  by  striking  them  together ;  and  one, 
the  Tambourine,  or  Tambour  de  Basque,  is  struck 
with  the  open  hand.  The  instruments  of  per- 
cussion which  give  definite  notes,  and  which 
are  therefore  musical  rather  than  rhythmical,  are 
the  Kettle  Drums  (used  in  pairs,  or  more), 
Glockenspiel  (bells  used  in  military  bands  and 
occasionally  with  orchestra),  and  the  Harmonica, 
consisting  of  bars  of  either  glass,  steel,  or  wood, 
resting  on  two  cords  and  struck  with  a  hammer. 

4.  There  are  still  one  or  two  instruments  to  be 
mentioned  which  are  not  easily  classed  in  any  of 
the  three  categories  just  described.  In  the  Har- 
monium, which  we  have  accepted  as  a  wind- 
instrument,  the  sound  is  really  produced  by  the 
vibrations  of  metal  springs,  called  reeds,  though 
these  vibrations  are  certainly  excited  and  main- 
tained by  the  force  of  wind  ;  so  also  stretched 
strings  may  be  acted  upon  by  wind,  and  of  this 
the  JEolian  Harp  is  an  illustration.  [See  ^Eolian 
Habp.]  The  instrument  or  organ  of  Mr.  Baillie 
Hamilton,  which  is  said  to  be  a  combination  of 
tongue  and  string,  is  not  sufficiently  perfected  to 
be  described  here. 

Metal  tongues  or  reeds  may  also  be  played 
by  plucking,  and  this  method  is  employed  in 
the  so-called  Musical  Box,  in  which  a  series  of 
metal  tongues  are  plucked  by  pins  or  studs  fixed 
in  a  revolving  barrel. — Another  instrument  played 
by  plucking,  but  possessing  only  a  single  reed  or 
tongue,  is  the  Jews-harp.  In  respect  to  the  pro- 
duction of  its  various  notes  this  instrument  differs 
from  all  others.  It  is  played  by  pressing  the  iron 
frame  in  which  the  reed  is  fixed  against  the  teeth, 
and  while  the  reed  is  in  a  state  of  vibration  altering 
the  form  of  the  cavity  of  the  mouth,  by  which 
means  certain  sounds  of  higher  pitch  than  the 
fundamental  note  may  be  produced,  and  simple 
melodies  played.  These  higher  sounds  appear  to 
be  upper  '  partial-tones '  of  the  fundamental  note 
of  the  reed,  which  are  so  strongly  reinforced  by 
the  vibrations  of  the  volume  of  air  in  the  mouth 
as  to  overpower  the  fundamental  tone,  and  leave 
it  just  audible  as  a  drone  bass. — In  the  Har- 
monica proper,  another  mode  of  sound-production 
is  employed,  the  edges  of  glass  bowls  being  rubbed 
by  a  wetted  finger.     [See  Harmonica.] 


For  much  of  the  information  contained  in  this 
article  the  writer  is  indebted  to  Schilling  '  Uni- 
versallexicon  der  Tonkunst.'  [F.T.] 

INSTRUMENTATION,  see  Orchestration. 

INTERLUDE  (Germ.  Zwischenspiel).  A 
short  Voluntary,  played,  by  English  Organists  of 
the  older  School,  between  the  verses  of  a  Hymn, 
or  Metrical  Psalm. 

Fifty,  or  even  thirty  years  ago,  a  good  ex- 
tempore Interlude  was  regarded  as  no  unfair  test 
of  an  Organist's  ability.  The  late  Mr.  Thomas 
Adams  had  a  peculiar  talent  for  Voluntaries  of 
this  kind :  and,  at  S.  Peter's,  Walworth,  John 
Purkis  charmed  his  hearers,  at  about  the  same 
period,  with  delightful  little  effusions  which  were 
frequently  far  more  interesting  than  the  Hymns 
between  the  verses  of  which  they  were  inter- 
polated. Of  late  years,  however,  the  Interlude 
has  fallen  so  much  into  disuse  that  it  is  doubtful 
whether  a  good  one  is  now  to  be  heard  in  any 
Church  in  England. 

In  French  Cathedrals,  a  long  and  elaborate 
Interlude  is  usually  played,  at  Vespers,  between 
the  verses  of  the  Magnificat,  as  well  as  those  of 
the  Hymn  :  and,  at  Notre  Dame  de  Paris,  S. 
Sulpice,  and  other  Churches  built  on  the  same 
grand  scale,  where  the  Organ  in  the  Choir  is 
supplemented  by  a  larger  one  at  the  western  end 
of  the  Nave,  a  fine  effect  is  sometimes  produced 
by  the  alternate  use  of  the  two  instruments ; 
the  smaller  one  being  employed  for  the  accompani- 
ment of  the  voices,  while  the  larger  is  reserved 
for  the  Interludes  alone. 

Interludes  are  played,  in  Germany,  not  between 
the  verses  of  the  Choral,  but  between  the  separate 
lines  of  each  verse — an  arrangement,  which,  how- 
ever effective  it  may  be  in  the  hands  of  an 
accomplished  Organist,  is  generally  very  much 
the  reverse  in  those  of  a  tyro.  (Good  examples 
are  to  be  found  in  Ch.  H.  Rink's  'XXIV  Chorale,' 
op.  64, 1 804.)  The  delicious  orchestral  Interludes 
which  embellish  the  Choral,  'Cast  thy  burthen 
upon  the  Lord,'  in  Mendelssohn's  'Elijah,'  and 
those  on  a  more  extended  scale  in  '  Nun  danket ' 
in  the  'Lobgesang,'  were  evidently  suggested  by 
this  old  German  custom ;  while  the  grand  crash 
of  brass  instruments,  introduced  between  the  bines 
of  'Sleepers,  wake!'  in  the  same  composer's 
'  S.  Paul,  illustrates,  perhaps,  the  most  striking 
effect  which  it  has  yet  been  made  to  produce. 
[See  Chorale.] 

For  an  explanation  of  the  word  Interlude,  in 
its  dramatic  sense,  see  Intermezzo.      [W.  S.  R.  ] 

INTERMEZZO  (Fr.  Intermede.  Entr  Acte. 
Old.  Eng.  Enterlude).  I.  A  dramatic  entertain- 
ment, of  light  and  pleasing  character,  introduced 
between  the  Acts  of  a  Tragedy,  Comedy,  or 
Grand  Opera ;  either  for  the  purpose  of  affording 
an  interval  of  rest  to  the  performers  of  the 
principal  piece ;  of  allowing  time  for  the  pre- 
paration of  a  grand  scenic  effect ;  or,  of  relieving 
the  attention  of  the  audience  from  the  excessive 
strain  demanded  by  a  long  serious  performance. 

The  history  of  the  Intermezzo  bears  a  very 
important  relation  to  that  of  the  Opera ;   more 


3 


INTERMEZZO. 


especially'  to  that  of  the  Opera  Buffa,  with  the 
gradual  development  of  which  it  is  very  inti- 
mately connected.  The  origin  of  both  may  be 
traced  back  to  a  period  of  very  remote  antiquity. 
It  is,  indeed,  difficult  to  point  out  any  epoch,  in 
the  chronicles  of  Dramatic  Art,  in  which  the 
presence  of  the  Intermezzo  may  not  be  detected, 
now  in  one  form,  and  now  in  another.  Its  exact 
analogue  is  to  be  found  in  the  Satires  of  the  old 
Roman  Comedy.  In  the  Mysteries  and  Miracle 
Plays  of  the  Middle  Ages — those  strange  con- 
necting-links between  old  things  and  new — it 
assumed  the  form  of  a  Hymn,  or  Carol,  sung, 
either  in  chorus,  or  by  the  Angelo  nunzio,  to  a 
sort  of  Chaunt  which  seems  to  have  been  tradi- 
tional. In  a  rare  old  work,  by  Macropedias,  en- 
titled, '  Bassarus.  Fabula  festivissima  (Utrecht, 
1553),  some  verses,  adapted  to  a  melody  by  no 
means  remarkable  for  its  festive  character,  are 
given  at  the  close  of  every  scene.  And  the 
popularity  of  the  Tune  is  sufficiently  proved 
by  its  persistent  reiteration  in  other  works  of 
nearly  similar  date. 


5j    fg    ^    5    g    g?    r"-'    r-1    gj    es>    e»  etc. 

These  rude  beginnings  contrast  strangely 
enough  with  the  highly  finished  Intermezzi  decen- 
nially presented  in  the  course  of  the  Passion -Play 
at  Ober  Ammergau.  But,  the  Passion-Play  is 
known  to  have  undergone  many  important  im- 
provements, within  a  comparatively  recent  pe- 
riod ;  and  its  case  is,  in  every  way,  so  exceptional, 
that  it  is  no  easy  task  to  determine  its  true  posi- 
tion as  a  historical  landmark. 

Almost  all  the  earlier  Italian  plays  were 
relieved  by  Intermezzi.  Many  of  these  were 
simply  Madrigals,  sung  by  a  greater  or  less 
number  of  voices,  as  occasion  served.  Some- 
times they  were  given  in  the  form  of  a  Chorus, 
with  instrumental  accompaniment.  The  most 
favourite  style,  perhaps,  was  that  of  a  Song,  or 
Canzonetta,  sung,  by  a  single  performer,  in  the 
character  of  Orpheus.  In  no  case  was  the  sub- 
ject of  these  performances  connected,  in  any  way, 
with  that  of  the  pieces  between  the  Acts  of 
which  they  were  interpolated.  Their  construc- 
tion was  extremely  simple,  and  their  importance 
relatively  small.  We  first  find  them  assuming 
grander  proportions,  at  Florence,  in  the  year 
1589,  on  the  occasion  of  the  Marriage  of  the 
Grand  Duke  Ferdinand,  with  Christine  de 
Lorraine.  To  grace  this  ceremony,  Giovanni 
Bardi,  Conte  di  Vernio,  produced  a  new  Comedy, 
entitled  L'Amico  fido,  with  Intermezzi,  a  grand 
spectacle,  prepared  expressly  for  the  festival, 
and  presented  with  a  degree  of  splendour  hitherto 
unknown.  For  the  first  of  these,  called  'The 
Harmony  of  the  Spheres,'  the  poetry  was  written 
by  Ottavio  Rinuccini,  and  the  music  composed 
by  Emilio  del  Cavaliere,  and  Cristofano  Mal- 
vezzi.  The  second,  also  written  by  Rinuccini, 
and  called  'The  Judgment  of  the  Hamadryads,' 
was   set   to   music   by    Luca   Marenzio.      For 


INTERMEZZO. 

the  third,  called  '  The  Triumph  of  Apollo,'  in- 
vented by  Bardi,  and  written  by  Rinuccini, 
the  music  was  composed,  partly  by  Luca  Ma- 
renzio, and  partly,  it  is  said,  by  the  Conte  di 
Vernio  himself.  The  fourth,  entitled  '  The 
Infernal  Regions,'  was  written  by  Pietro  Strozzi, 
and  accompanied  by  sombre  music,  composed, 
by  Giulio  Caccini,  for  Violins,  Viole,  Lutes, 
Lyres  of  all  forms,  Double  Harps,  Trombones, 
and  '  Organs  of l  Wood.'  The  fifth—'  The  Fable 
of  Arion ' — was  written  by  Rinuccini,  and  set 
to  music,  by  Cavaliere  and  Malvezzi. 

This  grand  performance  naturally  gave  an 
extraordinary  impulse  to  the  progress  of  dramatic 
music.  Within  less  than  ten  years,  it  was  fol- 
lowed, in  the  same  city,  by  the  production  of 
the  first  Opera  Seria,  at  the  Palazzo  Corsi. 
Meanwhile,  the  Intermezzo  steadily  continued  to 
advance  in  interest  and  importance.  Guarini 
(153 7- 1612)  wrote  Intermezzi  to  his  own  Pastor 
Fido,  in  the  form  of  simple  Madrigals.  In  1623, 
L'  Amorosa  Innocenza  was  produced,  at  Bologna, 
accompanied  by  Intermezzi  della  Coronazione  di 
Apollo,  per  Dafne  convertita  in  Lauro,  set  to 
music  by  Ottavio  Vernizzi.  This  work  intro- 
duces us  to  a  new  and  extremely  important 
epoch  in  the  history  of  the  branch  of  Dramatic 
Art  we  are  now  considering.  By  degrees,  the 
Intermezzi  were  made  to  embody  a  little  con- 
tinuous drama  of  their  own.  Their  story — 
always  quite  unconnected  with  that  of  the 
principal  piece — was  more  carefully  elaborated 
than  heretofore.  Gradually  increasing  in  co- 
herence and  interest,  their  disjointed  mem- 
bers rapidly  united  themselves  into  a  consistent 
and  connected  whole.  And  thus,  in  process  of 
time,  two  distinct  dramas  were  presented  to  the 
audience,  in  alternate  Acts;  the  character  of 
the  Intermezzi  being  always  a  little  lighter  than 
that  of  the  piece  between  the  divisions  of  which 
they  were  played,  and  on  that  very  account,  per- 
haps, better  fitted  to  win  their  way  to  public 
favour.  The  merry  wit  inseparable  from  the 
Neapolitan  School  undoubtedly  did  much  for 
them ;  and,  before  long,  they  began  to  enter  into 
formidable  rivalry  with  the  more  serious  pieces 
they  were  at  first  only  intended  to  relieve. 
Their  popularity  spread  so  widely,  that,  in 
1723,  a  collection  of  them  was  printed,  in  two 
volumes,  at  Amsterdam  ;  and  so  lasting  was  it, 
that,  to  this  day,  a  light  Italian  Operetta  is 
frequently  called  an  Intermezzo  in  Musica. 

The  next  great  change  in  the  form  of  the 
Intermezzo,  though  really  no  more  than  the 
natural  consequence  of  those  we  have  already 
described,  was  sufficiently  important,  not  only 
to  mark  the  culminating  point  in  its  career, 
but  to  translate  it,  at  once,  to  a  sphere  of  Art 
little  contemplated  by  those  who  first  called  it 
into  existence.  Already  complete  in  itself,  all 
it  now  needed  was  independence  :  an  exist- 
ence of  its  own,  apart  from  that  of  the  graver 
piece  to  which  it  owed  its  original  raison  d'etre. 
Such  an  existence  was  obtained  for  it,  by  the 
simple   process  of  leaving  the  graver   piece — 

1  Organi  di  Ugno. 


INTERMEZZO. 

whether  Tragedy,  Comedy,  or  Serious  Opera — 
to  depend  upon  its  own  resources,  while  the 
Intermezzo,  with  its  once  disconnected  links 
united  in  unbroken  sequence,  was  performed  as 
a  separate  work,  in  one  Act.  This  revolution 
was  effected  chiefly  by  the  genius  of  a  young 
composer,  whose  untimely  death,  considered  in 
relation  to  its  influence  upon  the  Lyric  Drama, 
can  never  be  sufficiently  deplored.  From  be- 
ginning to  end,  the  narrative  of  Pergolesi's  Art- 
life  is  identified  with  the  ultimate  fate  of  the 
Intermezzo.  His  first  important  composition — 
a  Sacred  Drama,  called  San  Onf.lielmo  d'Aqui- 
tania — was  diversified  by  Intermezzi,  of  a  play- 
ful character,  introduced  between  its  principal 
divisions.  His  greatest  triumph — La  Serva  Pa- 
drona — was,  itself,  an  Intermezzo,  pur  et  simple. 
This  delightful  work — the  whole  interest  of  which 
is  centred  in  two  characters,  whose  voices  are 
accompanied  only  by  a  stringed  band — was  first 
produced,  in  Italy,  between  the  Acts  of  another 
piece,  in  the  year  1734.  Its  success  was  un- 
bounded. It  soon  found  its  way  to  every  Capital 
in  Europe ;  and,  everywhere  but  in  France,  was 
received  with  acclamation.  The  French,  however, 
were  slow  to  appreciate  it  at  its  true  value.  Its 
first  performance  in  Paris,  Oct.  4,  1746,  was 
little  short  of  a  failure :  but  when,  Aug.  1,  1752, 
it  was  played  between  the  Acts  of  Lulli's  Acts 
et  Galathie,  it  originated  a  feud  between  the 
'  Lullistes '  and  the  '  Bouffonnistes,'  scarcely  less 
bitter  than  that  which  raged,  at  a  later  period, 
between  the  rival  followers  of  Gluck  and  Piccinni. 
National  vanity  forbade  the  recognition  of  the 
Italian  style  :  national  good  taste  forbade  its 
rejection.  Rousseau,  with  characteristic  im- 
petuosity, threw  himself  into  the  thick  of  the 
fray ;  fought  desperately  on  the  Italian  side ; 
declared  French  Opera  impossible ;  and  stulti- 
fied his  own  arguments  by  the  immediate  pro- 
duction of  a  French  Jntermede — the  well-known 
Devin  du  Village.  Long  after  this,  the  con- 
troversy raged,  with  unabated  fury:  but,  in 
spite  of  the  worst  its  enemies  could  do,  La  Serva 
Padrona  exercised  a  salutary  and  lasting  effect 
upon  French  dramatic  music — indeed,  upon 
dramatic  music  everywhere.  In  1750  it  met 
with  an  enthusiastic  reception  in  England.  Its 
success  was  as  lasting  as  it  was  brilliant :  and, 
almost  to  our  own  day,  it  has  kept  its  place  upon 
the  stage,  not  between  the  Acts  of  a  Serious 
Opera,  but  as  an  independent  piece ;  marking 
the  critical  period  at  which  the  history  of  the 
Intermezzo  merges,  permanently,  into  that  of 
the  Opera  Buffa,  its  legitimate  heir.   [See  Opera 

BOFFA.] 

The  anomalous  character  of  this  sweeping 
change  became  at  once  apparent.  It  was  as 
necessary  as  ever,  that,  on  certain  occasions,  some 
sort  of  entertainment  should  be  given  between 
the  Acts  of  serious  pieces.  The  Intermezzo  hav- 
ing so  far  outgrown  its  original  intention  as  to 
be  utterly  useless  for  this  purpose,  something 
else  must  needs  be  found  to  supply  its  place. 
The  Dance  was  unanimously  accepted  as  a  sub- 
stitute;  and  soon  became  exceedingly  popular. 


INTERMEZZO.  9 

And  thus  arose  a  new  species  of  Interlude,  which 
at  no  time,  perhaps,  attained  a  greater  degree 
of  perfection,  than  under  the  ■  Lumley  Manage- 
ment' at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  where,  night 
after  night,  a  Ballet  Divertissement,  with  Cerito, 
or  Carlotta  Grisi,  for  its  principal  attraction,  was 
given  between  the  Acts  of  a  Grand  Opera,  sung 
by  Grisi,  Persiani,  Rubini,  Tamburini,  and  La- 
blache ;  the  long  line  of  successes  culminating  in 
that  memorable  Pas  de  Quatre,  which,  danced 
by  Taglioni,  Fanny  Elsler,  Carlotta  Grisi,  and 
Cerito,  is  still  regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest 
triumphs  of  Terpsichorean  Art  on  record. 

Instrumental  music  is  frequently  played,  in 
Germany,  after  the  manner  of  an  Intermezzo. 
The  noble  Entr'actes  composed  by  Beethoven, 
for  Schiller's  'Egmont,'  by  Schubert  for  'Rosa- 
munde,'  and  by  Mendelssohn,  for  Shakspeare's 
'Midsummer  Night's  Dream,'  are  familiar  to 
every  one.  These,  of  course,  can  only  be  pre- 
sented in  association  with  the  great  works  they 
were  originally  designed  to  illustrate.  But,  less 
appropriate  music,  good  enough  of  its  kind, 
though  intended  for  other  purposes,  was,  at  one 
time,  by  no  means  uncommon.  We  once  heard 
Vieuxtemps  play  a  Violin  Concerto  between  the 
Acts  of  an  Opera,  at  Leipzig,  in  the  days  when  the 
Orchestra  was  under  the  masterly  direction  of 
Ferdinand  David :  and,  in  the  year  1845,  Alboni 
(then  unknown  in  England)  sang  several  of  her 
favourite  Songs,  in  the  same  pretty  little  Theatre, 
between  the  Acts  of  a  play.  Such  performances 
as  these  may,  naturally  enough,  be  repeated, 
at  any  time.  But,  with  our  present  ideas  of 
Art,  anything  like  a  revival  of  the  Intermezzo, 
in  its  older  form,  would  manifestly  be  impossible. 
We  may  learn  much  from  its  history,  which  is 
both  instructive,  and  entertaining :  but,  for  all 
practical  purposes,  we  must  be  content  to  leave 
it  in  the  obscurity  to  which,  since  the  production 
of  La  Serva  Padrona,  it  has  been  not  unprofit- 
ably  consigned. 

II.  The  word  is  also  used  for  a  short  movement, 
serving  as  a  connecting-link  between  the  larger 
divisions  of  a  Sonata,  Symphony,  or  other  great 
work,  whether  instrumental,  or  vocal ;  as  in  No. 
4  of  Schumann's  '  Faschingsschwank  aus  Wien' 
(op.  26).  The  beautiful  Intermezzo  which, 
under  the  name  of  '  Introduzione,'  lends  so 
charming  a  grace  to  Beethoven's  'Waldstein 
Sonata'  (op.  53)  is  said  to  be  an  after-thought, 
inserted  in  place  of  the  well-known  'Andante  in 
F '  (op.  35),  which,  after  due  consideration,  the 
great  Composer  rejected,  as  too  long  for  the 
position  he  originally  intended  it  to  occupy.  The 
term  is  however  used  for  larger  movements : — 
as  by  Mendelssohn  for  the  3rd  movement  in  his 
F  minor  Quartet  (op.  2 ),  or  for  the  '  grand 
adagio'  which,  under  the  name  of  'Nachruf,'  he 
specially  composed  in  memory  of  his  friend  Ritz, 
and  inserted  in  his  Quintet,  op.  1 8,  in  lieu  of  the 
previous  Minuet  (Letter,  Feb.  21,  1832)  ;  or  for 
the  Entracte  expressive  of  Hermia's  search  for 
Lysander  in  the  Midsummer  Night's  Dream 
music.  The  2nd  movement  of  Goetz's  Symphony, 
virtually    a    Scherzo,    is    entitled    Intermezzo. 


10 


INTERMEZZO. 


Schumann  and  Brahms,  again,  have  both  used 
the  word  to  denote  independent  pieces  of  small 
dimensions,  the  former  in  his  'Opera  4' — six 
pieces  usually  consisting  of  a  main  theme  and  an 
Alternativo ;  and  the  latter  in  his  latest  publi- 
cation (op.  76),  eight  pieces  for  the  P.F.,  of  which 
4  are  Capriccios  and  4  Intermezzi.        [W.  S.  R.] 

INTERRUPTED  CADENCE  is  a  progres- 
sion which  seems  to  tend  towards  the  final  Tonic 
chord  of  a  perfect  cadence  through  the  usual 
Dominant  harmony,  but  is  abruptly  deflected; 
bo  that  the  promised  conclusion  is  deferred  by  the 
substitution  of  other  harmony  than  that  of  the 
Tonic,  after  the  Dominant  chord  which  seemed 
to  lead  immediately  to  it. 

The  form  which  is  frequently  quoted  as  typi- 
cal is  that  in  which  the  chord  of  the  submediant 
or  third  below  the  Tonic  is  substituted  for  the 
final  Tonic  chord,  as — 


instead  of 


from  which  the  principle  will  be  readily  grasped. 

In  reality  the  number  of  different  forms  is 
only  limited  by  the  number  of  chords  which  can 
possibly  succeed  the  Dominant  chord,  and  it  is 
not  even  necessary  that  the  chord  which  follows 
it  and  makes  the  interruption  shall  be  in  the 
same  key. 

Handel  frequently  used  the  Interrupted  Ca- 
dence to  make  the  final  cadence  of  a  movement 
stand  out  individually  and  prominently.  The 
following  example,  which  is  made  to  serve  this 
purpose,  is  from  his  Fugue  in  B  minor  from  the 
set  of  Six  for  the  Organ,  and  is  very  characteristic 
of  him :— 

Adagio 


It  is  interesting  to  compare  this  with  the  con- 
clusion of  the  last  movement  of  Schumann's 
Sonata  for  Pianoforte  in  G  minor,  where  a  very 
definite  Interrupted  Cadence  is  used  for  the 
same  purpose  of  enforcing  the  final  cadence  of 
the  work  by  isolation,  and  the  process  is  carried 
out  in  a  thoroughly  modern  spirit  and  on  an 
extended  scale.  The  Interrupted  Cadence  itself 
is  as  follows  : — 


INTERRUPTED  CADENCE. 

Bach  frequently  used  Interrupted  Cadences  to 
prolong  the  conclusion  of  a  work,  and  a  form 
which  seems  to  have  been  a  great  favourite  with 
him  is  that  in  which  the  Tonic  minor  seventh 
succeeds  the  Dominant  chord,  thereby  leading  to 
a  continuance  and  enforcement  of  the  Tonic  in 
the  succession  of  chords  at  the  conclusion.  There 
are  very  remarkable  and  beautiful  examples  of 
this  in  the  Prelude  in  Eb  minor,  No.  8,  in  the 
Wohltemperirte  Clavier,  the  last — four  bars  from 
the  end — being  in  the  form  above  mentioned.  The 
effect  of  this  form  of  the  Interrupted  Cadence  is 
most  powerful  when  the  seventh  is  in  the  bass, 
and  of  this  there  is  a  very  striking  instance  in 
his  Cantata  '  Jesu,  der  du  meine  Seele,'  which  is 
as  follows : — 


Mozart  uses  the  Interrupted  Cadence  in  a 
similar  manner  to  extend  the  movement  or  the 
Bection  in  which  it  occurs.  As  an  example  from 
him,  which  presents  yet  another  form,  the  fol- 
lowing from  his  Quartet  in  A,  No.  5,  may  be 
taken : — 


I 


& 


=£  p  J 


*  *fp. 


r  f J '  r  £  wt^ 


*U 


^1 


% 


wf-y-nrv 


A  ill 


TT 


Beethoven  also  uses  Interrupted  Cadences  for 
similar  purposes  to  the  instances  quoted  above  ; 
but  latterly  he  employed  them  in  a  manner 
which  it  is  important  to  take  note  of  as  highly 
characteristic  and  conspicuous  in  modern  music. 
This  is  the  use  of  them  actually  in  place  of  a 
perfect  cadence,  taking  them  as  a  fresh  starting 
point,  by  which  means  greater  continuity  is  ob- 
tained. A  well-known  example  is  that  at  the 
end  of  the  slow  movement  of  the  Appassionata 


INTERRUPTED  CADENCE. 


INTERVAL. 


11 


Sonata,  by  means  of  which  the  two  last  move- 
ments are  made  continuous.  Two  very  remark- 
able and  unmistakeable  instances  occur  also  in 
the  first  movement  of  the  Sonata  in  E  (op.  109), 
one  of  which  has  already  been  quoted  in  the 
article  Cadence.  Another  instance  occurs  in 
the  Quartet  in  A  (op.  132),  where  the  'working 
out '  commences ;  the  cadence  of  F  major  is 
interrupted  at  *,  and  the  'working  out'  com- 
mences in  the  next  bar,  proceeding  immediately 
with  modulation,  as  follows :— 


frtHJ 


& 


-mj^ 


^> 


-s>- 
etc. 


»c 


^ 


T=r^f 


frfr^rite 


Wagner  has  made  great  use  of  this  device,  and 
by  it  secures  at  once  the  effect  of  a  conclusion 
and  an  uninterrupted  flow  of  the  music;  the 
voice  or  voices  having  a  form  which  has  all  the 
appearance  of  a  full  cadence,  and  the  instruments 
supplying  a  forcible  Interrupted  Cadence  which 
leads  on  immediately  and  "without  break  to  the 
succeeding  action.  An  example  which  will  prob- 
ably be  familiar  is  that  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
chorus  at  the  beginning  of  the  4th  scene  of  the 
and  act  of  Lohengrin,  where  Ortruda  suddenly 
steps  forward  and  claims  the  right  to  precede 
Elsa  into  the  cathedral.  Another  instance  which 
illustrates  the  principle  very  clearly  is  the  fol- 
lowing from  the  3rd  scene  of  the  1st  act  of 
Tristan  und  Isolde  :— 

mir         lacht  das     A  -  ben    -    teller! 

I  , 

1        -*_      #J.    N, 


Beethoven  also  made  occasional  use  of  this 
device  in  Fidelio.  One  specially  clear  instance 
is  in  the  Finale  of  the  last  act,  at  the  end  of  Don 
Fernando's  sentence  to  Leonora — 'Euch,  edle 
Frau,  allein,  euch  ziemt  es,  ganz  ihn  zu  befrei'n.' 
By  such  means  as  this,  one  scene  is  welded  on 
to  another,  and  the  action  is  relieved  of  that 
constant  breach  of  continuity  which  resulted 
from  the  old  manner  of  coming  to  a  full  close 
and  beginning  again.  [C.H.H.P.] 

_  INTERVAL.  The  possible  gradations  of  the 
pitch  of  musical  sounds  are  infinite,  but  for  the 
purposes  of  the  art  certain  relative  distances  of 
height  and  lowness  have  to  be  definitely  deter- 
mined and  maintained.  The  sounds  so  chosen 
are  the  notes  of  the  system,  and  the  distances 
between  them  are  the  Intervals.  With  different 
objects  in  view,  different  intervals  between  the 


sounds  have  been  determined  on,  and  various 
national  scales  present  great  diversities  in  this 
respect — for  instance  the  ancient  Gaelic  and 
Chinese  scales  were  constructed  so  as  to  avoid 
any  intervals  as  small  as  a  semitone ;  while  some 
nations  have  made  use  of  quarter-tones,  as  we 
have  good  authority  for  believing  the  Muezzins 
do  in  calling  the  faithful  to  prayer,  and  the 
Dervishes  in  reciting  their  litanies.  The  inter- 
vals of  the  ancient  Greek  scales  were  calculated 
for  the  development  of  the  resources  of  melody 
without  harmony*;  the  intervals  of  modern  scales 
on  the  other  hand  are  calculated  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  resources  of  harmony,  to  which 
melody  is  so  far  subordinate  that  many  character- 
istic intervals  of  modern  melody,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  whole  passages  of  melody  (such  as  the 
whole  first  melodic  phrase  of  Weber's  Sonata  in 
Ab),  are  based  upon  the  use  of  consecutive  notes 
of  a  single  chord;  and  they  are  often  hardly 
imaginable  on  any  other  basis,  or  in  a  scale  which 
has  not  been  expressly  modified  for  the  purposes 
of  harmony.  Of  the  qualities  of  the  different 
intervals  which  the  various  notes  form  with  one 
another,  different  opinions  have  been  entertained 
at  different  times ;  the  more  important  classifica- 
tions which  have  been  proposed  by  theorists  in 
mediaeval  and  modern  times  are  given  in  the 
article  Harmony. 

The  modern  scale-system  is,  as  Helmholtz  has 
remarked,  a  product  of  artistic  invention,  and 
the  determination  of  the  intervals  which  separate 
the  various  notes  took  many  centuries  to  arrive 
at.  By  the  time  of  Bach  it  was  clearly  settled 
though  not  in  general  use,  and  Bach  himself  gave 
his  most  emphatic  protest  in  favour  of  the  equal 
temperament  upon  which  it  is  based  in  his 
Wohltemperirte  Clavier,  and  his  judgment  has 
had  great  influence  on  the  development  of  modern 
music.  According  to  this  system,  which  is 
specially  calculated  for  unlimited  interchange  of 
keys,  the  semitones  are  nominally  of  equal  dimen- 
sions, and  each  octave  contains  twelve  of  them. 
As  a  consequence  the  larger  intervals  contained 
in  the  tempered  octave  are  all  to  a  certain 
extent  out  of  tune.  The  fifth  is  a  little  less 
than  the  true  fifth,  and  the  fourth  a  little  larger 
than  the  true  fourth.  The  major  thirds  and 
sixths  are  considerably  more  than  the  true  major 
thirds  and  sixths,  and  the  minor  thirds  and 
sixths  a  good  deal  less  than  the  true  minor  thirds 
and  sixths.  The  minor  seventh  is  a  little  larger 
than  the  minor  seventh  of  the  true  scale,  which 
is  represented  by  the  ratio  9:16,  and  is  a  mild 
dissonance ;  and  this  again  is  larger  than  the 
harmonic  sub-minor  seventh  which  is  represented 
by  the  ratio  4:7;  and  this  is  so  slight  a  dis- 
sonance that  Helmholtz  says  it  is  often  more 
harmonious  than  the  minor  sixth. 

The  nomenclature  of  intervals  is  unfortunately 
in  a  somewhat  confused  state.  The  commonest 
system  is  to  describe  intervals  which  have  two 
forms  both  alike  consonant  or  dissonant  as '  major' 
and  '  minor'  in  those  two  forms.  Thus  major  and 
minor  thirds  and  sixths  are  consonant,  and  major 
and  minor  sevenths  and  ninths  are  dissonant ;  and 


12 


INTERVAL. 


where  they  are  capable  of  further  reduction  they 
are  called  '  diminished,'  as  diminished  thirds  and 
sevenths ;  and  when  of  further  enlargement  as 
'  augmented,'  as  augmented  sixths.  With  inter- 
vals which  have  only  one  normal  form  the  terms 
•  major '  and  '  minor '  are  not  used ;  thus  fifths 
and  fourths  lose  their  consonant  character  on 
being  either  enlarged  or  reduced  by  a  semitone, 
and  in  these  forms  they  are  called  respectively 
'  augmented '  and '  diminished '  fifths  and  fourths. 
The  interval  of  the  augmented  sixth  is  indif- 
ferently called  'superfluous'  or. 'extreme  sharp' 
sixth ;  and  the  same  terms  are  applied  to  the 
fifth ;  the  term  '  false '  is  also  used  for  diminished 
in  relation  to  the  fifth  and  for  augmented  in 
relation  to  the  fourth. 

The  term  '  Imperfect'  is  used  in  two  senses  in 
relation  to  Intervals.  In  the  classification  of 
•Consonances  it  was  common  to  divide  them  into 
perfect  and  imperfect,  or  perfect,  middle  and 
imperfect ;  but  as  the  classification  varied  at 
different  times  reference  must  be  made  for  details 
to  the  article  Harmony  (vol.  i.  pp.  669-685).  On 
the  other  hand,  when  an  interval  is  commonly 
known  in  its  normal  condition  as  perfect,  such  as 
a  fourth  or  a  fifth,  it  is  natural  per  contra  to  speak 
of  the  interval  which  goes  by  the  same  name, 
but  is  less  by  a  semitone,  as  '  imperfect.' 

For  further  details  on  the  subject  see  Tem- 
perament. [C.H.H.P.] 

INTONATION  (Lat.  Intonatio).  I.  The 
initial  phrase  of  a  Plain  Chaunt  melody :  usually 
sung,  either  by  the  Officiating  Priest,  alone,  or, 
by  one,  two,  or  four  leading  Choristers.  Some 
of  the  most  important  Intonations  in  general  use 
are  those  proper  to  the  Gregorian  Tones.  Though 
differing  widely  in  character  and  expression, 
these  venerable  Chaunts  are  all  constructed  upon 
the  same  general  principle,  and  all  exhibit  the 
same  well-marked  combination  of  four  distinct 
elements — the  Intonation,  the  Reciting-Note,  the 
Mediation,  and  the  Cadence.  The  first  of  these, 
with  which  alone  we  are  now  concerned,  consists 
of  a  few  simple  notes,  leading  upwards — except 
in  one  peculiar  and  somewhat  abnormal  case — to 
the  Dominant  of  the  Psalm  about  to  be  sung, 
and  thus  connecting  it  with  its  proper  Antiphon. 
[See  Antiphon.]  Now,  as  each  Mode  has  a 
fixed  Dominant  upon  which  the  greater  part  of 
every  Psalm  is  recited,  it  follows,  that  each  Tone 
must  also  have  a  fixed  Intonation,  to  lead  up  to 
that  note :  and  this  principle  is  so  far  carried 
out  that  two  Tones,  having  a  common  Reciting- 
Note,  have  generally,  though  not  always,  a 
common  Intonation — as  in  the  case  of  Tones  I 
and  VI,  III  and  VIII.  This  rule,  however,  is 
broken,  in  the  case  of  Tone  IV ;  which,  though 
its  Reciting  Note  is  identical  with  that  of  Tone  I, 
has  a  peculiar  Intonation  of  its  own.1  Almost 
all  the  Tones  have  one  form  of  Intonation  for 
the  Psalms,  and  another  for  the  Canticles ;  while 
some  few  add  to  these  a  third  variation,  which 

1  Though  constructed  of  similar  intervals,  the  Intonations  of  Tones 
II  and  III  are  not  Identical.  By  no  permissible  form  of  transposition, 
«ould  the  G,  A,  C  of  the  latter  be  substituted  for  the  C,  D,  F  of  the 
former. 


INTONATION. 

is  used  only  for  the  second  part  of  the  Introit. 
[See  Introit.]  The  subjoined  forms  are  taken 
from  the  editions  of  the  Roman  Vesperal,  and 
Gradual,  lately  published  at  Ratisbon;  in  the 
former  of  which,  the  Intonation  assigned  to  the 
Magnificat,  in  the  Sixth  Tone,  varies  widely 
from  the  more  usual  reading  given  in  the  Mechlin 
edition.  The  forms  used  for  the  Introit  so  nearly 
resemble  those  for  the  Canticles,  that  we  have 
thought  it  necessary  to  give  those  of  the  Fourth 
and  Sixth  Tones  only. 


Tone  I. 


Tone  IV. 


For  the  Psalms. 
Tone  II. 


Tone  V. 


Tone  in. 


Tone  VI. 


ft  j  ^r^tt=rti  djL  rj  j  ^  |j  j^A  ^\y\ 


Tone  VIII. 


P 


P 


** 


Tone  I. 


For  the  '  Magnificat.* 
Tone  II. 


$ 


W  :  N     35 


i 


Tone  III. 


Tone  V. 


Tone  IV. 


Tone  VI. 


N  •  Y-A 


$ 


« 


M  :  YA 


i 


N.^ift 


Tone  VII. 


Tone  VIII. 


For  the  Psalm  '  In  Exitu  Israel.' 
Irregular  or  Peregrine  Tone. 


For  the  Introit. 
Tone  IV.  Tone  VI. 


The  Intonation  is  usually  sung  to  the  first 
verse,  only,  of  each  Psalm,  but,  to  every  verse 
of  the  Magnificat  and  Benedictus.  When  sung 
before  the  first  verse  only,  whether  of  Psalm  or 
Canticle,  it  is  assigned  either  to  the  Officiating 
Priest,  or  to  the  two  leading  Choristers.  Before 
the  remaining  verses  of  the  Magnificat,  and 
Benedictus,  it  is  sung  by  the  whole  Choir. 

The  opening  phrases  of  the  Antiphon,  the  anti- 
phonal  portion  of  the  Introit,  the  Gradual,  and 
many  other  Plain  Chaunt  Anthems  and  Hymns, 
are  also  sung,  as  Intonations,  either  by  a  single 
Priest,  or  by  one,  two,  or  four  leading  Choristers. 


INTONATION. 

The  Gloria  in  excehis,  and  Credo,  have  fixed 
Intonations  of  their  own,  which  may  be  found  in 
their  proper  places,  in  the  Missal. 

It  is  always  interesting  to  observe  the  use 
made,  by  modern  composers,  of  antient  materials : 
and  we  shall  find  that  some  of  the  Intonations 
given,  in  our  examples,  have  been  turned,  by  the 
greatest  Masters  of  the  modern  School,  to  very 
profitable  uses  indeed.  For  instance,  Handel, 
in  '  The  Lord  gave  the  word,'  from '  The  Messiah,' 
uses  the  Intonation  of  the  First  Tone,  transposed 
a  fourth  higher,  with  wonderful  effect — 


INTRODUCTION. 


13 


■  Mi  r  i  ;  p.* 


S 


etc. 


The  Lord  ga»e  the  word ; 

while  that  of  the  Eighth  (as  sung  to  the  Mag- 
nificat) has  been  employed,  in  a  very  striking 
manner,  by  Mendelssohn,  in  the  '  Lobgesang ' — 


|P"     J     A.* 


Al  -  les     was  0  -  dem  hat. 

We  have  selected  these  instances  from  in- 
numerable others,  not  only  because  the  chief 
interest  of  the  works  mentioned  is  centred  in 
these  few  simple  notes ;  but  because,  in  both 
cases,  the  phrases  in  question  are  really  used  as 
Intonations — i.e.  as  initial  phrases,  given  out  in 
unison,  to  be  continued  in  harmonious  chorus. 
Whether  the  composers  were  conscious  of  the 
Bource  of  the  ideas  they  treated  with  such  masterly 
power,  is  a  question  open  to  argument :  but, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  John  Sebastian  Bach, 
when  writing  his  great  Mass  in  B  minor,  chose 
the  opening  subject  of  his  magnificent  Credo, 
simply  because  it  was  the  Intonation  assigned 
to  the  Credo  in  the  Plain  Chaunt  Mass — 


f 


M 


Iw-^iTfrrU^p 


etc. 


JJJJ.J.J1JJJJJJJ- 


That  the  effect  with  which  Bach  introduces  this 
grand  old  subject  was  not  lost  upon  Mendelssohn, 
is  evident,  from  a  passage  in  a  letter  written 
from  Rome,  by  the  last-named  composer,  to  his 
friends  in  Germany  (April  4,  1831). 

IT.  The  art  of  singing,  or  playing,  correctly 
in  tune.  Thus,  we  say  that  the  intonation  of 
such  and  such  a  performer  is  either  true,  or  false, 
as  the  case  may  be.  For  a  detailed  account  of 
the  conditions  upon  which  perfect  tune  depends, 
see  Tempebament.  [W.  S.  R.] 

INTONING.  The  practice  of  singing  the 
opening  phrase  of  a  Psalm,  Canticle,  or  other 
piece  of  Ecclesiastical  Music,  not  in  full  chorus, 
but,  as  a  solo,  or  semi-chorus,  assigned  either  to 


a  single  Priest,  or  to  one,  two,  or  four  leading 
Choristers.  The  term  is  sometimes  strangely 
misapplied.  For  instance,  we  are  constantly 
told  that  the  Litany,  or  even  a  whole  Service, 
was  'intoned'  by  some  particular  person;  when 
the  word  used  should  have  been,  in  the  one  case, 
'  sung,'  and,  in  the  other,  '  monotoned.'  [W.  S.  R.] 

INTRADA  or  ENTRATA.  A  term  used  for 
an  opening  movement,  as  by  Beethoven  for  the 
introductory  piece  of  the  '  Battle-Symphony '  of 
his  Battle  of  Vittoria,  or  for  the  first  movement 
of  the  Serenade,  op.  25.  'Intrade'  is  used  by 
Mozart  for  the  overture  of  his  '  Bastien'  (K.  50) ; 
and  'Intrada  o  Concerto'  by  Bach  for  an  in- 
dependent movement  (Cat.  No.  117).  [See 
Entree  2.]  [G.] 

INTRODUCTION.  The  main  purpose  of  an 
Introduction  in  music  is  either  to  summon  the 
attention  of  the  audience,  or  to  lead  their  minds 
into  the  earnest  and  sober  mood  which  is  fittest 
for  the  appreciation  of  great  things.  The  manner 
in  which  these  purposes  are  accomplished  varies 
greatly  with  the  matter  which  is  to  follow.  If 
that  be  light  and  gay  any  noise  will  answer  the 
purpose,  such  as  brilliant  passages  or  loud  chords ; 
but  if  it  be  serious  it  is  manifest  that  the  Intro- 
duction should  either  have  proportionate  inherent 
interest  or  such  dignity  of  simplicity  as  cannot  be 
mistaken  for  triviality.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
the  manner  in  which  this  has  been  carried  out  by 
great  masters,  and  the  more  important  relations 
which  seem  to  subsist  between  a  movement  and 
its  Introduction  in  their  works. 

In  the  first  place  there  are  many  examples 
of  simple  signals  to  attention ;  such  as  the 
single  independent  chord  which  opens  Haydn's 
Quartet  in  Eb  (Trautwein  No.  33) ;  the  simple 
cadence  which  introduces  his  Quartet  in  C,  op.  72 
(Trautwein  No.  16),  and  the  group  of  chords  with 
cadence  which  precedes  the  Quartet  in  Bb,  op.  72 
(Trautwein  No.  12).  These  have  no  other  re- 
lation to  the  movement  than  that  of  giving  notice 
that  it  is  about  to  commence,  and  are  appropriate 
enough  to  the  clear  and  simple  form  of  the  Haydn 
Quartet.  Similar  examples  are  to  be  remarked 
in  very  different  kinds  of  music ;  as  for  instance 
at  the  commencement  of  the  Eroica  Symphony,, 
where  the  quiet  soberness  of  the  beginning  of 
the  movement  seems  to  call  for  some  signal  to 
attention,  while  its  supreme  interest  from  the 
very  first  seems  to  indicate  that  introductory 
elaboration  would  be  out  of  place.  In  Chopin'a 
Nocturne  in  B  major,  again,  it  is  not  difficult  to 
see  the  reason  for  the  adoption  of  the  two  simple 
forte  chords  with  which  it  is  introduced ;  since 
the  commencement  of  the  Nocturne  proper  is  so 
quiet  and  delicate  that  without  some  such  signal 
the  opening  notes  might  be  lost  upon  the  au- 
dience ;  whilst  a  more  developed  Introduction 
would  clearly  be  disproportionate  to  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  piece. 

In  great  orchestral  works,  such  as  symphonies, 
Haydn  usually  commences  with  a  set  and  formal 
Introduction  in  a  slow  tempo,  which  marks  the 
importance  of  the  work,  and  by  remaining  so 
close  to  the  principal  key  of  the  movement  as- 


14 


INTRODUCTION. 


hardly  ever  to  pass  the  limits  of  the  Tonic  and 
Dominant  keys,  assists  the  audience  to  realise 
the  tonality.  Mozart  did  not  follow  the  example 
of  Haydn  in  this  respect,  as  many  of  his  sym- 
phonies ;ire  without  Introductions, — especially 
the  well-known  ones  in  C  (Jupiter)  and  G  minor. 
In  quintets,  quartets,  sonatas,  and  such  forms  of 
chamber-music  he  is  also  sparing  of  Introductions, 
but  there  is  an  example  of  some  extent  in  the 
quintet  for  pianoforte  and  wind  in  Eb  (Kochel, 
452),  in  which  the  harmonic  successions  are 
simple,  and  there  is  a  more  celebrated  one  to  the 
string  quartet  in  C,  in  which  the  harmonic  bases 
vary  more  freely  than  in  other  examples  of  that 
period  which  can  be  adduced. 

Beethoven  began  from  the  first  to  follow  up 
this  point,  and  it  is  said  that  some  pedants  never 
forgave  him  for  opening  the  Introduction  to  his 
Symphony  in  C  (No.  1)  with  chords  which  appear 
not  to  belong  to  that  key.  The  Symphony  in  D 
again  (No.  a)  has  a  very  important  Introduction, 
in  which  there  is  free  modulation,  such  as  to  Bb 
and  F,  and  many  passages  and  figures  of  great 
beauty  and  interest.  In  the  Symphony  in  Bb 
the  introductory  Adagio  is  in  the  highest  degree 
beautiful  and  impressive,  and  contains  modula- 
tion even  to  the  degree  of  an  enharmonic  change. 
In  the  Symphony  in  A  the  idea  of  the  independ- 
ent Introduction  culminates.  It  has  a  decidedly 
appreciable  form  and  two  definite  subjects.  It 
opens  with  great  dignity  and  decision  in  A  major, 
and  passes  thence  to  C,  the  key  of  the  minor  third 
above,  in  which  a  clear  and  beautiful  second  sub- 
ject is  given ;  after  this  the  figures  of  the  opening 
are  resumed  and  a  short  transition  is  made  back 
to  the  original  key,  passing  on  from  thence  to  F 
major,  the  key  of  the  third  below,  in  which  the 
second  subject  again  appears.  From  this  key 
uhe  transition  to  E,  the  Dominant  of  the  original 
key,  is  at  the  same  time  easy  and  natural  and 
sufficiently  interesting;  and  considerable  stress 
being  laid  upon  this  note  both  by  its  continuance 
in  the  harmonies  and  its  reiteration  individually, 
it  thoroughly  prepares  the  definite  commence- 
of  the  Vivace. 

In  the  above  instances  the  Introduction  is 
practically  an  independent  movement,  both  as 
regards  the  substance  and  the  clear  division 
which  is  made  between  it  and  the  succeeding 
movement  by  a  full  or  half  close.  In  many  of 
his  later  works  Beethoven  made  an  important 
change  in  respect  of  the  connection  between  the 
Introduction  and  the  movement  introduced ;  by 
abolishing  the  marked  break  of  continuity,  by 
the  use  of  figures  which  are  closely  related  in 
both,  and  by  carrying  the  subject  matter  of  the 
Introduction  into  the  movement  which  follows. 

One  of  the  clearest  and  most  interesting  ex- 
amples of  his  later  treatment  of  the  Introduction 
is  in  the  first  movement  of  the  Sonata  in  Eb, 
op.  81  a,  in  which  the  introductory  Adagio  opens 
with  the  text  of  the  movement,  which  is  con- 
stantly reiterated  in  the  'working  out'  of  the 
Allegro,  and  yet  more  constantly  and  persistently 
and  with  many  transformations  in  the  long  and 
beautiful   coda.     Rubinstein    has   adopted  the 


INTRODUCTION. 

same  device  in  his  Dramatic  Symphony  in  D 
minor ;  in  which  also  the  first  subject  of  the 
first  movement  proper  is  a  transformed  version 
of  the  opening  subject  of  the  Introduction. 

In  several  of  his  later  Quartets  Beethoven 
makes  the  most  important  material  of  the  Intro- 
duction appear  in  the  movement  which  follows 
it,  in  different  ways — as  in  the  Quartet  in  Eb, 
op.  127,  and  that  in  Bb,  op.  130,  and  A,  op.  132, 
in  the  last  two  of  which  the  subjects  of  the 
Introduction  and  the  first  movement  are  very 
closely  intermixed.  In  the  Eb  Concerto  also 
the  Introduction  reappears  with  certain  varia- 
tions of  detail  in  the  latter  part  of  the  movement 
previous  to  the  'recapitulation'  of  the  subject. 
In  its  intimate  connection  with  the  movement 
which  follows  it,  the  Introduction  to  the  first  move- 
ment of  the  9th  Symphony  is  most  remarkable. 
It  commences  mysteriously  with  the  open  fifth  of 
the  Dominant,  into  which  the  first  rhythms  of 
the  first  subject  begin  to  drop,  at  first  sparsely, 
like  hints  of  what  is  to  come,  then  closer  and 
closer,  and  louder  and  louder,  till  the  complete 
subject  bursts-in  in  full  grandeur  with  the  Tonic 
chord.  In  this  case  the  introductory  form  re- 
appears in  the  course  of  the  movement,  and  also 
briefly  in  the  discussion  of  the  previous  themes 
which  immediately  precedes  the  commencement 
of  the  vocal  portion  of  the  work. 

After  Beethoven  no  composer  has  grasped  the 
idea  of  intimately  connecting  the  Introduction  with 
the  work  which  it  introduces  more  successfully 
than  Schumann,  and  many  of  the  examples  in  his 
works  are  highly  interesting  and  beautiful.  In 
the  Symphony  in  C,  for  instance,  a  striking  figure 
of  the  opening  reappears  in  the  first  movement,  in 
the  scherzo,  and  in  the  last  movement.  In  the 
Symphony  in  D,  in  which  all  the  movements  are 
closely  connected,  the  introductory  phrases  are 
imported  into  the  Romanze,  where  they  occupy 
no  unimportant  position.  In  his  Sonata  in  D 
minor,  for  violin  and  pianoforte,  op.  121,  the 
Introduction  proposes  in  broad  and  clear  outlines 
the  first  subject  of  the  succeeding  allegro,  in 
which  it  is  stated  with  greater  elaboration.  The 
Overture  to  Manfred  affords  another  very  inter- 
esting specimen  of  Schumann's  treatment  of  the 
Introduction.  It  opens  with  three  abrupt  chords 
in  quick  tempo,  after  which  a  slow  tempo  is 
assumed,  and  out  of  a  sad  and  mysterious  com- 
mencement the  chief  subject  of  the  Overture 
proper  is  made  by  degrees  to  emerge.  An  earlier 
analogue  to  this  is  the  Introduction  to  Bee- 
thoven's Egmont  Overture,  in  which  one  of  the 
chief  figures  of  the  first  subject  of  the  overture 
seems  to  grow  out  of  the  latter  part  of  the  in- 
troduction. 

Of  all  forms  of  musical  composition  none  are 
more  frequently  preceded  by  an  Introduction 
than  overtures;  the  two  above  mentioned,  and 
such  superb  examples  as  those  in  the  Overtures 
to  Leonora  Nos.  2  and  3,  and  to  Coriolan,  and 
such  well-known  ones  as  those  to  Weber's  Der 
Freischutz  and  Oberon,  Schumann's  Genoveva, 
and  Mendelssohn's  Ruy  Bias,  will  serve  to 
illustrate  this  fact. 


INTRODUCTION. 

Introductions  are  not  unfrequently  found  in 
the  place  of  overtures  before  choral  works,  as  in 
Handel's  Joshua,  Haydn's  Creation,  Beethoven's 
Mount  of  Olives,  and  Rossini's  Stabat  Mater. 
In  this  sense  also  the  '  Yorspiel,'  which  Wagner 
so  often  adopts  in  place  of  an  overture  before 
his  operas  is  an  Introduction  ;  as  in  Lohengrin 
and  Rheingold,  and  the  three  operas  of  the  Trilogy. 
In  these  the  figures  are  generally  very  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  music  of  the  opera, 
and  in  all  but  the  first  they  are  part  of  the  first 
gcene,  into  whieh  they  pass  without  a  break.  In 
'  Tristan  und  Isolde '  Wagner  gives  the  name 
'Einleitung'  to  the  Orchestral  prelude  both  of 
the  first  and  second  acts,  and  this  term  is  yet 
more  literally  translateable  as  'Introduction' 
than  Vorspiel.  In  earlier  operas  the  term  In- 
troduction is  frequently  applied  to  the  whole 
first  scene,  as  in  Don  Giovanni,  Zauberflote, 
Figaro,  Freischiitz,  II  Barbiere,  Norma,  and  so 
on.  In  Fidelio,  Beethoven  gives  the  name  to  the 
opening  of  the  second  act,  which  comprises  more 
of  an  orchestral  prelude,  like  Wagner's  *  Ein- 
leitung.' 

In  relation  to  instrumental  music  again  Intro- 
ductions are  occasionally  found  in  other  positions 
than  at  the  beginning  of  an  entire  work ;  as  for 
instance  the  preparatory  adagio  before  the  last 
movement  of  Beethoven's  Septet  and  of  his 
Symphony  in  C,  the  more  important  one  in  the 
same  position  in  Brahms's  C  minor  Symphony, 
the  short  passage  before  the  slow  movement  of 
the  9th  Sypmhony,  the  two  notes  which  introduce 
the  slow  movement  of  the  Bb  Sonata  (op.  106), 
and  the  Introduction  to  the  last  movement  of 
Brahms's  Quintet  in  F  minor.  [C.H.H.P.] 

INTROIT  (Lat.  Introitus,  Antiphona  ad  In- 
troitum,  Ingresm).  An  Anthem,  sung,  by  the 
Choir,  at  the  beginning  of  High  Mass,  while  the 
Celebrant,  assisted  by  the  Deacon,  and  Subdeacon, 
is  engaged  in  saying  the  Judica  me,  Deus,  and 
Confiteor  at  the  foot  of  the  Altar  step. 

The  Introit  is  so  called,  not,  as  some  have 
supposed,  because  the  Cantors  begin  to  intone 
it  at  the  moment  of  the  Celebrant's  approach  to 
the  Altar,  but,  because  it  was  antiently  sung 
while  the  Faithful  were  entering  the  Church.1 
Its  form  has  undergone  many  important  changes. 
At  present  it  consists  of  two  distinct  members  : 
an  Antiphon,  and  a  Psalm.  The  words  of  the 
Antiphon,  or  Introit  proper,  are  generally,  but 
not  always,  selected  from  Holy  Scripture.  Of 
the  Psalm,  one  verse  only  is  sung,  followed  by 
the  Gloria  Patri,  at  the  conclusion  of  which  the 
Antiphon  is  repeated  in  full.  Proper  Introits  are 
appointed  for  every  day  in  the  Ecclesiastical 
Year :  and,  from  the  first  words  of  these,  many 
Sundays  derive  the  names  by  which  they  are 
familiarly  known  —  as  '  Zcetare  Sunday,'  the 
Fourth  Sunday  in  Lent;  'Quasimodo  Sunday,' 
the  First  Sunday  after  Easter,  (Dominica  in 
Albis — the  'Low  Sunday'  of  the  old  English 
Kalendar).  The  music  to  which  the  Introit  is 
sung  is  exclusively  Plain  Chaunt,  and  is  given, 

1  Martene.  Be  Antiq.  EccX.  Bit.  i.  131. 


INVERSION. 


15 


complete,  in  the  Roman  Gradual.  The  anti- 
phonal  portion  of  every  Introit  has  a  special 
melody  of  its  own.  The  Psalm  is  sung  to  a 
peculiar  version  of  the  Gregorian  Tones,  based 
j  upon,  but  considerably  more  elaborate  than,  that 
used  for  the  Vesper  Psalms.  The  Introit  for 
the  First  Mass  on  Christmas  day — which  we 
would  have  transcribed,  had  space  permitted — 
is  a  remarkably  fine  specimen  of  the  style. 

The  manner  of  singing  the  Introit  is  as  follows. 
The  first  clause  is  intoned  when  the  Celebrant 
approaches  the  Altar,  by  one,  two,  or  four 
Choristers,  according  to  the  solemnity  of  the 
Festival :  which  done,  the  strain  is  taken  up  by 
the  full  Choir,  and  continued  as  far  as  the  end  of 
the  Antiphon.  The  first  clause  of  the  Psalm,  and 
Gloria  Patri,  is  then  intoned,  by  the  leading 
Choristers,  and  continued,  in  like  manner,  by  the 
Choir ;  after  which  the  Antiphon  is  repeated,  as 
before.  During  Advent,  Septuagesima,  and 
Lent,  it  is  sung,  like  the  rest  of  the  Mass, 
without  any  accompaniment  whatever.  At  other 
Seasons,  it  is  usually  sung  with  the  organ — but, 
always,  so  far  as  the  voices  are  concerned,  in 
unison. 

No  trace  of  the  Introit  is  retained  in  the  last 
revision  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  :  though 
the  first  Prayer- Book  of  King  Edward  VI 
(1549)  directs  its  use,  in  the  form  of  an  entire 
Psalm,  followed  by  the  Gloria  Patri,  but  sung 
without  an  Antiphon.  At  first  sight,  the  Rubric, 
'Then  shall  he  say  a  Psalm  appointed  for  the 
Introit,'  would  lead  to  the  supposition  that  the 
Psalm  in  question  was  not  intended  to  be  sung 
by  the  Choir :  this  idea,  however,  is  disproved 
by  the  fact  that  the  music  for  it  is  supplied  in 
Merbecke's  'Booke  of  Common  Praier  Noted,' 
printed  in  1550,  and  adapted,  throughout,  to 
King  Edward's  First  Book. 

N.B.  Handel  uses  the  word  as  a  synonym 
for  Intrada  or  Introduction.  The  autograph  of 
'  Israel  in  Egypt '  is  headed  '  Moses'  Song. 
Exodus,  Chap.  15.     Introitus.'  [W.S.R.] 

INVENTION.  A  term  used  by  J.  S.  Bach, 
and  probably  by  him  only,  for  small  pianoforte 
pieces — 15  in  2  parts  and  15  in  3  parts — each 
developing  a  single  idea,  and  in  some  measure 
answering  to  the  Impromptu  of  a  later  day.  [G.] 

INVERSION.    (Germ.  Umkehrung.) 

The  word  Inversion  bears,  in  musical  termin- 
ology, five  different  significations. 

I.  In  Counterpoint  it  is  used  to  signify  the 
repetition  of  a  phrase  or  passage  with  reversed 
intervals,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  by  con- 
trary motion,  e.  g. — 

Subject,  or  theme. 


p  j  Jjiflflf 


Inversion  of  subject,  or  theme. 


<&v,  a  j  rir.rrr-J 


=3= 


This  is  a  device  very  frequently  adopted  in  the 
construction  of  fugues  in  order  to  secure  variety. 
In  J.  S.  Bach's  fugues  are  many  magnificent 


16 


INVERSION. 


instances  of  the  effective  use  of  this  contrivance 
— as  in  the  '  Well-tempered  Clavier '  Nos.  6  and 
8  of  Part  i.  Mendelssohn  also  uses  it  in  his 
Pianoforte  fugues  in  E  minor  and  B  minor, 
Op.  35,  Nos.  I  and  3.  Sometimes  the  answer  to 
the  subject  of  a  fugue  is  introduced  by  inversion 
— as  in  Nos.  6  and  7  of  Bach's  'Art  of  Fugue' 
— and  then  the  whole  fugue  is  called  'a  fugue 
by  inversion.'  Canons  and  Imitations  are  often 
constructed  in  this  way.  As  examples  see  the 
Gloria  Patri  in  the  Deus  Misereatur  of  PurcelTs 
Service  in  Bb,  and  the  Chorus  '  To  our  great  God ' 
in  Judas  Maccabseus.  [See  Canon,  Fugue,  In- 
scription.] [F.  A.  G.  O.] 
II.  Double  Counterpoint  is  said  to  be  inverted, 
when  the  upper  part  is  placed  beneath  the  lower, 
«r  vice  versa  :  thus  (from  Cherubini) — 

(a)  Double  Counterpoint  for  2  Voices. 


We  have,  here,  an  example  of  what  is  called 
Double  Counterpoint  in  the  Octave,  in  which  the 
Inversion  is  produced  by  simply  transposing  the 
upper  part  an  octave  lower,  or  the  lower  part 
an  octave  higher.  But,  the  Inversion  may  take 
place  in  any  other  Interval ;  thus  giving  rise  to 
fourteen  different  species  of  Double  Counterpoint 
— those,  namely,  invertible  in  the  Second,  Third, 
Fourth,  Fifth,  Sixth,  Seventh,  Eighth,  Ninth, 
Tenth,  Eleventh,  Twelfth,  Thirteenth,  Fourteenth, 
and  Fifteenth,  either  above,  or  below.  In  order 
to  ascertain  what  Intervals  are  to  be  avoided, 
in  these  several  methods  of  Inversion,  Contra- 
puntists use  a  table,  constructed  of  two  rows  of 
figures,  one  placed  over  the  other ;  the  upper  row 
beginning  with  the  unit,  and  the  lower  one,  (in 
which  the  numbers  are  reckoned  backwards,)  with 
the  figure  representing  the  particular  kind  of 
Counterpoint  contemplated.  Thus,  for  Inversion 
in  the  Ninth,  the  upper  row  will  begin  with  one, 
and  the  lower,  with  nine;  as  in  the  following 
example — 

123456789 

987654321 

By  this  table,  we  learn,  that,  when  the  relative 
position  of  two  parts  is  reversed,  the  Unison  will 
be  represented  by  a  Ninth ;  the  Second,  by  an 
Eighth;  the  Third,  by  a  Seventh;  and  so  on, 
to  the  end  :  and  we  are  thus  enabled  to  see,  at  a 
glance,  how  every  particular  Interval  must  be 
treated,  in  order  that  it  may  conform  strictly  to 
rule,  both  in  its  normal  and  its  inverted  condi- 
tion. In  this  particular  case,  the  Fifth  being 
the  only  Consonance  which  is  answered  by  a 
Consonance,  is,  of  course,  the  most  important 
Interval  in  the  series,  and  the  only  one  with 
which  it  is  possible  to  begin,  or  end :  as  in  the 
following  example  from  Marpurg — 


INVERSION. 

(a)  Double  Counterpoint  in  the  Ninth. 


I 
(5)  Inversion — the  upper  part  transposed  a  Ninth  lower. 


■T 


Tf 


Each  of  the  different  kinds  of  Inversion  we 
have  mentioned  is  beset  by  its  own  peculiar  diffi- 
culty. For  each,  a  separate  'table  must  be  con- 
structed ;  and,  after  carefully  studying  this,  the 
Student  will  be  able  to  distinguish,  for  himself, 
between  the  Intervals  upon  which  he  must  de- 
pend for  help,  and  those  most  likely  to  lead  him 
into  danger.  Without  the  table,  he  will  be  un- 
able to  move  a  step :  with  its  aid,  the  process  is 
reduced  to  a  certainty. 

A  detailed  account  of  every  possible  kind 
of  Inversion  will  be  found  in  the  works  of  Fux, 
Marpurg,  Azzopardi,  Cherubini,  and  other  great 
writers  on  Counterpoint,  to  whom  we  must  refer 
the  reader  for  further  information  on  the  subject. 

III.  Intervals  are  said  to  be  inverted,  when 
their  lowest  notes  are  raised  an  octave  higher, 
and  thus  placed  above  the  highest  ones,  or  vice 
versa;  thus — 

Inversion.  Inversion.  Inversion. 


P 


In  order  to  ascertain  the  Inversion  of  a  given 
Interval,  add  to  it  as  many  units  as  are  necessary 
to  make  up  the  number  nine.  The  sum  of  these 
units  will  represent  the  Inverted  Interval.  Thus, 
since  six  and  three  make  nine,  the  inversion  of 
a  Sixth  will  be  a  Third  :  as  eight  and  one  make 
nine,  the  Inversion  of  an  Octave  will  be  an 
Unison.  The  following  Table  shews  the  In- 
versions of  all  Intervals  lying  within  the  com- 
pass of  the  Octave — 

12345678 
87654321 


99999999 


The  process  of  Inversion  not  only  changes  the 
name  of  an  Interval,  but,  in  certain  cases,  and 
to  a  certain  extent,  influences  its  nature.  Major 
Intervals,  for  instance,  become  Minor,  by  Inver- 
sion ;  and  Minor  Intervals,  Major.  Augmented 
Intervals  become  Diminished,  and  Diminished 
ones,  Augmented.     But,  the  essential  character 

*  One  and  the  same  table  will,  however,  serve  for  Inversion  In  the 
Ninth,  and  the  Second ;  the  Tenth,  and  the  Third ;  the  Eleventh,  and 
the  Fourth,  etc.,  etc. 


INVERSION. 

of  the  Interval  survives  the  operation,  unchanged, 
and  asserts  itself,  with  equal  force,  in  the  Inversion. 
In  whatever  positionthey  may  be  taken,  Consonant 
Intervals  remain  always  *  consonant ;  Dissonant 
Intervals,  dissonant;  and  Perfect  Intervals,  per- 
fect.    [See  Interval.] 

IV.  A  Chord  is  said  to  be  Inverted,  when  ary 
note,  other  than  its  Root,  is  taken  in  the  lowest  part. 

Thus,  if  the  Root  of  a  Common  Chord  be  trans- 
posed from  the  lowest  part,  to  one  of  the  upper 
parts,  and  the  Third  placed  in  the  Bass,  the  change 
will  produce  the  Chord  of  the  6-3.  If  the  Fifth  be 
similarly  treated,  the  result  of  the  transference  will 
be  the  Chord  of  the  6-4.  Hence,  the  Chord  of  the 
6-3  is  called  the  First  Inversion  of  the  Common 
Chord ;  and  the  Chord  of  the  6-4,  the  Second. 


IONIAN  MODE. 


17 


Common 
Chord. 


First 
Inversion. 


Second 
Inversion. 


I- 


& 


If  the  same  process  be  applied  to  the  Chord  of 
the  Seventh,  we  shall,  by  successively  taking  the 
Third,  Fifth,  and  Seventh,  in  the  Bass,  obtain 
its  three  Inversions,  the  6-5-3,  the  6-4-3,  and  the 
6-4-2. 


Chord  of  the 
Seventh 


First 
Inversion. 


Second 
Inversion. 


Third 
Inversion. 


i 


w 


Chords,  in  their  normal  form,  with  the  Root 
in  the  Bass,  are  called  Fundamental  Harmonies : 
those  in  which  any  other  note  occupies  this 
position  are  called  Derivative,  or  Inverted  Chords. 
[See  Harmony.] 

V.  A  Pedal  Point  {Point  oVorgue)  is  described 
as  Inverted,  when  the  sustained  note,  instead  of 
being  placed  in  the  Bass,  is  transferred  to  an 
upper  part,  as  in  Mozart's  Pianoforte  Fantasia  in 
C  minor  (op.  11) : — 


— or,  to  a  middle  one,  as  in  the  following  passage 
from  Deh  vieni,  non  tardar,  (Nozze  di  Figaro,) 
where  the  Inverted  Pedal  is  sustained  by  the 
Second  Violins : — 


1  Although  the  Perfect  Fourth— the  Inversion  of  the  Perfect  Fifth- 
Is  classed,  by  Contrapuntists,  among  Discords,  It  only  forms  an  ap- 
parent exception  to  the  general  rule;  since  It  Is  admitted  to  be  a 
Consonance,  when  it  appears  between  the  upper  parts  of  a  Chord. 
VOL.  II. 


In  these,  and  similar  cases,  the  characteristic 
note  (whether  sustained,  or  reiterated),  forms  no 
part  of  the  Harmony,  which  remains  wholly  un- 
affected, either  by  its  presence,  or  removal.  [See 
Harmony.]  [W.  S.  R.] 

IONIAN  MODE  (Lat.  Modus  lonicus,  Modus 
laxtius).  The  Thirteenth — or,  according  to  some 
writers,  the  Eleventh  —  of  the  Ecclesiastical 
Modes.     [See  Modes,  the  Ecclesiastical.] 

The  Final  of  the  Ionian  Mode  is  C.  Its  com- 
pass, in  the  Authentic  form,  extends  upwards, 
from  that  note  to  its  octave ;  and,  as  its  semi- 
tones occur  between  the  third  and  fourth,  and  the 
seventh  and  eighth  degrees,  its  tonality  corre- 
sponds exactly  with  that  of  the  major  diatonic 
scale  as  used  in  modern  music — a  circumstance 
which  invests  it  with  extraordinary  interest,  when 
considered  in  connexion  with  the  history  of  mu- 
sical science.  Its  Dominant  is  G — another  point 
of  coincidence  with  the  modern  scale.  Its  Me- 
diant is  E,  and  its  Participant,  D.  Its  Conceded 
Modulations  are  F,  A,  and  B ;  and  its  Absolute 
Initials  C,  E,  G,  and  frequently,  in  polyphonic 
music,  D.  Its  chief  characteristics,  therefore, 
may  be  illustrated  thus — 

Mode  XIII  (or  XI). 
Fin.  Part.    Med.        Dom. 


The  compass  of  the  Plagal,  or  Hypo-ionian 
Mode,  lies  a  fourth  lower  than  that  of  the  Au- 
thentic form,  ranging  from  G  to  G.  The  Domi- 
nant of  this  Mode  is  E,  its  Mediant,  A,  and  its 
Participant,  G.  Its  Conceded  Modulations  are 
D,  F,  and  the  F  below  the  initial  G ;  and  its 
Absolute  Initials  C,  G,  A,  and,  in  polyphonic 
music,  very  frequently  D. 


Med. 


Mode  XIV  (or  XII). 
Fin.  Dom. 


Part. 


It  will  be  seen,  that  the  semitones  here  fall 
between  the  third  and  fourth,  and  sixth  and 
seventh  degrees — exactly  the  position  they  occupy 
in  the  Authentic  Mixolydian  Mode  :  and,  as  the 
compass  of  these  Modes  is  also  identical,  the  one 
is  often  mistaken  for  the  other,  though  they  are 
as  clearly  distinguished,  by  their  respective  Finals, 
as  the  modern  keys  of  Eb,  and  Ffl  minor. 

Though  not  included  in  the  system  set  forth  by 
St.  Gregory,  the  Ionian  and  Hypo-ionian  Modes 
are  certainly  as  old  as  the  8th  or  9th  century : 
for,  when  the  question  of  the  number  of  Modes  to 
be  retained  in  use  was  submitted  to  the  Emperor 
Charlemagne,  he  at  first  said  that  eight  seemed 
to  be  enough,  but  afterwards  authorised^  the  em- 
ployment of  twelve,  thus  extending  his  indul- 
gence to  all  except  the  notoriously  impure  Locrian 
and  Hypolocrian.  Eight  Modes  have,  indeed, 
been  always  considered  enough  for  the  chaunting 
of  the  Psalms  :  hence,  we  find  no  Psalm  Tones  in 
either  the  Ionian  or  Hypo-ionian  Modes ;  though 

C 


18 


IONIAN  MODE. 


other  pieces  of  Ecclesiastical  Music  exist,  in  both. 
For  instance,  the  fine  Plain  Chaunt  '  Missa  in 
Festis  Solemnibus' — better  known,  perhaps,  in  a 
less  pure  form,  as  the  '  Missa  de  Angelis' — is  in 
the  Authentic  Ionian  Mode,  throughout :  and  a 
particularly  captivating  Hypo-ionian  melody  has 
been  preserved  to  us,  in  the  Paschal  form  of  the 
Kesponsory  'In  manus  tuas,  Domine,'  as  given 
in  the  Mechlin  Vesperal.1 

A  strong  prejudice  existed  against  the  Ionian 
Mode,  in  mediaeval  times,  when  the  softness  of 
its  intervals  gave  so  great  offence,  that  it  was 
commonly  called  Modus  lascivus.  The  early 
contrapuntists  seem  also  to  have  regarded  it  with 
grave  suspicion.  It  was  only  as  Art  advanced, 
that  the  inexhaustible  extent  of  its  capabilities 
became  gradually  apparent.  When  first  em- 
ployed in  polyphonic  music,  the  Authentic  scale 
was  usually  transposed  (for  the  greater  conveni- 
ence of  ordinary  combinations  of  voices)  with  the 
customary  Bb  at  the  signature ;  in  which  con- 
dition it  is  often  mistaken  for  the  modern  key  of 
F.  Palestrina  delighted  in  using  it,  with  this 
transposition,  as  the  exponent  of  a  certain  tender 
grace,  in  the  expression  of  which  he  has  never 
been  approached ;  as  in  the  '  Missa  Brevis,'  the 
Missa  '^Eterna  Christi  munera,'  the  delightful 
Motets,  *Sicut  cervus  desiderat,'  and  'Pueri 
Hebraeorum,'  and  innumerable  other  instances. 
Giovanni  Croce  has  also  employed  it  in  the  Motet 
•  Virtute  magna' — known  in  England  as  '  Behold, 
I  bring  you  glad  tidings':  while  in  our  own 
School,  we  find  instances  of  its  use  in  the  im- 
perishable little  Anthem,  '  Lord,  for  Thy  tender 
mercy's  sake,'  and  Gibbons's  fine  Service  in  F. 

The  Hypo-ionian  Mode  is  less  frequently  trans- 
posed, in  writing,  than  the  Authentic  scale,  though 
it  is  sometimesfound  desirable  to  depress  it  a  whole 
tone,  in  performance.  This  is  the  Mode  selected, 
by  Palestrina,  for  the  Missa  Papce  Marcelli ;  and 
by  Orlando  di  Lasso,  for  his  Motet,  Confirma  hoc, 
Dews — both  which  compositions  are  erroneously 
described,  in  the  latest  German  reprints,  as  in 
the  Mixolydian  Mode. 

The  melody  of  the  Old  Hundredth  Psalm,  in  its 
original  form,  is  strictly  Hypo-ionian ;  and  is  given 
in  its  true  Mode,  transposed,  in  the  masterly 
setting,  by  John  Dowland,  printed  in  Ravens- 
croft's  'Book  of  Psalms'  (Lond.  1621).  [See 
Hymn  ;  Old  Hundredth  Psalm.]      [W.  S.  R.] 

IPERMESTRA.  An  opera  of  Metastases 
which  has  proved  very  attractive  to  a  long  list 
of  composers.  The  Dictionnaire  Lyrique  of 
Clement  gives  no  less  than  18  settings  of  it  by 
Galuppi,  Sarti,  Jommelli,  Hasse,  Gluck,  and 
other  eminent  musicians.  [G.] 

IPHIGENIE  EN  AULIDE,  'tragedie-opeVa' 
in  3  acts ;  words  by  the  Bailli  du  Rollet,  after 
Racine ;  music  by  Gluck.  Produced  at  the  Aca- 
demic, Thursday,  April  19,  1774.  The  nightly 
receipts  at  first  were  5000  livres,  a  sum  then 
unheard  of.  The  sum  taken  on  April  5,  1796, 
amounted,   owing  to    the    depreciation    of   the 

1  In  the  Ratisbon  Vesperal,  this  melody  Is  reduced,  from  the  Four- 
teenth, to  the  Sixth  Mode;  and  a  similar  reduction,  from  Mode  XIII, 
to  Mode  V,  Is  by  no  means  uncommon,  in  Plain  Chaunt  Office-Books. ' 


IRISH  MUSIC. 

assignats,  to  274,900  livres.     Up  to  Dec.  22, 
1824,  it  was  played  428  times.  [G.] 

IPHIGENIE  EN  TAURIDE,  'tragedie 
lyrique'  in  4  acts  ;  words  by  Guillard,  music  by 
Gluck.  Produced  at  the  Acade"mie,  Thursday, 
May  18,  1779.  On  June  6,  1796,  the  assignat 
of  100  livres  being  equal  to  only  10  centimes,  the 
receipts  were  1,071,350  livres=  1,071  livres  7 
sous.  Up  to  June  5,  1829,  it  was  played  408 
times.  On  Jan.  23, 1 781,  the  tragedy  of  the  same 
name  by  Piccinni,  words  by  Dubreuil,  was  pro- 
duced at  the  Academie  and  survived  in  all  34 
representations.  On  the  first  night,  one  of  the 
actresses  being  obviously  intoxicated,  a  spectator 
cried  out  '  Iphige"nie  en  Tauride !  allons  done, 
e'est  Iphigeme  en  Champagne ! '  [G.] 

IRENE.  An  English  version  (or  rather 
transformation)  of  Gounod's  'Reine  de  Saba,' 
by  H.  Farnie ;  produced,  as  a  concert,  at  the 
Crystal  Palace,  Aug.  12,  1865.  [G.] 

IRISH  MUSIC.  Although  it  is  not  long  since 
the  opinion  was  generally  entertained  that  Ireland 
had  been  sunk  in  barbarism  until  the  English 
invasion,  historical  and  antiquarian  researches 
have  established  the  fact  that  the  island  was  in 
early  times  the  seat  of  Christianized  learning  and 
a  remarkable  artistic  civilization.  Her  music, 
however,  and  in  particular  her  ancient  school  of 
Harp-playing,  have  from  early  times  been  in  high 
repute,  having  been  lauded  in  the  writings  of 
Brompton,  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  and  John  of 
Salisbury  (12th  cent.).  The  latter  writes  thus : 
'  The  attention  of  this  people  to  musical  instru- 
ments I  find  worthy  of  commendation,  in  which 
their  skill  is  beyond  comparison  superior  to  that 
of  any  nation  I  have  seen.*  Fuller's  words  are 
equally  strong :  '  Yea,  we  might  well  think  that 
all  the  concert  of  Christendom  in  this  war  [the 
Crusade  conducted  by  Godfrey  of  Boulogne]  would 
have  made  no  music,  if  the  Irish  Harp  had  been 
wanting.'  Fordun  (13th  cent.),  Clynn  (14th 
cent.),  Polidore  Virgil  and  Major  (15th  cent.), 
Vincenzo  Galilei,  Bacon,  Spenser,  Stanihurst,  and 
Camden  (16th  cent.),  speak  with  equal  warmth. 
Written  music  being  however  comparatively 
modern,  no  remains  are  existing,  like  the  beau- 
tiful Irish  illuminated  MSS.  and  examples  of 
ornamental  Celtic  metal-work,  which  would  sub- 
stantiate the  praises  of  the  above  writers. 

Three  Irish  airs,  extracted  from  Queen  Eliza- 
beth's Virginal  Book,  are  given  in  vol.  ii.  p.  793 
of  Mr.  Chappell's  '  Popular  Music  of  the  Olden 
Time' — (1)  'The  Ho-hoane'  (Ochone),  (2)  an 
'Irish  Dumpe,'  and  (3)  'Callino  Casturame.* 
They  are  all  in  6-8  measure,  and  seem  defi- 
cient in  the  characteristic  features  of  Irish 
melody.  To  the  latter  air  there  is  an  allusion  in 
Shakespeare,  Henry  V,  act  iv.  sc.  4,  where  Pistol 
addresses  a  French  soldier  thus  :  — '  Quality ! 
Calen  o  custure  me!' — an  expression  which  has 
greatly  puzzled  the  critics.  It  is  evidently  an 
attempt  to  spell  as  pronounced  the  Irish  phrase 
'  Colleen,  oge  astore ! ' — young  girl,  my  treasure ! 

The  earliest  published  collections  of  Irish 
music  are  by  Burke  Thumoth  (1720);  by  Neill 


IRISH  MUSIC. 

of  Christ  Church  Yard,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
cathedral  of  that  name  in  Dublin,  a  few  years 
later;  and  by  the  son  of  Carolan  in  1747.  But 
these  being  for  flute  or  violin,  supply  no  idea  of 
the  polyphonic  style  of  the  music  for  the  Irish 
Harp,  an  instrument  with  many  strings  of  brass 
or  some  other  metal :  the  Harp  preserved  in 
Trinity  College,  Dublin  (commonly  but  erro- 
neously called  the  Harp  of  Brian  Boru),  having 
30  strings ;  that  of  Robin  Adair  (an  Irish  chief- 
tain), preserved  at  Hollybrooke  in  co.  Wicklow, 
37  strings;  and  the  Dallway  Harp  (1621),  52 
strings.  [See  Harp,  vol.  i.  p.  686  a.]  During  the 
incessant  wars  which  devastated  the  island  in 
the  1 6th,  17th,  and  18th  centuries,  the  art  of 
music  languished  and  decayed  :  there  had  indeed 
been  many  famous  performers  upon  the  Harp, 
the  national  instrument  had  appeared  on  the 
coinage  of  Henry  VIII,  and  had  also  been  ap- 
pended to  some  State  papers  a.d.  1567 ;  but  the 
powers  of  the  law  had  been  brought  to  bear 
upon  the  minstrels  who  sympathized  with  the 
natives,  struggling  at  this  time  against  the 
English  power.  When  the  wars  of  Elizabeth, 
Cromwell,  and  William  III  ceased,  the  dis- 
tracted country  had  peace  for  a  while.  Soon 
afterwards  the  Hanoverian  Succession  was  set- 
tled, and  foreign  musicians  visited  Ireland,  and 
remaining  there,  introduced  the  music  of  other 
countries ;  the  nobility  and  gentry  too,  abandon- 
ing their  clannish  customs,  began  to  conform  to 
the  English  model :  and  the  Irish  melodies  went 
out  of  fashion. 

Some  of  the  celebrated  harpers  of  the  16th  and 
/  7th  centuries  were  Rory  Dall  O'Cahan  (whom 
Sir  W.  Scott  makes  the  teacher  of  Annot  Lyle) ; 
John  and  Harry  Scott;  Gerald  O'Daly  (the 
composer  of  Aileen-a-Roon) ;  Miles  Reilly  (born 
1635);  Thomas  and  William  O'Conallon  (1640); 
Cornelius  Lyons ;  Carolan  (1670) ;  Denis  Hemp- 
son  (1695),  who  in  1745,  when  50  years  old, 
went  to  Scotland  and  played  before  Charles 
Edward;  Charles  Byrne  (1712) ;  Dominic  Mun- 
gan  (1715);  Daniel  Black  (171 5);  Echlin  Kane 
(1720),  a  pupil  of  Lyons,  before  named — Kane, 
who  travelled  abroad,  also  played  for  the  Pre- 
tender, and  was  much  caressed  by  the  expatriated 
Irish  in  Spain  and  France;  Thaddeus  Elliot 
(1725);  Owen  Keenan  (1725);  Arthur  O'Neill 
(1734);  Charles  Fanning  (1736);  and  James 
Duncan,  who  having  adopted  the  profession  of 
a  harper  in  order  to  obtain  funds  to  carry  on 
a  law-suit  in  defence  of  his  patrimony,  was  suc- 
cessful, and  died  in  1800,  in  the  enjoyment  of 
a  handsome  competence. 

Among  efforts  to  arrest  the  decay  of  the 
Irish  Harp  School  may  be  mentioned  the  'Con- 
tentions of  Bards '  held  at  Bruree,  co.  Limerick, 
1 73°-5°>  under  the  presidency  of  the  Rev.  Charles 
Bunworth,  himself  a  performer  of  merit ;  a  meet- 
ing of  harpers  at  Granard,  co.  Longford,  or- 
ganized by  an  Irish  gentleman,  James  Dungan 
of  Copenhagen,  in  1781  ;  and  the  assemblage  of 
harpers  at  Belfast,  1792,  when  the  promoters 
engaged  the  subsequently  well-known  collector, 
Edw.  Bunting,  to  write  down  the  music  as  per- 


IRISH  MUSIC. 


19 


formed.  From  this  arose  Bunting's  three  volumes 
of  Irish  Music,  dating  1796,  1809,  and  1840: 
accurate  drawings,  biographical  notices,  and  some 
hundred  airs  have  been  left  on  record  by  Bunting, 
to  whom  indeed  the  subject  owes  whatever  eluci- 
dation it  has  received.  Ten  performers  from  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Ireland  attended  the  meeting  of 
1 79  2 1  and  their  instruments,  tuning,  and  use  of  a 
copious  Irish  musical  vocabulary  agreed  in  a 
remarkable  manner.  The  compass  of  the  Harps 
was  from  C  below  the  bass  stave  to  D  above  the 
treble  one.  Their  scale  was  sometimes  C,  but 
mostly  that  of  G.  Each  string,  each  grace,  each 
feature  had  a  name  peculiar  to  it.  It  was  proved 
that  the  old  harpers  had  played  with  their  nails, 
not  the  fleshy  tip  of  the  fingers.  They  used  other 
scales  beside  those  above,  but  agreed  that  G 
major  was  the  most  ancient :  in  this  lies  '  The 
Coolin '  (temp.  Henry  VIII) : — 


One  of  the  most  striking  of  the  Irish  airs  is 
that  called  Colleen  dhas,  etc.,  to  which  Moore's 
lines,  '  The  valley  lay  smiling,'  are  adapted :  it 
lies  on  a  scale  from  A  to  A,  but  with  semitones 
between  2-3  and  6-7,  as  follows  : — 


p^HELU'-'^tlgF^ 


£Sg 


^ 


s 


£ 


It  was  of  course  to  be  expected,  that  singers, 
pipers,  whistlers,  or  violinists,  would  not  always 
adhere  to  the  fixed  semitones  of  a  harp  scale ;  hence 
this  air  is  sometimes  corrupted,  and  its  pathetic 
beauty  impaired  by  the  introduction  of  Gj. 
This  scale,  it  may  be  remarked,  is  that  used  for 
the  Scottish  pipes,  where  the  upper  G|j  is  however 
frequently  false;  such  Scotch  airs  as  ' 
Cope'  are  suitable  to  it. 
An  example  of  the  scale 


1  Johnnie 


E  to  E,  semitones  between  2-3  and  5-6,  is  found 

C2 


20 


IRISH  MUSIC. 


in  the  fine  Irish  air,  '  Remember  the  glories  of 
Brian  the  Brave  J' 


p^^i  Jlj.^f^T^ 


gj^l^jlJijjflliPflfl 


Here  again,   in  careless   performance,  D#  may 
have  been  used  instead  of  Dh,  once  or  twice. 
Very  plaintive  airs  are  found  in  the  4th  scale 


i 


^=^ra-»z 


D  to  D,  semitones  between  3-4  and  6-7.     In 
scale  lies  the  air  '  Weep  on ! ' 


this 


£= 


i^jJl|r-C'?T]^ig 


Moore  seems  to  have  noticed  the  peculiar  wail, 
thrice  repeated,  of  the  second  strain,  but  to  have 
been  unaware  of  the  true  cause,  when  he  says, 
'We  find  some  melancholy  note  intrude — some 
minor  third  or  flat  seventh,  which  throws  its  shade 
as  it  passes  and  makes  even  mirth  interesting.' 

The  bagpipe  of  Ireland  is  distinguished  from 
the  Scottish  pipes  by  being  blown  with  bellows 
instead  of  the  'mouth:  from  this  cause,  and  the 
delicacy  of  its  reeds,  the  tone  is  softer.  Dr.  Bur- 
ney  remarked  upon  the  perfection  of  the  intervals 
of  the  Irish  chanter  (or  melody-pipe),  which  he 
had  never  met  with  in  the  pipes  of  North 
Britain.  The  scale  of  the  Irish  bagpipe  is 
from  C  below  the  treble  stave  to  C  above  it, 
with  all  the  semitones.  The  Irish  instrument  is 
also  furnished  with  a  sort  of  tenor  harmony  of 
chords : — 


The  pipe  of  Scotland  has  nothing  of  this  sort, 
and,  as  previously  noticed,  its  scale  is  only  nine 

1  This  Is  the  distinction  between  the  Musette  and  the  Comemuse, 
the  former  answering  to  the  Scotch  and  the  latter  to  the  Irish  Pipe. 


IRISH  MUSIC. 

notes  and  is  not  very  true  in  general.  There 
generally  are  two  drones  in  the  Scottish  pipe, 
A  and  its  octave  ;  and  three  in  the  Irish  instru- 
ment, generally  middle  C,  tenor  C,  and  violon- 
cello C.  The  ancient  Irish  bagpipe,  like  that 
of  Scotland,  was  an  instrument  of  shrill  and 
warlike  tone,  by  which,  as  Stanihurst  tells  us,  the 
natives  were  animated — as  other  people  are  by 
trumpets.  The  bagpipe,  perhaps  the  oldest  and 
most  widely  known  instrument  in  the  world, 
still  subsists  in  Ireland ;  the  harp  however  is 
almost  extinct :  both  have  been  in  a  great 
degree  superseded  by  the  violin  and  flute,  which 
are  cheaper,  more  readily  repaired,  and  above 
all  more  portable :  most  of  the  ancient  minstrels 
of  Ireland  found  it  necessary  to  maintain  atten- 
dants to  carry  their  harps.  Of  late  years,  during 
the  Temperance  movement  and  the  various 
semi-military  organizations  which  have  sprung 
up  in  Ireland,  brass  and  reed  bands  have  be- 
come popular,  and  play  through  the  streets  of 
the  towns  ;  the  music  produced  by  them  is  how- 
ever for  the  most  part  execrable.  Choral  classes 
are  not  popular  throughout  the  country :  they 
meet  with  no  favour  among  the  peasantry  of  the 
South  and  West.  In  the  Eastern  coast  towns, 
like  Dublin,  Kingstown,  Wicklow,  and  Wexford, 
choral  music  is  not  popular,  and  in  the  Northern 
town  of  Belfast,  the  only  manufacturing  com- 
munity in  the  island,  we  seek  in  vain  for  choral 
associations  like  those  of  Leeds,  Bradford,  etc., 
among  the  artizans,  although  oratorios  are  fairly 
supported  by  the  middle  class. 

Dismissing  the  bagpipe,  ancient  or  improved, 
we  find  among  ancient  Irish  wind-instruments  the 
following : — (1)  the  Ben-Buabhill  (pronounced 
Ben-Bufial),  a  real  horn,  generally  that  of  a  wild 
ox  or  buffalo ;  (2)  the  Buinne,  a  metal  trumpet 
— the  horn  and  trumpet  players  were  assigned 
regular  places  in  the  famous  banqueting  hall  of 
Tara ;  (3)  the  Corn,  a  large  curved  tube,  pro- 
ducing sounds  of  great  power ;  (4)  the  Stoc,  a 
smaller  trumpet;  (5)  the Sturgan,  another  small 
trumpet.  It  is  singular  that  all  these  pipes  were 
curved :  no  straight  pipe,  like  an  oboe  or  clarinet, 
having  been  found  in  Ireland.  (6)  Some  large 
horns  were  discovered,  of  which  the  embouchure, 
like  that  of  the  Ashantee  trumpet,  was  at  the  side. 
Singular  to  say,  the  Irish  possessed  an  instrument 
very  similar  to  the  Turkish  crescent  or  •  Jingling 
Johnny '  once  used  in  the  British  army  :  it  was 
called  the  'Musical  Branch,'  and  was  adorned 
with  numerous  bells.  There  were  single  bells 
called  clothra  :  the  so-called  crotals  are  merely 
sheep-bells  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries.  It 
should  be  remarked  that  the  tympan  was  not  a 
drum,  as  was  formerly  supposed,  but  a  stringed 
instrument,  and  by  the  researches  of  the  antiquary 
O'Curry  it  is  proved  to  have  been  played  with  a 
bow.  Some  other  allusions  to  music  are  found  in 
Irish  MSS.,  viz.  the  aidsbi,  an  union  of  all  voices, 
a  vocal  tutti  as  it  were :  this  was  called  cepoc  in 
Scotland.  The  certan  was  some  sort  of  chirping 
sound  by  female  singers :  the  dordfiansa,  a  war- 
like song  accompanied  by  the  clashing  of  spears 
after  the  Greek  manner.    An  interesting  example 


IRISH  MUSIC. 

was  the  Irish  Cronan  or  drone  bass,  after  the 
manner  of  the  'Ground'  of  Purcell's  day,  or  of 
the  Canon,  'Summer  is  icuinen  in.'  The  Cronan 
was  softly  sung  by  a  'Chorus,  while  the  principal 
voice  sustained  the  solo.  The  following  song  (the 
air  called  '  Ballinderry ')  refers  to  various  rustic 
localities  on  the  banks  of  the  Bann  and  Lagan 
rivers : — 

'  Tis  pretty  to  be  in  Ballinderry, 
Tis  pretty  to  be  at  Magheralin, 
Tis  pretty  to  be  at  the  Castle  of  Toome, 
'Tis  pretty  to  be  at  Aghalee,'  etc. 

To  all  of  which  the  Cronan  softly  furnished  the 
bass,  '  Och-hone !  och-hone  ! ' 


IRISH  MUSIC. 


21 


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^ 


£=$ 


^^ 


rf3=? 


~-*t 


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i=£ 


r » r  p 


_-' 


zxtr 


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chos. 


f*f 


jj-jj.  J-IJ. 


^1 


•• 


Not  only  have  Irish  airs  been  often  claimed  as 
Scottish,  as  in  the  case  of  '  Limerick's  lamenta- 
tion' or  'Lochaber,'  but  the  close  resemblance 
between  some  Irish  and  Scottish  airs  has  led  to 
confusion,  and  an  attempt  to  generalize.  Thus 
it  has  been  quoted,  as  an  unfailing  characteristic  of 
Irish  as  of  Chinese  melody,  to  omit  the  fourth  and 
seventh  of  the  scale ;  this  is  quite  erroneous.  In 
many  Irish  airs,  like  '  I'd  mourn  the  hopes  that 
leave  me,'  these  intervals  are  wanting ;  in  others 
they  both  exist :  in  some  Irish  airs  the  4th  and  7th 
are  omitted  in  the  first  strain,  and  present  in  the 
second  part  of  the  air.  Many  canons  have  been 
laid  down :  Bunting,  an  excellent  authority, 
thought  the  emphatic  presence  of  the  submediant, 
or  sixth  of  the  scale,  a  never-failing  test  of  an  Irish 
air ;  but  this  note  is  emphatic  in  the  Scottish  air 
'Auld  lang  syne,'  and  in  many  others  which 
might  be  cited.  An  anonymous  writer  in  a 
Dublin  periodical,  'The  Examiner,'  Aug.  18 16, 
seems  to  have  remarked  an  interesting  point  of 
agreement  in  the  structure  of  Irish  melodies : 
*  They  are  formed,'  says  the  writer,  '  of  4  strains 
of  equal  length :  the  first  soft,  pathetic,  and  sub- 
dued ;  the  second  ascending  in  the  scale,  becomes 
more  bold,  energetic,  and  impassioned ;  the  third, 
a  repetition  of  the  second,  is  sometimes  a  little 
varied  and  more  florid,  and  leads,  generally  by  a 
graceful  or  melancholy  passage,  to  the  fourth. 

1  This  explains  the  passage  about  the  wild  cats  in  the  Story  of 
Conall  (.Campbell's  Tales  and  Legends  of  the  \V.  Highlands,  UW. 


which  is  always  a  repetition  of  the  first.'  To  this 
model  may  be  referred  the  pathetic  '  Gramachree ' 
in  Moore's  lines  'The  Harp  that  once  through 
Tara's  Halls.' 


•  ■  1    g    [ ■•-  a 


So  also  the  fine  marching  tune,  '  Byrne  of  Bally  - 
manus ' : — 


I 


rTjTTrJJjj.iu^^ 


It  has  been  noticed  that  many  Irish  tunes  end 
upon  the  fifth  of  the  key,  such  as  that  adapted 
to  Moore's  song,  '  Come,  send  round  the  wine ! ' 
Again,  to  commence  as  in  the  next  example,  and 
reiterate  the  ending  note  of  the  strain,  has  been 
described  as  the '  narrative  form '  of  Irish  melody, 
e.g.  'St. Senanus,'  to  Moore's  lines,  '0  haste  and 
leave  this  sacred  isle ' : — 


and  it  has  not  failed  to  be  remarked  that  Moore's 
fourth  line,  'A  female  form  I  see,'  in  obliterating 
this  peculiarity,  does  injustice  to  the  melody  by 
rendering  the  repetition  impossible. 

A  few  words  about  the  dances  of  Ireland  will 
not  be  out  of  place.  These  are  (1)  the  Planxty, 
or  Pleraca,  6-8  time,  with  strains  of  unequal 
number  of  bars.  (2)  The  Jig,  or  Rinnce,  with  an 
equal  number  of  bars.  The  Jig  was,  as  its 
name  implies,  an  imitation  of  the  giga  of  Corelli 
and  Geminiani,  both  very  popular  in  Ireland 
during  the  1 8th  century :  of  these  there  were 
(a)  the  Double  Jig,  {b)  Single'  Jig,  (c)  Hop 
Jig,  and  (d)  Moneen,  or  Green-sod  Jig.  (3) 
The  Reel,  similar  to  that  of  Scotland,  of  which 
it  is  the  national  dance.  (4)  The  Hornpipe. 
(5)  Set  dances,  chiefly  by  one  dancer,  and  (6)  The 
Country  dance.  Many  of  the  dances  in  6-8 
measure  were  originally  march  tunes;  for  it  is 
remarkable  that  the  'slow  march,'  as  used  by 
other  nations,  never  prevailed  among  the  Irish, 
whose  battle  music  was  frequently  in  the  6-8 
measure,  with  two  accents  in  the  bar. 

Every  civil  occupation  in  Ireland  had  also  its 
appropriate  music ;  thus  milking  the  cows  (an 
occupation  in  which  the  ancient  Irish  took  pecu- 
liar delight),  spinning,  and  ploughing,  had  each 
its  tune. 


22 


IRISH  MUSIC. 


Such  are  a  few  of  the  characteristics  of  a  native 
minstrelsy  second  to  none  in  the  annals  of  abori- 
ginal art.  But  the  lines  of  demarcation  by  which 
national  peculiarities  were  preserved  are  being 
daily  obliterated :  steam  has  worked  many  won- 
ders, of  which  this  is  not  the  least  remarkable. 
Ireland  at  the  present  day  differs  but  little  from 
England,  Wales,  or  Scotland.  The  tunes  whistled 
in  the  Irish  streets  are  not  the  melodies  to  which 
Moore  in  1 808  supplied  words,  but  '  The  March 
of  the  Men  of  Harlech,' '  Mandolinata,'  and  'Stride 
lavampa'  from  Verdi's  'Trovatore.'  The  terrible 
famine  of  1847,  followed  as  it  was  by  fever  and 
a  gigantic  emigration  that  laid  whole  districts 
waste,  could  not  fail  to  produce  sweeping  artistic 
as  well  as  social  changes.  Much  of  the  antient 
music  must  have  perished  with  the  population. 
Petrie's  volume  probably  represents  the  last 
comprehensive  effort  to  collect  the  aboriginal 
strains  of  Irish  music  :  although  given  to  the 
world  in  1855,  it  embraced  the  labours  of  many 
previous  years. 

It  remains  but  to  notice  the  various  collections 
of  Irish  music.     These  are — 

L  Burke  Thumoth,  cir.  1720.         1 10. 

2.  Neal   of  Christ-church  Yard,  11. 

1721. 

3.  Bunting's,   first    1796,    second 

1809,  third  1840.  13. 

4.  Francis  Holden  (cited  by  Geo. 

Petrie).  1806. 

&  Moore,  with  Stevenson,  and 
subsequently  Sir  II.  Bi- 
shop ;  ten  numbers  and 
supplement,  1808-1834. 

«.  John  Mulhulland  of  Belfast, 
1810. 

7.  G.  Thomson  (Beethoven's  ac- 

companiments), 1814. 

8.  Fltzsimons   and  John   Smith, 

1816. 
».  Hon.   Geo.   O'Callaghan  with  18.  P.  Hughes,  1860. 
Stevenson,  1821-2.  ' 

Of  these,  few  are  reliable  as  authorities,  save 
those  of  Petrie  and  Bunting,  both  honoured  names 
in  the  annals  of  Irish  music.  It  is  to  a  Mr. 
Geo.  Thomson,  of  the  Trustees'  Office,  Edin- 
burgh, who  was  much  interested  in  national  airs 
from  1792-1820,  especially  those  of  Scotland,  and 
engaged  Pleyel,  Kozeluch,  Haydn,  Beethoven, 
Hummel,  and  Weber,  as  arrangers  of  them,  that 
we  owe  the  Irish  music  arranged  by  Beethoven 
between  the  years  1810  and  1819.  Among  16 
national  airs,  with  variations,  as  duets  for  violin 
(or  flute)  and  piano  (op.  105,  107),  are  3  Irish 
melodies — '  The  last  rose '  (a  very  incorrect  ver- 
sion of  the  air),  'While  History's  Muse,'  and 
'O  had  we  some  bright  little  isle.'  Although 
interesting  in  their  way,  these  little  works  of 
Beethoven  are  very  inferior  to  his  Vocal  Collec- 
tions. Of  these  '  1 2  Irish  airs  with  accompani- 
ments of  piano,  violin,  and  cello '  (obbligato),  were 
published  in  1855  by  Artaria  &  Co.  of  Vienna,  as 
proprietors  of  Beethoven's  MS.  It  is  likely  that 
Messrs.  Power,  owners  of  Moore's  copyright 
lines,  refused  Mr.  Thomson  permission  to  pub- 
lish them  along  with  Beethoven's  arrangements, 
for  in  the  new  edition  of  Breitkopf  &  Hartel, 
of  which  they  form  No.  258,  the  melodies  are 
adapted  to  verses  (some  comic,  and  of  extreme 
vulgarity)  by  Joanna  Baillie  and  others;  three 


'  The  Citizen'  magazine,  1840. 

Horncastle,  London,  1844. 

O'Daly,  'Poets  and  Poetry  of 
Munster,'  1853. 

G.  Petrie,  in  connection  with 
the  '  Society  for  the  Pre- 
servation of  Irish  Music,' 
1855.  Of  this  valuable  work 
but  1  vol.  and  part  of  a 
second  appeared. 

Molloy,  1874. 

Joyce,  1875. 

Hoffmann,  1877. 

Dance  tunes  only. 
IS.  M.  Levey,  1858-78. 


ISAAC. 

are  arranged  as  vocal  duets ;  two  have  a  choral 
refrain.  Another  collection  of  25  Irish  airs  form* 
No.  261  of  Breitkopf  &  Hartel' b  edition ;  they  are 
arranged  in  similar  form  and  are  equal  in  ex- 
cellence ;  some  are  found  in  Moore,  others  are 
of  doubtful  authenticity :  of  the  air  called '  Garry- 
one,'  Beethoven  has  different  arrangements  in 
each.  That  whoever  furnished  the  great  mu- 
sician with  the  text  of  the  airs  must  have  been 
careless  or  incompetent,  will  be  evident  by  a 
comparison  of  the  air  'Colleen  dhas,'  as  found 
in  No.  9  of  Artaria's  edition,  with  that  already 
given  in  this  article :  not  only  is  the  scale 
destroyed  and  the  air  deprived  of  its  pathetic 
peculiarity,  but  whole  strains  are  omitted  alto- 
gether. (The  air  is  here  transposed  for  the  sake 
of  comparison.) 


Some  Irish  airs  among  others  arranged  by 
Beethoven,  appear  in  No.  259  of  Breitkopf  & 
Hartel's  edition,  and  No.  262  consists  of  20  of 
them  alone.  [R.P.S.] 

IRON  CHEST,  THE.  An  English  play  with 
music;  the  words  by  G.  Colman,  jun.,  the  music 
by  Storace.  Produced  at  Drury  Lane  March  1 2, 
1796.  A  quintet  from  it,  'Five  times  by  the 
taper's  light,'  was  a  favourite  until  comparatively 
lately,  and  will  be  found  in  the  'Musical  Library.' 
The  piece  is  based  on  Caleb  Williams ;  and  the 
Advertisement  to  the  reader  contains  the  author's 
announcement  that  he  was  'G.  Colman  the 
younger.'  [G] 

ISAAC,  Heinbich.  The  time  and  place  of 
the  birth  of  so  great  a  man  becomes  of  more 
than  usual  interest  when  upon  its  decision  de- 
pends his  claim  to  be  called  Germany's  first  great 
composer.  If  he  was  really  a  German,  which  all 
historians  and  the  evidence  of  his  works  lead  us 
to  believe,  it  is  certain  that  the  beginning  of  the 
1 6th  century  found  him  the  central  figure  of 
the  few  musicians  his  country  could  then  num- 
ber. Neither  Paul  Hoffhaimer,  the  organist  and 
composer,  who,  after  a  life  of  nearly  ninety  years 
(1449-1537)  found  his  last  resting-place  at  Salz- 
burg, nor  Thomas  Stoltzer,  who,  in  his  short  time 
of  thirty-six  years  made  his  name  still  more  fa- 
mous, nor  even  Heinrich  Finck  with  his  lovely 
lieder  and  hymns,1 — none  of  these  were  so  great 
as  Isaac.  They  had  much  in  common  with  him, 
and  their  names  may  be  found  side  by  side  with 

■  Which,  nevertheless,  failed  to  move  the  heart  of  his  royal  master 
the  king  of  Poland,  who  laughingly  replied  to  the  composer's  requeri 
for  an  increase  of  salary— 

'  A  little  Finch  (Fink)  within  Its  cage 
Sings  all  the  year,  nor  asks  for  wage.' 


ISAAC. 

his  in  many  books  of  German  lieder,  but  what- 
ever their  genius  may  have  been,  they  have  not 
handed  down  such  monuments  of  greatness  as 
exist  in  the  works  of  Isaac.  In  the  higher  forms 
of  church  composition  they  scarcely  competed 
with  him  at  all. 

According  to  one  tradition  he  was  born  at 
Prague,  and  Ambros '  devotes  a  charming  page 
of  his  history  to  showing  the  Bohemian  character 
of  some  of  the  subjects  used  by  the  composer  in 
his  masses.  He  appears  to  have  spent  much  of 
his  time  in  Florence,  and  here  he  was  sometimes 
called  by  the  grand  title  *  Arrhigo  Tedesco '  in 
strange  contrast  to  the  modest,  quaint '  h.  yzac,' 
another  variation  of  his  name.  His  position  in 
Florence,  and  one  date  in  his  life,  is  shown  by  a 
MS.  said  by  Dr.  Bimbault  to  have  been  in  the 
library  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  but  of  which 
we  can  find  no  trace  there  at  present.  In  '  The 
Musical  World'  (Aug.  29,  1844)  Dr.  Bimbault 
describes  this  MS.  as  containing  the  music  com- 
posed in  1488  by  Henry  Isaac  for  the  religious 
drama, '  San  Giovanni  e  San  Paolo,'  written  by 
Lorenzo  de*  Medici  for  performance  in  his  own 
family.  He  also  states  that  Isaac  was  the 
teacher  of  Lorenzo's  children,  which  fact  we 
presume  he  learnt  from  the  same  MS.  M.  Fe*tis 
shows  (1)  that  he  was  still,  or  again  in  Florence 
many  years  after  1488,  for  Aaron  speaks  of  being 
intimate  with  Josquin,  Obrecht  and  Isaac  in 
that  city,  and  Aaron  could  not  have  been  twenty 
years  old  (i.e.  old  enough  for  such  friendship) 
until  the  year  1509  ;  (2)  that  he  was  also  at  one 
time  in  the  service  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian  I, 
who  reigned  from  1486-1519;  and  (3)  that  he 
must  have  died  some  years  before  15  31,  according 
to  a  note  made  upon  a  MS.  of  that  date  in  the 
Munich  Library,  containing  a  work  begun  by 
him  and  finished  by  his  pupil  Senfl. 

Of  Isaac's  works,  first  in  importance  come 
23  masses,  10  printed,  and  13  in  MS.  (1)  The 
Library  of  the  Lyceum  at  Bologna  has  a  copy 
of  the '  Misse  Heinrici  Izac,'  printed  by  Petrucci 
in  1506,  containing  5  masses,  'Charge  de  deul,' 
'  Misericordias  Domini,' '  Quant  jay  au  cour,'  '  La 
Spagna,'  'Comme  femme.'  (2)  Bhaw's  'Opus 
decern  miss  arum  4  vocum'  (Wittenberg,  1541) 
contains  the  2  masses  '  Carminum '  and  '  Une 
Musque  de  Biscay.'  (3)  'Liber  quindecim  mis- 
sarum,'  etc.  (Nuremberg,  Petreius,  1539)  con- 
tains the  mass,  '  0  praeclara,'  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  of  the  composers  works.  It  is  com- 
posed on  a  subject  of  4  notes  reiterated  without 
cessation  throughout  the  mass.  Some  of  the 
numbers,  such  as  the  'Et  in  terra  pax'  and  the 
4  Qui  tollis,'  have  the  character  of  slow  move- 
ments by  the  lengthening  of  the  four  notes  over 
several  bars,  the  simple  accompaniments  of  the 
other  parts  being  very  beautiful.  The  subject  is 
kept  in  the  treble  nearly  throughout  the  mass, 
which  is  one  of  Isaac's  peculiarities.  It  is  pre- 
sented in  various  forms  in  the  earlier  movements, 
first  announced  in  triple  time,  then  in  long  notes 
with  accompaniments  in  triple  time,  till  in  the 
Credo  it  bursts  out  Alia  Breve,  forming  a  ma- 

1  Geschichte  der  Musik,  Ui.  380-389. 


ISAAC.  23 

jestic  climax.  The  Mass  exists  in  score  in  the 
Berlin  Library  amongst  the  MS.  materials  col- 
lected by  Sonnleithner  for  a  history  of  music. 
A  copy  is  also  in  the  Fe"tis  Library  at  Brussels 
(No.  1807).  (4)  Ott'8  collection,  'Missse  13, 
vocum'  (Nuremberg,  1539),  contains  two  masses, 
'Salve  nos,'  and  'Frbhlich  Wesen.'  One  move- 
ment, '  Pleni  sunt,'  from  the  latter,  is  scored  in 
Sonnleithner's  MS. 

The  13  MS.  masses  are  mentioned  by  Ambros 
in  his  History  of  Music  (iii.  386) — in  the  Boyal 
Library  at  Vienna,  eight — 'Missa  Solennis,' 
Magne  Deus,  Paschalis,  De  Confessoribus,  Domi- 
nicalis,  De  B.  Virgine,  and  two  De  Martyribus, 
all  in  4  parts ;  and  in  the  Munich  Library,  four 
6-part  ones, — Virgo  prudentissima,  Solennis,  De 
Apostolis,  and  one  without  name,  and  a  4-part 
one,  '  De  Apostolis.'  A  MS.  volume  of  Masses 
in  the  Burgundy  Library  at  Brussels  (No.  6428) 
contains  the  'Virgo  prudentissima'  under  the  title 
'  Missa  de  Assumptione  B.  V.  M.,  heric  ysac' 

Eitner's  Bibliographie  der  Musik-Sammelwerke 
(Berlin,  1877)  mentions  upwards  of  forty  collec- 
tions between  the  years  1501  and  1564,  which 
contain  motets  and  psalms  by  Isaac.  The  Do- 
decachordon  of  Glarean  contains  five,  three  of 
which  Burney  (ii.  521-4),  Hawkins  (ch.  70)  and 
Forkel,  have  printed  in  their  Histories,  Burney 
having  copied  them  all  in  his  note-books  at  the 
British  Museum.  Wyrsung's  '  Liber  selectarum 
cantionum,'  etc.  (Augsburg,  1520),  contains  five 
of  the  most  important  of  Isaac's  works  of  this 
class,  amongst  them  two  6-part  motets,  '  Optima 
pastor'  and  '  Virgo  prudentissima,'  dedicated  re- 
spectively to  the  Pope  Leo  X  and  the  Emperor 
Maximilian  I.  An  excellent  MS.  copy  of  this  work 
exists  in  the  Fe"tis  Library  at  Brussels  (No.  1679). 
Of  Isaac's  lieder,  Ott's  collection  of  '115  guter 
newer  Liedlein'  (Nuremberg,  1544)  contains  10. 
One  of  them,  '  Es  het  ein  bawer  ein  tochterlein,' 
is  given  in  score  by  Forkel  in  his  History.  This 
collection  has  lately  been  reprinted  by  the  Ge- 
sellschaft  fur  Musikforschung  (Liepmanssohn, 
Berlin).  Forster's  collection,  '  Ein  auszug  guter 
Teutscher  liedlein'  (Nuremberg,  Petreius,  1539) 
contains  four,  and  amongst  them  '  Isbruck  [Inns- 
bruck] ich  muss  dich  lassen,'  the  words  said  to 
have  been  written  by  the  Emperor  Maximilian. 
The  melody  was  afterwards  sung  to  the  hymns, 
'  0  Welt  ich  muss  dich  lassen,'  and  '  Nun  ruhen 
alle  Walder,'  and  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of 
German  chorales.  It  is  introduced  by  Bach  in  the 
Passions-Musik  (St.  Matthew),  in  the  scene  of 
the  Last  Supper.  (See  'Innsbruck'  in  Hymns 
Ancient  and  Modern.)  Whether  Isaac  actually 
composed  the  melody,  or  only  wrote  the  other  parts 
to  it,  is  doubtful,  but  it  is  remarkable  that  here, 
as  in  others  of  his  works,  the  melody  appears  in 
the  upper  part,  which  was  quite  unusual  in  such 
compositions.  It  is  in  these  Lieder  that  he 
shows  his  nationality.  In  them  we  have  the 
music  which  the  composer  brought  with  him 
from  his  home,  the  trace  of  which  is  not  lost  in 
his  greater  compositions,  but  blending  itself  with 
the  new  influences  of  an  adopted  country,  and  of 
Netherland  companions,   gives  to  his  music  a 


24 


ISAAC. 


threefold  character,  '  a  cosmopolitan  trait '  not  to 
be  found  in  the  works  of  any  other  composer  of 
the  time  (Ambros,  iii.  382).  [J.R.S.-B.] 

ISABELLA.     [See  Girardeau.] 

ISHAM,  John,  Mus.  Bac,  was  for  some  years 
deputy  organist  for  Dr.  Croft.  On  Jan  22,1711, 
he  was  elected  organist  of  St.  Anne's,  Soho,  on 
Croft's  resignation.  On  July  17,  1713,  he  grad- 
uated as  Bachelor  of  Music  at  Oxford,  and  on 
April  3,  1 718,  was  elected  organist  of  St.  An- 
drew's, Holborn,  with  a  stipend  of  £50  per 
annum,  upon  which  he  resigned  his  place  at 
St.  Anne's,  the  vestry  objecting  to  his  holding 
both  appointments.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was 
chosen  organist  of  St.  Margaret's,  Westminster. 
He  composed  some  anthems,  and  joined  with 
William  Morley  in  publishing  a  joint-collection 
of  songs,  Isham's  two-part  song  in  which,  'Bury 
delights  my  roving  eye,'  was  very  popular  in  its 
day,  and  is  reprinted  by  Hawkins  in  his  History 
(ch.  168).  He  died  in  June  1726,  and  was 
buried  on  the  12  th  of  that  month  in  St.  Mar- 
garet's church.  [W.H.H.] 

ISOUARD,  or  ISOARD,  Nicolo,  usually 
known  as  Nicolo,  born  Dec.  6,  1775,  at  Malta, 
where  his  father  was  a  merchant  and  secretary 
of  the  '  Massa  Frumentaria,'  or  government 
storehouses.  He  was  taken  to  Paris  as  a  boy, 
and  educated  at  the  Institution  Berthaud,  a 
preparatory  school  for  the  engineers  and  artillery. 
Much  of  his  time  was  taken  up  with  the  study 
of  the  pianoforte  under  Pin,  but  he  passed  a 
good  examination  for  the  navy.  He  was  how- 
ever recalled  before  receiving  his  commission, 
and  on  his  return  to  Malta  in  1 790  was  placed 
in  a  merchant's  office.  His  pianoforte-playing 
made  him  welcome  in  society ;  and  encouraged 
by  this  he  went  through  a  course  of  harmony 
with  Vella  and  Azopardi,  and  with  Amendola 
of  Palermo — where  he  passed  several  years 
as  clerk  to  a  merchant — and  completed  his  studies 
under  Sala  and  Guglielmi  at  Naples,  where  he 
was  employed  by  a  German  banking  firm.  He 
now  determined  to  become  a  composer,  and  aban- 
doning commerce,  much  against  his  father's  wish, 
produced  his  first  opera, '  L'avviso  ai  Maritati,' 
at  Florence  in  1 795.  After  this  date  he  called 
himself  simply  Nicolo,  in  order  not  to  compromise 
his  family,  and  it  was  under  this  name  that  he 
made  his  reputation.  From  Florence  he  went 
to  Leghorn,  and  composed  'Artaserse,'  an 
opera  seria,  which  procured  him  the  cross  of 
San  Donato  of  Malta.  He  succeeded  Vincenzo 
Anfossi  as  organist  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem 
at  Malta,  and  on  the  death  of  San  Martino  be- 
came maltre  de  chapelle  to  the  Order,  retaining 
both  posts  until  the  occupation  of  the  island  by 
the  French  (June  10-13,  1798).  During  these 
early  years  he  acquired  that  facility  which  was 
afterwards  one  of  his  most  marked  characteristics. 
There  was  not  a  branch  of  composition  which  he 
did  not  attempt,  as  a  list  of  his  works  at  this 
date  will  show : — 9  Cantatas ;  masses,  psalms, 
and  motets ;  vocal  pieces  for  concerts ;  and  S  or  9 
operas  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  enumerate. 


Prince  de  Catane '  (March  4) ;  *  Le 
Francals  a  Venlse '  (June  14, 1813) ; 
'Le  Siege  de  Mezieres'  (Feb.  12), 
with  Cherubim,  Catel,  and  Boiel- 
dieu;  'Joconde'  0?eb.  28);  ' Jean- 
not  et  Colin'  (Oct  17, 1814);  'Lea 
deux  Maria'  (March  18);  and 
'  L'une  pour  l'autre '  (May  11. 
1816). 


ISOUARD. 

At  this  time  he  was  strongly  urged  to  go  to 
Paris.1  On  his  arrival  he  found  a  useful  friend 
in  Rodolphe  Kreutzer,  and  the  two  composed 
conjointly  'Le  petit  Page'  (Feb.  14,  1800),  and 
'Flaminius  a  Corinthe  (Feb.  28,  1801).  At 
the  same  time  Delrieu  re-wrote  the  librettos  of 
two  of  his  Italian  operas,  which  were  performed 
under  their  original  titles,  'L' Impromptu  de 
Campagne ' (June  30, 1800),  and  'Le  Tonnelier' 
(May  17,  1801).  Isouard  also  made  considera- 
ble mark  in  society  as  a  pianist.  To  his  friend- 
ship with  Hoffmann  and  Etienne  he  owed  not 
only  sound  advice,  but  a  series  of  librettos  upon 
which  he  was  able  to  work  with  a  certainty  of 
success.  Thus  favoured  by  circumstances,  he 
produced  in  16  years  no  less  than  33  operas. 
The  following  list  is  in  exact  chronological  order, 
which  Fe'tis  has  not  been  careful  to  observe : — 

'La  Statue,  oula  fern  me  avare' j'Cendrillon'  (Feb.  22,  1810);  'La 
(April  29);  'Michel  Ange '  (Dec.  11,  Victims  de«  Arts'  (Feb.  27),  with 
1802);  'Les  Confidences'  (Slarch  Solie1  and  Berton;  'La  Fete  du 
30);  'Le  Baiser  et  la  Quittance '  I  village '  (March  31);  'Le  Billet  de 
(June  17),  with  Mebul,  Kreutier,  loterie'  (Sept.  14);  'Le  Magicien 
and  Boieldieu ; '  Le  Mddecln  Turc '  j  sans  Magie '  (Nor.  4, 1811) ;  '  Lulll 
(Not.  19,  1803);  'L'lntrigue  aux  et  Qulnault'  (Feb.  27,  1812);  'Le 
feneires'  (Feb.  24);  'Le  Dejeuner 
de  Garcons'  (April  24);  'La  Ruse 
Inutile '  (May  30) ;  '  Leonce '  (Nov. 
18,  1805);  'La  Prise  de  Fassau' 
(Feb.  8);  'Idala'  (July  30,  1806); 
'  Les  Rendei-vous  bourgeois '  (May 
9) ; '  Les  Creanclers '  (Dec.  10, 1807) ; 
■Un  Jour  A  Paris'  (May  24);  'Ci- 
marosa*  (June  28,  1808);  'L'ln- 
trigue au  Be'rail"  (April  25,  1809); 

To  this  long  list  must  be  added  '  Aladin,  on  la 
Lampe  merveilleuse,'  which  he  did  not  live  to 
finish,  but  which  was  completed  by  Benincori. 

Isouard  had  the  gift  of  melody,  and  remark- 
able skill  in  disposing  his  voices  so  as  to  obtain 
the  utmost  effect.  Instances  of  this  are — the 
quintet  in  'Michel  Ange,'  quite  Italian  in  its 
form;  the  ensemble  and  trio  in  the  'Rendez- 
vous bourgeois ' ;  the  quartet  in  the  2nd  act 
of '  Joconde ' ;  the  trio  in  the  same  opera,  and 
that  of  the  three  sisters  in  '  Cendrillon ' ;  the 
finale  in  the  '  Intrigue  aux  fenetres ' ;  the  trio 
and  the  duet  in  '  Jeannot  et  Colin,'  and  many 
others.  To  these  qualities  must  be  added  the  ori- 
ginality and  unadorned  simplicity  of  his  music, 
which  gave  it  a  kind  of  troubadour  character. 
His  later  works,  composed  when  Boieldieu  was 
running  him  hard,  are  manifestly  superior  to 
the  earlier  ones,  when  he  had  no  competitor. 
'  Joconde,'  the  favourite  romance  in  which  will 
never  be  forgotten,  far  surpasses  'Cendrillon,' 
though  inferior  to  'Jeannot  and  Colin,'  which 
for  finish,  taste,  sentiment,  and  charm  of  style 
will  always  be  appreciated  by  musicians. 

Another  of  Isouard's  good  points  is  that  his 
comedy  never  degenerates  into  vulgarity.  In 
Boileau's  words,  this  composer — 

'Distingua  le  naif  da  plat  et  du  buffon.' 
He  strictly  observed  the  proprieties  of  the  stage, 
and  thoroughly  understood  the  French  public. 

1  Fayolle,  In  his  'Dlctlonnalre  des  Muslciens.'  states  that  General 
Vaubois  took  him  to  Paris  as  his  private  secretary,  but  a  comparison 
of  dates  will  show  this  to  have  been  an  Impossibility.  General 
Vaubois  was  In  command  of  the  French  at  Malta,  and  with  a  gar- 
rison of  4,000  men  maintained  his  position  against  the  blockading 
forces  of  the  allies  without  and  the  Maltese  themselves  within,  for 
two  years  from  1798.  Isouard,  on  the  other  hand,  reached  Paris  with 
his  family  In  1799.    Fe'tis  has  reproduced  this  error. 


ISOUARD. 

In  his  own  way  he  continued  Gre*try's  work, 
but  being  no  originator  was  eclipsed  by  Boiel- 
dieu  and  afterwards  by  Auber.  The  successes 
of  his  rival  provoked  him  beyond  control,  and 
when  Boieldieu  was  elected  by  the  Institut  in 
1817  to  succeed  MeTiul  in  preference  to  him- 
self, his  mortification  was  extreme.  It  was,  per- 
haps, to  drown  the  remembrance  of  this  defeat, 
and  of  the  triumphs  of  his  opponent,  that,  al- 
though a  married  man,  he  plunged  into  a 
course  of  dissipation  which  ruined  his  health 
and  brought  on  consumption,  from  which  he 
died  in  Paris,  March  23,  181 8. 

There  is  no  biography  of  Isouard,  nor  indeed 
any  sketch  at  all  adequate.  Several  portraits  have 
been  published,  but  are  of  no  artistic  merit.  From 
one  of  them  was  executed  in  1853  the  marble  bust 
now  in  the  foyer  of  the  Opera  Comique. 

Isouard  is  little  known  in  England.  The  only 
two  of  his  pieces  which  appear  to  have  been 
brought  out  on  the  London  stage  are  '  Les  Ren- 
dezvous bourgeois'  (St.  James's,  May  14,  1849), 
and  'Joconde,'  English  version  by  Mr.  Santley 
(Lyceum,  Oct.  25,  1876).  [G.C.] 

ISRAEL  IN  EGYPT,  the  fifth  of  Handel's 
19  English  oratorios.  The  present  second  part 
was  composed  first.  The  autograph  of  it  is  headed 
'Moses  song.  Exodus  Chap.  15.  Introitus. 
Angefangen  Oct.  1,  1 738,'  and  at  the  end  '  Fine 
Octobr.  11,  1738,  den  1  Novemb1.  vollig  geen- 
digt.'  The  present  first  part  is  headed '  1 5  Octobr. 
1738.  Act  ye  2d.'  Three  pages  were  written 
and  erased ;  and  on  the  fourth  page  begins  the 
present  opening  recitative,  headed  '  Part  y6  2  of 
Exodus.'  At  the  end  of  the  Chorus  'And  be- 
lieved' stands  'Fine  della  Parte  2da  d'Exodus. 

{October^}  1 738-'  The  ™t0S™Vh  is  »  Buck" 
ingham  Palace,  and  the  two  parts  are  bound  in 
their  present  order,  not  in  that  of  composition. 

The  title  '  Israel  in  Egypt '  appears  in  the  an- 
nouncements of  the  first  performance,  which  was 
on  April  4,  1739.  On  April  11  it  was  performed 
again  'with  alterations  and  additions.'  Else- 
where it  is  announced  that  'the  Oratorio  will 
be  shortened  and  intermixed  with  songs' — four 
in  number.  It  was  given  a  third  time  April 
1,  1740,  with  the  Funeral  Anthem  as  a  first 
part,  under  the  name  of  the  'Lamentation  of 
the  Israelites  for  the  Death  of  Joseph.' 

Dr.  Chrysander  suggests  that  the  adaptation 
of  the  Funeral  Anthem  as  an  introduction  fol- 
lowed immediately  on  the  completion  of  Moses' 
Song,  and  that  'Act  y°  2d'  followed  on  that 
adaptation ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  resist  the  con- 
conclusion  that  he  is  right,  though  beyond  the 
words  'Act  y*  2d'  and  the  addition  of  a  short  over- 
ture to  the  Funeral  Anthem  there  is  no  positive 
evidence.  The  use  of  the  word  '  Act '  prevents 
our  taking  '  Act  the  2d '  as  '  second '  in  relation 
to  '  Moses  Song ' ;  it  was  second  in  order  of  com- 
position, but  not  in  historic  order,  nor  in  order  of 
performance — and  'Moses  Song'  contains  the 
musical  climax  to  the  whole  work. 

The  first  subsequent  performance  in  England 
of  the  work  as  composed,  without  additions  or 


ISTESSO  TEMPO,  L'. 


25 


omissions,  was  given  by  the  Sacred  Harmonic 
Society,  Feb.  23,  1849.  In  Germany  it  was  first 
performed  in  any  shape  by  the  Sing-Akademie 
of  Berlin,  Dec.  8,  1831. 

This  oratorio  is  distinguished  among  those  of 
Handel  as  much  for  its  sustained  grandeur  as 
for  the  great  number  of  allusions  to  previous 
compositions,  both  of  Handel's  own  and  of  other 
musicians,  that  it  contains.  Those  which  have  at 
present  been  recognised  are  as  follow :  — 

'They  loathed.'  Shortened  from  Fugue  in  A  minor  in 
his  own  Six  organ  fugues. 

'  He  spake  the  word.'  The  voice  parts  from  a  Symphony 
for  double  orchestra  in  Stradella's  Serenata.  1 

Hailstone  Chorus.    From  Stradella's  Serenata. 

'  He  smote  all  the  firstborn.'  From  Fugue  in  A  minor 
in  his  own  Six  organ  fugues. 

'  But  as  for  his  people.'    From  Stradella's  Serenata. 

'  Egypt  was  glad'  Almost  note  for  note  from  an  Organ 
canzona  in  D  by  Kerl.2 

'  And  believed  the  lord.'    From  Stradella's  Serenata. 

'  He  is  my  God,'  almost  note  for  note  from  the  opening 
of  Erba's  Magnificat. 

'The  Lord  is  my  strength.'  From  'Et  exultavit'  in 
the  Magnificat. 

'  The  Lord  is  a  man  of  war.'  From  '  Te  eternum  Pa- 
trem '  in  Urio's  Te  Deum,  and  'Quia  fecit'  in  Magnificat. 

'  The  depths  have  covered  them.'    From  Magnificat. 

'  Thy  right  hand'    From  ditto,  'Quia  respexit.' 

'  Thou  sen  test  forth.'  Almost  note  for  note  from  ditto, 
'  Fecit  potentiam.' 

'And  with  the  blast.'    From  ditto,  'Deposuit' 

'The  earth  swallow'd  them.'  Almost  note  for  note 
from  '  Sicut  erat'  in  ditto. 

'  Thou  in  Thy  mercy.'    From  ditto, '  Esurientes.' 

'  I  will  sing  unto  the  Lord.'  Repeated  from  beginning 
of  Part  IL 

Notwithstanding  this  astonishing  number  of 
adaptations  great  and  small,  so  vast  is  the  fusing 
power  of  Handel's  genius,  and  also  perhaps  so 
full  of  faith  the  attitude  in  which  a  great  work 
of  established  reputation  is  contemplated,  that 
few  hearers  suspect  the  want  of  unity,  and  even 
Mendelssohn,  keen  as  was  his  critical  sense, 
while  editing  the '  Israel '  for  the  Handel  Society, 
never  drops  a  hint  of  any  anomaly  or  inconsistency 
in  the  style  of  any  of  the  pieces.  Mendelssohn 
wrote  organ  accompaniments  to  the  songs  and 
duets,  though,  strange  to  say,  they  have  seldom 
been  used  in  public  in  this  country. 

As  to  the  compiler  of  the  words  of '  Israel '  there 
is  neither  evidence  nor  tradition.  It  is  therefore 
possible  that  they  may  have  been  selected  by 
Handel  himself.  In  the  first  part  some  of  the 
words  are  taken  from  the  Prayer-book  version 
of  the  Psalms.  In  other  cases  the  ordinary 
Authorised  version  has  been  adopted,  but  not 
exactly  followed.  [G.] 

ISTESSO  TEMPO,  L',  'the  same  time,'  a 
caution  in  cases  of  change  of  rhythm  or  time- 
signature.  It  may  mean  that  the  measure  re- 
mains as  before  while  the  value  of  the  note 
changes — as  in  the  change  from  9-16  to  6-16  in 
Beethoven's  Op.  in,  or  from  2-4  to  6-8  in 
'  Bagatelle,'  Op.  119,  No.  6 ;  or  that  the  measure 
changes  while  the  note  remains — as  in  Op.  126, 
No.  1 ;  or  that  neither  note  nor  measure  change 
—as  in  Op.  Ill,  6-16  to  12-32,  and  Op.  120, 
Var.  3.  Or  that  a  former  tempo  is  resumed, 
as  in  his  Sonata,  op.  no — 'L'istesso  tempo  di 
Arioso,'  '  L'istesso  tempo  della  fuga.'  [G.] 

>  See  the  Analyses  of  Urio's  Te  Deum  and  Btr  idella's  Serenata,  by 
Mr.  l'rout,  in  the  Monthly  Musical  Record  for  Not.  and  Dec.  1871. 
a  Printed  by  Hawkins,  chap.  124. 


26 


ITALIANA  IN  ALGIEEI,  L\ 


ITALIANA  IN  ALGIEEI,  L'.  An  Italian 
comic  opera  in  2  acts  ;  words  by  Anelli,  music  by 
Rossini.  Produced  at  San  Benedetto,  Venice,  in 
1 81 3;  at  Paris,  Feb.  1,  181 7;  and  in  London, 
Jan.  27,  1819;  in  English,  Dec.  30, 1844.      [G.] 

ITALIAN  SIXTH,  THE,  is  the  augmented 
sixth  accompanied  by  the  major  third,  as 

[C.H.H.P.] 

IVANOFF,  or  IVANHOFF,  Nicholas,  born 
in  1809,  an  Italianized  Russian,  appeared  in 
England  in  the  season  of  1834.  *  Pupil  of 
E.  Bianchi,  he  had  a  very  beautiful  tenor  voice, 
•  a  chaste  and  simple  style  of  singing,  but  little 
execution'  (Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe).  On  the 
other  hand,  Mr. Chorley  wrote, — 'Nothing  could 
be  more  delicious  as  to  tone — more  neat  as  to  exe- 
cution. No  such  good  JRodrigo  in  Otello  has 
been  heard  since  I  have  known  the  opera : '  and 
Moscheles,  in  his  Diary,  says,  •  he  attracted  the 
public  by  his  great  flexibility  of  voice,  but  he 
displeased  my  German  ear  by  using  his  head- 
voice  too  frequently,  particularly  when  singing 
Schubert's  Serenade.  His  sickly,  sentimental 
style  became  so  wearisome  that  some  wag  cir- 
culated a  joke  about  him  declaring  that  his  real 
name  was  "  I've  enough."  '  Sweet  as  were  his 
voice  and  method  of  vocalisation,  his  acting  and 
appearance  on  the  stage  were  utterly  null  and 


JACK. 

insignificant;  'In  England,  he  was  never  seen 
to  attempt  to  act;  subsequently,  he  essayed  to 
do  so  in  Italy,  I  have  heard ;  but,  by  that  time, 
the  voice  had  begun  to  perish'  (Chorley).  He 
reappeared  in  London  in  1835  and  37,  but  he 
never  fulfilled  the  promise  of  his  first  season,  and 
soon  retired.  With  others  of  the  Italian  troupe 
he  had  taken  part,  but  without  effect,  in  the 
Festival  at  Westminster  Abbey  in  1 834.  Ivanhoff 
is  still  living  in  retirement  at  Bologna.  [J.  M.] 
IVES,  Simon,  was  a  vicar  choral  of  St.  Paul's 
cathedral.  In  1633  he  was  engaged,  together 
with  Henry  and  William  Lawes,  to  compose  the 
music  for  Shirley's  masque,  '  The  Triumph  of 
Peace,'  performed  at  Court  by  the  gentlemen  of 
the  four  Inns  of  Court  on  Candlemas  day,  1633-4, 
for  his  share  in  which  he  received  £100.  On 
the  suppression  of  choral  service  he  became  a 
singing  master.  His  elegy  on  the  death  of 
William  Lawes, '  Lament  and  mourn,'  appeared 
in  separate  parts  at  the  end  of  H.  and  W. 
Lawes's  ■  Choice  Psalmes,'  1 648.  It  is  given  in 
score  in  J.  S.  Smith's  '  Musica  Antiqua.'  Many 
catches  and  rounds  by  Ives  are  printed  in 
Hilton's  '  Catch  that  Catch  can,'  1652,  and  Play- 
ford's  'Musical  Companion,'  1672;  'Si  Deus 
nobiscum,'  3  in  1,  is  given  in  Hullah's  'Vocal 
Scores.'  Songs  by  him  are  to  be  found  in  various 
collections.  He  died  in  the  parish  of  Christ 
Church,  Newgate  Street,  in  1 66  2.        [W.  H.  H.] 


J. 


JACK  (Ft.  Sautereau;  Ital.  Saltarello;  Ger. 
Docke,  Springer).  In  the  action  of  the 
harpsichord  tribe  of  in- 
struments the  jack  repre- 
sents the  Plectrum.  It  is 
usually  made  of  pear-tree, 
rests  on  the  back  end  of 
the  key-lever,  and  has  a 
moveable  tongue  of  holly 
working  on  a  centre,  and 
kept  in  its  place  by  a  bristle 
spring.  A  thorn  or  spike 
of  crowquill  projects  at 
right  angles  from  the  tongue. 
On  the  key  being  depressed 
the  jack  is  forced  upwards, 
and  the  quill  is  brought  to 
the  string,  which  it  twangs 
in  passing.  The  string  is 
damped  by  the  piece  of 
cloth  above  the  tongue. 
When  the  key  returns  to  its 
level,  the  jack  follows  it 
and  descends;  and  the  quill 
then  passes  the  string  with- 
out resistance  or  noise.  In 
some  instruments  a  piece 
of  hard  leather  is  used  in- 
stead of  the  quill.  In  cut- 
ting   the  quill    or    leather    great   attention   is 


paid  to  the  gradation  of  elasticity  which 
secures  equality  of  tone.  A  row  of  jacks  ia 
maintained  in  perpendicular  position  by  a  rack  ; 
and  in  harpsichords  or  clavecins  which  have 
more  than  one  register,  the  racks  are  moved  to 
or  away  from  the  strings  by  means  of  stops 
adjusted  by  the  hand  ;  a  second  rack  then  en- 
closing the  lower  part  of  the  jack  to  secure  its 
position  upon  the  key.  We  have  in  the  jack 
a  very  different  means  of  producing  tone  to  the 
tangent  of  the  clavichord  or  the  hammer  of  the 
pianoforte.  The  jack,  in  principle,  is  the  plec- 
trum of  the  psaltery,  adjusted  to  a  key,  as  the 
tangent  represents  the  bridge  of  the  monochord 
and  the  pianoforte  hammer  the  hammer  of  the 
dulcimer.  We  do  not  exactly  know  when  jack 
or  tangent  were  introduced,  but  have  no  reason 
to  think  that  the  invention  of  either  was  earlier 
in  date  than  the  14th  century.  By  the  middle 
of  the  1 6th  century  the  use  of  the  clavecin  in- 
struments with  jacks  had  become  general  in 
England,  the  Netherlands  and  France;  and  in 
Italy  from  whence  they  would  seem  to  have 
travelled.  They  were  used  also  in  Germany,  but 
the  clavichord  with  its  tangents  asserted  at  least 
equal  rights,  and  endured  there  until  Beethoven. 
The  first  years  of  the  18th  century  had  witnessed 
in  Florence  the  invention  of  the  hammer-clavier, 
the  pianoforte ;  before  the  century  was  quite 
out   the  jack   had    everywhere   ceded    to    the 


JACK. 

hammer.  Although  leather  for  the  tongue  of 
the  jack  has  been  claimed  to  have  been  the 
invention  of  Pascal  Taskin  of  Paris  in  the 
1 8th  century  (his  much-talked-of  ■  peau  de 
buffle'),  it  has  been  found  in  instruments  of  the 
1 6th  and  17th;  and  it  may  be  that  leather 
preceded  the  quill,  the  introduction  of  which 
Scaliger  (1484-1550)  enables  us  to  nearly  date. 
He  says  (Poetices,  lib.  i.  cap.  lxiii)  that  when  he 
was  a  boy  the  names  clavicymbal  and  harpsichord 
had  been  appellations  of  the  instrument  vulgarly 
known  as  monochord,  but  that  subsequently 
points  of  crowquill  had  been  added,  from  which 
points  the  same  instrument  had  become  known 
as  spinet — possibly  from  the  Latin  *  spina,'  a 
thorn,  though  another  and  no  less  probable 
derivation  of  the  name  will  be  found  under 
Spinet. 

Shakspeare's  reference  to  the  jack  in  one  of 
his  Sonnets  is  well-known  and  often  quoted— 

'  Do  I  envy  those  jacks  that  nimble  leap 
To  kiss  the  tender  inward  of  thy  hand ' ; 

but  appears  to  mean  the  keys,  which  as  the 
'  sweet  fingers '  touch  them  make  '  dead  wood  more 
blest  than  living  lips.'  A  nearer  reference  has 
been  preserved  by  Rimbault  (The  Pianoforte, 
London,  i860,  p.  57)  in  a  MS.  note  by  Isaac 
Reed  to  a  volume  of  old  plays.  Lord  Oxford 
said  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  covert  allusion  to 
Raleigh's  favour  and  the  execution  of  Essex, 
'When  jacks  start  up,  heads  go  down.'  [A.  J.H.] 

JACKSON,  John.  One  Jackson,  who  in 
1669  held  the  office  of  'Instructor  in  Musick' 
at  Ely  Cathedral  for  three  months,  has  been 
conjectured  to  be  identical  with  the  John  Jack- 
son who  early  in  1676  was  appointed  nominally 
a  vicar  choral  but  in  fact  organist  of  Wells 
Cathedral.1  His  name  is  not  found  in  the 
Chapter  books  after  1688,  so  that  it  is  presumed 
that  he  died  or  resigned  in  that  year.  He  com- 
posed some  church  music  now  almost  wholly 
lost.  An  anthem,  'The  Lord  said  unto  my 
Lord,'  included  in  the  Tudway  Collection  (Harl. 
MS.  7338) ;  a  Service  in  C,  in  the  choir  books 
of  Wells,  and  four  chants  in  a  contemporary 
MS.  organ  part  in  the  library  of  the  Sacred 
Harmonic  Society  are  all  his  compositions  that 
are  to  be  found  complete.  The  last-named  MS. 
contains  the  organ  parts  of  the  Service  in  C  and 
8  anthems,  and  in  the  choir  books  at  Wells  are 
some  odd  parts  of  an  anthem  and  a  single  part 
of  a  Burial  Service.  [W.  H.  H.] 

JACKSON,  William,  known  as  Jackson  of 
Exeter,  son  of  a  grocer  in  that  city,  was  born  in 
May  1 730.  He  received  a  liberal  education,  and 
having  displayed  a  strong  partiality  for  music, 
was  placed  under  John  Silvester,  organist  of 
Exeter  Cathedral,  for  instruction.  In  1748  he 
removed  to  London  and  became  a  pupil  of  John 
Travers.  On  his  return  to  Exeter  he  established 
himself  as  a  teacher.  In  1755  he  published  a 
set  of  •  Twelve   Songs,'  '  which  were  so  simple, 

1  In  some  cathedrals  the  statute*  do  not  specify  an  organist  as  an 
officer  of  the  church.  In  such  the  custom  Is  to  assign  to  one  of  the 
vicars  choral  the  performance  of  the  duty  of  organist. 


JACKSON. 


sr 


elegant,  and  original,  that  they  immediately  be- 
came popular  throughout  the  kingdom.'  He 
afterwards  produced  •  Six  Sonatas  for  the  Harpsi- 
chord,' '  Elegies  for  three  voices,'  and  a  second 
set  of  *  Twelve  Songs.'  These  were  followed  by 
1  Six  Epigrams,'  a  third  set  of  '  Twelve  Songs,' 
and  a  setting  of  Warton's  'Ode  to  Fancy.'  In 
1 767  he  composed  the  music  for  a  dramatic  piece 
called  '  Lycidas,*  altered  from  Milton's  poem,  on 
the  occasion  of  the  death  of  Edward,  Duke  of 
York,  brother  of  George  III,  and  produced  at 
Covent  Garden  on  Nov.  4,  but  never  repeated. 
He  next  published  'Twelve  Canzonets  for  two 
voices,'  which  were  highly  successful,  and  one  of 
which,  'Time  has  not  thinned  my  flowing 
hair,'  enjoyed  a  long  career  of  popularity.  To 
these  succeeded  'Eight  Sonatas  for  the  Harpsi- 
chord,' and  'Six  Vocal  Quartetts.'  In  1777 
Jackson  received  the  appointments  of  sub- 
chanter,  organist,  lay  vicar,  and  master  of  the 
choristers  of  Exeter  Cathedral.  In  1780  he 
composed  the  music  for  General  Burgoyne's 
opera,  *  The  Lord  of  the  Manor,'  which  was  pro- 
duced at  Drury  Lane,  Dec  27,  with  great  success, 
and  kept  possession  of  the  stage  for  more  than 
half  a  century,  mainly  owing  to  Jackson's  music. 
The  beautiful  song,  '  Encompassed  in  an  angel's 
frame,'  is  one  of  those  gems  which  time  can 
never  affect.  In  1 782  Jackson  published  '  Thirty 
Letters  on  various  subjects,' — three  of  them 
relating  to  music,  which  were  well  received  and 
in  1795  reached  a  third  edition.  'The  Meta- 
morphosis,' a  comic  opera,  of  which  Jackson  was 
believed  to  be  the  author  as  well  as,  avowedly, 
the  composer,  was  produced  at  Drury  Lane,  Dec. 
5,  1783,  but  performed  only  two  or  three  times. 
In  1 79 1  Jackson  published  a  pamphlet  entitled 
'  Observations  on  the  present  State  of  Music  in 
London.'  In  1798  he  published  'Four  Ages, 
together  with  Essays  on  various  subjects,'  in- 
tended as  additions  to  the  '  Thirty  Letters.'  His 
other  musical  publications  comprised  a  second 
set  of 'Twelve  Canzonets  for  two  voices,'  'Twelve 
Pastorals,'  a  fourth  set  of  'Twelve  Songs,' 
'Hymns  in  three  parts,' and  'Six  Madrigals.* 
His  cathedral  music  was  collected  and  published 
many  years  after  his  death  by  James  Paddon, 
organist  of  Exeter  Cathedral.  He  died  of  dropsy, 
July  12,  1803.  Jackson  employed  much  of  his 
leisure  time  in  painting  landscapes  in  the  style 
of  his  friend  Gainsborough,  in  which  he  attained 
considerable  skill.  Whilst  much  of  his  music 
charms  by  its  simplicity,  melodiousness,  refine- 
ment and  grace,  there  is  also  much  that  sinks 
into  tameness  and  insipidity ;  his  church  music 
especially  is  exceedingly  feeble.  Notwithstanding 
this,  'Jackson  in  F'  is  even  now  popular  in  some 
quarters.  [W.H.H.] 

JACKSON,  William,  known  as  Jackson  of 
Masham,  born  Jan.  9,  1816,  was  son  of  a  miller, 
and  furnishes  a  good  instance  of  the  power  of 
perseverance  and  devotion  to  an  end.  His  passion 
for  music  developed  itself  at  an  early  age,  and  his 
struggles  in  the  pursuit  of  his  beloved  art  read 
almost  like  a  romance  in  humble  life.  He  built 
organs,  learned  to  play  almost  every  instrument, 


28 


JACKSON. 


wind  and  string,  taught  himself  harmony  and 
counterpoint  from  books,  until  at  length,  in  1832, 
when  he  had  reached  the  mature  age  of  16, 
the  lord  of  the  manor  of  Masham  having  pre- 
sented a  finger  organ  to  the  church,  Jackson  was 
appointed  organist  with  a  stipend  of  £30. 
Through  the  circulating  library  in  Leeds,  he 
was  able  to  study  the  scores  of  Haydn,  Mozart, 
Spohr  and  Mendelssohn.  In  1839  he  went  into 
business  at  Masham  as  a  tallow-chandler,  and 
in  the  same  year  published  an  anthem,  'For  joy 
let  fertile  valleys  ring.'  In  1840  the  Hudders- 
field  Glee  Club  awarded  him  their  first  prize  for 
his  glee,  'The  sisters  of  the  sea';  and  in  1841 
he  composed  for  the  Huddersfield  Choral  Society 
the  103rd  Psalm  for  solo  voices,  chorus  and 
orchestra.  In  1 845  he  wrote  an  oratorio,  '  The 
Deliverance  of  Israel  from  Babylon,'  and  soon 
afterwards  another  entitled  'Isaiah.'  In  1852 
he  made  music  his  profession  and  settled  in 
Bradford,  where,  in  partnership  with  William 
Winn,  the  bass  singer,  he  entered  into  business 
as  a  musicseller,  and  became  organist,  first,  of 
St.  John's  Church,  and  afterwards  (in  1856)  of 
Horton  Lane  Chapel.  On  Winn's  quitting 
Bradford,  Jackson  succeeded  him  as  conductor  of 
the  Choral  Union  (male  voices  only).  He  was 
chorus-master  at  the  Bradford  festivals  in  1853, 
56  and  59,  and  became  conductor  of  the  Festival 
Choral  Society  on  its  establishment  in  56.  For 
the  festival  of  56  he  again  set  the  103rd  Psalm, 
and  for  that  of  59  composed  'The  Year,'  a 
cantata,  the  words  selected  by  himself  from 
various  poets.  He  compiled  and  partly  composed 
a  set  of  psalm  tunes,  and  harmonised  'The 
Bradford  Time  Book,'  compiled  by  Samuel  Smith. 
Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  he  com- 
posed a  mass,  a  church  service,  anthems,  glees, 
part-songs  and  songs,  and  wrote  a  Manual  of 
Singing,  which  passed  through  many  editions. 
His  last  work  was  a  cantata  entitled  '  The  Praise 
of  Music'  He  died  April  15th,  1866.  His  son, 
William,  born  1853,  was  bred  to  the  profession 
of  music,  became  organist  of  Morningside 
Church,  Edinburgh,  and  died  at  Ripon,  Sept.  10, 
1877.  [W.H.H.] 

JACOB,  Benjamin,  born  in  London  in  1 778, 
was  at  a  very  early  age  taught  the  rudiments  of 
music  by  his  father,  an  amateur  violinist.    When 

7  years  old  he  received  lessons  in  singing  from 
Robert  Willoughby,  a  well-known  chorus-singer, 
and  became  a  chorister  at  Portland  Chapel.     At 

8  years  of  age  he  learned  to  play  on  the  harp- 
sichord, and  afterwards  studied  that  instrument 
and  the  organ  under  William  Shrubsole,  organist 
of  Spa  Fields  Chapel,  and  Matthew  Cooke,  organist 
of  St.  George,  Bloomsbury.  At  10  years  of  age 
he  became  organist  of  Salem  Chapel,  Soho,  and 
little  more  than  a  year  afterwards  was  appointed 
organist  of  Carlisle  Chapel,  Kennington  Lane. 
Towards  the  latter  end  of  1790  he  removed  to 
Bentinck  Chapel,  Lisson  Green,  where  he  re- 
mained until  Dec.  1 794,  when  the  Rev.  Rowland 
Hill  invited  him  to  assume  the  place  of  organist 
at  Surrey  Chapel.  In  1 796  he  studied  harmony 
under  Dr.  Arnold.    In  1800  he  conducted  a  series 


JACQUIN. 

of  oratorios,  given  under  the  direction  of  Bartle- 
man  in  Cross  Street,  Hatton  Garden.  As  he 
advanced  in  years  he  became  more  and  more 
distinguished  as  one  of  the  best  organists  of  his 
time,  and  in  1808  began  a  series  of  perform- 
ances at  Surrey  Chapel,  of  airs,  choruses,  and 
fugues  played  upon  the  organ  alone,  without  any 
interspersion  of  vocal  pieces.  In  that  and  the 
following  year  Samuel  Wesley  addressed  to  him, 
as  to  a  kindred  spirit,  a  remarkable  series  of 
letters  on  the  works  and  genius  of  John  Sebastian 
Bach.  These  letters  were  published  in  1875  by 
Miss  Eliza  Wesley,  the  writer's  daughter;  the 
originals  are  now  in  the  library  of  the  Sacred 
Harmonic  Society.  In  1 809  Jacob  gave  an  organ 
performance  at  Surrey  Chapel  in  conjunction  with 
Wesley,  the  two  playing  alternately  the  fugues 
of  Bach  and  Handel  and  other  pieces.  In  181 1, 
181 2  and  1 81 4  Jacob  repeated  the  performances 
in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Crotch.  As  a  conse- 
quence of  his  high  reputation  he  was  frequently 
engaged  to  open  new  organs  and  to  act  as  judge 
on  trials  for  vacant  organists'  seats. 

In  Nov.  1823  he  quitted  Surrey  Chapel  for  the 
newly-erected  church  of  St.  John,  Waterloo  Road. 
This  led  to  a  dispute  between  him  and  the  Rev. 
Rowland  Hill,  resulting  in  a  paper  war,  in  which 
the  musician  triumphed  over  the  divine.  The 
excitement  of  the  controversy,  however,  proved 
too  much  for  Jacob  ;  he  was  attacked  by  disease, 
which  developed  into  pulmonary  consumption, 
and  terminated  his  existence  Aug.  24,  1829. 
His  compositions  were  not  numerous,  consisting 
principally  of  psalm  tunes  and  a  few  glees.  The 
collection  of  tunes,  with  appropriate  symphonies, 
set  to  a  course  of  psalms,  and  published  under 
the  title  of '  National  Psalmody,'  which  he  edited, 
is  well  known.  [W.  H  .H.j 

JACQUARD,  Leon  Jean,  eminent  violon- 
cellist, born  at  Paris  Nov.  3,  1826;  studied 
at  the  Conservatoire,  where  he  obtained  the  2nd 
prize  for  cello  in  1842,  and  the  1st  prize  in  1844. 
In  1876  he  married  Mile.  Laure  Bedel,  a  pianist 
of  distinction,  and  at  the  end  of  1877  succeeded 
Chevillard  as  professor  of  his  instrument  at  the 
Conservatoire.  Jacquard  is  eminently  a  classical 
player — a  pure  and  noble  style,  good  intonation, 
and  great  correctness :  if  he  has  a  fault  it  is  that 
he  is  somewhat  cold,  but  his  taste  is  always  irre- 
proachable, and  his  seances  of  chamber  music  are 
well  attended  by  the  best  class  of  amateurs.  He 
has  composed  some  Fantasias  for  the  cello,  but  it 
is  as  a  virtuoso  and  a  professor  that  he  will  be 
remembered.  [G.  C] 

JACQUIN,  VON.  A  Viennese  family  with 
which  Mozart  was  on  the  most  intimate  and 
affectionate  terms.  The  father,  Johann  Franz 
Freiherr  von  Jacquin,  was  a  celebrated  botanist, 
whose  house  in  the  botanical  garden  was  the 
great  resort  of  the  most  intellectual  and  artistic 
society  of  Vienna  ;  the  son  Gottfried,  an  accom- 
plished amateur  with  a  fine  bass  voice,  was  a  very 
intimate  friend  of  Mozart's,  and  the  recipient  of 
some  of  his  cleverest  letters ;  and  the  daughter 
Franziska  was  one  of  his  best  pupils  (Letter, 
Jan.  14,  1787).    For  Gottfried  he  wrote  the  air 


JACQUIN. 

'Mentre  ti  lascio'  (Kbchel  513),  and  for  the 
family  more  than  one  charming  little  Canzonet 
for  2  sopranos  and  a  bass,  such  as  'Ecco  quel 
fiero'  or  'Due  pupille  amabili '  (K.  436,  439). 
An  air  of  Gottfried's,  '  Io  ti  lascio '  is  to  this  day 
often  sung  in  concert  rooms  as  Mozart's.  He 
took  part  in  the  funny  scene  which  gave  rise  to 
Mozart's  comic  'Band!  Terzett ' — 'Liebes  Mandl, 
wo  ists  Bandl.'  The  lines  which  Gottfried  wrote 
in  Mozart's  Album — '  True  genius  is  impossible 
without  heart ;  for  no  amount  of  intellect  alone 
or  of  imagination,  no,  nor  of  both  together,  can 
make  genius.  Love,  love,  love  is  the  soul  of 
genius' — characterise  him  as  faithfully  as  those 
of  his  father,  written  in  the  same  book,  do  the 
old  man  of  tact  and  science  s— 
'  Tibi,  qui  posais 

Blandus  auritas  fidibus  canoris 
Ducere  quercus, 
In  amicitise  tesseram.'  TG.l 

JADASSOHN,  Salomon,  born  at  Breslau 
Sept.  15,  1 83 1.  His  years  of  study  were  passed 
partly  at  home  under  Hesse,  Liistner  and  Brosig, 
partly  at  the  Leipzig  Conservatorium  (1848), 
partly  at  Weimar  under  Liszt,  and  again  in 
1853,  at  Leipzig  under  Hauptmann.  Since  that 
time  he  has  resided  in  Leipzig,  first  as  a  teacher, 
then  as  the  conductor  of  the  Euterpe  concerts, 
and  lastly  in  the  Conservatorium  as  teacher  of 
Harmony,  Counterpoint,  Composition,  and  the 
Pianoforte.  His  compositions  are  varied  and 
numerous  (58,  to  May  1879).  Among  the  most 
remarkable  are  Symphony  No."  3,  in  D  (op.  50)  ; 
3  Serenades  for  Orchestra  (ops.  42,  46,  47);  2 
pieces  for  Chorus  and  Orchestra  (ops.  54,  55) ; 
Serenade  (op.  35)  and  Ballet-music  (op.  58), 
each  for  P.  F.  and  each  a  series  of  canons ;  songs, 
duets,  etc.  His  facility  in  counterpoint  is  great, 
and  his  canons  are  both  ingenious  and  effective. 
As  a  private  teacher  Jadassohn  is  highly 
esteemed.  [G.] 

JADIN,  Louis  Emmanuel,  son,  nephew,  and 
brother  of  musicians,  born  Sept.  21,  1768,  at 
Versailles,  where  his  father  Jean,  a  violinist  and 
composer,  settled  at  the  instigation  of  his  brother 
Georges,  a  performer  on  the  bassoon  attached  to 
the  chapelle  of  Louis  XV.  As  a  child  Louis 
showed  great  talent  for  music ;  his  father  taught 
him  the  violin,  and  Hullmandel  the  piano.  After 
being  '  page  de  la  musique '  to  Louis  XVI,  he  was 
in  1 789  appointed  2nd  accompanyist,  and  in  1 791 
chief  maestro  al  cembalo  at  the  Theatre  de  Mon- 
sieur, then  in  the  Rue  Feydeau.  This  post  gave 
him  the  opportunity  of  producing  'Joconde' 
(Sept.  14,  1 790),  a  comic  opera  in  3  acts.  Jadin's 
industry  was  extraordinary.  Though  fully  en- 
gaged as  composer,  conductor,  and  teacher,  he 
lost  no  opportunity  of  appearing  before  the 
public.  He  composed  marches  and  concerted 
pieces  for  the  Garde  Nationale  ;  patriotic  songs 
and  pieces  de  circonstance  such  as  '  Le  Congrls 
des  Rois,'  in  conjunction  with  others,  'L'Apo- 
theose  du  jeune  Barra,'  'Le  Siege  de  Thionville' 
( J  793).  '  Agricol  Viola  ou  le  jeune  heros  de  la 
Durance,'  for  the  various  fetes  of  the  Revolution ; 
and   38   operas  for  the   Italiens,  the  Theatres 


JAHXS. 


2» 


Moliere  and  Louvois,  the  Varietes,  the  Academie, 
and  chiefly  the  Feydeau.  Of  this  mass  of  music, 
however,  nothing  survives  but  the  titles  of 
'Joconde'  and  'Mahomet  II'  (1803)  familiar 
to  us  from  the  operas  of  Isouard  and  Rossini. 
This  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  Jadin  was 
without  talent,  but  like  many  others  his  librettos 
were  bad,  and  his  music,  though  well  written, 
was  wanting  in  dramatic  spirit,  and  in  the  style, 
life,  passion  and  originality  necessary  for  success. 
In  fact  his  one  quality  was  facility. 

In  1802  he  succeeded  his  brother  as  professor 
of  the  pianoforte  at  the  Conservatoire,  and  was 
'  Gouverneur  des  pages '  of  the  royal  chapel  from 
the  Restoration  to  the  Revolution  of  1830.  He 
received  the  Legion  of  Honour  in  1824.  To  the 
close  of  his  life  he  continued  to  produce  romances, 
nocturnes,  trios  and  quartets,  string  quintets,  and 
other  chamber-music.  Of  his  orchestral  works, 
'  La  Bataille  d'  Austerlitz '  is  the  best  known.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  to  compose  for  two  pianos, 
and  was  noted  as  the  best  accompanyist  of  his 
day.  In  private  life  he  was  a  good  talker,  and 
fond  of  a  joke.    He  died  in  Paris,  April  n,  1853. 

His  brother  Hyacinthe,  born  at  Versailles 
1769,  a  pupil  of  Hullmandel's,  and  a  brilliant 
and  charming  pianist,  played  at  the  Concerts 
Feydeau  in  1796-97,  and  was  a  favourite  with 
the  public  up  to  his  early  death  in  1802.  On 
the  foundation  of  the  Conservatoire  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  the  pianoforte,  but  had 
barely  time  to  form  pupils,  and  both  Louis  Adam 
and  Boieldieu  excelled  him  as  teachers.  He 
composed  much  both  for  his  instrument  and 
the  chamber  ;  4  concertos  and  sonatas  for  2  and 
4  hands  for  P.  F. ;  sonatas  for  P.  F.  and  violin  ; 
string  trios  and  quartets,  etc. ;  all  now  old- 
fashioned  and  forgotten.  [G.C.] 

JAHNS,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  born  at  Berlin 
Jan.  2,  1809.  His  talent  for  music  showed  it- 
self early,  and  strongly ;  but  the  first  important 
event  in  his  musical  life  was  the  first  performance 
of  Freischfltz  (June  18,  1821),  which  not  only 
aroused  his  enthusiasm  for  music,  but  made  him 
an  adherent  of  Weber  for  ever.  After  some  hesi- 
tation between  the  theatre  and  the  concert-room, 
he  finally  chose  the  latter,  and  became  a  singer 
and  teacher  of  singing,  in  which  capacity  he  was 
much  sought  for.  In  1845  he  founded  a  singing 
society,  which  he  led  for  25  years.  In  1849  he 
was  made  'Konigliche  Musikdirector ' ;  in  1871 
'Professor';  and  has  since  been  decorated  with 
the  orders  of  Baden,  Saxony,  Bavaria,  and  Han- 
over. He  has  composed  and  arranged  much  for 
the  piano,  but  the  work  by  which  he  will  live 
for  posterity  is  his  Thematic  Catalogue  of  Weber's 
works  ('CM.  vonW.  in  Beinen  Werken,'  1871), 
founded  on  Kochel's  Catalogue  of  Mozart,  but 
much  extended  in  limits  beyond  that  excellent 
work.  It  is  in  fact  a  repertory  of  all  that  concerns 
the  material  part  of  those  compositions,  including 
elaborate  information  on  the  MSS.,  editions,  per- 
formances, Weber's  handwriting,  etc.  etc. — a  large 
vol.  of  500  pages.  The  library  which  he  formed 
in  the  course  of  this  work,  is  one  of  the  sights  of 
Berlin.  [G.] 


30 


JAELL. 


JAELL,  Alfred,  pianoforte  player,  born 
March  5,  1832,  at  Trieste.  Began  his  career  at 
1 1  years  old  as  a  prodigy,  and  seems  to  have  ac- 
quired his  great  skill  by  constant  performance  in 
public.  In  1844  he  was  brought  to  Moscheles 
at  Vienna,  who  calls  him  a  Wunderknabe.  In 
1845  and  6  he  resided  in  Brussels,  next  in  Paris, 
and  then,  after  the  Revolution  of  1848,  went  to 
America  for  some  years.  In  1 854  he  returned  to 
Europe.  In  1862  he  played  at  the  Musical 
Union,  and  on  June  25, 1 866,  at  the  Philharmonic 
Society;  and  since  that  date  has  divided  his  time 
between  the  Continent  and  England. 

In  1866  Mr.  Jaell  married  Miss  Trautmann,  a 
pianist  of  ability.  His  published  works  consist  of 
transcriptions,  potpourris,  and  other  salon  pieces. 
He  has  always  shown  himself  anxious  to  bring 
forward  new  compositions ;  and  played  the  con- 
certos of  Brahms  and  of  Raff  at  the  Philharmonic, 
at  a  time  when  they  were  unknown  to  that 
audience.  [G.] 

JAHN,  Otto,  the  biographer  of  Mozart,  a  dis- 
tinguished philologist,  archaeologist,  and  writer  on 
art  and  music,  born  June  1 6, 1 8 1 3,  at  Kiel ;  studied 
at  Kiel,  Leipzig,  and  Berlin,  took  his  degree  in 
1 83 1,  visited  Copenhagen,  Paris,  Switzerland  and 
Italy,  in  39  settled  in  Kiel,  in  42  became  professor 
of  archaeology  and  philology  at  Greifswalde,  and  in 
47  director  of  the  archaeological  Museum  at  Leip- 
zig, was  dismissed  for  political  reasons  during 
the  troubles  of  1 848-49,  and  in  55  settled  at  Bonn 
as  professor  of  classical  philology  and  archaeology, 
and  director  of  the  university  art-museum. 
Here  he  remained  till  1869,  when  he  retired 
during  his  last  illness  to  Gottingen,  and  died 
on  Sept.  9.  Jahn  wrote  important  books  on 
all  the  subjects  of  which  he  was  master,  but 
his  musical  works  alone  concern  us.  Foremost 
among  these  is  his  'W.  A.  Mozart'  (Leipzig, 
Breitkopf  &  Hartel,  4  vols,  1856-59,  2nd  ed. 
2  vols,  1867,  with  portraits  and  facsimiles).  His 
picture  of  the  great  composer  is  scarcely  less 
interesting  and  valuable  than  his  description  of 
the  state  of  music  during  the  period  immediately 
preceding  Mozart,  while  the  new  facts  pro- 
duced, the  new  light  thrown  on  old  ones,  and  the 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject  evinced 
throughout,  all  combine  to  place  the  work  at  the 
head  of  musical  biographies.1 

Jahn  intended  to  treat  Haydn  and  Beethoven 
on  the  same  scale,  and  had  begun  to  collect 
materials,  but  these  projects  were  stopped  by  his 
death*.  Jahn  also  published  an  essay  on  Men- 
delssohn's 'Paulus'  (Kiel  1842);  and  an  accu- 
rate comparative  edition,  with  preface,  of  Beetho- 
ven's 'Leonore'  (Fidelio)  for  P.F.  (B.  &  H. 
Leipzig  1 851).  For  the  'Grenzboten'  he  wrote 
two  spirited  reports  of  the  Lower  Rhine  Musical 

1  For  the  English  reader  this  admirable  book  suffers  from  the  fre- 
quent Interpolation  of  long  digressions  on  the  rise  and  progress  of 
various  sections  of  music,  which,  though  most  valuable  In  themselves, 
interrupt  the  narrative  and  would  be  more  conveniently  placed  in  an 
Appendix.    Its  Index  also  leaves  much  to  be  desired.  [o.] 

J  The  materials  collected  for  Haydn  went  to  Herr  C.  F.  Pohl,  and 
those  for  Beethoven  to  Mr.  Thayer,  and  are  being  employed  by  those 
writers  in  their  biographies  of  the  two  composers.  Mr.  Pohl  was  desig- 
nated by  Jahu  as  his  successor  in  the  biography  of  llajdn.  [a.] 


JANIEWICZ. 

Festivals  of  1855-56 ;  an  article  on  the  complete 
edition  of  Beethoven's  works,  full  of  sound  cri- 
ticism and  biographical  information ;  and  two 
controversial  articles  on  Berlioz  and  Wagner. 
These  and  other  contributions  of  the  same  kind 
were  published  as  '  Gesammelte  Aufsatze  iiber 
Musik'  (Leipzig  1868).  His  four  collections  of 
original  songs  (3  and  4  from  G  roth's  '  Quickborn,1 
Breitkopf  &  Hartel),  also  evince  the  possession 
of  that  remarkable  combination  of  a  highly  culti- 
vated sense  of  beauty  with  scientific  attainments, 
which  places  him  in  the  first  rank  among  writers  on 
music.  Kochel's  Catalogue  of  Mozart  is  with  great 
appropriateness  dedicated  to  Jahn.  [C.F.P.] 

JAHRBUCHER  FUR  MUSIKALISCHE 
W1SSENCHAFT— '  Year-books  of  musical 
science.'  A  publication  due  to  the  remarkable 
energy  and  interest  of  Dr.  Chrysandtr,  by  whom 
it  is  edited  and  published,  through  Breitkopf  & 
Hartel.  Two  volumes  have  appeared.  For  pains 
and  ability  the  papers  leave  nothing  to  be  de- 
sired, but  the  severe  polemic  spirit  which  is  occa- 
sionally manifested  is  much  to  be  regretted. 

I.  1863.  1.  Sound,  and  2.  Tern- j  maun  Bach  In  Halle  (235-248).  11. 
perament,  both    by   Hauptmann  Mendelssohn's  Organ-part  to  1s- 


(17-54).  3.  Tinctor's  'Diffini- 
torium,'  by  H.  Bellermann  (55- 
U4).  4.  The  Llmburg  Chronicle, 
and  German  Volksgesang  In  14th 
cent.  (115-146).  5.  The  Bruns- 
wick-Wolfenbllttel  Band  and 
Opera,  16th-18th  cent.  (147-286). 
6.  Henry  Carey  and  God  save  the 
King  (287-407).  7.  Handel's  Organ- 
part  to  Saul  (408-428).  8.  Beetho- 
ven's connection  with  Birchail  and 
Stumpf  (429-452). 

II.  1867.  9.  '  DasLochelmerLie- 
derbuch.nebst  der  ArsOrganlsandl, 
von  Conrad  Paumann  '—a  descrip- 
tion and  complete  analysis  of  a 
German  MS.  collection  of  songs  of 
the  15th  cent.,  and  a  MS.  book  of 
organ  pieces  of  the  same  date,  with 
facsimiles,  woodcuts,  and  very  nu- 
merous examples— In  all  234  pages, 
by  F.  W.  Arnold  and  H.  Beller- 
mann.   10.  J.  S.  Bach  and  Friede- 


rael  in  Egypt  (249-267).  12.  lie- 
views  :—Keissmann's  General  His- 
tory of  Music  (268-300) ;  Westphal's 
Rhythm  and  History  of  Greek 
Music  (300-310):  Coussemaker's 
'  Scriptorum  de  Musica . . .  novam 
seriem'  and  'L'art  harmonlque' 
(310-314);  Wackernagel  on  the 
German  '  Klrchenlied '  (314-323); 
Hommel's '  Gelstllche  Volkslieder ' 
(323-324);  Rlegel's  Liturgical  Mu- 
sic (324-327) ;  Liliencron's  Historical 
Volkslieder  (327-329);  Thayer's 
Chronological  List  of  Beethoven's 
Works  (329-330);  Bitter's  Life  of 
J.  8.  Bach  (330-333);  Rudhart's 
History  of  the  Opera  at  Munich 
(333-335) :  Koch's  Musical  Lexicon, 
edited  by  Dommer  (335);  KrOger'i 
System  of  Music  (336).  13.  List  of 
the  Choral  Societies  and  Concert 
Institutions  of  German*  and  Switz- 
erland (337-374).  TQ 1 


JAMES,  John,  an  organist  in  the  first  half 
of  the  1 8th  century,  noted  for  his  skill  in  extem- 
poraneousperformance.  Afterofficiatingforseveral 
years  as  a  deputy  he  obtained  the  post  of  organ- 
ist of  St.  Olave,  Southwark,  which  he  resigned  in 
1738  for  that  of  St.  George  in  the  East,  Mid- 
dlesex. He  died  in  1745.  His  published  com- 
positions consist  of  a  few  songs  and  organ  pieces 
only.  [W.H.H.] 

JAMES,  W.  N.,  a  flautist,  pupil  of  Charles 
Nicholson,  was  author  of  a  work  entitled  *A 
Word  or  two  on  the  Flute,'  published  in  1826,  in 
which  he  treats  of  the  various  kinds  of  flutes,  an- 
cient and  modern,  their  particular  qualities,  etc., 
and  gives  critical  notices  of  the  style  of  pla3'ing 
of  the  most  eminent  English  and  foreign  per- 
formers on  the  instrument.  [W.H.H.] 

JANIEWICZ,1  Felix,  violinist,  a  Polish  gen- 
tleman, born  at  Wilna  1762.  He  went  to 
Vienna  in  1 784  or  5  to  see  Haydn  and  Mozart, 
and  hear  their  works  conducted  by  themselves. 

1  As  the  letter  J  In  Polish  has  the  sound  of  I  or  V,  he  altered  the 
spelling  of  his  name  to  Yaulewicz,  in  order  that  in  England  it  might 
be  pronounced  correctly. 


JANIEWICZ. 

He  had  nearly  made  arrangements  to  study 
composition  under  Haydn,  when  a  Polish  prin- 
cess offered  to  take  him  to  Italy  ;  and  he  availed 
himself  of  her  protection  in  order  to  hear  the 
best  violinists  of  the  period,  such  as  Nardini, 
Pugnani  and  others,  as  well  as  the  best  singers. 
After  3  years  in  Italy  he  went  to  Paris,  and 
appeared  at  the  Concerts  Spirituels  and  Olym- 
piens.  Madame  de  Genlis  procured  him  a  pension 
from  the  Due  d'Orleans  as  a  musician  on  the 
establishment  of  Mademoiselle  d'Orleans,  but 
on  the  reduction  of  the  expenses  of  the  Duke's 
court  in  1790  he  left  Paris.  In  1792  he  came 
to  London,  and  made  his  de"but  in  February 
at  Salomon's  Concerts.  He  also  appeared  at 
Rauzzini's  Bath  concerts,  visited  Ireland  Beveral 
times,  and  for  many  years  conducted  the  sub- 
scription concerts  at  Liverpool  and  Manchester. 
In  1800  he  married  Miss  Breeze,  a  Liverpool 
lady.  He  was  one  of  the  30  members  who 
originally  formed  the  London  Philharmonic  So- 
ciety, and  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  orchestra 
in  its  first  season.  In  18 15  he  settled  in  Edin- 
burgh, took  leave  of  the  public  at  a  farewell 
concert  in  1829,  and  died  in  that  city  in  1848. 

His  style  was  pure,  warm,  and  full  of  feeling, 
with  that  great  execution  in  octaves  which  La 
Motte  first  introduced  into  England.  Besides 
this,  he  was  an  excellent  conductor.  Parke  in 
his  Musical  Memoirs,  and  6.  F.  Graham  in  his 
account  of  the  Edinburgh  Musical  Festival  in 
1815,  speak  of  the  elegant  and  finished  execution 
of  his  Concertos.  Some  of  these  were  published 
in  Paris ;  but  he  considered  his  best  work  to  be 
a  set  of  3  Trios  for  2  Violins  and  Bass,  published 
in  London.  [V.  de  P.] 

JANITSCHAREN,  i.  e.  Janissaries.  A  term 
used  by  the  Germans  for  what  they  also  call 
Turkish  music — the  triangle,  cymbals,  and  big 
drum  (see  Nos.  3  and  7  of  the  Finale  of  the 
Choral  Symphony).  The  Janissaries  were  abol- 
ished in  1825.  Their  band  is  said  to  have  con- 
tained 2  large  and  3  small  oboes  and  1  piccolo 
flute,  all  of  very  shrill  character;  1  large  and 
2  small  kettle-drums,  1  big  and  3  small  long 
drums,  3  cymbals,  and  2  triangles.  [G.] 

JANNACONI  or  JANACCONI,  Giuseppe, 
born,  probably  in  Rome,  1741,  learnt  music  and 
singing  from  Rinaldini,  G.  Carpani  and  Pisari, 
under  whom,  and  through  the  special  study  of 
Palestrina,  he  perfected  himself  in  the  methods 
and  traditions  of  the  Roman  Bchool.  In  181 1, 
on  the  retirement  of  Zingarelli,  he  became  Maes- 
tro di  Capella  at  S.  Peter's,  a  post  which  he  held 
during  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  died  from  the 
effects  of  an  apoplectic  stroke,  March  16, 1816, 
and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  S.  Simone  e 
Giuda.  A  Requiem  by  his  scholar  Basili  was 
sung  for  him  on  the  23rd.  Baini  was  his  pupil 
from  1802,  and  the  friendship  thus  begun  lasted  till 
the  day  of  his  death.  Baini  closed  his  eyes,  and  all 
that  we  know  of  Janacconi  is  from  his  affectionate 
remembrance  as  embodied  in  his  great  work  on 
Palestrina. — It  is  strange  that  one  who  is  said 
to  have  been  so  highly  esteemed  at  home  should 
be  so  liUle  known  abroad.     His  name  does  not 


JANNEQUIN. 


31 


appear  in  the  Catalogue  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic 
Society,  or  the  Euing  Library,  Glasgow,  and 
the  only  published  piece  of  music  by  him  which 
the  writer  has  been  able  to  find  is  a  motet 
in  the  2nd  part  of  Mr.  Hullah's  Part  Music, 
•The  voice  of  joy  and  health,'  adapted  from 
a  '  Laetamini  in  Domino,'  the  autograph  of 
which,  with  that  of  a  Kyrie  for  2  choirs,  formed 
part  of  the  excellent  Library  founded  by  Mr. 
Hullah  for  the  use  of  his  classes  at  St.  Martin's 
Hall.  This  motet  may  not  be  more  original  than 
the  words  to  which  it  is  set,  but  it  is  full  of 
spirit,  and  vocal  to  the  last  degree.  Janacconi 
was  a  voluminous  writer ;  especially  was  he  noted 
for  his  works  for  2,  3  and  4  choirs.  The  catalogue 
of  the  Landsberg  Library  at  Rome  does  not 
exhibit  his  name,  but  Santini's  collection  of 
MSS.  contained  a  mass  and  4  other  pieces,  for 
4  voices ;  14  masses,  varying  from  8  to  2  voices, 
some  with  instruments  ;  42  psalms,  and  a  quan- 
tity of  motets  and  other  pieces  for  service, 
some  with  accompaniment,  some  without,  and  for 
various  numbers  of  voices.  A  MS.  volume  of  6 
masses  and  a  psalm  forms  No.  181 1  in  the  Fe"tis 
library  at  Brussels ;  the  other  pieces  named  at 
the  foot  of  Fe"tis's  article  in  the  Biographie  seem 
to  have  disappeared.  [G.] 

JANNEQUIN,  Clement,  composer  of  the 
1 6th  century,  by  tradition  a  Frenchman,  and  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  followers,  if  not  actually 
a  pupil,  of  Josquin  Despres.  There  is  no  musician 
of  the  time  of  whose  life  we  know  less.  No 
mention  is  made  of  his  holding  any  court  ap- 
pointment or  of  his  being  connected  with  any 
church.  We  may  perhaps  guess  that,  like  many 
other  artists,  he  went  in  early  life  to  Rome,  and 
was  attached  to  the  Papal  Chapel ;  for  some  of  his 
MS.  masses  are  said  to  be  still  preserved  there, 
while  they  are  unknown  elsewhere.  But  he 
must  soon  have  abandoned  writing  for  the  church, 
for  among  his  published  works  two  masses, 
'  L'aveugle  Dieu '  and '  La  Bataille,'  and  a  single 
motet '  Congregati  sunt,'  seem  almost  nothing  by 
the  side  of  more  than  200  secular  compositions. 
Later  in  life,  it  is  true,  he  writes  again  with 
sacred  words,  but  in  a  far  different  style,  setting 
to  music  82  psalms  of  David,  and 'The  Proverbs 
of  Solomon'  (sdon  la  veriU  Hebraique),  leading 
us  to  conjecture  that  he  may  have  become,  like 
Goudimel,  a  convert  to  the  reformed  church,  as 
F^tis  thinks,  or  that  he  had  never  been  a  Chris- 
tian at  all,  but  was  of  Jewish  origin  and  had 
only  written  a  few  masses  as  the  inevitable  trials 
of  his  contrapuntal  skill.  But  apart  from  these 
vague  speculations,  it  is  certain  that  Jannequin 
trod  a  very  different  path  from  his  contempora- 
ries. Practically  confining  himself  to  secular 
music,  he  exhibited  great  originality  in  the  choice 
and  treatment  of  his  subjects.  He  was  the  fol- 
lower of  Gombert  in  the  art  of  writing  descriptive 
music,  and  made  it  his  speciality.  Among  his 
works  of  this  class  are  *  La  Bataille,'  written  to 
commemorate  and  describe  the  battle  of  Marig- 
nan,  fought  between  the  French  and  Swiss  in 
151 5,  to  which  composition  Burney  has  directed 
particular  attention  in  his  History,  and  which  he 


32  JANNEQUIN. 

has  copied  in  his  Musical  Extracts  (Brit.  Mus. 
Add.  MSS.  11,588),  'Le  chant  des  Oyseaux,'  'Le 
caquet  des  Femmes,'  'La  chasse  de  lie"vre,  Le 
chant  du  Rossignol,'  and  one  containing  imita- 
tions of  the  street  cries  of  Paris — '  Voulez  ouyr 
les  cris  de  Paris.'  To  those  who  would  know  how 
far  it  may  be  possible  to  reproduce  these  com- 
positions at  the  present  day,  it  will  be  a  fact  of 
interest  that  the  first  three  of  them  were  sung  in 
Paris  in  1828  under  the  direction  of  M.  Choron 
and  '  produced  a  surprising  effect.'  The  Bataille 
was  sung  by  pupils  of  the  Conservatoire  in  a 
course  of  historical  lectures  by  M.  Bourgault 
Ducoudray,  Dec.  26,  1878. 

A  second  edition  of  some  of  Jannequin's  works 
was  published  in  Paris  (according  to  Fe"tis)  in 
the  year  1559,  and  the  composer  must  have  been 
living  at  that  time,  for  they  were  'reveuz  et 
corrigez  par  lui  meme.' 

In  the  tame  year,  according  to  the  same 
authority,  Jannequin  published  his  music  to 
82  psalms,  with  a  dedication  to  the  Queen 
of  France,  in  which  he  speaks  of  his  poverty 
and  age.  Old  indeed  he  must  have  been,  for 
the  year  after,  1560,  Ronsard  the  poet,  an 
amateur  of  music  and  intimately  connected  with 
the  musicians  of  his  time,  in  writing  a  preface 
for  a  book  of  chansons  published  by  Le  Boy 
&  Ballard  at  Paris,  speaks  of  Jannequin  with 
reverence  enough  as  one  of  Josquin's  celebrated 
disciples,  but  evidently  regards  him  as  a  com- 
poser of  a  bygone  age.  [J.R.S.-B.] 

JANOTHA,  Natalie,  born  at  "Warsaw ;  first 
appeared  there  when  nine  years  old ;  studied  at 
the  Berlin  Hochschule  under  Rudorff  and  Bar- 
giel,  and  with  Franz  Weber  at  Cologne.  Also 
for  several  years  with  Madame  Schumann,  whose 
first  pupil  she  was  to  appear  in  public.  In 
London  she  played  at  Philharmonic,  Popular 
Concerts,  Crystal  Palace,  &c. ;  in  Leipzig  at 
the  Gewandhaus,  and  was  made  Court  Pianist 
to  Emperor  Wilhelm  I.  Among  her  compo- 
sitions are  nine  'mountain  scenes'  for  P.  F. ; 
a  *  court  gavotte '  dedicated  to  Q.  Victoria ; 
an  'Ave  Maria' composed  for  Pope  Leo  XHIth's 
jubilee,  and  dedicated  to  him.  Miss  Janotha 
holds  the  highest  diploma  of  the  Academy  of 
S.  Cecilia  at  Rome.  [q.  ] 

JANSA,  Leopold,  violinist  and  composer, 
was  born  in  1797  at  Wildenschwert  in  Bohemia. 
Though  playing  the  violin  from  his  childhood, 
he  entered  the  University  of  Vienna  in  181 7 
to  study  law  according  to  the  wish  of  his 
father,  but  very  soon  gave  up  the  law  and 
devoted  himself  to  music.  After  a  few  years 
he  appeared  successfully  as  a  violinist  in 
public;  in  1824  became  member  of  the  Im- 
perial Band,  and  in  1834  Conductor  of  Music 
at  the  University  of  Vienna.  Jansa,  though 
a  good  player  and  sound  musician  was  not 
a  great  virtuoso.  In  1849  he  lost  hi3  appoint- 
ment in  Vienna  for  having  assisted  at  a  concert 
in  London  for  the  benefit  of  the  Hungarian 
Refugees.  He  then  remained  in  London  and 
gained  a  good  position  as  teacher.  He  died 
at  Vienna  in  1 875. 


JEBB. 

The  most  eminent  of  his  pupils  is  Madame 
Norman-Neruda.  Jansa  published  a  consider- 
able number  of  works  for  the  violin : — 4  con- 
certos ;  a  concertante  for  2  violins ;  Violin 
Duets;  8  string-Quartets,  etc. — all  written  in 
a  fluent  musicianlike  style,  but  with  no  claim 
to  originality.  His  duets  are  much  valued  by 
all  violin- teachers.  [P.  D .  ] 

JARNOWICK — whose  real  name,  as  he  wrote 
it  in  Clement's  Album,  was  Giovanni  Marie 
Giornovichj,  though  commonly  given  as  above — 
was  one  of  the  eminent  violin-players  of  the  last 
century;  born  at  Palermo  1745,  and  a  scholar 
of  the  famous  Lolli.  He  made  his  debut  in 
Paris  in  1770  at  one  of  the  Concerts  Spirituels, 
and  for  some  years  was  all  the  rage  in  that 
capital.  Owing  to  some  misbehaviour  he  left 
Paris  in  1779  and  entered  the  band  of  the  King 
of  Prussia,  but  his  disputes  with  Duport  drove 
him  thence  in  1783.  He  then  visited  Austria, 
Poland,  Russia,  and  Sweden,  and  in  179 1  arrived 
in  London,  where  he  gave  his  first  concert  on 
May  4.  He  had  great  success  here,  both  as 
player  and  conductor.  His  insolence  and  conceit 
seem  to  have  been  unbounded,  and  to  have 
brought  him  into  disastrous  collision  with  Viotti, 
a  far  greater  artist  than  himself,  and  with  J.  B. 
Cramer — who  went  the  length  of  calling  him 
out,  a  challenge  which  Jarnowick  would  not 
accept — and  even  led  him  to  some  gross  mis- 
conduct in  the  presence  of  the  King  and  Duke  of 
York.  He  died  in  Petersburg  in  1804 — it  is  said 
during  a  game  of  billiards.  From  the  testimony 
of  Kelly,  Dittersdorf,  and  other  musicians,  it  is 
not  difficult  to  gather  the  characteristics  of 
Jarnowick's  playing.  His  tone  was  fine,  though 
not  strong ;  he  played  with  accuracy  and  finish, 
and  always  well  in  tune.  His  bow-hand  was 
light,  and  there  was  a  grace  and  spirit  about 
the  whole  performance,  and  an  absence  of  effort, 
which  put  the  hearer  quite  at  ease.  These 
qualities  are  not  the  highest,  but  they  are  highly 
desirable,  and  they  seem  to  have  been  possessed 
in  large  measure  by  Jarnowick.  In  mind  and 
morals  he  was  a  true  pupil  of  Lolli.  [G.] 

JAY,  John,  Mus.  Doc,  born  in  Essex,  Nov. 
27,  1770,  after  receiving  rudimentary  instruction 
from  John  Hindmarsh,  violinist,  and  Francis 
Phillips,  violoncellist,  was  sent  to  the  continent 
to  complete  his  education.  He  became  an  ex- 
cellent violinist.  He  returned  to  England  in 
1 800,  settled  in  London,  and  established  himself 
as  a  teacher.  He  graduated  as  Mus.  Bac.  at 
Oxford  in  1809,  and  Mus.  Doc.  at  Cambridge 
in  1 81 1,  and  was  an  honorary  member  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music.  He  published  several 
compositions  for  the  pianoforte.  His  eldest 
daughter  was  a  harpist  and  his  second  a  pianist. 
His  son,  John,  is  a  good  violinist.  Dr.  Jay  died 
in  London,  Sept.  17,  1849.  [W.H.H.] 

JEAN  DE  PARIS.  Operacomique  in  2 
acts ;  music  by  Boieldieu.  Produced  at  the 
Theatre  Feydeau  April  4,  181 2.  [G.] 

JEBB,  Rev.  John,  D.  D.,  formerly  Preben- 
dary in  Limerick  Cathedral,  now  Canon  of  Here- 


JEBB. 

ford  and  Rector  of  Peterstow,  Herefordshire, 
an  able  writer  on  choral  service.  His  works  in- 
clude 'Three  Lectures  on  the  Cathedral  Service 
of  the  United  Church  of  England  and  Ireland,' 
delivered  at  Leeds  in  1841  and  published  in 
that  year ;  '  The  Choral  Service  of  the  United 
Ohurch  of  England  and  Ireland,  being  an  In- 
quiry into  the  Liturgical  System  of  the  Cathe- 
dral and  Collegiate  foundations  of  the  Anglican 
Communion,'  8vo.  1843  ;  'The  Choral  Responses 
and  Litanies  of  the  United  Church  of  England 
and  Ireland,'  2  vols.  fol.  1847-57  (an  inter- 
esting and  valuable  collection) ;  and  '  Catalogue 
of  Ancient  Choir  Books  at  St.  Peter's  College, 
Cambridge.'  He  edited  Thos.  Caustun's  '  "Venite 
exultemus  and  Communion  Service.'    [W.H.H.] 

JEFFRIES,  George,  steward  to  Lord  Hatton, 
of  Kirby,  Northamptonshire  (where  he  had  lands 
of  his  own),  and  organist  to  Charles  I.  at  Oxford 
in  1643,  composed  many  anthems  and  motets, 
both  English  and  Latin,  still  extant  in  MS. 
Several  are  in  the  Aldrich  collection  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  and  nearly  one  hundred — eighty 
of  them  in  the  composer's  autograph — are  in 
the  library  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society.  His 
son  Christopher,  student  of  Christ  Church,  was 
a  good  organist.  [W.H.H.] 

JEFFRIES,  Stephen,  born  1660,  was  a  chor- 
ister of  Salisbury  Cathedral  under  Michael  Wise. 
In  1680  he  was  appointed  organist,  of  Gloucester 
Cathedral.  He  composed  a  peculiar  melody  for 
the  cathedral  chimes,  printed  in  Hawkins'  His- 
tory, chap.  160.  He  died  in  1 71 2.        [W.H.H.] 

JEITTELES,  Alois.     [See  Liederkreis.] 

JENKINS,  John,  born  at  Maidstone  in  1592, 
became  a  musician  in  early  life.  He  was 
patronised  by  two  Norfolk  gentlemen,  Dering 
and  Hamon  L'Estrange,  and  resided  in  the 
family  of  the  latter  for  a  great  portion  of  his  life. 
He  was  a  performer  on  the  lute  and  lyra-viol 
and  other  bowed  instruments,  and  one  of  the 
musicians  to  Charles  I  and  Charles  II.  He  was 
a  voluminous  composer  of  Fancies,  some  for 
viols  and  others  for  the  organ ;  he  also  produced 
some  light  pieces  which  he  called  '  Rants.'  Of 
these  'The  Mitter  Rant,'  an  especial  favourite, 
was  printed  in  Playford's  'Mustek's  Hand- 
maid,' 1678,  and  other  publications  of  the  period. 
Two  others  by  him,  '  The  Fleece  Tavern  Rant,' 
and  '  The  Peterborough  Rant,'  are  in  Playford's 
'Apollo's  Banquet,'  1690.  Another  popular 
piece  by  him  was  '  The  Lady  Katherine  Audley's 
Bells,  or,  The  Five  Bell  Consort,'  first  printed  in 
Playford's  'Courtly  Masquing  Ayres,'  1662. 
His  vocal  compositions  comprise  an  Elegy  on  the 
death  of  William  Lawes,  printed  at  the  end  of 
Hand  W.  Lawes' '  Choice  Psalms,'  1 648  ;  '  Theo- 
phila,  or,  Love's  Sacrifice;  a  Divine  Poem  by 
E[dward]  B[enlowe]  Esq.,  several  parts  thereof 
set  to  fit  aires  by  Mr.  J.  Jenkins,'  1652;  two 
rounds,  '  A  boat,  a  boat,'  and  '  Come,  pretty 
maidens,'  in  Hilton's  'Catch  that  catch  can,' 
1652  ;  some  songs  etc.  in  'Select  Ayres  and  Dia- 
logues,' 1659;  and  'The  Musical  Companion,' 
1672  ;  and  some  anthems.  He  published  in  1660 
VOL.  11. 


JEPHTHAH.  33 

'  Twelve  Sonatas  for  two  Violins  and  a  Base  with 
a  Thorough  Base  for  the  Organ  or  Theorbo' 
(reprinted  at  Amsterdam,  1664),  the  first  of  the 
kind  produced  by  an  Englishman.  His  numerous 
'  Fancies '  were  never  printed.  Many  MS.  copies 
of  them  however  exist,  a  large  number  being  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxford.  J.  S.  Smith  included 
many  of  Jenkins's  compositions  (amongst  them 
'  The  Mitter  Rant'  and  '  Lady  Audley's  Bells') 
in  his '  Musica  Antiqua.'  Jenkins  resided  during 
the  latter  years  of  his  life  in  the  family  of  Sir 
Philip  Wodehouse,  Bart.,  at  Kimberley,  Norfolk, 
where  he  died  Oct.  27,  1678.  He  was  buried 
Oct.  29  in  Kimberley  Church.  [W.H.H.] 

JENNY  BELL,  an  opera  comique  in  3  acts ; 
words  by  Scribe,  music  by  Auber.  Produced  at 
the  Opera  Comique  June  2,  1855.  T^e  scene 
is  laid  in  England  and  the  characters  are  English, 
and  the  airs  of  God  save  the  King  and  Rule 
Britannia  are  introduced.  [G.] 

JENSEN,  Adolph,  composer,  born  Jan.  12, 
1837,  at  Kbnigsberg,  was  a  pupil  of  Ehlert  and 
F.  Marpurg.  In  1856  he  visited  Russia,  but 
returned  the  next  year  to  Germany,  and  was  for 
a  short  time  Capellmeister  at  Posen.  He  then 
paid  a  two  years  visit  to  Copenhagen,  where  he 
became  intimate  with  Gade.  i860  to  66  were 
spent  in  his  native  place,  and  to  this  time  a 
large  proportion  of  his  works  (op.  6-33)  are 
due.  From  1866  to  68  he  was  attached  to 
Tausig's  school  as  teacher  of  the  piano,  and 
since  that  time  resided  on  account  of  his  health 
at  Gratz  and  other  places  in  South  Germany. 
He  died  at  Baden  Baden,  Jan.  24,  1879. 

Jensen  was  an  enthusiast  for  Schumann,  and 
for  some  months  before  Schumann's  death  was 
in  close  correspondence  with  him.  He  has  pub- 
lished various  pieces,  620pp.  in  all — 'The  Journey 
to  Emmaus,'  for  Orchestra ;  '  Nonnengesang,'  for 
Women's  Chorus,  Horn,  Harp,  and  Piano  ;  two 
Liedercyclus,  '  Dolorosa '  and  '  Erotikon ' ;  and 
many  other  songs ;  Sonatas  and  smaller  pieces  for 
Piano,  which  take  high  rank  in  his  own  country, 
and  are  much  beloved  by  those  who  know  them 
here.  His  genius  is  essentially  that  of  a  song- 
writer— full  of  delicate  tender  feeling,  but  with 
no  great  heights  or  depths.  [G.] 

JEPHTHA.  I.  Handel's  last  oratorio.  His 
blindness  came  on  during  its  composition  and  de- 
layed it.  It  was  begun  Jan.  2 1 ,  and  finished  Aug. 
30,1751.  The  words  were  by  Dr.  Morell.  Pro- 
duced at  Covent  Garden  Feb.  26,1752.  Revived 
by  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society  April  7,  1841. 
[Quaver,  iv.  766k]  2.  '  Jefte  in  Masfa'  (Jeph- 
thah  at  Mizpeh)  was  the  title  of  a  short  oratorio 
by  Semplice,  set  by  Barthelemon  at  Florence  in 
1776 ;  performed  there,  in  Rome — where  a  chorus 
from  it  even  penetrated  to  the  Pope's  chapel, 
and  procured  the  composer  two  gold  medals — and 
in  London  in  1 7  79  and  82 .  A  copy  of  it  is  in  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society's  Library.  3.  Jephtha 
and  his  Daughter.  An  oratorio  in  2  parts ;  the 
words  adapted  from  the  Bible,  the  music  by  C. 
Reinthaler.  Produced  in  England  by  Mr.  Hullah 
at  St.  Martin's  Hall  April  16,  1856.  [G.] 


34 


JERUSALEM. 


JERUSALEM  I.  Grand  opera  in  4  acts; 
music  by  Verdi,  the  words  by  Royer  and  Waez ; 
being  a  French  adaptation  of  I  Lombardi.  Pro- 
duced at  the  Academie  Nov.  26,  1847.  2.  A 
Sacred  Oratorio  in  3  parts  ;  the  words  selected 
from  the  Bible  by  W.  Sancroft  Holmes,  the  music 
by  H.  H.  Pierson.  Produced  at  Norwich  Festival 
Sept.  23,  1852.  [G.] 

JESSONDA.  A  grand  German  opera  in  3 
acts ;  the  plot  from  '  La  Veuve  de  '  Malabar.' 
Words  by  Edouard  Gehe,  music  by  Spohr.  Pro- 
duced at  Cassel  July  28,  1823;  in  London,  at 
St.  James's  theatre  (German  company),  June  18, 
1840;  in  Italian,  at  Covent  Garden,  Aug.  6, 
1853.  [<*•] 

JEUNE  HENRI,  LE.  Opera-comique  in  2 
acts ;  libretto  by  Bouilly,  music  by  Mdhul.  Pro- 
duced at  the  Theatre  Favart  May  1,  1 797.  The 
overture  has  always  been  a  favourite  in  France. 
The  piece  was  damned,  but  the  overture  was  re- 
demanded  on  the  fall  of  the  curtain,  having  been 
already  encored  at  the  commencement.  [G.] 

JEUX  D'ANCHES.  The  French  name  for 
the  Reed  Stops  of  an  Organ.  [W.  S.  R.] 

JEW'S-HARP,  possibly  a  corruption  of  Jaw's- 
harp.  In  French  it  is  called  Guimbarde,  and 
in  German  Maul-trommel,  Mund-harmonica,  or 
Bmmmelsen  (i.e.  buzzing-iron).  In  the  High- 
lands, where  it  is  much  used,  it  is  called  Tromp. 
This  simple  instrument  consists  of  an  elastic 
steel  tongue,  rivetted  at  one  end  to  a  frame  of 
brass  or  iron,  similar  in  form  to  certain  pocket 
corkscrews,  of  which  the  screw  turns  up  on  a 
hinge.  The  free  end  of  the  tongue  is  bent  out- 
wards, at  a  right  angle,  so  as  to  allow  the  finger 
to  strike  it  when  the  instrument  is  placed  to  the 
mouth,  and  firmly  supported  by  the  pressure  of 
the  frame  against  the  teeth. 

A  column  of  air  may  vibrate  by  reciprocation 
with  a  body  whose  vibrations  are  isochronous 
with  its  own,  or  when  the  number  of  its  vibra- 
tions are  any  multiple  of  those  of  the  original 
sounding  body.  On  this  law  depends  the  expla- 
nation of  the  production  of  sounds  by  the  jew's- 
harp.  The  vibration  of  the  tongue  itself  cor- 
responds with  a  very  low  sound  ;  but  the  cavity 
of  the  mouth  is  capable  of  various  alterations  ; 
and  when  the  number  of  vibrations  of  the  con- 
tained volume  of  air  is  any  multiple  of  the  origi- 
nal vibrations  of  the  tongue,  a  sound  is  produced 
corresponding  to  the  modification  of  the  oral 
cavity.  Thus,  if  the  primitive  sound  of  the 
tongue  is  C,  the  series  of  reciprocated  sounds 
would  be  C,  E,  G,  Bt>,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  etc.,  and 
by  using  two  or  more  instruments  in  different 
keys,  a  complete  scale  may  be  obtained,  and 
extremely  original  and  beautiful  effects  produced. 
The  elucidation  of  this  subject  is  due  to  the 
ingenious  researches  of  Professor  Wheatstone, 
which  may  be  found  in  the  '  Quarterly  Journal 
of  Science,  Literature,  and  Art,'  for  the  year 
1828,  1st  part,  of  which  the  above  is  a  condensed 
account. 

A  soldier  of  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  so 

1  See  Spohr's  Selbstblognpbie,  it  143. 


JOACHIM. 

charmed  the  king  by  his  performance  on  two  jew's- 
harps  that  he  gave  him  his  discharge,  together 
with  a  present  of  money,  and  he  subsequently 
amassed  a  fortune  by  playing  at  concerts. 

In  1827  and  1828  Charles  Eulenstein  appeared 
in  London  [Eulenstein]  and  by  using  16  jew's- 
harps  produced  extraordinary  effects.    [V.  de  P.] 

JOACHIM,  Joseph,  the  greatest  of  living 
violin-players,  was  born  at  Kittsee,  a  village 
near  Pressburg,  June  28,  1831.  He  began  to 
play  the  violin  at  five  years  of  age,  and  showing 
great  ability  he  was  soon  placed  under  Szervac- 
sinsky,  then  leader  of  the  opera-band  at  Pesth. 
When  only  seven  years  old,  he  played  a  duet  in 
public  with  his  master  with  great  success.  In 
1 841  he  became  a  pupil  of  Boehm  in  Vienna, 
and  in  1843  went  to  Leipzig,  then,  under 
Mendelssohn's  guidance,  at  the  zenith  of  its 
musical  reputation.  On  his  arrival  at  Leipzig 
as  a  boy  of  twelve,  he  proved  himself  already  an 
accomplished  violinist,  and  very  soon  made  his 
first  public  appearance  in  a  Concert  of  Madame 
Viardot's,  Aug.  10,  1843,  when  he  played  a 
Rondo  of  de  Beriot  s;  Mendelssohn,  who  at  once 
recognised  and  warmly  welcomed  the  boy's  ex- 
ceptional talent,  himself  accompanying  at  the 
piano.  On  the  16th  of  the  following  November 
he  appeared  at  the  Gewandhaus  Concert  in 
Ernst's  fantasia  on  Otello;  and  a  year  later 
(Nov.  25,  1844)  took  part  in  a  performance  at 
the  Gewandhaus  of  Maurer's  Concertante  for 
four  violins  with  Ernst,  Bazzini  and  David, 
all  very  much  his  seniors.  The  wish  of  his 
parents,  and  his  own  earnest  disposition,  pre- 
vented his  entering  at  once  on  the  career  of 
a  virtuoso.  For  several  years  Joachim  remained 
at  Leipzig,  continuing  his  musical  studies  under 
Mendelssohn's  powerful  influence,  and  studying 
with  David  most  of  those  classical  works  for  the 
violin — the  Concertos  of  Mendelssohn,  Beethoven 
and  Spohr,  Bach's  Solos,  etc. — which  still  con- 
stitute the  staple  of  his  repertoire.  At  the  same 
time  his  general  education  was  carefully  attended 
to,  and  it  may  truly  be  said,  that  Joachim's 
character  both  as  a  musician  and  as  a  man  was 
developed  and  directed  for  life  during  the  years 
which  he  spent  at  Leipzig.  He  already  evinced 
that  thorough  uprightness,  that  firmness  of 
character  and  earnestness  of  purpose,  and  that 
intense  dislike  of  all  that  is  superficial  or  untrue 
in  art,  which  have  made  him  not  only  an  artist 
of  the  first  rank,  but,  in  a  sense,  a  great  moral 
power  in  the  musical  life  of  our  days. 

Joachim  remained  at  Leipzig  till  October 
1850,  for  some  time  side  by  side  with  David 
as  leader  of  the  Gewandhaus  orchestra,  but  also 
from  time  to  time  travelling  and  playing  with 
ever-increasing  success  in  Germany  and  Eng- 
land. On  the  strong  recommendation  of  Men- 
delssohn he  visited  London  for  the  first  time  as 
early  as  1844,  and  at  the  5th  Philharmonic  Con- 
cert (May  27)  played  Beethoven's  Concerto  (for 
the  4th  time  only  at  those  concerts)  with  great  suc- 
cess. His  first  actual  public  appearance  in  this 
country  was  at  a  benefit  concert  of  Mr.  Bunn's 
at  Drury  Lane  on  March  28.     After  this  he 


JOACHIM. 

repeated  his  visits  to  England  in  1847,  49,  52, 
58,  59,  62,  and  ever  since.  His  annual  appear- 
ance at  the  Monday  Popular,  the  Crystal  Palace, 
and  other  concerts  in  London  and  the  principal 
provincial  towns  has  become  a  regular  feature 
of  the  musical  life  in  England.  His  continued 
success  as  a  solo-  and  quartet-player,  extending 
now  over  a  period  of  more  than  thirty  years,  is 
probably  without  parallel.  Since  the  foundation 
of  the  Monday  Popular  Concerts  he  has  been 
the  principal  violinist  of  those  excellent  concerts, 
which  have  perhaps  done  more  than  any  other 
musical  institution  in  England  towards  popu- 
larising that  highest  branch  of  the  art — classical 
chamber-music. 

In  1849  Joachim  accepted  the  post  of  Leader 
of  the  Grand-Duke's  band  at  Weimar,  where 
Liszt,  who  had  already  abandoned  his  career  as 
a  virtuoso,  had  settled  and  was  conducting 
operas  and  concerts.  His  stay  in  Weimar  was 
not  however  of  long  duration.  To  one  who  had 
grown  up  under  the  influence  of  Mendelssohn, 
and  in  his  feeling  for  music  and  art  in  general 
was  much  in  sympathy  with  Schumann,  the 
revolutionary  tendencies  of  the  Weimar  school 
could  have  but  a  passing  attraction.  In  1854 
he  accepted  the  post  of  Conductor  of  Concerts 
and  Solo-Violinist  to  the  King  of  Hanover, 
which  he  retained  till  1866.  During  his  stay 
at  Hanover  (June  10,  1863)  he  married  Amalia 
Weiss,  the  celebrated  contralto  singer.  [See 
Weiss.]  In  1868  he  went  to  Berlin  as  head 
of  a  newly  established  department  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Arts — the  'Hochschule  fur  ausii- 
bende  Tonkunst '  (High  School  for  Musical  Exe- 
cution,— as  distinct  from  composition,  for  which 
there  was  already  a  department  in  existence). 
Joachim  entered  heart  and  soul  into  the  arduous 
task  of  organising  and  starting  this  new  in- 
stitution, which  under  his  energy  and  devotion 
not  only  soon  exhibited  its  vitality,  but  in  a  very 
few  years  rivalled,  and  in  some  respects  even 
excelled,  similar  older  institutions.  Up  to  this 
period  Joachim  had  been  a  teacher  mainly  by 
his  example,  henceforth  he  is  to  be  surrounded 
by  a  host  of  actual  pupils,  to  whom,  with  a 
disinterestedness  beyond  praise,  he  imparts  the 
results  of  his  experience,  and  into  whom  he 
instils  that  spirit  of  manly  and  unselfish  devotion 
to  art  which,  in  conjunction  with  his  great 
natural  gifts,  really  contains  the  secret  of  his 
long-continued  success.  In  his  present  sphere 
of  action  Joachim's  beneficent  influence,  en- 
couraging what  is  true  and  earnest,  and  dis- 
regarding, and,  if  necessary,  opposing  what  is 
empty,  mean,  and  superficial  in  music,  can 
hardly  be  too  highly  estimated.  It  will  readily 
be  believed  that  in  addition  to  the  universal 
admiration  of  the  musical  world  numerous  marks 
of  distinction,  orders  of  knighthood  from  Ger- 
man and  other  sovereign  princes,  and  honorary  de- 
grees have  been  conferred  on  Joachim.  From 
the  University  of  Cambridge  he  received  the 
honorary  degree  of  Doctor  of  Music  on  the  8th 
March,  1877.  No  artist  ever  sought  less  after 
«uch  things,  no  artist  better  deserved  them. 


JOCONDE. 


35 


As  to  his  style  of  playing,  perhaps  nothing 
more  to  the  point  can  be  said,  than  that  his  in- 
terpretations of  Beethoven's  Concerto  and  great 
Quartets  and  of  Bach's  Solo  Sonatas  are  uni- 
versally recognised  as  models,  and  that  his  style 
of  playing  appears  especially  adapted  to  render 
compositions  of  the  purest  and  most  elevated 
style.  A  master  of  technique,  surpassed  by  no 
one,  he  now  uses  his  powers  of  execution  ex- 
clusively for  the  interpretation  of  the  best 
music.  If  in  latter  years  his  Btrict  adherence 
to  this  practice  and  consequent  exclusion  of  all 
virtuoso-pieces  has  resulted  in  a  certain  limita- 
tion of  repertoire,  it  must  still  be  granted  that 
that  repertoire  is  after  all  richer  than  that  of 
almost  any  other  eminent  violinist,  comprising 
as  it  does  the  Concertos  of  Bach,  Beethoven, 
Mendelssohn,  four  or  five  of  Spohr's,  Viotti's 
22nd,  his  own  Hungarian,  Bach's  Solos,  the  2 
romances  of  Beethoven,  and  in  addition  the 
whole  range  of  classical  chamber-music,  to  which 
we  may  now  add  the  Concerto  of  Brahms, 
played  for  the  first  time  in  England  at  the 
Crystal  Palace  Feb.  22,  1879,  and  given  by  him 
at  the  Philharmonic  on  March  6  and  20. 

Purity  of  style,  without  pedantry ;  fidelity  of 
interpretation  combined  with  a  powerful  indivi- 
duality— such  are  the  main  characteristics  of 
Joachim  the  violinist  and  the  musician. 

As  a  composer  Joachim  is  essentially  a  follower 
of  Schumann.  Most  of  his  works  are  of  a 
grave,  melancholic  character,  —  all  of  them,  it 
need  hardly  be  said,  are  earnest  in  purpose  and 
aim  at  the  ideal.  Undoubtedly  his  most  im- 
portant and  most  successful  work  is  the  Hun- 
garian Concerto  (op.  11),  a  creation  of  real 
grandeur,  built  up  in  noble  symphonic  propor- 
tions, which  will  hold  its  place  in  the  first  rank 
of  masterpieces  for  the  violin.  The  following  is 
a  list  of  his  published  compositions  : — 


Op.  1.  Andantino     and     Allegro 

Scherzoso    (Violin    and 

Orchestra). 
2,  3  'Stucke  (Bomanze.  Fan- 

taisiestuck,       Fruhllngs 

fan tasie)  ■  for  Violin  and 

Piano. 
S.  Concerto    (6   minor)   '  tn 

elnem  Satze'  for  Violin 

and  Orchestra. 
4.  Overture  to  'Hamlet.'  for 

Orchestra, 
&  3  Stucke  (Llndenrauschen, 

Abendglocken,    Ballade) 

for  Violin  and  Piano. 
9.  Hebrew  Melodies,  for  Viola 

and  Piano. 
10.  Variations  on  an  original 

Theme    for   Viola    and 

Piano. 


Op.  n.  Hungarian   Concerto    for 
Violin  and  Orchestra. 
12.  Kotturno  In  A.  for  Violin 

and  small  Orchestra. 
IS.  Overture,  in  commemora- 
tion of  Kleist  the  poet— 
for  Orchestra, 
It.  Scena    der    JIarfa    (from 
Schiller's  unfinished  play 
of  Demetrius),  for  Con- 
tralto Solo      and       Or- 
chestra. 
Two  Marches,  In  C  and  D, 
with  Trios. 
N.B.  Op.  6,  7,  8,   Overtures  to 
Demetrius,  Henry  the  IVth,  and  a 
Flay  of  Goizl's   respectively,  are 
still  In  MS. 


[P.D] 

JOAN  OF  ARC.  A  grand  historical  opera 
in  3  acts ;  the  words  by'  Mr.  Bunn,  the  music 
by  Balfe.  Produced  at  Drury  Lane  Nov.  30, 
1837.  [GJ 

JOANNA  MARIA.  [See  Gallia.] 
JOCONDE,  ou  Les  Coubeors  d'Aventdbe. 
Opera-comique  in  3  acts;  libretto  by  Etienne, 
music  by  Isouard.  Produced  at  the  Theatre 
Feydeau  Feb.  28,  181 4;  in  English,  by  Carl 
Rose  (Santley's  translation),  Lyceum,  Oct.  25, 
1876.  [G.j 

D2 


36 


JOHN  THE  BAPTIST,  ST. 


JOHN  THE  BAPTIST,  ST.  An  oratorio  in 
2  parts  ;  the  text  selected  from  the  Bible  by  Dr. 
E.  G.  Monk;  the  music  by  G.  A.  Macfarren. 
Produced  at  Bristol  Festival  Oct.  23,  1873.  [G.] 

JOHNSON,  Edward,  Mus.  Bac.,  graduated 
at  Cambridge  1594,  and  was  one  of  the  ten 
composers  who  harmonised  the  tunes  for  Este's 
1  Whole  Booke  of  Psalms,'  1592.  He  contributed 
the  madrigal,  '  Come,  blessed  bird  ! '  to  '  The 
Triumphes  of  Oriana,'  1601.  Another  madrigal 
by  him,  '  Ah,  silly  John,'  is  preserved  in  MS.  in 
the  library  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society. 
Nothing  is  known  of  his  biography.     [W.  H.  H.] 

JOHNSON,  Robert,  an  ecclesiastic  who 
flourished  in  the  middle  of  the  16th  century, 
was  composer  of  motets,  part-songs  and  virginal 
pieces.  Burney  says  '  He  was  one  of  the  first  of 
our  church  composers  who  disposed  their  parts 
with  intelligence  and  design.  In  writing  upon 
a  plainsong  (moving  in  slow  notes  of  equal 
length),  which  was  so  much  practised  in  those 
times,  he  discovers  considerable  art  and  ingenuity, 
as  also  in  the  manner  of  treating  subjects  of  fugue 
and  imitation.'  His  part-song  'Defiled  is  my 
name  '  is  printed  in  the  Appendix  to  Hawkins's 
History  and  his  motet,  '  Sabbatum  Maria,'  and 
an  Almain  from  Queen  Elizabeth's  Virginal  Book 
in  Burney 's  History  Two  of  his  motets  are 
contained  in  Add.  MSS.  5059  and  11,586, 
British  Museum.  He  was  the  composer  of  the 
part-song  'Tye  the  mare,  Tom  boy,'  the  words 
of  which  are  printed  in  Ritson's  •  Ancient  Songs, 

I79°>  P- 130. 

Another  Robert  Johnson,  a  lutenist  and 
composer,  possibly  a  relative  of  the  above-named, 
was  in  January  1573-4  a  retainer  in  the  house- 
hold of  Sir  Thomas  Kytson,  of  Hengrave  Hall, 
Suffolk.  In  April  1575,  being  still  in  Sir 
Thomas's  service,  he  assisted  at  the  grand  enter- 
tainment given  by  the  Earl  of  Leicester  to  Queen 
Elizabeth  at  Kenilworth.  He  subsequently  came 
to  London,  but  at  what  precise  date  cannot  be 
ascertained,  and  became  a  composer  for  the 
theatres.  In  16 10  he  composed  the  music  for 
Middleton'8  tragi-comedy,  'The  Witch,'  printed 
in  Rimbault's '  Ancient  Vocal  Music  of  England.' 
In  161 1  he  was  in  the  service  of  Prince  Henry, 
at  an  annual  salary  of  £40.  In  1 6 1 2  he  composed 
music  for  Shakspere's  'Tempest,'  and  in  161 7 
songs  for  Beaumont  and  Fletcher's  '  Valentinian' 
and  'The  Mad  Lover.'  (See  Add.  MS.  11,608, 
Brit.  Mus.)  In  162 1  he  wrote  music  for  Ben 
Jonson's  '  Masque  of  the  Gipsies,"  some  of  the 
songs  of  which  are  contained  in  a  MS.  volume 
in  the  Music  School,  Oxford.  He  was  one  of  the 
contributors  to  Leighton's  'Teares  or  Lament- 
acions,'  16 [4.  A  beautiful  ballad  by  him,  'As 
I  walked  forth  one  summer's  day,'  is  also  printed 
in  Rimbault's  'Ancient  Vocal  Music  of  England.' 
His  name  occurs  Dec.  20,  1625,  in  a  privy  seal 
exempting  the  King's  musicians  from  payment 
of  subsidies.  [W.H.H.] 

JOMMELLI,  Niccol6,  is  the  most  conspicuous 
name  in  the  long  list  of  eminent  composers  who 
during  the  first  half  of  the  18th  century  were 


JOMMELLI. 

'  the  outcome  and  ornament  of  that  Neapolitan 
school  which  had  become  famous  under  Aless- 
!  andro  Scarlatti.  It  was  a  period  of  transition  in 
I  musical  art  all  over  Italy.  It  witnessed  the 
abandonment  of  the  old  Gregorian  modes  in 
j  favour  of  modern  tonality.  Counterpoint  itself, 
while  pursued  as  ardently  as  ever,  and  still 
recognised  as  the  orthodox  form  of  expression  for 
musical  thought,  was  assuming  to  that  thought 
a  new  and  different  relation.  Ideas  were  sub- 
jected to  its  conditions,  but  it  no  longer  con- 
stituted their  very  essence.  The  distinctive 
tendency  of  all  modern  Art  towards  individual- 
isation  was  everywhere  making  itself  felt,  and 
each  successive  composer  strove  more  and  more 
after  dramatic  truthfulness  as  a  primary  object, 
while  at  the  same  time  there  was  educated  in 
the  schools  of  Italy  a  race  of  great  singers  to 
whom  individual  expression  was  a  very  condition 
of  existence.  Pure  contrapuntal  Art — strictly  im- 
personal in  its  nature,  in  that,  while  each  part 
is  in  itself  complete,  all  are  equally  subordinate 
to  the  whole,  was  being  supplanted  by  a  new 
order  of  things.  In  the  music  destined  to  convey 
and  to  arouse  personal  emotions  one  melodious 
idea  predominates,  to  which  all  the  rest,  however 
important,  is  more  or  less  subservient  and  ac- 
cessory. Nor  is  harmony,  then,  the  final  result 
of  the  superimposition  of  layer  on  layer  of  inde- 
pendent parts,  but  the  counterpoint  is  contrived 
by  the  subdivision  and  varied  time-apportionment 
of  the  harmony,  and  partakes  of  the  nature  of 
a  decoration  rather  than  a  texture — the  work  is 
in  fresco  and  not  in  mosaic. 

To  the  greatest  minds  alone  it  belongs  to 
unite  with  intuition  that  consummate  art  which 
makes  scholastic  device  serve  the  ends  of  fancy, 
and,  while  imparting  form  to  the  inspirations  of 
genius,  receives  from  them  the  stamp  of  origin- 
ality.   In  the  long  chain  connecting  Palestrina, 
in  whose  works  contrapuntal  art  found  its  purest 
development,  with  Mozart,  who  blended  imagin- 
I  ation  with  science  as  no  one  had  done  before  him, 
1  one  of  the  last  links  was  Jommelli.  Gifted  with  a 
I  vein  of  melody  tender  and  elegiac  in  its  character, 
with  great  sensibility,  fastidious  taste,  and  a  sense 
I  of  effect  in  advance  of  any  of  his  Italian  contem- 
!  poraries,  he  started  in  the  new  path  of  dramatic 
j  composition  opened  up  by  Scarlatti,  Pergolesi, 
and  Leo,  at  the  point  where  those  masters  left 
off,  and  carried  the  art  of  expression  to  the  highest 
pitch  that,  in  Italy,  it  attained  up  to  the  time  of 
!  Mozart. 

Born  at  A  versa,  near  Naples,  Sept.  11,  1714, 
his  first  musical  teaching  was  given  him  by 
a  canon  named  Mozzillo.  At  sixteen  he  en- 
tered the  Conservatorio  of  San  Onofrio  as  the 
pupil  of  Durante,  but  was  transferred  to  that 
of  La  Pieta  de'  Turchini,  where  he  learned 
vocal  music  from  Prato  and  Mancini,  and  com- 
position from  Feo  and  Leo.  It  was  the  boast 
of  these  schools  that  young  musicians  on  leaving 
them  were  adepts  in  all  the  processes  of  counter- 
point and  every  kind  of  scholastic  exercise,  but 
it  seems  that  a  special  training  at  Rome  was 
judged    necessary  to  fit  Jommelli   for  writing 


JOMMELLI. 

church  music,  the  chief  object  he  is  said  at  that 
time  to  have  had  in  view.  However  this  may 
have  been,  his  first  works  were  ballets,  in  which 
no  indication  of  genius  was  discernible.  He 
next  tried  his  hand  on  cantatas,  a  style  of  com- 
position far  better  suited  to  his  especial  gifts, 
and  with  so  much  success  that  Leo,  on  hearing 
one  of  these  pieces  performed  by  a  lady,  a 
pupil  of  Jommelli's,  exclaimed  in  rapture,  'A 
short  time,  madam,  and  this  young  man  will  be 
the  wonder  and  the  admiration  of  Europe ! ' 
The  young  composer  himself  had  less  faith  in  his 
own  powers.  According  to  the  notice  of  his  life 
by  Piccinni,  he  so  much  dreaded  the  verdict  of  the 
public  that  his  first  opera,  'L'Errore  Amoroso,' 
was  represented  (at  Naples,  in  1737)  under  the 
name  of  an  obscure  musician  called  Valentino ; 
the  work,  however,  met  with  so  encouraging 
a  reception  that  he  ventured  to  give  the  next, 
4  Odoardo,'  under  his  own  name. 

In  1 740  he  was  summoned  to  Rome,  where  he 
was  protected  by  the  Cardinal  Duke  of  York, 
and  where  his  two  operas  '  H  Ricimero'  and 
'L'Astianatte'  were  produced.  Thence  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Bologna,  where  he  wrote  '  Ezio.' 
During  his  sojourn  there  he  visited  that  celebrity 
of  musical  learning,  the  Padre  Martini,  presenting 
himself  as  a  pupil  desirous  of  instruction.  To 
test  his  acquirements,  a  fugue  subject  was  pre- 
sented to  him,  and  on  his  proceeding  to  treat  it 
with  the  greatest  facility,  '  Who  are  you,  then  V 
asked  the  Padre ;  '  are  you  making  game  of 
me  ?  It  is  I,  methinks,  who  should  learn  of 
you.'  'My  name  is  Jommelli,'  returned  the 
composer,  '  and  I  am  the  maestro  who  is  to  write 
the  next  opera  for  the  theatre  of  this  town.'  In 
later  years  Jommelli  was  wont  to  affirm  that  he 
had  profited  not  a  little  by  his  subsequent  inter- 
course with  Martini. 

After  superintending  the  production  of  some 
important  works  at  Bologna  and  Rome,  Jommelli 
returned  to  Naples,  where  his  opera  'Eumene' 
was  given  at  the  San  Carlo  with  immense  success. 
A  like  triumph  awaited  him  at  Venice,  where 
his  'Merope'  aroused  such  enthusiasm  that  the 
Council  of  Ten  appointed  him  director  of  the 
Scuola  degl'  Incurabili,  a  circumstance  which 
led  to  his  beginning  at  last  to  write  that  sacred 
music  which  had  been  the  object  of  his  early 
ambition,  and  was  to  become  one  chief  source 
of  his  fame.  Among  his  compositions  of  the 
kind  at  this  time  was  a  'Laudate'  for  double 
choir  of  eight  voices,  which,  though  once  cele- 
brated, appears  never  to  have  been  printed.  In 
1745  we  find  him  at  Vienna,  where  he  wrote 
successively  'Achille  in  Sciro'  and  'Didone.' 
Here  he  formed  with  the  poet  Metastasio  an 
intimate  acquaintance.  Metastasio  entertained 
the  highest  opinion  of  his  genius,  and  was  also 
able  to  give  him  much  useful  advice  on  matters 
of  dramatic  expression  and  effect.  Sometimes 
the  accomplished  friends  amused  themselves  by 
exchanging  rdles ;  Jommelli,  who  wrote  his  native 
language  with  fluency  and  elegance,  becoming 
the  poet,  and  his  verses  being  set  to  music  by 
Metastasio. 


JOMMELLI. 


37 


From  Vienna,  in  1748,  he  went  again  to 
Rome,  where  he  produced  •  Artaserse.'  He  found 
an  influential  admirer  and  patron  in  Cardinal 
Albani,  thanks  to  whose  good  offices  he  was,  in 
1749,  appointed  coadjutor  of  Bencini,  chapel- 
master  of  St.  Peter's.  He  quitted  this  post  in  1 754 
to  become  chapel-master  to  the  Duke  of  Wur- 
temberg  at  Stuttgart,  where  he  remained  in  the 
enjoyment  of  uninterrupted  prosperity  for  more 
than  fifteen  years.  Through  the  munificence  of 
his  duke  he  lived  in  easy  circumstances,  with  all 
the  surroundings  most  congenial  to  his  cultivated 
and  refined  taste,  and  with  every  facility  for 
hearing  his  music  performed.  Here  he  produced 
a  number  of  operas,  an  oratorio  of  the  Passion,  and 
a  requiem  for  the  Duchess  of  Wurtemberg.  In 
these  works  German  influence  becomes  apparent 
in  a  distinct  modification  of  his  style.  The 
harmony  is  more  fully  developed,  the  use  of 
modulation  freer  and  more  frequent,  while  the 
orchestral  part  assumes  a  greater  importance, 
and  the  instrumentation  is  weightier  and  more 
varied  than  in  his  former  works.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  this  union  of  styles  gave  strength  to 
his  music,  which,  though  never  lacking  sweetness 
and  refinement,  was  characterised  by  dignity 
rather  than  force.  It  added  to  the  estimation  in 
which  he  was  held  among  the  Germans,  but  was 
not  equally  acceptable  to  Italians  when,  his  fame 
and  fortune  being  consolidated,  he  returned  to 
pass  his  remaining  years  among  his  own  country- 
men. The  fickle  Neapolitans  had  forgotten  their 
former  favourite,  nor  did  the  specimens  of  his 
later  style  reconquer  their  suffrages.  '  The  opera 
here  is  by  Jommelli,'  wrote  Mozart  from  Naples 
in  1770.  'It  is  beautiful,  but  the  style  is  too 
elevated,  as  well  as  too  antique,  for  the  theatre.' 
The  rapid  spread  of  the  taste  for  light  opera  had 
accustomed  the  public  to  seek  for  gratification 
in  mere  melody  and  vocal  display,  while  richness 
of  harmony  or  orchestral  colouring  were  looked 
on  rather  as  a  blemish  by  hearers  impatient 
of  the  slightest  thing  calculated  to  divert  theit 
attention  from  the  'tune.'  'Armida,'  written 
for  the  San  Carlo  Theatre  in  1771,  and  one  of 
Jommelli's  best  operas,  was  condemned  as  heavy, 
ineffective,  and  deficient  in  melody.  '  II  Demo- 
foonte'  (1772)  and  'L'Ifigenia  in  Aulide'  (1773) 
were  ill  executed,  and  were  failures. 

The  composer  had  retired,  with  his  family,  to 
Aversa,  where  he  lived  in  an  opulent  semi- 
retirement,  seldom  quitting  his  home  except  to 
go  in  spring  to  l'lnfrascata  di  Napoli,  or  in 
autumn  to  Pietra  bianca,  pleasant  country  resorts 
near  Naples.  He  received  at  this  time  a  com- 
mission from  the  King  of  Portugal  to  compose 
two  operas  and  a  cantata.  But  his  old  sus- 
ceptibility to  public  opinion  asserted  itself  now, 
and  the  failure  of  his  later  works  so  plunged 
him  in  melancholy  as  to  bring  on  an  attack  of 
apoplexy.  On  his  recovery  he  wrote  a  cantata 
to  celebrate  the  birth  of  an  heir  to  the  crown 
of  Naples,  and  shortly  after,  the  Miserere  for 
two  voices  (to  the  Italian  version  by  Mattei) 
which  is,  perhaps,  his  most  famous  work.  This 
was  hiB  'swan's  song' ;  it  was  hardly  concluded 


33 


JOMMELLI. 


JONAS. 


when  he  died  at  Naples,  aged  60,    Aug.   a  8, 

I774- 

Jommelli  was  of  amiable  disposition,  and  had 
the  polished  manners  of  a  man  of  the  world. 
Good  looking  in  his  youth,  he  became  corpulent 
in  middle  age.  Burney,  who  saw  him  at  Naples 
in  1770,  says  he  was  not  unlike  Handel,  a  like- 
ness which  cannot  be  traced  in  any  portraits  of 
him  that  are  extant.  The  catalogue  of  his  works 
contains  compositions  of  all  kinds,  comprising 
nearly  fifty  operas  and  four  oratorios,  besides 
masses,  cantatas,  and  a  great  quantity  of  church 
music.  As  a  contrapuntist  he  was  accomplished 
rather  than  profound,  and  his  unaccompanied 
choral  music  will  not  bear  comparison  with  the 
works  of  some  of  his  predecessors  more  nearly 
allied  to  the  Roman  school.  His  Miserere  for 
five  voices,  in  G  minor  (included  in  Rochlitz's 
collection),  contains  great  beauties,  the  long 
diminuendo  at  the  close,  especially,  being  a 
charming  effect.  But  the  work  is  unequal,  and 
the  scholarship,  though  elegant  and  ingenious, 
occasionally  makes  itself  too  much  felt. 

His  ideas  have,  for  the  most  part,  a  tinge  of 
mild  gravity,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  he 
failed  in  ballets  and  other  works  of  a  light 
nature.  Yet  he  has  left  an  opera  buffa,  'Don 
Jastullo,'  which  shows  that  he  was  not  devoid 
of  a  certain  sedate  humour.  This  opera  is 
remarkable  (as  are  others  of  his)  for  the  free  em- 
ployment of  accompanied  recitative.  Jommelli 
was  one  of  the  earliest  composers  who  perceived 
the  great  dramatic  capabilities  of  this  mode  of 
expression,  which  has,  in  recent  times,  received 
such  wide  development.  He  saw  the  absurdity, 
too,  of  the  conventional  Da  Capo  in  airs  consist- 
ing of  two  strains  or  movements,  by  which  the 
sympathy  of  the  hearer,  worked  up  to  a  pitch 
during  the  second  (usually  Allegro)  movement,  is 
speedily  cooled  by  the  necessity  for  recommencing 
the  Andante  and  going  all  through  it  again. 
He  would  not  comply  with  this  custom  except 
where  it  happened  to  suit  his  purpose,  but  aimed 
at  sustaining  and  heightening  the  interest  from  the 
outset  of  a  piece  till  its  close, — anticipating  by 
this  innovation  one  of  Gluck's  greatest  reforms. 

His  invention  seems  to  have  required  the 
stimulus  of  words,  for  his  purely  instrumental 
compositions,  such  as  overtures,  are  singularly 
dry  and  unsuggestive.  Yet  he  had  a  more  keen 
appreciation  of  the  orchestra  than  any  contem- 
porary Italian  writer,  as  is  evinced  in  his  scores 
by  varied  combinations  of  instruments,  by  ob- 
bligato  accompaniments  to  several  airs,  and  by 
occasional  attempts  at  such  tone-painting  as  the 
part  written  for  horns  con  tordini  in  the  air 
'Teneri  affetti  miei'  in  'Attilio  Regolo.'  In 
his  Stuttgart  compositions  the  orchestra  becomes 
still  more  prominent,  and  is  dialogued  with  the 
vocal  parts  in  a  beautiful  manner.  The  Requiem 
contains  much  pathetic  and  exquisite  music  ;  but 
intensity  is  wanting  where  words  of  sublime  or 
terrible  import  have  to  be  conveyed.  In  this 
work  and  the  'Passion'  is  to  be  found  a  great 
deal  that  is  closely  allied  to  composition  of  a 
similar  kind  by  Mozart,  and  to  the  earlier  master 


is  due  the  credit  of  much  which  often  passes 
as  the  sole  invention  of  Mozart,  because  it  is 
known  only  through  the  medium  of  his  works. 
A  comparison  between  the  two  is  most  interesting, 
showing,  as  it  does,  how  much  of  Mozart's  musical 
phraseology  was,  so  to  speak,  current  coin  at  the 
time  when  he  lived. — The  Miserere  which  was 
Jommelli's  last  production  seems  in  some  respects 
a  concession  to  Italian  taste,  which  possibly 
accounts  for  the  comparatively  great  degree  of 
subsequent  popularity  it  enjoyed,  and  suggests 
the  thought  that,  had  its  composer  been  spared 
a  few  more  years,  his  style  might  once  more 
have  been  insensibly  modified  by  his  surroundings. 
It  possesses,  indeed,  much  of  the  sympathetic 
charm  that  attaches  to  his  other  works,  but  the 
vocal  parts  are  so  florid  as  to  be  sometimes 
unsuitable  to  the  character  of  the  words. 

He  cannot,  however,  be  said  to  have  courted 
popularity  by  writing  for  the  vulgar  taste. 
Among  contemporary  composers  of  his  own 
school  and  country,  he  is  pre-eminent  for  purity 
and  nobility  of  thought,  and  for  simple,  pathetic 
expression.  His  genius  was  refined  and  noble, 
but  limited.  He  expressed  himself  truthfully 
while  he  had  anything  to  express,  but  where 
his  nature  fell  short  there  his  art  fell  short 
also,  and,  failing  spontaneity,  its  place  had 
to  be  supplied  by  introspection  and  analysis. 
His  sacred  music  depicts  personal  sentiment  as 
much  as  do  his  operas,  and  whereas  a  mass  by 
Palestrina  is  a  solemn  act  of  public  worship, 
a  mass  by  Jommelli  is  the  expression  of  the 
devotion,  the  repentance  or  the  aspiration  of  an 
individual. 

The  following  works  of  Jommelli's  have  been 
republished  in  modern  times,  and  are  now  ac- 
cessible : — 

Salmo  (Miserere).  4  voices  and  orchestra 
(Breitkopf  &  Hartel). 

Victimae  paschali.     5  voices,  score  (Schott). 

Lux  eterna.     4  voices  (Berlin,  Schlesinger). 

Hosanna  filio,  and  In  Monte  Olivete.  4 
voices  (Berlin,  Schlesinger). 

Requiem,  for  S.A.T.B.  Accompaniment  ar- 
ranged for  P.F.  by  Clasing  (Cranz). 

Many  other  pieces  of  his  are,  however,  included, 
wholly  or  in  part,  in  miscellaneous  collections, 
such  as  Latrobe's  Sacred  Music,  the  Fitzwilliam 
Music,  Choron's  'Journal  de  Chant,'  Rochlitz's 
'  Collection  de  Morceaux  de  Chant,'  and  Gevaert's 
'Les  Gloires  de  l'ltalie,'  etc.  [F.A.M.] 

JONAS,  Eotle,  one  of  the  younger  rivals 
of  Offenbach  in  operabouffe,  born  of  Jewish 
parents  March  5,  1827,  entered  the  Conserva- 
toire Oct.  28,  41,  took  second  prize  for  harmony 
1846,  and  first  ditto  47,  and  obtained  the  second 
•grand  prix'  for  his  'Antonio'  in  49.  His  de"but 
at  the  theatre  was  in  Oct.  55  with  'Le  Duel  de 
Benjamin'  in  one  act.  This  was  follow  by 
'La  Parade'  (Aug.  2,  56);  'Le  Roi  boit'  (Apr. 
57) ;  'Les  petits  Prodiges'  (Nov.  19,  57);  'Job 
et  son  chien '  (Feb.  6,  63) ;  *  Le  Manoir  des  La- 
renardiere '  (Sept.  29,  64) ;  and  '  Avant  la  noce ' 
(March  24,  65)— all  at  the  Bouffes  Parisiens. 
Then,  at  other  theatres,  came  'Les  deux  Arle- 


JONAS. 

quins'  (Dec.  29,  65)  ;  'Le  Canard  a  trois  bees' 
(Feb.  6,  69).  Many  of  his  pieces  have  been 
given  in  London,  such  as  'Terrible  Hymen'  at 
Covent  Garden,  Dec.  26,  66;  'The  Two  Har- 
lequins '  (by  A'Beckett)  at  the  Gaiety,  Dec.  2 1, 
68 ;  and  '  Le  Canard,'  also  at  the  Gaiety,  July 
28,  71.  This  led  to  his  composing  an  operetta 
in  3  acts  to  an  English  libretto  by  Mr.  A. 
Thompson,  called  '  Cinderella  the  younger,'  pro- 
duced at  the  Gaiety  Sept.  25,  71,  and  reproduced 
in  Paris  as  'Javotte'  at  the  Theatre  Lyrique, 
Dec.  22  following. 

M.  Jonas  was  professor  of  Solfeggio  at  the 
Conservatoire  from  1847  to  66,  and  professor  of 
Harmony  for  military  bands  from  1859  to  70. 
He  is  also  director  of  the  music  at  the  Portu- 
guese synagogue,  in  connection  with  which  he 
published  in  1854  a  collection  of  Hebrew  tunes. 
He  has  also  been  bandmaster  of  one  of  the 
legions  of  the  Garde  Nationale,  and  since  the 
Exposition  of  67  has  organised  the  competitions 
of  military  bands  at  the  Palais  de  l'industrie, 
whereby  he  has  obtained  many  foreign  decora- 
tions. Since  'Javotte,'  M.  Jonas  has  brought 
out  no  piece  of  importance.  [G.] 

JONES,  Edwabd,  was  born  at  a  farm  house 
called  Henblas, — i.  e.  Old  Mansion, — Llanderfel, 
Merionethshire,  on  Easter  Sunday,  1752.  His 
father  taught  him  and  another  son  to  play  on 
the  Welsh  harp,  and  other  sons  on  bowed  in- 
struments, so  that  the  family  formed  a  complete 
string  band.  Edward  soon  attained  to  great 
proficiency  on  his  instrument.  About  1775  he 
came  to  London,  and  in  1783  was  appointed 
bard  to  the  Prince  of  Wales.  In  1786  he  pub- 
lished '  Musical  and  Poetical  Relicks  of  the 
Welsh  Bards,  with  a  General  History  of  the 
Bards  and  Druids,  and  a  Dissertation  on  the 
Musical  Instruments  of  the  Aboriginal  Britons '; 
a  work  of  learning  and  research.  Another 
edition  appeared  in  1794,  and  in  1802  a  second 
volume  of  the  work  was  issued  under  the  title  of 
'The  Bardic  Museum.'  Jones  had  prepared  a 
third  volume,  a  portion  only  of  which  was  pub- 
lished at  his  death,  the  remainder  being  issued 
subsequently.  The  three  volumes  together  con- 
tain 225  Welsh  airs.  Besides  this,  he  compiled 
and  edited '  Lyric  Airs ;  consisting  of  Specimens 
of  Greek,  Albanian,  Walachian,  Turkish,  Ara- 
bian, Persian,  Chinese,  and  Moorish  National 
Songs  and  Melodies ;  with  ...  a  few  Explana- 
tory Notes  on  the  Figures  and  Movements 
of  the  Modern  Greek  Dances,  and  a  short 
Dissertation  on  the  Origin  of  the  Ancient  Greek 
Music,'  1804;  'The  Minstrel's  Serenades'; 
'  Terpsichore's  Banquet,  a  Selection  of  Spanish, 
Maltese,  Russian,  Armenian,  Hindostan,  Eng- 
lish, German,  French  and  Swiss  Airs ' ;  '  The 
Musical  Miscellany,  chiefly  selected  from  emi- 
nent composers ' ;  '  Musical  Remains  of  Handel, 
Bach,  Abel,  etc. ' ;  '  Choice  Collection  of  Italian 
Songs';  'The  Musical  Portfolio,  consisting  of 
English,  Scotch,  Irish,  and  other  favourite 
Airs ' ;  «  Popular  Cheshire  Melodies ' ;  '  Mu- 
sical Trifles  calculated  for  Beginners  on  the 
Harp' ;  and  'The  Musical  Bouquet,  or  Popular 


JONES. 


39 


Songs  and  Ballads.'  Besides  his  professional 
pursuits  Jones  filled  a  situation  in  the  Office  of 
Robes  at  St.  James's  Palace.  He  collected  an 
extensive  library  of  scarce  and  curious  books, 
part  of  which,  to  the  value  of  about  £300,  he  sold 
in  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  and  the  remainder 
was  dispersed  by  auction  after  his  death,  realising 
about  £800.  He  died,  as  he  was  born,  on  Easter 
Day,  April  18,  1824.  [W.H.H.] 

JONES,  John,  organist  of  the  Middle  Temple 
Nov.  24,  1 749 ;  of  the  Charterhouse  (following 
Dr.  Pepusch)  July  2,  1753;  and  of  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral  Dec.  25, 1755.  He  died,  in  possession 
of  these  three  seats,  Feb.  1 7, 1 796.  He  published 
'Sixty  Chants  Single  and  Double'  (1785)  in 
the  vulgar  florid  taste  of  that  time.  One  of 
these  was  sung  at  George  III.'s  state  visit  to 
S.  Paul's  April  23,  1789,  and  at  many  of  the 
annual  meetings  of  the  Charity  Children.  At 
that  of  1 79 1  Haydn  heard  it,  and  noted  it  in  his 
diary  as  follows  (with  a  material  improvement 
in  the  taste  of  the  fourth  line) : — 


i 


'No  music  has  for  a  long  time  affected  me  so  much 
as  this  innocent  and  reverential  strain.'  [G.] 

JONES,  Rev.  William,  known  as  'Jones 
of  Nay  land,'  born  at  Lowick,  Northampton- 
shire, July  30,  1726,  and  educated  at  the 
Charter  House  and  at  University  College,  Ox- 
ford. He  included  music  in  his  studies  and 
became  very  proficient  in  it.  In  1764  he  was 
presented  to  the  vicarage  of  Bethersden,  Kent, 
and  subsequently  became  Rector  of  Pluckley  in 
the  same  county,  which  he  exchanged  for  the 
Rectory  of  Paston,  Northamptonshire.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  presented  to  the  Perpetual 
Curacy  of  Nayland,  Suffolk,  in  1776,  but  his 
name  does  not  occur  in  the  registers  until  1 784. 
In  Jan.  1 784  he  published  '  A  Treatise  on  the 
Art  of  Music,'  which  gained  him  considerable 
reputation.  In  March,  1789,  he  published  by 
subscription  his  Op.  ii,  '  Ten  Church  Pieces  for 
the  Organ,  with  Four  Anthems  in  score  [a 
psalm  tune1  and  a  double  chant],  composed  for 
the  use  of  the  Church  of  Nayland  in  Suffolk, 
and  published  for  its  benefit.'  In  1798  he  be- 
came Rector  of  Hollingbourne,  Kent.  He  was 
the  author  of  many  theological,  philosophical, 
and  miscellaneous  works.  He  died  at  Nayland, 
Jan.  6,  1800,  and  was  buried  in  the  vestry  of 
the  church  on  Jan.  14.  A  second  edition  of  his 
Treatise  on  Music  was  published  at  Sudbury 
in  1827.  [W.H.H.] 

JONES,  Robert,  Mus.  Bac.,  a  celebrated 
lutenist,  published  in  1601  'The  First  Booke  of 
Ayres,'— one  of  the  pieces  in  which,  '  Farewell 
deere  love '  (alluded  to  by  Shakspere  in  '  Twelfth 
Night'),  is  printed  in  score  in  J.  S.  Smith's 
'Musica  Antiqua,' — and  'The  Second  Booke  of 

I  Now  known  as  S.  Stephen'!. 


40 


JOSEPH. 


Songs  and  Ayres,  set  out  to  the  Lute,  the  Base 
Violl  the  playne  way,  or  the  Base  by  tableture 
after  the  leero  fashion ' ;  a  song  from  which — 
'My  love  bound  me  with  a  kisse,'  is  likewise 
given  in  'Musica  Antiqua.'  He  contributed 
the  madrigal,  'Faire  Oriana,  seeming  to  wink 
at  folly,'  to  'The  Triumphes  of  Oriana,'  pub- 
lished in  the  same  year.  In  1607  he  published 
'The  First  Set  of  Madrigals  of  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8 
parts,  for  Viols  and  Voices,  or  for  Voices  alone, 
or  as  you  please,'  and  in  1 608  '  Ultimum  Vale, 
or  the  Third  Book  of  Ayres  of  1,  2,  and  4  Voyces.' 
In  1609  appeared  'A  Musical!  Dreame,  or  the 
Fourth  Booke  of  Ayres ;  The  first  part  is  for 
the  Lute,  two  voyces  and  the  Viole  de  Gambo : 
The  second  part  is  for  the  Lute,  the  Viole  and 
four  voices  to  sing:  The  third  part  is  for  one 
voyce  alone,  or  to  the  Lute,  the  Base  Viole,  or 
to  both  if  you  please,  whereof  two  are  Italian 
Ayres.'  In  1611  he  published  'The  Muse's 
Gardin  for  delight,  or  the  Fift  Booke  of  Ayres 
only  for  the  Lute,  the  basse  Violl  and  the 
Voyce.'  He  contributed  three  pieces  to  Leigh- 
ton's  'Teares  or  Lamentacions '  published  in 
1614.  In  1616  Jones,  in  conjunction  with 
Philip  Rossetor,  Philip  Kingman  and  Ralph 
Reeve,  obtained  a  privy  seal  for  a  patent  author- 
ising them  to  erect  a  theatre,  for  the  use  of  the 
Children  of  the  Revels  to  the  Queen,  within  the 
precinct  of  Blackfriars,  near  Puddle  Wharf,  on 
the  site  of  a  house  occupied  by  Jones.  But  the 
Lord  Mayor  and  Aldermen  were  opposed  to  the 
scheme,  and  procured  from  the  Privy  Council  an 
order  prohibiting  the  building  being  so  applied, 
and  by  their  influence  Jones  and  his  fellows  were 
compelled  to  dismantle  their  house  and  surrender 
their  patent.  [W.  H.  H.] 

JOSEPH.  1.  'Joseph  and  his  Brethren.' 
The  8th  of  Handel's  English  oratorios ;  the 
words  by  James  Miller,  the  music  composed  in 
August  1743.  Produced  at  Covent  Garden 
March  2,  1744-  2-  Opera-comique  in  3  acts; 
libretto  by  Duval,  music  by  MeTiul.  Produced 
at  the  Theatre  Feydeau  Feb.  17,  1807.  Chiefly 
known  by  the  romance  of  Joseph,  'A  peine  au 
sortir  de  1'enfance'  ('Ere  infancy's  bud')  and  a 
prayer  for  male  voices,  'Dieu  dTsrael.'  The 
romance  of  Benjamin,  'Ah  lorsque  la  Mort,' 
is  given  in  the  Musical  Library,  ii.  142.  3.  An 
oratorio  in  2  parts  ;  the  words  selected  from  the 
Bible  by  Dr.  E.  G.  Monk ;  the  music  by  G.  A. 
Macfarren.  Produced  at  the  Leeds  Festival 
Sept.  21,  1877.  [G.] 

JOSHUA.  The  14th  of  Handel's  English 
oratorios ;  words  by  Dr.  Morell.  The  music  was 
begun  on  July  19  and  finished  Aug.  19,  1747, 
and  the  work  was  produced  at  Covent  Garden 
theatre  March  9,  1 748.  The  chorus,  '  The  na- 
tions tremble,'  is  said  to  have  affected  Haydn 
extremely  when  he  heard  it  at  the  Antient 
Concerts.1  'See,  the  conquering  hero  comes'  is 
originally  in  Joshua,  and  was  transferred  to 
Judas.  The  oratorio  was  revived  by  the  Sacred 
Harmonic  Society  June  19,  1839.  [G.] 

>  Appendix  to  Shield's '  Introduction  to  Harmony.' 


JOSQUIN. 

JOSQUIN,  ormore  strictly  JOSSE,  DESPRES, 
— latinised  into  Jodocus  A  Pratis,  and 
italianised  into  Giusqcino — one  of  the  greatest 
masters  of  the  Netherland  school,  the  successor 
of  Ockenheim  as  its  representative,  and  the 
immediate  predecessor  in  musical  history  of 
Lassus  and  Palestrina,  was  born  about  the 
middle  of  the  1 5th  century,  probably  at  or  near 
St.  Quentin  in  Hainault.  In  the  collegiate  church 
of  that  town,  according  to  Claude  Hemere",  the 
'arte  canendi  clarissimus  infantulus'  began  his 
promising  career.  Here,  perhaps,  the  little 
chorister  would  get  his  pet  name  Jossekin, 
which  clung  to  him  through  life,  and  in  its 
Latin  form  Josquinus  gives  us  the  title  by 
which  as  a  composer  he  always  has  and  always 
will  be  known.  His  real  name,  however,  ap- 
pears in  his  epitaph  and  in  a  legal  document 
discovered  by  M.  Delzaut  at  Conde. 

Of  the  rest  of  Josquin's  early  life  we  know 
that  he  was  for  some  time  chapel-master  at 
St.  Quentin,  and  also  that  he  was  received  as 
a  pupil  by  Ockenheim,  who,  himself  the  greatest 
living  composer,  was  gathering  round  him  such 
disciples  as  he  thought  worthy  the  trust  of  carry- 
ing on  his  labours  after  him.  We  can  scarcely 
be  wrong  in  assuming  that  Josquin  stayed  with 
Ockenheim  for  some  years.  Long  and  patient 
labour  could  alone  make  him  familiar  with  all 
the  subtleties  of  that  master's  art,  and  that  he 
had  thoroughly  learnt  all  that  Ockenheim  could 
teach  him  before  he  came  to  Rome  is  apparent 
from  his  earlier  compositions.  Had  he  written 
nothing  else  these  works  by  themselves  would 
have  entitled  him  to  a  name  as  great  as  his 
master's. 

Exactly  400  years  ago  we  find  Josquin  at  the 
Papal  court  of  Sixtus  IV  (1471-1484)  already 
regarded  as  the  most  rising  musician  of  the  day, 
rapidly  gaining  the  proud  position  of  being  the 
greatest  composer  which  the  modern  world  had 
yet  produced,  and  making  that  position  so  secure, 
that  for  upwards  of  sixty  years  his  title  remained 
undisputed.  Agricola,  Brumel,  Gombert,  Clemens 
non  Papa,  Genet,  Isaac,  Goudimel,  Morales, 
these  are  only  a  few  of  the  names  of  the  great 
musicians  who  flourished  in  this  period,  and  yet 
where  are  they,  when  Baini  thus  describes  the 
state  of  music  in  Europe  before  the  advent  of 

Palestrina  ?     '  Jusquino  des  Pres l'idolo 

dell'  Europa Si  canta  il  solo  Jusquino  in 

Italia,  il  solo  Jusquino  in  Francia,  il  solo  Jus- 
quino in  Germania,  nelle  Flandre,  in  Ungheria, 
in  Boemia,  nelle  Spagne,  il  solo  Jusquino.' 

Though  Josquin's  stay  at  Rome  was  not  a 
long  one,  the  fruits  of  his  labours  there,  in  the 
form  of  several  MS.  masses,  are  still  preserved  and 
jealously  guarded  from  curious  eyes  in  the  library 
of  the  Sistine  chapel. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  decide  at  what  times 
of  his  life  Josquin  paid  visits  to,  or  received 
appointments  at  the  respective  courts  of  Hercules 
of  Ferrara,  Lorenzo  of  Florence,  Louis  XII  of 
France  or  the  emperor  Maximilian  I.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  all  these  princes  were  in  their  turn 
his  patrons.    For  the  first  he  wrote  his  mass 


JOSQUIN. 

'  Hercules  dux  '  Ferrariae,'  and  his  Miserere. 
Aaron  tells  us  how  Josquin,  Obrecht,  Isaac,  and 
Agricola  were  his  intimate  friends  in  Florence. 
Various  anecdotes  are  told  of  his  stay  at  the 
French  court.  How  he  was  anxious  to  obtain 
promotion  from  the  king,  but  when  the  courtier 
to  whom  he  applied  for  help  always  put  him  off 
with  the  answer  'Lascia  fare  mi,'  weary  of 
waiting  Josquin  composed  a  mass  on  the  sub- 
ject La,  sol,  fa,  re,  mi,  repeated  over  and  over 
again  in  mimicry  of  the  oft-repeated  answer,  and 
how  the  idea  pleased  the  king's  fancy  so  much 
that  he  at  once  promised  Josquin  a  church  bene- 
fice. How  Louis  nevertheless  forgot  his  promise 
and  Josquin  ventured  to  refresh  the  royal  memory 
with  the  motets  'Fortio  mea  non  est  in  terra 
viventium '  and  '  Memor  esto  verbi  tui.'  Lastly, 
how  Louis  XII,  admiring  music  from  the  respect- 
ful distance  of  complete  ignorance,  desired  the 
great  composer  to  write  something  expressly  for 
him,  and  how  Josquin  wrote  a  canon,  in  accom- 
paniment to  which  the  'Vox  regis'  sustained 
throughout  a  single  note.2  Whether  Louis  ever 
did  give  the  promised  benefice  to  Josquin  is  un- 
certain, though  the  motet '  Bonitatem  fecisti  cum 
servo  tuo'  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  a 
thank-offering  for  such  an  appointment.  But  we 
have  proof  that  the  last  years  of  the  composer's 
life  were  spent  in  the  enjoyment  of  church  pre- 
ferment at  Conde*.  He  had  probably  passed  from 
the  service  of  Louis  to  that  of  Maximilian,  who 
became  possessed  of  the  Netherlands  in  1 5 1 5,  and 
may  have  presented  Josquin  with  this  position 
of  retirement.  Of  his  death  at  this  place,  a  MS. 
at  Lille  gives  the  evidence  in  a  copy  of  his 
epitaph,  in  the  choir  at  Conde',  as  follows : — 
Chy  gist  sire  Josse  Despres 
Prevost  de  Cheens  fut  jadis 
Priez  Dieu  pour  les  Trepassez  qui  leur  doile  son 
paradis 
Trepassa  l'an  1521  le  27  d'Aoust 
Spes  mea  semper  fuisti 

Josquin's  printed  compositions  consist  of  19 
masses,  about  50  secular  pieces,  and  upwards  of 
150  motets  with  sacred  words,  a  complete  list 
of  them  being  given  in  Eitner's  *  Bibliographie 
der  Musik-Sammelwerke'  (Berlin,  1877).  Seve- 
ral composers  of  the  same  period  have  left  more 
published  works,  but  Glarean  tells  us  that  Jos- 
quin was  very  critical  about  his  own  compositions, 
and  sometimes  kept  them  back  for  years  before 
he  allowed  their  performance.  Some  evidence 
of  the  spread  of  his  music  is  afforded  by  the 
fact  mentioned  by  Burney  (Hist.  ii.  489)  that 
Henry  the  VIII.'s  music  book  at  Cambridge 
contains  some  of  it,  and  that  Anne  Boleyn  had 
collected  and  learned  many  of  his  pieces  during 
her  residence  in  France. 

Of  the  19  masses,  17  were  printed  in  3  books 

•  In  this  mass  the  tenor  sings  the  subject, 
lie  ut  re  ut  re  fa  ml  re, 
the  Towels  In  these  syllables  corresponding  with  those  In  the  wordi 
*  Hercules  dux  Ferrarie.' 

8  Whether  the  king  was  able  to  master  this  simple  achievement, 
or  whether,  like  Heusel— for  whom  Mendelssohn  wrote  a  similar 
part  In  the  '  Son  and  Stranger  '—he  proved  '  quite  unable  to  catch 
tnc  note,  though  blown  and  whispered  to  him  from  every  side,'  we 
arc  not  told.    The  canon  itself  Is  given  bj  Hawkins,  chap.  70. 


JOSQUIN. 


41 


by  Petrucci.  The  most  beautiful  of  them  are 
the  '  La  sol  fa  re  mi,'  the  '  Ad  fugam  '  and  the 
'De  Beata  Virgine.'  The  first  or  these,  if  we 
credit  the  story  of  its  origin,  would  be  composed 
after  the  year  1498,  when  Louis  XII  ascended 
the  throne.  Two  other  masses,  '  Pange  Lingua ' 
and '  Da  pacem,'  not  included  in  the  above  books 
are  probably  of  a  still  later  date.  These  5 
masses  are  those  in  which  Josquin  shows  the 
greatest  advance  on  the  school  of  his  master. 

Among  the  finest  of  the  motets  we  may 
mention  the  settings  of  the  genealogies  in  the 
first  chapters  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke,  a 
5 -part  '  Miserere,'  and  the  4-part  psalms '  Planxit 
autem  David'  (the  lament  for  Saul  and  Jonathan) 
and  '  Absolon  fili  mi.'  Some  of  the  masses  and 
many  of  the  motets  exist  in  MS.  score,  with 
modern  notation,  in  the  Fe"tis  library  at  Brussels. 
In  their  original  form  they  can  be  found  in  all 
the  great  libraries  of  Europe. 

Of  the  secular  works,  the  most  important  col- 
lection is  in  the  7th  book  of  Susato's  songs  pub- 
lished in  1545,  which  contains  24  pieces  by 
Josquin.  Here  we  find  the  beautiful  dirge  written 
on  the  death  of  Ockenheim,  which  is  also  printed 
in  score  by  Burney  in  his  History. 

It  must  however  be  borne  in  mind,  that  in 
distinguishing  works  of  these  old  composers,  we 
are  often  more  attracted  by  some  historical  inte- 
rest, some  quaintness  in  the  choice  of  the  text, 
or  some  peculiarity  in  the  musical  notation,  than 
by  the  features  of  the  music  itself,  and  when  we 
do  try  to  separate  one  piece  of  music  from  the 
other  we  are  naturally  led  at  first  to  admire 
most  whatever  comes  nearest  to  our  modern 
ideas  (those  pieces  for  instance  written  in  the 
modes  most  like  our  own  keys),  and  to  be  disap- 
pointed when  a  mass  or  motet,  which  we  know 
by  tradition  to  be  a  masterpiece,  fails  to  move 
us,  and  to  lay  it  aside  with  the  explanation  that 
it  is  only  a  dry  contrapuntal  work.  But  it  is 
not  fair  to  study  the  music  of  this  period  simply 
to  find  out  how  much  our  modern  schools  owe  to 
it.  When  Burney  calls  Josquin  'The  father 
of  modern  harmony'  he  does  not  perhaps  give 
the  title  of  which  the  composer  would  himself  be 
proudest,  'for  there  are  musicians  alive  now,' 
says  Doni  in  his  Musical  Dialogues,  '  who,  if 
Josquin  were  to  return  to  this  world  would  make 
him  cross  himself.'  We  must  regard  these 
Netherland  masters,  not  only  in  their  relation- 
ship to  succeeding  generations,  but  as  the  chief 
lights  of  a  school  of  religious  music  which  had 
at  that  time  reached  so  complete  a  form  that 
any  further  progress  without  an  entire  revolu- 
tion seemed  impossible  ;  a  school  of  church  music 
which,  were  we  to  consider  alone  the  enormous 
demands  it  made  on  the  industry  and  intellect  of 
its  followers,  would  excite  our  reverence,  but 
which,  when  we  consider  the  wonderful  hold  it 
had  on  popular  feeling  throughout  Europe  for 
nearly  a  century,  kindles  in  us  the  hope  that  we 
may  not  be  too  far  separated  by  our  modern 
ideas  from  the  possibility  of  once  again  being 
moved  by  the  fire  of  its  genius.  If  the  absence 
of  a  satisfactory  modern  school  of  church  music 


42 


JOSQUIN. 


has  already  been  acknowledged  by  many,  and  a 
widespread  movement  exists  in  Germany  to 
recall  the  old  music  to  the  service  of  the  Catholic 
church,  then  we  may  indeed  hope  to  gain  a  more 
intimate  knowledge  of  Josquin  and  his  followers, 
than  by  groping  about  libraries,  copying  MSS.  or 
reaching  theoretical  treatises.  Fortunately  the 
study  of  counterpoint  is  hardly  a  more  necessary 
condition  of  appreciating  the  music  of  Josquin, 
than  it  is  in  the  case  of  Bach.  But  the  ear  will 
have  to  accustom  itself  to  many  extraordinary 
combinations  of  sounds,  meagre  harmonies,  un- 
satisfactory cadences,  final  chords  which  seem  to 
have  lost  all  character,  before  any  of  these  works 
can  be  thoroughly  enjoyed.  In  the  meantime, 
and  till  we  may  possibly  hear  them  performed 
again  in  the  churches  for  which  they  are  written, 
there  is  much  pleasure  to  be  derived  from  the 
private  study  of  them ;  and  a  real  love  for  them, 
even  with  an  imperfect  understanding,  grows 
up  in  us  very  quickly. 

The  reasons  which  the  council  of  the  church 
gave  for  suddenly  abandoning  the  works  of  Jos- 
quin's  school  were  not  founded  on  any  want  of 
admiration  for  their  musical  effect.  One  obj  ection 
was  the  fact  of  the  melodies  which  the  composers 
took  for  their  canto  fermo  being  secular,  and  the 
voice  to  which  it  was  assigned  singing  the  secular 
words,  while  the  other  voices  sang  the  words  of 
the  mass.  The  other  objection  was  that  the 
excessively  florid  style  in  which  the  parts  were 
often  written  made  the  words  of  so  little  import- 
ance that  it  was  often  impossible  to  trace  their 
existence.  The  first  objection  was  not  a  strong 
one,  for  the  church  had  sanctioned  the  use  of  the 
secular  melodies  as  the  foundation  of  masses  for 
more  than  a  century,  and  some  of  the  melodies 
had  become  almost  hallowed  to  their  purpose. 
The  singing  of  the  secular  words  might  have 
been  easily  given  up  without  forsaking  the 
music. 

But  the  second  objection  was  stronger;  for 
though  Josquin  began,  and  his  followers,  Gom- 
bert  especially,  tried  still  more,  to  give  expres- 
sion to  the  general  sense  of  the  text,  still  we 
find  often  a  few  syllables  scattered  over  a  page 
to  do  service  for  a  host  of  notes,  as  if  the  notes 
were  everything  and  the  words  nothing.  Still  as 
the  first  objection  applies  entirely  to  the  masses, 
so  the  second  also  applies  to  them  much  more 
than  to  the  motets,  and  it  is  by  these  latter 
works,  we  venture  to  think,  that  their  composers 
will  be  known,  if  their  music  is  destined  to  live 
again. 

Apart  however  from  all  considerations  of  the 
vitality  of  the  school  which  he  represents,  of 
the  reason  of  its  downfall  or  the  chances  of 
its  revival,  'Josquin  deserves  to  be  classed  as 
one  of  the  greatest  musical  geniuses  of  any 
period.'  (Kiesewetter's  History  of  Music.)  For- 
tune favoured  him  in  appointing  the  time  of  his 
birth.  He  was  the  first  composer  who  came 
into  the  world  with  the  materials  of  his  work 
thoroughly  prepared  for  him.  Masses  written 
with  counterpoint  had  been  taken  to  Home  from 
the  Netherlands  towards  the  end  of  the  14th 


JOTA. 

century,  and  Dufay,  who  was  a  singer  in  the 
Papal  chapel  in  1380  (or  exactly  100  years 
before  Josquin  held  the  same  position),  was  a 
contrapuntist  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  quoted 
as  an  authority  by  theoretical  writers  of  a  much 
later  date,  and  whose  art  though  simple  was 
sufficiently  perfect  to  suggest  that  he  too  must 
have  had  predecessors  to  prepare  his  way.  But 
we  cannot  regard  musicians  from  the  time  of 
Dufay  to  that  of  Ockenheim  as  composers  in  the 
sense  that  Josquin  was  one.  Their  genius  was 
expended  on  the  invention  of  counterpoint,  which 
Josquin  was  the  first  to  employ  as  a  means  to  a 
higher  end.  They  were  but  pilgrims  to  a  pro- 
mised land,  which  they  may  have  seen  from  afar ; 
but  Josquin  was  the  first  who  was  to  be  allowed 
to  enter  it.  '  In  Josquin,'  says  Ambros  (whose 
knowledge  of  and  admiration  for  the  old  music 
surpasses  that  of  any  modern  historian), '  we  have 
the  first  musician  who  creates  a  genial  impres- 
sion.' 

In  another  sense,  a  very  practical  one,  Josquin 
stands  first  on  the  list  of  composers.  He  is 
the  oldest  writer  whose  works  are  preserved  to 
us,  if  not  entire,  at  least  in  such  quantities  as 
adequately  to  represent  his  powers.  The  inven- 
tion of  printing  music  by  moveable  types,  which 
gave  such  a  wonderful  impetus  to  publication, 
dates  from  1498,  the  very  time  when  Josquin  was 
at  the  height  of  his  power ;  and  it  is  a  testimony 
to  the  superiority  of  his  music  over  that  of  his 
predecessors,  that  though  Ockenheim  is  supposed 
to  have  been  still  living  at  the  beginning  of  the 
1 6th  century,  and  perhaps  as  late  as  151 2,  the 
publishers  thought  fit  to  print  very  few  of  his 
compositions,  whilst  few  collections  were  issued 
to  which  Josquin  did  not  largely  contribute. 

Commer,  in  his  '  Collectio  Operum  Musicorum 
Batavorum'  (Berlin,  Trautwein),  has  printed 
1 2  motets  and  two  chansons. 

Bochlitz  in  his  'Sammlung'  (Schotts)  gives 
a  hymn,  '  Tu  pauperum  refugium ' ;  portions  of 
a  mass;  and  a  motet,  ' Misericordias  Domini,' 
all  for  4  voices.  Choron,  in  his  '  Collection 
generale,'  gives  his  Stabat  Mater  a  5  ;  and 
Hawkins  (chap.  72)  a  motet,  a  4,  'O  Jesu  fili.' 
The  11  large  volumes  of  Burney's  Musical  Ex- 
tracts (Add.  MSS.  11,581-91)  contain  many  and 
valuable  compositions  of  Josquin's. 

In  Van  der  Straeten's  'La  Musique  aux  Pays- 
Bas'  (Brussels,  1867)  a  portrait  of  Josquin  is 
reproduced  from  a  book  published  by  Peter 
Opmeere  at  Antwerp  in  159T.  It  seems  to  have 
been  copied  from  a  picture  originally  existing  in 
the  Brussels  cathedral,  and  thence  probably  came 
the  tradition  that  Josquin  was  buried  there. 
Opmeere  accompanies  the  portrait  with  the  fol- 
lowing words  :  '  Conspicitur  Josquinus  depictus 
Bruxellis  in  D.  Guduhe  [ecclesia],  in  tabula  arse 
dextrse  ante  chorum  honesta  sane  facie  ac  blandis 
oculis.'  [J.R.S.-B.] 

JOTA  (pronounced  Hota,  with  a  strong  gut- 
tural aspirate).  One  of  the  most  characteristic  of 
the  North  Spanish  national  dances.  It  is  a  kind 
of  waltz,  always  in  three-time,  but  with  much 
more  freedom  in  the  dancing  than  is  customary 


JOTA. 

in  waltzes.  'It  is  danced,'  says  a  'traveller,  'in 
couples,  each  pair  being  quite  independent  of  the 
rest.  The  respective  partners  face  each  other; 
the  guitar  twangs,  the  spectators  accompany,  with 
a  whining,  nasal  drawling  refrain,  and  flapping 
of  hands.  You  put  your  arm  round  your  partner's 
waist  for  a  few  bars,  take  a  waltz  round,  stop, 
and  give  her  a  fling  round  under  your  raised  arm. 
Then  the  two  of  you  dance,  backward  and  for- 
ward, across  and  back,  whirl  round  and  chassez, 
and  do  some  nautch- wallah -ing,  accompanying 
yourselves  with  castanets  or  snapping  of  fingers 
and  thumbs.  The  steps  are  a  matter  of  your 
own  particular  invention,  the  more  outris  the 
better ;  and  you  repeat  and  go  on  till  one  of  you 
tires  out.'  Every  province  in  the  North  has  its 
own  Jota,  the  tune  and  style  of  which  have  ex- 
isted from  time  immemorial.  Thus  there  is  a 
Jota  Aragonesa  and  a  Jota  Navarra,  quite  dif- 
ferent in  melody  and  accompaniment,  but  always 
in  three-time.  Of  the  former,  a  better  example 
could  hardly  be  given  than  that  which  forms  the 
chief  subject  of  Glinka's  orchestral  overture  or 
piece  '  Jota  Aragonese.' 


JUBILATE. 


*a 


^^^mmii^M. 


jMj|g 


^^ 


Of  the  Jota  Navarra,  an  equally  good  and 
simple  specimen  is  to  be  found  in  the  second  part 
of  Sarasate's  Spanish  Dances  (op.  22). 


The  Jota  is  much  played  in  the  North  of  Spain, 
and  wherever  it  is  heard  a  dance  is  sure  to  be 
the  instant  result.  [G.] 


1  Major  Campion, '  On  Foot  In  Spain,'  1879,  p.  157. 
*  This  is  quite  Oriental. 


JOULE,  Benjamin  St.  John  Baptist,  born 
at  Salford,  Nov.  8,  1817,  studied  the  violin 
under  Richard  Cudmore,  and  the  organ,  singing, 
and  theory,  under  Joseph  John  Harris.  From 
May  8,  1846,  to  March  20, 1853,  he  was  organist 
and  choir-master  at  Holy  Trinity  Church,  Hulme, 
and  from  April  28,  1849,  *°  Oct.  3,  1852,  also 
held  a  similar  position  at  St.  Margaret's,  Whalley 
Range,  Manchester.  Since  March  27,  1853,  he 
has  been  honorary  organist  of  St.  Peter's  Church, 
Manchester.  He  is  also  President  of  the  Man- 
chester Vocal  Society,  and  author  or  compiler 
of  '  The  Hymns  and  Canticles  pointed  for  Chant- 
ing,' 1847  ;  *  Directorium  Chori  Anglicanum,* 
1849;  a  very  comprehensive  '  Collection  of  Words 
of  Anthems,'  1859;  a  pointed  Psalter;  and  other 
works  connected  with  choral  service,  several  of 
which  have  reached  many  editions.  He  has  also 
lectured  on  Church  Music,  and  been  a  con- 
tributor to  various  periodicals.  He  was  music 
critic  to  'The  Manchester  Courier'  from  1850  to- 
1870.  [W.H.H.] 

JUBILATE— the  first  word  of  the  Vulgate  ver- 
sion— is  the  Psalm  (100th)  which  is  given  as  an 
alternative  to  the  Benedictus,  to  follow  the  second 
lesson  in  the  morning  service  of  the  Anglican 
Church.  The  ancient  custom  of  the  church  was 
to  read  lessons  and  psalms  alternately,  and 
psalms  so  used  were  called  responsories.  The 
Jubilate  was  specially  used  in  this  manner  in  the 
offices  of  Salisbury  and  York,  so  its  adoption  in 
the  reformed  service  was  only  a  perpetuation  of 
ancient  custom  in  the  churches  of  England. 
Amalarius  also  (a.d.  820)  speaks  of  it  as  used 
in  Lauds  apart  from  its  ordinary  occurrence  in 
the  order  of  the  Psalms.  Nevertheless  it  did 
not  appear  in  Cranmer's  Prayer-book  of  1549, 
but  was  added  in  the  revised  edition  which  was 
made  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI,  1552.  Con- 
sequently there  is  no  chant  given  for  it  in  Mar- 
beck's  first  adaptation  of  ancient  chants  to  the 
English  service  called  'The  Book  of  Common 
Praier  Noted,'  which  was  published  in  1550. 

It  is  curious  that  the  Jubilate  is  much  oftener 
used  than  the  Benedictus,  which  is  looked  upon, 
quite  as  the  exception.  One  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished clerical  writers  on  the  choral  service  of 
the  church,  Mr.  Jebb,  has  observed  that  the  Bene- 
dictus is  so  infinitely  preferable  in  every  respect 
tti  at  it  is  impossible  to  attribute  the  preference 
which  is  given  to  the  Jubilate  to  any  other  motive 
than  its  being  shorter.  In  confirmation  of  this 
view  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  while  the  en- 
thusiasm of  the  Reformation  was  still  hot,  the 
great  musicians  of  that  time,  Tallis,  Byrd,  and 
Farrant,  chose  the  incomparably  more  beautiful 
and  more  appropriate,  but  longer,  Benedictus; 
but  when  that  enthusiasm  was  worn  away  hardly 
anything  but  the  shorter  Jubilate  is  to  be  met 
with.  If  we  take  for  instance  the  most  famous 
collections  of  the  ancient  services  of  the  church 
in  their  order,  we  find  three  settings  of  the  Jubi- 
late in  Barnard's  collection,  eight  in  Boyce's,  and 
no  less  than  fifteen  in  Arnold's. 

Handel  set  the  Jubilate  for  the  thanksgiving 
service    which    was    held   after   the    Peace    of 


44 


JUBILATE. 


Utrecht,  which  was  concluded  March  31,  1 713. 
Mendelssohn  also  set  the  Psalm,  but  not  for 
liturgical  use.  [C.  H.  H.  P.] 

JUBILEE  OVERTURE,  THE  (in  E),  by  C. 
M.  von  Weber ;  composed  for  the  festival  held  at 
Dresden  in  commemoration  of  the  ->oth  anniver- 
sary of  the  accession  of  Frederick  Augustus  I.  of 
Saxony ;  op.  59.  The  autograph  is  dated  Dres- 
den, Sept.  11,  1818,  and  the  first  performance 
was  at  the  Court  Theatre  on  Sept.  20.  The  over- 
ture winds  up  with  'God  save  the  KiDg.'  Weber 
had  written  a  Jubel  cantata  for  the  occasion, 
but  it  was  put  aside,  and  the  overture — an  en- 
tirely independent  work — performed  instead.  [G.] 
JUDAS  MACCABEUS.  The  1 2th  of  Han- 
del's English  oratorios,  written  by  command  of 
the  Prince  of  Wales.  Handel  himself  is  said  to 
have  suggested  the  subject  (a  propos  to  the  Duke 
of  Cumberland's  victories  in  Scotland)  to  Dr. 
Morell,  who  made  the  libretto.  The  music  was 
begun  July  9,  and  completed  Aug.  1 1,  1 746,  and 
it  was  produced  at  Co  vent  Garden  April  1, 1747. 
It  has  always  been  a  favourite.  '  See,  the  con- 
quering hero  comes'  was  transferred  to  Judas 
from  Joshua.  The  air  '  Wise  men  flattering,'  and 
the  chorus  '  Sion  now ' — were  introduced  several 
years  after  the  production  of  the  oratorio,  and 
the  latter  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the  last 
pieces  composed  by  Handel.  [G.] 

JUDITH.  1.  An  oratorio ;  words  by  W.  Hug- 
gins,  music  by  Deiesch.  Produced  in  London 
1733.  2.  An  oratorio  by  Dr.  Arne  (his  2nd); 
the  words  selected  and  adapted  by  Isaac  Bicker- 
Btaff.  Produced  at  the  Lock  Hospital  Chapel 
Feb.  29,  1764.  3.  A  'biblical  cantata'  in  3 
scenes ;  words  selected  from  the  Bible  by  Chorley, 
music  by  H.  Leslie.  Composed  for  Birmingham 
Festival,  and  first  performed  Sept.  1858 ;  also  at 
St.  Martin's  Hall  March  8,  59.  [G.] 

JUIVE,  LA.  Opera  in  5  acts;  words  by 
Scribe,  music  by  Hale"vy.  Produced  at  the 
Acade"inie  Feb.  23,  1835.  In  England  by  the 
Brussels  troupe  at  Drury  Lane  in  French  July  29, 
1846  ;  in  Italian,  'La  Ebrea,'  at  Covent  Garden 
July  25, 1850.  [G.] 

JULLIEN  (originally  JULIEN),  Louis  An- 
toink,  was  born  at  Sisteron,  Basses  Alpes,  April 
23, 1 81 2.  His  father  was  a  bandmaster,  and  the 
boy  was  thus  familiar  with  instruments  and  music 
from  his  cradle.  At  21  he  went  to  Paris  and 
entered  the  counterpoint  class  of  Le  Carpentier 
at  the  Conservatoire,  Oct.  26,  1833.  Composition, 
however,  and  not  counterpoint  was  his  object, 
and  after  a  year's  trial  he  quitted  Le  Carpentier 
for  HaleVy,  Dec.  16,  1834,  but  with  no  greater 
success;  he  refused  to  do  the  exercises,  and  in- 
sisted on  presenting  the  Professor  with  dances  as 
specimens  of  'composition' — not  perhaps  quite  to 
Halevy's  annoyance  if  it  be  true,  as  it  used  to 
be  said,  that  the  waltz  'Rosita,'  which  became 
the  rage  in  Paris  as  Jullien's,  was  written  by 
his  master.  He  did  not  obtain  a  single  men- 
tion at  the  Conservatoire,  and  at  the  beginning 
•of  1836  finally  left  it,  and  soon  after  appeared 
before  the  public  as  the  conductor  of  concerts  of 


JULLIEN. 

dance  music  at  the  Jardin  Turc.  The  '  Hugue- 
nots'  was  just  then  in  all  the  flush  of  its  great 
success,  and  one  of  Jullien's  first  quadrilles  was 
made  upon  the  motifs  of  that  opera,  the  announce- 
ment of  which,  as  quoted  by  M.  F^tis,  is  exactly 
in  the  style  with  which  Londoners  afterwards 
became  familiar.  To  this  enterprise  he  joined 
the  establishment  of  a  musical  paper.  No  wonder 
that  he  was  unsuccessful.  In  June  1838  he 
became  insolvent,  and  had  to  leave  Paris.  His 
first  appearance  in  London  seems  to  have  been  as 
conductor,  jointly  with  Eliason,  of  shilling  '  Con- 
certs d'Ete" '  at  Drury  Lane  theatre,  which  opened 
June  8, 1 840,  with  an  orchestra  of  98,  and  chorus 
of  26.  On  the  18th  of  the  following  January  he 
conducted  '  Concerts  d'hiver '  at  the  same  theatre, 
with  a  band  of  90  and  chorus  of  80.  These  were 
followed  by  'Concerts  de  Socie'te''  at  the  English 
Opera  House,  Lyceum,  Feb.  7  to  Mar.  18,  1842, 
comprising  Rossini's  Stabat  for  the  first  time 
in  England.  On  Dec.  2,  42,  began  his  'annual 
series  of  concerts'  at  the  English  Opera  House, 
and  he  thenceforward  continued  them  season  after 
season,  at  the  close  of  the  year,  now  at  one  theatre, 
and  now  at  another,  till  the  Farewell  series  in 
1859.  'His  aim,'  in  his  own  words,  'was  always  to 
popularise  music.'  and  the  means  he  adopted  for 
so  doing  were — the  largest  band ;  the  very  best 
performers,  both  solo  and  orchestral ;  and  the 
most  attractive  pieces.  His  programmes  con- 
tained a  certain  amount  of  classical  music — 
though  at  the  beginning  hardly  60  much  as  that 
given  by  some  of  his  predecessors,  who  announced 
a  whole  symphony  on  each  evening.  This 
was  probably  too  much  for  a  shilling  audi- 
ence in  the  then  state  of  musical  taste,  and 
Jullien's  single  movements  and  weaker  doses  just 
hit  the  mark.  Later  on  in  his  career  he  gave 
whole  symphonies,  and  even  two  on  one  evening. 
No  doubt  this  judicious  moderation  did  good,  and 
should  always  be  remembered  to  his  credit,  or  that 
of  his  advisers.  But  the  characteristic  features 
of  Jullien's  concerts  were,  first,  his  Monster 
Quadrille,  and  secondly  himself.  He  provided 
a  fresh  quadrille  for  each  season,  and  it  was 
usually  in  close  connexion  with  the  event  of  the 
day.  The  '  Allied  Armies  Quadrille '  during  the 
Crimean  war,  1854  ;  the  '  Indian  Quadrille,  and 
Havelock's  March,'  during  the  Mutiny,  1857  ; 
the  'English  Quadrille';  the  'French  ditto'; 
and  so  on.  These  were  written  by  himself, 
and  though  then  considered  noisy  were  always 
rhythmical,  melodious,  and  effective.  In  some 
of  them  as  many  as  six  military  bands  were 
added  to  the  immense  permanent  orchestra.  In 
front  of  this  'mass  of  executive  ability,'  'the 
Mons ' — to  adopt  the  name  bestowed  on  him  by 
Punch,  whose  cartoons  have  preserved  his  image 
with  the  greatest  exactness — with  coat  thrown 
widely  open,  white  waistcoat,  elaborately  em- 
broidered Bhirtfront,  wristbands  of  extravagant 
length  turned  back  over  his  cuffs,  a  wealth  of 
black  hair,  and  a  black  moustache  —  itself  a 
startling  novelty — wielded  his  baton,  encouraged 
his  forces,  repressed  the  turbulence  of  his  audience 
with  indescribable  gravity  and  magnificence,  went 


JULLIEN. 

through  all  the  pantomime  of  the  British  Army 
or  Navy  Quadrille,  seized  a  -violin  or  piccolo  at 
the  moment  of  climax,  and  at  last  sank  exhausted 
into  his  gorgeous  velvet  chair.  All  pieces  of 
Beethoven's  were  conducted  with  a  jewelled 
baton,  and  in  a  pair  of  clean  kid  gloves,  handed 
him  at  the  moment  on  a  silver  salver. 

Not  only  did  he  obtain  the  best  players  for  his 
band,  but  his  solo  artistes  were  all  of  the  highest 
class.  Ernst,  Sivori,  Bottesini,  Wieniawski,  Sain- 
ton ;  Arabella  Goddard,  Marie  Pleyel,  Charles 
Halle,  Vivier;  Sims  Reeves,  Pischek,  and  many 
others,  have  all  played  or  sung,  some  of  them  for 
the  first  time  in  England,  under  Jullien's  baton. 
In  fact  he  acted  on  the  belief  that  if  you  give 
the  public  what  is  good,  and  give  it  with  judg- 
ment, the  public  will  be  attracted  and  will  pay. 
And  there  is  no  doubt  that  for  many  years  his 
income  from  his  Promenade  Concerts  was  very 
large.  His  harvest  was  not  confined  to  London, 
but  after  his  month  at  Drury  Lane,  Covent  Gar- 
den, or  Her  Majesty's,  he  carried  off  his  whole 
company  of  players  and  singers  through  the  pro- 
vinces, including  Scotland  and  even  Ireland,  and 
moved  about  there  for  several  weeks — a  task  at 
that  time  beset  with  impediments  to  locomotion 
which  it  is  now  difficult  to  realise.  If  he  had  but 
confined  himself  to  the  one  enterprise,  and  exer- 
cised a  proper  economy  and  control  over  that! 
But  this  was  impossible.  He  had  started  a  shop 
Boon  after  his  arrival,  first  in  Maddox  Street  and 
then  in  Regent  Street,  for  the  sale  of  his  music. 
In  1847  he  took  Drury  Lane  theatre  on  lease, 
with  the  view  of  playing  English  operas.  Mr.  Gye 
was  engaged  as  manager,  and  M.  Berlioz  as  'con- 
ductor, with  a  host  of  other  officials,  including 
Sir  Henry  Bishop  as '  inspector-superintendent  at 
rehearsals,'  and  a  splendid  band  and  chorus.  The 
house  opened  on  Dec.  6,  with  a  version  of  '  Lucia,' 
in  which  Sims  Reeves  made  his  de"but,  and  which 
was  followed  by  Balfe's  'Maid  of  Honour,'  'Linda,' 
and  'Figaro.'  'All  departments,'  says  a  contem- 
porary 2  article  by  one  who  knew  him  well,  '  were 
managed  on  the  most  lavish  scale;  orchestra, 
chorus,  principal  singers,  officers  before  and  be- 
hind the  curtain,  vying  with  each  other  in  effi- 
ciency and  also  in  expensiveness.  The  result 
might  have  been  anticipated.  The  speculation 
was  a  failure,  and  though  his  shop  was  sold  for 
£8000  to  meet  the  emergency,  M.  Jullien  was 
bankrupt'  (April  21,  1848).  He  left  the  court 
however  with  honour,  and,  nothing  daunted,  soon 
afterwards  essayed  another  and  still  more  hazard- 
ous enterprise.  In  May  1849  he  announced  a 
'Concert  monstre  and  Congres  musical,'  'six 
grand  musical  fetes,'  with  '400  instrumentalists, 
3  distinct  choruses,  and  3  distinct  military  bands.' 
The  first  two  took  place  at  Exeter  Hall  on  June 
1  and  15,  and  a  third  at  the  Surrey  Zoological 
Gardens  on  July  20.  The  programme  of  the  first 
deserves  quotation.  It  was  in  3  parts  :— I.  Da- 
vid's ode-sinfonie  'Le  Desert' — Sims  Reeves  solo 
tenor.    2.  Mendelssohn's  Scotch  Symphony.   3.  A 

1  An  amusing  account  of  Berlioz's  early  enthusiasm,  and  Its  gradual 
evaporation,  will  be  found  In  his  '  Correspondance  Inedite'  (1879), 
letters  xxxv  to  jcliv. 

»  '  Musical  World/  March  24, 186a 


JULLIEN. 


45 


miscellaneous  concert,  with  Anna  Thillon,  Jetty 
Treffz,  Miss  Dolby,  Braham,  Pischek,  Dreyschoeck, 
Molique,  etc.,  etc.  This  project  too,  if  we  may  judge 
from  its  sudden  abandonment,  ended  disastrously. 
In  1852  he  wrote  the  opera  of  'Pietro  il  Grande,' 
and  brought  it  out  on  the  most  magnificent  scale 
at  the  Royal  Italian  Opera,  Covent  Garden,  on 
Aug.  17,  at  his  own  cost.  The  piece  was  an 
entire  failure,  and  after  five  performances  was 
withdrawn,  leaving  Jullien  a  loser  of  some  thou- 
sands of  pounds.  Shortly  after  this  he  visited 
America  and  remained  there  till  June  28,  1854. 
On  his  return  he  resumed  the  regular  routine  of 
his  metropolitan  and  provincial  concerts.  But 
misfortunes  pursued  him.  On  March  5,  1856, 
Covent  Garden  theatre  was  burnt  to  the  ground, 
and  the  whole  of  his  music — in  other  words,  his 
entire  stock  in  trade — was  destroyed  ;  an  irrepar- 
able loss,  since  his  quadrilles  and  other  original 
pieces  were  in  MS.  In  1857  he  became  involved 
in  the  Royal  Surrey  Gardens  Company,  and  lost 
between  £5000  and  £6000.  This  enabled  him 
to  add  to  his  achievements  by  conducting  ora- 
torios, but  the  loss,  the  protracted  worry  and 
excitement  attending  the  winding  up  of  the  Com- 
pany, and  the  involved  state  of  his  own  affairs, 
which  had  been  notoriously  in  disorder  for  some 
years  and  were  approaching  a  crisis,  must  have 
told  severely  on  him.  The  next  season  was 
his  last  in  this  country.  He  gave  a  series  of 
Farewell  Concerts  at  the  usual  date — this  time 
at  the  Lyceum,  with  a  band  reduced  to  60— 
made  a  Farewell  provincial  tour,  and  then,  pro- 
bably forced  thither  by  pecuniary  reasons,  went 
to  Paris.  There  on  the  2nd  of  May,  1859,  he  was 
arrested  for  debt  and  put  in  prison  at  Clichy, 
but  on  the  22nd  of  the  following  month  was 
brought  up  before  the  court,  heard,  and  liberated 
with  temporary  protection.  Early  in  March  fol- 
lowing an  advertisement  appeared  in  the  papers 
headed  '  Jullien  Fund,'  stating  that  he  was  in  a 
lunatic  asylum  near  Paris,  and  appealing  to  the 
public  on  his  behalf.  Scarcely  however  was  the 
advertisement  in  type  when  the  news  arrived  of 
his  death  on  March  14,  i860. 

No  one  at  all  in  the  same  category  with  Jullien, 
at  least  in  our  time,  has  occupied  anything  like 
the  same  high  position  in  public  favour.  'His 
name  was  a  household  word  and  his  face  and 
figure  household  shapes,  during  a  period  of  nearly 
20  years.'  Whatever  the  changes  in  his  fortune  his 
popularity  never  waned  or  varied.  '  Your  house,' 
says  Lord  Beaconsfield  in  3Tancred,  describing  the 
most  favourable  conditions  for  ball -giving  conceiv- 
able in  1846, — 'your  house  might  be  decorated 
like  a  Russian  palace,  you  might  have  Jullien  pre- 
siding over  your  orchestra,  and  a  banquet  worthy 
of  the  Romans.'  And  similar  allusions  were  made 
every  day  in  the  periodicals.  And  why  so  ?  Be- 
cause, with  much  obvious  charlatanism,  what  J  ul- 
lien  aimed  at  was  good,  and  what  he  aimed  at  he 
did  thoroughly  well.  He  was  a  public  amuser,  but 
he  was  also  a  public  reformer.  '  By  his  frequent 
performances  of  the  music  of  Mozart,  Beethoven, 
Mendelssohn,  and  other  great  masters,  and  by  the 

*  Book  t,  chap.  7. 


4-6 


JULLIEN. 


constant  engagement  of  the  most  eminent  per- 
formers, he  elicited  at  first  the  unconscious  atten- 
tion, and  then  the  enthusiastic  appreciation,  of  the 
vast  multitudes  that  besieged  his  concerts,  and 
that  not  merely  in  London  but  all  over  the  pro- 
vinces of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  This  will 
probably  tend  to  preserve  his  memory  among  us 
even  more  than  his  unrivalled  energy  and  talent, 
or  his  unprecedented  zeal  and  liberality  as  a  public 
entertainer.  To  Jullien  moreover  is  attributable  in 
a  large  measure  the  immense  improvement  which 
our  orchestras  have  made  during  the  last  20  years, 
he  having  been  the  means  not  only  of  bringing 
over  some  of  the  greatest  foreign  instrumentalists, 
but  of  discovering  and  nurturing  the  promise  of 
many  English  performers,  who  through  the  pub- 
licity he  placed  at  their  disposal,  no  less  than 
through  their  own  industry  and  ability,  have 
since  attained  acknowledged  '  eminence.'  [G.] 
JULLIEN'S  MILITARY  JOURNAL,  a 
periodical  repertoire  of  music  arranged  for  a  mili- 
tary band,  consisting  of  dances,  marches,  selections 
from  operas,  oratorios,  symphonies,  etc.  It  was 
started  by  Jullien  in  the  year  1847,  but  in  1857 
came  into  the  hands  of  Messrs.  Boosey  &  Co.,  by 
whom  it  is  published  every  alternate  month  as 
'Boost's  Supplementary  Journal,'  to  distinguish 
it  from  *  Boost's  Military  Journal,'  a  monthly 
repertoire  of  a  similar  kind  started  by  Charles 


KALKBRENNER. 

Boose"  the  eminent  bandmaster  in  1846,  and 
published  by  Messrs.  Boosey  since  1850.  [See 
MlLITABY  JOURNALS.]  [G.] 

JUNGSTE  GERICHT  DAS,  i.e.  the  Last 
Judgment.  Spohr's  first  oratorio.  Written  for 
and  produced  at  the  Festival  at  Erfurt  Aug.  1 5, 
18 1 2,  in  honour  of  Napoleon  I.  It  was  not  suc- 
cessful ;  but  Spohr's  naif  account  of  the  per- 
formance, and  of  his  own  predilection  for  it,3  is 
highly  amusing.  It  is  an  entirely  different  work 
from  '  Die  letzten  Dinge,'  known  in  England  as 
The  Last  Judgment.  [G.] 

JUPITER.  A  sobriquet  bestowed — whether 
by  J.  B.  Cramer  or  not  is  uncertain — on  Mozart's 
49th  and  last  Symphony  in  C  major  (Kbchel, 
551),  and  now  to  some  extent  classical,  since 
even  the  conservative  Mendelssohn  uses  it  in 
his  letter  of  March  7,  1845.  The  symphony  is 
quoted  in  Mozart's  autograph  catalogue,  with 
the  date  Aug.  10,  1788.  The  autograph  is  on 
oblong  paper,  91  pages  of  12  staves  each,  and 
belongs  to  Julius  Andre",  Frankfort.  Mendels- 
sohn was  the  first  to  notice  the  fact  that  a 
favourite  passage  near  the  close  of  the  Andante 
was  an  afterthought.  (See  the  letter  above 
quoted.)  The  symphony  was  published  as  a 
P.  F.  duet  by  Breitkopf  &  Hartel,  with  the 
Finale  of  the  Quintet  in  C  (composed  1787) 
substituted  for  its  own  last  movement.  [G.] 


K 


KALKBRENNER,  Friedrich  Wilhelm 
Michael,  pianist  and  prolific  composer  for 
his  instrument,  was  born  1788  near  Berlin. 
His  father,  Christian  Kalkbrenner,  of  Hebrew 
extraction  and  a  2  musician  of  great  ability,  be- 
gan his  training  early.  In  1 798  he  entered  the 
Conservatoire  at  Paris,  and  left  it,  after  four 
years  of  assiduous  study,  with  a  prize  for  piano- 
forte playing  and  composition.  In  1 8 1 3  he  played 
in  public  at  Berlin  and  Vienna,  heard  Clementi, 
made  Hummel's  acquaintance,  and  was  intro- 
duced by  Haydn  to  Albrechtsberger,  from  whom 
he  had  lessons  in  counterpoint.  From  18 14  to 
1 823  he  resided  in  London,  much  sought  after  as 
a  player  and  fashionable  teacher.  In  1824  he 
settled  in  Paris  as  a  member  of  the  pianoforte- 
making  firm  of  Pleyel  &  Co.  In  Paris  too  his 
success  as  a  performer  and  teacher  was  very  great ; 
he  was  a  shrewd  man  of  business  and  managed 
to  amass  quite  a  fortune.  Madame  Canaille 
Pleyel  was  his  best  pupil.  When  Chopin  came 
10  Paris  in  1 831,  Kalkbrenner's  reputation  was 
at  its  height :  his  compositions,  mostly  written 
for  the  market  and  now  forgotten,  were  upon  the 

1  "The  Musical  World.'  March  24. 1860. 

*  Beethoven  includes  'Kalkbrenner  (Vat  er)'  with  Sterkel  and  others 
of  the  'old,  dead  composers  of  the  Empire'  in  his  denunciation  of 
Gottfried  Weber's  mistakes  in  regard  to  Mozart's  liequiem.  'Ite- 
quiescat  in  pace,'  sajs  he  (Letter,  Feb.  6, 1826).  He  would  hardly 
have  been  content  with  so  mild  a  sneer  If  he  had  known  that  Kalk- 
brenner had '  arranged '  Son  Giovanni  (that  is,  had  altered  the  musio 
and  Interpolated  fresh  pieces)  for  its  appearance  on  the  Paris  stags, 
Sept  17, 1*00  (.see  Lajarte,  ii.  38).    [See  Lachmtu.] 


desks  of  all  dilletanti,  and  his  playing  was  up- 
held as  a  model.  Chopin,  who  was  then  only 
twenty-two  years  of  age  but  had  already  written 
his  two  Concertos,  the  Etudes,  op.  10,  the  first 
Scherzo  and  Ballade,  etc.,  called  on  him  and 
played  his  Concerto  in  E  minor,  whereupon  Kalk- 
brenner came  forward  with  the  astounding  pro- 
posal that  Chopin  should  bind  himself  to  be  his 
pupil  for  three  years  and  thus  under  his  guidance 
become  a  good  artist !  Chopin  took  no  lessons, 
but  soothed  Kalkbrenner  by  dedicating  the  Con- 
certo to  him.  In  a  letter  dated  Dec.  16,  1831, 
Chopin  speaks  in  high  terms  of  Kalkbrenner's 
technique,  praises  his  charming  equable  touch 
and  quiet  self-possession,  and  says  that  Herz  was 
a  zero  compared  with  him.  Still  Chopin  seems 
from  the  first  to  have  been  of  Mendelssohn's 
opinion,  who  said  to  him  soon  after,  'You  had 
nothing  to  learn  from  Kalkbrenner;  you  play 
better  than  he  does.' 

Kalkbrenner  was  a  man  of  great  vanity,  and 
far  from  scrupulous  as  to  the  means  by  which 
he  strove  to  enhance  his  reputation.  The  late 
Professor  Marx  used  to  tell  a  story  how  Kalk- 
brenner called  on  him  in  1834  at  Berlin,  anxious 
to  make  a  good  impression,  as  the  Professor  was 
then  editor  of  the  new  'Berliner  Musikzeitung * 
and  an  influential  personage.  The  visitor  in 
moving  terms  deplored  the  decay  of  the  good  old 
art  of  improvisation,  saying  that  since  Hummel 
>  Selbstbiographle,  1 169. 


KALKBRENNER. 

had  retired  he  was  the  only  one  who  still 
cultivated  it  in  the  true  classical  spirit.  He 
opens  the  piano  and  improvises  for  a  quarter 
of  an  hour  with  fluent  fancy  and  great  neatness, 
interweaving  all  manner  of  themes,  even  a  little 
fugue,  much  to  the  Professor's  edification.  Next 
day  a  parcel  of  music  just  printed  at  Paris  arrives 
for  review.  The  Professor,  greatly  interested, 
opens  the  topmost  piece — '  Effusio  Musica,  par 
Fred.  Kalkbrenner ' :  when  lo  and  behold  !  he  has 
yesterday's  improvisation  before  him,  fugue  and 
all,  note  for  note ! 

An  instruction-book  with  Etudes  belonging  to 
it  is  the  best  thing  Kalkbrenner  left.  His 
attainments  as  a  musician  are  shown  in  four 
pianoforte  concertos,  one  for  two  pianos,  a  septet, 
sextet  and  quintet,  and  various  sonatas ;  all  cor- 
rectly and  well  written  for  the  instrument,  but 
dull  and  trite,  spite  of  the  glitter  of  what  was 
called  a  '  brilliant '  style. 

Kalkbrenner  died  of  cholera  at  Enghien  near 
Paris  on  June  10,  1849.  [E.D.] 

KALLIWODA,  Johann  Wenzeslaus,  a  violin 
player  and  popular  composer,  was  born  at  Prague 
March  21,  1800.  From  18 11  to  181 7  he  was 
a  pupil  of  the  Conservatorium,  and  from  181 7  to 
1823  a  member  of  the  orchestra  of  that  town. 
During  a  visit  to  Munich  he  was  introduced  to 
Prince  Furstenberg,  who  took  a  lively  interest 
in  his  talent  and  appointed  him  conductor  of  his 
private  band  at  Donaueschingen,  which  post 
Kalliwoda  retained,  in  spite  of  various  offers  from 
more  important  places,  for  the  rest  of  his  pro- 
fessional life,  till  he  retired  on  a  pension  in  1853. 
He  died  at  Carlsruhe  Dec.  3,  1866. 

Kalliwoda,  as  a  violinist,  is  regarded  as  one  of 
the  best  representatives  of  the  Prague  school 
under  F.  W.  Pixis.  Without  possessing  very 
startling  qualities  of  execution  or  style,  his  per- 
formances showed  a  well-finished  technique,  a 
sympathetic  but  not  large  tone,  and  were  alto- 
gether more  remarkable  for  elegance  and  a  certain 
pleasantness  than  for  vigour  or  depth  of  feeling. 

As  he  travelled  but  little,  his  reputation 
mainly  rests  on  his  compositions.  They  consist 
of  seven  Symphonies — F  minor  (1826);  Eb;  D 
minor ;  C ;  B  minor  (op.  106) ;  G  minor ;  and 
F — Overtures,  Concertinos  and  other  Solo-pieces 
for  the  violin  and  other  orchestral  instruments, 
especially  the  Clarinet,  Quartets  for  stringed 
instruments,  Violin-Duets,  Pianoforte-pieces,  and 
a  number  of  songs.  Many  of  his  works  have 
enjoyed  for  some  time,  and  chiefly  in  amateur- 
circles,  a  considerable  popularity,  and  the  Index 
of  the  Leipzig  Allg.  Mus.  Zeitung  shows  a  long 
list  of  performances.  The  works  are  certainly 
not  of  much  importance  in  an  artistic  sense,  and 
show  little  originality;  but  on  the  other  hand, 
they  are  free  from  laboured  efforts  and  ambitious 
striving  after  startling  effects,  are  written  in 
a  thoroughly  musicianly,  unpretentious,  and  un- 
affected style,  easy  to  understand,  pleasing  and 
effective.  Their  day  is  now  over,  but  Schumann 
(in  his  *  Gesamm.  Schriften,'  iii.  2  78)  speaks  of 
Kalliwoda's  5th  Symphony  with  enthusiasm,  and 
mentions  the  interesting  fact   that   only  a  few 


KARAJAN. 


47 


years  previously  Kalliwoda  had  put  himself  under 
Tomaschek  of  Prague  for  improvement  in  some 
branches  of  counterpoint  in  which  he  felt  himself 
weak.  Schumann  further  testified  his  esteem  by 
dedicating  his  Intermezzi  (op.  4)  '  al  Sign.  Kalli- 
woda.' In  the  history  of  the  music  of  the  last 
50  years,  Kalliwoda  occupies  as  an  orchestral 
composer  a  position  somewhat  analogous  to  On- 
slow's as  a  composer  of  chamber-music. 

His  son  Wilhelm,  born  at  Donaueschingen 
July  19,  1827,  was  thoroughly  well  brought  up 
by  his  father,  and  was  for  a  short  time  a  pupil  of 
Mendelssohn's  at  Leipzig  in  1847,  and  of  Haupt- 
mann's  in  1848.  He  held  various  posts  at 
Carlsruhe  with  credit  to  himself,  but  was  com- 
pelled by  ill  health  to  forsake  work.  [P.  D.] 

KANDLER,  Franz  Sales,  a  musical  his- 
torian, to  whom  we  owe  an  admirable  condensa- 
tion of  Baini's  Palestrina ;  born  Aug.  23,  1792, 
at  Kloster-Neuburg  in  Lower  Austria.  He 
belonged  to  the  War  Office,  and  went  as  in- 
terpreter with  the  army  to  Venice  and  Naples 
in  181 7  and  1821.  He  died  of  cholera  at  Baden 
(Beethoven's  Baden)  Sept.  26,  1831.  His  two 
works  are  '  Cenni  storico-critici  alia  vita  ed  opere 
del  .  .  .  G.  Ad.  Hasse'  (Venice,  1820;  2nd  ed., 
Naples,  1820),  and  that  above  mentioned,  'TJeber 
das  Leben  und  die  Werke  des  .  .  .  Palestrina,' 
etc.  This  was  published  after  Kandler's  death 
by  Kiesewetter  (Leipzig,  B.  &  H.  1834).       [G.] 

KAPELLE,  a  musical  establishment,  usually 
orchestral.  The  word  was  formerly  applied  to 
the  private  band  of  a  prince  or  other  magnifico, 
but  is  now  used  to  denote  any  band.  Thus  at 
Berlin,  the  Kaiserliche  konigliche  Kapelle  (97 
musicians,  called  Kammermusiker)  forms  the 
regular  orchestra  of  the  Grand  Opera,  with  two 
Kapellmeisters  (Conductors),  a  Concertmeister 
(Leader  or  1st  Violin),  and  a  Balletdirigent 
(Balletmaster).  The  orchestra  of  the  Crj'stal 
Palace  would  in  Germany  be  called  the  Kapelle, 
and  Mr.  Manns  the  Kapellmeister. 

The  smallest  Kapelle  existing  is  probably  that 
of  the  Duke  of  Sigmaringen,  which  consists  of  a 
pianoforte  player  and  a  sextet  of  strings.      [G.] 

KARAJAN,  Theodob  Geobg,  Ritteb  von, 
Dr.  juris,  philologist  and  historian,  born  at  Vienna 
Jan.  22, 1810 ;  clerk  (1841)  and  custos  (1854)  in 
the  court  library,  appointed  vice-president  (1851) 
and  president  (1859)  of  the  Akademie  der  Wis- 
senschaften ;  received  the  order  of  Leopold  in 
1870,  and  died  April  28, 1873.  His  philological 
works  are  numerous  and  important ;  but  his  title 
to  admission  here  is  his  pamphlet,  '  J.  Hadyn  in 
London,  1791  and  1792  '  (Vienna,  Gerold,  1861). 
In  addition  to  matter  from  the  well-known  pam- 
phlets of  Dies  and  Griesinger,  it  contains  a  num- 
ber of  Hadyn's  letters,  chiefly  from  London  and 
Estoras,  to  his  friend  Maria  Anna  von  Genzinger, 
the  wife  of  Leopold  Peter,  Edler  von  Genzinger, 
an  esteemed  physician,  with  four  from  the  lady 
herself.  She  played  the  piano  well,  and  even 
composed.  Haydn  wrote  several  sonatas  for  her, 
and  whenever  he  was  in  Vienna  spent  much  of 
his  time  at  her  house,  where  a  pleasant  musical 


48 


KARAJAN. 


society  was  generally  to  be  found.  Karajan  also 
furnished  his  friend  Otto  Jahn  with  valuable 
material  for  his  book  on  Mozart.  [C.F.P.] 

KAUKA,  Johann  VON,  Dr.  juris,  born  at 
Prague  Nov.  10, 1772,  is  named  here  not  for  his 
music,  though  he  published  a  Pianoforte  Concerto, 
a  Cantata,  and  compositions  to  Collin's  War 
Songs,  but  for  his  warm  attachment  to  Beethoven 
and  for  the  eminent  service  he  rendered  him, 
since  it  was  chiefly  through  his  means  that  the 
dispute  with  the  Kinsky  family  was  abandoned 
and  an  advantageous  compromise  effected.  Kau- 
ka's  father  was,  like  himself,  at  once  an  eminent 
lawyer  and  a  thorough  musician,  and  his  grand- 
father had  been  equally  eminent  as  an  architect. 
The  family  lived  in  Prague,  and  Beethoven  was 
intimate  with  them  in  the  early  days  of  his 
residence  in  Austria.  Kauka  the  younger  wrote 
and  edited  books  on  Austrian  and  Bohemian  law, 
which  were  much  esteemed  by  his  profession 
(Thayer,  ii.  9;  iii.  299).  He  was  Dean  (1815I 
and  Rector  (1829)  ot  the  University,  and  died 
full  of  years  and  honours,  April  15,  1865.     [G.] 

KEEBLE,  John,  was  born  at  Chichester  in 
171 1  and  was  brought  up  as  a  chorister  in  the 
cathedral  under  Thomas   Kelway.     He   after- 
wards became  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Pepusch,  and  was  I 
in  1737  appointed  successor  to  Thomas  Rosein-  I 
grave  as  organist  of  St.  George's,  Hanover  Square,  | 
allowing  Roseingrave  one  half  of  the  salary  until 
his  death  in  1750.     Keeble  was  also  organist  at 
Ranelagh  Gardens.     In  1784  he  published  'The 
Theory  of  Harmonics,  or,  an  Illustration  of  the 
Grecian   Harmonica,'  a  work   which  attracted  ! 
attention.      He  published  five  books  of  organ  j 
pieces,  and,  jointly  with  Kirkman,  '40  Interludes  J 
to  be  played  between  the  verses  of  the  Psalms.'  I 
He  was  an  excellent  organist  and  able  teacher.  I 
He  died  Dec.  24,  1 786.  [W.  H.  H.]  | 

KEISER,  Reinhard,  an  eminent  German 
opera-composer,  born  1673  nearWeissenfels,  Leip- 
zig. He  was  grounded  in  music  by  his  father,  1 
a  sound  church  composer,  and  afterwards  at-  I 
tended  the  Thomas-schule  and  the  University  of 
Leipzig,  at  the  same  time  coming  frequently  be- 
fore the  public  at  the  many  concerts  renowned 
even  then  for  their  excellence.  In  1692  he  was 
commissioned  to  set  a  pastoral,  '  Ismene,'  for  the 
court  of  Brunswick,  and  its  success  procured  him 
the  libretto  of  'Basilius.'  In  1694  he  removed 
to  Hamburg,  and  there  remained  for  40  years  a 
favourite  with  the  public.  '  Irene '  (1697)  was 
the  first  of  a  series  of  116  operas  composed  for 
the  Hamburg  theatre,  each  containing  from  40  to 
50  airs,  besides  operas  in  collaboration  with  others, 
and  sacred  music.  Keiser  was  luxurious  and 
self-indulgent,  and  led  an  adventurous  life,  but 
without  sacrificing  his  love  of  art  or  his  taste 
for  intellectual  enjoyments.  In  1700  he  opened 
a  series  of  winter-concerts,  which  formed  a  re- 
markable combination  of  intellectual  and  sensual 
gratification  ;  the  most  accomplished  virtuosi,  the 
finest  and  best-looking  singers,  a  good  orchestra, 
and  carefully  selected  programmes,  furnishing  the 
former,  and  a  banquet  of  choice  viands  and  wines 


KEISER. 

the  latter.  In  1 703  he  assumed  the  direction  of 
the  opera  in  conjunction  with  Driisicke,  but  his 
partner  absconded,  and  the  whole  burden  fell 
upon  the  shoulders  of  Keiser.  He  proved  equal 
to  the  emergency,  for  in  one  year  (1709)  he  com- 
posed 8  operas,  married  the  daughter  of  a  Ham- 
burg patrician,  and  musician  to  the  municipality 
'Oldenburg,'  and  having  completely  reinstated 
his  affairs,  plunged  into  all  his  former  extra- 
vagant indulgence.  In  1 716  he  resumed  his  con- 
certs; in  1722  visited  Copenhagen  and  was 
appointed  Capellmeister  to  the  King  of  Denmark ; 
in  1728  was  made  Cantor  and  Canon  of  the 
cathedral,  and  again  turned  his  attention  to 
sacred  music.  He  composed  his  last  opera, '  Circe,' 
in  1 734,  and  died  in  1 7  39.  His  wife  and  daughter 
are  said  to  have  been  accomplished  singers. 

Keiser  exercised  an  important  though  not  a 
permanent  influence  on  German  opera.  The 
perfection  to  which  at  first  he  raised  the  opera 
at  Hamburg,  speedily  degenerated  into  mere 
outward  show  a*d  trivial  if  not  vulgar  farce, 
but  the  sensation  he  produced  at  first  is  described 
by  his  contemporaries  as  extraordinary.  Mathe- 
son,  who  was  not  likely  to  exaggerate  the  suc- 
cesses of  a  rival,  in  his  life-like  picture  of  the 
musical  condition  of  Hamburg,  calls  Keiser  the 
first  dramatic  composer  in  the  world,  and  says 
that  no  other  music  than  that  of  '  dieser  galante 
Componist '  was  either  sung  or  listened  to.  His 
melodies  were  smooth  and  graceful,  and  fell  upon 
the  ear  'bike  charmed  accents  after  the  dull 
pedantries  of  the  contrapuntists  of  the  day.' 
That  his  melody  was  spontaneous  his  facility 
itself  proves,  and  he  was  the  first  who  en- 
deavoured to  convey  the  sentiment  of  the  cha- 
racter in  the  music.  This  was  the  secret  of  his 
success,  and  it  was  by  this  that  he  enabled 
German  opera  to  hold  its  own  against  the  de- 
clamation of  the  French,  and  the  melody  and 
fine  singing  of  the  Italians.  In  sacred  music  he 
shines  chiefly  in  oratorio,  which  he  treated  dra- 
matically, but  with  an  earnestness  and  dignity 
surprising  in  a  man  of  his  character.  In  judging 
Keiser  in  this  department  we  must  not  forget 
that  Bach's  Passions,  and  Handel's  Oratorios 
were  then  not  known,  scarcely  even  composed ; 
yet  notwithstanding  his  want  of  models,  his 
works  compare  favourably  with  the  insipid  sacred 
music  of  the  latter  half  of  the  18th  century, 
produced  under  far  greater  advantages  than  were 
open  to  him.  His  sacred  compositions  include 
'  Der  fur  die  Siinde  der  Welt  gemarterte  und 
sterbende  Jesus' ;  '  Der  verurtheilte  und  gekreu- 
zigte  Jesus'  (poem  by  Brock es  of  Hamburg) ;  a 
Passion  according  to  St.  Mark,  said  to  be  fine ; 
and  other  historical  oratorios,  motets,  cantatas, 
and  psalms.  He  published  extracts  from  the  two 
first  named  works,  viz.  'Auserlesene  Soliloquia' 
(1 714),  and  'Selige  Erlbsungs-Gedanken'  (17 15) ; 
airs  from  various  operas,  cantatas  for  a  single 
voice,  and  several  vocal  collections  with  various 
titles,  such  as  'Divertimenti  serenissimi,'  'Kaiser- 
liche  Friedenspost,'  '  Musikalische  Landlust,'  etc. 
Important  portions  of  his  operas  and  sacred 
works  have  been  published  by  Lindner,  in  his 


KEISER. 

'Erste  stehende  Deutsche  Oper,'  ii.  3-15  ;  Reiss- 
mann,  in  his  'Allg.  Geschichte  der  Musik,'  iii. 
54-73  and  App.  Nos.  7  and  8 ;  and  von  Winter- 
feld  in  his  '  Evangelische  Kirchengesang,'  vol.  iii. 
Adam  Hiller  included  an  unaccompanied  motet 
— 'Kindlich  gross' — in  his  ' Vierstimmige  Mo- 
tetten,'  etc.  vol.  ii,  and  there  is  a  fugue  for  4 
voices,  'Gott  ist  offenbaret,'  in  the  'Auswahl 
vorziiglicher  musikwerke.'  [A.  M.] 

KELER  BELA,  whose  real  name  is  Albert 
von  Keler,  was  born  at  Bartfeld  in  Hungary, 
Feb.  13,  1820.  After  attempting  both  the  law  and 
farming  he  settled  himself  to  music,  and  in  1845 
began  regular  study  at  Vienna  under  Schlesinger 
and  Sechter,  playing  the  fiddle  in  the  band  of  the 
Theater-an-der-Wien  at  the  same  time.  May  7, 
1854  he  took  the  command  of  Gung'l's  band  in 
Berlin,  and  began  his  career  as  conductor,  solo- 
player,  and  composer.  After  a  few  months  in 
Berlin  he  returned  to  Vienna,  and  succeeded  to 
Banner's  position  at  the  head  of  that  celebrated 
band.  This  again  he  left  before  long  for  an  infantry 
regiment.  As  bandmaster  to  the  latter  he  was 
called  to  Wiesbaden  in  1863,  and  in  70  became 
Kapellmeister  of  the  Kur  orchestra  there,  a  post 
which  he  resigned  from  ill  health  in  1872.  He 
still  resides  in  Wiesbaden,  and  celebrated  his  silver 
anniversary  on  May  7,  79.  His  works,  which  have 
reached  op.  130,  consist  of  overtures,  dance  music, 
and  pieces  for  solo  violin,  all  distinguished  for 
showy  brilliant  style  and  clever  orchestration. 
Among  the  most  popular  are  his  Hofnungssterne 
waltz,  Hurrah-Sturm  galop,  and  Friedrich-Karl 
march.  [G.] 

KELLOGG,  Clara  Louise,  though  born  in 
Sumterville,  South  Carolina,  in  July  1842,  is  of 
northern  extraction.  Her  mother  had  consider- 
able talent  as  a  musician,  and  Clara  was  her  only 
child.  In  1856  they  removed  to  New  York, 
where  she  received  the  whole  of  her  musical 
education.  She  made  her  first  appearance  there, 
at  the  Academy  of  Music  (Opera),  as  Gilda  in 
Kigoletto,  in  1861,  and  sang  that  season  10  or  12 
times.  In  1867  (Nov.  2)  she  made  her  de"but  in 
London  at  Her  Majesty's  as  Margherita,  sang 
constantly,  and  was  re-engaged  for  the  next  year. 
From  1868  to  1872  she  was  touring  in  the  United 
States.  On  May  11,  1872,  she  re-appeared  in 
London  at  Drury  Lane,  Her  Majesty's  Opera,  as 
Linda,  and  sang  during  that  season  also  as  Gilda. 
On  her  return  to  the  United  States  she  continued 
to  sing  in  Italian  opera  till  1874,  when  she 
organised  an  English  troupe,  herself  superintend- 
ing the  translation  of  the  words,  the  mise  en 
scene,  the  training  of  the  singers,  and  the  re- 
hearsals of  the  chorus.  Such  was  her  devotion 
to  the  project,  that  in  the  winter  of  74-75  she 
sang  no  fewer  than  125  nights.  It  is  satisfactory 
to  hear  that  the  scheme  was  successful.  Miss 
Kellogg's  musical  gifts  are  great.  She  is  said  to 
be  familiar  with  thirty-five  operas.    She  has  great 

I  conscientiousness  as  an  artist,  ardent  enthusiasm, 
and  a  voice  of  great  compass  and  purity.  In 
addition  to  which  she  has  a  remarkable  talent  for 
business  and  is  never  so  happy  as  when  she  is 
doing  a  good  or  benevolent  action.  [G.] 

VOL.  u. 


KELLY. 


49 


KELLY,  Michael,  was  born  in  Dublin  about 
1764,  was  taught  singing  by  Passerini,  Peretti, 
and  St.  Giorgio,  and  ultimately  by  Rauzzini,  on 
whose  advice  his  father  sent  him  to  Naples  to 
Btudy.  Before  quitting  Dublin,  however,  a 
fortuitous  circumstance  led  to  his  appearance  on 
the  stage  as  the  Count  in  Piccinni's  'Buona 
Figliuola,'  and  that  again  to  his  performing  the 
hero  in  Michael  Arne's  '  Cymon,'  and  Lionel  in 
'Lionel  and  Clarissa.'  On  May  1,  1779,  he 
quitted  Dublin,  and  arrived  in  Naples  May  30. 
He  placed  himself  under  the  tuition  of  Finaroli, 
head  of  the  Conservatorio  of  La  Madonna  di 
Loreto.  He  subsequently  studied  under  Aprile, 
with  whom  he  visited  Palermo,  and  then  went 
successively  to  Leghorn,  Florence,  Bologna,  and 
Venice,  ultimately  reaching  Vienna,  where  he 
was  engaged  at  the  Court  theatre.  There  he 
remained  four  years,  enjoying  the  intimate 
friendship  of  Mozart,  who  on  the  production  of 
his  'Nozze  di  Figaro'  allotted  to  Kelly  (whose 
name  he  spells  '  Occhely '  in  his  MS.  catalogue) 
the  parts  of  Basilio  and  Don  Curzio.  Being 
anxious  to  visit  England  Kelly  obtained  leave 
of  absence  from  the  Emperor,  and  in  Feb.  1787 
quitted  Vienna  in  company  with  Stephen  Storace, 
his  mother  and  sister — Signora  Storace — and 
Attwood.  He  appeared  at  Drury  Lane  on  April 
20,  in  his  old  part  of  Lionel,  and  continued 
there  as  first  tenor  until  he  quitted  the  stage. 
He  also  sang  at  the  Concert  of  Ancient  Music, 
the  Handel  performances  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
and  in  the  provinces.  In  1789  he  made  his 
first  appearance  as  a  composer  by  the  produc- 
tion of  the  music  to  two  pieces  called  'False 
Appearances'  and  'Fashionable  Friends,'  and 
from  that  date  till  1820  furnished  the  music 
for  62  dramatic  pieces,  besides  writing  a  con- 
siderable number  of  English,  Italian  and  French 
single  songs,  etc.  In  1793  he  was  engaged  at  the 
King's  Theatre,  of  which  he  was  for  many  years 
acting  manager.  On  Jan.  1,  1802,  he  opened  a 
music  shop  in  Pall  Mall  adjoining  the  Opera 
House,  but  this  promising  speculation  failed 
owing  to  his  inattention,  and  in  181 1  he  was 
made  a  bankrupt.  He  also  engaged  in  the  wine 
trade,  and  this  circumstance,  combined  with 
the  suspicion  that  some  of  Kelly's  compositions 
were  derived  from  foreign  sources,  led  Sheridan 
to  propose  that  he  should  inscribe  over  his  shop, 
'Michael  Kelly,  Composer  of  Wines  and  Im- 
porter of  Music'  On  Sept.  5,  181 1,  at  Dublin, 
Kelly  made  his  last  appearance  on  the  stage. 
In  1826  he  published  his  'Reminiscences'  in 
2  vols.  8vo.  This  entertaining  work,  which 
reached  a  second  edition  in  the  same  year,  was 
written  by  Theodore  Hook  from  materials  fur- 
nished by  Kelly.  Its  personal  notices  of  Mozart 
are  both  interesting  and  important,  and  have 
been  done  justice  to  by  Otto  Jahn  (2nd  ed.  ii. 
242,  etc.)  Kelly  died  at  Margate,  Oct.  9,  1826. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  pieces  for  which  he 
composed  the  music : — 

'Falsa  Appearances'  and  'Fash- .Castle  Spectre. 'HOT;  'Blue Beard.' 
lonable  Friends.'  1789 ;  'A  Friend  |'Tbe  Outlaws.'  "The  Captive  of 
In  need.' '  The  Last  of  the  Family,'  Spielberg '  (with  Dussek),  and '  Au- 
' The  Chimney  Corner,'  and  'The  rello  and  Miranda,'  1798;  'Feudal 

E 


50 


KELLY. 


try,'  '  The  Wood  Demon  (with  M. 
T.  King), '  The  Bouse  of  Morville,' 
' AdelKitha,"  and  'Time's  a  tell- 
tale," 1807 ; '  The  Jew  of  Mogadore," 
*  The  Africans,"  and '  Venoni,"  1808 ; 
'  The  Foundling  of  the  Forest '  and 
'The  Jubilee,"  1809;  'Gustavus 
Vasa'  and  a  Ballet,  1810;  'The 
Peasant  Boy,'  'The  Royal  Oak," 
and  'One  o'clock,'  1811;  '  The  Ab- 
sent Apothecary,' '  The  Bussians,' 
'Polly,'  'The  Bluslon,'  and  'Har- 
lequin Harper,'  1813;  'The  Re- 
morse,' 1814;  'The  Unknown 
Guest,'  1815 : '  The  Fall  of  Taranto,' 
1817 ;  '  The  Bride  of  Abydos,"  1818  j 
'Abudah,'  1819;  and  'The  Lady 
and  the  Devil,'  1820. 


Times'  and  'Pizarro,'  1799;  'Of 
age  to-morrow,'  '  De  Montfort,' 
aud  'The  Indians.'  1800:  'Deaf 
and  Dumb,'  'Adelmorn  the  Out- 
law,' and  '  The  Gipsy  Prince,'  1801 ; 
'Urania.'  'Algonah.'  and  'A 
House  to  be  sold."  1802 ;  •  The  Hero 
of  the  North,' '  The  Marriage  Pro- 
mise,' and  'Love  laughs  at  lock- 
smiths." 1803;  'Cinderella,'  'The 
Counterfeit,'  'The  Hunter  of  the 
Alps,'  '  The  Gay  Deceivers,'  '  The 
Blind  Bargain,'  and  'The  land  we 
live  in,'  1804;  'The  Honey  Moon,' 
'A  Prior  Claim,'  and  'Youth, 
Love,  and  Folly,"  1805;  '  We  fly  by 
night.'  'The  Forty  Thieves,'  and 
'  Adrian  and  OrHla,'  1806 ;  •  The 
Young  Hussar,' '  Town  and  Coun- 1  [  W,  H.  H."l 

KELWAY,  Joseph,  a  pupil  of  Geminiani, 
was  organist  of  St.  Michael's,  Cornhill,  which  he 
resigned  in  1736  on  being  appointed  organist  of 
St.  Martin's-in-the-Fields  vice  Weldon  deceased. 
Upon  the  arrival  of  Queen  Charlotte  in  England 
Kelway  was  appointed  her  instructor  on  the 
harpsichord.  As  a  harpsichord  player  he  was 
remarkable  for  neatness  of  touch  and  rapidity  of 
execution,  and  for  his  ability  in  performing  Scar- 
latti's pieces.  As  an  organist  he  excelled  in  extem- 
poraneous performance,  of  which  he  was  such  a 
master  as  to  attract  the  most  eminent  musicians 
in  London  (amongst  them  Handel)  to  the 
church  in  order  to  hear  him.  Burney  (iv.  665) 
characterises  his  playing  as  full  of  a  'masterly 
wildness  .  .  .  bold,  rapid,  and  fanciful.'  His  pub- 
lished harpsichord  sonatas  are  very  inferior  to 
his  extemporaneous  effusions.     He  died  in  1782. 

His  elder  brother,  Thomas,  was  educated  as  a 
chorister  in  Chichester  Cathedral,  and  succeeded 
John  Reading  as  organist  there  in  1720.  Seven 
services  and  nine  anthems  by  him  are  contained 
in  a  MS.  volume  in  the  library  of  Chichester 
Cathedral.  His  Evening  Service  in  B  minor  is 
printed  in  Rimbault's  'Cathedral  Music,'  and 
two  others  in  A  minor  and  G  minor  are  published 
by  Novello.  He  died  May  21,  1749.  [W.H.H.] 

KEMBLE,  Adelaide,  younger  daughter  of 
Charles  Kemble,  the  eminent  actor,  was  born  in 
1 8 14  and  educated  for  a  concert  singer.  She 
appeared  first  in  London  and  afterwards  at  the 
York  Festival  in  1835,  but  with  little  success. 
She  then  went  to  Paris  for  improvement,  and 
from  thence  in  1836  to  Germany,  and  early  in 
1839  to  Italy.  In  that  year  she  made  her  ap- 
pearance at  La  Fenice,  Venice,  as  Norma  with 
decided  success.  In  1840  she  sang  at  Trieste, 
Milan,  Padua,  Bologna,  and  Mantua  with  in- 
creasing reputation.  In  1841  she  returned  to 
England  and  appeared  in  an  English  version  of 
'Norma'  with  marked  success.  In  1842  she 
sang  in  English  versions  of '  Le  Nozze  di  Figaro,' 
'  La  Sonnambula,'  '  Semiramide,'  and  '  11  Matri- 
monio  Segreto.'  In  1843  she  was  married  to 
Mr.  Frederick  U.  Sartoris  and  retired  from  the 
profession.  In  1867  she  published  'A  Week  in 
a  French  Country  House.'  [W.  H.  H.] 

KEMP,  Joseph,  Mus.  Doc.,  was  born  in 
Exeter  in  1778,  and  was  placed  as  a  chorister 
in  the  cathedral  under  William  Jackson,  with 
whom  he  continued  as  a  pupil  after  quitting  the 
choir.    In  1802  he  removed  to  Bristol  on  being 


KENT. 

appointed  organist  of  the  cathedral.  In  1 809  he 
resigned  his  appointment  and  settled  in  London. 
In  1808  he  took  the  degree  of  Mus.  Bac.  at  Cam- 
bridge, his  exercise  being  a  '  War  Anthem,  A 
sound  of  battle  is  in  the  land.'  In  1 809  he  was  by 
special  dispensation  permitted  to  proceed  Doctor 
of  Music ;  his  exercise  being  an  anthem  entitled 
•The  Crucifixion.'  On  Oct.  25,  1809,  'The 
Jubilee,'  an  occasional  piece  by  him,  was  pro- 
duced at  the  Haymarket  Theatre.  In  1810  a 
melodrama  called '  The  Siege  of  Isca  [Exeter],  or, 
The  Battles  in  the  West,'  written  by  Dr.  Kemp, 
with  music  by  himself  and  Domenico  Corri,  was 
produced  at  the  theatre  in  Tottenham  Street. 
In  the  same  year  he  lectured  on  his  '  New 
System  of  Musical  Education,'  probably  the  first 
method  propounded  in  England  for  teaching 
music  to  numbers  simultaneously.  In  1814  he 
returned  to  Exeter,  resided  there  till  181 8,  then 
went  to  France,  remained  until  1821,  and  again 
returned  to  Exeter.  He  died  in  London,  May 
22,  1824.  Dr.  Kemp  published  an  anthem, 
'I  am  Alpha  and  Omega' ;  'Twelve  Psalmodical 
Melodies';  'Twelve  Songs';  'Twenty  Double 
Chants ' ;  '  Musical  Illustrations  of  the  Beauties 
of  Shakspeare ' ;  '  Musical  Illustrations  of  The 
Lady  of  the  Lake ' ;  '  The  Vocal  Magazine ' ; 
'  The  New  System  of  Musical  Education,  Part 
I.' ;  and  numerous  single  glees,  songs,  duets,  and 
trios.  [W.H.H.] 

KENDALL,  John,  organist  of  the  church  of 
St.  Marylebone,  published  in  1780  a  book  of 
organ  pieces.  [W.  H.  H.] 

KENT,  James,  born  at  Winchester,  March 
13,  1700,  became  a  chorister  of  the  cathedral 
there  under  Vaughan  Richardson,  but  was 
shortly  afterwards  removed  to  London  and  en- 
tered as  a  chorister  of  the  Chapel  Royal  under 
Dr.  Croft.  There  he  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  sub-dean,  Rev.  John  Dolben,  through  whose 
influence  he  obtained,  on  leaving  the  choir,  the 
post  of  organist  of  the  parish  church  of  Finedon, 
Northamptonshire,  the  seat  of  the  Dolbens. 
He  resigned  his  office  at  Finedon  on  obtaining 
the  organistship  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
which  he  held  till  1737,  when  he  succeeded  John 
Bishop  as  organist  of  the  Cathedral  and  College 
of  Winchester.  He  married  Elizabeth,  daughter 
of  John  Freeman,  a  singer  at  the  theatre  in  the 
time  of  Purcell,  afterwards  a  member  of  the 
choirs  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  St.  Paul's  and  West- 
minster, and  who  died  Dec.  io,  1736.  It  was 
not  until  the  decline  of  life  that  Kent  could  be 
induced  to  publish ;  he  then  printed  a  volume 
containing  12  anthems.  In  1774  ^e  resigned 
his  appointments  in  favour  of  Peter  Fussell, 
and  died  at  Winchester,  May  6,  1776.  After 
his  death  a  volume  containing  a  Morning  and 
Evening  Service  and  8  Anthems  by  him  was 
published  under  the  editorship  of  Joseph  Corfe. 
Kent  assisted  Dr.  Boyce  in  the  compilation  of 
his  '  Cathedral  Music'  His  anthems  have  been 
extravagantly  extolled  by  some,  and  decried  by 
others ;  in  both  cases  unjustly.  They  are 
smooth  and  even  productions,  generally  pleas- 


KENT. 

log,  but  rarely  rising  above  mediocrity.  His 
'Hear  my  Prayer'  was  at  one  time  a  great 
favourite,  but  it  is  a  poor  composition.  He  bor- 
rowed freely  from  Italian  composers,  without 
acknowledgment,  as  is  shown  by  a  volume  full  of 
his  notes  in  the  possession  of  Sir  F.  A.  G.  Ouseley. 
[See  Bassani.]  [W.H.H.] 

KENT  BUGLE,  or  Koyal  Kent  bugle,  an 
improvement  of  the  Key  bugle,  said  to  have  been 
named  in  consequence  of  a  performance  upon  it 
before  H.R.H.  the  Duke  of  Kent  by  Halliday  in 
Dublin,  shortly  after  its  invention.  It  had  a 
complete  chromatic  scale  from  Bb  below  the 
treble  stave  to  C  above, — but  is  now  superseded 
by  valve  instruments.  [G.] 

KEOLANTHE,  or,  thk  unearthly  bride. 
Grand  opera  in  2  acts ;  words  by  Fitzball,  music 
by  Balfe.  Produced  at  English  Opera  House 
March  9,  1841.  [G.] 

KEPER,  John,  of  Hart  Hall,  Oxford,  who 
graduated  as  M.A.  Feb.  11,  1569,  produced  in 
1574  '  Select  Psalms  in  four  parts.'      [W.H.H.] 

KERAULOPHON  (from  KtpavKrjt,  a  horn- 
blower,  and  <puv?j,  a  voice).  An  8-feet  Organ 
Manual  Stop,  of  a  reedy  and  pleasant  quality  of 
tone.  It  was  invented  by  Messrs.  Gray  & 
Davison,  and  used  by  them  for  the  first  time  in 
1843  in  the  organ  they  made  for  St.  Paul's 
Church,  Wilton  Place.  An  example  was  intro- 
duced by  the  French  firm  of  Ducroquet  into 
their  organ  at  St.  Eustache,  Paris,  erected  in 
1854.  [E.J.H.] 

KERL,  Johann  Caspar1,  celebrated  organist, 
born  in  1628,  as  is  to  be  concluded  from  the  Mor- 
tuarium  of  the  old  Augustine  church  of  Munich. 
Mattheson's  '  Ehrenpforte '  contains  the  only  de- 
tails known  of  his  life.  He  came  early  to  Vienna, 
and  learnt  the  organ  from  Valentini,  then  organist, 
afterwards  Capellmeister  to  the  Court,  on  whose 
recommendation  Ferdinand  III.  sent  him  to  Rome 
to  study  under  Carissimi.  In  all  probability  he 
also  learnt  from  Frescobaldi,  possibly  at  the  same 
time  as  his  countryman  Froberger.  Having  re- 
turned to  Germany  he  entered  the  service  of 
the  Bavarian  Elector  on  Feb.  22,  1656,  and  in 
that  capacity  was  present  at  the  coronation  of 
Leopold  I.  at  Frankfurt  (July  22,  1658),  where 
he  is  said  to  have  been  presented  by  Schmelzer 
vice-Court-Capellmeister  to  the  Emperor,  and 
invited  to  improvise  on  a  given  theme  in  presence 
of  the  court.  Some  doubt  is  thrown  on  this  by 
the  fact  that  Schmelzer  did  not  become  vice- 
Capellmeister  till  the  1st  of  Jan.  1671 ;  but 
he  may  well  have  been  in  attendance  on  the 
Emperor  at  Frankfort,  and  at  any  rate  Kerl's 
reputation  as  an  organist  dates  from  the  coro- 
nation. Kerl  remained  at  Munich  for  15  years. 
For  the  Italian  singers  there  he  composed  a 
'Missa  nigra'  entirely  written  in  black  notes, 
and  a  duet  for  two  castrati  '  O  bone  Jesu,' 
the  only  accompaniment  of  which  is  a  ground 
bass  passing  through  all  the  keys.  Besides 
other  church  works,  sonatas  for  2  violins  and 
«  viol  di  gamba,  and   a  'Modulatio  organica 

1  Sot  tod  Kerl,  as  all  dictionaries  say. 


KEY. 


51 


super  Magnificat'  (Munich,  1686),  Mattheson 
mentions  toccatas,  canzonas,  ricercars,  and  ba- 
tailles  of  his  composition  for  the  organ.  In  1673 
he  threw  up  his  post  and  went  to  Vienna,  where 
he  subsisted  by  giving  lessons  at  what  was  then 
a  high  scale  of  remuneration.  When  he  re- 
turned to  Munich  is  not  known,  but  he  died 
there  on  the  13th  of  Feb.  1693.  His  tomb, 
showing  this  date,  was  formerly  in  the  Augustine 
church,  but  that  is  now  the  custom-house,  and 
the  tomb  is  no  longer  discoverable.  His  style  is 
remarkable  for  the  frequent  introduction  of  dis- 
cords resolved  in  a  new  and  unexpected  manner, 
in  which  respect  he  is  deservedly  considered  a 
predecessor  of  Sebastian  Bach.  He  wrote  the 
music  of  the  operas  'Oronte,'  1657;  'Erinto,' 
1 66 1 ;  and  of  the  serenata  in  honour  of  the  birth- 
day of  the  wife  of  the  Elector  (Nov.  6,  1661), 
'H  pretensione  del  Sole.'  One  of  his  canzonas 
has  been  preserved  to  the  world  in  a  singular 
but  most  efficient  way — owing  to  its  insertion  by 
Handel  in  'Israel  in  Egypt '  to  the  words  '  Egypt 
was  glad  when  they  departed.'  The  only  change 
made  is  that  of  the  key,  from  D  minor  to  E  minor. 
Hawkins  gives  the  canzona  in  its  original  form  in 
his  History,  chap.  1 24.  A  toccata  in  C  is  given 
in  Pauer's  '  Alte  Clavier  musik '  vol.  3.     [F.  G.] 

KETTLE-DRUMS  are  copper  or  brass  basins, 
with  a  skin  or  head  that  can  be  tuned  to  a  true 
musical  note.  Used  by  cavalry  and  in  orchestras. 
[Drum,  2,  vol.  i.  p.  463  &.]  [V.  de  P.] 

KEY.  A  word  of  manifold  signification.  It 
means  the  scale  or  system  in  which  modern 
music  is  written;  the  front  ends  of  the  levers  by 
which  the  piano,  organ  or  harmonium  are 
played ;  the  levers  which  cover  or  uncover  the 
holes  in  such  instruments  as  the  flute  and  oboe  ; 
lastly,  an  instruction  book  or  'Tutor.'  English 
is  the  only  language  in  which  the  one  term  has 
all  these  meanings. 

I.  The  systems  of  music  which  preceded  the 
modern  system,  and  were  developed  by  degrees 
into  it,  were  characterised  by  scales  which  not 
only  differed  from  one  another  in  pitch  but  also 
in  the  order  of  succession  of  the  various  inter- 
vals of  which  they  were  composed.  In  modern 
music  the  number  of  notes  from  which  a  scale 
can  commence  is  increased  by  the  more  minute 
subdivision  of  each  octave ;  but  each  of  these 
notes  is  capable  of  being  taken  as  the  starting 
point  of  the  same  scale,  that  is  to  say  of  either 
the  major  or  minor  mode,  which  are  the  only  two 
distinct  scales  recognised  in  modern  music.  This 
forms  a  strong  point  of  contrast  between  the 
ancient  and  modern  styles.  The  old  was  a  sys- 
tem of  scales,  which  differed  intrinsically,  and 
thereby  afforded  facilities  for  varying  qualities 
of  melodic  expression ;  the  modern  is  essentially 
a  system  of  keys,  or  relative  transposition  of 
identical  scales,  by  which  a  totally  distinct  order 
of  effects  from  the  old  style  is  obtained. 

The  standard  scale  called  the  major  mode  is  a 
series  in  which  semitones  occur  between  the  third 
and  fourth  and  between  the  seventh  and  eighth 
degrees  counting  from  the  lowest  note,  all  the 
other  intervals  being  tones.     It  is  obvious  from 

E2 


52 


KEY. 


the  irregularity  of  this  distribution  that  it  is  not 
possible  for  more  than  one  key  to  be  constructed 
of  the  same  set  of  notes.  In  order  to  distinguish 
practically  between  one  and  another,  one  series  is 
taken  as  the  normal  key  and  all  the  others  are 
severally  indicated  by  expressing  the  amount  of 
difference  between  them  and  it.  The  normal  key, 
which  happens  more  by  accident  than  design  to 
begin  on  C,  is  constructed  of  what  are  called 
Naturals,  and  all  such  notes  in  the  entire  system 
as  do  not  occur  in  this  series  are  called  Accidentals, 
In  order  to  assimilate  a  series  which  starts  from 
some  other  note  to  the  series  starting  from  C,  it 
is  necessary  to  indicate  the  notes  alien  to  the 
scale  of  C,  which  will  have  to  be  substituted 
for  such  notes  in  that  scale  as  could  not  occur 
in  the  new  series — in  other  words,  to  indicate  the 
accidentals  which  will  serve  that  purpose  ;  and 
from  their  number  the  musician  at  once  recog- 
nises the  note  from  which  his  series  must  start. 
This  note  therefore  is  called  the  Key-note,  and 
the  artificial  series  of  notes  resulting  from  the 
arrangement  is  called  the  Key.  Thus  to  make  a 
series  of  notes  starting  from  G  relatively  the  same 
as  those  starting  from  C,  the  F  immediately 
below  G  will  have  to  be  supplemented  by  an 
accidental  which  will  give  the  necessary  semi- 
tone between  the  seventh  and  eighth  degrees  of 
the  scale.  Similarly,  D  being  relatively  the  same 
distance  from  G  that  G  is  from  C,  the  same  pro- 
cess will  have  to  be  gone  through  again  to  assimi- 
late the  scale  starting  from  D  to  that  starting 
from  C.  So  that  each  time  a  fifth  higher  is 
chosen  for  a  key-note  a  fresh  accidental  or  sharp 
has  to  be  added  immediately  below  that  note, 
and  the  number  of  sharps  can  always  be  told  by 
counting  the  number  of  fifths  which  it  is  necessary 
to  go  through  to  arrive  at  that  note,  beginning 
from  the  normal  C.  Thus  C— G,  G— D,  D— A, 
A — E  is  the  series  of  four  fifths  necessary  to  be 
gone  through  in  passing  from  C  to  E,  and  the 
number  of  sharps  in  the  key  of  E  is  therefore 
four. 

Conversely,  if  notes  be  chosen  in  a  descending 
series  of  fifths,  to  present  new  key-notes  it  will  be 
necessary  to  flatten  the  fourth  note  of  the  new 
key  to  bring  the  semitone  between  the  third  and 
fourth  degrees ;  and  by  adopting  a  similar  process 
to  that  given  above,  the  number  of  flats  necessary 
to  assimilate  the  series  for  any  new  key-note  can 
be  told  by  the  number  of  fifths  passed  through  in 
a  descending  series  from  the  normal  C. 

In  the  Minor  Mode  the  most  important  and 
universal  characteristic  is  the  occurrence  of  the 
semitone  between  the  second  and  third  instead  of 
between  the  third  and  fourth  degrees  of  the  scale, 
thereby  making  the  interval  between  the  key- 
note and  the  third  a  minor  third  instead  of  a 
major  one,  from  which  peculiarity  the  term 
'  minor'  arises.  In  former  days  it  was  customary 
to  distinguish  the  modes  from  one  another  by 
speaking  of  the  key-note  as  having  a  greater  or 
lesser  third,  as  in  Boyce's  Collection  of  Cathedral 
Music,  where  the  Services  are  described  as  in 
'  the  key  of  Bb  with  the  greater  third '  or  in  '  the 
key  of  D  with  the  lesser  third,'  and  so  forth. 


KEY. 

The  modifications  of  the  upper  part  of  the  scale 
which  accompany  this  are  so  variable  that  no 
rule  for  the  distribution  of  the  intervals  can  be 
given.  The  opposite  requirements  of  harmony 
and  melody  in  relation  to  voices  and  instruments 
will  not  admit  of  any  definite  form  being  taken  as 
the  absolute  standard  of  the  minor  mode ;  hence 
the  Signatures,  or  representative  groups  of  acci- 
dentals, which  are  given  for  the  minor  modes  are 
really  of  the  nature  of  a  compromise,  and  are  in 
each  case  the  same  as  that  of  the  major  scale  of 
the  note  a  minor  third  above  the  key-note  of  the 
minor  scale.  Such  scales  are  called  relatives — 
relative  major  and  relative  minor — because  they 
contain  the  greatest  number  of  notes  in  common. 
Thus  A,  the  minor  third  below  C,  is  taken  as  the 
normal  key  of  the  minor  mode,  and  has  no 
signature  ;  and  similarly  to  the  distribution  of  the 
major  mode  into  keys,  each  new  key-note  which 
is  taken  a  fifth  higher  will  require  a  new  sharp, 
and  each  new  key-note  a  fifth  lower  will  require 
a  new  flat.  Thus  E,  the  fifth  above  A,  will  have 
the  signature  of  one  sharp,  corresponding  to  the 
key  of  the  major  scale  of  G ;  and  D,  the  fifth 
below  A,  will  have  one  flat,  corresponding  to  the 
key  of  the  major  scale  of  F,  and  so  on.  The  new 
sharp  in  the  former  case  falls  on  the  supertonic 
of  the  new  key  so  as  to  bring  the  semitone 
between  the  second  and  third  degrees  of  the 
scale,  and  the  new  flat  in  the  latter  case  falls  on 
the  submediant  of  the  new  key  so  as  to  bring  a 
semitone  between  the  fifth  and  sixth  degrees. 
The  fact  that  these  signatures  for  the  minor 
mode  are  only  approximations  is  however  ren- 
dered obvious  by  their  failing  to  provide  for  the 
leading  note,  which  is  a  necessity  in  modern 
music,  and  requires  to  be  expressly  marked  wher- 
ever it  occurs,  in  contradiction  to  the  signature. 

There  is  a  very  common  opinion  that  the  tone 
and  effect  of  different  keys  is  characteristic,  and 
Beethoven  himself  has  given  some  confirmation 
to  it  by  several  utterances  to  the  point.  Thus  in 
one l  place  he  writes '  H  moll  schwarze  Tonart,'  i.e. 
B  minor,  a  black  key ;  and,  in  speaking  about 
2Klopstock,  says  that  he  is  'always  Maestoso! 
Db  major!'  In  a  letter  to  Thomson3  of  Edin- 
burgh (Feb.  19,  1813),  speaking  of  two  national 
songs  sent  him  to  arrange,  he  says, '  You  have 

ten  them  in    \   ^n       ,    but  as  that  key 


gg 


seemed  to  me  unnatural,  and  so  little  consistent 
with  the  direction  Amoroso  that  on  the  contrary  it 
would  change  it  into  Barbaresco  (qu'au  contraire  il 
le  changerait  en  Barbaresco),  I  have  set  the  song 
in  the  suitable  key.'  This  is  singular,  consider- 
ing his  own  compositions  in  the  key  of  four  flats, 
neither  of  which  can  justly  be  entitled  barbaresco. 
Composers  certainly  seem  to  have  had  predilections 
for  particular  keys,  and  to  have  cast  movements 
in  particular  styles  in  special  keys.  If  the  system 
of  equal  temperament  were  perfectly  carried 
out,  the  difference  would  be  less  apparent  than 

1  In  a  sketch  for  Cello  Sonata,  op.  102,  No.  2,  quoted  by  Xottebohm. 
>  In  a  conversation  with  Eoculitz  (For  Freunde  der  Tonkuust, 
It.  366). 
»  Given  by  Thayer,  HL  45. 


KEY. 

it  is;  but  with  unequal  temperament,  or  when 
the  tuner  does  not  distribute  the  tempering 
of  the  fifths  with  absolute  equality  in  instru- 
ments of  fixed  intonation,  there  is  necessarily 
a  considerable  difference  between  one  key  and 
another.  With  stringed  instruments  the  sonority 
of  the  key  is  considerably  affected  by  the  number 
of  open  strings  which  occur  in  it,  and  their  posi- 
tion as  important  notes  of  the  scale.  Berlioz  has 
given  a  complete  scheme  of  his  views  of  the 
qualities  of  the  keys  for  violins  in  his  Traite" 
^'Instrumentation.  With  keyed  instruments  a 
good  deal  of  the  difference  results  from  the  posi- 
tion of  the  hands  and  technical  considerations 
resulting  therefrom.  A  real  difference  also  is 
obvious  in  keys  which  are  a  good  deal  removed 
from  one  another  in  pitch,  though  inasmuch  as 
pitch  is  not  constant  this  cannot  apply  to  keys 
which  are  near.1  [C. H.H. P.] 

II.  KEY  (Fr.  Touche;  Ital.  Tasto;  Ger.  Taste) 
and  KEYBOAED  of  keyed  stringed  instruments 
(Fr.  Clavier ;  Ital.  Tastatura ;  Ger.  Claviatur, 
Tastatur.)  A  'key'  of  a  pianoforte  or  other 
musical  instrument  with  a  keyboard,  is  a  lever, 
balanced  see-saw  fashion  near  its  centre,  upon 
a  metal  pin.  It  is  usually  of  lime-tree,  because 
that  wood  is  little  liable  to  warp.  Besides  the 
metal  pin  upon  the  balance  rail  of  the  keyframe, 
modern  instruments  have  another  metal  pin  for 
each  key  upon  the  front  rail,  to  prevent  too  much 
lateral  motion.  A  key  is  long  or  short  according 
to  its  employment  as  a  'natural'  or  'sharp,' 
and  will  be  referred  to  here  accordingly,  although 
in  practice  a  sharp  is  also  a  flat,  and  the  written 
sharp  or  flat  occasionally  occurs  upon  a  long  key. 
Each  natural  is  covered  as  far  as  it  is  visible 
with  ivory :  and  each  sharp  or  raised  key  bears  a 
block  of  ebony  or  other  hard  black  wood.  In  old 
instruments  the  practice  in  this  respect  varied, 
as  we  shall  show  presently.  In  English  alone2 
the  name  'key'  refere  to  the  Latin  Clavis,  and 
possibly  to  the  idea  of  unlocking  sound  transferred 
to  the  lever  from  the  early  use  of  the  word  to 
express  the  written  note.  The  Romance  and 
German  names  are  derived  from  'touch.' 

A  frame  or,  technically,  a  'set '  of  keys  is  a  key- 
board, or  clavier  according  to  the  French  appel- 
lation. In  German  Klavier  usually  means  the 
keyed  stringed  instrument  itself,  of  any  kind. 
The  influence  of  the  keyboard  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  modern  music  is  as  conspicuous  as  it  has 
been  important.  To  this  day  C  major  is  '  natural ' 
on  the  keys,  as  it  is  in  the  corresponding  notation. 
Other  scales  are  formed  by  substituting  accidental 
sharps  or  flats  for  naturals  both  in  notation  and 
on  the  keyed  instrument,  a  fact  which  is  evidence 
of  the  common  origin  and  early  growth  together 
of  the  two.  But  the  notation  soon  outgrew  the 
keyboard.  It  has  been  remarked  by  Professor 
Huxley  that  the  ingenuity  of  human  inventions 
has  been  paralleled  by  the  tenacity  with  which 
original  forms  have  been  preserved.     Although 

1  See  a  piper  by  Schumann,  '  Charakteristlk  der  Tonarten.'  In  tall 
'  Gesammelte  Schrlften,'  i.  18a 

*  In  French,  however,  the  keys  of  a  flute  or  other  wood  wind  instru- 
ment are  called  d</'j. 


KEY. 


53 


the  number  of  keys  within  an  octave  of  the  key- 
board are  quite  inadequate  to  render  the  written 
notation  of  the  four  and  twenty  major  and  minor 
modes,  or  even  of  the  semitones  allied  to  the  one 
that  it  was  first  mainly  contrived  for,  no  attempts 
to  augment  the  number  of  keys  in  the  octave  or 
to  change  their  familiar  disposition  have  yet  suc- 
ceeded. The  permanence  of  the  width  of  the 
octave  again  has  been  determined  by  the  average 
span  of  the  hand,  and  a  Ruckers  harpsichord  of 
1614  measures  but  a  small  fraction  of  an  inch 
less  in  the  eight  keys,  than  a  Broadwood  or 
Erard  concert-grand  piano  of  1879.  We  have 
stated  under  Clavichord  that  we  are  with- 
out definite  information  as  to  the  origin  of  the 
keyboard.  We  do  not  exactly  know  where  it  was 
introduced  or  when.  What  evidence  we  possess 
would  place  the  date  in  the  1 4th  century,  and  the 
locality — though  much  more  doubtfully — in  or  near 
Venice.  The  date  nearly  synchronises  with  the 
invention  of  the  clavichord  and  clavicembalo,  and 
it  is  possible  that  it  was  introduced  nearly  simul- 
taneously into  the  organ,  although  which  was 
first  we  cannot  discover.  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that  the  little  portable  organ  or  regal 
may  at  first  have  had  a  keyboard  derived  from 
the  T-shaped  keys  of  the  Hurdy  Gurdt.  The 
first  keyboard  would  be  Diatonic,  with  fluctu- 
ating or  simultaneous  use  of  the  Bb  and  B^j  in 
the  doubtful  territory  between  the  A  and  C  of 
the  natural  scale.  But  when  the  row  of  sharps 
was  introduced,  and  whether  at  once  or  by  de- 
grees, we  do  not  know.  They  are  doubtless 
due  to  the  frequent  necessity  for  transposition, 
and  we  find  them  complete  in  trustworthy 
pictorial  representations  of  the  15th  century. 
There  is  a  painting  by  Memling  in  the  Hospital 
of  St.  John  at  Bruges,  from  whence  it  has  never 
been  removed,  dated  1479,  wherein  the  keyboard 
of  a  regal  is  depicted  exactly  as  we  have  it  in 
the  arrangement  of  the  upper  keys  in  twos  and 
threes,  though  the  upper  keys  are  of  the  same 
light  colour  as  the  lower,  and  are  placed  farther 
back. 

The  oldest  keyed  instrument  we  have  seen 
with  an  undoubtedly  original  keyboard  is  a 
Spinet3  in  the  museum  of  the  Conservatoire  at 
Paris,  bearing  the  inscription  '  Francisci  de 
Portalupis  Veronen.  opus,  MDXXIII.'  The 
compass  is  4  octaves  and  a  half  tone  (from  E 
to  F)  and  the  natural  notes  are  black  with  the 
sharps  white.  The  oldest  known  in  England  is 
a  similar  instrument  of  the  same  compass  in 
South  Kensington  Museum,  the  work  of  Anni- 
bale  Rosso  of  Milan,  dated  1555.  As  usual  in 
Italy,  the  naturals  are  white  and  the  sharps 
black.  The  Flemings,  especially  the  Ruckers, 
oscillated  between  black  and  ivory  naturals. 
(We  here  correct  the  statement  as  to  their  prac- 
tice in  Clavichord,  367  a.)  The  clavichords  of 
Germany  and  the  clavecins  of  France  which  we 
have  seen  have  had  black  naturals,  as,  according 
to  Dr.  Burney,  had  those  of  Spain.  Loosemore  and 
the  Haywards,  in  England,  in  the  time  of  Charles 
II,  used  boxwood  for  naturals ;  a  clavichord  of 

*  No.  215  of  Chouquet's  Catalogue  (1875). 


54 


KEY. 


4^  octaves  existing  near  Hanover  in  1875  had 
the  same — a  clue  perhaps  to  its  date.  Keen  and 
Slade  in  the  time  of  Queen  Anne,  used  ebony. 
Dr.  Burney  writes  that  the  Hitchcocks  also  had 
ivory  naturals  in  their  spinets,  and  two  of  Thomas 
Hitchcock's  still  existing  have  them.  But  one  of 
John  Hitchcock's,  dated  1630,  said  to  have  be- 
longed to  the  Princess  Amelia,  and  now  owned 
by  Mr.  W.  Dale,  has  ebony  naturals.  All  three 
have  a  strip  of  the  colour  of  the  naturals  inserted 
in  the  ivory  sharps,  and  have  5  octaves  compass — 
from  G  to  G,  61  keys  !  This  wide  compass  for 
that  time — undoubtedly  authentic — may  be  com- 
pared with  the  widest  Buckers  to  be  mentioned 
further  on. 

Under  Clavichord  we  have  collected  what 
information  is  trustworthy  of  the  earliest  com- 
pass of  the  keyboards  of  that  instrument.  The 
Italian  spinets  of  the  16th  century  were  nearly 
always  of  4  octaves  and  a  semitone,  but  divided 
into  F  and  C  instruments  with  the  semitone  E  or 
Bi  as  the  lowest  note.  But  this  apparent  E  or  B 
may  from  analogy  with  '  short  octave '  organs — 
at  that  time  frequently  made — have  been  tuned 
C  or  G,  the  fourth  below  the  next  lowest  note.1 
Another  question  arises  whether  the  F  or  C  thus 
obtained  were  not  actually  of  the  same  absolute 
pitch  (as  near  as  pitch  can  be  practically  said  to 
be  absolute).  We  know  from  Arnold  Schlick 
('Spiegel  der  Orgelmacher, '  151 1;  reprinted  in 
'MonatshiftefurMusik-Geschichte,'  Berlin,  1869, 
p.  103)  that  F  and  C  organs  were  made  on  one 
measurement  or  pitch  for  the  lowest  pipe,  and 
this  may  have  been  carried  on  in  spinets,  which 
would  account  for  the  old  tradition  of  their  being 
tuned  '  in  the  fifth  or  the  octave,'  meaning  that 
difference  in  the  pitch  which  would  arise  from 
such  a  system. 

The  Antwerp  (Ruckers)  harpsichords  appear 
to  have  varied  arbitrarily  in  the  compass  of  their 
keyboards.  We  have  observed  E — C  45  notes, 
C— C  49,  B— D  52,  C— E  53,  C— F  54,  G— D  or 
A— E  56,  G— E  or  G— F  (without  the  lowest 
Gj)  58,  F — F  61,  and  in  two  of  Hans  Ruckers  (the 
eldest)  F — G  63  notes.  In  some  instances  however 
these  keyboards  have  been  extended,  even,  as  has 
been  proved,  by  the  makers  themselves. 

The  English  seem  to  have  early  preferred  a 
wide  compass,  as  with  the  Hitchcocks,  already 
referred  to.  Kirkman  and  Shudi  in  the  next 
century,  however,  in  their  large  harpsichords 
never  went  higher  than  F  (q),  although  the 
latter,  towards  the  end  of  his  career,  about 
1770,  increased  his  scale  downwards  to  the  C  (g). 
Here  Kirkman  did  not  follow  him.  Zumpe 
began  making  square  pianos  in  London,  about 
1766,  with  the  G — F  compass  (omitting  the 
lowest  GJ) — nearly  5  octaves — but  soon  adopted 
the  5  octaves,  F — F  (r),  in  which  John  Broad- 
wood,  who  reconstructed  the  square  piano,  fol- 
lowed him.  The  advances  in  compass  of  Messrs. 
Broadwood  and  Sons'  pianofortes  are  as  follows. 
In  1793,  to  5|  octaves,  F  to  C  (s).     In  1796,  6 

1  Vet  Praetorlus  distinctly  describes  the  Halberstadt  organ,  built 
1S39,  re-constructed  1494,  as  having  the  lowest  note  BtJ — the  scale 
proceeding  by  semitones  upwards,  and  we  know  the  sentiment  for  the 
leading  note  had  not  then  been  evolved. 


KEY. 

octaves,  C  to  C  (t) :  this  was  the  compass  of 
Beethoven's  Broadwood  Grand,  1817.  In  1804, 
6  octaves  F  to  F  (u).  In  181 1,  6£  octaves,  C  to 
F  (»).  In  1844  the  treble  G  was  attained,  and  in 
1852  the  treble  A.  But  before  this  the  A — A 
7 -octave  compass  had  been  introduced  by  other 
makers,  and  soon  after  became  general.  Even 
C  appears  in  recent  concert  grands,  and  com- 
posers have  written  up  to  it ;  also  the  deepest  G, 
which  was,  by  the  way,  in  Broadwoods'  Exhibi- 
tion grands  of  1851.  (See  w,  x,  y,  z).  Many 
however  find  a  difficulty  in  distinguishing  the 
highest  notes,  and  at  least  as  many  in  dis- 
tinguishing the  lowest,  so  that  this  extreme  com- 
pass is  beyond  accurate  perception  except  to  a 
very  few. 


$va 


Sva 


The  invention  of  a  '  symmetrical'  keyboard,  by 
which  a  uniform  fingering  for  all  scales,  and  a 
more  perfect  tuning,  may  be  attained,  is  due  to 
Mr.  Bosanquet,  of  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  who 
has  had  constructed  an  enharmonic  harmonium 
with  one.  In  'An  Elementary  Treatise  on  Mu- 
sical Intervals  and  Temperament'  (Macmillan, 
1876),  he  has  described  this  instrument — with 
passing  reference  to  other  new  keyboards  inde- 
pendently invented  by  Mr.  Poole,  and  more 
recently  by  Mr.  Colin  Brown.  The  fingering  re- 
quired for  Mr.  Bosanquet's  keyboard  agrees  with 
that  usual  for  the  A  major  scale,  and  (Tb.  p.  20) 
'  any  passage,  chord,  or  combination  of  any  kind, 
has  exactly  the  same  form  under  the  fingers, 
in  whatever  key  it  is  played.'  Here  we  have  the 
simplicity  of  the  Double  Action  harp  and  un- 
doubtedly a  great  saving  in  study.  In  Mr. 
Bosanquet's  harmonium  the  number  of  keys  in 
an  octave  available  for  a  system  proceeding  by 
perfect  fifths  is  53.  But  in  the  seven  tiers  of  his 
keyboard  he  has  84,  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating 
the  playing  of  a  'round '  of  keys.  It  is  however 
pretty  well  agreed,  even  by  acousticians,  that  the 
piano  had  best  remain  with  thirteen  keys  in  the 
octave,  and  with  tuning  according  to  '  equal  tem- 
perament.' 

In  Germany  a  recent  theory  of  the  keyboard 
has  sought  not  to  disturb  either  the  number  of 
keys  or  the  equal  temperament.  But  an  arrange- 
ment is  proposed,  almost  identical  with  the 
'sequential  keyboard'  invented  and  practically 
tried  in  England  by  Mr.  William  A.  B.  Lunn 
under  the  name  of  Arthur  Wallbridge  in  1843. 
in  which  six  lower  and  six  upper  keys  are  grouped 
instead  of  the  historical  and  customary  seven  and 
five  in  the  octave.  This  gives  all  the  major  scales 


KEY. 

in  two  fingerings,  according  aa  a  lower  or  upper 
key  may  be  the  keynote.  The  note  C  becomes  a 
black  key,  and  the  thumb  is  more  frequently  used 
on  the  black  keys  than  has  been  usually  per- 
mitted with  the  old  keyboard.  The  latest  school 
of  pianists,  however,  regard  the  black  and  white 
keys  as  on  a  level  (see  Preface  to  Dr.  Hans  von 
Billow's  Selection  from  Cramers  Studies,  1868) 
and  this  has  tended  to  modify  opinions  on  the  point. 
In  1876-7  the  partisans  of  the  new  German 
keyboard  formed  themselves  into  a  society,  with 
the  view  of  settling  the  still  more  difficult  and 
vexed  question  of  the  reconstruction  of  musical 
notation.  Thus,  discarding  all  signs  for  sharps 
and  flats,  the  five  lines  of  the  stave  and  one 
ledger  line  below,  correspond  to  six  black  finger- 
keys  for  C,  D,  E,  Fjf,  G$,  Af,  and  the  four 
spaces,  including  the  two  blanks  one  above  and 
one  below  the  stave,  correspond  to  six  white 
finger-keys,  Cj,  DjJ,  F,  G,  A,  B.  Each  octave 
requires  a  repetition  of  the  stave,  and  the  parti- 
cular octave  is  indicated  by  a  number.  The 
keyboard  and  the  stave  consequently  correspond 
exactly,  black  for  black  and  white  for  white, 
while  the  one  ledger  line  shews  the  break  of  the 
octave.  And  further  the  pitch  for  each  note, 
and  the  exact  interval  between  two  notes,  for 
equal  temperament,  is  shewn  by  the  notation  as 
well  as  on  the  keyboard.  The  name  of  the 
association  is  '  Chroma- Verein  des  gleichstufigen 
Tonsystems.'  It  has  published  a  journal,  'Die 
Tonkunst'  (Berlin,  Stilke),  edited  by  Albert 
Hahn,  whose  pamphlet,  'Zur  neuen  Klaviatur' 
(Kcinigsberg,  1875),  with  those  of  Vincent, 
'Die  Neuklaviatur '  (Malchin,  1875)  and  of 
Otto  Quanz,  '  Zur  Geschichte  der  neuen  chroma- 
tischen  Klaviatur'  (Berlin,  1877),  are  impor- 
tant contributions  to  the  literature  of  the  sub- 
ject. The  inventor  appears  to  have  been  K.  B. 
Schumann,  a  physician  at  Rhinow  in  Branden- 
burg, who  died  in  1865,  after  great  personal 
sacrifices  for  the  promotion  of  his  idea.  The 
pianoforte  maker  of  the  society  is  Preuss  of 
Berlin,  who  constructs  the  keyboard  with  C  on  a 
black  key;  width  of  octave  14  centimetres,1  (5^ 
inches  nearly),  and  with  radiating  keys  by  which 
a  tenth  becomes  as  easy  to  span  as  an  octave 
is  at  present.  About  sixteen  other  pianoforte 
makers  are  named,  and  public  demonstrations 
have  been  given  all  over  Germany.  In  this 
system  much  stress  is  laid  upon  C  being  no  longer 
the  privileged  key.  It  will  henceforth  be  no 
more  'natural'  than  its  neighbours.  Whether 
our  old  keyboard  be  destined  to  yield  to  such  a 
successor  or  not,  there  is  very  much  beautiful 
piano  music  of  our  own  time,  naturally  contrived 
to  fit  the  form  of  the  hand  to  it,  which  it  might 
be  very  difficult  to  graft  upon  another  system 
even  if  it  were  more  logically  simple. 

The  fact  that  the  fingering  of  the  right  hand 
upwards  is  frequently  that  of  the  left  hand  down- 
wards has  led  to  the  construction  of  a  '  Piano  a 
double  claviers  reverse's,'  shown  in  the  Paris 
Exhibition  of  1878  by  MM.  Mangeot  freres  of 
that  city.     It  is  in  fact  two  grand  pianos,  one 

>  The  width  of  6  of  the  present  keys. 


KEYS. 


55 


placed  upon  the  other,  with  keyboards  reversed, 
as  the  name  indicates,  the  lower  commencing 
as  usual  with  the  lowest  bass  note  at  the  left 
hand ;  the  higher  having  the  highest  treble  note 
in  the  same  position,  so  that  an  ascending  scale 
played  upon  it  proceeds  from  right  to  left;  the 
notes  running  the  contrary  way  to  what  has 
always  been  the  normal  one.  By  this  somewhat 
cumbersome  contrivance  an  analogous  fingering 
of  similar  passages  in  each  hand  is  secured,  with 
other  advantages,  in  playing  extensions  and  avoid- 
ing the  crossing  of  the  hands,  etc.  [A.J.H.] 

III.  KEYS  (Fr.  Clefs;  Ger.  Elappe;  Ital. 
Chiave).  The  name  given  to  the  levers  on  wind- 
instruments  which  serve  the  purpose  of  opening 
and  closing  certain  of  the  sound-holes.  They  are 
divided  into  Open  and  Closed  keys,  according  to 
the  function  which  they  perform.  In  the  former 
case  they  stand  normally  above  their  respective 
holes,  and  are  closed  by  the  pressure  of  the 
finger  ;  whereas  in  the  latter  they  close  the  hole 
until  lifted  by  muscular  action.  The  closed  keys 
are  levers  of  the  first,  the  open  keys  usually  of 
the  third  mechanical  order.  They  serve  the 
purpose  of  bringing  distant  orifices  within  the 
reach  of  the  hand,  and  of  covering  apertures 
which  are  too  large  for  the  last  phalanx  of  the 
finger.  They  are  inferior  to  the  finger  in  lacking 
the  delicate  sense  of  touch  to  which  musical 
expression  is  in  a  great  measure  due.  In  the 
Bassoon  therefore  the  sound-holes  are  bored 
obliquely  in  the  substance  of  the  wood  so  as  to 
diminish  the  divergence  of  the  fingers.  Keys 
are  applied  to  instruments  of  the  Flute  family, 
to  Reeds,  such  as  the  Oboe  and  Clarinet,  and 
to  instruments  with  cupped  mouthpieces,  such 
as  the  Key  Bugle  and  the  Ophicleide,  the  name 
of  which  is  a  compound  of  the  Greek  words  for 
Snake  and  Key.  [Ophicleide.]  In  the  original 
Serpent  the  holes  themselves  were  closed  by  the 
pad  of  the  finger,  the  tube  being  so  curved  as 
to  bring  them  within  reach.     [Serpent.] 

The  artistic  arrangement  of  Keys  on  all  classes 
of  wind  instruments  is  a  recent  development. 
Flutes,  Oboes,  Bassoons,  and  Clarinets,  up  to  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century  or  even  later, 
were  almost  devoid  of  them.  The  Bassoon  how- 
ever early  possessed  several  in  its  bass  joint  for 
the  production  of  the  six  lowest  notes  on  its 
register,  which  far  exceed  the  reach  of  the  hand. 
In  some  earlier  specimens,  as  stated  in  the  article 
referred  to,  this  mechanism  was  rudely  preceded 
by  plugs,  requiring  to  be  drawn  out  before  per- 
formance and  not  easily  replaced  with  the  neces- 
sary rapidity.     [See  Bassoon.] 

The  older  Flutes,  Clarinets,  and  Oboes  only 
possess  three  or  four  keys  at  most,  cut  out  of  sheet 
metal,  and  closely  resembling  mustard-spoons. 
The  intermediate  tones,  in  this  deficiency  of 
keys,  were  produced  by  what  are  termed  '  cross- 
fingerings,'  which  consist  essentially  in  closing 
one  or  two  lower  holes  with  the  fingers,  while 
leaving  one  intermediate  «pen.  A  rude  approxi- 
mation to  a  semitone  was  thus  attained,  but  the 
note  is  usually  of  a  dull  and  muffled  character. 
Boehm,  in  the  flute  named  after  him,  entirely 


56 


KEYS. 


KIND. 


discarded  the  use  of  these  '  cross-fingered '  notes. 
[See  Flute.] 

Keys  are  now  fashioned  in  a  far  more  artistic 
and  convenient  form,  a  distinction  in  shape  being 
made  between  those  which  are  open,  and  those 
normally  closed ;  so  that  the  player  may  be 
assisted  in  performance  by  his  instinctive  sense 
of  touch.  [See  Contrafagotto.]  Besides  the 
Bassoon,  the  Corno  di  Bassetto  affords  a  good 
example  of  this  contrivance,  the  scale  being 
carried  down  through  four  semitones  by  inter- 
locking keys,  worked  by  the  thumb  of  the  right 
hand  alone.  [W.H.S.] 

KEY-BUGLE.  An  improvement  of  the  ori- 
ginal bugle,  which  had  no  keys,  and  therefore 
could  only  yield  certain  restricted  notes  [see 
p.  280]  by  the  addition  of  keys.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  made  by  Logier.  The  Kent  bugle 
is  either  a  further  improvement,  or  only  another 
name  for  the  same  thing.  [G.] 

KEY-NOTE.  The  note  by  which  the  key  is 
named,  and  from  which  the  scale  commences : 
the  Tonic.     [See  Key  ;  Tonic] 

KIEL,  Friedrich,  born  Oct.  7,  i8ai,  at 
Puderbach  on  the  Lahn  ;  son  of  a  schoolmaster, 
who  taught  him  the  pianoforte.  At  14  he  began 
the  violin  under  Schulz,  Concertmeister  to  Prince 
Carl  von  Wittgenstein-Berleberg,  and  soon  en- 
tered the  band  of  the  reigning  Prince,  who  sent 
him  first  to  Rummer  at  Coburg,  and  in  1843  to 
Dehn  at  Berlin.  While  there  he  received  a 
salary  from  King  Frederic  William  IV.  His 
first  compositions  were  for  the  pianoforte,  'Canons 
und  Fugen'  op.  1  and  2;  variations  and  fugue, 
op.  1 7  ;  and  several  pieces  for  P.  F.  and  cello,  of 
which  the '  Beisebilder '  are  specially  interesting. 
In  62  his  Requiem  (op.  20),  a  very  remarkable 
work,  was  performed  by  Stern's  Choral  Society — 
also  by  the  University  Musical  Society  of  Cam- 
bridge, May  a  1,  1878.  In  66  he  composed  a 
'  Missa  Solemnis,'  and  in  74  an  oratorio  'Christus.' 
He  has  been  a  member  of  the  council  of  the 
Berlin  Academie  der  Kiinste  since  1869,  and  is 
professor  of  composition  in  the  Hochschule  fur 
Musik,  in  which  capacity  he  is  much  esteemed. 
Kiel  is  one  of  the  most  distinguished  living 
masters  of  counterpoint  and  fugue,  and  as  such 
forms  one  of  the  race  of  musicians  of  whom  the 
late  Moritz  Hauptmann  may  be  considered  the 
chief.  His  compositions  are  of  the  sound  classi- 
cal school,  tempered  with  a  due  regard  for  the 
best  modern  tendencies.  [F.G.] 

KIESEWETTER,  Raphael  Geoeg,  Edler 
von  Wiesenbrdnn  (uncle  to  Ambros  the  histo- 
rian of  music),  Imperial  councillor,  and  learned 
author  on  musical  subjects,  born  at  Holleschau 
in  Moravia,  Aug.  29,  1773  ;  settled  in  Vienna  in 
1 794.  In  1 8 1 6  he  began  to  form  a  collection  of 
scores  of  the  old  masters,  and  made  his  house  a 
rendezvous  for  the  first  musicians  of  Vienna. 
There  also  during  Advent,  Lent,  and  Holy  Week, 
a  first-rate  amateur  choir  performed  the  principal 
works  of  the  old  Italian  composers,  and  of  Bach, 
Handel,  etc.  He  died  Jan.  1,  1850,  at  Baden 
(Beethoven's  Baden)  near  Vienna,  but  was  buried 


in  the  cemetery  at  Vienna, '  vor  der  Wahringer 
Linie.'  He  was  ennobled  for  his  services  as  an 
official  in  the  Kriegsrath,  taking  his  title  from 
his  estate.  Innumerable  societies  elected  him 
a  member  in  acknowledgement  of  his  services 
as  a  musician.  He  left  his  musical  MSS.  and 
his  correspondence  with  musical  men  of  letters 
to  Alois  Fuchs,  and  to  the  court  library  his  in- 
valuable collection  of  scores,  with  the  condition 
that  they  should  be  kept  together  as  the  '  Fond 
Kiese  wetter.' 

That  he  was  a  most  prolific  writer  the  follow- 
ing list  of  his  printed  works  will  show. 

1.  'Die  Verdienste  der  Nleder- '  sources  (ibid.  1842\  7.  'Ueberdat 
lander  urn  die  Tonkunst '  (received  Laben .  und  dieWerke  Palestrina's,' 
the  gold  prize-medal,  Amsterdam  <  a  condensation  of  Bainl's  work  left 
1828).  2.  '  Gescbichte  der  euro-  unpublished  by  Kandler ;  edited 
paisch-abendlandUchen,das  1st;  un- 1  with  preface  and  remarks  (Ibid, 
serer  heutigen  Musik'  (Breltkopf j  18S4).  8.  'Der  neuen  Arlstoxenes 
*  Hartel,  1834,  2nd  ed.  1846).  3. 
'  Ueberdie  Musik  der  Neugrlechen," 
with  remarks  on  ancient  Egyptian 
and  ancient  Greek  music;  3  trea- 
tises (ibid.  1828).  4.  'Guido  von 
Arezzo,'  life  and  works  (ibid.  1840). 
6.  '  Schicksale  und  Beschaffenheit 
des  Welt  lichen  Gesanges,'  from  the 
early  Middle  Ages  down  to  the  dis- 
covery of  the  dramatic  style  and 


zerstreute  Aufs&tze'  (ibid.  1846). 
9.  '  Deber  die  Octave  des  Pythago- 
ras,' supplement  to  the  preceding 
(Vienna  1848).  10.  '  Catalog  ueber 
die  Sammlung  der  Partituren  alter 
Musik,'  etc.i  (Vienna  1847),  with 
preface  and  appendix '  Gallerie  der 
alten  Contrapunctlsten,'  a  selec- 
tion from  then-  works,  chronologi- 
cally arranged.  Also  about  50 
rise  of  opera  (ibid.  184H.  6.  'Die 'scattered  articles  In  different  pe- 
Muslk  der  Araber,'  from  original '  riodicals,  reviews,  etc 

[C.F.P.] 
KIND,  Johann  Friedrich,  author  of  the 
words  of  Der  Freischiitz  ;  born  at  Leipsic  March 
4,  1 768  ;  brought  up  to  the  law,  but  frequented 
the  Thomas  School  of  his  own  accord.  He  began 
to  practise  literature  as  early  as  1800,  and  after 
much  success  with  novels  and  tales,  settled  in 
1814  at  Dresden,  became  a  Hofrath,  and  defi- 
nitely renounced  the  law  for  a  literary  life. 
Here  Weber  met  him,  at  the  house  of  von 
Nordstern.  About  Feb.  15,  181 7,  Kind  read 
to  him  his  '  Vandyck's  Landleben,'  which 
so  pleased  the  composer  that  he  at  once  con- 
sulted him  as  to  an  opera -book.  The  choice  of 
a  source  fell  on  Apel's  '  Gespensterbuch '  (Ghost 
Stories).  Weber  had  several  years  before  been 
attached  to  the  story  of  the  Freischiitz,  and  so 
entirely  did  his  enthusiasm  communicate  itself 
to  Kind,  that  by  the  evening  of  Feb.  23, 
he  had  completed  the  first  act  of  the  opera. 
Freischiitz  was  the  only  important  joint  composi- 
tion of  the  two,  but  Jahns's  catalogue  contains 
11  other  pieces  the  words  of  which  were  sup- 
plied by  Kind.  The  chief  of  these  is  the  '  Jubel 
Cantata,'  another  cantata  called  'Natur  und 
Liebe,'  5  songs,  a  part-songs,  and  a  chorus. 
Some  of  these  were  taken  from  operas  of  Kind's 
— '  Der  Weinberg  an  der  Elbe,'  '  Der  Abend  am 
Waldbrunnen,'  and  '  Das  Nachtlager  in  Granada.' 
The  last  of  these  was  set  to  music  by  Con- 
radin  Kreutzer.  Kind  seems  to  have  supplied 
Spanish  materials  for  Preciosa,  and  Weber  had 
two  librettos  by  him — Alcindor,  1819,  and 
Der  Cid,  182 1 — under  consideration,  but  Frei- 
schiitz is  the  one  which  Weber  adopted  in  full. 
Kind's  'Holzdieb'  (Wood-thief)  was  composed  by 
Marschner  in  1824.  He  died  at  Dresden  June 
25,  1843,  having  for  many  years  quite  forsaken 
literature.     He  is  described  by  Weber's  son  as 

1  The  scores  left  to  the  court  library. 


KIND. 


KING'S  BAND  OF  MUSIC. 


57 


a  small  person,  with  a  great  opinion  of  himself 
and  a  harsh  voice.  2  vols  of  his  works  were 
published,  Leipzig,  182 1.  [G.] 

KING,  Charles,  Mus.  Baa,  born  at  Bury 
St.  Edmunds  in  1687,  became  a  chorister  of  St. 
Paul's  under  Dr.  Blow  and  Jeremiah  Clark. 
He  was  next  a  supernumerary  singer  in  the 
choir  at  the  small  annual  stipend  of  £14.  On 
July  12,  1707,  he  graduated  as  Mus.  Bac.  at 
Oxford.  On  the  death  of  Clark,  whose  sister 
he  had  married,  he  was  appointed  almoner  and 
master  of  the  choristers  of  St.  Paul's.  In  1 708 
he  became  also  organist  of  St.  Benet  Fink,  Royal 
Exchange.  On  Oct.  31,  1730,  he  was  admitted 
a  vicar  choral  of  St.  Paul's.  King  composed 
several  services  and  anthems,  some  of  which  are 
printed  in  Arnold's  'Cathedral  Music,'  and 
others  in  Page's  '  Harmonia  Sacra ' ;  and  there 
are  some  in  the  Tudway  Collection  (Harl.  MSS. 
7341  and  7342).  Although  his  compositions 
evince  no  originality  they  are  vocal  and  not 
without  spirit,  they  long  continued  in  frequent 
use  in  choirs,  and  some  of  them,  particularly  his 
services  in  F  and  C,  are  still  performed.  They 
have  justified  the  joke  of  Dr.  Greene,  that  King 
was  a  serviceable  man.  Six  of  them  in  all  are 
published  by  Novello,  besides  five  anthems. 
Hawkins  intimates  that  his  inferiority  was  the 
result  rather  of  indolence  than  want  of  ability. 
He  died  March  1 7,  1 748.  [W.  H.  H.] 

KING,  Matthew  Peteb,  born  in  1773, 
studied  composition  under  Charles  Frederick 
Horn.  His  first  productions  were  '  Three  Sona- 
tas for  the  Pianoforte,'  'Eight  Songs  and  a 
Cantata,'  and  other  Pianoforte  Sonatas.  In 
1796  he  published  'Thorough  Bass  made  easy 
to  every  capacity,'  and  in  1800  'A  General 
Treatise  on  Music,'  etc.,  a  work  of  repute,  with 
2nd  edition  1809.  Between  1804  and  1819  he 
composed  several  dramatic  pieces,  chiefly  for  the 
English  Opera  House,  Lyceum.  In  181 7  his 
oratorio,  'The  Intercession,'  was  produced  at 
Covent  Garden.  One  of  the  songs  in  it  'Must 
I  leave  thee,  Paradise  ? '  (known  as  '  Eve's  Lam- 
entation ')  became  very  popular,  and  long  found 
a  frequent  place  in  programmes  of  sacred  music. 
King  was  also  the  composer  of  several  glees  and 
of  numerous  pianoforte  pieces.  His  dramatic 
pieces  were  'Matrimony,'  1804;  'The  Invisible 
Girl,'  1806;  'False  Alarms'  (with  Brahain) ; 
'One  o'clock,  or  The  Wood  Demon'  (with 
Kelly);  and  'Ella  Rosenberg,'  1807;  'Up  all 
night,'  1809;  'Plots'  and  'Oh  this  Love,' 
1810;  "The  Americans'  (with  Braham),  and 
'Timour  the  Tartar,'  181 1  ;  and  'The  Fisher- 
man's Hut'  (with  Davy),  18 19.  He  died  in 
Jan.  1823. 

His  son,  C.  M.  King,  published  in  1826  some 
6ongs  which  were  favourably  received.  [ W.  H.  H.] 

KING,  Robebt,  Mus.  Bac.,  was  one  of  the 
band  of  music  to  William  and  Mary  and  Queen 
Anne.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1696. 
He  was  the  composer  of.  many  songs  pub- 
lished in  '  Choice  Ayres,  Songs  and  Dia- 
logues,' 1684;  'Comes  Amoris,'  1687-93;  'The 


Banquet  of  Musick,'  1688-92;  'The  Gentle- 
man's Journal,'  1692-94;  and  'Thesaurus  Mu- 
sicus,'  1695-96.  He  composed  the  songs  in 
Crowne's  comedy,  '  Sir  Courtly  Nice,'  which 
were  printed  in  'The  Theater  of  Music,'  Book 
ii,  1685.  In  1690  he  set  Shad  well's  Ode  on 
St.  Cecilia's  day,  '0  Sacred  Harmony.'  In 
1693  he  set  an  Ode  'on  the  Rt.  Hon.  John 
Cecil,  Earl  of  Exeter,  his  birthday,  being  the 
21  of  Sept.'  commencing  'Once  more  'tis  born, 
the  happy  day,'  the  words  by  Peter  Motteux. 
A  collection  of  24  songs  by  him  entitled  '  Songs 
for  One,  Two,  and  Three  voices,  composed  to  a 
Thorough  Basse  for  y°  Organ  or  Harpsicord,' 
engraven  on  copper,  was  published  by  the  elder 
Walsh.  The  date  of  his  death  has  not  been 
ascertained.  He  was  living  in  1711.    [W.H.H.] 

KING,  William,  born  1624,  son  of  George 
King,  organist  of  Winchester  Cathedral,  was  ad- 
mitted a  clerk  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford, 
Oct.  18,  1648.  He  graduated  as  B.A.  June  5, 
1649,  and  in  1650  was  promoted  to  a  chaplaincy 
at  Magdalen  College,  which  he  held  until  Aug. 
25,  1654,  when  he  became  a  probationer-fellow 
of  All  Souls'  College.  On  Dec.  10,  1664,  he  was 
appointed  successor  to  Pickover  as  organist  of 
New  College.  He  composed  a  service  in  Bb  and 
some  anthems,  and  in  1668  published  at  Oxford 
'  Poems  of  Mr.  Cowley  [The  Mistress]  and  others, 
composed  into  Songs  and  Ayres,  with  a  Thorough 
Basse  to  the  Theorbo,  Harpsicon,  or  Basse  Violl.' 
He  died  Nov.  1 7,  1 680.  [W.  H.  H.] 

KING  CHARLES  THE  SECOND,  a  comic 
opera  in  2  acts  ;  words  adapted  by  Desmond 
Ryan  from  a  comedy  of  Howard  Payne's; 
music  by  G.  A.  Macfarren.  Produced  at  the 
Princess's  Theatre,  Oct.  27,  1849.  Payne's 
comedy  had  before  been  turned  into  a  ballet- 
pantomime,  '  Betty,'  music  by  Ambroise  Thomas, 
and  produced  at  the  Grand  Opera,  Paris,  July  10, 
1846.  [G.j 

KING'S  BAND  OF  MUSIC,  THE.  The 
custom  of  the  kings  of  England  to  retain  as  part 
of  their  household  a  band  of  musicians,  more  or 
less  numerous,  is  very  ancient.  We  learn  that 
Edward  IV.  had  13  minstrels,  'whereof  some  be 
trompets,  some  with  shalmes  and  smalle  pypes.' 
Henry  VIII.'s  band  in  1526  consisted  of  15  trum- 
pets, 3  lutes,  3  rebecks,  3  taborets,  a  harp,  2 
viols,  10  sackbuts,  a  fife,  and  4  drumslades.  In 
1530  his  band  was  composed  of  16  trumpets,  4 
lutes,  3  rebecks,  3  taborets,  a  harp,  2  viols,  9 
sackbuts,  2  drumslades,  3  minstrels,  and  a  player 
on  the  virginals.  Edward  VI.  in  1548  retained 
8  minstrels,  a  player  on  the  virginals,  2  lutes,  a 
harper,  a  bagpiper,  a  drumslade,  a  rebeck,  7  viols, 
4  sackbuts,  a  Welsh  minstrel,  and  a  flute  player. 
Elizabeth's  band  in  1 581  included  trumpets, 
violins,  flutes,  and  sackbuts,  besides  musicians 
whose  instruments  are  not  specified ;  and  6  years 
later  it  consisted  of  16  trumpets,  lutes,  harps,  a 
bagpipe,  9  minstrels,  2  rebecks,  6  sackbuts,  8 
viols,  and  3  players  on  the  virginals.  Charles  I. 
in  1625  had  in  his  pay  8  performers  on  the 
hautboys  and  sackbuts,  6  flutes,  6  recorders,  1 1 


58 


KING'S  BAND  OF  MUSIC. 


violins,  6  lutes,  4  viols,  1  harp,  and  1 5  •  musicians 
for  the  lute  and  voice,'  exclusive  of  trumpeters, 
drummers,  and  tifers,  Nicholas  Laniere  being 
master  of  the  band;  and  in  1641  his  band  in- 
cluded 14  violins,  19  wind  instruments,  and  25 
'musicians  for  the  waytes,'  besides  a  serjeant 
trumpeter  and  18  trumpeters.  Charles  II.  in 
1660  established,  in  imitation  of  Louis  XIV.  a 
band  of  24  performers  on  violins,  tenors  and 
basses,  popularly  known  as  the  '  four  and  twenty 
fiddlers.'  This  band  not  only  played  while  the 
king  was  at  meals,  but  was  even  introduced  into 
the  royal  chapel,  anthems  being  composed  with 
symphonies  and  ritornels  between  the  vocal 
movements  expressly  for  them.  After  the  death 
of  Charles  the  band  was  kept  up,  but  somewhat 
changed  in  its  composition ;  it  no  longer  con- 
sisted exclusively  of  stringed  instruments,  but 
some  of  its  members  performed  on  wind  instru- 
ments. It  is  now  constituted  so  as  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  modern  music,  and  con- 
sists of  thirty  members.  Formerly,  besides 
its  ordinary  duties  it  was  employed,  together 
with  the  gentlemen  and  children  of  the  Chapel 
Royal,  in  the  performance  of  the  odes  annually 
composed  for  the  king's  birth -day  and  New 
Year's  day ;  but  since  the  discontinuance  of  the 
production  of  such  odes,  its  duties  have  been 
reduced  to  attendance  on  royal  weddings  and 
baptisms,  and  other  state  occasions.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  succession  of  the  '  Masters  of  the 
Musick': — Davis  Mell  and  George  Hudson,  1660; 
Thomas  Baltzar,  1661  (?)  ;  John  Banister,  1663 ; 
Thomas  Purcell,  1672 ;  Dr.  Nicholas  Staggins, 
1682  ;  John  Eccles,  1705;  Dr.  Maurice  Greene, 
1735  (?)  ;  Dr.  William  Boyce,  1755  ;  John  Stan- 
ley, 1779;  Sir  William  Parsons,  1786;  William 
Shield,  1817;  Christian  Kramer,  1829;  Francois 
Cramer,  1834;  George  Frederick  Anderson,  1848; 
William  George  Cusins,  1870.  Robert  Cambert 
and  Louis  Grabut  are  sometimes  said  to  have 
held  the  office  of  Master  of  the  Musick,  but  this 
is  doubtful.  [W.H.H.] 

KING'S  THEATRE,  THE.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  1 8th  century,  Sir  John  Vanbrugh,  the  ar- 
chitect and  dramatist,  proposed  to  the  performers 
at  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields  Theatre  to  build  them 
a  new  and  splendid  theatre  in  the  Haymarket, 
and,  his  offer  being  accepted,  he  raised  a  sub- 
scription of  £30,000  in  sums  of  £100  each,  in 
return  for  which  every  subscriber  was  to  have 
a  free  admission  for  life.  The  undertaking  was 
greatly  promoted  by  the  Kit-Cat  Club,  and  the 
first  stone  of  the  building,  which  was  wholly 
from  the  designs  of  Vanbrugh,  was  laid  in  1 704 
with  great  solemnity  by  the  beautiful  Countess 
of  Sunderland  (daughter  of  the  great  Duke  of 
Marlborough),  known  as  "The  little  Whig.' 
Congreve,  the  dramatist,  was  associated  with 
Vanbrugh  in  the  management,  and  the  theatre 
was  opened  on  April  9,  1 705,  under  the  name  of 
'  The  Queen's  Theatre,'  which  name  was  changed 
on  the  accession  of  George  I.  in  1 714  to  '  King's 
Theatre,'  by  which  it  continued  to  be  called 
until  the  death  of  William  IV.  in  1837,  since 
which  it  has  been  styled  '  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,' 


KINSKY. 

the  reason  for  not  resuming  the  name  '  Queen's 
Theatre'  being  that  the  theatre  in  Tottenham 
Street  at  the  time  bore  that  appellation.  Van- 
brugh's  erection,  although  internally  a  splendid 
and  imposing  structure,  was  totally  unfitted  for 
its  purpose,  owing  to  the  reverberations  being  so 
great  as  to  make  the  spoken  dialogue  almost  un- 
intelligible, and  to  necessitate  extensive  alterations 
in  order  to  prevent  them.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
years  the  house  became  the  established  home  of 
Italian  opera.  In  it  the  greater  part  of  Handel's 
operas  and  nearly  all  his  early  oratorios  were 
first  performed.  On  the  evening  of  June  17, 
1789,  the  building  was  burned  to  the  ground. 
It  was  rebuilt  in  1 790  from  designs  by  Michael 
Novosielski,  the  lyre-shaped  plan  being  then  first 
adopted  in  England.  When  completed  it  was 
refused  a  licence  for  dramatic  representations, 
but  a  magistrates'  licence  being  obtained  it  was 
opened  with  a  concert  and  ballet  on  March  26, 
1 79 1 .  [See  p.  7 1  o  a.]  A  regular  licence  was  how- 
ever soon  afterwards  granted.  The  interior  of  the 
theatre  was  the  largest  in  England ;  there  were 
five  tiers  of  boxes,  exclusive  of  slips,  and  it  was 
capable  of  containing  nearly  3300  persons.  It 
was  admirably  adapted  for  conveying  sound. 
On  the  east  side  was  a  large  and  handsome 
concert-room,  95  feet  long,  46  feet  broad,  and  35 
feet  high,  on  a  level  with  the  principal  tier  of 
boxes.  About  181 7  an  important  alteration 
was  made  in  the  exterior  of  the  theatre  by 
the  erection  of  the  colonnades  on  the  north, 
south,  and  east  sides,  and  the  formation  of  the 
western  arcade.  The  northern  colonnade  has 
since  been  removed.  (There  is  a  good  descrip- 
tion of  the  pit,  including  the  famous  'Fops' 
alley'  in  Lumley's  'Reminiscences,'  chap,  vii.) 
The  theatre  was  again  destroyed  by  fire  on 
Friday  night,  Dec.  6,  1867.  It  was  rebuilt  by 
April  1869,  but  not  opened  until  1875,  and  then 
not  for  operatic  performances,  but  for  the  exhi- 
bition of  the  preaching  and  singing  of  Messrs. 
Moody  and  Sankey,  who  occupied  it  for  about 
three  months,  after  which  it  remained  closed 
until  April  28,  1877,  when  it  was  re-opened  aa 
an  opera  house.  No  theatre,  perhaps,  has  been 
under  the  management  of  so  many  different 
persons — Swiney,  Collier,  Aaron  Hill,  Heidegger, 
Handel,  the  Earl  of  Middlesex,  Signora  Venisci, 
Crawford,  Yates,  Gordon,  Hon.  J.  Hobart, 
Brookes,  O'Reilly,  Le  Texier,  Sir  John  Gallini, 
Tranchard,  Taylor,  Goold,  Waters,  Ebers,  Benelli, 
Laporte,  Monck  Mason,  Lumley,  E.  T.  Smith, 
and  Mapleson,  have  by  turns  directed  its  affairs. 
To  attempt  only  to  name  the  compositions  pro- 
duced there,  and  the  eminent  artists  who  have 
been  their  exponents,  would  extend  this  notice 
to  an  unreasonable  length ;  it  would  be,  in  fact, 
almost  to  write  a  history  of  the  Italian  opera  in 
England.  [W.H.H.] 

KINSKY,  Prince  Ferdinand  Johann  Ne- 
pomuk  Joseph,  of  Wchinitz  and  Tettau  in 
Bohemia,  was  born  in  the  palace  belonging  to 
the  family  at  Vienna,  December  4,  1781,  and 
was  a  boy  of  eleven  when  Beethoven  came 
thither.      His  father,   Prince  Joseph,  was  one 


KINSKY. 

of  the  great  nobles  who  at  that  date  gave 
musical  entertainments  in  their  palaces  with  full 
orchestra,  at  which  the  greatest  singers  and 
instrumental  performers,  as  well  as  rising  com- 
posers, displayed  their  powers.  Young  Kinsky 
had  therefore  the  best  possible  opportunity  to 
cultivate  his  musical  taste,  and  a  few  years 
later  formed  one  in  the  circle  of  young  nobles 
who  admired  and  appreciated  Beethoven's  music. 
By  the  death  of  his  father,  August  1 1,  1 798,  he 
succeeded  to  the  estates,  and,  June  8,  1S01, 
married  Caroline  Maria,  Baroness  von  Kerpen. 

His  claim  to  a  place  in  this  Dictionary  is  that 
he  was  the  principal  subscriber  to  Beethoven's 
annuity  (see  ante,  p.  1896).  This  matter  was 
hardly  settled  when  he  was  called  to  his  estates 
to  prepare  for  the  second  invasion  of  Bonaparte. 
He  raised  a  battalion  of  soldiers,  officered  it 
from  his  own  officials  and  dependents,  and  led 
it — under  the  title  of  the  'Archduke  Charles 
Legion' — in  the  battles  of  Ratisbon,  Aspern, 
and  Wagram.  One  of  the  first  checks  which 
Bonaparte  ever  received  was  at  Aspern.  Kinsky 
and  his  legion  held  a  very  critical  position  there, 
and,  by  their  steadiness  and  disregard  of  danger, 
contributed  materially  to  the  success  of  the 
day.  Archduke  Charles  happened  to  be  witness 
of  Kinsky 's  conduct  on  that  occasion,  and  gave 
him  on  the  battle-field  the  Maria  Theresa  Cross. 
In  the  spring  of  181 1  Kinsky  accompanied  the 
Emperor  Francis  to  Dresden,  on  a  visit  to  his 
daughter  Marie  Louise  and  her  husband  Napo- 
leon. The  Saxon  General  von  Vieth  related, 
that  on  the  presentation  of  Francis's  suite 
Napoleon  stepped  up  to  Kinsky,  took  hold  of 
the  cross  on  the  breast  of  his  coat,  and  asked 
insultingly  :  •  Est-ce  au  Prince  Kinsky  9a  ? ' 
'  Non,  Sire,  c'est  a  la  bataille  d' Aspern,'  was  the 
reply.  Napoleon  moved  on  without  a  word. 
On  November  2,  181 2,  Prince  Ferdinand,  while 
riding  at  Wetrus  near  Prague,  by  the  bursting 
of  his  saddle  girths  was  thrown  to  the  ground, 
and  died  on  the  3rd,1  not  having  quite  completed 
his  31st  year. 

The  paragraph  in  p.  1890  of  this  work,  on 
the  effect  of  the  Austrian  finance-patent  of  181 1 
upon  Beethoven's  annuity,  and  his  suit  against 
the  Kinsky  estate,  accords  perfectly  with  all 
the  authorities  known  at  the  time  it  was 
written.  But  these  authorities,  from  Schindler 
down,  are  in  error.  It  is  true  that  from  and 
after  March  181 1,  the  bank  notes  (Bancozettel) 
then  in  circulation  were  reduced  in  value  to  the 
rate  of  five  for  one  in  silver ;  and  notes  of 
redemption  (Einlosungsscheine),  equal  to  silver, 
were  issued  in  their  place  at  that  rate  ;  but  the 
payment  of  contracts  previously  made,  Bee- 
thoven's annuity  included,  was  regulated  by  the 
depreciation  at  the  date  of  the  contract.  The 
date  of  the  document  conferring  the  annuity  is 
March  1, 1 809,  when  the  depreciation  (decimally) 
was  2*48  for  one,  and  it  follows  that  his  income 
under  the  finance  patent  was  reduced — not  to  one 
fifth,  or  800  florins,  as  Schindler  and  his  copyists 

1  Not  the  13th,  as  glreo  In  toL  L  p.  1896. 


KIECHEN  CANTATEN. 


5& 


unanimously  state,  but  to  1612-90  florins.     That 
is  to  say 

Kinsky,  instead  of  1800,  paid  725-80 fl. 
Rudolph,  „  „  1500,  „  604-84 
Lobkowitz,  „  „  700,  „  282-26 
1612-90 
The  subscribers  however  continued  to  pay  the 
annuity  in  full,  regardless  of  the  patent,  and 
Rudolph  gave  the  necessary  instruction  to  his 
agents  in  writing.  Kinsky  unfortunately  neg- 
lected to  do  this,  and  thus,  upon  his  untimely 
death,  unwittingly  deprived  Beethoven  of  all 
legal  claim  to  more  than  the  above-named  725-80 
florins ;  for  the  trustees  of  the  estates  had  no 
power  to  add  to  that  sum,  being  responsible  to  the 
Landrecht  or  high  tribunal  at  Prague  for  their 
action.  Beethoven,  trusting  to  the  equity  of  his 
claim,  seems  to  have  been  so  foolish  as  to  instruct 
his  advocate  in  Prague,  Dr.  Wolf,  to  enter  a  suit 
— which  could  have  had  no  favourable  issue. 
It  was  fortunate  for  him  that  the  legal  agent 
of  the  Kinsky  estates  (Verlassenschaftscurator), 
Dr.  Johann  Kauka,  was  a  musician  of  consider- 
able attainments,  a  great  admirer  of  his  music 
and  on  intimate  terms  with  him  during  his  first 
years  in  Vienna.  On  a  visit  to  the  capital,  Kauka 
discussed  the  matter  with  him ;  the  suit  was 
abandoned,  and  a  compromise  at  last  effected — 
confirmed  by  the  Landrecht,  January  18, 18 15 — 
by  which  1 200  florins  a  year  were  secured  to  him, 
and  arrears  to  the  amount  of  2479  florins,  paid 
in  cash,  on  March  26th,  to  his  representative, 
Baron  Joseph  von  Pasqualati. 

Beethoven's  letters  to  Kauka  (Life  of  Bee- 
thoven, iii.  App.  viii)  and  his  dedication  of  op. 
94,  *  An  die  Hoffnung,'  to  the  widowed  Princess 
Kinsky,  prove  how  well  satisfied  he  was  with 
the  result.  [A.W.T.] 

KIRBYE,  George,  was  one  of  the  ten  com- 
posers who  harmonised  the  tunes  for  'The  Whole 
Booke  of  Psalmes,'  published  by  Thomas  Este  in 
1592.  In  1597  he  put  forth  'The  First  Set  of 
Madrigals  to  4,  5,  and  6  Voyces,'  dedicated  to 
the  two  daughters  of  Sir  Robert  Jermin,  Knt., 
whom  the  composer  terms  his  'very  good  maister,' 
and  containing  24  madrigals.  Several  other 
madrigals  by  Kirbye  are  extant  in  a  nearly  con- 
temporary MS.  collection,  formed  by  a  William 
Firmage,  and  now  in  the  library  of  the  Sacred 
Harmonic  Society,  but  unfortunately  wanting  the 
quintus  and  sextus  parts.  He  contributed  to '  The 
Triumphes  of  Oriana,'  1601,  the  six-part  madrigal 
*  Bright  Phoebus  greetes  most  cleerely . '  [W.  H.  H.  ] 

KIRCHEN  CANTATEN.  The  Kirchen  Can- 
taten  of  the  German  Lutheran  Church  corre- 
sponded to  a  great  extent  with  the  Anglican 
anthems,  but  they  were  for  the  most  part  on  a 
larger  scale  and  had  a  band  accompaniment  as 
well  as  the  organ,  which  is  rarely  the  case  with 
anthems.  They  were  used  on  the  great  festivals  of 
the  Church  and  on  festal  occasions,  such  as  wed- 
dings of  great  people.  They  flourished  especially 
in  the  time  immediately  before  and  with  Sebastian 
Bach,  and  it  is  with  his  name  that  they  are  chiefly 
associated,  both  for  the  prodigious  number  and 


60 


KIRCHEN  CANTATEN. 


the  great  beauty  of  many  of  the  examples  of  this 
form  of  composition  which  he  produced. 

Among  his  predecessors,  his  uncles  Michael  and 
J  oli  aim  Christoph,  and  the  great  organist  Buxte- 
hude,  were  composers  of  Cantatas  of  this  kind, 
and  Bach  certainly  adopted  the  form  of  his  own 
from  them  at  first,  both  as  regards  the  distribution 
of  the  numbers  and  the  words.  With  them  as 
with  him  the  words  were  sometimes  complete 
religious  songs,  but  they  were  also  frequently 
taken  from  promiscuous  sources,  passages  from 
the  Bible  and  verses  from  hymns  and  religious 
songs  being  strung  together,  with  an  underlying 
fixed  idea  to  keep  them  bound  into  a  complete 
whole.  In  some  cases  they  are  mystical,  in  others 
they  are  of  a  prayerful  character,  and  of  course 
many  are  hymns  of  praise.  In  many  there  is  a 
clear  dramatic  element,  and  in  this  form  the 
dialogue  between  Christ  and  the  soul  is  not  un- 
common, as  in  the  well-known  'Ich  hatte  viel 
Bekummerniss,'  and  in  'Gottes  Zeit'  and  'Selig 
ist  der  Mann,'  of  J.  S.  Bach.  The  treatment  of 
the  subject  is  often  very  beautiful  apart  from  the 
diction,  and  expresses  a  tender  touching  kind  of 
poetry  of  religion  which  is  of  the  purest  and  most 
affecting  character,  and  found  in  Bach's  hands 
the  most  perfect  possible  expression  in  music. 

The  dramatic  element  points  to  the  relation- 
ship of  the  Kirchencantaten  to  the  Italian  Cantate 
di  Camera,  which  formed  an  important  section  of 
the  operatic  department  of  music  which  had  begun 
to  be  cultivated  in  Italy  from  the  beginning  of  the 
1 7th  century.  In  composing  the  earlier  Cantatas, 
Buxtehude  and  Bach's  uncles  do  not  Beem  to 
have  had  this  connection  very  clearly  in  view, 
neither  does  it  appear  obviously  in  the  earlier 
examples  of  John  Sebastian.  But  from  the  year 
1 71 2  Bach  began  writing  music  to  Cantatas  by  a 
theologian  and  poet  named  Neumeister,  a  man  of 
some  importance  in  relation  to  church  music ; 
who  wrote  poems  which  he  called  Cantatas  for  all 
the  great  Festivals  and  Sundays  of  the  year, 
following  avowedly  the  dramatic  manner  of  the 
Italians.  Of  Bach's  contemporaries,  Telemann 
preceded  him  slightly  in  setting  these  Cantatas, 
as  a  collection  with  his  music  was  published  in 
Gotha  in  1 7 1 1 .  This  part  of  the  history  of  Can- 
tatas, which  divides  them  into  two  periods  in 
matter  of  form,  is  too  elaborate  to  be  treated  here, 
but  a  very  full  account  will  be  found  in  Spitta's 
Life  of  Bach,  Part  i,  chap,  iv,  and  Part  iii, 
chap.  iv. 

As  regards  the  music,  the  form  was  extremely 
variable.  In  a  great  number  of  cases  the  work 
opened  with  a  chorus,  which  in  Bach's  hands 
assumed  gigantic  proportions.  This  was  followed 
by  a  series  of  recitatives,  airs,  ariosos,  duets  or 
other  kinds  of  solo  music,  and  in  the  greatest  number 
of  instances  ended  with  a  simple  chorale.  In 
some  cases  the  work  opens  with  an  aria  or  duet, 
and  at  others  there  are  several  choruses  inter- 
spersed in  the  work,  and  occasionally  they  form 
the  bulk  of  the  whole.  In  one  somewhat  singu- 
lar instance  (viz.  '  Ich  will  den  Kreuzstab  gerne 
tragen ')  the  Cantata  consists  of  two  long  arias, 
and  two  recitatives,  and  an  adagio,  all  for  a  bass 


KIRCHER. 

voice,  and  ends  with  a  chorale.  It  is  evident  that 
the  works  were  constructed  with  reference  to  the 
particular  resources  at  the  disposal  of  the  composer 
for  performance;  and  in  this  respect  the  band 
varied  as  much  as  the  musical  form  of  the  work. 
Sometimes  the  organ  was  accompanied  by  strings 
alone,  at  others  by  a  considerable  orchestra  of 
strings,  wood  and  brass.  With  developed  re- 
sources the  Cantata  occasionally  began  both  in 
the  older  and  the  later  forms  with  an  instrumental 
introduction  which  was  called  irrespectively  a 
symphony  or  a  sonata  or  sonatina,  and  evidently 
had  some  relationship  to  the  instrumental  Sonate 
di  Chiesa  which  were  common  in  Italy  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Churches.  This  practice  appears 
to  have  been  more  universal  before  Bach's  time 
than  appears  from  his  works,  as  instrumental  in- 
troductions to  Cantatas  with  him  are  the  excep- 
tion. In  such  an  astonishing  number  of  examples 
as  Bach  produced  it  is  inevitable  that  there 
should  be  some  disparity  in  value.  A  considerable 
number  are  of  the  highest  possible  beauty  and 
grandeur,  and  a  few  may  not  be  in  his  happiest 
vein.  But  assuredly  the  wealth  stored  up  in  them 
which  has  yet  to  become  known  to  the  musical 
public  is  incalculable.  Their  uncompromising 
loftiness,  and  generally  austere  purity  of  style 
has  hindered  their  universal  popularity  hitherto ; 
but  as  people  learn  to  feel,  as  they  ultimately  must, 
how  deeply  expressive  and  healthily  true  that 
style  is,  the  greater  will  be  the  earnest  delight 
they  will  find  in  music,  and  the  greater  will  be  the 
fame  of  these  imperishable  monuments  of  Bach's 
genius.  [C.H.H.P.] 

We  take  the  opportunity  to  add  the  contents 
of  the  two  volumes  of  Kirchencantaten  pub- 
lished by  the  Bachgesellschaft  since  the  issue  of 
p.  1 20  of  this  work. 

1874.    Twenty-fourth  year. 
(Issued  Dec.  1878.) 

111.  Was  roeln  Gott  wllL 

112.  DerHerrlstmeingetreuerHIrt. 

113.  Hen-  Jesu  Christ,  du  hochster 
Gut. 

114.  Ach.  lieben  Christen. 

115.  Jlache  dich  mein  Gelst  bereit. 

116.  Du     Friedefurst    Herr    Jesu 
Christ. 

117.  Sei  Lob  und  Ehr. 

118.  OJesu  Christ  mein's  Leben'j 
Licht. 

119.  Preise  Jerusalem,  dem  tlerro. 

120.  Gott,  man  lobet  dich. 

KIRCHER,  Athanasius,  learned  Jesuit,  born 
May  2,  1602  (Mendel,  with  less  probability,  gives 
1601),  at  Geisa  near  Fulda ;  early  became  a 
Jesuit,  and  taught  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy  in  the  Jesuit  College  at  Wiirzburg. 
About  1635  he  was  driven  from  Germany  by 
the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  went  first  to  the 
house  of  his  Order  at  Avignon,  and  thence  to 
Rome,  where  he  remained  till  his  death  Nov.  28, 
1680.  He  acquired  a  mass  of  information  in  all 
departments  of  knowledge,  and  wrote  books  on 
every  conceivable  subject.  His  great  work 
'  Musurgia  universalis  sive  ars  magna  consoni  et 
dissoni,'  2  vols.  (Rome,  1650),  translated  into 
German  by  Andreas  Hirsch  (Hall  in  Swabia, 
1662)  contains  among  much  rubbish  valuable 


1873.    Twenty-third  year. 
(Issued  Aug.  1876.) 

101.  Nimra  yon  tins  Herr. 

102.  Herr,  deine  Augen  sehen. 

103.  Ihr  werdet  welnen  und  heu- 

len. 

104.  Du  Hlrte  Israel. 

10R.  Herr,  gehe  nicht  ins  0 ericht. 

106.  Gottes  Zeit  1st  die  allerbeste 

Zeit. 

107.  Was   willst  du    dich  betra- 

ben. 

108.  Es  Ist  euch  gut 

109.  Ich  glaube  lleber  Herr. 

110.  Unser  Mund  sei  voll  Lachens. 


KIRCHER. 

matter  on  the  nature  of  sound  and  the  theory 
of  composition,  with  interesting  examples  from 
the  instrumental  music  of  Frescobaldi,  Froberger, 
and  other  composers  of  the  17th  century.  The 
second  vol.,  on  the  music  of  the  Greeks,  is  far 
from  trustworthy;  indeed  Meibomius  (' Musici 
antiqui')  accuses  Kircher  of  having  written  it 
without  consulting  a  single  ancient  Greek  author- 
ity. Hia  'Phonurgia'  (Kempten  1673),  trans- 
lated into  German  by  Agathon  Cario  (apparently 
a  nom  de  plume)  with  the  title  '  Neue  Hall-  und 
Thon-kunst*  (Nordlingen  1684),  is  an  amplifica- 
tion of  part  of  the  '  Musurgia,'  and  deals  chiefly 
with  acoustical  instruments.  In  his  '  Ars  mag- 
netica'  (Rome  1641)  he  gives  all  the  songs  and 
airs  then  in  use  to  cure  the  bite  of  the  tarantula. 
His  'GMipus  aegyptiacus'  (Rome  1652-54) 
treats  of  the  music  contained  in  Egyptian 
hieroglyphics.  [E.G.] 

KIRCHGESSNER,  Marianna,  performer  on 
the  glass  harmonica,  born  1770  at  Waghausel 
near  Rastatt,  Baden.  An  illness  in  her  fourth 
year  left  her  blind  for  life,  but  this  misfortune 
was  compensated  by  a  delicate  organisation  for 
music.  She  learned  the  harmonica  from  Schinitt- 
bauer  of  Carlsruhe,  and  made  numerous  success- 
ful concert-tours.  Mozart  heard  her  in  Vienna 
(1 79 1),  and  composed  a  quintet  for  her  (Kbchel 
61 7).  In  London  Froschel  made  her  a  new  in- 
strument, which  in  future  she  always  used.  Here 
also  she  recovered  a  glimmering  of  sight  under 
medical  treatment.  Much  as  they  admired  her 
playing,  musicians  regretted  that  she  failed  to 
bring  out  the  true  qualities  of  the  harmonica 
through  a  wrong  method  of  execution.  After 
living  in  retirement  at  Gohlis  near  Leipzig,  she 
undertook  another  concert-tour,  but  fell  ill  and 
died  at  Schaffhausen,  Dec.  9, 1808.         [C.F.P.] 

KIRCHNER,  Theodoe,  one  of  the  most  gifted 
of  the  living  disciples  of  Schumann,  a  composer 
of  'genre  pieces'  for  the  pianoforte,  was  born 
1824  at  Neukirchen  near  Chemnitz  in  Saxony, 
and  got  his  musical  training  at  the  Conserva- 
torium  of  Leipsic.  Having  completed  his  school- 
ing he  took  the  post  of  organist  at  Winterthur  in 
Switzerland,  which  town  in  1862  he  left  for 
Zurich,  where  he  acted  as  conductor  and  teacher. 
In  1875  he  became  director  of  the  '  Musikschule' 
at  Wiirzburg,  but  after  a  few  months'  experience 
he  threw  up  that  appointment  and  settled  at 
Leipsic. 

Kirchner's  works  extend  to  op.  42.  Except  a 
string  quartet,  op.  20,  a  '  Gedenkblatt,'  a  '  Sere- 

»nade '  for  piano,  violin  and  violoncello,  and  a 
number  of  Lieder,  they  are  all  written  for  piano- 
forte solo  or  a  4  mains,  are  mostly  of  small  di- 
mensions, and  put  forth  under  suggestive  titles 
such  as  Schumann  was  wont  to  give  to  his  lesser 
pieces.  The  stamp  of  Schumann's  original  mind 
has  marked  Kirchner's  work  from  the  first ;  yet 
though  sheltered  under  Schumann's  cloak,  many 
minor  points  of  style  and  diction  are  Kirchner's 
own,  and  decidedly  clever.  At  best,  his  pieces 
are  delicate  and  tender,  frequently  vigorous,  now 
and  then  humorous  and  fantastic ;  at  worst,  they 
droop  under  a  taint  of  lachrymose  sentimentality. 


KIRKMAN. 


61 


They  are  always  carefully  finished  and  well 
shapen,  never  redundant,  rarely  commonplace. 
Among  his  early  publications,  '  Albumblatter,' 
op.  9,  became  popular  as  played  by  Madame 
Schumann ;  and  among  his  later,  '  Still  und  be- 
wegt,'  op.  24,  and  particularly  '  Nachtstiicke,'  op. 
25,  deserve  attention.  [E.D.] 

KIRKMAN.  The  name  borne  by  a  family  of 
eminent  harpsichord,  and  subsequently  pianoforte 
makers.  Jacob  Kirchmann  (afterwards  Kirkman) 
a  German,  came  to  England  early  in  the  last  cen- 
tury, and  worked  for  Tabel,  a  Flemish  harpsichord 
maker,  who  had  brought  to  London  the  traditions 
oftheRuckers  of  Antwerp.  [See  Ruckebs.]  An- 
other apprentice  of  Tabel's  was  Shudi,  properly 
Tschudi,  who  became  Kirkman's  rival,  and 
founded  the  house  of  Broadwood.  Tabel  would 
have  been  quite  forgotten,  but  for  these  dis- 
tinguished pupils,  and  for  the  droll  anecdote 
narrated  by  Dr.  Burney,  of  Kirkman's  rapid 
courtship  of  Tabel's  widow  and  securing  with 
her  the  business  and  stock  in  trade.  He  pro- 
posed at  breakfast-time,  and  married  her  (the 
marriage  act  being  not  then  passed)  before  twelve 
o'clock,  the  same  day,  just  one  month  after  Tabel's 
demise.  Jacob  Kirkman  carried  on  business  at 
the  sign  of  the  King's  Arms  in  Broad  Street, 
Carnaby  Market,  now  No.  19  Broad  Street,  Soho; 
still  owned  by  the  present  Kirkman  firm.  Dr. 
Burney  places  the  arrival  of  Jacob  Kirkman  in 
England  in  1740,  but  that  is  manifestly  too 
late,  Shudi  being  then  already  established  in 
business  in  Great  Pulteney  Street.  There  is  no 
reason,  however,  to  doubt  the  same  generally  ex- 
cellent authority  that  his  death  took  place  about 
1778,  and  that  he  left  nearly  £200,000. 

Burney,  in  Rees's  Cyclopaedia,  gives  Jacob 
Kirkman's  harpsichords  high  praise,  regarding 
them  as  more  full  in  tone  and  durable  than 
those  of  Shudi.  These  instruments  retained 
certain  features  of  the  Antwerp  model,  as  late 
as  1768,  preserving  Andre*  Ruckers's  key- 
board of  G-F  (nearly  5  octaves)  with  lowest 
GJt  wanting.  This,  as  well  as  the  retention  of 
the  rosette  in  the  soundboard  may  be  seen  in 
Mr.  Salaman's  Kirkman  harpsichord  of  that  year, 
in  which  we  find  King  David  playing  upon  the 
harp,  between  the  letters  I  and  K.  Dr.  Burney 
met  with  no  harpsichords  on  the  continent  that 
could  at  all  compare  with  those  made  in  England 
by  Jacob  Kirkman,  and  his  almost  life-long  com- 
petitor, Shudi. 

Jacob  Kirkman  having  no  children  by  hi» 
marriage,  was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Abraham, 
whose  son  Joseph,  the  first  Joseph  Kirkman, 
followed  him,  and  introduced  the  manufacture  of 
the  pianoforte  into  his  workshop.  His  son, 
the  second  Joseph,  died  at  the  advanced  age  of 
87  in  1877,  his  second  son  Henry,  to  whom  the 
business  owes  its  present  extension,  having  died 
some  years  before.  The  ware-rooms  have  long 
been  in  Soho  Square.  The  business  is  carried  on 
(1879)  *n  trust  for  the  present  Mr.  Joseph  Kirk- 
man, the  third  in  order  of  succession  so  named. 
A  recent  invention  of  this  house  is  noticed  under 
the  head  of  Melopiano.  [A. J.HJ 


€2 


KIRNBERGER. 


KIRNBERGER,  Johann  Philipp,  composer 
and  writer  on  the  theory  of  music,  born  April 
24,  1 72 1,  at  Saalfeld  in  Thuringia;  learnt  the 
rudiments  of  music  at  home,  the  organ  from 
Kellner  of  Grafenrode,  and  the  violin  from  Meil 
of  Sondershausen.  Gerber,  court-organist  there, 
taught  him  to  play  Bach's  fugues,  and  recom- 
mended him  to  Bach,  who  received  him  as  his  pupil. 
Several  years  were  passed  at  Leipsic,  in  Poland, 
and  at  Lemberg.  On  his  return  to  Germany  he 
resumed  the  study  of  the  violin  under  Zickler  of 
Dresden,  and  in  1751  entered  the  capelle  of 
Frederic  the  Great  at  Berlin  as  violinist.  In 
1758  he  became  Capellmeister  to  Princess 
Amalie,  and  remained  with  her  till  his  death 
After  a  long  and  painful  illness  July  27,  1783. 
During  these  25  years  he  formed  such  pupils  as 
Schulz,  Fasch,  and  Zelter,  and  devoted  his 
leisure  to  researches  on  the  theory  of  music. 
Of  his  many  books  on  the  subject  'Die  Kunst 
des  reinen  Satzes,'  2  vols.  (Berlin  1774-76) 
alone  is  of  permanent  value.  He  also  wrote  all 
the  articles  on  music  in  Sulzer's  'Theorie  der 
echonen  Kiinste '  in  which  he  warmly  criticises 
Marpurg's  'Kritische  Briefe.'  He  prided  him- 
self on  the  discovery  that  all  music  could  be 
reduced  to  two  fundamental  chords,  the  triad 
and  the  chord  of  the  seventh — which  is  obviously 
wrong ;  and  invented  a  new  interval  bearing  the 
relation  of  4 : 7  to  the  key-note  and  which  he 
called  I : — but  neither  of  these  have  stood  the 
test  of  time.  Indeed  in  his  own  day  the  theory 
of  the  even  temperament  steadily  gained  ground. 
As  a  composer  he  had  more  fluency  than  genius  ; 
his  most  interesting  works  are  his  fugues,  remark- 
able for  their  correctness.  In  1773-74  ne  edited 
a  large  collection  of  vocal  compositions  by  Graun, 
who  was  a  kind  friend  to  him,  and  'Psalmen 
und  Gesange '  by  Leo  (Leonhard)  Hassler.  The 
autograph  scores  of  several  motets  and  cantatas, 
and  a  quantity  of  fugues,  clavier-sonatas,  .and 
similar  works,  are  preserved  in  the  Imperial 
library  at  Berlin.  Kirnberger  was  of  a  quarrel- 
some temper,  and  fond  of  laying  down  the  law, 
which  made  him  no  favourite  with  his  fellow 
musicians.  [F.  G.] 

KISTNER.  One  of  the  great  music  pub- 
lishing firms  of  Leipzig.  The  business  was 
founded  in  1823  by  Probst,  who  was  succeeded 
in  1 83 1  by  Karl  Friedrich  Kistner,  a  man  of 
some  gifts  for  music  and  great  business  powers. 
The  new  name  was  not  assumed  till  1836. 
Kistner  greatly  improved  the  business  and 
secured  important  works  of  Mendelssohn,  Schu- 
mann, Chopin,  Moscbeles,  Sterndale  Bennett, 
«tc.  He  died  greatly  esteemed,  in  1844,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Julius,  who  followed  in 
his  father's  steps  with  equal  success.  He  added 
the  names  of  Hiller,  Taubert,  and  Rubinstein  to 
the  catalogue  of  the  house,  and  will  long  be 
remembered  by  those  who  had  to  do  with  him 
for  his  kindness  and  liberality.  He  withdrew 
from  the  business  in  1866  in  favour  of  Karl 
Friedrich  Ludwig  Gurckhaus — by  whom  the 
establishment  is  still  carried  on  in  its  old  style— 
and  died  May  13,  1868. 


KITCHENER. 

Among  the  principal  publications  of  the  firm 
are  found — Mendelssohn,  Psalms  95  and  98 ; 
the  Walpurgisnight ;  Antigone ;  Overture  Ruy 
Bias;  2  Sonatas  P.  F.  and  Cello,  and  8  other 
numbers.  Schumann,  Overture,  Scherzo,  and 
Finale ;  Rose  Pilgerfahrt ;  Myrthen ;  Sonata  for 
P.  F.  in  Fg ;  Bilder  aus  Osten ;  Spanisches 
Liederspiel  and  11  more,  including  op.  1  and  2. 
Chopin,  P.  F.  Concerto  E  minor ;  Trio  G  minor ; 
1 2  Grandes  Etudes  and  others.  Gade's  Erlkings 
daughter.  Kretschmer's  Operas  '  Die  Folkunger* 
and  'Henry  the  Lion.'  Goetz's  Symphony, 
'  Francesca  di  Rimini,'  '  Taming  of  the  Shrew,' 
and  137th  Psalm.  [G.] 

KIT,  a  tiny  violin,  which,  before  the  general 
introduction  of  pianofortes,  was  carried  by  danc- 
ing masters  in  their  pockets.  Hence  the  French 
and  German  names  for  it  were  'pochette'  and 
'  Taschengeige,'  though  pochette  is  also  applied 
to  an  instrument  of  long  and  narrow  form  resem- 
bling a  sourdine.  It  was  usually  about  16  inches 
long  over  all:  the 
woodcut  shows 
its  size  relatively 
to  that  of  the  vio- 
lin. Sometimes, 
however,  as  in 
Nos.  61 A  and  66 
of  the  Special  Ex- 
hibition of  An- 
cient Musical  In- 
struments, S.  K. 
Mus.  1872,  the 
neck  was  longer 
and  broader,  for 
convenience  of 
fingering,  which 
gave  the  Kit  a 
disproportioned 
look.  The  instru- 
ment is  now  prac- 
tically obsolete. 

The  origin  of 
the  name  has 
not  yet  been  dis- 
covered.1 In  Florio  (1598  and  161 1),  Beaumont 
and  Fletcher,  Ben  Jonson,  and  Drayton,  it  seems 
evident  that  it  is  used  without  reference  to  size, 
as  a  synonym  for  Crowd,  Rebeck,  or  Pandora. 
Cotgrave  (161 1)  defines  it  as  'a  small  Gitterne.' 
Grew,  in  1681,  speaks  of  'a  dancing  master's 
Kit,'  and  as  dancing-master's  Kits  would  natur- 
ally be  smaller  than  other  Kits,  the  name  gra- 
dually adhered  to  them,  as  that  of  viol  or  violin 
did  to  the  larger  sizes.  [G.] 

KITCHENER,  William,  M.D.,  the  son  of  a 
coal  merchant,  from  whom  he  inherited  an  ample 
fortune,  was  an  accomplished  amateur  musician. 
He  composed  an  operetta  entitled  '  Love  among 
the  Roses,  or,  The  Master  Key,'  and  was  author 
of  'Observations  on  Vocal  Music,'  1821,  and 
editor  of  '  The  Loyal  and  National  Songs  of  Eng- 
land,' 1823 ;  'The  Sea  Songs  of  England,'  1823 ; 

1  If  PochttU  were  an  Italian  word  the  origin  of  Kit  would  not  be  bf 
to  seek. 


KITCHENER. 

and  'A  Collection  of  the  Vocal  Music  in  Shak- 
spere's  Plays.'     He  was  also  author  of  some 
eccentrically  -written  but  useful  books,  including 
•The  Cook's  Oracle,'  'The  Traveller's  Oracle/ 
'  The  Art  of  Invigorating  and  Prolonging  Life,' 
'The  Housekeepers  Ledger,'  and  'The  Economy 
of  the  Eyes.'    Though  an  epicure,  he  was  regular 
and  even  abstemious  in  his  habits ;    but  while 
practising  the  precepts  he  gave  to  others,  he  was 
unable  to  prolong  his  own  life  beyond  the  age  of 
50,  and  died  suddenly  Feb.  26, 1827.  [W.H.H.] 
KITTEL,  Johann  Christian,  born  at  Erfurt, 
Feb.  18,   1732,  one  of  the  last  pupils  of  J.  S. 
Bach,  who  himself  died  July  28,  1 750.     His  first 
post  was  that  of  organist  at  Langelsalza,  which  he 
left  in  1756  for  that  of  the  Predigerkirche  at  his 
native  place.     His  pay  was  wretched,  and  had  to 
be  eked  out  by  incessant  and  laborious  giving  of 
lessons.     Even  when  nearly  70  he  was  forced  to 
make  a  tour  to  Gottingen,  Hanover,  Hamburg, 
and  Altona.     In  the  latter  place  he  staid  for 
some  time,  to  the  delight  of  the  musicians  there, 
and  published  a  book  of  tunes  for  the  Schleswig- 
Holstein    Church    (Neues    Choralbuch,   Altona 
1 803).     Thence  he  crept  home  to  Erfurt,  where 
he  died,  May  9,  1809,  in  great  poverty,  but 
saved  from  actual  starvation  by  a  small  pension 
allowed  him  by  Prince  Primas  of  Dalberg.     The 
fame  of  his  playing  was  very  great,  but  is  hardly 
maintained  by  his  works,  which  are  not  very 
important.    The  best  are  grand  preludes  for  the 
organ  in  2  books  (Peters) ;   six  sonatas  and  a 
fantasia  for  the  clavecin  (Breitkopfs) ;   and  an 
organ  school  (Der  angehende  praktische  Organist, 
in  3  books,  1 801-8  (Erfurt,  Beyer;  3rd  edition 
1831).     His  papers  were  inherited  by  his  great 
pupil,  C.  H.  Rinck,  one  of  many  famous  organists 
who  perfected  themselves  under  him.    Fe"tis  tells 
us — and  we  may  accept  the  story  as  true,  since 
he  was  intimate  with  Rinck — that  Kittel  had 
inherited  a  full-sized  portrait  of  Bach,  and  that 
when    satisfied  with   his   pupils   he   drew  the 
curtain,  and  allowed  them  a  sight  of  the  pic- 
ture, as  the  best  reward  he  could  afford  them. 
It  is  a  story  quite  in  accordance  with  the  devo- 
tion which  Bach  is  known  to  have  inspired  in 
those  who  had  to  do  with  him.  [G.] 

KLAVIER-MUSIK,  ALTE.  The  name  of 
two  collections  of  P.  F.  music.  I.  Edited  by  E. 
Pauer,  and  published  by  Senff,  Leipzig  : — 

PL  «.  Dumont,  Allemande  In  D 
minor. 
Chambonnieres.Allemande, 
Courante,  Sarabande, 
and  La  Loureuse. 
Couperin,  La  Favorite,  La 
tendre  Nanette,  La  Tene- 
breuse. 


KLEMM. 


63 


1st  Series. 

1.  Frescobaldl  and  Corrente, 

Canzona. 
Lully,  Sonata  In  E  minor, 
Forpora,  2  Fugues. 

2.  GaluppI,  Sonata  In  D. 
Fad  re    Martini,     Gavotte 

and  Ballet. 
Paradies,  Sonata  In  A. 
8.  Kerl,  Toccata  in  C. 

Frohberger,  Toccata  in  A 

minor. 
Kuhnau,  Suite  in  E  minor. 
4.  Mattheson,  Suite  In  A. 
SI  una t,    Courante    and   2 

Minuets. 
Basse,  Sonata  In  D. 
6.  .1.  L.  Krebs,  Fugue  In  F. 
Marpurg,  Freludium  and 

Capriccio. 
Eirnberger,Gigue,Gavotte, 

Courante,  and  Allegro  for 

a  musical  clock. 


Penda,  Sonata  In  G  minor. 
J.  E.  Bach,  Fantasia  and 
Fugue  in  F. 
Ft.    4.  J.  C.   F.   Bach,    Bondeau 
InC. 
J.  Ch.  Bach,  Sonata  In  B  k>. 
5.  Bameau,  Deux  Gigues  en  | 
Bondeau,  Le  Bappel  des  j 
Oiseaox,     Les      tenures  I 


riaintes,  Deux  Menuets, 
L'Egyptlenne,  La  Fonle. 
PL  6.  Byrd,  Praludium  and  Car- 
man's Whistle. 

Bull,  The  King's  Bunting 
Jigg. 

O.  Gibbons,  Pneludium  and 
Galliard. 

Arne,  Sonata  Mo.  3,  In  G. 


J.  Ernst  Bach,  Fantaisle  and  Fugue 

InF. 
Klrnberger,  Prelude  and  Fugue  In 

C  8  minor. 

C.  P.  E.  Bach,  Solfeggio  In  C  mln. 
Do.,  Sonata  in  F  minor. 

Couperin,  March  in  A  b. 

Do.,  Le  Reveille-Matin  in  F. 
Bameau,  Tambourin  in  E  minor. 

D.  Scarlatti,  Allegro  in  G  minor. 


2nd  Series. 
PL  L  A.  Scarlatti,   Fugue   in  F 
minor. 
P.  Scarlatti,  S  Studies. 
Durante,  Study  In  A. 
2.  Munchhauser,  Aria  pastor* 
alls  variata, 
W.  Fr.  Bach,  Capriccio  In 

D  minor. 
I: berl i n ,1'rel ude  and  Fugue 
in  A  minor. 
S.  N'ichelmann,  La  Gaillarde 
et  La  Tendre  (Sarabande 
and  Glgue)  in  G. 


II.  Edited  by  F.  Roitzsch,  published  by  Peters  :— - 

D.  Scarlatti.  Sonata  in  A. 
Do.,  The  Cat's  Fugue,  In  G  minor. 
Clement!,  Toccata  in  Bb. 
Field,  Bondo  in  E. 
Cherubinl,  Fugue  In  C. 
W.  F.  Bach,  Sonata  In  D. 
Eberlin,   Prelude  and  Fugue   in 

E  minor. 
Hassler,  Fanta-ie  in  C  minor. 
J.  B.  Cramer,  Toccatina  in  Ab. 

[G.] 

KLEIN",  Bernhard,  a  German  composer, 
born  at  Cologne,  where  his  father  was  a  bass 
player,  March  6,  1793.  His  early  life  was 
passed  in  the  disturbances  of  the  French  occupa- 
tion of  the  Rhine,  but  in  181 2  he  found  means 
to  get  to  Paris,  where  Cherubini's  advice,  the 
hearing  of  fine  performers,  and  the  study  of  the 
library  of  the  Conservatoire,  advanced  him 
greatly.  On  his  return  to  the  Rhine  he  con- 
ducted the  performances  in  Cologne  Cathedral, 
and  profited  by  an  acquaintance  with  Thibaut 
and  his  fine  library  at  Heidelberg.  His  first 
important  works  were  a  Mass  (18 16)  and  a 
Cantata  on  Schiller's  '  Worte  des  Glaubens ' 
(181 7).  In  1819  he  was  sent  officially  to  Berlin 
to  make  acquaintance  with  Zelter'B  system  of 
teaching  and  to  apply  it  in  Cologne  Cathedral. 
He  however  found  it  more  profitable  to  remain 
in  Berlin,  where  he  became  connected  with  the 
recently  established  School  for  Organists,  and 
was  made  director  of  music  in  the  University, 
and  teacher  of  singing  in  the  Hochschule. 
These  occupations  in  no  wise  checked  his  pro- 
ductivity. He  composed  a  mass  of  sonatas  and 
songs,  an  oratorio  'Job'  (Leipzig,  1820),  and  a 
grand  opera,  'Dido,'  to  Rellstab's  text  (1823). 
In  1823  he  married,  and  went  to  Rome,  where 
he  passed  a  fine  time  in  intercourse  with  Baini, 
and  in  copying  from  the  ancient  treasures  of 
music  there.  On  his  return  to  Berlin  he  com- 
posed an  oratorio,  '  Jephthah,'  for  the  Cologne 
Festival,  1828,  and  another,  '  David,'  for  Halle, 
1830. l  In  1832,  Sept.  9,  he  suddenly  died. 
Besides  the  compositions  already  mentioned 
he  left  a  Mass  in  D,  a  Paternoster  for 
8  voices,  a  Magnificat  and  Responsoria  for  6  do., 
an  opera  and  an  oratorio,  both  nearly  finished, 
8  books  of  psalms,  hymns,  and  motets  for  men's 
voices,  and  other  pieces  both  sacred  and  secular. 
His  vocal  music  was  much  used  by  singing 
societies  after  his  death.  Mr.  Hullah  has  re- 
printed one  of  the  4-part  psalms,  'Like  as  the 
hart,'  in  his  excellent  collection  called  'Vocal 
Scores.'  It  is  sweet,  dignified,  religious,  music, 
very  vocal  in  its  phrases.  [G.] 

KLEMM.  This  well-known  Leipzig  music- 
publishing  firm,  and  circulating  library,  was 
founded  in  182 1  by  Carl  August  Klemm  in  the 

1  These  tiro  oratorios  are  in  the  Library  of  the  Sacred  liarmonie 
Society. 


64 


KLEMM. 


house  which  it  now  occupies,  known  as  the '  Hohe 
Lilie,'  14  in  the  Neumarkt.  Klemm  succeeded 
Wieck,  the  father  of  Madame  Schumann,  who 
had  for  some  time  carried  on  a  musical  lending 
library  on  the  premises.  In  1847  the  house 
opened  a  branch  at  Chemnitz,  and  in  56  at  Dres- 
den. The  present  proprietor  is  Christian  Bern- 
hard  Klemm,  Among  the  original  publications 
of  the  house  are  to  be  found  the  names  of  J.  S. 
Bach,  Dotzauer,  F.  Abt,  Dreyschock,  Mendels- 
sohn, Schumann  (op.  34,  35),  Lachner,  F.  Schnei- 
der, Julius  Rietz,  Marschner,  etc.  etc.  [G.] 

KLENGEL,  August  Alexander,  born  Jan. 
29,  1784  at  Dresden,  son  of  a  well-known 
portrait  and  landscape  painter,  first  studied 
music  with  Milchmeyer,  inventor  of  a  piano 
which  could  produce  50  different  qualities  of 
tone  (see  Cramer's  '  Magazin  der  Musik,'  i.  10). 
In  1803  Clementi  visited  Dresden,  and  on  his 
departure  Klengel  went  with  him  as  his  pupil. 
The  two  separated  on  dementi's  marriage  in 
Berlin,  but  the  young  wife  dying  shortly  after, 
they  went  together  to  Russia,  where  Klengel 
remained  till  181 1.  He  then  spent  two  years 
studying  in  Paris,  returned  to  Dresden  in  181 4, 
went  to  London  in  181 5,  and  in  the  following 
year  was  appointed  Court-organist  at  Dresden, 
which  remained  his  home  till  his  death  on  Nov. 
32,  1852.  During  a  visit  to  Paris  in  1828  he 
formed  a  close  friendship  with  Fe"tis,  who  with 
other  musicians  was  much  interested  in  his 
pianoforte  canons.  Of  these  he  published  only 
*  Les  Avant-coureurs '  (Paul,  Dresden,  1841). 
After  his  death  Hauptmann  edited  the  *  Canons 
und  Fugen'  (Breitkopf  &  Hartel,  1854),  with 
a  preface,  in  which  he  says,  '  Klengel  was  brought 
up  on  Sebastian  Bach,  and  knew  his  works 
thoroughly.  It  must  not  be  supposed  however 
that  he  was  a  mere  imitator  of  Bach's  manner ;  it 
is  truer  to  say  that  he  expressed  his  own  thoughts 
in  the  way  in  which  Bach  would  have  done  it 
had  he  lived  at  the  present  day.'  He  left  several 
concertos,  and  many  other  works.  His  visit  to 
London  was  commemorated  by  the  composition 
of  a  Quintet  for  Piano  and  Strings  for  the  Phil- 
harmonic Society,  which  was  performed  Feb.  26, 
1816,  he  himself  taking  the  pianoforte.  There 
is  a  pleasant  little  sketch  of  him  in  a  letter  of 
Mendelssohn's  to  Eckert,  Jan.  26,  1842.    [F.G.] 

KLINDWORTH,  Karl,  one  of  the  best 
of  living  musicians  and  pianists,  whose  reputa- 
tion is  sure  to  last  though  it  was  slow  to  rise, 
was  born  at  Hanover  on  Sept.  25,  1830.  In 
early  youth  he  was  an  accomplished  performer 
on  the  violin.  From  his  17th  to  his  19th  year 
he  acted  as  conductor  to  a  travelling  opera 
troupe ;  then  he  settled  in  Hanover  and  took  to 
playing  the  piano  and  composing.  In  1850  he 
went  to  Weimar  to  study  pianoforte-playing 
under  Liszt,  and  had  Hans  von  Biilow,  \V. 
Mason,  and  Dyonis  Pruckner  as  his  fellow  pupils. 
In  1854  Qe  came  to  London,  where  he  remained 
fourteen  years,  appearing  in  public  at  intervals 
as  a  pianist  and  conductor  of  orchestral  concerts, 
but  in  the  main  living  the  quiet  life  of  a  student 
and  teacher.    He  organised  two  series  of  three 


KLINGEMANN. 

chamber  concerts  in  the  spring  of  1861  and  62, 
and  a  series  of  three  orchestral  and  vocal  concerts 
in  the  summer  of  1861.  The  most  remarkable 
compositions  brought  forward  at  the  latter  were 
Rubinstein's  'Ocean'  Symphony;  Gade's  'Erl 
King's  Daughter' ;  Cherubini's  Requiem,  No.  1  ; 
Schumann's  P.  F.  Concerto.  They  were  well 
carried  out,  but  met  with  the  usual  fate  of  such 
enterprises  in  London,  and  were  discontinued  for 
want  of  capital.  Since  1868  Klindworth  has 
occupied  the  post  of  professor  of  the  pianoforte 
at  the  Conservatorium  of  Moscow. 

Foremost  among  the  mass  of  good  work  done 
by  Klindworth  stand  his  pianoforte  scores  of 
Wagner's  'Der  Ring  des  Nibelungen,'  and  his 
critical  edition  of  Chopin ;  the  latter  beyond  all 
praise  for  rare  insight  into  the  text  and  minute 
care  bestowed  on  the  presentation  of  it ;  the  for- 
mer quite  wonderful  for  the  fidelity  with  which 
the  transcript  is  contrived  to  reflect  Wagner's 
complicated  orchestration.  His  arrangement  of 
Schubert's  Symphony  in  C  major  for  two  piano- 
fortes, and  the  four-hand  arrangement  of  Tschai- 
kowsky's  'Poeme  symphonique  Francesca  da 
Rimini,'  as  also,  amongst  his  original  composi- 
tions, a  very  difficult  and  effective  Polonaise- 
fantaisie  for  pianoforte,  should  be  particularly 
mentioned.  The  manuscripts  of  a  masterly  re- 
scoring  of  Chopin's  Concerto  in  F  minor,  and  a 
condensation  and  orchestration  of  C.  V.  Alkan's 
Concerto  in  G$  minor  (Etudes,  op.  39),  are  well 
known  to  his  friends.  [E.  D.] 

KLINGEMANN,  Carl,  born  at  Limmer, 
Hanover,  Dec.  2,  1798,  was  Secretary  to  the 
Hanoverian  Legation  in  Berlin  till  1828,  when 
he  was  transferred  to  a  similar  position  in 
London.  He  married,  Aug.  10,  1845,  the  sister 
of  Dr.  Rosen  the  eminent  Sanscrit  scholar  and 
Professor  at  University  College,  and  was  a  man 
of  great  cultivation,  considerable  literary  power, 
and  a  very  rare  judgment  in  music.  Klingemann 
had  been  intimate  with  the  Mendelssohns  during 
his  residence  in  Berlin,  and  when  Felix  came 
to  London  the  friendship  was  warmly  renewed. 
The  famous  tour  in  Scotland — the  origin  of  the 
Hebrides  Overture,  the  Scotch  Symphony,  and  so 
much  else — was  taken  in  company  with  Klinge- 
mann, and  the  journals,  letters,  and  sketches  were 
joint  productions.  (See  Die  Familie  Mendels- 
sohn, i.  214-294).  Klingemann  wrote  the  words 
for  the  Singspiel  or  Operetta  so  well  known  in 
England  as  'The  Son  and  Stranger,'  excepting 
in  the  case  of  the  song  no.  1 2,  '  Die  Blumen- 
glocken,'  of  which  Mendelssohn  wrote  the  words 
and  Klingemann  the  music.  The  title  'Sym- 
phonie-Cantate'  for  the  Lobgesang  was  his.  The 
Three  Caprices  (op.  33)  are  dedicated  to  him. 

The  following  of  Mendelssohn's  songs  are  set 
to  Klingemann's  words — op.  9,  no.  5 ;  op.  34, 
nos.  3  and  5  ;  op.  47,  nos.  5  and  6 ;  op.  63,  no.  4 ; 
op.  71,  no.  2  ;  op.  84,  no.  2 ;  op.  86,  no.  1.  He 
also  supplied  a  translation  of  Handel's  Solomon 
for  the  occasion  of  the  performance  at  Diisseldorf 
in  1835,  when  Mendelssohn  wrote  an  organ  part 
to  the  Oratorio.  Six  of  his  songs  were  published 
by  Breitkopfs.       Klingemann's   house  was    at 


KLINGEMANN. 

4,  Hobart  Place,  Eaton  Square.  Mendelssohn 
often  staid  there,  and  it  was  for  long  the  resort 
of  the  German  artists  and  literary  men.  He  died 
in  London,  Sept.  25,  1862.  For  an  affectionate 
notice  of  him  see  Holler's  ' Tonleben,'  ii.  95.    [G.] 

KLOTZ,  the  name  of  a  numerous  family  of 
violin-makers,  who  lived  at  the  little  town  of 
Mittenwald,  in  the  Bavarian  Alps,  and  founded 
a  manufacture  of  stringed  instruments  which 
makes  Mittenwald  to  this  day  only  less  famous 
than  Markneukirchen  in  Saxony,  and  Mirecourt 
in  the  Vosges.  A  variety  of  the  pine,  locally 
known  as  the  'Hasel-fichte'  (Bechstein  calls  it 
the  ■  harte  oder  spate  Roth-tanne '),  of  delicate 
but  strong  and  highly  resonant  fibre,  flourishes 
in  the  Bavarian  Alps.  The  abundance  of  this 
material,  which  the  ingenious  peasants  of  the 
neighbouring  Ammer-thal  use  for  wood-carving, 
led  to  the  rise  of  the  Mittenwald  violin  manu- 
facture. For  about  two  centuries  there  was  held 
in  the  town  a  famous  fair,  greatly  frequented 
by  Venetian  and  other  traders.  In  1679  this 
fair  was  removed  to  Botzen,  and  the  Mitten- 
walders  attribute  the  rise  of  the  violin  industry 
to  the  distress  which  thereupon  ensued.  One 
Egidius  Klotz  had  already  made  violins  at 
Mittenwald.  Tradition  says  that  he  learned 
the  craft  from  Stainer  at  Absam.  He  is  more 
likely  to  have  learned  it  from  seeing  Stainer's 
violins,  which  he  imitated  with  success.  His 
son,  Matthias  or  Matthew  Klotz,  followed  in 
the  same  path.  He  travelled,  however,  into 
Italy,  sojourning  both  at  Florence  and  Cremona. 
Tradition  reports  him  to  have  returned  to  Mit- 
tenwald about  1683,  and  to  have  at  once  begun 
to  instruct  many  of  the  impoverished  Mitten- 
walders  in  the  mystery  of  fiddle-making.  The 
instruments  found  a  ready  sale.  They  were 
hawked  about  by  the  makers  at  the  churches, 
castles,  and  monasteries  of  South  Germany ;  and 
Mittenwald  began  to  recover  its  prosperity. 
Most  of  the  instruments  of  Matthias  Klotz  date 
from  1670  to  1696.  They  are  well  built,  on 
the  model  of  Stainer,  but  poorly  varnished. 
His  son,  Sebastian,  surpassed  him  as  a  maker. 
His  instruments,  though  Stainer-like  in  appear- 
ance, are  larger  in  size,  of  flatter  model,  and 
better  designed :  and  his  varnish  is  often  of  a 
good  Italian  quality.  Another  son  of  Matthias, 
named  Joseph,  still  has  a  good  reputation  among 
the  connoisseurs  of  German  violins. 

Until  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  a 
distinctive  German  style  prevailed  in  violins,  of 
which  the  above-mentioned  makers  are  the  best 
exponents.  In  several  towns  of  Italy  there  were 
Germans  working  in  their  own  style  side  by  side 
with  Italian  makers.  Tecchler  worked  thus  in 
Rome,  Mann  in  Naples,  and  the  three  Gofrillers 
(Gottfriedl)  in  Venice.  Odd  as  it  seems,  it  is  cer- 
tain that  there  was  a  demand  for  German  violins  in 
Cremona  itself.  Two  Germans,  named  Pfretschner 
and  Fricker,  who  made  violins  of  their  own  ugly 
pattern,  gained  a  subsistence  there  in  the  golden 
days  of  Stradivarius  :  and  the  famous  Veracini 
always  used  a  German  violin.  But  this  compe- 
tition could  not  long  endure.  The  superiority  of 
vol.  u. 


KNECHT. 


65 


the  Italian  violin  was  established  in  the  earlier 
half  of  the  century  :  and  wherever  stringed  in- 
struments were  made,  a  conscious  imitation  of 
the  Italian  models  began.  It  penetrated  to 
Mittenwald,  as  it  did  to  London  and  Paris.  This 
stage  of  the  art  is  represented  by  Geoeg  Klotz, 
whose  fiddles  date  from  1750  to  1770.  They 
have  lost  their  distinctive  Tyrolese  cut,  without 
gaining  the  true  Italian  style,  and  are  covered 
with  a  thin  brittle  spirit  varnish,  laid  upon  a 
coat  of  size,  which  keeps  the  varnish  from  pene- 
trating the  wood,  and  renders  it  opaque  and 
perishable.  Besides  George,  we  hear  of  Michael, 
Chakles,  and  a  second  Egidius.  Nine-tenths  of 
the  violins  which  pass  in  the  world  as  'Stainers' 
were  made  by  the  Klotz  family  and  their  fol- 
lowers. Dealers  soon  destroyed  their  tickets, 
and  substituted  spurious  ones  bearing  the  name 
of  Stainer :  a  process  which  the  makers  at 
length  adopted  on  their  own  account. 

The  Klotz  violins  are  not  without  merit  as 
regards  sonority.  Spohr  recommends  them,  and 
an  extraordinary  story  is  told  in  Parke's '  Musical 
Memoirs'  of  the  value  set  upon  one  belonging 
to  Mr.  Hay,  the  leader  of  the  King's  band.  M. 
Miremont,  of  the  Rue  du  Faubourg  Poissonniere, 
one  of  the  best  living  violin-makers,  scandalised 
the  Parisian  connoisseurs  a  few  years  ago  by 
exhibiting  several  instruments  built  by  him  on 
the  Klotz  model.  Strange  to  relate,  their  tone 
was  of  undeniable  excellence.  [E.  J.  P.] 

KNAPP,  William,  deserves  mention  as  the 
author  of  a  L.M.  psalm  tune  called  '  Wareham,' 
which  was  long  a  favourite  in  churches.  He 
was  born  1698,  was  parish  clerk  of  Poole,  and 
died  1 768.  He  published  '  New  Church  Melody' 
and  'A  Set  of  New  Psalms  and  Anthems.' 
'Wareham'  is  in  both — in  the  former  called 
'  Blandford,'  and  in  common  time,  in  the  latter 
in  triple  time.  Another  tune  by  him  is  given 
by  Parr,  'Church  of  England  Psalmody,'  from 
whom  and  the  present  clerk  of  Poole  the  above 
facts  are  derived.  [G.] 

KNAPTON,  Philip,  was  born  at  York  in 
1788,  and  received  his  musical  education  at 
Cambridge  from  Dr.  Hague.  He  then  returned 
to  York  and  followed  his  profession.  He  com- 
posed several  overtures,  pianoforte  concertos,  and 
other  orchestral  works,  besides  arranging  nume- 
rous pieces  for  the  pianoforte  and  harp.  His 
song, '  There  be  none  of  Beauty's  daughters,'  was 
long  in  favour.  He  acted  as  one  of  the  assistant 
conductors  at  the  York  Festivals  of  1823,  1825, 
and  1828.    He  died  June  20, 1833.    [W.H.H.] 

KNECHT,  Justin  Heinbioh,  a  musician  of 
the  last  century,  who,  though  now  forgotten,  was 
a  considerable  person  in  his  day.  He  was  born 
Sept.  30,  1752,  at  Biberach  in  Suabia,  received 
a  good  education,  both  musical  and  general 
(Boeckh  was  one  of  his  masters),  and  filled  for 
some  time  the  post  of  professor  of  literature  in 
his  native  town.  By  degrees  he  gravitated  to 
music,  and  in  1807  became  director  of  the  opera 
and  of  the  court  concerts  at  Stuttgart;  but 
ambition  or  ability  failed  him,  and  in  a  couple  of 

F 


60 


KNECHT. 


years  he  resigned  the  post  and  returned  to  Bibe- 
rach,  where  he  died  Dec.  n,  1817,  with  a  great 
reputation  as  organist,  composer,  and  theoretician. 
In  the  last-named  department  he  was  an  adherent 
of  Vogler.  The  list  of  his  productions  as  given 
by  F£tis  embraces  27  numbers  of  compositions, 
and  1 9  theoretical  and  didactic  works.  Two  of 
these  only  have  any  interest  for  us,  and  that  from 
an  accidental  cause.  The  first  (Bossier,  Spire)  is  a 
*  Musical 1  portrait  of  Nature,  a  grand  symphony 
for  2  violins,  viola,  and  bass,  2  flutes,  2  oboes, 
bassoons,  horns,  trumpets,  and  drums  ad  lib.,  in 
which  is  expressed : — 1.  A  beautiful  country,  the 
sun  shining,  gentle  airs,  and  murmuring  brooks ; 
birds  twitter,  a  waterfall  tumbles  from  the  moun- 
tain, the  shepherd  plays  his  pipe,  the  shepherdess 
sings,  and  the  lambs  gambol  around.  2.  Sud- 
denly the  sky  darkens,  an  oppressive  closeness 
pervades  the  air,  black  clouds  gather,  the  wind 
rises,  distant  thunder  is  heard,  and  the  storm 
approaches.  3.  The  tempest  bursts  in  all  its 
fury,  the  wind  howls  and  the  rain  beats,  the 
trees  groan,  and  the  streams  rush  furiously. 
4.  The  storm  gradually  goes  off",  the  clouds  dis- 
perse, and  the  sky  clears.  5.  Nature  raises  its 
joyful  voice  to  heaven  in  songs  of  gratitude  to 
the  Creator'  (a  hymn  with  variations).  The 
second  (if  it  be  not  an  arrangement  of  a  portion 
of  the  preceding)  is  another  attempt  of  the  same 
kind — '  The  Shepherds'  pleasure  interrupted  by 
the  storm,  a  musical  picture  for  the  organ.' 
These  are  precisely  the  subjects  which  Beethoven 
has  treated,  and  Fetis  would  have  us  believe 
that  Knecht  actually  anticipated  not  only  the 
general  scheme  of  the  Pastoral  Symphony  but 
some  of  its  figures  and  passages.  But  this  is  not 
the  case.  The  writer  purchased  the  score  and 
parts  of  Knecht's  work  at  Otto  Jahn's  sale,  and  is 
able  to  say  that  beyond  the  titles  the  resemblances 
between  the  two  works  are  obviously  casual. 
Knecht's  being  in  addition  commonplace,  entirely 
wanting  in  that  '  expression  of  emotions '  which 
Beethoven  enforces,  and  endeavouring  to  depict 
the  actual  sights  and  sounds,  which  he  depre- 
cates. [See  Pastobal  Symphony.]  [G.] 
KNELL,  the  Passing  Bell  (Fr.  La  Cloche  des 
Agonisants ;  Germ.  Die  Todtenglocke).  A  solemn 
cadence,  tolled  on  the  great  Bell  of  a  Parish 
Church,  to  announce  the  death  of  a  parishioner ; 
or,  in  accordance  with  old  custom,  to  give 
warning  of  his  approaching  dissolution.  To 
indicate  the  decease  of  a  Man,  or  Boy,  the  Knell 
begins  with  three  triple  tolls,  followed  by  a 
number  of  moderately  quick  single  strokes  corre- 
sponding to  the  age  of  the  Departed.  The  Bell 
is  then  tolled,  very  slowly,  for  the  accustomed 
time  :  and  the  Knell  concludes,  as  it  began,  with 
three  triple  tolls,  sometimes,  but  not  always, 
preceded  by  a  repetition  of  the  single  strokes 
denoting  the  age  of  the  deceased  person. 

1  Fetls  gives  the  title  Incorrectly.  It  U  •  Le  Portrait  musical  de  la 
Nature,"  etc,  not '  Tableau  musical.'  He  also  gives  Its  date  as  ■  Leip- 
zig, 17R4.'  It  Is  really  published  at  Spire  by  Bossier,  with  no  year- 
but  the  date  may  very  well  be  1784.  since  the  list  on  the  back  con- 
tains the  three  early  sonatas  of  Beethoven,  which  were  published  by 
Bossier  In  1783.  But  the  coincidence  Is  curious.  Beethoven  must  have 
heen  familiar  with  Bossier's  advertisement  page,  on  which  his  own  first 
sonatas  were  announced,  and  which  contains  aU  the  above  particulars. 


KNELLER  HALL. 

For  a  Woman,  the  Knell  begins,  and  ends, 
with  three  double,  instead  of  three  triple  tolls. 
In  other  respects,  the  formula  is  the  same  as 
that  used  for  a  Man. 

Minute  tolls  denote  the  death  of  the  Sovereign, 
or  Heir  Apparent  to  the  Crown.  [W.S.R.] 

KNELLER  HALL,  near  Hounslow,  Middle- 
sex, the  '  Military  School  of  Music,'  for  the  edu- 
cation of  bandsmen  and  bandmasters  for  the 
regiments  of  the  British  army.  Until  recently 
bandmasters  in  the  British  army  were  mostly 
civilians,  with  no  guarantee  for  their  competence 
for  the  post,  and  bandsmen  were  instructed  and 
practised  in  a  casual  and  often  imperfect  manner 
by  each  regiment  for  itself.  A  bandmaster  formed 
no  integral  part  of  the  corps,  and  could  not 
be  compelled  to  accompany  it  in  case  of  war  or 
foreign  service ;  and  the  status  of  bandsmen  is 
even  now  so  far  anomalous  that  in  action  their 
duty  is  to  rescue  the  wounded  under  fire  and 
take  charge  of  them  in  hospital.  Each  band  was 
formed  on  its  own  model,  and  played  what  kind 
of  instruments,  and  at  what  pitch,  it  liked.  In 
the  Crimean  war  the  evils  of  this  state  of  things 
and  the  want  of  united  systematic  action  were 
painfully  apparent,  and  shortly  afterwards,  by 
command  of  H.R.H.  the  Duke  of  Cambridge, 
Commander-in-Chief,  a  plan  was  drawn  up  and 
submitted  to  the  officers  of  the  army,  to  which 
they  readily  gave  their  assent  and  subscription. 
In  pursuance  of  this  plan  Kneller  Hall,  a  building 
on  the  site  of  the  house  of  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller, 
the  painter  (formerly  the  Government  establish- 
ment for  training  schoolmasters),  was  taken,  and 
opened  as  a  school  on  March  3,  1857,  and  a 
systematic  course  of  instruction,  with  a  staff  of 
professors,  begun,  under  the  modest  title  of  the 
'Military  Music  Class,'  Major  (now  Colonel) 
F.  L.  Whitmore,  long  known  for  a  philanthropic 
interest  and  zeal  in  matters  of  music,  being 
appointed  Commandant,  and  reporting  annually 
to  the  Adjutant  General  of  the  Forces.  The 
advantages  of  the  plan  proved  so  great  that  in 
1875  the  institution  was  adopted  by  Government. 
Bandmasters  are  now  first-class  staff-sergeants 
of  the  regiments  to  which  they  belong,  and  the 
musical  department  in  each  regiment  consists  of 
a  bandmaster,  a  sergeant,  a  corporal,  and  19  men 
(cavalry  14),  besides  boys  as  drummers  and  fifers. 

The  educational  staff  at  Kneller  Hall  now 
(1879)  comprises  professors  of  the  following 
subjects — Theory,  2  Clarinet  (3),  Oboe,  Flute, 
Bassoon,  Tenor  Brass  (2),  Bass  "ditto,  French 
Horn — and  a  schoolmaster  from  the  Government 
Normal  School  for  general  education.  The  first- 
class  students  act  as  assistants  to  the  professors. 
The  length  of  term  is  2  years,  the  hours  of 
musical  instruction  are  7  in  summer,  and  6  in 
winter  daily.  The  number  of  pupils  of  all  ages 
varies  with  circumstances.  The  average  strength 
is  about  50  non-commissioned  officers,  training 
for  bandmasters,  and  forming  the  first  class ; 
and  no  privates,  boys  and  adults,  training  for 

7  Mr.  Lazarus  Is  one  of  these  three. 

»  This  post  was  formerly  held  by  Mr.  Sullivan,  father  of  the  com- 
poser. 


KNELLER  HALL. 

bandsmen,  the  second  class — 160  in  all.  Lads 
are  admitted  at  15.  Adults  are  either  outsiders 
or  formerpupils,  who,  after  having  been  bandsmen, 
develope  qualities  fitting  them  for  farther  edu- 
cation as  bandmasters.  Both  lads  and  men  are 
taken  into  the  school  as  vacancies  occur,  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  commanding  officers  of  the 
regiments.  A  supply  of  the  former  is  obtained  from 
the  Chelsea  Hospital,  the  Royal  Hibernian  Mili- 
tary School,  Dublin,  the  Metropolitan  Poor  Law 
Schools,  etc.  General  instruction  is  given  by 
the  Normal  schoolmaster,  and  there  is  a  noble 
chapel  in  which  service  is  regularly  performed. 

England  is  as  yet  the  only  country  which  has 
adopted  a  systematic  method  of  educating  bands- 
men and  bandmasters,  and  the  great  improvement 
both  in  the  moral  conduct  and  the  efficiency  of 
the  men  which  has  taken  place  since  the  founda- 
tion of  Kneller  Hall  cannot  be  too  warmly  wel- 
comed. By  Colonel  Whitmore's  efforts,  and  the 
enlightened  sanction  of  H.R.H.  the  Commander- 
in-Chief,  uniformity  in  instruments  and  in  l  pitch 
has  been  obtained,  and  a  general  consolidation  of 
the  military  music  of  the  country  brought  about 
which  is  highly  desirable.  A  bandmaster  has  now  a 
recognised  position  in  the  army,  and  a  fixed  salary 
of  £100  a  year  in  addition  to  his  regimental  pay. 
The  cost  of  this  salary  is  still  borne  by  the  private 
purses  of  the  officers,  which  is  the  only  important 
anomaly  remaining  to  be  rectified  [G.] 

KNIGHT,  Joseph  Philip,  youngest  son  of 
the  Rev.  Francis  Knight,  D.D.,  was  born  at  the 
Vicarage,  Bradford-on-Avon,  July  26,  18 12. 
His  love  for  music  began  early,  and  at  16  he 
studied  harmony  and  thorough  bass  under  Mr. 
Corfe,  then  organist  of  Bristol  Cathedral.  When 
about  20  Mr.  Knight  composed  his  first  six  songs, 
under  the  name  of  '  Philip  Mortimer.'  Among 
these  were  '  Old  Times,'  sung  by  Henry  Phillips, 
and  'Go,  forget  me,'  which  was  much  sung  both 
here  and  in  Germany.  After  this  he  used  his 
own  name,  and  in  company  with  Haynes  Bayly 
produced  a  number  of  highly  popular  songs, 
among  which  the  most  famous  were  '  Of  what  is 
the  old  man  thinking?'  'The  Veteran,'  'The 
Grecian  Daughter,'  and  'She  wore  a  wreath  of 
roses.'  He  subsequently  composed  a  song  and 
a  duet  to  words  written  for  him  by  Thomas 
Moore  —  'The  parting,'  and  'Let's  take  this 
world  as  some  wide  scene.'  In  1839  Mr.  Knight 
visited  the  United  States,  where  he  remained 
two  years.  To  this  time  are  due  among  other 
popular  songs  the  once  well-known  'Rocked  in  the 
cradle  of  the  deep,'  sung  with  immense  success 
by  Braham,  and  'Why  chime  the  bells  so  merrily.' 
On  his  return  to  England  he  produced  '  Beautiful 
Venice,'  'Say  what  shall  my  song  be  to-night,' 
and  '  The  Dream,'  words  by  the  Hon.  Mrs.  Norton 
— all  more  or  less  the  rage  in  their  day.  Some 
years  afterwards  Mr.  Knight  was  ordained  by 
the  late  Bp.  of  Exeter  to  the  charge  of  St.  Agnes 
in  the  Scilly  Isles,  where  he  resided  two  years. 
He  then  married  and  lived  for  some  time  abroad, 
doing  very  little  in  the  way  of  composition,  but 
on  his  return  to  England  he  again  took  up  his 
•  A=453  vibrations  oer  second. 


KNYVETT. 


67 


pen,  and  wrote  among  others  'Peace,  it  is  I!' 
'  The  lost  Rose,' '  The  Watchman,' '  The  Anchor,' 
and  '  Queen  of  the  silver  bow,'  all  of  which  have 
enjoyed  great  popularity.  His  songs,  duets,  and 
trios,  number  in  all  not  less  than  two  hundred. 
He  is  a  good  organist,  with  an  unusual  gift  for 
extemporising.  [G,] 

KNYVETT,  Chables,  descended  from  an 
ancient  Norfolk  family,  was  one  of  the  principal 
alto  singers  at  the  Commemoration  of  Handel  in 
1784;  he  was  also  engaged  at  the  Concert  of 
Ancient  Music.  He  was  appointed  a  gentleman 
of  the  Chapel  Royal,  Nov.  6,  1786.  In  179 1  he, 
in  conjunction  with  Samuel  Harrison,  established 
the  Vocal  Concerts,  which  they  carried  on 
until  1794.  On  July  25, 1796,  he  was  appointed 
an  organist  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  a  few  years 
later  resigned  his  former  post.     He  died  in  1822. 

His  elder  son,  Charles,  was  born  1773.  He 
was  placed  for  singing  under  Mr.  (afterwards 
Sir)  William  Parsons,  and  for  the  organ  and 
piano  under  Samuel  Webbe.  In  1 801  he  joined 
his  younger  brother  William,  Greatorex,  and 
Bartleman,  in  reviving  the  Vocal  Concerts.  In 
1802  he  was  chosen  organist  of  St.  George's, 
Hanover  Square.  Besides  this  he  taught  the 
pianoforte  and  thorough  bass,  and  published  a 
Selection  of  Psalm  Tunes,  1823.  He  died,  after 
many  years  of  retirement,  Nov.  2,  1852. 

William,  the  younger  son  of  Charles  the 
elder,  was  born  April  it,  1779.  In  1788  he 
sang  in  the  treble  chorus  at  the  Concert  of 
Ancient  Music,  and  in  1795  appeared  there  as 
principal  alto.  In  1797  he  was  appointed 
gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  soon  after- 
wards a  lay-vicar  of  Westminster.  In  1 802  be 
succeeded  Dr.  Arnold  as  one  of  the  composers  of 
the  Chapel  Royal.  For  upwards  of  40  years  he 
was  principal  alto  at  the  best  London  concerts 
and  all  the  provincial  festivals,  being  greatly 
admired  for  the  beauty  of  his  voice  and  his 
finished  style  of  singing,  particularly  in  part 
music.  Callcott's  glee  '  With  sighs,  sweet  rose,' 
was  composed  expressly  for  him.  In  1832  he 
became  conductor  of  the  Concert  of  Ancient 
Music,  which  office  he  resigned  in  1840.  He 
conducted  the  Birmingham  Festivals  from  1834 
to  1843,  and  the  York  Festival  of  1835.  He  was 
the  composer  of  several  pleasing  glees — one  of 
which, '  When  the  fair  rose,'  gained  a  prize  at  the 
Harmonic  Society  in  1800 — and  some  songs,  and 
wrote  anthems  for  the  coronations  of  George  IV. 
and  Queen  Victoria.    He  died  Nov.  17,1 856. 

Deborah,  second  wife  of  William  Knyvett, 
and  niece  of  Mrs.  Travis,  one  of  the  Lancashire 
chorus  singers  engaged  at  the  Concert  of  Ancient 
Music,  was  born  at  Shaw,  near  Oldham,  Lanca- 
shire. In  1813  she  was  placed  in  the  chorus  of 
the  Concert  of  Ancient  Music,  the  directors  of 
which,  finding  her  possessed  of  superior  abilities, 
soon  withdrew  her  from  that  position,  took  her 
as  an  articled  pupil,  and  placed  her  under 
Greatorex.  In  18 15  she  appeared  at  the  con- 
certs as  a  principal  singer  with  success.  In  1816 
she  sang  at  the  Derby  Festival,  in  18 18  at 
Worcester,  and  in  1820  at  Birmingham.     From 

F2 


68 


KNYVETT. 


that  time  she  was  constantly  in  request,  particu- 
larly as  an  oratorio  singer,  until  1843,  when  she 
retired.    She  died  in  Feb.  1876.  [W.H.H.] 

KOCHEL,  Dr.  Ludwig,  Ritter  von,  learned 
musician  and  naturalist,  born  Jan.  14,  1800,  at 
Stein,  near  Krems  on  the  Danube ;  tutor  to  the 
sons  of  the  Archduke  Karl  (1828-42).  From 
1850  to  1863  he  lived  at  Salzburg,  and  from  that 
time  to  his  death,  on  June  3,  1877,  at  Vienna. 
His  work  as  a  botanist  and  mineralogist  does  not 
concern  us :  as  a  musician  he  has  immortalised 
his  name  by  his  'Chronologisch-thematisches  Ver- 
zeichniss '  of  all  W.  A.  Mozart's  works,  with  an 
appendix  of  lost,  doubtful,  and  spurious  composi- 
tions (Breitkopf  &  Hartel,  Leipzig  1862).  As  a 
precursor  of  that  precious  work  a  small  pamphlet 
should  be  named,  '  Uber  den  Umfang  der  musik- 
alischen  Productivity  W.  A.  Mozarts'  (Salzburg 
1862).  The  complete  edition  of  Mozart's  works 
which  Breitkopf  &  Hartel  are  now  publishing 
could  scarcely  have  been  made  without  his  gener- 
ous cooperation.  In  1832  von  Kbchel  was  made 
an  Imperial  Councillor,  and  in  42  he  received  the 
order  of  Leopold.  Among  his  intimate  friends  was 
Otto  Jahn,  in  whose  work  on  Mozart  he  took  an 
active  interest.  See  Jahn's  Mozart,  2nd  ed.,p.xxxi. 
His  private  character  was  most  estimable.  [C.F.P.] 

KOHLER.  The  name  of  an  eminent  family  of 
military  wind-instrument  makers,  at  present  esta- 
blished at  35,  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden. 
The  founder  of  the  family  was  John  KOhler,  a 
native  of  Volkenrode,  a  hamlet  near  Cassel.  He 
came  to  England,  acted  as  bandmaster  to  the 
Lancashire  Volunteers,  and  in  1780  established 
himself  as  a  musical  instrument  maker  at  87,  St. 
James's  Street.  Having  no  children,  he  sent  for 
his  nephew,  John  Kohler,  from  Germany,  who 
succeeded  to  his  business  in  1801.  The  latter 
was  appointed  musical  instrument  maker  to  the 
Duke  of  York,  then  commander-in-chief,  and  the 
Prince  of  Wales  successively.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  only  son,  John  Augustus,  who  removed 
the  business  to  Henrietta  Street,  and  died  in  1 878. 
His  inventions  in  brass  instruments  were  many 
and  successful.    He  first  introduced  the  cornet-a- 

Siston  or  cornopean  into  this  country,  and,  with 
lacfarlane,  added  the  third  valve  to  that  instru- 
ment. His  improved  mute  to  the  cornopean, 
with  extra  bell  (1858),  enabling  the  instrument 
to  be  played  in  a  very  low  tone  and  perfectly  in 
tune,  is  well  known.  His  triple  slide  trombones 
and  patent  levers  were  very  remarkable  improve- 
ments in  their  day.  He  obtained  prize  medals  at 
the  Exhibitions  of  1 85 1  and  6  2 ,  and  was  favourably 
mentioned  in  the  Report  of  the  latter.  The  busi- 
ness is  now  carried  on  by  his  eldest  son,  Augustus 
Charles,  who  entered  the  firm  in  1863.        [G.] 

KOMPEL,  August,  a  distinguished  violinist, 
born  in  1831  at  Briickenau.  He  is  one  of  the 
best  pupils  of  Spohr,  and  the  quiet  elegiac  style 
of  his  master  suits  his  talent  precisely.  His 
tone  is  not  large  but  very  pure  and  sympathetic, 
his  execution  faultless.  He  was  for  a  time  mem- 
ber of  the  bands  at  Cassel  and  Hanover,  and  has 
been  since  1867  leader  of  that  at  Weimar.  [P.D.] 


KONTSKI. 

KOLLMANN,  August  Friedbich  Christoph, 
of  a  musical  family,  his  father  an  organist  and 
schoolmaster,  his  brother,  George  Christoph,  an 
organist  of  great  renown  at  Hamburg ;  was 
born  at  Engelbostel,  Hannover,  in  1756,  and 
thoroughly  educated  in  music.  He  was  selected 
to  be  chapel-keeper  and  schoolmaster  at  the  Ger- 
man Chapel,  St.  James's,  London,  and  entered  on 
his  duties  about  1782.  In  1792  George  III. 
presented  a  chamber  organ  to  the  chapel,  which 
was  played  by  Kolhnann  under  the  title  of '  clerk' 
till  his  death  in  Nov.  1824.  He  was  a  person  of 
much  energy,  and  in  1809  during  a  large  fire  in 
the  palace  is  said  to  have  saved  the  chapel  by 
standing  in  the  doorway  and  preventing  the  fire- 
men from  entering  it  to  destroy  it.  His  works 
are  numerous : — Essay  on  Practical  Harmony, 
1796;  do.  on  Practical  Musical  Composition, 
1799  ;  Practical  Guide  to  Thorough  Bass,  1801 ; 
Vindication  of  a  passage  in  ditto,  1802;  New 
Theory  of  Musical  Harmony,  1806;  Second  Prac- 
tical Guide  to  Thorough  Bass,  1807  ;  Quarterly 
Musical  Register,  181 2 — two  numbers  only;  Re- 
marks on  Logier,  1824 — (some  of  these  went 
through  two  editions);  Analyzed  Symphony,  op.  3 ; 
First  beginning  on  the  P.  F.  op.  5, 1 796 ;  Concerto 
for  P.F.  and  Orchestra,  op.  8 ;  Melody  of  the  100th 
Psalm,  with  100  harmonies,  op.  9;  Twelve  ana- 
lyzed Fugues,  op.  1  o ;  Introduction  to  Modulation, 
op.  1 1 ;  Rondo  on  the  Chord  of  the  Dim.  7th. 
He  is  also  said  to  have  published  an  orchestral 
symphony  'The  Shipwreck,  or  the  Loss  of  the 
East  Indiaman  Halsewelh'a  piece  of  programme- 
music  quite  in  the  taste  of  the  time ;  songs, 
sonatas,  and  an  edition  of  Bach's  Well-tempered 
Clavier.  His  son  George  August  was  a  good 
organ-player,  and  on  his  father's  death  succeeded 
to  his  post  as  organist.  On  his  death,  March 
19,  1845,  his  sister  Johanna  Sophia  succeeded 
him;  and  on  her  death,  in  May  1849,  the  post 
was  bestowed  on  Mr.  F.  Weber  the  present 
organist.  [G.] 

KONTSKI,  DE,  a  family  of  virtuosi,  of  which 
Charles,  the  eldest,  born  at  Warsaw  in  18 15,  ap- 
peared as  a  pianist  in  public  at  the  age  of  seven, 
but,  like  the  majority  of  prodigies,  did  not  fulfil 
the  promises  of  childhood.  He  made  his  first 
studies  in  Warsaw  and  continued  them  at  Paris, 
where  he  settled  as  teacher,  and  died  1867. 

Antoine,  the  second,  born  at  Cracow  Oct.  27, 
181 7,  a  clever  pianist,  with  great  delicacy  of 
touch  and  brilliancy  of  execution,  but  a  super- 
ficial musician,  and  composer  of  many  '  pieces  de 
salon,'  of  which  the  'Re veil  du  Lion'  (op.  115) 
is  universally  known.  He  has  travelled  a  great 
deal  and  is  now  living  in  London. 

Stanislas,  the  third  brother,  born  in  1820, 
pianist  and  pupil  of  Antoine,  living  at  Peters- 
burg. 

Apollinaiee,  a  violinist,  the  youngest  of  the 
four  brothers,  was  born  Oct.  23, 1826,  at  Warsaw. 
His  first  master  was  his  elder  brother  Charles, 
himself  a  clever  violinist  and  pupil  of  the  Warsaw 
Conservatoire.  He  showed  the  same  precocity  of 
talent  as  the  restof  his  family,  performing  in  public 
concerts  at  an  age  of  not  much  over  four  years. 


KONTSKI. 

Later  on  he  travelled  a  great  deal,  chiefly  in 
Russia,  but  also  in  France  and  Germany,  and 
made  a  certain  sensation  by  his  really  excep- 
tional technical  proficiency,  not  unaccompanied 
by  a  certain  amount  of  charlatanism.  In  1837 
he  is  said  (see  Mendel)  to  have  attracted  the 
attention  of  Paganini,  then  in  Paris  on  his  road 
back  from  England,  and  to  have  formed  a  friend- 
ship with  the  great  virtuoso  which  resulted  in 
his  receiving  some  lessons1  from  him  (an  honour 
which  he  shared  with  Sivori)  and  ultimately  be- 
coming heir  to  his  violins  and  violin  compositions. 
This  however  requires  confirmation.  In  1853  he 
was  appointed  solo-violinist  to  the  Emperor  of 
Russia,  and  in  1861  Director  of  the  Warsaw  Con- 
servatoire, which  post  he  still  retains.  He  played 
a  solo  at  one  of  the  Russian  concerts  given  in 
connection  with  the  Exhibition  at  Paris  in  1878. 
His  compositions  (fantasias  and  the  like)  are 
musically  unimportant.  [P.  D.] 

KOTZWARA,  Fbanz,  born  at  Prague,  was 
in  Ireland  in  1790,  when  he  was  engaged  as 
tenor  player  in  Gallini's  orchestra  at  the  King's 
Theatre.  On  Sept.  2,  1791  he  hanged  himself, 
not  in  jest  but  in  the  greatest  earnest,  in  a  house 
of  ill -fame  in  Vine  Street,  St.  Martin's.  He  had 
been  one  of  the  band  at  the  Handel  Commemora- 
tion in  the  preceding  May.  Kotzwara  was  the 
author  of  the  Battle  of  Prague,  a  piece  for  P.  F. 
with  violin  and  cello  ad  libitum,  long  a  favourite  in 
London.  Also  of  sonatas,  serenades,  and  other 
pieces,  some  of  them  bearing  as  high  an  opus 
number  as  36,  if  Fe'tis  may  be  believed.  He  was 
a  clever,  vagabond,  dissipated  creature.  [G.] 

KOZELUCH  (German  Kotzeluoh),  Johann 
Anton,  Bohemian  musician,  born  Dec.  13,  1738, 
at  Wellwarn  ;  was  Choirmaster  first  at  Rakonitz 
and  then  at  Wellwarn.  Desirous  of  further  in- 
struction he  went  to  Prague  and  Vienna,  where 
he  was  kindly  received  by  Gluck  and  Gassmann, 
was  appointed  Choirmaster  of  the  Kreuzherrn 
church,  Prague  ;  and  on  March  13,  1784,  Capell- 
meister  to  the  Cathedral,  which  he  retained  till 
his  death  on  March  3,  181 4.  He  composed 
church-music,  operas,  and  oratorios,  none  of 
which  have  been  published.  Of  much  greater 
importance  is  his  cousin  and  pupil, 

Leopold,  born  also  in  Wellwarn  in  1754,  or 
according  to  some  1748.  In  1765  he  went  to 
Prague  for  his  education,  and  there  composed 
a  ballet,  performed  at  the  national  theatre  in 
1771*  with  so  much  success  that  it  was  followed 
in  the  course  of  the  next  six  years  by  24  ballets 
and  3  pantomimes.  In  1778  he  went  to  Vienna, 
and  became  the  pianoforte  master  of  the  Arch- 
duchess Elizabeth  and  favourite  teacher  of  the 
aristocracy.  When  Mozart  resigned  his  post  at 
Salzburg  (1781)  the  Archbishop  at  once  offered 
it  with  a  rise  of  salary  to  Kozeluch,  who  declined 
it  on  the  ground  that  he  was  doing  better  in 
Vienna.  To  his  friends  however  he  held  dif- 
ferent language — '  The  Archbishop's  conduct  to- 
wards Mozart  deterred  me  more  than  anything, 
for  if  he  could  let  such  a  man  as  that  leave  him, 

*  Thin  Is  corroborated  by  Hanslick,  Aus  dem  Concert-saal,  p.  429. 


KRAFT. 


69 


what  treatment  should  I  have  been  likely  to 
meet  with?'  The  respect  here  expressed  was 
sadly  at  variance  with  his  subsequent  spiteful 
behaviour  towards  Mozart,  the  original  cause 
of  which  is  said  to  have  been  Mozart's  reply  to 
his  remark  on  a  passage  in  a  new  quartet  of 
Haydn's — 'I  should  not  have  written  that  so." 
'  Neither  should  I :  but  do  you  know  why  ? 
because  the  idea  would  never  have  occurred  to 
either  of  us.'  This  reproof  Kozeluch  never  forgot. 
He  used  to  say  that  the  overture  to  'Don 
Giovanni'  was  no  doubt  fine,  but  that  it  was 
full  of  faults ;  and  of  that  to  '  Die  Zauberflbte,' 
'  Well !  for  once  our  good  Mozart  has  tried  to 
write  like  a  learned  man.'  At  the  coronation  of 
the  Emperor  Leopold  II.  at  Prague  (1791)  even 
his  own  countrymen  the  Bohemians  were  dis- 
gusted with  his  behaviour  to  Mozart,  who  was 
in  attendance  as  court  composer.  He  never- 
theless succeeded  him  in  his  office  (1792)  with  a 
salary  of  1 500  gulden,  and  retained  the  post  till 
his  death  on  May  7,  181 1  (not  1814).  His 
numerous  compositions  include  2  grand  operas, 
'  Judith '  and  '  Debora  und  Sisara ' ;  an  oratorio, 
'Moses  in  ^Egypten';  many  ballets,  cantatas, 
about  30  symphonies,  and  much  pianoforte  music, 
at  one  time  well  known  in  England,  but  all  now 
forgotten.  His  chief  interest  for  us  lies  in  his 
association  with  Mozart  and  Haydn.  [F.  G.] 

KRAFT,  Anton,  distinguished  cellist,  born 
Dec.  30,  1752,*  at  Rokitzan  near  Pilsen  in  Bo- 
hemia, son  of  a  brewer  and  amateur,  who  had 
his  son  early  taught  music,  especially  the  cello. 
He  studied  law  at  Prague,  where  he  had  finish- 
ing lessons  from  Werner,  and  Vienna,  where 
Haydn  secured  him  for  the  chapel  of  Prince 
Esterhazy,  which  he  entered  on  Jan.  1,  1778. 
On  the  Prince's  death  in  1 790  he  became  cham- 
ber-musician to  Prince  Grassalkowitsch,  and  in 
1 795  to  Prince  Lobkowitz,  in  whose  service  he 
died  Aug.  28,  1820.  On  one  of  his  concert-tours 
he  was  at  Dresden  in  1789,  and  with  his  son 
played  before  Duke  Karl,  and  before  the  Elector 
the  night  after  the  court  had  been  enchanted  by 
Mozart.  Both  musicians  were  staying  at  the 
same  hotel,  so  they  arranged  a  quartet,  the 
fourth  part  being  taken  by  Teyber  the  organist.* 
Haydn  valued  Kraft  for  his  power  of  expression, 
and  for  the  purity  of  his  intonation,  and  in  all 
probability  composed  (1781)  his  cello  concerto 
(Andre)  for  him.  According  to  Schindler1  the 
cello  part  in  Beethoven's  triple  concerto  was  also 
intended  for  Kraft.  As  he  showed  a  talent  for 
composition,  Haydn  offered  to  instruct  him,  but 
Kraft  taking  up  the  new  subject  with  such  ardour 
as  to  neglect  his  instrument,  Haydn  would  teach 
him  no  more,  saying  he  already  knew  enough  for 
his  purpose.  He  published  3  sonatas  with  ac- 
companiment, op.  1  (Amsterdam,  Hummel) ; 
3  sonatas,  op.  2  (Andre-) ;  3  grand  duos  concer- 
tantes  for  violin  and  cello,  op.  3,  and  1st  concerto 

2  This  Is  tbe  date  In  the  baptismal  register,  but  1751,  or  49,  ara 
usually  given. 

•  Mozart  also  played  with  the  Krafts  his  Trio  In  E  (KKchel  642) ;  sea 
Nohl'a  •  Mozart-Briefe,'  No.  251.    N.B.  No.  246  la  wrong. 

*  Vol.  1.  p.  147 ;  see  also  Thayer's '  Beethoven,"  vol.  ii.  p.  299. 


70 


KRAFT. 


KREBS. 


in  C,  op.  4  (Breitkopf  &  Hiirtel)  ;  grand  duos  for 
2  cellos,  op.  5  and  6  (Vienna,  Steiner) ;  and  di- 
vertissement for  cello  with  double  bass  (Peters). 
Kraft  also  played  the  baritone  in  Prince  Ester- 
hazy's  chamber  music,1  and  composed  several 
trios  for  2  baritones  and  cello.  His  son  and  pupil 
Nioolads,  born  Dec.  14,  1778,  at  Esterhaz, 
early  became  proficient  on  the  cello,  accompanied 
his  father  on  his  concert-tours  (see  above),  and 
settled  with  him  in  Vienna  in  1 790.  He  played 
a  concerto  of  his  father's  at  a  concert  of  the 
Tonkunstler-Societat  in  1792,  and  was  one  of 
Prince  Karl  Lichnowsky's  famous  quartet  party, 
who  executed  so  many  of  Beethoven's  works  for 
the  first  time.  The  others  were  Schuppanzigh, 
Sina,  and  Franz  Weiss,  all  young  men.4  In  1 796 
he  became  chamber-musician  to  Prince  Lob-" 
kowitz,  who  sent  him  in  1801  to  Berlin,  for 
further  study  with  Louis  Duport.  There  he  gave 
concerts,  as  well  as  at  Leipzig,  Dresden,  Prague, 
and  Vienna  on  his  return  journey.  In  1809  he 
entered  the  orchestra  of  the  court-opera,  and  the 
King  of  Wirtemberg  hearing  him  in  1814,  at 
once  engaged  him  for  his  chapel  at  Stuttgart. 
He  undertook  several  more  concert-tours  (Hum- 
mel accompanied  him  in  1818),  but  an  accident 
to  his  hand  obliged  him  to  give  up  playing.  He 
retired  on  a  pension  in  1834,  and  died  on  May  18, 
1853.  Among  his  pupils  were  Count  Wilhorsky, 
Merk,  Birnbach,  Wranitzky's  sons,  and  his  own 
son  Fbiedrich,  born  in  Vienna  Feb.  12,  1807, 
entered  the  chapel  at  Stuttgart  1824.  Among 
Nicolaus's  excellent  cello  compositions  may  be 
specified — a  fantasia  with  quartet,  op.  1  (Andre") ; 
concertos,  op.  3,  4  (Breitkopfs),  and  5  (Peters) ; 
scene  pastorale  with  orchestra,  dedicated  to  the 
King  of  Wirtemberg,  op.  9  (Peters) ;  8  diver- 
tissements progressives  with  2nd  cello,  op.  14 
(Andre") ;  3  easy  duos  for  2  cellos,  op.  15,  and  3 
grand  duos  for  ditto,  op.  17  (Andre").     [C.F.P.] 

KRAKOVIAK,  Cbacoviak,  or  Ceacoviennb. 
A  Polish  dance,  belonging  to  the  district  of 
Cracow.  '  There  are  usually,'  says  an  eye-witness, 
'  a  great  many  couples — as  many  as  in  an  English 
country  dance.  They  shout  while  dancing,  and 
occasionally  the  smart  man  of  the  party  sings  an 
impromptu  couplet  suited  for  the  occasion — on 
birthdays,  weddings,  etc.  The  men  also  strike 
their  heels  together  while  dancing,  which  produces 
a  metallic  sound,  as  the  heels  are  covered  with  iron.' 
The  songs,  which  also  share  the  name,  are  in- 
numerable and,  as  is  natural,  deeply  tinged  with 
melancholy.  Under  the  name  of  Cracovienne 
the  dance  was  brought  into  the  theatre  about 
the  year  1840,  and  was  made  famous  by  Fanny 
Elssler's  performance.  The  following  is  the  tune 
to  which  she  danced  it ;  but  whether  that  is  a 
real  Krakoviak,  or  a  mere  imitation,  the  writer 
is  unable  to  say : — 


1  For  an  anecdote  on  this  point  see  '  Josef  Haydn,'  by  0.  F.  PohL 
irol.  i.  p.  252. 
*  See  Thayer's  •  Beethoven,'  rol.  It.  p.  278. 


It  has  been  varied  by  Chopin  (op.  14),  Herz, 
Wallace,  and  others.  [G.] 

KREBS.  A  musical  family  of  our  own  time. 
Kabl  August,  the  head,  was  the  son  of  A.  and 
Charlotte  Miedcke,  belonging  to  the  company  of 
the  theatre  at  Nuremberg,  where  he  was  born 
Jan.  16,  1804.  The  name  of  Krebs  he  obtained 
from  the  singer  of  that  name  at  Stuttgart,  who 
adopted  him.  His  early  studies  were  made  under 
Schelble,  and  in  1825  under  Seyfried  at  Vienna. 
In  March  1827  he  settled  in  Hamburg  as  head 
of  the  theatre,  and  there  passed  23  active  and 
useful  years,  till  called  to  Dresden  in  1850  as 
Kapellmeister  to  the  court,  a  post  which  he  filled 
with  honour  and  advantage  till  1871.  Since 
that  date  he  has  conducted  the  orchestra  in  the 
Catholic  chapel.  His  compositions  are  numerous 
and  varied  in  kind — masses,  operas  ('Silva,' 
'Agnes'),  a  Te  Deum,  orchestral  pieces,  songs 
and  pianoforte  works,  many  of  them  much 
esteemed  in  Germany.  In  England,  however,  his 
name  is  known  almost  exclusively  as  the  father 
of  Miss  Mabt  Kbebs,  the  pianist,  born  Dec.  5, 
1851,  at  Dresden.  On  the  side  of  both  father 
and  mother  (Aloysia  Michaelsi,  an  operatic 
singer  of  eminence,  who  married  Krebs  July  20, 
1850,  and  is  still  living)  she  inherited  music, 
and  like  Mme.  Schumann  was  happy  in  having 
a  father  who  directed  her  studies  with  great 
judgment.  Miss  Krebs  appealed  in  public  at 
the  early  age  of  11  (Meissen,  1862),  and  ha3 
since  that  date  been  almost  continually  before 
the  world.  Her  tours  have  embraced  not  only 
the  whole  of  Germany  and  England,  but  Italy, 
France,  Holland,  and  America.  She  played  at 
the  Gewandhaus  first,  Nov.  30,  1865.  To  this 
country  she  came  in  the  previous  year,  and  made 
an  engagement  with  Mr.  Gye  for  four  seasons, 
and  her  first  appearance  was  at  the  Crystal  Palace, 
April  30,  1 864 ;  at  the  Philharmonic  April  20, 
1874;  and  at  the  Monday  Popular  Concerts 
Jan.  13, 1875.  At  all  these  concerts  Miss  Krebs 
is  often  heard,  though  the  •  Populars'  enjoy  more 
of  her  presence  than  any  other.  Her  repertoire 
is  large,  and  embraces  all  the  acknowledged 
classical,  orchestral,  chamber,  and  solo  pieces, 
and  others  of  such  exceptional  difficulty  as  Schu- 
mann's Toccata  (op.  7),  of  which  she  has  more 
than  once  given  a  very  fine  rendering.  She  is 
liked  by  all  who  know  her,  and  we  trust  that  she 
may  long  continue  her  visits  to  this  country.    [G.] 

KREBS,  Johank  Ludwig,  distinguished  or- 
ganist, born  at  Buttelstadt  in  Thuringia  Oct.  10, 
1 713.  His  father,  Johank  Tobias,  himself  an 
excellent  organist,  for  seven  years  walked  every 


KBEBS. 

week  from  Buttelstiidt  to  Weimar,  in  order  to 
take  lessons  from  Walther,  author  of  the  Lexicon, 
who  was  organist  there,  and  from  Sebastian  Bach, 
at  that  time  concertmeister  at  Weimar.  He  was 
afterwards  appointed  organist  at  Buttelstadt, 
where  he  died.  He  so  thoroughly  grounded  his 
son  in  music,  that  when  in  1726  he  went  to  the 
Thomas-Schule  in  Leipzig,  he  was  already  suf- 
ficiently advanced  to  be  at  once  admitted  by  Bach 
into  the  number  of  his  special  pupils.  He  enjoyed 
Bach's  instruction  for  nine  years  (to  I735)>  an<i 
rose  to  so  high  a  place  in  his  esteem,  that  he  was 
appointed  to  play  the  clavier  at  the  weekly  prac- 
tices to  which  Bach  gave  the  name  of '  collegium 
musicum.'  Bunning  upon  his  pupil's  name  and 
his  own,  the  old  Cantor  was  accustomed  to  say 
that  'he  was  the  best  crab  (Krebs)  in  all  the 
brook  (Bach).'  At  the  close  of  his  philosophical 
studies  at  Leipzig  he  was  appointed  organist 
successively  at  Zwickau,  Zeitz,  and  Altenburg, 
where  he  remained  from  1756  till  his  death  in 
1 780.  He  was  equally  esteemed  on  the  clavier 
and  the  organ,  and  in  the  latter  capacity  espe- 
cially deserves  to  be  considered  one  of  Bach's 
best  pupils.  His  published  compositions  include 
'  Klavier-Uebungen'  (4  parts),  containing  chorales 
with  variations,  fugues,  and  suites ;  sonatas  for 
clavier,  and  for  flute  and  clavier  ;  and  trios  for 
flute.  Several  of  these  have  been  reprinted  in  the 
collections  of  Korner  and  others.  Among  his 
unpublished  works  a  Magnificat  and  2  Sanc- 
tuses  with  orchestral  accompaniments  are  highly 
spoken  of.  He  left  two  sons,  both  sound  musi- 
cians and  composers,  though  not  of  the  eminence 
of  their  father.  The  eldest,  Ehrenfried  Chris- 
tian Tbaugott,  succeeded  his  father  as  Court- 
organist  and  Musik-director  at  Altenburg,  and 
on  his  death  was  succeeded  by  his  younger  bro- 
ther, Johann  Gottfried.  [A.M.] 

KEEISLEEIANA,  a  set  of  8  pieces  for  piano 
Bolo,  dedicated  to  Chopin  and  forming  op.  16  of 
Schumann's  works.  Kreisler  was  the  Kapell- 
meister in  Hoffmann's  musical  papers  so  much 
admired  by  Schumann.  The  pieces  were  written 
in  1838,  after  the  Phantasie  stiicke  (op.  12)  and 
Novelletten  (op.  21),  and  before  the  Arasbeske 
(op.  18).1  They  are  full  of  energy,  variety  and 
character,  and  like  the  Novelletten  are  cast  in  the 
so-called  Lied  and  Eondo  forms.  Schumann  has 
added  to  the  title  '  Phantasien  fur  das  P.  F.'  The 
Kreisleriana  were  published  by  Haslinger  of  Vi- 
enna shortly  after  Schumann's  visit  (1838-9).  [6.] 

KEEISSLE  VON  HELLBOEN,  Heinrich, 
Dr.  juris,  Imperial- finance-Secretary  at  Vienna, 
and  Member  of  the  Direction  of  the  Gesellschaft 
der  Musikfreunde,  finds  a  place  here  for  his  Lives 
of  Schubert,  viz.  ■  F.  Schubert,  eine  biografische 
Skizze,  von  Heinrich  von  Kreissle'  (small  8vo. 
Vienna,  1861),  a  preliminary  sketch  ;  and  '  Franz 
Schubert'  (Svo.  Vienna,  Gerold,  1865),  a  com- 
plete and  exhaustive  biography,  with  a  portrait. 
The  latter  has  been  translated  in  full  by  Mr. 
Arthur  Duke  Coleridge,  'The  Life  of  Franz 
Schubert . . .  with  an  Appendix  by  George  Grove ' 

*  Wissielewskjr,  181. 


KEEUTZEE. 


71 


(giving  a  thematic  catalogue  of  the  nine  sym- 
phonies, and  mentioning  other  works  still  in 
MS.),  2  vols.,  8vo.,  London,  Longmans,  1869.  It 
has  also  been  condensed  by  Mr.  E.  Wilberforce, 
8vo.,  London,  Allen,  1866. 

Kreissle  died  April  6, 1869,  aged  66,  much  be- 
loved for  his  amiability  and  modesty,  and  for  his 
devotion  to  the  subject  of  his  biography.  [C.F.P.] 

KEENN,  Michael.  Beethoven's  body-ser- 
vant while  he  lived  at  his  brother  Johann's  at 
Gneixendorf  in  the  autumn  of  1826.  Krenn  was 
one  of  the  three  sons  of  the  vine-dresser  on  the 
farm.  The  old  man  died  in  1861,  but  the  son 
survived  him,  and  his  story — to  all  appearance 
a  natural  and  credible  account — was  drawn  from 
him  by  Dr.  Lorenz,  who  communicated  it  to  the 
1  Deutsche  Musik-Zeitung'  of  Vienna  for  March  8, 
1862.  It  is  a  very  curious  and  interesting  account 
of  the  great  master's  habits  and  disposition  a  few 
months  before  his  death  (see  vol.  i.  p.  1986  of  this 
Dictionary).  It  has  been  made  the  subject  of  a 
lecture  to  the  Schillerverein  at  Trieste  by  Mr. 
Thayer,  'Ein  kritischer  Beitrag,'  etc.  (Berlin, 
W.  Weber,  1877).  [G.] 

KEETSCHMEE,  Edmund,  organist  and 
dramatic  composer,  born  Aug.  31,  1830,  at 
Ostritz  in  Saxony,  where  his  father  the  Eector 
of  the  school,  gave  him  his  early  musical  edu- 
cation; studied  composition  under  Julius  Otto, 
and  the  organ  under  Johann  Schneider  at  Dres- 
den, where  he  became  organist  of  the  Catholic 
church  in  1 854  and  to  the  court  in  63.  He  founded 
several  '  Gesangvereine,'  and  in  65  his  composi- 
tion, 'Die  Geisterschlacht,'  gained  the  prize  at 
the  first  German  '  Sanger fest '  in  Dresden.  Three 
years  later  he  took  another  prize  in  Brussels  for 
a  mass.  His  opera  'Die  Folkunger,'  in  5  acts, 
libretto  by  Mosenthal,  was  produced  at  Dresden 
June  1875.  It  was  well  received  and  had  a 
considerable  run,  but  has  since  disappeared  ;  nor 
does '  Heinrich  der  Loewe,'  to  his  own  libretto,  ap- 
pear likely  to  meet  with  more  permanent  success. 
The  musicis  correct  and  shows  both  taste  and  talent, 
but  no  invention  or  dramatic  power.  His  vocal 
part-writing  has  little  life  ;  and  his  duets,  terzets, 
finales,  etc.,  are  too  much  like  part-songs.    [F.G.] 

KEEUTZEE,  Conradin,  German  composer, 
son  of  a  miller,  born  Nov.  22,  1782,  at  Moss- 
kirch  in  Baden ;  chorister  first  in  his  native  town, 
then  at  the  Abbey  of  Zwiefalten,  and  afterwards 
at  Scheussenried.  In  1 799  he  went  to  Freiburg 
in  Breisgau  to  study  medicine,  which  he  soon 
abandoned  for  music.  The  next  5  years-he  passed 
chiefly  in  Switzerland,  as  pianist,  singer,  and  com- 
poser ;  and  in  1 804  arrived  in  Vienna.  And  there 
he  took  lessons  from  Albrechtsberger,  and  worked 
hard  at  composition,  especially  operas.  His  first 
opera  was  *  Conradin  von  Schwaben '  (Stuttgart 
181 2),  and  its  success  gained  him  the  post  of 
Capellmeister  to  the  King  of  Wiirtemburg; 
thence  he  went  to  Prince  von  Furstenberg  at 
Donaueschingen ;  but  in  1822  returned  to  Vienna 
and  produced  'Libussa.'  At  the  Karthnerthor 
theatre  he  was  Capellmeister  in  1825,  1829-32, 
and  1837-40.     From  1S33  to  40  he  was  conductor 


72 


KREUTZER. 


at  the  Josephstadt  theatre,  where  he  produced 
his  two  best  works,  'Das  Nachtlager  in  Granada ' 
(1834)  and  a  fairy  opera  'Der  Verschwender,' 
which  have  both  kept  the  boards.  At  a  later 
date  he  was  appointed  Capellmeister  at  Cologne, 
and  in  1843  conducted  the  43rd  Festival  of  the 
Lower  Rhine.  Thence  he  went  to  Paris,  and  in 
1846  back  to  Vienna.  He  accompanied  his 
daughter,  whom  he  had  trained  as  a  singer,  to 
Riga,  and  there  died,  Dec.  14,  1849. 

Kreutzer  composed  numerous  operas ;  inci- 
dental music  to  several  plays  and  melodramas ; 
an  oratorio,  'Die  Sendung  Mosis,'  and  other 
church- works ;  chamber  and  pianoforte  music; 
Lieder,  and  part-songs  for  men's  voices.  Of  all 
these,  a  list  is  given  by  Fetis,  who  speaks  of  a 
one-act  drama  '  Cordelia '  as  the  most  original  of 
his  works.  The  two  operas  already  mentioned, 
and  the  part-songs  alone  have  survived.  In  the 
latter,  Kreutzer  displays  a  flow  of  melody  and 
good  construction ;  they  are  still  standard  works 
with  all  the  German  Liedertafeln,  and  have  taken 
the  place  of  much  weak  sentimental  rubbish. 
'  Der  Tag  desHerrn,' '  Die  Kapelle,' '  Marznacht' 
and  others  are  universal  favourites,  and  models 
of  that  style  of  piece.  Some  of  them  are  given  in 
'  Orpheus.'  As  a  dramatic  composer,  his  airs  are 
better  than  his  ensemble  pieces,  graceful  but 
wanting  in  passion  and  force.  His  Lieder  for  a 
single  voice,  though  vocal  and  full  of  melody,  have 
disappeared  before  the  more  lyrical  and  expressive 
songs  of  Schubert  and  Schumann.  [A.  M.] 

KREUTZER,1  Rodolphe,  violinist  and  com- 
poser, born  at  Versailles,  Nov.  16,  1766.  He 
studied  first  under  his  father,  a  musician,  and 
according  to  Fe"tis  had  lessons  on  the  violin  from 
Staniitz,  but  he  owed  more  to  natural  gifts  than 
to  instruction.  He  began  to  compose  before  he 
had  learnt  harmony,  and  was  so  good  a  player 
at  16,  when  his  father  died,  that  through  the  in- 
tervention of  Marie  Antoinette,  he  was  appointed 
first  violin  in  the  Chapelle  du  Roi.  Here  he  had 
opportunities  of  hearing  Mestrino  and  Viotti, 
and  his  execution  improved  rapidly.  The  further 
appointment  of  solo-violinist  at  the  Theatre  Italien 
gave  him  the  opportunity  of  producing  an  opera. 
'Jeanne  d'Arc,  3  acts  (May  10,  1790),  was  suc- 
cessful, and  paved  the  way  for  'Paul  et  Virginie' 
(Jan.  15,  1 791),  which  was  still  more  so. 

The  melodies  were  simple  and  fresh,  and  the 
musical  world  went  into  raptures  over  the  new 
effects  of  local  colour,  poor  as  they  seem  to  us. 
The  music  of  'Lodo'iska,'  3  acts  (Aug.  1,  1791), 
is  not  sufficiently  interesting  to  counterbalance 
its  tedious  libretto,  but  the  overture  and  the 
Tartar's  March  were  for  long  favourites.  During 
the  Revolution  Kreutzer  was  often  suddenly 
called  upon  to  compose  optrat  de  circomtance, 
a  task  he  executed  with  great  facility.  In  1 796 
he  produced  '  Imogene,  ou  la  Gageure  indiscrete,' 
a  3-act  comedy  founded  on  a  story  of  Boccaccio 
little  fitted  for  music.  At  the  same  time  he  was 
composing  the  concertos  for  the  violin,  on  which 
his  fame  now  rests.    After  the  peace  of  Campo 

1  His  name  has  been  often  transmuted  Into  Kretsche  by  Frenchmen 
who  thought  they  were  pronouncing  like  Germans. 


KREUTZER. 

Formio  (Oct,  17,  1797)  he  started  on  a  concert- 
tour  through  Italy,  Germany,  and  the  Nether- 
lands ;  the  fire  and  individuality  of  his  playing, 
especially  in  his  own  compositions,  exciting  every- 
where the  greatest  enthusiasm. 

In  1 798  Kreutzer  was  in  Vienna  in  the  suite 
of  Bernadotte  (Thayer's  'Beethoven,'  ii.  21), 
and  we  must  presume  that  it  was  at  this  time 
that  he  acquired  that  friendship  with  Beethoven 
which  resulted,  8  years  later,  in  the  dedication 
to  him  of  the  Sonata  (op.  47)  which  will  now 
be  always  known  by  his  name — though  he  is 
2  said  never  to  have  played  it — and  that  he 
became  '  first  violin  of  the  Academy  of  Arts  and 
of  the  Imperial  chamber-music' — titles  which 
are  attributed  to  him  in  the  same  dedication.  He 
had  been  professor  of  the  violin  at  the  Conserva- 
toire from  its  foundation,  and  on  his  return  to 
Paris  he  and  Baillot  drew  up  the  famous  'Me"thode 
de  Violon'  for  the  use  of  the  students.  He  fre- 
quently played  at  concerts,  his  duos  concertanles 
with  Rode  being  a  special  attraction.  On  Rode'a 
departure  to  Russia  in  1801,  Kreutzer  suc- 
ceeded him  as  first  violin  solo  at  the  Opera, 
a  post  which  again  opened  to  him  the  career  of 
a  dramatic  composer.  '  Astyanax,'  3  acts  (April 
12,  1801) ;  '  Aristippe'  (May  24,  1808;,  the  suc- 
cess of  which  was  mainly  due  to  Lays  ;  and  '  La 
Mort  d'Abel'  (March  23,  18 10),  in  3  poor  acts, 
reduced  to  two  on  its  revival  in  1823,  were  the 
best  of  a  series  of  operas  now  forgotten.  He  also 
composed  many  highly  successful  ballets,  such  as 
'Paul  et  Virginie'  (June  24,  1806),  revived  in 
1826;  'Le  Carnaval  de  Venise'  (Feb.  22,  1816), 
with  Persuis ;  and  'Clari'  (June  19,  1820),  the 
principal  part  in  which  was  sustained  by  Bi- 
gottini.  He  was  appointed  1st  violin  in  the 
chapelle  of  the  First  Consul  in  1802,  violin-solo 
to  the  Emperor  in  1806,  maitre  de  la  chapelle  to 
Louis  XVIII.  in  181 5,  and  Chevalier  of  the 
Legion  of  Honour  in  1824,  He  became  vice- 
conductor  of  the  Academic  in  18 16,  and  con- 
ductor in  chief  from  1817  to  1824.  A  broken 
arm  compelled  him  to  give  up  playing,  and  he 
retired  from  the  Conservatoire  with  the  year  1825. 
His  last  years  were  embittered  by  the  decline  of  his 
influence  and  the  impossibility  of  gaining  a  hear- 
ing for  his  last  opera,  '  Mathilde.'  An  apoplectic 
seizure  affected  his  mind,  but  he  lingered  till 
June  6,  1 83 1,  when  he  died  at  Geneva. 

Besides  his  39  operas  and  ballets,  all  produced 
in  Paris,  he  published  19  violin-concertos  ;  duos, 
and  2  symphonies  concertantes,  for  2  violins ; 
e*tudes  and  caprices  for  violin  solo ;  sonatas  for 
violin  and  cello ;  15  trios,  and  a  symphonic 
concertante  for  2  violins  and  cello ;  15  string 
quartets ;  and  several  airs  with  variations. 

Kreutzer's  brother  Auguste,  born  at  Versailles 
1 781,  was  a  member  of  the  Chapelle  de  rEmpereur, 
and  of  the  Chapelle  du  Roi  (1804-30) ;  and 
succeeded  his  brother  at  the  Conservatoire,  Jan. 
1,  1826,  retaining  the  post  till  his  death,  at  Paris 
Aug.  31, 1832.   His  son  Leon,  born  in  Paris  181 7, 


3  See  Berlioz, '  Voyage,'  1.  264,  for  this  and  for  an  amusing  account 
of  Kreutzer's  difficult  ies  oyer  Beethoyen's  Second  Symphony. 


KREUTZER. 

died  at  Vichy  Oct.  6,  1868,  was  musical  critic 
to  ' La  Quotidienne,' feuilletoniste  to  the  'Union,' 
and  contributed  a  number  of  interesting  articles 
to  the  'Revue  contemporaine,'  the  'Revue  et 
Gazette  musicale,'  and  other  periodicals.  [G.C.] 
Rodolphe  Kreutzer  is  the  third,  in  order  of  de- 
velopment, of  the  four  great  representative  masters 
of  the  classical  Violin-School  of  Paris  ;  the  other 
three  being  Viotti,  Rode,  andBAiLLOT.  His  style, 
such  as  we  know  it  from  his  concertos,  is  on  the 
whole  more  brilliant  than  Rode's,  but  less  modern 
than  Baillot's.  Kreutzer  did  not  require  Beetho- 
ven's dedication  to  make  his  name  immortal. 
His  fame  will  always  rest  on  his  unsurpassed 
work  of  studies — •  40  Etudes  ou  Caprices  pour  le 
Violon';  a  work  which  has  an  almost  unique 
position  in  the  literature  of  violin-studies.  It 
has  been  recognised  and  adopted  as  the  basis  of 
all  solid  execution  on  the  violin  by  the  masters 
of  all  schools — French,  German,  or  any  other 
nationality — and  has  been  published  in  number- 
less editions.  In  point  of  difficulty  it  ranks  just 
below  Rode's  24  Caprices,  and  is  generally  con- 
sidered as  leading  up  to  this  second  standard 
work  of  studies.  Kreutzer's  concertos  afford  ex- 
cellent material  for  the  student,  but  are  less 
interesting  than  those  of  Viotti  and  Rode,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  the  19th,  in  D  minor,  are 
now  hardly  ever  played  in  public.  [P.D.] 

KREUTZER  SONATA.  The  popular  title  in 
England  of  Beethoven's  Sonatafor  piano  and  violin 
in  A,  op.  47,  dedicated  to  '  his  friend  R.  Kreutzer.' 
The  work  was  first  played  by  Beethoven  and 
Bridgetower  at  the  Augarten  at  8  a.m.  May  17 
or  24,  1803.  The  finale  had  originally  belonged 
to  op.  30,  no.  I,  but  the  first  movement  and  the 
variations  were  only  finished  just  in  time,  and 
the  latter  had  to  be  played  from  the  autograph 
without  rehearsal.  In  the  opening  Presto,  at  the 
pause  in  the  9th  bar,  Bridgetower  introduced  a 
Cadenza  in  imitation  of  that  for  the  Piano  in  the 
1 8th  bar,  fortunately  to  Beethoven's  satisfaction 
(see  Thayer,  ii.  230).  He  gives  it  as  follows : — 
lma  volta     (it) 


KROMMER. 


73 


The  sonata  was  published  in  1805,  by  Simrock 
and  Traeg,  before  May  18.  Bridgetower  averred 
(Thayer,  ii.  231)  that  it  was  originally  dedicated 
to  him,  and  that  the  change  was  the  result  of 
a  quarrel.  Why  Kreutzer  was  chosen  is  as  yet 
a  mystery.  He  was  in  Vienna  with  Bernadotte 
in  1 798,  but  no  trace  of  his  relations  with  Bee- 
thoven remains,  though  we  may  assume  them  to 
have  been  good,  for  Beethoven  to  designate  him  as 
his  'friend.'  It  has  been  alleged  as  a  reason 
that  the  second  theme  of  the  Presto  is  a  phrase 
of  Kreutzer's ;  but  this  has  not  been  substantiated. 
Certainly  no  such  passage  appears  in  Kreutzer's 
violin  works.  The  dedication  on  the  1st  ed.  stands 
'  Sonata  per  il  Pianoforte  ed  un  Violino  obligato, 
scritta  in  uno  stilo  molto  concertante,  quasi  come 
d'un  Concerto.  Composta  e  dedicata  al  suo 
amico  R.  Kreutzer,  Membro  del  Conservatory  di 
Musica  in  Parigi,  Primo  Violino  dell '  Academia 
delle  1Arti,  e  della  Camera  Imperiale,  per  L. 
van  Beethoven.  Opera  47.  A  Bonn  chez  K.  Sim- 
rock.  422/  In  a  notebook  of  Beethoven's  in  the 
Imperial  Library  at  Berlin,  the  second  sentence 
appears  '  in  uno  stilo  molto  brillante.' 

Some  idea  of  its  popularity  in  England  may  be 
formed  from  the  fact  that  it  was  played  44  times 
at  the  Monday  Popular  Concerts  between  1854 
and  1878,  the  next  place  being  held  by  the  Septet 
(33  times)  and  the  Bb  Trio  (24  times).  [G.] 

KROLL,  Fbanz,  born  in  1820  at  Bromberg; 
began  with  medicine,  but  finally  devoted  himself 
to  music  under  the  guidance  of  Liszt,  whom  he 
accompanied  on  some  of  his  tours.  He  settled 
in  Berlin,  and  was  for  some  years  a  success- 
ful teacher.  He  edited  the  '  Wohltemperirte 
Clavier '  for  the  Bachgesellschaft  (14th  year, 
1864) — with  a  Preface  containing  a  list  of  MSS. 
and  Editions,  and  an  Appendix  of  Variations,  a 
highly  creditable  work  as  regards  care  and  ac- 
curacy in  collation,  which  Spitta  has  selected  for 
honourable  mention  (J.  S.  Bach,  i.  773,  note). 
He  has  also  published  editions  of  Bach's  chromatic 
fantasia,  Mozart's  pianoforte  fantasias,  and  other 
important  compositions.  He  was  a  thorough  mu- 
sician, and  his  style  as  a  pianist  was  clear  and 
eminently  suggestive.  He  was  a  great  sufferer 
for  some  years  before  his  death,  which  took  place 
May  28,  1877.  [F.G.] 

KROMMER,  Fbanz,  violinist  and  composer, 
born  1759  at  Kamenitz  in  Moravia;  learned 
music  from  an  uncle,  then  Choirmaster  at  Turas. 
From  1 7  to  25  he  acted  as  organist,  and  composed 
much  church  music,  still  unpublished.  ■  He  next 
entered  the  band  of  Count  Styrum2  at  Simonthurn 
in  Hungary  as  violinist,  and  in  two  years  was 
promoted  to  the  Capellmeistership.  Here  he 
became  acquainted  with  the  works  of  Haydn 
and  Mozart ;  and  composed  his  pieces  for  wind- 
instruments,  which  are  of  lasting  importance, 
and  perceptibly  influenced  modern  military  music. 
After  one  or  two  more  changes  he  at  length 
became  Capellmeister  to  Prince  Grassalkowitz, 
after    whose    death    he    lived    comfortably    in 

1  The  Tact  of  Kreutzer  holding  these  two  posts  In  Vienna  seems  to 
imply  that  he  remained  there  some  time. 
>  Ft-tis  and  Mendel  call  him  Ayrum  by  mistake. 


74 


KROMMER. 


Vienna,  enjoying  a  considerable  reputation  as 
a.  teacher  and  composer.  The  sinecure  post  of 
doorkeeper  to  the  Emperor  was  conferred  upon 
him,  and  in  1818  he  succeeded  Kozeluch  as 
Court  Capellmeister  and  Composer,  in  which 
capacity  he  accompanied  the  Emperor  Francis 
to  France  and  Italy.  He  died  suddenly  Jan.  8, 
1S31,  while  composing  a  pastoral  mass.  As  a 
composer  he  was  remarkable  for  productiveness, 
and  for  a  clear  and  agreeable  style,  most  ob- 
servable perhaps  in  his  string-quartets  and  quin- 
tets, published  at  Vienna,  Offenbach,  and  Paris. 
This  made  him  a  great  favourite  in  Vienna  at 
the  close  of  the  century.  Schubert  however,  who 
as  a  boy  of  eleven  had  to  play  his  Symphonies 
in  the  band  of  the  '  Convict,'  used  to  laugh  at 
them,  and  preferred  those  of  Kozeluch.  Both 
are  alike  forgotten.  Krommer  also  composed  a 
number  of  quartets  and  quintets  for  flutes,  be- 
sides the  pieces  for  wind-instruments  already 
mentioned.  The  only  one  of  his  church  works 
printed  is  a  mass  in  4  parts  with  orchestra  and 
organ  (Andre-,  Offenbach).  Had  he  not  been  the 
contemporary  of  Haydn  and  Mozart  he  might 
have  enjoyed  more  enduring  popularity.    [F.  G.] 

KRUMMHORN  (i.e.  crooked-horn),  Cro- 
morne,  Cremona,  Clarionet,  Corno-di-Bassetto. 
The  various  names  given  to  an  Organ  Reed  Stop 
of  8  feet  size  of  tone.  Modern  English  specimens, 
which  are  found  under  all  the  foregoing  names 
except  the  first,  are  estimated  in  proportion  as 
their  sound  resembles  that  of  the  orchestral  Cla- 
rinet. The  Cremonas  in  the  organs  built  by 
Father  Smith  (1660)  for  the  'Whitehall  Ban- 
queting House,'  etc.,  and  those  by  Harris  in  his 
instruments  at  St.  Sepulchre's,  Snow  Hill  (1670), 
etc.,  were  doubtless  '  voiced '  to  imitate  the  first- 
named  and  now  obsolete  crooked-horn.  They 
were  never  intended  to  represent  the  violin,  into 
the  name  of  which  its  own  had  nevertheless  been 
corrupted.  The  pipes  are  of  metal,  cylindrical 
in  shape,  short,  and  of  narrow  measure,  the  CC 
pipe  being  only  about  4  ft.  6  in.  in  length,  and 
i|in.  in  diameter.  [E.J.H.] 

KRUMPHOLZ,  Johann  Baptist,  celebrated 
harpist  and  composer,  born  about  1 745  at  Zlonitz 
near  Prague ;  son  of  a  bandmaster  in  a  French 
regiment,  lived  in  Paris  from  his  childhood, 
learning  music  from  his  father.  The  first  public 
mention  of  him  is  in  the  '  Wiener  Diarium '  for 
1772  ;  he  had  played  at  a  concert  in  the  Burg- 
theater,  and  advertised  for  pupils  on  the  pedal- 
harp.  From  Oct.  1773  to  March  1776  he  was  a 
member  of  Prince  Esterhazy's  chapel  at  Esterhaz, 
taking  lessons  from  Haydn  in  composition,  and 
already  seeking  after  improvements  in  his  instru- 
ment. He  next  started  on  a  concert-tour,  play- 
ing at  Leipzig  on  an  '  organisirten  Harfe.'  He 
then  settled  in  Paris,  where  h*e  was  highly  es- 
teemed as  a  teacher  and  virtuoso.  Nadermann 
built  a  harp  from  his  specifications,  to  which 
attention  was  drawn  by  an  article  in  the  'Journal 
de  PariB '  (Feb.  8,  1 786),  and  which  Krumpholz 
described  in  a  preface  to  his  sonata,  op.  14.  His 
wife  played  some  pieces  on  it  before  the  Acade"mie, 
Krumpholz  accompanying  her  on  the  violin,  and 


KUCKEN. 

on  the  '  Pianoforte  contrebasse '  or  '  Clavichord  a 
marteau,'  another  instrument  made  by  Erard 
from  his  specifications.  The  Acade"mie  expressed 
their  approval  of  the  new  harp  in  a  letter  to 
Krumpholz  (Nov.  21,  1787).  He  drowned  him- 
self in  the  Seine  in  1 790  from  grief  at  the  infidelity 
and  ingratitude  of  his  wife. 

Gerber  gives  a  list  of  his  compositions,  which 
are  still  of  value.  They  comprise  6  grand  con- 
certos, 32  sonatas  with  violin  accompaniment, 
preludes,  variations,  duets  for  2  harps,  a  quartet 
for  harp  and  strings,  and  symphonies  for  harp  and 
small  orchestra,  published  in  Paris  and  London. 

His  wife,  ne'e  Meyer,  from  '  Metz,  eloped  with 
a  young  man  to  London.  She  was  even  a  finer 
player  than  her  husband,  making  the  instrument 
sound  almost  like  an  Eolian  harp.  In  London 
she  gave  her  first  concert  at  Hanover  Square 
Rooms,  June  2,  1788,2  and  for  many  years  ap- 
peared with  great  success  at  her  own  and  Salo- 
mon's concerts,  at  the  oratorios  in  Drury  Lane, 
and  at  Haydn's  benefit.  She  frequently  played 
Dussek's  duos  concertantes  for  harp  and  piano- 
forte with  the  composer.  She  is  mentioned  in 
1802,  but  after  that  appears  to  have  retired  into 
private  life. 

Wenzel  Krumpholz,  brother  of  the  former, 
born  in  1 750,  became  one  of  the  first  violins  at 
the  court-opera  in  Vienna  in  1 796.  His  name  is 
immortalised  by  his  intimacy  with  Beethoven, 
who  was  very  fond  of  him,  though  he  used  to  call 
him  in  joke  'mein  Narr,'  my  fool.  According 
to  Ries 3  he  gave  Beethoven  some  instruction  on 
the  violin  in  Vienna.  Krumpholz  was  one  of 
the  first  to  recognise  Beethoven's  genius,  and  he 
inspired  others  with  his  own  enthusiasm.  Czerny 
mentions  this  in  his  Autobiography,4  and  also 
that  he  introduced  him  to  Beethoven,  who  offered 
of  his  own  accord  to  give  him  lessons.  Krump- 
holz also  played  the  mandoline,  and  Beethoven 
seems  to  have  intended  writing  a  sonata  for  P.  F. 
and  mandoline  for  him.5  He  died  May  2,  181 7, 
aged  67,  and  Beethoven  must  have  felt  his  death 
deeply,  since  he  composed  on  the  following  day 
the  •  Gesang  der  Mbnche '  (from  Schiller's  •  Wil- 
helm  Tell'),  for  3  men's  voices,  'in  commemora- 
tion of  the  sudden  and  unexpected  death  of  our 
6  Krumpholz.'  Only  two  of  his  compositions  have 
been  printed — an  'Abendunterhaltung'  for  a 
single  violin7  (dances,  variations,  a  short  andante, 
etc. ;  Vienna  and  Pesth,  Kunst  &  Tndustrie-Comp- 
toir) ;  and  '  Ein  Viertelstunde  fur  eine  Violine,' 
dedicated  to  Schuppanzigh  ( Joh.  Traeg).  [C.  F.  P.] 

KUCKEN,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  born  at 
Bleckede,  Hanover,  Nov.  16,  18 10.  His  father, 
a  country  gentleman,  was  averse  to  the  musical 
proclivities  of  his  son,  and  the  boy  had  to  thank 
his  brother-in-law,  Ltirss,  music-director  and  or- 

1  Or  Liege,  according  to  Gerber  and  Belchardt. 

'  Not  1790,  as  commonly  stated. 

»  •Biographlsche  Notlzen,'  p.  119. 

4  He  calls  Krumpholz '  an  old  man.'    He  was  then  about  60. 

*  'Autographische  Skizze,'  by  Artaria.  On  Wenzel  Krumpholz  see 
also  Thayer's  *  Beethoven,'  vol.  ll.  p.  48 ;  the  confusion  between  the 
two  brothers  i*  rectified  vol.  111.  p.  510. 

<  Compare  Nottebohm's  Thematic  Catalogue,  p.  161. 

7  Czerny  took  No.  1,  a  contredanse,  as  the  theme  of  his  XX  concert 
variations  for  P.F.  and  violin.  This,  his  op.  1  (Steiner.  2nd  edit.).  It 
dedicated  to  Krumpholz—*  fine  trait  of  gratitude. 


KUCKEN. 

ganist  of  Schwerin,  for  being  allowed  to  follow 
his  bent,  which  he  did  under  Liirss  and  Aron 
in  Schwerin,  and  as  flute,  viola,  and  violin 
player  in  the  Duke's  orchestra  there.  His  early 
compositions,  '  Ach  wie  wars  moglich  dann '  and 
others,  became  so  popular  that  he  was  taken 
into  the  palace  as  teacher  and  player.  But  this 
did  not  satisfy  him,  and  he  made  his  way  to 
Berlin,  where,  while  studying  hard  at  counter- 
point under  Birabach,  he  gradually  composed  the 
Bongs  which  rendered  him  so  famous,  and  have 
made  his  name  a  household  word  in  his  own 
and  other  countries.  His  opera,  'Die  Flucht 
nach  den  Schweiz'  (the  Flight  to  Switzerland) 
was  produced  at  Berlin  in  1839,  and  proved  very 
successful  throughout  Germany.  In  184 1  he  went 
to  Vienna  to  study  under  Sechter.  In  1 843  he 
conducted  the  great  festival  of  male  singers  at 
St.  Gall  and  Appenzel.  Thence  he  went  to  Paris, 
where,  with  characteristic  zeal  and  desire  to 
learn,  he  studied  orchestration  with  Halevy,  and 
writing  for  the  voice  with  Bordogni.  His  stay 
in  Paris  lasted  for  3!  years ;  thence  he  went  to 
Stuttgart,  and  brought  out  (April  21,  1847)  a 
new  opera,  'Der  Pratendent'  (the  Pretender), 
with  the  greatest  success,  which  followed  it  to 
Hamburg  and  elsewhere  in  Germany.  In  1851 
he  received  a  call  to  Stuttgart  aa  joint  Kapell- 
meister with  Lindpaintner,  filling  the  place  alone 
after  Lindpaintner's  death  (Aug.  21,  1856)  till 
1S61,  when  he  resigned.  In  1863  he  joined 
Abt  and  Berlioz  as  judges  of  a  competition  in 
Strassburg,  and  had  an  extraordinary  reception. 
He  composed  sonatas  for  pianoforte  and  violin, 
pianoforte  and  cello,  etc.,  but  his  immense  popu- 
larity sprang  from  his  songs  and  duets,  some  of 
which,  Buch  as  'Das  Sternelein'  and  'O  weine 
nicht,'  were  extraordinarily  beloved  in  their  time. 
Almost  exclusively  however  by  amateurs  and  the 
masses ;  among  musicians  they  found  no  favour, 
and  are  already  almost  forgotten.  They  were  also 
very  popular  in  England  ('  Trab,  trab,' '  The  Maid 
of  Judah,'  '  The  Swallows,'  duet,  etc.,  etc.),  and 
Kiicken  had  an  arrangement  with  Messrs.  Wessel 
&  Co.  for  the  exclusive  publication  of  them.  [G.] 
KUHMSTEDT,  Friedrich,  born  at  Oldis- 
leben,  Saxe-Weimar,  Dec.  20, 1809.  His  gift  for 
music  appeared  very  early  and  asserted  itself 
against  the  resistance  of  his  parents,  so  frequent 
in  these  cases.  At  length,  when  19,  he  left  the 
university  of  Weimar  and  walked  to  Darmstadt 
(a  distance  of  full  1 50  miles)  to  ask  the  advice  of 
C.  H.  Rinck.  The  visit  resulted  in  a  course  of 
three  years  instruction  in  theoretical  and  practical 
music  under  that  great  organist.  At  the  end  of 
that  time  he  returned  to  his  family  and  began  to 
write.  His  career  however  was  threatened  by 
a  paralysis  of  his  right  hand,  from  which  he  never 
recovered,  and  which  but  for  his  perseverance 
and  energy  would  have  wrecked  him.  During 
several  years  he  remained  almost  without  the 
means  of  subsistence,  till  in  1836  he  obtained 
the  post  of  music-director  and  professor  of  the 
Seminar  at  Eisenach,  with  a  pittance  of  £30 
per  annum.  This  however  was  wealth  to  him  : 
he  married,  and  the  day   of  his  wedding  his 


KUHLATJ. 


75 


wife  was  snatched  from  him  by  a  sudden 
stroke  as  they  left  the  church.  After  a 
period  of  deep  distress  music  came  to  his  relief 
and  he  began  to  compose.  As  he  grew  older 
and  published  his  excellent  treatises  and  his  good 
music,  he  became  famed  as  a  teacher,  and  before 
his  death  was  in  easier  circumstances.  He  died 
in  harness  at  Eisenach,  Jan.  10,  1858.  His  works 
extend  to  op.  49.  His  oratorios,  operas  and 
symphonies  are  forgotten,  but  his  fame  rests  on 
his  organ  works — his  art  of  preluding,  op.  6 
(Schotts);  his  Gradus  ad  Parnassum  or  intro- 
duction to  the  works  of  J.  S.  Bach,  op.  4  (ibid) ; 
his  Fantasia  eroica,  op.  29  (Erfurt,  Korner) ;  and 
many  preludes,  fugues,  and  other  pieces  for  the 
organ,  which  are  solid  and  effective  compositions. 
He  also  published  a  treatise  on  harmony  and 
modulation  (Eisenach,  Bornker,  1838).  [G.] 

KUFFERATH,  Hubert  Ferdinand,  one  of 
six  brothers,  all  musicians,  born  June  10,  1808, 
at  Mulheim,  studied  under  Hartmann  of  Cologne, 
and  Schneider  of  Dessau.  He  played  a  solo  for 
the  violin  at  the  Dusseldorf  Festival  of  1839  so 
much  to  the  satisfaction  of  Mendelssohn,  who  was 
conducting,  that  he  invited  him  to  Leipzig.  There 
he  formed  one  of  the  brilliant  class  for  composition 
which  included  Eckert,  Verhulst,  and  C.  E.  Hors- 
ley.  At  Mendelssohn's  suggestion  he  studied  the 
pianoforte,  and  he  also  took  lessons  on  the  violin 
from  David.  In  1841  he  became  conductor  of 
the  Mannergesangverein  of  Cologne,  which  has 
more  than  once  visited  England.  In  1844  he 
settled  in  Brussels,  and  in  1872  became  professor 
of  composition  at  the  Conservatoire,  a  post  he 
still  retains.  He  has  published  a  symphony  for 
full  orchestra ;  several  concertos  and  other  com- 
positions for  the  Piano,  and  some  expressive 
Lieder.  His  daughter  Antonie,  a  pupil  of  Stock- 
hausen's,  was  much  applauded  at  the  Dusseldorf 
Festival  of  1878,  for  her  fine  soprano  voice,  and 
artistic  singing.  L^G.] 

KUHLAU,  Friedrich,  a  musician  of  some 
distinction  in  his  day.  He  was  born  of  poor 
parents  at  Uelzen  in  Hanover,  March  13,  1786, 
and  had  the  misfortune  to  lose  an  eye  at  an 
early  age.  The  loss  did  not  however  quench  his 
ardour  for  music.  During  a  wandering  life  he 
contrived  to  learn  the  piano  and  the  flute,  and 
to  acquire  a  solid  foundation  of  harmony  and 
composition.  Germany  was  at  that  time  under 
French  rule,  and  to  avoid  the  conscription  he 
escaped  to  Copenhagen,  where  he  became  the 
first  flute  in  the  king's  band.  He  then  settled 
in  Denmark,  acquired  a  house  in  Lyngbye,  near 
Copenhagen,  to  which  he  fetched  his  parents, 
composed  half-a-dozen  operas,  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  music  and  court  composer,  and  en- 
joyed a  very  great  popularity.  In  the  autumn 
of  1825  he  was  at  Vienna,  and  Seyfried1  has 
preserved  a  capital  story  of  his  expedition  to 
Beethoven  at  Baden  with  a  circle  of  choice 
friends,  of  the  way  in  which  the  great  composer 
dragged  them  at  once  into  the  open  air,  and  of 
the  jovial  close  of  the  day's  proceedings.  Kuhlau, 

1   Beethorens  Studien,  Anhmg,  p.  25.    See  also  Beethoven's  Letters 
(Nohlj,  No.  365. 


76 


KUHLAU. 


inspired  by  champagne  and  the  presence  of  Bee- 
thoven, extemporised  a  canon,  to  which  Beethoven 
responded  on  the  spot,  but  thought  it  wise  to 
replace  his  first  attempt  next  morning  by  another, 
which  is  one  reiterated  joke  on  the  name  of  his 
guest — 


Kuhl    nlcht  lau      nlcht  lau     Kohl       nlcht 


lau     Kulilau    nicl.t  lau 


Kohl       nicht  lau        etc 


and  was  accompanied  by  the  following  note  : — 

BADEN,  3  September,  1825. 
I  must  confess  that  the  champagne  got  too  much  into 
my  head  last  night,  and  has  once  more  shewn  me  that 
it  rather  confuses  my  wits  than  assists  them ;  for  though 
it  is  usually  easy  enough  for  me  to  give  an  answer  on  the 
spot,  I  declare  I  do  not  in  the  least  recollect  what  I  wrote 
last  night    Think  sometimes  of  your  most  faithful 

BEETHOVEN. 

In  1 830  Kuhlau  suffered  two  irreparable  losses 
—  the  destruction  of  the  greater  part  of  his 
manuscripts  by  fire,  and  the  death  of  his  parents. 
This  double  calamity  affected  his  health,  and  he 
died  at  Lyngbye  March  1 8, 1832,  leaving  a  mass  of 
compositions,  of  which  a  few  for  flute  and  a  few 
for  piano  are  still  much  esteemed.  [G.] 

KUHNAU,  Johann,  a  very  remarkable  old 
musician,  Cantor  of  Leipzig,  and  one  of  the 
pillars  of  the  German  school  of  the  clavier,  born 
at  Geysing  on  the  borders  of  Bohemia  in  April 
1667.  As  a  boy  he  had  a  lovely  voice  and  a 
strong  turn  for  music.  He  was  put  to  the 
Kreuzschule  at  Dresden,  where  he  became  a 
chorister  under  the  quaint  title  of  '  Rathsdiscan- 
tist,'  and  obtained  regular  instruction  in  music. 
On  the  breaking  of  his  voice  he  worked  the 
harder,  and  in  addition  to  his  music  learned 
Italian.  The  plague  in  1680  drove  him  home, 
but  Geysing  was  no  field  for  his  talent,  and  he 
went  to  Zittau  and  worked  in  the  school,  till 
the  excellence  of  a  motet  which  he  wrote  for 
the  Rathswahl,  or  election  of  the  town  council, 
procured  him  the  post  of  Cantor,  with  a  salary 
on  which  he  could  study  at  leisure.  He  began 
by  lecturing  on  French.  His  next  move  was  to 
Leipzig,  in  1682,  whither  his  fame  had  preceded 
him,  and  in  that  city  of  music  he  cast  anchor  for 
the  rest  of  his  life.  In  1684  ne  succeeded 
Kiihnel  as  organist  at  St.  Thomas's.  At  the 
same  time  he  was  studying  law,  and  qualified 
himself  for  the  rank  of  advocate.  In  1 700  he 
was  made  musical  director  of  the  University  and 
of  the  two  principal  churches,  and  then  Cantor. 
After  this  no  further  rise  was  possible,  and  he 
died  June  25,  1722,  admired  and  honoured  as 
one  of  the  greatest  musicians  and  most  learned 
men  of  his  time.  He  left  translations  from 
Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  Italian,  and  French,  and 
wrote  satirical  poetry  of  no  common  order.  Of 
his  musical  works  the  following  are  named: — 
•  Jura  circa  musicos  ecclesiasticos'  (Leipzig,  1 688) ; 
Der  musickalische   Quacksalber  ...  in  einer 


KULLAK. 

kurtzweiligen  und  angenehmen  Historie  .  .  . 
beschrieben '  (Dresden,  1 700)  ;  '  Tractatus  de 
tetrachordo' ;  'Introductio  ad  compositionem' ; 
and  '  Disputatio  de  triade ' — the  three  last  in  MS. 
He  wrote  motets  on  chorales,  and  other  sacred 
pieces ;  but  his  clavier  music  is  his  glory,  and  he 
is  the  greatest  figure  among  German  composers 
for  the  clavier  before  Bach,  who  obliterated  all 
his  predecessors.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the 
sonata  as  a  piece  in  several  movements,  not 
dance-tunes — the  first  of  which,  'Erne  Sonata 
aus  dem  B,'  in  three  movements,  is  found  in  his 
'Sieben  Partien'  (Leipzig,  1695).  He  followed 
this  with  13  others — 'Fnsche  Clavier-Friichte, 
oder  sieben  Sonaten'  (Dresden  and  Leipzig, 
1696) ;  '  Biblische  Historien  nebst  Auslegung  in 
sechs  Sonaten' — the  last  a  curious  offspring  of 
the  musician  and  the  divine,  and  a  very  early 
instance  of  Programme  music.  In  addition  to 
these  he  published '  Clavier- iibung  aus  14  Partien 
. .  .  bestehend'  (Leipzig,  1689) — a  collection  of 
Suites,  that  is  of  dance-tunes.  Becker  has  repub- 
lished two  of  Kuhnau's  pieces  in  his  'Ausgewahlte 
Tonstiicke' ;  and  Pauer,  who  introduced  several 
of  them  to  the  English  public  in  his  chronological 
performances  in  1862  and  63,  has  printed  a  Suite 
in  his  'Alte  Clavier  musik'  (Senff)  and  a  Sonata 
in  his  'Alte  meister'  (Breitkopf).  [G.] 

KULLAK,  Theodob,  bom  Sept.  12,  1818 
(not  1820,  as  Fetis  supposes),  at  Krotoschin  in 
the  province  of  Posen,  where  his  father  held  the 
post  of  '  Landgerichts-sekretar.'  He  was  first  in- 
tended for  the  law,  but  preferred  to  devote  him- 
self to  music.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Hauck's  from 
his  nth  year,  having  previously  been  under  the 
tuition  of  Albert  Agthe.  In  1842  he  became  a 
pupil  of  Czerny,  and  in  1846  was  made  Hofpianist 
to  the  King  of  Prussia.  He  founded,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Stern  and  Marx,  a  Conservatorium  at 
Berlin  in  1851;  and  in  1855,  in  consequence  of 
some  disagreement  with  his  fellow-workers,  he 
started  a  new  institution  under  the  name  of 
'Neue  Akademie  der  Tonkunst*  in  the  same 
city,  where  he  himself  continues  to  reside.  He 
has  devoted  his  attention  principally  to  the 
'drawing-room'  style  of  composition,  and  has 
published  many  transcriptions  and  arrangements 
for  the  piano,  which  are  very  popular.  Of  his 
original  works  the  following  are  the  most  re- 
markable : — Grand  concerto  in  C  minor  for  piano 
and  orchestra  (op.  55) ;  Trio  for  piano  and  strings 
(op.  77) ;  Duos  for  piano  and  violin;  Ballades, 
Boleros,  etc.,  for  piano  solo;  'Les  Etincelles,' 
'  Les  Dana'ides,'  '  La  Gazelle,'  etc. ;  also  collec- 
tions of  small  pieces,  such  as  '  Deux  Portefeuilles 
de  Musique,'  '  Kinderleben,'  2  sets  of  pieces  (op. 
81),  'Les  Fleurs  anime'es.'  Among  his  later 
works  may  be  mentioned  'Ondine'  (op.  112), 
'Concert-e"tude'  (op.  121).  In  1877  he  pub- 
lished a  second  edition  of  his  'Octave-school,' 
which  is  very  valuable  as  an  instruction  book. 

His  brother,  Adolf  Kullak,  born  1823,  was 
a  distinguished  musical  critic  in  Berlin,  and 
wrote '  Das  Musikalisch -Scheme'  (Leipzig,  1858), 
and  'Aesthetik  des  Clavierspiels '  (Berlin,  1861). 
He  died  in  1862  at  Berlin.  [J.A.F.M.] 


KUMMER. 

KUMMER,  Friedrich  August,  a  great 
violoncellist,  born  at  Meiningen  Aug.  5  1797. 
His  father  (an  oboist)  migrated  to  Dresden, 
where  the  lad  learnt  the  cello  under  Dotzauer. 
It  was  his  ambition  to  enter  the  King's  band, 
but  as  there  was  then  no  vacancy  for  a  cellist, 
he  took  up  the  oboe,  and  soon  attained  such 
proficiency  as  to  obtain  the  desired  appoint- 
ment, in  Nov.  1814.  In  181 7  he  again  took 
up  his  original  instrument,  and  in  time  became 
known  as  the  most  accomplished  virtuoso  in 
Germany.  With  the  exception  of  occasional 
musical  tours,  principally  in  Germany  and  Italy, 
his  career  has  been  confined  to  Dresden.  In 
1864  he  celebrated  the  50th  anniversary  of  his 
appointment  as  a  member  of  the  Dresden 
orchestra,  after  which  he  retired  on  a  pension, 
and  was  succeeded  by  F.  Griitzmacher.  He 
died  at  Dresden,  May  22,  1879.  Kummer's 
tone  was  at  once  sweet  and  powerful,  and  his 
command  over  difficulties  very  great.  His  play- 
ing however  was  characterised  in  a  remarkable 
degree  by  repose,  and  he  is  described  as  never 
having  been  excited  even  when  playing  the 
most  passionate  or  difficult  passages.  Kummer 
has  been  a  voluminous  writer  for  his  instrument. 
163  of  his  works  have  appeared  in  print,  among 
which  are  Concertos,  Fantasias,  a  good  Violon- 
cello School,  etc.  He  has  also  composed  some 
200  entractes  for  the  Dresden  Theatre.  Among 
his  many  distinguished  pupils,  Goltermann  of 
Stuttgart,  and  Cossmann  of  Wiesbaden  may  be 
named.  [T.P.H.] 

KUNST  DER  FUGE,  DIE.  This  work  of 
J.  S.  Bach's  has  been  already  mentioned  under 
the  head  Art  op  Fugue.  It  only  remains  to 
add  that  since  that  time  a  good  analysis  of  it 
was  read  by  Mr.  James  Higgs  to  the  Musical 
Association,  Feb.  5,  1877,  and  is  published  in 
their  Proceedings  for  1876-77.  [G.] 

KUNTZSCH,  Johann  Gottfried,  one  of 
those  earnest,  old-fashioned,  somewhat  pedantic, 
musicians,  to  whom  Germany  owes  so  much; 
who  are  born  in  the  poorest  ranks,  raise  them- 
selves by  unheard-of  efforts  and  self-denial,  and 
die  without  leaving  any  permanent  mark  except 
the  pupils  whom  they  help  to  form.  The  '  Bac- 
calaureus  Kuntzsch  was  teacher  of  the  organ 
and  clavier  at  the  Lyceum  of  Zwickau  when 
Schumann  was  a  small  boy,  and  it  was  by  him 
that  the  great  composer  was  grounded  in  piano- 
forte playing.  Kuntzsch  celebrated  his  jubilee 
at  Zwickau  in  July  1852,  when  Schumann  wrote 
him  a  charming  letter,1  which  his  biographer 
assures  us  was  but  one  of  many.  Schumann's 
studies  for  the  pedal  piano — 6  pieces  in  canon- 
form  (op.  56),  composed  in  1845  and  published 
in  1846 — are  dedicated  to  his  old  master,  whose 
name  is  thus  happily  preserved  from  oblivion. 
Kuntzsch  died  at  a  great  age  in  1854.  [G.] 

KUPSCH,  Karl  Gustav,  demands  a  few 
lines  as  having  been  for  a  short  time  Schumann's 
instructor  in  the  theory  of  music2 — apparently 
in  the  latter  part  of  1830,  after  his  accident  to 


KYRIE. 


77 


1  Wsssielewskjr  gives  It,  p.  10. 


'  Wmieltwsky,  p.  97. 


his  finger.  Kupsch  was  an  average  German 
Kapellmeister,  born  in  Berlin,  lived  and  worked 
there  and  in  Leipzig  and  Dresden  as  teacher 
composer  and  conductor,  till  1838,  when  he 
settled  in  Rotterdam  as  Director  of  the  Singing 
Academy,  and  one  of  the  committee  of  the  '  Eru- 
ditio  musica'  Society.  In  1845  ne  returned  to 
Germany,  became  Director  of  the  Theatre  at 
Freiburg  im  Breisgau,  and  at  Naumburg,  where 
he  died  July  30,  1846.  [G.] 

KYRIE  (Gr.  Kvpi€  iXiijaov ;  Kyrie  eleison ; 
'Lord,  have  mercy'). 

I.  That  portion  of  the  Ordinary  of  the  Mass 
which  immediately  follows  the  Introit,  and  pre- 
cedes the  Gloria  in  excelsis  :  and  which,  at  High 
Mass,  is  sung  by  the  Choir,  while  the  Celebrant, 
supported  by  the  Deacon  and  Subdeacon,  is  oc- 
cupied in  incensing  the  Altar. 

The  Kyrie,  in  common  with  all  other  choral 
portions  of  the  Mass,  was  originally  sung  exclu- 
sively to  Plain  Chaunt  melodies,  such  as  those 
which  are  still  preserved  in  the  Roman  Gradual, 
and  still  sung,  with  great  effect,  in  many  Conti- 
nental Cathedrals.  One  of  these,  the  Kyrie  of 
the  Missa  pro  Defunctis,  exhibited  in  the  sub- 
joined example,  is  peculiarly  interesting,  not  only 
from  its  own  inherent  beauty,  but,  as  will  be 
presently  shewn,  from  the  use  to  which  it  was 
turned  by  Palestrina,  in  the  Sixteenth  Century. 
Ton.  VI. 


111 


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When,  after  the  invention  of  Figured  Music, 
these  venerable  melodies  were  selected  as  themes 
for  the  exercise  of  contrapuntal  skill,  the  Kyrie 
naturally  assumed  a  prominent  position  in  the 
polyphonic  Mass ;  and  at  once  took  a  definite 
form,  the  broad  outlines  of  which  passed,  un- 
altered, through  the  vicissitudes  of  many  chang- 
ing Schools.  The  construction  of  the  words  led, 
almost  of  necessity,  to  their  separation  into  three 
distinct  movements.  Some  of  the  earlier  contra- 
puntists delighted  in  moulding  these  into  Canons, 
of  maddening  complexity.  The  great  Masters  of 
the  Sixteenth  Century  preferred  rather  to  treat 
them  as  short,  but  well-developed  Real  Fugues, 
on  three  distinct  subjects,  the  last  of  which  was 
usually  of  a  somewhat  more  animated  character 
than  the  other  two.  Whether  from  a  pious  ap- 
preciation of  the  spirit  of  the  words,  or  a  desire 
to  render  the  opening  movement  of  the  Mass  as 
impressive  as  possible,  these  earnest  writers  never 
failed  to  treat  the  Kyrie  with  peculiar  solemnity. 
In  the  hands  of  Palestrina,  it  frequently  expresses 
itself  in  a  wailing  cry  for  mercy,  the  tender  pa- 
thos of  which  transcends  all  power  of  description. 


73 


KYRIE. 


This  is  pre-eminently  the  case,  in  the  Eyrie  of  his 
Missa  brevis,  a  few  bars  of  which  have  already 
been  given,  as  an  example,  under  the  heading 
Hexachokd  [vol.  i.  p.  735].  The  same  feeling 
is  distinctly  perceptible  throughout  the  Kyrie  of 
the  Missa  Papce  Marcelli ;  but  associated,  there, 
with  a  spirit  of  hopeful  confidence  which  at  once 
stamps  it  as  the  nearest  approach  to  a  perfect 
ideal  that  has  ever  yet  been  reached.  More  simple 
in  construction,  yet,  scarcely  less  beautiful,  is  the 
opening  movement  of  the  same  composer's  Missa 
pro  Defunctis,  in  which  the  Plain  Chaunt  Canto 
fermo  given  above  is  invested  with  a  plaintive  ten- 
derness which  entirely  conceals  the  consummate 
Art  displayed  in  its  contrapuntal  treatment — 
Cantus  Palestrina. 


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The  effect  of  these  pure  vocal  harmonies,  when 
sung,  as  they  are  intended  to  be  sung,  in  imme- 
diate contrast  to  the  stern  unisonous  Plain  Chaunt 
of  the  Introit,  is  one  which,  once  heard,  can  never 
be  forgotten.  The  manner  of  singing  them,  how- 
ever, requires  careful  consideration.  One  great 
difficulty  arises  from  the  fact,  that,  in  the  old  part- 
books,  no  indication  whatever  is  given  as  to  the 
way  in  which  the  words  and  music  are  to  be 
fitted  together :  and  modern  editors  differ  so 
much  in  their  ideas  on  the  subject,  that  no  two 
editions  are  found  to  correspond.  The  following 
phrase  from  the  Kyrie  of  the  Missa  Papce  Mar- 
celli only  exhibits  one  instance  of  divergence  out 
of  a  thousand. 


Palbstrina. 


(As  edited  by  Lafage.) 


In  this  case,  Lafage  is  undoubtedly  right   in 
allotting  a  distinct  note  to  each  syllable  of  the 


KYRIE. 

word,  Ky-ri-e :  but,  nothing  can  justify  his  divi- 
sion of  the  penultimate  semibreve  into  a  dotted 
minim  and  crotchet.  The  second  and  third  syl- 
lables of  e-le-i-son  can  be  perfectly  enunciated, 
after  the  Italian  manner,  to  a  single  note.  In 
all  such  cases,  the  conductor  must  use  his  own 
judgment  as  to  the  best  mode  of  procedure. 

Without  pausing  to  trace  the  progress  of  the 
polyphonic  Kyrie  through  the  decadence  of  the 
School  to  which  it  owed  its  existence,  or  the  rise 
of  that  which  followed — a  School  in  which  instru- 
mental accompaniment  first  seriously  asserted  its 
claim  to  notice — we  pass  on  to  a  period  at 
which  an  entirely  new  phase  of  Art  had  already 
attained  its  highest  degree  of  perfection.  The 
Kyrie  of  Bach's  great  Mass  in  B  minor  differs, 
toto  coelo,  from  its  polyphonic  predecessors. 
Though  moulded  in  the  old  tripartite  form,  its 
two  stupendous  Fugues,  and  the  melodious  and 
elaborately  developed  Duet  which  separates  them, 
have  nothing  but  that  division  in  common  with 
the  grave  slow  movements  of  the  older  Masters, 
and  are  such,  indeed,  as  Bach  alone  could  ever 
have  conceived.  Too  long  for  practical  use,  as 
a  part  of  the  Church  Service,  they  unite  in 
forming  a  monument  of  artistic  excellence,  re- 
presenting a  School,  which,  while  it  scorned  to 
imitate  anything  which  had  gone  before  it,  was 
able  to  defy  the  imitation  of  later  composers. 

The  Kyries  of  Haydn,  and  Mozart— legitimate 
descendants  of  those  of  Pergolesi,  and  Jomelli — 
abound  with  beauties  of  a  wholly  different  order. 
The  well-known  opening  of  Haydn's  grand  Missa 
Imperialis  (in  D  minor)  is  a  fiery  Allegro,  in 
which  bright  passages  of  semiquavers,  and  short 
but  telling  points  of  fugal  imitation,  are  con- 
trasted together  with  striking  effect,  but  with 
very  little  trace  of  the  expression  which  we 
should  naturally  expect  in  a  petition  for  mercy. 
That  of  the  favourite  Mass  commonly  called 
'Mozart's  Twelfth'  is  too  well  known  to  need 
more  than  a  passing  allusion.  Neither  Beetho- 
ven, in  his  Missa  Solemnis,  nor  Cherubini,  in 
his  great  Mass  in  D  minor,  can  be  said  to  have 
struck  out  a  new  ideal ;  though  both  infused  into 
the  Kyrie  an  amount  of  dramatic  power  previously 
unknown  in  Church  Music.  In  the  Kyries  of 
Rossini,  and  Gounod,  free  use  is  made  of  the  same 
forcible  means  of  expression,  notwithstanding  the 
feigned  return  to  an  older  style,  in  the  Christe  of 
the  first-named  composer's  Messe  Solennelle. 

In  tracing  the  history  of  the  Kyrie,  from  its 
first  appearance  as  a  polyphonic  composition,  to 
the  latest  development  of  modern  times,  we  find, 
that,  apart  from  the  idiosyncratic  peculiarities  of 
varying  Schools,  and  individual  composers,  it  has 
clothed  itself  in  no  more  than  three  distinct  ideal 
forms ;  of  which  the  first  depends,  for  its  effect, 
upon  the  expression  of  devotional  feeling,  while 
the  second  appeals  more  strongly  to  the  intellect, 
and  the  third,  to  the  power  of  human  emotion. 
Each  of  these  types  may  fairly  lay  claim  to  its 
own  peculiar  merits :  but,  if  it  be  conceded  that 
devotional  feeling  is  the  most  necessary  attribute 
of  true  Church  Music,  it  is  certain,  that,  what- 
ever may  be  in  store  for  the  future,  that  particular 


KYRIE. 

attribute  has  never  hitherto  been  reached,  in  its 
highest  perfection,  in  the  presence  of  instrumental 
accompaniment. 

II.  The  Response,  '  Lord  have  mercy  upon  us, 
and  incline  our  hearts  to  keep  this  law ';  sung,  in 
the  Service  of  the  Church  of  England,  after  the 
recitation  of  the  Ten  Commandments. 

As  the  custom  of  reciting  the  Commandments 
during  the  Communion  Service  is  of  later  date 
than  the  First  Prayer  Book  of  King  Edward  the 
Sixth,  this  Response  is  not  found  in  Merbecke's 
'  Booke  of  Common  Praier  Noted,'  which  was 
first  published  in  1550  :  in  Plain  Song  Services, 
therefore,  it  is  usually  sung  to  the  simple  melody 
given,  by  Merbecke,  to  the  older  form  of  Kyrie 
used  in  the  Mass.  The  manner  of  its  treatment 
by  the  earlier  composers  of  the  polyphonic  School 
was  extremely  simple,  and  dignified :    indeed, 


LABLACHE. 


79 


some  of  these  Responses,  as  set  by  Tallis,  (in  the 
Dorian  Mode,)  Bird,  Farrant,  Gibbons,  and  other 
old  English  writers,  are  perfect  little  gems  of 
artistic  beauty.  With  such  examples — and  many 
excellent  ones,  of  later  date — within  their  reach, 
it  is  strange  that  Cathedral  Organists  should 
ever  have  countenanced  the  pernicious  custom  of 
'adapting'  the  words  of  the  Kyrie  to  music 
which — however  good  in  itself — was  never  in- 
tended to  be  sung  to  them.  Not  very  long  ago, 
the  opening  bars  of  a  Chaconne,  by  Jomelli, 
were  heard  in  almost  every  Church  in  which  the 
Responses  were  chaunted  :  while,  within  the  last 
few  years,  no  Kyrie  has  been  so  popular  as  one 
1  adapted '  to  a  passage  occurring  in  '  Elijah,'  and 
generally  associated  with  a  distribution  of  the 
voice  parts  which  Mendelssohn  would  have  con- 
demned as  utterly  barbarous.  [W.  S.  R.] 


L 


LA,  the  syllable  used  in  solmisation  for  the 
sixth  note  in  the  scale,  possibly  derived  by 
Guido  from  the  sixth  line  of  the  well- 
known  hymn  to  S.  John — '  X«bii  reatum.'  It  is 
used  by  the  French  and  Italians  as  a  synonym 
for  A  (the  sixth  note  of  the  scale  of  C) — '  Sinfonie 
en  la  de  Beethoven,'  and  they  speak  of  the 
second  string  of  the  violin  as  •  corde  en  la.'  '  La 
be"mor  is  A  flat. 

The  number  of  vibrations  per  second  for  the 
A  in  the  treble  stave  is — Paris  diapason  435, 
London  Philharmonic  pitch  454.  The  A  pro- 
posed by  the  Society  of  Arts,  and  actually  in  use 
(1879)  at  H.M.  Opera,  444  (eq.  temp.)         [G.] 

LABITZKY,  Josef,  a  well-known  dance 
composer,  born  July  4,  1802,  at  Schonfeld,  Eger, 
was  grounded  in  music  by  Veit  of  Petschau ;  in 
1820  began  the  world  as  first  violin  in  the  band 
at  Marienbad,  and  in  1 8  2 1  removed  to  a  similar 
position  at  Carlsbad.  He  then  formed  an  orches- 
tra of  his  own,  and  made  tournies  in  South  Ger- 
many. Feeling  his  deficiencies,  he  took  a  course 
of  composition  under  Winter,  in  Munich,  and  in 
1827  published  his  first  dances  there.  In  1835 
he  settled  at  Carlsbad  as  director  of  the  band, 
making  journeys  from  Petersburg  on  the  one  hand, 
to  London  on  the  other,  and  becoming  every  day 
more  famous.  He  resides  at  Carlsbad,  and  has 
associated  his  son  August  with  him  as  director. 
His  second  son,  Wilhelm,  an  excellent  violin 
player,  is  settled  at  Toronto,  Canada,  and  his 
daughter  is  a  favourite  singer  at  Frankfort.  La- 
bitzky's  dances  are  full  of  rhythm  and  spirit. 
Among  his  waltzes,  the  'Sirenen,'  'Grenzboten,' 
*  Aurora,'  '  Carlsbader,'  and  '  Lichtensteiner,'  are 
good.  In  galops  he  fairly  rivals  Lanner  and 
Strauss,  though  he  has  not  the  poetry  of  those 
two  composers.  [F.  G.] 

LABLACHE,  Luigi,  was  born  at  Naples,  Dec. 
5,  1 794.     His  mother  was  Irish,  and  his  father, 


Nicolas  Lablache,  a  merchant  of  Marseilles,  had 
quitted  that  place  in  1791  in  consequence  of  the 
Revolution.  But  another  Revolution,  in  1799, 
overwhelmed  him  with  ruin  in  his  new  country, 
and  he  died  of  chagrin.  His  family  was,  however, 
protected  by  Joseph  Buonaparte,  aud  the  young 
Luigi  was  placed  in  the  Conserratorio  della  Pieta 
de'  Turchini,  afterwards  called  SanSebastiano.  He 
was  now  twelve  years  old.  Gentilli  taught  him  the 
elements  of  music,  and  Valesi  instructed  him  in 
singing  ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  he  studied  the 
violin  and  violoncello  under  other  masters.  His 
progress  was  not  at  first  remarkable,  for  he  was 
wanting  in  application  and  regularity;  but  his 
aptitude  was  soon  discovered  by  a  singular  inci- 
dent. One  day  a  contrebassist  was  wanted  for  the 
orchestra  of  S.  Onofrio.  Marcello-Perrino,  who 
taught  young  Lablache  the  cello,  said  to  him, '  You 
play  the  cello  very  well :  you  can  easily  learn  the 
double  bass!'  The  boy  had  a  dislike  for  that 
instrument,  in  spite  of  which  he  got  the  gamut  of 
the  double  bass  written  out  for  him  on  a  Tuesday, 
and  on  the  following  Friday  executed  his  part 
with  perfect  accuracy.  There  is  no  doubt,  in 
fact,  that,  had  he  not  been  so  splendidly  endowed 
as  a  singer,  he  might  have  been  equally  brilliant 
as  a  virtuoso  on  any  other  instrument  that  he 
chose  (Escudier).  At  this  period  his  boy's  voice 
was  a  beautiful  contralto,  the  last  thing  that  he 
did  with  which  was  to  sing,  as  it  was  just 
breaking,  the  solos  in  the  Requiem  of  Mozart  on 
the  death  of  Haydn  in  1809.  He  was  then  15, 
and  his  efforts  to  sing  to  the  end  of  the  work  left 
him  at  last  without  power  to  produce  a  sound. 
Before  many  months  were  passed,  however,  he 
became  possessed  of  a  magnificent  bass,  which 
gradually  increased  in  volume  until,  at  the  age 
of  20,  it  was  the  finest  of  the  kind  which  can  be 
remembered,  with  a  compass  of  two  octaves,  from 
Eb  below  to  E  b  above  the  bass  stave. 

Continually  dominated  by  the  desire  to  appear 


80 


LABLACHE. 


on  the  stage,  the  young  Lablache  made  his  escape 
from  the  Conservatorio  no  less  than  five  times, 
and  was  as  often  brought  back  in  disgrace.  He 
engaged  himself  to  sing  at  Salerno  at  1 5  ducats 
a  month  (40  sous  a  day),  and  received  a  month's 
salary  in  advance ;  but,  remaining  two  days  longer 
at  Naples,  he  spent  the  money.  As  he  could  not, 
however,  appear  decently  without  luggage,  he 
filled  a  portmanteau  with  sand,  and  set  out. 
Two  days  later  he  was  found  at  Salerno  by  the 
vice-president'  of  the  Conservatorio,  while  the 
Impresario  seized  the  effects  of  the  young  truant 
in  order  to  recoup  himself  the  salary  he  had 
advanced,  but  found,  to  his  horror,  nothing  in 
the  portmanteau  ....  but  what  Lablache  had 
put  there !  (Escudier).  To  these  escapades  was 
due,  however,  the  institution  of  a  little  theatre 
within  the  Conservatorio;  and  Lablache  was 
satisfied  for  a  time.  A  royal  edict,  meanwhile, 
forbade  the  Impresario  of  any  theatre,  under 
severe  penalties,  to  engage  a  student  of  the  Con- 
servatorio without  special  permission. 

Having  at  length  completed  his  musical  educa- 
tion, Lablache  was  engaged  at  the  San  Carlino 
Theatre  at  Naples,  as  buffo  Napolitano,  in  181  a, 
though  then  only  18.  (He  made  his  debut  in 
'La  Molinara'  of  Fioravanti.  A  few  months 
later,  he  married  Teresa  Pinotti,  the  daughter 
of  an  actor  engaged  at  the  theatre  and  one 
of  the  best  in  Italy.  This  happy  union  ex- 
ercised a  powerful  and  beneficial  influence 
over  the  life  of  Lablache.  Quickly  seeing  his 
genius  and  capacity  for  development  far  beyond 
the  narrow  sphere  in  which  she  found  him,  his 
young  wife  persuaded  Lablache,  not  without 
difficulty,  to  quit  the  San  Carlino,  a  theatre  in 
which  two  performances  a  day  were  given, 
ruining  completely  within  a  year  every  voice 
but  that  of  her  robust  husband ;  to  re- commence 
serious  study  of  singing,  and  to  give  up  the 
patois  in  which  he  had  hitherto  sung  and 
spoken.  Accordingly,  a  year  later,  after  a 
short  engagement  at  Messina,  he  went  as  prlmo 
basso  cantante  to  the  Opera  at  Palermo.  His 
first  appearance  was  in  the  '  Ser  Marc-Antonio' 
of  Pavesi,  and  his  success  was  so  great  as  to 
decide  him  to  stay  at  Palermo  for  nearly  five 
years.  But  it  was  impossible  that  he  should 
remain  there  unknown ;  and  the  administration 
of  La  Scala  at  Milan  engaged  him  in  1S17, 
where  he  made  his  de"but  as  Dandini  in  '  Cene- 
rentola,'  with  great  success,  due  to  his  splendid 
acting  and  singing,  and  in  spite  of  the  provincial 
accent  which  still  marred  his  pronunciation.  Over 
the  latter  defect  he  soon  triumphed,  as  he  had  over 
his  want  of  application  a  few  years  before.  In  fact, 
perhaps  the  most  remarkable  things  about  La- 
blache were  the  extent  to  which  he  succeeded  in 
cultivating  himself,  and  the  stores  of  general  know- 
ledge which  he  accumulated  by  his  own  unaided 
efforts.  It  is  said  that  at  Naples  he  had  enjoyed 
the  great  advantage  of  the  society  and  counsels  of 
Madame  Mericoffre,  a  banker's  wife,  known  in 
Italy  before  her  marriage  as  La  Coltellini,  but  then 
quite  unknown  in  England,  though  described  as 
one  of  the  finest  artists  belonging  to  the  golden 


LABLACHE. 

age  of  Italian  singing.  To  such  influence  as 
this,  and  to  that  of  his  intelligent  wife,  Lablache 
perhaps  owed  some  of  the  impulse  which  prompted 
him  to  continue  to  study  when  most  singers  cease 
to  learn  and  content  themselves  with  reaping  the 
harvest ;  but  much  must  have  been  due  to  his  own 
desire  for  improvement. 

The  opera  'Elisa  e  Claudio'  was  now  (18  21) 
written  for  him  by  Mercadante ;  his  position  was 
made,  and  his  reputation  spread  throughout  Eu- 
rope. From  Milan  he  went  to  Turin  ;  returned 
to  Milan  in  1822,  then  appeared  at  Venice,  and 
in  1824  at  Vienna,  and  always  with  the  same 
success.  At  the  last  city  he  received  from  the 
enthusiastic  inhabitants  a  gold  medal  bearing  a 
most  flattering  inscription.  After  twelve  years 
absence  he  returned  to  Naples,  with  the  title  of 
singer  in  the  chapel  of  Ferdinand  I.,  and  with  an 
engagement  at  the  San  Carlo.  Here  he  created  a 
great  sensation  as  Assur  in  '  Semiramide.'  Two 
years  later  we  find  him  at  Parma,  singing  in  Bel- 
lini's '  Zaire.'  Although  Ebers  had  endeavoured, 
as  early  as  1822,  to  secure  him  for  London,  on 
the  strength  of  his  reputation  as  '  perhaps  even 
excelling  Zucchini,'  Lablache  did  not  tread  the 
English  boards  till  the  season  of  1830,  when 
he  made  his  debut  on  the  30th  March  in  the 
'Matrimonio  segreto.'  Here,  as  elsewhere,  his 
succesa  was  assured  from  the  moment  when  he 
sang  his  first  note,  almost  from  the  first  step 
he  took  upon  the  stage.  It  is  indeed  doubtful 
whether  he  was  greater  as  a  singer  or  as  an 
actor.  TTi«  head  was  noble,  his  figure  very 
tall,  and  so  atoning  for  his  bulk,  which  became 
immense  in  later  years :  yet  he  never  looked 
too  tall  on  the  stage.  One  of  the  boots  of  La- 
blache would  have  made  a  small  portmanteau ; 
'  one  could  have  clad  a  child  in  one  of  his  gloves' 
(Chorley).  His  strength  was  enormous.  As  Le- 
porello,  he  sometimes  carried  off  under  his  arm, 
apparently  without  effort,  the  troublesome  Ma- 
setto,  represented  by  Giubilei,  a  man  of  the  full 
height  and  weight  of  ordinary  men !  Again,  in 
an  interval  of  tedious  rehearsing,  he  was  once 
seen  on  the  stage  to  pick  up  with  one  hand  a 
double  bass  that  was  standing  in  the  orchestra, 
examine  it  at  arm's  length,  and  gently  replace  it 
where  he  had  found  it !  The  force  of  his  voice 
exceeded,  when  he  chose,  the  tone  of  the  instru- 
ments that  accompanied  it  and  the  noise  and 
clamour  of  the  stage ;  nothing  drowned  his  por- 
tentous notes,  which  rang  through  the  house  like 
the  booming  of  a  great  bell.  On  one  occasion, 
indeed,  his  wife  is  said  to  have  been  woke  up  by  a 
sound,  in  the  middle  of  the  night,  which  she  took 
for  the  tocsin  announcing  a  fire,  but  which  turned 
out  to  be  nothing  more  than  Lablache  producing 
in  his  sleep  these  bell-like  sounds.  It  was  during 
the  great  popularity  of  '  I  Puritani,'  when  Grisi, 
accompanied  by  Lablache,  was  in  the  habit  of 
singing  the  polacca  thrice  a  week  at  the  Opera, 
and  frequently  also  at  concerts.  After  performing 
his  staccato  part  in  the  duet  thrice  within  nine 
hours,  Lablache  was  haunted  by  it  even  in  his 
sleep.  This  power  was  wisely  used  by  the  great 
artist  on  the  right  occasions,  and  only  then — as 


LABLACHE. 

the  deaf  and  angry  Geronimo,  or  as  Oroveso  in 
'Norma';  but  at  other  times  his  voice  could 
'  roar  as  sweetly  as  any  sucking  dove,'  and  he 
could  use  its  accents  for  comic,  humorous,  tender, 
or  sorrowful  effects,  with  equal  ease  and  mastery. 

Like  Garrick,  and  other  great  artists,  Lablache 
shone  as  much  in  comic  as  in  tragic  parts.  No- 
thing could  exceed  his  Leporello  ;  of  that  cha- 
racter he  was  doubtless  the  greatest  known  ex- 
ponent. But  he  had,  at  an  earlier  date,  played  Don 
Giovanni.  As  Geronimo,  the  Podesta-  in '  La  Gazza 
Ladra,'  again,  in  'La  Prova  d'un'  Opera  Seria,' 
as  Dandini  and  the  Barone  di  Montefiascone,  he 
was  equally  unapproachable;  while  his  Henry 
VIII.  in  'Anna  Bolena,'  his  Doge  in  'Marino 
Faliero,'  and  Oroveso  in  '  Norma,'  were  splendid 
examples  of  dignity  and  dramatic  force.  He 
appeared  for  the  first  time  in  Paris,  Nov.  4, 
1830,  as  Geronimo  in  the  '  Matrimonio  Segreto,' 
and  was  there  also  recognised  immediately  as  the 
first  basso  cantante  of  the  day.  He  continued  to 
sing  in  Paris  and  London  for  several  years  ;  and, 
it  may  be  mentioned  that  his  terms  were  in  1828, 
for  four  months,  40,000  frs.  (£1,600),  with  lodging 
and  one  benefit-night  clear  of  all  expenses,  the 
opera  and  his  part  in  it  to  be  chosen  by  himself  on 
that  occasion,  as  also  at  his  dibut.  The  modest 
sum  named  above,  in  no  degree  corresponding  with 
the  value  of  Lablache  in  an  operatic  company, 
was  a  few  years  later  (1839)  the  price  paid  by 
Laporte  to  Robert,  to  whom  Lablache  was  then 
engaged  at  Paris,  for  the  mere  cession  of  his 
services  to  the  London  Opera. 

In  1833  Lablache  sang  again  at  Naples,  re- 
newing his  triumphs  in  the  '  Elisire  d'amore '  and 
'Don  Pasquale.'  He  returned  to  Paris  in  1834, 
after  which  he  continued  to  appear  annually 
there  and  in  London,  singing  in  our  provincial 
festivals  as  well  as  at  the  Opera,  for  many  years. 
In  1852  he  sang  at  St.  Petersburg  with  no  less 
eclat  than  elsewhere.  In  London,  near  the  close 
of  his  career,  at  a  time  when  most  artists  are 
liable  to  become  dull  and  mechanical,  he  broke 
out  into  the  personification  of  two  beings  as 
different  from  each  other  and  from  the  types 
hitherto  represented  by  him  as  Shakspere's  Cali- 
ban and  Scribe's  Calmuck  Qritzoriko,  in  'L'Etoile 
du  Nord,'  with  a  vivacity,  a  profound  stage- 
knowledge,  and  a  versatility,  which  were  as  rare 
as  they  were  strongly  marked  (Chorley).  But 
he  had  qualities  as  sterling  as  others  which  were 
fascinating.  Whether  in  comic  opera,  in  the 
chromatic  music  of  Spohr,  or  in  that  of  Pales- 
trina,  he  seemed  equally  at  home.  Let  it  be 
never  forgotten  that  he  sang  (April  3,  1827)  the 
bass  solo  part  in  Mozart's  Requiem  after  the 
death  of  Beethoven,  as  he  had,  when  a  child, 
sung  the  contralto  part  at  the  funeral  of  Haydn ; 
and  let  the  former  fact  be  a  sufficient  answer  to 
those  who  say  he  had  no  notes  lower  than  A 
or  G.  Be  it  recorded,  at  the  same  time,  that 
he  paid  Barbaja  200  guldens  for  the  operatic 
singers  engaged  on  that  occasion.  He  was  also 
one  of  the  32  torch-bearers  who  surrounded  the 
coffin  of  Beethoven  at  its  interment.  To  him, 
again,  Schubert  dedicated  his  three  Italian  songs 
VOL.  it 


LACHNER. 


81 


(op.  83),  written  to  Metastasio's  words,  and  com- 
posed in  1827,  showing  thus  his  appreciation  of 
the  powers  of  the  great  Italian. 

In  1856,  however,  his  health  began  to  fail, 
and  he  was  obliged  in  the  following  spring 
to  drink  the  waters  of  Kissingen,  where  he  was 
met  and  treated  with  honour  by  Alexander  II. 
of  Russia.  Lablache  received  the  medal  and 
order  given  by  the  Emperor  with  the  prophetic 
words,  "These  will  do  to  ornament  my  coffin.' 
After  this  he  returned  for  a  few  days  in  August 
to  his  house  at  Maisons-Laffitte,  near  Paris ;  but 
left  it  on  the  18th,  to  try  the  effect  of  his  native 
climate  at  his  villa  at  Posilipo.  But  the  bright, 
brisk  air  was  too  keen  for  him,  and  he  had  to 
take  refuge  in  Naples.  The  relief,  however, 
served  only  to  prolong  his  life  a  short  while,  and 
he  died  Jan.  23, 1858.  His  remains  were  brought 
to  Paris,  and  buried  at  Maisons-Lafitte. 

Lablache  had  two  sisters,  the  elder  of  whom 
became  Marchesa  de  Braida,  and  the  younger 
Abbess  of  Sessa.  He  had  many  children,  among 
whom  Frederick,  the  eldest  son,  followed  his 
father's  steps,  but  not  with  the  same  success. 
The  youngest  is  an  officer  in  the  French  army.  Of 
his  daughters,  one  married  the  great  pianist, 
Thalberg.  A  Mithode  de  chant,  written  by  La- 
blache, was  published  chez  Mme.  VT0  Canaux,  at 
Paris ;  but  it  rather  disappointed  expectation. 

Lablache  died,  as  he  had  lived,  respected  by 
every  one  who  knew  him  for  his  honourable, 
upright  probity,  as  he  was  admired  for  his  mar- 
vellous and  cultivated  talents.  [J.M.] 

He  was  the  Queen's  singing  master,  and  the 
esteem  and  even  affection  which  that  intercourse 
engendered  are  expressed  more  than  once  in 
warm  terms  in  her  Majesty's  published  Diaries 
and  Letters. 

LAC  DES  FEES,  LE.  Opera  in  5  acts ; 
words  by  Scribe  and  Melesville,  music  by  Auber. 
Produced  at  the  Grand  Opera  April  1,  1839. 
The  overture  alone  has  survived.  [G.] 

LACHNER,  a  prominent  musical  family  of 
this  century.  The  father  was  an  organist  at 
Rain,  on  the  Lech,  in  Bavaria,  very  poor  and 
with  a  very  large  family,  but  not  the  less  a 
man  of  worth  and  character.  He  was  twice 
married.  One  of  the  first  family,  Theodob,  born 
1798,  was  a  sound  musician,  but  unambitious, 
who  ended  his  career  as  organist  at  Munich,  and 
chorus-master  at  the  Court  theatre.  The  second 
family  were  more  remarkable.  Of  the  daughters, 
Thekla,  born  1803,  was  recently  organist  of  S. 
George's  church,  Augsburg,  and  Chbistiane,  born 
1805,  held  the  same  post  in  her  native  place, 
Of  the  brothers,  Fbanz  was  born  April  2,  1804. 
He  was  solidly  educated  in  other  things  beside 
music,  but  music  was  his  desire,  and  in  1822  he 
prevailed  on  his  parents  to  let  him  go  to  Vienna. 
He  put  himself  under  Stadler  and  Sechter,  and 
was  constantly  in  Schubert's  company,  with  whom 
he  became  very  intimate.  In  1826  he  was  made 
Vice-Kapellmeister  of  the  Karnthnerthor  theatre, 
and  the  next  year,  on  the  death  of  Weigh  prin- 
cipal Kapellmeister.  He  retained  this  post  till 
1834,  and  it  was  a  time  of  great  productivity.    In 

G 


82 


LACHXER. 


34  be  went  to  Mannheim  to  conduct  the  opera 
there,  and  in  36  advanced  to  the  top  of  the 
ladder  as  Hofkapellmeister — in  1852  general 
music  director — at  Munich,  and  there  remained 
till  1865,  when  he  retired  on  a  pension.  Lach- 
ner's  writings  are  of  prodigious  number  and 
extent.  An  oratorio,  and  a  sacred  cantata ; 
4  opera3 ;  requiems  ;  3  grand  masses ;  various 
cantatas,  entr'actes,  and  other  pieces ;  many  large 
compositions  for  male  voices ;  8  symphonies — 
among  them  those  in  D  minor  (No.  3),  in  C  minor 
(op.  5  2 )  — which  won  the  prize  offered  by  theGesell- 
schaft  der  Musikfreunde — and  inD  (No.  6),  which 
Schumann  finds  twice  as  good  as  the  prize  one 
— suites,  overtures  and  serenades  for  orchestra, 
the  orchestration  of  Schubert's  'Song  of  Miriam'; 
3  quartets  ;  concertos  for  harp  and  bassoon ;  trios, 
duos,  pianoforte  pieces  of  all  dimensions ;  and  a 
large  number  of  vocal  pieces  for  solo  and  several 
voices.  All  that  industry,  knowledge,  tact,  and 
musicianship  can  give  is  here — if  there  were  but 
a  little  more  of  the  sacred  fire !  No  one  can 
deny  to  Lachner  the  praise  of  conscientiousness 
and  artistic  character ;  he  is  deservedly  esteemed 
by  his  countrymen  almost  as  if  he  were  an 
old  classic,  and  holds  a  similar  position  in  the 
South  to  that  of  Hiller  in  the  North.  The 
next  brother,  Ignaz,  was  born  in  1807,  was 
brought  up  to  music,  and  at  1 2  years  old  was 
sent  to  the  Gymnasium  at  Augsburg,  where  he  is 
said  to  have  had  no  less  a  person  than  Napoleon 
III.  (then  Count  St.  Leu)  as  a  schoolfellow.  In 
1824  he  joined  his  brother  at  Vienna,  in  1825 
was  made  Vice -Kapellmeister  of  the  opera ;  in 
1831  a  Court  music-director  at  Stuttgart,  and  in 
1842  rejoined  his  brother  in  a  similar  position  at 
Munich.  In  53  he  took  the  conduct  of  the 
theatre  at  Hamburg,  in  58  was  made  Court 
Kapellmeister  at  Stockholm ;  and  in  6 1  settled 
down  for  good  at  Frankfort,  where  he  fills  many 
musical  positions,  and  celebrated  his  50th  anni- 
versary on  Oct.  18,  1875.  He  also  has  produced 
a  long  list  of  works — 3  operas ;  several  ballets, 
melodramas,  etc.,  etc. ;  with  masses,  symphonies, 
quartets,  pianoforte  works,  and  many  songs,  one 
of  which — '  Uberall  Du ' — was  very  popular  in  its 
day.  The  third  brother,  Vincenz,  was  born 
July  19,  1 81 1,  and  also  brought  up  at  the 
Augsburg  Gymnasium.  He  began  by  taking 
Ignaz's  place  as  organist  in  Vienna,  and  rose  by 
the  same  course  of  goodness  and  indefatigable 
assiduity  as  his  brothers,  to  be  Court  Kapell- 
meister at  Mannheim  from  1836  till  73,  when 
he  retired  on  a  pension.  He  was  in  London  in  42, 
conducting  the  German  Company.  His  music  to 
Turandot,  his  Prize  song '  In  der  Feme,'  and  other 
pieces,  are  favourites  with  his  countrymen.  [G.] 
LACHNITH,  Ludwio  Wenzkl,  born  July  7, 
1 746,  at  Prague,  migrated  to  the  service  of  the 
Duke  at  Zweibrucken,  and  thence  to  Paris, 
where  he  made  his  delmt  at  the  Concert  Spi- 
rituel  as  a  horn  player.  He  was  a  clever  handy 
creature,  who  wrote  not  only  quantities  of  all 
kinds  of  instrumental  music,  but  at  least  four 
operas,  and  several  pasticcios  and  other  pieces. 
His  most  notable  achievements  however,  were 


LACY. 

his  adaptations  of  great  operas,  by  way  of  making 
them  pleasant  to  the  public,  such  as  '  Les  niys- 
teres  d'Isis,'  for  which  both  libretto  and  music  of 
the  Magic  Flute  were  '  arranged '  into  what  M. 
Fe"tis  calls  'a  monstrous  1  compilation*  (Grand 
Opera,  Aug.  20,  1801).  No  wonder  that  the 
piece  was  called  'Les  miseres  d'ici,'  and  that 
Lachnith  was  styled  'le  derangeur.'  He  was 
clever  also  at  working  up  the  music  of  several 
composers  into  one  piece,  and  torturing  it  to  the 
expression  of  different  words  and  sentiments 
from  those  to  which  it  had  originally  been  set — as 
•  Le  Laboureur  Chinois. '  in  which  the  music  of 
'several  celebrated  composers'  was  'arrangee 
par  M.  Lachnitch'  (Feb.  5,  1813).  In  these 
crimes  he  had  an  accomplice  in  the  elder  Kalk- 
brenner,  who  assisted  him  to  concoct  two  '  Ora- 
torios in  action' — Saul  (April  6,  1803)  and 
'The  taking  of  Jericho'  (April  11,  1805).  We 
were  as  bad  in  England  several  years  later,  and 
many  fine  operas  of  Rossini,  Auber,  and  quasi- 
Weber  were  first  made  known  to  Londoners  by 
much  the  same  expedients  as  those  of  Lachnith,  in 
the  hands  of  T.  P.  Cooke,  Lacy,  and  others.    [G.] 

LACY,  John,  bass  singer,  born  in  the  last 
quarter  of  last  century,  was  a  pupil  of  Rauzzini 
at  Bath.  After  singing  in  London  he  went  to 
Italy,  where  he  became  complete  master  of  the 
Italian  language  and  style  of  singing.  On  his 
return  he  sang  at  concerts  and  the  Lenten 
oratorios,  but  although  he  possessed  an  excep- 
tionally fine  voice  and  sang  admirably  in  various 
styles,  circumstances  prevented  him  from  taking 
any  prominent  position.  In  181 8  he  accepted  an 
engagement  at  Calcutta,  and,  accompanied  by  his 
wife,  left  England,  to  which  he  never  returned. 
Had  he  remained  here  he  would  most  probably 
have  been  appointed  successor  to  Bartleman. 

Mrs.  Lacy,  his  wife,  was  originally  Miss 
Jackson,  and  appeared  as  a  soprano  singer  at 
the  Concert  of  Ancient  Music,  April  25,  1798. 
In  1 800  she  became  the  wife  of  Francesco  Bianchi, 
the  composer,  and  in  1 810  his  widow.  In  181 2 
she  was  married  to  Lacy,  and  sang  as  Mrs. 
Bianchi  Lacy  in  181 2,  13,  and  14.  She  '  was  the 
best  representative  of  the  great  and  simple  style  as 
delivered  down  by  Mrs.  Bates  and  Madame  Mara, 
whilst  her  articulate  delivery  and  pure  pronuncia- 
tion of  Italian,  rendered  her  no  less  generally  valu- 
able in  other  departments  of  the  art.'      [W.  H.  H.] 

LACY,  Michael  Rophino,  son  of  an  English 
merchant,  born  at  Bilbao,  July  19, 1 795 ;  learned 
music  from  an  early  age,  and  made  rapid  pro- 
gress on  the  violin ;  was  at  college  at  Bourdeaux 
for  18  months,  and  in  1803  was  sent  to  Paris 
to  finish  his  education,  and  attained  to  con- 
siderable skill  as  a  linguist.  Kreutzer  was  his 
principal  instructor  in  music.  About  the  end 
of  1804  he  performed  before  Napoleon  at  the 
Tuileries.  He  was  then  known  as  '  Le  petit 
Espagnol.'     He  played  in  the  principal  Dutch 

»  See  the  account  by  0.  Jahn  (Mozart ,  2nd  ed.,  it  SS7).  The  magic 
flute  and  all  the  comic  music  were  omitted ;  Fapageno  was  turned 
into  a  shepherd  sage ;  while  many  pieces  were  left  out,  others  were  put 
in— as  for  instance  'Fin  ch'an  dal  rino,'  arranged  at  a  duet  I  The  opera 
opened  with  Mozart's  finale,  and  the  disorder  must  hare  been  eom- 
pltt*.   And  jet  it  ran  49  nights '. 


LACY. 

towns  on  his  way  to  London,  which  he  reached 
in  Oct.  1 805.  He  soon  gave  concerts  at  Hanover 
Square  Rooms,  under  the  sobriquet  of  'The 
Young  Spaniard,'  his  name  not  being  announced 
until  May,  1807,  when  an  engraved  portrait  of 
him  was  published.  He  next  performed  at 
Catalani's  first  concert  in  Dublin,  and  was  after- 
wards engaged  for  Corri's  concerts  at  Edinburgh 
at  20  guineas  per  night.  A  few  years  later  he 
quitted  the  musical  for  the  theatrical  profession, 
and  performed  the  principal  genteel  comedy 
parts  at  the  theatres  of  Dublin,  Edinburgh, 
Glasgow,  etc.  In  1818  he  was  appointed 
leader  of  the  Liverpool  concerts  vice  Yaniewicz, 
and  at  the  end  of  1820  returned  to  London 
and  was  engaged  as  leader  of  the  ballet  at  the 
King's  Theatre.  Lacy  adapted  to  the  English 
stage  both  words  and  music  of  several  popular 
operas;  and  his  adaptations  display  great  skill, 
although  gross  liberties  were  frequently  taken 
with  the  original  pieces,  which  can  only  be 
excused  by  the  taste  of  the  time.  Among  them 
are  'The  Maid  of  Judah'  from  'Ivanhoe,'  the 
music  from  ' Semiramide,'  1829;  'Cinderella,' 
the  music  from  Rossini's  'Cenerentola,'  'Armida,' 
'Maometto  Secondo,'  and  'Guillaume  Tell,' 
1830;  'Fra  Diavolo,'  1831 ;  and  'Robert  le 
Diable,'  under  the  title  of  'The  Fiend  Father,' 
1832.  In  1833  he  produced  an  oratorio  entitled 
'The  Israelites  in  Egypt,'  a  pasticcio  from 
Rossini's  '  Mose  in  Egitto,'  and  Handel's  '  Israel 
in  Egypt,'  which  was  performed  with  scenery, 
dresses,  and  personation.  In  1839  he  brought 
forward  a  readaptation  of  Weber's  'Der  l'rei- 
schiitz,'  introducing  the  whole  of  the  music  for 
the  first  time.  He  rendered  great  assistance  to 
Mr.  Schoelcher  in  collecting  the  material  for  his 
'  Life  of  Handel.'  He  died  at  Pentonville,  Sept. 
20,  1867.  [W.H.H.] 

LADY  HENRIETTE,  ou  la  servante  de 
Greenwich.  A  ballet  pantonine  in  3  acts ;  music 
by  Flotow,  Burgmuller,  and  Deldevez.  Produced 
at  the  Grand  Opera  Feb.  1, 1 844.  Saint  Georges, 
by  whom  the  libretto  was  written,  afterwards 
extended  it  into  an  opera,  which  was  set  by 
Flotow  as  Martha.  [G.] 

LADY  OF  THE  LAKE,  THE.  A  cantata 
in  2  parts ;  the  text  founded  on  Scott's  poem  by 
Natalia  Macfarren,  the  music  by  Professor  G.  A. 
Macfarren.  Written  for  and  produced  at  Glasgow 
New  Public  Hall  Nov.  15,  1877.  [G.] 

LANDLER,  Landerer,  or  Landlerische 
Tanz,  a  national  dance  popular  in  Austria, 
Bavaria,  Bohemia,  and  Styria.  It  probably 
derives  its  name  from  the  Landel,  a  district  in 
the  valley  of  the  Ens,  where  the  dance  is  said 
to  have  had  its  origin;  but  according  to  some 
authorities  the  word  simply  means  'country 
dance,'  i.  e.  a  waltz  danced  in  a  country  fashion. 
In  fact  the  Landler  is  a  homely  waltz,  and  only 
differs  from  the  waltz  in  being  danced  more  slowly. 
It  is  in  3-4  or  3-8  time,  and  consists  of  two 
parts  of  eight  bars,  each  part  being  repeated  two 
or  more  times.  Like  most  early  dances,  it  oc- 
casionally has  a  vocal   accompaniment.     Both 


LA  FAGE. 


83 


Mozart  (Kochel,  No.  606)  and  Beethoven  (Not- 
tebohm's  Cat.  p.  150,  151)  have  written  genuine 
Landler,  but  the  compositions  under  this  name 
of  Jensen,  Raff,  Reinecke,  and  other  modern 
musicians,  have  little  in  common  with  the  original 
dance.  The  following  example  is  the  first  part 
of  a  Styrian  Landler  (Kohler,  Volkstanze;  Bruns- 
wick, 1854). 


ffiT^ 


^ni^ 


toz 


=H-Hrllr  n 


The  little  waltz  so  well  known  as  '  Le  De"sir,' 
usually  attributed  to  Beethoven,  though  really 
composed  by  Schubert,  is  a  Landler.  To  know 
what  grace  and  beauty  can  be  infused  into  this 
simple  form  one  must  hear  Schubert's  '  Wiener 
Damen-Landler '  or  '  Belles  Viennoises '  in  their 
unsophisticated  form,  before  they  were  treated 
by  Liszt.  [W.B.S.] 

LA  FAGE,  Jcste  Adrien  Lenoir  de,  born 
in  Paris,  March  28,  1801,  grandson  of  the  cele- 
brated architect  Lenoir.  After  trying  education 
for  the  church  and  the  army,  he  settled  to  music 
as  a  pupil  of  Perne's  for  harmony  and  counter- 
point, devoting  himself  especially  to  the  study  of 
plain-chant.  Perne  recommended  him  to  Cho- 
ron,  who  took  him  first  as  pupil,  and  then  as 
re'pe'titeur,  or  assistant -master.  In  1828  he  was 
sent  by  the  government  to  Rome  and  studied  for 
a  year  under  Baini.  While  in  Italy  he  produced 
a  comic  opera  '  I  Creditori,'  but  comic  opera  was 
not  to  be  his  road  to  distinction.  On  his  return 
to  Paris,  in  Dec.  1829,  he  was  appointed  maitre 
de  chapelle  of  St.  Etienne  du  Mont,  where  he 
substituted  an  organ  (built  by  John  Abbey)  for 
the  harsh  out-of-tune  serpent  hitherto  used  to 
accompany  the  voices — an  excellent  innovation ! 
1833  to  36  he  spent  in  Italy,  and  lost  his  wife 
and  son.  He  returned  to  Paris,  and  there 
published  the  'Manuel  complet  de  Musique' 
(1836-38),  the  first  chapters  of  which  had  been 
prepared  by  Choron ;  '  Seineiologie  musicale ' ; 
'  Miscellanies  musicales ' ;  '  Histoire  generate  de 
la  musique,'  and  many  biographical  and  critical 
articles  collected  from  periodicals.  He  again 
visited  Italy  after  the  Revolution  of  1848,  and 
during  this  trip  took  copies  of  MSS.  never  before 
consulted.  He  also  visited  Germany  and  Spain, 
and  during  the  Exhibition  of  185 1  made  a  short 
excursion  to  England.  He  then  settled  finally 
in  Paris,  and  published  the  works  which  have 
placed  him  in  the  first  rank  of  'musicists' — to 
use  a  favourite  word  of  his  own.  Over-work  as 
an  author,  and  as  editor  in  chief  of '  Le  Plain- 
Chant,' a  periodical  which  he  founded  in  1859, 
brought  on  a  nervous  affection,  which  ultimately 
led  to  his  removal  to  the  asylum  for  the  insane 
at  Charenton,  where  he  died  March  8,  1862. 

La  Fage  composed  much  music  of  many  kinds, 
G2 


84 


LA  FAGE. 


both  vocal  and  instrumental,  sacred  and  secular, 
but  it  is  as  a  historian  and  didactic  writer  that 
his  name  will  live.  His  'Cours  complet  de 
Plain-Chant'  (Paris  1855-56,  2  vols  8vo.)  is 
a  book  of  the  first  order,  and  fully  justifies  its 
title.  It  was  succeeded  by  the  '  Nouveau  Traite 
de  Plain-Chant  romaiii,'  with  questions,  an  indis- 
pensable supplement  to  the  former.  His  '  Histoire 
ge'ne'rale  de  la  musique'  (Paris  1844,  2  vols. 
8vo.,  with  an  album  of  plates)  is  incomplete, 
treating  only  of  Chinese,  Indian,  Egyptian,  and 
Hebrew  music,  but  it  is  a  careful  and  con- 
scientious work,  and  has  been  largely  used  by 
Fe"tis.  His  learning  and  method  appear  con- 
spicuously in  his  •  Extraits  du  Catalogue  critique 
et  raisonne"  d'une  petite  bibliotheque  musicale ' 
(Rennes,  undated,  1 20  pp.  8vo.,  100  copies  only), 
and  in  his  '  Essais  de  Diphtherographie  musicale ' 
(Paris,  1864,  2  vols.  8vo.,  one  containing  very 
curious  musical  examples).  A  perusal  of  these 
two  books  will  amply  corroborate  every  word  we 
have  said  in  praise  of  this  erudite  musician.  He 
left  a  valuable  library  (the  catalogue  was  pub- 
lished, Paris  1862,  8vo.),  afterwards  dispersed  by 
auction ;  but  his  unpublished  works  and  materials 
are  in  the  Bibliotheque  nationale,  to  which  he 
bequeathed  all  his  papers,  with  the  MSS.  of 
Choron  and  Baini  in  his  possession.  [G.  C] 

LAFONT,  Charles  Philippe,  an  eminent  vio- 
linist, was  born  at  Paris  in  1781.  F^tis  relates 
that  he  got  his  first  instruction  on  the  violin 
from  his  mother,  a  sister  of  Bertheaume,  a  well- 
known  violinist  of  that  period,  whom  he  also 
accompanied  on  his  travels  through  Germany, 
performing  successfully,  when  only  eleven  years 
of  age,  at  Hamburg,  Oldenburg  and  other  towns. 
On  his  return  to  Paris  he  continued  his  studies 
under  Kreutzer;  and  soon  appeared  at  the 
Theatre  Feydeau,  though  not  as  a  violinist,  but 
as  a  singer  of  French  ballads.  After  some  time  he 
again  took  up  the  violin,  this  time  under  the 
tuition  of  Rode,  and  soon  proved  himself  a  player 
of  exceptional  merit.  Fltis  credits  him  with  a 
perfect  intonation,  a  pure  and  mellow,  though 
somewhat  feeble  tone,  great  powers  of  execution, 
and  a  remarkable  charm  of  expression.  From 
1801  to  1808  he  travelled  and  played  with  great 
success  in  France,  Belgium,  Holland,  Germany 
and  Russia.  In  1 808  he  was  appointed  Rode's  suc- 
cessor as  solo-violinist  to  the  Emperor  of  Russia, 
a  position  in  which  he  remained  for  six  years.  In 
181 2  he  had  a  public  contest  with  Paganini  at 
Milan.  In  181 5  he  returned  to  Paris,  and  was 
appointed  solo-violinist  to  Louis  XVIII.  In  1 831 
he  made  a  long  tour  with  Henri  Herz,  the  pianist, 
which  occupied  him  till  1 839,  when  his  career  was 
suddenly  ended  by  a  carriage  accident  in  the  south 
of  France,  through  which  he  lost  his  life. 

Spohr  in  his  Autobiography  praises  his  fine 
tone,  perfect  intonation,  energy  and  gracefulness, 
but  deplores  the  absence  of  deep  feeling,  and 
accuses  him  of  mannerism  in  phrasing.  He  also 
relates  that  Lafont's  repertoire  was  confined  to  a 
very  few  pieces,  and  that  he  would  practise  a 
concerto  for  years  before  venturing  on  it  in 
public, — a  method  which,  although  leading  to 


LAGUERRE. 

absolute  mechanical  perfection,  appears  absurd 
from  an  artistic  or  even  musical  point  of  view. 
Lafont's  compositions  for  the  violin  are  of  no 
musical  value  ;  they  comprise  seven  Concertos,  a 
number  of  Fantasias,  Rondos,  etc.  He  wrote 
a  number  of  Duos  concertants  in  conjunction 
with  Kalkbrenner,  Herz,  etc. ;  more  than  200 
ballads  (romances),  which  for  a  time  were  very 
popular ;   and  two  operas.  [P.  D.] 

LAGARDE,  a  French  basso,  who  sang  the 
part  of  Farasmane  in  Handel's  '  Radamisto,'  on 
the  revival  of  that  opera  in  Dec.  1720,  with 
Senesino.  It  is  not  known  who  played  Farasmane 
at  the  former  performances ;  perhaps  Lagarde. 
He  does  not  appear  again  in  the  casts.      [J.M.I 

LAGUERRE,  Jean,  commonly  called  Jack, 
was  the  son  of  Louis  Laguerre,  the  artist  who 
painted  the  greater  part  of  Verrio's  large  picture 
in  St.  Bartholomew  s  Hospital,  the  '  Labours  of 
Hercules '  in  chiar'oscuro  at  Hampton  Court,  the 
staircase  at  Wilton,  etc.,  and  is  immortalized  by 
Pope  in  the  line 

'  Where  sprawl  the  saints  of  Verrio  and  Laguerre.' 

This  painter  came  to  England  in  16S3,  and  died 
in  1 72 1,  his  son  Jean  having,  as  it  is  supposed, 
been  born  about  1700.  The  lad  was  instructed 
by  his  father  for  his  own  profession,  and  had 
already  shown  some  ability  ;  but,  having  a  talent 
for  music,  he  took  to  the  stage,  where  he  met 
with  fair  success.  It  must  be  he  whom  we  find, 
under  the  name  of  Mr.  Legar,  playing  the  part 
of  Metius  in  Camilla  (revived),  1726,  which  had 
formerly  (1706  and  8)  been  sung  by  Ramondon, 
a  low  tenor.  Again,  he  is  advertized  {Daily 
Journal,  March  13,  1731)  as  sustaining  the 
added  role  of  Corydon  in '  Acis  and  Galatea,'  '  for 
the  benefit  of  M.  Rochetti,  at  Lincoln's  Inn 
Theatre  Royal,  on  Friday,  26th,'  his  name  being 
spelled  as  in  the  cast  of '  Camilla.'  He  died  in 
London  in  1 748. 

Laguerre  has  been  described  as  '  a  high  fellow, 
a  great  humourist,  wit,  singer,  player,  caricatur- 
ist, mimic,  and  a  good  scene-painter ;  and,  ac- 
cording to  the  notions  of  that  merry  age,  known 
to  everybody  worth  knowing.'  He  engraved 
a  set  of  prints  of  '  Hob  in  the  Well,'  which  had 
a  great  sale,  though  indifferently  executed  ;  but 
we  also  owe  to  his  point  an  exceedingly  clever 
etching,  'The  Stage  Mutiny'  (Br.  Mus.  Cat. 
1929),  in  which  we  have  caricature-portraits  of 
Colley  and  Theo.  Cibber  (as  Pistol),  Highmore, 
Mrs.  Wilks,  Ellis,  Griffin,  Johnson,  and  others. 
Hogarth  did  not  disdain  to  copy  this  interesting 
print,  having  used  it  on  the  show-cloth  in '  South- 
wark  Fair'  (Br.  Mus.  Cat.  i960). 

As  a  painter,  Laguerre  was  the  author  of  the 
portrait  of  Mary  Tofts,  not  the  singer  but  the 
pretended  rabbit-breeder,  engraved  by  J.  Faber 
in  mezzotint.  He  also  painted  the  portrait  of 
Spiller  for  the  Spiller  8  Head  tavern,  as  we  learn 
from  that  actor's  epitaph,  which  begins  thus : — 

'  The  butchers'  wives  fall  in  hysteric  fits ; 
For,  sure  as  they're  alive,  poor  Spiller 's  d 
But,  thanks  to  Jack  Laguerre,  we  Ve  got  his  dead.' 


[J.M.] 


LAIDLAW. 


LALANDE. 


85 


LAIDLAW,  Anna  Robena,  a  lady  whom 
Schumann  distinguished  by  dedicating  to  her  his 
Fantasiestucke  (op.  12),  was  a  Yorkshirewoman, 
born  at  Bretton  April  30, 18 19,  educated  in  Edin- 
burgh at  the  school  of  her  aunt,  and  in  music  by 
Robert  Miiller,  a  pianoforte  teacher  there.  Her 
family  went  to  Konigsberg  in  1 830,  and  there  her 
vocation  was  decided,  she  improved  in  playing 
rapidly,  and  in  three  or  four  years  appeared  in 
public  at  Berlin  with  great  applause.  In  34  she 
was  in  London  studying  under  Herz,  and  played 
at  Paganini's  farewell  concert.  In  36  she  returned 
to  Berlin,  and  after  a  lengthened  tour  through 
Prussia,  Russia  and  Austria,  returned  in  1840  to 
London.  It  was  during  this  last  stay  in  Germany 
that  the  Fantasiestucke  were  written.  [G.] 

LAJARTE,  Theodore  de,  one  of  the  libra- 
rians of  the  Grand  Opera,  Paris  (Acade"mie  de 
Musique),  author  of  a  book  for  which  every 
student  of  musical  history  must  be  grateful  to 
him,  viz.  a  Catalogue,  historical,  chronological 
and  anecdotic,  of  the  Musical  Library  of  the 
Opera,  etc.,  2  vols,  with  7  portraits — beautifully 
etched  by  Le  Rat — and  a  view.  It  contains  an 
Introduction,  describing  the  library;  a  list,  in 
order  of  production,  of  the  594  pieces  which  have 
been  produced  at  the  Opera  between  '  Pomone,' 
March  19,  1671,  and  'Sylvia,'  June  14,  1876, 
with  the  names  of  the  singers,  remarks  on  the 
piece,  its  success  or  non-success,  and  often  ex- 
tracts from  the  libretto ;  biographical  notices  of 
composers  and  librettists  ;  a  supplementary  list 
of  '  ceuvres  di verses,'  comprising  49  operas, 
received  but  not  produced,  and  of  which  the 
MSS.  are  preserved — and  of  other  music  en- 
graved and  MS. ;  and  to  complete,  two  indexes 
of  titles  and  names.  The  work  is  admirably 
done,  apparently  with  great  accuracy,  and  is  not 
only  a  boon  to  the  reader  but  a  striking  evidence 
of  the  superior  system  under  which  these  things 
are  managed  in  Paris.  [G.] 

LAJEUNESSE,  the  family  name  of  Madlle. 
Marie  Emma  Albani,  who  was  born  in  1851  of 
French  Canadian  parents,  at  Chambly,  near 
Montreal,  and  is  therefore  an  English  subject. 
Her  father  was  a  professor  of  the  harp,  and  she 
began  life  in  a  musical  atmosphere.  At  the  age 
of  five  the  family  removed  to  Montreal,  and 
Madlle.  Lajeunesse  entered  the  school  of  the 
Convent  of  the  Sacre  Cceur.  Here  she  remained 
several  years,  with  such  instruction  in  singing 
as  the  convent  could  afford,  and  she  is  said  to 
have  abandoned  the  idea  of  adopting  a  religious 
life  on  the  representation  of  the  Superior  of  the 
convent,  who  discovered  the  great  qualities  of 
her  pupil. 

In  the  year  1864  the  family  again  removed,  this 
time  to  Albany,  the  capital  of  the  State  of  New 
York ;  and  while  pursuing  her  studies  there 
Madlle.  Lajeunesse  sang  in  the  choir  of  the  Ca- 
tholic cathedral,  and  thus  attracted  the  notice 
not  only  of  the  public  but  of  the  Catholic  bishop, 
who  strongly  urged  M.  Lajeunesse  to  take  his 
daughter  to  Europe  and  place  her  under  proper 
masters  for  the  development  of  so  remarkable  a 
talent.     A  concert  was  given  in  Albany  to  raise 


the  necessary  funds,  after  which  Madlle.  La- 
jeunesse proceeded  to  Paris  with  her  father. 
From  Paris,  after  studying  with  Duprez  for  eight 
months,  she  went  to  Lamperti  at  Milan,  with 
whom  she  remained  for  a  considerable  time.  The 
relation  between  the  master  and  his  gifted  pupil 
may  be  gathered  by  the  fact  that  his  treatise  on 
the  Shake  is  dedicated  to  her.  In  1870  she  made 
her  debut  at  Messina  in  the  Sonnambula,  under  the 
name  of  Albani,  in  memory  of  the  city  in  which 
her  resolution  to  become  a  singer  was  carried  into 
effect.  She  then  sang  for  a  time  at  the  Pergola, 
Florence.  Her  first  appearance  in  London  was 
at  the  Royal  Italian  Opera,  Covent  Garden,  on 
April  2,  1872.  The  beautiful  qualities  of  her 
voice  and  the  charm  of  her  appearance  were  at 
once  appreciated,  and  she  grew  in  favour  during 
the  whole  of  the  season.  Later  in  the  year  she 
made  a  very  successful  appearance  at  the  Italian 
Opera  of  Paris.  She  then  returned  to  Milan, 
and  passed  several  months  in  hard  study  under 
her  former  master.  1873  saw  her  again  at 
Covent  Garden.  In  the  autumn  she  sang  at 
St.  Petersburg,  and  between  that  and  her  next 
London  season,  re-visited  America  and  sang 
once  more  in  the  cathedral  at  Albany.  Since 
then  Madlle.  Albani  has  appeared  regularly  at 
Covent  Garden,  and  is  now  one  of  the  per- 
manent ornaments  of  that  theatre.  On  Aug.  6, 
1878,  she  married  Mr.  Ernest  Gye,  who,  since 
his  father's  death  (Dec.  4, 1878),  has  been  lessee 
of  the  theatre.  It  is  sufficient  to  name  her  prin- 
cipal parts — Amina  (Sonnambula),  Margherita 
(Faust),  Mignon,  Ophelia,  Elsa  (Lohengrin), 
Lucia,  Linda,  Gilda  (Rigoletto),  Elisabetta 
(Tannhauser),  to  indicate  the  wide  range  of  her 
vocal  talent.  Since  1872  she  has  sung  every 
autumn  at  one  or  more  of  our  great  provincial 
festivals.  Her  voice  is  a  light  soprano  of  great 
beauty  and  very  sympathetic  quality,  especially 
telling  in  the  higher  registers.  She  is  in  addition 
a  fine  pianoforte  player.  [H.  S.  E.] 

LALANDE,  Henbiette-Cl^mentine  ME- 
RIC,  the  daughter  of  Lamiraux-Lalande,  the 
chief  of  a  provincial  operatic  company,  was  born 
at  Dunkerque  in  1798.  Having  been  taught 
music  by  her  father,  she  scon  developed  a  fresh 
and  ringing  voice,  and  was  endowed  with  excel- 
lent memory  and  intelligence;  but  the  only 
teaching  she  really  had  was  in  the  music  of  the 
parts  entrusted  to  her.  She  made  her  debut 
with  success  in  18 14  at  Naples  :  Fe"tis  heard  her, 
and  admired  her  as  an  actress  of  opera  comique, 
at  Douai  in  the  following  year.  She  continued 
to  sing  till  1822,  with  equal  success,  in  the  prin- 
cipal towns  of  France,  and  was  then  engaged  at 
the  Gymnase  Dramatique  at  Paris,  Ebers  having 
made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  engage  her  for 
London.  Clever  enough  to  perceive,  however, 
after  hearing  the  singers  at  the  Italian  Opera, 
how  utterly  she  was  without  the  knowledge 
of  the  proper  manner  of  producing  her  voice, 
she  took  lessons  of  Garcia,  and  made  her  first 
appearance,  April  3,  1823,  in  'Les  Folies  amou- 
reuses,'  a  pasticcio  arranged  by  Castil-Blaze. 
About  this  time  she  became  the  wife  of  M.  Meric, 


86 


LALANDE. 


a  horn-player  at  the  Opera  Comique.  Rejecting 
the  offer  of  an  engagement  at  the  latter  theatre, 
on  Gareia's  advice,  she  went  to  Italy,  and  re- 
ceived additional  teaching  from  Bonfichi  and 
Banderali  at  Milan.  After  singing  with  in- 
creased e'clat  at  Venice,  Munich,  Brescia,  Cre- 
mona, Venice  (again),  and  other  Italian  cities, 
she  at  length  appeared  in  London  during  the 
season  of  1830.  'She  had  been  for  six  years 
reported  to  be  one  of  the  best  singers  of  Italy — 
much  had  been  expected  of  her  . .  .  She  had  been 
compared  with  the  best  of  the  best ;  but  she 
arrived  in  England  too  late,  and  her  place,  more- 
over, had  been  filled  by  women  of  greater  genius. 
She  was  a  good  musician,  and  sang  with  taste ; 
but  her  voice,  a  soprano,  ere  she  came  had  con- 
tracted a  habit  of  trembling,  in  those  days  a 
novelty  (would  it  had  always  remained  so!),  to 
which  English  ears  were  then  averse.  She  gave 
little  satisfaction '  (Chorley).  Mme.  Me"ric  sang, 
however,  again  in  London  in  183 1.  In  Paris  she 
pleased  no  better  in  these  latter  years,  and  at 
length  retired,  in  1833,  as  it  is  said,  to  Spain  ; 
since  then  no  more  has  been  heard  of  her.  A  bio- 
graphy, with  a  portrait,  of  Mme.  Me"ric-Lalande 
was  published  in  the  musical  journal,  Teatro 
della  Fenice,  Venice,  1S26,  i8mo.  [J.M.] 

LALLA  ROOKH.  Moore's  poem  has  been 
the  parent  of  several  musical  compositions. 

1.  An  opera,  by  C.  E.  Horn  ;  produced  in 
Dublin  in  or  about  1820.  2.  A  ditto  by  Felicien 
David.  [See  Lalla  Roukh.]  3.  A  ditto  in  2 
acts ;  words  by  Rodenberg,  music  by  Rubinstein ; 
produced  at  Dresden  in  March,  1863.  The  name 
of  the  piece  has  since  been  changed  to  Feramors. 

4.  Das  Paradies  und  die  Peri,  by  Schumann;  and 

5.  Paradise  and  the  Peri,  a  Fantasie-Overture 
by  Sterndale  Bennett.  For  these  two  last  see 
their  own  headings.  [G.] 

LALLA  ROUKH.  Opera  in  2  acts,  founded 
on  Moore's  poem ;  words  by  Lucas  and  Carre", 
music  by  Felicien  David.  Produced  at  the 
Opera  Comique  May  12,  1862.  [G.] 

LAMB,  Benjamin,  organist  of  Eton  College 
in  the  first  quarter  of  the  18th  century,  and  also 
verger  of  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  was  the 
composer  of  some  church  music.  An  evening 
'Cantate'  service  and  four  anthems  by  him  are 
in  the  Tudway  collection  (Harl.  MSS.  7341-42). 
He  was  also  a  composer  of  songs.        [W.H.  H.] 

LAMBERT,  George  Jackson,  son  of  George 
Lambert,  organist  of  Beverley  Minster,  was  born 
at  Beverley  in  1795.  He  studied  under  his 
father  until  he  was  sixteen,  then  in  London 
under  Samuel  Thomas  Lyon,  and  finally  became 
a  pupil  of  Dr.  Crotch.  In  181 8  he  succeeded 
his  father  at  Beverley.  His  compositions  in- 
clude overtures,  instrumental  chamber  music, 
organ  fugues,  pianoforte  pieces,  etc.  In  1874 
ill  health  and  deafness  compelled  him  to  relin- 
quish his  post  and  retire  from  active  life. 

The  two  Lamberts  successively  held  the  office 
of  organist  of  Beverley  Minster  for  the  long 
period  of  96  years,  the  father  for  40  and  the  son 
for  56  years,  and  but  for  the  latter's  deafness 


LAMENTATIONS. 

would  have  held  it  for  a  century,  a  circumstance 
probably  unparalleled.  [W.H.H.] 

LAMENTATIONS  (Lat.  Lamentationes  Hie- 
remice).  On  the  Thursday,  Friday,  and  Satur- 
day, in  Holy  Week,  the  three  First  Lessons  ap- 
pointed, in  the  Roman  Breviary,  for  the  Office 
called  Tcncbrce,  are  taken  from  the  Lamentations 
of  Jeremiah  ;  and  the  extraordinary  beauty  of  the 
music  to  which  they  are  sung,  in  the  Sistine 
Chapel,  and  other  large  Churches,  contributes 
not  a  little  to  the  impressive  character  of  the 
Service.     [See  Tenebr.«.] 

It  is  impossible  to  trace  to  its  origin  the  Plain 
Chaunt  melody  to  which  the  Lamentations  were 
anciently  adapted.  The  most  celebrated  version — 
though  not,  perhaps,  the  purest — is  that  printed 
by  Guide tti,  in  his  'Directorium  Chori,'  in  1582. 
The  best  modern  editions  are  those  contained  in 
the  Mechlin  'Graduale,'  and  the  Mechlin,  and 
Ratisbon,  'OfficiumHebdomadae  Sanctae';  in  which 
the  Lessons  are  given,  at  full  length,  in  Gregorian 
notation,  although  the  music  is  really  no  more 
than  a  simple  Chaunt,  in  the  Sixth  Mode,  re- 
peated, almost  notatim,  not  only  to  each  separate 
verse  of  the  Sacred  Text,  but  even  to  the  prefatory 
'Incipit  Lamentatio  Jeremia3  Prophetse,'  and  the 
names  of  the  Hebrew  letters  with  which  the 
several  paragraphs  are  introduced. 
VI.  Modus. 


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Early  in  the  16th  century,  the  use  of  the  Plain 
Chaunt  Lamentations  was  discontinued,  in  the 
Pontifical  Chapel,  to  make  room  for  a  polyphonic 
setting,  by  Elziario  Genet  —  more  commonly 
known  by  his  Italian  cognomen,  Carpentrasso — 
who  held  the  appointment  of  Maestro  di  Capella, 
from  i5i5toi526.  These  compositions  remained 
in  constant  use,  till  the  year  1587,  when  Pope 
Sixtus  V.  ordained,  that  the  First  Lamentation 
for  each  day  should  be  adapted  to  some  kind  of 
polyphonic  music  better  fitted  to  express  the 
mournful  character  of  the  words  than  that  of 
Carpentrasso;  and,  that  the  Second  and  Third 
Lessons  should  be  sung,  by  a  single  Soprano,  to 
the  old  Plain  Chaunt  melody  as  revised  by 
Guidetti.  The  disuse  of  Carpentrasso' s  time- 
honoured  harmonies  gave  great  offence  to  the 
Choir  :  but,  the  Pope's  command  being  absolute, 
Palestrina  composed  some  music  to  the  First 
Lamentation  for  Good  Friday,  in  a  manner  so 
impressive,  that  all  opposition  was  at  once 
silenced ;  and  the  Pope,  himself,  on  leaving  the 
Chapel,  said,  that  he  hoped,  in  the  following 
year,  to  hear  the  other  two  First  Lessons  sung 
in  exactly  the  same  style.  The  expression  of  this 
wish  was,  of  course,  a  command :  and,  so  under- 
standing it,  Palestrina  produced,  in  January 
1588,  a  volume,  containing  a  complete  set  of  the 
nine  Lamentations — three,  for  each  of  the  three 
days — which  were  printed,  the  same  year,  by 
Alexander  Gardanus,  under  the  title  of  Lamenta- 


LAMENTATIONS. 

tionum  liber  primus.  The  work  was  prefaced  by 
a  formal  dedication  to  the  Supreme  Pontiff,  who, 
though  he  still  adhered  to  his  resolution  of  having 
the  Second  and  Third  Lessons  sung  always  in 
Plain  Chaunt,  expressed  great  pleasure  in  accept- 
ing it :  and,  in  1589,  it  was  reprinted,  at  Venice, 
in  8vo.,  by  Girolamo  Scoto. 

More  complex  in  construction  than  the  great 
Composer's '  Improperia,'  though  infinitely  less  so 
than  his  Masses  and  Motets,  these  matchless 
'Lamentations'  are  written,  throughout,  in  the 
devout  and  impressive  style  which  produces  so 
profound  an  effect  in  the  first-named  work,  and 
always  with  marked  attention  to  the  mournful 
spirit  of  the  words.  They  do  not,  like  the  Plain 
Chaunt  rendering,  embrace  the  entire  text :  but, 
after  a  certain  number  of  verses,  pause  on  the 
final  chord  of  a  prolonged  cadence,  and  then  pass 
on  to  the  Strophe,  Jerusalem,  Jerusalem,  with 
which  each  of  the  nine  Lessons  concludes.  In 
the  single  Lesson  for  Good  Friday — which,  though 
not  included  in  the  original  printed  copy,  is,  un- 
doubtedly, the  most  beautiful  of  all — the  opening 
verses  are  sung  by  two  Soprani,  an  Alto,  and  a 
Tenor;  a  Bass  being  added,  in  the  concluding 
Strophe,  with  wonderful  effect.  A  similar  ar- 
rangement is  followed  in  the  third  Lamentation 
for  the  same  day :  but  the  others  are  for  four 
voices  only,  and  most  of  them  with  a  Tenor  in  the 
lowest  place ;  while  in  all,  without  exception,  the 
introductory  sentences,  'Incipit  Lamentatio,'  or, 
'De  Lamentatione,'  as  well  as  the  names  of  the 
Hebrew  initial  letters,  are  set  to  harmonies  of 
infinite  richness  and  beauty — 

Fcria  VI  in  Paratceve.    Lectio  I. 
Oata  1 


LAMENTATIONS. 


87 


Since  the  death  of  Palestrina,  the  manner  of 
singing  the  Lamentations  in  the  Pontifical  Chapel 
has  undergone  no  very  serious  change.  In  ac- 
cordance with  the  injunction  of  Pope  Sixtus  V, 
the  Second  and  Third  Lessons  for  each  day  have 
always  been  sung1  in  Plain  Chaunt:  generally, 
by  a  single  Soprano;    but,  sometimes,  by  two, 

1  Of  course,  without  any  accompaniment. 


the  perfection  of  whose  unisonous  performance 
has  constantly  caused  it  to  be  mistaken  for  that 
of  a  single  Voice.  Until  the  year  1640,  the  First 
Lesson  for  each  day  was  sung  from  Palestrina's 
printed  volume.  In  that  year,  the  single  unpub- 
lished Lesson  for  Good  Friday,  composed  in  1587, 
was  restored  to  its  place,  and  the  use  of  the  pub- 
lished one  discontinued  :  while  a  new  composition, 
by  Gregorio  Allegri,  was  substituted  for  Pales- 
trina's Lesson  for  Holy  Saturday.  The  restoration 
of  the  MS.  work  can  only  be  regarded  as  an 
inestimable  gain.  Allegri's  work  will  not  bear 
comparison  with  that  which  it  displaced  ;  though 
it  is  a  composition  of  the  highest  order  of  merit, 
abounding  in  beautiful  combinations,  and  written 
with  a  true  appreciation  of  the  spirit  of  the  text. 
It  opens  as  follows  : — 

Sabbato  Sancto.    Lectio  I. 


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It  will  be  seen  that  Allegri  has  here  not  only 
adopted  the  tonality  in  which  nearly  all  Pales- 
trina's Lamentations  are  written — the  Thirteenth 
Mode,  transposed — but  has  also  insensibly  fallen 
very  much  into  the  Great  Master's  method  of 
treatment.  Unhappily,  the  same  praise  cannot 
be  awarded  to  another  work,  which  he  produced 
in  1 65 1,  a  few  months  only  before  his  death,  and 
which,  though  it  bears  but  too  plain  traces  of  his 
failing  discernment,  was  accepted  by  the  College, 
as  a  mark  of  respect  to  the  dying  Composer,  and 
retained  in  use  until  the  Pontificate  of  Benedict 
XIII.  This  Pontiff  inaugurated  a  radical  change, 
by  decreeing  that  the  First  Lessons  should  no 
longer  be  sung  in  this  shortened  form,  but,  with 
the  entire  text  set  to  music.  To  meet  his  desire, 
three  Lamentations,  by  modern  writers,  were 
submitted  for  approval,  but  unanimously  rejected 
by  the  College,  who  commissioned  Giovanni  Biordi 
to  add  to  the  compositions  of  Palestrina  and 
Allegri  whatever  was  necessary  to  complete  the 
text.  Biordi  was,  perhaps,  as  well  fitted  as  any 
man  then  living  to  undertake  this  difficult  task  : 
but  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  he  did  not  more 
carefully  abstain  from  the  use  of  certain  forbidden 
intervals,  and  unlicensed  chords.  At  the  word, 
lacrymis,  in  the  Lesson  for  Good  Friday,  he  has 
made  the  first  Soprano  move  a  chromatic  semi- 
tone, thereby  producing,  with  the  other  parts,  the 
chord  of  the  Augmented  Sixth.  No  doubt,  his 
object  in  doing  this  was  to  intensify  the  ex- 
pression of  the  word  :  but,  neither  the  semitone, 
nor  the  chord,   would  have   been  tolerated  by 


88  LAMENTATIONS. 

Palestrina.1  Again,  in  the  Lesson  for  Holy  Satur- 
day, lie  has  used  the  diminished  fourth  in  disjunct 
motion,  and  broken  many  other  time-honoured 
rules.  Nevertheless,  his  work — which  is,  in  many 
respects,  extremely  good — was  unhesitatingly  ac- 
cepted, and  retained  in  use  till  the  year  1731, 
when  Pope  Clement  XII.  restored  the  Lamenta- 
tions to  their  original  shortened  form.  In  this 
form  they  were  suffered  to  remain,  till  18 15, 
when  the  indefatigable  Baini  restored  Palestrina's 
printed  Lamentation  for  the  first  day,  retaining 
the  MS.  of  1587  for  the  second,  and  Allegri's 
really  beautiful  composition  for  the  third ;  while 
the  last-named  composer's  inferior  work  was  suf- 
fered to  fall  into  disuse — an  arrangement  which 
left  little  to  be  desired,  and  which  has  not,  we 
believe,  been  followed  by  any  farther  change. 

Besides  the  printed  volume  already  mentioned, 
Palestrina  composed  two  other  entire  sets  of 
Lamentations,  which,  though  written  in  his  best 
and  purest  style,  remained,  for  two  centuries  and 
a  half,  unpublished.  One  of  them  was  prepared, 
as  early  as  the  year  1560,  for  the  use  of  the 
Lateran  Basilica,  where  the  original  MS.  is  still 
preserved.  The  other  reaches  us  only  through 
the  medium  of  a  MS.  in  the  Altaemps  Otthoboni 
collection,  now  in  the  Vatican  Library.  In  the 
year  1842,  Alfieri  printed  the  three  sets,  entire, 
in  the  4th  volume  of  his  Raccolta  di  Musica  Sacra, 
together  with  the  single  Lamentation  for  Good 
Friday,  to  which  he  appended  Biordi's  additional 
verses,  without,  however,  pointing  out  the  place 
where  Palestrina's  work  ends,  and  Biordi's  begins. 
The  three  single  Lamentations,  sung  in  the  Pon- 
tifical Chapel,  are  given,  with  Biordi's  now  use- 
less additions,  in  a  volume  of  the  same  editor's 
Excerpta,  published  in  1840 ;  and,  without 
Biordi's  verses,  in  Choron's  Collection  des  Pieces 
de  Musique  Religieuse.  Both  these  editions  are 
now  out  of  print,  and  difficult  to  obtain :  but  a 
fine  reprint  of  the  nine  pieces  contained  in  the 
original  Lamentationum  liber  prirnvx  will  be 
found  in  Proske's  Musica  Divina,  vol.  iv.  Mr. 
Capes,  in  his  Selection  from  the  works  of  Pales- 
trina (Novello),  has  given  the  1st  Lamentation 
in  Coena  Domini,  and  the  1st  in  Sabb.  Sancto, 
from  the  1st  book  (1588),  and  has  introduced 
between  them  the  single  Lesson  for  Good  Friday 
(1587)  already  mentioned. 

Though  the  Lamentations  of  Carpentrasso,  Pa- 
lestrina, and  Allegri,  are  the  only  ones  that  have 
ever  been  actually  used  in  the  Pontifical  Chapel, 
many  others  have  been  produced  by  Composers 
of  no  small  reputation.  As  early  as  the  year 
1 506,  Ottaviano  dei  Petrucci  published,  at  Venice, 
two  volumes,  containing  settings  by  Johannes 
Tinctoris,  Ycaert,  De  Orto,  Francesco  (d'Ana) 
da  Venezia,  Johannes  de  Quadris,  Agricola,  Bar- 
tolomeo  Tromboncino,  and  Gaspar  and  Erasmus 
Lapicida.     All  these  works  were  given  to  the 

1  Alfieri  has  published  two  editions  of  this  work ;  and,  la  both,  be 
has  inserted  Biordi's  additional  verses,  without  vouchsafing  any  sign- 
beyond  that  afforded  by  Internal  evidence— to  indicate  that  they  are 
not  the  genuine  work  of  Palestrina  himself.  We  mention  this  circum- 
stance, in  order  to  show  the  danger  of  trusting,  in  doubtful  cases,  to 
the  authority  of  any  modern  edition  whatever.  Alfieri's  volumes  may, 
some  day,  lead  to  the  belief  that  Palestrina  permitted  the  use  of  the 
chromatic  semitone  In  his  Ecclesiastical  music  I 


LAMPERTI. 

world  before  that  of  Carpentrasso,  which,  with 
many  more  of  his  compositions,  was  first  printed, 
at  Avignon,  by  Johannes  Channay,  in  1532.  But 
the  richest  collection  extant  is  that  entitled 
Piissimcs  ac  sacratissimw  Lamentationes  Jeremia 
Prophetce,  printed,  in  Paris,  by  A.  le  Roy  and 
Robert  Ballard,  in  1557,  and  containing,  besides 
Carpentrasso's  capo  d'opera,  some  extremely  fine 
examples  by  De  la  Rue,  Fevin,  Archadelt,  Festa, 
and  Claudin  le  Jeune. 

'Lamentations'  by  English  Composers  are  ex- 
ceedingly rare :  hence,  quite  an  exceptional  in- 
terest is  attached  to  a  set  of  six,  for  five  Voices,  by 
R.  Whyte,  discovered  by  Dean  Aldrich,  and  pre- 
served, in  MS.,  in  the  Library  of  Christ  Church, 
Oxford.     [See  Whyte,  Robeet.]  [W.  S.  R.] 

LAMPE,  John  Frederick,  a  native  of  Saxony, 
born  1703,  came  to  England  about  1725,  and 
was  engaged  as  a  bassoon-player  at  the  Opera. 
In  1732  he  composed  the  music  for  Carey's 
'Amelia.'  In  1737  he  published  'A  Plain  and 
Compendious  Method  of  teaching  Thorough-Bass, ' 
etc.,  and  also  furnished  the  music  for  Carey's 
burlesque  opera  '  The  Dragon  of  Wantley,'  which 
met  with  remarkable  success.  It  is  an  admirable 
example  of  the  true  burlesque,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  an  especial  favourite  of  Handel's.  In 
1 738  he  composed  music  for  the  sequel,  'Margery ; 
or,  A  Worse  Plague  than  the  Dragon.'  In  1 740 
he  published  'The  Aft  of  Musick,'  and  in  1741 
composed  music  for  the  masque  of  'The  Sham 
Conjuror.'  In  1745  he  composed  'Pyramus  and 
Thisbe,  a  mock  opera,  the  words  taken  from 
Shakspeare.'  Lampe  was  the  composer  of  many 
single  songs,  several  of  which  appeared  in  col- 
lections, as  '  Wit  musically  embellish'd,  a  Col- 
lection of  Forty -two  new  English  Ballads'; 
'  The  Ladies'  Amusement '  and  '  Lyra  Britan- 
nica.'  Many  songs  by  him  were  included  in  '  The 
Vocal  Musical  Mask,'  'The  Musical  Miscellany,' 
etc.  Lampe  married  Isabella,  daughter  of  Charles 
Young,  and  sister  of  Mrs.  Arne ;  she  was  a 
favourite  singer,  both  on  the  stage  and  in  the 
concert-room.  In  1748  he  went  to  Dublin,  and 
in  1750  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  died,  July  25, 
1 751,  leaving  behind  him  the  reputation  of 
an  accomplished  musician  and  excellent  man. 
Charles  Wesley  often  mentions  him  with  great 
affection,  and  wrote  a  hymn  on  his  death — '  'Tis 
done !  the  Sovereign  Will 's  obeyed ! ' 

Charles  John  Frederick,  his  son,  succeeded 
his  grandfather,  Charles  Young,  as  organist  of 
Allhallows,  Barking,  in  1758,  and  held  the 
appointment  until  1769.  [W.H.H.] 

LAMPERTI,  Francesco,  teacher  of  singing. 
Born  at  Savona  18 13.  His  father  was  an  ad- 
vocate, and  his  mother  a  prima-donna  of  con- 
siderable repute.  As  a  child  he  showed  great 
talent  for  music,  and  was  placed  under  Pietra 
Rizzi  of  Lodi.  In  1820  he  entered  the  Conser- 
vatorio  at  Milan,  and  there  studied  the  piano- 
forte and  harmony  under  Sommaruga  d'Appiano 
and  Pietro  Ray.  Devoting  himself  afterwards 
to  the  teaching  of  singing,  he  became  associated 
with  Masini  in  the  direction  of  the  Teatro 
Filodrammatico  at  Lodi.     Selecting  many  of  the 


LAMPEETI. 

members  of  his  company  from  the  natives  of  the 
surrounding  country,  he  educated  and  brought 
out  at  his  theatre  many  famous  singers,  such  as 
La  Tiberini,  whose  reputation  otherwise  would 
never  have  extended  beyond  their  native  village. 
Attracted  by  their  success  pupils  nocked  to 
him  from  Bergamo,  Milan,  and  other  parts  of 
Europe,  and  he  there  trained  many  of  the  most 
distinguished  operatic  vocalists ;  amongst  whom 
may  be  named  Jeanne-Sophie  Lowe,  Cruvelli, 
Grua,  Brambilla,  Hayes,  Artdt,  Tiberini,  La 
Grange,  and  others  equally  distinguished.  Ap- 
pointed in  1850  by  the  Austrian  government 
professor  of  singing  to  the  Conservatorio  at 
Milan,  he  brought  out  amongst  others  Angelica 
Moro,  Paganini,  Galli,  Risarelli,  Angeleri, 
Peralta;  and  as  private  pupils,  Albani,  Stoltz, 
Waldmann,  Aldighieri,  Campanini,  Vialletti, 
Derevis,  Mariani,  Palermi,  Everardi,  and  Shake- 
speare. After  twenty -five  years  service  he  retired 
from  the  Conservatorio  upon  a  pension  in  1875, 
and  now  devotes  himself  entirely  to  private  pupils. 
A  friend  of  Rubini  and  Pasta,  and  associated 
with  the  great  singers  of  the  past,  Lamperti 
follows  the  method  of  the  old  Italian  school  of 
pinging,  instituted  by  Farinelli  and  taught  by  Cres- 
centini,  Velluti,  Marchesi,  and  Romani.  Basing 
his  teaching  upon  the  study  of  respiration,  the 
taking  and  retention  of  the  breath  by  means  of 
the  abdominal  muscles  alone,  and  the  just  emis- 
sion of  the  voice,  he  thoroughly  grounds  his  pupils 
in  the  production  of  pure  tone.  His  memory 
and  his  intuition  are  alike  remarkable,  and  en- 
able him  to  adapt  to  each  of  his  pupils  such 
readings  of  the  music  and  cadenzas  as  are  war- 
ranted by  the  traditions  of  the  greatest  singers 
and  are  best  adapted  to  their  powers.  Mme. 
Albani,  writing  in  1875  of  his  published  treatise 
on  singing,  says :  '  To  say  that  I  appreciate  the 
work,  it  is  sufficient  for  me  to  state  that  I  am  a 
pupil  of  the  Maestro  Lamperti,  and  that  I  owe 
to  him  and  to  his  method  the  true  art  of  singing, 
bo  little  known  in  these  days.' 

He  is  Commendatore  and  Cavaliere  of  the 
order  of  the  Crown  of  Italy,  and  a  member  of 
many  academies  and  foreign  orders.  He  is  the 
author  of  several  series  of  vocal  studies  and  of  a 
treatise  on  the  art  of  singing  (Ricordi  &  Co.), 
which  has  been  translated  into  English  by  one  of 
his  pupils.  [J.C.G.] 

LANCERS*  QUADRILLE,  THE,  a  square 
dance,  for  8  or  16  couples.  It  would  appear 
to  have  been  the  invention  of  Joseph  Hart  in 
1 819,  according  to  the  title-page  of  his  original 
edition,  published  in  1820.  '  Les  Lanciers,  a 
second  set  of  Quadrilles  for  the  Piano  Forte,  with 
entirely  new  figures,  as  danced  by  the  Nobility 
and  Gentry  at  Tenby  in  the  summer  of  181 9. 
Composed  and  most  respectfully  dedicated  to 
Lady  and  the  Misses  Beechy  by  Joseph  Hart. 
London,  for  the  Author,  Whitaker  &  Co.,  75  St. 
Paul's  Churchyard.'  The  dance  consisted  of  5 
figures— La  Rose.  La  Lodoiska,  La  Dorset,  Les 
Lanciers,  and  L'Etoile,  danced  to  Airs  by  Spa- 
gnoletti,  by  Kreutzer,  from  the  Beggar's  Opera 
^'  If  the  heart  of  a  man'),  by  Janiewicz,  and 


LANG. 


89 


by  Horn  ('Pretty  Maiden,'  from  the  Haunted 
Tower)  respectively.  Another  version  was  pub- 
lished by  Duval  of  Dublin  about  the  same  time. 
In  this  the  names  of  the  figures  and  the  music 
remain  substantially  the  same,  though  in  the 
figures  themselves  there  is  considerable  alteration. 
Hart's  figures,  with  a  slight  difference  or  two, 
are  still  danced,  L'Etoile  being  now  called  Les 
Visites,  and  Les  Lanciers  danced  last.  Whether 
Hart  or  Duval  was  the  real  inventor  is  un- 
certain. [W.B.S.] 

LANDOLFI,  Carlo  Ferdinando  (Lan- 
dulphus),  a  reputable  violin-maker  of  Milan, 
where  he  lived  in  the  Street  of  St.  Margaret, 
1 750- 1 760.  He  lived  in  an  age  when  it  had  be- 
come expedient  to  copy  rather  than  to  invent. 
He  occasionally  copied  Joseph  Guarnerius  so 
cleverly  as  to  deceive  experienced  judges  :  and 
many  of  his  works  consequently  cut  a  figure  in  the 
world  even  above  their  high  intrinsic  merits.  Lan- 
dolfi's  patterns,  in  the  midst  of  much  excellence, 
exhibit  that  occasional  faltering  which  too  surely 
betrays  the  copyist ;  and  his  varnish  is  less  solid, 
and  possesses  more  of  the  quality  known  as 
'  sugariness,'  than  the  makers  of  the  golden  age. 
Often  it  is  thin  and  hard,  especially  when  yellow 
in  colour.  Many  red  instruments  however  exist, 
which  are  covered  with  a  highly  transparent 
varnish :  and  these  are  the  favourites.  The  Lan- 
dolfi  violoncellos  are  especially  striking  in  quality 
and  appearance,  and  are  in  greater  demand  than 
the  violins.  Good  specimens  realise  from  £30  to 
£50 :  common  and  undersized  ones  may  be  bought 
cheaper.  [E.J.  P.] 

LANDSBERG,  Ludwig,  a  German  musician, 
native  of  Breslau,  who  went  to  Rome  and  re- 
mained there  for  24  years,  teaching  the  piano 
and  amassing  a  wonderful  collection  of  music, 
both  printed  and  MS.  On  his  death,  at  Rome 
May  6,  1858,  his  library  was  taken,  part  to 
Berlin  and  part  to  Breslau,  and  a  catalogue  of 
the  ancient  portion  was  printed  (Berlin,  1859, 
imprime  chez  Ernest  Kiihn) — whether  the  whole 
or  a  part,  does  not  appear.  It  contains  composi- 
tions by  more  than  150  musicians  of  the  old 
Italian  and  Flemish  schools,  down  to  Casali. 
M.  Fe'tis,  however,  who  had  received  a  MS. 
catalogue  of  the  collection  from  Landsberg  during 
his  life,  insists  upon  the  fact  that  many  of  the 
most  important  works  have  disappeared.  The 
catalogue  itself  does  not  appear  to  be  any  longer  in 
the  Fe'tis  Library,  which  is  now  at  Brussels.     [G.] 

LANG.  A  family  of  German  musicians  origin- 
ally from  Mannheim,  but  settling  at  Munich, 
and  mentioned  here  for  the  sake  of  Josephine 
Lang  (the  second  of  that  name),  born  Mar.  14, 
181 5,  a  young  lady  of  very  remarkable  musical 
gifts  and  personality,  who  attracted  the  notice  of 
Mendelssohn  when  he  passed  through  Munich  in 
1830  and  31.  There  is  an  enthusiastic  account 
of 'die  kleine  Lang'  in  his  letter  of  Oct.  6,  31 ; 
in  writing  to  Barmann  (July  7  and  Sept.  27, 1834) 
he  enquires  for  her,  and  in  a  letter  seven  years 
later  (Dec.  15,  41)  to  Professor  Kostlin  of  Tubin- 
gen, who  had  just  married  her,  he  shows  how 


90 


LANG. 


deeply  her  image  had  impressed  itself  on  his 
susceptible  heart.  She  has  published  several 
books  of  songs  (up  to  op.  38),  which  from  the 
reviews  in  the  Allg.  mus.  Zeitung,  appear  to  be 
full  of  imagination,  and  well  worthy  of  the  warm 
praise  bestowed  on  them  by  Mendelssohn  in  the 
letters  just  mentioned.  Hiller  tells  the  story  of 
her  life  at  length  in  his  Tonleben  (ii.  116),  and 
selects  her  songs,  op.  1 2  and  14,  as  the  best.  Con- 
nected with  the  same  family  at  an  earlier  date 
was  Regina  Lang,  a  singer  whose  name  was 
originally  Hitzelberg,  born  at  Wiirzburg  1786, 
educated  at  Munich  by  Winter,  Cannabich,  and 
Vogel,  and  became  chamber  singer  at  the  Bava- 
rian Court.  When  Napoleon  I.  was  at  Munich 
in  1 806  she  sang  before  him  in  Winter's  '  Inter- 
rupted Sacrifice  '  and  Mozart's  '  Don  Giovanni,' 
and  so  pleased  him  that  he  is  said  to  have  urged 
her  to  come  to  Paris  (Mendel).  She  however  re- 
mained in  Munich,  and  married  Theobald  Lang, 
a  violinist  in  the  Court  band.  In  1812  or  13  she 
was  at  Vienna,  and  Beethoven  wrote  in  her  album 
a  song  'An  die  Geliebte,'  to  Stoll's  words, '  0  dass 
ich  dir  vom  stilleAuge,' which  was  published  about 
1840  in  a  collection  called  '  Das  singende  Deutsch- 
land.'  It  is  his  second  version  of  the  song — the 
former  one  being  dated  by  himself  December  1 8 1 1 , 
and  having  been  published  in  1814.  See  Notte- 
bohm's  Thematic  Cat.  of  Beethoven,  p.  183.     [G.] 

LANGDON,  Richabd,  Mus.  Baa,  son  of 
Rev.  Tobias  Langdon,  priest -vicar  of  Exeter 
Cathedral,  graduated  as  Mus.  Bac.  at  Oxford  in 
1 761.  About  1770  he  received  the  appointments 
of  organist  and  sub-chanter  of  Exeter  Cathedral, 
but  resigned  them  in  1777  upon  being  chosen 
organist  of  Bristol  Cathedral.  He  quitted  Bristol 
in  1782  to  become  organist  of  Armagh  Cathedral, 
which  he  resigned  in  1 794.  In  1 7  74  he  published 
'Divine  Harmony,  a  Collection,  in  score,  of 
Psalms  and  Anthems.'  His  published  com- 
positions include  'Twelve  Glees,'  two  books  of 
songs,  and  some  canzonets.  Two  glees  and  a 
catch  by  him  are  contained  in  Warren's  '  Vocal 
Harmony.'  He  died  Sept.  1803.  Langdon  in  F 
is  still  a  favourite  double  chant.  [W.  H.  H.] 

LANGE,  a  family  intimately  connected  with 
Mozart,  inasmuch  as  his  wife's  sister,  Aloysia 
Weber,  in  1780  married  the  famous  Joseph 
Lange,  an  actor,  who  held  the  same  rank  in 
(iermany  that  Garrick  did  in  England  and 
Lekain  in  France.  Mozart's  marriage  to  her 
younger  sister,  Constanz,  took  place  Aug.  4, 
1782.  Lange  was  born  at  Wiirzburg,  1751,  and 
died  at  Vienna  in  1 82  7.  Aloysia  was  a  very  great 
singer ;  her  voice  wanted  power,  but  was  said  to 
be  '  the  sweetest  ever  heard '  (Jahn,  ii.  18).  Its 
compass  was  extraordinary,  from  B  below  the 
stave  to  A  on  the  sixth  space  above  it ;  as  may 
be  seen  from  the  songs  which  Mozart  wrote  for 
her — the  part  of  '  the  Queen  of  Night '  in  the 
Zauberflote,  and  several  detached  bravura  airs. 
She  died  in  1830.  Mozart  was  for  a  time  vio- 
lently in  love  with  her.     [Weber.]  [G.] 

LANGSAM,  i.  e.  slow,  the  German  equivalent 
for  Adagio.     '  Langsam  und  sehnsuchtsvoll '  is 


LANIERE. 

Beethoven's  direction  to  the  third  movement  of 
the  Sonata  op.  101,  equivalent  to  Adagio  con 
molto  di  sentimento.  See  also  the  opening  song 
of  the  Liederkreis,  op.  98.  Schumann  employs  it 
habitually  ;  see  the  first  movement  of  his  Sym- 
phony in  E  b.  [G.] 

LANGSHAW,  John,  was  employed  about 
1 76 1,  under  the  direction  of  John  Christopher 
Smith,  in  setting  music  upon  the  barrels  of  an 
organ,  of  much  larger  size  than  had  been  thereto- 
fore used  for  barrels,  then  being  constructed  for 
the  Earl  of  Bute,  which  he  did  'in  so  masterly 
a  manner  that  the  effect  was  equal  to  that 
produced  by  the  most  finished  player.'  In  1772 
he  became  organist  of  the  parish  church  of 
Lancaster,  and  died  in  1 798. 

His  son,  John,  was  born  in  London  in  1763, 
in  1779  became  a  pupil  of  Charles  Wesley,  and 
in  1798  succeeded  his  father  as  organist  at 
Lancaster.  He  composed  many  hymns,  chants, 
organ  voluntaries,  pianoforte  concertos,  songs 
and  duets,  and  made  numerous  arrangements  for 
the  pianoforte.  [W.H.H.] 

LANIERE,  Nicholas,  was  the  son  of  Jerome 
Laniere,  an  Italian  musician,  who,  together  with 
Nicholas  Laniere,  probably  his  brother,  settled 
in  England,  and  in  1571  were  musicians  to  Queen 
Elizabeth.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  not  known, 
but  it  was  probably  about  1590.  His  name  first 
appears  as  singer  and  composer  in  the  masque 
performed  at  court  on  the  marriage  of  Carr,  Earl 
of  Somerset,  and  Lady  Frances  Howard  in  16 14, 
the  first  song  in  which,  '  Bring  away  the  sacred 
tree'  (reprinted  in  Smith's  'Musica  Antiqua'), 
was  composed  by  him.  His  skill  as  a  singer  is 
alluded  to  in  some  lines  addressed  by  Herrick  to 
Henry  Lawes.  He  composed  the  music  for  Ben 
Jonson's  masque  presented  at  the  house  of  Lord 
Hay  for  the  entertainment  of  Baron  de  Tour,  the 
French  Ambassador,  on  Saturday,  Feb.  22, 161 7, 
'  in  stylo  recitativo,'  being  the  first  introduction 
of  recitative  into  an  English  composition.  He 
also  sang  in  the  piece  and  painted  the  scenery 
for  it.  He  next  composed  the  music  for  Jonson's 
masque,  'The  Vision  of  Delight,'  performed  at 
court  at  Christmas,  161 7.  Laniere  cultivated  the 
arts  of  painting  and  engraving  as  well  as  that  of 
music,  and  his  judgment  was  so  much  esteemed, 
that  he  was  sent  by  Charles  I.  to  Italy  to  pur- 
chase pictures  in  1625,  and  again  in  1627  to 
negociate  for  the  purchase  of  the  Duke  of 
Mantua's  collection.  One  of  those  pictures  was 
'  Mercury  instructing  Cupid,'  by  Correggio,  now 
in  the  National  Gallery.  He  was  appointed 
'  Master  of  the  King's  Musick,'  at  an  annual 
salary  of  £200,  by  patent  dated  July  11,  1626. 
In  1636  Charles  I.  granted  to  Laniere  and 
others  a  charter,  based  upon  one  of  Edward  IV.,  . 
incorporating  them  under  the  style  of  'The 
Marshal,  Wardens,  and  Cominality  of  the  Arte 
and  Science  of  Musick  in  Westminster,'  and 
giving  them  power  to  control  and  regulate  all 
matters  connected  with  music,  and  of  this  body 
Laniere  was  appointed  the  first  Marshal.  At 
the  fall  of  Charles,  Laniere  lost  his  court  ap- 
pointments,   but    was    reinstated    in   them    on 


LANIERE. 

the  accession  of  Charles  II.,  and  the  Corpora- 
tion of  Musicians  was  revived.  The  date  of  his 
death  is  unknown;  he  was  living  in  1665,  but 
dead  in  Jan.  1670,  when  Capt.  Cooke's  name 
appears  as  Marshal  of  the  Corporation.  He  com- 
posed a  funeral  hymn  on  Charles  I.,  a  pastoral 
upon  the  birth  of  Prince  Charles,  and  New 
Year's  Songs  for  1663  and  1665.  Songs  and 
other  pieces  by  him  are  contained  in  'Select 
Musicall  Ayres  and  Dialogues,'  1653  and  1659 ; 
'The  Musical  Companion,'  1667 ;  '  The  Treasury 
of  Musick,'  1669 ;  and '  Choice  Ayres  and  Songs,' 
book  iv,  1685.  Several  songs  and  dialogues  by 
him  are  in  the  British  Museum,  Add.  MSS. 
11,608.  Vandyck  painted  Laniere's  portrait  for 
Charles  I.  Another  portrait  is  in  the  Music 
School  at  Oxford,  to  which  it  was  presented  by 
Laniere  himself.  The  Laniere  family  was  very 
numerous,  and  several  of  its  members  were  court 
musicians  in  the  17th  century.  [W.H.H.] 

LANNER,  JosIph,  born  at  Vienna,  April 
12,  1 80 1  ;  son  of  a  glove-maker;  early  showed 
a  talent  for  music,  taught  himself  the  violin,  and 
by  means  of  theoretical  books  learned  to  com- 
pose. Next  came  the  desire  to  conduct  an 
orchestra ;  and  in  the  meantime  he  got  together 
a  quartet  party,  in  which  the  viola  was  taken  by 
Strauss,  his  subsequent  rival.  They  played 
potpourris  from  favourite  operas,  marches,  etc., 
arranged  by  Lanner.  He  next  composed  waltzes 
and  Landler,  first  for  a  small,  then  for  a  full 
orchestra,  and  performed  them  in  public.  His 
popularity  increased  rapidly,  and  important 
places  of  amusement  eagerly  competed  for  his 
services.  He  also  appeared  in  most  of  the 
provincial  capitals,  but  declined  all  invitations 
abroad.  He  conducted  the  dance  music  in  the 
large  and  small  Redoutensaal,  and  also  that  at 
the  court  balls,  alternately  with  Strauss.  As 
a  mark  of  distinction  he  was  appointed  Capell- 
meister  of  the  2nd  Burger-regiment.  When  thus 
at  the  height  of  prosperity  he  died,  April  14, 1843 ; 
and  was  buried  in  the  churchyard  of  Dobling, 
near  Vienna.  A  memorial  tablet  was  placed  on 
the  house  in  which  he  was  born,  May  15,  1879.1 

Lanner  may  be  considered  the  founder  of  our 
present  dance-music.  His  galops,  quadrilles, 
polkas,  and  marches,  but  especially  his  waltzes 
and  Landler,  bear  traces  of  the  frank,  genial 
disposition  which  made  him  so  beloved.  All  his 
works,  from  op.  I,  ('Neue  Wiener  Landler')  to 
his  swan-song  ('Die  Schonbrunner ')  are  pene- 
trated with  the  warm  national  life  of  Vienna. 
The  titles  often  contain  allusions  to  contempo- 
raneous events  and  customs,  and  thus  have  an 
historical  interest.  His  printed  works  amount 
to  208,  and  he  left  others  unpublished.  The 
following  numbers  are  dedicated  to  crowned 
heads,  and  distinguished  persons— op.  74,  81,  85, 
91,  ioi,  110-12,  115-16,  120,  128,  131-32,  138 
('  Victoria- Walzer '  dedicated  to  Queen  Victoria), 
143,146,  155,161-62.  The  "Troubadour- Walzer,' 
op.  197,  are  dedicated  to  Donizetti,  and  the 
•Norwegische  Arabesken,'  op.  145,  to  Ole  Bull. 

1  Owing  to  a  curious  error  In  the  entry  of  his  baptism,  bis  name 
was  for  long  overlooked  in  the  register. 


LAPORTE. 


91 


Diabelli  published  op.  1-15  ;  Haslinger  16-32, 
and  170-208;  Mechetti  33-169. 

Of  Lanner's  three  children,  August,  born  1834 
in  Vienna,  a  young  man  of  great  promise,  fol- 
lowed his  father's  profession,  but  died  Sept.  27, 
1855.  Kathabina,  born  in  Vienna  1831,  is 
a  well-known  dancer,  who  since  her  de"but  at 
the  court  opera  in  Vienna  in  1845,  has  appeared 
at  all  the  important  theatres  in  Europe.  She 
has  also  written  several  admired  ballets,  and  in 
1858  formed  a  children's  ballet  in  Hamburg, 
which  gave  46  performances  in  Paris  with  great 
success.  At  a  later  date  she  was  engaged  also  at 
the  Italian  Opera  in  England.  [C.F.P.] 

LAPORTE,  Pieebe  Fbancois,  an  eminent 
French  comedian,  came  to  London  as  a  member 
and  joint  manager  of  a  company  who,  in  January 
1824,  commenced  performing  French  plays  at 
the  theatre  in  Tottenham  Street.  On  Nov.  18, 
1826,  he  appeared  on  the  English  stage,  as  a 
member  of  the  Drury  Lane  company,  as  Sosia  in 
Dryden's  '  Amphitryon,'  and  afterwards  played  a 
variety  of  parts,  mostly  original,  and  amongst 
them  Wormwood  in  '  The  Lottery  Ticket.'  He 
next  joined  the  Haymarket  company,  in  which 
he  first  appeared  June  15,  1827.  In  1828  he 
became  manager  of  the  King's  Theatre,  and 
continued  such  until  1831.  In  1832  he  was 
lessee  of  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  and  actor  as 
well  as  manager,  but  was  compelled  to  retire, 
with  heavy  loss,  before  the  end  of  the  season. 
In  1833  he  resumed  the  management  of  the 
King's  Theatre,  and  retained  it  until  his  death, 
which  occurred  at  his  chateau  near  Paris,  Sept. 
25,  1 84 1.  A  notable  feature  of  his  last  season 
was  the  '  Tamburini  Row,'  a  disturbance  of  the 
performance  occasioned  by  the  admirers  of  Tam- 
burini, who  resented  his  non- engagement  for 
that  season,  and  by  their  tumultuous  proceedings 
for  two  or  three  evenings  forced  the  manager  to 
yield  to  their  wishes.  Another  curious  feature 
of  this  year  was  the  reappearance  of  Laporte  in 
his  original  capacity  as  an  actor,  with  Rachel,  on 
three  nights  of  her  first  London  season.  Laporte 
first  introduced  to  the  English  public,  amongst 
other  operas,  Rossini's  'ComteOry'  and  'Assedio 
di  Corinto' ;  Belhni's  'Pirata,'  '  Sonnambula,' 
'Norma'  and  'Puritani'  ;  Donizetti's  'Anna 
Bolena,'  and  Costa's  'MalekAdel':  and  amongst 
singers,  Sontag,  Meric  Lalande,  Persiani,  As- 
sandri,  Albertazzi,  Pisaroni,  Donzelli,  David  jun., 
Ivanoff,  Mario;  and,  above  all,  the  famous 
quartet  who  so  long  held  supremacy  on  the  opera 
stage,  Grisi,  Rubini,  Tamburini,  and  Lablache. 
Though  his  dilatory  and  unbusinesslike  habits 
ruined  his  management,  Laporte  was  not  with- 
out good  qualities.  Amongst  others  his  tact  and 
coolness  were  great,  and  many  of  his  bons  mots 
were  current  at  the  time.  When  Cerito  returned 
the  ticket  of  a  box  on  the  upper  tier  with  the 
remark  that  she  was  much  too  young  to  be 
exalted  to  the  skies  before  her  time,  Laporte — 
having  already  given  a  box  on  the  same  tier  to 
Taglioni — replied  that  he  '  had  done  his  best,  but 
that  perhaps  he  had  been  wrong  in  placing  her  on 
the  same  level  with  Mdlle.  Taglioni.'    [W. H. H.} 


92 


LARGE. 


LARGE  (Lat.  Maxima,  Old  Eng.  Maxim). 
The  longest  note  used  in  measured  music.  In 
ancient  MSS.,  the  Large  appears  as  an  oblong 
black  note,  corresponding  with  the  Double-Long 
described  in  the  Ars  Cantus  Mensurabilis  of 
Franco  of  Cologne.  Franchinus  Gafforius,  writing 
in  1496,  figures  it  as  an  oblong  white  note,  with  a 
tail  descending  on  the  right  hand  side ;  which  form 
it  has  retained,  unchanged,  to  the  present  day.1 


In  ancient      In  printed 
MSS.  books. 


Perfect 
Large  Rest. 


Imperfect 
Large  Rest. 


* 


-!= 


g 


:a= 


In  the  Great  Mode  Perfect,  the  Large  is  equal 
to  three  Longs :  in  the  Great  Mode  Imperfect,  to 
two.  [See  Mode.]  The  Rest  for  the  Perfect 
Large  stretches,  in  a  double  line,  across  three 
spaces ;  that  for  the  Imperfect  Large,  across  two. 

In  Polyphonic  Music,  the  final  note  is  always 
written  as  a  Large :  and,  in  that  position,  its 
length  is  sometimes  indefinitely  prolonged,  in  the 
Canto  fermo,  while  the  other  voices  are  elaborat- 
ing a  florid  cadence.  In  Plain  Chaunt,  the  Large 
— or,  rather,  in  that  case,  the  Double -Long — is 
sometimes,  but  not  very  frequently,  used,  to  indi- 
cate the  Reciting-Note.  [W.  S.  R.] 

LARGHETTO,  partaking,  of  the  broad  style 
of  Largo,  but  about  the  same  pace  with  Andante. 
Well-known  instances  of  its  use  are  the  slow 
movements  in  Beethoven's  2nd  Symphony  and 
Violin  Concerto.  [G.] 

LARGO,  i.e.  broad,  an  Italian  term  meaning 
a  slow,  broad,  dignified  style.  Handel  employs 
it  often,  as  in  the  Messiah  in  '  Behold  the  Lamb 
of  God,'  '  He  was  despised,'  and  '  Surely.'  Haydn 
uses  it  for  the  Introduction  and  first  Chorus 
in  the  'Creation,'  as  well  as  in  the  Introduction 
to  the  3rd  Part.  Beethoven  employs  it  only  in 
P.  F.  works,  and  it  is  enough  to  mention  some  of 
the  instances  to  show  what  grandeur  and  deep 
feeling  he  conveyed  by  this  term, — op.  7  ;  op.  10, 
no.  3 ;  op.  37  ;  op.  70,  no.  1 ;  op.  106.  He  often  ac- 
companies it  with  passionate,  or  some  other  term 
denoting  intense  expression.  Mendelssohn  uses  it 
for  •  broad'  in  the  Andante  of  his  op.  12. 

The  term  Largamente  has  recently  come  into 
use  to  denote  breadth  of  style  without  change 
of  tempo.  Largo  implies  a  slow  pace,  but  the 
very  varying  metronome  marks  applied  to  it  show 
conclusively  that  style  and  not  pace  is  its  princi- 
pal intention.  [G.] 

LARIGOT  (from  an  old  French  word,  I'arigot, 
for  a  small  flute  or  flageolet,  now  obsolete),  the 
old  name  for  a  rank  of  small  open  metal  pipes, 
the  longest  of  which  is  only  1^  ft.  speaking-length. 
Its  pitch  is  a  fifth  above  that  of  the  fifteenth,  an 
octave  above  the  twelfth,  and  a  nineteenth  above 
the  unison.  It  is  first  met  with,  in  English 
organs,  in  those  made  by  Harris,  who  passed 
many  years  in  France,  and  who  placed  one  in  his 

1  Tn  modern  reprints,  the  tall  Is  sometimes  made  to  ascend ;  but  it 
Is  indispensable  that  it  should  be  on  the  right  hand  tide.  See  in- 
numerable examples  in Froskt's  Mutiea  Duma. 


LASSEN. 

instrument  in  St.  Sepulchre's,  Snow  Hill,  erected 
in  1670.  [E.J.H.] 

LAROCHE,  James,  better  known  as  Jemmy 
Laroch,  or  Laroche,  was  a  popular  singer  in 
London,  though  probably  French  by  origin  or 
birth,  at  the  end  of  the  17th  and  beginning  of 
the  1 8th  centuries.  He  played,  as  a  boy,  the 
part  of  Cupid  in  Motteux's  '  Loves  of  Mars  and 
Venus,'  set  to  music  by  Eccles  and  Finger,  in 
which  the  part  of  Venus  was  played  by  Mrs. 
Bracegirdle,  in  1696.  He  was,  therefore,  born 
probably  about  1680-2.  His  portrait  appears 
on  a  very  rare  print,  called  '  The  Raree  Show. 
Sung  by  Jemmy  Laroch  in  the  Musical  Interlude 
for  the  Peace,  with  the  Tune  Set  to  Musick  for  the 
Violin.  Ingraved  Printed  Cubed  and  Sold  by 
Sutton  Nicholls  next  door  to  the  Jack,  etc.  Lon- 
don,' fol.  It  was  afterwards  published  by  Samuel 
Lyne.  There  are  33  verses  beginning  ■  0  Raree 
Show,  O  Brave  Show'  bejow  the  engraving, 
which  represents  Laroche  with  the  show  on  a 
stool,  exhibiting  it  to  a  group  of  children ;  and 
at  foot  is  the  music.  The  Peace  of  Utrecht  was 
signed  in  April,  17 13,  and  this  interlude  was 
played  in  celebration  of  it,  at  the  Theatre  in 
Little  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  the  music  being 
written  by  John  Eccles.  The  portrait  of  La- 
roche was  also  engraved  by  M.  Laroon  in  his 
•  Cries  of  London.'  [J.M.] 

LAROON,  J.,  a  foreigner  who  sang  in  opera 
in  the  first  years  of  the  last  century  in  London, 
and  was,  perhaps,  the  son  of  M.  Laroon,  the 
artist  (born  at  the  Hague  1653,  died  1705),  who 
engraved  the  'Cries  of  London,'  etc.  J.  Laroon 
played,  among  other  parts,  that  of  Sylvander 
(tenor)  in  '  The  Temple  of  Love,'  by  G.  F.  Sag- 
gione  (1706),  not  (as  Burney  incorrectly  says) 
by  Greber.    [See  Gallia.]  [J.M.] 

LASSEN,  Eduaud,  though  a  native  of  Copen- 
hagen, where  he  was  born  April  13,  1830,  is  vir- 
tually a  Belgian  musician,  since  he  was  taken  to 
Brussels  when  only  2,  entered  the  Conservatoire 
there  at  12,  in  1844  took  the  first  prize  as  P.  F. 
player,  in  47  the  same  for  harmony,  and  soon 
afterward  the  second  prize  for  composition.  His 
successes,  which  were  many,  were  crowned  by 
the  great  Government  prize,  which  was  adjudged 
to  him  in  1851,  after  which  he  started  on  a  length- 
ened tour  through  Germany  and  Italy.  Dis- 
appointed in  his  hopes  of  getting  his  5 -act  opera, 
'  Le  Roi  Edgard '  performed  at  Brussels,  he  betook 
himself  to  Weimar,  where  in  57  it  was  produced 
under  the  care  of  Liszt,  with  great  success.  A 
second, '  Frauenlob,'  and  a  third,  'Der  Gefangene,' 
were  equally  fortunate.  When  Liszt  retired 
from  Weimar,  Lassen  took  his  place,  and  had 
the  satisfaction  to  produce  '  Tristan  and  Isolde ' 
in  1S74,  at  a  time  when  no  other  theatre  but 
Munich  had  dared  to  do  so.  He  there  published 
a  Symphony  in  D,  a  Beethoven  overture,  and  a 
Festival  ditto,  music  to  Sophocles'  (Edipus,  to 
Hebbel's  Nibelungen,  and  Goethe's  Faust,  Parts 
1  and  2,  a  Fest-Cantate,  a  Te  Deum,  a  large 
number  of  songs,  and  other  pieces.  His  latest 
work  is  a  set  of  6  songs  (op.  67).  [G.] 


LASSERRE. 


LASSUS. 


93 


LASSERRE,  Jules,  eminent  violoncellist,  was 
born  at  Tarbes  July  29,  1838,  entered  the  Paris 
Conservatoire  in  1852,  where  he  gained  the  second 
prize  in  1853  and  the  first  prize  in  1855.  When 
the  popular  concerts  of  Pasdeloup  were  first 
started,  he  was  appointed  solo  violoncellist ;  he 
has  also  played  with  great  success  in  the  prin- 
cipal towns  of  France.  During  1859  he  was  solo 
cellist  at  the  Court  of  Madrid,  and  travelled 
through  Spain.  In  1869  he  came  to  reside  per- 
manently in  England,  since  which  time  he  has 
played  principal  violoncello  under  Sir  Michael 
Costa  and  at  the  Musical  Union.  Lasserre  has 
written  various  compositions  both  for  his  own 
instrument  and  for  the  violin — Etudes,  Fantasies, 
Romances,  Tarantelles,  Transcriptions,  a  violon- 
cello 'Method,'  etc.,  etc.  [T.P.H.] 

LASSUS,  Orlando  di,  born  atMons  in  the  first 
half  of  the  16th  century.  His  real  name  was 
probably  Delattre,  but  the  form  de  Lassus  seems 
to  have  been  constantly  used  in  Mons  at  the 
time,  and  was  not  his  own  invention.  He  had  no 
fixed  mode  of  writing  his  name,  and  in  the  prefaces 
to  the  first  four  volumes  of  the  'Patrocinium 
Musices,'  signs  himself  differently  each  time, — 
Orlandus  de  Lasso,  Orlandus  di  Lasso,  Orlandus 
di  Lassus,  and  Orlandus  Lassus  ;  and  again  in  the 
'  Lectiones  Hiob,'  1582,  Orlando  de  Lasso.  In  the 
French  editions  we  usually  find  the  name  Orlande 
de  Lassus,  and  so  it  appears  on  the  statue  in  his 
native  town.  Adrian  Le  Roy,  however,  in  some 
of  the  Paris  editions,  by  way  perhaps  of  Latin- 
izing the  de,  calls  him  Orlandus  Lassusius. 

The  two  works  usually  referred  to  for  his  early 
life  are  Vinchant's  'Annals  of  'Hainault' ;  and 
a  notice  by  Van  Quickelberg  in  1565,  in  the 
'  Heroum  Prosopographia,'  a  biographical  dic- 
tionary compiled  by  Pantaleon.  Vinchant,  under 
the  year  1520,  writes  as  follows: — 

'  Orland  dit  Lassus  was  born  in  the  town  of  Mons,  in 
the  same  year  that  Charles  V  was  proclaimed  Emperor 
at  Aix-la-Chapelle  [1520] ....  He  was  born  in  the  Hue 
de  Guirlande  near  the  passage  leading  from  the  Black 
Head.J    He  was  chorister  in  the  church  of  S.  Nicolas  »  in 

1  The  original  MS.  is  now  In  the  Mons  library.  The  author  lived 
between  1580  and  1635. 

-  'A  l'issue  de  la  maison  portant  l'enselgne  de  la  noire  teste.' 
Delmotte  (in  his  Life  of  Lassus,  Valenciennes,  1836)  thinks  'the  Black 
Head '  was  situated  in  the  Rue  Grande,  No.  92.  Counting  the  number 
of  houses  between  the  'Poids  de  fer'  (town  weighing-house)  and  the 
'  Maison  de  la  noire  tcte '  in  the  old  records  of  the  town,  he  found  it  to 
correspond  with  the  distance  from  the  former  building.  Moreover 
No.  92  bore,  in  Delmotte's  time,  the  sign  of  a  helmet,  which  he  thinks 
might,  in  olden  time,  have  been  painted  black  to  imitate  iron,  and 
thus  have  been  called  the  '  noire  tete.'  He  goes  on  to  say,  but  without 
stating  his  authority,  that  this  house,  No.  92,  bad  formerly  a  passage 

leading  into  the  Rue  de  grande  Guir-  , , 

tande  (afterwards  and  now  Rue  des  py^£S2 

Capuclns)  between  the  houses  l»os.  67  ~ 

an  159.  If  so,  it  must  have  been  a  house 

of  importance,  with  back    premises 

stretching  behind  the  whole  length  of 

the  Rue  des  Capuclns.    Nos.  57  and  59 

are  at  present  (1878)  large  new  houses, 

with  a  passage  between  tbem  leading 

to  No.  55,  a  private  bouse  behind  the 

street.    If  this  passage  marks  the  site 

of  the  original  'issue'  spoken  of  by 

Vinchant,  then  the  house  in  which 

Lassus  was  born  may  have  been  situated  on  one  aide  of  It,  at  the 

corner  of  the  Rue  de  Cantimpr<5.    Curiously  enough,  Matthleu,  in  his 

Life  of  Lassus,  says  that  an  Isabeau  de  Lassus  lived  In  the  Rue  de 

Cantimpre\  Quartler  Guirlande,  which  adds  to  the  probability  that 

a  house  situated  at  the  corner  of  the  two  streets  may  have  been 

occupied  by  the  composer. 

'  The  church  of  St.  Nicolas  was  burnt  down  in  the  17th  century,  and 
replaced  by  the  present  building. 


the  Rue  de  Havrecq.  After  his  father  was  condemned  for 
coining  false  money  etc.  the  said  Orland,  who  was  called 
Roland  de  Lattre,  changed  his  name  to  Orland  de  Lassus, 
left  the  country,  and  went  to  Italy  with  Ferdinand  de 
Gonzague.' 

Van  Quickelberg1  dates  his  birth  ten  years 
later : — 

'  Orlandus  was  born  at  Mons  in  Hainault  in  the  year 
1530.  At  7  years  old  he  began  his  education,  and  a  year 
and  a  half  later  took  to  music,  which  ho  soon  understood. 
The  beauty  of  his  voice  attracted  so  much  attention,  that 
he  was  thrice  stolen  from  the  school  where  he  lived  with 
the  other  choristers.  Twice  his  good  parents  sought  and 
found  him,  but  the  third  time  he  consented  to  remain 
with  Ferdinand  Gonzague  viceroy  of  Sicily,  at  that  time 
commander  of  the  emperor's  forces  at  St.  Dizier.  The 
war  over,  he  went  with  that  prince  first  to  Sicily,  and 
then  to  Milan.  After  6  years  his  voice  broke,  and  at  the 
age  of  18  Constantin  Castriotto  took  him  to  Naples,  where 
he  lived  for  3  years  with  the  Marquis  of  Terza.  Thence 
to  Rome,  where  he  was  the  guest  of  the  archbishop  of  Flo- 
rence for  6  months,  at  the  end  of  which  time  he  was  ap- 
pointed director  of  the  choir  in  the  church  of  S.  Giovanni 
in  Laterano,  by  far  the  most  celebrated  in  Rome  .... 
Two  years  afterwards  he  visited  England  and  France  with 
Julius  Caesar  Brancaccio,  a  nobleman  and  an  amateur 
musician.  Returning  to  his  native  land,  he  resided  in 
Antwerp  for  two  years,  whence  he  was  called  to  Munich 
by  Albert  of  Bavaria  in  1557. 

It  is  difficult  to  decide  between  the  two  birth- 
dates  1520  and  1530.  Baini  places  the  Roman 
appointment  in  1541,  Van  Quickelberg  in  1551. 
That  Lassus  left  Rome  about  1553,  as  Van 
Quickelberg  says,  is  also  to  be  inferred  from  the 
preface  to  his  first  Antwerp  publication  (May  13, 
1555),  where  he  speaks  of  his  removal  from  the 
one  city  to  the  other  as  if  recent.  Assuming 
that  his  life  in  Rome  lasted  either  2  years  or  1 2, 
we  may  ask  whether  it  is  likely  that  one  of  the 
most  industrious  and  prolific  composers  in  the 
whole  history  of  music,  should  obtain  so  high  a 
position  as  early  as  1541,  without  being  known 
to  us  as  a  composer  till '1555;  or  is  it,  on  the 
contrary,  more  likely  that  a  reputation  which 
seems  to  have  been  European  by  the  time  he 
went  to  Munich  (1557),  could  have  been  gained, 
without  some  eariy  and  long  career  as  a  composer 
of  works  which  may  yet  be  lying  undiscovered  in 
some  Italian  church  or  library. 

Vinchant  alludes  to  Lassus'  father  having  been 
condemned  as  a  coiner  of  false  money.  Matthieu* 
has  worked  hard  to  refute  this,  and  his  examina- 
tion of  the  criminal  records  of  Mons  casts  great 
improbability  on  the  story.  At  the  same  time, 
and  from  the  same  sources,  he  has  brought  to 
light  other  namesakes  of  the  composer,  who  if 

*  Van  Quickelberg,  whose  own  biography  appears  In  Fantaleon's 
book,  was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1529,  and  practised  as  a  physician  at  the 
court  of  Munich,  while  Lassus  was  chief  musician  there.  We  must 
give  great  weight  to  an  account  written  by  a  contemporary  and  com- 
patriot, and  under  the  eyes  of  the  composer  himself.  The  date  1530  is 
no  printer's  error,  as  Delmotte  suggests,  for  the  account  speaks  of 
Lassus  as  a  child  at  the  siege  of  8.  Dizier,  which  took  place  in  the  year 
1544.  Therefore  Van  Quickelberg  must  have  meant  to  say  1530,  just 
as  certainly  as  Vinchant  emphasises  his  date  ir>20  by  a  reference  to  the 
coronation  of  the  emperor.  Judging  simply  by  the  authority  of  the 
statements,  we  should  certainly  give  the  preference  to  Van  Quickel- 
berg ;  but  Vinchant's  date  Is  supported  by  so  many  other  considera- 
tions that  we  think  Delmotte,  Fetis,  and  Ambros  are  right  In  preferring 
it,  though  it  is  premature  to  adopt  it  absolutely.  These  dates  may  be 
more  important  than  at  first  sight  appears.  If  some  one  undertakes  a 
comparison  of  the  Influence  of  Lassus  and  Palestrina  on  the  history  of 
music. 

»  According  to  Dehn.  an  edition  of  motets,  dated  1546.  Is  in  the 
library  at  Bologna.  This  statement  requires  some  confirmation.  The 
MSS.  catalogues  of  the  Italian  libraries,  in  Dehu's  possession,  some  of 
which  are  in  the  F<Stis  library  at  Brussels,  are  not  likely  to  be  entirely 
free  from  error. 

•  Roland  de  Lattre  par  Adolphe  Matthleu.   Gand  (no  date). 


94 


LASSUS. 


they  belonged  to  his  family,  did  little  credit  to  it, 
and  need  not  be  mentioned  here.  It  would  be 
more  interesting  to  find  some  tie  between  Orlando 
and  two  other  contemporary  composers,  Olivier 
Delatre,  and  Claude  Petit  Jean  Delattre,  the 
second  a  man  of  considerable  eminence. 

Of  Lassus'  education,  after  he  left  Mons,  we 
know  nothing,  but  his  first  compositions  show  him 
following  the  steps  of  his  countrymen,  Willaert, 
Verdelot,  Arcadelt,  and  Rore,  in  the  Venetian 
school  of  madrigal  writing ;  his  first  book  of  ma- 
drigals (a  5)  being  published  in  Venice  soon 
after  he  had  himself  left  Italy  and  settled  in 
Antwerp.  This  book  in  its  time  went  through 
many  editions,  but  copies  of  it  are  scarce  now, 
and  none  of  its  22  pieces  have  been  published  in 
modern  notation. 

The  visit  to  England  must  have  taken  place 
about  1554.  We  have  been  unable  to  find  any 
account  of  the  nobleman  whom  Orlando  accom- 
panied, but  many  of  his  family  had  been  dig- 
nitaries of  the  church  of  Rome,  and  by  him 
Orlando  was  probably  introduced  to  Cardinal  Pole, 
in  whose  honour  he  wrote  music  to  the  words 

'  Te  spectant  Eegiualde  poli,  tihi  sidera  rident, 

Exultant  montes,  personat  Oceanus, 
Anglia  dum  plaudit  quod  faustos  excutis  ignes 
Elicis  et  lachrimas  ex  adamante  suo.' 

This  was  published  in  1556,  and  the  incidents 
to  which  it  refers  could  not  have  taken  place 
before  1554,  so  it  gives  an  additional  clue  to  the 
time  of  the  composer's  visit  to  this  country,  cor- 
roborating the  statement  of  Van  Quickelberg. 
It  is  curious  that  in  the  year  1554,  a  Don  Pedro 
di  Lasso  attended  the  marriage  of  Philip  and 
Mary  in  England  as  ambassador  from  Ferdinand, 
King  of  the  Romans. 

By  the  end  of  1554,  Orlando  is  probably 
settled  at  Antwerp,  for  in 'the  Italian  pre- 
face to  a  book  of  madrigals  and  motets  printed 
in  that  city  (May  13,  1555),'  he  speaks  of  their 
having  been  composed  there  since  his  return  from 
Rome.  '  There,'  says  Van  Quickelberg,  •  he  re- 
mained two  years,  in  the  society  of  men  of  rank 
and  culture,  rousing  in  them  a  taste  for  music,  and 
in  return  gaining  their  love  and  respect.'  The 
book  referred  to  contains  18  Italian  canzones,  6 
French  chansons,  and  6  motets  '  a  la  nouvelle 
composition  d'aucuns  d'ltalie.'  Of  the  Italian 
ones  5  are  published  by  Van  Maldeghem.1  This 
is  our  first  introduction  to  the  great  composer, 
and  we  get  over  it  with  little  formality.  If  Or- 
lando ever  wrote  any  masses  for  his  composer's 
diploma ;  if  the  old  tune  '  l'omme  arme,'  was  tor- 
tured by  any  fresh  contrapuntal  devices  of  his 
pen,  it  is  plain  that  he  left  such  tasks  behind  him 
when  he  gave  up  school,  and  '  roused  the  musical 
taste'  of  his  Antwerp  friends  by  music  which 
errs,  if  at  all,  on  the  side  of  simplicity.  We  pass 
with  regret  from  the  graceful  '  Madonna  ma 
pieta'  and  the  almost  melodious  'La  cortesia,'  to 
the  Latin  motets — 3  sacred,  2  secular — in  the 
same  volume.  One  of  the  latter  is  the  '  Alma 
nemes'  which  Burney  gives  in  his  History  (iii. 
317),  pointing  out  the  modulation  on  the  words 

1  Trisor  Musical.    10«»  Annie.    Brnielles  1ST*. 


LASSUS. 

'  novumque  melos,'  as  a  striking  example  of  the 
chromatic  passages  of  the  school  in  which  Lassus 
and  Rore  were  educated.  Burney  couples  the  two 
together,  and  regards  Lassus  chiefly  as  a  secular 
composer.  He  seems  to  know  but  little  of  the 
great  sacred  works  of  his  later  life,  and  likens 
him  to  a  'dwarf  upon  stilts'  by  the  side  of 
Palestrina.  But  though  this  unfortunate  com- 
parison has  brought  the  great  English  historian 
into  disgrace  with  Fe"tis  and  Ambros,  still  Bur- 
ney's  remarks  on  Lassus'  early  works  are  very 
interesting  and  certainly  not  unfair.  It  is  only 
strange  that,  knowing  and  thinking  so  little  of 
Lassus,  he  should  have  compared  him  to  Pales- 
trina at  all. 

The  other  work  belonging  to  this  period  (Ant- 
werp 1556)  is  the  first  book  of  motets — 12  nos. 
a  5,  and  5  nos.  a  6.  Here  the  composer  recog- 
nises the  importance  of  his  first  publication  of 
serious  music,  by  opening  it  with  an  ode  to  the 
Muses,  '  Delitire  Phoebi,'  a  5,  in  which  the  setting 
of  the  words  '  Sustine  Lassum,'  is  the  principal 
feature.  Other  interesting  numbers  are  the 
'  Gustate,  videte,'  which  will  be  referred  to  again 
when  we  follow  Lassus  to  Munich,  the  motet 
'Te  spectant  Reginalde  poli,'  and  'Heroum  so- 
boles,  in  honour  of  Charles  V,  the  second  being 
in  the  strict  imitative  style,  the  last  in  simpler 
and  more  massive  harmony  (a  6),  as  if  designed 
for  a  large  chorus  at  some  public  ceremonial. 

The  sacred  numbers,  such  as  the  '  Mirabile  mys- 
terium ' — an  anthem,  we  suppose  for  Christmas 
day — show  no  signs  of  any  secular  tendency  or 
Venetian  influence.  They  are  as  hard  to  our 
ears  as  any  music  of  the  Josquin  period.  They 
give  us  our  first  insight  into  Orlando's  church 
work,  and  it  is  interesting  to  find  him  drawing  so 
distinct  a  line  between  compositions  for  the  church 
and  the  world,  and  not,  as  Burney  implies,  too 
much  petted  in  society  and  at  court,  to  be  grave 
and  earnest  in  his  religious  music.  We  have  a 
good  example  here  that  the  contrary  is  the  case. 
The  Muses  and  Cardinal  Pole  are  much  too  seri- 
ous subjects  to  be  in  the  slightest  degree  trifled 
with,  and  the  Ode  to  Charles  V.  alone  exhibits  any 
originality  of  treatment. 

On  the  strength  of  a  reputation  as  a  composer 
both  for  the  chamber  and  the  church,  and  of  a 
popularity  amongst  men  of  rank  and  talent, 
gained  as  much  by  his  character  and  disposition 
and  liberal  education,  as  by  his  musical  powers, 
he  was  invited  by  Albert  V.,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  in 
1556  or  1557,  to  come  to  Munich  as  director  of 
his  chamber  music.  Albert  was  not  only  the 
kind  patron  of  Lassus,  but  seems  to  have  exercised 
considerable  influence  on  the  direction  of  his 
genius.  He  was  born  in  1527,  was  a  great 
patron  of  the  arts,  founded  the  royal  library  at 
Munich,  acquired  considerable  fame  as  an  athlete, 
and  was  a  man  of  the  strictest  religious  prin- 
ciples, the  effect  of  which  was  not  confined  to  his 
family,  but  extended  to  his  people  by  severe  laws 
against  immorality  of  every  kind.  Of  the  exact 
state  of  music  at  Munich  when  Lassus  first 
reached  it,  we  cannot  speak  precisely.  The  head 
of  the  chapel,    Ludovico   d'Asero,    or   Ludwig 


LASSUS. 

Daser,  was  a  distinguished  composer  in  his  time, 
but  a  single  'Fuga'  is  all  that  has  been  left  to 
us.1  Being  an  old  man,  he  would  probably  have 
retired  in  favour  of  Lassus,  as  he  did  a  few  years 
later,  but  it  was  thought  better  for  the  new  comer 
to  acquire  the  language  of  the  country  before 
undertaking  so  responsible  a  post,  and  he  was 
therefore  appointed  a  chamber  musician.  He 
seems  to  have  settled  at  once  into  his  new  posi- 
tion, for  the  next  year  (1558)  he  married  Kegina 
Weckinger,  a  maid  of  honour  at  the  court.  The 
marriage  proved  a  very  happy  one,  and  Van 
Quickelberg  speaks  of  the  children,  whom  he 
must  have  known  at  a  very  early  age  (1565),  as 
'  elegantissimi.'  At  any  rate  they  did  very  well 
afterwards.  The  four  sons,  Ferdinand,  Ernest, 
Rudolph  and  Jean,  all  became  musicians,  and 
the  two  daughters  were  married — one  of  them, 
Regina,  to  the  Seigneur  d'Ach,  one  of  the  court 
painters. 

In  his  subordinate  position  Lassus  did  not 
publish  much,  though,  as  the  next  paragraph 
shows,  he  wrote  continually.  The  next  two  or 
three  years  produced  a  second  book  of  21  mad- 
rigals (a  5),  and  a  book  of  chansons  (a  4,  5,  6), 
the  latter  containing  the  5-part  chanson  'Su- 
sanne  un  jour,'  to  which  Burney  refers  in  his 
History  (iii.  262),  as  well  as  a  6-part  setting  of 
the  '  Tityre,  tu  patulse,'  which  is  quite  simple  in 
effect,  and  has  a  very  beautiful  last  movement. 
We  observe  at  once  the  great  care  which  Orlando 
takes  of  the  quantities  of  the  Latin  words. 

In  the  year  1562  Daser  is  allowed  to  retire 
on  his  full  salary,  and 

•  The  Duke  seeing  that  Master  Orlando  had  by  this  time 
learnt  the  language,  and  gained  the  good  will  and  love  of 
all,  by  the  propriety  and  gentleness  of  his  behaviour,  and 
that  his  compositions  (in  number  infinite)  were  uni- 
versally liked,  without  loss  of  time  elected  him  master  of 
the  chapel,  to  the  evident  pleasure  of  all.  And,  indeed, 
with  all  his  distinguished  colleagues,  he  lived  so  quietly 
and  peacefully,  that  all  were  forced  to  love  him,  to  re- 
spect him  in  his  presence,  and  to  praise  him  in  his  ab- 
eence.' 

From  this  time  Lassus  appears  principally  as 
a  composer  for  the  church,  and  it  is  worth  re- 
marking that  in  this  same  year  the  subject  of 
music  was  discussed  by  the  Council  of  Trent,  and 
a  resolution  passed  to  reform  some  of  the  glaring 
defects  in  the  style  of  church  composition.  Las- 
sus' great  works,  being  of  a  subsequent  date, 
are  as  entirely  free  from  the  vagaries  of  his  pre- 
decessors as  are  the  later  works  of  Palestrina. 
[See  Josqoin.] 

The  new  chapel-master,  in  the  June  of  the 
same  year,  prints  his  first  book  of  entirely  sacred 
music — '  Sacrse  cantiones,  a  5'  (25  nos.),  of  which 
'  Veni  in  hortum'  has  been  published  by  2Com- 
mer,  'Angelus  ad  pastores'  by  3Rochlitz,  and 
'Benedicam  Dominum'  by  4Proske. 

But  it  was  not  alone  as  a  church  composer 
that  Lassus  was  anxious  at  once  to  assert  his  new 
position.  He  soon  showed  special  qualifications 
as  conductor  of  the  choir.     '  One  great  quality,' 

I  See  the  name  In  Eitner's  Bibliographic  (Berlin,  1877),  p.  224. 

»  Musica  Sacra,  x.  47  (Trautweln). 

•  Sammlung  Gesangstucke,  1. 15  (Schott). 

■  ilusica  Divina,  ii.  250  (Batisbon,  1853). 


LASSUS. 


95 


says  Massimo  Trojano,5  'was  the  firmness  and 
genius  he  evinced  when  the  choir  were  singing, 
giving  the  time  with  such  steadiness  and  force, 
that,  like  warriors  taking  courage  at  the  sound 
of  the  trumpet,  the  expert  singers  needed  no 
other  orders  than  the  expression  of  that  powerful 
and  vigorous  countenance  to  animate  their 
sweetly -sounding  voices.'  The  portrait  which  we 
here  give,  and  which  is  now  engraved  for  the 
first  time,  has  been  photographed6  from  the 
magnificent  manuscript  copy  of  Lassus's  music 
to  the  Penitential  Psalms,  which  forms  one  of 
the  ornaments  of  the  Royal  State  Library  at  Mu- 
nich. The  inscription  round  the  outside  of  the 
oval  is  '  In  7corde  prudentis  requiescit  sapientia 
et  indoctos  quosque  erudiet.  Pro.  xiiii.,'  showing 
in  how  favourable  and  honourable  a  light  a  great 
musician  was  regarded  in  the  1 6th  century. 


v^KAAJl«t.l». 


In  the  autumn  Lassus  must  have  gone  to 
Venice,  taking  his  new  '  Cantiones '  with  him  ; 
for  though  Gardane  does  not  print  them  till  1 565, 
the  preface  to  his  edition  is  signed  by  the  com- 
poser, and  dated  •  Venetiis  1562  die  1.  Nov.' 
He  also  left  behind  him  a  third  set  of  1 3  mad- 
rigals, published  there  in  the  following  year. 
Van  Quickelberg  also  speaks  of  a  visit  to  Ant- 
werp about  this  time  ;  and  the  publications  for 
the  year  1 564 — two  books  of  chansons,  one  printed 
in  that  city,  the  other  at  Louvain — corroborate 

»  Discorsi  delli  triomphl,  etc.,  nelle  nozze  dell'  illustrlsslmo  duca 
Guglielmo,  etc.,  da  Massimo  Trojano  (Monaco,  Berg,  1588). 

8  The  Editor  desires  to  express  his  special  thanks  to  Professor 
Halm,  the  Director  of  the  Boyal  State  Library,  for  the  prompt  kind- 
ness with  which  he  granted  permission  and  gave  every  facility  for  the 
photographing  of  the  portrait.  Another  portrait  from  the  same  MS.,  on 
a  smaller  scale,  full  length  and  In  a  long  gown,  1»  lithographed  and 
given  In  Delmotte's  Life  of  Lassus. 

'  Thus  rendered  In  the  Douay  Version—*  In  the  heart  of  the  prudent 
resteth  wisdom,  and  It  shall  instruct  all  the  Ignorant.'  The  artist  has 
incorrectly  written '  in  doctos." 


96 


LASSUS. 


the  statement.  The  ist  book  (a  4)  contains  27 
short  pieces  of  a  humorous  character,  many  of 
which  are  given  by  Van  Maldeghem  in  his 
'  Tresor  Musical.'  The  music  is  admirably  adapted 
to  the  words,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  in 
later  times  it  was  considered  equally  well  suited  to 
sacred  words,  or  at  least  published  with  them,  an 
ordeal  to  which  many  of  his  earlier  secular  com- 
positions were  subjected.  The  reason  and  residt 
of  these  journeys  are  thus  given  by  Massimo 
Trojano : — 

'The  Duke  seeing  that  his  predecessor's  chapel  was  far 
beneath  his  own  ideal,  sent  messages  and  letters,  with 
gifts  and  promises  through  all  Europe,  to  select  learned 
musical  artists,  and  singers  with  fine  voices  and  experi- 
ence. And  it  came  to  pass  in  a  short  time,  that  he  had 
collected  as  great  a  company  of  virtuosi  as  he  could  pos- 
sibly obtain,  chosen  from  all  the  musicians  in  Germany 
and  other  countries  by  his  composer,  the  excellent  Or- 
lando di  Lasso.' 

Of  these  musicians,  upwards  of  90  in  number, 
the  same  author  mentions  more  than  30  by  name. 
Among  them  Antonio  Morari,  the  head  of  the 
orchestra,  Gioseppe  da  Lucca  and  Ivo  da  Vento, 
organists,  Francesco  da  Lucca  and  Simone  Gallo, 
both  instrumentalists,  Giovanne  da  Lochenburg, 
a  great  favourite  and  companion  of  the  Duke's, 
and  Antonio  Gosuino,  were  all  composers,  some 
of  whose  works  still  exist.1  The  singing  of  the 
choir  was  of  the  highest  order,  balanced  with  the 
greatest  nicety,  and  able  to  keep  in  tune  through 
the  longest  compositions.  The  Duke  treated 
them  so  kindly,  and  their  life  was  made  so 
pleasant,  that,  as  Massimo  Trojano  says,  '  had 
the  heavenly  choir  been  suddenly  dismissed,  they 
would  straightway  have  made  for  the  court  of 
Munich,  there  to  find  peace  and  retirement.' 

For  general  purposes  the  wind  and  brass  in- 
struments seem  to  have  been  kept  separate  from 
the  strings.  The  former  accompanied  the  mass 
on  Sundays  and  festivals.  In  the  chamber  music 
all  took  part  in  turn.  At  a  banquet,  the  wind 
instruments  would  play  during  the  earlier  courses, 
then  till  dinner  was  finished  the  strings,  with 
Antonio  Morari  as  their  conductor,  and  at 
dessert  Orlando  would  direct  the  choir,  some- 
times singing  quartets  and  trios  with  picked 
voices,  a  kind  of  music  of  which  the  Duke  was  so 
fond,  that  he  would  leave  the  table  to  listen 
more  attentively  to  '  the  much-loved  strains.'  He 
and  all  his  family  were  intensely  fond  of  music, 
and  made  a  point  of  attending  the  musical  mass 
every  day.  They  took  a  keen  interest  in  Lassus' 
work,  and  the  Duke  and  his  son  William  were 
continually  sending  him  materials  and  suggestions 
for  new  compositions.  The  manuscript  of  the 
music  to  the  'Penitential  Psalms,'  already 
noticed,  remains  to  this  day  a  witness  of  the 
reverence  with  which  the  Duke  treated  the 
composer's  work. 

These  7  psalms  were  composed,  at  the  Duke's 
suggestion,  before  the  year  1565,  the  date  of  the 
first  volume  of  the  MS.,  but  were  not  published 
till  some  years  after.  The  music  is  in  5  parts, 
one,  and  sometimes  two  separate  movements  for 
each  verse.     The  last  movement,  'Sicut  erat,' 

1  See  these  ntm«  in  Eltner'i  BibUognpai*. 


LASSUS. 

always  in  6  parts.  Duets,  Trios,  and  Quartets 
appear  for  various  combinations  of  voices.  The 
length  of  the  Psalms  is  considerable,  and  though 
no  reliance  can  be  placed  on  modern  ideas  of 
their  tempi,  the  longer  ones  would  probably 
occupy  nearly  an  hour  in  performance. 

'  When  we  think,'  says  Ambros,  '  of  the  princi- 
pal works  of  the  16th  century,  these  Psalms  and 
Palestrina's  Missa  Papae  Marcelli  always  come 
first  to  our  a  minds.'  One  reason  for  this  is, 
perhaps,  that  these  works  have  each  a  little  story 
attached  to  them  which  has  made  them  easy  to 
remember  and  talk  about.  It  is  not  true  that 
Lassus  composed  the  '  Penitential  Psalms '  to 
soothe  the  remorse  of  Charles  IX,  after  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  but  it  is  more  than 
probable,  that  they  were  sung  before  that  un- 
happy monarch,  and  his  musical  sense  must 
indeed  have  been  dull,  if  he  found  no  consolation 
and  hope  expressed  in  them.  This  is  no  every- 
day music,  which  may  charm  at  all  seasons  or  in 
all  moods;  but  there  are  times  when  we  find 
ourselves  forgetting  the  antique  forms  of  ex- 
pression, passing  the  strange  combinations  of 
sounds,  almost  losing  ourselves,  in  a  new-found 
grave  delight,  till  the  last  few  movements  of  the 
Psalm — always  of  a  more  vigorous  character — gra- 
dually recall  us  as  from  a  beautiful  dream  which 
'waking  we  can  scarce  remember.'  Is  this  in- 
definite impression  created  by  the  music  due  to 
our  imperfect  appreciation  of  a  style  and  com- 
position so  remote,  or  is  it  caused  by  the  actual 
nature  of  the  music  itself,  which  thus  proves  its 
inherent  fitness  for  the  service  of  religion  ?  So 
unobtrusive  is  its  character,  that  we  can  fancy 
the  worshippers  hearing  it  by  the  hour,  passive 
rather  than  active  listeners,  with  no  thought  of 
the  human  mind  that  fashioned  its  form.  Yet 
the  art  is  there,  for  there  is  no  monotony  in  the 
sequence  of  the  movements.  Every  variety  that 
can  be  naturally  obtained  by  changes  of  key, 
contrasted  effects  of  repose  and  activity,  or  dis- 
tribution of  voices,  are  here;  but  these  changes 
are  so  quietly  and  naturally  introduced,  and 
the  startling  contrasts,  now  called  '  dramatic,'  so 
entirely  avoided,  that  the  composer's  part  seems 
only  to  have  been,  to  deliver  faithfully  a  divine 
message,  without  attracting  notice  to  himself. 

The  production  of  such  a  masterpiece  at  an 
early  date  in  his  Munich  life,  seems  to  point 
clearly,  through  all  the  contested  dates  of  birth, 
positions  or  appointments,  to  some  earlier  career 
of  the  composer.  To  obtain  a  style  at  once  great 
and  solemn,  natural  and  easy,  it  seems  almost 
indispensable  that  Lassus  had  occupied  for  seve- 
ral years  the  post  to  which  Baini  says  he  was 
first  appointed  in  1541,  had  spent  these  years  in 
writing  the  great  cumbrous  works  which  had 
been  the  fashion  of  his  predecessors,  and  then, 
like  Palestrinai — whom,  if  he  really  lived  at  Rome 
all  this  time,  he  must  have  known — gradually  ac- 
quired the  less  artificial  style,  by  which  his  later 
works  are  characterised. 

In  the  years  1565-66  Lassus  adds  3  more 
volumes  of 'Sacrae  Cantiones'  Cseveral  numbers 

2  Geschlchte,  Ui.  363. 


LASSUS. 

of  which  are  scored  by  Commer),  and  the  first 
set  of '  Sacrse  lectiones,  9  ex  propheta  Job.'  The 
first  editions  of  these  all  hail  from  Venice,  per- 
haps because  Jean  de  Berg  of  Nuremberg,  who 
had  published  the  1st  volume,  had  died  in  the 
meanwhile.  His  successor  Gerlach,  however, 
publishes  an  edition  of  them  in  1567,  as  well  as 
a  collection  of  24  Magnificats.  In  the  latter  the 
alternate  verses  only  are  composed — a  contra- 
puntal treatment  of  the  appointed  church  melo- 
dies— the  other  verses  being  probably  sung  or 
intoned  to  the  same  melodies  in  their  simple  form. 

The  year  1568  is  full  of  interest.  In  February 
the  Duke  William  marries  the  Princess  Renata 
of  Lorraine;  there  is  a  large  gathering  of  dis- 
tinguished guests  at  Munich,  and  music  has  a 
prominent  place  in  the  fortnight's  festivities. 
Among  the  works  composed  specially  for  the 
occasion  was  a '  Te  Deum '  (a  6),  and  three  masses 
(a  6,  7,  and  8  respectively),  also  two  motets 
'  Gratia  sola  Dei'  and '  Quid  trepidas,  quid  musa 
times  ? '  But  here  we  must  stop,  for  though  it 
has  a  real  interest  to  read  how  •  their  Highnesses 
and  Excellencies  and  the  Duchess  Anna  attended 
by  Madame  Dorothea  returned  home  greatly 
pleased  with  the  sweet  and  delightful  mass  they 
had  heard,'  and  to  follow  all  the  occurrences  of 
14  consecutive  days  of  Orlando's  life,  still  we 
must  refer  the  curious  reader  to  the  pages  of 
Massimo  Trojano,  and  can  only  stop  to  mention 
that,  towards  the  end  of  the  time,  he  was  the 
life  and  soul  of  an  impromptu  play  suggested  by 
the  Duke,  in  which  he  not  only  acted  one  of  the 
principal  parts,  but  introduced  various  pieces  of 
music  on  the  stage  with  the  aid  of  a  band  of 
picked  singers. 

In  the  same  year  we  have  two  most  important 
publications:  (1)  ' Selectissimse  Cantiones  a  6 
et  pluribus'  and  (2)  the  same  a  5  et  4.  The 
first  book  opens  with  a  massive  work  in  4  move- 
ments, '  Jesu  nostra  redemptio,'  in  the  grand 
gloomy  style  of  the  old  masters,  followed  by 
shorter  and  simpler  pieces,  such  as  the  prayer  in 
the  garden  of  Gethsemane,  with  a  melodious 
prelude  on  the  words  'In  monte  Oliveti  oravit  ad 
patrem,'  followed  by  a  simple  strain  of  devotional 
music  carrying  the  hearer  quietly  and  expres- 
sively, but  not  dramatically,  through  the  Saviour's 
agony  and  resignation.  The  volume  is  not  con- 
fined to  religious  music.  There  are  some  pieces 
with  secular  words,  such  as  an  ode  to  Albert '  Quo 
properas  facunde  nepos  Atlantis,'  but  there  are 
also  some  capital  drinking  songs,  and  the  'Jam 
lucis  orto  sidere,'  with  its  2nd  part  'Qui  ponit 
aquam  in  Falerno,'  is  a  fine  specimen  of  a  part-song 
for  two  choirs  singing  alternately,  a  kind  of  music 
much  in  vogue  at  the  time,  the  introduction  of 
which  is  said  to  be  due  to  Adrian  Willaert. 

The  other  volume  is  confined  to  music  a  5  and 
a  4,  and  is  proportionately  simple.  Commer  has 
printed  8  or  9  of  the  sacred  numbers  in  score, 
and  they  are  not  difficult  either  to  understand  or 
to  appreciate.  Among  the  secular  pieces  there 
is  a  comic  setting  of  the  psalm  '  Super  flumina 
Babylonis,'  each  letter  and  syllable  being  sung 
separately  as  in  a  spelling  lesson : — 
VOL.  II. 


LASSUS. 


97 


P      E       It     per     su  -  per     F 


L      C     flu   per    flu      etc. 

at  which  rate  it  takes  two  long  movements  to 
get  through  the  first  verse.  This  might  well  be 
a  parody  on  the  absurd  way  in  which  the  older 
masters  mutilated  their  words.  But  there  are 
beautiful  as  well  as  curious  numbers  among  the 
secular  part-songs  in  this  book,  and  the  'Forte 
soporifera  ad  Baias  dormivit  in  umbra,  blandus 
Amor  etc. '  is  one  of  the  quaintest  and  prettiest 
songs  that  we  have  come  across  in  the  old  music 
world.  In  this  book  is  also  a  very  characteristic, 
though  rather  complicated  and  vocally  difficult 
setting  of  the  well-known  song  of  Walter  Mapea 
— if  ■  Walter  Mapes'  it  be — 'Si  bene  perpendi, 
causae  sunt  quinque  bibendi.'  Dean  Aldrich  may 
have  taken  the  words  from  this  very  book  (for  he 
had  a  library  of  Lassus'  works)  when  he  made 
his  well-known  translation : 

'  If  all  be  true  that  I  do  think, 
There  are  five  reasons  we  should  drink : 
Good  wine,  a  friend,  or  being  dry, 
Or  lest  you  should  be  by  and  by, 
Or  any  other  reason  why." 

In  a  subsequent  edition  of  the  same  '  Cantiones' 
appears  another  portion  of  the  same  work, 
'  Fertur  in  conviviis,'  a  4,  in  five  movements  set 
to  music  full  of  character  and  effective  contrasts.2 
The  music  was  so  much  liked  that  other  words 
were  twice  set  to  it,  once  in  a  French  edition 
which  aimed  at  rendering  the  chansons  '  hon- 
nestes  et  chrestiennes '  to  the  words  'Tristis 
ut  Euridicen  Orpheus  ab  orco ' — though  how  the 
adapter  succeeded  in  his  object  by  the  change  is 
not  very  apparent ;  and  again  a  second  time 
after  his  death  in  the  edition  of  his  works  by  his 
son,  to  the  stupid  words  '  Volo  nunquam,'  which 
aimed  at  turning  it  into  a  temperance  song  by 
the  insertion  of  a  negative  in  each  sentiment  of 
the  original.  The  old  edition  has  fortunately 
survived,  and  the  words  of  the  last  two  verses,  be- 
ginning '  Mihi  est  propositum,'  are  still  used  for 
their  original  purpose.  These  spirited  words,  of 
which  Orlando  was  evidently  so  fond,  and  to  the 
quantities  of  which  he  paid  such  careful  regard, 
seem  to  have  inspired  him  with  a  marked  rhythm 
and  sense  of  accent,  which  is  very  exceptional  in 
works  of  the  time. 

In  the  year  1 569,  Adam  Berg,  the  court  pub- 
lisher at  Munich,  brings  out '  Cantiones  aliquot 
a  5/  containing  14  numbers,  and  2  books  of 
•Sacrae  Cantiones,'  partly  new,  are  issued  at 
Louvain.  The  year  1570  is  more  productive,  23 
new  Cautiones  a  6 ;  2  books  of  chansons  con- 
taining 18  new  ones ;  and  a  book  of  29  madri- 
gals, published  in  Munich,  Louvain  and  Venice 
respectively ;  while  France  is  represented  by 
an  important  edition  of  chansons — 'Mellange 

•  Some  doubt  has  lately  been  thrown  on  the  authorship  of  these 
words. 

2  In  what  collection  this  song  nude  Its  fir  it  appearance  Is  not 
known. 

H 


98 


LASS  US. 


d'Orlande  de  Lassus' — often  quoted  but  contain- 
ing little  new  matter.  At  the  close  of  the  year, 
at  the  diet  of  Spires,  the  Emperor  grants  letters 
of  nobility  to  Lassus.1  At  the  time  this  honour 
was  conferred  upon  him,  Lassus  was  probably  on 
his  way  to  the  court  of  France,  where  we  find  him 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year  1571.  Some 
circumstances  of  his  stay  there  may  be  gathered 
from  the  '  Primus  liber  modulorum  a  5/  published 
by  Adrian  Le  Hoy,  in  whose  house  he  lodged 
during  the  visit  (Paris,  August  15  71).  The  pub- 
lisher's dedication  to  Charles  IX.  states  that — 

'When  Orlando  di  Lassus  lately  entered  your  presence, 
to  kiss  your  hand,  and  modestly  and  deferentially  greet 
your  majesty,  I  saw,  plainly  as  eyes  can  see,  the  honour 
you  were  conferring  on  music  and  musicians.  For  to  say 
nothing  of  the  right  royal  gifts  which  you  have  bestowed 
on  Orlando— the  look,  the  countenance,  the  words  with 
which  you  greeted  him  on  his  arrival  (and  this  I  was  not 
the  only  one  to  notice)  were  such,  that  he  may  truly  boast 
of  your  having  shown  to  few  strangers  presented  to  you 
this  year,  the  same  honour,  courtesy  and  kindness  you 
showed  him.  And  even  I,  Adrian,  your  subject  and  royal 
printer,  did  not  fail  to  share  with  him  some  of  that  cour- 
tesy and  consideration  on  your  part.  For  inasmuch  as  I 
accompanied  him  into  your  presence,  (because  he  was 
my  guest,)  You,  seeing  me  constantly  by  his  side  all  the 
time  we  were  in  your  court,  asked  me  more  than  once 
about  music,'  etc.,  etc. 

Ronsard,  the  French  poet,  also  speaks  of  the 
special  welcome  with  which  the  King  received 
the  composer.  Delmotte  suggests  that  the  visit 
to  Paris  may  have  had  to  do  with  a  new  Academy 
of  music,  for  the  erection  of  which  Charles  had 
issued  letters-patent  in  November  1570.  Several 
editions  of  Orlando's  former  works  were  issued  at 
Paris  during  his  stay  there  with  Le  Roy,  but  the 
only  new  work  of  the  year  he  does  not  design  for 
his  newly  made  French  friends.  He  sends  it 
home  to  his  kind  master  Duke  Albert,  and  thus 
addresses  him  (May  1871): — 'When  I  reached 
Paris,  the  city  which  I  had  so  long,  and  so  ardently 
wished  to  see,  I  determined  to  do  nothing,  until 
T  had  first  sent  to  you  from  this,  the  capital  of 
France,  some  proof  of  my  gratitude.' 

This  book  was  the  '  Moduli  quinis  vocibus,' 
which  however  was  written  at  Munich  before 
his  departure,  and  only  published  at  Paris.  His 
travels  naturally  interrupted  his  composition,  and 
there  is  nothing  ready  to  print  in  the  next  year 
(1572)  but  another  set  of  15  German  songs. 

Once  again  settled  in  Munich,  Lassus  is  soon 
at  work,  Adam  Berg  is  busy  providing  'specially 
large  and  entirely  new  type,'  the  Dukes  are  full 
of  grand  ideas  to  bring  honour  on  themselves, 
and  make  the  most  of  their  renowned  Chapel- 
master,  and  July  1573  sees  the  result  in  the  issue 
of  the  1st  volume  of  the  '  Patrocinium  Musices.' 
[See  Berg,  Adam.]  The  work  was  undertaken 
on  the  responsibility  of  Duke  William,  and  a 
portrait   of  that  handsome  prince,    afterwards 

■  A  facsimile  copy  of  this  grant  Is  kept  Id  the  Brussels  library  (Bibl. 
de  Bourgogne,  14,405).  The  part  referring  to  the  coat  of  arms  Is  worth 
quoting :  — *  Llnea  autem  ilia  Candida  seu  argentea,  quae  medium  scutiq. 
aream  constltult,  ordlne  recto  contlneat  tria  slgna  musica,  aureo 
colore  tlucta,  quorum  prlmum  Diesis  vulgo  nuncupatum.  quod  emol- 
liemite  vocis  Indltium  est,  dextram,  alteram  vero,  Q  durum  scilicet 
sinlstram  illius  partem,  tertlam  autem  videlicet  b  molle  centrum 
clypel  occupet."  Delmotte,  In  copying  this  In  his  book,  has  substituted 
the  word  '  becarre '  for  the  sign  3 .  which  Is  curious,  because  the  In- 
terest of  the  quotation  centres  round  a  symbol  which  appears  in  the 
composer's  coat  of  arms,  but  seldom  appears  in  his  music.  He  gen- 
erally contradicted  his  flats  with  sharps,  and  riot  vena. 


LASSUS. 

known  as  'William  the  Pious,'  appears  as  a 
frontispiece. 

The  originators  of  this  publication  appear  to 
have  intended  to  continue  the  series  until  it  be- 
came a  selection  of  all  the  best  music  necessary 
for  the  services  of  the  church.  Orlando,  in  the 
preface  to  the  1st  volume,  hints  at  the  work 
being  undertaken  in  emulation  of  the  service 
lately  rendered  to  the  church  by  Philip  of  Spain 
in  bringing  out  a  new  2  edition  of  the  Scriptures, 
and  speaks  half  apologetically  of  the  1st  volume 
(which  contains  only  motets),  as  if  it  scarcely 
came  up  to  the  object  of  the  publication. 
The  books  might  almost  be  called  '  scores,'  the 
separate  parts  appearing  together  on  the  two 
opposite  pages.  Few  publications  of  this  kind 
had  as  yet  appeared.  The  music  takes  up  a  great 
deal  more  space  than  it  would  if  printed  in  sepa- 
rate part-books,  and  on  this  account,  as  well  as  by 
reason  of  the  magnificent  type,  the  volumes  hold 
less  than  many  a  smaller  and  less  pretentious 
edition.  The  series  stops  short  in  1576,  and  of 
the  second  series  (1589- 1590)  Orlando  contributes 
only  the  1st  volume.  With  the  exception  of  the 
'  Vigiliae  Mortuorum '  in  the  4th  volume — 
which  had  already  appeared  in  1565  under  the 
title  'Lectiones  ex  propheta  Job,' — and  some  of 
the  Magnificats  in  vol.  5,  all  the  contents  of  the 
volumes  appear  for  the  first  time. 

The  and  volume3  is  dedicated  (Jan.  1,  1574) 
to  Gregory  XIII ;  and  it  is  no  doubt  in  return  for 
this  mark  of  respect  that  Orlando  receives  from 
the  Pope  on  April  7  the  knighthood  of  the  Golden 
Spur.  The  4th  volume  contains  an  interesting 
setting  of  the '  Passion '  according  to  St.  Matthew, 
in  41  very  short  movements,  part  of  the  narrative 
being  recited  by  the  priest,  and  the  character 
parts  sung  as  trios  or  duets. 

In  the  year  1574  Lassus  started  on  another 
journey  to  Paris.  Whether  the  French  King  had 
invited  him  for  a  time  to  his  court,  or  whether 
Lassus  actually  accepted  a  permanent  position 
there,  we  do  not  know,  but  whatever  the  object 
of  the  journey,  it  was  frustrated  by  the  death  of 
Charles  (May  30),  and  Lassus  hearing  of  this 
when  he  had  reached  Frankfort,  returned  at  once 
to  Munich. 

The  year  1576,  besides  finishing  the  1st  series 
of  the  '  Patrocinium  Musices,'  sees  the  publica- 
tion of  the  3rd  part  of  the  'Teutsche  lieder,' 
containing  22  nos.,  and  the  'Thresor  de  musique,' 
a  collection  of  103  chansons,  most  of  which  had 
been  printed  in  the  Mellange  (1570),  but  appear 
here  with  new  words  to  satisfy  the  growing 
taste  for  psalm-singing  in  France.  1577  brings 
a  small  work  of  interest,  a  set  of  24  cantiones 
(a  2),  12  being  vocal  duets,  and  the  other  12  for 
instruments.  The  style  of  music  is  precisely  the 
same  in  both  cases,  the  absence  of  words  in  the 
latter  12  alone  making  any  difference;  and  this 
proves,  if  there  be  any  doubt  on  other  grounds, 
that  the  notice  frequent  on  title  pages  of  this 

»  The  so-called  ■  Antwerp  Folyglot  Bible,'  published  In  1569-72  at  the 
expense  of  Philip. 

»  In  the  original  edition  the  second  mass  in  vol.  11.  Is  printed  with 
Its  wrong  title.  It  should  be  Nissa  super  '  Scarco  di  doglia,'  as  It 
appears  In  subsequent  editions. 


LASSUS. 

period,  '  apt  for  viols  and  voyces,'  did  not  mean 
that  the  voices  and  instruments  were  to  perform 
them  together,  though  this  they  undoubtedly  did 
at  times,  but  that  the  music  of  the  chansons  and 
motets  formed  the  principal  repertoire  of  the 
instrumentalists,  and  that  they  converted  them 
into  '  songs  without  words '  with  the  concurrence 
of  the  composer.  What  other  kinds  of  music  the 
instrumentalists  at  Munich  performed,  it  does 
not  come  within  our  province  to  discuss,  since 
Lassus  took  no  part  in  the  direction  of  it.  The 
duets  having  apparently  found  favour,  Orlando 
goes  on  to  publish  a  set  of  trios  for  voices  or 
instruments,  and  as  if  this  was  a  new  and  special 
idea,  the  first  one  is  set  to  the  words  '  Haec  quae 
ter  triplici,'  and  the  book  dedicated  to  the  three 
Dukes,  William,  Ferdinand  and  Ernest.  The  most 
important  publication  of  the  year  is '  Missae  variis 
concentibus  ornatae,'  a  set  of  18  masses,  of  which 
1 3  are  new,  printed  at  Paris  by  Le  Roy,  in  score. 
During  the  years  1578-80  we  know  of  no 
important  publications.  The  illness  of  Duke 
Albert,  and  his  death  (Oct.  1579).  are  probably 
sufficient  to  account  for  this.  He  had  done  a 
last  act  of  kindness  to  Lassus  in  the  previous 
April  by  guaranteeing  his  salary  (400  florins) 
for  life.  We  like  to  think  that  the  new  set  of 
•Vigiliae  Mortuorum' — to  the  words  of  Job  as 
before — were  Lassus'  tribute  to  the  memory  of 
his  master.  They  were  published  a  year  or  two 
after  the  Duke's  death  as  having  been  recently 
composed.  They  are  more  beautiful  than  the 
earlier  set,  in  proportion  as  they  are  simpler ; 
and  so  simple  are  they,  that  in  them  human 
skill  seems  to  have  been  thrust  aside,  as  out  of 


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LASSUS. 


99 


place  for  their  purpose.  Such  music  as  this 
might  Handel  have  had  in  his  mind,  when  he 
wrote  to  the  words  •  Since  by  man  came  death.' 

Passing  on  to  the  year  1581  we  find  a  'Liber 
Missarum,'  printed  by  Gerlach,  containing  4  new 
masses.  Of  these  Commer  has  printed  one  on 
the  tune  '  La,  la,  Maistre  Pierre.'  To  the  same 
date  belongs  a  '  Libro  De  Villanelle,  Moresche, 
et  altre  Canzoni'  (a  4,  5,  8),  from  Paris,  con- 
taining 23  numbers. 

There  is  much  new  music  ready  for  1582,  and 
on  the  1st  of  January  Orlando  dedicates  a  book 
to  the  bishop  of  Wiirtzburg,  containing  the  2nd 
set  of '  Lectiones  ex  libris  Hiob,'  already  referred 
to,  and  1 1  new  l  motets.  At  the  end  of  the  book, 
and  without  connexion  with  its  other  contents,  a 
short  tuneful  setting  of  the  curious  words 

'  Quid  facies,  facies  Veneris  cum  veneris  ante, 
Ne  sedeas  sed  eas,  ne  pereas  per  eaa.' 

Then  again,  on  Feb.  1,  'jampridem  summa 
diligentia  compositum,'  26  Sacrae  cantiones  a  5  ; 
of  which  however  we  only  know  the  last;  a 
beautiful  setting  of  the  hymn  to  John  the  Bap- 
tist, 'Ut  queant   laxis,'  the   tenor   singing  the 


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<  These  are  all  lying  in  modern  score  aud  read;  for  publication  iu 
the  1'etis  library  at  Brussels, 

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LASSUS. 


notes  of  the  scale  with  their  names,  and  the  other 
parts  taking  up  the  remaining  words  of  each  line, 
the  music  very  interesting  as  a  specimen  of  an 
old  treatment  of  the  scale,  though  scarcely  so 
old-fashioned  as  might  be  expected.  The  next 
month,  March,  brings  a  set  of  Motets  (a  6), 
'singulari  authoris  industria,'  for  voices  or  in- 
struments. These  books  which  follow  so  closely 
on  each  other  are  not  collections  of  old  work,  but, 
as  we  learn  from  the  title-pages,  had  all  been 
recently  composed.  The  last  set  exists  also  in 
modern  notation  in  the  Brussels  library  among 
many  such  scores,  prepared  by  the  '  singular  in- 
dustry' of  another  native  of  Mons,  M.  Fe'tis, 
who  was  appointed  by  the  Belgian  government 
to  bring  out  a  complete  edition  of  his  fellow- 
townsman's  works,  but  was  stopped  by  death 
from  carrying  out  one  more  of  the  many  great 
tasks  he  had  accomplished  and  was  intending 
to  accomplish. 

The  successful  adaptation  of  German  words  to 
some  of  Orlando's  earlier  French  chansons  leads 
him  in  the  following  year,  1583,  to  write  33 
original  ones  to  sacred  and  secular  German  words 
'  Neue  teutsche  Lieder,  geistlich  und  weltlich' — 
short  pieces  of  great  beauty  in  4-part  counterpoint. 
Several  of  them  have  been  printed  by  Commer. 
The  most  important  publication  of  1584  is  the 
*  Penitential  Psalms.'  This  is  the  work  we  have 
already  spoken  of  under  the  year  1565. 

A  violent  storm  occurred  at  Munich  on  the 
Thursday  of  the  Fete-Dieu  in  this  year,  and  the 
Duke  gave  orders  that  the  customary  procession 
round  the  town  from  the  church  of  St.  Peter  should 
be  confined  to  the  interior  of  the  building.  But 
no  sooner  had  the  head  of  the  procession  reached 
the  porch  of  the  church,  and  the  choir  was  heard 
singing  the  first  notes  of  Lassus'  motet  '  Gustate, 
videte,'  than  a  sudden  lull  occurred  in  the  storm, 
and  the  ceremony  was  performed  as  usual.  This 
was  looked  upon  as  a  miracle,  and  the  people  of 
Munich  '  in  their  pious  enthusiasm  looked  upon 
Lassus  as  a  divine  being.'  Afterwards,  whenever 
fine  weather  was  an  object,  this  motet  was  chosen. 
1585  brings  a  new  set  of  madrigals  a  5,  and  a 
book  containing  besides  motets  the  'Hieremise 
prophetae  Lamentationes.*  Besides  these  we  have 
a  volume  of  'Cantica  sacra'  (24  nos.),  and  another 
of  'Sacrse  cantiones'  (32  nos.),  both,  according 
to  the  title-pages,  recently  composed.  The  first 
contains  a  setting  of  the  '  Pater  noster,'  a  6,  and 
an  ode  to  Duke  Ernest,  Archbishop  of  Cologne, 
and  the  latter  a  '  Stabat  mater '  for  two  4-part 
choirs  singing  alternate  verses. 

For  some  years  back,  all  the  editions  bear  on 
the  frontispiece  some  testimony  to  the  wonderful 
industry  of  the  composer.  1586  seems  to  bring 
the  first  warning  of  declining  strength.  It  is 
a  blank  as  far  as  publications  are  concerned,  and 
the  opening  of  1587  brings  with  it  the  gift  from 
Duke  William  of  a  country  house  at  Geising  on 
the  Ammer,  probably  as  a  place  of  occasional 
retirement.  Then  he  comes  back  to  work,  and 
in  gratitude,  no  doubt,  for  better  health,  on 
April  15  dedicates  23  new  madrigals  to  the 
court  physician,  Dr,  Mermann.   In  August  a  new 


LASSUS. 

volume  of  the'PatrociniumMusices'appears,  con- 
taining 1 3  magnificats.  Two  masses,  a  •  Locutus 
Sum'  and  'Beatus  qui  intelligit,'  bear  the  same 
date.  Towards  the  close  of  the  year  Orlando  is 
begging  for  rest  from  his  arduous  duties  as 
chapel-master.  Portions  of  the  Duke's  decree  in 
answer  to  this  request  are  interesting. 

'  The  good  and  loyal  services  of  our  well-beloved  and 
faithful  servant  Orland  de  Lassus,  ....  lead  us  to 
show  our  favour  and  gratitude  to  him,  by  allowing  his 
honourable  retirement  from  his  duties  as  master  of  our 
chapel,  seeing  that  such  duties  are  too  onerous  for  him, 
and  we  permit  him  to  pass  some  portion  of  each  year  at 
Geising  with  his  family  ....  In  consideration  of  this  his 

appointments  will  be  reduced  200  florins  annually 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  we  appoint  his  son  Ferdinand  as 
a  member  of  our  chapel  at  a  salary  of  200  florins,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  his  other  son,  Rudolph,  who  has  recently 
humbly  asked  our  permission  to  marry,  we  grant  his  re- 
quest and  confer  upon  him  the  place  of  organist  with  a 
salary  of  200  florins,  on  condition  that  he  undertake  the 
education  in  singing  and  composition  of  the  young  gen- 
tlemen of  the  choir. 

The  composer  does  not  seem  to  have  been  satis- 
fied with  this  arrangement,  and  again  returns  to 
his  post.  In  1588,  in  conjunction  with  his  son 
Rudolph,  he  brings  out  50  '  Teutsche  Psalmen.* 
Commer  prints  the  25  nos.  contributed  by  Or- 
lando— and  very  beautiful  and  interesting  they 
are — 3  part  hymns,  the  melody  occuring,  according 
to  his  fancy,  in  either  of  the  3  parts. 

The  volume  of  the  '  Patrocinium  Musices'  for 
1598  contains  6  masses,  the  last  number  being 
the  '  Missa  pro  defunctis,'  which  we  may  consider 
the  last  important  publication  of  his  life.  Its 
lovely  opening  is  an  inspiration  which  finds  no 
parallel  in  any  other  of  his  compositions  that  we 
have  seen.    As  his  end  approaches,  he  has  here 


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LASSUS. 

one  of  those  glimpses  into  the  coming  world  of 
music  which  Ambros  (Geschichte,  iii.  356)  traces 
in  others  of  his  works.  It  is  however  only  in 
the  first  page  or  two  that  we  find  the  music  so 
astonishingly  near  our  own  idea  of  the  opening 
of  a  Requiem. 

And  here  his  life's  work  seems  to  end ;  in  the 
next  volume  of  the  'Patrocinium  Musices'  we  find 
other  names,  and  nothing  bears  Orlando's  but  1 2 
German  part-songs.  Then  an  utter  blank.  The 
fresh  effort  to  work  had  completely  prostrated 
him,  but  death  did  not  come  at  once  to  his 
relief.  His  wife  Regina  finds  him  one  day  so 
ill  that  he  fails  to  recognise  her.  The  Princess 
Maxmiliana  sends  Dr.  Mermann,  at  once,  and 
there  is  a  temporary  recovery,  but  the  mind  is 
still  at  fault.  'Cheerful  and  happy  no  longer,' 
says  Regina,  '  he  has  become  gloomy  and  speaks 
only  of  death.'  Promises  of  the  Duke's  further 
bounty  have  no  effect  upon  his  spirits.  He  even 
writes  to  his  patron,  complaining  that  he  has  never 
carried  out  his  father  Albert's  intentions  towards 
him,  and  it  needs  all  that  Regina  and  the  Prin- 
cess Maxmiliana  can  do  to  soften  the  effect  of 
this  act.  He  died  at  Munich  in  June  1594. 
This  date  is  taken  from  a  letter  written  after- 
wards by  his  wife.  The  two  publications  '  La- 
grime  di  S.  Pietro,'  signed  May  24,  1594,  and 
'Cantiones  Sacrae'  (Feast  of  S.  Michael,  1594), 
may  imply  that  his  death  did  not  take  place 
till  1595,  and  that  he  had  so  far  temporarily 
recovered  as  to  take  an  interest  in  the  publication 
of  some  old  works,  or  perhaps  even  to  write  new 
ones ;  but  it  is  natural  to  prefer  the  date  given  by 
his  wife,  in  which  case  we  must  suppose  these 
works  to  have  been  edited  by  other  hands.  He 
was  buried  in  the  cemetery  of  the  Franciscans 
at  Munich.  When  the  monastery  was  destroyed, 
the  monument  which  had  been  erected  over  his 
grave  was  removed,  and  kept  in  the  possession  of 
a  private  family.  It  was  set  up  in  the  present 
century  in  the  garden  of  the  'Academie  des 
Beaux  Arts,'  at  Munich.  Many  more  details  of 
all  these  things  are  given  by  Delmotte,  to  whom 
we  refer  the  reader. 

After  Orlando's  death  his  sons  edited  many  of 
his  works.  Thus  Rudolph  the  organist  edited 
'  Prophetae  Sibyllarum  (a  4)  chromatico  more '  in 
1600,  and  Ferdinand  the  chapel-master  printed 
4  of  his  own  Magnificats  with  5  of  his  father's 
in  1 60  2 .  In  1 604  they  together  issued  '  Magnum 
opus  musicum  0.  de  Lasso,'  by  which  work  they 
have  immortalised  themselves,  preserving  in  6 
volumes  of  a  moderate  size,  most  clearly  and 
beautifully  printed,  no  less  than  516  sacred  and 
secular  motets.  The  addition  of  bars  is  all  that 
is  required  to  give  the  work  a  completely  modern 
form.  Dehn  is  said  to  have  transcribed  the 
whole  of  it.  Ferdinand,  the  elder  brother,  died 
in  1609  at  about  50  years  of  age,  leaving  several 
children,  one  of  whom,  also  called  Ferdinand, 
was  sent  to  Italy  for  his  musical  education,  and 
was  afterwards  Chapel-master  to  duke  Maxi- 
milian I.  Rudolph,  after  his  brother's  death, 
edited  '6  Missae  posthumae  O.  di  Lasso'  (16 10) 
and   100    Magnificats    (1619),    most    of   them 


LASSUS. 


101 


hitherto  unpublished.  The  two  Ferdinands  and 
Rudolph  were  all  eminent  composers,  and  it  is  said 
that  when  the  King  of  Sweden,  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus,  entered  Munich  in  1632,  he  visited  Rudolph 
at  his  house  and  ordered  compositions  from  him. 

We  have  mentioned  the  principal  works  pub- 
lished by  Lassus  in  his  lifetime  or  edited  after- 
wards by  his  sons.  Counted  in  separate  numbers 
Eitner1  brings  their  total  to  over  1300.  This 
does  not  include  many  detached  pieces  published 
in  collections  of  music  by  various  composers. 
Again,  the  unpublished  MSS.  are  very  numerous. 
When  all  these  are  counted,  the  sacred  and  secular 
works  are  said  to  amount  to  about  1600  and  800 
respectively,  the  chief  items  being  51  masses, 
about  1200  sacred  motets  and  cantiones,  370 
chansons,  and  over  230  madrigals.  Of  such 
works  as  have  appeared  in  modern  notation  by 
the  labours  of  Commer,  Proske,  Dehn,  Van 
Maldeghem,  etc.,  we  may  say  roughly  that  they 
represent  about  an  eighth  part  of  the  composer's 
complete  works. 

Lassus  was  the  last  great  Netherland  master. 
His  native  land  for  200  years  had  been  as 
prominent  in  music  as  Germany  has  been  in 
later  times.  Italy,  a  second  home  to  every  great 
Belgian  musician  since  the  time  of  Dufay,  was 
at  length  to  receive  the  reward  for  her  hospitality, 
and  to  produce  a  composer  to  compete  with  the 
proudest  of  them.  Josquin  and  Orlando  were 
to  find  their  equal  in  the  Italian  pupil  of  their 
countryman  Goudimel. 

Palestrina  is  often  said  to  have  overturned  the 
whole  fabric  of  existing  church  music  in  a  few 
days  by  writing  some  simple  masses  for  Pope 
Marcellus.  For  the  truth  of  this  story  we  refer 
the  reader  to  the  article  on  Palestrina.  It 
serves  well  enough  as  a  legend  to  illustrate 
the  reformation  which  music  had  been  under- 
going since  Josquin's  time.  The  simpler  church 
music  did  not  indeed  take  the  place  of  the  older 
and  more  elaborate  forms  of  the  Josquin  period 
at  a  few  strokes  of  Palestrina's  pen.  Even  in  the 
writings  of  Josquin  himself  the  art  can  be  seen 
gradually  clearing  itself  from  meaningless  and 
grotesque  difficulties ;  and  there  were  plenty  of 
good  composers,  two  very  great  ones.Gombert  and 
Clement,  coming  between  Josquin  and  Lassus  or 
Palestrina.  The  simplicity  of  Lassus'  church 
music  as  early  as  1565  shows  that  the  story  of 
the  causes  of  Palestrina's  revolution  must  not  be 
accepted  too  literally.  The  Belgian  brought  up  in 
Italy,  andtheltalianpupilof  a  Belgian, were  byno 
means  so  widely  separated  as  their  too  eager  friends 
sometimes  try  to  prove  them.  Side  by  side  in 
art,  they  laboured  alike  to  carry  on  the  work  of 
the  great  Josquin,  and  make  the  mighty  contra- 
puntal means  at  their  disposal  more  and  more 
subservient  to  expressional  beauty.  It  seems 
that  the  simple  forms  of  expression  which  Lassus 
and  Palestrina  were  so  often  content  to  use, 
owed  something  to  the  influence  of  secular  music, 
even  though  the  composers  may  not  have  been 
conscious  of  drawing  directly  from  such  a  source. 

I  Verzeichuiss  der  gedrackten  Werke  tod  0.  de  Lassus  (Tnutwein, 
1874.). 


102 


LASS  US. 


LATROBE. 


But  a  stronger  influence  acting  on  the  two 
musicians  is  to  be  found,  we  think,  in  the  history 
of  the  religious  movements  of  the  time.  Palestrina 
lived  in  Home  at  a  time  when  zealous  Catholics 
were  engaged  in  vigorous  internal  reforms  as 
a  defence  against  the  march  of  Protestantism. 
Lassus  too  was  at  a  court  the  first  in  Europe  to 
throw  in  its  lot  with  this  counter-reformation. 
The  music  of  the  two  composers  breathes  a 
reality  of  conviction  and  an  earnestness  which  is 
made  necessary  by  the  soul-stirring  spirit  of  the 
time.  To  Lassus,  it  is  said,  strong  offers  were 
made  by  the  court  of  Saxony  to  induce  him  to 
come  over  to  the  work  of  the  Protestant  Church. 
Fortunately  for  the  art  he  remained  true  to  his 
convictions,  and  was  spared  from  being  spoilt,  as 
many  of  his  fellow-countrymen  were,  by  devoting 
themselves  to  those  slender  forms  of  composition 
which  were  thought  suitable  to  the  reformed 
religion. 

Lassus  himself  saw  no  violent  break  separating 
his  music  from  that  of  his  predecessors,  as  we 
may  infer  from  the  list  of  composers  whose  works 
were  performed  in  the  Munich  chapel.  In  that 
list  the  name  of  Josquin  appears  in  capital 
letters,  for  it  meant  then  what  the  name  of  Bach 
means  now  ;  and  Lassus,  with  his  softer  and  more 
modern  grace,  looked  up  with  reverence  and 
imitated,  as  well  as  his  own  individuality  wrould 
allow  him,  the  unbending  beauty  of  the  glorious 
old  contrapuntist  in  the  same  way  as  Mendelssohn 
in  later  times  looked  up  to  and  longed  to  imitate 
the  Cantor  of  the  Thomas-schule. 

Orlando  spent  his  life  in  Germany,  then  by  no 
means  the  most  musical  country  or  the  one  most 
likely  to  keep  his  memory  alive.  Palestrina, 
whose  life  of  suffering  and  poverty  contrasts 
strongly  with  Orlando's  affluence  and  position, 
had  at  least  the  good  fortune  to  plant  his  works 
in  the  very  spot  where,  if  they  took  root  at  all, 
time  would  make  the  least  ravages  on  them.  The 
name  and  works  of  Palestrina  have  never  ceased 
to  live  in  the  Eternal  City ;  and  while  the  name  of 
Lassus  is  little  known  among  musical  amateurs, 
every  one  is  acquainted  with  the  works  of  his 
contemporary.  How  much  is  really  known  of 
Palestrina's  music  we  do  not  venture  to  question, 
but  the  more  the  better  for  Lassus.  As  soon  as 
the  world  really  becomes  familiar  with  the 
music  of  the  Italian,  the  next  step  will  lead  to 
the  equally  interesting  and  beautiful  works  of 
the  Netherlander.  Then  by  degrees  we  may 
hope  for  glimpses  into  that  still  more  remote 
period  when  the  art  of  counterpoint,  in  the  hands 
of  Josquin,  first  began  to  have  a  living  influence 
on  the  souls  of  men.  [J.  R.S.-B.] 

LAST  JUDGMENT,  THE.  The  English 
version,  by  Prof.  Taylor,  of  Spohr s  oratorio 
'  Die  letzten  Dinge.'  Produced  at  Norwich  Fes- 
tival Sept.  24,  1S30.  Given  by  the  Sacred 
Harmonic  Society,  July  11,  1838,  also  July  23, 
1 S47,  Spohr  conducting.  [G.] 

LATROBE,  Rev.  Christian  Ignatius,  eldest 
son  of  Rev.  Benjamin  Latrobe,  superintendent 
of  the  congregations  of  the  United  (Moravian) 
Brethren  in  England,  was  born  at  Fulnec,  Leeds, 


Yorkshire,  Feb.  12,  1758.  In  1771  he  went  to 
the  college  of  the  United  Brethren  at  Niesky, 
Upper  Lusatia,  returned  to  England  in  1784, 
took  orders  in  the  same  church,  became  secretary 
to  the  Society  for  the  Furtherance  of  the  Gospel, 
and  in  1 795  was  appointed  secretary  to  the 
Unity  of  the  Brethren  in  England.  Although 
Latrobe  never  followed  music  as  a  profession  he 
cultivated  it  assiduously  from  an  early  age.  His 
earlier  compositions  were  chiefly  instrumental; 
three  of  his  sonatas,  having  met  with  the  ap- 
proval of  Haydn,  were  published  and  dedicated 
to  him.  His  other  published  compositions  in- 
clude Lord  Roscommon's  translation  of  the  'Dies 
Ine,'  1799;  'The  Dawn  of  Glory,'  1803;  Anthem 
for  the  Jubilee  of  George  III.,  1809;  Anthems, 
by  various  composers,  181 1  ;  Original  Anthems, 
1823  ;  '  Te  Deum,  performed  in  York  Cathedral'; 
'Miserere,  Ps.  51';  and  'Six  Airs  on  serious 
subjects,  words  by  Cowper  and  Hannah  More.' 
He  edited  the  first  English  edition  of  the  Mora- 
vian Hymn  Tunes.  But  his  most  important 
publication  was  his  'Selection  of  Sacred  Music 
from  the  works  of  the  most  eminent  composers 
of  Germany  and  Italy,'  6  vols.  1806-25,  through 
the  medium  of  which  many  fine  modern  compo- 
sitions were  first  introduced  to  the  notice  of  the 
British  public.  He  died  at  Fairfield,  near  Liver- 
pool, May  6,  1836. 

Rev.  John  Antes  Latrobe,  M.A.,  his  son, 
born  in  London  in  1792,  became  organist  at 
Liverpool,  and  was  composer  of  several  anthems. 
He  took  orders  in  the  Church  of  England,  and 
was  incumbent  of  St.  Thomas's,  Kendal,  and  hon- 
orary canon  of  Carlisle.  He  was  author  of  '  The 
Music  of  the  Church  considered  in  its  various 
branches,  Congregational  and  Choral,'  London, 
1S31.     He  died  at  Gloucester  Nov.  19,  1878. 

The  following  are  the  contents  of  Latrobe'a 
valuable  Selection,  arranged  alphabetically.  The 
pieces  are  all  in  vocal  score,  with  compressed  ac- 
companiments ;  some  to  the  original  text,  some 
to  translated  words. 


Abos.      Stabat    Mater.  •  T.    from 

Stabat. 
Alberii.  D.    Salve  Redemptor,  C— 
Salve. 
Do.    O  Cod,  be  not.  far.  A.— Do. 
1)0.    O  Jesu,  Salvator!  C— Do. 
Astorga,    O  quaui  tristis,  T.— Sta- 
bat 
Do.    Quls  est  homo.  D.— Do. 
Do.    Blessed  bo  the  power,  C. — 

Do. 
Do.    Fac  me   penltentum,  D.— 

Do. 
Do.    Recordare.  A.— Do. 
Do.    Cum  sltlam,  ('.—Do. 
Each.  0.  P.  E.     O  come,  let  us 
worship,  C— Anthem. 
Do.    O  Lord,  hide  not.  A.—'  Is- 
raelites.' 
Do.    He  opened  the  rock. C— Do. 
Bassani.    Sanctus,  C—  Requiem,     j 

Do.    Recordare,  0.  *  S.-Do. 
Eoccherlni.    Fac  ut  portem.  A.—' 
Stabat. 
Do.    Stabat  Mater.  A.-Da 
Do.    Recordare,  T.— Do. 
Do.    Iiilaninintus,  A.— Do. 
l'.orrl,  B.    I.audamus  Te,  A.— Ma 
Do.    Domiiie.T.— Do. 


Borri,  B.    Quoniam,  T.  from  Mass. 

Do.    Chrlste,  C.-Do. 
Brussettt.     Braise  the  Lord,  I'.— 

ConBtcbor. 
Cafaro.  P.    Stabat  Mater,  D.A  ('.— 

Stabat. 
Caldara.    Benedlctus,  T.— Mass. 

Do.    Et  incarnatus.  A.— Do. 

Do.    Annus,  D.— Do. 

Do.    Et  Incarnatus,  C— Mass. 

Do.    Cruclfixus.  I).— Do. 

Do.    Et  resurrexit,  C.-Do. 

Do.    Annua,  C.-Do. 
Ciampt,  F.    O  my  God,  A.— Mise- 

Do.    Ecce  enlm,  D.— Da 
Do.    Cor  mundum,  D.— Do. 
DanzL  Salve  Redemptor.  0—  Salve. 

Do.    Agnus  Del,  C— Mass. 
Durante.     I    will   call,    A.  —  I.a- 
mentatlo. 
Do.    O  remember,  C— Do. 
Do.    Omnis  populus,  C— Service 

for  1'assion  Week. 
Do.    Quaerens  me.  D.— Requi'-m. 
Da    Agnus,  C—  Litany. 
Felici.  Orcheenate,  D.— Oratorio. 
GaluppL    Sacro  horrore,  D.— Ora- 
torio. 


1  A. -Aria:  D.-Duet ;  T.-Terzetto  :   Q.-=Quartet:    Qu.=Quintet; 
'.-Coro;  Cb.— Chorale;  M.  =  Motet ;  Of.    Offertoriumj  S.-Solo. 


LATROBE. 

G&nsbacher.    Quid  sum  miser,  C.  Haydn.  J.     N'on   parml,   A.  from 


LAUDA  SION. 


103 


from  Requiem. 
Gluck.    Be  profundis,  C— De  Pro- 
fundi!. 
Gossec      Lachrymo«a,    D.  —  Re- 
quiem. 
Do.    Pie  Jesu,  C— Do. 
Graun.    TeDeum,0.— TeDeunv, 
Do.   Te  gloriosus,  0.— Do. 
Do.    Tu  Rex  glorlae,  C— Da 
Da   Tu  ad  llberandum,  A— Do. 
Do.    Tu  ad  dexteram,  C— Do. 
Do.    Te  ergo  quaesumus,  D.— Do. 
Do.    Et  rege,  C— Do. 
Do.    Dlgnare  Domine,  A.— Do. 
Do.    O  ZIon,  mark,  C— Tod  Jesu. 
Da    He  was  despised,  C— Do. 
Do.    Thou  hast  brought  me,  C— 

Do. 
Do.    Sing  to  Jehovah,  C— Do. 
Do.   Astonish'd  Seraphim,  R.— 

Do. 
Do.    Weep,  Israel,  Ch.— Do. 
Do.    Behold  us  here,  C— Do. 
Do.    Behold  the  Lamb  of  God. 

C— Passione. 
Do.    He  was  despised,  C— Do. 
Do.    God,  my  strength,  D— Do. 
Do.    Bless  the  Lord,  A.— Do. 
Do.    Let  us  run,  C— Do. 
Do.    In  songs  of  joy,  Ch.— Do. 
Do.   Bow  down.  A.— Do. 
Haser.     Against  thee  only,  C— 

Miserere. 
Hasse.    Insplro  0  Dens,  C— Au- 

gusttna 
Do.    Laudate  ccell  Fatrem,  C— 

Do. 
Do.    Dtl  furentibus,  A.— Do. 
Do.   Jesu  mea  pax,  D.— Magda- 

lena. 
Do.    O  portent  a.  A.— Do. 
Do.    Mea  tormenta,  A.— Do. 
Do.   Ad  te  clamamus,  A.— Salve. 
Do.    O  give  thanks,  0.— Caduta. 
Do.    Finche  solro.  A.— Do. 
Do.    Blow  the  sacred  trumpet, 

C-Do. 
Do.    Lauda,  Qu.  AC.— Pellegrini. 
Da   Viva  fonte.  A.— Do. 
Da    D'Asprl  legatl.  A.— Do. 
Do.    Senti  11  mar,  A.— Do. 
Do.    Pellegrino  e  I'uomo,  C— Do. 
Do.    Defende  populum,  C.— Giu- 
seppe ric. 
Do.    Die  quaeso,  A.— Do. 
Da   Plebes  inepte  consilia,  C— 

Do. 
Do.    Agnus  Dei,  D.— Litany. 
Da    O  Lord,  save  tby  people,  A 

— Depositlone. 
Do.   Bex   tremendae,  C.  A  A.— 

Requiem. 
Da     Miserere  mel  Deus,  C— 

Miserere. 
Haydn,  J.      Tu  di   grazia,   C. — 

Passione. 
Do.    Padre  celeste,  C  —Do. 
Do.  Kyrie,  C.—MassNo.I,  in  Bb. 
Da    Gloria,  C— Do. 
Do.    Et  incarnatus,  C— Do. 
Da    Banctus,  C— Do. 
Do.    Qui   tollis,   A.  AC.  — Mass 

No.  II,  in  C. 
Do.  Gloria,  C— Mass  No.  Ill,  in  D. 
Do.    Et  incarnatus,  A.  A  C— Da 
Da    Quoniam,  A.— Mass  No.  V. 
Da   Cum  sancto.  C— Do. 
Do.    Et  Incarnatus.  S.  AD.— Do. 
Da    Agnus,  A.— Da 
Do.  Kyrie.C—  MassNo.VII.inG, 
Da    Et  incarnatus,  S.  A  Qu.— Do. 
Do.    Sanctus,  C— Da 
Da   Benedlctus,  Q.— Da 
Da   Sanctus,  C— Mass  Na  VIII, 

InBb. 
Da   Benedlctus,  A.— Do. 
Da   Agnus  Del,  C— Do. 
I'o.   Kyrie,  C— Mais  No. XIL 
Da    Stabat  Mater,  C.-Stabat. 
Da   Vldit  suum.  A.— Da 
Do.   Qui  est  homo,  0.— Da 
Da   Pro  peccatls,  A.— Do. 
Da   Flammis  orci.  A.— Da 
Do.   Fao  me  cruce,  A.— Do. 
Da    Quando  corpus,  C— Do. 
Do.  Salve  Kedemptor,  C— Salve. 
Ho.   Pleta    d'un  infelice,    C. — 

Tobia. 


Tobia. 
O  di  le  nostre,  C— Do. 
My  soul  shall  cry,  Q,— Mo- 

tetto. 
Haydn,  M.  Lord,  grant  us  thy,  Ch.— 

Service  for  Country  Church. 
Da    O  full  of  all,  Ch.— Do. 
Da    While  conscious,  Ch.— Do. 
Do.    Blest  Jesus,  gracious,  Ch.— 

Da 
Do.    O  Love,  all  love  excelling, 

Ch.— Da 
Do.    While  with  her  fragrant, 

Ch.— Do. 
Do.    Worship,  honour,  Ch.— Da 
Do.    Tenebrae,  C— Tenebrae. 
Do.    Sanctus,  C— Bequiem. 
Da   Agnus,  C— Do. 
Da   Oro  supplex,  C— Do, 
Do.    Lauda  Slon,  Q.— Litany. 
Hummel.    Holy,  Holy,  C— Mass. 
Jomelll.    Bex  tremendae,  D.— Ke- 
quiem. 
Da    Kyrie,  D— Mass. 
Da   Agnus,  D.— Da 
Leo.   Dal   nuvoloso  monte.  A.— 

S.  Elena. 
Do.   Dal  tuo  sogllo,  D.— Da 
Do.    Christus    factus   est,    S.— 

Verse. 
Da    0  Jesu,  A.— Salve. 
LottL    Qui  tollis,  C— Mass. 
Da    Gloria,  C— Do. 
Da    Kt  In  terra,  Qu.— Do. 
Da    Miserere  mei,  C— Miserere. 
Marcella     Save,  O  save,   D.  — 

Psalms. 
MorarL   Agnus  Del,  T.— Mass. 
MoriarL    Cum  sancto,  0.— Do. 
Mozart.  Becordare,  Q.— liequiem. 
Da    Sanctus,  C— Mass  No.  I. 
Da    Benedictus,  Q.— Da 
Da    Agnus,  A.— Do. 
Da    Gloria,  C— Mass  No.  H. 
Da  Benedlctus, Q.— MassNo. III. 
Do.   Agnus,  C— Do. 
Da   Agnus,  D  —  Mass  Na  VI. 
Da    Bless  the  Lord  •  Kyrie  ,  D. 

-Mass  No.  X. 
Do.    Benedictus,  A.  A  C— Do. 
Do.    Agnus,  C— Do. 
Do.  Benedictus,  Q.— Maw  No.  XI. 
Da    O  God,  when  thou  appear- 

est,  C— Motetto  I.  II. 
Do.    Ne  pulvis,  C— Do. 
Do.    Kyrie,  D—  Litany  I. 
Do.    Jesu  Domine,  A. — Do. 
Da    Jesu  Chrlste,  D.— Litany  II. 
Do.    Verbum  caro,  C— Do. 
Do.  Enter  into  his  gates,  A.— Do. 
Da   Kyrie,  C— Do. 
Do.   Agnus,  D.— Do. 
Da   Tho'  by  threatening  storms. 
A— Davidde. 
Naumann.   Chrlste,  T.— Mass  No.  I. 
Do.    Kyrie,  C— Do. 
Do.    Et  Incarnatus,  D.— Do. 
Do.    Agnus,  D.— Do. 
Do.    Quoniam,  D— Mass  No.  II. 
Do,    Cum  sancto,  C— Do. 
Da    Benedlctus,  D.  A  C— Do. 
Do.    Agnus,  0.— Da 
Do.    Qui  tollis,  C—  Mass  No.  111. 
Do.   Et  Incarnatus,  A.— Do. 
Do.    Sanctus,  C— Do. 
Do,    Et  incarnatus,  A,— Mass  No. 


IV. 
Da    Agnus,  D.  A  C— Da 
Do.    Lauda  Sion,   C  —  Onerto- 

rlum. 
Da    Le  porte  a  nol,  Q.— Pelle- 
grini. 
Do.    O  ye  kindreds,  C— Psalm 
xcvL 
j  Negri.    Qui  sedes,  A.— Mass. 
Neukomm.   Bex  tremendae,   C— 

Bequiem. 
I    Do.    Sanctus,  D.— Do. 
|  PergolesL    Kyrie,  D.— Grand  Mass. 
I    Do.    Gloria,  D— Do. 
I    Do.    Laudamus,  D.— Da 
Do.   Gratias,  C— Do. 
Da    Domine,  D.— Do. 
!    Do.    Qui  tollis,  C.— Da 
Do.    Quoniam,  A.— Do. 
Do.   Cum  Sancto,  C— Do. 
Da   Hear  my  prayer,  D.— Salve. 
Do.    Ad  te  suspiramus,  C— Do. 


PergolesL     O  Jem  Salvator,   D. 
from  Salve. 
Do.    Asperges,  C— Miserere  I. 
Da    Bedde  mini,  D.— Do. 
Do.  Domine  labia.  A.— Do.  II. 
Do.    Quoniam  si  voluisses,  C— 

Da 
Do.    Sacrificium  Deo,  T.— Do. 
Ricel.    Becordare,  A.— Dies  Irae. 
Bighini.    Qui  tollis,  C.-Mass. 
Do.    Benedlctus,  Q.— Do. 
Da    O  Lord,  who  shall  not,  Q. 
— Genu.  lib. 
Bolle.    In  thee,  O  Lord,  C— Death 
ofAbel. 
Do.    Out  of  the  deep,  A.— Do. 
Da    Great  God,  to  Thee,  C  — 

Thlrza. 

Do.   O  Lord,  most  holy,  D.— Do. 

Sabbatini.    God  be  merciful,  T.  A 

0.— Dixit  Dominus. 

Da    In  my  distress,  D.— Da 

Da    Dominus  a  dextris,  A.— Do. 

Bala.    Qui  tollis.  A.— Mass. 

Salvatore.  Tenebrae,  C— Tenebrae. 


Salvatore.  Becesslt  Pastor,  C.  from 
Besponsorio. 
Do.    In  monte  Oliveto,  C— Do. 
Sartl.    Miserere,  D.— Miserere. 

Do.    Ampllus,  T.— Do. 
SerlnL    O  fallaces,  A.— Motetto. 

Do.    Sum  in  medio.  A.— Do. 
Stroll.   Praise  the  Lord,  D.— Mis- 
erere. 
Suidell.    Orucifixus,  D.— Mass. 
Telemann.    Mercy,  Judgment,  A. 

— Orat.  Passion. 
TOrck.    Heavenly   Branch,   D.  — 

Christm.  Oratorio. 
Vogler.   Agnus  Del,  C— Requiem. 
Winter.    O  quam  trlstis,  C.  A  Q.— 
Stabat  Mater. 
Da    Quando  corpus,  C— Do. 
Da    Quid  sum  miser.  A.— Re- 
quiem. 
Wolf.     Saints  and  Angels,  C. — 
Funeral  Anthem. 
Do.    The   Prince  of  Life,  D.— 
Easter  Anthem. 
N.  N.   Tantum  ergo.  D.— Chorale. 


[W.H.H.] 

LAUB,  Febdinand,  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable violin-players  of  our  day,  was  born 
Jan.  19,  1832,  at  Prague,  where  his  father  was 
a  musician.  His  talent  shewed  itself  very  early ; 
at  six  he  mastered  Variations  by  De  Beriot, 
and  at  nine  performed  regularly  in  public.  At 
eleven  he  attracted  the  notice  of  Berlioz  and 
Ernst,  and  shortly  after  was  taken  up  by  the 
Grand  Duke  Stephen,  and  by  him  sent  to  Vienna 
in  1847.  After  this  he  visited  Paris,  and,  in 
185 1,  London,  where  he  played  at  the  Musical 
Union,  and,  in  1853  succeeded  Joachim  at  Wei- 
mar. Two  years  later  we  find  him  at  Berlin  as 
Kammervirtuos  and  Concertmeister  of  the  Court 
band,  and  leader  of  quartet-concerts  of  his  own. 
At  length,  after  considerable  wandering,  he 
settled  at  Moscow  in  1866  as  head  Professor 
of  the  Violin  in  the  Conservatorium,  and  first 
violin  at  the  Musikgesellschaft,  with  great 
liberty  of  action.  But  Russia  did  not  agree 
with  him,  and  the  state  of  his  health  compelled 
him  in  1874  to  take  the  baths  at  Karlsbad. 
The  benefit  however  was  but  temporary,  and  on 
March  17,  1875,  he  died  of  a  disordered  liver,  at 
Gries,  near  Botzen,  in  the  Tyrol.  Laub  was  cer- 
tainly one  of  the  greatest  violin-virtuosos  of  recent 
times.  He  had  a  fine  and  very  powerful  tone 
and  a  brilliant  technique,  and  played  with  much 
feeling  and  passion.  His  repertoire  was  very 
large,  comprising  all  the  important  classical  works 
and  a  great  many  modern  compositions.  His  fre- 
quent performances  of  Joachim's  Hungarian  Con- 
certo deserve  special  mention.  He  had  also  much 
success  as  a  quartet-player,  but  his  style,  espe- 
cially in  latter  years,  has  not  unjustly  been  re- 
proached with  mannerism  and  a  tendency  to 
exaggeration.  [P.  D.] 

LAUDA  SION.  The  name  of  a  Sequence, 
sung,  at  High  Mass,  on  the  Feast  of  Corpus 
Christi,  between  the  Gradual — Oculi  omnium — 
and  the  Gospel  for  the  Day.  [See  Sequentia.] 
The  text  of  the  Lauda  Sion,  written,  about 
the  year  1 261,  by  S.  Thomas  Aquinas,  has  always 
been  regarded  as  a  masterpiece  of  mediaeval 
scholarship;  and  differs,  in  at  least  one  very 
important  point,  from  the  four  other  Sequences 
still  retained  in  use  by  the  Roman  Church.  Not 
only  does  the  rhythmic  swing  of  its  rhymed 


104 


LAUDA  SION. 


Trochaic  Dimeters — strengthened  by  the  intro- 
duction of  a  large  proportion  of  Spondees — stamp 
it,  at  once,  with  the  character  of  a  glorious 
Hymn  of  Praise ;  but  it  serves,  also,  as  a  vehicle 
for  the  exposition  of  some  of  the  most  abstruse 
problems  of  dogmatic  Theology,  which  are  every- 
where defined  with  an  exactness  as  close  as  that 
shown  in  the  statements  of  the  'Athanasian 
Creed."  And,  strange  to  say,  some  of  the  verses 
which  exhibit  this  lucidity  of  definition  in  the 
most  marked  degree,  are  precisely  those  in 
which  the  swing  of  the  metre  seems  least  en- 
cumbered by  extraneous  trammels.  [See  Metee  ; 
Pkose.] 

This  jubilant  swing  is  finely  brought  out  by 
the  Plain  Chaunt  to  which  the  Sequence  is 
adapted — a  fiery  Melody,  in  Modes  VII  and 
VIII  combined,  exhibiting  considerable  variety 
of  treatment  and  expression,  and,  in  all  proba- 
bility, coaeval  with  the  text  of  the  Sequence 
itself.  Several  readings  of  this  Melody  are  ex- 
tant, all  agreeing  in  general  contour,  though 
differing  in  a  few  unimportant  details.  The 
purest  version  is  probably  that  revised  by  the 
editors  of  the  new  Ratisbon  Gradual;  though 
the  Mechlin  form  contains  some  passages  which 
are,  at  least,  entitled  to  careful  consideration, 
more  especially  those  in  which  the  necessity  for 
the  introduction  of  a  B  b  is  avoided  by  a  ligature 
extending  to  C. 


Lau  -  da    Si  -  on   Sal- va- to -rem,  Lau-da     ducem,    et 
Quan-  turn  po-tes  tan  turn  au-de,    Qui  -  a     major     om- 


gzW=gz=g: 


pas-to-rem, 

ni     lau-de, 


In    hymnis    et    can  -  tl  -  cis.  Laudis 

Nee  lau-da  -  re    suf  -  fi  -  cis.  Quern  in 


tbe-ma  spe-cl  -  a  -  - 
sa  •  cne  mensa     ccen 


■  Us,    Fa-nis  vi-Tuset    vi-ta-lls, 
a.     Turban  fratrum  du-o-de-nse, 


Bo    •   -  di  -  e      pro-po  -  nl  -  tur. 
Da    -    -  turn  nou  am-bi  -  gi  -  tur. 

The  entire  Melody  is  divided,  like  the  portion 
we  have  selected  as  our  example,  into  short 
strains,  consisting  of  three,  or  more  lines,  accord- 
ing to  the  requirements  of  the  metre  :  and  the 
whole  concludes  with  an  Amen.  Alleluia,  of  un- 
usual beauty. 

The  poetry  of  the  Lauda  Sion  has  been  many 
times  subjected  to  polyphonic  treatment  of  a  very 
high  order.  Palestrina  has  left  us  two  settings 
of  the  Sequence  for  eight  voices,  arranged  in  a 
double  Choir,  and  a  shorter  one  for  four.  The 
first,  and  best  known,  was  printed,  in  1575,  by 
Alex.  Gardanus,  in  the  Third  Book  of  Motets  for 
5,  6,  and  8  Voices ;  and  is  one  of  the  earliest 
examples  of  that  peculiar  combination  of  two 
Choirs,  consisting  of  unequally  balanced  Voices, 
which  Palestrina  has  made  so  justly  famous — the 
Voices  selected  being,  in  this  case,  Cantus  I  and 


LAUDA  SION. 

H,  Altus,  and  Bassus,  in  the  first  Choir,  and 
Altus,  Tenor  I  and  II,  and  Bassus,  in  the  second. 
Its  style  is,  in  many  respects,  analogous  to  that 
of  the  celebrated  Stabat  Mater.  As  in  that  great 
work,  several  of  the  verses — from  Bone  Pastor, 
to  In  terra  viventium,  inclusive — are  written  in 
Triple  Measure.  But — as  may  be  seen  from  the 
following  example — the  Lauda  Sion  is  also  re- 
markable for  its  close  adherence,  as  a  general 
rule,  to  the  Plain  Chaunt  Melody. 


r 


r; 


i^^E^ 


g 


g 


-]=:- 


11 


J    ^ 


r=¥fY[Tjt^m&^£f& 


->-  -J, 


s 


**£* 


A^A 


A  reprint  of  this  beautiful  composition  will  be 
found  in  vol.  iii.  of  the  complete  edition  of 
Palestrina' s  works  now  in  course  of  publication 
by  Messrs.  Breitkopf  &  Hartel  of  Leipzig.  The 
other  8 -part  setting,  in  Triple  Measure  through- 
out, hitherto  known  only  through  the  medium 
of  a  MS.  in  the  Library  of  the  Collegio  Romano, 
at  Rome,  has  been  recently  published  in  vol.  vii. 
of  the  same  series. 

Mendelssohn  has  also  chosen  the  text  of  the 
Lauda  Sion  as  the  framework  of  a  delightful 
Cantata,  for  four  Solo  Voices,  Chorus,  and 
Orchestra,  composed  in  1846,  and  first  performed, 
in  that  year,  at  Liege,  on  the  Feast  of  Corpus 
Christi  (June  11).  Though  less  elaborate  in 
form  than  the  'Lobgesang'  and  some  of  its 
fellow  cantatas,  this  fine  production  is  strikingly 
characteristic  of  its  author's  best  style.  It  would 
be  difficult  to  find  a  happier  example  of  his 
treatment  of  the  Arioso  than  that  exhibited  in 
Caro  cibus.  In  Sit  laus  plena  every  phrase 
dictated  by  the  Soprano  solo  is  immediately 
repeated  in   chorus,   in  a  way  which  forcibly 


LAUDA  SION. 

reminds  us  of  the  well-known  movement,  'The 
enemy  shouteth,'  from '  Hear  my  prayer.'  In  Docti 
sacris,  a  fragment  of  the  Plain  Chaunt  is  treated 
after  the  manner  of  a  Chorale, — but  changed 
from  the  Eighth  into  the  Tenth  Mode,  and,  there- 
fore, invested  with  a  totally  new  character.  In 
Sumit  units  the  dramatic  element  is  introduced, 
with  almost  startling  effect :  and  the  whole  con- 
cludes with  a  noble  Chorus,  adapted  to  the  words 
Bone  Pastor,  and  the  concluding  verses  of  the 
Hymn.  The  student  will  find  it  interesting  to 
compare  this  essentially  modern  adaptation  of 
the  text  with  the  purely  ecclesiastical  treatment 
adopted  by  Palestrina.  [W.  S.  R.] 

LAUDI  SPIRITUAL!.  A  name  given  to 
certain  collections  of  Devotional  Music,  compiled 
for  the  use  of  the  'Laudisti' — a  Religious  Con- 
fraternity, instituted,  at  Florence,  in  the  year 
1 310,  and  afterwards  held  in  great  estimation  by 
S.  Charles  Borromeo,  and  S.  Philip  Neri. 

The  poetry  of  the  'Laudi' — some  ancient 
specimens  of  which  are  attributed,  by  Crescen- 
tini,  to  S.  Francis  of  Assisi — was  originally 
written  entirely  in  Italian,  and  bears  no  trace  of 
classical  derivation.  The  music  to  which  it  is 
adapted — inclining  rather  to  the  character  of  the 
Sacred  Canzonet,  than  to  that  of  the  regular 
Hymn — was,  at  first,  unisonous,  and  extremely 
simple ;  though,  after  a  time,  the  Laudisti  culti- 
vated part-singing  with  extraordinary  success. 

A  highly  interesting  MS.  volume,  once  be- 
longing to  a  company  of  '  Laudisti,'  enrolled,  in 
the  year  1336,  at  the  Chiesa  d'Ogni  Santi,  at 
Florence,  is  now  preserved  in  the  Magliabecchi 
Library :  and,  from  this,  Dr.  Burney  (Hist.  ii.  328) 
quotes  a  very  beautiful  example — '  Alia  Trinita 
beata ' — which,  of  late  years,  has  become  popular 
in  this  country,  though,  in  all  the  English  edi- 
tions we  have  seen,  the  melody  is  sadly  muti- 
lated, and  strikingly  inferior  in  character  to  the 
original  reading.  The  earliest  printed  collection 
is  dated  1485.  This,  however,  would  seem  to 
have  been  either  unknown  to,  or  unrecognised 
by,  the  disciples  of  S.  Philip  Neri :  for,  in  1565, 
Giovanni  Animuccia,  who  acted  as  his  Maestro 
di  Capella,  published  a  volume  entitled  '  II  primo 
libro  delle  Laudi,'  followed  by  a  •  Secondo  libro,' 
of  more  advanced  character,  in  1570.  These 
Sacred  Songs,  which  formed  the  germ  of  the  per- 
formances afterwards  called  Oratorios,  became 
so  popular  among  the  youths  who  flocked  to 
S.  Philip  for  instruction,  that,  in  1588 — seventeen 
years  after  the  death  of  the  saintly  Animuccia 
— P.  Soto  thought  it  desirable  to  edit  a  third 
volume,  containing  unacknowledged  works,  for 
three  and  four  Voices,  by  some  of  the  greatest 
Composers  of  the  age.  In  1589,  the  same  zealous 
editor  published  an  amended  reprint  of  the  three 
volumes,  consolidated  into  one ;  succeeded,  in 
I59I>  by  a  fourth  volume,  dedicated  to  the 
Duchessa  d Aquasparta.  Serafino  Razzi  published 
a  large  collection,  in  1608,  and  many  others 
followed — for,  at  this  period,  almost  every  large 
town,  and  even  many  an  important  parish,  had 
its  own  Company  of  Laudisti,  who  sang  the 
poetry  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  Poliziano,  Pulci, 


LAUTERBACH. 


105 


Bembo,  Ludovico  Martelli,  Giambellari,  Filicaia, 
and  other  celebrated  writers,  with  undiminished 
interest,  though,  as  time  progressed,  the  charac- 
ter of  the  music  sensibly  deteriorated. 

In  the  year  1770,  Dr.  Burney  heard  the  Company 
of  Laudisti  attached  to  the  Church  of  S.  Maria 
Maddalena  de'  Pazzi,  in  Florence,  sing,  with  ex- 
cellent effect,  in  some  street  Processions,  as  well 
as  in  some  of  the  Churches,  from  a  book  then 
just  published  for  their  use  :  and,  however  true 
it  may  be  that  part-singing  in  Italy  is  not  what 
it  was  some  centuries  ago,  representatives  of 
the  Confraternity  are  said  to  be  still  in  exist- 
ence, striving  to  do  their  best  in  a  more  modern 
style.  [W.S.R.] 

LAUDS  (Lat.  Laudes).  The  name  given  to 
that  division  of  the  Canonical  Hours  which 
immediately  follows  Matins. 

The  Office  of  Lauds  opens,  according  to  the 
Ritual  of  the  Western  Church,  with  the  series  of 
Versicles  and  Responses  beginning,  'Deus  in 
adjutorium  meum  intende,'  followed  by  seven 
Psalms  and  a  Canticle,  sung,  in  five  divisions, 
with  five  proper  Antiphons.  These  are  succeeded 
by  the  'Capitulum'  (or  'Little  Chapter');  the 
Hymn  for  the  Day,  with  its  proper  Versicle  and 
Response;  and  the  'Benedictus,'  which,  with  its 
Antiphon,  is  sung  while  the  Officiating  Priest 
and  his  Ministers  are  engaged  in  incensing  the 
Altar.  The  Service  then  concludes  with  the 
Collect,  or  Collects,  for  the  Day ;  the  Commemo- 
rations (as  at  Vespers);  and  the  'Antiphon  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin '  proper  for  the  Season. 

On  certain  Festivals,  the  Antiphons,  at  Lauds, 
are  doubled,  as  at  Matins  :  and,  like  Matins,  the 
Office  is  usually  sung  'by  anticipation.'  The 
Plain  Chaunt  Music  adapted  to  it  will  be  found 
in  the  '  Antiphonarium  Romanum,'  and  the 
'  Directorium  Chori.'   [See  Matins  ;  Antiphon.] 

In  the  First  Prayer-Book  of  King  Edward  VI, 
the  name  of  '  Mattins'  is  given  to  the  combined 
Offices  of  Matins,  and  Lauds.  [W.  S.  R.] 

LAUTERBACH,  Johann  Chbistoph,  dis- 
tinguished violinist,  was  born  July  24,  1832,  at 
Culmbach  in  Bavaria.  His  education  he  re- 
ceived at  the  school  and  gymnasium  of  Wiirz- 
burg,  where  he  also  learnt  music  from  Bratsch 
and  Prof.  Frohlich.  In  1850  he  entered  the 
Conservatoire  at  Brussels  as  pupil  of  De  Beriot 
and  Fetis,  in  1851  received  the  gold  medaL 
and  during  Leonard's  absence  took  his  place  as 
Professor  of  the  Violin.  In  1853  he  became 
Concertmeister  and  Professor  of  the  Violin  at 
the  Conservatorium  of  Munich ;  in  i860,  on  the 
death  of  Lipinski,  was  appointed  second  Con- 
certmeister of  the  royal  band  at  Dresden,  and  in 
1873  succeeded  to  lie  first  place.  Since  1861 
he  has  also  held  the  post  of  principal  teacher  of 
the  violin  in  the  Conservatorium  of  Dresden, 
with  great  and  increasing  renown.  He  has  tra- 
velled much  and  always  with  success.  He  spent 
the  seasons  of  1 864  and  65  in  England,  appear- 
ing at  the  Philharmonic  on  May  2  of  the 
former,  and  May  15  of  the  latter  year,  and 
playing  also  at  the  Musical  Union.  In  Paris 
he  played  at  the  last  concert  at  the  Tuileries 


106 


LAUTERBACH. 


before  the  war ;  and  received  from  the  Emperor 
Napoleon  a  gold  snuff-box  set  with  diamonds. 
He  is  decorated  with  many  orders  both  of  North 
and  South  Germany.  In  the  summer  of  1876  he 
met  with  a  serious  mountain  accident  in  Switzer- 
land, by  which  several  of  his  companions  were 
killed  and  he  himself  severely  wounded.  He  has 
however  completely  recovered.  Lauterbach's  style 
unites  the  best  peculiarities  of  the  Belgian  school, 
great  polish  and  elegance,  with  the  breadth  of 
tone  and  earnestness  of  the  Germans.         [P>D.] 

LAVENU,  Louis  Henry,  son  of  a  flautist 
and  music-seller,  born  in  London  in  181 8.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music, 
where  he  studied  composition  under  Bochsa  and 
Potter.  Before  leaving  the  Academy  he  was 
engaged  as  a  violoncellist  at  the  Opera  and  the 
Westminster  Abbey  Festival  of  1834.  He  was 
also  in  business  as  a  music-seller  in  partnership 
with  his  stepfather,  Nicholas  Mori,  the  eminent 
violinist,  after  whose  death,  in  1 839,  he  continued 
the  business  alone  for  a  few  years.  During  this 
time  he  published  a  few  songs  and  short  piano- 
forte pieces  composed  by  himself.  His  opera 
*  Loretta,  a  Tale  of  Seville,'  words  by  Bunn,  was 
produced  at  Drury  Lane  Nov.  9,  1846,  with 
success.  Dissatisfied  with  his  position,  Lavenu 
emigrated  to  Australia,  obtained  the  post  of 
director  of  the  music  at  the  Sydney  Theatre, 
and  died  at  Sydney,  Aug.  1,  1859.       [W.H.H.] 

LAVIGNE,  Antoinb  Joseph,  born  at  Be- 
sancon  March  23,  181 6,  received  his  early 
musical  education  from  his  father,  a  musician  in 
an  infantry  regiment.  On  Jan.  24,  1830,  he  was 
admitted  a  pupil  of  the  Conservatoire  at  Paris, 
where  he  studied  the  oboe  under  Vogt,  but  was 
obliged  to  leave  on  May  3,  1835,  on  account  of 
his  father's  regiment  being  ordered  from  Paris. 
He  resumed  his  position  on  Oct.  17,  1836,  and 
obtained  the  first  prize  in  1837.  He  was  for 
several  years  principal  oboe  at  the  Theatre 
Italien  at  Paris.  In  1841  he  came  to  England, 
and  appeared  as  oboe  soloist  at  the  Promenade 
Concerts  at  Drury  Lane,  and  has  now  for  some 
years  been  a  member  of  Mr.  Charles  Halle's 
orchestra  at  Manchester.  He  addressed  himself 
with  great  earnestness  to  applying  to  the  oboe 
the  system  of  keys  which  Boehm  had  contrived 
for  the  flute,  and  devoted  several  years  to  per- 
fecting the  instrument.  This  admirable  player 
has  great  execution  and  feeling ;  but  what  he 
is  most  remarkable  for  is  his  power  and  length 
of  breath,  which  by  some  secret  known  to 
himself  enables  him  to  give  the  longest  phrases 
without  breaking  them.  [W.  H.  H.] 

LAWES,  Henby,  son  of  William  Lawes,  was 
born  at  Dinton,  Wiltshire,  probably  in  Dec. 
1595,  as  he  was  baptized  Jan.  1,  1595-6.  He 
received  his  musical  education  from  Giovanni 
Coperario.  On  Jan.  1,  1625-6  he  was  sworn 
in  as  epistler  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  on  Nov. 
3  following,  one  of  the  gentlemen,  and  afterwards 
became  clerk  of  the  cheque.  In  1633  he  joined 
his  brother  William  and  Simon  Ives  in  com- 
posing the  music  for  Shirley's  masque,  'The 


LAWES. 

Triumphs  of  Peace,'  and  in  the  same  year 
furnished  music  for  Thomas  Carew's  masque, 
'  Coelum  Britannicum,'  performed  at  Court,  Feb. 
18,  1633-4.  In  1634  he  composed  the  songs  for 
Milton's  masque,  '  Comus,'  produced  at  Ludlow 
Castle  on  Michaelmas  night,  in  that  year,  Lawes 
performing  the  part  of  the  Attendant  Spirit. 
(Both  Hawkins  and  Burney  have  printed  '  Sweet 
Echo,'  one  of  the  songs  in  '  Comus.'  The  whole 
of  the  songs  are  in  the  British  Museum,  Add. 
MS.  11,518.)  It  is  probable  that  the  friendship 
between  Milton  and  Lawes  had  its  origin  in 
Comus. 


Henry  Lawes  taught  music  to  Lady  Alice 
Egerton — 'The  Lady'  of  the  masque.  In  1637 
appeared  'A  Paraphrase  vpon  the  Psalmes  of 
David.  By  G[eorge]  S[andys].  Set  to  new  Tunes 
for  private  Devotion.  And  a  thorow  Base,  for 
Voice  or  Instrument.  By  Henry  Lawes ' ;  and  in 
1648  '  Choice  Psalmes  put  into  Musick  for  Three 
Voices  ....  Composed  by  Henry  and  William 
Lawes,  Brothers  and  Servants  to  His  Majestie. 
With  divers  Elegies  set  in  Musick  by  several 
friends,  upon  the  death  of  William  Lawes.  And 
at  the  end  of  the  Thorough  Base1  are  added  nine* 
Canons  of  Three  and  Four  Voices  made  by  William 
Lawes.'  A  copper-plate  portrait  of  Charles  I, 
believed  to  be  the  last  published  in  his  life  time, 
accompanies  each  part,  and  amongst  the  com- 
mendatory verses  prefixed  to  the  work  is  the 
sonnet,  addressed  by  Milton  to  Henry  Lawes  in 
Feb.  1 645-6,  commencing '  Harry,  whose  tuneful 
and  well  measured  song.'  Lawes  composed  the 
songs  in  the  plays  and  poems  of  William  Cart- 
wright,  and  the  Christmas  songs  in  Herrick's 
•  Hesperides.'  In  1653  he  published  '  Ayres  and 
Dialogues  for  One,  Two  and  Three  Voyces,'  with 
his  portrait,  from  which  the  above  is  taken, 
finely  engraved  by  Faithorne,  on  the  title. 
This  was  received  with  such  favour  as  to  in- 
duce him  to  issue  two  other  books  with  the- 


*  The  work  is  in  separate  pans. 


2  Really  ten. 


LAWES. 

same  title  in  1655  and  1658.  In  1656  he  was 
engaged  with  Capt.  Henry  Cooke,  Dr.  Charles 
Colman  and  George  Hudson  in  providing  the 
music  for  Davenant's  'First  Day's  Entertain- 
ment of  Musick  at  Rutland  House.'  On  the 
Restoration  in  1660  Lawes  was  reinstated  in  his 
Court  appointments.  He  composed  the  anthem 
'  Zadok  the  Priest,'  for  the  coronation  of  Charles 
II.  He  died  Oct.  II,  1662,  and  was  buried  Oct. 
25  in  the  cloisters  of  Westminster  Abbey.  Many 
of  his  songs  are  to  be  found  in  '  Select  Musicall 
Ayres  and  Dialogues,'  1652,  1653  and  1659,  and 
1  The  Treasury  of  Musick,'  1669. 

Henry  Lawes  was  highly  esteemed  by  his  con- 
temporaries, both  as  a  composer  and  performer. 
Milton  praises  him  in  both  capacities,  and 
Herrick  in  an  epigram  places  him  on  a  level 
with  some  of  the  most  renowned  singers  and 
players  of  his  time ;  but  later  writers  have 
formed  a  lower  estimate  of  his  abilities  as  a  com- 
poser. Burney  declares  his  productions  to  be 
'languid  and  insipid,  and  equally  devoid  of 
learning  and  genius';  and  Hawkins  speaks  of 
his  music  as  deficient  in  melody  and  'neither 
recitative  nor  air,  but  in  so  precise  a  medium 
between  both  that  a  name  is  wanting  for  it.' 
But  both  appear  to  judge  from  a  false  point  of 
view.  It  was  not  Lawes's  object  to  produce 
melody  in  the  popular  sense  of  the  word,  but  to 
Bet  '  words  with  just  note  and  accent,'  to  make 
the  prosody  of  his  text  his  principal  care ;  and  it 
was  doubtless  that  quality  which  induced  all  the 
best  poetical  writers  of  his  day,  from  Milton  and 
"Waller  downwards,  to  desire  that  their  verses 
should  be  set  by  him.  To  effect  his  object  he 
employed  a  kind  of  'aria  parlante,'  a  style  of 
composition  which,  if  expressively  sung,  would 
cause  as  much  gratification  to  the  cultivated 
hearer  as  the  most  ear-catching  melody  would  to 
the  untrained  listener.  Lawes  was  careful  in  the 
choice  of  words,  and  the  words  of  his  songs 
would  form  a  very  pleasing  volume  of  lyric  poetry. 
Hawkins  says  that  notwithstanding  Lawes  '  was 
a  servant  of  the  church,  he  contributed  nothing 
to  the  increase  of  its  stores';  but,  besides  the 
coronation  anthem  before  mentioned,  there  are 
(or  were)  in  an  old  choir  book  of  the  Chapel 
Royal  fragments  of  8  or  10  anthems  by  him, 
and  the  words  of  several  of  his  anthems  are  given 
in  Clifford's  'Divine  Services  and  Anthems,' 
1664.  A  portrait  of  Henry  Lawes  is  in  the  Music 
School,  Oxford. 

John  Lawes,  a  brother  of  Henry,  was  a  lay 
vicar  of  Westminster  Abbey.  He  died  in  Jan. 
1654-5,  an(l  was  buried  in  the  Abbey  cloisters. 

Rev.  Thomas  Lawes,  commonly  but  errone- 
ously stated  to  be  the  father,  but  probably  the 
uncle,  of  William  and  Henry  Lawes,  was  a  vicar 
choral  of  Salisbury  Cathedral.  He  died  Nov.  7, 
1640,  and  was  buried  in  the  north  transept  of 
the  cathedral. 

William  Lawes,  elder  brother  of  Henry, 
received  musical  instruction  from  Coperario  at 
the  expense  of  the  Earl  of  Hertford.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  choir  of  Chichester  Cathedral, 
which  he  quitted  in  1602,  on  being  appointed  a 


LAYS. 


107 


gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal.  He  was  sworn 
in  Jan.  1,  1602-3.  IQ  161 1  he  resigned  his 
place  in  favour  of  Ezekiel  Waad,  a  lay  vicar  of 
Westminster  Abbey,  but  on  Oct.  1  following  was 
re-admitted  '  without  paie.'  He  was  also  one  of 
the  musicians  in  ordinary  to  Charles  I.  In  1633 
he  composed  part  of  the  music  for  Shirley's 
'Triumphs  of  Peace.'  An  anthem  by  him  is 
printed  in  Boyce's  Cathedral  Music  ;  songs  and 
other  vocal  compositions  in  'Select  Musicall 
Ayres  and  Dialogues,'  1653  and  1659,  'Catch 
that  catch  can,'  1652,  'The  Treasury  of  Musick,' 
1669,  and  'Choice  Psalms,'  1648;  and  some  of 
his  instrumental  music  in  'Courtly  Masquing 
Ayres,'  1662.  The  autograph  MSS.  of  his 
music  for  several  Court  masques  are  preserved 
in  the  Music  School,  Oxford.  '  The  Royal  Con- 
sort' for  viols  and  some  'Airs'  for  violin  and 
bass  are  in  the  British  Museum,  Add.  MS. 
10,445,  and  some  of  his  vocal  music  is  in  Add. 
MS.  11,608.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  CiviL 
War  he  joined  the  Royalist  army  and  was  made 
a  commissary  by  Lord  Gerrard,  to  exempt  him 
from  danger,  but  his  active  spirit  disdaining  that 
security,  he  was  killed  by  a  stray  Bhot  during 
the  siege  of  Chester,  1 645.  [W.  H.  H.] 

LAY.  A  Provencal  word,  originally  prob- 
ably Celtic,  meaning  at  first  a  sound  or  noise, 
and  then  a  song,  especially  the  tune,  as  the 
quotations  from  Spenser,  Milton  and  Dryden 
in  Johnson's  Dictionary  prove.  Beyond  this 
general  sense  the  term  has  no  application  to 
music.  The  German  '  Lied '  is  another  form  of 
the  word.  [G.] 

LAY  VICAR  or  LAY  CLERK,  a  singer  in 
Cathedral  Choirs.     [See  Vicab  Choral.] 

LAYS,  FBAN901S,  a  famous  French  singer, 
whose  real  name  was  Lay,  born  Feb.  14,  1758, 
at  La  Barthe  de  Neste"s  in  Gascony.  He  learned 
music  in  the  monastery  of  Guaraison,  but  before 
he  was  20  his  fame  as  a  singer  had  spread,  and 
in  April  1779  he  found  himself  at  Paris  to  be 
tried  for  the  Grand  Opera.  His  name  first 
appears  in  Lajarte's  catalogue  of  first  repre- 
sentations, as  Petrarque,  in  a  '  pastoral  hero'ique' 
by  Candeille,  called  '  Laure  et  Pe'trarque,'  July 
a,  1 780,  and  is  spelt  Lais.  His  next  •  mention 
is  in  the  'Iphigenie  en  Tauride'  of  Piccinni, 
Jan.  23,  1 78 1,  where  he  has  the  rdle  of  a  cory- 
phee. After  that  he  appears  frequently  in  com- 
pany with  Madlle.  Saint-Huberti,  a  famous 
soprano  of  that  day.  He  was  also  attached  to 
the  concerts  of  Marie  Antoinette,  and  to  the 
Concert  Spirituel.  He  was  a  poor  actor,  unless 
in  parts  specially  written  for  him;  but  the 
splendour  of  his  voice  made  up  for  everything, 
and  he  preserved  it  so  well  as  to  remain  in  the 
company  of  the  Grand  Opera  till  October  1822. 
Lays  was  a  violent  politician  on  the  popular 
side,  which  did  not  please  his  colleagues,  and 
some  quarrels  arose  in  consequence,  but  with  no 
further  result  than  to  cause  him   to  write   a 

'  The  role  of  the '  Seigneur  blenfalsant '  Is  said  by  Fetis  to  hare  been 
written  for  him.  but  his  name  does  not  appear  in  the  company  at  the 
first  performance  of  that  piece. 


108 


LAYS. 


pamphlet,  and  to  force  him,  after  the  9th  Ther- 
midor,  to  appear  in  parts  distasteful  to  him,  and 
to  sing  before  the  Bourbons  after  the  Restoration. 
He  was  professor  of  singing  at  the  Conservatoire 
from  1795  to  1799,  when  he  retired  from  the 
post;  and  from  1819  to  1826  held  the  same 
office  in  the  'Ecole  royale  de  chant  et  de  de- 
clamation.' He  had  been  principal  singer  in  the 
chapel  of  Napoleon  from  1801  tUl  the  fall  of  the 
Emperor,  but  was  cashiered  by  Louis  XVIII. 
After  leaving  the  Ecole  he  retired  to  Ingrande 
near  Angers,  where  he  died  March  30,  1831. 
We  have  said  that  he  was  not  a  good  actor,  but 
Fe"tis  pronounces  him  not  even  a  good  singer,  say- 
ing that  his  taste  was  poor,  and  that  he  had  several 
bad  tricks ;  but  he  had  warmth  and  animation, 
and  the  beauty  of  his  voice  so  far  atoned  for  all, 
that  for  a  long  time  no  opera  could  be  successful 
in  which  he  had  not  a  part.  [G.] 

LAZARUS,  Henbt,  a  native  of  London, 
commenced  the  study  of  the  clarinet  when  a 
boy  under  Blizard,  bandmaster  of  the  Royal 
Military  Asylum,  Chelsea,  and  continued  it 
under  Charles  Godfrey,  sen.,  bandmaster  of  the 
Coldstream  Guards.  After  fulfilling  engage- 
ments in  various  theatrical  and  other  orchestras 
he  was,  in  1838,  appointed  as  second  to  Willman 
at  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society.  On  the  death 
of  Willman  in  1840  Lazarus  succeeded  him  as 
principal  clarinet  at  the  Opera  and  all  the 
principal  concerts,  festivals,  etc.  in  London  and 
the  provinces,  a  position  he  has  since  retained 
■with  great  and  ever-increasing  reputation.  In 
both  orchestral  and  solo  playing  the  beauty 
and  richness  of  his  tone,  his  excellent  phrasing, 
and  his  neat  and  expressive  execution,  are  alike 
admired.  He  attributes  his  present  high  re- 
putation mainly  to  the  excellent  advice  he  has 
during  his  career  received  from  Sir  Michael 
Costa.  He  has  been  a  professor  of  his  instrument 
at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music  Bince  1854,  and 
at  the  Military  School  of  Music,  Kneller  Hall, 
near  Hounslow,  since  1858.  [W.H.H.] 

LAZZARINI,  Gustavo,  was  born  (as  some 
biographers  say)  at  Padua,  or  (according  to 
others)  at  Verona,  about  1765.  His  debut  was 
made  at  Lucca  in  1789,  in  Zingarelli's  '  Ifigenia 
in  Aulide,'  with  great  eolat.  In  the  two  follow- 
ing years  he  appeared  in  London,  Binging  both  in 
serious  and  comic  operas,  such  as  Bertoni's 
■  Quinto  Fabio '  and  the  '  Locanda'  of  Paisiello, 
in  the  former  with  Pacchierotti,  but  taking  the 
principal  r61e  in  the  latter.  Lord  Mount-Edg- 
cumbe  thought  him  '  a  very  pleasing  singer  with 
a  sweet  tenor  voice.'  During  the  Carnival  of 
1 794  he  sang  at  Milan,  with  Grassini  and  Mar- 
chesi,  in  Zingarelli's  '  Artaserse '  and  the  '  Demo- 
foonte '  of  Portogallo,  and  bore  the  comparison 
inevitably  made  between  him  and  those  great 
singers.  He  sang  there  again  in  1 795,  and  once 
more  in  1 79S,  appearing  on  the  latter  occasion  in 
Cimarosa's  'Orazzi'  and  Zingarelli's  'Meleagro,' 
with  Riccardi  and  Crescentini.  In  1801  he  was 
one  of  the  Opera  Buffa  troupe  at  Paris,  where  he 
was  again  heard  to  advantage  by  Lord  Mount- 
Edgcumbe  (1802),  singing  in  company  with  La 


LEADING  NOTE. 

Strinasacchi  and  Georgi  Belloc.  But  his  voice 
had  now  lost  much  of  its  freshness,  though  the 
great  style  remained.  Lazzarini  published  two 
volumes  of  Italian  airs,  and  a  Pastoral,  both  at 
Paris  (Carli).  His  portrait  was  engraved  there 
by  Nitdt  Dufr£ne,  an  operatic  singer.        [J.  M.] 

LEACH,  James,  born  at  Rochdale,  Yorkshire, 
in  1 762,  was  a  tenor  singer  and  hymn-tune  writer. 
He  published  a  '  New  Sett  of  Hymns  and  Psalm 
Tunes  etc.'  (Preston,  London  1 789) ;  and  a 
'  Second  Sett '  of  the  same,  probably  about  1 794. 
His  tunes  are  found  in  several  of  the  American 
collections,  as  the  Easy  Instructor  (Albany,  New 
York  1798),  the  Bridgewater  Collection  (Boston 
1802).  The  David  Companion  or  Methodist 
Standard  (Baltimore,  1810)  contains  48  of  his 
pieces.  For  more  details  see  a  letter  signed 
G.  A.  C.  in  the  Musical  Times  for  April  1878, 
p.  326.  In  the  Rev.  H.  Parr's  'Church  of  Eng- 
land Psalmody '  will  be  found  Mount  Pleasant, 
Oldham,  and  Smyrna,  by  him,  which  used  to  be 
favourites  in  certain  congregations.  Leach  died 
in  1797.  [G.] 

LEAD,  TO,  in  fugues  or  imitative  music  is  to 
go  off  first  with  a  point  or  subject,  which  is 
afterwards  taken  up  by  the  other  parts  succes- 
sively. Thus  in  the  Amen  Chorus  in  the  Mes- 
siah the  bass  'leads,'  the  tenor  taking  up  the 
subject  at  the  6th  bar,  the  alto  at  the  10th,  and 
so  on.  In  the  separate  voice  parts  the  fact  is 
often  stated  ('  Tenors  lead,'  etc.),  that  the  singers 
may  be  on  their  guard,  and  the  part  is  then  said 
'  to  have  the  lead.'  [G.] 

LEADER.  The  chief  of  the  first  violins  is  the 
leader  of  the  orchestra,  the  Concertmeister  of  the 
Germans,  and  Chef  d'attaque  of  the  French.  He 
is  close  to  the  conductor's  left  hand.  The  posi- 
tion is  a  most  important  one,  as  the  animation  and 
'attack*  of  the  band  depend  iu  great  measure 
on  the  leader.  The  great  precision  and  force  of 
the  Gewandhaus  orchestra,  for  instance,  is  said  to 
have  been  mainly  due  to  David  being  for  so  long 
at  the  head  of  them.  [G.] 

LEADING  NOTE  (Fr.  Note  sensible ;  Germ. 
Leitton).  In  modern  music  it  is  absolutely  in- 
dispensable for  all  harmonic  progressions  to  have 
an  appreciable  connection  with  a  tonic  or  key- 
note, and  various  lines  converge  to  indicate  that 
note  with  clearness  ;  among  these  an  important 
place  is  occupied  by  the  Leading  Note,  which  is 
the  note  immediately  below  the  keynote,  and 
separated  from  it  by  the  smallest  interval  in 
the  system,  namely  a  semitone.  Helmholtz  has 
pointed  out  that  in  actual  relationship  to  the 
tonic  it  is  the  most  remote  of  all  the  notes  in  the 
scale,  since  the  supertonic,  which  also  appears  to 
be  very  remote,  at  least  comes  nearer  in  being 
the  fifth  to  the  dominant,  while  the  leading  note 
is  only  the  third.  For  this  reason,  and  also  from 
its  not  being  capable  of  standing  as  a  root  note 
to  any  essential  diatonic  chord  in  the  key,  it 
seems  to  have  no  status  of  its  own,  but  to  exist 
mainly  as  preparatory  to  the  tonic  note,  for  which, 
by  reason  of  its  close  proximity,  it  seems  to  pre- 
pare the  mind  when  it  is  heard ;  and  the  melodic 


LEADING  NOTE. 

tendency  to  lead  up  to  the  most  important  note 
in  the  scale  is  the  origin  of  its  name. 

In  many  scales,  both  of  civilised  and  barbarous 
peoples,  it  has  found  no  place.  In  most  of  the 
mediaeval  ecclesiastical  scales,  as  in  the  Greek 
scales  from  which  they  were  derived,  the  note 
immediately  below  the  tonic  was  separated  from 
it  by  the  interval  of  a  whole  tone,  and  therefore 
had  none  of  the  character  of  a  leading  note ;  but 
as  the  feeling  for  tonality  gained  ground  in  the 
middle  ages  hand  in  hand  with  the  appreciation 
of  harmonic  combinations,  the  use  of  the  leading 
note,  which  is  so  vital  to  its  comprehension, 
became  more  common.  Ecclesiastics  looked  upon 
this  tampering  with  the  august  scales  of  antiquity 
with  disfavour,  and  Pope  John  XXII  passed  an 
edict  against  it  in  1322;  consequently  the  acci- 
dental which  indicated  it  was  omitted  in  the 
written  music :  but  the  feeling  of  musicians  was 
in  many  cases  too  strong  to  be  suppressed,  and  it 
seems  that  the  performers  habitually  sang  it 
wherever  the  sense  of  the  context  demanded  it, 
nor  do  we  learn  that  the  ecclesiastics  inter- 
fered with  the  practice  as  long  as  the  musicians 
did  not  let  the  world  see  as  well  as  hear  what 
they  were  doing.  Notwithstanding  this  common 
practice  of  performers,  the  scales  maintained  their 
integrity  in  many  respects,  and  there  resulted 
a  curious  ambiguity,  which  is  very  characteristic 
of  mediaeval  music,  in  the  frequent  interchange 
of  the  notes  a  tone  and  a  semitone  below  the 
tonic.  Musicians  were  long  beguiled  by  the 
feeling  that  the  true  scales  should  have  the  note 
below  the  tonic  removed  from  it  by  the  interval 
of  a  tone,  and  that  it  was  taking  a  liberty  and 
pandering  to  human  weakness  to  sharpen  it ; 
and  the  clear  realisation  of  those  principles  of 
tonality  upon  which  modem  music  is  based  was 
considerably  retarded  thereby,  so  that  works  both 
vocal  and  instrumental  are  characterised  by 
a  vagueness  of  key-relationship,  which  the  use 
of  the  leading  note  alone  can  remove,  till  far  on 
into  the  seventeenth  century;  by  the  time  of 
Bach  and  Handel  however  the  ancient  scales  had 
been  fused  into  the  major  and  minor  modes  of  the 
modern  system,  and  the  leading  note  assumed 
the  office  it  has  ever  since  occupied.  The  gradual 
realisation  of  the  importance  of  the  leading  note 
and  the  influence  it  had  upon  the  development 
of  modern  music  is  traced  in  the  article  Har- 
mony, and  reference  may  also  be  made  to  chap, 
xiv  of  the  Third  Part  of  Helmholtz's  great  work 
on  '  The  Sensations  of  Tone,'  etc.        [C.  H.  H.P.] 

LEBHAFT,  i.  e.  lively,  the  German  equivalent 
for  Vivace.  Beethoven  uses  it,  during  his  tempo- 
rary preference  for  German  terms,  in  Sonata 
op.  1 01,  where  we  find  the  two  directions  '  Etwas 
lebhaft '  etc.  and  '  Lebhaft,  marschmassig,'  which 
is  exactly  equivalent  to  'Vivace  a  la  marcia.' 
Schumann  uses  it  constantly ;  '  Ausserst  lebhaft ' 
is  Vivacissimo.  [G.] 

LEBRUN,  Francesca,  the  daughter  of  Danzi 
the  violoncellist,  was  born  at  Mannheim  in  1 756. 
Endowed  by  nature  with  a  voice  remarkable 
alike  for  its  purity  and  extent,  ranging  as  high 
as  F  in  alt  without  difficulty,  she  improved  her 


LEBRUN. 


109 


natural  advantages  by  careful  study,  and  became 
one  of  the  best  singers  that  Germany  has  pro- 
duced. She  made  her  first  appearance  ( 1 771)  when 
scarcely  16  years  old,  and  charmed  the  court :  in 
the  next  year  she  was  engaged  at  the  Mannheim 
Opera.  Fe'tis  says  that  in  1775  she  became  the 
wife  of  Lebrun  the  oboist,  whom  she  accom- 
panied to  Italy,  singing  first  at  Milan  (1778)  in 
Salieri's  'Europa  riconosciuta.'  The  Milanese 
were  delighted  with  her  clear  and  beautiful  voice 
and  easy  vocalisation,  in  spite  of  the  intrigues  of 
La  Balducci,  the  prima  donna  of  La  Scala,  who 
endeavoured  to  set  them  against  her  young  rival. 
This  account  must,  however,  be  corrected ;  for, 
whereas  Fe'tis  says  that  she  only  came  to  Eng- 
land in  1 78 1,  there  is  no  doubt  that  she  was 
here  five  years  earlier,  then  unmarried,  arriving 
with  Boncaglia,  with  whom  she  sang  in  Sac- 
chini's  '  Creso.'  '  Though  her  name  was  Italian 
[called  in  the  cast,  Francesca  Danzi,  Virtuosa  di 
Camera  di  S.A.S.  l'Elettore  Palatino],  she  was 
a  German,  and  had  never  been  in  Italy.  She  was 
young,  well-looking,  had  a  voice  of  uncommon 
clearness  and  compass,  capable  of  the  most  aston- 
ishing execution,  and  was  an  excellent  musician. 
Yet  her  performance  was  considered  unsatisfac- 
tory, being  too  much  alia  Tedescha,  and  more  like 
that  of  an  instrument  than  of  a  human  voice. 
She  soon  after  married  M.  Lebrun,  an  eminent 
player  on  the  hautbois,  which  confirmed  her  in 
the  bravura  style,  as  she  was  in  the  habit  of 
singing  songs  with  an  obbligato  accompaniment 
for  that  instrument,  in  which  the  difficulties  per- 
formed by  both  were  quite  astonishing,  each 
seeming  to  vie  with  the  other  which  could  go 
highest  and  execute  the  most  rapid  divisions. 
After  performing  in  *  Erifile,'  also  by  Sacchini, 
and  other  operas,  she  left  England  after  one 
season,  but  was  re-engaged  for  the  next  but  one ' 
(Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe).  It  is  therefore  clear 
that  she  did  not  marry  Lebrun  until  after  1777. 
She  reappeared  in  London  as  Mme.  Lebrun  in 
1779,  being  again  the  prima  donna  for  serious 
opera,  and  continued  with  Pacchierotti  to  sing  in 
London  for  two  or  three  seasons ;  she  then  went 
away, '  nor  was  her  place  ever  well  filled  during 
the  remainder  of  Pacchierotti's  stay '  (Idem.). 

She  sang  in  1 785  at  Munich,  after  which  she 
returned  to  Italy,  achieving  the  same  brilliant 
success  at  Venice  and  Naples  as  elsewhere.  In 
1 788  and  1 789  she  appeared  at  Munich  in  Mo- 
zart's 'Idomeneo,'  Prati's  'Armida,'  and  the 
•  Castor  and  Pollux '  of  Vogler.  She  started  for 
Berlin  in  Dec.  1 790  to  fulfil  an  engagement,  but 
on  her  arrival  lost  her  husband,  and  herself  died 
May  14,  1 791. 

Mme.  Lebrun,  beside  being  a  great  singer, 
was  an  accomplished  pianiste,  and  composed  well 
for  that  instrument.  She  published  at  Offen- 
bach (1783)  some  sonatas  with  violin  accom- 
paniment, and  some  trios  for  piano,  violin,  and 
cello,  which  contain  pretty  melodies  and  are 
written  with  facility. 

Of  her  two  daughters,  the  elder,  SOPHIE,  better 
known  as  Mme.  '  Dulcken,  was  born  in  London 
>  Not  to  be  confounded  with  the  later  artiste  of  that  name. 


110 


LEBRUN. 


June  20,  1781,  and  became  celebrated  as  a 
pianiste.  She  was  remarkable  for  quick  and  true 
feeling,  as  well  as  a  good  style  of  execution,  and 
made  successful  concert  tours  through  France, 
Italy,  and  Germany.  On  April  18,  1799,  she 
married  Dulcken,  a  famous  maker  of  pianos  at 
Munich.  She  composed,  but  never  published, 
some  sonatas  and  other  pieces  for  the  piano. 

Rosine,  her  younger  sister,  was  born  at  Mu- 
nich, April  13,  1785.  She  was  at  first  taught 
by  Streicher  for  the  piano,  but  afterwards  studied 
singing  under  her  uncle,  Danzi,  the  Kapellmeister. 
She  made  a  successful  debut ;  but,  having  mar- 
ried Stenzsch,  an  actor  of  the  Court  Theatre, 
Nov.  30,  1 801,  gave  up  the  opera  to  play  in 
comedy,  in  which  she  displayed  a  fair  amount 
of  talent.  [J.M.] 

LECLAIR,  Jean-Marie,  l'aine"  (so  called  to 
distinguish  him  from  his  brother  Antoine-Remi), 
an  eminent  violin-player,  and  composer  for  his 
instrument,  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1697.  Al- 
though his  father  was  a  member  of  the  royal 
band,  he  began  his  public  life  not  as  a  musician 
but  as  a  dancer  at  the  Rouen  theatre.  Later  on 
he  went  to  Turin,  as  ballet  master,  where  Somis 
was  so  much  pleased  with  some  ballet-music  of 
his,  that  he  induced  him  to  take  up  the  violin, 
which  up  to  this  time  he  had  cultivated  as  a 
secondary  pursuit  only,  and  to  place  himself  under 
his  tuition  for  two  years.  At  the  end  of  that 
period  Somis  declared  that  he  had  nothing  more 
to  teach  him.  Nevertheless  Le"clair  appears  to 
have  continued  his  studies  for  a  considerable  time 
before  going  to  Paris  in  1729.  In  Paris  his  suc- 
cess was  never  great ;  whether  from  want  of 
ambition  and  a  retiring  disposition,  or,  as  has 
been  suggested,  owing  to  the  jealousy  of  the  vio- 
linists of  the  French  school,  we  have  no  means 
of  deciding.  As  a  fact  we  know  that  Leclair, 
although  he  can  hardly  have  had  a  worthy  rival 
among  the  players  of  that  time,  got  nothing 
better  than  the  insignificant  post  of  ripieno- 
violinist  at  the  Opera.  During  this  period 
he  studied  composition  under  Che'ron.  In  1731 
he  became  a  member  of  the  royal  band,  but 
owing  to  a  dispute  with  Guignon  as  to  the 
leadership  of  the  2nd  violins,  gave  up  his  post 
again,  and  soon  also  retired  from  the  Opera. 
For  the  rest  of  his  life  he  appears  to  have  been 
exclusively  occupied  with  the  composition  and 
publication  of  his  works  and  with  teaching.  He 
was  already  an  old  man  when  he  made  a  journey 
to  Holland,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  hearing  and 
meeting  Locatelli,  of  whose  powers  as  a  violinist 
he,  led  by  the  extraordinary  and  novel  difficulties 
presented  in  the  caprices  of  that  artist,  had 
probably  formed  a  great  idea.  On  Oct.  22,  1764, 
soon  after  his  return  from  Holland,  he  was 
assassinated  late  at  night  close  to  the  door  of 
his  own  house.  Neither  motive  nor  author  of 
the  crime  have  ever  been  discovered. 

Owing  to  the  merit  of  his  compositions  for  the 
violin,  Le"clair  occupies  a  prominent  place  among 
the  great  classical  masters  of  that  instrument.  As 
to  his  powers  as  a  performer  we  have  but  the  in- 
direct evidence  of  the  difficulties  presented  in  bis 


LECOCQ. 

compositions.  These  are  very  considerable ;  and. 
barring  Locatelli's  eccentricities,  greater  than  any 
that  we  find  in  the  works  of  his  predecessors  or 
contemporaries.  He  very  freely  employs — in  fact 
not  seldom  writes  whole  movements  in — double- 
stops  ;  and  altogether,  even  according  to  the 
modern  standard  of  technique,  his  music  is 
exacting  both  for  the  left  hand  and  the  bow. 
As  a  composer,  judging  him  after  his  best 
works,  Leclair  must  be  accorded  the  first  place 
among  French  writers  for  the  violin.  It  has 
been  justly  remarked,  that  a  great  deal  of  what 
he  wrote  is  antiquated  ;  but  much  remains  that 
is  truly  charming.  He  is  no  mere  imitator  of 
the  Italians,  but  there  is  a  distinct  individuality 
in  many  of  his  movements ;  and  also  a  definite 
national  French  element.  On  the  whole,  grace- 
fulness and  vivacity  are  more  prominent  than 
depth  of  feeling;  his  frequent  employment  of 
double-stops,  already  mentioned,  giving  much 
richness  and  brilliancy  of  sound. 

The  two  Sonatas  of  his,  edited  by  Ferd.  David 
(Hohe  Schule  des  Violinspiels),  are  good  ex- 
amples of  his  higher  powers,  especially  the 
pathetic  one,  surnamed  '  Le  tombeau.'  On  the 
other  hand  a  Saraband  and  Tambourin,  often 
played  with  great  success  by  Joachim  and  others, 
are  good  specimens  of  his  lively  style.  This  is  a 
list  of  his  works,  as  appended  to  his  op.  1 2  : — 

Op.  1.  Sonatas   for  violin  with  a  Op.  &  Trios.      Continuation    of 


bass.    (1st  book.) 
2.  Sonatas.    (2nd  book.) 
&  Sonatas  for  2  violins. 
4.  Sonatas  en  trio. 
&  Sonatas  for  violin  with  bass. 

(Srd  book.) 

6.  Trios  (faciles),  2  violins  and 

bass. 

7.  Concertl  gross!. 


op.  6. 

a  Sonatas.    (4th  book.) 

10.  Concert!  gross!. 

11.  Glaucus  et  Scylla.    Op?ra. 

12.  Sonatas  for  2  violins.    (2nd 

book.) 

13.  Overtures  and  sonatas  en 

trios. 

14.  Sonate  posthume. 


As  a  rule  his  works  were  engraved  by  his 
wife,  who,  up  to  1750,  was  a  singer  at  the 
Opera.  [P.  D.] 

LECOCQ,  Alexandre  Charles,  born  in  Paris 
June  3,  1832  ;  entered  the  Conservatoire  in  49, 
and  in  50  obtained  the  first  prize  for  harmony  and 
accompaniment.  He  took  the  second  prize  for 
fugue  in  Hale*vy's  class  in  1852,  and  at  the 
same  time  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the 
organ  class.  After  this  however  he  obtained  no 
further  scholastic  distinctions,  and  either  because 
he  tired  of  Hale'vy's  want  of  method,  or  because 
he  was  anxious  to  come  before  the  public,  left 
the  Conservatoire  towards  the  close  of  1854.  He 
found  the  usual  difficulty  in  obtaining  access  to 
the  stage,  and  would  probably  have  had  to  wait 
a  long  time,  but  for  a  competition  for  an  operetta 
opened  by  Offenbach  in  1 856.  He  was  bracketed 
with  Bizet,  and  '  Le  Docteur  Miracle '  was  pro- 
duced at  the  Bouffes  Parisiens  April  8, 1857.  The 
operetta  was  evidently  the  work  of  a  clever 
musician,  who  understood  how  to  write  for  the 
voice.  Notwithstanding  this  good  beginning  the 
small  theatres  still  closed  their  doors  to  him, 
and  Lecocq  was  driven  to  teaching  for  a 
livelihood.  He  then  tried  a  different  line, 
publishing  in  conjunction  with  Besozzi  a  collec- 
tion of  sacred  songs  for  women's  voices  called 
'La  Chapelle  au  Couvent'  (1865) — less  incon- 
gruous when  we  remember  that  he  was  a  good 


LECOCQ. 

organist;  but  the  stage  was  irresistible,  and 
a  little  one-act  piece  'Le  Baiser  a  la  Porte' 
(1864)  was  followed  by  'Les  Ondines  au  Cham- 
pagne' (1865),  'Le  Myosotis'  (1866),  '  Le 
Cabaret  de  Ramponneau'  (1867),  and  'Fleur  de 
The,'  3  acts  (1868).  This  last  piece  was  a  bril- 
liant success.  Lecocq  at  last  found  himself 
established  with  the  public,  and  produced  in 
rapid  succession  'L' Amour  et  son  carquois,' 
2  acts  (1868);  'Gandolfo'  and  'Le  Eajah  de 
Mysore,'  both  in  one  act  (1869);  'Le  beau 
Dunois,'  1  act  (1870) ;  '  Le  Barbier  de  Trouville' 
and  'Le  Testament  de  M.  de  Crac,'  both  in 
1  act  (1871)  ;  'Sauvons  la  caisse,'  1  act,  and 
'  Les  Cent  'Vierges,'  3  acts  (1872) ;  'La  Fille  de 
Mme.  Angot,'  3  acts  (1873)  2  which  ran  for  500 
nights  consecutively;  'Les  3Pres  St.  Gervais' 
and  'Girofle-*Girofla'  both  in  3  acts  (1874); 
'Les  Jumeaux  de  Bergame,'  1  act,  and  '  Le 
Pompon,'  3  acts  (1875);  'La  petite  Mariee,'  3- 
acts  (1876)  ;  '  Kosiki '  and  '  La  Marjolaine,'  both 
in  3  acts  (1877)  ;  '  Le  petit  Due'  and  '  Camargo,' 
both  in  3  acts  (1878)  ;  and  finally  'La  petite 
Mademoiselle,'  3  acts  (1879).  To  this  long  list 
must  be  added  detached  songs  and  other  trifles 
thrown  off  by  his  rapid  and  untiring  pen. 
Lecocq  has  profited  by  the  false  system  mo- 
mentarily in  the  ascendant  among  French 
musicians.  Our  learned  composers,  encouraged 
by  some  of  the  managers,  overload  their  operas 
with  orchestral  writing  and  substitute  the  lyric 
for  the  dramatic  element — to  the  ruin  of  French 
opera  comique.  But  Lecocq  realizes  that  what 
the  public  really  like  are  light,  gay,  sparkling 
melodies.  His  aim  has  been  to  dethrone  Offen- 
bach, and  as  he  has  the  advantage  of  writing 
correctly,  he  has  had  little  trouble  in  attaining 
a  popularity  even  greater  than  that  formerly 
possessed  by  the  composer  of  '  Orphee  aux  En- 
ters.' His  style  is  not  a  very  elevated  one,  and 
makes  no  demand  on  the  poetry  or  the  intellect 
of  the  composer;  but  it  requires  tact,  ease,  free- 
dom, and  above  all,  animation.  These  qualities 
are  conspicuous  in  Lecocq's  operettas,  which  have 
become  universally  popular,  owing  to  the  life,  brio, 
and  easy  gaiety  which  pervade  them.  [G.C.] 
LEDGER  LINES  are  the  short  lines  drawn 
above  and  below  the  staff  for  those  notes  which 
exceed  its  limits.  The  origin  of  the  term  is  not 
known.  It  is  proposed  to  derive  it  from  the 
French  Uger,  light,  or  from  the  Latin  legere,  to 
read,  or  as  if  it  were  equivalent  to  layer — addi- 
tional lines  laid  on  above  or  below ;  but  neither 
of  these  is  quite  satisfactory.  The  term  came 
into  use  about  the  year  1 700  (see  Mr.  C.  J.  Evans 
in  the  Musical  Times  for  June  1879).  In  French 
they  are  called  '  lignes  postiches,'  or  '  supplemen- 
taires ' ;  and  in  German  '  hilfslinien,'  or  '  neben- 
linien,'  A,  C.  etc.  being  said  to  be  '  durch  den 
Kopf,'  and  B,  D,  etc.  '  durch  den  Hals ' — '  ein, 
zwei,  drei,  gestrichene,'  etc.  [G.] 

1  In  London,  at  St  James's  Theatre  (French),  June  2L  73. 

1  Ditto,  at  St.  James's  Theatre  (French),  May  17,  73 ;  at  Royal 
rhllharmonlc  Theatre  (English,  llyron),  Oct.  4,  73. 

»  Ditto,  at  Criterion  Theatre  (English,  Keece),  KoT.  28, 74. 

«  Ditto,  at  Opera  Comique  (French),  June  6,  74;  at  Koyal  rbilhar- 
mouic  Theatre  (English),  Oct.  3, 74. 


LEEVES. 


Ill 


LEE,  George  Alexander,  son  of  Harry  Lee, 
a  pugilist  and  landlord  of  the  Anti-Gallican 
tavern,  Shire  Lane,  Temple  Bar,  was  born  in  1802. 
When  a  boy  he  entered  the  service  of  Lord 
Barrymore  as  '  tiger,'  being  the  first  of  the  class 
of  servants  known  by  that  name ;  but  on  the 
discovery  that  he  had  a  fine  voice  and  a  natural 
taste  for  music,  he  was  withdrawn  from  that 
position  and  placed  under  a  master  for  instruc- 
tion. In  1825  he  appeared  as  a  tenor  singer  at 
the  Dublin  theatre,  and  in  1826  in  London  at 
the  Haymarket  theatre,  and  soon  afterwards 
commenced  business  as  a  music-seller  in  the 
Quadrant.  In  1829,  with  Melrose,  the  tenor 
singer,  and  John  Kemble  Chapman,  he  entered 
upon  the  management  of  the  Tottenham  Street 
Theatre,  and  gave  performances  of  popular  Eng- 
lish operas.  Lee  seceded  in  1830  and  became 
lessee  of  Drury  Lane  Theatre.  He  was  soon 
afterwards  joined  by  Capt.  Polhill,  but  at  the 
end  of  the  season  he  withdrew,  leaving  Polhill 
sole  manager.  In  1831  he  undertook  the  man- 
agement of  the  Lenten  oratorios  at  both  Drury 
Lane  and  Covent  Garden.  In  1832  he  was  com- 
poser and  music  director  at  the  Strand  Theatre, 
and  in  1845  the  same  at  the  Olympic.  Lee 
composed  the  music  for  several  dramatic  pieces, 
amongst  which  were  'The  Sublime  and  Beauti- 
ful,'and  '  The  Invincibles,'  1828;  'The  Nymph 
of  the  Grotto'  and  'The  Witness,'  1829 ;  'The 
Devil's  Brother '  (principally  from  Auber's  '  Fra 
Diavolo')  and  'The  Legion  of  Honour,'  1831; 
'Waverley'  (with  G.  Stansbury),  1832;  'Love 
in  a  Cottage,'  'Good  Husbands  make  good 
Wives,'  'Sold  for  a  Song,'  and  'Auld  Robin 
Gray,'  the  last  composed  about  1838  but  not 
performed  until  1858.  He  was  also  composer  of 
many  songs  and  ballads,  highly  popular  in  their 
day  ('Away,  away  to  the  mountain's  brow,* 
'Come  where  the  aspens  quiver,'  'The  Macgre- 
gors'  Gathering,'  etc.)  and  author  of  a  'Vocal 
Tutor.'  Lee  married  Mrs.  Waylett,  the  popular 
singer  and  actress,  whose  death  (April  19,  1851) 
so  seriously  affected  him  that  he  died  the  8th  of 
the  following  October.  [W.  H.  H] 

LEEDS  MUSICAL  FESTIVAL.  The  first 
of  these  meetings  took  place  in  1858,  Sept.  7-10, 
in  the  new  Town  Hall,  after  the  opening  of  that 
building  by  the  Queen — conductor,  Sir  (then 
Professor)  Sterndale  Bennett,  whose  May  Queen 
was  performed  (Sept.  8)  for  the  first  time.  They 
are  now  triennial.  The  second  was  held  in  1874, 
Oct.  14-17  ;  and  the  third  in  1877,  Sept.  19-22, 
Macfarren's  '  Joseph,"  first  performed  on  the 
2 1st;  conductor,  on  both  occasions,  Sir  Michael 
Costa.  The  proceeds  of  the  festivals  go  to  the 
hospitals  of  the  Town.  [G.] 

LEEVES,  Rev.  William,  born  1748,  became 
in  1779  rector  of  Wrington,  Somerset,  the  birth- 
place of  John  Locke,  the  philosopher.  He  com- 
posed much  sacred  music,  but  will  be  remembered 
only  as  the  author  of  the  air  of  '  Auld  Robin 
Gray'  (words  by  Lady  Anne  Barnard,  born 
Lindsay  of  Balcarres)  written  in  1770,  but  not 
known  as  his  before  1 81 2.  He  died  at  Wrington. 
May  25,  1828.  [W.H.H.] 


112 


LEFEBURE  -WELY. 


LEFEBUREWELY,  Lodis  James  Alfred, 
born  in  Paris  Nov.  13,  181 7,  son  of  Antoine 
Lefe"bvre,  organist  and  composer,  who  took  the 
name  of  Lefe'bure-We'ly,  and  died  1831.  He 
learned  his  notes  before  the  alphabet,  and  as 
soon  as  he  could  speak  showed  a  marvellous 
aptitude  for  music.  At  eight  he  was  his  father's 
deputy  at  the  organ,  accompanying  the  plain- 
song  and  playing  short  pieces.  Though  only 
15  when  his  father  died,  he  was  appointed 
his  successor  at  St.  Koch  through  the  influence 
of  Queen  Marie  Ame"lie.  Feeling  the  need  of 
solid  study,  he  entered  the  Conservatoire  in  1832, 
and  obtained  the  second  prizes  for  pianoforte  and 
organ  in  1834,  and  the  first  for  both  in  the  fol- 
lowing year.  He  then  took  lessons  in  counter- 
point from  HaleVy,  and  in  composition  from 
Berton,  but,  not  satisfied  with  these  professors, 
studied  privately  with  Adolphe  Adam,  and  with 
Se'jan,  the  organist,  who  initiated  him  in  the  art 
of  improvising  and  in  the  management  of  the 
stops.  He  told  the  author  of  this  article  that  he 
owed  much  to  both  these  men,  widely  different 
as  they  were,  and  he  often  sought  their  advice 
after  he  had  left  the  Conservatoire  in  order  to 
marry.  To  support  his  young  family  he  took 
to  teaching,  and  composed  a  quantity  of  piano- 
forte pieces,  some  of  which  were  popular  at 
the  time.  But  it  is  as  an  organist  that  he 
will  be  remembered.  His  improvisations  were 
marvellous,  and  from  the  piquancy  of  his  har- 
monies, the  unexpectedness  of  his  combinations, 
the  fertility  of  his  imagination,  and  the  charm 
which  pervaded  all  he  did,  he  might  justly 
be  called  the  Auber  of  the  organ.  The  great 
popularity  in  France  of  the  free-reed  instruments 
of  Debain  and  Mustel  is  largely  owing  to  him ; 
indeed,  the  effects  he  produced  on  the  instru- 
ments of  the  harmonium  class  were  really  aston- 
ishing. Endowed  with  immense  powers  of 
work,  Lefebure-Wely  attempted  all  branches  of 
composition — chamber  music;  symphonies  for  full 
orchestra ;  masses ;  an  opera-comique  in  3  acts, 
'Les  Becruteurs'  (Dec.  13,  1861);  etc.  Among 
his  best  works  are  his  'Cantiques,'  a  remarkable 
'  O  Salutaris,'  his  '  Offertoires,  many  of  his  fan- 
tasias for  harmonium,  and  his  organ-pieces.  He 
received  the  Legion  of  Honour  in  1850,  being  at 
the  time  organist  of  the  Madeleine,  where  he 
was  from  1847  to  1858.  After  this  he  had  for 
some  time  no  regular  post,  but  in  1863  accepted 
the  organ  of  St.  Sulpice,  so  long  held  with  suc- 
cess by  his  friend  and  master  Se'jan.  Here  he 
remained  till  his  death,  which  took  place,  of 
consumption,  in  Paris  on  Dec.  31, 1869.     [G.  C] 

LEFFLER,  Adam,  born  in  1808,  son  of 
James  Henry  Leflier,  bassoon  player  and  or- 
ganist of  St.  Katherine's  Hospital  by  the  Tower, 
the  German  Lutheran  Church  in  the  Savoy,  and 
Streatham  Chapel,  who  died  suddenly  in  the 
street  in  1819 — was  soon  after  his  father's  death 
admitted  a  chorister  of  Westminster  Abbey. 
On  attaining  manhood  he  was  endowed  with  a 
bass  voice  of  exceptionally  fine  quality  and  ex- 
tensive compass,  from  E  below  the  stave  to  G 
above  it, — and  a  natural  gift  for  singing.    He 


LEGATO. 

first  attracted  notice  in  October  1829  at  a  Fes- 
tival at  Exeter,  when  the  casual  absence  of 
another  performer  gave  him  the  opportunity  of 
appearing  as  a  principal  singer.  He  acquitted 
himself  so  satisfactorily  that  he  was  immediately 
appointed  a  deputy  at  Westminster  Abbey,  and 
shortly  afterwards  took  and  maintained  a  good 
position  on  the  English  operatic  stage  and  in  the 
concert  room.  But  for  a  constitutional  careless- 
ness and  neglect  of  close  study  he  might,  with 
his  natural  and  acquired  qualifications,  have  oc- 
cupied the  highest  place  in  his  profession.  He 
died  of  apoplexy,  March  28,  1857.  [W.H.H.] 
LEGATO  (Ital.,  sometimes  written  ligato; 
Ger.  gebunden ;  Fr.  IU),  '  connected ' ;  the  sound 
of  each  note  of  a  phrase  being  sustained  until  the 
next  is  heard.  In  singing,  a  legato  passage  is 
vocalised  upon  a  single  vowel,  on  stringed  instru- 
ments it  is  played  by  a  single  stroke  of  the  bow, 
and  on  the  pianoforte  or  organ  by  keeping  each 
finger  upon  its  key  until  the  exact  moment  of 
striking  the  next.  On  wind  instruments  with 
holes  or  keys,  a  legato  passage  is  played  in  one 
breath,  the  notes  being  produced  by  opening  or 
stopping  the  holes ;  but  a  wind  instrument  on 
which  the  different  sounds  are  produced  by  the 
action  of  the  lips  alone,  as  the  horn,  trumpet, 
etc.,  is  incapable  of  making  a  true  legato,  except 
in  the  rare  cases  in  which  one  of  the  notes  of  the 
phrase  is  produced  by  stopping  the  bell  of  the 
instrument  with  the  hand,  as  in  the  following 
example  from  the  Scherzo  of  Beethoven's  7th 
Symphony — 


The  sign  of  legato  is  a  curved  line  drawn  above 
or  beneath  the  notes.  In  music  for  wind  or 
stringed  instruments  the  curve  covers  as  many 
notes  as  are  to  be  played  with  a  single  breath,  or 
a  single  stroke  of  the  bow ;  thus — 

Beethoven.    Symphony  No.  5. 


Flute. 


Beethoven.    Symphony  Xo.  9. 


Celli  Sr  Basti. 


WtWT=r 


1  rrrlr  rrir-e^ 


In  vocal  music  the  same  sign  is  often  used,  as  in 
Handel's  chorus,  'And  he  shall  purify,'  but  it  is 
not  necessary,  since  the  composer  can  always  en- 
sure a  legato  by  giving  a  single  syllable  to  the 
whole  passage,  and  it  is  in  fact  frequently  omitted, 
as  in  the  air  '  Every  valley.' 

In  pianoforte  music,  all  passages  which  are 
without  any  mark  are  played  legato,  inasmuch 
as  the  notes  are  not  detached ;  the  curved  line  is 
therefore  used  more  for  the  sake  of  giving  a 
finished  appearance  to  the  passage  than  from  any 
practical  necessity.     Nevertheless,  passages  are 


LEGATO. 

sometimes  met  with  in  which  it  appears  to  have 
a  special  significance,  and  to  indicate  a  particu- 
larly smooth  manner  of  playing,  the  keys  being 
struck  less  sharply  than  usual,  and  with  slightly 
increased  pressure.  Such  a  passage  occurs  in  the 
Allegro  of  Beethoven's  Sonata  in  Ab,  op.  26,  in 
which  the  quavers  alone  are  marked  legato,  the 
semiquavers  being  left  without  any  mark,  thus — 


g^^ffi-R^P^^M  J  '  l-j'- 

r7  r  r  IP 


The  same  plan  is  followed  on  each  recurrence  of 
the  phrase  throughout  the  movement,  and  since 
this  regularity  can  scarcely  have  been  accidental, 
it  appears  to  indicate  a  corresponding  variety  of 
touch. 

Instead  of  the  sign,  the  word  legato  is  some- 
times written  under  the  passage,  as  in  Bee- 
thoven's Bagatelle,  Op.  119,  No.  8,  or  Variation 
No.  30  of  Op.  1 20.  When  the  word  is  employed 
it  generally  refers  to  the  character  of  the  whole 
movement  rather  than  to  a  single  passage. 

In  playing  legato  passages  wholly  or  partly 
founded  upon  broken  chords,  some  masters  have 
taught  that  the  principal  notes  of  the  harmony 
should  be  sustained  a  little  longer  than  their 
written  length.  Thus  Hummel,  in  his  Piano- 
forte School,  gives  the  following  passages  (and 
many  others)  with  the  intimation  that  the  notes 
marked  with  an  asterisk  are  to  be  sustained  some- 
what longer  than  written,  'on  account  of  the  better 
connexion ' — 


etc. 


This  method  of  playing  passages,  which  is  some- 
times called  legatissimo,  would  doubtless  add  to 
the  richness  of  the  effect,  especially  upon  the  light- 
toned  pianofortes  of  Hummel's  day,  but  it  is  not 
necessary  on  modern  instruments,  the  tone  of 
which  is  so  much  fuller.  Nevertheless  it  is  some- 
times of  service,  particularly  in  certain  passages 
by  Chopin,  which  without  it  are  apt  to  sound 
thin.  In  Klindworth's  new  edition  of  Chopin 
the  editor  has  added  a  second  stem,  indicating  a 
greater  value,  to  such  notes  as  require  sustain- 
ing, and  a  comparison  of  his  version  with  the 
original  edition  will  at  once  show  the  intended 
effect ;  for  example— 
VOL.  11. 


LEGRENZI. 

Chopin,  Valse,  Op.  64,  No.  2,  Original  Edition. 

JL_ .rP-», 


113 


An  example  of  legatissimo  touch,  in  which  the 
notes  are  written  of  their  full  value,  may  be 
found  in  No.  5,  Bk.  ii.  of  Cramer's  Studies. 

The  opposite  of  legato  is  staccato — detached 
[see  Staccato]  ,  but  there  is  an  intermediate  touch 
between  legato  and  staccato,  in  which  the  notes, 
though  not  connected,  are  separated  by  a  barely 
perceptible  break.  When  this  effect  is  intended 
the  passage  is  marked  non  legato.  An  example 
occurs  in  the  first  movement  of  Beethoven's 
Sonata  in  C  minor,  Op.  1 1 1,  in  the  passage  im- 
mediately following  the  first  appearance  of  the 
short  Adagio  phrase.  [F.T.] 

LEGGIERO(Ital.,  also  Leggieramente),  lightly. 
The  word  is  usually  applied  to  a  rapid  passage, 
and  in  pianoforte  playing  indicates  an  absence  of 
pressure,  the  keys  being  struck  with  only  suffi- 
cient force  to  produce  the  sound.  Leggiero  pass- 
ages are  usually,  though  not  invariably,  piano, 
and  they  may  be  either  legato  or  staccato;  if 
the  former  the  fingers  must  move  very  freely 
and  strike  the  keys  with  a  considerable  amount 
of  percussion  to  ensure  distinctness,  but  with  the 
slightest  possible  amount  of  force.  Examples  of 
legato  passages  marked  leggieramente  are  found 
in  the  25th  variation  of  Beethoven's  Op.  120,  and 
in  the  finale  of  Mendelssohn's  Concerto  in  G 
minor  (which  also  contains  the  unusual  com- 
bination of  forte  with  leggiero) ;  and  of  staccato 
single  notes  and  chords  in  the  finale  of  Mendels- 
sohn's Concerto  in  D  minor. 

On  stringed  instruments  leggiero  passages  are 
as  a  rule  played  by  diminishing  the  pressure  of 
the  bow  upon  the  strings,  but  the  word  generally 
refers  rather  to  the  character  of  the  movement 
than  to  any  particular  manner  of  bowing.  The 
Scherzo  of  Beethoven's  Quartet  in  E  b,  Op.  74,  is 
marked  leggiermente,  although  it  begins  forte, 
and  the  same  indication  is  given  for  the  2nd 
variation  of  the  i^dante  in  the  Kreutzer  Sonata, 
which  is  piano  throughout.  [F.  T.] 

LEGRENZI,  Giovanni,  composer  and  con- 
ductor, born  about  1625  at  Clusone  near  Ber- 
gamo ;  in  which  town  he  learned  music,  and 
received  his  first  appointment,  that  of  organ- 
ist to  the  church  of  St.  Maria  Maggiore.  He 
next  became  maestro  di  capella  of  the  church  of 
the  Spirito  Santo  at  Ferrara,  where  he  still  was 
in  1664.  When  Krieger,  Capellmeister  to  the 
Duke  of  Weissenfels,  visited  Venice  in  1672,  he 
found  Legrenzi  settled  there  as  director  of  the 
Conservatorio  dei  Mendicanti.  In  1685  he  also 
became  maestro  di  capella  of  St.  Mark's,  and 
exercised  both  functions  till  his  death  in  July 
1690.     He  entirely  reorganised  the  orchestra  of 


114 


LEGRENZI. 


St.  Mark's,  augmenting  it  to  34  performers,  thus 
disposed — S  violins,  11  violette,  2  viole  da  brae- 
cio,  a  viole  da  gamba,  1  violone,  4  theorbos, 
2  cornets,  I  bassoon,  and  3  trombones.  He 
composed  industriously,  and  left  specimens  of 
his  skill  in  most  departments  of  music— motets, 
masses,  psalms,  instrumental  music  of  various 
kinds,  and  17  operas,  of  which  the  most  re- 
markable are  'Achilla  in  Scyro,'  his  first 
(1664);  'La  Divisione  del  Mondo'  (1675);  'I 
due  Cesari'  (1683)  mentioned  in  the  Paris 
'Mercure  Galant'  (March  1683);  and  'Perti- 
nace*  (1684),  his  last.  They  were  nearly  all 
produced  in  Venice.  Like  Scarlatti,  and  other 
composers  of  his  time,  he  did  not  attempt  to 
banish  the  comic  element  from  his  serious 
operas.  One  of  his  orchestral  compositions  is  in 
7  real  parts,  and  all  are  important.  His  best 
pupils  were  Lotti  and  Gasparini. 

Legrenzi's  name  will  be  handed  down  to  pos- 
terity by  Bach  and  Handel,  both  of  whom  have 
treated  subjects  from  his  works,  the  former  in 
an  organ  fugue  in  C  minor  on  a  'Thema  Le- 
grenzianutn  elaboratum  cum  subjecto  pedaliter' 
(Griepenkerl  &  Roitsch,1  iv.  No.  6) ;  and  the 
latter  in  the  phrase  'To  thy  dark  servant  light 
and  life  afford,'  in  the  Chorus  '0  first-created 
beam'  from  Samson.  This  is  taken  from  a  motet 
of  Legrenzi's — '  Intret  in  conspectu,'  of  which 
a  copy  in  Handel's  handwriting  is  to  be  found 
among  the  MSS.  at  Buckingham  Palace  (Chry- 
sander,  '  Handel '  i.  1 79).  [F.  G.] 

LEIDESDORF,  Max  Josef,  a  musician  and 
music-seller  of  Vienna,  who  appears  to  have  lived 
there  from  about  1804  to  1827,  and  then  to  have 
left  it  for  Florence,  where  he  died  Sept.  26, 1840, 
He  will  go  down  to  posterity  embalmed  in  a 
little  note 2  of  Beethoven's,  apparently  written  at 
the  earlier  of  the  two  dates  just  given  above, 
sending  Ries  for  some  easy  4-hand  pieces — '  and 
better  still  let  him  have  them  for  nothing ' — 
beginning  with  a  pun  on  his  name,  'Dorf  des 
Leides ! '  and  ending  '  Beethoven  minimus.' 
Leidesdorf  was  one  of  those  who  signed  the 
address  to  Beethoven  in  1824,  praying  him  to 
produce  the  Ninth  Symphony  and  the  Mass  in  D, 
and  to  write  a  second  opera.  [See  p.  1966.]  He 
was  one  of  Schubert's  publishers.  [G.] 

LEIGHTON,  Sib  William,  Knight,  one  of 
the  band  of  Gentlemen  Pensioners  of  Elizabeth 
and  James  I,  published  in  1 614  'The  Teares  or 
Lamentacions  of  a  Sorrowfvll  Soule;  Composed 
with  Musicall  Ayres  and  Songs  both  for  Voyces 
and  Divers  Instruments.'  The  work  consists  of 
54  metrical  psalms  and  hymns,  1 7  of  which  are 
for  4  voices,  with  accompaniments,  in  tableture, 
for  the  lute,  bandora  and  cittern;  and  13  for  4 
voices  and  24  for  5  voices  without  accompani- 
ment. The  first  8  pieces  are  of  Leighton's  own 
composition,  and  the  rest  were  contributed  by  the 
following  composers : — Dr.  John  Bull,  William 
Byrde,  John  Coperario,  John  Dowland,  Alfonso 

1  This  Is  the  fugue  about  the  autograph  of  which  Mendelssohn 
writes.  June  18, 183a.  No.  8  of  the  same  voL  is  a  fugue  on  a  subject  by 
CorellL 

»  Kohl,  Briefe  Beethoven's,  No.  35. 


LEIPZIG. 

Ferrabosco,  Thomas  Ford,  Orlando  Gibbons, 
Nathaniel  Giles,  Edmond  Hooper,  Robert  John- 
son, Robert  Jones,  Robert  Kindersley,  Thomas 
Lupo,  John  Milton,  Martin  Pearson,  Francis 
Pilkington,  Timolphus  Thopul  (a  pseudonym), 
John  Ward,  Thomas  Weelkes  and  John  Wilbye. 
From  the  dedication  to  Prince  Charles  we  learn 
that  the  collection  was  compiled  while  the 
worthy  knight  was — unjustly,  as  he  alleges — 
incarcerated  for  debt.  He  had  in  the  preceding 
year  published  the  poetry  alone  in  a  duodecimo 
volume.  [W.H.H.] 

LEIPZIG  (i.e.  the  place  of  Lime-trees),  in 
Saxony,  on  the  junction  of  the  Pleisse  and  the 
Elster,  135,000  inhabitants,  has  for  a  long  time 
been  the  most  musical  place  in  North  Germany. 
When  Rochlitz  visited  Beethoven 3  at  Vienna  in 
1822,  the  first  thing  which  the  great  composer 
did  was  to  praise  Leipzig  and  its  music — '  If  I 
had  nothing  to  read  but  the  mere  dry  lists  of 
what  they  do,  I  should  read  them  with  pleasure. 
Such  intelligence !  such  liberality ! '  The  main 
ostensible  causes  of  this  pre-eminence  have  been 
(1)  the  long  existence  of  the  St.  Thomas  school 
as  a  musical  institution  with  a  first-class  musician 
as  its  Cantor;  (2)  the  Gewandhaus  concerts; 
(3)  the  presence  of  the  great  music-publishing 
house  of  Breitkopfs,  almost  equal  in  importance 
to  a  public  institution ;  (4)  the  existence  for 
fifty  years  of  the  principal  musical  periodical 
of  the  country — the  'Allgemeine  musikalische 
Zeitung' ;  (5)  in  our  own  times,  the  long 
residence  there  of  Mendelssohn,  and  the  found- 
ation by  him  of  the  Conservatorium,  with  its 
solid  and  brilliant  staff  of  professors — a  centre, 
for  many  years,  of  the  musical  life  not  only  of 
Germany,  but  of  other  countries ;  and  lastly  (6) 
several  very  remarkable  private  musical  insti- 
tutions. 

1.  The  Thomas-schule,  or  School  of  St.  Thomas, 
is  an  ancient  public  school  of  the  same  nature  as 
our  cathedral  and  foundation  grammar-schools, 
but  with  the  special  feature  that  about  60  of  the 
boys  are  taught  music,  who  are  called  A  lumni, 
and  are  under  the  charge  of  a  Cantor,  forming 
the  '  Thomaner-Chor.'  This  body  is  divided  into 
4  choirs,  with  a  Prefect  at  the  head  of  each,  and 
serve  the  Churches  of  St.  Thomas,  St.  Nicholas, 
St.  Peter,  and  the  Neukirche  or  New-Church. 
On  Sundays  the  first  choir  joins  the  town  orchestra 
for  the  morning  service  at  St.  Thomas  or  St. 
Nicholas  ;  and  on  Saturday  afternoons  at  1.30 
the  whole  four  choirs  unite  in  a  performance 
under  the  direction  of  the  Cantor.  The  boys  are 
remarkable  for  the  readiness  and  correctness  with 
which  they  sing  the  most  difficult  music  at  sight. 
The  Cantob,  in  German  towns  and  villages, 
corresponds  to  the  Precentor  or  leader  of  the 
choir  in  English  cathedrals  and  churches, 
and  the  Cantor  of  the  St.  Thomas  School  at 
Leipzig  has  for  long  been  acknowledged  as  the 
head  and  representative  of  them  all.  For  more 
than  two  centuries  the  office  has  been  filled  by 
very  distinguished  musicians,   as  will  be  seen 

•  '  Fflr  Freunde  der  Tonkunst ,'  It.  354. 


LEIPZIG. 

from  the  following  list,  taken  from  Mendel's 
Conversations-Lexicon  der  Tonkunst : — 


LEIT-MOTIF. 


115 


Johann  Urban  ... 
Martin  Klotsch  ... 
Ludwig  Gotze  .  .  .  . 
George  Khaw  .... 
Johannes  Herrmann  . 
Wolfgang  Jiinger  .  . 
I'lrich  Lange  .... 
Wolfgang  Flgulus  .  . 
Melchior  Hager  ... 
Valenten  Otto  ... 
Bethus  Calrtsius  .  .  . 
Joh.  Herrmann  Scheln 
Tobias  Michael  ) 
Joh.  Bosenmuller  ) 


1439 
1470 

1519-20 

1531—36 

1536-40 

1540—19 

1549-61 

1551-64 

1564—94 

1594—1615 

1615—30 

1630-67. 


Sebastian  Knflpfer  .  . 
Johann  Scbelle  .  .  . 
Johann  Kuhnau  .  .  . 
Joh.  Sebastian  Bach  . 
Gottlob  Hasser  .  .  . 
Joh.  Friedrlch  Doles  . 
Joh.  Adam  Hlller  .  . 
A.  Eberhard  Mailer  . 
Joh.  Gottfried  Schlcht 
Chrlstoph  Theodor 

Welnllg 

Moritz  II auptmann .  . 
Ernst  Friedrlch  KIchter 


1657-76 

1676—1701 

1701-22 

1723—50 

1750-65 

1756-«9 

1789—1800 

1800—10 

1810-23 

1823—42 
1842—68 
1868—79 


I 


2.  The  Gewandhaus  Concerts  have  been 
already  described  under  their  own  head.  [See  vol. 
i.  p.  5926.]  Mendelssohn  conducted  them  from  Oct. 
4>  I835,  till  the  end  of  the  series  1842-43,  when  he 
■was  compelled  to  leave  Leipzig  for  Berlin,  and 
they  were  then  transferred  to  Ferdinand  Hiller. 

3.  For  the  great  publishing  establishment  of 
Breitkopf  &  Hartel,  we  refer  the  reader  to 
the  former  volume  of  this  work  [p.  272],  merely 
adding  here,  that  since  that  article  was  written 
the  edition  of  Mendelssohn  has  been  completed  ; 
that  of  Mozart  (a  truly  immense  undertaking)  is 
progressing  satisfactorily ;  a  complete  edition  of 
Chopin  (in  14  vols.)  is  nearly  finished ;  and  that 
an  entire  edition  of  the  works  of  Palestrina,  both 
printed  and  MS.,  in  continuation  of  that  begun 
by  Witt,  Rauch,  and  Espagne,  extending  in  all 
to  29  folio  volumes,  was  announced  by  these  in- 
defatigable publishers  on  January  27,  1879.  In 
addition  to  these  they  began  in  1878  a  cheap 
edition  of  classical  music,  a  collection  of  Libretti, 
and  a  publication  of  music  paper  and  music  MS. 
books. 

4.  The  'Allgemeine  musikalische  Zeitung,' 
or  '  General  Musical  Times,'  was  begun  by  the 
firm  just  mentioned  in  1798,  on  October  3  of 
which  year  the  first  number  was  published.  It 
was  in  4to ;  8  pages  weekly,  numbered  in  16 
columns,  to  which  were  added  occasionally  pieces 
of  music  in  type  (and  admirable  type  too),  copper- 
plates, and  advertisement  sheets.  Each  volume 
had  a  portrait  as  frontispiece.  With  18 10  the 
volumes  began  with  the  beginning  of  the  year. 
The  Zeitung  contained  articles  on  musical  subjects 
of  all  kinds,  biographical  notices,  reviews  of  new 
pieces,  reports  from  foreign  towns,  etc.  etc.,  and 
though  seriously  defective  in  many  points,  was  an 
honest  and  good  attempt  at  a  musical  periodical. 
Among  the  editors  were  Rochlitz  (1 798-1818), 
Fink  (1827-41),  Hauptmann  (1843),  Lobe 
(1846-48).  With  the  50th  vol.  (for  1848)  the 
first  series  came  to  an  end.  There  is  an  excellent 
Index  in  3  parts.  Since  that  date  the  Zeitung 
has  been  continued  by  Rieter-Biedermann  under 
various  editors,  of  whom  the  most  considerable  is 
Dr.  Chrysander. 

5.  The  idea  and  the  foundation  of  the  Coxser- 
vatorium  were  entirely  due  to  Mendelssohn,  by 
whom  the  King  of  Saxony  was  induced  to  allow 
a  sum  of  20,000  thalers,  bequeathed  by  a  certain 
Hof  kriegsrath  Bliimner  '  for  the  purposes  of  art 
and  science,'  to  be  devoted  to  the  establishment 
of  a  'solid  musical  academy  at  Leipzig.'  The 
permission  was  obtained  in  Nov.  1842,  the  ne- 


cessary accommodation  was  granted  by  the  cor- 
poration of  the  town  in  the  Gewandhaus — a 
large  block  of  buildings  containing  two  Halls, 
a  Library,  and  many  other  rooms — and  the  Con- 
servatorium  was  opened  on  April  1,  1843. 
Mendelssohn  was  the  first  chief,  and  the 
teachers  were  : — harmony  and  counterpoint, 
Hauptmann ;  composition  and  pianoforte,  Men- 
delssohn and  Schumann ;  violin,  Ferdinand 
David ;  singing,  Pohlenz  ;  organ,  Becker.  There 
were  ten  scholarships,  and  the  fees  for  the 
ordinary  pupils  were  75  thalers  per  annum.  In 
1846,  at  Mendelssohn's  urgent  entreaty,  Mos- 
dheles  left  his  London  practice,  and  became 
professor  of  the  pianoforte  at  the  modest  salary 
of  £1 20  ;  and  at  that  date  the  staff  also  embraced 
Gade,  Plaidy,  Brendel,  Richter  (afterwards 
Cantor),  and  others  whose  names  have  become 
inseparably  attached  to  the  Conservatorium. 
The  management  of  the  institution  is  in  the 
hands  of  a  board  of  directors  chosen  from  the 
principal  inhabitants  of  the  town,  and  not  pro- 
fessional musicians.  The  first  name  inscribed 
in  the  list  of  pupils  is  Theodor  Kirchner,  and  it 
is  followed  by  those  of  Otto  Goldschmidt,  Bargiel, 
Grimm,  Norman,  etc.  Amongst  Englishmen  are 
found  J.  F.  Barnett,  Sullivan,  Walter  Bache, 
Franklin  Taylor,  etc.,  and  the  American  names 
include  Dannreuther,  Willis,  Mills,  Paine,  and 
others. 

6.  Of  the  private  institutions  we  may  men- 
tion: — (1)  the  'Riedelsche  Verein,'  a  choral 
society  founded  in  1854  by  Carl  Riedel,  its  con- 
ductor, and  renowned  throughout  Germany  for  its 
performances  of  sacred  music  of  all  periods,  from 
Palestrina  and  Schiitz  down  to  Brahms  and 
Liszt.  (2)  The  '  Euterpe,'  an  orchestral  concert 
society,  which,  though  its  performances  cannot 
come  into  competition  with  those  of  the  Gewand- 
haus, is  yet  of  importance  as  representing  a  more 
progressive  element  in  music  than  prevails  in 
the  exclusively  classical  programmes  of  the  older 
institution.  The  names  of  Berlioz,  Liszt,  Raff, 
Rubinstein  and  others,  appear  prominently  in  the 
concerts  of  the  Euterpe.  Verhulst,  Bronsart,  and 
other  eminent  musicians,  have  been  its  conductors. 
(3)  The  '  Paulus,'  an  academical  choral  society 
of  male  voices,  deserves  mention  as  one  of  the 
best  of  its  kind  in  Germany.  [G.] 

LEIT-MOTIF,  i.e.  'guiding  theme.'  The 
principle  of  '  Leit-motive '  is  so  simple  and  ob- 
vious that  it  would  seem  strange  that  they 
have  so  lately  found  recognition  in  music, 
were  it  not  remembered  that  music  in  general 
has  progressed  but  slowly  towards  a  sufficiently 
logical  condition  to  admit  of  their  employment. 
They  consist  of  figures  or  short  passages  of 
melody  of  marked  character  which  illustrate,  or 
as  it  were  label,  certain  personages,  situations,  or 
abstract  ideas  which  occur  prominently  in  the 
course  of  a  story  or  drama  of  which  the  music  is 
the  counterpart ;  and  when  these  situations  recur, 
or  the  personages  come  forward  in  the  course  of 
the  action,  or  even  when  the  personage  or  idea  is 
implied  or  referred  to,  the  figure  which  consti- 
tutes the  leit-motif  is  heard. 

12 


116 


LEIT-MOTIF. 


Their  employment  obviously  presupposes  unity 
and  continuity  in  the  works  in  which  they  occur. 
For  as  long  as  it  is  neeessary  to  condescend  to 
the  indolence  or  low  standard  of  artistic  percep- 
tion of  audiences  by  cutting  up  large  musical 
works  into  short  incongruous  sections  of  tunes, 
songs,  rondos,  and  so  forth,  figures  illustrating 
inherent  peculiarities  of  situation  and  character 
which  play  a  part  throughout  the  continuous 
action  of  the  piece  are  hardly  available.  Musical 
dramatic  works  of  the  old  order  are  indeed  for 
the  most  part  of  the  nature  of  an  'entertain- 
ment,' and  do  not  admit  of  analysis  as  complete 
and  logical  works  of  art  in  which  music  and 
action  are  co-ordinate.  But  when  it  becomes  ap- 
parent that  music  can  express  most  perfectly  the 
emotional  condition  resulting  from  the  action  of 
impressive  outward  circumstances  on  the  mind, 
the  true  basis  of  dramatic  music  is  reached ;  and 
by  restricting  it  purely  to  the  representation  of 
that  inward  sense  which  belongs  to  the  highest 
realisation  of  the  dramatic  situations,  the  princi- 
ple of  continuity  becomes  as  inevitable  in  the 
music  as  in  the  action  itself,  and  by  the  very 
same  law  of  artistic  congruity  the  '  leit-motive ' 
spring  into  prominence.  For  it  stands  to  reason 
that  where  the  music  really  expresses  and  illus- 
trates the  action  as  it  progresses,  the  salient 
features  of  the  story  must  have  salient  points 
of  music,  more  marked  in  melody  and  rhythm 
than  those  portions  which  accompany  subordi- 
nate passages  in  the  play ;  and  moreover  when 
these  salient  points  are  connected  with  ideas 
which  have  a  common  origin,  as  in  the  same 
personage  or  the  same  situation  or  idea,  these 
salient  points  of  music  will  probably  acquire  a 
recognisable  similarity  of  melody  and  rhythm, 
and  thus  become  '  leit-motive.' 

Thus,  judging  from  a  purely  theoretical  point 
of  view,  they  seem  to  be  inevitable  wherever 
there  is  perfect  adaptation  of  music  to  dramatic 
action.  But  there  is  another  important  con- 
sideration on  the  practical  side,  which  is  the 
powerful  assistance  which  they  give  to  the 
attention  of  the  audience,  by  drawing  them  on 
from  point  to  point  where  they  might  otherwise 
lose  their  way.  Moreover  they  act  in  some 
ways  as  a  musical  commentary  and  index  to 
situations  in  the  story,  and  sometimes  enable  a 
far  greater  depth  of  pregnant  meaning  to  be  con- 
veyed, by  suggesting  associations  with  other 
points  of  the  story  which  might  otherwise  slip 
the  notice  of  the  audience.  And  lastly,  judged 
from  the  purely  musical  point  of  view,  they 
occupy  the  position  in  the  dramatic  forms  of 
music  which  'subjects'  do  in  pure  instrumental 
forms  of  composition,  and  their  recurrence  helps 
greatly  towards  that  unity  of  impression  which  it 
is  most  necessary  to  attain  in  works  of  high  art. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  'leit-motive'  are  not 
always  identical  in  statement  and  restatement ; 
but  as  the  characters  and  situations  to  which 
they  are  appropriate  vary  in  their  surrounding 
circumstances  in  the  progress  of  the  action,  so 
will  the  'leit-motive'  themselves  be  analogously 
modified.     From  this  springs  the  application  of 


LEIT-MOTIF. 

variation  and  'transformation  of  themes'  to 
dramatic  music;  but  it  is  necessary  that  the 
treatment  of  the  figures  and  melodies  should  be 
generally  more  easily  recognisable  than  they  need 
to  be  in  abstract  instrumental  music. 

Leit-motive  are  perfectly  adapted  to  instru- 
mental music  in  the  form  known  as  '  programme 
music,'  which  implies  a  story,  or  some  definite 
series  of  ideas;  and  it  is  probable  that  the 
earliest  distinct  recognition  of  the  principle  in 
question  is  in  the  Symphonie  Fantastique  of 
Berlioz  (written  before  1830),  where  what  he 
calls  an  'idee  fixe'  is  used  in  the  manner  of  a 
leit-motif.    The  '  ide*e  fixe '  itself  is  as  follows : — 


P 


W= 


j^nrT' 


m 


It  seems  hardly  necessary  to  point  to  Wagner's 
works  as  containing  the  most  remarkable  ex- 
amples of  'leit-motive,'  as  it  is  with  his  name 
that  they  are  chiefly  associated.  In  his  earlier 
works  there  are  but  suggestions  of  the  principle, 
but  in  the  later  works,  as  in  Tristan  and  the 
Niblung  series,  they  are  worked  up  into  a  most 
elaborate  and  consistent  system.  The  following 
examples  will  serve  to  illustrate  some  of  the 
most  characteristic  of  his  'leit-motive'  and  his 
use  of  them. 

The  curse  which  is  attached  to  the  Rheingold 
ring  is  a  very  important  feature  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  story  of  the  Trilogy,  and  its  'leit- 
motif,' which  consequently  is  of  frequent  oc- 
currence, is  terribly  gloomy  and  impressive.  Its 
first  appearance  is  singularly  apt,  as  it  is  the 
form  in  which  Alberich  the  Niblung  first  de- 
claims the  curse  when  the  ring  is  reft  from  him 
by  Wotan,  as  follows : — 


m-   "U\r  rcsF'    -^ 


WiedurchFIuch     er    mir  ge-rieth,  ver- 


Among  the  frequent  reappearances  of  this 
motif,  two  may  be  taken  as  highly  charac- 
teristic. One  is  towards  the  end  of  the  Rhein- 
gold. where  Father  kills  his  brother  giant  Fasolt 
for  the  possession  of  the  ring,  and  the  leit-motif 


LEIT-MOTIF. 

being  heard,  reminds  the  hearers  of  the  doom 
pronounced  on  the  possessors  of  the  ring  by 
Alberich. 

A  yet  more  pregnant  instance  is  in  the  Gotter- 
dammerung,  the  last  of  the  series.  When  Sieg- 
fried comes  to  the  Hall  of  the  Gibichungs  on  the 
Rhine,  with  the  ring  in  his  possession,  having 
obtained  it  by  slaying  Fafner,  who  had  taken 
the  form  of  a  dragon  to  preserve  it,  the  first  per- 
son to  greet  him  is  Hagen,  the  son  of  Alberich, 
who  looks  to  compass  Siegfried's  death,  and  re- 
gain the  ring  for  the  Niblungs  by  that  means. 
As  Hagen  says  'Heil  Siegfried,  theurer  Held,' 
the  greeting  is  belied  by  the  ominous  sound  of 
the  leit-motif  of  the  curse,  which  thus  foretells 
the  catastrophe  in  the  sequel  of  which  Hagen  is 
the  instrument  and  Siegfried  the  victim,  and 
lends  a  deep  and  weird  interest  to  the  situation. 
Siegfried  himself  has  '  motive '  assigned  to  him 
in  different  circumstances  and  relations.  For  in- 
stance, the  following  figure,  which  he  blows  on 
the  silver  horn  made  for  him  by  Mime,  is  the 
one  which  most  frequently  announces  his  coming. 
It  implies  his  youthful  and  light-hearted  state 
before  he  had  developed  into  the  mature  and 
experienced  hero. 


This  figure  is  frequently  subjected  to  consider- 
able development,  and  to  one  important  trans- 
formation, which  appears,  for  instance,  in  the 
death  march  as  follows  : — 


LEIT-MOTIF. 


117 


r^jya^ 


m 


t* 


■*■•  ^ 


■g«i  -+ 


I 


3tJ 


^ 


r  ^rr+r 


In  his  character  as  mature  hero  he  is  notified  by 
the  following  noble  figure, 


^H 


which  occurs  as  above  in  the  last  act  of  the 
Walkiire,  when  Wotan  has  laid  Briinnhilde  to 
sleep  on  the  '  Felsenhbhe,'  with  a  wall  of  fire 
around  her;  and  the  sounding  of  the  motif 
implies  that  Siegfried  is  the  hero  who  shall  pass 
through  the  fire  and  waken  Briinnhilde  to  be  his 
bride.  A  happy  instance  of  its  recurrence  is 
when,  in  the  first  act  of  Siegfried,  the  youthful 
hero  tells  how  he  had  looked  into  the  brook  and 
saw  his  own  image  reflected  there. 

In  the  above  examples  the  marked  character 
of  the  figure  lies  chiefly  in  their  melody.  There 
are  others  which  are  marked  chiefly  by  rhythm, 
as  the  persistent  motif  of  Mime  imitating  the 
rhythmic  succession  of  blows  on  an  anvil — 


which  points  to  his  occupation  as  a  smith.  This 
motif  occurs  in  connection  with  the  rattling 
blows  of  the  hammers  of  the  Niblung  smiths 
underground,  at  the  end  of  the  second  scene  of 
the  Rheingold,  and  thus  shows  its  derivation. 

Other  'motive'  again  are  chiefly  conspicuous 
by  reason  of  impressive  and  original  progressions 
of  harmony.  Of  this  kind  that  of  the  Tarnhelm 
is  a  good  example.  It  occurs  as  follows,  where 
Alberich  first  tests  the  power  of  the  helm  at  the 
beginning  of  the  third  scene  of  the  Rheingold  : — 


Another  instance  where  a  strongly  marked 
melodic  figure  is  conjoined  with  an  equally  strik- 
ing progression  of  harmony,  is  the  '  death  motif 
in  Tristan  and  Isolde,  which  first  appears  in  the 
second  scene,  where  Isolde  sings  as  follows  : — 
/ 


j|gj    |   B=fj§  p  g 


ge  -   weiht-es         Haupt! 


f 


jrfv 


«-* 


1 


fi 


91= 

P  I 


w 


A  figure  which  it  is  difficult  to  characterise, 
but  which  has  a  marvellous  fascination,  is  the 
motif  of  the  love-potion  in  Tristan  and  Isolde. 


The  love-potion  is  the  key  to  the  whole  story, 
and  therefore  the  musical  portion  of  the  work 
appropriately  commences  with  its  leit-motif. 
Among  the  numerous  examples  of  its  recurrence 
one  is  particularly  interesting.  When  King 
Marke  has  discovered  the  passionate  love  which 
existed  between  Tristan  and  Isolde  he  is  smitten 
with  bitter  sorrow  that  Tristan,  whom  he  had  so 


118 


LEIT-MOTIF. 


loved  and  trusted,  should  have  so  betrayed  him, 
and  appeals  to  Tristan  himself.  Then  as  Tristan 
slowly  answers  him  the  motif  is  heard,  and,  without 
its  being  so  expressed  (for  Tristan  does  not  excuse 
himself),  conveys  the  impression  that  Tristan 
and  Isolde  are  not  to  blame,  but  are  the  victims 
of  the  love-potion  they  had  unwittingly  shared. 

Among  more  important  contemporary  com- 
posers, Professor  Macfarren  has  made  use  of  the 
device  in  his  cantata  'The  Lady  of  the  Lake,' 
and  to  a  certain  extent  in  his  oratorio  '  Joseph.' 
The  following  characteristic  examples  from  the 
cantata  will  illustrate  his  mode  of  employing  the 
device.  In  a  soliloquy  in  the  earlier  part  of  the 
work  Fitz-James  refers  to  Douglas,  and  sings 
the  following  figure : — 


A-u^^--j^#P 


The     Douglas  Is    the  theme 

This  recurs  appropriately  when  Douglas  refers  to 
himself  and  his  daughter  as  all  that  remained  of 
his  clan,  under  the  type  of  the  Bleeding  Heart, 
which  was  their  badge. 

Roderick  Dhu's  motif  is  as  follows : — 


g 


£ 


e=£ 


Eg^ 


This  is  happily  used  in  the  accompaniment  to 
the  vocal  phrase  in  which  he  appeals  to  Douglas 
to  grant  him  Ellen  for  his  wife,  as  follows  : — 


mh  -  r  Sj4^-^r 


Grant  me  this    maid 


gr'>i  'rifcrjV 


r 

The  prophecy  of  Brian  the  Seer  is  enunciated 
as  follows : — 


Which  spllb  the  foremost  foeman's   life,    That  par -ty 


m&  wm  i 


and  this  is  reintroduced  when  the  Chorus  describes 
how  Red  Murdoch  is  slain  by  Fitz-James,  and 
clearly  implies  that  he  is  the  first  foeman  whose 
life  is  taken,  and  that  the  victory  in  the  strife 
between  Roderick  and  Fitz-James  will  rest  with 
the  latter  in  fulfilment  of  the  prophecy.  It  also 
recurs  when  Fitz-James  warns  Roderick  that 
Murdoch  is  dead  and  that  therefore  the  prophecy 
is  against  him. 

Prior  to  contemporary  composers,  though  sub- 
sequent to  the  idit  fixe  of  Berlioz,  a  few  hints 
of  the  spirit  of  leit-motive  may  be  found  in 
various  quarters :  for  instance,  in  Meyerbeer's 
'  Prophete,'  when  the  prophet  in  the  early  part  of 
the  work  speaks  of  the  dream  of  future  splendour 
in  store  for  him,  the  first  strain  of  the  processional 
march  is  heard.     Again,  the  system  of  giving  a 


LE  JEUNE. 

particular  instrumental  tone  to  the  accompani- 
ment of  particular  characters  which  is  clearly 
analogous,  is  notable  in  the  string  accompani- 
ment of  Christ's  words  in  Bach's  '  Passion,'  and 
in  the  sounding  of  the  trombones  when  the  Com- 
mendatore  appears  in  'Don  Giovanni,'  and  the 
adoption  of  a  similar  quality  of  tone  or  definite 
phrase  as  the  accompaniment  to  special  utterances 
of  Elijah  in  Mendelssohn's  oratorio,  and  to  the 
appearance  of  Don  Quixote  in  his  opera  of 
Camacho's  Hochzeit  (1825).  [C.H.H.P.] 

LE  JEUNE,  Claude,  or  Claudin,  born  at 
Valenciennes  probably  about  1530,  for  we  first 
find  his  name  as  a  composer  in  1554.  The  only 
part  of  his  life  of  which  we  have  any  record 
was  spent  in  Paris.  Thus  in  1581  he  attended 
the  marriage  of  Henry  Ill's  favourite  the  Due  de 
Joyeuse,  and  noted  the  magical  effect  of  his  own 
music.1  About  this  time  also,  Leroy  printed 
5  vols.2  of  chansons  (a  4),  39  of  them  by  Le  Jeune, 
and  the  publisher,  himself  a  first-rate  musician, 
seems  to  have  valued  them  highly,  placing  the 
author  by  the  side  of  Lassus,  and  filling  the  last 
2  vols,  with  their  works  alone.  Still  the  Hugue- 
not composer  met  with  slender  encouragement 
for  many  years,  and  there  is  a  pathetic  story  of 
his  attempted  flight  at  the  siege  of  Paris  in  1588, 
when  bowed  down  by  the  weight  of  his  un- 
published MSS.,  he  was  caught  by  the  Catholic 
soldiers,  and  would  have  seen  his  treasures  com- 
mitted to  the  flames,  but  for  the  timely  aid  of 
Mauduit,  a  Catholic  musician,  who  saved  the 
books  and  aided  the  escape  of  his  brother  artist. 

Better  times  came  late  in  life.  In  Henry  IV's 
reign,  Leroy  printed  '  Recueil  de  plusieurs  chan- 
sons et  airs  nouveaux,'  par  CI.  le  J.  (Paris  1594), 
and  in  1598  Haultin,  at  La  Rochelle,  the  'Do- 
decacorde,  12  psalms  written  according  to  Gla- 
rean's  1 2  Church  modes.  On  the  title-page  of  the 
latter  we  see  for  the  first  time  '  compositeur  de  la 
musique  de  la  chambre  du  roy,'  so  perhaps  the  per- 
mission to  print  such  a  work,  and  the  possibility 
of  holding  the  appointment,  was  a  result  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  in  the  same  year.  In  any  case 
the  appointment  was  quite  a  recent  one,  and 
Le  Jeune  did  not  long  enjoy  it,  for  the  next  pub- 
lication, '  Le  Printemps '  (dedicated  to  our  king 
James  I s),  was  posthumous,  and  on  the  4th  page 
an  ode  appears  '  Sur  la  musique  du  defunct  Sieur 
CI.  le  J.,'  the  second  stanza  of  which  begins  thus, 

*  Le  Jeune  a  faict  en  sa  viellesae, 
Ce  qu'un  bien  gaye  jeunesse, 
N'auseroit  avoir  enterpria.' 

The  6th  page  contains  a  general  essay  on 
music,  claiming  for  Le  Jeune  the  honour  of  uniting 
ancient  rhythm  to  modern  harmony.  '  Le  Prin- 
temps' contains  33  chansons  with  'vers  mesurez,' 

>  The  story  goes  that  an  officer  was  so  excited  by  an  air  of  the  com- 
poser's that  he  cried  out,  with  oaths,  that  he  must  attack  some  one. 
and  was  only  pacified  when  the  character  of  the  strain  was  altered. 
Whatever  truth  there  may  be  In  the  story,  the  effect  was  more 
probably  produced  by  some  martial  rhythm  In  the  music  than  by  any 
superior  Intelligence  which  Claude  possessed  In  the  use  of  the  modes, 
to  which  It  Is  attributed  by  the  narrator. 

>  The  last  5  of  25  rols.  of  chansons  published  between  the  years  1569 
and  1587. 

*  See  Hawkins's  History  (Chap.  110).  The  copy  we  hare  seen  had 
the  first  page  torn  out,  on  which  this  dedication  probably  appeared, 
and  tbe  words '  roy '  and  '  majesty '  erased  on  the  second, 


LE  JEUNE. 

followed  by  longer  settings  of  'vers  rimez.' 
Amongst  the  latter  is  Jannequin's  'Chant  de 
l'Alouette'  (a  4)  with  a  5th  part  added  by 
Le  Jeune,  'Le  chant  du  Rossignol  in  6  nos.,' 
'Ma  mignonne  in  8  nos.,'  and  a  Sestine  (a  5) 
*  Du  trist  Hyver.' 

The  prefaces  give  no  full  explanation  of  '  vers 
mesurez.'  On  p.  6  we  read  that  '  the  wonderful 
effects  produced  by  ancient  music,  as  described  in 
the  fables  of  Orpheus  and  Amphion,  had  been 
lost  by  the  modern  Masters  of  Harmony,  that 
Le  Jeune  was  the  first  to  see  that  the  absence  of 
Rhythm  accounted  for  this  loss ;  that  he  had 
unearthed  this  poor  Rhythm,  and  by  uniting  it 
to  Harmony,  had  given  the  soul  to  the  body; 
that  '  Le  Rrintemps'  was  to  be  an  example  of 
this  new  kind  of  music,  but  on  account  of  its 
novelty,  might  fail  to  please  at  first. 

The  editor  next  tells  us  (p.  7)  that  M.  Baif * 
and  M.  Le  Jeune  had  meant  to  print  the  words 
with  suitable  spelling  and  without  superfluous 
letters,  and  to  make  the  scanning  as  clear  in  the 
French  poetry  as  it  would  be  in  Latin.  But  that 
he  (the  editor)  had  been  advised  to  abandon  this 
as  too  great  a  novelty.  We  are  therefore  left  un- 
certain as  to  the  method  which  the  authors  meant 
to  employ,  and  have  little  to  guide  us  as  to  the 
interpretation  of  such  a  passage  as  this  (the  bars 
drawn  and  quavers  joined  as  in  original)  : — 


LE  JEUNE. 


119 


P 


tirf-fT  r  n»J  gjg  jj  jflll 


Voicy    le  veril  A    beau  may  con-vi-vant  a  tout      soulas 

We  have,  however,  above  the  ode  '  Sur  la 
musique  mesure"e  de  CI.  le  J.'  on  p.  3  of  this  same 
book  a  scheme  of  the  quantities  of  the  4  lines  in 
each  stanza.  The  first  line  of  this  scheme  being 
— \ju  —  w —  —  wu  -vu-  ;  the  corresponding  line 
of  the  ode  would  then  be  accented 

I  Malnts  muzl  |  cifins  de  c6  |  temps  cl  II  par  169  a  |  cors 
grave  I  doQs. 

and  any  music  set  to  this  would  take  the  same 
accents.  And  so  we  might  suppose  that  by  some 
suitable  directions  as  to  the  scanning  of  the  words 
he  might  intend  the  above  passage  to  be  sung 
thus — 


Hi' i  r  r  \WW&  1 1 11  j  ruii 


J?flj|f  I 


using  the  bars  in  the  original  as  a  mere  division 
of  the  lines  in  the  poem,  where  there  should 
always  be  a  pause  and  the  measure  completed. 
In  any  case  this  is  only  an  adaptation  to  French 
music  of  what  had  been  already  done  by  Lassus 
and  others  in  using  the  metres  of  Latin  verses, 
though  their  efforts  at  Rhythm  may  have  been 
accidental,  while  Le  Jeune  had  a  set  purpose. 
It  is  interesting,  at  least,  to  see  the  importance 
of  Rhythm  being  recognised,  and  some  attempt 
at  a  notation  to  express  it.  It  also  seems  clear 
from  what  is  said  in  the  preface,  of  making  the 

>  Toet  and  musician,  1W2-1589. 


French  lines  like  the  Latin,  that  the  authors  saw 
the  impetus  which  the  Latin  odes  had  given  to 
music  in  this  direction. 

The  music  (a  3)  to  the  Psalms  (Paris  1607)  was 
apparently  not  reprinted,  being  doubtless  cast  in 
the  shade  by  the  more  important  setting  (a  4  and  5  ) 
of  Marot  and  Beza's  Psalms,  printed  at  La  Ro- 
chelle  by  Haultin,  and  dedicated  by  Cecile  Le 
Jeune,2  in  pursuance  of  the  composer's  expressed 
wishes,  to  the  Duke  of  Bouillon,  a  great  Protestant 
champion.  This  work,  on  which  Le  Jeune's  great 
reputation  entirely  rests,  went  through  many 
editions  in  France,  found  its  way  into  Germany 
with  the  translation  of  Lobwasser,  and  except  in 
Switzerland,  was  soon  used  universally  in  all 
Calvinistic  churches.  'It  went  through  more 
editions,  perhaps,  than  any  musical  work  since 
the  invention  of 3  printing.'  The  melodies  in  the 
Tenor  are  the  same  a3  those  used  by  Goudimel, 
and  earlier  still  by  Guillaume  Franc.4  The  other 
parts  are  written  in  simple  counterpoint,  note 
against  note.  The  simplicity  of  the  style,  and 
its  consequent  fitness  for  congregational  use,  was 
not  the  only  cause  of  its  supplanting  earlier  works 
of  the  kind.  There  is  real  beauty  in  the  music, 
which  modern  critics  do  not  cease  to  recognise. 
'Claude  Le  Jeune, '  says  Burney,  speaking  specially 
of  this  work,  '  was  doubtless  a  great  master  of 
harmony.'  Ambros  finds  '  the  discant  so  me- 
lodious that  it  might  be  mistaken  for  the  principal 
5  part.'  '  These  psalms,'  thinks  Fe"tis,  '  are  better 
written  than  Goudimel's.'  • 

Other  posthumous  publications  are  the 'Airs  a 
3,  4,  5,  6  (Paris,  Ballard,  1608),  and  a  collection 
of  36  chansons,  3  on  each  of  the  1 2  modes,  under 
the  title  '  Octonaires  de  la  vanite  et  inconstance 
du  monde'  (id.  1610). 

Lastly,  in  161 2,  Louis  Mardo,  Le  Jeune's 
nephew,  published  a  2nd  book  of  Meslanges,  in 
which,  judging  from  the  miscellaneous  contents, 
he  must  have  collected  all  that  he  could  still  find 
of  his  uncle's  works,  French  chansons  34,  5,8, 
canons,  psalms,  a  magnificat,  a  fantaisie,  Latin 
motets,  and  Italian  madrigals. 

In  the  higher  branches  of  composition  Le  Jeune 
never  met  with  great  success.  The  Belgian  and 
Italian  masters  would  not  look  at  his  writings.7 
Burney  regarded  him  as  a  man  of  study  and 
labour,  rather  than  of  genius  and  facility,  but  this 
judgment  was  only  passed  on  some  of  his  very 
earliest  works.8  Fe"tis,  on  the  other  hand,  con- 
sidered him  naturally  gifted,  but  without  the 
education  of  a  great  master;  and  this  opinion 
seems  to  be  borne  out  by  the  success  of  his  simpler, 
and  the  failure  of  his  more  elaborate  works. 


1  All  doubt  as  to  Le  Jeune  being  a  family  name  seems  to  be  dispelled 
by  the  sister's  signature  as  above. 
»  Burney's  History,  HI.  46. 

•  The  belief  which  at  one  time  existed  In  England  that  Le  Jeune  was 
the  author  of  the  melody  of  the  'Old  100th  Psalm,'  and  which  gains 
some  support  from  the  vague  terms  in  which  Burney  ihi.  47)  speaks  of 
It,  has  no  foundation  in  fact.  It  is  now  well  known  that  that  melody 
first  appeared  in  Beza's  Genevan  Psalter  of  1654.  [See  OLD  HUN- 
DREDTH.] 

»  Geschicbte  der  Musik.  111.  344. 

•  Blographle,  T.261. 

'  Mersenne,  Harm.  Univ.  Iv.  197,  and  Burney  111.  273. 

•  Kxcept  a  canon,  the  pieces  of  Le  Jeune's  In  Dr.  Burney's  MS.  note- 
books are  among  the  composer's  first  publications  Id  1554. 


120 


LE  JEUNE. 


Le  Jeune  is  generally  regarded  as  a  Frenchman, 
though  his  birthplace  did  not  become  part  of 
France  till  1677.  It  would  however  be  no  great 
honour  to  be  called  the  chief  musician  of  an 
ungrateful  country,  which  suffered  Jannequin  in 
his  old  age  to  bewail  his  poverty,  which  had 
killed  poor  Goudimel,  and  could  now  only  boast  of 
a  decaying  and  frivolous  school.  It  is  more  to  his 
honour  to  remember  him  as  the  composer  of  one 
little  book  which  was  destined,  after  his  death, 
to  carry  God's  music  to  the  hearts  of  thousands 
in  many  lands.  [J.R.S.-B.] 

LEMMENS,  Nicolas  Jacques,  was  born  Jan. 
3,  1823,  at  Zoerle-Parwys,  Westerloo,  Belgium, 
where  his  father  was  echevin  and  organist.  His 
career  was  attached  to  the  organ  from  the  first. 
At  11  years  of  age  he  was  put  under  Van  der 
Broeck,  organist  at  Dieste.  In  1839  he  entered 
the  Conservatoire  at  Brussels,  but  soon  left  it 
owing  to  the  illness  of  his  father,  and  was  absent 
for  a  couple  of  years.  In  the  interval  he  suc- 
ceeded his  former  master  at  Dieste,  but  fortu- 
nately gave  this  up  and  returned  to  the  Conser- 
vatoire at  the  end  of  41.  There  he  became  the 
pupil  of  Fetis  and  was  noted  for  the  ardour  and 
devotion  with  which  he  worked.  He  took  the  2nd 
prize  for  composition  in  44  and  the  first  in  45,  as 
well  as  the  first  for  organ  playing.  In  46  he 
went  at  the  government  expense  to  Breslau,  and 
remained  there  a  year  studying  the  organ  under 
A.  Hesse,  who  sent  him  back  at  the  end  of  that 
time,  with  a  testimonial  to  the  effect  that  '  he 
played  Bach  as  well  as  he  himself  did.'  In  1849 
he  became  professor  of  his  instrument  at  the 
Conservatoire,  and  M.  Fe'tis,  as  the  head  of  the 
establishment,  bears  strong  testimony  to  the  vast 
improvement  which  followed  this  appointment, 
and  the  new  spirit  which  it  infused  through  the 
country  ;  and  gives  a  list  of  his  pupils  too  long 
to  be  quoted  here.  Though  distinguished  as 
a  pianist,  it  is  with  the  organ  that  his  name 
will  remain  connected.  In  1857  M.  Lemmens 
married  Miss  Sherrington,  and  since  that  time 
has  resided  much  in  England.  His  great  work 
is  his  Ecole  d'orgue,  which  has  been  adopted  by 
the  Conservatoires  at  Paris,  Brussels,  Madrid, 
etc.  He  has  also  published  Sonatas,  Offertoires 
etc.  for  the  organ,  and  has  been  engaged  for 
twenty  years  on  a  Method  for  accompanying 
Gregorian  Chants,  which  is  now  on  the  eve 
of  publication.  On  Jan.  I,  1879,  he  opened  a 
college  at  Malines,  under  the  patronage  of  the 
Belgian  clergy,  for  training  Catholic  organists 
and  choirmasters,  which  is  already  largely  at- 
tended. Madame  Lemmens,  ne'e  Sherrington,  was 
born  at  Preston,  where  her  family  had  resided 
for  several  generations,  Oct.  4, 1834.  Her  mother 
was  a  musician.  In  1838  they  migrated  to 
Rotterdam,  and  there  Miss  Sherrington  studied 
under  Verhulst.  In  52  she  entered  the  Brussels 
Conservatoire,  and  took  first  prizes  for  singing 
and  declamation.  On  April  7,  1856,  she  made 
her  first  appearance  in  London,  and  soon  rose 
to  the  position  of  leading  English  soprano,  both 
in  sacred  and  secular  music,  a  position  which 
she  has   maintained  ever  since.     In   1865  she 


LENZ. 

appeared  on  the  English  and  in  1867  on  the 
Italian  operatic  stage,  and  her  operas  embrace 
Robin  Hood,  Amber  Witch,  Helvellyn,  Afri- 
caine,  Norma,  Huguenots,  Roberto,  Don  Gio- 
vanni, Domino  Noir,  Fra  Diavolo,  Marta,  etc., 
etc.    [See  Sherrington.]  [G.] 

LENTO,  i.e.  'slow,'  implies  a  pace  and  style 
similar  to  a  slow  Andante.  Beethoven  rarely 
uses  it.  One  example  is  in  his  last  Quartet 
°P-  I35»  Lento  assai.  Mendelssohn  employs  it 
for  the  introduction  to  his  Ruy  Bias  overture, 
but  he  chiefly  uses  it,  like  'con  moto,'  as  a  quali- 
fication for  other  tempos — as  Andante  lento 
(Elijah  No.  I,  and  Op.  35,  No.  5),  Adagio  non 
lento  (Op.  31,  No.  3),  Adagio  e  lento  (Op.  87, 
No.  3).  [G.] 

LENTON,  John,  one  of  the  band  of  music  of 
William  and  Mary  and  of  Queen  Anne,  in  1693 
published  'The  Gentleman's  Diversion,  or  the 
Violin  explained,'  with  some  airs  composed  by 
himself  and  others  at  the  end.  A  second  edition, 
with  an  appendix,  and  the  airs  omitted,  appeared 
in  1702,  under  the  title  of '  The  Useful  Instructor 
on  the  Violin.'  It  is  remarkable  that  in  neither 
edition  is  there  any  mention  of '  shifting,'  and  the 
scale  given  reaches  but  to  C  on  the  second  ledger 
line  above  the  stave.  About  1694,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Thomas  Toilet,  he  published  'A  Consort 
of  Musick  in  three  parts.'  Lenton  composed  the 
overtures  and  act  tunes  to  the  following  plays : — 
'  Venice  preserved,'  1685  ;  '  The  Ambitious  Step- 
mother,' 1700;  'Tamburlain,'  1702  ;  'The  Fair 
Penitent,'  1 703  ;  '  Liberty  asserted '  and  '  Abra 
Muley,'  1704.  Songs  by  him  are  in  several  of 
the  collections  of  the  period,  and  other  vocal 
pieces  in  'The  Pleasant  Musical  Companion.' 
He  contributed  to  D'Urfey's  'Third  Collection 
of  New  Songs,'  and  revised  the  tunes  for  the 
earlier  editions  of  his '  Pills  to  purge  Melancholy.* 
The  date  of  his  death  has  not  been  ascertained. 
He  was  Uving  in  1711.  [W.H.H.] 

LENZ,  Wilhelm  von,  Russian  councillor  at 
St.  Petersburg,  and  author  of  '  Beethoven  et  ses 
trois  Btyles'  (2  vola.  Petersburg,  1852),  in  which 
the  idea  originally  suggested  by  Fetis,  that 
Beethoven's  works  may  be  divided  into  three 
separate  epochs,  has  been  carried  out  to  its 
utmost  limits.  This  was  followed  by '  Beethoven. 
Eine  Kunststadie,'  in  6  vols.,  i. — iii.  Cassel 
1855,  6;  iv. — vi.  Hamburg  i860.  This  is  an 
entirely  different  work  from  the  foregoing,  and 
though  often  extravagant  in  expression,  has  a 
certain  value  from  the  enthusiasm  of  the  writer 
and  the  unwearied  manner  in  which  he  has  col- 
lected facts  of  all  kinds  about  Beethoven's  works. 
It  contains  a  Life,  an  Essay  on  Beethoven's  style, 
a  detailed  analysis  of  every  one  of  his  works  in 
order,  with  various  Lists  and  Catalogues  not 
without  use  to  the  student,  though  in  regard  to 
the  chronology  of  Beethoven's  works,  the  minute 
investigations  of  Thayer  and  Nottebohm  have 
superseded  many  of  Lenz's  conclusions.  He  also 
published '  Die  grossen  Piano  fortevirtuosen  unserer 
Zeit'  (Berlin,  1872),  a  collection  of  articles  on 
Liszt,  Chopin,  Tausig,  Henselt,  and  many  other 


LENZ. 


LEO. 


121 


great  artists,  from  personal  knowledge,  well 
translated  in  the  Monthly  Musical  Record  for 
1878.  [F.  G.] 

LEOCADIE.  A  lyrical  drama  in  3  acts,  founded 
on  a  story  of  Cervantes ;  words  by  Scribe  and  Me"- 
lesville,  music  by  Auber.  Produced  at  the  Ope'ra 
Comique  Nov.  4,  1824.  It  is  the  subject  of  a 
curious  invective  by  Mendelssohn  in  his  boyish 
letters  from  Paris  (see  Goethe  and  Mendelssohn, 
pp.  44,  45).  It  had  however  a  great  popularity, 
and  by  Apr.  1825  had  had  5  2  representations.  [G.j 

LEO,  Leonardo,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of 
Neapolitan  composers,  was  born  in  1694  at  San 
Vito  degli  Schiavi,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples. 
His  musical  studies  were  pursued  at  the  Conser- 
vatorioof  la  Pieta  de'  Turchini,  in  Naples,  under 
Alessandro  Scarlatti  and  Fago  (II  Tarentino) ; 
besides  which  it  is  said  (in  a  notice  of  his  life  by 
Girolamo  Chigi,  chapel-master  of  St.  John  La- 
teran)  that  he  learned  counterpoint  of  Pitoni,  at 
Home.  After  his  return  to  Naples  he  was  ap- 
pointed second  master  in  the  Conservatorio  of  la 
Pieta  ;  in  1 716  was  named  organist  of  the  royal 
chapel,  and  the  following  year  was  elected  to  the 
post  of  chapel-master  in  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  della  Solitaria.  His  first  serious  opera, 
'Sofonisbe,'  was  produced  in  1719,  and  met 
with  great  success.  Not  many  years  after  this 
he  quitted  the  Conservatorio  of  la  Pieta  for  that 
of  San  Onofrio,  to  which  he  remained  attached 
till  the  end  of  his  life.  He  was  perhaps  the  most 
eminent  professor  of  his  time,  and  the  list  of  his 
pupils  includes  many  distinguished  composers, 
among  whom  may  especially  be  named  Jommelli 
and  Piccinni.  But  he  was  not  satisfied,  as  was 
Durante  his  contemporary,  with  the  rdle  of  a 
pedagogue.  'Sofonisbe'  was  succeeded  by 
nearly  fifty  other  operas  and  dramatic  cantatas, 
conspicuous  among  which  is  '  Demofoonte,'  in 
which  the  great  singer  Caffarelli  made  his  first 
appearance,  and  which  contains  an  air,  Misero 
Pargoletto,  quoted  by  Piccinni,  in  a  short  bio- 
graphical sketch  of  his  master,  as  pre-eminent 
among  all  Leo's  compositions  for  beauty  and 
dramatic  expression.  Mention  should  also  be 
made  of  'L'Olimpiade,'  two  pieces  in  which 
acquired  a  lasting  popularity — the  duet  '  Ne' 
giorni  tuoi  felici,'  and  the  air  'Non  so  donde 
viene,'  both  remarkable  for  melodious  charm. 

His  compositions  for  the  church  are  very 
numerous,  amounting  to  nearly  a  hundred.  The 
chief  of  these  are,  the  oratorio  '  Santa  Elena  al 
Calvario ' ;  the  '  Ave  maris  stella,'  for  a  soprano 
voice,  two  violins,  viola,  and  organ  ;  the  Mass  in 
D  for  five  voices,  written  for  the  church  of  San 
Giacomo  degli  Spani  at  Rome  ;  and  the  '  Mise- 
rere' for  a  double  choir  of  eight  voices.  This 
celebrated  Miserere  was  composed  in  1 743,  and 
was  the  work  of  a  few  days.  It  was  written  for 
the  Duke  of  Savoy,  who  on  hearing  it,  was  so 
delighted  as  to  heap  presents  upon  the  composer, 
granting  him  at  the  same  time  a  pension  of  a 
hundred  ounces  of  silver.  Leo  was  overpowered 
by  this  munificence,  and  regarded  his  acceptance 
of  it  as  tantamount  to  a  renunciation  of  all  pro- 


perty in  his  own  work,  so  that  when,  on  his 
return  to  Naples  from  Turin,  his  pupils  petitioned 
for  a  copy  of  the  score,  he  thought  himself  bound 
in  honour  to  refuse  them.  One  of  them  however, 
having  found  out  where  the  manuscript  was  kept, 
contrived  to  possess  himself  of  it ;  he  divided  it 
among  his  companions,  and,  between  them  all, 
it  was  so  speedily  copied  as  to  be  restored  to  its 
place  before  Leo  had  had  time  to  perceive  its 
absence.  It  was  rehearsed  in  secret,  and  in  a 
few  days  the  students  invited  the  unsuspecting 
maestro  to  hear  the  performance  of  a  new  work, 
when  to  his  astonishment  his  own  '  Miserere '  was 
executed  in  his  presence.  His  first  impulse  was 
one  of  resentment,  but  this  feeling  quickly  gave 
way  to  emotion  aroused  by  the  enthusiasm  of 
the  young  students,  and  the  end  of  it  was  that 
he  caused  them  to  repeat  the  entire  piece,  so 
that  he  might  himself  add  the  finishing  touches 
to  their  performance. 

He  did  not  long  enjoy  his  pension.  The 
Marquis  de  Villarosa,  to  whose  reminiscences  of 
the  Neapolitan  composers  subsequent  biographers 
are  indebted  for  many  interesting  details,  says 
that  he  was  engaged  in  writing  the  opera  'La 
finta  Frascatana '  when  he  was  struck  down  by 
apoplexy.  He  was  found  with  his  head  resting 
on  his  clavichord,  the  score  before  him  open  at 
the  bvffo  air  '  Voi  par  che  gite.'  He  was  appa- 
rently asleep,  but  he  was  dead.  This  was  in 
1746. 

In  the  bright  constellation  of  Neapolitan  com- 
posers Leo  shines  as  a  brilliant  star.  To  a  com- 
plete command  of  science  and  of  the  art  of  vocal 
writing  he  united  freshness  and  originality  of 
thought,  and  perhaps  in  no  composer  are  the 
germs  of  modern  fancy  so  happily  blent  with  the 
purity  and  dignity  of  the  old  Roman  writers. 
His  ideas,  if  not  sublime,  are  noble ;  always 
sound  and  healthy ;  occasionally  tender,  but  with 
no  tinge  of  sentimentality.  They  did  not  tran- 
scend the  limits  of  contemporary  form ;  his  art 
was  therefore  adequate  to  give  them  that  perfect 
expression  which  is  in  itself  beautiful.  It  is 
impossible  not  to  feel  in  all  his  music  the  master's 
joy  in  his  power  over  his  materials ;  and  the 
satisfaction  afforded  by  a  study  of  his  works  ia 
mainly  based  on  a  perception  of  this  even 
balance  between  thought  and  expression,  showing 
as  it  does,  the  extent,  while  it  defines  the  limits, 
of  his  sphere  as  a  composer.  He  was  not  tor- 
mented, like  his  pupil  Jommelli,  by  the  unequal 
conflict  between  prophetic  glimpses  of  new  phases 
of  art,  far  beyond  the  power  of  his  own  limited 
genius  to  grasp  or  realise,  and  a  science  too 
superficial  to  do  justice  to  ancient  forms.  What 
Leo  thought,  he  could  express. 

By  his  tonality  he  belongs  essentially  to  the 
moderns.  His  harmonies  are  for  the  most  part 
lucid  and  simple,  yet  there  is  a  certain  uncon- 
ventionality  in  their  treatment,  while  occasionally 
(as  may  be  seen  in  the  '  Miserere ')  chromatic  pro- 
gressions occur,  quite  startling  in  their  effect.  That 
his  simplicity  was  the  result  of  consummate  art 
is  shown  by  the  purity  of  his  part-writing.  The 
Chorus  of  Pilgrims, '  Di  quanta  pena  e  frutta,'  from 


122 


LEO. 


the  oratorio  of  '  Santa  Elena  al  Calvario '  is  a  good 
instance  of  a  pleasing  idea  absolutely  inseparable 
from  contrapuntal  form ;  shapely  and  coherent  as 
a  whole,  it  must  be  unravelled  before  the  close- 
ness and  complexity  of  its  texture  can  be  appre- 
ciated. His  fugues  are  compact  and  massive,  and 
full  of  contrivance  which  is  always  subordinated 
to  unity  of  effect.  It  is  only  necessary  to  compare 
the  contrapuntal  movement  which  forms  a  Coda 
to  the  double-fugued  'Amen'  chorus  in  Leo's 
'Sicut  erat,'  from  the  'Dixit'  in  D  (see  'Fitz- 
william  Music'),  with  the  fugue  on  the  'Osanna' 
in  Jommelli's  Requiem,  the  subjects  in  which 
are  very  similar — to  see  how  the  science  which 
to  one  man  was  an  implement  or  a  weapon,  in  the 
hand  of  the  other  was  no  more  than  a  crutch. 

Besides  his  larger  works,  Leo  left  a  great 
number  of  instrumental  compositions  ;  concertos, 
fugues,  toccatas  ;  several  isolated  vocal  airs  witb 
orchestral  accompaniment ;  vocal  duets  and  trios ; 
finally,  six  books  of  solfeggi  and  two  of  partimenti 
or  figured  basses,  for  the  use  of  the  students  of 
San  Onofrio. 

In  person  he  was  of  middle  height,  with  a 
bronzed  complexion,  keen  eye  and  ardent  temper- 
ament. His  activity  and  industry  were  indefatig- 
able ;  he  was  wont  to  pass  great  part  of  the  night 
in  work,  and  his  energies  never  seemed  to  flag. 
Although  uniformly  genial  and  urbane,  the  pre- 
vailing tone  of  his  mind  was  serious.  He  appre- 
ciated his  own  music,  and  loved  it,  but  he  was 
ever  ready  to  perceive  merit  in  others,  and  to  do 
full  justice  to  the  compositions  of  his  rivals.  An 
enthusiast  in  every  branch  of  his  art,  he  was  not 
only  a  great  composer  and  a  great  teacher,  but 
an  excellent  organist  and  a  virtuoso  on  the 
violoncello,  being  indeed  one  of  the  first  musicians 
to  introduce  this  instrument  into  Italy.  His 
powers  of  mind  remained  undiminished  to  the 
end,  and  he  died  in  harness,  universally  re- 
gretted and  long  remembered. 

The  following  compositions  of  Leo  are  published, 
and  accessible. 

i  ioth  Psalm  (Dixit  Dominus),  for  SS.  A  T.  B., 
with  solos.    Halle  (Kiimmel). 

Do.  for  S.,  T.,  B.,  with  Orchestra.  Berlin 
(Trautwein  &  Co.). 

50th  Psalm  (Miserere),  SS.,  AA.,  TT.,  BB. 
Berlin  (B.  Bock).  The  same,  edited  by  Choron 
(Paris,  Leduc). 

Others,  and  portions  of  others,  are  included  in 
'  Cecilia,'  a  monthly  periodical  of  church  music, 
ancient  and  modern,  by  E.  and  R.  van  Malde- 
ghem  (Brussels,  Heusner),  in  Latrobe's  Sacred 
Music,  and  Rochlitz's  'Collection.'  A  Dixit 
Dominus  for  8  voices  and  orchestra  has  been 
edited  (1879)  Dv  Mr-  01  V.  Stanford  from  the 
autograph  in  the  Fitzwilliam  Library  (Novello). 
Copious  extracts  from  this  and  others  are  printed 
in  Novello's  'Fitzwilliam  Music'  [see  vol.  i. 
PP-  530,  S3l]-  [F.A.M.] 

LEOLINE.  The  English  name  of  '  L'Ame  en 
Peine,'  a  ballet  fantastique  in  2  acts;  words  by 
Saint  Georges,  music  by  Flotow.  Produced  at 
the  Grand  Opera  May  29,  1846.  The  English 
version  was  by  Maddox  and  G.  Linley,  and  the  j 


LEONORE  PROHASKA. 

piece  was  produced  at  the  Princess's  theatre, 
Oxford  Street,  Oct.  16,  1848.  [G.] 

LEONORE,  OU  L' AMOUR  CONJUGAL, 
an  ope"ra-comique  in  2  acts;  words  by  Bouilly, 
music  by  Gaveaux.  Produced  at  the  Ope"ra 
Comique  Feb.  19,  1798.  The  book  was  trans- 
lated into  Italian,  composed  by  Paer,  and 
produced  at  Dresden  Oct.  3,  1804.  It  was  also 
translated  into  German  by  Jos.  Sonnleithner 
(late  in  1804),  and  composed  by  Beethoven.  The 
story  of  the  transformations  and  performances 
of  the  opera  in  its  three  shapes  is  given  under 
Fidelio  (vol.  i.  p.  519  a)  ;  and  it  only  remains 
to  add  that  it  was  proposed  to  bring  it  out  at 
Prague  in  May  1807,  and  that  Beethoven,  with 
that  view,  wrote  the  overture  known  as  '  Leonore 
No.  1'  (op.  138).  The  proposal  however  was 
not  carried  out,  and  the  overture  remained, 
probably  unperformed,  till  after  his  death.1  It 
was  Beethoven's  wish  from  first  to  last  that 
the  opera  should  be  called  '  Leonore '  ;  and  his 
edition  of  the  pianoforte  score,  published  by 
Breitkopfsin  Oct.  i8io,is  entitled  '  Leonore,  oper 
in  zwey  Aufzugen  von  L.  van  Beethoven.'  On  all 
other  occasions  he  was  overruled  by  the  Manage- 
ment of  the  theatre,  and  the  opera  has  always 
been  announced  as  Fidelio,  probably  to  avoid 
confusion  with  Paer's  opera.  For  the  whole 
evidence  see  '  Leonore  oder  Fidelio  ? '  in  Otto 
Jahn's  Gesamm.  Schriften,  p.  236,  and  Thayer's 
Chron.  Verzeichniss,  p.  61. 

It  may  be  well  here  to  give  a  list  of  the 
overtures  to  the  opera  in  the  order  of  their 
composition. 


Title. 

Bate  and  Occasion. 

Date  of  publica- 
tion of  Score. 

Leonore  No.  2, 
inC. 

For     production      of 
opera,  Nov.  20, 1805. 

Breitkopf  1842 
and  1854. 

Leonore  No.  3, 
inC. 

For      production      of 
modified  opera,  Mar. 
29,  1806. 

Breitkopf  1828. 

Leonore  No.  1, 
inC(op,138). 

For  a  performance  of 
the  opera  at  Prague 
in  May  1807,  which 
never  came  off. 

Haslinger  1832. 

Fidelio,  in  E. 

For   the    second    and 
final  revision  of  the 
opera ;    first   played 
May  26,  1814. 

Breitkopf  1864. 

[G.] 

LEONORE a  PROHASKA,  a  romantic  tra- 
gedy by  Friedrich  Duncker,  for  which  Beethoven 
in  the  autumn  of  181 4  composed  a  soldiers'  chorus 
for  men's  voices  unaccompanied;  a  romance  with 
harp  accompaniment ;  and  a  melodram  with  har- 
monica, besides  scoring  the  march  in  his  Sonata 
op.  26.  The  melodram  has  been  already  printed  in 
this  Dictionary.  [Vol.  i.  p.  663.]  The  opening 
bars  of  the  two  others  are  given  by  Thayer, 
Chron.  Verzeichniss,  No.  187.  The  march  is  trans- 
posed into  B  minor,3  and  scored  for  2  flutes, 
2  clarinets,  4  horns,  and  either  strings  or  brass 
instruments — it  seems  uncertain  which.  (See  the 
account  in  Thayer,  iii.   317.)     The   autograph 

1  Nottebohm, '  Beethoveniana.' 

1  Mr.  Nottebohm  gives  it '  Eleonore." 

3  A  '  black  ley '  according  to  Beethoven.    [See  vol.  i.  p.  643  a.] 


LEONORE  PROHASKA. 


LESSEL. 


123 


is  in  possession  of  Mr.  Adolph  Mtiller  of  Vienna. 
Dr.  Sonnleithner — no  mean  authority — believed 
that  Beethoven  had  also  written  an  overture 
and  entr'acte  for  the  piece.  For  some  reason 
or  other  the  play  was  not  performed.  [G.] 

LEROY,  or  LE  ROY,  Adrien,  was  a  singer, 
lute  player,  and  composer,  but  will  be  remem- 
bered as  one  of  the  most  celebrated  music  printers 
of  the  1 6th  century,  when  printers  were  also 
publishers.  Of  the  reasons  of  his  taking  to 
printing  we  have  no  account.  He  worked  with 
the  types  of  Le  Be"  (cut  in  1 540),  as  Attaignant 
had  done  before  him  with  those  of  Hautin. 
Fetis  states  that  he  worked  by  himself  for  some 
time,  but  cites  no  evidence.  In  1551  Le  Roy 
married  the  sister  of  R.  Ballard,  who  was  already 
occupying  himself  with  music  printing,  and  was 
attached  to  the  court ;  they  joined  partnership 
and  obtained  a  patent,  dated  Feb.  16,  1552,  as 
sole  printers  of  music  to  Henri  II.  In  15  71 
he  received  Orlando  Lasso  as  his  guest,  and 
published  a  volume  of  'moduli'  for  him,  with 
a  dedication  to  Charles  IX,  which  has  already 
been  quoted  in  this  volume.  [See  p.  98a].  Leroy's 
name  disappears  from  the  publications  of  the  firm 
in  1 589,  and  it  may  thus  far  be  inferred  that  he 
died  then.  His  Instruction-book  for  the  Lute, 
I557>  was  translated  into  English  in  two  dif- 
ferent versions,  one  by  Alford,  London  1568, 
and  one  by  'F.  K.  Gentleman'  (lb.  1574).  A 
second  work  of  his  was  a  short  and  easy  instruc- 
tion-book for  the  '  Guiterne,'  or  guitar  (1578); 
and  a  third  is  a  book  of  '  airs  de  cour'  for  the 
lute  1 5  71,  in  the  dedication  of  which  he  says 
that  such  airs  were  formerly  known  as  '  voix '  de 
ville.'  Besides  these  the  firm  published,  between 
1551  and  1568,  20  books  of  'Chansons'  for  4 
voices.  [G.j 

LESCHETITZKY,  Theodob,  a  distinguished 
pianist,  born  of  Polish  parents  in  1831.  He 
attracted  notice  in  Vienna  by  his  pianoforte 
playing  in  1845.  He  was  for  some  time  a  pro- 
fessor at  the  Conservatoriura  of  St.  Petersburg, 
from  which  appointment  he  has  retired,  and  now 
lives  in  Vienna.  His  compositions  chiefly  con- 
sist of  morceaux  de  salon  for  the  piano.  He 
made  his  de"but  in  England  at  the  Musical 
Union  concerts  in  1864,  playing  in  the  Schumann 
Quintet,  and  solos  of  his  own  composition,  and 
has  frequently  since  then  appeared  at  the  same 
concerts.  Madame  Annette  Essipoff  was  for  some 
time  his  pupil.  [J.  A.  F.  M.] 

LESLIE,  Henry  David,  born  in  London, 
June  18,  1822,  commenced  his  musical  education 
under  Charles  Lucas  in  1838.  For  several  years 
he  played  the  violoncello  at  the  Sacred  Harmonic 
Society  and  elsewhere.  In  1 847,  on  the  formation 
of  the  Amateur  Musical  Society,  he  was  appointed 
its  honorary  secretary,  and  continued  so  until 
1855,  when  he  became  its  conductor,  which  post 
he  retained  until  the  dissolution  of  the  Society 
in  1861.  In  1855  he  formed  the  well-known 
Choir  which  bears  his  name,  which  numbers  200 
voices,  is  noted   for  its  refined  performance  of 

1  M»y  thU  not  be  the  origin  of  VaudmtU,  a  piece  made  up  of  cur- 
rant Hr»? 


motets,  madrigals,  and  other  unaccompanied  part 
music,  and  in  1878  gained  the  first  prize  in  the 
International  competition  of  choirs  at  Paris.  In 
1863  he  was  appointed  conductor  of  the  Hereford- 
shire Philharmonic  Society,  an  amateur  body  at 
Hereford.  In  1864  he  became  principal  of  the 
National  College  of  Music,  an  institution  formed 
on  the  principle  of  the  foreign  conservatoires, 
which,  however,  not  receiving  adequate  support, 
was  dissolved  in  a  few  years.  In  1874  ne  became 
the  director  and  conductor  of  the  Guild  of 
Amateur  Musicians.  Henry  Leslie's  first  pub- 
lished composition — a  Te  Deum  and  Jubilate  in 
D — appeared  in  1846.  He  has  since  produced 
a  Symphony  in  F,  1847 ;  a  festival  anthem, 
'Let  God  arise,'  for  solo  voices,  chorus  and 
orchestra,  1849  '<  overture,  'The  Templar,'  1852  ; 
'Immanuel,'  oratorio,  1853  ;  '  Romance,  or,  Bold 
Dick  Turpin,'  operetta,  1857  ;  'Judith,'  oratorio, 
produced  at  Birmingham  Festival,  1858  ; '  Holy- 
rood,'  cantata,  i860  ;  'The  Daughter  of  the  Isles,' 
cantata,  1861  ;  'Ida,'  opera,  1864:  besides 
instrumental  chamber  music,  anthems,  songs, 
duets,  trios,  pianoforte  pieces,  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  part  songs  and  madrigals  composed  for  his 
choir.  In  addition  to  a  wide  range  of  madri- 
gals, motets,  and  unaccompanied  music  of  all 
ages  and  countries,  the  following  are  amons;  the 
larger  works  which  have  been  performed  by  this 
excellent  choir : — Bach's  motets  for  8  voices ; 
Samuel  Wesley's  ditto  for  ditto ;  Mendelssohn's 
Psalms  and  motets,  and  his  Antigone  and  ffidi- 
pus ;  Gounod's  motets  and  Messe  Solennelle ; 
Carissimi's  Jonah;  Tallis's  Forty -part  song; 
Bourgault  Ducoudray's  Symphonie  religieuse  (un- 
accompanied). [W.H.  H.] 
LESSEL,  Franz,  one  of  Haydn's  three 
favourite  pupils,  born  about  1780,  at  Pulawy  on 
the  Vistula,  in  Poland ;  his  father,  a  pupil  of 
Adam  Hiller  and  Dittersdorf,  being  Musik- 
director  at  the  neighbouring  castle  of  Prince 
Czartoryski.  In  1797  he  came  to  Vienna  to 
study  medicine,  but  the  love  of  music  proved 
a  great  distraction.  Haydn  eventually  took 
him  as  a  pupil,  a  service  he  repaid  by  tending 
him  till  his  death  with  the  care  and  devotion  of 
a  son.  In  18 10  he  returned  to  Poland,  and  lived 
with  the  Czartoryski  family,  occupied  entirely 
with  music.  After  the  Revolution  of  1 830  had 
driven  his  patrons  into  exile,  Lessel  led  a  life  of 
great  vicissitude,  but  being  a  man  of  varied  culti- 
vation always  managed  to  maintain  himself, 
though  often  reduced  to  great  straits.  In  1837 
he  was  superseded  in  his  post  as  principal  of  the 
gymnasium  at  Petrikan  on  the  borders  of  Silesia, 
and  feeling  a  presentiment  of  approaching  death, 
he  composed  his  requiem,  and  shortly  after 
(March  1839)  expired  of  the  disease  commonly 
called  a  broken  heart.  He  left  songs,  chamber 
music,  and  symphonies ;  also  church  music,  spe- 
cially indicating  gifts  of  no  common  order.  Among 
his  effects  were  some  autographs  of  Haydn  pre- 
sented by  himself.  Some  of  his  works  were 
published  by  Artaria,  Weigl,  and  Breitkopf  & 
Hartel,  among  them  being,  3  sonatas  for  P.  F. 
(op.  2)  dedicated  to  Haydn;  fantasia  for  P. F. 


124 


LESSEL. 


LESUEUR. 


(op.  S"),  dedicated  to  Clementi;  another  fantasia 
(op.  13)  dedicated  to  Cecily  Beidale,  etc.  Les- 
eel's  life  was  a  romantic  one.  He  was  believed 
to  be  the  love-child  of  a  lady  of  rank.  Mystery 
also  enveloped  the  birth  of  his  first  love,  Cecily 
Beidale,  and  he  discovered  that  she  was  liis 
s:ster  only  just  in  time  to  prevent  his  marrying 
her.  One  of  his  masses — 'Zum  Ctieilientag' — 
was  composed  in  all  the  fervour  of  this  first 
passion.  [C.F.  P.] 

LESSON,  or  LEQON,  a  name  which  was 
used  from  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century 
to  the  close  of  the  iSth,  to  denote  pieces  for 
the  harpsichord  and  other  keyed  instruments. 
It  was  applied  to  the  separate  pieces  which 
in  their  collected  form  made  up  a  Suite.  The 
origin  of  the  name  seems  to  lie  that  these  pieces 
served  an  educational  purpose,  illustrating  dif- 
ferent styles  of  playing,  and  being  often  arranged 
in  order  of  difficulty.  This  is  borne  out  by 
the  fact  that  Domenico  Scarlatti's  '  42  Les.-ons 
for  the  Harpsichord,  edited  by  Mr.  Roseingrave ' 
are  in  the  original  edition  called  'Essercizi — 
xxx.  Sonatas  per  Gravicembalo, '  though  they 
have  little  of  the  educational  element  in 
them,  and  by  the  following  extract  from  Sir 
John  Hawkins's  History  of  Music  (chap.  14S; 
lie  uses  the  word  'lessons'  for  'suites  of  lessons') : 
'  In  lessons  for  the  harpsichord  and  virginal 
the  airs  were  made  to  follow  in  a  certain  order, 
that  is  to  say,  the  slowest  or  most  grave  first, 
and  the  rest  in  succession,  according  as  they 
deviated  from  that  character,  by  which  rule  the 
Jig  generally  stood  last.  In  general  the  Gal- 
liard  followed  the  Pavan,  the  first  being  a  grave, 
the  other  a  sprightly  air  ;  but  this  rule  was  not 
without  exception.  In  a  manuscript  collection 
of  lessons  composed  by  Bird,  formerly  belonging 
to  a  lady  Neville,  who  it  is  supposed  was  a 
scholar  of  his,  is  a  lesson  of  a  very  extraordinary 
kind,  as  it  seems  intended  to  give  the  history  of 
a  military  engagement.  The  following  are  the 
names  of  the  several  airs  in  order  as  they  occur  : 
''The  Marche  before  the  battell,  The  Souldiers 
Sommons,  The  Marche  of  foote-men,  The  Marche 
of  horse-men  :  Now  folowethe  the  Trumpets,  the 
Bagpipe  and  the  Drone,  the  Flute  and  the 
Drome,  the  Marche  to  the  Fighte,  Here  the 
battells  be  joyned,  The  Retreate,  Now  folowethe 
a  Galliarde  for  the  victory."  There  is  also  in 
the  same  collodion  a  lesson  called  the  Carman's 
Whistle.'  Kameau's  Lessons  for  the  Harpsichord, 
op.  2  and  3,  are  not  arranged  in  order  of 
difficulty,  but  are  connected  by  the  relation  of 
their  keys.  In  the  case  of  Handel's  3  Lecons, 
the  first  consists  of  a  Prelude  and  air  \\  ith  varia- 
tions in  Bb,  the  second  of  a  Minuet  in  G 
minor,  and  the  third  of  a  Chaconne  in  G 
major  ;  so  they  may  be  presumed  to  be  intended 
for  consecutive  performance.  The  'Suites  de 
Pieces  pour  le  Clavecin,'  in  2  Books,  were  called 
'  Lessons'  in  the  first  edition,  but  in  the  later 
editions  this  name  was  discarded  for  that  which 
they  now  bear. 

An  analogous  word  to  this  is  'Etude,'  which 
from   originally  meaning  a  special   form  of  ex- 


ercise, has  in  many  cases  come  to  be  applied  to 
pieces  in  which  the  educational  purpose  is  com- 
pletely lost  sight  of.  [See  Etudes.]  Although 
in  general  the  name  was  applied  to  pieces  for 
the  harpsichord  alone,  yet  it  was  sometimes  used 
for  concerted  chamber  music,  as  in  the  '  Firste 
Booke  of  consort  lessons,  made  by  divers  ex- 
quisite authors,  for  six  Instruments  to  play 
together,  viz.  the  Treble  Lute,  the  Pandora,  the 
Citterne,  the  Base  Violl,  the  Flute  and  the 
Treble  -Violl,  collected  by  Thomas  Morley,  and 
now  newly  corrected  and  enlarged '  (London 
161 1),  and  in  Mathias  Yento's  'Lessons  for  the 
Harpsichord  with  accompaniment  of  Flute  and 
Violin.'  [J.A.F.M.] 

LF.STOCQ.  Opera  in  4  acts  ;  words  by  Scribe, 
music  by  Auber.  Produced  at  the  Opera  Comique 
May  24,  1S34.  It  was  produced  in  English  at 
Covent  Garden  Feb.  21,  1S35,  as  'Lestocq,  or  the 
Fete  of  the  Hermitage.'  [G.] 

LESUEUR,  Jkan  Francois,  grandnephew  of 
the  celebrated  painter  Eustache  Lesueur,  bom 
Jan.  15,1  763,  in  the  village  of  Drucat-Plessiel.  near 
Abbeville.  He  became  a  chorister  at  Abbeville 
at  7.  At  14  he  went  to  the  college  at  Amiens, 
but  two  years  later  broke  off  his  studies  to 
become,  first,  maitre  de  musique  at  the  cathedral 
of  Seez,  and  then  sous-maitre  at  the  church 
of  the  Innocents  in  Paris.  Here  he  obtained 
some  instruction  in  harmony  from  the  Abbe 
Boze,  but  it  was  not  any  systematic  course  of 
study,  so  much  as  his  thorough  knowledge  of 
plain-song,  and  deep  study,  that  made  him  the 
profound  and  original  musician  he  afterwards 
became.  His  imagination  was  too  active,  and 
his  desire  of  distinction  too  keen,  to  allow  him 
to  remain  long  in  a  subordinate  position:  he 
therefore  accepted  in  17S1  the  appointment  of 
maitre  de  musique  at  the  cathedral  of  Dijon, 
whence  alter  two  years  he  removed  to  Le  Mans, 
and  then  to  Tours.  In  1  7S4  he  came  to  Paris 
to  superintend  the  performance  of  some  of  his 
motets  at  the  Concert  Spirituel,  and  was  re- 
appointed to  the  Holy  Innocents  as  head-master 
of  the  choristers.  He  now  mixed  with  the  fore- 
most musicians  of  the  French  school,  and  with 
Sacchini,  who  gave  him  good  advice  on  the  art 
of  composition,  and  urged  him  to  write  fir  the 
stage.  In  17S6  he  competed  for  the  musical 
directorship  of  Notre  Dame,  which  he  obtained, 
and  immediately  entered  upon  his  duties.  He 
was  allowed  by  the  chapter  to  engage  a  full 
orchestra,  and  thus  was  able  to  give  magnificent 
performances  of  motets  and  'messes  solennelles.' 
His  idea  was  to  excite  the  imagination  and  pro- 
duce devotional  feeling  by  means  of  dramatic 
effects  and  a  picturesque  and  imitative  style, 
and  lie  even  went  so  far  as  to  precede  one  or  his 
masses  by  a  regular  overture,  exactly  .as  if  it  had 
been  tin  opera.  Crowds  were  attracted  by  this 
novel  kind  of  sacred  music,  and  his  masses  were 
nicknamed  the  'Beggars'  Opera'  ('L'Opera  des 
Gueux').  Tins  success  soon  aroused  opposition, 
and  a  violent  anonymous  attack  was  made  upon 
him,  under  pretext  of  a  reply  to  his  pamphlet 
'  Essai  de  musique  sacree,  ou  musique  motivee 


LESUEUE. 

et  me'thodique  pour  la  fete  de  Noel'  (1787). 
Lesueur's  rejoinder  was  another  pamphlet,  '  Ex- 
pose" d'une  musique  une,  imitative  et  particuliere 
a  chaque  solennite"'  (Paris,  Herissant,  1787),  in 
which  he  gives  a  detailed  sketch  of  an  appro- 
priate musical  service  for  Christmas,  and  states 
expressly  that  his  aim  was  to  make  sacred  music 
'dramatic  and  descriptive.'  Meantime  the  chapter, 
finding  that  his  projects  had  involved  them  in 
heavy  expense,  curtailed  the  orchestra,  while  at 
the  same  time  strong  pressure  was  put  upon  him 
by  the  Archbishop  to  take  orders.  He  willingly 
assumed  the  title  of  Abbe",  but  declined  the 
priesthood,  especially  as  he  was  composing  an 
opera,  'Telemaque,'  which  he  was  anxious  to 
produce.  Finding  his  reduced  orchestra  inade- 
quate for  his  masses  he  resigned,  upon  which  an 
infamous  libel  was  issued,  accusing  him,  the 
most  upright  of  men,  of  having  been  dismissed 
for  fraud.  Completely  worn  out,  he  retired  in 
the  autumn  of  1788  to  the  country  house  of  a 
friend,  and  here  he  passed  nearly  four  years  of 
repose  and  happiness.  On  the  death  of  his  friend 
in  1792  he  returned  to  Paris  invigorated  and 
refreshed  in  mind,  and  composed  a  series  of  3-act 
operas — 'La  Caverne'  (Feb.  15,  1793),  'Paul  et 
Virginie'  (Jan.  13,  1794),  and  'Telemaque' 
(May  11,  1796),  all  produced  at  the  Feydeau. 
The  brilliant  success  of  '  La  Caverne '  procured 
his  appointment  as  professor  in  the  '  Ecole  de  la 
Garde  Nationale'  (Nov.  21,  1793),  and  he  was 
also  nominated  one  of  the  inspectors  of  instruction 
at  the  Conservatoire  from  its  foundation  in  1795. 
In  this  capacity  he  took  part  with  Me'hul,  Gossec, 
Catel,  and  LanglS-,  in  drawing  up  the  '  Principes 
ele'mentaires  de  musique '  and  the  '  Solfeges  du 
Conservatoire.'  He  was  then  looking  forward 
to  the  production  of  two  operas  which  had  been 
accepted  by  the  Acade'mie ;  and  when  these  were 
set  aside  in  favour  of  Catel's  'Semiramis'  his 
indignation  knew  no  bounds,  and  he  vehemently 
attacked  not  only  bis  colleague,  but  the  director 
of  the  Conservatoire,  Catel's  avowed  patron.  His 
pamphlet,  '  Projet  d'un  plan  general  de  l'instruc- 
tion  musicale  en  France '  (Paris,  an  IX,  anony- 
mous), raised  a  storm,  and  Lesueur  received  his 
dismissal  from  the  Conservatoire  on  Sept.  23, 
1802.  Having  a  family  to  support,  the  loss  of 
his  salary  crippled  him  severely,  and  he  was 
only  saved  from  utter  indigence  by  his  appoint- 
ment in  March  1804  as  maltre  de  chapelle  to 
the  First  Consul,  on  the  recommendation  of 
Paisiello,  who  retired  on  account  of  his  health. 
As  the  occupant  of  the  post  most  coveted  by 
musicians  in  France,  Lesueur  had  no  difficulty 
in  securing  the  representation  of '  Ossian,  ou  les 
Bardes'  (5  acts,  July  10,  1804).  The  piece 
inaugurated  the  new  title  of  the  theatre  as 
'Acade'mie  Imperiale.'  Its  success  was  extra- 
ordinary, and  the  Emperor,  an  ardent  admirer 
of  Celtic  poems,  rewarded  the  composer  with  the 
Legion  of  Honour,  and  presented  him  with  a  gold 
snuff-box  inscribed  '  L'Empereur  des  Francais  a 
l'auteur  des  Bardes,'  intended  also  as  an  acknow- 
ledgement for  a  Te  Deum  and  a  mass  performed 
at  Notre  Dame  on  the  occasion  of  his  coronation 


LESUEUE. 


125 


(Dec.  2,  1804).  During  the  next  five  years 
Lesueur  undertook  no  work  of  greater  import- 
ance than  a  share  in  Persuis's  intermede  '  L'ln- 
auguration  du  Temple  de  la  Victoire'  (Jan.  2, 
1807),  and  in  the  same  composer's  3-act  opera 
'Le  Triomphe  de  Trajan'  (Oct.  23,  1807),  con- 
taining the  well-known  'marche  solennelle';  but 
on  March  21,  1809,  he  produced  'La  Mort 
d'Adam  et  son  Apotheose'  in  3  acts — the  ori- 
ginal cause  of  his  quarrel  with  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Acade'mie  and  the  Conservatoire. 
The  scenery  and  decorations  of  the  new  opera 
excited  the  greatest  admiration  ;  when  compli- 
mented on  his  work,  Degotti  the  scene-painter 
replied  quite  seriously,  '  Yes,  it  certainly  is  the 
most  beautiful  paradise  you  ever  saw  in  your 
life,  or  ever  will  see.' 

In  1813  Lesueur  succeeded  Gre*try  at  the 
Institut;  and  after  the  Eestoration  became,  in 
spite  of  his  long  veneration  for  Napoleon,  sur- 
intendant  and  composer  of  the  chapel  of  Louis 
XVIII.  On  January  1,  181 8,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  composition  at  the  Conservatoire, 
a  post  which  he  retained  till  his  death.  His 
lectures  were  largely  attended,  and  very  inter- 
esting from  the  brilliant  remarks  with  which 
he  interspersed  them.  Of  his  pupils  no  less 
than  12  gained  the  'prix  de  Eome' — namely, 
Bourgeois,  Ermel,  Paris,  Guiraud,  Hector  Ber- 
lioz, Eugene  Prevost,  Ambroise  Thomas  (whom 
he  called  his  '  note  sensible,'  or  leading  note,  on 
account  of  his  extreme  nervousness),  Elwart, 
Ernest  Boulanger,  Besozzi,  Xavier  Boisselot 
(who  married  one  of  his  three  daughters),  and, 
last  but  not  least,  Gounod.  Lesueur  also  wrote 
'Notice  sur  la  Melope'e,  la  Bhythmope'e  et  les 
grands  caracteres  de  la  musique  ancienne,'  pub- 
lished with  Gail's  French  translation  of  Anacreon 
(Paris,  1793).  Ancient  Greek  music  was  a 
favourite  subject  with  him,  and  he  would  with 
perfect  seriousness  expound  how  one  mode  tended 
to  licence,  and  another  to  virtue ;  unfortunately 
however  some  wag  in  the  class  would  occasionally 
mislead  his  ear  by  inverting  the  order  of  succes- 
sion in  the  chords,  and  thus  betray  him  into 
taking  the  licentious  for  the  virtuous  mode,  and 
vice  versa.1 

Lesueur  died  in  Paris  on  Oct.  6,  1837, 
at  a  patriarchal  age,  and  in  universal  respect; 
even  Berlioz  loved  and  honoured  him  to  the  last 
(see  chapters  vi.  and  xx.  of  his  Memoir es).  He 
left  3  operas  which  had  never  been  performed, 
'  Tyrte'e,'  3  acts,  composed  in  1 794 ;  '  Artaxerce,' 
3  acts,  accepted  by  the  Opera  in  1801 ;  and 
'  Alexandre  a  Babylone,'  of  which  the  score  has 
been  engraved,  and  considerable  portions  per- 
formed at  the  Conservatoire  concerts.  Of  his 
numerous  oratorios,  masses,  motets,  etc.,  the  fol- 
lowing have  been  published: — 'L' Oratorio  ou 
Messe  de  Noel';  3  messes  solennelles ;  a  low  mass 
with  'Domine  Salvum';  3  'Oratorios  pour  le 
couronnement  des  princes  souverains';  3  Te 
Deums ;  2  '  Oratorios  de  la  Passion' ;  2  '  Domine 
Salvum';     1    Stabat;    the   oratorios  'Debora,' 

1  This  Is  said  to  have  been  a  favourite  amusement  with  Gounod  as- 

a  buy. 


126 


LESUEUR. 


'Rachel,'  'Ruth  et  Noemi,'  'Ruth  et  Booz';  a 
cantata  for  the  marriage  of  the  Emperor  Napo- 
leon ;  a  motet  for  the  baptism  of  the  King  of 
Rome;  a  Priere  for  the  Emperor  on  airs  of 
Languedoc ;  an  '  0  Salutaris ' ;  several  psalms 
and  motets,  among  which  must  be  specified  a 
•  Super  flumina  Babylonis.' 

The  5  operas  previously  mentioned,  and  all 
this  sacred  music,  furnish  ample  materials  for 
forming  an  estimate  of  Lesueur's  genius.  His 
most  marked  characteristic  is  a  grand  simplicity. 
No  musician  ever  contrived  to  extract  more  from 
common  chords,  or  to  impart  greater  solemnity 
to  his  choruses  and  ensembles ;  but  in  his  boldest 
flights,  and  most  original  effects  of  colour,  the 
ear  is  struck  by  antiquated  passages  which  stamp 
the  composer  as  belonging  to  a  passe  school. 
'His  biblical  characters  are  set  before  us  with 
traits  and  colours  so  natural  as  to  make  one 
forget  the  poverty  of  the  conception,  the  antique 
Italian  phrases,  the  childish  simplicity  of  the 
1  orchestration.'  By  another  critic  he  was  said 
to  have  taken  the  theatre  into  the  church  and 
the  church  into  the  theatre.  Thus,  looking  at 
the  matter  from  a  purely  musical  point  of  view, 
it  is  impossible  to  consider  Lesueur  the  equal  of 
his  contemporaries  Me"hul  and  Cherubini ;  though 
the  novelties  he  introduced  derive  a  special  in- 
terest from  the  fact  that  he  was  the  master  of 
Hector  Berlioz.  [G.C.] 

LETZTEN  DINGE,  DIE,  i.e.  'the  Last 
Things,'  an  oratorio  in  2  parts ;  text  by  Rochlitz, 
music  by  Spohr.  Composed  in  the  autumn  of 
1825,  and  produced  in  the  Lutheran  church, 
Cassel,  on  2Good  Friday  1826.  In  England  it 
is  known  as  The  Last  Judgment.  This  oratorio 
must  not  be  confounded  with  '  Das  jiingste 
Gericht,'  an  earlier  and  less  successful  work.  [G.] 

LEUTGEB,  or  LEITGEB,  Josef,  a  horn 
player  to  whom  Mozart  was  much  attached. 
They  became  acquainted  in  Salzburg,  where 
Leutgeb  was  one  of  the  band,  and  on  Mozart's 
arrival  in  Vienna  he  found  him  settled  there,  in 
the  Altlerchenfeld  no.  32,  keeping  a  cheese- 
monger's shop  and  playing  the  horn.  Mozart 
wrote  4  Concertos  for  him  (Kochel  412,  417, 
447,  495),  a  Quintet  (407),  which  he  calls  'das 
Leitgebische,'  and  probably  a  Rondo  (371). 
This  shows  that  he  must  have  been  a  good 
player.  There  must  also  have  been  something 
attractive  about  him,  for  with  no  one  does  Mozart 
appear  to  have  played  so  many  tricks.  When 
Leutgeb  called  to  ask  how  his  pieces  were  getting 
on  Mozart  would  cover  the  floor  with  loose  leaves 
of  scores  and  parts  of  symphonies  and  concertos, 
which  Leutgeb  must  pick  up  and  arrange  in 
exact  order,  while  the  composer  was  writing  at 
his  desk  as  fast  as  his  pen  could  travel.  On  one 
occasion  he  was  made  to  crouch  down  behind  the 
stove  till  Mozart  had  finished.  The  margins  of 
the  Concertos  are  covered  with  droll  remarks — 
'  W.  A.  Mozart  has  taken  pity  on  Leutgeb,  ass, 
ox,  and  fool,  at  Vienna,  Mar.  2  7,  1 783,  etc.'  The 
horn  part  is  full  of  jokes — '  Go  it,  Signor  Asino ' 

>  Berlioz, '  Memoires,'  chap.  tL 

*  See  the  account  In  Spohr's  Selbstblographle,  II.  171. 


L^HOMME  ARME. 

— '  take  a  little  breath ' — '  wretched  pig ' — '  thank 
God  here 's  the  end ' — and  much  more  of  the  like. 
One  of  the  pieces  is  written  in  coloured  inks, 
black,  red,  green,  and  blue,  alternately.  Such 
were  Mozart's  boyish  romping  ways !  Leutgeb 
throve  on  his  cheese  and  his  horn,  and  died 
richer  than  his  great  friend,  Feb.  27,1811.*     [G.] 

LEVERIDGE,  Richard,  a  singer  noted  for 
his  deep  and  powerful  bass  voice,  was  born  in 
1670.  His  name  appears  as  one  of  the  singers 
in  Dr.  Blow's  Te  Deum  and  Jubilate  for  St. 
Cecilia's  day  1695.  He  sang  in  the  Anglo-Italian 
operas,  'Axsinoe,'  'Camilla,'  'Rosamond,'  and 
'Thomyris,'  at  Drury  Lane  theatre  from  1705 
to  1 707.  In  1 708  he  was  engaged  at  the  Queen's 
Theatre  and  sang  in  '  The  Temple  of  Love,'  etc., 
and  in  Handel's  '  Faithful  Shepherd'  ('  II  Pastor 
Fido')  on  its  production  in  1712.  He  subse- 
quently transferred  his  services  to  Rich,  and 
sang  in  the  masques  and  pantomimes  at  Lincoln's 
Inn  Fields  and  Covent  Garden  for  nearly  30 
years.  TTis  voice  remained  unimpaired  so  long, 
that  in  1730,  when  60  years  old,  he  offered,  for 
a  wager  of  100  guineas,  to  sing  a  bass  song  with 
any  man  in  England.  About  1726  he  opened  a 
coffee-house  in  Tavistock  Street,  Covent  Garden. 
In  1699  he  composed  part  of  the  music  for  '  The 
Island  Princess,  or,  The  Generous  Portuguese,' 
and  in  1 716  the  music  for  '  Pyramus  and  Thisbe,' 
a  comic  masque,  compiled  by  him  from  '  A  Mid- 
summer Night's  Dream.'  In  1727  he  published 
his  songs,  with  the  music,  in  two  small  8vo.  vols. 
Many  others  were  published  singly.  In  his  old 
age  he  was  maintained  by  an  annual  subscription 
among  his  friends,  promoted  by  a  city  physician. 
He  died  March  22,  1758.  There  is  a  good  en- 
graved portrait  of  him  by  Pether,  from  a  painting 
by  Fryer.  [W.H.H.] 

L'HOMME  ARME,  Lome  Arme,  or  Lomme 
Arme.  I.  The  name  of  an  old  French  Chanson, 
the  melody  of  which  was  adopted,  by  some  of  the 
Great  Masters  of  the  15th  and  16th  centuries, 
as  the  Canto  fermo  of  a  certain  kind  of  Mass — 
called  the  '  Missa  L'Homme  arme ' — which  they 
embellished  with  the  most  learned  and  elaborate 
devices  their  ingenuity  could  suggest. 

The  origin  of  the  song  has  given  rise  to  much 
speculation.  P.  Martini  calls  it  a  '  Canzone  Pro- 
venzale.'  Burney  (who,  however,  did  not  know 
the  words)  is  inclined  to  believe  it  identical  with 
the  famous  '  Cantilena  Rolandi,'  antiently  sung, 
by  an  armed  Champion,  at  the  head  of  the  French 
army,  when  it  advanced  to  battle.  Baini  con- 
fesses his  inability  to  decide  the  question :  but 
points  out,  that  the  only  relique  of  this  poetry 
which  remains  to  us — a  fragment  preserved  in 
the  '  Proportionale  Musices '  of  Tinctor — makes 
no  mention  of  Roland,  and  is  not  written  in  the 
Provencal  dialect.4 

'Lome,  lome,  lome  arnie\ 
Et  Kobinet  tu  mas 
La  mort  donnee, 
(Juan J  tu  t'en  vas.' 

*  See  Jahn's  Mozart,  2nd  ed.,  ti.  26. 

*  No  more  information  is  siren  by  Loquiii,  '  Melodies  populaires,' 
Taris,  1879. 


L'HOMME  AEMfi. 

The  Melody — an  interesting  example  of  the  use 
of  the  Seventh  Mode — usually  appears,  either  in 
Perfect  Time,  or  the  Greater  Prolation.  Though 
simple,  it  lacks  neither  grace,  nor  spirit.  As 
might  have  been  predicted,  slight  differences  are 
observed  in  the  Cantifermi  of  the  various  Masses 
founded  upon  it ;  but,  they  so  far  correspond,  that 
the  reading  adopted  by  Palestrina  may  be  safely 
accepted  as  the  normal  form.  We  therefore  sub- 
join its  several  clauses,  reduced  to  modern  notation, 
and  transposed  into  the  treble  clef. 


L'HOMME  ARME. 


127 


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Upon  this  unpretending  theme,  or  on  frag- 
ments of  it,  Masses  were  written,  by  Guglielmo 
du  Fay,  Antonio  Busnoys,  Regis,  Francois  Caron, 
Joannes  Tinctor,  Philippon  di  Bruges,  La  Fage, 
(or  Faugues,)  De  Orto,  Vacqueras,  Monsieur  mon 
Compere,  at  least  three  anonymous  composers 
who  flourished  between  the  years  1484  and  1513, 
Antonio  Brumel,  Josquin  des  Pres,  Pierre  de  la 
Rue,  (Petrus  Platensis,)  Pipelare,  Mathurin 
Forestyn,  Cristofano  Morales,  Palestrina,  and 
even  Carissimi — a  host  of  talented  Composers, 
who  all  seem  to  have  considered  it  a  point  of 
honour  to  exceed,  as  far  as  in  them  lay,  the 
fertility  of  invention  displayed  by  their  most 
learned  predecessors,  and  whose  works,  therefore, 
not  only  embody  greater  marvels  of  contrapuntal 
skill  than  any  other  series  preserved  to  us,  but 
also  serve  as  a  most  useful  record  of  the  gradual 
advancement  of  Art. 

The  Masses  of  Du  Fay,  and  Busnoys,  and 
their  successors,  Regis,  and  Caron,  are  written 
in  the  hard  and  laboured  style  peculiar  to  the 
earlier  Polyphonic  Schools,  with  no  attempt  at 
expression,  but,  with  an  amount  of  earnest  so- 
briety which  was  not  imitated  by  some  of  their 
followers,  who  launched  into  every  extravagance 
that  could  possibly  be  substituted  for  the  prompt- 
ings of  natural  genius.  Josquin,  however,  while 
infinitely  surpassing  his  predecessors  in  in- 
genuity, brought  true  genius  also  into  the  field ; 
and,  in  his  two  Masses  on  the  favourite  subject 
— one  for  four  Voices,  and  the  other  for  five — 
has  shewn  that  freedom  of  style  is  not  altogether 
inconsistent  with  science.  The  Fugues,  Canons, 
Proportions,  and  other  clever  devices  with  which 
these  works  are  filled,  exceed  in  complexity  any 
thing  previously  attempted ;  and  many  of  them  are 


strikingly  effective  and  beautiful — none  more  so, 
perhaps,  than  the  third  Agnus  Dei  of  the  Mass 
in  four  parts ;  a  very  celebrated  movement  known 
as  '  Clama  ne  cesses,'  from  the  '  Inscription '  ap- 
pended to  the  Superius,  (or  upper  part),  for  the 
purpose  of  indicating  that  the  notes  are  to  be 
sung  continuously,  without  any  rests  between 
them.  In  this  movement,  the  Superius  sings  the 
Canto  fermo  entirely  in  Longs  and  Breves,  while 
the  other  three  Voices  are  woven  together,  in 
Canon,  and  Close  Fugue,  with  inexhaustible 
contrivance,  and  excellent  effect.  In  the  second 
movement  of  the  Sanctus — the  'Pleni  sunt' — for 
three  voices,  the  subject  is  equally  distributed 
between  the  several  parts,  and  treated  with  a 
melodious  freedom  more  characteristic  of  the 
Master  than  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  It 
was  printed  by  Burney  in  his  History,  ii.  495. 

It  might  well  have  been  supposed  that  these 
triumphs  of  ingenuity  would  have  terrified  the 
successors  of  Josquin  into  silence  :  but  this  was 
by  no  means  the  case.  Even  his  contemporaries, 
Pierre  de  la  Rue,  Brumel,  Pipelare,  and  Forestyn, 
ventured  to  enter  the  lists  with  him  ;  and,  at  a 
later  period,  two  very  fine  Masses,  for  four  and 
five  Voices,  were  founded  on  the  old  Tune  by 
Morales,  who  laudably  made  ingenuity  give 
place  to  euphony,  whenever  the  interest  of  his 
composition  seemed  to  demand  the  sacrifice.  It 
was,  however,  reserved  for  Palestrina  to  prove 
the  possibility,  not  of  sacrificing  the  one  quality 
for  the  sake  of  the  other,  but  of  using  his  im- 
mense learning  solely  as  a  means  of  producing 
the  purest  and  most  beautiful  effects.  His  Missa 
'L' Homme  Arme",'  for  five  voices,  first  printed  in 
1570,  abounds  in  such  abstruse  combinations  of 
Mode,  Time,  and  Prolation,  and  other  rhythmic 
and  constructional  complexities,  that  Zacconi — 
writing  in  1592,  two  years  before  the  great 
Composer's  death — devotes  many  pages  of  his 
Prattica  di  Mmiea  to  an  elaborate  analysis  of 
its  most  difficult  'Proportions,'  accompanied  by 
a  reprint  of  the  Kyrie,  the  Christe,  the  second 
Kyrie,  the  first  movement  of  the  Gloria,  the 
Osanna,  and  the  Agnus  Dei,  with  minute  di- 
rections for  scoring  these,  and  other  movements, 
from  the  separate  parts.  The  necessity  for 
some  such  directions  will  be  understood,  when 
we  explain,  that,  apart  from  its  more  easily  intel- 
ligible complications,  the  Mass  is  so  constructed 
that  it  may  be  sung  either  in  triple  or  in  common 
time;  and,  that  the  original  edition  of  1570  is 
actually  printed  in  the  former,  and  that  pub- 
lished at  Venice,  in  1599,  in  the  latter.  Dr. 
Burney  scored  all  the  movements  we  have  men- 
tioned, in  accordance  with  Zacconi's  precepts; 
and  his  MS.  copy  (Brit.  Mus.  Add.  MSS.  11,581) 
bears  ample  traces  of  the  trouble  the  process  cost 
him  :  for  Zacconi's  reprint  is  not  free  from  clerical 
errors,  which  our  learned  historian  has  always 
carefully  corrected.  The  first  Kyrie,  in  which 
the  opening  clause  of  the  Canto  fermo  is  given 
to  the  Tenor  in  notes  three  times  as  long  as 
those  employed  in  the  other  parts,  is  a  conception 
of  infinite  beauty,  and  shows  traces  of  the  Com- 
poser of  the  '  Missa  Papae  Marcelli'  in  every  bar. 


128 


L'HOMME  ARME. 


In  the  edition  of  1570  it  stands  in  triple  time; 
and,  in  order  to  make  it  correspond  with  that  of 
1599,  it  is  necessary  to  transcribe,  and  re-bar  it, 
placing  four  minims  in  a  measure,  instead  of 
six :  when  it  will  be  found,  not  only  that  the 
number  of  bars  comes  right  in  the  end,  but,  that 
every  important  cadence  falls  as  exactly  into  the 
place  demanded  for  it  by  the  rhythm  of  the  piece 
as  it  does  in  the  original  copy.  It  is  said  that 
Palestrina  himself  confided  this  curious  secret  to 
one  of  his  disciples,  who,  five  years  after  his 
death,  superintended  the  publication  of  the  Vene- 
tian edition.  If  it  be  asked,  why,  after  having 
crushed  the  vain  pedants  of  his  day  by  the 
'  Missa  Papae  Marcelli,'  the  '  Princeps  Musicae ' 
should,  himself,  have  condescended  to  invent 
conceits  as  quaint  as  theirs,  we  can  only  state 
our  conviction,  that  he  felt  bound,  in  honour, 
not  only  to  shew  how  easily  he  could  beat  them 
with  their  own  weapons,  but  to  compel  those 
very  weapons  to  minister  to  his  own  intense 
religious  fervour,  and  passionate  love  of  artistic 
beauty.  For  examples  of  the  music  our  space 
compels  us  to  refer  the  student  to  Dr.  Burney's 
MS.  already  mentioned. 

The  last  '  Missa  L'Homme  Arme '  of  any  im- 
portance is  that  written,  for  twelve  Voices,  by 
Carissimi :  this,  however,  can  scarcely  be  con- 
sidered as  a  fair  example  of  the  style  ;  for,  long 
before  its  production,  the  laws  of  Counterpoint 
had  ceased  to  command  either  the  obedience,  or 
the  respect,  indispensable  to  success  in  the  Poly- 
phonic Schools  of  Art. 

The  original  and  excessively  rare  editions  of 
Josquin's  two  Masses,  and  that  by  Pierre  de  la 
Rue,  are  preserved  in  the  Library  of  the  British 
Museum,  together  with  Zacconi's  excerpts  from 
Palestrina,  and  Dr.  Burney's  MS.  score,  which 
will  be  found  among  his  '  Musical  Extracts.' 
None  of  these  works,  we  believe,  have  ever  been 
published  in  a  modern  form. 

II.  The  title  is  also  attached  to  another  melody, 
quite  distinct  from  the  foregoing — a  French 
Dance  Tune,  said  to  date  from  the  15th  century, 
and  printed,  with  sacred  words,  by  Jan  Fruytiers, 
in  his  '  Ecclesiasticus,'  published,  at  Antwerp, 
1565.    The  Tune,  as  there  given,  is  as  follows  : — 


jfc^rr"l('^(-lf-frH-'^ 


5Mjjl.)«Hfrrrr"nri-"i 


It  will  be  seen,  that,  though  strictly  Dorian  in 
its  tonality,  this  interesting  melody  exceeds  the 
compass  of  the  First  Mode  by  two  degrees.  The 
regularity  of  its  phrasing  savours  rather  of  the 
1 6th  than  the  15  th  century.  Possibly  Fruytiers 
may  have  modified  it,  to  suit  his  own  purposes. 
Instances,   however,  are   not  wanting,  of  very 


LIBRETTO. 

regular  phrases,  in  very  antient  melodies :  as,  for 
instance,  in  the  delightful  little  Romance, ' Lau- 
trier  par  la  matinie,'  by  Thibaut,  King  of  Navarre 
(ob.  1254),  quoted  by  Dr.  Burney,  ii.  p.  300,  the 
rhythm  of  which  is  scarcely  less  distinctly  marked 
than  that  of  Fruytiers'  adaptation.  [W.  S.  R.] 
LIBRETTO  is  the  diminutive  form  of  the 
Italian  word  libro,  and  therefore  literally  means 
'little  book.'  But  this  original  significance  it 
has  lost,  and  the  term  is  used  in  Italian,  as  well 
as  in  other  languages,  in  the  technical  sense  of 
book  of  an  opera.  Its  form  and  essential  differ- 
ence from  spoken  comedy  or  tragedy  will  best 
be  explained  by  a  short  historic  survey  of  its 
origin  and  development.  In  the  most  primi- 
tive form  of  opera,  as  it  arose  in  Florence  in 
the  1 6th  century,  that  difference  was  compara- 
tively trifling,  the  libretto  iifthose  days  consisting 
mainly  of  spoken  dialogue  with  a  few  interspersed 
songs  and  choral  pieces.  But  the  rapid  rise  of 
music  and  the  simultaneous  decline  of  poetry  in 
Italy  soon  changed  matters.  Certain  musical 
forms,  such  as  the  aria  and  the  various  species  of 
concerted  music,  were  bodily  transferred  to  the 
opera,  and  the  poet  had  to  adapt  his  plot  to  the 
exigencies  of  the  superior  art.  Thus  he  was  ob- 
liged not  only  to  provide  primo  uomo  and  prima 
donna  with  a  befitting  duet  in  a  convenient  place, 
but  other  characters  had  also  to  be  introduced  to 
complete  the  quartet  or  the  sestet,  as  the  case 
might  be,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  the  chorus 
had  to  come  in  at  the  end  of  the  act  to  do  duty 
in  the  inevitable  finale.  However  legitimate 
these  demands  may  appear  to  the  musician,  it  is 
obvious  that  they  are  fatal  to  dramatic  con- 
sistency, and  thus  the  poet,  and  unfortunately 
the  public  also,  had  to  submit  to  the  inevitable, 
the  former  by  penning  and  the  latter  by  serenely 
accepting  the  specimens  of  operatic  poetry  with 
which  we  are  all  but  too  well  acquainted.  The 
most  perfect  indifference  to  the  dramatic  part  of 
the  entertainment  can  alone  explain  the  favour 
with  which  such  profoundly  inane  productions 
as  'Ernani,'  or  'Un  Ballo  in  Maschera'  as 
transmogrified  by  the  Italian  censorship,  are 
received  by  English  audiences.  That  this  con- 
dition of  things  should  in  its  turn  detrimentally 
react  on  music  is  not  a  matter  for  surprise ; 
for  singers  naturally  would  take  little  trouble 
to  pronounce  words  which  nobody  cared  to  listen 
to,  and  with  the  proper  declamation  of  the  words 
intelligent  musical  phrasing  is  inseparably  con- 
nected. In  the  Italian  school,  where  vocalisation 
was  carried  to  the  highest  pitch  of  perfection, 
the  libretto  accordingly  sank  to  the  lowest  level. 
In  France,  on  the  other  hand,  where  the  declam- 
atory principle  prevailed,  and  where  dramatic 
instinct  is  part  of  the  character  of  the  nation,  a 
certain  regard  for  story  and  dialogue  was  never 
lost,  and  the  libretti  of  Lully's  and  Rameau's, 
and  after  them  of  Gluck's  operas,  share  the  classic 
dignity,  although  not  the  genius,  of  Corneille  and 
Racine.  In  the  same  sense  the  marvellous  skill 
and  savoir  faire  of  the  contemporary  French 
stage  is  equally  represented  in  the  lyrical  drama, 
in  more  than  one  instance  supplied  by  the  same 


LIBRETTO. 

hands.  The  same  cannot  be  said  of  Germany, 
where  few  dramatists  of  repute  have  condescended 
to  co-operate  with  the  musician,  and  where,  till 
quite  lately,  even  the  finest  dramatic  subjects 
(e.g.  Beethoven's  Fidelio)  were  defaced  by  the 
execrable  doggrel  believed  to  be  particularly 
suitable  for  operatic  purposes.  In  all  these 
respects  a  deep  change  has  been  wrought  by 
Wagner's  reform.  In  that  great  poet  and  greater 
musician  the  two  faculties  are  inseparably 
blended,  and  in  his  work  therefore  the  reci- 
procity between  music  and  poetry  may  be 
studied  in  its  most  perfect  form.  His  own  words 
on  the  subject  will  be  of  interest.  '  In  Rienzi,1 
he  says,  '  my  only  purpose  was  to  write  an  opera, 
and  thinking  only  of  this  opera,  I  took  my  sub- 
ject as  I  found  it  ready  made  in  another  man's 
finished  production.  .  . .  With  the  Flying  Dutch- 
man, I  entered  upon  a  new  course,  by  becoming 
the  artistic  interpreter  of  a  subject  which  was 
given  to  me  only  in  the  simple,  crude  form  of 
a  popular  tale.  From  this  time  I  became,  with 
regard  to  all  my  dramatic  works,  first  of  all  a 
poet ;  and  only  in  the  ultimate  completion  of  the 
poem  was  my  faculty  as  a  musician  restored  to 
me.  But  as  a  poet  I  was  again  from  the  be- 
ginning conscious  of  my  power  of  expressing 
musically  the  import  of  my  subjects.  This  power 
I  had  exercised  to  such  a  degree,  that  I  was 
perfectly  certain  of  my  ability  of  applying  it 
to  the  realisation  of  my  poetical  purpose,  and 
therefore  was  at  much  greater  liberty  to  form 
my  dramatic  schemes  according  to  their  poeti- 
cal necessities,  than  if  I  had  conceived  them 
from   the    beginning   with   a  view   to  musical 

t  treatment.' 
The  result  of  this  freedom  of  workmanship  is 
easily  discoverable  in  Wagner's  later  music- 
dramas,  such  as  'Tristan'  or  'The  Valkyrie.' 
§They  are  to  all  intents  and  purposes  dramatic 
poems  full  of  beauty  and  interest,  quite  apart 
from  the  aid  of  musical  composition.  For  the 
latter,  indeed,  they  appear  at  first  sight  un- 
adapted,  and  he  must  be  a  bold  man  who  would 
think  of  resetting  the  '  Niblung'  Trilogy,  as  Ros- 
sini reset  the  '  Barber  of  Seville '  after  Paisiello. 
The  ordinary  characteristics  of  the  libretto,  such 
as  the  aria,  or  the  duet,  as  distinguished  from 
the  dialogue,  have  entirely  disappeared,  and 
along  with  these  have  gone  those  curious  reitera- 
tions by  various  persons  of  the  same  sentence, 
with  a  corresponding  change  only  of  the  personal 
pronoun.  In  this  and  other  respects  Wagner's 
music-dramas  must  be  considered  by  them- 
selves, and  the  strict  imitation  of  their  form  in 
ordinary  libretti,  written  for  ordinary  musicians, 
would  be  simply  fatal.  At  the  same  time  his 
work  has  been  of  great  influence  on  the  struc- 
ture of  the  dramatic  poem  in  modern  opera. 
Musicians  have  become  more  critical  in  their 
choice  of  subjects,  and  the  librettists  accordingly 
more  careful  in  providing  them,  especially  as  the 
natural  sense  of  the  public  also  seems  to  be 
awakening  from  its  long  slumber.  It  is  indeed 
a  significant  fact  that  the  three  most  successful 
operas  of  recent  years,  Gounod's  'Faust,'  Bizet's 
VOL.  II. 


LIBRETTO 


129 


'Carmen,'  and  Goetz's  'The  Taming  of  the 
Shrew,'  are  all  founded  on  stories  of  intense 
human  interest,  more  or  less  cleverly  adapted  to 
operatic  purposes.  It  is  true  that  in  France  and 
Germany  the  dramatic  interest  was  never  at  so 
low  an  ebb  as  in  Italy  or  in  this  country. 
Numerous  operas  might  be  named  which  owe 
their  permanent  success  to  a  bright  and  sparkling 
libretto,  and  others  in  which  the  genius  of  the 
musician  has  been  weighed  down  by  the  dulness 
of  the  operatic  bard;  'Martha,'  'Fra  Diavolo,' 
and  '  Le  Postilion  de  Longjumeau,'  belong  to 
the  former  class;  'Cosl  fan  Tutte,'  'La  Cle- 
menza  di  Tito,'  and  'Euryanthe,'  nicknamed 
'  Ennuyante'  by  the  despairing  2  composer,  to  the 
latter.  Jt  is  also  a  significant  fact  that  by  far 
the  finest  music  Rossini  ever  wrote  occurs  in 
the  'Barber,'  and  in  'William  Tell,'  and  that 
'Faust'  remains  Gounod's  unsurpassed  master- 
piece, the  inspiration  of  the  composers  being  in 
each  case  distinctly  traceable  to  the  dramatic 
basis  of  their  music.  Instances  of  a  similar 
kind  from  the  works  even  of  the  most  '  absolute ' 
musicians  might  be  multiplied  ad  libitum.  The 
lesson  thus  taught  has  indeed  been  fully  recog- 
nised by  the  best  composers.  Beethoven  was 
unable  to  fix  upon  a  second  subject  after  Fidelio ; 
and  Mendelssohn,  in  spite  of  incessant  attempts, 
found  only  one  to  satisfy  his  demands ;  and  that, 
alas !  too  late  for  completion.  The  libretto  of 
his  unfinished  opera  ■  Loreley,'  by  Emanuel 
Geibel  the  well-known  poet,  was  afterwards  set 
by  Max  Bruch,  and  performed  with  considerable 
success.  The  importance  of  the  libretto  for  the 
artistic  as  well  as  the  popular  success  of  an  opera 
is  therefore  beyond  dispute,  and  modern  com- 
posers cannot  be  too  careful  in  their  choice.  To 
assist  them  in  that  choice,  or  to  lay  down  the  law 
with  regard  to  the  construction  of  a  model  libretto, 
the  present  writer  does  not  feel  qualified.  A  few 
distinctive  features  may  however  be  pointed  out. 
In  addition  to  the  human  interest  and  the  truth 
of  passion  which  a  libretto  must  share  with  every 
dramatic  poem,  there  ought  to  be  a  strong  infusion 
of  the  lyrical  element,  not  to  be  mistaken  for  the 
tendency  towards  '  singing  a  song'  too  rampant 
amongst  tenors  and  soprani.  The  dramatic  and 
the  lyrical  motives  ought  on  the  contrary  to  be 
perfectly  blended,  and  even  in  ordinary  dialogue 
a  certain  elevation  of  sentiment  sufficient  to  ac- 
count for  the  sung  instead  of  the  spoken  word 
should  be  maintained.  This  again  implies 
certain  restrictions  with  regard  to  the  choice  of 
subject.  One  need  not  share  Wagner's  absolute 
preference  for  mythical  subject-matter  to  perceive 
that  the  scene  of  an  opera  ought  to  be  as  far  as 
possible  removed  from  the  platitudes  of  common 
life,  barring,  of  course,  the  comic  opera,  in 
which  the  contrast  between  the  idealism  of 
music  and  the  realities  of  every-day  existence 
may  be  turned  to  excellent  account.  With  re- 
gard to  the  observance  of  musical  form  opinions 
of  course  will  differ  widely ;  but  that  the  poet 
ought  to  some  extent  to  conform  to  the  musician's 
demands  no  reasonable  person  will  deny.     The 

»  Weber's  Lire,  by  his  sod,  11 519. 


130 


LIBRETTO. 


case  of  Wagner,  as  we  have  already  said,  is  unique 
in  history,  and  in  ordinary  circumstances  music 
and  poetry  in  the  opera  co-exist  by  means  of  a 
compromise;  but  this  compromise  ought  to  pro- 
ceed from  mutual  love,  not  from  mere  toleration. 
In  other  words,  the  poet  should  undoubtedly 
supply  opportunities  for  musical  display,  both  of 
a  vocal  and  an  orchestral  kind,  but  no  finale,  or 
march,  or  wedding  chorus,  ought  to  interfere 
with  the  economy  of  the  drama.  To  state  such 
a  problem  is  of  course  easier  than  to  solve  it,  but 
even  the  mere  statement  of  the  difficulty  may 
not  be  entirely  without  use. 

Before  concluding  this  notice,  it  is  desirable 
to  mention  the  names  of  a  few  of  the  more  cele- 
brated librettists.  The  most  famous  amongst 
them  is  Metastasio  (1698-1782),  the  author  of 
'La  Semiramide  reconnosciuta,'  Ti  RePastore,' 
and  '  II  Trionfo  di  Clelia,'  amongst  whose  musical 
collaborators  were  the  most  celebrated  masters  of 
the  1 8th  century.  [Metastasio.]  Calzabigi  de- 
serves mention  as  the  author  of '  Orfeo,'  and  other 
works  of  Gluck's  Viennese  period,  the  French 
collaborator  of  the  master  being  Le  Bailli  du 
Rollet.  Amongst  more  modern  Italian  libret- 
tists it  must  suffice  to  nani3  Felice  Romano,  the 
friend  and  artistic  companion  of  Bellini.  The 
father  of  French  librettists  was  the  Abbe  Perrin, 
who  broke  the  supreme  rule  of  the  hexameter  by 
writing  what  he  terms  'paroles  de  musique  ou 
des  vers  a  chanter,'  and  who  in  conjunction  with 
Cambert  produced  the  first  French  opera  properly 
so  called  ('  La  Pastorale,'  first  performed  in 
1659).  Quinault  was  the  poetic  assistant  of 
Lully.  In  modern  France  the  name  of  Scribe 
towers  above  his  rivals;  Barbier,  Meilhac  and 
Halevy  supply  the  contemporary  market.  Sar- 
dou  also  has  tried  his  hand  at  lyrical  drama, 
but  without  much  success.  The  failure  of  the 
English  version  of  '  Piccolino '  at  Her  Majesty's 
Theatre  in  1879  was  due  at  least  as  much  to 
Sardou's  libretto  as  to  Guiraud's  music.  In 
Germany,  Goethe  and  Wieland  appear  amongst 
aspirants  to  lyrical  honours,  but  without  success. 
Of  the  professional  librettists  in  that  country 
none  deserves  mention.  In  connection  with  so- 
called  '  English  opera '  the  names  of  Gay,  the 
author  of  the  '  Beggar's  Opera,'  and,  in  modern 
times,  of  Alfred  Bunn  and  of  Edward  Fitzball, 
both  fertile  librettists,  ought  to  be  mentioned. 
To  the  latter  belongs  the  merit  of  having  by  one 
of  his  pieces  supplied  Heine,  and  through  him 
Wagner,  with  the  idea  of  a  dramatised  '  Flying 
Dutchman.'  Mr.  Planche",  the  author  of  Weber's 
'  Oberon,'  also  must  not  be  forgotten.  Mr.  W.  S. 
Gilbert's  witty  comediettas,  which  Mr.  Sullivan 
has  fitted  to  such  charming  and  graceful  tunes, 
can  be  called  libretti  only  in  a  modified  sense. 

A  few  words  should  be  added  with  regard  to  the 
libretto  of  the  Oratorio  and  the  Cantata.  ^Esthetic 
philos  iphers  have  called  the  oratorio  a  musical 
epic,  and,  in  spite  of  its  dramatic  form,  there  is 
a  good  deal  of  truth  in  this  definition ;  for,  not 
only  does  the  narration  take  the  place  of  the 
action  on  the  stage,  but  the  descriptive  parts, 
generally  assigned  to  the  chorus,  allow  of  greater 


LICENSE. 

breadth  and  variety  of  treatment  than  is  possl  ble  in 
the  opera.  A  reference  to  the  choruses  in  '  Israel 
in  Egypt'  and  other  works  by  Handel  will  be 
sufficient  to  illustrate  the  point.  In  accordance 
with  this  principle,  what  has  been  urged  above 
with  regard  to  the  operatic  libretto  will  have  to 
be  somewhat  modified.  But  here  also  terse  dic- 
tion and  a  rapid  development  of  events  should  in 
all  cases  be  insisted  upon.  The  matter  is  con- 
siderably simplified  where  the  words  have  been 
selected  from  Scripture,  for  here  sublimity  of 
subject  and  of  diction  is  at  once  secured.  Handel's 
'Messiah'  and  'Israel' — which  also  contain  his 
finest  music — Mendelssohn's  'St.  Paul,'  '  Elijah/ 
and  '  Hymn  of  Praise,'  owe  their  libretti  to  this 
source.  Haydn's '  Creation '  is  based  on  the  Bible 
and  Milton,  though  the  source  is  difficult  to 
recognise  under  the  double  translation  which  it 
has  undergone.  Gay's  'Acis  and  Galatea,'  Mil- 
ton's 'Allegro'  and  'Penseroso,'  Dryden's  'Alex- 
ander's Feast,'  and  Pope's  'St.  Cecilia's  Ode' 
have  a  literary  value  of  their  own ;  but  in  other 
cases  Handel  has  been  less  happy ;  and  some  ter- 
rible couplets  might  be  quoted  from  the  works  of 
his  collaborators  Morell  and  Humphreys.  The 
transition  from  the  oratorio  proper  to  the  cantata, 
or  '  Worldly  Oratorio '  as  the  Germans  quaintly 
call  it,  is  made  by  Liszt's  '  St.  Elizabeth.'  The 
libretto  by  Otto  Roquette,  although  not  without 
good  points,  is  upon  the  whole  tedious,  and  can- 
not be  recommended  as  a  model.  Better  is 
Schumann's  '  Paradise  and  the  Peri,'  which  may 
stand  as  a  specimen  of  the  cantata  proper.  Its 
libretto  is  essentially  founded  on  Moore's  tale, 
the  ensemble  of  Peris  mocking  the  heavenly 
aspirations  of  their  sister  was  inserted  by  the 
composer  himself.  The  story  has  been  skilfully 
arranged,  but  there  is  the  drawback  that  the 
dramatic  battle-scene  occurs  in  the  first  part, 
while  the  quieter,  though  psychologically  more 
elevated  motives,  are  assigned  to  the  later  por- 
tions. The  impression  of  an  anti-climax  is  thus 
inevitable.  [F-H.] 

LICENSE.  (It.  Licenzia;  Germ.  Licenz; 
Fr.  Licence).  As  long  as  any  art  has  the  capa- 
city for  development  and  expansion,  true  genius 
and  dogmatism  are  constantly  at  war.  The  in- 
herent disposition  of  the  mind  to  stereotype 
into  formulas  conclusions  drawn  from  the  ob- 
servation of  an  insufficient  number  of  isolated 
instances,  is  probably  the  result  of  much  bitter 
experience  of  the  fruits  of  human  carelessness 
and  stupidity ;  against  which  the  instincts  of  the 
race  impel  them  to  guard  for  the  future  by 
preparing  temporary  leading-strings  for  the 
unwise,  to  keep  them  from  falling  and  dragging 
others  with  them  into  the  mire  of  error.  Up  to 
a  certain  point  even  genius  must  have  leading- 
strings,  and  these  must  needs  be  made  of  the 
best  materials  at  hand  till  better  be  found. 
The  laws  cannot  be  made  on  principles  whose 
bases  are  out  of  the  ken  of  the  wisest  law-makers  ; 
and  genius,  like  ordinary  intellect,  must  needs  be 
amenable  at  first  to  such  laws  as  preceding 
masters  have  been  able  to  formulate  from  the 
sum  total  of  their  experience.    The  trouble  begins 


LICENSE. 

when  something  is  found  which  is  beyond  the 
range  of  the  observation  which  served  as  the 
basis  for  a  law,  and  seems  therefore  to  contravene 
it ;  for  many  men  so  readily  mistake  their  habits 
for  absolute  truth  that  when  they  are  shown  a 
novelty  which  passes  their  point  of  realisation 
and  is  out  of  the  beaten  track,  they  condemn  it 
at  once  as  heresy,  and  use  the  utmost  of  their 
power  to  prevent  its  dissemination  ;  and  where 
they  find  themselves  unable  to  stem  the  tide 
through  the  acknowledged  greatness  of  the  genius 
who  has  originated  it,  or  through  the  acceptance 
of  its  principle  becoming  general,  they  excuse 
themselves  and  stigmatize  what  they  mistrust  by 
calling  it  a  license. 

A  license,  then,  is  the  breaking  of  a  more  or 
less  arbitrary  law  in  such  respects  as  it  is  de- 
fective and  its  basis  unsound  and  insufficient ; 
and  it  is  by  such  means  that  the  greater  part  of 
expansion  in  musical  art  has  been  made.  An 
irresistible  impulse  drives  genius  forth  into  the 
paths  of  speculation ;  and  when  a  discovery  is 
made  it  frequently  happens  that  a  law  is  broken, 
anil  the  pedants  proclaim  a  license.  But  the 
license,  being  an  accurate  generalisation,  holds  its 
j 'lace  in  the  art,  and  the  laws  have  to  be  modified 
to  meet  it,  and  ultimately  men  either  forget  that 
it  was  ever  called  a  license  or  stand  in  amaze- 
ment at  the  stupidity  of  their  predecessors  ;  while 
it  must  be  confessed  that  they  assuredly  would 
not  have  been  any  wiser  if  they  had  been  in 
their  places. 

The  history  of  music  is  full  from  end  to  end 
with  examples — from  De  Muris  in  the  fourteenth 
century  bewailing  in  bitter  terms  the  experiments 
in  new  concords,  to  the  purists  of  Monteverde's 
time  condemning  his  use  of  the  dominant  seventh 
without  preparation,  on  to  the  vexation  of  the 
contemporaries  of  Mozart  at  the  extravagant 
opening  of  the  C  major  Quartet,  and  the  amaze- 
ment of  many  at  Beethoven's  beginning  his 
first  Symphony  (in  C)  with  a  chord  ostensibly  in 
F  major.  Even  at  the  present  day  Bach's  compli- 
cated use  of  accidentals  is  a  stumblingblock  to 
many,  who  fancy  he  breaks  laws  against  false 
relations;  while  in  reality  this  law,  like  that 
against  consecutive  fifths,  is  only  the  particular 
formula  covering  a  deeper  law  which  Bach  had 
the  power  to  fathom  without  waiting  for  its  ex- 
pression. So  again  with  the  resolution  of  dis- 
cords ;  the  old  formulas  were  mere  statements  of 
the  commonest  practices  of  the  older  composers, 
and  did  not  attempt  to  strike  at  the  root  of  the 
matter  :  so  we  find  even  Haydn  taking  license  in 
this  direction  in  relation  to  the  lights  of  his 
time;  while  Bach's  resolutions  are  often  inex- 
plicable even  at  the  present  day  as  far  as  the 
accepted  principles  of  resolution  will  go,  because 
theorists  have  hardly  got  far  enough  yet  to  see 
clearly  what  he  saw  and  expressed  so  long  ago. 
At  the  present  day,  however,  the  increase  of  the 
accumulated  results  of  observation  and  analysis, 
joined  with  a  more  philosophical  spirit,  tends  to 
produce  a  more  and  more  accurate  determination 
of  the  real  laws  of  art,  and  by  the  systematisation 
of  these  into  a  more  conjn-uous  and  connected 


LICHNOWSKY. 


131 


theory,  a  nearer  approach  is  made  to  what  is 
universally  true,  and  so  less  room  is  left  for 
those  speculative  experiments  of  genius  which 
the  denseness  of  mere  pedants  has  been  content 
to  brand  as  licenses. 

This  progress  explains  the  fact  that  the  term 
'  license '  is  not  so  frequently  heard  in  relation  to 
music  as  it  formerly  was:  but  there  is  still  plenty  of 
room  for  theorists  to  invent  false  hypotheses ;  and 
the  apparently  growing  desire  of  many  scientists 
to  force  upon  artists  as  final  the  results  of  the 
most  elementary  discoveries  in  relation  to  the 
material  of  the  art,  will  still  afford  genius  the 
opportunity  of  asserting  the  strength  of  its  con- 
victions by  taking  so-called  licenses,  and  will 
likewise  afford  dogmatists  further  opportunity  of 
making  themselves  ridiculous  to  posterity  by 
condemning  the  truths  thus  discovered. 

There  is  just  one  last  consideration.  Liber- 
tines are  unfortunately  to  be  met  with  in  the  art 
world  as  well  as  elsewhere,  and  the  licenses  they 
take  too  frequently  deserve  the  bitter  language 
of  the  enraged  pedant.  There  is  no  need  to  stay 
to  consider  their  experiments,  for  they  will  not 
take  long  to  die  of  inanition.  It  only  remains  to 
remind  the  too  hasty  enthusiast  that  to  take 
licenses  with  safety  for  the  art  is  not  the  part  of 
every  ready  believer  in  himself;  but  only  of 
those  in  whom  the  highest  talents  are  conjoined 
with  unflagging  patience  and  earnest  labour ; 
who  pass  through  the  perfect  realisation  of  the 
laws  they  find  in  force  at  first,  and  by  learning  to 
feel  thoroughly  the  basis  on  which  they  rest,  and 
the  principles  of  their  application  by  other  great 
masters,  finally  arrive  at  that  point  where  they 
can  see  the  truths  which  lie  beyond  the  formal 
expression  of  the  law,  and  which  the  rest  of 
humanity  only  call  licenses  for  the  nonce  because 
their  eyes  are  not  clear  enough  nor  their  spirits 
bright  enough  to  leap  to  the  point  which  the  in- 
spiration of  genius  has  achieved. 

Beethoven  appears  to  have  used  the  term 
'  licenze'  in  relation  to  construction  with  reference 
to  the  fugue  in  Bb  in  opus  106.  It  is  difficult 
to  indicate  precisely  in  what  particular  the 
licenses  consist.  The  case  is  similar  to  the 
sonatas  which  he  called  'quasi  Fantasia,'  merely 
indicating  that  in  them  he  had  not  restricted 
himself  closely  to  the  laws  of  form  as  accepted  in 
his  time,  but  had  enlarged  the  bounds  according 
to  his  own  feelings.  [C.H.H.P.] 

LICHFILD,  Henry,  was  the  composer  of 
'  The  First  Set  of  Madrigals  of  5  parts,  apt  both 
for  Viols  and  Voyces,'  printed  in  1613  and  re- 
printed in  1614,  and  containing  20  madrigals. 
Nothing  is  known  of  his  biography.     [W.H.  H.] 

LICHNOWSKY,  Cabl,  Fiirst  (Prince),  by 
Russian  patent  issued  January  30,  1773;  born 
1758,  died  April  15,  1814;  was  descended  from 
an  old  Polish  family  whose  estates  were  so 
situated  that,  after  the  partition  of  Poland,  it 
owed  allegiance  to  all  three  of  the  plunderers. 
The  principal  seat  of  Prince  Carl  was  Schloss 
Griitz,  near  Troppau  in  Silesia ;  but  Vienna 
was  his   usual  place  of  residence.      He  clainia 

K2 


132 


LICHNOWSKY. 


a  place  in  this  work  as  the  pupil  and  friend  of 
Mozart  and  the  Maecenas  of  Beethoven. 

Readers  of  Burney's  'Musical  Tour'  will 
remember  his  eulogies  of  the  Countess  Thun- 
Klbsterle,  so  celebrated  for  her  beauty,  intellect 
and  culture,  whose  disregard  for  mere  form  gave 
her  the  reputation  of  eccentricity,  but  whose 
house  and  family  had  charms  that  attracted  even 
the  Emperor  Joseph  and  his  brothers  thither  on 
the  footing  of  friendly  visitors.  Of  her  taste  in 
music  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  she  was  a  pro- 
found admirer  of  the  compositions  of  both  the 
young  Mozart  and  the  young  Beethoven,  at  a 
time  when  such  appreciation  was  by  no  means 
universal.  Her  daughters  —  Georg  Forster's 
'  Three  Graces ' — were  worthy  of  their  mother. 
Elizabeth  married  Rasoumowsky ;  Christine,  born 
July  26, 1765,  married,  November  31,1 788,  Lich- 
nowsky ;  and  the  third  the  English  Lord  Guilford. 
Schbnfeld,  a  Viennese,  writes  in  1796,  of  Lady 
'Gilfort'  as  a  guitar  player  of  very  high  rank 
and  a  singer  of  uncommon  excellence  ;  and  of 
Princess  Lichnowsky  as  '  a  strong  musician  who 
plays  the  pianoforte  with  feeling  and  expression.' 

Lichnowsky,  without  pretending  to  rival  the 
great  magnates  Esterhazy,  Lobkowitz,  and  their 
peers,  in  maintaining  a  complete  '  chapel '  of  vocal 
and  instrumental  music,  had  within  five  years 
after  his  marriage  his  regular  Friday  quartet  of 
youthful  virtuosos,  Schuppanzigh,  Sina,  Weiss, 
and  Kraft,  all  of  whom  became  famous,  and 
also  gave  musical  entertainments  on  a  scale 
requiring  a  full  orchestra. 

His  relations  to  the  Prussian  court  compelled 
him  occasionally  to  appear  there;  and  he  thus 
found  opportunity  to  give  Mozart — only  two  years 
his  senior — a  practical  and  substantial  proof  of 
his  affection,  by  inviting  him,  in  those  days  of 
tedious  and  expensive  travelling,  to  join  him  on 
one  of  these  occasions  free  of  expense.  This  \\  as 
the  journey  in  the  spring  of  1 789,  during  which 
the  King  of  Prussia  offered  Mozart  the  then 
noblest  musical  position  in  Germany,  but  which 
a  kind  word  from  the  Emperor,  after  his  return, 
led  him  to  reject,  without  securing  an  equivalent. 
There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  that  Lichnowsky, 
deeply  moved  by  the  distressing  condition  of 
his  teacher  and  friend,  had  taken  him  to 
Berlin  in  the  hope  of  improving  his  circum- 
stances, and  that  the  King's  offer  was  partly  due 
to  his  influence.  Two  and  a  half  years  later 
poor  Mozart  was  dead,  leaving  a  void  in  the 
Lichnowsky-Thun  circle  which  there  was  no  one 
to  fill.  Another  two  years  and  young  Beethoven 
had  come  from  Bonn. 

The  relations  between  him  and  the  Lichnow- 
skys  are  sufficiently  indicated  in  the  article 
Beethoven;  but  a  current  error  must  be  cor- 
rected ;  namely,  that  the  breach  caused  by  the 
quarrel  at  Gratz  in  1806  was  final.  Lichnowsky 
lived  in  a  large  house  over  the  Schotten  gate — 
both  house  and  gate  disappeared  long  since — and 
in  the  storey  below  him  dwelt  Beethoven's 
friends,  the  Erdbdys.  The  Schotten  and  Mblker 
bastions  were  contiguous,  and  the  Pasqualati 
house,  on  the  latter,  was  in  the  same  row  with 


LIEBLICH  GEDACT. 

that  of  Lichnowsky,  though  a  few  doors  away 
from  it.  This  then  was  the  reason  why 
Beethoven  was  content  to  live  in  rooms  in  the 
fourth  storey,  looking  to  the  cold  north,  and 
without  a  direct  ray  of  the  sun.  He  remained 
there  from  1804  to  1807,  and  then  removed  into 
rooms  provided  him  by  the  Countess  Erdbdy. 

An  outbreak  with  the  Countess  led  him  to 
remove  to  the  other  side  of  the  city,  where  he 
passed  the  years  1809  and  1810.  Meantime,  so 
complete  a  reconciliation  had  taken  place  be- 
tween him  and  both  Lichnowsky  and  the 
Countess  Erdody,  that  in  181 1  he  went  again 
to  Gratz,  and  on  his  return  once  more  took  his 
old  lodging  in  the  Pasqualati  house,  where  he 
remained  until  the  death  of  Lichnowsky.1  It 
was  during  these  last  years  that  Schindler  re- 
cords the  frequent  visits  of  the  prince  to  the 
composer. 

Edward  Maria,  son  and  successor  of  Prince 
Carl  (born  Sept.  19,  1789,  died  Jan.  1,  1845,  at 
Munich),  distinguished  himself  as  an  agricul- 
turist, but  more  as  a  man  of  letters.  He  stands 
high  in  Austrian  literature  as  a  national  anti- 
quarian, especially  for  his  great  '  History  of 
the  House  of  Habsburg.' 

Lichnowsky,  Count  Moritz,  a  younger  brother 
of  Prince  Carl,  was  one  of  that  small  circle  of 
most  intimate  friends  of  Beethoven,  faithful  to 
the  last.  He  was  probably  that  Count  Lich- 
nowsky who  published  (1798)  'VII  Variations 
for  P.  F.  on  Nel  cor  piu.'  After  the  death 
of  his  first  wife  he  became  deeply  attached  to 
the  opera-singer,  Mile.  Stummer ;  but  not  until 
after  the  death  of  Prince  Carl,  when  their 
daughter  had  already  passed  the  stage  of  in- 
fancy, were  they  able  to  marry.  It  is  in  rela- 
tion to  this  attachment  that  Beethoven  is  said 
to  have  written  the  Sonata  in  E  minor,  op.  90. 
[See  vol.  i.  p.  206  b.]  [A.  W.  T.] 

LIEBLICH  GEDACT  (*.  e.  gedeckt),  literally 
'sweet-toned  covered  or  closed'  pipe.  This 
class  of  organ  stop  is  a  variety  of  the  old  quite- 
stopped  Diapason  or  Gedact.  It  was  invented 
by  the  elder  Schulze,  of  Paulinzelle  near  Erfurt, 
and  was  first  brought  under  notice  in  England 
in  his  organ  in  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851. 
It  is  made  either  of  16-feet  tone  (Lieblich 
Bourdon),  8-feet  (Lieblich  Gedact),  or  4-feet 
(Lieblich  Flote).  The  pipes  are  made  5  or  6 
sizes  narrower  than  the  Gedact,  but  are  more 
copiously  winded,  and  the  mouths  cut  up  higher. 
The  tone  therefore  is  nearly  or  quite  as  strong  as 
that   of  the   Gedact,   though  not  so    full,    yet 

1  llelchardt,  under  date  Not.  SO.  180?,  writes!  'Beethoven  lodges 
with  a  Hungarian  Countess  ErdOdy,  who  occupies  the  front  part  of 
the  huge  house,  but  he  has  broken  completely  with  Prince  Lichnow- 
sky, who  lives  in  the  upper  part  of  the  house,  and  with  whom  he  for 
some  years  resided.  During  the  ten  years  1804-14,  then,  Beethoven 
moved  from  the  l'asqualatt  house  once  only,  but  then  for  three  years : 
at  the  end  of  that  period  he  departed  finally.  When  therefore  hies 
(writing  avowedly  from  hearsay'  states  'he  removed  from  it  several 
times,  and  Pasqualati  said  "  The  lodging  shall  not  be  let,  Beethoven, 
will  come  again," '  he  was  evidently  misinformed,  at  least  In  part ;  but 
his  error  has  been  adopted  and  made  the  most  of  in  all  biographies  and 
biographical  sketches  of  Beethoven  since  1838.  The  new  lodging  in  1814 
was  in  the  lower  storey  of  the  Bartensteln  house,  on  the  same  bastion. 
He  retained  It  but  one  year ;  for,  on  the  departure  of  the  Erdodys  from 
Vienna  in  1815,  there  was  no  Inducement  to  remain,  acd  Btethoveu 
moved  away  from  the  Miilker  Bastei  never  to  return. 


LIEBLICH  GEDACT. 

brighter  and  sweeter.  When  the  three  stops, 
16,  S,  and  4  feet  are  grouped  together  on  the 
same  manual  their  effect  is  very  beautiful.  The 
late  Edmund  Schulze  combined  them  in  this 
manner  in  the  choir  organ  at  the  Temple  Church 
in  1 S60,  also  in  his  fine  organ  at  Doncaster  ( 1 862). 
Lewis  adopted  the  same  plan  at  Ripon  Cathedral, 
and  it  has  been  still  more  recently  followed  by 
Willis  at  Salisbury  Cathedral.  [E.  J.H.] 

LIED,  a  Gftman  poem  intended  for  singing ; 
by  no  means  identical  with  the  French  chanson, 
or  the  Italian  canzone.  All  three  terms  are  in 
fact  untranslateable,  from  the  essentially  na- 
tional character  of  the  ideas  embodied  in  each 
form  ;  the  German  Lied  being  perhaps  the  most 
faithful  reflection  of  the  national  sentiment.  A 
German  looking  at  nature  in  her  infinite  variety 
of  moods  is  almost  irresistibly  impelled  to  utter 
his  thoughts  in  song.  Certain  aspects  of  nature 
appeal  with  peculiar  force  to  the  German  mind — 
such,  for  instance,  as  the  forest,  the  waste,  the 
fall  of  rain,  the  murmur  of  the  brook,  the  raging 
of  the  tempest ;  and  connected  with  these  certain 
other  objective  ideas,  such  as  the  hunter  in  the 
forest,  the  lonely  bird,  or  the  clouds  stretching 
over  the  landscape,  the  house  sheltering  from 
wind  and  rain,  the  mill-wheels  turned  by  the 
brook,  etc.  Such  are  the  topics  of  the  secular 
Lied,  which  have  been  embodied  by  Goethe, 
Schiller,  Heine,  and  a  hundred  smaller  poets, 
in  imperishable  lyrics,  perfectly  suited  for  music. 
Those  of  the  sacred  Lied  are,  trust  in  God,  the 
hope  of  future  blessedness  and  union,  and  other 
religious  sentiments,  etc.  There  are  Volkslieder,1 
that  is  to  say,  Lieder  whose  origin  is  lost  in  ob- 
scurity, of  both  kinds.  The  development  of  in- 
strumental music  during  the  earlier  half  of  the 
last  century  having  provided  other  means  of 
expression  for  such  feelings  besides  song,  the 
Volkslied  has  gradually  disappeared,  giving  place 
to  the  Kunstlied,  of  which  the  accompaniment  is 
an  important  feature.  This  new  form,  naturalised 
by  Haydn,  Mozart,  Reichardt,  Sehultz,  Himmel, 
Beethoven,  Conradin  Kreutzer,  and  C.  M.  von 
Weber,  attained  in  the  hands  of  Franz  Schubert  to 
that  extension  and  perfection  of  expression  which 
makes  it  so  dear  to  the  German  nation.  Since  his 
time  the  accompaniment  has  constantly  assumed 
greater  prominence,  so  that  the  original  form  has 
nearly  disappeared,  the  musical  treatment  being 
everything,  and  the  poetry  comparatively  of  less 
moment.  Schumann  may  be  considered  the 
pioneer  in  this  direction,  and  after  him  follow 
Brahms  and  Robert  Franz.  With  the  two  last 
composers  the  accompaniment,  as  rich  in  melody 
as  it  is  in  harmony  and  modulation,  more  than 
divides  attention  with  the  words. 

The  best  works  on  the  subject  are  Dr.  Schnei- 
der's 'Geschichte  des  Liedes,'  3  vols.  (Leipzig, 
18)3-65),  full  of  detail;  Lindners  'Geschichte 
des  Deutschen  Liedes  im  XVIII  Jahrhundert ' 

1  The  English  have  unfortunately  no  equivalent  word  for  Volkslied. 
We  have  the  thing,  though  of  a  very  different  kind  from  that  of 
Germany,  bat  have  no  term  to  express  the  whole  kind.  Mr.  Chap- 
p^ll's  great  work  on  English  Volkslieder  Is  entitled  "The  Ballad 
Literature  and  Topular  Music  of  the  Olden  Time."  'Popular,'  how- 
ever, bas  now  acquired  a  distinct  meaning  of  its  own. 


LIED-FORM 


133 


(Leipzig.  1871);  and  Schure's  '  Histoire  du 
Lied.*     [See  Song.]  [F-G.] 

LIED-FORM.  The  term  Lied-form  has  un- 
fortunately been  used  by  different  writers  with 
different  significations ;  and  the  vagueness  which 
results,  conjoined  with  the  fact  that  the  term  is 
not  happily  chosen,  renders  it  doubtful  whether 
it  had  not  better  be  entirely  abandoned. 

Some  people  use  it  merely  to  define  any  slight 
piece  which  consists  mainly  of  a  simple  melody 
simply  accompanied,  in  which  sense  it  would 
be  perfectly  adapted  to  many  of  Mendelssohn's 
Lieder  ohne  Worte,  and  innumerable  other 
pieces  of  that  class  of  small  compositions  for  the 
pianoforte  by  various  authors,  as  well  as  to  songs. 
On  the  other  hand,  some  writers  have  en- 
deavoured to  indicate  by  the  term  a  form  of 
construction,  in  the  same  sense  as  they  would 
speak  of  the  forms  of  the  movements  of  Sonatas. 
For  the  diffusion  of  this  view  Herr  Bernhard 
Marx  appears  to  be  responsible,  and  his  definition 
will  be  best  given  in  his  own  terms. 

In  the  fourth  section  of  the  fifth  division  of 
his  'Allgemeine  Musiklehre'  he  writes  as  follows: 
'  Under  this  name  of  Lied-form  we  group  all  such 
pieces  of  music  as  have  one  single  main  idea, 
which  is  presented  either  in  one  developed  section, 
or  as  a  period  (with  first  and  second  phrase),  or 
even  as  a  period  divided  into  first  and  second 
similar  parts,  or  into  first,  second,  and  third 
parts  (in  which  case  the  last  is  generally  a 
repetition  of  the  first).  It  is  possible  in  Lied-form 
to  have  even  two  such  complete  forms  aggregated 
into  one  piece ;  but  then  they  occur  without 
close  connection  or  interweaving  with  one  an- 
other, perhaps  with  the  two  parts  twice  or  three 
times  repeated ;  in  which  case  the  second  group 
will  be  called  a  Trio,  and  the  third  the  second 
Trio,  and  be  treated  as  a  second  independent 
piece.  For  the  sake  of  contrast,  such  Trios  will 
often  be  in  another  key,  or  in  other  key  relation- 
ship, such  as  minor  corresponding  to  major,  and 
major  to  minor,  of  the  same  key,  etc.,  return 
being  afterwards  made  to  the  first  portion  and 
the  original  key  to  make  the  piece  complete. 
'In  this  Lied-form  are  cast  most  of  the  Lieder 
which  are  intended  to  be  sung,  dances,  marches, 
many  e'tudes,  introductions,'  etc. 

In  the  third  section  of  the  fourth  division  of 
his  '  Lehre  von  des  Musikalischen  Komposition,' 
Marx  further  gives  formulas,  or  types,  of  the 
harmonic  distribution  of  this  kind  of  composi- 
tion ;  and  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  second 
volume  (Bk.  3)  of  the  same  work  he  discusses 
the  details  of  the  structure  at  length. 

To  this  classification  there  appear  to  be  two 
main  objections.  The  first  is  the  choice  of  the 
distinctive  name  '  Lied '  for  a  form  which  com- 
prises dances,  marches,  and  other  alien  forms 
of  music.  Were  there  nothing  else  to  say  against 
it,  it  would  certainly  jar  against  our  sense  of 
fitness  to  have  to  speak  of  the  funeral  march  in 
the  Eroica  Symphony,  or  the  Scherzo  of  the  9th 
Symphony,  or  even  of  far  less  conspicuously  alien 
examples,  such  as  the  Waltz  in  the  Freyschiitz,  or 
a  Minuet  of  Haydn  or  Mozart,  as  in  '  Lied-form." 


134 


LIEDFORM. 


The  other  objection  to  the  classification  is  its 
vagueness  when  formulated  in  such  an  empirical 
way ;  but  in  order  to  understand  fully  both  this 
objection  and  the  former  it  will  be  necessary  to 
go  somewhat  deeper  into  the  matter. 

In  every  artistic  whole  there  must  be  balance 
and  proportion.  In  musical  works  this  is  chiefly 
obtained  by  the  grouping  of  harmonies.  An 
artistic  whole  may  be  obtained  in  one  key  by 
throwing  stress  first  upon  one  harmonic  centre, 
passing  from  that  to  one  which  represents  an 
opposite  phase,  and  then  passing  back  to  the 
original  again.  In  the  article  Harmony  it 
has  been  pointed  out  that  the  harmonies  of  the 
Tonic  and  the  Dominant  represent  the  most  com- 
plete opposition  of  phase  in  the  diatonic  series  of 
any  key;  the  most  perfect  simple  balance  is 
therefore  to  be  found  in  their  alternation.  For 
example,  the  first  fifteen  bars  of  the  Trio  in  the 
Scherzo  of  Beethoven's  Symphony  in  A  form 
a  complete  artistic  whole  of  themselves.  There 
are  six  bars  of  Tonic  harmony  and  one  of 
Dominant  forming  the  first  group,  and  then 
six  of  Dominant  harmony  followed  by  one  of 
Tonic  harmony  forming  the  second  group.  The 
balance  is  perfect,  and  the  form  the  simplest  in 
all  music ;  and  it  might  reasonably  be  called  the 
'  simple  primary  form.'  It  is  to  be  found  in  the 
most  diverse  quarters,  such  as  single  chants  of 
the  Anglican  Church,  sailor's  hornpipes,  German 
popular  waltzes  and  Landler,  and  the  trivial 
snatches  of  tunes  in  a  French  opera-bouffe.  The 
manner  of  obtaining  the  balance  is  however  not 
necessarily  restricted  to  the  above  order ;  for  it 
is  quite  equally  common  to  find  each  of  the  two 
groups  containing  a  balance  in  themselves  of 
Tonic   and  Dominant   harmony.     In   that  case 


the  balance  is  obtained  thus — C  G  C  C  G  C, 

instead  of  C  G  G  C  as  in  the  former  instance ; 
but  the  principle  which  underlies  them  is  the 
same,  and  justifies  their  being  classed  together. 
The  subsidiary  harmonies  which  are  associated 
with  these  main  groups  are  independent,  but 
are  most  effective  when  they  converge  so  as 
to  direct  attention  to  them.  When  greater 
extension  is  required,  the  balance  is  found 
between  key  and  key;  each  key  being  severally 
distinguished  by  an  alternation  of  harmonic  roots, 
so  as  to  be  severally  complete  when  they  are  to 
be  a  prominent  part  of  the  form.  Subsidiary 
transitions  occur  much  as  the  subsidiary  har- 
monies in  the  preceding  class,  and  must  be 
regarded  in  the  same  light.  The  identity  of 
principle  in  these  two  classes  is  obvious,  since  in 
both  alike  it  consists  of  taking  a  definite  point  to 
start  from,  and  marking  it  clearly ;  then  passing 
to  another  point,  which  will  afford  the  needed 
contrast,  and  returning  to  the  original  to  con- 
clude. But  as  in  the  latter  class  the  process  is 
complicated  by  the  changes  of  key,  it  may  best 
be  distinguished  from  the  former  as  'complex 
primary  form.' 

It  is  not  necessary  to  enter  into  details  on  the 
subject  of  the  extent,  treatment,  and  distribution 


LIEDFORM. 

of  the  keys  ;  neither  is  it  possible,  since  the  prin- 
ciple when  put  upon  this  broad  basis  admits  of 
very  great  variety,  as  indeed  it  is  desirable  that 
it  should.  But  to  guard  against  misapprehension, 
it  may  be  as  well  to  point  out  a  few  of  the  broadest 
facts. 

In  the  first  place,  the  several  sections  which 
serve  to  mark  the  elements  of  form  need  not  be 
distinct  and  independent  pieces,  though  they  most 
frequently  are  so  in  the  older  opefa  and  oratorio 
songs,  and  in  the  minuets  and  trios,  or  marches 
and  trios,  of  instrumental  music.  In  many  ex- 
amples, especially  such  as  are  on  a  small  scale, 
there  is  no  marked  break  in  the  continuity  of  the 
whole,  the  division  at  most  amounting  to  nothing 
more  than  a  cadence  or  half-close  and  a  double 
bar,  and  often  to  not  even  so  much  as  that.  With 
regard  to  the  distribution  of  ideas,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  several  sections  are  often  characterised 
by  totally  independent  subjects,  especially  when 
the  piece  is  on  a  large  scale;  but  there  are  many 
examples,  especially  in  the  form  of  themes  for 
variations,  when,  notwithstanding  a  certain  free- 
dom of  modulation,  the  predominance  of  one  main 
idea  is  unbroken. 

Professor  Marx  has  called  attention  to  the  fact 
that  this  form  is  sometimes  amplified  by  repe- 
tition ;  that  is  to  say,  when  the  return  to  the 
original  key  has  been  made  to  follow  the  con- 
trasting section  or  Trio,  a  fresh  departure  is  made, 
and  another  contrasting  section  or  Trio  is  given, 
after  which  follows  the  final  return  to  the  original 
key  and  idea.  Examples  of  this  occur  in  the 
Symphonies  of  Beethoven  and  Schumann,  as  well 
as  in  less  important  works ;  and  it  is  well  to  take 
note  of  the  fact  that  in  this  case  the  form  under 
consideration  shows  its  close  relationship  to  the 
Rondo  form ;  for  that  form  in  the  hands  of  early 
instrumental  composers  such  as  Rameau  and 
Couperin  was  little  else  than  the  frequent  repe- 
tition of  a  main  idea  in  a  principal  key,  inter- 
spersed with  contrasting  episodes,  which  in  the 
present  case  answer  to  the  Trios. 

The  occurrence  of  Codas  with  this  form  is  very 
common,  but  for  the  discussion  of  that  point 
reference  must  be  made  to  the  article  under  that 
head  and  to  the  article  Form. 

Finally,  it  will  be  well  to  return  shortly  to  the 
consideration  of  the  distinctive  name  of  '  Lied ' 
which  has  been  given  to  this  form.  In  the  choice 
of  it,  its  author  was  probably  guided  by  a  well- 
grounded  opinion  of  the  superior  antiquity  of  song 
to  other  kinds  of  music,  which  led  him  to  in- 
fer that  the  instrumental  forms  which  he  put 
under  the  same  category  were  imitated  from  the 
'  Lieder.'  But  this  is  not  by  any  means  inevit- 
able. It  will  have  been  seen  from  the  above 
discussion  that  in  this  form  the  simplest  means 
of  arriving  at  artistic  balance  and  proportion  are 
made  use  of;  and  these  would  have  been  chosen 
by  the  instinct  of  the  earliest  composers  of  instru- 
mental music  without  any  necessary  knowledge 
that  vocal  music  was  cast  in  the  same  mould. 
And  there  is  more  than  this.  In  songs  and  other 
vocal  music  the  hearer  is  so  far  guided  by  the 
sense  of  the  words  that  a  total  impression  of 


LIED-FORM. 

completeness  may  be  obtained  even  with  very 
vague  structure  in  the  music ;  whereas  in  in- 
strumental music,  unless  the  form  is  clear  and 
appreciably  defined,  it  is  impossible  for  the  most 
intelligent  hearer  to  realise  the  work  as  a 
whole.  So  that,  in  point  of  fact,  vocal  music 
can  do  without  a  great  deal  of  that  which  is 
vital  to  instrumental  music ;  and  therefore  the 
Lied  is  just  the  member  of  the  group  which  it  is 
least  satisfactory  to  take  as  the  type :  but  as  this 
form  has  been  classified  under  that  head,  it  has 
been  necessary  so  to  review  it  fully,  in  order  that 
a  just  estimation  may  be  formed  of  its  nature, 
and  the  reason  for  taking  exception  to  the  title. 
The  form  itself  is  a  very  important  one,  but  inas- 
much as  it  admits  of  great  latitude  in  treatment, 
it  appears  that  the  only  satisfactory  means  of 
classifying  it,  or  making  it  explicable,  is  by 
putting  it  on  as  broad  a  basis  as  possible,  and  giving 
it  a  distinctive  title  which  shall  have  reference 
to  its  intrinsic  constitution,  and  not  to  one  of 
the  many  kinds  of  music  which  may,  but  need  not 
necessarily,  come  within  its  scope.      [C.H.H.P.] 

LIED  OHNE  WORTE,  i.e.  Song  without 
words  (Fr.  Romance  sans  paroles),  Mendelssohn's 
title  for  the  pianoforte  pieces  which  are  more 
closely  associated  with  his  name  than  any  other 
of  his  compositions.  The  title  exactly  describes 
them.  They  are  just  songs.  They  have  no  words, 
but  the  meaning  is  none  the  less  definite — '  I  wish 
I  were  with  you,'  says  he  to  his  sister  Fanny  in 
sending  her  from  Munich1  the  earliest  of  these 
compositions  which  we  possess — '  but  as  that  is 
impossible,  I  have  written  a  song  for  you  expres- 
sive of  my  wishes  and  thoughts '  .  .  .  .  and  then 
follows  a  little  piece  of  16  bars  long,  which  is  as 
true  a  Lied  ohne  Worte  as  any  in  the  whole 
collection.  We  know  from  a  letter  of  later  2date 
than  the  above  that  he  thought  music  much  more 
definite  than  words,  and  there  is  no  reason  to 
doubt  that  these  'Lieder,'  as  he  himself  con- 
stantly calls  them,  have  as  exact  and  special 
an  intention  as  those  which  were  composed  to 
poetry,  and  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  draw 
a  line  between  the  two.3  He  had  two  kinds  of 
soDgs,  one  with  words,  the  other  without.  The 
pieces  are  not  Nocturnes,  or  Transcripts,  or  Etudes. 
They  contain  no  bravura  ;  everything  is  subordin- 
ated to  the  '  wish '  or  the  '  thought '  which  filled 
the  heart  of  the  composer  at  the  moment. 

The  title  first  appears  in  a  letter  of  Fanny 
Mendelssohn's,  Dec.  8,  1828,  which  implies  that 
Felix  had  but  recently  begun  to  write  such 
pieces.  But  the  English  equivalent  was  not 
settled  without  difficulty.  The  day  after  his 
arrival  in  London,  on  April  24,  1832,  he  played 

«the  first  six  to  Moscheles,  and  they  are  then 
4 spoken  of  as  'Instrumental  Lieder  fur  Cla- 
vier.' On  the  autograph  of  the  first  book,  in 
Mr.  Felix  Moscheles'  possession,  they  are  named 
'  Six  songs  for  the  Pianoforte  alone,'  and  this  again 

1  tetters  from  Italy  and  Switzerland,  June  M,  1930. 

J  To  Souchajr.  Oct  15. 1841. 

1  The  Uerbstlie  i  ^op.  03)  was  originally  a  Lied  ohne  Worte  (MS.  Cat. 
Nn.  204>. 

*  See  the  Translation  of  Moscheles-  Life.  L  207,  for  this  and  the  fol- 
lowing fact. 


LIEDERKREIS. 


105 


was  afterwards  changed  to  '  Original  Melodies  for 
the  Pianoforte,'  under  which  title  the  first  book 
was  published  (for  the  author)  by  Mr.  Novello 
(then  in  Dean  Street),  on  Aug.  20,  1832,  and 
registered  at  Stationers'  Hall.  No  opus-number 
is  given  on  the  English  copy,  though  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  Mendelssohn  arranged  it  himself  in 
every  particular.  The  book  appeared  concurrently 
in  Berlin,  at  Simrock's,  as  'Sechs  Lieder  ohne 
Worte,  etc.  5Op.  19.'  The  German  name  after- 
wards became  current  in  England,  and  was  added 
to  the  English  title-page. 

The  last  of  the  six  songs  contained  in  the 
1st  book — 'In  a  Gondola,'  or  ' Venetianisches 
Gondellied ' — is  said  to  be  the  earliest  of  the  six 
in  point  of  date.  In  Mendelssohn's  MS.  catalogue 
it  is  marked  '  Venedig,  16th  Oct.,  1830,  fur  Del- 
phine  Schauroth ' — a  distinguished  musician  of 
Munich,  whom  he  had  left  only  a  few  weeks 
before,  and  to  whom  he  afterwards  dedicated  his 
first  P.F.  Concerto.  An  earlier  one  still  is  No.  2 
of  Book  2,  which  was  sent  from  Munich  to  his 
sister  Fanny  in  a  letter  dated  June  26,  1830. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  success  of  the 
Lieder  ohne  Worte  was  but  slow  in  England. 
The  books  of  Messrs.  Novello  &  Co.,  for  1836, 
show  that  only  114  copies  of  Book  1  were  sold  in 
the  first  four  years !  •  Six  books,  each  containing 
six  songs,  were  published  during  Mendelssohn's 
lifetime,  numbered  as  op.  19,  30,  38,  53,  62,  and 
67,  respectively;  and  a  7th  and  8th  (op.  85  and 
102)  since  his  death.  A  few  of  them  have  titles, 
viz.  the  Gondola  song  already  mentioned ;  another 
'Venetianisches Gondellied,'  op.  30,  no.  6 ;  'Duett,' 
op.  38,  no,  6 ;  '  Volkslied,'  op.  53,  no.  5  ;  a  third 
'Venetianisches  Gondellied.'and  a  'Fruhlingslied,' 
op.  62,  nos.  5  and  6.  These  titles  are  his  own. 
Names  have  been  given  to  some  of  the  other  songs. 
Thus  op.  19,  no.  2,  is  called  'Jagerlied'  or 
Hunting  song;  op.  62,  no.  3,  'Trauermarsch'  or 
Funeral  march  ;  op.  67,  no.  3,  '  Spinnerlied'  or 
Spinning  song :  but  these,  appropriate  or  not, 
are  unauthorised.  [GJ] 

LIEDERKREIS,  LIEDERCYCLUS,  or 
LIEDERREIHE.  A  circle  or  series  of  songs, 
relating  to  the  same  object  and  forming  one  piece 
of  music.  The  first  instance  of  the  thing  and  the 
first  use  of  the  word  appears  to  be  in  Beethoven's 
op.  98,  '  An  die  feme  Geliebte.  Ein  Liedeikreis 
von  Al.  Jeitteles.7  Fiir  (Jesang  und  Pianoforte 
.  .  .  von  L.  van  Beethoven.'  This  consists  of  six 
songs,  was  composed  April  18 16,  and  published 
in  the  following  December.  The  word  Lieder- 
kreis  appears  first  on  the  printed  copy.  Bee- 
thoven's title  on  the  autograph  is  '  An  die 
enfernte  Geliebte,  Sechs  Lieder  von  Aloys 
Jeitteles,'  etc.  It  was  followed  by  Schubert's 
'  Die  schone  Mullerin,  ein  Cyclus  von  Liedern,' 
20  songs,  composed  1823,  and  published  March 
1824.     Schubert's  two  other  series,  the '  Winter- 

9  There  are  two  opus  19,  a  set  of  six  songs  with  words,  and  a  set  of 
six  without  them. 

6  For  this  fact  I  am  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Henry 
Littlf  ton,  the  present  head  of  the  firm. 

7  Ot  the  poet  of  these  charming  verses  little  Information  can  bo 
gleaned.  He  was  born  at  Bruun  June  20, 1704,  so  that  when  he  wrote 
the  Liederkreis  he  was  barely  21.  Like  many  amateurs  of  music  bo 
practised  medicine,  and  he  died  at  his  native  place  April  1C,  1858. 


136 


LIEDERKREIS. 


reise '  and  the  ' Schwanen-Gesang,'  have  not  got 
the  special  title.  Schumann  has  left  several 
Liederkreis — by  Heine  (op.  24) ;  by  Eichendorff 
(op.  39) ;  '  Dichterliebe,  Liedercyklus'  (op.  48)  ; 
Liederreihe  von  J.  Kerner  (op.  3=;);  '  Frauenliebe 
und  Leben'  (op.  42).  Of  all  these  Beethoven's 
most  faithfully  answers  to  the  name.  The  songs 
change  their  tempo,  but  there  is  no  break,  and  the 
motif  of  the  first  reappears  in  the  last,  and  closes 
the  circle.  Thayer's  conjecture  (iii.  401)  that  in 
writing  it  Beethoven  was  inspired  by  Amalie  von 
Sebald,  whom  he  had  met  at  Linz  in  181 1,  is 
not  improbably  correct.  He  was  then  45  years 
o'.d,  an  age  at  which  love  is  apt  to  be  dangerously 
permanent.  [G.] 

LIEDERSPIEL,  a  play  with  songs  introduced 
into  it,  such  songs  being  either  well  known  and 
favourite  airs — Lieder — or,  if  original,  cast  in 
that  form.  It  is  the  German  equivalent  of  the 
French  Vaudeville,  and  of  such  English  pieces  as 
the  'Beggar's  Opera,'  the  'Waterman,'  etc.  The 
thing  and  the  name  are  both  due  to  J.  F.  Reich- 
ardt,  whose  'Licb'  und  Treue'  was  the  first 
Liederspiel.  It  was  an  attempt  to  bring  back 
the  musical  stage  of  Germany  from  artifice  to 
natural  sentiment.  Reichardt's  interesting  ac- 
count of  his  experiment  and  the  reasons  which 
led  to  it,  will  be  found  in  the  Allg.  mus.  Zeit- 
ung,  1801  (709-717).  Strange  and  anomalous 
as  such  a  thrusting  of  music  into  the  midst 
of  declamation  may  seem,  the  attempt  was  suc- 
cessful in  Germany,  as  it  had  been  in  England  fifty 
years  before.  The  tunes  could  be  recognised  and 
enjoyed  without  effort,  and  the  Liederspiel  had 
a  long  popularity.  After  Reichardt,  Himmel, 
Lortzing,  Eberwein,  and  a  number  of  other 
second-class  writers  composed  Liederspiel  which 
were  very  popular,  and  they  even  still  are  to  be 
heard. — Mendelssohn  often  speaks  of  his  '  Heim- 
kehr'  ('  Son  and  Stranger')  as  a  Liederspiel,  but 
that  can  only  be  by  an  extension  of  the  phrase 
beyond  its  original  meaning.  [G.] 

LIEDERTAFEL,  originally  a  society  of  men, 
who  met  together  on  fixed  evenings  for  the  prac- 
tice of  vocal  music  in  four  parts,  drinking  forming 
part  of  the  entertainment.  They  arose  during 
the  political  depression  caused  by  Napoleon's 
rule  in  Germany;  and  the  first,  consisting  of  24 
members  only,  was  founded  by  Zelter  in  Berlin, 
Dec.  28, 1808.  Others  soon  followed  at  Frankfort 
and  Leipzig,  gradually  relaxing  the  rules  as  to 
numbers.  Bernhard  Klein  founded  the  '  Jiingeren 
Berliner  Liedertafel,'  which  aimed  at  a  higher 
standard  of  art.  These  societies  gave  an  im- 
mense impetus  to  men's  part-singing  throughout 
Germany.  Since  the  establishment  of  the  Manner- 
gesangvereine  proper  (male  singing  societies), 
the  word  Liedertafel  has  come  to  mean  a  social 
gathering  of  the  '  Verein,'  t.  e.  a  gathering  of  in- 
vited ladies  and  gentlemen,  at  which  the  mem- 
bers perform  pieces  previously  learned.  They 
are  in  fact  informal  concerts,  where  the  guests 
move  about,  eat,  drink,  and  talk  as  they  please, 
provided  they  keep  silence  during  the  singing. 
The  Liedertafeln  of  the  large  male  singing  so- 
cieties   of  Vienna,    Munich,    and  Cologne,    are 


LIGATURE. 

pleasant  and  refined  entertainments,  not  without 
a  musical  significance  of  their  own.  [F.  G.] 

LIGATOSTIL  (Ttal.  Stile  ligato),  also  called 
gebundener  Stil,  is  the  German  term  for  what  is 
called  the  strict  style,  as  distinguished  from  the 
free  style  of  musical  composition.  Its  chief 
characteristic  lies  not  so  much  in  the  fact  that 
the  notes  are  seldom  or  never  detached,  as  that 
all  dissonances  are  strictly  prepared  by  means  of 
tied  notes.  [F.  T.] 

LIGATURE  (Lat.  Ligatura ;  Ital.  Legatura ; 
Fr.  Liaison).  A  passage  of  two  or  more  notes, 
sung  to  a  single  syllable.     [See  Notation.] 

In  antient  music-books,  Ligatures  are  not  in- 
dicated, as  now,  by  slurs :  but  the  form  of  the 
notes  themselves  is  changed — sometimes,  in  a 
very  puzzling  manner. 

Three  kinds  of  Ligatures  are  used  in  Plain 
Chaunt.  In  the  first,  and  simplest,  the  notes  are 
merely  placed  very  close  to  each  other,  so  as 
almost  to  touch,  thus — 


Ex.  1.        Written. 


Sung. 


F~jmmmr*=a  1. V'i 


Ky     -    -    -     ri  -  e  Ky    ---------    ri-e. 

In  the  second,  used  only  for  two  notes,  ascend- 
ing, they  are  'bonded' — that  is  to  say,  written 
one  over  the  other ;    the   lowest  being  always 
sung  first — 
Ex.2.    Written. 

g     S     8     8      I 


Sunt}. 


In  the  third,  used  for  two  notes  descending, 
they  are  joined  together,  so  as  to  form  an  oblique 
figure,  descending  towards  the  right ;  the  upper 
end  resting  on  the  line  or  space  denoting  the  first 
and  highest  of  the  two  notes,  and  the  lower,  on 
that  denoting  the  second,  and  lowest,  thus — 


Ex.3.    Written. 


Sung. 


In  early  times,  the  notes  of  Plain  Chaunt  were 
all  of  equal  length.  When,  after  the  invention 
of  Measured  Music  {Cantus  mensurahilis),  the 
Large,  Long,  Breve,  and  Semibreve,  were 
brought  into  general  use,  a  considerable  modi- 
fication of  the  form  and  scope  of  the  Ligature 
became  necessary.  Hence,  we  find  Franco  of 
Cologne,  in  the  nth  century,  calling  Ligatures 
beginning  with  a  Breve,  Ligatura  cum  proprie- 
tate ;  those  beginning  with  a  Long,  sine  pro- 
prietate ;  those  beginning  with  a  Semibreve, 
cum  opposita  proprietaie ;  those  in  which  the 
last  note  is  a  Long,  Ligatura  perfectm  ;  those  in 
which  the  last  note  is  a  Breve,  imperfecta:. 

In  the  Polyphonic  Music  of  the  15th  and  16th 
centuries,  the  form  of  the  Ligatures  varies 
greatly;  and  is,  necessarily,  very  complex,  since 
it  concerns  the  relative  duration  of  the  notes, 
as  well  as  their  difference  in  pitch.  A  cata- 
logue of  the  strange  figures  found  in  antient 
MSS.  would  be  interesting  only  to  the  anti- 
quary: but,  as  an  intimate  acquaintance  with 
the  more  usual  forms  is  absolutely  indispensable 


LIGATURE. 

to  all  who  would  learn  how  to  score  the  great 
compositions  of  the  1 6th  century  from  the  ori- 
ginal Part-books,  we  subjoin  a  few  examples  of 
those  which  the  student  is  likely  to  find  most 
generally  useful. 

Two  square  white  notes,  in  ligature,  without 
tails,  are  generally  sung  as  Breves :  the  rule 
holding  good,  whether  the  notes  are  separately 
formed,  or  joined  together  in  an  oblique  figure ; 
thus — 


LIGATURE. 


Kx.4.  Written. 


Sung. 


P 


-fefci     rf    [     bi    W- 


«: 


Sometimes,  however,  (but  not  always,)  if  the 
passage  be  a  descending  one,  the  notes  are  to  be 
sung  as  Longs ;  or,  the  first  may  be  a  Long,  and 
the  second,  a  Breve.  But,  this  exception  is  a 
rare  one ;  and  it  is  safer  to  assume  that  the  strict 
rule  is  in  force,  unless  the  fitting  together  of  the 
parts  should  prove  the  contrary. 


Kx.  5.    Written. 


m 


Sung  (in  a  few  rare  eases). 


SH^ 


=    =: 


^=k=Z=t- 


Two  square  white  notes,  in  ligature,  with  a 
tail  descending  on  the  right  side,  are  Longs, 
whether  they  ascend,  or  descend,  and  whether 
they  are  separately  formed,  or  joined  into  a 
single  oblique  figure. 


Kx.  6.     Written. 


Sung. 


T 

Two  similar  notes,  with  a  tail  descending  on 
the  left  side,  are  Breves. 
Kx.  7.     Written.  Sung. 


p^^ 


tt 


Two  such  notes,  with  a  tail  ascending  on  the 
left  side,  are  Semibreves. 


Ex.  8.    Written. 


Sung. 


Ligatures  of  two  notes,  with  a  tail  ascending 
on  the  left  side,  and  another  descending  on  the 
right,  are  to  be  sung — by  a  combination  of  Ex.  6 
and  8 — as  a  Semibreve,  followed  by  a  Long  (Ex.  9). 

1a. 9.    Written.    Sung.    Ex.  10.  Written.        Sung. 


yy— Brt-'  <&    1  nyP-P^T— l  ■^— C__I 


In  Ligatures  of  more  than  two  notes,  all  ex- 
cept the  first  two  are  most  frequently  treated  as 
if  they  were  not  in  ligature.  Thus,  in  Pales- 
trina's  Hymn,  Ave  Maris  Stella,  we  find  a  Liga- 
ture of  three  square  white  notes,  with  a  tail 
ascending  on  the  left,  sung  as  two  Semibreves, 
and  a  Breve :  that  is  to  say,  the  first  two  notes  are 
treated  as  in  Ex.  8,  while  the  third  note  retains 
its  true  length  (Ex.  10). 

On  this  point,  however,  some  early  authorities 
di Her  considerably.   For  instance,  Ornithoparcus, 


137 


writing  in  1517,  tells  us  that  (1)  Every  middle 
note,  however  shaped,  or  placed,  is  a  Breve; 
(2)  A  Long  may  begin,  or  end,  a  Ligature,  but 
can  never  be  used  in  the  middle  of  it ;  (3)  A 
Breve  may  be  used  either  in  the  beginning, 
middle,  or  end  of  a  Ligature  ;  (4)  A  Semibreve 
may  also  be  used  in  the  beginning,  middle,  or 
end  of  a  Ligature,  if  it  have  a  tail  ascending  on 
the  left.     [See  Micrologds,  II.] 

Black  square  and  lozenge-shaped  notes,  with- 
out tails,  lose,  when  intermixed  with  white  notes, 
one  fourth  of  their  value,  whether  they  occur  in 
ligature,  or  not.  Thus,  a  black  Semibreve  is  equal 
to  three  Crotchets  only,  or  a  dotted  Minim — in 
which  case  it  is  always  followed  by  a  Crotchet ; 
as  in  Ex.  1 1 — 
Ex.11.  Written.     Sung.        Ex.12.  Written.    Sung. 


I 


S 


Pi 


m 


But,  a  black  Semibreve,  following  a  black  Breve, 
is  shortened  into  a  Minim,  though  the  strict  rule 
holds  good  with  regard  to  the  Breve  (Ex.  1 2). 

There  is  often,  indeed,  a  little  uncertainty  with 
regard  to  the  degree  in  which  a  black  note  is  to 
be  shortened ;  more  especially,  when  the  same 
Ligature  contains  both  black  and  white  notes — 
as  in  the  following  examples  from  Palestrina. 


Ex.  13. 


Written. 


$ 


*E£ 


fee 


Sung. 


A  very  little  experience  will  enable  the  student 
to  discover  the  intention  of  such  forms  as  these, 
at  a  glance.  Though  the  three  we  have  selected 
seem,  at  first  sight,  to  offer  unexpected  complica- 
tions, it  will  be  found,  on  closer  examination,  that 
the  laws  laid  down  with  regard  to  Ex.  8,  10,  11, 
and  1 2,  leave  no  doubt  as  to  the  correct  solution 
of  any  one  of  them.  Even  when  an  oblique  note  is 
half  white,  and  half  black,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
remember  that  each  colour  is  subject  to  its  own 
peculiar  laws. 
Ex.14.  Written.  Sung. 


Cases,  however,  frequently  occur,  in  which 
black  notes  are  to  be  treated  precisely  as  white 
ones.  It  is  true,  these  passages  are  more  often 
found  in  single  notes,  than  in  Ligatures ;  but  it 
is  difficult,  sometimes,  to  understand  why  they 
should  have  been  introduced  at  all. 

Sometimes,  a  Ligature  is  accompanied  by  one 
or  more  Points  of  Augmentation,  the  position  of 
which  clearly  indicates  the  notes  to  which  they 
are  to  be  applied. 


Ex.15. 


Written. 


138 


LIGATURE. 

Sung. 


LILLIBURLERO. 


| 


¥ 


** 


In  some  old  printed  books,  the  last  note  of  a 
Ligature  is  placed  obliquely,  in  which  case  it  is 
always  to  be  sung  as  a  Breve. 

The  student  will  meet  with  innumerable  other 
forms,  more  or  less  difficult  to  decypher :  but, 
those  we  have  illustrated  will  be  sufficient  to 
guide  him  on  his  way,  in  all  ordinary  cases :  and,  in 
exceptional  ones,  he  will  find  that  long  experience 
alone  will  be  of  service  to  him.  [W.S.R.] 

LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD,  THE.  An  ora- 
torio in  two  parts ;  the  words  compiled  from  the 
Scriptures,  the  music  by  Arthur  S.  Sullivan. 
Written  for  the  Birmingham  Festival,  and  first 
performed  there  Aug.  27,  1873.  [G.] 

LILLIBURLERO.  '  The  following  rhymes,' 
says  Dr.  Percy,  '  slight  and  insignificant  as  they 
may  now  seem,  had  once  a  more  powerful  effect 
than  either  the  Philippics  of  Demosthenes  or 
Cicero ;  and  contributed  not  a  little  towards  the 
great  revolution  of  1688.'  Bishop  Burnet  says: 
'  A  foolish  ballad  was  made  at  that  time,  treat- 
ing the  papists,  and  chiefly  the  Irish,  in  a  very 
ridiculous  manner,  which  had  a  burden  said  to 
be  Irish  words,  'Lero,  lero,  liliburlero,'  that 
made  an  impression  on  the  [king's]  army,  that 
cannot  be  imagined  by  those  that  saw  it  not. 
The  whole  army,  and  at  last  the  people  both  in 
city  and  country,  were  singing  it  perpetually. 
And  perhaps  never  had  so  slight  a  thing  so 
great  an  effect.' 

Henry  Purcell,  the  composer  of  the  tune, 
here  receives  no  share  of  the  credit,  of  which 
nine  tenths,  at  least,  belong  to  him.  The  song 
was  first  taken  up  by  the  army,  because  the  tune 
was  already  familiar  as  a  quick  step  to  which 
the  soldiers  had  been  in  the  habit  of  marching. 
Then  the  catching  air  was  repeated  by  others, 
and  it  has  retained  its  popularity  down  to  the 
present  time.  As  the  march  and  quick  step 
have  not  been  reprinted  since  1686,  although  by 
Henry  Purcell,  it  is  well  that,  at  last,  they  should 
reappear.  The  only  extant  copy  of  both  is  in 
The  Delightful  Companion :  or,  Choice  New 
Lessons  for  the  Becorder  or  Flute,  2nd  edition, 
1686,  oblong  quarto.  As  this  little  book  is 
engraved  upon  plates,  and  not  set  up  in  types, 
as  then  more  usual,  and  this  march  and  quick 
step  are  on  sheet  F,  in  the  middle  of  the  book, 
we  may  reasonably  assume  that  they  were  in- 
cluded in  the  first  edition  also,  which  cannot  be 
less  than  a  year  or  two  earlier  in  date. 
March. 


IQuick  Step.] 


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nftrprr  rpFfNl 


The  words  are  the  merest  doggrel.  They  refer 
to  King  James's  having  nominated  to  the  lieu- 
tenancy of  Ireland,  in  1686,  General  Talbot, 
newly  created  Earl  of  Tyrconnel,  who  had  recom- 
mended himself  to  his  bigoted  master  by  his 
arbitrary  treatment  of  the  Protestants  in  the  pre- 
ceding year,  when  he  was  only  lieutenant-general. 
One  stanza  as  sung  to  the  tune  may  suffice.  After 
that,  the  two  lines  of  new  words  only  are  given. 

Ho !  broder  Teague,  dost  hear  de  decree  ? 

Litliburbro  bulleu  a  la. 
Dat  we  shall  have  a  new  deputie. 
Lilliburlero  bullen  a  la. 
Lero  lero,  UUi  bnrlero,  lero  lero,  bulleu  a  la, 
Lero  lero,  lilli  burlero,  lero  lero,  bullen  a  it. 
Ho !  by  shaint  Tyburn,  it  is  de  Talbote, 
And  he  will  cut  all  de  English  troate. 
Dough  by  my  shoul  de  English  do  praat, 
De  law's  on  dare  side,  and  Creish  knows  what. 
But  if  dispence  do  come  from  de  pope, 
We'll  hang  Magna  Charta,  and  dem  in  a  rope : 
For  de  good  Talbot  is  made  a  lord, 
And  with  brave  lads  is  coming  aboard : 
Who  all  in  France  have  taken  a  sware 
Dat  dey  will  have  no  protestant  heir. 

Ara !  but  why  does  he  stay  behind  ? 

Ho !  by  my  shoul  'tis  a  protestant  wind. 

But  see,  de  Tyrconnel  is  now  come  ashore, 

And  we  shall  have  commissions  gillore. 

And  he  dat  will  not  go  to  mass 

Shall  be  turn  out,  and  look  like  an  ass. 

But  now  de  hereticks  all  go  down, 

By  Creish  and  shaint  Patrick,  de  nation's  our  own. 

Dare  was  an  old  prophesy  found  in  a  bog, 

'Ireland  shall  be  rul'd  by  an  ass,  and  a  dog.' 

And  now  dis  prophesy  is  come  to  pass, 

For  Talbot's  de  dog,  and  Ja . .  s  is  de  ass. 

Such  stuff  as  this  would  not  have  been  toler- 
able without  a  good  tune  to  carry  it  down. 
And  yet  Lord  Wharton  has  had  the  entire 
credit :  '  A  late  viceroy,  who  has  so  often  boasted 
himself  upon  his  talent  for  mischief,  invention, 
lying,  and  for  making  a  certain  Lilliburlero 
song ;  with  which,  if  you  will  believe  himself,  he 
sung  a  deluded  prince  out  of  three  kingdoms.' l 

From    this    political    beginning    Lilliburlero 

•  A  true  relation  of  the  several  Facts  and  Circumstances  of  the 
Intended  Riot  and  Tumult  on  Queen  Elizabeth's  Birthday.  3rd 
edit.  1712. 


LILLIBURLERO. 

became  a  party  tune  in  Ireland,  especially  after 
'  Dublin's  Deliverance ;  or  the  Surrender  of 
Drogheda,'  beginning 

Protestant  boys,  good  tidings  I  bring, 
and  '  Undaunted  Londonderry,'  commencing 

Protestant  boys,  both  valiant  and  stout, 
had  been  written  to  it. 

It  has  long  ago  lost  any  party  signification  in 
England,  but  it  was  discontinued  as  a  march  in 
the  second  half  of  the  last  century,  in  order  to 
avoid  offence  to  our  Irish  soldiers  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith. 

The  tune  has  been  often  referred  to  by  drama- 
tists and  by  other  writers,  as  by  Shadwell  and 
Vanbrugh  in  plays,  and  by  Sterne  in  Tristram 
ShawJy.  Purcell  claims  it  as  'A  new  Irish 
tune '  by  '  Mr.  Purcell '  in  the  second  part  of 
Music  8  Handmaid,  1689,  and  in  1691  he  used 
it  as  a  ground-bass  to  the  fifth  piece  in  The 
Gordian  Knot  untyd.  The  first  strain  has  been 
commonly  sung  as  a  chorus  in  convivial  parties  : 

A  very  good  song,  and  very  well  sting, 
Jolly  companions  every  one. 

And  it  is  the  tune  to  the  nursery  rhyme : 

There  was  an  old  woman  toss'd  np  on  a  blanket 
Ninety -nine  times  as  high  as  the  moon. 

A  large  number  of  other  songs  have  been  written 
to  the  air  at  various  times.  [W.C.] 

LILT  (Verb  and  Noun),  to  sing,  pipe,  or  play 
cheerfully,  or,  according  to  one  authority,  even 
sadly  ;  also,  a  gay  tune.  The  term,  which  is  of 
Scottish  origin,  but  is  used  in  Ireland,  would 
seem  to  be  derived  from  the  bagpipe,  one  variety 
of  which  is  described  in  the  '  Houlate '  (an  an- 
cient allegorical  Scottish  poem  dating  1450),  as 
the  '  Liltpype.'  Whenever,  in  the  absence  of  a 
musical  instrument  to  play  for  dancing,  the  Irish 
peasant  girls  sing  lively  airs  to  the  customary 
syllables  la-la-la,  it  is  called  '  lilting.'  The  classi- 
cal occurrence  of  the  word  is  in  the  Scottish  song, 
'  The  Flowers  of  the  Forest,'  a  lament  for  the 
disastrous  field  of  Flodden,  where  it  is  contrasted 
with  a  mournful  tone : — 

I  've  heard  them  liltin'  at  the  ewe  milkm', 

Lasses  a  liltin'  before  dawn  of  day ; 
Now  there's  a  moanin'  on  ilka  green  loanin', 

The  Flowers  of  the  Forest  are  a'  wede  away. 

The  Skene  MS.,  ascribed  (though  not  'con- 
clusively) to  the  reign  of  James  VI.  of  Scotland, 
contains  six  Lilts  :  '  Ladie  Rothemayeis '  (the  air 
to  the  ballad  of  the  Burning  of  Castle  Frin- 
draught),  '  Lady  Laudians '  (Lothian's),  '  Ladie 
Cassilles '  (the  air  of  the  ballad  of  Johnny  Faa), 
Lesleis,  Aderneis,  and  Gilcreich's  Lilts.  We 
quote  'Ladie  Cassilles' : — 
,  Slotc. 


LIXCKE. 


13£ 


^c=pc 


tiff  Vtjr.rr  rff^ 


'  See  Mr.Cliupj.ell's  criticisms,  ■  lopular  Music,'  p.  614. 


Mr.  Dauney,  editor  of  the  Skene  MS.,  supposes 
the  Liltpipe  to  have  been  a  shepherd's  pipe,  not 
a  bagpipe,  and  the  Lilts  to  have  sprung  from  the 
pastoral  districts  of  the  Lowlands.  [R.P.S.] 

LILY  OF  KILLARNEY.  A  grand  opera  in 
3  acts,  founded  on  Boucicault's  '  Colleen  Bawn' ; 
the  words  by  John  Oxenford,  the  music  by  Jule* 
Benedict.  Produced  at  the  Royal  English  Operar 
Covent  Garden,  Feb.  8,  1862.  [G.] 

LIMPUS,  Richard,  organist,  born  Sept.  10, 
1824,  was  a  pupil  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,, 
and  organist  successively  of  Brentford ;  of  St. 
Andrew's,  Undershaft ;  and  St.  Michael's,  Corn- 
hill.  He  composed  a  good  deal  of  minor  music, 
but  his  claim  to  remembrance  is  as  founder  of 
the  College  of  Organists,  which  owing  to  his  zeal 
and  devotion  was  established  in  1 864.  He  was 
secretary  to  the  College  till  his  death,  March  15, 
1875.     [See  Obganists,  College  of.]         [G.] 

LINCKE,2  Joseph,  eminent  cellist  and  com- 
poser, born  June  8,  1783,  at  Trachenberg  in 
Prussian  Silesia ;  learnt  the  violin  from  his- 
father,  a  violinist  in  the  chapel  of  Prince  Hatz- 
feld,  and  the  cello  from  Oswald.  A  mismanaged 
sprain  of  the  right  ancle  left  him  lame  for  life.3 
At  10  he  lost  his  parents,  and  was  obliged  to 
support  himself  by  copying  music,  until  in  1800 
he-  procured  a  place  as  violinist  in  the  Domi- 
nican convent  at  Breslau.  There  he  studied  the 
organ  and  harmony  under  Hanisch,  and  also 
pursued  the  cello  under  Lose,  after  whose  depar- 
ture he  became  first  cellist  at  the  theatre,  of 
which  C.  M.  von  Weber  was  then  Capellmeister. 
In  1808  he  went  to  Vienna,  and  was  engaged  by 
Prince  Rasoumowsky*  for  his  private  quartet- 
party,  at  the  suggestion  of  Schuppanzigh.  In 
that  house,  where  Beethoven  was  supreme,  he- 
had  the  opportunity  of  playing  the  great  com- 
poser's works  under  his  own  supervision.6  Bee- 
thoven was  much  attached  to  Lincke,  and 
continually  calls  him  '  Zunftmeister  violoncello,' 
or  some  other  droll  name,  in  his  letters.  The 
Imperial  library  at  Berlin6  contains  a  comic 
canon  in  Beethoven's  writing  on  the  names 
Brauchle  and  Lincke. 


ga  j^jji/jj^iHcc  pe 


Brauchle      + 


nek?,  Lincke. 

8 


g  c  g  g  1  \  :  jg  1 1  |g  \  \  1 


Brauchle       -f-  -f 


Ll    -    -    ncke,  Lincke. 


The  two  Sonatas  for  P.  F.  and  Cello  (op.  102) 
were  composed  by  Beethoven  while  he  and 
Lincke  were  together  at  the  Erdodys  in  1815.7 

Lincke  played  in  Schuppanzigh's  public  quar- 
tets, and  Schuppanzigh  in  turn  assisted  Lincke 
at  his  farewell  concert,  when  the  programme 
consisted  entirely  of  Beethoven's  music,  and  the 

2  Be  always  wrote  his  name  thus,  though  It  Is  usually  spelled  Linke. 

*  It  Is  perhaps  in  allusion  to  this  that  Bernard  writes. '  Lincke  has 
only  one  fault— that  he  Is  crooked '  (krumm). 

*  Weiss  played  the  viola,  and  the  Prince  the  second  violin. 
8  Compare  Thayer's  Beethoven,  ill.  49. 

«  See  Nohl's  Beethoven's  Brtefe,  1867,  p.  92.  note. 
'  £ee'lhayer.  iii.  S43. 


140 


LINCKE. 


great  composer  himself  was  present.  His  play- 
ing appears  to  have  been  remarkable  for  its 
humour,  and  he  is  said  to  have  been  peculiarly 
happy  in  expressing  Beethoven's  characteristic 
style,  whence  no  doubt  the  master's  fondness 
for  him.1  He  then  went  to  Gratz,  and  from 
thence  to  Pancovecz  near  Agram,  the  residence 
of  Countess  Erdody,  as  her  chamber-virtuoso, 
where  he  remained  a  year  and  a  half.  In 
1818  he  was  engaged  by  Freiherr  von  Braun 
as  first  cellist  in  the  theatre  '  an  der  Wien,'  and 
in  1 83 1  played  with  Merk,  the  distinguished 
cellist,  in  the  orchestra  of  the  court-opera.  He 
died  on  March  26,  1837.  His  compositions 
consist  of  concertos,  variations,  capriccios,  etc., 
his  first  3  works  only  (variations)  having  been 
published.  [C.F.P.] 

LINCOLN'S  INN  FIELDS  THEATRE 
stood  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  south  side  of 
Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  the  principal  entrance  being 
in  Portugal  Street.  It  was  erected  by  Christo- 
pher Rich,  and  opened  (after  his  death)  in  17 14 
by  his  son,  John  Rich,  with  Farquhar's  comedy, 
'  The  Recruiting  Officer.'  Here  Rich  first  in- 
troduced his  pantomimes,  a  curious  mixture  of 
masque  and  harlequinade,  in  which  he  himself, 
under  the  name  of  Lun,  performed  the  part  of 
Harlequin.  Galliard  was  his  composer,  and 
Pepusch  his  music  director.  [Gallia  kd  ;  Pe- 
pusch.]  Here  'The  Beggar's  Opera'  was  first 
produced  in  1727.  [Beggar's  Opera.]  Rich 
removing  in  1732  to  the  new  theatre  in  Covent 
Garden,  the  house  in  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields  was 
let  for  a  variety  of  purposes.  Here  in  1734 
Italian  operas  were  given,  in  opposition  to  Han- 
del's at  the  King's  Theatre,  with  Porpora  as 
composer  and  Senesino  as  principal  singer ;  and 
here,  when  Handel  was  compelled  to  quit  the 
King's  Theatre,  he,  in  his  turn,  gave  Italian 
operas,  and  also,  occasionally,  oratorio  perform- 
ances. His  '  Dryden's  Ode  on  St.  Cecilia's  day ' 
was  first  performed  here  in  1739,  and  in  1740 
his  'L' Allegro,  II  Pensieroso,  ed  II  Moderate, ' 
his  serenata  '  Parnasso  in  Festa,'  and  his  oper- 
etta 'Hymen.'  Plays  were  occasionally  per- 
formed here  until  1756,  when  the  building  was 
converted  into  a  barrack.  It  was  afterwards 
occupied  as  Spode  and  Copeland's  '  Salopian 
China  Warehouse,'  until  it  was  taken  down  in 
1848  for  the  enlargement  of  the  College  of  Sur- 
geons. This  theatre  must  not  be  confounded 
with  two  others  which  previously  stood  near  the 
same  spot,  viz.  the  Duke's  Theatre,  erected  by 
Sir  William  Davenant  in  1662,  and  occupied 
until  167X1  when  the  company  removed  to 
Dorset  Garden  Theatre,  and  the  Theatre  in 
Little  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  built  upon  the  same 
site  and  opened  in  1695  with  Congreve's  'Love 
for  Love,'  and  occupied  until  the  company  re- 
moved to  the  Queen's  Theatre  in  1 705,  when  it 
was  abandoned.   [King's  Theatre.]    [W.H.H]. 

LIND,  Jenny,  was  born  at-Stockholm  Oct.  6, 
1820  (not,  as  Fe'tis  says,  on  Feb.  8).  Count 
Puke,  director  of  the  Court  Theatre,  admitted 

»  Sec  the '  Xeue  Zeitschrift  far  Muslk,'  1837,  No.  32. 


LIND. 

her  to  the  school  of  singing  which  is  attached  to 
that  establishment,  and  she  received  there  her 
first  lessons  from  a  master  named  Berg.  She 
made  her  debut  at  the  Opera  in  her  native  city, 
in  March  1838,  as  Agatha  in  Weber's  '  Frei- 
schiitz,'  and  played  afterwards  the  principal  rule 
in  'Euryantne,'  Alice  in  '  Robert  !e  Diable,'  and 
finally  'La  Vestale,'  all  with  brilliant  success. 
In  fact,  'she  upheld  the  Royal  Theatre  until 
June  1 841,  when  she  went  to  Paris  in  hope  of 
improving  her  style  of  singing.'  There  Manuel 
Garcia  gave  her  lessons,  during  a  period  of  nine 
months,  but  'she  herself  mainly  contributed  to 
the  development  of  her  naturally  harsh  and  un- 
bending voice,  by  ever  holding  before  herself  the 
ideal  which  she  had  formed  from  a  very  early 
age.  She  had  been  wont  to  sing  to  her  mother's 
friends  from  her  third  year ;  and,  even  at  that 
period,  the  intense  feeling  of  melancholy,  almost 
natural  to  all  Swedes,  which  filled  her  young 
soul,  gave  to  her  voice  an  expression  which  drew 
tears  from  the  listeners.'  Meyerbeer,  who  hap- 
pened to  be  at  Paris  at  the  time,  heard  her,  was 
delighted,  and  foretold  a  brilliant  future  for  the 
young  singer.  She  obtained  a  hearing  at  the 
Opera  in  1842,  but  no  engagement  followed. 
Naturally  hurt  at  this,  she  is  said  to  have  deter- 
mined never  to  accept  an  engagement  in  Paris  ; 
and,  whether  this  be  true  or  not,  it  is  certain 
that,  as  late  as  March  1847,  she  declined  an 
engagement  at  the  Academic  Royale,  for  no  other 
reason  than  that  of  '  affaires  pensonelles ; '  nor  did 
she  ever  appear  in  Paris  again. 

Jenny  Lind  now  went  to  Berlin,  in  August  1 844, 
and  for  a  time  studied  German.  In  September 
she  returned  to  Stockholm,  and  took  part  in  the 
fetes  at  the  crowning  of  King  Oscar;  but  re- 
turned to  Berlin  in  October,  and  obtained  an 
engagement  at  the  Opera  through  the  influence 
of  Meyerbeer,  who  had  written  for  her  the 
principal  rdle  in  his  'Feldlager  in  Schlesien,' 
afterwards  remodelled  as  '  L'Etoile  du  Nord.' 
She  appeared  first,  December  15,  as  Norma,  and 
was  welcomed  with  enthusiasm  ;  and  afterwards 
played,  with  equal  success,  her  part  in  Meyerbeer's 
new  opera.  In  the  following  April  she  sang  at 
Hamburg,  Cologne,  and  Coblentz.  After  this  tour 
she  returned  again  to  Stockholm  by  way  of  Copen- 
hagen, and  once  more  enjoyed  a  triumphant  suc- 
cess. At  the  Gewandhaus,  Leipzig,  she  made  her 
first  appearance  Dec.  6, 1 845 .  Engaged  soon  after 
for  Vienna,  she  appeared  there  April  18,  1846. 

On  May  4,  1847,  Jenny  Lind  made  her  first 
appearance  in  London,  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre, 
in  '  Robert.'  Moscheles  had  already  met  her  in 
Berlin,  and  wrote  thus  (Jan.  10,  1845)  of  her 
performance  in  '  The  Camp  of  Silesia,' — '  Jenny 
Lind  has  fairly  enchanted  me ;  she  is  unique  in 
her  way,  and  her  song  with  two  concertante 
flutes  is  perhaps  the  most  incredible  feat  in  the 
way  of  bravura  singing  that  can  possibly  be 
heard  ...  How  lucky  I  was  to  find  her  at 
home !  What  a  glorious  singer  she  is,  and  so 
unpretentious  withal !  '  This  character,  though 
true  to  life,  was,  however,  shamefully  belied  by 
the  management  of  the  London  Theatre,  both 


LIND. 

before  and  after  her  arrival.  It  is  curious  now 
to  look  back  upon  the  artifices  employed,  the 
stories  of  broken  contracts  (this  not  without 
some  foundation),  of  long  diplomatic^OMrparZers, 
special  messengers,  persuasion,  hesitation,  and 
vacillations,  kept  up  during  many  months, — all 
in  order  to  excite  the  interest  of  the  operatic 
public.  Not  a  stone  was  left  unturned,  not  a 
trait  of  the  young  singer's  character,  public  or 
private,  unexploite,  by  which  sympathy,  admira- 
tion, or  even  curiosity,  might  be  aroused  (see 
Lumley's  '  Reminiscences,'  1847).  After  appear- 
ing as  the  heroine  of  a  novel  ('  The  Home,'  by 
Miss  Bremer),  and  the  darling  of  the  Opera  at 
Stockholm,  she  was  next  described  as  entrancing 
the  opera-goers  of  Berlin, — where  indeed  she  was 
doubtless  a  welcome  contrast  to  their  ordinary 
prime  donne  ;  and  her  praises  had  been  sung  by 
the  two  great  German  composers,  and  had  not 
lost  by  translation.  But,  not  content  with 
fulsome  praise  founded  on  these  circumstances, 
the  para«jraphists,  inspired  of  course  by  those  for 
whose  interest  the  paragraphs  were  manufactured, 
and  assuredly  without  her  knowledge  or  sanction, 
did  not  hesitate  to  speak  in  the  most  open  way, — 
and  as  if  in  commendation  of  her  as  a  singer,  and 
above  other  singers, —  of  Mile.  Lind's  private 
virtues,  and  even  of  her  charities.  Singers  have 
ever  been  charitable,  generous,  open-handed  and 
open-hearted ;  to  their  credit  be  it  recorded : 
the  exceptions  have  been  few.  With  their  private 
virtues  critics  have  nought  to  do  ;  these  should 
be  supposed  to  exist,  unless  the  contrary  be 
glaringly  apparent.  The  public  was,  however, 
persistently  fed  with  these  advertisements  and 
harassed  with  further  rumours  of  doubts  and 
even  disappointment  in  the  early  part  of  1847,  it 
being  actually  stated  that  the  negotiations  had 
broken  down, — all  after  the  engagement  had 
been  signed  and  sealed  ! 

The  interest  and  excitement  of  the  public  at 
her  first  appearance  was,  therefore,  extraordinary; 
and  no  wonder  that  it  was  so.  Yet  her  great  sing- 
ing in  the  part  of 'Alice'  disappointed  none  but 
a  very  few,  and  those  were  silenced  by  a  tumul- 
tuous majority  of  idolators.  She  certainly  sang 
the  music  splendidly,  and  acted  the  part  irre- 
proachably. The  scene  at  the  cross  in  the  second 
act  was  in  itself  a  complete  study,  so  strongly 
contrasted  were  the  emotions  she  portrayed, — 
first  terror,  then  childlike  faith  and  confidence, — 
while  she  preserved,  throughout,  the  innocent 
manner  of  the  peasant  girl.  '  From  that  first 
moment  till  the  end  of  that  season,  nothing  else 
was  thought  about,  nothing  else  talked  about, 
but  the  new  Alice — the  new  Sonnambula — the 
new  Maria  in  Donizetti's  charming  comic  opera, 
— his  best.  Pages  could  be  filled  by  describing 
the  excesses  of  the  public.  Since  the  days  when 
the  world  fought  for  hours  at  the  pit-door  to  see 
the  seventh  farewell  of  Siddons,  nothing  had  been 
seen  in  the  least  approaching  the  scenes  at  the 
entrance  of  the  theatre  when  Mile.  Lind  sang. 
Prices  rose  to  a  fabulous  height.  In  short,  the 
town,  sacred  and  profane,  went  mad  about  "  the 
Swedish  nightingale"  '  (Chorley).     Ladies  con- 


LIND. 


141 


stantly  sat  on  the  stairs  at  the  Opera,  unable  to 
penetrate  further  into  the  house.  Her  voice, 
which  then  at  its  very  best  showed  some  signs  of 
early  wear,  was  a  soprano  of  bright,  thrilling, 
and  remarkably  sympathetic  quality,  from  D  to 
D,  with  another  note  or  two  occasionally  avail- 
able above  the  high  D.  The  upper  part  of  her 
register  was  rich  and  brilliant,  and  superior 
both  in  strength  and  purity  to  the  lower. 
These  two  portions  she  managed,  however, 
to  unite  in  the  most  skilful  way,  moderating 
the  power  of  her  upper  notes  so  as  not  to  out- 
shine the  lower.  She  had  also  a  wonderfully, 
developed  'length  of  breath,'  which  enabled  her 
to  perform  long  and  difficult  passages  with  ease, 
and  to  fine  down  her  tones  to  the  softest  pianis- 
simo, while  still  maintaining  the  quality  un- 
varied. Her  execution  was  very  great,  her  shake 
true  and  brilliant,  her  taste  in  ornament  altogether 
original,  and  she  usually  invented  her  own  ca- 
denze.  In  a  song  from  '  Beatrice  di  Tenda,'  she 
had  a  chromatic  cadence  ascending  to  E  in  alt, 
and  descending  to  the  note  whence  it  had  risen, 
which  could  scarcely  be  equalled  for  difficulty 
and  perfection  of  execution.  The  following,  sung 
by  her  at  the  end  of  '  Ah  !  non  giunge,'  was  given 
to  the  present  writer  by  an  ear-witness  : — 


|g|£= 


frff-ffH 


«*' 


In  this  comparatively  simple  cadenza,  the  high 
D,  C,  E,  though  rapidly  struck,  were  not  given 
in  the  manner  of  a  shake,  but  were  positively 
marteUes,  and  produced  an  extraordinary  effect. 
Another  cadence,  which,  according  to  Moscheles, 
'  electrified'  them  at  the  Gewandhaus,  occurred 
three  times  in  one  of  Chopin's  Mazurkas ; — 


i 


« 


-+ 


i 


&i£ 


as 


£ 


'  What  shall  I  say  of  Jenny  Lind  ?'  he  writes 
again  (1847) :  '  I  can  find  no  words  adequate  to 
give  you  any  real  idea  of  the  impression  she  ha3 
made.  .  .  .  This  is  no  short-lived  fit  of  public 
enthusiasm.  I  wanted  to  know  her  off  the  stage 
as  well  as  on ;  but,  as  she  lives  some  distance 
from  me,  I  asked  her  in  a  letter  to  fix  upon 
an  hour  for  me  to  call.  Simple  and  uncere- 
monious as  she  is,  she  came  the  next  day  herself, 
bringing  her  answer  verbally.  So  much  modesty 
and  so  much  greatness  united  are  seldom  if  ever 
to  be  met  with  ;  and,  although  her  intimate 
friend  Mendelssohn  had  given  me  an  insight 
into  the  noble  qualities  of  her  character,!  waa 
surprised  to  find  them  so  apparent.'  Again  and 
again  he  speaks  in  the  warmest  terms  of  her,  and 
subsequently  of  her  and  her  husband  together.  . 
Meanwhile  Mile.  Lind  maintained  the  mark 
which  she  had  made  in  '  Robert,'  by  her  imper- 


142 


LIND. 


sonation  of  the  Sonnnmbula,  a  most  effective 
character, — '  Lucia,'  Aditia,  in  '  L'Elisir,'  '  La 
Figlia  del  Regiinento,'  and,  perhaps,  altogether 
her  best  part,  Giulia  in  Spontini's  '  Vestale.' 
In  1848  she  returned  to  Her  Majesty's  Theatre, 
and  added  to  these  'Lucia  di  Lammermoor'  and 
'L'Elisir  d'Amore.'  In  1849  she  announced 
her  intention  not  to  appear  again  on  the  stage, 
but  so  far  modified  this  resolution  as  to  sing  at 
Her  Majesty's  Theatre  in  Mozart's  'Flauto 
Magico'  arranged  as  a  concert,  without  acting 
(April  15);  and  still  further  by  re-appearing  in 
'  La  Sonnambula'  (April  26)  and  3  other  operas. 
Her  last  appearance  'on  any  stage'  took  place 
in  'Roberto,'  May  18,  1849.  Henceforward  she 
betook  herself  to  the  more  congenial  platform  of 
the  concert-room.  How  she  sang  there,  many  of 
the  present  generation  can  still  remember, — '  the 
wild,  queer,  northern  tunes  brought  here  by 
her — her  careful  expression  of  some  of  Mozart's 
great  airs — her  mastery  over  such  a  piece  of 
execution  as  the  Bird  song  in  Haydn's  Crea- 
tion— and  lastly,  the  grandeur  of  inspiration 
with  which  the  "Sanctus"  of  angels  in  Mendels- 
sohn's "  Elijah  "  was  led  by  her  (the  culminating 
point  in  that  Oratorio).  These  are  the  triumphs 
which  will  stamp  her  name  in  the  Golden  Book 
of  singers'  (Chorley).  On  the  other  hand,  the 
wondrous  effect  with  which  she  sang  a  simple 
ballad,  in  the  simplest  possible  manner,  can  never 
be  forgotten  by  those  who  ever  heard  it.  After 
another  season  in  London,  and  a  visit  to  Ireland 
in  1848,  Mile.  Lind  was  engaged  by  Barnum, 
the  American  speculator,  to  make  a  tour  of  the 
United  States.  She  arrived  there  in  1850,  and 
remained  for  nearly  two  years,  during  part  of 
the  time  unfettered  by  an  engagement  with  any 
impresario,  but  accompanied  by  Mr.,  now  Sir 
Julius,  Benedict.  The  Americans,  with  their 
genius  for  appreciation  and  hospitality,  welcomed 
her  everywhere  with  frantic  enthusiasm,  and  she 
made  £20,000  in  this  progress.  Here  it  was,  in 
Boston,  on  Feb.  5,  1852,  that  she  married  Mr. 
Otto  Goldschmidt.     [Goldschmidt.] 

Returned  to  Europe,  Mme.  Goldschmidt  now 
travelled  through  Holland,  and  again  visited 
Germany.  In  1856  she  came  once  more  to 
England,  and,  until  recent  years,  appeared  fre- 
quently in  oratorios  and  concerts. 

It  must  be  recorded  that  the  whole  of  her 
American  earnings  was  devoted  to  founding  and 
endowing  art-scholarships  and  other  charities  in 
her  native  Sweden ;  while,  in  England,  the 
country  of  her  adoption,  among  other  charities, 
she  has  given  a  whole  hospital  to  .Liverpool  and 
a  wing  of  another  to  London.  The  scholarship 
founded  in  memory  of  her  friend  Felix  Mendels- 
sohn also  benefited  largely  by  her  help  and 
countenance  ;  and  it  may  be  said  with  truth  that 
her  generosity  and  her  sympathy  are  never  ap- 
pealed to  in  vain  by  those  who  have  any  just  claims 
upon  them.     [Mendelssohn  Scholarship.] 

Madame  Lind-Goldschmidt  now  lives  in  Lon- 
don, respected  and  admired  by  all  who  know 
her,  the  mother  of  a  family,  mixing  in  society, 
but  in  no  degree  losing  her  vivid  interest  in 


LINDLEY. 

music.  The  Bach  Choir,  conducted  by  Mr. 
Goldschmidt,  which  has  lately  given  the  Eng- 
lish public  the  first  opportunity  of  hearing  in 
its  entirety  the  B  minor  Mass  of  that  composer, 
has  profited  in  no  small  degree  by  the  careful 
training  bestowed  on  the  female  portion  of  the 
chorus  by  this  great  singer,  and  the  enthusiasm 
inspired  by  her  presence  among  them.  [J.M.] 
LINDA  DI  CHAMOUNI.  Opera  in  3  acts; 
words  by  Rossi,  music  by  Donizetti.  Produced 
at  the  Karnthnerthor  theatre,  Vienna,  May  19, 
1842;  in  Paris,  Nov.  17,  1842;  in  London,  at 
Her  Majesty's,  June  1 843.  [G.'J 

LINDBLAD,  Adolf  Fredrick,  born  near 
Stockholm  in  1804.  This  Swedish  composer 
passed  several  years  of  his  early  life  in  Berlin, 
and  studied  music  there  under  Zelter.  In  1 835 
he  returned  to  Stockholm  and  there  resided, 
giving  singing  lessons  and  composing  until  hi3 
death  in  August  1878. 

Lindblad  has  composed  but  little  instrumental 
music  ;  a  symphony  in  C  which  was  given  under 
Mendelssohn's  direction  at  one  of  the  Gewand- 
haus  Concerts  at  Leipzig  in  November  1839,  and 
a  duo  for  pianoforte  and  violin  (op.  9)  are  con- 
sidered the  best,  but  they  aim  so  little  at  effect 
and  are  so  full  of  the  peculiar  personality  of  their 
author  that  they  can  never  be  popular,  and  even 
his  own  countrymen  are  not  familiar  with  them. 
It  is  his  vocal  compositions  which  have  made 
him  famous.  He  is  eminently  a  national  com- 
poser. He  has  published  a  large  collection  of 
songs  for  voice  and  piano  to  Swedish  words, 
which  are  full  of  melody,  grace,  and  originality. 
Written  for  the  most  part  in  the  minor  key,  they 
are  tinged  with  the  melancholy  which  is  charac- 
teristic of  Swedish  music.  In  such  short  songs 
as  'The  Song  of  the  Dalecarlian  maiden,' 
'  Lament/  '  The  wood  by  the  Aaren  lake,'  etc., 
whose  extreme  simplicity  is  of  the  very  essence 
of  their  charm,  his  success  has  been  most  con- 
spicuous. In  longer  and  more  elaborate  songs, 
where  the  simplicity  at  which  he  aimed  in  his 
accompaniment  has  limited  the  variety  of  har- 
mony and  figures,  the  effect  is  often  marred  by 
repetition  and  consequent  monotony.  Yet  even 
in  this  class  of  work  there  are  many  beautiful 
exceptions,  and  'A  day  in  Spring,'  'A  Summer's 
day,'  and  'Autumn  evening,'  are  specially  worthy 
of  mention. 

Jenny  Lind,  who  was  Lindblad's  pupil,  intro- 
duced his  songs  into  Germany,  and  their  rapidly 
acquired  popularity  earned  for  the  author  the 
title  of  'the  Schubert  of  the  North.'  His  only 
opera,  'Frondororne,'  is  scarcely  known  anywhere, 
but  several  of  his  vocal  duets,  trios,  and  quartets 
have  a  considerable  reputation  in  Sweden. 

An  analysis  of  Lindblad's  Symphony  will  be 
found  in  the  Allg.  Mus.  Zeitung  for  Oct.  23, 1839 
(comp.  col.  937  of  the  same  volume).  There  is  a 
pleasant  reference  to  him,  honourable  to  both 
parties  alike,  in  Mendelssohn's  letter  of  Dec.  28, 
1833.  [A.H.W.] 

LINDLEY,  Robert,  born  at  Rotherham 
March  4,  1776,  showed  bo  early  a  predilection 


LINDLEY. 

for  music  that  when  he  was  ahout  5  years  of 
age,  his  father,  an  amateur  performer,  commenced 
teaching  him  the  violin,  and  at  9  years  of  age, 
the  violoncello  also.  He  continued  to  practise 
the  latter  until  he  was  16,  when  Cervetto,  hear- 
ing him  play,  encouraged  him  and  undertook  his 
gratuitous  instruction.  He  quitted  Yorkshire 
and  obtained  an  engagement  at  the  Brighton 
theatre.  In  1794  he  succeeded  Sperati  as  prin- 
cipal violoncello  at  the  Opera  and  all  the  princi- 
pal concerts,  and  retained  undisputed  possession 
of  that  position  until  his  retirement  in  1851. 
Lindley's  tone  was  remarkable  for  its  purity, 
richness,  mellowness  and  volume,  and  in  this 
respect  he  has  probably  never  been  equalled. 
His  technique,  for  that  date,  was  remarkable, 
and  his  accompaniment  of  recitative  was  perfec- 
tion. He  composed  several  concertos  and  other 
works  for  his  instrument,  but  his  composition  was 
by  no  means  equal  to  his  execution.  He  died 
June  13,  1855.  His  daughter  married  John 
Barnett  the  composer. 

His  son,  William,  born  1802,  was  also  a 
violoncellist.  He  was  a  pupil  of  his  father  and 
first  appeared  in  public  in  1817  and  soon  took  a 
position  in  all  the  best  orchestras.  He  gave 
great  promise  of  future  excellence,  but  was  un- 
able to  achieve  any  prominence  owing  to  extreme 
nervousness.  He  died  at  Manchester,  Aug.  12, 
1869.  [W.H.H.] 

LINDPAINTNER,  Peter  Joseph  von,  born 
at  Coblenz  Dec.  8, 1 791,  studied  the  violin,  piano, 
and  counterpoint  at  Augsburg,  and  subsequently 
appears  to  have  received  some  instruction  at 
Munich  from  Winter.  In  18 12  he  accepted  the 
po^t  of  Musik-director  at  the  Isarthor  theatre  in 
Munich,  and  whilst  so  engaged  completed  his 
musical  studies  under  Jos.  Griitz,  an  excellent 
contrapuntist.  In  1 819  he  was  appointed  Kapell- 
meister to  the  Royal  Band  at  Stuttgart,  and  held 
that  post  until  his  death,  which  took  place  Aug. 
■2!,  1856,  during  a  summer  holiday  at  Nonnen- 
horn,  on  the  Lake  of  Constance.  He  was  buried 
at  Wasserburg.  He  died  full  of  honours,  a 
member  of  almost  every  musical  institution  of 
the  Continent,  and  the  recipient  of  gifts  from 
many  crowned  heads — amongst  others  a  medal 
from  Queen  Victoria,  in  1 848,  for  the  dedication 
of  his  oratorio  of  Abraham. 

By  quiet  and  persistent  labour  he  raised  his 
baud  to  the  level  of  the  best  in  Germany,  and 
acquired  a  very  high  reputation.  '  Lindpaintner,' 
Uyi  Mendelssohn,  describing  a  visit  to  Stuttgart 
in  1831,  'is  in  my  belief  the  best  conductor  in 
Germany ;  it  is  as  if  he  played  the  whole  orches- 
tra with  his  baton  alone ;  and  he  ia  very  indus- 
trious.' Of  the  many  professional  engagements 
offered  him  in  other  towns  and  foreign  countries, 
he  accepted  but  one,  and  that,  in  1853,  three 
years  before  his  death,  was  to  conduct  the  New 
Philharmonic  Concerts  in  London,  at  which  his 
cantata  The  Widow  of  Nain,  his  overtures  to 
Faust  and  the  Vampyre,  and  others  of  his  com- 
positions were  given  with  success,  including  the 
song  of  The  Standard-bearer,  at  that  time  so 
popular,  sung  by  Pischek.     He  wrote  28  operas, 


LIXLEY. 


143 


3  ballets,  5  melodramas  and  oratorios,  several 
cantatas,  6  masses,  a  Stabat  Mater,  and  above  50 
songs  with  pianoforte  accompaniment.  To  these 
were  added  symphonies,  overtures,  concertos,  fan- 
tasias, trios  and  quartets  for  different  instruments. 
He  rescored  Judas  Maccabteus,  no  doubt  cleverly, 
and  at  the  time  it  was  said,  well.  Some  of  his 
symphonies,  his  operas  'DerVampyr'  and  'Lich- 
tenstein,'  his  ballet '  Joko,'  the  overture  to  which 
is  still  heard  at  concerts,  his  music  to  Goethe's 
'  Faust '  and  Schiller's '  Song  of  the  Bell,'  have  been 
pronounced  to  be  among  the  best  of  his  works. 
And  two  of  his  songs,  'The  Standard-bearer'  and 
'Roland,'  created  at  the  time  a  veritable  furore. 

Though  wanting  in  depth  and  originality  Lind- 
paintner's  compositions  please  by  their  clearness 
and  brilliancy,  melody  and  well-developed  form ; 
and  the  hand  of  a  clever  and  practised  musician 
is  everywhere  visible  in  them.  [A.  H.W.I 

LINLEY,  Francis,  born  1774  at  Doncaster, 
blind  from  his  birth,  studied  music  under  Dr. 
Miller,  and  became  an  able  organist.  He  was 
chosen  organist  of  St.  James's  Chapel,  Penton- 
ville,  and  soon  afterwards  married  a  blind  lady 
of  considerable  fortune.  He  purchased  the 
business  of  Bland,  the  musicseller  in  Holborn, 
but  his  affairs  becoming  embarrassed,  his  wife 
parted  from  him  and  he  went  to  America,  where 
his  playing  and  compositions  were  much  admired. 
He  returned  to  England  in  1 799  and  died  in  Oct. 
1800.  His  works  consist  of  songs,  pianoforte 
and  organ  pieces,  flute  solos  and  duets,  and  an 
'  Organ  Tutor.'  His  greatest  amusement  was  to 
explore  churchyards  and  read  the  inscriptions  on 
the  tombstones  by  the  sense  of  touch.  [W.H.H.] 

LINLEY,  Thomas,  born  about  1725  at  Wells, 
Somerset,  commenced  the  study  of  music  under 
Thomas  Chilcot,  organist  of  Bath  Abbey  church, 
and  completed  his  education  under  Paradies.  He 
established  himself  as  a  singing  master  at  Bath, 
and  for  many  years  carried  on  the  concerts  there 
with  great  success.  On  the  retirement  of  John 
Christopher  Smith  in  1774  Linley  joined  Stanley 
in  the  management  of  the  oratorios  at  Drury 
Lane,  and  on  the  death  of  Stanley  in  1 786  con- 
tinued them  in  partnership  with  Dr.  Arnold.  In 
1775,  in  conjunction  with  his  eldest  son,  Thomas, 
he  composed  and  compiled  the  music  for  'The 
Duenna,'  by  his  son-in-law,  Sheridan,  which  had 
the  then  unparalleled  run  of  75  nights  in  its  first 
season.  In  1776  he  purchased  part  of  Garrick's 
share  in  Drury  Lane,  removed  to  London  and  un- 
dertook the  management  of  the  music  of  the 
theatre,  for  which  he  composed  several  pieces  of 
merit.  Linley  died  at  his  house  in  Southampton 
Street,  Covent  Garden,  Nov.  19,  1795,  and  was 
buried  in  Wells  Cathedral.  His  dramatic  pieces 
were  'The  Duenna,'  1775;  'Selima  and  Azor' 
(chiefly  from  G retry,  but  containing  the  charming 
original  melody,  'No  flower  that  blows'),  1776  ; 
'The  Camp,'  1778;  'The  Carnival  of  Venice,* 
'The  Gentle  Shepherd,' and  ' Robinson  Crusoe,' 
1 781;  'The  Triumph  of  Mirth,'  1782;  'The 
Spanish  Rivals,'  1784 ;  "The  Strangers  at  home,' 
and  'Richard Cceur  de  Lion'  (fromGretry),  1786 ; 
and  'Love  in  the  East,'  1788;  besides  the  song 


144 


LINLEY. 


in  "The  School  for  Scandal,'  1777,  and  accom- 
paniments to  the  songs  in  '  The  Beggar's  Opera.' 
He  also  set  such  portions  of  Sheridan's  Monody 
on  the  Death  of  Garrick,  1 779,  as  were  intended  to 
be  sung.  '  Six  Elegies '  for  3  voices,  composed  at 
Bath  (much  commended  by  Bumey),  and  'Twelve 
Ballads'  were  published  in  his  lifetime.  The 
posthumous  works  of  himself  and  his  son,  Thomas, 
which  appeared  a  few  years  after  his  death,  in  2 
vols.,  consist  of  songs,  cantatas,  madrigals,  and 
elegies,  including  the  lovely  5-part  madrigal  by 
him,  'Let  me,  careless,'  one  of  the  most  graceful 
productions  of  its  kind.  As  an  English  composer 
Linley  takes  high  rank. 

Eliza  Ann,  his  eldest  daughter, '  The  Maid  of 
Bath,' born  1754,  received  her  musical  education 
from  her  father,  and  appeared  at  an  early  age  at 
the  Bath  concerts  as  a  soprano  singer  with  great 
success.  In  1770  she  sang  at  the  oratorios  in 
London  and  at  Worcester  Festival,  and  rose  high 
in  public  favour.  In  1771  she  sang  at  Hereford 
Festival,  and  in  1772  at  Gloucester.  In  March, 
1773,  she  became,  under  somewhat  romantic  cir- 
cumstances, the  wife  of  Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan, 
and,  after  fulfilling  engagements  at  Worcester 
Festival  and  at  Oxford,  contracted  before  her 
marriage,  she  retired  at  the  zenith  of  her  popu- 
larity. Her  voice  was  of  extensive  compass,  and 
she  sang  with  equal  excellence  in  both  the  sus- 
tained and  florid  styles.  She  died  of  consumption 
at  Bristol  in  1792. 

Mary,  his  second  daughter  and  pupil,  also  a 
favourite  singer,  sang  with  her  sister  at  the 
oratorios,  festivals,  etc.,  and  for  a  few  years  after- 
wards, until  her  marriage  with  Richard  Tickell, 
commissioner  of  stamps.   She  died  in  July  1 787. 

Maria,  his  third  daughter,  was  also  a  concert 
and  oratorio  singer.  Shedied  at  Bath  Sept.  5, 1 784, 
at  an  early  age.  Shortly  before  her  death  she 
raised  herself  in  bed,  and  with  momentary  anima- 
tion sang  part  of  Handel's  air  '  I  know  that  my 
Redeemer  liveth,'  and  then,  exhausted  with  the 
effort,  sank  down  and  soon  afterwards  expired. 

Thomas,  his  eldest  son,  born  at  Bath  in  1756, 
displayed  at  an  early  age  extraordinary  skill  on 
the  violin,  and  at  8  years  old  performed  a  con- 
certo in  public.  After  studying  with  his  father 
he  was  placed  under  Dr.  Boyce.  He  then  went 
to  Florence  and  took  lessons  on  the  violin  from 
Nardini,  and  whilst  there  became  acquainted 
with  Mozart,  then  about  his  own  age,  and  a 
warm  attachment  sprang  up  between  them  ;  when 
they  parted  they  were  each  bathed  in  tears,  and 
Mozart  often  afterwards  spoke  of  Linley  with  the 
greatest  affection.  On  returning  to  England  he 
became  leader  and  solo-player  at  his  father's 
concerts  at  Bath,  and  subsequently  at  the  oratorios 
etc.  at  Drury  Lane.  In  1773  he  composed  an 
anthem  with  orchestra  ('  Let  God  arise' )  for 
Worcester  Festival.  In  1775  he  assisted  his 
father  in  '  The  Duenna,'  by  writing  the  overture, 
three  or  four  airs,  a  duet  and  a  trio.  He  subse- 
quently composed  a  chorus  and  two  songs  for  in- 
troduction into  'The  Tempest.'  In  1776  he  pro- 
duced 'An  Ode  on  the  Witches  and  Fairies  of 
Shakspere.'     He  also  composed  a  short  oratorio, 


LIPINSKI. 

'The  Song  of  Moses,'  performed  at  Drury  Lane, 
and  added  accompaniments  for  wind  instruments 
to  the  music  in  '  Macbeth.'  He  was  unfortunately 
drowned,  through  the  upsetting  of  a  boat,  whilst 
on  a  visit  at  the  Duke  of  Ancaster's,  Grimsthorpe, 
Lincolnshire,  Aug.  7,  1778.  The  greater  part  of 
his  miscellaneous  compositions  are  contained  in 
the  2  vols,  of  posthumous  works  above  mentioned. 

Another  son,  Ozias  Thurston,  born  1765,  was 
also  instructed  in  music  by  the  father.  He  en- 
tered the  Church  and  obtained  a  living,  which 
he  resigned  on  being  appointed,  May  5,  18 16, 
a  junior  fellow  and  organist  of  Dulwich  College, 
where  he  died  March,  1831. 

William,  his  youngest  son,  born  about  1767 
and  educated  at  St.  Paul's  and  Harrow,  learned 
music  from  his  father  and  Abel.  Mr.  Fox  pro- 
cured for  him  a  writership  at  Madras,  and  he 
was  subsequently  paymaster  at  Vellore  and  sub- 
treasurer  at  Fort  St.  George.  He  returned  from 
India  with  a  competence,  and  devoted  his  atten- 
tion to  literature  and  music,  composed  many 
glees,  published  a  set  of  songs,  two  sets  of  canzo- 
nets, and  many  detached  pieces,  edited  'Shak- 
spere's  Dramatic  Songs,'  2  vols.  fol.  1815-16,  and 
wrote  two  comic  operas,  two  novels,  and  several 
pieces  of  poetry.     He  died  in  1835.     [W.H.H.] 

LIPINSKI,  Karl  Joseph,  eminent  violinist 
of  the  modern  school,  born  Oct.  30  (or  ac- 
cording to  a  family  tradition  Nov.  4),  1790,  at 
Radzyn  in  Poland,  son  of  a  land  agent  and 
amateur  violinist,  who  taught  him  the  elements 
of  fingering.  Having  outgrown  this  instruction 
he  for  a  time  took  up  the  cello,  on  which  he  ad- 
vanced sufficiently  to  play  Romberg's  concertos. 
He  soon  however  returned  to  the  violin,  and 
in  1 8 10  became  first  Concertmeister,  and  then 
Capellmeister,  of  the  theatre  at  Lemberg.  Not 
being  able  to  play  the  piano,  he  used  to  lead  the 
rehearsals  with  his  violin,  and  thus  acquired 
that  skill  in  part  playing  which  was  one  of  his 
great  characteristics  as  a  virtuoso.  In  18 14  he 
resigned  his  post,  and  gave  himself  up  to  private 
study.  In  18 17  he  went  to  Italy,  chiefly  in  the 
hope  of  hearing  Paganini.  They  met  in  Milan,  and 
Paganini  took  a  great  fancy  to  him,  played  with  him 
daily,  and  even  performed  in  public  with  him  at 
two  concerts  (April  17  and  30,  181 8),  a  circum- 
stance which  greatly  increased  Lipinski's  reputa- 
tion. Towards  the  close  of  the  year  Lipinski  re- 
turned to  Germany,  but  soon  went  back  to  Italy, 
attracted  by  the  fame  of  an  aged  pupil  of  Tartini's, 
Dr.  Mazzurana.  Dissatisfied  with  Lipinski's 
rendering  of  one  of  Tartini's  sonatas,  but  unable 
on  account  of  his  great  age  (90)  to  correct  him 
by  playing  it  himself,  Mazzurana  gave  him  a 
poem,  which  he  had  written  to  explain  the 
master's  intentions.  With  this  aid  Lipinski  ' 
mastered  the  sonata,  and  in  consequence  endea- 
voured for  the  future  to  embody  some  poetical 
idea  in  his  playing — the  secret  of  his  own  suc- 
cess, and  of  that  of  many  others  who  imitated 
him  in  this  respect.  In  1829  Paganini  and  Li- 
pinski met  again  in  Warsaw,  but  unfortunately 
a  rivalry  was  excited  between  them  which  de- 
stroyed the  old  friendship.     In  1835  and  36,  in 


LIPINSKI. 

the  course  of  a  lengthened  musical  tourn&e,  he 
visited  Leipsic,  then  becoming  the  scene  of  much 
musical  activity  owing  to  Mendelssohn's  settle- 
ment there ;  and  there  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Schumann,  which  resulted  in  the  dedi- 
cation to  him  of  the  'Carneval*  (op.  9)  which 
was  composed  in  1834.  In  1836  he  visited 
England  and  played  his  military  concerto  at  the 
Philharmonic  Concert  of  April  25.  In  1 8  39  Lipin- 
ski  became  Concertmeister  at  Dresden,  where  he 
entirely  reorganised  the  royal  chapel,  thus  doing 
very  much  the  same  service  to  Dresden  that 
Hellmesberger  subsequently  did  to  Vienna.  He 
retired  with  a  pension  in  186 1,  and  died  on 
December  16,  of  sudden  paralysis  of  the  lungs, 
at  Urlow,  his  country  house  near  Lemberg. 

His  compositions  (now  forgotten)  are  numerous, 
and  his  concertos,  fantasias,  and  variations,  are 
valuable  contributions  to  violin  music.  One  of  the 
best  known  was  the '  Military  Concerto, '  which  for 
years  was  much  played  and  was  the  object  of  the 
ambition  of  many  a  student  of  the  violin.  It  is 
even  now  occasionally  heard  in  public.  In  con- 
junction with  Zalewski,  the  Polish  poet,  he  edited 
an  interesting  collection  of  Galician '  Volkslieder' 
with  pianoforte  accompaniments.  [F.  G.] 

The  most  prominent  qualities  of  Lipinski's 
playing  were  a  remarkably  broad  and  powerful 
tone,  which  he  ascribed  to  his  early  studies  on 
the  cello;  perfect  intonation  in  double  stops, 
octaves,  etc.;  and  a  warm  enthusiastic  indivi- 
duality. But  the  action  of  his  right  arm  and 
wrist  were  somewhat  heavy.  He  was  an  enthu- 
siastic musician,  and  especially  in  his  later  years 
played  Beethoven's  great  quartets  and  Bach's 
solos  in  preference  to  everything  else.  [P.D.] 
LISBETH.  The  title  of  the  French  version 
of  Mendelssohn's  '  Heimkehr  aus  der  Fremde ' ; 
translated  by  J.  Barbier,  and  produced  at  the 
Theatre  Lyrique  June  9,  1865.  [G.] 

LISCHEN  ET  FRITZCHEN.  An  operetta 
in  1  act ;  words  by  Paul  Dubois,  music  by  Offen- 
bach. Produced  at  Ems ;  and  reproduced  at  the 
Bouffes-Parisiens,  Paris,  Jan.  5, 1864 ;  in  London 
(French),  at  St.  James's,  June  2,  1868.  [G.] 
LISLEY,  John,  contributed  a  six-part  mad- 
rigal— 'Faire  Citharea  presents  hir  doves' — to 
'The  Triumphes  of  Oriana,'  1601,  but  no  other 
composition  by  him  has  survived,  nor  is  anything 
known  of  his  biography.  [W.  H.  H.] 

LISZT,  Franz,  is  one  of  the  favourites  of 
fortune,  and  his  success  is  perhaps  unequalled, 
certainly  unsurpassed  in  the  history  of  Art.  At 
his  first  public  appearance  at  Vienna,  Jan.  1, 
1823,  his  genius  was  acknowledged  with  an 
enthusiasm  in  which  the  whole  musical  republic, 
from  Beethoven  down  to  the  obscurest  dilettante, 
joined  unanimously.  His  concert  tours  were  so 
many  triumphal  progresses  through  a  country 
which  extended  from  Madrid  to  St.  Petersburg, 
and  in  which  he  was  acknowledged  as  the  king 
of  pianists ;  and  the  same  success  accompanied  all 
he  undertook  in  life.  When,  tired  of  the  shallow 
fame  of  the  virtuoso,  he  devoted  himself  to  com- 
position, he  had,  it  is  true,  at  first  to  encounter 
VOL.  11. 


LISZT. 


145 


the  usual  obstacles  of  popular  indifference  and 
professional  ill-will.  But  these  were  soon  over- 
come by  his  energy,  and  Liszt  is  at  present 
living  to  see  his  works  admired  by  many  and 
ignored  by  none.  As  an  orchestral  conductor 
also  he  added  laurels  to  his  wreath. 

Franz  Liszt  was  born  Oct.  22,  181 1,  at 
Raiding,  in  Hungary,  the  son  of  Adam  Liszt,  an 
official  in  the  imperial  service,  and  a  musical 
amateur  of  sufficient  attainment  to  instruct  his 
son  in  the  rudiments  of  pianoforte-playing.  At 
the  age  of  9  young  Liszt  made  his  first  appear- 
ance in  public  at  Oedenburg  with  such  success 
that  several  Hungarian  noblemen  guaranteed 
him  sufficient  means  to  continue  his  studies  for 
six  years.  For  that  purpose  he  went  to  Vienna, 
and  took  lessons  from  Czerny  on  the  pianoforte 
and  from  Salieri  and  Randhartinger  in  com- 
position. The  latter  introduced  the  lad  to  his 
friend  Franz  Schubert.     His  first  appearance  in 


print  was  probably  in  a  variation  (the  24th)  on 
a  waltz  of  Diabelli's,  one  of  50  contributed  by 
the  most  eminent  artists  of  the  day,  for  which 
Beethoven,  when  asked  for  a  single  variation, 
wrote  thirty-three  (op.  120).  The  collection, 
entitled  Vaterlandische  Kunstler-Verein,  was 
published  in  June  1823.  In  the  same  year  he 
proceeded  to  Paris,  where  it  was  hoped  that 
his  rapidly  growing  reputation  would  gain  him 
admission  at  the  Conservatoire  in  spite  of  his 
foreign  origin.  But  Cherubini  refused  to  make 
an  exception  in  his  favour,  and  he  continued  his 
studies  under  Reicha  and  Paer.  Shortly  after- 
wards he  also  made  his  first  serious  attempt  at 
composition,  and  an  operetta  in  one  act,  called 
'Don  S»nche,'  was  produced  at  the  Academie 
Royale,  Oct.  17, 1825,  and  well  received.  Artistic 
tours  to  Switzerland  and  England,  accompanied 
by  brilliant  success,  occupy  the  period  till  the 
year  1827,  when  Liszt  lost  his  father  and  was 


U6 


LISZT. 


thrown  on  his  own  resources  to  provide  for  him- 
self and  his  mother.  During  his  stay  in  Paris, 
where  he  settled  for  some  years,  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  the  leaders  of  French  literature, 
Victor  Hugo,  Lamartine  and  George  Sand,  the 
influence  of  whose  works  may  be  discovered  in 
his'  compositions.  For  a  time  also  he  became 
an  adherent  of  Saint-Simon,  but  soon  reverted 
to  the  Catholic  religion,  to  which,  as  an  artist 
and  as  a  man,  he  has  since  adhered  devoutly. 
In  1834  he  became  acquainted  with  the  Countess 
D'Agoult,  better  known  by  her  literary  name 
of  Daniel  Stern,  who  for  a  long  time  remained 
attached  to  him  and  by  whom  he  had  three  chil- 
dren. Two  of  these,  a  son  and  a  daughter,  the 
wife  of  M.  Ollivier  the  French  statesman,  are 
dead.  The  third,  Cosima,  is  the  wife  of  Richard 
Wagner.  The  public  concerts  which  Liszt  gave 
during  the  latter  part  of  his  stay  in  Paris  placed 
his  claim  to  the  first  rank  amongst  pianists  on 
a  firm  basis,  and  at  last  he  was  induced,  much 
against  his  will,  to  adopt  the  career  of  a  virtuoso 
proper.  The  interval  from  1839  to  1847  Liszt 
spent  in  travelling  almost  incessantly  from  one 
country  to  another,  being  everywhere  received 
with  an  enthusiasm  unequalled  in  the  annals  of 
Art.  In  England  he  played  at  the  Philharmonic 
Concerts  of  May  21,  1827  (Concerto,  Hummel), 
May  11,  1840  (Concertstuck,  Weber),  June  8, 40 
(Kreutzer  sonata),  June  14, 41  (Hummel's  7tet). 
His  reception  seems  to  have  been  less  warm  than 
was  expected,  and  Liszt,  with  his  usual  generosity, 
at  once  undertook  to  bear  the  loss  that  might  have 
fallen  on  his  agent.  Of  this  generosity  numerous 
instances  might  be  cited.  The  charitable  pur- 
poses to  which  Liszt's  genius  has  been  made 
subservient  are  legion,  and  in  this  respect  as 
well  as  in  that  of  technical  perfection  he  is 
unrivalled  amongst  virtuosi.  The  disaster 
caused  at  Pesth  by  the  inundation  of  the 
Danube  (1837)  was  considerably  alleviated  by 
the  princely  sum — the  result  of  several  concerts 
— contributed  by  this  artist;  and  when  two 
years  later  a  considerable  sum  had  been  col- 
lected for  a  statue  to  be  erected  to  him  at  Pesth, 
he  insisted  upon  the  money  being  given  to  a 
struggling  young  sculptor,  whom  he  moreover 
assisted  from  his  private  means.  The  poor  of 
Raiding  also  had  cause  to  remember  the  visit 
paid  by  LL=zt  to  his  native  village  about  the 
same  time.  It  is  well  known  that  Beethoven's 
monument  at  Bonn  owed  its  existence,  or  at 
least  its  speedy  completion,  to  Liszt's  liberality. 
When  the  subscriptions  for  the  purpose  began 
to  fail,  Liszt  offered  to  pay  the  balance  required 
from  his  own  pocket,  provided  only  that  the 
choice  of  the  sculptor  should  be  left  to  him. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  forties  dates  Liszt's 
more  intimate  connection  with  Weimar,  where 
in  1849  he  settled  for  the  space  of  12  years. 
This  stay  was  to  be  fruitful  in  more  than  one 
sense.  When  he  closed  his  career  as  a»virtuoso, 
and  accepted  a  permanent  engagement  as  con- 
ductor of  the  Court  Theatre  at  Weimar,  he  did 
so  with  the  distinct  purpose  of  becoming  the 
advocate  of  the  rising  musical  generation,   by 


LISZT. 

the  performance  of  such  works  as  were  written 
regardless  of  immediate  success,  and  therefore 
had  little  chance  of  seeing  the  light  of  the  stage. 
At  short  intervals  eleven  operas  of  living  com- 
posers were  either  performed  for  the  first  time 
or  revived  on  the  Weimar  stage.  Amongst 
these  may  be  counted  such  works  as  Lohengrin, 
Tannhauser,  and  The  Flying  Dutchman  of  Wag- 
ner, Benvenuto  Cellini  by  Berlioz,  Schumann's 
Genoveva,  and  music  to  Byron's  •  Manfred.' 
Schubert's  Alfonso  and  Estrella  was  also  res- 
cued from  oblivion  by  Liszt's  exertions.  For 
a  time  it  seemed  as  if  this  small  provincial 
city  were  once  more  to  be  the  artistic  centre 
of  Germany,  as  it  had  been  in  the  days  of 
Goethe,  Schiller  and  Herder.  From  all  sides 
musicians  and  amateurs  flocked  to  Weimar,  to 
witness  the  astonishing  feats  to  which  a  small 
but  excellent  community  of  singers  and  instru- 
mentalists were  inspired  by  the  genius  of  their 
leader.  In  this  way  was  formed  the  nucleus  of 
a  group  of  young  and  enthusiastic  musicians, 
who,  whatever  may  be  thought  of  their  aims  and 
achievements,  were  and  are  at  any  rate  inspired 
by  perfect  devotion  to  music  and  its  poetical 
aims.  It  was,  indeed,  at  these  Weimar  gather- 
ings that  the  musicians  who  now  form  the  so- 
called  School  of  the  Future,  till  then  unknown 
to  each  other  and  divided  locally  and  mentally, 
came  first  to  a  clear  understanding  of  their 
powers  and  aspirations.  How  much  the  personal 
fascination  of  Liszt  contributed  to  this  desired 
effect  need  not  be  said.  Amongst  the  numerous 
pupils  on  the  pianoforte,  to  whom  he  at  the  same 
period  opened  the  invaluable  treasure  of  his 
technical  experience,  may  be  mentioned  Hans 
von  Bulow,  the  worthy  disciple  of  such  a  master. 
But,  in  a  still  higher  sense,  the  soil  of 
Weimar,  with  its  great  traditions,  was  to  prove 
a  field  of  richest  harvest.  When,  as  early  as 
1842,  Liszt  undertook  the  direction  of  a  certain 
number  of  concerts  every  year  at  Weimar,  his 
friend  Duverger  wrote  'Cette  place,  qui  oblige 
Liszt  a  sojourner  trois  mois  de  l'anne'e  a  Weimar, 
doit  marquer  peut-Stre  pour  lui  la  transition  de 
sa  carriere  de  virtuo.se  a  celle  de  compositeur.' 
This  presage  has  been  verified  by  a  number  of 
compositions  which,  whatever  may  be  the  final 
verdict  on  their  merits,  have  at  any  rate  done 
much  to  elucidate  some  of  the  most  important 
questions  in  Art.  From  these  works  of  his 
mature  years  his  early  compositions,  mostly  for 
the  pianoforte,  ought  to  be  distinguished  In 
the  latter  Liszt  the  virtuoso  predominates  over 
Liszt  the  composer.  Not,  for  instance,  that  his 
'transcriptions'  of  operatic  music  are  without 
superior  merits.  Every  one  of  them  shows  the 
refined  musician,  and  for  the  development  of 
pianoforte  technique,  especially  in  rendering  or- 
chestral effects,  they  are  of  the  greatest  import- 
ance. They  also  tend  to  prove  Liszt's  catholicity 
of  taste ;  for  all  schools  are  equally  represented  in 
the  list,  and  a  selection  from  Wagner's  '  Lohen- 
grin '  is  found  side  by  side  with  the  Dead  March 
from  Donizetti's  '  Don  Sebastian. '  To  point  out 
even  the  most  important  among  these  selections 


LTSZT. 

and  arrangements  would  far  exceed  the  limits  of 
this  notice.  More  important  are  the  original 
pieces  for  the  pianoforte  also  belonging  to  this 
earlier  epoch  and  collected  under  such  names  as 
'Consolations'  and  'Annees  de  pelerinage,'  but 
even  in  these,  charming  and  interesting  in  many 
respects  as  they  are,  it  would  be  difficult  to 
discover  the  germs  of  Liszt's  later  productiveness. 
The  stage  of  preparation  and  imitation  through 
which  all  young  composers  have  to  go,  Liszt 
passed  at  the  piano  and  not  at  the  desk.  This 
is  well  pointed  out  in  Wagner's  pamphlet  on  the 
Symphonic  Poems : — 

'He  who  has  had  frequent  opportunities,' 
writes  Wagner,  '  particularly  in  a  friendly  circle, 
of  hearing  Liszt  play — for  instance,  Beethoven — 
must  have  understood  that  this- was  not  mere 
reproduction,  but  real  production.  The  actual 
point  of  division  between  these  two  things  is  not 
so  easily  determined  as  most  people  believe,  but 
so  much  I  have  ascertained  beyond  a  doubt, 
that,  in  order  to  reproduce  Beethoven,  one  must 
be  able  to  produce  with  him.  It  would  be  im- 
possible to  make  this  understood  by  those  who 
have,  in  all  their  life,  heard  nothing  but  the 
ordinary  performances  and  renderings  by  vir- 
tuosi of  Beethoven's  works.  Into  the  growth 
and  essence  of  such  renderings  I  have,  in  the 
course  of  time,  gained  so  sad  an  insight,  that  I 
prefer  not  to  offend  anybody  by  expressing 
myself  more  clearly.  I  ask,  on  the  other  hand, 
all  who  have  heard,  for  instance,  Beethoven's 
op.  1 06  or  op.  in  (the  two  great  sonatas  in 
Bb  and  C)  played  by  Liszt  in  a  friendly  circle, 
what  they  previously  knew  of  those  creations, 
and  what  they  learned  of  them  on  those  occa- 
sions? If  this  was  reproduction,  then  surely  it 
was  worth  a  great  deal  more  than  all  the  sonatas 
reproducing  Beethoven  which  are  "  produced  "  by 
our  pianoforte  composers  in  imitation  of  those 
imperfectly  comprehended  works.  It  was  simply 
the  peculiar  mode  of  Liszt's  development  to  do 
at  the  piano  what  others  achieve  with  pen  and 
ink ;  and  who  can  deny  that  even  the  greatest 
and  most  original  master,  in  his  first  period,  does 
nothing  but  reproduce]  It  ought  to  be  added 
that  during  this  reproductive  epoch,  the  work 
even  of  the  greatest  genius  never  has  the  value 
and  importance  of  the  master  works  which  it 
reproduces,  its  own  value  and  importance  being 
attained  only  by  the  manifestation  of  distinct 
originality.  It  follows  that  Liszt's  activity  during 
his  first  and  reproductive  period  surpasses  every- 
thing done  by  others  under  parallel  circumstances. 
For  he  placed  the  value  and  importance  of  the 
works  of  his  predecessors  in  the  fullest  light,  and 
thus  raised  himself  almost  to  the  same  height 
with  the  composers  he  reproduced.' 

These  remarks  at  the  same  time  will  to  a 
large  extent  account  for  the  unique  place  which 
Liszt  holds  amongst  modern  representatives  of 
his  instrument,  and  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  say 
anything  of  the  phenomenal  technique  which 
enabled  him  to  concentrate  his  whole  mind  on 
the  intentions  of  the  composer. 

The  works  of  Liszt's  mature  period  may  be 


LISZT. 


147 


most  conveniently  classed  under  four  headings. 
First :  works  for  the  pianoforte  with  and  without 
orchestral  accompaniments.  The  two  Concertos 
in  Eb  and  A,  and  the  fifteen  Hungarian  Rhapso- 
dies are  the  most  important  works  of  this  group, 
the  latter  especially  illustrating  the  strongly 
pronounced  national  element  in  Liszt.  The  repre- 
sentative works  of  the  second  or  orchestral  section 
of  Liszt's  works  are  the  Faust  Symphony  in 
three  tableaux,  the  Dante  Symphony,  and  the 
twelve  '  Symphonic  Poems.'  Of  the  latter  a  full 
list  is  given  on  p.  149  b.  It  is  in  these  Symphonic 
Poems  that  Liszt's  mastery  over  the  orchestra  as 
well  as  his  claims  to  originality  are  chiefly  shown. 
It  is  true  that  the  idea  of  'Programme-Music,' 
such  as  we  find  it  illustrated  here,  had  been  anti- 
cipated by  Berlioz.  Another  important  feature, 
the  so-called '  leading-motive'  (i.  e.  a  theme  repre- 
sentative of  a  character  or  idea,  and  therefore 
recurring  whenever  that  character  or  that  idea 
comes  into  prominent  action),  Liszt  has  adopted 
from  Wagner.  [Leit-motif.]  At  the  same  time 
these  ideas  appear  in  his  music  in  a  consider- 
ably modified  form.  Speaking,  for  instance,  of 
Programme-Music,  it  is  at  once  apparent  that 
the  significance  of  that  term  is  understood  in  a 
very  different  sense  by  Berlioz  and  by  Liszt. 
Berlioz,  like  a  true  Frenchman,  is  thinking  of  a 
distinct  story  or  dramatic  situation,  of  which  he 
takes  care  to  inform  the  reader  by  means  of  a 
commentary ;  Liszt,  on  the  contrary,  emphasizes 
chiefly  the  pictorial  and  symbolic  bearings  of 
his  theme,  and  in  the  first-named  respect  espe- 
cially is  perhaps  unsurpassed  by  modern  sym- 
phonists.  Even  where  an  event  has  become  the 
motive  of  his  symphonic  poem,  it  is  always  from 
a  single  feature  of  a  more  or  less  musically  realis- 
able nature  that  he  takes  his  suggestion,  and 
from  this  he  proceeds  to  the  deeper  significance 
of  his  subject,  without  much  regard  for  the  inci- 
dents of  the  story.  It  is  for  this  reason  that,  for 
example,  in  his  Mazeppa  he  has  chosen  Victor 
Hugo's  somewhat  pompous  production  as  the 
groundwork  of  his  music,  in  preference  to  Byron's 
more  celebrated  and  more  beautiful  poem.  Byron 
simply  tells  the  story  of  Mazeppa's  danger  and 
rescue.  In  Victor  Hugo  the  Polish  youth, 
tied  to 

•  A  Tartar  of  the  Ukraine  breed 
Who  looked  as  though  the  speed  of  thought 
Was  in  his  limbs,' 

has  become  the  representative  of  man  '  lid  vivant 
sur  tacroupefatale,  Genie,  ardent  coursier.'  This 
symbolic  meaning,  far-fetched  though  it  may  ap- 
pear in  the  poem,  is  of  incalculable  advantage  to  the 
musician.  It  gives  aesthetic  dignity  to  the  wild, 
rattling  triplets  which  imitate  the  horse's  gallop, 
and  imparts  a  higher  significance  to  the  triumphal 
march  which  closes  the  piece.  For  as  Mazeppa 
became  Hetman  of  the  Cossacks,  even  so  is 
man  gifted  with  genius  destined  for  ultimate 
triumph : 

'  Chaque  pas  que  tu  fais  semble  creuser  sa  tombe. 
Enfm  le  temps  arrive  .  .  .  il  court,  il  tombe, 
Et  se  releve  roi.' 

A  more  elevated  subject  than  the  struggle  and 

L2 


148 


LISZT. 


final  victory  of  genius  an  artist  cannot  well  desire, 
and  no  fault  can  be  found  with  Liszt,  provided 
always  that  the  introduction  of  pictorial  and 
poetic  elements  into  music  is  thought  to  be  per- 
missible. Neither  can  the  melodic  means  em- 
ployed by  him  in  rendering  this  subject  be 
objected  to.  In  the  opening  allegro  agitato 
descriptive  of  Mazeppa's  ride,  strong  accents  and 
rapid  rhythms  naturally  prevail ;  but,  together 
with  this  merely  external  matter,  there  occurs  an 
impressive  theme  (first  announced  by  the  basses 
and  trombones),  evidently  representative  of  the 
hero  himself,  and  for  that  reason  repeated  again 
and  again  throughout  the  piece.  The  second 
section,  andante,  which  brings  welcome  rest  after 
the  breathless  hurry  of  the  allegro,  is  in  its  turn 
relieved  by  a  brilliant  inarch,  with  an  original 
Cossack  tune  by  way  of  trio,  the  abstract  idea  of 
triumphant  genius  being  thus  ingeniously  iden- 
tified with  Mazeppa's  success  among  'les  tribus 
de  V  Ukraine.'  From  these  remarks  Liszt's  method, 
applied  with  slight  modification  in  all  his  sym- 
phonic poems,  is  sufficiently  clear ;  but  the  difficult 
problem  remains  to  be  solved,  How  can  these 
philosophic  and  pictorial  ideas  become  the  nucleus 
of  a  new  musical  form  to  supply  the  place  of  the 
old  symphonic  movement?  Wagner  asks  the 
question  '  whether  it  is  not  more  noble  and  more 
liberating  for  music  to  adopt  its  form  from  the 
conception  of  the  Orpheus  or  Prometheus  motive 
than  from  the  dance  or  march  ?'  but  he  forgets 
that  dance  and  march  have  a  distinct  and  tangible 
relation  to  musical  form,  which  neither  Prome- 
theus and  Orpheus,  nor  indeed  any  other  character 
or  abstract  idea,  possess.  The  solution  of  this 
problem  must  be  left  to  a  future  time,  when  it 
will  also  be  possible  to  determine  the  permanent 
position  of  Liszt's  symphonic  works  in  the  history 
of  Art. 

The  legend  of  St.  Elizabeth,  a  kind  of  oratorio, 
full  of  great  beauty,  but  sadly  weighed  down  by 
a  tedious  libretto,  leads  the  way  to  the  third 
section — the  Sacred  compositions.  Here  the  Gran 
Mass,  the  Missa  Choralis,  the  Mass  for  small 
voices,  and  the  oratorio  Christus  are  the  chief 
works.  The  13th  Psalm,  for  tenor,  chorus,  and 
orchestra,1  may  also  be  mentioned.  The  accent- 
uation of  the  subjective  or  personal  element, 
combined  as  far  as  possible  with  a  deep  reverence 
for  the  old  forms  of  church  music,  is  the  key- 
note of  Liszt's  sacred  compositions. 

We  finally  come  to  a  fourth  division  not 
hitherto  sufficiently  appreciated  by  Liszt's  critics 
— his  Songs.  It  is  here  perhaps  that  his  in- 
tensity of  feeling,  embodied  in  melody  pure  and 
simple,  finds  its  most  perfect  expression.  Such 
settings  as  those  of  Heine's  'Du  bist  wie  eine 
Blume,'  or  Redwitz's  '  Es  muss  ein  wunderbares 
sein'  are  conceived  in  the  true  spirit  of  the 
Volkslied.  At  other  times  a  greater  liberty  in 
the  rhythmical  phrasing  of  the  music  is  warranted 
by  the  metre  of  the  poem  itself,  as,  for  instance, 
in  Goethe's  wonderful  night-song,  'Ueber  alien 
Gipfeln  ist  Ruh','  the  heavenly  calm  of  which 
Liszt  has  rendered  by  Ids  wonderful  harmonies 

'  Performed  at  Mr.  Baches  annual  concert  in  1873. 


LISZT. 

in  a  manner  which  alone  would  secure  him  a 
place  amongst  the  great  masters  of  German  song. 
Particularly,  the  modulation  from  G  major  back 
into  the  original  E  major  at  the  close  of  the 
piece  is  of  surprising  beauty.  Less  happy  is  the 
dramatic  way  in  which  such  ballads  as  Heine's 
'Loreley'  and  Goethe's  'Konig  in  Thule'  are 
treated.  Here  the  melody  is  sacrificed  to  the 
declamatory  element,  and  that  declamation,  espe- 
cially in  the  last-named  song,  is  not  always 
faultless.  Victor  Hugo's  '  Comment  disaient-ils ' 
is  one  of  the  most  graceful  songs  amongst  Liszt's 
works,  and  in  musical  literature  generally. 

The  remaining  facts  of  Liszt's  life  may  be 
summed  up  in  a  few  words.  In  1859  he  left  his 
official  position  at  the  Opera  in  Weimar  owing 
to  the  captious*>pposition  made  to  the  production 
of  Cornelius's  '  Barber  of  Bagdad,'  at  the  Weimar 
theatre.  Since  that  time  he  has  been  living  at 
intervals  at  Rome,  Pesth,  and  Weimar,  always 
surrounded  by  a  circle  of  pupils  and  admirers, 
and  always  working  for  music  and  musicians  in 
the  unselfish  and  truly  catholic  spirit  character- 
istic of  his  whole  life.  How  much  Liszt  can  be 
to  a  man  and  an  artist  is  shown  by  what  per- 
haps is  the  most  important  episode  even  in  his 
interesting  career — his  friendship  with  Wagner. 
The  latter's  eloquent  words  will  give  a  better 
idea  of  Liszt's  personal  character  than  any  less 
intimate  friend  could  attempt  to  do. 

'I  met  Liszt,'  writes  Wagner,  'for  the  first 
time  during  my  earliest  stay  in  Paris,  at  a 
period  when  I  had  renounced  the  hope,  nay, 
even  the  wish,  of  a  Paris  reputation,  and,  in- 
deed, was  in  a  state  of  internal  revolt  against 
the  artistic  life  which  I  found  there.  At  our 
meeting  he  struck  me  as  the  most  perfect  contrast 
to  my  own  being  and  situation.  In  this  world, 
into  which  it  had  been  my  desire  to  fly  from  my 
narrow  circumstances,  Liszt  had  grown  up,  from 
his  earliest  age,  so  as  to  be  the  object  of  general 
love  and  admiration,  at  a  time  when  I  was 
repulsed  by  general  coldness  and  want  of  sym- 
pathy. ...  In  consequence  I  looked  upon  him  with 
suspicion.  I  had  no  opportunity  of  disclosing 
my  being  and  working  to  him,  and,  therefore,  the 
reception  I  met  with  on  his  part  was  altogether 
of  a  superficial  kind,  as  was  indeed  natural 
in  a  man  to  whom  every  day  the  most  divergent 
impressions  claimed  access.  But  I  was  not  in 
a  mood  to  look  with  unprejudiced  eyes  for  the 
natural  cause  of  his  behaviour,  which,  though 
friendly  and  obliging  in  itself,  could  not  but 
wound  me  in  the  then  state  of  my  mind.  I  never 
repeated  my  first  call  on  Liszt,  and  without 
knowing  or  even  wishing  to  know  him,  I  was 
prone  to  look  upon  him  as  strange  and  adverse 
to  my  nature.  My  repeated  expression  of  this 
feeling  was  afterwards  told  to  him,  just  at  the 
time  when  my  •  Rienzi '  at  Dresden  attracted 
general  attention.  He  was  surprised  to  find 
himself  misunderstood  with  such  violence  by 
a  man  whom  he  had  scarcely  known,  and  whose 
acquaintance  now  seemed  not  without  value  to 
him.  I  am  still  moved  when  I  remember  the 
repeated  and  eager  attempts  he  made  to  change 


LISZT. 

my  opinion  of  him,  even  before  he  knew  any 
of  my  works.  He  acted  not  from  any  artistic 
sympathy,  but  led  by  the  purely  human  wish  of 
discontinuing  a  casual  disharmony  between  him- 
self and  another  being  ;  perhaps  he  also  felt  an 
infinitely  tender  misgiving  of  having  really  hurt 
me  unconsciously.  He  who  knows  the  selfish- 
ness and  terrible  insensibility  of  our  social  life, 
and  especially  of  the  relations  of  modern 
artists  to  each  other,  cannot  but  be  struck 
with  wonder,  nay,  delight,  by  the  treatment  I 
experienced  from  this  extraordinary  man. . . .  At 
Weimar  I  saw  him  for  the  last  time,  when  I  was 
resting  for  a  few  days  in  Thuringia,  uncertain 
whether  the  threatening  prosecution  would  com- 
pel me  to  continue  my  flight  from  Germany. 
The  very  day  when  my  personal  danger  became 
a  certainty,  I  saw  Liszt  conducting  a  rehearsal 
of  my  '  Tannhauser,'  and  was  astonished  at 
recognising  my  second  self  in  his  achievement. 
What  I  had  felt  in  inventing  this  music  he  felt 
in  performing  it :  what  I  wanted  to  express  in 
writing  it  down,  he  expressed  in  making  it  sound. 
Strange  to  say,  through  the  love  of  this  rarest 
friend,  I  gained,  at  the  moment  of  becoming 
homeless,  a  real  home  for  my  art,  which  I  had 
hitherto  longed  for  and  sought  for  always  in  the 
wrong  place.  ...  At  the  end  of  my  last  stay  at 
Paris,  when  ill,  miserable,  and  despairing,  I  sat 
brooding  over  my  fate,  my  eye  fell  on  the  score  of 
my  "  Lohengrin,"  which  I  had  totally  forgotten. 
Suddenly  I  felt  something  like  compassion  that 
this  music  should  never  sound  from  off  the  death- 
pale  paper.  Two  words  I  wrote  to  Liszt :  his 
answer  was,  the  news  that  preparations  for  the 
performance  were  being  made  on  the  largest  scale 
that  the  limited  means  of  Weimar  would  permit. 
Everything  that  men  and  circumstances  could  do, 
was  done,  in  order  to  make  the  work  understood. 
.  .  .  Errors  and  misconceptions  impeded  the  de- 
sired success.  What  was  to  be  done  to  supply 
what  was  wanted,  so  as  to  further  the  true  un- 
derstanding on  all  sides,  and  with  it  the  ultimate 
success  of  the  work  ?  Liszt  saw  it  at  once,  and 
did  it.  He  gave  to  the  public  his  own  im- 
pression of  the  work  in  a  manner  the  convincing 
eloquence  and  overpowering  efficacy  of  which 
remain  unequalled.  Success  was  his  reward,  and 
with  this  success  he  now  approaches  me,  saying  : 
"  Behold  we  have  come  so  far,  now  create  us  a 
new  work,  that  we  may  go  still  further." ' 

In  addition  to  the  commentaries  on  Wagner's 
works  just  referred  to,  Liszt  has  also  written 
numerous  detached  articles  and  pamphlets,  those 
on  Robert  Franz,  Chopin,  and  the  music  of  the 
Gipsies,  being  the  most  important.  It  ought  to 
be  added  that  the  appreciation  of  Liszt's  music 
in  this  country  is  almost  entirely  due  to  the  un- 
ceasing efforts  of  his  pupil,  Mr.  Walter  Bache, 
at  whose  annual  concerts  many  of  his  most 
important  works  have  been  produced.  Others, 
such  as  'Mazeppa'  and  the  'Battle  of  the 
Huns,'  were  first  heard  in  England  at  the  Crystal 
Palace. 

The  following  is  a  catalogue  of  Liszt's  works, 
as  complete  as  it  has  been  possible  to  make  it. 


LISZT. 


149 


It  is  compiled  from  the  recent  edition  of  the 
thematic  catalogue  (Breitkopf  &  Hartel,  No. 
14,373),   published    lists,   and    other    available 


I.  ORCHESTRAL  WORK8. 
1.  Original.  1 10.  '  Gaudeamus  Igitur ' ;  Humo- 

1.  Symphonie  zu  Dante's  Divina 


Commedia,  orch.  and  female 
chorus :  ded.  to  Wagner.  1.  In- 
ferno ;  2.  Furgatorio ;  3.  Magni- 
ficat. Score  and  parts.  B.  4  H.  1 
Arr.  for  2  P.Fs. 

2.  Elne  Faust-Symphonie  In  drel 
Charakterbildern  (nach  Goethe), 
orch.  and  male  chorus :  ded.  to 
Berlioz.  1.  Faust ;  2.  Gretchen 
(also  for  P.  F.  2  hands) ;  3.  Me- 
phistopheles.  Score  and  parts ; 
also  for  2  P.  Fs.    Schuberth. 

3.  Zwel  Kpisoden  aus  Lenau's 
Faust.  1.  Der  nSchtliche  Zug. 
2.  Der  Tanz  in  der  Dorfschenke 
(Mephisto-Walzer).  Score  and 
parts;  also  for  P. F.  2  and  4 
hands.    Schuberth. 

4.  Symphonische  Dichtungen.  1. 
Ce  qu'on  entend  sur  la  mon- 
tagne ;  2.  Tasso.  Lamento  e 
Trionfo;  3.  Les  Preludes ;  4. 
Orpheus  (also  for  organ) ;  5.  Pro- 
metheus ;  6.  Mazeppa ;  7.  Fest- 
klSnge;  8.  Herolde  funebre;  9. 
Ilungaria ;  10.  Hamlet ;  11.  Hun- 
nenschlacht ;  12.  Die  Ideale. 
Score  and  parts,  also  for  2  P.  Fs. 
and  P.  F.  4  hands.    B.  4  H. 

5.  Fest-Vorspiel,  for  Schiller  and 
Goethe  Festival,  Weimar  1857. 
Score,  Hallberger. 

6.  Fest-Marsch,  for  Goethe's  birth- 
day. Score  and  parts,  also  for 
1'.  F.  2  and  4  hands.    Schuberth. 

7.  IIuldigungs-Marsch.  for  acces- 
sion of  Duke  Carl  of  Saxe- 
Weimar  1853.  Score;  and  for 
P.  F.  2  hands.    B.  4  H. 

8.  '  Vom-Fels  zum  Meer ':  Patrio- 
tic march.  Score  and  parts ; 
also  Tor  P.F.  2  hands.  Schle- 
slnger. 

9.  Kttnstler  Fest-Zug ;  for  Schiller 
Festival  1859.  Score;  and  for 
P.  F.  2  and  4  hands.    Kahnt. 


reske  for  orch.  soli,  and  chorus. 
Score  and  parts ;  also  for  P.F.  2 
and.  4  hands.    Schuberth. 
2.  Arrangements. 

11.  Schuberts'  Marches.  1.  op.  40 
No.  3 ;  2.  Trauer-;  3.  Reiter-;  4. 
Ungarischer-Marsch.  Score  and 
parts.    Fttrstner. 

12.  Schubert's  Songs  for  voice  and 
small  orch.  1.  Die  j  unge  Nonne  ; 
2.  Gretchen  am  Splimrade ;  8. 
Lied  der  Mignon ;  4.  ErlkOnig. 
Score  and  parts.    Forberg. 

13.  'Die  Allmacht,'  by  Schubert, 
for  tenor,  men's  chorus,  and 
orchestra.  Score  and  parts ;  and 
vocal  score.    Schuberth. 

14.  H.  v.  BQlow's  Mazurka-Fan- 
tasie  (op.  13).  Score  and  parts. 
Leuckart. 

15.  Festmarch  on  themes  by  E.  H. 
zu  S.  Score  ;  also  for  P.F.  2  and 
4  hands.    Schuberth. 

16.  Ungarische  Bhapsodien,  an. 
by  Liszt  and  F.  Doppler;  1.  in 
F ;  2.  in  D ;  3.  in  D ;  4.  In  D 
minor  and  G  major ;  5.  in  E  ; 
6.  Pe«ter  Carneval.— Score  and 
parts;  and  for  P.F.  4  hands. 
Schuberth. 

17.  Ungarlscher  Marsch,  for  Coro- 
nation at  Buda-Pesth,  1867. 
Score;  also  for  P.F.  2  and  4 
hands.    Schuberth. 

18.  Rakoczy-Marsch ;  symphonisch 
bearbeltet.  Score  and  parts ; 
also  for  P.  F.  2,  4,  and  8  hands. 
Schuberth. 

19.  Uiigarischer  Sturm  -  Marsch. 
New  arr.  1876.  Score  and  parts  ; 
also  for  P.F.  2  and  4  hands. 
Schleslnger. 

20.  'Szdzat'  und  'Hymnus'  by 
Benl  and  Erkel.  Score  and 
parts ;  also  for  P.  F.  Rdzsa- 
vOlgyl,  Testh. 


II.  FOR  PIANOFORTE  AND  ORCHF.STRA. 


1.  Original. 

21.  Concerto  No.  1,  In  E  flat.  Score 
and  parts  ;  also  for  2  P.  Fs. 
Schleslnger. 

22.  Concerto  No.  2,  In  A.  Score 
and  parts;  also  for  2  P.  Fs. 
Schott. 

23.  '  Todten-Tanz.'  Paraphrase  on 
'Dies  Irse.'  Score;  also  for  1 
and  2  P.  Fs.    Siegel. 

2.  Arrangements,  P.  F.  pbin- 
cifale. 

24.  Fantasia  on  themes  from  Bee- 


thoven's 'Ruins  of  Athens.' 
Score ;  also  for  P.  F.  2  and  4 
hands,  and  2  P.  Fs.  Siegel. 
25.Fantasie  Uber  ungarische  Volks- 
melodlen.  Score  and  parts. 
Heinze. 

26.  Schubert's  Fantasia  In  C  (op. 
15),  symphonisch  bearbeltet. 
Score  and  parts ;  also  for  2  P.  Fs. 
Schreiber. 

27.  Weber's  Polonaise  (op.  72). 
Score  and  parts.    Schleslnger. 


III.  FOR  PIANOFORTE  SOLO. 


1.  Original. 

28.  Etudes  d'executlon  transcen- 
dante.  1.  Preludio;  2,  3.  Pay- 
sage  ;  4.  Mazeppa ;  5.  Feux  Fol- 
lets;  6.  Vision;  7.  Eroica;  8. 
Wilde  Jagd;  9.  Rlcordanza; 
10,  11.  Harmonies  du  soir;  12. 
Chasse-nelge.    B.  4  H. 

29.  Trols  Grandes  Etudes  de  Con- 
cert. 1.  Caprlcclo ;  2.  Caprlccio, 
3.  Allegro  affetuoso.    Kistner. 

30.  Ab-Irato.  Etude  de  perfec- 
fection.    Schleslnger. 

31.  Zwel  Concertetuden,  for  Le- 
bert  and  8tark's  Klavierschule. 
1.  Waldesrauschen ;  2.  Guomen- 
relgen.    Trautwein. 

32.  Ave  Maria  for  ditto.  Traut- 
wein. 

S3.  Harmonies  po<!tlques  et  rell- 
gieuses.     1.  Invocation ;  2.  Ave 


Maria;  3.  Benediction  de  DIeu 
dans  la  solitude ;  4.  Pensee  des 
Morts ;  6.  Pater  Noster ;  6. 
Hymne  de  l'enfant  a  son  revell ; 
7.  Funirallles;  8.  Miserere 
d'apres  Palestrina ;  9.  Andante 
lagriraoso ;  10.  Cantique  d'A- 
mour.  Kahnt. 
34.  Annees  de  Pelerlnage.  Pre- 
miere Anne>,  Suisse.  1.  Chapelle 
de  Qulllaume  Tell ;  2.  Au  lac  de 
Wallenstadt;  3.  rastorale;  4. 
Au  bord  d'une  source ;  5.  Orape ; 

6.  Vallce  d'Obermann ;  7.  Eg- 
logue ;  8.  Le  Mai  du  Pays ;  9. 
Les  Cloches  de  Geneve  (Noc- 
turne). Seconde  Annee,  Italic. 
1.  H  Sposallzlo ;  2.  II  Penseroso  ; 
3.  Canzonetta  dl  Balvator  Rosa ; 
4-6.  Tre  Sonettl  del  Petrarca; 

7.  A 1 1  res  une  lecture  de  Dante. 


>  B.  4  H.= Breitkopf  4  IlarteL 


150 


LISZT. 


LISZT. 


VenexiaeXapoli.  1.  Gondollera; 

2.  Canzone;  3.  Tarantelle.  Schott. 
85.  Apparitions,    S    Nos.     Schle- 
singer, Paris. 

36.  Two  Ballades.    Kistner. 

37.  Grand  Concert-Solo :  also  for  2 
F.  Fs.  (Concerto  pathetique). 
B.  AH. 

S3.  Consolations,  6  Nos.    B.  A  H. 

39.  Berceuse.    Heinze. 

40.  Weinen,  Klagen,  Sorgen,  Za- 
gen :  Praludium  nach  J.  &  Bach. 
Schlesinger. 

41.  Variations  on  theme  from 
Bach's  B  minor  Mass ;  also  for 
Organ.    Schlesinger. 

42.  Fantasle  und  Fuge,  theme 
B.  A.  C.  H.  Siegel.  Also  for  Or- 
gan.   Schuberth. 

43.  Scherzo  und  Marsch.    LitolfT. 

44.  Sonata  in  B  minor.  Dedicated 
to  Schumann.    B.  A  H. 

45.  2  Polonaises.    Senff. 

46.  Mazurka  brillante.    Senff. 

47.  Rhapsodle  Espagnole,  Folies 
d'Espagne,  and  Jota  Aragonesa. 
Siegel. 

48.  Trots  Caprice- Valses.  1.  Valse 
de  braroure ;  2.  V.  melancol  ique ; 

3.  V.  de  Concert.    Schlesinger. 

49.  Feuilles  d'Album.    Schott. 

50.  Deux  Feuilles  d'Album.  Schu- 
berth. 

51.  Grand  Galop  chromatique. 
Also  for  4  hands.  Hofmeister. 

52.  Valse  Impromptu.   Schuberth. 

53.  'Mosonyi's  Grab-Geleit,'  Ta- 
borszky A  Parsch,  Pesth. 

54.  Elegie.  Also  for  P.  F.,  Cello, 
Harp,  and  Harmonium.  Kahnt. 

55.  2nd  Elegie.  Also  for  P.  F_  V., 
and  Cello.    Kahnt. 

56.  Legendes.  1.  St.  Francois 
d' Assise  r  2.  St.  Francois  de  Paul. 
RozsavOlgyi. 

57.  L' II ymne  du  Pape ;  also  for  4 
hands.    Bote  A  Bock. 

58.  Via  Crucls. 

59.  Impromptu— Themes  de  Ros- 
sini  et  Spontlni,  In  E.  '  Op.  3.' 
Schlrmer. 

60.  Capricclo  it  la  Turca  sur  des 
motifs  de  Beethoven's  Buines 
d'Athenes.    Mechetti. 

61.  Liebestraume— 3  Notturnos. 
Kistner. 

62.  L'Idee  fixe— Andante  amoroso 
d'apres  une  Melodie  de  Berlioz. 
Mechetti. 

63. Impromptu, In F sharp.  B.  AH. 

64.  Variation  on  a  Waltz  by  l>ia- 
belll.  No.  24  in  VateriSndischer 
Kunstlerverelu.    Diabelli  (1823). 

65.  '  The  Pianoforte '— Erstes  Jahr- 
gang ;  Parts  I-XII— 34  pieces  by 
modern  composers.  Out  of  print. 

2.  Arrangements. 

66.  Grande*  Etudes  de  Faganlnl. 
6  Nos.  (No.  3,  La  Campanella). 
B.  AH. 

67.  Sechs  (organ)  PrSludien  und 
Fugen  Ton  J.  S.  Bach,  2  parts. 
Peters. 

68.  Bach's  Orgelfantasle  and  Fuge 
in  G  minor :  for  Lebert  A  Stark's 
Klavierschule.    Trautwein. 

69.  Divertissement  a  la  hongrolse 
d'apres  F.  Schubert,  3  parti; 
also  Easier  ed.    Schrelber. 

70.  MSrsche  von  F.  Schubert.  1. 
Trauer- Marsch  ;  2,  3.  Reiter- 
Marsch.    Schrelber. 

71.  Soirees  de  Vlenne.  Valses-ca-j 
prices  d'apres  Schubert.  9  parts. 
Schrelber. 

72.  Bunte  Reihe  Ton  Ferd.  David. 
1.  Scherzo ;  2.  Erinnerung ;  8. 
Mazurka;  4.  Tanz;  5.  Kinder- 
lied  ;  6.  Capricclo ;  7.  Bolero ;  I 
8.  Elegie;  9.  Marsch;  10.  Toc- 
cata ;  11.  Gondellied ;  12.  Im 
8turm. ;  13.  Romanze ;  14.  Alle- 
gro ;  15.  Menuett ;  16.  Etude  ; 
17.  Intermezzo ;  18.  Serenade ; 
19.  Ungarlsch  (2) ;  20.  Tarentelle ; 
21.  Impromptu ;  22.  In  russlcher 
Welse;  23.  Lied;  24.  Capriccio. 
Kistner.  I 


73.  Elegie  d'apres  Sorrlano.  Trou- 
penas. 

74.  Russischer  Galopp  von  Bulha- 
kow.    Schlesinger. 

75.  Zigeuner-Polka  de  Conradi. 
Schlesinger. 

76.  La  Romanesca.    Schlesinger. 

77.  Leler  und  Schwert  (Weber). 
Schlesinger. 

78.  Elegie,  Themes  by  Prince  Louis 
of  Prussia.    Schlesinger. 

79.  God  Save  the  Queen.  Concert- 
paraphrase.    Schuberth. 

80.  Hussiten-Lied.    Hofmeister. 

81.  La  Marseillaise.    Schuberth. 

3.  Paraphrases,  Transcrip- 
tions, etc.,  from  Operas. 

82.  La  Fiancee  (Auber) ;  Masani- 
ello ;  La  Juive ;  Sonnambula ; 
Norma ;  Puritan!  (3) ;  Benvenuto 
Cellini ;  Dom  Sebastian;  Lucta 
di  Lammermoor  (2);  Lucrezia 
Borgia  (2);  Faust  (Gounod); 
Reine  de  Saba;  Romeo  et  Ju- 
liette; Robert  le  Diable;  Les 
Huguenots;  Le  Prophete  (3); 
L'Africaine  (2);  Szep  Jlonka 
(Mosonyt) ;  Don  Giovanni ;  Kiiuig 
Alfred  (Raff)  (2) ;  I.  Lombard! ; 
Trovatore ;  Ernani ;  Rigoletto ; 
Don  Carlos ;  Rienzi ;  Der  flie- 
gende  Hollander  (2);  Tannhfiu- 
ser  (3);  Lohengrin  (4);  Tristan 
und  Isolde ;  Meistersinger ;  Ring 
des  Niebelungen. 

8S.  Fantaisie  de  Bravoure  sur  la 
Clochette  de  Faganini.  Schrel- 
ber. 

84.  Trois  Morceaux  de  Salon.  1. 
Fantaisie  romantlque  sur  deux 
melodies  suisses;  2.  Rondeau 
fantastique  sur  un  theme  Espag- 
nol ;  3.  Divertissement  sur  une 
cavatlne  de  Pacini,  also  for  4 
hands.    Schlesinger. 

85.  Paraphrase  de  la  Marche  de 
Donizetti  (Abdul  Medjid  Khan); 
also  Easier  ed.    Schlesinger. 

86.  'Jagdchor  und  Steyrer,'  from 
'Tony'  (Duke  Ernest  of  Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha).    Kistner. 

87.  Tscherkessen  -  Marsch  from 
Glinka's  '  Russian  und  Lud- 
mil la.'  Also  for  4  hands.  Schu- 
berth. 

88.  '  Hochzelt-Marsch  und  Elfen- 
reigen '  from  Mendelssohn's  Mid- 
summer Night's  Dream.  B.  A  H. 

89.  Fest-Marsch  for  Schiller  cen- 
tenary (Meyerbeer).  Schlesinger. 

90.  Fantaisies  (2)  sur  des  motifs 
des  Soirees  musicales  de  Rossini. 
Schott. 

91.  Trois  Morceaux  Suisses.  1. 
Ranz  de  Vaches ;  2.  Un  Soir  dans 
la  Montagne ;  3.  Ranz  de  Chev- 
res.    Kahnt. 

4.  Rhapsodies,  etc. 

92.  Rhapsodies  Hongrolses.  1  In 
E ;  2  in  F  sharp  (also  for  4  hands, 
and  easier  ed.) ;  3  In  B  flat ;  4  in 
E  flat;  5  In  E  minor;  6  in  D 
flat ;  7  In  D  minor ;  8  Capricclo ; 
9  in  E  flat ;  10  Preludlo ;  11  in  A 
minor ;  12  in  C  sharp  minor  (also 
for  P.F.  and  violin  by  Liszt  and 
Joachim) ;  13  In  A  minor ;  14  In 
F  minor;  15  R&koczy  March. 
Senff  and  Schlesinger. 

93.  Marche  de  R&koczy.  Edition 
populaire.    Kistner. 

94.  Do.  Symphonisch.   Schuberth. 

95.  Heroischer- Marsch  in  unga- 
rlschen  Styl.    Schlesinger. 

96.  Un  gar  i  sen  er  Gcsch  w  in  d  marsch. 
Schlndler.    Pressburg. 

97.  Etnleitung  und  Cngarlscher 
Marsch  Ton  Graf  E.  Szechenyi. 
RdzsavOlgyl. 

5.  Partitions  di  Piano. 

98.  Beethoven's  Septet.  Schuberth. 

99.  Nine  Symphonies.    B.  A  H. 

100.  Hummers  Septet.    Schubert. 

101.  Berlioz's  '  Symphonie  Fantas- 
tique.' Leuekart.  Marche  des 
Pelerins,  from  '  Harold  In  Italy." 
Rieter-Biedermann.  '  Danse  des 
Syl plies,'  from  'La  Damnation 


de  Faust.'  Ibid.  Overtures  to 
'LesFrancs-Juges.'  Schott.  'Le 
Boi  Lear.' 

102.  Rossini's  Overture  to  Guil- 
laume  Tell. 

103.  Weber's  Jubelouverture  and 
Overtures  to  Der  Freischiitzand 
Oberon.    Schlesinger. 

104.  Wagner's  Overture  to  Tann- 
bauser.    Meser. 

6.  Transcriptions  or  Vocal 
Pieces. 

105.  Rossini's  'Cujus  Aniraam' 
and  '  La  Chart te .'    Schott. 

106.  Beethoven's  Lleder,  6 ;  Gelst- 
liche  Lieder,  6;  Adelaide;  Lie- 
derkreis.    B.  A  H. 

107.  Von  Billow's  'Tanto  gentile.' 
Schlesinger. 

108.  Chopin's  '  Six  Chants  Polo- 
nais,'  op.  74.    Schlesinger. 

109.  Lieder.  Dessauer,  S ;  Franz, 
13 ;  Lassen,  2 ;  Mendelssohn,  9 ; 
Schubert,  57;  Schumann,  B.  and 
Clara,  14;  Weber,  Schlummer- 
lied,  and  '  Einsam  bin  icli .' 

110.  Meyerbeer's  '  Le  Moine.' 
Schlesinger. 


111.  Wlelhorsky's  '  Autrefois.' 
FQrstner. 

112.  Alleluja  et  Ave  Maria  d'Arca- 
delt ;  No.  2  also  for  organ. 
Peters. 

113.  A  la  Chapelle  Sixtine.  Mise- 
rere d'AUegrl  et  Ave  verum  da 
Mozart ;  also  for  4  hands  and  for 
organ.    Peters. 

114.  Zwei  Transcriptionem,  'Con- 
futatls  et  Lacrymosa'  aus  Mo- 
zart's Requiem.    Siegel. 

115.  Soirees  Italiennes,  sur  des 
motifs  de  Mercadante  6  Nos. 
Schott. 

116.  Nuits  d't'te  a  Pausilippe,  sur 
des  motifs  de  l'Album  de  Doni- 
zetti, 3  Nos.    Schott. 

117.  Canzone  Napolitana.    Meser. 

118.  Faribolo  Pastour,  and  Chan- 
son du  Beam.    Schott. 

119.  Glanes  de  Woronlnce.  3  Nos. 
Kistner. 

120.  Deux  Melodies  Busses.  Ara- 
besques.   Cranz. 

121.  Ungarlsche  Volkslleder,  5  Nos. 
Taborszky  A  Parsch. 

122.  Soirees  musicales  de  Rossini, 
12  Nos.;  also  for  4  hands  and 
for  2  P.F  J.    Schott. 

IV.    6.  ARRANGEMENTS  FOR  2  PIANOFORTES. 
123.  Variations    de    Concert    on  124.  Beethoven's  Ninth  Symphony. 
March  in  1  Furitani  (Hexame-      Schott. 
Ton).    Schuberth. 

V.    PIANOFORTE  AND  VIOLIN. 
125.  Epithalam.;  also  for  P.F.,  2  123.  Grand    duo   concertant    sur 
hands.    Taborszky  A  Parsch.       I     '  Le  Marin.'    Schott. 


VI.    FOR  ORGAN 

127.  Andante  religioso.  Schuberth. 

128.  Etnleitung,  Fuge  und  Mag- 
nificat, from  Symphony  '  Zu 
Dante's  Divlna  Commedia. ' 
Schuberth. 

129.  Ora  pro  nobis.  Litanei.  KOrner. 

130.  Fantasle  und  Fuge  on  the 
chorale  In '  Le  Prophete.'  B.  A  H. 

131.  Orlando  dl  Lasso's  Begina 
coeli.    Schuberth. 


OB  HARMONIUM. 

132.  Bach's  Einleitung  und  Fuge, 
from  motet  'Ich  hatte  viel 
Bekummernlss.'    Schuberth. 

133.  Chopin's  Praeludien,  op.  28, 
Nos.  4  and  9.    Schuberth. 

134.  Kirchltche  Fest  -  Ouverture 
on  'EIn'  festeBurg.'  Hofmeis- 
ter. 

135.  '  Der  Guade  Hell '  (TannhaO- 
ser).    Meser. 


VH.    VOCAL. 


1.  Masses,  Psalms,  and  other 
Sacred  Music. 

136.  MIssasolennis(Graner).  Fesl- 
messe  In  D.  Score  and  parts; 
also  vocal  score,  and  for  P.  F.  4 
hands.    Schuberth. 

137.  Ungarische  KrOnungs  -  Messe 
In  E  flat.  Score  and  parts,  and 
vocal  score  ;  Offertorium  and 
Benedictus,  for  P.F.  2  and  4 
hands,  P.F.  and  violin,  organ, 
organ  and  violin.    Schuberth. 

138.  Mass  in  0  minor,  with  organ. 
B.  AH. 

139.  Missa  Choralts  in  A  minor, 
with  organ.    Kahnt. 

140.  Requiem,  men's  voices  and 
organ.    Kahnt. 

141.  Neun  Kirchen-Chor-Gesfinge, 
with  organ.  1.  Pater  Noster ;  2. 
Ave  Maria  (also  for  P.  F.) ;  3.  O 
Salutarts;  4.  Tantum  ergo;  5. 
Ave  Verum ;  6.  Mini  autera ;  7. 
Ave  Marls  Stella,  also  for  P.  F. ; 
8.  O  Salutaris;  9.  Libera  me. 
Kahnt. 

142.  Die  Seligkeiten.    Kahnt. 

143.  Pater  noster,  for  mixed  chorus 
and  organ.    Kahnt. 

144.  Pater  Noster  et  Ave  Maria,  & 
4  and  organ.   B.  A  H. 

145.  Psalms.  13th,  18th  (E.V.19th). 
23rd,  and  137th.    Kahnt. 

146.  Christus  1st  geboren;  chorus 
and  organ.  Arr.  for  P.  F.  Bote 
A  Bock. 

147.  An  den  helllgen  Franziskus, 
men's  voices,  organ,  trumpets 
and  drums.  Taborszky  A  Parsch. 

148.  Hymne  de  l'Enfant  a  son 
reveil,  female  choruj,  organ  and 
harp.    Taborszky  A  Parsch. 

2.   Oratorios. 

149.  Christus.  Score,  vocal  score, 
and  parts.    Schuberth.    'Pasto- 


rale,' No.  4,  and  'Marsch  der 
heiligen  drel  KOnlge,'  No.  5,  for 
instruments  only ;  also  for  P.  F. 
2  and  4  hands.  '  Tu  es  Petrus,* 
No.  8,  for  organ  and  for  P.F. 
2  and  4  hands,  as  '  Hymne  du 
Pape.' 

150.  Die  Legende  von  der  heiligen 
Elisabeth.  Score,  vocal  score, 
and  parts.  Kahnt.  'Einleitung'; 
'Marsch  der  Kreuzritter'  and 
'Interludium,'  for  P.F.  2  and  4 
hands ;  '  Der  Sturm,"  for  P.  F.  4 
hands. 

3.  Cantatas  and  other 
Choral  Music. 

151.  ZurSScular-Feler  Beethovens, 
for  chorus,  soli,  and  orch.  Score, 
Tocal  score,  and  parts.    Kahnt. 

152.  Choruses  (8)  to  Herder's  '  Ent- 
fesseltem  Prometheus.'  Score, 
Tocal  score,  and  parts.  Kahnt. 
Pastorale  (Schnitterchor)  for 
P.F.  2  and  4  hands. 

153.  Fest-Album  for  Goethe  cen- 
tenary 0849).  Fest-Marsch;  1. 
Llcht!  mehrLlcht;  2.  Weimar's 
Todten  ;  3.  Ueber  alien  Gipfela 
1st  Ruh;  4.  Chor  der  Engel. 
Vocal  score  and  parts.  Schu- 
berth. 

154.  Wart  burg-  Lieder.  Einleit- 
ung and  6  Lieder.  Vocal  score. 
Kahnt. 

155.  Die  Glocken  des  Strassburger. 
Milnsters.  Baritone  solo,  chorus 
and  orch.  Score,  vocal  score, 
and  parts.  Schuberth.  '  Excel- 
sior' (Prelude)  for  Organ,  and 
P.  F.  2  and  4  hands. 

156.  Die  heillge  CScilla.  Mezzo- 
soprano,  chorus,  and  orch.,  or 
P.  F.,  harp,  and  harmonium. 
Score,  vocal  score,  and  parts. 
Kahnt. 


LISZT. 


LITANY. 


151 


4.   FOB  MEM'S  VOICES. 

157.  1.  Vereinslied  ;  2.  StSndchen ; 
8.  Wlr  slnd  nicht  Mumlen ;  4-6. 
Geharnischte  Lieder  (also  for 
P.  F.) ;  7.  Soldatenlied  ;  8.  Die 
at  ten  Sagen ;  9.  Saatengriin  ;  10. 
Her  Gang  urn  Mitternacht ;  11. 
Festlied ;  12.  Gottes  ist  der  Ori- 
ent.   Kahnt. 

158.  Das  dQstre  Meer.  Unter  alien 
Wipfeln.    Eck. 

159.  Vleratimmige  MSnnergesSnge. 
1.  Rheinwei  tilled  ;  2.  Studenten- 
lied;  3.  Belterlled ;  4.  Ditto. 
Schott. 

160.  An  die  Kiinstler.  With  orch. 
Kahnt. 

161.  Fest-Chor  (Herder-Memorial, 
1850).    Weber. 

162.  Festgesang.    Kiihn. 

163.  Da.«  Lied  der  Begeisterung. 
Taborszky  &  Farsch. 

164.  Was  ist  des  Deutscben  Vater- 
land ':    Schlesinger. 

165.  Weimar's  Volkslied.  Also  for 
Organ  and  F.F.,  2  and  4  bands. 
Kiihn. 

5.  Fob  Single  Voice  and  P.F. 

166.  Gesammelte  Lieder.    Kahnt. 

I.  Mignon's  Lied  (also  with  orch. 
accomp.  and  for  F.  F.) ;  2.  Es 
war  ein  Konlg  (also  for  P.  F.) ; 
3.  Der  du  vom  Himmel  bist 
(also  for  P.  F.);  4.  Freudvoll 
und  Leldvoll ;  5.  Wer  nie  sein 
Brod ;  6.  TJeber  alien  Gipfeln  ist 
Buh' ;  7.  Der  Fischerknabe  (also 
with  orch.) ;  8.  Der  Hirt  (also 
with  orch.) ;  9.  Der  AlpenjSger 
(also  with  orch.) ;  10.  Die  Loreley 
(also  with  orch.  and  for  P.F.). 

II.  Am  Rhein  (also  for  P.  F.)| 

12.  Vergiftet  slnd  mein  Lieder ; 

13.  Du  bist  wie  elne  Blame;  14. 


Anfangs   wollf   ich ;    15.   Mor-  ] 
gens  steh'  ich  auf ;  16.  Ein  Fich- 
tenbaum  (2);  17.  Comment  di- 
saient-ils?    18.   Oh!    quand    je  | 
dors ;  19.  S'il  est  un  charmant  , 
gazon ;  20.  Enfant  si  J'etais  Roi ;  | 
21.  Es  rauschen  die  Winde;  22. 
Wo  weilt  er?  23.  Nimm'  einen 
Strahl;     24.     Schwebe,     blaues   | 
Auge  ;   25.  Die  Vatergruft  i  26.   j 
Angiolin  dal  biondo  crin  (also 
for    P.  F.);     27.    Kllng    leise ;   ! 
28.  Es  muss  ein  Wunderbares 
sein  ;  29.  Mutter  Gottes  Strattss- 
lein  (1);  30.  Ditto  (2);  31.  Lasst 
mich  ruhen ;  32.  Wie  slngt  die  ' 
Lerche:   33.  In  Liebeslust;   34.   I 
Ich  mScbte  hingehn ;  35.  Non-  j 
nenwerth  (also  for  P.F.);   36. 
Jugendglttck ;  37.  Wieder  mOchf   I 
ich  dir  begegnen  ;  38.  Blume  und   | 
Duft ;  39.  Ich  liebe  dicta ;  40.  Die 
stille  Wasserrose;  41.  Wer  nie 
sein  Brod  ;  42.  Ich  scheide ;  43. 
Die  drei   Zlgeuner    (also  with 
orch.) ;  44.  Lebe  wohl ;  45.  Was 
Liebe  sei ;  46.  Die  todte  Nachti- 
gall ;    47.  Bist  du  ;    48.  Gebet  J 
49.    Ernst  ;     50.    An    Edlitam; 
51.  Dnd  sprich ;  52.  DleFischers- 
tochter  ;   53.  Bet  still ;   54.  Der 
GlQckliche ;  55.  Ihr  Glocken  von 
Marling.    Kahnt. 
167. II  maimait  tant (also for P J.) 
Schott. 

168.  Drel  Lieder.  l.fiohe  Liebe; 
2.  Gestorben  war  ich ;  3.  O  lieb' ; 
also  for  P.  F.  as  '  Liebestrfiume.' 
Kistner. 

169.  Tre  Sonetti  di  Petrarca. 
Haslinger. 

170.DieMachtderMusIk.  Kistner. 

171.  Jeanne  d'Arc  au  bucher,  Mez- 
zo-soprano and  Orch.,  or  P.  F. 
Schott. 

172.  Are  Maris  Stella.    Kahnt. 


VIII.    PIANOFORTE   ACCOMPANIMENT   TO   DECLAIMED 
POEMS. 


173.  Burger's  Leonore,  Kahnt ;  i 
Lenau's  Der  traurige  Munch,! 
Kahnt ;  Jokai's  Des  todten 
Dichters    Liebe,    Taborszky    A 


Parsch ;  Strachwitrs  Ilelge's 
Treue,  Schuberth  ;  Tolstoy's  Der 
bllnde  Sanger,  Bessel,  Peters- 
burg. 


II.    REVISED  EDITIONS  OF  CLASSICAL  WORKS. 


174.  BeethOTen.  i.  *  ii.  Sonatas 
complete,  iii.  Variations  for  F  J. 
solo.  IV.  Various  P.  F.  compo- 
sitions for  2  and  4  hands.  V. 
Duets  for  P.  F.  and  violin.  VI. 
Duets  for  F.F.  and  cello,  or  horn. 
VII.  Trios  for  P.F.,  violin,  and 
cello.  X.  Masses,  vocal  score. 
XIV.  String  quartets.  XV.  Trios 
for  strings,  wind  and  strings, 
and  wind  only.    Holle. 


175.  Field.    18  Nocturnes,   anno- 
|     tated.    Schuberth. 
1 176.  Hummel's    Septet ;    also    as 

quintet  for  F.F.  and  strings. 

Schuberth. 

177.  Schubert's  P.F.  Sonatas  and 
Solos  (selected) ;  2  vols.    Cotta. 

178.  Weber's   P.F.   Sonatas   and 
Solos ;  2  vols.    Cotta. 

1 179.  Viole's      Gartenlaube;      100 
1    Etudes  In  10  parts.    Kahnt. 


X.    LITERARY  WORKS. 

180.  De    la    Fondation-Goethe   a  185.  Ueber     Field's     Nocturnes  ; 
Weimar.    Brockhaus,  1851.  I    French  and  German.  Schuberth, 

181.  Lohengrin  et  Tannhftuser  de      1859. 

Richard    Wagner.     Brockhaus,  186.  Robert  Franz.  Leuckart,  1872. 

187.  Verschledene  Aufsfitze  In  der 
'Gazette  muslcale'de Paris, und 
in  der  Neuen  Zeitschrift  fur  Mu- 
sik.    Kahnt. 

188.  Schumann's  Musikalische 
Haus-  und  Lebens-regeln ;  trans- 
lated Into  French.  Schuberth, 
1860. 


1851. 

182.  R.  Wagner's  Lohengrin  und 
TannhSuser;  with  musical  il- 
lustrations.   Eyssen. 

183.  Fred.  Chopin.    B.  *  H.  1852. 

184.  Die  Zigeuner  und  ihre  Muslk 
in  Ungarn.    In    German    and 
Hungarian ;  the  former  revised 
by  Cornelius.   Heckenast,  Press- 1  p-ri    ,, 
burg,  1861.                                    I  L*  •  -"-J 

LITANI^E  LAUEETAN.E  (Litany  of  Lo- 
reto).  A  solemn  Litany,  sung  in  honour  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  Mary. 

It  is  no  longer  possible  to  ascertain  when, 
where,  or  by  whom,  this  Litany  was  originally 
written :  but,  if  we  may  trust  the  very  generally 
received  tradition  that  it  was  first  chaunted  at 
Loreto,  and  carried  thence,  by  Pilgrims,  to  all 
parts  of  the  world,  it  cannot  be  of  earlier  date 
than  the  closing  years  of  the  13th  century.     It 


has,  undoubtedly,  been  chaunted  there,  every 
evening,  from  time  immemorial.  In  other  places, 
it  is  most  frequently  sung,  either  in  solemn 
Processions,  or,  during  the  Exposition  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  at  Benediction :  but  its  use 
— especially  on  the  Continent — is  by  no  means 
restricted  to  those  particular  occasions.  In  Borne, 
for  instance,  it  is  constantly  sung,  at  almost  every 
popular  Service,  to  a  simple  Plain  Chaunt  melody, 
familiar  to  all  Italians,  and  printed,  in  its  purest 
form,  in  the  new  Batisbon  edition  of  the  '  Direc- 
torium  Chori.'  This  is,  probably,  the  oldest  music 
to  which  the  words  were  ever  adapted.  Its  date, 
like  theirs,  is  uncertain  :  but  it  is  at  least  old 
enough  to  have  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
great  Polyphonic  Composers  of  the  16th  century, 
Borne  of  whom  have  treated  it  in  their  best,  and 
most  devout  style,  and,  when  adopting  it  as  a 
Canto  fermo,  have  carefully  abstained  from  de- 
stroying the  simplicity  of  its  character  by  the 
introduction  of  vain  and  irrelevant  conceits. 

Palestrina  was  especially  devoted  to  the  Litany ; 
and,  in  1593,  published  a  volume,  containing,  in 
two  books,  ten  different  settings,  of  exquisite 
beauty,  composed  for  the  use  of  the  'Confraternity 
of  the  Holy  Bosary.'  One  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful divisions  of  the  work  is  reprinted  in  the 
fourth  volume  of  Proske's  'Musica  Divina' :  but 
a  great  number  of  the  Composer's  finest  Litanies 
still  remain  in  MS. 

Another  volume  of  Litanies,  by  various  authors, 
was  published  at  Munich,  in  1596,  by  Georgius 
Victorinus,  under  the  title  of  '  Thesaurus  Litani- 
arum.'  We  here  find,  among  other  interesting 
works,  a  charming  Litany,  by  Orlando  di  Lasso, 
founded  entirely  upon  the  Plain  Chaunt  Canto 
fermo,  and  so  simple  in  construction  that  the  most 
modest  Choir  need  feel  no  hesitation  in  attempting 
it.  This  Litany  is  also  reprinted,  entire,  in  the 
fourth  volume  of  '  Musica  Divina,'  together  with 
some  others  from  the  same  rare  work,  which,  for- 
tunately, is  not  the  only  collection  that  has  been 
preserved  to  us  from  the  1 6th  century.  Under 
the  title  of  Litanice  Catholicce  ad  Christum, 
Beatam  Virginem,  et  Sanctos,  a  highly  interest- 
ing work  was  printed  by  Wolfgang  Eder,  at 
Ingolstadt,  in  1589.  Another,  called  Sacra 
Litania  varies,  was  published  at  Antwerp,  in 
1595.  A  precious  volume,  believed  to  be  unique, 
wanting  the  title  and  first  nine  pages — and,  there- 
fore, without  date — is  preserved  in  the  Library 
bequeathed  byDr.Proske  to  the  cathedral  of  Batis- 
bon. And  many  other  printed  collections  are  still 
extant,  containing  quite  a  little  treasury  of  Art. 

At  Notre  Dame  de  Paris,  the  Litany  is  an- 
nually sung,  in  grand  Procession,  on  the  after- 
noon of  the  Feast  of  the  Assumption,  to  a  form 
of  the  First  Tone,  which,  set  with  the  melody 
in  the  Tenor,  produces  an  indescribably  solemn 
effect.  [W.S.R.] 

LITANY  (Old  Eng.  Letanie ;  Lat.  Litania ; 
Gr.  Xiravda,  a  Supplication).  A  solemn  form  of 
prayer  ;  sung,  by  Priests  and  Choir,  in  alternate 
Invocations  and  Besponses ;  and  found  in  most 
Office  -Books,  both  of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Church.     [See  Litanle,  etc.] 


152 


LITANY 


The  origin  of  the  Litany  may  be  traced  back 
to  a  period  of  very  remote  antiquity.  Its  use 
was,  probably,  first  instituted  in  the  East :  but  it 
was  certainly  sung,  at  Vienne,  in  France,  as  early 
as  the  year  450,  if  not  very  much  earlier.  The 
English  translation — of  which  alone  we  propose  to 
treat  in  the  present  article — was  first  published, 
without  musical  notes,  on  the  Twenty-seventh 
of  May,  1544 — five  years  before  the  appearance 
of  King  Edward  the  Sixth's '  First  Prayer-Book.' 
Three  weeks  later — on  the  Sixteenth  of  June — 
another  copy,  with  the  Plain  Chaunt  annexed, 
was  printed,  in  London,  by  Grafton ;  the  Priest's 
part  in  black  notes,  and  that  for  the  Choir,  in  red. 
It  would  seem,  however,  that  the  congregations  of 
that  day  were  not  quite  satisfied  with  unisonous 
Plain  Chaunt:  for,  before  the  end  of  the  year, 
Grafton  produced  a  third  copy,  set  for  five  voices, 
'according  to  thenotes  usedinthe  KyngesChapel.' 

This  early  translation  was,  in  all  probability, 
the  work  of  Archbishop  Cranmer,  who  refers  to 
it  in  a  letter  preserved  in  the  State  Paper  Office. 
And,  as  he  recommends  the  notes  (or  similar 
ones)  to  be  sung  in  a  certain  new  Procession 
which  he  had  prepared  by  the  King's  command, 
there  is  little  doubt  that  it  was  he  who  first 
adapted  the  English  words  to  the  ancient  Plain 
Chaunt.  If  this  surmise  be  correct,  it  supplies  a 
sufficient  reason  for  the  otherwise  unaccountable 
omission  of  the  Litany  in  Marbecke's  '  Booke  of 
Common  Praier  Noted.' 

In  the  year  1560 — and,  again,  in  1565 — John 
Day  printed,  under  the  title  of  '  Certaine  notes 
set  forth  in  foure  and  three  partes,  to  be  song  at 
the  Morning  Communion,  and  Evening  Prayer,' 
a  volume  of  Church  Music,  containing  a  Litany, 
for  four  voices,  by  Robert  Stone,  a  then  gentle- 
man of  the  Chapel  Royal.  According  to  the 
custom  of  the  time,  the  Canto  fermo  is  here 
placed  in  the  Tenor,  and  enriched  with  simple, 
but  exceedingly  pure  and  euphonious  harmonies, 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  following  example,  which 
will  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  whole. 


The  Rev.  J.  Jebb  has  carefully  reproduced  this 
interesting  composition,  in  his  'Choral  Responses 
and  Litanies ' ;  together  with  another  Litany  by 
Byrd,  (given  on  the  authority  of  a  MS.  preserved 
in  the  Library  of  Ely  Cathedral,)  and  several 
others  of  scarcely  inferior  merit.  The  only  parts 
of  Byrd's  Litany  now  remaining  are,  the  Cantus, 
and  Bassus  :  in  the  following  example,  therefore, 


LITANY. 

the  Altus,  and  Tenor,  (containing  the  Tlain 
Chaunt,)  are  restored,  in  accordance  with  the 
obvious  intention  of  the  passage,  in  small  notes. 


F^ 

1 — 1 = 

O     God  the     Fa  -  ther,  of   Heaven,  have     mer  -  cy  up  - 

,       J       J_j    , J      a         .     _       „■       „■        J ]_ 

"w 

-<S>— S> — tS> — ig»    '    • — <Si <&—<& •— • 

I     I 


i-hhr^r? 


abdfc 


hie      sin  -  tiers, 
(t) 


r~r 


P 


All  these  Litanies,  however,  and  many  others 
of  which  only  a  few  fragments  now  remain  to  us, 
were  destined  soon  to  give  place  to  the  still  finer 
setting  by  Thomas  Tallis.  Without  entering  into 
the  controversy  to  which  this  work  has  given  rise, 
we  may  assume  it  as  proved,  beyond  all  possibility 
of  doubt,  that  the  words  were  originally  set,  by 
Tallis,  in  four  parts,  with  the  Plain  Chaunt  in 
the  Tenor.  In  this  form,  both  the  Litany,  and 
Preces,  are  still  extant,  in  the  '  Clifford  MS.' 
(dated  1570),  on  the  authority  of  which  they  are 
inserted  in  the  valuable  collection  of  '  Choral 
Responses'  to  which  allusion  has  already  been 
made  :  and,  however  much  we  may  be  puzzled 
by  the  consecutive  fifths  in  the  Response,  '  And 
mercifully  hear  us  when  we  call  upon  Thee,'  and 
the  chord  of  the  £  in  '  We  beseech  Thee  to  hear 
us,  Good  Lord,'  we  cannot  but  believe  that  the 
venerable  transcription  is,  on  the  whole,  trust- 
worthy. Tallis's  first  Invocation,  which  we  sub- 
join from  the  '  Clifford  MS.,'  is,  alone,  sufficient  to 
show  the  grandeur  of  the  Composer's  conception. 


W: 


O    God    the  Fa-ther,  of  Heaven, have  n:er-cy  up  -  en 

A  J.J.J  A  T~-,\  -J  J  -U 


P=ttP=P 


zS: 


P 


!±=2 


rr-f 


ser  -  a    -  ble      sin 


"J     ri 


£ 


_^_ 


==H" 


F=ff 


More  than  one  modern  writer  has  condemned 
the  celebrated  five-part  Litany  printed  by  Dr. 
Boyce  as  an  impudent  corruption  of  this  four-part 
text.  Dean  Aldrich  goes  so  far  as  to  assure 
Dr.  Fell,  in  a  letter  still  extant,  that '  Barnard 
was  the  first  who  despoilt  it.'  The  assertion  is  a 
rash  one.  It  is  too  late,  now,  to  ascertain,  with 
any  approach  to  probability,  the  source  whence 
Barnard's  version,  printed  in  1641,  was,  in  the 


LITANY. 

first  instance,  derived.  There  are,  in  truth,  grave 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  forming  any  decided 
opinion  upon  the  subject.  Were  the  weakness 
of  an  unpractised  hand  anywhere  discernible  in 
the  counterpoint  of  the  later  composition,  one 
might  well  reject  it  as  an  'arrangement':  but  it 
would  be  absurd  to  suppose  that  any  Musician 
capable  of  deducing  the  five-part  Response, '  Good 
Lord,  deliver  us,'  from  that  in  four  parts,  would 
have  condescended  to  build  his  work  upon  an- 
other man's  foundation. 
From  the  4-part  Litany.  From  the  5-part  Litany. 


\~TtTT        rrrv 

Good  Lord,  de  -  II  -  ver  us.     Good  Lord,  de  -  li  -  ver 


US 


+^+ 


^rr-rr 


rT- 


m& 


f 


^s 


r 


The  next  Response,  '  We  beseech  Thee  to  hear 
us,  Good  Lord,'  presents  a  still  more  serious  crux. 
The  Canto  fermo  of  this  differs  so  widely  from 
any  known  version  of  the  Plain  Chaunt  melody 
that  we  are  compelled  to  regard  the  entire 
Response  as  an  original  composition.  Now,  so 
far  as  the  Cantus,  and  Bassus,  are  concerned,  the 
two  Litanies  correspond,  at  this  point,  exactly : 
but,  setting  all  prejudices  aside,  and  admitting 
the  third  chord  in  the  'Clifford  MS.'  to  be  a 
manifest  lapsus  calami,  we  have  no  choice  but  to 
confess,  that,  with  respect  to  the  mean  voices,  the 
advantage  lies  entirely  on  the  side  of  the  five-part 
harmony.  Surely,  the  writer  of  this  could — and 
would — have  composed  a  Treble  and  Bass  for 
himself ! 

From  the  '  Clifford  MS.* 


The  difficulties  we  have  pointed  out  with  re- 
gard to  these  two  Responses  apply,  with  scarcely 
diminished  force,  to  all  the  rest :  and,  the  more 
closely  we  investigate  the  internal  evidence 
afforded  by  the  double  text,  the  more  certainly 
shall  we  be  driven  to  the  only  conclusion  de- 
ducible  from  it ;  namely,  that  Tallis  has  left  us 
two  Litanies,  one  for  four  voices,  and  the  other 
for  five,  both  founded  on  the  same  Plain  Chaunt, 
and  both  harmonised  on  the  same  Basses,  though 
developed,  in  other  respects,  in  accordance  with 
the  promptings  of  two  totally  distinct  ideas. 


LIVERPOOL  MUSICAL  FESTIVALS.   153 

The  four-part  Litany  has  never,  we  believe, 
been  published  in  a  separate  form.  The  best 
edition  of  that  in  five  parts  is,  undoubtedly, 
Dr.  Boyce's ;  though  Messrs.  Oliphant,  and  John 
Bishop,  have  done  good  service,  in  their  respective 
reprints,  by  adapting,  to  the  music  of  the  Preces, 
those  'latter  Suffrages,'  which,  having  no  place 
in  the  First  Prayer-Book  of  King  Edward  VI, 
were  not  set  by  any  of  the  old  Composers.  Some 
later  editions,  in  which  an  attempt  has  been 
made  at  'restoration,'  have,  it  is  to  be  feared, 
only  resulted  in  depraving  the  original  text  to  a 
degree  previously  unknown.  [W.  S.  R.] 

LITOLFF,  Henkt  Charles,  was  born  in  Lon- 
don Feb.  6,  1818.  His  father,  a  French  Alsatian 
soldier  taken  prisoner  by  the  English  in  the 
Peninsular  War,  had  settled  in  London  as  a 
violinist  after  the  declaration  of  peace,  and  had 
married  an  Englishwoman.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  year  1831  Henry  Litolff  was  brought  by  his 
father  to  Moscheles,  who  on  hearing  the  boy  play 
was  so  much  struck  by  his  unusual  talent,  that 
he  offered  to  take  him  gratis  as  a  pupil ;  and 
under  his  generous  care  Litolff  studied  for  several 
years.  He  made  his  first  appearance  (or  one  of 
his  first)  at  Covent  Garden  Theatre  July  24, 
1832,  as  'a  pupil  of  Moscheles,  12  years  of  age.' 
In  his  1 7th  year  a  marriage  of  which  the  parents 
disapproved  obliged  him  to  leave  England  and 
settle  for  a  time  in  France.  For  several  years 
after  this  event  Litolff  led  a  wandering  life,  and 
during  this  period  he  visited  Paris,  Brussels, 
Leipzig,  Prague,  Dresden,  Berlin.and  Amsterdam, 
giving  in  these  towns  a  series  of  very  successful 
concerts.  In  1851  he  went  to  Brunswick,  and 
undertook  there  the  business  of  the  late  music- 
publisher  Meyer.  In  i860  he  transferred  this 
business  to  his  adopted  son,  Theodor  Litolff,  and 
he,  in  1861,  started  the  well-known  'Collection 
Litolff,'  as  a  cheap  and  accurate  edition  of  clas- 
sical music,  which  was  among  the  earliest  of  the 
many  series  of  similar  size  and  aim  now  existing. 
It  opened  with  the  sonatas  of  Beethoven,  Mozart, 
and  Haydn  (vols.  1-4).  Henry  Litolff  himself 
went  to  Paris,  where  he  has  since  resided. 

As  a  pianist  Litolff 's  rank  is  high ;  fire,  passion, 
and  brilliancy  of  execution  were  combined  with 
thought  and  taste  in  his  playing.  Had  it  been 
also  correct,  it  would  have  reached  the  highest 
excellence.  In  his  works,  however,  there  is  great 
inequality ;  beautiful  and  poetic  ideas  are  often 
marred  by  repetition  and  a  want  of  order,  and 
knowing  what  the  author's  true  capacity  is,  the 
result  is  a  feeling  of  •disappointment.  About  115 
of  his  works,  including  several  operas,  have  been 
published.  Among  the  best  of  them  may  be 
reckoned  some  of  his  pianoforte  pieces,  such  as 
the  well-known '  Spinnlied,'  a  few  of  his  overtures 
and  his  symphony-concertos,  especially  nos.  3,1  4, 
and  5  ;  the  latter  are  remarkable  for  their  wealth 
of  original  ideas  in  harmony,  melody,  and  rhythm, 
and  for  their  beautiful  instrumentation.  [A.H.W.] 

LIVERPOOL  MUSICAL  FESTIVALS. 
These  have  not  taken  place  with  regularity.  The 

>  Hayed  at  the  Crystal  Talace.  by  Mr.  Oscar  Beringcr,  March  28. 1871. 


154  LIVERPOOL  MUSICAL  FESTIVALS. 


LOBKOWITZ. 


first  was  held  in  1784,  the  next  in  1790,  and  the 
next  in  1799.  They  were  then  suspended  till 
1823,  1830,  and  1836  (Oct.  4-7,  Sir  G.  Smart 
conductor),  when  Mendelssohn's  'St.  Paul'  was 
performed  for  the  second  time,  and  for  the  first 
time  in  England.  Up  to  this  date  the  concerts 
had  been  held  in  churches,  but  the  next  Festival 
took  place  at  the  Philharmonic  Hall  in  1874 
(Sept.  29-Oct.  1) — conductor  Sir  Julius  Benedict. 
The  St.  George's  Hall,  containing  rooms  avail- 
able for  music,  was  opened  in  September  1854. 

Liverpool  has  a  Philharmonic  Society,  which 
was  founded  Jan.  10,  1840,  and  opened  its  hall 
Aug.  27,  49.  There  are  twelve  concerts  every 
year,  six  before  and  six  after  Christmas.  Sir 
Julius  Benedict  succeeded  Mr.  Alfred  Mellon  as 
conductor  April  9,  67,  and  has  been  conductor 
ever  since. — The  Liverpool  Musical  Society, 
which  formerly  gave  oratorio  concerts  in  St. 
George's  Hall,  has  been  extinct  since  1877. — The 
St.  George's  Hall  has  a  very  fine  organ  by 
Willis,  on  which  performances  are  given  by  Mr. 
W.  T.  Best  on  Thursday  evenings  and  Saturday 
afternoons  and  evenings. — Orchestral  concerts 
are  given  by  Mr.  Charles  Halle  during  the 
winter  season  in  the  Philharmonic  Hall.        [G.] 

LLOYD,  Edwaed — son  of  Richard  Lloyd, 
chorister,  and  afterwards  assistant  lay  vicar  of 
Westminster  Abbey,  and  assistant  vicar  choral  of 
St.  Paul's  (born  March  12,  1813,  died  June  28, 
1853),  and  Louisa,  sister  of  Dr.  John  Larkin 
Hopkins — was  born  March  7, 1 845,  and  received 
his  early  musical  education  in  the  choir  of  West- 
minster Abbey  under  James  Turle.  In  1 866  he 
obtained  the  appointment  of  tenor  singer  in  the 
chapel  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  which  he 
resigned  in  1867  on  being  appointed  a  Gentleman 
of  the  Chapel  Royal,  a  post  which  he  held  about 
two  years.  He  has  since  devoted  himself  en- 
tirely to  concert  singing.  He  made  his  first  great 
success  at  Gloucester  Festival,  in  1871,  in  Bach's 
St.  Matthew  Passion -music,  and  in  1874  won 
universal  admiration  by  his  singing  of  '  Love  in 
her  eyes  sits  playing '  at  the  Handel  Festival  at  the 
Crystal  Palace.  He  has  since  gained  increased 
reputation  as  an  oratorio  and  concert  singer. 
His  voice  is  a  pure  tenor  of  excellent  quality,  and 
his  style  musician-like  and  finished.     [W.H.H.] 

LOBE,  Johann  Christian,  musician,  and 
writer  on  music  of  some  eminence,  was  born  May 
30,  1797,  at  Weimar,  and  owed  his  musical  in- 
struction to  the  Grand  Duchess  Maria  Paulowna. 
The  flute  was  his  instrument,  and  after  perform- 
ing a  solo  at  the  Gewandhaus,  Leipzig,  in  1 8 1 1 ,  he 
settled  at  his  native  place  as  second  flute  in  the 
Duke's  band.  He  has  written  five  operas,  be- 
sides overtures  for  the  orchestra,  P.F.  quartets, 
and  other  compositions.  But  it  is  as  a  littera- 
teur that  he  is  most  interesting  to  us.  He 
resigned  his  place  at  Weimar  in  1842,  and  in 
46  undertook  the  editing  of  the  Allgem.  mus. 
Zeitung  of  Leipzig,  which  he  retained  until  the 
termination  of  that  periodical  in  48.  In  1853  he 
began  a  publication  called  '  Fliegende  Blatter  fur 
Musik,  of  which  about  20  numbers  were  pub- 
lished ;  he  then  edited  the  musical  department  of 


the  Leipzig  Illustrirter  Zeitung,  and  made  end- 
less contributions  to  other  periodicals.  His  prin- 
cipal books,  some  of  which  have  appeared  first  in 
the  periodicals,  are  '  Musikalische  Briefe  . . .  von 
einer  Wohlbekannten,'  2  vols,  Leipzig,  1852  ; 
'  Aus  dem  Leben  eines  Musiker'  (lb.  59)  ;  a 
Catechism  of  Composition,  and  another  of  Music 
( both  have  been  translated1) ;  '  Consonanzen  und 
Dissonanzen'  (lb.  1870);  Lehrbuch  der  musik- 
alischen  Composition  (4  vols.  lb.  1851  to  67). 
To  the  amateur  student  these  works  are  all 
valuable,  because  they  treat  of  the  science  of 
music  in  a  plain  and  untechnical  way,  and  are 
full  of  intelligence  and  good  sense.  The  Musik- 
alische Briefe,  a  series  of  short  sketches  of  the 
progress  of  music  and  of  the  characteristics  of 
musicians,  will  be  read  with  interest  by  many. 
Some  conversations  with  Mendelssohn  appear 
to  be  faithfully  reported,  and  bring  out  some  of 
his  traits  in  a  very  amusing  manner.  [G.] 

LOBGESANG,  eine  Symphonie-Cantate.  A 
well-known  work  of  Mendelssohn's  (op.  52), 
composed  for  the  Gutenberg  festival,  and  first 
performed  at  the  church  of  S.  Thomas,  Leipzig, 
in  the  afternoon  of  June  25,  1840.  The  form  of 
the  work  is  no  doubt  due  to  Beethoven's  9th 
Symphony,  and  in  Germany  it  is  taken  as  the 
third  of  his  published  symphonies.  It  was 
performed  the  second  time  at  Birmingham, 
Sept.  23,  1840  (Mendelssohn  conducting) ;  and 
after  this  performance  was  considerably  altered 
throughout  —  including  the  addition  of  the 
entire  scene  of  the  Watchman — and  published 
by  Breitkopfs  early  in  1841.  First  performances, 
as  published — Leipzig,  Dec.  3,  1840  ;  London, 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society,  March  10, 1843.  The 
selection  of  the  words  was  doubtless  in  great 
measure  Mendelssohn's  own,  though  the  title 
'Symphonie-Cantate'  was  Klingemann's. l  The 
English  adaptation  was  made  with  his  concur- 
rence by  Mr.  J.  A.  Novello,  to  whom  more  of 
the  English  texts  of  Mendelssohn's  works  are 
due  than  is  generally  known.  The  phrase  (a 
favourite  one  with  Mendelssohn)  with  which  the 
symphony  opens,  and  which  forms  the  coda  to 
the  entire  work,  is  the  Intonation  to  the  2nd 
Tone  for  the  Magnificat.  [G.] 

LOBKOWITZ.  A  noble  and  distinguished 
Austrian  family,  founded  early  in  the  15th 
century,  by  Nicholas  Chuzy  von  Ujezd,  and 
deriving  its  name  from  a  place  in  Bohemia.  The 
country  seat  of  the  family  is  at  Raudnitz,  near 
Theresienstadt,  and  its  town  residence  is  the  well- 
known  palace  on  the  Lobkowitz-Platz,  Vienna. 
Two  princes  of  this  race  have  been  closely  and 
honourably  connected  with  music.  I.  Ferdinand 
Philip  was  born  at  Prague  April  17,  1724.  By 
the  death  of  his  father  and  two  elder  brothers  he 
became  the  head  of  the  house  before  he  was  15. 
Gluck  was  in  his  service,  and  was  much  aided 
in  his  early  success  by  the  assistance  of  the 
Prince.  The  two  were  present  together  at  the 
coronation  of  Francis  I.  (Sept.  28,  1745) ;  after 
which  they  went  to  London  in  company  with  the 

1  See  Ueadeluohn's  Letter,  Nov.  18, 1840. 


LOBKOWITZ. 

Duke  of  Newcastle,  who  had  represented  the 
English  Court  at  the  coronation.  There  •  Lobko- 
witz  is  said  to  have  lived  in  a  house  of  the 
Duke's  for  two  years,  and  it  was  during  this  time 
that  Gluck  produced  his  operas  at  the  King's 
Theatre,  and  appeared  in  public  in  the  strange 
character  of  a  performer  on  the  musical  glasses. 
[See  Gluck,  vol.  i.  601  o;  Harmonica,  662  a.] 
A  story  is  told  by  Burney  of  his  having  com- 
posed a  symphony  bar  by  bar  alternately 
with  Emanuel  Bach.  The  feat  was  an  absurd 
one,  but  it  at  least  shows  that  he  had  con- 
siderable practical  knowledge  of  music.  He 
died  at  Vienna,  Jan.  11,  1784,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Josef  Franz  Maximilian, 
born  Dec.  7,  1772.  This  is  the  prince  whose 
name  is  so  familiar  to  us  in  connection  with 
Beethoven.  He  seems,  notwithstanding  the 
temptations  of  his  immense  early  wealth,  to  have 
been  an  exemplary  character,  with  no  vices,  and 
with  no  fault  but  an  inconsiderate  generosity 
rising  to  prodigality,  which  ultimately  proved 
his  ruin.  He  married  Princess  Marie  Caroline 
Schwarzenberg,  Aug.  2,  1792.  His  taste  for 
music  was  an  absorbing  passion.  He  played 
both  violin  and  cello,  and  had  a  splendid  bass 
voice,  which  he  cultivated  thoroughly  and  with 
success.  He  maintained  a  complete  establish- 
ment of  orchestra,  solo  and  chorus  singers,  with 
Wranitzky  and  Cartellieri  at  their  head,  for  the 
performances  of  masses,  oratorios,  operas,  sym- 
phonies, etc.  When  Beethoven  arrived  at  Vienna 
in  Nov.  1792,  Lobkowitz  was  twenty,  and  the 
two  young  men  soon  became  extremely  intimate. 
True,  beyond  the  frequent  mention  of  his  name 
in  Ries's  Recollections,  there  is  not  much 
definite  proof  of  this 2 ;  but  it  is  conclusively 
shown  by  the  works  dedicated  to  him  by  Bee- 
thoven ;  for  we  must  remember  that  the  dedication 
of  a  work  by  this  most  independent  of  composers, 
was,  in  nineteen  cases  out  of  twenty,  a  proof  of 
esteem  and  affection.  The  works  are  these — and 
excepting  those  inscribed  with  the  name  of  the 
Archduke  Rudolph  they  form  the  longest  and 
most  splendid  list  of  all  his  dedications  : — 6 
Quartets,  op.  18  (1801);  Sinfonia  Eroica,  op.  55 
(1806)  ;  Triple  Concerto,  op.  56  (1807)  5  tne 
5th  and  6th  Symphonies — in  C  minor  and  Pas- 
torale (1809)  —  shared  by  Lobkowitz  with 
Rasumowsky ;  Quartet  in  Eb.op.  74  (18 10)  ;  and 
the  Liederkreis,  op.  98  (1 816).  We  must  not  sup- 
pose that  the  course  of  such  a  friendship  as  this  be- 
tokens was  always  smooth ;  the  anecdote  told  on 
p.  167  of  vol.  i.  of  this  work,  shows  that  Prince 
Lobkowitz,  like  all  the  intimates  of  Beethoven, 
and  other  men  of  genius,  had  occasionally  a  good 
deal  to  put  up  with.  No  doubt  the  Prince  was  a 
kind  and  generous  friend  to  the  composer.  It 
was  he  who  advised  him  to  apply  for  the  position 
of  composer  to  the  opera,  and  promoted  two  pro- 
fitable concerts  for  him  in  his  own  palace  and 
with  his  own  band  in  1807.  Two  years  later 
he  joined  Kinsky  and  the  Archduke  in  subscrib- 

1  Comp.  Burner,  Hist.  iv.  452. 

*  Beethoven  nicknames  him  'Prince  Fltzll  PutzlT— but  then  he 
nicknames  every  one. 


LOCATELLL 


155 


ing  to  Beethoven's  annuity,  contributing  700 
florins  (paper)  per  annum.  On  Jan.  1,  1807,  an 
association  of  noblemen,  with  Lobkowitz  at  its 
head,  took  charge  of  the  Court  theatres,  and 
during  1810,  11,  and  12,  the  Prince  had  the  sole 
direction  of  the  opera.  The  anecdotes  by  eye- 
witnesses of  his  tact  and  generosity  in  this  posi- 
tion are  many,  but  we  have  no  room  for  them 
here.  Nor  are  others  wanting  to  testify  to  his 
enlightened  zeal  in  reference  to  other  musicians 
beside  Beethoven.  He  was  one  of  the  promoters 
and  founders  of  the  great  '  Gesellschaft  der 
Musikfreunde '  in  Vienna,  and  sang  the  bass 
solos  at  the  second  performance  of  Alexander's 
Feast,  Dec.  3,  1812  [See  Vol.  i.  p.  591].  He 
had  Haydn's  '  Creation '  translated  into  Bohe- 
mian, and  performed  it  at  Raudnitz.  In  addi- 
tion to  his  great  expenditure  on  music,  he,  like 
Kinsky,  raised,  equipped,  and  maintained  a  body 
of  riflemen  during  the  campaign  of  1809.  At 
length  came  the  depreciation  in  the  Austrian 
currency,  the  bankruptcy  of  the  Government,  and 
the  Finance-patent  of  181 1.  Lobkowitz  was 
unable  to  change  his  habits  or  reduce  his  ex- 
penditure, and  in  1813  his  affairs  were  put  into 
the  hands  of  trustees,  and  he  left  Vienna  for  the 
smaller  spheres  of  Prague  and  Raudnitz.  By 
the  Finance-patent  Beethoven's  700  florins  were 
reduced  to  280  flor.  26  kr.  in  Einlosungsscheine 
— all  that  the  trustees  had  power  to  pay.  Bee- 
thoven was  clamorous,  and  his  letters  are  full 
of  complaints  against  the  Prince — most  unjust  as 
it  turned  out,  for  early  in  181 5,  through  the 
Prince's  own  exertions  the  original  amount  was 
restored  with  arrears.  Beethoven  acknowledged 
this  by  the  dedication  of  the  Liederkreis.  On 
Jan.  24,  1816,  the  Princess  Lobkowitz  died,  and 
in  less  than  a  year,  on  Dec.  16,  i8i6»  was  followed 
by  her  husband.3  [A.  W.  T.] 

LOCATELLI,  Pietro,  a  celebrated  violinist, 
was  born — like  Lolli  and  Piatti — at  Bergamo 
in  1693,  and  was  still  very  young  when  he 
became  a  pupil  of  Corelli  at  Rome.  Very  little 
is  known  of  his  life,  but  he  appears  to  have 
travelled  a  good  deal,  and  finally  to  have  settled 
at  Amsterdam,  where  he  established  regular 
public  concerts,  and  died  in  1 764. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  Locatelli  was  a 
great  and  original  virtuoso.  As  a  composer  we 
must  distinguish  between  a  number  of  caprices 
and  e'tudes — which  he  evidently  wrote  merely 
for  practice,  to  suit  his  exceptional  powers  of 
execution,  and  which  have  no  musical  value — and 
the  sonatas  and  concertos,  which  contain  very 
graceful  and  pathetic  movements,  and  certainly 
prove  him  to  have  been  an  excellent  musician. 
In  these  serious  works  he  certainly  shows  him- 
self as  a  worthy  disciple  of  his  great  master. 
All  the  more  striking  is  the  contrast  when  we 
look  at  his  caprices  and  etudes.  Here  his  sole 
aim  appears  to  have  been  to  endeavour  to 
enlarge  the  powers  of  execution  on  the  violin  at 
any  price,  and  no  doubt  in  this  respect  he  has 
succeeded  only  too  well;  for,  not  content  with 

■  For  fuller  details  of  the  Lobkowitz  family  the  reader  Is  referred  to  a 
paper  by  Mr.  Thayer  in  the  Musical  World  of  May  17, 24.  31, 1879. 


156 


LOCATELLI. 


legitimately  developing  the  natural  resources  of 
the  instrument,  he  oversteps  all  reasonable  limits, 
and  aims  at  effects  which,  being  adverse  to  the 
very  nature  of  the  violin,  are  neither  beautiful 
nor  musical,  but  ludicrous  and  absurd.  A 
striking  example  of  this  tendency  of  his  is  to 
be  found  in  a  caprice  entitled,  •  Le  Labyrinth,' 
where  the  following  arpeggio  passages  occur : — 


Ji 


ll± 


ii 


i 


w 


and 


P? 


r 


■a. 


3 


w- 


Op.  1.  Twelve  concert!  grossi.  Am- 
sterdam, 1721. 

2.  Sonatas  for  flute.    Amster- 

dam, 1732. 

3.  L'arte  del  violino,  contain- 

ing 12  concert!  grossi  and 
24  caprices.    173S. 

4.  Six  concertos.  1735. 

5.  Six  sonatas  en  trio.  1737. 


~P      etc] 

This  savours  strongly  of  charlatanism,  and  it 
is  astonishing  to  find  a  direct  pupil  of  Corelli 
one  of  the  first  to  introduce  such  senseless  feats 
of  execution  into  the  art  of  violin-playing. 
Wasielewsky  not  unjustly  speaks  of  him  as  the 
great-grandfather  of  our  modern  '  Finger-heroes  ' 
(Fingerhelden). 

Locatelli  published  ten  different  'works:— 

Op.   6.  Six  sonatas  for  violin  solo. 
1737. 

7.  Six  concert!  a  quattro.  1741. 

8.  Trios.  2  violins  and  bass. 
1741. 

9.  L'arte  di  nuova  modulazi- 
one.  Caprices  enigma- 
tiques. 

10.  Contrasto  armonico:  con- 
certos a  quattro. 

Modern  editions  of  some  of  his  Sonatas  and 
Caprices  have  been  issued  by  Witting,  Alard,  and 
David.  His  Sonata  di  Camera  in  G  minor  has 
lately  been  played  at  the  Monday  Popular  Con- 
certs by  Mme.  Norman  Neruda.  [P.  D.] 

LOCHABER  NO  MORE,  an  air  claimed  both 
for  Scotland  and  Ireland,  of  which  some  two  or 
three  versions  are  extant.  The  source  of  these 
is  in  Ssottish  minstrelsy  called  '  Lord  Ronald 
(or,  according  to  Sir  W.  Scott,  Eandal)  mjT  son.' 
The  air  in  Ireland  is  known  as  '  Limerick's 
lamentation,'  from  a  tradition  associating  its 
plaintive  melody  with  the  events  that  followed 
the  second  capitulation  of  Limerick,  in  1690,  when 
at  the  embarkation  of  the  Irish  soldiery  at  Cork 
for  France,  their  wives  and  children  were  forc- 
ibly separated  from  them  under  circumstances 
of  unusual  barbarity.  The  Scottish  and  Irish 
airs  are  here  compared. 

'  Lord  Ronald  my  son '  (one  strain  only). 


EfcGEH^B  "  I  '        *»^  I    k. 


1  From  I?<!tis, '  Biogr.  Universelle.' 


LOCHABER  NO  MORE. 

'  Limerick's  Lamentation.' 


*=r 


;  Lodiaber.' 


iTaTJ.l,ri|J..r.rili1jJ3|JJj3 


wm 


tanns 


1— t-f 


^ 


i^3P=S5?i=£ffff?^RI 


The  verses  'Farewell  to  Lochaber,'  ending 
'And  then  I'll  leave  thee  and  Lochaber  no 
more,'  were  written  by  Allan  Ramsay.  Burns 
recovered  in  Ayrshire  two  verses  of  the  old 
ballad  '  Lord  Ronald,'  in  conjunction  with  this 
tune :  he  is  recorded  to  have  exclaimed,  on 
hearing  Lochaber  played  on  the  harpsichord, 
'  Oh,  that  '8  a  fine  tune  for  a  broken  heart ! ' 

The  Irish  air  lies  in  the  fourth  and  last  of  the 
scales  given  in  the  article  on  Irish  Music  [vol. 
ii.  p.  20  a],  having  its  semitones  between  3  and  4, 
6  and  7 ;  it  is  also  marked  by  traces  of  the 
narrative  form  characteristic  of  ancient  Irish 
melody.  In  the  Leyden  MS.,  a  Scottish  relic  of 
1690  or  thereabouts,  in  tablature  for  the  Lyra- 
Viol,  a  tune  closely  allied  to  the  above  airs 
is  given  as  'King  James'  March  to  JrlamV 
James  is  known  to  have  landed  at  Kinsale, 
March  12,  1689.  On  comparison  of  the  ver- 
sions, in  bar  6  of  the  1st  and  bar  3  of  the  2nd 
strain  the  Irish  air  appears  to  most  advantage  : 
the  skip  of  a  major  ninth  in  Lochaber  is  most 
likely  a  corruption :  it  is  certainly  characteristic 
of  neither  Irish  nor  Scottish  melody  :  Mr.  Moore 
(who  is  supported  both  by  Bunting  and  Holden 
in  claiming  for  Ireland  this  beautiful  air)  is  in 
his  prefaces  to  the  Irish  Melodies  rather  severe 
upon  the  Scots  for  stealing  not  only  Irish  airs, 
but  Irish  saints. 

An  interesting  example  of  the  effect  of 
'  Lochaber  no  more '  is  given  by  Robert  Nicholl. 
■  During  the  expedition  to  Buenos  Ayres,  a  High- 
land soldier  while  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of  the 


LOCHABER  NO  MORE. 

Spaniards,  having  formed  an  attachment  to 
a  woman  of  the  country,  and  charmed  by  the 
easy  life  which  the  tropical  fertility  of  the  soil 
enabled  them  to  lead,  had  resolved  to  remain 
and  settle  in  South  America.  When  he  im- 
parted this  resolution  to  his  comrade,  the  latter 
did  not  argue  with  him,  but,  leading  him  to  his 
tent,  he  placed  him  by  his  side,  and  sang  him 
"  Lochaber  no  more."  The  spell  was  on  him,  the 
tears  came  into  his  eyes,  and  wrapping  his  plaid 
around  him,  he  murmured  "Lochaber  nae  mair — 

I  maun  gang  back — Na ! "  The  songs  of  his 
childhood  were  ringing  in  his  ears,  and  he  left 
that  land  of  ease  and  plenty  for  the  naked  rocks 
and  sterile  valleys  of  Badenoch,  where,  at  the 
close  of  a  life  of  toil  and  hardship,  he  might  lay 
his  head  in  his  mother's  grave.'  [R.P.S.] 

LOCK,  Matthew,  born  at  Exeter,  was  a 
chorister  of  the  cathedral  there  under  Edward 
Gibbons,  and  afterwards  studied  under  Wake. 
He  and  Christopher  Gibbons  composed  the  music 
for  Shirley's  masque,  '  Cupid  and  Death,'  '  repre- 
sented at  the  Military  Ground  in  Leicester  Fields' 
before  the  Portuguese  Ambassador,  March  26, 
1653.  In  1656  he  published  his  'Little  Consort 
of  Three  Parts '  for  viols  or  violins,  composed,  as 
he  tells  us,  at  the  request  of  his  old  master  and 
friend,  William  Wake,  for  his  scholars.  He 
composed  the  music,  '  for  ye  king's  sagbutts  and 
cornets,'  performed  during  the  progress  of  Charles 

II  from  the  Tower  through  the  city  to  Whitehall 
on  April  22,  1661,  the  day  before  his  coronation, 
for  which  he  received  the  appointment  of  Com- 
poser in  Ordinary  to  the  King.  He  composed 
several  anthems  for  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  on 
April  1, 1666,  produced  there  a  Kyrie  and  Credo, 
in  which  he  departed  from  the  ordinary  usage 
by  composing  different  music  to  each  response. 
This  occasioned  some  opposition  on  the  part  of 
the  choir,  in  consequence  of  which  he  published 
his  composition,  with  an  angry  preface,  on  a 
folio  sheet,  under  the  title  of  '  Modern  Church 
Music ;  Pre-Accused,  Censur'd,  and  Obstructed 
in  its  Performance  before  His  Majesty,  April  1, 
1666,  Vindicated  by  the  Author,  Matt.  Lock, 
Composer  in  Ordinary  to  His  Majesty.'  (Of  this 
publication,  now  excessively  rare,  there  is  a  copy 
in  the  library  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society). 
To  this  period  may  probably  be  assigned  the  pro- 
duction of  13  anthems  for  3  and  4  voices,  all 
contained  in  the  same  autograph  MS.,  which 
Roger  North  describes  as  '  Psalmes  to  musick  in 
parts  for  the  use  of  some  vertuoso  ladyes  in  the 
city.'  Soon  afterwards,  having,  it  is  supposed, 
become  a  convert  to  the  Romish  faith,  he  was 
appointed  organist  to  the  queen.  He  had  in 
1664  composed  'the  instrumental,  vocal,  and 
recitative  music'  for  Sir  Robert  Stapylton's  tragi- 
comedy, 'The  Stepmother,'  and  in  1670  renewed 
his  connection  with  the  theatre  by  furnishing  the 
instrumental  music  for  Dryden  and  Davenant's 
alteration  of  'The  Tempest,'  the  vocal  music 
being  supplied  by  Humfrey  and  Banister.  In 
1672  Davenant's  alteration  of  'Macbeth,'  with 
the  songs  and  choruses  from  MiddlttonV  Witch' 
introduced,  was  produced  at  the  theatre  in  Dorset 


LOCK. 


157 


Garden  ;  and  Downes,  the  prompter,  in  his  '  Ros- 
cius  Anglicanus,'  1706,  expressly  states  that  the 
vocal  music  was  composed  by  Lock.  The  very 
remarkable  music  then  performed  remained  un- 
published until  about  the  middle  of  the  last 
century,  when  it  appeared  under  the  editorial 
care  of  Dr.  Boyce,  with  Lock's  name  as  composer, 
and  as  his  it  was  long  undisputedly  accepted. 
But  Downes's  proved  inaccuracy  in  some  other 
things  at  length  occasioned  doubts  of  the  correct- 
ness of  his  statement  as  to  the  authorship  of  the 
Macbeth  music,  and  eventually  Lock's  right  to  it 
was  denied  and  its  composition  claimed  by  some 
for  Purcell,  by  others  for  Eccles,  and  by  others 
again  for  Leveridge.  No  positive  proof  however 
has  been  adduced  in  support  of  any  one  of  these 
claims,  and  until  such  is  forthcoming  it  would 
be  premature  to  set  aside  the  long  standing  tra- 
ditional attribution  of  the  music  to  Lock.  [See 
Macbeth  Music]  In  1673  Lock  composed 
the  music  (with  the  exception  of  the  act  tunes, 
by  Draghi)  for  Shad  well's  'Psyche,'  which  he 
published  in  1675,  under  the  title  of 'The  Eng- 
lish Opera,'  together  with  his  'Tempest'  music, 
prefaced  by  some  observations,  written  with  his 
usual  asperity,  but  curious  as  an  exposition  of 
his  views  of  the  proper  form  for  opera.  The 
work  itself  is  constructed  upon  the  model  of 
Lully's  operas.  In  1672  an  extraordinary  con- 
troversy commenced  between  Lock  and  Thomas 
Salmon,  who  had  published  'An  Essay  to  the 
Advancement  of  Musick  by  casting  away  the 
perplexity  of  different  cliffs  and  writing  all  sorts 
of  musick  in  one  universal  character.'  Lock  at- 
tacked the  work  in  'Observations  upon  a  late 
book  entitled  An  Essay  etc.,'  written  in  a  most 
acrimonious  and  abusive  tone,  to  which  Salmon 
replied  in  '  A  Vindication '  of  his  essay,  bristling 
with  scurrility,  and  Lock  in  1673  retorted  in 
'The  Present  Practice  of  Music  vindicated  &c. 
To  which  is  added  Duellum  Musicum,  by  John 
Phillips  [Milton's  nephew].  Together  with  % 
Letter  from  John  Playford  to  Mr.  T.  Salmon  in 
confutation  of  his  Essay,'  which  closed  the  dis- 
pute. Of  its  merits  it  is  sufficient  to  observe 
that  the  old  practice  has  continued  in  use  to  this 
day,  whilst  Salmon's  proposed  innovation  was 
never  accepted,  and  probably,  but  for  the  notice 
taken  of  it  by  Lock,  would  have  long  ago  passed 
into  oblivion.  In  1673  Lock  published  a  small 
treatise  entitled  '  Melothesia,  or  Certain  General 
Rules  for  playing  upon  a  Continued  Bass,  with  a 
choice  Collection  of  Lessons  for  the  Harpsichord  or 
Organ  of  all  sorts,'  said  to  be  the  first  of  the  kind 
published  in  England.1  His  compositions  were 
numerous  and  various.  His  anthem,  'Lord,  let 
me  know  mine  end,'  was  printed  by  Boyce,  and 
several  other  anthems  exist  in  MS.  in  the  Tudway 
collection,  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum,  at  West- 
minster Abbey,  Ely,  and  elsewhere.  Some  an- 
thems and  Latin  hymns  are  in  'Cantica  Sacra, 
2nd  set,'  1674 ;  some  hymns  in  '  Harmonia  Sacra,' 
1688   and   1714;    songs    in  'The  Treasury  of 

'  William  Penny's '  Art  of  Composition,  or.  Directions  to  play  a 
Thorow  Bass '  is  mentioned  in  Clarel's '  Catalogue  of  Books  printed  In 
England  since  the  Dreadful  Fire,'  1670,  and  In  a  catalogue  of  Henry 
l'la}  ford's,  but  no  copy  has  been  found. 


158 


LOCK. 


LODER. 


Musick,'  1669  ;  'Choice  Ayres,  Songs  and  Dia- 
logues,' 1676-84;  and  'The  Theater  of  Music,' 
1687 ;  and  eight  three-part  vocal  compositions 
by  liini  (including  '  Ne'er  trouble  thyself  at  the 
times  or  their  turning,'  reprinted  in  some  modern 
collections)  in  'The  Musical  Companion,'  1667. 
Instrumental  compositions  by  him  are  printed  in 
'Courtly  Masquing  Ayres,'  1662;  'Musick's 
Delight  on  the  Cithern,'  1666;  'Apollo's  Ban- 
quet,' 1669;  'Musick's  Handmaid,'  1678  (re- 
printed in  J.  S.  Smith's  'Musica  Antiqua'); 
and  Greeting's  'Pleasant  Companion,'  1680.  In 
several  of  these  is  'A  Dance  in  the  Play  of 
Macbeth,'  evidently  written  for  an  earlier  version 
than  Davenant's.1  The  library  of  the  Sacred 
Harmonic  Society  contains  the  autograph  MS.  of 
a  '  Consort  of  fFoure  Parts '  for  viols,  containing 
six  suites,  each  consisting  of  a  fantazia,  courante, 
ayre  and  saraband,  which  Roger  North  (1728) 
tells  us  was  '  the  last  of  the  kind  that  hath  been 
made.'  Lock  died  in  August  1677.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  buried  in  the  Savoy,  but  the  fact 
cannot  be  verified,  the  existing  registers  extend- 
ing no  further  back  than  1680.  Purcell  com- 
posed an  elegy  on  his  death,  printed  in  '  Choice 
Ayres'  etc.,  Book  II,  1689.  A  portrait  of  him 
is  in  the  Music  School,  Oxford.  [W.H.H.] 

LOCKEY,  Charles,  son  of  Angel  Lockey  of 
Oxford,  was  admitted  a  chorister  of  Magdalen 
College,  April  1,  1828,  and  remained  so  until 
1836,  when  he  went  to  Bath  to  study  under 
Edward  Harris.  In  1842  he  became  a  pupil  of 
Sir  George  Smart  and  lay  clerk  of  St.  George's 
Chapel,  Windsor.  In  1843  he  was  appointed 
vicar  choral  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  In  1846  he 
was  engaged  for  the  Birmingham  Festival  and 
allotted  the  tenor  song  '  Then  shall  the  righteous,' 
in  the  first  performance  of '  Elijah.'  On  hearing 
him  rehearse  the  song,  Mendelssohn  immediately 
requested  him  also  to  sing  'If  with  all  your 
hearts,'  which  had  before  been  assigned  to  another 
singer.  '  A  young  English  tenor,'  says  the  com- 
poser,2 '  sang  the  last  air  so  very  beautifully  that 
I  was  obliged  to  collect  myself  to  prevent  my 
being  overcome,  and  to  enable  me  to  beat  time 
steadily .' — In  April  1 848  Lockey  was  appointed 
a  gentlemen  of  the  Chapel  Royal.  He  married 
May  24,  1853,  Miss  Martha  Williams,  contralto 
singer.  In  1859  an  affection  of  the  throat 
deprived  him  of  his  voice  and  compelled  his 
retirement.  [W.H.H.] 

LOCRIAN  MODE  (Lat.  Modus  Locrtus, 
Modus  Hyperceolius).  The  Eleventh  Ecclesias- 
tical Mode :  a  tonality  which  can  scarcely  be 
said  to  have  any  real  existence — as  it  is  uni- 
versally discarded,  in  practice,  on  account  of  its 
false  relation  of  Mi  contra  Fa — though,  in  theory, 
it  necessarily  takes  its  regular  place  in  the  series. 
[See  Mi  contra  Fa.] 

Theoretically,  the  Final  of  the  Locrian  Mode 
is;  B.  Its  compass,  in  the  Authentic  form,  ranges 
between  that  note,  and  its  octave  above;   and 

1  Pepys,  who  from  Nov.  5, 1661,  to  Dec  21, 1063,  saw  'Macbeth'  per- 
formed seven  times,  mentions  (April  19, 10C7;  the  '  variety  of  dancing 
and  musick '  In  it. 

*  Letter  of  Aug.  26,1816. 


its  semitones  lie  between  the  first  and  second, 
and  third  and  fourth  degrees.  Its  Dominant  is 
G,  (F  being  inadmissible,  by  reason  of  its  for- 
bidden relation  with  the  Final,)  and  its  Mediant, 
D.  Its  Participants  are  E,  and  F  ;  its  Conceded 
Modulations,  C,  and  the  A  below  the  Final ;  and 
its  Absolute  Initials,  B,  C,  D,  and  G. 


Fin. 


Mode  XI. 
Med.  Part.  Part.  Dom. 


$ 


In  its  Plagal,  or  Hypolocrian  form,  (Mode  XII.) 
its  compass  lies  between  F  and  the  F  above ;  and 
its  semitones  fall  between  the  fourth  and  fifth 
and  the  seventh  and  eighth  degrees.  Its  Final 
is  B ;  its  Dominant,  E ;  and  its  Mediant,  D. 
Its  Participants  are  G,  and  C;  its  Conceded 
Modulations,  A,  and  the  upper  F  ;  and  its  Abso- 
lute Initials,  G,  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E. 

Mode  XII 
Part.  Fin.  Part.  Med.  Dom. 


$ 


It  will  be  observed  that  the  actual  notes  of 
Modes  XI  and  XII  correspond,  exactly,  with 
those  of  Modes  IV  and  V.  The  reason  why  the 
two  former  are  discarded,  and  the  two  latter  held 
in  good  repute,  is  this.  Mode  IV,  being  Plagal, 
is  subject  to  the  '  Arithmetical  Division' ;  i.e.  it 
consists  of  a  Perfect  Fourth,  placed  below  a 
Perfect  Fifth.  But,  Mode  XI  is  Anthentic ;  and, 
by  virtue  of  the  '  Harmonic  Division,'  consists  of 
a  Quinta  falsa,  placed  below  a  Tritonus — both  of 
which  intervals  are  forbidden,  in  Plain  Chaunt. 
Again,  Mode  V,  being  Authentic,  and  therefore 
subject  to  the '  Harmonic  Division,'  resolves  itself 
into  a  Perfect  Fifth,  below  a  Perfect  Fourth. 
But,  Mode  XII  is  Plagal ;  and,  under  the  'Arith- 
metical Division,'  exhibits  a  Tritonus,  below  a 
Quinta  falsa.   [See  Modes,  the  ecclesiastical.] 

A  very  few  Plain  Chaunt  Melodies,  and  Poly- 
phonic Compositions,  are  sometimes  referred  to 
these  rejected  Modes:  but,  such  cases  are  ex- 
ceedingly rare ;  and  it  will  generally  be  found 
that  they  are  really  derived,  by  transposition, 
from  some  other  tonality.  [W.  S.  R.] 

LODER,  Edward  James,  son  of  John  David 
Loder,  born  at  Bath,  1813,  was  in  1826  sent 
to  Frankfort  to  study  music  under  Ferdinand 
Ries.  He  returned  to  England  in  1828,  and 
went  back  to  Germany  with  the  view  of  qualify- 
ing himself  for  the  medical  profession,  but  soon 
changed  his  mind  and  again  placed  himself 
under  Ries.  When  he  again  came  back  to 
England  he  was  commissioned  by  Arnold  to 
compose  the  music  for '  Nourjahad,'  an  old  drama 
of  his  to  which  he  had  added  songs,  etc.,  to  con- 
vert it  into  an  opera,  for  the  opening  of  the  new 
English  Opera  House,  then  building.  The  opera 
was  produced  in  July,  1834,  and,  notwithstand- 
ing very  general  admiration  of  the  music,  proved 
unattractive  owing  to  the  poverty  of  the  libretto. 


LODEK. 

In  1835  Loder  set  Oxenford's  'Dice  of  Death.' 
He  next  entered  into  an  engagement  with  Dal- 
maine  &  Co.,  the  music  publishers,  to  furnish 
them  with  a  new  composition  every  week,  in 
part  performance  of  which  he  produced  his 
'Twelve  Sacred  Songs,'  dedicated  to  Sterndale 
Bennett.  As  it  became  necessary  that  some  of 
the  pieces  produced  under  this  arrangement 
should  be  heard  in  public,  an  opera  entitled 
'  Francis  I,'  was  written  to  incorporate  them  and 
produced  at  Drury  Lane  in  1838.  As  might 
have  been  expected,  so  heterogeneous  a  com- 
pound met  with  little  success,  although  one  song, 
'  The  old  house  at  home,'  obtained  a  widespread 
popularity.  His  opera  'The  Night  Dancers,' 
his  finest  work,  was  produced  at  the  Princess's 
Theatre  in  1846,  revived  therein  1850,  and  again 
at  Covent  Garden  in  i860.  'Puck,'  a  ballad 
opera,  additions  to  'The  Sultan,'  and  'The 
Young  Guard,'  were  brought  out  at  the  Princess's 
in  1848.  His  cantata  'The  Island  of  Calypso,' 
was  written  for  the  National  Concerts  at  Her 
Majesty's  Theatre  in  1850,  but,  owing  to  their 
cessation,  remained  unperformed  until  given  at 
the  New  Philharmonic  Concerts  in  185 1.  '  Ray- 
mond and  Agnes,'  an  opera,  was  produced  at 
Manchester  in  1855.  Besides  these  works  Loder 
lias  written  some  string  quartets  and  numerous 
songs,  of  which  '  The  brave  old  oak,'  and  '  In- 
vocation to  the  deep'  are  well  known.  His 
compositions  are  distinguished  by  the  melodious- 
ness of  the  parts  and  their  skilful  instrumenta- 
tion. He  was  for  several  years  conductor  at  the 
Princess's  Theatre,  and  afterwards  at  Manchester, 
but  although  musically  well  qualified  for  the 
office  his  want  of  regular,  business-like  habits 
militated  greatly  against  his  success.  About 
1856  he  was  attacked  by  cerebral  disease,  which 
long  afflicted  him,  and  prevented  his  resuming 
his  old  avocations.     He  died  April  5, 1865. 

John  Fawcett  Loder,  born  181 2,  an  excellent 
violinist  and  able  orchestral  leader,  for  many 
years  resided  at  Bath  and  managed  the  concerts 
there.  When  Bath  ceased  to  be  a  place  of 
fashionable  resort  Loder  removed  to  London,  and 
on  the  retirement  of  Francois  Cramer  in  1845 
succeeded  him  as  leader  at  most  of  the  best  con- 
certs and  festivals.  He  died  April  16, 1853.  Two 
other  Loders,  John,  a  violinist,  and  William, 
a  violoncellist,  both  died  several  years  ago,  as 
did  the  wife  of  the  latter,  formerly  Emily  Wood- 
yatt,  a  good  second  soprano  singer.     [W.H.H.] 

LODER,  Kate  Fanny,  only  daughter  of 
George  Loder,  born  at  Bath,  Aug.  21,  1826, 
commenced  playing  the  pianoforte  when  a  mere 
child.  In  her  12  th  year  she  became  a  pupil  of 
Henry  Field,  and  a  year  afterwards  entered  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music,  where  she  studied  the 
pianoforte  under  Mrs.  Anderson,  and  harmony 
and  composition  under  Charles  Lucas.  At  the 
end  of  the  first  year  of  her  studentship  she  ob- 
tained a  kings  scholarship.  Early  in  1840  she 
appeared  in  public  at  her  uncle's  concerts  at 
Bath,  and  in  March  at  the  Royal  Academy  con- 
certs. In  1841  she  was  re-elected  king's  scholar. 
She  quitted  the  Academy  in  1844,  in  which  year 


LOEWE. 


159 


she  played  the  Adagio  and  Rondo  from  Mendels- 
sohn's G  minor  Concerto  in  presence  and  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  composer  at  Mrs.  Anderson's 
concert  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre.  She  was 
then  appointed  professor  of  harmony  at  the 
Academy.  She  first  appeared  at  the  Philhar- 
monic Society  March  15,  1847,  when  she  played 
Weber's  Concerto  in  Eb,  and  in  1848  (May  29) 
her  performance  there  of  Mendelssohn's  G  minor 
Concerto  received  the  unprecedented  distinction 
of  an  encore.  Her  reputation  was  now  confirmed, 
and  her  public  performances  frequent.  In  1851 
she  was  married  to  Mr.  (now  Sir)  Henry  Thomp- 
son, the  eminent  surgeon.  On  March  6,  1854, 
at  the  Philharmonic  Concert,  she  made  her  last 
public  appearance.  She  has  composed  an  opera, 
an  overture,  two  string  quartets,  two  sonatas 
and  some  studies  for  the  pianoforte,  a  sonata  for 
pianoforte  and  violin,  and  several  minor  piano- 
forte pieces.  [W.H.H.] 

LODOISKA.  Comedy  in  3  acts.  1.  Words 
by  Fillette-Loreaux,  music  by  Cherubini.  Pro- 
duced at  the  Feydeau  July  j8,  1 791.  The 
overture  is  still  occasionally  played,  a.  Words 
by  Dejaure  (same  story),  music  by  R.  Kreutzer. 
Produced  at  the  Italiens  Aug.  1,  1791.  [G.] 

LOEWE,  Johann  Carl  Gottfried,  born 
Nov.  30,  1796,  at  Loebejuen,  between  Kothen 
and  Halle,  twelfth  and  youngest  child  of  a  Cantor 
and  schoolmaster.  Near  his  home  were  collieries 
employing  300  miners,  and  this  underground 
world,  so  near  in  his  boyish  fancy  to  the  world 
of  spirits,  took  powerful  hold  on  his  imagin- 
ation, to  reappear  later  when  he  was  composing 
'DerBergmann'  (The  Miner).  His  father  taught 
him  music  early,  and  his  singing,  especially  his 
power  of  hitting  the  right  note,  having  attracted 
attention,  he  was  offered  in  1807  a  place  in  the 
choir  of  Kothen.  There  he  remained  two  years, 
hearing  Pergolese's  'Stabat  Mater,'  and  other 
good  music,  and  went  thence  to  the  Gymnasium 
of  the  Franke  Institution  at  Halle.  Turk,  the 
head  of  this,  was  director  of  the  town  choral 
society,  and  at  the  twelve  annual  concerts  pro- 
duced much  good  music,  although  he  had  some 
curious  notions,  for  Loewe  tells  that  he  always 
omitted  the  introduction  to  the  Finale  of  Bee- 
thoven's 1st  Symphony  (then  well  known)  as 
'  ludicrous,'  and  for  fear  of  making  the  audience 
laugh.  Niemeyer,  chancellor  of  the  Gymnasium, 
was  proud  of  the  choir,  and  made  them  sing  to 
distinguished  visitors,  among  others  to  Mme. 
de  Stael,  who  made  Loewe  a  present,  and  to 
King  Jerome,  who  at  Turk's  instigation  gave 
him  an  annuity  of  300  thalers.  This  enabled 
him  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  music.  He 
had  already  become  a  pianist  by  studying  Bach's 
'  Wohltemperirte  Clavier/  and  he  now  took 
daily  lessons  from  Turk,  and  worked  hard  at 
Kirnberger,  Marpurg,  and  Forkel.  He  also 
learned  French  and  Italian.  Two  of  his  songs 
of  this  date,  'Clothar'  and  'Die  Einsetzungs- 
worte  des  Abendmahls'  (op.  2)1  have  survived. 
Meantime  the  war  of  181 2-13  broke  out,  and 

>  ne  afterwards  printed  three  ballads  bj  Herder  and  Goethe  u 
op.1. 


160 


LOEWE. 


Loewe  has  left  a  graphic  account  of  its  horrors 
in  his  '  Selbstbiographie '  (edited  by  Bitter, 
Berlin  1870).  Turk  died  in  1814,  and  the 
flight  of  King  Jerome  (Oct.  26,  1813)  deprived 
Loewe  of  his  income,  but  by  the  aid  of  Niemeyer 
he  entered  the  university  of  Halle  as  a  theo- 
logical student  under  Michaelis.  Naue,  Turk's 
successor,  founded  a-  Singakademie  like  that  of 
Zelter  at  Berlin.  Loewe  joined  this,  and  thus 
became  acquainted  with  his  future  wife,  Julie 
von  Jacob,  a  very  gifted  person,  whom  he 
married  Sept.  7,  1821.  In  1 818  he  composed 
his  hrst  ballads,  '  Edward,'  and  the  '  Erl-king,' 
followed  in  1824  (after  his  wife's  death)  by 
'Der  Wirthin  Tochterlein,'  which,  by  Marx's 
assistance,  were  printed.  In  1819  and  20  he 
paid  visits  to  Dresden,  Weimar,  and  Jena, 
making  the  acquaintance  of  Weber,  Hummel, 
and  Goethe.  In  1820  he  was  invited  to  Stettin, 
and  having  passed  with  credit  through  various 
tests,  such  as  a  musical  exercise  submitted  to 
Zelter,  and  a  trial  sermon,  was  duly  installed 
professor  at  the  Gymnasium  and  Seminary,  and 
Cantor.  In  182 1  he  became  Musikdirector  to 
the  municipality,  and  organist  of  St.  Jacobus. 
He  made  a  considerable  mark  both  as  a  con- 
ductor and  professor '  in  Stettin  and  throughout 
Pomerania.  In  1837  he  was  elected  member  of 
the  Akademie  of  Berlin.  He  was  a  favourite 
with  both  Frederic  William  III.  and  IV.,  the 
latter  being  especially  fond  of  his  ballads.  He 
travelled  much,  and  was  present  at  the  Musical 
Festivals  of  Diisseldorf  (1837)  and  Mayence  (the 
Guttenberg  Commemoration),  visiting  Hamburg, 
Liibeck,  and  Bremen  on  the  way.  In  1844  he 
went  to  Vienna,  and  in  1847  to  London.  The 
Duchess  of  Coburg  had  specially  recommended 
him  to  the  Prince  Consort  and  Queen  Adelaide ; 
he  sang  and  played  at  Court,  the  Prince  turning 
over  his  music ;  and  here  he  heard  Jenny  Lind 
for  the  first  time  ;  but  he  left  not  the  least  trace 
of  his  presence  behind  him.  In  1851  he  went  to 
Sweden  and  Norway,  and  in  57  to  France.  In 
1864  he  had  a  singular  illness — a  trance  of  six 
weeks'  duration,  and  in  1866  the  authorities  of 
Stettin  asked  him  to  resign.  After  this  mortifi- 
cation—  somewhat  atoned  for  by  the  King's 
opportune  bestowal  of  a  higher  grade  of  the 
Order  of  the  Red  Eagle  than  he  had  before 
enjoyed — he  left  Stettin  for  Kiel,  where  he 
quietly  expired  April  20,  1869,  after  another 
trance.  His  heart  was  buried  near  his  organ  in 
St.  Jacobus  at  Stettin. 

Carl  Loewe  was  an  industrious  composer,  as 
will  be  seen  from  the  list  of  his  music  : — 5  operas, 
of  which  one  only  was  performed — '  Die  drei 
Wiinsche'  (Theatre  Royal,  Berlin,  1834).  Man- 
tius  was  the  tenor;  Spontini  took  unusual  pains; 
the  opera  was  a  great  success,  and  the  Crown 
Prince  presented  the  composer  with  a  gold  medal. 
Oratorios — 'Die  Festzeiten';  'Die  Zerstbrung 
Jerusalems*  (1829);     'Die    sieben    Schlafer'* 

1  Some  experiments  In  acoustics,  conducted  with  his  colleague 
Grassmann,  produced  results  of  real  value. 

2  Scores  ot  these  three  are  in  the  Library  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic 
Bociety. 


LOEWE. 

('833);  'Die  eherne  Schlange'  (1834);  'Die 
Apostel  von  Philippi  (1835,  for  voices  only); 
'Guttenberg'  (1836) ;  'Palestrina'(i84i);  'Huss' 
(1842);  'Hiob,'  'Der  Meister  von  Avis,'  'Das 
Siihnopfer  des  neuen  Bundes,'  '  Das  hohe  Lied 
Salomonis,'  and  'Polus  Atella '  (all  between 
1848  and  60)  ;  'Die  Heilung  des  Blindgebornen' 
(1861);  *  Johannes  der  Taufer '  (62);  and  'Die 
Auferweckung  des  Lazarus'  (63).  The  three 
last,  like  'Die  Apostel  von  Philippi,'  were  for 
voices  only,  without  accompaniment,  a  species 
of  composition  peculiar  to  himself.  His  second 
wife  and  pupil,  Auguste  Lange  of  Konigsberg, 
sang  in  his  oratorios  with  himself.  He  published 
145  works  with  opus-numbers — symphonies,  con- 
certos, duets,  and  other  pieces  for  P.F.,  but  above 
all,  ballads,  in  which  he  specially  excelled,  and 
in  which  he  may  be  considered  as  the  successor 
of  Zumsteeg.  His  poetic  feeling  and  power  of 
musical  expression  give  him  a  high  rank  among 
composers,  although  his  music,  like  Reichardt's, 
has  gone  by  for  ever.  He  was  the  author  of 
a  ' Gesanglehre '  (Stettin,  1826;  3rd  ed.,  1834), 
and  of  '  Musikalischer  Gottesdienst,  Anweisung 
zum  Kirchengesang  und  Orgelspiel'  (18  51,  4 
editions).  The  University  of  Greifswald  con- 
ferred on  him  a  Doctor's  degree.  Two  of  his 
songs  are  included  in  the  1st  volume  of  'The 
Musical  Library.'  [F.G.] 

LOEWE,  Johanna  Sophie,  dramatic  singer, 
granddaughter  of  Friedrich  August  Leopold 
Loewe  (who  died  18 16  as  director  of  the  Liibeck 
theatre)  and  daughter  of  Ferdinand  Loewe,  an 
actor,  was  born  at  Oldenburg  in  18 15,  and  ac- 
companied her  father  to  Mannheim,  Frankfort, 
and  Vienna,  where  he  was  engaged  at  the  Burg 
Theater,  through  the  influence  of  his  sister,  Julie 
Loewe,  a  celebrated  actress.  Here  Sophie  studied 
singing  under  Ciccimara  and  other  good  masters. 
Her  de'but  as  a  concert-singer  was  so  successful 
that  she  was  at  once  engaged  for  the  court  opera, 
and  first  appeared  on  the  stage  in  1832  in  a 
German  version  of  Donizetti's  '  Otto  mese  in  due 
ore.'  A  contemporary  report  speaks  of  '  her 
voice  as  not  powerful,  but  cultivated  and  sym- 
pathetic, her  personal  appearance  prepossessing, 
and  her  acting  as  evincing  dramatic  ability  much 
above  the  common.'  Towards  the  close  of  1836 
she  went  to  Berlin,  where  she  created  a  furore 
as  Isabella  in  '  Robert  le  Diable,'  and  was  at 
once  engaged  at  a  high  salary,  appearing  as 
Amina  in  the  'Sonnambula'  on  April  28, 
1837.  In  1838  she  was  appointed  chamber- 
singer  to  the  king,  but  soon  resigned,  and  tra- 
velled to  London,  Paris,  and  Italy.  In  London 
she  appeared  at  Covent  Garden,  May  13,  1841, 
in  Bellini's  '  Straniera,'  but  her  success  was  only 
temporary.  According  to  Chorley  she  had  been 
puffed  as  a  new  Grisi,  there  being  an  idea  that 
Grisi  had  lost  her  voice,  and  he  says  that  the 
public  were  grievously  disappointed  ;  but  he 
allows  that  she  was  the  best  Elvira  he  had 
ever  seen,  and  that  her  manner  was  sprightly, 
graceful,  and  intelligent,  her  'demeanour  unim- 
peachable, and  her  costume  superb '  as  the  Do- 
garessain  'Marino  Falieri'  (Mod.  German  Music, 


LOEWE. 

i.  210-213).  She  never  returned  to  England. 
She  failed  to  obtain  an  engagement  in  Paris, 
and  in  1845  sang  again  in  Berlin,  but  coming 
just  after  Jenny  Lind,  was  only  moderately 
received.  In  1848  she  married  Prince  Lichten- 
stein  and  retired.  She  died  at  Pesth,  Nov.  29, 
1866.  Her  special  characteristic  was  the  sin- 
gular harmony  between  her  bodily  and  mental 
gifts.  In  conversation  she  was  witty  and  in- 
tellectual, and  as  a  singer  had  a  great  diversity 
of  rdles,  playing  both  Elvira  and  Donna  Anna, 
Jessonda  and  Madeleine  ('Postilion"),  Lucrezia 
and  Adine  (' Elisir').  An  admirable  portrait 
of  her  was  painted  by  Kriiger,  and  engraved  by 
Sachse  of  Berlin. 

Her  niece  and  namesake,  Sophie  Lowe,  a 
soprano,  daughter  of  the  regisseur  of  the  Court 
Theatre  at  Stuttgart,  and  pupil  of  Stockhausen, 
made  her  first  appearance  in  London  in  1871, 
and  sang  at  the  concerts  for  several  seasons  with 
success,  till  her  marriage  in  1877.  [F.  G.] 

LOGIER,  Johann  Bernard,  a  descendant  of 
a  family  of  French  refugees,  was  born  in  1780 
at  Kaiserslautern  in  the  Palatinate,  where  his 
father  and  grandfather  were  organists.  He  re- 
ceived his  early  musical  education  from  his 
father.  '  After  the  death  of  his  parents,  and 
when  about  10  years  old,  he  came  to  England 
in  the  company  of  an  English  gentleman,  with 
whom  he  resided  for  two  years,  and  studied  the 
flute  and  pianoforte.  He  then  joined  the  band 
of  a  regiment  commanded  by  the  Marquis  of 
Abercorn,  of  which  Willman,  father  of  the  cele- 
brated clarinet  player,  was  master,  and  with  which 
he  went  to  Ireland.  In  1 796  he  married  Will- 
man's  daughter,  and  engaged  in  composing  for 
and  instructing  military  bands  and  teaching  the 
pianoforte.  At  the  close  of  the  war,  his  regiment 
being  disbanded,  he  became  organist  at  Westport, 
Ireland.  Whilst  there  he  invented  his  machine 
for  guiding  the  hands  of  learners  on  the  piano- 
forte, and  devised  the  system  of  instruction  known 
by  his  name.  [For  an  account  of  this  machine 
and  system,  and  the  controversy  which  raged  on 
their  introduction,  see  Chiroplast.]  In  1821 
the  Prussian  government  sent  Franz  Stoepel  to 
London  to  inquire  into  the  merits  of  the  system, 
and  the  result  was  that  Logier  was  invited  to 
Berlin  to  superintend  the  promulgation  of  it  in 
Prussia.  He  remained  in  Berlin  three  years, 
being  allowed  an  annual  vacation  of  three  months 
to  visit  England.  In  1826,  having  acquired 
a  competency  by  the  sale  of  his  chiroplast  and 
elementary  works,  his  very  numerous  classes,  and 
the  fees  received  for  permission  to  use  his  in- 
vention and  teach  on  his  system, — it  was  asserted 
that  he  had  received  100  fees  of  100  guineas  each 
for  that  purpose, — he  retired  and  settled  in  Ireland, 
near  Dublin,  where  he  died  July  27,  1846.  He 
composed  some  sonatas  and  other  pieces,  besides 
making  numerous  arrangements  for  the  piano- 
forte. He  also  composed  an  ode  on  the  com- 
mencement of  the  50th  year  of  the  reign  of 
George  III.,  Oct.  1809,  performed  in  Dublin. 
Besides  the  publications  connected  with  his  chiro- 
plast, he  was  author  of  'A  Complete  Introduction 
VOL.  11. 


LO,  HE  COMES. 


161 


to  the  Keyed  Bugle,'  of  which  instrument  he  is 
said  to  have  been  the  inventor.  [W.H.H.] 

LO,  HE  COMES  WITH  CLOUDS  DE- 
SCENDING, the  first  line  of  the  hymn  which  is 
usually  sung  to  the  tune  called  Helmsley,  or 
Olivers.  This  tune  claims  a  notice  on  ac- 
count of  the  various  opinions  that  have  been 
expressed  respecting  its  origin.  The  story  runs 
that  Thomas  Olivers,  the  friend  of  John  Wesley, 
was  attracted  by  a  tune  which  he  heard 
whistled  in  the  street,  and  that  from  it  he  formed 
the  melody  to  which  were  adapted  the  words  of 
Cennick  and  Wesley's  Advent  hymn.  The  tune 
heard  by  Olivers  is  commonly  said  to  have  been 
a  Hornpipe  danced  by  Miss  Catley  in  the  'Golden 
Pippin,'  a  burlesque  by  Kane  O'Hara,  but  this 
seems  inconsistent  with  chronology.  The  hymn- 
tune  appeared  first,  as  a  melody  only,  in  the 
second  edition  of  Wesley's  '  Select  Hymns  with 
Tunes  annexed,'  1765,  under  the  name  of 
'  Olivers,'  and  in  the  following  form  : 


fn  1769  an  improved  version,  in  three  paits, 
was  published  by  the  Eev.  Martin  Madan  in  the 
Lock  *  Collection  of  Hymn  and  Psalm  Tunes.' 
It  is  there  called  '  Helmsley,'  and  under  that 
name  became  widely  popular. 


3*=Q 


«^2: 


tt 


V=i^ 


BE 


b^Eg^: 


°^»  & 


But  at  this  time  the  'Golden  Pippin'  was  not 
even  in  existence.  O'Keeffe,  who  possessed  the 
original  MS.,  tells  in  his  '  Recollections'  that  it 
was  dated  1771.  The  burlesque,  in  three  acts, 
was  produced  at  Covent  Garden  in  1773:  it 
failed  at  first,  but  obtained  some  success  when 
altered  and  abridged.  The  source  from  whence 
'  Olivers '  was  derived  seems  to  have  been  a  con- 
cert-room song  commencing  '  Guardian  '  angels, 
now  protect  me,'  the  music  of  which  probably 
originated  in  Dublin,  where  it  was  sung  by  a  Mr. 
Mahone,  and  no  doubt  also  by  Miss  Catley,  who 

1  The  same  words,  under  the  title  of  "The  Forsaken  Nymph,'  had 
been  set  by  Handel,  some  years  before,  to  a  totally  different  air. 

M 


162 


LO,  HE  COMES. 


resided  in  the  Irish  capital  from  1763  to  1770, 
The  melody  of '  Guardian  Angels'  is  as  follows  ; 


This  melody  was  not  in  the  'Golden  Pippin'  as 
originally  written,  but  (adapted  to  the  words  of 
the  burlesque)  was  introduced  into  it  in  1776  in 
the  place  of  a  song  by  Giordani,  and  was  sung 
by  Miss  Catley  in  the  cbaracter  of  Juno.  The 
published  score  of  the  '  Golden  Pippin'  does  not 
contain  any  hornpipe,  but  such  a  dance  may 
have  been  interpolated  in  the  action  of  the  piece. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  the  resemblance  between 
•  Olivers'  and  '  Guardian  angels'  extends  only  to 
the  first  part  of  the  tune,  the  second  part  being 
wholly  different.  On  the  other  hand,  the  horn- 
pipe corresponds  with  the  hymn-tune  throughout, 
and  with  '  Helmsley'  more  closely  than  with 
4  Olivers.'  In  1765,  when  the  latter  was  published, 
Miss  Catley  was  in  Ireland,  and  did  not  return  to 
London  until  five  years  afterwards,  and  if  the 
hornpipe  was  not  of  earlier  date  than  the  '  Golden 
Pippin,'  it  seems  to  follow  that  instead  of  the 
hymn-tune  having  been  derived  from  the  horn- 
pipe, the  latter  was  actually  constructed  from 
the  hymn-tune,  which  by  that  time  had  become  a 
great  favourite.     .  [G.A.C.] 

LOHENGRIN.  A  romantic  drama  in  3  acts ; 
words  and  music  by  Richard  Wagner.  Composed 
in  1847,  and  produced  at  Weimar,  under  the 
direction  of  Liszt,  Sept.  1850 ;  in  London,  in 
Italian,  at  Covent  Garden,  May  8,  1875.       [G.] 

LOLLI,  Antonio,  a  celebrated  violinist, 
born  at  Bergamo  about  1730.  If  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  he  was  a  most  extraordinary  per- 
former, he  appears  certainly  also  to  have  been 
the  type  of  an  unmusical,  empty-headed  virtuoso, 
and  in  addition  a  complete  fool. 

Hardly  anything  is  known  of  the  earlier  part 
of  his  life  and  career.  It  is  however  generally 
assumed  that  he  was  almost  entirely  self-taught. 
We  know  for  certain  that  he  was  at  Stuttgart 
in  1762  with  Nardini.  There  he  remained,  at- 
tached to  the  court  of  the  Duke  of  Wiirtemberg, 
till  1 7  73,  when  he  went  to  St.  Petersburg,  where 


LOMBAPvDI. 

he  is  said  to  have  enjoyed  the  special  favour  of 
the  Empress  Katherine  II.  He  remained  in  her 
service  till  1778.  In  1779  ^e  came  to  Paris  and 
played  with  great  success  at  the  Concert  spirituel. 
After  this  he  went  to  Spain,  and  in  1 785  we  find 
him  in  London,  where  however,  according  to 
Burney,  he  appeared  but  seldom  in  public.  He 
continued  to  travel,  and  we  read  of  his  appearance 
now  at  Palermo,  now  at  Copenhagen ;  then  again 
at  Vienna  or  Naples.   He  died  in  Sicily  in  1802. 

According  to  all  contemporaneous  testimony 
Lolli  was  an  extraordinary  performer,  but  an 
indifferent  musician.  Schubart,  the  well-known 
German  poet  and  musician,  who  had  many 
opportunities  of  hearing  both  him  and  Nardini, 
speaks  with  unmeasured  praise  of  Lolli's  feats 
of  execution,  the  wonderful  ease  and  absolute 
certainty  with  which  he  played  the  most  difficult 
double  stops,  octaves,  tenths,  double-shakes  in 
thirds  and  sixths,  harmonics,  etc.  As  to  his 
having  been  a  bad  musician,  or  rather  no  musi- 
cian at  all,  the  testimonies  are  equally  unanim- 
ous. The  Abbe"  Bertini  plainly  states  that  Lolli 
could  not  keep  time,  could  not  read  even  easy 
music,  and  was  unable  to  play  an  Adagio  pro- 
perly. On  one  occasion,  when  asked  to  play  an 
Adagio,  he  said  :  '  I  am  a  native  of  Bergamo ;  we 
are  all  born  fools  at  *  Bergamo, — how  should  I 
play  a  serious  piece  ?'  When  in  England,  he 
almost  broke  down  in  a  Quartet  of  Haydn  which 
the  Prince  of  Wales  had  asked  him  to  play. 
If,  with  all  these  drawbacks  as  a  musician, 
he  nevertheless  created  wherever  he  played  an 
immense  sensation,  we  are  all  the  more  com- 
pelled to  believe  that  his  powers  of  execution 
were  of  the  most  exceptional  kind. 

He  is  described  as  a  handsome  man,  but  a  great 
dandy  and  charlatan,  very  extravagant,  and  a  gam- 
bler. The  Emperor  Joseph  II,  himself  a  very  fair 
musician,  habitually  called  him  'muddle-headed 
Lolli'.  (der  Faselhans).  Burney  (Hist.  iv.  680) 
writes  that  '  owing  to  the  eccentricity  of  his 
style  of  composition  and  execution,  he  was  re- 
garded as  a  madman  by  most  of  the  audience. 
In  his  freaks  nothing  can  be  imagined  so  wild, 
difficult,  grotesque,  and  even  ridiculous  as  his 
compositions  and  performance.'  True,  Burney 
adds,  'I  am  convinced  that  in  his  lucid  intervals 
he  was  in  a  serious  style  a  very  great,  expressive, 
and  admirable  performer,'  but  it  appears  doubtful 
whether  Burney  ever  heard  him  in  a  'lucid  inter- 
val,' and  therefore  his  'conviction'  is  gratuitous. 

His  compositions  (Concertos  and  Sonatas  for 
the  violin),  poor  and  insipid  as  they  are,  yet 
are  said  to  have  been  his  own  productions  in 
a  limited  sense  only.  We  are  assured  that  he 
wrote  a  violin  part  only,  and  that  this  was 
corrected,  furnished  with  accompaniments,  and 
brought  into  shape,  by  another  hand.         [P.  D.] 

LOMBARDI,  I,  alla  prima  crociata.  Italian 
opera  in  4  acts ;  libretto  by  Solera,  music  by 
Verdi.  Produced  at  the  Scala,  Milan,  Feb.  11, 
1843 ;  in  London,  at  Her  Majesty's,  March  3, 
1846;  and  in  Paris,  Theatre  Italien,  Jan.  10, 

•  In  Slgnor  Alfredo  riattl,  Bergamo  has  produced  a  signal  con- 
tradiction to  this  statement. 


LOMBARDS, 

1863.  A  great  part  of  the  music  was  after- 
wards employed  by  Verdi  in  the  opera  of 
Jerusalem.  [G.] 

LOMBARDY,  School  op  Music  of.  [See 
Milan.] 

LONDON".  The  University  of  London  has 
1  recently  determined  to  grant  the  degrees  of  Mus. 
Bac.  and  Mus.  Doc.  under  the  following  regula- 
tions. Candidates  for  the  Mus.  Bac.  degree  must 
have  passed  the  Matriculation  Examination  ten 
months  before.  For  the  degree  itself  there  are 
two  examinations.  The  first,  which  is  held  in 
December,  comprises  the  following  subjects : — 
the  relation  between  vibrations  and  the  pitch  of 
sounds ;  the  nature  of  harmonics,  and  the  simpler 
phenomena  of  stretched  strings  and  compound 
sounds ;  the  theory  of  musical  intervals,  of  the 
scales,  and  of  consonance  and  dissonance ;  the 
history  of  music  so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  growth 
of  musical  forms  and  rules.  The  second  Mus.  Bac. 
examination,  held  later  in  the  same  month,  com- 
prises the  following  subjects : — practical  harmony ; 
counterpoint  in  five  parts  with  canon  and  fugue ; 
form  in  musical  composition ;  instrumentation ; 
arranging  for  the  piano  from  an  instrumental 
score ;  a  critical  knowledge  of  the  scores  of  certain 
standard  works.  Before  admittance  to  this  ex- 
amination the  candidate  must  have  submitted  to 
the  examiners  a  vocal  composition  by  himself, 
containing  real  five-part  vocal  counterpoint,  with 
accompaniment  for  a  quintet  string  band.  Tech- 
nical skill  in  performance  is  not  part  of  the 
qualification  for  this  degree :  but  a  mark  of  merit 
is  offered  to  candidates  for  playing  at  sight  from 
a  five-part  vocal  score,  or  playing  an  accompani- 
ment from  a  figured  bass. 

For  the  Mus.  Doc.  there  are  also  two  examina- 
tions, both  in  December.  The  subjects  of  the 
first  are  the  following : — the  phenomena  of  sound 
and  sound-waves,  and  generally  the  higher 
branches  of  acoustics ;  temperament ;  the  scales 
of  all  nations ;  Greek  and  Church  Modes  ;  history 
of  measured  music ;  consonance  and  dissonance  ; 
theory  of  progressions  ;  history  and  theory  of 
harmony  and  counterpoint.  The  subjects  of  the 
second  Mus.  Doc.  examination  comprise  practi- 
cal harmony  of  the  more  advanced  character; 
counterpoint  in  eight  real  parts,  with  canon, 
fugue,  etc. ;  treatment  of  voices  in  composition ; 
instrumentation  for  full  orchestra ;  general  ac- 
quaintance with  the  works  and  character  of  the 
greatest  composers,  and  a  critical  acquaintance 
with  certain  specified  works.  Before  being  ad- 
mitted to  this  examination  the  candidate  must 
send  in  a  vocal  composition  such  as  would  occupy 
about  40  minutes  in  performance,  containing 
eight-part  vocal  harmony  and  fugal  counterpoint, 
a  portion  for  one  or  more  solo  voices,  and  an 
overture  in  the  form  of  the  first  movement  of  a 
classical  symphony.  The  above  list  of  subjects 
is  abbreviated  from  the  much  longer  official  list, 
to  which  reference  for  more  exact  details  is 
recommended.  The  fee  for  each  examination  is 
£j—  i.  e.  £10  in  all  for  each  degree.        [C.A.F.] 

1  The  regulations  were  determined  on  in  Dec.  1877,  and  first  acted 
upon  ui  l>ec  1878. 


LONDON  VIOLIN-MAKERS.       163 

LONDON  SACRED  HARMONIC  SO- 
CIETY,  THE,  was  formed  on  March  6,  1848, 
after  the  dismissal  of  Mr.  Surman  from  the  post 
of  conductor  to  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society. 
The  Rev.  George  Roberts  was  president,  Mr. 
Surman  conductor,  and  the  affairs  of  the  society 
were  managed  by  a  committee.  Six  concerts  were 
given  in  Exeter  Hall  during  the  year  1848, 
resulting  in  a  loss  of  £394.  The  so-called  society 
lingered  on  for  some  years,  and  gave  its  last 
concert  on  Dec.  22,  1856  (Messiah).  After  this 
it  seems  to  have  ceased  to  exist.  [G.] 

LONDON  VIOLIN-MAKERS.  London  has 
probably  been  for  centuries  the  seat  of  a  manu- 
facture of  stringed  instruments.  The  popu- 
larity of  the  viol  during  the  16th  and  17  th 
centuries  produced  many  makers  of  the  instru- 
ment, among  whom  are  found  Jay,  Smith, 
Bolles,  Ross,  Addison,  Shaw,  Aldred,  etc.  Its 
design  admitted  of  little  variety,  and  the  speci- 
mens which  have  been  preserved  have  only  an 
archaeological  interest.  Of  slight  construction, 
and  usually  made  of  thin  and  dry  wood,  most  of 
the  old  viols  have  perished.  The  violin  type, 
marked  ( 1 )  by  a  back  c  urved  like  the  belly,  instead 
of  a  flat  back;  by  an  increased  vibration,  pro- 
duced (2)  by  sound-holes  larger  in  proportion, 
and  with  contrary  flexures  (/),  and  (3)  by  four 
strings  instead  of  six,  with  a  fixed  tuning  by 
fifths,  and  greater  thicknesses  of  wood,  reached 
England  from  the  continent  in  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  Its  marked  superiority  in 
all  respects  soon  drove  the  treble  viol  from  the 
field  :  and  a  native  school  of  violin-makers  forth- 
with arose,  who  imitated  the  general  character- 
istics of  the  new  foreign  model,  though  preserving 
to  some  extent  the  character  of  the  viol.  The 
new  pattern,  at  first  adopted  for  the  smaller 
instruments,  gradually  extended  itself  to  the 
larger  ones.  But  viol-shaped  tenors  continued 
to  be  made  long  after  this  form  had  been  aban- 
doned for  the  'treble'  viol,  and  the  violin  had 
taken  its  place  :  bass-viols  were  made  still  later ; 
and  the  viol  double-bass,  with  its  flat  back  and 
tuning  by  fourths,  is  even  yet  in  use. 

1.  Early  English  School  (1650- 1700). 
An  independent  school  of  violin -makers  naturally 
arose  in  London  by  the  application  of  the  tra- 
ditions of  viol-making  to  the  construction  of 
instruments  of  the  violin  type.  Connoisseurs 
have  traced  certain  resemblances  between  these 
early  fiddles  and  contemporary  instruments  made 
on  the  continent.  But  the  total  result  of  an  ex- 
amination of  these  works  entitles  them  to  rank 
as  a  distinct  school.  Jacob  Rayman,  who  dates 
from  Blackman  Street  and  the  Bell  Yard,  South- 
wark  (1641-1648),  Christopher  Wise  (1656), 
Edward  Pemberton  (1660),  and  Thomas  Urqu- 
hart  (1660),  are  famous  names  among  these 
early  makers.  Their  instruments,  though  of  rude 
ungeometrical  pattern,  are  usually  covered  with 
a  fine  varnish,  and  have  a  tone  of  good  quality. 
Edward  Pamphilon  (1680-1690),  who  lived  on 
London  Bridge,  became  more  famous.  His  in- 
struments still  preserve  a  high  reputation :  and 
their  resemblance  to  the  Brescian  school  has  given 
M2 


164       LONDON  VIOLIN-MAKERS. 

rise  among  Parisian  dealers  to  the  practice,  which 
has  of  late  years  made  its  way  to  England,  of 
labelling  them  'Gaspar  di  Salo.'  Few  Pamphilon 
labels  exist;  and  nothing  will  persuade  the  Parisian 
connoisseur  that  these  instruments  are  not  verit- 
able relics  of  some  pre-Cremonese  Italian  school. 
Nothing,  however,  is  more  certain  than  that 
they  were  made  when  the  last  of  the  Amatis 
was  an  ancient  man,  and  when  the  geometrical 
pattern  was  going  out  of  fashion  in  Italy  itself. 
Like  those  of  Joseph  Guarnerius,  the  works  of 
Pamphilon  are  fashioned  directly  by  hand, 
without  the  intervention  of  a  model  or  mould. 
Often  they  are  of  stiff  and  graceless  outline ; 
sometimes  they  show  curves  of  bold  and  free 
design,  and  are  wrought  out  with  scrupulous 
care  and  delicacy.  In  his  more  artistic  moments, 
Pamphilon  was  fond  of  finishing  the  sound  holes 
with  a  drawn-out  curl,  resembling  the  volute  of 
a  scroll ;  and  the  bottom  curve  of  the  sound- hole 
runs  out  at  something  like  a  right  angle  to  the 
axis  of  the  fiddle.  The  heads  are  too  small,  a 
fault  which  is  shared  by  all  the  old  English  makers 
from  Eayman  to  Banks :  they  are,  however, 
artistically  shaped,  and  often  deeply  scooped  in 
the  volute.  The  works  of  Pamphilon  are  covered 
with  fine  yellow  oil  varnish,  which  presents  a 
most  attractive  appearance.  They  are  not  diffi- 
cult to  be  met  with :  the  writer  has  casually 
entered  the  shop  of  a  country  dealer,  and  found 
three  excellent  ones  for  sale  at  low  prices.  The 
tenors  are  small,  but  of  a  good  tenor  tone.  No 
Pamphilon  violoncello  is  known  to  exist.  The 
bass-viol,  with  flat  back,  was  still  in  fashion. 
Parak  Norman  (1688-1740),  a  maker  of  emi- 
nence only  inferior  to  Pamphilon,  followed  the 
Italians  in  extending  the  violin  type  to  the  bass 
instrument,  and  producing  the  violoncello.  It  is 
evident  from  his  works  that  he  had  seen  foreign 
instruments.  His  early  years  were  chiefly  em- 
ployed in  the  construction  of  viols ;  and  his  first 
productions  of  the  violin  kind  show  a  resemblance 
to  Urquhart.  Gradually  he  produced  tenors  and 
violoncellos  of  the  new  model,  on  most  of  which 
his  monogram,  elaborately  wrought,  is  to  be 
found.  Norman  became  about  1 715  a  partner 
with  Nathaniel  Cross  at  the  '  Bass  Viol  in  St. 
Paul's  Churchyard.  His  works  are  always  in 
request  among  connoisseurs.  That  the  Early 
English  school  had  its  offshoots  in  the  country  is 
proved  by  the  works  of  Thomas  Duke,  of  Oxford 
(1720).  None  of  these  makers  were  influenced 
by  the  pattern  of  Stainer,  which  ultimately  dis- 
placed the  old  English  type  of  violin,  as  com- 
pletely as  the  violin  had  displaced  the  viol. 

2.  School  of  Stainer-Copyists  (i  700-1 750). 
The  bright  and  easily-produced  tones  yielded  by 
the  Stainer  model,  soon  made  it  popular  in  Eng- 
land, and  the  London  makers  vied  with  each 
other  in  reproducing  it.  The  first  and  best  of 
the  Stainer-copyists  is  Peter  Wamsley,  of  the 
Golden  Harp  in  Piccadilly  (1710-1734).  The 
workmanship  of  Wamsley  varies :  like  most  of 
his  successors,  he  made  instruments  of  three  or 
four  qualities,  probably  at  prices  to  correspond. 
The  finer  specimens  of  his  work,  well  finished, 


LONDON  VIOLIN-MAKERS. 

and  covered  with  a  certain  thick  and  brilliant  red 
varnish,  which  he  could  make  when  he  pleased, 
do  high  credit  to  the  London  school.  He  did 
not  despise  viol-making ;  nor,  on  the  other  hand, 
did  he  confine  himself  to  the  imitation  of  S;ainer. 
Both  he  and  Thomas  Barrett,  of  the  Harp  and 
Crown  in  Piccadilly  (1 710-1730),  tried  their 
hands  at  free  imitations  of  Stradivarius.  Joseph 
Hare  (1 720-1 726)  did  the  same.  Barrett  was 
a  more  mechanical  workman  than  Wamsley, 
and  used  a  thin  yellow  varnish.  Between  1 730 
and  1770  the  majority  of  the  violins  produced 
in  England  were  imitations  of  Stainer,  some- 
what larger,  and  covered  with  a  thin  greyish 
yellow  varnish :  one  or  two  makers  only  used 
better  varnish,  of  a  brown  or  dullish  red  colour. 
Among  the  makers  were  Thomas  Cross  (1720), 
the  partner  of  Barak  Norman,  who  used  a  -t- 
as  a  device:  John  Johnson  of  Cheapside  (1750- 
1760) :  Thomas  Smith,  a  capital  maker  of  large 
solid  instruments  on  the  Stainer  model,  who  suc- 
ceeded to  the  business  of  Wamsley  at  the  '  Golden 
Harp'  in  Piccadilly  (1740-1790),  and  Robert 
Thompson,  at  the  'Bass  Violin'  in  St.  Paul's 
Churchyard  (1749),  where  he  was  succeeded  by 
his  sons  Charles  and  Samuel  (1 770-1 780).  To 
these  may  be  added  Edward  Heesom  (1748); 
Edward  Dickenson,  at  the  Harp  and  Crown 
in  the  Strand ;  and  John  Norris  and  Robert 
Barnes  (1760-1800),  who  worked  together  in 
Great  Windmill  Street,  and  in  Coventry  Street, 
Piccadilly.  William  Forster  also  began  with 
the  Stainer  pattern."  [See  Forster,  William]. 
3.  School  op  Amati  -  Copyists.  Foremost 
among  these  stands  Benjamin  Banks  (1750- 
1795).  He  learnt  the  trade  in  the  workshop 
of  Wanisley ;  and  though  he  early  migrated  to 
Salisbury,  where  he  spent  the  greater  part  of 
his  life,  belongs  in  all  respects  to  the  London 
school.  He  followed  Daniel  Parker  (1740 -178 5) 
in  breaking  the  spell  of  Stainer,  and  seriously 
imitating  the  style  of  Nicholas  Amati.  Banks 
copied  that  maker  with  great  fidelity.  Though 
his  violins  are  less  in  request,  his  tenors  and 
basses,  of  which  he  made  large  numbers,  are  ex- 
cellent instruments,  and  produce  good  prices. 
He  used  a  fine  rich  varnish,  in  several  tints, 
yellow,  red,  and  brown.  His  son  Benjamin 
returned  to  London  :  two  other  sons,  James  and 
Henry,  carried  on  his  business  at  Salisbury,  but 
at  length  migrated  to  Liverpool.  Joseph  Hill 
(1 760-1 780),  at  the  'Harp  and  Flute'  in  the  Hay- 
market,  and  a  fellow -aj  prentice  with  Banks  in 
the  shop  of  Wamsley,  made  solid  instruments 
which  are  still  in  request,  but  adhered  less 
strictly  to  the  Amati  model.  Edward  Aireton, 
another  alumnus  of  Wamsley' s,  worked  on  this 
model.  But  the  chief  of  the  older  Amati-copy- 
ists  is  the  celebrated  Richard  Duke  of  Holborn 
( 1 760-1 780).  Duke's  high  reputation  amongst 
English  fiddlers  is  amply  justified  by  his  works, 
which  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
the  myriad  nondescripts  to  which  his  name 
has  been  nefariously  affixed.  '  When  a  really 
fine  specimen  of  Duke,'  says  Mr.  Hart,  '  is 
once  seen,  it  is  not  likely  to  be  forgotten.     As 


LONDON  VIOLIN-MAKERS. 

copies  of  Amati  such  instruments  are  scarcely 
surpassed,  varnish,  work  and  material  being  of 
the  best  description.'  Duke,  in  obedience  to 
a  fashion,  though  a  declining  one,  also  copied 
Stainer,  but,  in  Mr.  Hart's  opinion,  less  success- 
fully. His  pupils,  John  and  Edward  Betts, 
followed  him  in  imitating  Amati.  The  latter 
was  the  better  workman.  'Each  part,'  says 
Mr.  Hart,  'is  faultless  in  finish ;  but  when  viewed 
as  a  whole  the  result  is  too  mechanical.  Never- 
theless, this  maker  takes  rank  with  the  foremost 
of  the  English  copyists.'  John  Betts  occupied  a 
shop  in  the  Royal  Exchange,  where  his  business 
was  still  carried  on  a  few  years  since.  The  For- 
sters  (see  that  article)  followed  the  prevailing 
fashion,  and  copied  not  only  Nicholas  Amati,  but 
Antonius  and  Hieronymus. 

4.  Later  imitators  of  the  Cremona  School. 
We  now  reach  a  group  of  makers  dating  from 
about  1790  to  1840,  and  forming  the  last  and 
in  some  respects  the  best  section  of  the  London 
School.  These  makers  forsook  altogether  the 
imitation  of  Stainer,  occupied  themselves  less 
with  that  of  Amati,  and  boldly  passed  on  to 
Stradivarius  and  Joseph  Guarnerius.  Lupot  and 
others  were  doing  the  same  in  Paris.  Richard 
Tobin,  John  Furber,  Charles  Harris,  Henry 
Lockey  Hill,  Samuel  Gilkes,  Bernard  Fendt 
the  elder  (known  as  '  Old  Barney'),  and  John 
Carter,  are  among  the  best  London  makers  of 
this  period :  and  Vincenzo  Panormo,  though  of 
Italian  extraction,  really  belongs  to  the  same 
school.  Stradivarius  was  the  chief  model  of 
these  makers,  and  in  reproducing  his  style  they 
gave  to  the  world  a  host  of  valuable  instruments. 
The  elder  Fendt  is  commonly  accounted  the  best 
maker  of  violins  since  the  golden  age  of  Cre- 
mona, though  the  vote  of  the  French  connoisseur 
would  be  in  favour  of  Lupot.  Bernard  Fendt  the 
younger,  and  his  brother  Jacob,  together  with 
Joseph  and  George  Panormo,  sons  of  Vincenzo, 
continued  this  school  in  another  generation, 
though  with  unequal  success.  The  Kennedy 
family  (Alexander  1 700-1 786,  John  1730-1 8 16, 
Thomas  1 784-1870)  were  second-rate  makers 
of  the  same  school.  The  abolition  of  the  import 
duty  on  foreign  instruments,  together  with  the 
accumulation  of  old  instruments  available  for 
use  and  more  sought  for  than  new  ones,  ruined 
the  English  violin  manufacture.  During  the 
present  century,  Italian  violins  have  poured 
into  England  from  all  parts  of  Europe.  Paris, 
to  say  nothing  of  Mirecourt  and  Neukirchen, 
affords  an  ample  supply  of  new  violins  of  every 
quality,  at  rates  which  drive  from  the  field 
English  labour,  whether  more  or  less  skilled.  A 
few  makers  only  weathered  the  storm.  Gilkes's 
son  William  Gilkes,  and  pupil  John  Hart,  of 
Princes  Street,  as  well  as  Simon  Forster,  made 
instruments  up  to  the  time  of  their  deaths :  and 
there  are  still  living  two  representatives  of  the 
old  English  school  in  the  persons  of  William 
Ebswoith  Hill  of  Wardour  Street,  best  known 
as  a  dealer  in  Italian  instruments,  but  in  fact 
a  violin-maker  of  no  ordinary  merit,  and  John 
Furber  of  Grafton  Street,  who  still  pursues  the 


LONGHURST. 


165 


old  craft.  Both  are  descended  from  violin-making 
families  dating  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  last 
century.  George  Hart,  of  Princes  Street,  son 
of  John  Hart,  and  author  of  a  most  useful  work 
called  '  The  Violin,  its  famous  makers  and  their 
imitators'  (1875),  is  chiefly  known  as  a  dealer. 
A  few  French  violin-makers  who  have  settled 
in  London,  among  whom  are  Chanot  and  Boul- 
langier,  belong  to  the  Parisian  school. 

This  list  does  not  profess  to  exhaust  the  Lon- 
don makers  of  stringed  instruments.  But  it 
includes  the  most  famous  and  prolific  among 
them :  and  it  may  be  safely  added  that,  taken  in 
the  mass,  the  instruments  which  have  been  pro- 
duced in  London  are  equal  in  general  quality  to 
those  of  any  city  north  of  the  Alps,  not  excepting 
Paris  itself.  Until  the  time  of  Lupot,  the  English 
makers  were  unquestionably  superior  as  a  school 
to  the  French,  though  they  were  rivalled  by  the 
Dutch:  and  Lupot  himself  might  have  shrunk 
from  a  comparison  with  the  best  works  of  Fendt 
and  Panormo.  Whether  the  art  of  violin-making 
in  England  will  ever  recover  the  blow  which  it 
has  received  from  Free  Trade,  remains  to  be 
seen.  [E.J.  P.] 

LONG  (Lat.  Longa,  Notula  caudata).  A  note, 
intermediate  in  value  between  the  Large  and  the 
Breve.  In  Plain  Chaunt,  the  Long  appears  as  a 
square  black  note,  with  a  tail,  which  may  either 
ascend,  or  descend,  on  either  side.  In  Polyphonic 
Music,  it  is  figured  as  a  square  white  note,  with 
a  tail  descending  on  the  right.  In  this  case,  the 
position  of  the  tail  is  important :  for,  though  it  is 
sometimes,  in  modern  music,  made  to  ascend,  it 
can  only  be  transferred  to  the  left  hand  side  in 
Ligatures,  when  it  materially  affects  the  duration 
of  the  note.     [See  Ligature.] 


In  Plain  Cliaunt. 


In  Polyphonic  Music. 


1  J  r  l 


The  Long  represents  one  third  of  the  Perfect 
Large,  and  half  of  the  Imperfect.  [See  Large.] 
Its  duration,  in  the  Lesser  Mode  Perfect,  is  equal 
to  that  of  three  Breves:  in  the  Lesser  Mode 
Imperfect,  to  that  of  two.  [See  Mode.]  Its  cor- 
responding Rest  is  drawn,  when  Perfect,  across 
three  spaces ;  when  Imperfect,  across  two  only. 


Perfect  Long  Rest. 


Imperfect  Long  Rest. 


In  Plain  Chaunt,  it  is  longer  than  the  Breve, 
but  not  in  any  definite  proportion,  except  in 
Ligatures,  where  it  represents  a  Breve  and  a 
half,  or  three  Semibreves.  Merbecke,  in  his 
'Booke  of  Common  Praier  Noted'  (155°)  calh» 
it  a  'Close,'  and  uses  it  only  at  the  end  of  a 
verse :  but  this  restriction  is  not  usual  in  Plain 
Chaunt  Office-Books.  [W.  S.  R.] 

LONGHURST,  John  Alexander,  born  in 
1809,  studied  under  John  Watson,  musical 
director  at  Covent  Garden,  and  on  April  22, 
1820,  came  out  at  Covent  Garden  as  the  Page 
in  Bishop's  'Henri  Quatre,'  and  gained  great 


1G6 


LONG  HURST. 


LORTZIXG. 


popularity  by  his  singing  in  the  duet  '  My  pretty 
page,'  with  Miss  Stephens.  During  that  and 
the  next  four  years  Bishop  composed  original 
parts  for  him  in  '  Montrose,'  '  The  Two  Gentlemen 
of  Verona,'  '  Maid  Marian,'  '  Clari,' '  The  Beacon 
of  Liberty,'  and  'As  You  Like  It,'  besides  giving 
him  the  boy's  parts  in  'The  Miller  and  his  Men,' 
'  The  Slave,'  etc.,  which  he  had  formerly  written 
for  Gladstanes  and  Barnett.  Early  in  1826  he 
was  allotted  the  part  of  Puck  in  Weber's  '  Oberon,' 
then  in  preparation,  but  shortly  afterwards,  whilst 
in  the  middle  of  a  popular  ballad,  '  The  Robin's 
Petition,'  his  voice  suddenly  broke,  and  he  was 
compelled  to  relinquish  singing.  "Weber  men- 
tions the  event  in  a  letter  to  his  wife,  March  9, 
1826  : — '  The  young  fellow  who  was  to  have  sung 
Puck  has  lost  his  voice,  but  I  have  a  charming 
girl, 1  who  is  very  clever  and  sings  capitally.' 
After  a  short  time  he  became  known  as  a  teacher 
of  singing  and  the  pianoforte  and  excellent  ac- 
companyist.     He  died  in  1S55  aged  46. 

His  younger  brother,  William  Henry,  Mus. 
Doc,  born  in  the  parish  of  Lambeth,  Oct.  6, 
1819,  was  admitted  a  chorister  of  Canterbury 
Cathedral,  Jan.  6,  1828,  under  Highmore  Skeats, 
sen.,  having  afterwards  Stephen  Elvey  and 
Thomas  Evance  Jones  as  his  masters.  In  1836 
he  was  appointed  lay  clerk  and  assistant  organist 
of  the  cathedral.  On  Jan.  26,  1873,  he  was 
chosen  to  succeed  Jones  as  organist  and  master 
of  the  choristers.  His  doctor's  degree  was  con- 
ferred on  him  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(Tait\  Jan.  6,  1875.  His  compositions  consist 
of  anthems,  services,  songs,  etc.,  and  a  MS. 
oratorio,  '  David  and  Absalom.'  [W.H.H.] 

LOOSEMOEE,    Henry,    Mus.    Baa,   was   a 

chorister  in  one  of  the  Cambridge  colleges,  after- 
wards lay  clerk  there,  and  organist  of  King's 
College.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1640. 
In  1660  he  was  appointed  organist  of  Exeter 
Cathedral.  A  service  and  anthems  by  him  are 
in  the  Tudway  collection  (Harl.  MSS.  7337,  7338) 
and  at  Ely,  and  two  Latin  litanies  (in  D  minor 
and  G  minor)  are  printed  in  J  ebb's  'Choral 
Responses  and  Litanies.'     He  died  in  1667. 

His  son,  George,  Mus.  Doc,  was  a  chorister 
of  King's  College,  Cambridge,  under  his  father, 
and  in  1660  became  organist  of  Trinity  College. 
He  took  his  Doctor's  degree  at  Cambridge  in  1665. 
Anthems  by  him  are  in  the  Tudway  collection 
(Harl.  MS.  7339)  and  at  Ely  Cathedral. 

Another  son,  John,  built  the  organ  of  Exeter 
Cathedral  in  1665,  and  died  1681.  Parts  of  his 
work  still  remain  in  that  organ.  [W.H.H.] 

LORD  OF  THE  ISLES,  THE.  A  Dramatic 
Cantata  founded  on  Scott's  poem  ;  the  music  by 
Henry  Gadsby.  Produced  at  Brighton  Feb.  13, 
1879.  [G.] 

LORELEY,  DIE.  An  opera  by*Geibel,  upon 
the  composition  of  which  Mendelssohn  was  en- 
engaged  at  the  time  of  Ids  death  (Nov.  4.  47). 
He  had   completed — as    far   as  anything  of  his 

'  Miss  Harriet  Cawse.  afterwards  Mrs.  John  Ficiiles. 
"-  'Dem  Andeukeu  I'elti  Meudelssobn-BartlioldjsMIauiiover.Rum- 
pWr  1S61;. 


could  be  said  to  be  complete  until  it  was  pub- 
lished— the  finale  to  the  act  in  which  the 
heroine,  standing  on  the  Loreley  cliff,  invokes  the 
spirits  of  the  Rhine.  This  number  was  first 
performed  at  Leipzig,  and  at  the  Birmingham 
Festival,  Sept.  8,  1852,  to  an  English  adaptation 
by  Mr.  Bartholomew,  and  was  published  as  '  Op. 
98,  No.  27  of  the  posthumous  works.'  In  Oct. 
1S68  an  Ave  'Maria  (scene  3)  for  soprano  solo 
and  chorus,  and  late  in  1S71  a  Vintagers'  Chorus 
(scene  4)  were  published,  and  portions  of  the  2nd 
and  7th  scenes  are  more  or  less  advanced  towards 
completion.  The  Finale  is  frequently  put  on  the 
stage  in  Germany.  The  opera  has  been  since 
composed  by  Max  Bruch  (produced  at  Cologne 
in  August  1864). 

2.  The  Loreley  is  the  subject  of  an  opera  by 
F.  Lachner,  words  by  Molitor,  produced  at  the 
Court  Theatre,  Munich,  in  1S46.  [G.] 

LOREXZ,  Franz,  physician  and  writer,  born 
at  Stein,  Lower  Austria,  April  4,  1805  ;  took 
his  doctor's  degree  1S31,  and  is  now  residing  in 
Wiener-Xeustadt.  Like  many  other  physicians, 
he  has  clone  much  for  music,  and  his  publications 
are  of  special  interest  and  value  : — '  In  Sachen 
Mozart's '  (Vienna,  1 S5 1 ),  much  praised  by  Kochel 
in  his  Mozart-Catologue  (Preface,  xvii.) ;  '  Haydn, 
Mozart,  and  Beethoven's  Kirchenmusik,'  etc. ; 
'  W.  A.  Mozart  als  Clavier-C'omponist'  (Breslau, 
1 866);  various  accurate  and  interesting  contri- 
butions on  Mozart,  Beethoven,  and  Haydn,  to  the 
Deutsche  Musik-Zeitung,  4 1861,  62  ;  the  Wiener 
Zeitung,  5Aug.  3,  1850,  Aug.  16,  1863.*  It  is 
to  Dr.  Lorenz  that  we  owe  Krenn's  important 
account  of  Beethoven's  last  autumn,  and  the 
other  anecdotes  and  traits  there  given.  [See 
Krenn.]  [C.F.P.] 

LORTZIXG,  Gustay  Albert,  opera-composer, 
born  at  Berlin,  Oct.  23,  1803,  son  of  an  actor. 
He  studied  for  a  time  under  Rimgenhagen,  but 
the  wandering  life  entailed  by  his  father's  pro- 
fession made  steady  instruction  an  impossibility, 
and  at  9  he  was  thrown  upon  his  own  resources, 
played  the  pianoforte,  violin,  and  cello,  studied 
the  works  of  Albrechtsberger  and  others,  and 
soon  began  to  compose.  At  the  same  time,  he 
habitually  sung  and  acted  on  the  stage,  and  thus 
secured  a  familiarity  with  the  practical  require- 
ments of  the  boards  which  was  of  great  advantage 
to  him.  In  1S22  he  went  with  his  parents  to 
Cologne,  where  he  married  before  he  was  20,  and 
produced  his  first  operetta  '  Ali  Pascha  von 
Janina.'  The  company  to  which  he  belonged 
served  the  theatres  of  Detmold,  Munster,  and 
Osnabriick,  in  addition  to  that  of  Cologne,  and 
at  all  these  his  opera  -was  repeated.  In  1833 
he  was  engaged  as  first  tenor  at  the  Stadttheater 
at  Leipzig,  and  here  he  passed  a  happy  anil  suc- 
cessful 10  years.  In  1837  he  wrote  and  composed 
two  comic  operas,    '  Die  beiden   Schiitzen '   and 

*  Tliis  was  performed  in  London  early  in  1860  under  the  care  of  Mr. 
Benedict. 

«  Mozart's  Requiem  flSfil.  No.  3.1.  48>;  Mozart's  Klavier-Sooaten 
(do.  4],  42  :  Mozart's  Masses  (VVS  No.  "!.  '■'-'■  :  Beethoven  at  Gneiien- 
dorf  (do.  10);  Havdn  and  his  princely  patrons  ^oo.  43,  47,  4*). 

5  Mozart's  death. 

6  Haydn  and  Beethoven. 


LORTZING. 

'Czaar  und  Zimmermann.'  Both  were  successful, 
and  the  latter  was  at  once  performed  all  over 
Germany.  His  next  few  works  however  fell  flat, 
and  it  was  not  till  1842  that  his  '  Wildschiitz,' 
arranged  from  Kotzebue's  comedy,  again  aroused 
the  public.  He  then  gave  up  acting,  and  in  1844 
was  appointed  Capellmeister  of  the  theatre,  a  post 
for  which  he  was  unfitted  both  by  his  easy  dis- 
position and  his  defective  education,  and  which 
he  resigned  in  the  following  year.  He  next  pro- 
duced '  Undine '  (1845)  with  success  at  Hamburg 
and  Leipzig,  and  'Der  Waffenschmidt '  (1846) 
at  "Vienna,  where  he  was  for  a  short  time  Capell- 
meister at  the  theatre  '  an  der  Wien.'  In  1 849 
the  success  of  his  '  Rolandsknappen  '  at  Leipzig, 
again  procured  him  the  offer  of  the  Capellmeister  - 
ship,  but  to  his  disappointment  the  negotiations 
fell  through,  and  Rietz  was  appointed.  His  life 
was  now  a  hard  one  ;  he  travelled  from  place  to 
place  with  his  numerous  family,  earning  a  pre- 
carious existence  now  as  an  actor,  now  by  con- 
ducting his  own  operas  ;  enduring  at  the  same 
time  the  mortification  of  having  his  later  operas 
rejected  by  all  the  more  important  theatres.  In 
1850  he  obtained  the  conductorship  at  the  Fried- 
rich -Wilhelmstadt  theatre  in  Berlin,  where  he 
had  only  farces  and  vaudevilles  to  direct ;  but  he 
was  completely  worn  out,  and  died  on  the  21st  of 
Jan.  1852.  The  public  discovered  its  neglect 
too  late,  honoured  his  remains  with  a  solemn 
funeral  procession,  and  raised  a  subscription 
which  placed  his  family  above  want.  He  left  an 
opera,  '  Regina,'  several  overtures,  incidental 
music  for  various  plays,  Lieder,  and  part  songs, 
all  unpublished.  His  operas  are  still  stock -pieces 
at  the  comic  theatres  in  Germany,  and  '  Undine ' 
is  frequently  performed,  although  romantic  sub- 
jects were  not  his  forte.  '  Czaar  und  Zimmermann' 
was  produced  as  '  Peter  the  Shipwright,'  at  the 
Gaiety  theatre,  London,  as  lately  as  April  17, 
1871. 

As  a  composer  Lortzing  is  remarkable  for 
naturalness.  Instead  of  straining  after  a  depth 
and  subtlety  beyond  his  powers,  he  wisely  aims 
at  expressing  natural  and  healthy  sentiments  by 
means  of  graceful  and  pleasing  music,  and  his 
keen  sense  of  humour  enables  him  to  give  an 
interest  to  commonplace  situations.  He  was 
never  able  to  free  himself  entirely  from  a  slight 
amateurishness  in  the  technical  part  of  his  work, 
but  his  compositions,  though  not  belonging  to  the 
highest  branch  of  art,  are  good  of  their  kind,  and 
in  spite  of  an  occasional  tendency  to  farcical  ex- 
aggeration, are  sound  and  artistic  music.     [A.M.] 

LOTTI,  Antonio,  eminent  composer,  son  of 
Matteo  Lotti,  a  Venetian,  Capellmeister  to  the 
then  Catholic  Court  of '  Hanover ;  born  probably 
in  1667,  and  possibly  in  Venice,  since  he  styles 
himself '  Veneto '  on  the  title-page  of  his  book  of 
Madrigals   (1705),   and  his   brother   Francesco 

1  Through  the  kindness  of  Dr.  Kestner  of  Uanorer  I  am  able  to  say 
that  no  documents  as  to  music  or  musicians  at  the  Court  of  Hanover 
In  the  17th  century  are  now  to  be  found  there.  The  ltegister  of  the 
Catholic  Church  at  Hanover  contains,  under  Nov.  5, 1672.  an  entry  of 
the  baptism  of  Hieronymus  Dominicus,  sen  of  Matthias  de  Lottis  and 
Marina  de  Papirinis,  and  under  Nov.  9, 1673,  of  that  of  a  daughter  of 
Matteo  de  Lotti.  The  ltegister  was  begun  la  May  1671,  so  that  it  does 
not  go  far  back  enough  for  our  purpose.  [G.] 


LOTTI. 


167 


was  lawyer  to  the  Procurator!,  a  post  tenable 
only  by  a  native.  At  any  rate,  his  early  years 
were  passed  in  Venice,  and  before  he  was  16  he 
produced  an  opera,  '  II  Giustino,'  to  words  by  a 
nobleman,  Nicolo  Beregani.  His  master  was  Le- 
grenzi,  then  Maestro  di  capella  to  the  Doge.  Lotti 
entered  the  Doge's  chapel  as  a  boy ;  in  1 687  joined 
the  '  Confraternita  musicale  di  Santa  Cecilia ' ; 
was  appointed,  May  30,  1689,  'cantore  di  contra 
alto,'  with  a  salary  of  100  ducats ;  and  Aug.  6, 
1690,  became  deputy  organist,  with  an  addition 
of  30  ducats.  On  May  31, 1692,  the  Procuratori 
of  St.  Mark's  unanimously  elected  him  organist 
in  place  of  Pollarolo,  appointed  vice  maestro  di 
capella.  As  second  organist  he  composed  a  book 
of  Masses,  for  which  he  received  100  ducats  July 
2  2, 1 698.  On  Aug.  1 7, 1 704,  he  succeeded  Spada 
as  first  organist,  and  retained  the  post  forty  years, 
receiving  permission  in  1732  to  employ  as  substi- 
tute his  pupil  Saratelli,  who  eventually  succeeded 
him.  In  1733  the  Maestro  di  capella,  Antonio 
Biffi,  died,  and  an  eager  competition  for  the  vacant 
post  ensued.  Lotti's  chief  rivals  were  Pollarolo 
and  Porpora,  and  at  the  first  election,  March  8, 
1 733  (the  dates  throughout  are  from  State  docu- 
ments), he  obtained  6  votes  out  of  1 2 .  A  majority 
being  necessary,  the  matter  remained  in  suspense, 
and  meantime  Lotti  was  authorised  to  call  him- 
self Maestro  di  capella.  Porpora  retired  before 
the  second  election  (April  2,  1736),  but  his  place 
was  taken  by  a  scarcely  less  formidable  compe- 
titor, Giovanni  Porta.  Lotti  however  received  9 
votes,  and  thus  obtained  the  post,  with  its  salary 
of  400  ducats  and  an  official  residence.  In  the 
interim  he  composed  his  celebrated  'Miserere,' 
which  superseded  that  of  his  master  Legrenzi,  and 
has  been  performed  in  St.  Mark's  on  Maundy 
Thursday  ever  since.  This  was  followed  by  a 
number  of  masses,  hymns,  and  psalms,  with  organ 
accompaniment  only,  although  his  predecessors 
had  employed  the  orchestra.  He  also  composed  1 7 
operas  (for  list  see  Fetis),  produced  with  success 
between  the  years  1693  and  1 71 7,  at  the  theatres 
of  S.  Angelo,  S.  Cassiano,  S.  Giovann'  Crisostomo, 
and  SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo.  Some  of  these  having 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  Crown  Prince  of 
Saxony  during  his  stay  in  Venice  (171 2),  he 
engaged  Lotti  to  visit  Dresden,  with  a  company 
of  singers,  including  Boschi  and  Personelli,  both 
members  of  the  chapel,  and  his  own  wife,  a 
Bolognese  singer  named  Santa  Stella.  The  joint 
salary  of  husband  and  wife  was  fixed  at  2,100 
'doppii'  (about  £1600).  The  party  set  out 
on  September  5,  171 7,  having  obtained  special 
leave  of  absence  from  the  Procuratori  of  St. 
Mark's — '  per  farvi  un  opera.'  In  Dresden  Lotti 
composed  '  Giove  ed  Argo,'  '  Ascanio.  ovvero  gl' 
odi  clelusi  del  Sangue,'  and  'Teofane'  with  Pal- 
lavicini ;  intermezzi,  and  various  other  pieces, 
including  church  works,  among  which  may  be 
specified  the  8-part  'Crucifixus'  occurring  in  a 
'  Credo '  for  5  voices  and  instruments.  The  Pro- 
curatori gave  him  one  extension  of  leave,  but 
in  1 7 19  he  was  compelled  to  return  or  vacate 
his  post;  and  accordingly  left  Dresden  in  Octo- 
ber in  a  travelling-carriage,  which  he  ever  after 


168 


LOTTI. 


retained  as  a  memorial  of  his  visit,  and  finally 
bequeathed  to  his  wife.  After  his  return  he  com- 
posed entirely  for  the  church  and  chamber. 
Lotti  died  of  a  long  and  painful  dropsy  on  Jan. 
5,  1740,  and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  S. 
Geminiano,  where  his  widow  (who  died  1759  and 
was  buried  with  him)  erected  a  monument  to  his 
memory.     It  was  destroyed  with  the  church  in 

1815. 

Besides  the  compositions  already  mentioned 
he  wrote  for  Vienna  an  opera,  'Constantino,' 
overture  by  Fux  (1716),  and  two  oratorios,  'II 
Voto  crudele  '  (171 2),  and  '  L'  Umilt£  coronata ' 
(171 4);  for  Venice,  the  oratorios  '  Gioa,  Re  di 
Giuda,'  '  Giuditta '  (printed  by  Poletti),  and  the 
celebrated  madrigal  'Spirto  di  1Dio'  for  the 
Doge's  espousal  of  the  Adriatic,  performed  on 
the  Bucentoro  in  1736 — a  very  effective  com- 
position. His  book  of  Madrigals  (1705)  dedi- 
cated to  the  Emperor  Joseph  I.,  contains  the  one 
in  5  parts,  '  In  una  siepe  ombrosa,'  which  Bonon- 
cini  claimed  in  London  as  his  own  composition, 
and  which  led  to  his  disgrace  (seep.  650  a,  note). 
Another  is  given  as  a  model  by  Padre  Martini  in 
his  'Esemplare  di  contrappunto.'  Nevertheless 
they  were  severely  handled  at  the  time  in  a 
'  Lettera  famigliare  d'un  accademico  filarmonico,' 
circulated  in  MS.  anonymously,  but  attributed  on 
Fontana's  authority  to  Marcello,  who  had  been 
a  pupil  of  Lotti's.  Many  of  his  compositions  are 
still  in  the  King  of  Saxony's  musical  library,  and 
Breitkopf  &  Hartel  once  possessed  several  of  his 
MSS.,  as  did  also  Dr.  Burney. 

Lotti's  rank  among  musicians  is  a  high  one, 
from  the  fact  that  though  the  last  representative 
of  the  old  severe  school,  he  used  modern  har- 
monies with  freedom  and  grace.  The  expression 
and  variety  of  his  music  struck  even  his  con- 
temporaries, especially  Hasse,  when  he  was  at 
Venice  in  1727.  Burney,  who  heard  his  church 
music  sung  in  Venice  in  1770  (Tour,  ii.  152) 
credits  him  with  'grace  and  pathos,'  and  charac- 
terises his  choral  music  as  both  solemn  and 
touching,  and  so  capable  of  expression,  though 
written  in  the  old  contrapuntal  style,  as  to  have 
affected  him  even  to  tears.  Of  his  cantatas  he 
says  that  they  contain  recitatives  full  of  feeling 
(Hist.  iv.  534).  As  a  specimen  of  his  writing  for  a 
single  voice  we  may  cite  the  favourite  song  '  Pur 
dicesti.'  He  was  so  afraid  of  overloading  the 
voices  that  he  never  used  orchestral  accompani- 
ments in  church  music.  There  are  wind  instru- 
ments as  well  as  the  four  strings  in  his  Dresden 
operas,  but  not  in  those  produced  in  Venice. 

Besides  Saratelli  and  Marcello,  Alberti,  Bas- 
sani,  Gasparini,  and  Galuppi  were  among  his 
pupils.  A  motet  of  Lotti's,  'Blessed  be  thou,'  and 
a  madrigal,  'All  hail  Britannia,'  both  for  4  voices, 
are  given  in  Mr.  Hullah's  Part  Music  (1st  ed.), 
and  a  fine  Credo  in  C,  also  for  4  voices,  in  his 
Vocal  Scores  and  Part  Music  (2nd  ed.).  Proske 
has  a  Mass  of  his  (a.  4)  in  Musica  Divina,  vol.  i„ 
and  Rochlitz  a  Crucifixus,  a  6,  and  another  a  8, 
and  a  Qui  tollis,  a  4,  in  his  Sammlung.    There  is 

1  A  MS.  of  this  is  in  the  Library  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society, 
Ko.  1040. 


LOUIS  FERDINAND. 

also  a  Kyrie  in  the  Auswahl  vorz.  Musikwerke 
(Trautwein).  Four  Masses  and  a  llequiern  are  in 
Luck's  Sammlung,  and  various  other  pieces  in  the 
collections  of  Schlesinger,  Moskowa,  etc.   [F.  G .] 

LOTTINI,  Antonio,  the  principal  Italian 
basso  in  London  in  1737  and  8.  He  sustained 
that  part  in  Handel's  '  Paramondo'  in  1737,  in 
his  '  Serse,'  and  in  the  ' Conquista  del  Velio 
d'oro' in  1738.  [J-iL] 

LOUIS  FERDINAND,  Prince,— accurately 
Friedrich  Christian  Ludwig, — born  Nov.  18, 
1772,  killed  at  the  battle  of  Saalfeld,  Oct.  13, 
1806,  was  the  son  of  Prince  August  Ferdinand 
of  Prussia,  and  therefore  nephew  of  Frederick 
the  Great  and  of  Prince  Henry  (the  patron  of 
J.  P.  Salomon,  and  cousin  of  Frederick  William 
II),  the  cello-player  for  whom  Beethoven  wrote 
his  op.  5.  His  sister  Louise  married  Prince 
Radziwill,  who  composed  the  Faust  music  and  to 
whom  Beethoven  dedicated  the  Overture  op.  1 15. 
Louis  Ferdinand  thus  belonged  to  a  musical  as 
well  as  a  royal  family,  and  he  appears  to  have 
been  its  brightest  ornament  on  the  score  of  natural 
gifts — his  uncle  the  Great  Frederick  excepted — 
even  down  to  our  own  time ;  in  music  undoubtedly 
so.  He  was  kindly  and  generous  in  the  highest 
degree,  and  free  from  all  pride  of  rank ;  energetic 
and  enterprising,  and  as  a  soldier  bold  to  teme- 
rity. In  conversation  he  was  brilliant,  in  social 
intercourse  delightful.  On  the  point  of  morals 
his  reputation  was  not  good ;  but  one  who  knew 
him  well,  while  admitting  that,  being  prevented 
by  his  rank  from  making  a  marriage  of  affection, 
'  he  chose  female  friends  with  whom  he  lived  in 
the  most  intimate  relations,'  asserts  positively 
that  'he  never  seduced  an  innocent  girl,  or  de- 
stroyed the  peace  of  a  happy  marriage.'  This, 
in  the  time  of  Frederick  William  II,  was  high 
praise.  He  was  passionately  fond  of  his  two 
illegitimate  children,  and  left  them  to  the  care 
of  his  sister,  Princess  Radziwill.  That  he  very 
early  entered  the  army  was  a  matter  of  course, 
for  no  other  career  was  open  to  a  Prussian 
prince ;  but  that,  amid  all  the  distractions  of  a 
military  life,  no  small  part  of  which  ( 1 792-1806) 
was  spent  in  hard  service,  he  should  have  be- 
come a  sound  practical  musician  and  composer 
proves  his  energy  and  perseverance  no  less  than 
his  talent ;  but  music  was  his  passion,  and  in  gar- 
rison or  camp  he  had  musicians  with  him  and 
kept  up  his  practice.  He  preferred  English 
pianofortes,  of  which  he  is  said  to  have  purchased 
no  less  than  thirteen. 

We  find  no  account  of  his  masters  and  early 
studies,  nor  any  but  vague  notices  of  his  rapid 
progress,  until  1793.  He  was  then  with  his 
regiment  at  Frankfort,  and  is  reported  to  have 
aided  a  poor  musician  not  only  with  his  purse,  but 
by  a  very  fine  performance  of  a  sonata  in  a 
concert.  Three  years  later,  in  1796,  Beethoven, 
then  in  Berlin,  formed  that  opinion  of  his  playing 
which  he  afterwards  expressed  to  Ries  (Biog. 
Not.  p.  1 10),  that,  though  the  playing  of  Himmel — 
then  among  the  most  renowned  of  pianists — was 
elegant  and  pleasing,  it  was  not  to  be  compared 
to  that  of  the  Prince.     Ries  also  (lb.)  records 


LOUIS  FERDINAND. 

Beethoven's  compliment  to  him — that  he  did  not 
play  at  all  like  a  king  or  a  prince,  but  like  a 
thorough  solid  pianist.  [See  the  article  on  Dussek 
for  an  account  of  his  relations  with  that  great 
musician.]  In  1804  he  made  a  journey  to  Italy. 
In  Bohemia  he  visited  Prince  Lobkowitzathis  seat, 
Raudnitz.  We  see  no  sufficient  reason  to  doubt 
the  truth  of  an  anecdote  the  scene  of  which  lay 
then  and  there.  Lobkowitz  had  purchased  from 
Beethoven  the  recently  composed  Heroic  Sym- 
phony, and  had  had  it  performed  in  his  palace 
at  Vienna.  He  consulted  with  Wranitzky,  his 
Kapellmeister,  as  to  a  programme  for  the  enter- 
tainment of  his  guest.  Wranitzky  proposed  the 
new  symphony.  Louis  Ferdinand  listened  with 
the  utmost  interest,  and  at  the  close  of  the  per- 
formance requested  a  repetition,  which  was  of 
course  granted.  After  supper,  having  to  depart 
early  the  next  morning,  he  besought  the  favour 
of  a  third  performance,  which  was  .also  granted. 

It  was  under  the  fresh  impression  of  this 
music  that  Louis  Ferdinand  renewed  his  ac- 
quaintance with  Beethoven.  We  have  no  par- 
ticulars of  the  meeting.  Ries  (Biog.  Not.  p.  1 1 )  only 
relates,  that  an  old  l  Countess,  at  the  supper  after 
a  musical  entertainment,  excluded  Beethoven 
from  the  table  set  for  the  Prince  and  the  nobility, 
at  which  the  composer  left  the  house  in  a  rage. 
Some  days  later  Louis  Ferdinand  gave  a  dinner, 
and  the  Countess  and  Beethoven  being  among 
the  guests,  had  their  places  next  the  Prince  on 
either  hand,  a  mark  of  distinction  of  which  the 
composer  always  spoke  with  pleasure.  A  plea- 
sant token  of  their  intercourse  survives  in  the 
dedication  to  the  Prince  of  the  P.  F.  Concerto  in 
C  minor,  which  was  first  played  in  July  1804, 
and  published  in  November. 

In  the  autumn  of  the  next  year  (1805),  the 
Prince  being  at  Magdeburg  on  occasion  of  the 
military  manoeuvres,  Spohr  was  invited  to  join 
them.  'I  led,'  says  Spohr  (Selbstbiog.),  'a 
strange,  wild,  stirring  life,  which  for  a  short  time 
thoroughly  suited  my  youthful  tastes.  Dussek 
and  I  were  often  dragged  from  our  beds  at  six 
in  the  morning  and  called  in  dressing-gown  and 
slippers  to  the  Prince's  reception  room,  where  he, 
often  in  shirt  and  drawers  Rowing  to  the  extreme 
heat),  was  already  at  the  pianoforte.  The  study 
and  rehearsal  of  the  music  selected  for  the 
evening  often  continued  so  long,  that  the  hall 
was  filled  with  officers  in  stars  and  orders, 
with  which  the  costume  of  the  musicians  con- 
trasted strangely  enough.  The  Prince  however 
never  left  off  until  everything  had  been  studied  to 
his  satisfaction.'  Louis  Ferdinand's  compositions, 
like  his  playing,  were  distinguished  for  boldness, 
splendour,  and  deep  feeling;  several  of  those 
which  are  in  print  were  composed  before  the 
intercourse  with  Dussek  had  ripened  his  taste, 
and  made  him  more  fully  master  of  his  ideas. 
These  he  would  gladly  have  suppressed.  The 
Pianoforte  Quartet  in  F  minor  ia  considered  to 
be  his  most  perfect  work. 

Ledebur's  list  of  the  published  compositions 
(made  1861)  is  as  follows  : — 

1  Sot  the  Countess  Thun,  is  has  been  stated-she  died  lonj  before. 


LOURE. 


Or. 


It  Quintet     for     P.! 
Strings,  G  minor. 

2.  Trio  for  P.F.,  Violin,  and 

Cello,  A  b. 

3.  Do.,  do,  Eb. 

4.  Andante,  do.,  Bb. 

5.  Quartet  for  P.  F„  Violin, 

Viola,  and  Cello.  Eb. 

6.  Do.,  do.,       F  minor. 

7.  Fugue,  4  volx,   for  P.F. 

solo. 
&  Nocturno  for  P.F.,  Flute, 
Violin,  Cello  obligati,  and 
2  Horns  ad  lib.,  F. 


and  Op.  9.  Hondo  for  P.  F..  2  Violins, 
Flute,  2  Clarinets,  2 
Horns,  Viola,  and  Cello, 


.  10.  Trio  for  P.F.,  Violin,  and 
Cello,  EP. 

a  XL  Larghetto,  variations,  P.F., 
with  Violin,  Viola,  and 
Cello,  oblig. 

„  12.  Octet  for  P.  F„  Clarinet,  8 
Horns,  2  Violins,  2  Cellos. 

„    13.  Rondo  for  P.F. 
Also  a  2nd  Quintet  for  P.F.  and 
Strings. 

[A.W.T.] 

LOULIE,  Etienne,  protege"  of  Mile,  de  Guise, 
and  music-master,  in  the  second  half  of  the  17th 
century,  is  only  known  as  the  author  of  '  Ele- 
ments ou  Principes  de  Musique'  (Paris  1696), 
at  the  close  of  which  is  an  engraving  and  de- 
scription of  his  '  Chronometre.'  Louli^  was  the 
first  to  attempt  to  indicate  the  exact  tempo  of 
a  piece  of  music  by  means  of  an  instrument 
beating  the  time.  The  one  he  invented  took  the 
minute  as  the  unit,  and  went  up  to  72  degrees 
of  rapidity ;  but  being  six  feet  in  height  was  too 
cumbrous  for  general  use.  Nevertheless  to 
Loulie"  belongs  the  merit  of  the  idea  which  more 
than  a  century  later  was  carried  into  practice  by 
Maelzel.  [G.C.] 

LOURE.  This  word,  whether  derived  from 
the  Latin  lura,  a  bag  or  purse,  or  the  Danish 
luur,  a  shepherd's  flute,  or  merely  an  alteration 
of  the  Old  French  word  outre  with  the  article 
prefixed,  F  outre — signified  originally  a  kind  of 
bagpipe,  common  in  many  parts  of  France,  but 
especially  in  Normandy.  The  peasants  of  Lower 
Normandy  still  call  the  stomach  'la  loure,'  just 
as  those  of  Normandy  and  Poitou  call  an  '  outre ' 
or  leathern  wine-bottle,  '  une  veze.'  Again,  the 
Old  French  words  '  chevre,'  'chevrie,'  'chevrette,' 
were  derived  from  cabreta  in  dog-latin,  and 
'  gogue'  meant  an  inflated  bag  or  bladder.  These 
circumstances  seem  to  point  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  names  of  all  these  instruments,  'chevre,' 
'chevrette,'  'gogue,'  'loure,'  'veze,'  'saccomuse,' 
etc.,  refer  to  the  wind-bag,  ordinarily  made  of 
goat-skin;  an  argument  strengthened  by  the 
English  'bagpipe'  and  the  German  '  Sackpfeife,' 
'  Balgpfeife,'  '  Dudelsack,'  etc. 

From  its  primary  signification — a  kind  of  bag- 
pipe inflated  from  the  mouth — the  word  '  loure ' 
came  to  mean  an  old  dance,  in  slower  rhythm 
than  the  gigue,  generally  in  6-4  time.  As  this 
was  danced  to  the  nasal  tones  of  the  '  loure,' 
the  term  '  loure" '  was  gradually  applied  to  any 
passage  meant  to  be  played  in  the  style  of  the 
old  bagpipe  airs.  Thus  '  lourer '  is  to  play  legato 
with  a  slight  emphasis  on  the  first  note  of  each 
group.  The  '  loure" '  style  is  chiefly  met  with  in 
pastoral,  rustic,  and  mountaineer  music. 

As  an  example  we  give  the  first  strain  of  a 
Loure  from  Schubert's  'Die  Tanzmusik.' 


ittdante.        A/v 


[G.C.] 


170 


LOVATTINI. 


LOVATTINI,  Giovanni,  an  Italian  singer, 
celebrated  for  the  most  beautiful  of  tenor  voices 
and  for  his  excellent  acting.  He  sang  in  London 
(1767)  in  Piccinni's  *  Buona  Figliuola,'  very 
strongly  cast  with  La  Guadagni  and  Morigi. 
Lovattini  continued  to  sing  here  for  several 
years,  until  the  end  of  1774,  according  to  Lord 
Mount-Edgcumbe ;  but  the  present  writer  has 
only  traced  him  as  late  as  1772,  when  he  was 
singing  in  'La  Schiava'  of  Piccinni  and  Gug- 
lielini's  '  Virtuosa.'  We  have  no  record  of  his 
later  career ;  but  in  1834  Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe 
saw,  '  in  the  pavement  of  a  church  at  Bologna,  a 
small  square,  inscribed  with  the  three  words, 
Qui  giace  Lovattini.'  [J.M.] 

LOVE'S  TRIUMPH.  An  opera  in  3  acts; 
words  by  J.  R.  Planche",  after '  Le  Portrait  vivant,' 
music  by  W.  Vincent  Wallace.  Produced  at  the 
Royal  English  Opera,  Covent  Garden,  (Pyne  and 
Harrison)  Nov.  3,  1S62.  [G.] 

LOWE,  Edward,  was  a  native  of  Salisbury  and 
a  chorister  in  the  cathedral  there  under  John 
Holmes,  the  organist.  In  1630  he  succeeded 
Dr.  William  Stonard  as  organist  of  Christ  Church 
Cathedral,  Oxford.  In  1660  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  organists  of  the  Chapel  Royal.  In 
1 66 1  he  published  at  Oxford  '  A  Short  Direction 
for  the  performance  of  Cathedrall  Service,  pub- 
lished for  the  information  of  such  as  are  ignorant 
of  it  and  shall  be  called  upon  to  officiate  in 
Cathedral  or  Collegiate  Churches  where  it  hath 
formerly  been  in  use, 'containing  the  notation  of  the 
Preces,  Responses,  Litany,  etc.,  for  ordinary  days, 
and,  under  the  title  of '  Extraordinary  Responses 
upon  Festi  vails, '  a  version  of  Tallis's  Responses  and 
Litany,  and  also  '  Veni  Creator,'  harmonised  for  4 
voices.  In  1 662,  on  the  resignation  of  Dr.  Wilson, 
he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Music  at  Oxford, 
having  been  deputy  for  some  time  before.  In  1664 
he  published  'A  Review'  of  his  'Short  Direction,' 
adapted  to  the  then  newly-revised  Liturgy,  and 
including  also  several  chants  and  John  Parsons's 
Burial  Service.  This  edition  was  reprinted  by  Dr. 
Rimbaultin  1843,  and  by  Dr.  Jebb  in  his  'Choral 
Responses'  in  1857.  Low  composed  several  an- 
thems, some  of  which  are  in  the  Tudway  collection 
and  at  Ely  Cathedral.  He  died  at  Oxford,  July  1 1 , 
1682,  and  was  buried  in  the  Divinity  Chapel  on 
the  north  side  of  the  cathedral.  [W.H.H.] 

LOWE,  Thomas,  favourite  tenor  singer,  made 
his  first  appearance  on  any  stage  at  Drury  Lane, 
Sept.  11,  1740,  as  Sir  John  Loverule  in  "The 
Devil  to  pay' ;  Oct.  17  he  performed  Macheath, 
and  Dec.  20  had  the  distinction  of  being  the 
original  singer  of  Arne's  beautiful  songs,  '  Under 
the  greenwood  tree '  and '  Blow,  blow,  thou  winter 
wind  'in  'As  You  Like  It.'  He  was  the  original 
singer  of  the  following  parts  in  Handel's  ora- 
torios ; — Priest  of  Dagon  and  Israelitish  Man  in 
'Samson,'  1742  ;  First  Elder  in  'Susanna,'  1743  ; 
Joshua,  1746;  Zadok  in  'Solomon,'  1749;  an(l 
Septimius  in  'Theodora,'  1750.  In  1745  anci 
several  subsequent  years  he  sang  at  Vauxhall 
Gardens,  and  in  1763  became  lessee  and  manager 
of  Marylebone  Gardens,  and  continued  so  until 


LUCCA. 

1 768,  when  an  unsuccessful  season  compelled  him 
in  Feb.  1769  to  assign  his  interest  in  the  place 
to  trustees  for  the  benefit  of  his  creditors.  His 
powers  beginning  to  fail  he  was  compelled  to 
accept  engagements  at  Finch's  Grotto  Garden, 
Southwark,  and  similar  places.  In  1784  he  was 
engaged  at  Sadlers'  Wells.  Lowe  is  said  to  have 
possessed  a  finer  voice  than  Beard,  but  to  have 
been  inferior  as  musician  and  singer.  [W.H.H.] 
LUCAS,  Charles,  born  at  Salisbury,  July  28, 
1808,  was  a  chorister  in  the  cathedral  under 
Arthur  Thomas  Corfe  from  1 815  to  1823,  when 
he  became  a  pupil  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Music,  and  studied  the  violoncello  under  Lindley, 
and  harmony  and  composition  under  Lord  and 
Dr.  Crotch.  He  remained  there  for  7  years.  In 
1830  he  became  a  member  of  Queen  Adelaide's 
private  band,  and  composer  and  arranger  of  music 
for  it,  and  soon  afterwards  music  preceptor  to 
Prince  George  (now  Duke)  of  Cambridge  and  the 
Princes  of  Saxe  Weimar.  In  1832  he  succeeded 
Cipriani  Potter  as  conductor  at  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Music.  He  also  became  a  member  of  the 
opera  and  other  orchestras  as  a  violoncellist.  In 
1839  ne  was  appointed  organist  of  Hanover 
Chapel,  Regent  Street.  He  was  for  some  time 
conductor  of  the  Choral  Harmonists'  Society. 
On  the  retirement  of  Lindley  he  succeeded  him 
as  principal  violoncello  at  the  opera,  the  pro- 
vincial festivals,  etc.  From  1856  to  June  30, 
1865,  he  was  a  member  of  the  music-publishing 
firm  of  Addison,  Hollier,  &  Lucas.  In  1859 
he  was  appointed  successor  to  Potter  as  Principal 
of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  which  office  he 
held  until  July  1866,  when  ill  health  compelled 
him  to  relinquish  it.  His  compositions  include 
'The  Regicide,'  opera,  3  symphonies,  string 
quartets,  anthems,  songs,  etc.  He  edited '  Esther' 
for  the  Handel  Society.  He  died  March  30, 
1869.  His  son,  Stanley  Lucas,  born  1834,  was 
Secretary  to  Leslie's  Choir  from  its  formation  to 
Oct.  1855  ;  has  been  Secretary  to  the  Royal 
Society  of  Musicians  since  1861,  and  to  the  Phil- 
harmonic Society  since  1866,  and  is  otherwise 
much  connected  with  music  in  London.  [W.H.H.] 

LUCCA.  In  1640  an  Academy,  that  of  the 
'Accesi,'  was  founded  at  Lucca  entirely  for 
dramatic  musical  representation.  [CM. P.] 

LUCCA,  Pauline,  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
operatic  artists  of  a  brilliant  epoch,  is  a  native  of 
Vienna.  Her  high  musical  gifts  showed  them- 
selves early,  when,  a  mere  child,  she  sang  in  the 
choir  of  the  Karlskirche,  in  1856.  One  Sunday 
the  principal  singer  was  missing,  and  the  young 
chorister  put  forward  to  supply  her  place  in  the 
solo  of  a  mass  of  Mozart's,  revealed  a  beauty  of 
voice  and  charm  of  style  that  startled  all  present. 
She  studied  under  Uschmann  and  Lewy,  and 
her  parents  being  in  straitened  circumstances, 
entered  the  chorus  of  the  Opera  at  Vienna, 
which  she  quitted  in  1859  to  come  out  at  Olmiitz. 
Just  before  leaving,  it  fell  to  her  to  lead  the 
Bridesmaids'  Chorus  in  the  Freischiitz,  her  per- 
formance creating  a  sensation  that  made  Vienna 
eager  to  retain  her;  but  it  was  too  late.     On 


LUCCA. 

Sept.  4,  1859,  Bne  made  her  d^but  at  Olmiitz  as 
Elvira  in  'Ernani,'  and  there  became  a  favourite 
at  once.  In  March  i860  she  appeared  at  Prague 
as  Valentine  in  'The  Huguenots,'  and  as  Norma. 
The  fame  of  a  young  singer  of  rare  gifts,  includ- 
ing the  rarest  of  all,  original  genius,  reached 
Meyerbeer  in  Berlin,  then  vainly  seeking  an 
artist  to  whom  he  could  entrust  the  unconven- 
tional rdle  of  Selika  in  his  yet  unpublished 
'Africaine.'  At  his  instigation  Mile.  Lucca  was 
engaged  for  Berlin,  where  she  first  appeared  in 
April  1861,  and  soon  roused  an  enthusiasm  rarely 
equalled  by  any  former  singer.  She  studied  the 
role  of  Selika  and  others  under  Meyerbeer's  per- 
sonal supervision.  At  Berlin  she  was  engaged 
as  Court  singer  for  life  ;  and  on  July  18,  1863, 
made  her  first  appearance  in  this  country,  at 
Co  vent  Garden,  in  the  part  of  Valentine,  creating 
an  extraordinary  impression,  which  was  further 
enhanced  by  her  performance  of  Margherita,  in 
•  Faust,'  during  her  second  fleeting  visit  to  our 
shores  the  following  year.  In  July  1865  the 
Africaine  was  produced  at  Covent  Garden,  and 
Mile.  Lucca's  impersonation  of  Selika  must  be 
ranked  among  the  very  highest  achievements 
in  the  lyrical  drama.  She  reappeared  in  London 
every  season  (excepting  69)  up  to  1872  ;  and 
sang  throughout  Germany  with  triumphant 
success,  and  at  St.  Petersburg,  where  she  was 
received  with  the  wildest  enthusiasm.  Her  voice, 
a  full  soprano,  with  a  compass  of  i\  octaves 
extending  easily  to  C  in  alt,  and  sympathetic 
throughout,  seemed  capable  of  taking  every  grade 
of  expression ;  and  to  her  rare  lyrical  endowments 
she  united  one  still  rarer — a  genius  for  represen- 
tation. In  London,  besides  the  parts  specified 
above,  she  was  heard  mostly  in  Zerlina  (Fra 
Diavolo),  Leonora (Favorita),  and  Cherubino;  but 
Berlin  knew  better  the  extent  of  a  repertoire  said 
to  include  over  56  r&les.  Auber  was  so  delighted 
with  her  singing  of  his  music,  that  he  presented 
her  with  the  pen  with  which  '  Fra  Diavolo '  was 
written,  in  token  of  his  admiration.  Meyerbeer 
pronounced  her  a  very  David  Garrick,  and  no 
wonder.  To  each  impersonation  she  imparted  a 
specific  individuality,  presenting  characters  as 
directly  opposed  as  Cherubino  and  Selika, 
Haldvy's  Juive  and  Nicolai's  Merry  Wife  of 
Windsor,  Wagner's  Elsa,  and  Angela  in  the 
'Domino  Noir,'  with  the  same  truth,  natural  ease, 
and  vivid  originality ;  whilst  to  colourless  r6les, 
such  as  Agata  in  the  Freischiitz,  she  gave  a 
distinct  personality  and  charm.  In  1872  she 
severed  her  connection  with  Berlin,  and  went  to 
America,  where  she  remained  two  years,  on  an 
operatic  tour  through  the  States.  She  returned 
to  Europe  in  1874,  and  sang  at  all  the  chief  cities 
of  Germany,  except  Berlin.  At  Vienna,  where 
she  now  resides,  she  has  remained  one  of  the 
chief  attractions  of  each  season.  Besides  starring 
engagements  in  Germany,  she  appeared  in  Brus- 
sels 1876,  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow  1877,  and 
Madrid  1878.  At  Vienna  she  has  recently  added 
Donna  Anna,  Carmen,  and  Madeleine  in  'Le 
Postilion,'  to  her  list  of  successful  parts.  In 
1865  she  married  Baron  Rahden.  [B.  T.] 


LUBECK. 


171 


LUCCHESINA,  Maria  Antonia  Mabche- 
sini,  detta  LA,  an  Italian  mezzo-soprano,  who 
sang  in  London,  1737-39.  In  the  former  year 
she  played  Rosimonda  in  Handel's  '  Faramonao ' ; 
in  the  following  year,  beside  other  parts,  that  of 
Arsamme,  a  male  character,  in  '  Serse' ;  and  she 
sang  the  music  of  David  in  'Saul'  on  its  first 
production,  Jan.  16,  1739.  [J.M.] 

LUCIA  DI  LAMMERMOOR.  Opera  in  3 
acts ;  libretto  by  Cammarano,  music  by  Doni- 
zetti. Produced  at  Naples  in  1835  ;  in  Paris,  in 
4  acts  (words  by  A.  Royer  and  Waez\  at  the 
Theatre  de  la  Renaissance,  Aug.  10,  1839,  and 
the  Academie-royale  Feb.  20,  1846;  in  London, 
at  Her  Majesty's,  April  5,  1838  ;  in  English,  at 
Princess's  theatre,  Jan.  19,  1843.  [G.] 

LUCIO  SILLA.  A  Dramma  per  musica,  in 
3  acts ;  libretto  by  G.  da  Gamera,  music  by 
Mozart.  Produced  at  Milan  Dec.  26, 1772 — the 
last  which  he  wrote  for  Italy,  [G.] 

LUCREZIA  BORGIA.  Opera  in  3  acts; 
libretto  adapted  by  Romani  from  Victor  Hugo's 
drama,  music  by  Donizetti.  Produced  at  La  Scala, 
Milan,  Spring,  1834;  given  at  Theatre  Italien. 
Paris,  Oct.  27,  1840.  Victor  Hugo  then  stopped 
the  performance,  and  the  words  were  re- written 
under  the  title  of '  La  Rinegata.'  In  England  it 
was  produced  (in  2  acts)  at  Her  Majesty's  theatre 
June  6, 1 839,  for  the  de"but  of  Mario ;  in  English, 
at  Princess's  theatre,  Dec.  30, 1843.  [G.] 

LUBECK,  Chaeles  H.,  conductor  and  vio- 
linist, born  Feb.  II,  1799,  at  Alssen,  near  Dus- 
seldorf ;  held  the  post  of  Kapellmeister  at  the 
Hague  until  his  death,  Feb.  11, 1866.  His  eldest 
son,  Ernst  Heinbich,  a  very  distinguished  pianist, 
was  born  1829,  and  first  appeared  in  public  at 
12  years  of  age,  when  he  played  Beethoven's 
Eb  Concerto.  He  made  a  tour  to  the  United 
States,  Mexico  and  Peru,  which  lasted  from  1S49 
to  1852.  On  his  return  he  was  made  Court  pianist 
at  the  Hague.  In  1855  he  moved  to  Paris, 
where  he  principally  resided  until  driven  from 
the  city  by  the  disturbances  of  the  Commune, 
which  gave  a  shock  to  his  brain  from  which  it 
never  recovered.  He  became  at  length  hopelessly 
insane,  and  died  Sept.  17,  1876.  He  wrote  only 
for  piano.  Among  his  compositions  are  the  fol- 
lowing:— Berceuse  in  Ab,  op.  13;  Tarentelle; 
Polonaise,  op.  14;  'Trilby  the  Sprite,  Reverie 
caracteristique.'  The  two  former  were  chosen 
by  him  for  performance  at  the  Philharmonic 
Concert  May  7,  i860,  when  he  also  played 
Mendelssohn's  Concerto  in  G  minor.  In  the 
same  year  he  first  appeared  at  the  Musical  Union. 
His  playing  was  distinguished  for  brilliancy  and 
technique.  Berlioz  says  of  him :  '  Son  talent  est 
tout  a  fait  extraordinaire,  non  seulement  par  un 
mecanisnie  prodigieux,  niais  par  un  style  musical 
excellent  et  irreprochable.  C'est  la  verve  unie  a  la 
raison,  la  force  unie  a  la  souplesse ;  c'est  brillant, 
penetrant,  et  elastique  comme  une  lame  d'epee.' 

His  brother,  Louis,  born  1832  at  the  Hague, 
was  for  some  years  teacher  of  the  violoncello 
at  the  Leipzig  Conservatorium,  until  about  1872, 
when  he  moved  to  Frankfort.  [J.A.F.M.] 


172 


LUISA  MILLER. 


LUISA  MILLER.  Opera  in  4  acts  ;  libretto 
(from  Schiller's  '  Cabale  und  Liebe')  by  Camar- 
rano,  music  by  Verdi.  Produced  at  Naples 
December,  1849.  Given  in  French  at  the  Grand 
Opera,  Paris,  as  *  Louise  Miller,'  Feb.  2,  1853  ; 
tn  English,  at  Sadlers'  Wells,  June  3,  and  in 
Italian,  at  Her  Majesty's,  June  8, 1858 — both  as 
'Luisa  Miller.'    '  [G.] 

LULLI,  or  LULLY,  Jean  Baptiste,  the  first 
French  composer  of  a  series  of  operas,  son  of  Lo- 
renzo de'  Lulli,  a  gentleman  of  Florence,  and  Cata- 
rina  del  Serta,  was  born  at  or  very  near  Florence 
in  1633,  though  the  precise  date  is  unknown,  the 
certificate  of  his  baptism  not  having  been  dis- 
covered. An  old  Franciscan  monk  gave  the  gifted 
but  mischievous  child  some  elementary  instruc- 
tion, and  taught  him  the  guitar  and  the  rudiments 
of  music.  The  Chevalier  de  Guise  took  him  to 
France,  and  having  entered  the  service  of  Mile,  de 
Montpensier — 'La  Grande  Mademoiselle' — in 
the  kitchen,  Lully  employed  his  leisure  in  learn- 
ing the  songs  of  the  day  and  playing  them  upon 
his  violin.  As  his  talent  became  known  he  was 
promoted  from  the  kitchen  to  the  Princess's 
band,  where  he  soon  distanced  the  other  violin- 
-sts.  Mademoiselle,  having  discovered  that  he 
had  composed  the  air  of  a  satirical  song  at  her 
sxpense,  promptly  dismissed  him  ;  but  his  name 
was  sufficient  to  procure  him  a  place  in  the 
King's  band.  Here  some  airs  of  his  composition 
so  pleased  Louis  XIV  that  he  established  on 
purpose  for  him  a  new  band,  called  'les  petits 
violons,'  to  distinguish  it  from  the  large  band  of 
24  violins.  His  new  post  enabled  him  to  perfect 
himself  as  a  solo-player,  and  gave  him  valuable 
practice  as  a  conductor  and  composer  for  the 
orchestra.  Baptiste,  as  he  was  then  called,  had 
common  sense  as  well  as  ambition,  and  soon 
perceived  that  without  deeper  study  he  could 
not  make  full  use  of  his  talents.  To  remedy  his 
defective  education  he  took  lessons  on  the  cla- 
vecin and  in  composition  from  the  organists 
Me"tru,  Gigault,  and  Roberdel ;  and  at  the  same 
time  lost  no  opportunity  of  ingratiating  himself 
with  men  of  rank,  a  useful  process  for  which  he 
had  a  special  gift.  He  was  soon  chosen  to  com- 
pose the  music  for  the  court  ballets,  in  which 
Louis  XIV  himself  danced,  and  after  the  success 
of  '  Alcidiane'  (1658),  words  by  Benserade,  was 
commissioned  to  write  the  divertissements  for 
'Serse,'  an  Italian  opera  by  Cavalli,  performed 
at  the  Louvre  (Nov.  22,  1660)  in  honour  of  the 
King's  recent  marriage  with  Marie  Therese  of 
Austria  (June  9  previous),  and,  a  year  and  a 
half  later,  the  ballets  for  'Ercole  amante,'  an- 
other opera  by  Cavalli,  performed  at  the  opening 
of  the  magnificent  'Salle  de  spectacles'  at  the 
Tuilleries  (Feb.  7,  1662).  It  was  by  studying 
the  works  of  this  Venetian  composer,  and  ob- 
serving his  method,  that  Lully  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  his  own  individual  style.  In  composing 
the  divertissements  for '  Le  Mariage  force",' '  Pour- 
ceaugnac,'  and  '  Le  Bourgeois  Gentilhomme,'  he 
made  good  use  of  the  feeling  for  rhythm  which 
he  had  imbibed  from  Cavalli,  and  also  endea- 
voured to  make  his  music  express  the  life  and 


LULLI. 

variety  of  Moliere's  situations  and  characters. 
The  exquisitely  comic  scene  of  the  polygamy 
in  'M.  de  Pourceaugnac '  is  in  itself  sufficient 
evidence  of  the  point  to  which  he  had  attained, 
and  of  the  glorious  future  which  awaited  him. 

From  1658  to  1671 — the  year  in  which  Moliere 
produced  his  tragedy-ballet '  Psyche" ' — Lully  com- 
posed no  less  than  30  ballets,  all  unpublished.1 
These  slight  compositions,  in  which  Lully  took 
part  with  considerable  success  as  dancer  and 
comic  actor,  confirmed  him  in  the  favour  of  Louis 
XIV,  who  successively  appointed  him  composer 
of  his  instrumental  music,  'surintendant'  of  his 
chamber  music,  and  in  1662  'maitre  de  musique' 
to  the  royal  family.  But  neither  these  lucrative 
posts  nor  his  constantly  increasing  reputation 
were  sufficient  to  appease  his  insatiable  ambition. 
With  all  his  genius  he  possessed  neither  honour 
nor  morals,  and  would  resort  to  any  base  ex- 
pedient to  rid  himself  of  a  troublesome  rival. 
His  envy  had  been  roused  by  the  privilege  con- 
ceded to  the  Abbe  Perrin  (June  28,  1669)  of 
creating  an  'Academie  de  Musique,'  and  was 
still  further  excited  by  the  success  of  Cambert's 
operas  'Pomone,'  and  'Les  Peines  et  les  Plaisirs 
de  l'Amour'  (1671).  With  the  astuteness  of  a 
courtier  Lully  took  advantage  of  the  squabbles 
of  the  numerous  associe's-directeurs  of  the  opera, 
and  with  the  aid  of  Mme.  de  Montespan,  pro- 
cured the  transference  of  Perrin's  patent  to  him- 
self (March  1672).  Once  master  of  a  theatre, 
the  man  whom  honest  Boileau  branded  as  a 
'  cceur  bas,'  a  '  coquin  tenebreux,'  and  a  '  bouffon 
odieux,'  proved  his  right  to  a  place  in  the  first 
rank  among  artists,  though  as  a  man  he  could 
claim  neither  sympathy  nor  respect.  In  the 
poet  Quinault  he  was  fortunate  enough  to  dis- 
cover a  collaborateur  of  extraordinary  merit,  and 
in  conjunction  with  him  Lully  in  the  space  of  14 
years  composed  20  operas  or  divertissements,  of 
which  the  following  is  a  list : — 

1.  Les  Fetes  de  l'Amour  et  de  11.  Le     Triomphe    de    l'Amour. 

Bacchus  (pasticcio).   S  acts,  j  Ballet.   April  19. 1681. 

Nov.  15, 1672.  1 12.  Persee.    fi  acts.    April  17. 1682. 

2.  Cadmus  et  Hermlone.    6  acts.' 13.  Phaeton.  6acts.  April 27. 10*3. 

Feb.  1673.  1 14.  Amadls  de  Gaule.  6  acts.  Jan. 

5.  Alceste.    5  acts.    Jan.  2, 1674.  18, 1684. 

4.  Thiisee.    5  acts.    Jan.  11, 1675.     IB.  Poland.    5  acts.    Feb.  8. 1685. 

6.  Le     Carnaval.        Masquerade '  16.  Idylle  sur  la  Paix.    Divertisse- 
ment.    1685. 

17.  L'Eglogue  de  Versailles.     Di- 
vertissement.  1685. 

18.  Le  Temple  de  la  Fail.    Ballet. 
Sept.  12, 1685. 

19.  Armide   et  Renaud.     6  acts. 
Feb.  15, 1686. 

20.  Ads  et  Galatee.    3  acts.    Sept. 
17,  MM 

The  variety  of  subjects  in  this  list  is  sur- 
prising, but  Lully  was  perfectly  at  home  with  all, 
passing  easily  from  lively  and  humorous  diver- 
tissements to  scenes  of  heroism  and  pathos,  from 
picturesque  and  dramatic  music  to  downright 
comedy,  and  treating  all  styles  with  equal  power. 
He  revolutionised  the  ballets  de  la  cour,  re- 
placing the  slow  and  stately  ail's  by  lively  alle- 
gros, as  rapid  as  the  pirouettes  of  the  danseuses 

'  Fhilidor's  precious  MS.  collection  in  the  library  of  the  Paris  Con- 
servatoire de  Musique  contains  the  music  of  several  of  these  diver- 
tissements. Celler  published  that  of  '  Le  Mariage  forcey  for  P.  F„ 
in  1867 ;  and  that  of  '  Le  Bourgeois  Gentilhomme '  has  recently  been 
arranged  for  P.  F.  (1876). 


(pasticcio).    Oct.  17, 1675. 
8.  Atys.   5  acts.    Jan.  10, 1676. 

7.  Isis.    5  acts.   Jan.  5, 1677. 

8.  Psychi'.    5  acts.    April  9, 1678. 

9.  Belli?rophon.    6  acts.    Jan.  SI, 

1679. 
10.  Proserpine.    6  acts.     Nov.  19, 
1680. 


I 


LULLI. 

whom  he  introduced  on  the  stage,  to  the  great 
delight  of  the  spectators.  For  the  'recitativo 
secco'  of  the  Italians  he  substituted  accompanied 
recitative,  and  in  this  very  important  part  of 
French  opera  scrupulously  conformed  to  the  rules 
of  prosody,  and  left  models  of  correct  and  striking 
declamation.  On  the  other  hand,  he  made  no 
attempt  to  vary  the  form  of  his  airs,  but  slavishly 
cut  them  all  after  the  fashion  set  by  Cavalli  in  his 
operas,  and  by  Rossi,  and  Carissimi  in  their  can- 
tatas. But  although  the  '  chanson  a  couplets,'  the 
'air-complainte'  (or  'arioso'  as  we  call  it),  and  the 
'  air  declame* ' —  afterwards  brought  to  such  per- 
fection by  Gluck — unduly  predominate  in  his 
works,  that  monotony  of  form  is  redeemed  by  a 
neatness  of  execution  and  a  sweetness  of  expres- 
sion worthy  of  all  praise.  He  thoroughly  under- 
stood the  stage — witness  the  skill  with  which  he 
introduces  his  choruses ;  had  a  true  sense  of  pro- 
portion, and  a  strong  feeling  for  the  picturesque. 
The  fact  that  his  works  are  not  forgotten,  but 
are  still  republished,  in  spite  of  the  progress  of 
the  lyric  drama  during  the  last  200  years,  is  suffi- 
cient proof  of  his  genius.  Not  but  that  he  has 
serious  faults.  His  instrumentation,  though  often 
laboured,  is  poor,  and  his  harmony  not  always 
correct :  a  great  sameness  of  treatment  disfigures 
Ins  operas,  and  the  same  rhythm  and  the  same 
counterpoint  serve  to  illustrate  the  rage  of  Ro- 
land and  the  rocking  of  Charon's  boat.  Such 
faults  are  obvious  to  us;  but  they  were  easily 
passed  over  at  such  a  period  of  musical  revolution. 
It  is  a  good  maxim  that  in  criticising  works  of 
art  of  a  bygone  age  we  should  put  them  back  in 
their  original  frames ;  and  according  to  this  rule 
we  have  no  right  to  demand  from  the  composer 
of  'The'se'e,'  'Atys,'  'Isis,'  'Phaeton,'  and  'Ar- 
mide'  outbursts  of  passion  or  agitation  which 
would  have  disturbed  the  solemn  majesty  of  his 
royal  master,  and  have  outraged  both  stage  pro- 
priety and  the  strict  rules  of  court  etiquette. 
The  chief  business  of  the  King's  Surintcndant  de 
la  musique  undoubtedly  was  to  please  his  master, 
who  detested  brilliant  passages  and  lively  melo- 
dies ;  and  making  due  allowance  for  these  cir- 
cumstances we  affirm  that  Lully's  operas  exhibit 
the  grace  and  charm  of  Italian  melody  and  a 
constant  adherence  to  that  good  taste  which  is 
the  ruling  spirit  of  French  declamation.  Such 
qualities  as  these  will  always  be  appreciated  by 
impartial  critics. 

Lully  was  also  successful  in  sacred  music. 
Ballard  published  his  motets  for  double  choir  in 
1684,  and  a  certain  number  of  his  sacred  pieces, 
copied  by  Philidor,  exist  in  the  libraries  of  Ver- 
sailles and  of  the  Conservatoire.  Mme.  de  Se- 
vign^'s  admiration  of  his  'Miserere'  and  'Li- 
bera' (Letter,  May  6,  1672)  is  familiar  to  all. 
Equally  well  known  is  the  manner  of  his  death. 
While  conducting  a  Te  Deum  (Jan.  8,  1687)  in 
honour  of  the  King's  recovery  from  a  severe  ill- 
ness, he  accidentally  struck  his  foot  with  the 
baton ;  an  abscess  followed ;  the  quack  in  whose 
hands  he  placed  himself  proved  incompetent,  and 
he  died  in  his  own  house  in  the  Rue  de  la  Ville- 
1'Eveque  on  Saturday,  March  22. 


LULLI. 


173 


As  both  Surintendant  de  la  musique  and  secre- 
tary to  Louis  XIV,  Lully  was  in  high  favour  at 
court,  and  being  extremely  avaricious,  used  hia 
opportunities  to  amass  a  large  fortune.  At  hi3 
death  he  left  4  houses,  all  in  the  best  quarters  of 
Paris,  besides  securities  and  appointments  valued 
at  342,000  livres  (about  £14,000).  His  wife 
Madeleine,  daughter  of  Lambert  the  singer,  whom 
he  married  July  24,  1662,  and  by  whom  he  had 
three  sons  and  three  daughters,  snared  his  econo- 
mical tastes.  For  once  laying  aside  their  parsi- 
monious habits,  his  family  erected  to  his  memory 
a  splendid  monument  surmounted  by  his  bust, 
which  still  exists  in  the  left-hand  chapel  of  the 
church  of  the  'Petits  Peres,'  near  the  Place 
des  Victoires.  Cotton1  was  the  sculptor,  and 
the  well-known  Latin  epitaph  was  composed  by 
Santeul : — 

Perfida  mors,  inimica,  audax,  temeraria  et  excors, 
Crudelisque,  e  caeca  probris  te  absolvimus  istis, 
Non  de  te  querimur  tua  sint  haec  munia  magna. 
Sed  quaudo  per  te  populi  regisque  voluptas, 
Non  ante  auditis  rapuit  qui  cautibus  orbem 
IiULLlUS  eripitur,  querin.ur  modo  surda  fuisti. 

'Lulli  musicien,'  a  pamphlet  to  which  both 
Fetis  and  the  author  of  this  article  are  greatly 
indebted,  was  chiefly  compiled  by  the  PreVost 
d'Exmes  from  various  articles  written  by  Senece, 
de  Fresneuse,  and  Titon  du  Tillet.  There  are 
many  portraits  of  Lully,  of  which  the  best-known 
are  those  engraved  by  Edelinck,  Thomas,  St. 
Aubin  (from  the  bust  by  Colignon),  and  Desro- 
chers.  Mignard's  portrait  of  him  has  been  lost, 
and  the  full-length  engraving  by  Bonnard,  which 
forms  the  frontispiece  to  the  score  of  '  Psyche",' 
pubbshed  by  Fourcault,  is  now  extremely  scarce. 
Our  engraving  is  copied  from  Edelinck. 


Lully's  eldest  son,  Louis,  born  in  Paris  Aug. 
4,  1664,  died  about  171 5,  composed  with  his  bro- 
ther Jean  Louis  '  Zephire  et  Flore,'  5  acts  (1 688), 

>  Not  Cosson,  u  F litis  has  callei  him. 


174 


LULLI. 


revived  in  171 5;  by  himself,  'OrpheV  (1690),  a 
failure  ;  and  with  Marais,  '  Alcide,'  5  acts,  suc- 
cessfully produced  in  1693,  and  revived  as  'La 
Mort  d'Hercule'  in  1705,  as  'La  Mort  d' Alcide' 
in  1 716,  and  again  under  its  original  title  in 
1744.  He  also  composed  with  Colasse  a  4-act 
ballet,  '  Les  Saisons,'  the  memory  of  which  has 
been  preserved  by  one  of  J.  B.  Rousseau's  satires ; 
and  a  cantata,  *  Le  Triomphe  de  la  Raison,'  per- 
formed at  Fontainebleau  in  1703. 

His  brother,  Jean  Louis,   third  son  of  the 
great  composer,  and  a  musician  of  considerable 
promise,  died  in  1688,  aged   21.      His  father's 
court  appointments  devolved  on  him,  and  on  his 
death   his   brother  became   '  Surintendant '   and 
'Compositeur  de  la  chambre  du  roi,'  to  which 
posts  he   owed  the  slender  reputation  he  suc- 
ceeded in  acquiring.  [G.C.] 
LUMBYE,   Hans  Christian,  Danish  com- 
poser of  marches  and  dance-music,  born  1 808  in 
Copenhagen.     Like  Strauss  and  Lanner  he  had 
an  orchestra,   which,  when  not  travelling   pro- 
fessionally, has  been  engaged  since  1S48  at  the 
Tivoli    near  Copenhagen.      Besides    his    many 
marches  and  dances  ('Krolls  Ballklange';  'Eine 
Sommernacht  in  Danemark ' ;  '  Der  Traum  des 
Savoyarden,'  etc.),  still  popular,  he  composed  an 
opera  'Die  Hexenflote.'     On  his  retirement  in 
1865,  he  was  created  a  Kriegsrath.     He  died 
March  20,  1874.     His  son  Geokg  now  enjoys 
nearly  as  great  a  popularity  in  Copenhagen  as  his 
father  once  did.                                              [F.  G.] 
LUMLEY,  Benjamin,  born  in  1 81 2,  was  bred 
to  the  law,  and  in  Nov.  1832  admitted  a  solicitor. 
Being  concerned  for  Laporte  he  became  mixed  up 
with  the  affairs  of  the  Opera,  and  on  Laporte's 
death  in  1841  was  induced  to  become  its  manager. 
Pursuing  a  policy  initiated  by  his  predecessor,  he 
gave  prominence  to  the  ballet  to  the  neglect  of 
the  opera,  and  in  a  few  years  had  so  alienated 
his  performers  that  at  the  end  of  the  season  of 
1S46  nearly  the  whole  of  his  principal  singers, 
band,  and  chorus,  seceded  and  joined  the  newly 
formed  establishment  at  Co  vent  Garden.     The 
popularity  of  Jenny  Lind  sustained  him  during 
the  next  three  seasons ;  and  after  her  retirement 
from  the  stage  in  1849,  the  return  of  Sontag  to 
public  life  enabled  him  to  maintain  his  position 
for  a  time,  but  afterwards  the  fortune  of  the 
house  waned,  until,  at  the  end  of  the  season  of 
1852,  the  manager  was  compelled  to  close  the 
theatre  until  1856,  when  the  burning  of  Covent 
Garden  induced  him  again  to  try  his  fortune. 
He  struggled  on  for  three  seasons,  but  at   the 
end  of  1 858  was  forced  to  submit.     He  produced 
during  his  period  of  management  the  following 
operas  for  the  first  time  in  England — Donizetti's 
'Figlia  del  Reggimento,'  'Don  Pasquale,'  'Linda 
di  Chamounix,' and  'Favorita';  Verdi's  'Ernani,' 
'Attila,'  'Nabucco,'  'Traviata,'  'Trovatore,'  and 
'Masnadieri';  Costa's  'Don  Carlos,'  and  Halevy's 
'  Tempesta ' :  and  introduced,  among  others,  the 
following  singers — Jenny  Lind,  Tadolini,  Frezzo- 
lini,  Cruvelli,  Parodi,  Castellan,  Johanna  Wagner, 
Piccolomini,  Tietjens,  Gardoni,  Calzolari,  Fras- 
chini,  Giuglini,  Fornasari,  Ronconi,  and  Belletti. 


LUPOT. 

After  his  retirement  he  returned  to  his  original 
profession.  In  1864  he  published  an  account  of 
his  managerial  career,  under  the  title  of  '  Remi- 
niscences of  the  Opera'  (Hurst  and  Blackett, 
1864).  He  died  March  17,  1875.  [W.H.H.] 
LTJPO,  Thomas,  violinist,  was  one  of  the 
musicians  of  James  I.  and  afterwards  entered  the 
service  of  Prince  Henry  at  a  salary  of  £40  per 
annum.  In  1607  he  assisted  Dr.  Campion  in  the 
composition  of  the  music  for  his  masque  on  the 
marriage  of  Lord  Hayes.  [See  Campion.]  On 
the  death  of  Prince  Henry  he  was  retained  by 
his  brother  Charles.  In  1614  he  contributed 
two  pieces  to  Leighton's  'Teares  or  Lamenta- 
cions.'  In  1622,  having  '  by  casual  means  fallen 
into  decay,'  he  petitioned  Prince  Charles  for  an 
advance  of  £30  'to  satisfy  his  creditors,'  which 
he  obtained,  as  well  as  a  further  advance  of  £20 
on  May  1 7  of  the  same  year.  He  continued  in 
Charles's  service  after  his  accession,  and  held  his 
post  for  many  years.  His  name  occurs  in  two 
warrants  dated  Dec.  20, 1625,  and  April  17,  1641, 
exempting  the  King's  musicians  from  payment 
of  subsidies.  He  composed  anthems,  madrigals, 
songs  and  fancies,  some  of  which  are  preserved 
in  the  MSS.  in  the  library  of  Christ  Church, 
Oxford.  Joseph  Lupo,  probably  a  relative,  was 
a  composer  of  fancies,  and  author  of  commenda- 
tory verses  prefixed  to  John  Mundy's  '  Songs  and 
Psalmes,'  1 594.  [W.  H .  H.] 

LUPOT,  Nicolas,  the  most  famous  of  French 
violin-makers.  The  family  came  from  the  village 
of  Mirecourt  in  the  Vosges  mountains,  which  has 
for  three  centuries  or  more  been  the  seat  of  a 
violin  manufacture.  Jean  Ldpot,  the  great- 
grandfather of  Nicolas,  was  a  violin-maker 
here.  His  son  Laukent,  born  1696,  established 
himself  in  the  trade  at  Luneville  (1 751-1756) 
and  Orleans  (1 756-1 762).  Francois,  son  of 
Laurent,  first  worked  with  his  father  at  Lune"- 
ville,  and  in  1758  migrated  to  Stuttgart,  where 
he  remained  for  twelve  years  as  fiddle-maker  in 
ordinary  to  the  Grand  Duke  of  Wirtemberg.  In 
1770  he  returned,  and  settled  at  Orleans.  He 
was  the  father  of  two  sons,  Nicolas,  the  'French 
Stradivarius,'  born  at  Stuttgart  in  1758,  and 
Francois,  in  his  time  a  reputable  bow-maker, 
born  at  Orleans  in  1774.  Nicolas  began  his 
career  early.  We  have  good  instruments  made 
by  him  at  Orleans  (Rue  d'llliers),  before  he  had 
completed  his  twentieth  year.  These  juvenile 
instruments  are  cheap  in  Paris  at  500  francs. 

In  1 794  Nicolas  Lupot  removed  to  Paris  and 
set  up  a  shop  in  the  Rue  de  Grammont  (1798- 
1803).  He  afterwards  removed  to  the  Rue 
Croix  des  Petits  Champs,  where  he  made  those 
famous  copies  of  the  great  Italian  makers  on 
which  his  reputation  rests.  Lupot  wisely  dropped 
all  pretensions  to  originality,  and  became  the 
first  of  copyists.  His  favourite  pattern  was 
the  Stradivarius :  his  few  copies  of  Guarnerius 
violins  are  less  successful.  Many  instruments  are 
signed  with  his  autograph.  He  made  several 
quintets  of  two  violins,  two  tenors,  and  bass,  to 
which  he  sought  to  give  a  perfect  unity  of  tone 
and   appearance.     These  quintets    fetch    fancy 


LUPOT. 

prices  :  but  any  Lupot  violin  dated  from  1805  to 
1824  is  worth  from  1000  to  1200  francs.  The 
violoncellos  are  rarer  :  a  handsome  one  is  worth 
2000  francs.  Nicolas  Lupot  ranked  in  his  time 
as  the  first  of  his  trade  in  Europe.  Spohr,  who 
long  played  on  one  of  his  violins,  recommends 
him  as  a  maker.  His  weakest  point  is  his  var- 
nish. He  employed  several  kinds :  the  usual  one 
is  a  thick  and  not  very  transparent  oil  varnish, 
which  is  sometimes  badly  dried,  and  presents 
a  rough  and  lumpy  appearance.  Lupot  died  in 
1 824.  His  business  descended  to  his  son-in-law, 
Charles  Francis  G  and :  and  the  present  well-known 
makers,  Gand  and  Bernardel,  21  Rue  Croix  des 
Petits  Champs,  correctly  describe  themselves  as 
the  '  Ancienne  Maison  Lupot,  1 798.'  Francois 
Lupot,  the  bow-maker,  and  brother  of  Nicolas, 
invented  the  '  coulisse,'  or  metal  groove  attached 
to  the  '  nut,'  and  carefully  fitted  to  the  stick,  on 
which  it  works.  He  died  in  1837,  leaving  as 
his  successor  Dominique  Peccate,  who  ranks  as 
the  best  bow -maker  after  Tourte.  [E.J.  P.] 

LURLINE.  Grand  legendary  opera  in  3  acts  ; 
words  by  E.  Fitzball,  music  by  W.  Vincent 
Wallace.  Produced  at  the  Royal  English  Opera, 
Covent  Garden,  Feb.  23,  i860.  [G.] 

LUSINGANDO,  or  LUSINGHIERO,  liter- 
ally 'flattering'  or  'coaxing,'  whence  its  musical 
meaning  comes  to  be  '  in  a  soft  tender  manner,' 
resembling  Amoroso  in  character,  except  that  the 
latter  is  generally  used  at  the  beginning  of  move- 
ments, and  the  former  as  applying  only  to  a  short 
passage.  Beethoven  uses  it  in  the  Quartet,  op. 
1 3 1 ,  in  the  slow  movement  (no.  4) ,  where  the  entry 
of  the  second  subject  is  marked  'Andante  mode- 
rato  e  lusinghiero.'  Lusingando  is  a  very  favour- 
ite direction  of  Weber's,  occurring  in  the  Piano 
Sonata  op.  4,  first  movement,  'tranquillo  e  lu- 
singando,' in  L'invitation  a  la  Valse,  where  the 
coquettish  second  subject  reappears  pianissimo 
in  C  major,  and  in  several  other  places.  Chopin 
uses  it  in  the  Rondo  in  F  (in  3-4  time).  [J.A.F.M.] 

LUSTIGEN  WEIBER  VON  WINDSOR, 
DIE.  An  opera  in  3  acts ;  words  from  Shakspeare, 
by  Mosenthal,  music  by  Otto  Nicolai.  Produced 
at  Berlin  March  9,  1 849 ;  in  London,  at  Her 
Majesty's  (in  Italian),  as  '  Falstafl7,'  May  3, 
1864;  and  in  Paris  at  the  Theatre  Lyrique  as 
'  Les  Joyeuses  Commeres  de  Windsor,'  May  25, 
66.  The  overture  is  the  strongest  part  of  the 
work.  [G.] 

LUTE  (Fr.  Luth ;  Ital.  Liuto;  Germ.  Laute; 
Spanish  Laud;  Port.  Alaude).  A  large  and 
beautiful  stringed  instrument  with  a  long  neck 
and  fretted  fingerboard;  at  one  time  much  in 
use,  but  now  obsolete.  In  mediaeval  Latin  the 
lute  is  called  Testudo  and  the  guitar  Cithara, 
both  inaccurate  identifications  of  ancient  Greek 
instruments  of  very  different  construction.  [See 
Lyre.]  The  lute  is  of  Oriental  origin,  and  its 
Arabic  name  Al'ud — from  which  its  European 
names  are  derived  by  the  omission  of  the  initial 
vowel  of  the  definite  'article  Al.     The  Portu- 

»  In  the  same  waj  El-an.  the  cedar,  became  In  English  Xarefc. 


LUTE. 


175 


guese  Alaude  alone  retains  it.  The  lute  became 
known  throughout  the  West  in  the  time  of  the 
Crusades.  We  class  the  Russian  Kobsa  as  a 
lute  :  while  the  Balalaika  of  the  same  country  is 
of  the  guitar  kind.  As  in  the  viol  di  gamba  and 
violoncello,  the  formal  difference  between  a  lute 
and  a  guitar  is  to  be  found  in  the  back,  which  in 
the  lute  is  pear-shaped  and  in  the  guitar  is  flat. 
The  lute  is  without  ribs,  which  are  essential  to  the 
framing  of  the  guitar.     [See  Guitar.] 

The  invention  of  stringed  instruments  with 
fingerboards,  or  the  neck  serving  as  a  finger- 
board, precedes  the  earliest  historical  monuments. 
The  long-necked  Egyptian  Nefer  was  certainly 
depicted  in  the  4th  dynasty;  and  wall-painting 
of  the  time  of  Moses,  preserved  in  the  British 
Museum,  shows  that  it  then  had  frets.  We 
observe  a  similar  instrument  in  Assyrian  monu- 
ments, and  the  Hebrew  Nebel  has  been  supposed 
to  be  one.  Strangely  enough  the  Greeks  had  it 
not.  The  Arabs  derived  the  lute  from  Persia,  and 
with  the  instrument  a  finesse  in  the  division  of 
the  octave  into  smaller  parts  than  our  semitones, 
rendered  possible  by  the  use  of  frets,  and  still  an 
Asiatic  peculiarity ;  the  best  authorities  assuring 
us  that  the  modern  Arabian  ud  and  tambura 
are  thus  adjusted.  It  is  usual  to  speak  of  these 
fractions  as  £  of  a  tone.  Kiesewetter  however 
('Musique  des  Arabes,'  Leipzig,  1842,  pp.  32,  33) 
gives  the  Persian -Arab  scale  as  a  division  of  1 7 
in  the  octave;  12  of  the  intervals  being  the  Py- 
thagorean limma  (not  quite  our  equal  semitone), 
and  5  of  the  dimension  of  the  comma,  an  inter- 
val, though  small,  quite  recognisable  by  a  trained 
ear.  [See  Comma.]  Mr.  Engel  ('Musical  Instru- 
ments,' 1874,  p.  60)  states  that  the  Arabs  became 
acquainted  with  the  Persian  lute  before  their 
conquest  of  the  country,  and  names  an  Arab 
musician  who,  sent  to  the  Persian  king  to  learn 
singing  and  performance  on  the  lute,  brought  it 
to  Mekka  in  the  6th  century  of  our  era.  The 
strings  of  the  Arab  lute  are  of  twisted  silk,  an 
Asiatic,  especially  Chinese,  material  for  strings. 
The  same,  bound  round  the  neck,  has  served  for 
the  frets.  [See  Frets.]  The  modern  Egyptian 
lute,  named  2  oud  or  e'oud,  of  which  there  is  a 
specimen  at  South  Kensington,  and  an  excellent 
woodcut  in  Lane's  '  Modern  Egyptians,'  chap,  v., 
has  seven  pairs  of  gut  strings,  and  is  moreover 
played  with  a  plectrum  of  eagle's  or  vulture's 
quill. 

The  Western  lute  was  a  Mediaeval  and  a  Renais- 
sance instrument.  It  flourished  during  the  crea- 
tive period  of  Gothic  architecture  and  later,  its 
star  beginning  to  pale  as  the  violin  quartet  arose, 
and  setting  altogether  when  the  pianoforte  be- 
came in  general  use.  There  were  publications 
for  the  lute  as  late  as  1 740—6  Sonatas  by  Falken- 
hagen,  Nuremberg;  and,  1760,  Gellert's  Odes 
by  Beyer.  The  great  J.  S.  Bach  himself  wrote 
three  sets  of  pieces  for  the  lute.  Carl  F.  Becker 
has  described  them  in  'Die  Hausmusik  in 
Deutschland,'  Leipzig  1840.  He  gives  (p.  54) 
their  titles — 'Partita  al  Liuto,  composta  del  Sign. 
J.  S.  Bach '  (in  C  minor),  '  Pieces  pour  le  Lut, 

*  Observe  the  elision  of  the  consonant. 


176 


LUTE. 


par  J.  S.  Bach  * ;  lastly,  '  Fuga  del  Signore  J.  S. 
Bach '  (,in  G  minor),  of  which  the  subject — 


is  to  be  found  in  a  violin  sonata  by  the  same 
composer.  These  lute  pieces  were  in  MS.  May 
we  think  with  Becker  that  it  was  not  improbable 
that  Bach  played  the  lute  ? 

To  proceed  to  the  description  of  the  instrument. 
The  pear-shaped  or  vaulted  body  of  the  lute  is 
built  up  of  staves  of  pine  or  cedar.     The  belly,  of 


pine,  has  a  sound-post  beneath  the  bridge,  like  a 
violin,  and  one  or  more  sound-bars  for  support 
and  to  assist  the  resonance.  It  is  graduated  in 
thickness  towards  the  edges  and  is  pierced  with 
from  one  to  three  sound -holes  in  decorative  knots 
or  rose  patterns.  Great  pains  were  evidently  taken 
in  choosing  and  making  this  very  essential  part 
of  the  instrument.     Attached  to  the  body  is  a 


LUTE. 

neck  of  moderate  length  covered  by  a  finger-board 
divided  by  frets  of  brass  or  catgut  into  a  measured 
scale.  The  strings  were  entirely  of  catgut  until 
towards  the  end  of  the  1 7th  century,  when  silver 
spun  bass  strings  were  introduced.  There  would 
appear  by  comparison  of  old  lutes  to  have  been 
much  diversity  in  the  stringing  and  tuning,  and 
there  is  a  broad  division  in  the  large  lutes  between 
those  notes,  generally  in  pairs  of  unisons,  which 
lie  over  the  fingerboard  and  frets,  and  the 
diapason  notes  that  are  not  stopped,  and  serve 
only  to  determine  the  key  or  modulation.  When 
off  the  finger-board  these  deeper  strings  were  at- 
tached to  pegs  elevated  by  a  second  and  higher 
neck.  Theseextendedinstruments  became  known 
as  theorboes,  and  in  time  virtually  banished  the 
older  single -necked  lutes.  [See  Chitarrone, 
Theorbo,  and  Archlute,  the  bass  theorbo.] 
The  fingers  of  the  right  hand,  without  a  plectrum, 
touched  the  strings  pizzicato  in  melody  or  chords. 
The  tender  charm  and  colouring  of  the  lute- 
player's  tone  can,  in  these  days  of  exaggerated 
sonorousness,  be  scarcely  imagined. — The  frets 
of  the  finger-board  followed  a  division  by  half- 
tones, and  in  the  old  lutes  were  eight  to  each 
pair  of  strings.  Later,  as  will  be  presently 
shewn,  they  were  carried  farther  in  the  higher 
strings.  Mace  (Musick's  Monument ;  London, 
1676,  p.  50)  said  nine  was  the  best  number,  but 
there  was  a  limitation  to  this  stopping  nearer 
the  bridge,  by  the  proportions  of  the  strings  in 
length,  thickness,  and  weight  being  unduly  dis- 
turbed to  the  detriment  of  the  tone.  According 
to  Baron  (' Untersuchung  des  Instruments  der 
Lauten,'  Nuremberg,  1727)  and  an  older  authority, 
Braetorius,  the  lute  had  originally  four  open 
notes  (a)  ;  in  course  of  time  two  G's  were  added 
(6).    Melchior  Neusiedler  of  Augsburg,  who  was 


(") 


(6) 


£  J  r r  ■  II  j  J ' 


-*-:f= 


living  A.D.  1574,  added  the  F  below  the  bass  G, 
making  thirteen  strings  in  all,  the  highest,  or 
Chanterelle,  being  a  single  string.  This  compass 
Baron  calls  Gamaut,  and  the  deeper  bass  strings 
he  calls  Brummer  or  Bombarte,  the  finer  ones 
Bombartlein.  Brummer  was  usually  applied, 
and  the  appellations  in  German,  Italian,  and 
English  were  as  follows  : — 

G.     Quintsaite. — Canto. — Treble. 

D.    Kleinsangsaite. — Sottana. — Small  Mean. 

A.    Grossangsaite. — Mezzana. — Great  Mean. 

F.  Kleinbrummer. — Tenore. — Counter  Tenor. 
C.     Mittelbrummer. — Bordone. — Tenor. 

G.  Grossbrummer. — Basso. — Bass. 

At  page  122  of  his  work,  Baron  gives  the  com- 
pass of  an  'eleven  course'  lute  thus, 


r 


^ 


mm 


the  two  highest  (the  melody  strings)  being  single, 
the  remainder  pairs.  His  division  of  the  finger- 
board has  ten  frets  for  the  F ;  eleven  for  the  G  ; 
and  twelve  for  each  of  the  highest  six;.    There  is 


LUTE. 

thus  a  compass  of  3!  octaves  from  C  below  the 
bass  stave  to  the  F  on  the  fifth  line  of  the  treble 
stave.  We  gather  further  from  him  that  this 
tuning  would  represent  ■  cammer,'  or  theatre 
pitch ;  for  the  '  chor,'  or  church  pitch,  the  chan- 
terelle would  be  tuned  to  the  treble  G,  to  the 
greater  peril  of  the  strings.  Praetorius  ('  Organo- 
graphia,'  Wolfenbiittel,  1619,  p.  49)  has  G  for 
the  chanterelle.  There  were,  at  last,  thirteen 
pairs  of  strings  in  large  lutes,  descending  at  the 
tuner's  pleasure  to  the  deep  A  or  G.  Mace  (p.  41 ) 
explains  a  large  compass  of  strings  as  bringing 
the  stopping  '  to  a  natural  form  and  aptitude  for 
the  hand.'  There  were  other  tunings  besides 
the  above  D  minor.  Mace  gives  a  new  French 
tuning  in  E  minor,  and  a  '  flat '  tuning  which  he 
preferred ;  referring  to  that  we  quote  from  Baron 
(6)  as  the  old  lute,  theorbo,  or  viol-way  :  but  he 
wisely  remarks  (p.  191)  '  that  tuning  upon  any 
instrument  which  allows  the  artist  most  scope, 
freedom  and  variety,  with  most  ease  and  fami- 
liarity, to  express  his  conceptions  most  fully 
and  completely,  without  limitation  or  restraint 
throughout  all  the  keys,  must  needs  be  accounted 
the  best.' 

It  must  have  been  very  troublesome  to  keep  a 
lute  in  order.  Mace,  in  his  often-quoted  work, 
recommends  that  a  lute  should  be  kept  in  a 
bed  which  is  in  constant  use,  and  goes  on  to 
say  that  once  in  a  year  or  two,  if  you  have  not 
very  good  luck,  you  will  be  constrained  to  have 
the  belly  taken  off  as  it  will  have  sunk  from  the 
stretch  of  the  strings, '  which  is  a  great  strength.' 
Matheson  said  a  lutenist  of  eighty  years  old  had 
certainly  spent  sixty  in  tuning  his  instrument, 
and  that  the  cost  in  Paris  of  keeping  a  horse  or 
a  lute  was  about  the  same.  Baron  replied  that 
the  horse  would  soon  be  like  one  of  Pharaoh's 
lean  kine. 

In  Italian  lutes  of  early  date  the  tuning  pegs 
were  disposed  diagonally  across  the  head  in 
two  rows,  the  projections  for  tuning  being  at  the 
back.  They  were  afterwards  inserted  at  the  side 
of  the  head  as  in  a  violin,  the  head  being  bent 
back  at  an  obtuse  or  even  a  right  angle  to  the  neck. 
Ultimately  metal  screws  replaced  the  pegs,  but 
only  when  large  single  strings  were  put  on  instead 
of  double  strings.  The  lute  is  now  esteemed 
solely  for  the  great  beauty  of  its  form  and  design. 
Inlays  of  various  hard  woods,  tortoiseshell,  ivory, 
and  mother  of  pearl,  and  sometimes  painting  on 
the  sound -board,  have  been  employed  to  decorate 
them.  Through  their  decorative  value  many  lutes 
have  been  preserved:  the  violin  makers  have 
however  destroyed  more  for  the  sake  of  the  wood, 
which  is  prized  for  repairing  old  fiddles.  Lutes 
and  viols  having  been  made  by  the  same  artists, 
the  word  luthier  in  French  still  designates  a 
maker  of  violins  (compare  German  Luther). 

The  lute-player  had  not  our  musical  notation ; 
systems  special  to  the  instrument,  and  known  as 
Tablature,  being  long  in  vogue.  Many  instruc- 
tion books  were  written  for  the  lute,  with  ex- 
amples in  tablature ;  the  oldest  known  to  exist 
in  this  country  is  the  '  Lauttenbuch '  of  Wolf 
Heckel  (Strasburg,  1562)  preserved  in  the  Library 
vol.  n. 


LUTENIST. 


177 


of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society.  The  next  in 
order  of  date  is  in  the  British  Museum,  being  an 
English  translation  by  F.  K.  (London,  1574),  of 
the  famous  Tutor  of  Adrien  Le  Roy,  which  had 
appeared  in  Paris  in  1551.  There  is  another  in 
the  same  library  by  Thomas  Robinson,  written  in 
the  form  of  a  dialogue  (London,  1603).  We  must 
not  omit  the  treatise  by  Thomas  Mace  (London, 
1676)  to  which  we  have  so  frequently  referred. 
Praetorius,  in  his  Organographia,  was  careful  to 
describe  the  then  (161 9)  familiar  lute.  He  gives 
(p.  51)  a  graduated  family  of  lutes  with  their 
quints  or  chanterelles  which  show  how  much 
variety  in  size  and  scale  was  permitted.  They 
are — (1)  Klein  Octav  (a) ;  (2)  Klein  Discant  (6) ; 
(3)  Discant  (c) ;  (4)  Recht  Chorist  oder  Alt  (d) ; 
(5)  Tenor  (e) ;  (6)  Bass  (/) ;  (7)  Gross  Octav 
Bass  (g). 


(a)  (b)       (c)      (d)       (e)       (/)jl      (p) 


Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  lute  generally  known 
and  described  here,  the  '  French '  lute  of  Mace,  is 
the  Alto  lute.  Vincentio  Galilei,  the  father  of 
the  astronomer,  was  the  author  of  a  dialogue  on 
the  lute  (Venice,  1583).  Other  noteworthy  con- 
tinental publications  were  by  Judenkunig,  Vienna, 
1523;  Gerle,  Nuremberg,  1545;  Hans  Neusiedler, 
Nuremberg,  1556;  Melchior  Neusiedler,  1574; 
Ochsenkhuns,  Heidelberg,  1558  ;  Kargel,  Strass- 
burg,  1586;  Besardus,  Cologne,  1603;  Campion, 
Paris,  1 7 10;  and  Baron,  Nuremberg  (already 
quoted  from),  1737- 

Much  valuable  information  collected  about  lute 
makers  and  the  literature  of  the  lute  is  communi- 
cated by  Mr.  Engelinhis  admirable  catalogue  of  the 
South  Kensington  Museum  referred  to.  The  finest 
lutes  were  made  in  Italy ;  and  Bologna,  Venice, 
Padua,  and  Rome  were  especially  famous  for  them. 
There  would  appear  to  have  been  a  fusion  of  Ger- 
man and  Italian  skill  in  northern  Italy  when  the 
Bolognese  lutes  were  reputed  to  excel  over  all 
others.  Evelyn  in  his  Diary  (May  21,  1645) 
remarks  their  high  price  and  that  they  were 
chiefly  made  by  Germans.  One  of  the  earliest  of 
these  was  Lucas  (or  Laux,  as  he  inscribed  his 
name  on  his  instruments')  Maler,  who  was  living 
in  Bologna  about  141 5.  There  is  one  of  his  make 
at  South  Kensington,  represented  in  the  drawing, 
a  remarkable  specimen,  notwithstanding  that  the 
head  is  modernised,  the  stringing  altered,  and 
the  belly  later  adorned  with  painting.  According 
to  Thomas  Mace,  '  pittifull  old,  batter'd,  crack'd 
things'  of  Laux  Maler  would  fetch  a  hundred 
pounds  each,  which,  considering  the  altered  value 
of  money,  rivals  the  prices  paid  now-a-days  for 
fine  Cremona  volins.  He  (p.  48)  quotes  the  King 
(Charles  II)  as  having  bought  one  through  the 
famous  lutenist  Gootiere ;  and  one  of  the  same 
master's  pupils  bought  another,  at  that  very  high 
price!  [A.J.H.] 

LUTENIST,  a  lute-player.  In  the  16th  and 
17th  centuries  lutenists,  or,  as  they  were  some- 
times called,   'lewters'  or   'luters,'  invariably 

N 


178 


LUTENIST. 


formed  part  of  the  musical  retinue  of  kings  and 
princes,  and  one  at  least  was  commonly  attached 
to  the  households  of  nobles  and  landed  gentry. 
On  Aug.  8,  1 715,  a  lutenist's  place  was  created 
in  the  Chapel  Royal  of  St.  James's,  and  John 
Shore  was  appointed  to  it,  who  held  it  until 
his  death  in  1752,  when  it  was  given  to  John 
Immyns,  who  filled  it  until  his  death  in  ]  7^4- 
The  office  afterwards  became  a  sinecure,  and 
was  eventually  annexed  to  the  Mastei-ship  of  the 
Children  as  a  means  of  increasing  the  stipend. 
It  continued  until  the  death  of  William  Hawes 
in  1846,  when  it  was  abolished.  [W.H.H.] 

LUTHER,  Martin,  bom  at  Eisleben,  on  St. 
Martin's  Eve,  Nov.  10,  1483.  For  the  main 
facts  of  the  life  of  the  great  Reformer,  the  reader 
must  consult  some  other  work,  as  our  space  com- 
pels us  to  confine  ourselves  to  his  relation  to 
music,  and  especially  to  the  hymns  and  services 
of  the  Church.  It  was  after  his  departure  from 
the  Wartburg,  March  22,  1522,  that  he  began  to 
occupy  himself  with  projects  for  the  reform  of  the 
services  of  the  Church,  among  which  his  altera- 
tions in  the  musical  parts  of  the  Mass  led  to  such 
great  results.  There  is  ample  evidence  that  Ger- 
man hymns  were  sung  during  the  service  before 
Luther's  alterations  ;  but  if  not  the  actual  founder, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  he  was  the  establisher  of 
congregational  singing.  The  musical  part  of  the 
Mass  had  grown  to  an  inordinate  length  ;  accord- 
ingly, in  his  first  'Formula  Missae'  (1523%  Lu- 
ther objects  to  the  singing  of  long  graduals,  and 
recommends  that  the  choice  of  certain  hymns 
should  be  left  to  the  priest.  The  Reformer  had 
long  cherished  the  idea  of  a  German  Mass,  and 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  year  1524  he  was 
occupied  with  arranging  that  service.  In  order 
to  help  him  in  the  musical  part  of  his  work,  he 
summoned  to  Wittenberg  two  able  musicians, 
Conrad  Rupf,  Kapellmeister  to  the  Elector  of 
Saxony,  and  Johann  Walther,  Cantor  at  the 
Court  of  Frederick  the  Wise  at  Torgau.  To  the 
latter  we  are  indebted  for  much  information 
about  Luther  as  a  musician.  He  says  that  at 
this  time  he  stayed  with  Luther  at  Wittenberg 
for  three  weeks,  and  that  the  Reformer  himself 
«et  to  music  several  Gospels  and  Epistles  and  the 
words  of  consecration,  inventing  the  tunes  on  his 
flute,  while  Walther  noted  them  down.  Luther 
used  also  to  discuss  the  eight  Church  Tones  ; 
giving  the  Epistle  to  the  8th  Tone,  and  the  Gospel 
to  the  6th.  '  For,'  said  he,  '  Christ  is  a  gentle 
Lord,  and  His  words  are  lovely  ;  therefore  let  us 
take  the  6th  Tone  for  the  Gospel ;  and  since  St. 
Paul  is  a  grave  apostle,  we  will  set  the  Epistle  to 
the  Sth  Tone.'  The  result  of  these  labours  was 
the  publication  of  the  '  Order  of  the  German 
M  ass,'  which  contained  the  following  alterations. 
Instead  of  the  introit  there  was  ordered  to  be 
sung  a  hymn  or  German  psalm  (■  Ich  will  den 
Herrn  loben,'  or  '  Meine  Seele  soil  sich  ruhnien'). 
Then  followed  the  Kyrie  Eleison,  sung  three 
times  (instead  of  nine).  After  the  Collect  and 
Epistle  a  German  hymn  ('Nun  bitten  wir  den 
heil'gen  Geist,'  or  another)  was  sung,  and  after 
the  Gospel,  instead   of  the  Latin   Patrem,  the 


LUTHER. 

Creed  in  German  (Wir  glauben  all').  The  ser- 
mon then  followed,  and  after  this  a  paraphrase 
of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  the  Exhortation  to 
Communicants.  After  the  Consecration,  was  sung 
'Jesaia  dem  Propheten,'  Huss's  hymn  'Jesus 
Christus,  unser  Heiland,'  or  'Christe,  du  Lamm 
Gottes.'  This  form  of  service  was  first  used  on 
Christmas  Lay,  1524,  in  the  parish  church  of 
Wittenberg,  but  it  was  not  published  until  the 
following  year.  It  is  evident  that  while  intro- 
ducing a  more  popular  element  into  the  music 
of  the  Mass,  Luther  did  not  despise  the  singing 
of  a  trained  choir.  In  the  'Vermahnung  zum 
Gebet  wider  den  Tiirken'  (1541)  he  says:  'I 
rejoice  to  let  the  79th  Psalm,  "  0  God,  the  heathen 
are  come,"  be  sung  as  usual,  one  choir  after  an- 
other. Accordingly,  let  one  sweet-voiced  boy 
step  before  the  desk  in  his  choir  and  sing  alone 
the  antiphon  or  sentence  "  Doniine,  ne  secun- 
dum,'' and  after  him  let  another  boy  sing  the 
other  sentence,  "Domine,  ne  memineris";  and 
then  let  the  whole  choir  sing  on  their  knees, 
'•  Adjuva  nos,  Deus,"  just  as  it  was  in  the  Popish 
Fasts,  for  it  sounds  and  looks  veryr  devotional.' 
At  the  same  time  that  he  was  engaged  in  arrang- 
ing the  German  Mass,  Luther  was  turning  his 
attention  to  writing  and  adapting  hymns  to  be 
sung  during  the  service.  In  1524  he  wrote  to  his 
friend,  George  Spalatin,  'I  wish,  after  the  ex- 
ample of  the  Prophets  and  ancient  Fathers  of  the 
Church,  to  make  German  psalms  for  the  people, 
that  is  to  say,  sacred  hymns,  so  that  the  word  of 
God  may  dwell  among  the  people  by  means  of 
song  also.'  In  the  same  year  (1524)  the  first 
Protestant  hymn-book  appeared:  '  Etlich  christ- 
liche  Lyeder  Lobgesang  und  Psalm  dem  reinen 
Wort  Gottes  gemess  auss  der  h.  gschrifft  durch 
mancherlay  Hochgelerter  gemacht,  in  der  Kirchen 
zu  singen,  wie  es  den  zum  tail  bereyt  zu  Witten- 
burg  in  yebung  ist.  Witenburg,  1524.'  It 
is  not  certain  whether  Luther  actually  arranged 
this  book  ;  it  contains  only  eight  hymns  (four  of 
which  are  by  him),  and  five  tunes.  During  the 
same  year  several  other  collections  appeared,  and 
their  number  increased  so  rapidly  that  space  for- 
bids the  insertion  of  a  list  of  even  those  that 
were  published  during  Luther's  lifetime.  Scat- 
tered through  these  different  collections,  there 
is  great  difficulty  in  deciding  what  hymns  are 
really  Luther's,  and  what  are  merely  adaptations ; 
the  lists  given  at  the  end  of  this  article  have  been 
compiled  from  the  latest  authorities,  especially 
from  Herr  Koch,  in  his  great  work,  '  Geschichte 
des  Kirchenlieds,  etc'  (Stuttgart,  1S66-77). 
The  immediate  popularity  which  these  early 
Protestant  hymns  attained  was  immense :  they 
were  taught  in  the  schools,  and  carried  through 
the  country  by  wandering  scholars,  until  his 
enemies  declared  that  Luther  had  destroyed  more 
souls  by  his  hymns  than  by  his  writings  and 
speeches.  Noble  words,  closely  wedded  to  noble 
music,  severely  simple,  yet  never  trivial,  these 
hymns  seem  an  echo  of  the  Reformer's  own  great 
spirit,  and  sound  even  now  as  true  and  grand  as 
when  they  first  stirred  Germany  to  its  very  soul. 
On   June    II,    1525,    Luther    was    married    to 


LUTHER. 

Catherine  von  Bora,  formerly  a  nun  at  Nimptsch 
in  Saxony.  This  marriage  proved  a  most  happy 
connection,  and  the  letters  of  his  friends  abound 
with  descriptions  of  the  domestic  felicity  to 
which  it  gave  rise.  We  are  told  that  after 
supper  he  used  to  sing  motets  and  hymns  with 
his  children  and  friends,  his  favourite  composers 
being  Senfl  and  Josquin  des  Pre"s,  the  works  of 
the  latter  of  whom  he  particularly  admired. 
Luther  possessed  a  fine  deep  voice,  and  played 
both  the  flute  and  lute,  the  latter  so  well  as  to 
attract  the  attention  of  passers-by  as  he  journeyed 
to  Worms.  It  has  been  said  that  he  wrote  motets 
himself,  but  there  is  no  proof  of  this,  and  it  is 
probably  a  mistake  arising  from  the  existence,  in 
the  Munich  Library,  of  a  collection  of  motets 
with  a  preface  by  the  Reformer.  In  1538  Luther 
wrote  a  short  treatise  in  praise  of  music  ;  a  poem 
,  by  him  on  the  same  subject  (entitled  '  Frau 
Musika')  also  exists,  and  may  be  found  in  the 
Leipziger  Allgemeine  Musikalische  Zeitung  for 
181 1.  The  latter  years  of  Luther's  life  were 
principally  spent  at  Wittenburg,  but  he  died  at 
Eisleben,  on  the  18th  February,  1546.  He  was 
buried  in  the  Schloss-Kirche  at  Wittenberg ;  his 
greatest  hymn,  '  Ein  feste  Burg,'  being  sung  over 
his  grave. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  Hymns,  the  words 
of  which  were  written  or  arranged  by  Luther, 
together  with  their  dates,  so  far  as  it  has  been 
possible  to  ascertain  them. 

I.  Translations  and  Arrangements  1524.      From    the    12th  -  century 
of  Latin  Hymns.  j  hymn  '  Christ  1st  uferstanden.' 

1.  'Jesus  Christus  unser  Hel-  !*•  'Gott  der  Vater,  wohn  uns 
land,'  1524.  From  John  Huss's  hel,'  1524.  From  a  15th-century 
hymn    '  Jesus    Christus    nostra  Litany. 

sal  us.'  |     15.  '  Gott  sei  gelobet  v.nd  gebene- 

2.  'Verleih  uns  Frieden  gnfidi-  deiet,'  1524.    From  a  sacramental 
glich."  1529.     From   'Da  pacem  hymn  of  the  16th  century. 
Domlne,'  an  antiphon  of  the  6th      16.  'Nun  bitten  wir  den  heili- 


LUTHER'S  HYMN. 


179 


or  7th  century. 

3.  '  Christum  wir  sollen  loben,' 
1524.  From  a  Christmas  hymn  by 
CiKlius  Sedulius  (5th  cent.),  'A 
solis  ortus.' 

4.  'Derdublstdrei,'1543.  From 
'  O  Lux  beata, '  an  Epiphany  hymn 
of  the  5th  century. 


gen  Geist,"  1524.    From  a  13th-cen- 
tury Whitsuntide  hymn. 

IV.  Hymns  based  upon  Latin 
Fsalms. 

17.  'Ach    Gott   Tom   Himmel,' 
1523.    Ps.  xii.  'Salvummefac.' 

18  a.  'Aus    tiefer    Noth,'    1523. 


Heir  Gott,  dich  loben  wir,'  Flrst    'l™'0"'    c°n,tamto*    J?u,r 
I  verses.    Ps.  czxz.  *  De  profundis. 


1529.    From  the  'Te  Deum. 
.  6.  '  Komm,  Gott,  SchOpfer,' 1524. 
From  the  '  Veni  Creator.' 

7.  '  Komm,  heiliger  Geist,'  1524. 
From  the  'Veni  sancte  Spiritus' 
attributed  to  King  Bobert  of 
France,  997. 

'Nun  komm  der  Helden  Hei- 


18  b.  Do.,  1524.    Second  version, 
containing  five  verses. 

19.  'Ein  feste  Burg,'  1529.    Ps. 
xlvi. '  Deus  noster  refugium.' 

20.  'Es  spricht  der  Unweisen," 
1524.    Ps.  xlv. '  Dixit  insipiens.' 

21.  'Es   wollt   uns   Gott.'  1524. 


land,'  1524.     From  a  Christmas ;  P!^1*Ti!;..'  Dlus.  .ml!elreatur:' 

hymn  by  St.  Ambrose,  'Veni  Ee- 

demptor.' 

9.  'WasfttrchfstduFeind.'Dec. 
12,  15*1.  From  'Host is  Herodes 
Imple,'  an  Epiphany  hymn  by  Co> 
lins  Sedulius. 

10.  'Wir  glauben  all'  an  Einen 
Gott,'  1524.  From  the  creed  'Pa- 
trem  credimus.' 

II.  AmplificatlonsofearlyGerman 
translations  of  Latin  Hymns. 

11."  Gelobet  seyst  du , '  1524.  Six 
verses  added  to  a  15th-century 
translation  of  the  Christmas  Se- 
quence of  Gregory  the  Great, 
'  Grates  nunc  omnes.' 

12.  '  Mitten  wir  im  Leben  slnd,' 
1524.    Two  verses  added  to  a  15th-  _ 
century  Funeral  hymn  on  Notkers  Tne   Nunc  Dimittis. 
Antiphon   'Media  vita  in  morte      ^  '8ie  lst  mlr  "eb,'1535.    The 
sumus.'  I  Christian  Church  (Kev.  xii.). 

...   „         ..  I     30.  'Vater     unser."  1539.     The 

III.  Corrections  or  Arrangements  Lords  Prayer. 

of  early  German  Hymns.  |     31.  -yom  Himmel  hoch,'  1535. 

IS.  '  Christ  lag  In  Todesbanden,'  The  Nativity  (a  children's  hymn). 


22.  'War  Gott  nicht  mit  uns,' 
1524.  Ps.  cxxiv.  'Nisi  qui  Domi- 
nus.' 

23.  'Wohl  dem,  der  in  Gottes- 
ffirchte,"  152*.  Ps.  cxxviii.  'Beat! 
omnes.' 

V.  Hymns  based  upon  passages 

of  the  Bible. 
2*.  'Christ    unser    Herr,"  15*1. 
The  Baptism  of  Christ. 

25.  '  Diess  sind  die  heillgen  zehn 
Gebot,'  152*.    The  Decalogue. 

26.  'Jesaia,  dem  Prophet  en,' 
1526.    The  Vision  of  Isaiah. 

27.  'Mensch,  willst  du  leben," 
152*.  Abbreviated  version  of  the 
Decalogue. 

Mit  Fried  und  Freud,'  152*. 


VI.  Original  Hymns. 

32.  'Ein  neues  Lied,"  1523.  1 
hymn  to  the  memory  of  two  Lu 
theran  martyrs,  H.  Voes  and  J. 
Esch,  who  were  burnt  at  Brussels 
July  1, 1523. 

83.  '  Erhalt  uns,  Herr,"  15*1.  A 
children's  hymn  against  the  two 


I  arch-enemies  of  Christ,  the  Pops 
[  and  the  Turk. 

— .  'Jesus  Christus,  unser  Hei- 
land,"152*.    An  Easter  hymn. 

35.  'Nun  freut  euch,'  1523.     A 
hymn  of  thanksgiving, 

36.  '  Vom   Himmel   kam,'  15*3. 
<  A  Christmas  hymn. 


The  following  are  the  hymn-tunes  which  were 
probably  composed  by  Luther. 


Jesaia  dem  Propheten  das 
geschah.'  Appeared  in  the  place 
of  the  Sanct us  in  Luther's  '  Sine 
Weiss,  Christllch  Mess  zu  halt  en,' 
1526. 

2.  '  Ein'  feste  Burg  1st  unser 
Gott.'  First  appeared  in  'Geist- 
liche  Lieder,  auffs  new  gebessert 
ru  Wittenberg.  Dr.  Mart.  Luther, 
1529.'  This  book  was  printed  by 
Joseph  Klug. 

The  following  arrangements  of 
this  hymn  appeared  during  Lu- 
ther's life:— 

(a)  For  3  voices,  with  the  melody 
In  the  Tenor,  in  '  News  Ge- 
sang,  mit  dreyen   stimmen 
den  Kirchen  und  Schulen  zu 
nutz,   neulich    in  Preussen 
durch  Joannem  Kugelmann 
gesetzt '     (Augsburg,    15*0). 
Hans  Kugelmann  was  Ka- 
pellmeister to  Duke  Albert 
of  Brandenburg. 
(5)  For  4  voices,  with  the  melody 
in  the  Bass,  in  G.  Bhaw's 
'  Newe   deutsche    geistliche 
Gesenge  exxiii'  (Wittenberg 
15*4). 
(«)  For  5  voices,  with  the  melody 
in  the  Tenor,   by  Stephen 
Mahu,  in  G.  Bhaw's  Hymn- 
book. 
(d)  For  *  voices,  with  the  melody 
in  the  Bass,  by  M.  Agricola, 
in  G.  Bhaw's  Hymn-book. 
(«)  For  4  voices,  with  the  melody 
in  the  Bass,  by  L.  Hellinck, 
in  G.  Bhaw's  Hymn-book. 
8.  'Aus  tiefer  Noth  ruf  ich  zu 
dlr.'   First  appeared  in  the '  Geist- 
liche   Gesangbuchleyn.     Tenor.' 
(Wittenberg  1524.) 


*.  "Ein  neues  Lied  wir  heben 
an.'  First  appeared  in  '  Enchiri- 
dion, Oder  eyn  Handtbachlein  ey- 
nem  yetzllchen  Christen  fast  nutz- 
lich  bey  sich  zu  haben  zur  stetter 
vbung  unnd  trachtung  Geystlicher 
gesenge  vnd  Psalmen,  Eechtschaf- 
fen  vnd  kunstlich  vertheutscht. 
1524."    Printed  at  Erfurt. 

5.  'Es  spricht  der  Unweisen 
Hund  wohl.'  Appeared  in  the 
'  Gesangbuchleyn,'  1524. 

6.  '  Mensch,  willst  du  leben  selig- 
Hch.'  From  the '  Gesangbuchleyn,' 
1524. 

7.  'Mit  Fried  und  Freud  Ich 
fahr  dahin.'  From  the  'Gesang- 
buchleyn,' 1524. 

8.  '  Vom  Himmel  hoch,  da  komm 
ich  her.'  Appeared  in  Lottber's 
Magdeburg  Gesangbuch,  15*0. 

9.  'Jesus  Christus  unser  Hei- 
land."  From  the  'Enchiridion,' 
152*. 

10.  'Nun  freut  euch,  Hebe  Chris- 
ten g'mein.'  From  the  so-called 
'  Achtllederbuch,'  1524.  In  Adam 
Dyson's  Hymn-book  (Breslau  1525) 
it  is  set  to  the  tune  of '  Es  ist  das 
Heil,'  which  was  probably  com- 
posed by  Speratus. 

11.  '  Nun  freut  euch.  liebe  Chris- 
ten g'mein.'  From  Klug's  '  Geist- 
liche Lieder'  (Wittenberg  1529). 

12.  "Vater  unser  im  Himmel- 
retch."  In  KOphyl's  Strasburg 
Gesangbuch  (1537)  and  in  Lot  titer's 
Magdeburg  Hymn-book  (1540). 

IS.  "Wohl  dem,  der  in  Gottes- 
furchte  stent.'  In  the  '  Geistliche 
Gesangbuchleyn,'  1524. 


Of  the  above  tunes,  Nos.  I  and  2  are  almost 
without  doubt  by  Luther  ;  Nos.  3  to  8  are  very 
probably  by  him ;  and  Nos.  9  to  1 3  are  ascribed 
to  him  with  less  certainty.  The  following  works 
contain  much  information  as  to  Luther  as  a 
musician,  and  have  been  carefully  consulted  in 
the  compilation  of  this  article. 

geistliche  Lieder,  etc.,"  v.  Wlnter- 
feld  (Leipzig  18*0). 

'  Luther's  geistliche  Lieder." 
Wackernagel  (Stuttgart  18*8). 

'Geschichte  der  biblisch-klrch- 
lichen  Dicht-  und  Tonkunst  und 
ihrer  Werke."   Schauer  (Jena  1850). 

'Choralkunde.'  G.DOring  (Daut- 
zig,  1865). 

'  Geschichte  des  Kirchenlieds, 
etc.'    Koch  (Stuttgart,  1866-77). 

'Luther  musicien'j  Eevue  et 
Gazette  musicale,  July  13, 1879. 

[W.B.S.] 

LUTHER'S  HYMN,  a  popular  name  among 
the  last  generation  for  a  hymn  beginning  'Great 
God,  what  do  I  see  and  hear?'  set  to  an  old 
German  tune  'Es  ist  gewisslich  an  der  Zeit,' 
and  formerly  much  in  vogue  at  musical  festivals 
and  sacred  concerts.  It  was  sung  by  Brahain, 
and  Harper  used  to  accompany  it  with  very 
effective  fanfares  on  the  trumpet  between  the 
lines.  The  author  of  neither  words  (German  nor 
English)  nor  tune  is  exactly  known.  There  is  a 
tradition  that  Luther  made  the  words  to  the  tune 

N  2 


Forkel's  Musikallscher  Alma- 
nach  for  178*. 

The  Leipziger  Allgemeine  mu- 
sik.  Zeitung  for  1804  and  1810. 

'TJeber  Luther's  Verdienst  um 
den  Kirchengesang.'  Bambacb 
(Hamburg  18131. 

'  Luther's  geistliche  Lieder  nebst 
dessen  Gedanken  fiber  die  Muslca.' 
Groll  (Berlin  1817). 

'Luther's  Gedanken  fiber  die 
Muslk.'    Beck  (Berlin  1825). 

'Dr.  Martin  Luther's  deutsche 


180 


LUTHER'S  HYMN. 


LYCEUM  THEATRE. 


as  he  heard  it  sung  by  a  traveller.  It  was  first 
printed  in  1535,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  melody 
had  already  served  as  2nd  melody  to  the  older 
hymn  '  Nun  freut  euch,  lieben  Christen  g'mein.' ' 

It  will  be  found  in  the  ordinary  collections  as 
'  Luther's  Hymn.'  [G.] 

LUTHERAN  (German)  CHAPEL,  of  St. 
James's  Palace.  The  building  now  used  as 
the  German  Chapel  is  said  to  have  been  erected 
about  1626  by  Inigo  Jones,  for  Queen  Henrietta 
Maria,  who  had  been  permitted  the  free  use  in 
England  of  her  religion.  In  1662  it  was  assigned 
for  the  like  purpose  to  Queen  Catherine  of  Bra- 
ganza,  the  first  mass  being  celebrated  on  Sept. 
21  in  that  year.  The  choir  was  composed  of 
Italians,  and  the  soprani  were  eunuchs.  At  the 
Revolution  the  friars  were  expelled,  and  the 
chapel  was  in  Dec.  1688  appropriated  to  the  use 
of  French  Protestants.  Shortly  afterwards  a 
service  in  Dutch  was  also  established  in  it  for  the 
benefit  of  the  followers  of  William  III.  About 
1703,  Queen  Anne  and  Prince  George  of  Den- 
mark established  a  German  Lutheran  service  in 
a  small  chapel  in  the  Middle  Court  of  St.  James's 
Palace,  which  was  in  1781  transferred  to  the 
present  chapel,  the  French  and  Dutch  services 
being  removed  at  the  same  time  to  the  chapel 
vacated  by  the  Germans,  where  they  were  per- 
formed until  their  discontinuance  in  1839.  Upon 
the  removal,  a  new  organ  was  erected  in  the 
chapel.  The  present  organ,  by  Snetzler,  was 
built  for  Buckingham  House,  and  removed  here 
prior  to  the  demolition  of  that  edifice  in  1825. 
The  organists  since  1781  have  been-  Augustus 
Friedrich  Christopher  Kollmann,  died  Aug.  23, 
1829  ;  George  Augustus  Kollmann,  died  March 
19,  1845  ;  Miss  Joanna  Sophia  Kollman,  died  in 
May,  1 849 ;  and  Frederic  Weber,  the  present 
organist.  [W.  H.  H.] 

LUTZ,  Wilhelm  Meyer,  was  born  in  1829  at 
Mannerstadt,  Kissingen,  where  his  father  was 
organist  and  teacher  of  harmony  to  the  School- 
master's Institute.  He  showed  a  gift  for  the 
piano  at  a  very  early  age,  and  when  1 2  played 
in  public  with  the  orchestra.  His  father  re- 
moving to  Wiirzburg,  he  entered  the  Gymnasium 
and  University  there,  and  at  the  same  time 
studied  music  under  Eisenhofer  and  Keller. 
Since  1848  Mr.  Lutz  has  been  settled  in  England, 
first  as  organist  to  St.  Chad's,  Birmingham,  and 
St.  Ann's,  Leeds,  and  then  organist  and  choir- 
master to  St.  George's  Catholic  Cathedral,  Lon- 
don, a  post  he  still  holds,  and  for  which  he  has 
composed  several  grand  masses  and  much  other 
music.  Mr.  Lutz  has  also  had  a  long  and  wide 
experience  of  the  stage  as  chef  d'orchestre,  first 
at  the  Surrey  Theatre  (1851-55),  and  since  1869 
at  the  Gaiety  Theatre ;  and  has  also  had  the 
management  of  the  operatic  tours  of  Grisi  and 
Mario,  Pyne  and  Harrison,  and  other  eminent 
artists.  Many  of  his  operas  and  operettas  are 
well  and  favourably  known  in  England,  amongst 
them  'Faust  and  Marguerite'  (Surrey  Theatre, 
l855)»  'Blonde  and  Brunette'  (1862),  'Zaida' 

1  See  During. -  Choralkunde  '  (1805),  pp.  31,  407. 


(1868),  'Miller  of  Milburg'  (1872),  'Legend  of 
the  Lys'  (1873),  a  cantata  entitled  'Heme  the 
Hunter,'  etc.,  etc.  A  string  quartet  which  he 
wrote  for  M.  Sainton's  chamber  concerts  was 
very  well  spoken  of,  and  he  has  much  music, 
orchestral  and  chamber,  in  MS.  [G.] 

LWOFF,  Alexis,  violinist,  composer,  and 
writer  on  musical  subjects,  was  born  at  Reval  in 
1 799.  His  father,  a  high  Russian  government 
official,  made  him  enter  a  military  career,  but 
not  without  having  previously  given  him  an 
excellent  musical  and  general  education.  Owing 
to  his  many  brilliant  qualities  he  quickly  ad- 
vanced to  high  military  rank,  and  in  1836  we 
find  him  at  the  same  time  a  general,  personal 
adjutant  to  the  Emperor,  and  chief-director  of 
the  music  at  the  Imperial  Court  and  of  the 
singers  in  the  Imperial  chapel,  to  which  last 
post  he  succeeded  on  the  death  of  his  brother  ' 
Theodor  in  1S36. 

His  merits  as  a  violinist,  especially  as  » 
quartet-player,  were  fully  recognised  at  Berlin. 
Leipzig,  Paris,  and  other  places.  Schumann  is 
loud  in  praise  of  his  thoroughly  musical  style  of 
playing  (Ges.  Schriften,  iii.  216).  It  is  however 
as  the  composer  of  the  Russian  National  Hymn 
that  his  name  will  be  perpetuated.  This  hymn, 
a  simple  but  noble  strain,  well  known  in  Eng- 
land through  the  version  of  the  late  Mr.  Chorley, 
included  in  Hullah's  'Part  Music,'  and  often 
used  as  a  hymn  tune,  met  in  Russia  with  a 
most  enthusiastic  reception,  and  is  now  the 
universally  adopted  National  Anthem  of  that 
country.  Lwoff  has  published  a  violin-concerto, 
2  fantasias  for  violin,  4  operas,  and  a  number 
of  sacred  choruses  for  the  services  of  the  Imperial 
Chapel.  He  also  harmonised  the  traditional 
chants  and  tunes  of  the  Russian  Church,  and 
edited  them  in  eleven  volumes. 

Lwoff  died  on  his  property  in  the  province  of 
Kowno,  Dec.  28,  1870,  having  suffered  for  20 
years  from  a  very  distressing  affliction  of  his 
organs  of  hearing.  Berlioz  and  he  were  much 
allied.  They  first  met  in  St.  Petersburg  in  1847, 
and  the  volume  of  the  correspondence  of  th© 
former,  recently  published,  contains  two  letters 
addressed  to  him.  [P.  D.] 

LYCEUM  THEATRE.  The  original  theatre 
bearing  this  name  occupied  the  site  of  a  building 
erected  in  1765  (on  ground  formerly  belonging 
to  Exeter  House)  for  the  exhibitions  of  the- 
•  Society  of  Artists'  (subsequently  '  Royal 
Academy  of  Arts),'  but  afterwards  used  for  a 
great  variety  of  entertainments.  It  was  con- 
structed about  1798  under  the  direction  of  Dr. 
Arnold,  who  contemplated  performing  in  it 
operas  and  other  musical  pieces,  but  being 
unable  to  obtain  a  license  was  compelled  to 
abandon  his  intention,  and  the  house  was 
occupied,  occasionally  only,  for  pictorial  exhibi- 
tions, table  entertainments,  etc.,  until  1809, 
when  Samuel  James  Arnold,  the  Doctor's  son, 
succeeded  in  getting  a  license  for  English 
operatic  performances  during  four  months  in 
each  year,   June   3,   to   Oct.   3.     Drury   Lane 


LYCEUM  THEATKE. 

Theatre  having  been  burnt  down,  Feb.  24,  1 809, 
the  company  performed  at  the  Lyceum  from 
April  II  following  during  the  rebuilding  of 
their  own  house.  Arnold  opened  the  theatre 
June  26,  under  the  title  of  '  The  English  Opera 
House,'  for  the  performance  of  operas,  melo- 
dramas and  musical  farces.  In  1815,  having 
obtained  a  99  years'  lease  of  the  ground,  he 
employed  Samuel  Beazley  to  rebuild  the  theatre 
on  the  same  site,  behind  the  houses  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Strand,  a  narrow  avenue  from 
■which  formed  the  approach  to  the  box  entrance, 
the  pit  and  gallery  doors  being  in  Exeter  Court 
to  the  westward.  On  April  2,  181 8,  the  elder 
Charles  Mathews  gave  here  his  '  Mail  Coach 
Adventures,'  the  first  of  that  remarkable  series 
of  entertainments  known  as  his  '  At  Home.' 
The  most  noticeable  operatic  event  in  the  history 
of  the  house  was  the  production  on  the  English 
stage  of  Weber's  'DerFreischiitz,'  July  22,  1824. 
The  house  being  burnt  down,  Feb.  16,  1830,  the 
present  theatre  (also  designed  by  Beazley)  was 
erected.  It  does  not  occupy  the  exact  site  of  its 
predecessor,  advantage  having  been  taken  of  the 
opportunity  to  form  the  continuation  of  Welling- 
ton Street  on  the  north  side  of  the  Strand,  by 
building  the  stage  of  the  new  house  at  the  west 
instead  of  the  east  end.  During  the  rebuilding 
the  company  performed  at  the  Adelphi  and 
Olympic  Theatres.  The  new  house  opened  July 
14,  1834,  the  first  new  opera  performed  in  it 
being Loder's  'Nourjahad,'  and  Barnett's  'Moun- 
tain Sylph,'  produced  later  in  the  year,  achieving 
a  great  success.  Early  in  1839  'Promenade 
Concerts  a  la  Musard'  (the  first  of  the  kind  given 
in  England)  took  place  here  under  the  conduc- 
torship  of  Signor  Negri.  In  1841  the  manage- 
ment passed  into  the  hands  of  Balfe,  who 
produced  his  opera  '  Keolanthe,'  but  his  career 
was  brief.  The  house  then  ceased  to  be  an 
English  opera-house  and  became,  under  its  old 
name  of '  Lyceum,'  a  theatre  for  the  performance 
of  the  general  drama,  Keeley,  Madame  Vestris, 
Madame  Celeste,  Falconer,  and  others  by  turns 
holding  the  reins  of  management.  The  present 
manager  (1879)  is  Henry  Irving.  For  three 
seasons,  1837,  38,  and  71,  Italian  opera  buffa  was 
given  here  in  the  winter,  and  the  house  has 
frequently  been  occupied  by  French  comedians. 
During  the  rebuilding  of  Covent  Garden  Theatre 
after  the  fire  in  1856  the  performances  of  the 
Royal  Italian  Opera  were  given  at  the  Lyceum, 
and  in  the  same  year  the  Pyne  and  Harrison 
English  Opera  Company  performed  there.  It 
was  last  occupied  for  the  performance  of  operas 
in  English  by  the  Carl  Rosa  Company  in  1876 
and  1877.  [W.H.H.] 

LYDIAN  MODE.  (Lat.  Modus  Lydius, 
Modus  V,  Tonus  V.)  The  Fifth  of  the  Eccle- 
siastical Modes ;  called,  by  mediaeval  writers, 
Modus  Icetus,  (The  Joyful  Mode,)  from  its  gener- 
ally jubilant  character. 

The  Final  of  the  Lydian  Mode  is  F :  and  its 
compass,  in  the  Authentic  form,  lies  between  that 
note,  and  the  octave  above.  Its  semitones  fall 
between  the  fourth  and  fifth,  and  seventh  and 


LYRE. 


381 


eighth  degrees.  Its  Dominant  is  C ;  its  Mediant, 
A ;  and  its  Participant  G.  Its  Conceded  Modu- 
lations are,  B,  D,  and  E;  and  its  Absolute 
Initials,  F,  A,  and  C. 

Mode  V. 
Fin.  Part.  Med.         Dom. 


In  the  Plagal,  or  Hypolydian  form,  (Mode  VI.) 
its  compass  lies  between  the  C  below  the  Final, 
and  the  C  above  it :  and  its  semitones  fall  between 
the  third  and  fourth,  and  seventh  and  eighth 
degrees.  The  Final  of  the  Hypolydian  Mode  is 
F ;  its  Dominant  is  A ;  its  Mediant  is  D ;  its 
Participant,  the  lower  C.  Its  Conceded  Modu- 
lations are  B  (the  7th),  B  (the  inverted  7th),  and 
G:  the  two  B's  being  frequently  made  flat,  to 
avoid  the  Tritonus.  [See  Modes.]  Its  Absolute 
Initials  are  C,  D,  and  F. 


Part.  Med. 

Mode  VI. 
Fin.          Dom. 

W»J 

m 

%T    -m-    a 

The  Fifth  Mass  in  Palestrina's  Tenth  Book — 
Missa  Quinti  Toni — is  written,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, in  the  Lydian  Mode.  A  beautiful  example 
of  the  use  of  the  Hypolydian,  and  one  which 
fully  justifies  the  epithet  antiently  applied  to  it — 
Modus  devotus  (The  Devout  Mode) — is  to  be 
found  in  the  first  movement  of  the  Plain  Chaunt 
Missa  pro  Defunctis,  printed,  at  length,  in  the 
article,  Ktbie. 

The  Lydian  Mode  of  the  Middle  Ages  has 
nothing,  but  its  name,  in  common  with  the  older 
Greek  scale,  which  is  said,  on  the  authority  of 
Apuleius,  and  other  antient  authors,  to  have 
been  characterised  by  a  tone  of  soft  complaint — 
a  peculiarity  which  modern  poets  have  not  for- 
gotten, in  their  allusions  to  it.  [W.S.R.] 

LYRE  (\vpa),  an  ancient  musical  instrument, 
in  use  among  the  Greeks,  and  undoubtedly  de- 
rived by  them  from  Asia.  It  consisted  of  a 
hollow  body  or  sound-chest,  from  which  were 
raised  two  arms,  sometimes  also  hollow,  which 
were  curved  both  outward  and  forward.  These 
arms  were  connected  near  the  top  by  a  crossbar 
or  yoke.  Another  crossbar  was  on  the  sound- 
chest,  and  formed  a  bridge  to  convey  the  vibra- 
tions of  the  strings  to  it.  The  strings — at  dif- 
ferent times  four,  seven,  or  ten  in  number — were 
made  of  gut,  and  were  stretched  between  the 
yoke  and  the  bridge,  or  carried  on  to  a  tail- 
piece below  the  bridge.  The  lyre  differs  from 
the  harp  in  having  fewer  strings,  and  from  the 
lute  or  guitar  in  having  no  fingerboard.  It  was 
played  by  being  struck  with  the  plectrum,  which 
was  held  in  the  right  hand,  but  the  fingers  of  the 
left  hand  were  also  used  to  touch  the  strings. 
The  larger  lyres  {Cithara)  were  supported  by  a 
ribbon  slung  across  the  players  shoulders,  or 
held  as  shewn  in  the  illustration,  but  the  treble 
lyre  (or  Chely's)  was  held  by  the  left  arm  or  be- 
tween the  knees.  The  illustration  is  taken  from 
a  drawing  upon  an  amphora  (B.C.  440-330)  in 


182 


LYRE. 


the  first  vase  room  British  Museum,  Case  53, 
No.  744.  The  portion  engraved  represents  Apollo 
holding  a  Cithara  or  large  lyre  as  rarely  shown 


in  detail  in  Greek  art.  With  his  left  hand  he  at 
once  supports  the  instrument  and  stops  the  strings, 
The  plectrum  would  be  held  in  the  right  hand  and 
be  guided  by  the  thumb,  the  fingers  closing  over  it. 
The  modern  Greek  'lyra'  is  a  kind  of  rebec, 
a  bowed  instru- 
ment with  three 
strings,  having  no 
connection  with 
the  ancient  lyre 
or  cithara,  the 
link  between  the 
latter  and  mo- 
dern stringed  in- 
struments being 
supplied  by  the 
Psaltery, in  use 
in  the  Byzantine 
epoch,  from  which 
was  developed  the 
clavecin,  and  ulti- 
mately the  piano- 
forte. But  in  the 
1 4th  century  there 
were  several  bow~ 
ed  instruments 
known  in  Europe 
as  lyres,  and  also 
the  Hurdy  Gur- 
DY,the  lyra  mendi- 
corum.  In  Italy, 
in  the  last  century, 
there  was  a  bowed 
lyra  bearing  a 
similar  relation 
to  the  viol  that  the  well-known  theorbo  did 
to  the  lute — namely,  that  from  a  second  and 


LYEIC. 

higher  neck,  bass  strings  were  hung  that  were 
not  in  contact  with  the  fingerboard.  Three 
varieties  have  been  distinguished  —  Lyra  di 
braccio,  Lyra  di  gamba,  and  Archiviole  di  lyra. 
It  would  be  for  one  of  these,  a  favourite  instru- 
ment with  Ferdinand  IV.  King  of  Naples,  that 
Haydn  wrote  twelve  pieces.  [See  vol.  i.  709, 
720.]  The  museums,  at  home  or  abroad,  known 
to  the  writer,  have  no  specimens  of  this  bijuga 
viol ;  the  cut  is  taken  from  the  Archiviole  di  lyra 
in  *  Recueil  de  Planches  de  1' Encyclopedic, '  tome 
iii.  (Paris,  1784).  [A.J.H.] 

LYRIC;  LYRICAL.  The  term  Lyric  is 
obviously  derived  from  the  lyre,  which  served  as 
an  accompaniment  or  support  to  the  voice  in 
singing  the  smaller  forms  of  poetry  among  the 
ancient  Greeks.  The  poems  thus  accompanied 
were  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Odes,  and  all 
Odes  were  in  those  times  essentially  made  to  be 
sung.  Among  the  Romans  this  style  of  poetry 
was  not  much  cultivated,  and  the  poems  which 
fall  under  the  same  category,  such  as  those  of 
Horace  and  Catullus,  were  not  expressly  in- 
tended to  be  sung ;  but  inasmuch  as  they  were 
cast  after  the  same  manner  as  the  Greek  poems 
which  had  been  made  to  be  sung,  they  also  were 
called  Odes  or  Lyrics.  On  the  same  principle, 
the  name  has  been  retained  for  a  special  class  of 
poems  in  modern  times  which  have  some  intrinsic 
relationship  in  form  to  the  Odes  of  the  ancients  ; 
though,  on  the  one  hand,  the  term  Ode  has  con- 
siderably changed  its  signification,  and  become 
more  restricted  in  its  application  ;  and,  on  the 
other,  the  term  Lyric  is  not  generally  associated 
either  in  the  minds  of  the  poets  or  their  public 
with  music  of  any  sort.  It  is  true  that  a  great 
proportion  are  not  only  admirably  fitted  to  be 
sung,  but  actually  are  set  to  most  exquisite 
music ;  but  this  fact  has  little  or  no  influence  upon 
the  classification.  Thus  the  able  and  intelligent 
editor  of  the  beautiful  collection  of  modern  lyrics 
called  the  Golden  Treasury  explains  in  his  preface 
that  he  has  held  the  term  '  Lyrical '  '  to  imply 
that  each  poem  shall  turn  upon  a  single  thought, 
feeling,  or  situation,'  and  though  he  afterwards 
uses  the  term  '  Song '  as  practically  synonymous, 
he  does  not  seem  to  imply  that  it  should  neces- 
sarily be  sung.  In  another  part  of  his  preface  he 
suggests  an  opinion  which  is  no  doubt  very  com- 
monly held,  that  the  lyrical  and  dramatic  are 
distinct  branches  of  poetry;  and  Mendelssohn 
has  used  the  word  in  this  sense  even  in  relation 
to  music,  in  a  letter,  where  he  speaks  of  his 
Lobgesang  as  follows :  •  The  composition  is  not 
a  little  Oratorio,  its  plan  being  not  dramatic  but 
lyrical.'  But  it  is  in  respect  of  this  sense  of  the 
term  that  its  use  in  modern  times  is  so  singularly 
contradictory.  It  is  true  that  the  class  of  poems 
which  modern  critics  have  agreed  to  distinguish 
as  Lyrics  are  quite  different  in  spirit  from  the 
dramatic  kind — Mr.  Robert  Browning's  'Dra- 
matic Lyrics '  notwithstanding — but  the  principle 
of  classification  has  really  been  erroneous  all  along, 
as  though  a  man  were  called  a  sailor  because  he 
chose  to  wear  a  sailor's  hat.  Consequently  the  ap- 
parent anomaly  of  calling  dramatic  works  lyrical 


LYRIC. 

when  they  are  associated  with  music  is  not  the 
fault  of  musicians,  but  of  the  long-continued 
habit  of  mankind  of  classifying  things  according 
to  outward  resemblance,  instead  of  regarding  the 
true  basis  of  the  terms  of  classification.  The 
term  Lyric,  then,  originally  implied  music,  and 
the  Lyre  stood  as  the  type  of  accompaniment,  of 
whatever  kind ;  and  it  is  strictly  in  conformity 
with  this  derivation  to  give  the  name  '  Lyrical ' 
to  dramatic  works  which  are  associated  with 
music ;  and  we  have  a  forcible  and  substantial 
reminder  of  this  use  of  the  term  in  the  name  of 
the  celebrated  '  Theatre  Lyrique'  in  Paris. 
It  has  been  necessary  to  enter  into  some  detail 


MACBETH  MUSIC. 


1S3 


on  this  subject  in  order  to  explain  the  confusion 
which  exists  in  the  use  of  the  word.  It  must  be 
confessed  that  nothing  can  now  be  gained  by 
trying  to  go  back  to  its  original  meaning ;  for  the 
modern  sense,  as  expressed  by  the  editor  of  the 
Golden  Treasury,  has  a  prescriptive  title  of  such 
great  antiquity  as  would  suffice  to  bar  the  most 
unquestionable  prior  claim.  It  would  be  well  to 
bear  in  mind,  however,  that  the  term  can  have 
two  significations,  and  that  in  relation  to  poetry 
pure  and  simple  it  does  not  necessarily  imply 
music,  in  our  language  at  least ;  and  that  in 
relation  to  the  stage  it  should  imply  nothing 
else.  [C.H.  H.P.J 


M. 


MACBETH.     I.  Tragedy  in  3  acts;  words 
by  Rouget  de  l'lsle  and  Hix,  music  by 
Chelard.      Produced    at    the   Academie, 
June  29,  1827,  without  success.     In  London, 
King's  Theatre,  July  4,  1832. 

2.  Opera  in  4  acts;  libretto  by  Piave,  music  by 
Verdi.  Produced  at  the  Pergola,  Florence,  March 
1847 ;  at  Paris,  with  alterations,  at  the  Theatre 
Lyrique,  April  21,  1865. 

3.  An  overture  for  orchestra  in  B  minor,  by 
Spohr  (op.  75). 

4.  The  first  act  of  an  opera,  Macbeth,  was 
published  by  von  Collin  in  1 809 ;  and  sketches 
by  Beethoven  for  the  overture  (D  minor,  6-8)  and 
first  chorus  therein,  are  given  by  Mr.  Nottebohm 
in  Mus.  Wochenblatt,  1879,  No.  10.  [G.] 

MACBETH  MUSIC.  Three  musicians,  of 
varied  eminence,  have  successively  composed 
music  for  Sir  William  Davenant's  additions  to — 
rather  than  alterations  of — Shakespeare's  tragedy 
of  Macbeth.  Sir  William  designed  to  increase 
its  attractions  for  the  public  by  combining  with 
it  music,  improved  scenery,  and  stage-machinery. 
He  died  before  he  could  bring  his  experiment 
into  practice  ;  but  it  was  carried  out  by  his  widow 
and  son,  at  the  new  theatre  in  Dorset  Garden 
in  1672.  Downes,  who  was  then,  and  for  many 
years  after,  the  prompter  of  the  theatre,  took 
advantage  of  the  information  he  acquired  through 
his  position,  to  write  a  book,  called  'Roscius 
Anglicanus,  or  an  Historical  Review  of  the  Stage  ' 
(i2mo.  1708).  In  this  he  says  :  'The  tragedy 
of  Macbeth,  altered  by  Sir  William  Davenant, 
being  dressed  in  all  its  finery,  as  new  clothes, 
new  scenes,  machines,  as  flying  for  the  witches, 
with  all  the  singing  and  dancing  in  it,  the  first 
composed  by  Mr.  Lock,  the  other  by  Mr.  Chan- 
nell  and  Mr.  Priest,  it  being  all  excellently  per- 
formed, being  in  the  nature  of  an  Opera,  it 
recompensed  double  the  expenses  ;  it  proves  still 
a  lasting  play.' 

Downes  is  the  only  contemporary  authority 
who  refers  to  the  authorship;  but  the  Hon. 
Roger  North,  an  accomplished  musician,  remarks 


generally,  'in  music,  Matthew  Lock  had  a 
robust  vein,'  a  criticism  peculiarly  applicable 
to  the  music  in  'Macbeth.'  Immediately  after 
'  Macbeth,'  Matthew  Lock  composed  the  instru- 
mental music  for  Shakespeare's  '  Tempest,'  pro- 
duced in  1673;  alfio  the  vocal  music  for  Shad- 
well's  'Psyche'  in  Feb.  1673-4.  These  were 
published  by  him  in  1675  ;  but  music  for  witches 
was  not  well  suited  for  private  use,  and  the 
Macbeth  music  remained  in  manuscript  until 
after  his  death  in  1677.  These  three  are  Lock's 
only  known  productions  for  the  theatre,  and  they 
were  all  parodied  by  a  contemporary,  one  Thomas 
Duffett.  The  parody  upon  'Macbeth'  is  'An 
Epilogue  spoken  by  Heccate  and  the  three  witches, 
according  to  the  famous  Mode  of  Macbeth,' printed 
with  a  farce  called  'The  Empress  of  Morocco,' 
4to.  1674.  That  upon '  The  Tempest'  is  entitled 
'  The  Mock  Tempest,'  4to.  1675  ;  and  that  upon 
'  Psyche'  is  called '  Psyche  Debauch'd,'  4to.  1678. 
Stage  parodies  are  only  written  and  accepted  upon 
works  that  have  been  successful,  and  although 
the  music  in  'Macbeth'  was  ill  adapted  for 
private  use,  owing  to  its  subject,  that  of '  Psyche' 
had  a  long-continued  and  widely  spread  popu- 
larity. Two  of  the  vocal  pieces,  'The  delights 
of  the  bottle'  and  'All  joy  to  fair  Psyche,'  were 
lengthened  into  penny  ballads,  to  be  sung  in  the 
streets,  and  several  other  ballads  which  were 
written  to  the  tune  of  the  first  are  still  extant — 
such  as  'The  Prodigal  Son,'  'The  Wine  Cooper's 
Delight,'  etc.  Matthew  Lock's  robust  vein  is 
equally  characterised  in  these  airs.  (See  '  Popu- 
lar Music  of  the  Olden  Time,'  ii.  498-501.) 

The  only  reason  that  can  be  assigned  why 
modern  musicians  should  have  doubted  Matthew 
Lock's  authorship  of  the  music  in  '  Macbeth'  is 
that  a  manuscript  score  of  it  exists  in  the  hand- 
writing of  Henry  Purcell.  His  autograph  seems 
to  have  been  tolerably  well  ascertained.  First, 
Dr.  Philip  Hayes  recorded  his  judgment  by 
writing  on  the  manuscript  'Purcell's  score  of 
y*  music  in  Macbeth,  also  the  score  from  whence 
it  was  printed  under  Mat.  Lock's  name.'    It  may 


184 


MACBETH  MUSIC. 


be  conceded  that  the  score  is  in  Purcell's  hand- 
writing, and  that  it  is  the  one  from  which  Dr. 
Boyce  had  then  printed  the  music  for  the  first 
time,  but  assigned  its  composition  to  Mat.  Lock. 
The  present  possessor  of  this  MS.  is  Mr.  W.  H. 
Cummings,  one  of  the  most  careful  and  reliable 
of  antiquaries,  as  well  as  one  intimately  ac- 
quainted with  Purcell's  style,  and  with  his  nu- 
merous works.  The  means  of  judging  equally 
well  of  Lock's  music  for  the  theatre,  are  not  to 
be  had,  for  want  of  examples,  especially  if  '  Mac- 
beth '  is  to  be  deducted  from  them.  But  there 
remains  the  inexorable  logic  of  dates  to  prove 
that,  although  the  manuscript  be  in  Purcell's 
handwriting,  he  could  not  have  been  the  com- 
poser of  a  work  which  was  produced  on  the  stage 
when  lie  was  only  in  his  fourteenth  year.  Henry 
Purcell  was  born  in  1658,  and  died  in  November 
1695,  aged  37.  A  sufficient  reason  for  Purcell's 
having  made  a  transcript  of  it  is  to  be  found  in 
the  fact  that  he  was  called  upon  to  write  music 
of  a  somewhat  similar  character  to  that  in  '  Mac- 
beth,' for  the  sorceress  in '  Dido  and  ^Eneas,'  with 
'choral  responses  and  wild  laughter  of  the  infernal 
spirits ' ;  and  this  was  to  be  his  own  preliminary 
essay  for  the  stage.  There  was  a  certain  amount 
of  conventionality,  but  not  amounting  to  plagi- 
arism, in  the  treatment  of  demoniacal  music. 
This  has  been  remarked  in  the  music  to  Middle- 
ton's  play  of  'The  Witch,'  in  Eccles's  music 
to  '  Macbeth,'  and  in  Purcell's  own  music  to 
'  Dido  and  ^Eneas.'  Of  the  last,  Mr.  Hogarth 
says  :  '  The  little  duet  in  this  scene,  between 
two  of  the  witches,  "But  ere  we  this  perform," 
is  remarkable  for  its  ingenuity  of  contrivance, 
and  easy  flow  of  melody ;  and  the  full  chorus 
which  follows,  and  concludes  the  scene,  has  the 
broad  simplicity  of  Matthew  Lock.'  ('  Memoirs 
of  the  Musical  Drama,'  i.  151.)  Sir  John  Haw- 
kins states  that  Purcell  wrote  the  music  to  '  Dido 
and  ^Eneas'  'at  the  age  of  nineteen,'  and  that 
he  composed  it  for  the  Mr.  Josias  Priest,  who 
was  concerned  in  the  production  of  '  Macbeth ' 
with  Lock.  But  Sir  John  was  mistaken  as  to 
Purcell's  age,  and  as  to  '  Dido  and  ^Eneas'  having 
been  performed  at  Priest's  house  in  Leicester 
Fields.  In  1680  Priest  removed  from  Leicester 
Fields  (now  Leicester  Square),  to  Chelsea,  and 
announced  it  in  the  London  Gazette,  No.  1567, 
dated  Nov.  25,  1680:  'Josias  Priest,  Dancing 
Master,  who  kept  a  Boarding  School  of  Gentle- 
women in  Leicester  Fields,  is  removed  to  the  Great 
School  House  at  Chelsey,  that  was  Mr.  Port- 
man's,'  etc.,  and  it  was  there  '  Dido  and  ^Eneas' 
was  produced.  By  happy  chance,  one  of  the 
books  of  words,  distributed  among  the  audience 
on  that  occasion,  is  preserved  in  the  library  of 
the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society.  It  is  of  six  folio 
pages,  without  title  or  imprint,  and  is  headed: 
'An  Opera  performed  at  Mr.  Josias  Priest's 
Boarding  School  at  Chelsey,  by  young  gentle- 
women. The  words  made  by  Mr.  Nat.  Tate.  The 
musick  composed  by  Mr.  Henry  Purcell.'  '  Nat' 
is  probably  a  misprint  for  '  Nah.' — Nahum  Tate. 
Other  corroborative  evidence  of  its  production 
has  been  discovered  by  Mr.  W.  H.  Cummings. 


MACBETH  MUSIC. 

This  is  promised  in  a  new  and  more  complete 
edition  of  the  opera.  All  proves  Purcell  to  have 
been  at  least  in  his  22nd  year  when  he  produced 
his  first  opera.  The  year  then  ended  in  March. 
The  study  of  sacred  and  of  chamber  music  had 
so  predominated  in  Purcell's  musical  education, 
that  with  all  his  genius,  when  first  writing  for 
the  stage,  he  would  naturally  desire  a  dramatic 
model  to  improve  upon.  This  was  easily  to  be 
obtained  through  Mr.  Priest,  whose  connection 
with  the  theatre  would  enable  him  to  borrow 
Lock's  score  to  be  copied.  Mr.  W.  H.  Cummings 
submitted  the  '  Macbeth'  MS.  to  Mr.  Netherclift, 
the  well-known  expert,  'who  came  to  the  con- 
clusion that  it  had  a  certain  boyish  resemblance 
to  fac-similes  of  Purcell's  after-writings,  but  not 
sufficient  of  itself  for  him  to  form  a  decided 
judgment  as  to  the  identity  of  authorship.'  This 
'boyish  resemblance'  is  precisely  what  might 
have  been  expected  under  the  circumstances 
above  detailed.  Every  young  composer  requires 
some  model  to  start  upon,  just  as  the  early  works 
of  Beethoven  remind  us  of  his  model,  Mozart. 

Matthew  Lock  died  in  1677,  three  years 
before  Purcell  made  his  preliminary  essay  for  the 
stage,  an  essay  which  led  to  his  being  engaged 
to  write  the  music  for  Nat  Lee's  'Theodosius,' 
which  appeared  at  the  Duke's  Theatre  in  1680. 
This  was  the  commencement  of  Purcell's  dramatic 
career.1  Matthew  Lock  had  been  appointed  to 
compose  music  for  the  public  entry  of  Charles  II. 
at  the  Restoration,  and  he  was  soon  after  ap- 
pointed Composer  in  Ordinary  to  the  King,  and 
organist  to  the  Queen.  His  abilities  had  often 
been  called  upon  in  a  minor  degree  for  the 
Duke's  Theatre,  as  in  composing  the  original 
music  for  Davenant's  song,  '  My  lodging  it  is  on 
the  cold  2  ground,'  sung  by  Mary  Da  vies  in  '  The 
Rivals'  (4to,  1668) — and  'I  prithee,  love,  turn  to 
me,'  in  'Apollo's  Banquet,'  1669 — also  for  'the 
antique  round '  to  be  danced  by  the  witches  in 

1  In  the  Preface  to  Purcell's  '  Dido  and  ./Eneas,'  by  the  late  Edward 
Taylor,  Gresham  Professor  of  Music,  and  in  the  Introduction  to 
Purcell's  'Bonduca,'  by  the  late  Dr.  E.  F.  Rimbault,  the  date  of  tha 
first  production  of  '  Dido  and  jEneas '  has  been  silently  thrown  back 
to  '  1675.'  In  antiquarian  matters,  Dr.  Rimbault  was  at  that  time  the 
guide  of  Professor  Taylor,  but  when  Dr.  Rimbault  wrote  the  preface  to 
his  own  edition  of '  Dido  and  ACneas, '  he  had  discovered  his  early  error. 
It  is  easy  to  see  how  he  made  the  mistake.  In  his  Introduction  to '  Bon- 
duca,' Dr.  Rimbault  gives  a  list  of  Purcell's  compositions  for  the  stage, 
with  dates  derived,  not  from  Purcell  or  from  any  musical  authority,  but 
from  the  '  Biographia  Dramatica,'  as  to  when  these  works  were  first 
produced  upon  the  stage.  Therein  he  found  three  plays  In  1676 — 
Shadwell's  'Epsom  Wells,'  his  'The  Libertine,'  and  Dryden's  '  Aureng 
Zebe.'  In  1677  he  found  Mrs.  Helm's  '  Abdelazor,'  and  In  1678  Shad- 
well's  alteration  of  'Timon  of  Athens.'  Not  one  of  these  plays  is 
attributed  to  Purcell  In  Downes's  contemporary  account,  and  it  is  in 
direct  contravention  to  Downes's  statement  that  In  1680  '  Theodosius." 
'  compos'd  by  the  famous  master,  Mr.  Henry  Purcell  (iet'np  tke  first  he 
e'er  compos' d  for  Che  stage)  made  it  a  living  and  gainful  play  to  the 
Company.'  He  adds  that '  The  Court,  especially  the  Ladies,  by  their 
dally  charming  presence,  gave  it  great  encouragement.'  The  very 
name  of  Dryden  ought  to  have  convinced  Dr.  Rimbault  that  his 
inference  as  to  Purcell  having  written  music  for  '  Aureng  Zebe '  in 
1676,  when  Purcell  was  In  his  eighteenth  year,  was  unsound ;  but 
possibly  he  relied  upon  Novello's  Index  to  Hawkins's  'History  of 
Music,'  and  did  not  see  page  707,  where  the  important  notice  of 
Dryden  versus  Purcell  occurs.  In  it  Monsieur  Grabu  is  complimented 
at  the  expense  of  Purcell  and  other  Englishmen  in  1686.  It  was  only 
some  five  years  after  Grabu  had  failed  that  Dryden  gave  his  '  King 
Arthur '  to  Purcell  to  set.  Again,  it  might  be  urged  that  Purcell  did 
not  compose  the  music  for  those  five  plays,  but  only  for  some  parts  of 
them — as  in  '  Timon  of  Athens '  he  rewrote  the  masque  music  In 
Act  2.  Much  more  might  be  said  were  Purcell's  music  the  subject, 
but  here  His'  Macbeth  Music' 

2  Not  the  present  air,  but  one  styled  '  On  the  cold  ground,'  in  '  The 
Dancing  Master '  of  1665. 


MACBETH  MUSIC. 

Act  iv.  sc.  2,  of  the  original  '  Macbeth,'  before 
Davenant  made  his  additions.  This  dance  is 
included  in  'Musick's  Delight  on  the  Cithren,' 
j  666.  '  Witches'  Dances '  in  manuscripts  of  that 
age  are  not  necessarily  by  Matthew  Lock.  There 
are  two  such  in  Add.  MSS.  No.  10,444,  m  tne 
British  Museum,  taken  from  some  masque. 

Eccles's  music  for  '  Macbeth'  is  to  be  found  in 
score  in  the  British  Museum  (Add.  MSS.  No. 
12,219).  It  was  brought  out  at  Drury  Lane 
Theatre  in  1696.  As  this  was  the  year  after  Pur- 
cell's  death,  the  date  disposes  of  the  myth  of 
Purcell's  having  had  any  hand  in  after-improving 
it.  As  Eccles's  music  is  not  the  music  of '  Mac- 
beth,' it  must  stand  or  fall  upon  its  own  merits. 
It  was  much  admired  by  W.  Linley,  who  edited 
'  Dramatic  Songs '  in,  or  for,  Shakespeare's  plays ; 
but  in  the  more  trustworthy  judgment  of  Mr. 
Cummings,  'it  abounds  in  wearisome  and  unin- 
teresting imitative  phrases'  ;  and  again,  Mr.  Cum- 
mings says,  'Eccles  could  not  have  been  the 
author  of  the  music  accredited  to  Lock ;  the  former 
is  so  extremely  laboured  and  diffuse,  the  latter  so 
much  more  dramatic  and  effective  in  its  con- 
ciseness and  simplicity.'  ('Concordia,'  Nov.  27, 

1875.) 

'  The  music  in  Macbeth,'  says  Mr.  Cummings, 
•  is  not  equal  to  Purcell  at  his  best  period :  yet,  if 
he  composed  it,  as  I  believe,  at  the  age  of  four- 
teen or  sixteen,  it  adds  another  leaf  to  the  laurel 
crown  of  England's  greatest  musical  genius.' 
On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  said,  that  Purcell 
requires  no  borrowed  plumes,  and  that  the  sole 
ground  for  attributing  the  music  to  him  rests 
upon  this  manuscript.  If  we  are  to  accept  it  as 
evidence  that  Purcell  composed  the  music  for 
'  Macbeth,'  we  must  re-write  the  history  of  Pur- 
cell. It  must  henceforth  be  that,  at  the  age  of 
fourteen  (sixteen  is  inadmissible)  he  appeared  as 
a  juvenile  prodigy,  having  composed  the  music  for 
t  Macbeth,'  which  met  with  an  enthusiastic  re- 
ception, but  this  meteor  at  once  disappeared ; 
Purcell  preferred  retirement  for  eight  years,  and 
during  that  period  did  nothing  more  than  favour 
Mr.  Priest  with  music  for  young  ladies  and 
gentlemen  to  perform,  until  he  chose  once  more 
to  shine  upon  the  stage  in  1680.  The  inferences 
drawn  by  Mr.  Cummings  in  his  able  article 
show  his  enthusiasm  for  Purcell,  and  perhaps 
he  had  then  in  his  mind  the  founding  of  the 
Purcell  Society  which  he  has  since  succeeded  in 
establishing.  No  writer  could  have  stated  the 
evidence  more  fairly,  whether  the  inferences  to 
be  drawn  from  it  were  for  or  against  his  opinion. 

Of  Richard  Leveridge's  claim,  it  is  sufficient  to 
say  that  he  composed  new  music  for  the  2nd  act  of 
■  Macbeth '  in  or  about  1 708.  It  has  since  passed 
completely  into  oblivion,  and  there  is  no  need  to 
say  anything  more  about  it.  [W.  C] 

MACCHERINI,  Giuseppina,  the  wife  of  a 
good  tenor  [Ansani],  was  born  at  Bologna  in 
1745.  In  1 781  she  arrived  in  London,  whither 
a  great  reputation  had  preceded  her,  but  never 
was  expectation  more  completely  disappointed. 
Her  voice  was  a  mere  thread,  scarcely  audible  in 
the  orchestra.     She  was  soon  put  aside,  and  a 


MACFARREN. 


185 


fine  opera,  called  'Giunio  Bruto,'  in  which  her 
husband  and  Pacchierotti  played,  necessarily 
abandoned.  She  retired  to  her  native  town  in 
1788,  and  died  there  Sept.  19,  1825.  [J.M.] 

MACE,  Thomas,  one  of  the  clerks  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  was  author  of  a  remarkable 
book  published  (in  small  folio,  272  pp.,  beside 
18  pp.  of  prefatory  matter)  in  1676,  entitled 
*  Musick's  Monument ;  or,  A  Remembrancer  of 
the  best  Practical  Musick,  both  Divine  and 
Civil,  that  has  ever  been  known  to  have  been 
in  the  world,'  the  first  part  of  which  treats  of 
the  then  condition  of  parochial  psalmody  and 
cathedral  music  and  the  means  of  improving 
their  performance;  the  second  of  the  lute,  in- 
cluding directions  for  choosing,  tuning,  repair- 
ing, performing  on  and  composing  for  the  instru- 
ment, with  a  full  explanation  of  the  tableture 
and  numerous  lessons ;  and  the  third  of  the  viol 
and  of  music  generally,  with  other  curious  mat- 
ter. The  book  is  written  in  a  quaint,  familiar 
style,  intermingled  with  a  profusion  of  strangely 
compounded  terms,  and  produces  a  striking  im- 
pression of  the  author's  love  of  his  art  and  his 
devout  and  amiable  disposition.  It  was  pub- 
lished by  subscription  at  1 2s.  per  copy  in  sheets. 
A  lengthy  epitome  of  it  is  given  in  Hawkins's 
History,  pp.  727-733,  Novello's  edition.  A  few 
scanty  biographical  particulars  are  culled  from 
it,  viz.  that  Mace  married  in  or  shortly  after 
1636 ;  that  before  the  marriage  his  wife  resided 
in  Yorkshire,  he  in  Cambridge;  that  in  1644 
he  was  in  York  during  the  siege  of  the  city  by 
the  Parliamentary  army;  that  in  consequence 
of  having  broken  both  arms  he  was  compelled  to 
make  a  shake  upon  the  lute  in  an  irregular  man- 
ner ;  that  he  invented  a  'table  organ'  (described 
in  his  book,  with  an  engraving)  to  accompany  a 
'  consort  of  viols ' ;  that  in  consequence  of  par- 
tial deafness  rendering  the  soft  tones  of  the  lute 
inaudible  to  him,  he  in  1672  invented  a  lute  of 
50  strings,  which  he  termed  the  Dyphone,  or 
Double  Lute;  that  he  had  a  family,  and  that  his 
youngest  son,  John,  learned  in  1672  to  play  well 
upon  the  lute  almost  solely  by  the  perusal  of  the 
MS.  of  his  book  [see  Immtns,  John]  ;  that  the 
writing  of  the  work  was  not  commenced  until 
after  Christmas,  167 1,  and  it  was  licensed  for 
publication  May  5,  1675  ;  and  lastly  that  owing 
to  his  increased  deafness,  which  we  may  pre- 
sume prevented  him  pursuing  his  profession, 
he  was  in  somewhat  straitened  circumstances. 
Hawkins  asserts  that  Mace  was  bom  in  161 3, 
evidently  arriving  at  that  conclusion  from  the 
inscription  beneath  the  portrait  (engraved  by 
Faithorne  after  Cooke)  prefixed  to  his  book, 
'  Mi&t.  suae.  63.'  But  it  is  probable  that  the 
portrait  was  painted  at  an  earlier  date  than  the 
year  of  publication.  The  date  of  his  death  is 
not  known.  [W.H.H.] 

MACFARREN,  George  Alexander,  Mus. 
Doc.,  son  of  George  Macfarren,  dramatist,  was 
born  in  London,  March  2,  1813.  In  early  life 
he  displayed  partiality  for  music,  but  did  not 
regularly  commence  its  study  until  1827,  when 


186 


MACFARREN. 


he  became  a  pupil  of  Charles  Lucas.  In  1829 
he  entered  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  and 
made  composition  his  principal  study,  learning 
also  the  pianoforte  and  trombone;  and  in  1834 
he  was  appointed  one  of  its  professors.  On  Oct. 
27,  1834,  he  produced  at  the  Society  of  British 
Musicians  his  first  important  work,  a  Symphony 
in  F  minor,  and  in  1836  his  fine  Overture  '  Chevy 
Chase.'  In  August  1838  his  'Devil's  Opera,' 
produced  at  the  English  Opera  House,  Lyceum, 
at  once  drew  public  attention  to  him.  In  1 840 
he  produced  at  Drury  Lane  an  'Emblematical 
Tribute  on  the  Queen's  Marriage,'  and  also 
edited,  for  the  Musical  Antiquarian  Society,  Pur- 
cell's  opera  'Dido  and  ^Eneas.'  In  1843  he 
became  secretary  of  the  Handel  Society,  for 
which  he  edited  ' Belshazzar,'  'Judas  Macca- 
beus,' and  '  Jephthah.'  In  Jan.  1845  he  directed 
the  successful  production  of  Mendelssohn's  'An- 
tigone' at  Covent  Garden  Theatre.  In  1846  his 
opera,  '  Don  Quixote,'  was  successfully  produced 
at  Drury  Lane,  and  in  1849  his  opera,  'Charles 
II.'  was  given  at  the  Princess's.  His  serenata, 
'  The  Sleeper  Awakened,'  was  brought  out  at  the 
National  Concerts  at  Her  Majesty's  theatre  in 
1 85 1,  and  in  the  same  year  he  composed  his  fine 
cantata,  '  Lenora.'  His  beautiful  cantata,  '  May 
Day,'  was  written  for  Bradford  Festival,  1856, 
and  his  cantata,  '  Christmas,'  was  composed  in 
1859.  He  then  resumed  the  composition  of 
opera,  and  brought  out  '  Robin  Hood '  at  Her 
Majesty's  Theatre  in  i860,  with  great  success. 
This  was  followed  by  'Freya's  Gift,'  masque, 
and  'Jessy  Lea,'  opera,  1863;  'She  stoops  to 
conquer,'  'The  Soldier's  Legacy,'  and  'Hel- 
vellyn,'  operas,  1864.  Dr.  Macfarren's  vision 
had  at  a  comparatively  early  age  become  im- 
paired ;  the  malady  increased  year  by  year, 
until  it  terminated  in  total  blindness.  But  this 
calamity  did  not  diminish  his  exertions;  and 
with  extraordinary  energy  he  continued  to  per- 
form his  duties  as  a  professor  at  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music,  and  to  compose,  dictating 
his  compositions  to  an  amanuensis.  On  Oct.  23, 
1873,  his  oratorio,  'St.  John  the  Baptist,'  was 
produced  at  the  Bristol  Festival  with  marked 
success.  On  March  16,  1875,  he  was  elected 
Professor  of  Music  at  Cambridge  on  the  death 
of  Sterndale  Bennett,  and  has  greatly  distin- 
guished himself  by  the  manner  in  which  he 
has  performed  the  duties  of  the  office.  In  April 
following  he  accumulated  the  degrees  of  Bachelor 
and  Doctor  of  Music.  About  the  same  time  he 
was  appointed  Principal  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Music.  '  The  Resurrection,'  oratorio,  was  pro- 
duced at  Birmingham  Festival  in  1876,  'Joseph,' 
oratorio,  at  Leeds  Festival  in  1877;  and  'The 
Lady  of  the  Lake,'  a  cantata,  at  Glasgow,  on 
Nov.  15,  1877.  Besides  the  before-mentioned 
works  Dr.  Macfarren's  compositions  are  very 
numerous;  they  include  a  cathedral  service, 
anthems,  chants  and  psalm  tunes,  and  '  Tntroits 
for  the  Holy  Days  and  Seasons  of  the  English 
Church,'  1866;  'Songs  in  a  Cornfield,'  1868; 
'Shakspere  Songs  for  4  voices,'  1860-4;  Songs 
from  Lane's  '  Arabian  Nights,'  and  Kingsley's 


MACICOTATICUM. 

and  Tennyson's  poems ;  very  many  songs,  duets, 
etc.,  overtures  to  'The  Merchant  of  Venice,' 
'  Romeo  and  Juliet,'  '  Hamlet,'  '  Chevy  Chase ' 
(already  mentioned),  and  'Don  Carlos';  sym- 
phonies, string  quartets  and  a  quintet ;  a  con- 
certo for  violin  and  orchestra ;  and  sonatas  for 
pianoforte  alone  and  in  combination  with  other 
instruments.  He  harmonised  the  airs  in  Chap- 
pell's  '  Popular  Music  of  the  Olden  Time,'  and 
arranged  '  Moore's  Irish  Melodies,'  1859,  and 
Scotch  Songs.  He  has  also  appeared  as  a  writer 
on  music  and  music  critic,  having  produced 
'  Rudiments  of  Harmony,'  1 860,  and  '  Six  Lec- 
tures on  Harmony,'  1867  ;  Analyses  of  oratorios 
etc.,  for  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society,  1853-7; 
and  of  orchestral  works  for  the  programme 
books  of  the  Philharmonic  Society,  1869-71  ; 
also  many  articles  in  '  The  Musical  World,'  and 
lives  of  musicians  for  the  '  Imperial  Dictionary 
of  Universal  Biography.'  He  has  lectured  at 
the  Royal  and  London  Institutions.  As  Pro- 
fessor at  Cambridge  and  Principal  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music,  Dr.  Macfarren  stands  at  the 
head  of  English  musicians.  He  shares  with 
Sterndale  Bennett  and  Sullivan  the  rare  dis- 
tinction, for  an  Englishman,  of  having  had  his 
works  performed  at  the  Gewandhaus  Concerts 
of  Leipzig  and  elsewhere  in  Germany.  His 
industry  and  fertility  under  the  greatest  draw- 
backs are  marvellous.  His  great  kindness,  and 
his  readiness  to  communicate  his  vast  knowledge 
and  the  stores  of  his  capacious  and  retentive 
memory  to  all  who  require  them,  are  well  known, 
and  have  endeared  him  to  a  large  circle  of  friends 
and  admirers. 

Natalia  Macfarren,  his  wife,  contralto 
singer  and  able  teacher,  is  also  well  known  by 
her  translations  of  opera  libretti  and  other 
works. 

Walter  Cecil  Macfarren,  his  brother,  born 
Aug.  28,  1826,  chorister  of  Westminster  Abbey 
under  James  Turle  from  1836  to  1841,  and  pupil 
of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music  from  1842  to 
1846,  studied  the  pianoforte  under  W.  H.  Holmes, 
and  composition  under  his  brother,  G.  A.  Mac- 
farren, and  Cipriani  Potter.  He  was  appointed 
a  professor  at  the  Academy  in  1846  and  con- 
ductor of  its  concerts  in  1873.  He  was  elected 
a  director  of  the  Philharmonic  Society  in  1 868 
and  its  treasurer  in  1876.  He  has  composed  2 
Church  Services  and  a  number  of  chants  and 
hymn  tunes;  overtures,  'Beppo,'  'A  Winter's 
Tale,'  '  Hero  and  Leander,'  and  '  Pastoral ' ;  a 
pianoforte  concerto ;  sonatas  for  pianoforte  alone 
and  in  combination  with  other  instruments ; 
songs  both  sacred  and  secular ;  many  madrigals 
and  part-songs ;  and  numerous  pieces  of  all 
kinds  for  pianoforte.  He  has  edited  Mozart's 
pianoforte  works,  Beethoven's  sonatas,  and  the 
extensive  series  of  pianoforte  pieces  known  as 
« Popular  Classics.'  [W.  H.  H.] 

MACICOTATICUM  or  MACHICOTAGE. 
A  species  of  ornamentation,  applied  to  Plain 
Chaunt  melodies,  by  means  of  extraneous  notes  in- 
serted between  those  of  the  true  Canto  fermo,  after 
the  manner  of  what,  in  modern  music,  would  be 


MAC1C0TATICUM. 

called  fioritura.  To  the  once  prevalent  custom 
of  Machicotage  in  France  are  to  be  attributed  many 
of  the  corruptions  observable  in  Gallican  Office 
Books  before  the  late  careful  revisions.  The 
Procmionale  Parisiense  (Paris  1787)  directs  that 
the  melodies  shall  be  machicotee  by  the  Clergy, 
and  continued  by  the  Choir  '  sine  macicotatico  ' : 
and,  in  former  times,  the  Ecclesiastics  entrusted 
with  the  duty  of  so  singing  them,  were  called 
Maceconici,  or  Machicots.  [W.S.R.] 

MACKENZIE,  Alexander  Campbell,  son 
of  a  favourite  Edinburgh  musician,  was  born  in 
Edinburgh,  1847,  was  sent  to  Germany  at  the  age 
of  10  to  study  music  at  Schwarzburg-Sonders- 
hausen  under  IJlrich  Eduard  Stein.  He  entered 
the  ducal  orchestra  as  violinist  at  the  age  of  14, 
and  remained  in  Germany  until  1862,  when  he 
came  to  London  in  order  to  Btudy  the  violin  under 
M.  Sainton,  and  was  elected  King's  Scholar  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Music  in  1862. 

In  1865  he  returned  to  Edinburgh,  established 
a  position  as  pianoforte  teacher,  and  has  since 
remained  in  Scotland,  with  the  view  of  devoting 
himself  entirely  to  composition.  His  principal 
works  are  '  Cervantes,  an  overture  for  orchestra ' ; 
a  Scherzo  for  ditto ;  Overture  to  a  Comedy  ;  a 
String  Quintet,  and  many  other  pieces  in  MS. ; 
Pianoforte  Quartet  in  Bb  (Leipzig,  Kahnt), 
op.  11 ;  Trois  Morceaux  pour  Piano,  op.  15  ;  two 
Songs,  op.  1 2  ;  besides  songs,  part-songs,  anthems, 
and  pieces  for  the  piano.  [G.] 

MACKINTOSH,  John,  born  1767,  an  emi- 
nent performer  on  the  bassoon,  who  from  1 821  to 
1835  held  the  first  place  in  all  the  principal 
London  and  provincial  orchestras.  He  produced 
a  full,  rich,  and  powerful,  but  somewhat  coarse, 
tone.  He  is  believed  to  have  died  in  1840.  His 
son  Alphonso  was  a  violinist.  [W.  H.  H.] 

M°MURDIE,  Joseph,  Mus.  Bac.,  born  in 
1792  in  the  parish  of  St.  Bride,  London,  gradu- 
ated at  Oxford  in  1 8 1 4.  He  composed  many  glees 
(principally  for  the  Concentores  Sodales)  and 
songs,  and  made  numerous  arrangements  for  the 
pianoforte.  He  was  for  some  time  a  director  of 
the  Philharmonic  Society.  He  died  at  Merton, 
Surrey,  Dec.  23,  1878.  [W.H.H.] 

MACON,  LE.  Op^ra-comique  in  3  acts ;  words 
by  Scribe  and  Delavigne,  music  by  Auber.  Pro- 
duced at  the  Opera  Comique,  May  3,  1825 ;  in 
England  at  St.  James's,  March  13, 1850.       [G.] 

MADRIGAL  (Ital.  MadrigaU,  Madriale, 
Mandriale).  The  derivation  of  the  word,  Madri- 
gal, has  so  hopelessly  perplexed  all  who  have 
attempted  to  trace  it  to  its  source,  that,  until 
some  new  light  shall  be  thrown  upon  the  subject, 
further  discussion  would  seem  to  be  useless.  We 
must,  therefore,  leave  our  readers  to  form  their 
own  judgment  upon  the  four  theories  which  have 
been  most  generally  accepted:  namely,  (1)  that 
the  word  is  derived  from  the  Italian,  madre, 
(mother),  and  signifies  a  Poem,  addressed — as  is 
Baid  to  have  been  the  case  with  the  first  Madri- 
gals— to  Our  Lady;  (2)  that  it  comes  from  the 
Greek  word,  fiavSpa,  (Lat.  and  Ital.  mandra,  a 


MADRIGAL. 


1ST 


sheep-fold),  and  was  suggested  by  the  generally 
pastoral  character  of  the  composition ;  (3)  that 
it  is  a  corruption  of  the  Spanish  word,  madru~ 
gada,  (the  dawn),  and  is  used,  in  Italian 
as  the  equivalent  of  Mattinata,  (a  Morning 
Song)  ;  (4)  that  it  owes  its  origin  to  the  name  of 
a  town  situated  in  a  delightful  valley  in  Old 
Castile.  On  one  point,  however,  all  authorities 
are  agreed :  viz.  that  the  name  was  first  given  to 
a  certain  kind  of  Poem,  and  afterwards  trans- 
ferred to  the  music  to  which  it  was  sung — which 
music  was  always,  during  the  best  periods  of 
Art,  written  for  three  or  more  Voices,  in  the 
antient  Ecclesiastical  Modes,  and  without  in- 
strumental accompaniment. 

Our  actual  knowledge  of  the  condition  of  the 
Madrigal,  before  the  invention  of  printing,  is 
sadly  imperfect :  but,  in  the  absence  of  positive 
evidence,  analogy  leaves  us  little  cause  to  doubt 
that  its  earlier  phases  must  have  corresponded, 
as  closely  as  we  know  its  later  ones  to  have  done, 
with  those  of  the  Motet — for,  the  application  of 
Discant  to  Ssecular  Melody  must  have  suggested 
the  one  no  less  surely  than  its  association  with 
Plain  Chaunt  gave  birth  to  the  other.  The 
originators  of  this  process  were,  in  all  probability, 
the  Troubadours,  and  Minnesingers,  who  so 
strongly  influenced  the  progress  of  popular  music 
in  the  Middle  Ages  :  and  there  is  reason  to  be- 
lieve that  the  rarity  of  early  MS.  records  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  they  were  accustomed  to  sing 
their  Discant  extempore— or,  as  it  was  formerly 
called,  alia  made.  But,  long  before  this  first 
glimmering  of  Science  resulted  in  the  invention 
of  Counterpoint,  the  'Age  of  Chivalry  had  passed 
away,  and  the  Minstrels,  as  a  corporate  body, 
had  ceased  to  exist.  Hence,  the  farther  develop- 
ment of  the  Madrigal  devolved  upon  the  Eccle- 
siastical Musicians,  who  cherished  it  tenderly, 
and  brought  all  the  resources  of  their  Art  to 
bear  upon  it ;  treating  it,  technically,  exactly  as 
they  treated  their  compositions  for  the  Church, 
though,  in  the  aesthetic  character  of  the  two 
styles — founded  on  an  instinctive  perception  of 
the  contrast  between  Sacred  and  Profane  Poetry 
— they  observed  a  marked  difference.  This  we 
may  readily  understand,  from  the  description  left 
us  by  Thomas  Morley,  who,  writing  in  1597, 
tells  us,  that,  'As  for  the  Musicke,  it  is  next 
unto  the  Motet,  the  most  artificiall  and  to  men 
of  Vnderstanding  the  most  delightfull.  If  there- 
fore you  will  compose  in  this  Kind  you  must 
possesse  your  selfe  with  an  amorus  humor  (for  in 
no  coposition  shall  you  proQe  admirable  except 
you  put  on,  and  possesse  your  selfe  wholy  with 
that  vaine  wherein  you  compose)  so  that  you 
must  in  your  Musicke  be  wauering  like  the  wind, 
sometime  wanton,  sometime  drooping,  sometime 
graue  and  staide,  otherwhile  effeminat,  you  may 
maintaine  points  and  reuert  them,  vse  triplaes, 
and  shew  the  uttermost  of  your  varietie,  and  the 
more  varietie  you  show  the  better  shall  you 
please.'  In  the  16th  century,  these  directions 
were  observed  to  the  letter — so  closely,  that  it 
would  be  difficult  to  give  a  more  graphic  sketch 
of  Polyphonic  Music,  in  its  ssecular  dress,  than- 


188 


MADRIGAL. 


that  conveyed  by  Master  Morley's  quaint  ex- 
pressions. 

The  most  antient  specimen  of  saecular  Poly- 
phonic Music  now  known  to  exist  is  the  famous 
■Canon,  '  Sumer  is  i  cumen  in,'  preserved,  among 
the  Harleian  MSS.,  in  the  British  Museum.  No 
clue  can  be  obtained  as  to  the  authorship  of  this 
ingenious  composition;  nor  has  its  exact  date 
ever  been  satisfactorily  demonstrated,  though  Dr. 
Burney — who,  in  the  second  volume  of  his  Mu- 
sical History,  has  printed  it,  not  only  in  its  ori- 
ginal notation,  but,  also,  in  the  form  of  a  detailed 
eolution,  scored  for  six  voices — ventures  to  say 
that  he  '  can  hardly  imagine  it  to  be  much  more 
modern*  than  the  13th  or  14th  century.  Its 
extreme  antiquity  is,  indeed,  indisputable :  but 
it  can  scarcely  be  called  a  Madrigal,  notwith- 
standing the  rustic  character  of  its  words.  The 
true  Madrigal  is  unquestionably  the  offspring  of 
the  great  Flemish  School.  We  hear  of  it,  in  the 
Low  Countries,  as  early,  at  least,  as  the  middle 
of  the  15th  century,  when  it  was  already  well 
known  to  the  Netherlanders,  in  the  form  of  a 
Polyphonic  Song,  often  of  very  elaborate  con- 
struction, and  always  written  in  strict  conformity 
with  the  laws  of  the  old  Church  Modes.  These 
characteristics — which  it  retained,  to  the  last,  in 
all  countries,  and  through  all  scholastic  changes — 
are  unmistakeable  signs  of  its  close  relationship 
to  the  Motet,  of  which  we  have  also  ample  proof, 
in  the  certainty  that  it  originated  in  Counter- 
point on  a  Canto  fermo.  As  a  general  rule,  this 
Canto  fermo  was  naturally  supplied  by  the  melody 
of  some  popular  Chanson  :  but,  just  as  we  some- 
times find  a  popular  melody  intruding  itself  into 
the  Mass,  so,  in  these  early  Madrigals,  we  are 
■occasionally  startled  by  the  apparition  of  some 
well-known  fragment  of  severe  Ecclesiastical 
Plain  Chaunt ;  as  in  Agricola's  Belle  swr  toutes, 
in  which  the  lighter  theme  is  almost  profanely 
contrasted  with  that  of  Tota  pulckra  es,  Maria — 
a  combination  which  Ambros  naively  compares 
to  the  Song  of  a  pair  of  Lovers,  who  quietly 
carry  on  their  discourse,  in  the  two  upper  parts, 
while  a  holy  Monk  lectures  them  in  the  Bass. 

For  the  earliest  published  copies  of  these  in- 
teresting works,  we  are  indebted  to  Ottaviano 
<lei  Petrucci — the  inventor  of  the  process  by 
which  music  was  first  printed  from  movable 
types — whose  three  collections,  entitled  '  Har- 
wonice  musices  Odhecaton.  A.'  (Venice  1501), 
'Canti  B  numero  Cinquanta  B'  (ib.  1501),  and 
'  Canti  C  no.  cento  cinquanta  C  (ib.  1503),  were 
long  supposed  to  be  lost,  and  now  only  exist  in 
the  form  of  unique  copies  of  the  first,  and  second, 
preserved  in  the  Library  of  the  Liceo  Filarmonico, 
at  Bologna,  and  a  splendidly  bound  exemplar  of 
the  third,  in  the  Hofbibliothek  at  Vienna.  In 
these  precious  volumes  we  find  a  copious  selec- 
tion from  the  saecular  works  of  Busnois,  Oken- 
heim,  Johannes  Tinctor,  Hobrecht,  Regis,  Caron, 
Josquin  des  Pres,  Alexander  Agricola,  Brumel, 
Pierre  de  la  Rue,  and  twenty-nine  other  writers, 
whose  Chansons  illustrate  the  First  Period  in  the 
history  of  the  Flemish  Madrigal — a  period  no 
less  interesting  than  instructive  to  the  critical 


MADRIGAL. 

student,  for  it  is  here  that  we  first  find  Science, 
and  Popular  Melody,  working  together  for  a 
common  end. 

The  Second  Period,  though  its  printed  records 
date  only  thirty-five  years  later,  shews  an  im- 
mense advance  in  Art.  Its  leading  spirits, 
Jacques  Archadelt,  Philipp  Verdelot,  Giaches 
de  Wert,  Huberto  Waelrant,  and  some  other 
writers  of  their  School,  were  not  only  accom- 
plished contrapuntists,  but  had  all  learned  the 
difficult  art  of  restraining  their  ingenuity  within 
due  bounds,  when  simplicity  of  treatment  was 
demanded  by  the  character  of  the  words  they 
selected  for  their  theme.  Hence,  they  have  left 
us  works,  which,  for  purity  of  style,  and  graceful 
flow  of  melody,  can  scarcely  be  exceeded.  Archa- 
delt, though  a  true  Fleming  by  taste  and  educa- 
tion, as  well  as  by  birth,  spent  much  of  his  time 
in  Italy ;  and  published  his  First  Book  of  Madri- 
gals at  Venice,  in  1538,  with  such  success,  that, 
within  eighty  years  it  ran  through  no  less  than 
sixteen  editions.  Five  other  books  followed, 
containing,  besides  his  own  works,  a  number  by 
other  celebrated  writers,  among  whom,  however, 
he  stands  his  ground  nobly.  From  a  copy  of  the 
fourth  edition  of  the  First  Book,  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum,  we  transcribe  a  few  bars  of  one 
of  the  loveliest  Madrigals  he  ever  wrote — II 
bianco  e  dolce  cigno — which,  we  should  imagine, 
needs  only  publication  in  an  attainable  form,  in 
order  to  become  a  favourite  with  every  Madrigal 
Society  in  England.1 


i^i^Fr^fPP 


3^ 


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1  The  only  modern  edition  with  which  we  are  acquainted  is  trans- 
posed a  third,  and  adapted  to  English  words  in  which  no  translation 
of  the  original  Italian  is  attempted  ;  consequently,  the  Music,  and  the 
Poetry,  are  at  cross  purposes,  from  beginning  to  end. 


MADKIGAL. 

The  few  concluding  bars  of  this  contain  some 
imitations  the  smoothness  of  which  is  perfectly 
delicious : — 

Di     mil  -  le 


MADKIGAL. 


18> 


Hi     mil  -  le    morf  il     di 
mort   11       di     sa  -  rei    con    -    -  ten  -  to. 


3^5=t3 


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sa   -    -    rei    con  -  ten     -    -     to. 

Though  a  far  less  prolific  writer  than  Archa- 
delt,  Waelrant  was  a  true  genius,  and  a  true 
disciple  of  the  good  old  Flemish  School.  His 
'  Symphonia  Angelica,'  printed,  at  Antwerp,  in 
1594,  contains  compositions  by  some  of  the  best 
of  his  contemporaries ;  but,  none  more  beautiful 
than  his  own  Vorrei  morire — well-known,  in 
England,  and  frequently  sung,  as  •  Hard  by  a 
fountain,'  though  the  English  words  make  no 
attempt  to  convey  the  meaning  of  the  original 
Italian.  Of  Verdelot's  numerous  works,  very 
few,  unhappily,  have  been  handed  down  to  us 
with  all  the  parts  complete :  we  possess,  how- 
ever, quite  enough  of  his  writings  to  prove,  that, 
like  his  great  contemporary,  Giaches  de  Wert, 
he  was  deeply  imbued  with  the  national  style ; 
which,  from  first  to  last,  was  clear  in  its  con- 
struction, smooth  in  its  flow  of  melody,  euphoni- 
ous in  its  harmonic  combinations,  and,  though 
less  rich  in  contrapuntal  embroidery  than  the 
later  Italian  Schools,  never  wanting  either  in 
interest,  or  in  animation.  The  last  great  Com- 
poser by  whom  this  peculiar  style  was  cultivated, 
in  Northern  Europe,  was  Orlando  di  Lasso, 
who,  though  his  fame  rests  chiefly  upon  his 
Ecclesiastical  Music,  has  left  us  many  books  of 
splendid  Madrigals,  which  may  almost  be  said 
to  form,  of  themselves,  a  Third  Period.  With 
him,  the  School  of  the  Netherlands  came  to  an 
end.  But,  long  before  his  death,  the  Madrigal 
had  been  transplanted  to  other  countries  :  and, 
in  Italy,  especially,  it  took  firm  root,  and  bore 
abundant  fruit. 

The  first  really  great  Italian  Madrigal-writer 
was  Costanzo  Festa,  whose  delicious  Quando  ri- 
troyo  la  mia  pastorella,  printed  in  Archadelt's 
Third  Book,  has  enjoyed  a  greater  degree  of 
popularity,  in  England,  under  its  familiar  title, 
'  Down  in  a  flowery  vale,'  than  any  other  work 
of  the  kind  that  ever  was  imported  hither.1 
This  fine  composition  bears  evident  traces  of  the 
Flemish  manner;  as  do,  more  or  less,  all  the 

1  In  the  English  edition— admirably  translated  bj  Thomas  Oli- 
phant  — the  time  of  the  movement  has  been  very  unjustifiably 
changed,  from  four  minims,  to  four  crotchets  in  a  measure. 


works  belonging  to  what  maybe  called  the  First 
Roman  Period.  In  the  Second  Period,  this 
foreign  influence  was  entirely  destroyed,  and  the 
true  Roman  style  inaugurated,  by  the  appearance 
of  Palestrina's  Primo  libro  di  Madrigali  a  guat- 
tro  voci,  in  1555,  followed  by  a  Libro  secondo, 
in  1586,  and  two  books  of  Madrigali  spirituali, 
in  1581,  and  1594 — the  year  of  the  great  Com- 
poser's death.  It  may  be  well  said,  that,  in 
these  four  volumes,  Palestrina  has  shewn  his 
command  over  all  styles.  The  character  of  the 
Madrigali  spirituali — more  serious  than  that  of 
the  Chanson,  but  less  so  than  that  of  the  Motet — 
shews  a  deep  appreciation  of  the  difference  which 
should  always  subsist  between  ordinary  Sacred 
Music,  and  Music  intended  to  be  actually  used 
in  the  Services  of  the  Church.  The  spirit  of  the 
saecular  Madrigals  changes,  every  moment,  with 
the  sense  of  the  words.  The  second  volume, 
(that  of  1586,)  contains  a  more  than  usually 
beautiful  example — A  lla  riva  del  Tebro — in  which 
the  grief  of  a  despairing  Lover  is  described  in 
discords  as  harsh  as  any  that  we  are  accustomed 
to  hear  in  the  works  of  the  most  modern  Com- 
posers for  the  Lyric  Stage.  Yet,  every  one  of 
these  discords  is  prepared,  and  resolved,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  strictest  laws  of  Counterpoint : 
and  these  very  laws  are  used  as  vehicles  for  the 
expression  of  all  that  music  can  ever  be  made  to 
express.  For  instance,  the  lovely  Cadence  at  the 
word, morte,  when  sung  with  the  necessary  ritard- 
ando,  tells,  more  plainly  than  any  verbal  expla- 
nation could  possibly  have  done,  how  all  such 
woes  as  those  alluded  to  are  healed,  for  ever,  by 
death : — 


del   -  la  mia a-cer  -bit    re    - 


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Such  works  as  these  naturally  excited  the 
emulation  of  contemporary  Composers ;  and  led 
each  one  to  do  his  best  for  the  advancement  of  a 
style,  so  new  and  captivating.  Palestrina's  ex- 
ample was  worthily  imitated  by  his  successor  in 
office,  Felice  Anerio,  whose  three  volumes  of 
Madrigali  spirituali,  printed  at  Rome,  in  1585, 


190 


MADRIGAL. 


were  succeeded  by  two  books  of  saecular  Madri- 
gals of  exquisite  beauty,  and  a  charming  set  of 
Canzonette,  for  three  and  four  Voices,  issued  in 
1603.  Francesco  Anerio,  and  the  brothers,  Gio- 
vanni Maria,  and  Bernardino  Nanini,  contributed 
a  large  store  of  volumes  of  equal  merit.  Rug- 
gero  Giovanelli  turned  his  genius  to  good  account : 
and  the  Roman  School,  now  in  its  highest  state 
of  perfection,  boasted  many  other  Madrigalists 
of  superlative  excellence.  Foremost  among  these 
*tood  Luca  Marenzio,  who  devoted  his  best  ener- 
gies to  the  advancement  of  saecular  Art;  pro- 
ducing nine  books  of  Madrigals  for  five  Voices, 
between  the  years  1580  and  1589,  six,  for  six 
Voices,  within  a  very  few  years  afterwards,  and 
many  later  ones,  all  of  which  were  so  well  ap- 
preciated, that,  even  during  his  lifetime,  he  was 
honoured  with  the  well-earned  title  of  II  piii 
dolce  Cigno  d Italia.  The  style  of  this '  Sweetest 
Swan'  was,  by  nature,  a  little  less  grave  than 
that  of  Palestrina  :  but,  like  that  great  Master, 
he  possessed  the  happy  faculty  of  accommodating 
it  to  all  possible  circumstances,  and  did  so  with 
such  unvarying  success,  that  he  may  be  justly 
regarded  as  the  most  satisfactory  representative 
of  the  Third  Roman  Period.  His  little  Madri- 
gal, Vezzosi  augelli,  scored,  by  P.  Martini,  in  the 
second  volume  of  his  Saggio  di  Contrappunto, 
is  a  miracle  of  prettiness,  and  contrasts  strangely 
enough  with  the  deep  sadness  displayed  in  the 
opening  bars  of  his  AM  !  dispietata  morte  I 


AM!  dispietata  morte ! 


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But  it  was  not  in  Rome  alone  that  the  Madri- 
gal was  cultivated  with  success.  It  found  an 
equally  congenial  home  in  Venice,  where  it  was 
first  introduced  by  Adrian  Willaert,  who,  though 


MADRIGAL. 

by  birth  and  education  a  Fleming,  did  so  much 
for  the  City  of  his  adoption  that  he  is  universally 
represented  as  the  Founder  of  the  great  Venetian 
School.  His  influence,  and  that  of  his  country- 
man, and  faithful  disciple,  Cipriano  di  Rore,  may 
be  traced  throughout  its  entire  course,  from  be- 
ginning to  end.  Even  in  the  works  of  Giovanni 
Croce  it  is  clearly  perceptible,  notwithstanding 
the  marked  individuality  which  places  the  stamp 
of  independent  genius  on  everything  he  wrote. 
Andrea  Gabrieli,  and  his  nephew,  Giovanni,  Fra 
Costanzo  Porta,  and  Orazio  Vecchi,  were  all 
deeply  imbued  with  the  same  spirit ;  Hans  Leo 
Hasler  carried  it  to  Nuremberg,  where  it  wrought 
a  good  and  lasting  work ;  and  Gastoldi — be- 
lieved, by  Morley,  to  have  been  the  inventor  of 
the  '  Fa  la ' — was,  really,  no  more  than  the  ex- 
ponent of  an  idea  which  had  already  been  freely 
used  by  Willaert,  and  more  than  one  of  his 
immediate  followers.  It  may,  in  truth,  be  said, 
that  Flemish  Art  failed  to  attain  its  full  matu- 
rity, until  it  was  transplanted  from  the  Nether- 
lands to  Venice.  All  honour  to  the  great  Re- 
public for  developing  its  rich  resources.  It  was 
a  glorious  trust  committed  to  her ;  and  she  ful- 
filled it  nobly. 

In  Florence,  the  Madrigal  attained  a  high 
degree  of  popularity — at  first,  in  the  form  of  the 
Frottola,  which,  Cerone  tells  us,  is  to  be  distin- 
guished from  the  true  Madrigal  by  the  poverty 
of  its  contrapuntal  artifices — afterwards,  in  the 
more  fully  developed  productions  of  Franceso 
Corteccia,  Matteo  Rampollini,  Pietro'Masacconi, 
and  Baccio  Moschini.  But  its  course,  here,  was 
brought  to  an  untimely  close,  by  a  growing 
passion  for  instrumental  accompaniment  which 
entirely  destroyed  the  old  Florentine  love  for 
pure  vocal  music.  In  Naples,  it  flourished  bril- 
liantly ;  though  rather  in  the  shape  of  the  Villan- 
ella — the  Neapolitan  equivalent  of  Gastoldi's 
Fa  la — than  in  a  more  serious  guise.  In  France, 
it  was  but  slightly  prized,  notwithstanding  the 
number  of  Chansons  adapted,  by  the  early 
Netherlanders,  to  well  -  known  specimens  of 
French  popular  poetry :  and,  in  Germany,  it 
failed  to  supplant  the  national  taste  for  the 
Volkslied,  with  which  it  had  very  little  in  com- 
mon, and  which,  before  the  middle  of  the  16th 
century,  was  itself  pressed  into  the  service  of  the 
all-absorbing  Chorale.  But,  in  England,  it  took 
root  as  firmly  as  ever  it  had  done,  either  in 
Rome,  or  in  Venice,  and  gave  rise  to  a  national 
School  which  is  well  able  to  hold  it  own  against 
any  rival.  The  old  Canon,  'Sumer  is  i  cumen 
in,'  has  been  cited  as  a  proof  that  Polyphonic 
Music  originated  in  England.  This  position  can- 
not be  maintained.  The  beginnings  of  Counter- 
point have,  hitherto,  eluded  all  enquiry.  But,  we 
have  already  shewn  that  the  Madrigal  was  in- 
vented in  the  Netherlands ;  and,  that  the  first 
published  fruits  of  its  discovery  were  issued,  at 
Venice,  in  1501.  The  first  Polyphonic  Songs 
that  appeared  in  England  were  printed,  by  Wyn- 
kyn  de  VVorde,  in  1530,  in  a  volume  of  the 
existence  of  which  neither  Burney  nor  Hawkins 
seem  to  have  been  aware,  though  it  contains  a 


MADRIGAL. 

highly  interesting  collection  of  works,  both  sacred, 
and  ssecular,  by  Taverner,  and  other  English 
Composers.  No  second  collection  appeared,  till 
1 5  71,  when  a  volume,  of  much  inferior  merit,  was 
printed,  for  Thomas  Whythorne,  by  John  Daye. 
In  1588,  William  Byrd  issued  his  first  book  of 
'Psalmes,  Sonets,  and  Songs  of  sadnes  and  pietie': 
and,  in  the  same  year,  Nicholas  Yonge — a  mer- 
chant, who  obtained  a  rich  store  of  Madrigals 
from  his  Italian  correspondents — published,  under 
the  title  of  Mimca  Transalpine,,  a  volume  con- 
taining more  than  fifty  pieces,  selected  from  the 
works  of  Noe  Faigneant,  Rinaldo  del  Mel,  Gia- 
ches  de  Wert,  Cornelius  Verdonck,  Palestrina, 
Luca  Marenzio,  and  several  more  of  the  best 
Flemish  and  Italian  Composers  of  the  day.  In 
the  preface  to  this  volume,  the  word, '  Madrigal' 
is  used,  (to  the  best  of  our  belief),  for  the  first 
time,  in  England.  The  compositions  selected  by 
the  worthy  merchant  are  all  adapted  to  English 
verses,  in  which,  though  the  diction  is  some- 
times sufficiently  uncouth,  the  rhythm  and  sense 
of  the  original  Italian  are  often  carefully  imitated: 
and,  to  the  zeal  of  their  enthusiastic  collector, 
who  had  them  constantly  sung  at  his  house,  we 
are  mainly  indebted  for  the  favour  with  which, 
from  that  time  forth,  the  Madrigal  was  universally 
received  in  this  country.  Nine  years  later, 
Yonge  ventured  upon  a  second  collection.  Mean- 
while, Byrd  had  alreadypublished  another  volume 
of  original  compositions,  under  the  title  of '  Songs 
of  sundrie  natures,'  in  1 589 ;  in  1 590,  Thomas 
Watson  had  edited  a  '  Sett  of  Italian  Madrigalls 
Englished,  not  to  the  sense  of  the  originall  dittie, 
but  after  the  affection  of  the  Noate' ;  and,  between 
J593>  and  J595>  Thomas  Morley  had  produced 
two  books  of  Canzonets,  one,  of  'Madrigals  to 
foure  Voyces,'  and  one  of  Ballets.  The  number 
of  publications,  therefore,  was  increasing  rapidly. 
By  this  time,  the  Madrigal  had  fairly  esta- 
blished itself  as  a  national  institution :  and  Eng- 
lish Composers  did  all  that  in  them  lay,  to  bring 
it  to  perfection.  The  most  noted  among  them 
seemed  never  tired  of  producing  new  works. 
Simultaneously  with  Yonge's  second  collection — 
that  is,  in  1597 — appeared  two  original  sets  of 
great  importance,  one,  by  Thomas  Weelkes,  the 
other,  by  George  Kirbye.  In  the  same  year, 
Morley  issued  a  third  and  fourth  volume  of  Can- 
zonets ;  and  John  Dowland  delighted  all  Europe 
■with  his  *  First  Booke  of  Songes  or  Ayres  of  foure 
parts.'  Wilbye's  first  book  appeared  in  1598, 
and  Benet's  in  1599.  In  1601,  Morley  edited  a 
famous  volume,  entitled,  'The  Triumphes  of 
Oriana,'  containing  Madrigals,  for  five  and  six 
Voices,  by  Michael  Este,  Weelkes,  Benet,  Hilton, 
Wilbye,  and  sixteen  other  Composers,  besides 
himself.  Michael  Este  published  a  volume  of 
his  own,  in  1604,  another  in  1606,  and  a  third, 
in  1 6 10.  Bateson's  two  books  were  issued  in 
1604,  and  1 618.  Dowland's  second  book  ap- 
peared in  1600,  his  third,  in  1603,  and  his  'Pil- 
grim's Solace,'  in  161 2.  Thomas  Ford  printed 
twobooksof  'Musicke  of  sundrie  Kinds,'in  1607, 
and  Wilbye  his  second  book  in  1609 ;  Orlando 
Gibbons  produced  his  first  (and  only)  volume  of 


MADRIGAL. 


191 


'Madrigals  and  Motets,'  in  161 2  ;  and,  even  as 
late  as  1630 — exactly  a  century  after  the  publi- 
cation of  Wynkyn  de  Worde's  curious  volume — a 
book  of '  Mottects '  (all,  really,  Madrigals,  though 
with  instrumental  accompaniments  ad  libitum) 
was  given  to  the  world  by  Martin  Pierson. 

Rich  collections  of  these  rare  old  editions — 
including  many  volumes  which  we  have  not  space 
to  particularise — are  preserved  in  the  Libraries 
of  the  British  Museum,  the  Sacred  Harmonic 
Society,  and  the  Universities  of  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge :  and  many  of  the  most  popular  Madrigals 
have  been  reprinted,  in  a  modern  form,  over  and 
over  again.1  It  is  difficult  to  decide  upon  the 
comparative  merits  of  particular  works,  where 
the  general  standard  of  excellence  is  so  high,  and 
the  number  so  great.  An  endless  variety  of 
styles  is  observable,  even  to  the  most  superficial 
enquirer :  but  careful  analysis  proves  this  to  be 
rather  the  result  of  individual  feeling,  than  an 
index  to  the  prevailing  taste  at  any  given  epoch. 
The  history  of  the  School,  therefore,  must  be 
comprised,  like  our  notice  of  the  Venetian  Madri- 
gal, within  the  limits  of  a  single  Period  :  and  we 
shall  best  illustrate  it  by  selecting  a  few  typical 
works  for  separate  criticism. 

Byrd's  Madrigals  are  sometimes  constructed 
upon  a  very  elaborate  plan,  and  abound  in  points 
of  ingenious  and  delightful  imitation,  as  do  those 
of  Weelkes,  Cobbold,  and  Wilbye,  and  their  con- 
temporaries, Kirbye,  and  Bateson — witness  the 
following  beautiful  passage  from  the  last-named 
Composer's  contribution  to  'The  Triumphes  of 
Oriana ' — 

In  Heaven  lives       O  -  ri  -  a  -  na,    etc 


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i  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  so  few  modern  editors  think  it 
worth  while  to  mention  the  source  whence  their  reprints  are  derived ; 
or  even  to  give  the  original  names  of  Flemish  or  Italian  Madrigals. 
Still  more  deeply  to  be  deplored  is  the  mischievous  system  of  trans- 
position, now  so  common,  which  frequently  destroys  all  trace  of  the 
composer's  intention,  and  always  prevents  the  tyro  from  ascertaining 
the  Mode  in  which  a  given  Madrigal  Is  written.  As  Madrigals  must 
always  be  sung  without  accompaniment,  transposition,  in  the  book, 
is  wholly  unmeaning,  and  helps  no  one 


192 


MADRIGAL. 


Morley,  Hilton,  and  Michael  Este,  preferred  a 
lighter  vein,  and  produced  some  of  the  most 
delicious  Fa  las  which  remain  to  us.  Among 
those  who  affected  '  Ayres '  and  Canzonets,  John 
Dowland  incontestibly  holds  the  first  place.  His 
'  Awake,  sweet  Love,'  and  ■  Now,  Oh !  now,  I 
needs  must  part,'  are  gems  of  Art — perfect  in 
their  simplicity,  yet  no  less  masterly  in  design 
than  tender  in  expression.  Orlando  Gibbons,  and 
a  charming  Composer  of  earlier  date — Richard 
Edwardes — wrote  like  born  Netherlanders.  A 
more  interesting  comparison  than  that  between 
the  two  following  examples,  and  the  extracts 
already  given  from  Archadelt's  '  Bianco  e  dolce 
Cigno  '  can  scarcely  be  imagined. 

•  The  Silver  Swan.* 

,  w   .Orlando  Gibbons. 


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'  In  going  to  my  lonely  bed.' 

IIichakd  Edwardes  (1560). 


The  falling  out  of  faithful  friends  Ee- 


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After  the  second  decade  of  the  17th  century, 
no  work  of  any  lasting  reputation  was  produced, 
and  the  style  soon  fell  into  neglect.  "Under  the 
Stuart  Dynasty,  Polyphonic  Song  lost  much  of 
its  popularity;  and  the  Great  Rebellion  crushed 
out  all  artistic  feeling:  but  Art  lived  on;  and, 
in  due  time,  the  Madrigal,  forgotten  in  Flanders, 


MADRIGAL  SOCIETY. 

and  replaced  in  Italy  by  a  new  kind  of  Chamber 
Music  with  instrumental  accompaniment,  merged 
gradually,  in  England,  into  the  Glee — a  kind  of 
composition  cultivated  in  no  other  country,  and 
of  far  higher  aesthetic  value  than  its  German  re- 
presentative, the  Part  Song.  The  writer  who — 
no  doubt  unconsciously — helped,  more  than  any 
other,  to  prepare  the  way  for  this  great  change, 
was  Thomas  Ford,  whose  lovely  Canzonets, 
1  Since  first  I  saw  your  face,'  and  '  There  is  a 
Ladie,  sweete,  and  kind/hold  a  position  as  nearly 
as  possible  midway  between  the  Madrigal  and 
the  Glee,  breathing  all  the  spirit  of  the  one, 
while  introducing  progressions  only  permissible 
in  the  other.  It  is,  however,  worthy  of  remark — 
though  the  fact  seems,  hitherto,  to  have  escaped 
notice — that  intervals,  forbidden  by  the  strict 
laws  of  Counterpoint,  were  tolerated,  in  England, 
at  an  earlier  period  than  on  the  Continent.  Wil- 
bye  used  the  Diminished  Triad  with  a  boldness 
which  would  have  made  Anerio's  hair  stand  on 
end.  Such  licenses  as  these  once  permitted,  the 
substitution  of  modern  tonalities  for  the  Ecclesi- 
astical Modes  followed,  as  a  matter  of  course — 
and,  this  accomplished,  the  change  from  the 
Madrigal  to  the  Glee  was  complete. 

Having  traced  the  history  of  the  Madrigal 
thus  far,  it  remains  only  to  say  a  few  words  as  to 
the  manner  of  its  performance. 

It  is  absolutely  indispensable  that  it  should  be 
sung  without  any  instrumental  accompaniment 
whatever :  and,  unlike  the  Glee,  (which  is  always 
performed  by  solo  Voices,)  it  is  most  effective 
when  entrusted  to  a  moderately  full,  but  not  too 
numerous  Chorus.  Changes  of  tone,  embracing 
every  shade  of  difference  between  ff  and  ppp, 
and  introduced,  sometimes  by  the  most  delicate 
possible  gradations,  and  sometimes,  in  strongly- 
marked  contrast,  will  be  continually  demanded, 
both  by  the  character  of  the  music,  and  the  sense 
of  the  words :  and,  remembering  how  earnestly 
Morley  insists  upon  'varietie,'  the  student  will 
be  prepared  to  learn  that  ritardandi  and  acceler- 
andi  will  be  scarcely  less  frequently  brought  into 
requisition.  Nevertheless,  strict  mechanical  pre- 
cision must  be  secured,  at  any  cost.  The  slight- 
est uncertainty,  either  of  intonation,  or  of  rhythm, 
will  suffice  to  ruin  everything  ;  and,  to  draw  the 
line  fairly,  between  intensity  of  expression,  and 
technical  perfection,  is  not  always  an  easy  matter. 
There  is,  indeed,  only  one  way  of  overcoming 
the  difficulty.  To  imagine  Damon  regulating 
his  love-lorn  ditty  by  the  tick  of  a  metronome 
would  be  absurd.  The  place  of  the  metronome, 
therefore,  must  be  supplied  by  a  Conductor, 
capable  of  fully  sympathising,  either  with  Damon's 
woes,  or  Daphne's  fond  delights,  but  wholly  in- 
capable of  shewing  the  least  indulgence  to  his 
Singers,  who  must  learn  to  obey  the  rise  and  fall 
of  his  bdton,  though  it  move  but  a  hair's  breadth 
in  either  direction.  [W.  S.  R.] 

MADRIGAL  SOCIETY.  Founded  in  1741 
by  John  Immyns,  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Ancient  Music,  the  Madrigal  Society  enjoys  the 
distinction  of  being  the  oldest  musical  association 
in  Europe.     Its  first  meetings  were  held  at  the 


MADRIGAL  SOCIETY. 

Twelve  Bells  in  Bride  Lane,  whence  it  removed 
to  the  Anchor  and  Crown,  Whitefriars,  as  proved 
by  the  earliest  minute-book  in  the  Society's 
library,  dated  1744.  In  1745  the  Society  re- 
moved to  the  Founders'  Arms,  Lothbury,  where 
rules  were  adopted  limiting  the  number,  of  mem- 
bers to  sixteen,  with  an  admission  fee  of  8s.  and 
a  subscription  of  3s.  per  quarter.  Having  re- 
turned for  a  time  to  the  Twelve  Bells,  its  original 
home,  the  Society  afterwards  migrated  to  the 
Queen's  Arms,  Newgate  Street,  in  1748,  when 
the  rules  were  revised.  One  rule  enacted  '  That 
all  musical  performances  shall  cease  at  half  an 
hour  after  ten  o'clock,  unless  some  of  the  mem- 
bers shall  be  cheerfully  incited  to  sing  catches, 
in  which  case  they  shall  be  indulged  half  an 
hour,  and  no  longer.'  Numerous  fines  were  im- 
posed for  such  offences  as  the  retention  of  books 
from  the  Society's  library ;  and  any  member  eat- 
ing his  supper,  or  a  part  thereof,  during  practice 
time  was  to  forfeit  sixpence,  to  be  applied  to 
buying  ruled  paper.  The  performance  on  each 
night  was  to  be  divided  into  two  '  acts,'  with  an 
interval  of  half  an  hour,  and  in  each  act  four 
madrigals  were  to  be  sung.  Between  1 750  and 
1757  additional  rules  were  adopted,  by  one  of 
which  each  member  to  whose  turn  it  came  to 
serve  as  President  was  bound  to  present  a  score 
and  parts  of  a  madrigal  ready  for  performance, 
or  '  to  forfeit  a  penny  extraordinary  to  the  plate ' 
every  night  until  he  did  so.  By  another  rule 
any  gentleman  who  had  been  educated  in,  or  at 
the  time  belonged  to,  any  cathedral  or  choir  was 
to  be  admitted  to  visit  the  Society  at  his  pleasure  ; 
and  a  similar  privilege  was  accorded  to  any  of 
'  the  gentlemen  of  the  Academy  of  Ancient 
Music'  Membership  was  confined  to  persons 
belonging  to  cathedral  choirs,  or  those  '  vouched 
for  by  two  or  more  members  of  the  Society  as 
being  capable  of  singing  their  part  in  concert 
both  in  time  and  in  tune ' ;  and  others  proposed 
for  election  were  required,  by  way  of  probation, 
to  sing  between  the  acts  their  proper  parts  in  an 
ancient  madrigal  for  three  or  four  voices,  or  some 
two-part  song  to  be  sung  with  double  voices. 
The  Society  at  this  time  (1749-50)  met  every 
Wednesday  evening,  and  consisted  of  twenty 
members,  who  subscribed  4s.  6d.  a  quarter.  Ac- 
cording to  Sir  John  Hawkins  (who  was  himself 
a  member)  '  most  of  them  were  mechanics,  some 
weavers  from  Spitalfields,  others  of  various  trades 
and  occupations,  who  were  well  versed  in  the 
practice  of  Psalmody,  and  who,  with  a  little 
pains  and  the  help  of  the  ordinary  solmisation, 
which  many  of  them  were  very  expert  in,  be- 
came soon  able  to  sing  almost  at  sight  a  part  in 
an  English  or  even  an  Italian  madrigal.  They 
also  sang  catches,  rounds,  and  canons,  though 
not  elegantly,  yet  with  a  degree  of  correctness 
that  did  justice  to  the  harmony;  and,  to  vary 
the  entertainment,  Immyns  would  sometimes 
read,  by  way  of  lecture,  a"  chapter  from  Zarlino, 
translated  by  himself.  They  were  men  not  less 
distinguished  by  their  love  of  vocal  harmony 
than  by  the  harmless  simplicity  of  their  tempers 
and  by  their  friendly  disposition  towards  each 
VOL.  11. 


MADRIGAL  SOCIETY. 


193 


other."  At  times  they  took  country  excursions, 
and  the  minutes  record  that  on  Whit-Monday, 
1751,  'the  party  proceeded  up  the  river,  break- 
fasting  at  Wandsor  (Wandsworth),  dining  at 
Richmond,  besides  stopping  to  whet  their  whis- 
tles at  Mortlack  (Mortlake).'  In  1764  Mr. 
Immyns  died.  In  1768  the  subscription  was 
raised  to  8s.  a  quarter,  the  number  of  members 
being  about  thirty,  and  it  was  agreed  to  hold  an 
entertainment  for  their  friends  once  at  least 
every  year.  In  1769  tbe  Society  removed  to 
the  Feathers  Tavern,  Cheapside ;  in  1775  *°  *ne 
King's  Arms,  Cornhill ;  in  1778  they  were  at 
the  Half  Moon,  Cheapside,  and  the  London 
Tavern;  in  April,  1792,  at  the  King's  Head 
in  the  Poultry;  in  May,  1792,  at  the  Globe, 
Fleet  Street;  and  in  1795  removed  to  the 
Crown  and  Anchor,  when  the  charge  for  supper, 
'on  account  of  the  advance  in  wine,'  was  raised 
to  2s.  6d.  for  members,  4s.  for  visitors,  and 
3s.  for  professors.  Festival  dinners  were  held 
in  1798,  1802,  1803,  and  1809,  and  were  con- 
tinued at  intervals,  and  in  1876  ladies  dined  at 
the  festival  for  the  first  time.  In  18 14  the  sub- 
scription was  raised  to  £3,  and  in  18 16  the 
charge  for  supper,  including  a  pint  of  wine,  was 
fixed  at  6s.  On  September  27,  1821,  the 
supper  meeting,  after  being  held  for  eighty  years, 
gave  place  to  a  monthly  dinner,  still  held  at  the 
Freemasons'  Tavern  during  the  season,  which 
then  lasted  from  October  to  July,  but  now  num- 
bers five  meetings,  commencing  in  November. 
In  181 1  was  offered  for  the  first  time  a  prize  of  a 
silver  cup,  value  ten  guineas,  'for  the  best  madri- 
gal in  not  less  than  four  nor  more  than  six  parts, 
the  upper  part  or  parts  to  be  for  one  or  two 
treble  voices.  The  character  of  the  composition 
to  be  after  the  manner  of  the  madrigals  by  Ben- 
net,  Wilbye,  Morley,  Weelkes,  Ward,  Marenzio, 
and  others,  and  each  part  to  contain  a  certain 
melody  either  in  figure  or  imitation ;  therefore, 
a  melody  harmonized  will  be  inadmissible.'  W. 
Beale's  'Awake,  sweet  muse,'  and  W.  Hawes's 
'  Philomela  '  were  selected  for  a  final  ballot  from 
fourteen  compositions  sent  in,  which  included 
S.  Wesley's  '  O  sing  unto  my  roundelay,'  and 
W.  Linley's  'Ah  me,  quoth  "Venus.'  The  prize 
was  given  to  Beale.  The  earlier  members  in- 
cluded Immyns,  the  founder,  by  profession  an 
attorney,  afterwards  appointed  lutist  to  the 
Chapel  Royal  and  amanuensis  to  Dr.  Pepusch ; 
Dr.  John  Worgan,  organist  and  composer;  Sir 
John  Hawkins,  the  musical  historian  (1741- 
1 751)  ;  Rev.  C.  Torriano  and  Jonathan  Battishill, 
the  composer  (elected  1752);  E.T.  Warren,  editor 
of  the  Glee  Collection  (1762) ;  Dr.  Arne  and  his 
son  Michael,  and  Luffman  Atterbury,  composer  of 
the  glee  '  Come,  let  us  all  a-Maying  go '  (.  1 765) ; 
Theodore  Aylward,  one  of  the  assistant  directors 
at  the  Handel  Commemoration  of  1784  (1769); 
Joah  Bates,  the  conductor  of  the  Handel  Com- 
memoration (1774);  Dr.  B.  Cooke,  organist  of 
Westminster  Abbey  (1778);  James  Bartleman 
(J793);  J-  R-  Street,  Librarian  and  many  years 
Father  of  the  Society ;  R.  J.  S.  Stevens,  the 
Gresham  Professor,  and  W.  Horsley,  the  glee- 

0 


194 


MADRIGAL  SOCIETY, 


writer  (1798);  Reg.  Spofforth,  the  glee-writer, 
and  Robert  Cooke,  master  of  the  Westminster 
choristers  (1802)  ;  W.  Beale  (1805)  ;  Dr. 
Callcott  (1806) ;  W.  Hawes  and  W.  Linley 
(1809)  ;  G.  E.  Williams,  organist  of  Westminster 
Abbey  (1814);  Sir  J.  L,  Rogers,  bart.,  and  T. 
Greatorex,  organist  of  Westminster  Abbey  ( 1 819)  ; 
J.  T.  Cooper  (1825)  ;  Jonathan  Nield,  Rev.  W. 
J.  Hall  (1828);  P.  J.  Salomons  (1829);  Vin- 
cent Novello  and  Thomas  Oliphant,  afterwards 
secretary  ( 1 8  30) ;  J.  W.  Hobbs,  J.  Calkin  ( 1 83 1 ) ; 
G.  Cooper,  deputy  organist  of  St.  Paul's,  James 
Turle,  organist  of  Westminster  Abbey  (1832). 
The  present  members  include  Dr.  Stainer,  organist 
of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral ;  J.  Turle ;  Dr.  Bridge; 
E.  J.  Hopkins ;  W.  Chappell,  F.S.A. ;  Dr.  W. 
Pole  ;  Otto  Goldschmidt ;  Dr.  John  Hullah, 
and  Rev.  T.  Helmore.  Up  to  1820  the  mem- 
bers presided  in  rotation,  but  in  that  year  it 
was  resolved  to  appoint  Sir  J.  L.  Rogers  as 
permanent  president.  The  office  has  since  been 
filled  by  Lord  Saltoun,  1842-53;  Sir  George 
Clerk,  Bt.,  1853-66  ;  Prince  Dhuleep  Singh, 
1867-71 ;  Thomas  Oliphant,  1871-73  ;  Hon.  and 
Rev.  H.  Legge,  1874-77.  It  is  now  vacant.  The 
Librarians  have  been :— J.  P.  Street,  179  2-1 848  ; 
John  Bishop,  1849-70;  C.  D.  Budd,  1871-78; 
J.  C.  Meek,  1879.  The  conductors  or  musical 
directors  permanently  appointed  since  W.  Hawes, 
1809-46,  have  been:— James  Turle,  1846-49; 
James  King,  1849-54  ;  Cipriani  Potter,  1855- 
70 ;  Otto  Goldschmidt,  1871-77 ;  Dr.  John 
Stainer,  1878.  Dr.  John  Hullah  and  Dr.  J.  F. 
Bridge  have  been  assistant  conductors  since 
1878.  Under  the  present  rules  the  Society  con- 
sists of  forty  members,  elected  by  ballot,  the 
subscription  (including  dinner  fees)  being  five 
guineas,  and  for  professional  members  three 
guineas.  The  following  was  the  programme  at 
the  Society's  last  Festival,  June  19, 1879  : — 100th 
Psalm,  arranged  by  Dr.  W.  Pole  (8  parts) 
'  Come,  shepherds,  follow  me '  (Bennet)  ;  '  Sister 
awake '  (Bateson) ; '  Cynthia,  thy  song '  (Croce) 
'  Die  not,  fond  man '  (Ward) ;  '  Fair  Oriana 
(Hilton)  ;    '  O   say,  ye  saints '    (Sir  J.  Rogers) 

*  Stay  one  moment,   gentle  river '  (Oliphant) 

*  Shall  I,  wasting  in  despair '  (G.  A.  Osborne) 
•Take  heed,  ye   shepherd  swains'  (Pearsall) 

'  Lady,  your  eye '  (Weelkes) ;  '  Lady,  see  on 
every  side '  (Marenzio) ;  *  Nymphs  are  sporting ' 
(Pearsall)  ;  •  Fa-la-la.'  Mr.  J.  Edward  Street 
is  the  present  secretary  ;  and  Mr.  Kellow  J.  Pye 
the  treasurer.  [CM.] 

MAELZEL,  Johann  Nepomuk,  born  Aug. 
15,  1772,  at  Ratisbon,  son  of  an  organ  builder. 
In  1 792  he  settled  in  Vienna,  and  devoted  him- 
self to  teaching  music,  and  to  constructing  an 
automaton  instrument  of  flutes,  trumpets,  drums, 
cymbals,  triangle,  and  strings  struck  by  ham- 
mers, which  played  music  by  Haydn,  Mozart, 
and  Crescentini,  and  was  sold  for  3000  florins. 
His  next  machine  was  the  Panharmonicon,  like 
the  former,  but  with  clarinets,  violins,  and  cellos 
added.  It  was  worked  by  weights  acting  on 
cylinders,  and  was  exhibited  in  Vienna  in  1804. 
Maelzel   then  bought  Kempelen's   Chessplayer; 


MAELZEL. 

and  took  it  with  the  Panharmonicon  to  Paris. 
The  Chessplayer  he  afterwards  sold  to  Eugene 
Beauharnais.  He  next  constructed  a  Trumpeter, 
which  played  the  Austrian  and  French  cavalry 
marches  and  signals,  with  marches  and  allegros 
by  Weigl,  Dussek,  and  Pleyel.  In  1808  he  was 
appointed  court  mechanician,  and  about  that  time 
made  some  ear  trumpets,  one  of  which  Beethoven 
used  for  years.  In  18 12  he  opened  the  'Art 
Cabinet,'  among  the  attractions  of  which  were 
the  Trumpeter  and  a  new  and  enlarged  Panhar- 
monicon; and  soon  afterwards  made  public  a 
musical  chronometer,  an  improvement  of  a  ma- 
chine by  Stockel,  for  which  he  obtained  certificates 
from  Beethoven  and  other  leading  musicians. 
Maelzel  and  Beethoven  were  at  this  time  on 
very  friendly  terms.  They  had  arranged  to  visit 
London  together,  and  Maelzel  had  meantime  aided 
the  great  master  in  his  impecuniosity  by  urging 
on  him  a  loan  of  50  ducats  in  gold.  In  order  to 
add  to  the  attractions  of  the  Panharmonicon, 
which  they  proposed  to  take  with  them,  Maelzel 
conceived  and  sketched  in  detail  the  design 1  of 
a  piece  to  commemorate  the  Battle  of  Vittoria 
(June  21,  1813),  which  Beethoven  composed  for 
the  instrument.  While  it  was  being  arranged 
on  the  barrel,  Maelzel  further  induced  him  to 
score  it  for  the  orchestra,  with  the  view  to  obtain 
funds  for  the  journey ;  and  it  was  accordingly 
scored,  and  performed  at  a  concert  on  Dec.  8, 181 3, 
the  programme  of  which  consisted  of  the  Sym- 
phony No.  7  ;  the  marches  of  Dussek  and 
Pleyel,  by  the  automaton,  and  the  Battle-piece. 
The  concert  was  repeated  on  the  12  th,  and  the 
two  yielded  a  net  profit  of  over  4000  florins.  At 
this  point  Beethoven  took  offence  at  Maelzel's 
having  announced  the  Battle-piece  as  his  property, 
broke  completely  with  him,  rejected  the  Trum- 
peter and  his  marches,  and  held  a  third  concert 
(Jan.  2,  1814)  for  his  own  sole  benefit.  After 
several  weeks  of  endeavour  to  arrange  matters, 
Maelzel  departed  to  Munich  with  his  Panhar- 
monicon, including  the  Battle-piece,  and  also 
with  a  full  orchestral  score  of  the  same,  which  he 
had  obtained  without  Beethoven's  concurrence  and 
caused  to  be  performed  at  Munich.  Beethoven 
on  this  entered  an  action  against  him  in  the 
Vienna  courts,  and  it  is  his  memorandum  of  the 
grounds  of  the  action,  as  prepared  for  his  advocate, 
which  is  usually  entitled  2his  'deposition.'  He 
further  addressed  a  'statement  to  the  musicians 
of  London,  entreating  them  not  to  countenance 
or  support  Maelzel.  The  action  came  to  nothing, 
and  Maelzel  does  not  appear  to  have  gone  to 
London.  He  stopped  at  Amsterdam,  and  there 
got  from  Winkel,  a  Dutch  mechanic,  the  idea 
of  employing  a  new  form  of  pendulum  as  a  me- 
tronome. He  soon  perfected  the  instrument, 
obtained  a  patent  for  it,  and  in  18 16  we  find 
him  in  Paris  established  as  a  manufacturer  of 
this  metronome,  under  the  style  of  'Malzl  et 
Cie.'  Winkel  claimed  it  as  his  invention,  and 
the  claim  was  confirmed,  after  examination,  by 
the  Dutch  Academy  of  Sciences.     A   wish   to 


1  Mosclieles,  note  to  his  Schindler,  1. 151. 

2  Schindler.    Thayer  ill.  405. 


'  Thayer  Hi.  4CT. 


MAELZEL. 

repurchase  Kempelen's  Chessplayer  and  to  push 
his  Metronome  took  him  back  to  Munich  and 
Vienna  in  1817.  Beethoven's  good  word  was  of 
more  consequence  than  any  one  else's,  and 
knowing  Maelzel 's  cleverness,  Beethoven's 
amenability  to  a  good  companion,  and  the  fact 
that  the  performance  on  which  the  lawsuit  was 
grounded  having  taken  place  out  of  Austria,  the 
action  could  not  lie,  it  need  not  surprise  us  to 
find  that  the  suit  was  given  up,  and  the  costs 
divided  equally.  After  this  Maelzel  travelled 
much,  and  even  reached  the  United  States,  where 
he  passed  the  rest  of  his  life,  except  a  voyage  or 
two  to  the  West  Indies,  exhibiting  the  Chess- 
player, the  Conflagration  of  Moscow,  and  his 
other  curious  inventions1.  He  "was  found  dead  in 
his  berth  on  board  the  American  brig  Otis,  July 
2 1, 1 838.  Maelzel  was  evidently  a  sharp,  shrewd, 
clever  man  of  business,  with  a  strong  propensity 
to  use  the  ideas  of  others  for  his  own  benefit. 

For  the  details  of  his  Metronome  see  the 
article  under  that  head.  It  was  entirely  different 
from  the  Stockel-Malzel  'Chronometer,'  and  it 
was  upon  the  latter,  and  not  upon  the  Metro- 
nome, that  Beethoven  wrote  the  catch  which  is 
connected  with  the  Allegretto  of  his  Symphony 
No.  8.  [A.W.T.] 

MASSIG.  *  In  moderate  time* ;  the  German 
equivalent  of  Moderato,  used  much  by  Schumann, 
as  in  the  sixth  of  the  fugues  on  the  name  Bach, 
and  constantly  throughout  the  Album.  'Ln 
miissigen  Tempo '  occurs  in  the  fourth  fugue  of 
op.  72, '  Sehr  massig '  in  the  Lager-scene,  No.  3  of 
op.  76.  He  uses  'Massig  durchaus  energisch '  as 
the  translation  of '  Moderato  con  energia '  in  the 
second  movement  of  the  Fantasia  in  C,  op.  1 7. 
The  '  Marsch-massig '  of  Beethoven's  op.  101  has 
no  relation  to  the  above,  but  means  in  March- 
style.  •  [J.A.F.M.] 
MAESTOSO.  'With  majesty/or  in  a  dignified 
way.  It  is  used  either  alone,  as  a  direction  of 
time,  in  which  case  it  indicates  a  pace  rather 
slower  than  andante,  or,  combined  with  other 
indications  of  tempo,  as  a  guide  to  the  expression. 
Beethoven  uses  it  frequently  in  both  these  ways. 
It  occurs  alone  in  the  Pianoforte  Sonata,  op.  Ill, 
first  movement,  in  the  Namensfeier  overture, 
op.  115,  Quartet  in  Eb,  op.  127,  etc.;  also  in 
Pizarro's  song  at  the  end  of  Act  I  of  Fidelio, 
'  Auf  euch,  auf  euch,  nur  will  ich  bauen.'  In  the 
final  chorus  of  that  opera,  'Wer  ein  holdes  Weib 
errungen,'  the  direction  originally  stood  Maestoso 
vivace,  but  was  afterwards  changed  to  Allegro 
ma  non  troppo.  The  first  movement  of  the 
Choral  Symphony  is  marked  Allegro  ma  non 
troppo,  un  poco  maestoso ;  the  passage  in  the 
last  movement  to  the  words  '  Seid  umschlungen 
Millionen'  is  Andante  maestoso;  and  the  four 
bars  of  3-4  time  immediately  before  the  final 
Prestissimo  are  marked  Maestoso  simply.  Men- 
delssohn uses  Allegro  maestoso  frequently,  as  in 
Elijah, '  I  am  he  that  comforteth,'  and  '  Be  not 
afraid,'  and  in  St.  Paul  very  often.  He  uses 
Moderato  maestoso  in   'Then   did  Elijah   the 

»  See  Prof.  G.  Allen,  of  Philadelphia,  U.S.A.,  In  the  Book  of  the  flrrt 
American  Chesj  Congress. 


MAGNIFICAT. 


195 


prophet.*  Maestoso  con  brio  occurs  as  the  equi- 
valent of  the  German  'Rauschend  und  festlich* 
in  Schumann's  Novelette,  No.  5.  [J.  A.F.M.] 
MAESTRO,  master.  This  word  is  almost 
exclusively  applied  to  the  great  classical  com- 
posers, but  occasionally  it  is  used  of  the  very 
highest  class  of  executive  musicians,  though  even 
in  this  case  it  may  be  taken  as  implying  an  ap- 
preciation of  their  compositions  rather  than  of 
their  performances.  It  is  seldom  applied  to 
teachers  as  such,  but  refers  almost  always  to 
composers  of  note. 

Maestro  dicapellaistheexact  Italian  equivalent 
to  the  German  term  Kapellmeister,  or  conductor. 
Maestro  dei  putti  (master  of  the  boys)  is  an 
office  which  was  founded  in  1538  (not,  as  is 
generally  supposed,  in  the  Papacy  of  Julius  II. 
which  was  much  earlier),  and  which  was  first 
held  by  Arcadelt.  Its  duties  are  to  teach  sing- 
ing to  the  boys  of  St.  Peters,  in  Rome,  and  more 
or  less  to  superintend  the  choir  arrangements. 
It  thus  represents  our '  Choirmaster.'  [See  Arca- 
delt, vol.  i.  p.  81.] 

Maestro  al  cembalo  is  an  officer  at  the  Opera, 
next  in  importance  to  the  conductor,  and  occa- 
sionally taking  his  place.  His  duties  consist  of 
superintending  the  rehearsals  of  the  music,  and 
accompanying  at  them.  This  post  was  held  by 
Handel  at  Hamburg,  when  he  was  quite  young 
[see  Handel,  vol.  i.  p.  648],  and  afterwards  by 
Matheson.  [J.  A.  F.  M.] 

MAGNIFICAT.  The  '  Song  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  Mary '  has  been  used  as  the  Vesper  Can- 
ticle of  the  Church,  from  time  immemorial ;  and 
the  Evening  Office  has  always  been  so  constructed 
as  to  lead  up  to  it  as  its  chief  point  of  interest. 

In  Plain  Chaunt  Services,  it  is  sung  to  the 
same  Tones  as  the  Psalms ;  but,  with  certain 
differences  of  detail.  For  instance,  the  Intona- 
tion— except  on  Ferias,  and  a  few  Festivals  of 
minor  importance — is  prefixed  to  every  Verse. 
The  Mediation  is  distinguished  from  the  ordinary 
form  by  the  presence  of  certain  ornamental  notes, 
introduced,  per  ligaturam,  for  the  purpose  of 
adding  to  its  solemnity :  but  it  will  be  observed, 
that,  in  the  Roman  Vesperal,  the  Mediation  of 
the  first  Verse  is  altogether  omitted,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  small  number  of  syllables,  the 
melody  passing  on,  at  once,  from  the  Reciting- 
Note  to  the  Ending,  which,  in  all  cases,  cor- 
responds exactly  with  the  formula  prescribed  for 
the  Psalm-Tones.  Finally,  the  Tempo  is  infi- 
nitely slower  than  that  used  in  any  other  part  of 
the  Service.  This  last  peculiarity  is  a  very  im- 
portant one  :  for,  according  to  the  Ritual  of  the 
Western  Church,  the  Officiant  and  Sacred  Minis- 
ters are  occupied,  during  the  singingof  ilf  agnifieat, 
in  incensing  the  Altar — a  process,  which,  when  full 
Ceremonial  is  used,  occupies  a  considerable  time. 

After  the  invention  of  Discant,  a  custom  arose, 
of  singing  Magnificat  in  alternate  Verses  of  Plain 
Chaunt,  and  Faux  Bourdon.  Sometimes,  the 
Faux  Bourdon  was  simply  a  harmonised  Psalm- 
Tone,  with  the  melody  in  the  Tenor,  as  in  the 
following  example  of  a  very  beautiful '  Use'  which 
has  long  been  traditional  in  French  Cathedrals. 

02 


196 


MAGNIFICAT. 

Magnificat,  Prinri  Toni. 


Sometimes,  the  Plain  Chaunt  was  contrasted 
with  an  original  Faux  Bourdon,  written  in  the 
required  Mode,  but  not,  like  the  former  example, 
on  the  actual  melody  of  the  Psalm-Tone.  Dr. 
Burney,  during  his  visit  to  Rome,  met  with  an 
exceedingly  interesting  MS.  collection  of  Faux 
Bourdons,  of  this  description,  by  some  of  the 
greatest  Masters  of  the  16th  century.  From  his 
autograph  transcription  of  this  volume — now  pre- 
served, under  the  name  of  Studij  di  Palestrina, 
in  the  Library  of  the  British  Museum — we  ex- 
tract the  following  beautiful  example  by  Giovanni 
Maria  Nanini l. 

Ton.  IV. 


^:; 


mMdddM 


m 


m 


gfe* 


^ 


s 


SIP 


m 


A  A  A- 1  A  A 


m 


W: 


These  two  methods  of  singing  Magnificat  are 
so  wonderfully  effective,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
choose  between  them :  and,  happily,  they  are 
both  so  easy,  that  no  Choir  need  fear  to  attempt 
them.  But,  the  development  of  the  idea  did  not 
rest  here.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  name  any 
great  Church  Composer  who  has  not  illustrated 
the  text  of  the  Canticle  with  original  music,  over 
and  over  again.  Josquin  des  Pre"s,  Morales, 
Goudimel,  Animuccia,  Vittoria,  Orlando  di  Lasso, 
and  a  host  of  authors,  representing  every  School, 
and  every  well-marked  Period,  have  left  us  in- 
numerable examples.  Palestrina  published  a 
volume,  in  1591,  containing  two  settings  in  each 
of  the  first  eight  Modes ;  and  has  left  nearly  as 
many  more  in  MS.     His  favorite  plan  was,  to 

'  It  will  be  seen  that  Nanini  has  ended  his  Chaunt  with  the  har- 
mony of  the  Dominant,  instead  of  that  proper  to  the  Final  of  the 
Mode.  A  similar  peculiarity  is  observable  in  many  other  Faux 
Bourdons  adapted,  by  the  Old  Masters,  to  alternate  Verses  of  Can- 
ticles and  Psalms.  The  reason  of  this  is  self-evident.  One  or  other 
of  the  Subsidiary  Cadences  of  the  Mode  is  employed,  in  order  that  its 
true  Final  Cadence  may  be  reserved  for  the  conclusion  of  the  Antiphon 
which  is  to  follow.  The  Sistlne  Miserere  may  be  cited  as  the  exception 
which  proves  the  rule.  It  ends  with  the  proper  Final  Cadence,  because, 
In  the  Office  of  Tenebra,  it  is  always  sung  without  an  Antiphon. 
[See  Antiphon.  I 


MAGNIFICAT. 

treat  the  alternate  Verses,  only,  in  complex  imi- 
tation, and  closely-interwoven  fugal  points ;  leav- 
ing, sometimes  the  even,  and  sometimes  the  odd 
Verses,  to  be  sung  in  unisonous  Plain  Chaunt,  in 
the  manner  already  described.  The  following 
extract  from  one  of  the  finest  compositions  in  the 
series  will  serve  to  exemplify  his  usual  mode  of 
treatment. 

Magnificat,  Octavi  Toni. 

jiHL r—  —I 1- 


Hi 


A     -   -     ni  -  ma    me  -  a,    etc. 
A   -   ni  -  ma     me  -  a,   etc.  ,    1    ■        ■ 


^ 


mm 


u 


A  A. 
— <&- 


-rr 


-'Z 


st 


Pr 


Am 


(8)      etc. 


This  method  was  also  adopted  by  Francesco 
Suriano,  Orlando  di  Lasso,  and  many  other 
writers ;  but  Felice  Anerio,  Luca  Marenzio,  Gio- 
vanni Gabrieli,  and  some  of  the  most  noted  of 
their  contemporaries,  treated  the  Canticle  in 
Polyphone,  throughout,  frequently  disposing  their 
Voices  in  two  or  more  antiphonal  Choirs.  A  fine 
example  of  this  later  style  is  preserved  in  Gabri- 
eli's  eight-part  Magnificat  in  the  First  Mode. 

Magnificat  Primi  Toni. 

Chorus  Primus. 


MAGNIFICAT. 

The  fathers  of  English  Cathedral  Music  treated 
Magnificat  in  a  manner  peculiarly  their  own — 
clear  in  design,  pure,  solemn,  and  richly  harmo- 
nious, but  differing  in  no  wise  from  their  render- 
ing of  the  other  Canticles,  and  demanding  no 
elower  Tempo  than  the  rest.  The  finest  of  these, 
which  may  well  bear  comparison  with  the  works 
of  the  great  Flemish  and  Italian  Schools,  are  to 
be  found  in  the  '  Services '  of  Tallis,  Byrd,  Far- 
rant,  Tomkins,  Bevin,  Batten,  and  Orlando  Gib- 
bons. Their  number  is  comparatively  small : 
but  it  is  to  be  feared  that  many  invaluable 
compositions  of  the  Elizabethan  JEra.  have  been 
lost  to  us,  through  the  spoliation  of  Cathedral 
Libraries,  during  the  great  Rebellion.  After  the 
Restoration,  the  style  rapidly  deteriorated  :  and, 
notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  a  few  talented 
Composers — especially,  Drs.  Creyghton,  and  Croft 
— who  conscientiously  followed  the  precepts  of 
the  earlier  School,  it  sank,  eventually,  so  low, 
that  even  the  platitudes  of  Kent,  and  Jackson, 
fail  to  represent  its  latest  stages  of  degradation. 
Happily,  the  number  of  fine  examples  still  re- 
maining is  quite  sufficient  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses ;  and  all  are  now  published  in  cheap,  and 
easily  accessible  forms. 

The  text  of  Magnificat  has  also  been  grandly 
illustrated,  by  Bach,  Mendelssohn,  and  other  Com- 
posers of  the  modern  School,  in  the  Oratorio  style, 
with  full  orchestral  accompaniments.  For  some 
particulars  respecting  the  history  of  a  Magnificat 
of  this  description,  which  has  lately  given  rise  to 
discussions  of  more  than  ordinary  interest,  see 
Ebba,  don  dionigi  ;  and  Handel  (vol.  i.  p.  491  0, 
and  654,  note).  [W.  S.  R.] 

MAGYAR  (Hungarian)  MUSIC.  The  most 
important  part  of  the  national  music  of  Hungary 
is  so  called  because  it  proceeds  from  the  Magyar 
portion  of  the  inhabitants.  '  The  so-called  Hun- 
garian style  of  music,'  says  the  writer  of  two 
excellent  articles  on  this  subject  in  the  Monthly 
Musical  Record  for  February  and  March,  1877, 
'  as  it  has  come  to  be  recognised,  cannot  by  any 
means  be  regarded  as  indigenous,  but  may  most 
properly  be  briefly  defined  as  the  product  of  a 
commixture  of  several  races.  More  than  one- 
fourth  1  of  the  population  of  Hungary  proper  {i.e. 
Transleithan  Hungary,  as  it  has  come  to  be 
called  since  its  union  with  the  Austrian  empire 
in  1869)  consists  of  Magyars,  the  descendants  of 
the  ancient  Scythians  of  the  Tartar-Mongolian 
stock,  who,  after  wandering  from  the  Ural 
mountains  to  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  thence  to 
Kiov,  established  themselves  in  Hungary  in  the 
ninth  century.  The  remainder  of  the  population 
is  made  up  of  Slavs,  Germans,  Wallachians, 
Jews,  and  Gipsies.  Of  this  mixed  population, 
the  Magyars,  as  the  dominant  lords  of  the  soil, 
and  the  Gipsies,  as  the  privileged  musicians  of 
the  country,  are  in  the  main  to  be  regarded  as 
the  joint  originators  of  the  national  style.' 

The  union  of  these  two  latter  races  resulted 

in  the  combination  of  their  musical  characteristics. 

That  of  the  Magyar  music  is  the  peculiarity  of 

its  rhythms,  and  that  of  the  Gipsy  music  is  the 

•  The  proportion  appears  to  be  more  like  one  half  than  a  quarter. 


MAGYAR  MUSIC. 


197 


presence  of  turns,  embellishments,  and  'grace- 
notes'  added  to  and  built  upon  the  melody,  and 
eventually  becoming  a  most  important  feature 
in  it. 

This  latter  peculiarity,  together  with  the  scale 
which  is  characteristic  of  Hungarian  music — a 
scale  with  two  superfluous  seconds,  or  the  har- 
monic minor  with  a  sharp  fourth — 


seem  to  indicate  an  Asiatic  origin.  (The  or- 
dinary European  scales  are  also  in  use.)  These 
two  chief  characteristics  will  be  examined  in  order. 
I.  The  rhythms,  of  Magyar  origin.  The  great 
distinctive  feature  of  the  bar-rhythms  is  syncopa- 
tion, generally  consisting  of  the  accentuation  of  the 
second  quaver  in  the  bar  of  2-4  time  (the  rhythm 
known  as  alia  zoppa, '  in  a  limping  way'),  but  some- 
times extending  over  larger  spaces,  as  in  No.  2  of 
the  Ungarische  Tanze  of  Brahms,  bars  1-2,  5-6, 
etc.,  where  the  syncopation  extends  over  two  bars. 
Even  where  the  melody  is  without  syncopation, 
the  accompaniment  almost  always  has  it.  The 
phrase-rhythms  are  not  confined  to  strains  of  4 
and  8  bars,  but  phrases  of  3,  5,  6,  and  7  bars 
are  not  unfrequently  to  be  met  with.  There  is 
no  more  beautiful  example  of  7-bar  rhythm  (al- 
though not  professedly  Hungarian  in  character) 
than  the  second  of  Schumann's  Stiicke  im  Volks- 
ton  for  piano  and  violoncello,  in  F  major.  As  ex- 
amples of  3-  and  6-bar  rhythms  may  be  cited  the 
third  and  first  of  Brahms's  Ungarische  Tanze, 
and  of  5-bar  rhythm,  the  second  part  of  the 
following  melody  ('Beszegodtem  Tarndczara '), 
the  first  part  being  a  phrase  of  6  bars. 
S-1 


j.  Andante.  ^^  ^^3         1^  ^^ 


3-4  time,  and  consequently  6-8,  is  unknown  in 
genuine  Magyar  music,  although  some  modern 
Hungarian  composers  have  introduced  it  in  slow 
movements.  A  very  beautiful  rhythm  of  seven 
in  a  bar  (written,  for  greater  clearness,  as  a  bar 
of  3-4  followed  by  a  bar  of  common  time) 
occurs  in  the  'Hungarian  Song'  on  which 
Brahms  has  written   variations,  Op.  21,  No.  2. 

II.  The  turns  and  embellishments  added  to  the 
melody,  of  Gipsy,    and  hence  Oriental,  origin. 

This  peculiarity  has  been  observed  by  travel- 
lers in  India,  who  say  that  in  the  performance 
of  the  natives  any  embellishments  and  '  fioriture ' 
are  permitted  to  be  introduced  at  the  will  of 
the  performer,  provided  only  that  the  time  of 


198 


MAGYAR  MUSIC. 


the  melody  remains  intact.  The  following  is  a 
list  of  the  most  characteristic  turns  and  '  grace- 
notes'  used  in  Hungarian  music,  given  by  the 
writer  above  mentioned : 


0)^g_       (8)  *  =»  (») 


/w       w 


and  the  double  cadence 


The  charm  which  these  '  agre'mens'  give  is  well 
illustrated  by  the  first  two  bars  of  Schubert's 
•  Moment  musical,'  in  F  minor,  where  the  phrase 


is  seen  to  be  compounded  of  the  comparatively 
uninteresting  phrase 


together  with  No.  13  and  part  of  No.  4  of  the 
above  embellishments. 

But  the  importance  of  Hungarian  music  lies  not 
so  much  in  its  intrinsic  beauty  or  interest,  as  in  the 
use  made  of  it  by  the  great  classical  masters,  and 
the  influence  which  it  exercises  on  their  works. 
The  first  composer  of  note  who  embodies  the  Hun- 
garian peculiarities  is  Haydn.  The  most  obvious 
instance  of  course  is  the  well-known  '  Rondo  all' 
Ongarese,'  or '  Gipsy  Rondo,'  in  the  Trio  No.  1  in 
G  major ;  but  besides  this  avowedly  Hungarian 
composition  there  are  many  passages  in  his  works 
which  show  that  the  years  during  which  he  held 
the  post  of  conductor  of  Prince  Esterhazy's  private 
(and  almost  entirely  Hungarian)  band,  were  not 
without  their  effect.  Instances  of  this  may  be 
found  in  many  of  the  '  Salomon  symphonies'  (the 
Symphony  in  Bb,  No.  9),  etc.  We  next  come 
to  Beethoven,  in  whom  the  Hungarian  element 
appears  but  rarely.  In  the  music  to  '  King 
Stephen,'  however,  it  is  prominent,  as  we  might 
expect,  in  many  parts,  and  the  chorus  '  Wo  die 
Unschuld  Blumen  streute '  is  marked  ■  Andante 
con  moto  all'  Ongarese.'  The  composer  however 
who  has  made  the  greatest  use  of  Hungarian 
characteristics  is  Schubert.  Constantly  through- 
out his  works  we  come  upon  a  peculiarity  which 


MAGYAR  MUSIC. 

at  once  tells  us  of  its  nationality.  The  C  major 
Symphony  (No.  9)  for  instance,  or  the  Fantasia 
in  C  major,  op.  15,  are  full  of  Hungarian  feeling 
and  character,  while  almost  all  the  peculiarities 
of  the  Hungarian  style  are  present  in  the  little 
'Moment  musical'  before  alluded  to,  and  still 
more  in  the  splendid  Divertissement  a  la  hou- 
groise  (op.  54). 

Never,  probably,  has  Hungarian  music  had 
such  an  influence  over  compositions  as  at  the 
present  time,  and  among  living  composers.  It 
is  enough  to  cite  such  names  as  Liszt,  Brahms, 
and  Joachim,  to  bring  to  the  mind  of  every 
reader  the  use  made  by  each  of  them  of  Hun- 
garian forms  and  themes.  We  may  think  it 
only  natural  that  the  first  and  the  last  of  these 
should,  being  natives  of  Hungary,  have  a  natural 
love  for  their  national  music,  as  we  see  in  the 
'Legend  of  St.  Elizabeth,'  the  symphonic  poem 
'  Hungaria,'  the  fourteen  '  Rhapsodies  Hon- 
groises,'  by  Liszt,  and  the  noble  Hungarian 
violin  concerto  of  Joachim,  which  is  a  splendid 
instance  of  the  combination  of  national  character- 
istics with  the  classical  forms.  In  the  case  of 
Brahms,  however,  there  is  no  national  pre- 
judice to  which  the  partiality  for  the  Hungarian 
element  might  be  ascribed,  and  yet  here  we 
meet  with  many  Magyar  characteristics,  not  only 
in  the  Ungarische  Tanze,  which  are  nothing  more 
than  transcriptions  for  the  piano  of  the  wild  per- 
formance of  the  Hungarian  bands  (according  to 
the  best  authorities  on  this  subject),  but  also  in  the 
Sextets  for  strings,  the  pianoforte  variations,  etc. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most  important 
Magyar  compositions. 

Dances. — The  Csardas,  derived  from  Csarda, 
an  inn  on  the  Puszta  (plain),  where  this  dance 
was  first  performed.  Every  Csardas  consists  of 
two  movements, — a  '  Lassu/  or  slow  movement, 
andante  maestoso,  and  a  '  Friss,'  or  '  quickstep,' 
allegro  vivace.  These  two  alternate  at  the  will 
of  the  dancers,  a  sign  being  given  to  the  musicians 
when  a  change  is  wished.     [See  Csakdas.] 

The  '  Kor-tancz,'  or  Society-Dance,  of  which  a 
part  consists  of  a  Toborzo,  or  Recruiting  dance. 

The  '  Kanasz-tancz,'  or  Swineherd's  Dance,  is 
danced  by  the  lower  classes  only. 

Opeeas. — Among  national  Magyar  operas — i.e. 
operas  of  which  the  libretti  are  founded  on 
national  historic  events,  and  the  music  is  char- 
acterised by  Magyar  rhythms,  etc. — may  be 
mentioned  'Hunyadi  Laszl<5,'  'Bathory  Maria,' 
'  Bank  Ban,'  and  '  Brankovics,'  by  Francis  Erkel, 
and  the  comic  opera  '  Ilka,'  by  Doppler.  Besides 
these  two  composers,  the  names  of  Mocsonyi, 
Csaszar,  Fay,  and  Bartha,  may  be  given  aa 
examples  of  operatic  writers. 

Songs. — Many  collections  of  Nepdal,  or  popu- 
lar songs,  have  been  published.  One  of  these, 
'Repiili  Fecske,'  has  been  made  widely  known 
by  M.  Remenyi's  adaptation  of  it  for  the  violin. 

The  great  National  March — The  '  Rakocsy 
Indulo,'  made  famous  by  Hector  Berlioz,  who 
introduced  it  in  Paris  with  an  immense  orchestra. 

The  National  Hymn  of  Hungary  is  called 
'Szazat,'  or  'Appeal.' 


MAGYAR  MUSIC. 

That  the  Magyars  know  how  to  value  their 
own  national  music  may  be  shown  by  the  ex- 
istence at  Budapest  of  a  National  Conservatorium, 
of  which  Liszt  is  Director,  and  two  national 
theatres,  one  (the  older,  which  has  existed  for 
nearly  half  a  century)  for  opera  and  drama,  and 
the  other,  opened  three  years  ago,  for  vaudevilles, 
operettas,  etc.  A  new  grand  opera-house  is  in 
course  of  construction,  and  will  be  opened  in  a 
few  months.  Musical  journalism  is  represented  by 
two  weekly  publications,  one  of  which,  the  '  Zene"- 
szeti  Sapok,'  edited  by  Abranyi,  is  often  referred 
to  as  an  authority  on  Magyar  music.  [J.  A.  F. M.] 

MAID  OF  ARTOIS,  THE.  A  grand  opera 
in  3  acts  ;  words  by  Bunn,  music  by  Balfe. 
Produced  at  Drury  Lane  May  27,  1836.        [G.] 

MAID  OF  HONOUR,  THE.  A  comic  opera 
in  3  acts ;  words  by  Fitzball,  music  by  Balfe. 
Produced  at  Drury  Lane  Dec.  20,  1847.        [G.] 

MAINZER,  Joseph,  was  born  in  1801  at 
Treves,  where  his  father  was  a  butcher.  He 
was  educated  in  the  Maitrise  of  Treves  Cathe- 
dral, learnt  to  play  several  instruments,  and 
developed  considerable  musical  gifts,  then  spent 
some  time  in  the  coal  mines  near  Saarbruck,  with 
the  view  of  being  an  engineer,  and  at  length  em- 
braced the  ecclesiastical  profession,  was  ordained 
priest  in  1826,  and  afterwards  became  Abbe. 
His  first  practical  introduction  to  music  was  as 
singing-master  to  the  seminary  at  Treves,  for  which 
he  published  a  'Singschule'  or  Method  (Treves, 
1831).  His  political  tendencies  obliged  him  to 
leave  Germany,  and  we  find  him  in  1833  at 
Brussels  writing  an  opera  ('Triomphe  de  la 
Pologne ')  and  editing  the  musical  portion  of 
*  L' Artiste.'  His  next  destination  was  Paris, 
where  he  opened  workmen's  classes  for  music  and 
singing,  joined  the  staff  of  the  '  Gazette  Musicale' 
and  wrote  the  musical  feuilletons  for  the 
'National.'  Between  1835  and  1841  he  pub- 
lished several  educational  works  on  music,  chiefly 
for  very  young  beginners,  as  well  as  other  works, 
and  an  opera. '  La  Jaquerie,'  which  was  damned 
on  Oct.  10,  1839.  He  then  came  to  England, 
competed  against  Sir  H.  R.  Bishop  for  the 
musical  professorship  at  Edinburgh  in  1841,  and 
finally  established  himself  at  Manchester.  In 
February  of  that  year  Mr.  Hullah  had  started 
his  classes  on  Wilhem's  system,  and  Mainzer 
attempted  to  follow  suit  in  the  north,  and  with 
considerable  success.  His  '  Singing  for  the 
'million '  was  at  that  time  well  known  and  went 
through  many  editions.  He  over-worked  himself 
in  this  cause,  and  died,  much  esteemed  and 
regretted,  at  Manchester,  Nov.  10,  1851.  A 
periodical  started  by  him  and  entitled '  Mainzer's 
Musical  Times'  was  the  predecessor  and  basis  of 
the  present  '  Musical  Times.'  [G.] 

MAITRISE,  a  term  formerly  applied  in 
France  both  to  the  quarters  assigned  in  cathe- 
drals and  collegiate  churches  to  the  choristers 
and  their  master,  and  to  the  institution  itself, 
which  originally  included  a  complete  education, 

1  M.  F^tls  amusingly  infers  from  this  title  that  Mainzer  expected 
to  number  a  million  pupils. 


MAlTRISE. 


199 


lay  and  ecclesiastical.  These  schools  turned  out 
many  great  men,  several  rising  to  be  bishops 
and  popes  ;  among  the  latter  Pope  Urban  IV,  a 
cobbler's  son,  whose  early  years  were  passed 
in  the  '  Psallette '  at  Troyes.  Some  centuries 
later,  when  the  Maitrises  had  undergone  great 
changes,  they  were  still  the  only  establishments 
in  which  even  secular  musicians  could  obtain 
their  training.  From  the  Maitrises  the  Church 
obtained  choristers,  organists,  and  maitres  de 
chapelle,  and  the  world  its  favourite  composers. 
Here  also,  although  instrumental  music  was 
neglected,  and  dramatic  music  positively  forbid- 
den, the  regimental  bands  found  their  bassoon- 
players,  and  the  lyric  theatres  their  'clavecinistes- 
accompagnateurs,'  cellists,  and  singers. 

A  complete  account  of  the  Maitrises  would 
involve  a  review  of  the  whole  history  of  music 
anterior  to  the  French  Revolution,  so  we  must 
be  content  with  specifying  a  few  of  the  masters, 
composers,  choristers,  and  organists  who  have 
reflected  honour  on  these  ancient  institutions. 
They  were  real  schools  of  music,  the  pupils  being 
maintained  at  the  cost  of  the  chapters.  Indeed 
they  much  resembled  the  Conservatorios  of  Italy, 
both  in  their  mode  of  administration,  and  in  the 
course  of  instruction  given.  They  were  not  how- 
ever all  organised  alike,  but  varied  with  local 
circumstances.  Thus  in  some  the  boys,  the 
master,  and  the  priests,  lived  in  common,  in 
others  separately ;  in  some  the  maintenance  of 
the  children  was  in  the  hands  of  the  master,  in 
others  there  was  a  regular  purveyor.  But  in  all 
the  main  end  was  the  study  of  music.  Before 
the  Revolution  there  were  in  France  400  Mai- 
trises and  choirs,  with  as  many  maitres  de 
chapelle,  maintained  either  by  the  chapters  of 
cathedrals  and  collegiate  churches,  the  cures, 
or  the  monasteries.  Each  Maitrise  contained 
on  an  average  from  25  to  30  persons,  and  the 
musicians  thus  diffused  throughout  the  coun- 
try numbered  in  all  about  10,000,  of  whom 
4,000  were  pupils  or  choristers.  There  was 
naturally  much  rivalry  among  the  different 
establishments,  which  was  of  great  benefit  to 
music.  To  show  how  great  and  widely  spread 
was  their  influence  we  may  name  a  few  of  the 
principal  musicians  and  composers  who  owed 
their  education  and  their  very  varied  styles  to 
this  one  capacious  source,  before  the  estab- 
lishment of  opera  in  France : — Eustache  du  Caur- 
roy,  Intermet,  and  Claudin  (Claude  de  Sermisy), 
who  flourished  under  Henri  IV  j  Veillot,  maitre 
of  Notre  Dame;  Hautcousteau,  maitre  of  the 
Sainte  Chapelle ;  Pe"chon,  maitre  of  St.  Germain ; 
Fremart,  Cosset,  Gobert,  Boesset,  Moulinier,  and 
Michel  Lambert,  all  contemporaries  of  Chanoine 
Annibal  Gantez,  whose  'Entretien  des  musi- 
ciens'  (Auxerre,  1643,  small  nmo.  very  scarce) 
contains  curious,  and  not  very  edifying  details  of 
the  lives  of  the  maitres  de  chapelle  of  his  day. 
Then,  with  the  use  of  opera,  came  Cambert, 
Campra,  and  Gilles,  a  pupil  of  Poitevin,  and 
composer  of  a  celebrated  '  messe  des  morts  '  per- 
formed at  the  funeral  of  Rameau,  Bernier,  a 
learned   contrapuntist,   Rameau  himself,   (Jau- 


200 


MAFTRISE. 


zargues,  and  others  of  less  note.  Among  or- 
ganists— Marchand,  the  Couperins,  Daquin,  who 
threatened  to  be  a  formidable  rival  to  Handel 
and  Rameau,  Balbittre,  Charpentier,  Se'jan,  and 
Boely.  Among  composers — Lalande,  Monteclair, 
Blanchard,  Mondonville,  Floquet,  Philidor,  Gos- 
sec,  Gretry,  Champein,  Mehul,  Lesueur,  Ga- 
veaux,  Boieldieu,  and  Felicien  David.  Among 
singers,  Jelyotte,  Legros,  Larrivee,  Lays,  and 
Rousseau,  whose  voices  were  first  heard  in  the 
service  of  the  Church,  afterwards  delighted  the 
habitue's  of  the  opera. 

The  Maitrises,  though  suppressed  in  1791, 
were  afterwards  reconstituted,  on  a  different 
footing.  The  Conservatoire  national  de  musique 
is  now  the  great  nursery  of  French  musicians, 
but  many  a  church  has  still  its  Maltrise,  where 
the  choristers — boys  and  men — are  trained  by 
a  maltre  de  chapelle  in  everything  necessary 
to  insure  a  good  execution  of  plain-song  and 
sacred  music.  We  have  already  spoken  of 
Choron's  school  of  music  (Choeon),  still  in  ex- 
istence as  the  'Ecole  Niedermeyer.'  Nieder- 
meyer  and  D'Ortigue  also  founded  a  periodical 
called  '  La  Maitrise '  specially  devoted  to  sacred 
music.  It  survived  only  four  years,  but  to  it  we 
refer  the  reader  for  further  details.  Besides 
Gantez's'  work  already  mentioned,  another  book, 
also  published  in  1643  by  Jean  de  Bordenave, 
a  Canon  of  Beam,  'L'Estat  des  eglises  collegiales 
et  cathe"drales,' contains  much  information,  though 
impaired  by  its  want  of  method  and  arrange- 
ment. [G.  C] 

MAJESTATISCH.  'Majestic';  in  a  digni- 
fied manner.  This  is  used  as  the  equivalent  of 
Maestoso  by  Beethoven  in  No.  5  of  the  6  Lieder 
von  Gellert,  'Die  Ehre  Gottes  in  der  Natur.' 
The  whole  direction  is  'Majestatisch  und  erhaben' 
(majestic  and  sublime).  The  word  also  occurs 
as  a  direction  to  a  song  of  Schubert's  called 
« Liedesend.'  [J.  A.  F.  M.] 

MAJOR.  When  intervals  have  two  forms 
which  are  alike  consonant  or  alike  dissonant, 
these  are  distinguished  as  major  and  minor,  the 
former  being  always  a  semitone  greater  than  the 
latter.  Thus  thirds  and  sixths  have  two  forms, 
which  are  both  consonant,  and  are  respectively 
called  major  and  minor.  Seconds,  sevenths,  and 
ninths  have  each  two  forms,  which  are  dissonant, 
and  are  similarly  distinguished  as  major  and 
minor.  The  major  however  is  not  always  the 
greatest  form  of  an  interval,  for,  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances, some  intervals  are  capable  of  further 
extension,  and  are  then  described  as '  augmented' 
or  'superfluous,'  as  augmented  seconds  or  aug- 
mented or  superfluous  sixths.  The  major  forms 
of  concords  are  such  as  contain  a  major  third 
from  the  root  note,  and  these  are  both  more  har- 
monious and  better  defined  than  the  minor  con- 
cords ;  for,  in  the  first  place,  the  major  third 
agrees  with  the  fourth  harmonic  of  the  funda- 
mental tone,  and,  in  the  second,  the  combinational 
tones  of  the  chord  for  the  most  part  only  double 
notes  already  existing  in  the  chord.  Whereas 
in  the  minor  concords  the  minor  third  does  not 
correspond  with   any  of  the  really  perceptible 


MALBROUGH. 

harmonics  of  the  root  note,  and  the  triad  cannot 
in  any  position  be  free  from  false  combinational 
tones.  It  is  mainly  for  these  reasons  that  the 
major  chord  is  so  often  found  at  the  conclusion 
of  a  piece  of  music  in  a  minor  mode  in  the  works 
of  the  earlier  masters,  from  Josquin  des  Pre"s  up 
to  Mozart.     [See  Harmony,  vol.  i.  pp.  671,  2.] 

The  most  important  and  best  defined  scale  of 
modern  music  is  called  'major,'  because  it  has 
a  major  third  from  the  tonic  in  the  ascending 
series ;  whence  in  former  times  it  was  common 
to  distinguish  the  scale  or  mode  by  the  terms 
'greater'  or  'lesser'  third,  as,  'in  the  key  of  G 
with  the  greater  third,'  where  one  would  now  say 
'  G  major.'  This  major  scale  is  the  natural  dia- 
tonic series  of  modern  music,  represented  by  the 
series  starting  from  C.  It  is  fundamentally  the 
most  perfect  for  harmonic  purposes,  as  it  presents 
the  greatest  number  of  concords,  and  the  larger 
proportion  of  these  in  their  most  harmonious 
form ;  and  it  also  provides  most  perfectly  and 
simply  the  means  of  making  the  tonal  relationship 
intelligible ;  since,  as  Helmholtz  points  out, '  the 
tones  (of  the  scale)  are  constituents  of  the  com- 
pound tone  of  the  tonic,  or  the  fifth  above  or  the 
fifth  below  it.  By  which  means  all  the  relations 
of  tones  are  reduced  to  the  simplest  and  closest 
relationship  existing  in  any  musical  system — 
that  of  the  fifth.'  This  scale  corresponds  to  the 
Greek  Lydian  and  the  Ecclesiastical  Ionic. 

The  term  'major'  is  also  used  in  a  theoretical 
sense  of  tones,  to  distinguish  the  interval  of  a  tone 
which  has  the  ratio  9  :  8  from  that  which  has  the 
ratio  10 : 9,  which  is  called  a  minor  tone.  For 
example,  in  the  key  of  C,  C-D  is  a  major  tone 
and  D-E  a  minor  tone,  and  the  difference  be- 
tween them  is  a  comma.  [C.H.H.P.] 
MAJORANO.  [See  Caffarelli.] 
MALBROUGH,  or  MALBROOK.  The  date 
of  this  celebrated  French  song,  and  the  names  of 
the  authors  of  both  words  and  music,  are  doubt- 
ful ;  but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the 
couplets  called  '  Mort  et  convoi  de  l'invincible 
Malbrough '  were  improvised  on  the  night  after 
the  battle  of  Malplaquet  (Sept.  II,  1709),  in  the 
bivouack  of  Marechal  de  Villars,  at  Quesnoy, 
three  miles  from  the  field  of  battle.  The  name 
of  the  soldier,  who  perhaps  satirised  the  English 
general  as  a  relief  to  his  hunger,  has  not  been 
preserved,  but  in  all  probability  he  was  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  lament  on  the  death  of  the 
Duke  of  Guise,  published  in  1566.  In  fact,  the 
idea,  the  construction,  and  many  details  in  the 
two  songs  are  very  similar,  though  the  rhythm 
and  position  of  the  rhymes  are  different,  and 
they  cannot  be  sung  to  the  same  music.  The 
following  is  the  air,  admirably  adapted  to  the 
words  : — 


ffoHrrr^fr 


-•-*-+ 


:Sacg 


IS  N  S  V 


m 


JIal  -brough  s'en-va-t-en  guer-re,  Mi-ron-ton,  mironton,  mlron- 


r*=3P 


-n— r 


Tnr? 


tal  -  ne ;  Malbrough  s'en-va-t  -  en  guer  -  re,    Ke  salt  quand  re  -  vlen  - 


MALBROUGH. 


MALIBRAN. 


201 


Fine. 


D.C. 


dra,      Ne  salt  quandre-vlen-dra,  Ne  salt  quand  re-vlen-dnu 

Chateaubriand,  hearing  the  tune  sung  by  Arabs 
in  Palestine,  suggested  that  it  had  been  carried 
there  by  the  Crusaders,  either  in  the  time  of 
Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  or  in  that  of  Louis  IX.  and 
JoinviUe;  but  no  musician  can  entertain  this 
idea  for  a  moment.  The  breadth  of  the  phrasing, 
the  major  mode,  and  the  close  on  the  dominant, 
are  as  characteristic  of  the  popular  tunes  of  the 
time  of  Louis  XIV.  as  they  are  unlike  the  un- 
rhythmical melodies  of  the  middle  ages. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  neither  words  nor 
music  are  to  be  found  in  the  many  collections  of 
both  :  nowadays  the  merest  trifles  appear  in  print, 
then  all  songs  were  sung  from  memory.  It  would 
probably  have  died  out  had  not  Madame  Poi- 
trine  used  it  as  a  lullaby  for  the  infant  dauphin 
in  1 781.  Marie  Antoinette  took  a  fancy  to  her 
baby's  cradle-song,  and  sang  it  herself,  and 
'  Malbrough  s'en  va-t-en  guerre '  was  soon  heard 
in  Versailles,  Paris,  and  at  length  throughout 
Prance.  Beaumarchais  introduced  it  into  his 
'  Mariage  de  Figaro'  (1784),  which  still  further 
contributed  to  its  popularity.  It  then  became  a 
favourite  air  for  couplets  in  French  vaudevilles ; 
and  Beethoven  brings  it  into  his  'Battle  Sym- 
phony '  ( 1 8 1 3)  as  the  symbol  of  the  French  army. 
The  air  is  now  equally  popular  on  both  sides  of 
the  Channel.  Many  an  Englishman  who  would 
be  puzzled  to  recognise  Marlborough  under  the 
guise  of  Malbrook  is  familiar  with  the  tune  to 
the  convivial  words,  'We  won't  go  home  till 
morning '  and  '  For  he's  a  jolly  good  fellow.* 

The  piece  was  made  the  subject  of  an  opera- 
bouffe  in  4  acts,  words  by  Siraudin  and  Bus- 
nach,  music  by  Bizet,  Jonas,  Legouix,  and 
Delibes,  brought  out  at  the  Athenee,  Dec.  15, 
1867.  [G.  C] 

MALCOLM,  Alexander,  was  author  of  'A 
Treatise  on  Music,  Speculative,  Practical  and 
Historical,'  8vo.  Edinburgh,  1721 ;  2nd  edition, 
8vo.  London,  1730;  a  well-executed  work.  An 
ill-made  abridgement  appeared  in  London,  1776. 
In  1 72 1  one  Mitchell  published  '  An  Ode  on  the 
Power  of  Music,'  dedicated  to  Malcolm,  the 
greater  part  of  which  is  prefixed  to  the  2nd  edi- 
tion of  the  Treatise.  [W.  H.  H.] 

MALEK  ADEL.  An  opera  seria  in  3  acts  ; 
words  by  Count  Pepoli,  music  by  Costa.  Produced 
at  the  Theatre  Italien,  Paris,  Jan.  14,  1837,  and 
in  London  at  Her  Majesty's,  May  18,  1837.  [G.] 

MALIBRAN,  Mama  Felicita,  one.  of  the 
most  distinguished  singers  the  world  has  ever 
seen,  was  born  March  24,  1808,  at  Paris,  where 
her  father,  Manuel  Garcia,  had  arrived  only 
two  months  before.  When  3  years  old  she  was 
taken  to  Italy,  and  at  the  age  of  5  played  a 
child's  part  in  Paer's  '  Agnese,'  at  the  Fiorentini, 
Naples.  So  precocious  was  she  that,  after  a 
few  nights  of  this  opera,  she  actually  began 
to  sing  the  part  of  Agnese  in  the  duet  of  the 
second  Act,  a  piece  of  audacity  which  was  ap- 


plauded by  the  public.  Two  years  later,  she 
studied  solfeggi  with  Panseron,  at  Naples  ;  and 
Herold,  happening  to  arrive  about  the  same 
time,  gave  her  her  first  instruction  on  the  piano. 
In  1 816  Garcia  took  her  to  Paris  with  the  rest  of 
his  family,  and  thence  to  London  in  the  autumn 
of  181 7.  Already  speaking  fluently  Spanish, 
Italian,  and  French,  Maria  picked  up  a  tolerable 
knowledge  of  English  in  the  2j  years  she  spent 
in  London.  Not  long  after,  she  learned  German 
with  the  same  facility.  Here,  too,  she  had  good 
teaching  on  the  piano,  and  made  such  rapid 
progress  that,  on  her  return  to  Paris  in  18 19, 
she  was  able  to  play  J.  S.  Bach's  clavier-works, 
which  were  great  favourites  with  her  father.  In 
this  way  she  acquired  sound  taste  in  music. 

At  the  early  age  of  15  she  was  made  by  her 
father  to  learn  singing  under  his  own  direction ; 
and,  in  spite  of  the  fear  which  his  violent  temper 
inspired,  she  soon  showed  the  individuality  and 
originality  of  her  genius.  Two  years  had  barely 
elapsed  when  (1824)  Garcia  allowed  her  to  ap- 
pear for  the  first  time  before  a  musical  club  which 
he  had  just  established.  There  she  produced  a 
great  sensation,  and  her  future  success  was  con- 
fidently predicted.  Two  months  later,  Garcia 
returned  to  London  where  he  was  engaged  as 
principal  tenor ;  and  here  he  set  on  foot  a 
singing-class,  in  which  the  education  of  Maria 
was  continued,  if  not  completed.  Futis  says 
that  it  was  in  consequence  of  a  sudden  indis- 
position of  Mme.  Pasta,  that  the  first  public 
appearance  of  Maria  was  unexpectedly  made ; 
but  this  account  is  not  the  same  as  that  given  by 
Ebers  or  by  Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe.  The  latter 
relates  that,  shortly  after  the  repair  of  the  King's 
Theatre,  '  the  great  favourite  Pasta  arrived  for  a 
limited  number  of  nights.  About  the  same  time 
Ronzi  fell  ill,  and  totally  lost  her  voice,  so  that 
she  was  obliged  to  throw  up  her  engagement  and 
return  to  Italy.  Madame  Vestris  having  seceded, 
and  Caradori  being  unable  for  some  time  to  per- 
form, it  became  necessary  to  engage  a  young 
singer,  the  daughter  of  the  tenor  Garcia,  who 
had  sung  here  for  several  seasons.  She  was  a3 
yet  a  mere  girl,  and  had  never  appeared  on  any 
public  stage  ;  but  from  the  first  moment  of  her 
appearance  she  showed  evident  talents  for  it  both 
as  singer  and  actress.  Her  extreme  youth,  her 
prettiness,  her  pleasing  voice,  and  sprightly  easy 
action,  as  Rosina  in  'II  Barbiere  di  Seviglia,'  in 
which  part  she  made  her  de"but,  gained  her 
general  favour ;  but  she  was  too  highly  extolled, 
and  injudiciously  put  forward  as  a  prima  donna, 
when  she  was  only  a  very  promising  debutante, 
who  in  time,  by  study  and  practice,  would  in  all 
probability,  under  the  tuition  of  her  father,  a 
good  musician,  but  (to  my  ears  at  least)  a  most 
disagreeable  singer,  rise  to  eminence  in  her  pro- 
fession. But  in  the  following  year  she  went 
with  her  whole  family  (all  of  whom,  old  and 
young,  are  singers  tant  bons  que  mauvais)  to 
establish  an  Italian  opera  in  America,  where,  it 
is  said,  she  is  married,  so  that  she  will  probably 
never  return  to  this  country,  if  to  Europe.' 
I  Ebers    says,    'her  voice   was  a  contralto,   and 


202 


MALIBRAN. 


managed  with  great  taste.'  Her  de*but  took 
place  June  7,  1825.  She  was  immediately  after- 
wards engaged  for  the  remainder  of  the  season 
(about  six  weeks)  at  £500.  On  July  23,  she 
sang  Felicia  in  the  first  performance  of  Meyer- 
beer's '  Crociato.'  At  the  end  of  the  season, 
Garcia  went,  with  his  daughter,  to  the  provincial 
festivals,  and  then  embarked  for  New  York.  In 
this  new  sphere  Maria  rapidly  improved,  and 
acquired  confidence,  experience,  and  the  habit  of 
the  stage.  She  appeared  in  '  Otello,'  '  Romeo,' 
'  Don  Giovanni,' '  Tancredi,'  *  Cenerentola,'  and  in 
two  operas  written  for  her  by  her  father,  'L'amante 
astuto,'  and  'La  Figlia  dell'  aria.'  She  had 
scarcely  made  her  de'but  when  the  enthusiasm  of 
the  public  knew  no  bounds ;  and,  in  the  midst  of 
her  popularity,  Garcia  gave  her  in  marriage  to 
M.  Malibran,  an  elderly  and  seemingly  wealthy 
French  merchant,  in  spite  of  her  repugnance  to 
the  union.  This  marriage,  celebrated  March 
25,  1826,  was  as  unhappy  as  it  was  ill-assorted ; 
a  year  had  hardly  elapsed  before  the  young  wife 
found  herself,  on  Malibran's  bankruptcy,  free 
to  leave  him,  and  she  at  once  seized  the  oppor- 
tunity. In  September  1S27  she  had  returned 
to  France.  Preceded  by  a  bright  reputation, 
she  began  by  reaping  a  harvest  of  applause  in 
private  concerts,  followed  in  January  1828  by  a 
great  and  genuine  success,  at  Galli's  benefit,  in 
'  Semiramide.'  Her  genius  for  dramatic  sing- 
ing was  at  once  recognised,  though  her  style 
was  marred  by  a  questionable  taste  in  her  choice 
of  ornament.  This  she  had,  in  Paris,  the  best 
opportunity  of  correcting,  both  by  the  advice 
of  kindly  critics  and  the  example  of  accom- 
plished singers.  Engaged  for  the  season  at 
the  Italian  opera,  she  made  her  debut  April  8. 
The  public,  at  first  doubting,  soon  welcomed 
her  as  a  really  great  singer,  and  were  parti- 
cularly struck  with  wonder  and  delight  at  the 
novelty  and  originality  of  her  style.  In  the 
season  of  1820,  Malibran  made  her  re  appearance 
in  London,  where  she  shared  the  applause  of  the 
public  with  Sontag,  and  the  same  result  followed 
her  singing  with  that  artist  at  Paris  in  the 
autumn.  Engaged  again  at  the  Italian  Opera  in 
the  same  capital  in  January  1830,  she  was  paid 
frs.  1075  for  each  representation.  This  was  less 
than  she  had  received  from  Laporte  in  London, 
for  he  had  given  her  frs.  13,333*33  a  month,  an 
odd  sum,  unless  it  meant  frs.  40,000  for  three 
months  ;  and  she  stipulated  only  to  appear  twice 
a  week,  making  each  of  those  appearances  cost 
frs.  1 666*66,  or  about  £66.  Though  she  certainly 
continued  to  draw  no  higher  salary  at  the  Paris 
Opera  in  1830  and  31,  and  her  charge  for  singing 
at  private  concerts  in  London,  1829,  was  only  25 
guineas,  yet  Mr.  Alfred  Bunn  engaged  her,  soon 
after,  for  nineteen  nights  at  £125  per  night, 
payable  in  advance. 

Sontag,  marrying  and  retiring  from  the  stage 
early  in  1830,  left  Malibran  mistress  of  the  field, 
and  henceforth  she  had  no  rival,  but  continued 
to  sing  each  season  in  London  and  Paris  with 
ever-increased  eclat.  In  1830  an  attachment 
sprang  up  between  her  and  de  Be"riot ;  and  this 


MALIBRAN. 

ended  only  with  her  life.  They  built  in  1831  a 
handsome  villa  in  a  suburb  of  Brussels,  to  which 
they  returned  after  every  operatic  campaign.  In 
the  summer  of  1832,  a  sudden  inspiration  took 
this  impulsive  artist  to  Italy  in  the  company  of 
Lablache,  who  happened  to  pass  through  Brussels ; 
and  an  Italian  tour  was  improvised,  which  was  a 
sort  of  triumphal  progress.  Milan,  Rome,  Naples, 
and  Bologna  were  visited  with  equal  success. 

On  her  return  to  Brussels  in  November, 
Mme.  Malibran  gave  birth  to  a  daughter,  who 
did  not  live  ;  she  had  already  a  son.  In  the 
following  spring  she  came  to  London,  and  sang 
at  Drury  Lane,  in  English  Opera,  receiving 
frs.  80,000  for  40  representations,  with  two 
benefits  which  produced  not  less  than  frs.  50,000. 
The  prices  offered  to  her  increased  each  year  to 
an  unprecedented  extent.  She  received  at  the 
Opera  in  London,  during  May  and  June  1S35, 
£2,775  f°r  24  appearances.  Sums,  the  like  of 
which  had  not  been  heard  of  before  in  such 
cases,  were  paid  to  her  at  the  provincial  festivals 
in  England,  and  her  last  engagement  at  Naples 
was  for  frs.  80,000  for  40  nights,  with  ik  benefits, 
while  that  which  she  had  accepted  at  Milan 
from  the  Duke  Visconti,  the  director  of  La  Scala, 
was,  exclusively  of  some  other  profitable  con- 
ditions, frs.  450,000  for  185  performances,  viz. 
75  in  1835-6,  75  in  1836-7,  and  35  in  the 
autumn  of  38. 

Having  played  here  in  English  versions  of 
'Sonnambula'  and  'Fidelio,'  Malibran  returned 
to  Naples,  where  she  remained  until  May,  1834, 
proceeding  then  to  Bologna,  and  thence  to 
Milan.  She  soon  came  back,  however,  to  London 
for  a  flying  visit ;  and  was  singing  at  Sini- 
gaglia  in  July.  On  the  nth  of  the  next  month 
she  went  to  Lucca,  where  her  horses  were  taken 
from  her  carriage,  which  was  drawn  to  her 
hotel  by  enthusiastic  admirers  after  her  last  ap- 
pearance. She  next  went  to  Milan,  where  she 
signed  the  above-mentioned  scrittura,  and  thence 
to  Naples,  where  she  sang  during  the  Carnival. 
Here  she  met  with  an  accident,  her  carriage  being 
upset  at  the  corner  of  a  street ;  and  she  suffered 
injuries  which  prevented  her  from  appearing  in 
public  for  a  fortnight.  Even  then,  she  made 
her  first  appearance  with  her  arm  in  a  sling, 
which  added  to  the  interest  of  the  occasion. 
From  Naples  she  went,  in  the  same  triumphant 
manner,  to  Venice,  her  arrival  being  announced 
by  fanfares  of  trumpets.  There  she  was  besieged 
with  fresh  enthusiasm,  which  followed  her  in  her 
return  to  Paris  and  London.  She  returned  in 
August  to  Lucca,  where  she  played  in  'Ines 
di  Castro,'  written  for  her  by  Persiani,  and  in 
'  Maria  Stuarda.' 

At  this  juncture,  her  marriage  was  annulled 
by  the  Courts  at  Paris,  and  on  March  26,  1836, 
she  married  de  Beriot,  with  whom  she  returned 
immediately  to  Brussels. 

In  the  following  April,  once  more  in  London, 
Mme.  Malibran  de  Beriot  had  a  fall  from  her 
horse.  She  was  dragged  some  distance  along  the- 
road,  and  received  serious  injuries  to  her  head, 
from  which  she  never  entirely  recovered ;  but  her 


MALIBRAN. 

wonderful  energy  enabled  her  for  a  time  to  dis- 
regard the  consequences  of  this  accident.  She  re- 
turned to  Brussels,  from  whence  she  went  to  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  and  gave  two  concerts  there  with  de 
Beriot.  In  September  she  had  come  to  England 
again,  for  the  Manchester  Festival, — at  which 
her  short,  brilliant  life  came  to  an  end.  She  had 
arrived,  with  her  husband,  after  a  rapid  journey 
from  Paris,  on  Sunday,  September  1 1,  1836.  On 
the  following  evening  she  sang  in  no  less  than  14 
pieces.  On  the  Tuesday,  though  weak  and  ill,  she 
insisted  on  singing  both  morning  and  evening. 
On  Wednesday,  the  14th,  her  state  was  still  more 
critical,  but  she  contrived  to  sing  the  last  sacred 
music  in  which  she  ever  took  part,  '  Sing  ye  to 
the  Lord,'  with  thrilling  effect ;  but  that  same 
evening  her  last  notes  in  public  were  heard,  in 
the  Duet,  with  Mme.  Caradori  Allan,  '  Vanne  se 
alberghi  in  petto,'  from  '  Andronico.'  This  was 
received  with  immense  enthusiasm,  the  last 
movement  was  encored,  and  Malibran  actually 
accomplished  the  task  of  repeating  it.  It  was 
her  last  effort.  While  the  concert-room  still 
rang  with  applause,  she  was  fainting  in  the  arms 
of  her  friends  ;  and,  a  few  moments  later, 
she  was  conveyed  to  her  hotel.  Here  she  died, 
after  nine  days  of  nervous  fever,  in  the  prostra- 
tion which  naturally  followed  upon  the  serious 
injuries  her  brain  had  received  from  the  accident 
which  had  befallen  her  in  the  midst  of  a  life  of 
perpetual  excitement.  She  died  on  Friday, 
Sept.  23,  1836,  about  20  minutes  before  mid- 
night, under  the  care  of  her  own  doctor,  a 
homoeopath,  Belluomini,  who  had  declined  to  act 
with  the  two  regular  physicians  who  had  at 
first  attended  her.  Two  hours  after  her  death, 
de  Beriot  was,  with  Belluomini,  in  a  carriage 
on  his  way  to  Brussels,  to  secure  the  property  of 
his  late  wife.  She  was  buried  on  Oct.  1,  in  the 
south  aisle  of  the  collegiate  church,  Manchester. 
She  was  but  28  years  of  age  when  she  died.  Her 
remains  were,  soon  afterwards,  removed  to 
Brussels,  where  they  were  re-interred  in  the 
cemetery  of  Lacken  where  a  mausoleum  was 
erected  by  de  Beriot,  containing  a  bust  of  the 
great  singer  by  the  celebrated  sculptor  Geefs. 

It  is  difficult  to  appreciate  the  charm  of  a 
singer  whom  one  has  never  heard.  In  the  case 
of  Maria  Malibran,  it  is  exceptionally  difficult, 
for  the  charm  seems  to  have  consisted  chiefly  in 
the  peculiarity  of  timbre  and  unusual  extent  of 
her  voice,  in  her  excitable  temperament  which 
prompted  her  to  improvise  passages  of  strange 
audacity  upon  the  stage,  and  on  her  strong 
musical  feeling  which  kept  those  improvisations 
nearly,  but  not  quite,  always  within  the  bounds 
of  good  taste.  That  her  voice  was  not  faultless, 
either  in  quality  or  uniformity,  seems  certain. 
It  was  a  contralto,  having  much  of  the  soprano 
register  super-added,  and  with  an  interval  of 
dead  notes  intervening,  to  conceal  which  she 
used  great  ingenuity,  with  almost  perfect  success. 
It  was,  after  all,  her  mind  that  helped  to  enslave 
her  audience;  without  that  mental  originality, 
her  defective  vocal  organ  would  have  failed  to 
please  where,  in  fact,  it  provoked  raptures.    She 


MANCANDO. 


203 


was  a  phenomenal  singer ;  and  it  is  one  mis- 
fortune of  the  present  generation  that  she  died 
too  young  for  them  to  hear  her. 

Many  portraits  of  Malibran  have  appeared, 
none  very  good.  A  large  one,  after  Hayter,  re- 
presenting her  with  a  harp,  as  •  Desdemona,'  is 
usually  accounted  the  best ;  but  it-  is  only  indif- 
ferent. Another,  by  R.  J.  Lane,  A.R.A.,  showing 
her  made  up  as  '  Fidalma,'  and  then,  afterwards, 
in  a  stage-box,  in  her  usual  dress,  is  much  better. 
It  is  this  latter  portrait  which  we  have  engraved. 


-  -"  •  -     - 

m 

~?J  -"  - 


Several  biographies  have  appeared  of  this  ex- 
traordinary person,  with  anecdotes  of  whom  it 
would  be  easy  to  fill  a  volume  ;  that  which  was 
written  by  the  Comtesse  Merlin  is  little  better 
than  a  romance.  Malibran  composed  and  pub- 
lished many  nocturnes,  songs,  and  chansonnettes ; 
some  of  the  unpublished  pieces  were  collected 
and  published  by  Troupenas  at  Paris  under  the 
name  of  '  Dernieres  Pense"es  musicales  de  Marie- 
Felicite  Garcia  de  Be'riot,'  in  4to.  [J.M.] 

MALINCONIA,  LA.  The  name  attached  by 
Beethoven  to  a  very  romantic  intermezzo  or  in- 
troduction, of  44  bars  length,  between  the  Scherzo 
and  the  Finale  of  his  Quartet  in  Bb,  No.  6,  op. 
18.  The  time  is  Adagio,  and  the  direction  given 
is  '  Questo  pezzo  si  deve  trattare  colla  piii  gran 
delicatezza.  The  theme  of  the  Malinconia 
appears  twice  in  the  Finale,  much  in  the  same 
way  that  the  Andante  does  in  that  of  the 
Quintet,  op.  29.  [G.] 

MANCANDO,  'failing,'  or  'weak,'  is  used  to 
denote  a  decrescendo,  or  lessening  of  tone,  in  an 
already  soft  passage.  It  occurs  in  the  Scherzo 
of  Beethoven's  Pianoforte  Sonata  in  Eb,  op.  7,  in 
the  last  variation  of  the  Sonata  in  Ab,  op.  26,  and 
in  the  slow  movement  of  the  Quartet,  op.  59, 
No.  2.  It  is  also  much  used  by  Schumann  and 
Chopin,  and  is  almost  always  found  in  slow 
movements,  although  the  first  instance  cited  from 
Beethoven  is  an  exception.  [J.A.F.M.] 


:o4 


MANCHESTER. 


MANCHESTER.  The  oldest  musical  associ- 
ation in  this  city  is  The  Gentlemen's  Concerts, 
which  can  be  traced  back  to  i  749,  and  probably 
existed  some  time  previously  to  that  date.  The 
orchestra  was  formerly  composed  of  amateurs 
and  professional  members,  but  is  now  entirely 
professional.  Ten  monthly  orchestral  concerts 
are  given  each  year  at  the  Concert  Hall.  Mr. 
Charles  Halle  has  been  the  Conductor  since 
May  1850. 

The  Manchester  Choral  Society  was  formed 
about  the  year  1840,  for  the  purpose  of  per- 
forming the  leading  oratorios  and  choral  works 
of  Handel,  Haydn,  Mozart,  Mendelssohn,  etc. 
Its  members  were  professional  and  amateur  in- 
discriminately ;  the  accompaniment  was  limited 
to  the  organ  ;  and  the  concerts,  which  became 
very  popular,  were  held  in  the  Royal  Institution. 

The  Hakgreayes  ChoralSociety  was  founded 
in  1S41,  on  the  bequest  of  a  large  sum  of  money, 
and  an  extensive  library  of  choral  music,  by  Mr. 
Hamer  Hargreaves,  for  the  formation  of  a  society 
for  the  practice  of  sacred  choral  music,  with  an 
instrumental  band.  The  concerts  were  supported 
by  150  performers,  under  the  direction  of  Mr. 
John  "Waddington,  through  whose  care  and  skill 
the  performances  attained  a  degree  of  complete- 
ness never  before  readied  in  the  North  of  England. 
The  Society  had  the  honour  of  introducing 
Elijah  to  Manchester  on  April  20,  1S47,  under 
the  direction  of  the  composer.  It  was  dissolved 
in  1S49,  mainly  in  consequence  of  a  difficulty  in 
obtaining  suitable  accommodation. 

Mr.  Charles  Halle's  Grand  Concerts  were 
begun  in  1S57,  and  still  continue  weekly  at  the 
Free  Trade  Hall,  from  the  last  week  in  October 
to  the  first  week  in  March.  20  concerts  are 
given  each  season,  1 2  miscellaneous,  and  S  choral. 
The  programmes  embrace  the  newest  and  most 
interesting  orchestral  works,  concertos  and  solo 
compositions  played  by  the  best  artists,  and  solo 
vocal  works  by  eminent  singers.  The  concerts 
are  conducted  by  Mr.  Halle,  and  the  chorus, 
which  is  250  strong  and  remarkably  efficient, 
is  under  the  control  of  Mr.  Edward  Hecht.  The 
reputation  of  the  band  is  great,  and  they  are 
frequently  engaged  at  Liverpool,  Leeds,  Bradford, 
Edinburgh,  and  other  towns  in  the  North. 

Classical  Chamber  Concerts  were  started 
about  1840  by  Mr.  C.  A.  Seymour  and  Herr 
Rudersdorf,  but  though  much  appreciated  by  the 
cultivated  amateurs  of  Manchester,  they  were 
not  adequately  supported,  and  have  for  many 
years  ceased  to  exist.  [G.] 

MANDOLINE  (Ital.  Mandolino)  is  a  small 
and  verjj  beautifully  formed  stringed  instrument 
of  the  lute  kind,  with  deeper  convexity  of  back 
than  the  lute.  It  is,  as  its  name  implies,  less  in 
size  than  the  Mandola  or  Maxdoka,  a  much 
scarcer  instrument.  Mandola,  or  Mandorla,  sig- 
nifies 'almond,'  and  it  has  been  supposed  that 
the  shape  of  the  instrument  has  given  it  the 
name.  But  this  cannot  be  accepted,  since  the 
almost  universal  use  of  the  syllable  '  Man'  un- 
changed, or  changed  by  phonetic  variation  to 
'Ban,'  'Pan,'  'Tan,'  etc.,  for   the  first  syllable 


MANDOLINE. 

of  names  of  lute  instruments  from  East  to  West, 
removes  it  to  a  wider  etymological  field. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  Mandoline,  the 
Neapolitan  and  the  Milanese;  the  former  having 
four  pairs  of  strings,  the  latter  usually  five.  The 
Milanese  '  Mandurina'  is  tuned 


There  is  one  at  South  Kensington  with  six  pairs, 
tuned 


-4-  -L 


•"-_"•" 


The  Milanese  variety,  however,  is  rare  in  com- 
parison with  the  Neapolitan,  the  tuning  of  which 
is  like  that  of  the  violin,  in  fifths.  The  lowest 
pair  of  strings 
is  of  gut,  spun 
over  with  silver 
or  copper,  like 
a  guitar  first 
string ;  the  next 
of  steel  also 
spun  over ;  the 
second  and  first 
pairs  are  of  steel 
only.  The  Man- 
doline is  played 
with  a  plectrum 
of  tortoiseshell, 
whalebone.horn, 
or  ostrich-quill, 
more  or  less 
flexible,  which 
is  held  in  the 
right  hand,  the 

left  being  employed  to  stop  the  strings,  for 
which  purpose  there  are  seventeen  frets  across 
the  fingerboard.  The  scale  of  the  instrument 
is  three  octaves  and  one  note,  from  the  G  below 
the  treble  stave  to  the  octave  of  A  above  it.  The 
Serenade  in  Mozart's  Don  Giovanni,  '  Deh  vieni,' 
was  written  to  be  accompanied  by  the  Mando- 
line : — 


The  pizzicato  of  the  violins  is  of  a  different  colour 
of  tone,  and  offers  but  a  poor  substitute. 

The  Mandoline  is  not  however  the  correct  in- 
strument. Don  Juan  would  have  played  a  Ban- 
durria,  a  kind  of  half  guitar  and  truly  national 
Spanish  instrument,  sometimes  incorrectly  called 
a  Mandoline.  The  back  of  the  bandurria  is  flat ; 
it  has  only  in  common  with  the  Mandoline  that 
it  is  played   with   a   plectrum  of  tortoiseshell, 


MANDOLINE. 

called  in  Spanish  'pua,'  and  that  it  is  the  practice 
to  insert  a  plate  of  the  same  substance  in  the 
belly  below  the  soundhole  to  prevent  the  plectrum 
scratching.  The  bandurria  has  twelve  strings 
tuned  in  pairs,  the  higher  three  notes  of  catgut 
the  lower  of  silk  overspun  with  metal.  It  is 
tuned  much  more  deeply  than  the  Mandoline. 
The  compass  is  in  all  three  octaves. 


MANDOLINE. 


205 


The  Spanish  '  Estudiantina,'  in  London  1879, 
had  eleven  bandurrias  in  their  band  and  six 
guitars. 

The  most  recent  instruction-book  for  the  Nea- 
politan   Mandoline    is   by   Signor   Carmine   de 


Laurentiis,  and  is  published  by  Ricordi,  Milan. 
Our  illustration  is  from  an  instrument  in  the 
possession  of  Mr.  Carl  Engel. 

Beethoven's  friend  Krumpholz  was  a  virtuoso 
on  the  Mandoline,  and  this  probably  explains 
the  fact  of  Beethoven's  having  written  a  piece 
for  the  instrument  (Thayer,  ii.  49).  The  auto- 
graph is  to  be  found  in  the  volume  of  MS. 
sketches  and  fragments  preserved  in  the  British 
Museum,  Add.  MSS.  29,801.  Though  entitled 
'  Sonatina  per  il  Mandolina.  Composta  da  L.  v. 
Beethoven,'  it  is  only  in  one  movement,  and  is 
here  printed  probably  for  the  first  time.  It  will 
be  observed  that  the  phrase  with  which  the 
Trio  (C  major)  begins  is  the  same  which  Bee- 
thoven afterwards  used  in  the  Allegretto  of 
op.  14,  No.  1. 


Adaqlo. 


Mandouno 


Cembalo, 


206 


MANDOLINE. 


MANNS. 


MANERIA  (Ital.  Maniera).  A  word,  trans- 
ferred from  the  terminology  of  antient  music  to 
that  of  Plain  Chaunt,  in  which  it  is  applied  to  those 
combinations  of  Authentic  and  Plagal  Modes, 
having  a  common  Final,  which  are  more  familiarly 
called  '  Mixed  Modes.'  [W.S.R.] 

MANIER  (Ger.),  lit.  'manner';  derived,  like 
our  word  *  manner,'  through  the  French  maniere, 
a  manner,  and  manier,  to  handle,  from  the 
Latin  manus,  a  hand.  It  has  two  entirely  dis- 
tinct meanings,  one  dealing  with  the  aesthetics 
of  music,  the  other  with  its  technicalities.  In 
the  first  of  these  connections  the  word  signifies 
1  mannerism,'  or  the  faulty  adherence  to  some 
peculiarity  in  style,  bringing  such  peculiarity 
into  undue  prominence.  It  is  the  abuse  of  indi- 
viduality, without  which  quality  no  composer 
can  be  truly  great.  The  German  word  is  always 
used  in  this  sense  of  reproach  ;  it  never  has  the 
meaning  of  '  individuality.' 

The  second  meaning  of  the  word  is  the  same  as 
the  French  agremens,  ornaments  introduced  into, 
and  built  upon,  the  melody,  whether  indicated 
by  small  notes,  or  marks,  or  added  at  the  will 
of  the  performer.  [See  Agremens,  vol.  i.  p.  42, 
where  the  subject  is  fully  treated.]      [J.  A.  F.  M.] 

MANNERGESANGVEREIN,  an  association 
of  men  formed  for  the  cultivation  of  singing  in  4 
parts — 2  tenors  and  2  basses.  They  sprang  from 
the  Liedertafeln,  and  the  most  important  were 
founded  by  Dr.  A.  Schmid,  in  Vienna  (1845), 
and  by  Franz  Weber  in  Cologne.  The  latter 
visited  England  in  the  spring  of  1 S60,  and  sang 
before    the    Queen   at  Windsor.     (See  Lieder- 

TAFEL).  [F.G.] 

MANNS,  August,  an  eminent  conductor,  born 
of  poor  parents  at  Stolzenburg,  near  Stettin,  in 
North  Germany,  March  12,  1825.  His  first 
teacher  was  the  Village-musician  at  the  neigh- 
bouring village  of  Torgelow,  from  whom  he  learnt 
the   violin,  clarinet,  and   flute.      Hie  next  in- 


[A.J.H.] 


struction  was  received  from  Urban,  the  Town- 
musician  of  Elbing,  near  which  his  parents  had 
removed,  and  to  whom  he  was  apprenticed.  Here 
he  had  regular  practice  in  an  orchestra,  especially 
that  of  the  Dantzig  opera  company  during  its 
annual  visits  to  Elbing;  and  this  led  to  his 
entering  one  of  the  regimental  bands  of  Dantzig 
as  1st  clarinet,  while  he  played  among  the  1st 
violins  at  the  theatre.  He  now  began  to  arrange 
and  compose  for  the  band,  and  generally  to  take 
a  prominent  part  in  the  music  of  the  place.  In 
1848  the  Regiment  was  transferred  to  Posen, 
and  here  Mr.  Manns  was  noticed  by  Wieprecht, 
and  throughhis  assistance  transferred  himself  from 
the  military  band  to  Gungl's  orchestra  in  Berlin, 
and  was  at  length  advanced  to  the  post  of  con- 
ductor and  solo-violin  player  at  Kroll's  Garden — 
the  Crystal  Palace  of  Berlin.  Here,  under  Gyer, 
he  worked  hard  at  harmony  and  composition,  and 
produced  much  dance  music  and  other  pieces 
which  were  very  popular.  After  the  destruction  of 
Kroll's  establishment  by  fire  in  1851,  Mr.  Manns 
was  chosen  by  Herr  von  Roon  (the  well-known 
war-minister),  then  in  command  of  a  crack  in- 
fantry regiment  at  Konigsberg,  to  be  his  band- 
master. Colonel  von  Roon,  though  not  himself 
a  musician,  was  very  anxious  that  the  band  of 
his  regiment  should  shine  in  the  service.  He 
accordingly  gave  his  bandmaster  every  opportunity 
of  display.  At  his  instance  Beethoven's  Sym- 
phonies (not  at  that  time  so  universally  known 
as  they  are  now)  were  arranged  for  the  band, 
and  in  other  ways  the  music  of  the  regiment  was 
made  very  prominent.  It  was  soon  afterwards 
moved  from  Konigsberg  to  Cologne,  and  there 
enjoyed  a  still  greater  reputation.  Mr.  Manns, 
however,  longed  for  a  wider  field,  and  wisely 
leaving  to  others  the  department  of  composition, 
in  which  his  abilities  were  quite  sufficient  to  have 
insured  him  considerable  success,  he  fortunately 
accepted,  in  the  spring  of  1854,  an  engagement 
as  sub-conductor  in  the   band   of   the    Crystal 


MANNS. 

Palace,  then  a  wind  band  only,  under  Herr 
Schallehn.  This  position  he  gave  up  in  October, 
and  after  following  his  profession  at  Leamington 
and  Edinburgh  (in  Mr.  Wood's  opera  band)  he 
became  conductor  of  the  summer  concerts  at 
Amsterdam  in  1855,  and  finally,  in  the  autumn 
of  that  year,  was  engaged  as  conductor  of  the 
Crystal  Palace  band,  a  post  which  he  entered 
upon  on  October  14,  1855.  The  music  at  the 
Crystal  Palace  was  at  that  time  in  a  very  in- 
choate condition,  the  band  was  still  a  wind  band, 
and  the  open  Centre  Transept  was  the  only  place 
for  its  performances.  Under  the  efforts  of  the 
new  conductor  things  soon  began  to  mend.  He 
conducted  a  '  Saturday  Concert '  in  the  '  Bohe- 
mian Glass  Court '  the  week  after  his  arrival — 
through  the  enlightened  liberality  of  the  Direc- 
tors the  band  was  changed  to  a  full  orchestra,  a 
better  spot  was  found  for  the  music,  adjoining 
the  Queen's  rooms  (since  burnt)  at  the  north- 
east end,  and  at  length,  through  the  exertions 
of  the  late  Mr.  Robert  Bowley,  then  General 
Manager,  the  Concert  Room  was  enclosed  and 
roofed  in,  and  the  present  famed  Saturday  Con- 
certs began,  and  have  progressed,  both  in  the 
value  and  variety  of  the  selections  and  the  deli- 
cacy and  spirit  of  the  performances,  ever  since. 
Mr.  Manns 's  duties  as  conductor,  both  of  the 
daily  music  and  of  the  Saturday  Concerts,  as  well 
as  of  the  numerous  /Stes  and  extra  performances, 
where  music  has  to  be  arranged  for  large  com- 
bined masses  of  wind  and  string,  are  naturally 
very  arduous.  Mendelssohn  (in  a  letter  from 
Leipzig  dated  Feb.  27,  1841)  says,  'I  have  con- 
ducted fifteen  public  performances  since  Jan.  1 ; 
enough  to  knock  up  any  man.'  What  would  he 
have  said  if  he  had  had  to  do  this  with  all  the 
added  difficulties  caused  by  the  calls  of  the 
London  season  on  his  musicians,  and  with  two 
band-performances  to  arrange  and  conduct  every 
day  as  well  ?  Mr.  Manns  has  therefore  hitherto 
only  rarely  taken  engagements  outside  the 
Crystal  Palace.  In  1859  ne  conducted  the  Pro- 
menade Concerts  at  Drury  Lane,  and  he  is 
announced  to  conduct  the  approaching  Winter 
Series  at  Glasgow  (Dec.  1879  and  Jan.  1880). 

Mr.  Manns  often  appears  in  the  Crystal  Palace 
programmes  as  a  composer,  but  it  is  as  the 
director  of  his  orchestra  that  he  has  won  his 
laurels.  In  a  remarkable  article  in  The  Times 
of  April  28,  1847,  it  *s  sai<i  that  'the  German 
conductor  makes  the  orchestra  express  all  the 
modifications  of  feeling  that  an  imaginative 
soloist  would  give  voice  to  on  a  single  instru- 
ment.' It  is  to  this  power  of  wielding  his  band 
that  Mr.  Manns  has  accustomed  his  audience 
during  the  24  years  of  his  conductorship.  In 
addition  to  the  many  qualities  necessary  to 
produce  this  result  he  is  gifted  with  an  industry 
which  finds  no  pains  too  great,  and  with  a 
devotion,  which  not  only  makes  him  strictly  loyal 
to  the  indications  of  the  composer,  but  has  en- 
abled him  to  transcend  the  limits  of  a  mere 
conductor,  and  to  urge  on  his  audience  music 
which,  though  at  first  received  with  enthusiasm 
only  by  a  few,  has  in  time  amply  justified  his 


MANTUA. 


207 


foresight  by  becoming  a  public  necessity.  It  is 
not  too  much  to  say  that  his  persistent  perform- 
ance of  the  works  of  Schumann— to  name  but 
one  composer  out  of  several — in  the  early  part  of 
his  career  at  Sydenham,  has  made  the  London 
public  acquainted  with  them  years  before  they 
would  otherwise  have  become  so.  [G.] 

MANTIUS,  Eduabd,  a  German  tenor  singer 
of  great  reputation  in  Northern  Germany,  was 
born  at  Schwerin  in  1806.  He  studied  law,  first 
in  1825,  at  the  university  of  Rostock,  and  after- 
wards at  Leipzig.  It  was  at  the  latter  place  that 
his  fine  voice  attracted  general  attention  and 
that  he  began  to  study  singing  under  Pohlenz. 
After  having  sung  with  great  success  at  a  festival 
at  Halle,  conducted  by  Spontini,  he  went  to  Ber- 
lin, and  by  his  interpretation  of  the  tenor  parts 
in  Handel's  oratorios  (Samson,  Judas,  etc.),  soon 
became  the  declared  favourite  of  the  Berlin  pub- 
lic. How  much  his  talent  was  appreciated  in  the 
house  of  the  Mendelssohn  family  may  be  gathered 
from  many  passages  in  the  published  letters  and 
other  books  relating  to  Mendelssohn.  It  was 
Mantius  who  sang  the  principal  tenor  part  in 
the  Liederspiel '  Die  Heimkehr  aus  der  Fremde' 
('  Son  and  Stranger'),  at  the  celebration  of  the 
silver  wedding  of  the  elder  Mendelssohns  (Dev- 
rient,  p.  89).  In  1830  he  made  his  first  appear- 
ance on  the  stage  at  Berlin  as  Tamino  in  the 
Zauberflote.  In  1-857  he  gave  his  farewell  per- 
formance as  Florestan  in  Fidelio.  During  27 
years  he  had  appeared  in  no  less  than  152 
characters.  After  quitting  the  stage  he  devoted 
himself  with  much  success  to  teaching,  and  he 
died  at  Ilmenau,  in  Thuringia,  in  1874.  Man- 
tius had  not  only  an  exceptionally  fine  voice, 
which  he  knew  how  to  use  in  a  truly  artistic 
and  musical  manner,  but  Was  also  a  remarkably 
good  actor.  His  representations  of  the  tenor 
parts  in  Mozart's  and  Gluck's  operas  were  justly 
regarded  as  models  of  their  kind.  [P.  D.] 

MANTUA.  The  earliest  Academy  in  Mantua 
for  poetry  and  music  was  that  of  the  '  Invaghiti,' 
founded  in  1560  by  Cesare  Gonzaga,  Duke  of 
Mantua,  and  Signore  di  Guastalla.  It  always 
remained  under  royal  patronage,  and  was  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  flourishing  in  Italy.  In 
1494,  previous  to  the  founding  of  this  Academy, 
there  was  a  magnificent  theatre  in  Mantua,  in 
which  was  represented  one  of  the  earliest  Italian 
dramas — the  '  Orfeo '  of  Angelo  Poliziano.  This 
pastorale  was  composed  in  two  days  at  the  instance 
of  Francesco  Gonzaga,  Duke  of  Mantua.  In  the 
seventeenth  century,  says  Muratori,  music,  and 
more  especially  theatrical  music,  was  held  in 
high  esteem;  the  attention  of  every  one  was 
directed  to  gorgeous  musical  entertainments,  and 
more  especially  the  courts  of  Modena  and  Man- 
tua tried  to  outshine  each  other  in  magnificence. 
Their  respective  Dukes,  Ferdinando  Gonzaga 
and  Francesco  d'Este,  vied  in  obtaining  the 
best  musicians  and  most  highly  prized  singers 
for  their  court.  It  was  the  custom  to  pay  a 
sum  of  not  less  than  300  scudi  to  the  best 
actors,  and  there  was  no  stint  of  expenditure  on 


208 


MANTUA. 


orchestra,    costumes,   or    scenery  and    lighting. 
(Annali  d'ltalia,  1690.)  [C.M.P.] 

MANUAL  (from  manus,  a  hand),  a  clavier, 
or  set  of  keys,  to  be  played  by  the  hands.  The 
term  is  used  chiefly  in  reference  to  the  Organ, 
where  the  keyboards  for  the  hands  and  the  key- 
board for  the  feet  have,  for  convenience,  to  be 
distinguished  by  some  brief  and  suggestive  name. 
Clavier  (from  clavis,  a  key)  simply  means  a  key- 
board, without  reference  to  the  members  of  the 
body  with  which  it  is  to  be  played.         [E.  J.H.] 

MANZOLETTO,  a  very  tolerable  'second 
man,'  who  appeared  in  London  with  Pacchierotti 
and  Mme.Lebrun,  in  1779 ;  and  remained  there 
with  success  for  two  or  three  seasons,  singing  in 
such  operas  as  'Alessandro,'  'Zemira,'  'Ricimero,' 
'Giunio  Bruto,'  and  'I  Viaggiatori  Felici,'  in 
1782.  He  was  heard  again  three  years  later  by 
Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe,  in  Naples  and  Mantua ; 
but  never  revisited  England.  [J.M.] 

MANZUOLI,  Giovanni,  was  born  at  Florence 
about  1725.  Having  acquired  a  reputation  in 
Italy,  he  repaired,  in  1753,  to  Madrid,  where  he 
was  engaged  at  a  high  salary  by  Farinelli.  In 
1764  and  1765  he  came  to  London,  and,  by  his 
performance,  '  the  serious  opera  acquired  a  de- 
gree of  favour  to  which  it  had  seldom  mounted 
since  its  first  establishment  in  this  country ' 
(Burney).  His  voice  was  the  most  powerful 
soprano  that  had  been  heard  on  our  stage  since 
the  time  of  Farinelli ,  and  his  style  was  full  of  taste 
and  dignity.  The  applause  he  earned  was  hearty 
and  unequivocal ;  '  it  was  a  universal  thunder.' 
Other  singers  had  more  art  and  feeling ;  none 
possessed  a  sweeter  or  fuller  organ.  As  to  exe- 
cution, he  had  none ;  but  he  was  a  good  actor, 
though  unwieldy  in  figure,  and  ill-made.  Nor 
was  he  young  ;  but  the  sensation  he  excited 
seems  to  have  been  irresistible.  All  the  com- 
posers struggled  to  have  the  honour  of  writing 
for  him  ;  even  Dr.  Arne  composed  his  unsuccess- 
ful '  Olimpiade  '  for  the  popular  singer.  Man- 
zuoli,  however,  left  England  at  the  end  of  the 
season,  and  did  not  return.  In  the  same  year  he 
was  at  Vienna,  and  he  shortly  afterwards  retired 
to  his  native  place,  with  the  title  of  '  Singer  to 
the  Court  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.' 

In  a  letter1  of  Mozart's,  his  first  after  starting 
on  his  Italian  tour,  Jan.  7,  1770,  he  says  of  a 
singer  whom  he  heard,  'canta  un  poco  Manzuolisch 
ed  a  una  bellissima  voce  forte  ed  6  gia  vecchio,' 
etc.  Burney  heard  him  again,  in  September  of 
that  year,  taking  part  in  a  service  in  a  convent 
near  Florence,  and  was  delighted,  though  the  voice 
seemed  less  powerful,  even  in  a  small  church, 
than  when  he  was  in  England.  His  name  occurs 
once  more,  in  one  of  the  elder  Mozart's  letters, 
written  in  the  following  August,  '  Manzuoli  often 
visits  us ;'  and  he  is  included  among  '  the  singers, 
not  only  celebrated  in  their  profession,  but  good- 
hearted  and  sensible  people.'  He  took  part  in 
the  '  Serenata '  composed  by  the  young  Mozart  in 
honour  of  the  nuptials  of  the  Archduke  Ferdinand, 
at  Milan,  Oct.  17,  1 771,  and  was  encored  in  one 
1  In  the  collection  of  the  present  writer. 


MARA. 

of  his  songs.  Mozart  writes  again,  Nov.  24, 
1 771  : — '  Herr  Manzuoli,  the  musico,  who  has 
always  been  considered  and  esteemed  as  the  best 
of  his  class,  has  in  his  old  age  given  a  proof  of 
his  folly  and  arrogance.  He  was  engaged  at  the 
Opera  for  the  sum  of  500  gigliati  (ducats),  but 
as  no  mention  was  made  of  the  Serenata  in  the 
contract,  he  demanded  500  ducats  more  for  sing- 
ing in  it,  making  1000.  The  court  only  sent  him 
700  and  a  gold  box  (and  enough  too,  I  think), 
but  he  returned  the  700  ducats  and  the  box,  and 
went  away  without  anything.  I  don't  know  what 
the  result  of  this  history  will  be, — a  bad  one, 
I  fear ! '  A  good  portrait  of  Manzuoli  was 
engraved  by  G.  B.  Betti,  after  a  design  by  L. 
Betti.  Among  his  pupils  was  the  celebrated 
ColteUini.  [J.M.] 

MAOMETTO  SECONDO.  Opera  by  Rossini. 
Produced  at  San  Carlo,  Naples,  during  the  Car- 
naval  of  1820  ;  adapted  and  extended  as  Le  Siege 
de  Cobinthe.  The  aria  '  Sorgete,'  for  a  bass 
voice,  is  often  sung  at  concerts.  [G.] 

MAPLESON,  James  Henry,  a  well-known 
London  impresario.  He  was  a  student  at  the 
Royal  Academy,  appeared  in  public  as  a  singer, 
and  for  some  time  played  among  the  violas  in  the 
orchestra.  Later  he  was  assistant  to  Mr.  E.  T. 
Smith  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  and  when 
Mr.  Smith  announced,  in  1861,  his  intention 
of  abandoning  Italian  Opera,  Mr.  Mapleson  took 
the  Lyceum,  and  commenced  his  career  as  a 
manager.  He  opened  there  on  June  5,  1861  ; 
and  on  the  15  th  produced  Verdi's  'Ballo  in 
Maschera'  for  the  first  time  in  England.  Hia 
first  season  at  Her  Majesty's  was  1862,  when 
Trebelli  made  her  de"but  in  England ;  the  burn- 
ing of  Her  Majesty's  drove  him  to  Drury  Lane 
in  1868.  He  joined  Mr.  Gye  in  1869 ;  the 
coalition  lasted  two  seasons,  and  in  1871  he 
returned  to  Drury  Lane.  On  April  28,  1877, 
he  reopened  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  of  which  he 
is  still  manager.  Mr.  Mapleson  has  lately  taken 
his  company  to  the  United  States  in  the  in- 
tervals of  the  London  season.  [G.] 

MARA,  Gertrude  Elisabeth,  one  of  the 
greatest  singers  of  the  last  century,  was  born  at 
Cassel,  Feb.  23,  1749.  Her  mother  died  soon 
after  the  birth  of  this  child,  and  her  father,  a 
poor  musician,  named  Schmeling,  is  said  to  have 
adopted  the  plan  of  securing  his  little  daughter 
in  an  armchair,  while  he  attended  to  his  affairs. 
From  this  cause,  it  appears,  she  fell  into  a  rickety 
state,  from  which  it  was  long  ere  she  recovered, 
if  indeed  she  ever  recovered  entirely.  Schmeling 
contrived  to  increase  his  income  by  mending 
musical  instruments,  and  the  little  Gertrude  one 
day  got  hold  of  a  violin,  and  began  to  draw  musi- 
cal sounds  from  it,  being  then  only  four  years  old. 
For  this  she  was  punished  by  her  father  ;  but  the 
temptation  was  too  strong  to  be  resisted,  and  she 
seized  every  opportunity  of  practising  on  such 
instruments  as  she  could  find,  whenever  Schme- 
ling's  back  was  turned.  He  found  her,  however, 
before  long,  to  his  astonishment,  playing  on  a 
violin,  of  which  she  had  mastered  the  scale. 


MARA. 

Struck  with  her  genius,  he  gave  her  a  few  les- 
sons, and  found  her  so  apt  a  pupil  that,  not 
long  afterwards,  he  was  able  to  play  duets  with 
her  before  a  few  amateurs.  But  even  now, 
in  her  fifth  year,  the  poor  child  could  not  stand 
without  support,  and  her  father  was  obliged  to 
carry  her  to  the  place  where  she  was  to  play.  By 
favour  of  an  amateur,  Schmeling  and  his  child 
were  enabled  to  visit  the  fair  at  Frankfort,  where 
the  little  girl's  performance  excited  great  wonder. 
A  subscription  was  set  on  foot,  a  better  education 
was  given  to  her,  and  when  she  had  reached  the 
age  of  nine  her  health  had  improved,  and  she  was 
able  to  proceed  to  Vienna  with  her  father,  and 
there  give  some  concerts.  The  English  ambas- 
sador advised  Schmeling  to  take  the  child  to 
England,  advice  on  which  the  poor  musician, 
furnished  with  letters  of  introduction  by  the  am- 
bassador, gladly  acted.  He  soon  obtained  the 
patronage  of  many  noble  and  influential  persons, 
including  the  Queen,  for  his  wonderful  child. 
The  little  girl,  petted  and  admired  by  all  the  great 
ladies,  was,  however,  persuaded  by  them  to  give 
up  the  violin,  which  they  thought  an  unfeminine 
instrument,  and  was  encouraged  to  sing.  Her 
voice  was  already  resonant  and  clear,  but  she  had, 
of  course,  had  no  instruction.  Schmeling,  by  the 
help  of  her  protectresses,  placed  the  young  Ger- 
trude under  the  tuition  of  the  musico  Paradisi. 
She  made  rapid  progress,  but  it  soon  became 
necessary  to  remove  her  from  the  power  of  her 
profligate  instructor. 

Returning  to  Cassel,  Schmeling  found  it  im- 
possible to  get  an  engagement  for  his  daughter, 
as  he  had  hoped,  at  the  Court;  for  the  King 
would  not  hear  of  any  but  Italian  singers.  Hiller 
now  received  her  into  his  music-school,  at  Leipzig, 
where  she  remained  for  five  years.  In  1771  she 
came  out  from  this  academy,  with  a  voice  re- 
markable for  its  extent  and  beauty,  a  great  know- 
ledge of  music,  and  a  brilliant  style  of  singing. 
She  was  the  first  great  singer  that  Germany  had 
produced.  Her  education  had  been  formed  on 
the  music  of  Hasse,  Graun,  Benda,  Jommelli, 
Pergolese,  Porpora,  and  Sacchini ;  but  Hasse, 
with  his  vocal  passages  and  facile  style,  was  her 
favourite  master.  Her  voice  extended  from  the 
middle  G  to  E  in  alt.  She  made  her  dibut  in 
an  opera  of  Hasse's  at  Dresden,  and  was  success- 
ful. With  difficulty,  the  King,  Frederick  II, 
was  persuaded  to  hear  her ;  and,  though  strongly 
prejudiced  against  her  on  account  of  her  na- 
tionality, he  was  immediately  converted  by  her 
singing  an  air  of  Graun's  at  sight,  and  finally 
engaged  her  for  life  to  sing  at  Court,  with  a 
salary  of  fr.  11,250.  Here  she  profited  by  the 
hints  of  Concialini  and  Porporino,  and  perfected 
her  singing  of  slow  and  legato  airs. 

It  was  at  this  juncture  that,  in  spite  of  all 
advice,  and  although  the  King  twice  refused  his 
consent,  she  married  the  violoncellist,  Mara. 
She  soon  discovered  her  folly,  and  regretted  it 
when  too  late.  This  part  of  her  life  was  ex- 
tremely unhappy;  she  was  made  miserable  on 
the  one  hand  by  tbte  excesses  of  a  debauched  and 
dissipated  husband,  and  on  the  other  by  the 
vol.  11. 


MARA. 


209 


tyranny  of  a  king  who  allowed  her  no  liberty  or 
indulgence.  On  one  occasion,  she  was  actually 
brought  from  her  bed,  by  his  orders,  transmitted 
through  an  officer  and  guard  of  soldiers,  and 
forced  to  sing  at  the  Opera,  though  complaining, 
truly  or  untruly,  of  indisposition.  She  at  length 
succeeded  in  escaping  to  Dresden,  where  she  was 
detained  by  the  Prussian  ambassador.  Frederick, 
however,  who  had  lost  some  front  teeth,  and 
could  no  longer  play  the  flute,  cared  now  but 
little  for  music,  and  gave  her  a  tardy  permission 
to  annul  her  engagement.  Mme.  Mara,  free  at 
last,  arrived  in  1 780  at  Vienna,  where  Storace 
was  playing  in  opera  buffa,  for  which  the  Em- 
peror had  a  great  liking.  This  was  not  Mara's 
line,  and  she  was  coldly  received.  Provided,  how- 
ever, with  a  letter  to  Marie-Antoinette  from  the 
Empress,  she  passed  through  Germany,  Holland, 
and  Belgium,  singing  at  various  places  on  her 
way.  At  Munich  Mozart  heard  her,  but  was  not 
favourably  impressed.  He  wrote,  Nov.  13,  1780, 
•  Mara  ha3  not  the  good  fortune  to  please  me. 
She  does  too  little  to  be  compared  to  a  Bastar- 
della  (yet  this  is  her  peculiar  style),  and  too 
much  to  touch  the  heart  like  a  Weber  [Aloysia], 
or  any  judicious  singer.'  He  tells  a  story  of  her 
and  her  husband  a  few  days  later  (letter  of  Nov. 
24),  which  shows  both  of  them  in  a  very  unpleas- 
ant light,  as  behaving  with  foolish  effrontery  and 
pretension.  She  was  again  at  Vienna  in  March 
1 781,  and  Mozart  mentions  her  as  giving  a  con- 
cert there.  She  reached  Paris  in  1782.  Here 
she  found  the  celebrated  Todi,  and  a  rivalry  im- 
mediately sprung  up  between  these  two  singers, 
which  divided  society  into  factions,  as  when 
Handel  and  Buononcini,  or  Gluck  and  Piccinni, 
were  opposed  to  each  other  by  amateurs  incapable 
of  admiring  both.  Many  anecdotes  are  told  of 
the  Mara  and  Todi  dispute,  among  which  one 
has  become  famous.  At  a  concert  where  both 
singers  appeared,  an  amateur  asked  his  neigh- 
bour, '  Quelle  etait  la  meilleure  : '  to  which  the 
other  replied,  '  C'est  Mara.'  '  C'est  bien  Todi ' 
(bientdt  dit)  was  the  punning  answer. 

Two  years  later,  in  the  spring  of  1 784,  Mara 
made  her  first  appearance  in  London,  where  her 
greatest  successes  awaited  her.  She  was  engaged 
to  sing  six  nights  at  the  Pantheon.  Owing  to 
the  general  election,  she  sang  to  small  audiences, 
and  her  merits  were  not  recognised  until  she 
sang  at  Westminster  Abbey,  in  the  Handel 
Commemoration,  when  she  was  heard  with  de- 
light by  nearly  3000  people.  She  sang  in  the 
repeated  Commemoration  in  1785,  and  in  1786 
made  her  first  appearance  on  the  London 
stage  in  a  serious  pasticcio,  'Didone  Abban- 
donata,'  the  success  of  which  was  due  entirely 
to  her  singing.  In  March  1787  Handel's  opera 
of  'Giulio  Cesare'  was  revived  for  a  benefit, 
and  Mara  played  in  it  the  part  of  'Cleopatra,' 
which  Cuzzoni  had  sung  in  1 7  24.  It  was  so 
successful  that  it  was  constantly  repeated  during 
the  season.  Mara  again  took  a  leading  part  in 
the  Festival  in  Westminster  Abbey  in  1787, 
and  she  remained  connected  with  the  opera  in 
London  till  1791,  after  which,  though  she  sang 


210 


MARA. 


occasionally  on  the  stage,  and  even  in  English 
ballad  operas,  she  was  more  frequently  heard  in 
concerts  and  oratorios.  For  these  she  was  better 
suited,  as  her  figure  was  not  good  enough  for 
the  theatre,  nor  was  she  a  good  actress.  It  is, 
indeed,  not  impossible  that  her  stage-presence 
was  still  to  some  extent  spoiled  by  the  disease 
which  crippled  her  as  a  child ;  and  there  is  a 
caricature  in  which  she  is  shown,  singing  at  a 
*  Wapping  Concert'  seated  (Feb.  28,  1766),  with 
the  following  apology  below : — 

Madam  Mary begs  her  Polite  Audience 

will  excuse  her  sitting  during  the  Performance,  as  she 
contracted  in  her  infancy  a  Disorder  called  Le  Genoue 
Inflexible,  or  (Stiff  Knee)  which  prevents  her  standing, 
even  in  the  most  Sacred  Pieces  of  Music— her  Enemies 
call  it  Pride,  but  must  appear  only  malice,  when  she 
could  not  rise  before  their  Majesties;  or  at  the  Sacred 
Name  of  Jehovah. 

There  is,  again,  a  letter  of  Mora's  extant,1  in 
which  she  apologises  for  not  being  able  even  to 
sit  on  a  platform  throughout  a  concert,  a  thing 
she  had  never  been  able  to  do,  owing  to  the  heat 
and  fatigue,  which  she  could  not  bear.  Her 
health  was,  in  fact,  never  strong.  She  had,  how- 
ever, the  advantage  of  knowing  our  language, 
which  she  had  learnt  in  childhood,  during  her 
first  visit  to  England ;  and  she  is  said  to  have 
gained  large  sums  here  by  her  oratorio-singing. 

In  1788  she  was  singing  in  the  Carnival  at 
Turin,  and  the  following  year  at  Venice.  She 
returned  to  London  in  1790,  and  went  to  Venice 
again  in  1 791.  Coming  once  more  to  London  in 
the  next  season,  she  remained  here  for  ten  years. 
After  this  time,  she  found  her  voice  losing 
strength,  and  she  quitted  England  in  1802,  after 
enjoying  a  splendid  benefit  of  over  £1000  at  her 
farewell  concert.  She  sang  without  effect  at 
Paris,  where  she  had  the  misfortune  to  come 
after  Grassini ;  and  then,  after  passing  through 
Germany,  Mara  retired  to  Moscow,  where  she 
bought  a  house. 

Her  worthless  husband,  and  her  numerous 
lovers, — among  whom  the  last  was  a  flute-player 
named  Florio, — had  helped  her  to  spend  the  im- 
mense sums  which  she  had  earned,  until  she 
found  herself  without  means,  and  compelled  to 
support  herself  by  teaching.  By  following  this  oc- 
cupation, she  acquired  a  small  competence,  which 
was  again  lost  to  her  (181 2)  in  the  fire  of  Mos- 
cow, which  destroyed  the  merchant's  house  in 
which  she  had  placed  it.  Forced  to  begin  once 
more  to  seek  a  means  of  subsistence,  when  almost 
64  years  old,  Mara  travelled  in  Livonia,  where 
ehe  was  kindly  received,  and  settled  in  Revel. 
She  now  supported  herself  again  for  about  four 
years  by  teaching,  and  then  formed  the  strange 
desire  to  revisit  London,  the  scene  of  her  former 
glory.  Here  she  arrived  in  181 9  (according  to 
Fe"tis),  though  Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe  puts  her 
visit  before  the  burning  of  Moscow.  In  any 
case,  the  poor  old  woman,  announced  in  a  mys- 
terious manner  by  Messrs.  Kny  vett  as  '  a  most 
celebrated  singer  whom  they  were  not  at  liberty 
to  name,'  appeared  at  the  King's  theatre,  when 
it  was  discovered  that  not  a  shred  of  her  voice 

1  In  the  collection  of  the  present  writer. 


MARCELLO. 

remained, — and  never  appeared  again.  She  re- 
turned to  Livonia,  and  died  at  Revel,  Jan.  20, 
183?,  at  the  advanced  age  of  84,  soon  after  re- 
ceiving from  Gbthe  a  poem  for  her  birthday, 
'Sangreich  war  dein  Ehrenweg'  (Weimar,  1831). 
A  life  of  Mara,  by  G.  C.  Grosheim,  was  pub- 
lished at  Cassel  in  1823,  and  a  more  interesting 
one  by  Rochlitz  in  his  '  Fur  Freunde  der  Ton- 
kunst,'  vol.  i.  The  best  portrait  of  her  was 
engraved  (oval)  by  J.  Collyer,  after  P.  Jean, 
1794-  [J.M.] 

MARCATO.  '  In  a  marked,  decisive  manner.' 
The  principal  use  of  this  direction  is  to  draw  the 
attention  to  the  melody  or  subject  when  it  is  in 
such  a  position  that  it  might  be  overlooked,  as  for 
instance,  *  II  basso  ben  marcato,'  in  Chopin's 
Krakowiak,  op.  1 1  ;  or  when  there  are  two  sub- 
jects both  of  which  are  to  be  brought  promi- 
nently forward,  as  in  the  9th  Symphony  of 
Beethoven  (last  movement)  where  the  two  sub- 
jects come  together  in  6-4  time,  the  words  being 
'Freude,  schoner  Gbtterfunken,'  and  'Seid  um- 
schlungen,'  etc. ;  and  in  the  Etudes  Symphoniques 
of  Schumann,  No.  2,  '  Marcato  il  canto '  and 
4  Marcato  il  tema.'  Beethoven  also  uses  '  Queste 
note  ben  marcato '  in  the  string  quartet,  op.  1 8, 
No.  6,  slow  movement,  and  '  Melodia  marcata,' 
in  the  Trio,  op.  9,  No.  2. 

'  Marcatissimo '  is  used  by  Chopin,  Etude,  op. 
25,  No.  11,  at  the  end,  and  by  Schumann  in  the 
last  movement  of  the  Sonata  in  Ffl  minor, 
op.  11,  and  in  No.  8  of  the  Etudes  Symphon- 
iques. The  latter  composer  is  the  only  one  of 
note  who  uses  this  direction  at  the  beginning  of 
a  movement,  to  denote  the  character  of  the  whole. 
This  he  does  frequently,  as  'Allegro  marcato,' 
in  the  third  of  the  Intermezzi,  op.  4 ;  and  '  Ben 
marcato,'  in  Nos.  1  and  3  of  the  Romances,  op. 
28.  As  a  rule  Marcato  is  coupled  with  a  certain 
degree  of  force,  as  in  Schumann's  first  Novelette, 
'Marcato  con  forza  ^Markirt  und  kraftig) ' ; 
but  in  the  grand  Sonata,  op.  14  (last  movement), 
we  find  'Leggiero  marcato,'  and  near  the  end, 
*  Leggierissimo  marcando.'  The  sign  which  is 
equivalent  to  Marcato  is  «=  over  the  separate 
notes,  but  this  refers  to  the  notes  themselves, 
and  Marcato  to  the  whole  passage     [J.A.F.M.] 

MARCELLO,  Benedetto,  eminent  composer, 
a  Venetian  of  noble  birth,  son  of  Agostino  Mar- 
cello  and  Paola  Capello,  born  July  31,  or 
August  1,  1686.  He  was  highly  educated,  and 
had  great  natural  gifts  for  music,  and  was  a 
pupil  of  Lotti  and  Gasparini.  The  violin  was 
his  first  instrument,  but  he  soon  gave  his  whole 
attention  to  singing  and  composition.  His  father, 
objecting  to  the  time  thus  occupied,  sent  him 
from  home  to  study  law,  but  on  his  death  Bene- 
detto returned  to  Venice,  and  contrived  to  com- 
bine the  practice  of  music  with  his  professional 
avocations.  He  held  important  government 
posts,  was  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Forty,  and 
afterwards  Proveditore  of  Pola  (1730).  Here 
he  remained  8  years,  when  his  health  having 
been  ruined  by  the  climate  he  became  Camerlengo 
at  Brescia,  and  there  died  July  24,  1739.     His 


MAECELLO. 

monument  in  the  church  of  S.  Giuseppe  states 
his  age  to  have  been  52  years,  1 1  months,  and  23 
days.  He  was  elected  Cavaliero  of  the  Filar- 
monici  of  Bologna  in  1 81 2,  and  was  also  a  member 
of  the  Pastori  Arcadi  of  Rome.  In  his  youth  he 
was  wild,  but  sobered  down  in  middle  life.  His 
great  work,  in  8  volumes,  folio,  '  Estro  poetico- 
arnionico,  Parafrasi  sopra  iprimi  50  PsalmLPoesia 
di  Girolamo  Giustiniani,'  appeared  in  two  parts 
of  25  Psalms  each  (Venice,  1724-27).  They  are 
composed  for  1,  2,  3,  and  4  voices,  with  figured 
basses,  and  occasionally  with  2  violins  and  cello 
obligati ;  and  for  expression  far  surpass  any 
other  work  of  the  kind.  Dr.  Burney,  in  his  notice 
of  Marcello  (Hist.  iv.  543),  considers  that  they 
have  been  overpraised,  and  that  even  in  the  com- 
poser's day  his  airs  and  themes  were  neither  new 
nor  original.  In  spite  however  of  this  judgment 
it  is  not  to  much  to  say  that,  as  a  whole,  they 
constitute  one  of  the  finest  productions  of  musical 
literature.  An  English  edition,  edited  by  Avison 
and  Garth,  was  published  in  London  in  1757  in 
8  vols. ;  a  second  in  Italian  soon  after  (Venice) ; 
and  a  third  by  Valle  (1803-8).  The  latest,  with 
P.  F.  accompaniment  by  Mirecki,  was  printed  by 
Carli  of  Paris.  Marcello  also  composed  instru- 
mental concertos  (1701),  and  'Canzoni  madri- 
galeschi'  (Bologna,  171 7);  besides  'Calista  in 
Orsa,'  pastoral  (libretto  printed  in  1725,  music 
unpub.) ;  •  La  Fede  riconosciuta,'  opera  (Vicenza, 
1 702)  ;  '  Arianna,'  cantata ;  and  '  Giuditta,'  ora- 
torio, all  to  his  own  words.  As  a  poet  he  was 
above  the  average,  and  furnished  the  libretto  for 
Buggieri's  '  Arato  in  Sparta'  (Venice,  1709).  In 
1720  he  published  a  satirical  pamphlet '  11  Teatro 
alia  Moda,'  reprinted  in  1727,  33,  38  (Venice), 
and  1741  (Florence).  The  Library  of  St.  Mark 
in  Venice  contains  a  MS. '  Teoria  Musicale ' ;  the 
Koyal  Library  of  Dresden  ancient  copies  of  two 
cantatas,  '  Thnotheus,'  to  his  own  Italian  trans- 
lation of  Dryden's  poem,  and  '  Cassandra ' ;  the 
Court  Library  of  Vienna  many  autographs  and 
other  works,  including  the  cantatas  '  Addio  di 
Ettone,'  '  Clori  e  Daliso,'  and  '  La  Stravaganza ' ; 
and  the  Royal  Library  of  Brussels '  11  Trionfo  della 
musica  nel  celebrarsi  la  morte  di  Maria  Vergine,' 
an  oratorio  for  6  voices  and  chorus.  This  score 
was  once  in  the  possession  of  Fe'tis,  who  speaks 
highly  of  its  expression,  pathos,  and  effective  in- 
strumentation. Rossini  has  borrowed  one  of  the 
most  prominent  themes  in  his  overture  to  the 
'  Siege  of  Corinth  '  note  for  note  from  Marcello's 
2 1  st  Psalm.  For  Marcello's  '  Lettera  Famigliare,' 
*ee  Lotti.  [F.6.] 

MARCH  (Ger.  Marsch;  Fr.  Marche;  Ital. 
Marcia),  a  form  originally  associated  with  mili- 
tary movements,  and  afterwards  imported  into 
*he  music  of  the  stage,  the  orchestra,  the  cham- 
ber, and  the  oratorio.  In  ancient  times  the 
sound  of  instruments  was  used  as  a  means  of 
stimulating  the  action  of  large  numbers  of 
people,  whether  in  processes  of  labour  requir- 
ing consentaneous  effort,  or  as  a  means  of  ex- 
citing ardour  in  armies  advancing  to  battle  by 
the  tones  of  '  the  shrill  trump,  the  spirit-stirring 
drum,   the   ear-piercing    fife' — equally  familiar 


MARCH. 


211 


being  Milton's  reference  to  the  effect  of  the 
sound  '  of  trumpets  loud  and  clarions,'  and  the 
influence  on  a  mighty  host  of  '  Sonorous  metal 
blowing  martial  sounds.'  Like  most  forms  how- 
ever in  instrumental  music,  the  development  of 
the  March  followed  that  of  vocal  music.  We  find 
Marches  in  the  early  operas,  in  the  stage  works 
of  Lully,  and  later  in  those  of  Handel  and 
Rameau.  In  clavecin  music,  too,  it  appears  at  a 
comparatively  early  date,  the  'Suites  des  Pieces'  of 
the  French  composer  Couperin  6ffering  examples. 

Of  the  Military  March  as  now  understood,  as  a 
strictly  rhythmical  and  harmonised  composition, 
written  for  a  band  of  wind  instruments,  and 
intended  not  only  to  stimulate  courage  but  also 
to  ensure  the  orderly  advance  of  troops,  it  does 
not  appear  that  any  examples  are  extant  earlier 
than  about  the  middle  of  the  1 7th  century,  and 
these  seem  to  have  originated  during  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  and  are  to  be  traced  to  the  form  of 
the  Volkdied  ;  war-songs,  in  which  patriotic  and 
military  ardour  was  expressed  lyrically,  having 
long  preceded  the  exclusive  use  of  instruments 
for  that  purpose.  A  good  specimen  of  the  old 
German  military  march  is  that  which  Meyerbeer 
introduced  in  his  'Ein  Feldlager  in  Schlesien' 
('Camp  of  Silesia'),  and  afterwards,  with  other 
portions  of  that  work,  in  his  '  L'Etoile  du  Nord,' 
in  the  camp  scene  of  which  the  fine  old '  Dessauer 
March'  stands  prominently  out  from  the  elabora- 
tions with  which  the  composer  has  surrounded  it. 

The  earliest  instance  of  the  march  form  in 
regular  rhythmical  phrasing  seems  to  be  the  well- 
known  and  beautiful  Welsh  tune,  the  national 
Cambrian  war-song,  '  The  March  of  the  Men  of 
Harlech.'  This  melody,  which  has  only  become 
generally  popular  within  recent  years,  is  stated  by 
Llwyd,  the '  Bard  of  Snowdon,'  to  have  originated 
during  the  siege  of  Harlech  Castle  in  1468.  If 
this  be  so,  Dr.  Crotch  was  justified  in  saying  (in 
his '  Specimens  of  Different  Kinds  of  Music') '  the 
military  music  of  the  Welsh  is  superior  to  that 
of  any  other  nation' — i.e.  reading  the  remark 
with  reference  to  the  war-songs  of  the  period. 

In  England  the  Military  March  would  seem  to 
have  been  of  later  development.  Sir  John  Haw- 
kins, however,  in  his  History  of  Music,  says : — 
'  It  seems  that  the  old  English  march  of  the  foot 
was  formerly  in  high  estimation,  as  well  abroad 
as  with  us ;  its  characteristic  is  dignity  and 
gravity,  in  which  respect  it  differs  greatly  from 
the  French,  which,  as  it  is  given  by  Mersennus, 
is  brisk  and  alert.'  On  this  subject  Sir  John 
quotes  a  bon  mot  of  Sir  Roger  Williams,  a  soldier 
of  Queen  Elizabeth's  time,  in  answer  to  the 
French  Marshal  Biron  s  remark  that  '  the  Eng- 
lish march  being  beaten  by  the  drum  was  slow, 
heavy,  and  sluggish';  the  reply  being,  'That 
may  be  true,  but,  slow  as  it  is,  it  has  traversed 
your  master's  country  from  one  end  to  the  other. 
Hawkins  (writing  in  1776)  speaks  of  'the  many 
late  alterations  in  the  discipline  and  exercise  of 
our  troops,  and  the  introduction  of  fifes  and  other 
instruments  into  our  martial  music';  and,  in 
reference  to  an  earlier  condition  thereof,  quotes, 
firom  Walpole's  Catalogue  of  Royal  and  Noble 

P2 


212 


MARCH. 


MARCH. 


Authors,  a  warrant  of  Charles  I.  to  the  following 
effect: — 'Whereas  the  ancient  custoine  of  nations 
hath  ever  bene  to  use  one  certaine  and  constant 
forme  of  March  in  the  wanes,  whereby  to  be 
distinguished  one  from  another.  And  the  March 
of  this  our  nation,  so  famous  in  all  the  honour- 
able atchievements  and  glorious  warres  of  this 
our  kingdom  in  forraigne  parts  (being  by  the 
approbation  of  strangers  themselves  confest  and 
acknowledged  the  best  of  all  marches)  was  through 
the  negligence  antl  carelessness  of  drummers,  and 
by  long  discontinuance  so  altered  and  changed 
from  the  ancient  gravity  and  majestie  thereof,  as 
it  was  in  danger  utterly  to  have  bene  lost  and 
forgotten.  It  pleased  our  late  deare  brother 
prince  Henry  to  revive  and  rectifie  the  same  by 
ordayning  an  establishment  of  one  certaine 
measure,  which  was  beaten  in  his  presence  at 
Greenwich,  anno  1610.  In  confirmation  where- 
of wee  are  graciously  pleased,  at  the  instance 
and  humble  sute  of  our  right  trusty  and  right 
well-beloved  cousin  and  counsellor  Edward  Vis- 
count Wimbledon,  to  set  down  and  ordaine  this 
present  establishment  hereunder  expressed.  Will- 
ing and  commanding  all  drummers  within  our 
kingdome  of  England  and  principal]  tie  of  Wales 
exactly  and  precisely  to  observe  the  same,  as  well 
in  this  our  kingdome,  as  abroad  in  the  service 
of  any  forraigne  prince  or  state,  without  any 
addition  or  alteration  whatsoever.  To  the  end 
that  so  ancient,  fainoii3,  and  commendable  a 
custome  may  be  preserved  as  a  patterne  and 
precedent  to  all  posteritie,'  etc.  etc. — Thi3  docu- 
ment also  contains  the  following  l  notation — 

Voluntary  before  the  March. 
IHI       I      I      |      I        I        I        I        I        I      I      I        1        1    ^ 

P    I   j  1   j   M   -J   g   g   a  ^   i   g 


l'ou  tou  pou  tou  poa    It     pou  toll    pou  pou  lou  pou  B  poung 


The  March. 


-I L 


-^       "J       B 


Fou    tou      pou 


ri  a1  J 


tou      poung 

1 a__ 


Pou     lou      pou 


3=s£ 


st 


g  J  j  J 


-^ ! \ 


It      li    pou  tou 


=2=3t 


n^Kj-Tj- 


± 


-rJ—*2       ;-,        ,      ,      --        -.,        -^        r,_ 

pou     tou    puii  li    u»u    pou       li   poung 


Z3     ea     a 


iES 


;  I      III      III    J      III        I        I    ^  1    I 


W    »    1J ■    W    ^ i^ W    W   -^ Z^L Ea« c-<  '    ■    ^  • 

It  It  pou  B  B  pou  tou  pou  B  tou   pou    B  poung  potang. 

subscribed  'Arundell  and  Surrey.  This  is  a  true 
copy  of  the  original,  signed  by  his  Majestie.  Ed. 
Norgate,  Windsor.' 

The  primary  (indeed  absolute)  importance  of 
the  drum  in  the  early  form  of  the  March  is  very 
evident.  Rousseau,  in  his  •  Dictionnaire  de  Mu- 
sique,'  in  his  article  on  that  subject,  thus  defines 

•  The  notes  are  lozenge-shaped  In  the  original. 


it : — '  Marche :  Air  militaire  qui  se  joue  par  des 
instrumens  de  guerre,  et  marque  le  me'tre  et  la 
cadence  des  Tambours,  laquelle  est  proprement 
la  Marche.'  The  same  author,  writing  towards 
the  close  of  the  last  century,  speaks  of  the  su- 
periority of  the  German  military  music,  and  says 
that  the  French  troops  had  few  military  instru- 
ments for  the  infantry  excepting  fifes  and  drums ; 
and  very  few  marches,  most  of  which  were  '  tres 
malfaites.'  Rousseau  gives  —  as  follows  —the  first 
part  of  the  March  of  the  Musketeers  of  the  King 
of  France,  as  illustrating  '  L'accord  de  l'air  et  de 
la  Marche.' 

Hautboii        tr  _     - 


T^FZ 


Sla^ESS 


TTT^rTfgfe^^^l 


In  its  earlier  instrumental  form  the  German 
March  had  two  reprises,  each  of  eight,  twelve,  or 
even  sixteen  bars,  and  its  melodic  origin  would 
seem  to  have  been  influenced  by  the  national 
dance  called  the  'Allemande,'  in  2-4  time. 
The  modern  March  is  now  usually  in  common 
time — four  crotchets  in  a  bar — consisting  of  re- 
prises of  four,  eight,  or  even  sixteen  bars,  with  a 
subsidiary  movement  entitled  a  '  Trio '  (generally 
in  the  dominant  or  subdominant  key),  which  occu- 
pies a  similar  place  to  that  of  the  Trio  associated 
with  the  Minuet  or  Scherzo  of  a  symphony ;  that 
is,  following  the  March,  which  is  repeated  after 
it.  With  the  ordinary  (Parade)  March,  about 
75  steps  go  to  the  minute;  with  the  Quick 
March  (Germ.  Geschioind  Marsch;  Fr.  Pas  re- 
doubli)  about  108  ;  while  the  Storming  March 
(Germ.  Sturm  Marsch;  Fr.  Pas  de  charge)  implies 
about  1 20  steps  per  minute,  these  being  measured 
by  rapid  beats  of  the  drum. 

Military  Marches,  intended  of  course  to  stimu- 
late hopeful  enthusiasm,  are  generally  written  in 
a  bright  major  key,  trumpets,  drums,  and  other 
instruments  of  percussion  being  prominently 
used;  and  Funeral  Marches  in  a  solemn  minor 
one — a  remarkable  exception  to  the  latter  rule 
being  offered  by  the  Dead  March  in  'Saul,'  the 
key  of  which  is  C  major,  a  mode  usually  associ- 
ated with  cheerful  sentiments.  This  is  indeed  a 
notable  instance  of  '  The  long  majestic  march, 
and  energy  divine,'  and  most  readers  must  have 
experienced  the  sublimely  pathetic  effect  of  its 
'muffled  drums  beating  funeral  marches  to  the 
grave.'  '  The  stormy  music  of  the  drum '  (of 
course  unmuffied)  is  still  an  important  element 
in  all  the  pieces  used  at  the  parade  or  on  the 
battle-field ;  as  it  exercises  a  commanding  influ- 
ence on  rhythmical  precision,  as  already  indi- 
cated. Formerly,  as  above  indicated,  that  instru- 
ment was  the  all- essential  feature  in  the  March, 


MARCH. 

instead  of  being,  as  afterwards,  subsidiary  in  a 
musical  sense.  The  impressive  effect  attained  by 
Handel — by  simple  means — in  the  piece  just  re- 
ferred to,  has  been  paralleled  in  more  recent 
times  by  Beethoven's  employment  of  larger  or- 
chestral resources,  in  the  sublime  '  Marcia  Fune- 
bre '  in  his  '  Sinfonia  Eroica.' 

The  March  usually  begins  with  a  crotchet 
before  the  commencing  phrase,  as  in  Handel's 
Marches  in  'Rinaldo'  (1711),  in  'Scipio,'  the 
Occasional  Overture,  etc.  There  are  however 
numerous  instances  to  the  contrary,  as  in  Gluck's 
March  in  *  Alceste,'  that  in  Mozart's  '  Die  Zau- 
berflote,'  and  Mendelssohn's  Wedding  March, 
which  latter  presents  the  unusual  example  of 
beginning  on  a  chord  remote  from  the  key  of  the 
piece.  A  March  of  almost  equal  beauty  is  that 
in  Spohr's  Symphony  '  Die  Weihe  der  Tone,'  and 
here  (as  also  in  the  March  just  referred  to)  we 
have  an  example  of  a  feature  found  in  some  of 
the  older  Marches — the  preliminary  flourish  of 
trumpets,  or  Fanfare  [see  vol.  i.  p.  502  6]. 

There  is  also,  as  already  said,  a  description  of 
march  in  half  time — 2-4  (two  crotchets  in  a 
bar),  called  with  us  the  Quick  March — Pas  re- 
doubli,  Geschwind  Marsch.  Good  specimens  of 
this  rhythm  are  the  two  Marches  (Pianoforte 
duets)  by  Schubert,  No.  3,  op.  40,  and  No.  1, 
op.  51,  in  the  latter  of  which  we  have  also  the 
preliminary  fanfare.  The  march  form  in  piano- 
forte music  has  indeed  been  used  by  several 
modern  composers :  by  Beethoven  in  his  three 
Marches  for  two  performers  (op.  45) ;  and  the 
Funeral  March  in  his  Sonata,  op.  26 ;  and,  to  a 
much  greater  extent,  by  Franz  Schubert  in  his 
many  exquisite  pieces  of  the  kind  for  four  hands, 
among  them  being  two  (op.  1 21)  in  a  tempo  (6-8), 
sometimes,  but  not  often,  employed  in  the  march 
style  :  another  such  specimen  being  the '  Rogues' 
March,'  associated  for  more  than  a  century 
(probably  much  longer)  with  army  desertion. 
This  is  also  in  the  style  of  the  Quick  March,  the 
tune  being  identical  with  that  of  a  song  once 
popular,  entitled  'The  tight  little  Island* — it 
having,  indeed,  been  similarly  employed  in  other 
instances.  The  following  is  the  first  part  of  this 
March,  whose  name  is  better  known  than  its 
melody : — 


MARCHESI. 


213 


Quick  March 

-•-Hi 

-•-• — k- 

J-. 

JLT    ^    '    ^  1 

rt£ 

•  ■ 

CTfc 

' 1 

U==f   3  1 

'"   '     i*  k^^    ' 

=P 

^J1 

Besides  the  March  forms  already  referred  to, 
there  is  the  Torch-dance  [see  Fackeltanz,  vol.  i. 
p.  501a],  which,  however,  is  only  associated  with 
pageants  and  festivities.  These  and  military 
marches  being  intended  for  use  in  the  open  air, 
are  of  course  written  entirely  for  wind  instru- 
ments, and  those  of  percussion  ;  and  in  the  per- 
formance of  these  pieces  many  regimental  bands, 
British  and  foreign,  have  arrived  at  a  high  degree 
of  excellence.  [H.J.L.] 


MARCHAND,  Louis,  a  personage  whose 
chief  claim  to  our  notice  is  Ids  encounter  with 
Bach,  and,  as  might  be  imagined,  his  signal  de- 
feat. He  was  born  at  Lyons  Feb.  2,  1669.1 
He  went  to  Paris  at  an  early  age,  became  re- 
nowned there  for  his  organ-playing,  and  ulti- 
mately became  court  organist  at  Versailles.  By 
his  recklessness  and  dissipated  habits  he  got  into 
trouble,  and  was  exiled  in  171 7.  The  story  goes, 
that  the  king,  taking  pity  on  Marchand's  un- 
fortunate wife,  caused  half  his  salary  to  be  with- 
held from  him,  and  devoted  to  her  sustenance. 
Soon  after  this  arrangement,  Marchand  coolly 
got  up  and  went  away  in  the  middle  of  a  mass 
which  he  was  playing,  and  when  remonstrated 
with  by  the  king,  replied,  '  Sire,  if  my  wife  gets 
half  my  salary,  she  may  play  half  the  service.' 
On  account  of  this  he  was  exiled,  on  which  he 
went  to  Dresden,  and  there  managed  to  get 
again  into  royal  favour.  The  King  of  Poland 
offered  him  the  place  of  court  organist,  and 
thereby  enraged  Volumier,  his  Kapellmeister, 
who  was  also  at  Dresden,  and  who,  in  order 
to  crush  his  rival,  secretly  invited  Bach  to  come 
over  from  Weimar.  At  a  royal  concert,  Bach 
being  incognito  among  the  audience,  Marchand 
played  a  French  air  with  brilliant  variations  of 
liis  own,  and  with  much  applause,  after  which 
Volumier  invited  Bach  to  take  his  seat  at  the 
clavecin.  Bach  repeated  all  Marchand's  showy 
variations,  and  improvised  twelve  new  ones  of 
great  beauty  and  difficulty.  He  then,  having 
written  a  theme  in  pencil,  handed  it  to  Marchand, 
challenging  him  to  an  organ  competition  on  the 
given  subject.  Marchand  accepted  the  challenge, 
but  when  the  day  came  it  was  found  that  he 
had  precipitately  fled  from  Dresden,  and,  the 
order  of  his  banishment  having  been  withdrawn, 
had  returned  to  Paris,  where  his  talents  met 
with  more  appreciation.  He  now  set  up  as  a 
teacher  of  music,  and  soon  became  the  fashion, 
charging  the  then  unheard-of  sum  of  a  louis 
d'or  a  lesson.  In  spite  of  this,  however,  his 
expensive  habits  brought  him  at  last  to  extreme 
poverty,  and  he  died  in  great  misery,  Feb.  17, 
1732.  His  works  comprise  2  vols,  of  pieces  for 
the  clavecin,  and  one  for  the  organ,  and  an  opera, 
'  Pyramus  et  Thi3be,'  which  was  never  performed. 

His  ideas,  says  Fetis,  are  trivial,  and  his  har- 
monies poor  and  incorrect.  There  is  a  curious 
criticism  of  him  by  Rameau,  quoted  in  La  Borde, 
'Essai  sur  la  musique'  (vol.  iii.),  in  which  he 
says  that  'no  one  could  compare  to  Marchand 
in  his  manner  of  handling  a  fugue ' ;  but,  as 
Fe"tis  shows,  this  may  be  explained  by  the  fact 
that  Rameau  had  never  heard  any  great  German 
or  Italian  organist.  [J.A.F.M.] 

MARCHESI,  Luigi,  sometimes  called  Mab- 
chesini,  was  born  at  Milan,  1755.  His  father, 
who  played  the  horn  in  the  orchestra  at  Modena, 
was  his  first  teacher  ;  but  his  wonderful  aptitude 
for  music  and  his  beautiful  voice  soon  attracted 

1  Spltta.  whose  accuracy  and  Judgment  are  unimpeachable.  In  hi» 
Life  of  Bach  gives  the  date  1671,  as  an  Inference  from  an  old  engraving. 
But  see  F^tis  (s.v.),  who  quotes  an  article  In  the  Magailn  Encvclo- 
p^dlque,  1K12,  torn.  Iv.  p.  341,  where  this  point  Is  thoroughly  Investi- 
gated, and  a  register  of  Harchaud's  birth  given. 


214 


MARCHESI. 


the  attention  of  some  amateurs,  who  persuaded 
the  elder  Marchesi  to  have  the  boy  prepared  for 
the  career  of  a  sopranist.  This  was  done  at 
Bergamo,  and  young  Marchesi  was  placed  under 
the  evirato,  Caironi,  and  Albujo,  the  tenor,  for 
singing;  while  his  musical  education  was  com- 
pleted by  the  Maestro  di  Cappella,  Fioroni,  at 
Milan. 

Marchesi  made  his  de"but  on  the  stage  at  Rome 
in  1 774,  in  a  female  character,  the  usual  introduc- 
tion of  a  young  and  promising  singer,  with  a 
soprano  voice  and  beautiful  person.  Towards 
the  close  of  1775  the  Elector  of  Bavaria  en- 
gaged Marchesi  for  his  chapel,  but  his  sudden 
death,  two  years  after,  put  an  end  to  this  engage- 
ment, and  the  young  singer  went  to  Milan,  where 
he  performed  the  part  of  '  second  man,'  with 
Pacchierotti  as  first,  and  to  Venice,  where  he 
played  second  to  MUlico.  He  was  advanced  in 
that  same  year  to  first  honours  at  Treviso.  In 
the  next  and  following  years  he  sang  as  'first 
man '  at  Munich,  Padua,  and  Florence,  where  he 
created  a  furore  by  his  exquisite  singing  of '  Mia 
speranza,  io  pur  vorrei,'  a  rondo  in  Sarti's '  Achille 
in  Sciro.'  In  1778  he  had  worked  his  way  to  the 
great  theatre  of  San  Carlo,  and  continued  there 
during  two  seasons.  He  was  now  looked  upon 
as  the  first  singer  in  Italy,  and  was  fought  for 
by  rival  impresarj.  Once  more  in  Milan  (1780), 
he  sang  in  Misliwiceck's  '  Armida,'  in  which  he 
introduced  the  famous  rondo  of  Sarti,  which  all 
Italy  had  been  humming  and  whistling  since  he 
sang  it  at  Florence,  and  also  an  air  by  Bianchi, 
almost  as  successful,  'Se  piangi  e  peni.'  His 
portrait  was  engraved  at  Pisa,  and  the  im- 
pressions were  quickly  bought  up.  He  now 
sang  in  turn  at  Turin,  Rome,  Lucca,  Vienna, 
and  Berlin,  always  with  renewed  eclat ;  and  he 
went  in  1785  to  St.  Petersburg  with  Sarti  and 
Mme.  Todi.  The  rigorous  climate  of  Russia, 
however,  filled  him  with  alarm  for  his  voice,  and 
he  fled  rapidly  back  to  Vienna,  where  he  sang 
in  Sarti's  '  Giulio  Sabino.' 

We  next  find  him  (1788)  in  London,  singing 
in  the  same  opera  by  Sarti,  having  just  com- 
pleted an  engagement  at  Turin.  His  style  of 
singing  now  seemed  (to  Burney)  'not  only  elegant 
and  refined  to  an  uncommon  degree,  but  often 
grand  and  full  of  dignity,  particularly  in  the 
recitatives  and  occasional  low  notes.  Many  of 
his  graces  were  new,  elegant,  and  of  his  own 
invention ;  and  he  must  have  studied  with  in- 
tense application  to  enable  himself  to  execute 
the  divisions  and  running  shakes  from  the  bottom 
of  his  compass  to  the  top,  even  in  a  rapid  series 
of  half-notes.  But  beside  his  vocal  powers,  his 
performance  on  the  stage  was  extremely  embel- 
lished by  the  beauty  of  his  person  and  the  grace 
and  propriety  of  his  gestures.  From  this  time 
till  1790  he  continued  to  delight  the  English, 
appearing  meanwhile  at  short  intervals  in  the 
various  capitals  and  chief  cities  of  Europe.  In 
1794  he  sang  at  Milan  in  the  'Demofoonte'  of 
Portogallo,  and  was  described  in  the  cast  as  '  all 
attual  servizio  di  S.  M.  il  Re  di  Sardegna.'  This 
memorable  occasion  was  that  of  the  debut  of  Mme. 


MARCHESI. 

Grassini.  He  continued  to  sing  at  Milan  down  to 
the  spring  of  1 806,  when  he  left  the  stage,  and 
passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  his  native 
place,  honoured  and  loved.  He  composed  some 
songs,  published  in  London  (Clementi),  at 
Vienna  (Cappi),  and  at  Bonn  (Simrock).  An 
air,  written  by  him,  *  In  seno  quest'  alma,'  was 
also  printed. 

A  beautiful  portrait  of  Marchesi  was  engraved 
(June,  1790)  by  L.  Schiavonetti,  after  R.  Cos- 
way  ;  and  a  curious  caricature  (now  rare)  was 
published  under  the  name  of  *  A  Bravura  at  the 
Hanover  Square  Concert,'  by  J.  N[ixon],  1789, 
in  which  he  is  represented  as  a  conceited  cox- 
comb, bedizened  with  jewels,  singing  to  the 
King,  Prince  of  Wales,  and  courtiers. 

Marchesi  died  at  Milan,  his  native  place, 
December  15,  1829.  [J.M.] 

MARCHESI,  Mathilde  de  Castrone,  nee 
Gbaumann,  born  March  26,  1826,  at  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main.  The  daughter  of  a  wealthy  mer- 
chant, she  was  very  highly  educated,  but  in  1843, 
her  father  having  lost  his  fortune,  she  adopted 
the  musical  profession.  She  studied  singing  at 
Vienna  with  Nicolai ;  but  in  1845  went  to  Paris 
to  learn  from  Garcia.  Here  she  took  lessons  in 
declamation  from  Samson,  Rachel's  master,  and 
had  the  advantage  of  hearing  all  the  first  singers 
of  the  age — Persiani,  Grisi,  Alboni,  Duprez, 
Tamburini,  Lablache.  Her  own  aptitude  for 
teaching  was  already  so  remarkable  that  Garcia, 
whilst  prevented  by  the  effects  of  an  accident 
from  giving  his  lessons,  handed  over  his  whole 
clientele  for  the  time  to  his  young  pupil.  In 
1849  Mdlle.  Graumann  removed  to  London, 
where  she  obtained  a  high  standing  as  a  concert 
singer.  Her  voice  was  a  mezzo  soprano,  and  her 
excellent  style  never  failed  to  please.  She  has 
sung  successfully  in  Germany,  Belgium,  Holland, 
Switzerland,  France,  and  the  United  Kingdom. 
She  married  Signor  Marchesi,  also  a  vocalist, 
in  1852,  and  in  1854  accepted  the  post  of  pro- 
fessor of  singing  at  the  Vienna  Conservatoire, 
the  vocal  department  of  which  was  then  in  its 
infancy.  But  she  soon  won  high  distinction  for 
it  and  herself.  Among  her  pupils  at  this  period 
were  Mdlles.  lima  de  Murska,  Fricci,  Kraus,  and 
others  who  have  since  become  famous.  She  re- 
signed her  appointment  in  1 86 1 ,  and  removed  with 
her  husband  to  Paris,  where  pupils  came  to  her  from 
far  and  wide.  At  this  time  appeared  her  '  Ecole  de 
Chant.'  Rossini,  in  acknowledging  the  dedication 
of  a  volume  of '  Vocalizzi,'  extols  her  method  as  an 
exposition  of  the  true  art  of  the  Italian  school  of 
singing,  inclusive  of  the  dramatic  element ;  and 
specially  valuable  when,  he  complains,  the  ten- 
dency is  to  treat  the  vocal  art  as  though  it  were 
a  question  of  the  capture  of  barricades  !  In  1865 
she  accepted  a  professorship  at  the  Cologne  Con- 
servatoire, but  resigned  it  in  1 868  to  return  to 
Vienna  to  resume  her  post  as  teacher  of  singing 
at  the  Conservatoire,  which  she  held  for  ten 
years.  Among  her  famous  recent  scholars  were 
Mdlles.  d'Angeri  and  Smeroschi,  Mme.  Schuch- 
Proska,  and,  greatest  of  all,  Etelka  Gerster.  She 
resigned  her  appointment  at  the  Conservatoire 


MARCHESI. 

in  1878,  but  continues  to  reside  and  teach  in 
Vienna,  where  her  services  to  art  have  met  with 
full  recognition.  A  pupil  of  hers  having  created 
a  furore  at  a  concert,  the  public,  after  applaud- 
ing the  singer,  raised  a  call  for  Mme.  Marchesi, 
who  had  to  appear  and  share  the  honours.  From 
the  Emperor  of  Austria  she  has  received  the 
Cross  of  Merit  of  the  1st  class,  a  distinction 
rarely  accorded  to  ladies ;  and  she  holds  decora- 
tions and  medals  from  the  King  of  Saxony,  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Saxe  Weimar,  the  Emperor  of 
Germany,  and  the  King  of  Italy.  She  is  a 
member  of  the  St.  Cecilia  Society  in  Rome,  and 
of  the  Academy  of  Florence.  She  has  published 
a  grand  practical  Method  of  singing,  and  24  books 
of  vocal  exercises.  L-^-T.] 

MARCHESI,  Salvatore,  Cavaliere  de 
Castp.one,  Marchese  della  Rajata,  husband  of 
the  foregoing,  a  barytone  singer  and  vocal  teacher, 
born  at  Palermo,  1822.  His  family  belonged  to 
the  nobility,  and  his  father  was  four  years  Go- 
vernor-General of  Sicily.  In  1838  he  entered  the 
Neapolitan  Guard,  but,  for  political  reasons,  re- 
signed his  commission  in  1 840.  Whilst  studying 
law  and  philosophy  at  Palermo,  he  took  lessons 
in  singing  and  composition  from  Raimondi ;  and 
he  continued  his  musical  studies  at  Milan,  under 
Lamperti  and  Fontana.  Having  participated  in 
the  revolutionary  movement  of  1848,  he  was 
forced  to  seek  shelter  in  America,  where  he  made 
his  debut,  as  an  operatic  singer,  in  '  Ernani.'  He 
returned  to  Europe  to  take  instruction  from 
Garcia,  and  settled  in  London,  where,  for  seve- 
ral seasons,  he  was  favourably  known  as  a  con- 
cert-singer. He  married  Mdlle.  Graumann  in 
1852,  and,  with  her,  made  numerous  concert 
tours  in  England,  Germany,  and  Belgium,  ap- 
pearing also  in  opera  with  success,  both  in  Eng- 
land and  on  the  continent.  He  has  held  posts  as 
teacher  of  singing  at  the  Conservatoires  of  Vienna 
and  Cologne,  and  v\  as  appointed  chamber  singer 
to  the  court  of  Saxe  Weimar,  1862.  From  the 
King  of  Italy  he  has  received  the  orders  of  the 
Knights  of  St.  Maurice  and  St.  Lazarus.  Signor 
Marchesi  is  known  also  as  the  composer  of  seve- 
ral German  and  Italian  songs,  and  as  the  Italian 
translator  of  many  French  and  German  libretti 
— 'Medea,'  'La  Vestale,'  'Iphigenia,'  'Tann- 
hauser,'  'Lohengrin,'  etc.  He  has  published 
various  writings  on  music,  and  some  books  of 
vocal  exercises.  [B.T.] 

MARCHESINI.  [See  Lucchesina  and  Mar- 
ches!, luigi.] 

MARENZIO,  Luca.  The  oldest  account  we 
can  find  of  this  great  Italian  composer  is  given 
by  O.  Rossi,1  in  1620.  It  tells  us  of  Marenzio's 
birth  at  Coccaglia,  a  small  town  on  the  road  be- 
tween Brescia  and  Bergamo,  of  the  pastoral  beauty 
of  his  early  surroundings,  and  the  effect  they  may 
have  had  in  forming  the  taste  of  the  future  mad- 
rigal composer,  of  the  patronage  accorded  him  by 
great  princes,  of  his  valuable  post  at  the  court  of 
Poland,  worth  1000  scudi  a  year,  of  the  delicate 

1  ElogI  Historic!  dl  Brescianl  Uliutrl  dl  Ottavio  Bossl.  (Brescia. 
Fontana.  1620.) 


MARENZIO. 


215 


health  which  made  his  return  to  a  more  genial 
climate  necessary,  of  the  kind  treatment  he  re- 
ceived from  Cardinal  Cintio  Aldobrandino  at 
Rome,  of  his  early  death  in  that  city,  and  burial 
at  S.  Lorenzo  in  Lucina.  The  same  author  gives 
an  account  of  Gio\  anni  Contini,  organist 2  of  the 
cathedral  at  Brescia,  and  later  in  the  service  of 
the  Duke  of  Mantua,  under  whose  direction  Ma- 
renzio  completed  his  studies,  having  for  his  fellow- 
pupil  Lelio  Bertani*  who  afterwards  served  the 
Duke  of  Ferrara  for  1500  scudi  a  year,  and  was 
even  asked  to  become  the  Emperor's  chapel  -master. 

Donato  Calvi,  writing  in  1664,3  anxious  to 
claim  Marenzio  as  a  native  of  Bergamo,  traces 
his  descent  from  the  noble  family  of  Marenzi,  and 
finds  in  their  pedigree  a  Luca  Marenzo.  He 
adds  further  details  to  Rossi's  account,  how  the 
King  of  Poland  knighted  the  composer  on  his 
departure,  how  warmly  he  was  welcomed  by  the 
court  of  Rome  on  his  return,  how  Cardinal  C. 
Aldobrandino  behaved  like  a  servant  rather  than 
a  patron  to  him.  We  also  learn  that  he  died 
Aug.  22,  1599,  being  then  a  singer  in  the  Papal 
chapel,  and  that  there  was  a  grand  musical 
service  at  his  funeral. 

In  the  next  account  Brescia  again  puts  in  a 
claim,  and  Leonardo  Cozzando4  asserts  that 
Marenzio  was  born  at  Cocaglio,  that  his  parents 
were  poor,  and  that  the  whole  expense  of  his 
living  and  education  was  de. rayed  by  Andrea 
Masetto,  the  village  priest.  To  Cozzando  we  are 
also  indebted  *  for  a  special  article  on  Marenzio's 
great  merits  as  a  singer,  and  after  reading  of 
him  under  the  head  of  Brescian  composers,  we 
find  him  further  mentioned  under  '  Cantori.' 

A  fourth  account,  quite  independent  of  these, 
and  one  of  the  earliest  of  all,  is  that  given  by 
Henry  Peacham,  published  in  1622.*  Of  the 
composers  of  his  time,  Byrd  is  his  favourite, 
Victoria  and  Lassus  coming  next.  Then  of 
Marenzio  he  says : — 

'For  delicious  Aire  and  sweete  Invention  in  Mad- 
rigals, Luca  Marenzio  excelleth  all  other  whosoever, 
having  published  more  Sets  than  any  Authour  else  who- 
soever :  and  to  say  truth,  hath  not  an  ill  Soug,  though 
sometime  an  over-sight  (which  might  be  the  Printer's 
fault)  of  two  eight!  or  fifts  escape  him ;  as  betweene  the 
Tenor  and  Base  in  the  last  close,  of,  I  must  depart  all  hap- 
lesse:  ending  according  to  the  nature  of  the  Dittie  most 
artificially,  with  a  Minim  rest.  His  first,  second,  and  third 
parts  of  Thyrsis,  Veggo  dolce  m  o  ben  die  foe  hoggi  mio 
Sole  Cantava,  or  sweete  singing  Amaryllis?  are  Songs, 
the  Muses  themselves  might  not  have  beene  ashamed 
to  have  had  composed.  Of  stature  and  complexion, 
hee  was  a  little  aud  blacke  man :  he  was  Organist  in  the 
Popes  Chappell  at  Rome  a  good  while,  afterward  hee  went 
into  Polanti.  being  in  displeasure  with  the  Pope  for  over- 
much familiaritie  with  a  kinswoman  of  his  (whom  the 
Queene  of  Poland,  sent  for  by  Luca  Marenzio  afterward, 
she  being  one  of  the  rarest  women  in  Europe,  for  her 
voyce  and  the  Lute  0  but  returning,  he  found  the  affec- 
tion of  the  Pope  so  estranged  from  him,  that  hereupon 
hee  tooke  a  conceipt  and  died.' 

»  For  list  of  works  see  KItner. 

»  Scena  Lltteraria  de  git  scrtttorl  Bergamaschl.  Donato  Calvl. 
(Bergamo,  1664.)  _, ..  , 

*  Libraria  Bresclana.  Leonardo  Cozzando.  (Brescia,  Blzzardl,  1685.) 

» '  Vago  e  curloso  ristretto.  etc..  dell'  Hlstorla  Bresciana.'  Leo- 
nardo Cozzando.    (Brescia.  Rizzardl,  1694.) 

«  -The  Compleat  Gentleman.'  bjr  Henry  Feachara,  M'.  of  Arts. 
(London.  1622.) 

I  The  proper  titles  of  these,  which  are  given  In  the  above  confused 
manner  in  Peachams  book  are— 'Tlrsi  morlr  volea  (a  5)';  'Veggo 
dolce  mlo  bene  (a  4)';  'Che  fa  hogg'  II  mio  sol  J  U  »)';  and'Cantava 
la  plu  vaga (a 6),' the  Engl ish  words  ' Sweete  hinging  Amarjlhs 'being 
adapted  to  the  music  of  the  last. 


216 


MARENZIO. 


The  above  accounts  agree  in  all  important 
points,  and  even  the  descent  from  a  noble  Berga- 
mese  family  is  not  inconsistent  with  the  parents' 
poverty  and  their  residence  at  Coccaglia.  Maren- 
zio  certainly  died  at  a  comparatively  early  age,  in 
1599,  and  we  may  therefore  place  his  birth  about 
1560,  though  not  later,  for  he  began  to  publish  in 
1 58 1.  On  the  10th  of  April  in  that  year  he  was 
in  Venice,  dedicating  his  first  book  of  madrigals 
(a  6)  to  Alphonse  d'Este,  Duke  of  Ferrara.  He 
was  in  Rome,  Dec.  I,  1582,1  on  April  24,*  and 
Dec.  15,3 1584,  was  chapel-master  to  the  Cardinal 
d'Este  in  the  same  year,4  and  was  still  in  the 
same  city  on  July  15,  1585.* 

We  do  not  think  he  went  to  Poland  just  yet, 
but  we  have  no  more  publications  for  some  years. 
Marenzio  probably  received  bis  appointment  soon 
after  the  accession  of  Sigismund  III.  (1587),  and 
is  said  to  have  kept  it  for  several  years. 

He  was  back  in  Rome  in  1595,  writing  to 
Dowland,  July  13,'  and  to  Don  Diego  de 
Camjio,  Oct.  20,7  and  in  the  same  year  is  said 
to  have  been  appointed  to  the  Papal  chapel.8  It 
was  now  that  he  lived  on  such  familiar  terms 
with  Cardinal  Aldobrandino,  the  Pope's  nephew, 
and  taking  this  into  account  Peacham's  tale  may 
have  some  truth  in  it,  and  Marenzio  may  have 
fallen  in  love  with  a  lady  belonging  to  his 
patron's  family.  If,  however,  he  died  of  a  broken 
heart,  as  is  suggested,  it  must  have  been  caused 
simply  by  the  Pope's  refusal  to  allow  a  mar- 
riage. That  Marenzio  did  nothing  to  forfeit  his 
good  name9  is  proved  by  the  certain  fact  that 
he  retained  his  office  in  the  Papal  chapel  till  his 
death. 

Marenzio's  principal  works  are: — 9  books  of 
madrigals  (a  5),  6  books  (a  6),  each  book  con- 
taining from  13  to  20  nos.,  and  1  book  (a  4)  con- 
taining 2 1  nos. ;  5  books  of '  Villanelle  e  Arie 
alia  Napolitana,'  containing  113  nos.  (a  3)  and  1 
(a  4)  ;  2  books  of  four-part  motets,  many  of  which 
have  been  printed  in  modern  notation  by  Proske  ;10 
1  mass  (a  8),  and  many  other  pieces  for  church 
use.  The  fir»t  five  books  of  madrigals  a  5  were 
printed  'in  uno  corpo  ridotto,'  in  1593,  and  a 
similar  edition  of  those  a  6  in  1 594.  These  books, 
containing  78  and  76  pieces  respectively,  are  both 
in  the  British  Museum.  Marenzio's  works  were 
introduced  into  England  in  1588,  in  the  collection 
entitled  'Musica  Transalpina'  (1588);  and  two 
years  afterwards  a  similar  book  was  printed,  to 
which  he  contributed  23  out  of  28  numbers.11   His 

1  See  dedication  to  the  Philharmonic  Academicians  of  Verona  of 
3rd  Book  of  Madrigals  (a  5).    (Venice.  Gardane.  1582.) 
3  See  •  Madrigall  spirituall  4  5  di  L.  M.-    (Some,  Gardano,  1584.) 
a  Dedication  of '11  quinto  lib.  de  Madrigal!  a  5.'  (Vlnegla,  Scotto, 
1885.) 
<  Title-page  of '  Prlmo  lib.  de  Madr.  a  6.'    (Venice,  Gardano,  15S4.) 
5  Dedication  of  ' Madr.  a  4  di  h.  M.'    Lib.  primo.    (Venetia,  Gar- 
dano, 1592.) 

•  '  1st  booke  of  Songes  or  Ayres  of  4  parts  by  John  Don  land.' 
(Short,  Bred  St.  hill,  1.W7.) 
1  •  Di  L.  M.  11  7mo  lib.  di  Madr.  a  5.'    (Venetia.  Gardano,  1595.) 
a  We  cannot  And  any  old  authority  for  the  date  of  appointment,  but 
It  is  too  probable  to  doubt  It. 

»  The  only  thing  worth  setting  right  In  the  story.  As  to  the  rest  of 
It,  the  sequence  of  events  cannot  be  fitted  into  his  life ;  Burney  con- 
siders the  whole  account  savours  of  hearsay  evidence  and  absurdity, 
and  gives  no  credit  to  It. 
■  '  Musica  Divina,'  etc.  Carl  Proske.  vol.  II.  Otatlsbon,  1RS3.) 
ii  '1st  part  of  Italian  Madrigals  Englished,'  etc.  Published  by 
Thomas  Watson  (1590). 


MARIO. 

reputation  here  was  soon  established,  for  in  1595 
John  Dowland,  the  lutenist,  'not  being  able  to 
dissemble  the  great  content  he  had  found  in  the 
profered  amity  of  the  most  famous  Luca  Maren- 
zio,' thought  the  mere  advertisement  of  their  cor- 
respondence would  add  to  the  chance  of  his  own 
works  being  well  received.  Burney  does  not 
hesitate  to  say  that  the  madrigal  style  was 
brought  to  the  highest  degree  of  perfection  by 
Marenzio's  superior  genius,  and  that  the  publica- 
tion of  the  '  Musica  Transalpina '  gave  birth  to 
that  passion  for  madrigals  which  became  so  pre- 
valent among  us  when  our  own  composers  so 
happily  contributed  to  gratify  it.la 

Thus  it  came  to  pass  that  Luca  Marenzio  be- 
came bound  up  in  our  own  musical  history,  and 
few  foreign  musicians  of  the  1 6th  century  have 
been  kept  so  constantly  before  the  English  public. 
The  Madrigal  Society  became  a  home  for  his 
works  nearly  150  years  ago,  and  they  are  con- 
tinually sung  by  much  younger  societies.  'To 
guard  faithfully  and  lovingly  the  beautiful  things, 
and  to  reverence  the  great  masters,  of  olden  times, 
is  quite  a  part  of  the  English  character,  and  one 
of  its  most  beautiful  traits.' 1S  [J.R.S.-B.] 

MARGARITA.  [See  Epine.] 
MARIA  DI  ROHAN.  Opera  in  3  acts ;  music 
by  Donizetti.  Produced  at  Vienna,  June  5 , 1 843 ; 
at  the  Theatre  Italien,  Paris,  Nov.  20,  1843,  and 
in  London,  Co  vent  Garden,  May  8,  1847.  [G.] 
MARINO  FALIERO.  Opera  seria,  in  2  acts  ; 
music  by  Donizetti.  Produced  at  the  Theatre 
Italien  in  1835 ;  in  London,  King's  Theatre,  May 
14.  1835.  [G.] 

MARIO,  Conte  di  CANDIA,  the  greatest 
operatic  tenor  that  the  present  generation  has 
heard,  was  born  in  181 2  at  Genoa,  of  an  old 
and  noble  family.  His  father  had  been  a 
general  in  the  Piedmontese  army ;  and  he  himself 
was  an  officer  in  the  Piedmontese  Guard,  when 
he  first  came  to  Paris  in  1836,  and  immediately 
became  a  great  favourite  in  society.  Never 
was  youth  more  richly  gifted  for  the  operatic 
_  stage ;  beauty  of  voice,  face,  and  figure,  with  the 
most  winning  grace  of  Italian  manner,  were  all 
his.  But  lie  was  then  only  an  amateur,  and  as 
yet  all  unfitted  for  public  singing,  which  his 
friends  constantly  suggested  to  him,  even  if  he 
could  reconcile  his  pride  with  the  taking  of  such 
a  step.  Tempted  as  he  was  by  the  offers  made 
to  him  by  Duponchel,  the  director  of  the  Opera, 
— which  are  said  to  have  reached  the  sum  of 
frs.  1500  a  month,  a  large  sum  for  a  beginning, 
— and  pressed  by  the  embarrassments  created 
by  expensive  tastes,  he  still  hesitated  to  sign 
his  father's  name  to  such  a  contract ;  but  was 
finally  persuaded  to  do  so  at  the  house  of  the 
Comtesse  de  Merlin,  where  he  was  dining  one 
evening  with  Prince  Belgiojoso  and  other  well- 
known  amateurs ;  and  he  compromised  the 
matter  with  his  family  pride  by  signing  only 
the  Christian  name,  under  which  he  became 
afterwards  so  famous, — Mario. 

u  Gen.  Hist,  of  Music,  vol.  III.  pp.  201. 119. 
u  Aminos.  Geschlchte  der  Musik,  iii.  4G0. 


MARIO. 

He  is  said  to  have  spent  some  time  in  study, 
directed  by  the  advice  of  Michelet,  Ponchard, 
and  the  great  singing-master,  Bordogni ;  but  it 
cannot  have  been  very  long  nor  the  study  very 
deep,  for  there  is  no  doubt  that  he  was  a  very 
incomplete  singer  when  he  made  his  first  appear- 
ance. This  was  on  Nov.  30,  1838,  in  the  rtU 
of  '  Robert  le  Diablo.'  Notwithstanding  his  lack 
of  preparation  and  want  of  habit  of  the  stage,  his 
success  was  assured  from  the  first  moment  when 
his  delicious  voice  and  graceful  figure  were  first 
presented  to  the  French  public.  Mario  remained 
at  the  Acade"mie  during  that  year,  but  in  1840 
he  passed  to  the  Italian  Opera,  for  which  his 
native  tongue  and  manner  better  fitted  him. 

In  the  meantime,  lie  had  made  his  first  appear- 
ance in  London,  where  he  continued  to  sing 
through  many  years  of  a  long  and  brilliant  career. 
His  debut  here  was  in  Lucrezia  Borgia,  June  6, 
1839  ;  but,  as  a  critic  of  the  time  observed,  '  the 
vocal  command  which  he  afterwards  gained  was 
unthought  of;  his  acting  did  not  then  get  beyond 
that  of  a  southern  man  with  a  strong  feeling  for 
the  stage.  But  physical  beauty  and  geniality, 
such  as  have  been  bestowed  on  few,  a  certain 
artistic  taste,  a  certain  distinction, — not  exclu- 
sively belonging  to  gentle  birth,  but  sometimes 
associated  with  it, — made  it  clear,  from  Signor 
Mario's  first  hour  of  stage-life,  that  a  course  of 
no  common  order  of  fascination  was  begun.' 

Mario  sung,  after  this,  in  each  season  at  Paris 
and  in  London,  improving  steadily  botn  in  acting 
and  singing,  though  it  fell  to  his  lot  to  '  create ' 
but  few  new  characters, — scarcely  another  beside 
that  of  the  'walking  lover'  in  'Don  Pasquale,' 
a  part  which  consisted  of  little  more  than  the 
singing  of  the  serenade  '  Com'  e  gentil.'  In  other 
parts  he  only  followed  his  predecessors,  though 
with  a  grace  and  charm  which  were  peculiar  to 
him,  and  which  may  possibly  remain  for  ever  un- 
equalled. '  It  was  not,'  says  the  same  critic 
quoted  above  (Mr.  Chorley),  '  till  the  season  of 
1846  that  he  took  the  place  of  which  no  wear 
and  tear  of  time  had  been  able  to  deprive  him.' 
He  had  then  played  'Almaviva,'  'Gennaro,' 
'  Raoul,'  and  had  shown  himself  undoubtedly  the 
most  perfect  stage  lover  ever  seen,  whatever  may 
have  been  his  other  qualities  or  defects.  His 
singing  in  the  duet  of  the  4th  Act  of  the 
'  Ugonotti,'  raised  him  again  above  this ;  and  in 
'  La  Favorita '  he  achieved,  perhaps,  his  highest 
point  of  attainment  as  a  dramatic  singer. 

Like  Garcia  and  Nourrit,  Mario  attempted 
'  Don  Giovanni,'  and  with  similarly  small  success. 
The  vialence  done  to  Mozart's  music  partly 
accounts  for  the  failure  of  tenors  to  appropriate 
this  great  character ;  Mario  was  unfitted  for  it 
by  nature.  The  reckless  profligate  found  no 
counterpart  in  the  easy  grace  of  his  love- 
making  ;  he  was  too  amiable  in  the  eyes  of  the 
public  to  realise  for  them  the  idea  of  the  '  Disso- 
lute Punito.' 

As  a  singer  of  'romances'  Mario  has  never 
been  surpassed.  The  native  elegance  of  his 
demeanour  contributed  not  a  little  to  his  vocal 
success   in  the   dra wing-room ;    for   refinements 


MARIONETTE-THEATRE. 


217 


of  accent  and  pronunciation  create  effects  there 
which  would  be  inappreciable  in  the  larger  space 
of  a  Theatre.  Mario  was  not  often  heard  in 
oratorio,  but  he  sang  '  Then  shall  the  righteous, 
in  Elijah,  at  the  Birmingham  Festival  of  1849, 
and  '  If  with  all  your  hearts,'  in  the  same  oratorio, 
at  Hereford,  in  1855.  For  the  stage  he  was  born, 
and  to  the  stage  he  remained  faithful  during  his 
artistic  life.  To  the  brilliance  of  his  success  in 
opera  he  brought  one  great  helping  quality,  th© 
eye  for  colour  and  all  the  important  details  of  cos- 
tume. His  figure  on  the  stage  looked  as  if  it  had 
stepped  out  of  the  canvas  of  Titian,  Veronese,  or 
Tintoretto.  Never  was  an  actor  more  harmoniously 
and  beautifully  dressed  for  the  characters  he  im- 
personated,— no  mean  advantage,  and  no  slight 
indication  of  the  complete  artistic  temperament. 

For  five  and  twenty  years  Mario  remained 
before  the  public  of  Paris,  London,  and  St. 
Petersburg,  constantly  associated  with  Mme. 
Grisi.  In  the  earlier  years  (1843-6)  of  that 
brilliant  quarter  of  a  century,  he  took  the  place 
of  Rubini  in  the  famous  quartet,  with  Tam- 
burini  and  Lablache ;  this,  however,  did  not 
last  long ;  and  he  soon  remained  alone  with  the 
sole  remaining  star  of  the  original  constellation, 
Mme.  Grisi.  .  To  this  gifted  prima  donna  Mario 
was  united,  after  the  dissolution  of  her  former 
marriage ;  and  by  her  he  had  three  daughters. 
He  left  the  stage  in  1867,  and  retired  to  Paris, 
and  then  to  Rome,  where  he  is  still  living.  Two 
years  ago  it  became  known  that  he  was  in  reduced 
circumstances,  and  his  friends  got  up  a  concert  in 
London  for  his  benefit.  [J.M.] 

MARIONETTE-THEATRE,  a  small  stage 
on  which  puppets,  moved  by  wires  and  strings, 
act  operas,  plays,  and  ballets,  the  songs  or  dia- 
logue being  sung  or  spoken  behind  the  scenes. 
The  repertoires  included  both  serious  and  comic 
pieces,  but  mock-heroic  and  satiric  dramas  were 
the  most  effective.  Puppet-plays *,  in  England 
and  Italy  called  '  fantoccini,'  once  popular  with 
all  classes,  go  back  as  far  as  the  1 5th  century. 
From  that  period  to  the  end  of  the  1 7  th  cen- 
tury Punch  was  so  popular  as  to  inspire  Addison 
with  a  Latin  poem,  '  Machinae  gesticulantes.' 
In  1 713  a  certain  Powell  erected  a  Punch  theatre 
under  the  arcade  of  Covent,  Garden,  where  pieces 
founded  on  nursery  rhymes,  such  as  the  '  Babes 
in  the  Wood,'  'Robin  Hood,'  and  'Mother 
Goose,'  were  performed;  later  on  they  even 
reached  Shakspere  and  opera.  About  the  same 
period  Marionette- theatres  were  erected  in  the 
open  spaces  at  Vienna,  and  these  have  reappeared 
from  time  to  time  ever  since  •.  Prince  Esterhazy, 
at  his  summer  residence,  Esterhaz,  had  a  fantas- 
tically decorated  grotto  for  his  puppet-plays,  with 
a  staff  of  skilled  machinists,  scene-painters,  play- 
wrights, and  above  all  a  composer,  his  Capellmeister 
Haydn,  whose  love  of  humour  found  ample  scope 
in  these  performances.  His  opera  '  Philemon 
und  Baucis'    so  delighted  the   Empress   Maria 

1  See  Strutt'f  'Sports  and  Pastimes  of  the  People  of  England,'  Lon- 
don, 1890. 

2  In  1877  Raupach's  'Mailer  und  sein  Kind,'  and  the  'Bins  des 
Nibelungen '  were  performed  there  and  elsewhere  by  puppets. 


218 


MARIONETTE-THEATRE. 


MARSCHNER. 


Teresa,  that  by  her  desire  Prince  Esterhazy  had 
the  whole  apparatus  sent  to  Vienna  for  the 
amusement  of  the  Court.  In  London,  fantoccini 
were  playing  between  the  years  1770  and  80  at 
Hickford's  large  Rooms  in  Panton  Street,  Hay- 
market,  Marylebone  Gardens,  and  in  Piccadilly. 
In  Nov.  1 79 1  Haydn  was  present  at  one  of  these 
performances i  in  the  elegant  little  theatre  called 
Variete"s  Amusantes,  belonging  to  Lord  Barry- 
more,  in  Savile  Row.  He  was  much  interested, 
and  wrote  in  his  diary,  '  The  puppets  were  well- 
managed,  the  singers  bad,  but  the  orchestra  toler- 
ably good.'  The  playbill  may  be  quoted  as  a 
ppecimen. 

FANTOCCINI 

Dancing  and  music. 


Overture,  Haydn. 

A  comedy  in  one  act, 
'Arlequin  valet.' 

Overture,  Piccini. 

The  favourite  opera  (5th  time) 

'  La  buona  Figliuola,' 

the  music  by  Piccini.Giordani 

and  Sarti. 


Spanish  Fandango. 

Concertante,  PleyeL 

A  comedy  in  one  act, 

'  Les  Petits  Kiens,' 

the  music  by  Sacchini  and 

Paisiello. 

To  conclude  with  a  Pas  de 

deux  a-la-mode 

I  de  Vestris  and  Hillisberg. 


Leader  of  the  band :  Mr.  Mountain. 

First  hautboy :  Sgr.  Patria. 

To  begin  at  8 ;  the  doors  open  at  7  o'clock. 

The  theatre  is  well  aired  and  illuminated  with  wax. 

Refreshments  to  be  had  at  the  Rooms 

of  the  theatre.    Boxes  5/.    Pit  3/. 

A  critic  in  'The  Gazetteer'  says: — 'So  well  did  the 
motion  of  the  puppets  agree  with  the  voice  and  tone  of 
the  prompters,  that,  after  the  eye  had  been  accustomed 
to  them  for  a  few  minutes,  it  was  difficult  to  remember 
that  they  were  puppets.' 

Fantoccini  are  by  no  means  to  be  despised  even 
in  these  days.  They  give  opportunity  for  '  many 
a  true  word  to  be  spoken  in  jest' ;  they  show  up 
the  bad  habits  of  actors,  and  form  a  mirror  in 
which  adults  may  see  a  picture  of  life  none  the 
less  true  for  a  little  distortion.  [O.F.P.] 

MARITANA.  Opera  in  3  acts,  founded  on 
Don  Cesar  de  Bazan ;  words  by  Fitzball,  music 
by  W.  V.  Wallace.  Produced  at  Drury  Lane  by 
Mr.Bunn,  Nov.  15,  1845.  [G-.] 

MARKULL,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  born 
Feb.  17,  1 8 1 6,  near  Elbing,  Prussia.  He  studied 
composition  and  organ  playing  under  Friedrich 
Schneider,  at  Dessau;  became  in  1836  principal 
organist  at  Dantzig  and  conductor  of  the  'Gesang- 
verein'  there.  Markull  also  enjoys  reputation 
as  a  pianist,  and  has  given  excellent  concerts 
of  chamber  music.  He  has  composed  operas, 
oratorios,  and  two  symphonies,  and  many  works 
for  the  organ,  and  contributes  musical  articles 
for  Dantzig  journals.  [H.  S.  0.] 

MARPURG,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  eminent 
writer  on  music,  bcrn  1 718  at  Marpurgshof,  near 
Seehausen,  in  Brandenburg.  Little  is  known  of 
his  musical  education,  as  Gerber  gives  no  details, 
although  Marpurg  furnished  him  with  the  history 
of  his  life.     Spazier  ('Leipzig  musik.  Zeitung,' 

1  See  Pohl's  '  Ilaj-dn  in  London,'  p.  162. 


"•  553)  says  that  m  174^  he  was  secretary  to 
General  Rothenburg  in  Paris,  and  there  asso- 
ciated with  Voltaire,  Maupertuis,  D'Aleinbert, 
and  Rameau ;  and  Eberhard  remarks  that  his 
acquaintance  with  good  society  would  account  for 
his  refined  manners  and  his  tact  in  criticism.  The 
absence  in  his  works  of  personality  and  of  fine 
writing,  then  so  common  with  musical  authors,  is 
the  more  striking  as  he  had  great  command  of 
language  and  thoroughly  enjoyed  discussion.  His 
active  pen  was  exercised  in  almost  all  branches 
of  music — composition,  theory,  criticism,  and  his- 
tory. Of  his  theoretical  works  the  most  cele- 
brated are— the  'Handbuch  beim  Generalbatse, 
und  der  Composition,'  founded  on  Rameau's 
system  (3  parts,  1757-8,  Berlin)  ;  'Der  kritische 
Musicus  an  der2  Spree'  (Berlin,  1750),  contain- 
ing on  p.  129  a  lucid  explanation  of  the  old 
Church  Modes  ;  the  '  Anleitung  zur  Singecom- 
position'  (Berlin,  1758),  and  the  'Anleitung  zur 
Musik'  (Berlin,  1763),  both  still  popular;  the 
'Kunst  das  Clavier  zu  spielen'  (1750) ;  the 
'Versuch  fiber  die  musikalische  Temperatur' 
(Breslau,  1776),  a  controversial  pamphlet  in- 
tended to  prove  that  Kirnberger's  so-called  funda- 
mental bass  was  merely  an  interpolated  bass; 
and  the  '  Abhandlung  von  der  Fuge,'  62  plates 
(Berlin  1753-54;  2n(l  edition  1806;  French, 
Berlin  1756),  a  masterly  summary  of  the  whole 
science  of  counterpoint  at  that  period,  with  the 
solitary  defect  that  it  is  illustrated  by  a  few  short 
examples,  instead  of  being  treated  in  connection 
with  composition.  This  Marpurg  intended  to 
remedy  by  publishing  a  collection  of  fugues  by 
well-known  authors,  with  analyses,  but  he  only 
issued  the  first  part  (Berlin,  1758).  Of  his  cri- 
tical works  the  most  important  is  the '  Historisch- 
kritische  Beitrage,'  5  vols.  (Berlin,  1744-62). 
Among  the  historical  may  be  specified  a  MS. 

•  Entwurf  einer  Geschichte  der  Orgel,'  of  which 
Gerber  gives  the  table  of  contents ;  and  the  'Kri- 
tische Einleitung  in  die  Geschichte  der  Ton- 
kunst'  (Berlin,  1751).  Ajeu  d 'esprit,  'Legende 
einiger  Musikheiligen  von  Simon  Metaphrastes 
dem  Jfingeren'  (Cologne,  1786),  appeared  under 
his  pseudonym.  Of  compositions  he  published, 
besides  collections  of  contemporary  music,  '6 
Sonaten  fur  das  Cembalo'  (Nuremberg,  1756); 

•  Fughe  e  capricci '  (Berlin,  1777) :  and  '  Versuch 
in  figurirten  Choralen,'  vols.  1  and  2  ;  '  Musikal- 
isches  Archiv,'  an  elucidation  of  the  '  Historisch, 
kritischen  Beitrage,'  was  announced,  but  did  not 
appear. 

Marpurg  died  May  22,  1795,  in  Berlin,  where 
he  had  been  director  of  the  government  lottery 
from  1763.  [F.G.] 

MARSCHNER,  Heinrich,  celebrated  Ger- 
man opera-composer,  born  Aug.  16,  1796,  at 
Zittau  in  Saxony.  He  began  to  compose  sonatas, 
Lieder,  dances,  and  even  orchestral  music,  with 
no  further  help  than  a  few  hints  from  various 
musicians  with  whom  his  beautiful  soprano  voice 
and  his  pianoforte  playing  brought  him  into 
contact.       As   he   grew    up   he   obtained   more 

2  The  Spree  Is  the  river  which  flows  (or  rather  creeps)  through 
Berlin. 


MAESCHNER. 

systematic  instruction  from  Schicht  of  Leipzig, 
whither  he  went  in  1816  to  study  law.  Here 
also  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Rochlitz,  who 
induced  him  to  adopt  music  as  a  profession.  In 
181 7  he  travelled  with  Count  Thaddiius  von 
Amadee,  a  Hungarian,  to  Pressburg  and  Vienna, 
where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Kozeluch 
and  of  Beethoven,  who  is  said  to  have  advised  him 
to  compose  sonatas,  symphonies,  etc.,  for  practice. 
In  Pressburg  he  composed  'Der  Kyffhauser 
Berg,'  and  'Heinrich  IV.'  Weber  produced  the 
latter  at  Dresden,  and  Marschner  was  in  con- 
sequence appointed  in  1823  joint-Capellmeister 
with  Weber  and  Morlacchi  of  the  German  and 
Italian  Opera  there.  Weber  had  hoped  to  obtain 
the  post  for  his  friend  Gansbacher,  but  he  soon 
recovered  the  disappointment,  and  the  friend- 
ship which  ensued  between  them  was  of  great 
service  to  Marschner.  He  resigned  on  Weber's 
death  in  1826,  and  after  travelling  for  some 
time,  settled  in  1827  at  Leipzig  as  Capell- 
meister  of  the  theatre.  Here  he  produced  '  Der 
Vampyr'  (March  29,  1828),  his  first  romantic 
opera,  to  a  libretto  by  his  brother-in-law  Wohl- 
briick,  the  success  of  which  was  enormous  in 
spite  of  its  repulsive  subject.  In  London  it  was 
produced,  Aug.  25,  1829,  in  English,  at  the 
Lyceum,  and  ran  for  60  nights,  and  Marschner 
had  accepted  an  invitation  to  compose  an  English 
opera,  when  Covent  Garden  Theatre  was  burnt 
down.  His  success  here  doubtless  led  to  his 
dedicating  his  opera  'Des  Falkner's  Braut'  to 
King  William  IV,  in  return  for  which  he  re- 
ceived a  gracious  letter  and  a  golden  box  in  1833. 
His  attention  having  been  turned  to  English 
literature,  his  next  opera,  '  Der  Templer  und  die 
Jiidin,'  was  composed  to  a  libretto  constructed 
by  himself  and  Wohlbrtick  from  •  Ivanhoe.'  The 
freshness  and  melody  of  the  music  ensured  its 
success  at  the  time,  but  the  libretto,  disjointed 
and  overloaded  with  purely  epic  passages  which 
merely  serve  to  hinder  the  action,  killed  the 
music.  In  1831  Marschner  was  appointed  Court 
Capellmeister  at  Hanover,  where  he  produced 
'Hans  Heiling'  (May  24,  1833)  to  a  libretto  by 
Eduard  Devrient,  which  had  been  urged  upon 
Mendelssohn  in  1827  (Devrient's  'Recollections,' 
p.  40).  This  opera  is  Marschner's  masterpiece. 
Its  success  was  instantaneous  and  universal,  and 
it  retains  to  this  day  an  honourable  place  at  all 
the  principal  theatres  of  Germany.  In  1836  it 
was  performed  under  his  own  direction  at  Copen- 
hagen with  marked  success,  and  he  was  offered 
the  post  of  General  Musikdirector  in  Denmark, 
an  honour  which  the  warmth  of  his  reception  on 
his  return  to  Hanover  induced  him  to  decline. 
After  'Hans  Heiling'— owing  chiefly  to  differ- 
ences with  the  management  of  the  theatre — 
Marschner  composed  little  for  the  stage,  and 
that  little  has  not  survived.  He  died  at  Han- 
over, Dec.  14,  1861.  Besides  the  operas  already 
mentioned  he  composed  '  Lucretia '  and  '  Schon' 
Ellen'  (1822);  'Des  Falkner's  Braut'  (Leipzig, 
1832;  Berlin,  1838);  'Das  Schloss  am  Aetna' 
(Berlin,  1838) ;  '  Adolph  von  Nassau '  (Hanover, 
1843);  'Austin'  (1851);  and  an  operetta  'Der 


MARSEILLAISE. 


219 


Holzdieb.'  He  also  composed  incidental  music 
for  von  Kleist's  play  'Die  Herinannsschlacht,' 
and  published  over  180  works  of  all  kinds  and 
descriptions ;  but  principally  Lieder  for  one  and 
more  voices,  still  popular ;  and  choruses  for  men's 
voices,  many  of  which  are  excellent  and  great 
favourites.  An  overture,  embodying  'God  save 
the  king,'  is  mentioned  as  being  performed  in 
London  at  a  concert  on  the  occasion  of  the 
baptism  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  (Jan.  25, 1842). 
As  a  dramatic  composer  of  the  Romantic 
school,  Marschner  ranks  next  to  Weber  and 
Spohr,  but  it  is  with  the  former  that  his  name 
is  most  intimately  connected,  though  he  was 
never  a  pupil  of  Weber's.  The  strong  similarity 
between  their  dispositions  and  gifts,  the  harmo- 
nious way  in  which  they  worked  together,  and 
the  cordial  affection  they  felt  for  each  other, 
are  interesting  facts  in  the  history  of  music. 
Marschner's  favourite  subjects  were  ghosts  and 
demons,  whose  uncanny  revels  he  delineated 
with  extraordinary  power,  but  this  gloomy  side 
of  his  character  was  relieved  by  a  real  love  of 
nature  and  out-door  life,  especially  in  its  lighter 
and  more  humorous  characteristics.  He  worked 
with  extreme  rapidity,  which  is  the  more  remark- 
able as  his  scores  abound  in  enharmonic  modula- 
tions, and  his  orchestration  is  unusually  brilliant 
and  elaborate.  Such  facility  argues  an  inex- 
haustible store  of  melody,  and  a  perfect  mastery 
of  the  technical  part  of  composition.  [A.  M.] 

MARSEILLAISE,  LA.  The  words  and  music 
of  this  popular  French  hymn  are  the  composition 
of  Claude  Joseph  Rouget  de  Lisle,  a  captain  of 
engineers,  who  was  quartered  at  Strasburg  when 
the  volunteers  of  the  Bas  Rhin  received  orders  to 
join  Luckner's  army.  Dietrich,  the  Mayor  of 
Strasburg,  having,  in  the  course  of  a  discussion 
on  the  war,  regretted  that  the  young  soldiers  had 
no  patriotic  song  to  sing  as  they  marched  out, 
Rouget  de  Lisle,  who  was  of  the  party,  returned 
to  his  lodgings x,  and  in  a  fit  of  enthusiasm  com- 
posed, during  the  night  of  April  24.  1792,  the 
words  and  music  of  the  song  which  has  immor- 
talised his  name.  With  his  violin  he  picked 
out  the  first  strains  of  this  inspiriting  and  truly 
martial  melody ;  but  being  only  an  amateur,  he 
unfortunately  added  a  symphony  which  jars 
strangely  with  the  vigorous  character  of  the 
hymn  itself.  The  following  copy  of  the  original 
edition,  printed  by  Dannbach  of  Strasburg  under 
the  title  '  Chant  de  guerre  pour  1  armee  du  Rhin, 
de"die"  au  Marechal  Lukner '  {sic),  will  be  inter- 
esting from  its  containing  the  symphony,  which 
has  been  since  suppressed,  and  from  an  obvious 
typographical  error,  a  crotchet  being  evidently 
intended  for  a  quaver. 


Tempi  de  marehe  animt. 


glolre  est  ar  -  ri  -  -  vi.   Con-tre  nous  de  la  tjr-ran  -  ni-o  Vitea- 

1  In  the  liaison  Bocltel.  No.  12.  Grande  Rue 


220 


MARSEILLAISE. 

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The  'Chant  de  Guerre'  was  sung  in  Diet- 
rich's house  on  April  25,  copied  and  arranged 
for  a  military  band  on  the  following  day,  and 
performed  by  the  band  of  the  Garde  Rationale 
at  a  review  on  Sunday,  the  29th.  On  June 
25  a  singer  named  Mireur  sang  it  at  a  civic 
banquet  at  Marseilles  with  so  much  effect  that  it 
was  immediately  printed,  and  distributed  to  the 
volunteers  of  the  battalion  just  starting  for 
Paris.  They  entered  Paris  on  July  30,  sing- 
ing their  new  hymn;  and  with  it  on  their 
lips  they  marched  to  the  attack  on  the  Tuileries 
on  August  10,  1792.  From  that  day  the 
'Chant  de  guerre  pour  l'arme'e  du  Rhin'  was 
called '  Chanson '  or  '  Chant  des  Marseillais,'  and, 
finally, '  La  Marseillaise.'  The  people,  shouting 
it  in  the  streets,  prohably  altered  a  note  or  two  ; 
the  musicians,  Edelmann,  Gre"try,  and  most  of  all 
Gossec,  in  their  accompaniments  for  pianoforte 
and  orchestra,  greatly  enriched  the  harmonies, 
and  soon  the  '  Marseillaise,'  in  the  form  we  have 
it  now  (and  which  need  hardly  be  quoted),  was 
known  from  one  end  of  France  to  the  other. 

The  original  edition  contained  only  six  coup- 
lets ;  the  seventh  was  added  when  it  was  drama- 
tised for  the  FSte  of  the  Federation,  in  order  to 
complete  the  characters — an  old  man,  a  soldier, 
a  wife,  and  a  child — among  whom  the  verses 
were  distributed.  Rouget  de  Lisle  had  been 
cashiered  for  expressing  disapproval  of  the  events 
of  the  10th  of  August,  and  was  then  in  prison, 
from  which  he  was  only  released  after  the  fall  of 
Robespierre,  on  the  9th  Thermidor  (July  28), 


MARSEILLAISE. 

1794.  The  following  fine  stanza  for  the  child 
was  accordingly  supplied  by  Dubois,  editor  of  the 
*  Journal  de  Litterature ' : — 

*  Nous  entrerons  dans  la  carriere, 
Quand  nos  aln6s  n'y  seront  plus ; 
Nous  y  trouverons  leur  poussiere 
Kt  la  trace  de  leurs  vertus. 

Bien  moins  jaloux  de  leur  survivre 
Que  de  partager  leur  cercueil, 
Nous  aurons  le  sublime  orgueil 
De  les  venger  ou  de  les  suivie.' 

Dubois  also  proposed  to  alter  the  concluding  lines 
of  the  sixth  stanza : — 

'  Que  tes  ennemis  expirants 
Voienl  ton  triomphe  et  notre  gloire ' 

•  Dans  tes  ennemis  expirants 
Vois  ton  triomphe  et  notre  gloire.' 

These  are  minute  details,  but  no  fact  connected 
with  this  most  celebrated  of  French  national  airs 
is  uninteresting. 

That  Rouget  de  Lisle  was  the  author  of  the 
words  of  the  '  Marseillaise '  has  never  been 
doubted — indeed  Louis  Philippe  conferred  a  pen- 
sion upon  him  ;  but  it  has  been  denied  over  and 
over  again  that  he  composed  the  music.  Strange  to 
say,  Castil-Blaze  (see  'Moliere  musicien,'  vol.  ii.  pp. 
452-454),  who  should  have  recognised  the  vigour 
and  dash  so  characteristic  of  the  French,  declared 
it  to  have  been  taken  from  a  German  hymn. 

In  F.  K.  Meyer's  Versailler  Briefe  (Berlin, 
1872)  there  is  an  article  upon  the  origin  of  the 
Marseillaise,  in  which  it  is  stated  that  the  tune 
is  the  same  as  that  to  which  the  Volkslied 
'Stand  ich  auf  hohen  Bergen'  is  suDg  in  Upper 
Bavaria.  The  author  of  the  article  heard  it 
sung  in  1842  by  an  old  woman  of  70,  who 
informed  him  that  it  was  a  very  old  tune,  and 
that  she  had  learnt  it  from  her  mother  and 
grandmother.  The  tune  is  also  said  to  exist  in 
the  Credo  of  a  MS.  Mass  composed  by  Holtz- 
mann  in  1776,  which  is  preserved  in  the  parish 
church  of  Meersburg.  (See  the  Gartenlaube  for 
1861,  p.  256.)  Recent  enquiry  (August,  1879) 
on  the  spot  from  the  curate  of  Meersburg  has 
proved  that  there  is  no  truth  in  this  story. 

Fe"tis,  in  1863,  asserted  that  the  music  was 
the  work  of  a  composer  named  Navoigille,  and 
reinforces  his  statement  in  the  2nd  edition  of 
his  '  Biographie  Universelle.'  Georges  Kastner 
('  Revue  et  Gazette  Musicale,'  Paris,  1848)  and 
several  other  writers,  including  the  author  of  this 
article  (see  Chouquet's  '  L'Art  Musical,'  Sept.  8, 
1864-March  9,  65),  have  clearly  disproved  these 
allegations ;  and  the  point  was  finally  settled  by 
a  pamphlet,  'La  Verite*  sur  la  paternite"  de  la 
Marseillaise'  (Paris,  1865),  written  by  A.  Rouget 
de  Lisle,  nephew  of  the  composer,  which  contains 
precise  information  and  documentary  evidence, 
establishing  Rouget  de  Lisle's  claim  beyond  a 
doubt.  The  controversy  is  examined  at  length 
by  Loquin  in  '  Les  melodies  populaires  de  la 
France,'  Paris.  1879.  The  'Marseillaise'  has 
been  often  made  use  of  by  composers.  Of  these, 
two  may  be  cited — Salieri,  in  the  opening  chorus 
of  his  opera,  'Palmira'  (1795),  and  Grison,  in 
the  introduction  to  the  oratorio  '  Esther '  (still 
in  MS.),  both  evidently  intentional.  Schumann 
uses  it  in  his  song  of  the  Two  Grenadiers  with 


MARSEILLAISE. 

magnificent  effect ;  and  also  introduces  it  in  his 
Overture  to  Hermann  und  Dorothea. 

A  picture  by  Pils,  representing  Rouget  de  Lisle 
singing  the  *  Marseillaise,'  is  well-known  from 
the  engraving.  [G.  ft] 

MARSH,  Alphokso,  son  of  Robert  Marsh, 
one  of  the  musicians  in  ordinary  to  Charles  L, 
was  baptized  at  St.  Margaret's  Westminster, 
Jan.  28,  1627.  He  was  appointed  a  Gentleman 
of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  1 660.  Songs  composed  by 
him  appear  in  'The  Treasury  of  Musick,'  1669, 
'Choice  Ayres  and  Dialogues,'  1676,  and  other 
publications  of  the  time.  He  died  April  9,  1681. 
His  son  Alphonso  was  admitted  a  Gentleman 
of  the  Chapel  Royal  April  25,  1676.  Songs  by 
him  are  contained  in  '  The  Theater  of  Music,' 
1685-7,  'The  Banquet  of  Musick,'  1688-92, 
and  other  publications.  He  died  April  5,  1692, 
and  was  buried  April  9,  in  the  west  cloister  of 
Westminster  Abbey.  [W.  H.  H.] 

MARSH,  John,  born  at  Dorking,  1750,  a 
distinguished  amateur  composer  and  performer, 
resident  at  Salisbury  (1776-81),  Canterbury 
(1781-6),  and  Chichester  (1787-1828),  in  each 
of  which  places  he  led  the  band  at  the  subscrip- 
tion concerts  and  occasionally  officiated  for  the 
cathedral  and  church  organists.  He  composed 
two  Services,  many  anthems,  chants,  and  psalm 
tunes,  glees,  songs,  symphonies,  overtures,  quar- 
tets, etc.,  and  organ  and  pianoforte  music,  be- 
sides treatises  on  harmony,  thorough  bass,  etc. 
He  died  in  1828.  A  fully  detailed  account  of 
his  career  is  given  in  the  '  Dictionary  of  Musi- 
cians,' 1824,  but  it  does  not  possess  sufficient 
interest  to  be  repeated  here.  [W.  H.  H.] 

MARSHALL,  William,  Mus.  Doc,  son  of 
William  Marshall  of  Oxford,  music-seller,  born 
1806,  was  a  chorister  of  the  Chapel  Royal  under 
John  Stafford  Smith  and  William  Hawes.  He 
was  appointed  organist  of  Christ  Church  Cathe- 
dral and  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  in  1823,  and 
was  also  organist  of  All  Saints'  Church.  He 
graduated  as  Mus.  Bac.  Dec.  7,  1836,  and  Mus. 
Doc.  Jan.  14,  1840.  He  resigned  his  Oxford 
appointments  in  1846,  and  afterwards  became 
organist  of  St.  Mary's  Church,  Kidderminster. 
He  was  author  of  '  The  Art  of  Reading  Church 
Music,'  1842,  and  editor  (jointly  with  Alfred 
Bennett)  of  a  collection  of  chants,  1829,  and 
also  editor  of  a  book  of  words  of  anthems,  1840, 
4th  edit.  1862.  He  died  at  Handsworth,  Aug. 
17.  1875. 

His  younger  brother,  Charles  Ward  Mar- 
shall, born  1808,  about  1835  appeared,  under 
the  assumed  name  of  Manvers,  on  the  London 
stage  as  a  tenor  singer,  with  success.  In  1842 
he  quitted  the  theatre  for  concert  and  oratorio 
singing,  in  which  he  met  with  greater  success. 
After  1847  he  withdrew  from  public  life.  He 
died  at  Islington  Feb.  22,  1874.  [W.  H.  H.] 

MARSON,  George,  Mus.  Bac.,  contributed 
to  'The  Triumphes  of  Oriana,'  1601,  the  five- 
part  madrigal  '  The  nimphes  and  shepheards.' 
He  composed  services  and  anthems,  some  of 
which  are  still  extant  in  MS.  [W. H.  H.] 


MARTINES. 


221 


MARTELE  and  MARTELLATO  (Ital.), 
from  martder  and  martellare,  to  hammer ;  said 
of  notes  struck  or  sung  with  especial  force,  and 
left  before  the  expiration  of  the  time  due  to  them. 
Notes  dashed,  dotted,  or  emphasized  by  >  or  fz., 
are  Martele'es  or  Martellate  in  execution.  The 
term  Martellement  is  sometimes  employed  for 
acciaccatura.  [J.H.] 

MA  RTH  A.  Opera  in  3  acts ;  music  by  Flotow. 
Produced  at  Vienna  Nov.  25,  1847.  It  was  an 
extension  of  Lady  Henriette,  in  which  Flotow 
had  only  a  third  share.  The  alterations  in  the 
book  are  said  to  have  been  made  by  St.  Georges, 
and  translated  into  German  by  Friedrich.  It 
was  produced  in  Italian  at  Covent  Garden,  as 
Marta,  July  1,  1858  ;  in  English  at  Drury  Lane, 
Oct.  11,  1858,  and  in  French  at  the  Theatre 
Lyrique,  Dec.  16,  1865.  The  air  of  '  The  last 
rose  of  summer '  is  a  prominent  motif  in  this 
opera.  [G.] 

MARTIN,  George  William,  born  March  8, 
1825,  received  his  early  musical  education  in  the 
choir  of  St.  Paul's  cathedral  under  William  Hawes. 
He  has  composed  many  glees,  madrigals,  and 
part-songs,  for  some  of  which  he  has  been  awarded 
prizes,  and  has  edited  and  published  cheap  ar- 
rangements of  the  popular  oratorios  and  other 
works  of  Handel,  Haydn,  and  others.  For  some 
years  he  directed  performances  given  under  the 
name  of  the  National  Choral  Society.  He  has 
an  aptitude  for  training  choirs  of  school  children, 
and  has  conducted  many  public  performances  by 
them.  [W.  H.  H.] 

MARTIN,  Jonathan,  born  1715,  was  a  cho- 
rister of  the  Chapel  Royal  under  Dr.  Croft.  On 
quitting  the  choir  he  was  placed  under  Thomas 
Roseingrave  for  instruction  on  the  organ,  and 
soon  attained  such  proficiency  as  to  be  able  to 
deputise  for  his  master  at  St.  George's,  Hanover 
Square,  and  for  Weldon  at  the  Chapel  Royal. 
On  June  21,  1736  he  was  admitted  organist  of 
the  Chapel  Royal  on  the  death  of  Weldon,  and 
promised  'to  compose  anthems  or  services  for 
the  use  of  His  Majesty's  Chapel,  whenever  re- 
quired by  the  Subdean  for  the  time  being.' 
Probably  he  was  never  called  upon  to  fulfil  his 
promise,  as  his  only  known  composition  is  a  song 
in  Rowe's  tragedy,  '  Tamerlane,'  '  To  thee,  O 
gentle  sleep.'  He  died  of  consumption,  April  4, 
1737,  and  was  buried  April  9,  in  the  west  clois- 
ter of  Westminster  Abbey.    '  [W.  H.  H.] 

MARTINES,  or  MARTINEZ,  Marianne, 
daughter  of  the  master  of  the  ceremonies  to  the 
Pope's  Nuncio,  born  May  4,  1744,  at  Vienna. 
Metastasio,  a  great  friend  of  her  father's,  lived 
for  nearly  half  a  century  with  the  family,  and 
undertook  her  education.  Haydn,  then  young, 
poor,  and  unknown,  occupied  a  wretched  garret 
in  the  same  house,  and  taught  her  the  harpsi- 
chord, while  Porpora  gave  her  lessons  in  singing 
and  composition,  her  general  cultivation  being 
under  Metastasio's  own  care.  Of  these  advan- 
tages she  made  good  use.  Burney,  who  knew  her 
in   1772 ',  speaks  of  her  in  the   highest  terms, 

>  See  '  Present  State  of  Music  In  Germany,'  1.  311-13, 352. 354.  362. 


222 


MARTINES. 


specially  praising  her  singing ;  and  she  also  won 
the  admiration  of  both  Masse  and  Gerbert. 
After  the  death  of  the  parents,  and  of  Metas- 
tasio,  who  left  them  well  off,  she  and  her  sister 
gave  evening  parties,  which  were  frequented  by 
all  the  principal  artists.  On  one  of  these  oc- 
casions Kelly1  heard  Marianne  play  a  4-hand 
sonata  of  Mozart's  with  the  composer.  Latterly 
Marianne  devoted  herself  to  teaching  talented 
pupils.  In  1773  she  was  made  a  member  of  the 
Musical  Academy  of  Bologna.  In  1782,  the  'Ton- 
kiinstler  Societiit'  performed  her  oratorio '  Isacco,' 
to  Metastasio's  words.  She  also  composed  two 
more  oratorios,  a  mass,  and  other  sacred  music ; 
Psalms,  to  Metastasio's  Italian  translation,  for  4 
and  8  voices ;  solo-motets,  arias,  and  cantatas, 
concertos,  and  sonatas  for  clavier,  overtures  and 
symphonies.  The  Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde 
possesses  the  autographs  of  many  of  these  works. 
Marianne  expired  on  the  13th  of  Dec.  181 2,  a 
few  days  after  the  death  of  her  younger  sister 
Antonie.  [C.  F.  P.] 

MARTINI,  Giovanni  Battista,  or  Giam- 
battista,  commonly  called  Padre  Martini,  one 
of  the  most  important  scientific  musicians  of 
the  1 8  th  century,  born  at  Bologna,  April  25, 
1 706  ;  was  first  taught  music  by  his  father 
Antonio  Maria,  member  of  a  musical  society 
called  '  I  Fratelli.'  Having  become  an  expert 
violinist,  he  learned  to  sing  and  play  the  harpsi- 
chord from  Padre  Predieri,  and  counterpoint 
from  Antonio  Riccieri,  a  castrato  of  Vincenzo, 
and  composer  of  merit.  At  the  same  time  he 
studied  philosophy  and  theology  with  the  monks 
of  San  Filippo  Neri.  Having  passed  his  novi- 
ciate at  the  Franciscan  convent  at  Lago,  he  was 
ordained  on  Sept.  II,  1722,  and  returning  to 
Bologna  in  1725  became  maestro  di  capella  of 
the  church  of  San  Francesco.  Giacomo  Perti 
held  a  similar  post  at  San  Petronio,  and  from 
him  Martini  received  valuable  advice  on  com- 
posing church-music,  at  the  same  time  laying 
a  scientific  foundation  for  the  whole  theory  of 
music  by  a  conscientious  study  of  mathematics 
with  Zanotti,  a  well-known  physician  and  mathe- 
matician. He  thus  gradually  acquired  an  ex- 
traordinary and  comprehensive  mass  of  knowledge, 
with  an  amount  of  literary  information  far  in 
advance  of  his  contemporaries.  His  library 
was  unusually  complete  for  the  time2,  partly 
because  scientific  men  of  all  countries  took  a 
pleasure  in  sending  him  books.  Burney,  whose 
own  library  was  very  extensive,  expressed  his 
astonishment  at  that  of  Martini,  which  he  esti- 
mates to  contain  17,000  vols.  ('Present  State  of 
Music  in  France  and  Italy,'  p.  202).  After  his 
death  a  portion  found  its  way  to  the  court  library 
at  Vienna  the  rest  remained  at  Bologna  in  the 
Liceo  Filarinonico.  His  reputation  as  a  teacher 
was  European,  and  scholars  flocked  to  him  from 

'  Kelly's  mistakes  of  detail  are  Innumerable.  He  gives  the  name 
'  Martini,'  and  imagining  Marianne  to  be  the  sister  of  her  father—1  a 
very  old  man '  and  '  nearly  his  own  age'— speaks  of  her  as  '  in  the  vale 
of  years,'  though  still  'possessing  the  gaiety  and  vivacity  of  a  girl.' 
She  was  barely  40. 

3  Be  had  10  copies  of  Guido  d'Arezzo's  Micrologos, 


MARTINI. 

all  parts,  among  the  most  celebrated  being 
Paolucci,  Ruttini,  Sarti,  Ottani,  and  Stanislas 
Mattei,  afterwards  joint  founder  of  the  Liceo 
Filai  monico.  These  he  educated  in  the  traditions 
of  the  old  Roman  school,  the  main  characteristic 
of  which  was  the  melodious  movement  of  the 
separate  parts.  Martini  was  also  frequently 
called  upon  to  recommend  a  new  maestro  di 
capella  or  to  act  as  umpire  in  disputed  questions. 
He  was  himself  occasionally  involved  in  musical 
controversy;  the  best-known  instance  being  his 
dispute  with  Redi  about  the  solution  of  a  puzzle- 
canon  by  Giovanni  Animuccia,  which  he  solved 
by  employing  two  keys  in  the  third  part,  This, 
though  approved  by  Pitoni,  was  declared  by  Redi 
to  be  unjustifiable.  To  prove  his  point  Martini 
therefore  wrote  a  treatise  maintaining  that  puzzle- 
canons  had  not  unfrequently  been  solved  in  that 
manner,  and  quoting  examples.  Another  im- 
portant controversy  was  that  held  with  Eximeno 
[see  Eximeno].  In  spite  of  these  differences  of 
opinion  his  contemporaries  describe  him  as  a 
man  of  great  mildness,  modesty,  and  good  nature, 
always  ready  to  answer  questions,  and  give  ex- 
planations. It  is  difficult  to  think  without 
emotion  of  the  warm  welcome  which  he,  the  most 
learned  and  one  of  the  oldest  musicians  of  his 
country,  bestowed  on  Mozart  when  he  visited 
Bologna  in  1 7  70  as  a  boy  of  1 4,  or  to  resist  viewing 
it  as  a  symbol  of  the  readiness  of  Italy  to  open  to 
Germany  that  vast  domain  of  music  and  tradition 
which  had  hitherto  been  exclusively  her  own. 
His  courtesy  and  affability  brought  the  Bolognese 
monk  into  friendly  relations  with  many  exalted 
personages,  Frederic  the  Great  and  Frederic 
William  II  of  Prussia,  Princess  Maria  Antonie 
of  Saxony,  and  Pope  Clement  XIV  among  the 
number.  He  suffered  much  towards  the  close  of 
his  life  from  asthma,  a  disease  of  the  bladder, 
and  a  painful  wound  in  the  leg ;  but  his  cheer- 
fulness never  deserted  him,  and  he  worked  at 
the  fourth  volume  of  his  History  of  Music  up 
to  his  death,  which  took  place  in  1784 — on 
October  3,  according  to  Moreschi,  Gandini,  and 
Delia  Valle ;  on  August  4  according  to  Fan- 
tuzzi.  His  favourite  pupil  Mattei  stayed  with 
him  to  the  last.  Zanotti's  requiem  was  sung 
at  his  funeral,  and  on  December  2  the  Acca- 
demia  Filarmonica  held  a  grand  function,  at 
which  a  funeral  mass,  the  joint  composition  of 
13  maestri  di  capella,  was  performed,  and  an 
'Elogio'  pronounced  by  Lionardo  Volpi.  All 
Italy  mourned  for  him,  and  a  medallion  to  his 
memory  was  struck  by  Tadolini.  He  was  a 
member  of  two  '  Accademie,'  the  '  Filarmonici ' 

I  of  Bologna,  and  the  'Arcadici'  of  Rome,  his 
assumed  name  in  the  latter  being  Aristoxenus 

.  Amphion. 

Martini's  two  great  works  are  the  'Storia 

I  dellaMusica'  (3  vols.,  Bologna,  1757,  70,  81), 
and  the  'Esemplare  ossia  Saggio  .  .  .  di  con- 
trapunto'  (2  vols.,  Bologna,  1774,  75).  The 
first  is  a  most  learned  work ;  each  chapter  begins 
and   ends   with   a  puzzle-canon,   the   whole   of 

[  which  were  salved  and  published  by  Cherubini. 
The  three  volumes  all  treat  of  ancient  music; 


MARTINI. 

the  music  of  the  middle  ages  down  to  the  nth 
century  was  to  have  been  the  subject  of  the 
4th  vol.,  which  he  did  not  live  to  finish.  A 
report  having  sprung  up  that  the  completed  MS. 
was  in  the  Minorite  convent  at  Bologna,  Fetis 
obtained  access  to  the  library  through  Rossini, 
but  found  only  materials,  of  which  no  use  has 
yet  been  made.  The  'Saggio'  is  a  most  im- 
portant collection  of  examples  from  the  best 
masters  of  the  ancient  Italian  and  Spanish  schools, 
and  a  model  of  its  kind.  Besides  a  number  of 
small  treatises  and  controversial  writings  (for  list 
see  Fetis)  Martini  left  masses  and  other  church 
music  in  the  style  of  the  time.  The  following 
were  printed: — 'Litaniae'  op.  1  (1734);  'XII 
Sonate  d'intavolatura,'  op.  2  (Amsterdam,  Le 
Cene,  i74i\  excellent  and  full  of  originality; 
'  VI  Sonate  per  organo  e  cembalo '  (Bologna 
1747);  'Duetti  da  Camera'  (Bologna,  1763). 
The  Liceo  of  Bologna  possesses  the  MSS.  of  two 
oratorios,  'San  Pietro'  (two  separate  composi- 
tions), and  '  L'Assunzione  di  Salomone  al  trono 
d'Israele ' ;  a  farsetta  '  La  Dirindina ' ;  and  3 
Intermezzi,  ' L'Impresario  delle  Canarie,'  'Don 
Chisciotto,'  and  '  II  Maestro  di  Musica.'  A 
requiem  (103  sheets),  and  other  church  com- 
positions are  in  Vienna.  Pauer,  in  his  '  Alte 
Klaviermusik,'  gives  a  gavotte  and  ballet  of 
Martini's.  Farrenc  has  published  12  sonatas  in 
his  '  Tre"sor  musical,'  and  other  works  are  given 
by  Luck,  Korner,  Ricordi,  etc.  The  best  of 
many  books  on  his  life  and  works  is  the  '  Elogio' 
of  Pietro  Delia  Valle  (Bologna,  1784).      [F.G.] 

MARTYRS,  LES.  Opera  in  4  acts ;  words  by 
Scribe,  music  by  Donizetti.  Produced  at  the 
Academie,  April  10,  1840 ;  at  the  Royal  Italian 
Opera,  as  'I  Martiri,'  April  20,  1852.  The 
work  was  an  adaptation  of  Poliuto,  a  former 
Italian  opera  of  Donizetti's.  [G.] 

MARX,  Adolph  Beenhabd,  learned  mu- 
sician and  author,  born  May  15,  1799,  a*  Halle, 
son  of  a  physician,  learned  harmony  from  Turk, 
studied  law,  and  held  a  legal  post  at  Naumburg. 
His  love  of  music  led  him  to  Berlin,  where  he 
soon  gave  up  the  law,  and  in  1824  he  founded 
with  Schlesinger  the  publisher  the  '  Allgemeine 
Berliner  Musikzeitung.'  This  periodical,  which 
only  existed  seven  years,  did  important  service  in 
creating  a  juster  appreciation  of  Beethoven's 
works  in  North  Germany,  a  service  which  Bee- 
thoven characteristically  refers  to  in  a  letter 1  to 
Schlesinger,  Sept.  25,  1825.  His  book  on  the 
same  subject,  however,  '  Beethoven's  Leben  und 
Schaffen'  (Berlin,  1859,  2nded.  1865,  3rd  1875), 
is  a  fantastic  critique,  too  full  of  mere  conjecture 
and  misty  sestheticism.  In  1827  he  received  his 
doctor's  diploma  from  the  university  of  Mar- 
burg, and  was  made  'Docent,'  or  tutor,  in  the 
history  and  theory  of  music  at  the  university 
of  Berlin.  He  became  Professor  in  1830,  and 
in  1832  Musikdirector  of  the  university  choir. 
In  1850  he  founded  with  Kullak  and  Stern 
the  '  Berliner  Musikschule,'  afterwards  the 
'  Berliner  Couservatorium,'  but  .withdrew  in  1 856 

1  Nobl,  Briefe,  No.  368. 


MARYLEBONE  GARDENS.        223 

(Kullak  having  resigned  in  '55),  and  hence- 
forth devoted  himself  to  his  private  pupils  and  to 
his  work  at  the  University.  He  died  in  Berlin, 
May  17,  1866.  His  numerous  works  are  of 
unequal  merit,  the  most  important  being  the 
'Lehre  von  der  musikahschen  Composition,'  4  vols. 
(Breitkopf  &  Hartel,  1837,  38,  45).  His'Gluck 
und  die  Oper'  (Berlin,  2  vols.  1862)  contains 
many  ingenious  observations,  but  is  of  no  his- 
torical value.  Besides  what  he  did  for  Beethoven's 
music,  Marx  deserves  credit  for  bringing  to  light 
many  little-known  works  of  Bach  and  Handel. 
His  compositions  are  not  remarkable ;  neither 
his  oratorios '  Johannes  der  Taufer,' '  Moses,'  and 
'  Nahid  und  Omar,'  nor  his  instrumental  music, 
obtaining  more  than  a  '  succes  d'estime.'  Never- 
theless some  particulars  given  in  his  'Erlnnerun- 
gen '  (Berlin,  1865)  as  to  his  manner  of  composing 
are  well  worth  reading,  as  indeed  is  the  whole 
book  for  its  interesting  picture  of  the  state  of 
music  in  Berlin  between  1830  and  60.  With  Men- 
delssohn he  was  at  one  time  extremely  intimate, 
and  no  doubt  was  in  many  respects  useful  to  him  ; 
but  his  influence  diminished  as  Mendelssohn  grew 
older  and  more  independent.  L-^.G.] 

MARXSEN,  Eduabd,  born  July  23,  1806,  at 
Nienstadten  near  Altona,  where  his  father  was 
organist.  He  was  intended  for  the  church,  but 
devoted  himself  to  music,  which  he  studied  at 
home  and  with  Clasing  of  Hamburg.  He  then 
assisted  his  father  till  the  death  of  the  latter  in 
1830,  when  he  went  to  Vienna,  and  took  lessons 
in  counterpoint  from  Seyfried,  and  the  pianoforte 
from  Bocklet.  He  also  composed  industriously, 
and  on  his  return  to  Hamburg  gave  a  concert 
(Oct.  15,  1834)  a*  which  he  played  18  pieces  of 
his  own  composition.  He  has  since  lived  at 
Hamburg  in  great  request  as  a  teacher.  Brahms 
is  the  most  remarkable  of  his  pupils.  Of  his  60 
or  70  compositions,  one  for  full  orchestra  called 
'Beethoven's  Schatten'  was  performed  in  1844 
and  45  at  concerts  in  Hamburg.  [F.  G.j 

MARYLEBONE  GARDENS.  This  once 
celebrated  place  of  entertainment  was  situate  at 
the  back  of  and  appurtenant  to  a  tavern  called 
'  The  Rose  of  Normandy '  (or  briefly  '  The 
Rose'),  which  stood  on  the  east  side  of  High 
Street,  Marylebone,  and  was  erected  about  the 
middle  of  the  1 7th  century.  The  earliest  notice 
of  it  is  in  'Memoirs  by  Samuel  Sainthill,  1659,' 
printed  in  'The  Gentleman's  Magazine,'  vol.  83, 
p.  524,  where  the  garden  is  thus  described: 
'  The  outside  a  square  brick  wall,  set  with  fruit 
trees,  gravel  walks,  204  paces  long,  seven  broad ; 
the  circular  walk  485  paces,  six  broad,  the  centre 
square,  a  Bowling  Green,  1 1 2  paces  one  way,  88 
another ;  all  except  the  first  double  set  with 
quickset  hedges,  full  grown  and  kept  in  excel- 
lent order,  and  indented  like  town  walls.'  It 
is  next  mentioned  by  Pepys,  May  7,  1668 : 
'Then  we  abroad  to  Marrowbone  and  there 
walked  in  the  garden,  the  first  time  I  ever  was 
there,  and  a  pretty  place  it  is.'  Long's  bowling 
green  at  the  Rose  at  Marylebone,  half  a  mile 
distant  from  London,  is  mentioned  in  the  London 


224 


MARYLEBONE  GARDENS. 


Gazette,  Jan  n,  169 1-2.  Count  de  Tallard,  the 
French  ambassador,  gave  a  splendid  entertain- 
ment before  leaving  England  to  the  Marquis  of 
Normanby  (afterwards  Duke  of  Buckingham- 
shire) and  other  persons  of  note  '  at  the  great 
Bowling  Green  at  Marylebone,'  in  June,  1699. 
About  that  time  the  house  became  noted  as  a 
gaming  house  much  frequented  by  persons  of 
rank  ;  Sheffield,  Duke  of  Buckinghamshire,  was 
a  constant  attendant,  and,  as  Quin  told  Pen- 
nant, gave  every  spring  a  dinner  to  the  chief 
frequenters  of  the  place,  at  which  his  parting 
toast  was  '  May  as  many  of  us  as  remain  un- 
hanged next  spring  meet  here  again.'  It  was 
he  who  was  alluded  to  in  Lady  Mary  Wortley 
Montague's  oft -quoted  line,  'Some  dukes  at 
Marybone  bowl  time  away.'  Gay,  in  his  '  Beg- 
gar's Opera,'  1727,  makes  Marylebone  one  of 
Macheath's  haunts,  and  mentions  the  'deep  play' 
there.  Prior  to  1737  admission  to  the  gardens 
was  gratuitous,  but  in  that  year  Daniel  Gough, 
the  proprietor,  charged  is.  each  for  admission, 
giving  in  return  a  ticket  which  was  taken  back 
in  payment  for  refreshments  to  that  amount. 
In  1738  Gough  erected  an  orchestra  and  en- 
gaged a  band  of  music  '  from  the  opera  and  both 
theatres,'  which  performed  from  6  to  10  o'clock, 
during  which  time  they  played  18  pieces.  In 
August  '  two  Grand  or  Double  Bassoons,  made 
by  Mr.  Stanesby,  junior,  the  greatness  of  whose 
sound  surpass  that  of  any  other  bass  instrument 
whatsoever  ;  never  performed  with  before,'  were 
introduced.  In  1740  an  organ  was  erected  by 
Bridge.  In  1746  robberies  had  become  so  fre- 
quent and  the  robbers  so  daring  that  the  pro- 
prietor was  compelled  to  have  a  guard  of  sol- 
diers to  protect  the  visitors  from  and  to  town. 
In  1747  Miss  Falkner  appeared  as  principal 
singer  (a  post  she  retained  for  some  years),  and 
the  admission  to  the  concert  was  raised  to  2s. 
In  1 748  an  addition  was  made  to  the  number  of 
lamps,  and  Defesch  was  engaged  as  first  violin, 
and  about  the  same  time  fireworks  were  intro- 
duced. In  1 75 1  John  Trusler  became  pro- 
prietor; 'Master  (Michael)  Arne'  appeared  as 
a  singer,  balls  and  masquerades  were  occasion- 
ally given,  the  doors  were  opened  at  7,  the  fire- 
works were  discharged  at  1 1 ,  and  '  a  guard  was 
appointed  to  be  in  the  house  and  gardens,  and  to 
oblige  all  persons  misbehaving  to  quit  the  place.' 
In  1752  the  price  of  admission  was  reduced  to 
6d.,  although  the  expense  was  said  to  be  £8  per 
night  moie  than  the  preceding  year.  In  1753 
the  bowling  green  was  added  to  the  garden,  and 
the  fireworks  were  on  a  larger  scale  than  before. 
In  1758  the  first  burletta  performed  in  the  gar- 
dens was  given  ;  it  was  an  adaptation  by  Trusler 
jun.  and  the  elder  Storace  of  Pergolesi's  'La 
Serva  Padrona,'  and  for  years  was  a  great  fa- 
vourite. The  gardens  were  opened  in  the  morn- 
ing for  breakfasting,  and  Miss  Trusler  made 
cakes  which  long  enjoyed  a  great  vogue.  In 
1762  the  gardens  were  opened  in  the  morning 
gratis  and  an  organ  performance  given  from  5  to 
8  o'clock.  In  1763  the  place  passed  into  the 
hands    of  Thomas    (familiarly  called  Tommy) 


MA3NADIERI. 

Lowe,  the  popular  tenor  singer,  the  admission 
was  raised  to  is.  and  Miss  Catley  was  among 
the  singers  engaged.  In  the  next  year  the  open- 
ing of  the  gardens  on  Sunday  evenings  for  tea 
drinking  was  prohibited  ;  and  in  October  a 
morning  performance,  under  the  name  of  a  re- 
hearsal, was  given,  when  a  collection  was  made 
in  aid  of  the  sufferers  by  destructive  fires  at 
Montreal,  Canada,  and  Honiton,  Devonshire. 
Lowe's  management  continued  until  1768,  when 
he  retired,  having  met  with  heavy  losses.     In 

1769  Mr.  (afterwards  Dr.)  Arnold  became  pro- 
prietor, and  engaged  Mrs.  Pinto  (formerly  Miss 
Brent),  Master  Brown,  and  others  as  vocalists, 
Pinto  as  leader,  Hook  as  organist  and  music  di- 
rector, and  Dr.  Arne  to  compose  an  ode.     In 

1770  Barthelemon  became  leader,  and  Mrs.  Bar- 
thelemon,  Bannister  and  Reinhold  were  among 
the  singers.  A  burletta  by  Barthelemon,  called 
'The  Noble  Pedlar,'  was  very  successful.     In 

1 771  Miss  Harper  (afterwards  Mrs.  John  Ban- 
nister) appeared,  Miss  Catley  reappeared,  and 
several  new  burlettas  were  produced.  In  1772 
Torre,  an  eminent  Italian  pyrotechnist,  was  en- 
gaged, and  the  fireworks  became  a  more  promi- 
nent feature  in  the  entertainments,  to  the  great 
alarm  of  the  neighbouring  inhabitants,  who  ap- 
plied to  the  magistrates  to  prohibit  their  exhibi- 
tion, fearing  danger  to  their  houses  from  them. 
Torre  however  continued  to  exhibit  during  that 
and  the  next  two  seasons.  But  the  gardens 
were  losing  their  popularity:  in  1775  there  ap- 
pear to  have  been  no  entertainments  of  the  usual 
kind,  but  occasional  performances  of  Baddeley's 
entertainment,  'The  Modern  Magic  Lantern,' 
deliveries  of  George  Saville  Carey's  'Lecture 
upon  Mimicry,'  or  exhibitions  of  fireworks  by  a 
Signor  Caillot.  In  1776  entertainments  of  a 
similar  description  were  given,  amongst  which 
was  a  representation  of  the  Boulevards  of  Paris. 
The  gardens  closed  on  Sept.  23,  and  were  not 
afterwards  regularly  opened.  In  or  about  1 77^ 
the  site  was  let  to  builders,  and  is  now  occupied 
by  Beaumont  Street,  Devonshire  Street,  and  part 
of  Devonshire  Place.  The  tavern,  with  a  piece 
of  ground  at  the  back,  used  as  a  skittle  alley, 
continued  to  exist  in  nearly  its  pristine  state 
until  1855,  when  it  was  taken  down,  and  rebuilt 
on  its  own  site  and  that  of  an  adjoining  house, 
and  on  the  ground  behind  it  was  erected  the 
Marylebone  Music  Hall.  [W.  H.  H.] 

MASANIELLO.  The  name  in  England  of 
Auber's  opera,  La  Muette  de  Pobtici.  Produced 
in  English  as  '  Masaniello,  or  the  Dumb  Girl  of 
Portici,'at  Drury  Lane,  May  4,  1829  ;  in  Italian 
(in  3  acts)  at  Royal  Italian  Opera,  Covent  Garden, 
March  15,  1849.  [G.] 

MASNADIERI,  I— i.e.  The  Brigands— an 
opera  in  4  acts  ;  libretto  by  Maffei,  from  Schiller's 
'  Robbers,'  music  by  Verdi.  Produced  at  Her 
Majesty's  Theatre,  London,  July  22,  1847, 
Verdi  conducting  and  Jenny  Lind  acting.  An 
experiment  had  been  made  by  Mercadante  eleven 
years  before  on  a  libretto  adapted  from  the  Hu- 
guenots, under  the  title  of  '  I  Briganti,'  produced 
at  the  Italiens,  Paris,  March  22,  1836.  [G.] 


MASON. 

MASON,  John,  Mus.  Bac,  was  admitted  clerk 
of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  in  1 508,  graduated 
Feb.  12,  1509,  and  was  in  the  same  year  ap- 
pointed instructor  of  the  choristers  and  chaplain 
of  Magdalen  College.  Wood  says  he  was  in 
much  esteem  in  his  profession.  He  was.  collated 
prebendary  of  Pratum  minus,  July  21,  and  of 
Putson  minor,  July  22,  1525,  and  treasurer  of 
Hereford  Cathedral,  May  23,  1545.  He  is  men- 
tioned by  Morley  in  his  '  Introduction '  as  one 
of  those  whose  works  he  had  consulted.  He 
died  in  1547.  [W.H.H.] 

MASON,  Lowell,  Mus.  Doc.,  born  at  Med- 
field,  Massachusetts,  Jan.  8, 1 792,  died  at  Orange, 
New  Jersey,  Aug.  II,  1872.  He  was  self-taught, 
and  in  his  own  words  '  spent  twenty  years  of  his 
life  in  doing  nothing  save  playing  on  all  manner 
of  musical  instruments  that  came  within  his 
reach.'  At  16  he  was  leader  of  the  choir  in  the 
village  church,  and  a  teacher  of  singing  classes. 
At  20  he  went  to  Savannah  in  Georgia,  as  clerk 
in  a  bank,  and  there  continued  to  practise,  lead, 
and  teach.  In  the  course  of  these  labours  he 
formed,  with  the  help  of  F.  L.  Abel,  a  collection 
of  psalm  tunes  based  on  Gardiner's  '  Sacred 
Melodies' — itself  adapted  to  tunes  extracted  from 
the  works  of  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven. 
[See  Gardiner,  vol.  i.  582  &.]  This  collection  was 
published  by  the  Handel  and  Haydn  Society  of 
Boston  in  1 82 2  under  the  title  of  'the  Handel 
and  Haydn  Society's  collection  of  Church  Music,' 
Mason's  name  being  almost  entirely  suppressed. 
The  book  sold  well :  it  enabled  the  Society  to 
tide  over  the  period  of  its  youth,  and  establish 
itself  as  one  of  the  characteristic  institutions  of 
Boston,  it  initiated  a  purer  and  healthier  taste 
for  music  in  New  England,  and  it  led  to  Mason's 
removal  to  Boston  and  to  his  taking  '  a  general 
charge  of  music  in  the  churches  there,'  in  1827. 
He  then  became  president  of  the  society ;  but 
as  his  object  was  not  so  much  the  cultivation  of 
high  class  music  as  the  introduction  of  music  as 
an  essential  element  of  education  in  the  common 
schools,  he  soon  left  it  and  established  the  Boston 
Academy  of  Music  in  1832.  He  founded  classes 
on  the  system  of  Pestalozzi,  and  at  length  in 
1838  obtained  power  to  teach  in  all  the  schools 
of  Boston.  At  the  same  time  he  founded  period- 
ical conventions  of  music  teachers,  which  have 
been  found  very  useful,  and  are  now  estab- 
lished in  many  parts  of  the  States.  He  also 
published  a  large  number  of  manuals  and  col- 
lections which  have  sold  enormously  and  produced 
him  a  handsome  fortune.  He  visited  Europe 
first  in  1837  with  the  view  of  examining  the 
methods  of  teaching  in  Germany,  and  embodied 
the  results  in  a  volume  entitled  '  Musical  Letters 
from  Abroad'  (New  York,  1853).  He  was  for 
long  closely  connected  with  the  Public  Board  of 
Education  of  Massachusetts,  his  kindness  and 
generosity  were  notorious,  and  he  was  universally 
admired  and  esteemed.  His  degree  of  Doctor  in 
Music,  the  first  of  the  kind  conferred  by  an 
American  college,  was  granted  by  the  New  York 
University  in  1835.  The  last  years  of  his  life 
were  spent  at  Orange  in  New  Jersey,  the  resi- 
VOL.  11. 


MASQUE. 


225 


dence  of  two  of  his  sons.  He  formed  a  very  fine 
library  which  he  collected  far  and  wide,  regard- 
less of  expense. 

Of  hia  sons,  William,  born  1828,  received  a 
liberal  education  in  music,  and  was  long  recog- 
nised as  a  leading  pianist  in  New  York ;  while 
Lowell  and  Henry  are  respectively  president 
and  treasurer  of  the  Mason  and  Haoilin  Organ 
Company  at  Boston.  [A.  W.  T.] 

MASON,  Rev.  William,  son  of  a  clergyman, 
born  at  Hull  1725,  graduated  at  Cambridge, 
B.A.  1745,  M.A.  1749;  took  orders  1755,  be- 
came chaplain  to  the  king  and  rector  of  Aston, 
Yorkshire,  and  afterwards  prebendary  (1756), 
canon  residentiary  and  precentor  (1763)  of  York 
Cathedral.  In  1782  he  published  a  book  of 
words  of  anthems,  to  which  he  prefixed  a  '  Criti- 
cal and  Historical  Essay  on  Cathedral  Music* 
(another  edition,  1794).  He  also  wrote  essays 
'  On  Instrumental  Church  Music,' '  On  Parochial 
Psalmody,'  and  'On  the  causes  of  the  present 
imperfect  alliance  between  Music  and  Poetry.' 
He  composed  some  church  music,  the  best  known 
of  which  is  the  short  anthem  '  Lord  of  all  power 
and  might.'  He  was  author  of  several  poems,  and 
of  two  tragedies, '  Elfrida'  and  '  Caractacus,'  and 
was  the  friend  and  biographer  of  the  poet  Gray. 
He  died  at  Aston,  April  5,  1797.         [W.  H.  H.] 

MASQUE.  The  precursor  of  the  opera;  a 
dramatic  entertainment,  usually  upon  an  alle- 
gorical or  mythological  subject,  and  combining 
poetry,  vocal  and  instrumental  music,  scenery, 
dancing,  elaborate  machinery,  and  splendid  cos- 
tumes and  decorations — which  was  perforated  at 
Court  or  at  noblemen's  houses  on  festive  oc- 
casions, the  performers  being  usually  persons  of 
rank.  Masques  were  frequently  exhibited  at 
the  courts  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I.,  and  vast 
sums  were  lavished  upon  their  prdduction.  The 
Masque  of  the  Inner  Temple  and  Gray's  Inn, 
presented  in  Feb.  161 3,  on  the  marriage  of  the 
Princess  Elizabeth  to  the  Elector  Palatine  of  the 
Rhine,  cost  £1086  8s.  nd.1  The  principal 
author  of  those  masques  was  Ben  Jonson,  whose 
genius  was  peculiarly  fitted  to  a  style  of  com- 
position which  afforded  him  ample  opportunity 
of  displaying  his  erudition.  Beaumont,  Chap- 
man, Samuel  Daniel,  Campion,  Shirley,  Hey- 
wood,  and  Carew,  also  employed  their  talents 
upon  masques,  as  did  a  greater  than  they,  Mil- 
ton, whose  '  Comus '  was  represented  at  Ludlow 
Castle  in  1634.  Inigo  Jones  devised  the 
machinery  and  designed  the  costumes  for  the 
Court  masques;4  Laniere  and  others  painted 
the  scenery ;  and  Ferrabosco,  Campion,  H.  and 
W.  Lawes,  Ives,  Laniere,  Lock,  C.  Gibbons  and 
others  composed  the  music.  Two  of  Ben  Jon- 
son's  masques — 'The  Masque  of  Queens,'  1610, 
and  "The  Twelfth  Night's  Revels,'  1606,  were 
printed  from  his  autograph  MSS.  in  the  British 
Museum  by  the  Shakspere  Society  at  the  end  of 
Cunningham's  '  Life  of  Inigo  Jones.'     After  the 

1  In  regarding  these  figures  the  difference  In  the  value  of  money 
then  and  now  must  be  borne  In  mind. 

a  Many  of  his  sketches  for  this  purpose  are  In  the  possession  of  tn« 
Duke  of  Devonshire. 

Q 


226 


MASQUE. 


Restoration  what  were  called  masques  were 
occasionally  given  at  Court,  but  tliey  appear  to 
have  been  rather  masked  or  fancy  dress  balls 
than  dramatic  entertainments.  An  exception 
was  Crowne's  masque,  '  Calisto ;  or,  the  Chaste 
Nymph,'  performed  at  court  by  the  princesses 
and  courtiers  Dec.  15  and  22,  1675.  In  the  18th 
century  masques  were  not  unfrequently  to  be 
seen  on  the  public  stage.  The  'pantomimes' 
produced  by  Rich  (for  most  of  which  Galliard 
composed  the  music)  were  really  masques  with 
harlequinade  scenes  interspersed.  More  recently 
masques  have  been  performed  on  occasion  of 
royal  weddings;  thus  'Peleus  and  Thetis,'  a 
masque,  formed  the  second  act  of  the  opera 
'  Windsor  Castle,'  by  William  Pearce,  music  by 
J.  P.  Salomon,  performed  at  Covent  Garden  on 
the  marriage  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  1795,  and 
•  Freya's  Gift,'  masque  by  John  Oxenford,  music 
by  G.  A.  Macfarren,  was  produced  at  the  same 
house  on  the  marriage  of  the  present  Prince  of 
Wales,  1863.  Soon  after  the  death  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott  in  1832,  'The  Vision  of  the  Bard,' 
masque  by  James  Sheridan  Knowles.  was  pro- 
duced at  Covent  Garden.  [W.H.H.] 

MASS  (Lat.  Missa ;  from  the  words,  *fte, 
missa  est' — 'Depart !  the  assembly  is  dismissed ' — 
sung,  by  the  Deacon,  immediately  before  the  con- 
clusion of  the  Service.  Ital.  Messa  ;  Fr.  Messe  ; 
Germ.  Die  Messe).  The  custom  of  singing  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  Mass  to  music  of  a  peculiarly 
solemn  and  impressive  character  has  prevailed, 
in  the  Roman  Church,  from  time  immemorial. 

Concerning  the  source  whence  this  music  was 
originally  derived,  we  know  but  very  little.  AU 
that  can  be  said,  with  any  degree  of  certainty,  is, 
that,  after  having  long  been  consecrated,  by  tra- 
ditional use,  to  the  service  of  Religion,  the  oldest 
forms  of  it  with  which  we  are  acquainted  were 
collected  together,  revised,  and  systematically 
arranged,  first,  by  Saint  Ambrose,  and,  afterwards, 
more  completely,  by  Saint  Gregory  the  Great,  to 
whose  labours  we  are  mainly  indebted  for  their 
transmission  to  our  own  day  in  the  pages  of  the  Ro- 
man Gradual.  Under  the  name  of  Plain  Chaunt, 
the  venerable  melodies  thus  preserved  to  usarestill 
sung,  constantly,  in  the  Pontifical  Chapel,  and  the 
Cathedrals  of  most  Continental  Dioceses.  The 
specimen  we  have  printed,  in  the  article,  Kybie, 
will  give  a  fair  general  idea  of  their  style  ;  and  it 
is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  special  character- 
istics of  that  style  are  more  or  less  plainly  dis- 
cernible in  all  music  written  for  the  Church,  during 
a  thousand  years,  at  least,  after  the  compilation 
of  Saint  Gregory's  great  work. 

Each  separate  portion  of  the  Mass  was  an- 
tiently  sung  to  its  own  proper  Tune;  different 
Tunes  being  appointed  for  different  Seasons,  and 
Festivals.  After  the  invention  of  Counterpoint, 
Composers  delighted  in  weaving  these  and  other 
old  Plain  Chaunt  melodies  into  polyphonic 
Masses,  for  two,  four,  six,  eight,  twelve,  or  even 
forty  Voices  :  and  thus  arose  those  marvellous 
Schools  of  Ecclesiastical  Music,  which,  gradually 
advancing  in  excellence,  exhibited,  during  the 
latter  half  of  the  16th  century,  a  development 


MASS. 

of  Art,  the  aesthetic  perfection  of  which  has 
never  since  been  equalled.  The  portions  of  the 
Service  selected  for  this  method  of  treatment 
were,  the  Kyrie,  the  Gloria,  the  Credo,  the  San- 
ctus,  the  Benedictus,  and  the  Annus  Dei ;  which 
six  movements  constituted — and  still  constitute — 
the  musical  composition  usually  called  the  '  Mass.* 
A  single  Plain  Chaunt  melody — in  technical  lan- 
guage, a  Canto  fermo — served,  for  the  most  part, 
as  a  common  theme  for  the  whole  :  and,  from 
this,  the  entire  work  generally  derived  its  name 
— as  Missa  '  Veni  sponsa  Christi ' ;  Missa  '  Tu  es 
Petrus ' ;  Missa  '  Iste  confessor.'  The  Canto 
fermo,  however,  was  not  always  a  sacred  one. 
Sometimes — though  not  very  often  during  the 
best  periods  of  Art — it  was  taken  from  the  re- 
frain of  some  popular  song;  as  in  the  case  of 
the  famous  Missa  '  V Homme  armd,'  founded 
upon  an  old  French  love-song — a  subject  which 
Josquin  des  Pre"s,  Palestrina,  and  many  other 
great  Composers  have  treated  with  wonder- 
ful ingenuity.  More  rarely,  an  original  theme 
was  selected :  and  the  work  was  then  called  Missa 
sine  nomine,  or  Missa  brevis,  or  Missa  ad  Fugam, 
or  ad  Canones,  as  the  case  might  be  ;  or  named, 
after  the  Mode  in  which  it  was  composed,  Missa 
Primi  Toni,  Missa  Quarti  Toni,  Missa  Octavi 
Toni ;  or  even  from  the  number  of  Voices  em- 
ployed, as  Missa  Quatuor  Vocum.  In  some  few 
instances — generally,  very  fine  ones — an  entire 
Mass  was  based  upon  the  six  sounds  of  the  Hexa- 
chord,  and  entitled  Missa  ut,  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la,  or 
Missa  super  Voces  Musicales. 

Among  the  earliest  Masses  of  this  description, 
of  which  perfect  and  intelligible  copies  have 
been  preserved  to  us,  are  those  by  Du  Fay,  Dun- 
stable, Binchoys,  and  certain  contemporaneous 
writers,  whose  works  characterise  the  First  Epoch 
of  really  practical  importance  in  the  history  of 
Figured  Music — an  epoch  intensely  interesting 
to  the  critic,  as  already  exhibiting  the  firm  estab- 
lishment of  an  entirely  new  style,  confessedly 
founded  upon  novel  principles,  yet  depending, 
for  its  materials,  upon  the  oldest  subjects  in 
existence,  and  itself  destined  to  pass  through 
two  centuries  and  a  half  of  gradual,  but  perfectly 
legitimate  development.  Du  Fay,  who  may 
fairly  be  regarded  as  the  typical  composer  of  this 
primitive  School,  was  a  Tenor  Singer  in  the  Pon- 
tifical Chapel,  between  the  years  1380,  and  1432. 
His  Masses,  and  those  of  the  best  of  his  contem- 
poraries, though  hard,  and  unmelodious,  are  full 
of  earnest  purpose;  and  exhibit  much  contra- 
puntal skill,  combined,  sometimes,  with  in- 
genious fugal  treatment.  Written  exclusively  in 
the  antient  Ecclesiastical  Modes,  they  manifest  a 
marked  preference  for  Dorian,  Phrygian,  Ly- 
dian,  and  Mixolydian  forms,  with  a  very  spar- 
ing use  of  their  ^Eolian  and  Ionian  congeners. 
These  Modes  are  used,  sometimes,  at  their  true 
pitch ;  sometimes,  transposed  a  fourth  higher — or 
fifth  lower — by  means  of  a  Bb  at  the  signature  : 
but,  never,  under  any  other  form  of  transposition, 
or,  with  any  other  signatures  than  those  corre- 
sponding with  the  modern  keys  of  C,  or  F — a  re- 
striction which  remained  in  full  force  as  late  as  the 


MASS. 

firsthalf  of  the  I  Jth  century,  and  was  even  respected 
by  Handel,  when  he  wrote,  as  he  sometimes  did  with 
amazing  power,  in  the  older  scales.  So  far  as 
the  treatment  of  the  Canto  fermo  was  concerned, 
no  departure  from  the  strict  rule  of  the  Mode  was 
held  to  be,  under  any  circumstances,  admissible  : 
but,  a  little  less  rigour  was  exacted,  with  re- 
gard to  the  counterpoint.  Composers  had  long 
since  learned  to  recognise  the  demand  for  what 
we  should  now  call  a  Leading-note,  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Clausula  vera,  or  True  Cadence — a 
species  of  Close,  invested  with  functions  analo- 
gous to  those  of  the  Perfect  Cadence  in  modern 
music.  To  meet  this  requirement,  they  freely 
admitted  the  use  of  an  accidental  semitone,  in 
all  Modes  (except  the  Phrygian)  in  which  the 
seventh  was  naturally  Minor.  But,  in  order 
that,  to  the  eye,  at  least,  their  counterpoint  might 
appear  no  less  strict  than  the  Canto  fermo,  they 
refrained,  as  far  as  possible,  from  indicating  the 
presence  of  such  semitones  in  their  written  music, 
and,  except  when  they  occurred  in  very  unex- 
pected places,  left  the  singers  to  introduce  them, 
wherever  they  might  be  required,  at  the  moment 
of  performance.  Music  so  treated  was  called 
Catitus  fetus  :  and  the  education  of  no  Chorister 
was  considered  complete,  until  he  was  able,  while 
singing  it,  to  supply  the  necessary  semitones,  cor- 
rectly, in  accordance  with  certain  fixed  laws,  a 
summary  of  which  will  be  found  in  the  article, 
Musica  Ficta.  For  the  rest,  we  are  able  to  de- 
tect but  little  attempt  at  expression ;  and  very 
slight  regard  for  the  distinction  between  long 
and  short  syllables.  The  verbal  text,  indeed, 
was  given  in  a  very  incomplete  form  ;  the  word, 
Kyrie,  or  Sanctus,  written  at  the  beginning  of  a 
movement,  being  generally  regarded  as  a  sufficient 
indication  of  the  Composer's  meaning.  In  this, 
and  other  kindred  matters,  the  confidence  reposed 
in  the  Singer's  intelligence  was  unbounded — a  not 
unnatural  circumstance,  perhaps,  in  an  age  in 
which  the  Composer,  himself,  was  almost  always 
-a  Singer  in  the  Choir  for  which  he  wrote. 

Even  at  this  remote  period,  the  several  move- 
ments of  the  Mass  began  gradually  to  mould 
themselves  into  certain  definite  forms,  which  were 
long  in  reaching  perfection,  but,  having  once  ob- 
tained general  acceptance.remained,  for  more  than 
a  century  and  a  half,  substantially  unchanged. 
The  usual  plan  of  the  Kyrie  has  already  been 
fully  described.  [See  Kyrie.]  The  Gloria,  dis- 
tinguished by  a  more  modest  display  of  fugal  in- 
genuity, and  a  more  cursive  rendering  of  the 
■words,  was  generally  divided  into  two  parts,  the 
Qui  tollis  being  treated  as  a  separate  movement. 
The  Credo,  written  in  a  similar  style,  was  also 
subjected  to  the  same  method  of  subdivision,  a 
second  movement  being  usually  introduced  at  the 
words,  'Et  incarnatus  est,''  or  'Crucifixus?  and, 
frequently,  a  third,  at  '  Et  in  Spiritum  Sanctum.' 
The  design  of  the  Sanctus,  though  more  highly 
developed,  was  not  unlike  that  of  the  Kyrie; 
the  '  Fleni  sunt  coeli,'  being  sometimes,  and  the 
Osanna,  almost  always,  treated  separately.  The 
Benedictus  was  allotted,  in  most  cases,  to  two, 
three,  or  four  Solo  Voices ;    and  frequently  as- 


MASS. 


227 


sumed  the  form  of  a  Canon,  followed  by  a  choral 
Osanna.  In  the  Agnus  Dei — generally  divided 
into  two  distinct  movements — the  Composer  loved 
to  exhibit  the  utmost  resources  of  his  skill :  hence, 
in  the  great  majority  of  instances,  the  second  move- 
ment was  written,  either  in  Canon,  or  in  very 
complex  Fugue,  and,  not  unfrequently,  for  agreater 
number  of  voices  than  the  rest  of  the  Mass. 

The  best-known  composers  of  the  Second  Epoch 
were  Okenheim,  Hobrecht,  Caron,  Gaspar,  the 
brothers  De  Fevin,  and  some  others  of  their 
School,  most  of  whom  flourished  between  the 
years  1430,  and  1480.  As  a  general  rule,  these 
writers  laboured  less  zealously  for  the  cultivation 
of  a  pure  and  melodious  style,  than  for  the  ad- 
vancement of  contrapuntal  ingenuity.  For  the 
sober  fugal  periods  of  their  predecessors,  they 
substituted  the  less  elastic  kind  of  imitation, 
which  was  then  called  Strict  or  Perpetual  Fugue, 
but  afterwards  obtained  the  name  of  Canon ; 
carrying  their  passion  for  this  style  of  composition 
to  such  extravagant  lengths,  that  too  many  of 
their  works  descended  to  the  level  of  mere  learned 
senigmas.  Okenheim,  especially,  was  devoted 
to  this  particular  phase  of  Art,  for  the  sake  of 
which  he  was  ready  to  sacrifice  much  excellence 
of  a  far  more  substantial  kind.  Provided  he 
could  succeed  in  inventing  a  Canon,  sufficiently 
complex  to  puzzle  his  brethren,  and  admit  of  an 
indefinite  number  of  solutions,  he  cared  little 
whether  it  was  melodious,  or  the  reverse.  To 
such  Canons  he  did  not  scruple  to  set  the  most 
solemn  words  of  the  Mass.  Yet,  his  genius  was, 
certainly,  of  a  very  high  order ;  and,  when  he 
cared  to  lay  aside  these  extravagances,  he  proved 
himself  capable  of  producing  works  far  superior 
to  those  of  any  contemporary  writer. 

The  Third  Epoch  was  rendered  remarkable  by 
the  appearance  of  a  Master,  whose  fame  was  des- 
tined to  eclipse  that  of  all  his  predecessors,  and 
even  to  cast  the  reputation  of  his  teacher,  Oken- 
heim, into  the  shade.  Josquin  des  Pres,  a  Singer 
in  the  Pontifical  Chapel,  from  147 1  to  1484,  and, 
afterwards,  Maitre  de  Chapelle  to  Louis  XII,  was, 
undoubtedly,  for  very  many  years,  the  most 
popular  Composer,  as  well  as  the  greatest  and 
most  learned  Musician,  in  Christendom.  And, 
his  honours  were  fairly  earned.  The  wealth  of 
ingenuity  and  contrivance  displayed  in  some  of 
his  Masses  is  truly  wonderful ;  and  is  rendered 
none  the  less  so  by  its  association  with  a  vivacity 
peculiarly  his  own,  and  an  intelligence  and  free- 
dom of  manner  far  in  advance  of  the  age  in  which 
he  lived.  Unhappily,  these  high  qualities  are 
marred  by  a  want  of  reverence  which  would  seem 
to  have  been  the  witty  genius's  besetting  sin. 
When  free  from  this  defect,  his  style  is  admir- 
able. On  examining  his  Masses,  one  is  alternately 
surprised  by  passages  full  of  unexpected  dignity, 
and  conceits  of  almost  inconceivable  quaintness — 
flashes  of  humour,  the  presence  of  which,  in  a 
volume  of  Church  Music,  cannot  be  too  deeply 
regretted,  though  they  are  really  no  more  than 
passing  indications  of  the  genial  temper  of  a  man 
whose  greatness  was  far  too  real  to  be  affected, 
either   one   way   or   the    other,   by   a   natural 

Q2 


228 


MASS. 


light-heartedness  which  would  not  always  sub- 
mit to  control.  As  a  specimen  of  his  best,  and 
most  devotional  style,  we  can  scarcely  do  better 
than  quote  a  few  bars  from  the  Osanna  of  his 
Mass,  Faysans  regres1  — 


The  religious  character  of  this  movement  is 
apparent,  from  the  very  first  bar ;  and  the  in- 
genuity with  which  the  strict  Canon  is  carried 
on,  between  the  Bass  and  Alto,  simultaneously 
with  the  Fugue  between  the  Tenor  and  Treble, 
is  quite  forgotten  in  the  unexpected  beauty  of  the 
resulting  harmonies.  Perhaps  some  portion  of 
the  beauty  of  our  next  example — the  Benedictus 
from  the  Missa  '  U Homme  arme ' — may  be  for- 
gotten in  its  ingenuity.  It  is  a  strict  Canon,  in 
the  Unison,  by  Diminution ;  and,  though  in- 
tended to  be  sung  by  two  Voices,  is  printed  in 
one  part  only,  the  singer  being  left  to  find  out 
the  secret  of  its  construction  as  best  he  can — 

Dtio  in  Unum. 


WjF^H* 


Bene  -    -   -  dictus 


^ 


T^ 


gggggllllggi^ 


•». 


p  g  Mr 


*=* 


f3 


gggaSgig 


f 


±=L 


■<=,. 


A  hint  at  the  solution  of  this  aenigma  is  given, 
to  the  initiated,  by  the  double  Time-signature 
at  the  beginning.       [See   Inscription.]      The 

i  The  accidentals  in  this,  and  the  following  examples,  are  all  sup- 
plied in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  Canlut  fictus. 


MASS. 

intention  is,  that  it  should  be  sung  by  two 
Voices,  in  unison,  both  beginning  at  the  same 
time,  but  one  singing  the  notes  twice  as  quickly 
as  the  other :  thus — 


fe« 


m 


^ 


-2±L 


Tir^M-rfC-gTS 


TftfrfMMJfcS^l 


)==& 


^m 


(g) 


This  diversity  of  Rhythm  is,  however,  a  very 
simple  matter,  compared  with  many  other  com- 
plications in  the  same  Mass,  and  still  more,  in 
the  Missa  '  Didadi,'  which  abounds  in  strange 
proportions  of  Time,  Mode,  and  Prolation,  the 
clue  whereto  is  afforded  by  the  numbers  shewn 
on  the  faces  of  a  pair  of  dice  !  Copious  extracts 
from  these  curious  Masses,  as  well  as  from  others 
by  Gombert,  Clemens  non  Papa,  Mouton,  Brumel, 
and  other  celebrated  Composers,  both  of  this, 
and  the  preceding  Epoch,  will  be  found  in  the 
'  Dodecackordon'  of  Glareanus  (Basle,  1547),  a 
work  which  throws  more  light  than  almost  any 
other  on  the  mysteries  of  antient  counterpoint. 

Of  the  numerous  Composers  who  flourished 
during  the  Fourth  Epoch — that  is  to  say,  during 
the  first  half  of  the  16th  century — a  large  pro- 
portion aimed  at  nothing  higher  than  a  servile 
imitation  of  the  still  idolised  Josquin;  and,  as  is 
usual  under  such  circumstances,  succeeded  in  re- 
producing his  faults  much  more  frequently  than 
his  virtues.  There  were,  however,  many  honour- 
able exceptions.  The  Masses  of  Carpentrasso, 
Morales,  Cipriano  di  Pore,  Vincenzo  Ruffb, 
Claude  Goudimel,  Adriano  Willaert,  and,  nota- 
bly, Costanzo  Festa,  are  unquestionably  written 
in  a  far  purer  and  more  flowing  style  than  those 
of  their  predecessors  :  and  even  the  great  army 
of  Madrigal  writers,  headed  by  Archadelt,  and 
Verdelot,  helped  on  the  good  cause  bravely,  in 
the  face  of  a  host  of  charlatans  whose  caprices 
tended  only  to  bring  their  Art  into  disrepute. 
Not  content  with  inventing  aenigmas  'Ad  ornnem 
tonum,'  or  '  Ung  demiton  plus  has ' — with  colour- 
ing their  notes  green,  when  they  sang  of  grass, 
or  red,  when  allusion  was  made  to  blood — these 
corrupters  of  taste  prided  themselves  upon  adapt- 
ing, to  the  several  voice-parts  for  which  they 
wrote,  different  sets  of  words,  totally  unconnected 
with  each  other  ;  and  this  evil  custom  spread  so 
widely,  that  Morales  himself  did  not  scruple  to 


MASS. 

mix  together  the  text  of  the  Liturgy,  and  that 
of  the  'Ave  Maria';  while  a  Mass  is  still  extant 
in  which  the  Tenor  is  made  to  sing  '  Alleluia? 
incessantly,  from  beginning  to  end.  When  the 
text  was  left  intact,  the  rhythm  was  involved  in 
complications  which  rendered  the  sense  of  the 
words  utterly  unintelligible.  Profane  melodies, 
and  even  the  verses  belonging  to  them,  were 
shamelessly  introduced  into  the  most  solemn 
compositions  for  the  Church.  All  the  vain  con- 
ceits affected  by  the  earlier  writers  were  revived, 
with  tenfold  extravagance.  Canons  were  tor- 
tured into  forms  of  ineffable  absurdity,  and 
esteemed  only  in  proportion  to  the  difficulty  of 
their  solution.  By  a  miserable  fatality,  the 
Mass  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  most  fitting 
possible  vehicle  for  the  display  of  these  strange 
monstrosities,  which  are  far  less  frequently  met 
with  in  the  Motet,  or  the  Madrigal.  Men  of 
real  genius  fostered  the  wildest  abuses.  Even 
Pierre  de  la  Rue — who  seems  to  have  made  it 
a  point  of  conscience  to  eclipse,  if  possible,  the 
fame  of  Josquin's  ingenuity — wrote  his  Missa, 
*  0  salutaris  Hoitia?  in  one  line,  throughout ; 
leaving  three  out  of  the  four  Voices  to  follow  the 
single  part  in  strict  Canon.  In  the  Kyrie  of  this 
Mass — which  we  reprint,  in  modern  notation, 
from  the  version  preserved  by  Glareanus  * — the 
solution  of  the  senigma  is  indicated  by  the  letters 
placed  above  and  below  the  notes.  C  shows  the 
place  at  which  the  Contra-tenor  is  to  begin,  in  the 
interval  of  a  Fifth  below  the  Superius.  T  indi- 
cates the  entrance  of  the  Tenor,  an  Octave  below 
the  Superius :  B,  that  of  the  Bass,  a  Fifth  below 
the  Tenor.  The  same  letters,  with  pauses  over 
them,  mark  the  notes  on  which  the  several  parts 
are  to  end.  The  reader  who  will  take  the  trouble 
to  score  the  movement,  in  accordance  with  these 
directions,  will  find  the  harmony  perfectly  cor- 
rect, in  spite  of  some  harshly  dissonant  passing- 
notes  :  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  most 
indulgent  critic  would  venture  to  praise  it  for  its 
devotional  character. 

Petri's  Platen'sis. 


Kvpie 


MASS. 


229 


tj^j  j"  JYrrrs 


4= 


^^ 


(tp  (tj)     B 


eleison 


^S 


3=t 


Kvpie 


j=t — P" 


i=C_ 


m 


t=\ B 

eAec     -     -    -    -    uov 

It  is  easy  to  imagine  the  depths  of  inanity 
accessible  to  an  ambitious  composer,  in  his  at- 
tempts to  construct  such  a  Canon  as  this,  without 
a  spark  of  Pierre  de  la  Rue's  genius  to  guide  him 
on  his  way.  Such  attempts  were  made,  every 
day :  and,  had  it  not  been  that  good  men  and 
true  were  at  work,  beneath  the  surface,  conscien- 

>  DoUecaehordon,  p.  445,  ed.  1547. 


tiously  preparing  the  way  for  a  better  state  of 
things,  Art  would  soon  have  been  in  a  sorry 
plight.  As  it  was,  notwithstanding  all  these  ex- 
travagances, it  was  making  real  progress.  The 
dawn  of  a  brighter  day  was  very  near  at  hand ; 
and  the  excesses  of  the  unwise  only  served  to 
hasten  its  appearance. 

The  Fifth  Epoch,  extending  from  the  year 
1565  to  the  second  decad  of  the  following  cen- 
tury, and  justly  called  'The  Golden  Age  of 
Ecclesiastical  Music,'  owes  its  celebrity  entirely 
to  the  influence  of  one  grave  earnest-minded 
man,  whose  transcendant  genius,  always  devoted 
to  the  noblest  purposes,  and  always  guided  by 
sound  and  reasonable  principles,  has  won  for  him 
a  place,  not  only  on  the  highest  pinnacle  of 
Fame,  but,  also,  in  the  inmost  hearts  of  all  true 
lovers  of  the  truest  Art. 

The  abuses  to  which  we  have  just  alluded  be- 
came, in  process  of  time,  so  intolerable,  that  the 
Council  of  Trent  found  it  necessary  to  condemn 
them,  in  no  measured  terms.  In  the  year  1564, 
Pope  Pius  IV  commissioned  eight  Cardinals  to 
see  that  certain  decrees  of  the  Council  were  duly 
carried  out.  After  much  careful  deliberation, 
the  members  of  this  Commission  had  almost  de- 
termined to  forbid  the  use  of  any  polyphonic 
music  whatever,  in  the  Services  of  the  Church : 
but,  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  Card.  Vitel- 
lozzo  Vitellozzi,  and  S.  Carlo  Borromeo,  they 
were  induced  to  suspend  their  judgment,  until 
Palestrina,  then  Maestro  di  Capella  of  S.  Maria 
Maggiore,  should  have  proved,  if  he  could,  the 
possibility  of  producing  music  of  a  more  devo- 
tional character,  and  better  adapted  to  the  words 
of  the  Mass,  and  the  true  purposes  of  Religion, 
than  that  then  in  general  use.  In  answer  to  this 
challenge,  the  great  Composer  submitted  to  the 
Commissioners  three  Masses,  upon  one  of  which 
— first  sung  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  on  the  Nine- 
teenth of  June,  1565,  and  since  known  as  the 
Missa  Papa  Marcelli"1 — the  Cardinals  immedi- 
ately fixed,  as  embodying  the  style  in  which  all 
future  Church  music  should  be  composed.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  conceive  a  more  perfect 
model.  In  depth  of  thought,  intensity  of  expres- 
sion, and  all  the  higher  qualities  which  distin- 
guish the  work  of  the  Master  from  that  of  the 
pedant,  the  Missa  Papa  Marcelli  is  universally 
admitted  to  be  unapproachable ;  while,  even 
when  regarded  as  a  monument  of  mere  mechani- 
cal skill,  it  stands  absolutely  unrivalled.  Yet, 
except  in  the  employment  of  the  Hypoionian 
Mode 3 — a  tonality  generally  avoided  by  the 
older  composers — it  depends  for  its  effect,  upon 
the  introduction  of  no  new  element  whatever, 
either  of  construction,  or  of  form.  A  voiding  all 
show  of  empty  pedantry,  and  carefully  concealing 
the  consummate  art  with  which  the  involutions 

*  It  Is  difficult  to  understand  why  Palestrina  should  have  given  It 
this  name,  ten  years  after  the  death  of  Pope  Marcellus  II.  The  reader 
will  find  the  whole  subject  exhaustively  discussed,  in  the  pages  of 
Balm  (torn.  1.  sex.  2.  cap.  1  et  ttq.) 

a  The  preface  to  a  recent  German  edition  of  the  Mi— a  Papa  Mar- 
celli erroneously  describes  the  work  as  written  in  the  Mtxolydian 
Mode.  The  Crucifix**,  and  Bmtdieiut,  are  undoubtedly  Mixolydian ; 
but.  the  Mass  itself  Is,  beyond  all  question,  written  In  the  Fourteenth, 
or  Hypoionian  Mode,  to  the  tonality,  compass,  and  cadences  oi 
which  It  conforms,  throughout. 


230 


MASS. 


of  its  periods  are  conducted,  it  freely  uses  all  the 
old  contrivances  of  Fugue,  and,  in  the  second 
Agnus  Dei,  of  closely  interwoven  Canon :  but, 
always,  as  means  towards  the  attainment  of  a 
certain  end — never,  in  place  of  the  end  itself. 
And,  this  entire  subjugation  of  artistic  power  to 
the  demands  of  expression  is,  perhaps,  its  most 
prominent  characteristic.  It  pervades  it,  through- 
out, from  the  first  note  to  the  last.  Take,  for 
instance,  the  Chrisle  eleison,  in  which  each  Voice, 
as  it  enters,  seems  to  plead  more  earnestly  than 
its  predecessor  for  mercy— 


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rMV^ 


2=— pz: 


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(«) 


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(a)  i  (^ 

g  r^      =rp    ^    gz=j: 


g 


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(«) 


^ 


(«) 


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(a)  I 


iJA 


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SiSl 


U^k 


i  («) 


gg 


J! 


It  is  impossible,  while  listening  to  these  touch- 
ingly  beautiful  harmonies,  to  bestow  even  a  pass- 
ing thought  upon  the  texture  of  the  parts  by 
which  they  are  produced :  yet,  the  quiet  grace  of 
the  theme,  at  (a),  and  the  closeness  of  the  imita- 
tion to  which  it  is  subjected,  evince  a  command 
of  technical  resources  which  Handel  alone  could 
have  hidden,  with  equal  success,  beneath  the 
appearance  of  such  extreme  simplicity.  Handel 
has,  indeed,  submitted  a  similar  subject  to  closely 
analagous  treatment — though,  in  quick  time,  and 
with  a  very  different  expression — in  the  opening 
Tutti  of  his  Organ  Concerto  in  G  :  and  it  is  in- 
teresting to  note,  that  the  exquisitely  moulded 
close,  at  (6),  so  expressive,  when  sung  with  the 
necessary  ritardando,  of  the  confidence  of  Hope, 
has  been  used,  by  Mendelssohn,  interval  for  in- 
terval, in  the  Chorale,  'Sleepers  wake!'  from 


MASS. 

'  Saint  Paul,'  to  express  the  confidence  of  Ex- 
pectation. 


Wachet  auf!  ruft  uns  die    Stlm    -  -    me. 

We  have  selected  this  particular  passage  for 
our  illustration,  principally  for  the  sake  of  call- 
ing attention  to  these  instructive  coincidences: 
but,  in  truth,  every  bar  of  the  Mass  conceals  a 
miracle  of  Art.  Its  subjects,  all  original,  and 
all  of  extreme  simplicity,  are  treated  with  an  in- 
exhaustible variety  of  feeling  which  shews  them, 
every  moment,  in  some  new  and  beautiful  light. 
Its  six  voices — Soprano,  Alto,  two  Tenors  of 
exactly  equal  compass,  and  two  Basses  matched 
with  similar  nicety — are  so  artfully  grouped  as 
constantly  to  produce  the  effect  of  two  or  more 
antiphonal  Choirs.  Its  style  is  solemn,  and  devo- 
tional, throughout ;  but,  by  no  means  deficient 
in  fire,  when  the  sense  of  the  words  demands  it. 
Baini  truly  calls  the  Kyrie,  devout;  the  Gloria, 
animated;  the  Credo,  majestic;  the  Sancfus,  an- 
gelic ;  and,  the  Agnus  Dei,  prayerful.  Palestrina 
wrote  many  more  Masses,  of  the  highest  degree 
of  excellence ;  but,  none — not  even  Assumpta  e*t 
Maria —  so  nearly  approaching  perfection,  in  every 
respect,  as  this.  He  is  known  to  have  produced, 
at  the  least,  ninety-five;  of  which  forty-three 
were  printed  during  his  life-time;  and  thirty- 
nine  more,  within  seven  years  after  his  death  ; 
while  thirteen  are  preserved,  in  manuscript,1 
among  the  Archives  of  the  Pontifical  Chapel, 
and  in  the  Vatican  Library.  The  effect  pro- 
duced by  these  great  works  upon  the  prevailing 
Btyle  was  all  that  could  be  desired.  Vittoria,  and 
Aiierio,  in  the  great  Roman  School,  Gabrieli,  and 
Croce,  in  the  Venetian,  Orlando  di  Lasso,  in  the 
Flemish,  and  innumerable  other  Masters,  brought 
forward  compositions  of  unfading  interest  and 
beauty.  Not  the  least  interesting  of  these  is  a 
Mass,  for  five  voices,  in  the  transposed  ^Eolian 
Mode,  composed  by  our  own  great  William  Byrd, 
at  the  time  when  he  was  singing,  as  a  Chorister, 
at  Old  Saint  Paul's.  This  valuable  work  was 
edited,  in  1841,  for  the  Musical  Antiquarian 
Society,  by  Dr.  Rimbault,  from  a  copy,  believed 
to  be  unique,  and  now  safely  lodged  in  the  Li- 
brary of  the  British  Museum.  Though  composed 
(if  Dr.  Rimbault's  theory  may  be  accepted,  in  the 
absence  of  a  printed  date)  some  years  before  the 
Missa  Papa  Marcelli,  it  may  fairly  lay  claim  to 
be  classed  as  a  production  of  the  '  Golden  Age' ; 
for,  it  was  certainly  not  printed  until  after  the 
appearance  of  Palestrina's  Second  Book  of  Masses; 
moreover,  it  is  entirely  free  from  the  vices  of  the 
Fourth  Epoch,  and,  notwithstanding  a  certain 
irregularity  in  the  formation  of  some  of  the 
Cadences,  exhibits  unmistakeable  traces  of  the 

J  One  of  these.  Tu  a  Pttnu,  was  printed,  for  the  first  time.  In  JSXS. 
In  8chrems's  continuation  of  Proske's  '  Musica  Divina '  (Ratisbon, 
Fr.  Pustet). 


MASS. 

Roman  style :  a  style,  the  beauties  of  which  were 
Bpeedily  recognised  from  one  end  of  Europe  to 
the  other,  exercising  more  or  less  influence  over 
the  productions  of  all  other  Schools,  and  thereby 
bringing  the  music  of  the  Mass,  during  the  latter 
half  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  to  a  degree  of  per- 
fection beyond  which  it  has  never  since  advanced. 

The  Sixth  Epoch  was  one  of  universal  deca- 
dence. In  obedience  to  the  exigencies  of  a  law 
with  the  operation  of  which  the  Art-historian  is 
only  too  familiar,  the  glories  of  the  'Golden  Age ' 
had  no  sooner  reached  their  full  maturity,  than 
they  began  to  show  signs  of  incipient  decay.  The 
bold  unprepared  discords  of  Monteverde,  and  the 
rapid  rise  of  Instrumental  Music,  were,  alike, 
fatal  to  the  progress  of  the  Polyphonic  Schools. 
Monteverde,  it  is  true,  only  employed  his  newly- 
invented  harmonies  in  saecular  music  :  but,  what 
revolutionist  ever  yet  succeeded  in  controlling 
the  course  of  the  stone  he  had  once  set  in  motion ! 
Other  Composers  soon  dragged  the  unwonted  dis- 
sonances into  the  Service  of  the  Church :  and, 
beyond  all  doubt,  the  unprepared  seventh  sounded 
the  death-knell  of  the  Polyphonic  Mass.  The 
barrier  between  the  tried,  and  the  untried,  once 
broken  down,  the  laws  of  counterpoint  were  no 
longer  held  sacred.  The  old  paths  were  for- 
saken ;  and  those  who  essayed  to  walk  in  the  new 
wandered  vaguely,  hither  and  thither,  in  search 
of  an  ideal,  as  yet  but  very  imperfectly  conceived, 
in  pursuit  of  which  they  laboured  on,  through 
many  weary  years,  cheered  by  very  inadequate 
results,  and  little  dreaming  of  the  effect  their 
work  was  fated  to  exercise  upon  generations  of 
musicians  then  unborn.  A  long  and  dreary 
period  succeeded,  during  which  no  work  of  any 
lasting  reputation  was  produced :  for,  the  Masses 
of  Carissimi,  Colonna,  and  the  best  of  their  con- 
temporaries, though  written  in  solemn  earnest, 
and  interesting  enough  when  regarded  as  attempts 
at  a  new  style,  bear  no  comparison  with  the 
compositions  of  the  preceding  epoch ;  while  those 
arranged  by  Benevoli  (1602-1672)  and  the  ad- 
mirers of  his  School,  for  combinations  of  four, 
six,  eight,  and  even  twelve  distinct  Choirs,  were 
forgotten,  with  the  occasions  for  which  they  were 
called  into  existence.  Art  was  passing  through  a 
transitional  phase,  which  must  needs  be  left  to 
work  out  its  own  destiny  in  its  own  way.  The 
few  faithful  souls  who  still  clung  to  the  traditions 
of  the  Past  were  unable  to  uphold  its  honours  : 
and,  with  Gregorio  Allegri,  in  1652,  the  'School 
of  Palestrina'  died  out.  Yet,  not  without  hope 
of  revival.  The  laws  which  regulated  the  compo- 
sition of  the  Polyphonic  Mass  are  as  intelligible, 
to-day,  as  they  were  three  hundred  years  ago; 
and  it  needs  but  the  fire  of  living  Genius  to  bring 
them,  once  more,  into  active  operation,  reinforced 
by  all  the  additional  authority  with  which  the 
advancement  of  Modern  Science  has,  from  time 
to  time,  invested  them. 

Before  quitting  this  part  of  our  subject,  for  the 
consideration  of  the  later  Schools,  it  is  necessary 
that  we  should  offer  a  few  remarks  upon  the  true 
manner  of  singing  Masses,  such  as  those  of  which 
we  have  briefly  sketched  the  history :  and,  thanks  I 


MASS. 


231 


to  the  traditions  handed  down,  from  generation 
to  generation,  by  the  Pontifical  Choir,  we  are 
able  to  do  so  with  as  little  danger  of  misinter- 
preting the  ideas  of  Palestrina,  or  Anerio,  as  we 
should  incur  in  dealing  with  those  of  Mendels- 
sohn, or  Sterndale  Bennett. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose 
that  a  very  large  body  of  Voices  is  absolutely  in- 
dispensable to  the  successful  rendering,  even  of 
very  great  works.  On  ordinary  occasions,  no 
more  than  thirty-two  singers  are  present  in  the 
Sistine  Chapel — eight  Sopranos,  and  an  equal 
number  of  Altos,  Tenors,  and  Basses  :  though, 
on  very  high  Festivals,  their  number  is  some- 
times nearly  doubled.  The  vocal  strength  must, 
of  course,  be  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the 
building  in  which  it  is  to  be  exercised :  but, 
whether  it  be  great,  or  small,  it  must,  on  no 
account,  be  supplemented  by  any  kind  of  instru- 
mental accompaniment  whatever.  Every  pos- 
sible gradation  of  tone,  from  the  softest  imagin- 
able whisper,  to  the  loudest  forte  attainable 
without  straining  the  Voice,  will  be  brought  into 
constant  requisition.  Though  written,  always, 
either  with  a  plain  signature,  or  with  a  single 
flat  after  the  clef,  the  music  may  be  sung  at  any 
pitch  most  convenient  to  the  Choir.  The  time 
should  be  beaten  in  minims  ;  except  in  the  case 
of  3-1,  in  which  three  semibreves  must  be  counted 
in  each  bar.  The  Tempo — of  which  no  indica- 
tion is  ever  given,  in  the  old  part-books — will 
vary,  in  different  movements,  from  about  P  =  50 
to  p'=i20.  On  this  point,  as  well  as  on  the 
subject  of  pianos  and  fortes,  and  the  assignment 
of  certain  passages  to  Solo  Voices,  or  Semi-chorus, 
the  leader  must  trust  entirely  to  the  dictates  of 
his  own  judgment.  He  will,  however,  find  the 
few  simple  rules  to  which  we  are  about  to  direct 
his  attention  capable  of  almost  universal  applica- 
tion ;  based,  as  they  are,  upon  the  important 
relation  borne  by  the  music  of  the  Mass  to  the 
respective  offices  of  the  Priest,  the  Choir,  and  the 
Congregation.  To  the  uninitiated,  this  relation  is 
not  always  very  clearly  intelligible.  In  order  to 
make  it  so,  and  to  illustrate,  at  the  same  time, 
the  principles  by  which  the  Old  Masters  were 
guided,  we  shall  accompany  our  promised  hints 
by  a  few  words  explanatory  of  the  functions  per- 
formed by  the  Celebrant,  and  his  Ministers, 
during  the  time  occupied  by  the  Choir  in  singing 
the  principal  movements  of  the  Mass — functions, 
the  right  understanding  of  which  is  indispens- 
able to  the  correct  interpretation  of  the  music. 

High  Mass — preceded,  on  Sundays,  by  the 
Plain  Chaunt  Asperges  me — begins,  on  the  part 
of  the  Celebrant  and  Ministers,  by  the  recitation, 
in  a  low  voice,  of  the  Psalm,  Judica  me  Deus, 
and  the  Confiteor  ;  on  that  of  the  Choir,  by  the 
chaunting,  from  the  Gradual,  of  the  Introit,  ap- 
pointed for  the  day.     [See  Inteoit.] 

From  the  Plain  Chaunt  Introit,  the  Choir  pro- 
ceed, at  once,  to  the  Kyrie ;  and  this  transition 
from  the  severity  of  the  Gregorian  melody  to  the 
pure  harmonic  combinations  of  Polyphonic  Music 
is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  that  can  be  imagined. 
The  Kyrie  is  always  sung  slowly,  and  devoutly 


232 


MASS. 


(p  =  56-66),  with  the  tenderest  possible  grada- 
tions of  light  and  shade.  The  Ckriste — also  a 
elow  movement — may  often  be  entrusted,  with 
good  effect,  to  Solo  Voices.  The  second  Kyrie  is 
generally  a  little  more  animated  than  the  first, 
and  should  be  taken  in  a  quicker  time  (p  =  96- 
112).  The  Kyrie  of  Palestrina's  Misea  brevis  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  existence,  and  by  no 
means  difficult  to  sing,  since  the  true  positions  of 
the  crescendi  and  diminuendi  can  scarcely  be  mis- 
taken.   [See  Kyrie.] 

While  the  Choir  are  singing  these  three  move- 
ments, the  Celebrant,  attended  by  the  Deacon, 
and  Subdeacon,  ascends  to  the  Altar,  and,  having 
incensed  it,  repeats  the  words  of  the  Introit,  and 
Kyrie,  in  a  voice  audible  to  himself  and  his 
Ministers  alone.  On  the  cessation  of  the  music, 
he  intones,  in  a  loud  voice,  the  words,  Gloria  in 
excelsis  Deo,  to  a  short  Plain  Chaunt  melody, 
varying  with  the  nature  of  the  different  Festivals, 
and  given,  in  full,  both  in  the  Missal,  and  the 
Gradual.  [See  Intonation.]  This  Intonation, 
which  may  be  taken  at  any  pitch  conformable  to 
that  of  the  Mass,  is  not  repeated  by  the  Choir, 
which  takes  up  the  strain  at  Et  in  terra  pax. 

The  first  movement  of  the  Gloria  is,  in  most 
cases,  a  very  jubilant  one  (p  =  100-1 20)  :  but, 
the  words  adoramus  te,  and  Jesu  Christe,  must 
always  be  sung  slowly,  and  softly  (p  =  50-60) ; 
and,  sometimes,  the  Gratias  agimus,  as  far  as 
gloriam  tuam,  is  taken  a  shade  slower  than  the 
general  time,  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the 
Rubric  which  directs,  that,  at  these  several 
points,  the  Celebrant  and  Ministers  shall  uncover 
their  heads,  in  token  of  adoration.  After  the 
word,  Patris,  a  pause  is  made.  The  Qui  tollis 
is  then  sung,  Adagio  (P  =  56-66);  with  ritar- 
dandi  at  miserere  nobis,  and  suscipe  deprecationem 
nostram.  At  the  Quoniam  tu  solus,  the  original 
quick  time  is  resumed,  and  carried  on,  with  ever 
increasing  spirit,  to  the  end  of  the  movement ; 
except  that  the  words,  Jesu  Christe,  are  again 
delivered  slowly,  and  softly,  as  before.  The  pro- 
vision made,  in  the  Missa  Papoe  Marcelli,  for 
the  introduction  of  these  characteristic  changes 
of  Tempo,  is  very  striking,  and  points  clearly  to 
the  antiquity  of  the  custom. 

The  Celebrant  now  recites  the  Collects  for  the 
day  ;  the  Subdeacon  sings  the  Epistle,  in  a  kind 
of  Monotone,  with  certain  fixed  Inflexions ;  the 
Choir  sings  the  Plain  Chaunt  Gradual,  followed 
by  the  Tract,  or  Sequence,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  Festival ;  and  the  Deacon  sings  the  Gospel, 
to  its  own  peculiar  Tone.  [See  Gradual  ;  Tract  ; 
Sequence  ;  Accents.]  If  there  be  a  Sermon,  it 
follows  next  in  order :  if  not,  the  Gospel  is  im- 
mediately followed  by  the  Creed. 

The  words,  Credo  in  unum  Deum,  are  intoned, 
by  the  Celebrant,  to  a  few  simple  notes  of  Plain 
Chaunt,  which  never  vary — except  in  pitch — and 
which  are  to  be  found  both  in  the  Gradual,  and 
the  Missal.  [See  Intonation.]  The  Choir 
continue,  Patrem  omnipotentem,  in  a  moderate 
Allegro,  more  stately  than  that  of  the  Gloria 
(P  =  96-1 1 2),  and  marked  by  the  closest  possible 
attention  to  the  spirit  of  the  text.    A  ritardando 


MASS. 

takes  place  at  Et  in  unum  Dominum ;  and  the 
words,  Jesum  Christum,  are  sung  as  slowly,  and 
as  softly,  as  in  the  Gloria,  (P  =  50-60).  The 
quicker  time  is  resumed  at  Filium  Dei ;  and  a 
grand  forte  may  generally  be  introduced,  with 
advantage,  at  Deum  de  Deo,  and  continued  as  far 
as  facta  sunt — as  in  Palestrina's  Missa  'Assumpta 
est  Maria'  and  many  others.  After  the  words, 
de  coelis,  a  long  pause  takes  place,  while  the 
Congregation  kneel.  The  Et  incarnatus  est  then 
follows,  in  the  form  of  a  soft  and  solemn  Adagio 
(P=  54-63),  interrupted,  after  f actus  est,  by 
another  pause,  long  enough  to  enable  the  people 
to  rise  from  their  knees  in  silence.  The  Crucifixus 
is  also  a  slow  movement ;  the  return  to  the 
original  Allegro  being  deferred  until  the  Et 
resurrexit.  In  the  Misa  Papa  Marcelli,  and 
many  other  very  fine  ones,  this  part  of  the 
Credo  is  written  for  four  solo  voices ;  but,  the 
necessity  for  an  acceleration  of  the  time  at  the  Et 
resurrexit  is  very  strongly  marked.  In  the  beau- 
tiful Missa  brevis  already  mentioned,  the  Basses 
lead  off  the  Et  resurrexit,  in  quick  time,  while 
the  Soprano,  and  Alto,  are  still  engaged  in  finish- 
ing a  ritardando — a  very  difficult,  though  by  no 
means  uncommon  point,  which  can  only  be  over- 
come by  very  careful  practice. 
-  put    -  -  -    tus      est. 


r-^— g 


^g 


r=F 


s 


^ 


et       re-sur-re- 
et       re  -  aur  -  re  -   xlt 


m=$=^ 


g 


Aj 


i*j* 


et  re  -  sur  -  re  -  -  xlt  ter  - 
An other  change  of  time  is  sometimes  demanded, 
&tEtinSpiritum  Sanctum :  but,  more  generally,  the 
Allegro  continues  to  the  end  of  the  movement ;  in- 
terrupted only  at  the  words  simul  adoratur,  which 
are  always  sung  Adagio,  and  pianissimo,  while  the 
Celebrant  and  Ministers  uncover  their  heads. 

The  Credo  is  immediately  followed  by  the 
Plain  Chaunt  Offertorium  for  the  day.  But,  as 
this  is  too  short  to  fill  up  the  time  occupied  by 
the  Celebrant  in  incensing  the  Oblations,  and 
saying,  secreto,  certain  appointed  Prayers,  it  is 
usually  supplemented,  either  by  a  Motet,  or  a 
grand  Voluntary  on  the  Organ.  [See  Motet  ; 
Offertorium.]  This  is  followed  by  the  Versicle 
and  Response  called  the  Sursum  corda,  and  the 
Proper  Preface,  at  the  end  of  which  a  Bell  is 
rung,  and  the  Sanctus  is  taken  up  by  the  Choir. 

The  Sanctus  is  invariably  a  Largo,  of  peculiar 
solemnity  (p  =  56-72).  Sometimes,  as  in  Pales- 
trina's very  early  Mass,  Virtute  magna,  the 
Pleni  sunt  coeli  is  set  for  Solo  Voices.  Sometimes, 
it  is  sung  in  chorus,  but  in  a  quicker  movement, 
as  in  the  same  Composer's  Missa  Papce  Marcelli, 
and  Mterna  Christi  munera — involving,  in  the 
last-named  Mass,  a  difficulty  of  the  same  kind  as 
that  which  we  have  already  pointed  out  in  the 
Et  resurrexit  of  the  Missa  Brevis.  The  Osanna, 
though  frequently  spirited,  must  never  be  a  noisy 
movement.  In  the  Missa  brevis,  so  often  quoted, 
it  is  continuous  with  the  rest  of  the  Sanctus,  and 


MASS. 

clearly  intended  to  be  sung  pianissimo — an  ex- 
tremely beautiful  idea,  in  perfect  accordance  with 
the  character  of  this  part  of  the  Service,  during 
which  the  Celebrant  is  proceeding,  secreto,  with 
the  Prayers  which  immediately  precede  the  Con- 
secration of  the  Host.  After  the  Elevation — 
which  takes  place  in  silence — the  Choir  begin 
the  Benedictus,  in  soft  low  tones,  almost  always 
entrusted  to  Solo  Voices.  The  Osanna,  which 
concludes  the  movement,  is,  in  the  great  majority 
of  cases,  identical  with  that  which  follows  the 
Sanctus.  The  Pater  noster  is  sung,  by  the  Cele- 
brant, to  a  Plain  Chaunt  melody,  contained  in 
the  Missal.  After  its  conclusion,  the  Choir  sings 
the  last  movement  of  the  Mass — the  Agnus  Dei 
— while  the  Celebrant  is  receiving  the  Host. 
The  first  division  of  the  Agnus  Dei  may  be 
very  effectively  sung  by  Solo  Voices,  and  the 
second,  in  subdued  chorus  (p=  50-72),  with 
gentle  gradations  of  piano,  and  pianissimo,  as  in 
the  Kyrie.  When  there  is  only  one  movement, 
it  must  be  sung  twice ;  the  words  dona  nobis 
pacem  being  substituted,  the  second  time,  for 
miserere  nobis.  The  Agnus  Dei  of  Josquin's  Missa 
'V Homme  armd '  is  in  three  distinct  movements. 

The  Choir  next  sings  the  Plain  Chaunt  Com- 
munio,  as  given  in  the  Gradual.  The  Celebrant 
recites  the  Prayer  called  the  Post-Communion. 
The  Deacon  sings  the  words,  '  Ite,  missa  est,''  from 
which  the  Service  derives  its  name.  And  the 
Kite  concludes  with  the  Domine  salvumfac,  and 
Prayer  for  the  reigning  Sovereign. 

The  Ceremonies  we  have  described  are  those 
peculiar  to  High  or  Solemn  Mass.  When  the 
Service  is  sung  by  the  Celebrant  and  Choir,  with- 
out the  assistance  of  a  Deacon  and  Subdeacon,  and 
without  the  use  of  Incense,  it  is  called  a  Missa 
cantata,  or  Sung  Mass.  Low  Mass  is  said  by 
the  Celebrant,  alone,  attended  by  a  single  Server. 
According  to  strict  usage,  no  music  whatever  is 
admissible,  at  Low  Mass  :  but,  in  French  and 
German  village  Churches,  and,  even  in  those 
of  Italy,  it  is  not  unusual  to  hear  the  Congrega- 
tions sing  Hymns,  or  Litanies,  appropriate  to  the 
occasion,  though  not  forming  part  of  the  Service. 
Under  no  circumstances  can  the  duties  proper  to 
the  Choir,  at  High  Mass,  be  transferred  to  the 
general  Congregation. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say,  that  the  music 
of  every  Mass  worth  singing  will  naturally  de- 
mand a  style  of  treatment  peculiar  to  itself;  es- 
pecially with  regard  to  the  Tempi  of  its  different 
movements.  A  modern  editor  tells  us  that  more 
than  four  bars  of  Palestrina  should  never  be 
sung,  continuously,  in  the  same  time.1  This  is,  of 
course,  an  exaggeration.  Nevertheless,  immense 
variety  of  expression  is  indispensable.  Every- 
thing depends  upon  it :  and,  though  the  leader 
will  not  always  find  it  easy  to  decide  upon  the 
best  method,  a  little  careful  attention  to  the  points 
we  have  mentioned  will,  in  most  cases,  enable 
him  to  produce  results  very  different  from  any 

'  The  only  other  Composer,  antient,  or  modem,  with  regard  to 
whose  works  such  a  remark  could  have  been  hazarded,  la  Chopin— 
the^nfettered  exponent  of  the  wildest  dreams  of  modern  romanticism. 
So  flrangcly  does  experience  prove  that '  there  is  nothing  new  under 
the  inn ' ! 


MASS.  233 

that  are  attainable  by  the  hard  dry  manner  which 
is  too  often  supposed  to  be  inseparable  from  the 
performance  of  antient  figured  music. 

Our  narrative  was  interrupted,  at  a  transitional 
period,  when  the  grand  old  mediaeval  style  was 
gradually  dying  out,  and  a  newer  one  courageously 
struggling  into  existence,  in  the  face  of  difficulties 
which,  sometimes,  seemed  insurmountable.  We  re- 
sume it,  after  the  death  of  the  last  representative  of 
the  old  regime,  Gregorio  Allegri,  in  the  year  1652. 

The  most  remarkable  Composers  of  the  period 
which  we  shall  designate  as  the  Seventh  Epoch 
in  the  history  of  the  vocal  Mass — comprising  the 
latter  part  of  the  Seventeenth  Century,  and  the 
earlier  years  of  the  Eighteenth — were,  Alessandro 
Scarlatti,  Leo,  and  Durante :  men  whose  position 
in  the  chronicles  of  Art  is  rendered  somewhat 
anomalous,  though  none  the  less  honourable,  by 
the  indisputable  fact,  that  they  all  entertained  a 
sincere  affection  for  the  older  School,  while  labour- 
ing, with  all  their  might,  for  the  advancement  of 
the  newer.  It  was,  undoubtedly,  to  their  love 
for  the  Masters  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  that 
they  owed  the  dignity  of  style  which  constitutes 
the  chief  merit  of  their  compositions  for  the 
Church  :  but,  their  real  work  lay  in  the  direc- 
tion of  instrumental  accompaniment,  for  which 
Durante,  especially,  did  more  than  any  other 
writer  of  the  period.  His  genius  was,  indeed,  a 
very  exceptional  one.  While  others  were  con- 
tent with  cautiously  feeling  their  way,  in  some 
new  and  untried  direction,  lie  boldly  started  off, 
with  a  style  of  his  own,  which  gave  an  extraordi- 
nary impulse  to  the  progress  of  Art,  and  impressed 
its  character  so  strongly  upon  the  productions  of 
his  followers,  that  he  has  been  not  unfrequently 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  modern  Italian 
School.  Whatever  opinion  may  be  entertained 
on  that  point,  it  is  certain  that  the  simplicity  of 
his  melodies  tended,  in  no  small  degree,  to  the 
encouragement  of  those  graces  which  now  seem 
inseparable  from  Italian  Art ;  while  it  is  equally 
undeniable  that  the  style  of  the  Cantata,  which 
he,  no  less  than  Alessandro  Scarlatti,  held  in  the 
highest  estimation,  exercised  an  irresistible  in- 
fluence over  the  future  of  the  Mass. 

The  Eighth  Epoch  is  represented  by  one  single 
work,  of  such  gigantic  proportions,  and  so  ex- 
ceptional a  character,  that  it  is  impossible,  either 
to  class  it  with  any  other,  or  to  trace  its  pedigree 
through  any  of  the  Schools  of  which  we  have 
hitherto  spoken.  The  artistic  status  of  John 
Sebastian  Bach's  Mass  in  B  minor, — produced  in 
the  year  1733 — only  becomes  intelligible,  when 
we  consider  it  as  the  natural  result  of  prin- 
ciples, inherited  through  a  long  line  of  masters, 
who  bequeathed  their  musical  acquirements,  from 
father  to  son,  as  other  men  bequeath  their  riches  : 
principles,  upon  which  rest  the  very  foundations 
of  the  later  German  Schools.  Bearing  this  in 
mind,  we  are  not  surprised  at  finding  it  free  from 
all  trace  of  the  older  Ecclesiastical  traditions.  To 
compare  it  with  Palestrina's  Missa  Papce  Mar- 
celli — even  were  such  a  perversion  of  criticism 
possible — would  be  as  unfair,  to  either  side,  as  an 
attempt  to  judge  the  master  pieces  of  Rembrandt 


234 


MASS. 


MASS. 


by  the  standard  of  Fra  Angelico.  The  two  works  ' 
are  not  even  coincident  in  intention — for,  it  is  , 
almost  impossible  to  believe  that  the  one  we  are  | 
now  considering  can  ever  have  been  seriously 
intended  for  use  as  a  Church  Service.  Unfitted 
for  that  purpose,  as  much  by  its  excessive  length, 
as  by  the  exuberant  elaboration  of  its  style,  and 
the  overwhelming  difficulty  of  its  execution,  it 
can  only  be  consistently  regarded  as  an  Oratorio 
— so  regarded,  it  may  be  safely  trusted  to  hold 
its  own,  side  by  side  with  the  greatest  works  of 
the  kind  that  have  ever  been  produced,  in  any 
country,  or  in  any  age.  [See  Oratorio.]  Its 
masterly  and  exhaustively  developed  Fugues  ;  its 
dignified  Choruses,  relieved  by  Airs,  and  Duets, 
of  infinite  grace  and  beauty ;  the  richness  of  its 
instrumentation,  achieved  by  means  which  most 
modern  composers  would  reject  as  utterly  inade- 
quate to  the  least  ambitious  of  their  requirements  ; 
above  all,  the  colossal  proportions  of  its  design — 
these,  and  a  hundred  other  characteristics  into 
which  we  have  not  space  to  enter,  entitle  it  to 
rank  as  one  of  the  finest  works,  if  not  the  very 
finest,  that  the  great  Cantor  of  the  Thomas-Schule 
has  left,  as  memorials  of  a  genius  as  vast  as  it  was 
original.  Whether  we  criticise  it  as  a  work  of  Art, 
of  Learning,  or  of  Imagination,  we  find  it  equally 
worthy  of  our  respect.  It  is,  moreover,  extremely 
interesting,  as  an  historical  monument,  from  the 
fact,  that,  in  the  opening  of  its  Credo,  it  exhibits 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  examples  on  record 
of  the  treatment  of  an  antient  Canto  fermo  with 
modern  harmonies,  and  an  elaborate  orchestral 
accompaniment.  [See  Intonation.]  Bach  often 
shewed  but  little  sympathy  with  the  traditions 
of  the  Past.  But,  in  this,  as  in  innumerable 
other  instances,  he  proved  his  power  of  compelling 
everything  he  touched  to  obey  the  dictates  of  his 
indomitable  will. 

While  the  great  German  composer  was  thus 
patiently  working  out  his  hereditary  trust,  the 
disciples  of  the  Italian  School  were  entering  upon 
a  Ninth  Epoch — the  last  which  it  will  be  our  duty 
to  consider,  since  its  creative  energy  is,  probably, 
not  yet  exhausted — under  very  different  condi- 
tions, and  influenced  by  principles  which  led  to 
very  different  results.  If  we  have  found  it  neces- 
sary to  criticise  Bach's  wonderful  production  as  an 
Oratorio,  still  more  necessary  is  it,  that  we  should 
describe  the  Masses  of  this  later  period  as  Sacred 
Cantatas.  Originating,  beyond  all  doubt,  with 
Durante ;  treated  with  infinite  tenderness  by 
Pergolesi  and  Jomelli  ;  endowed  with  a  wealth 
of  graces  by  the  genius  of  Haydn  and  Mozart ; 
and  still  farther  intensified  by  the  imaginative 
power  of  Beethoven  and  Cherubini ;  their  style 
has  steadily  kept  pace,  step  by  step,  with  the 
progress  of  modern  music  ;  borrowing  elasticity 
from  the  freedom  of  its  melodies,  and  richness 
from  the  variety  of  its  instrumentation  ;  clothing 
itself  in  new  and  unexpected  forms  of  beauty,  at 
every  turn  ;  yet,  never  aiming  at  the  expression 
of  a  higher  kind  of  beauty  than  that  pertaining 
to  earthly  things,  or  venturing  to  utter  the  lan- 
guage of  devotion  in  preference  to  that  of  passion. 
In  the  Masses  of  this  sera  we  first  find  the  indi- 


viduality of  the  Composer  entirely  dominating 
over  that  of  the  School — if,  indeed,  a  School  can 
be  said  to  exist,  at  all,  in  an  age  in  which  every 
Composer  is  left  free  to  follow  the  dictates  of  his 
own  unfettered  taste.  It  is  impossible  to  avoid 
recognising,  in  Haydn's  Masses,  the  well-known 
features  of  '  The  Creation '  and  '  The  Seasons ' ; 
or,  in  those  of  Mozart,  the  characteristic  features 
of  his  most  delightful  Operas.  Who,  but  the 
Composer  of  'Dove  sono  i  bei  momettti,'  or,  the 
Finales  to  Don  Giovanni,  and  the  Flauto  Magico, 
could  ever  have  imagined  the  Agnus  Dei  of  the 
First  Mass,  or  the  Gloria  of  the  Second  ?  Still 
more  striking  is  the  identity  of  thought  which 
assimilates  Beethoven's  Missa  solemnis  to  some 
of  the  greatest  of  his  sascular  works ;  notwith- 
standing their  singular  freedom  from  all  trace  of 
mannerism.  Mozart  makes  himself  known  by 
the  refinement  of  his  delicious  phrases  :  Bee- 
thoven, by  the  depth  of  his  dramatic  instinct — a 
talent  which  he  never  turned  to  such  good  account 
as  when  working  in  the  absence  of  stage  acces- 
sories. We  are  all  familiar  with  that  touching 
episode  in  the  '  Battle  Symphony,'  wherein  the 
one  solitary  Fifer  strives  to  rally  his  scattered 
comrades  by  playing  Malbrook  sen  va-t-en  guerre 
— a  feat,  which,  by  reason  of  the  thirst  and  ex- 
haustion consequent  upon  his  wound,  he  can  only 
accomplish  in  a  minor  key.  No  less  touching, 
though  infinitely  more  terrible,  is  that  wonderful 
passage  of  Drums  and  Trumpets,  in  the  Dona  nobis 
pacem  of  the  Mass  in  D,  intended  to  bring  the 
blessings  of  Peace  into  the  strongest  possible  relief, 
by  contrasting  them  with  the  horrors  of  War. 
Allegro  at  sat. 

'  '4- 


V  Km  Trill nnetg.  " 


PP  Trumpets, 
Drums. 


.0-    isruuis. 


# 


i  is  ias  izaj-j-a 

lit    m   r*    •  • 


Alto  solo 


Jiec.it.  timidamente.   Sngstlich. 


m  ^^ 


MASS. 


MASSE. 


23S 


Whether,  or  not,  the  peace  to  which  our  atten- 
tion is  thus  forcibly  directed  be  really  that  alluded 
to  in  the  text,  in  no  wise  affects  the  power  of  the 
passage.  All  that  Beethoven  intended  to  express 
was  his  own  interpretation  of  the  words ;  and  it 
is  in  his  own  strong  language,  and  not  in  that  of 
the  Schools,  that  he  expresses  it.  Cherubini 
makes  equal  use  of  the  dramatic  element ;  more 
especially  in  his  magnificent  Requiem  Mass  in  D 
minor  [see  Requiem],  his  grand  Mass,  in  the 
same  key,  and  his  famous  Mass  in  A,  written  for 
the  Coronation  of  Charles  X :  but,  always  in  a 
way  so  peculiarly  his  own,  that  the  touch  of  his 
master  hand  stands  everywhere  confessed.  In  all 
these  great  works,  and  innumerable  others,  by 
Weber,  Schubert,  Hummel,  Niedermeyer,  Rossini, 
and  Gounod,  we  find  the  dramatic  form  of  ex- 
pression entirely  superseding  the  devotional ;  un- 
compromising realism  triumphing  over  the  ideal- 
ism of  the  older  Schools ;  the  personal  feelings 
and  experiences  of  the  Masters  over-riding  the 
abstract  sense  of  the  text.  This  circumstance 
makes  it  extremely  difficult  to  assign  to  these 
creations  of  genius  a  true  aesthetic  position  in  the 
world  of  Art.  Church  Services  in  name,  they 
have  certainly  failed,  notwithstanding  their  uni- 
versally-acknowledged beauties,  in  securing  for 
themselves  a  lasting  home  in  the  Church.  That 
their  use  has  been  tolerated,  rather  than  en- 
couraged, in  Rome  itself,  is  proved,  by  the  signi- 
ficant fact,  that  not  one  single  note  of  any  one  of 
them  has  ever  once  been  heard  within  the  walls 
of  the  Sistine  Chapel.  And  the  reason  is  obvious. 
They  cast  Ecclesiastical  tradition  to  the  winds ; 
and,  substituting  for  it  the  ever-varying  senti- 
ment of  individual  minds,  present  no  firm  basis 
for  the  elaboration  of  a  definite  Church  style, 
which,  like  that  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  shall 
prove  its  excellence  by  its  stability.  Yet,  in  the 
midst  of  the  diversity  which  naturally  ensues 
from  this  want  of  a  common  ideal,  it  is  instruc- 
tive to  notice  one  bond  of  union  between  the  older 
Masters  and  the  new,  so  strongly  marked  that  it 
cannot  possibly  be  the  result  of  an  accidental 
coincidence.  Their  agreement  in  the  general  dis- 
tribution of  their  movements  is  most  remarkable. 
We  still  constantly  find  the  Kyrie  presented  to 
us  in  three  separate  divisions.  The  Qui  tollis,  and 
Et  incarnatus  est,  are  constantly  introduced  in 
the  form  of  solemn  Adagios.  The  same  Osanna  is 
almost  always  made  to  serve,  as  in  the  Missa  Papce 
Marcelli,  as  a  conclusion  both  to  the  Sanctus,  and 
the  Benedictus.  And,  in  this  vitality  of  typical 
form,  we  find  a  convincing  proof — if  one  be  ne- 


cessary— that  the  broad  aesthetic  principles  of  Art 
are  immutable,  and  calculated  to  survive,  through 
an  indefinite  period,  the  vicissitudes  of  technical 
treatment  in  widely  differing  Schools.    [W.S.  R.] 

_  MASS  ART,  Lambert  Joseph,  professor  of  the 
violin  at  the  Paris  Conservatoire,  was  born  in  1 8 1 1 
at  Liege.  He  came  early  under  Kreutzer's  tui- 
tion, and  afterwards  entered  the  Conservatoire  to- 
study  composition.  According  to  Fetis  (Biogr. 
d.  Mus.)  his  playing  is  distinguished  by  perfect 
intonation,  facility  in  bowing,  and  gracefulness  of 
style.  In  1 843  txe  was  appointed  professor  of  the 
violin  at  the  Conservatoire,  and  in  this  position 
has  been  eminently  successful.  Among  his  nu- 
merous pupils  the  most  eminent  is  Henri  Wie- 

NIAWSKI.  LP-^-1 

MASSE,  Felix  Marie  Victor,  born  at  Lorient 
March  7,  1822  ;  entered  the  Conservatoire  at  12, 
obtained  the  first  prizes  for  piano,  harmony,  and 
fugue,  and  in  1844,  after  some  years  study  with 
Halevy,  the  'Grand  prix  de  Rome'  for  composi- 
tion. His  cantata  'Le  Renegat'  was  given  3. 
times  at  the  Opera  (Feb.  1845),  a  rare  event. 
During  his  stay  in  Rome  he  composed  a  '  Messe 
Solennelle,'  performed  at  the  church  of  St.  Louis 
des  Francais  (May  1,  1846),  a  careful  and  clever 
work,  though  wanting  in  religious  sentiment — 
never  Masse's  strong  point.  The  unpublished  score 
is  in  the  library  of  the  Conservatoire.  After 
his  two  years  in  Rome  he  travelled  through 
Italy  and  Germany,  and  returned  to  Paris,  where 
he  was  much  appreciated  in  society.  Pub- 
lishers readily  accepted  his  ■  Melodies '  and. 
'Romances,'  and  he  gained  access  to  the  stage 
with  little  delay.  *La  Chanteuse  voilee,'  1  act 
(Opera  Comique,  Nov.  26, 1850),  was  followed  by 
'Galathee,'  2  acts  (April  14,  1852),  and  *Les 
Noces  de  Jeannette  '  (Feb.  4,  1853),  a  charming 
lyric  comedy  in  1  act.  These  early  successes 
justified  the  hope  that  in  Masse"  the  French  stage 
had  found  a  composer  as  fruitful  and  melodious, 
if  not  as  original,  as  Auber ;  but  his  later  efforts 
have  been  less  fortunate.  'La  Reine  Topaze' 
(Dec.  27,  1856)  indeed  succeeded  completely, 
and  has  kept  the  boards,  but  'La  Fiancee  du 
Diable'  (June  3,  54);  'Miss  Fauvette'  (Feb. 
J3>  55);  'Les  Saisons'  (Dec.  22,  55);  'Les 
Chaises  a  porteurs '  (April  28,  58) ;  '  La  Fee 
Carabosse '  (March  7,  59)  ;  '  La  Mule  de  Pedro  ' 
(March  6,  63);  'Fior  d'Aliza'  (Feb.  5,  66); 
and  'Le  Fils  du  Brigadier'  (Feb.  25,  67), 
though  fairly  received,  soon  disappeared.  Some 
however  contain  good  music,  especially  'Les 
Saisons '  and  '  Fior  d'Aliza.'  In  i860  he  became 
chorus-master  to  the  Academic  de  Musique,  and 
in  66  succeeded  Leborne  as  professor  of  composi- 
tion at  the  Conservatoire— gratifying  appoint- 
ments as  showing  the  esteem  of  his  brother  artists, 
although  the  work  they  entailed  left  him  little 
time  for  composition.  On  June  20,  1872,  he  was 
elected  to  the  Institut  as  successor  to  Auber. 

After  a  long  period  of  silence  Masse"  produced 
'Paul  et  Virginie,'  3  acts  (Nov.  15,  1876; 
given  in  Italian  at  Covent  Garden  Opera-house, 
June  1,  1878).     In  spite  of  its  success  and  its 


236 


MASSE. 


evident  ambition,  this  opera  seems  less  original 
•and  less  homogeneous  in  style  than  '  Galathe'e ' 
or  '  Les  Noces  de  Jeannette,'  and  its  best  parts, 
as  in  all  his  operas,  are  the  short  pieces  and  the 
simple  romances. 

To  complete  the  list  of  his  operas  we  may 
mention  '  La  Favorita  e  la  Schiava '  (Venice, 
1855),  and  '  Le  Cousin  Marivaux '  (Baden,  1857); 
also  two  drawing-room  operettas  'Le  Prix  de 
Famille'  and  'Une  loi  Somptuaire.'  He  has 
published  3  'Recueils'  of  20  songs  each,  selected 
from  his  numerous  romances.  Many  of  these 
are  charming  little  pieces. 

In  1877  he  was  made  an  officer  of  the  Legion 
of  Honour.  For  the  last  two  years  he  has  been 
suffering  from  a  malady  which  compelled  him 
to  resign  his  post  at  the  Academic  in  1876,  and 
has  since  caused  his  complete  withdrawal  from 
the  world.  He  is  engaged  on  an  opera,  '  Cleo- 
p&tre,'  from  which  he  expects  much;  and  it  is  to 
be  hoped  he  may  recover  sufficiently  to  superin- 
tend its  production.  We  also  wish  he  could  be 
persuaded  to  give  to  the  world  other  specimens  of 
musical  criticism  besides  his  'Notice  sur  la  vie  et 
l'ceuvre  d'Auber,'  a  valuable  contribution  to 
musical  literature.  [G.C.] 

MASSENET,  Jules  Emile  Frederic,  born 
at  Montaud,  near  St.  Etienne,  May  12,  1842,  was 
educated  at  the  Paris  Conservatoire,  where  he  won 
the  first  piano  prize  in  1859;  the  second  prize 
for  fugue  in  1862  ;  the  first  prize  for  fugue,  and 
the '  Prix  de  Rome '  in  1 863.  On  his  return  from 
Italy,  through  the  influence  of  Ambroise  Thomas, 
his  *  La  Grand' tante'  was  produced  at  the  Ope"ra 
Comique  (April  3,  1867).  Even  in  this  first 
attempt  Massenet  showed  himself  a  skilled  and 
graceful  musician.  Some  'Suites  d'orchestre' 
performed  at  the  '  Concerts  populaires '  attracted 
attention  for  their  new  and  ingenious  effects.  It 
was  only,  however,  after  the  Franco-German 
war  that  he  rose  to  the  first  rank  among  young 
French  composers  by  the  production  of  'Don 
•Ce"sar  de  Bazan,'  opera-comique  in  3  acts  and  4 
tableaux  (Nov.  30,  1872)  ;  incidental  music  to 
the  tragedy  'Les  Erynnies'  (Jan.  6,  1873) ;  and 
an  oratorio  'Marie  Magdeleine'  (April  11, 1873). 
He  has  since  composed  '  Eve'  (March  18,  1875), 
an  oratorio  something  in  the  style  of  Gounod's 
'Gallia';  more  'Suites  d'orchestre';  an  'Ouver- 
ture  de  Concert,'  and  the  overture  to  '  Phedre ' ; 
a  number  of  melodies  for  1  and  2  voices ;  piano- 
forte music  for  2  and  4  hands ;  choruses  for  4 
equal  voices;  *Le  Roi  de  Lahore'  (April  27, 
1877),  opera  in  4  acts  and  6  tableaux;  and 
'Narcisse,'  a  cantata  with  orchestral  accompani- 
ment. In  July  1879  he  completed  another 
-oratorio,  *  La  Vierge,'  and  is  at  work  upon  two 
new  operas.  From  this  enumeration  it  will  be 
seen  that  his  published  compositions  are  numerous 
and  varied.  His  best  and  most  individual  work 
is  'Marie  Magdeleine.'  The  'Roi  de  Lahore' 
can  scarcely  be  considered  an  advance  upon  '  Don 
Ce"sar  de  Bazan.'  The  '  Suites  d'orchestre '  may 
be  blemished  here  and  there  by  mannerism  and 
affectation,  but  if  M.  Massenet  will  refrain  from 
All  mere  cleverness,   and  draw  his  inspiration 


MATERNA. 

solely  from  within,  he  will  prove  an  honour  to 
the  French  school,  and  to  his  art.  [G.  C] 

M  ATA  SSINS,  MATACINS,  orM  ATACHINS 
— also  called  Bouffons — a  dance  of  men  in  armour, 
popular  in  France  during  the  16th  and  17th  cen- 
turies. It  was  probably  derived  from  the  ancient 
Pyrrhic  dance,  although  the  name  has  been  traced 
to  an  Arabic  root.  Jehan  Tabourot  in  his  'Or- 
chesographie'  (Langres,  15S8)  gives  a  long  and 
interesting  account  of  this  dance,  with  six  illus- 
trations of  the  different  positions  of  the  dancers, 
'  qui  sont  vestus  de  petits  corcelets,  auec  fimbries 
es  espaules,  et  soubs  la  ceinture,  une  pente  de 
taffetats  soubz  icelles,  le  morion  de  papier  dore", 
les  bras  nuds,  les  sonnettes  aux  iambes,  l'espee  au 
poing  droit,  le  bouclier  au  poing  gaulche.'  The 
Matassins  were  four  in  number,  generally  all 
men,  but  sometimes  two  men  and  two  women. 
They  danced  several  distinct  figures,  between 
which  they  performed  mimic  fights  with  one 
another.  Moliere  has  introduced  Matassins  into 
his  comddie-ballet  of  M.  de  Pourceaugnac,  and 
the  dance  is  said  to  have  been  common  at  Bor- 
deaux, Marseilles,  and  Strasburg  as  late  as  1 735. 
The  following,  according  to  Tabourot,  is  the  air 
which  usually  accompanied  the  dance. 

Air  da  Bouffons. 


\f  <H  j  J  J  J  ■»  \-HH^+H±± 


-ffHJJi'g 


[W.B.S.] 
MATELOTTE,  a  Dutch  sailors'  dance,  some- 
what similar  to  the  English  hornpipe.  The 
dancers  wore  wooden  shoes,  and  their  arms  were 
interlaced  behind  their  backs.  The  music  of  the 
Matelotte  consists  of  two  parts  in  2-4  time,  and 
is  remarkable  for  its  short  decided  rhythm.  There 
is  a  sabot  dance  in  Lortzing's  'Czar  und  Zim- 
mermann,'  but  it  is  not  a  true  Matelotte,  being 
written  in  waltz  time.  The  following  example 
is  quoted  by  Schubert,  Die  Tanzmusik  (Leipzig, 
1867)  :  it  is  there  attributed  to  the  17th  century, 
but  no  information  is  given  as  to  whether  it  is 
a  genuine  dance  tune  or  merely  an  adaptation. 
We  quote  the  first  strain  only  : — 

Allegretto. 


[W.B.S.] 
MATERNA,  Amalie  (Fkau  Fbiedrich),  a 
distinguished  prima  donna  in  German  opera,  was 
born  at  St.  Georgen,  Styria,  where  her  father  was 
a  schoolmaster.  Her  first  stage  -  appearances 
were  made  at  the  Thalia-Theater,  Gratz,  about 
I  1864.        She    married    soon    afterwards    Karl 


MATERNA. 

Friedrich,  a  popular  German  actor,  and  together 
with  him  was  engaged  at  the  suburban  Karls 
theater,  Vienna,  where  she  sang  for  some  time 
in  operetta.  But  her  qualifications  for  the  higher 
lyrical  walks  could  not  long  remain  undiscovered, 
and  in  1869  she  made  her  debut  at  the  Imperial 
Opera  House  as  Selika  in  the  'Africaine,' with 
signal  success,  at  once  winning  for  herself  the 
high  position  she  has  since  maintained  among 
opera-singers  of  the  German  school.  With  a 
soprano  voice  of  unusual  volume,  compass,  and 
sustaining  power,  a  fine  stage  presence,  and  much 
musical  and  dramatic  intelligence,  Frau  Materna 
leaves  nothing  to  be  desired  in  certain  r6les.  At 
the  Wagner  Festival  at  Baireuth,  1876,  she 
may  be  said  to  have  earned  a  world-wide  reputa- 
tion by  her  really  magnificent  impersonation  of 
Brunnhilde  in  the  Niebelungen  Trilogy,  an 
exceptional  part  for  which  she  was  exceptionally 
qualified,  and  in  which  she  is  unlikely  to  meet 
with  a  rival.  She  sang  in  England  with  great 
success  at  the  Wagner  concerts  at  the  Albert 
Hall  in  1877.  [B.T.] 

MATHER,  Samuel,  son  of  William  Mather 
(born  1756,  organist  of  St.  Paul's  church, 
Sheffield,  from  1788  to  his  death  in  1808),  was 
born  in  1 783 .  In  1 799  he  was  appointed  organist 
of  St.  James's  church,  Sheffield,  and  in  1 808  suc- 
ceeded his  father  at  St.  Paul's.  In  1 805  he  was 
chosen  bandmaster  of  the  Sheffield  Volunteers. 
In  1806  he  was  engaged  in  establishing  the  York- 
shire Amateur  Concerts,  which  were  for  many 
years  given  triennially  at  that  town,  Leeds  and 
York  alternately,  and  in  18  [4  established  the 
Yorkshire  Choral  Concert.  He  composed  both  sa- 
cred and  secular  music,  and  edited  a  book  of  psalm 
and  hymn  tunes.     He  died  in  1824.     [W.H.H.] 

MATHESON,  Johann,  German  musician 
and  writer,  born  Sept.  28,  1681,  at  Hamburg, 
son  of  a  clerk  of  excise ;  as  a  child  showed  striking 
symptoms  of  versatility,  which  his  parents  care- 
fully cultivated.  Besides  the  ordinary  education 
he  studied  music,  and  at  nine  years  could  play  the 
harpsichord  and  organ,  sing  and  compose.  His 
ability  and  versatility  were  truly  extraordinary, 
and  recal  those  of  the  '  admirable  Crichton.'  A 
good  classical  scholar  and  a  proficient  in  modern 
languages,  a  student  of  law  and  political  science, 
a  fine  player  both  on  harpsichord  and  organ, 
and  thoroughly  skilled  in  theory,  an  elegant 
dancer,  a  master  of  fence,  and  a  cultivated  man 
of  the  world.  The  first  step  in  his  changeful 
career  was  his  appearance  in  1697  as  a  singer  in 
the  Hamburg  opera,  then  in  its  most  flourishing 
condition.  In  1699  he  produced  his  first  opera, 
'Die  Pleyaden,'  siuging  his  part  on  the  stage,  and 
then  sitting  down  at  the  harpsichord  to  conduct 
the  orchestra.  To  this  period  belongs  his  ac- 
quaintance with  Handel,  who  came  to  Hamburg 
in  1703.  Matheson  tells  us  that  he  recognised 
Handel's  genius  immediately,  that  they  became 
at  once  attached,  and  that  their  friendship  con- 
tinued, with  occasional  breaks  caused  by  Mathe- 
son's  vanity,  during  the  whole  time  of  Handel's 
stay  in  Hamburg  ( 1 709).  He  claims  to  have  done 
Handel  an  important  service  by  introducing  him 


MATHESON. 


237 


to  the  musical  world  of  Hamburg,  at  that  time 
very  celebrated ;  but  he  acknowledges  that  he 
picked  up  from  him  many  a  'contrapuntal  de- 
vice.' _  Handel's  '  Nero '  (i  705)  was  the  last 
opera  in  which  Matheson  appeared ;  he  then  re- 
tired from  the  stage,  and  declined  more  than  one 
organist's  post  which  was  offered  to  him.  He 
became  tutor  to  the  son  of  the  English  envoy,  and 
in  1706  was  made  secretary  of  legation.  His 
post  was  one  of  labour  and  responsibility,  but  he 
still  continued  to  teach,  conduct,  compose,  and 
write  on  musical  subjects.  In  171 5  he  was 
appointed  Cantor  and  Canon  of  the  cathedral; 
and  took  an  active  part  in  the  development  of 
the  Church-cantata,  so  soon  after  carried  to  its 
highest  pitch  by  J.  S.  Bach.  [See  Kirchencanta- 
ten.]  This  was  the  result  of  an  attempt,  made 
more  particularly  by  the  Hamburg  composers,  to 
vary  the  monotony  of  congregational  singing  by 
the  introduction  of  airs,  duets,  choruses,  etc.,  and 
was  considered  by  the  orthodox  an  impious  and 
sacrilegious  innovation.  Matheson  supported  this 
1  adapted  dramatic '  style,  as  it  was  called,  both 
as  a  composer  and  as  a  pamphleteer ;  and  even 
ventured  on  a  further  innovation,  by  introducing 
female  singers  into  church. 

In  1 719  he  received  from  the  Duke  of  Holstein 
the  title  of  Court- Capellmeister.  In  1728  he 
was  attacked  with  deafness,  which  obliged  him 
to  resign  his  post  at  the  cathedral.  Thencefor- 
ward he  occupied  himself  chiefly  with  writing,  and 
died  at  an  advanced  age  in  1 764.  He  is  said  to 
have  resolved  to  publish  a  work  for  every  year 
of  his  life,  and  this  aim  he  more  than  accom- 
plished, for  when  he  died  at  83,  his  printed 
works  amounted  to  88,  besides  a  still  larger 
number  of  completed  MSS. 

None  of  his  compositions  have  survived.  With 
all  his  cleverness  and  knowledge  he  had  no  real 
genius ;  his  vocal  music  was  overburdened  with 
declamatory  passages — a  fault  easily  explained  by 
his  own  experience  on  the  stage,  but  one  which 
is  often  detrimental  and  must  have  been  very 
incongruous  in  church  music.  He  composed  24 
oratorios  and  cantatas;  8  operas;  sonatas  for  flute 
and  violin ;  suites  for  clavier ;  arias ;  pieces  de 
circonstance  for  weddings,  funerals,  etc.  A  '  Pas- 
sions-Can tate  '  to  words  by  Brockes  deserves  at- 
tention, not  for  its  intrinsic  value,  but  because 
the  poem  was  set  by  nearly  all  the  great  com- 
posers of  the  day,  including  Keiser  and  Matheson, 
Telemann  and  Handel. 

His  books  are  of  far  greater  value  than  his 
compositions.  In  these,  notwithstanding  a  pecu- 
liar self-satisfied  loquacity,  he  shows  himself 
a  ready  and  skilful  champion  for  earnestness 
and  dignity  in  art,  for  progress,  and  for  solidity 
of  attainment  in  the  practical  part  of  music. 
In  both  branches,  theoretical  and  practical,  he 
attacked  and  demolished  much  that  was  anti- 
quated, furnishing  at  the  same  time  a  great 
deal  that  was  new  and  instructive,  and  be- 
queathing to  posterity  a  mine  of  historical 
material.  He  also  found  time  for  much  other 
literary  work,  especially  translations  (chiefly  from 
English  works  on  politics  and  jurisprudence), 


-238 


MATHESON. 


MATTEL 


and  even  translated  a  small  treatise  on  tobacco. 
This  extraordinary  versatility,  and  his  untiring 
industry,  go  far  to  redeem  the  vanity  which 
animated  his  character  and  actions,  and  con- 
tinually shows  itself  in  his  writings.  His 
autobiography  in  the  '  Ehrenpforte '  contains  an 
amusingly  egotistical  description  of  his  manifold 
labours.  His  more  important  books  are  scarce, 
and  much  valued,  especially  the  historical  ones, 
which  are  the  standard  sources  of  information 
•on  the  state  of  music  at  that  period,  especially 
in  Hamburg.  These  are  'Das  neu  eroffhete 
Orchester'  (1713),  followed  by  'Das  beschiitzte' 
and  '  Das  forschende  Orchester  '(1717  and  1 7  2 1 ) ; 
*Der  musikalische  Patriot'  (1728);  and  the 
'Grundlage  einer  Ehrenpforte*  (1740), a  collec- 
tion of  biographies  of  contemporary  musicians. 
The  two  last  are  the  most  important.  His  theo- 
retical works  are  the  '  Exemplarische  Organisten 
Probe'  (1 719),  republished  in  1 731  as  the  'Grosse 
Generalbassschule ;  the  'KleineGeneralbassschule' 
(J735)>  the  'Kern  melodischer  Wissenschaft ' 
0737);  an(i  finally  the  'Vollkommene  Capell- 
meister'  (1739),  perhaps  his  most  valuable  work. 
As  a  controversial  writer  he  was  wanting  in  tem- 
per; his  'Ephorus  Gottingensis '  (1727),  directed 
against  Professor  Joachim  Meyer  of  Gottingen  on 
the  Church-cantata  question,  is  the  only  work  of 
that  class  we  need  specify.  [A.  M.] 

MATHILDE  DI  SHABRAN.  Opera  buffa, 
in  three  acts  ;  the  music  by  Rossini.  Produced 
at  the  Apollo  Theatre,  Rome,  in  the  Carnival 
of  1821,  and  at  the  Theatre  Italien,  Paris,  Oct. 
1 5,  1829  ;  in  London  at  the  Royal  Italian  Opera, 
Co  vent  Garden,  Apr.  18,  1854.  [G.] 

MATILDA  OF  HUNGARY.  A  dramatic 
opera  in  3  acts ;  libretto  by  Mr.  Bunn,  music 
by  W.  Vincent  Wallace.  Produced  at  Drury 
Lane  Feb.  22,  1847. 

MATINS  (Lat.  Matutinae ;  Officium  matu- 
tinum).   The  first  division  of  the  Canonical  Hours. 

The  Office  of  Matins,  as  set  forth  in  the  Roman 
Breviary,  opens  with  the  series  of  Versicles  and 
Responses  beginning  with  the  '  Domine,  labia 
mea  aperies,'  followed  by  the  Psalm  'Venite, 
exultemus,'  with  its  proper  Invitatorium,  and  the 
Hymn  appointed  for  the  Day.  The  remainder 
of  the  Service  is  divided  into  portions  called 
Nocturns,  of  which  three  are  generally  sung,  on 
Sundays  and  Festivals,  and  one  only,  on  Ferial 
Days. 

The  First  Nocturn  consists  either  of  three,  or 
twelve  Psalms,  sung  with  three  proper  Anti- 
phons,  which,  on  certain  Festivals,  are  doubled — 
that  is  to  say,  sung,  entire,  both  before  and  after 
the  Psalm.  On  Ferial  Days,  and  Festivals  of 
minor  solemnity,  each  Antiphon  is  sung,  entire, 
after  the  Psalm,  but  the  first  few  words  of  it, 
only,  at  the  beginning.  The  Psalms  are  followed 
by  the  Pater  noster,  Absolution,  and  Benedic- 
tion ;  and  these,  by  the  First,  Second,  and  Third 
Lessons  for  the  Day,  each  succeeded  by  its  proper 
Responsorium. 

Three  Psalms,  with  their  proper  Antiphons, 
are  sung,  in  like  manner,  in  the  Second  Nocturn ; 


which  concludes  with  the  Fourth,  Fifth,  and 
Sixth  Proper  Lessons,  and  Responsories. 

In  the  Third  Nocturn,  three  more  Psalms  are 
followed  by  the  Seventh,  Eighth,  and  Ninth  Les- 
sons and  Responsories ;  the  place  of  the  Ninth 
Responsory  being  generally,  but  not  always,  sup- 
plied by  the  Hymn,  '  Te  Deum  Laudamus.' 

The  Third  Nocturn  is  immediately  followed 
by  the  Office  of  Lauds  ;  which,  indeed,  may  be 
regarded  as  the  natural  corollary  of  the  Service. 
In  antient  times,  the  First  Nocturn  was  sung 
soon  after  midnight :  but  the  whole  Office  is  now 
generally  sung  '  by  anticipation' — that  is  to  say, 
on  the  afternoon  or  evening  of  the  day  before 
that  for  which  it  is  appointed.  The  Plain 
Chaunt  Music  used,  both  at  Matins,  and  Lauds, 
will  be  found  in  the  '  Antiphonarium  Romanum,' 
and  the '  Directorium  Chori.'  [See  Lauds  ;  Anti- 
phon ;  Invitatorium.] 

In  the  First  Prayer-Book  of  King  Edward  VI, 
the  name  of  '  Mattins'  is  given  to  the  Service 
now  called  'The  Order  for  Morning  Prayer,' 
which  is  derived,  in  about  equal  degrees,  from  the 
Latin  Offices  of  Matins  and  Lauds.       [W.S.  R.] 

MATRIMONIO  SEGRETO,  IL.  An  opera 
buffa  in  2  acts  ;  libretto  by  Bertatti,  music  by 
Cimarosa.  Produced  at  Vienna  in  1792;  in 
Paris,  May  10,  1801 ;  in  London,  King's  Theatre, 
Jan.  25,  1803.  In  English  at  Covent  Garden, 
Nov.  1,1842,  and  with  new  translation  by  W.  Grist, 
at  the  Crystal  Palace,  Dec.  13,  1877.  [G.] 

MATTEI,  Colomba,  a  singer  who  appeared 
in  London  as  '  seconda  donna,'  in  1 754,  was  not 
only  a  charming  singer,  but  a  spirited  and  intel- 
ligent actress,  and  became,  soon  after,  a  great 
favourite  as  '  prima  donna.'  She  sang  in  '  Iper- 
mestra,'  and  (1755)  in  Jommelli's  'Andromaca;' 
and  continued  to  sing  till  1 760  with  similar  suc- 
cess. Burney  tells  us  that  she  was  a  pupil  of 
Perez  and  Bertoni,  and  sang  many  songs  of  their 
composition,  taught  her  by  themselves,  in  an 
exquisite  style.  '  Her  manner,  though  not  quite 
in  the  grand  gusto,  was  extremely  amiable  and 
pleasing ;  her  figure  was  unexceptionable ;  and 
her  acting  acquired  her  as  much  applause  as  her 
singing.'  [J.M.] 

MATTEI,  Stanislao,  Abbate,  pupil  of  Mar- 
tini, and  master  of  Rossini,  born  at  Bologna 
Feb.  10,  1750.  Though  of  humble  parentage 
(his  father  was  a  locksmith)  he  was  sent  to  the 
Latin  school.  Having  been  present  accidentally 
at  a  service  in  the  Minorite  Convent,  he  was  so 
enchanted  with  the  music  that  he  became  a 
constant  attendant,  and  thus  attracted  the  notice 
of  Padre  Martini,  by  whose  advice  he  entered 
upon  his  noviciate.  Master  and  pupil  became 
tenderly  attached,  and  as  soon  as  Mattei  had 
been  ordained  he  became  the  Padre's  confessor, 
and  remained  with  him  till  his  death.  He  acted 
as  Martini's  deputy  from  1770,  and  succeeded 
him  as  maestro  di  capella.  From  1776  his  com- 
positions were  produced  in  the  service.  On  the 
suppression  of  the  monasteries  in  1 798,  he  went  to 
live  with  his  aged  mother,  and  began  an  active 
career  as   a  teacher.      From  this  time  he  was 


MATTEL 

known  as  the  Abbate  Mattei.  Later  he  became 
maestro  di  capella  of  San  Petronio,  and  professor 
of  counterpoint  at  the  Liceo  from  its  foundation 
in  1 804.  Among  his  pupils  were  Rossini,  Mor- 
lacchi,  Donizetti,  Perotti,  Robuschi,  Palmerini, 
Bertolotti,  Tadolini,  Tesei,  and  Pilotti,  who  suc- 
ceeded him  at  San  Petronio.  He  lived  in  com- 
plete retirement,  accessible  only  to  his  pupils,  and 
died  May  17,  1825.  He  was  president  of  the 
*  Filarmonici '  in  1 790  and  94,  and  was  a  member 
of  the  Subalpine  Acade"mie,  and  of  the  '  Institut 
de  France'  (Jan.  24, 1824).  He  had  a  thorough 
practical  acquaintance  with  the  old  traditions, 
as  may  be  seen  by  his  '  Prattica  d'accompagna- 
mento  sopra  basi  numerati,'  3  vols.  (Bologna, 
1829,  30),  which  consists  mainly  of  well -chosen 
examples,  with  a  few  rules.  In  his  explanations 
to  his  pupils  he  does  not  seem  to  have  been  very 
clear;  at  least  Rossini  complained  to  Fe'tis  in 
1841  that  he  had  one  stereotyped  answer  when 
asked  to  explain  a  rule  in  harmony  or  counter- 
point, '  it  is  always  written  thus.'  Of  his  music 
3  masses  only  are  generally  known.  The  libraries 
of  San  Giorgio  and  the  Minorite  convent  in 
Bologna,  contain  most  of  his  compositions,  but 
the  scores  of  an  intermezzo  '  II  Librago '  and  of 
a  '  Passion '  performed  in  1 792,  seem  to  have  been 
lost.  Full  particulars  of  his  life  are  given  in 
the  '  Vita  di  Stanislao  Mattei '  by  Filippo  Canuti 
(Bologna,  1829,  with  portrait).  [E.G.] 

MATTEIS,  Nicola,  an  eminent  Italian  vio- 
linist, came  to  England  about  1672.  Nothing 
whatever  is  known  of  his  antecedents.  The 
earliest  notice  of  him  is  found  in  Evelyn's  Diary 
under  date  of  Nov.  19,  1674:  'I  heard  that 
stupendous  violin,  Signor  Nicholao  (with  other 
rare  musicians),  whom  I  never  beard  mortal  man 
exceed  on  that  instrument.  He  had  a  stroke  so 
sweet,  and  made  it  speak  like  the  voice  of  a  man, 
and,  when  he  pleased,  like  a  concert  of  several 
instruments.  He  did  wonders  upon  a  note,  and 
was  an  excellent  composer.  Here  was  also  that 
rare  lutanist,  Dr.  Wallgrave,  but  nothing  ap- 
proached the  violin  in  Nicholao's  hand.  He 
played  such  ravishing  things  as  astonished  us 
all.'  Roger  North  also  (Memoirs  of  Musick), 
speaks  very  highly  of  his  abilities.  When  he 
first  came  here  he  exhibited  many  singularities 
of  conduct  which  he  afterwards  abandoned.  He 
published  here,  without  date,  'Arie,  Preludij, 
Alemande,  Sarabande,  etc.,  per  il  Violino.  Libro 
Primo.  Altre  Arie,  etc.,piu  difficile  e  studiose 
per  il  Violino.  Libro  Secondo' ;  also  *  Ayres  for 
the  Violin,  to  wit,  Preludes,  Fuges,  Alemands, 
Sarabands,  Courants,  Gigues,  Fancies,  Divisions, 
and  likewise  other  Passages,  Introductions,  and 
Fugues  for  Single  and  Double  stops  with  divisions 
somewhat  more  artificial  for  the  Emproving  of 
the  Hand  upon  the  Basse- Viol  or  Harpsichord. 
The  Third  and  Fourth  Books.'  He  was  likewise 
author  of  '  The  False  Consonances  of  Musick,  or, 
Instructions  for  playing  a  true  Base  upon  the 
Guittarre,  with  Choice  Examples  and  clear  Direc- 
tions to  enable  any  man  in  a  short  time  to  play 
all  Musicall  Ayres.  A  great  help  likewise  to 
those  that  would  play  exactly  upon  the  Harpsi- 


MAXWELL. 


239 


chord,  Lute,  or  Base- Viol,  shewing  the  delicacy 
of  all  Accords,  and  how  to  apply  them  in  their 
proper  places.  In  four  parts' — which  even  in 
North's  time  had  become  scarce,  and  is  now 
excessively  rare.  In  1696  Matteis  composed  an 
Ode  on  St.  Cecilia's  day  for  the  then  annual 
celebration  in  London,  and  was  also  one  of 
the  stewards  of  a  Cecilian  celebration  at  Oxford. 
A  song  by  him  is  included  in  a  collection  of 
'  Twelve  New  Songs,'  published  in  1699.  Ac- 
cording to  North  '  he  fell  into  such  credit  and 
imployment  that  he  took  a  great  hous,  and  after 
the  manner  of  his  country  lived  luxuriously, 
which  brought  diseases  upon  him  of  which  he 
dyed.'  The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  the  half-shift, 
but  it  is  claimed  also  for  others. 

His  son,  Nicholas,  was  taught  the  violin  by 
his  father,  and  became  an  excellent  player.  He 
went  to  Germany  and  resided  for  some  time  at 
Vienna,  but  returned  to  England  and  settled  at 
Shrewsbury  as  a  teacher  of  languages,  as  well 
as  of  the  violin,  where  Burney  learned  French 
and  the  violin  of  him.  He  died  there  about 
1749.  [W.H.H.] 

MAURER,  Ludwig  Wilhelm,  distinguished 
violinist,  born  Aug.  8,  1789,  in  Potsdam,  pupil 
of  Haak,  Concertmeister  to  Frederic  the  Great. 
At  1 3  he  appeared  with  great  success  at  a  concert 
given  in  Berlin  by  Mara,  and  was  in  consequence 
admitted  to  the  royal  chapel  as  a  probationer. 
After  the  battle  of  Jena  (1806)  the  chapel  was 
dismissed,  and  Maurer  travelled,  first  to  Kbnigs- 
berg  and  Riga,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Rode  and  Baillot,  and  then  to  Mittau  and 
St.  Petersburg,  his  playing  being  everywhere 
appreciated.  At  Moscow  he  again  met  Baillot,  • 
through  whose  good  offices  he  became  Capell- 
meister  to  the  Chancellor  Wsowologsky,  who  had 
a  private  orchestra.  Here  he  remained  till  181 7, 
when  he  made  another  successful  tour,  being 
particularly  well  received  in  Berlin  and  Paris. 
In  1832  he  returned  to  Wsowologsky,  and  stayed 
till  45,  when  after  another  tour  he  settled  finally  in 
Dresden.  The  best  known  of  his  compositions  are  a 
Symphonie  concertante  for  4  violins  and  orchestra, 
first  played  in  Paris  by  himself,  Spohr,  Midler, 
and  Wich  in  1838  ;  and  three  Russian  airs  with 
variations  (op.  14).  Of  his  operas  '  Alonzo,' '  Der 
entdeckte  Diebstahl,'  and  '  Der  neue  Paris,'  the 
overtures  only  have  been  printed.  He  also  pub- 
lished several  concertos — one  of  which  was  at  one 
time  very  often  played  at  the  Philharmonic  Con- 
certs in  London — and  two  collections  of  quartets 
(op.  17  and  26).  He  died  at  St.  Petersburg, 
Oct.  25,  1878.  His  two  sons  Wsevolod,  a 
violinist,  and  Alexis,  a  cellist,  are  good  musi- 
cians.    They  are  now  settled  in  Russia.    [F.G.] 

MAXWELL,  Francis  Kelly  (sometimes 
called  John),  D.D.,  chaplain  of  the  Asylum, 
Edinburgh,  published  anonymously  'An  Essay 
upon  Tune,  being  an  attempt  to  free  the  scale 
of  music  and  the  tune  of  instruments  from  im- 
perfection' (Edinburgh,  1 78 1  ;  London,  1794) ; — 
an  able  work.    He  died  in  1 782.         [W.  H.H.] 


240 


MAY. 


MAYER. 


MAY,  Edward  Collett,  born  October  29, 
1806,  at  Greenwich,  where  his  father  was  a  ship- 
builder. His  first  teacher  was  his  brother  Henry, 
an  amateur  musician  and  composer  of  considerable 
ability.  When  about  fifteen  years  of  age,  Thomas 
Adams,  then  organist  of  St.  Paul's,  Deptford,  and 
an  intimate  friend  of  the  May  family,  struck  by 
the  promise  and  intelligence  of  Edward,  offered 
to  take  him  as  a  pupil.  This  offer  was,  of  course, 
willingly  accepted,  and  for  several  years  he  re- 
ceived regular  instruction  in  composition  and 
organ-playing  from  that  admirable  musician  and 
then  peerless  executant.  Subsequently  he  became 
a  pupil  of  Cipriani  Potter  for  the  pianoforte,  and 
of  Crivelli  for  singing.  In  1837  he  was  appointed 
organist  of  Greenwich  Hospital,  an  office  he 
held  till  the  abolition  of  the  institution  in  1869. 
May's  entry  on  the  particular  work  to  which  his 
talents  have  now  for  so  many  years  been  so  suc- 
cessfully devoted,  grew  out  of  his  accidental 
attendance  at  one  of  many  lectures  on  popular 
instruction  in  vocal  music,  given  by  the  writer  of 
this  notice  about  the  year  1841.  From  that  time 
to  the  present  (1879)  ne  has  devoted  himself  en- 
thusiastically and  exclusively  to  such  teaching ; 
and  it  may  be  safely  asserted,  that  to  no  individual, 
of  any  age  or  country,  have  so  many  persons  of 
all  ages  and  of  both  sexes  been  indebted  for  their 
musical  skill.  At  one  institution  alone,  the 
National  Society's  Central  School,  more  than  a 
thousand  teachers  and  many  more  children  have 
been  instructed  by  him.  At  Exeter  Hall,  the 
Apollonicon  Rooms,  and  subsequently  St.  Martin's 
Hall,  several  thousand  adults  passed  through  his 
classes ;  while,  for  many  years  past,  he  has  been  the 
sole  musical  instructor  at  the  Training  Schools, 
Battersea,  St.  Mark's,  Whitelands,  Home  and 
Colonial,  and  Hockerill ;  institutions  from  which 
upwards  of  250  teachers  are  annually  sent  forth 
to  elementary  schools.  After  many  years  connec- 
tion with  the  Institution,  Mr.  May  has  recently — 
wholly  without  solicitation  on  his  part — been 
appointed  Professor  of  Vocal  Music  in  Queen's 
College,  London.  The  words  of  Beranger,  applied 
to  Wilhem,  may  with  equal  propriety  be  applied 
to  May, — not  merely  has  he  devoted  the  best 
years  of  his  life  and  all  his  energies  to  public 
musical  instruction,  but  sacrificed  every  other 
aim  or  object  to  it — 'meme  sa  gloire.' 

His  daughter,  Florence  May,  is  known  in 
London  as  a  pianoforte  player  of  considerable 
cultivation  and  power.  [J.H.] 

MAY-QUEEN,  THE,  a  Pastoral  ;  words 
by  Mr.  Chorley,  music  by  W.  Sterndale  Bennett, 
written  for  a  festival  at  Leeds,  and  produced 
there  Sept.  8, 1858.  The  overture  was  composed 
before  the  year  1844,  and  was  originally  entitled 
'  Marie  du  Bois.'  [G.] 

MAYER,  Charles,  celebrated  pianist,  born 
March  21,  1799,  at  Konigsberg.  His  father,  a 
good  clarinet  player,  went  soon  after  his  birth  to 
St.  Petersburg,  and  four  years  after  to  Moscow, 
where  he  settled  with  his  family.  He  first  learned 
from  his  mother,  a  good  pianoforte  teacher,  and 
later  became  a  pupil  of  Field.  After  the  burning 
of  Moscow  in  1 8 1 2  the  family  fled  to  St.  Peters- 


burg, where  the  mother  became  pianoforte  teacher, 
and  where  the  lessons  with  Field  were  resumed. 
The  pupil  played  so  exactly  like  his  master  that 
connoisseurs  were  unable  to  tell  which  was  at  the 
piano  if  a  screen  was  interposed.  In  1 8 1 4  Mayer 
accompanied  his  father  to  Paris,  where  he  was  well 
received.  He  first  played  his  concert-variations 
on  'God  save  the  king'  in  Amsterdam.  In  181 9 
he  returned  to  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  worked 
hard  and  successfully  at  teaching,  and  formed 
as  many  as  800  pupils.  In  1845  he  travelled  to 
Stockholm,  Copenhagen,  Hamburg,  Leipzig,  and 
Vienna,  but  this  was  his  last  tour.  In  1850  he 
settled  in  Dresden,  where  he  taught,  gave  con- 
certs, and  composed  up  to  his  death,  which  took 
place  on  July  2,  1862.  His  pieces  reach  the 
astonishing  number  of  900.  Mayer's  playing 
was  distinguished  by  great  purity  of  style,  and 
expression,  and  his  compositions  are  eminently 
suited  to  the  instrument.  They  include  a  con- 
certo with  orchestra  in  D,  op. .  70 ;  a  concerto 
symphonique,  op.  89 ;  and  variations  and  fan- 
tasias on  opera  airs.  His  'Polka  Bohe'mienne* 
in  A,  was  at  one  time  immensely  popular.  [F.G.] 
MAYER ,  or  M  AYR,  Johann  Simon,  esteemed 
opera  composer  in  the  beginning  of  this  century, 
born  June  14,  1 763,  at  Mendorf  in  Bavaria ;  early 
showed  talent  for  music,  which  he  first  learned 
from  his  father  the  village  schoolmaster  and 
organist.  When  about  10  he  entered  the  Jesuit 
seminary  at  Ingolstadt,  but  did  not  neglect  his 
music,  either  then  or  when  after  the  banishment 
of  the  Jesuits  he  studied  law  in  Ingolstadt. 
Having  made  the  acquaintance  of  a  nobleman, 
Thomas  de  Bessus  of  the  Grisons,  he  lived  in 
the  house  as  music  master,  and  was  afterwards 
sent  by  his  patron  to  Bergamo,  to  study  with 
Lenzi,  maestro  di  capella  there.  Mayr  found 
however  that  his  master  knew  little  more  than 
himself,  and  was  on  the  point  of  returning 
to  Germany,  when  Count  Pesenti,  a  canon  of 
Bergamo,  provided  him  with  the  means  of  going 
to  F.  Bertoni  in  Venice.  Here  again  his  expect- 
ations were  deceived,  but  he  picked  up  some 
practical  hints  and  a  few  rules  from  Bertoni,  and 
hard  work  and  the  study  of  good  books  did  the 
rest.  He  had  already  published  some  songs  in 
Ratisbon ;  and  in  Bergamo  and  Venice  he  com- 
posed masses  and  vespers.  After  the  success  of 
his  oratorio  'Jacob  a  Labano  fugiens,'  composed 
in  1791  for  the  Conservatorio  dei  Mendicanti, 
and  performed  before  a  distinguished  audience, 
he  was  commissioned  to  compose  three  more 
oratorios  for  Venice  ('David,'  'Tobiae  matri- 
monium'  and  'Sisara').  For  Forli  he  wrote 
'Jephte'  and  a  Passion.  Thrown  on  his  own 
resources  by  the  sudden  death  of  his  patron,  he 
was  urged  by  Piccinni  to  try  the  stage,  and  his 
first  opera '  Saffo,  ossia  i  riti  d'  Apollo  Leucadio ' 
was  so  well  received  at  the  Fenice  in  Venice 
(1794)  that  he  was  immediately  overwhelmed 
with  commissions,  and  between  that  date  and 
1 8 14  composed  no  less  than  70  operas.  Indeed 
it  was  not  till  Rossini's  success  that  his  fame 
declined.  Many  of  his  melodies  were  sung  about 
the  streets,  such  as  the  pretty  cavatina  '  0  quanto 


MAYER. 

l'anima'  from  '  Lauso  e  Lidia.'  In  1802  he 
became  maestro  di  capella  of  Santa  Maria  Mag- 
giore  in  Bergamo,  and  was  so  much  attached  to 
his  work  there,  that  he  declined  not  only  in- 
vitations to  London,  Paris,  Lisbon,  and  Dresden, 
but  also  the  post  of  Censor  to  the  Conservatorio 
of  Milan,  his  appointment  to  which  had  been 
signed  by  the  Viceroy  of  Italy  in  1807.  As  pro- 
fessor of  composition  in  the  musical  Institute  of 
Bergamo, — founded  in  1805,  reorganised  in  181 1 
— he  exercised  great  and  good  influence,  Doni- 
zetti was  one  of  his  pupils  there.  He  was  the 
founder  of  two  institutions  for  decayed  musicians 
and  their  widows,  the  *  Scuola  caritatevole  di 
Musics,'  and  the  'Pio  Institute  di  Bergamo.' 
He  had  been  blind  for  some  years  before  his 
death,  which  took  place  on  Dec.  2,  1845.  The 
city  of  Bergamo  erected  a  monument  to  him 
in  1852,  and  in  1875  his  remains  and  those  of 
Donizetti  were  removed  with  much  ceremony  to 
the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore.  The 
most  celebrated  of  his  operas  are  •  Lodo'iska ' 
(1795),  'Ginevra  di  Scozia'  (1801),  'Medea' 
(1812),  and  'Rosa  bianca  e  Rosa  rossa'  (1814). 
He  also  set  the  libretto  of  Cherubini's  'Deux 
Journe'es.'  He  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
introduce  the  crescendo  of  the  orchestra  to  which 
Rossini  owes  so  much  of  his  fame.  He  wrote  a 
small  book  on  Haydn  (1809),  a  biography  of 
Capuzzi  the  violinist,  and  poems  on  his  death  in 
1 81 8  ;  also  'La  Dottrina  degli  elementi  musicali' 
still  in  MS.  in  Bergamo.  [F.G.] 

MAYNARD,  John,  a  lutenist,  published  in 
161 1  'The  XII  Wonders  of  the  World,  Set  and 
composed  for  the  Violl  de  Gamba,  the  Lute,  and 
the  Voyce  to  sing  the  Verse,  all  three  jointly 
and  none  severall:  also  Lessons  for  the  Lute 
and  Base  Violl  to  play  alone ;  with  some  Lessons 
to  play  Lyra-waye  alone,  or  if  you  will  to  fill  up 
the  parts  with  another  Violl  set  Lute-way.'  The 
work  contains  12  songs  severally  describing  the 
characters  of  a  Courtier,  Divine,  Soldier,  Lawyer, 
Physician,  Merchant,  Country  Gentleman, 
Bachelor,  Married  Man,  Wife,  Widow  and 
Maid ;  and  1 2  pavans  and  galliards  for  the  lute. 
A  curious  canon.  '  Eight  parts  in  one  upon  the 
Plaine  Song,'  is  on  the  title  page.  The  composer 
described  himself  as  'Lutenist  at  the  most 
famous  Schoole  of  St.  Julian's  in  Hartfordshire,' 
and  dedicated  his  work  '  To  his  ever-honoured 
Lady  and  Mistris  the  Lady  Joane  Thynne,  of 
Cause  Castle  in  Shropshire.'  Some  organ  pieces 
by  one  Maynard  (presumably  the  same)  are 
contained  in  a  MS.  in  the  library  of  the  Sacred 
Harmonic  Society.  [W.H.H.] 

MAYSEDER,  Joseph,  violinist  and  composer, 
son  of  a  poor  painter,  born  in  Vienna,  Oct.  26, 
1789.  Beginning  at  8,  he  learnt  the  violin  from 
Suche  and  Wranitzky.  Schuppanzigh  took  a 
great  interest  in  the  lad,  and  entrusted  him  with 
the  second  violin  in  his  quartets.  In  1800  he 
gave  his  first  concert  in  the  Augarten  with  bril- 
liant success.  He  rapidly  made  his  way  with 
the  court  and  nobility,  and  among  musicians. 
In  1 81 6  he  entered  the  court  chapel,  in  1820  be- 
came solo-violin  at  the  court  theatre,  and  in  1835 
VOL.  11. 


MAZURKA. 


241 


was  appointed  chamber-violinist  to  the  Emperor. 
The  municipality  awarded  him  the  large  gold 
'  Salvator  Medal'  in  181 1,  and  presented  him 
with  the  freedom  of  the  city  in  1S17.  In  1862 
the  Emperor  bestowed  on  him  the  order  of  Franz- 
Joseph.  In  1 81 5  he  gave,  with  Hummel  (after- 
wards replaced  by  Moscheles)  and  Giuliani,  the 
so-called  '  Dukaten-concerte.'  He  also  gave  con- 
certs with  Merk  the  cellist,  but  after  1837  he 
never  appeared  in  public.  He  never  played 
abroad ;  even  on  his  visit  to  Paris  in  1820,  he 
would  only  play  before  a  select  circle  of  artists, 
including  Kreutzer,  Baudiot,  Cherubini,  Habe- 
neck,  Lafont,  and  Viotti.  He  took  a  great  in- 
terest in  the  string-quartet  party  which  met  at 
Baron  Zmeskall's  house  (where  Beethoven  was 
often  present),  and  afterwards  in  that  at  Prince 
Constantino  Czartoryski's  (from  1843  to  56). 
His  many  pupils  spread  his  name  far  and  wide. 
His  tone  was  peculiarly  fascinating,  and  his  exe- 
cution had  great  breadth  and  elevation  of  style. 
With  the  exception  of  a  grand  mass  he  composed 
only  chamber  music  of  a  style  similar  to  his  play- 
ing. He  published  63  works,  including  concertos, 
polonaises,  variations,  5  quintets  and  8  quartets 
for  strings,  etudes  and  duets  for  violin,  4  trio.-, 
sonatas,  etc.  for  P.F.,  trio  for  violin,  harp,  and 
horn,  etc.  Mayseder  died  universally  respected 
Nov.  a  1.  1863.  [C.F.P.] 

MAZAS,  Jacques-Fereol,  French  violinist 
and  composer,  was  born  in  1 782  at  Beziers.  He 
entered  the  Paris  Conservatoire  in  1802,  and  after 
having  studied  for  three  years  under  Baillot,  ob- 
tained the  first  prize  for  violin-playing.  He  had 
great  success  at  Paris,  especially  with  his  per- 
formance of  a  violin-concerto  by  Auber  at  the 
Conservatoire.  He  travelled  through  a  very  large 
part  of  Europe,  and  returned  in  1829  to  Paris, 
without  however  gaining  his  former  success.  In 
1837  he  left  Paris  again,  and  accepted  the  direc- 
torship of  a  music -school  at  Cambrai.  He  died 
in  1849. 

Mazas  wrote  a  large  number  of  brilliant  violin 
pieces,  quartets,  trios,  and  duets  for  stringed 
instruments  (the  latter  still  much  valued  for 
teaching  purposes),  an  instruction-book  for  the 
violin,  and  one  for  the  viola.  Fe"tis  mentions 
also  two  operas,  two  violin-concertos,  and  an 
overture.  [P.  D.] 

MAZURKA,  Mazoubka,  Mascrek,  or  Ma- 
sore,  a  national  Polish  dance,  deriving  its  name 
from  the  ancient  Palatinate  of  Masovia.  Ma- 
zurkas were  known  as  early  as  the  16th  century; 
they  originated  in  national  songs1  accompanied 
with  dancing.  They  were  introduced  into  Ger- 
many by  Augustus  LU,  Elector  of  Saxony  and 
King  of  Poland  (1 733-1 763),  and  after  becoming 
fashionable  in  Paris,  reached  England  towards 
1845.  The  Mazurka  was  naturalised  in  Russia 
after  the  subjugation  of  Poland,  but  the  Russian 
dance  differs  from  the  Polish  in  being  performed 
by  an  indefinite  number,  while  the  latter  is 
usually  danced  by  four  or  eight  couples.     The 

1  This  feature  It  has  retained.  Chopin,  In  a  letter  of  Ana;.  26, 1829, 
says, '  the  thought  fortunately  struck  Maciejowskl  to  write  four  stanza* 
for  a  Mazurka,  and  I  set  them  to  music.'   (Karasonskl,  1.  SO.) 

B 


242 


MAZURKA. 


Mazurka  is  remarkable  for  the  variety  and  liberty 
allowed  in  its  figures,  and  for  the  peculiar  steps 
necessary  to  its  performance.  Indeed,  the  whole 
dance  partakes  of  the  character  of  an  impro- 
visation, even  the  invention  of  new  steps  and 
figures  being  allowable.  The  music  (in  3-4  or 
3-8  time)  consists  usually  of  two  or  four  parts 
of  eight  bars,  each  part  being  repeated.  In  the 
earliest  Mazurkas  the  bass  was  invariably  on 
one  note,  usually  the  tonic.  There  is  often  a 
strong  accent  on  the  second  beat  of  the  bar, 
which  was  emphasized  in  the  bass  by  the  break- 
ing off  of  the  regular  accompaniment.  The  tune 
should  also  end  on  the  second  beat  of  the  bar,  but 
in  old  Mazurkas  there  is  often  no  definite  con- 
clusion, and  the  repeats  are  made  ad  libitum. 
The  Tempo  is  much  slower  than  that  of  the 
ordinary  waltz.  Chopin,  who  wrote  eleven  sets 
of  Mazurkas,  treated  the  dance  in  a  new  and 
characteristic  manner.  He  extended  its  original 
forms,  eliminated  all  vulgarity,  introduced  all 
sorts  of  Polish  airs,  and  thus  retained  little  more 
than  the  intensely  national  character  of  the 
original  simple  dance  tune.  (See  Karasowski's  Life 
of  Chopin,  chap,  vii ;  and  also  the  somewhat  rhap- 
sodical but  still  interesting  remarks  of  Liszt  in 
his  essay  on  Chopin.)  No  less  than  14  sets  of  his 
Mazurkas  have  been  published,  containing  52  in 
all  (op.  6,  7,  17,  24,  3°.  33.  41.  5°>  5<>,  59»  63> 
67,  68  and  one  without  opus  number).  Weber 
gives  the  title  'Masurik'  to  the  4th  of  his  six 
pieces  for  the  P.  F.  a  quatre  mains  (op.  10). 

The  following  example  is  a  simple  Mazurka 
popular  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Warsaw.  The 
first  part  of  the  melody  has  a  vocal  accompani- 
ment : — 


[W.B.S.] 

MAZZINGHI,  Joseph,  son  of  Tommaso,  of  an 
ancient  Corsican  family,  born  in  London  in  1765, 
was  a  pupil  of  John  Christian  Bach,  under  whom 
he  made  such  progress  that,  on  the  death  of  his 
father  in  1775,  he  was,  although  but  10  years  of 
age,  appointed  organist  of  the  Portuguese  Chapel. 
He  then  studied  under  Bertolini,  Sacchini  and 
Anfossi.  In  1 784  he  became  musical  director  and 
composer  at  the  King's  Theatre,  and  produced  the 
operas  of  '  II  Tesoro '  and  •  La  Belle  Arsene,' 
besides  many  songs,  duets,  etc.,  for  introduction 
into  other  operas,  and  the  music  for  several  bal- 
lets. The  score  of  Paisiello's  opera  '  La  Locanda ' 
having  been  consumed  in  the  fire  of  the  Opera 
House  in  June,  1789,  Mazzinghi  rescored  the 
work  so  faithfully  as  to  admit  of  its  continued 
performance.    For  the  English  theatre  he  set  the 


MEAN. 

following  pieces; — 'A  Day  in  Turkey ,'  1791 ; 
'The  Magician  no  Conjuror,'  1792;'  Kamah 
Droog,'  1 793  ;  •  The  Turnpike  Gate,'  1 799  ;  '  Paul 
and  Virginia,'  1800;  'The  Blind  Girl,'  1801  ; 
'Chains  of  the  Heart,'  1802  (the  last  five  in 
collaboration  with  Beeve) ;  '  The  Wife  of  two 
Husbands,'  1803  ;  'The  Exile,'  1808  ;  and  'The 
Free  Knights,'  1810.  The  last  piece  contained 
the  duet  'When  a  little  farm  we  keep,'  which 
for  nearly  half  a  century  was  highly  popular  and 
constantly  introduced  into  other  pieces,  and  is 
even  now  occasionally  heard.  The  manner  of 
its  original  performance  was  strikingly  character- 
istic of  the  utter  want  of  regard  for  congruity 
which  prevailed  among  the  stage  managers  of 
that  day.  Although  the  piece  was  represented  as 
taking  place  in  Westphalia  in  the  14th  century, 
the  duet  was  accompanied  upon  the  pianoforte! 

Mazzinghi  was  music  master  to  the  Princess 
of  Wales,  afterwards  Queen  Caroline,  and  had 
an  extensive  practice  as  a  teacher  of  the  piano- 
forte, for  which  instrument  he  composed  nearly 
70  sonatas  and  arranged  a  multitude  of  pieces, 
besides  writing  an  '  Introduction '  to  it.  His 
glees,  trios,  harmonised  airs,  songs  and  other 
vocal  pieces,  were  legion.  His  pastoral  glee, 
'The  Wreath'  ('Tell  me,  shepherds,')  was  long 
in  favour.  He  likewise  composed  a  mass  for  3 
voices,  and  6  hymns.  Having  about  1830  at- 
tained the  rank  of  Count  he  retired  to  Bath, 
where  he  died,  Jan.  15,  1844.  [W.H.H.] 

MEAN  (Old  Eng.  Meane,  Mene;  Lat.  Me- 
dius.)  1.  An  old  name  for  a  middle  Voice- 
part,  whether  Alto,  or  Tenor. 

2.  A  name  given  to  the  second  instrument 
in  a  Concert  of  Viols,  as  in  Orlando  Gibbons's 
'Fantasies  in  three  parts,  for  Viols,'  reprinted 
by  the  Musical  Antiquarian  Society. 

3.  The  name  of  the  Second  and  Third  Strings 
of  the  Viol — the  former  being  called  the  Small, 
and  the  latter,  the  Great  Meane. 

4.  The  title  of  an  ingenious  Fugue,  for  the 
Organ,  composed  by  William  Blitheman,1  and 
printed,  by  Hawkins,  in  the  Appendix  to  Vol.  V. 
of  his  History. 


t 


SE 


as 


<=>     ** 


WW^ 


Aaaj^ 


^ 


^^^T 


J^_ 


3E 


±j= 


The  piece  may  probably  owe  its  singular  title  to 
the  obliguto  character  of  the  middle  part.  [W.S.R.] 

1  William  Blitheman  was  a  noted  Organist,  and  Gentleman  of  the 
Chapel  Royal,  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  ;  and  is,  moreover, 
celebrated  as  having  been  the  Vaster  of  Or.  John  Bull.  He  died,  in 
London,  on  Whitsunday  1591 ;  and  was  burled  in  the  Church  of 
8.  Nicholas  Cole-Abbey,  where  his  talents  were  set  forth  In  a  poetical 
Epitaph,  which  was  destroyed.  In  the  Great  Fire,  but  has  been  pre- 
served by  Stow,  and  reprinted  by  Hawkins. 


MEASURE. 

MEASURE,  in  relation  to  music  pure  and 
simple,  apart  from  the  dance,  means  the  group  of 
beats  or  main  rhythms  which  are  contained 
between  two  bar-lines.  This  is  the  measure  of 
time,  and  defines  the  number  of  pulsations,  such 
as  2,  3,  4,  6,  9,  or  other  aggregate  which  is  to  be 
taken  as  the  determinate  standard  or  unit  by 
which  the  multifarious  complications  of  rhythms 
in  an  extended  piece  of  music  are  to  be  ultimately 
regulated.       .  [C.H.H.P.] 

MEASURE  originally  denoted  any  dance 
remarkable  for  its  well-defined  rhythm,  but  in 
time  the  name  was  applied  to  a  solemn  and 
stately  dance,  of  the  nature  of  a  Pavan  or  a 
Minuet.  The  dignified  character  of  the  dance 
is  proved  by  the  use  of  the  expression  '  to  tread 
a  measure' ;  a  phrase  of  frequent  occurrence  in 
the  works  of  the  Elizabethan  dramatists.  In 
the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  James  I,  Measures 
were  danced  at  court,  and  at  the  public  enter- 
tainments periodically  given  by  the  Societies  of 
Law  and  Equity.  On  these  occasions  the  great 
legal  and  state  dignitaries  took  part  in  them, 
but  the  custom  seems  rapidly  to  have  died  out 
under  Charles  I.  It  is  somewhat  remarkable 
that  no  trace  can  be  found  of  any  special  music 
to  which  Measures  were  danced;  this  circum- 
stance seems  to  prove  that  there  was  no  definite 
form  of  dance  tune  for  them,  but  that  any 
stately  and  rhj'thmical  air  was  used  for  the 
purpose.  [W.B.S.] 

MEDEE.  Opera  in  3  acts ;  words  by  Hoffmann, 
music  by  Cherubim.  Produced  at  the  Theatre 
Feydeau,  March  13,  1797;  in  London,  at  Her 
Majesty's  Theatre,  in  Italian,  with  recitatives  by 
Arditi,  June  6,  1865.  [G.] 

MEDESIMO  TEMPO,  'in  the  same  time,'  is 
occasionally  used  in  the  same  way  as  L'Istesso 
Tempo,  and  has  the  same  meaning.    [J.A.F.M.] 

MEDIAL  CADENCE  (Clausula  in  medio 
modi).  I.  Among  the  numerous  Cadences 
formed  upon  the  Regular  and  Conceded  Modu- 
lations of  the  Ecclesiastical  Modes,  that  proper 
to  the  Mediant  holds  a  place  inferior  in  im- 
portance only  to  those  occupied  by  the  Final  and 
Dominant. 

In  Plain  Chaunt  Melodies,  the  Medial  Cadence 
sometimes  leads  to  a  close  so  satisfactory  that  it 
almost  sounds  final ;  as  in  the  First  Ending  of 
the  First  Tone  — 


In  Polyphonic  Music,  it  is  susceptible  of  in- 
finit?  variety  of  treatment,  as  may  be  seen  from 
the  following  examples — 


MEDIAL  CADENCE. 


243 


Mode  I. 


KlRCHKR. 


^—^-^b^ 


w^r-r-f 


pm 


~ 


A 


t*±3fr 


iSPP 


** 


Mode  IV. 


Vittoria. 


PP 


f         1  "" 


Orlando  di  Lasso. 


^m 


p  f  p* — f- 

1  j  j  j 

-^ — ^ — ^ — &~ 


Mode  VII. 


-rr-rr7 


Pai.estrina. 


A  A^A  j..  j-i 

■V.  I-J  I         —  * 


Mode  VIII 


R2 


244 


MEDIAL  CADENCE. 


Mode  XTII. 


Giovanni  Crock. 


In  the  selection  of  these  examples,  we  have 
confined  ourselves  exclusively  to  True  Cadences, 
for  the  sake  of  illustrating  our  subject  with  the 
greater  clearness :  but,  the  Old  Masters  con- 
stantly employed  Cadences  of  other  kinds,  in 
this  part  of  the  Mode,  for  the  purpose  of  avoid- 
ing the  monotony  consequent  upon  the  too  fre- 
quent repetition  of  similar  forms.  It  is  only  by 
careful  study  of  the  best  works  of  the  best  period, 
that  the  invigorating  effect  of  this  expedient 
can  be  fully  appreciated.  [See  Mediant; 
Modes,  the  Ecclesiastical;  Modulations; 
Clausula  Vera,  Appendix.] 

II.  This  term  is  also  applied,  by  Dr.  Callcott, 
and  some  other  writers  on  Modern  Music,  to 
closes  in  which  the  Leading  Chord  is  represented 
by  an  Inverted  instead  of  a  Fundamental  Har- 
mony. 


-&--&•   -K3-  •©■ 


Though  Cadences  of  this  kind  are  in  constant 
use,  we  rarely  meet  with  them,  now,  under  their 
old  name.  Most  writers  of  the  present  day 
prefer  to  describe  them  as  Inverted  Cadences, 
specifying  particular  instances,  when  necessary, 
as  the  First  or  Second  Inversion  of  the  Perfect, 
Imperfect,  or  Plagal  Cadence,  as  the  case  may 
be  :  the  opposite  term,  '  Radical  Cadence,'  being 
reserved  for  closes  in  which  the  Hoot  appears  in 
the  Lass  of  both  Chords.  [W.  S.  R.] 

MEDIANT  (from  the  Lat.  Medius,  middle). 
I.  One  of  the  three  most  significant  Regular  Mod- 
ulations of  the  Ecclesiastical  Modes,  ranking  next 
in  importance  to  the  Dominant,  or  Reciting- Note. 
[See  Modes,  the  Ecclesiastical  ;  Modula- 
tions, Regular  and  Conceded.! 

The  normal  position  of  the  Mediant,  in  the 
Authentic  Modes,  lies  as  nearly  as  possible  mid- 
way between  the  Final  and  the  Dominant.  It 
makes  its  nearest  approach  to  the  fulfilment  of 
this  condition,  in  Modes  I,  V,  IX,  and  XIII,  in 
which  the  Dominant  is  represented  by  the  Fifth 
of  the  Scale,  and  the  Mediant,  by  the  Third.  In 
Mode  III,  the  substitution  of  C  for  B,  in  the 
ease  of  the  Dominant,  leads  to  an  irregularity: 
the  Mediant  is  still  the  Third  of  the  Scale ;  but, 
it  lies  a  Third  above  the  Final,  and  a  Fourth 


MEDIATION. 

below  the  Eeciting-Note.  A  similar  incongruity 
would  arise  in  the  proscribed  Mode  XI,  were  it 
in  practical  use  :  for,  theoretically,  its  Final  is  B, 
its  Dominant  G,  and  its  Mediant  D.  In  Mode 
VII,  C  is  taken  for  the  Mediant,  instead  of  B, 
in  order  to  avoid  forbidden  relations  with  F  :  the 
position,  therefore,  in  this  case,  is,  a  Fourth 
above  the  Final,  and  a  Second  below  the  Do- 
minant. 

In  the  Plagal  Modes,  the  position  of  the 
Mediant  is  governed  rather  by  the  necessity  for 
securing  a  convenient  note  for  the  Modulation, 
than  by  any  fixed  law.  In  Modes  II,  IV,  and 
X,  it  is  the  note  immediately  below  the  Domi- 
nant :  and  the  same  arrangement  would  take  place 
in  the  discarded  Mode  XII,  were  it  in  use.  In 
Modes  VI,  and  XIV,  it  is  a  Third  below  the 
Final.  In  Mode  VIII,  it  is  a  Second  below  the 
Final ;  the  Second  above  the  Final  being  some- 
times—though not  very  frequently — substituted 
for  it,  in  order  to  avoid  forbidden  relations 
with  B. 

The  following  Table  exhibits,  at  one  view, 
the  Mediants  of  all  the  Modes  in  general  use, 
both  Authentic,  and  Plagal : — 

Mode  I.     F.  Mode  V,        A.  Mode  IX,      C. 

Mode  II,    E.  Mode  VI,      I).  Mode  X,       B. 

Modem,  G.  Mode  VII,     C.  Mode  XIII,  E. 

Mode  IV,  G.  Mode  VIII,  F.  Mode  XIV,  A. 

The  functions  of  the  Mediant  are  important, 
and  well  defined. 

In  the  Authentic  Modes  it  is  constantly  used 
as  an  Absolute  Initial  :  and,  in  cases  of  emer- 
gency, it  may  be  so  used  in  the  Plagal  Modes, 
also  ;  especially  in  the  Vlllth,  in  which  it  fre- 
quently occupies  that  prominent  position.  By 
virtue  of  this  privilege,  it  may  appear  as  the  first 
note  of  a  Plain  Chaunt  Melody  of  any  kind. 
In  common  with  the  other  Regular  Modulations, 
it  may  begin,  or  end,  any  of  the  intermediate 
phrases  of  a  Plain  Chaunt  Melody ;  and  may 
even  begin  the  last  phrase.  But,  it  can  never 
terminate  the  last  phrase.  This  rule  admits  of 
no  exception  ;  and  is  not  even  broken  in  those 
Endings  of  the  Gregorian  Tones  for  the  Psalms 
which  close  upon  the  Mediant  :  for,  in  these 
cases,  the  real  close  must  be  sought  for  in  the 
Antiphon,  which  immediately  follows  the  Psalm; 
and  this  invariably  ends  upon  the  Final  of  the 
Mode.  [See  Antiphon;  Tones,  the  Grego- 
rian.] 

II.  In  Modern  Music,  the  term,  Mediant,  is 
always  applied  to  the  Third  of  the  Scale,  by 
reason  of  its  intermediate  position,  between  the 
Tonic  and  the  Dominant. 

The  office  of  this  note  is  extremely  important, 
inasmuch  as  it  determines  whether  the  Tonality 
of  the  Scale  is  Major  or  Minor.  [W.S.R.] 

MEDIATION  (Lat.  Mediatio).  That  divi- 
sion of  a  Gregorian  Tone  which  lies  between  the 
Intonation,  and  the  Ending,  forming,  as  it  were, 
the  main  body  of  the  Chaunt. 

The  Mediation  begins,  like  the  Ending,  with 
a  Reciting-Note — the  Dominant  of  the  Mode — 
whence  it  passes  on  to  a  short  melodious  phrase, 
the  character  of  which  differs,  considerably,  in 


MEDIATION. 

different  Tones.  Each  Tone  has,  in  reality,  only 
one  Mediation ;  though  that  one  exhibits  itself, 
in  most  cases,  in  at  least  three  different  forms 
— one,  used  for  the  Psalms,  one,  for  the  Introits,  and 
a  third — commonly  called  the  'Festal  Form ' — for 
the  Canticles.  Moreover,  Tones  II,  IV,  V,  VI, 
and  VIII  have  each  a  special  form  of  Mediation, 
used  only  when  the  first  half  of  the  Verse  to 
which  it  is  sung  ends  with  a  monosyllable,  or 
Hebrew  proper  name.  For  examples  of  these 
different  forms,  see  Tones,  the  Gkegoeian; 
under  which  heading  will  also  be  found  a  detailed 
account  of  the  connexion  of  the  Mediation  with 
the  other  members  of  the  Chaunt. 

In  addition  to  these  recognised  forms  of  the 
Mediation,  certain  others  have  attained,  from 
time  to  time,  a  considerable  amount  of  local 
popularity,  in  consequence  of  the  claim  put  forth, 
by  particular  Dioceses — especially  in  France — to 
a  peculiar '  Use '  of  their  own.  The  utter  abolition 
of  such  Diocesan  Uses — almost  all  of  which  can 
be  proved  to  have  originated  in  a  corrupt  method 
of  chaunting — is  one  of  the  objects  contemplated 
by  the  compilers  of  the  Ratisbon  Office-Books, 
as  revised  by  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites, 
and  formally  sanctioned  by  the  authority  of  the 
Holy  See.  Should  this  object  be  attained,  and  a 
fixed  standard  adopted,  free  from  modern  in- 
novations, and  conformable,  in  every  respect,  to 
the  antient  purity  of  the  Plain  Chaunt,  it  will 
have  the  effect  of  silencing  a  few  Gallican  Me- 
diations, which  have  long  been  established 
favourites,  and  the  absence  of  which  will,  at 
first,  perhaps  be  regretted  :  but  it  cannot  fail  to 
result  in  a  vast  improvement  of  the  general  style 
of  chaunting  the  Psalms,  and  Canticles.  [See 
Macicotaticum.]  [W.  S.  R.] 

MEDECIN  MALGRE  LUI,  LE.  Adapted 
from  Moliere  by  Barbier  and  Carre",  music  by 
M.  Gounod.  Produced  at  the  Theatre  Lyrique, 
Jan.  15,  1858.  In  English,  as  'The  Mock 
Doctor,'  at  Covent  Garden,  Feb.  27,  1865.    [G.] 

MEERESSTILLE  UND  GLUCKLICHE 
FAHRT,  i.e.  Calm  Sea  and  Prosperous  Voyage, 
a  poem  by  Goethe,  which  has  been  set  to  music 
by  two  great  masters. 

1.  By  Beethoven,  for  chorus  and  orchestra. 
Composed  in  1815,  first  performed  at  the  Great 
Redoutensaal  in  Vienna  on  Christmas  day  of 
that  year,  and  published  Feb.  28,  1823,  by  Stei- 
ner.  It  is  dedicated  '  to  the  immortal  Goethe.' 
The  reverse  of  the  title-page  contains  3  lines 
from  Voss's  translation  of  the  Odyssey  (viii. 
479),  thus  rendered  by  Lang  and  Butcher : — 

'  For  from  all  men  on  earth  minstrels  get  their  meed 
of  honour  and  worship ;  inasmuch  as  the  muse  teacheth 
them  the  paths  oi  f-ong,  and  loveth  the  tribe  of  minstrels.' 

A  letter  from  Beethoven  to  the  publisher, 
dated  June  1 2,  and  apparently  belonging  to  the 
year  1824,  calls  it  a  cantata,  and  asks  for  the 
loan  of  the  score,  that  he  '  might  write  a  kind  of 
overture  to  it.'  This  intention  does  not  appear 
to  have  been  carried  out. 

2.  By  Mendelssohn,  for  orchestra  only.  Writ- 
ten in  the  summer  of  1828,  first  performed  at 
Berlin  Dec.  1, 1832, remodelled  and  'made  thirty 


MEHUL. 


245 


times  as  good  as  before,'  and  published  as  op.  27 
and  No.  3  of  his  Concert  Overtures  in  1S34.  We 
learn  from  a  passage  in  his  sister's  diary1  that 
Mendelssohn  wished  to  avoid  the  form  of  an  in- 
troduction and  overture,  and  to  throw  his  work 
into  two  companion  pictures.  [G.] 

MEHLIG,  Anna,  a  distinguished  pianist, 
was  born  at  Stuttgart,  June  11,  1846.  She  re- 
ceived her  musical  education  at  the  Conserva- 
torium  of  her  native  town,  and  afterwards  spent 
a  year  at  Weimar  studying  under  Liszt.  In  1866 
she  made  her  first  appearance  in  England,  play- 
ing Hummel's  Concerto  in  B  minor  at  the  Phil- 
harmonic on  April  30.  She  revisited  England 
each  year  till  1869  inclusive,  playing  regularly  at 
the  Philharmonic  and  Crystal  Palace,  and  other 
concerts.  She  then  took  a  long  tour  in  America, 
where  she  met  with  great  success.  In  1875  sne 
reappeared  in  England,  playing  Chopin's  E  minor 
Concerto  at  the  Crystal  Palace  on  Oct.  9,  and  has 
been  here  every  season  since  that  time.  Her 
repertoire  is  large,  her  power  of  execution  re- 
markable, and  her  style  is  full  of  refinement  and 
poetry.  [G.] 

MEHUL,  Etienne  Henri,  born  June  24, 
1763,  at  Givet  in  the  Ardennes,  son  of  a  cook, 
who  was  too  poor  to  give  him  much  education. 
Even  in  childhood  he  showed  a  passion  for  music, 
and  a  remarkable  perseverance  in  overcoming 
obstacles,  and  at  10  was  appointed  organist  to 
the  convent  of  the  Recollets  at  Givet.  Having 
learned  all  that  his  master,  a  poor  blind  organist, 
could  teach  him,  he  was  thrown  on  his  own  re- 
sources, until  the  arrival,  at  the  neighbouring 
convent  of  Lavaldieu,  of  a  new  organist,  Wilhelm 
Hauser,  whose  playing  had  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  Abbot  Lissoir,  when  visiting  the  Abbey  of 
Scheussenried  in  Swabia.  The  monks  of  Laval- 
dieu, wishing  to  make  music  a  special  feature  in 
their  services,  had  a  good  organ,  and  the  playing 
of  Hauser,  who  was  a  sound  and  good  musician, 
caused  quite  an  excitement  in  that  secluded 
corner  of  the  Ardennes.  Lavaldieu  was  several 
leagues  from  Givet,  but  Meliul  often  walked  over 
to  hear  him ;  and  at  length,  with  the  consent  of 
his  father,  was  admitted  into  the  convent,  and 
became  the  most  diligent,  as  he  was  the  most 
gifted,  of  the  eight  pupils  under  Hauser's  training. 
At  14  he  became  deputy  organist;  and  a  dis- 
tinguished amateur  who  heard  him  play  was  so 
struck  by  his  evident  power  of  imagination,  that 
he  determined  to  take  him  to  Paris,  and  in  1778 
Me"hul  bade  farewell  to  the  flowers  he  loved  to 
cultivate,  and  the  instructor  who  had  put  him  in 
the  way  to  become  a  great  musician.  On  his 
arrival  in  Paris  he  at  once  went  to  Edelmann  for 
instruction  in  pianoforte  playing  and  composition. 
To  earn  his  bread  he  gave  lessons,  and  composed 
two  sonatas  (1781)  which  bear  no  traces  of  a 
master  mind  ;  but  this  was  not  the  line  in  which 
he  was  destined  to  distinction.  In  1779  he  was 
present  at  the  first  performance  of  '  Iphigenie  en 
Tauride,'  and  the  effect  produced  on  one  with 
his  cultivated  intellect,  his  love  of  the  beautiful, 

1  Hensel't '  Die  Famllle  Meadeluohn.'  1. 194. 


246 


MEHUL. 


and  passionate  though  reserved  nature,  was  im- 
mense. He  expressed  his  admiration  to  Gluck 
himself,  who  received  the  young  enthusiast 
graciously,  gave  him  valuable  advice,  and  under- 
took his  instruction  in  the  philosophical  and 
poetical  parts  of  music.  Encouraged  by  the 
success  of  a  cantata  with  orchestra  composed  to 
one  of  Rousseau's  sacred  odes,  and  produced  at 
the  Concert  Spirituel  in  March  1782,  he  might 
have  gone  on  writing  church  music,  had  not 
Gluck  shown  him  his  true  vocation,  and  directed 
his  attention  to  the  stage.  Solely  for  practice  he 
composed  one  after  another  three  operas, '  Psyche* 
et  l'Amour,'  a  pastoral  by  Voisenon  previously 
set  by  Saint  Amans ;  "  Anacre'on,'  the  third  act 
of  a  ballet  by  Bernard  and  Rameau,  produced 
in  1757  as  'Les  Surprises  de  l'Amour';  and 
'  Lausus  et  Lydie,'  3  acts,  to  a  libretto  adapted 
by  Valadier  from  Marmontel.  These  unpublished 
scores  are  lost,  no  trace  of  them  being  discover- 
able in  any  of  the  public  libraries  of  Paris. 

MeTiul  now  felt  himself  in  a  position  to  appear 
before  the  public,  and  Valadier  having  furnished 
him  with  the  libretto  of  *  Cora  et  Alonzo,'  4  acts, 
also  taken  from  Marmontel,  the  score  was  soon 
ready,  and  accepted  by  the  Academic,  but  there 
the  matter  ended.  Tired  of  waiting,  he  re- 
solved to  try  his  fortune  at  another  theatre,  and 
having  made  the  acquaintance  of  Hoffmann  he 
obtained  from  him  the  libretto  of  '  Euphrosine  et 
Coradin,  ou  le  Tyran  corrige",'  3  acts  (Sept.  4, 
1790).  In  this  opera-comique  the  public  re- 
cognised at  once  a  force,  a  sincerity  of  accent, 
a  dramatic  truth,  and  a  gift  of  accurately  ex- 
pressing the  meaning  of  the  words,  which  were 
throughout  the  main  characteristics  of  MeTml's 
mature  genius.  Its  success  was  instantaneous ; 
and  the  duet  'Gardez-vous  de  la  jalousie,'  the 
close  of  which  contains  a  modulation  as  unex- 
pected as  it  is  effective,  speedily  became  a 
favourite  throughout  France.  Henceforth  Me-- 
hul  had  ample  opportunities  of  satisfying  his 
productive  instinct,  and  he  brought  out  suc- 
cessively : — 

'  Cora '  (1791) ; '  Stratonlce '  (May  i  ■  L'Irato,  ou  l'Emporte' '  (Feb.  17 
8, 1792) ;  *  Le  Jeune  Sage  et  le  vleux  i 1801) ;  ■  Une  Folle '  (April  4),  ■  La 
Fou '   (179S);    'Horatlus   Codes'  Tresor   suppose,'    "Joanna,"   and 


and  '  Phrosine  et  Melidore '  (1794) 
'La  Caverne'  (1795),  not  so  suc- 
cessful as  Lesueur's  on  the  same 
subject ;  '  Doria '  and  '  Le  jeune 
Henri '  0797) ;  "  Adrien '  (June  4) 
and  "Arlodant"  (Oct.  11,  1799); 
■Epicure,"  with  Cherubini  (March 
14),  and  "Bion"   (Dec.  27.  1800); 


LHenreux  m&lgre'  lui'  (1F02); 
'Helena'  and  *Le  Baiser  et  la 
Quittance,"  with  Kreutzer,  Bolel- 
dieu,  and  Nlcolo  (1803) ;  '  Les  deux 
Aveugles  de  Toledo'  (Jan.  28), 
•Uthal'  (May  17),  and  "Gabrielle 
d'Estrera"  (June  25,  1806);  'Jo- 
seph '  (Feb.  17. 1807). 


Astonishing  as  it  may  seem,  these  24  operas 
were  not  the  only  works  Mehul  produced  within 
17  years.  He  composed  and  published  in  ad- 
dition many  patriotic  songs  and  cantatas,  among 
others  the  'Chant  national  du  14  Juillet,'  the 
'Chant  du  Depart,'  the  'Chant  du  Retour,'  the 
'Chanson  de  Roland,'  and  choruses  to  'Timo- 
leon '  a  tragedy  by  Joseph  Che'nier ;  two  ballets, 
'Le  Jugement  de  Paris'  (1793)  and  'La  Danso- 
manie'  (1800);  several  operettas,  and  other 
'morceaux  de  circonstance,'  such  as  'Le  Pont 
de  Lodi,'  etc.,  all  unpublished  except  the  '  Chant 
lyrique '  for  the  inauguration  of  the  statue  voted 
to  Napoleon  by  the  Institut. 


MEHUL. 

The  epoch  at  which  he  composed  '  Uthal '  and 
•Joseph'  was  the  culminating  point  of  Me"hui's 
career.  He  was  already  a  member  of  the  Institut 
(1795)  and  a  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour 
(1802),  and  had  been  inspector  of  instruction  at 
the  Conservatoire  from  its  foundation.  His 
pupils  looked  up  to  him  and  he  was  a  favourite 
in  the  best  society,  but  such  homage  did  not 
blind  him  to  the  fact  that  in  science  his  col- 
leagues Cherubini  and  Catel  were  his  superiors, 
owing  to  his  want  of  early  systematic  training. 
This  accounts  for  his  laborious  efforts  to  change 
his  style,  and  excel  in  more  than  one  department 
of  music.  His  symphonies,  though  performed 
at  the  Conservatoire,  cannot  rank  with  those 
of  Haydn  and  Mozart ;  indeed  none  of  his 
other  orchestral  works  rise  to  the  level  of  his 
overtures.  Of  his  ballets  'Le  Retour  d'Ulysse' 
(1807),  and  'Persee  et  Andromede'  (18 10)  in 
which  he  introduced  many  pieces  from  'Ario- 
dant,' were  well  received,  but '  Les  Amazones,  ou 
la  fondation  de  Thebes '  disappeared  after  nine 
performances.  An  opera-comique  in  1  act,  'Le 
Prince  Troubadour'  (181 3),  was  not  more  suc- 
cessful, but  his  last  work,  'La  Journe'e  aux 
Aventures,'  3  acts  (Nov.  16,  18 16),  kept  the 
boards  for  some  time.  Its  success  was  partly 
due  to  its  being  known  at  the  time  that  Me"hul 
was  dying  of  consumption.  Two  months  after 
its  production  he  was  sent  to  Provence,  but  the 
change  came  too  late ;  he  returned  to  Paris,  and 
died  there  Oct.  18,  181 7,  aged  54.  Besides  six 
unpublished  operas  composed  between  1 787— 
97,  he  left  the  unfinished  score  of  'Valentine  de 
Milan,'  a  3-act  ope'ra-comique,  completed  by  his 
nephew  and  pupil  Daussoigne-M^hul  (born  at 
Givet,  June  10,  1790,  died  at  Liege,  March  10, 
1875),  and  produced  Nov.  28,  1822. 
•  The  most  conspicuous  quality  of  Me"hul's  work 
as  a  whole  is  its  absolute  passion.  This  is  ex- 
emplified most  strikingly  in  'Stratonice'  and 
'  Ariodant.'  Not  less  obvious  are  the  traces  of 
the  various  influences  under  which  he  passed. 
Between  'Ariodant'  and  'Joseph'  must  be 
placed  all  those  repeated  attempts  to  vary  his 
style,  and  convince  his  detractors  that  he  could 
compose  light  and  graceful  airs  as  well  as  grand, 
pathetic,  and  sustained  melodies,  which  cannot  be 
considered  as  anything  but  failures,  although  the 
ignorant  amateurs  of  thedaypronounced '  L'Irato' 
to  be  true  Italian  music.  '  Joseph,'  which  dates 
from  the  midst  of  the  Revolution,  before  the 
Empire,  belongs  to  a  different  epoch,  and  to  a 
different  class  of  ideas.  Mehul's  noble  character, 
his  refined  sentiment,  and  religious  tendencies, 
the  traces  of  his  early  education,  in  his  perfect 
acquaintance  with  the  church  modes  and  plain- 
song,  and  his  power  of  writing  excellent  church 
music,  are  all  apparent  in  this  powerful  work,  the 
simplicity,  grandeur,  and  dramatic  truth  of  which 
will  always  command  the  admiration  of  impartial 
musicians. 

MeTiul  was  not  so  fortunate  as  Gretry  in 
finding  a  poet  whose  creative  faculties  harmon- 
ised thoroughly  with  his  own ;  and  he  was 
fascinated  by  any  subject — antique,chevaleresque, 


MEHUL. 

Ossianic,  Spanish,  patriarchal,  or  biblical  —  so 
long  as  it  afforded  him  opportunities  for  local 
colouring,  the  importance  of  which  he  often 
exaggerated.  His  overtures  to  '  Le  Jeune  Henri' 
'Horatius  Codes,'  'Timoleon,'  and  'Les  deux 
Aveugles  de  Tolede '  are  however  incomparably- 
superior  to  anything  of  the  kind  which  preceded 
them;  and  most  striking  are  such  passages  as 
the  introduction  to '  Ariodant,'  where  three  cellos 
and  a  trombone  hold  a  kind  of  dialogue,  and 
that  in  '  Melidore  et  Phrosine,'  where  four  horns 
which  have  a  complete  part  throughout  the  score, 
accompany  the  voice  of  a  dying  man  with  a  kind 
of  smothered  rattle.  In  'Uthal'  the  violins 
are  entirely  absent,  their  places  being  taken  by 
the  violas,  in  order  to  produce  a  soft  and  misty 
effect.  Gr^try  was  shocked  at  this  innovation, 
and  so  wearied  by  its  monotony,  that  he  cried 
on  leaving  the  theatre  after  the  first  perform- 
ance, 'Six  francs  for  an  E-string  (chanterelle)!' 

Though  Meli id's  new  and  ingenious  combin- 
ations were  not  always  successful,  and  though 
his  melodies  were  often  wanting  in  that  life  and 
dash  which  rouse  an  audience,  it  must  be  acknow- 
ledged that  with  all  his  faults  his  work  bears  the 
stamp  of  a  very  individual  mind  and  character, 
and  the  impress  of  that  mighty  race  of  1 789,  with 
whom  to  will  was  to  do,  but  amongst  whose  many 
gifts  that  of  grace  was  too  often  wanting.  Had 
he  but  possessed  this  fascinating  quality,  Mebul 
might  have  been  the  Mozart  of  France.  As  it 
is,  we  cannot  withhold  our  admiration  from  the 
man  who  carried  on  Gluck's  work  with  even 
more  than  Gluck's  musical  skill,  regenerated 
ope'ra-comique,  and  placed  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  composers  of  his  own  time  and  nation. 

The  portrait  of  Me"hul  which  we  engrave  is 
taken  from  a  remarkable  print  by  Quenedey,  1808. 


Quatre-mere  de  Quincy  pronounced  his  eulogium 
at  thelnstitut  in  Oct.  181 8,  and  Vieillard,  one  of 
bis  intimate  friends,  published  an  interesting 
'Notice'  of  him  (Paris,  1859).    The  library  of 


MEISTERSINGER  VON  NURNBERG.  247 

the  Conservatoire  contains  many  of  his  auto- 
graphs, several  being  fragments  of  unpublished 
operas.  The  writer  of  this  article  discovered 
among  them  'La  Naissance  d' Oscar  Leclerc,' 
not  elsewhere  mentioned,  an  ope'ra-comique  '  La 
Taupe,'  and  an  '  Ouverture  burlesque '  for  Piano, 
violin  and  reeds,  interesting  merely  as  musical 
curiosities.  [G.C.] 

MEIBOM  (in  Latin  MEIBOMIUS),  Marcus, 
learned  historian  of  music,  born  early  in  the  17th 
century  atToenningen  in  Schleswig  Holstein.  No- 
thing is  known  of  his  studies,  but  his  great  work, 
'Antiquae  musicae  auctores  septem  graece  et 
latine'  (Amsterdam,  Elzevir'),  was  published  in 
1652,  and  as  in  those  days  eminence  was  rarely 
attained  in  early  youth,  the  date  of  his  birth  can 
hardly  have  been  either  1 626  or  1 630  as  commonly 
stated.  The  work  was  dedicated  to  Queen  Chris- 
tina of  Sweden,  at  whose  court  he  resided  for 
some  time.  On  one  occasion  however,  while 
singing  at  the  Queen's  request  his  version  of  an 
ancient  Greek  melody,  the  whole  court  burst 
out  laughing,  and  Meibom  imagining  that  the 
Queen's  physician  Bourdelot  was  the  instigator 
of  this  unseemly  mirth  gave  him  a  box  on  the 
ear,  and  was  in  consequence  dismissed.  He  took 
refuge  with  Frederic  III.  of  Denmark,  who  gave 
him  a  professorship  at  Upsala,  but  he  soon 
returned  to  Holland.  Having  endeavoured  in 
vain  to  find  a  capitalist  who  would  carry  into 
execution  his  scheme  of  restoring  the  ancient 
triremes,  he  came  to  England  in  1674  with  the 
view  of  making  arrangements  for  a  new  edition  of 
the  Old  Testament.  This  project  also  failed,  and 
returning  to  Holland,  he  died  at  Utrecht  in  1 71 1 . 
The  book  already  mentioned  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  sources  of  information  on  ancient  music, 
and  may  be  considered  a  precursor  of  Gerber  and 
Coussemaker.  For  his  numerous  works  on  music 
and  geometry  the  reader  is  referred  to  Fe"tis.  [F.G.] 

MEISTER,  ALTE.  A  collection  of  40  P.F. 
pieces  of  the  1 7th  and  1 8th  centuries,  edited  by 
E.  Pauer,  published  by  Bieitkopf  &  Hartel  :— 


Kameau.  Gavotte  aud  Variation* 

in  A  minor. 
Kirnberger,  Fugue  (3  parts)  In  D 

minor. 
Do.,  Do.,    (2  parts)  In  D. 

Marpurg,  Capriccio  In  F. 
Mehul,  Sonata  in  A. 
J.  Ch.  Bach,  Sonata  In  C  minor. 
C.  P.  E.  Bach,  Allegro  in  A. 
W.  Fr.  Bach,  i  ugue  In  C  minor. 
Kuhnau,  Sonata  in  D. 
Fad.  Martini,  Prelude.  Fugue,  and 

Allegro  In  E  minor. 
J.  L.  Krebs,  Partita  in  Bb. 
Do.,  Do.         Eb. 

Matheson,  4  Gigues. 
Couperln.  La  Bandoline,  Les  Agre- 

mens. 
Paradies,  Sonata  In  D. 
Zipoll,  Preludlo,  Corrente,  Sara- 

banda.  and  Glga  In  G  minor. 
Cherublnl,  Sonata  in  Bb. 
Hassler,  Sonata  in  A  minor. 
Wagenseil,  Sonata  In  F. 
Benda,  Largo  and  Presto  In  F. 
Frohberger,  Toccata  in  D  minor. 
Sacchlni,  Sonata  in  F. 


llasse,  Allegro  In  Bb. 

W.  Fr.  Bath,  tonata  in  C. 

fiolle.  Sonata  In  Eb. 

Handel,  Capriccio  In  6. 

Kameau.  La  Livri,  L  Agacante,  La 

Timlde. 
Loeilly,  Suite  In  G  minor. 
Rossi.  Andantino  and  Allegro  in  G. 
F.  Turin),  Presto  in  G  minor  and 

Sonata  In  Db. 

C.  P.  E.  Bach.  La  Xenophone,  81- 

bylle  La  Complaisante,  Lei 
Languenrs  tendres. 

G'.-atui.  Glgue  In  Bb  minor. 

Matielll.  Glgue,  Adagio,  and  Alle- 
gro. 

Sartl,  Allegro  In  O. 

Grazioll,  Sonata  In  Q. 

D.  Scarlatti,  2  Studies. 
Mattheson,  Suite  In  C  minor. 
Couperln,   La   Bersan,   L'Ausonl- 

entie  Les  Charmes,  Le  Bavolet 

IM  tan  t. 
Scbobert.    Minuet    and    Allegro 

molto  In  E  b. 
Muffat,  Glgue  In  Bband  Altom 

splrlroso  in  D.  fG.1 


MEISTERSINGER  VON  NURNBERG, 
DIE.  An  opera ;  words  and  music  by  Richard 
Wagner,  completed  in  Oct.  1867,  and  first  per- 


248  MEISTERSINGER  VON  NURNBERG. 

formed  at  Munich,  June  21,  1868,  under  the 
direction  of  von  Biilow.  [G.] 

MEL,  Rinaldo  del,  '  Gentilhuomo  Fiamen- 
go,'  and  distinguished  composer  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury. The  date  and  town  of  his  birth  are  not 
known,  but  his  nationality  is  assured,  not  only 
by  the  above  title,  which  appears  on  more  than 
one  of  his  works,  but  by  his  own  words,  'la 
natione  nostra  Fiammengo.'  He  is  not  to  be 
confused  with  Gaudio  Mell,  a  name  which 
Adami,1  Liberati,3  and  Martini3  give  to  Pales- 
trina's  master  Goudimel.  Having  served  Sebas- 
tian, King  of  Portugal,  and  his  successor,  Car- 
dinal don  Henriquez  as  Chapelmaster,  he  arrived 
in  Rome  in  1 580.  This  change  in  his  career  may 
be  accounted  for  by  the  annexation  of  Portugal 
to  Spain  in  that  year.  If  Philip  II.  was  unwill- 
ing to  keep  up  a  useless  retinue  in  Lisbon,  he 
would  certainly  make  no  exception  in  favour  of 
'  Flemish  gentlemen,'  who  indeed  were  never  to 
his  liking.  Why  Mel  turned  his  steps  to  Rome 
we  know  not.  Once  there,  however,  he  presented 
himself  without  loss  of  time  to  Palestrina,  but 
soon  found  himself  out  of  his  depth  on  musical 
subjects,  and  confessed  that  Rinaldo's  questions 
could  not  keep  pace  with  Pierluigi's  answers. 
So  the  ex -Chapelmaster  set  himself  down  to 
school  tasks  again,  ambitious  to  become  a  worthy 
disciple  of  that  Roman  school  which  he  declared 
was  the  greatest  in  Europe.4  His  diploma  was 
soon  obtained,  for  his  publications  began  in  1582, 
and  between  that  year  and  1595  he  published 
5  books  of  motets  and  15  books  of  madrigals, 
besides  contributing  to  various  collections  which 
carried  his  name  from  Rome  to  Venice,  Nurem- 
berg, Antwerp,  and  Munich. 

Up  to  1590  he  probably  lived  chiefly  in  Rome, 
though  we  find  him  at  Liege  in  1587,6  where 
some  of  his  family  were  in  the  service  of  Ernest, 
Duke  of  Bavaria.  Part  of  the  time  he  is  said 
to  have  been  chamber-musician  to  Gabriel  Pa- 
leotto,  archbishop  of  Bologna,  who  had  himself 
some  knowledge  of  music.6  When  the  diocese 
of  Sabina  was  placed  under  Paleotto's  charge  in 
1 59 1  he  founded  a  college,  improved  the  cathedral 
at  Magliano,  and  made  many  changes  in  the 
internal  government.  The  appointment  of  a 
new  Chapelmaster  agreeB  well  enough  with  these 
facts,  and  it  is  in  the  year  1591  that  we  hear  of 
Mel's  appointment  to  the  cathedral  and  the  new 
college.  He  dates  from  Calvi,  a  little  town  near 
Magliano,  March  20,  1593,  and  from  Magliano7 
itself,  1595.  From  this  time  his  publications 
cease,  and  we  have  no  further  record  of  him. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  already  well  advanced 
in  life  when  he  left  Portugal,  and  by  this  time 
was  probably  an  old  man.  So  we  may  assume 
that  the  end  of  his  life  was  near,  and  that  he 
did  not  long  survive  Palestrina. 

1 '  Osservazionl  per  ben  regolare  Capella  pontlf.  (Boma  mi).    (Brit. 

Mus.  C.  20  c.) 
i  Lettera  in  risposta  ad  una  del  Sig.  Ters.    (Brit.  Mus.  556  c,  8.) 
a  'Giudicio  di  Apollo,'  bound  up  with  3rd  vol.  of  Martini's   Storia 

della  Musica.'    (Brit.  Mus.  557  eq.) 

*  Baini  is  responsible  for  this  story.    See  '  Memorie  di  Palestrina." 

•  Madrigal!  a  6  (Anvers  1588).   See  also  Fetis,  Biographie.  under 
•  Melle,  Renaut  de." 

«  See  Fantuutl, '  Notlzie  delli  Scrittori  Bolognesi'  (Bologna  1788). 
7  See  dedication  of  'Liber  5"«  motectorum'  (Veuice  1695). 


MELODIST'S  CLUB. 

Mel's  works  are  at  present  difficult  to  obtain. 
The  British  Museum  does  little  more  than  record 
his  name,8  and  in  the  Fe"tis  Library  at  Brussels, 
such  a  rich  treasure  house,  he  is  quite  unknown. 
The  only  work  in  modern  notation  is  a  Litany 
in  the '  Musica  Divina,'  Ann.  II,  vol.  3  (Rati<bon, 
1869).  [J.R.S.-B.] 

MEL1SMA  (Gr.  M«'\«oy«i,  a  Song).  Any  kind 
of  Air,  or  Melody,  as  opposed  to  Recitative,  or 
other  music  of  a  purely  declamatory  character. 
Thus,  Mendelssohn  employs  the  term9  in  order 
to  distinguish  the  Mediation  and  Ending  of  a 
Gregorian  Tone  from  the  Dominant,  or  Reciting 
Note.  Other  writers  sometimes  use  it  (less  cor- 
rectly) in  the  sense  of  Fioritura,  or  even  Cadenza. 

A  work  by  Thomas  Ravenscroft,  entitled 
'  Melismata ;  Musical  Phansies  fitting  the  Court, 
citie,  and  country  humours'  (London,  161 1),  is 
much  prized  by  collectors.  [W.S.R.] 

MELL,  DAVIS;  familiarly  called  Davie 
Mell.  An  eminent  Violinist  and  Clockmaker, 
resident  in  London,  about  the  middle  of  the 
17th  century,  and  honourably  mentioned  by 
Aubrey  and  Anthony  a  Wood.  In  the  year 
1657,  he  visited  Oxford,  where,  as  we  learn 
from  Wood's  Diary,  'Peter  Pett,  Will.  Bull, 
Ken.  Digby,  and  others  of  Allsoules,  as  also 
A.  W.  did  give  him  a  very  handsome  enter- 
tainment in  theTaverne  cal'd  "The  Salutation" 
in  S.  Marie's  Parish  ....  The  Company  did 
look  upon  Mr.  Mell  to  have  a  prodigious  hand 
on  the  Violin,  &  they  thought  that  no  person,  as 
all  in  London  did,  could  goe  beyond  him.  But, 
when  Tho.  Baltzar,  an  Outlander,  came  to  Oxon. 
in  the  next  yeare,  they  had  other  thoughts  of 
Mr.  Mell,  who,  tho  he  play'd  farr  sweeter  than 
Baltzar,  yet  Baltzar's  hand  was  more  quick,  & 
could  run  it  insensibly  to  the  end  of  the  Finger- 
board.'    [See  Baltzar,  Thomas.] 

Aubrey i0  tells  a  curious  story  of  a  child  of 
Mell's,  who  was  cured  of  a  crooked  back  by  the 
touch  of  a  dead  hand.  [W.  S.  R.] 

MELLON,  Alfred,  born  in  Birmingham, 
1820,  became  a  violinist  in  the  opera  and  other 
orchestras,  and  afterwards  leader  of  the  ballet  at 
the  Royal  Italian  Opera,  Covent  Garden.  He 
was  next  director  of  the  music  at  the  Haymarket 
and  Adelphi  theatres,  and  subsequently  conductor 
of  the  Pyne  and  Harrison  English  Opera  Com- 
pany, who  in  1859  produced  his  opera,  '  Vic- 
torine,'  at  Covent  Garden  ;  he  was  conductor  of 
the  Musical  Society,  and  of  the  Promenade  Con- 
certs which  for  several  seasons  were  given  under 
his  name  at  Covent  Garden.  In  Sept.  1865  he 
was  chosen  conductor  of  the  Liverpool  Philhar- 
monic Society.  He  married  Miss  Woolgar, 
the  well-known  actress.  He  died  March  27, 
1867.  [W.H.H.j 

MELODISTS'  CLUB,  THE.  A  society  at  one 
time  of  much  promise,  founded  in  1825,  by  ad- 

'  A '  quinto  ■  part  of  the  2nd  book  of  Madrigals  (a  6),  the  only  book 
of  Mel's  in  the  library,  gives  the  title '  Gentilhuomo  F..'  and  contains 
the  dedication  to  Cardinal  Minuccl.  which  speaks  or  '  la  nations 
nostra  Ktammengo,"  and  bears  the  date  '  Calvi.  March  20, 1593." 

>  See  his  letter  to  Zelter.  dated  Home.  June  16,  1831. 

10  '  Miscellanies,"  under  the  article  '  Miranda." 


MELODISTS'  CLUB. 

mirers  of  Charles  Dibdin,  '  for  the  promotion  of 
ballad  composition  and  melody.'  In  1827  and  28 
a  library  was  formed,  and  prizes  offered  for  songs ; 
and  the  prize  songs  were  afterwards  published  in 
a  volume.  In  1833  two  prizes  of  10  guineas  were 
offered  for  songs  in  the  style  of  Arne.  Shield,  or 
Dibdin,  and  gained  by  Blewitt  and  Hobbs.  In 
1837  prizes  of  5  guineas  for  words  and  10  guineas 
for  music  of  a  song ;  which  were  gained  by  Wilson 
and  Hobbs  for  the  song  'Send  round  the  wine.' 
The  object  of  the  Club  is  well  described  in  the 
following  words  of  Sir  H.  Bishop  in  presenting 
some  music  to  the  Library  in  1 840  :  '  It  is  from 
my  perfect  oonviction  that  good  and  appropriate 
melody  is  the  chief  attribute  of  excellence  in 
music  of  every  style,  from  the  simple  ballad  to 
the  most  elaborate  composition,  that  I  hail  the 
establishment  of  the  Melodists'  Club,  from  its 
patronage  of  native  genius,  and  its  encourage- 
ment of  melody,  as  essentially  calculated  to  aid 
the  cause  of  the  musical  art  in  this  country.' 
The  entrance  to  the  Club  was  5  guineas,  and  the 
annual  subscription  8  guineas.  Many  noblemen 
and  gentlemen  supported  it,  and  its  professional 
members  embraced  Sir  George  Smart,  Braham, 
Balfe,  T.  Cooke,  Hawes,  Sterndale  Bennett,  and 
other  eminent  English  musicians.  Among  the 
artists  who  took  part  in  the  music  in  its  earlier 
day  were  J.  B.  Cramer,  Moscheles,  Hummel, 
Field,  Benedict,  Lipinski,  and  many  more 
players  of  the  highest  distinction.  Mr.  T.  Cooke 
was  musical  director,  and  Mr.  John  Parry  hon. 
secretary.  [CM.] 

MELODRAMA  (Fr.  Melodrame).  I.  A  Play 
— generally,  of  the  Romantic  School — in  which 
the  dialogue  is  frequently  relieved  by  Music, 
sometimes  of  an  incidental,  and  sometimes  of  a 
purely  dramatic  character. 

Such  a  Play  was  the  Pygmalion  of  Jean  Jacques 
Rousseau,  who  has  been  credited,  on  the  strength 
of  it,  with  having  invented  the  style.  The  so- 
called  English  Operas,  of  the  older  School — The 
Beggar's  Opera,  The  Iron  Chest,  The  Castle  of 
Andalusia,  The  Quaker,  The  English  Fleet,  No 
Song  no  Supper,  Guy  Mannering,  and  a  hundred 
others — are  all  really  Melodramas.  It  is  difficult, 
indeed,  in  the  case  of  English  and  German  pieces 
with  spoken  Dialogue,  to  say  exactly  where  Melo- 
drama ends,  and  Opera  begins.  The  line  must 
be  drawn,  somewhere  :  but,  unless  we  adopt  the 
substitution  of  Recitative  for  Dialogue  as  a  final 
test,  its  exact  position  must  always  remain  more 
or  less  doubtful.  On  the  other  hand,  were  we 
to  accept  this  distinction,  we  should  be  com- 
pelled to  class  at  least  half  of  the  best  German 
Operas  as  Melodramas — an  indignity  which  was 
once  actually  inflicted  upon  '  Der  Freischiitz.' 

One  rarely-failing  characteristic  of  the  popular 
Melodrama  of  the  present  day  we  must  not  omit 
to  mention.  Both  in  England,  and  on  the  Con- 
tinent, its  Music,  as  a  general  rule,  is  so  miserably 
poor,  that  the  piece  would  be  infinitely  more 
entertaining  -vithout  it.  Perhaps,  therefore,  we 
may  be  justified  in  giving  the  name  of  Opera  to 
those  pieces  in  which  the  Music  is  the  chief 
attraction,  and  that  of  Melodrama,  to  those  in 


MELODRAMA. 


249 


which  the  predominating  interest  is  centred  in 
the  Dialogue. 

II.  A  peculiar  kind  of  dramatic  composition, 
in  which  the  Actor  recites  his  part,  in  an  ordinary 
speaking  voice,  while  the  orchestra  plays  a  more 
or  less  elaborate  accompaniment,  appropriate  to 
the  situation,  and  calculated  to  bring  its  salient 
points  into  the  highest  possible  relief. 

That  the  true  Melodrama  originated  in  Ger- 
many is  certain  :  and  there  can  be  equally  little 
doubt  that  the  merit  of  its  invention  rests — not- 
withstanding all  the  arguments  that  can  be 
adduced  in  favour  of  rival  claimants — with  Georg 
Benda,  who  first  used  it,  with  striking  effect,  in 
his  '  Ariadne  auf  Naxos,'  produced,  at  Gotha,  in 
the  year  1 774-  Since  that  time  it  has  been  em- 
ployed to  far  greater  advantage  in  the  German 
Schools  of  Composition  than  in  any  others ;  and 
found  more  favour  with  German  composers  than 
with  those  of  any  other  country.  The  finest 
examples  produced  since  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century  are,  the  Grave  digging  Scene,  in 
■  Fidelio ' ;  the  Dream,  in  '  Egmont ' ;  the  In- 
cantation Scene,  in  '  Der  Freischiitz ' ;  and  some 
Scenes  in  Mendelssohn's  'Midsummer  Night's 
Dream.'  Unhappily,  the  performance  of  these 
finely-conceived  movements  is  not  often  very 
satisfactory.  The  difficulty  of  modulating  the 
voice  judiciously,  in  music  of  this  description,  is, 
indeed,  almost  insuperable.  The  general  tempt- 
ation is,  to  let  it  glide,  insensibly,  into  some 
note  sounded  by  the  Orchestra ;  in  which  case, 
the  effect  produced  resembles  that  of  a  Recitative, 
sung  hideously  out  of  tune — a  perversion  of  the 
Composers  meaning,  which,  in  passages  like  the 
following  is  simply  intolerable, 
s 

M      Mendelssohn. 


Tuck.  What  hempen  homespuns  have  we  swaggering  here, 


250 


MELODRAMA. 


MELODY. 


Few  Artists  seem  to  think  this  frightful  diffi- 
culty worth  the  trouble  of  special  study.  More 
than  one  great  German  singer  has,  however,  suc- 
ceeded in  overcoming  it  perfectly,  and  in  winning 
rich  laurels  by  his  perseverance ;  notably,  Herr 
Staudigl,  whose  rendering  of  the  great  Scene  in 
*  Der  Freischiitz'  was  a  triumph  of  Melodramatic 
Art.  [W.S.R.] 

MELODY  is  the  general  term  which  is  vaguely 
used  to  denote  successions  of  single  notes  which 
are  musically  effective.  It  is  sometimes  used  as 
if  synonymous  with  Tune  or  Air,  but  in  point  of 
fact  many  several  portions  of  either  Tunes  or 
Airs  may  be  accurately  characterised  as  'melody ' 
which  could  not  reasonably  be  made  to  carry 
the  name  of  the  whole  of  which  they  form  only  a 
part.  Tunes  and  airs  are  for  the  most  part  con- 
structively and  definitely  complete,  and  by 
following  certain  laws  in  the  distribution  of  the 
phrases  and  the  balance  of  the  groups  of  rhythms, 
convey  a  total  impression  to  the  hearer  ;  but 
melody  has  a  more  indefinite  signification,  and 
need  not  be  a  distinct  artistic  whole  according  to 
the  accepted  laws  of  art,  though  it  is  obvious 
that  to  be  artistic  it  must  conform  to  such  laws 
as  lie  within  its  range.  For  example,  the  term 
■  melody '  is  often  with  justice  applied  to  the  inner 
parts  of  fine  contrapuntal  writing,  and  examples 
will  occur  to  every  one  in  numerous  choruses  and 
symphony  movements  and  other  instrumental 
works  where  it  is  so  perfectly  woven  into  the  sub- 
stance of  the  work  that  it  cannot  be  singled  out 
as  a  complete  tune  or  air,  though  it  nevertheless 
stands  out  from  the  rest  by  reason  of  its  greater 
beauty. 

Melody  probably  originated  in  declamation 
through  recitative,  to  which  it  has  the  closest 
relationship.  In  early  stages  of  musical  art 
vocal  music  must  have  been  almost  exclusively 
in  the  form  of  recitative,  which  in  some  cases 
was  evidently  brought  to  a  very  high  pitch  of 
expressive  perfection,  and  no  doubt  merged  into 
melody  at  times,  much  as  prose  in  passages 
of  strong  feeling  occasionally  merges  into  poetry. 
The  lowest  forms  of  recitative  are  merely  ap- 
proximations to  musical  sounds  and  intervals 
imitating  the  inflexions  of  the  voice  in  speaking  : 
from  this  there  is  a  gradual  rise  to  the  accom- 
panied recitative,  of  which  we  have  an  example 
of  the  highest  melodious  and  artistic  beauty  in 
the  'Am  Abend  da  es  kiihle  war,'  near  the  end 
of  Bach's  Matthaus  Passion.  In  some  cases  an 
intermediate  form  between  recitative  and  tunes 
or  airs  is  distinguished  as  an  Arioso,  of  which 
we  have  very  beautiful  examples  in  Bach's 
'  Johannes  Passion,'  and  in  several  of  his  Can- 
tatas, and  in  Mendelssohn's  '  Elijah.'  Moreover 
we  have  opportunities  of  comparing  mere  de- 
clamatory recitative  and  melody  in  juxtaposition, 
as  both  Bach  and  Mendelssohn  adopted  the 
device  of  breaking  into  melody  in  especially 
solemn  parts  of  recitative ;  as  in  No.  17  of  the 
Matthaus  Passion  to  the  words  'Nehmet,  esset,' 
etc.,  and  in  Nos.  41  and  44  in  '  St.  Paul,'  near 
the  end  of  each. 

It  appears  then  that  recitative  and  melody 


overlap.  The  former,  in  proportion  as  it  approxi- 
mates to  speech  in  simple  narration  or  descrip- 
tion, tends  to  be  disjointed  and  imsystematised ; 
and  in  proportion  as  it  tends,  on  the  other  hand, 
towards  being  musically  expressive  in  relation 
to  things  which  are  fit  to  be  musically  embodied, 
it  becomes  melody.  In  fact  the  growth  of 
melody  out  of  recitative  is  by  assuming  greater 
regularity  and  continuity  and  more  appreciable 
systematisation  ofgroupsof  rhythms  and  intervals. 

The  elements  of  effect  in  melody  are  extremely 
various  and  complicated.  In  the  present  case  it 
will  only  be  possible  to  indicate  in  the  slightest 
manner  some  of  the  outlines.  In  the  matter  of 
rhythm  there  are  two  things  which  play  a  part — 
the  rhythmic  qualities  of  language,  and  dance 
rhythms.  For  example,  a  language  which  pre- 
sents marked  contrasts  of  emphasis  in  syllables 
which  lie  close  together  will  infallibly  produce 
corresponding  rhythms  in  the  national  music ; 
and  though  these  may  often  be  considerably 
smoothed  out  by  civilisation  and  contact  with 
other  peoples,  no  small  quantity  pass  into  and 
are  absorbed  in  the  mass  of  general  music,  as 
characteristic  Hungarian  rhythms  have  done 
through  the  intervention  of  Haydn,  Schubert, 
Beethoven,  and  other  distinguished  composers. 
[See  Magyar  Music,  p.  197.] 

Dance -rhythms  play  an  equally  important 
part,  and  those  rhythms  and  motions  of  sound 
which  represent  or  are  the  musical  counterpart 
of  the  more  dignified  gestures  and  motions  of  the 
body  which  accompany  certain  states  of  feeling, 
which,  with  the  ancients  and  some  mediteval 
peoples,  formed  a  beautiful  element  in  dancing, 
and  are  still  travestied  in  modern  ballets. 

In  the  distribution  of  the  intervals  which 
separate  the  successive  sounds,  harmony  and 
harmonic  devices  appear  to  have  very  powerful 
influence.  Even  in  the  times  before  harmony 
was  a  recognised  power  in  music  we  are  often 
surprised  to  meet  with  devices  which  appear  to 
show  a  perception  of  the  elements  of  tonal 
relationship,  which  may  indicate  that  a  sense  of 
harmony  was  developing  for  a  great  length  of 
time  in  the  human  mind  before  it  was  definitely 
recognised  by  musicians.  However,  in  tunes 
of  barbaric  people  who  have  no  notion  of  har- 
mony whatever,  passages  of  melody  also  occur 
which  to  a  modern  eye  look  exceedingly  like 
arpeggios  or  analyses  of  familiar  harmonies  :  and 
as  it  is  next  to  impossible  for  those  who  are 
saturated  with  the  simpler  harmonic  successions 
to  realise  the  feelings  of  people  who  knew  of 
nothing  beyond  homophonic  or  single-toned 
music,  we  must  conclude  that  the  authors  of 
these  tunes  had  a  feeling  for  the  relations  of 
notes  to  one  another,  pure  and  simple,  which 
produced  intervals  similar  to  those  which  we 
derive  from  familiar  harmonic  combinations. 
Thus  we  are  driven  to  express  their  melody  in 
terms  of  harmony,  and  to  analyse  it  on  that 
basis :  and  we  are  moreover  often  unavoidably 
deceived  in  this,  for  transcribers  of  national  and 
ancient  tunes,  being  so  habituated  to  harmonic 
music  and  to  the  scales  which  have  been  adopted 


MELODY. 

for  the  purposes  of  harmony,  give  garbled  ver- 
sions of  the  originals  without  being  fully  aware 
of  it,  or  possibly  thinking  that  the  tunes  were 
wrong  and  that  they  were  setting  them  right. 
And  in  some  cases  the  tunes  are  unmercifully 
twisted  into  forms  of  melody  to  which  an  har- 
monic accompaniment  may  be  adjusted,  and 
thereby  their  value  and  interest  both  to  the 
philosopher  and  to  every  musician  who  hears 
with  understanding  ears  is  considerably  impaired. 
[See  Irish  Music] 

Modern  melody  is  almost  invariably  either  ac- 
tually derived  from,  or  representative  of,  harmony, 
and  is  dependent  for  a  great  deal  of  its  effect 
thereupon.  In  the  first  place  it  is  immediately 
representative  in  one  of  two  ways ;  either  as  the 
upper  outline  of  a  series  of  different  chords,  and 
therefore  representing  changing  harmonies ;  or 
else  by  being  constructed  of  different  notes  taken 
from  the  same  chord,  and  therefore  representing 
different  phases  of  permanent  harmony.  Ex- 
amples of  either  of  these  forms  being  kept  up  for 
any  length  of  time  are  not  very  common ;  of  the 
first  the  largest  number  will  be  found  among 
hymn  tunes  and  other  forms  of  simple  note- 
against-note  harmony ; — the  first  phrase  of '  Batti 
batti '  approaches  it  very  nearly,  and  the  second 
subject  of  the  first  movement  in  Beethoven's 
Waldstein  Sonata,  or  the  first  four  bars  of '  Selig 
sind  die  Todten'  in  Spohr's  'Die  letzten  Dinge' 
are  an  exact  illustration.  Of  the  second  form 
the  first  subject  of  Weber's  Sonata  in  Ab  is  a 
remarkable  example  : — 


MELODY-. 


251 


since  in  this  no  notes  foreign  to  the  chord  of  Ab  are 
interposed  till  the  penultimate  of  all.  The  first 
subject  of  the  Eroica  Symphony  in  like  manner 
represents  the  chord  of  Eb,  and  its  perfectly  un- 
adorned simplicity  adds  force  to  the  unexpected 
Cj,  when  it  appears,  and  to  its  yet  more  un- 
expected resolution ;  the  first  subject  of  Brahms' s 
Violin  Concerto  is  a  yet  further  example  to  the 
point : — 

Violas.  . — k 


IIMHr^tetej 


a-- 


The  simplest  variation  of  these  forms  is  arrived 
at  by  the  interposition  of  passing  notes  between 
notes  which  are  part  of  the  essential  chord  or 
chords,  as  in  the  following  from  'Cet  asile 
aimable,'  in  Gluck's  '  Orphee.' 


The  notes  with  asterisks  may  all  be  regarded  as 
passing  notes  between  the  notes  which  represent 
the  harmonies. 

This  often  produces  successions  of  notes  which 
are  next  to  each  other  in  the  scale ;  in  other 
words,  progression  by  single  degrees,  of  which 
we  have  magnificent  examples  in  some  of  the 
versions  of  the  great  subject  of  the  latter  part  of 
Beethoven's  9th  Symphony,  in  the  first  subject  of 
his  Violin  Concerto,  and  in  the  last  chorus  of 
Bach's  Matthaus  Passion.  When  these  passing 
notes  fall  on  the  strong  beats  of  the  bar  they  lead 
to  a  new  element  of  melodic  effect,  both  by 
deferring  the  essential  note  of  the  chord  and  by 
lessening  the  obviousness  of  its  appearance,  and 
by  affording  one  of  the  many  means,  with  sus- 
pensions, appoggiaturas,  and  the  like,  of  obtaining 
the  slurred  group  of  two  notes  which  is  alike 
characteristic  of  Bach,  Gluck,  Mozart,  and 
other  great  inventors  of  melody,  as  in  the  follow- 
ing example  from  Mozart's  Quartet  in  D  major : — 

.« — e^  1  J**1   r— ■   h  1  I*!   ^i   n 


I 


22 


i* 


i^ 


lyi 


1 


^ 


^c^ 


£ 


The  use  of  chromatic  preparatory  passing  notes 
pushes  the  harmonic  substratum  still  further  out 
of  sight,  and  gives  more  zest  and  interest  to  the 
melodic  outline ;  as  an  example  may  be  taken  the 
following  from  the  2nd  Act  of  Tristan  und  Isolde. 


Along  with  these  elements  of  variety  there 
are  devices  of  turns  and  such  embellishments, 
such  as  in  the  beginning  of  the  celebrated  tune 
in  Der  Freischiitz,  which  Agatha  sings  in  the 
2nd  scene  of  the  2nd  Act : — 


zQcktent  -   -  ge  -  -  gsn    ihm. 


252 


MELODY. 


Sequences  also,  and  imitations  and  anticipations, 
and  all  the  most  elaborate  devices  of  resolution, 
come  into  play,  such  as  interpolation  of  notes 
between  the  discordant  note  and  its  resolution. 
Further,  there  are  endless  refinements  of  group- 
ing of  phrases,  and  repetition  of  rhythms  and 
groups  of  intervals  in  condensed  forms  and  in 
different  parts  of  the  scale,  which  introduce  an 
intellectual  element  even  into  the  department  of 
pure  melody. 

Lastly,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  the  order 
and  character  of  the  successions  of  harmony 
which  any  special  form  of  melody  represents  has 
a  great  deal  to  do  with  its  importance.  Common- 
place tunes  represent  commonplace  and  trite 
successions  of  harmony  in  a  commonplace  way, 
while  melody  of  a  higher  order  usually  repre- 
sents successions  which  are  in  themselves  more 
significant  and  more  freely  distributed.  The 
giants  of  art  have  produced  tunes  the  melody  of 
which  may  represent  the  simplest  harmonic  suc- 
cessions, but  they  do  it  in  their  own  way,  and  the 
result  is  proportionate  to  their  powers  and  judg- 
ment. Unfortunately,  the  material  of  the  simpler 
order  of  melody  tends  to  be  exhausted,  and  a 
large  proportion  of  new  melody  has  to  be  con- 
structed on  a  more  complicated  basis.  To  take 
simple  forms  is  often  only  to  make  use  of  what 
the  great  masters  rejected  ;  and  indeed  the  old 
forms  by  which  tunes  are  constructively  defined 
are  growing  so  hackneyed  that  their  introduction 
in  many  cases  is  a  matter  for  great  tact  and 
consideration.  More  subtle  means  of  defining 
the  outlines  of  these  forms  are  possible,  as  well  as 
more  subtle  construction  in  the  periods  them- 
selves. The  result  in  both  cases  will  be  to  give 
melody  an  appearance  of  greater  expansion  and 
continuity,  which  it  may  perfectly  have  without 
being  either  diffuse  or  chaotic,  except  to  those 
who  have  not  sufficient  musical  gift  or  cultivation 
to  realise  it.  In  instrumental  music  there  is 
more  need  for  distinctness  in  the  outline  of  the 
subjects  than  in  the  music  of  the  drama ;  but 
even  in  that  case  it  may  be  suggested  that  a 
thing  may  stand  out  by  reason  of  its  own  proper 
individuality  quite  as  well  and  more  artistically 
than  if  it  is  only  to  be  distinguished  from  its 
surroundings  by  having  a  heavy  blank  line  round 
it.  Melody  will  always  be  one  of  the  most 
important  factors  in  the  musical  art,  but  it  has 
gone  through  different  phases,  and  will  go 
through  more.  Some  insight  into  its  direction 
may  be  gained  by  examination  of  existing  ex- 
amples, and  comparison  of  average  characters  at 
ditlerent  periods  of  the  history  of  music,  but 
every  fresh  great  composer  who  comes  is  sure  to 
be  ahead  of  our  calculations,  and  if  he  rings  true 
will  tell  us  things  that  are  not  dreamed  of  in  our 
philosophy.  [C.H.H.P.] 

MELOPHONIC  SOCIETY,  THE.  Esta- 
blished 1837,  'for  the  practice  of  the  most 
classical  specimens  of  choral  and  other  music,' 
by  band  and  choir,  under  the  management  of 
J.  H.  Griesbach,  H.  Westrop,  J.  Surman, 
and  H.  J.  Banister.  The  first  performance,  on 
Nov.  23,  183;,  at  Wornum's  Music  Hall,  Store 


MENDEL. 

Street,  was  the  Creation,  followed  during  the 
season  by  Beethoven's  Mass  in  C,  Romberg's 
Ode  '  The  Transient  and  the  Eternal,'  Judas 
Maccabseus,  and  St.  Paul.  In  subsequent  years 
the  programmes  comprised  works  of  smaller 
dimensions,  including  Beethoven's  Choral  Fan- 
tasia. [CM.] 

MELO PIANO.  A  grand  piano  with  a  sostin- 
ente  attachment,  the  invention  of  Signor  Caldera, 
applied  in  England  by  Messrs.  Kirkman  &  Son, 
who  have  secured  the  sole  right  to  use  it  here, 
and  have  made  several  instruments  with  it. 
The  principle  is  original,  the  apparently  sus- 
tained sounds  being  produced  by  reiterated  blows 
of  small  hammers  placed  nearer  the  wrestplank 
bridge  than  the  striking-place  of  the  ordinary 
hammers,  and  suspended  by  a  bar  above  and 
crossing  the  strings.  The  bar  is  kept  in  tremulous 
motion  by  means  of  a  fly-wheel  and  pedal  which 
the  player  has  to  keep  going.  These  additional 
hammers  would  cause  a  continuous  sound  were  it 
not  for  the  dampers  of  the  ordinary  action  which 
govern  by  simple  string  communication  the  checks 
that  keep  them  still.  Pressing  down  the  keys 
the  dampers  rise  and  the  checks  are  withdrawn. 
A  crescendo  to  the  sostinente  is  obtained  by  a 
knee  movement  which  raises  the  transverse  bar, 
directs  the  little  hammers  into  closer  proximity 
with  the  strings,  and  strengthens  their  blow.  The 
quick  repetition  deceives  and  at  the  same  time 
flatters  the  ear  by  a  peculiar  charm  of  timbre 
inherent  in  steel  wire  when  the  sounds  can  be 
prolonged.  The  ordinary  hammers  are  controlled 
by  the  performer  as  usual,  and  may  be  accom- 
panied by  the  attachment,  or  the  damper  pedal 
may  be  used,  for  which  due  provision  is  made. 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  Melopiano  has  a 
special  expression  for  which  special  music  will 
no  doubt  be  written  or  improvised.  The  cost  of 
the  application  of  this  ingenious  invention  is 
about  30  guineas.  [A.J.H.] 

MELUSINE.  'To  the  legend  of  the  lovely 
Melusine'  is  the  title  of  an  overture  of  Mendels- 
sohn's for  orchestra,  completed  at  Diisseldorf, 
November  14,  1833,  first  performed  there  in  the 
following  July,  and  published  as  op.  32,  the 
4th  of  the  Concert  Overtures.  In  the  autograph 
Mendelssohn  spells  the  name  with  an  a — '  Melu- 
sina.'  [G.] 

MENDEL,  Hermann,  editor  of  the  largest 
and  most  comprehensive  dictionary  of  music  that 
has  yet  appeared,  born  at  Halle,  Aug.  6,  1834. 
He  studied  music  with  energy  in  Leipzig  and 
Berlin.  From  1862  to  68  he  carried  on  a  music 
business  in  the  latter  city,  and  at  the  same  time 
wrote  in  various  musical  periodicals  and  took  an 
active  part  in  music  generally.  His  lives  of 
Meyerbeer  and  Otto  Nicolai  have  been  published 
separately.  In  1870  Mendel  started  the  work 
already  mentioned  — '  Musikalisches  Conversa- 
tions-Lexikon,'  and  completed  in  n  vols. — with 
the  help  of  a  large  and  distinguished  staff  of 
writers.  He  died  on  Oct.  26,  1876,  and  the 
Lexicon  has  been  since  completed  in  11  vols, 
under  the  editorship  of  Dr.  Ileissmann.       [G.] 


MENDELSSOHN. 

MENDELSSOHN.1  Jakob  Ludwig  Felix 
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy  was  born  at  Ham- 
burg, in  the  Grosse  Michaelisstrasse  No.  14, ■ 
Friday,  Feb.  3,  1809.  That  was  at  all  events 
a  lucky  Friday.  The  family  was  already  well 
known  from  Moses  Mendelssohn,  the  grandfather 
of  Felix, '  The  Modern  Plato,'  whose  '  Phadon,'  a 
dialogue  upon  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  based 
on  the  Phsedo  of  Plato,  was  translated,  long 
before  the  birth  of  his  illustrious  grandson,  into 
almost  every  European3  (and  at  least  one  Asiatic) 
language.  Moses  was  the  son  of  Mendel,  a  poor 
Jewish  schoolmaster  of  Dessau,  on  the  Elbe,  and 
was  born  there  Sept.  6, 1 729.  The  name  Mendels- 
sohn, i.e.  'son  of  Mendel,'  is  the  ordinary  Jewish, 
oriental,  way  of  forming  a  name.  Moses  migrated 
at  14  years  old  to  Berlin,  settled  there  in  1762, 
married  Fromet,  daughter  of  Abraham  Gugen- 
heim,  of  Hamburg,  had  6  children,  3  sons  and  3 
daughters,  published  his  Phadon  at  Berlin  in- 
1767,  and  died  there  Jan.  4,  1786.     He   was 


MENDELSSOHN. 


253 


a  small  humpbacked  man  with  a  keen  eager  face, 
bright  eyes,  and  a  humorous  mouth.  The  first 
peculiarity  was  traceable  in  his  grandchild  Fanny, 
and  the  bright  eyes  were  one  of  Felix's  most 
noticeable  characteristics.  After  the  death  of 
Moses  his  widow  left  Berlin  with  Joseph,  the 
eldest  son,  and  returned  to  her  native  city. 

Abraham,  the  second  son,  born  Dec.  II,  1776, 
went  to  Paris,  and  in  1803  was  cashier  to 
Fould's  bank  there.  In  1804  he  resigned  this 
post  and  went  into  partnership  with  his  elder 
brother  Joseph ;  married  Dec.  26,  1804,  Lea 
Salomon  (born  March  15,  1777),  of  a  Jewish 
family  in  Berlin,  and  settled  in  Hamburg,  carry- 
ing on  his  business  at  the  house  above  mentioned, 
and  having  also  a  house  out  of  town  called 
'Marten's  Miihle.'  He  remained  in  Hamburg 
till  181 1,  and  there  were  born  to  him  Fanny 
Ciicilie  (Nov.  14,  1805),  Jakob  Ludwig  Felix 
(Feb.  3,  1809),  and  Reb-ecka  (April  II,  181 1). 
During  the  French  occupation  of  Hamburg,  life 


Mendel  of  Dessau 
Moses  Mendels-Sohn— Fromet  Gugenhelm 


Velt— Dorothea— F.  Ton  Schlegel    Joseph—Henriette  Meyer 


Abraham— Lea  Salomon- 
Bartholdy 


Juliana    Abraham 


Phillpp 


Benjamin 


Alexander 
I 


Henrietta       Becha    Nathan— Henrietta 
('TanteJette')  I  Itzig 


Wllhela 

I 


Arnold     Ottilia 
I 


CacIlU 
Eeb.  Heusel 


Jakob      Cecils 
Ludwig—  Jean- 
Felix    I  renaud 


Bebecka-Dirichlet 

I  Le jen ne 


Carl 

Wolfgang 

Paul 

I 


Marie 

Pauline 

Helena 

I 


Paul  i  Felix 

Felix  August 

Abraham  Eduard 

I 


became  intolerable,  and  shortly  after  Rebecka's 
birth  the  whole  family  escaped  in  disguise  to 
Berlin,  where  they  started  the  eminent  banking- 
house,  and  lived  in  a  large  house  on  the  Neue 
Promenade,  in  the  N.E.  quarter  of  the  town, 
a  broad  open  street  or  place  between  the  Spree 
and  the  flaacksche  Markt,  with  houses  on  one 
side  only,  the  other  side  lying  open  to  a  canal 
with  trees,  a  sufficiently  retired  spot  as  late  as 
1820  for  Felix  and  his  friends  to  play  in  front  of 
it.4  There,  ten  days  after  the  battle  of  Leip- 
zig, Abraham's  second  son  and  youngest  child 
Paul  was  born  (Oct.  30,  181 3).  The  daughters 
of  Moses  Mendelssohn,  Dorothea  and  Henriette, 
became  Catholics.  Dorothea  married  Friedrich 
von  Schlegel,  and  Henriette  was  governess  to 
the  only  daughter  of  General  Sebastiani,  after- 

t  N.B.  The  following  abbreviations  are  used  for  the  references  In 
this  article:— F.M.~' Die  Famllie  Mendelssohn,'  Berlin  1879;  Dev.— 
*  Devrlent's  Recollections,'  London  1869 ;  L.  1.— Letters  from  Italy  and 
Switzerland— 'Beisebiiefe';  L.  II.— Letters  from  1833  to  47.  When 
the  original  Is  referred  to  the  title ' Briefe,'  1.  or  IL  Is  used ;  H.— Hit- 
ler's Mendelssohn,  London  1874 ;  O.  *  M.— Goethe  and  Mendelssohn, 
2nd  ad.,  London  1874 ;  B.-Benedlct's  Sketch,  London  1863 ;  Mos.— 
Moscheles's  Life,  London  1873 ;  C— Chorley's  Life,  London  1873 ;  P.— 
Polko's  Reminiscences,  London  1*69;  Sch.— Schubrlng's  Errlner- 
ungen.  In  '  Dahetm,'  1866,  No.  26 ;  C.E.H.  -  C.  E.  Horsley's  Bemtnls- 
cences,  tn  'The  Choir"  for  Jan.  and  Feb.  187S;  Dorn-Recollections  of 
Mendelssohn  and  his  friends  by  Dr.  Heinrich  Dorn,  in  'Temple Bar'  for 
Feb.  1872;  A M.Z.  - ' Allgemeine  musikallsche  Zeltung'  (Leipzig); 
N.M.Z. '  Neue  musikallsche  Zeltung,'  Schumann's  paper  (Leipzig). 

*  Ferdinand  David,  destined  to  become  so  great  a  friend  of  Mendels- 
sohn's, was  born  in  the  same  house  the  year  after.    The  house  Is  at 


Elisabeth 
Fanny 

Henrietta 
(LIU) 


wards  (1847)  so  unfortunate  as  the  Duchesse 
de  Praslin.  The  sons  remained  Jews,  but  at 
length  Abraham  saw  that  the  change  was  inevit- 
able, and  decided 5  to  have  his  children  baptised 
and  brought  up  as  Protestant  Christians.  This 
decision  was  taken  on  the  advice  and  example  of 
his  wife's  brother,  Salomon  Bartholdy,  to  whom 
also  is  due  the  adoption  of  the  name  Bartholdy. 
He  himself  had  taken  it,  and  he  urged  it 
on  his  brother-in-law  as  a  means  of  distinction 
from  the  rest  of  the  family.  Salomon  was  a  man 
of  mark.  He  resided  in  Rome  for  some  time  as 
Prussian  Consul-General ;  had  his  villa  (Casa  Bar- 
tholdy) decorated  with  frescoes,sby  Veit,  Schadow, 
Cornelius,  Overbeck,  and  Schnorr,  collected  objects 
of  art,  and  died  there  in  1827,  leaving  his  fortune 
to  his  sister  Lea.    He  was  cast  off  by  his  mother 

the  corner  of  theBrunnenstrasse,  and  Is  now,  through  the  affectionate 
care  of  Mr.  and  Madame  Otto  Goldschmldt,  decorated  with  a  memorial 
tablet  ov  t  tha  front  door. 

•  Dutch  (Hague  1769) ;  French,  2  versions  (Paris  1772.  Berlin  1772) ) 
Italian,  2  do.  (Chur  1773,  Parma  1800) ;  Danish  (Copenhagen  1779) ; 
Hebrew  (Berlin  1786);  English  (London  1789);  also  Russian,  Polish, 
and  Hungarian.  It  Is  a  curious  evidence  of  the  slowness  with  which 
music  penetrates  Into  literary  circles  In  England,  that  the  excellent 
article  on  Moses  Mendelssohn  In  the  Penny  Cyclopaedia,  from  which 
the  words  in  the  text  are  quoted,  though  published  in  1839.  makes  no 
mention  of  Felix,  though  he  had  then  been  four  times  tn  this  country. 
The  Phadon  attracted  the  notice  of  no  less  a  person  than  Mirabeau— 
'  Sur  M.  Mendelssohn,'  etc,  London  1787. 

4  Dev.  2. 
J  F.M.  1. 83. 

•  Felix's  letter,  Feb.  1, 1831 ;  Fanny's  do.,  F.M.  II  127. 


254 


MENDELSSOHN. 


for  his  conversion,  and  was  only  reconciled  long 
after  at  the  entreaty  of  'Fanny.  At  a  later  date 
Abraham  and  Lea  were  received  into  the  Chris- 
tian Church  at  Frankfort,  and  Lea  took  the 
additional  names  of  Felicia  Paulina,  from  her 
Bons. 

Abraham  Mendelssohn  was  accustomed  to  de- 
scribe his  position  in  life  by  saying  '  formerly2 1 
was  the  son  of  my  father,  now  I  am  the  father  of 
my 3  son.'  But  though  not  so  prominent  as  either, 
he  was  a  man  of  strong  character,  wise  judgment, 
and  very  remarkable  ability.  These  qualities  are 
strikingly  obvious  in  the  success  of  his  method 
for  the  education  of  his  children,  and  in  the 
few  of  his  letters4  which  are  published ;  and 
they  are  testified  to  in  a  very  remarkable  man- 
ner by  his  son  in  many  passages  of  his  letters, 
and  in  the  thorough  deference  which  he  always 
pays  to  the  judgment  of  his  father,  not  only  on 
matters  relating  to  the  conduct  of  life,  but  on 
points  of  art.  Though  not,  like  Leopold  Mozart, 
a  technical  musician,  and  apparently  having  no 
acquaintance  with  the  art,  he  had  yet  an  insight 
into  it  which  many  musicians  might  envy.  '  I 
am  often,'  says  his  son,  '  quite  unable  to  under- 
stand how  it  is  possible  to  have  so  accurate  a 
judgment  about  music  without  being  a  technical 
musician,  and  if  I  could  only  say  what  I  feel  in 
the  same  clear  and  intelligent  manner  that  you 
always  do,  I  would  certainly  never  make  another 
confused  speech  as  long  as  I  live.' 5  Or  again, 
this  time  after  his  death,  'not  only  my  father, 
but .  .  .  my  teacher  both  in  art  and  in  life.' 6 

Though  apparently  cold  in  his  manners,  and 
somewhat  stern  in  his  tone,  and  towards  the  end 
perhaps  unduly  irritable,  Abraham  Mendelssohn 
was  greatly  beloved  by  his  wife  and  children. 
Felix,  in  particular,  is  described  by  the  latest 
biographer 7  as  '  enthusiastically,  almost  fanati- 
cally, fond  of  him,'  and  the  letters  show  how 
close  was  the  confidence  which  existed  between 
tbein.  Hardly  less  remarkable  was  the  mother. 
She  was  one  of  those  rare  persons  whose  in- 
fluence seems  to  be  almost  in  proportion  to  the 
absence  of  any  attempt  to  exert  it.  Hiller, 
when  a  boy,  saw  her  once,  and  the  impression 
made  upon  him  by  the  power  of  her  quiet  kind- 
ness and  gentleness  remained 8  fresh  in  his  mind 
after  more  than  half  a  century.  When  her  house 
was  thronged  with  the  intellect  and  wit  of  Berlin, 
she  was  the  centre  of  the  circle  and  the  leader  of 
the  conversation.*  Her  letters,  of  which  large 
numbers  exist  in  manuscript,  are  full  of  clever- 
ness and  character.  The  education  of  her  chil- 
dren was  her  great  object  in  life.  She  was  strict — 
we  may  now  think  ,0  over  strict ;  but  no  one  who 
looks  at  the  result  in  the  character  of  her  chil- 


1  F.M.1.83. 

2  '  Frflher  war  Ich  der  Sohn  melnes  Vaters,  Jetzt  bin  Ich  der  Vater 
meines  Sonne*'  (F.M.  i.  77).  Said  Talleyrand :— •  L'on  disalt  11  7  a 
douze  ans  que  M.  de  St.  Aulaire  etoit  beau  pere  de  M.  de  Cazes ;  Ton 
dlt  malntenant  que  M.  de  Cazes  est  gendre  de  M.  de  St.  Aulaire.'— 
Macaulay's  Lire,  1. 232. 

•  Elsewhere  he  describes  himself  as  a  mere  dash,  a  gedanktmtrich 
(— )  between  father  and  son.    (F.M.  1. 367.) 

*  Letters,  11.  66.  83;  F.M.  L  84.  87,  91 ;  347-386. 

»  Letter,  March  23.  1835.  6  Brlefe,  11. 106 ;  Dec.  9, 1835. 

I  F.M.  i.  424.    Compare  349.  »  Hiller,  p.  3.  »  Dev.  38. 

10  Devrlent  gives  an  Instance  or  two  of  It ;  see  p.  8,  and  57  note. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

dren  can  say  that  her  method  was  not  a  wise  one. 
They  loved  her  dearly  to  the  end,  and  the  last 
letters  which  Felix  wrote  to  her  are  full  of  an 
overflowing  tenderness  and  a  natural  confidential 
intimacy  which  nothing  can  surpass.  Calm  and 
reserved  like  her  husband,  she  was  full  of  feeling, 
and  had  on  occasion  bursts  of  passion.  Felix's 
intention  to  leave  Berlin  affected  her  to  a  '  terri- 
ble '  degree — a  degree  which  surprised  him.  He 
confesses  that  his  yielding  to  the  wishes  of  the 
King,  after  having  made  up  his  mind  to  retire, 
was  due  solely  to  her.  '  You  think  that  in  my 
official  position  I  could  do  nothing  else.  It  was 
not  that.     It  was  my  mother.' u 

How  far  she  was  herself  a  pianoforte -player  we 
are  not  told,  but  the  remark  which  she  made  after 
Fanny's  birth,  'that  the  child  had  got  Bach- 
fugue  fingers,'  shows  that  she  knew  a  good  deal 
about  the  matter.  We  learn  also  ia  that  she  her- 
self for  some  time  taught  the  two  eldest  children 
music,  beginning  with  lessons  five  minutes  long, 
and  gradually  increasing  the  time  until  they 
went  through  a  regular  course  of  instruction. 
For  many  years  Felix  and  Fanny  never  prac- 
tised or  played  without  the  mother  sitting  by 
them,  knitting  in  hand. 

Felix  was  scarcely  three  when  his  family 
escaped  to  Berlin.  The  first  definite  event  of 
which  we  hear  after  this  is  a  visit  to  Paris  by 
Joseph  and  Abraham  in  1816,  for  the  liquidation 
of  the  indemnity  to  be  paid  by  France  to  Prussia 
on  account  of  the  war.  Abraham  took  his  family 
with  him,  and  Felix  and  Fanny,  then  7  and  1 1 
respectively,  were  taught  the  piano  by  Madame 
Bigot,  a  remarkable  musician,  and  apparently  an 
excellent  teacher.  She  was  the  daughter  of  a 
Madame  Kie'ne',  and  in  181 6  was  30  years  old. 
Miniatures  of  the  four  children  were  taken 
during  this  visit,  which  are  still  in  existence. 
Soon  after  their  return  from  Paris  to  the  grand- 
mother's house  at  the  Neue  Promenade,  where 
the  family  still  lived,  the  children's  education 
seems  to  have  begun  systematically.  Heyse13 
was  their  tutor  for  general  subjects,  Ludwig 
Berger  for  the  piano,  Zelter  for  thorough  bass  and 
composition,  Henning  for  the  violin,  and  Rosel 
for  landscape.  Greek  Felix  learned  with  Re- 
becka,  two  years  his  junior,  and  advanced  as  far 
as  ^Eschylus.11  On  Oct.  24,  1818,  he  made  his 
first  appearance  in  public  at  a  concert  given  by 
a  certain  Herr  Gugel,  in  which  he  played  the 
pianoforte  part  of  a  Trio  for  P.  F.  and  2  Horns 
by  Woelfl,  and  was  much  1S  applauded.  The 
children  were  kept  very  closely  to  their  lessons, 
and  Felix  is  remembered  in  after-life  to  have 
said  how  much  they  enjoyed  the  Sundays,  be« 
cause  then  they  were  not  forced  to  get  up  at 
5  o'clock  to  work.  Early  in  his  nth  year,  on 
April  11,  1 819,  he  entered  the  singing  class  of 
the  Singakademie  as  an  alto,  for  the  Friday 
practisings.  There  and  elsewhere  'he  took 
his  place,'  says  Devrient,16  '  amongst  the  grown 
people  in  his  child's  suit,  a  tight-fitting  jacket 

11  Letter,  Jan.  IS,  1843.    See  too  Nov.  4, 1834.  "  Benedict,  p.«. 

u  Father  or  Paul  Heyse  the  novelist.  »  Schubrlng,  374  a. 

l»  A.M.Z.  1818,  p.  79L  >•  Dev.  p.  2. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

cut  very  low  at  the  neck,  and  with  full  trowsers 
buttoned  over  it.  Into  the  slanting  pockets  of 
these  he  liked  to  thrust  his  hands,  rocking  his 
curly  head  (he  had  long  brown  curls)  from  side 
to  side,  and  shifting  restlessly  from  one  foot  to 
the  other.' 

With  1820,  that  is  to  say  with  his  12  th  year, 
Felix  seems  to  have  begun  systematically  to 
compose;  at  least  with  that  year  begins  the 
invaluable  series  of  44  volumes,  in  which  Men- 
delssohn's methodical  habits  have  preserved  a 
collection  of  autographs  or  copies  of  a  great  part 
of  his  works,  published  and  unpublished,  down 
to  the  time  of  his  death,  the  majority  carefully 
inscribed  with  both  date  and  place — which  are 
now  deposited  in  the  Imperial  Library  at  Berlin. 

To  the  year  1820  are  attributable  between  50 
and  60  movements,  including  amongst  them  a 
Trio  for  P.F.  and  strings  (3  movements) ;  a 
Sonata  for  P.F.  and  Violin  in  F  (3  do.) ;  2 
movements  for  the  same  in  D  minor ;  2  full 
Sonatas  for  P.F.  solo  ;  the  beginning  of  a  3rd 
in  G  minor,  finished  the  next  year,  and  pub- 
lished in  1868  (as  op.  105) ;  6  pieces  for  P.F. 
solo  ;  3  do.  for  do.,  4  hands ;  4  pieces  for  Organ ; 
3  songs  for  single  voice  ;  2  do.  for  4  men's  voices ; 
a  Cantata,  'In  riihrend  feierlichen  Tonen';  and 
a  Lustspiel,  or  little  comedy,  for  Voices  and 
P.  F.  in  3  scenes,  beginning  '  Ich  F.  Mendels- 
sohn.' The  earliest  date  is  that  to  the  cantata — 
.Ian.  13,  1820.  The  extraordinary  neatness  and 
finish,  which  characterise  Mendelssohn's  MSS.  to 
the  end,  are  observable  in  the  earliest  of  these 
childish  productions,  and  the  mysterious  letters 
L.  v.  g.  G.  or  H.  d.  m.,  so  familiar  to  those  who 
know  his  latest  scores,  are  usually  at  the  head  of 
each. 

Among  the  pieces  for  1821  are  5  sinfonies 
for  string  quartet,  each  in  3  movements ;  9  fugues 
for  ditto ;  the  completion  of  the  G  minor  P.F. 
Sonata  (op.  105);  motets  for  4  voices  ;  a  couple 
of  songs ;  a  couple  of  etudes  for  P.F.  solo ;  2 
one  act  operas,  'Soldatenliebschaft'  and  'Die 
beiden  'Padagogen' ;  and  half  a  third,  'Die 
wandernden  Comddianten.'  This  was  the  year  of 
his  acquaintance  with  Weber,  then  in  Berlin  for 
the  production  of  Freischutz,  and  of  an  enthu- 
siasm on  the  part  of  the  boy  for  that  romantic 
composer  which  he  never  2lost.  This  too  was 
the  year  of  his  first  visit  to  Goethe.  Zelter 
took  his  pupil  to  Weimar  in  November,  and  they 
passed  sixteen  days  under  the  old  poet's  roof.3 

The  same  incessant  and  varied  production 
marks  1822  and  1823.  In  the  summer  of  1822 
the  whole  family  made  a  tour  in  Switzerland. 
Starting  on  J  uly  6,  they  went  by  Cassel  (for  Spohr), 
Frankfort,  Darmstadt,  Schaffhausen,  Amsteg,  In- 
terlaken,  Vevey,  and  Chamounix;  a  large  and 
merry  party  of  ten,  besides  servants.  The  tour 
was  taken  at  great  leisure,  and  on  the  return 
two  important  halts  were  made — first  at  Frank- 
fort, to  make  the  acquaintance  of  Schelble,  the 
conductor  of  the  famous  Cacilien-Verein,  whom 

1  Words  by  Dr.  Caspar  (Dev.  p.  8).  a  H.  S2. 

»  See  details  to  '  Goethe  and  Mendelssohn."   See  also  Rellstab, '  aus 
meiuem  Leben,'  ii.  135;  and  Lobe,  In  'Once  a  Week'  for  18G7. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


255 


Felix  astonished  by  extemporising  on  Bach's 
motets ;  and  at  Weimar,  for  a  second  visit  to 
Goethe.4 

At  Secheron,  near  Geneva,  2  songs  were 
written  (Sept.  18) ;  and  the  Pianoforte  Quartet 
in  C  minor,  afterwards  published  as  op.  1,  was 
begun  to  be  put  on  paper  (the  autograph  being 
marked  'Begun  at  Secheron  20  Sept.,  1822'), 
and  was  finished  after  the  return  home.  Be- 
sides this,  the  records  of  these  two  years  (1822 
and  23)  contain  6  more  symphonies,  Nos.  7,  8, 9, 
10,11,  12  ;  5  detached  pieces  for  strings;  5  con- 
certos for  solo  instruments  with  quartet  accom- 
paniment, viz.  I  for  Violin  solo,  1  for  P.F.  solo, 

1  for  P.F.  and  Violin,  and  2  for  two  P.F.8  ;  2 
quartets  for  P.F.  and  strings,  viz.  in  C  minor 
(op.  1)  and  in  F  minor  (op.  2) ;  sonatas  for  P.F. 
and  Violin  (op.  4)  and  for  P.F.  and  Viola  (MS.) ; 
a  fantasia  and  3  other  pieces  for  the  Organ  ;  a 
fugue  and  fantasia  for  P.F. ;  a  Kyrie  for  two  choirs ; 
a  psalm,  3  songs,  a  piece  for  contralto  solo  and 
strings  in  3  movements  to  Italian  text  (No.  167), 

2  songs  for  men's  voices,  and  the  completion  of  the 
fourth  opera, '  Die  beiden  Neffen,'  or '  Der  Onkel 
aus  Boston,'  which  was  a  full-grown  piece  in  three 
acts.  The  symphonies  show  a  similar  advance. 
They  are  in  four  movements  instead  of  three,  as 
before,  and  the  length  of  the  movements  in- 
creases. No.  8,  in  D,  written  Nov.  6 — Nov.  27, 
after  the  return  from  Switzerland,  has  an 
Adagio  e grave  before  the  opening  Allegro.  The 
Blow  movement  is  for  3  violas  and  bass,  and 
the  finale  has  a  prominent  part  for  the  cello. 
This  symphony  must  have  pleased  the  com- 
poser or  some  of  his  audience  in  whose  judg- 
ment he  believed,  since  within  a  month  he 
began  to  rescore  it  for  full  orchestra.  He 
wrote  a  new  trio  for  the  minuet,  and  in  this 
form  it  became  Symphony  No.  9.  The  three 
last  of  the  six  are  for  quintet,  and  the  scherzos 
of  Nos.  10  and  12  are  founded  on  Swiss  tunes, 
in  No.  12  with  the  addition  of  triangles,  cym- 
bals, and  drums.  The  independent  cello  part 
is  conspicuous  throughout.  This  advance  in  his 
music  is  in  keeping  with  the  change  going  on  in 
Felix  himself.  He  was  now  nearly  15,  was 
growing  fast,5  his  features  and  his  expression 
were  altering  and  maturing,  his  hair  was  cut 
short,'  and  he  was  put  into  jackets  and  trow- 
sers. His  extemporising — which  he  had  begun 
to  practise  early  in  18217 — was  already  remark- 
able,8 and  there  was  a  dash  of  audacity  in  it 
hardly  characteristic  of  the  mature  man.  Thus 
Goethe  wished  to  hear  a  certain  fugue  of  Bach's, 
and  as  Felix  could  not  remember  it  all,  he  deve- 
loped it  himself  at  great  length,  which  he  would 
hardly  have  done  later  '. 

In  1822  he  made  a  second  appearance  in 
public  of  a  more  serious  nature  than  before,  viz. 
on  March  31,  at  a  concert  of  Aloys  Schmitt's, 
in  which  he  played  with  Schmitt  a  duet  of  Dus- 
sek's  for  2  pianos ;  and  on  Dec.  5  he  again 
appeared  at  a  concert  of  Anna  Milder 's,  in  a 


4  g.  *  M.  33. 
7  f.m.  100. 


»  Zelter.  In  G.  *  M.  35. 
•  Dev.  D. 


•  FJf.1.130:  Der.10. 
t  i\M  ua. 


256 


MENDELSSOHN. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


P.F.  concerto  of  his  own,  probably  that  in  A  minor 
with  quintet  accompaniment.1 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  symphonies, 
operas,  quartets,  concertos,  and  other  works  men- 
tioned were  written  for  exercise  only.  It  had  been 
the  custom  in  the  Mendelssohn  house  for  some  time 
past  to  have  musical  parties  on  alternate  Sunday 
mornings,  with  a  small  orchestra,  in  the  large 
dining-room  of  the  house,  and  the  programmes 
included  one  or  more  of  Felix's  compositions. 
As  a  rule  the  pianoforte  part  was  taken  by  him- 
self or  Fanny,  or  both,  while  Rebecka  sang,  and 
Paul  played 2  the  cello.  But  Felix  always  con- 
ducted, even  when  so  small  as  to  have  to  stand 
on  a  stool  to  be  seen ;  and  thus  enjoyed  the 
benefit  not  only  of  hearing  his  compositions 
played  (a  benefit  for  which  less  fortunate  com- 
posers— Schubert,  for  example — have  sighed  in 
vain)  but  of  the  practice  in  conducting  and  in 
playing  before  an  audience.3  The  size  of  the 
room  was  not  sufficient  for  a  large  audience,  but 
on  these  occasions  it  was  always  full,  and  few 
musicians  of  note  passed  through  Berlin  without 
being  present.*  In  performing  the  operettas  and 
operas,  no  attempt  was  made  to  act  them.  The 
characters  were  distributed  as  far  as  the  music 
went,  but  the  dialogue  was  read  out  from  the 
piano,  and  the  chorus  sat  round  the  dining-table. 
Zelter,  in  strong  contrast  to  his  usual  habit  of 
impartial5  neglect  of  his  pupils,  was  not  only 
regularly  there,  but  would  criticise  the  piece  at 
the  close  of  the  performance,  and  if  he  often 
praised  would  sometimes  blame.  The  comments 
of  his  hearers  however  were  received  by  Felix 
with  perfect  simplicity.  Devrient  has  well 
described  how  entirely  the  music  itself  was  his 
aim,  and  how  completely  subordinated  were 
self-consciousness  and  vanity  to  the  desire  of 
learning,  testing,  and  progressing  in  his  art. 
These  Sunday  performances,  however,  were  only 
one  feature  of  the  artistic  and  intellectual  life  of 
the  house.  Music  went  on  every  evening  more 
or  less,  theatricals,  impromptu  or  studied,  were 
often  got  up,  and  there  was  a  constant  flux  and 
reflux  of  young,  clever,  distinguished  people,  who 
made  the  suppers  delightfully  gay  and  noisy, 
and  among  whom  Felix  was  the  favourite. 

The  full  rehearsal  of  his  fourth  opera,  'Die 
beiden  Neffen/  on  his  birthday,  Feb.  3,  1824, 
was  an  event  in  the  boy's  life.  At  supper,  after 
the  conclusion  of  the  work,  Zelter,  adopting  free- 
mason phraseology,  raised  him  from  the  grade  of 
'apprentice,'  and  pronounced  him  an  'assistant,' 
'  in  the  name  of  Mozart,  and  of  Haydn,  and  of 
old  Bach.'  *  A  great  incentive  to  his  progress 
had  been  given  shortly  before  this  in  the  score  of 
Bach's  Passion,  copied  by  Zelter's  express  per- 
mission from  the  MS.  in  the  Singakademie,  and 

»  AJU.Z.  1822.  273;  1823, 88.  JF.M.H.4S. 

»  It  seems  that  he  accompanied  the  quartet  symphonies  on  the 
piano.  Dorn,  In  his  Recollections,  expressly  says  so,  and  the  slow 
movement  of  the  Symphony  No.  10  contains  a  note  In  Mendelssohn's 
own  writing. '  Das  Klavier  mlt  dem  Basse,'  which  seems  to  prove  It. 
The  practice  therefore  did  not  end  with  last  century,  as  has  been 
supposed  (On  the  growth  of  the  Modern  Orchestra,  Mus.  Association 
1878-9,  p.  37).  Indeed,  as  we  shall  see.  Mendelssohn  conducted  from 
the  Piano  at  the  Philharmonic  in  1829. 

«  Y M.  i.  137.  »  Dev.  4.  «  F.M.  1. 140 ;  Dom,  399- 


given  him  by  his  grandmother  at  Christmas, 
1823.  The  copy  was  made  by  Eduard  Rietz,7 
who  had  suceeeded  Henning  as  his  violin  teacher, 
and  to  whom  he  was  deeply  attached.  His  con- 
firmation took  place  about  this  date,  under 
Wilmsen,  a  well-known  clergyman  of  Berlin. 
Preparation  for  confirmation  in  Germany  is  often 
a  long  and  severe  process,  and  though  it  may 
not8  in  Felix's  case  have  led  to  any  increase  in 
church-going,  as  it  probably  would  in  that  of  an 
English  lad  similarly  situated,  yet  we  may  be 
sure  that  it  deepened  that  natural  religious  feel- 
ing which  was  so  strong  an  element  in  the 
foundation  of  his  character. 

In  the  compositions  of  1824  there  is  a  great 
advance.  The  Symphony  in  C  minor  (op.  11) — 
which  we  know  as  *  No.  I,'  but  which  on  the 
autograph  in  the  library  of  the  Philharmonic 
Society  is  marked  '  No.  XIII ' — was  composed 
between  March  3  and  31 .  The  Sestet  for  P.F.  and 
strings  (op.  1 10),  the  Quartet  in  B  minor  *  (op.  3), 
a  fantasia  for  4  hands  on  the  P.F.,  and  a  motet 
in  5  nos.,  are  all  amongst  the  works  of  this  year. 
An  important  event  in  the  summer  of  1824  was 
a  visit  of  the  father,  Felix,  and  Rebecka,  to 
Dobberan,  a  bathing  place  on  the  shores  of  the 
Baltic  near  Rostock.  For  the  wind-band  at  the 
bath-establishment  Felix  wrote  an  overture, 
which  he  afterwards  scored  for  a  full  military 
band  and  published  as  Op.  24.  But  the  chief 
result  of  the  visit  was  that  he  there  for  the  first 
time  saw  the  sea,  and  received  those  impressions 
and  images  which  afterwards  found  their  tangible 
shape  in  the  Meeresstille  Overture. 

Among  the  great  artists  who  came  into  contact 
with  Felix  at  this  time  was  Moscheles,  then  on  his 
way  from  Vienna  to  Paris  and  London.  He  was 
already  famous  as  a  player,  and  Madame  Men- 
delssohn calls  him  '  the  prince  of  pianists.'  He 
remained  in  Berlin  for  six  weeks  in  November 
and  December,  1824,  and  was  almost  daily  at 
the  Mendelssohns' ;  and  after  a  time,  at  the 
urgent  request  of  the  parents,  and  with  great 
hesitation  on  his  own  part,  gave  Felix  regular 
lessons  on  the  pianoforte  every  other  day.  Mos- 
cheles was  now  just  turned  thirty.  It  is  pleasant 
to  read  of  his  unfeigned  love  and  admiration  for 
Felix  and  his  home — '  a  family  such  as  I  have 
never  known  before ;  Felix  a  mature  artist,  and  yet 
but  fifteen ;  Fanny  extraordinarily  gifted,  play- 
ing Bach's  fugues  by  heart  and  with  astonishing 
correctness — in  fact,  a  thorough  musician.  The 
parents  give  me  the  impression  of  people  of  the 
highest  cultivation.  They  are  very  far  from 
being  over- proud  of  their  children  ;  indeed,  they 
are  in  anxiety  about  Felix's  future,  whether  his 
gifts  are  lasting,  and  will  lead  to  a  solid,  perma- 
nent future,  or  whether  he  may  not  suddenly 
collapse,  like  so  many  other  gifted  children.' 
'He  has  no  need  of  lessons;  if  he  wishes  to 
take  a  hint  from  me  as  to  anything  new  to  him, 
he  can  easily  do  so.'  Such  remarks  as  these  do 
honour  to  all  concerned,  and  it  is  delightful  to 

T  Or  Bltz,  as  Mendelssohn  always  spells  It.    He  seems  to  have  bees 
on  the  whole  Felix's  most  intimate  early  friend. 
3  Sen,  375.  >  Finished  Jan.  18, 1825. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

find  Mendelssohn  years  afterwards,  in  the  full 
glory  of  his  great  fame,  referring  to  these  very 
lessons  as  having  fanned  the  sacred  fire  within 
him  and  urged  him  on  to  'enthusiasm. 

Moscheles  has  preserved  two  of  the  Sunday 
morning  programmes  : — 

'Nov.  28.  Morning  music  at  the  Mendels- 
sohn's : — Felix's  C  minor  Quartet ;  D  major  Sym- 
phony ;  Concerto  by  Bach  (Fanny)  ;  Duet  for  a 
pianos  in  D  minor,  Arnold.' 

'  Dec.  1 2.  Sunday  music  at  Mendelssohn's  : — 
Felix's  F  minor  Quartet.  I  played  my  Duet  for 
2  Pianos  in  G.  Little  Schilling  pfayed  Hum- 
mel's  Trio  in  G." 

Moscheles  was  followed  by  Spohr,  who  came 
to  superintend  the  production  of  his  '  Jessonda ' 
(Feb.  14,  1825).  He  was  often  at  the  house, 
and  on  very  intimate  3  terms,  though  he  does  not 
mention  the  fact  in  his  Autobiography. 

One  or  two  accounts  by  competent  judges  of 
Felix's  style  of  playing  at  this  time  have  sur- 
vived. Hiller  was  with  him  in  Frankfort  in 
the  spring  of  1825,  and  3 speaks  both  of  his  ex- 
temporising, and  of  his  playing  the  music  of 
others.  "With  the  latter  he  delighted  both  Hiller 
and  Andre*  (who  relished  neither  his  face,  his 
ideas,  nor  his  manners)  by  playing  the  Allegretto 
of  Beethoven's  7th  Symphony  in  such  a  '  power- 
ful orchestral  style'  as  fairly  to  stop  Andre's 
mouth.  With  the  former  he  carried  Hiller  away 
by  extemporising  on  Handel's  choruses  in  'Judas,' 
as  he  had  done  Schelble,  in  the  same  room, 
three  years  before,  on  subjects  from  Bach's 
motets.  This  time  his  playing  was  quite  in  the 
vein  of  his  subject,  '  the  figures  thoroughly  Han- 
delian,  the  force  and  clearness  of  the  passages 
in  thirds  and  sixths  and  octaves  really  grand, 
and  yet  all  belonging  to  the  subject-matter, 
thoroughly  true,  genuine,  living  music,  with  no 
trace  of  display.'  Dorn  is  more  explicit  as  to 
his  accompanying — the  duet  in  Fidelio.  'He 
astonished  me  in  the  passage,  Du  wieder  nun  in 
meinen  Armen,  Gott !  by  the  way  in  which  he 
represented  the  cello  and  the  basso  parts  on 
the  piano,  playing  them  two  octaves  apart.  I 
asked  him  why  he  chose  that  striking  way  of 
rendering  the  passage,  and  he  explained  it  all  to 
me  in  the  kindest  manner.  How  many  times 
since,  says  Dorn,  has  that  duet  been  sung,  but 
how  seldom  has  it  been  so  *accompanied  !  He 
rarely  played  from  book,  either  at  this  or  any 
other  time  «f  his  life.  Even  works  like  Bee- 
thoven's 9th  Symphony,  and  the  Sonata  in  Bb 
(op.  106),  he  knew 5  by  heart.  One  of  the  grounds 
of  Spontini's  enmity  to  him  is  said  to  have 
been  a  performance  of  the  9th  Symphony  by 
Felix,  without  book,  before  Spontini  himself 
had  even  heard  it,  and  it  is  known  on  the  best 
authority  that  he  played  the  Symphony  through 
by  heart  only  a  few  months  before  his  death. 
Here  we  may  say  that  he  had  a  passion  for 
Beethoven's  latest  works,  his  acquaintance  with 
which  dated  from  their  publication,  Beethoven's 

1  Moscheles  Leben.  1. 93 ;  II.  161.  i  F. M.  1. 144. 

»  Hiller,  pp.  6, 6.  t  Dorn,  p.  398. 

»  Marx,  "  Errlnerungen,'  U.  U7.  confirmed  to  me  by  the  Duke  of 
Meiningen.  Taubert,  Schlelnttz.  Klengel.  Davison,  and  others. 
VOL.  II. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


257 


last  years  (1820-27)  exactly  corresponding  with 
his  own  growth  to  maturity.  It  was  almost  the 
only  subject  on  which  he  disagreed  with  his 
•father.  On  the  other  hand,  the  devotion  of  such 
very  conservative  artists  as  David,  Rietz,  and 
Bennett,  to  those  works,  is  most  probably  due  to 
Mendelssohn's  influence.  Marx  7  challenges  his 
reading  of  Beethoven ;  but  this  is  to  fly  in  the 
face  of  the  judgment  of  all  other  critics. 

The  elder  Mendebsohn  made  at  this  time  a 
journey  to  Paris,  for  the  purpose  of  fetching 
his  sister  Henriette  back  to  Germany,  and  took 
Felix  with  him.  They  arrived  on  March  22. 
One  of  the  first  things  he  mentions  is  the 
astonishment  of  his  relatives  at  finding  him 
no  longer  a  "child.  He  plunged  at  once  into 
musical  society.  Hummel,  Onslow,  Boucher, 
Herz,  HaleVy,  Kalkbrenner,  Moscheles  (on  his 
way  back  from  Hamburg  to  London,  with  his 
bride),  Pixis,  Eode,  Baillot,  Kreutzer,  Rossini, 
Paer,  Meyerbeer,  Plantade,  and  many  more,  were 
there,  and  all  glad  to  make  acquaintance  with 
the  wonderful  boy.  At  Madame  Kiene"8 — 
Madame  Bigot's  mother — he  played  his  new 
Quartet  (in  B  minor)  with  Baillot  and  others, 
and  with  the  greatest  success. 

The  French  musicians,  however,  made  but  a 
bad  impression  on  him.  Partly,  no  doubt,  this  is 
exaggerated  in  his  letters,  as  in  his  criticism  on 
Auber's  '  Leocadie ;  but  the  ignorance  of  German 
music — even  ,0  Onslow,  for  example,  had  never 
heard  a  note  of  Fidelio — and  the  insults  to  some 
of  its  masterpieces  (such  as  the  transformation 
of  Freischiitz  into  'Robin  des  uBois,'  and  the 
comparison  of  a  passage  in  Bach  to  a  duet  of 
Monsigny),  and  the  general  devotion  to  effect 
and  outside  glitter — these  were  just  the  things 
to  enrage  the  lad  at  that  enthusiastic  age.  With 
Cherubini  their  intercourse  was  very  satisfactory. 
The  old  Florentine  was  more  than  civil  to  Felix, 
and  his  expressions  of  satisfaction  (so  very  rare 
in  his  mouth)  must  have  given  the  father  the 
encouragement  which  he  was  so  12slow  to  take 
in  the  great  future  of  his  boy.  Felix  describes 
him  in  a  few  words  as  '  an  extinct  volcano,  now 
and  then  blazing  up,  but  all  covered  with 
ashes  and  stones.'  He  wrote  a  Kyrie  '  a  5  voci 
and  grandissimo  orchestra'  at  1S Cherubini's 
instance,  which  he  describes  as  'bigger  than 
anything  he  had  yet  "done.'  It  seems  to  have 
been  lost.  Through  all  this  the  letters  home 
are  as  many  as  ever,  full  of  music,  descriptions, 
and  jokes — often  very  bad  ones.  Here,  for  in- 
stance, is  a  good  professional  query,  'Ask  Ritz  if 
he  knows  what  Fes  moll  is.' 

On  May  19, 1825,  the  father  and  son  left  Paris 
with  Henriette  ('Tante  Jette'),  who  had  retired 
from  her  post  at  General  Sebastiani's  with  an 
ample  pension,  and  thenceforward  resided  at 
Berlin.     On  the  road  home  they  paid  a  short 

•  Letter.  Not.  22, 1830.  »  Errln.  II.  135.  •  F  JL  1. 146. 

»G.*M.p.43.         u  FJf.  1. 149,  and  MS.  letter.         llG.tH.48. 

u  Marx  (Errln.  II.  113,  114)  says  that  the  father's  hesitation  as  to 
his  son's  future  was  so  great,  that,  even  to  a  lata  date,  he  constantly 
urged  him  to  go  Into  business.  He  believed  that  his  son  had  no  genius 
for  music,  and  that  it  was  all  the  happier  for  him  that  he  had  not. 

M  Zelter's  Letters,  lv.  35 ;  G.  *  M.  49. 

14  'An  Dickigkelt  alles  UbertrlflV 

s 


258 


MENDELSSOHN. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


Wenn  das  Talent  verstttndig  wal' 

tet, 
Wlrksame  Tugend  nle  veraltet. 
Wer  Menschen   grundllch  konnt' 

erfreun, 
Der  darf  sich  vor  der  Zeit  nicht 

scheun ; 
Und  mOchtet  ihr  ihm  Belfall  geben. 


visit  (the  third)  to  Goethe,  at  Weimar.  Felix 
played  the  B  minor  Quartet,  and  delighted  the  poet 
by  dedicating  it  to  Jhim.  It  is  a  marvellous  work 
for  a  boy  of  sixteen,  and  an  enormous  advance 
on  either  of  its  two  predecessors ;  but  probably 
no  one — not  even  the  composer — suspected  that 
the  Scherzo  (in  FJ  minor,  3-8)  was  to  be  the 
first  of  a  'family  of  scherzi  which,  if  he  had 
produced  nothing  else,  would  stamp  him  as  an 
inventor  in  the  most  emphatic  signification  of 
the  word.'  It  must  be  admitted  that  Goethe 
made  him  a  very  poor  return  for  his  charming 
music.  Anything  more  stiff  and  ungraceful  than 
the  verses  which  he  wrote  for  him,  and  which 
are  given  in  'Goethe  and  Mendelssohn,'  it 
would  be  difficult  to  find,  unless  it  be  another 
stanza,  also  addressed  to  Felix,  and  printed  in 
vol.  vi.  p.  144  of  the  poet's  works  : — 

If  Talent  reigns  with  Wisdom 

great, 
Virtue  is  never  out  of  date. 
He  who  can  give  us  pleasure  true 
Need  never  fear  what  Time  can  do ; 
And  will  you  Talent  your  approval 
give? 
8o~gebt~ihnuns,  die  wir  inn  "frisch  I  Then  #▼«  it  us  who  make  her  newly 
beleben.  I    live. 

They  were  at  home  before  the  end  of  May.  The 
fiery  Capriccio  for  P.F.  in  Fj  minor  (afterwards 
published  as  op.  5),  so  full  of  the  spirit  of  Bach, 
is  dated  July  23  of  this  year,  and  the  score  of 
Camacho's  wedding — an  opera  in  two  acts  by 
Klingemann,  founded  on  an  episode  in  Don 
Quixote — Aug.  10.  The  Capriccio  was  a  great 
favourite  with  him,  and  he  called  it  un  absurdity. 
The  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy  family  was  be- 
ginning to  outgrow  the  accommodation  afforded 
by  the  grandmother's  roof,  and  at  the  end  of 
this  summer  they  removed  from  No.  7  Neue  Pro- 
menade to  a  large  house  and  grounds  which  had 
formerly  belonged  to  the  noble  family  of  Keck, 
namely  to  No.  3  of  the  Leipziger  Strasse,  the 
address  so  familiar  to  aE  readers  of  Felix's  sub- 
sequent letters.  If  we  were  writing  the  life  of 
an  ancient  prophet  or  poet,  we  should  take  the 
name  of  the  'Leipzig  Road'  as  a  prediction  of 
his  ultimate  establishment  in  that  town  ;  but  no 
token  of  such  an  event  was  visible  at  the  time. 
The  new  residence  lay  in  a  part  of  Berlin  which 
was  then  very  remote,  close  to  the  Potsdam 
Gate,  on  the  edge  of  the  old  Thiergarten,  or 
deer-park,  of  Frederick  the  Great,  so  far  from 
all  the  accustomed  haunts  of  their  friends,  that 
at  first  the  laments  were  loud.  The  house  was  of 
a  dignified,  old-fashioned  kind,  with  spacious  and 
lofty  rooms  ;  behind  it  a  large  court  with  offices, 
and  behind  that  again  a  beautiful  stretch  of 
ground,  half  park,  half  garden,  with  noble  trees, 
lilacs,  and  other  flowering  shrubs,  turf,  alleys, 
walks,  banks,  summer-houses,  and  seats — the 
whole  running  far  back,  covering  about  ten 
acres,  and  being  virtually  in  the  country.  Its 
advantages  for  music  were  great.  The  house 
itself  contained  a  room  precisely  fitted  for  large 
music  parties  or  private  theatricals ;  and  at 
the  back  of  the  court,  and  dividing  it  from  the 

1  For  the  details  see  G.  ft  M.  50. 


garden,  there  was  a  separate  building  called  the 
'  Gartenhaus,'  the  middle  of  which  formed  a  hall 
capable  of  containing  several  hundred  persons, 
with  glass  doors  opening  right  on  to  the  lawns 
and  alleys — in  short  a  perfect  place  for  the 
Sunday  music.  Though  not  without  its  draw- 
backs in  winter — reminding  one  in  Mr.  Hensel's 
almost  pathetic  8  description  of  the  normal  con- 
dition of  too  many  an  English  house — it  was  an 
ideal  summer  home,  and  '  3,  Leipziger  Strasse ' 
is  in  Mendelssohn's  mouth  a  personality,  to 
which  he  always  turned  with  longing,  and  which 
he  loved  as  much  as  he  hated  the  rest  of  Berlin. 
It  was  identified  with  the  Mendelssohn  -Bar- 
tholdys  till  his  death,  after  which  it  was  sold  to 
the  state;  and  the  Herrenhaus,  or  House  of 
Lords  of  the  German  government,  now  stands  on 
the  site  of  the  former  court  and  Gartenhaus.3 

Devrient  4  takes  the  completion  of  Camacho 
and  the  leaving  the  grandmother's  house  as  the 
last  acts  of  Felix's  musical  minority  ;  and  he  is 
hardly  wrong,  for  the  next  composition  was  a 
wonderful  leap  into  maturity.  It  was  no  other 
than  the  Octet  for  strings  (afterwards  published 
as  op.  20),  which  was  finished  towards  the  end 
of  October  1825,  and  was  dedicated  as  a  birth- 
day gift  to  Edward  Ritz.  It  is  the  first  of  his 
works  which  can  be  said  to  have  fully  maintained 
its  ground  on  its  own  'merits,  and  is  a  truly  aston- 
ishing composition  for  a  boy  half-way  through 
his  1 7th  year.  There  is  a  radiance,  a  freedom, 
and  an  individuality  in  the  style  which  are 
far  ahead  of  the  13th  Symphony,  or  any  other 
of  the  previous  instrumental  works,  and  it  is 
steeped  throughout  in  that  inexpressible  cap- 
tivating charm  which  is  so  remarkable  in  all 
Mendelssohn's  best  compositions.  The  Scherzo 
especially  (G  minor,  2-4)  is  a  movement  of  ex- 
traordinary lightness  and  grace,  and  the  Finale, 
besides  being  a  masterly  piece  of  counterpoint 
(it  is  a  fugue),  contains  in  the  introduction  of  the 
subject  of  the  scherzo  a  very  early  instance  of 
the  'transformation  of  themes,'  of  which  we 
have  lately  heard  so  much.  Felix  had  confided 
to  "Fanny  that  his  motto  for  the  scherzo  was  the 
following  stanza  in  the  Intermezzo  of  Faust : — 

Orchestra. — pianissimo. 


Wolkenzug  und  Nebelflor 
Erhellen  sich  von  oben ; 

Luft  lm  Laub,  und  Wind  Im  Bohr, 
— TTnd  alles  1st  zerstoben. 


Floating  cloud  and  trailing  mist 
Brlght'ning  o'er  us  hover ; 

Airs  stir  the  brake,  the  rushes 
shake— 
And  all  their  pomp  is  over. 


and  never  was  a  motto  more  perfectly  carried 
out  in  execution.  The  whole  of  the  last  part,  so 
light  and  airy — and  the  end,  in  particular,  where 
the  fiddles  run  softly  up  to  the  high  G,  accom- 
panied only  with  staccato  chords — is  a  perfect 
illustration  of '  alles  ist  zerstoben.'  He  afterwards 
instrumented  it  for  the  full  orchestra,  but  it  is 
hard  to  say  if  it  is  improved  by  the  process. — The 

s  F.M.  i.  142. 

>  The  large  yew-tree  which  stood  close  outside  the  Gartenhaus  and 
was  endangered  by  the  extension  of  the  new  building,  was  preserved 
by  the  special  order  of  the  Emperor,  and  Is  still  (1879)  vigorous,  and 
as  gloomy  as  a  yew  should  be. 

<  Dev.20. 

» It  was  played  14  times  at  the  Monday  Popular  Concerts  between 
1859  and  1878. 

6  T.M.  1. 154. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

so-called  Trumpet  Overture,  in  C  (op.  101),  was 
almost  certainly  composed  this  autumn,  and  was 
first  heard  at  a  concert  given  by  Maurer,  in 
Berlin,  on  'Nov.  2,  at  which  Felix  played  the 
P.F.  part  of  Beethoven's  Choral  Fantasia.  This 
overture  was  a  special  favourite  of  Abraham  Men- 
delssohn's, who  said  that  he  should  like  to  hear 
it  while  he  died.  It  was  for  long  in  MS.  in  the 
hands  of  the  Philharmonic  Society,  and  was  not 
published  till  many  years  after  the  death  of  the 
composer.  1826  opens  with  the  String  2 Quintet 
in  A  (op.  18),  which  if  not  perhaps  so  great  as 
the  Octet,  is  certainly  on  the  same  side  of  the 
line,  and  the  scherzo  of  which,  in  fugue-form,  is 
a  worthy  companion  to  its  predecessors.  The 
Sonata  in  E  (op.  6)  is  of  this  date  (March  2  2, 
1826).  So  is  an  interesting  looking  Andante 
and  Allegro  (June  27),  written  for  the  wind- 
band  of  a  Beer-garden  which  he  used  to  pass  on 
the  way  to  bathe ;  the  MS.  is  safe  in  the  hands 
of  Dr.  Paul  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy. 

But  all  these  were  surpassed  by  the  Overture 
to  'A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,'  which  was 
composed  during  the  peculiarly  fine  summer  of 
1826,  under  the  charming  conditions  of  life  in 
the  new  sgarden,  and  the  score  of  which  is  signed 
'  Berlin,  Aug.  6,  1826.'  It  appears  to  have  been 
the  immediate  result  of  a  closer  acquaintance 
with  Shakspeare,  through  the  medium  of  Schlegel 
and  Tieck'8  version,  which  he  and  his  sisters 
read  this  year  for  the  first  time.  Marx  claims 
to  have  been  much4  consulted  during  its  progress, 
and  even  to  have  suggested  essential  modifica- 
tions. Fanny  also  no  doubt  was  in  this,  as  in 
other  instances,  her  brother's  confidante,  but 
the  result  must  have  astonished  even  the  fondest 
wishes  of  those  who  knew  him  best.  It  is 
asserted  by  5one  who  has  the  best  right  to 
judge,  and  is  not  prone  to  exaggeration,  '  that 
no  one  piece  of  music  contains  so  many  points 
of  harmony  and  orchestration  that  had  never 
been  written  before  ;  and  yet  none  of  them  have 
the  air  of  experiment,  but  seem  all  to  have 
been  written  with  certainty  of  their  success.' 
In  this  wonderful  overture,  as  in  the  Octet  and 
Quintet,  the  airy  fairy  lightness,  and  the  peculiar 
youthful  grace,  are  not  less  remarkable  than 
the  strength  of  construction  and  solidity  of 
workmanship  which  underlie  and  support  them. 
Not  the  least  singular  thing  about  it  is  the  ex- 
act manner  in  which  it  is  found  to  fit  into  the 
music  for  the  whole  play  when  that  music  was 
composed  1 7  years  later.  The  motives  of  the  over- 
ture all  turn  out  to  have  their  native  places  in 
the  'drama.  After  many  a  performance  as  a 
duet  on  the  piano,  the  overture  was  played  by  an 
orchestra  in  the  Mendelssohns'  garden-house,  to  a 

>  A.M.Z.  xxvll.  p.  825.  The  autograph  was  once  la  possession  of 
Mr.  Schlelnitx.  From  him  it  went  into  the  omnivorous  maw  of  Julius 
Rietz,  and  was  probably  sold  by  his  executors ;  but  to  whom?  The 
M8.  in  our  Philharmonic  library  Is  a  copy  with  corrections  by  Men- 
delssohn. 

2  Zelter,  letter  of  June  6.    This  MS.  too  seems  to  have  disappeared. 

3  The  first  letter  that  I  have  found  dated  from  the  Leipziger 
Strasse,  "am  7  July  1826,  im  Garten,'  says,  'to-day  or  to-morrow  I 
shall  begin  to  dream  the  Midsummer  night's  dream.' 

*  Dev.  35.    Marx,  Errin.  11. 231— 3. 

s  Prof  Macfarren,  Philharmonic  book,  April  30, 1877. 

•  Beissmann  62. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


259 


crowded  audience,  and  its  first  production  in 
public  seems  to  have  been  at  Stettin,  in  Feb. 
1827,  whither  Felix  went  in  very  severe  weather 
to  conduct  Tit.  With  the  composition  of  this 
work  he  may  be  said  to  have  taken  his  final 
musical  degree,  and  his  lessons  with  Zelter  were 
discontinued. 

Camacho  had  been  submitted  to  Spontini  as 
General-Music-Director  in  the  preceding  year  by 
Felix  himself.  Spontini  was  then,  by  an  odd 
freak  of  fortune,  living  in  a  house  which  had  for 
some  time  been  occupied  by  the  Mendelssohns  in 
the  early  part  of  their  residence  in  Berlin,  viz. 
28  Markgrafen  Strasse,  opposite  the  Catholic 
church.  Taking  the  young  composer  by  the  arm, 
Spontini  led  him  to  the  window,  and  pointing  to 
the  dome  across  the  street,  said,  4Mon  ami,  il 
vous  faut  des  ide"es  grandes  comme  cette  8coupole.' 
This  from  a  man  of  52,  in  the  highest  position, 
to  a  boy  of  17,  could  hardly  have  been  meant  for 
anything  but  kindly,  though  pompous,  advice. 
But  it  was  not  so  taken.  The  Mendelssohns 
and  Spontini  were  not  only  of  radically  different 
natures,  but  they  belonged  to  opposite  parties 
in  music,  and  there  was  considerable  friction  in 
their  intercourse.  At  length,  early  in  1827 
after  various  obstructions  on  Spontini's  part,  the 
opera  was  given  out  for  rehearsal  and  study, 
and  on  April  29  was  produced.  The  house — not 
the  Opera,  but  the  smaller  theatre — was  crowded 
with  friends,  and  the  applause  vehement ;  at  the 
end  the  composer  was  loudly  called  for,  but  he 
had  left  the  theatre,  and  Devrient  had  to  appear 
in  his  stead.  Owing  to  the  illness  of  Blum,  the 
tenor,  the  second  performance  was  postponed, 
and  the  piece  was  never  again  brought  forward. 
Partly  from  the  many  curious  obstructions  which 
arose  in  the  course  of  the  rehearsals,  and  the 
personal  criticisms  which  followed  it,  partly 
perhaps  from  a  just  feeling  that  the  libretto  was 
poor  and  his  music  somewhat  exaggerated,  but 
mainly  no  doubt  from  the  fact  that  during  two 
such  progressive  years  as  had  passed  since  he 
wrote  the  piece  he  had  'outgrown  his  work, 
Felix  seems  to  have  so  far  lost  interest  in  it  as 
not  to  press  for  another  performance.  The  music 
was  published  complete  in  Pianoforte  score  by 
Laue,  of  Berlin,  and  one  of  the  songs  was  included 
in  op.  10,  as  No.  8.  It  should  not  be  overlooked 
that  the  part  of  Don  Quixote  affords  an  instance 
of  the  use  of  'Leit-motif — a  term  which  has 
very  lately  come  into  prominence,  but  which 
was  here  Mendelssohn's  own  invention. 

A  nature  so  keenly  sensitive  as  his  could  hardly 
be  expected  to  pass  with  impunity  through  such 
worries  as  attended  the  production  of  the  opera. 
He  was  so  sincere  and  honest  that  the  sneers 
of  the  press  irritated  him  unduly.   A  year  before 

7  F.M.  1. 158.  Felix's  MS.  letter  from  Stettin,  Feb.  17, 1827.  b  the 
first  In  which  his  father  Is  addressed  as  '  Herr  Stadtrath.' 

s  'My  Mend,  your  Ideas  must  be  grand— grand  as  that  dome.' 
Marx,  Errin.  1. 247. 

•  '  For  God's  sake,'  says  he  in  1843  to  Mr.  Bartholomew, '  do  not  let 
my  old  sin  of  Camacho's  Wedding  be  stirred  up  again  1'  (Polko,  by 
Lady  Wallace,  p.  217.)  In  the  same  manner  In  1835  he  protests  to 
Mrs.  Voigt  against  the  performance  of  bis  C  minor  Symphony— at  least 
without  the  explanation  that  it  was  written  by  a  boy  of  barely  lfi. 
(Acht  Brlefe.  etc,  p.  20.) 

b  2 


260 


MENDELSSOHN. 


he  had  vented  his  feelings  in  some  lines  which 
will  be  new  to  most  readers  : — 


Schrelbt  der  Komponijte  ernst, 

Schliifert  er  uns  eln ; 
Schrelbt  der  Komponlste  frob, 

1st  er  zu  gemein. 
Schreibt  der  Komponlste  lang, 

1st  er  zum  Erbarmen ; 
Schreibt  eln  Komponlste  kurz, 

Kann  man  nicht  erwarmen. 
Schreibt  eln  Komponlste  klar. 

Ist's  ein  armen  Tropf ; 
Schrelbt  eln  Komponlste  tief 

Rappelt's  lhn  am  Kopf. 
Schreib'  er  also  wie  er  will. 

Keinem  steht  es  an ; 
Darum  schreib  eln  Komponlst 

Wie  er  will  und  kann. ' 


If  the  artist  grayely  writes. 

To  sleep  it  will  beguile. 
If  the  artist  gaily  writes, 

It  Is  a  vulgar  style. 
If  the  artist  writes  at  length. 

How  sad  his  hearers'  lot  1 
If  the  artist  briefly  writes, 

No  man  will  care  one  Jot. 
If  an  artist  simply  writes, 

A  fool  he 's  said  to  be. 
If  an  artist  deeply  writes. 

He's  mad ;  'tis  plain  to  see. 
In  whatsoever  way  he  writes 

He  can't  please  every  man ; 
Therefore  let  an  artist  write 

How  he  likes  and  can. 


But  on  the  present  occasion  the  annoyance  was  too 
deep  to  be  thrown  off  by  a  joke.  It  did  in  fact 
for  a  time  seriously  affect  his  health  and  spirits, 
and  probably  laid  the  foundation  for  that  dislike 
of  the  officialism  and  pretension,  the  artists  and 
institutions,  the  very  soil  and  situation  of  Berlin, 
which  so  curiously  pervades  his  letters  whenever 
he  touches  on  that  2city.  His  depression  was  in- 
creased by  the  death  of  an  old  friend,  named 
Hanstein,  who  was  carried  off  this  spring,  and 
by  the  side  of  whose  deathbed  Felix  composed  the 
well-known  Fugue  in  E  minor  (op.  35,  no.  1). 
The  chorale  in  the  major,  which  forms  the  climax 
of  the  fugue,  is  intended,  as  we  are  told  on  good 
authority,  to  express  his  friend's  3release.  But 
Felix  was  too  young  and  healthy,  and  his  nature 
too  eager,  to  allow  him  to  remain  in  despondency. 
A  sonata  in  B  b,  for  P.F.  solo  (afterwards  pub- 
lished as  op.  106)  is  signed  May  31, 1827,  and  on 
Whit-Sunday,  June  3,  we  find  him  at  Sakrow, 
near  Potsdam,  the  property  of  his  friend  Magnus, 
composing  the  charming  Lied, '  1st  es  wahr  ?'  which 
within  a  few  months  he  employed  to  advantage 
in  his  Quartet  in  A  minor  (op.  1 3).  Meantime — 
probably  4in  1826 — he  had  entered  the  university 
of  Berlin,  where  his  tutor  Heyse  was  now  a  pro- 
fessor. For  his  matriculation  essay  he  sent  in  a 
translation  in  verse  of  the  Andria  of  Terence, 
which  primarily  served  as  a  birthday  present  to 
his  'mother  (March  15).  This  translation  was 
published  in  a  'volume,  with  a  preface  and  essay, 
and  a  version  of  the  9th  Satire  of  Horace,  by 
Heyse.  Mendelssohn's  translation  has  been  re- 
cently examined  by  an  eminent  English  scholar, 
who  reports  that  as  a  version  it  is  precise  and  faith- 
ful, exceedingly  literal,  and  corresponding  closely 
with  the  original  both  in  rhythm  and  metre, 
while  its  language,  as  far  as  an  Englishman  may 
judge  of  German,  is  quite  worthy  of  representing 
the  limpid  Latin  of  Terence.  Professor  Munro 
also  points  out  that  as  this  was  the  first  attempt 
in  Germany  to  render  Terence  in  his  own  metres, 
it  may  be  presumed  to  have  set  the  example  to 
the  scholars  who  have  since  that  date,  as  a  rule, 

1  Written  for  his  mother's  birthday,  March  15,  1826.  See  'TJeber 
Land  und  Meer,'  1873,  No.  38. 

3  See  the  two  letters  to  Verkenlus,  Aug.  14  and  23, 1811 ;  also  one  to 
Hiller.  March  25, 1813  (H.  p.  207),  and  far  more  strongly  In  many  an 
unpublished  letter.  •  Schubrlng,  375  a. 

*  1  cannot  obtain  the  exact  date.  9  Schubrlng,  371  J. 

<  'Das  Madchen  von  Andros,  eine  KomOdie  des  Terentius,  in  den 
Versmassen  des  Originals  ubersetzt  von  F  '  "  * .  Slit  Einlei t ung  und 
Anmerkungen  herausgegeben  von  K.  W.  L.  Heyse.  Angehfingt  1st  die 
9te  Satire  des  Horatius,  ubersetzt  von  dem  Herausgeber.  Berlin  1826. 
Bei  Ferdinand  DUmmler.'    The  preface  Is  dated  '  July  1826/ 


MENDELSSOHN. 

translated  Plautus  and  Terence  and  other  kindred 
Greek  and  Latin  classics  in  the  original  metres. 
It  was  by  no  means  his  first  attempt  at  verse ;  for 
a  long  mock-heroic  of  the  year  1820  has  been  pre- 
served, called  the  Paphleis,  in  3  cantos,  occupied 
with  the  adventures  of  his  brother  Paul  (Paphlos), 
full  of  slang  and  humour,  and  in  hexameters. 

Whether  Felix  went  through  the  regular  uni- 
versity course  or  not,  does  not  appear,  but  no 
doubt  the  proceeding  was  a  systematic  one,  and  he 
certainly  attended  several  classes,  amongst  them 
those  of 7  Hegel,  and  took  especial  pleasure  in  the 
lectures  of  the  great  Carl  Bitter  on  geography. 
Of  his  notes  of  these,  two  folio  volumes,  closely 
written  in  a  hand  like  copper-plate,  and  dated 
1827  and  28,  still  exist.  Italian  he  was  probably 
familiar  with  before  he  went  to  Italy ;  and  in  later 
years  he  knew  it  so  thoroughly  as  to  be  able  to 
translate  into  German  verse  the  very  crabbed  son- 
nets of  Dante,  Boccaccio,  Cecco  Angiolieri,  and 
Cino,  for  his  uncle  Joseph  8in  1840.  Landscape 
drawing,  in  which  he  was  ultimately  to  excel  so 
greatiy,  he  had  already  worked  at  for  several 
years.  For  mathematics  he  had  neither  taste 
nor  capacity,  and  Schubring  pathetically  describes 
the  impossibility  of  making  him  comprehend  how 
the  polestar  could  be  a  guide  in  travelling. 

The  change  into  the  new  house  was  a  great 
event  in  the  family  life.  Felix  began  gymnastics, 
and  became  a  very  great  proficient  in  them.  He 
also  learned  to  ride,  and  to  swim,  and  with  him 
learning  a  thing  meant  practising  it  to  the  utmost, 
and  getting  all  the  enjoyment  and  advantage  that 
could  be  extracted  from  it.  He  was  a  great 
dancer,  now  and  for  many  years  after.  Billiards 
he  played  brilliantly.  Skating  was  the  one  out- 
door exercise  which  he  did  not  succeed  in — he  could 
not  stand  the  cold.  The  garden  was  a  vast  attrac- 
tion to  their  friends,  and  Boccia  (a  kind  of  bowls) 
was  the  favourite  game  under  the  old  chestnut- 
trees  which  still  overshadow  the  central  alley. 
The  large  rooms  also  gave  a  great  impetus  to  the 
music,  and  to  the  mixed  society  which  now  flocked 
to  the  house  more  than  ever.  We  hear  of  Bahel 
and  Varnhagen,  Bettina,  Heine,  Holtei,  Lindblad, 
Steffens,  Gans,  Marx,  Kugler,  Droysen  ;  of  Hum- 
boldt, W. '  Miiller,  Hegel  (for  whom  alone  a  card- 
table  Was  provided),  and  other  intellectual  and 
artistic  persons,  famous,  or  to  be  famous  after- 
wards. Young  people  too  there  were  in  troops  ; 
the  life  was  free,  and  it  must  have  been  a  delight- 
ful, wholesome,  and  thoroughly  enjoyable  time. 
Among  the  features  of  the  garden  life  was  a 
newspaper,  which  in  summer  was  called  '  Garten- 
zeitung,'  'The  Garden  Times' ;  in  winter  '  Schnee- 
und-Thee-zeitung,'  'The  Snow-and-Tea  Times.' 
It  appears  to  have  been  edited  by  Felix  and 
Marx,  but  all  comers  were  free  to  contribute,  for 
which  purpose  pens,  ink,  and  paper  lay  in  one  of 
the  summer-houses.  Nor  was  it  confined  to  the 
younger  part  of  the  society,  but  grave  personages, 
like  Humboldt  and  Zelter  even,  did  not  disdain 
to  add  their  morsel  of  fun  or  satire.     In  all  this 

1  One  course  of  these  was  on  Music.    Zelter,  In  G.  A  M.  54. 
8  They  are  given  In  their  place  in  the  later  editions  of  the  Letters. 
TOl.il. 
»  Father  of  Max  Muller,  and  author  of  Schubert's  '  SchOne  Mullerin." 


MENDELSSOHN". 

brilliant  interchange  of  art,  science,  and  literature, 
Felix,  even  at  this  early  date,  was  the  prominent 
figure.  It  was  now  as  it  was  all  through  his  life. 
When  he  entered  the  room  every  one  was  anxious 
to  speak  to  him.  Women  of  double  his  age  made 
love  to  him,  and  men,  years  afterwards,  recol- 
lected the  evenings  they  had  spent  with  him, 
and  treasured  every  word  that  fell  from  his  1  lips. 
One  who  knew  him  well  at  this  time,  but  after- 
wards broke  with  him,  speaks  of  the  separation 
as  '  a  draught  of  wormwood,  the  bitter  taste  of 
which  remained  for  years.' a 

The  latter  half  of  August  and  the  whole  of  Sep- 
tember were  passed  in  a  tour  with  Magnus  and 
Heydemann8  through  the  Harz  mountains  to 
Baden-Baden  (where  his  amusing  adventures  must 
be  read  in  his  letters),  and  thence  by  Heidelberg, 
where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  4Thibaut 
and  his  old  Italian  music,  to  Frankfort.  At 
Frankfort  he  saw  Schelble  and  Hiller,  and  de- 
lighted them  with  his  new  A  minor  Quartet 
(op.  13) — not  yet  fully  written  down ;  and  with 
the 'Midsummer  Night's  Dream 'overture,  which 
although  a  year  old  was  still  new  to  the  world. 

The  annoyance  about  Camacho  had  vanished 
with  the  tour,  and  Felix  could  now  treat  the 
story  as  a  joke,  and  take  off  the  principal  persons 
concerned.  The  A  minor  Quartet  was  completed 
directly  after  his  return  home,  and  is  dated '  Ber- 
lin, Oct.  27,  1827.'  Of  further  compositions  this 
year  we  know  only  of  the  beautiful  fugue  in  Eb 
for  strings  (on  his  favourite  old  ecclesiastical 
subject),  which  since  his  death  has  been  pub- 
lished as  the  4th  movement  of  op.  81.  It  is  dated 
Berlin,  Nov.  1.  Also  a  '  Tu  es  Petrus '  for  choir 
and  orchestra,  written  for  Fanny's  birthday  (Nov. 
14),  and  published  as  op.  11 1.  A  very  comic 
'  Kinder  -  sym  phonie '  for  the  Christmas  home 
party,  for  the  same  orchestra  as  Haydn's,  and 
a  motet  for  4  voices  and  small  orchestra  on  the 
chorale  '  Christe  du  Lamm  Gottes,'  are  named  by 
Fanny  in  a  5  letter.  Soon  after  this  their  circle 
sustained  a  loss  in  the  departure  of  Klinge- 
mann,  one  of  the  cleverest  and  most  genial  of 
the  set,  to  London  as  Secretary  to  the  Hans 
Legation.  During  this  winter  Felix — incited 
thereto  by  a  complaint  of  Schubring's,  that  Bach 
always  seemed  to  him  like  an  arithmetical  ex- 
ercise— formed  a  select  choir  *of  16  voices,  who 
met  at  his  house  on  Saturday  evenings,  and 
at  once  began  to  practise  the  Passion.  This 
was  the  seed  which  blossomed  in  the  public  per- 
formance of  that  great  work  a  year  later,  and 
that  again  in  the  formation  of  the  Bachgesell- 
schaft,  and  the  publication  of  the  Grand  Mass, 
and  all  the  Church  Cantatas  and  other  works, 
which  have  proved  such  mines  of  wealth.  Long 
and  complicated  as  the  Passion  is,  he  must  have 
known  it  by  heart  even  at  that  early  date ;  for 
among  other  anecdotes  proving  as  much,  Schu- 

1  For  Instances  of  this  see  Dora,  and  also  Gathy  In  N.M.Z.  1818. 

J  Marx.  Errin.  II.  138. 

>  Louis  Heydemann  was  a  very  eccentric  person.  He  possessed 
many  MSS.  of  Mendelssohn's— amongst  others  the  Sonata  In  E  (op.  7) 
and  the  Cello  variations  (op.  17).  These— 10  In  number,  dating  from 
1824  to  29— are  now  all  in  the  possession  of  Dr.  Paul  Mendelssohn- 
Bartholdy. 

4  F.  M.  1. 181-166.  5  F.  M.  I.  ISO.  181.  «  Scbubrlng.  375  o. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


261 


bring,  who  may  be  implicitly  believed,  relates 
that  one  evening  after  accompanying  one  of  the 
choruses  at  the  piano  without  book,  he  said,  '  at 
the  2  3rd  bar  the  sopranos  have  C  and  not  C  sharp.' 

March  1828  was  ocoupied  by  the  composition 
of  a  long  cantata  to  words  by  Levezow,  for  the 
Tercentenary  Festival  of  Albert  Durer,  at  the 
Singakademie  at  'Berlin,  on  April  18.  It  was 
undertaken  at  the  request  of  the  Akademie  der 
Kiinste,  and  is  written  for  solo  voices,  chorus,  and 
orchestra,  and  contains  15  numbers.  The  '  Trum- 
pet Overture'  preceded  it  in  performance.  Felix 
was  not  in  love  with  his  task,  but  as  the  work 
grew  into  shape  and  the  rehearsals  progressed,  he 
became  reconciled  to  it;  the  performance  was  good, 
and  Fanny's  sisterly  verdict  is  that  'she  never 
remembers  to  have  spent  a  pleasanter  8hour.'  The 
work  remains  in  MS.  at  the  Singakademie  and 
the  Berlin  Bibliothek,  and  has  probably  the  faults 
of  almost  all  such  compositions.  Even  Beethoven 
failed  when  he  had  to  write  to  order.  Fate 
however  had  a  second  task  of  the  same  kind  in 
store  for  Felix,  with  some  curious  variations. 
This  time  the  cantata  was  for  a  meeting  (or,  as 
we  should  now  call  it,  a  '  congress ')  of  physicians 
and  investigators  of  natural  science,  to  whom  a 
festival  was  given  by  A.  von  Humboldt  as  presi- 
dent. Rellstab  wrote  the  words,  and  Felix  was 
invited  to  compose  the  music.  It  contains  7 
numbers  for  solo  and  chorus.  Owing  to  a  whim 
of  Humboldt's  the  chorus  was  confined  to  men's 
voices,  and  the  orchestra  to  clarinets,  horns, 
trumpets,  cellos,  and  basses.  The  thing  came  off 
in  September ;  but  no  ladies — not  even  Fanny— 
were  admitted,  no  report  is  given  in  the  musical 
paper ;  and  as  there  is  no  mention  of  it  in  the  MS. 
Catalogue  the  autograph  has  probably  vanished. 
Chopin  was  'present  at  the  sitting  of  the  congress, 
and  saw  Mendelssohn  with  Spontini  and  Zelter ; 
but  his  modesty  kept  him  from  introducing  himself, 
and  their  acquaintance  was  put  off  to  a  later  date. 

Felix  had  however  during  the  summer  been 
occupied  in  a  more  congenial  task  than  such 
pieces  d 'occasion  as  these,  viz.  in  the  composition  of 
the  Overture  to  Goethe's  '  Calm  sea  and  Prosperous 
voyage,'  on  which  we  find  him  employed  in  June. 
Fanny  gives  us  the  interesting  '"information  that 
he  especially  avoided  the  form  of  an  Overture  with 
Introduction,  and  wished  his  work  to  stand  as  two 
companion  pictures.  She  mentions  also  his  having 
written  pianoforte  pieces  at  this  time,  including 
some  'Lieder  ohne  Worte'  (a  title  not  destined 
to  come  before  the  world  for  some  years)  and  a 
great  Antiphona  and  Responsorium  for  4  choirs, 
*  Hora  est,'  etc.,  which  still  remains  in  MS. 

For  Christmas  he  wrote  a  second  Kinder- 
symphonie,  which  delighted  every  one  so  much 
that  it  had  to  be  repeated  on  the  "spot.  He  also 
re-scored  Handel's  Acis  and  Galatea,  and  the 
Dettingen  Te  Deum,  at  Zelter's  desire,  for  the  use 
of  the  12  Singakademie.  They  have  since  been 
published,  but  are  not  satisfactory  specimens  of 
such  work.     He  also  wrote  the  Variations  in  D 

1  A.M.Z.  1828,  p.  864.  •  F.  M.  L  189. 

•  Karasowskl.  chap.  It.  »  F.M.  1. 194.  u  F.M.  L  IN. 

u  F.M.  1. 199,  compared  with  Devrient,  161. 


262 


MENDELSSOHN. 


for  P.F.  and  Cello  (op.  17),  dated  Jan.  30,  1829, 
and  dedicated  to  his  brother  Paul,  who  was  more 
than  a  fair  Cello  player.  The  'Calm  sea  and 
Prosperous  voyage  was  finished,  or  finished  as 
nearly  as  any  score  of  Mendelssohn's  can  be 
said  to  have  been  finished  before  it  was  pub- 
licly performed,  and  had  received  those  in- 
numerable corrections  and  alterations  and  after- 
thoughts, which  he  always  gave  his  works,  and 
which  in  some  instances  caused  the  delay  of 
their  appearance  for  years — which  in  fact  pre- 
vented the  appearance  of  the  Italian  Symphony 
till  his  removal  made  any  further  revision  im- 
possible. We  have  already  seen  that  the  basis  of 
the  work  was  furnished  by  the  visit  to  Dobberan. 
A  MS.  letter  from  that  place  to  Fanny  (July  27, 
1824)  gives  her  an  account  of  the  sea  in  the  two 
conditions  in  which  it  is  'depicted  in  the  overture. 

Felix's  little  choir  had  steadily  continued  their 
practice  of  the  Passion,  and  the  better  they  knew 
the  mighty  work  the  more  urgent  became  their 
desire  for  a  public  performance  by  the  Sing- 
akademie  (300  to  400  voices)  under  Felix's  own 
care.  Apart  from  the  difficulties  of  the  music, 
with  its  double  choruses  and  double  orchestra, 
two  main  obstacles  appeared  to  lie  in  the  way — 
the  opposition  of  Zelter  as  head  of  the  Akademie, 
and  the  apathy  of  the  public.  Felix,  for  one, 
•  utterly  2  disbelieved '  in  the  possibility  of  over- 
coming either,  and  with  him  were  his  parents 
and  Marx,  whose  influence  in  the  house  was 
great.  Against  him  were  Devrient,  Schubring, 
Bauer,  and  one  or  two  other  enthusiasts.  At 
length  Devrient  and  Felix  determined  to  go 
and  beard  Zelter  in  his  den.  They  encountered 
a  few  rough  words,  but  their  enthusiasm  gained 
the  day.  Zelter  yielded,  and  allowed  Felix  to 
conduct  the  3  rehearsals  of  the  Akademie.  The 
principal  solo  singers  of  the  Opera  at  once  gave 
in  their  adhesion ;  the  rehearsals  began ;  Felix's 
tact,  skill,  and  intimate  knowledge  of  the  music 
carried  everything  before  them,  the  public  flocked 
to  the  rehearsals  ;  and  on  Wednesday,  March 
11,  1829,  the  first  performance  of  the  Passion 
took  place  since  the  death  of  Bach ;  every  ticket 
was  taken,  and  a  thousand  people  turned  away 
from  the  doors.  Thus  in  Felix's  own  words  (for 
once  and  once  only  alluding  to  his  descent)  '  it 
was  an  actor  and  a  Jew  who  restored  this  great 
Christian  work  to  the  4  people.'  There  was  a 
Becond  performance  under  Felix  on  Bach's  birth- 
day, March  81.  It  is  probable  that  these  suc- 
cesses did  not  add  to  Felix's  popularity  with 
the  musicians  of  Berlin.  Whether  it  was  his 
age,  his  manner,  his  birth,  the  position  held  by 
his  family,  or  what,  certain  it  is  that  he  was 
at  this  time  in  some  way  under  a  cloud.  He 
had  so  far  quarrelled  with  the  Royal  Orchestra 
that  they  refused  to  be  conducted  by  him,  and 
concerts  at  which  his  works  were  given  were 
badly  attended.5 

Paganini  made  his  first  appearance  in  Berlin 

i  '  Sometimes  it  lies  as  smooth  as  a  mirror,  without  waves,  breakers, 
or  noise  . . .  sometimes  it  is  so  wild  and  furious  that  I  dare  not  go  in.' 
J  Dev.  46. 

>  They  began  about  the  end  of  January.    F.M.  i.  204. 
4  Dev.  57.  «  See  his  letter  to  Ganz,  in  G.  4  M.  186. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

this  month,  gave  four  concerts,  and  6  bewitched 
the  Berliners  as  he  did  every  one  else.  He  very 
soon  found  his  way  to  the  Leipziger  'Strasse.  It 
would  be  interesting  to  know  if  he  heard  the 
Passion,  and  if,  like  Rossini,  some  years  later,  he 
professed  himself  a  convert  to  Bach. 

Whistling's  Handbuch  shows  that  by  the  end 
of  this  year  Felix  had  published  his  3  P.F.  Quar- 
tets ;  the  Sonata  for  P.F.  and  V. ;  the  Caprice, 
op.  5 ;  the  Sonata  for  P.F.  solo ;  the  Wedding  of 
Camacho ;  and  the  first  two  books  of  Songs.  The 
dedications  of  these  throw  a  light  on  some  things. 
The  quartets  are  inscribed  respectively  to  Prince 
A.Radzivil  (a  friend  of  the  family,  who  was  present 
at  the  first  performance  of  the '  Beiden  Padagogen' 
at  the  Neue  Promenade),  Zelter,  and  Goethe; 
the  "Violin  Sonata  to  E.  Ritz,  Felix's  favourite 
violin  player ;  the  7  Characteristic  P.F.  pieces  to 
Ludwig  Berger,  his  P.F.  teacher.  The  rest  have 
no  dedications. 

The  engagement  of  Fanny  Mendelssohn  to 
William  Hensel  the  painter  of  Berlin  took  place 
on  January  22,  1829,  in  the  middle  of  the  excite- 
ment about  the  Passion ;  and  on  April  10  Felix 
took  leave  for  England.  He  was  now  20.  His  age, 
the  termination  of  his  liability  to  military  'service, 
the  friction  just  alluded  to  between  himself  and 
the  musical  world  of  Berlin — all  things  invited 
him  to  travel,  and  9  Zelter  was  not  wrong  in 
saying  that  it  was  good  for  him  to  leave  home  for  a 
time.  Hitherto  also  he  had  worked  without  fee  or 
reward.  He  was  now  to  prove  that  he  could  make 
his  living  by  10  music.  But  more  than  this  was  in- 
volved. His  visit  to  England  was  the  first  section 
of  a  long  u  j  ourney,  planned  by  the  care  and  sagacity 
of  his  father,  and  destined  to  occupy  the  next  three 
years  of  his  life.  In  this  journey  he  was  '  closely 
to  examine  the  various  countries,  and  to  fix  on 
one  in  which  to  live  and  work ;  to  make  his  name 
and  abilities  known,  so  that  where  he  settled 
he  should  not  be  received  as  a  stranger;  and 
lastly  to  employ  his  good  fortune  in  life,  and  the 
liberality  of  his  father,  in  preparing  the  ground 
for  future  u  efforts.'  The  journey  was  thus  to  be 
to  him  what  the  artistic  tour  of  other  musicians 
had  been  to  them;  but  with  the  important  dif- 
ference, resulting  from  his  fortunate  position  in 
life,  that  the  establishment  of  his  musical  re- 
putation was  not  the  exclusive  object,  but  that 
his  journey  was  to  give  him  a  knowledge  of  the 
world,  and  form  his  character  and  manners. 
The  answer  attributed  to  a  young  Scotch  student 
who  was  afterwards  to  become  a  great  English 
archbishop,  when  asked  why  he  had  come  to 
Oxford — '  to  improve  myself  and  to  make  friends ' 
— exactly  expresses  the  special  object  of  Mendels- 
sohn's tour,  and  is  the  mark  which  happily  dis- 
tinguished it  from  those  of  so  many  of  his  prede- 
cessors in  the  art.  Music  had  not  been  adopted 
as  a  profession  for  Felix  without  much  hesitation, 
and  resistance  on  the  part  of  some  of  his  relations, 
and  his  father  was  wisely  resolved  that  in  so  doing 
nothing  should  be  sacrificed  in  the  general  culture 

«  A.M.Z.1829,  266.  1  Mara,  Krrin.  ii.  76.  8  F.M.  i.  18a 

»  Corr.  with  Goethe,  letter  641.  1°  L.  April,  16. 1836. 

w  '  My  great  Journey'  he  calls  it,  G.  ft  M.  100, 187. 
u  Letter,  F«b.  21, 1832. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

and  elevation  of  his  son.  '  To  improve  himself, 
and  to  make  friends'  was  Mendelssohn's  motto, 
not  only  during  his  grand  tour  but  throughout 
his  career. 

It  was  their  first  serious  parting.  His  father 
and  Rebecka  accompanied  him  to  Hamburg.  The 
boat  (the '  Attwood')  left  on  the  Saturday  evening 
before  Easter  Sunday,  April  18,  and  it  was  not 
till  noon  on  Tuesday,  the  21  at,  that  he  reached 
the  Custom  House,  London.  The  passage  was 
a  very  bad  one,  the  engines  broke  down,  and 
Mendelssohn  lay  insensible  for  the  whole  of 
Sunday  and  Monday.  He  was  welcomed  on 
landing  by  Klingemann  and  Moscheles,  and  had 
a  lodging  at  103,  Great  Portland  'Street,  where 
his  landlord  was  Heincke,  a  German  ironmonger. 

It  was  the  middle  of  the  musical  season,  and 
Malibran  made  her  first  reappearance  at  the 
Opera,  as  Desdemona,  on  the  night  of  his  ar- 
rival. His  account  of  her,  with  other  letters 
describing  this  period,  will  be  found  in  Hensel's 
'Familie  Mendelssohn'  (i.  115-294),  and  in 
Devrient's  '  Recollections.'  Other  singers  in 
London  at  that  time  were  Sontag,  Pisaroni, 
Mad.  Stockhausen,  and  Donzelli ;  also  Velluti, 
the  castrato,  a  strange  survival  of  the  ancient 
world,  whom  it  is  difficult  to  think  of  in  connex- 
ion with  Felix  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy.  De 
Beriot  and  Madame  Dulcken  were  among  the 
players.  Ft-tis  too  was  in  London  delivering  his 
lectures  on  '  La  musique  a  la  portee  de  tout  le 
monde,'  in  French,  to  English  audiences. 

Felix  was  much  with  the  Moscheleses,  and 
there  met  Neukomm,  with  whom,  in  everything 
but  his  music,  he  sympathised  warmly. 

His  first  appearance  before  an  English  audience 
was  at  the  Philharmonic  Concert  (then  held  in 
the  Argyll  Rooms,  at  the  upper  end  of  Regent 
Street)  on  Monday  evening,  May  25,  when  he 
conducted  his  Symphony  in  C  minor.  Old  John 
Cramer  '  led  him  to  the  piano,'  at  which  in  those 
days  the  conductor  sat  or  stood,  '  as  if  he  were  a 
young  2lady.'  The  applause  was  immense,  and 
the  Scherzo  (scored  by  him  from  his  Ottet  for 
this  occasion,  in  place  of  the  original  Minuet  and 
Trio)  was  obstinately  encored  against  his  swish. 
How  deeply  he  felt  the  warmth  of  his  reception 
may  be  seen  from  his  letter  to  the  4  Society.  He 
published  the  Symphony  with  a  dedication  to  the 
6  Philharmonic,  and  they  on  their  part  elected 
him  an  honorary  member  on  Nov.  29,  1829.  It 
was  thus  an  English  body  which  gave  him  his 
first  recognition  as  a  'composer.  The  simple  ap- 
plause of  London  had  wiped  out  the  sneers  and 
misunderstandings  of  Berlin.  This  he  never  for- 
got ;  it  recurs  throughout  his  correspondence,  and 
animates  his  account  of  his  latest  visits  to  us. 
Near  the  close  of  his  life  he  spoke  of  it  as 
'having  lifted  a  stone  from  his  7 heart.'  The 
English  had  much  to  learn,  and  he  could  laugh 

>  The  corner  of  Kldinghouse  Street,  now,  and  since  1858,  numbered  79. 
3  F.M.t  226.  I  Ibid. 

*  Hogarth,  61.    The  letter  Is  In  French. 

»  The  autograph  of  the  Symphony— In  the  green  cloth  boards  so 
familiar  to  those  who  know  his  MS.  scores— Is  now  in  the  Society's 
Library. 

•  See  the  statement  to  this  effect  in  the  A.M.Z.  for  1836,  p.  337. 
1  Letter  to  Mad.  Goldschmidt. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


263 


heartily  8  at  them  ;  but  at  least  they  loved  him 
and  his  music,  and  were  quite  in  earnest  in  their 
appreciation.  Five  days  afterwards,  on  the  30th, 
at  2  p.m.,  he  appeared  again  in  the  same  room  at 
what  is  vaguely  called  in  the  Times  of  June  1, 
'the  fourth  grand  concert.'  He  played  the 
Concertstiick  of  Weber — as  the  same  journal 
informs  us — 'with  no  music  before  him.'  A 
charming  'letter,  equal  to  any  in  the  whole  col- 
lection for  its  gaiety  and  bright  humour,  describes 
his  coming  to  the  rooms  early  to  try  the  piano — 
a  new  Clementi — and  his  losing  himself  in  ex- 
temporising till  he  was  recalled  by  finding  that 
the  audience  were  taking  their  seats.  Two 
other  concerts  must  be  mentioned  : — one  by 
Drouet,  the  flute-player,  on  Midsummer  Night, 
at  which,  most  appropriately,  the  Overture  to  the 
Midsummer  Night's  Dream  was  given,  for  the 
first  time  in  England,  and  he  himself  played  the 
Eb  Concerto  of  Beethoven,  then  an  absolute 
novelty  in  this  10  country.  After  the  concert  the 
score  of  the  overture  was  left  in  the  hackney 
coach  by  Mr.  Attwood,  and  "lost.  On  Men- 
delssohn's hearing  of  it,  he  said,  '  Never  mind,  I 
will  make  another.'  He  did,  and  on  comparing 
it  with  the  parts  no  variations  were  found.  The 
other  concert  was  on  July  1 3,  for  the  benefit  of  the 
sufferers  from  the  floods  in  B  Silesia.  At  this  the 
Overture  was  repeated,  and  Felix  and  Moscheles 
played  (for  the  first  and  only  time  in  England) 
a  Concerto  by  the  former  for  two  Pianofortes  and 
Orchestra,  uin  E.  All  this  was  a  brilliant  begin- 
ning, as  far  as  compositions  went ;  it  placed  him 
in  the  best  possible  position  before  the  musical 
society  of  London,  but  it  did  not  do  much  to 
solve  the  question  of  livelihood,  since  the  only 
commission  which  we  hear  of  his  receiving,  and 
which  delighted  him  hugely,  he  was  compelled 
for  obvious  reasons  to  decline,  viz.  a  festival  hymn 
for  Ceylon  for  the  anniversary  of  the  emancipation 
of  the  natives ! — an  idea  so  comical  that  he  says 
it  had  kept  him  laughing  inwardly  for  two  "days. 
A  MS.  letter  of  this  time  (dated  June  7)  is  signed 
*  Composer  to  the  Island  of  Ceylon.' 

But  he  found  time  for  other  things  besides 
music ;  for  the  House  of  Commons,  and  picture 
galleries,  and  balls  at  Devonshire  House  and 
Lansdowne  House,  and  so  many  other  parties,  that 
the  good  people  at  home  took  fright  and  thought 
he  was  giving  up  music  for  society,  and  would 
"become  a  drawing-room  ornament.  The  charm 
of  his  manner  and  his  entire  simplicity  took 
people  captive,  and  he  laid  a  good  foundation 
this  year  for  the  time  to  come. 

An  amusing  little  picture  of  "himself  and  his 
friends  Rosen  and  Muhlenfeld,  coming  home  late 
from  a  state  dinner  at  the  Prussian  Ambassador's, 
buying  three  German  sausages,  and  then  finding 
a  quiet  street  in  which  to  devour  them,  with  a 

I  See  F.M.  1. 232,  and  Dev.  81,  82.  •  F.M.  L  227,  dated  June  7. 

io  First  played  at  the  Philharmonic  by  Mrs.  Anderson  four  yean 
later.  June  16, 1834.  »  On  the  authority  of  Mr.  W.  H.  Husk. 

is  This  was  suggested  by  Mendelssohn's  uncle  Nathan,  who  lived  In 
Silesia,  to  his  brother  Abraham,  and  by  him  communicated  to  Felix. 
(F.M.  1. 236.) 

ia  See  FelU's  letters  describing  this,  July  10, 16,  and  17  (F.M.  I.  233- 
240) ;  also  Moscheles'  Life,  L  227.  The  autograph  of  the  Concerto  is 
dated  Oct  17, 1823. 

M  F.M.  I  230.  «  Dev.  78.  »  F.M.  I.  238. 


264 


MENDELSSOHN. 


three-part  song  and  peals  of  laughter  between 
the  mouthfuls,  shows  how  gaily  life  went  on 
outside  the  concert-room. 

At  length  the  musical  season  was  over.  Felix 
and  Klingemann  left  London  about  July  21, 
and,  stopping  at  York  and  1  Durham,  were  in 
2Edinburgh  by  the  38th.  On  the  29th  they 
were  3  present  at  the  annual  competition  of 
Highland  Pipers  in  the  Theatre  Royal.  On 
the  30th,  before  leaving  '  the  gray  metropolis  of 
the  north,'  they  went  over  Holyrood  Palace,  saw 
the  traditional  scene  of  the  murder  of  liizzio, 
and  the  chapel,  with  the  altar  at  which  Mary 
was  crowned  standing  'open  to  the  sky,  and 
surrounded  with  grass  and  ivy,  and  everything 
ruined  and  decayed' ; '  and  I  think,'  he  continues, 
•  that  I  found  there  the  beginning  of  my  Scotch 
4  Symphony.'  The  passage  which  he  then  wrote 
down  was  the  first  16  bars  of  the  Introduction, 
which  recurs  at  the  end  of  the  first  movement,  and 
thus  forms,  as  it  were,  the  motto  of  the  work. 

From  Edinburgh  they  went  to  Abbotsford,  and 
thence  by  Stirling,  Perth,  and  Dunkeld,  to 
Blair- Athol;  then  on  foot  by  Fort -William  to 
Tobermory,  sketching  and  writing  enormous  let- 
ters at  every  step.  On  the  way  they  visited 
Fingal's  Cave,  and  Felix,  writing  'auf  einer 
Hebride' — 'on  one  of  the  Hebrides' — Aug.  7, 
gives  twenty  bars  of  music,  '  to  show  how  ex- 
traordinarily the  place  affected  me.'  These  20 
bars,  an  actual  inspiration,  are  virtually  5  iden- 
tical with  the  opening  of  the  wonderful  Overture 
which  bears  the  name  of  'Hebrides'  or  '  Fingal's 
Cave.'  Then  came  Glasgow,  and  then  Liverpool. 
At  Liverpool  they  went  over  a  new  American 
liner  called  the  Napoleon,  and  Felix,  finding  a 
Broadwood  piano  in  the  saloon,  sat  down  to  it 
and  played  for  himself  and  his  friend  the  first 
movement  of  Fanny's  '  Easter -Sonata' — what- 
ever that  may  have  been.  Home  was  always  in 
his  thoughts.  Then  to  Holyhead  for  Ireland,  but 
the  weather  was  dreadful  (apparently  as  bad  as 
in  1879) — '  yesterday  was  a  good  day,  for  I  was 
only  wet  through  three  times.'  So  he  turned 
back  to  Liverpool,  there  said  good-bye  to  Klinge- 
mann, and  went  on  by  Chester  to  the  house  of 
Mr.  John  Taylor,  the  mining  engineer,  at  Coed- 
du  near  Holywell.  Here  he  remained  for  some 
days,  seeing  a  very  pleasant  side  of  English  country 
life,  and  making  an  indelible  impression  on  his 
hosts ;  and  here  he  composed  the  three  pieces 
which  form  op.  1 6,  the  first  of  which,  in  key, 
tempo,  and  melody,  closely  resembles  the  in- 
troduction to  the  Scotch  •  Symphony.  The 
following  letter,  written  after  his  death  by  a 
member  of  the  Taylor  family,  gives  a  good  idea 
of  the  clever,  genial,  gay,  and  yet  serious,  nature 
of  the  man  at  this  happy  time  of  life  : — 

It  was  in  the  year  1829  that  we  first  became  acquainted 
with  Mr.  Mendelssohn.  He  wag  introduced  to  us  by 
my  aunt,  Mrs.  Austin,  who  had  well  known  his  cousin 

1  They  can  be  traced  by  Felix's  sketches.  *  F.M.  1. 24ft 

>  F.M.  1.  240;  Hogarth,  77.  I  owe  the  date  to  the  kindness  of  Mr. 
Glen  of  Edinburgh.  *  F.M.  1. 244. 

»  10  of  the  present  score,  as  he  afterwards  diminished  the  notation 
by  one  half.    A  facsimile  is  given  in  F.M.  1. 267. 

«  Both  Allegros  are  in  6-8.  and  the  Andante  is  repeated  at  the  end  of 
each.    The  piece  is  dated  Coed-du.  Sept.  4. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

Professor  Mendelssohn,  at  Bonn.  He  visited  us  early 
in  the  season  in  Bedford  Kow,  but  our  real  friendship 
began  at  Coed-du,  which  was  a  house  near  Mold  in 
Flintshire,  rented  for  many  years  by  my  father,  Mr. 
John  Taylor. 

Mr.  Mendelssohn  came  down  there  to  spend  a  little 
time  with  us,  in  the  course  of  a  tour  in  England  and 
Scotland.  My  father  and  mother  received  him  kindly, 
as  they  did  everybody,  but  his  arrival  created  no  par- 
ticular sensation,  as  many  strangers  came  to  our  house 
to  see  the  mines  under  my  father's  management,  and 
foreigners  were  often  welcomed  there.  Soon  however 
we  began  to  find  that  a  most  accomplished  mind  had 
come  among  us,  quick  to  observe,  delicate  to  distinguish. 
There  was  a  little  shyness  about  him,  great  modesty. 
We  knew  little  about  his  music,  but  the  wonder  of  it 
grew  upon  us ;  and  I  remember  one  night  when  my 
two  sisters  and  I  went  to  our  rooms  how  we  began  saying 
to  each  other  '  Surely  this  must  be  a  man  of  genius  .... 
we  can't  be  mistaken  about  the  music ;  never  did  we  hear 
any  one  play  so  before.  Yet  we  know  the  best  London 
musicians.  Surely  by  and  bye  we  shall  hear  that  Felix 
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy  is  a  great  name  in  the  world.' 

My  father's  birthday  happened  while  Mr.  Mendelssohn 
was  with  us.  There  was  a  grand  expedition  to  a  distant 
mine,  up  among  the  hills ;  a  tent  carried  up  there,  a 
dinner  to  the  miners.  We  had  speeches,  and  health- 
drinkings,  and  Mendelssohn  threw  himself  into  the 
whole  thing,  as  if  he  had  been  one  of  us.  He  interested 
himself  in  hearing  about  the  condition  and  way  of  life 
of  the  Welsh  miners.  Nothing  was  lost  upon  him.  A 
letter  that  he  wrote  to  my  brother  John  just  after  he 
left  Coed-du,  charmingly  describes  the  impressions  he 
carried  away  of  that  country.  Sometimes  he  would  go 
out  sketching  with  us  girls,  sitting  down  very  seriously 
to  draw,  but  making  the  greatest  fun  of  attempts  which 
he  considered  to  be  unsuccessful.  One  figure  of  a  Welsh 
girl  he  imagined  to  be  like  a  camel,  and  she  was  called 
the  camel  accordingly.  Though  he  scorned  his  own 
drawings,  he  had  the  genuine  artist-feeling,  and  great 
love  for  pictures.  I  need  not  say  how  deeply  he  entered 
into  the  beauty  of  the  hills  and  the  woods.  _  His  way 
of  representing  them  was  not  with  the  pencil;  but  in 
the  evenings  his  improvised  music  would  show  what  he 
had  observed  or  felt  in  the  past  day.  The  piece  called 
The  Bivulet,  which  he  wrote  at  that  time,  for  my  sister 
Susan,  will  show  what  I  mean ;  it  was  a  recollection 
of  a  real  actual  'rivulet. 

We  observed  how  natural  objects  seemed  to  suggest 
music  to  him.  There  was  in  my  sister  Honora's  garden, 
a  pretty  creeping  7  plant,  new  at  that  time,  covered  with 
little  trumpet-like  flowers.  He  was  struck  with  it,  and 
played  for  her  the  music  which  (he  said)  the  fairies 
might  play  on  those  trumpets.  When  he  wrote  out  the 
piece  (called  a  Capriccio  in  E  minor)  he  drew  a  little 
branch  of  that  flower  all  up  the  margin  of  the  paper. 

The  piece  (an  Andante  and  Allegro)  which  Mr. 
Mendelssohn  wrote  for  me,  was  suggested  by  the  sight 
of  a  bunch  of  carnations  and  8  roses.  The  carnations 
that  year  were  very  fine  with  us.  He  liked  them  best  of 
all  •  the  flowers,  would  have  one  often  in  his  button-hole. 
We  found  he  intended  the  arpeggio  passages  in  that 
composition  as  a  reminder  of  the  sweet  scent  of  the 
flower  rising  up. 

Mr.  Mendelssohn  was  not  a  bit  *  sentimental,'  though 
he  had  so  much  sentiment.  Nobody  enjoyed  fun  more 
than  he,  and  his  laughing  was  the  most  joyous  that 
could  be.  One  evening  in  hot  summer  we  staid  in  the 
wood  above  our  house  later  than  usual.  We  had  been 
building  a  house  of  fir  branches  in  Susan's  garden  up  in 
the  wood.  We  made  a  fire,  a  little  way  off  it,  in  a  thicket 
among  the  trees,  Mendelssohn  helping  with  the  utmost 
zeal,  dragging  up  more  and  more  wood :  we  tired  our- 
selves with  our  merry  work ;  we  sat  down  round  our 
fire,  the  smoke  went  off,  the  ashes  were  glowing,  it 
began  to  get  dark,  but  we  could  not  like  to  leave  our 
bonfire.  'If  we  had  but  some  music,'  Mendelssohn  said ; 
'  Could  any  one  get  something  to  play  on  ? '  Then  my 
brother  recollected  that  we  were  near  the  gardener's 
cottage,  and  that  the  gardener  had  a  fiddle.  Off  rushed 
our  boys  to  get  the  fiddle.  When  it  came,  it  was  the 
wretchedest  thing  in  the  world,  and  it  had  but  one 
string.  Mendelssohn  took  the  instrument  into  his 
hands,  and  fell  into  fits  of  laughter  over  it  when  he 
heard  the  sounds  it  made.    His  laughter  was  very  catch- 

»  This  piece  was  long  a  favourite  of  his.  A  water-colour  drawing  by 
Schlrmer,  Inspired  by  Felix's  playing  of  it,  is  still  in  the  possession  of 
the  family  (Dev.  175).  7  Ecremocarpus. 

e  The  account  given  above  of  the  origin  and  intention  of  these  three 
pieces  (op.  16)  is  confirmed  by  a  letter  of  his  own  printed  in  F.M.  i.  279. 
The  autograph  of  No.  1  Is  headed  'Nelken  und  Rosen  in  menge'— 
Carnations  and  Hoses  in  plenty.  *  Compare  Mos.  i.  297. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

ing,  he  put  us  all  into  peals  of  merriment.  Bnt  he, 
somehow,  afterwards  brought  beautiful  music  out  of  the 
poor  old  fiddle,  and  we  sat  listening  to  one  strain  after 
another  till  the  darkness  sent  us  home. 

My  cousin  'John  Edward  Taylor  was  staying  with  us 
at  that  time.  He  had  composed  an  imitation  Welsh  air, 
and  he  was,  before  breakfast,  playing  over  this,  all 
unconscious  that  Mr.  Mendelssohn  (whose  bed-room  was 
next  the  drawing-room)  was  hearing  every  note.  That 
night,  when  we  had  music  as  usual,  Mr.  Mendelssohn 
sat  down  to  play.  After  an  elegant  prelude,  and  with 
all  possible  advantage,  John  Edward  heard  his  poor 
little  air  introduced  as  the  subject  of  the  evening.  And 
having  dwelt  upon  it,  and  adorned  it  in  every  graceful 
manner,  Mendelssohn  in  his  pretty,  playful  way,  bowing 
to  the  compoier,  gave  all  the  praise  to  him. 

I  suppose  some  of  the  charm  of  his  speech  might  lie  in 
the  unusual  choice  of  words  which  he  as  a  German 
made  in  speaking  English.  He  lisped  a  little.  He  used 
an  action  of  nodding  his  head  guickly  till  the  long 
locks  of  hair  would  fall  over  his  high  forehead  with  the 
vehemence  of  his  assent  to  anything  he  liked. 

Sometimes  he  used  to  talk  very  seriously  with  my 
mother.  Seeing  that  we  brothers  and  sisters  lived 
lovingly  together  and  with  our  parents,  he  spoke  about 
this  to  my  mother,  told  her  how  he  had  known  families 
where  it  was  not  so :  and  used  the  words  '  You  know  not 
how  happy  you  are/ 

He  was  so  far  from  any  sort  of  pretension,  or  from 
making  a  favour  of  giving  his  music  to  us,  that  one 
evening  when  the  family  from  a  neighbouring  house 
came  to  dinner,  and  we  had  dancing  afterwards,  he  took 
his  turn  in  playing  quadrilles  and  waltzes  with  the 
others.  He  was  the  first  person  who  taught  us  gallop- 
ades,  and  he  first  played  us  "Weber's  last  waltz.  He 
enjoyed  dancing  like  any  other  young  man  of  his  age. 
He  was  then  20  years  old.  He  had  written  his  Mid- 
summer Night's  Dream  [Overture]  before  that  time. 
I  well  remember  his  playing  it.  He  left  Coed-du  early 
in  September  1829. 

"We  saw  Mr.  Mendelssohn  whenever  he  came  to 
England,  but  the  visits  he  made  to  us  in  London  have 
not  left  so  much  impression  upon  me  as  that  one  at 
Coed-du  did.  I  can  however  call  to  mind  a  party  at  my 
father's  in  Bedford  How  where  he  was  present.  Sir 
George  Smart  was  there  also :  when  the  latter  was  asked 
to  play  he  said  to  my  mother,  '  No,  no,  don't  call  upon 
the  old  post-horse,  when  you  have  a  high-mettled  young 
racer  at.  hand.'  The  end  of  it  was  a  duet  played  by  Sir 
George  and  Mr.  Mendelssohn  together.  Our  dear  old 
master,  Mr.  Attwood,  often  met  him  at  our  house.  Once 
he  went  with  us  to  a  ball  at  Mr.  Attwood's  at  Norwood. 
Keturning  by  daylight  I  remember  how  Mr.  Mendels- 
sohn admired  the  view  of  St.  Paul's  in  the  early  dawn 
which  we  got  from  Blackfriars  bridge.  But  the  happiest 
visit  to  us  was  that  one  when  he  first  brought  his  sweet 
young  wife  to  see  my  mother.  Madame  Felix  Mendels- 
sohn was  a  bride  then,  and  we  all  of  us  said  he  could 
not  have  found  one  more  worthy  of  himself.  And  with 
the  delightful  remembrance  of  his  happiness  then,  I 
will  end  these  fragments. 

His  head  was  at  this  time  full  of  music — the 
E  b  Violin  2  Quartet  (op.  12);  an  organ  piece  for 
Fanny's  3  wedding ;  the  Reformation  Symphony, 
the  Scotch  Symphony,  the  Hebrides  Overture,  as 
well  as  vocal  music,  *  of  which  he  will  say 
nothing.'  Other  subjects  however  occupied  even 
more  of  his  letters  than  music.  Such  were  a 
private  plan  for  a  journey  to  Italy  in  company 
with  the  parents  and  Rebecka,  for  which  he 
enters  into  a  little  conspiracy  with  his  sister; 
and  a  scheme  for  the  celebration  of  his  parents' 
silver  wedding  (Dec.  26,  1829)  by  the  perform- 
ance of  three  operettas  (Liederspiel),  his  own 
'  Soldatenliebschaft,'  a  second  to  be  written  by 
Hensel  and  composed  by  Fanny,  and  the  third 
an  '  Idyll '  by  Klingemann  and  himself,  which 
when  once  it  entered  his  head  rapidly  took  shape, 

1  Afterwards  Gresham  Professor. 

J  F.M.  276. 279, 280.  The  autograph  of  the  Quartet,  In  the  possession 
of  Mr.  Kudorf,  is  dated  '  London,  Sept.  14, 1829.'  Though  published  as 
No.  I.  It  Is  thus  really  his  second  string  quartet.    See  above,  p.  260 o. 

3  Fanny  herself  wrote  the  piece  which  was  actually  played  at  the 
wedding,  Oct.  3,  1829  (F.M.  296).  Felix's  piece,  however,  was  finished 
•nd  written  out  (L.  July  25, 1844). 


MENDELSSOHN. 


265 


and  by  the  end  of  October  appears  to  have  been 
virtually  4complete. 

By  Sept.  10  he  was  again  in  London,  this 
time  8  at  35,  Bury  Street,  St.  James's ;  on  the 
14th  he  finished  and  signed  "the  Eb  Quartet,  and 
on  the  1 7th  was  thrown  from  a  gig  and  hurt  his 
knee,  which  forced  him  to  keep  his  bed  for 
nearly  two  months,  and  thus  to  miss  not  only  a 
tour  through  Holland  and  Belgium  with  his  father, 
but  Fanny's  wedding.  Confinement  to  bed  how- 
ever does  not  prevent  his  writing  home  with  the 
greatest  regularity.  On  Sept.  22  he  ends  his 
letter  with  the  first  phrase  of  the  Hebrides 
Overture — '  aber  zum  Wiedersehen, 


jmnp§  up  nm 


On  Oct.  23  he  informs  them  that  he  is  beginning 
again  to  compose — and  so  on.  He  was  nursed 
by  Klingemann,  and  well  cared  for  by  Sir  Lewis 
and  Lady  Moller,  by  Attwood,  and  Hawes,  the 
musicians,  the  Goschens,  and  others.  His  first 
drive  was  on  Nov.  6,  when  he  found  London 
'  indescribably  beautiful.'  A  week  later  he 
went  to  'Norwood  to  the  Attwoods,  then  back 
to  town  for  '  the  fourteen  happiest  days  he  had 
ever  known,'  and  on  Nov.  29  was  at  Hotel 
Quillacq,  Calais,  on  his  road  home.  He  reached 
Berlin  to  find  the  Hensels  and  the  Devrients 
inhabiting  rooms  in  the  garden-house.  His 
lameness  still  obliged  him  to  walk  with  a  stick  ; 
but  this  did  not  impede  the  mounting  of  his 
7piece  for  the  silver  wedding,  which  came  off 
with  the  greatest  success  on  Dec.  26,  and  dis- 
played an  amount  of  dramatic  ability  which 
excited  the  desire  of  his  friends  that  he  should 
again  write  for  the  8  stage.  The  Liederspiel  how- 
ever was  not  enough  to  occupy  him,  and  during 
this  winter  he  composed  a  'Symphony  for  the 
tercentenary  festival  of  the  Augsburg  Confes- 
sion, which  was  in  preparation  for  June  25, 
1830.  This  work,  in  the  key  of  D,  is  that 
which  we  shall  often  again  refer  to  as  the 
'Reformation  Symphony.'  He  also  wrote  the 
fine  Fantasia  in  FjJ  minor  (op.  28),  which  he 
called  his  •  Scotch  10  Sonata' — a  piec»  too  little 
played.  A  Chair  of  Music  was  founded  in  the 
Berlin  university  this  winter  expressly  with  a 
view  to  its  being  filled  by  Mendelssohn.  But 
on  the  offer  being  made  he  declined  it,  and  at 
his  instance  Marx  was  appointed  in  his  B  stead. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  he  was  right. 
Nothing  probably  could  have  entirely  kept  down 
Mendelssohn's  ardour  for  composition;  but  it 
is  certain  that  to  have  exchanged  the  career 
of  a  composer  for  that  of  a  university  teacher 
would  have  added  a  serious  burden  to  the  many 

4  F.M.  I.  302-304 ;  Dev.  88.  «  F.M.  L  SOL 

•  Op.  16.  No.  2,  is  dated  'Norwood.  Surrey,  Nov.  18/  There  is  a  MS. 
letter  from  the  same  address,  Nov.16.  The  house  was  on  Biggin  Hill. 

7  '  Helmkehr  aus  der  Fremde '  (the  Return  from  abroad)  was 
translated  by  Chorley  as  'The  Son  and  Stranger,'  and  produced  at  the 
Haymarket  Theatre  July  7, 1851.  »  Dev.  94. 

»  Far  some  curious  details  regarding  this  see  Dev.  96.  Schubring 
(374  6)  tells  the  same  story  of  the  Trumpet  Overture. 

10  The  MS.,  in  Mr.  SchlelnlU's  possession,  is  entitled  'Sonate  e'cos- 
salse,'  and  dated  ' Berlin,  Jan.  28, 1S33' ;  but  he  played  it  at  Goethe's, 
May  24. 1830  (L.  L  7).  »  Dev.  98. 


266 


MENDELSSOHN. 


occupations  which  already  beset  him,  besides 
forcing  him  to  exchange  a  pursuit  which  he 
loved  and  succeeded  in,  for  one  for  which  he  had 
no  turn — for  teaching  was  *not  his  forte. 

The  winter  was  over,  his  leg  was  well,  and  he 
was  on  the  point  of  resuming  his  'great  journey'  in 
its  southern  portion,  when,  at  the  end  of  March, 
1830,  both  Kebecka  and  he  were  taken  with  the 
measles.  This  involved  a  delay  of  a  month,  and 
it  was  not  till  aMay  1 3  that  he  was  able  to  start. 
His  father  accompanied  him  as  far  as  Dessau, 
the  original  seat  of  the  family,  where  he  remained 
for  a  few  days  with  his  friend  Schubring. 

He  travelled  through  Leipzig,  Weissenfels, 
and  Naumburg,  and  reached  Weimar  on  the 
20th.  There  he  remained  a  fortnight  in  the  en- 
joyment of  the  closest  intercourse  with  Goethe 
and  his  family,  playing  and  leading  what  he  calls 
a  mad  life — 'Heidenleben.  There  his  portrait  was 
taken,  which,  though  like,  '  made  him  look  very 
sulky,'  and  a  copy  of  the  score  of  the  Reformation 
Symphony  was  made  and  sent  to  Fanny.  On 
June  3  he  took  leave  4of  Goethe  for  the  last 
time,  and  went  by  Nuremberg  to  Munich,  which 
he  reached  on  5  June  6.  At  Munich  he  made 
a  long  halt,  remaining  till  the  end  of  the 
month ;  made  the  acquaintance  of  Josephine 
Lang,  Delphine  Schauroth,  and  other  interest- 
ing persons,  and  was  feted  to  an  extraordinary 
6  extent  —  •  several  parties  every  evening,  and 
more  pianoforte  playing  than  I  ever  recollect' 
—all  which  must  be  read  in  the  letter  of  Marx, 
and  in  his  own  delightful  7  pages.  On  the 
14th,  her  birthday,  he  sends  Fanny  a  little 
Song  without  Words  (Lied)  in  A,  and  on  the 
26th  a  much  longer  one  in  Bb  minor,  which  he 
afterwards  altered,  and  8  published  as  Op.  30, 
No.  2.  Both  here  and  at  Vienna  he  is  disgusted  at 
the  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the  best  players — 
Mozart,  Haydn,  and  Beethoven  utterly  ignored, 
Hummel,  Field,  Kalkbrenner,  accepted  as  clas- 
sics. He  himself  played  the  best  music,  and 
with  the  best  effect,  and  his  visit  must  have 
been  an  epoch  in  the  taste  of  both  9  places. 

From  Munich  he  went  through  the  Salzkam- 
mergut,  by  Salzburg,  Ischl,  and  the  Traunsee,  to 
Linz,  and  thence  to  Vienna,  Aug.  13.  Here  he 
passed  more  than  a  month  of  the  gayest  10  life 
with  Hauser  the  "singer,  Merk  the  cellist,  the 
Pereiras,  the  Eskeles,  and  others,  but  not  so  gay 
as  to  interfere  with  serious  composition — witness 
a  cantata  or  anthem  on  '0  Haupt  voll  Blut  und 
"Wunden*  (MS.),  and  an  'Ave  Maria'  for 
Tenor  solo  and  8  voices  (op.  23,  no.  2),  both  of 
this  date.  On  Sept.  28  we  "find  him  at  Presburg, 
witnessing  the  coronation  of  the  Crown  Prince 
Ferdinand  as  King  of  Hungary  ;  then  at  Lilien- 
feld;  andbyGratz,  Udine,  etc.,  he  reached  Venice 
on  Oct.  9. 

1  See  a  similar  remark  to  Haupt maim's  Letters  to  Hauser  (1. 1ST)  in 
reference  to  a  similar  attempt  in  1835. 

2  F.M.  i.  313  (inaccurately  August). 

>  Letter,  May  25.    See  letters  in  G.  *  M.  «  G.  *  M.  70. 

5  L.  June  6, 1831.  «  L.  Oct.  18.  t  F.M.  i.  313-327. 

>  In  this,  as  in  several  other  cases,  he  has  altered  the  notation  from 
quavers  to  semiquavers. 

»  Letters  to  Zelter  (June  22  and  Oct.  16, 1830).        l»  L  Feb.  18, 1836. 
it  Afterwards  Director  of  the  Munich  Conservatorium.  and  Spohr's 
correspondent.  12  Dev.  105.  u  L.  i.  2L 


MENDELSSOHN. 

His  stay  in  Italy,  and  his  journey  through 
Switzerland  back  to  Munich,  are  so  fully  depicted 
in  the  first  volume  of  his  Letters,  that  it  is  only 
necessary  to  allude  to  the  chief  points.  He  went 
from  Venice  by  Bologna  to  Florence,  reaching  it 
on  Oct.  2  2,  and  remaining  there  for  a  week.  He 
arrived  in  Rome  on  Nov.  i — the  same  day  as 
Goethe  had  done,  as  he  is  careful  to  remark — 
and  he  lived  there  till  April  10,  at  No.  5  Piazza 
di  Spagna.  The  latter  half  of  April  and  the  whole 
of  May  were  devoted  to  Naples  (Sti.  Combi,  Sta. 
Lucia,  No.  13,  on  the  3rd  floor)  and  the  Bay — 
Sorrento,  Ischia,  Amalfi,  etc.  Here  he  met 
Benedict  and  renewed  the  acquaintance  which 
they  had  begun  as  boys  in  Berlin  in  182 1,  when 
Benedict  "was  Weber's  pupil.  By  June  5  he 
was  back  in  Rome,  and  after  a  fortnight's  interval 
set  out  on  his  homeward  journey  by  Florence 
(June  24),  Genoa,  Milan  (July  7-15),  Lago 
Maggiore  and  the  Islands,  the  Simplon,  Mai*- 
tigny,  and  the  Col  de  Balme,  to  Chamouni  and 
Geneva.  Thence  on  foot  across  the  mountains 
to  Interlaken ;  and  thence  by  Grindelwald  and 
the  Furka  to  Lucerne,  Aug.  27,  28.  At  Inter- 
laken, besides  sketching,  and  writing  both  letters 
and  songs,  he  composed  the  only  15  waltzes  of 
which — strange  as  it  seems  in  one  so  madly  fond 
of  dancing — any  trace  survives.  At  Lucerne  he 
wrote  his  last  letter  to  16Goethe,  and  no  doubt 
mentioned  his  being  engaged  in  the  composition 
of  the  Walpurgisnacht,  which  must  have  brought 
out  from  the  poet  the  explanation  of  the  aim  of 
his  poem  which  is  printed  at  the  beginning  of 
Mendelssohn's  music,  with  the  date  Sept.  9, 1831. 
Then,  still  on  foot,  he  went  by  Wallenstadt  and 
St.  Gall  to  Augsburg,  and  returned  to  Munich 
early  in  September. 

Into  both  the  Nature  and  the  Art  of  this 
extended  and  varied  tract  he  entered  with 
enthusiasm.  The  engravings  with  which  his 
father's  house  was  richly  furnished,  and  Hensel's 
copies  of  the  Italian  masters,  had  prepared  him 
for  many  of  the  great  pictures  ;  but  to  see  them 
on  the  spot  was  to  give  them  new  life,  and  it  is 
delightful  to  read  his  rapturous  comments  on  the 
Titians  of  Venice  and  Rome,  the  gems  in  the 
Tribune  of  Florence,  Guido's  Aurora,  and  other 
masterpieces.  His  remarks  are  instructive  and 
to  the  point ;  no  vague  generalities  or  raptures, 
but  real  criticism  into  the  effect  or  meaning  or 
treatment  of  the  work ;  and  yet  rather  from  the 
point  of  view  of  an  intelligent  amateur  than  with 
any  assumption  of  technical  knowledge,  and 
always  with  sympathy  and  "kindness.  Nor  is 
his  eye  for  nature  less  keen,  or  his  enthusiasm 
less  abundant.  His  descriptions  of  the  scenery 
of  Switzerland  during  the  extraordinarily  stormy 
season  of  his  journey  there,  are  worthy  of  the 
greatest  painters  or  letter-writers.  Some  of  his 
expressions  rise  to  grandeur. 

'  It  was  a  day,'  says  he,  describing  his  walk 
over  the  Wengern  Alp,  '  as  if  made  on  purpose. 
The  sky  was  flecked  with  white  clouds  floating 
far  above  the  highest  snow-peaks,  no  mists  below 

14  B.  7.  "  L.  Aug.  11.  »  G.  *  M.  80. 

"  Letters,  Oct.  25, 1830,  June  25. 1831,  Sept.  M,  1339. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

ou  any  of  the  mountains,  and  all  their  summits 
glittering  brightly  in  the  morning  air,  every  un- 
dulation and  the  face  of  every  hill  clear  and 
distinct.  ...  I  remembered  the  mountains 
before  only  as  huge  peaks.  It  was  their  height 
that  formerly  took  such  possession  of  me.  Now 
it  was  their  boundless  extent  that  I  particularly 
felt,  their  huge  broad  masses,  the  close  connex- 
ion of  all  these  enormous  fortresses,  which  seemed 
to  be  crowding  together  and  stretching  out  their 
hands  to  each  other.  Then  too  recollect  that 
every  glacier,  every  snowy  plateau,  every  rocky 
summit  was  dazzling  with  light  and  glory,  and 
that  the  more  distant  summits  of  the  further 
ranges  seemed  to  stretch  over  and  peer  in  upon 
us.  I  do  believe  that  such  are  the  thoughts  of 
God  Himself.  Those  who  do  not  know  Him 
may  here  find  Him  and  the  nature  which  He  has 
created,  brought  strongly  before  their  1eyes.' 
Other  expressions  are  very  happy  : — '  The  moun- 
tains are  acknowledged  to  be  finest  after  rain,  and 
to-day  looked  as  fresh  as  if  they  had  just  burst 
the  2  shell.'  Again,  in  approaching  Naples — 
'  To  me  the  finest  object  in  nature  is  and  always 
will  be  the  sea.  I  love  it  almost  more  than  the 
sky.  I  always  foel  happy  when  I  see  before  me 
the  wide  expanse  of  waters.' 

In  Home  he  devoted  all  the  time  that  he  could 
spare  from  work  to  the  methodical  examination 
of  the  place  and  the  people.  But  his  music  stood 
first,  and  surely  no  one  before  or  since  was  ever 
so  self-denying  on  a  first  visit  to  the  Eternal 
City.  Not  even  for  the  sirocco  would  he  give 
up  work  in  the  s  prescribed  hours.  His  plan 
was  to  compose  or  practise  till  noon,  and  then 
spend  the  whole  of  the  rest  of  the  daylight 
in  the  open  air.  He  enters  into  everything 
with  enthusiasm — it  is  'a  delightful  existence.' 
'  Rome  in  all  its  vast  dimensions  lies  before  him 
like  an  interesting  problem,  and  he  goes  deli- 
berately to  work,  daily  selecting  some  different 
object — the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city,  the  Borghese 
Gallery,  the  Capitol,  St.  Peter's,  or  the  Vatican.' 
'Each  day  is  thus  made  memorable,  and,  as  I 
take  my  time,  each  object  becomes  indelibly  im- 
pressed   upon  me When  I  have  fairly 

imprinted  an  object  on  my  mind,  and  each  day  a 
fresh  one,  twilight  has  usually  arrived,  and  the 
day  is  over.'  Into  society  he  enters  with  keen 
zest,  giving  and  receiving  pleasure  wherever  he 
goes,  and  'amusing  himself  thoroughly  and 
*  divinely.'  'His  looking-glass  is  stuck  full  of 
visiting-cards,  and  he  spends  every  evening  with 
a  fresh  acquaintance.'  His  visits  to  Horace 
Vernet  and  Thorwaldsen,  Santini's  visits  to 
him ;  the  ball  at  Torlonia's,  where  he  first  saw 
the  young  English  beauty,  and  that  at  the 
Palazzo  Albani,  where  he  danced  with  her ;  the 
mad  frolics  of  the  Carnival,  the  monks  in  the 
street  (on  whom  he  '  will  one  day  write  a  special 
treatise '),  the  peasants  in  the  rain,  the  very  air 
and  sunshine — all  delight  him  in  the  most  simple, 
healthy,  and  natural  manner.  '  Oh !  if  I  could 
but  send  you  in  this  letter  one  quarter  of  an  hour 

i  I*  Aug.  14.  >  L.  Aug.  24.  »  Berlioz.  Voy.  mill,  1. 78. 

«  L.  Dec.  10, 1837. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


267 


of  all  this  pleasure,  or  tell  you  how  life  actually 
flies  in  Rome,  every  minute  bringing  its  own  me- 
morable 'delights.'  On  the  other  hand,  he  has 
no  mercy  on  anything  like  affectation  or  conceit. 
He  lashes  the  German  painters  for  their  hats, 
their  beards,  their  dogs,  their  discontent,  and 
their  incompetence,  just  as  he  does  one  or  two 
German  musicians  for  their  empty  pretension-. 
The  few  words  which  he  devotes  to  Berlioz  (who 
although  always  his  good  friend  is  antagonistic 
to  him  on  every  point)  and  his  companion  Montfort, 
are  strongly  tinged  with  the  same  6  feeling.  On 
the  other  hand,  nothing  can  be  more  genuinely 
and  good-naturedly  comic  than  his  account  of 
the  attempt  to  sing  Marcello's  psalms  by  a  com- 
pany of  dilettanti  assisted  by  a  Papal  singer.7 

This  sound  and  healthy  habit  of  mind  it  is, 
perhaps,  which  excludes  the  sentimental — we 
might  almost  say  the  devotional — feeling  which  is 
so  markedly  absent  from  his  letters.  Strange  that 
an  artist  who  so  enjoyed  the  remains  of  ancient 
Italy  should  have  had  no  love  of  antiquity  as 
Buch.  At  sight  of  Nisida  he  recalls  the  fact 
that  it  was  the  refuge  of  Brutus,  and  that  Cicero 
visited  him  there.  '  The  sea  lay  between  the 
islands,  and  the  rocks,  covered  with  vegetation, 
bent  over  it  then  just  as  they  do  now.  These  are 
the  antiquities  that  interest  me,  and  are  much 
more  suggestive  than  crumbling  mason -work.' 
'The  outlines  of  the  Alban  hills  remain  un- 
changed. There  they  can  scribble  no  names  and 
compose  no  inscriptions. . . .  and  to  these  I  cling/ 
In  reference  to  music  the  same  spirit  shows  it- 
self still  more  strongly  in  his  indignation  at  the 
ancient  Gregorian  music  to  the  Passion  in  the 
Holy  Week  services.  'It  does  irritate  me  to 
hear  such  sacred  and  touching  words  sung  to 
such  insignificant  dull  music.  They  say  it  is 
canto  fermo,  Gregorian,  etc.  No  matter.  If  at 
that  period  there  was  neither  the  feeling  nor  the 
capacity  to  write  in  a  different  style,  at  all  events 
we  have  now  the  power  to  do  so ' ;  and  he  goes  on 
to  suggest  two  alternative  plans  for  altering  and 
reforming  the  service,  suggestions  almost  remind- 
ing one  of  the  proposition  in  which  the  Empress 
Eugenie  endeavoured  to  enlist  the  other  Em- 
presses and  Queens  of  Europe,  to  pull  down  the 
church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem  and 
rebuild  it  in  conformity  with  modern  taste  and  re- 
quirements. Religious  he  is,  deeply  and  strongly 
religious;  every  letter  shows  it.  It  is  the  un- 
conscious, healthy,  happy  confidence  of  a  sound 
mind  in  a  sound  body,  of  a  man  to  whom  the 
sense  of  God  and  Duty  are  as  natural  as  the  air 
he  breathes  or  the  tunes  which  come  into  his 
head,  and  to  whom  a  wrong  action  is  an  im- 
possibility. But  of  devotional  sentiment,  of  that 
yearning  dependence,  which  dictated  the  130th 
Psalm,  or  the  feeling  which  animates  Beethoven's 
passionate  prayers  and  'confessions,  we  find 
hardly  a  trace,  in  his  letters  or  his  music. 

He  was  very  fortunate  in  the  time  of  his  visit  to 


5  L.  Feb.  8. 

«  L.  March  29.   It  Is  curious  to  compare  Berlioz's  account  (Voyage- 
mus.  1. 73)  of  Mendelssohn  with  the  above. 
7  L.  March  1. 


8  See  TOl.  1. 194  a. 


268 


MENDELSSOHN". 


Rome.  Fope  Pius  VIII.  died  while  he  was  there, 
and  he  came  in  for  all  the  ceremonies  of  Gregory 
XVI.'s  installation,  in  addition  to  the  services  of 
Holy  Week,  etc.  These  latter  he  has  described  in 
the  fullest  manner,  not  only  as  to  their  picturesque 
and  general  effect,  but  down  to  the  smallest  de- 
tails of  the  music,  in  regard  to  which  he  rivalled 
Mozart's  famous  feat.  [See  Miserkke.]  They 
form  the  subject  of  two  long  letters  to  Zelter, 
dated  'Dec.  I,  1830,  and  June  16,  1831 ;  and  as 
all  the  particulars  had  to  be  caught  while  he 
listened,  they  testify  in  the  strongest  manner  to 
the  sharpness  of  his  ear  and  the  retentiveness  of 
his  memory.  Indeed  it  is  impossible  not  to  feel 
that  in  such  letters  as  these  he  is  on  his  own 
ground,  and  that  intense  as  was  his  enjoyment 
of  nature,  painting,  society,  and  life,  he  belonged 
really  to  none  of  these  things — was  'neither  a 
politician  nor  a  dancer,  nor  an  actor,  nor  a  bel 
esprit,  but  a  'musician.'  And  so  it  proved  in 
fact.  For  with  all  these  distractions  his  Italian 
journey  was  fruitful  in  work.  The  '  Walpurgis- 
night,'  the  result  of  his  last  visit  to  Weimar,  was 
finished,  in  its  first  form,  at  Milan  (the  MS.  is 
dated  •  Mailand,  July  1 5, 1 83 1 ') ;  the  •  Hebrides,' 
also  in  its  first  form,  is  signed  'Rome,  Dec.  16, 
1830.'  The  Italian  and  Scotch  Symphonies  were 
begun  and  far  advanced  before  he  left  Italy. 
Several  smaller  works  belong  to  this  period — the 
Psalm  'Non  Nobis'  (Nov.  16,  1830);  the  three 
church  pieces  which  form  op.  23  ;  a  Christ- 
mas Cantata,  still  in  MS.  (Jan.  28,  1831) ;  the 
Hymn  '  Verleih'  uns  Frieden '  (Feb.  1  o) ;  the  3 
Motets  for  the  nuns  of  the  French  Chapel :  and 
although  few,  if  any,  of  these  minor  pieces  can  be 
really  said  to  live,  yet  they  embody  much  labour 
and  devotion,  and  were  admirable  stepping-stones 
to  the  great  vocal  works  of  his  later  life.  In  fact 
then,  as  always,  he  was  what  Berlioz  3calls  him, 
'un  producteur  infatigable,'  and  thus  obtained 
that  facility  which  few  composers  have  possessed 
in  greater  degree  than  Mozart  and  himself.  He 
«ought  the  society  of  musicians.  Besides  Berlioz, 
Montfort,  and  Benedict,  we  find  frequent  mention 
of  Baini,  Donizetti,  Coccia,  and  Madame  Fodor. 
At  Milan  his  encounter  with  Madame  Ertmann, 
the  intimate  friend  of  Beethoven,  was  a  happy 
accident,  and  turned  to  the  happiest  account. 
There  too  he  met  the  son  of  Mozart,  and  de- 
lighted him  with  his  father's  Overtures  to  Don 
Juan  and  the  Magic  Flute,  played  in  his  own 
'splendid  orchestral  style'  on  the  piano.  Not 
the  least  pleasant  portions  of  his  letters  from 
Switzerland  are  those  describing  his  organ-playing 
at  the  little  remote  Swiss  churches  at  Engelberg, 
Wallenstadt,  Sargans,  and  Lindau — from  which 
we  would  gladly  quote  if  space  allowed. 

Nor  was  his  drawing-book  idle.  Between  May 
16  and  August  24,  1831,  35  sketches  are  in  the 
hands  of  one  of  his  daughters  alone,  implying  a 
corresponding  number  for  the  other  portions  of  the 
tour.  How  characteristic  of  his  enormous  en- 
joyment of  life  is  the  following  passage  (Sargans, 

1  This  was  added  to  the  Belsebrlefe  In  a  subsequent  edition,  and  Is 
not  included  in  the  English  translation, 
a  L.  Dec.  28, 1831.  s  Voy.  mus.  i.  76. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

Sept.  3) :  '  Besides  organ  playing  I  have  much 
to  finish  in  my  new  drawing-book  (I  filled  another 
completely  at  Engelberg) ;  then  I  must  dine, 
and  eat  like  a  whole  regiment ;  then  after  dinner 
the  organ  again,  and  so  forget  my  rainy  day.' 

The  great  event  of  his  second  visit  to  Munich 
was  the  production  (and  no  doubt  the  compo- 
sition) of  his  G  minor  Concerto,  '  a  thing  rapidly 
thrown  4off,'  which  he  played  on  Oct.  17,  1831, 
at  a  concert  which  also  comprised  his  Symphony 
in  C  minor,  his  Overture  to  the  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream,  and  an  extempore  performance. 
Before  leaving  he  received  a  commission  *to 
compose  an  opera  for  the  Munich  Theatre.  From 
Munich  he  travelled  by  Stuttgart  (Nov.  7)  and 
Heidelberg  to  Frankfort,  and  thence  to  Diissel- 
dorf  (Nov.  27),  to  consult  Immermann  as  to  the 
libretto  for  the  Munich  opera,  and  arranged  with 
him  for  one  founded  on  'The  Tempest.  The 
artistic  life  of  Dusseldorf  pleased  him  extremely, 
and  no  doubt  this  visit  laid  the  foundation  for 
his  future  connection  with  that  town. 

He  arrived  in  Paris  about  the  middle  of 
December,  and  found,  of  his  German  friends, 
Hiller  and  Franck  settled  there.  He  renewed  his 
acquaintance  with  the  Parisian  musicians  who 
had  known  him  as  a  boy  in  1825,  especially  with 
Baillot ;  and  made  many  new  friends,  Habeneck, 
Franchomme,  Cuvillon,  and  others.  Chopin, 
Meyerbeer,  Herz,  Liszt,  Kalkbrenner,  Ole  Bull, 
were  all  there,  and  Mendelssohn  seems  to  have 
been  very  much  with  them.  He  went  a  great 
deal  into  society  and  played  frequently,  was  con- 
stantly at  the  theatre,  and  as  constantly  at  the 
Louvre,  enjoyed  life  thoroughly,  saw  everything, 
according  to  his  wont,  including  the  political 
scenes  which  were  then  more  than  ever  interest- 
ing in  Paris  ;  knew  everybody ;  and  in  fact,  as 
he  expresses  it,  '  cast  himself  thoroughly  into 
the  7  vortex.'  His  Overture  to  The  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream  was  performed  at  the  Socie'te"  des 
Concerts  (Conservatoire)  on  Feb.  19,  1832,  and 
he  himself  played  the  Concerto  of  Beethoven  in 
G  at  the  concert  of  March  18.  His  Reformation 
Symphony  was  rehearsed,  but  the  orchestra 
thought  it  too  'learned,  and  it  never  reached 
performance.  His  Octet  was  played  in  church 
at  a  mass  commemorative  of  Beethoven,  and 
several  times  in  private ;  so  was  his  Quintet 
(with  a  new  'Adagio)  and  his  Quartets,  both  for 
strings  and  for  piano.  The  pupils  of  the  Con- 
servatoire, he  writes,  are  working  their  fingers 
off  to  play  '1st  es  10wahr?'  His  playing  was 
applauded  as  much  as  heart  could  wish,  and  his 
reception  in  all  circles  was  of  the  very  best. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  were  drawbacks. 
Edward  Ritz,  his  great  friend,  died  (Jan.  23) 
while  he  was  there ;  the  news  reached  him  on 
his  birthday.  Goethe  too  died  (March  22).  The 
rejection  of  his  Reformation  Symphony,  the 
centre  of  so  many  "  hopes,  was  a  disappointment 

«  Briefe,  11. 22.     »  L.  Dec.  19. 1831.     «  L.  Dec  19, 1831 ;  Jan.  11, 1832. 
7  L.  Jan.  11, 1832 ;  Dec  28, 1831.  e  H.  21. 

•  Written  In  memory  of  E.  Ritz,  and  replacing  a  Minuet  in  F  sharp 
minor,  with  Trio  In  double  Canon. 
io  The  Lied  embodied  in  the  A  minor  Quartet.    See  above,  p.  260. 
DB.SL 


MENDELSSOHN. 

which  must  have  thrown  a  deep  shadow  over 
everything,  and  no  doubt  after  so  much  gaiety  there 
was  a  reaction,  and  his  old  dislike  to  the  French 
character — traces  of  which  are  not  wanting  in 
a  letter  to  Immermann  dated  Jan.  1 1 — returned. 
In  addition  to  this  his  health  had  not  latterly 
been  good,  and  in  March  he  had  an  attack  of 
'cholera.  Though  he  alludes  to  it  in  joke,  he  pro- 
bably felt  the  truth  of  a  remark  in  the  Figaro 
that  'Paris  is  the  tomb  of  all  3 reputations.' 
Brilliantly  and  cordially  as  he  was  received,  he 
left  no  lasting  mark  there ;  his  name  does  not 
reappear  in  the  programmes  of  the  Conservatoire 
for  ii  years,  and  it  was  not  till  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Concerts  populaires  in  1861  that  his 
music  became  at  all  familiar  to  sthe  Parisians. 
He  himself  never  again  set  foot  in  Paris. 

On  April  23,  1832,  he  was  once  more  in  his 
beloved  London,  and  at  his  old  quarters,  103 
Great  Portland  Street.  'That  smoky  nest,'  he 
exclaims,  amid  the  sunshine  of  the  Naples  sum- 
mer, 'is  fated  to  be  now  and  ever  my  favourite 
residence;  my  heart  swells  when  I  think  of  4it.' 
And  here  he  was  back  in  it  again !  It  was  warm, 
the  lilacs  were  in  bloom,  his  old  friends  were  as 
cordial  as  if  they  had  never  parted,  he  was  warmly 
welcomed  everywhere,  and  felt  his  health  re- 
turn in  full  measure.  His  letters  of  this  date 
are  full  of  a  genuine  heartfelt  satisfaction.  He 
plunged  at  once  into  musical  life.  The  Hebrides 
was  played  in  MS.  by  the  Philharmonic  on  May  14, 
and  he  performed  his  G  minor  Concerto,  on  an 
Erard  piano,  at  the  concerts  of  May  28  and  June  18. 
He  gave  a  MS.  score  of  his  overture  to  the  society, 
and  they  presented  him  with  a  piece  of  plate. 
During  his  stay  in  London  he  wrote  his  Capriccio 
brillant  in  B  (op.  22),  and  played  it  at  a  'concert 
of  Mori's.  On  Sunday,  June  10,  he  played  the 
organ  *  at  St.  Paul's.  He  also  published  a  four- 
hand  7  arrangement  of  the  M.N.D.  Overture  with 
Cramer,  and  the  1  st  Book  of  Songs  without 8  Words, 
with  Novello,  and  played  at  many  concerts.  A 
more  important  thing  still  was  the  revision  of  the 
Hebrides  Overture,  to  which  he  appears  to  have 
put  the  final  touches  on  June  20  (five  weeks 
after  its  performance  at  the  Philharmonic),  that 
being  the  date  on  the  autograph  score  in  posses- 
sion of  the  family  of  Sterndale  Bennett,  which 
agrees  in  all  essentials  with  the  printed  copy. 
On  May  15  Zelter  died,  and  he  received  the 
news  of  the  loss  of  his  old  friend  at  Mr.  Attwood's 
house,  Biggin  Hill,  Norwood.  The  vision  of  a 
possible  offer  of  Zelter's  post  at  the  Singakademie 
crossed  his  mind,  and  is  discussed  with  his  father ; 
but  it  was  not  destined  to  be  fulfilled.  Among 
the  friends  whom  he  made  during  this  visit,  never 
to  lose  till  death,  were  the  Horsleys,  a  family 

1  H.  S3.  Letter  to  B&rmann,  in  Letters  of  Dlst.  Musicians,  April  18. 

3  FiStis  Is  Inaccurate  In  citing  this  as  Mendelssohn's  own  expression. 
See  Letter,  March  31, 1832. 

3  This  want  of  sympathy,  combined  with  an  astonishing  amount 
of  Ignorance,  is  amusingly  displayed  In  the  following  description 
from  the  catalogue  of  a  well-known  French  autograph  collector  :— 
•  Mendelssohn  Bartholdy  (Felix)  remarquable  intelligence,  mais  cceur 
egolste  et  frold ;  qui  n'ayant  pu  grarir  d'un  pas  sur  les  sommets  de 
t'art,  s'est  refuglcS  dans  la  musique  ds  chambre.'  Can  Ignorance  and 
confidence  go  further  ?  *  L.  May  28, 18SL 

3  ItieU's  List.    Also  Mos.  L  271.  »  Mos.  t.  272.  t  Ibid. 

•  Under  the  name  of  Original  Melodies  for  the  F.F.  (JJoyello). 


MENDELSSOHN. 


269 


living  in  the  country  at  Kensington.  Mr.  W. 
Horsley  was  one  of  our  most  eminent  glee- 
writers,  his  daughters  were  unusually  musical,  one 
of  the  sons  is  now  an  R.A.,  and  another  was  for 
many  years  a  bright  ornament  to  English  music. 
The  circle  was  not  altogether  unlike  his  Berlin 
home,  and  in  his  own  •  words  he  seldom  spent  a 
day  without  meeting  one  or  other  of  the  family. 

In  July  1832  he  returned  to  Berlin,  to  find  the 
charm  of  the  summer  life  in  the  garden  as  great 
as  before.  His  darling  sister  Rebecka  had  been 
married  to  Professor  Dirichlet  in  May.  Another 
change  was  that  the  Devrients  had  migrated  to 
another  place,  and  Hensel's  studios  now  occupied 
all  the  spare  space  in  the  garden-house.  Immer- 
mann's  promised  libretto  was  waitingforhim  on  his 
return,  but  from  the  terms  in  which  he  asks  for 
Devrient's  opinion  on  it,  it  is  evident  that  it  disap- 
pointed him,  and  we  hear  no  more  of  the  10  sub- 
ject. St.  Paul  was  beginning  to  occupy  his  mind 
(of  which  more  anon),  and  he  had  not  long  been 
back  when  the  election  of  the  conductor  for  the 
Singakademie  in  Zelter's  place  came  on  the  tapis. 
The  details  may  be  read  "elsewhere ;  it  is  enough 
to  say  here  that  chiefly  through  the  extra  zeal 
and  want  of  tact  of  his  friend  Devrient,  though 
with  the  best  intentions,  Mendelssohn,  for  no 
fault  of  his  own,  was  dragged  before  the  public 
as  an  opponent  of  Rungenhagen ;  and  at  length, 
on  Jan.  22, 1833,  was  defeated  by  60  votes  out  of 
236.  The  defeat  was  aggravated  by  a  sad  want 
of  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  family,  who  not 
only  were  annoyed,  but  showed  their  annoyance 
by  withdrawing  from  the  Akademie,  and  thus 
making  an  open  hostility.  Felix  himself  said 
little,  but  he  felt  it  deeply.  He  ^describes  it  as 
a  time  of  uncertainty,  anxiety,  and  suspense, 
which  was  as  bad  as  a  serious  illness ;  and  no 
doubt  it  widened  the  breach  in  his  liking  for 
Berlin,  which  had  been  begun  by  the  rejection 
of  Camacho.  He  doubtless  found  some  consola- 
tion in  a  Grand  Piano  which  was  forwarded  to 
him  in  August  by  Mr.  Pierre  Erard  of  London. 

His  musical  activity  was  at  all  events  not 
impaired.  Besides  occupying  himself  with  the 
Sunday  music  at  home,  Felix,  during  this  winter, 
gave  threepublic  concerts  at  the  room  of  the ls  Sing- 
akademie in  Nov.  and  Dec.  1832,  and  Jan.  1833, 
at  which  he  brought  forward  his  Walpurgisnight, 
his  Reformation  Symphony,  his  Overtures  to 
the  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  Meeresstille,  and 
Hebrides,  his  G  minor  Concerto  and  his  Capriccio 
in  B  minor  ;  besides  playing  two  sonatas  and 
the  G  major  Concerto  of  Beethoven,  and  a  Con- 
certo of  Bach  in  D  minor — all,  be  it  remem- 
bered, novelties  at  that  time  even  to  many 
experienced  musicians.  In  addition  to  this  he 
was  working  seriously  at  the  Italian  Symphony. 
The  Philharmonic  Society  of  London  had  passed 
a  resolution  on  Nov.  5,  1832,  asking  him  to 
compose  '  a  symphony,  an  overture,  and  a  vocal 
piece,'  and  offering  him  a  hundred  guineas 
for  the  exclusive  right  of  performance   during 

9  o.  *  M.  97.  10  Der.  142.  U  See  especially  Dev.  145-15& 

U  L.  March  4. 1833. 

u  A.M.Z.  1833, 123.    The  dates  are  not  give*. 


270 


MENDELSSOHN. 


two  '  years.  Of  these  the  Italian  Symphony 
was  to  be  one,  and  the  MS.  score  of  the  work 
accordingly  hears  the  date  of  March  13,  1833. 
On  April  27  he  wrote  to  the  Society  offering 
them  the  symphony  with  'two  new  over- 
tures, finished  since  last  year'  (doubtless  the 
Meeresstille  and  the  Trumpet  Overture),  the 
extra  one  being  intended  '  as  a  sign  of  his  grati- 
tude for  the  pleasure  and  honour  they  had  again 
conferred  upon  him.'  Graceful  and  apparently 
spontaneous  as  it  is,  the  symphony  had  not  been 
an  easy  task.  Mendelssohn  was  not  exempt  from 
the  lot  of  most  artists  who  attempt  a  great  poem 
or  a  great  composition;  on  the  contrary,  'the 
bitterest  moments  he  ever  endured  or  could 
have  imagined,'  were  those  which  he  experienced 
during  the  autumn  when  the  work  was  in  pro- 
gress, and  up  to  the  last  he  had  his  doubts  and 
misgivings  as  to  the  result.  Now,  however,  when 
it  was  finished,  he  found  that  it  'pleased  him 
and  showed 2  progress ' — a  very  modest  expression 
for  a  work  so  full  of  original  thought,  masterly 
expression,  consummate  execution,  and  sunny 
beauty,  as  the  Italian  Symphony,  and  moreover 
such  a  prodigious  3  advance  on  his  last  work  of 
the  same  kind ! 

On  Feb.  6,  1833,  a  son  was  born  to  the  Mo- 
scheleses,  and  one  of  the  first  letters  written  was 
to  Mendelssohn,  asking  him  to  be  godfather  to 
the  child.  He  sent  a  capital  letter  in  reply,  with 
an  elaborate  *  sketch,  and  he  transmitted  later  a 
cradle  song — published  as  Op.  47,  No.  6 — for  his 
godchild,  Felix  Moscheles.  Early  in  April  he  left 
Berlin  for  Diisseldorf,  to  arrange  for  conducting 
the  Lower  Rhine  Festival  at  the  end  of  May.  As 
soon  as  the  arrangements  were  completed,  he  went 
on  to  London  for  the  christening  of  his  godchild, 
and  also  to  conduct  the  Philharmonic  Concert  of 
May  13,  when  his  Italian  Symphony  was  per- 
formed for  the  first  time,  and  he  himself  played 
Mozart's  D  minor  Concerto.  This  was  his  third 
visit.  He  was  there  by  April  26 — again  at  his 
old  lodgings  in  Great  Portland  Street — and  on 
May  1  he  played  at  Moscheles's  annual  concert 
a  brilliant  set  of  4-hand  variations  on  the  Gipsy 
March  in  Preciosa,  which  the  two  had  com- 
posed 'together.  He  left  shortly  after  the  13th 
and  returned  to  Diisseldorf,  in  ample  time  for 
the  rehearsal  of  the  Festival,  which  began 
on  Whit  Sunday,  May  26,  and  was  an  immense 
success.  Israel  in  •  Egypt  was  the  piece  de  re- 
sistance, and  among  the  other  works  were  Bee- 
thoven's Pastoral  Symphony  and  Overture  to 
Leonora,  and  his  own  Trumpet  Overture.  Abra- 
ham Mendelssohn  had  come  from  Berlin  for 
the  Festival,  and  an  excellent  account  of  it  will 
be  found  in  his  letters,  printed  by  7Hensel, 
admirable  letters,  full  of  point  and  wisdom, 
and  showing  better  than  anything  else  could  the 

1  See  the  Kesolution  and  his  answer  In  Hogarth,  69,  60. 

2  Letter  to  Bauer,  April  6, 1833. 

3  It  has  been  said  that  the  leap  from  Mendelssohn's  C  minor  to  his 
A  major  Symphony  is  as  great  as  that  from  Beethoven's  No.  2  to  the 
Kroica ;  and  relatively  this  is  probably  not  exaggerated. 

«  Which  will  be  found  in  Moscheles's  Life,  i.  283.  «  Mos.  i.  290. 

»  It  had  been  performed  by  the  Singakademie  of  Berlin,  Dec  8, 1831, 
but  probably  with  re-instrumentation.  It  was  now  done  as  Handel 
wrote  it.  7  F.M.  i.  3*7-364. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

deep  affection  and  perfect  understanding  which 
existed  between  father  and  son.  The  brilliant 
success  of  the  Festival  and  the  personal  fascina- 
tion of  Mendelssohn  led  to  an  offer  from  the 
authorities  of  Diisseldorf  that  he  should  under- 
take the  charge  of  the  entire  musical  arrange- 
ments of  the  town,  embracing  the  direction  of 
the  church  music  and  of  two  associations,  for 
three  years,  from  Oct.  I,  1833,  at  a  yearly 
salary  of  600  *  thalers  (£90).  He  had  been  much 
attracted  by  the  active  artistic  life  of  the  place 
when  he  visited  Immermann  at  the  close  of 
his  Italian  journey,  and  there  appears  to  have 
been  no  hesitation  in  his  acceptance  of  the  offer. 
This  important  agreement  concluded,  Felix  re- 
turned to  London  for  the  fourth  time,  taking  his 
father  with  him.  They  arrived  about  the  5th, 
and  went  into  the  lodgings  in  Great  Portland 
Street.  It  is  the  father's  first  visit,  and  his  let- 
ters are  full  of  little  hits  at  the  fog,  the  absence 
of  the  sun,  the  Sundays,  and  other  English  pecu- 
liarities, and  at  his  son's  enthusiasm  for  it  all. 
As  far  as  the  elder  Mendelssohn  was  concerned, 
the  first  month  was  perfectly  successful,  but  in 
the  course  of  July  he  was  laid  up  with  some 
complaint  in  his  shin,  which  confined  him  to  his 
room  for  three  weeks,  and  although  it  gave  him 
an  excellent  idea  of  English  hospitality,  it 
naturally  threw  a  damp  over  the  latter  part  of 
the  visit.  His  blindness,  too,  seems  to  9have 
begun  to  show  itself. 

His  son  however  experienced  no  such  draw- 
backs. To  his  father  he  was  everything.  'I 
cannot  express,'  says  the  grateful  old  man,  '  what 
he  has  been  to  me,  what  a  treasure  of  love,  pa- 
tience, endurance,  thoughtfulness,  and  tender  care 
he  has  lavished  on  me ;  and  much  as  I  owe  him 
indirectly  for  a  thousand  kindnesses  and  atten- 
tions from  others,  I  owe  him  far  more  for  what 
he  has  done  for  me  w himself.'  No  letters  by 
Felix  of  this  date  have  been  printed,  but  enough 
information  can  be  picked  up  to  show  that  he 
fully  eDJoyed  himself.  His  Trumpet  Overture 
was  played  at  the  Philharmonic  on  June  10. 
He  played  the  organ  at  St.  Paul's  (June  23), 
Klingemann  and  other  friends  at  the  bellows, 
and  the  church  empty — Introduction  and  fugue ; 
extempore;  Attwood's  Coronation  Anthem,  4 
hands,  with  Attwood ;  and  three  "pieces  of  Bach's. 
He  also  evidently  played  a  great  deal  in  society, 
and  his  father's  account  of  a  mad  evening  with 
Malibran  will  stand  as  a  type  of  many  12  such. 
The  Moscheleses,  Attwoods,  Horsleys,  and  Alex- 
anders are  among  the  most  prominent  English 
names  in  the  diaries  and  "letters.  Besides  Mali- 
bran,  Schroder-Devrient,  Herz,  and  Hummel 
were  among  the  foreign  artists  in  London.  On 
14  Aug.  4  the  two  left  for  Berlin,  Abraham  having 
announced  that  he  was  bringing  home  '  a  young 
painter  named  Alphonse  Lovie,'  who,  of  course, 


s  I  cannot  discover  his  exact  itattu  or  title  at  Diisseldorf.  In  hU 
own  sketch  of  his  life  (see  next  page)  he  styles  himself  Music-diractor 
of  the  Association  for  the  Promotion  of  Music  in  Diisseldorf. 

»  F.M.  i.397  ;li.  62.    Compare  iL  20. 

10  F JL  i.  384.  11  Ibid.  272.  u  Ibid.  377. 

l>  Mos.  i.  293;  Abraham  M.  In  F.M.  i.  368, 380, 382,  etc 

14  Mot.  1.  299. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

was  no  other  than  1  Felix  himself.  They  reached 
Berlin  in  due  course,  and  by  Sept.  27,  1833, 
Felix  was  at  his  new  post. 

Dusseldorf  was  the  beginning  of  a  new  period 
in  his  career — of  settled  life  away  from  the  influ- 
ences of  home,  which  had  hitherto  formed  so  im- 
portant an  element  in  his  existence.  At  Berlin 
both  success  and  non-success  were  largely  biassed 
by  personal  consideration*  ;  here  he  was  to  start 
afresh,  and  to  be  entirely  dependent  on  him- 
self. He  began  his  new  career  with  vigour.  He 
first  attacked  the  church  music,  and  as  'not 
one  tolerable  mass'  was  to  be  found,  scoured  the 
country  as  far  as  Elberfeld,  Cologne,  and  Bonn, 
and  returned  with  a  carriage-load  of  Palestrina, 
Lasso,  and  Lotti.  Israel  in  Egypt,  the  Messiah, 
Alexander's  Feast,  and  Egmont  are  among  the 
music  which  we  hear  of  at  the  concerts.  At  the 
theatre,  after  a  temporary  disturbance,  owing  to 
a  rise  in  prices,  and  a  little  over-eagerness,  he 
was  well  received  and  successful ;  and  at  first  all 
was  couleur  de  rose — '  a  more  agreeable  position 
I  cannot  wish  2for.'  But  he  soon  found  that  the 
theatre  did  not  suit  him ;  he  had  too  little  sym- 
pathy with  theatrical  life,  and  the  responsibility 
was  too  irksome.  He  therefore,  after  a  few 
months'  trial,  sin  March  1834,  relinquished  his 
salary  as  far  as  the  theatre  was  concerned,  and 
held  himself  free,  as  a  sort  of  'Honorary 
*Intendant.'  His  influence  however  made  it- 
self felt.  Don  Juan,  Figaro,  Cherubini's  Deux 
Journees,  were  amongst  the  operas  given  in  the 
first  four  months;  and  in  the  church  we  hear 
of  masses  by  Beethoven  and  Cherubini,  motets  of 
Palestrina's,  and  cantatas  of  Bach's,  the  Dettin- 
gen  Te  Deum,  '  and  on  the  whole  as  much  good 
music  as  could  be  expected  during  my  first 
•winter.'  He  lived  on  the  ground  floor  of  Scha- 
dow's  6  house,  and  was  very  much  in  the  artistic 
circle,  and  always  ready  to  make  an  excursion, 
to  have  a  swim,  to  eat,  to  ride  (for  he  kept  7a 
horse),  to  dance,  or  to  sleep ;  was  working  hard  at 
water-colour  drawing,  under  8  Schirmer's  tuition, 
and  was  the  life  and  soul  of  every  company  he 
entered.  In  May  was  the  Lower  Rhine  Festi- 
val at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  conducted  by  Ferdinand 
Hies ;  there  he  met  Hiller,  and  also  *  Chopin, 
whose  acquaintance  he  had  already  made  10in 
Paris,  and  who  returned  with  him  to  Dusseldorf. 
During  the  spring  of  1834  ne  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Berlin  Academy  of  the  "Fine  Arts. 

Meantime,  through  all  these  labours  and  dis- 
tractions, of  pleasure  or  business  alike,  he  was 
composing  busily  and  well.      The  overture  to 

1F.M.LS86.  J  L.  July  20,  InM.  »  L.  Mar.  28. 

4  L.  Aug.  6.  >L  Mar.  28.  «  H.  38. 

7  The  acquisition  of  this  horse  gives  a  good  Idea  of  his  dutiful 
attitude  towards  his  father.    (L.  March  28, 1831.) 

•  Der.174.  »  L.  May  23 ;  H.  30.  10  KarasowskI,  chap.  iiv. 

H  L.  11. 15,  St.  On  this  occasion  he  sent  In  the  following  '  Memo- 
randum of  my  biography  and  art-education.'  'I  was  born  Feb.  3. 
1809,  at  Hamburg ;  In  my  8th  year  began  to  learn  music,  and  was 
taught  thorough-bass  and  composition  by  Professor  Zelter,  and  the 
Pianoforte,  first  by  my  mother  and  then  by  Mr.  Ludwig  Berger.  la 
the  year  1829 1  left  Berlin,  travelled  through  England  and  Scotland. 
South  Germany,  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  France;  visited  England 
twice  more  In  the  spring  of  1832  and  S3,  was  there  made  Honorary 
Member  of  the  Philharmonic  Society,  and  since  October  1833,  have 
bean  Music-director  of  the  Association  for  the  Promotion  of  Music  In 
Dusseldorf.'  This  Is  preserved  In  the  archives  of  the  Academy,  and 
I  am  indebted  for  It  to  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Joachim. 


MENDELSSOHN-. 


271 


Melusina  was  finished  Nov.  14,  1833,  and  tried; 
the  Eb  Rondo  for  P.F.  and  orchestra  (op.  29)  on 
Jan.  29, 1834;  'Infelice,'  for  soprano  and  orches- 
tra, for  the  Philharmonic  u  Society  (in  its  first 
shape),  is  dated  April  3,  34  ■  the  fine  Capriccio 
in  A  minor  (op.  33,  no.  1),  April  9,  34.  He 
had  also  rewritten  and  greatly  improved  the 
Meeresstille  u  Overture  for  its  publication  by 
Breitkopfs  with  the  M.  N.  D.  and  Hebrides. 
A  symphony  which  he  mentions  as  on  the  road 
appears  to  have  been  superseded  by  a  still  more 
important  work.  In  one  of  his  letters  from  Paris 
(Dec.  19, 1831),  complaining  of  the  low  morale  of 
the  opera  librettos,  he  says  that  if  that  style  is 
indispensable  he  'will  forsake  opera  and  write 
oratorios'  The  words  had  hardly  left  his  pen 
when  he  was  invited  by  the  Cacilien-Verein 
of  Frankfort  to  compose  an  oratorio  on  uSt. 
Paul.  The  general  plan  of  the  work,  and  such 
details  as  the  exclusive  use  of  the  Bible  and 
Choral-book,  and  the  introduction  of  chorales, 
are  stated  by  him  at  the  very  outset.  On  his 
return  to  Berlin  he  and  Marx  made  a  compact 
by  which  each  was  to  write  an  oratorio-book  for 
the  other;  Mendelssohn  was  to  write  'Moses' 
for  Marx,  and  Marx  'St.  Paul'  for  l5 Mendels- 
sohn. Mendelssohn  executed  his  task  at  once, 
and  the  full  libretto,  entitled  '  Moses,  an  Orato- 
rio, composed  by  A.  B.  M.,'  and  signed  '  F.  M.  B., 
21  Aug.  1832,'  is  now  in  the  possession  of  the 
'•family.  Marx,  on  the  other  hand,  not  only 
rejected  Mendelssohn's  book  for  'Moses,'  but 
threw  up  that  of  '  St.  Paul'  on  the  ground  that 
chorales  were  an  anachronism.  In  fact,  this 
singular  man's  function  in  life  seems  to  have 
been  to  differ  with  everybody.  For  the  text  of 
St.  Paul,  Mendelssohn  was  indebted  to  his  own 
selection  and  to  the  aid  of  his  friends  Fiirst  and 
"Schubring.  Like  Handel,  he  knew  his  Bible 
well ;  in  his  oratorios  he  followed  it  implicitly, 
and  the  three  books  of  St.  Paul,  Elijah,  and  the 
Lobgesang  are  a  proof  (if  any  proof  were  needed 
after  the  Messiah  and  Israel  in  Egypt)  that,  in 
his  own  words,  '  the  Bible  is  always  the  best  of 
"all.'  He  began  upon  the  music  in  March  1834, 
not  anticipating  that  it  would  occupy  him 
•  long ;  but  it  dragged  on,  and  was  not  completed 
till  the  beginning  of  1836. 

Though  only  Honorary  Intendant  at  the  Dus- 
seldorf theatre,  he  busied  himself  with  the  ap- 
proaching winter  season,  and  before  leaving  for 
his  holiday  corresponded  much  with  Devrient 
as  to  the  engagement  of  20singers.  September 
1834  he  spent  in  n  Berlin,  and  was  back  at  Dus- 
seldorf ^for  the  first  concert  on  Oct.  23,  calling 
on  his  way  at  Cassel,  and  making  the  acquaintance 
of  ^Hauptmann,  with  whom  he  was  destined 

l«  First  sung  at  the  Philharmonic  by  Mme.  Caradori,  May  19, 1834. 

U  L.  Aug.  0. 1834. 

14  Letter  to  Devrient,  D.  137,  & 

is  Marx,  11. 139,  etc. 

u  It  shows  how  fully  Mendelssohn  realised  the  connexion  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  that  his  concluding  chorus,  after  the  giving  of 
the  Law,  is '  This  Is  the  love  of  God,  that  we  keep  His  commandment* ' 
—from  St.  John. 

it  See  Sen.;  and  L.IL  5, 38, 39,  etc.  IS  L.  July  15, 1834. 

»  L.  Sept.  6, 1833,  etc.  »  Der.  177-183. 

a  Der.  183, 184.  »  N.M.  Zeltunf . 

23  Hauptmann's  letters  t»  Hauler,  L  139. 


272 


MENDELSSOHN. 


in  later  life  to  be  closely  connected.  The  new 
theatre  opened  on  Nov.  i.  He  and  Immermann 
quarrelled  as  to  precedence,  or  as  to  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  duties.  The  selection  of  singers 
and  musicians,  the  bargaining  with  them,  and 
all  the  countless  worries  which  beset  a  manager, 
and  which,  by  a  new  agreement,  he  had  to  under- 
take, proved  a  most  uncongenial  and  moreover  a 
most  wasteful  task ;  so  uncongenial  that  at  last, 
the  day  after  the  opening  of  the  theatre,  he  sud- 
denly '  made  a  salto  mortale '  and  threw  up  all 
'connection  with  it,  not  without  considerable 
irritability  and  s  inconsistency.  After  this  he 
continued  to  do  his  other  duties,  and  to  conduct 
occasional  operas,  Julius  Rietz  being  his  assistant. 
With  the  spring  of  1835  he  received  an  invita- 
tion from  Leipzig  through  Mr.  Schleinitz,  which 
resulted  in  his  taking  the  post  of  Conductor  of 
the  Gewandhaus  Concerts  there.  His  3  answers 
to  the  invitation  show  not  only  how  very  careful 
he  was  not  to  infringe  on  the  rights  of  others,  but 
also  how  clearly  and  practically  he  looked  at  all 
the  bearings  of  a  question  before  he  made  up  his 
mind  upon  it.  Before  the  change,  however,  seve- 
ral things  happened.  He  conducted  the  Lower 
Rhine  Festival  for  1835  at  Cologne  (June  7-9). 
The  principal  works  were  Handel's  Solomon — for 
which  he  had  written  an  organ  part  in  Italy ;  Bee- 
thoven's Symphony  No.  8,  and  Overture  Op.  1 24, 
a  '  religious  march '  and  hymn  of  Cherubini's, 
and  the  Morning  Hymn  of  his  favourite  J.  F. 
Reichardt.  The  Festival  was  made  more  than 
ordinarily  delightful  to  him  by  a  present  of 
Arnold's  edition  of  Handel  in  32  vols,  from  the 
committee.  His  father,  mother,  and  sisters  were 
all  there.  The  parents  then  went  back  with  him 
to  Diisseldorf ;  there  his  mother  had  a  severe 
attack  of  illness,  which  prevented  his  taking 
them  home  to  Berlin  till  the  latter  part  of  *  July. 
At  Cassel  the  father  too  fell  ill,  and  Felix's  energies 
were  fully  taxed  on  the  Broad.  He  remained 
with  them  at  Berlin  till  the  end  of  August,  and 
then  left  for  Leipzig  to  make  the  necessary  pre- 
parations for  beginning  the  subscription  concerts 
in  the  Gewandhaus  on  Oct.  4.  His  house  at  Leip- 
zig was  in  Reichel's  garden,  off  the  Promenade. 
Chopin  visited  him  during  the  interval,  and 
Felix  had  the  pleasure  of  introducing  him  to 
Clara  Wieck,  then  a  girl  of  16.  Later  came  his 
old  Berlin  friend  David  from  Russia  to  lead  the 
6  orchestra,  and  Moscheles  from  London  for  a 
lengthened  visit.  Mendelssohn's  new  engage- 
ment began  with  the  best  auspices.  The  relief 
from  the  worries  and  responsibilities  of  Diissel- 
dorf was  7 immense,  and  years  'afterwards  he  re- 
fers to  it  as  '  when  I  first  came  to  Leipzig  and 
thought  I  was  in  Paradise.'  He  was  warmly 
welcomed  on  taking  his  seat,  and  the  first  con- 
cert led  off  with  his  Meeresstille  Overture. 

1  L.  Not.  4 ,  23. 

3  This  Is  brought  out  In  his  father's  letter,  II.  58.    See  also  Not.  4. 

•  L.  Jan.  26  and  April  16, 1835. 

«  Letter  to  Mrs.  Voigt.  Diisseldorf.  July  17, 1835. 
»  Letter  to  Schadow,  In  Polko  193. 

«  He  joined  definitely  Feb.  25, 1836,  after  Matthal's  death  (A.3I.Z. 
1836, 133). 
1  Letter  to  Hlldehrandt  In  P.  191 ;  also  Hiller  47. 

•  Ik  June  IS,  1839. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

Rebecka  passed  through  Leipzig  on  Oct.  14,  on 
her  way  from  Belgium,  and  Felix  and  Moscheles 
accompanied  her  to  Berlin  for  a  visit  of  two  days, 
returning  to  Leipzig  for  the  next  concert.  Short 
as  the  visit  was,  it  was  more  than  usually  gay. 
The  house  was  full  every  evening,  and  by  play- 
ing alternately,  by  playing  four  hands,  and  by 
the  comical  extempore  tricks  of  which  the  two 
friends  were  so  fond,  and  which  they  carried  on 
to  such  perfection,  the  parents,  especially  the 
father,  now  quite  blind,  were  greatly  mystified 
and  'amused.  And  well  that  it  was  so,  for  it  was 
Felix's  last  opportunity  of  gratifying  the  father 
he  so  tenderly  loved  and  so  deeply  reverenced. 
At  half-past  10  a.m.  on  Nov.  19, 1835,  Abraham 
Mendelssohn  was  dead.  He  died  the  death  of  the 
just,  passing  away,  as  his  father  had  done,  with- 
out warning,  but  also  without  pain.  He  turned 
over  in  his  bed,  saying  that  he  would  sleep  a 
little ;  and  in  half  an  hour  he  was  gone.  Hensel 
started  at  once  for  Leipzig,  and  by  Sunday  morn- 
ing, the  22nd,  Felix  was  in  the  arms  of  his  mother. 
How  deeply  he  felt  under  this  peculiarly  heavy 
blow  the  reader  must  gather  from  his  own  letters. 
It  fell  on  him  with  special  force,  because  he  was 
not  only  away  from  the  family  circle,  but  had  no 
home  of  his  own,  as  Fanny  and  Rebecka  had,  to 
mitigate  the  loss.  He  went  back  to  Leipzig 
stunned,  but  determined  to  do  his  duty  with  all 
his  might,  finish  St.  Paul,  and  thus  most  per- 
fectly fulfil  his  father's  wishes.  He  had  com- 
pleted the  revision  of  his  Melusina  Overture  on 
Nov.  17,  only  three  days  before  the  fatal  news 
reached  him,  and  there  was  nothing  to  hinder 
him  from  finishing  the  oratorio. 

The  business  of  the  day,  however,  had  to  go 
on.  One  of  the  chief  events  in  this  series  of  con- 
certs was  a  performance  of  the  9th  Symphony 
of  l0  Beethoven,  Feb.  11,  1836.  Another  was 
Mendelssohn's  performance  of  Mozart's  D  minor 
Concerto  'as  written'  (for  it  seems  to  have  been 
always  hitherto  played  after  some  "adaptation), 
on  Jan.  29,  with  cadences  which  electrified  his 
audience.  Leipzig  was  particularly  congenial  to 
Mendelssohn.  He  was  the  idol  of  the  town,  had 
an  orchestra  full  of  enthusiasm  and  devotion,  a 
first-rate  coadjutor  in  David,  who  took  much  of 
the  mechanical  work  of  the  orchestra  off  his 
shoulders  ;  and  moreover  he  was  relieved  of  all 
business  arrangements,  which  were  transacted 
by  the  committee,  especially  by  Herr  Schleinitz. 
Another  point  in  which  he  could  not  but  con- 
trast his  present  position  favourably  with  that 
at  Diisseldorf  was  the  absence  of  all  rivalry 
or  jealousy.  The  labour  of  the  season  however 
was  severe,  and  he  13  confesses  that  the  first  two 
months  had  taken  more  out  of  him  than  two 
years  composing  would  do.  The  University  of 
Leipzig  showed  its  appreciation  of  his  presence 
by  conferring  on  him  the  degree  of  Phil.  Doc.  in 
13  March. 

Meantime  Schelble's  illness  had  cancelled  the 
arrangement  for  producing  St.  Paul  at  Frank- 
fort, and  it  had  been   secured  for  the   Lower 

»  F.M.  1. 422.  W  A.M.Z.  1838, 273.  "  Ibid.  105. 

U  To  Hiller,  L.  Dec  10, 1837.  i>  A.M.Z.  1836, 216. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

Rhine  Festival  of  1836  at  Diisseldorf.  The  Fes- 
tival lasted  from  May  2  a  to  May  24  inclusive, 
and  the  programmes  included,  besides  the  new 
oratorio,  the  two  overtures  to  Leonore,  both  in  C, 
'No.  1'  (then  unknown)  and  '  No.  3' ;  one  of  Han- 
del's Chandos  anthems,  the  Davidde  penitente  of 
Mozart,  and  the  Ninth  Symphony.  The  oratorio 
was  executed  with  the  greatest  enthusiasm,  and 
produced  a  deep  sensation.  It  was  performed  on 
the  22nd,  not  in  the  present  large  music  hall,  but 
in  the  long  low  room  which  lies  outside  of  that  and 
below  it,  and  is  known  as  the  Rittersaal,  a  too 
confined  space  for  the  purpose.  For  the  details  of 
the  performance,  including  an  escapade  of  one  of 
the  false  witnesses,  in  which  the  coolness  and  skill 
of  Fanny  alone  prevented  a  break-down,  we  must 
refer  to  the  contemporary  accounts  of  Klingeroann, 
Hiller,  and  lPolko.  To  English  readers  the  in- 
terest of  the  occasion  is  increased  by  the  fact  that 
Sterndale  Bennett,  then  20  years  old,  and  fresh 
from  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  was  present. 

Schelble's  illness  also  induced  Mendelssohn  to 
take  the  direction  of  the  famous  Cacilien-Verein 
at  Frankfort.  Leipzig  had  no  claims  on  him 
after  the  concerts  were  over,  and  he  was  thus 
able  to  spend  six  weeks  at  Frankfort  practising 
the  choir  in  Bach's  'Gottes  Zeit,'  Handel's  'Sam- 
son,' and  other  works,  and  improved  and  inspired 
them  greatly.  He  resided  in  Schelble's  house  at 
the  corner  of  the  '  Schone  Aussicht,'  with  a  view 
up  and  down  the  Main.  Hiller  was  then  living 
in  Frankfort ;  Lindblad  was  there  for  a  time ;  and 
Rossini  remained  for  a  few  days  on  his  passage 
through,  in  constant 2  intercourse  with  Felix. 

Mendelssohn's  visit  to  Frankfort  was  however 
fraught  with  deeper  results  than  these.  It  was 
indeed  quite  providential,  since  here  he  met  his 
future  wife,  Cecile  Charlotte  Sophie  Jeanrenaud, 
a  young  lady  of  great  beauty,  nearly  ten  years 
younger  than  himself,  the  second  daughter  of  a 
clergyman  of  the  French  Reformed  Church,  who 
had  died  many  years  before,  leaving  his  wife  (a 
Souchay  by  family)  and  children  amongst  the 
aristocracy  of  the  town.  The  house  was  close  to 
the  Fahrthor,  on  the  quay  of  the 3  Main.  Madame 
Jeanrenaud  was  still  young  and  good-looking, 
and  it  was  a  joke  in  the  family  that  she  her- 
self was  at  first  supposed  to  be  the  object  of 
Mendelssohn's  frequent  visits.  But  though  so 
reserved,  he  was  not  the  less  furiously  in  love, 
and  those  who  were  in  the  secret  have  told  us 
how  entirely  absorbed  he  was  by  his  passion, 
though  without  any  sentimentality.  He  had 
already  had  many  a  passing  attachment.  In- 
deed, being  at  once  so  warm-hearted  and  so 
peculiarly  attractive  to  women — and  also,  it 
should  be  said,  so  much  sought  by  them — it  is 
a  strong  tribute  to  his  self-control  that  he  was 
never  before  seriously  or  permanently  involved. 
On  no  former  occasion,  however,  is  there  a  trace 
of  any  feeling  that  was  not   due   entirely,  or 

1  See  The  Musical  World,  June  17,  1836  (and  Benedict's  'Sketch.' 
*7.  28) ;  Hiller' s  '  Mendelssohn,'  61 ;  and  Polko,  43.  2  H.  55,  etc. 

»  A  pencil-drawing  of  the  Main  and  the  Fahrthor,  with  the  'Schone 
Aussicht '  in  the  distance,  taken  from  the  Jeanrenauds'  windows,  has 
the  following  Inscription :— •  Vendu  a  Mendelssohn  au  prix  de  l'execu- 
tion  d'un  nombre  Indetermlnd  de  Fugues  de  J.  8.  Bach,  et  de  la  Cople 
d'un  Hondo  dumeme  Maitre.  Laleess  a  Montpellier." 
VOL.  II. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


273 


mainly,  to  some  quality  or  accomplishment  of  the 
lady,  and  not  to  her  actual  personality.  In  the 
present  case  there  could  be  no  doubt  either  of 
the  seriousness  of  his  love  or  of  the  fact  that  it 
centred  in  Miss  Jeanrenaud  herself,  and  not  in 
any  of  her  tastes  or  pursuits.  And  yet,  in  order 
to  test  the  reality  of  his  feelings,  he  left  Frank- 
fort, at  the  very  height  of  his  passion,  for  a 
month's  bathing  at  *  Scheveningen  near  the 
Hague.  His  friend  F.  W.  Schadow,  the  painter, 
accompanied  him,  and  the  restless  state  of  his 
mind  may  be  gathered  from  his  letters  to  5  Hiller. 
His  love  stood  the  test  of  absence  triumphantly. 
Very  shortly  after  his  return,  on  Sept.  9,  the 
engagement  took  6  place,  at  Kronberg,  near 
Frankfort ;  three  weeks  of  bliss  followed,  and  on 
Oct.  2  he  was  in  his  seat  in  the  Gewandhaus,  at  the 
first  concert  of  the  season.  The  day  after,  Oct.  3, 
in  the  distant  town  of  Liverpool,  'St.  Paul'  was 
performed  for  the  first  time  in  England,  under  the 
direction  of  Sir  G.  Smart.  The  season  at  Leipzig 
was  a  good  one ;  Sterndale  Bennett,  who  had  come 
over  at  Mendelssohn's  invitation,  made  his  first 
public  appearance  in  his  own  Concerto  in  C  minor, 
and  the  series  closed  with  the  Choral  Symphony. 

His  engagement  soon  became  known  far  and 
wide,  and  it  is  characteristic  of  Germany,  and 
of  Mendelssohn's  intimate  relation  to  all  con- 
cerned in  the  Gewandhaus,  that  at  one  of  the 
concerts,  the  Finale  to  Fidelio,  '  Wer  ein  holdes 
Weib  errungen,'  should  have  been  put  into  the 
programme  by  the  directors  with  special  reference 
to  him,  and  that  he  should  have  been  forced  into 
extemporising  on  that  suggestive  theme,  amid  the 
shouts  and  enthusiasm  of  his  audience.  The  re- 
hearsals for  the  concerts,  the  concerts  themselves, 
his  pupils,  friends  passing  through,  visits  to  his 
fiancee,  an  increasing  correspondence,  kept  him 
more  than  busy.  Bennett  was  living  in  Leipzig, 
and  the  two  friends  were  much  together.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  subscription  series  and  to  the  regular 
chamber  concerts,  there  were  performances  of  Israel 
in  Egypt,  with  new  organ  part  by  him,  on  Nov.  7, 
and  St.  Paul,  March  16,  1837.  The  compositions 
of  this  winter  are  few,  and  all  of  one  kind,  namely 
preludes  and  fugues  for 7  pianoforte.  The  wedding 
took  place  on  March  28,  1837,  at  the  Walloon 
French  Reformed  Church,  Frankfort.  For  the 
wedding  tour  they  went  to  Freiburg,  and  into 
the  Palatinate,  and  by  the  8i5th  of  May  returned 
to  Frankfort.  A  journal  which  they  kept  to- 
gether during  the  honeymoon  is  full  of  sketches 
and  droll  things  of  all  kinds.  In  July  they 
were  at  Bingen,  Horchheim,  Coblenz,  and  Diissel- 
dorf  for  some  weeks.  At  Bingen,  while  swimming 
across  to  Asmannshausen,  he  had  an  attack  of 
cramp  which  nearly  cost  him  his  life,  and  from 
which  he  was  only  saved  by  the  boatman.  The 
musical  results  of  these  few  months  were  very 
important,  and  include  the  42nd  Psalm,  the 
String  Quartet  in  E  minor,  an  Andante  and 
Allegro  for  P.F.  in  E  (still  in  MS.),  the  second 
P.F.  Concerto,  in  D  minor,  and  the  3  Preludes 

<  II.  ch.  lv;  F.M.  U.  SO  j  Der.  196.  •  IL  82-72. 

•  Letter  to  his  mother,  F.M.  ii.  27 ;  P.  63. 
T  Published  as  Op.  35.    See  the  Catalogue  at  end  of  this  article, 
s  Dev.  200. 

T 


274 


MENDELSSOHN. 


and  Fugues  for  the  Organ  (op.  37).  He  was 
also  in  earnest  correspondence  with  1Schubring 
as  to  a  second  oratorio,  on  St.  Peter. 

It  must  have  been  hard  to  tear  himself  away 
so  soon  from  his  lovely  young  wife — and  indeed 
he  grumbles  about  it  '2  lustily — but  he  had  been 
engaged  to  conduct  St.  Paul,  and  to  play  the 
organ  and  his  new  Pianoforte  Concerto,  at  the 
Birmingham  Festival.  Accordingly,  on  Aug.  24, 
he  left  Diisseldorf  for  Rotterdam,  crossed  to 
Margate  in  the  'Attwood,'  the  same  boat  which 
had  taken  him  over  in  1829,  and  on  the  27th 
is  in  London,  on  his  fifth  visit,  at  Klingemann's 
house,  as  cross  as  a  man  3can  well  be.  But  this 
did  not  prevent  his  setting  to  work  with  Klinge- 
mann  at  the  plan  of  an  oratorio  on  *  Elijah,  over 
which  they  had  two  mornings'  consultation. 
Before  leaving  London  for  Birmingham,  he  played 
the  organ  at  St.  Paul's — on  Sunday  afternoon, 
Sept.  10 — and  at  Christ  Church,  Newgate  Street, 
on  Tuesday  morning,  the  12th.  It  was  on  the 
former  of  these  two  occasions  that  the  vergers, 
finding  that  the  congregation  would  not  leave 
the  Cathedral,  withdrew  the  organ-blower,  and 
let  the  wind  out  of  the  organ  during  Bach's 
Prelude  and  Fugue  in  5A  minor — 'near  the  end 
of  the  6  fugue,  before  the  subject  comes  in  on  the 
Pedals.'  At  Christ  Church  he  was  evidently  in 
a  good  vein.  He  played '  six  extempore  fantasias,' 
oneon  a  subject  given  at  themoment,  and  the  Bach 
Fugue  j  u  st  mentioned.  Samuel  Wesley — our  own 
ancient  hero,  though  71  years  old — was  present 
and  played.  It  was  literally  his  Nunc  dimittis : 
he  died  in  a  month  from  that  7date.  Mendels- 
sohn's organ -playing  on  these  occasions  was 
eagerly  watched.  He  was  the  greatest  of  the 
few  great  German  organ-players  who  had  visited 
this  country,  and  the  English  organists,  some  of 
them  no  mean  proficients,  learned  more  than  one 
lesson  from  him.  '  It  was  not,'  wrote  Dr.  Gaunt- 
lett,  '  that  he  played  Bach  for  the  first  time 
here, — several  of  us  had  done  that.  But  he 
taught  us  how  to  play  the  slow  fugue,  for  Adams 
and  others  had  played  them  too  fast.  His  words 
were,  Your  organists  think  that  Bach  did  not 
write  a  slow  fugue  for  the  organ.  Also  he 
brought  out  a  number  of  pedal-fugues  which 
were  not  known  here.  We  had  played  a  few, 
but  he  was  the  first  to  play  8  the  D  major,  the 
G  minor,  the  E  major,  the  C  minor,  the  short 
E  minor,'  etc.  Even  in  those  that  were  known 
he  threw  out  points  unsuspected  before,  as  in 
the  A  minor  Fugue,  where  he  took  the  episode 
on  the  swell,  returning  to  the  Great  Organ 
when  the  pedal  re-enters,  but  transferring  the 
E  in  the  treble  to  the  Great  Organ  a  bar 
before  the  other  parts,  with  very  fine  9  effect. 
This  shows  that  with  all  his  strictness  he  knew 
how  to  break  a  rule.  One  thing  which  par- 
ticularly struck  our  organists  was  the  contrast 

1  L.  July  13. 1837.  J  F.M.  1L  81.  »  H.  99. 

*  Ills  private  journal.  Be  mentioned  It  to  Mr.  John  C.  Horsley 
(now  the  B.  A.)  during  this  visit. 

'  For  a  very  interesting  account  of  these  two  performances  by  Dr. 
Gauntlett  see  The  Musical  World  for  Sept.  IS,  1837. 

«  His  private  journal.  I  Oct.  11, 1837. 

8  He  had  learned  these  since  his  Swiss  journey.  See  Letter,  Sept. 
3.  i  31.  «  iix.  E.  J.  Hopkins's  recollection. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

between  his  massive  effects  and  the  lightness  of 
his  touch  in  rapid  passages.  The  touch  of  the 
Christ  Church  organ  was  both  deep  and  heavy, 
yet  he  threw  off  arpeggios  as  if  he  were  at  a 
piano.  His  command  of  the  pedal  clavier  was 
also  a  subject  of  much  10  remark.  But  we  must 
hasten  on.  On  the  evening  of  the  Tuesday  he 
attended  a  performance  of  his  oratorio  by  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society  at  Exeter  Hall.  He 
had  conducted  three  rehearsals,  but  could  not 
conduct  the  performance  itself,  owing  to  the 
prohibition  of  the  Birmingham  committee.  It 
was  the  first  time  he  had  heard  St.  Paul  as  a 
mere  listener,  and  his  private  journal  says  that 
he  found  it  '  very  interesting.'  His  opinion  of 
English  amateurs  may  be  gathered  from  his 
"letter  to  the  Society,  with  which  his  journal 
fully  agrees.  '  I  can  hardly  express  the  gratifica- 
tion I  felt  in  hearing  my  work  performed  in  so 
beautiful  a  manner, — indeed,  I  shall  never  wish 
to  hear  some  parts  of  it  better  executed  than 
they  were  on  that  night.  The  power  of  the 
choruses — this  large  body  of  good  and  musical 
voices — and  the  style  in  which  they  sang  the 
whole  of  my  music,  gave  me  the  highest  and 
most  heartfelt  treat;  while  I  thought  on  the 
immense  improvement  which  such  a  number  of 
real  amateurs  must  necessarily  produce  in  the 
country  which  may  boast  of  it.'  On  the  Wednes- 
day he  went  to  Birmingham,  and  remained  there, 
rehearsing  and  arranging,  till  the  Festival  began, 
Tuesday,  19th.  At  the  evening  concert  of  that 
day  he  extemporised  on  the  organ,  taking  the 
subjects  of  his  fugue  from  'Your  harps  and 
cymbals'  (Solomon),  and  the  first  movement  of 
Mozart's  Symphony  in  D,  both  of  which  had  been 
performed  earlier  in  the  day ;  he  also  conducted 
his  Midsummer  Night's  Dream  Overture.  On 
Wednesday  he  conducted  St.  Paul,  on  Thursday 
evening  played  his  new  Concerto  in  D  minor, 
and  on  Friday  morning,  the  2  2nd,  Bach's  Prelude 
and  Fugue  ('St.  Anne's')  in  ^Eb  on  the  organ. 
The  applause  throughout  was  prodigious,  but  it 
did  not  turn  his  head,  or  prevent  indignant 
reflections  on  the  treatment  to  which  Neukomm 
had  been  subjected,  reflections  which  do  him 
honour.  Moreover,  the  applause  was  not  empty. 
Mori  and  Novello  were  keen  competitors  for  his 
Concerto,  and  it  became  the  prize  of  the  former, 
at  what  we  should  now  consider  a  very  moderate 
figure,  before  its  composer  left  Birmingham. 
He  travelled  up  by  coach,  reaching  London  at 
midnight,  and  was  intercepted  at  the  coach-office 
by  the  committee  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society, 
who  presented  him  with  a  large  silver  13  snuff- 
box, adorned  with  an  inscription.  He  then  went 
straight  through,  arrived  in  Frankfort  on  the  2  7th, 
and  was  at  Leipzig  at  2  p.m.  of  the  day  of  the 
first  concert,  Sunday,  Oct.  1.  His  house  was  in 
Lurgenstein's  Garden,  off  the  Promenade,  the 
first  house  on  the  left,  on  14the  second  floor. 

10  Mr.  Lincoln's  recollection. 

11  I  have  to  thank  Mr.  Husk  and  the  Committee  of  the  S.H.S.  for 
this  and  other  valuable  Information. 

12  For  these  detail  s  see  Musical  World,  8ept.l837,pp.  24-40.  He  had  re- 
solved on  the  Frel  ude  and  Fugue  two  months  before.  See  Letter,  JulylS. 

is  L.  Oct.  4, 1837.  The  box  Is  with  Dr.  Paul  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy. 
14  11. 149. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

The  next  few  years  were  given  chiefly  to 
Leipzig.  He  devoted  all  his  heart  and  soul  to 
the  Gewandhaus  Concerts,  and  was  well  repaid 
by  the  increasing  excellence  of  the  perform- 
ance and  the  enthusiasm  of  the  audiences.  The 
principal  feature  of  the  series  1837-8  was  the 
appearance  of  Clara  Novello  for  the  first  time  in 
Germany — a  fruit  of  his  English  experiences. 
She  sang  first  at  the  concert  of  Nov.  2,  and  re- 
mained till  the  middle  of  January,  creating  an 
extraordinary  excitement.  But  the  programmes 
had  other  features  to  recommend  them.  In  Feb. 
and  March,  1838,  there  were  four  historical  con- 
certs (1 .  Bach,  Handel,  Gluck,  Viotti ;  2.  Haydn, 
Cimarosa,  Naumann,  Righini ;  3.  Mozart,  Salieri, 
MeTiul,  Romberg ;  4.  Vogler,  Beethoven,  Weber), 
which  excited  great  interest.  Mendelssohn  and 
David  played  the  solo  pieces,  and  it  is  easy  to 
imagine  what  a  treat  they  must  have  been.  In 
the  programmes  of  other  concerts  we  find  Beetho- 
ven's '  Glorreiche  Augenblick,'  and  Mendelssohn's 
own  42nd  Psalm.  His  Serenade  and  Allegro  gio- 
joso  (op.  43) — like  his  Ruy  Bias  Overture,  a 
veritable  'impromptu — was  produced  on  April  2, 
and  his  String  Quartet  in  Eb  (op.  44,  no.  3)  on 
the  following  day. 

His  domestic  life  during  the  spring  of  1838 
was  not  without  anxiety.  On  Feb.  7  his  first 
son  was  born,  afterwards  named  Carl  Wolfgang 
Paul,  and  his  wife  had  a  very  dangerous  2  illness. 
This  year  he  conducted  the  Festival  at  Cologne 
(June  3-6).  He  had  induced  the  committee  to 
include  a  'Cantata  of  Bach's,  then  an  entire 
novelty,  in  the  programme,  which  also  contained 
a  selection  from  Handel's  Joshua.  A  silver  cup 
(Pokal)  was  presented  to  him  at  the  *  close. 

The  summer  was  spent  at  Berlin,  in  the  lovely 
garden  of  the  Leipziger  Strasse,  and  was  his 
wife's  first  introduction  to  her  husband's  5family. 
To  Felix  it  was  a  time  of  great  enjoyment  and 
much  productiveness.  Even  in  the  early  part 
of  the  year  he  had  not  allowed  the  work  of  the 
concerts  to  keep  him  from  composition.  The 
String  Quartet  in  Eb,  just  mentioned,  the  Cello 
Sonata  in  Bb  (op.  45),  the  95th  Psalm,  and 
the  Serenade  and  Allegro  giojoso  are  all  dated 
during  the  hard  work  of  the  first  four  months 
of  1838.  The  actual  result  of  the  summer 
was  another  String  Quartet  (in  D ;  op.  44, 
no.  1),  dated  'July  24,  38,  and  the  Andante 
Cantabile  and  Presto  Agitato  in  B  (Berlin,  June 
22,  1838).  The  intended  result  is  a  symphony 
in  Bb,  which  occupied  him  much,  which  he 
mentions  more  than  7once  as  complete  in  his 
head,  but  of  which  no  trace  on  paper  has  yet 
been  found.  He  alludes  to  it  in  a  letter  to  the 
Philharmonic  Society  (Jan.  19,  1839) — answer- 
ing their  request  for  a  symphony — as  'begun 
last  year,'  though  it  is  doubtful  if  his  occupations 
will  allow  him  to  finish  it  in  time  for  the  1 839 
season.     So  near  were  we  to  the  possession  of  an 

>  Conceived  and  composed  In  two  days  for  Mme.  Botgorschek's 
concert.    See  Letter,  April  2, 1838.  JE11& 

»  Letter  to  J.  A.  Novello,  in  G.  *  M.  192.    For  Ascension  Day, 
«  A.M.Z.  1838.  439.  5  F.M.  ii.  67,  63. 

»  Autograph  in  possession  of  the  Sterndale-Bennetta. 
l  L.  Jul;  30,  1838 ;  June  18, 1839;  11. 126. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


275 


additional  companion  to  the  Italian  and  Scotch 
Symphonies !  The  Violin  Concerto  was  also  begun 
in  this  8  holiday,  and  he  speaks  of  a 9  Psalm  (pro- 
bably the  noble  one  for  8  voices,  '  When  Israel'), 
a  Sonata  for  P.F.  and  Violin  (in  1UF,  still  in 
MS.),  and  other  things.  He  was  now,  too,  in 
the  midst  of  the  tiresome  u  correspondence  with 
Mr.  Planche',  on  the  subject  of  the  opera  which 
that  gentleman  had  agreed  to  write,  but  which, 
like  Mendelssohn's  other  negotiations  on  the 
subject  of  operas,  came  to  nothing;  and  there 
is  the  usual  large  number  of  long  and  care- 
fully written  letters.  He  returned  to  Leipzig 
in  September,  but  was  again  attacked  with 
"measles,  on  the  eve  of  a  performance  of  St. 
Paul,  on  Sept.  15.  The  attack  was  sufficient 
to  prevent  his  conducting  the  first  of  the  Ge- 
wandhaus Concerts  (Sept.  30)  at  which  David 
was  his  substitute.  On  Oct.  7  he  was  again  at  his 
^post.  The  star  of  this  series  was  Mrs.  Alfred 
Shaw,  whose  singing  had  pleased  him  very  much 
when  last  in  England ;  its  one  remarkable 
novelty  was  Schubert's  great  Symphony  in  C, 
which  had  been  brought  from  Vienna  by  Schu- 
mann, and  was  first  played  in  MS.  on  March 
22,  1839,  at  the  last  concert  of  the  series.  It 
was  during  this  autumn  that  he  received  from 
Erard  the  Grand  piano  which  became  so  well 
known  to  his  friends  and  pupils,  and  the  prospect 
of  which  he  celebrates  in  a  remarkable  letter 
now  in  possession  of  that  Firm. 

Elijah  is  now  fairly  under  way.  After  dis- 
cussing with  his  friends  Bauer  and  Schubring 
the  subject  of  w  St.  Peter,  in  terms  which  show 
how  completely  the  requirements  of  an  oratorio 
book  were  within  his  grasp,  and  another  subject 
not  very  clearly  indicated,  but  apparently  ap- 
proaching that  which  he  afterwards  began  to  treat 
as  15Christus — he  was  led  to  the  contemplation 
of  that  most  picturesque  and  startling  of  the  pro- 
phets of  the  Old  Testament,  who,  strange  to  say, 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  previously  treated 
by  any  known  composer.  Hiller  tells  16  us  that 
the  subject  was  suggested  by  the  "passage  (1 
Kings  xix.  11),  'Behold,  the  Lord  passed  by.' 
We  may  accept  the  fact  more  certainly  than  the 
date  (1840)  at  which  Hiller  places  it.  Such  a 
thing  could  not  but  fix  itself  in  the  memory, 
though  the  date  might  easily  be  confused.  We 
have  already  seen  that  he  was  at  work  on  the 
subject  in  the  summer  of  1837,  and  a  letter  to 
Schubring,  dated  Nov.  2,  38,  shows  that  much 
consultation  had  already  taken  place  upon  it 
between  Mendelssohn  and  himself,  and  that 
considerable  progress  had  been  made  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  book  of  the  oratorio.  Mendels- 
sohn had  drawn  up  a  number  of  passages  and 
scenes  in  order,  and  had  given  them  to  Schu- 
bring for  consideration.  His  ideas  are  dramatic 
enough  for  the  stage !  A  month  later  18the  matter 

•  L.  July  SO,  1888.  •  H.  126.  M  '  Berlin.  June  13, 1838.' 

11  For  the  whole  of  this  see  Mr.  Blanche's '  Becollections  and  Ik-flec- 
tions,' 1872,  chap.  xxi.  Mr.  Blanche's  caustic  deductions  may  well  bo 
pardoned  him  even  by  those  who  most  clearly  see  their  want  of  force. 

12  A.M.Z.  1838,  642.  "  Ibid.  696. 

14  L.  July  14, 1837.  *  L.  Jan.  12, 18SB.  16  H.  17L 

n  He  liked  a  central  point  for  his  work.    In  St  Feter  it  would  have 

been  the  Gift  of  Tongues ;  see  L.  July  14, 1837.  is  L.  Dec.  6, 1838. 

T2 


276 


MENDELSSOHN. 


has  made  further  progress,  and  his  judicious  dra- 
matic ideas  are  even  more  confirmed ;  but  the 
music  does  not  seem  to  be  yet  touched.  During 
the  spring  of  1839  he  finished  the  114th  Psalm, 
and  wrote  the  Overture  to  Ruy  Bias.  This, 
though  one  of  the  most  brilliantly  effective  of  his 
works,  was,  with  a  chorus  for  female  voices, 
literally  conceived  and  executed  d,  Vimproviste 
between  a  Tuesday  evening  and  a  Friday  morn- 
ing—  a  great  part  of  both  Wednesday  and 
Thursday  being  otherwise  occupied — and  in 
the  teeth  of  an  absolute  aversion  to  the  1  play. 
The  performance  took  place  at  the  theatre  on 
March  11.  A  letter  to  Hiller,  written  a  a  month 
after  this,  gives  a  pleasant  picture  of  his  care 
for  his  friends.  A  great  part  of  it  is  occupied 
with  the  arrangements  for  doing  Hiller's  oratorio 
in  the  next  series  of  Gewandhaus  Concerts,  and 
with  his  pleasure  at  the  appearance  of  a  favour- 
able article  on  him  in  Schumann's  'Zeitung,' 
from  which  he  passes  to  lament  over  the  news  of 
the  suicide  of  Nourrit,  who  had  been  one  of  his 
circle  in  Paris  in  1831. 

In  May  he  is  at  Diisseldorf,  conducting  the 
Festival  (May  19-21) — the  Messiah,  Beethoven's 
Mass  in  C,  his  own  42nd  Psalm,  the  Eroica,  etc. 
From  this  he  went  to  Frankfort,  to  the  wedding 
of  his  wife's  sister  Julie  to  Mr.  Schunck  of  Leip- 
zig, and  there  he  wrote  the  D  minor  3  Trio ; 
then  to  Horchheim,  and  then  back  to  Frank- 
fort. On  *  Aug.  2 1  they  were  at  home  again  in 
Leipzig,  and  were  visited  by  the  Hensels,  who 
remained  with  them  till  Sept.  4,  and  then  de- 
parted for  Italy.  Felix  followed  them  with  a 
long  5  letter  of  hints  and  instructions  for  their 
guidance  on  the  journey,  not  the  least  charac- 
teristic part  of  which  is  the  closing  injunction  to 
be  sure  to  eat  a  salad  of  brocoli  and  ham  at  Naples, 
and  to  write  to  tell  him  if  it  was  not  good. 

The  summer  of  1839  had  been  an  unusually  fine 
one ;  the  visit  to  Frankfort  and  the  Rhine  had 
been  perfectly  successful ;  he  had  enjoyed  it  with 
that  peculiar  capacity  for  enjoyment  which  he 
possessed,  and  he  felt  'thoroughly  'refreshed.' 
He  went  a  great  deal  into  society,  but  found  none 
bo  charming  as  that  of  his  wife.  A  delightful 
picture  of  part  of  his  life  at  Frankfort  is  given  in 
a  letter  to  Klingemann  of  Aug.  1,  and  still  more 
bo  in  one  to  his  7  mother.  Nor  was  it  only 
delightful.  It  urged  him  to  the  composition  of 
part- songs  for  the  open  air,  a  kind  of  piece  which 
he  made  his  own,  and  wrote  to  absolute  perfection. 
The  impulse  lasted  till  the  end  of  the  winter,  and 
many  of  his  best  part-songs — including  'Love  and 
Wine-,'  'The  Hunter's  Farewell,'  'The  Lark' — 
date  from  this  time.  In  addition  to  these  the  sum- 
mer produced  the  D  minor  Trio  already  men- 
tioned, the  completion  of  the  114th  Psalm,  and 
some  fugues  for  the  organ,  one  of  which  was  worked 
into  a  sonata,  while  the  others  remain  in  MS. 


1  Letter,  March  18, 1839.  In  fact  It  was  only  written  at  all  because 
the  proceeds  of  the  concert  were  to  go  to  the  Widows'  fund  of  the 
orchestra.  He  Insisted  on  calling  it  'The  Overture  to  the  Dramatic 
Fund."  2  Leipzig,  April  15 ;  H.  p.  133. 

•  The  autograph  Is  dated— 1st  Movement,  Frankfort,  June  6 ;  Finale 
Frankfort,  July  18.  *  F.M.  ii.  85. 

»  Sept.  14. 1S39.  «  L.  Aug.  1.  7  L.  July  8,  Aug.  1. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

On  Oct.  a  his  second  child,  Marie,  was  born. 
Then  came  the  christening,  with  a  visit  from  his 
mother  and  Paul,  and  then  Hiller  arrived.  He 
had  very  recently  lost  his  mother,  and  nothing 
would  satisfy  Mendelssohn  but  that  his  friend 
should  come  and  pay  him  a  long  8visit,  partly  to 
dissipate  his  thoughts,  and  partly  to  superintend 
the  rehearsals  of  his  oratorio  of  Jeremiah  the 
Prophet,  which  had  been  bespoken  for  the  next 
series  of  Gewandhaus  'Concerts.  Hiller  arrived 
early  in  December,  and  we  recommend  his  de- 
scription of  Mendelssohn's  home  life  to  any  one 
who  wishes  to  know  how  simply  and  happily  a 
great  and  busy  man  can  live.  Leipzig  was  proud 
of  him,  his  wife  was  very  popular,  and  this  was 
perhaps  the  happiest  period  of  his  life.  His  love 
of  amusement  was  as  great  as  ever,  and  his  friends 
still  recollect  his  childish  delight  in  the  Cirque 
Lajarre  and  Paul  Cousin  the  clown. 

The  concert  season  of  1839-40  was  a  brilliant 
one.  For  novelties  there  were  symphonies  by 
Kalliwoda,  Kittl,  Schneider,  and  Vogler.  Schu- 
bert's 9th  was  played  no  less  than  three  10  times, 
and  one  u  concert  was  rendered  memorable  by 
a  performance  of  Beethoven's  four  Overtures 
to  Leonora-Fidelio.  Mendelssohn's  own  114th 
Psalm  was  first  performed  'sehr  12glorios'  on 
New  Year's  Day,  and  the  new  Trio  on  Feb.  10. 
The  Quartet  Concerts  were  also  unusually  bril- 
liant. At  one  of  them  Mendelssohn's  Octet  was 
given,  he  and  Kalliwoda  playing  the  two  violas  ; 
at  another  he  u  accompanied  David  in  Bach's 
Chaconne,  then  quite  unknown.  Hiller's  oratoria 
was  produced  on  April  2  with  great  success. 
Ernst,  and,  above  all,  Liszt,  were  among  the  vir- 
tuosos of  this  season;  and  for  the  latter  of  these 
two  great  players  Mendelssohn  arranged  a  soiree 
at  the  Gewandhaus,  which  he  thus  epitomises — 
'  350  people,  orchestra,  chorus,  punch,  pastry, 
Meeresstille,  Psalm,  Bach's  Triple  Concerto, 
choruses  from  St.  Paul,  Fantasia  on  Lucia,  the 
Erl  King,  the  devil  and  his  "grandmother' ;  and 
which  had  the  effect  of  somewhat  allaying  the 
annoyance  which  had  been  caused  by  the  extra 
prices  charged  at  Liszt's  concerts. 

How,  in  the  middle  of  all  this  exciting  and 
fatiguing  work  (of  which  we  have  given  but  a 
poor  idea),  he  found  time  for  composition,  and 
for  his  large  correspondence,  it  is  impossible  to 
tell,  but  he  neglected  nothing.  On  the  contrary, 
it  is  precisely  during  this  winter  that  he  trans- 
lates for  his  uncle  Joseph,  his  father's  elder 
brother — a  man  not  only  of  remarkable  business 
power  but  with  considerable  literary  ability — 
a  number  of  difficult  early  Italian  poems  into- 
German  verse.  They  consist  of  three  sonnets 
by  Boccaccio,  one  by  Dante,  one  by  Cino,  one 
by  Cecco  Angioleri,  an  epigram  of  Dante's, 
and  another  of  Alfani's.  They  are  printed  in 
the  recent  editions  of  the  letters,  and  are  ac- 
companied by  a  letter  dated  Feb.   20,   1840, 

•  H.  147.  »  H.  134. 

10  Dec  12, 1839,  March  12  and  April  8,  1840.  The  second  performance 
was  Interfered  with  by  a  fire  In  the  town. 

11  Letter,  Jan.  4, 184a  «  Jan.  9, 1840. 

u  Probably  extempore ;  the  published  one  is  dated  some  jean  later. 
M  Letter,  March  30, 184ft 


MENDELSSOHN. 

describing  half-humorously,  half-pathetically,  the 
difficulty  which  the  obscurities  of  the  originals 
had  given  him  amid  all  his  professional  labours. 
With  irrepressible  energy  he  embraced  the  first 
moment  of  an  approach  to  leisure,  after  what  he 
describes  as  a  '  really  overpowering  '  turmoil,'  to 
write  a  long  and  carefully-studied  official  com- 
munication to  the  ELreis-Director,  or  Home  Mi- 
nister of  Saxony,  urging  that  a  legacy  recently 
left  by  a  certain  Herr  Blumner  should  be  applied 
to  the  formation  of  a  solid  music  academy  at 
8  Leipzig.  This  was  business ;  but,  in  addition, 
during  all  these  months  there  are  long  letters 
to  Hiller,  Chorley,  his  mother,  Fanny,  Paul, 
and  Furst  (and  remember  that  only  a  small  part 
of  those  which  he  wrote  has  been  brought  within 
our  reach)  ;  and  yet  he  managed  to  compose 
both  the  Lobgesang  and  the  Festgesang  for  the 
Festival  in  commemoration  of  the  invention  of 
Printing,  which  was  held  in  Leipzig  on  June  25, 
the  former  of  which  is  as  characteristic  and  im- 
portant a  work  as  any  in  the  whole  series  of  his 
compositions.  The  music  for  both  these  was 
written  at  the  express  request  of  the  Town 
Council,  acting  through  a  committee  whose  chair- 
man was  Dr.  Raymond  Hartel,  and  the  first 
communication  with  Mendelssohn  on  the  subject 
was  made  about  the  end  of  the  previous  July. 
We  know  from  Mendelssohn  'himself  that  the 
title  'Symphonie  Cantata'  is  due  to  Klingemann, 
but  the  words  are  probably  Mendelssohn's  own 
selection,  no  trace  of  any  communication  with 
Schubring,  Bauer,  or  Furst  being  preserved  in  the 
published  letters  or  recollections,  and  the  draft 
of  the  words  having  vanished/ 

The  Festival  extended  over  two  days,  Wednes- 
day and  Thursday,  June  24  and  25.  On  Tuesday 
evening  there  was  a  '  Vorfeier '  in  the  shape  of 
an  opera  by  Lortzing,  'Hans  Sachs,'  composed 
for  the  occasion.  At  8  a.m.  on  Wednesday  was 
a  service  in  the  church  with  a  cantata  by  Rich- 
ter  (of  Zittau),  followed  by  the  unveihhg  of  the 
printing  press  and  statue  of  Gutenberg,  and  by 
a  performance  in  the  open  market-place  of 
Mendelssohn's  4  Festgesang  for  two  choirs  and 
brass  instruments,  he  conducting  the  one  chorus 
and  David  the  other.  On  Thursday  afternoon  a 
concert  was  held  in  St.  Thomas's  Church,  con- 
sisting of  Weber's  Jubilee  Overture,  Handel's  Det- 
tingen  Te  Deum,  and  Mendelssohn's  Lobgesang. 

Hardly  was  this  over  when  he  went  to 
Schwerin  with  his  wife,  to  conduct  St.  Paul 
and  other  large  works,  at  a  Festival  there 
(July  8-10).  On  the  way  back  they  stopped  in 
Berlin  for  '  three  very  pleasant  5days.'  Another 
matter  into  which  at  this  time  he  threw  all  his 
devotion  was  the  erection  of  a  monument  to 
Sebastian  Bach  in  front  of  his  old  habitat  at  the 
'  Thomas  School.'  The  scheme  was  his  'own, 
and  he  urged  it  with  characteristic  heartiness. 


I  L.  March  30, 1840.  »  L.  April  8.  184a  «  I*  Nov.  18. 1840. 

*  The  words  of  this  were  by  Prof.  PrOlss  of  Freiberg  (N.M.Z.  1840,  II. 
7).  The  'statue'  which  Is  mentioned  in  the  accounts  was  probably 
•nroething  merely  temporary.  The  second  number  of  the  Festgesang, 
adapted  to  the  words  '  Hark,  the  herald  angels  slug,'  is  a  very  favourite 
bymn-tnne  in  England. 

»  C.  1.  320.  ejJ.M.Z.  1843. 1. 144. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


277 


But  dear  as  the  name  and  fame  of  Bach  were 
to  him,  he  would  not  consent  to  move  till  he 
had  obtained  (from  the  town  council)  an  in- 
crease to  the  pay  of  the  orchestra  of  the 
Gewandhaus  Concerts.  For  this  latter  object 
he  obtained  500  'thalers,  and  on  Aug.  10  gave 
an  organ  performance  solissimo  in  St.  Thomas's 
church,  by  which  he  realised  300  "thalers.  Even 
this  he  would  not  do  without  doing  his  very  best, 
and  he  describes  to  his  mother  how  he  had  prac- 
tised so  hard  for  a  week  before  '  that  he  could 
hardly  stand  on  his  feet,  and  the  mere  walking 
down  the  street  was  like  playing  'a  pedal  pas- 
sage.' After  such  a  six  months  no  wonder  that 
his  health  was  not  good,  and  that  his  '  physician 
wanted  to  send  him  to  some  Brunnen  instead  of 
a  Musical  "Festival.'  To  a  Festival,  however,  he 
went.  The  Lobgesang  had  not  escaped  the  at- 
tention of  the  energetic  Mr.  Moore,  who  managed 
the  music  in  Birmingham,  and  some  time  before 
its  first  performance  he  had  written  to  Mendels- 
sohn with  the  view  of  securing  it  for  the  autumn 
meeting.  On  July  21  Mendelssohn  writes  in 
answer,  agreeing  to  come,  and  making  his  stipu- 
lations as  to  the  other  works  to  be  n performed. 
It  was  his  sixth  visit  to  England. 

There  was  a  preliminary  rehearsal  of  the  work 
in  London  under  Moscheles's  care.  Mendelssohn 
arrived  on  12Sept.  8,  visited  all  his  London  friends, 
including  the  Alexanders,  Horsleys,  Moscheles, 
and  Klingemann  (with  whom  he  stayed,  at  4 
Hobart  Place,  Pimlico),  went  down  to  Birming- 
ham with  Moscheles,  and  stayed  with  Mr.  Moore. 
On  Tuesday  he  played  a  fugue  on  the  organ ;  on 
Wednesday,  the  23rd,  conducted  the  Lobgesang, 
and  after  it  was  over,  and  the  public  had  left 
the  hall,  played  for  three-quarters  of  an  hour  on 
the 13  organ.  The  same  day  he  played  his  G  minor 
Concerto  at  the  evening  concert.  On  Thursday, 
after  a  selection  from  Handel's  Jephthah,  he 
again  extemporised  on  the  organ,  this  time  in 
public.  The  selection  had  closed  with  a  chorus, 
the  subjects  of  which  he  took  for  his  Himprovisa- 
tion,  combining  'Theme  sublime'  with  'Ever 
faithful '  in  a  masterly  manner.  On  his  return 
to  town — on  Sept.  30 — he  played  the  organ  at 
St.  Peter's,  Cornhill— Bach's  noble  Prelude  and 
Fugue  in  E  minor,  his  own  in  C  minor  (op.  37, no.  1) 
and  F  a  minor,  the  latter  not  yet  published — 


and  other  pieces,  concluding  with  Bach's  Passa- 
caglia.  Of  this  last  he  wrote  a  few  bars  as  a 
memento,  which  still  ornament  the  vestry  of  the 

7  I    Feb.  7  1840. 

e  13,000  tbalers  in  all  were  raised  CN.M.Z.  1840,  li.  164). 
»  I.  Aug.  10, 1840.  >°  Letter  In  0.  L  314 ;  Folko,  2S1. 

11  p.  2S\.  «  Mos.  II.  67.  "  Mos.  1L  70. 

14  From  the  recollections  of  Mr.  Turle  and  the  late  Mr.  Bowley. 
13  I  owe  this  to  Miss  Mounsey,  the  organist  of  the  church.     The 
Fugue  is  among  the  MSS.  in  the  Berlin  Bibliothek. 


278 


MENDELSSOHN. 


church.  He  had  intended  to  give  a  '  Charity 
Concert  during  his  stay  in  London,  after  the 
Festival,  but  it  was  too  late  in  the  season  for 
this,  and  he  travelled  from  London  with  2  Chorley 
and  Moscheles  in  the  mail  coach  to  Dover ;  then 
an  8-hours'  passage  to  Ostend,  and  by  Liege  and 
Aix-la-Chapelle  to  Leipzig.  It  was  Moscheles's 
first  introduction  to  Cecile. 

The  concerts  had  already  begun,  on  Oct.  4, 
but  he  took  his  place  at  the  second.  The  Lob- 
gesang  played  a  great  part  in  the  musical  life  of 
Leipzig  this  winter.  It  was  performed  at  the 
special  command  of  the  King  of  Saxony  at  an 
extra  'concert  in  October.  Then  Mendelssohn  set 
to  work  to  make  the  alterations  and  additions 
which  the  previous  performances  had  suggested 
to  him,  including  the  scene  of  the  watchman, 
preparatory  to  a  benefit  performance  on  Dec.  3 ; 
and  lastly  it  was  performed  at  the  9th  Gewand- 
haus  Concert,  on  Dec.  1 7,  when  both  it  and  the 
Kreutzer  Sonata  were  commanded  by  the  King 
and  the  Crown  Prince  of  Saxony.  The  altera- 
tions were  so  serious  and  so  universal  as  to 
compel  the  sacrifice  of  the  whole  of  the  plates 
engraved  for  the  performance  at  Birmingham. 
Now,  however,  they  were  final,  and  the  work  was 
published  by  Breitkopf  &  Hartel  early  in  the 
following  year.  Before  leaving  this  we  may  say 
that  the  scene  of  the  watchman  was  suggested  to 
him  during  a  sleepless  night,  in  which  the  words 
'Will  the  night  soon  pass?'  incessantly  recurred 
to  his  mind.  Next  morning  he  told  Mr.  Schleinitz 
that  he  had  got  a  new  idea  for  the  Lobgesang. 

With  1 84 1  we  arrive  at  a  period  of  Mendels- 
sohn's life  when,  for  the  first  time,  a  disturbing 
antagonistic  element  beyond  his  own  control  was 
introduced  into  it,  depriving  him  of  that  freedom 
of  action  on  which  he  laid  such  great  stress,  re- 
ducing him  to  do  much  that  he  was  disinclined 
to,  and  to  leave  undone  much  that  he  loved, 
and  producing  by  degrees  a  decidedly  unhappy 
effect  on  his  life  and  peace.  From  1841  began 
the  worries  and  troubles  which,  when  added 
to  the  prodigious  amount  of  his  legitimate  work, 
gradually  robbed  him  of  the  serene  happiness 
and  satisfaction  which  he  had  for  long  enjoyed, 
and  in  the  end,  there  can  be  little  doubt,  con- 
tributed to  his  premature  death.  Frederick 
William  IV,  to  whom,  as  Crown  Prince,  Men- 
delssohn dedicated  his  three  Concert-overtures  in 
1834,  had  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Prussia 
on  June  7,  1840;  and  being  a  man  of  much 
taste  and  cultivation,  one  of  his  first  desires  was 
to  found  an  Academy  of  Arts  in  his  capital,  to 
be  divided  into  the  four  classes  of  Painting, 
Sculpture,  Architecture,  and  Music,  each  class  to 
have  its  Director,  who  should  in  turn  be  Super- 
intendent of  the  whole  Academy.  In  music  it 
was  proposed  to  connect  the  class  with  the  ex- 
isting establishments  for  musical  education,  and 
with  others  to  be  formed  in  the  future,  all  under 
the  control  of  the  Director,  who  was  also  to  carry 
out  a  certain  number  of  concerts  every  year,  at 
which  large  vocal  and  instrumental  works  were 

1  See  his  Letter  of  July  a  In  0.  L  818. 

i  11  us.  11.  74.  i  Letter,  Oct.  27. 184a 


MENDELSSOHN. 

to  be  performed  by  the  Royal  orchestra  and  the 
Opera  company.  Such  was  the  scheme  which  was 
communicated  to  Mendelssohn  by  Herr  von  Mas- 
sow,  on  Dec.  II,  1840,  with  an  offer  of  the  post  of 
Director  of  the  musical  class,  at  a  salary  of  3000 
thalers  (£450).  Though  much  gratified  by  the 
offer,  Mendelssohn  declined  to  accept  it  without 
detailed  information  as  to  the  duties  involved. 
That  information,  however,  could  only  be  afforded 
by  the  Government  Departments  of  Science,  In- 
struction, and  Medicine,  within  whose  regulation 
the  Academy  lay,  and  on  account  of  the  necessary 
changes  and  adjustments  would  obviously  re- 
quire much  consideration.  Many  letters  on  the 
subject  passed  between  Mendelssohn,  his  brother 
Paul,  Herr  von  Massow,  Herr  Eichhorn  the  Min- 
ister, Klingemann,  the  President  Verkenius,  from 
which  it  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  his  hesitation 
arose  from  his  distrust  of  Berlin  and  of  the  official 
world  which  predominated  there,  and  with  whom 
he  would  in  his  directorship  be  thrown  into  con- 
tact at  every  turn.  He  contrasts,  somewhat 
captiously  perhaps,  his  freedom  at  Leipzig  with 
the  trammels  at  Berlin;  the  devoted,  excellent, 
vigorous  orchestra  of  the  one  with  the  careless 
perfunctory  execution  of  the  other.  His  radical, 
roturier  spirit  revolted  against  the  officialism 
and  etiquette  of  a  great  and  formal  Court,  and 
he  denounces  in  distinct  terms  'the  mongrel 
doings  of  the  capital — vast  projects  and  poor  per- 
formances ;  the  keen  criticism  and  the  slovenly 
playing  ;  the  liberal  ideas  and  the  shoals  of  sub- 
servient courtiers ;  the  Museum  and  Academy, 
and  the  sand.' 

To  leave  a  place  where  his  sphere  of  action  was 
so  definite,  and  the  results  so  unmistakeably  good, 
as  they  were  at  Leipzig,  for  one  in  which  the 
programme  was  vague  and  the  results  at  best  pro- 
blematical, was  to  him  more  than  difficult.  His 
fixed  belief  was  that  Leipzig  was  one  of  the  most 
influential  and  Berlin  one  of  the  least  influential 
places  in  Germany  in  the  matter  of  music ;  and  this 
being  his  conviction  (rightly  or  wrongly)  we  cannot 
wonder  at  his  hesitation  to  forsake  the  one  for  the 
other.  However,  the  commands  of  a  king  are  not 
easily  set  aside,  and  the  result  was  that  by  the 
end  of  May  1841  he  was  living  in  Berlin,  in  the 
old  home  of  his  family — to  his  great  delight.* 

His  life  at  Leipzig  during  the  winter  of  1 840-4 1 
had  been  unusually  laborious.  The  interest  of 
the  Concerts  was  fully  maintained ;  four  very  in- 
teresting programmes,  occupied  entirely  by  Bach, 
Handel,  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven,  and 
involving  a  world  of  consideration  and  minute 
trouble,  were  given.  He  himself  played  fre- 
quently; several  very  important  new  works  by 
contemporaries — including  symphonies  by  Spohr, 
Maurer,  and  Kalliwoda,  and  the  Choral  Sym- 
phony, then  nearly  as  good  as  new — were  pro- 
duced, after  extra  5  careful  rehearsals ;  and  the 
season  wound  up  with  Bach's  Passion.  In  a 
letter  to  'Chorley  of  March  15  he  calls  his  spring 

4  F.M.  HI.  6. 

s  It  was  at  this  performance  of  the  Choral  Symphony  that  Schu- 
mann for  the  first  time  heard  the  D  In  the  Bass  Trombone  which 
gives  so  much  life  to  the  beginning  of  the  Trio.  See  his  words  in 
N.M.Z.  1841,  i.  St.  I  C.  i.  334. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

campaign  '  the  most  troublesome  and  vexatious ' 
he  had  ever  known ;  '  nineteen  concerts  since 
Jan.  i,  and  seven  more  to  come,  with  at  least 
three  rehearsals  a  week  all  through.'  The  amount 
of  general  business  and  correspondence,  due  to 
the  constant  rise  in  his  fame  and  position,  was 
also  alarmingly  on  the  increase.  In  a  letter  to 
his  mother,  Jan.  25,  he  tells  of  35  letters  written 
in  two  days,  and  of  other  severe  demands  on  his 
time,  temper,  and  judgment.  And  when  we  re- 
member what  his  letters  often  are — the  large 
quarto  sheet  of  '  Bath  paper,'  covered  at  least  on 
three  sides,  often  over  the  flaps  of  the  fourth,  the 
close  straight  lines,  the  regular,  extraordinarily 
neat  writing,  the  air  of  accuracy  and  precision  that 
pervades  the  whole  down  to  the  careful  signature 
and  the  tiny  seal — we  shall  not  wonder  that  with 
all  this,  added  to  the  Berlin  worries,  he  composed 
little  or  nothing.  'I  have  neither  read  nor 
written  in  the  course  of  this  music-mad  winter,' 
says  1he,  and  accordingly,  with  one  exception, 
we  find  no  composition  with  a  date  earlier  than 
the  latter  part  of  April  1841.  The  exception 
was  a  pianoforte  duet  in  A,  which  he  wrote 
expressly  to  play  with  his  friend  Madame  Schu- 
mann, at  her  concert  on  March  31.  It  is  dated 
Leipzig,  March  23,  1841,  and  was  published  after 
his  death  as  op.  92.  As  the  pressure  lessens, 
however,  and  the  summer  advances,  he  breaks 
out  with  some  songs,  with  and  without  words, 
and  then  with  the  '  1 7  Serious  Variations '  (June 
4),  going  on,  as  his  way  was,  in  the  same  rut, 
with  the  variations  in  Eb  (June  25)  and  in  2Bb. 
It  was  known  before  he  left  Leipzig  that  it  was 
his  intention  to  accept  the  Berlin  post  for  a 
year  only,  and  therefore  it  seemed  natural  that 
the  '  Auf  Wiedersehen '  in  his  Volkslied,  '  Es  ist 
bestimmt,'  should  be  rapturously  cheered  when 
3  sung  by  Schroder-Devrient  to  his  own  accom- 
paniment, and  that  when  serenaded  at  his  de- 
parture with  the  same  song  he  should  himself 
join  heartily  in  its  closing  4  words.  He  took  his 
farewell,  as  we  have  said,  with  a  performance  of 
Bach's  Passion,  in  St.  Thomas's  church,  on  Palm 
Sunday,  April  4,  and  the  appointment  of  Kapell- 
meister to  the  King  of  Saxony  followed  him  to 
Berlin.5 

For  some  time  after  his  arrival  there  matters 
did  not  look  promising.  But  he  had  bound  him- 
self for  a  year.  Many  conferences  were  held, 
at  which  little  was  done  but  to  irritate  him. 
He  handed  in  his  plan  for  the  Musical  "Aca- 
demy, received  the  title  of  7  Kapellmeister  to  the 
King  of  Prussia,  the  life  in  the  lovely  garden 
at  the  Leipziger  Strasse  reasserted  its  old  power 
over  him,  and  his  hope  and  spirits  gradually 
returned.  He  was  back  in  Leipzig  for  a  few 
weeks  in  July,  as  we  find  from  his  letters,  and 
from  an  Organ  prelude  in  C  minor,  a  perfectly 
strict  composition  of  38  bars,  written  '  this  morn- 
ing' (July  9),  on  purpose  for  the  album  of  Mr. 
Dibdin  of  'Edinburgh.  He  then  began  work  in 
Berlin.     The  King's  desire  was  to  revive  some 

l  0. 1.  334 ;  also  L.  II.  24.  J  Letter,  July  15, 1841 ,  and  MS.  Cat. 

»  Schumann  In  N.M.Z.  1841, 1. 118.  *  Dev.  218. 

•  A.M.Z.  1841,  550.  •  L.  II.  238 ;  dated  Berlin,  May  1838. 

t  A.M.Z.  1841, 856.  8  See  Catalogue  at  end  of  this  article. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


27» 


of  the  ancient  Greek  tragedies.  He  communicated 
his  idea  to  Tieck,  the  poet,  one  of  the  new 
Directors;  the  choice  fell  on  the  Antigone  of 
Sophocles,  in  Donner's  new  translation ;  and 
by  9  Sept.  9  Mendelssohn  was  in  consultation 
with  Tieck  on  the  subject.  He  was  greatly 
interested  with  the  plan,  and  with  the  novel 
task  of  setting  a  Greek  drama,  and  worked  at  it 
with  the  greatest  enthusiasm.  By  the  28th  of 
the  same  month  he  had  made  up  his  mind  on 
the  questions  of  unison,  melodrama,  etc.  The 
first  full  stage  rehearsal  took  place  on  the  22nd, 
and  the  performance  itself  at  the  Neue  Palais  at 
Potsdam  on  the  28th  Oct.,  with  a  repetition  on 
Nov.  6.  Meantime  he  had  taken  a  house  of  his 
own  opposite  the  family  residence.  A  temporary 
arrangement  had  been  made  for  the  Gewandhaus 
Concerts  of  this  winter  to  be  conducted  by  David, 
and  they  began  for  the  season  on  that  footing. 
Mendelssohn  however  ran  over  for  a  short  time, 
after  the  second  performance  of  Antigone,  and 
conducted  two  of  the  series,  and  the  concert  for 
the  benefit  of  the  orchestra,  returning  to  Berlin 
for  Christmas. 

On  Jan.  10,  1842,  he  began  a  series  of  concerts 
by  command  of  the  king,  with  a  performance  of 
St.  Paul  in  the  concert-room  of  the  theatre ;  but, 
if  we  may  believe  Devrient,  there  was  no  cordial 
understanding  between  him  and  the  band;  the 
Berlin  audiences  were  cold,  and  he  was  un- 
comfortable. 'A  prophet  hath  no  honour  in 
his  own  country.'  It  must,  however,  have  been 
satisfactory  to  see  the  hold  which  his  Antigone 
was  taking  both  in  10  Leipzig  and  Berlin,  in  each 
of  which  it  was  played  over  and  over  again  to 
crowded  houses.  During  the  winter  he  com- 
pleted the  Scotch  Symphony,  which  is  dated 
Jan.  20,  1842.  His  sister's  Sunday  concerts 
were  extraordinarily  brilliant  this  season,  on 
account  not  only  of  the  music  performed,  but  of 
the  very  distinguished  persons  who  frequented 
them ;  Cornelius,  Thorwaldsen,  Ernst  (a  constant 
visitor),  Pasta,  Madame  Ungher-Sabatier,  Liszt, 
Bockh,  Lepsius,  Mrs.  Austin,  are  specimens  of 
the  various  kinds  of  people  who  were  attracted, 
partly  no  doubt  by  the  music  and  the  pleasant 
reunion,  partly  by  the  fact  that  Mendelssohn  was 
there.  He  made  his  escape  to  his  beloved  Leipzig 
for  the  production  of  the  Scotch  Symphony,  on 
"March  3,  but  though  it  was  repeated  a  week 
later,  he  appears  to  have  returned  to  Berlin. 
He  once  more,  and  for  the  last  time,  directed  the 
Diisseldorf  Festival,  on  May  15-17  ;  and  passing 
on  to  London,  for  his  seventh  visit,  with  his 
wife,  conducted  his  Scotch  Symphony  at  the 
Philharmonic,  amid  extraordinary  applause  and 
enthusiasm,  on  June  13,  and  played  his  D  minor 
Concerto  there  on  the  27th,  and  conducted  the 
Hebrides,  which  was  encored.  The  Philharmonic 
season  wound  up  with  a  fish  dinner  at  Green- 
wich, given  him  by  the  directors.  On  the  12th 
he  revisited  St.  Peter's,  Cornhill.  It  was  Sunday, 
and  as  he  came  in  the  congregation  were  singing 

»Der.22S. 

10  First  performance  in  Leipzig,  March  5 ;  In  Berlin,  April  13. 

11  N.M.Z.  1842,  i.  108. 


280 


MENDELSSOHN. 


a  hymn  to  Haydn's  well-known  tune.  This  he 
took  for  the  subject  of  his  voluntary,  and  varied 
and  treated  it  for  some  time  extempore  in  the 
happiest  and  most  scientific  manner.  On  the 
1 6th  he  paid  a  third  visit  to  Christ  Church, 
Newgate  Street,  and  it  was  possibly  on  that 
occasion  that  he  played  an  extempore  fantasia  on 
Israel  in  Egypt  which  positively  electrified  those 
who  heard  it.  He  also  again  treated  Haydn's 
Hymn,  but  this  time  as  a  fantasia  and  fugue,  en- 
tirely distinct  from  his  performance  of  four  days 
1  previous.  On  the  1 7th,  at  a  concert  of  the  Sacred 
Harmonic  Society  at  Exeter  Hall,  mostly  con- 
sisting of  English  Anthems,  he  played  the  organ 
twice;  first,  Bach's  so-called  'St.  Anne's'  Fugue, 
with  the  great  Prelude  in  Eb,  and,  secondly,  an 
extempore  introduction  and  variations  on  the 
Harmonious  Blacksmith,  ending  with  a  fugue  on 
the  same  a  theme.  After  this  he  and  his  wife 
paid  a  visit  to  their  cousins  in  Manchester,  with 
the  intention  of  going  on  to  Dublin,  but  were 
deterred  by  the  prospect  of  the  crossing.  During 
the  London  portion  of  this  visit  they  resided  with 
his  wife's  relations,  the  Beneckes,  on  Denmark 
Hill.  He  was  very  much  in  society,  where  he 
always  enjoyed  himself  extremely,  and  where  his 
wife  was  much  admired ;  and  amongst  other  in- 
cidents described  in  his  letters  to  his 3  mother  are 
two  visits  to  Buckingham  Palace,  the  first  in  the 
evening  of  June  20,  and  the  second  on  the  after- 
noon of  July  9,  which  show  how  thoroughly  the 
Queen  and  Prince  Consort  appreciated  him.  On 
the  latter  occasion  he  obtained  Her  Majesty's 
permission  to  dedicate  the  Scotch  Symphony 
to  4her.  They  left  on  July  10,  and  by  the 
middle  of  the  month  were  safe  at  Frankfort,  in 
the  midst  of  their  relatives,  'well  and  happy,' 
and  looking  back  on  the  past  month  as  a  'de- 
lightful 5  journey.'  August  was  devoted  to  a 
tour  in  Switzerland,  he  and  Paul,  with  their 
wives.  Montreux,  Interlaken,  the  Oberland,  the 
Furka,  Meiringen,  the  Grimsel,  are  all  men- 
tioned. He  walked,  composed,  and  'sketched 
furiously';  visited  the  old  scenes,  found  the  old 
landladies  and  old  guides,  always  glad  to  see 
him  ;  his  health  was  perfect,  his  mood  gay,  and 
all  was  bright  and  happy,  save  when  the  spectre 
of  a  possible  prolonged  residence  in  'Berlin  in- 
truded its  unwelcome  form.  On  Sept.  3  they  were 
at 7  Zurich,  on  the  5th,  6th,  and  7th  at  the  Rigi 
and  'Lucerne.  While  at  Zurich  he  visited  the 
Blind  Institution,  spent  two  hours  in  examining 
the  compositions  of  the  pupils,  praised  and  en- 
couraged them,  and  finished  by  extemporising  on 
the  piano  at  great  9 length.  On  his  return,  he 
stayed  for  a  gay  fortnight  at  Frankfort.  Hiller, 
Charles  Halle,  and  their  wives  were  there,  and 
there  was  much  music  made,  and  a  great  open- 

1  On  the  authority  of  Miss  Mounsey,  Mr.  E.  J.  Hopkins,  and  the 
Athenseum,  June  18, 1842. 

a  Atlas  Newspaper,  June  18 ;  Musical  World,  June  28. 

>  L.  June  21, 1842;  0.  &  M  141. 

<  6.  &  M.  148,  5  Ibid.  141. 

«  L.  Aug.  18, 1842.  7  L.  Sept.  8, 1842, 

8  Diary  of  Mr.  Ella.  The  above  dates  preclude  the  possibility  of 
his  having  attended  the  Mozart  Festival  at  Salzburg  on  Sept.  4  and  5. 
There  is  no  trace  of  his  having  been  invited,  and  the  full  report  in  the 
A.M./..  (1842,  788,  806),  while  giving  the  names  of  several  musicians 
present,  does  not  allude  to  him.  »  A.M.Z.  1842, 907. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

air  10fete  at  the  Sandhof,  with  part-songs,  tableaux 
vivants,  etc.,  etc.  A  very  characteristic  and  beau- 
tiful letter  to  Simrock,  the  publisher,  urging 
him  to  accept  some  of  Hiller's  compositions  (an 
appeal  promptly  responded  to  by  that  excellent 
personage),  dates  from  this  utime.  So  well  was 
the  secret  kept  that  Hiller  never  knew  of  it  till 
the  publication  of  the  letter  in  1 863. 

An  anecdote  of  this  period  may  be  new  to  some 
of  our  readers.  During  the  summer  the  King  of 
Prussia  had  conferred  on  Mendelssohn,  in  com- 
pany with  Liszt,  Meyerbeer,  and  Rossini,  the  great 
honour  of  the  '  Ordre  pour  le  u  Merite,'  and  the 
order  itself  reached  him  at  Frankfort.  He  set 
no  store  by  such  distinctions,  nor  perhaps  was  its 
Berlin  origin  likely  to  increase  the  value  of  this 
particular  one.  Shortly  after  it  arrived  he  was 
taking  a  walk  with  a  party  of  friends  across  the 
bridge  at  Offenbach.  One  of  them  (Mr.  Speyer) 
stayed  behind  to  pay  the  toll  for  the  rest.  'Is 
not  that,'  said  the  tollkeeper,  '  the  Mr.  Mendels- 
sohn whose  music  we  sing  at  our  society  •  '  'It 
is.'  '  Then,  if  you  please,  I  should  like  to  pay 
the  toll  for  him  myself.'  On  rejoining  the  party, 
Mr.  Speyer  told  Mendelssohn  what  had  hap- 
pened. He  was  enormously  pleased.  '  Hm,  said 
he,  I  like  that  better  than  the  Order.' u 

He  took  Leipzig  on  his  way  to  Berlin,  and 
conducted  the  opening  concert  of  the  Gewand- 
haus  series  on  Oct.  2,  amid  the  greatest  enthusiasm 
of  his  old  friends.  A  week  later  and  he  was  in 
Berlin,  and  if  anything  could  show  how  uncon- 
genial the  place  and  the  prospect  were,  it  is  to 
be  found  in  his  letter  to  Hiller,  and  even  in  the 
Italian  jeu  d'esprit  u  to  Hiller's  wife.  It  is  as 
if  his  very  teeth  were  set  on  edge  by  everything 
he  sees  and  hears  there.  Nor  were  matters 
more  promising  when  he  came  to  close  quarters. 
A  proposition  was  made  to  him  by  the  minister  , 
immediately  after  his  arrival  that  he  should  act 
as  superintendent  of  the  music  of  the  Protestant 
Church  of  Prussia,  a  post  at  once  vague  and  vast, 
and  unsuited  to  him.  At  the  same  time  it  was 
now  evident  that  the  plans  for  the  organisation  of 
the  Academy  had  failed,  and  that  there  was  no 
present  hope  of  any  building  being  erected  for 
the  music  school.  Under  these  circumstances, 
anxious  more  on  his  mother's  account  than  on 
his  own  not  to  leave  Berlin  in  disgrace,  in  fact 
ready  to  do  anything  which  should  keep  him  in 
connection  with  the  place  ,5  where  she  was,  he 
asked  and  obtained  a  long  private  interview  with 
the  King,  in  which  His  Majesty  expressed  his  in- 
tention of  forming  a  choir  of  about  30  first-rate 
singers,  with  a  small  picked  orchestra,  to  be  avail- 
able for  church  music  on  Sundays  and  Festivals, 
and  to  form  the  nucleus  of  a  large  body  for  the 
execution  of  grand  musical  works.  Of  this,  when 
formed,  he  desired  Mendelssohn  to  take  the  com- 
mand, and  to  write  the  music  for  it;  meantime  he 
was  to  be  at  liberty  to  live  where  he  chose,  and — 
his  own  stipulation — to  receive  half  the  salary 
previously  granted.   The  King  evidently  had  the 


M  H.  187.  "  Sept.  21, 1842 ;  H.  189.  "  A.M.Z.  1842, 534. 

is  Told  to  the  writer  by  the  son  of  Mr.  Speyer. 

M  Oct.  8 ;  H.  194.  13  L.  Not.  23, 1842. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

matter  very  closely  at  heart.  He  was,  says  Men- 
delssohn, quite  flushed  with  pleasure,  could  hardly 
contain  himself,  and  kept  repeating  'You  can 
scarcely  think  now  of  going  away.'  When  kings  ask 
in  this  style  it  is  not  for  subjects  to  refuse  them. 
Moreover  Mendelssohn  was  as  much  attracted 
by  the  King  as  he  was  repelled  by  the  official 
etiquette  of  his  ministers,  and  it  is  not  surprising 
that  he  acceded,  to  the  request.  The  interview 
was  followed  up  by  a  letter  from  His  Majesty 
dated  'Nov.  22,  containing  an  order  constituting 
the  Domchor  or  Cathedral  choir,  conferring  on 
Mendelssohn  the  title  of  General-Music-Director, 
with  a  salary  of  1500  thalers,  and  giving  him  the 
superintendence  and  direction  of  the  church  and 
sacred  music  as  his  special  province. 

This  involved  his  giving  up  acting  as  Capell- 
meister  to  the  King  of  Saxony,  and  for  that  pur- 
pose he  had  an  interview  with  that  2  monarch  at 
Dresden,  in  which  he  obtained  the  King's  consent 
to  the  application  of  the  Bliimner  legacy  to  his 
darling  scheme  of  a  Conservatorium  at  Leipzig. 

Thus  then  '  this  long,  tedious,  Berlin  business' 
was  at  length  apparently  brought  to  an  end,  and 
Mendelssohn  was  back  in  his  beloved  Leipzig, 
and  with  a  definite  sphere  of  duty  before  him  in 
Berlin,  for  he  had  learnt  in  the  meantime  that 
he  was  at  once  to  supply  the  King  with  music 
to  Racine's  Athalie,  the  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream,  The  Tempest,  and  QEdipus  3Coloneus. 
This,  with  the  proofs  of  the  Scotch  Symphony 
and  Antigone  to  correct,  with  the  Walpurgis- 
night  to  complete  for  performance,  the  new  Con- 
servatorium to  organise,  the  concerts,  regular 
and  irregular,  to  rehearse  and  conduct,  and  a 
vast  and  increasing  correspondence  to  be  kept 
up,  was  enough  for  even  his  deft  and  untiring 
pair  of  hands.  He  is  cheerful  enough  under  it,  and 
although  he  complains  in  one  letter  that  com- 
position is  impossible,  yet  in  the  next  letter 
Athalie,  (Edipus,  the  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream,  the  Walpurgisnight,  and  the  new  Cello 
Sonata  are  beginning  again  to  fill  his  brain,  and 
he  finds  time  to  be  pleasant  over  old  Madame 
Schroder,  and  to  urge  the  claims  of  his  old 
Meiringen  guide  to  a  place  in  Murray's  *  Hand- 
book. In  the  midst  of  all  this  whirl  he  lost 
his  mother,  who  died  in  the  same  rapid  and 
peaceful  manner  that  his  father  had  done.  She 
was  taken  ill  on  the  Sunday  evening — her  hus- 
band's birthday — and  died  before  noonon  Monday 
Dec.  12 — so  quickly  that  her  son's  8  letter  of  the 
nth  cannot  have  reached  her.  The  loss  affected 
him  less  violently  than  that  of  his  father  had 
done,  perhaps  because  he  was  now  older  and  too 
hard-worked,  and  also  because  of  the  home-life 
and  ties  by  which  he  was  surrounded.  But  it 
caused  him  keen  suffering,  from  which  he  did  not 
soon  recover.  It  brings  into  strong  relief  his 
love  of  the  family  bond,  and  his  fear  lest  the 
disappearance  of  the  point  of  union  should  at  all 
separate  the  brothers  and  sisters;  and  he  pro- 
poses, a  touching  offer  for  one  whose  pen  was 
already  so  incessantly  occupied,  that  he  should 

1  L.  Dec  5, 1842.  J  Letter  to  Kliiieemuin,  Nor.  23. 

»  lbiU.  «  L.  Nov.  28  and  23;  comp.  Sept.  23.  «  L.  Dec.  11. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


281 


write  to  one  of  the  three  every  week,  and  the 
communication  be  thus  maintained  with  cer- 
tainty.6 

The  house  now  became  his,  but  the  hesitation 
with  which  he  accepts  his  brother's  proposal  to 
that  effect,  lest  it  should  not  be  acceptable  to  his 
sisters  or  their  husbands,  is  eminently  character- 
istic of  his  delicate  and  unselfish  generosity.7 
He  admits  that  his  mother's  death  has  been  a 
severe  trial,  and  then  he  drops  an  expression 
which  shows  how  heavily  the  turmoil  of  so  busy 
a  life  was  beginning  to  press  upon  him: — 'in 
fact  everything  that  I  do  and  carry  on  is  a 
burden  to  me,  unless  it  be  mere  passive  exist- 
ence.' This  may  have  been  the  mere  complaint 
of  the  moment,  but  it  is  unlike  the  former 
buoyant  Mendelssohn.  He  was  suffering  too 
from  what  appears  to  have  been  a  serious  cough. 
But  work  came  to  his  relief ;  he  had  some  scoring 
and  copying  to  do  which,  though  of  the  nature  of 

1  The  sad  mechanic  exercise, 
Like  dull  narcotics  numbing  pain,' 8 

yet  had  its  own  charm — '  the  pleasant  intercourse 
with  the  old  familiar  oboes  and  violas  and  the 
rest,  who  live  so  much  longer  than  we  do,  and 
are  such  faithful  "friends,'  and  thus  kept  him 
from  dwelling  on  his  sorrow.  And  there  was 
always  so  much  in  the  concerts  to  interest  and 
absorb  him.  The  book  of  Elijah  too  was  pro- 
gressing fast,  and  his  remarks  on  it  show  how 
anxious  he  was  to  make  it  as  10  dramatic  as  pos- 
sible. And  he  still  clung,  though  as  fastidiously 
as  ever,  to  the  hope  of  getting  an  opera-book.  A 
long  u  letter  in  French  to  M.  Charles  Duveyrier, 
dated  Jan.  4,  1843,  discusses  the  merits  of  the 
story  of  Jeanne  d' Arc  for  the  purpose,  and  decides 
that  Schiller's  play  has  preoccupied  the  ground. 
At  the  concert  of  Feb.  2, 1843,  the  Walpurgis- 
night  was  produced,  in  a  very  different  condition 
from  that  in  which  it  was  performed  at  Berlin 
just  10  years  before,  in  Jan.  1833.  He  had  re- 
written the  score  'from  A  to  Z,'  amongst  other 
alterations  had  added  two  fresh  airs,  and  had  at 
length  brought  it  into  the  condition  in  which  it 
is  now  so  well  known  and  so  much  liked.  On 
Jan.  12  a  Symphony  in  C  minor,  by  Gade,  of 
Copenhagen,  was  rehearsed.  It  interested  Men- 
delssohn extremely,  and  gave  him  an  opportunity 
to  write  a  "letter  full  of  sympathy  and  encourage- 
ment to  the  distant  and  unknown  composer,  one 
of  those  letters  which  were  native  to  him,  but 
which  are  too  seldom  written,  and  for  more  of 
which  the  world  would  be  all  the  better.  The 
work  was  produced  on  March  2,  amid  extra- 
ordinary applause.  Berlioz  visited  Leipzig  at 
this  time,  and  gave  a  concert  of  his  compositions. 
Mendelssohn  and  he  had  not  met  since  they 
were  both  at  Borne,  and  Berlioz  was  foolish 
enough  to  suppose  that  some  raillery  of  his  might 
be  lurking  in  Mendelssohn's  memory,  and  prevent 
his  being  cordially  welcomed.  But  he  was  soon 
undeceived.  Mendelssohn  wrote  at  13once  offering 

«  L.  Dec  22.  1 1bid.  •  'In  MemorUm.' ». 

»  Letter.  Jan.  13. 1843.  »  To  Scbubrlug.   L.  1L  295. 

n  1  am  indebted  for  this  to  Mr.  J.  Rosenthal.         u  L.  Jan.  13, 1843. 

is  Jan.  25.  Letter  now  In  the  possession  of  A.  G.  Kurtz,  Esq.,  of 
Liverpool.  In  printing  it  Berlioz  has  shortened  It  bjr  a  halt,  and  sadly 
garbled  it  by  correcting  the  French  1 


282 


MENDELSSOHN. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


him  the  room  and  the  orchestra  of  the  Gewand- 
haus,  on  the  most  favourable  terms,  and  asking 
him  to  allow  one  of  his  works  to  be  played  at 
the  approaching  concert  (Feb.  22)  for  the  Benefit 
of  the  Orchestra.  An  account  of  the  whole, 
with  copious  souvenirs  of  their  Roman  acquaint- 
ance (not  wholly  uncoloured),  will  be  found  in 
Berlioz's  'Voyage  musical,'  in  the  letter  to 
1  Heller.  It  is  enough  here  to  say  that  the  two 
composer-conductors  exchanged  batons,  and  that 
if  Berlioz  did  not  convert  Leipzig,  it  was  not  for 
want  of  an  amiable  reception  by  Mendelssohn 
and  David.  On  March  9  an  interesting  extra 
concert  was  2given  under  Mendelssohn's  direction, 
to  commemorate  the  first  subscription  concert,  in 
1 743.  The  first  part  of  the  programme  contained 
compositions  by  former  Cantors,  or  Directors  of 
the  Concerts — Doles,  Bach,  J.  A.  Hiller,  and 
Schicht,  and  by  David,  Hauptmann,  and  Men- 
delssohn (114th  Psalm).  The  second  part  con- 
sisted of  the  Choral  Symphony. 

Under  the  modest  title  of  the  Music  School 
the  prospectus  of  the  Conservatorium  was  issued 
on  Jan.  16,  1843,  with  the  names  of  Mendels- 
sohn, Hauptmann,  David,  Schumann,  Pohlenz, 
and  C.  F.  Becker  as  the  teachers ;  the  first  trial 
was  held  on  March  27,  and  on  3  April  3  it  was 
opened  in  the  buildings  of  the  Gewandhaus. 
Thus  one  of  Mendelssohn's  most  cherished  wishes 
was  at  last  accomplished.  A  letter  on  the  subject 
to  Moscheles,  dated  April  30,  is  worth  notice 
as  showing  how  practical  his  ideas  were  on 
business  matters,  and  how  sound  his  judgment. 
On  Sunday,  *  April  23,  he  had  the  satisfaction 
of  conducting  the  concert  at  the  unveiling  of  the 
monument  to  Sebastian  Bach,  which  he  had 
originated,  and  for  which  he  had  worked  so 
earnestly.  The  programme  consisted  entirely  of 
Bach's  music,  in  which  Mendelssohn  himself 
played  a  concerto.  Then  the  monument  was 
unveiled,  and  the  proceedings  ended  with  Bach's 
8-part  motet  ■  Singet  dem  Herrn  ein  neues  Lied.' 
Such  good  services  were  appropriately  acknow- 
ledged by  the  Town  Council  with  the  honorary 
freedom  of  the  city  (Ehrenburgerrecht).5 

About  this  time  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Joseph  Joachim,  who  came  to  Leipzig  from 
Vienna  as  a  boy  of  12,  attracted  by  the  fame 
of  the  new  music  school,  and  there  began  a 
friendship  which  grew  day  by  day,  and  only 
ended  with  Mendelssohn's  death. 

On  May  1  his  fourth  child,  Felix,  was  born. 
On  account  no  doubt  partly  of  his  wife's  health, 
partly  also  of  his  own — for  it  is  mentioned  that 
he  was  seriously  unwell  at  the  dedication  of  the 
Bach  monument — but  chiefly  perhaps  for  the 
sake  of  the  Conservatorium,  he  took  no  journey 
this  year,  and,  excepting  a  visit  to  Dresden  to 
conduct  St.  Paul,  remained  in  Leipzig  for  the 
whole  summer.  How  much  his  holiday  was 
interfered  with  by  the  tedious,  everlasting  affair 
of  Berlin — orders  and  counter-orders,  and  counter- 

f  And  tn  Berlioz's  Memolres.  a  N.M.Z.  1843, 1. 95. 

>  N.H.Z.  1843,  i.  102.  Hauptmann,  letter  to  Spohr,  Feb.  6,  43,  says, 
'Our  music-school  is  to  begin  in  April,  but  not  on  the  1st,  Mendels- 
sohn thought  that  unlucky.' 

*  See  Lampadius,  127 ;  N.M.Z.  1843,  i.  144.  »  A.M.Z.  1843, 334. 


counter-orders — may  be  seen  from  his  'letters, 
though  it  is  not  necessary  to  do  more  than  allude 
to  them.  By  the T  middle  of  July  he  had  completed 
the  Midsummer  Night's  Dream  music,  had  written 
the  choruses  to  Athalie,  and  made  more  than  a 
start  with  the  music  to  QSdipus,  and  some  pro- 
gress with  a  8  new  Symphony ;  had  at  the  last 
moment,  under  a  pressing  order  from  Court, 
arranged  the  chorale  '  Herr  Gott,  dich  loben  wir' 
(TeDeum)  for  the  celebration  of  the  ioooth  anni- 
versary of  the  empire,  '  the  longest  chorale  and 
the  most  tedious  job  he  had  ever  had,'  and  had 
also,  a  still  harder  task,  answered  a  long  official 
letter  on  the  matter  of  his  post,  which  appeared 
to  contradict  all  that  had  gone  before,  and  cost 
him  (in  his  own  words)  '  four  thoroughly  nasty, 
wasted,  disagreeable  days.' 

He  therefore  went  to  Berlin  early  in  August, 
and  on  the  6th  conducted  the  music  of  the  anni- 
versary ;  returned  to  Leipzig  in  time  to  join 
his  friend  Madame  Schumann  in  her  husband's 
lovely  Andante  and  Variations  for  2  Pianofortes 
at  Madame  Viardot's  concert  on  '  Aug.  19,  and 
on  Aug.  25  was  pursued  thither  by  orders  for  a 
performance  of  Antigone,  and  the  production  of 
the  Midsummer  Night's  Dream  and  Athalie  in 
the  latter  half  of  September.  At  that  time  none 
of  the  scores  of  these  works  had  received  his 
final  touches ;  Athalie  indeed  was  not  yet  scored 
at  all,  nor  was  a  note  of  the  overture  written. 
Then  the  performances  are  postponed,  and  then 
immediately  resumed  at  the  former  dates  ;  and 
in  the  end  Antigone  was  given  on  10Sept.  19,  in 
the  Neue  Palais  at  Potsdam,  and  the  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream  at  the  same  place — after  11  "re- 
hearsals— on  ^Oct.  14,  and  on  the  18th,  19th, 
20th,  and  2 1st  at  the  King's  Theatre  in  Berlin. 
The  music  met  with  enthusiastic  applause  each 
time ;  but  the  play  was  for  long  a  subject 
of  wonder  to  the  Berliners.  Some  disputed 
whether  Tieck  or  Shakspeare  were  the  author  ; 
others  believed  that  Shakspeare  had  translated 
it  from  German  into  English.  Some,  in  that 
refined  atmosphere,  were  shocked  by  the  scenes 
with  the  clowns,  and  annoyed  that  the  King 
should  have  patronised  so  low  a  piece ;  and  a 
very  distinguished  personage  M  expressed  to  Men- 
delssohn himself  his  regret  that  such  lovely  music 
should  have  been  wasted  on  so  poor  a  play — a 
little  scene  which  he  was  very  ufond  of  mimicking. 
— Antigone  procured  him  the  honour  of  member- 
ship of  the  Philologen-versammlung  of l5  Cassel. 

Mendelssohn's  position  at  BerUn  had  now  ap- 
parently become  so  permanent  that  it  was  neces- 
sary to  make  proper  provision  for  filling  his  place 
at  the  Leipzig  concerts,  and  accordingly  Ferdi- 
nand Hiller  was 16 engaged  to  conduct  them  during 

«  L.  July  21, 26,  Aug.  26,  Sept.  16, 18S7. 

i  L.  July  21.  8  F.M.  iii.  20—'  marschirt  langsam." 

•  N.M.Z.  1843,  li.  68 ;  Lampadius.  Joachim  made  his  first  appear- 
ance at  this  concert.  10  Dev.  245. 

n  H.  213.  The  band  was  small— only  6  first  and  6  second  fiddles ;  but 
'  the  very  pick  of  the  orchestra '  (Joachim). 

12  On  the  14th  Mendelssohn  was  called  for,  but  did  not  appear : 
F.M.  iii.  51. 

13  F.M.  iii.  73.  These  court-people  were  only  repeating  what  the 
Italian  villagers  had  said  to  him  in  1831.    See  Letter,  July  4. 1831. 

14  Mr.  Sartoris's  recollection.  »  A.M.Z.  1843,  804. 
it  II.  212;  N.M.Z.  1843,  ii.  135. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

his  absence.  The  first  of  the  series  was  on  Oct.  I. 
Hiller  conducted,  and  Felix  supported  his  friend 
by  playing  his  G  minor  Concerto.  Two  days 
afterwards,  on  Oct.  3,  he  writes  a  long  communi- 
cation to  the  town  council  of  Leipzig,  praying  for 
an  increase  in  the  salaries  of  the  town-orchestra 
for  their  services  at  the  theatre.  On  Oct.  30  he 
joined  Mad.  Schumann  and  Hiller  in  the  triple 
concerto  of  Bach  ;  on  Nov.  18  there  was  a  special 
farewell  concert  at  which  he  played  his  new 
Cello  Sonata  (op.  58),  and  which  closed  with  his 
Octet,  he  and  Gade  taking  the  two  viola  parts ; 
and  by  Nov.  25  he  had  left  Leipzig  'with  wife 
and  children,  and  chairs  and  tables,  and  piano 
and  'everything,'  and  was  in  Berlin,  settled  in 
the  old  family  house,  now  his  own.  On  the 
30th  he  conducted  the  first  of  the  weekly  sub- 
scription concerts,  which  he  and  Taubert  directed 
alternately,  and  at  which  he  often  played.  With 
all  his  aversion  to  the  Berlin  musicians  he  was 
obliged  to  acknowledge  that,  in  some  respects  at 
least,  the  orchestra  was  good.  '  What  pleases 
me  most,'  he  says  to  his  old  friend  and  confidant 
David,  '  are  the  Basses,  because  they  are  what 
I  am  not  so  much  accustomed  to.  The  8  cellos 
and  4  good  double-basses  give  me  sometimes 
great  satisfaction  with  their  2big  tone.'  Then 
came  performances  of  the  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream  music,  of  Israel  in  Egypt,  entertainments 
and  dinners — which  amused  him  notwithstand- 
ing all  his  dislike  to  aristocrats — and  Fanny's 
Sunday  performances.  Once  immersed  in  life 
and  music,  and  freed  from  official  correspondence 
and  worries,  he  was  quite  himself.  'He  is,' 
says  his  sister,  '  indescribably  dear,  in  the  best  of 
tempers,  and  quite  splendid,  as  you  know  he  can 
be  in  his  best  times.  Every  day  he  astonishes 
me,  because  such  quiet  intercourse  as  we  are 
having  is  a  novelty  to  me  now,  and  he  is  so 
versatile,  and  so  original  and  interesting  on  every 
subject,  that  one  can  never  cease  to  wonder  at  3it.' 
His  favourite  resort  during  his  later  Berlin  life 
was  the  house  of  Professor  Wichmann  the  sculptor, 
in  the  Hasenjager  (now  Feilner)  Strasse.  Wich- 
mann's  wife  was  a  peculiarly  pleasant  artistic 
person,  and  their  circle  included  Magnus  the 
painter,  Taubert,  Werder,  Count  Bedern,  and 
other  distinguished  people,  many  of  them  old 
friends  of  Mendelssohn's.  There,  in  1844,  he  first 
met  Jenny  Lind.  The  freedom  of  the  life  in  this 
truly  artistic  set,  the  many  excursions  and  other 
pleasures,  delighted  and  soothed  him  greatly. 

Christmas  was  kept  royally  at  his  house ;  he 
was  lavish  with  presents,  of  which  he  gives  Re- 
becka  (then  in  Italy)  a  4list.  A  very  character- 
istic Christmas  gift  to  a  distant  *  friend  was  the 
testimonial,  dated  Berlin,  Dec.  17,  1843,  which 
he  sent  to  Sterndale  Bennett  for  use  in  his  contest 
for  the  professorship  at  Edinburgh,  and  which,  as 
it  does  credit  to  both  these  great  artists,  and  has 
never  been  published  in  any  permanent  form,  we 
take  leave  to  print  entire,  in  his  'own  English. 


1  To  Macfarren,  G.  *  M.  160.  >  MS.  letter,  Dee.  19, 1843. 

«F.M.iil.  89.  4  Ibid.  91.  »  It  reached  Mm  on  the  23rd. 

«  I  am  Indebted  to  Mr.  J.  B.  8.  Bennett  for  an  exact  cop;  of  thli 
letter. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


283 


Berlin-,  Dec.  17, 1S43. 
My  Dear  Friend, 

I  hear  that  you  proclaimed  yourself  a  Candidate  for  the 
musical  Professorship  at  Edinburgh,  and  that  a  testimo- 
nial which  I  might  send  could  possibly  be  of  use  to  you 
with  the  Authorities  at  the  University.  Now  while  I 
think  of  writing  such  a  testimonial  for  you  I  feel 
proud  and  ashamed  at  the  same  time— proud,  because  I 
think  of  all  the  honour  you  have  done  to  your  art  your 
country,  and  yourself,  and  because  it  is  on  such  a 
brother-artist  that  I  am  to  give  an  opinion— and  ashamed 
because  I  have  always  followed  your  career,  your  com- 
positions, your  successes,  with  so  true  an  interest,  that 
I  feel  as  if  it  was  my  own  cause,  and  as  if  I  was  myself 
the  Candidatefor  such  a  place.  But  there  is  one  point  of 
view  from  which  I  might  be  excused  in  venturing  to  give 
still  an  opinion,  while  all  good  and  true  musicians  are 
unanimous  about  the  subject :  perhaps  the  Council  of  the 
University  might  like  to  know  what  ire  German  people 
think  of  you,  how  we  consider  you.  And  then,  I  may  tell 
them,  that  if  the  prejudice  which  formerly  prevailed  in 
this  country  against  the  musical  talent  of  your  Country 
has  now_  subsided,  it  is  chiefly  owing  to  you,  to  your 
compositions,  to  your  personal  residence  in  Germany. 
Your  Overtures,  your  Concertos,  your  vocal  as  well  as 
instrumental  Compositions,  are  reckoned  by  our  best  and 
severest  authorities  amongst  the  first  standard  works  of 
the  present  musical  period.  The  public  feel  never  tired 
in  listening  to,  while  the  musicians  feel  never  tired  in 
performing,  your  Compositions ;  and  since  they  took  root 
in  the  minds  of  the  true  amateurs,  my  countrymen  be- 
came aware  that  music  is  the  same  in  England  as  in 
Germany,  as  everywhere ;  and  so  by  your  successes  here 
you  destroyed  that  prejudice  which  nobody  could  ever 
have  destroyed  but  a  true  Genius.  This  is  a  service  you 
have  done  to  English  as  well  as  German  musicians,  and 
I  am  sure  that  your  countrymen  will  not  acknowledge  it 
less  readily  than  mine  have  already  done. 

Shall  I  still  add,  that  the  Science  in  your  works  is  as 
great  as  their  thoughts  are  elegant  and  fanciful— that  we 
consider  your  performance  on  the  Piano  as  masterly  as 
your  Conducting  of  an  Orchestra  ?  that  all  this  is  the 
general  judgment  of  the  best  musicians  here,  as  well  as 
my  own  personal  sincere  opinion  ?  Let  me  only  add  that 
I  wish  you  success  from  my  whole  heart,  and  that  I  shall 
be  truly  happy  to  hear  that  you  have  met  with  it. 

Always  yours,  sincerely  and  truly, 

Felix  Mendelssohn  Babtholdy. 

To  "W.  Sterndale  Bennett,  Esq. 

His  exertions  for  his  friend  did  not  stop  at  this 
testimonial,  but  led  him  to  write  several  long 
letters  pressing  his  claims  in  the  strongest  terms, 
the  drafts  of  which  will  be  found  in  the  '  green 
books'  at  Leipzig.  The  professorship,  however, 
was  not  bestowed  on  Mr.  Bennett. 

The  compositions  of  the  winter  were  chiefly 
for  the  Cathedral,  and  include  the  fine  setting 
of  the  98th  Psalm  (op.  91)  for  8-part  choir  and 
orchestra,  for  New  Year's  Day,  1844 ;  the  2nd 
Psalm,  for  Christmas,  with  chorales  and  'Spriiche,* 
and  pieces  'before  the  Alleluja';  also  the  100th 
Psalm,  the  43rd  ditto,  and  the  22nd,  for  Good 
Friday,  for  8  voices,  each  with  its  'Spruch'  or 
anthem — and  7  psalm-tunes  or  chorales  with 
trombones.  At  these  great  functions  the  church 
was  so  full  7that  not  even  Fanny  Hensel  could 
get  a  place.  The  lovely  solo  and  chorus,  '  Hear 
my  prayer,'  for  voices  and  organ,  belongs  to  this 
time.  It  is  dated  Jan.  25,  1844,  and  was  written 
for  Mr.  Bartholomew,  the  careful  and  laborious 
translator  of  his  works  into  English,  and  sent  to 
him  in  a  'letter  dated  Jan.  31.     Also  the  duets 

7  F.M.  111.  99. 

»  I'olko.  220.  It  was  originally  written  with  an  organ  accompani- 
ment, but  Mendelssohn  afterwards  scored  It  at  the  Instance  of  Mr. 
Joseph  Robinson  of  Dublin.  How  It  came  to  be  dedicated  to  Taubert 
Is  not  discoverable. 


284 


MENDELSSOHN. 


'Maiglockchen,'  '  Volkslied,'  and  'Herbstlied' 
{op.  63,  nos.  6,  5,  and  4),  and  many  songs,  with 
and  without  words.  The  concerts  finished  with 
a  magnificent  performance  of  Beethoven's  9th 
Symphony  on  March  27,  and  on  Palm  Sunday 
(March  31)  Israel  in  Egypt  was  sung  in  St. 
Peter's  church.  The  rehearsals  for  these  two 
difficult  works,  new  to  Berlin,  had  been  extremely 
troublesome  and  fatiguing. 

At  the  end  of  February  he  received  a  letter 
from  the  Philharmonic  Society  of  London,  offer- 
ing him  an  engagement  as  Conductor  of  the  last 
six  concerts  of  the  season.  He  looked  forward 
with  delight  to  an  artistic  position  '  of  such  tre- 
mendous x  distinction,'  and  which  promised  him 
the  opportunity  of  doing  a  service  to  a  J  Society 
to  which  he  felt  personally  indebted ;  and  on 
March  4  he  writes  '  with  a  feeling  of  true  grati- 
tude '  accepting  for  five  3  concerts.  Meantime 
the  old  annoyances  and  heartburnings  at  Berlin 
had  returned.  Felix  had  been  requested  by  the 
King  to  compose  music  to  the  Eumenides  of 
./Eschylus,  and  had  replied  that  the  difficulties 
•were  immense,  and  perhaps  insuperable,  but  that 
he  would  try ;  and  in  conversation  with  Tieck 
he  had  arranged  that  as  the  work  could  only 
be  given  in  the  large  new  opera-house,  which 
would  not  be  opened  till  Dec.  15,  it  would  be 
time  enough  for  him  to  write  his  music  and 
decide  whether  it  was  worthy  of  performance, 
after  his  return  from  England.  Notwithstand- 
ing this,  he  received,  as  a  parting  gift,  on  April 
28,  a  long,  solemn,  almost  scolding,  letter  from 
4Bunsen,  based  on  the  assumption  that  he  had 
refused  to  undertake  the  task,  and  expressing 
the  great  disappointment  and  annoyance  of  the 
King.  No  wonder  that  Mendelssohn's  reply, 
though  dignified,  was  more  than  warm.  It 
appeared  to  him  that  some  person  or  persons 
about  the  Court  disbelieved  in  the  possibility  of 
his  writing  the  music,  and  had  pressed  their  own 
views  on  the  King  as  his,  and  he  was  naturally 
and  justifiably  angry.  A  dispute  with  the  sub- 
scribers to  the  Symphony  Concerts,  where  he  had 
made  an  innovation  on  ancient  custom  by  intro- 
ducing 6  solos,  did  not  tend  to  increase  his  affec- 
tion for  Berlin. 

His  presence  was  necessary  on  Easter  Day 
(April  7)  in  the  Cathedral,  but  by  the  end  of  the 
month  he  had  left  Berlin  with  his  family.  On 
May  4  they  were  all  at  Frankfort,  and  by  the 
10th  or  nth  he  himself  was  settled  in  London 
at  Klingemann's  house,  4  Hobart  Place.  This 
was  his  eighth  visit.  He  conducted  the  Phil- 
harmonic Concert  of  May  13,  and  each  of  the 
others  to  the  end  of  the  series,  introducing,  be- 
sides works  already  known,  his  own  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream  music,  and  the  Walpurgisnight, 
as  well  as  Beethoven's  Overture  to  Leonora,  No.  1, 
the  Ruins  of  Athens,  Bach's  Suite  in  D,  Schubert's 
Overture  to  Fierrabras,  and  playing  Beethoven's 
Concerto  in  G-  (June  24),  then  almost  a  novelty  to 
an  English  audience.  He  had  brought  with  him 
Schubert's   Symphony  in  C,  and   Grade's  in   C 

»  F.M.  iii.  92.  J  L.  July  19, 1844.  »  Hogarth,  82. 

*  L.  April  28, 1844.  s  Lampadius,  133. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

minor,  and  his  own  Overture  to  Ruy  Bias.  But 
the  reception  of  the  two  first  at  the  trial  by  the 
band  was  so  cold,  not  to  say  6  insulting,  as  to 
incense  him  beyond  measure.  With  a  magnan- 
imity in  which  he  stands  alone  among  composers, 
he  declined  to  produce  his  own  Overture,  and  it 
was  not  publicly  played  in  England  till  after  his 
death.7 

With  the  directors  of  the  Philharmonic  his  in- 
tercourse was  most  harmonious.  '  He  attended 
their  meetings,  gave  them  advice  and  assistance, 
and  showed  the  warmest  interest  in  the  success  of 
the  concerts  and  the  welfare  of  the  'Society.'  By 
the  band  he  was  received  with  '  rapture  and  En- 
thusiasm.' And  if  during  the  earlier  concerts 
one  or  two  of  the  players  acted  in  exception  to 
this,  the  occurrence  only  gave  Mendelssohn  the 
opportunity  of  showing  how  completely  free  he 
was  from  rancour  or  personal 10  feeling.  No  wonder 
that  the  band  liked  him.  The  band  always  likes 
a  conductor  who  knows  what  he  is  about.  His 
beat,  though  very  quiet,  was  certain,  and  his 
face  was  always  full  of  feeling,  and  as  expressive 
as  his  baton.  There  are  some  of  the  players  still 
remaining  who  recollect  it  well.  No  one  perhaps 
ever  possessed  so  completely  as  he  the  nameless 
magic  art  of  inspiring  the  band  with  his  own 
feeling;  and  this  power  was  only  equalled  by 
his  tact  and  good-nature.  It  is  still  remembered 
that  he  always  touched  his  hat  on  entering  the 
orchestra  for  rehearsal.  He  was  sometimes  hasty, 
but  he  always  made  up  for  it  afterwards.  He 
would  run  up  and  down  to  a  distant  desk  over 
and  over  again  till  he  had  made  the  meaning  of 
a  difficult  passage  clear  to  a  player.  If  this  good 
nature  failed,  or  he  had  to  deal  with  obstinacy, 
as  a  last  resource  he  would  try  irony — some- 
times very  severe.  Such  pains  and  tact  as  this 
is  never  thrown  away.  The  band  played  as  if 
under  a  new  influence.  The  season  was  most 
successful  in  a  pecuniary  sense  ;  Hanover  Square 
Rooms  had  never  been  so  crammed  ;  as  much  as 
1 20  guineas  were  taken  on  single  nights  in  excess 
of  the  usual  receipts;  and  whereas  in  1842  the 
loss  had  been  £300,  in  1844  nearly  £400  were 
added  to  the  reserve  "fund.  Among  the  events 
which  combined  to  render  this  series  of  concerts 
historical  were  the  first  appearances  of  Ernst 
(April  15),  u  Joachim  (May  27),  and  Piatti  (June 
24).  His  playing  of  the  Beethoven  G  major 
Concerto  on  June  24  was  memorable,  not  only 
for  the  magnificence  of  the  performance,  but  for 
some  circumstances  attending  the  rehearsal  on 
the  previous  Saturday.  He  had  not  seen  the 
music  of  the  concerto  for  two  or  three  years, 
and  •  did  not  think  it  respectful  to  the  Philhar- 
monic Society  to  play  it  without  first  looking 
through  it' — those  were  his  words.  He  accord- 
ingly called  at  Sterndale  Bennett's  on  the  Friday 
night  to  obtain  a  copy,  but  not  succeeding,  got 

«  Few  things  are  more  curious  than  the  terms  In  which  Schubert'i 
splendid  works  were  criticised  at  this  date  in  London,  compared  with 
the  enthusiasm  which  they  now  excite. 

I  At  Mrs.  Anderson's  Concert,  1849.  «  Hogarth,  83. 

»  Mos.  il.  118.  10  See  letter  to  Moscheles  ;  June  26, 184*. 

II  Musical  World,  Aug.  1, 1844. 

12  The  bearer  of  a  letter  of  introduction  from  Mendelssohn  to 
Sterndale  Bennett,  for  which  see  Polko,  167. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

one  from  Miss  Horsley  after  the  rehearsal  on  the 
Saturday.  At  the  rehearsal  itself,  owing  to  some 
difficulty  in  the  hand  coming  in  at  the  end  of 
his  cadence  in  the  first  movement,  he  played  it 
three  times  over,  each  time  quite  extempore,  and 
each  time  new,  and  at  the  performance  on  the 
Monday  it  was  again  J  different. 

In  addition  to  the  Philharmonic,  Mendelssohn 
took  part  in  many  other  public  concerts — con- 
ducted St.  Paul  for  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society 
on  June  28  and  July  5,  extemporised  at  the 
British  Musicians,  played  his  own  D  minor  Trio, 
and  his  Duet  Variations  (op.  83),  and  took  part 
twice  in  Bach's  Triple  Concerto — once  (June  1) 
with  Moscheles  and  Thalberg,  when  he  elec- 
trified the  room  with  his  sudden  *  improvisation 
in  the  cadence,  and  again  (July  5)  with  Mo- 
scheles and  Dohler.  He  also  finished  a  scena  for 
bass  voice  and  orchestra,  to  words  from  Ossian — 
'  On  Lena's  gloomy  heath,'  which  he  undertook 
at  the  request  of  Mr.  H.  Phillips  in  1842,  and 
which  that  gentleman  sang  at  the  Philharmonic, 
March  15,  1847.  On  June  12  he  and  Dickens 
met  for  the  first  time.  On  June  18  he  is  at 
Manchester,  writing  to  Mr.  Hawes,  M.P.  to  secure 
a  ticket  for  the  s  House  of  Commons.  Piatti  he  met 
for  the  first  time  during  this  visit,  at  Moscheles's 
house,  and  played  with  him  his  new  Duo  in  D. 
No  one  had  a  quicker  eye  for  a  great  artist,  and 
he  at  once  became  attached  to  the  noble  player 
who  has  now  made  London  his  winter  home,  and 
is  so  much  admired  by  all  frequenters  of  the 
Monday  Popular  Concerts.  One  of  his  latest 
words  on  leaving  England  for  the  last  time  was, 
'I  must  write  a  concerto  for  Piatti.'  In  fact, 
he  had  already  composed  the  first  movement. 
The  enthusiasm  for  him  in  London  was  greater 
than  ever,  and  all  the  more  welcome  after  the 
irritations  of  Berlin.  He  was  more  widely  known 
at  each  visit,  and  every  acquaintance  became  a 
friend.  He  never  enjoyed  himself  more  than 
when  in  the  midst  of  society,  music,  fun,  and  ex- 
citement. *  We  have  the  best  news  from  Felix,' 
says  Fanny  during  this  4 visit,  'and  when  I  tell 
you  that  he  has  ordered  a  large  Baum-Kuchen  [a 
peculiar  Berlin  cake,  looking  like  a  piece  of  the 
trunk  of  a  tree]  to  be  sent  to  London  for  him,  you 
will  know  that  that  is  the  best  possible  sign.' 
!  A  mad,  most  extraordinarily  mad  time,'  says 
he,  '  I  never  had  so  severe  a  time  before — never 
in  bed  till  half  past  one ;  for  three  weeks  together 
not  a  single  hour  to  myself  in  any  one  5day,'  etc. 
'My  visit  was  glorious.  I  was  never  received 
anywhere  with  such  universal  kindness,  and  have 
made  more  music  in  these  two  months  than  I  do 
elsewhere  in  two  'years.'  But  even  by  all  this  he 
was  not  to  be  kept  from  work.  He  laboured  at 
his  edition  of  Israel  in  Egypt  for  the  Handel 
Society;  and  on  official  pressure  from  Berlin — 
which  turned  out  to  be  mere  vexation,  as  the 
work  was  not  performed  for  more  than  a  year — 
actually,  in  the  midst  of  all  the  turmoil,  wrote 

•  I  owe  this  to  the  recollection  of  Mr.  Kellow  Pye  and  Mr.  Davison. 
»  See  an  account  of  this  (somewhat  exaggerated)  by  0.  E.  Horsley  In 
the  Choir,  1873,  p.  81. 
»  Letter  In  possession  of  A.  6.  Kurtz,  Esq. 
«  F.1L  UL  168.  s  Ibid.  176.  •  L.  July  IS.  18M. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


285 


the  Overture  to  Athalie,  the  autograph  of  which 
is  dated  June  13,  1844.  Very  trying !  and  very 
imprudent,  as  we  now  see !  but  also  very  difficult 
to  avoid.  And  his  power  of  recovery  after  fatigue 
was  as  great  as  his  power  of  enjoyment,  so  great 
as  often  no  doubt  to  tempt  him  to  try  himself. 
Three  things  were  in  his  favour — his  splendid 
constitution;  an  extraordinary  power  of  sleep, 
which  he  possessed  in  common  with  many  other 
great  men,  and  of  being  lazy  when  there  was 
nothing  to  do ;  and  most  of  all  that,  though  ex- 
citable to  any  amount,  he  was  never  dissipated. 
The  only  stimulants  he  indulged  in  were  those 
of  music,  society,  and  boundless  good  spirits. 

On  July  10  he  left  London,  and  on  the  13th 
was  in  the  arms  of  his  wife  and  children  at  Soden, 
near  Frankfort.  During  his  absence  they  had 
been  seriously  ill,  but  his  wife  had  kept  the  news 
from  him,  and  when  he  returned  he  found  them 
all  well,  brown,  and  hearty.  For  the  life  of  happy 
idleness  which  he  passed  there  in  the  next  two 
months — *  eating  and  sleeping,  without  dress  coat, 
without  piano,  without  visiting  cards,  without 
carriage  and  horses,  but  with  donkeys,  with  wild 
flowers,  with  music-paper  and  sketch-book,  with 
Ce"cile  and  the  7 children' — interrupted  only  by 
the  Festival  which  he  conducted  at  Zweibriicken 
on  July  31  and  Aug.  1,  the  reader  must  be  re- 
ferred to  his  own  charming  8  letters.  '  Idleness ' 
does  not  mean  ceasing  to  compose,  so  much  as 
composing  only  when  he  had  a  mind  to  it.  And 
that  was  often ;  he  had  no  piano,  but  he  com- " 
pleted  the  Violin  Concerto  on  Sept.  16,  after  a 
long  and  minute  correspondence  with  David, 
and  many  of  the  movements  of  the  six  organ 
sonatas  appear  in  the  MS.  Catalogue,  with  dates 
ranging  from  July  22  to  Sept.  10.  Doubtless, 
too,  he  was  working  at  the  book  of  'Christus,' 
a  new  oratorio,  the  first  draft  of  which  he  had 
received  from  Bunsen  on  Easter  Monday  of  this 
year.  At  this  time  also  he  arranged  a  collection 
of  organ  pieces  by  Bach  for  the  firm  of  'Coventry 
&  Hollier,  by  whom  they  were  published  in  Lon- 
don in  the  summer  of  1845.  The  pleasure  in  hi* 
simple  home  life  which  crops  out  now  and  then 
in  these  Frankfort  letters,  is  very  genuine  and 
delightful.  Now,  Marie  is  learning  the  scale  of  C, 
and  he  has  actually  forgotten  how  to  play  it,  and 
has  taught  her  to  pass  her  thumb  under  the 
wrong  finger !  Now,  Paul  tumbles  about  so  as  to 
crack  their  skulls  as  well  as  his  own.  Another 
time  he  is  dragged  off  from  his  letter  to  see  a 
great  tower  which  the  children  have  built,  and 
on  which  they  have  ranged  all  their  slices  of 
bread  and  jam — 'a  good  idea  for  an  architect.' 
At  ten  Carl  comes  to  him  for  reading  and  sums, 
and  at  five  for  spelling  and  geography — and  so  on. 
•And,'  to  sum  up,  'the  best  part  of  every  pleasure 
is  gone  10  if  C&ile  is  not  there.'  His  wife  is  al- 
ways somewhere  in  the  picture. 

But  the  time  arrived  for  resuming  his  duties 
at  Berlin,  and,  leaving  his  family  behind  him  at 
Frankfort,  he  arrived  there  on  Sept.  30,  alone, 
and  took  up  his  quarters  with  the  Hensels.     Wo 

1  F.M.  UL  177.  •  L.  July  17, 19  25.  Aug.  15. 

I  See  the  letters,  P.  245,  etc  »  F.M.  iii.  151. 


286 


MENDELSSOHN. 


are  told  that  before  leaving  in  the  spring  he  had 
firmly  resolved  not  to  return  for  a  permanence ; 
and  the  extraordinary  warmth  and  brilliancy 
of  his  subsequent  reception  in  England,  both  in 
public  and  in  social  circles,  and  the  delights,  of 
freedom  in  Frankfort,  when  compared  with  the 
constraint  and  petty  annoyances  of  Berlin — the 
difficulty  of  steering  through  those  troubled  official 
waters,  the  constant  collisions  with  the  Sing- 
akademie,  with  the  managers  of  the  theatre,  the 
clergy,  the  King,  and  the  ministers ;  the  want  of 
independence,  the  coldness  of  the  press,  the  way 
in  which  his  best  efforts  appeared  to  be  mis- 
understood and  misrepresented,  and  above  all 
the  consciousness  that  he  was  at  the  head  of 
a  public  musical  institution  of  which  he  did 
not J  approve — all  these  things  combined  to  bring 
about  the  crisis.  His  dislike  to  the  place  and 
the  way  in  which  it  haunts  him  beforehand, 
is  really  quite  plaintive  in  its  persistence — '  If 
I  could  only  go  on  living  for  half  a  year  as  I 
have  lived  the  last  fortnight  (Soden,  Aug.  15) 
what  might  I  not  get  through  ?  But  the  con- 
stant arrangement  and  direction  of  the  concerts, 
and  the  exertion  of  it  all,  is  no  pleasure  to  me, 
and  comes  to  nothing  after  2all.'  So  he  once  more 
3  communicated  with  the  King,  praying  to  be 
freed  from  all  definite  duties,  and  from  all  such 
commissions  as  would  oblige  him  to  reside  in 
Berlin.  To  this  the  King  good-naturedly  assented ; 
his  salary  was  fixed  at  1000  thalers,  and  he  was 
free  to  live  where  he  liked.  It  is  easy  to  under- 
stand what  a  blow  this  was  to  4  his  sister,  but  it 
was  evidently  the  only  possible  arrangement  for 
the  comfort  of  the  chief  person  concerned.  '  The 
first  step  out  of  Berlin'  was  to  him  'the  first 
step  to  5  happiness.'  He  remained  till  the  end 
of  November,  at  the  special  wish  of  the  King,  to 
conduct  a  few  concerts  and  a  performance  of  St. 
Paul  (Nov.  25),  and  the  time  was  taken  advantage 
of  by  Lvoff  to  commission  Hensel  to  paint  a  por- 
trait of  him,  which  has  been  engraved  by  Caspar, 
but  can  hardly  be  called  a  favourable  likeness. 
On  the  30th  he  left  Berlin  amid  regret  and  good 
wishes,  but  the  coldness  of  the  ordinary  musical 
circles  towards  him  was  but  too  evident.6 

Very  early  in  December  he  was  in  Frankfort, 
where  he  found  his  youngest  boy  Felix  danger- 
ously ill :  the  child  recovered,  but  only  after 
being  in  great  danger  for  many  weeks.  It 
was  probably  a  relief  in  the  very  midst  of  his 
trouble  to  write  a  long  7  letter  to  Mr.  Macfarren 
(Dec.  8),  giving  him  minute  directions  as  to  the 
performance  of  Antigone  at  Covent  Garden.  His 
own  health  began  to  give  him  anxiety,  and  his 
resolution  was  to  remain  in  Frankfort  for  the 
whole  year  and  have  a  thorough  rest.  He  had 
always  good  spirits  at  command,  and  looked  well, 
and  would  rarely  confess  to  any  uneasiness.  But 
when  hard  pressed  by  those  with  whom  he  was 
really  intimate,  he  confessed  that  his  head  had 
for  some  months  past  been  in  constant  pain  and 
confusion.     '  I  myself  am  what  you  know  me  to 

1  F.M.  iii.  205.  J  L.  Aug.  15,  ISM.  »  Sept.  30 ;  F.M.  iii.  191. 

«  F.M.  111.  192.  »  Dey.  252.    His  own  words. 

«  Breollectlon  of  Big.  Fiatti,  who  was  there  at  the  time. 
'  U.  4  M.  165. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

be ;  but  what  you  do  not  know  is  that  I  have 
for  some  time  felt  the  necessity  for  complete  rest 
— not  travelling,  not  conducting,  not  performing — 
so  keenly  that  I  am  compelled  to  yield  to  it,  and 
hope  to  be  able  to  order  my  life  accordingly  for 
the  whole  year.  It  is  therefore  my  wish  to  stay 
here  quietly  through  winter,  spring,  and  summer, 
sans  journeys,  sans  festivals,  sans  *  everything.' 
This  resolve  he  was  able  to  carry  out  for  some 
months  of  •  1845,  even  to  resisting  a  visit  to 
Leipzig  when  his  Violin  Concerto  was  first  played 
by  David,  on  March  1 3 ;  and  his  letters  to  his 
sisters  show  how  thoroughly  he  enjoyed  the  rest. 

Antigone  was  brought  out  at  Covent  Garden 
on  Jan.  2,  1845,  under  the  management  of  M. 
Laurent,  the  orchestra  conducted  by  Mr.  (now 
Professor)  Macfarren.  Musically  its  success  was 
not  at  first  great,  owing  to  the  inadequate  way  in 
which  the  chorus  was  put  on  the  stage.  Writing 
to  his  sister  at  10Rome  on  March  25,  Mendelssohn 
says, '  See  if  you  cannot  find  Punch  for  Jan.  1 8. 
It  contains  an  account  of  Antigone  at  Covent 
Garden,  with  illustrations,  especially  a  view  of 
the  chorus  which  has  made  me  laugh  for  three 
days.  The  Chorus-master,  with  his  plaid  trowsers 
shewing  underneath,  is  a  masterpiece,  and  so  is 
the  whole  thing,  and  most  amusing.  I  hear  won- 
derful things  of  the  performance,  particularly  of 
the  chorus.  Only  fancy,  that  during  the  Bacchus 
chorus  there  is  a  regular  ballet  with  all  the  ballet- 
girls  ! '  A  woodcut  which  made  Mendelssohn  laugh 
for  three  days  has  ipso  facto  become  classical,  and 
needs  no  apology  for  its  "  reproduction. 

The  play  improved  after  a  short  time,  and  the 
fact  that  it  ran  for  45  nights  (Jan.  2-Feb.  1, 
Feb.  8-21),  and  that  the  management  applied 
to  him  for  his  13  Oedipus,  proves  that  it  was  ap- 
preciated. His  letters  show  how  much  work 
he  was  doing  at  this  time.  By  April  20  the  six 
Organ  Sonatas  (op.  65)  were  in  the  hands  of  the 
copyist,  the  C  minor  Trio  was  finished — '  a  trifle 
nasty  (eklig)  to  play,  but  not  really  difficult — 
seek  and  ye  shall  13find';  and  the  splendid  String 
Quintet  in  Bb  (dated  July  8).  The  sixth  book 
of  Songs  without  Words  was  shortly  to  be  pub- 
lished, and  dedicated  to  Klingemann's  fiancee ;  a 
symphony  was  well  in  hand  (oh  that  we  had  got 
it !),  and  the  book  of  Elijah  progressing  steadily, 
no  doubt  urged  by  the  invitation  (dated  Sept.  1, 
1 844)  which  he  had  received  to  conduct  the  Bir- 
mingham Festival  in  1 846.  Conduct  the  whole  he 
could  not,  the  labour  would  be  too  great,  but  he 
replied  that  he  would  conduct  his  own  music 
as  "before.  Nor  had  the  desire  to  write  an  opera 
by  any  means  left  him,  '  if  only  the  right  mate- 
rial could  be  ls  found.'  He  had  not  forgotten 
his  promise  to  consider  the  possibility  of  setting 
the  choruses  of  the  Eumenides  of  /Eschylus  with 
effect,  and  a  correspondence  had  taken  place  be- 
tween him  and  the  Geheimcabinetsrath  Midler, 
in  which,  in  reply  to  something  very  like  an 
offensive  innuendo,  Mendelssohn  stated  that  in 

•  F.M.  til.  204.  •  Ibid.  219,  224.  225.  10  Ibid.  221. 

li  I  owe  this  to  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Tom  Taylor,  as  Editor  of  Punch, 

U  F.M.  Hi.  221.  13  Ibid.  227. 

M  Letters  to  Moore ;  F.  233-238. 

M  FJf.lU.221;  Dev.  258, 259,  262. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

spite  of  strenuous  efforts  he  had  utterly  failed  to 
see  any  way  of  carrying  out  the  commission  to 
his  own  'satisfaction.  The  (Edipus  Coloneus, 
the  (Edipus  Rex,  and  the  Athalie,  were  however 


MENDELSSOHN. 


287 


finished,  and  at  His  Majesty's  disposal.  The  edit- 
ing of  Israel  in  Egypt  had  given  him  considerable 
trouble,  owing  apparently  to  the  wish  of  the  coun- 
cil of  the  Handel  Society  to  print  Mendelssohn's 


marks  of  expression  as  if  they  were  Handel's,  and 
also  to  the  incorrect  way  in  which  the  engraving 
was  executed.  These  2letters  are  worth  looking  at, 
as  evidence  how  strictly  accurate  and  conscien- 
tious he  was  in  these  matters,  and  also  how  gra- 
tuitously his  precious  time  was  often  taken  up. 

Gade  had  conducted  the  Gewandhaus  Concerts 
for  1844-5  ;  but  having  got  rid  of  the  necessity  of 
residing  in  Berlin,  and  having  enjoyed  the  long 
rest  which  he  had  proposed,  it  was  natural  that 
Mendelssohn  should  return  to  his  beloved  Leipzig. 
But  in  addition  to  this  he  had  received  an  intima- 
tion from  Von  Falkenstein  as  early  as  June  5, 
1845,  that  the  King  of  Saxony  wished  him  to  re- 
turn to  his  former  position.  He  accordingly  once 
more  took  up  his  residence  there  early  in  Sep- 
tember (this  time  at  No.  3  Konigsstrasse,  3  on  the 
first  floor)  and  his  reappearance  in  the  conductor's 
place  at  the  opening  concert  in  the  Gewandhaus 
on  Oct.  5  was  the  signal  for  the  old  applause,  and 
for  hearty  recognition  from  the  audience  and  the 
press.  The  season  was  rendered  peculiarly  bril- 
liant by  the  presence  of  Madame  Schumann,  and 
of  Jenny  Lind,  who  made  her  first  appearance  in 
Leipzig  at  the  subscription  concert  of  Dec.  4.  Miss 
Dolby  also  made  her  first  appearance  Oct.  23, 
sang  frequently,  and  became  a  great  favourite. 
Among  the  more  important  orchestral  items  of 
the  season  1845-46  were  Schumann's  Symphony 
in  Bb,  and  Mendelssohn's  Violin  Concerto  (David), 
brought  forward  together  on  Oct.  23,  1845. 

After  the  first  concert  he  left  for  Berlin  to 
produce  his  OEdipus  Coloneus,  which  was  first 
performed  at  Potsdam  on  Nov.  1,  and  his  Athalie 
at  Charlottenburg,  both  being  repeated  at  Berlin. 
He  returned  to  Leipzig  by  4Dec.  1 1,  and  remained 
there  till  the  close  of  the  season,  taking  an  active 
part  in  all  that  went  on,  including  Miss  Lind's 
farewell  concert  on  April  1 2, 1846 — the  last  occa- 

1  L.  March  12. 1848. 

J  There  are  seven  of  them,  and  they  are  given  In  the  Appendix  to 
<i.  *  M..  ed.  2,  p.  169. 

>  The  house  has  since  been  renumbered,  and  Is  now  21.  A  bronze 
tablet  Dii  the  front  states  that  he  died  there. 

*  Letter  to  Moore ;  1'.  238. 


sion  of  his  playing  in  public  in  Leipzig.  At  the 
end  of  1845  a  formal  offer  was  made  to  Moscheles, 
at  that  time  the  fashionable  pianoforte  teacher 
in  London,  to  settle  in  Leipzig  as  Professor  of  the 
Pianoforte  in  the  Conservatorium.  He  took  time 
to  consider  so  important  an  offer,  and  on  Jan.  25, 
1 846,  with  a  sacrifice  of  income  and  position  which 
does  his  artistic  feeling  the  highest  honour,  decided 
in  its  favour.  Mendelssohn's  connection  with  the 
school  was  no  sinecure.  He  5had  at  this  time 
two  classes — Pianoforte  and  Composition.  The 
former  numbered  about  half-a-dozen  pupils,  and 
had  two  lessons  a  week  of  2  hours  each.  The 
lessons  were  given  collectively,  and  among  the 
works  studied  during  the  term  were  Hummel's 
Septuor ;  3  of  Beethoven's  Sonatas ;  Preludes  and 
Fugues  of  Bach ;  Weber's  Concertstiick  and  Sonata 
in  C ;  Chopin's*  Studies.  The  Composition  class 
had  one  lesson  a  week  of  the  same  length.  The 
pupils  wrote  compositions  of  all  kinds,  which  he 
looked  over  and  heard  and  criticised  in  their 
presence.  He  would  sometimes  play  a  whole 
movement  on  the  same  subjects,  to  show  how 
they  might  have  been  better  developed.  Occa- 
sionally he  would  make  them  modulate  from  one 
key  to  another  at  the  piano,  or  extemporise  on 
given  themes,  and  then  would  himself  treat  the 
same  themes.  He  was  often  extremely  irri- 
table:— 'Toller  Kerl,  so  spielen  die  Katzen!' 
or  (in  English,  to  an  English  pupil)  'Very 
ungentlemanlike  modulations!'  etc.  But  he 
was  always  perfectly  natural.  A  favourite 
exercise  of  his  was  to  write  a  theme  on  the 
black-board,  and  then  make  each  pupil  add  a 
counterpoint ;  the  task  of  course  increasing  in 
difficulty  with  each  addition.  On  one  occasion 
the  last  of  the  pupils  found  it  impossible  to  add 
a  single  note,  and  after  long  consideration  shook 
his  head  and  gave  in.  '  You  can't  tell  where  to 
place  the  next  note  ? '  said  Mendelssohn.  '  No.' 
*I  am  glad  of  that,'  was  the  reply,  'for  neither 

5  This  Information  I  owe  to  Mr.  Otto  Goldichmldt  and  Mr.  Eockstro, 
who  belonged  to  both  of  bis  classes. 


288 


MENDELSSOHN. 


can  I.'  But  in  addition  to  the  work  of  his  classes, 
a  great  deal  of  miscellaneous  work  fell  upon  him 
as  virtual  head  of  the  School.  Minute  lists  of 
the  attendance  and  conduct  of  the  pupils,  drawn 
up  by  him,  still  remain  to  attest  the  thorough 
way  in  which  he  did  his  duty,  and  we  have 
Moscheles's  express  'testimony  that  during  the 
overwhelming  work  of  this  summer  he  never 
neglected  his  pupils.2  But  it  was  another  ounce 
added  to  his  load.  The  fixed  labour,  the  stated 
hours,  when  combined  with  his  composition,  his 
correspondence,  his  hospitality,  and  all  his  other 
pursuits,  was  too  much,  and  to  his  intimate 
friends  he  complained  bitterly  of  the  strain,  and 
expressed  his  earnest  wish  to  give  up  all  work 
and  worry,  and  devote  himself  entirely  to  his 
Art — in  his  own  words,  to  shut  himself  into  his 
room  and  write  music  till  he  was  tired,  and  then 
walk  out  in  the  fresh  air.8 

Meantime  Elijah  was  fast  becoming  a  realised 
fact:  by  *May  23,  1846,  the  first  Part  was  quite 
finished,  and  six  or  eight  numbers  of  the  second 
Part  written,  and  a  large  portion  despatched  to 
London  to  be  translated  by  Mr.  Bartholomew  and 
*Klingemann.  'I  am  jumping  about  my  room 
for  joy,'  he  writes  to  a  very  dear  *  friend  on  the 
completion  of  Part  I.  'If  it  only  turns  out  half  as 
good  as  I  fancy  it  is,  how  pleased  I  shall  be ! '  And 
yet,  much  as  the  oratorio  engrossed  him,  he  was 
corresponding  with  Mad.  Birch-Pfeiffer  about  an 
opera,  and  writes  to  the  same  friend  as  if  the  long- 
desired  libretto  were  virtually  within  his  grasp. 
At  this  date  he  interrupted  his  work  for  three 
weeks  to  conduct  a  succession  of  performances 
on  the  Rhine — at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  the  Festival, 
May  3 1  to  June  2  ;  at  Diisseldorf,  a  soiree ;  at 
Liege,  on  Corpus  Christi  day,  June  II,  his  hymn 
•  Lauda  Sion,'  composed  expressly  for  that  occa- 
sion, and  dated  Feb.  10,  1846;  and  at  Cologne 
the  first  festival  of  the  German -Flemish  associ- 
ation, for  which  he  had  composed  a  Festgesang 
on  Schiller's  poem  'an  die  Kunstler'  (op.  68). 
His  reception  throughout  this  tour  was  raptur- 
ous, and  delighted  him.  The  three  weeks  were 
one  continued  scene  of  excitement.  Every  mo- 
ment not  taken  up  in  rehearsing  or  performing 
made  some  demand  on  his  strength.  He  was  in 
the  highest  spirits  all  the  time,  but  the  strain 
must  have  been  great,  and  was  sure  to  be  felt 
sooner  or  later.  It  will  all  be  found  in  a 
delightful  letter  to  Fanny  of  7June  27,  1846. 
On  June  26  he  is  again  at  Leipzig,  writing  to 
Moscheles  to  protest  against  the  exclusion  from 
the  band  at  Birmingham  of  some  musicians  who 
had  been  impertinent  to  him  at  the  'Philharmonic 
in  1844.  The  summer  was  unusually  hot,  and 
his  friends  well  remember  how  exhausted  he 
often  became  over  his  close  work.  But  he  kept 
his  time.     The  remainder  of  the  Oratorio  was 

1  Mos.  II 162. 

3  The  English  pupils  for  184*  and  45  embrace  the  names  of  Ellis, 
Wells,  Hasker,  Ascher,  and  Kockstro.  The  English  pupils  up  to  1868 
number  109,  heading  the  list  of  all  countries  save  Saxony  and  Prussia. 
Next  comes  Russia,  and  next  North  America. 

1  Letter  to  Miss  Lind.  *  Letter  to  Schubring,  Hay  23, 1846. 

»  Letter  to  Moore ;  P.  241.  6  Miss  Lind. 

'  P.M.  Hi.  239—243.  See  also  Chorley's  '  Modern  German  Music,' 
11.  WO  MO,  l  L.  June  26, 1346. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

in  Mr.  Bartholomew's  hands  by  the  latter  part 
of  July ;  the  instrumental  parts  were  copied  in 
Leipzig  and  rehearsed  by  Mendelssohn  there  on 
Aug.  5.  One  of  the  last  things  he  did  before 
leaving  was  to  give  his  consent  to  the  publication 
of  some  of  Fanny's  compositions,  which,  owing 
to  his  '  tremendous  reverence  for  print,'  he  had 
9  always  opposed,  and  now  only  agreed  to  10  reluc- 
tantly. He  arrived  in  London,  for  the  ninth 
time,  on  the  evening  of  Aug.  18,  had  a  trial 
rehearsal  with  piano  at  Moscheles's  house,  two 
band-rehearsals  at  Hanover  Square,  went  down 
to  Birmingham  on  Sunday  the  23rd,  had  full 
rehearsals  on  Monday  morning  and  Tuesday 
evening,  and  the  Oratorio  was  performed  on  the 
morning  of  Wednesday  the  26th.  The  Town 
Hall  was  densely  crowded,  and  it  was  observed 
"that  the  sun  burst  forth  and  lit  up  the  scene  as 
Mendelssohn  took  his  place,  amid  a  deafening 
roar  of  applause  from  band,  chorus,  and  audi- 
ence. Staudigl  was  the  Elijah,  and  Mr.  Lockey 
sang  the  air  'Then  shall  the  righteous'  in 
a  manner  which  called  forth  Mendelssohn's 
warmest  Upraise.  '  No  work  of  mine' — says  he 
in  the  long  letter  which  he  wrote  his  brother  the 
same  evening — '  no  work  of  mine  ever  went  so 
admirably  at  the  first  performance,  or  was  received 
with  such  enthusiasm  both  by  musicians  and  the 
public,  as  this.'  '  I  never  in  my  life  heard  a 
better  performance — no  nor  so  good,  and  almost 
doubt  if  I  can  ever  hear  one  like  it  13again.'  No 
less  than  four  choruses  and  u  four  airs  were  en- 
cored. The  applause  at  the  conclusion  of  both 
first  and  second  parts  was  enormous — almost 
grotesquely  so ;  and  an  old  "member  of  the  band 
well  remembers  the  eagerness  with  which  Men- 
delssoln  shook  hands  with  all  who  could  get  near 
him  in  the  artist's  room,  thanking  them  warmly 
for  the  performance.  He  returned  to  London 
with  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Moscheles,  '  on  purpose  for 
a  fish  dinner  at  Lovegrove's,'  spent  four  days 
at  18Ramsgate  with  the  Beneckes  '  to  eat  crabs,' 
and  on  Sept.  6  recrossed  the  Channel  with  Staudigl. 
His  visit  this  time  had  been  one  of  intense  hard 
work,  as  any  one  who  knows  what  it  is  to  achieve 
the  first  performance  of  a  great  work  for  solos, 
chorus,  and  orchestra,  will  readily  understand. 
And  the  strain  was  unremitting,  for,  owing  partly 
to  Moscheles's  illness,  he  had  no  relaxation,  or 
next  to  none.  In  consequence  he  was  so  tired 
as  to  be  compelled  to  rest  "three  times  between 
Ostend  and  Leipzig.  It  is  a  sad  contrast  to  the 
buoyancy  of  the  similar I8  journey  ten  years  before. 
But  notwithstanding  the  success  of  the  Ora- 
torio the  reader  will  hardly  believe  that  he  himself 
was  satisfied  with  his  work.  Quite  the  contrary. 
His  letter  to  Klingemann  of  Dec.  6  shows  the 
eagerness  with  which  he  went  about  his  correc- 
tions ;  and  the  alterations  were  so  serious  as  to 
justify  our 19  enumerating  the  chief  of  them : — The 

»  L.  June  2. 1837.  ■  F.M.  ill.  234.  «  B.  5L 

U  L.  Aug.  26.  «  L.  1L  Aug.  26, 1831. 

M  Mrs.  Moscheles  says  11  pieces ;  Mos  ii.  157.  »  Mr.  J.  T.  Willy. 

16  F.M.  lii.  244.  ■   Ibid.  IB  L.  Oct.  4, 1837. 

»  For  a  detailed  examination  of  Xos.  1—8,  by  Mr.  Jos.  Bennett,  sea 
'  Concordia,'  pp.  497.  523.  A  MS.  copy  of  the  original  score  is  la  the 
possession  of  Mr.  H.  Littleton  (Sovellos). 


MENDELSSOHN. 

chorus  'Help,  Lord!'  (No.  i),  much  changed; 
the  end  of  the  double  quartet  (No.  7),  rewritten ; 
the  scene  with  the  widow  (No.  8)  entirely  recast 
and  much  extended ;  the  chorus  '  Blessed  are  the 
men '  (No.  9),  rescored ;  the  words  of  the  quartet 
'Cast  thy  burden'  (No.  15),  new ;  the  soprano  air 
'Hear  ye'  (No.  21),  added  to  and  reconstructed ; 
in  the  Jezebel  scene  a  new  chorus,  'Woe  to  him' 
(No.  24),  in  place  of  a  suppressed  one,  *  Do  unto 
him  as  he  hath  done,'  and  the  recitative  '  Man  of 
God'  added;  the  trio  'Lift  thine  eyes'  (No.  28) 
was  originally  a  duet,  quite  different ;  Obadiah's 
recitative  and  air  (No.  25)  are  new  ;  the  chorus 
'Go  return,'  and  Elijah's  answer  (No.  36)  are 
also  new.  The  last  chorus  (No.  42)  is  entirely 
rewritten  to  fresh  words,  the  text  having  formerly 
been  'Unto  Him  that  is  able,'  etc.  The  omis- 
sions are  chiefly  a  movement  of  95  bars,  alia 
breve,  to  the  words  '  He  shall  open  the  eyes  of 
the  blind,'  which  formed  the  second  part  of  the 
chorus  'Thus  saith  the  Lord'  (No.  41),  and  a 
recitative  for  tenor  '  Elijah  is  come  already  and 
they  knew  him  not,  but  have  done  unto  him 
whatsoever  theylisted,'  with  which  Part  2  of  the 
oratorio  originally  opened.  In  addition  to  these 
more  prominent  alterations  there  is  hardly  a 
movement  throughout  the  work  which  has  not 
been  more  or  less  worked  upon. 

The  oratorio  was  then  engraved,  and  published 
by  Simrock  of  Berlin  in  July  1847.  Meantime 
Mendelssohn  had  been  again  reminded  of  his 
duties  at  Berlin  by  an  urgent  command  from  the 
King  to  set  the  German  Liturgy  to  music.  This 
(still  in  MS.),  and  an  anthem  or  motet  (published 
as  op.  79,  no.  5),  both  for  double  choir,  are 
respectively  dated  Oct.  28  and  Oct.  5,  1846.  A 
song  for  the  Germans  in  l  Lyons — dear  to  him  as 
the  birthplace  of  his  wife — and  a  Psalm-tune  for 
the  French  Reformed  Church  in  Frankfort,  are 
dated  the  8th  and  9th  of  the  same  month.  On 
Oct.  21  the  Moscheleses  arrive  at  Leipzig,  and 
Moscheles  begins  his  duties  as  Professor  of  Piano- 
forte-playing and  Composition. — Gade  again  con- 
ducted the  Gewandhaus  Concerts  for  this  season. 
A  trace  of  Mendelssohn's  interest  in  them  remains 
in  a  P.F.  accompaniment  to  the  E  major  Violin 
2  Prelude  of  Bach,  which  he  evidently  wrote  for 
David's  performance  at  the  Concert  of  Nov.  1 2, 
1846.  The  MS.  is  dated  the  day  before,  and  is 
'amongst  David's  papers.  During  October  and 
November  he  was  very  much  occupied  with  the 
illness  of  his  faithful  servant  Johann  Krebs,  to 
whom  he  was  deeply  attached — 'mein  braver 
guter  Diener'  as  he  calls  him — and  whose  death, 
on  Nov.  23,  distressed  him  much.  It  was  another 
link  in  the  chain  of  losses  which  was  ultimately 
to  drag  him  down.  Fortunately  he  had  again,  as 
at  the  time  of  his  mother's  death,  some  mechanical 
work  to  which  he  could  turn.  This  time  it  was 
*  the  comparison  of  the  original  autograph  parts 
of  Bach's  grand  mass  with  his  score  of  the  same 

1  Op.  76,  no.  s. 

2  DSrflel's  Cat.  634.  80  well  known  In  London  through  Joachim-! 
playing. 

»  'An  F.  David  rur  und  aus  der  Erinnerung  niedergeschrleben, 

F.H.B.    Leipzig  d.  lite  Nov.  1846."     This  (which  with  many  other 

things  in  this  article  I  owe  to  my  friend  Mr.  Paul  David)  looks  as  if 

tha  accompaniment  had  been  originally  extemporised.       *  L.  Dec  6. 

VOL.  II. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


289 


work.  As  time  went  on,  however,  he  was  able  to 
apply  himself  to  more  independent  tasks,  and  by 
Dec.  6  was  again  hard  at  work  on  the  'alterations 
of  Elijah.  Since  the  middle  of  October  he  had 
been  in  communication  6  with  Mr.  Lumley,  then 
lessee  of  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  London,  as  to 
an  opera  to  be  founded  by  Scribe  on  '  The 
Tempest,'  already  tried  by  Immermann  (see 
p.  2686);  and  a  long  correspondence  between 
himself,  Scribe,  and  Lumley  appears  to  have 
taken  place,  no  doubt  exhaustive  on  his  part. 
It  came  to  nothing,  from  his  dissatisfaction 
with  the  7  libretto,  but  it  was  accompanied  by 
extreme  and  long-continued  annoyance,  owing 
to  his  belief  that  the  opera  was  announced  in 
London  as  if  he  were  under  a  contract  to  com- 
plete it,  and  that  for  the  season  of 8 1847.  He  was 
at  this  moment  more  or  less  committed  to  the 
subject  of  Loreley,  on  which  he  had  communi- 
cated with  Geibel  the  poet  as  early  as  the  pre- 
ceding "April.  Geibel,  a  friend  of  Mendelssohn's 
and  a  warm  admirer  of  his  wife's,  was  at  work 
on  the  book,  and  completed  it  at  the  beginning  of 
1847.  Mendelssohn  occasionally  conducted  the 
later  Gewandhaus  concerts  of  this  season,  and 
some  of  the  programmes  were  of  special  interest, 
such  as  two  historical  concerts'on  Feb.  18  and  25, 
1847.  One  of  these  gave  him  the  opportunity  to 
write  a  charming  10  letter  to  the  daughter  of 
Reichardt,  a  composer  for  whom  he  always  had 
a  special  fondness,  and  whose  Morning  Hymn 
(from  Milton)  had  been  performed  at  the  Fes- 
tival at  Cologne  in  1835  at  his  instance. 

This  wasnot  on  the  whole  a  satisfactory  autumn. 
After  the  extra  hard  work  of  the  spring  and  sum- 
mer, especially  the  tremendous  struggle  against 
time  in  finishing  Elijah,  he  ought  to  have  had 
a  long  and  complete  rest,  like  that  which  so  re- 
vived him  in  1 844  ;  whereas  the  autumn  was  spent 
at  Leipzig,  a  less  congenial  spot  than  Frankfort, 
and,  as  we  have  shown,  in  the  midst  of  grave 
anxiety  and  perpetual  business,  involving  a  cor- 
respondence which  those  only  can  appreciate 
who  have  seen  its  extent,  and  the  length  of  the 
letters,  and  the  care  and  neatness  with  which 
the  whole  is  registered  and  arranged  by  his  own 
hands.  Knowing  what  ultimately  happened, 
it  is  obvious  that  this  want  of  rest,  coming  after 
so  much  stress,  must  have  told  seriously  upon  him. 
He  himself  appears  to  have  felt  the  necessity  of 
lessening  his  labours,  for  we  are  told  that  he  had 
plans  for  giving  up  all  stated  and  uncongenial 
duty,  and  doing  only  what  he  felt  disposed  to 
do,  for  building  a  "house  in  Frankfort,  so  as  to 
pass  the  summer  there,  and  the  winter  in  Berlin 
with  his  sisters,  and  thus  in  some  measure  re- 
vive the  old  family  life  to  which  1Jhe  so  strongly 
urges  his  brother-in-law  in  a  remarkable  letter 
of  this  time.  Nothing  however  could  stop  the 
current  of  his  musical  power.  He  was  at  work 
on  '  Christus,'  the  new  "oratorio.  As  Capell- 
meister  to  the  King  of  Saxony  he  had  to  arrange 

»  Letter.  Dec.  8,        I  Lumley's  Reminiscences.  167.         »  Ibid.  168. 
s  Long  letters  to  influential  London  friends  are  in  existence  full  o. 
bitter  complaints— most  justly  founded  if  his  information  was  correct. 
»  Dev.  2T6.  "  L.  II.  388.  »  Dev.  29L 

a  Letter  to  Dirichlet.  Jan.  4. 1847.  »  Dev.  200. 

u 


290  MENDELSSOHN. 

and  conduct  the  Court  Concerts  at  Dresden ;  and 
he  took  a  large  part  in  the  management  of  the 
Gewandhaus  Concerts  this  season,  though  suffer- 
ing much  from  his  head,  and  being  all  the  time 
under  the  care  of  his  'doctor.  How  minutely 
too  he  did  his  duty  at  this  time  as  chief  of  the 
Conservatorium  is  shown  by  a  MS.  memorandum, 
dated  Jan.  10,  1847,  containing  a  long  list  of 
students,  with  full  notes  of  their  faults,  and  of 
the  recommendations  to  be  made  to  their  pro- 
fessors. His  enjoyment  of  life  is  still  very  keen, 
and  his  birthday  was  celebrated  with  an  immense 
amount  of  fun.  His  wife,  and  her  sister,  Mrs. 
Schunck— a  special  favourite  of  Mendelssohn's — 
gave  a  comic  scene  in  the  Frankfort  dialect ;  and 
Joachim  (as  Paganini\  Moscheles  (as  a  cook),  and 
Mrs.  Moscheles,  acted  an  impromptu  charade  on 
the  word '  Gewandhaus.'  Happily  no  presentiment 
disturbed  them ;  and  the  master  of  the  house 
was  as  uproarious  as  if  he  had  fifty  birthdays 
before  him.  On  Good  Friday  (April  2)  he  con- 
ducted St.  Paul  at  Leipzig,  and  shortly  afterwards 
— for  the  tenth,  and  alas !  the  last  time— was 
once  more  in  England,  where  he  had  an  2  en- 
gagement with  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society  to 
conduct  three  performances  of  Elijah  in  its  re- 
vised form.  One  of  those  kindnesses  which  en- 
deared him  so  peculiarly  to  his  friends  belongs  to 
this  time.  Madame  Frege  had  a  son  dangerously 
ill,  and  was  unable  to  hear  the  performance  of 
St.  Paul.  '  Na  nun,'  said  he,  '  don't  distress 
yourself;  when  he  gets  out  of  danger  I'll  come  with 
Cecile  and  play  to  you  all  night.'  And  he  went, 
began  with  Beethoven's  Moonlight  Sonata,  and 
played  on  for  three  hours,  ending  with  his  own 
Variations  serieuses.  A  day  or  two  afterwards, 
he  left,  travelled  over  with  3  Joachim,  and 
reached  the  Klingemanns'  house  on  Monday 
evening,  April  12.  The  performances  took  place 
at  Exeter  Hall  on  the  16th,  23rd,  28th,  with  a 
fourth  on  the  30th.  The  Queen  and  Prince 
Consort  were  present  on  the  23rd,  and  it  was  on 
that  occasion  that  the  Prince  wrote  the  note  in 
his  programme  book,  addressing  Mendelssohn  as 
a  second  Elijah,  faithful  to  the  worship  of  true 
Art  though  encompassed  by  the  idolators  of  Baal, 
which  has  often  been  printed.4  In  the  interval 
Mendelssohn  paid  a  visit  to  Manchester  for  a 
performance  of 5  Elijah  on  the  20th,  and  another 
to  Birmingham,  where  he  rehearsed  and  con- 
ducted the  oratorio  at  the  Town  Hall  on  the 
2  7th ;  and  also  conducted  his  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream  music  and  Scotch  Symphony  at  the  Phil- 
harmonic on  the  26th,  and  played  Beethoven's 
G  major  Concerto  with  even  more  than  his  usual 
brilliancy  and  delicacy.  He  probably  never 
played  that  beautiful  concerto — 'my  old  ckeval 
de  bataiUe,'  as  he  called  it  years  before — more 
splendidly  than  he  did  on  this  occasion.    To  a 

1  Lampadius. 

'  The  engagement  for  one  performance  had  heen  tendered  as  early 
•s  Sept.  14 ;  «ee  Mendelssohn's  reply  of  Oct.  7  to  the  letter  of  Mr. 
Brewer,  the  secretary  to  the  society,  of  that  date,  in  F.  227.  The 
other  two  were  proposed  Jan. '_''".  and  arranged  for  between  that  date 
and  March  10. 1847 ;  see  the  letter  of  that  date  to  Bartholomew,  ibid. 
229.    The  fourth  was  an  afterthought.  >  Mas.  World.  April  17. 

*  Letter,  Aog.  26, 1846.    Martin's  Life  of  Prince  Consort,  i.  489. 

»  Letter  to  Moore,  Manchester,  April  21 ;  F.  244. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

•friend  who  told  him  so  after  the  performance 
he  replied,  '  I  was  desirous  to  play  well,  for 
there  were  two  ladies  present  whom  I  particularly 
wished  to  please,  and  they  were  the  Queen  and 
Jenny  Lind.'  A  little  trait  remembered  by  more 
than  one  who  heard  the  performance,  is  that 
during  the  cadence  to  the  first  movement — a 
long  and  elaborate  one,  and,  as  before  (see  p. 
285  a),  entirely  extempore,  Mr.  Costa,  the  con- 
ductor, raised  his  baton,  thinking  that  it  was 
coming  to  an  end,  on  which  Mendelssohn  looked 
up,  and  held  up  one  of  his  hands,  as  much  as  to 
say  '  Not  yet.' 

On  May  I  he  lunched  at  the  Prussian  embassy 
and  played,  and  also  played  for  more  than  two 
hours  at  Buckingham  Palace  in  the  presence  of 
the  Queen  and  Prince  Albert  only.  On  the  4th, 
at  the  Beethoven  Quartet  Society,  he  played 
Beethoven's  32  Variations,  without  book,  his  own 
C  minor  Trio,  and  a  Song  without  Words ;  and  the 
same  evening  was  at  the  opera  at  Jenny  Lind's 
debut.  On  the  evening  of  the  5th  he  played  a  pre- 
lude and  fugue  on  the  name  of  Bach  on  the  organ 
at  the  Antient  Concert.  The  morning  of  the 
6th  he  spent  at  Lord  Ellesmere's  picture  gallery, 
and  in  the  afternoon  played  to  his  friends  the 
Bunsens  and  a  distinguished  company  at  the 
Prussian  embassy.  He  left  the  'room  in  great 
emotion,  and  without  the  power  of  saying  fare- 
well. The  same  day  he  wrote  a  Song  without 
words  in  the  album  of  Lady  Caroline  Cavendish, 
and  another  in  that  of  the  Hon.  Miss  Cavendish, 
since  published  as  Op.  102,  No.  2,  and  Op.  85, 
No.  5,  respectively.  On  the  8th  he  took  leave 
of  the  Queen  and  Prince  Consort  at  Bucking- 
ham Palace,  and  left  London  the  same  evening, 
much  exhausted,  with  the  Klingemanns.  He  had 
indeed,  to  use  his  own  "words,  'staid  too  long 
there  already.'  It  was  observed  at  this  time  by  one 
9  who  evidently  knew  him  well,  that  though  in  the 
evening  and  when  excited  by  playing,  he  looked  as 
he  had  done  on  former  visits,  yet  that  by  daylight 
his  face  showed  sad  traces  of  wear  and  a  look  of 
premature  old  age.  He  crossed  on  the  9th,  Sunday, 
to  Calais,  drove  to  Ostend,  and  on  the  nth  was 
at 10  Cologne.  At  Herbesthal,  through  the  extra 
zeal  of  a  police  official,  who  mistook  him  for  a  Dr. 
Mendelssohn  of  whom  the  police  were  in  search, 
he  was  stopped  on  his  road,  seriously  annoyed, 
and  compelled  to  write  a  long  statement  which 
must  have  cost  him  as  much  time  and  labour  as 
to  compose  an  overture.  He  had  been  only  a  day 
or  two  in  Frankfort  when  he  received  the  news 
of  the  sudden  death  of  his  sister  Fanny  at  Berlin 
on  the  14th.  It  was  broken  to  him  too  abruptly, 
and  acting  on  his  enfeebled  frame  completely 
overcame  him.  With  a  shriek  he  fell  to  the 
ground,  and  remained  insensible  for  some  time. 

It  was  the  third  blow  of  the  kind  that  he  had 
received,  a  blow  perhaps  harder  to  bear  than 
either  of  the  others,  inasmuch  as  Fanny  was  his 
sister,  more  of  his  own  age,  and  he  himself  was 
older,  more  worn,  and  less  able  in  the  then  weak 
state  of  his  nerves  to  sustain  the  shock.     In  his 

•  The  late  Mr.  Bartholomew.  »  Lire  of  Bnnsen,  li.  129. 130. 

«  B.  (t&.  »  Fraser's  Mag.  Dec  1847.  ">  Mrs.  Klingemann. 


MENDELSSOHN". 

own  words,  'a  great  chapter  was  ended,  and  neither 
title  nor  beginning  of  the  next  were  written.' * 

Early  in  June,  as  soon  as  he  had  sufficiently 
recovered  to  move,  the  whole  family  (with  Miss 
Jung  as  governess,  and  Dr.  Klengel  as  tutor)  went 
to  Baden-Baden,  where  they  were  joined  by  Paul 
and  Hensel ;  thence  by  Schaffhausen  to  Lucerne, 
Thun  and  Interlaken,  in  and  about  which  they 
made  some  stay.  To  Felix  the  relief  was  long 
in  coming.  On  July  7,  though  well,  and  often 
even  cheerful,  he  was  still  unable  to  do  any 
musical  work,  write  a  proper  letter,  or  recover 
a  consistent  frame  of  mind.  He  worked  at  his 
drawing  with  more  than  usual  assiduity  at  this 
time.  Thirteen  large  water-colour  pictures  il- 
lustrate the  journey,  beginning  with  two  views 
of  the  Falls  of  Schaffhausen  (June  27  and  29), 
and  ending  with  one  of  Interlaken  (Sept.  4). 
Many  of  them  are  very  highly  finished,  and  all 
are  works  which  no  artist  need  hesitate  to  sign. 
They  are  on  a  greater  scale  than  any  of  his 
previous  sketches,  and  there  is  a  certainty  about 
the  drawing,  and  a  solidity  in  the  perspective, 
which  show  how  well  he  understood  what  he 
was  about.  The  same  love  of  form  that  shines 
so  conspicuously  in  his  great  symphonies  is  there, 
and  the  details  are  put  in,  like  the  oboe  and 
clarinet  phrases  in  his  scores,  as  if  he  loved  every 
stroke.  They  are  really  beautiful  works.  In 
addition  to  these  finished  drawings,  he  sketched 
a  good  deal  in  Indian  ink.8 

In  the  middle  of  the  month  Paul  and  Hensel 
returned  home,  but  Felix  and  his  family  remained 
till 3  September.  Meantime  the  world  was  going 
on,  regardless  of  private  troubles,  friends  visited 
him,  and  plans  for  music  began  to  crowd  round 
him.  Among  the  former  were  Professor  4  Graves 
and  his  wife,  Mr.  G  rote  the  historian — old  friends, 
the  last  of  whom  had  taken  a  long  5journey  on  pur- 
pose to  see  him — and  Chorley  the  musical  critic. 
He  had  received  a  request  from  the  Philhar- 
monic Society  for  a  Symphony  for  1848  ;  an  ap- 
plication to  write  a  piece  for  the  opening  of  the 
St.  George's  e  Hall  in  Liverpool ;  had  a  new  Can- 
tata in  view  for  Frankfort,  and  something  for 
the  inauguration  of  Cologne  Cathedral.  Elijah 
was  to  be  given  under  his  baton  both  at  Ber- 
lin (Nov.  3)  and  Vienna — at  the  latter  with 
Jenny  Lind — and  the  long-cherished  opera  ex- 
ercised its  old  charm  over  him.  But  his  nerves 
were  still  too  weak  to  bear  any  noise,  and  he 
suffered  much  from  headache  and  weariness  ;  his 
piano  was  '  not  for  playing,  but  for  trying  a  chord,' 
'  it  was  the  very  worst  he  had  ever  touched  in  his 
7  life,'  and  he  shrank  8  from  the  organ  at  Fribourg 
when  proposed  to  him.  The  organ  in  the  village 
church  of  Ringgenberg,  on  the  lake  of  Brienz, 
was  his  only  resource,  and  it  was  there  that  for 
the  last  time  in  his  life  he  touched  the  organ  keys. 
He  put  aside  the  music  for  Liverpool,  '  for  the  pre- 
sent.' and  declined  the  request  of  the  *  Philhar- 
monic, on  the  ground  that  a  work  for  the  Society 

>  L.  July  7.  1*47.  s  L.  Aug.  3.         »  Mod.  German  Music,  11.  384. 

<  Now  Bishop  of  Limerick.  6  Personal  Life  of  O.  (irote.  p.  178. 

6  Letter  to  Chorley,  July  19.  7  Personal  Life  of  O.  Grote,  p.  1T7. 

8  Mod.  Germ.  Music,  ii.  394. 
t  Letter  to  Philharmonic  Society. '  Interlaken,  Aug.  27. 1847.' 


MENDELSSOHN. 


2911 


ought  not  to  bear  the  least  trace  of  the  hurry 
and  bustle  in  which  he  would  have  to  live  for 
the  rest  of  the  year.  At  the  same  time  he  was 
much  agitated  at  the  state  of  home  politics, 
which  were  very  threatening,  and  looked  with 
apprehension  on  the  future  of  Germany.  For 
himself  he  returned  strongly  to  the  plans  already 
alluded  to  at  the  end  of  1846,  of  giving  up 
playing  and  concert-giving,  and  other  exciting 
and  exacting  10  business,  and  taking  life  more 
easily,  and  more  entirely  as  he  liked. 

At  length  the  power  of  application  came,  and 
he  began  to  write  music.  We  shall  not  be  far 
wrong  in  taking  the  intensely  mournful  and 
agitated  String  Quartet  in  F  minor  (op.  80)  as 
the  first  distinct  utterance  of  his  distress.  This 
over,  he  arrived  by  degrees  at  a  happier  and 
more  even  mental  condition,  though  with  parox- 
ysms of  intense  grief  and  distress.  The  contrast 
between  the  gaiety  and  spirit  of  his  former  letters, 
and  the  sombre,  apathetic  tone  of  those  which  are 
preserved  from  this  time,  is  most  remarkable,  and 
impossible  to  be  overlooked.  It  is  as  if  the  man 
were  a  broken,  and  accepted  his  lot  without  an  idea 
of  resistance.  He  continually  recurred  to  the  idea 
of  retirement  from  all  active  life  but  composition. 

Of  the  music  which  is  due  to  this  time  we  find, 
besides  the  Quartet  just  mentioned,  an  Andante 
and  Scherzo  in  E  major  and  A  minor,  which  form 
the  first  movements  of  op.  81 ;  the  fragments  of 
Loreley  and  of  Christus ;  a  Jubilate,  Magnificat, 
and  Nunc  dimittis  for  4  voices  (op.  69),  which 
he  began  before  going  to  London,  and  finished  in 
Baden-Baden  on  June  12  j  and  a  few  songs,  such 
as  '  Ich  wandre  fort'  (op.  71,  no.  5). 

With  the  close  of  the  summer  the  party  re- 
turned 12  homewards,  and  on  Sept.  17  were  again 
in  "Leipzig.  He  found  there  a  new  Broadwood 
grand  piano  which  had  been  forwarded  by  the 
London  house  during  his  absence  in  Switzerland, 
and  is  said  to  have  played  upon  it  for  several 
hours.  Those  who  knew  him  best  found  him 
'  unaltered  in  mind,  and  when  at  the  piano  or 
talking  about  music  still  all  "life  and  fire.' 
During  these  days  he  played  to  Dr.  Schleinitz 
a  new  string  quartet,  complete  except  the  slow 
movement,  which  was  to  be  a  set  of  Variations — 
but  not  yet  put  on  paper.  He  took  leave  of 
Mr.  Buxton,  one  of  his  English  publishers,  with 
the  words  '  You  shall  have  plenty  of  music  from 
me ;  I  will  give  you  no  cause  to  complain.'  But 
such  moments  of  vivacity  would  be  followed  by 
great  depression,  in  which  he  could  not  bear  to 
speak  or  to  be  spoken  to  even  by  old  friends. 
He  was  much  changed  in  look,  and  he  who 
before  was  never  at  rest,  and  whose  hands  were 
always  in  motion,  now  often  sat  dull  and  listless, 
without  moving  a  finger.  '  He  had  aged,  looked 
pale  and  weary,  walked  less  quickly  than  before, 
and  was  more  intensely  affected  by  every  passing 
thing  than  he  used  to  be.'     Also  he  complained 

10  Mod.  Germ.  Music,  II.  392;  Dev.  272. 

u  This  expression  was  used  to  the  writer  by  Dr.  Klengel,  the  tutor  of 
his  boys,  who  was  constantly  with  him  during  the  last  two  or  three 
years  of  his  life,  and  knew  him  Intimately.  Dr.  Klengel  has  now  gcna 
to  Join  the  master  he  so  dearly  loved.    He  died  In  Nov.  1879. 

12  Mos.  11. 178, 9.  "  Ibid.  177.  »  Ibid.  177, 182. 

U    2 


292 


MENDELSSOHN. 


of  the  oppressive  'air  of  the  town.  And  yet, 
though  more  than  one  person  is  still  alive  who 
remembers  this,  not  even  those  most  near  him 
appear  to  have  realised  the  radical  and  alarming 
change  for  the  worse  which  had  taken  place  in 
his  strength. 

The  Gewandhaus  concerts  began  on  Oct.  3,  but 
he  took  no  part  in  them,  and  left  the  conducting 
to  his  old  colleague  Rietz.  A  friend  recollects 
his  saying  how  happy  he  was — '  as  cheerful  as  a 
set  of  organ-passages' — that  he  hadn't  to  make 
out  the  programmes.  He  dreaded  all  public  music, 
and  complained  much,  though  blaming  him- 
self as  not  deserving  the  happiness  he  had  in 
his  'dear  Ce"cile'  and  in  the  recovery  of  his  boy 
Felix.  He  had  been  to  Berlin  for  a  week,  very 
shortly  after  his  return,  and  the  sight  of  his 
sister's  rooms,  exactly  as  she  left  them,  had 
2  agitated  him  extremely,  •  and  almost  neutralized 
the  3  effects  of  his  Swiss  retirement.'  He  had 
definitely  given  up  the  performance  of  Elijah  at 
Berlin,  but  was  bent  on  undertaking  that  at 
4  Vienna  on  Nov.  14,  where  he  was  to  hear  his 
friend  Jenny  Lind  in  the  music  which  he  had 
written  for  her  voice.  On  the  morning  of  Oct.  9 
he  called  on  the  Moscheleses  and  walked  with 
them  to  the  Rosenthal.  He  was  at  first  much 
depressed,  but  it  went  off,  and  he  became  for 
the  moment  almost  gay.  After  this  he  went  to 
Madame  Frege's  house,  and  here  his  depression 
returned,  and  worse  than  before.  His  object  was 
to  consult  her  as  to  the  selection  and  order  of 
the  songs  in  5op.  71,  which  he  was  about  to 
publish — one  of  the  minute  matters  in  which  he 
was  so  fastidious  and  difficult  to  satisfy.  She  sang 
them  to  him  several  times,  they  settled  the  order, 
and  then  he  said  he  must  hear  them  once  more, 
and  after  that  they  would  study  Elijah ;  she  left 
the  room  for  lights,  and  on  her  return  found  him 
on  the  sofa  shivering,  his  hands  cold  and  stiff, 
his  head  in  violent  pain.  He  then  went  home, 
and  the  attack  continued  ;  leeches  were  applied, 
and  by  the  15  th  he  had  recovered  so  far  as  to 
listen  with  interest  to  the  details  of  the  recep- 
tion of  Hiller's  new  opera  at  Dresden,  and 
actually  to  make  plans  for  his  Vienna  journey. 
On  the  25th  he  writes  to  his  brother  in  the 
old  affectionate  vein.  He  is  taking  tonics,  but 
Paul's  face  would  do  him  more  good  than  the 
bitterest  medicine.  He  was  not,  however,  des- 
tined to  speak  to  him  again.  On  the  28th  he 
was  so  much  better  as  to  take  a  walk  with  his 
wife,  but  it  was  too  much,  and  shortly  after- 
wards he  had  a  second  attack,  and  on  Nov.  3 
another,  which  last  deprived  him  of  conscious- 
ness. He  lingered  through  the  next  day,  fortu- 
nately without  pain,  and  expired  at  9.24  p.m. 
on  Thursday,  Nov.  4,  1847,  in  the  presence  of 

1  Lamp.  151.  J  Mme.  Frege ;  Mos.  II.  181.  «  B.  OT. 

*  The  last  letter  stuck  Into  the  last  (the  29th)  of  his  green  volumes 
Is  from  Fischhoff  of  Vienna  on  this  subject,  dated  Oct.  29.  It  must 
have  been  too  late  to  have  been  read  by  him. 

5  Of  the  seven  songs  which  he  brought,  the  '  Altdeutsches  Frflh- 
llnirslied,'  though  put  on  paper  on  Oct.  7,  was  composed  In  the 
summer.  The  'Nachtlied'  was  composed  and  written  for  Schleinltz's 
birthday,  Oct.  1,  and  Is  therefore  virtually  Mendelssohn's  last  com- 
position. '  An  odd  birthday  present,'  said  he  to  Mad.  Frege,  '  but  I 
like  it  much,  for  1  feel  so  dreary.' 


MENDELSSOHN. 

his  wife,  his  brother,  Schleinitz,  David,  and 
Moscheles.  During  the  illness,  the  public  feeling 
was  intense.  Bulletins  were  issued,  and  the 
house  was  besieged  by  enquirers.  After  his 
death  it  was  as  if  every  one  in  the  town  had 
received  a  blow  and  sustained  a  personal  loss. 
•  It  is  lovely  weather  here,'  writes  a  young 
English  'student  to  the  York  Courant,  'but  an 
awful  stillness  prevails  ;  we  feel  as  if  the  king 
were  dead.  Clusters  of  people  are  seen  speaking 
together  in  the  streets.'  Those  who  remember 
what  happened  in  London  when  Sir  Robert  Peel 
died  can  imagine  how  a  similar  loss  would  afreet 
so  small,  simple,  and  concentrated  a  town  as 
Leipzig.  The  streets  were  placarded  at  the 
corners  with  official  announcements  of  his  death, 
as  if  he  had  been  a  great  officer  of  state. 

On  the  Friday  and  Saturday  the  public  were 
allowed  to  see  the  dead  body.  On  Sunday  the 
7th  it  was  taken  to  the  Pauliner  Church  at  Leip- 
zig. A  band  preceded  the  hearse,  playing  the 
Song  without  Words  in  E  minor  (Book  5,  no.  3), 
instrumented  by  Moscheles  ;  and  after  this 
came  a  7  student  of  the  Conservatorium  with  a 
cushion,  on  which  lay  a  silver  crown  formerly 
presented  to  Mendelssohn  by  his  pupils,  and  his 
Order  *  pour  le  merite.'  The  pall  was  borne  by 
Moscheles,  David,  Hauptmann,  and  Gade  ;  the 
professors  and  pupils  of  the  Conservatorium,  the 
members  of  the  Gewandhaus  orchestra,  the  chief 
functionaries  of  the  Corporation  and  the  Uni- 
versity, and  several  guilds  and  societies  accom- 
panied the  coffin,  and  Paul  Mendelssohn  was 
chief  mourner.  In  the  church  the  chorale  'To 
thee,  0  Lord,'  and  the  chorus  '  Happy  and  blest,' 
from  St.  Paul,  were  sung,  a  sermon  or  oration 
was  delivered  by  Herr  Howard,  the  pastor  of 
the  Reformed  Congregation,  and  the  service  closed 
with  the  concluding  chorus  of  Bach's  Passion 
music.  At  10  p.m.  the  coffin  was  conveyed  to 
the  Leipzig  station  and  transported  by  rail  to 
Berlin.  On  the  road,  during  the  night,  it  was 
met  at  Cbthen  by  the  choir  of  the  place,  under 
Thile  their  director,  and  at  Dessau,  by  Friedrich 
Schneider,  who  wiped  away  the  recollection  of 
early  antagonisms  by  a  farewell  part-song,  com- 
posed for  the  occasion,  and  sung  by  his  choir  at 
the  station.  It  arrived  at  Berlin  at  7  a.m.,  and 
after  more  funeral  ceremonies  was  deposited  in 
the  enclosed  burial-place  of  the  family  in  the 
Alte  Dreifaltigkeits  Kirchhof,  close,  outside  the 
Hallethor. 

,  His  tombstone  is  a  cross.  He  rests  between 
his  boy  Felix  and  his  Bister  Fanny.  His  father 
and  mother  are  a  short  distance  behind. 

The  5th  Gewandhaus  concert,  which  it  was 
piously  observed  would  naturally  have  ended  at 
the  very  moment  of  his  death,  was  postponed  till 
the  nth,  when,  excepting  the  Eroica  Symphony, 
which  formed  the  second  part  of  the  programme, 
it  was  entirely  made  up  of  the  compositions  of  the 
departed  master.  Among  them  were  the  Nachtlied 
of  Eichendorf  (op.  71,  no.  6),  sung  by  Madame 
Frege. 

«  Mr.  Camidge,  son  of  Dr.  Camidge  of  York, 
t  Mr.  de  Sentis. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


293 


JAKOB  LUDWIQ 

FELIX 

MEXDELSSOHX-BABTHOLDY 

geboren 

zu 

Hamburg 

am 

SFeb. 

1809. 

Gestorben 

zu 

Leipzig 

am 
4  Not. 
1817. 


In  London  the  feeling,  though  naturally  not  so 
deep  or  so  universal  as  in  his  native  place,  was 
yet  both  deep  and  wide.  His  visits  had  of  late 
been  so  frequent,  and  the  last  one  was  so  recent, 
and  there  was  such  a  vivid  personality  about  him, 
such  force  and  fire,  and  such  a  general  tone  of 
health  and  spirits,  that  no  wonder  we  were  startled 
by  the  news  of  his  death.  The  tone  of  the  press 
was  more  that  of  regret  for  a  dear  relation,  than 
of  eulogy  for  a  public  character.  Each  writer  spoke 
as  if  he  intimately  knew  and  loved  the  departed. 
This  is  especially  conspicuous  in  the  long  notices 
of  the  Times  and  Athenceum,  which  are  full  not 
only  of  keen  appreciation,  but  of  deep  personal 
sorrow.  Of  his  private  friends  I  shall  only  per- 
mit myself  two  quotations.  Mrs.  Grote,  writing 
nearly  thirty  years  afterwards,  names  four  friends 
whose  deaths  had  occasioned  her  the  most  poign- 
ant sorrow  of  her  life ;  and  among  these  are 
Felix  Mendelssohn,  Alexis  de  Tocqueville,  and 
John  Stuart  Mill.  Mrs.  Austin,  the  aunt  of  his 
early  friends  the  Taylors,  and  herself  one  of  his 
most  intimate  allies,  in  a  tribute  to  his  memory 
as  beautiful 1  as  it  is  short,  says — 

'  His  is  one  of  the  rai-e  characters  that  cannot  be  known 
too  intimately.  Of  him  there  is  nothing  to  tell  that  is 
not  honourable  to  his  memory,  consoling  to  his  friends, 
profitable  to  all  men.  .  .  .  Much  as  I  admired  him  as  an 
artiBt,  I  was  no  less  struck  by  his  childlike  simplicity 
and  sportiveness,  his  deference  to  age,  his  readiness  to 
bend  his  genius  to  give  pleasure  to  the  humble  and 
ignorant ;  the  vivacity  and  fervour  of  his  admiration  for 
everything  good  and  great,  his  cultivated  intellect, 
refined  tastes  and  noble  sentiments.' 

Nor  was  the  public  regret  out  of  proportion 
to  that  of  his  intimate  friends.  We  are  not  per- 
haps prone  to  be  very  demonstrative  over  artists, 
especially  over  musicians ;  but  this  was  a  man 
who  had  wound  himself  into  our  feelings  as  no 
other  musician  had  done  since  Handel.  What 
Handel's  songs,  Harmonious  Blacksmith,  and  other 
harpsichord  pieces  had  done  for  the  English  public 
in  1740,  that  Mendelssohn's  Songs  without 
Words,  and  Part-songs,  had  done  in  1840,  and 
they  had  already  made  his  name  a  beloved  house- 

1  leaser's  Mag.  April  1848. 


hold  word  in  many  a  family  circle  both  in  town 
and  country.  He  had  been  for  long  looked  upon 
as  half  an  Englishman.  He  spoke  English  well, 
he  wrote  letters  and  familiar  notes  in  our  tongue 
freely  ;  he  showed  himself  in  the  provinces ;  his 
first  important  work  was  founded  on  Shakspeare, 
his  last  was  brought  out  in  England,  at  so  pecu- 
liarly English  a  town  as  Birmingham ;  and  his 
'Scotch  Symphony'  and  'Hebrides  Overture' 
showed  how  deeply  the  scenery  of  Britain  had 
influenced  him.  And,  perhaps  more  than  this, 
there  were  in  the  singular  purity  of  his  life,  in 
his  known  devotion  to  his  wife  and  family,  and 
his  general  high  and  unselfish  character,  the 
things  most  essential  to  procure  him  both  the 
esteem  and  affection  of  the  English  people. 

The  Sacred  Harmonic  Society,  the  only  Society 
in  London  having  concerts  at  that  period  of  the 
year,  performed  Elijah  on  Nov.  1 7,  preceded  by  the 
Dead  March  in  Saul,  and  with  the  band  and 
chorus  all  dressed  in  black.  At  Manchester  and 
Birmingham  similar  honours  were  paid  to  the 
departed  composer.  In  Germany  commemora- 
tion concerts  (Todtenfeier)  were  given  at  Berlin, 
Vienna,  Frankfort,  Hamburg,  and  many  other 
places.  His  bust  was  set  up  in  the  Theatre  at 
Berlin,  and  his  profile  in  the  Gewandhaus  at 
Leipzig.  The  first  Concert  of  the  Conservatoire 
at  Paris,  on  Jan.  9,  1848,  was  entitled  'a  la 
memoire  de  F.  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,'  and  com- 
prised the  Scotch  Symphony,  Hebrides  Overture, 
Violin  Concerto,  and  fragments  from  St.  Paul. 
Among  the  very  numerous  letters  of  condolence 
addressed  to  his  widow  we  will  only  mention 
those  from  the  Queen  of  England,  the  King  of 
Prussia,  and  the  King  of  Saxony. 

Two  works  were  in  the  printers'  hands  at  the 
time  of  Mendelssohn's  death  —  the  Six  Songs 
(op.  71)  and  the  Six  Children's  pieces  (op.  72). 
These  were  quickly  published.  Then  there  was 
a  pause,  and  at  length,  as  he  had  left  no  will, 
Madame  Mendelssohn  confided  to  a  kind  of  com- 
mittee, composed  of  her  husband's  most  intimate 
musical  friends,  the  task  of  deciding  which  pieces 
out  of  the  immense  mass  of  MS.  music  should  be 
published,  and  of  supervising  the  publication. 
These  gentlemen  were  Dr.  Schleinitz,  the  acting 
member  of  the  council  of  the  Conservatorium, 
David,  Moscheles,  and  Hauptmann,  all  resident 
in  Leipzig,  with  Paul  Mendelssohn  in  Berlin,  and 
Julius  Rietz  in  Dresden.  The  instrumental  works 
still  in  MS.  embraced  the  Trumpet  Overture 
(1825)  and  Reformation  Symphony  (1830),  the 
Italian  Symphony  (1833),  the  Overture  to  Euy 
Bias  (1839),  2  sets  of  P.F.  variations  (1841), 
the  Quintet  in  Bb  (1845),  the  Quartet  in  F  minor 
(1847),  and  fragments  of  another  Quartet  in  E, 
Songs  without  Words,  and  other  P.  F.  pieces.  The 
Vocal  works  comprised  the  Liederspiel  'Heim- 
kehr  aus  der  Fremde'  (1829),  the  Concert-aria 
'Infelice'  (1843),  the  Music  to  Athalie  and  to 
OSdipus  Coloneus  (both  1 845),  Lauda  Sion  (1846), 
fragments  of  the  opera  Loreley,  and  of  the  ora- 
torio Christus,  on  which  he  had  been  at  work  not 
long  before  his  death,  Psalms  and  Spruche  for 


294 


MENDELSSOHN 


voices  ■with  and  without  accompaniment,  Songs 
and  Part-songs. 

The  work  of  publication  began  with  Lauda 
Sion,  which  appeared  as  op.  73,  Feb.  15,  1848. 
This  was  followed  by  Athalie,  and  by  other 
works  down  to  the  four  Part-songs  which  form 
op.  100  and  no.  29  of  the  posthumous  works, 
which  came  out  in  Jan.  1852.  Here  a  pause  took 
place.  In  the  meantime,  borne  down  by  her 
great  loss,  and  also  by  the  death  of  her  third  boy, 
Felix,  in  1851,  Madame  Mendelssohn  herself 
died  on  Sept.  25,  1853.  The  manuscripts  then 
came  into  the  hands  of  Dr.  Carl  Mendelssohn, 
the  eldest  son,  and  after  some  years  publication 
re-commenced  with  the  Trumpet  Overture,  which 
appeared  in  1867,  and  continued  at  intervals 
down  to  the  'Perpetuum  mobile'  (op.  119). 

Many  of  the  pieces  referred  to  in  the  above 
enumeration  are  included  in  the  series  of  MS. 
volumes  already  mentioned.  Forty -four  of 
these  volumes  are  now  deposited  in  the  Imperial 
Library  at  Berlin,  in  pursuance  of  an  arrange- 
ment dated  Dec.  23,  1877,  by  which,  in  ex- 
change for  the  possession  of  them,  the  German 
government  agreed  with  the  Mendelssohn-Bar- 
tholdy  family  to  found  two  perpetual  scholar- 
ships of  1500  marks  (£75)  per  annum  each, 
tenable  for  four  years,  for  the  education  of 
students  of  music  elected  by  competition  from 
the  music  schools  of  Germany.  The  Trustees  of 
the  Fund  are  three — the  Director  of  the  High 
School  of  Music  at  Berlin,  a  second  nominated  by 
the  government,  and  a  third  by  the  family.  The 
first  election  took  place  on  Oct.  1,  1879,  and  the 
successful  candidates  were  Engelbert  Humper- 
dink  of  Siegburg,  and  Josef  Kotek  of  Podolia. 
In  addition,  Ernst  Seyffardt  of  Crefeld,  and  Johann 
Secundus  Cruse  of  Melbourne,  Australia,  will  re- 
ceive allowances  of  750  marks  each  out  of  the 
arrears  of  the  Fund. 

Long  before  the  foundation  of  the  Berlin 
Scholarships,  however,  practical  steps  in  the 
same  direction  had  been  taken  in  England.  In 
Nov.  1847  a  resolution  was  passed  by  the  Sacred 
Harmonic  Society  of  London  for  the  erection 
of  a  public  memorial  in  honour  of  Mendelssohn. 
£50  was  subscribed  thereto  by  the  Queen  and 
Prince  Consort,  and  like  sums  by  the  Sacred 
Harmonic  and  Philharmonic  Societies.  Other 
subscriptions  were  raised  amounting  in  the 
whole  to  over  £600.  In  April  1859,  after  many 
negotiations,  a  model  of  a  statue  by  Mr.  C. 
Bacon  was  approved  by  the  subscribers ;  it  was 
cast  in  bronze  in  the  following  November,  and 
on  May  4>  i860,  was  set  up  on  the  Terrace  of  the 
Crystal  Palace  at  Sydenham. 

A  more  appropriate  memorial  was  the  Men- 
delssohn Scholarship,  which  originated  in  Ma- 
dame Lind-Goldschmidt  in  the  year  1850,  and 
will  be  found  described  under  its  own  heading. 
[See  Mendelssohn  Scholarship.] 


In  person   Mendelssohn   was   short,  'not  so 
much  as  5  ft.  6  ins.  high,  and  slight  of  build ; 

>  He  was  shorter  than  Sterndale  Bennett,  who  was  &  ft.  6. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

in  figure  lithe,  and  very  light  and  mercurial.  Hia 
look  was  dark  and  very  Jewish  ;  the  face  unusu- 
ally mobile,  and  ever  varying  in  expression,  full 
of  brightness  and  animation,  and  with  a  most  un- 
mistakeable  look  of  genius.  His  complexion  was 
fresh,  and  shewed  a  good  deal  of  colour.  His  hair 
was  black,  thick,  and  abundant,  but  very  fine, 
with  a  natural  wave  in  it,  and  was  kept  back  from 
his  forehead,  which  was  high  and  much  developed. 
By  the  end  of  his  life,  however,  it  showed  a  good 
deal  of  gray  and  he  began  to  be  bald.  His  mouth 
was  unusually  delicate  and  expressive,  and  had 
generally  a  pleasant  smile  at  the  corners.  His 
whiskers  were  very  dark,  and  his  closely- shaven 
chin  and  upper  Up  were  blue  from  the  strength 
of  his  beard.  His  teeth  were  beautifully  white 
and  regular ;  but  the  most  striking  part  of  his 
face  were  the  large  dark  brown  eyes.  When 
at  rest  he  often  lowered  the  eyelids  as  if  he  were 
slightly  short-sighted — which  indeed  he  was  ;  but 
when  animated  they  gave  an  extraordinary  bright- 
ness and  fire  to  his  face,  and  '  were  as  expressive 
a  pair  of  eyes  as  were  ever  set  in  a  human 
being's  head.'  When  he  was  playing  extempore, 
or  was  otherwise  much  excited,  they  would 
dilate  and  become  nearly  twice  their  ordinary 
size,  the  brown  pupil  changing  to  a  vivid  black. 
His  laugh  was  hearty,  and  frequent ;  and 
when  especially  amused  he  would  quite  double 
up  with  laughter  and  shake  his  hand  from  the 
wrist  to  emphasize  his  merriment.  He  would 
nod  his  head  violently  when  thoroughly  agreeing, 
so  that  the  hair  came  down  over  his  face.  In 
fact  his  body  was  almost  as  expressive  as  his 
face.  His  hands  were  2  small,  with  taper  fingers. 
On  the  keys  they  behaved  almost  like  'living3 
and  intelligent  creatures,  full  of  life  and  sym- 
pathy.' His  action  at  the  piano  was  as  free  from 
affectation  as  everything  else  that  he  did,  and  very 
interesting.  At  times,  especially  at  the  organ,  he 
leant  very  much  over  the  keys,  as  if  watching  for 
the  strains  which  came  out  of  his  finger  tips.  He 
sometimes  swayed  from  side  to  side,  but  usually 
his  whole  performance  was  quiet  and  absorbed.* 

He  refused  more  than  5  once,  from  motives  of 
modesty,  to  have  his  likeness  taken.  But  a  great 
number  of  portraits  were  painted  and  drawn  at 
different  times  of  his  life.  The  best  of  these,  in 
the  opinion  of  those  most  capable  of  judging,  is 
that  painted  by  his  friend  Professor  Edward 
Magnus  at  Berlin  in  the  year  1 844.  The  original 
of  this  is  in  the  possession  of  Madame  Lind- 
Goldschmidt,  to  whom  it  was  presented  by  Mag- 
nus himself,  and  although  deficient  in  that  lively 
speaking  expression  which  all  admit  to  have  been 
so  characteristic  of  him,  it  may  be  accepted  as  a 
good  representation.  It  is  very  superior  to  the 
various  replicas  and  copies  in  existence,  which 
are  distinguished  by  a  hopeless  meek  solemnity  of 
look,  absolutely  impossible  in  the  original,  and 
which  therefore  convey  an  entirely  wrong  idea  of 

J  A  cast  of  his  hand  can  be  bought. 

>  The  Bishop  of  Limerick. 

*  I  owe  the  above  description  of  Mendelssohn's  looks  chiefly  to- 
Mr.  John  C.  Horsley,  K.A.  Few  knew  him  better,  or  are  more 
qualified  to  describe  him. 

6  L.  Dec.  20, 1831 ;  April  S,  Hay  18  1835 


MENDELSSOHN. 

the  face*  Madame  Goldschmidt  with  great  kind- 
ness allowed  the  portrait  to  be  photographed,  and 
it  was  the  desire  of  the  writer  to  give  a  wood  en- 
graving of  it ;  but  after  two  attempts  to  obtain 
satisfactory  representations,  he  has  been  reluct- 
antly compelled  to  abandon  the  intention. 

Other  portraits  worth  notice  are  (i)  a  pencil 
sketch  taken  in  1 820,  in  possession  of  Mrs.  Victor 
Benecke,  lithographed  in  '  Goethe  and  Mendels- 
sohn.' (2)  A  half-length  taken  by  Begas  ini82i, 
in  the  possession  of  the  Paul  Mendelssohn-Bar- 
tholdjr  family  at  Berlin.  This  is  very  poorly 
engraved,  both  as  to  resemblance  and  execution, 
in  'Goethe  and  Mendelssohn.'  The  original  is 
probably  much  idealised,  but  it  is  a  striking  pic- 
ture. (3)  A  three-quarter-length,  in  a  cloak, 
painted  by  Hildebrand,  and  engraved  as  the 
frontispiece  to  Elijah ;  in  possession  of  Herr 
Killmann  of  Bonn.  (4)  A  whole  length,  sitting, 
and  looking  to  the  side,  taken  by  Hensel  in  1844, 
and  now  in  the  possession  of  the  Paul  M.-B. 
family.  This,  though  clever  as  a  picture,  can 
hardly  convey  the  man.  The  hand  is  perhaps 
the  most  remarkable  thing  in  it,  and  must  be  a 
portrait.  (5)  A  profile  taken  after  death  by 
Hensel,  and  now  in  possession  of  Mrs.  V.  Benecke. 
This,  which  is  said  by  many  to  be  the  best  repre- 
sentation of  him,  is  fairly  engraved  as  the  frontis- 
piece to  Lady  Wallace's  translation  of  the  letters. 
A  portrait  of  him  in  crayons  was  taken  at 
Weimar  for 1  Goethe,  which  he  describes  as  '  very 
like,  but  rather  sulky' ;  another  was  painted  at 
Koine  by  2  Horace  Vernet,  and  another  3  by  a 
painter  named  Schramm.  But  none  of  these 
have  been  *  traced  by  the  writer.  The  sketch 
by  his  brother-in-law,  taken  in  1 840,  and  given 
as  frontispiece  to  vol.  2  of  the  '  Familie  Mendels- 
sohn,' must  surely  be  too  young-looking  for  that 
date.  Miniatures  of  the  four  children  were  taken 
in  Paris  in  18 16,  and  are  now  in  the  hands  of 
the  Paul  M.-B.  family. 

The  bust  by  Rietschel  (engraved  as  frontis- 
piece to  Devrient)  and  the  profiles  by  Knauer 
and  Kietz  are  all  said  to  be  good. 

Not  less  remarkable  than  his  face  was  his 
way  and  manner.  It  is  described  by  those  who 
knew  him  as  peculiarly  winning  and  engaging ; 
to  those  whom  he  loved,  coaxing.  The  slight  lisp 
or  drawl  which  remained  with  him  to  the  end 
made  the  endearing  words  and  pet  expressions, 
which  he  was  fond  of  applying  to  his  own  imme- 
diate circle,  all  the  more  affectionate.  But  outside 
this  immediate  circle  also  he  was  very  fascinating, 
and  it  is  probable  that,  devotedly  as  lie  was  loved 
at  home,  few  men  had  fewer  enemies  abroad. 
The  strong  admiration  expressed  towards  him 
by  men  of  such  very  different  natures  as  5  Schu- 
mann and  'Berlioz,  both  of  whom  knew  him  well, 
shows  what  a  depth  of  solid  goodness  there  was 
in  his  attractiveness.     '  His  gentleness  and  soft- 

•  L.  May  25. 188a  >  L.  Jan.  17  and  March  15, 1831. 

>  Possibly  taken  In  1840 ;  since  In  Ernst  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy's 
possession  Is  the  autograph  of  three  Songs  inscribed.  ■  Dem  Maler 
Schramm  zu  freandllchem  Andenken  und  mit  bestem  Dank.  F.  M.  B. 
Leipzig,  d.  4  Not.  1840.* 

<  1  have  to  thank  M.  Edouard  Detaille,  the  painter,  for  his  efforts 
to  discover  the  picture  by  Vernet.  »  Wassielewsky,  187. 

•  -  Correspondance  ■  (1879),  88 ;  '  Voyage  musical.'  Letter  4. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


295 


ness,'  says  one  of  his  English  friends,  'had  none 
of  the  bad  side  so  often  found  with  those  quali- 
ties ;  nothing  effeminate  or  morbid.  There  was 
a  great  deal  of  manliness  packed  into  his  little 
body,'  as  all  readers  of  the  early  part  of  this 
sketch  must  be  aware.  Indeed  he  had  a  great 
capacity  for  being  angry.  Anything  like  meanness 
or  deceit,  or  unworthy  conduct  of  any  kind,  roused 
his  wrath  at  once.  '  He  had  a  way,'  says  a  very 
old  friend, '  of  suddenly  firing  up  on  such  occasions, 
and  turning  on  his  heel,  in  a  style  which  was 
quite  unmistakeable,'  and  astonishing  to  those 
who  only  knew  his  smoother  side.  Towards 
thoughtlessness,  negligence,  or  obstinate  stu- 
pidity he  was  very  intolerant,  and  under  such 
provocation  said  things  the  sting  of  which  must 
have  remained  for  long  after,  and  which  he 
himself  deeply  7  regretted.  But  these  were  rare 
instances,  and  as  a  rule  his  personal  fascina- 
tion secured  him  friends  and  kept  them  firm  to 
him.  And  to  those  to  whom  he  was  really 
attached — outside  his  own  family,  of  which  we 
are  not  speaking — there  could  hardly  be  a  better 
friend.  The  published  letters  to  General  von 
Webern,  to  Verkenius,  Klingemann,  Schubring, 
Hiller,  Moscheles,  are  charged  with  an  amount 
of  real  affection  rarely  met  with,  but  which 
never  leads  him  to  sink  his  own  individual 
opinion  on  any  point  which  he  thought  material, 
as  may  be  seen  in  many  cases.  Talent  and  per- 
severance he  was  always  ready  to  encourage, 
and  the  cases  of  Taubert,  Eckert,  Gade,  Joachim, 
Rietz,  Naumann,  Sterndale  Bennett,  Hiller, 
and  the  anonymous  student  whose  cause  he 
pleads  so  8  earnestly  to  the  king,  show  how 
eager  he  always  was  to  promote  the  best  in- 
terests of  those  whom  he  believed  to  be  worthy. 
The  present  head  of  the  Frankfort  Conserva- 
torium  owes  his  advancement  in  no  small  degree 
to  the  good  offices  of  Mendelssohn.  His  warm 
reception  of  Berlioz,  Liszt,  and  Thalberg,  has 
been  already  mentioned,  but  must  be  again  re- 
ferred to  as  an  instance  of  the  absence  of  jealousy 
or  rivalry  in  his  nature,  and  of  his  simple  wish 
to  give  everybody  fair  play. 

The  relations  of  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann 
were  thoroughly  good  on  both  sides.  There  is 
a  remarkable  absence  of  Schumann's  name  in 
Mendelssohn's  published  letters;  but  this  may 
have  arisen  from  considerations  which  influenced 
the  editors,  and  would  possibly  be  reversed  if  the 
letters  had  been  fully  given,  and  if  others  which 
remain  in  MS.  were  printed.  The  two  men 
were  always  good  friends.  They  differed  much  on 
some  matters  of  music.  Mendelssohn  had  his 
strong  settled  principles,  which  nothing  could  in- 
duce him  to  give  up.  He  thought  that  everything 
should  be  made  as  clear  as  a  composer  could  make 
it,  and  that  rough  or  awkward  passages  were 
blemishes,  which  should  be  modified  and  made 
to  sound  well.  On  the  other  hand,  Schumann 
was  equally  fixed  in  the  necessity  of  retaining 
what  he  had  written  down  as  representing  his 

7  He  complained  bitterly  to  the  Bishop  of  Limerick  in  1847  of  nil 
short  temper  at  rehearsals  or  with  bit  pupils. 
•  Letter,  1844;  U.  325. 


206 


MENDELSSOHN. 


intention.  But  such  differences  of  opinion  never 
affected  their  intercourse  ;  they  were  always 
friendly,  and  even  affectionate,  and  loved  to  be 
together.  More  than  one  person  living  remem- 
bers the  strong  interest  which  Mendelssohn 
took  in  'Paradise  and  the  Peri'  on  its  first 
appearance,  and  how  anxious  he  was  that  his 
friends  should  hear  it.  Of  Schumann's  string 
quartets  he  records  that  they  '  pleased  him  ex- 
tremely ' ;  and  it  is  surely  allowable  to  infer  that 
it  was  the  expression  of  his  pleasure  that  made 
Schumann  dedicate  them  to  him.  He  had  a 
particular  love  for  some  of  Schumann's  songs, 
and  as  this  feeling  was  not  shared  by  all  the 
members  of  his  family  he  would  sometimes  ask 
for  the  '  forbidden  fruit,'  as  a  kind  of  synonym 
for  something  peculiarly  pleasant.  The  fact  that 
he  placed  Schumann  among  his  colleagues  at  the 
starting  of  the  Leipzig  Conservatorium  of  itself 
shows  how  much  he  valued  him. 

On  the  other  hand,  Schumann  is  never  warmer 
or  more  in  earnest  than  when  he  is  praising  Men- 
delssohn's compositions,  as  may  be  seen  by  many 
an  article  in  his  Gesammelte  Schriften.  He  dedicated 
his  string  quartets  to  him,  as  we  have  said. 
He  defended  him  with  ardour  when  attacked ; 
during  his  last  sad  years  Mendelssohn's  name 
was  constantly  in  his  mouth  as  that  of  his  best 
friend,  and  his  last  clearly  expressed  wish  was 
that  his  youngest  boy  should  be  called  after  him. 
A  proof  of  his  affectionate  feeling  is  to  be  found 
in  the  no.  28  of  his  '  Album  fur  die  Jugend ' 
(op.  68),  which  is  inscribed  'Erinnerung  (Nov. 
4,  1847),'  and  therefore  expresses  his  feelings  at 
the  death  of  his  friend.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
discover  that  definite  direct  meaning  in  this 
touching  little  piece  which  Mendelssohn  found 
in  all  music,  in  order  to  recognise  sadness  tem- 
pered by  a  deep  sense  of  grace  and  sweetness ; 
the  result  showing  how  beautiful  was  the  image 
which  Mendelssohn  left  in  the  mind  of  one  so 
completely  able  to  appreciate  him  as  Schumann. 

Nowhere  is  Mendelssohn's  naturalness  and 
naivete"  more  evident  than  in  his  constant  refer- 
ence to  his  own  foibles.  The  hearty  way  in  which 
he  enjoys  idleness,  and  'boasts  of  it,  the  constant 
references  to  eating  and  drinking,  are  delightful 
in  a  man  who  got  through  so  much  work,  who  was 
singularly  temperate,  and  whose  only  weakness  for 
the  products  of  the  kitchen  was  for  rice  milk  and 
cherry  pie.  In  this,  as  in  everything  else,  he 
was  perfectly  simple  and  natural.  '  I  do  not  in 
the  least  concern  myself  as  to  what  people  wish 
or  praise  or  pay  for ;  but  solely  as  to  what  I 
myself  consider  2  good.'  No  doubt  he  was  very 
fortunate  in  being  able  to  disregard  '  what  people 
paid  for';  but  that  he  did  so  is  a  part  of  his 
character. 

His  fun  and  drollery  were  more  the  result  of 
his  high  spirits  than  of  any  real  turn  for  wit. 
Unlike  Beethoven,  he  rarely  indulges  in  plays  on 
words,  and  his  best  efforts  in  that  direction  are 
the  elaborately  illustrated  programmes  and  jeux 
<F  esprit  which  are  preserved  in  the  albums  of 
some  of  his  friends,  and   in  which  caricatures, 

1  L.  July  14. 1836,  and  in  many  other*,  a  L.  Oct.  4, 1837. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

verses,  puns,  and  jokes,  are  mixed  up  in  a  very 
droll  fashion.  There  is  much  humour  in  some  of 
his  scherzos,  but  especially  in  the  funeral  march 
for  Pyramus  and  Thisbe  in  the  M.N.D.  pieces, 
one  of  the  most  comical  things  in  all  music.  It 
is  much  to  be  regretted  that  he  has  left  no  other 
specimen  of  his  remarkable  power  in  this  direction. 
Probably  he  indulged  in  a  good  deal  of  such  fun 
which  has  not  been  preserved,  since  both  he 
3  and  his  sister  refer  to  that  march  as  a  specimen 
of  a  style  in  which  he  often  extemporised.  In 
mimicry  he  was  great,  not  only  in  music  but 
in  taking  off  speech  and  manner.  The  most 
humorous  passage  that  I  have  met  with  in  his 
letters  is  still  in  MS. — '  Dass  jenseits  auch  Musik 
gemacht  werden  konne,  das  glauben  Sie  ja,  una 
haben  mirs  oft  gesagt.  Dann  wirds  wohl  kein 
schlechtes  Instrument  geben,  wie  bei  Geyer,  und 
keine  dumme  Mote  pustet  da,  und  keine  Posaune 
schleppt  nach,  und  nirgends  fehlt  es,  und  wankt 
es,  und  eilt  es,  das  glaube  ich  wohl.'  * 

No  musician — unless  perhaps  it  were  Lionardo 
da  Vinci,  and  he  was  only  a  musician  in  a  limited 
sense — certainly  no  great  composer,  ever  had  so 
many  pursuits  as  Mendelssohn.  Mozart  drew, 
and  wrote  capital  letters,  Berlioz  and  Weber  also 
both  wrote  good  letters,  Beethoven  was  a  great 
walker  and  intense  lover  of  nature,  Cherubini  w;is 
a  botanist  and  a  passionate  card-player,  but  none 
of  them  approach  Mendelssohn  in  the  number  and 
variety  of  his  occupations.  Both  billiards  and 
chess  he  played  with  ardour  to  the  end  of  his 
life,  and  in  both  he  excelled.  When  a  lad  he 
was  devoted  to  gymnastics;  later  on  he  rode 
much,  swam  more,  and  danced  whenever  he  had 
the  opportunity.  Cards  and  skating  were  almost 
the  only  diversions  he  did  not  care  for.  But 
then  these  were  diversions.  There  were  two  pur- 
suits which  almost  deserve  to  rank  as  work — 
drawing  and  letter-writing.  Drawing  with  him 
was  more  like  a  professional  avocation  than  an 
amusement.  The  quantity  of  his  sketches  and 
drawings  preserved  is  very  large.  They  begin 
with  the  Swiss  journey  in  1822,  on  which  he 
took  27  large  ones,  all  very  carefully  finished, 
and  all  dated,  sometimes  two  in  one  day.  The 
Scotch  and  Italian  tours  are  both  fully  illustrated, 
and  so  they  go  on  year  by  year  till  his  last 
journey  into  Switzerland  in  1847,  of  which,  as 
already  said,  14  large  highly  finished  water-colour 
drawings  remain,  besides  slighter  sketches.  At 
first  they  are  rude  and  childish,  though  with  each 
successive  set  the  improvement  is  perceptible.  But 
even  with  the  earliest  ones  there  is  no  mistaking 
that  the  drawing  was  a  serious  business.  The 
subjects  are  not  what  are  called  'bits,'  but  are 
usually  large  comprehensive  views,  and  it  is  im- 
possible to  doubt  that  the  child  threw  his  whole 
mind  into  it,  did  his  very  best,  and  shirked 
nothing.  He  already  felt  the  force  of  the  motto 
which    fronted    his    conductor's    chair    in   the 

»  F.M.  ill.  54.  5L 

4  'That  there  may  be  music  in  the  next  world  1  know  you  believe, 
for  you  have  often  told  me  so ;  but  there  will  certainly  be  no  bad 
pianos  there  like  Geyer's.  no  stupid  puffing  flutes,  no  dragging 
trombones,  no  stopping,  or  wavering,  or  hurryiug— of  that  I  am  quite 
suix.'    JUS.  letter. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

Gewandhaus — 'Res  severa  est  verum  gaudium.' 
Every  little  cottage  or  gate  is  put  in  with  as 
much  care  as  the  main  features.  Every  tree  has 
its  character.  Everything  stands  well  on  its  legs, 
and  the  whole  has  that  architectonic  style  which 
is  so  characteristic  of  his  music. 

Next  to  his  drawing  should  be  placed  his 
correspondence,  and  this  is  even  more  remarkable. 
During  the  last  years  of  his  life  there  can  have 
been  but  few  eminent  men  in  Europe  who  wrote 
more  letters  than  he  did.  Many  even  who  take 
no  interest  in  music  are  familiar  with  the  nature 
of  his  letters — the  happy  mixture  of  seriousness, 
fun,  and  affection,  the  life-like  descriptions,  the 
happy  hits,  the  naivete"  which  no  baldness  of 
translation  can  extinguish,  the  wise  counsels, 
the  practical  views,  the  delight  in  the  successes 
of  his  friends,  the  self-abnegation,  the  bursts  of 
wrath  atanything  mean  ornasty.  We  all  remember, 
too,  the  length  to  which  they  run.  Taking  the 
printed  volumes,  and  comparing  the  letters  with 
those  of  Scott  or  Arnold,  they  are  on  the  average 
very  considerably  longer  than  either.  But  the 
published  letters  bear  only  a  small  proportion  to 
those  still  in  'MS.  In  fact  the  abundance  of 
material  for  the  biographer  of  Mendelssohn  is 
quite  bewildering.  That  however  is  not  the 
point.  The  remarkable  fact  is  that  so  many  let- 
ters of  such  length  and  such  intrinsic  excellence 
should  have  been  written  by  a  man  who  was  all 
the  time  engaged  in  an  engrossing  occupation, 
producing  great  quantities  of  music,  conducting, 
arranging,  and  otherwise  occupied  in  a  profession 
which  more  than  any  demands  the  surrender  of 
the  entire  man.  For  these  letters  are  no  hurried 
productions,  but  are  distinguished,  like  the  draw- 
ings, for  the  neatness  and  finish  which  pervade 
them.  An  autograph  letter  of  Mendelssohn's  is 
a  work  of  art ;  the  lines  are  all  straight  and 
close,  the  letters  perfectly  and  elegantly  formed, 
with  a  peculiar  luxuriance  of  tails,  and  an 
illegible  word  can  hardly  be  found.  To  the  fold- 
ing and  the  sealing  everything  is  perfect.  It 
seems  impossible  that  this  can  have  been  done 
quickly.  It  must  have  absorbed  an  enormous 
deal  of  time.  While  speaking  of  his  correspond- 
ence, we  may  mention  the  neatness  and  order 
with  which  he  registered  and  kept  everything. 
The  44  volumes  of  MS.  music,  in  which  he  did 
for  himself  what  Mozart's  father  so  carefully  did 
for  his  son,  have  been  mentioned.  But  it  is  not 
generally  known  that  he  preserved  all  letters  that 
he  received,  and  stuck  them  with  his  own  hands 
into  books.  27  large  *  thick  green  volumes  exist, 
containing  apparently  all  the  letters  and  memor- 
andums, business  and  private,  which  he  received 
from  Oct.  29,  182 1,  to  Oct.  29,  1847,  together 
with  the  drafts  of  his  Oratorio  books,  and  of  the 
long  official  communications  which,  during  his 
latter  life,  cost  him  so  many  unprofitable  hours. 
He  seems  to  have  found  time  for  everything. 
Hiller  3  tells  us  how  during  a  very  busy  season  he 

1  In  the  hands  of  his  family,  of  Schleinltz.  Mrs.  Moscheles,  Schu- 
brlng,  T.  David,  Mme.  Goldschmidt,  Mme.  Freusser,  Mr.  Euler  of 
Husseldorf.  the  Stenidale  Bennetts.  Mr.  Sartoris,  and  others. 

2  In  the  hands  of  Mrs.  Wach  (LIU  M.-B.).    Two  others  seem  to  be 

missing.  s  11,  ic7. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


297 


revised  and  copied  out  the  libretto  of  his  oratorio 
for  him.  One  of  his  dearest  Leipzig  friends  has 
a  complete  copy  of  the  full  score  of  Antigone, 
including  the  whole  of  the  words  of  the  melodrama, 
written  for  her  with  his  own  hand ;  a  perfect 
piece  of  caligraphy,  without  spot  or  erasure ! 
and  the  family  archives  contain  a  long  minute 
list  of  the  contents  of  all  the  cupboards  in  the 
house,  filling  several  pages  of  foolscap,  in  his  usual 
neat  writing,  and  made  about  the  year  1842. 
We  read  of  Mr.  Dickens  4  that  '  no  matter  was 
considered  too  trivial  to  claim  his  care  and 
attention.  He  would  take  as  much  pains  about 
the  hanging  of  a  picture,  the  choosing  of  furniture, 
the  superintending  of  any  little  improvement  in 
the  house,  as  he  would  about  the  more  serious 
business  of  his  life ;  thus  carrying  out  to  the  very 
letter  his  favourite  motto  that  What  is  worth 
doing  at  all  is  worth  doing  well.'  No  words 
could  better  describe  the  side  of  Mendelssohn's 
character  to  which  we  are  alluding,  nor  could  any 
motto  more  emphatically  express  the  principle  on 
which  he  acted  throughout  life  in  all  his  work. 

His  taste  and  efficiency  in  such  minor  matters  are 
well  shown  in  the  albums  which  he  made  for  his 
wife,  beautiful  specimens  of  arrangement,  the  most 
charming  things  in  which  are  the  drawings  and 
pieces  of  music  from  his  own  hands.  His  private 
account-books  and  diaries  are  kept  with  the  same 
quaint  neatness.  If  he  had  a  word  to  alter  in  a 
letter,  it  was  done  with  a  grace  which  turned  the 
blemish  into  a  beauty.  The  same  care  came  out 
in  everything — in  making  out  the  programmes  for 
the  Gewandhaus  concerts,  where  he  would  arrange 
and  rearrange  the  pieces  to  suit  some  inner  idea 
of  symmetry  or  order ;  or  in  settling  his  sets  of 
songs  for  publication  as  to  the  succession  of  keys, 
connection  or  contrast  of  words,  etc.  In  fact  he 
had  a  passion  for  neatness,  and  a  repugnance  to 
anything  clumsy.  Possibly  this  may  have  been 
one  reason  why  he  appears  so  rarely  to  have 
sketched  his  music.  He  made  it  in  bis  head, 
and  had  settled  the  minutest  points  there 
before  he  put  it  on  paper,  thus  avoiding  the  litter 
and  disorder  of  a  sketch.  Connected  with  this 
neatness  is  a  certain  quaintness  in  his  proceed- 
ings which  perhaps  strikes  an  Englishman  more 
forcibly  than  it  would  a  German.  He  used  the 
old-fashioned  C  clef  for  the  treble  voices  in 
his  scores  to  the  last;  the  long  flourish  with 
which  he  ornaments  the  double  bar  at  the  end  of 
a  piece  never  varied.  A  score  of  Haydn's  Military 
Symphony  which  he  wrote  for  his  wife  bears  the 
words  'Possessor  Cecile.'  In  writing  to  Mrs. 
Moscheles  of  her'  little  girls,  whose  singing  had 
pleased  him,  he  begs  to  be  remembered  to  the 
'  drei  kleine  Diskantisten.'  A  note  to  David, 
sent  by  a  child,  is  inscribed  '  Kinderpost,'  and 
so  on.  Certain  French  words  occur  over  and 
over  again,  and  are  evidently  favourites.  Such 
are  plaisir  and  trouble,  &  propos,  en  gros,  and 
others.  The  word  h'ubsch,  answering  to  our 
'  nice,'  was  a  special  5  favourite,  and  nett  was  one 
of  his  highest  commendations. 

But  to  return  for  a  moment  to  his  engrossing 

*  Preface  to  his  Letters.  1879.  •  Mos.  II.  165. 


298 


MENDELSSOHN. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


pursuits.  Add  to  those  just  mentioned  the  many 
concerts,  to  be  arranged,  rehearsed,  conducted  ; 
the  frequent  negotiations  attending  on  Berlin ; 
the  long  official  protocols ;  the  hospitality  and 
genial  intercourse,  where  he  was  equally  excellent 
as  host  or  as  guest ;  the  claims  of  his  family  ;  the 
long  holidays,  real  holidays,  spent  in  travelling, 
and  not,  like  Beethoven's,  devoted  to  composi- 
tion— and  we  may  almost  be  pardoned  for  won- 
dering how  he  can  have  found  time  to  write  any 
music  at  all.  But  on  the  contrary,  with  him  all 
this  business  does  not  appear  to  have  militated 
against  composition  in  the  slightest  degree.  It 
often  drove  him  almost  to  distraction ;  it  prob- 
ably shortened  his  life  ;  but  it  never  seems  to  have 
prevented  his  doing  whatever  music  came  before 
him,  either  spontaneously  or  at  the  call  of  his  two 
posts  at  Berlin  and  Dresden.  He  composed 
Antigone  in  a  fortnight,  he  resisted  writing 
the  music  to  Buy  Bias,  he  grumbled  over  the 
long  chorale  for  the  thousandth  anniversary  of 
the  German  Empire,  and  over  the  overture  to 
Athalie,  in  the  midst  of  his  London  pleasures  ; 
but  still  he  did  them,  and  in  the  cases  of  Antigone 
and  the  two  overtures  it  is  difficult  to  see  how 
he  could  have  done  them  better.  He  was  never 
driven  into  a  corner. 

The  power  by  which  he  got  through  all  this 
labour,  so  much  of  it  self-imposed,  was  the 
power  of  order  and  concentration,  the  practical 
business  habit  of  doing  one  thing  at  a  time, 
and  doing  it  well.  This  no  doubt  was  the 
talent  which  his  father  recognised  in  him  so 
strongly  as  to  make  him  doubt  whether  business 
was  not  his  real  vocation.  It  was  this  which 
made  him  l  sympathise  with  Schiller  in  his  power 
of  '  supplying '  great  tragedies  as  they  were 
wanted.  In  one  way  his  will  was  weak,  for  he 
always  found  it  hard  to  say  No;  but  having  ac- 
cepted the  task  it  became  a  duty,  and  towards  duty 
his  will  was  the  iron  will  of  a  man  of  business. 
Such  a  gift  is  vouchsafed  to  very  few  artists.  Han- 
del possessed  it  in  some  degree  ;  but  with  that  one 
exception  Mendelssohn  seems  to  stand  alone. 

Of  his  method  of  composing,  little  or  nothing  is 
known.  He  appears  to  have  made  few  sketches, 
and  to  have  arranged  his  music  in  his  head  at 
first,  much  as  Mozart  did.  Probably  this  arose 
from  his  early  training  under  Zelter,  for  the  vol- 
umes for  1821,  2,  3,  of  the  MS.  series  now  in  the 
Berlin  Library  appear  to  contain  his  first  drafts, 
and  rarely  show  any  corrections,  and  what  there 
are  are  not  so  much  sketches  as  erasures  and  sub- 
stitutions. Devrient  and  Schubring  tell  of  their 
having  seen  him  composing  a  score  bar  by  bar 
from  top  to  bottom  ;  hut  this  was  probably  only 
an  experiment  or  tour  deforce.  The  fragment  of 
the  first  movement  of  a  symphony  which  is  given 
on  p.  305,  is  a  good  average  example  of  the  shape 
in  which  his  ideas  first  came  on  to  the  paper. 

Alterations  in  a  work  after  it  was  completed 
are  quite  another  tiling,  and  in  these  he  was 
lavish.  He  complains  of  his  not  discovering  the 
necessity  for  them  till  -post  festum.  We  have 
seen  instances  of  this  in  the  Walpurgisnight,  St. 

1  L.  Aug  23  1831.  S  L.  Dec.  C,  1846. 


Paul,  the  Lobgesang,  Elijah,  and  some  of  the 
Concert-overtures.  Another  instance  is  the 
Italian  Symphony,  which  he  retained  in  MS.  for 
14  years,  till  his  death,  with  the  intention  of 
altering  and  improving  the  Finale.  Another, 
equally  to  the  point,  is  the  D  minor  Trio,  of 
which  there  are  two  editions  in  actual  circula- 
tion, containing  several  important  and  extensive 
3  differences.  This  is  carrying  fastidiousness  even 
further  than  Beethoven,  whose  alterations  were 
endless,  but  ceased  with  publication.  The  auto- 
graphs of  many  of  Mendelssohn's  pieces  are  dated 
years  before  they  were  printed,  and  iii  most,  if 
not  all,  cases,  they  received  material  alterations 
before  being  issued. 

Of  his  pianoforte  playing  in  his  earlier  days 
we  have  already  spoken.  What  it  wras  in  his 
great  time,  at  such  displays  as  his  performances 
in  London  at  the  Philharmonic  in  1S42,  44,  and 
47;  at  Ernst's  Concert  in  1844,  in  the  Bach 
Concerto  with  Moscheles  and  Thalberg ;  at  the 
British  Musicians'  matinee  in  1844;  and  the 
British  Quartet  Society  in  1847  ;  at  the  Leipzig 
Concerts  on  the  occasion  already  mentioned  in 
1836;  at  Miss  Lind's  Concert  Dec.  5,  1845, 
or  at  many  a  private  reunion  at  V.  Novello's 
or  the  Horsleys',  or  the  Moscheles'  in  London,  or 
the  houses  of  his  favourite  friends  in  Leipzig, 
Berlin,  or  Frankfort — there  are  still  many  re- 
maining well  able  to  judge,  and  in  whose  minds 
the  impression  survives  as  clear  as  ever.  Of  the 
various  recollections  with  which  I  have  been  fa- 
voured, I  cannot  do  better  than  give  entire  those 
of  Madame  Schumann,  and  Dr.  Hiller.  In  reading 
them  it  should  be  remembered  that  Mendelssohn 
was  fond  of  speaking  of  himself  as  a  player  en 
gros,  who  did  not  claim  (however  great  his  right) 
to  be  a  virtuoso,  and  that  there  are  instances  of 
his  having  refused  to  play  to  great  virtuosi. 

1.  '  My  recollections  of  Mendelssohn's  playing,' 
says  Madame  Schumann,  '  are  among  the  most 
delightful  things  in  my  artistic  life.  It  was  to 
me  a  shining  ideal,  full  of  genius  and  life, 
united  with  technical  perfection.  He  would  some- 
times take  the  tempi  very  quick,  but  never  to 
the  prejudice  of  the  music.  It  never  occurred 
to  me  to  compare  him  with  virtuosi.  Of  mere 
effects  of  performance  he  knew  nothing — he  was 
always  the  great  musician,  and  in  hearing  him 
one  forgot  the  player,  and  only  revelled  in  the  full 
enjoyment  of  the  music.  He  could  carry  one  with 
him  in  the  most  incredible  manner,  and  his  play- 
ing was  always  stamped  with  beauty  and  nobility. 
In  his  early  days  he  had  acquired  perfection  of 
technique  ;  but  latterly,  as  he  often  told  me,  he 
hardly  ever  practised,  and  yet  he  surpassed  every 
one.  I  have  heard  him  in  Bach,  and  Beethoven, 
and  in  his  own  compositions,  and  shall  never 
forget  the  impression  he  made  upon  me.' 

2.  'Mendelssohn's  playing,'  says  Dr.  Hiller, 
'  was  to  him  what  flying  is  to  a  bird.  No  one 
wonders   why   a    lark    flies,  it   is   inconceivable 

3  Th<'  part*  of  the  '  Hebrlden'  Overture  are  not  in  exact  accordance 
with  the  score  of  'Finuals  HOhle.'  The  TV.  arrangement  of  the 
M.N.D.  Overture  published  in  London  is  given  in  notes  of  half  the 
value  of  those  in  the  score,  published  after  it  in  Leipzig. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

without  that  power.  In  the  same  way  Mendels- 
sohn played  the  piano  because  it  was  his 
nature.  He  possessed  great  skill,  certainty, 
power,  and  rapidity  of  execution,  a  lovely  full 
tone — all  in  fact  that  a  virtuoso  could  desire, 
but  these  qualities  were  forgotten  while  he  was 
playing,  and  one  almost  overlooked  even  those 
more  spiritual  gifts  which  we  call  fire,  invention, 
soul,  apprehension,  etc.  When  he  sat  down  to 
the  instrument  music  streamed  from  him  with 
all  the  fullness  of  his  inborn  genius,  — he  was  a 
centaur,  and  his  horse  was  the  piano.  What  he 
played,  how  he  played  it,  and  that  he  was  the 
player — all  were  equally  rivetting,  and  it  was 
impossible  to  separate  the  execution,  the  music, 
and  the  executant.  This  was  absolutely  the  case 
in  his  improvisations,  so  poetical,  artistic,  and 
finished ;  and  almost  as  much  so  in  his  execution 
of  the  music  of  Bach,  Mozart,  Beethoven,  or 
himself.  Into  those  three  masters  he  had  grown, 
and  they  had  become  his  spiritual  property.  The 
music  of  other  composers  he  knew,  but  could  not 
produce  it  as  he  did  theirs.  I  do  not  think,  for 
instance,  that  his  execution  of  Chopin  was  at  all 
to  be  compared  to  his  execution  of  the  masters 
just  mentioned;  he  did  not  care  particularly  for 
it,  though  when  alone  he  played  everything  good 
with  interest.  In  playing  at  sight  his  skill  and 
rapidity  of  comprehension  were  astonishing,  and 
that  not  with  P.  F.  music  only,  but  with  the  most 
complicated  compositions.  He  never  practised, 
though  he  once  told  me  that  in  his  Leipzig  time 
he  had  played  a  shake  (I  think  with  the  2nd 
and  3rd  fingers)  several  minute3  every  day  for 
some  months,  till  he  was  perfect  in  it.' 

'  His  staccato,'  says  Mr.  Joachim, '  was  the  most 
extraordinary  thing  possible  for  life  and  crispness. 
In  the  Friihlingslied  (Songs  without  Words,  Bk. 
v,  No.  6)  for  instance,  it  was  quite  electric,  and 
though  I  have  heard  that  song  played  by  many 
of  the  greatest  players,  I  never  experienced  the 
same  effect.  His  playing  was  extraordinarily  full 
of  fire,  which  could  hardly  be  controlled,  and  yet 
was  controlled,  and  combined  with  the  greatest 
delicacy.'  '  Though  lightness  of  touch,  and  a  de- 
licious liquid  pearliness  of  tone,'  says  'another  of 
his  pupils, 4  were  prominent  characteristics,  yet  his 
power  in  fortes  was  immense.  In  the  passage  in 
his  G  minor  Concerto  where  the  whole  orchestra 
makes  a  crescendo  the  climax  of  which  is  a  6-4 
chord  on  D,  played  by  the  P.F.  alone,  it  seemed 
as  if  the  band  had  quite  enough  to  do  to  work 
up  to  the  chord  he  played.'  As  an  instance  of  the 
fulness  of  his  tone,  the  same  gentleman  mentions 
the  5  bars  of  piano  which  begin  Beethoven's 
6  major  Concerto,  and  which,  though  he  played 
them  perfectly  softly,  filled  the  whole  room. 

'His  mechanism,'  says  'another  of  his  Leipzig 
pupils,  '  was  extremely  subtle,  and  developed  with 
the  lightest  of  wrists  (never  from  the  arm) ;  he 
therefore  never  strained  the  instrument  or  ham- 
mered. His  chord-playing  was  beautiful,  and 
based  on  a  special  theory  of  his  own.  His  use 
of  the  pedal  was  very  sparing,  clearly  defined, 
and  therefore  effective  j  his  phrasing  beautifully 

1  Mr.  W.  S.  Boclutro.  X  Mr.  Otto  Goldschmidt. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


299 


clear.  The  performances  in  which  I  derived  the 
most  lasting  impressions  from  him  were  the  3  2 
Variations  and  last  Sonata  (Op.  in)  of  Bee- 
thoven, in  which  latter  the  Variations  of  the  final 
movement  came  out  more  clearly  in  their  struc- 
ture and  beauty  than  I  have  ever  heard  before 
or  since.*  Of  his  playing  of  the  32  Variations, 
Professor  Macfarren  remarks  that  '  to  each  one, 
or  each  pair,  where  they  go  in  pairs,  he  gave  a 
character  different  from  all  the  others.  In  play- 
ing at  sight  from  a  MS.  score  he  characterised 
every  incident  by  the  peculiar  tone  by  which  he 
represented  the  instrument  for  which  it  was 
8  written.'  In  describing  his  playing  of  the  9th 
Symphony,  Mr.  Schleinitz  testified  to  the  same 
singular  power  of  representing  the  different  in- 
struments. A  still  stronger  testimony  is  that  of 
Berlioz,  who,  speaking  of  the  colour  of  the 
Hebrides  Overture,  says  that  Mendelssohn  '  suc- 
ceeded in  giving  him  an  accurate  idea  of  it,  such 
is  his  extraordinary  power  of  rendering  the  most 
complicated  scores  *  on  the  Piano.'     • 

His  adherence  to  his  author's  meaning,  and 
to  the  indications  given  in  the  music,  was  ab- 
solute. Strict  time  was  one  of  his  hobbies.  He 
alludes  to  it,  with  an  eye  to  the  sins  of  Hiller 
and  Chopin,  in  a  letter  of  May  23,  1834,  and 
somewhere  else  speaks  of  'nice  strict  tempo' 
as  something  peculiarly  pleasant.  After  intro- 
ducing some  ritardandos  in  conducting  the  In- 
troduction to  Beethoven's  2nd  Symphony,  he 
excused  himself  by  saying  5  that  '  one  could  not 
always  be  good,'  and  that  he  had  felt  the  in- 
clination too  strongly  to  resist  it.  In  playing, 
however,  he  never  himself  interpolated  a  ritar' 
dando,  or  'suffered  it  in  any  one  else.  It  espe- 
cially enraged  him  when  done  at  the  end  of  a 
song  or  other  piece.  '  Es  steht  nicht  da ! '  he 
would  say;  'if  it  were  intended  it  would  be 
written  in — they  think  it  expression,  but  it  is 
sheer  'affectation.'  But  though  in  playing  he 
never  varied  the  tempo  when  once  taken,  he  did 
not  always  take  a  movement  at  the  same  pace, 
but  changed  it  as  his  mood  was  at  the  time. 
We  have  seen  in  the  case  of  Bach's  A  minor 
Fugue  (p.  274)  that  he  could  on  occasion  intro- 
duce an  individual  reading ;  and  his  treatment 
of  the  arpeggios  in  the  Chromatic  8  Fantasia 
shows  that,  there  at  least,  he  allowed  himself 
great  latitude.  Still,  in  imitating  this  it  should 
be  remembered  how  thoroughly  he  knew  these 
great  masters,  and  how  perfect  his  sympathy 
with  them  was.  In  conducting,  as  we  have 
just  seen,  he  was  more  elastic,  though  even 
there  his  variations  would  now  be  condemned  as 
moderate  by  some  conductors.  Before  he  con- 
ducted at  the  Philharmonic  it  had  been  the 
tradition  in  the  Coda  of  the  Overture  to  Egmout 
to  return  to  a  piano  after  the  crescendo ;  but  this 
he  would  not  suffer,  and  maintained  the  fortis- 
simo to  the  end — a  practice  now  always  followed. 

He  very  rarely  played  from  book,  and  his 
prodigious  memory  was  also  often  shown  in  hi3 


•  SeeDom,  p.  998. 
»  Mr.  Kellow  Pjre. 
i  Mrs.  Moscheles  and  Mr.  Rockstro. 

•  Letter  to  Fanny,  Not.  14. 1840. 


*  '  Vojage  musical,"  Letter  4. 

•  Mr.  von  Billow. 


300 


MENDELSSOHN. 


sudden  recollection  of  out-of-the-way  pieces. 
Hiller  has  given  two  instances  (pp.  28,  29).  His 
power  of  retaining  things  casually  heard  was  also 
shown  in  his  extempore  playing,  where  he  would 
recollect  the  themes  of  compositions  which  he 
heard  then  and  there  for  the  first  time,  and 
would  combine  them  in  the  happiest  manner. 
An  instance  of  this  is  mentioned  by  his  x  father, 
in  which,  after  Malibran  had  sung  five  songs 
of  different  nations,  he  was  dragged  to  the  piano, 
and  improvised  upon  them  all.  He  himself 
describes  another  occasion,  a  '  field  day '  at 
Baillot's,  when  he  took  three  themes  from  the 
Bach  sonatas  and  worked  them  up  to  the  delight 
and  astonishment  of  an  audience  a  worth  delight- 
ing. At  the  inatine'e  of  the  Society  of  British 
Musicians  in  1 844,  he  took  his  themes  from  two 
compositions  by  C.  E.  Horsley  and  Macfarren 
which  he  had  just  heard,  probably  for  the  first 
time — and  other  instances  could  be  given. 

His  extemporising  was  however  marked  by 
other  traits  than  that  of  memory.  '  It  was,'  says 
Prof.  Macfarren,  'as  fluent  and  as  well  planned 
as  a  written  work,'  and  the  themes,  whether 
borrowed  or  invented,  were  not  merely  brought 
together  but  contrapuntally  worked.  Instances 
of  this  have  been  mentioned  at  Birmingham  and 
elsewhere.  His  tact  in  these  things  was  pro- 
digious. At  the  concert  given  by  Jenny  Lind 
and  himself  on  Dec.  5,  1845,  he  played  two 
Songs  without  words — Bk.  vi,  No.  1,  in  Eb, 
and  Bk.  v,  No.  6,  in  A  major,  and  he  modulated 
from  the  one  key  to  the  other  by  means  of  a 
regularly  constructed  intermezzo,  in  which  the 
semiquavers  of  the  first  song  merged  into  the 
arpeggios  of  the  second  with  the  most  consum- 
mate art,  and  with  magical  3  effect.  But  great 
as  were  his  public  displays,  it  would  seem  that, 
like  Mozart,  it  was  in  the  small  circle  of  intimate 
friends  that  his  improvisation  was  most  splendid 
and  happy.  Those  only  who  had  the  good  for- 
tune td  find  themselves  (as  rarely  happened) 
alone  *with  him  at  one  of  his  Sunday  afternoons 
are  perhaps  aware  of  what  he  could  really  do  in 
this  direction,  and  he  'never  improvised  better'  or 
pleased  himself  more  than  when  tete  &  tete  with  the 
Queen  and  Prince  Albert.  A  singular  fact  is  men- 
tioned by  5  Hiller,  which  is  confirmed  by  another 
friend  of  his : — that  in  playing  his  own  music  he 
did  it  with  a  certain  reticence,  as  if  not  desiring 
that  the  work  would  derive  any  advantage  from 
his  execution.  The  explanation  is  very  much  in 
consonance  with  his  modesty,  but  whether  correct 
or  not  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  fact. 

His  immense  early  practice  in  counterpoint 
under  Zelter — like  Mozart's  under  his  father — 
had  given  him  so  complete  a  command  over  all 
the  resources  of  counterpoint,  and  such  a  habit 
of  looking  at  themes  contrapuntally,  that  the 
combinations  just  spoken  of  came  more  or  less 
naturally  to  him.  In  some  of  his  youthful 
compositions  he  brings  his  science  into  promi- 

1  F.M.  i.  377.  2  l.  1. 305. 

'  Recollections  of  Joachim  and  Kockstro. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

nence,  as  in  the  Fugue  in  A  (op.  7,  no.  5) ;  the 
Finale  of  the  Eb  stringed  Quartet  (1823) ;  the 
original  Minuet  and  Trio  of  the  stringed  Quintet 
in  A  (op.  1 8),  a  double  canon  of  great  ingenuity ; 
the  Chorus  in  St.  Paul,  'But  our  God,'  constructed 
on  the  chorale  '  Wir  glauben  all ' ;  but  with  his 
maturity  he  mostly  drops  such  displays,  and 
Elijah,  as  is  well  known,  'contains  no  fugues.' 
In  extemporising,  however,  it  was  at  his  fingers' 
ends  to  the  last.  He  was  also  fond  of  throwing 
off  ingenious  canons,  of  which  the  following, 
written  on  the  moment  for  Joachim,  March  1 1, 
1844,  is  a  good  example. 

Etude/or  one  Violin,  or  Canon/or  ttco  Violin*. 


Of  his  organ-playing  we  have  already  spoken. 
It  should  be  added  that  he  settled  his  combinations 
of  stops  before  starting,  and  did  not  change  them 
in  the  course  of  the  piece.     He  likewise  steadily 

6  adhered  to  the  plan  on  which  he  set  out ;  if  he 
started  in  3  parts  he  continued  in  3,  and  the  same 
with  4  or  5.  He  took  extraordinary  delight  in  the 
organ  ;  some  describe  him  as  even  more  at  home 
there  than  on  the  P.  F.,  though  this  must  be  taken 
with  caution.  But  it  is  certain  that  he  loved  it, 
and  was  always  greatly  excited  when  playing  it. 

He  was  fond  of  playing  the  Viola,  and  on 
more  than  one  occasion  took  the  first  Viola  part 
of  his  own  Octet  in  public.  The  Violin  he 
learned  when  young,  but  neglected  it  in  later 
life.  He  however  played  occasionally,  and  it  was 
amusing  to  see  him  bending  over  the  desk,  and 
struggling  with  his  part  just  as  if  he  were  a  boy. 
His  practical  knowledge  of  the  instrument  is 
evident  from  his  violin  music,  in  which  there  are 
few  difficulties  which  an  ordinarily  good  player 
cannot  surmount.  But  this  is  characteristic  of 
the  care  and  thoughtfulness  of  the  man.  As  a 
rule,  in  his  scores  he  gives  each  instrument  the 
passages  which  suit  it.  A  few  instances  of  the 
reverse  are  quoted  under  Clarinet  (vol.  i.  p.  363  b), 
but  they,  are  quite  the  exception.  He  appears 
to  have  felt  somewhat  of  the  same  natural  dislike 
to  brass  instruments  that  Mozart  did.  At  any 
rate  in  his  early  scores  he  uses  them  with  great 

7  moderation,  and  somewhere  makes  the  just 
remark  that  the  trombone  is  'too  sacred  an 
instrument'  to  be  used  freely. 


The  list  of  Mendelssohn's  works  published  up 
to  the  present  time  (Jan.  1880)  comprises — 

5  Symphonies,  including  the  Lobgesang. 

6  Concert  overtures ;  an  Overture  for  military 
band. 

•  Mm.  World,  viH.  102. 

'  Neither  of  his  three  Concert  overtures,  nor  the  Italian  and  Scotch 


*  Dr.  Klengel  and  Sterndale  Bennett  once  had  this  good  fortune,  and      symphonies,  have  trombones.  As  to  St.  Paul,  see  letter  to  Mr.  Horsley, 
!t  was  a  thing  never  to  be  forgotten.  s  H.  18.  I  G.  4  M.  115. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

I  Concerto  for  Violin  and  Orchestra  ;  2  do.  for  I 
Pianoforte,  and  3  shorter  works  for  P.  F.  and 
Orchestra. 

1  Octet  for  Strings,  2  Quintets  and  7  Quartets 
for  do.,  with  fragments  of  an  8th  ;  3  Quartets  for 
P.F.  and  strings,  1  Trios  for  the  same,  a  Sonata 
for  the  Violin  and  P.  F. ;  2  Sonatas  and  a  set  of 
Variations  for  Cello  and  P.  F. 

2  pieces  for  Piano,  four  hands  ;  3  Sonatas  for 
Piano  solo,  1  Fantasia  for  do.  ('Scotch  Sonata'), 
16  Scherzos,  Capriccios,  etc. ;  8  books  of  Songs 
without  Words,  6  in  each,  and  2  separate  similar 
pieces ;  7  Characteristic  pieces ;  6  pieces  for 
children ;  7  Preludes  and  Fugues ;  and  3  sets  of 
Variation?. 

For  the  organ,  6  Sonatas,  and  3  Preludes  and 
Fugues. 

2  Oratorios  and  fragments  of  a  third. 

1  Hymn  (Lauda  Sion),  2  ditto  for  Solo,  Chorus, 
and  Orchestra. 

3  Motets  for  Female  voices  and  Organ ;  3 
Church  pieces  for  Solos,  Cho»us,  and  Organ. 

5  Motets,  Jubilate,  Nunc  Dimittis,  Magnificat, 
and  2  Kyries  for  voices  only;  2  ditto  Men's 
voices  only ;  2  ditto  Chorus  and  Orchestra. 

8  Psalms  for  Solos,  Chorus  and  Orchestra ;  6 
'  Spriiche '  for  8  voices. 

1  Opera,  and  portions  of  a  second ;  1  Operetta ; 
the  Walpurgisnight. 

Music  to  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  Athalie, 
Antigone,  and  CEdipus. 

2  Festival  Cantatas ;  1  Concert-aria ;  10  Duets 
and  8 2  Songs  for  solo  voice,  with  P.F. ;  28  Part 
Songs  for  mixed  voices,  and  1 7  for  men's  voices. 

Of  these  a  complete  collected  edition,  edited  by 
Julius  Rietz,  has  been  published  by  Messrs. 
Breitkopf  &  Hiirtel.  The  prospectus  was  issued 
in  July  1876,  and  the  publication  began  with 
1877.  The  various  separate  editions  are  too  nu- 
merous to  be  given  here,  but  we  may  mention 
that  while  these  sheets  are  passing  through  the 
press,  a  complete  collection  of  the  P.F.  works 
(solo  and  with  orchestra)  has  been  issued  by 
Messrs.  Novello  in  one  vol.  of  518  pages. 

Two  editions  of  the  Thematic  Catalogue  have 
been  published  by  Messrs.  Breitkopf,  the  1st  in 
two  parts,  1846  and  1853,  the  2nd  in  1873.  A 
third  edition  i3  very  desirable,  on  the  model  of  the 
admirable  catalogues  of  Beethoven  and  Schubert, 
edited  by  Mr.  Nottebohm.  The  English  publishers, 
and  the  dates,  should  in  every  case  be  given,  since 
their  editions  were  often  published  simultane- 
ously with  those  of  the  German  publishers,  and 
indeed  in  some  cases  are  the  original  issues. 

The  few  of  Mendelssohn's  very  early  works 
which  he  published  himself,  or  which  have  been 
issued  since  his  death,  show  in  certain  points  the 
traces  of  his  predecessors — of  Bach,  Mozart,  Bee- 
thoven, and  Weber.  But  this  is  only  saying  what 
can  be  said  of  the  early  works  of  all  composers, 
including  Beethoven  himself.  Mendelssohn  is 
not  more  but  less  amenable  to  this  law  of  nature 
than  most  of  his  compeers.  The  traces  of  Bach 
are  the  most  permanent,  and  they  linger  on  in  the 
vocal  works  even  as  late  as  St.  Paul.  Indeed, 
Bach  may  be  tracked  still  later  in  the  solid  con- 


MENDELSSOHN. 


301 


slruction  and  architectonic  arrangement  of  the 
choruses,  even  of  the  Lobgesang,  the  grand 
Psalms,  the  Walpurgisnight,  and  Elijah,  works 
in  all  respects  emphatically  Mendelssohn's  own, 
not  less  than  in  the  religious  feeling,  the  union 
of  noble  sentiment  with  tender  expression,  and 
the  utter  absence  of  commonness  or  vulgarity 
which  pervade  all  his  music  alike. 

In  the  instrumental  works,  however,  the  year 
1826  broke  the  spell  of  all  external  influence, 
and  the  Octet,  the  Quintet  in  A,  and  above  all 
the  M.N.D.  Overture,  launched  him  upon  the 
world  at  17  as  a  thoroughly  original  composer. 
The  Concert-overtures,  the  2  great  Symphonies, 
the  two  P.  F.  Concertos,  and  the  Violin  Con- 
certo, fully  maintain  this  orginality,  and  in 
thought,  style,  phrase,  and  clearness  of  expression, 
no  less  than  in  their  symmetrical  structure  and 
exquisite  orchestration,  are  eminently  independent 
and  individual  works.  The  advance  between 
the  Symphony  in  C  minor  (1824),  which  we 
call '  No.  I,'  though  it  is  really  '  No  XIII,'  and 
the  Italian  Symphony  (Rome,  1831)  is  immense. 
The  former  is  laid  out  quite  on  the  Mozart  plan, 
and  the  working  throughout  recalls  the  old 
world.  But  the  latter  has  no  model.  The 
melodies  and  the  treatment  are  Mendelssohn's 
alone,  and  while  in  gaiety  and  freshness  it  is 
quite  unrivalled,  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
the  slow  movement  is  as  great  a  novelty  as  that 
of  Beethoven's  Concerto  in  G  major.  The  Scotch 
Symphony  is  as  original  as  the  Italian,  and  on 
a  much  larger  and  grander  scale.  The  opening 
Andante,  the  Scherzo,  and  the  Finale  are  es- 
pecially splendid  and  individual.  The  Concert- 
overtures  are  in  all  essential  respects  as  original  as 
if  Beethoven  had  not  preceded  them  by  writing 
Coriolan — as  true  a  representative  of  his  genius 
as  the  Hebrides  is  of  Mendelssohn's.  That  to 
the  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  which  brought 
the  fairies  into  the  orchestra  and  fixed  them  there, 
and  which  will  always  remain  a  monument  of 
the  fresh  feeling  of  youth  ;  the  Hebrides  with  its 
intensely  sombre  and  melancholy  sentiment,  and 
the  Melusina  with  its  passionate  pathos,  have  no 
predecessors  in  sentiment,  treatment,  or  orches- 
tration. Buy  Bias  is  as  brilliant  and  as  full  of 
fire  as  the  others  are  of  sentiment,  and  does  not 
fall  a  step  behind  them  for  individuality. 

In  these  works  there  is  little  attempt  at  any 
modification  of  the  established  forms.  Innova- 
tion was  not  Mendelssohn's  habit  of  mind,  and 
he  rarely  attempts  it.  The  Scotch  Symphony  is 
directed  to  be  played  through  without  pause, 
and  it  has  an  extra  movement  in  form  of  a  long 
Coda,  which  appears  to  be  a  novelty  in  pieces  in 
this  class.  There  are  unimportant  variations  in 
the  form  of  the  concertos,  chiefly  in  the  direc- 
tion of  compression.  But  with  Mendelssohn,  no 
more  than  with  Schubert,  do  these  things  force 
themselves  on  the  attention.  He  has  so  much 
to  say,  and  says  it  so  well,  the  music  is  so  good 
and  so  agreeable,  that  it  never  occurs  to  the 
hearer  to  enquire  if  he  has  altered  the  external 
proportions  of  his  discourse. 

His  Scherzos  are  still  more  peculiarly  his  own 


302 


MENDELSSOHN. 


offspring,  and  really  have  no  prototypes.  That  in 
a  movement  bearing  the  same  name  as  one  of 
Beethoven's  most  individual  creations,  and  oc- 
cupying the  same  place  in  the  piece,  he  should 
have  been  able  to  strike  out  so  entirely  different 
a  path  as  he  did,  is  a  wonderful  tribute  to  his 
originality.  Not  less  remarkable  is  the  variety 
of  the  many  Scherzos  he  has  left.  They  are 
written  for  orchestra  and  chamber,  concerted 
and  solo  alike,  in  double  and  triple  time  indiffer- 
ently ;  they  have  no  fixed  rhythm,  and  notwith- 
standing a  strong  family  likeness — the  impress  of 
the  gay  and  delicate  mind  of  their  composer — are 
all  independent  of  each  other.  In  his  orchestral 
works  Mendelssohn's  scoring  is  remarkable  not 
more  for  its  grace  and  beautiful  effect  than  for 
its  clearness  and  practical  efficiency.  It  gives 
the  Conductor  no  difficulty.  What  the  composer 
wishes  to  express  comes  out  naturally,  and,  as 
already  remarked,  each  instrument  has  with  rare 
exceptions  the  passages  most  suitable  to  it. 

Mendelssohn's  love  of '  Programme'  is  obvious 
throughout  the  foregoing  works.  The  exquisite 
imitation  of  Goethe's  picture  in  the  Scherzo  of  the 
Octet  (p.  2586)  is  the  earliest  instance  of  it ;  the 
Overture  founded  on  his  Calm  sea  and  Prosper- 
ous voyage  is  another  ;  and  as  we  advance  each 
Overture  and  each  Symphony  has  its  title.  He 
once  said,  in  'conversation  with  F.  Schneider 
on  the  subject,  that  since  Beethoven  had  taken 
the  step  he  did  in  the  Pastoral  Symphony, 
every  one  was  at  liberty  to  follow.  But  the 
way  in  which  he  resented  Schumann's  attempt 
to  discover  'red  coral,  sea  monsters,  magic  cas- 
tles and  ocean  caves'  in  his  Melusina  2 Overture 
shows  that  his  view  of  Programme  was  a  broad 
one,  that  he  did  not  intend  to  depict  scenes  or 
events,  but  held  fast  by  Beethoven's  canon, 
that  such  music  shoidd  be  'more  expression 
of  emotion  than  painting' — mehr  Ausdruck  der 
Empfindung  als  Malerei.  Thus  he  quotes  the 
first  few  bars  of  the  Hebrides  Overture  (see 
p.  264  a)  not  as  his  recollection  of  the  sound  of 
the  winds  and  the  waves,  but  'to  show  how  extra- 
ordinarily Fingal's  cave  had  affected  him ' — wie 
seltsam  mir  auf  den  Sehriden  zu  Muthe  geworden 
ist.  True,  in  the  M.N.D.  Overture  we  are  said  to 
hear  the  bray  of  Bottom  in  the  low  G  of  the 
Ophicleide ;  and  in  the  three  North  Wales 
caprices  (op.  16)  we  are  told  of  even  more  minute 
touches  of  imitation  (see  p.  2646) ;  but  these,  if 
not  imaginary,  are  at  best  but  jeux  a" esprit. 

Connected  with  this  tendency  to  programme  is 
a  curious  point,  namely,  his  belief  in  the  absolute 
and  obvious  '  meaning*  of  music.  'Notes,'  3says 
he,  'have  as  definite  a  meaning  as  words,  perhaps 
even  a  more  definite  one,'  and  he  devotes  a  whole 
letter  to  reiterating  that  music  is  not  too  indefi- 
nite to  be  put  into  words,  but  too  definite  ;  that 
words  are  susceptible  of  a  variety  of  meanings, 
while  music  has  only  *  one.  This  is  not  the  place 

1  Schubring,  374  6.  note. 

2  L.  Jan.  SO.  1636.  The  reference  Is  to  an  article  in  the  N.1I.Z. 
When  asked  what  he  meant  by  this  overture  he  once  replied  'Hm, 
une  mesalliance.' 

3  Ii.  Genoa,  July  1831. 

*  L.  Oct.  15,  1842,  to  Souchay;  and  compare  that  to  Frau  von 
rereira,  Genoa,  July  1831. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

to  discuss  so  strange  a  doctrine,  which,  though 
true  to  him,  is  certainly  not  true  to  the  majority 
of  men,  and  which  obviously  rests  on  the  precise 
force  of  the  word  'to  mean'  (heisseri);  but  it  is 
necessary  to  call  attention  to  it  en  passant? 

His  great  works  in  chamber  music  are  on  a  par 
with  those  for  the  orchestra.  The  Octet,  the 
Quintets,  and  the  6  Quartets  are  thoroughly  indi- 
vidual and  interesting,  nothing  far-fetched,  no 
striving  after  effect,  no  emptiness,  no  padding, 
but  plenty  of  matter  given  in  a  manner  at  once 
fresh  and  varied.  Every  bar  is  his  own,  and 
every  bar  is  well  said.  The  accusation  which  is 
sometimes  brought  against  them,  that  they  are 
more  fitted  for  the  orchestra  than  the  chamber  is 
probably  to  some  extent  well-founded.  Indeed 
Mendelssohn  virtually  anticipates  the  charge  in  his 
preface  to  the  parts  of  the  Octet,  which  he  desirea 
may  be  played  in  a  symphonic  style ;  and  in  that 
noble  piece,  as  well  as  in  parts  of  the  Quintet  in 
Bb,  and  of  the  Quartets  in  Dand  F  minor,  many 
players  have  felt  that  the  composer  has  placed 
his  work  in  too  small  a  frame,  that  the  proper 
balance  cannot  always  be  maintained  between 
the  leading  violin  and  the  other  instruments,  and 
that  to  produce  all  the  effect  of  the  composer's 
ideas  they  should  be  heard  in  an  orchestra  of 
strings  rather  than  in  a  quartet  of  solo  instru- 
ments. On  the  other  hand,  the  P.F.  Quartet  in 
B  minor  and  the  two  P.F.  Trios  in  D  minor  and 
C  minor  have  been  criticised,  probably  with  some 
justice,  as  not  sufficiently  concertante,  that  is  as 
giving  too  prominent  a  part  to  the  Piano.  Such 
criticism  may  detract  from  the  pieces  in  a  techni- 
cal respect,  but  it  leaves  the  ideas  and  sentiments 
of  the  music,  the  nobility  of  the  style,  and  the 
clearness  of  the  structure,  untouched. 

His  additions  to  the  technique  of  the  Pianoforte 
are  not  important.  Hiller  *  tells  a  story  which 
shows  that  Mendelss&hn  cared  little  for  the  rich 
passages  of  the  modern  school ;  his  own  were 
quite  sufficient  for  him.  But  this  is  consistent 
with  what  we  have  just  said.  It  was  the  music 
of  which  he  thought,  and  as  long  as  that  expressed 
his  feelings  it  satisfied  him,  and  he  was  indifferent 
to  the  special  form  into  which  it  was  thrown. 
Of  his  Pianoforte  works  the  most  remarkable  is 
the  set  of  1 7  Serious  Variations ;  but  the  Fantasia 
in  Fjf  minor  (op.  28),  the  3  great  Capriccios  (op. 
33),  the  Preludes  and  Fugues,  and  several  of  the 
smaller  pieces,  are  splendid  works  too  well  known 
to  need  further  mention.  The  Songs  without 
Words  stand  by  themselves,  and  are  especially 
interesting  to  Englishmen  on  account  of  their 
very  great  popularity  in  this  country.  Men- 
delssohn's orchestral  and  chamber  works  are 
greatly  played  and  much  enjoyed  here,  but  it 
is  to  his  Oratorios,  Songs,  Songs  without  Words, 
and  Part-songs,  that  he  owes  his  firm  hold  on 
the  mass  of  the  English  people.  It  was  some 
time  (see  135  a)  before  the  Songs  without  Words 
reached  the  public ;  but  when  once  they  became 

s  Mrs.  Austin  (Fraser's  Hag.,  April  1848)  relates  that  he  said  to  her 
on  one  occasion' I  am  going  to  play  something  of  Beethoven's,  but  you 
must  tell  them  what  it  is  about ;  what  is  the  use  of  music  if  people  do 
not  know  what  it  means  ? '  She  might  surely  have  replied, '  What 
then,  is  the  use  of  the  imagination  ? '  e  H.  154, 155. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

known,  the  taste  for  them  quickly  spread,  and 
probably  no  pieces  ever  were  so  much  and  so  per- 
manently beloved  in  the  country.  The  piece,  like 
the  name,  is  virtually  his  own  invention.  Not 
a  few  of  Beethoven's  movements — such  as  the 
Adagio  to  the  Sonate  pathe"tique,  or  the  Minuet 
to  op.  i o,  no.  3 — might  be  classed  as  songs  with- 
out words,  and  so  might  Field's  Nocturnes ;  but 
the  former  of  these  are  portions  of  larger  works, 
not  easily  separable,  and  the  latter  were  little 
known ;  and  neither  of  them  possess  that  grace 
and  finish,  that  intimate  charm,  and  above  all 
that  domestic  character,  which  have  ensured  the 
success  of  Mendelssohn's  Songs  without  Words 
in  many  an  English  family.  They  soon  became 
identified  with  his  name  as  it  grew  more  and 
more  familiar  in  England ;  some  of  them  were 
composed  here,  others  had  names  or  stories  at- 
tached to  their  '  origin :  there  was  a  piquancy 
about  the  very  title — and  all  helped  their  popu- 
larity. His  own  feeling  towards  them  was  by 
no  means  so  indulgent.  It  is  perhaps  impossible 
for  a  composer  to  be  quite  impartial  towards 
pieces  which  make  him  so  very  popular,  but  he 
distinctly  says,  after  the  issue  of  Book  3,  'that  he 
2  does  not  mean  to  write  any  more  at  that  time, 
and  that  if  such  animalculce  are  multiplied  too 
much  no  one  will  care  for  them,'  etc.  It  is 
difficult  to  believe  that  so  stern  a  critic  of  his 
own  productions  should  not  have  felt  the  weak- 
ness of  some  of  them,  and  the  strong  mannerism 
which,  with  a  few  remarkable  exceptions,  per- 
vades the  whole  collection.  We  should  not 
forget,  too,  that  he  is  not  answerable  for  the  last 
two  books,  which  were  published  after  his  death, 
without  the  great  alterations  which  he  habitually 
made  before  publication.  One  drawback  to  the 
excessive  popularity  of  the  Songs  without  Words 
is,  not  that  they  exist — for  we  might  as  well 
quarrel  with  Goethe  for  the  •  Wandrers  Nacht- 
lied'  or  the  '  Heidenroslein' — nor  yet  the  num- 
ber of  imitations  they  produced,  but  that  in  the 
minds  of  thousands  these  graceful  trifles,  many 
of  which  were  thrown  off  at  a  single  sitting,  are 
indiscriminately  accepted  as  the  most  character- 
istic representatives  of  the  genius  of  the  com- 
poser of  the  Violin  Concerto  and  the  Hebrides 
Overture. 

His  Songs  may  be  said  to  have  introduced 
the  German  Lied  to  England,  and  to  have  led 
the  way  for  the  deeper  strains  of  Schumann,  Schu- 
bert, and  Brahms,  in  English  houses  and  concert- 
rooms.  No  doubt  the  songs  of  those  composers 
do  touch  lower  depths  of  the  heart  than  Mendels- 
sohn's do,  but  the  clearness  and  directness  of  his 
music,  the  spontaneity  of  his  melody,  and  a 
certain  pure  charm  pervading  the  whole,  have 
given  a  place  with  the  great  public  to  some  of 
his  songs,  such  as  '  On  song's  bright  pinions,' 
which  they  will  probably  retain  for  a  long  time 
to  come.     Others,  such  as  the  Nachtlied,  the 

>  Such  as  the  well-known  one  In  A,  which,  though  In  Germany 
known  as  Fruhlingslied,  was  In  England  for  a  long  time  called 
'  Camberwell  Green,'  from  the  fact  of  Its  having  been  composed  on 
Denmark  Hill.  The  Duet  (Bk.  Hi.  no.  6)  was  for  long  believed  to  re- 
present a  conversation  between  the  composer  and  his  wife. 

i  Letter,  March  4, 1839. 


MENDELSSOHN. 


303 


Volkslied  ('Es  ist  bestimmt'),  and  the  Schilflied, 
are  deeply  pathetic ;  others,  as  the  Lieblings- 
platzchen,  are  at  the  same  time  extremely  original ; 
others,  as  '  0  Jugend,'  the  Jagdgesang,  and  the 
■  Diese  Rosen,'  the  soul  of  gaiety.  He  was  very 
fastidious  in  his  choice  of  words,  and  often  marks 
his  sense  of  the  climax  by  varying  the  last  stanza 
in  accompaniment  or  otherwise,  a  practice  which 
he  was  perhaps  the  first  to  adopt.  One  of  his 
last  commissions  to  his  friend  Professor  Graves, 
before  leaving  Interlaken  in  1847,  was  to  select 
words  from  the  English  poets  for  him  to  set. 

His  Part-songs  gave  the  majority  of  English 
amateurs  a  sudden  and  delightful  introduction  to 
a  class  of  music  which  had  long  existed  for  Ger- 
mans, but  which  till  about  1840  was  as  much 
unknown  here  as  our  glees  still  are  in  Germany. 
Many  can  still  recollect  the  utterly  new  and 
strange  feeling  which  was  then  awakened  in 
their  minds  by  the  new  spirit,  the  delicacy,  the 
pure  style,  the  delicious  harmonies,  of  these 
enchanting  little  compositions  1 

Ever  since  Handel's  time,  Oratorios  have  been 
the  favourite  public  music  here.  Mendelssohn's 
works  of  this  class,  St.  Paul,  Elijah,  the  Lobgesang, 
soon  became  well  known.  They  did  not  come  as 
strangers,  but  as  the  younger  brothers  of  the  Mes- 
siah and  Judas  Maccabaeus,  and  we  liked  them  at 
once.  Nor  only  liked  them  ;  we  were  proud  of 
them,  as  having  been  produced  or  very  early  per- 
formed in  England ;  they  appealed  to  our  national 
love  for  the  Bible,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  to 
them  is  largely  owing  the  position  next  to  Handel 
which  Mendelssohn  occupies  in  England.  Elijah 
at  once  took  its  place,  and  it  is  now  almost,  if 
not  quite,  on  a  level  with  the  Messiah  in  public 
favour.  Apart  from  the  intrinsic  qualities  of  the 
music  of  his  large  vocal  works,  the  melody,  clear- 
ness, spirit,  and  symmetry  which  they  exhibit, 
in  common  with  his  instrumental  compositions ; 
there  is  one  thing  which  remarkably  distinguishes 
them,  and  in  which  they  are  far  in  advance  of 
their  predecessors — a  simple  and  direct  attempt 
to  set  the  subject  forth  as  it  was,  to  think  first 
of  the  story  and  next  of  the  music  which  depicted 
it.  It  is  the  same  thing  that  we  formerly  at- 
tempted to  bring  out  in  Beethoven's  case,  '  the 
thoughts  and  emotions  are  the  first  thing, 
and  the  forms  of  expression  are  second  and 
subordinate '  (vol.  i.  203  b).  We  may  call  this 
'  dramatic,'  inasmuch  as  the  books  of  oratorios 
are  more  or  less  dramas;  and  Mendelssohn's 
letters  to  Schubring  in  reference  to  Elijah,  his 
demand  for  more  '  questions  and  answers,  replies 
and  rejoinders,  sudden  interruptions,'  etc.,  show 
how  thin  was  the  line  which  in  his  opinion  divided 
the  platform  from  the  stage,  and  how  keenly  he 
wished  the  personages  of  his  oratorios  to  be  alive 
and  acting,  'not  mere  musical  images,  but  inhabit- 
ants of  a  definite  active  8  world.'  But  yet  it  was 
not  so  much  dramatic  in  any  conscious  sense  as  a 
desire  to  set  things  forth  as  they  were.  Haupt- 
mann  has  *  stated  this  well  with  regard  to  the 
three  noble  Psalms  (op.  78),  'Judge  me,  0  God,' 
'  Why  rage  fiercely  the  heathen?'  and  '  My  God, 

>  L.  Not.  2,  Dec  6, 1338.  *  llaupt.  li.  102. 


304 


MENDELSSOHN. 


why  hast  thou  forsaken  me?'  He  says  that  it  is 
not  so  much  any  musical  or  technical  ability 
that  places  them  so  far  above  other  similar  com- 
positions of  our  time,  as  the  fact  that  Mendelssohn 
has  'just  put  the  Psalm  itself  before  him;  not 
Bach,  or  Handel,  or  Palestrina,  or  any  other  style 
or  composer,  but  the  words  of  the  Psalmist ;  and 
the  result  is  not  anything  that  can  be  classed  as 
new  or  old,  but  the  Psalm  itself  in  thoroughly 
fine  musical  effect ;  the  music  not  pretending  to 
be  scientific,  or  anything  on  its  own  account, 
but  just  throwing  life  and  feeling  into  the  dry 
words.'  Any  one  who  knows  these  psalms  will 
recognise  the  truth  of  this  description.  It  is 
almost  more  true  in  reference  to  the  114th  Psalm, 
*  When  Israel  out  of  Egypt  came.'  The  Jewish 
blood  of  Mendelssohn  must  surely  for  once  have 
beat  fiercely  over  this  picture  of  the  great  triumph 
of  #his  forefathers,  and  it  is  only  the  plain  truth 
to  say  that  in  directness  and  force  his  music 
is  a  perfect  match  for  the  splendid  words  of  the 
unknown  Psalmist.  It  is  true  of  his  oratorios  also, 
but  they  have  other  great  qualities  as  well.  St. 
Paul  with  all  its  great  beauties  is  an  early  work, 
the  book  of  which,  or  rather  perhaps  the  nature 
of  the  subject,  does  not  wholly  lend  itself  to  forci- 
ble treatment,  and  it  is  an  open  question  whether 
it  can  fully  vie  with  either  the  Lobgesang  or 
Athalie,  or  still  more  Elijah.  These  splendid 
compositions  have  that  air  of  distinction  which 
stamps  a  great  work  in  every  art,  and  which 
a  great  master  alone  can  confer.  As  instances 
of  this,  take  the  scene  of  the  Watchman  and 
the  concluding  Chorus  in  the  Lobgesang — 'Ye 
nations';  or  in  Elijah  the  two  double  Quartets; 
the  Arioso,  'Woe  unto  them,'  which  might  be 
the  wail  of  a  pitying  archangel ;  the  Choruses, 
'  Thanks  be  to  God,'  '  Be  not  afraid,'  '  He  watch- 
ing over,'  '  The  Lord  passed  by ' ;  the  great  piece 
of  declamation  for  soprano  which  opens  the 
second  part;  the  unaccompanied  trio  'Lift  thine 
eyes,'  the  tenor  air  'Then  shall  the  righteous.' 
These  are  not  only  fine  as  music,  but  are  ani- 
mated by  that  lofty  and  truly  dramatic  charac- 
ter which  makes  one  forget  the  vehicle,  and 
live  only  in  the  noble  sentiment  of  the  scene  as 
it  passes. 

'  Lauda  Sion,'  though  owing  to  circumstances 
less  known,  has  the  same  great  qualities,  and  is  a 
worthy  setting  of  the  truly  inspired  hymn  in  which 
St.  Thomas  Aquinas  was  enabled  to  rise  so  high 
above  the  metaphysical  subtleties  of  his  day. 
This  piece  of  Roman  Catholic  music — Mendels- 
sohn's only  important  one — shows  what  he  might 
have  done  had  he  written  a  Mass,  as  he  'once 
threatened  to  do.  It  would  have  been  'written 
with  a  constant  recollection  of  its  sacred  purpose' ; 
and  remembering  how  solemn  a  thing  religion 
was  to  him,  and  how  much  he  was  affected  by  fine 
words,  we  may  well  regret  that  he  did  not  accom- 
plish the  suggestion. 

Antigone  and  (Edipus,  owing  to  the  remote- 
ness of  the  dramas,  both  in  subject  and  treatment, 
necessarily  address  themselves  to  a  limited  audi- 
ence, though  to  that  audience  they  will  always  be 

IL.  Jan.  26,1835. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

profoundly  interesting,  not  only  for  the  lofty  cha- 
racter of  the  music,  but  for  the  able  and  thoroughly 
natural  manner  in  which  Mendelssohn  carried  out 
a  task  full  of  difficulties  and  of  temptations  to  ab- 
surdity, by  simply  'creating  music  for  the  choruses 
in  the  good  and  scientific  style  of  the  present  day, 
to  express  and  animate  their  3  meaning.' 

The  Midsummer  Night's  Dream  music  is  a  per- 
fect illustration  of  Shakspeare's  romantic  play, 
and  will  be  loved  as  long  as  beauty,  sentiment, 
humour,  and  exquisite  workmanship  are  honoured 
in  the  world. 

How  far  Mendelssohn  would  have  succeeded 
with  an  opera,  had  he  met  with  a  libretto  entirely 
to  his  mind — which  that  of  Loreley  was  not — • 
it  is  difficult  to  say.  Fastidious  he  certainly  was, 
though  hardly  more  so  than  Beethoven  (see  vol.  i. 
p.  196  6),  and  probably  for  much  the  same  reasons. 
Times  had  changed  since  the  lively  intrigues  and 
thinly- veiled  immoralities  of  Da  Ponte  were  suf- 
ficient to  animate  the  pen  of  the  divine  Mozart ; 
and  the  secret  of  the  fastidiousness  of  Beethoven 
and  Mendelssohn  was  that  they  wanted  librettists 
of  their  own  lofty  level  in  genius  and  morality, 
a  want  in  which  they  were  many  generations  too 
early.  Opera  will  not  take  its  proper  place  in 
the  world  till  subjects  shall  be  found  of  modern 
times,  with  which  every  one  can  sympathise, 
treated  by  the  poet,  before  they  come  into  the 
hands  of  the  composer,  in  a  thoroughly  pure,  lofty, 
and  inspiriting  manner. 

Camacho  is  too  juvenile  a  composition,  on  too 
poor  a  libretto,  to  enable  any  inference  to  be 
drawn  from  it  as  to  Mendelssohn's  competence 
for  the  stage.  But,  judging  from  the  dramatic 
power  present  in  his  other  works,  from  the  stage- 
instinct  displayed  in  the  M.N.D.  music,  and 
still  more  from  the  very  successful  treatment  of 
the  Finale  to  the  first  Act  of  Loreley — the  only 
part  of  the  book  which  he  is  said  really  to  have 
cared  for — we  may  anticipate  that  his  opera, 
when  he  had  found  the  book  he  liked,  would  have 
been  a  very  fine  work.  At  any  rate  we  may  be 
certain  that  of  all  its  critics  he  would  have  been 
the  most  severe,  and  that  he  would  not  have  suf- 
fered it  to  be  put  on  the  stage  till  he  was  quit© 
satisfied  with  his  treatment. 


We  must  now  close  this  long  and  yet  imperfect 
attempt  to  set  Mendelssohn  forth  as  he  was. 
Few  instances  can  be  found  in  history  of  a  man 
so  amply  gifted  with  every  good  quality  of  mind 
and  heart ;  so  carefully  brought  up  amongst  good 
influences ;  endowed  with  every  circumstance 
that  would  make  him  happy ;  and  so  thoroughly 
fulfilling  his  mission.  Never  perhaps  could  any 
man  be  found  in  whose  life  there  were  so  few 
things  to  conceal  and  to  regret. 

Is  there  any  drawback  to  this?  or,  in  other 
words,  does  his  music  suffer  at  all  from  what 
he  calls  his  'habitual  cheerfulness'?  It  seems 
as  if  there  was  a  drawback,  and  that  arising 
more  or  less  directly  from  those  very  points 
which  we  have  named  as  his  best  characteristics 
— his  happy  healthy  heart,  his  single  mind,  his 
a  Letter,  March  12, 1845. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

unfailing  good  spirits,  his  simple  trust  in  God, 
his  unaffected  directness  of  purpose.  It  is  not 
that  he  had  not  genius.  The  great  works 
enumerated  prove  that  he  had  it  in  large  mea- 
sure. No  man  could  have  called  up  the  new 
emotions  of  the  M.N.D.  Overture,  the  won- 
derful pictures  of  the  Hebrides,  or  the  pathetic 
distress  of  the  lovely  Melusina,  without  genius 
of  the  highest  order.  But  his  genius  had  not 
been  subjected  to  those  fiery  trials  which  seem 
necessary  to  ensure  its  abiding  possession  of  the 
depths  of  the  human  heart.  '  My  music,'  says 
Schubert,  '  is  the  product  of  my  genius  and  my 
misery;  and  that  which  I  have  written  in  my 
greatest  distress  is  that  which  the  world  seems  to 
Eke  best.'  Now  Mendelssohn  was  never  more  than 
temporarily  unhappy.  He  did  not  know  distress 
as  he  knew  happiness.  Perhaps  there  was  even 
something  in  the  constitution  of  his  mind  which 
forbad  his  harbouring  it,  or  being  permanently 
affected  by  it.  He  was  so  practical,  that  as  a 
matter  of  duty  he  would  have  thrown  it  off. 
In  this  as  in  most  other  things  he  was  always 


MENDELSSOHN. 


805 


under  control.  At  any  rate  he  was  never  tried 
by  poverty,  or  disappointment,  or  ill-health,  or 
a  morbid  temper,  or  neglect,  or  the  perfidy  of 
friends,  or  any  of  the  other  great  ills  which 
crowded  so  thickly  around  Beethoven,  Schubert, 
or  Schumann.  Who  can  wish  that  he  had  been  ? 
that  that  bright,  pure,  aspiring  spirit  should 
have  been  dulled  by  distress  or  torn  with  agony  ? 
It  might  have  lent  a  deeper  undertone  to  his 
Songs,  or  have  enabled  his  Adagios  to  draw 
tears  where  now  they  only  give  a  saddened 
pleasure.  But  let  us  take  the  man  as  we  have 
him.  Surely  there  is  enough  of  conflict  and 
violence  in  life  and  in  art.  When  we  want 
to  be  made  unhappy  we  can  turn  to  others. 
It  is  well  in  these  agitated  modern  days  to  be 
able  to  point  to  one  perfectly  balanced  nature, 
in  whose  life,  whose  letters,  and  whose  music 
alike,  all  is  at  once  manly  and  refined,  clever 
and  pure,  brilliant  and  solid.  For  the  enjoy- 
ment of  such  shining  heights  of  goodness  we 
may  well  forego  for  once  the  depths  of  misery 
and  sorrow. 


The  following  opening  of  the  first  movement  of  a  symphony  was  found  among  the  loose  papers  of 
Mendelssohn  belonging  to  his  daughter,  Mrs.  Victor  Benecke,  and  is  here  printed  by  her  kind  permis- 
sion. The  MS.  is  in  full  score,  and  has  been  compressed  for  this  occasion  by  Mr.  Franklin  Taylor, 
so  as  accurately  to  represent  the  scoring  of  the  original.    No  clue  to  its  date  has  yet  been  discovered. 

Shi/ottia.  H.D.m. 


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MENDELSSOHN. 


List  of  Mendelssohn's  published  works,  from 
the  Thematic  Catalogue  (B.  &  H.  1873),  wlt^  *'ie 
addition  of  the  dates  of  composition,  when  dis- 
coverable, and  the  names  of  the  Dedicatees. 

The  dates  have  been  obtained  in  most  cases  from 
the  autographs,  and  occasionally  from  letters  or 
other  sources.  The  autographs  are  distinguished 
from  the  author's  own  copies  by  having  the  initials 
H.D.m.  or  L.v.g.G.  at  the  top.  , 

L    WITH  OPUS-NUMBEB. 

Noth;   2.  Ave  Maria  (a  8);   & 


Op.  1.  Quartet,  P.F.  and  Strings 
No.  1  (C  min.)  D  Begun,  Seche- 
ron,  Sept.  20, 1822 ;  ended,  Berlin, 
Oct.  18, 1822.  E  Ded.  Anton,  Count 
Badziwlll. 

2.  Do.,  do.  No.  2  (F  min.).  1  Not.  19; 
Nov.  80 ;  Dec.  S,  1823.  II  Ded. 
Prof.  Zelter. 

8.  Do.,  do.,  No.  3  (B  min.).  0  Oct.  7. 
1824;  Jan.  3,  1825;  at  end,  Jan. 
18, 1825. 1  Ded.  Goethe. 

4.  Sonata,  P.F.  and  V.  (F  min.). I 
Ded.  E.  Eitz. 

5.  Capriccio,  P.  F.  (Fj(  minor).  II 
Berlin,  July  23, 1825. 

6.  Sonata,  P  J".  (E).  ]  Berlin,  March 
22, 1826. 

7.  Seven  Characteristic  pieces, 
P.F.  i  Ded.  Ludwig  Berger. 

8. 12  Songs  (No.  12  Duet),  Voice 
and  P.F.  Parts  1  and  2— N.B. 
Nos.  2,  3, 12  by  Fanny  M.-B. 

9. 12  Songs,  Voice  and  P.  F. 
(Part  1,  The  Youth ;  Part  2,  The 
Maiden).  II  No.  3,  Berlin,  April  3, 
1829  (?).— Nos.  7, 10. 12,  by  Fanny 
M.-B. 

10.  The  Wedding  of  Camacho 
(Comic  Opera  in  2  acts).  II  At 
end,  Aug.  10, 1825. 

11.  Symphony,  Orch.,  No.  1  (C 
minor).  II  '  Sinfonla  XIII  in  c' 
March  3,  1824;  March  9,  1824; 
March  31, 1824.  1  Ded.  Philhar- 
monic Society  of  London. 

12.  Quartet,  Strings,  No.l  (Eb).  II 
London,  Sept.  14, 1829. 

13.  Quartet,  Strings,  No.  2  (A).  1 
•  Quartetto  per  2  Vlolinl,  Vlole,  e 
Violoncello,  sopra  U  tema 


p-r 


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rs 


IT 

Berlin,  27  Oct.,  1827.' 

14.  Rondo  caprlccioso,  P.F.  (E).  II 
Finale  dated  26  Oct. 

15.  Fantasle.  P.  F.  (E).  On  the 
Irish  air '  'Tls  the  last  rosa.' 

16.  3  Fantasies,  or  Caprices,  P.F. 
(A  min.,  E  min.,  E).  U  No.  1.  Coed- 
du,  Sept.  4,  1829,  *  Bosen  und 
Nelken  in  Menge.'  No.  2.  Nor- 
wood, Surrey,  Nov.  18,  1829. 
No.  S.  Sept.  8, 1829. 

17.  Variations  concertantes.  P.F. 
ami  Cello  (D).  I  Berlin,  Jan.  30, 
1829. 1  Ded.  Paul  M.-B. 

18.  Quintet,  Strings.  No.  1  (A),  2 
Violas  II  Andante,  'Nachruf,' 
Paris,  Sept.  23, 1831. 

19.  6  Songs,  Voice  and  PJ.1  No.  6, 
Venice,  Oct.  16, 1830. 

19.  6  Songs  without  words.  Book  1. 
No.  6.  '  In  a  gondola.'  I  No.  6. 
Venice,  Oct.  16, 1830. 

20.  Octet,  Strings  (Eb).  (4  Violins, 
2  Violas,  2  Cellos.)  I  Ded.  E. 
Ritz. 

SI.  Concert-overture.  No.  1(E), to 
A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream, 
Berlin,  Aug.  6, 1826. 

22.  Capriccio  brillant,  P.F.  and 
Orch.  (B  min.). 

23.  3  Pieces  Church-music,  Solo, 
Chorus,  and  Org.    1.  Aus  tiefer 


Mitten  wir  (a  8), 

24.  Overture,  Wind  band  (C). 

25.  Concerto,  P.F. and  Orch.  No.l 
(G  minor).  II  Ded.  Fraulein  D. 
von  Schauroth. 

26.  Concert-overture,  Orch.  No.  2 
(B  min.),  'The  Hebrides,'  or 
'Fingal's  cave.'  II  Ded.  Franz 
Hauser. 

27.  Do.,  do.  No.  3  (D),  'Calm  sea 
and  Prosperous  voyage." 

28.  Fantasle,  P.  F.  (Fjt  minor). 
CSonate  ecossalse.')  I!  Berlin, 
Jan.  29, 1833.  II  Ded.  Prof.  Ignaz 
Moscheles. 

29.  Rondo  brillant,  P.F.  and  Orch. 
(E  b).  1  Dttsseldorf,  Jan.  29, 1834. 
1  Ded.  Prof.  Ignaz  Moscheles. 

30.  6  Songs  without  words,  P.  F. 
Book  2.  No.  6. '  In  a  gondola.'  1 
No.  4.  Jan.  SO,  1837  (?  34) ;  No.  5. 
Dec.  12,  1833 ;  [No.  6.  March  15, 
18351.  II  Ded.  FrSulein  Elisa  von 
Woringen. 

31. 115th  Psalm,  Solo,  Chorus,  and 

Orch.  D  Rome,  Nov.  15, 1830. 
32.  Concert-overture,  Orch.   No.  4 

(F).    (To  the  story  of  the  lovely 

Melusina.)  II  Dttsseldorf,  Nov.  14, 

1833. 
S3.  3  Caprices,  P.F.  (A  minor,  E, 

Bb  min.).  D  No.  1.  April  9, 1834. 

No.  3.  London,  July  25,  1833.  I 

Ded.  C.  Klingemann. 

34.  6  Songs,  Voice  and  PJF.  I  No.  1. 
Dttsseldorf,  May  11,  1834,  'Mal- 
lled.'  No.  5.  Dec.  28, 1834.  a  Ded. 
FrSulein  Julie  Jeanrenaud. 

35.  6  Preludes  and  Fugues,  P.F.  I 
No.  2.  Prel.,  Leipzig,  Dec.  6-8, 

1836.  No.  3.  Fugue,  Berlin,  Sept. 
21,1832.  No.4.  Fugue,  Dttsseldorf, 
Jan.  5, 1835.  No.  5.  Prel.,  Leip- 
zig, Nov.19, 1836 ;  Fugue,  Dttssel- 
dorf, Dec.  S,  1834.  No.  6.  «Prel, 
Leipzig,  Jan.  3,  1837;  Fugue, 
Nov.  27, 1836. 

36.  St.  Paul,  Oratorio.  Tart  1. 
Leipzig,  April  8,  1836;  Part  2. 
Do.,  April  18,  do. 

37.  3  Preludes  and  Fugues.  Or- 
gan, g  No.  1.  Prel.,  Spires,  April 
2,1837.  No.2.Prel.,  Spires,  April 
4,  1837;  Fugue,  Leipzig,  Dec.  1, 

1837.  No.  3.  Prel.,  Spires,  April 
6, 1837.  D  Ded.  Thos.  Attwood. 

38.  6  Songs  without  words.  P.F. 
(Book  3.)  No.  6. '  Duet.'  I  No.  5. 
Spires,  April  6,  1837.  No.  6. 
Frankfort,  June  27, 1836.  I  Ded. 
FrSulein  Rosa  von  Woringen. 

39.  3  Motets.  Female  voices  *  Or- 
gan or  F  J.  Nos.  1  and  2, 2  Sop. 
and  Alto ;  No.  8,  2  Sop,  2  Altos 
with  Solo. !  Rome,  Dec.  81,  1830. 
'Fur  die  Stlmmen  der  Nonnen 
auf  Sta.  Trinita  de'  Monti.' 

40.  Concerto,  P.  F.  and  Orch. 
No.  2  (D  minor).  D  Horchheim, 
Aug.  5, 1837. 

41.  6  Part-songs,  for  open  air  (1st 
set).  8.A.T.B.  I  No.4.  Dttsseldorf, 
Jan.  22, 1834. 

42.  42nd  Psalm,  for  Chorus  and 
Orch. 

43.  Serenade  and  Allegro  glojoso 
for  P.F.  and  Orch.  (B  minor).  II 
April  11, 1838. 

44.  3  Quartets,  Strings.    Not.  3,  4, 


and  5  (D,  E  minor,  Eb).  1  No.  3. 
Berlin,  July  24,1838.  No.4.  June 
18, 1837.  No.  5.  Feb.  6, 1838.  II  Ded. 
The  Prince  of  Sweden. 

45.  Sonata,  P.F.  and  Cello,  No.  1 
(Bb).  1  Leipzig,  Oct.  13, 1838. 

46.  95th  Psalm,  Solo,  Chorus,  and 
Orch.  II  April  6, 1888. 

47.  6  Songs,  Voice  and  P.F.  11  No.  3. 
Leipzig.  April  17,  1839.  No.  4. 
April  18,  1839.  1  Ded.  Frau  C. 
Schleinitz. 

48.  6  Part-songs,  for  open  air 
(2nd  set)'.  8.A.T.B.  I)  No.  1.  July 
6,  [1839].  No.  3.  Leipzig,  Dec. 
1839.  No.  4.  June  15,  [1839].  No.  5. 
Nov.  18,  1839.  No.  6.  Leipzig 
Dec.  26, 1839.  1  Ded.  Dr.  Martin 
and  Dr.  Spless. 

49.  Trio,  P.F.,  V.,  and  C.  No.  1 
(D  min.).  II  Allegro,  Frankfort, 
June  6, 1839.  Finale,  Frankfort, 
July  18,  1839;  Leipzig,  Sept.  23, 
1839. 

50.  6  Part-songs,  for  male  voices. 
(No.  2.  Der  JSger  Abschied,  with 
Wind  accompaniments.)  1  No.  2. 
Leipzig,  Jan.  6,  1840 ;  '  Der 
deutsche  Wald.'  No.  5.  Dec.  7, 
1839 ;  '  Vin  a  tout  prix.'  No.  6. 
Jan.  6, 1840.  D  DeJ.tothe  Lieder- 
tafel  in  Leipzig. 

51.  114th  Psalm,  Chor.,  8  pts.,  and 
Orch.  I  Ded.  J.  W.  Schirmer. 

52.  Lobgesang,    Symphony-canta- 
ta.  II    Leipzig,   Nov.  27,  1840. 
Ded.  Frederic  Augustus,  King 
of  Saxony. 

53.  6  Songs  without  words,  P.F 
(Bk.  4.)  No.  5.  Volkslied.  II  No.  3. 
April  30. 1841.  No.  6.  May  1, 1841. 
I  Ded.  Miss  Sophie  Horsley. 

54.  17  Variations  serleuses,  P.F. 
(D  minor).  II  June  4, 1841, 

55.  Music  to  Antigone  of  Sopho- 
cles, Male  voices  and  Orch.  I! 
Ded.  Frederick  William  IV 
Jilng  of  Prussia.  I  Berlin,  Oct. 
10, 1841. 

56.  Symphony,  Orch.  No.  8  (A 
minor).  (Called  The  Scotch 
Symphony.)  I  Berlin,  Jan.  20, 
1842.  II  Ded.  Queen  Victoria. 

57.  6  Songs,  Voice  and  P.F.  (For 
No.  2  compare  Op.  88.  No.  3.)  I 
No.  2.  April  20, 1839.  No.  5.  Ber- 
lin. Oct.  17, 1842 ;  '  Rendezvous. 
No.  6.  April  29,  1841;  'Frlsche 
Fahrt.'  2  Ded.  Frau  Llvia  Frege 

58.  Sonata,  P.F.  and  Cello  No.  2 
(D).  II  Ded.  Count  Mathias  Wiel- 
horsky. 

59.  6  Part-songs,  for  open  air  (3rd 
set).    S.A.T.B.   D  No.  1.  Leipzig, 

POSTHUMOUS  WORKS, 

73  (1).  Lauda  Slon,  for  Chorus  and 
Orch.  II  Feb.  10, 1846.  ||  For  St, 
Martin's  church,  Liege. 

74  (2).  Music  to  Racine's  Athalle. 
Solos,  Chor.,  and  Orch.  I  Cho- 
ruses, Leipzig,  July  4, 1843.  Over- 
ture, London,  June  13,  1844. 
Berlin,  Nov.  12, 1845. 

75  (3).  4  Part-songs,  Male  voices.  I 
No.  1.  Feb.  8,  1844.  No.  2.  Nov. 
14, 1839. 

76  (4).  4  Part-songs,  Male  voices.  1 
No.  2.  Feb.  9. 1844.  No.  8.  Leip- 
zig, Oct.  8, 1846. 

77  (5).  3  Duets,  Voices  and  P.F.  I 
No.l.  Leipzig,  Dec. 3. 1836.  No.2. 
Leipzig,  Jan.  18,  1847.  No.  S. 
Leipzig,  Feb.  14, 1839. 

78(6).  3  Psalms— the  2nd.  43rd, 
22nd,  Solo  and  Chorus.  I  No.  2. 
Berlin.  Jan.  17.  1844.  I  For  the 
Domchor,  Berlin. 

79  (7).  6  Anthems  for  8-pt.  Chorus. 
0  No.  2.  Berlin,  Dec.  25,  1843. 
No.4.  Feb.  14, 1844.  No.  S.Leip- 
zig, Oct.  5, 1846.  II  For  the  Dom- 
chor, Berlin. 

80  (8).  Quartet.  Strings  (F  minor).  J 
Interlaken,  Sept.  1847. 


Nov.23.1837.  No.2.  Jan. 17,1843. 
No.  3.  Leipzig,  March  4,  1843. 
No.  4.  Leipzig,  June  19,  1843. 
No.  5.  March  4,  1843.  No.  6. 
March  5, 1843 ;  '  Vorttber."  11  Ded. 
Frau  Henriette  Benecke. 

60.  Music  to  Goethe's  First  Wal- 
purgis  night.  '  Ballad  for  Chorua 
and  Orch."  1  1st  version,  Milan, 
July  15, 1831,  and  Paris,  Feb.  13, 
1832. 

61.  Music  to  A  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream,  Solo,  Chorus,  and  Orch. 
I  Ded.  Heinrlch  Conrad  Schlei- 
nitz. 

62.  6  Songs  without  words,  P.  F. 
(Bk.  5.)  No.  5. '  In  a  gondola.'  I 
No.  1.  Jan.  6  and  12, 1844.  No.  2. 
July  29,  1843.  No.  6.  London. 
June  1, 1842.  II  Ded.  Frau  Clara 
Schumann. 

63.  6  Duets,  Voices  and  P.  F.  I 
No.l. Frankfort, Dec.  1836.  No. 5. 
Berlin.  Oct.  17. 1842.  No.  6.  Jan. 
23,1844. 

64.  Concerto,  Violin  and  Orch. 
(E  minor).  B  Sept.  16, 1844. 

65.  6  Organ  Sonatas.  1  Son. I.  No.l 
Frankfort,  Dec. 28, 1844.  Son.  II. 
No.  1.  Frankfort,  Dec.  21,  1844. 
No.  4.  Dec.  19,  1844.  Son.  III. 
No.  1.  Aug.  9, 1844.  No.  2.  Aug. 
17. 1844.  Son.  IV.  No.  1.  Frank- 
fort, Jan.  2,  1845.  No.  2.  lb, 
Jan.  2, 1845.  Son.  VI.  No.l.  Jan. 
6,  1845.  No.  4.  Jan.  27,  1845.  I 
Ded.  Dr.  F.  Schlemmer. 

66.  Trio,  P.F,  Violin,  and  Cello. 
No.  2  (C  min.)  1  Ded.  L.  Spohr. 

67.  6  Songs  without  words,  P.  F. 
(Bk.  6.)  II  No.  1.  June  29,  1843. 
No.  2.  Frankfort,  May  3,  1845. 
No.  3.  Nov.  23  (?).  No.  5.  Jan. 
6,  1844.  II  Ded.  FrSuleiu  Sophie 
Rosen. 

!.  Festgesang.  Schiller's  poem, 
An  die  Kttnstler.  Male  voices 
and  Brass.  U  For  Opening  of  first 
German-Flemish  Vocal  Festival 
at  Cologne. 

I.  3  Motets  for  Solo  and  Chorus.  1 
No.  1.  Baden  Baden,  June  12, 
1847.  No.  2.  Leipzig,  April  5. 
1847.  No.  3.  Baden  Baden,  Juna 
12, 1847. 

70.  Elijah,  Oratorio. 

71.  6  Songs,  for  Voice  and  P.F.  I 
No.  1.  Leipzig,  Dec.  22,  1845. 
No.  2.  Frankfort,  April  3,  1845. 
No.  3.  Leipzig,  Sept.  22,  1847. 
No.  4.  Berlin.  Nov.  3, 1842.  No.  5. 
Interlaken,  July  27, 1847.  No.  6. 
Oct.  1, 1847. 

72.  6  Children's  pieces,  P.F. 


81  (9).  Andante  (E),  Scherzo  (A 
min.),  Capriccio  (E  min.),  and 
Fugue  (E  b),  for  Strings. 

82 (10).  Variations,  P.F.  (Eb).  I 
Leipzig,  July  25, 1841. 

83  (11).  Variations,  F.F.  (Bb). 

83a  (12).  Do,  for  4  hands  (Bb). 

84(13).  8  Songs,  for  a  low  vole* 
and  P.  F.  ||  No.  1.  Dttsseldorf, 
Dec.  5, 1831.  No.  2.  Feb.  2fi,  1*39. 
No.  3.  May  25, 1834.    'Jagdlied.' 

85  (14).  6  Songs  without  words, 
P.F.  (Bk.7.)  I  No.4.  Frankfort. 
May  3  and  6,  1845.  No.  5.  lb. 
May  7,  1845 ;  In  Hon.  Miss  Ca- 
vendish's album,  London,  May  6, 
1847.    No.  6.  May  1, 1841. 

86  (15).  6  Songs.  Voice  and  P.  F.  I 
No.  3.  Unterseen,  Aug.  10,  1831. 
No.  6.  Oct.  7, 1847. 

87  (16).  Quintet,  Strings  (2  Violas) 
(Bb).  I  Soden,  July  8, 1845. 
I  (17).  6  Part-songs.  (4th  set.)  I 
No.  1.  Aug.  8. 1844.  No.  2.  Leip- 
zig, June  20, 1843.  No.  3.  June  14, 
[1839].  No.  4.  Leipzig,  June  19. 
1843.  No.  6.  Leipzig,  March  10. 
1840. 


MENDELSSOHN. 

8*J  08).  Heimkehr  aus  der  Fremde  101  (SO).  Overture,  Orchestra  (C). 
(Son  and  Stranger),  Singspiel  in     ('  Trumpet  overture.') 


MENDELSSOHN. 


309 


lact, 

90  09).  Symphony,  Orch.  No.  4 
(A).  (Called  the  Italian  Sym- 
phony.) i  Berlin,  March  13, 
1833. 

91  (20).  98th  Psalm,  8-pt.  Chorus, 
and  Orch.  1  Dec.  27, 1843.  I  For 
the  Festival  Service  In  Berlin 
Cathedral  on  New  Year's  Day 
1844. 


102  (31).  6  Songs  without  words, 
P  J.  05k-  8.)  I  No.  2.  Frankfort, 
May  11, 1845,  Ffingsten ;  in  Lady 
Caroline  Cavendish's  album, 
London,  May  6, 1847.  No.  3.  Dec. 
12,1845.  (Klnderstnck.)  No.fi. 
Dec  12, 1845.    (Kinderstuclo) 

103  (32).  Trauer-Marsch,  Orch.  (A 
min.).  I  For  Funeral  of  Norbert 
Burgm  tiller. 


92  (21).  Allegro  brillant.  P.  F.,   4  104  (S3).  3  Preludes  and  3  Studies, 
hands  (A).  |  Leipzig,  March  28,1    F  -P-    (2  Pts.) 

1841.  1 105  (34).  Sonata,  PJMG  min.)  1821. 

93  (22).  Music  to  Oedipus  in  Colo- 106  (35).  Sonata.  P.F.  (Bb).  I  Ber- 
nos,  Sophocles,  Male  Voices  and     Un,  May  31, 1827. 

Orch.  I  Frankfort,  Feb.  25, 1845. 107  (36).  8ymphony,   Orch.    No.fi 

94(28).  Concert-air,    Sopr.    SoloJ    (D).  (The  Beformation  Symph.) 

and   Orch.  (Bb).     (Infelice!)  1  108(37).  March,  Orch.  (D).  I  For 


1st  vers,  with  V.  obbl,  Ap.  3, 1834. 
2nd  vers..  Leipzig,  Jan.  15, 1843. 

95  (24).  Overture,  Buy  Bias,  Orch. 
I  Leipzig.  March  8, 1839. 

96  (25).  Hymn  for  Alto  Solo,  Chor., 
and  Orcb.,  for  Mr.  C.  Broadley.  I 
Leipzig,  Dec.  12,  1840;  Jan.  5, 
1843.    Comp. '  3  Hymns,'  etc. 

97  (26).  Recitatives  and  Choruses 
from  Christus,  unfinished  Ora- 
torio, 

981  (27  a).  Finale    to    1st    act    of 

Loreley,  unfinished  Opera.   Solo, 

Chorus,  and  Orch. 
98>  (27  b).  Ave  Maria.    Solo    and 

Chorus,  Female  Voices,  Orch., 

from  Loreley 


the  Fete  given  to  the  painter 
Cornelius  at  Dresden. 

109  (38).  Song  without  words,  Cello 
and  P  J.  (D). 

110  (39).  Sextet,  P.F.,  Viol,  2  Violas, 
Cello,  and  Bass  (D).  )  April  30, 
1824;  May  10, 1824. 

111  (40).  Tu  es  Petrus.  6-pt.  Chor. 
and  Orch.  I  Nov.  1827. 

112  (41).  2  Sacred  Songs,  Voice  and 
PJ. 

113  *  114(42  a  43).  2  Concerted  pieces 
for  Clar.  and  Basset-horn,  with 
P J",  accompt.  (F  and  D  min.).  I 
No.  1.  Berlin.  Jan.  19.  1833.  1 
Ded.  Heinrtch  BSrmann,  sen., 
and  Carl  BSrmann,  jun. 


•S3 (27c).  Vintage   Chorus.    Male115**4'-2   Sacred    Choruses,   for 
Voices,  Orch.,  from  Loreley.        I    Kaie  Voices. 

99  (28).  6  Songs,  Voice  and  P.F.  1.H6  C*5'-  Funeral  Song,  for  Mixed 
No.  1.  Berlin,  Aug.  9, 1841.    No.  4.     Voices. 

June  6,1841.  No.  5.  Leipzig,  Dec.1 117  (46).  Album-Blatt.  Song  with- 
22, 1845.    No.  6.  I    out  words,  P  J.  (E  min.). 

100  (29).  4  Part-songs.  I  No.l.  Aug.  118  (47).  Capriccio,  P.F.  (K). 

8,  1844.     No.  2.  June  20,   1843. 119(48).  Perpetuum  mobile,  P.F. 
No.  4.  Frankfort,  June  14, 1839.  I    (C.) 


U.    WITHOUT  OPCS-NTJMBER. 

Etude,  P.F.  (F  min.).  I  For  the 
Methode  des  Mc-thodes. 

Scherzo,  P.F.  (B  min.). 

Scherzo  and  Capriccio.  P.F.  (F$ 
min.).  1  For  The  Pianists'  Al- 
bum. 

2  Romances  of  Lord  Byron's,  Voice 
and  P.F.  I  No.  2.  DOsseldorf, 
Dec.  31. 1834. 1  For  the  Album  of 


Prayer,  Chorus  and  Orch.    (Ver- 
leih'  uns  Frleden.  1  Rome,  Feb, 


Berlin,  March  24,  1833.  1  In  the 
Album  far  Gesang. 

Prelude  and  Fugue,  P.F.  (E  min.). 
I  Prel,  Leipzig,  July  13.  1841. 
Fugue,  June  16,"  1827. 1  For  the 
Album  Notre  temps. 

3  Hymns  for  Alto  Solo,  Chorus, 
and  Organ.    Comp.  op.  96. 

Hymn  for  Sop.  Solo,  Chorus,  arid 
Organ.  (Hear  my  prayer.)  1  Jan. 
25,  1844.  Afterwards  orches- 
trated. |  Ded.  W.  Taubert. 


10,  1831.  1  Ded.  President  Ver-fWarriung  TOr  a^,  Bhein,  poem 
kenius.  by  SImrock,  Voice  and  PJ. 

Andante    cantabile    and    Presto  2  Bon«rs'  Voice  and  PF-  I  No- 1. 
agitato,  P.F.  (B).  I  Berlin,  June 


22, 1838.  J  For  the  Album  of  1839, 

The  Garland,  a  poem  by  Moore, 
for  Voice  and  P.F.  |l  London, 
May  24, 1829. 

Ersatz  far  Unbestand,  poem  by 
BQckert,  for  4  Male  Voices.  I 
Nov.  22, 1839.  1  For  Tauchnitz's 
Musen-almanach. 

Festgesang,  Male  Chor.  and  Orch. 
I  For  Festival  at  Leipzig  In  cele- 
bration of  invention  of  Printing. 

Oondellied,  P.F.  (A).  I  Leipzig, 
Feb.  5,  1837,  '  Lied  auf  einer 
Gondel." 

S  Volkslieder,  2  Voices  and  P  J1. 

'  Lord  have  mercy  upon  us,'  Chorus 
for  Evening  Service,  Voices  only 
(A  minor).  1  For  Mr.  Attwood. 


Berlin,  Aug.  17, 1835. 
2  Songs,  Voice  and  PJ.  |  No.  1. 

April  20, 1841. 
2  ClavierstOcke  (Bb  and  G  min.). 
Seemann's  Scheidelled,  poem  by 

Hoffmann  v.  Fallersleben,  Voice 

and  P.F. 
Nachtgesang,  4  Male  Voices. 
Die  Stiftungsfeler,  4  Male  Voices. 
Des  Madchens   Klage,   Romance 

for  Voice  and  P  J. 
Kyrie  eleison.  Mixed  Voices,  Dble. 

Chorus.      (Deutsche  Llturgie), 

Oct.  28, 1846. 


Duo  concertant,  Variations  upon 
the  March  in  Preciosa,  by  Men- 
delssohn and  Moscheles. 


1H.    NOT  INCLUDED  IN  THE  THEMATIC  CATALOGUE. 


Handel's  Dettlngen  Te  Deum,  with 
addl.  accts.  Score  and  pts. 
Kistner. 

Handel's  Acis  and  Galatea,  with 


facsimile,      Fatersons,      Edin- 
burgh). 
Bach's  Chaconne,  with  P.F.  acct. 
Ewer,  Novello,  a  Co. 
ditto.     Chorus  and  string  pts. 'Additional   Chorus    to   the    95th 
only.    Novello.  |    Psalm  (op.  46).    Novello. 

I'm  Indium  for  the  Organ  (C ,  String  Quartet  in  E  b  (March  5-30, 
minor).  11  Leipzig,  July  9, 1841.  I  1823).  Erler,  Berlin.  Autograph 
For  Henry  E.  Dibdin,  Esq.    (In!    In  British  Museum. 


The  latest  publication  was  the  Quartet  in  Eb 
(1823),  which  appeared  in  December  1879,  and 
was  first  played  in  England  at  the  Monday 
Popular  Concert  of  Jan.  5,  1880.  The  green 
volumes  in  the  Library  at  Berlin  (1820-1847), 
already  mentioned,  contain  a  great  many  pieces 
not  published  either  in  the  first  or  second  series 
of  the  posthumous  works,  or  elsewhere.  The 
unpublished  pieces  are  mostly  in  autograph,  and 
principally  before  1830.  They  comprise  1 1  Sym- 
phonies for  Strings,  and  one  for  full  orchestra; 
many  Fugues  for  Strings ;  Concertos  for  P.  F., 
for  Violin,  for  P.  F.  and  Violin,  with  Quartet ; 
and  2  ditto  for  2  Pianos  and  Orchestra ;  a  Trio 
for  P.  F.,  Violin,  and  Viola ;  2  Sonatas  for  P.F. 
and  Violin  (one  of  them  1838);  one  ditto  P.F. 
and  Viola ;  one  ditto  P.  F.  and  Clarinet ;  2  ditto 
for  P.  F.  solo ;  many  Studies,  Fantasias  (one  for 
4  hands),  Fugues,  etc.,  for  P.F.  solo;  many 
Fugues  for  Organ;  an  organ  part  to  Handel's 
'  Solomon' ;  5  Operas,  and  music  to  Calderon'B 
'Steadfast  Prince' ;  1  secular  and  3  sacred  Can- 
tatas ;  various  Motets,  and  many  Songs  and  vocal 
pieces. 


The  Mendelssohn  literature  is  not  yet  very 
extensive. 

I.  His  own  letters. 

Two  volumes  have  been  published  by  authority. 
The  first  by  his  brother  Paul—'  Reisebriefe  . . .  aus  den 
Jahren  1830  bis  1832 '  (Leipzig  1861) ;  the  second  by  his 
brother  and  his  eldest  son—'  Briefe  aus  den  Jahren  1833 
bis  1847 '  (Leipzig  1863),  with  an  Appendix  purporting  to 
be  a  List  of  all  Mendelssohn's  compositions,  by  Julius 
Bietz,  which  is  however  both  vague  and  incomplete. 
These  were  translated  (not  adequately)  by  Lady  Wallace 
— '  Letters  from  Italy  and  Switzerland,  etc.,  and  'Letters,' 
etc  (Longmans  1862  and  1863).  At  a  later  date  some 
important  letters  were  added  to  the  German  edition  of 
vol.  ii.,  amongst  others  one  containing  Mendelssohn's 
translations  of  Dante,  Boccaccio,  etc.,  and  Indexes  were 
appended ;  but  no  change  has  been  made  in  the  contents 
of  the  English  translation.  There  is  reason  to  believe 
that  the  letters  of  vol.  i.  were  in  many  ways  altered 
by  the  Editor;  and  it  is  very  desirable  that  a  new 
edition  should  be  published  in  which  these  changes 
should  be  rectified,  and  the  letters  given  as  Mendelssohn 
wrote  them. 

(2)  Eight  letters  published  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Deutschen  Invaliden-Stiftung— '  Acht  Briefe  ...' (Leip- 
zig 1871).  The  name  of  the  lady  to  whom  they  are  written 
is  suppressed,  but  it  is  understood  that  she  was  Mrs. 
Voigt,  a  musical  amateur  of  Leipzig.  The  last  of  the 
eight  contains  a  facsimile  of  a  sketch  by  Mendelssohn. 

(3)  'Musiker  Briefe,'  by  Nohl  (Leipzig  1867),  contains 
30  letters  by  Mendelssohn,  from  1826  to  Aug.  26,  1847. 
They  are  included  by  Lady  "Wallace  in  her  translation 
of  the  entire  work — 'Letters  of  distinguished  musicians' 
(Longmans  1867). 

(4)  Other  letters  are  contained  in  Devrient's  Eecolleo- 
tions;  Hiller's Mendelssohn ;  Goethe  and  Mendelssohn; 
Polko's  Reminiscences ;  Hensel's  Die  Familie  Mendels- 
sohn ;  Moscheles'  Life ;  Chorley's  Life ;  and  other  works 
named  below. 

II.  Biographical  works. 

(1)  Lampadius.  '  F.  M.  B.  ein  DenkmaV  etc.  (Leipzig 
1848),  translated  into  English  by  W.  L.  Gage,  with  supple- 
mentary sketches,  etc.  (New  Tork  1866 ;  London  1878). 

(2)  Benedict.  '  A  Sketch  of  the  Life  and  Works  of  the 
late  Felix  Mendelssohn  Bartholdy,'  by  Jules  Benedict 
London  1850 ;  2nd  ed.,  with  additions,  1853).  A  sketch 
by  one  who  knew  him  well;  attractive  and,  as  far  as  it 
goes,  complete. 


310 


MENDELSSOHN. 


(3)  Devrient.  'Meine  Erinnerungen  an  F.  M.  B.  .  .  • 
von  Eduard  Devrient'  (Leipzig  186:1).  Translated  into 
English  by  Mrs.  Macfarren  (London  18601.  Containing 
32  letters  and  portions  of  letters.  The  -work  of  an  old  and 
intimate  friend,  but  written  with  all  the  impartiality  of 
a  stranger. 

(4)  Carl  Mendelssohn  Bartholdy.  '  Goethe  und  Felix 
Mendelssohn  Bartholdy'  (Leipzig  1871).  By  the  com- 
poser's eldest  son ;  an  account  of  the  three  visits  paid  to 
Goethe,  from  journals,  letters,  etc.,  with  a  poor  engraving 
from  Begas's  portrait.  In  English  by  Miss  M.  E.  von 
Glehn— ""Goethe  and  Mendelssohn,  with  additions  and 
with  letters  of  later  date '  (London  1872) ;  2nd  ed.  with 
additional  letters,'  37  in  all  (1874). 

(5)  Ferdinand  Hiller.  'Mendelssohn.  Letters  and 
Recollections,'  etc.,  first  published  in  Macmillan's  Maga- 
zine (Jan.— May  1874)  in  English  by  Miss  M.  E.  von 
Glehn.  Then  in  a  volume  (London  1874) ;  and  then  in 
German  (Cologne  1874).  Contains  26  letters  not  before 
printed.  A  thoroughly  good  book,  genial,  discrimin- 
ating, and  accurate ;  by  one  well  able  to  judge. 

(6)  Polko.  '  Erinnerungen  an  F.  M  B.  von  Elise 
Polko'  (Leipzig  1868).  Contains  12  letters.  English 
translation  by  Lady  Wallace— '  Reminiscences,'  etc. 
(London  1869),  with  Appendix  of  33  additional  letters 
and  fragments  of  letters.  A  poor  gushing  book,  from 
which  however  some  traits  may  be  picked  up.  Chiefly 
valuable  for  the  letters. 

(7)  Hensel.  'Die  Familie  Mendelssohn  (T729-1847) . . . 
von  S.  Hensel,  mit  8  Portraits '  (3  vols.,  Berlin  1879). 
By  the  son  of  Fanny  Hensel — the  Sebastian  of  the 
Letters  ;  compiled  from  journals  and  family  papers,  and 
containing  73  letters  or  portions  of  letters  hitherto  un- 
published. The  title  of  the  book  would  perhaps  be  more 
appropriately  'Fanny  Hensel  and  her  family  ;  but  it  is 
a  most  valuable  addition  to  our  knowledge  of  Felix,  and 
a  good  specimen  of  the  copious  information  still  remain- 
ing in  the  hands  of  his  family:  the  notices  and  letters 
of  Abraham  Mendelssohn  are  especially  new  and  valu- 
able. Some  of  Felix's  letters  are  first-rate.  The  portraits 
would  be  useful  if  one  knew  how  far  the  likenesses  could 
be  trusted. 

(8)  Hogarth.  '  The  Philharmonic  Society  of  London 
...  by  fteorge  Hogarth '  (London  1862).  Contains  notices 
of  Mendelssohn's  connection  with  the  Philharmonic, 
with  3  letters  in  the  body  of  the  work  and  7  others  in 
the  appendix. 

(9)  Moscheles.  '  Aus  Moscheles  Leben  .  .  .  von  seiner 
Frau  (2  vols.,  Leipzig  1872  and  1873).  English  transla- 
tion by  A.  D.  Coleridge  (2  vols.,  Hurst  &  Blackett,  1873). 
Contains  many  valuable  notices,  and  one  or  two  letters. 

(10)  Schubring.  'Erinnerungen  an  F.  M  B.'  In  the 
Magazine  '  Daheim  '  (Leipzig)  for  1866,  No.  26.  English 
translation  in  'Musical  World,'  May  12  and  19,  1866. 
One  of  the  most  detailed,  valuable,  and  interesting  of  all 
the  notices.  Every  word  that  Schubring  writes  carries 
conviction  with  it. 

(11)  Horsley.  'Reminiscences  of  Mendelssohn,  by 
Charles  Edward  Horsley.'  First  published;in  '  Dwight's 
Journal  of  Music '  (Boston,  U.S.A.),and  reprinted  in  The 
Choir '  (London)  for  Jan.  11,  25,  Feb.  8,  15,  1873.  By  a 
gifted  pupil  and  friend.  Full  or  information,  now  and 
then  a  trifle  exaggerated. 

(12)  Dorn.  'Recollections  of  F.  M.  and  his  friends.' 
An  article  in  'Temple  Bar'  for  Feb.  1872;  probably 
translated  from  a  German  original.  Slight,  but  interest- 
ing, and  apparently  trustworthy. 

(13)  Chorley.  1. '  Modern  German  Music,'  by  Henry  F. 
Chorley  (2  vols.,  London  1854).  Contains  scattered  notices 
of  Mendelssohn.  2.  '  Memoirs  of  H.  F.  Chorley,  by  H. 
G.  Hewlett '  (2  vols.,  Bentley  1873).  Contains  some  in- 
formation, and  6  letters  before  unpublished.    3.  Notice 

grefixed  to  Lady  Wallace's  translation  of  the  'Reise- 
riefe.' 

(14)  Marx.  'Erinnerungen  aus  meinem  Leben,  von 
Adolf  Bernhard  Marx '  (2  vols.,  Berlin  1865).  Contains 
many  recollections  of  the  Mendelssohn  house  from  1824- 
1832,  and  personal  anecdotes  of  Felix,  with  whom  Marx 
was  at  one  time  extremely  intimate.  He  was  a  person 
of  strange  temper  and  overweening  opinion  of  himself; 
but  he  appears  to  be  strictly  honest,  and  in  matters  of 
fact  may  probably  be  trusted  implicitly. 

(15)  Rellstab.  'Aus  meinem  Leben'  (2  vols.,  Berlin 
1861).  This  autobiography  of  the  well-known  Berlin 
critic  contains  (vol.  li,  chap.  11)  an  account  of  Mendels- 
sohn's playing  at  Goethe's  house  at  Weimar  in  1821. 


MENDELSSOHN  SCHOLARSHIP. 

(16)  Lobe  has  reported  some  conversations  with  Men- 
delssohn in  his  'Fliegende  Blatter  fUr  musik'  (Leipzig 
1853).  He  has  also  described  the  evening  at  Goethe's 
mentioned  just  above,  in  the  '  Gartenlaube '  for  1867, 
No.  1.  

I  take  the  opportunity  of  expressing  my  deep 
obligations  for  assistance  received  in  the  compila- 
tion of  the  foregoing  article  from  the  various 
members  of  the  Mendelssohn  family,  Miss  Jung 
and  Dr.  Klengel ;  Mme.  Schumann,  Dr.  Hiller, 
Mrs.  Moscheles,  Mme.  Frege,  Dr.  Hartel,  Dr. 
Schleinitz,  Mr.  Joachim,  Mrs.  Klingemann, 
Herr  Taubert,  Mr.  Otto  Goldschmidt  and  Mme. 
Goldschmidt,  Mr.  Paul  David,  the  Bishop  of 
Limerick,  the  Duke  of  Meiningen,  Lord  Frede- 
rick Cavendish,  the  Dean  of  Westminster,  Pro- 
fessor Munro,  Mr.  J.  C.  Horsley,  R.A.,  and 
Miss  Sophy  Horsley,  Mr.  Chas.  Halle,  Signor 
Piatti,  Mr.  W.  S.  Rockstro,  Mr.  Kellow  Pye, 
Prof.  G.  A.  Macfarren,  Mr.  Sartoris,  Mr.  W.  J. 
Freemantle,  Mr.  A.  G.  Kurtz,  Mrs.  Bartholo- 
mew and  Miss  Mounsey,  Mr.  Wiener,  Mr. 
Rosenthal,  Mr.  Franklin  Taylor.  Also  from 
the  Sterndale  Bennett  family,  Mr.  Bruzaud  (of 
Erard's),  Mr.  J.  W.  Davison,  Mr.  James  C. 
Dibdin,  Messrs.  Glen,  Mr.  A.  J.  Hipkins  (of 
Broadwood's)  Mr.  E.  J.  Hopkins,  Mr.  W.  H. 
Holmes,  Mr.  W.  H.  Husk,  Mr.  E.  J.  Lincoln, 
Mr.  H.  Littleton  (Novello's),  Mr.  Stanley  Lucas, 
Mr.  Julian  Marshall,  Mr.  John  Newman,  Mr. 
Joseph  Robinson,  Mme.  Sainton-Dolby,  Mr. 
Speyer,  Mr.  Tom  Taylor,  Mr.  J.  T.  Willy,  and 
Mr.  Turle.  [G.] 

MENDELSSOHN  SCHOLARSHIP.  This  is 
the  most  valuable  musical  prize  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  It  originated  in  a  movement  among 
the  friends  of  Mendelssohn  at  Leipzig,  who, 
shortly  after  his  death,  resolved  to  found  scholar- 
ships in  his  memory,  to  be  competed  for  and  held 
in  that  Conservatorium  in  the  foundation  of 
which,  not  long  before,  he  had  greatly  assisted. 
They  appealed  for  help  in  this  undertaking  to 
English  admirers  of  the  departed  composer,  and 
were  met  with  ready  sympathy  and  co-operation. 
A  committee  was  formed  in  London,  with  Sir  G. 
Smart  as  Chairman,  Mr.  Carl  Klingemann,  Men- 
delssohn's intimate  friend,  as  Secretary,  and  Mr. 
E.  Buxton,  Treasurer. 

The  first  effort  towards  raising  money  was  made 
in  the  shape  of  a  performance  of  the  'Elijah'  on 
a  large  scale,  to  which  Mile.  Jenny  Lind  gave 
her  willing  and  inestimable  services.  This  took 
place  Dec.  15,  1848,  under  the  direction  of  Sir 
Julius  (then  Mr.)  Benedict,  with  a  full  band  and 
chorus,  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society  and  Mr. 
Hullah's  Upper  Schools  contributing  to  the  ef- 
ficiency of  the  latter  force.  A  large  profit  was 
derived  from  the  performance  ;  and  this,  with  a 
few  donations,  was  invested  in  the  purchase  of 
£1050,  Bank  3  per  cent  annuities — the  nucleus 
of  the  present  Scholarship  Fund. 

The  original  plan  of  amalgamating  the  London 
and  Leipzig  projects  fell  through,  and  the  money 
was  allowed  to  accumulate  till  1856,  when  the 
first  scholar  was  elected — Arthur  S.  Sullivan, 
now  Dr.  Sullivan,  head  of  the  '  National  Train- 


MENDELSSOHN  SCHOLARSHIP. 


MENO  MOSSO. 


811 


ing  School  for  Music'  He  was  then  one  of  the 
'  Children  of  Her  Majesty's  Chapel  Royal,'  and 
he  held  the  Scholarship  for  about  four  years, 
studying  at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  Lon- 
don, and  afterwards  at  the  Conservatorium  at 
Leipzig. 

In  1865,  the  funds  having  again  accumulated, 
Mr.  (now  Dr.)  C.  Swinnerton  Heap,  of  Birming- 
ham, was  elected  to  the  Scholarship,  which  he 
held  for  rather  more  than  two  years.  He  was 
succeeded  in  the  early  part  of  1871  by  Mr.  W. 
Shakespeare,  a  pupil  01  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Music,  who  pursued  his  studies  at  Leipzig  and 
subsequently  in  Italy.  At  the  time  of  his  elec- 
tion, a  two  years'  Scholarship  of  £20  per  annum 
was  offered,  out  of  the  accumulated  interest ;  and 
this  was  held  for  a  year  by  Miss  Crawford,  and 
again  (1873)  by  Mr.  Eaton  Faning.  The  So- 
ciety's capital  then  consisted  of  £1350  in  5  per 
cent  India  Stock,  now  (1879)  increased  to  nearly 
£2000  by  fresh  subscriptions  and  donations, 
enabling  the  Society  to  give  their  Scholar  a 
stipend  of  about  £90  per  annum. 

In  June,  1875,  Mr.  F.  Corder  was  elected 
Mendelssohn  Scholar ;  and  he  held  the  Scholar- 
ship for  four  years,  studying  at  Cologne  under 
Dr.  Hiller.  Miss  Maude  V.  White,  the  present 
scholar,  was  elected  in  February,  1879. 

The  Committee  has  consisted,  since  the  in- 
stitution of  the  Scholarship,  of  the  following 
names: — *Sir  G.  Smart,  *Mr.  C.  Klingemann, 
*Mr.  E.  Buxton,  Sir  Julius  Benedict,  *Sir  W. 
Sterndale  Bennett,  Mr.  W.  J.  Beale,  Mr  C.  V. 
Benecke  (Trustee),  Mr.  A.  D.  Coleridge,  Mr.  W. 
G.  Cusins,  Mr.  J.  W.  Davison,  Mr.  Otto  Gold- 
schmidt,  Sir  John  Goss,  Mr.  G.  Grove,  Mr.  C. 
Halle,  Mr.  John  Hullah,  Mr.  A.G.  Kurtz,  Mr.  H. 
Leslie,  Prof.  G.  A.  Macfarren,  Rev.  Sir  F.  A. 
G.  Ouseley,  Bt.,  Mr.  Kellow  J.  Pye,  Mr.L.Sloper 
(resigned),  Dr.  J.  Stainer,  Mr.  Arthur  S.  Sullivan, 
Mr.  R.  R.  Pym  (Trustee  and  Hon.  Treasurer), 
and  Mr.  Julian  Marshall  (Hon.  Secretary).  Mr. 
W.  Godden  is  the  Hon.  Solicitor.  Death  has 
removed  some  of  the  above  names  (marked  with 
asterisks)  from  the  list,  others  having  been  put 
in  their  places  from  time  to  time.  [J.M.] 

MENESTREL,  LE.  This  weekly  musical 
periodical,  of  which  the  first  number  was  issued 
Dec.  1,  1833,  originally  consisted  of  a  romance 
occupying  2  pages,  with  printed  matter  at  the 
back ;  increased  in  1 840  to  4  pages  of  musical 
information  and  criticism  ;  and  since  Dec.  1858 
has  contained  8  folio  pages  on  fine  paper,  besides 
music.  Its  great  success  is  due  to  the  editor, 
M.  Jacques  Heugel,  who  during  the  last  twenty 
years  has  inserted  contributions  from  almost 
every  musician  of  note  in  France,  including 
MM.  Barbedette,  Blaze  de  Bury,  Paul  Ber- 
nard, Gustave  Chouquet,  Felix  Clement,  Oscar 
Commettant,  Ernest  David,  Octave  Fouque, 
Edouard  Fournier,  A.  de  Gasperini,  Eugene  Gau- 
tier,  Gevaert,  Leon  Hale"vy,  G.  Hequet,  B.  Jou- 
vin,  Adolphe  Jullien,  Lacome,  Th.  de  Lajarte, 
A.  de  Lauzieres,  Marmontel,  Ame'de'e  Mereaux, 
A.  Morel,  H.  Moreno,  Ch.  Nuitter,  A.  de  Pont- 
martin,    Prosper    Pascal,    Ch.  Poisot,    Arthur 


Pougin,  Alphonse  Royer,  J.  B.  Weckerlin,  and 
Victor  Wilder.  The  Menestrel  has  also  pub- 
lished, among  others,  the  following  works  after- 
wards printed  separately : — articles  on  Schubert, 
Mendelssohn,  Haydn,  Chopin,  and  Weber, 
by  Barbedette ;  Blaze  de  Bury's  '  Meyerbeer ' ; 
B.  Jouvin's  '  Auber '  and  '  Herold  ' ;  de  Gas- 
perini's  '  R.  Wagner  et  la  nouvelle  Allemagne ' ; 
Mereaux's  '  Les  Clavecinistes  et  leurs  ceuvres ' ; 
Bertrand's  4Les  Nationalifces  musicales  dans 
le  drame  lyrique ' ;  He"quet 's  'A.  Boieldieu ' ; 
Marmontel's  '  Les  Pianistes  celebres ' ;  and 
Wilder's  *  Vie  de  Mozart'  and  'Jeunesse  de 
Beethoven.'  [G.C.] 

MENGOZZI,  Bebnakdo,  distinguished  both 
as  a  singer  and  a  composer,  was  born  in  1758  at 
Florence,  where  he  first  studied  music.  He 
afterwards  had  instruction  at  Venice  from  Pas- 
quale  Potenza,  cantor  of  St.  Mark's.  In  Lent  of 
1 785,  Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe  found  him  singing 
in  oratorio  at  Naples,  with  Signora  Benini, 
whom  he  soon  afterwards  married.  After  singing 
together  at  several  Italian  theatres,  the  two  came 
to  London  in  1 786,  but  our  climate  was  very  ill- 
suited  to  Mengozzi,  whose  voice,  a  good  tenor, 
but  wanting  in  power,  suffered  much  and  perma- 
nently from  its  rigour.  He  was  too  ill,  indeed, 
to  appear  with  Benini  in  the  first  opera  in  which 
she  sang  here,  the  '  Giannina  e  Bernardone '  of 
Cimarosa,  with  new  songs  by  Cherubini.  He 
played,  however,  the  principal  part  in  •  H  Tutor 
Burlato'  of  Paisiello,  and  showed  himself  'a 
good  musician,  with  a  good  Btyle  of  singing,  but 
still  too  feeble  to  excite  any  other  sensation  in 
the  audience  than  pity  for  the  state  of  his  health' 
(Burney).  In  March,  Handel's  '  Giulio  Cesare ' 
was  revived,  with  additions  from  others  of  his 
works;  and  in  this  pasticcio  (1787)  Mengozzi 
took  part.  But  he  did  not  do  himself  justice, 
and  was  soon  superseded  by  Morelli,  as  his  wife 
was  by  la  Storace. 

From  London  Mengozzi  went  to  Paris,  where 
he  was  heard  to  advantage  in  the  concerts  given 
by  Marie  Antoinette,  and  among  the  Italian 
company  of  the  Theatre  de  Monsieur,  with 
Mandini  and  Viganoni.  He  remained  at  Paris 
after  the  Revolution,  and  supported  himself  by 
giving  lessons  and  writing  operettas  for  the  Fey- 
deau  and  Montansier  Theatres.  When  the  Con- 
servatoire was  established,  he  was  named  'Profes- 
seur  de  Chant,'  and  is  remembered  as  having 
formed  several  distinguished  pupils. 

Mengozzi  had,  during  many  years,  compiled 
the  materials  for  a  '  Me"thode  de  Chant '  for  the 
Conservatoire  ;  but  he  died,  before  he  had  com- 
pleted it,  in  March,  1800.  The  work  was  edited 
by  Langl6.  Fetis  gives  a  list  of  his  operas,  now 
all  long  forgotten.  [J.M.] 

MENO  MOSSO,  lit. « with  less  motion';  hence, 
rather  slower.  A  direction,  which,  like  Piu 
lento,  generally  occurs  in  the  middle  of  a  move- 
ment, the  latter  term  properly  being  used  where 
the  whole  movement  is  already  a  slow  one,  and 
the  former  in  a  quick  movement.  These  terms, 
however,  are  constantly  used  for  one   another. 


312 


MENO  MOSSO. 


Beethoven  uses  '  Meno  raosso  e  moderato '  in  the 
Fugue  for  strings  in  Bb,  op.  133,  and  'Assai 
meno  presto' — 'very  much  less  quick' — in  the 
Trio  of  Symphony  No.  7.  It  occurs  frequently 
in  Chopin's  Polonaises,  etc.,  and  the  Scherzo,  op. 
39.  Schumann  uses  'Poco  meno  mosso,'  with  its 
German  equivalent  'Etwas  langsamer,'  in  Kreis- 
leriana,  Nos.  2  and  3.  When  the  former  time  is 
resumed,  thedirectionisTempoprimo.  [J.A.F.M.] 

MENTER,  Joseph,  a  celebrated  violoncellist, 
born  at  Teysbach,  in  Bavaria,  January  18,  1808. 
His  first  instrument  was  the  violin,  but  before 
long  he  transferred  his  attention  to  the  violon- 
cello, which  he  studied  under  P.  Moralt  at 
Munich.  In  1829  he  took  an  engagement  in 
the  orchestra  of  the  Prince  of  Hohenzollern- 
Heckingen,  but  in  1833  became  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Opera  band  at  Munich.  With  the  exception 
of  various  artistic  tours  in  Germany,  Austria, 
Holland,  Belgium  and  England,  he  remained  at 
Munich  till  his  death,  in  April  1856.    [T.P.H.] 

MERBECKE,  John,  lay  clerk  and  afterwards 
organist  of  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  was 
about  1544  arrested,  together  with  three  other 
inhabitants  of  the  town,  on  a  charge  of  heresy, 
i.  e.  favouring  the  principles  of  the  Reformation. 
Their  papers  were  seized,  and  notes  on  the  Bible 
and  an  English  Concordance  in  the  handwriting 
of  Merbecke  were  found,  and  he  was  moreover 
charged  with  having  copied  an  epistle  of  Calvin 
against  the  Mass.  He  and  his  three  fellows 
were  tried  and  condemned  to  the  stake,  but, 
whilst  the  sentence  was  immediately  carried  into 
execution  against  the  others,  Merbecke,  owing 
to  the  favour  of  Gardiner,  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
and  the  interposition  of  Sir  Humphrey  Foster, 
one  of  the  Commissioners,  obtained  a  pardon. 
He  indulged  his  opinions  in  secret  until  the 
death  of  Henry  VIII,  but  afterwards  avowed 
them,  and  in  1550  published  his  Concordance, 
and  also  the  work  by  which  he  is  best  known, 
'  The  Boke  of  Common  Praier  noted,'  being  an 
adaptation  of  the  plain  chant  of  the  earlier 
rituals  to  the  first  liturgy  of  Edward  VI.  Mer- 
becke escaped  the  Marian  persecution  and  after- 
wards published  'The  Lives  of  Holy  Saincts,'  etc., 
1574  ;  ' -A-  Book  of  Notes  and  Common  Places,' 
etc.,  and  '  The  Ripping  up  of  the  Pope's  Fardel,' 
1581  ;  'A  Dialogue  between  Youth  and  Age,' 
and  other  works.  He  died  about  1585.  His 
'  Booke  of  Common  praier  noted,'  was  beautifully 
reprinted  in  facsimile  by  Whittingham  for 
Pickering  in  1844 ;  an  edition  by  Rimbault  was 
issued  in  1845,  and  a  reprint  was  included  in 
vol.  ii.  of  Dr.  Jebb's  '  Choral  Responses  and 
Litanies,'  1857.  A  hymn  for  3  voices  by  Merbecke 
is  given  in  Hawkins's  History,  and  portions  of 
a  mass  for  5  voices  by  him,  '  Per  arma  justitise,' 
are  contained  in  vol.  vi.  of  Burney's  Musical  Ex- 
tracts (Add.  MS.  11,586,  Brit.  Mus.)  [W.H.H.] 

MERCADANTE,  Saverio,  born  in  1797  at 
Altamura  near  Bari,  entered  at  1 2  the  Collegio 
di  San  Sebastiano  at  Naples,  of  which  Zingarelli 
was  chief,  and  where  he  learnt  the  flute  and 
violin,  and  became  leader  in  the  orchestra.     For 


MERCURE  DE  FRANCE. 

some  unknown  reason  (the  account  given  by  Fe"tis 
is  absurd)  he  was  suddenly  dismissed,  and  to 
gain  a  living  attempted  composing  for  the  stage. 
His  first  work,  a  cantata  for  the  Teatro  del  Fondo 
(1818)  was  followed  by  another,  'L'Apoteosi 
d'Ercole,'  produced  at  San  Carlo  (18 19)  with 
extraordinary  success.  In  the  same  year  he 
produced  his  first  opera  buffa,  'Violenza  e  cos- 
tanza,'  and  after  this  came  several  'opere  serie,' 
of  which  'Elisae  Claudio'  (Milan  1822)  was  the 
most  successful.  From  this  period  Mercadante 
steadily  maintained  his  reputation,  and  the  ver- 
dict of  Italy  in  his  favour  was  endorsed  by  Vienna 
in  1824.  He  passed  the  years  1827  and  28  in 
Madrid,  29  in  Cadiz,  and  in  31  returned  to 
Naples.  In  1833  he  became  Generali's  successor 
as  maestro  di  capella  at  the  cathedral  of  Novara. 
In  1836  he  composed  and  superintended  the  pro- 
duction of  '  I  Briganti '  in  Paris.  His  next 
fine  opera  was  *  11  Giuramento '  (Milan  1837).  In 
the  opera  buffa  '  I  due  illustri  rivali '  he  changed 
his  style,  marking  the  accents  strongly  with  the 
brass  instruments.  In  this  respect  he  set  an 
example  which  has  unfortunately  been  widely 
followed,  for  the  Flugel-horn  seems  to  be  the 
favourite  instrument  of  Italian  composers  of  the 
present  day.  In  1 840  he  became  director  of  the 
Conservatorio  of  Naples.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Institut  de  France.  Though  he  lost  an  eye 
at  Novara,  he  continued  to  compose  by  dicta- 
tion ;  but  he  became  totally  blind  in  1862,  and 
died  at  Naples  on  Dec.  13,  1870.  [E.G.] 

MERCURE  DE  FRANCE.  This  title  em- 
braces a  series  of  periodical  publications  difficult 
to  verify  completely,  but  of  so  much  interest  to 
the  history  of  the  arts,  that  we  will  endeavour 
with  the  aid  of  the  catalogue  of  the  Bibliotheque 
nationale,  to  give  a  list  of  them.  The  first  news- 
paper published  in  France  was  called  the  '  Mer- 
cure  Francais.'  Originally  started  in  1605,  it 
was  continued  in  1635  by  Theophraste  Renau- 
dot,  a  physician  and  founder  of  the  '  Gazette  de 
France'  (1631);  it  dropped  in  1644,  but  was 
revived  in  1672  as  the  '  Mercure  Galant,'  by  a 
prolific  but  mediocre  writer  named  Donneau  de 
Vize\  After  the  first  6  volumes  (1672  to  74)  it 
ceased  for  two  years,  but  in  1677  was  resumed 
by  de  Viz6,  and  published  in  10  volumes  with 
the  title  •  Nouveau  Mercure  Galant.'  It  first  be- 
came of  real  importance  in  1678,  when  it  was 
issued  in  monthly  volumes  121110  at  3  francs, 
with  a  kind  of  quarterly  supplement,  called  from 
1678  to  85  '  Extraordinaires  du  Mercure,'  and 
from  1688  to  92  'Affaires  du  Temps.'  From 
May  1 714  to  Oct.  1 716,  33  volumes  of  the  '  Nou- 
veau Mercure  Galant '  came  out,  including  three 
of  *  Relations.'  The  54  volumes  from  171 7  to 
May  1 721  are  called  'Le  Nouveau  Mercure,' 
and  the  36  volumes  from  June  1721  to  December 
1 723,  simply '  Le  Mercure.'  In  1 724  the  monthly 
review  founded  by  de  Vize"  became  '  Le  Mercure 
de  France,  dedie"  au  Roi,'  and  977  volumes  ap- 
peared with  this  celebrated  title.  On  Dec.  17, 
1 791 ,  it  resumed  its  original  title  of  '  Le  Mercure 
Francais,'  and  51  volumes  came  out  between 
that  date  and  the  year  VII  of  the  Republic,  but 


MERCURE  DE  FRANCE. 

with  many  changes  in  the  manner  of  publication. 
On  the  15th  of  Dec.  1792  the  form  was  changed 
to  8vo  and  it  was  issued  daily  up  to  March  25, 
1793,  then  weekly  up  to  the  30th  Pluviose  of 
the  year  VII  (Feb  19,  1799).  Tiie  84  volumes 
(eight  i2mo  and  twelve  8vo)  from  the  year 
VII  to  1820  are  again  called  the  'Mercure  de 
France.'  To  this  collection  of  1 7 72  volumes  may 
be  added  •  Le  Mercure  au  XIX  siecle'  1823  to 
27  (18  volumes)  ;  'Le  Mercure  de  France  au 
XIX  siecle'  1827  to  32  (18  volumes  numbered 
19  to  36);  'Le  Mercure'  1832  (one  volume 
numbered  37) ;  and  finally  •  Le  Mercure  de 
France'  Nov.  1851  to  Feb.  1853,  consisting  of 
one  folio  and  two  quarto  volumes. 

A  few  words  more  are  necessary  to  show  the 
importance  of  the  Mercure  in  the  history  of 
music.  In  founding  his  periodical,  de  Vize1  gave 
particular  attention  to  court  news,  anecdotes,  and 
poetry,  reserving  only  a  small  space  for  the  an- 
nouncement and  criticism  of  new  works.  His 
chief  aim  was  to  flatter  Louis  XIV,  and  obtain 
the  post  of  ' historiograph e  de  France';  but  as 
we  approach  the  Revolution  the  interest  and 
importance  of  the  information  contained  in  the 
'  Mercure '  increases  with  every  step.  Analyses  of 
new  operas,  programmes  and  reports  of  the '  Con- 
certs Spirituels,'  biographical  notices  of  artists, 
articles  on  the  '  Guerre  des  Bouffons' — the  strug- 
gle between  French  and  Italian  music — lines  ad- 
dressed to  singers  or  musicians,  reviews  of  trea- 
tises on  music,  announcements  of  new  music,  or 
newly  invented  instruments — all  these  and  more 
are  to  be  found  in  these  monthly  volumes,  which 
are  moreover  particularly  easy  to  consult  from 
their  well-arranged  indexes.  A  '  Choix  des  an- 
ciens  Mercures,  avec  un  extrait  du  Mercure 
Francais '  (Paris  1757  to  64,  108  volumes  i2mo, 
generally  bound  in  54,  with  an  additional  volume 
of  index),  was  drawn  up  by  La  Place,  Bastide, 
Marmontel,  and  de  la  Porte,  but  there  is  still 
room  for  a  collection  of  the  matter  most  interest- 
ing to  musicians.  The  writer  of  this  article  has 
long  wished  to  undertake  such  a  work,  but  lack- 
ing the  requisite  leisure  hopes  to  see  it  accom- 
plished by  some  one  else.  [G.  C] 

MERCY,  or  MERCI,  Louis,  an  Englishman 
of  French  extraction,  born  in  the  early  part  of 
the  1 8th  century,  was  an  eminent  performer  on 
the  flute-a-bec,  or  English  flute,  for  which  he 
composed  several  sets  of  solos.  But  he  lived  at  a 
time  when  his  favourite  instrument  was  gradu- 
ally becoming  superseded  by  the  Traverse,  or 
German  flute,  and  in  the  hope  of  averting  the 
change  he,  about  1735,  allied  himself  with 
Stanesby  the  instrument  maker,  in  an  endeavour 
to  promote  the  use  of  a  modified  form  of  the 
flute-a-bec  manufactured  by  the  latter,  and  pub- 
lished 12  solos,  six  of  which  were  said  to  be 
adapted  to  the  Traverse  flute,  Violin,  or  Stanesby's 
New  English  Flute,  with  a  preface  strongly  in- 
sisting on  the  merits  of  Stanesby's  invention. 
But  their  efforts  failed,  and  the  flute-a-bec  be- 
came a  thing  of  the  past.  Mercy's  solos  were 
much  esteemed  in  their  day.  [\V.  H.  H.] 

MERIC,  Madame.     [See  Lalande.] 


MEEK. 


313 


MERIC,  Madame  de,  an  accomplished  singer, 
who  appeared  in  London  in  1832,  and  was  very 
successful  in  an  unsuccessful  season.  She  was 
the  first  singer  of  a  moderate  company,  and 
though  not  a  great,  was  far  from  an  unpleasing, 
performer.  She  was  a  clever  actress,  with  a 
good  voice  and  considerable  versatility  of  talent, 
rendering  her  very  useful,  as  she  sang  in  serious 
or  comic  operas,  first  parts  or  second,  and  in  any 
language.  While  in  this  country,  she  performed 
in  Italian,  German,  French,  and  English,  and 
could  have  done  so  equally  well  in  Spanish,  had 
it  been  required. 

She  appeared  in  '  Der  Freischiitz '  on  its  first 
production  here  with  the  original  German  words, 
when  German  opera,  for  a  time  at  least,  drove 
Italian  from  the  London  boards.  Madame  de 
Meric  played  also  Donna  Elvira  to  the  Donna 
Anna  of  Schrbder-Devrient,  who  rather  eclipsed 
her ;  but  in  Chelard's  '  Macbeth '  she  distin- 
guished herself  by  singing  a  most  cramped  and 
difficult  song  with  astonishing  truth  and  precision, 
a  feat  which  added  much  to  the  estimation  in 
which  she  was  held.  She  did  not,  however, 
appear  again  in  England.  [J.  M.] 

MERIGHI,  Antonia,  a  fine  operatic  con- 
tralto profondo,  who  was  first  engaged  for  the 
London  stage  by  Handel,  as  announced  in  the 
'  Daily  Courant '  of  July  2, 1 729.  The  first  part 
she  undertook  was  that  of  Matilda  in  '  Lotario ' 
(Handel),  Dec.  2,  1729,  in  which  she  created  a 
favourable  impression ;  but  her  songs,  when 
printed  in  the  published  opera,  were  transposed 
into  much  higher  keys.  This  opera  was  followed 
by  a  revival  of  'Tolomeo,'  in  which  she  sang 
soprano  music  transposed  for  her,  and  next  by 
'  Partenope,'  in  which  Merighi  appeared  as  Ros- 
mira  with  equal  success  in  1730  and  31.  In 
the  latter  year  she  sang  the  part  of  Armida  in 
the  revival  of  '  Rinaldo.' 

After  the  close  of  that  season  however  her 
name  was  not  found  again  in  the  bills,  until 
1 736.  The  '  Daily  Post '  of  November  .18  in  that 
year  informs  us  that  'Signora  Merighi,  Signora 
Chimenti,  and  the  Francesina,  had  the  honour 
to  sing  before  her  Majesty,  the  duke,  and  prin- 
cesses, at  Kensington,  on  Monday  night  last,  and 
met  with  a  most  gracious  reception.' 

In  January,  1738,  Merighi  appeared  in  the  new 
opera,  •  Faramondo,'  just  finished  by  Handel  after 
his  return  from  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  again  in  '  La 
Conquista  del  Velio  d'Oro  (Pescetti).  In  April 
of  the  same  season  she  took  the  part  of  Amastre 
in  '  Serse,' — the  last  she  sang  in  England.  [J.M.] 

MERK,  Joseph,  a  distinguished  Austrian 
violoncellist,  born  at  Vienna  in  1 795.  His  first 
musical  studies  were  directed  to  singing,  the 
guitar,  and  especially  to  the  violin,  which  last 
instrument  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  (accord- 
ing to  Fetis)  in  consequence  of  an  accident  to 
his  arm.  He  then  took  to  the  cello,  and 
under  the  tuition  of  an  excellent  master,  named 
Schindlockers,  speedily  acquired  great  facility  on 
the  instrument.  After  a  few  years  of  desultory 
engagements  he  settled  at  Vienna  as  principal 
cellist  at  the  Opera  (1818),  professor  at  the  newly 


314 


MERK. 


founded  Conservafcorium  (1823),  and  Kammer- 
virtuos  to  the  Emperor  (1834).  He  died  at 
Vienna  in  June  1852.  He  was  much  associated 
with  Mayseder,  and  was  often  called  the  Mayseder 
of  the  violoncello. 

His  compositions  for  hisinstrument  are  numerous 
and  of  merit : — Concertos,  Variations,  Fantasias, 
Polonaises,  etc.,  and  especially  20  Exercises  (op. 
11),  and  6  grand  Studies  (op.  20),  which  are 
valuable  contributions  to  the  repertoire  of  the 
instrument.  [T.P.H.] 

MEEKEL,  Gust  a  v,  born  in  1827  at  Ober- 
oderwitz  in  Saxony,  studied  music  under  Julius 
Otto,  and  the  eminent  organist,  Dr.  Johann 
Schneider  of  Dresden,  and  also  received  some 
instruction  from  the  composers  Reissiger  and 
Schumann ;  was  appointed  organist  of  the  Wais- 
enkirche,  Dresden,  in  1858,  of  the  Kreuzkirche, 
in  i860,  and  court  organist  in  1864.  From 
1867  to  1873  he  was  director  of  the  Dresden 
Singakademie,  and  since  1861  has  been  a  pro- 
fessor at  the  Conservatorium  there.  Merkel's 
printed  compositions  have  reached  the  number 
of  130.  Of  these,  a  large  proportion  is  for  his 
instrument,  for  which  he  has  composed  Preludes, 
Fugues,  Fantasias,  Variations,  Sonatas,  etc.,  and 
pieces  for  violin  (or  cello)  and  organ.  He  has 
also  published  many  solos  and  duets  for  piano- 
forte, motets  (op.  106)  and  songs  with  pianoforte 
accompaniment.  As  organist  and  organ  com- 
poser, Merkel  deservedly  ranks  very  high.  His 
organ  music  is  of  great  excellence,  and  is  not  sur- 
passed by  any  living  composer  for  that  instrument, 
being  written  by  a  true  disciple  of  the  lofty 
and  imperishable  school  of  which  his  great  com- 
patriot, Sebastian  Bach,  was  founder  and  con- 
summate master.  Many  of  Merkel's  fugues  are 
•  alia  capella,'  and  in  five  parts,  and  all  are  well 
constructed.  Promise  of  dignity  and  grandeur 
of  style  in  fugue  writing,  which  has  been  sub- 
sequently realised,  was  first  manifested  in  an 
early  work  (op.  5),  the  Fantasie,  etc.,  dedi- 
cated to  Schneider.  His  later  organ  sonatas 
(op.  80,  115,  and  118),  are  noble  specimens  of 
that  great  form  of  writing,  and  would  alone 
entitle  him  to  the  highest  position  as  a  composer 
for  his  noble  instrument.  [H.S.O.] 

MERSENNUS,  Marin,  lb  PfeRE  Mersennb, 
born  in  the  village  of  Oize",  in  Maine,  Sept.  8, 
1588,  educated  at  Le  Mans  and  La  Fleche ; 
became  a  Minorite,  entering  upon  his  noviciate 
July  17,  161 1,  and  receiving  full  orders  (after  a 
course  of  theology  and  Hebrew  in  Paris)  from 
Monsignor  de  Gondi  in  161 3.  For  a  time  he 
taught  philosophy  at  Nevers,  but  soon  returned 
to  Paris,  where  with  other  kindred  spirits,  such 
as  Descartes,  Pascal  (pere),  Roberval,  and  Peiresc, 
he  studied  deeply  both  mathematics  and  music. 
He  corresponded  with  Doni,  Huyghens,  and 
other  learned  men  in  Italy,  England,  and  Hol- 
land; and  visited  Italy  three  times  (1640,  41, 
and  45).  He  died  Sept.  1,  1648,  after  a  painful 
operation.  His  most  important  work  is  his 
'Traite  de  l'harmonie  universelle'  (1627),  of 
which  he  published  an  epitome  in  Latin ;  '  Har- 


MERULO. 

monicorum  libri  XII '  etc.  (1648,  with  the  names 
of  three  publishers,  Baudry,  Cramoisy,  and  Robert 
Ballard).  These  are  more  important  even  than 
Cerone's  great  work  as  sources  of  information  on 
music  in  the  17th  century,  especially  French 
music  and  musicians.  [F.  G.] 

MERULO,  Claudio,  or  Claudio  da  Correg- 
gio,  organist  and  distinguished  teacher,  born  at 
Correggio,  in  1533.1  At  the  age  of  24,  after 
competition  with  nine  other  candidates,  he  took 
his  place  at  the  2nd  organ  of  S.  Mark's,  Venice. 
This  early  success  points  to  a  first-rate  education, 
received  probably  at  Venice  itself,  but  possibly 
at  Brescia,  where  he  had  been  appointed  organist 
in  the  previous  year  (Sept.  17,  1566).  Venice 
was  rich  in  great  musicians  at  the  time,  and 
Claudio's  duties  would  bring  him  into  daily 
intercourse  with  Willaert,  Cipriano  di  Rore,  Zar- 
lino,  A.  Gabrieli,  Annibale  Padovano,  and  Co- 
stanzo  Porta.  It  is  delightful  to  be  carried  back  * 
to  a  May  evening  more  than  300  years  ago,  to 
find  Zarlino  waiting  on  the  Piazza  of  S.  Mark 
till  vespers  are  over,  that  he  may  present  *  M. 
Claudio  Merulo  soavissimo  organista  del  detto 
tempio '  to  Francesco  Viola,3  who  was  visiting 
Venice,  and  then  to  follow  them  all  to  the  house 
of  old  Adrian  Willaert,  kept  at  home  by  the 
gout,  yet  holding  a  grand  reception,  and  ready 
to  discuss  with  them  the  subjects  of  Zarlino's 
famous  book.  Claudio  satisfied  his  employers  as 
well  as  his  colleagues,  and  while  they  increased 
his  salary  from  time  to  time,*  they  repeatedly 
expressed  their  appreciation  of  his  services,  and 
their  anxiety  to  retain  them.5  But  his  income 
was  never  a  large  one,  and  it  was  probably  for 
this  reason  that  he  set  up  as  a  publisher  in 
1 566,'  and  12  years  later  (in  his  46th  year)  as 
a  composer  of  motets  and  madrigals,7  neither 
attempt  succeeding  very  well,  or  lasting  more 
than  3  years. 

After  27  years  service  Claudio  left  Venice, 
went  first  to  Mantua,  and  thence  to  Parma,  in 
May  1586,  as  organist  of  the  Steccata,  or  ducal 
chapel.  Here  he  lived  16  years,  was  knighted 
by  the  Duke,  and  died  at  the  age  of  71,  May  4, 
1604.  The  following  letter  was  written  at  the 
time  by  one  of  his  pupils  to  Sig.  Ferrante  Carli.8 

According  to  your  wish  I  send  you  some  particulars 
of  Sig.  Claudio's  death.  On  Sunday,  the  25th  of  April, 
S.  Mark's  Day,  after  playing  the  orguu  at  Vespers  in  the 

1  Entered  to  baptismal  register  of  8.  Qulrlno  on  April  8  as  son  of 
Antonio  and  Giovanni  Merlotti,  which  was  the  true  form  of  his  name. 

a  Dimonstratloni  Hannoniche  (Zarlino,  Venice  1571).  See  Intro- 
duction. 

a  Chapelmaster  to  the  Duke  of  Ferrara,  and  an  old  pupil  of  Wil- 
laert's. 

«  Catelanl, '  Memorie  della  Vita . . .  di  C.  Merulo'  (Milan,  Bicordi). 

*  They  had  learnt  a  lesson  from  Jachet  de  Buus,  who,  baring  ap- 
pealed in  vain  for  an  increase  of  salary,  ran  off  from  S.  Mark's  on 
pretence  of  a  holiday,  and  found  the  Emperor  glad  enough  to  take; 
blm  on  his  own  terms. 

6  Editing  madrigals  by  Verdelot,  and,  as  a  partner  with  Betanio, 
a  set  of  the  same  by  Porta.  Betanio  only  Joined  him  for  a  short  time, 
perhaps  owing  to  an  unexpected  pressure  of  work  at  St.  Mark's  by  the 
resignation  of  the  other  organist  and  delay  in  appointing  another. 
Claudio  published  one  set  of  madrigals  (a  5)  of  his  own. 

'  Between  1578  and  81.  Gardane  printed  2  books  of  Sacrae  Cantione* 
(a  6)  and  2  books  of  Madrigals  (a  4  and  a  3).  The  1st  and  2nd  books 
of  Motets  (a  6)  were  not  printed  till  1583  and  93  respectively.  To  the 
various  collections  Claudio  did  not  contribute  much  till  late  to  lite. 
2  Masses  (a  8  and  a  12)  and  Litanies  (a  S),  published  some  years  alter 
his  death,  complete  the  list  of  his  vocal  works. 

8  G.  Tiraboschi, '  Biblioteca  Modeuese,"  torn.  vi.  pt.  L  (Modena  1780). 


MERULO. 

Steceata,  he  enjoyed  an  evening  walk  before  going  home. 
In  the  night  he  was  aroused  by  a  pain  in  his  right  side, 
succeeded  by  great  fever  and  violent  sickness.  The  fever 
continued  from  day  to  day,  giving  him  no  rest  even  for 
a  few  minutes.  The  doctors,  Sig.  Cernidore  and  Cerati, 
his  son-in-law,  after  using  many  remedies  with  little  or 
no  success,  determined  at  last  to  give  him  a  medicine 
with  strong  ingredients  —  rhubarb,  etc.  This  was  on 
Sunday,  May  2nd.  When  the  poor  old  man  had  taken 
the  draught  he  cried  out,' Alas !  how  cruelly  these  doctors 
have  treated  me ' ;  for  they  had  given  him  to  understand 
it  was  merely  a  syrup.  The  effect  was  so  severe  that  he 
died  just  as  the  clock  struck  12  on  the  4th  of  May.  The 
Duke  arranged  the  funeral,  and  had  him  crowned  with 
laurel  and  ivy,  these  marks  of  respect  giving  great  con- 
eolation  to  all.  He  was  dressed  as  a  Capuchin  monk, 
music  books  were  placed  on  his  coffin,  at  each  corner  of 
which  one  of  his  scholars,  clothed  in  black,  held  a  lighted 
candle.  They  were  D.  Chris.  Bora,  M.  Ant.  Bertanelli, 
M.  And.  Salati,  the  fourth  scarcely  venturing  to  add  his 
name,  for  he  had  only  been  under  the  good  old  man's 
care  for  a  month,  thanks  first  to  his  own  gentleness  and 
kindness,  and  next  to  that  of  our  Sig.  Chnstophero,  who 
introduced  me  and  entered  me  at  S.  Claudio's  great 
school.  .  .  .  The  Monday  following,  May  10th,  the  service 
took  place  in  the  Cathedral,  when  he  was  buried  next  to 

Cipriano  [Rore],  near  the  altar  of  S.  Agatha "We 

sang  the  mass  with  double  choir,  one  placed  near  the 

organ,  the  other  on  the  opposite  side 

Your  affectionate  servant, 

Alessandbo  Volpics. 

Parma,  May  14, 1604. 

As  for  Claudio's  Organ  *  Toccatas  and  Ricer- 
cari,  given  to  the  world  late  in  life,  all  indeed 
but  one  book  posthumous,  we  do  not  think  the 
composer's  greatness  is  to  be  gauged  by  them  at 
all.  They  cannot  bring  back  to  us  the  wonderful 
power  of  his  playing,  which  could  fascinate  the 
most  orthodox  musicians,  and  attract  students 
from  all  parts  of  Italy,  Germany,  and  the  North 
of  Europe.  As  a  faint  resemblance  of  the  living 
man  (perhaps  the  little  organ  at  Parma  on  which 
he  played  could  recall  him  to  us  as  strongly) 
these  organ  pieces  are  very  welcome.  They  com- 
pare favourably  with  other  works  of  the  period. 
As  historical  examples  they  are  also  valuable. 
In  them  we  have  classical  instrumental  music 
quite  distinct  from  vocal,  we  have  again  chord- 
as  distinct  from  part-writing,  the  greatest  result 
the  organists  had  achieved  and  the  ultimate 
death-blow  to  the  modal  system.  Claudio  lived 
close  on  the  borders  of  the  new  tonality.  In  his 
compositions  he  does  not  abandon  himself  to  it, 
but  he  no  doubt  went  much  further  in  his  playing 
than  on  paper,  and  had  he  lived  a  few  years 
longer,  Frescobaldi's  bold  and  apparently  sudden 
adoption  of  the  tonal  system  would  not  perhaps 
have  come  upon  him  unawares.  [J.R.S.-B.] 

MESSIAH.  Oratorio  by  Handel;  libretto 
from  Holy  Scriptures  by  Charles  Jennens.  Com- 
position commenced  Aug.  22,  1741;  first  part 
completed  Aug.  28  ;  second  part,  Sept.  6 ;  third 
part  Sept.  1 2 ;  instrumentation,  etc.,  filled  in 
Sept.  14; — in  all  24  days  only.  First  performed 
(during  Handel's  sojourn  in  Ireland)  in  the 
Music  Hall,  Fishamble  Street,  Dublin,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Society  for  relieving  Prisoners,  the 
Charitable  Infirmary,  and  Mercer's  Hospital, 
April  13,  1742.  The  principal  singers  were 
Signora  Avolio,  Mrs.  Cibber,  Church,  and  Rosein- 

1  "Toccate  dlntavolatura  d'Organo  dl  C.  dl  M.'  etc..  lib.  1».  (Boma 
1698).  An  early  example  of  copper-plate  engraving.  Another  book  of 
Toccate  and  3  books  of  Blcercari  were  posthumous. 


METASTASIO. 


315 


grave ;  principal  violin,  Dubourg ;  organist,  Mac- 
laine.  First  performed  in  England  at  Covent 
Garden  Theatre,  March  23,  1743.  Performed 
annually  by  Handel  from  1750  to  1758  in  the 
Chapel  of  the  Foundling  Hospital  for  the  benefit 
of  the  charity.  It  was  the  last  oratorio  given  by 
Handel,  viz.  on  April  6,  1759,  eight  days  only 
before  his  death.  After  the  original  performance 
Handel  revised  and  rewrote  many  portions  of  the 
oratorio  with  great  care.  In  1 789  Mozart  com- 
posed his  additional  accompaniments  to  it,  so 
admirably  executed  as  to  have  received  almost 
universal  acceptance  and  to  be  regarded  as  nearly 
an  integral  part  of  the  composition.  No  musical 
work  has  had  such  long,  continuous,  and  enduring 
popularity  as  the  Messiah,  nor  has  any  other  so 
materially  aided  the  cause  of  charity.  Much  of 
the  veneration  with  which  it  is  regarded  is,  doubt- 
less, owing  to  the  subject,  but  much  also  must 
be  attributed  to  the  splendid  music,  some  of  which 
— the  stirring  'Glory  to  God,'  the  stupendous 
'Hallelujah,'  and  the  magnificent  'Amen' — is 
'not  for  an  age,  but  for  all  time.'  The  pub- 
lished editions  of  the  oratorio,  in  various  forms, 
are  exceedingly  numerous ;  the  most  interesting 
being  the  facsimile  of  the  original  holograph 
score  (now  in  the  music  library  at  Buckingham 
Palace)  in  photo-lithography,  published  by  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society  in  1868.  Many  his- 
torical and  descriptive  pamphlets,  analyses  of 
the  work,  etc.,  have  been  issued  at  various 
times.  [W.H.H.] 

MESTO,  'sadly';  a  term  used  three  times  by 
Beethoven,  in  the  pianoforte  sonatas,  op.  10, 
no.  3,  and  op.  59,  and  in  the  slow  movement  of 
Quartet  op.  18,  no.  7.  The  slow  movement  of 
the  first  of  these  is  called  Largo  e  mesto,  and  of 
the  second  and  third  Adagio  molto  e  mesto.  It 
is  also  used  by  Chopin  in  the  Mazurkas,  op.  33, 
nos.  i  and  4.  [J.A.F.M.] 

METASTASIO,  Pietro  Antonio  Domenico 
Bonaventuea,  a  celebrated  Italian  poet,  son  of 
Trapassi,  of  Assisi,  a  papal  soldier,  was  born  in 
Rome  Jan.  3,  1698.  As  a  child  he  showed  an 
astonishing  power  of  improvisation,  which  so 
struck  Gravina,  that,  with  his  parents'  consent, 
he  took  him  into  his  family,  had  him  educated, 
and  changed  his  2name.  He  was  studying  the 
classics,  and  engaged  in  translating  the  Iliad 
into  Italian  verse,  when  his  benefactor  died 
suddenly — a  loss  he  felt  deeply,  although  he 
was  eventually  consoled  by  the  attachment  of 
Maria  Bulgarini  the  singer.  In  the  meantime 
his  fame  had  reached  Vienna,  and,  at  the  in- 
stigation of  Apostolo  Zeno,  the  late  court  poet, 
the  Emperor  Charles  VI.  offered  him  that  post. 
He  arrived  in  Vienna  in  1730,  and  remained 
there  till  his  death,  April  12,  1782,  living  with 
his  friend  Martines  in  the  '  Michaeler  Haus.' 
Henceforth  he  furnished  the  principal  attraction 
at  the  private  festivals  of  the  Court,  composing 
verses  to  be  recited  or  sung  by  the  young  Arch- 
duchesses, set  to  music  in  the  latter  case  by  the 
Court  composers,  Reutter,  Predieri,  Caldara,  or 

2  '  Hetastasio.'-ctrapassamento,  or  transition.  Is  a  play  on  Trapassi- 


316 


METASTASIS 


METRE. 


Bonno.  Metastasio  was  also  musical ;  he  played 
the  harpsichord,  sang  ('  come  un  serafino,'  as  he 
used  to  say)  and  composed.1  He  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  originator  of  a  real  improvement 
in  the  musical  drama,  though  long  since  super- 
seded. His  popularity  as  a  dramatic  poet  was 
great ;  the  charm,  grace,  melody,  and  sweetness 
of  his  verse  induced  the  composers  to  overlook 
the  absence  of  contrast  and  strong  passion ;  and 
in  consequence  some  of  his  libretti  have  been  set 
as  many  as  thirty  or  forty  times. 

Mozart's  'Clemenza  di  Tito'  is  the  solitary 
example  of  Metastasio's  dramas  to  be  seen  od  the 
boards  at  the  present  day.  His  poems  include  29 
dramas,  8  oratorios,  39  pieces  de  circonstance, 
nearly  50  cantatas  and  seen  as ;  elegies,  idyls,  son- 
nets, canzonas,  sestines,  terzines,  etc.,  published  in 
nearly  50  different  editions.2  His  portrait  has  often 
been  engraved ;  that  by  Mansfield  and  Heath 
after  Steiner  is  the  best.  Burney  describes  his 
appearance  in  177a  in  enthusiastic  terms.3  There 
are  also  busts  and  medallions  of  him.  He  was 
buried  in  a  vault  in  the  Michaeler  church,  and 
in  1855  an  amateur  named  Galvagni  placed  a 
marble  monument  to  his  memory  (by  Luccardi) 
in  the  church  of  the  Minorites,  bearing  the  fol- 
lowing lines  by  the  Abbe"  Guido  Ferrari : — 

•Dat  patriam  Assisium,  nomen  Eoma,  Austria  famam, 
Plausum  orbis,  tumulum  haec  urna  Metastasio.' 


•Chronological  List  of  Metastasio's  Secular  Dra- 
mas, with  the  chief  composers,  and  dates  of 
production. 


Didone  abbandonata.  Sarro,  1724 ; 

Hasse,  1743 ;  Jomelll,  1749 ;  Bon- 
no. 1752. 
Si  face.    Porpora,  1726;  Leo,  1737. 
Slroe.    Vinci,  1726 ;  Handel,  1728 ; 

Hasse,  1733. 
•Catone  in  TJ  tica.    Vinci,  1727 ;  Jo- 
melll, 1749. 
Ezio.  Auletta,  1728;  Porpora,  1729; 

Jomelll,  1749;  Hasse,  1755;  Graun, 

1755;  Gluck,  1763. 
Semiramlde.  Vinci.  1729;  Porpora, 

1729;  Hasse.  1747;  Gluck,  1748  j 

Meyerbeer,  1819. 
Alessandro  nell'  Indie.  Vinci,  1729 ; 

Handel  (as 'Poro'),  1731;  Hasse 

fai'deoflde1),  1731. 
Artaserse.  Vinci,  1730 ;  Hasse,  1740; 

Gluck,  1741 ;  Galuppi.  1749 ;  G. 

Scarlatti,  1763:  40  settings  in  all. 
Demetrlo.     Caldara,  1731;  Gluck 

(as  'Cleonlce 0,1742. 
Adriano  In  Sirla.    Caldara,  1732; 

Hasse,  1752;  26  settings  in  all. 
Issipile.    F.  Contl,  1732. 
-Olimpiade.  Caldara,  1733 ;  Wagen- 

seil.  1749;    Hasse,  1756;    (,ass- 

mann,  1764. 
Demofoonte.  Caldara,  1733;  Gluck, 

1742;  Hasse,  1748. 
Xa  Clemenza  di  Tito.     Caldara, 

1734  ;    Hasse,  1737 ;   Wagenseil. 

1746;  Gluck,  1751;  G.  Scarlatti, 

1760;  Mozart.  1791. 


Achllle  In  Sciro.     Caldara,  1736; 

Jomelll,  1749 ;  Hasse,  1759. 
Clro  riconosciuto.    Caldara,  1736; 

Hasse,  1751. 
Temistocle.    Caldara,  1736. 
Zenobia.    Predierl,  1740. 
Antigono.    Hasse,  1743. 
Ipermestra.    Hasse,  1744. 
Attilio  Begolo.    Hasse,  175a 
n  Re  Pastore.  Bonno,  1751 ;  Sartl, 

1753;  Hasse,  1755;  Gluck,  1756; 

Mozart,  1775. 
L'Eroe  Cinese.  Bonno,  1752;  Hasse, 

1763;  Gluck,  1754 ;  Sacchinl,  1771  ; 

Cimarosa.  1783. 
L'Isola  disabitata.    Bonno,  1754; 

Jomelll,  1762  ;  G.  Scarlatti,  1763; 

Haydn,  1779 ;  Spontini,  1798. 
Nlttetl.  Jomelll,  1759 ;  Hasse,  1759 ; 

Sartl,  1765;  Sacchinl,  1774. 
Alclde  al  liivio.    Hasse,  1760;  Pal- 

siello,  1779. 
n  Trlonfo  di  Clelia.    Gluck,  1760; 

Hasse,  1762. 
Tetide.    Gluck,  1760. 
Egeria.    Hasse,  1764. 
Romolo  ed  Ersilia.    Hasse.  1765. 
IkParnasso  confuso.    Gluck,  1765. 
II  Trlonfo  d'Amore.    Gassmann, 

1765. 
Partenope.    Hasse,  1767. 
H  Euggiero,  owero  L'erolca  gratl- 

tudine.    Hasse,  1771. 


i  Cappi  of  Vienna  published  his  '  XXXVI  Canzonl  a  Sole  tre  Tod.* 

2  Vol.  1.  of  'Opere  del  Slgnor  Abbate  Pletro  Metastasio,'  17  small 
toIs.  12mo.  (Nice  1785),  contains  a  life  by  Cristinl.'  A  selection  of 
his  poems  was  published  In  Paris  (1804)  with  the  title  'Pensieri  di 
Metastasio.'    Burney  wrote  his  ■  Memoirs  *  (London  1796). 

3  'For  that  time  of  life  [he  was  about  74]  he  is  the  handsomest 
man  I  ever  beheld.  There  are  painted  on  his  countenance  all  the 
genius,  goodness,  propriety,  benevolence,  and  rectitude  which  con- 
stantly characterise  his  writings.  I  could  not  keep  my  eyes  off  his  face, 
It  was  so  pleasing  and  worthy  of  contemplation.  —  Present  State  of 
Jilusic  in  Germany,  1.  295. 


La  Passlone  etc.    Caldara,  1730. 
Sant'  Elena.    Caldara,  1731. 
La  Morte  d'Abel.    Caldara,  1732. 
Giuseppe  riconosciuto.      Forsile, 
1733. 


Sacred  Dramas  or  Oratorios,  performed  in  the 
Imperial  Chapel,  Vienna,  in  Passion  week. 

La    Betulia    liberata.      Eeutter, 

1734. 
Gioas,    Be   dl    Giuda.      Eeutier, 

1735, 
Isacco.    Predierl,  174a 

One  drama,  « Per  la  Fest.  di  S.  Natale,'  com- 
posed by  G.  Costanza.was  performed  at  Rome,i  72  7, 
in  a  theatre  with  scenery  and  action.       [C.F.P.] 

METRE,  the  rhythmic  element  of  Song :  as 
exemplified,  in  Music,  in  the  structure  of  melodious 
phrases — in  Poetry,  in  that  of  regular  Verses. 

As  the  rhythm  of  Poetry  is  measured  by 
syllables  and  feet,  so  is  that  of  Music  by  beats 
and  bars.  The  two  systems,  notwithstanding 
their  apparent  difference,  may  almost  be  de- 
scribed as  interchangeable :  since  it  would  be 
quite  possible  to  express  the  swing  of  a  Melody 
in  Dactyls  and  Spondees,  or  the  scansion  of  a 
Verse  in  Crotchets  and  Quavers.  Upon  this  coin- 
cidence, Music  and  Poetry  are  almost  entirely 
dependent  for  the  intimacy  of  their  mutual  re- 
lations :  and,  as  we  shall  presently  shew,  these 
relations  influence  pure  Instrumental  Composition 
no  less  forcibly  than  Vocal  Music  ;  the  themes  of 
a  Sonata  being  as  easily  reducible  to  metrical  feet 
as  those  of  an  Opera.  Themes  which  are  not  so 
reducible — in  other  words,  Melodies  which  exhibit 
no  rhythmic  correspondence  with  any  imaginable 
kind  of  poetical  Verse — may,  indeed,  be  safely 
assumed  to  be  bad  ones.  We  shall  most  readily 
make  this  position  intelligible,  by  considering  the 
syllables  and  feet  which  form  the  basis  of  Poetical 
Metre ;  and  then  shewing  their  application  to  the 
phrases  of  a  regularly-constructed  Melody. 

Syllables  are  of  three  kinds ;  long  (-),  short  (w), 
and  common  (-w).  One  long  syllable  is  reckoned 
as  the  equivalent  of  two  short  ones.  A  common 
syllable  may  be  treated  either  as  long,  or  short,  at 
pleasure.  In  Classical  Prosody,  the  length  or 
shortness  of  syllables  is  determined  by  the  laws  of 
quantity.  In  modern  Poetry,  it  is  dependent  upon 
accent  alone ;  all  accented  syllables  being  considered 
long,  and  all  unaccented  ones  short,  whatever  may 
be  the  quantity  of  their  respective  vowels.  This 
distinction  is  of  great  importance  to  the  Com- 
poser ;  for  Poetry  regulated  by  quantity  has  very 
little  affinity  with  the  Sister  Art.  The  associa- 
tion of  what  we  now  call  Tune,  with  Sapphics 
or  Elegiacs,  would  probably  be  impracticable.  But 
the  regular  cadence  of  English  or  Italian  verses, 
in  which  the  claims  of  quantity  are  utterly  ig- 
nored, seems  almost  to  demand  it  as  a  necessity.4 

The  union  of  two,  three,  or  four  syllables,  con- 
stitutes a  foot.  Four  forms  only  of  the  dissyl- 
labic foot  are  possible — 

Pyrrhic ^.^1  Iambus v^- 

Spondee 1  Trochee,  (or  Chorius)  .    -v» 

Of  trisyllabic  feet  there  are  eight  varieties — 


Tribrach 

Molossus      .    .    .    .    • 

Dactyl ■ 

Anapaest 

Bacchius     .    .    .    .    ■ 

I  Xot  very  long  ago,  a  celebrated  Poet,  experimenting  upon  the 
possibility  of  producing  good  English  Hexameters,  wrote  some 
curious  examples  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  quantity— a  pro- 
ceeding which  left  the  real  point  at  issue  untouched. 


Antibacehius  (or  Palim- 

bacchius) .    .    .    .    ■ 

Amphibrachys.    .    .    1 

Amphimacer  (or  Cre- 

tic) 


METKE. 

Tetrasyllable  feet — always  divisible  into  two 
dissyllabic  members — are  sixteen  in  number — 


METRE. 


317 


Proceleusmaticus 
Dispondasus  . 
Diiambus  .  . 
Ditroclimis  ,  . 
Choriambus  .  . 
Antispastua  .  . 
Ionicus  a  majore 
Ionicus  a  minore 


Paeon  primus  .  . 
Paeon  secundus .  . 
Paeon  tertius  .  . 
Pason  quartus  .  . 
Epitritus  primus  . 
Epitritus  secundus 
Epitritus  tertius  . 
Epitritus  quartus  . 


'  Two  feet  usually  constitute  a  Metre  (or  Dipodia) . 
But,  in  Dactylic  Verse,  each  foot  is  regarded  as  a 
complete  Metre  in  itself,  even  when  the  charac- 
teristic Dactyl  is  intermixed  with  feet  of  some 
other  kind.  Each  tetrasyllabic  foot  is  also 
treated,  by  reason  of  its  composite  character,  as 
an  entire  Metre. 

Verses '  are  classed  according  to  the  number  of 
Metres  they  contain :  thus,  the  Monometer, 
Dimeter,  Trimeter,  Tetrameter,  Pentameter,  and 
Hexameter,  contain  one,  two,  three,  four,  five, 
and  six  Metres,  respectively. 

When  all  the  Metres  are  perfect,  the  Verse 
is  called  Acatalectic.  When  the  last  syllable  of 
the  last  foot  is  wanting,  it  is  Catalectic.  When 
two  syllables  are  wanting,  or  an  entire  foot,  it  is 
Brachycatalectic.  When  a  superfluous  long  syl- 
lable is  added  on,  at  the  end  of  the  Verse,  it  is 
called  Hypercatalectic. 

Most  Verses  are  marked,  in  or  near  the  middle, 
by  a  slight  pause,  called  a  Ccesura,  which  must 
necessarily  fall,  either  on  a  monosyllable,  or  on 
the  last  syllable  of  a  word  ;  as  in  the  well-known 
Alexandrine — 

[/TV] 

'Which,  like  a  wounded  snake,  drags  its  slow  length 
along': 

and  a  similar  peculiarity  is  observable  in  innumer- 
able well-constructed  Melodies  ;  as  in  the  Giga  of 
Corelli's  Sonata  in  A — 


The  five  species  of  Verse  most  frequently  used 
are,  the  Iambic,  the  Trochaic,  the  Spondaic,  the 
Anapaestic,  and  the  Dactylic,  each  of  which  may 
be  used  in  the  form  of  a  Dimeter,  Trimeter,  or 
Tetrameter, either  Catalectic,  or  Acatalectic.  But 
no  kind  of  Verse  is  strictly  limited  to  feet  of  one 
particular  order.  We  constantly  find  an  Iambus 
substituted  for  a  Trochee ;  or,  a  Trochee  for  a 
Spondee.  In  Dactylic  Verse,  especially,  the 
Spondee  is  of  very  frequent  occurrence,  and  the 
Trochee  by  no  means  uncommon.  In  like  manner, 
the  phrasing  of  a  Melody  may,  at  any  moment, 
be  relieved  by  the  introduction  of  a  subordinate 
figure,  though,  if  the  Melody  be  good,  the  new 
feature  will  be  no  less  reducible  to  rule  than  the 
original  one. 

The  variety  of  Metre  permissible  in  modern 
Poetry  is  unlimited ;  and  as  an  equal  amount  of 
freedom  is  claimed   in  the  rhythm  of  modern 


i  Throughout  this  article,  the  word  Verse,  Is  used  in  Its  strict  sense. 
as  Indicating  a  single  line  of  Poetry.  In  common  parlance,  the  word 
Is  frequently  treated  as  the  synonym  of  Stanza:  but  a  Stanza  U  really 
a  combination  ai  several  Verse*. 


Music,  it  would  manifestly  be  impossible  to  enu- 
merate even  a  tenth  part  of  the  different  forms 
now  in  common  use.  Nevertheless,  as  all  are 
constructed  upon  the  same  general  principle,  the 
Student  will  find  no  difficulty  in  making  an 
analysis  of  any  that  may  fall  under  his  notice. 
This  analysis  cannot  be  too  carefully  conducted. 
Its  importance  is  obvious  enough,  where  words 
have  to  be  set  to  music  :  but,  as  we  have  already 
intimated,  it  is  equally  important  in  other  cases ; 
for,  without  a  sound  practical  acquaintance  with 
the  laws  of  Poetical  Metre,  it  is  not  easy  to  invest 
even  the  subject  of  a  Fugue  with  the  freshness 
and  individuality  which  so  plainly  distinguish  the 
works  of  the  Great  Masters  from  writings  of  in- 
ferior merit.  An  instrumental  Theme,  devoid  of 
marked  rhythmic  character,  is  never  really  effec- 
tive. Great  Composers  seem  to  have  felt  this,  as 
if  by  instinct ;  hence,  their  Subjects  are  always 
reducible  to  metrical  feet.  All  the  Metres  most 
common  in  Poetry,  and  innumerable  others,  have 
been  used  by  them,  over  and  over  again  :  some- 
times, in  their  strictest  form ;  but,  generally,  with 
greater  variety  of  treatment  than  that  allowable 
in  Verse,  and  with  a  more  frequent  employment 
of  the  various  tetrasyllabic  feet,  every  one  of 
which  falls  into  its  proper  place  in  the  economy  of 
Instrumental  Music.  We  do  not,  indeed,  always 
find  the  foot  and  the  bar  beginning  together. 
This  can  only  be  the  case  when  the  foot  begins 
with  a  long  syllable,  and  the  musical  phrase  with 
a  strong  accent.  But,  in  all  cases,  the  corre- 
spondence between  the  two  modes  of  measurement 
is  uniform,  and  exact;  and  to  its  all-powerful 
influence  many  a  famous  melody  owes  half  its 
charm.  We  cannot  carefully  examine  any 
really  fine  composition,  without  convincing  our- 
selves of  the  truth  of  this  great  law,  which  we 
will  endeavour  to  illustrate  by  the  aid  of  a  few 
examples,  selected  from  works  of  universally 
acknowledged  merit. 

The  theme  of  the  Scherzo  in  Beethoven's&cmaia 
quasi  una  Fantasia  in  Cj  minor  (op.  27)  is  in 
Iambic  Dimeter  Acatalectic — the  '  Long  Metre ' 
of  English  Hymnologists  :— 


The  Rondo  of  Mendelssohn's  Pianoforte  Con- 
certo in  G  minor  (op.  25)  also  begins  in  Iambic- 
Dimeter  ;  with  the  peculiarly  happy  use  of  a  Paeon 
quartus,  in  the  fourth,  and  several  subsequent 
places — 

w        -|a<    -lu        -  |.W  W  W      -11 


Mozart's  Sonata  for  Pianoforte  and  Violin,  in 
Bb,  starts  in  Trochaic  Dimeter  Catalectic — 
-     ^1     -     -   II    -     ~   I    -  (-)  II 


The  well-known  Subject  of  the  Slow  Movement 


318 


METRE. 


in  Haydn's  '  Surprise  Symphony '  is  in  Spondaic 
Dimeter  Catalectic — 


The  Theme  of  Weber's  Rondo  hrillante  in  Eb 
(op.  62),  is  in  Anapaestic  Tetrameter  Brachycata- 
lectic,  very  rigidly  maintained — 

^^    -  1  ^~    -n~ 

v^     w  -|UW     -I 


The  Slow  Movement  of  Beethoven's  Symphony 
in  A,  is  in  alternate  verses  of  Acatalectic  and 
Catalectic  Dactylic  Tetrameter,  with  a  Spondee 
in  each  of  the  even  places — 

-     II     -  U     u     II-  -       II 


A  no  less  captivating  alternation  of  Amphi- 
macers  and  Trochees  is  found  in  the  Tema  of 
Mozart's  Pianoforte  Sonata  in  A — 


It  would  be  easy  to  multiply  examples,  ad 
infinitum ;  but  these  will  be  sufficient  to  shew,  on 
no  mean  authority,  the  importance  of  a  subject, 
which,  though  too  often  neglected  as  a  branch  of 
musical  education,  will  well  repay  a  little  diligent 
study.  [W.S.R.] 

METRONOME  (Germ.  Metronom,  and  Takt- 
messer ;  Fr.  Metronome.  From  the  Gr.  p.krpov, 
a  measure,  and  vop.os,  a  law).  An  instrument, 
constructed  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  com- 
posers to  indicate  the  exact  pace  at  which  they 
wish  their  works  to  be  performed. 

The  Great  Masters  of  the  earlier  Schools  left 
the  Tempi  of  their  compositions  entirely  to  the 
discretion  of  the  executant.  In  doing  this, 
they  incurred  no  risk  whatever  of  misconcep- 
tion: for,  until  the  close  of  the  16th  century, 
and  even  later,  the  Composer  was  almost  always 
a  Singer  in  the  Choir  for  which  lie  wrote ;  and 
his  relations  with  his  fellow  Choristers  were  in- 
finitely closer  than  those  existing  between  a 
modern  Composer  and  the  Orchestra  under  his 
control.  But,  the  change  of  style  introduced  by 
Claudio  Monteverde,  added  to  the  impulse  given 
to  Instrumental  Music  and  Vocal  Music  with 
Instrumental  Accompaniments,  after  the  be- 
ginning of  the  1 7th  century,  changed  these  rela- 
tions very  materially.  The  invention  of  the 
Opera  brought  new  ideas  into  the  field.     The 


METRONOME. 

individuality  of  the  Composer  began  gradually  to 
throw  the  characteristics  of  the  '  School '  into  the 
background :  and  Musicians,  no  longer  guided 
by  traditional  laws,  soon  became  alive  to  the 
necessity  for  giving  some  sort  of  direction  as  to 
the  manner  in  which  their  pieces  were  to  be 
sung  or  played.  Hence  arose  the  employment 
of  such  words  as  Grave,  Allegro,  Adagio,  and 
other  terms  of  like  import,  which  have  remained 
in  common  use  to  the  present  day.  As  the  re- 
sources of  modern  Art  became  more  fully  de- 
veloped, even  these  directions  were  found  to  be 
insufficient  for  their  intended  purpose.  A  hun- 
dred different  varieties  of  Allegro  were  possible. 
How  was  it  possible  to  indicate  to  the  performer 
which  of  these  the  Composer  intended  him  to 
adopt  ?  The  number  of  technical  terms  was 
multiplied  indefinitely ;  but,  it  was  clear  that 
none  were  sufficiently  explicit  to  remove  the 
difficulty ;  and,  at  a  very  early  period,  the  use 
of  the  Pendulum  was  suggested  as  the  only 
rational  means  of  solving  it. 

To  Etienne  Loulie — not  Francois,  as  has  been 
Bometimes  supposed — belongs  the  credit  of  having 
first  turned  this^idea  to  practical  account.  In  a 
work,  entitled  Siemens  ou  principes  de  Miisique, 
mis  dans  un  nouvcl  ordre,  (Paris,  1696,  Amster- 
dam, 1698),  he  describes  an  instrument,  called 
a  Chronometre,  formed  of  a  bullet,  suspended  to 
a  cord,  and  provided  with  means  for  lengthen- 
ing or  shortening  the  latter  at  pleasure,  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  indicate  seventy-two  different 
degrees  of  velocity.  This  was  a  good  beginning. 
Nevertheless,  the  machine  does  not  seem  to  have 
become  generally  known ;  for,  in  many  curious 
treatises  of  later  date,  we  find  vague  glimmer- 
ings of  similar  ideas,  put  forth  in  apparent 
ignorance  of  Louli^'s  discovery.  Joseph  Sauveur 
— the  inventor  of  the  word  '  Acoustics,'  and  the 
author  of  a  series  of  valuable  papers  on  Music 
contributed  to  the  Mimoires  de  V Academie,  be- 
i  tween  the  years  1700  and  1711 — is  said  to  have 
j  proposed  a  Chronometre  of  his  own.  In  1732, 
an  article  on  a  species  of  Musical  Time-keeper 
I  was  contributed  to  the  Mimoires  des  Sciences  by 
j  Enbrayg.  Gabory  recommended  the  use  of  the 
Pendulum,  in  his  Manuel  utile  et  curieux  sur 
la  mesure  du  terns,  (Paris,  1771).  John  Harri- 
son's '  Description  concerning  such  a  machine  as 
will  afford  a  nice  and  true  mensuration  of  time ; 
as  also  an  account  of  the  Scale  of  Music,'  (Lon- 
don, 1775),  serves  to  shew  that  the  connection 
between  Music  and  Chronometry  was  not  un- 
noticed in  England.  Davaux  wrote  an  article 
on  the  subject  for  the  Journal  Encyclopidiqut, 
in  1784.  Not  long  afterwards,  Pelletier  made 
use  of  the  Pendulum  in  a  way  sufficiently  in- 
genious to  call  forth  a  treatise  on  his  invention 
from  Abel  Burja,  of  Berlin,  in  1790.  In  the 
same  year,  Breitkopf  &  Hartel  printed,  at 
Leipzig,  Ztcolf  geistliche  prosaische  Gesange,  viit 
Beschreibung  eines  Taktmessers,  by  J.  G.  Weiske. 
And  enough  was  done,  both  in  France,  and  in 
Germany,  to  shew,  that,  even  before  the  close  of 
the  1 8th  century,  the  matter  had  attracted  no 
small  amount  of  serious  attention. 


METRONOME. 

In  1813,  Gottfried  Weber  advocated  the  use 
of  a  Pendulum,  formed  of  a  small  bullet  at- 
tached to  the  end  of  a  string,  upon  which  the 
necessary  divisions  were  marked  by  knots ;  the 
whole  being  so  contrived  that  it  could  be  car- 
ried in  the  pocket  —  a  far  more  simple  and 
convenient  arrangement  than  that  of  LouRe*.1 
New  plans  were  proposed  by  G.  E.  Stockel, 
Zmeskall,  and  other  Musicians  of  reputation; 
and  Beethoven  is  known  to  have  discussed  them 
with  interest.  The  subject  excited  an  equal 
amount  of  attention  in  England,  where  many 
attempts  were  made  to  produce  a  perfect  instru- 
ment. Dr.  Crotch,  discarding  Loulie"s  cord,  used, 
in  place  of  it,  a  stiff  Pendulum,  formed  of  a  long 
thin  strip  of  box-wood,  graduated  in  inches,  and 
hung  upon  a  suitable  frame.  Another  Musical 
Time-keeper,  invented  by  Mr.  Henry  Smart 
(brother  to  the  late  Sir  George),  is  described  in 
the  Quarterly  Musical  Review  (vol.  iii.,  London, 
1 821).  Both  are  now  obsolete  :  but  the  writer 
remembers  seeing  instruments  of  the  kind  re- 
commended by  Dr.  Crotch,  exposed  for  sale,  not 
very  many  years  ago,  at  Messrs.  Erat's  Harp 
Manufactory,  in  Berners  St. 

All  these  inventions  failed,  however,  more  or 
less  completely,  through  the  inconvenience  caused 
by  the  length  of  the  Pendulum  necessary  to 
produce  beats  of  even  moderate  slowness.  In 
order  to  perform  sixty  oscillations  in  a  minute,  a 
Pendulummust,  in  our  latitude,  be  39/2  incheslong. 
One  long  enough  to  execute  forty  woidd  be  diffi- 
cult to  manage.  This  difficulty,  which  had  long 
been  recognised  as  a  bar  to  farther  improvement, 
was  eventually  removed,  through  the  ingenuity  of 
a  celebrated  Mechanist,  named  Winkel,  an  in- 
habitant of  Amsterdam,  who  first  entertained  the 
idea  of  constructing  a  Metronome  upon  a  system 
before  untried,  involving  the  use  of  a  certain 
kind  of  Double-Pendulum,  the  motions  of  which 
are  governed  by  mathematical  laws  of  extreme 
complexity,  though,  practically  considered,  the 
principle  is  so  simple  that  we  trust  a  very  few 
words  may  suffice  to  explain  it. 

If  a  rod  be  suspended  from  its  centre,  and 
equally  weighted  at  both  ends,  its  centres  of  mo- 
tion and  gravity  will  coincide,  and  its  position, 
when  at  rest,  will  be  perfectly  horizontal.  But,  if 
the  weight  at  one  end  be  diminished,  or  moved 
a  little  nearer  to  the  central  pivot  than  the 
other,  the  centre  of  gravity  will  be  displaced,  and 
the  unaltered  end  will  gradually  descend,  until 
the  rod  hangs  perpendicularly ;  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  change  of  position  takes  place  depend- 
ing upon  the  amount  of  diminution  to  which 
the  upper  weight  is  subjected,  or  its  nearness  to 
the  pivot.  In  either  case,  the  upper  weight  will 
exercise  so  strong  a  retarding  influence  on  the 
lower  one,  that  by  carefully  adjusting  the  pro- 
portion between  weights  and  distances,  it  will  be 
found  possible  to  make  a  Double  Pendulum,  of 
the  kind  we  have  described,  oscillate  as  slowly 
as  an  ordinary  one  five  or  six  times  its  length. 

1  A  pocket  Metronome  was  registered  by  Greaves  In  1850,  and 
another.  '  scala  MSU1,  system  Decher,'  has  Just  been  patented  by 
Aibl,  of  Munich. 


METRONOME. 


319 


The  possibility  of  constructing  a  Metronome 
upon  this  principle  is  said  to  have  first  sug- 
gested itself  to  Winkel  about  the  year  1812; 
but  it  is  difficult,  in  the  face  of  conflicting  state- 
ments, to  arrive  at  a  just  conclusion  as  to  the 
circumstances  under  which  his  invention  was 
first  given  to  the  world.  It  is,  indeed,  known  to 
have  been  warmly  commended  by  the  Dutch 
Academy  of  Sciences,  in  a  report  dated  Aug.  14, 

1 81 5  ;  and,  judging  from  this,  we  may  surmise 
that  it  had,  by  that  time,  assumed  a  complete, 
if  not  a  perfect  form.  We  have,  however,  no 
definite  proof  of  its  then  condition.  It  may 
have  been  finished,  or  it  may  not :  but,  finished 
or  unfinished,  it  is  certain  that  Winkel  derived 
very  little  benefit  from  his  discovery.  Johann 
Nepomuk  Maelzel,  an  accomplished  Musician, 
and  a  Mechanist  of  European  reputation,  had 
long  meditated  an  improvement  upon  Stockel's 
machine  for  beating  time ;  and  succeeded,  about 
this  time,  in  producing  a  species  of  so-called 
'  Chronometer,'  which  fairly  satisfied  Salieri, 
Weigl,  and  even  Beethoven  himself.  Fortified 
by  the  approval  of  these  high  authorities,  he  de- 
termined to  bring  out  his  invention  in  London. 
Meanwhile,  he  exhibited  it,  in  company  with 
other  mechanical  curiosities,  in  a  travelling  mu- 
seum, which  he  carried  about  with  him,  from  city 
to  city,  through  some  of  the  principal  countries 
of  Europe.  Among  other  places,  he  visited  Am- 
sterdam, where  he  saw  Winkel's  instrument. 
Struck    with   the    superiority    of  the    Double- 

^Pendulum  to  the  principle  adopted  in  his  own 
timekeeper,  he  at  once  offered  to  purchase  the 
invention.  Winkel  declined  to  cede  his  rights  ; 
but  Maelzel,  having  now  learned  all  he  wanted 
to  know,  proceeded  to  Paris,  patented  the 
Double  Pendulum  in  his    own  name,    and    in 

1816  set  up  the  first  Metronome  Manufactory  on 
record.  Winkel  afterwards  obtained  possession 
of  one  of  the  Paris  instruments ;  established  its 
identity  with  his  own ;  and  (as  Wurzbach  states) 
took  advantage  of  Maelzel's  return  to  Holland 
to  submit  his  case  to  the  '  Niederlandische  Aka- 
demie'  for  decision.  A  Commission  was  ap- 
pointed, to  investigate  its  merits :  and,  as  it  was 
proved  that  the  graduated  scale  was  the  only 
part  of  the  instrument  really  originated  by  Mael- 
zel, a  formal  judgment  was  recorded  in  Winkel's 
favour — too  late,  however,  to  do  him  full  justice, 
for,  to  this  day,  his  share  in  the  work  is,  by 
common  consent,  suppressed,  and  Maelzel  is  uni- 
versally regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the  instrument 
which  bears  his  name.2 

The  first  Metronomes  made  at  the  new  Manu- 
factory differed  so  little,  in  any  point  of  vital 
consequence,  from  those  now  in  daily  use,  that  a 
description  of  the  one  will  include  all  that  need 
be  said  concerning  the  other.  The  most  import- 
ant  part  of  the   business   is   a   flat  steel   rod, 

»  We  are  Indebted,  for  most  of  these  particulars,  to  Mr.  A.  W.  Thayer, 
whose  careful  researches  have  placed  him  in  possession  of  much  valu- 
able Information  on  this  subject.  Bernsdorf  tells  a  different  story,  to 
the  effect,  that  Maelzel,  unable  to  overcome  some  difficulty  connected 
with  his  improvement  of  Stockel's  Time-keeper,  took  Winkel  Into  con- 
sultation :  that  Winkel  solved  the  problem  for  him ;  and  that  he  then 
proceeded  to  1'aris,  and  there  patented  Winkel's  invention  In  his  own 
name. 


320 


METRONOME. 


MEYERBEER. 


about  seven  and  a  half  inches  long,  and  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  in  breadth,  pierced,  at  a  distance  of 
about  five  and  a  half  inches  from  its  upper  end, 
by  a  hole,  through  which  is  passed  the  pivot 
upon  which  it  is  made  to  oscillate.  This  rod — 
answering  to  the  Double-Pendulum  already  de- 
scribed— is  suspended,  by  means  of  the  pivot,  in 
front  of  a  wooden  case,  and  kept  in  a  perpen- 
dicular position  by  a  stout  leaden  bullet,  fixed  to 
its  shorter  end,  which,  thus  weighted,  sinks,  of 
course,  when  at  rest,  to  the  lowest  place.  On  its 
upper  and  longer  end  is  placed  a  smaller  weight, 
of  brass,  made  to  slide  up  and  down  at  will,  and 
so  proportioned  to  the  lower  weight,  that,  by 
changing  its  position,  the  Pendulum  may  be 
made  to  execute  any  number  of  oscillations, 
between  40  and  208,  in  a  minute.  As  a  guide 
to  the  position  of  the  upper  weight,  the  rod  is 
backed  by  a  graduated  scale — really  the  in- 
vention of  Maelzel — affixed  to  the  wooden  case  : 
and,  by  means  of  this,  the  instrument  may  be  so 
adjusted  as  to  beat,  silently,  for  a  few  minutes, 
at  any  required  pace.  To  render  it  still  more 
effective — capable  of  beating  for  a  longer  time, 
and,  with  a  distinctly  audible  sound — it  is  pro- 
vided with  a  strong  spiral  spring,  adapted  to  an 
escapement  exactly  similar  to  that  of  an  ordinary 
loud-ticking  clock.1  In  this  form,  it  is  complete 
enough  to  answer  its  intended  purpose,  perfectly  : 
nevertheless,  an  attempt  is  sometimes  made  to 
increase  its  efficiency  still  farther,  by  the  ad- 
dition of  a  little  Bell,  which  can  be  made  to 
strike  at  every  second,  third,  fourth,  or  sixth 
oscillation  of  the  Pendulum,  and  thus  to  indi- 
cate the  various  accents,  as  well  as  the  simple 
beats  of  the  bar.  The  scale  does  not  include  all 
the  units  between  40  and  108 — which,  indeed, 
would  be  a  mere  useless  encumbrance — but  pro- 
ceeds, from  40,  to  60,  by  twos ;  from  60,  to  72,  by 
threes;  from  72,  to  120,  by  fours;  from  120,  to 
144,  by  sixes;  and,  from  144,  to  208,  by  eights. 
In  order  to  indicate  the  exact  Tempo  in  which  he 
wishes  his  piece  to  be  performed,  the  Composer 
uses  a  formula,  beginning  with  the  letters  M.  M. 
followed  by  a  Musical  Note,  connected,  by  the 
sign  =,  with  a  number.  The  letters  signify 
Maelzel's  Metronome.  The  Note  implies  that  the 
beats  of  the  Pendulum  are  to  be  understood  as 
representing  Minims,  Crotchets,  or  Quavers,  as 
the  case  may  be.  The  number  indicates  the 
place  on  the  graduated  scale  to  the  level  of  which 
the  top  of  the  upper  weight  must  be  raised,  or 
lowered.  Thus,  *M.  M.  p  =  6o,'  would  shew  that 
the  Metronome  was  to  be  so  arranged  as  to  beat 
Minims,  at  the  rate  of  sixty  in  a  minute : 
'  M.  M.  P=  100,'  that  it  was  to  beat  Crotchets,  at 
the  rate  of  a  hundred  in  a  minute.  Some  Me- 
tronomes are  marked  with  the  words  Andante, 
Allegretto,  Allegro,  etc.,  in  addition  to  the  num- 

1  In  the  first  Time-keeper  made  by  Maelzel,  In  his  attempt  to  Im- 
prove upon  StOckers  Chronometer,  the  sound  was  produced  by  a 
Lever,  (HeOel),  striking  upon  a  little  Anvil,  (Ambots).  This  explains  a 
curious  expression  contained  in  a  letter  written,  by  Beethoven,  to 
Zmeskall— *  Ertte  Schvmnvmarm  der  Welt,  und  diet  ohne  Hebtl.'  ('  First 
Bwingman  of  the  world,  and  that  without  a  lever.')  For  a  description 
of  the  instrument— known  as  the  '  Stockel-Maelzel  Chronometer' 
—see  the  AUgemelne  Musikalische  Zeitung  for  Dec.  1, 1813. 


bers.  This  is  a  new,  and  utterly  useless  con- 
trivance: for  it  is  evident,  that,  if  |»  =  ioo  be 
held  to  indicate  Moderate,  P=ioo  will  stand 
for  Allegro,  and  •  =  ioo  for  Largo.  The  word 
Moderato,  therefore,  without  the  Minim,  Crotchet, 
or  Quaver,  to  qualify  it,  means  nothing  at  all ; 
and  it  is  absurd  to  encumber  the  scale  with  it, 
or  with  any  other  technical  terms  whatever. 

By  far  the  best  Metronomes  now  attainable 
are  those  manufactured  in  England  for  Messrs. 
Cocks,  Chappell,  Ashdown  &  Parry,  and  other 
well-known  Music  Publishers.  French  Metro- 
nomes are  far  'less  durable  than  these ;  and,  as 
a  general  rule,  far  less  accurate  time-keepers; 
though  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  meet  with  one 
which  will  beat  evenly  enough,  as  long  as  it 
lasts.  A  very  large  and  loud  Metronome  is 
made  by  Messrs.  Rudall  &  Carte,  of  London, 
for  Military  Bands ;  and  an  instrument  of  this 
kind  may  often  be  used,  with  great  advantage, 
when  a  number  of  vocal  or  instrumental  per- 
formers practise  together :  for,  apart  from  its 
primary  intention,  the  Metronome  is  invaluable 
as  a  means  of  teaching  beginners  to  sing  or  play 
in  time,  and  will,  indeed,  make  '  good  timists ' 
of  many  who  would  be  a  long  while  learning 
to  count  accurately  without  its  aid.       [W.S.R.] 

MEVES,  Augustus  Antoine  Cornelius, 
son  of  Augustus  Anthony  William  (known  as 
William)  Meves,  a  miniature  painter,  was  born 
in  London  Feb.  16,  1785.  He  was  early  taught 
the  pianoforte  by  his  mother,  a  pupil  of  Linley 
and  Sacchini,  and  appeared  in  Edinburgh  in 
1805  as  Mr.  Augustus,  with  considerable  suc- 
cess. He  followed  his  profession  in  London  until 
the  death  of  his  father,  Aug.  1,  181 8,  when  he 
gave  up  teaching  for  speculation  on  the  Stock 
Exchange,  continuing  however  to  compose  and 
arrange  for  his  instrument.  He  died  suddenly 
in  a  cab,  May  9,  1859.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  he  assumed  to  be  the  Dauphin  of  France,  son 
of  Louis  XVI.,  and  alleged  that  he  had  been 
rescued  from  captivity  in  the  Temple  through  the 
instrumentality  of  William  Meves.  His  story 
may  be  read  in  detail  in  '  Authentic  Historical 
Memoirs  of  Louis  Charles,  Prince  Royal,  Dauphin 
of  France,'  etc.,  by  his  sons  Augustus  and  William 
Meves  (London,  Ridgway,  1868).        [W.H.H.] 

MEYERBEER,  Giacomo,  famous  dramatic 
composer,  was  born  at  Berlin,  of  Jewish  parents, 
Sept.  5,  1 791  or  '94.  His  father,  Herz  Beer, 
a  native  of  Frankfort,  was  a  wealthy  banker  in 
Berlin ;  his  mother  (ne'e  Amalie  Waif)  was  a 
woman  of  rare  mental  and  intellectual  gifts, 
and  high  cultivation.  He  was  their  eldest  son, 
and  was  called  Jacob  Meyer,  a  name  he  after- 
wards contracted  and  Italianized  into  Giacomo 
Meyerbeer.  He  seems  to  have  been  the  sole 
member  of  his  family  remarkable  for  musical 
gifts,  but  two  of  his  brothers  achieved  distinc- 
tion in  other  lines ;  Wilhelm  as  an  astronomer, 
and  Michael  (who  died  young)  as  a  poet. 

His  genius  showed  itself  early.  When  hardly 
more  than  an  infant  he  was  able  to  retain  in 

1  Both  dates  are  given. 


MEYERBEER. 

memory  the  popular  tunes  he  heard,  and  to  play 
them  on  the  piano,  accompanying  them  with 
their  appropriate  harmony.  His  first  instructor 
was  Lauska,  an  eminent  pianoforte  player,  and 
pupil  of  Clementi ;  and  old  dementi  himself, 
although  he  had  long  given  up  teaching,  was 
so  much  struek,  during  a  visit  to  Berlin,  with 
the  promise  displayed  in  the  boy's  performance 
as  to  consent  to  give  him  lessons.  As  early  as 
seven  years  old  he  played  in  public  the  D  minor 
Concerto  of  Mozart,  and  two  years  later  was  reck- 
oned one  of  the  best  pianists  in  Berlin.  The 
fact  that,  owiDg  to  the  example  and  patronage  of 
royalty,  music  was  '  the  fashion'  in  the  Prussian 
capital  did  not  prevent  its  being  regarded  by 
the  wealthier  classes  in  the  light  of  a  mere 
pastime,  and  it  is  to  the  credit  of  the  Beers 
that  they  not  only  recognised  their  son's  especial 
bent,  but  did  their  best  to  give  him  a  sound 
professional  training.  It  was  as  a  pianist  that  he 
was  expected  to  win  his  laurels,  but  as  he  had 
also,  from  an  early  age,  shown  much  talent  for 
composition,  he  was  placed  under  Zelter  for  in- 
struction in  theory,  and  subsequently  (for  Zelter's 
rigid  severity  was  insupportable  to  the  young 
prodigy)  under  Bernard  Anselm  Weber,  director 
of  the  Berlin  Opera,  and  a  pupil  of  the  then 
celebrated  Abbe"  Vogler.  An  amiable,  accom- 
plished man,  full  of  enthusiasm  for  art,  Weber 
was  an  inspiring  companion,  but  not  a  com- 
petent theoretical  teacher  for  such  a  pupil.  The 
boy,  whose  industry  was  equal  to  his  talent, 
brought  one  day  to  his  master  a  fugue  on  which 
he  had  expended  an  unusual  amount  of  time  and 
pains,  as  he  thought,  with  success.  So  thought 
Weber,  who,  proud  and  joyful,  sent  off  the 
fugue  as  a  specimen  of  his  pupil's  work  to  his 
old  master,  the  Abbe"  Vogler,  at  Darmstadt.  The 
answer  was  eagerly  looked  for,  but  months 
elapsed  and  nothing  came.  At  last  there  ap- 
peared— not  a  letter,  but  a  huge  packet.  This 
proved  to  contain  a  long  and  exhaustive  treatise 
on  Fugue,  in  three  sections.  The  first  of  these 
was  theoretical,  setting  forth  in  rule  and  maxim 
the  'whole  duty'  of  the  fugue-writer.  The 
second,  entitled  'Scholar's  Fugue,'  contained 
Meyerbeer's  unlucky  exercise,  dissected  and 
criticised,  bar  by  bar,  and  pronounced  bad.  The 
third,  headed  '  Master's  Fugue,'  consisted  of  a 
fugue  by  Vogler,  on  Meyerbeer's  subject,  analysed 
like  the  preceding  one,  to  show  that  it  was  good.1 

Weber  was  astonished  and  distressed,  but 
Meyerbeer  set  to  work  and  wrote  another  fugue, 
in  eight  parts,  in  accordance  with  his  new  lights. 
This,  with  a  modest  letter,  he  sent  to  Vogler. 
The  answer  soon  came.  '  Young  man !  Art 
opens  to  you  a  glorious  future  !  Come  to  me  at 
Darmstadt.  You  shall  be  to  me  as  a  son,  and 
you  shall  slake  your  thirst  at  the  sources  of 
musical  knowledge.'  Such  a  prospect  was  not 
to  be  resisted,  and  in  1810  Meyerbeer  became 
an  inmate  of  Vogler' s  house. 

This  notorious  Abbe,  regarded  by  some  people 

'  This  treatise  was  published  after  Vogler's  death.  It  is  unfortunate 
that  his  criticism  Is  often  unsound,  and  that  his  own  fugue  will  not 
bear  close  examination. 
VOL.  II. 


MEYERBEER. 


321 


as  the  most  profound  theoretician  of  Germany, 
by  others  (including  Mozart)  as  an  impudent 
charlatan,  was  possessed  of  some  originality, 
much  eccentricity,  and  unbounded  conceit,  not  so 
much  a  learned  man  as  an  enthusiast  for  learning 
in  the  abstract,  and  with  a  mania  for  instructing 
others.  His  imperturbable  self-confidence  ('he 
gives  out  that  he  will  make  a  composer  in  three 
weeks  and  a  singer  in  six  months,'  says  Mozart 
in  one  of  his  letters)  certainly  had  an  attraction 
for  young  ardent  minds,  for  among  his  pupils 
were  several  men  of  genius.  After  many  years 
of  a  wandering,  adventurous  life,  he  had  settled 
at  Darmstadt,  where  he  was  pensioned  and 
protected  by  the  Grand  Duke.  In  his  house 
Meyerbeer  had  for  companions  Gansbacher 
(afterwards  an  organist  of  repute  at  Vienna)  and 
Carl  Maria  von  Weber,  who  had  studied  with 
Vogler  some  years  before,  and  was  now  attracted 
to  Darmstadt  by  his  presence  there,  and  between 
whom  and  Meyerbeer,  eight  years  his  junior, 
there  sprang  up  a  warm  and  lasting  friendship. 
Each  morning  after  early  mass,  when  the  young 
men  took  it  in  turns  to  preside  at  the  organ, 
they  assembled  for  a  lesson  in  counterpoint  from 
the  Abbe".  Themes  were  distributed,  and  a  fugue 
or  sacred  cantata  had  to  be  written  every  day. 
In  the  evening  the  work  was  examined,  when 
each  man  had  to  defend  his  own  composition 
against  the  critical  attacks  of  Vogler  and  the 
rest.  Organ  fugues  were  improvised  in  the 
Cathedral,  on  subjects  contributed  by  all  in  turn. 
In  this  way  Meyerbeer's  education  was  carried 
on  for  two  years.  His  diligence  was  such,  that 
often,  when  interested  in  some  new  branch  of 
study,  he  would  not  leave  his  room  nor  put 
off  his  dressing-gown  for  days  together.  His 
great  powers  of  execution  on  the  pianoforte  en- 
abled him  to  play  at  sight  the  most  intricate 
orchestral  scores,  with  a  full  command  of  every 
part.  His  four-part '  Sacred  Songs  of  Klopstock' 
were  published  at  this  time,  and  an  oratorio  of 
his,  entitled  'God  and  Nature,'  was  performed 
in  presence  of  the  Grand  Duke,  who  appointed 
him  Composer  to  the  Court.  His  first  opera, 
'  Jephthah's  Vow,'  was  also  written  during  this 
Vogler  period.  Biblical  in  subject,  dry  and 
scholastic  in  treatment,  it  resembled  an  oratorio 
rather  than  an  opera,  and  although  connoisseurs 
thought  it  promising,  it  failed  to  please  the 
public.  A  comic  opera,  '  Alimelek,  or  the  Two 
Caliphs,'  met  with  a  similar  fate  at  Munich. 
It  was,  however,  bespoken  and  put  in  rehearsal 
by  the  manager  of  the  Karnthnerthor  theatre  in 
Vienna.  To  Vienna,  in  consequence,  Meyerbeer 
now  repaired,  with  the  intention  of  making  his 
appearance  there  as  a  pianist.  But  on  the  very 
evening  of  his  arrival  he  chanced  to  hear  Hum- 
mel, and  was  so  much  impressed  by  the  grace, 
finish,  and  exquisite  Z«7a<o-playing  of  this  artist 
that  he  became  dissatisfied  with  all  he  had 
hitherto  aimed  at  or  accomplished,  and  went  into 
a  kind  of  voluntary  retirement  for  several  months, 
during  which  time  he  subjected  his  technique  to 
a  complete  reform,  besides  writing  a  quantity 
of  pianoforte  music,  which  however  was  never 


822 


MEYERBEER. 


published.  He  made  a  great  sensation  on  his  first 
appearance,  and  Moscheles,  who  heard  him  at 
this  time  was  wont  to  say  that,  had  he  chosen  a 
pianist's  career,  few  virtuosi  could  have  rivalled 
him.  But  to  be  a  composer  was  the  only  goal 
worthy  of  his  ambition,  although  at  this  moment 
it  seemed  to  recede  as  he  pursued  it.  The  •  Two 
Caliphs,'  performed  in  1814,  had  again  been  an 
utter  failure.  Dejected — disheartened  to  such  a 
degree  as  almost  to  doubt  whether  he  had  not 
from  the  first  deceived  himself  as  to  his  vocation, 
he  was  somewhat  consoled  by  the  veteran  Salieri, 
who  reassured  him,  affirming  that  he  wanted 
nothing  in  order  to  succeed  but  freedom  from 
scholastic  trammels  and,  above  all,  knowledge 
of  the  human  voice  and  how  to  write  for  it,  a 
knowledge,  Salieri  added,  only  to  be  acquired  in 
Italy.  Accordingly,  in  18 15,  Meyerbeer  went 
to  Venice.  It  was  Carnival  time.  Rossini's  fas- 
cinating *  Tancredi '  was  then  at  the  height  of 
its  pristine  popularity ;  its  new  and  irresistible 
melodiousness  had  created  a  universal  delirium ; 
all  Venice  resounded  with  'Di  tanti  palpiti.' 
To  Meyerbeer,  accustomed  to  associate  Italian 
opera  with  the  dreary  works  of  Nicolini, 
Farinelli,  Pavesi,  and  others,  this  was  a  re- 
velation, and  he  surrendered  spell-bound  to  the 
genial  charm.  Hope  awoke,  emulation  was  re- 
kindled. He  had  no  style  of  his  own  to  abandon, 
but  he  abandoned  Vogler's  without  regret,  and 
set  to  work  to  write  Italian  operas.  His  success 
was  easy  and  complete.  '  Romilda  e  Costanza' 
(produced  at  Padua  in  181 5,  Pisaroni  in  the 
leading  part), '  Semiramide  riconosciuta'  (Turin, 
1819),  '  Eduardo  e  Cristina'  and  'Emma  di 
Resburgo'  (Venice,  1820),  were  all  received  with 
enthusiasm  by  the  Italian  people,  and  this  at 
a  time  when  it  was  difficult  for  any  one  but 
Rossini  to  obtain  a  hearing.  The  last-named 
opera  was  played  in  Germany  under  the  title  of 
'Emma  von  Leicester,'  and  not  unsuccessfully. 
'Margherita  d*  Anjou,'  the  best  of  these  operas, 
was  written  for  the  Scala  at  Milan.  •  L'Esule 
di  Granata'  made  but  little  impression.  'Al- 
mansor'  was  commenced  at  Rome,  but  not  com- 
pleted. In  1823,  while  engaged  in  writing  the 
'Crociato,'  the  composer  went  to  Berlin,  where 
he  tried,  but  failed,  to  get  a  performance  of  a 
three-act  German  opera — 'Das  Brandenburger 
Thor.'  This  was  a  time  of  transition  in  his  life. 
He  was  wearying  of  the  Italian  manner,  and 
he  could  not  be  insensible  to  the  murmurs  of 
dissatisfaction  which  everywhere  in  Germany 
made  themselves  heard  at  the  degradation  of 
his  talent  by  his  change  of  style.  Foremost 
among  the  malcontents  was  C.  M.  von  Weber, 
who  had  looked  on  his  friend  as  the  hope  of  that 
German  opera  in  which  were  centred  his  own 
ardent  aspirations,  and  who  in  1 8 1 5  at  Prague,  and 
subsequently  at  Dresden,  had  mounted  'The 
Two  Caliphs'  with  extraordinary  care  and  labour, 
hoping  perhaps  to  induce  him  to  return  to  his  old 
path.  'My  heart  bleeds,'  he  wrote,  'to  see  a 
German  composer  of  creative  power  stoop  to 
become  an  imitator  in  order  to  win  favour  with 
the  crowd.'     In  spite  of  all  this  the  friendship  of 


MEYERBEER. 

the  two  men  remained  unshaken.  On  his  way 
back  to  Italy  Meyerbeer  spent  a  day  with  Weber, 
who  wrote  of  it,  '  Last  Friday  I  had  the  happi- 
ness of  having  Meyerbeer  with  me.  It  was  a 
red-letter  day — a  reminiscence  of  dear  old  Mann- 
heim      We  did  not  separate  till  late  at 

night.  He  is  going  to  bring  out  his  'Crociato' 
at  Trieste,  and  in  less  than  a  year  is  to  come 
back  to  Berlin,  where  perhaps  he  will  write  a 
German  opera.  Please  God  he  may !  I  made 
many  appeals  to  his  conscience.'  Weber  did  not 
live  to  see  his  wish  fulfilled,  but  the  desire  which 
he  expressed  before  his  death  that  an  opera  he 
left  unfinished  should  be  completed  by  Meyer- 
beer, showed  that  his  faith  in  him  was  retained 
to  the  last. 

The  'Crociato*  was  produced  at  Venice  in 
1824,  and  created  a  furore,  the  composer  being 
called  for  and  crowned  on  the  stage.  In  this 
opera,  written  in  Germany,  old  associations  seem 
to  have  asserted  themselves.  More  ambitious  in 
scope  than  its  predecessors,  it  shows  an  attempt, 
timid  indeed,  at  dramatic  combination  which 
constitutes  it  a  kind  of  link  between  his  '  wild 
oats'  (as  in  after  years  he  designated  these 
Italian  works)  and  his  later  operas.1  In  1826 
he  was  invited  to  witness  its  first  performance  in 
Paris,  and  this  proved  to  be  the  turning-point 
of  his  career.  He  eventually  took  up  his  residence 
in  Paris,  and  lived  most  of  his  subsequent  life 
there.  From  1824  till  183 1  no  opera  appeared 
from  his  pen.  A  sojourn  in  Berlin,  during 
which  his  father  died,  his  marriage,  and  the  loss 
of  two  children,  were  among  the  causes  which 
kept  him  from  public  life.  But  in  these  years 
he  undertook  that  profound  study  of  French 
character,  French  history,  and  French  art,  which 
resulted  in  the  final  brilliant  metamorphosis  of 
his  dramatic  and  musical  style,  and  in  the  great 
works  by  which  his  name  is  remembered. 

Paris  was  the  head-quarters  of  the  unsettled, 
restless,  tentative  spirit  which  at  that  epoch  per- 
vaded Europe, — the  partial  subsidence  of  the 
ferment  caused  by  a  century  of  great  thoughts, 
ending  in  a  revolution  that  had  shaken  society  to 
its  foundations.  Men  had  broken  away  from  the 
past,  without  as  yet  finding  any  firm  standpoint 
for  the  future.  The  most  opposite  opinions 
flourished  side  by  side.  Art  was  a  conglomeration 
of  styles  of  every  time  and  nation,  all  equally 
acceptable  if  treated  with  cleverness.  Originality 
was  at  an  ebb  ;  illustration  supplied  the  place  of 
idea.  Reminiscence,  association,  the  picturesque, 
the  quaint,  '  local  colour,' — these  were  sought  for 
rather  than  beauty;  excitement  for  the  senses, 
but  through  the  medium  of  the  intellect.  Men 
turned  to  history  and  legend  for  material,  seeking 
in  the  past  a  torch  which,  kindled  at  the  fire  of 
modern  thought,  might  throw  light  on  present 
problems.  This  spirit  of  eclecticism  found  its 
perfect  musical  counterpart  in  the  works  of 
Meyerbeer.  The  assimilative  power  that,  guided 
by  tenacity  of  purpose,  enabled  him  to  identify 

1  It  Is  significant  that,  with  the  exception  of  the '  Crociato,"  not  one 
of  these  early  works,  so  enthusiastically  received,  held  the  stage  after 
their  composer  had  left  Italy. 


MEYERBEER. 

himself  with  any  style  he  chose,  found  in  this 
intellectual  ferment,  as  yet  unrepresented  in 
music,  a  wellnigh  inexhaustible  field,  while 
these  influences  in  return  proved  the  key  to 
unlock  all  that  was  original  and  forcible  in  his 
nature.  And  he  found  a  fresh  stimulus  in  the 
works  of  French  operatic  composers,  abounding, 
as  they  do,  in  quaint,  suggestive  ideas,  only 
waiting  the  hand  of  a  master  to  turn  them  to 
full  account. 

'He  did  not  shrink,  as  a  man,  from  the  un- 
remitting, insatiable  industry  he  had  shown  as 
a  boy,  and  he  buried  himself  in  the  literature 
of  French  opera,  from  the  days  of  Lulli  onwards. 
....  It  was  interesting  to  see  in  his  library 
hundreds  of  opera-scores  great  and  small,  many 
of  which  were  hardly  known  by  name  even 
to  the  most  initiated.  ...  In  his  later  works 
we  see  that  to  the  flowing  melody  of  the  Italians 
and  the  solid  harmony  of  the  Germans  he 
united  the  pathetic  declamation  and  the  varied, 
piquant,  rhythm  of  the  French.'  (Mendel.) 
Last,  but  not  least,  in  his  librettist,  Eugene 
Scribe,  he  found  a  worthy  and  invaluable 
collaborator. 

Many  vicissitudes  preceded  the  first  per- 
formance, in  1831,  of  'Robert  le  Diable,'  the 
opera  in  which  the  new  Meyerbeer  first  revealed 
himself,  and  of  which  the  unparalleled  success 
extended  in  a  very  few  years  over  the  whole 
civilized  world.  It  made  the  fortune  of  the 
Paris  Opera.  Scenic  effect,  striking  contrast, 
novel  and  brilliant  instrumentation,  vigorous 
declamatory  recitative,  melody  which  pleased 
none  the  less  for  the  strong  admixture  of  Italian- 
opera  conventionalities,  yet  here  and  there  (as  in 
the  beautiful  scena  'Robert!  toi  que  j'aime') 
attaining  a  dramatic  force  unlooked  for  and  till 
then  unknown,  a  story  part  heroic,  part  legendary, 
part  allegorical, — with  this  strange  picturesque 
medley  all  were  pleased,  for  in  it  each  found 
something  to  suit  his  taste. 

The  popularity  of  the  opera  was  so  great  that 
the  'Huguenots,  produced  in  1836,  suffered  at 
first  by  contrast.  The  public,  looking  for  a 
repetition,  with  a  difference,  of  'Robert,'  was 
disappointed  at  finding  the  new  opera  quite 
unlike  its  predecessor,  but  was  soon  forced  to 
acknowledge  the  incontrovertible  truth,  that  it 
was  immeasurably  the  superior  of  the  two.  As 
a  drama  it  depends  for  none  of  its  interest  on  the 
supernatural.  It  is,  as  treated  by  Meyerbeer, 
the  most  vivid  chapter  of  French  history  that 
ever  was  written.  The  splendours  and  the  terrors 
of  the  sixteenth  century, — its  chivalry  and 
fanaticism,  its  ferocity  and  romance,  the  brilliance 
of  courts  and  the  '  chameleon  colours  of  artificial 
society,'  the  sombre  fervour  of  Protestantism — 
are  all  here  depicted  and  endued  with  life  and 
reality,  while  the  whole  is  conceived  and  carried 
out  on  a  scale  of  magnificence  hitherto  unknown 
in  opera. 

In  1838  the  book  of  the  '  Africaine'  was  given 
to  Meyerbeer  by  Scribe.  He  became  deeply 
interested  in  it,  and  the  composition  and  re- 
composition,  casting  and  recasting  of  this  work, 


MEYERBEER. 


323 


occupied  him  at  intervals  to  the  end  of  his  life. 
His  excessive  anxiety  about  his  operas  extended 
to  the  libretti,  with  which  he  was  never  satisfied, 
but  would  have  modified  to  suit  his  successive 
fancies  over  and  over  again,  until  the  final  form 
retained  little  likeness  to  the  original.  This  was 
especially  the  case  with  the  'Africaine,'  sub- 
sequently called  '  Vasco  de  Gama'  (who,  although 
the  hero,  was  an  afterthought !),  and  many  were 
his  altercations  with  Scribe,  who  got  tired  of  the 
endless  changes  demanded  by  the  composer,  and 
withdrew  his  book  altogether ;  but  was  finally 
pacified  by  Meyerbeer's  taking  another  libretto 
of  his,  '  Le  Prophete,'  which  so  forcibly  excited 
the  composer's  imagination  that  he  at  once  set  to 
work  on  it  and  finished  it  within  a  year  (1843). 

A  good  deal  of  his  time  was  now  passed  in 
Berlin,  where  the  King  had  appointed  him  Kapell- 
meister. Here  he  wrote  several  occasional  pieces, 
cantatas,  marches,  and  dance-music,  besides  the 
three-act  German  opera,  '  Ein  Feldlager  in  Schle- 
sien.'  The  success  of  this  work  was  magically 
increased,  a  few  weeks  after  its  first  performance, 
by  the  appearance  in  the  part  of  the  heroine 
of  a  young  Swedish  singer,  introduced  to  the 
Berlin  public  by  Meyerbeer,  who  had  heard  her 
in  Paris, — Jenny  Lind. 

He  at  this  time  discharged  some  of  the  debt 
he  owed  his  dead  friend,  C.  M.  von  Weber,  by 
producing  '  Euryanthe '  at  Berlin.  His  duties  at 
the  opera  were  heavy,  and  he  had  neither  the 
personal  presence  nor  the  requisite  nerve  and 
decision  to  make  a  good  conductor.  From  1845 
he  only  conducted — possibly  not  to  their  advan- 
tage— his  own  operas,  and  those  in  which  Jenny 
Lind  sang. 

The  year  1846  was  marked  by  the  production 
of  the  overture  and  incidental  music  to  his 
brother  Michael's  drama  of  '  Struensee.'  This 
very  striking  work  is  its  composer's  only  one  in 
that  style,  and  shows  him  in  some  of  his  best  as- 
pects. The  overture  is  his  most  successful 
achievement  in  sustained  instrumental  composi- 
tion. A  visit  to  Vienna  (where  Jenny  Lind 
achieved  a  brilliant  success  in  the  part  of 
Vielka  in  the  '  Feldlager  in  Schlesien '),  and 
a  subsequent  sojourn  in  London  occurred  in 
1847.  In  the  autumn  he  was  back  in  Berlin, 
where,  on  the  occasion  of  the  King's  birthday, 
he  produced,  after  long  and  careful  preparation, 
'Rienzi,'  the  earliest  opera  of  his  future  rival 
and  bitter  enemy,  Richard  Wagner.  The  two 
composers  had  seen  something  of  one  another  in 
Paris.  Wagner  was  then  in  necessitous  circum- 
stances, and  Meyerbeer  exerted  himself  to  get 
employment  for  him,  and  to  make  him  known  to 
influential  people  in  the  musical  world.  Subse- 
quently, Wagner,  while  still  in  France,  composed 
the  '  Fliegende  Hollander,'  to  his  own  libretto. 
The  score,  rejected  by  the  theatres  of  Leipsic 
and  Munich,  was  sent  by  its  composer  to  Meyer- 
beer, who  brought  about  its  acceptance  at  Ber- 
lin. Without  claiming  any  extraordinary  merit 
for  these  good  offices  of  one  brother-artist  to 
another,  we  may,  however,  say  that  Meyerbeer's 
conduct  was  ill-requited  by  Wagner. 

Y2 


824 


MEYERBEER. 


'  Le  Prophete,'  produced  at  Paris  in  1849, 
after  long  and  careful  preparation,  materially 
added  to  its  composer's  fame.  Thirteen  years 
had  elapsed  since  the  production  of  its  predecessor. 
Once  again  the  public,  looking  for  something 
like  the  'Huguenots,'  was  disappointed.  Once 
again  it  was  forced,  after  a  time,  to  do  justice  to 
Meyerbeer's  power  of  transferring  himself,  as  it 
were,  according  to  the  dramatic  requirements  of 
his  theme.  But  there  are  fewer  elements  of  popu- 
larity in  the  *  Prophete'  than  in  the '  Huguenots.' 
The  conventional  operatic  forms  are  subordinated 
to  declamation  and  the  coherent  action  of  the  plot. 
It  contains  some  of  Meyerbeer's  grandest  thoughts, 
but  the  gloomy  political  and  religious  fanaticism 
which  constitutes  the  interest  of  the  drama,  and 
the  unimportance  of  the  love-story  (the  mother 
being  the  female  character  in  whom  the  interest 
is  centred),  are  features  which  appeal  to  the  few 
rather  than  the  many.  The  work  depends  for  its 
popularity  on  colouring  and  chiaroscuro ;  the  airy 
rerve  of  the  ballet-music,  and  the  splendid  com- 
binations of  scenic  and  dramatic  effects  in  the 
fourth  act  being  thrown  into  strong  relief  by 
the  prevailing  sombre  hue. 

Meyerbeer's  health  was  beginning  to  fail,  and 
after  this  time  he  spent  a  part  of  every  autumn 
at  Spa,  where  he  found  a  temporary  refuge  from 
his  toils  and  cares.  Probably  no  great  composer 
ever  suffered  such  a  degree  of  nervous  anxiety 
about  his  own  works  as  he  did.  During  their 
composition,  and  for  long  after  their  first  com- 
pletion, he  altered  and  retouched  continually, 
never  satisfied  and  never  sure  of  himself.  During 
the  correcting  of  the  parts,  the  casting  of  the 
characters,  the  '  coaching '  of  the  actors,  he  never 
knew,  nor  allowed  any  one  concerned  to  know, 
a  moment's  peace  of  mind.  Then  came  endless 
rehearsals,  when  he  would  give  the  orchestra 
passages  scored  in  two  ways,  written  in  different 
coloured  inks,  and  try  their  alternate  effect; 
then  the  final  performance,  the  ordeal  of  public 
opinion  and  of  possible  adverse  criticism,  to 
which,  probably  owing  to  his  having  been  fed 
with  applause  and  encouragement  from  his  earliest 
years,  he  was  so  painfully  susceptible  that,  as 
Heine  says  of  him,  he  fulfilled  the  true  Christian 
ideal,  for  he  could  not  rest  while  there  remained 
one  unconverted  soul,  '  and  when  that  lost  sheep 
was  brought  back  to  the  fold  he  rejoiced  more 
over  him  than  over  all  the  rest  of  the  flock  that 
had  never  gone  astray.'  This  peculiar  tempera- 
ment was  probably  the  cause  also  of  what  Chorley 
calls  his  '  fidgettiness '  in  notation,  leading  him 
to  express  the  exact  amount  of  a  rallentando  or 
other  inflection  of  tempo  by  elaborate  alterations 
of  time  signature,  insertions  or  divisions  of  bars, 
giving  to  many  of  his  pages  a  patchwork  ap- 
pearance most  bewildering  to  the  eye. 

Faithful  to  change,  he  now  challenged  his 
adopted  countrymen  on  their  own  especial  ground 
by  the  production  at  the  Ope'ra  Comique  in  1854 
of  '  L'Etoile  du  Nord.'  To  this  book  he  had  in- 
tended to  adapt  the  music  of  the  'Feldlager  in 
Schlesien,'  but  his  own  ideas  transforming  them- 
selves gradually  while  he  worked  on  them,  there 


MEYERBEER. 

remained  at  last  only  six  numbers  of  the  earlier 
work.  '  L'Etoile '  achieved  considerable  popu- 
larity, although  it  aroused  much  animosity  among 
French  musicians,  jealous  of  this  invasion  of 
their  own  domain,  which  they  also  thought  un- 
suited  to  the  melodramatic  style  of  Meyerbeer. 
The  same  may  be  said  of '  Le  Pardon  de  Ploer- 
mel'  (Dinorah),  founded  on  a  Breton  idyl,  and 
produced  at  the  Ope'ra  Comique  in  1859. 
Meyerbeer's  special  powers  found  no  scope  in 
this  comparatively  circumscribed  field.  The  de- 
velopment of  his  genius  since  1824  was  too  great 
not  to  be  apparent  in  any  style  of  composition, 
but  these  French  operas,  although  containing 
much  that  is  charming,  were,  like  his  Italian 
'wild  oats,'  the  result  of  an  effort  of  will — the 
will  to  be  whomsoever  he  chose. 

After  1859  he  wrote,  at  Berlin,  two  cantatas, 
and  a  grand  march  for  the  Schiller  Centenary 
Festival,  and  began  a  musical  drama — never 
finished — caHed  'Gothe's  Jugendzeit,'  introducing 
several  of  Goethe's  lyrical  poems,  set  to  music. 
His  life  was  overshadowed  by  the  death  of  many 
friends  and  contemporaries,  among  them  his  old 
coadjutor,  Scribe,  to  whom  he  owed  so  much. 

In  1861  he  represented  German  music  at  the 
opening  of  the  London  International  Exhibition 
by  his  '  Overture  in  the  form  of  a  March.'  The 
next  winter  he  was  again  in  Berlin,  still  working 
at  the  'Africaine,'  to  which  the  public  looked 
forward  with  impatience  and  curiosity.  For  years 
the  difficulty  of  getting  a  satisfactory  cast  had 
stood  in  the  way  of  the  production  of  this  opera. 
His  excessive  anxiety  and  fastidiousness  resulted 
in  its  being  never  performed  at  all  during  hia 
lifetime.  In  October,  1863,  he  returned,  for  the 
last  time,  to  Paris.  The  opera  was  now  finished, 
and  in  rehearsal.  Still  he  corrected,  polished, 
touched,  and  retouched :  it  occupied  his  thoughts 
night  and  day.  But  he  had  delayed  too  long. 
On  April  23  he  was  attacked  by  illness,  and  on 
May  2  he  died. 

The  'Africaine'  was  performed  after  his  death 
at  the  Acade"mie  in  Paris,  April  28,  1865.  When 
it  appeared  in  London  (in  Italian)  on  the  22nd 
July  following,  the  creation  by  Mdlle.  Lucca  of 
the  part  of  'Selika'  will  not  soon  be  forgotten  by 
those  who  had  the  good  fortune  to  see  it. 

The  work  itself  has  suffered  somewhat  from 
the  incessant  change  of  intention  of  its  com- 
poser. The  original  conception  of  the  music  be- 
longs to  the  same  period  as  the  •  Huguenots ' — 
Meyerbeer's  golden  age — having  occupied  him 
from  1838  till  1843.  Laid  aside  at  that  time  for 
many  years,  and  the  book  then  undergoing  a 
complete  alteration,  a  second  story  being  en- 
grafted on  to  the  first,  the  composition,  when 
resumed,  was  carried  on  intermittently  to  the 
end  of  his  life.  The  chorus  of  Bishops,  an" 
Nelusko's  two  airs,  for  instance,  were  written  in 
1858 ;  the  first  duet  between  Vasco  and  Selika 
in  1857;  while  the  second  great  duet  took  its 
final  form  as  late  as  the  end  of  1862.  The  ex- 
cessive length  of  the  opera  on  its  first  production 
(when  the  performance  occupied  more  than  six 
hours)    necessitated    considerable    curtailments 


\ 


MEYERBEER. 

detrimental  to  coherence  of  plot.  But  in  spite  of 
all  this,  the  music  has  a  special  charm,  a  kind 
of  exotic  fragrance  of  its  own,  which  will  always 
make  it  to  some  minds  the  most  sympathetic  of 
Meyerbeer's  works.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  most 
purely  musical  of  them  all.  None  is  so  melo- 
dious or  so  pathetic,  or  so  free  from  blemishes 
of  conventionality ;  in  none  is  the  orchestration 
bo  tender :  it  may  contain  less  that  is  surprising, 
but  it  is  more  imaginative;  it  approaches  the 
domain  of  poetry  more  nearly  than  any  of  his 
other  operas. 

It  is  common  to  speak  of  Meyerbeer  as  the 
founder  of  a  new  school.  Fetis  affirms  that 
whatever  faults  or  failings  have  been  laid  to  his  I 
charge  by  his  opponents,  one  thing — his  origin- 
ality— has  never  been  called  in  question.  '  All 
that  his  works  contain, — character,  ideas,  scenes, 
rhythm,  modulation,  instrumentation, — all  are 
his  and  his  only.' 

Between  this  view  and  that  of  Wagner,  who 
calls  him  a  •  miserable  music-maker,'  *  a  Jew 
banker  to  whom  it  occurred  to  compose  operas,' 
there  seems  an  immeasurable  gulf.  The  truth 
probably  may  be  expressed  by  saying  that  he  was 
unique  rather  than  original.  No  artist  exists 
that  is  not  partly  made  what  he  is  by  the  '  acci- 
dent' of  preceding  and  surrounding  circumstances. 
But  on  strong  creative  genius  these  modifying 
influences,  especially  those  of  contemporary  Art, 
have  but  a  superficial  effect,  wholly  secondary  to 
the  individuality  which  asserts  itself  through- 
out, and  finally  moulds  its  environment  to  its  own 
likeness.  Meyerbeer's  faculty  was  so  determined 
in  its  manifestations  by  surrounding  conditions, 
that,  apart  from  them,  it  may  almost  be  said  to 
have  had  no  active  existence  at  all.  He  changed 
music  as  often  as  he  changed  climate,  though  a 
little  of  each  of  his  successive  styles  clung  to  him 
till  the  last.  A  born  musician,  of  extraordinary 
ability,  devoted  to  Art,  and  keenly  appreciative 
of  the  beautiful  in  all  types,  with  an  unlimited 
capacity  for  work,  helped  by  the  circumstance  of 
wealth  which  in  many  another  man  would  have 
been  an  excuse  for  idleness,  he  seized  on  the  ten- 
dencies of  his  time  and  became  its  representa- 
tive. He  left  no  disciples,  for  he  had  no  doctrine 
to  bequeath :  but  he  filled  a  gap  which  no  one 
else  could  fill.  As  a  great  actor  endows  the  cha- 
racters he  represents  with  life — since  to  the  union 
of  his  personality  with  the  outlines  suggested  by 
the  dramatist,  they  do  in  fact  owe  to  him  their 
objective  existence,  and  are  said  to  be  created  by 
him — so  Meyerbeer,  by  blending  his  intellect 
with  the  outlines  and  suggestions  of  a  certain 
epoch,  gave  to  it  a  distinct  art-existence  which  it 
has  in  his  works  and  in  his  only.  His  characters 
stand  out  from  the  canvas  with — his  contempo- 
rary eulogists  say  —  the  vividness  of  Shake- 
speare's characters;  we  should  say  rather  of 
Scott's.  The  literary  analogue  to  his  operas  is 
to  be  found,  not  in  Tragedy,  they  are  too  realistic 
for  that,  but  in  the  Historical  Novel.  Here  the 
men  and  women  of  past  times  live  again  before 
our  eyes,  not  as  they  appear  to  the  Poet,  who 
'  sees  into  the  life  of  things,'  but  as  they  appeared 


MEYERBEER. 


325 


to  each  other  when  they  walked  this  earth.  This 
is  most  compatible  with  the  conditions  of  the 
modern  stage,  and  Meyerbeer  responds  to  its 
every  need. 

It  is  consistent  with  all  this  that  he  should  have 
been  singularly  dependent  for  the  quality  of  his 
ideas  on  the  character  of  his  subject.  His  own 
original  vein  of  melody  was  limited,  and  his  con- 
structive skill  not  such  as  to  supplement  the 
deficiency  in  sustained  idea.  This  defect  may 
have  been  partly  owing  to  the  shallow  pedantry 
of  his  instructor,  at  the  time  when  his  youthful 
talent  was  developing  itself.  Wagner  (whose 
antipathy  to  Meyerbeer's  music  was  rather  in- 
tensified than  otherwise  by  the  fact  that  some  of 
the  operatic  reforms  on  which  his  own  heart  was 
set  were  first  introduced,  or  at  least  attempted, 
by  that  composer)  compares  him  to  a  man  who, 
catching  the  first  syllable  of  another  man's 
speech,  thereupon  screams  out  the  whole  sen- 
tence in  a  breath,  without  waiting  to  hear  what 
it  really  should  have  been !  However  this  may 
be,  Meyerbeer's  own  ideas  rarely  go  beyond  the 
first  syllable ;  the  rest  is  built  up  by  a  wholly 
different  process,  and  too  often — as  though  his 
self-reliance  failed  him  at  the  crucial  point — a 
melody  with  a  superbly  suggestive  opening  will 
close  with  some  conventional  phrase  or  vulgar 
cadenza,  all  the  more  irritating  for  this  juxtapo- 
sition. As  a  striking  case  in  point  it  is  enough 
to  adduce  the  baritone  song  in  '  Dinorah.'  The 
first  phrase  is  beautiful.  The  second,  already 
inferior,  seems  dragged  in  by  the  hair  of  its  head. 
The  third  is  a  masterly  augmentation — a  cres- 
cendo on  the  first.  The  fourth  is  a  tawdry 
platitude.  Something  of  the  same  sort  is  the 
case  with  his  harmonies.  He  often  arrests  the 
attention  by  some  chord  or  modulation  quite 
startling  in  its  force  and  effect,  immediately 
after  which  he  is  apt  to  collapse,  as  if  frightened 
by  the  sudden  stroke  of  his  own  genius.  The 
modulation  will  be  carried  on  through  a  se- 
quence of  wearisome  sameness,  stopping  short 
in  some  remote  key,  whence,  as  if  embarrassed 
how  to  escape,  he  will  return  to  where  he  began 
by  some  trite  device  or  awkward  makeshift. 
His  orchestral  colouring,  however,  is  so  full  of 
character,  so  varied  and  saisissant  as  to  hide 
many  shortcomings  in  form.  His  grand  com- 
binations of  effects  can  hardly  be  surpassed,  and 
are  so  dazzling  in  their  result  that  the  onlooker 
may  well  be  blinded  to  the  fact  that  what  he 
gazes  on  is  a  consummate  piece  of  mosaic  rather 
than  an  organic  structure. 

But  in  some  moments  of  intense  dramatic  ex- 
citement he  rises  to  the  height  of  the  situation 
as  perhaps  no  one  else  has  done.  His  very  de- 
fects stand  him  here  in  good  stead,  for  these 
situations' do  not  lend  themselves  to  evenness  of 
beauty.  Such  a  moment  is  the  last  scene  in 
the  fourth  act  of  the  '  Huguenots,'  culminating 
in  the  famous  duet.  Here  the  situation  is 
supreme,  and  the  music  is  inseparable  from  it. 
Beyond  description,  beyond  criticism,  nothing 
is  wanting.  The  might,  the  futility,  the  eter- 
nity of  Love  and  Fate — he  has  caught  up  the 


326 


MEYERBEER. 


whole  of  emotion  and  uttered  it.  Whatever  was 
the  source  of  such  an  inspiration  (and  the  entire 
scene  is  said  to  have  been  an  afterthought)  it 
bears  that  stamp  of  truth  which  makes  it  a  pos- 
session for  all  time.  If  Meyerbeer  lives,  it  will 
be  in  virtue  of  such  moments  as  these.  And  if 
the  '  Prophete '  may  be  said  to  embody  his  in- 
tellectual side,  and  the  '  Africaine '  his  emotional 
side,  the  '  Huguenots  '  is  perhaps  the  work  which 
best  blends  the  two,  and  which,  most  completely 
typifying  its  composer,  must  be  considered  his 
masterpiece. 

Presenting,  as  they  do,  splendid  opportunities 
to  singers  of  dramatic  ability,  his  operas  hold  the 
stage,  in  spite  of  the  exacting  character  which 
renders  their  perfect  performance  difficult  and 
very  rare.  They  will  live  long,  although  many 
of  the  ideas  and  associations  which  first  made 
them  popular  belong  already  to  the  past. 

Subjoined  is  a  list  of  his  principal  works : — 

OPERAS  AND  DRAMATIC  PIECES. 
1.  Jephtha's  Gelttbde.  Perform- 
ed 1811 ;  2.  Les  Amours  de  Teve- 
linde,  (in  German,  Monodrama 
for  Soprano,  Chorus,  and  Clari- 
net obbllgato,  in  which  the  instru- 
mentalist figured  as  a  dramatic 
personage);  3.  Allmelek,  or  The 
Two  Caliphs  (German,  Wirth  und 
Gast),  1813 ;  4.  Romilda  e  Costanza, 
1815 ;  5.  Semiramide  riconosciuta, 
1819 ;  G.  Emma  di  Resburgo,  1819 ; 
7.  Margherita  d'Anjou.  1820 ;  8. 
L'Esule  di  Granata,  1822 ;   9.  Das 

CANTATAS  AND 

7  sacred  cantatas  of  Klopstock, 
tor  4  voices,  unaccompanied. 

AnGott.  Hymn,  by  Gubitz.  For 
4  voices. 

Le  Genie  de  la  Muslque  a  la 
Tombe  de  Beethoven.  For  Solos 
and  Chorus. 

Cantata,  for  4  voices.  Written 
for  the  inauguration  of  Guten- 
berg's statue  at  Mayence. 

Cantata, '  Maria  und  ihr  Genius.' 
Composed  for  the  silver  wedding 
of  Prince  and  Princess  Charles  of 
Prussia.    For  Solos  and  Chorus. 

Serenade, '  Braut  geleite  aus  der 
Heimath.'  Composed  lor  the  wed- 
ding of  Princess  Louise  of  Prussia. 
For  8  voices,  unaccompanied. 

La  Festa  nella  Corte  di  Ferrara. 
Grand  Cantata,  with  tableaux. 

March  of  the  Bavarian  Archers. 


Brandenburger  Thor,  1823:  10.  n 
CrociatoinEgitto,1824;  11. Robert 
le  Dlable,  1831 ;  12.  Les  Huguenots, 
1836 ;  13.  Ein  Feldlager  in  Schle- 
sien,  1840;  14.  Struensee  (overture 
and  entr'actes),  1846 ;  15.  Le  Pro- 
phete, 1849;  16.  L'Etoile  du  Nord, 
i854 ;  17.  Le  Pardon  de  Ploermel 
(Ital.  Dinorah),  1859;  18.  L'Afri- 
caine,  1864. 

An  Oratorio— Gott  und  die  Na- 
tur.    Performed  1811. 

VOCAL  MUSIC. 

Cantata  for  4  voices  and  Male 
Chorus,  with  accompaniment  of 
brass  instruments. 

Ode  to  Rauch  the  sculptor. 
Solos,  Chorus,  and  Orchestra. 

Festal  Hymn.  Composed  for  the 
silver  wedding  of  the  King  of 
Prussia.    4  voices  and  Chorus. 

Freundschaft.  Quartet  for  men's 
voices. 

The  91st  Psalm,  for  8  voices. 
Composed  for  the  Choir  of  Berlin 
Cathedral.  Published,  in  score, 
by  Brandus,  at  Paris. 

Pater  Noster,  for  4  voices,  with 
organ  accompaniment. 

12  Psalms,  for  Double  Chorus, 
unaccompanied.    (MS.) 

Stabat  Mater.    (MS.) 

Miserere.    (MS.) 

TeDeum.    (MS.) 

SONGS. 
A  large  number  of  Songs  with  f    '  Neben    Dir,"  Song,   for  Tenor 
P.  F.     accompaniment,     among  voice,  with  Violoncello  obbllgato. 
which  the  best  known  are   per- 1    'DesJiiger's  Lied,' for  Bass  voice, 
haps  'Le  Moine'  (for  Bass)  and  with  Horns  obbligati. 
'  Das  FischermSdchen.'  The  whole!    'Dichter's  Wahlspruch,"  Canon 
of  them  have  been  published,  to- ,  for  3  voices, 
gether  with  '  Le  Genie  de  la  Mus- )    '  A  Venezia,'  Barcarole. 
Ique  a  la  tombe  de  Beethoven,'  in      'Des  Schiifer's  Lied,"  for  Tenor 
one  volume,   entitled  'Quarante  voice  with  Clarinet  obbllgato. 
Melodies  a  une  et  plusleurs  voir,'  |    And  many  others  of  less  import- 
by  Brandus,  at  Paris.  ance. 

INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC. 

First  Dance,  with  Torches  (Fack- 
eltanz),  for  brass  orchestra.  Com- 
posed for  the  King  of  Bavaria's 
wedding,  1846. 

Second  ditto,  for  the  wedding  of 
Princess  Charlotte  of  Prussia,  1850. 

Third  ditto,  for  the  wedding  of 
Princess  Anne  of  Prussia,  1853. 

Grand  March,  for  the  Schiller 


Centenary  Festival.  1859. 

Overture,  in  the  form  of  a  March, 
for  the  opening  of  the  Inter- 
national Exhibition  in  London. 
1862. 

Coronation  3larch,  18C3. 

A  quantity  of  P.F.  music,  written 
in  youth,  all  unpublished. 

[F.A.M.] 

MEZZO,  MEZZA  (Ital.), '  half  or  'medium' ; 
whence  Mezza  Voce,  '  with  restrained  force,'  and 
Mezzo  Soprano,  the  female  voice  intermediate 
to  the  Soprano  and  Contralto.  [J.H.] 


MICROLOGUS. 

MICHELI,  an  extremely  useful  basso,  who 
sang  second  parts,  serious  and  comic,  on  the 
London  stage  in  most  of  the  operas  which  were 
performed,  from  the  '  Buona  Figliuola '  in  1767 
to  the  '  Viaggiatori  Felice'  in  1782.  He  was 
one  of  the  company  engaged  by  Mr.  Gordon, 
in  the  autumn  of  1766,  and  seems  to  have  re- 
mained a  faithful  servant  of  the  establishment 
for  18  years.  [J.M.] 

MI  CONTRA  FA.  In  pure  Ecclesiastical 
Music,  the  use  of  the  Tritonus,  or  Augmented 
Fourth,  is  strictly  forbidden  ;  as  is  also  that 
of  its  inversion,  the  Quint  a  falsa,  or  Diminished 
Fifth.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  the 
presence  of  these  intervals  is  felt,  whenever  F 
and  B  are  brought  either  into  direct  or  indirect 
correspondence  with  each  other,  whatever  may 
be  the  Mode  in  which  the  contact  takes  place. 
Now,  according  to  the  system  of  Solmisation 
adopted  by  Guido  d'Arezzo,  B,  the  third  sound 
of  the  Hexachordon  durum,  was  called  MI ;  and 
F,  the  fourth  sound  of  the  Hexachordon  naturale, 
was  called  FA.  Mediaeval  writers,  therefore, 
expressed  their  abhorrence  of  the  false  relation 
existing  between  these  two  sounds,  in  the 
proverb — 

Mi  contra  fa  est  dlabolus  in  mttsica. 

When  the  use  of  the  Hexachords  was  super- 
seded by  a  more  modern  system  of  immutable 
Solmisation  (see  Solmisation;  Hexachord),  F 
still  retained  its  name  of  FA,  while  B  took  that 
of  the  newly-added  syllable,  SI :  and  the  old 
saw  then  ran  thus — 

Si  contra  fa  est  dlabolus  in  musica. 

In  this  form  it  became  more  readily  intelligible 
to  musicians  unacquainted  with  the  machinery  of 
the  Hexachords  ;  while  its  signification  remained 
unchanged,  and  its  teaching  was  as  sternly  en- 
forced as  ever.  That  that  teaching  continues  in 
full  force  still  is  proved  by  the  fact,  that  neither 
Pietro  Aron,  nor  any  other  early  writer,  ever 
censured  the '  False  relation  of  the  Tritone '  more 
severely  than  Cherubini,  who  condemns  it,  with 
equal  rigour,  whether  it  be  used  as  an  element 
of  Harmony,  or  of  Melody.  [W.  S.  R.] 

MICROLOGUS  (from  the  Gr.  adj.  ixmpo- 
\6yos,  having  regard  to  small  things — from 
fiiKpos,  little,  and  A.070?,  a  word ;  Lat.  Sermo 
brcvis,  an  Epitome,  or  Compendium).  A  name, 
given,  by  two  celebrated  authors,  to  works 
containing  an  epitome  of  all  that  was  known 
of  music  at  the  time  they  were  written. 

I.  The  Micrologus  of  Guido  d'Arezzo  is 
believed  to  have  been  compiled  about  the  year 
1024.  Valuable  MS.  copies  of  this  curious 
work  are  preserved  in  the  Vatican  Library,  as 
well  as  in  the  'King's  Library'  at  Paris,  and  in 
other  European  collections.  The  treatise  was 
printed,  in  1784,  by  Gerbert,  Prince  Abbat  of 
S.  Blasien,  in  his  great  work  entitled  Scriptores 
ecclesiastici  de  musica ;  and,  in  1 8 76,  HermesdorfT 
published  a  copy  of  the  original  text,  at  Treves, 
side  by  side  with  a  German  translation.  Con- 
siderable variations  occur  in  the  antient  MSS. : 


I 

I 


MICROLOGUS. 

but  full  dependence  may  be  placed  upon  the 
readings  given  in  the  two  printed  editions  we 
have  mentioned.  The  work  is  divided  into 
twenty  Chapters,  some  of  which  throw  great 
light,  both  upon  the  state  of  musical  science  at 
the  time  of  its  production,  and  upon  its  sub- 
sequent progress.  The  first  Chapter  is  merely 
introductory;  the  second  treats  of  the  different 
kinds  of  Notes ;  and  the  third,  of 4  the  Disposition 
of  the  Monochord,'  which  the  author  strongly 
recommends  as  a  means  of  teaching  Choristers  to 
sing  in  tune  [see  Monochord]  :  and  it  is  worthy 
of  notice,  as  a  chronological  'land-mark,'  that 
Guido  here  uses  the  long-since  universally  re- 
jected division  of  Pythagoras,  which  resolves  the 
Perfect  Fourth  (Diatessaron)  into  two  Greater 
Tones  and  a  Limma,  instead  of  the  truer  section 
of  Ptolemy,  who  divides  it  into  a  Greater  and 
Lesser  Tone,  and  a  Semitone.  Chapter  V  treats 
of  the  Octave,  (Diapason),  and  of  the  seven 
letters  by  which  its  sounds  are  represented. 
Chapters  XVIII,  and  XIX,  entitled,  Be  Dia- 
pkonia,  id  est  Organi  precepta,  and  Dict<&  Dia- 
phonice  per  exempla  probatio,  are  filled  with  still 
more  interesting  matter,  and  contain  a  detailed 
description  of  the  method  pursued  in  accom- 
panying a  Plain  Chaunt  Melody  with  Discant — 
here  called  Diaphonia,  or  Organum.  Earlier 
authorities  had  decreed,  that,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Octave,  no  intervals  were  admissible  in 
Discant,  but  the  Perfect  Fourth,  and  its  inver- 
sion, the  Perfect  Fifth,  used  as  in  the  following 
example — quoted  in  the  Micrologus — in  which 
the  Plain  Chaunt  occupies  the  middle  part  :— 


MICROLOGUS. 


327 


Hr 


.a.   ♦   .a.   ^   a.   +. 


j   o    n   f    fj 

-a z e * s- 


:  etc. 


Mi  -  se  -  re 


me    -    -    i. 


But  Guido,  though  he  speaks  of  the  Fourth  as 
the  most  important  interval,  permits,  also,  the  use 
of  the  Major  Second,  and  the  Major  and  Minor 
Third ;  and  gives  the  following  example  of  the 
manner  in  which  they  may  be  introduced  :— 


-2- 


~§    ^o    gas    B    ^    gas^ 


Neither  in  the  chapters  we  have  selected  for 
our  illustration,  nor  in  any  other  part  of  the 
work,  do  we  find  any  mention  whatever  of  the 
Harmonic  Hand,  the  Solmisation  of  the  Hexa- 
chord,  or  the  use  of  the  Lines  and  Spaces  of  the 
Stave ;  nor  do  Guido's  other  writings  contain 
any  allusion  to  these  aids  to  Science  sufficiently 
explicit  to  identify  him  as  their  inventor.  His 
claim  to  this  honour  rests  entirely  on  the  au- 
thority of  Franchinus  Gafurius,  Vicentino,  Glarea- 
nus,  Vincenzo  Galilei,  Zarlino,  and  other  early 
writers,  whose  verdict  in  his  favour  is,  however, 
so  unanimous,  that  it  would  be  dangerous  to 
reject  the  traditions  handed  down  to  us  through 
so  many  consentient  records. 

II.  A  less  celebrated,  but  scarcely  less  valu- 
able treatise,  entitled  llusice  active  Micrologus, 
was  printed,  at  Leipzig, — in  151 7,  by  Andreas 
OrnithoparcuB    (or   Ornitoparchus) — a    German 


Musician,  of  acknowledged  eminence,  whose  true 
patronymic,  in  its  mother  tongue,  was  Vogelsang, 
or  Vogelgesang.  This  work,  written  in  the  quaint 
Latin  peculiar  to  the  16th  century,  contains 
the  substance  of  a  series  of  Lectures,  delivered 
by  the  author  at  the  Universities  of  Heidelberg, 
Mainz,  and  Tubingen;  and  is  divided  into 
four  separate  books.  The  First  Book,  com- 
prising twelve  Chapters,  treats  of  the  different 
kinds  of  Music,  of  the  Clefs,  the  Ecclesiastical 
Modes,  the  Hexachords,  the  rules  of  Solmisation 
and  Mutation,  the  various  Intervals,  the  Division 
and  Use  of  the  Monochord,  the  laws  of  Musica 
ficta,  Transposition,  and  the  Church  Tones.  [See 
Modes,  the  Ecclesiastical;  Hexachobd; 
Solmisation  ;  Mutation;  Musica  ficta  ;  Tones, 
the  Ecclesiastical.] 

The  Second  Book,  divided  into  thirteen  Chap- 
ters, treats  of  Measured  Music,  [see  Musica 
mensubata],  and  contains  an  amount  of  infor- 
mation even  more  valuable  than  that  conveyed 
in  Morley's  'Plaine  and  Easie  Introduction,'  in- 
asmuch as  it  is  expressed  in  more  intelligible 
language,  and  freed  from  the  involutions  of  a 
cumbrous  and  frequently  vague  and  meaningless 
dialogue.  In  the  Second  Chapter  of  this  Book,  the 
author  describes  eight  kinds  of  notes — the  Large, 
Long,  Breve,  Semibreve,  Minim,  Crotchet,  Qua- 
ver, and  Semiquaver.  The  Third  Chapter  is 
devoted  to  Ligatures:  and,  as  the  Ligatures 
in  common  use  at  the  beginning  of  the  16th 
century  differed,  in  some  particulars,  from  those 
employed  in  the  time  of  Palestrina,  the  rules 
here  given  are  of  inestimable  value  in  decypher- 
ing  early  compositions.     [See  Ligature.] 

In  the  Fourth  and  Fifth  Chapters  of  the 
Second  Book,  the  author  defines  the  various 
species  of  Mode,  Time,  and  Prolation ;  and,  com- 
plaining, as  bitterly  as  Morley  does,  of  the 
diversity  of  the  signs  by  which  they  are  repre- 
sented, [see  Mode  ;  Time  ;  Prolation],  pro- 
ceeds to  give  his  readers  directions,  which  will 
be  found  exceedingly  useful  to  those  who  wish 
to  score  the  works  of  Josquin  des  Pres,  and 
other  writers  who  flourished  before  the  middle 
of  the  1 6th  century.  The  remaining  Chapters 
treat  of  Augmentation,  Diminution,  Rests,  Points, 
Proportion,  and  other  matters  of  deep  interest  to 
the  student  of  Antient  Music. 

The  Third  Book,  disposed  in  seven  Chapters, 
is  devoted  to  the  consideration  of  Ecclesiastical 
Music ;  and,  chiefly,  to  the  Accents  used  in  re- 
citing the  Divine  Office.    [See  Accents.] 

The  Fourth  Book,  in  eight  Chapters,  contains  an 
epitome  of  the  Laws  of  Counterpoint ;  and  treats, 
in  detail,  of  the  difference  between  Consonances 
and  Dissonances,  the  '  General  Precepts  of  Coun- 
terpoint,' the  nature  of  different  Voices,  the 
formation  of  Cadences,  the  '  Special  Precepts  of 
Counterpoint,'  the  use  of  Rests  in  Counterpoint, 
and  the  different  Styles  of  Singing.  On  this 
last  point,  the  author's  remarks  are  cruelly 
caustic.  He  tells  us  that  the  English  carol,  the 
French  sing,  the  Spanish  weep,  the  Italians  of 
Genoa  caper,  other  Italians  bark ;  but  •  the  Ger- 
mans, I  am  ashamed  to  say,  howl  like  wolves.* 


828 


MICROLOGUS. 


It  is  impossible  to  over-estimate  the  value  of 
the  information  contained  in  this  most  instructive 
treatise.  The  first  edition — of  which  a  copy  is 
happily  preserved  in  the  Library  of  the  British 
Museum — is  so  excessively  rare,  that,  until  M. 
Fe"tis  fortunately  discovered  an  example  in  the 
Royal  Library  at  Paris,  a  reprint,  of  15 19,  was 
very  commonly  regarded  as  the  editio  princeps. 
The  edition  described  by  Burney,  and  Hawkins, 
is  a  much  later  one,  printed,  at  Cologne,  in 
1535.  In  1609,  our  own  John  Dowland  printed 
a  correct  though  deliciously  quaint  English  trans- 
lation, in  London ;  and  it  is  through  the  medium 
of  this  that  the  work  is  best  known  in  this 
country.  Hawkins,  indeed,  though  he  mentions 
the  Latin  original,  gives  all  his  quotations  from 
Dowland's  version.  [W.  S.  R.] 

MIDSUMMER  NIGHT'S  DREAM  MUSIC, 
by  Mendelssohn,  consists  of  two  parts.  1.  The 
Overture  was  written  between  July  7  and  Aug.  6, 
1826,  with  the  latter  of  which  dates  the  score  (in 
the  Berlin  Bibliothek)  is  signed.  It  appears  from 
Marx's  statement  (Erinn.  ii.  231-3)  that  the  work, 
as  we  possess  it,  is  a  second  attempt.  The  former 
one,  of  which  the  first  half  was  completed,  began 
with  the  four  chords  and  the  fairy  figure.  On  these 
followed  a  regular  overture,  in  which  the  theme 


&s 


s=p=f; 


gg^g^p£[S 


represented  the  proceedings  of  the  lovers.  No- 
thing else  has  survived.  The  Bergomask  dance  and 
other  most  characteristic  features  are  all  new,  and 
appear  to  have  been  the  result  of  the  representa- 
tions of  Marx,  who  urged  that  the  overture 
should  not  only  be  formed  on  the  subject  of  the 
play  but  should  adopt  it  as  a  Programme.  It  was 
first  performed  in  public  at  Stettin  in  Feb.  1827. 
Mendelssohn  brought  it  with  him  to  London  in 
1829,  and  it  was  played  under  his  direction  at  a 
concert  given  by  Drouet  at  the  Argyll  Rooms,  on 
June  24,  Midsummer  night.  On  returning  from 
the  concert  the  score  was  left  in  a  hackney  coach 
and  irrecoverably  lost. 

The  coincidence  between  the  melody  at  the 
close  of  the  overture  and  that  in  the  '  Mermaid's 
song'  in  the  Finale  to  the  2nd  act  of  Weber's 
'Oberon'  is  no  doubt  a  mere  coincidence.  Weber's 
sketch  of  the  Finale  was  finished  in  Dresden  on 
1  Jan.  7, 1826,  immediately  after  which  he  started 
for  London  ;  and  it  is  very  improbable  that  any  of 
the  motifs  of  the  opera  should  have  become  known 
before  its  performance,  April  12,  1826.  But  apart 
from  this,  it  is  so  extremely  unlike  Mendelssohn 
to  adopt  a  theme  from  another  composer,  that  we 
may  be  perfectly  sure  that  the  idea  was  his  own. 
He  introduces  it  in  the  beginning  of  the  work, 
at  the  first  fortissimo;  it  then  twice  recurs  in 
the  course  of  the  working,  and  appears  in  an 
extended  form  as  a  cantilene  in  the  coda.  Men- 
delssohn appears  to  have  felt  some  difficulty  as  to 
the  notation  of  the  overture.  He  first  wrote  it 
with  the  fairy  subject  in  quavers,  and  two  minims 
in  a  bar.     fie  then  published  an  arrangement 

1  Weber's  Life,  bj  bis  son,  ii.  639,  643. 


MILAN. 

for  the  P.  F.  with  Cramer  &  Co.,  which  has  the 
fairy  subject  in  semiquavers  ;  and  lastly  returned 
to  the  original  notation,  in,  which  the  score  is 
printed.  The  score  was  published  with  those  of 
the  Hebrides  and  Meeresstille,  as  '  3  concert  over- 
tures,' by  Breitkopfs,  in  March  or  April  1835. 

2.  The  music  for  the  Play  was  composed  in 
1843  in  obedience  to  the  desire  of  the  King  of 
Prussia,  and  was  produced  on  the  stage  at  the 
New  Palace  at  Potsdam,  on  Oct.  14  of  that  year, 
after  11  rehearsals.  It  contains  12  numbers — 
Scherzo ;  Fairy  march  ;  '  You  spotted  snakes'  for 
2  sopranos  and  chorus  ;  Melodrama ;  Intermezzo ; 
Melodrama ;  Notturno ;  Andante  ;  Wedding 
march  ;  Allegro  commodo  ;  Bergomask  dance  ; 
Finale.  Its  first  performance  at  the  Philhar- 
monic was  under  the  composer's  direction,  May 
37,  1844.  [G.] 

MILAN.  A  school  of  music  was  founded  at 
Milan  in  1483  by  Lodovico  Sforza,  Duke  of 
Milan.  Some  writers  affirm  that  this  was  the 
first  public  school  of  music  in  Italy,  but  that  of 
Bologna,  founded  in  1482  by  Pope  Nicholas  V, 
preceded  it  by  one  year.  Franchino  Gafurio  of 
Lodi  was  the  first  public  professor  of  music  in 
Milan.  He  was  born  at  Lodi  in  145 1,  and  studied 
music  at  Mantua,  Verona,  Genoa  and  Naples. 
Driven  from  Naples  by  the  inroads  of  the  Turks, 
he  returned  to  Lodi,  where  he  gave  instruction 
in  music  till  summoned  to  Milan  by  Roberto 
Barni,  canon  of  Lodi.  In  1482  he  was  madechapel- 
master  of  the  cathedral,  and  public  professor  of 
music  in  that  city.  He  continued  there  many  years 
teaching  and  translating  into  Latin  the  ancient 
Greek  writers  on  music.  Among  his  works  are : — 
1.  Theoricum  Opus  harmonicas  disciplinae.  (Milan, 
1492,  in  fol.)  2.  Practica  Musicae  utriusque  can- 
tus.  (Milan,  1496.)  3.  De  harmonica  musicorum 
instrumentorum.  (Milan,  1498.) 

This  last  treatise  gave  rise  to  a  fierce  dispute, 
embraced  by  all  the  musicians  of  the  day,  be- 
tween Gafurio  and  Spataro,  the  professor  of  the 
rival  school  at  Bologna.  To  Spataro's  attack, 
entitled  'Errori  di  Franchino  Gafurio,'  etc., 
Gafurio  replied  in  his  'Apologia  Franchini  Ga- 
furii  Musici  adversus  Joannem  Spatarium  et 
complices  Bononiensis.'  The  school  of  music  was 
for  the  time  overthrown  in  Milan  by  the  fall 
of  Lodovico  Sforza,  and  Franchino  Gafurio  re- 
tired to  Padua,  where  he  became  a  professor  of 
astrology.     He  died  at  the  age  of  71. 

Burney,  in  his  History  of  Music  (vol.  iii.  p.  153), 
speaks  in  the  highest  terms  of  Gafurio  :  '  It  was 
at  Milan,'  he  says,  'that  Gafurio  composed  and 
polished  most  of  his  works ;  that  he  was  caressed 
by  the  first  persons  of  his  time  for  rank  and 
learning;  and  that  he  read  Lectures  by  public 
authority  to  crowded  audiences,  for  which  he 
had  a  faculty  granted  him  by  the  Archbishop 
and  chief  magistrates  of  the  city  in  1483,  which 
exalted  him  far  above  all  his  cotemporary  bre- 
thren :  and  how  much  he  improved  the  -science 
by  his  instructions,  his  lectures  and  his  writings, 
was  testified  by  the  approbation  of  the  whole 
city ;  to  which  may  be  added  the  many  disciples  he 
formed,  and  the  almost  infinite  number  of  volumes 


MILAN". 

he  wrote,  among  which  several  will  live  as 
long  as  music  and  the  Latin  tongue  are  under- 
stood.' 

Costanzo  Porta,  the  pupil  of  Willaert,  Zarlino, 
Caimo,  Gastoldi  Biffi,  and  others,  were  also  emi- 
nent composers  in  the  old  Lombard  school  of 
music,  but  Claude  Monteverde  (born  at  Cremona 
1570)  was  the  first  to  found  a  new  epoch  in  this 
school,  and  to  make  it  one  of  the  richest  and 
most  powerful  in  Italy.  He  first  attracted  the 
notice  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua  by  his  performance 
on  the  Tenor  Viola ;  and  by  his  direction,  and  ap- 
plying himself  to  the  study  of  composition  under 
Ingegnere,  the  Maestro  di  Capella  of  that  Court, 
he  became  a  considerable  composer  for  the  Church. 
The  result  of  his  studies  appears  in  some  valu- 
able innovations  in  the  old  rules  of  counterpoint, 
which,  although  they  excited  much  cavil  and  dis- 
cussion at  the  time,  were  soon  adopted  not  only 
by  dilettanti  but  professors. 

Besides  making  these  important  discoveries, 
he  is  considered  to  be  one  of"  the  first  inventors 
of  recitative  in  the  Musical  Drama.  Orazio 
Vecchi,  born  about  1550,  was  another  writer 
of  operatic  music  of  the  Lombard  school.  His 
opera  of '  L'  Arnfi  Parnaso,'  was  one  of  the  earliest 
operatic  representations.  These  and  many  other 
writers  of  dramatic  music  were  formed  in  the 
Lombard  school,  which  was  also  illustrated  by 
composers  for  the  Church,  such  as  Viadana, 
Noscimbeni,  Simpliciano  Olivo,  Giuseppe  Vignati, 
Antonio  Rosetti,  Gio.  Andrea  Fioroni,  etc.,  etc. 

In  the  first  part  of  the  18th  century  the 
famous  school  of  singing  of  Giuseppe  Ferdinando 
Brivio  flourished  at  Milan,  but  there  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  any  special  'Accademia'  or 
Conservatorio  for  public  musical  instruction  till 
the  year  1807,  when,  by  a  decree  of  Napoleon 
Buonaparte,  the  present  Royal  Conservatorio  of 
Milan  was  established. 

By  order  of  the  viceroy,  Eugene  Beauharnais, 
the  building  annexed  to  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  della  Passione,  formerly  a  convent,  was 
set  apart  for  the  new  musical  institute.  It  was 
opened  on  September  8,  1808,  and  formally  in- 
augurated by  the  Marquis  de  Breme,  minister 
of  the  interior ;  and  it  was  to  be  modelled  on  the 
pattern  of  the  old  Conservatories  of  Naples. 

The  first  president  of  the  Conservatorio  was 
Bonifazio  Asioli,  chosen  by  the  celebrated  Gian 
Simone  Mayr,  who  traced  out  the  rules  for  the 
new  institution ;  and  the  first  professors  of  the 
various  branches  of  musical  instruction  were 
Federigi,  Secchi,  Bay,  Piantanida,  Negri,  Rolla, 
Sturioni,  Andredi,  Adami,  Belloli,  Buccinelli. 
In  1814,  on  account  of  the  large  increase  of 
pupils,  two  extra  professors  were  nominated. 
During  the  years  1848  and  1849,  when  the 
Austrians  were  in  Milan,  the  Conservatorio  was 
also  occupied  by  their  troops,  but  the  musical 
instruction  of  the  pupils  was  carried  on  in  the 
private  houses  of  the  professors.  In  1850  the 
Conservatorio  was  reopened  under  the  presidency 
of  Lauro  Rossi  on  a  larger  scale,  with  a  con- 
siderable change  in  its  form  of  government,  and 
fresh  provision  was  made  for  instruction  in  the 


MILANOLLO. 


829 


organ,  the  harp,  the  history  and  philosophy  of 
music.  In  1 858  a  school  of  instruction  in  singing 
for  the  performers  at  the  royal  theatres  was  like- 
wise added. 

An  Academical  Council  was  instituted  in  1864, 
to  determine  what  prizes  should  be  distributed 
to  the  pupils,  and  every  year  those  who  dis- 
tinguish themselves  most  at  the  yearly  examina- 
tions receive  a  monthly  pension  arising  out  of 
the  endowment  of  the  Institution.  In  this  same 
year  the  'Societa  del  Quartetto'  was  formed,  of 
which  many  of  the  most  notable  musicians  of  the 
present  day  are  honorary  members.  Every  year 
this  society  causes  six  or  eight  concerts  of  clas- 
sical music  to  be  performed,  and  offers  a  prize 
for  the  best  musical  composition  on  a  given  sub- 
ject. The '  Scuole  popolari '  for  the  lower  classes 
of  the  people,  at  the  cost  of  the  State,  are  also  off- 
shoots of  the  great  Milanese  Conservatorio. 

The  programme  of  musical  instruction  in  the 
Royal  Conservatorio,  as  translated  from  the 
report  of  January  1873,  of  the  president,  Signor 
Lodovico  Melzi,  comprehends  two  kinds  of  in- 
struction in  music,  artistic  and  literary,  and  these 
may  again  be  subdivided  into  a  preliminary 
and  a  superior  course  of  instruction  in  either  of 
these  two  branches. 

The  Conservatorio  professes  to  give  a  complete 
musical  and  a  fair  literary  education.  The  musical 
instruction  is  directed  by  29  Professors,  and  by 
about  30  Teachers  selected  from  the  best  pupils 
of  both  sexes.  For  the  literary  branch  there  are 
7  Professors.  There  are  two  other  Professors,  one 
for  deportment,  pantomine,  and  ballet,  the  other 
for  drill. 

Each  pupil  previous  to  admission  must  pass 
through  a  preliminary  examination  to  see  if  he 
has  any  capacity  for  the  branch  of  musical  in- 
struction he  intends  to  pursue.  This  examina- 
tion when  passed  only  gives  the  pupil  a  right  to 
enter  the  Conservatorio  probationary  for  a  year, 
and  not  till  he  has  passed  the  second  examination 
at  the  end  of  the  probationary  year  is  he  admitted 
as  a  pupil.  On  admission  he  pays  an  entrance 
fee  of  20  lire,  and  every  year,  until  his  studies 
are  completed,  he  pays  to  the  Institute  5  lire 
monthly,  with  the  exception  of  the  months  of  Sep- 
tember and  October. 

Nine  years  are  allowed  to  each  pupil  for  study 
in  composition,  and  for  attaining  proficiency  in 
stringed  instruments,  ten  years  for  wind  instru- 
ments, eleven  years  for  instruction  in  singing. 

Since  its  foundation,  to  the  date  above  named, 
the  Conservatorio  had  instructed  1627  pupils,  of 
whom  1 24  finished  their  course  in  1872.  [CM.  P.] 

MILANOLLO,  the  sisters,  celebrated  violin- 
ists, were  both  born  at  Sevigliano  near  Turin, 
where  their  father  lived  as  a  poor  silk-spinner; 
Teresa  in  1827,  Mabia  in  1832.  Teresa  was 
but  four  years  of  age  when  she  heard  a  violin 
solo  in  a  mass,  and  was  so  much  impressed  by 
the  sound  of  the  instrument  that  from  that 
moment  she  could  think  and  talk  of  nothing 
else,  and  would  not  rest  till  she  got  a  fiddle  of 
her  own.  Her  first  teacher  was  Giovanni  Ferrero,  a 
local  musician,  and  afterwards  Gebbaro  and  Mora 


330 


MILANOLLO. 


MILDER-HAUPTMANN. 


at  Turin.  She  was  not  yet  seven  years  old  ! 
when  she  made  her  first  public  appearance  at 
Turin  and  other  towns  of  Piedmont.  But  I 
the  pecuniary  results  of  these  concerts  being 
quite  insufficient  to  extract  the  family  from  the 
state  of  absolute  poverty  they  were  living  in, 
the  father  was  advised  to  emigrate  to  France. 
Accordingly  he  set  out  with  his  wife  and  two 
children,  Teresa,  then  seven  years  old,  and 
Maria,  an  infant  in  arms,  and  after  having 
crossed  the  Alps  on  foot,  the  little  caravan 
made  its  first  halt  at  Marseilles.  Here  Teresa 
played  three  or  four  times  with  much  suc- 
cess, and  then  went  to  Paris,  furnished  with 
an  introduction  to  Lafont,  who  took  much 
interest  in  her  talent  and  instructed  her  for 
some  time.  After  having  appeared  with  much 
success  at  Paris,  she  travelled  for  some  time 
with  Lafont  in  Belgium  and  Holland.  She 
next  came  to  England,  appeared  in  London 
and  the  provinces  and  on  a  tour  through  Wales, 
played  within  less  than  a  month  in  forty  con- 
certs with  Bochsa,  the  harpist,  who  however, 
according  to  Fe"tis,  absconded  with  the  whole  of 
the  proceeds.  Meanwhile  Teresa  had  begun  for 
some  time  to  instruct  her  younger  sister  Maria, 
who  shewed  a  talent  hardly  inferior  to  her  own, 
and  who  began  to  play  in  public  at  the  age  of 
six.  Henceforth  the  two  sisters  invariably  ap- 
peared together,  and  on  their  journeys  through 
France,  Germany,  and  Italy  were  received  every- 
where with  the  greatest  enthusiasm.  Their  per- 
formances shewed  all  the  best  peculiarities  of 
the  Franco-Belgian  school  of  violin-playing — 
great  neatness  of  execution  of  the  left  hand, 
facility  of  bowing,  gracefulness  and  piquancy  of 
style.  Teresa's  playing  appears  to  have  been 
distinguished  by  much  warmth  of  feeling,  while 
Maria,  the  younger,  had  remarkable  vigour  and 
boldness  of  execution.  These  qualities,  com- 
bined with  the  charm  of  their  personal  appear- 
ance, never  failed  to  enlist  the  sympathies  of  the 
pubhc.  At  Vienna  especially,  where  the  sisters 
gave  within  a  few  months  not  less  than  25 
concerts,  their  success  was  almost  unprecedented. 
They  visited  England  once  more  in  1845,  and 
played  at  the  Philharmonic  on  June  9.  Their 
reception  in  England  appears  hardly  to  have 
been  in  accordance  with  their  enormous  conti- 
nental reputation,  and  the  critics  of  the  day 
severely  condemn  the  exaggerated  style  and  in- 
complete technique  of  the  sisters — with  what 
right  it  is  difficult  to  say.  In  1848  Maria,  the 
younger,  died  suddenly  of  rapid  consumption  at 
Paris,  and  was  buried  at  Pere  la  Chaise.  Teresa 
after  some  time  resumed  her  life  of  travel,  but 
since  her  marriage  with  M.  Parmentier,  an  emi- 
nent French  military  engineer,  has  retired  into 
private  life.  [P.  D.] 

MILDER-HAUPTMANN,  Paulinb  Anna, 
•  celebrated  German  singer  and  tragic  actress,  the 
daughter  of  Milder,  a  courier  in  the  Austrian 
service,  was  born  at  Constantinople  in  1785. 
She  lived  afterwards  at  Vienna,  where,  having 
lost  her  father,  she  was  compelled  to  enter  the 
service  of  a  lady  of  rank  as  lady's-maid.     Her 


fine  voice  and  handsome  person  attracted  the 
notice  of  Schikaneder,  the  well-known  Viennese 
manager,  who  urged  her  to  enter  the  profession, 
offering  to  be  responsible  for  her  musical  educa- 
tion and  to  superintend  her  de"but  on  the  stage. 
The  offer  was  accepted,  and  she  became  the  pupil 
of  an  Italian  singing-master  named  Tomascelli, 
and  subsequently  of  Salieri.  She  made  her  first 
public  appearance  on  April  9,  1803,  as  Juno,  in 
Siissmayer's  opera  '  Der  Spiegel  von  Arkadien.' 
As  an  artist,  she  seems  to  have  profited  but  little 
by  instruction.  With  the  kind  of  Oriental  indo- 
lence that  always  distinguished  her,  she  was 
content  to  rely  for  success  on  her  splendid  natu- 
ral gifts,  which  were  such  as  to  procure  for  her, 
almost  at  once,  an  engagement  at  the  Imperial 
Court  theatre.  That  the  part  of  '  Fidelio '  should 
have  been  written  for  her  is  sufficient  testimony 
to  the  capabilities  of  the  organ  which  caused 
old  Haydn  to  say  to  her  '  Dear  child,  you  have 
a  voice  like  a  house !' 

Her  fame  spread  rapidly,  and  in  1808  she 
made  a  brilliantly  successful  professional  tour, 
obtaining,  on  her  return  to  Vienna,  a  fresh  en- 
gagement at  Court  as  prima  donna  assoluta.  In 
1 8 10  Anna  Milder  married  a  rich  jeweller  named 
Hauptmann.  Her  greatest  series  of  triumphs 
was  achieved  at  Berlin,  where  she  appeared  in 
Gluck's  'Iphigenia  in  Tauris,'  in  181 2.  After 
singing  with  equal  iclat  in  other  great  German 
towns,  she  contracted,  in  1816,  a  permanent  en- 
gagement with  the  royal  theatre  of  Berlin,  where 
for  twelve  years  she  reigned  supreme.  She  played 
in  all  the  principal  r6les  in  the  repertoire,  but  her 
great  parts  were  those  of  the  classical  heroines 
of  Gluck  —  Iphigenia,  Alcestis,  Annida  —  for 
which  she  was  pre-eminently  fitted,  both  by 
her  imposing  presence,  and  by  her  magnificent 
soprano  voice,  full,  rich,  and  flawless,  which  both 
in  amount  and  quality  seems  to  have  left  nothing 
to  desire.  It  was,  however,  unwieldy,  and  this 
natural  inflexibility  so  little  overcome  by  art  as 
to  be  incapable  of  the  simplest  trill  or  other  florid 
embellishment.  At  times,  especially  in  her  later 
years,  she  attempted  some  lighter  parts,  such  as 
Mozart's  Donna  Elvira,  and  Susanna,  but  her 
lack  of  execution  prevented  her  from  suc- 
ceeding in  these  as  she  did  in  Weigl's  opera  '  Die 
schweizer  Familie '  (made  celebrated  by  her  im- 
personation of  Emmeline),  or  in  the  broad  decla- 
matory style  of  Gluck.  Although  'Fidelio' 
became  one  of  her  principal  r6ks,  her  perform- 
ance in  this  opera  was  never  either  vocally  or 
dramatically  irreproachable.  Thayer  (Life  of  Bee- 
thoven, ii.  290)  relates  a  conversation  with  her,  in 
1836,  when  she  told  him  what  'hard  fights'  she 
used  to  have  with  the  master  about  some  pass- 
ages in  the  Adagio  of  the  great  scena  in  E 
major,  described  by  her  as  '  ugly,' '  unvocal,'  and 
•  inimical  (widerstrebend)  to  her  organ.'  All  was 
in  vain,  however,  until  in  18 14  she  declared 
herself  resolved  never  again  to  appear  in  the 
part,  if  she  had  to  sing  this  ungrateful  air  as  it 
stood — a  threat  which  proved  effective. 

Her  manner  in  society  is  described  as  cold  and 
apathetic,  and  her  degree  of  musical  culture  so 


MILDER-HAUPTMANN. 

small  that  she  could  only  learn  her  parts  by 
having  them  played  to  her  over  and  over  again. 
In  spite  of  this  (in  which  indeed  she  is  not 
singular),  she  was  as  much  admired  by  com- 
posers and  critics  as  by  the  court  and  the  public. 
Zelter  describes  her  golden  voice  as  'positively 
belonging  to  the  class  of  rarities,'  and  herself  as 
'the  only  singer  who  gives  you  complete  satis- 
faction.' There  is  no  doubt  that  her  success  and 
steady  hold  on  the  public  favour  had  a  most 
important  influence  in  upholding  German  opera 
and  the  classical  style,  and  in  counteracting  the 
frivolous  fashion  for  foreign  talent  of  every  kind 
which  reigned  at  Berlin. 

Chorley  tells  an  amusing  story,  on  the  author- 
ity of  an  eye-witness,  of  an  occasion  when  Mme. 
Milder's  stately  calm  was  for  a  moment  over- 
come during  one  of  her  magnificent  imperson- 
ations of  Gluck's  heroines.  'At  the  moment 
where  Blum,  the  bass  singer,  who  used  to 
strengthen  himself  for  the  part  of  Hercules  upon 
champagne,  was  carrying  off  the  colossal  Alcestis 
from  the  shades  below,  Queen  Milder,  aware  of 
the  risk  she  ran  in  arms  so  unsteady,  and  over- 
powered with  sudden  terror,  exclaimed,  "  Herr 
Jesu  !  Ich  falle  ! "  This  exclamation  elicited  a 
simultaneous  roar  from  all  parts  of  the  theatre. 
And  from  that  day  forward,  Milder  was  led,  not 
carried,  from  the  stage  by  the  God  of  Strength.' 
(Modern  German  Music,  vol.  i.  p.  186.) 

In  1829  she  abdicated  her  sceptre  in  Berlin, 
owing  to  misunderstandings  and  differences  with 
the  opera-director,  Spontini.  She  then  visited 
Russia,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,  but  her  voice 
was  failing  fast.  Her  last  public  appearance 
was  at  Vienna  in  1836,  two  years  before  her 
death,  which  happened  at  Berlin  on  May  29, 
1838.  [F.A.M.] 

MILITARY  DRUM  is  another  term  for  the 
side  drum.     [Drum,  3.]  [V.  de  P.] 

MILLER,  Edward,  Mus.  Doc.,  born  at 
Norwich  in  1731,  studied  music  under  Dr. 
Burney,  and  was  elected  organist  of  Doncaster 
July  25,  1756,  upon  'the  recommendation  of 
Nares.  He  graduated  as  Mus.  Doc.  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1786.  He  died  at  Doncaster,  Sept.  12, 
1807.  His  compositions  comprise  elegies,  songs, 
harpsichord  sonatas,  flute  solos,  psalm  tunes,  etc., 
and  he  was  the  author  of  'The  Elements  of 
Thorough-bass  and  Composition '  and  a  '  History 
of  Doncaster,'  1804.  [W.H.H.] 

MILLICO,  Giuseppe,  a  good  composer  and 
better  singer,  was  born  in  1739  at  Terlizzi 
(Poviglio),  Modena.  Gluck,  who  heard  him  in 
Italy,  thought  him  one  of  the  greatest  soprani  of 
his  day,  and,  when  Millico  visited  Vienna  in 
1772,  and  was  attached  to  the  Court  Theatre, 
Gluck  showed  his  estimation  of  him  by  choosing 
him  as  singing-master  for  his  own  niece.  In  the 
spring  of  that  year,  Millico  had  already  come  to 
London,  where  however  he  found  the  public  but 
little  disposed  in  his  favour.  Though  a  judicious 
artist  and  a  most  worthy  man,  he  was  not  an 
Adonis,  and  his  voice  had  received  its  greatest 
beauties  from  art  (Burney) ;   '  Of  a  singularly 


MINGOTTI. 


331 


dark  complexion,  ill-made,  and  uncommonly  plain 
in  features'  (Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe).  By  the 
end  of  the  season,  Millico  had  reversed  the  first 
unfavourable  impression,  and  his  benefit  was  a 
bumper.  He  had  then  appeared  in  '  Artaserse ' 
and  '  Sofonisba,'  and  he  took  part  in  '  II  Cid'  and 
'  Tamerlano '  in  the  following  year.  In  1774  he 
appeared  here  in  '  Perseo,'  after  which  he  went 
to  Berlin.  In  1780  he  was  in  Italy  again, 
attached  to  the  Neapolitan  Court,  where  he  is 
said  to  have  profited  by  his  own  influence  to 
oppress  other  artists.  Fetis  gives  a  list  of  his 
compositions,  including  3  operas,  3  cantatas,  a 
collection  of  canzonette,  published  in  London. 
(1777),  and  other  pieces.  [J.M.] 

MILTON,  John,  father  of  the  poet,  was  of 
an  ancient  Roman  Catholic  family  seated  at 
Milton,  Oxfordshire.  He  was  educated  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  but  being  disinherited  for  em- 
bracing Protestantism,  commenced  business  as 
a  scrivener  in  Bread  Street,  Cheapside,  at  the 
sign  of  the  Spread  Eagle,  the  family  arms.  He 
was  a  skilled  musician,  and  admitted  into  fel- 
lowship with  the  best  composers  of  his  time. 
To  'The  Triumphes  of  Oriana,'  1601,  he  contri- 
buted the  six-part  madrigal  'Fayre  Oriana  in  the 
niorne,'  and  to  Leighton's  '  Teares  or  Lament- 
acions,'  16 14,  four  motets.  Ravenscroft's '  Whole 
Booke  of  Psalmes,'  1621,  contains  some  tunes  by 
him,  among  them  the  well-known  'York'  and 
'  Norwich.'  He  is  said  to  have  composed  an 
'In  Nomine'  in  40  parts,  and  presented  it  to 
a  Polish  prince,  who  rewarded  him  with  a  gold 
chain  and  medal.  His  musical  abilities  are 
celebrated  by  his  son  in  a  Latin  poem,  'Ad 
Patrem.'  He  died  at  an  advanced  age  in  March 
1646-7,  and  was  buried  at  St.  Giles',  Cripplegate. 
Specimens  of  his  compositions  are  given  by  both 
Hawkins  and  Burney.  [W.  H.  H.] 

MINACCIANDO,  'threateningly';  a^term 
used  once  by  Beethoven,  in  a  letter  to  Schott, 
dated  Jan.  28,  1826  (Nohl,  Neue  Briefe  Bee- 
thoven's, p.  282),  in  which,  after  some  playful 
abuse,  the  following  postscript  occurs  :— 
tr. 


Posaun 
16  fussig  • 


;  trillo 


^r.  minacciando 


m 


w 


[J.A.F.M.] 
MINGOTTI,  Regina,  a  very  celebrated  singer, 
whose  family  name  was  Valentini,  was  born  at 
Naples,  of  German  parents,  in  1728.  Her  father, 
an  officer  in  the  Austrian  service,  being  ordered 
to  Griitz  in  Silesia  in  the  same  year,  took  his- 
daughter  with  him.  Here  he  died,  leaving  her 
to  the  care  of  an  uncle,  who  placed  her  iD 
the  Ursuline  Convent,  where  she  received  her 
first  instruction  in  music.  At  the  age  of  14, 
however,  she  lost  her  uncle  by  death,  and  the 
pension  which  ensured  her  an  asylum  with  the 
nuns  ceased  with  his  life.  Compelled  to  return 
to  her  family,  she  spent  some  time  very  unhappily. 
1  Trombone,  16  ft. 


332 


MINGOTTI. 


In  order  to  escape  from  this  miserable  life, 
though  still  a  mere  child,  she  married  Mingotti, 
an  old  Venetian  musician,  impresario  of  the 
Dresden  opera.  Perceiving  all  the  advantage 
that  might  be  derived  from  the  great  gifts  of  his 
young  wife,  Mingotti  placed  her  at  once  under 
the  tuition  of  Porpora,  where  she  made  rapid 
progress  in  her  art.  From  a  slender  salary,  she 
soon  rose  to  receiving  more  considerable  pay, 
while  her  growing  popularity  aroused  the  jealousy 
of  a  powerful  and  established  rival,  the  celebrated 
Faustina,  who  actually  vacated  the  field  and  left 
Dresden  for  Italy.  Soon  afterwards  the  younger 
singer  went  also  to  Italy,  and  obtained  a  lucra- 
tive engagement  at  Naples.  There  she  appeared 
with  great  eclat  (i  748)  in  GaluppiVL'Olimpiade,' 
astonishing  the  Italians  no  less  by  the  purity  of 
her  pronunciation  than  by  the  beauty  of  her 
voice  and  style.  Engagements  were  immediately 
offered  her  for  many  of  the  great  Italian  operas, 
but  she  refused  all  in  order  to  return  to  Dresden, 
where  she  was  already  engaged.  Here  she 
played  again  in  '  L'Olimpiade '  with  enormous 
success.  Faustina  and  her  husband,  Hasse  the 
composer,  were  also  now  again  in  Dresden  ;  and 
Burney  tells  an  anecdote  which,  if  true,  shows 
that  their  jealous  feeling  towards  Mingotti  had 
not  ceased.  According  to  this  story,  which  he 
had  from  the  lips  of  Mingotti  herself,  Hasse 
composed  a  new  air  specially  for  the  young 
singer,  which  she  was  to  sing  in  his  '  Demofoonte' 
(1748).  In  spite  of  her  success  in  brilliant 
music,  it  was  still  supposed  that  she  was  in- 
capable of  singing  a  slow  and  pathetic  air. 
Accordingly,  Hasse  had  written  for  her  an  inter- 
esting Adayio,  with  which  she  was  much  taken, 
till  she  noticed  that  the  accompaniment  was  for 
"violins,  pizzlcati,  probably  with  the  intention  of 
leading  her  to  sing  out  of  tune  for  want  of  proper 
support.  By  dint  of  study,  however,  she  mas- 
tered the  difficulty,  and  sang  the  song  in  such  a 
way  as  to  convert  her  detractors  to  admiration. 
From  Dresden  she  went  to  Spain  (1751),  where 
she  sang  with  Gizziello  in  the  operas  directed  by 
Farinelli,  who  was  so  strict  a  disciplinarian  that 
he  would  not  allow  her  to  sing  anywhere  but  at 
the  Opera,  nor  even  to  practise  in  a  room  that 
looked  on  the  street !  Burney  illustrates  this 
with  another  anecdote,  too  long  to  quote  here. 

After  spending  two  years  in  Spain,  Mingotti 
went  to  Paris,  and  thence  to  London  for  the  first 
time.  Her  arrival  here  retrieved  the  fortunes  of 
the  opera  in  England,  which  were  in  a  languishing 
condition.  In  November,  1755,  Jommelli's  '  An- 
dromaca '  was  performed,  but '  a  damp  was  thrown 
on  its  success  by  the  indisposition  of  Mingotti ' 
(Burney).  She  told  that  writer,  indeed,  in  1772, 
'  that  she  was  frequently  hissed  by  the  English 
for  having  a  tooth-ache,  a  cold,  or  a  fever,  to 
which  the  good  people  of  England  will  readily 
allow  every  human  being  is  liable,  except  an 
actor  or  a  singer.'  She  seems  to  have  been  a 
very  accomplished  singer  and  actress  ;  her  only 
fault,  if  she  had  one,  being  a  little  want  of  femi- 
nine grace  and  softness. 

Her  contentions  with  Vaneschi,  the  manager, 


MINIM. 

occasioned  as  many  private  quarrels  and  feuds  as 
the  disputes  about  Handel  and  Buononcini, 
Gluck  and  Piccinni,  or  Mara  and  Todi.  Mingotti 
addressed  a  letter  '  to  the  town,'  but  in  such 
cases  '  not  a  word  which  either  party  says  is 
believed '  (Burney).  As  the  story  goes,  on  one 
occasion,  Mrs.  Fox  Lane,  afterwards  Lady  Bing- 
ley,  a  zealous  friend  and  protectress  of  Mingotti, 
having  asked  the  Hon.  General  Carey  his  decided 
opinion  as  to  the  disputes  between  her  protegee 
and  Vaneschi  ;  the  General,  after  listening 
patiently  to  her  long  statement  of  the  casus 
belli,  at  length  retorted  '  And  pray,  ma'am,  who 
is  Madam  Mingotti  ?'  '  Get  out  of  my  house,' 
answered  the  incensed  lady,  'you  shall  never 
hear  her  sing  another  note  at  my  concerts,  as  long 
as  you  live.'  Vaneschi  gave  way,  and  Mingotti 
(with  Giardini)  carried  the  same  company 
through  the  next  winter  with  great  eclat, — 
but  little  profit,  in  spite  of  appearances;  and, 
after  this  season,  the  new  managers  gave  up  the 
undertaking. 

At  the  close  of  the  season  of  1763,  Signora 
Mattei  left  England,  and  Giardini  and  Mingotti 
again  resumed  the  reins  of  opera-government, 
and  Mingotti  sang  in '  Cleonice '  ('  in  the  decline 
of  her  favour' — Burney),  'Siroe,'  'Enea  e  La- 
vinia,'  and  'Leucippe  e  Zenocrita.'  And  here 
the  reign  of  Giardini  and  Mingotti  seems  to  have 
ended,  after  an  inauspicious  season  (Burney). 
She  afterwards  sang  with  considerable  success  in 
the  principal  cities  of  Italy,  but  she  always  re- 
garded Dresden  as  her  home,  during  the  life  of 
the  Elector  Augustus.  In  1772  she  was  settled 
at  Munich,  living  comfortably,  well  received  at 
court,  and  esteemed  by  all  such  as  were  able  to 
appreciate  her  understanding  and  conversation. 
It  gave  Dr.  Burney  '  great  pleasure  to  hear  her 
speak  concerning  practical  music,  which  she  did 
with  as  much  intelligence  as  any  maestro  di 
Capella  with  whom  he  ever  conversed.  Her 
knowledge  in  singing,  and  powers  of  expression, 
in  different  styles,  were  still  amazing.  She  spoke 
three  languages,  German,  French,  and  Italian,  so 
well  that  it  was  difficult  to  say  which  of  them 
was  her  own.  '  English  she  likewise  spoke,  and 
Spanish,  well  enough  to  converse  in  them,  and 
understood  Latin ;  but,  in  the  three  languages 
first  mentioned,  she  was  truly  eloquent.'  She 
afterwards  played  and  sang  to  him  '  for  near  four 
hours,'  when  he  thought  her  voice  better  than 
when  she  was  in  England. 

In  1787  Mingotti  retired  *to  Neuborg  on  the 
Danube,  where  she  died  in  1807,  at  the  age  of 
79.  Her  portrait  in  crayons,  by  Mengs,  is  in 
the  Dresden  Gallery.  It  represents  her,  when 
young,  with  a  piece  of  music  in  her  hand  ;  and, 
if  faithful,  it  makes  her  more  nearly  beautiful 
than  it  was  easy  for  those  who  knew  her  later  in 
life  to  believe  her  ever  to  have  been.  '  She  is 
painted  in  youth,  plumpness,  and  with  a  very 
expressive  countenance.'  The  dog  in  Hogarth's 
'Lady's  last  stake'  is  said  to  be  a  portrait  of 
Mingotti's  dog.  [J.M.] 

MINIM  (Lat.  and  Ital.  Minima ;  Fr.  Blanche; 
Germ.  Ilalbe  Note).    A  note,  equal  in  duration 


MINIM. 


MINUET. 


333 


to  the  half  of  a  Semibreve ;  and  divisible  into 
two  Crotchets  (Semiminimse  inajores),  or  four 
Quavers  (Semiminimse  minores). 

The  Minim  derives  its  name  from  the  fact, 
that,  until  the  invention  of  the  Crotchet,  it  was 
the  shortest  note  in  use.  We  first  find  it  men- 
tioned, early  in  the  14th  century,  by  Joannes  de 
Muris;  though  Morley  says  it  was  employed 
by  Philippus  de  Vitriaco,  who  flourished  dur- 
ing the  latter  half  of  the  13th.  Its  form  has 
undergone  but  little  change,  in  modern  times. 
It  was  always  an  open  note,  with  a  tail.  Formerly 
its  head  was  lozenge-shaped,  and  its  tail  turned 
always  upwards :  now,  the  head  is  round,  in- 
clining to  oval,  and  the  tail  may  turn  either 
upwards,  or  downwards. 

In  antient  music,  the  Minim  was  always  im- 
perfect :  that  is  to  say,  it  was  divisible  into  two 
Crotchets  only,  and  not  into  three.  As  time  pro- 
gressed, a  quasi-exception  to  this  rule  was  afforded' 
by  the  Hemiolia  minor :  but  it  was  never  used 
in  ligature.     [See  Hemiolia  ;  Ligature.] 

The  Minim  Rest  resembles  that  of  the  Semi- 
breve, except  that  it  is  placed  above  the  line, 
instead  of  below  it — a  peculiarity  which  is  ob- 
served in  the  oldest  MSS.  in  which  Minims 
occur.  [W.S.R.] 

MINOR.  When  intervals  have  two  forms 
which  are  alike  consonant  or  alike  dissonant,  these 
are  distinguished  as  major  and  minor.  The  minor 
form  i3  always  a  semitone  less  than  the  major. 

The  consonances  which  have  minor  forms  are 
thirds  and  sixths ;  the  dissonances  are  seconds, 
sevenths  and  ninths ;  of  these  the  minor  thirds 
and  sixths  are  the  roughest  of  consonances,  and 
the  minor  second  is  the  roughest  and  the  minor 
seventh  the  smoothest  of  dissonances. 

Minor  scales  are  so  called  because  their  chief 
characteristic  is  their  third  being  minor.  Minor 
tones  are  less  than  major  by  a  comma.  [See 
Major.]  [C.H.H.P.] 

MINOR  CANONS,  priests  in  cathedrals 
and  collegiate  churches  whose  duty  it  is  to 
superintend  the  performance  of  daily  service. 
They  are  not  of  the  chapter,  but  rank  after  the 
canons  and  prebendaries.  They  were  formerly 
called  vicars  choral,  and  were  originally  ap- 
pointed as  deputies  of  the  canons  for  church 
purposes,  their  number  being  regulated  by  the 
number  of  the  capitular  members.  Laymen 
were  frequently  appointed  as  vicars  choral,  but 
it  is  necessary  that  minor  canons  should  be  in 
holy  orders.  According  to  the  statutes,  they 
should  also  be  skilled  in  church  music.  (Hook's 
Church  Dictionary.)  [W.  B.  S.) 

MINUET  (Fr.  Menuet ;  Ger.  Menuett ;  Ital. 
Minuetto).  A  piece  of  music  in  dance  rhythm, 
and  of  French  origin.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  French  menu  (small),  and  refers  to  the  short 
steps  of  the  dance.  The  exact  date  of  its  first  in- 
vention is  uncertain.  According  to  some  au- 
thorities it  came  originally  from  the  province 
of  Poitou,  while  others  say  that  the  first  was 
composed  by  Lully.  In  its  earliest  form  the 
minuet  consisted  of  two  eight-bar  phrases,  in  3-4 


time,  each  of  which  was  repeated ;  sometimes  com- 
mencing on  the  third,  but  more  frequently  upon 
the  first,  beat  of  the  bar,  and  of  a  very  moderate 
degree  of  movement.  The  well-known  minuet  in 
the  first  finale  of '  Don  Giovanni '  is  a  very  faithful 
reproduction  of  this  original  form  of  the  dance. 
As  a  complement  to  the  short  movement,  a  second 
minuet  was  soon  added,  similar  in  form  to  the 
first,  but  contrasted  in  feeling.  This  was  mostly 
written  in  three-part  harmony,  whence  it  received 
its  name  Trio,  a  name  retained  down  to  the  pre- 
sent time,  long  after  the  restriction  as  to  the 
number  of  parts  has  been  abandoned.  A  further 
enlargement  in  the  form  of  the  minuet  consisted 
in  the  extension  of  the  number  of  bars,  especially 
in  the  second  half  of  the  dance,  which  frequently 
contained  sixteen,  or  even  more,  bars,  instead  of 
the  original  eight.  It  is  in  this  form  that  it  is 
mostly  found  in  the  Suite. 

In  the  works  of  the  composers  of  the  18th 
century,  especially  Handel  and  Bach,  the  minuet 
is  by  no  means  an  indispensable  part  of  the 
Suite.  As  compared  with  some  other  move- 
ments, such  as  the  Allemande,  Courante,  or 
Sarabande,  it  may  be  said  to  be  of  somewhat  in- 
frequent occurrence.  Its  usual  position  in  the 
Suite  is  among  the  miscellaneous  dances,  which 
are  to  be  found  between  the  Sarabande  and  the 
Gigue,  though  we  exceptionally  meet  with  it  in 
the  3rd  Suite  of  Handel's  second  set  as  a  final 
movement,  and  with  three  variations.  In  Han- 
del, moreover,  it  is  very  rare  to  find  the  second 
minuet  (or  Trio)  following  the  first.  On  the 
other  hand,  this  composer  frequently  gives  con- 
siderable development  to  each  section  of  the 
movement,  as  in  the  8th  Suite  of  the  second  set, 
where  the  minuet  (written,  by  the  way,  as  is  fre- 
quently the  case  with  Handel,  in  3-8  instead  of 
3-4  time),  contains  34  bars  in  the  first  part,  and 
71  in  the  second.  This  piece  has  little  of  the 
character  of  the  ordinary  minuet  excepting  the 
rhythm.  Handel  also  frequently  finishes  the 
overtures  of  his  operas  and  oratorios  with  a 
minuet ;  one  of  the  best-known  instances  will  be 
found  in  the  overture  to  '  Samson.' 

The  minuets  of  Bach  are  remarkable  for  their 
variety  of  form  and  character.  In  the  Partita  in 
Bb  (No.  1)  the  first  minuet  contains  16  bars  in 
the  first  section  and  22  in  the  second ;  while  the 
second  minuet  is  quite  in  the  old  form,  consisting 
of  two  parts  of  eight  bars  each.  The  minuet  of 
the  fourth  Partita  (in  D)  has  no  Trio,  and  its 
sections  contain  the  first  eight,  and  the  second 
twenty  bars.  In  a  Suite  for  Clavier  in  Eb  (Book 
3,  No.  7,  of  the  Peters  edition  of  Bach's  works), 
we  find  an  early  example  of  a  frequent  modern 
practice.  The  first  minuet  is  in  Eb  major,  and 
the  second  in  the  tonic  minor.  It  may  be  re- 
marked in  passing  that  Bach  never  uses  the  term 
'  Trio '  for  the  second  minuet,  unless  it  is  actually 
written  in  three  parts.  In  the  4th  of  the  six 
Sonatas  for  flute  and  clavier  we  meet  with  another 
variation  from  the  custom  of  the  day  which  or- 
dained that  all  movements  of  a  suite  must  be  in 
the  same  key.  We  here  see  the  first  minuet  in 
C  major,  and  the  second  in  A  minor — a  precedent 


884 


MINUET. 


MINUET. 


often  followed  in  more  modern  works.  Another 
example  of  the  same  relation  of  keys  will  be  found 
in  the  fourth  of  the  so-called  '  English  Suites ' — 
the  only  one  which  contains  a  minuet.  Here  the 
first  minuet  is  in  F  and  the  second  in  D  minor. 
Of  the  six  French  Suites  four  have  minuets,  two 
of  which  are  worth  noticing.  In  the  second 
minuet  of  the  1st  Suite  the  latter  half  is  not  re- 
peated— a  very  rare  thing ;  and  in  the  3rd  Suite 
we  meet  with  a  genuine  Trio  in  three  parts 
throughout,  and  at  the  end  the  indication  '  Me- 
nuet  da  Capo.'  Though  it  was  always  understood 
that  the  first  minuet  was  to  be  repeated  after  the 
second,  it  is  very  rare  at  this  date  to  find  the 
direction  expressly  given.  One  more  interesting 
innovation  of  Bach's  remains  to  be  mentioned. 
In  his  great  Concerto  in  F  for  solo  violin,  two 
horns,  three  oboes,  bassoon,  and  strings,  will  be 
found  a  minuet  with  three  trios,  after  each  of 
which  the  minuet  is  repeated.  (Bach  Ges.  xix. 
p.  27).  We  shall  presently  see  that  Mozart,  half 
&  century  later,  did  the  same  thing. 

The  historic  importance  of  the  minuet  arises 
from  the  fact  that,  unlike  the  other  ancient 
dances,  it  has  not  become  obsolete,  but  con- 
tinues to  hold  a  place  in  the  symphony  (the  de- 
scendant of  the  old  Suite),  and  in  other  large  in- 
strumental works  written  in  the  same  form. 
The  first  composer  to  introduce  the  minuet  into 
the  symphony  appears  to  have  been  Haydn ;  for 
in  the  works  of  this  class  which  preceded  his 
(those  of  C.  P.  E.  Bach,  Sammartini,  and  others) 
we  find  only  three  movements.  And  even  with 
Haydn  (as  also  in  many  of  the  earlier  works  of 
Mozart)  we  find  the  minuet  at  first  by  no  means 
of  invariable  occurrence.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
sometimes  see  in  the  same  work  two  minuets,  each 
with  a  trio,  one  before  and  one  after  the  slow  move- 
ment. Examples  will  be  met  with  in  Haydn's 
first  twelve  quartets  (ops.  1  and  2)  and  also  in 
some  of  Mozart's  serenatas,  divertimenti,  etc. 
(Kochel's  Catalogue,  Nos.  63,  99,  204,  247,  and 
others.)  The  detailed  examination  of  the  numer- 
ous minuets  which  Haydn  has  left  us  in  his  quar- 
tets and  symphonies  would  be  deeply  interesting, 
but  would  lead  us  too  far.  Only  a  few  of  the  pro- 
minent characteristics  can  be  mentioned.  While 
in  general  retaining  the  old  form  of  the  minuet, 
Haydn  greatly  changes  its  spirit.  The  original 
dance  was  stately  in  character,  and  somewhat  slow. 
With  Haydn  its  prevailing  tone  was  light-hearted 
humour,  sometimes  even  developing  into  down- 
right fun.  The  time  becomes  quicker.  While  in 
the  earlier  works  the  most  frequent  indications 
are  Allegretto,  or  Allegro  ma  non  troppo,  we  find 
in  the  later  quartets  more  than  once  a  Presto 
(ops.  76  and  77).  These  minuets  thus  become  an 
anticipation  of  the  Beethoven  scherzo.  Curiously 
enough,  in  one  set  of  quartets,  and  in  only  one 
(op.  33),  Haydn  designates  this  movement '  Scher- 
zando,'  in  Nos.  1  and  2,  and  '  Scherzo'  in  Nos.  3 
to  6.  As  the  tempo  here  is  not  more  rapid  than 
in  the  other  minuets,  it  is  evident  that  the  term 
only  refers  to  the  character  of  the  music,  and  is 
not  used  in  the  modern  sense.  As  we  learn  from 
Pohl's  'Haydn'  (p.  332)  that  the  composer  care- 


fully preserved  the  chronological  order  of  the 
quartets  in  numbering  them,  we  are  in  a  position 
to  trace  the  gradual  development  of  the  minuet 
through  the  entire  series.  We  find  one  of  Haydn's 
innovations  in  some  of  the  later  works,  in  putting 
the  trio  into  a  key  more  remote  from  that  of  the 
minuet,  instead  of  into  one  of  those  more  nearly 
related  (Quartet  in  F,  op.  72,  No.  a — minuet  in 
F,  trio  in  Db ;  Quartet  in  C,  op.  74,  No.  1  — 
minuet  in  C,  trio  in  A  major).  This  relation  of 
the  tonics  was  a  favourite  one  with  Beethoven. 
In  only  one  of  Haydn's  quartets  (op.  9,  No.  4), 
do  we  find  a  trio  in  three  parts,  though  the  name 
is  always  given  to  the  second  minuet.  A  curious 
variation  from  the  ordinary  form  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  quartet  in  Eb,  op.  2,  No.  3.  Here  the  trio 
of  the  second  minuet  has  three  variations,  one  of 
which  is  played,  instead  of  the  original  trio,  after 
each  repetition  of  the  minuet. 

It  is  no  uncommon  thing  in  the  works  of  Haydn 
to  meet  with  another  variety  of  the  minuet.  The 
finales  of  his  smaller  works  are  often  written  in  a 
•  Tempo  di  Minuetto.'  Here  the  regular  subdi- 
visions of  minuet  and  trio,  sometimes  also  the 
double  bars  and  repeats,  are  abandoned.  In  the 
piano  sonatas  and  trios  many  examples  will  be 
met  with.  A  well-known  instance  of  a  similar 
movement  by  Mozart  is  furnished  in  the  finale  of 
his  sonata  in  F  for  piano  and  violin.  Haydn's 
predilection  for  the  minuet  is  further  shown  by 
the  fact  that  in  several  of  his  sonatas  in  three 
movements  the  minuet  and  trio  replace  the  slow 
movement,  which  is  altogether  wanting. 

With  Mozart  the  form  of  the  minuet  is  iden- 
tical with  that  of  Haydn's  ;  it  is  the  spirit  that 
is  different.  Suavity,  tenderness,  and  grace,  rather 
than  overflowing  animal  spirits,  are  now  the  pre- 
vailing characteristics.  It  is  in  Mozart's  con- 
certed instrumental  works  (serenatas,  etc.)  that 
his  minuets  must  be  chiefly  studied;  curiously 
enough,  they  are  singularly  rare  in  his  pianoforte 
compositions.  Of  seventeen  solo  sonatas,  only  two 
(those  in  Eb  and  A  major)  contain  minuets ;  while 
out  of  42  sonatas  for  piano  and  violin,  minuets 
are  only  found  in  four  as  intermediate  movements, 
though  in  the  earlier  works  a  '  Tempo  di  Minu- 
etto' often  forms  the  finale.  In  many  of  the 
earlier  symphonies  also  we  find  only  three  move- 
ments, and  even  in  several  of  the  later  and  finer 
symphonies  (e.g.  Kochel,  Nos.  297,  338,444,  504) 
the  minuet  is  wanting.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
serenades  and  divertimenti,  especial  prominence 
is  given  to  this  movement.  Frequently  two 
minuets  are  to  be  found,  and  in  some  cases  (Ko- 
chel, Nos.  100,  203,  250)  three  are  to  be  met 
with.  The  variety  of  character  and  colouring  in 
these  minuets  is  the  more  striking  as  the  form  is 
approximately  the  same  in  all.  One  example 
will  suffice  in  illustration.  In  the  Divertimento 
in  D  (Kochel,  131),  for  strings,  flute,  oboe,  bas- 
soon, and  four  horns,  there  are  two  minuets,  the 
first  of  which  has  three  trios  and  the  second  two. 
The  first  minuet  in  D  major  is  given  to  strings 
alone ;  the  first  trio  (also  in  D  major)  is  a  quar- 
tet for  the  four  horns  ;  the  second  (in  G)  is  a  trio 
for  flute,  oboe,  and  bassoon ;  while  the  third  (in  D 


MINUET. 

minor)  is  for  the  seven  wind  instruments  in  com- 
bination. After  the  last  repetition  of  the  minuet, 
a  coda  for  .all  the  instruments  concludes  the  move- 
ment. The  three  trios  are  as  strongly  contrasted 
in  musical  character  as  in  orchestral  colour. 
Many  similar  instances  might  easily  be  given 
from  the  works  of  Mozart. 

To  Beethoven  we  owe  the  transformation  of 
the  minuet  into  the  Scherzo.  Even  in  his  first 
works  this  alteration  is  made.  Of  the  three 
piano  trios,  op.  i,  the  first  and  second  have  a 
scherzo,  and  only  the  third  a  minuet.  The  exa- 
mination of  the  different  varieties  of  the  scherzo 
will  be  treated  elsewhere  (Scherzo)  ;  it  will  be 
sufficient  here  to  explain  that  the  difference  be- 
tween the  minuet  and  the  scherzo  is  one  of  cha- 
racter rather  than  of  form.  The  time  is  frequently 
quicker ;  the  rhythm  is  more  varied  (see,  for 
instance,  the  scherzi  in  Beethoven's  4th  Sym- 
phony, in  the  Sonata,  op.  28,  and  in  the  Baga- 
telle, op.  33,  No.  2) ;  and  sometimes,  as  in  the 
7th  and  9th  Symphonies,  the  form  itself  is 
enlarged.  Still  Beethoven  does  not  entirely  aban- 
don the  older  minuet.  Out  of  63  examples  of  the 
minuet  or  scherzo  (not  counting  those  in  common 
time)  to  be  found  in  his  works,  1 7  are  entitled 
'  Minuet,'  or  '  Tempo  di  Minuetto.'  Besides  this, 
in  two  works  (the  Piano  and  Violin  Sonata  in  G, 
op.  30,  No.  3,  and  the  Piano  Solo  Sonata  in  Eb, 
op.  31,  No.  3),  the  Tempo  di  Minuetto  takes  the 
place  of  the  slow  movement ;  in  the  Sonata,  op. 
49,  No.  2,  it  serves  as  finale  (as  with  Haydn  and 
Mozart) ;  and  in  the  Sonata,  op.  54,  the  first 
movement  is  a  Tempo  di  Minuetto.  In  these 
minuets  we  sometimes  find  a  grace  akin  to  that 
of  Mozart  (Sonata,  op.  10,  No.  3 ;  Septet),  some- 
times, as  it  were,  a  reflexion  of  the  humour  of 
Haydn  (Sonata,  op.  22)  ;  but  more  often  the 
purest  individuality  of  Beethoven  himself.  In 
some  cases  a  movement  is  entitled  'Minuet,' 
though  its  character  is  decidedly  that  of  the 
scherzo  {e.g.  in  the  1st  Symphony).  The  only 
one  of  the  nine  symphonies  in  which  a  minuet 
of  the  old  style  is  to  be  seen  is  No.  8.  Occa- 
sionally we  meet  in  Beethoven  with  minuets 
simply  entitled  'Allegretto'  (e.g.  Sonata  quasi 
Fantasia,  op.  27,  No.  2  ;  Trio  in  Eb,  op.  70,  No. 
a) ;  in  other  cases  the  same  term  is  used  for 
what  is  in  reality  a  veritable  scherzo  (Sonatas, 
op.  14,  no.  1,  op.  27,  no.  1).  It  may  be  said 
that  with  Beethoven  the  minuet  reached  its 
highest  development. 

The  transformation  of  the  minuet  into  the 
scherzo,  just  adverted  to,  has  had  an  important 
influence  on  modern  composers.  In  the  large 
majority  of  works  produced  since  the  time  of 
Beethoven,  the  scherzo  has  replaced  its  predeces- 
sor. Occasionally  the  older  form  still  appears,  as 
in  Mendelssohn's  •  Italian  Symphony,'  the  third 
movement  of  which  is  a  genuine  minuet,  and  in 
the  second  movement  of  Schumann's  Eb  Sym- 
phony ;  but  with  Beethoven  the  history  of  the 
minuet  practically  closes.  One  of  the  best  speci- 
mens of  a  modern  minuet  will  be  seen  in  Sterndale 
Bennett's  Symphony  in  G  minor.  [E.P.] 

MIREILLE.    Opera  in  5  acts ;  words  by  M. 


MISERERE. 


335 


I  Carre  (from  Mireio,  a  Provencal  poem  by  Mistral), 
I  music  by  Gounod.      Produced  at   the  Theatre 
I  Lyrique  March  19,  1864.     Reduced  to  3  acts, 
j  with  the  addition  of  the  waltz,  and  reproduced 
Dec.  15.  1864  at  the  same  theatre.     In  London, 
in  Italian  and  5  acts,  as  Mirella,  at  Her  Majesty's 
Theatre,  July  5,  1864.  [G.] 

MISERERE.  The  Psalm,  Miserere  mei  Deus, 
as  sung  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  has  excited  more 
admiration,  and  attained  a  more  lasting  celebrity, 
than  any  other  musical  performance  on  record. 
Its  effect  has  been  described,  over  and  over  again, 
in  sober  Histories,  Guide-books,  and  Journals 
without  end  ;  but,  never  very  satisfactorily.  In 
truth,  it  is  difficult  to  convey,  in  intelligible 
language,  any  idea  of  the  profound  impression 
it  never  fails  to  produce  upon  the  minds  of  all 
who  hear  it ;  since  it  owes  its  irresistible  charm, 
less  to  the  presence  of  any  easily  definable  charac- 
teristic, than  to  a  combination  of  circumstances, 
each  of  which  influences  the  feelings  of  the  listener 
in  its  own  peculiar  way.  Chief  among  these  are, 
the  extraordinary  solemnity  of  the  Service  into 
which  it  is  introduced ;  the  richness  of  its  simple 
harmonies ;  and,  the  consummate  art  with  which 
it  is  sung :  on  each  of  which  points  a  few  words 
of  explanation  will  be  necessary. 

The  Miserere  forms  part  of  the  Service  called 
Tenebras  ;  which  is  sung,  late  in  the  afternoon,  on 
three  days,  only,  in  the  year — the  Wednesday  in 
Holy  Week,  Maundy  Thursday,  and  Good  Friday. 
[See  Tenebk*.]  The  Office  is  an  exceedingly 
long  one  :  consisting,  besides  the  Miserere  itself, 
of  sixteen  Psalms  and  a  Canticle  from  the  Old 
Testament,  (sung,  with  their  proper  Antiphons, 
in  fourteen  divisions) ;  nine  Lessons ;  as  many 
Responsories ;  and  the  Canticle,  Benedictus  Domi- 
nus  Deus  Israel.  The  whole  of  this,  with  the 
exception  of  the  First  Lesson,  [see  Lamenta- 
tions], and  the  Responsories,  is  sung  in  unisonous 
Plain  Chaunt :  and  the  sternness  of  this  antient 
mpsic  forms  the  most  striking  possible  preparation 
for  the  plaintive  tones  which  are  to  follow,  while 
the  Ceremonial  with  which  it  is  accompanied  adds 
immeasurably  to  the  intended  effect. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Service,  the  Chapel  is 
lighted  by  six  tall  Candles,  on  the  Altar ;  and 
fifteen  others,  placed  on  a  large  triangular  Candle- 
stick, in  front.  Of  these  last,  one  is  extinguished 
at  the  end  of  each  division  of  the  Psalms.  The 
six  Altar-Candles  are  put  out,  one  by  one, 
during  the  singing  of  Benedictus.  The  only  light 
then  remaining  is  the  uppermost  one  on  the  tri- 
angular Candlestick.  This  is  removed,  and  carried 
behind  the  Altar,  where  it  is  completely  hidden 
from  view,  though  not  extinguished.  The  Chapel 
is,  by  this  time,  so  dark,  that  it  is  only  just  pos- 
sible to  discern  the  red  Vestments  of  the  Pope, 
as  he  kneels  at  his  Genuflexorium,  in  front  of  the 
Altar.  Meanwhile,  a  single  Soprano  voice  sings, 
with  exquisite  expression,  the  Antiphon,  'Christus 
factus  est  pro  nobis  obediens  usque  ad  mortem.' 
An  awful  silence  follows,  during  which  the  Pater- 
noster is  said  in  secret — and  the  first  sad  wail  of 
the  Miserere  then  swells,  from  the  softest  possible 
pianissimo,  into  a  bitter  cry  for  mercy,  so  thrilling 


336 


MISERERE. 


in  its  effect,  that  Mendelssohn — the  last  man  in 
the  world  to  give  way  to  unnatural  excitement — 
describes  this  part  of  the  Service  as  'the  most 
sublime  moment  of  the  whole.' 

There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  idea  of 
adapting  the  Miserere  to  music  of  a  more  solemn 
character  than  that  generally  used  for  the  Psalms, 
and  thus  making  it  the  culminating  point  of  in- 
terest in  the  Service  of  Tenebrae,  originated  with 
Pope  Leo  X,  whose  Master  of  Ceremonies,  Paride 
Gra3si,  tells  us  that  it  was  first  sung  to  a  Faux- 
bourdonin  1514.  Unhappily,  no  trace  of  the  music 
used  on  that  particular  occasion  can  now  be  dis- 
covered. The  oldest  example  we  possess  was  com- 
posed, in  151 7,  by  Costanzo  Festa,  who  distributed 
the  words  of  the  Psalm  between  two  Falsi-bordoni, 
one  for  four  Voices,  and  the  other  for  five,  relieved 
by  alternate  Verses  of  Plain  Chaunt — a  mode  of 
treatment  which  has  survived  to  the  present  day, 
and  upon  which  no  later  Composer  has  attempted 
to  improve.  Festa's  Miserere  is  the  first  of  a 
collection  of  twelve,  contained  in  two  celebrated 
MS.  volumes  preserved  among  the  Archives  of 
the  Pontifical  Chapel.  The  other  contributors 
to  the  series  were,  Luigi  Dentice,  Francesco  Guer- 
rero, Palestrina,  Teofilo  Gargano,  Francesco 
Anerio,  Felice  Anerio,  an  anonymous  Composer 
of  very  inferior  ability,  Giovanni  Maria  Nanini l, 
Sante  Naldini,  Ruggiero  Giovanelli,  and,  lastly, 
Gregorio  Allegri — whose  work  is  the  only  one  of 
the  twelve  now  remaining  in  use.  So  great  was 
the  jealousy  with  which  these  famous  compositions 
were  formerly  guarded,  that  it  was  all  but  im- 
possible to  obtain  a  transcript  of  any  one  of  them. 
It  is  said,  that,  up  to  the  year  1770,  only  three 
copies  of  the  Miserere  of  Allegri  were  ever  law- 
fully made — one,  for  the  Emperor  Leopold  I ;  one, 
for  the  King  of  Portugal ;  and,  a  third,  for  the 
Padre  Martini.  Upon  the  authority  of  the  last- 
named  MS.  rests  that  of  nearly  all  the  printed 
editions  we  now  possess.  P.  Martini  lent  it 
to  Dr.  Burney,  who,  after  comparing  it  with 
another  transcription  given  to  him  by  the  Cava- 
liere  Santarelli,  published  it,  in  1 790,  in  a  work 
(now  exceedingly  scarce),  called  'La  Musica 
della  Settimana  Santa,'  from  which  it  ha3  been 
since  reproduced,  in  Novello's  '  Music  of  Holy 
Week.'  The  authenticity  of  this  version  is  un- 
doubted :  but  it  gives  only  a  very  faint  idea  of 
the  real  Miserere,  the  beauty  of  which  depends 
almost  entirely  on  the  manner  in  which  it  is  sung. 
A  curious  proof  of  this  well-known  fact  is  afforded 
by  an  anecdote  related  by  Santarelli.  When  the 
Choristers  of  the  Imperial  Chapel  at  Vienna 
attempted  to  sing  from  the  MS.  supplied  to  the 
Emperor  Leopold,  the  effect  produced  was  so  dis- 
appointing, that  the  Pope's  Maestro  di  Capella  was 
suspected  of  having  purposely  sent  a  spurious 
copy,  in  order  that  the  power  of  rendering  the 
original  music  might  still  rest  with  the  Pontifical 
Choir  alone.  The  Emperor  was  furious,  and  de- 
spatched a  courier  to  the  Vatican,  charged  with  a 
formal  complaint  of  the  insult  to  which  he  believed 
himself  to  have  been  subjected.     The  Maestro  di 

1  Nanlnl's  work  Is  little  more  than  an  adaptation  of  Paleitrina'a, 
with  an  additional  Verse  for  nine  Voices. 


MISERERE. 

Capella  was  dismissed  from  bis  office :  and  it  was 
only  after  long  and  patient  investigation  that  his 
explanation  was  accepted,  and  he  himself  again 
received  into  favour.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt 
the  correctness  of  this  story.  The  circumstance 
was  well  known  in  Rome :  and  the  remembrance 
of  it  added  greatly  to  the  wonderment  produced, 
nearly  a  century  later,  by  a  feat  performed  by 
the  little  Mozart.  On  the  Fourth  Day  of  Holy 
Week,  1770,  that  gifted  Boy — then  just  fourteen 
years  old — wrote  down  the  entire  Miserere,  after 
having  heard  it  sung,  once  only,  in  the  Sistine 
Chapel.  On  Good  Friday,  he  put  the  MS.  into 
his  cocked  hat,  and  corrected  it,  with  a  pencil,  as 
the  Service  proceeded.  And,  not  long  afterwards, 
he  sang,  and  played  it,  with  such  exact  attention 
to  the  traditional  abellimenti,  that  Cristoforo, 
the  principal  Soprano,  who  had  himself  sung  it 
in  the  Chapel,  declared  his  performance  perfect. 

Since  the  time  of  Mozart,  the  manner  of  sing- 
ing the  Miserere  has  undergone  so  little  radical 
change,  that  his  copy,  were  it  still  in  existence, 
would  probably  serve  as  a  very  useful  guide  to 
the  present  practice.  Three  settings  are  now- 
used,  alternately — the  very  beautiful  one,  by 
Allegri,  already  mentioned;  a  vastly  inferior 
composition,  by  Tommaso  Bai,  produced  in  17 14, 
and  printed  both  by  Burney  and  Novello;  and 
another,  contributed  by  Giuseppe  Baini,  in  182 1, 
and  still  remaining  in  MS.  These  are  all  written 
in  the  Second  Mode,  transposed ;  and  so  closely 
resemble  each  other  in  outward  form,  that,  not 
only  is  the  same  method  of  treatment  applied  to 
all,  but  a  Verse  of  one  is  frequently  interpolated, 
in  performance,  between  two  Verses  of  another. 
We  shall,  therefore,  confine  our  examples  to 
the  Miserere  of  Allegri,  which  will  serve  as  an 
exact  type  of  the  rest,  both  with  respect  to  its 
general  style,  and  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
far-famed  Abellimenti  are  interwoven  with  the 
phrases  of  the  original  melody.  These  Abellimenti 
are,  in  reality,  nothing  more  than  exceedingly 
elaborate  four-part  Cadenze,  introduced  in  place 
of  the  simple  closes  of  the  text,  for  the  purpose  of 
adding  to  the  interest  of  the  performance.  Men- 
delssohn paid  close  attention  to  one  which  he 
heard  in  1831,  and  minutely  described  it  in  his 
well-known  letter  to  Zelter :  and,  in  1 840,  Ales- 
sandro  Geminiani  published,  at  Lugano,  a  new 
edition  (now  long  since  exhausted)  of  the  music, 
with  examples  of  all  the  Abellimenti  at  that  time 
in  use.  Most  other  writers  seem  to  have  done 
their  best  rather  to  increase  than  to  dispel  the 
mystery  with  which  the  subject  is,  even  to  this  day, 
surrounded.  Yet,  the  traditional  usage  is  not  so 
very  difficult  to  understand  ;  and  we  can  scarcely 
wonder  at  the  effect  it  produces,  when  we  re- 
member the  infinite  care  with  which  even  the 
choral  portions  of  the  Psalm  are  annually  re- 
hearsed by  a  picked  Choir,  every  member  of 
which  is  capable  of  singing  a  Solo. 

The  first  Verse  is  sung,  quite  plainly,  to  a 
Faux -bourdon,  for  five  Voices,  exactly  as  it  is 
printed  by  Burney,  and  Novello ;  beginning  pian- 
issimo, swelling  out  to  a  thrilling  forte,  and  again 
taking  up  the  point  of  imitation  sotto  voce. 


MISERERE. 


MISERERE. 


337 


The  second  Verse  is  sung,  in  unisonous  Plain 
Chaunt,  to  the  Second  Tone,  transposed. 


m 


-1=L 


J&- 


(  Et  secundum  multitudi-  )  .._■., 

\  nem  miseratiouum  tu  -  / a  "  rum :   dele  Ml""*-*™  m6"™ 

We  first  meet  with  the  Abellimenti  in  the 
third  Verse,  which  is  sung  in  the  form  of  a  Con- 
certino—that is  to  say,  by  a  Choir  of  four  choice 
Solo  Voices.  In  the  following  example,  the  text 
of  the  Faux -bourdon  is  printed  in  large  notes, 
and  the  two  Abellimenti — one  at  the  end  of  each 
clause — in  small  ones.1 


Am  -  pli  -  -  us      la  -  va      me         ab     in  -  -  i  -  -  qui  - 

-I.J  J.  J*L  J-    -J  J  J.  J- 


gb^rr  r-r-TTT^i 


mm0 


l  g ,,  .hjj  jV  j  hi*r\ 

(«) 

,     1     J-. 

- 

ja.ja          j       |     ,  —         —^~ 

i  The  accidentals  in  brackets  are  undoubtedly  due  to  the  caprice  ol 
Individual  Singers. 
VOL.  II. 


pec  -  ca  —  to 


-At&lm  A  A  A.  A  -A 


T=f=rT 


■       s .  m 


Jd 


fcj.    J       (tt)    jqJSq\ 


^ffi 


me  -  o         mun    -    -    -    da 

=z  jA.   pp^ 


?m 


m- 


J.*    jL 


In  describing  this  beautiful  passage,  Mendels- 
sohn says,  'The  Abellimenti  are  certainly  not  of 
antient  date ;  but  they  are  composed  with  infinite 
talent,  and  taste,  and  their  effect  is  admirable. 
This  one,  in  particular,2  is  often  repeated,  and 
makes  so  deep  an  impression,  that,  when  it 
begins,  an  evident  excitement  prevades  all  pre- 
sent. . . .  The  Soprano  intones  the  high  C,  in  a  pure 
soft  voice,  allowing  it  to  vibrate  for  a  time,  and 
slowly  gliding  down,  while  the  Alto  holds  its 
C  steadily ;  so  that,  at  first,  I  was  under  the 
delusion  that  the  high  C  was  still  held  by  the 
Soprano.  The  skill,  too,  with  which  the  harmony 
is  gradually  developed,  is  truly  marvellous.' 

The  unisonous  melody  of  the  fourth  Verse 
serves  only  to  bring  this  striking  effect  into  still 
bolder  relief. 


m 


4=4- 


4=l_ 


1 


/  Quonlam  inlnuita-  \  „„,_„. .  f  et  peccatum  me- 1     ,  „_.._„. 
\  tem  meam  ego  cog-  /  nos     c0 '  \    um  contra  me  J  est  sem  per' 

The  fifth  Verse  is  sung  like  the  first;  the  sixth, 
like  the  second ;  the  seventh,  like  the  third ;  and 
the  eighth,  like  the  fourth  :  and  this  order  is 
continued — though  with  endless  variations  of 
Tempo,  and  expression — as  far  as  the  concluding 
Strophe,  the  latter  half  of  which  is  adapted  to 
a  Double  Chorus,  written  in  nine  parts,  and  sung 
very  slowly,  with  a  constant  ritardando,  'the 
singers  diminishing  or  rather  extinguishing  the 
harmony  to  a  perfect  point.' 3 


•          1     1  1    1      1 

Si — B=±g: 

-bfS ig   &&    — 

^¥ : — &S^ — S>— J 

pp    Tunc     im  - 

fry       t     „.    J 

-  po  -  nent    su  - 

1         1 

*p       f    1         (=■» 
-  per      al  -  -  ta  -  -  - 

1      -t&-       -*=-'' 

2  That  is,  the  last  shewn  in  our  example. 

s  These  words  are  Burney's.  Adami's  direction  is,  L'uUimo  vtrio 
del  Salmo  termina  a  due  Cori,  e  perd  tara  la  Battuta  Adayio,  per 
jjni'rio  I'iauo,  tmorzando pocv  a  poco  I' Armenia, 


338 


MISERERE. 


-    -    -    « 

-     *     -     - 

tn     - 

- 

do.    ,          , 

r- — <£? 5v-0- 

-  -  re        lu  -  -  -urn 

1 

1 =J h 

— — jg#- 

TT 

-*SH— W-p;- 



l a — 

»r* 



When  the  last  sounds  have  died  away,  a  short 
Prayer  is  sung  by  the  Pope  :  at  a  signal  given 
by  the  Master  of  Ceremonies  the  last  Candle  is 
brought  forth  from  its  hiding-place  behind  the 
Altar  :  and  the  congregation  disperses.  It  would 
be  impossible,  in  an  article  like  the  present,  to 
enter  into  the  symbolical  meaning  attached,  either 
to  the  hiding  of  the  Candle,  or  to  any  other  part 
of  the  Ceremony.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  every- 
thing has  a  symbolical  meaning,  which  is  ex- 
plained, to  some  extent,  in  a  little  pamphlet,1 
annually  sold,  in  Rome,  during  the  Holy  Week. 
That  this  elaborate  system  of  symbolism  tends  to 
predispose  the  mind  of  the  hearer  towards  a 
fuller  appreciation  of  the  beauty  of  the  music  is 
undeniable.  On  the  other  hand,  it  will  be  readily 
understood  that  much  of  the  effect  produced 
depends  upon  the  quality  of  the  Voices  employed — 
especially,  that  of  the  Sopranos.  Fifty  years 
ago,  a  very  celebrated  Sopranist,  named  Mariano, 
sang  the  higher  passages  with  wonderful  delicacy 
and  pathos :  but,  even  with  Voices  of  ordinary 
capacity,  the  habit  of  constantly  practising 
together,  without  instrumental  accompaniment 
of  any  kind,  leads  to  a  perfection  of  style  quite 
unattainable  by  those  who  are  accustomed  to 
lean  on  the  Organ  for  support.  [W.S.  R.] 

MISSA  BREVIS.  A  Mass  of  moderate 
length,  intended  rather  for  use  on  ordinary  occa- 
sions, than  on  Festivals  of  very  great  solemnity. 

The  subjects  of  the  Missa  Brevis  are  almost 
always  original ;  as  in  the  charming  example, 
by  Andrea  Gabrieli,  printed,  on  the  authority  of 
a  valuable  MS.  copy,  in  the  first  volume  of 
Proske's  '  Musica  Divina.'  This  rule,  however, 
is  not  universal.  Palestrina's  Missa  Brevis — a 
work  of  unapproachable  beauty,  and  perfectly 
complete  in  all  its  parts,  notwithstanding  the 
comparatively  short  time  it  occupies  in  perform- 
ance— is  founded  upon  Canti  fermi  derived  from 
the  melody  of  'Audi  filia,'  a  Plain  Chaunt  Tract  us, 
which  has  also  been  very  finely  treated,  in  a  Mass 
of  earlier  date,  by  Claude  Goudimel.      [W.S.R.] 

MISSA  PAP.E  MARCELLI.  A  very  cele- 
brated Mass,  composed  in  the  year  1565  by 
Palestrina ;  and  printed  in  1567  in  his  Second 
Book  of  Masses,  dedicated  to  Philip  II.  King  of 
Spain.  The  origin  of  its  title  has  been  hotly 
disputed  ;  though  all  that  is  really  known  upon 
the  subject  is,  that  the  only  name  by  which  it 
has  ever  been  distinguished  was  given  to  it  by 
the  Composer  himself,  fully  ten  years  after  Pope 
Marcellus  II.  had  breathed  his  last.  It  was 
written  at  the  instance  of  a  Commission,  appointed 
by  Pope  Pius  IV.  to  suppress  certain  vicious 
Schools  of  Ecclesiastical  Music  condemned    by 

'  '  Manuel  do*  Ceremonies  qui  nnt  lieu  pendant  la  Semaine  Sainte,' 
(Itutne,  luii'riuierie  de  Saint-Michel.) 


MIXED  MODES. 

the  Council  of  Trent ;  and  gave  such  unqualified 
satisfaction,  that  it  was  at  once  accepted  as  a 
model  of  the  style  to  be  thenceforth  generally 
adopted.  For  a  more  detailed  analysis  of  its 
characteristics,  and  a  fuller  account  of  the  cir- 
cumstances which  led  to  its  production,  see  Mass, 
and  Palestrina.  [W.S.R.] 

MISSA  SINE  NOMINE.  A  Mass,  composed 
upon  original  subjects,  in  place  of  a  Plain  Chaunt 
Canto  fermo.  Examples  will  be  found  among  the 
works  of  Josquin  des  Prt's,  Palestrina,  and  other 
composers  of  the  15th  and  1 6th  centuries.  [W.S.R.] 
MISSA  SUPER  VOCES  MUSICALES 
(Missa,  Do,  lie,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La).  A  Mass  in 
which  the  six  sounds  of  the  Hexachord  are  used 
as  a  Canto  fermo.  [See  Hexachord.]  Splendid 
specimens  of  the  style  are  extant,  by  Josquin  des 
Pres,  Palestrina,  and  Francesco  Suriano.  [W.S.R.] 
MITCHELL,  John,  deserves  a  place  in  these 
columns  on  account  of  his  close  connection  with 
musical  enterprise  in  London  for  many  years.  He 
was  born  there  April  21,  1S06,  and  died  Decem- 
ber 11,  1874.  For  a  large  part  of  his  life  he 
was  one  of  the  most  prominent  musical  managers 
and  agents  in  the  metropolis.  In  1837  he  intro- 
duced opera  buffa  at  the  Lyceum  Theatre ;  in- 
cluding Betly,  L'ltaliana  in  Algieri,  Elisa  e 
Claudio,  and  others,  for  the  first  time  in  England. 
In  1849  and  1850  he  opened  the  St.  James's 
Theatre  with  an  excellent  French  company  for 
comic  opera,  with  Le  Domino  Noir,  L'Ambassa- 
drice,  La  Dame  blanche,  Zanetta,  Richard  Cceur 
de  Lion,  Le  Chalet,  and  many  other  first-rate 
works.  Of  the  French  plays  which  he  produced 
at  the  same  theatre,  with  Rachel,  Regnier,  and 
many  other  great  actors,  through  a  long  series  of 
years,  this  is  not  the  place  to  speak.  In  1842 
Rossini's  '  Stabat  Mater'  was  brought  out  under 
his  direction  for  the  first  time  in  England.  In 
1S53  he  first  brought  over  the  Cologne  Choir  to 
England.  Few  men  were  better  known  than  John 
Mitchell  in  all  musical  circles.  Whatever  he  did 
was  done  as  well  as  he  could  possibly  do  it,  and 
he  was  esteemed  and  beloved  as  an  honourable 
man  of  business  and  generous  friend.  [G.] 

MIXED  CADENCE.  The  two  most  distinct 
and  obvious  forms  of  cadence  are  such  as  are 
formed  either  by  the  succession  of  dominant  or 
of  subdominant  and  tonic  harmony,  and  these 
are  respectively  called  Authentic  and  Plagal 
cadences.  The  term  '  Mixed '  has  been  applied 
to  a  cadence  which  is  in  some  senses  a  combina- 
tion of  these  two  forms,  by  having  both  sub- 
dominant  and  dominant  harmony  in  close  juxta- 
position immediately  before  the  final  tonic  chord, 
by  which  means  the  tonality  is  enforced  both  by 
the  succession  of  the  three  most  important  roots 
in  the  key,  and  also  by  giving  all  the  diatonic 
notes  which  it  contains.  [C.H.H.P.] 

MIXED  MODES.  Writers  on  Plain  Chaunt 
apply  this  term  to  tonalities  which  embrace  the 
entire  compass  of  an  Authentic  Mode,  in  combina- 
tion with  that  of  its  Plagal  derivative  :  thus, 
the  Mixed  Dorian  Mode,  extends  from  A,  to  the 
next  D  but  one  above  it ;  the  Mixed  Phrygian, 


MIXED  MODES. 

from  B,  to  the  next  E  but  one ;  the  Mixed  Lydian, 
from  C,  to  the  next  F  but  one ;  and  the  Mixed 
Mixolydian,  from  D,  to  the  next  G  but  one. 
[See  Maneria.] 

A  very  fine  example  of  Mixed  Mixolydian, 
(Modes  VII  and  VIII,  combined),  is  to  be  found 
in  the  Melody  of '  Lauda  Sion.'  [See  Lauda  Sion.] 

Polyphonic  Music  for  unequal  Voices  is  always, 
of  necessity,  written  in  Mixed  Modes :  since,  if 
the  Treble  and  Tenor  sing  in  the  Authentic 
Mode,  the  Alto  and  Bass  will  naturally  fall  within 
the  compass  of  its  Plagal  congener  ;  and,  vice 
versa.  The  Composition  is,  however,  always 
said  to  be  in  the  Mode  indicated  by  its  Tenor 
part.  [W.S.R.] 

MIXED  VOICES.  The  English  term  for  a 
combination  of  female  and  male  voices,  as  opposed 
to  '  Equal  voices,'  which  denotes  male  or  female 
voices  alone.  Thus  Mendelssohn's  part-songs  for 
SA.T.B.  are  for  mixed  voices,  and  those  for 
A.T.T.B.  for  equal  voices.  [G.] 

MIXOLYDIAN  MODE.  (Lat.  Modus  Mixo- 
lydius ;  Modus  Angelicus.)  The  Seventh  of  the 
Ecclesiastical  Modes.  [See  Modes,  the  Ecclesi- 
astical.] 

The  Final  of  the  Mixolydian  Mode  is  G.  Its 
compass,  in  the  Authentic  form,  extends  upwards 
from  that  note  to  its  octave ;  and  its  semitones 
occur  between  the  third  and  fourth,  and  the  sixth 
and  seventh  degrees.  Its  Dominant  is  D,  its 
Mediant,  C  (B  being  rejected,  on  account  of  its 
forbidden  relations  with  F),  and  its  Participant, 
A.  Its  Conceded  Modulations  are  B,  and  E; 
and  its  Absolute  Initials,  G,  B,  C,  D,  and  some- 
times, though  not  very  frequently,  A.  The  sub- 
joined example  will  give  a  clear  idea  of  its  most 
prominent  characteristics : — 
Mode  VII. 
Fin.  Part.  Med.  Dom. 


In  its  Plagal,  or  Hypomixolydian  form,  (Mode 
VTH,  Modus  Hypomixolydius.  Modus  perfectus), 
it3  compass  lies  a  Fourth  lower — from  D  to  D ; 
and  the  semitones  fall  between  the  second  and 
third,  and  the  sixth  and  seventh  degrees.  The 
Dominant  of  this  Mode  is  C ;  B  being  inadmis- 
sible, by  reason  of  its  Quinta  falsa  with  F.  Its 
Mediant  is  F — for  which  note  A  is  sometimes, 
though  not  very  frequently,  substituted,  in  order 
to  avoid  the  false  relation  of  Mi  contra  Fa,  with 
B.  [See  Mi  coktea  Fa.]  Its  Participant  is  the 
lower  D.  Its  Conceded  Modulations  are,  the 
upper  D,  and  B ;  and  its  Absolute  Initials,  the 
lower  C,  (below  the  normal  compass  of  the  mode), 
D,  F,  G,  A,  and  C. 

Mode  VIII. 
Part.  Med.  Fin.  Dom. 


In  performance,  Mode  VII  is  almost  always 
transposed,  in  order  to  escape  the  high  range  of 
its  upper  notes.  Mode  VIII,  on  the  contrary, 
lies  well  within  the  compass  of  ordinary  Voices. 

The  Antiphon,  'Asperges  me,'  as  given  in  the 


MOCK  DOCTOR. 


339 


Roman  Gradual,  and  the  Sarum  Melody  of '  Sanc- 
torum meritis,'  printed  in  the  Rev.  T.  Helmore's 
1  Hymnal  Noted,'  may  be  cited  as  highly  charac- 
teristic examples  of  the  use  of  Mode  VII ;  and 
an  equally  perfect  illustration  of  that  of  Mode 
VIII  will  be  found  in  the  Melody  of '  Iste  confes- 
sor,' as  given  in  the  Roman  Vesperal.1 

In  Polyphonic  Music,  the  Mixolydian  Mode  is 
used,  with  great  effect,  both  in  its  Authentic  and 
Plagal  form.  We  can  scarcely  call  attention  to 
a  finer  instance  of  the  use  of  the  VII th  mode  than 
Palestrina's  Missa  *  Dies  sanctificatus' ;  or,  of 
that  of  the  VIHth,  than  his  Missa  'Iste  con- 
fessor.' [W.S.R.] 

MIXTURE.  An  organ  stop  ordinarily  fur- 
nished with  from  two  to  five  comparatively  small 
pipes  to  each  key.  It  is  compounded  of  the 
higher-sounding  and  therefore  shorter  members 
of  the  '  foundation '  and  '  mutation '  classes  of 
stops,  combined  or  ■  mixed,'  and  arranged  to  draw 
together,  as  they,  practically,  are  seldom  required 
to  be  used  separately.  The  Mixture  represents 
or  corroborates  the  higher  consonant  harmonic 
sounds  suggested  by  nature,  and  in  the  bass  pro- 
duces tones  to  the  third  or  fourth  octave  above  the 
unison  or  chief  foundation  tone.  As  the  musical 
scale  ascends,  the  higher  harmonics  become  weak 
and  inaudible  to  the  ear ;  hence  in  a  Mixture 
stop  it  is  customary  to  discontinue  the  higher 
ranks  as  they  ascend,  one  or  more  at  a  time,  and 
insert  in  lieu  a  rank  of  lower  tone  than  was 
previously  in  the  stop,  but  appearing  as  a  separate 
stop.  This  alteration  is  called  a  '  break.'  These 
return-ranks  serve  the  best  of  purposes.  In  a 
Pianoforte  it  is  well  known  that  the  strings  in- 
crease in  number  from  one  in  the  bass  to  two 
higher  up,  and  afterwards  to  three,  to  preserve  an 
evenness  in  the  tone.  In  a  similar  manner  the 
return-ranks,  when  well  managed,  considerably 
reinforce  the  strength  of  the  treble  part  of  the 
organ.     [Mdtation.]  [E.J.  H.] 

MIZLER  (Mitsler),  Lorenz  Christoph,  born 
at  Heidenheim,  Wiirtemberg,  July  25,  1711, 
died  at  Warsaw  March  1778;  was  educated  at 
the  Gymnasium  of  Anspach  and  the  University 
of  Leipzig.  He  was  one  of  Bach's  scholars.  In 
1 734  he  became  a  magistrate,  and  was  generally 
a  cultivated  and  prominent  person.  His  claim  to 
perpetuity  is  his  connexion  with  the  '  Association 
for  Musical  Science,'  which  he  founded  at  Leipzig 
in  1 738  and  kept  together.  Amongst  its  members 
were  Handel,  Bach,  and  Graun.  Bach  composed 
a  6-part  Canon  and  the  Canonical  Variations  on 
'  Vom  Himmel  hoch,'  as  his  diploma  pieces.  Miz- 
ler  wrote  a  treatise  on  Thorough  Bass  (General- 
basslehre),  in  which  he  seems  to  have  pushed 
the  connexion  of  music  and  mathematics  to 
absurdity.  (See  Spitta,  Bach,  ii.  502-506.)    [G.] 

MOCK  DOCTOR,  THE.  The  English  version, 
by  Chas.  Kenny,  of  Barbier  and  Carre's  adapta- 
tion of  Gounod's  *  Me"decin  malgre"  lui';  produced 
at  Covent  Garden,  Feb.  27,  1865.  [G.] 

1  Care  must  be  taken  to  distinguish  these  Melodies  from  the  Roman 
'  Sanctorum  meritis,'  and  the  Sarum '  Iste  confessor*,  which  are  not  in 
the  Modes  here  indicated. 

Z2 


840 


MODE. 


MODE  (Lat.  Modus ;  Ital.  Modo  ;  Old  Eng. 
Moode).  A  term  employed  in  mediaeval  music, 
to  indicate  the  relative  duration  of  the  Large, 
the  Long,  and  the  Breve. 

Mode  is  of  two  kinds — the  Greater,  and  the 
Lesser.  The  former  regulates  the  proportions  of 
the  Large  (maxima)  to  the  Long :  the  latter, 
that  of  the  Long  to  the  Breve.  Both  kinds  may 
be  either  Perfect,  or  Imperfect. 

In  the  Great  Mode  Perfect,  the  Large  is  equal 
to  three  Longs.  In  the  Great  Mode  Imperfect, 
it  is  equal  to  two  only. 

In  the  Lesser  Mode  Perfect,  the  Long  is  equal 
to  three  Breves.  In  the  Lesser  Mode  Imperfect, 
it  is  equal  to  two. 

The  Modal  Sign  is  usually  placed  after  the 
Clef,  like  the  Time  Signature  in  modern  music. 
Innumerable  varieties  are  found  in  music  of  dif- 
ferent periods.  Even  as  early  as  I597>  we  find 
Morley  bitterly  lamenting  the  absence  of  a  rule 
of  universal  application :  and  a  little  attention 
to  the  subjoined  examples  will  show  that  his 
complaint  was  not  an  unreasonable  one.  The 
following  forms  are  given  by  Zacconi : — 


Great  Mode  Perfect. 


Great  Mode  Imperfect. 


Lesser  Mode  Perfect.  Lesser  Mode  Imperfect. 

|   ||  II    o 


vt 


Ei£E 


Other  writers  sometimes  describe  them  thus — 
Great  Mode  Perfect.  Great  Mode  Imperfect. 


lUlL-" 


I 


eel 


Lesser  Mode  Perfect. 


i!Sl 


;£h 


Lesser  Mode  Imperfect. 


II     E 


Combinations  of  the  Greater  and  Lesser  Modes 
are  frequently  indicated,  thus — 

Mb  M.d.,  mm      ■"KJfiSSS** 


I 


~-€t 


W%=fn-n=j 


Great  Mode  Imperfect,  with       „  ..  „   .     T         -   ■ 
T-paspr  P^rfpot  Both  Modes  Imperfect. 


Lesser  Perfect 


^ 


re 


Bl 


In  these  examples,  the  Circle  is  used  as  the 
sign  of  Perfection,  and  the  Semicircle,  as  that  of 
Imperfection.  The  rests  denote  the  proportion 
between  the  two  notes — not  always  accurately, 
but,  in  a  vague  way  which  accorded  well  enough 
with  the  conventional  signification  of  the  figures, 
when  they  were  in  general  use,  though  it  fails 
to  explain  their  real  meaning.  In  Zacconi's  for- 
mulae, the  groups  of  rests  are  doubled — probably 
for  the  sake  of  symmetry.  Allowing  for  this, 
we  shall  find  that  the  sign  for  the  Great  Mode 
Perfect  exhibits,  in  every  case,  the  exact  number 
of  rests  required :  viz.  three  Perfect  Long  Rests, 
as  the  equivalent  of  a  Perfect  Large.  The  same 
accuracy  is  observable  in  the  signs  for  the  com- 
bined Modes  exhibited  in  the  last  four  examples. 


MODES,  ECCLESIASTICAL. 

But,  in  the  other  cases,  so  great  a  discrepancy 
exists  between  the  number  of  rests  indicated, 
and  the  true  proportion  of  the  notes  to  which 
they  refer,  that  the  figures  can  only  be  regarded 
as  arbitrary  signs,  sufficiently  intelligible  to  the 
initiated,  but  formed  upon  no  fixed  or  self-explana- 
tory principle. 

It  will  be  observed,  that,  in  all  the  above  ex- 
amples, the  rests  are  placed  before  the  Circle,  or 
Semicircle ;  in  which  case  it  is  always  understood 
that  they  are  not  to  be  counted.  Sometimes,  in- 
deed, they  are  altogether  omitted,  and  a  figure  only 
given,  in  conjunction  with  the  Circle,  or  Semi- 
circle. Thus,  Morley,  following  the  example  of 
Ornithoparcus,  gives  O  3  as  the  sign  of  the  Great 
Mode  Perfect ;  C  3,  as  that  of  the  Great  Mode 
Imperfect;  O  2asthatof  the  Lesser  Mode  Perfect; 
and  C  2  as  that  of  the  Lesser  Mode  Imperfect. 

During  the  latter  half  of  the  15th  Century, 
and  the  first  of  the  16th,  Composers  delighted  in 
combining  Mode,  Time,  and  Prolation,  in  pro- 
portions of  frightful  complexity ;  but,  after  the 
time  of  Palestrina,  the  practice  fell  into  disuse. 
[See Time;  Prolation;  Proportion.]  [W.S.R.] 

MODERATO.  *In  moderate  time,'  or  '  mode- 
rately.' This  direction  is  used  either  singly  as  a 
mark  of  time,  or  as  qualifying  some  other  mark 
of  time,  as  Allegro  moderate,  or  Andante  mode- 
rate, when  it  has  the  result  of  lessening  the  force 
of  the  simple  direction.  Thus  Allegro  moderate 
will  be  slightly  slower  than  Allegro  alone,  and 
Andante  moderate  slightly  faster  than  Andante. 
Moderate  alone  is  never  used  by  Beethoven, 
except  in  the  doubtful  Pianoforte  Sonata  in  G 
called  no.  37.  He  uses  Molto  moderate  however 
in  the  Sonata  for  Pianoforte  and  Violin,  op.  30, 
no.  3,  and  Moderate  e  grazioso  in  the  Menuetto 
of  the  Pianoforte  Sonata  in  Eb,  op.  31,  no.  3. 
Assai  moderate  is  used  in  the  march  from  the 
'  Ruins  of  Athens,'  and  Moderate  cantabile  molto 
espressivo  in  the  beginning  of  op.  no.  Molto 
moderate  is  used  by  Schubert  in  the  Pianoforte 
Sonata  in  Bb,  no.  10.  Instances  of  Allegro 
moderate  in  Beethoven's  works  will  occur  to 
every  one.  Allegretto  moderate  is  also  very 
common.  Vivace  moderate  occurs  in  Bagatelle, 
no.  9,  (op.  119).  Mendelssohn  is  very  fond  of 
the  direction  Allegro  moderate,  using  it  no  less 
than  eight  times  in  the  'Elijah*  alone.  Schumann 
very  constantly  used  Moderate  alone,  translating 
it  into  German  sometimes  by  Massig,  and  some- 
times by  Nicht  schnell.  See  the  Album,  nos.  3, 
5,  13,  16,  19,  etc.  [J.A.F.M.] 

MODES,  THE  ECCLESIASTICAL.  One  of 
the  most  prominent  features  in  Greek  music  was 
the  division  of  the  Diatonic  Scale  into  certain  re- 
gions called  Modes.  The  musicians  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  who  confessedly  derived  their  idea  of  the 
scale  from  Hellenic  sources,  adopted  an  analogous 
peculiarity  into  their  own  system,  in  which  it  at 
once  took  root,  though  its  development  was  very 
gradual.  At  first,  four  forms  only  were  recognised, 
in  the  newer  method — the  Authentic  Modes  of 
Saint  Ambrose.  To  these — if  tradition  may  be 
trusted — Saint  Gregory  added  four  Plagal  scales. 
Later  theorists  taught  the  existence  of  fourteen 


MODES,  ECCLESIASTICAL. 

varieties ;  twelve  of  which  remained,  for  many 
centuries,  in  constant  use,  distinguished  by  the 
names  of  their  Greek  prototypes,  though  not 
really  identical  with  them ;  while  two  were  re- 
jected, as  impure,  and  practically  useless. 

Into  the  laborious  process  by  which  these  scales 
were  evolved  from  the  complicated  mysteries  of 
the  Greek  Canon  we  need  not  enter.  To  us,  their 
construction  is  simple  enough,  when  regarded  from 
our  own  point  of  view.  We  have  only  to  imagine 
a  series  of  the  natural  notes  of  the  modern  Dia- 
tonic Scale,  extending,  upwards,  from  A,  the  first 
space  in  the  bass,  to  C,  the  third  space  in  the 
treble.  By  dividing  this  grand  scale  into  sec- 
tions, each  consisting  of  eight  notes,  and  each 
beginning  with  a  different  sound,  we  shall  obtain 
the  entire  set  of  fourteen  Modes,  in  the  most 
complete  form  possible. 


MODES,  ECCLESIASTICAL.        341 

The  Modes  are  separated  into  two  classes : 
Authentic,  (from  avOivriw,  to  govern)  and  Plagal, 
(from  irkdyios,  oblique).  The  compass  of  the 
former  extends  from  the  Final  (equivalent  to  the 
Tonic,  or  Key-note,  of  modern  theory,)  to  the 
Octave  above.  That  of  the  latter,  from  the  Fourth 
below  the  Final,  to  the  Fifth  above  it.  Conse- 
quently, the  Final  is  the  lowest  note  of  the 
Authentic  Modes  ;  and  (very  nearly)  the  middle 
note  of  Plagal  ones.  Every  Plagal  Mode  is  derived 
from  an  Authentic  original,  from  which  it  is 
distinguished,  in  name,  by  the  prefix,  Hypo- : 
the  same  Final  being  common  to  both  forms; 
and  the  compass  of  the  derived  Mode  lying  a 
Fourth  below  that  of  the  original  scale.  In  the 
following  table,  the  Final  of  each  Mode  is  indi- 
cated by  the  letter  F ;  and,  the  position  of  the 
semitones,  by  a  slur. 


Mode  I. 
rr- — F- 


AUTHENTIC  MODES. 

The  Dorian  Mode. 

„     r,     ~     "    T  = 


Mode  III. 
F 


The  Phrygian  Mode. 


w 


Mode  V. 
F 


The  Lydian  Mode. 


w 


Mode  VII. 


The  Mixolydian  Mode. 


m 


r~         ■<s^— 


Mode  IX. 


The  JEolian  Mode. 


Mode  XI. 


The  Locrian  Mode  (rejected). 


^ 


Mode  XIII  {or  XI). 


-gj        o 


The  Ionian  Mode. 
<s>     g     -1 


PLAGAL  MODES. 


Mode  II. 


The  Hypodorian  Mode. 


Mode  VI. 


The  Hypolydian  Mode. 


£:: 


Mode  VIII. 


The  Hypomixolydian  Mode. 


m 


The  Hypocenlian  Mode. 


m 


Mode  XII. 


The  Hypolocrian  Mode  (rejected). 


w 


Mode  XIV {or  XII). 


The  Hypoionian  Mode. 


Each  of  these  Modes  is  divisible  into  two  mem- 
bers, a  Pentachord,  and  a  Tetrachord.  The  notes 
which  compose  the  Pentachord  are  contained 
within  the  compass  of  a  Perfect  fifth,  (Biapente) : 
those  of  the  Tetrachord,  within  that  of  a  Perfect 
Fourth,  {Diatessaron).  In  the  Authentic  Modes, 
the  Fifth  is  placed  below  the  Fourth  :  in  the 
Plagal,  the  Fourth  lies  below  the  Fifth.  The 
former  is  called  the  '  Harmonic,'  and  the  latter, 
the  'Arithmetical  Division.'1      In  both  cases, 

l  Vide  Morley's  Tlaine  4  eisie  Introduction  to  Practical  Musicke. 
(Loudon  1597.) 


the  highest  note  of  the  lower  member  corresponds 
with  the  lowest  of  the  upper  :  thus — 

HARMONIC   DIVISION. 

Pentachord.  Tetrachord. 


ARITHMETICAL   DIVISION. 

Tetrachord.  Pentachord. 


342       MODES,  ECCLESIASTICAL. 

It  will  be  seen,  that,  in  the  Locrian  and  Hypo- 
locrian  Modes,  this  division  is  impossible  ;  since 
in  both  cases  it  would  substitute,  for  the  perfect 
intervals,  a  Diminished  Fifth,  (Quinta  falsa), 
and  an  Augmented  Fourth,  (  Tritonus).  On  this 
account  these  Modes  are  condemned  as  impure. 
Some  authorities  expunge  even  their  names  and 
numbers  from  the  catalogue ;  calling  the  Ionian  the 
Eleventh,  and  the  Hypoionian  the  Twelfth  Mode. 
Others — among  whom  are  the  editors  of  the 
Ratisbon,  Mechlin,  and  Rheims-Cambrai  Office- 
Books — retain  the  names  and  numbers,  but,  none 
the  less,  reject  the  scales  themselves.  The  true 
number  of  the  Modes  has,  indeed,  been  many 
times  disputed :  once,  so  hotly,  that  the  question 
was  referred  to  the  decision  of  Charlemagne ;  who 
at  first  said  that  eight  seemed  to  be  sufficient,  but 
afterwards  allowed  the  use  of  twelve.  More  than 
one  later  theorist,  while  nominally  recognising  the 
existence  of  eight  forms  only,  has  described  Modes 
IX,X,XI,  XII,  XIII,  andXIV,as  metamorphosed 
renderings  of  I,  II,  III,  IV,  V,  and  VI,  respec- 
tively. Hence,  we  constantly  find,  in  the  Mechlin 
Office-Books,  such  expressions  as  '  /  Modus,  anti- 
quities IX,'  or '  X  Modus ;  alii  reduxerunt  ad  II ' : 
a  distinction  sufficiently  puzzling  to  the  tyro,  from 
the  confusion  it  creates  with  regard,  both  to  the 
nature  and  the  true  Final  of  the  disputed  scale. 

Besides  its  Final,  every  Mode  is  distinguished 
by  three  other  highly  characteristic  notes — its 
Dominant,  Mediant,  and  Participant — the  rela- 
tive importance  of  which  is  shewn  by  the  order 
in  which  we  have  mentioned  them. 

The  Dominant  of  the  Authentic  Mode  lies  a 
Fifth  above  the  Final ;  unless  that  note  should 
happen  to  be  B,  in  which  case  C  is  substituted  for 
it.  That  of  the  Plagal  Modes  lies  a  Third  below 
the  Authentic  Dominant ;  unless  that  third  note 
should  happen  to  be  B,  in  which  case  C  is  sub- 
stituted, as  before.  In  both  cases,  B  is  prevented 
from  serving  as  a  Dominant  by  its  dissonant  rela- 
tion with  F.  The  only  exception  to  the  general 
rule  is  found  in  the  Locrian  Mode,  the  Dominant 


MODES,  ECCLESIASTICAL. 

of  which  is  G,  the  sixth  from  the  Final.  The 
Hypolocrian  Mode  follows  the  strict  law.  In  the 
Gregorian  Psalm  Tones,  the  Dominant  is  the  note 
upon  which  the  recitation  of  the  greater  part 
of  every  verse  takes  place. 

The  Mediant — so  called  from  its  position 
between  the  Final  and  Dominant — is  always  the 
third  of  the  scale,  in  the  Authentic  Modes  ;  unless 
that  note  should  happen  to  be  B,  in  which  case 
C  is  substituted  for  it.  In  the  Plagal  Modes,  its 
position  is  less  uniform. 

The  Participant  is  an  auxiliary  note,  generally 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  Mediant, 
in  Authentic  Modes ;  and,  in  the  Plagal  forms, 
coincident  with  the  Dominant  of  the  correspond- 
ing Authentic  scale.  Some  Modes  have  a  second 
Participant ;  and  one  has  a  second  Mediant,  which, 
however,  is  not  very  frequently  used. 

Each  Mode  is  also  influenced  by  certain  notes, 
called  its  Modulations,  or  Cadences,  which  are 
of  two  kinds.  The  Regular  Modulations  are,  the 
Final,  Dominant,  Mediant,  and  Participant,  al- 
ready mentioned.  To  these  are  added  two  or  more 
subsidiary  notes,  called  Conceded  Modulations, 
(Modulationes  concessce,)  among  which  we  often 
find  the  inverted  Seventh — i.  e.  the  Seventh,  taken 
an  Octave  lower  than  its  true  pitch,  and,  conse- 
quently, one  degree  below  the  natural  compass  of 
the  scale. 

Upon  one  or  other  of  these  Modulations,  either 
Regular,  or  Conceded,  every  phrase  of  every 
melody  must  begin,  and  end :  subject  only  to  two 
farther  restrictions — (i)  The  first  phrase  must 
begin  on  one  of  a  somewhat  less  ample  series  of 
notes,  called  the  Absolute  Initials ;  (2)  The  last 
phrase  can  only  end  on  the  Final  of  the  Mode. 

The  following  Table  shews  the  Compass,  Final. 
Dominant,  Mediant,  Participant,  Regular  and 
Conceded  Modulations,  and  Absolute  Initials,  of 
every  Mode  in  the  series,  including  the  Locrian, 
and  Hypolocrian,  which,  in  spite  of  their  manifest 
imperfection,  have  sometimes  been  used  in  saccular 
music. 

Modulations. 


Regular. 


Conceded, 


Numbers. 

Names  of  the  Model. 

Range. 

Ft* 

Dom. 

Med. 

Port. 

Mod.  Con. 

Absolute  Initials. 

I. 

Dorian. 

D-D 

D 

A 

F 

G 

OLE 

CJ.D.F.G.A 

n.« 

Hypodorian. 

A-A 

D 

F 

B 

A.  A3 

C.G 

A.C.D.E4.F 

ni. 

Phrygian. 

E— E 

B 

0 

G 

A.B 

DLF 

E.  KG  4.0 

rv.» 

Hypophrygian. 

B-B 

E 

A 

G 

C.F 

D.B» 

C.D.E.F.G«.A« 

v. 

Lydian. 

F-F 

F 

0 

A 

G 

B.D.E 

F.A.0 

VI.J 

Hypolydian. 

C-0 

F 

A 

D 

0« 

B1.G.B  [b] 

C6.D4.F 

vn. 

Hlxolydian. 

G-G 

0 

D 

0 

A 

B.E 

G.A4.B.0.D. 

VIII.> 

Hypomlxolydlan. 

D-D 

G 

0 

F.A 

D6 

B.D> 

Ol.D.F.G.A.0 

IX. 

.fflolian. 

A-A 

A 

E 

0 

D 

GLB 

GLA.O.D.E 

x.» 

Hypoteollan. 

E-E 

A 

0 

B 

E.E3 

G.D 

E.G.A.B4.0 

{  XI- 

Locrian. 

B-B 

B 

O 

V 

E.F 

Ai.O 

B.O*.D.O      1 
Q.A.B.C.DKE*' 

Hypolocrian. 

r-r 

B 

E 

D 

a.o 

A.F* 

XIII  (or  XI). 

Ionian. 

c-c 

0 

Q 

E 

D 

F.A.B 

C.D3.E.G 

XIV  (or  xn.)J 

Hypoionian. 

G-G 

0 

B 

A 

G« 

Fl.D.F 

G8.A.C.D5. 

1  The  Inverted  7th.  »  Plagal  Modes. 

»  The  5th  above  the  Final.  *  Barely  used  in  an  Absolute  Initial. 

«  Used  as  an  Absolute  Initial  chiefly  in  polyphonic  music. 

•  The  lowest  ante  of  the  Mode. 


MODES,  ECCLESIASTICAL. 

In  vindication  of  the  use  of  the  Inverted 
Seventh,  it  is  necessary  to  explain,  that,  under 
certain  conditions,  the  normal  compass  of  all  the 
Modes  maybe  slightly  extended.  Every  Authentic 
Mode  may,  by  license,  descend  one  degree  below 
its  Final :  the  Phrygian  Mode  may  descend  two. 
Every  Flagal  Mode  may  ascend  to  the  sixth 
degree  above  the  Final :  the  Hypolydian,  and 
Hypomixolydian  Modes,  may,  in  addition,  de- 
scend to  the  fifth  below  it. 

Melodies  confined  strictly  within  the  natural 
range  of  the  Mode  are  called  Perfect ;  those  which 
fall  short  of  it,  Imperfect;  those  which  exceed 
it,  Superfluous.  A  melody  which  combines  the 
entire  compass  of  a  Plagal  with  that  of  an 
Authentic  scale,  is  said  to  be  in  a  Mixed  Mode. 
Both  in  Plain  Chaunt  and  Polyphonic  Music, 
the  Modes  are  used,  sometimes,  at  their  true 
pitch ;  sometimes,  transposed  a  Fourth  higher,  (or 
Fifth  lower),  by  means  of  a  B  flat  at  the  Signa- 
ture. No  accidentals  are  permitted,  in  Plain 
Chaunt,  except  an  occasional  B  flat,  introduced 
for  the  purpose  of  correcting  a  Tritonus,  or  a  False 
Fifth — the  use  of  both  these  intervals  being 
strictly  forbidden,  whether  in  disjunct  or  conjunct 
movement.  [See  Plain  Chaunt.]  The  Canto 
fermo,  in  Polyphonic  Music,  is  as  strictly  subject 
to  the  laws  of  the  Mode  as  a  Plain  Chaunt 
melody — which,  in  fact,  it  generally  is  :  but,  in 
the  Counterpoint,  the  use  of  certain  sharps,  flats, 
and  naturals,  is  sometimes  directly  enjoined,  in 
conformity  with  precepts  which  will  be  found 
fully  described  elsewhere.  [See  MusiCA  FlCTA.] 
In  order  to  ascertain  the  Mode  in  which  a 
Plain  Chaunt  Melody  is  written,  observe  the  last 
note,  which  will,  of  course,  shew  the  required 
Final.  Should  the  compass  of  the  Melody  lie 
between  that  Final  and  its  Octave,  the  Mode  will 
be  Authentic.  Should  it  lie  between  the  fifth 
above  and  the  Fourth  below,  it  will  be  Plagal. 
Should  it  extend  throughout  the  entire  range, 
from  the  Fourth  below  the  Final  to  the  Octave 
above  it,  it  will  be  Mixed.  Should  there  be  a 
B  flat  at  the  Signature,  it  will  indicate  that  the 
Mode  has  been  transposed ;  and  the  true  Final  will 
then  lie  a  Fourth  below  the  written  one.  For 
example,  the  Plain  Chaunt  Melody,  'Angelus 
autem  Domini '  (for  which  see  the  article,  Anti- 
PHON),  has  no  B  flat  at  the  Signature.  Its  last 
note  is  6,  the  Mixolydian  Final.  Its  compass 
lies  between  the  Fifth  above  that  note,  and  the 
Second  below  it.  It  is,  therefore,  in  the  Eighth, 
or  Hypomixolydian  Mode ;  and,  as  its  range  falls 
two  degrees  short  of  the  full  downward  range  of 
the  scale,  it  belongs  to  the  class  of  Imperfect 
Melodies. 

To  ascertain  the  Mode  of  a  polyphonic  com- 
position, examine  the  last  note  in  the  Bass.  This 
will  be  the  Final.  Then,  shoidd  the  range  of 
the  Canto  fermo — which  will  almost  always  be 
found  in  the  Tenor — lie  between  the  Final  and 
its  Octave,  the  Mode  will  be  Authentic.  Should 
it  lie  between  the  Fifth  above  and  the  Fourth 
below,  it  will  be  Plagal.  Should  there  be  a  B 
flat  at  the  Signature,  it  will  shew  that  the  Mode 
has  been  transposed ;  and  the  true  Final  will  then 


MODULATION. 


843 


lie  a  Fourth  below  the  last  bass  note.  Thus, 
Palestrina's  Motet,  'Dies  sanctincatus,'  has  no 
B  flat  at  the  Signature.  The  last  note  in  the  Bass 
is  Gr.  The  compass  of  the  Canto  fermo,  as  ex- 
hibited in  the  Tenor,  lies,  almost  entirely,  between 
that  note  and  its  Octave.  The  Motet,  therefore, 
is  in  the  Seventh,  or  Mixolydian  Mode.  The  same 
composer's  Missa  'iEterna  Christi  munera'  has  a 
B  flat  at  the  Signature,  and  is,  therefore,  trans- 
posed. The  last  note  in  the  Bass  is  F,  the 
Fourth  below  which  is  C — the  Ionian  Final. 
The  compass  of  the  Canto  fermo,  in  the  Tenor,  lies 
between  the  transposed  Final,  and  its  Octave. 
Consequently,  the  Mass  is  in  the  Thirteenth,  or 
Ionian  Mode,  transposed. 

According  to  strict  law,  it  is  as  necessary  for  the 
Canto  fermo  to  end  on  the  Final  of  the  Mode  as 
the  Bass  :  but,  when  the  last  Cadence  is  a  very 
elaborate  one,  it  frequently  contents  itself  with 
just  touching  that  note,  and  then  glancing  off  to 
others,  after  the  manner  of  what  we  should  now 
call  a  coda.  The  neophyte  will  always,  there- 
fore, find  the  last  Bass  note  his  safest  guide,  in 
this  particular.    [See  Polyphonic  Music] 

In  order  to  accommodate  the  range  of  '  un- 
equal* voices,  it  constantly  happens,  that  the 
Treble  and  Tenor,  are  made  to  sing  in  an  Au- 
thentic Mode,  while  the  Alto  and  Bass  sing  in  a 
Plagal  one ;  and  vice  versa.  In  these  cases,  the 
true  character  of  the  Mode  is  always  decided  by 
the  compass  of  the  Canto  fermo.  [W.S.R.] 

MODULATION  is  the  process  of  passing  out 
of  one  key  into  another. 

In  modern  harmonic  music,  especially  in  its 
instrumental  branches,  it  is  essential  that  the 
harmonies  should  be  grouped  according  to  their 
keys;  that  is,  that  they  should  be  connected 
together  for  periods  of  appreciable  length  by  a 
common  relation  to  a  definite  tonic  or  keynote. 
If  harmonies  belonging  essentially  to  one  key 
are  irregularly  mixed  up  with  harmonies  which 
are  equally  characteristic  of  another,  an  im- 
pression of  obscurity  arises;  but  when  a  chord 
which  evidently  belongs  to  a  foreign  key  follows 
naturally  upon  a  series  which  was  consistently 
characteristic  of  another,  and  is  itself  followed 
consistently  by  harmonies  belonging  to  a  key  to 
which  it  can  be  referred,  modulation  has  taken 
place,  and  a  new  tonic  has  supplanted  the  former 
one  as  the  centre  of  a  new  circle  of  harmonies. 

The  various  forms  of  process  by  which  a  new 
key  is  gained  are  generally  distributed  into  three 
classes — Diatonic,  Chromatic  and  Enharmonic. 
The  first  two  are  occasionally  applied  to  the  ends 
of  modulation  as  well  as  to  the  means.  That  is 
to  say,  Diatonic  would  be  defined  as  modulation 
to  relative  keys,  and  Chromatic  to  others  than 
relative.  This  appears  to  strain  unnecessarily 
the  meaning  of  the  terms,  since  Diatonic  and  Chro- 
matic apply  properly  to  the  contents  of  established 
keys,  and  not  to  the  relations  of  different  shifting 
ones,  except  by  implication. 

Moreover,  if  a  classification  is  to  be  consistent, 
the  principles  upon  which  it  is  founded  must  be 
uniformly  applied.  Hence  if  a  class  is  distin- 
guished as  Enharmonic  in  relation  to  the  means 


344 


MODULATION. 


MODULATION. 


(as  it  must  be),  other  classes  cannot  safely  be 
classed  as  Diatonic  and  Chromatic  in  relation  to 
ends,  without  liability  to  confusion.  And  lastly, 
the  term  Modulation  itself  clearly  implies  the 
process  and  not  the  result.  Therefore  in  this 
place  the  classification  will  be  taken  to  apply  to 
the  means  and  not  to  the  end, — to  the  process  by 
which  the  modulation  is  accomplished  and  not 
the  keys  which  are  thereby  arrived  at. 

The  Diatonic  forms,  then,  are  such  as  are 
effected  by  means  of  notes  or  chords  which  are 
exclusively  diatonic  in  the  keys  concerned.  Thus 
in  the  following  example  (Bach,  Well-tempered 
Clavier,  Bk.  2,  no.  12)  : — 


m 


^±±m 


jj^jfejg 


SEE 


m 


£: 


=3= 


Efefcfi 


il 


the  chord  at  *  indicates  that  F  has  ceased  to  be 
the  tonic,  as  it  is  not  referable  to  the  group  of 
harmonies  characteristic  of  that  key.  However, 
it  is  not  possible  to  tell  from  that  chord  alone 
to  what  key  it  is  to  be  referred,  as  it  is  equally 
a  diatonic  harmony  in  either  Bb,  Eb,  or  Ab  ; 
but  as  the  chords  which  follow  all  belong  con- 
sistently to  Ab,  that  note  is  obviously  the  tonic 
of  the  new  key,  and  as  the  series  is  Diatonic 
throughout  it  belongs  to  the  Diatonic  class  of 
modulations. 

The  Chromatic  is  a  most  ill-defined  class  of  modu- 
lations ;  and  it  is  hardly  to  be  hoped  that  people 
will  ever  be  sufficiently  careful  in  small  matters 
to  use  the  term  with  anything  approaching  to 
clear  and  strict  uniformity  of  meaning.  Some 
use  it  to  denote  any  modulation  in  the  course  of 
which  there  appear  to  be  a  number  of  acci- 
dentals— which  is  perhaps  natural  but  obviously 
superficial.  Others  again  apply  the  term  to 
modulations  from  one  main  point  to  another 
through  several  subordinate  transitions  which 
touch  remote  keys.  The  objection  to  this  defi- 
nition is  that  each  step  in  the  subordinate 
transitions  is  a  modulation  in  itself,  and  as  the 
classification  is  to  refer  to  the  means,  it  is  not 
consistent  to  apply  the  term  to  the  end  in  this 
case,  even  though  subordinate.  There  are  further 
objections  based  upon  the  strict  meaning  of  the 
word  Chromatic  itself,  which  must  be  omitted  for 
lack  of  space.  This  reduces  the  limits  of  chro- 
matic modulation  to  such  as  is  effected  through 
notes  or  chords  which  are  chromatic  in  relation 
to  the  keys  in  question.  Genuine  examples  of 
this  kind  are  not  so  common  as  might  be  sup- 
posed ;  the  following  example  (Beethoven,  op.  31, 
no-  3)>  where  passage  is  made  from  E  b  ta  C  is 
consistent  enough  for  illustration  : — 


fesfe 


PP 


S 


s^i 


f     TtTWrjtt 


mm 


lbs 


rrmr 


s 


TT     "J    "J 


f       t   ap    t-       h 


*rr'-UU-^ 


The  third  class,  called  Enharmonic,  which  tenda 
to  be  more  and  more  conspicuous  in  modern 
music,  is  such  as  turns  mainly  upon  the  transla- 
tion of  intervals  which,  according  to  the  fixed 
distribution  of  notes  in  the  modern  system,  are 
identical,  into  terms  which  represent  different 
harmonic  relations.  Thus  the  minor  seventh, 
G-- F,  appears  to  be  the  same  interval  as  the 
augmented  sixth  G-E  g  ;  but  the  former  belongs 
to  the  key  of  C,  and  the  latter  either  to  B  or  F#, 
according  to  the  context.  Again,  the  chord  which 
is  known  as  the  diminished  seventh  is  frequently 
quoted  as  affording  such  great  opportunities  for 
modulation,  and  this  it  does  chiefly  enharmoni- 
cally ;  for  the  notes  of  which  it  is  composed  being 
at  equal  distances  from  each  other  can  severally  be 
taken  as  third,  fifth,  seventh  or  ninth  of  the  root 
of  the  chord,  and  the  chord  can  be  approached 
as  if  belonging  to  any  one  of  these  roots,  and 
quitted  as  if  derived  from  any  other.  The  pas- 
sage quoted  from  the  Leonore  Overture  in  the 
article  Change  (vol.  i.  p.  333  a)  may  be  taken 
as  an  example  of  an  enharmonic  modulation 
which  turns  on  this  particular  chord. 

Enharmonic  treatment  really  implies  a  differ- 
ence between  the  intervals  represented,  and  this 
is  actually  perceived  by  the  mind  in  many  cases. 
In  some  especially  marked  instances  it  is  pro- 
bable that  most  people  with  a  tolerable  musical 
gift  will  feel  the  difference  with  no  more  help 
than  a  mere  indication  of  the  relations  of  the 
intervals.  Thus  in  the  succeeding  example  the 
true  major  sixth  represented  by  the  Ab-F  in  (a) 
would  have  the  ratio  5 : 3  (  =  125  :  75),  whereas 
the  diminished  seventh  represented  by  Gj-Fl]  in 
(6)  would  have  the  ratio  128  :  75  ;  the  former  is 
a  consonance  and  the  latter,  theoretically,  a  rough 
dissonance,  and  though  they  are  both  represented 
by  the  same  notes  in  our  system,  the  impression 
produced  by  them  is  to  a  certain  extent  pro- 
portionate to  their  theoretical  rather  than  to  their 
actual  constitution. 


MODULATION. 


MODULATION. 


345 


(«)    J     N,  *,  (6)       I     -  % 


=£ 


Hence  it  appears  to  follow  that  in  enharmonic 
modulation  we  attempt  to  get  at  least  some  of 
the  effects  of  intervals  smaller  than  semitones; 
but  the  indiscriminate  and  ill-considered  use  of 
the  device  will  certainly  tend  to  deaden  the 
musical  sense,  which  helps  us  to  distinguish  the 
true  relations  of  harmonies  through  their  external 
apparent  uniformity. 

A  considerable  portion  of  the  actual  processes 
of  modulation  is  effected  by  means  of  notes 
which  are  used  as  pivots.  A  note  or  notes  which 
are  common  to  a  chord  in  the  original  key  and  to 
a  chord  in  the  key  to  which  the  modulation  is 
made,  are  taken  advantage  of  to  strengthen  the 
connection  of  the  harmonies  while  the  modulation 
prooeeds;  as  in  the  following  modulation  from 
Gg  major  to  B  major  in  Schubert's  Fantasie- 
Sonata  Op.  78. 

si 


£^ 


& 


A, 


pg  &U|r-tg 


£ 


A 


m^ 


^ 


=**: 


^ 


z 


^ 


f±- 


A 


E 


m 


This  device  is  found  particularly  in  transitory 
modulation,  and  affords  peculiar  opportunities  for 
subtle  transitions.  Examples  also  occur  where 
the  pivot  notes  are  treated  enharmonically,  as  in 
the  following  example  from  the  chorus  '  Sein 
Odem  ist  schwach  '  in  Graun's  '  Tod  Jesu ' : 


i 


feg= 


■    K    V    fr> 


'ft*    d 


XXX 


m 


3*=* 


zz 


J5Aj»jjJJ  i  *U 


etc. 


P^^^_E-U_ci»r  r  1 


These  pivot-notes  are  however  by  no  means 
indispensable.  Modulations  are  really  governed 
by  the  same  laws  which  apply  to  any  succession 
of  harmonies  whatsoever,  and  the  possibilities  of 
modulatory  device  are  in  the  end  chiefly  de- 
pendent upon  intelligible  order  in  the  progression 
of  the  parts.  It  is  obvious  that  a  large  pro- 
portion of  chords  which  can  succeed  each  other 
naturally — that  is,  without  any  of  the  parts 
having  melodic  intervals  which  it  is  next  to  im- 
possible to  follow — will  have  a  note  or  notes  in 
common ;  and  such  notes  are  as  useful  to  connect 
two  chords  in  the  same  key  as  they  are  to  keep 
together  a  series  which  constitute  a  modulation. 
But  it  has  never  been  held  indispensable  that 


successive  chords  should  be  so  connected,  though 
in  earlier  stages  of  harmonic  music  it  may  have 
been  found  helpful ;  and  in  the  same  way,  while 
there  were  any  doubts  as  to  the  means  and  order 
of  modulation,  pivot-notes  may  have  been  useful 
as  leading  strings,  but  when  a  broader  and  freer 
conception  of  the  nature  of  the  modern  system 
has  been  arrived  at,  it  will  be  found  that  though 
pivot-notes  may  be  valuable  for  particular  pur- 
poses, the  range  of  modulatory  device  is  not  limited 
to  such  successions  as  can  contain  them,  but  only 
to  such  as  do  not  contain  inconceivable  progres- 
sion of  parts.  As  an  instance  we  may  take  the  pro- 
gression from  the  dominant  seventh  of  any  key, 
to  the  tonic  chord  of  the  key  which  is  represented 
by  the  flat  submediant  of  the  original  key :  as 
from  the  chord  of  the  seventh  on  G  to  the  common 
chord  of  A  b ;  of  which  we  have  an  excellent 
example  near  the  beginning  of  the  Leonore  Over- 
ture No.  3.  Another  remarkable  instance  to  the 
point  occurs  in  the  trio  of  the  third  movement 
of  a  quartet  of  Mozart's  in  Bb,  as  follows  : — 


Key  Db. 


Key  C. 


Other  examples  of  modulation  without  pivot- 
notes  may  be  noticed  at  the  beginning  of  Bee- 
thoven's Egmont  Overture,  and  of  his  Sonata  in 
E  minor,  op.  90  (bars  2  and  3),  and  of  Wagner's 
Gotterdammerung  (bars  9  and  10).  An  impres- 
sion appears  to  have  been  prevalent  with  some 
theorists  that  modulation  ought  to  proceed  through 
a  chord  which  was  common  to  both  the  keys  be- 
tween which  the  modulation  takes  place.  The 
principle  is  logical  and  easy  of  application,  and 
it  is  true  that  a  great  number  of  modulations  are 
explicable  on  that  basis  ;  but  inasmuch  as  there 
are  a  great  number  of  examples  which  are  not, 
even  with  much  latitude  of  explanation,  it  will 
be  best  not  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  so  com- 
plicated a  point  in  this  place.  It  will  be  enough 
to  point  out  that  the  two  principles  of  pivot-notes 
and  of  ambiguous  pivot-chords  between  them 
cover  so  much  ground  that  it  is  not  easy  to  find 
progressions  in  which  either  one  or  the  other  does 
not  occur — and  even  though  in  a  very  great 
majority  of  instances  one  or  the  other  may  really 
form  the  bond  of  connection  in  modulatory  pass- 
ages, the  frequency  of  their  occurrence  is  not 
a  proof  of  their  being  indispensable.  The  follow- 
ing passage  from  the  first  act  of  Wagner's  Meis- 
tersinger  is  an  example  of  a  modulation  in  which 
they  are  both  absent : — 


848 


MODULATION-. 


The  real  point  of  difficulty  in  modulation  is 
not  the  manner  in  which  the  harmonies  belong- 
ing to  different  keys  can  be  made  to  succeed 
one  another,  but  the  establishment  of  the  new 
key,  especially  in  cases  where  it  is  to  be  per- 
manent. This  is  effected  in  various  ways.  Fre- 
quently some  undoubted  form  of  the  dominant 
harmony  of  the  new  key  is  made  use  of  to 
confirm  the  impression  of  the  tonality,  and 
modulation  is  often  made  through  some  phase 
of  that  chord  to  make  its  direction  clear,  since 
no  progression  has  such  definite  tonal  force  as 
that  from  dominant  to  tonic.  Mozart  again, 
when  he  felt  it  necessary  to  define  the  new  key 
very  clearly,  as  representing  a  definite  essential 
feature  in  the  form  of  a  movement,  often  goes  at 
first  beyond  his  point,  and  appears  to  take  it 
from  the  rear.  For  instance,  if  his  first  section  is 
in  C,  and  he  wishes  to  cast  the  second  section 
and  produce  what  is  called  his  second  subject  in 
the  dominant  key  G,  instead  of  going  straight  to 
G  and  staying  there,  he  passes  rapidly  by  it  to 
its  dominant  key  D,  and  having  settled  well  down 
on  the  tonic  harmony  of  that  key,  uses  it  at  last 
as  a  dominant  point  of  vantage  from  which  to 
take  G  in  form.  The  first  movement  of  the 
Quartet  in  C,  from  bar  22  to  34  of  the  Allegro, 
will  serve  as  an  illustration.  Another  mode  is 
that  of  using  a  series  of  transitory  modulations 
between  one  permanent  key  and  another.  This 
serves  chiefly  to  obliterate  the  sense  of  the  old 
key,  and  to  make  the  mind  open  to  the  impression 
of  the  new  one  directly  its  permanency  becomes 
apparent.  The  plan  of  resting  on  dominant 
harmony  for  a  long  while  before  passing  definitely 
to  the  subjects  or  figures  which  are  meant  to 
characterise  the  new  key  is  an  obvious  means  of 
enforcing  it;  of  which  the  return  to  the  first 
subject  in  the  first  movement  of  Beethoven's 
Waldstein  Sonata  is  a  strong  example.  In  fact 
insistance  on  any  characteristic  harmony  or  on 
any  definite  group  of  harmonies  which  clearly 
represent  a  key  is  a  sure  means  of  indicating  the 
object  of  a  modulation,  even  between  keys  which 
are  remote  from  one  another. 

In  transitory  modulations  it  is  less  imperative  to 
mark  the  new  key  strongly,  since  subordinate  keys 
are  rightly  kept  in  the  background,  and  though 
they  may  be  used  so  as  to  produce  a  powerful 
effect,  yet  if  they  are  too  much  insisted  upon,  the 
balance  between  the  more  essential  and  the  unes- 
eential  keys  may  be  upset.  But  even  in  transitory 
modulations,  in  instrumental  music  especially,  it 
is  decidedly  important  that  each  group  which 
represents  a  key,  however  short,  should  be  dis- 
tinct in  itself.  In  recitative,  obscurity  of  tonality 
is  not  so  objectionable,  as  appears  both  in  Bach 
and  Handel ;  and  the  modern  form  of  melodious 
recitative,  which  often  takes  the  form  of  sustained 
melody  of  an  emotional  cast,  is  similarly  often 
associated  with  subtle  and  closely  woven  modu- 
lations, especially  when  allied  with  words.  Of 
recitative  forms  which  show  analogous  freedom 
of  modulation  in  purely  instrumental  works, 
there  are  examples  both  by  Bach  and  Beethoven, 
as  in  an  Adagio  in  a  Toccata  in  D  minor  and  the 


MODULATION. 

Fantasia  Cromatica  by  the  former,  and  in  the 
Introduction  to  the  last  movement  of  the  Ab 
Sonata  (opus,  no)  of  the  latter. 

When  transitory  modulations  succeed  one  an- 
other somewhat  rapidly  they  may  well  be  difficult 
to  follow  if  they  are  not  systematised  into  some 
sort  of  appreciable  order.  This  is  frequently 
effected  by  making  them  progress  by  regular 
steps.  In  Mozart  and  Haydn  especially  we 
meet  with  the  simplest  forms  of  succession,  which 
generally  amount  to  some  such  order  as  the 
roots  of  the  chord  falling  fifths  or  rising  fourths, 
or  rising  fourths  and  falling  thirds  successively. 
The  following  example  from  Mozart's  C  major 
Quartet  is  clearly  to  the  point. 


Bach  affords  some  remarkably  forcible  examples, 
as  in  the  chorus  '  Mit  Blitzen  und  Donner '  in  the 
Matthaus  Passion,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
Fantasia  for  Organ  in  G  (Dorffel  855),  in  which 
the  bass  progresses  slowly  by  semitones  downwards 
from  CjJ  to  D.  A  passage  quoted  by  Marx  at 
the  end  of  the  second  volume  of  his  Kompositions- 
lehre  from  the  'Christe  Eleison'  in  Bach's  A 
major  1  Mass  is  very  fine  and  characteristic ;  the 
succession  of  transitions  is  founded  on  a  bass 
which  progresses  as  follows  : — 


®  v  g  1  j  jj 


*= 


pg 


Q*       I 


« 


In  modern  music  a  common  form  is  that  in  which 
the  succession  of  key-notes  is  by  rising  or  falling 
semitones,  as  in  the  following  passage  from  the 
first  movement  of  the  Eroica  Symphony : — 


1  See  Bachgesellschaft,  1858,  p.  69, 60. 


MODULATION. 


MODULATION. 


347 


Of  this  form  there  are  numerous  examples  in 
Chopin,  as  in  the  latter  part  of  the  Ballade  in  Ab, 
and  in  the  Prelude  in  the  same  key  (No.  17). 
Beethoven  makes  use  of  successions  of  thirds  in 
the  same  way ;  of  which  the  most  remarkable  ex- 
ample is  the  Largo  which  precedes  the  fugue  in  the 
Sonata  in  Bb,  op.  106.  In  this  there  are  fully 
eighteen  successive  steps  of  thirds  downwards, 
most  of  them  minor.  This  instance  also  points 
to  a  feature  which  is  important  to  note.  The 
successions  are  not  perfectly  symmetrical,  but  are 
purposely  distributed  with  a  certain  amount  of 
irregularity  so  as  to  relieve  them  from  the  obvious- 
ness which  is  often  ruinous  to  the  effect  of  earlier 
examples.  The  divisions  represented  by  each 
step  are  severally  variable  in  length,  but  the 
sum  total  is  a  complete  impression  based  upon 
an  appreciable  system  ;  and  this  result  is  far 
more  artistic  than  the  examples  where  the  form 
is  so  obvious  that  it  might  almost  have  been 
measured  out  with  a  pair  of  compasses.  This 
point  leads  to  the  consideration  of  another  strik- 
ing device  of  Beethoven's,  namely,  the  use  of  a 
caesura  in  modulation,  which  serves  a  similar 
purpose  to  the  irregular  distribution  of  successive 
modulations.  A  most  striking  example  is  that  in 
the  Prestissimo  of  the  Sonata  in  E  major,  op. 
109,  in  bars  104  and  105,  where  he  leaps  from 
the  major  chord  of  the  supertonic  to  the  minor  of 
the  tonic,  evidently  cutting  short  the  ordinary 
process  of  supertonic,  dominant  and  tonic ;  and 
the  effect  of  this  sudden  irruption  of  the  original 
key  and  subject  before  the  ordinary  and  expected 
progressions  are  concluded  is  most  remarkable. 
In  the  slow  movement  of  Schumann's  sonata  in  G 
minor  there  is  a  passage  which  has  a  similar  happy 
effect,  where  the  leap  is  made  from  the  dominant 
seventh  of  the  key  of  Db  to  the  tonic  chord  of  C 
to  resume  the  first  subject,  as  follows  :— 


In  the  study  of  the  art  of  music  it  is  important 


to  have  a  clear  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
function  and  resources  of  modulation  have  been 
gradually  realised.  It  will  be  best  therefore,  at 
the  risk  of  going  occasionally  over  the  same 
ground  twice,  to  give  a  short  consecutive  review 
of  the  aspect  it  presents  along  the  stream  of  con- 
stant production. 

To  a  modern  ear  of  any  musical  capacity  modu- 
lation appears  a  very  simple  and  easy  matter, 
but  when  harmonic  music  was  only  beginning  to 
be  felt,  the  force  even  of  a  single  key  was  but 
doubtfully  realised,  and  the  relation  of  different 
keys  to  one  another  was  almost  out  of  the  range 
of  human  conception.     Musicians  of  those  days 
no  doubt  had  some  glimmering  sense  of  a  field 
being  open  before  them,  but  they  did  not  know 
what  the  problems  were  which  they  had  to  solve. 
It  is  true  that  even  some  time  before  the  be- 
ginning of  the  seventeenth  century  they  must 
have  had  a  tolerably  good  idea  of  the  distribution 
of  notes  which  we  call  a  key,  but  they  probably 
did  not  regard  it  as  an  important  matter,  and 
looked  rather  to  the  laws  and  devices  of  counter- 
point, after  the  old  polyphonic  manner,  as  the 
chief  means  by  which  music  was  to  go  on  as 
it  had  done  before.    Hence  in  those  great  poly- 
phonic times  of  Palestrina  and  Lasso,  and  even 
later  in  some  quarters,  there  was  no  such  thing 
as  modulation  in  our  sense  of  the  word.    They 
were  gradually  absorbing   into   their  material 
certain  accidentals  which   the  greater  masters 
found  out  how  to  use  with  effect;   and  these 
being  incorporated  with  the  intervals  which  the 
old  church  modes  afforded  them,  gave  rise  to 
successions  and  passages  in  which  they  appear  to- 
us  to  wander  with  uncertain  steps  from  one  nearly 
related  key  to  another ;  whereas  in  reality  they 
were  only  using  the  actual  notes  which  appeared 
to  them  to  be  available  for  artistic  purposes, 
without  considering  whether  their  combinations 
were  related  to  a  common  tonic  in  the  sense 
which  we  recognise,  or  not.     Nevertheless  this 
process    of  introducing    accidentals    irregularly 
was  the  ultimate  means  through  which  the  art 
of  modulation  was  developed.     For  the  musical 
sense  of  these  composers,  being  very  acute,  would 
lead  them  to  consider  the  relations  of  the  new 
chords  which  contained  notes  thus  modified,  and 
to  surround  them  with  larger  and  larger  groups 
of  chords  which  in  our  sense  would  be  considered 
to  be  tonally  related;  and  the  very  smoothness 
and  softness  of  the  combinations  to  which  they 
were  accustomed  would  ensure  a  gradual  approach 
to  consistent  tonality,  though  the  direction  into 
which  their  accidentals  turned  them  was  rather 
uncertain  and  irregular,  and  not  so  much  governed 
by  any  feeling  of  the  effects  of  modulation  as  by 
the  constitution  of  the  ecclesiastical  scales.     Ex- 
amples of  this  are  given  in  the  article  Harmony  ; 
and  reference  may  also  be  made  to  a  Pavin 
and  a  Fantasia  by  our  great  master,  Orlando 
Gibbons,  in  the  Parthenia,  which  has  lately  been 
republished  by  Mr.  Pauer.    In  these  there  are 
remarkably  fine  and  strong  effects  produced  by 
means  of  accidentals;   but  the  transitions  are 
to  modern  ideas  singularly  irregular.    Gibbons 


348 


MODULATION. 


appears  to  slip  from  one  tonality  to  another  more 
than  six  times  in  as  many  bars,  and  to  slide  back 
into  his  original  key  as  if  he  had  never  been 
away.  In  some  of  his  vocal  works  he  presents 
broader  expanses  of  distinct  tonality,  but  of  the 
power  of  the  effect  of  modulation  on  an  extended 
scale  he  can  have  had  but  the  very  slightest 
possible  idea.  About  his  time  and  a  little  later 
in  Italy,  among  such  musicians  as  Carissimi  and 
Cesti,  the  outlines  of  the  modern  art  were  grow- 
ing stronger.  They  appreciated  the  sense  of  pure 
harmonic  combinations,  though  they  lost  much 
of  the  force  and  dignity  of  the  polyphonic  school ; 
and  they  began  to  use  simple  modulations,  and  to 
define  them  much  as  a  modem  would  do,  but 
with  the  simplest  devices  possible.  Throughout 
the  seventeenth  century  the  system  of  keys  was 
being  gradually  matured,  but  their  range  was 
extraordinarily  limited,  and  the  interchange  of 
keys-  was  still  occasionally  irregular.  Corelli,  in 
the  latter  part  of  it,  clearly  felt  the  relative 
importance  of  different  notes  in  a  key  and  the 
harmonies  which  they  represent,  and  balanced 
many  instrumental  movements  on  principles  an- 
alogous to  our  own,  though  simpler;  and  the 
same  may  be  said  of  Couperin,  who  was  his  junior 
by  a  few  years;  but  it  is  apparent  that  they 
moved  among  accidentals  with  caution,  and  re- 
garded what  we  call  extreme  keys  as  dangerous 
and  almost  inexplorable  territory. 

In  the  works  of  the  many  sterling  and  solid 
composers  of  the  early  part  of  the  18  th  cen- 
tury, the  most  noticeable  feature  is  the  extra- 
ordinary expanse  of  the  main  keys.  Music 
had  arrived  at  the  opposite  extreme  from  its 
state  of  a  hundred  years  before  ;  and  composers, 
having  realised  the  effect  of  pure  tonality,  were 
content  to  remain  in  one  key  for  periods  which 
to  us,  with  our  different  ways  of  expressing  our- 
selves, would  be  almost  impossible.  This  is  in 
feet  the  average  period  of  least  modulation. 
Handel  is  a  fairer  representative  of  the  time 
than  Bach,  for  reasons  which  will  be  touched 
upon  presently,  and  his  style  is  much  more  in 
conformity  with  most  of  his  contemporaries  who 
are  best  known  in  the  musical  art.  We  may 
take  him  therefore  as  a  type ;  and  in  his  works 
it  will  be  noticed  that  the  extent  and  number  of 
modulations  is  extremely  limited.  In  a  large 
proportion  of  his  finest  choruses  he  passes  into 
his  dominant  key  near  the  beginning — partly 
to  express  the  balance  of  keys  and  partly  driven 
thereto  by  fugal  habits ;  and  then  returns  to  his 
original  key,  from  which  in  many  cases  he 
hardly  stirs  again.  Thus  the  whole  modulatory 
range  of  the  'Hallelujah'  Chorus  is  not  more 
than  frequent  transitions  from  the  Tonic  key  to 
the  key  of  its  Dominant  and  back,  and  one  ex- 
cursion as  far  as  the  relative  minor  in  the 
middle  of  the  chorus, — and  that  is  all.  There  are 
choruses  with  a  larger  range,  and  choruses  with 
even  less,  but  the  Hallelujah  is  a  fair  example 
to  take,  and  if  it  is  carefully  compared  with  any 
average  modern  example,  such  as  Mendelssohn's 
"The  night  is  departing,'  in  the  Hymn  of 
Praise,  or  '  O  great  is  the  depth,'  in  St.  Paul,  or 


MODULATION. 

the  first  chorus  in  Brahms's  Requiem,  a  very 
strong  impression  of  the  progressive  tendency  of 
modern  music  in  the  matter  of  modulation  will 
be  obtained.  In  choruses  and  movements  in 
the  minor  mode,  modulations  are  on  an  average 
more  frequent  and  various,  but  still  infinitely 
less  free  than  in  modern  examples.  Even  in 
such  a  fine  example  as  '  The  people  shall  hear,' 
in  Israel,  the  apparent  latitude  of  modulation  is 
deceptive,  for  many  of  the  changes  of  key  in  the 
early  part  are  mere  repetitions ;  since  the  ton- 
alities range  up  and  down  between  E  minor, 
B  and  Fjf  only,  each  key  returning  irregularly. 
In  the  latter  part  it  is  true  the  modulations  are 
finely  conceived,  and  represent  a  degree  of  ap- 
preciation in  the  matter  of  relations  of  various 
keys,  such  as  Handel  does  not  often  manifest. 

Allusion  has  been  made  above  to  the  practice 
of  going  out  to  a  foreign  key  and  returning 
to  the  original  again  in  a  short  space  of  time. 
This  happens  to  be  a  very  valuable  gauge  to  test 
the  degrees  of  appreciation  of  a  composer  in 
the  matter  of  modulation.  In  modern  music 
keys  are  felt  so  strongly  as  an  element  of  form, 
that  when  any  one  has  been  brought  promi- 
nently forward,  succeeding  modulations  for  some 
time  after  must,  except  in  a  few  special  cases, 
take  another  direction.  The  tonic  key,  for 
instance,  must  inevitably  come  forward  clearly 
in  the  early  part  of  a  movement,  and  when  its 
importance  has  been  made  sufficiently  clear  by 
insistance,  and  modulations  have  begun  in  other 
directions,  if  it  were  to  be  quickly  resumed  and 
insisted  on  afresh,  the  impression  would  be  that 
there  was  unnecessary  tautology ;  and  this  must 
appear  obvious  on  the  merest  external  grounds 
of  logic.  The  old  masters  however  must,  on 
this  point,  be  judged  to  have  had  but  little 
sense  of  the  actual  force  of  different  keys  as  a 
matter  of  form ;  for  in  a  large  proportion  of 
examples  they  were  content  to  waver  up  and 
down  between  nearly-related  keys,  and  con- 
stantly to  resume  one  and  another  without  order 
or  design.  In  the  '  Te  gloriosus '  in  Graun's  Te 
Deum,  for  instance,  he  goes  out  to  a  nearly- 
related  key,  and  returns  to  his  tonic  key  no  less 
than  five  several  times,  and  in  the  matter  of 
modulation  does  practically  nothing  else.  Even 
Bach  occasionally  presents  similar  examples,  and 
Mozart's  distribution  of  the  modulations  in 
'  Splendente  te  Deus '  (in  which  he  probably 
followed  the  standing  classical  models  of  vocal 
music)  are  on  a  similar  plan,  for  he  digresses  and 
returns  again  to  his  principal  key  at  least  twelve 
times  in  the  course  of  the  work. 

Bach  was  in  some  respects  like  his  contempo- 
raries, and  in  some  so  far  in  advance  of  them  that 
he  cannot  fairly  be  taken  as  a  representative  of  the 
average  standard  of  the  day.  In  fact,  his  more 
wonderful  modulatory  devices  must  have  fallen 
upon  utterly  deaf  ears,  not  only  in  his  time  but 
for  generations  after;  and,  unlike  most  great 
men,  he  appears  to  have  made  less  impression 
upon  the  productive  musicians  who  immediately 
succeeded  him  than  upon  those  of  a  hundred 
years  and  more  later.     In  many  cases  he  cast 


MODULATION. 

movements  in  the  forms  prevalent  in  his  time, 
and  occasionally  used  vain  repetitions  of  keys 
like  his  contemporaries  ;  but  when  he  chose  his 
own  lines  he  produced  movements  which  are 
perfectly  in  consonance  with  modern  views.  As 
examples  of  this  the  'Et  resurrexit'  in  the  B 
minor  Mass  and  the  last  chorus  of  the  Mat- 
thew Passion  may  be  taken.  In  these  there  is 
no  tautology  in  the  distribution  of  the  modu- 
lation, though  the  extraordinary  expanse  over 
which  a  single  key  is  made  to  spread,  still  marks 
their  relationship  with  other  contemporary 
works.  In  some  of  his  instrumental  works  he 
gives  himself  more  rein,  as  in  fantasias,  and 
preludes,  and  toccatas,  for  organ  or  clavier.  In 
these  he  not  only  makes  use  of  the  most  compli- 
cated and  elaborate  devices  in  the  actual  passage 
from  one  key  to  another,  but  also  of  closely 
interwoven  transitions  in  a  thoroughly  modern 
fashion.  Some  of  the  most  wonderful  examples 
are  in  the  Fantasia  in  G  minor  for  organ  (Dorffel 
798),  and  others  have  been  already  alluded  to. 

It  is  probable  that  his  views  on  the  subject  of 
the  relation  of  keys  had  considerable  influence 
on  the  evolution  of  the  specially  modern  type  of 
instrumental  music ;  as  it  was  chiefly  his  sons 
and  pupils  who  worked  out  and  traced  in  clear 
and  definite  outlines  the  system  of  key-distribu- 
tion upon  which  Haydn  and  Mozart  developed 
their  representative  examples  of  such  works. 

In  the  works  of  these  two  great  composers  we 
find  at  once  the  simplest  and  surest  distribution 
of  keys.  They  are  in  fact  the  expositors  of  the 
elementary  principles  which  had  been  arrived  at 
through  the  speculations  and  experiments  of 
more  that  a  century  and  a  half  of  musicians. 
The  vital  principle  of  their  artwork  is  clear  and 
simple  tonality;  each  successive  key  which  is 
important  in  the  structure  of  the  work  is  marked 
by  forms  both  of  melody  and  harmony,  which, 
by  the  use  of  the  most  obvious  indicators,  state 
as  clearly  as  possible  the  tonic  to  which  the  par- 
ticular group  of  harmonies  is  to  be  referred. 
This  is  their  summary,  so  to  speak,  of  existing 
knowledge.  But  what  is  most  important  to  this 
question  is  that  the  art  did  not  stop  at  this 
point,  "but  composers  having  arrived  at  that 
degree  of  realisation  of  the  simpler  relations  of 
keys,  went  on  at  once  to  build  something  new 
upon  the  foundation.  Both  Haydn  and  Mozart 
— as  if  perceiving  that  directly  the  means  of 
clearly  indicating  a  key  were  realised,  the  ease 
with  which  it  could  be  grasped  would  be  propor- 
tionately increased — began  to  distribute  their 
modulations  more  freely  and  liberally.  For 
certain  purposes  they  both  made  use  of  tran- 
sitions so  rapid  that  the  modulations  appear  to 
overlap,  so  that  before  one  key  is  definitely  in- 
dicated an  ingenious  modification  of  the  chord 
which  should  have  confirmed  it  leads  on  to 
another.  The  occasions  for  the  use  of  this  device 
are  principally  either  to  obtain  a  strong  contrast 
to  long  periods  during  which  single  keys  have 
been  or  are  to  be  maintained ;  or,  where  ac- 
cording to  the  system  of  form  it  so  happens  that 
a  key  which  has  already  been  employed  has  soon 


MODULATION. 


319 


to  be  resumed — as,  for  instance,  in  the  recapi- 
tulation of  the  subjects — to  lead  the  mind  so 
thoroughly  away  that  the  sense  of  the  more  per- 
manent key  is  almost  obliterated.  Occasionally, 
when  the  working-out  section  is  very  short,  the 
rapid  transitions  alluded  to  are  also  met  with  in 
that  position,  as  in  the  slow  movement  of  Mozart's 
Eb  Quartet.  The  example  quoted  above  from  the 
last  movement  of  his  Quartet  in  C  will  serve  as 
an  example  on  this  point  as  well  as  on  that  for 
which  it  was  quoted. 

A  yet  more  important  point  in  relation  to  the 
present  question  is  the  use  of  short  breaths  of 
subordinate  modulation  in  the  midst  of  the 
broader  expanses  of  the  principal  keys.  This  is 
very  characteristic  of  Mozart,  and  serves  happily 
to  indicate  the  direction  in  which  art  was  moving 
at  the  time.  Thus,  in  the  very  beginning  of  his- 
Quartet  inG  (Kochel  387),  heglides  outof  his  prin- 
cipal key  into  the  key  of  the  supertonic,  A,  and  back 
again  in  the  first  four  bars.  A  similar  digression, 
from  F  to  D  and  back  again,  may  be  observed 
near  the  beginning  of  the  slow  movement  of  the 
Jupiter  Symphony.  But  it  requires  to  be  care- 
fully noted  that  the  sense  of  the  principal  keys  is 
not  impaired  by  these  digressions.  They  are  not 
to  be  confounded  either  with  the  irregular  wander- 
ing of  the  composers  who  immediately  succeeded 
the  polyphonic  school,  nor  with  the  frequent  going 
out  and  back  again  of  the  composers  of  the  early 
part  of  the  18th  century.  This  device  is  really 
an  artificial  enlargement  of  the  capacity  of  a  key, 
and  the  transitions  are  generally  used  to  en- 
force certain  notes  which  are  representative  and 
important  roots  in  the  original  key.  A  striking  ex- 
ample occurs  in  the  first  movement  of  Mozart's 
symphony  in  G-  minor  (1st  section),  where  after  the 
key  of  Bb  has  been  strongly  and  clearly  pointed 
out  in  the  first  statement  of  the  second  subject, 
he  makes  a  modulatory  digression  as  follows  : — 


r  JfcJ.    r  JU 


This  is  in  fact  a  very  bold  way  of  enforcing  the 
Bubdominant  note;  for  though  the  modulation 
appears  to  be  to  the  key  of  the  minor  seventh  from 
the  tonic,  the  impression  of  that  key  is  ingeni- 
ously reduced  to  a  minimum,  at  the  same  time 
that  the  slight  flavour  that  remains  of  it  forma 
an  important  element  in  the  effect  of  the  tran- 
sition. 


850 


MODULATION. 


The  great  use  which  Beethoven  made  of  such 
transitory  subordinate  modulations  has  been 
already  treated  of  at  some  length  in  the  article 
Haemony  ;  it  will  therefore  be  best  here  to 
refer  only  to  a  few  typical  examples.  The  force 
with  which  he  employed  the  device  above  illus- 
trated from  Mozart  is  shown  in  the  wonderful 
transition  from  Eb  to  G  minor  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Eroica  (bars  7-10),  and  the  transition  from  Fto 
Db  at  the  beginning  of  the  Sonata  Appassionata. 
These  are,  as  in  most  of  Mozart's  examples,  only 
single  steps;  in  many  cases  Beethoven  makes 
use  of  several  in  succession.  Thus  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  E  minor  Sonata,  op.  90,  the  first 
section  should  be  theoretically  in  E  minor,  but 
in  this  case  a  quick  modulation  to  G  begins 
in  the  3rd  bar,  in  the  7th  a  modulation  to  B 
minor  follows,  and  in  the  9th,  G  is  taken  up 
again,  and  through  it  passage  is  made  back  to 
E  minor,  the  original  key,  again.  Thus  the 
main  centre  of  the  principal  key  is  supplemented 
by  subordinate  centres;  the  different  notes  of 
the  key  being  used  as  points  of  vantage  from 
which  a  glance  can  be  taken  into  foreign  tonali- 
ties, to  which  they  happen  also  to  belong,  with- 
out losing  the  sense  of  the  principal  key  which 
lies  in  the  background. 

These  transitions  often  occur  in  the  early  part 
of  movements  before  the  principal  key  has  been 
much  insisted  on,  as  if  to  enhance  its  effect  by 
postponement.  Thus  we  find  remarkable  ex- 
amples in  Beethoven's  Introductions,  as  for  in- 
stance in  the  Leonore  Overture  No.  3,  and  in  the 
Introduction  to  the  Quartet  in  C,  Op.  59,  No.  3. 
In  composers  of  note  since  Beethoven,  we  find  a 
determination  to  take  full  advantage  of  the 
effect  of  such  transitions.  Brahms  for  instance 
makes  constant  use  of  them  in  his  instrumental 
works  from  the  earliest  to  the  latest.  The  first 
two  pages  of  the  G  minor  Quartet  for  pianoforte 
and  strings,  shows  at  once  how  various  are  the 
subordinate  centres  of  which  he  makes  use.  In 
a  much  later  work — the  Pianoforte  Quartet  in 
■  C  minor,  op.  60 — he  presents  a  short  version  of 
his  principal  subject  in  the  principal  key,  and 
then  passes  to  Bb  minor,  Db  major,  Eb  minor, 
Ab,  Gb  minor,  and  Bb  major  in  rapid  succession 
before  he  resumes  his  original  key  in  order  to 
propound  his  first  subject  more  fully.  Schumann 
was  equally  free  in  his  use  of  subordinate  modu- 
lations. In  the  fine  intermezzo  of  the  '  Fasch- 
ingsschwank,'  which  has  the  signature  of  Eb 
minor,  the  first  chord  is  in  that  key,  but  the 
second  leads  to  Db  major,  and  a  few  chords 
further  on  we  are  in  Bb  minor,  from  which  an 
abrupt  return  is  made  to  Eb  minor  only  to 
digress  afresh.  Such  are  the  elaborate  transitions 
which  are  developed  by  an  extension  of  the  de- 
vice of  single  transitions  used  so  frequently  by 
Mozart;  and  it  may  be  noted  that  a  closely- 
connected  series  of  transitory  modulations  after 
this  manner,  occupies  in  modem  music  an 
analogous  position  to  that  occupied  by  a  con- 
nected series  of  harmonies,  based  on  quickly- 
shifting  root-notes,  in  the  music  of  a  century  or  a 
century  and  a  half  earlier.      Similarly,  in  the 


MODULATION. 

closely-connected  steps  of  modulation,  like  those 
used  by  Haydn  and  Mozart  between  one  strongly 
marked  expanse  of  key  and  another,  more  modern 
composers  have  packed  their  successions  of  keys 
so  closely  that  it  is  often  a  matter  of  some  diffi- 
culty to  disentangle  them  with  certainty.  For 
instance,  the  passage  in  the  slow  movement  of 
Beethoven's  Bb  Sonata,  op.  106,  just  before 
the  resumption  of  the  principal  key  and  the  first 
subject  (in  variation),  is  as  follows— 


gjf  bJ  I  JbJ'^J      w    ^ 


a    j,    ¥— i±=$=j& 


In  this,  besides  the  number  of  the  transi- 
tions (exceeding  the  number  of  bars  in  the  ex- 
ample), the  steps  by  which  they  proceed  are 
noticeable  with  reference  to  what  was  touched 
upon  above  in  that  respect.  Many  similar  ex- 
amples occur  in  Schumann's  works.  For  in- 
stance, in  the  last  movement  of  his  sonata  in  G 
minor,  where  he  wishes  to  pass  from  Bb  to  G 
major,  to  resume  his  subject,  he  goes  all  the  way 
round  by  Bb  minor,  Gb  major,  Eb  major,  Db 
minor,  Fj,  B,  A,  D,  C  minor,  Bb,  Ab,  and 
thence  at  last  to  G ;  there  is  a  similar  example 
in  the  middle  of  the  first  movement  of  his  Piano- 
forte Quartet  in  Eb  ;  examples  are  also  common 
in  Chopin's  works,  as  for  instance  bars  29  to 


MODULATION. 

32  of  the  Prelude  in  Eb,  No.  19,  in  which  the 
transitions  overlap  in  such  a  way  as  to  recall  the 
devices  of  Haydn  and  Mozart,  though  the  mate- 
rial and  mode  of  expression  are  so  markedly 
distinct. 

From  this  short  survey  it  will  appear  that  the 
direction  of  modern  music  in  respect  of  modula- 
tion has  been  constant  and  uniform.  The 
modern  scales  had  first  to  be  developed  out  of 
the  chaos  of  ecclesiastical  modes,  and  then  they 
had  to  be  systematised  into  keys,  a  process 
equivalent  to  discovering  the  principle  of  modu- 
lation. This  clearly  took  a  long  time  to 
achieve,  since  composers  moved  cautiously  over 
new  ground,  as  if  afraid  to  go  far  from  their 
starting-point,  lest  they  should  not  be  able  to 
find  a  way  back.  Still,  the  invention  of  the 
principle  of  passing  from  one  key  to  another 
led  to  the  discovery  of  the  relations  which 
exist  between  one  key  and  another;  in  other 
words,  of  the  different  degrees  of  musical 
effect  produced  by  their  juxtaposition.  The 
bearings  of  the  more  simple  of  these  rela- 
tions were  first  established,  and  then  those  of 
the  more  remote  and  subtle  ones,  till  the  way 
through  every  note  of  the  scale  to  its  allied  keys 
was  found.  In  the  meanwhile  groups  of  chords 
belonging  to  foreign  keys  were  subtly  inter- 
woven in  the  broader  expanses  of  permanent 
keys,  and  the  principle  was  recognised  that 
different  individual  notes  of  a  key  can  be  taken 
to  represent  subordinate  circles  of  chords  in 
other  keys  of  which  they  form  important  integers, 
without  destroying  the  sense  of  the  principal 
tonality.  Then  as  the  chords  belonging  to  the 
various  groups  called  keys  are  better  and  better 
known,  it  becomes  easier  to  recognise  them  with 
less  and  less  indication  of  their  relations ;  so  that 
groups  of  chords  representing  any  given  tonality 
can  be  constantly  rendered  shorter,  until  at 
length  successions  of  transitory  modulations  make 
their  appearance,  in  which  the  group  of  chords 
representing  a  tonality  is  reduced  to  two,  and 
these  sometimes  not  representing  it  by  any 
means  obviously. 

It  may  appear  from  this  that  we  are  gravi- 
tating back  to  the  chaotic  condition  which 
harmony  represented  in  the  days  before  the 
invention  of  tonality.  But  this  is  not  the  case. 
We  have  gone  through  all  the  experiences  of  the 
key-system,  and  by  means  of  it  innumerable 
combinations  of  notes  have  been  made  intelligible 
which  could  not  otherwise  have  been  so.  The 
key-system  is  therefore  the  ultimate  test  of 
harmonic  combinations,  and  the  ultimate  basis 
of  their  classification,  however  closely  chords 
representing  different  tonalities  may  be  brought 
together.  There  will  probably  always  be  groups 
of  some  extent  which  are  referable  to  one  given 
centre  or  tonic,  and  effects  of  modulation  between 
permanent  keys ;  but  concerning  the  rapidity  with 
which  transitions  may  succeed  one  another,  and 
the  possibilities  of  overlapping  tonalities,  it  is 
not  safe  to  speculate  ;  for  theory  and  analysis  are 
always  more  safe  and  helpful  to  guide  us  to  the 
understanding  of  what  a  great  artist  shows  us 


MOLIQUE. 


351 


when  it  is  done,  than  to  tell  him  beforehand  what 
he  may  or  may  not  do.  [C.  H.H.P.] 

MODULATIONS,  EEGULAR  and  CON- 
CEDED. (Lat.  Modulationes  [yd  Claumlce] 
regulares  et  concessce).  The  Composer  of  a  Plain 
Chaunt  Melody  is  not  permitted  to  begin  or  end, 
even  his  intermediate  phrases,  upon  any  note  he 
pleases.  The  last  phrase  of  every  Melody  must,  of 
necessity,  end  with  the  Final  of  the  Mode  in  which 
it  is  written.  The  first  phrase  must  begin  with 
one  or  other  of  a  certain  set  of  notes  called  the 
Absolute  Initials  of  the  Mode.  The  intermediate 
phrases  can  only  begin,  or  end,  on  one  of  another 
set  of  notes,  called  its  Modulations.  Of  these 
Modulations,  four — the  Final,  Dominant,  Me- 
diant, and  Participant — are  of  more  importance 
than  the  rest,  and  are  therefore  called  Regular. 
But,  as  the  constant  reiteration  of  these  four  notes 
would  prove  intolerably  monotonous,  in  a  Melody 
consisting  of  very  numerous  phrases,  other  notes, 
called  Conceded  Modulations,  are  added  to  them ; 
and,  upon  any  one  of  these,  any  phrase,  except 
the  first,  or  last,  may  either  begin,  or  end. 

A  complete  Table  of  the  Regular  and  Conceded 
Modulations  of  all  the  Modes  will  be  found  in  the 
Article,  Modes,  the  Ecclesiastical.     [W.S.R.] 

MOLINARA,  LA  (Ger.DieschdneMiillerin). 
Opera  by  Paisiello,  produced  at  Naples  in  1 788. 
In  London  at  the  King's  Theatre  Mar.  22,  1803. 
Its  name  is  preserved  by  a  duet,  '  Nel  cor  piu 
non  mi  sento,'  which  has  served  as  the  theme  of 
many  Variations,  amongst  others  of  six  by  Bee- 
thoven. The  autograph  of  the  six  was  headed, 
'  Variazioni  .  .  .  perdute  par  la  .  . .  retrovate  par 
L.v.  B.'  Beethoven  also  wrote  nine  variations  on 
'  Quant'  e  piu  bello,'  an  air  from  the  same  opera. 
A  third  air  from  La  Molinara,  viz.  La  Rachelina, 
is  given  in  the  Musical  Library,  i.  98.  [G.j 

MOLIQUE,  Bebnhard,  celebrated  violinist 
and  composer,  was  born  Oct.  7,  1803,  at  Nurem- 
berg. His  father,  a  member  of  the  town  band, 
at  first  taught  him  several  instruments,  but 
Molique  soon  made  the  violin  his  special  study. 
Spohr,  in  his  Autobiography  (i.  228),  relates  that, 
while  staying  at  Nuremberg,  in  1815,  he  gave 
some  lessons  to  the  boy,  who  already  possessed 
remarkable  proficiency  on  the  instrument.  Mo- 
lique afterwards  went  to  Munich,  and  studied 
for  two  years  under  Rovelli.  After  having 
lived  for  some  time  at  Vienna,  as  member  of 
the  orchestra  of  the  Theater-an-der-Wien,  he 
returned  in  1820  to  Munich,  and  succeeded  his 
master  Rovelli  as  leader  of  the  band.  From 
Munich  he  made  several  tours  through  Germany, 
and  soon  established  his  reputation  as  an  eminent 
virtuoso  and  a  solid  musician.  In  1826  he  ac- 
cepted the  post  of  leader  of  the  Royal  band  at 
Stuttgardt,  and  remained  there  till  1849.  In 
that  year  he  came  to  England,  where  he  spent 
the  remaining  part  of  his  professional  life.  The 
sterling  qualities  of  Molique  as  a  player,  and 
his  sound  musicianship,  soon  procured  him  an 
honourable  position  in  the  musical  world  of 
London.  His  first  appearance  at  the  Philhar- 
monic was  on  May  14,  1849,  when  he  played 


352 


MOLIQUE. 


his  own  A  minor  Concerto.  With  the  general 
public  he  was  equally  successful  as  a  soloist, 
quartet-player  and  teacher,  while  the  serious 
character  and  the  fine  workmanship  of  his  com- 
positions raised  him  high  in  the  estimation  of 
connoisseurs  and  musicians. 

As  an  executant  he  showed  a  rare  perfection 
of  left-hand  technique,  but  his  bowing  appears 
to  have  been  somewhat  wanting  in  breadth  and 
freedom.  His  style  of  playing  was  usually  very 
quiet,  perhaps  deficient  in  animation.  As  a 
composer  he  holds  a  prominent  place  among 
modern  writers  for  the  violin.  The  influence 
of  Spohr  is. evident,  not  only  in  the  character  of 
most  of  his  subjects,  but  also  in  his  manner  of 
treating  and  working  them  out,  yet  some  of  his 
works — especially  the  first  two  movements  of 
his  third  Concerto  in  D  minor,  and  of  the  fifth 
in  A  minor — are  fine  compositions.  The  main 
subjects  are  noble  and  pathetic,  the  form  is 
masterly,  the  working-out  and  the  scoring  full 
of  interest.  On  the  other  hand  they  suffer  in 
effect  by  being  too  much  spun  out,  and  by  being 
overladen  with  somewhat  old-fashioned  and  ex- 
tremely difficult  passages.  His  other  compositions, 
though  evincing  the  same  technical  mastery,  are 
very  inferior  in  interest  to  these  concertos — they 
bear  hardly  any  traces  of  inspiration  and  had  no 
great  or  lasting  success. 

Molique  retired  in  1866  to  Canstadt  near 
Stuttgardt,  where  he  died  in  1869.  His  daugh- 
ter Anna  is  a  good  pianist.  His  principal 
published  works  are  : — 5  Violin-Concertos ;  6 
Quartets  for  stringed  instruments ;  a  Pianoforte 
Trio  ;  a  Symphony  ;  2  Masses,  and  an  Oratorio, 
'  Abraham,'  performed  at  the  Norwich  Fes- 
tival in  i860.  To  these  must  be  added  Duos 
for  two  violins,  and  for  flute  and  violin,  with 
a  number  of  smaller  vocal  and  instrumental 
pieces.  [P.  D.] 

MOLL  and  DUR  are  the  German  terms  for 
Minor  and  Major. 

MONDAY  POPULAR  CONCERTS,  THE, 
were  commenced  on  Monday,  Jan.  3,  1859,  and 
have  now  been  carried  on  for  more  than  twenty 
years  during  the  winter  season  of  each  year.  They 
were  projected  by  Chappell  &  Co.  primarily  with 
the  view  of  benefitting  the  shareholders  of  St. 
James's  Hall,  among  whom  they  themselves,  Cra- 
mer, Beale,  &  Co.,  and  other  friends,  were  largely 
interested ;  and  secondly,  to  provide  concerts  for 
London  during  the  winter.  When  the  experi- 
ment was  first  made,  the  usual  price  of  concert 
tickets  was  half  a  guinea,  and  for  reserved 
seats  fifteen  shillings.  The  larger  area  of 
St.  James's  Hall  allowed  Chappell  &  Co.  to 
try  whether  a  sufficient  audience  might  not  be 
permanently  collected  to  enable  them  to  give  the 
half-guinea  accommodation  for  a  shilling,  and 
the  reserved  seats  for  five  shillings.  The  first 
concerts  were  of  a  miscellaneous  character,  con- 
sisting largely  of  old  ballads  and  well-known  in- 
strumental pieces.  Success  was  then  fluctuating, 
depending  in  a  measure  upon  fine  nights  and 
new  comers  to  make  them  productive.  At  this 
stage  it  wa3  suggested  to  Mr.  Arthur  Chappell 


MONDONVILLE. 

by  an  eminent  musical  critic,  to  try  concerts 
of  classical  chamber-music,  which  could  rarely 
be  heard,  and  thus  to  collect  a  permanent 
audience  from  the  lovers  of  music  resident  in 
London  and  the  suburbs.  Mr.  J.  W.  Davison 
suggested  the  first  six  performances,  which 
were  announced  as  a  Mendelssohn  night,  a 
Mozart  night,  a  Haydn  and  Weber  night,  a  Bee- 
thoven night,  a  second  Mozart  night,  and  a 
second  Beethoven  night.  This  series  produced 
a  small  profit,  but  the  following  evenings  re- 
sulted in  loss.  It  was  then  proposed  to  give 
up  the  experiment,  but  this  was  strenuously 
opposed  both  by  Mr.  Arthur  Chappell,  and  by 
his  friend  and  adviser,  who  has  continuously 
annotated  the  programmes,  and  has  thereby 
contributed  largely  to  the  success.  Two  more 
concerts  were  tried,  which  fortunately  yielded  a 
fair  profit,  and  from  that  time  the  system  has 
been  continued,  and  the  circle  of  music-lovers 
has  been  gradually  expanding.  As  to  the  title 
of  'Monday  Popular  Concerts,'  which  is  still 
continued,  the  following  extract  from  one  of  the 
daily  papers  is  amusing,  and  has  much  truth  in 
it :  '  The  appellation  Popular  Concerts  was 
originally,  in  fact,  an  impudent  misnomer.  Tht 
music  given  was  of  the  most  consistently  un- 
popular  character.  Most  speculators  would  have 
either  altered  the  name  of  the  entertainment  or 
modified  the  selection  of  the  compositions  per- 
formed :  Mr.  Chappell  took  a  bolder  course — he 
changed  the  public  taste.' 

During  the  twenty  years,  the  unprecedented 
number  of  674  performances  have  been  given. 
As  soon  as  the  undertaking  was  fairly  estab- 
lished, it  became  necessary  to  secure  the  services 
of  the  most  celebrated  performers  continuously, 
and  thus  a  considerable  risk  had  to  be  incurred. 
For  instance,  in  1866  Piatti  received  an  offer  of 
a  large  sum  per  annum  for  a  permanent  en- 
gagement abroad,  and  the  like  was  assured  to 
him  here.  The  valuable  services  of  Joachim, 
of  Madame  Schumann,  and  other  great  execu- 
tants who  reside  abroad,  had  to  be  secured  by 
considerable  sums  guaranteed,  to  ensure  yearly 
visits.  Mr.  Arthur  Chappell  has  been  greatly 
assisted  by  the  goodwill  of  all  the  artists  who 
have  appeared  at  the  concerts,  who  have  always 
been  ready  to  sink  their  own  individuality  to 
perfect  the  performance  of  the  music.  The 
artists  feel  that  they  have  a  thoroughly  sympa- 
thetic audience,  and  therefore  take  pleasure  in 
performing  to  them.  Mr.  Arthur  Chappell  has, 
on  his  part,  tried  to  include  in  the  programmes 
music  of  the  highest  standard,  and  has  engaged 
the  greatest  living  artists  to  perform  it.  In 
order  to  avoid  frequent  repetitions  a  pamphlet 
has  been  printed,  giving  the  date  of  every  per- 
formance of  each  work.  Among  these,  very  many 
have  been  heard  in  England  for  the  first  time  at 
these  concerts.  [W.  C] 

MONDONVILLE,  Jean  Joseph  Cassanea 
de,  born  at  Narbonne  Dec.  24,  1711,  died  at 
Belleville  near  Paris  Oct.  8,  1773,  son  of  well- 
born but  poor  parents.  His  taste  for  music  showed . 
itself  early,  and  he  acquired  considerable  powers 


MONDONVILLE. 

of  execution  as  a  violinist.  After  travelling  for 
some  time  he  settled  in  Lille,  where  he  was  well 
received,  and  still  more  so  at  the  Concerts  Spirit- 
uels  in  1737.  Having  achieved  success  in  Paris 
as  a  violinist  and  composer  of  popular  chamber- 
music  and  organ  pieces  (for  BalMtre),  Mondon- 
ville  attempted  the  stage,  but  his  first  opera, 
'Isbe'  (Acad^mie,  April  10,  1742),  failed.  In 
1744  he  succeeded  Gervais  as  Surintendant  de  la 
Chapelle  du  Roi,  and  under  court  patronage  he 
produced,  at  the  Acade"mie  'Le  Carnaval  du 
Parnasse'  (Sept.  23,  1749),  an  ope'ra-ballet  in 
3  acts,  containing  some  graceful  music.  When 
the  contest  between  the  partisans  of  Italian  and 
French  music,  known  as  the  Guerre  des  Bouffons, 
arose  in  1752  in  consequence  of  the  success  of 
'  La  Serva  padrona,'  Mondonville,  a  protege'  of 
Mme.  de  Pompadour,  was  chosen  champion  of 
the  national  school ;  and  his  opera  '  Titon  et 
l'Aurore'  (Jan.  9,  1753)  owed  its  success  largely 
to  this  circumstance.  'Daphnis  et  Alcimadura' 
(Dec.  29,  1754),  a  pastoral  in  the  Langue  d'Oc, 
in  which  he  introduced  many  Provencal  airs, 
completed  his  popularity ;  and  of  this  he  made 
use  to  procure  his  appointment  as  director  of  the 
Concerts  Spirituels.  That  post  he  occupied  for 
seven  years  (1755-62),  showing  great  ability 
both  as  an  administrator  and  conductor,  and 
producing  at  the  Concerts  with  much  success 
three  short  oratorios,  'Les  Israelites  au  Mont 
Oreb,'  '  Les  Fureurs  de  Saul,'  and  '  Les  Titans.' 
'  Les  FStes  de  Paphos '  (May  9, 1 758),  originally 
written  for  Mme.  de  Pompadour's  private  theatre, 
was  the  only  opera  performed  at  the  Academie 
during  the  same  period.  His  last  operas, '  These'e ' 
(1767)  and  'Psyche"  (1769,  a  mere  adaptation 
of  the  3rd  act  of '  Les  Fetes  de  Paphos '),  were 
unsuccessful. 

There  is  a  good  portrait  of  Mondonville  in 
pastel  by  Latour,  now  in  the  possession  of  M. 
Ambroise  Thomas.  The  physiognony  is  that  of 
a  man.  cunning,  patient,  and  fond  of  money ;  the 
arch  of  the  eyebrows  indicating  a  musician  gifted 
with  melody,  and  a  good  memory.  He  holds  a 
violin  in  his  hand ;  possibly  a  hint  from  the 
artist  that  posterity  would  rank  the  virtuoso  and 
conductor  higher  than  the  composer.  However 
this  may  be,  his  music  has  long  been  forgotten. 

His  son  (born  in  Paris,  1748,  died  there  1808), 
had  some  reputation  as  a  violinist  and  oboist.  [G.C.] 

MONFERRINA,  a  dance  of  the  Monferrate 
of  Piedmont.  It  is  a  kind  of  country  dance. 
One  of  the  few  specimens  which  we  have  suc- 
ceeded in  finding  is  the  composition  of  Signor 
Piatti,  and  begins  as  follows : — 


MONK. 


853 


MONIUSZKO,  Stanislaus,  born  May  5,1819, 
in  Lithuania,  received  his  first  musical  instruction 
from  Aug.  Freyer  in  Warsaw,  and  in  1837  went 
to  Berlin,  where  he  became  a  pupil  of  Rungen- 
hagen  for  three  years.  He  first  came  into  notice 
VOL.  U. 


as  a  composer  through  his  opera  '  Halka,'  given 
in  Warsaw  1858,  by  means  of  which  he  obtained 
the  post  of  Kapellmeister.  He  afterwards  wrote 
two  other  operas,  '  Die  Grafin '  and  '  Der  Paria,' 
and  several  masses ;  also  a  fantasia '  Das  Winter- 
marchen,'  and  several  books  of  songs.  He  died 
in  1872.  [JA..F.M.] 

MONK,  Edwin  George,  Mus.  Doc,  born  at 
Frome,  Somerset,  Dec.  13,  18 19,  was  initiated  in 
music  by  his  father,  an  amateur.  He  studied  piano- 
forte playing  at  Bath  under  Henry  Field,  and  organ 
playing  under  George  Field.  He  then  went  to 
London  and  learned  choral  singing  in  Hullah's 
classes,  and  solo  singing  from  Henry  Phillips. 
After  holding  several  appointments  as  organist 
in  his  native  county  he  went  to  Ireland  in  1844, 
and  became  organist  and  music  master  of  the 
newly-formed  College  of  St.  Columba,  and  at  the 
same  date  commenced  the  study  of  harmony  and 
composition  under  Mr.  G.  A.  Macfarren,  whose 
invaluable  teaching  he  enjoyed  for  several  years. 
In  1847  he  settled  in  Oxford,  and  was  concerned 
in  the  formation  of  •  The  University  Motett  and 
Madrigal  Society.'  In  1848  he  obtained  the 
appointments  of  lay  precentor,  organist  and  music 
master  at  the  new  College  of  St.  Peter,  Radley, 
and  graduated  as  Mus.  Bac.  at  Oxford.  In  1856 
he  proceeded  Mus.  Doc.,  his  exercise  being  a 
selection  from  Gray's  ode,  'The  Bard,'  which  he 
published  in  the  same  year  in  vocal  score.  In 
1859  he  was  appointed  successor  to  Dr.  Camidge 
as  organist  and  choirmaster  of  York  Cathedral. 
He  has  published  a  service,  several  anthems,  a 
'Veni  Creator  Spiritus,'  and  other  pieces,  and 
various  secular  compositions,  and  has  edited  '  The 
Anglican  Chant  Book '  and  '  The  Anglican 
Choral  Service  Book';  also,  with  the  Rev.  R. 
Corbet  Singleton,  '  The  Anglican  Hymn  Book,' 
and,  with  Sir  F.  A.  G.  Ouseley, '  The  Psalter  and 
Canticles  pointed  for  chanting '  (two  series),  and 

*  Anglican  Psalter  Chants.'  He  is  the  compiler 
of  the  libretti  of  Professor  Macfarren's  oratorios, 

•  St.  John  the  Baptist,'  '  The  Resurrection,'  and 
•Joseph.'  [W.H.H.] 

MONK,  William  Henbt  (no  relation  to  the 
preceding),  was  born  in  London  in  1823.  'He 
considers  that  his  first  musical  impressions  of  any 
value  were  derived  from  the  performances  of  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society,  at  which,  for  many 
years,  he  was  a  constant  attendant.'  He  studied 
under  Thomas  Adams,  J.  A.  Hamilton,  and  G. 
A.  Griesbach.  After  filling  the  office  of  organist 
at  Eaton  Chapel,  Pimlico ;  St.  George's  Chapel, 
Albemarle  Street  ;  and  Portman  Chapel,  St. 
Marylebone,  he  was  appointed  in  1847  director  of 
the  choir  in  King's  College,  London,  and  in  1849 
organist.  In  1874,  upon  the  resignation  of 
Mr.  John  Hullah,  he  became  Professor  of  Vocal 
Music  in  the  College.  He  was  early  associated 
with  Mr.  Hullah  in  his  great  work  of  popular 
musical  education.  In  1851  he  became  Professor 
of  Music  at  the  School  for  the  Indigent  Blind. 
In  1852  he  was  appointed  organist  of  St.  Matthias, 
Stoke  Newington,  where  a  voluntary  choir,  under 
his  direction,  has  ever  since  sustained  a  daily 
A  a 


854 


MONK. 


choral  service.  He  has  delivered  lectures  on 
music  at  the  London  Institution  (1850  to  1854), 
the  Philosophical  Institution,  Edinburgh,  and 
the  Royal  Institution,  Manchester.  He  was  ap- 
pointed a  professor  in  the  National  Training 
School  for  Music,  1876,  and  in  Bedford  College, 
London,  1878.  He  was  musical  editor  of  'The 
Parish  Choir '  after  the  tenth  number,  and  one 
of  the  musical  editors  of  '  Hymns  Ancient  and 
Modern.'  He  has  edited  many  other  works  of  a 
similar  character,  including  some  for  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  and  has  made  various  contributions 
to  many  of  the  modern  Hymnals.  [W.H.H.] 

MONOCHORD  (p6vos  single,  and  x°P^h  a 
string),  an  instrument  consisting  of  a  long  box 
of  thin  wood  with  a  bridge  fixed  at  each  end, 
over  which  is  stretched  a  wire  or  catgut  string. 
A  moveable  bridge  is  placed  on  the  box  and 
serves  to  stop  off  different  lengths  of  string,  in 
order  to  compare  the  relative  pitch  of  the  sounds 
they  produce. 

The  monochord  is  said  to  have  been  invented 
by  Pythagoras,  in  the  6th  century  B.C.,  but  he 
more  probably  learnt  the  use  of  it  in  Egypt. 
The  principle  of  dividing  a  string  to  obtain 
different  sounds  was  applied  in  the  Egyptian 
lute  earlier  than  3000  B.C.  according  to  Lepsius. 
Euclid,  writing  in  the  4th  century  B.C.,  and 
Claudius  Ptolemy  in  the  2nd  century  a.d.,  make 
use  of  the  monochord  to  define  the  intervals  of 
the  ancient  Greek  scale ;  and  the  later  musical 
system  of  the  Persians  and  Arabs  is  described 
by  Abdul  Kadir  in  the  14th  century  by  means 
of  a  similar  instrument.1  The  Helikon  was  like 
the  monochord,  but  had  several  strings.  It 
was  much  used  in  the  middle  ages  for  teaching 
just  intonation  in  singing. 

For  measuring  relative  or  actual  pitch  to  any 
high  degree  of  accuracy  the  monochord  is  now 
superseded  by  Scheibler's  tuning-fork  Tono- 
meter, and  by  the  Siren  as  improved  by 
M.  Cavailld-CoU.  Those  who  wish  to  construct 
a  monochord  will  find  the  best  directions  in 
Perronet  Thompson's  'Just  Intonation,'  p.  71. 

MONODIA.  (From  the  Gr.  fi6vos,  single,  and 
a'5ij,  a  Song.)  A  term  applied,  by  modern 
critics,  to  music  written  in  what  is  sometimes 
called  the  Homophonic  Style :  that  is  to  say, 
music,  in  which  the  Melody  is  confined  to  a 
single  part,  instead  of  being  equally  distributed 
between  all  the  Voices  employed,  as  in  the  Poly- 
phonic Schools. 

The  rise  of  the  Homophonic  School  was  extra- 
ordinarily rapid.  Soon  after  the  death  of  Pales- 
trina,  in  the  year  1594,  it  sprang  suddenly  into 
notice ;  and,  without  having  previously  passed 
through  any  of  the  usual  stages  of  gradual  de- 
velopment, at  once  began  to  exercise  an  irresistible 
influence  upon  the  progress  of  Art. 

Giov.  Battista  Doni  tells  us,  that,  at  the  cele- 
brated reunions  which  took  place  in  Florence, 
about  the  close  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  at  the 
house  of  Sig.  Giov.  Bardi  de'  Conti  di  Vernio, 
'Vincenzo  Galilei  was  the  first  who  composed 

1  See  Helmholtz,  '  Sensations  of  Tone.'  pp.  430-7' 


MONODIA 

songs  for  a  single  voice ' :  and,  that  Giulio  Caccini, 
(detto  Romano),  '  in  imitation  of  Galilei,  but  in  a 
more  beautiful  and  pleasing  style,  set  many 
canzonets  and  sonnets  written  by  excellent  poets' ; 
and  sang  them  'to  a  single  instrument,  which 
was  generally  the  theorbo,  or  large  lute,  played  by 
2Bardilla.'  [See  Caccini,  Giulio.]  The  success 
of  these  early  efforts  was  so  encouraging,  that 
the  inventors  of  the  Opera  and  the  Oratorio 
were  content  to  write  the  whole  of  their  Recita- 
tives, and  even  the  rudimentary  Arias  with  which 
they  were  interspersed,  with  no  richer  accompani- 
ment than  that  of  an  exceedingly  Bimple  figured 
bass,  in  which  we  soon  find  indications  of  the 
unprepared  discords  first  introduced  by  Monte- 
verde.  The  use  of  these  discords  inevitably  led 
to  the  repudiation  of  the  Antient  Ecclesiastical 
Modes,  in  favour  of  the  modern  Major  and  Minor 
Scales;  and,  these  scales  once  established,  the 
new  system  was  complete.  No  doubt,  unisonous 
vocal  music,  with  little  or  no  accompaniment, 
had  been  heard,  in  the  Canzonetta,  Villanella, 
and  other  forms  of  national  melody,  ages  and 
ages  before  the  birth  of  Galilei ;  and  that  the 
recognition  of  what  we  now  call  the  '  Leading 
Note '  as  an  essential  element  of  Melody  was  no 
new  thing,  may  be  gathered  from  the  words  of 
Zarlino,  who,  writing  in  1558,  says  'even 
Nature  herself  has  provided  for  these  things; 
for,  not  only  those  skilled  in  music,  but  also  the 
Contadini,  who  sing  without  any  Art  at  all, 
proceed  by  the  interval  of  the  semitone ' — i.  e. 
in  forming  their  closes.  Nevertheless,  whatever 
may  have  been  the  popular  practice,  it  is  certain 
that  the  Polyphonic  Style  alone  had  hitherto  been 
taught  in  the  Schools.  We  must  understand, 
therefore,  that  those  who  met  at  the  house  of 
Bardi,  though  undoubtedly  the  first  to  introduce 
this  simple  music  to  real  lovers  of  Art,  were  not 
its  actual  inventors.  The  latent  germs  of  the 
Monodic  Style  must  have  been  present  wherever 
National  Melody  existed. 

The  following  example,  from  Caccini's  '  Nuove 
Musiche'  (Venezia,  1602),  will  shew  the  kind  of 
effect  contemplated  by  the  Count  of  Vernio's 
enthusiastic  disciples.  We  need  scarcely  say, 
that  the  figure  14,  under  the  last  D,  in  the  last 
bar  but  one,  indicates  a  Dominant  Seventh  :  but, 
before  this  Canzonetta  was  published,  Monte- 
verde  had  already  printed  his  Fifth  Book  of 
Madrigals ;  he  would  not,  therefore,  be  robbed 
of  any  portion  of  the  credit  universally  accorded 
to  him,  even  if  it  could  be  proved — which  it 
cannot— that  the  Discord,  in  this  instance,  was 
not  intended  to  appear  as  a  Passing-note.  The 
Seventh  on  the  E,  in  the  third  bar,  is,  of  course, 
a  Suspension,  written  in  strict  accordance  with 
the  laws  of  antient  counterpoint.     [See  Monte- 

VERDE,  CLAUDIO.] 


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Poor  as  this  seems,  when  compared  with  the 
delightful  Madrigals  it  was  intended  to  supplant, 
it  nevertheless  already  shews  traces  of  a  new 
element,  destined  to  work  one  of  the  most  sweep- 
ing revolutions  known  in  the  history  of  Art.  In 
exchange  for  the  contrapuntal  glories  of  the  Six- 
teenth Century,  the  Composers  of  the  Seventeenth 
offered  the  graces  of  symmetrical  form,  till  then 
unknown.  The  idea  was  not  thrown  away  upon 
their  successors.  Before  very  long,  symmetrical 
form  was  cultivated  in  association  with  a  new 
system,  not  of  counterpoint,  as  it  is  sometimes 
erroneously  called,  but  of  part-writing,  based 
upon  the  principles  of  modern  harmony,  and 
eminently  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  instru- 
mental music :  and,  thus,  to  such  slight  indications 
of  regular  phrasing,  reiterated  figure,  and  pre- 
arranged plan,  as  are  shewn  in  Caccini's  unpre- 
tending little  Aria,  we  are  indebted  for  the  germ 
of  much  that  delights  us  in  the  grandest  creations 
of  modern  Genius.  [See  Form,  Harmony, 
Opera,  Oratorio.]  [W.S.R.] 

MONOTONE  (from  iiovos,  single,  and  tovos, 
a  note,  or  tone).  Prayers,  Psalms,  Lessons,  and 
other  portions  of  the  Divine  Office,  when  de- 
claimed on  a  single  note,  are  said  to  be  mono- 
toned, or  recited  in  Monotone.  It  is  only  when 
ornamented  with  the  traditional  inflections  proper 
to  certain  parts  of  the  Service,  that  they  can  be 
consistently  described  as  sung.     [See  Accents.] 

The  use  of  Monotonic  Recitation  is  of  extreme 
antiquity;  and  was  probably  suggested,  in  the 
first  instance,  as  an  expedient  for  throwing  the 
voice  to  greater  distances  than  it  could  be  made 
to  reach  by  ordinary  means.  [W.  S.  R.] 

MONPOU,  Francois  Loois  Hippolyte,  born 
in  Paris,  Jan.  12,  1804;  at  5  became  a  chorister 
at  St.  Germain  l'Auxerrois,  and  at  9  was  trans- 
ferred to  Notre  Dame.  In  181 7  he  entered  as  a 
pupil  in  the  school  founded  by  Choron,  which  he 
left  in  1 81 9  to  be  the  organist  at  the  Cathedral 
at  Tours.  For  this  post  he  proved  unfit,  and 
soon  returned  to  Choron,  who  was  extremely  fond 
of  him,  and  made  him,  although  a  bad  reader, 
and  a  poor  pianist,  his  accompagnateur  (or  assist- 
ant) at  his  Institution  de  Musique  religieuse. 
Here  he  had  the  opportunity  of  studying  the 


works  of  ancient  and  modern  composers  of  all 
schools,  while  taking  lessons  in  harmony  at  the 
same  time  from  Porta,  Chelard,  and  Fe"tis  ;  but 
notwithstanding  all  these  advantages  he  showed 
little  real  aptitude  for  music,  and  seemed  des- 
tined to  remain  in  obscurity.  He  was  organist 
successively  at  St.  Nicolas  des  Champs,  St. 
Thomas  d'Aquin,  and  the  Sorbonne,  and  sacred 
music  appeared  to  be  his  special  vocation  until 
1828,  when  he  published  a  pretty  nocturne  for 
3  voices  to  Beranger's  song,  'Si  j'e"tais  petit 
oiseau.'  He  was  now  taken  up  by  the  poets  of 
the  romantic  school,  and  became  their  musical 
interpreter,  publishing  in  rapid  succession  ro- 
mances and  ballads  to  words  chiefly  by  Alfred 
de  Musset  and  Victor  Hugo.  The  harmony  of 
these  songs  is  incorrect,  the  rhythm  rude  and 
halting,  and  the  arrangement  wretched,  but  the 
general  effect  is  bold  and  striking,  and  they 
contain  much  original  melody.  Backed  as  the 
composer  was  by  influential  friends,  these  qualities 
were  sufficient  to  attract  public  attention,  and 
ensure  success.  But  though  he  was  the  oracle  of 
the  romanticists,  Monpou  found  himself  after  the 
close  of  Choron' s  school  without  regular  employ- 
ment, and  being  a  married  man  found  it  neces- 
sary to  have  some  certain  means  of  support.  The 
stage  seemed  to  offer  the  best  chance  of  fortune, 
and  though  entirely  unpractised  in  instrumen- 
tation, he  unhesitatingly  came  forward  as  a 
composer  of  operas.  Within  a  few  years  he  pro- 
duced 'Les  deuxReines'  (Aug.  6,  1835);  'Le 
Luthier  de  Vienne '  (June  30,  1836) ;  '  Piquillo' 
3  acts  (Oct.  31,  1837);  'Un  Conte  d' Autrefois ' 
(Feb.  20,  1838);  '  Perugina'  (Dec.  20,  1838); 
'Le  Planteur,'  2  acts  (March  1,  1839);  'La 
chaste  Suzanne,'  4  acts  (Dec.  27,  1839) ;  and 
'La  Reine  Jeanne,'  3  acts  (Oct.  12,  1840). 
These  operas  bear  evident  traces  of  the  self- 
sufficient  and  ignorant  composer  of  romances, 
the  slovenly  and  incorrect  musician,  and  the  poor 
instrumentalist  which  we  know  Monpou  to  have 
been ;  but  quite  as  apparent  are  melody,  dramatic 
fire  and  instinct,  and  a  certain  happy  knack. 
His  progress  was  undeniable,  but  he  never  be- 
came a  really  good  musician.  Unfortunately  he 
overworked  himself,  and  the  effort  to  produce 
with  greater  rapidity  than  his  powers  would 
justify,  resulted  in  his  premature  death.  Being 
seriously  ill  he  was  ordered  to  leave  Paris,  but 
he  became  worse,  and  died  at  Orleans  Aug.  10, 
1 841.  He  left  unfinished  'Lambert  Simnel' 
(Sept.  16,  1843),  completed  by  Adolphe  Adam, 
and  a  short  opera-comique,  'L'Orfevre,'  which  has 
never  been  performed.  [G.C.] 

MONRO,  Henry,  bom  at  Lincoln  in  1774, 
was  a  chorister  in  the  cathedral  there,  and  after- 
wards a  pupil  of  John  James  Ashley,  Dussek, 
Dittenhofer  and  Domenico  Corri.  In  1796  he 
was  appointed  organist  of  St.  Andrew's,  New- 
castle-upon-Tyne. He  composed  a  sonata  for 
pianoforte  and  violin,  and  a  few  pianoforte  pieces 
and  songs.  [W.  H.H.J 

MONSIGNY,    Pierre    Alexandre,    whom 
Choron  used  to  call  the  French  Sacchini,  bom 
Aa2 


856 


MONSIGNY. 


at  Fauquembergue  near  St.  Omer,  Oct.  17, 1729, 
showed  a  taste  for  music  in  childhood,  and 
studied  the  violin  with  success,  though  not  in- 
tended for  the  profession  of  music.  His  father 
died  just  as  he  had  completed  his  classical  educa- 
tion, and  wishing  to  help  his  family,  Monsigny 
went  to  Paris  in  1 749,  and  obtained  a  clerkship 
in  the  Bureaux  des  Comptes  du  Clerge.  Having 
good  patrons,  for  his  family  was  a  noble  one, 
and  being  well-educated,  refined  in  manners, 
and  a  skilful  violinist,  he  was  soon  attached  to 
the  household  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans  as  maitre 
d'hotel,  with  a  salary  which  placed  him  above 
want,  and  enabled  him  to  provide  for  his  younger 
brothers.  He  then  resumed  his  musical  studies, 
and  Pergolese's  '  Serva  Padrona '  having  inspired 
him  with  a  vehement  desire  to  compose  a  comic 
opera,  he  took  lessons  from  Gianotti,  who  played 
the  double-bass  at  the  Opera  and  taught  har- 
mony on  Rameau's  system.  He  was  a  good 
teacher,  and  his  pupil  made  so  much  progress 
that  it  is  said  Gianotti  would  not  have  been 
averse  to  putting  his  own  name  on  the  score  of 
'Les  Aveux  indiscrets'  which  Monsigny  sub- 
mitted to  him  after  only  five  months'  tuition,  and 
which  at  once  established  his  fame  when  pro- 
duced at  the  Theatre  de  la  Foire  (Feb.  7,  1759). 
Encouraged  by  this  first  success  he  composed  for 
the  same  theatre,  'Le  Maitre  en  droit'  (Feb.  13, 
1760),  and  'Le  Cadi  dupe '  (Feb.  4. 1761),  which 
contains  an  animated  and  truly  comic  duet.  His 
next  opera,  'On  ne  s'avise  jamais  de  tout'  (Sept. 
14,  1 761),  was  the  first  in  which  he  had  the 
advantage  of  a  libretto  by  Sedaine,  and  the  last 
performed  at  the  Theatre  de  la  Foire,  before  it 
was  closed  at  the  request  of  the  artists  of  the 
Come'die  Italienne,  in  fear  of  the  new  com- 
poser's increasing  reputation.  After  the  fusion 
of  the  two  companies  Monsigny  composed  suc- 
cessively '  Le  Roi  et  le  Fermier,'  3  acts  (Nov.  22, 
1762);  'Rose  et  Colas,'  1  act  (March  8,  1764); 
'Aline,  Reine  de  Golconde*  3  acts,  (April.  15, 
1 766)  ;  '  L'lle  sonnante,'  3  acts  (Jan.  4.  1 768) ; 
'  Le  Deserteur,'  3  acts  (March  6,  1 769)  ;  '  Le 
Faucon,'  1  act  (March  19,  1772);  'La  belle 
Arsene,'  3  acts  (Aug.  14,  i775)>  'Le  rendez- 
vous bien  employe",'  1  act  (Feb.  10,  1774);  and 
'  Felix  ou  l'enfant  trouveV  3  acts  (Nov.  24, 
1777).  After  the  immense  success  of  this  last 
work  he  never  composed  again.  He  had  acquired 
a  considerable  fortune  as  steward  to  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  and  Inspector-general  of  canals,  but  the 
Revolution  deprived  him  of  his  employment, 
and  of  nearly  all  his  resources.  However  in 
1 798  the  socie'taires  of  the  Opera-Comique  came 
to  his  assistance,  and  in  recognition  of  his  services 
to  the  theatre,  allowed  him  an  annuity  of  2,400 
francs  (nearly  £100).  On  the  death  of  Piccinni 
two  years  later,  he  was  appointed  Inspector  of 
Instruction  at  the  Conservatoire  de  Musique, 
but  he  resigned  in  1802,  being  aware  that  he 
could  not  adequately  perform  the  duties  of  the 
office,  from  his  own  insufficient  training.  In 
1 81 3  he  succeeded  Gre"try  at  the  Institut ;  but  it 
was  not  till  18 16  that  he  received  the  Legion  of 
Honour.     He  died  Jan.  14,  18 17,  aged  88,  his 


MONTE. 

last  years  being  soothed  by  constant  testimonies 
of  sympathy  and  respect. 

As  an  artist  Monsigny's  greatest  gift  was 
melody.  His  desultory  training  accounts  for  the 
poverty  of  his  instrumentation,  and  for  the  ab- 
sence of  that  ease,  plasticity,  and  rapidity  of 
treatment,  which  are  the  most  charming  attri- 
butes of  genius.  He  was  not  prolific  ;  and  either 
from  fatigue,  or  from  a  dread  of  an  encounter 
with  Gre"try,  he  ceased  to  compose  immediately 
after  his  greatest  triumph  ;  his  exquisite  sensi- 
bility, and  his  instinct  for  dramatic  truth,  have 
however  secured  him  a  place  among  original  and 
creative  musicians.  [G.C.] 

MONTAGNANA,  Antonio,  is  the  name  of 
a  celebrated  basso,  who  appeared  in  England  in 
the  autumn  of  1731.  He  made  his  debut  on  tha 
London  boards  in  '  Poro '  (revived) ;  and  in 
January,  1732,  he  created  the  bass  r61e  in 
'  Ezio,'  Handel  having  written  specially  for 
him  the  famous  song  '  Nasce  al  bosco,'  which  is 
composed  on  a  different  plan  from  most  of  his 
other  bass  songs,  and  was  clearly  intended  to 
exhibit  the  peculiar  powers  of  the  singer.  This 
opera  was  followed  by  'Sosarme,'  in  which 
Montagnana  had  again  an  air  'Era  l'ombre  e 
rorrori,'  in  which  the  depth,  power,  and  mel- 
low quality  of  his  voice,  and  his  rare  accuracy 
of  intonation  in  hitting  distant  and  difficult 
intervals,  were  displayed  to  full  advantage.  In 
the  same  year  he  sang  in  Handel's  'Acis,'  a 
revival  of  '  Alessandro,'  'Flavio,'  'Coriolano,' 
and  in  'Esther.'  In  1733  Montagnana  took 
part  in  'Deborah,'  'Tolomeo,'  'Ottone,'  'Or- 
lando,' and  'Athaliah'  (at  Oxford).  In  'Or- 
lando '  he  had  another  very  difficult  song  com- 
posed expressly  for  him,  '  Sorge  infausta,'  which 
has  remained  a  trial  of  compass  and  execution, 
since  his  day,  for  the  most  accomplished  bassi. 

In  the  following  year,  however,  Montagnana 
seceded,  with  Senesino  and  Cuzzoni,  to  the  Thea- 
tre in  Lincoln' s-Inn-Fields,  under  the  direction 
of  Porpora;  and  here  he  appeared  in  'Onorio'  by 
that  master,  and  other  pieces.  In  1735  and  36 
he  was  still  with  Porpora,  singing  in  his  '  Polifemo,' 
and  the  'Adriano '  of  Veracini.  In  January,  1738, 
he  returned  to  his  allegiance  to  Handel,  singing 
in  'Faramondo'  then  first  produced,  'La  Con- 
quista  del  Velio  d'Oro,'  and  '  Serse.'  After  this 
we  hear  no  more  of  Montagnana.  [J.M.] 

MONTE,  Philippe  or  Filippo  de,  and  some- 
times Philippe  de  Mons,  born  probably  in  1521 
or  22,1  traditionally  at  Mons,  but  according  to 
Dlabacz  at  Mechlin.8  As  to  his  history  we 
gain  little  by  consulting  old  authorities,  as  Bois- 
sart,3  Bullart,4  Freher,5  Sweertius*  etc.,  and  are 
told  as  much  by  the  title-pages  of  Philippe's  own 

1  Padeler's  portrait,  the  single  authority  for  this  date,  gives  Phi- 
lippe's age  as  72  In  1594. 

J  'Allgem.  hlstor.  Kttnstler  Lex.  fur  BOhmen.,'  4to. -(Prag.  1815). 
Dlabacz  founds  his  statement  on  a  list  of  the  imperial  chapel  dated 
1582.  For  a  full  discussion  of  the  subject  see  Fetis'  Biographie.  under 
'  Philippe  de  Mons." 

3  Boissardus, '  Icones  Vlror.  Illustr.,'  pars  3.  p.  32  (1593). 

*  Bui  '.art, '  Academle  des  Sciences,'  etc,  toL  ii.  bk.  4.  p.  299  (Bru» 
elles  1682). 

5  Freherl,  "Theatrum  vlr.  clarorum '  (Nuremberg  1688). 

«  Sweertius, '  Athenje  Belgictt,"  p.  645  (Antwerp  1628). 


'     MONTE. 

publications.  Bullart,  however,  gives  a  portrait 
of  the  composer,  after  Sadeler,  which  is  well 
worth  seeing,  and  much  superior  to  the  smaller 
copies  of  it  in  Boissart  and  Hawkins.  Elisabeth 
Weston's  poem,1  often  referred  to  in  biographies 
of  Philippe,  gives  no  information  at  all. 

De  Monte  published  his  1st  book  of  Masses 
at  Antwerp  in  1 557»3  just  at  the  end  of  Lassus's 
residence  in  that  city,  and  we  may  safely  credit 
the  common  tradition  of  a  friendship  existing 
between  the  two  composers.  It  was  probably  on 
Orlando's  recommendation  that  Philippe  was 
called  to  Vienna,  May  I,  1568,  to  become  Maxi- 
milian's Chapelmaster.  Rudolph  II,  the  next 
emperor,  moved  his  court  to  Prague,  and  thither 
Philippe  followed  him.  Thus  we  find  him 
dating  from  Vienna  April  15,  1569,3  and  from 
Prague  Sept.  20,  l^So/and  Oct.  10,  1587.8 

M.  Fe"tis  gives  interesting  details  of  de  Monte's 
appointment  as  treasurer  and  canon  of  the  cathe- 
dral at  Cambrai,  a  benefice  which  he  apparently 
held  without  residence.  He  resigned  these  ap- 
pointments early  in  1603,  and  died  on  July  4th 
of  the  same  year.6 

De  Monte  published  over  30  books  of  madri- 
gals— 19  books  a  5,  8  a  6,  and  4  a  4.*  8  books 
of  these  in  the  British  Museum  contain  163  nos., 
bo  we  may  assume  that  630  madrigals  were 
printed,  not  to  speak  of  many  others  contributed 
to  collections.  His  sacred  publications  (2  books 
of  masses,  and  6  of  motets)  seem  comparatively 
few,  but  he  would  scarcely  find  at  the  imperial 
court  the  same  encouragement  to  write,  or  assist- 
ance to  publish  such  works,  as  fell  to  the  lot  of 
his  contemporaries  at  Rome  and  Munich.  Of 
modern  reprints,  Hawkins  contributes  a  madri- 
gal a  4,  Dehn  and  Commer  a  motet  each,  and 
Van  Maldeghem  some  nos.  in  his  Tre"sor  Musi- 
cal. [J.R.S.-B.] 

MONTEVERDE,  Claudio,  the  originator  of 
the  Modern  style  of  Composition,  was  born  at 
Cremona  in  the  year  1568;  and,  at  a  very  early 
period,  entered  the  service  of  the  Duke  of  Man- 
tua as  a  Violist ;  shewing,  from  the  first,  un- 
mistakeable  signs  of  a  talent  which  gave  good 
promise  of  future  excellence,  and  which,  before 
long,  met  with  cordial  recognition,  not  only  at 
the  Ducal  Court,  but  from  end  to  end  of  Europe. 

The  youthful  Violist  was  instructed  in  counter- 
point by  the  Duke's  Maestro  di  capella,  Marc 
Antonio  Ingegneri ;  a  learned  Musician,  and  a 
Composer  of  some  eminence,  who,  if  we  may 
judge  by  the  result  of  his  teaching,  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  blessed,  in  this  instance,  with 
a  very  attentive  pupil.  It  is,  indeed,  difficult  to 
believe  that  Monteverde  can  ever  have  taken 

1  From  the  '  rarthenlcon,'  by  E.  J.  Weston,  '  ex  famllia  Westonio- 
rum  Angla'  (l'raga,  Aug.  16, 1810).  The  poem  In  Philippe's  honour 
consists  of  46  Latin  lines. 

2  Mlssarum  a  5,  C,  S,  lib.  i.  (Antwerp  15S7).  This  on  the  authority 
of  Fi-tls. 

»  See  Alto  copy  oi  2nd  book  of  6-part  Madrigals  (Venice  1569),  in  Brit. 
Mus. 

«  9th  book  of  Madrigals  (a  5)  (Venice  1S80),  in  Brit.  Mus. 

'  Sacrar.  Cantiouum,  lib.  li.  (Venice  15e7),  in  Brit.  Mus. 

«  For  this  date,  and  that  of  the  Vienna  appointment,  see  Eltner, 
'  Verzeichniss  neuer  Ausgaben'  (Berlin,  Trautweln,  1871). 

1  litis  speaks  of  the  19th  book.  The  British  Museum  has  the  14th. 
1'Yt  is  mentions  no  4-part  Madrigals ;  but  the  Catalogue  of  the 
Bibliotheque  F  Otis  contains  'Di  li.  di.  M.  il  4°.  lib.  di  Mad.  a  4." 


MONTEVERDE. 


857 


any  real  interest  in  the  study  of  Scholastic  Music. 
Contrapuntal  excellence  was  not  one  of  his  strong 
points ;  and  he  never  shines  to  advantage  in 
Music  in  which  it  is  demanded.  His  first  pub- 
lished work — a  Book  of '  Canzonette  a  tre  voci,' 
printed,  at  Venice,  in  1584 — though  clever  enough 
for  a  youth  of  sixteen,  abounds  in  irregularities 
which  no  teacher  of  that  period  could  have  con- 
scientiously endorsed.  And  the  earlier  books  of 
Madrigals,  by  which  the  Canzonette  were  followed, 
shew  no  progressive  improvement  in  this  respect, 
but  rather  the  reverse.  The  beauty  of  some  of 
these  Compositions  is  of  a  very  high  order; 
yet  it  is  constantly  marred  by  unpleasant  pro- 
gressions which  can  only  have  been  the  result 
of  pure  carelessness ;  for  it  would  be  absurd  to 
suppose  that  such  evil-sounding  combinations 
could  have  been  introduced  deliberately,  and 
equally  absurd  to  assume  that  Ingegneri  neg- 
lected to  enforce  the  rules  by  the  observance 
of  which  they  might  have  been  avoided.  We 
must,  however,  draw  a  careful  distinction  be- 
tween these  faulty  passages  and  others  of  a  very 
different  character,  which,  though  they  must 
have  been  thought  startling  enough,  at  the  time 
they  were  written,  can  only  be  regarded,  now,  as 
unlearned  attempts  to  reach,  per  saltam,  that 
new  and  as  yet  unheard-of  style  of  beauty,  for 
which  the  young  Composer  was  incessantly  long- 
ing, and  to  which  alone  he  owes  his  undoubted 
claim  to  be  revered,  not  only  as  the  greatest 
Musician  of  his  own  age,  but,  as  the  inventor  of 
a  System  of  Harmony  which  has  remained  in 
uninterrupted  use  to  the  present  day.  Among 
progressions  of  this  latter  class  we  may  instance  the 
numerous  Suspensions  of  the  Dominant  Seventh, 
and  its  Inversions,  introduced  into  the  Cadences 
of  Stracciami  pur  il  core — an  extremely  beautiful 
Madrigal,  published  in  the  Third  Book  (1594). 
Also,  an  extraordinary  chain  of  suspended 
Sevenths  and  Ninths,  in  the  same  interesting 
work ;  which,  notwithstanding  the  harshness  of 
its  effect,  is  really  free  from  anything  approach- 
ing to  an  infraction  of  the  theoretical  laws  of 
Counterpoint,  except,  indeed,  that  one  which 
forbids  the  resolution  of  a  Discord  to  be  heard 
in  one  part,  while  the  Discord  itself  is  heard  in 
another — and  exceptions  to  that  law  may  be 
found  in  works  of  much  earlier  date. 


non   pud  mo   -   -   rtr 


non  pu6  mo    -    -    rlr 


35$ 


MONTEVERDE. 


In  his  Fifth  Book  of  Madrigals,  printed  in 
1599,  Monteverde  grew  bolder;  and,  thrusting 
the  time-honoured  laws  of  Counterpoint  aside, 
Btruck  out  for  himself  that  new  path  which  he 
ever  afterwards  unhesitatingly  followed.  With 
the  publication  of  this  volume  began  that  deadly 
war  with  the  Polyphonic  Schools  which  ended 
in  their  utter  defeat,  and  the  firm  establish- 
ment of  what  we  now  call  Modern  Music.  In 
'Cruda  Amarilli' — the  best -known  Madrigal  in 
this  most  interesting  series,  we  find  exemplifica- 
tions of  nearly  all  the  most  important  points  of 
divergence  between  the  two  opposite  systems, 
not  excepting  the  crucial  distinctions  involved 
in  the  use  of  the  Diminished  Triad,  and  the 
unprepared  Dissonances  of  the  Seventh  and 
Ninth  :— 


Some  modern  writers,  including  Oulibicheff, 
and  Pierre  Joseph  Zimmermann,  have  denied 
that  these  passages  exhibit  any  novelty  of  style — 
but  they  are  in  error.  Up  to  this  time,  Sevenths 
had  been  heard  only  in  the  form  of  Suspensions, 
or  Passing-Notes,  as  in  '  Stracciami  pur  il  core.' 
The  Unprepared  Seventh — the  never-failing  test 
by  which  the  Antient  School  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Modern,  the  Strict  Style 
from  the  Free — was  absolutely  new;  and  was 
regarded,  by  contemporary  Musicians,  as  so  great 
an  outrage  upon  artistic  propriety,  that  one  of 
the  most  learned  of  them — Giovanni  Maria 
Artusi,  of  Bologna — published,  in  the  year  1600, 
a  work,  entitled '  Delle  imperfettioni  della  moderna 
musica,'  in  which  he  condemned  the  unwonted 
progressions  found  in  '  Cruda  Amarilli,'  on  the 
ground  that  they  were  altogether  opposed  to  the 
nature  of  legitimate  Harmony.1  To  this  severe 
critique  Monteverde  replied,  by  a  letter,  ad- 
dressed'Agli  studiosi  lettori,'  which  he  prefixed 
to  a  later  volume  of  Madrigals.  A  bitter  war 
now  raged  between  the  adherents  of  the  two 
contending  Schools.  Monteverde  endeavoured  to 
maintain  his  credit  by  a  visit  to  Rome,  where 
he  presented  some  of  his  Ecclesiastical  Compo- 
sitions to  Pope  Clement  VIII.  But,  much  as 
his  Church  Music  has  been  praised  by  the  learned 
Padre  Martini,  and  other  well-known  writers, 

1  ■  Che  siano  cose  diformi  dalla  natura  el  propriety  delV  harmonia 
propria  el  lontane  Jul  fine  del  murica,  eh'  e  la  dileltatione.' 


MONTEVERDE. 

it  is  altogether  wanting  in  the  freshness  which 
distinguishes  the  works  of  the  Great  Masters 
who  brought  the  Roman  and  Venetian  Schools 
to  perfection.  Laboured  and  hard  where  it  should 
have  been  ingenious,  and  weak  where  it  should 
have  been  devotional,  it  adds  nothing  to  its 
author's  fame,  and  only  serves  to  shew  how 
surely  his  genius  was  leading  him  in  another, 
and  a  very  different  direction. 

Monteverde  succeeded  Ingegneri  as  Maestro 
di  Capella  at  the  Ducal  Court,  in  the  year  1603. 
In  1607,  the  Duke's  son,  Francesco  di  Gonzaga, 
contracted  an  alliance  with  Margherita,  Infanta 
of  Savoy ;  and,  to  grace  the  Marriage  Festival, 
the  new  Maestro  produced,  in  emulation  of 
Peri's  'Euridice,'  a  grand  serious  Opera,  called 
'  Arianna,'  the  text  of  which  was  supplied  by  the 
Poet,  Rinuccini.  The  success  of  this  great  work 
was  unprecedented.  It  could  scarcely  have  been 
otherwise ;  for,  all  the  Composer's  past  experience 
was  brought  to  bear  upon  it.  The  passionate 
Dissonances,  which  had  corrupted  the  Madrigal, 
and  were  destined,  ere  long,  to  prove  the  de- 
struction of  the  Polyphonic  Mass,  were  here  turned 
to  such  good  account,  that,  in  the  scene  in  which 
the  forsaken  Ariadne  laments  the  desertion  of 
her  faithless  lover,  they  drew  tears  from 
every  eye.  No  possible  objection  could  be  raised 
against  them,  now.  The  censures  of  Artusi  and 
his  colleagues,  just  though  they  were,  would 
have  lost  all  their  force,  had  they  been  directed 
— which,  happily,  they  were  not — against  Vocal 
Music  with  Instrumental  Accompaniment.  The 
contrapuntal  skill  necessary  for  the  successful  de- 
velopment of  true  Church  Music  would  have  been 
quite  out  of  place,  on  the  Stage.  Monteverde's 
bitterest  enemies  could  scarcely  fail  to  see  that 
he  had-  found  his  true  vocation,  at  last.  Well 
would  it  have  been  for  Polyphonic  Art,  and  for 
his  own  reputation,  also,  had  he  recognised  it 
sooner.  Had  he  given  his  attention  to  Dramatic 
Music,  from  the  first,  the  Mass  and  the  Mad- 
rigal might,  perhaps,  have  still  been  preserved 
in  the  purity  bequeathed  to  them  by  Palestrina 
and  Luca  Marenzio.  As  it  was,  the  utter  de- 
molition of  the  older  School  was  effected,  before 
the  newer  one  was  built  upon  its  ruins :  and 
Monteverde  was  as  surely  the  destroyer  of  the 
first,  as  he  was  the  founder  of  the  second. 

'Arianna'  was  succeeded,  in  1608,  by  'Orfeo,' 
a  work  of  still  grander  proportions,  in  which  the 
Composer  employs  an  Orchestra  consisting  of  no 
less  than  thirty-six  Instruments — an  almost  in- 
credible number,  for  that  early  age.  As  no 
perfect  copy  of 'Arianna'  has  been  preserved  to 
us,  we  know  little  or  nothing  of  the  instrumental 
effects  by  which  its  beauties  were  enhanced. 
But,  happily,  'Orfeo'  was  published,  in  a  complete 
form,  in  1609,  and  again  re-issued,  in  161 5  ;  and, 
from  directions  given  in  the  printed  copy,  we 
learn  that  the  several  Instruments  employed  in 
the  Orchestra  were  so  combined  as  to  produce 
the  greatest  possible  variety  of  effect,  and  to  aid 
the  dramatic  power  of  the  work  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  those  contrasts  which  are  generally  re- 
garded as  the  exclusive  product  of  modern  genius. 


MONTEVERDE. 

*Orfeo,'  indeed,  exhibits  many  very  remarkable 
affinities  with  Dramatic  Music  in  its  latest  form 
of  development — affinities  which  may  not  un- 
reasonably lead  us  to  enquire  whether  some  of 
our  newest  conceptions  are  really  so  original  as 
we  suppose  them  to  be.  The  employment  of 
certain  characteristic  Instruments  to  support  the 
Voices  of  certain  members  of  the  Dramatis  per- 
sona; is  one  of  them.  The  constant  use  of  a 
species  of  Mezzo  recitativo — so  to  speak — in  pre- 
ference either  to  true  Recitative,  or  true  Melody, 
is  another.  But,  what  shall  we  say  of  the  Instru- 
mental Prelude,  formed,  from  beginning  to  end, 
upon  one  single  chord,  with  one  single  bass  note 
sustained  throughout?  No  two  compositions 
could  be  less  alike,  in  feeling,  than  this,  and 
the  Introduction  to* Das  Rheingold' — yet,  in 
construction,  the  two  pieces  are  absolutely  iden- 
tical.1 

Monteverde  produced  only  one  more  work  of 
any  importance,  during  his  residence  at  Mantua 
— a  Mythological  Spectacle,  called  'II  ballo  delle 
Ingrate,'  which  was  performed  at  the  same  time 
as  '  Orfeo.'  Five  years  later,  he  was  invited  to 
Venice,  by  the  Procuratori  of  S.  Mark,  who,  on 
the  death  of  Giulio  Cesare  Martinengo,  in  1613, 
elected  him  their  Maestro  di  Cap  el  la,  promising 
him  a  salary  of  three  hundred  ducats  per  annum 
— half  as  much  again  as  any  previous  Maestro 
had  ever  received — together  with  a  sum  of  fifty 
ducats  for  the  expenses  of  his  journey,  and  a  house 
in  the  Canons'  Close.  In  1616,  his  salary  was 
raised  to  five  hundred  ducats :  and,  from  that 
time  forward,  he  gave  himself  up  entirely  to  the 
service  of  the  Republic,  and  signed  his  name 
'  Claudio  Monteverde,  Veneziano.' 

The  new  Maestro's  time  was  now  fully  occupied 
in  the  composition  of  Church  Music  for  the 
Cathedral,  in  training  the  Singers  who  were  to 
perform  it,  and  in  directing  the  splended  Choir 
placed  under  his  command.  His  efforts  to 
please  his  generous  patrons  were  crowned  with 
complete  success ;  and  his  fame  spread  far  and 
wide.  On  May  25,  1621,  some  Florentines,  resi- 
dent in  Venice,  celebrated  a  grand  Requiem,  in 
the  Church  of  SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo,  in  memory 
of  Duke  Cosmo  II.  Monteverde  composed  the 
music,  which  produced  a  profound  impression : 
but,  judging  from  Strozzi's  extravagant  descrip- 
tion, it  would  seem  to  have  been  more  fitted  for 
performance  in  the  Theatre,  than  in  the  Church. 
A  happier  opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  his  own 
peculiar  talent  presented  itself,  in  1624,  in  con- 
nection with  some  festivities  which  took  place  at 
the  Palace  of  Girolamo  Mocenigo.  On  this  oc- 
casion he  composed  the  Music  to  a  grand  Dra- 
matic Interlude,  called  II  Combattimenio  di  Tan- 
eredi  e  Clorinda,  in  the  course  of  which  he 
introduced,  among  other  novel  effects,  an  in- 
strumental tremolo,  used  exactly  as  we  use  it 
at  the  present  day — a  passage  which  so  aston- 
ished the  performers,  that,  at  first,  they  refused 
to  play  it. 

1  We  deeply  regret  that  want  of  space  forbids  us  to  give  this  Move- 
ment, in  txtenw.    We  have,  however,  good  hope  that  It  will  not  long 

remain  unedited. 


MONTEVERDE. 


359 


But  Monteverde's  will  was  now  too  powerful  to 
be  resisted.  He  was  the  most  popular  Composer  in 
Europe.  In  1627,  he  composed  five  Intermezzi 
for  the  Court  of  Parma.  In  1629,  he  wrote  a 
Cantata — 'II  Rosajo  fiorito' — for  the  Birth-day 
Festival  of  the  Son  of  Vito  Morosini,  governor 
of  Rovigo.  In  1630,  he  won  new  laurels  by  the 
production  of 'Proserpina  rapita,'  a  grand  Opera, 
written  for  him  by  Giulio  Strozzi,  and  represented 
at  the  Marriage  Festival  of  Lorenzo  Giustiniani 
andGiustiniana  Mocenigo.  Soon  after  this  event, 
Italy  was  devastated  by  a  pestilence,  which, 
within  the  space  of  sixteen  months,  destroyed 
fifty  thousand  lives.  On  the  cessation  of  ihe 
plague,  in  November,  1631,  a  grand  Thanks- 
giving Service  was  held,  in  the  Cathedral  of 
S.  Mark,  and,  for  this,  Monteverde  wrote  a  Mass, 
in  the  Gloria  and  Credo  of  which  he  introduced 
an  accompaniment  of  Trombones.  Two  years 
later,  in  1633,  he  was  admitted  to  the  Priest- 
hood ;  and,  after  this,  we  hear  nothing  more  of 
him,  for  some  considerable  time. 

In  the  year  1637,  the  first  Venetian  Opera 
House,  H  Teatro  di  San  Cassiano,  was  opened 
to  the  public,  by  Benedetto  Ferrari  and  Francesco 
Manelli.  In  1639,  the  success  of  the  house  was 
assured;  and  Monteverde  wrote  for  it  a  new 
Opera,  called '  L'Adone.'  In  1 64 1 , '  Arianna '  was 
revived,  with  triumphant  success,  at  another  new 
Theatre — that  of  S.  Mark.  In  the  same  year, 
the  veteran  Composer  produced  two  new  works — 
'  Le  Nozze  di  Enea  con  Lavinia,'  and '  H  Ritorno 
d'Ulisse  in  patria.'  Finally,  in  1642,  appeared 
'L'Incoronazione  di  Poppea' — the  last  great  effort 
of  a  genius,  which,  in  less  than  half  a  century, 
proved  itself  strong  enough  to  overthrow  a 
system  which  had  been  at  work  for  ages,  and  to 
establish  in  its  place  another,  which  has  served 
as  the  basis  of  all  the  great  works  produced  be- 
tween the  year  in  which  the  Dominant  Seventh 
was  invented,  and  that  in  which  we  are  now 
living. 

Monteverde  died,  in  1643,  and  was  buried  in 
the  Chiesa  dei  Frari,  where  his  remains  still 
rest,  in  a  Chapel,  on  the  Gospel  side  of  the  Choir. 
Of  his  printed  works,  we  possess  eight  Books  of 
Madrigals,  published  between  the  years  1587, 
and  1638 ;  the  volume  of  Canzonette,  published 
in  1584;  a  volume  of  Scherzi;  the  complete 
edition  of 'Orfeo';  and  three  volumes  of  Church 
Music.  A  MS.  copy  of  '  II  Ritorno  d'Ulisse '  fa 
preserved  in  the  Imperial  Library,  at  Vienna ; 
but  it  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  the  greater 
number  of  the  Composer's  MSS.  appear  to  be 
hopelessly  lost.  We  shall  never  be  able  to  say 
the  same  of  his  influence  upon  Art — that  can 


360 


MONTEVERDE. 


never  perish.  To  him  we  owe  the  discovery 
of  a  new  path,  in  which  no  later  genius  has 
ever  disdained  to  walk ;  and,  as  long  as  that 
path  leads  to  new  beauties,  he  will  maintain 
a  continual  claim  upon  our  gratitude,  notwith- 
standing the  innumerable  beauties  of  another 
kind  which  he  trod  under  foot  in  laying  it  open 
to  us.  [W.S.R.] 

MONTICELLI,  Angelo  Maria,  was  born  at 
Milan  about  1710.  He  first  appeared  in  opera 
at  Rome  in  1730,  and,  having  a  beautiful  face 
and  figure,  began  in  that  city,  where  no  women 
were  then  allowed  upon  the  stage,  by  represent- 
ing female  characters.  His  voice  was  clear  and 
sweet,  and  singularly  free  from  defects.  '  He  was,' 
says  Burney,  '  a  chaste  performer,  and  ...  a  good 
actor.'  In  1 731  and  32  he  appeared  at  Venice  with 
Carestini,  Bernacchi,  and  Faustina.  He  came 
to  London  in  the  autumn  of  1741,  and  made  his 
debut  herein  the  pasticcio  'Alessandro  in  Persia.' 
In  the  beginning  of  1 742,  after  other  attempts, 
another  opera  was  brought  out  by  Pergolese, 
called  '  Meraspe,  o  L'Olimpiade,'  the  first  air  of 
whtch, '  Tremende,  oscuri,  atroci,'  in  Monticelli's 
part,  was  sung  for  ten  years  after  the  end  of  the 
run  of  this  opera ;  and  '  the  whole  scene,  in  which 
"Se  ceroa  se  dice"  occurs,  was  rendered  so  in- 
teresting by  the  manner  in  which  it  was  acted  as 
well  as  sung  by  Monticelli  that  the  union  of 
poetry  and  music,  expression  and  gesture,  have 
seldom  had  a  more  powerful  effect  on  an  English 
audience'  (Burney). 

He  continued  to  perform  in  London  through 
1743;  and  in  1744  he  sang,  in  'Alfonso,'  songs 
of  more  bravura  execution  than  he  had  previously 
attempted.  During  1745  and  1746  Monticelli 
still  belonged  to  our  Opera ;  and  in  the  latter 
year  he  sang  inGluck's  'Caduta  de'  Giganti,'  and 
described  one  of  his  songs  as  an  '  aria  Tedesca  • 
from  the  richness  of  the  accompaniment.  The 
'Antigono'  of  Galuppi  (produced  May  13)  was  the 
last  opera  in  which  Monticelli  appeared  on  our 
stage.  He  sang  at  Naples  with  la  Mingotti  in 
the  same  year,  and  afterwards  at  Vienna.  In  1 756 
Hasse  engaged  him  for  the  Dresden  Theatre ;  and 
in  that  city  he  died  in  1 764. 

A  capital  mezzotint  portrait  of  Monticelli  was 
Bcraped  by  Faber  after  Casali.  [J.  M.] 

MONTIGNY-REMAURY,  Caroline,  born 
at  Pamiers  (Ariege)  Jan.  31,  1843.  Her  elder 
sister  and  godmother,  Elvire  Remaury,  now  Mme. 
Ambroise  Thomas,  an  excellent  pianist,  first 
taught  her  music,  but  anxious  to  secure  her 
every  advantage,  entered  her  in  1854  at  the 
Conservatoire,  in  the  pianoforte  class  of  Pro- 
fesseur  Le  Couppey.  In  58  she  gained  the  first 
prize  for  piano ;  in  59  a  prize  for  solfeggio :  and 
in  62  the  first  prize  for  harmony.  Shortly  after 
this  Mme.  C.  Remaury  played  Mendelssohn's 
Concerto  in  G  minor  at  one  of  the  concerts  of  the 
Conservatoire,  and  her  animated  and  vigorous 
interpretation  of  this  favourite  work,  at  once 
placed  her  in  the  first  rank  of  French  pianists. 
In  1866  she  married  Le'on  Montigny,  a  political 
writer  on  the  staff  of  the  'Temps,'  but  was  left  a 
widow   in    72.      She   has   constantly  mixed  in 


MOORE. 

society  of  the  best  kind,  and  is  as  much  appre- 
ciated for  her  ready  wit  and  attractive  originality 
as  for  her  musical  talent.  She  has  not  yet  published 
any  composition,  declining  to  print  the  'tran- 
scriptions' which  she  occasionally  plays  to  her 
intimate  friends.  She  is  now  at  the  head  of  the 
pianoforte  virtuosi  of  France,  and  her  recent 
visits  to  England  and  tours  on  the  Continent  are 
extending  her  reputation  over  Europe.  Her 
repertoire  is  large ;  her  playing  is  free  from 
affectation;  her  tone  powerful,  her  style  at 
once  vigorous,  tasteful  and  refined  ;  and  she  in- 
terprets with  fidelity  the  spirit  of  each  master 
whose  works  she  produces.  The  impression  she 
leaves  is  that  of  a  true  musician,  gifted  with 
an  extraordinary  memory  and  with  intellectual 
powers  above  the  average.  [G.C.] 

MOONLIGHT  SONATA.  An  absurd  title 
which  for  years  has  been  attached  both  in  Ger- 
many and  England  to  the  Sonata  quasi  una 
fantasia  in  Cj  minor,  the  second  of  the  two 
which  form  together  Beethoven's  op.  27.  It  is 
dedicated  to  the  'Damigella  Contessa  Giulietta 
Guicciardi.'  The  title  is  said  to  have  been  de- 
rived from  an  expression  of  Rellstab  the  critic 
1  comparing  the  first  movement  to  a  boat  wander- 
ing by  moonlight  on  the  Lake  of  Lucerne.  In 
Vienna  it  is  sometimes  known  as  the  2Lauben- 
sonate,  from  a  tradition  that  the  first  movement 
was  composed  in  the  leafy- alley  (Laubengang)  of 
a  garden. 

Op.  2  7  was  published — '  for  the  harpsichord  or 
pianoforte' — in  March  1802.  Its  dedication, 
on  which  so  much  gratuitous  romance  has  been 
built,  appears  from  the  statement  of  the  countess 
herself  to  have  been  a  mere  accident.  [See  vol.  i. 
181  a.]  Beethoven,  perhaps  in  joke,  laughed  at 
its  popularity,  and  professed  to  prefer  the  Sonata 
in  Fg  minor  (op.  78).     [See  vol.  i.  188  a.] 

MOORE,  Thomas.  There  have  been  many 
biographies  of  this  'poet  of  all  circles';  but  it  is  as 
a  composer  and  singer,  and  thus  as  '  the  idol  of 
his  own,'  that  our  pages  must  exhibit  him. 
Moore,  who  was  born  of  Catholic  parents,  in 
Dublin,  May  28,  1779,  seems  to  have  been  from 
early  youth  susceptible  of  musical  impressions, 
and  has  recorded  his  childish  delight  at  being 
permitted  to  astonish  the  company  at  the  house 
of  a  certain  Miss  Dodd,  by  grinding  out  music 
from  a  little  barrel-organ,  whilst  concealed  under 
a  table.  We  next  find  him  brought  forward  as  a 
show-reciter  of  his  own  rhymes  at  the  school  of 
Samuel  Whyte  of  Dublin,  who  also  educated 
Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan.  The  Dublin  Uni- 
versity in  1 793  having  opened  its  portals  to  the 
once  proscribed  Catholics,  Moore  entered  as  a 
student  in  1 795  :  being  on  a  visit  to  the  family 
of  a  fellow-student,  he  tells  us  of  his  pleasure  at 
hearing  Haydn's  Sonata  : — 


I  Leru,  Beethoven  et  ses  trots  styles,  i.  225. 
1  Leuz  B.  eine  Kunststu die,  l't.  2, 79. 


MOORE. 

and  a  lesson  of  Nicolai's  performed  on  the  harpsi- 
chord by  the  sisters  of  his  friend.  Among  his 
musical  acquaintances  were  one  Wesley  Doyle,  a 
musician's  son,  who  published  some  songs  at 
Chappell's  in  1822,  and  Joe,  the  brother  of 
Michael  Kelly,  the  author  of  the*  Reminiscences.' 
Moore  sang  effectively  upon  these  occasions  some 
of  the  songs  of  Dibdin,  then  immensely  popular. 
He  now  received  lessons  from  Warren,  subse- 
sequently  organist  of  the  Dublin  cathedrals,  and 
a  pupil  of  Dr.  Philip  Cogan,  a  noted  extemporiser 
upon  Irish  melodies:  but  neither  Doyle  nor 
Warren's  example  or  precept  produced  any  effect 
until  the  future  bard  began  to  feel  personal  in- 
terest in  music.  Subsequently  he  Bays,  '  Billy 
Warren  soon  became  an  inmate  of  the  family  : — 
I  never  received  from  him  any  regular  lessons ; 
yet  by  standing  often  to  listen  while  he  was  in- 
structing my  sister,  and  endeavouring  constantly 
to  pick  out  tunes,  or  make  them  when  I  was 
alone,  I  became  a  pianoforte  player  (at  least  suf- 
ficiently so  to  accompany  my  own  singing)  before 
almost  any  one  was  aware  of  it.'  He  produced  a 
sort  of  masque  at  this  time,  and  sang  in  it  an 
adaptation  of  Haydn's '  Spirit-song,'  to  some  lines 
of  his  own.  On  occasion  of  some  mock  coronation 
held  at  the  rocky  islet  of  Dalkey,  near  Dublin, 
Moore  met  Incledon,  who  was  then  and  there 
knighted  as  Sir  Charles  Melody,  the  poet  con- 
tributing an  ode  for  the  sportive  occasion.  It 
was  the  metrical  translation  or  paraphrase  of 
Anacreon,  subsequently  dedicated  to  the  Prince 
Regent,  that  first  brought  Moore  into  public  notice; 
about  this  time  he  alludes  to  the  '  bursting  out 
of  his  latent  talent  for  music':  further  quickened 
by  the  publication  of  Bunting's  first  collection  of 
Irish  melodies  in  the  year  1 796.  From  this  col- 
lection Moore  (greatly  to  Bunting's  chagrin) 
selected  eleven  of  the  sixteen  airs  in  the  first 
number  of  his  Irish  melodies ;  Bunting  averred 
that  not  only  was  this  done  without  acknowledge- 
ment, but  that  Moore  and  his  coadjutor  Stevenson 
had  mutilated  the  airs.  That  Bunting's  censures 
were  not  without  foundation  will  appear  from  Caro- 
lan's  air  'Planxty  Kelly,'  one  strain  of  which — 


MOORE. 


861 


£3E£ 


was  altered  by  Moore  to  the  following : — 


Even  this  ending  (on  a  minim)  is  incorrect,  the 
portion  of  the  original  air  here  used  being 


In  '  Go  where  glory  waits  thee,'  the  ending  as 
given  by  Moore  destroys  what  in  the  article 
Irish  Music  we  have  called  the  narrative  form; 
it  should  end  as  follows : — 


The  air  was  however  altered  thus  to  suit  Moore's 
lines: 


0     still  re  -  member     me. 

The  song  'Rich   and  rare'  ends  thus  in   the 
original : — 


The  version  of  Moore  is  perhaps  an  improve- 
ment, but  it  is  an  alteration : — 


Moore  took  to  himself  whatever  blame  these 
changes  involved,  and  even  defended  the  often 
rambling  and  inappropriate  preludes  of  Stevenson, 
which  he  fancifully  compared  to  the  elaborate 
initial  letters  of  mediaeval  MSS.  Moore  wrote 
125  of  these  beautiful  and  now  famous  poems. 
His  singing  of  them  to  his  own  accompaniment 
has  been  frequently  described  as  indeed  deficient 
in  physical  power,  but  incomparable  as  musical 
recitation :  not  unfrequently  were  the  hearers 
moved  to  tears,  which  the  bard  himself  could 
with  difficulty  restrain ;  indeed  it  is  on  record 
that  one  of  his  lady  listeners  was  known  to  faint 
away  with  emotion.  Mr.  N.  P.  Willis  says,  '  I 
have  no  time  to  describe  his  (Moore's)  singing ; 
its  effect  is  only  equalled  by  his  own  words.  I 
for  one  could  have  taken  him  to  my  heart  with 
delight ! '  Leigh  Hunt  describes  him  as  playing 
with  great  taste  on  the  piano,  and  compares  his 
voice  as  he  sang,  to  a  flute  softened  down  to  mere 
breathing.  Jeffrey,  Sydney  Smith,  and  Christo- 
pher North  are  equally  eloquent ;  nay,  even  the  ut- 
terly unmusical  Sir  W.  Scott  calls  him  the  '  pret- 
tiest warbler  he  had  ever  known ' ;  while  Byron, 
almost  equally  deficient  in  musical  appreciation, 
was  moved  to  tears  by  his  singing.  Moore  felt  what 
he  expressed,  for  as  an  illustration  of  the  saying, 
'  Si  vis  me  flere,  dolendum  est  primum  ipsi  tibi,'  it 
is  recorded  that  on  attempting  'There's  a  song  of 
the  olden  time,' a  favourite  ditty  of  his  father,  for  the 
first  time  after  the  old  man's  death,  he  broke  down, 
and  had  to  quit  the  room,  sobbing  convulsively. 

Although  as  an  educated  musician  Moore  had 
no  repute,  yet,  like  Goldsmith,  he  now  and  then 
undertook  to  discuss  such  topics  as  harmony  and 
counterpoint,  of  which  he  knew  little  or  nothing. 
Thus  we  find  him  gravely  defending  consecutive 
fifths,  and  asking  naively  whether  there  might 
not  be  some  pedantry  in  adhering  to  the  rule 
which  forbids  them  ?  That  he  was  largely  gifted 
with  the  power  of  creating  melody,  is  apparent 
from  his  airs  to  various  lines  of  his  own ;  amongst 
them  'Love  thee,  dearest,'  'When  midst  the 
gay,'  'One  dear  smile';  and  'The  Canadian  boat- 
song,'  long  deemed  a  native  air,  but  latterly 
claimed  by  Moore.  Many  of  his  little  concerted 
pieces  attained  great  popularity.  The  terzetto 
'  0,  lady  fair'  was  at  one  time  sung  everywhere ;  a 
little  three-part  glee,  'The  Watchman' — describ- 
ing two  lovers,  unwilling  to  part,  yet  constantly 


3<v: 


MOORE. 


MORDENT. 


interrupted  by  the  warning  voice  of  the  passing 
guardian  of  the  night  calling  out  the  hours 
as  they  flew  too  quickly — was  almost  equally 
popular.  Among  his  poems  may  be  briefly  cited 
'Anacreon';  the  matchless  'Irish  Melodies,'  and 
their  sequel  the  'National  Airs';  '  Lalla  Rookh' 
(including  four  poems),  and  numerous  songs  and 
ballads.  With  his  satirical  and  political  writings 
we  do  not  concern  ourselves.  Probably  no  poet 
or  man  of  letters  has  ever  attained  such  popu- 
larity, or  such  loving  celebrity  amongst  his  very 
rivals.  Some  of  his  works  have  been  translated 
into  the  French,  Russian,  Polish,  and  other  lan- 
guages of  Europe,  and  his  oriental  verse  has  been 
rendered  into  Persian,  and  absolutely  sung  in  the 
streets  of  Ispahan.  It  will  be  sufficient  for  our 
purpose  to  allude  to  the  one  misfortune  of  his 
public  life,  which  arose  from  the  defalcation  of 
his  deputy  in  a  small  official  post  at  Bermuda, 
given  him  in  1S04  through  the  influence  of  Earl 
Moira.  The  claims  which  thus  arose  he  however 
honourably  discharged  by  his  literary  labours. 
The  evening  of  Moore's  life  was  saddened  by 
the  successive  deaths  of  his  children.  His  wife,1 
an  admirable  woman,  was  his  mainstay  under 
these  trials;  and  in  1835  the  government  of  the 
day,  through  Lord  John  Russell,  almost  forced 
upon  him  a  pension  of  £300  per  annum.  He 
died,  enfeebled,  but  in  the  possession  of  his 
faculties,  Feb.  25,  1852,  at  Sloperton  Cottage, 
near  Devizes.  [R.  P.  S.] 

MOOREHEAD,  John,  was  born  in  Ireland, 
where  he  received  his  first  musical  instruction. 
He  came  to  England  when  young,  and  was  for 
several  years  engaged  in  the  orchestras  of  various 
country  theatres.  In  1798  he  was  engaged  in 
the  orchestra  at  Co  vent  Garden,  and  soon  after 
employed  to  compose  for  that  theatre.  During 
his  engagement  he  composed  music  for  '  The 
Volcano  '  and  '  The  Naval  Pillar,'  1 799  ;  '  Har- 
lequin's Tour'  and  'The  Dominion  of  Fancy' 
(both  with  Attwood),  1  Soo ;  '  II  Bondocani ' 
(with  Attwood)  and  '  Pt  rouse'  (with  Davy), 
1 801 ;  'Harlequin's  Habeas,'  'The  Cabinet'  (with 
Braham,  Davy,  etc.),  and  '  Family  Quarrels ' 
(with  Braham  and  Reeve),  1S02.  He  died  in 
1804.  [W.H.H.] 

MOOTER,  Aloys,  a  famous  Swiss  organ- 
builder,  whose  greatest  instruments  are  those  at 
Fribourg  and  in  the  New  Temple  at  Berne.  He 
was  born  at  Fribourg  in  1770,  and  died  there 
Dec.  19,  1829.     Mooser  also  made  pianos.      [G.] 

MORALES,  Cristofero,  born  at  Seville  in 
the  early  part  of  the  16th  century,  and  appointed 
a  member  of  the  papal  chapel  about  1540  2  by 
Paul  III.  His  published  works,  dating  between 
the  years  1539  and  1569,  consist  of  16  Masses 
(in  2  books),  Magnificats,  and  several  Motets 
published  in  various  collections.  Morales3  'de- 
spised all  worldly,  to  say  nothing  of  light,  music, 

1  Miss  Bessie  Dykes,  a  young  and  beautiful  Irish  actress,  whom  he  . 
married  in  1-11. 

-  Adami's '  Osservazion!  per  ben  regolare  11  coro  della  Capp.  Pontif.' 
(Roma,  Rossi  1711).  The  date  of  the '2nd  book  of  Masses  is  here  quoted 
as  1544.  In  the  dedication  to  the  Pope.  Morales  writes  '  quod  cum  me 
jam  pridem  inter  Chori  tul  musicos  collocaveris.' 

*  f-'rom  preface  to  2cd  book  of  Masses. 


and  had  nothing  to  do  with  it,  regarding  with 
anger  those  who  applied  that  noble  gift  of  God, 
the  power  of  making  music,  to  frivolous,  and 
even  to  objectionable  uses.'  Ambitious  that  his 
works  should  be  worthy  of  God  and  the  papal 
chapel,  he  surely  gained  his  end,  and  for  nearly 
350  years  they  have  been  annually  sung4  in  the 
place  for  which  he  designed  them.  In  modern 
score  Eslava  gives  six  pieces ;  Rochlitz 5  some 
extracts  from  a  mass;  Schlesinger6  the  cele- 
brated motet  '  Lamentabatur  Jacob,'  which 
Adami  describes  as  a  'marvel  of  art'  ;  Martini7 
three  movements  from  the  Magnificats.  Two 
motets  (a  3)  'Domine  Deus'  and  'Puer  est  natus' 
and  a  Magnificat  are  in  score  in  the  British 
Museum  in  Bumey's  Musical  Extracts,  vol.  iv. 
(Add.  MSS.  11,584). 

An  interesting  portrait  is  given  by  Adami, 
and  copied  in  Hawkins'  History.         [J.R.S.-B.] 

MORALT.  Four  brothers  of  great  celebrity 
in  Munich,  celebrated  for  their  rendering  of 
Haydn's  quartets. 

The  first,  Joseph,  born  1775,  entered  the 
court  band  in  1797,  and  became  Kapellmeister 
in  1 800,  which  post  he  held  till  his  death  in  1828. 

The  next  brother,  Johann  Baptist,  born  1 777, 
entered  the  same  band  in  1792,  was  the  second 
violin  in  the  quartet,  and  also  composed  two 
symphonies  for  orchestra,  some  '  Symphonic  con- 
certantes,'  and  '  Lecons  me"thodiques '  for  the 
violin,  two  string  quartets,  besides  a  MS.  Mass, 
etc.     He  died  in  1825. 

Philipp,  the  violoncello  of  the  quartet,  born 
1780,  was  in  the  band  from  1795  to  his  death 
Mar.  18,  1847.  He  had  a  twin-brother,  Jacques, 
who  played  in  the  orchestra,  but  not  in  the  cele- 
brated quartet. 

Georg,  the  tenor-player,  was  born  in  1781  and 
died  1818. 

A  Moralt,  probably  one  of  the  same  family, 
was  well  known  in  England  in  the  early  part  of 
the  present  century.  He  was  first-viola  player 
at  the  Philharmonic  till  1S42,  when  his  name 
disappears,  possibly  on  account  of  his  death, 
and  is  succeeded  by  that  of  Hill.  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  provincial  festivals  and 
music  generally.  [J.A.F.  M.] 

MORDENT  (Ital.  Mordente  ;  Ger.  Mordent, 
also  Bcisser;  Fr.  Pince).  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  agremens  or  graces  of  instrumental 
music.  It  consists  of  the  rapid  alternation  of  a 
written  note  with  the  note  immediately  below  it. 

Mordents  are  of  two  kinds,  the  Simple  or  Short 
Mordent,  indicated  by  the  sign  Ajv,  and  consisting 
of  threenotes,  the  lower  or  auxiliary  note  occurring 
but  once,  and  the  Double  or  Long  Mordent,  the 
sign  for  which  is  >viv,  in  which  the  auxiliary 
note  appears  twice  or  oftener.     Both  kinds  begin 

4  'Mottettl  etc  che  si  cantano  nella  Capella  Slstlnae  nella  Basilica 
Vaticana'— a  MS.  in  the  British  Museum  (Egerton  Collection  2460-61) 
containing  a  Magnificat  sung  on  the  vigil  of  Epiphany,  and  the  motet 
'  Lamentabatur  Jacob,'  sung  on  the  4th  Sunday  in  Lent. 

5  Sammlung  tiesangstQcke.  vol.  i.  nos.  27,  29. 

«  In  'Musica  Sacra,'  Berlin  1853.  Each  motet  can  be  had  sepa- 
rately. 

'  ' Esemplare ...  dl  contrappunto ' (Bologna  1774).  The  threemove- 
ments  are  used  as  theoretical  examples,  and  numerous  notes  added 
on  questions  which  they  illustrate. 


MORDENT. 

and  end  with  the  principal  note,  and  are  played 
with  great  rapidity,  and,  like  all  graces,  occupy 
a  part  of  the  value  of  the  written  note,  and  are 
never  introduced  before  it. 


i.    Single  Mordent. 
/\tv 


Written. 


Played. 


$ 


Double  Mordent. 


£ 


The  appropriateness  of  the  term  Mordent  (from 
mordere,  to  bite)  is  found  in  the  suddenness  with 
which  the  principal  note  is,  as  it  were,  attacked 
by  the  dissonant  note  and  immediately  released. 
Walther  says  its  effect  is  '  like  cracking  a  nut 
with  the  teeth,'  and  the  same  idea  is  expressed 
by  the  old  German  term  Beisser. 

The  Mordent  may  be  applied  to  any  note  of  a 
chord,  as  well  as  to  a  single  note.  When  this  is 
the  case  its  rendering  is  as  follows — 

2.     Bach,  Sarabande  from  Suite  Francaise  No.  4. 


3.    Bach,  Overture  from  Partita  No.  4. 


Sometimes  an  accidental  is  added  to  the  sign  of 

the  Mordent,  thus  'y ,  or  ^J  ;  the  effect  of  this 

is  to  raise  the  lower  or  auxiliary  note  a  semitone. 
This  raising  takes  place  in  accordance  with  the 
rule  that  a  lower  auxiliary  note  should  be  only  a 
semitone  distant  from  its  principal  note,  and  the 
alteration  must  be  made  by  the  player  even  when 
there  is  no  indication  of  it  in  the  sign  (Ex.  4), 
except  in  certain  understood  cases.  The  excep- 
tions are  as  follows, — when  the  note  bearing  the 
Mordent  is  either  preceded  or  followed  by  a  note 
a  whole  tone  lower  (Ex.  5  and  6)  and,  generally, 
when  the  Mordent  is  applied  to  either  the  third 
or  seventh  degree  of  the  scale  (Ex.  7).  In  these 
cases  the  auxiliary  note  is  played  a  whole  tone 
distant  from  its  principal. 

4.    Bach,  Organ  Fugue  in  E  minor. 
siy  Ay 

*-r* . *■ 


-■  f  rr  D  rr 


MORDENT. 

5.    Air  from  Suite  Franpaise  No.  2. 
Ay 


363 


6.    Well-tempered  Clavier,  No.  i,  vol.  2. 

Ay 


P 


^TX±i 


-+-d 


m 


7.    Sarabande  from  Suite  Francaise  No.  5. 
Bar  1.  Bar  5. 


The  Long  Mordent  (pince  double)  usually  con- 
sists of  five  notes,  though  if  applied  to  a  note  of 
great  length  it  may,  according  to  Emanuel  Bach, 
contain  more  ;  it  must  however  never  fill  up  the 
entire  value  of  the  note,  as  the  trill  does,  but 
must  leave  time  for  a  sustained  principal  note  at 
the  end  (Ex.  8).  Its  sign  is  a^v,  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  aw,  or  A/vtf,  the  signs  for  a  trill 
with  or  without  turn. 

8.    Bach,  Sarabande  from  Partita  No.  1. 


Besides  the  above,  Emanuel  Bach  gave  the 
name  of  Mordent  to  two  other  graces,  now  nearly 
or  quite  obsolete.  One,  called  the  Abbreviated 
Mordent  (pinci  etouffe)  was  rendered  by  striking 
the  auxiliary  note  together  with  its  principal,  and 
instantly  releasing  it  (Ex.  9).  This  grace,  which 
is  identical  with  the  Acciaccatuba  (see  the  word), 
was  said  by  Marpurg  to  be  of  great  service  in 
playing  full  chords  on  the  organ,  but  its  employ- 
ment is  condemned  by  the  best  modern  organists. 
The  other  kind,  called  the  Slow  Mordent,  had 
no  distinctive  sign,  but  was  introduced  in  vocal 
music  at  the  discretion  of  the  singer,  usually  at 
the  close  of  the  phrase  or  before  a  pause  (Ex.  io). 


Abbreviated 
9*      Mordent. 


10.    Slow  Mordent. 


364 


MORDENT. 


Closely  allied  to  the  Mordent  is  another  kind 
of  ornament,  called  in  German  the  Pralltriller 
(prallen,  to  rebound,  or  bounce),  for  which  term 
there  is  no  exact  equivalent  in  English,  the  or- 
nament in  question  being  variously  named  Passing 
Shake,  Beat,  and  Inverted  Mordent  (pince  renverse ), 
none  of  which  designations  are  very  appropriate. 
The  sign  for  this  grace  is  av,  the  short  vertical 
line  being  omitted  ;  and  it  consists,  like  the  Mor- 
dent, of  three  notes,  rapidly  executed,  the  auxili- 
ary note  being  one  degree  above  the  principal 
note  instead  of  below  it. 


Written.  Played. 

AW 


^m 


The  Pralltriller  is  characterised  by  Emanuel 
Bach  as  the  most  agreeable  and  at  the  same  time 
the  most  indispensable  of  all  graces,  but  also  the 
most  difficult.  He  says  that  it  ought  to  be  made 
with  such  extreme  rapidity  that  even  when  in- 
troduced on  a  very  short  note,  the  listener  must 
not  be  aware  of  any  loss  of  value. 

The  proper,  and  according  to  some  writers 
the  only  place  for  the  introduction  of  the  Prall- 
triller is  on  the  first  of  two  notes  which  descend 
diatonically,  a  position  which  the  Mordent  cannot 
properly  occupy.  This  being  the  case,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  in  such  instances  as  the  follow- 
ing, where  the  Mordent  is  indicated  in  a  false 
position,  the  Pralltriller  is  in  reality  intended,  and 
the  sign  is  an  error  either  of  the  pen  or  of  the 
press. 

12.     Mozart,  Rondo  in  D. 


Nevertheless,  the  Mordent  is  occasionally, 
though  very  rarely,  met  with  on  a  note  followed 
by  a  note  one  degree  lower,  as  in  the  fugue  already 
quoted  (Ex.  6).  This  is  however  the  only  instance 
in  Bach's  works  with  which  the  writer  is  ac- 
quainted. 

When  the  Pralltriller  is  preceded  by  an  appog- 
giatura,  or  a  slurred  note  one  degree  above  the 
principal  note,  its  entrance  is  slightly  delayed 
(Ex.  13),  and  the  same  is  the  case  if  the  Mor- 
dent is  preceded  by  a  note  one  degree  below 
(Ex.  14). 

13.    W.  F.  Bach,  Sonata  in  D. 

AV 


I 


ifc 


mMu 


r  1  p 


^j=Mi 


MORDENT. 

14.    J.  S.  Bach,  Sarabande  from  Suite  Anglaise  No.  3. 
a\v 


Emanuel  Bach  says  that  if  this  occurs  before  a 
pause  the  appoggiatura  is  to  be  held  very  long, 
and  the  remaining  three  notes  to  be  '  snapped 
up '  very  quickly,  thus — 
15.  Written.  /_v  Played. 


m 


-5 


T 


m 


=» 


sps= 


fCT 


The  earlier  writers  drew  a  distinction  between 
the  Pralltriller  and  the  so-called  Schneller  (schnel- 
len,  to  filip).  This  grace  was  in  all  respects 
identical  with  the  Pralltriller,  but  it  was  held 
that  the  latter  could  only  occur  on  a  descending 
diatonic  progression  (as  in  Ex.  11),  while  the 
Schneller  might  appear  on  detached  notes.  It 
was  also  laid  down  that  the  Schneller  was  always 

-f=3- 


to  be  written  in  small  notes,  thus —  1      ' 

while  the  sign  av  only  indicated  the  Pralltriller. 
Turk  observes  nevertheless  that  the  best  composers 
have  often  made  use  of  the  sign  in  cases  where 
the  indispensable  diatonic  progression  is  absent, 
and  have  thus  indicated  the  Pralltriller  where  the 
Schneller  was  really  intended.  This  is  however 
of  no  consequence,  since  the  two  ornaments  are 
essentially  the  same,  and  Turk  himself  ends  by 
saying  'the  enormity  of  this  crime  may  be  left 
for  the  critics  to  determine.' 

Both  Mordent  and  Pralltriller  occur  very  fre- 
quently in  the  works  of  Bach  and  his  immediate 
successors ;  perhaps  the  most  striking  instance  of 
the  lavish  use  of  both  occurs  in  the  first  move- 
ment of  Bach's  '  Capriccio  on  the  departure  of  a 
beloved  brother,'  which  though  only  17  bars  in 
length  contains  no  fewer  than  1 7  Mordents  and 
30  Pralltrillers.  In  modern  music  the  Mordent 
does  not  occur,  but  the  Pralltriller  and  Schneller  is 
frequently  employed,  as  for  instance  by  Beethoven 
in  the  first  movement  of  the  Sonate  Pathetique. 

Although  the  Mordent  and  Pralltriller  are  in 
a  sense  the  opposites  of  each  other,  some  little 
confusion  has  of  late  arisen  in  the  use  of  both 
terms  and  signs.  Certain  modern  writers  have 
even  applied  the  name  of  Mordent  to  the  or- 
dinary Turn,  as  for  example  Czerny,  in  his  Study 
op.  740,  no.  29 ;  and  Hummel,  in  his  Pianoforte 
School,  has  given  both  the  name  and  the  sign  of 
the  Mordent  to  the  Schneller.  This  may  perhaps 
be  accounted  for  by  the  supposition  that  he  re- 
ferred to  the  Italian  mordente,  which,  according 
to  Dr.  Callcott  (Grammar  of  Music),  was  the  op- 
posite of  the  German  Mordent,  and  was  in  fact 
identical  with  the  Schneller.  It  is  nevertheless 
strange  that  Hummel  should  have  neglected  to 
give  any  description  of  the  Mordent  proper.  [F.T/J 


MORELLT. 

MORELLI,  Giovanni,  a  basso  with  a  voice 
of  much  power,  compass,  sweetness,  and  flexi- 
bility. He  first  appeared  in  London  in  Paisiello's 
'  Schiavi  per  Amore,'  with  Storace  and  Sestini, 
and  Morigi,  who  had  long  been  the  first  buffo 
caricato,  but  now  became  second  to  Morelli. 
The  latter  was  a  very  good  actor,  but,  having 
been  running-footman  to  Lord  Cowper  at  Flo- 
rence, he  was  probably  not  much  of  a  musician. 
He  continued  for  many  years  in  great  favour, 
and  sang  at  the  Opera  from  time  to  time  till  he 
had  scarcely  a  note  left;  but  he  was  always 
received  kindly  as  an  old  and  deserving  favourite. 

He  sang  the  bass  part  in  the  '  Serva  Padrona,' 
with  Banti,  so  successfully  that  the  performance 
was  repeated  by  Royal  command ;  and  he  was 
actually  singing  with  Catalani  and  Miss  Stephens 
(her  first  appearance')  at  the  Pantheon,  when 
that  house  was  rebuilt.  He  sang  in  the  Com- 
memoration of  Handel  in  1787,  with  Mara  and 
Rubinelli.  [J.M.] 

MORENDO,  '  dying,'  is  used  to  indicate  the 
gradual  '  decrescendo '  at  the  end  of  a  cadence. 
Its  meaning  is  well  given  by  Shakspeare  in 
the  words,  '  That  strain  again !  it  had  a  dying 
fall.'  It  is  used  by  Beethoven  in  the  Trio,  op.  1, 
no.  3,  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  variation  in  the 
slow  movement,  and  in  the  Quartet,  op.  74,  also  at 
the  end  of  the  slow  movement.  As  a  rule,  it  is 
only  used  for  the  end  of  the  movement  or  in  a 
cadence,  but  in  the  Quartet,  op.  18,  no.  7,  slow 
movement,  and  in  the  9th  Symphony,  slow  move- 
ment, it  is  not  confined  to  the  end,  but  occurs  in 
imperfect  cadences,  to  give  the  effect  of  a  full 
close.  It  thus  differs  from  smorzando,  as  the 
latter  can  be  used  at  any  time  in  the  movement. 
Chopin  generally  used  smorzando.  Both  these 
words  are  almost  exclusively  used  in  slow 
movements.  [J.  A.F.M.] 

MORI,  Nicolas,  an  Italian  by  family,  born 
in  London  in  1793,  was  a  pupil  of  Viotti,  and 
not  only  became  an  excellent  solo  violinist,  but 
from  his  enthusiasm,  industry,  and  judgment, 
occupied  a  very  prominent  position  in  the  music 
of  London  and  England  generally  from  about 
1 81 2  till  his  death.  He  played  in  the  second 
concert  of  the  Philharmonic  Society  in  1 8 1 4,  and 
from  1 81 6  was  for  many  years  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  Philharmonic  band  and  first  violin  at  the 
Lenten  oratorios,  the  provincial  festivals,  and 
the  majority  of  concerts  of  any  importance.  '  His 
bow-arm  was  bold,  free,  and  commanding,  his 
tone  full  and  firm,  and  his  execution  remarkable.' 
In  addition  to  his  profession  he  started  a  music 
business  in  Bond  Street,  in  conjunction  with 
Lavenu,  and  amongst  other  music  published  the 
second  book  of  Mendelssohn's  Songs  without 
Words,  and  his  P.  F.  Concerto  in  G  minor.  He 
died  June  1 8, 1839,  leavingason,  Fbank.  (died  Aug. 
2, 1 873),  who  was  well  known  in  London  for  many 
years  as  apromisingmusician.  His  cantata Fridolin 
was  performed  several  times  with  success;  and  an 
operetta,  the  'River-sprite,'  to  words  by  G.  Linley, 
was  produced  at  Covent  Garden,  Feb.  9, 1 865.  [G.] 

MORIANI,  Napoieone,  was  born  at  Florence 
about  1806.   He  came  of  a  good  family,  received 


MORICHELLI. 


865 


a  liberal  education,  and  studied  the  law  for  some 
time,  intending  to  embrace  it  as  his  profession. 
Seduced,  however,  by  the  applause  which  his 
beautiful  tenor  voice  obtained  for  him  in  society, 
he  changed  his  intentions,  and  attempted  the 
operatic  career  at  Pavia  in  1833,  with  success. 
After  singing  in  the  principal  Italian  cities,  he 
returned  to  Florence  in  1 839,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  was  recognised  both  there  and  at  Milan, 
and  Trieste,  as  the  first  living  tenor  of  Italy. 
In  1 841  he  visited  Vienna,  where  he  was  ap- 
pointed '  Virtuoso  di  Camera '  by  the  Emperor. 
In  1844  and  1845  he  sang  in  London.  He  came 
with  a  real  Italian  reputation,  but  he  came  too 
late  in  his  own  career,  and  too  early  for  a  public 
that  had  not  yet  forgotten  what  Italian  tenors 
had  been.  Besides,  Mario  was  already  there, 
firmly  established,  and  not  easily  to  be  displaced 
from  his  position.  '  Moriani's  must  have  been  a 
superb  and  richly- strong  voice,  with  tones  full  of 
expression  as  well  as  force'  (Chorley).  But 
either  he  was  led  away  by  bad  taste  or  fashion 
into  drawling  and  bawling,' or  he  had  never  been 
thoroughly  trained.  Any  way,  he  pleased  little 
here.  Still  he  sang  with  success  at  Lisbon, 
Madrid,  and  Barcelona,  in  1846,  and  was  decor- 
ated by  the  Queen  of  Spain  with  the  Order  of 
Isabella.  He  sang  at  Milan,  in  the  autumn  of 
1847,  but  his  voice  was  gone,  and  he  soon  after- 
wards retired  from  the  stage,  and  died  March 
1878.  Mendelssohn  more  than  once  speaks  of 
hiui  as  '  my  favourite  tenor,  Moriani.'  [J.M.] 
MORICHELLI,  Anna  BOSELLO,  was  born 
at  Reggio  in  1760.  Being  endowed  by  nature 
with  a  pure  and  flexible  voice,  she  was  instructed 
by  Guadagni,  one  of  the  best  sopranists  of  the 
day.  She  made  her  dAbut  at  Parma  in  1779  with 
great  eclat.  After  singing  at  Venice  and  Milan, 
she  appeared  at  Vienna  in  1 781-2,  and  with 
difficulty  obtained  leave  from  the  Emperor  to 
return  and  fulfil  an  engagement  at  Turin.  She 
continued  to  sing  at  the  chief  theatres  of  Italy, 
until  Viotti  engaged  her  for  the  Thddtre  de  Mon- 
sieur, at  Paris,  in  1790,  where  she  remained 
during  the  years  1 791-2.  Here  she  was  very 
highly  appreciated,  even  by  such  good  judges  as 
Garat,  and  with  this  reputation  she  came  to 
London  in  1792,  with  Banti.  Lorenzo  d'Aponte, 
the  poet  of  the  London  Opera-House,  gives  a 
severe  description  of  these  two  singers  in  his 
Memoirs :  he  calls  them  'equals  in  vice,  passions, 
and  dishonesty,'  though  differing  in  the  methods 
by  which  they  sought  to  accomplish  their  designs. 
To  musical  amateurs,  such  as  Lord  Mount-Edg- 
cumbe,  the  Morichelli  seemed  far  below  her  rival; 
'  She  was,  they  said,  a  much  better  musician.  So- 
she  might  be,  but  never  could  have  been  half  so 
delightful  a  singer,  and  she  was  now  past  her  prime ; 
her  voice  was  not  true,  her  taste  spoiled  by  a  long 
residence  at  Paris,  .  .  .  and  her  manner  and  acting 
were  affected.  In  short,  she  did  not  please  gener- 
ally, though  there  was  a  strong  party  for  her ;  and 
after  her  second  season  she  went  away,  leaving 
behind  her,  in  every  print-shop,  her  portrait, 
with  the  flattering  but  false  inscription,  "  Parti, 
ma  vide  che  adorata  parti va." ' 


366 


MOEICHELLI. 


Mme.  Morichelli  returned  to  Italy  in  I794» 
and  soon  after  retired  from  the  stage.        [J.  M.] 

MORIGI,  Andrea,  an  excellent  basso,  who 
made  his  first  appearance  in  London  on  December 
9,  1766,  in  the  character  of  Tagliaferro,  the 
German  soldier  in  the  '  Buona  Figliuola,'  a  part 
which  he  performed  most  admirably.  He  must 
then  have  been  a  rather  young  man,  for  he  held 
the  position  of  first  buffo  caricato  for  many  years, 
to  the  delight  of  London  audiences.  He  had, 
however,  been  a  member  of  the  original  caste  of 
the '  Buona  Figliuola,'  with  Lovattini,  Savoi,  and  la 
Guadagni,  in  1 760,  at  Rome,  which  was  probably 
his  dAbut.  He  was  brought  to  London  by  Gordon, 
with  the  singers  just  mentioned,  in  the  au- 
tumn of  1 766.  After  that,  he  continued  to  appear 
in  all  the  comic  operas,  such  as  '  I  Viaggiatori 
ridicoli,'  •  Vicende  della  sorte,'  'Pazzied'Orlando,' 
'La  Schiava,'  'II  Carnovale,'  'Viaggiatori  Felici,' 
and  'II  Convito,'  down  to  the  'Re  Teodoro,' 
*  Schiavi  per  amore,'  and  '  Cameriera  astuta,'  in 
1787  and  1788, — a  long  career,  followed,  indeed, 
as  Lord  Mount -Edgcumbe  says,  until  Morigi 
had  lost  every  note  of  his  voice. 

In  the  autumn  of  1782  an  unsuccessful  debut 
was  made  by  Morigi's  daughter  in  the  part  of 
prima  donna  in  '  Medonte.'  She  tried  her  luck 
again  in  'L'Olimpiade,'  but  was  no  more  success- 
ful than  before. 

Andrea  Morigi  must  not  he  confused,  as  he 
has  been  by  Fetis,  with  the  following.       [J.  M.] 

MORIGI,  Pieteo,  born  in  the  Romagna  about 
1 705,  studied  singing  in  the  school  of  Pistocchi 
at  Bologna,  and  became  one  of  the  best  sopran- 
ists  of  his  time.  His  voice  is  said  to  have  had 
some  higher  notes  in  its  register  than  any  other 
of  that  kind  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Having  appeared  with  success  in  most 
of  the  Italian  cities,  and  particularly  at  Rome, 
he  was  engaged  in  1 734  at  St.  Petersburg,  where 
he  made  a  great  impression.  [J.  M.] 

MORLACCHI,  Francesco,  composer;  born 
at  Perugia,  June  14,  1 7S4.  He  learnt  the  violin 
at  seven  years  old  from  his  father.  At  twelve 
was  placed  under  Caruso,  Maestro  of  the  cathe- 
dral of  Perugia,  who  taught  him  singing,  the 
clavier,  and  thorough-bass,  while  he  learned  the 
organ  from  Mazetti,  his  maternal  great-uncle. 
At  thirteen  he  had  already  composed  much, 
and  during  his  years  of  boyhood  wrote  several 
pieces  for  the  church,  among  which  a  short 
oratorio,  '  Gli  angeli  al  sepolcro,'  attracted  the 
attention  of  many  amateurs,  and  among  them,  of 
his  godfather,  Count  Pietro  Baglioni,  who  sent 
him  to  study  counterpoint  with  Zingarelli,  at 
Loreto.  But  the  severe  conventional  teacliing 
of  Zingarelli  clashed  with  the  aspirations  of  his 
young,  impatient  mind,  and  after  a  year  and  a 
half  he  returned  to  Perugia.  Conscious,  however, 
that  he  had  still  a  great  deal  to  learn,  he  went 
to  Bologna,  to  complete  his  studies  under  Padre 
Mattei.  [See  Mattel]  Here  he  devoted  much 
attention  to  ecclesiastical  music,  besides  making  a 
special  study  of  the  orchestra,  and  acquiring  a 
practical  knowledge  of  all  the  chief  instruments. 


MORLACCHI. 

During  this  time  of  studentship  he  was  commis- 
sioned to  write  a  cantata  for  the  coronation  of 
Napoleon  as  King  of  Italy,  at  Milan,  in  1805. 
In  February,  1807,  a  musical  farce  called  'II 
Poeta  in  Campagna,'  was  performed  at  the  Pergola 
theatre  in  Florence,  and,  later  in  this  year,  a 
Miserere  for  16  voices  having  won  golden  opinions, 
the  composer  was  invited  to  visit  Verona,  where 
he  produced  his  first  buffo  opera,  'II  Ritratto.' 
He  achieved  his  first  popular  success  with  the 
melodrama,  'II  Corradino,'  at  Parma,  in  1808. 
This  was  followed  by  '  Enone  e  Paride,'  '  Oreste,' 
'  Rinaldo  d'Asti,' '  La  Principessa  per  ripiego,' '  II 
Simoncino,'  and  '  Le  Avventure  d'una  Giornata,' 
besides  a  grand  Mass.  But  all  these  were  sur- 
passed by  '  Le  Danaide,'  written  for  the  Argentino 
theatre  at  Rome,  in  1810.  This  work  was  im- 
mensely successful,  and  once  for  all  established 
its  composer's  fame.  Through  the  influence  of 
Count  Marcolini,  Minister  to  the  Court  of  Saxony, 
Morlacchi  was  now  appointed  chapel-master  of 
the  Italian  opera  at  Dresden,  at  first  for  a  year, 
subsequently  for  life,  with  a  large  salary,  besides 
a  considerable  honorarium  for  every  new  opera 
he  might  compose,  and  leave  of  absence  for  some 
months  of  each  year,  with  liberty  to  write  what 
he  pleased,  where  he  pleased.  This  appointment 
he  held  till  his  death.  The  Italian  style  had  long 
reigned  supreme  in  the  Dresden  fashionable  world, 
and  Morlacchi  at  once  became  '  the  rage.'  His 
music  partook  of  the  styles  of  Paer  and  Mayer ;  it 
was  melodious  and  pleasing,  but  very  slight  in 
character.  He  now  acquainted  himself  to  some 
extent  with  the  works  of  the  great  German 
masters,  a  study  which  had  a  happy  effect  on  him, 
as  it  led  him  insensibly  to  add  a  little  more  solidity 
to  his  somewhat  threadbare  harmonies.  His  ear- 
liest compositions  at  Dresden  were,  a  Grand  Mass 
for  the  royal  chapel,  the  operas '  Raoul  de  Crequi,' 
and  '  La  Cappriciosa  pentita,'  and  an  Oratorio  of 
the  'Passion'  (book  by  Metastasio\  extravagantly 
admired  by  contemporary  enthusiasts. 

In  1813,  Dresden  became  the  military  centre 
of  operations  of  the  allied  armies,  and  the  King, 
Friedrich  August,  Napoleon's  faithful  ally,  was 
a  prisoner.  During  this  time,  Morlacchi  kept  at 
a  wise  distance  from  public  affairs,  and  bewailed 
I  the  fate  of  his  patron  in  retirement.  He  was, 
I  however,  roughly  aroused  by  a  sudden  order  from 
Baron  Rozen,  Russian  Minister  of  Police,  to  write 
a  cantata  for  the  Emperor  of  Russia's  birthday. 
The  task  was,  of  course,  uncongenial  to  the  com- 
poser, and  as  only  two  days  were  available  for  it, 
he  declined  to  comply,  alleging  in  excuse  that 
the  time  allowed  was  insufficient.  By  way  of 
answer  it  was  notified  to  him  that  his  choice  lay 
between  obeying  and  being  sent  to  Siberia.  Thus 
pressed  he  set  to  work,  and  in  forty-eight  hours 
the  cantata  was  ready.  Not  long  after  this  the 
Russian  government  having  decreed  the  abolition 
of  the  Dresden  chapel,  Morlacchi  obtained  an 
audience  of  the  Czar,  at  Frankfort,  when,  in  con- 
sequence of  his  representations  and  entreaties,  the 
decree  was  reversed. 

To  celebrate  the  return  of  the  Saxon  king  to 
his  capital  in   1814,  Morlacchi  wrote  another 


MORLACCHI. 

Grand  Mass  and  a  sparkling  buffo  opera,  'H 
Barbiere  di  Siviglia.'  His  political  principles 
must  have  been  conveniently  elastic,  for  the  year 
1 8 14  also  saw  the  production  of  a  Triumphal 
Cantata  for  the  taking  of  Paris  by  the  allied 
armies,  and  a  mass  for  voices  alone,  according  to 
the  Greek  ritual,  in  Slavonic,  for  the  private 
chapel  of  Prince  Repuin,  who  had  been  the 
Russian  Governor  of  Dresden. 

In  June  181 6,  he  was  elected  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Florence,  and  shortly 
after  paid  a  visit  of  some  months  to  his  native 
country,  where  he  was  received  with  every  kind 
of  honour,  gala  performances  of  'Le  Danaide,' 
and  the  oratorio  of  the  'Passion,'  being  given  at 
Perugia.  For  the  dedication  of  this  last  work, 
Pope  Pius  VII  rewarded  him  with  the  decoration 
of  the  'Golden  Spur,'  and  the  title  of  Count 
Palatine.  An  oratorio,  '  II  sacrifizio  d'Abramo, 
o  risaaco,'  although  a  feeble  work,  was  remark- 
able for  the  employment  in  it  of  a  novel  kind  of 
rhythmical  declamation,  in  place  of  the  ordinary 
recitative. 

In  181 7,  CM.  von  Weber  was  appointed  Capell- 
meister  of  the  German  opera  at  Dresden.  Mor- 
lacchi  behaved  to  him  with  a  studied  show  of 
obsequious  politeness,  while  doing  his  utmost  in 
an  underhand  way  to  cripple  his  activity  and  bar 
his  progress.  Yet  he  did  not  disdain  to  beg  for 
Weber's  good  word  as  a  critic  in  the  matter  of  his 
own  compositions,  and  indeed  was  too  much  of  an 
artist  not  to  recognise  the  genius  of  his  young 
colleague,  to  whom,  although  already  overworked, 
he  would  frequently  delegate  the  whole  of  his  own 
duties,  while  on  the  plea  of  ill-health,  he  absented 
himself  in  Italy  for  months  together.  Between 
1 81 7  and  1 841  he  produced  a  number  of  operas 
and  dramatic  pieces,  among  which  the  principal 
were  'Gianni  di  Parigi'  (1818),  'Tebaldo  ed 
Isolina'  (1822), ' La Gioventudi  Enrico  V  (1823), 
'Ilda  d'Avenello  '  (1824),  'I  Saraceni  in  Sicilia' 
(1S27),  'II  Colombo'  (1828),  'II  Disperato  per 
eccesso  di  buon  cuore'  (1829),  and  'II  Rinegato' 
(1832),  this  last  opera  being  a  second  setting  of 
the  book  of  '  I  Saraceni,'  '  in  a  style  calculated 
to  suit  German  taste.'  He  wrote  ten  Grand 
Masses  for  the  Dresden  chapel,  besides  a  great 
number  of  other  pieces  for  the  church.  The  best 
of  these  was  the  Requiem,  composed  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  King  of  Saxony's  death,  in  1827.  He 
said  of  himself  that,  during  the  composition  of  the 
'  Tuba  Mirum '  in  this  mass,  he  had  thought  un- 
ceasingly of  the  '  Last  Judgment '  in  the  Sistine 
chapel,  and  his  recent  biographer,  Count  Rossi- 
Scotti,  does  not  hesitate  to  affirm,  that  by  his 
harmony  he  emulates  Buonarotti  in  the  depiction 
of  the  tremendous  moment.  We  must  refer  those 
of  our  readers  who  may  wish  for  a  detailed 
account  of  Morlacchi  to  this  memoir,  '  Delia  vita 
e  delle  opere  del  Cav.  Francesco  Morlacchi  di 
Perugia,'  or  to  the  notice  in  Fe"tis's  '  Biographie 
des  Musiciens'  (ed.  of  1870),  which  also  con- 
tains a  list  of  his  compositions.  A  '  scena '  or 
'  episode '  for  baritone  voice  with  pianoforte  ac- 
companiment (the  narration  of  Ugolino,  from 
Canto  xxxiii  of  the  '  Inferno '),  written  in  his  last 


MORLEY. 


367 


years,  deserves  special  mention  here,  as  it  became 
very  famous. 

In  1 841  he  once  more  set  off  for  Italy,  but  was 
forced  by  illness  to  stop  at  Innspruck,  where  he 
died,  October  28.  He  left  an  unfinished  opera, 
'  Francesca  da  Rimini,' for  the  possession  of  which 
Florence,  Dresden,  and  Vienna  had  disputed  with 
each  other.  Profuse  honours  were  paid  to  his 
memory  in  Dresden  and  in  Perugia. 

Morlacchi's  music,  forty  years  after  his  death, 
is  an  absolutely  dead  letter  to  the  world.  Yet 
during  his  lifetime  he  was  reckoned  by  numbers 
of  contemporaries  one  of  the  foremost  composers 
of  the  golden  age  of  music.  Weber's  good- 
natured  criticism  (in  one  of  his  letters)  on  his 
'  Barbiere  di  Siviglia,'  aptly  describes  much  of  his 
dramatic  work.  'There  is  much  that  is  pretty 
and  praiseworthy  in  this  music;  the  fellow  has 
little  musical  knowledge,  but  he  has  talent,  a  flow 
of  ideas,  and  especially  a  fund  of  good  comic  stuff 
in  him.'  For  an  exact  verification  of  this  de- 
scription we  refer  the  English  student  to  the  MS. 
score  of '  La  Gioventu  di  Enrico  V,'  in  the  library 
of  the  National  Training  School  for  Music,  at 
South  Kensington.  He  was  a  clever  executant  in 
composition  of  this  ephemeral  kind,  which  sup- 
plied a  passing  need,  but  could  not  survive  it. 
The  best  monument  he  left  to  his  memory  was  a 
benevolent  institution  at  Dresden  for  the  widows 
and  orphans  of  the  musicians  of  the  Royal  Chapel, 
which  he  was  instrumental  in  founding. 

The  names  of  such  published  compositions  of 
Morlacchi  as  are  still  to  be  had,  may  be  found 
in  Hofmeister's  '  Handbuch  der  musikalischen 
Literatur.'  [F.A.M.] 

MORLEY,  Thomas,  Mus.  Bac,  was  born 
probably  towards  the  middle  of  the  16th  century. 
It  has  been  conjectured  that  he  was  educated  in 
the  choir  of  St.  Paul's  cathedral ;  it  is  certain  that 
he  was  a  pupil  of  Byrd.  He  took  his  degree  at 
Oxford  July  8,  1588.  In  1591  he  appears  to 
have  been  organist  of  St.  Paul's,  but  soon  after- 
wards resigned  it,  as  he  never  describes  himself 
in  any  of  his  publications  as  other  than  Gentle- 
man of  the  Chapel  Royal,  to  which  office  he  waa 
admitted  July  24,  1592.  He  was  also  Epistler, 
and  on  Nov.  18,  1592,  advanced  to  Gospeller. 
His  first  publication  was  'Canzonets,  or  Little 
Short  Songs  to  three  voyces,'  1 593  (other  editions 
1606  and  165 1),  which  was  followed  by  '  Madri- 
galls  to  foure  Voyces,'  1594;  2nd  edition,  1600. 
In  1595  he  published  "The  First  Booke  of  Ballets 
to  five  voyces,'  an  edition  of  which  with  Italian 
words  appeared  in  the  same  year ;  and  another 
edition  with  the  English  words  in  1600.  The 
work  was  reprinted  in  score  by  the  Musical  An- 
tiquarian Society.  In  1 595  also  appeared  '  The 
First  Book  of  Canzonets  to  Two  Voyces,'  con- 
taining also  7  Fantasies  (with  Italian  titles)  for 
instruments.  In  1597  he  issued  'Canzonets,  or 
Little  Short  Aers  to  five  and  sixe  voices,'  and  in 
1600  '  The  First  Booke  of  Aires  or  Little  Short 
Songes  to  sing  and  play  to  the  Lute  with  the 
Base -Viol.'  The  latter  work  contains  the  Pages' 
song  in  As  You  Like  It  ('  It  was  a  lover  and 
his  lass'),  one   of  the  few   pieces    of  original 


368 


MORLEY. 


Shaksperean  music  which  has  come  down  to  us  ; 
a  charmingly  fresh  and  flowing  melody,  which  has 
been  reprinted  in  Knight's  'Shakspere,'  and 
Chappell's  '  Popular  Music  of  the  Olden  Time.' 
Morley's  compositions  were  more  melodious  than 
those  of  most  of  his  predecessors,  and  many  of 
his  madrigals  and  ballets  have  enjoyed  a  lasting 
popularity.  He  was  editor  of  the  following 
works  : — '  Canzonets  or  Little  Short  Songs  to 
Foure  Voyces,  selected  out  of  the  best  approved 
Italian  authors,'  1598  ;  '  Madrigals  to  five  voyces 
selected  out  of  the  best  approved  Italian  authors,' 
1598  ;  and  'The  Triumphes  of  Oriana,  to  five 
and  sixe  voyces,  composed  by  divers  several 
authors,'  1601  ;  reprinted  in  score  by  William 
Hawes.  [See  Oriana,  Triumphes  of.]  To  each 
of  the  first  and  third  of  these  he  contributed 
two  original  madrigals.  He  also  edited  'The 
First  Booke  of  Consort  Lessons,  made  by  divers 
exquisite  Authors  for  sixe  Instruments  to  play 
together,  viz.  The  Treble  Lute,  the  Pandora,  the 
Citterne,  the  Base  Violl,  the  Flute,  and  the 
Treble  Violl,'  1599  >  another  edition,  'newly  cor- 
rected and  inlarged,'  appeared  in  161 1.  In  1597 
he  published  '  A  Plaine  and  Easie  Introduction 
to  Practicall  Musicke.  Set  downe  in  forme  of 
a  dialogue :  Devided  into  three  Partes :  The  first 
teacheth  to  sing  with  all  things  necessary  for  the 
knowledge  of  a  prickt  song.  The  second  teacheth 
of  descante  and  to  sing  two  parts  in  one  upon 
a  plain  song  or  ground,  with  other  things  neces- 
sary for  a  descanter.  The  third  and  last  part 
entreateth  of  composition  of  three,  foure,  five  or 
more  parts,  with  many  profitable  rules  to  that 
effect.  With  new  songs  of  2,  3,  4  and  5  parts.' 
This  excellent  work,  the  first  regular  treatise  on 
music  published  in  England,  continued  in  favour 
for  upwards  of  two  centuries,  and  may  even  now 
be  perused  with  profit  to  the  student.  To  the 
musical  antiquary  it  is  indispensable.  A  re-issue, 
with  a  new  title-page,  appeared  in  1608,  and 
a  second  edition  with  an  appendix,  in  which  the 
several  compositions  printed  in  separate  parts  in 
the  body  of  the  work  are  given  in  score,  was 
published  in  1771.  The  'Introduction'  was 
translated  into  German  by  Johann  Caspar  Trost, 
organist  of  St.  Martin's,  Halberstadt,  in  the 
17th  century,  and  published  under  the  title  of 
'Musica  Practica.'  None  of  Morley's  church 
music  was  printed  in  his  lifetime.  A  Service 
in  D  minor,  an  Evening  Service  in  G  minor,  and 
an  anthem  were  printed  by  Barnard,  and  a 
Burial  Service  by  Boyce.  A  Preces,  Psalmes 
and  Responses,  and  three  Anthems,  are  in  Bar- 
nard's MS.  collections,  and  a  Motet,  'De  pro- 
fundis,'  6  voices,  also  exists  in  MS.  The  words 
of  several  anthems  by  him  are  contained  in 
Clifford's  '  Divine  Harmony.'  He  composed  five 
sets  of  lessons  for  Queen  Elizabeth's  Virginal 
Book.  In  1598  he  obtained  a  patent  for  the  ex- 
clusive printing  of  music  books,  under  which  the 
works  printed  by  William  Barley,  Thomas  Este, 
Peter  Short,  John  Windet,  and  others,  during  its 
existence  were  issued.  On  Oct.  7,  1602,  George 
Woodson  was  sworn  into  Morley's  place  at  the 
Chapel  Royal,  but  whether  the  vacancy  had  oc- 


MORNINGTON. 

curred  by  his  resignation  or  his  death,  does  not 
appear.  It  may  have  been  the  former,  as  in  his 
'  Introduction '  he  frequently  alludes  to  his  im- 
paired health,  and  both  Hawkins  and  Burney 
state  him  to  have  died  in  1604.  Morley's  com- 
positions entitle  him  to  much  higher  rank  than 
the  musical  historians  were  disposed  to  assign 
to  him,  and  very  much  better  examples  of  his 
compositions  might  have  been  found  than  those 
they  selected.  In  proof  of  this  it  Ih  only  neces- 
sary to  cite  'Now  is  the  month  of  Maying,' 
*  My  bonny  lass  she  smileth,'  '  Dainty  fine  sweet 
nymph,' '  Fire,  fire,'  'April  is  in  my  mistress  face,' 
'  Lo,  where  with  flow'ry  head,'  and  '  I  follow,  lo, 
the  footing.'  His  Canzonets  and  Madrigals  for 
3  and  4  voices  were  published  in  score  by  W.W. 
Holland  and  W.  Cooke,  and  six  of  his  Canzonets 
for  2  voices  in  score  by  Welcker.  [W.H.H.] 

MORLEY,  William,  Mus.  Bac.,  graduated 
at  Oxford,  July  17,  171 3.  On  Aug.  8,  171 5,  he 
was  admitted  a  Gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal, 
He  composed  some  songs  published  in  a  col- 
lection together  with  others  by  John  Isham, 
and  a  chant  in  D  minor,  printed  by  Boyce,  ii. 
306,  by  some  believed  to  be  the  oldest  double 
chant  in  existence.  [See  Flintoft.]  He  died 
Oct.  29,  1731.  [W.H.H.] 

MORNINGTON,  Garrett  Collet  Wel- 
leslet,  Earl  of,  Mus.  Doc,  born  July  19,  1735, 
at  Dangan,  Ireland,  displayed  capacity  for  music 
at  a  very  early  age.  Several  interesting  anec« 
dotes  of  his  early  career  are  related  by  Daines 
Barrington  (Miscellanies,  1781).  With  little  or 
no  assistance  from  masters  he  learned  to  play 
on  the  violin  and  organ  and  to  compose,  and 
when,  with  the  view  of  improving  himself  in 
composition,  he  consulted  Roseingrave  and  Ge- 
miniani,  they  informed  him  that  he  already 
knew  all  they  could  teach  him.  The  Univer- 
sity of  Dublin  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of 
Mus.  Doc.,  and  elected  him  professor  of  that 
faculty.  In  1758  he  succeeded  his  father,  who 
in  1746  had  been  created  Baron  Mornington, 
and  in  1 760  he  was  created  Viscount  Wellesley 
and  Earl  of  Mornington.  His  compositions  are 
chiefly  vocal ;  some  are  for  the  church,  copies 
of  which  are  said  to  exist  in  the  choir  books 
of  St.  Patrick's  cathedral,  Dublin.  His  chant 
in  E  is  universally  known.  But  it  was  as  a 
glee  composer  that  he  excelled.  He  gained 
prizes  from  the  Catch  Club  in  1776  and  1777 
for  two  catches,  and  in  1779  f°r  *"8  popular 
glee  '  Here  in  cool  grot.'  He  published  a 
collection  of  '  Six  Glees,'  and  John  Sale  in- 
cluded three  others  in  a  collection  with  three 
of  his  own.  Nine  glees,  three  madrigals,  an 
ode,  and  ten  catches  by  him  are  contained 
in  Warren's  collections,  and  several  glees  in 
Horsley's  'Vocal  Harmony.'  A  complete  col- 
lection of  his  glees  and  madrigals,  edited  by  Sir 
H.  R.  Bishop,  was  published  in  1846.  He  died 
May  22,  1781.  Three  of  his  sons  attained  re- 
markable distinction,  viz.  Richard,  Marquis  Wel- 
lesley; Arthur,  Duke  of  Wellington ;  and  Henry, 
Lord  Cowley.  [W.H.H.] 


MOERIS  DANCE. 

MORRIS,  or  MORRICE,  DANCE.  A  sort 
of  pageant,  accompanied  with  dancing,  probably 
derived  from  the  Morisco,  a  Moorish  dance 
formerly  popular  in  Spain  and  France.  Al- 
though the  name  points  to  this  derivation,  there 
is  some  doubt  whether  the  Morris  Dance  does 
not  owe  its  origin  to  the  Mataciss.  In  ac- 
counts of  the  Morisco,  no  mention  is  made  of 
any  sword-dance,  which  was  a  distinguishing 
feature  of  the  Matacins,  and  survived  in  the 
English  Morris  Dance  (in  a  somewhat  different 
form)  so  late  as  the  present  century.  Jehan 
Tabourot,  in  the  Orche'sographie  (Langres,  1588), 
says  that  when  he  was  young  the  Morisco  used  to 
be  frequently  danced  by  boys  who  had  their 
faces  blacked,  and  wore  bells  on  their  legs.  The 
dance  contained  much  stamping  and  knocking 
of  heels,  and  on  this  account  Tabourot  says  that 
it  was  discontinued,  as  it  was  found  to  give  the 
dancers  gout.  The  following  is  the  tune  to  which 
it  was  danced: — 


MOSCHELES. 


3G9 


The  English  Morris  Dance  is  said  to  have  been 
introduced  from  Spain  by  John  of  Gaunt  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  III.,  but  this  is  extremely 
doubtful,  as  there  are  scarcely  any  traces  of  it 
before  the  time  of  Henry  VII.,  when  it  first 
began  to  be  popular.  Its  performance  was  not 
confined  to  any  particular  time  of  the  year, 
although  it  generally  formed  part  of  the  May 
games.  When  this  was  the  case,  the  characters 
who  took  part  in  it  consisted  of  a  Lady  of  the 
May,  a  Fool,  a  Piper,  and  two  or  more  dancers. 
From  its  association  with  the  May  games,  the 
Morris  Dance  became  incorporated  with  some 
pageant  commemorating  Robin  Hood,  and  charac- 
ters representing  that  renowned  outlaw,  Friar 
Tuck,  Little  John,  and  Maid  Marian  (performed 
by  a  boy),  are  often  found  taking  part  in  it.  A 
hobby-horse,  4  whifflers,  or  marshals,  a  dragon, 
and  other  characters  were  also  frequently  added 
to  the  above.  The  dresses  of  the  dancers  were 
ornamented  round  the  ankles,  knees,  and  wrists 
with  different-sized  bells,  which  were  distinguished 
as  the  fore  bells,  second  bells,  treble,  mean,  tenor, 
bass,  and  double  bells.  In  a  note  to  Sir  Walter 
Scott's  'Fair  Maid  of  Perth'  there  is  an  in- 
teresting account  of  one  of  these  dresses,  which 
was  preserved  by  the  Glover  Incorporation  of 
Perth.  This  dress  was  ornamented  with  250 
bells,  fastened  on  pieces  of  leather  in  21  sets  of 
12,  and  tuned  in  regular  musical  intervals. 
The  Morris  Dance  attained  its  greatest  popularity 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIH. ;  thenceforward  it 
degenerated  into  a  disorderly  revel,  until,  to- 
gether with  the  May  games  and  other  '  entice- 
ments unto  naughtiness,'  it  was  suppressed  by 
the  Puritans.  It  was  revived  at  the  Restoration, 
but  the  pageant  seems  never  to  have  attained  its 
former  popularity,  although  the  dance  continued 
to  be  an  ordinary  feature  of  village  entertain- 
ments until  within  the  memory  of  persons  now 
living.  In  Yorkshire  the  dancers  wore  peculiar 
headdresses  made  of  laths  covered  with  ribbons, 
vol.  n. 


and  were  remarkable  for  their  skill  in  dancing 
the  sword  dance,1  over  two  swords  placed  cross- 
wise on  the  ground.  A  country  dance  which 
goes  by  the  name  of  the  Morris  Dance  is  still 
frequently  danced  in  the  north  of  England.  It 
is  danced  by  an  indefinite  number  of  couples, 
standing  opposite  to  one  another,  as  in  '  Sir 
Roger  de  Coverley.'  Each  couple  holds  a  ribbon 
between  them,  under  which  the  dancers  pass 
in  the  course  of  the  dance.  In  Cheshire  the 
following  tune  is  played  to  the  Morris  dance, — 


fll  r  r  r  ff|.vnr  jjj 


w 


P£ 


Mor-ris  Dance  is   a      very  pretty  tune,        I  can  dance  in 


^^£E£E£ 


^ 


my  new  shoon ;  My  new  shoon  they  are  so  good,     I  could  dance  It 


j  j  1  n  nm  j  j  j  1  j  m 


If    I  would.     This  Is    it,  and  that  is      It,  And  this  is    Morris 


j  1  j  jij  j  j  jij  1  r  Emm 


dancing,  My  poor  father  broke  his  leg,  and  so    It   was   a   chancing. 

but  in  Yorkshire  the  tune  of  an  old  comic  song, 
'  The  Literary  Dustman,'  is  generally  used. 


[W.B.S.] 

MORTIER  DE  FONTAINE.  A  pianist  of 
celebrity,  born  at  Warsaw  May  13, 1816.  He  was 
possessed  of  unusual  technical  ability,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  person  to  play  the  great 
sonata  of  Beethoven  op.  106  in  public.  Fromi853 
to  i860  he  resided  in  St.  Petersburg,  since  then 
in  Munich,  Paris,  and  many  other  towns,  and  is 
now  living  in  London.  [J.A.F.M.] 

MOSCHELES,  Ignaz,  the  foremost  pianist 
after  Hummel  and  before  Chopin,  was  born  at 
Prague  on  May  30,  1794.  His  precocious  apti- 
tude for  music  aroused  the  interest  of  Dyonis 
Weber,  the  director  of  the  Prague  Conservatoriuin. 
Weber  brought  him  up  on  Mozart  and  Clementi. 
At  fourteen  years  of  age  he  played  a  concerto  of 
his  own  in  public ;  and  soon  after,  on  the  death 
of  his  father,  was  sent  to  Vienna  to  shift  for 
himself  as  a  pianoforte  teacher  and  player,  and 
to  pursue  his  studies  in  counterpoint  under  Al- 
brechtsberger,  and  in  composition  under  Salieri. 
The  first  volume  of '  Aus  Moscheles  *Leben,' 
extracts  from  his  diary,  edited  by  Mme.  Moscheles 
(Leipzig,  1872),  offers  bright  glimpses  of  musical 
life  in  Vienna  during  the  first  decade  of  the 
century,  and  shows  how  quickly  young  Moscheles 
became  a  favourite  in  the  best  musical  circles. 

1  '  Do  the  sword-dance  with  any  Morris-dancer  In  Christendom.1 
(Marston. '  Malcontent,'  Act  I.  Scene  3.) 
3  Translated  by  A.  D.  Coleridge.    Burst  a  Blackett.  1S73. 

Bb 


370 


MOSCHELES. 


In  1 814  Artaria  &  Co.,  the  publishers,  honoured 
him  with  a  commission  to  make  the  pianoforte 
arrangement  of  Beethoven's  Fidelio  under  the 
master's  supervision.     [See  vol.  i.  191  a,  169  &.] 

'Moscheles's  career  as  a  virtuoso  can  be  dated 
from  the  production  of  his  '  Variationen  iiber  den 
Alexandermarsch,'  op.  32,  1815.  These  'bril- 
liant' variations  met  with  an  unprecedented 
success,  and  soon  became  a  popular  display 
piece  for  professional  pianists ;  later  in  life  he 
frequently  found  himself  compelled  to  play 
them,  though  he  had  outgrown  them  both 
as  a  musician  and  as  a  player.  During  the 
ten  years  following  Moscheles  led  the  life  of  a 
travelling  virtuoso.  In  the  winter  of  1821  he 
was  heard  and  admired  in  Holland,  and  wrote 
his  Concerto  in  G  minor;  early  in  1822  he  played 
in  Paris,  and  subsequently  in  London.  Here 
John  Cramer,  and  the  veteran  Clementi,  hailed 
him  as  an  equal  and  friend;  his  capital  Duo 
for  two  pianofortes,  'Hommage  a  Handel,'  was 
written  for  Cramer's  concert,  and  played  by  the 
composer  and  *  glorious  John.'  In  the  season  of 
1823  he  reappeared  in  London,  and  in  1824  he 
gave  pianoforte  lessons  to  Felix  Mendelssohn, 
then  a  youth  of  15,  at  Berlin.  In  1826,  soon 
after  his  marriage,  at  Hamburg,  with  Charlotte 
Embden,  he  chose  London  for  a  permanent  resi- 
dence ;  and  for  a  further  ten  years  he  led  the  busy 
life  of  a  prominent  metropolitan  musician.  His 
first  performance  at  the  Philharmonic  was  on 
May  29, 1826.  After  that  he  often  played  there, 
appeared  at  the  concerts  of  friends  and  rivals, 
gave  his  own  concert  annually,  paid  flying  visits 
to  Bath,  Brighton,  Edinburgh,  etc.,  played  much 
in  society,  did  all  manner  of  work  to  the  order  of 
publishers,  gave  innumerable  lessons,  and  withal 
composed  assiduously.  In  1832  he  was  elected 
one  of  the  directors  of  the  Philharmonic  Society; 
and  in  1837  and  38  he  conducted  Beethoven's  9th 
Symphony  with  signal  success  at  the  society's 
concerts.  In  1845,  after  Sir  Henry  Bishop's 
resignation,  he  acted  as  regular  conductor. 

When  Mendelssohn,  who  during  his  repeated 
visits  to  England  had  become  Moscheles's  inti- 
mate friend,  started  the  Conservatorium  of  Music 
at  Leipzig,  Moscheles  was  invited  to  take  the 
post  of  first  professor  of  the  pianoforte.  He  began 
his  duties  in  1846 ;  and  it  is  but  fair  to  add  that 
the  continued  success  of  the  institution,  both 
during  the  few  remaining  months  of  Mendels- 
sohn's life,  and  for  full  twenty  years  after,  was  in  a 
great  manner  owing  to  Moscheles's  wide  and  solid 
reputation,  and  to  his  indefatigable  zeal  and  ex- 
emplary conscientiousness  as  a  teacher.  Moscheles 
took  quite  a  paternal  interest  in  his  pupils.  If 
the  school  hours  proved  insufficient,  which  was 
frequently  the  case,  he  would  invite  them  to  his 
private  residence,  and  there  continue  his  instruc- 
tions; and  when  they  left  school  he  endea- 
voured to  find  suitable  professional  openings  for 
them,  and  remained  their  friend,  ever  ready  with 
kindly  advice  and  assistance. 

As  a  pianoforte  player  Moscheles  was  dis- 
tinguished by  a  crisp  and  incisive  touch,  clear 
and  precise  phrasing,  and  a  pronounced  preference 


MOSEL. 

for  minute  accentuation.  He  played  octaves  with 
stiff  wrists,  and  was  chary  in  the  use  of  the  pedals. 

Mendelssohn  and,  with  some  reservations, 
Schumann,  were  the  only  younger  masters  whose 
pianoforte  works  were  congenial  to  him.  Those 
of  Chopin  and  Liszt  he  regarded  with  mingled 
feelings  of  aversion  and  admiration.  Indeed,  his 
method  of  touch  and  fingering  did  not  permit 
him  to  play  either  Chopin's  or  Liszt's  pieces  with 
ease.  '  My  thoughts,  and  consequently  my  fingers,' 
he  wrote  in  1833,  a  propos  of  Chopin's  Etudes, 
etc.,  '  ever  stumble  and  sprawl  at  certain  crude 
modulations,  and  I  find  Chopin's  productions  on 
the  whole  too  sugared,  too  little  worthy  of  a  man 
and  an  educated  musician,  though  there  is  much 
charm  and  originality  in  the  national  colour  of 
his  motive.'  It  is  true  he  somewhat  modified  this 
opinion  when  he  heard  Chopin  play.  Still  it 
remains  a  fact  that  to  the  end  of  his  days,  both 
the  matter  and  the  manner  of  Chopin  and  other 
modern  pianists  appeared  to  him  questionable. 

Moscheles  was  renowned  for  the  variety  and 
brilliancy  of  his  extempore  performances,  the 
character  of  which  can  be  guessed  at  by  his 
Preludes,  op.  73.  His  last  improvisation  in  public 
on  themes  furnished  by  the  audience  formed  part 
of  the  programme  of  a  concert  at  St.  James's 
Hall  in  1865,  given  by  Madame  Jenny  Lind- 
Goldschmidt '  in  aid  of  the  sufferers  by  the  war 
between  Austria  and  Prussia,'  where  he  impro- 
vised for  some  twenty  minutes  on  '  See  the  con- 
quering hero  comes,'  and  on  a  theme  from  the 
Andante  of  Beethoven's  C  minor  Symphony,  in 
a  highly  interesting  and  astonishing  manner. 

The  list  of  his  numbered  compositions  given  in 
a  Thematic  Catalogue  (Leipzig,  Kistner)  and  in 
•  Aus  Moscheles  Leben,'  vol.ii.,  extends  to  op.  142, 
and  there  is  besides  a  long  list  of  ephemera, 
written  for  the  market,  to  please  publishers  and 
fashionable  pupils.  The  latter,  and  many  of  the 
former,  have  had  their  day ;  but  his  best  works, 
such  as  the  Concerto  in  G  minor,  op.  60  (1820- 
21) ;  the  Concerto  pathe'tique,  op.  93 ;  the  Sonate 
melancolique,  op.  49 ;  the  Duo  for  pianoforte, 
'Hommage  a  Handel,'  op.  92  ;  the  three  Allegri 
di  Bravura,  op.  51 ;  and  above  all,  the  24 
Etudes,  op.  70  (1825  and  26),  and  the  'Cha- 
racteristische  Studien,'  op.  95,  occupy  a  place 
in  the  classical  literature  of  the  instrument 
from  which  no  subsequent  development  can  oust 
them.  Moscheles  died  at  Leipzig  March  10, 
1870.  [E.D.] 

MOSEL,  Ignaz  Fbanz,  Edler  von,  composer 
and  writer  on  musical  subjects,  born  at  Vienna, 
April  1,  1772,  conducted  the  first  musical  fes- 
tivals of  the  Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde  in  the 
Imperial  Riding-school  (181 2  to  1816).  He  was 
ennobled,  and  made  a  Hofrath.  From  1820  to 
29  he  was  vice-director  of  the  two  Court 
theatres,  and  from  1829  till  his  death  principal 
custos  of  the  Imperial  library.  In  his  earlier 
years  he  arranged  Haydn's  '  Creation '  (Mollo), 
Cherubini's '  Mide'e,'  and '  Deux  joumees '  (Cappi), 
and  'Cosl  fan  tutte'  (Steiner),  for  string-quartet; 
and  the  '  Creation '  and  '  Cosl  fan  tutte '  for  two 
pianofortes,  for  the  blind  pianist  Paradies.    For 


MOSEL. 

the  Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde  he  put 
additional  instruments  to  several  of  Handel's 
1  oratorios,  and  translated  the  text.  He  also  com- 
posed three  operas  (court-theatre),  one  Singspiel, 
several  overtures  and  entr'actes  for  plays,  a  Missa 
solennis,  etc.  He  published  three  collections  of 
songs,  dedicating  one  to  Vogl,  the  celebrated 
singer  of  Schubert's  songs,  and  another  to  Roch- 
litz  (Steiner).  Among  his  writings  the  following 
are  of  value : — 'Versuch  einer  Aesthetik  des 
dramatischen  Tonsatzes'  (Vienna,  Strauss,  1813) ; 
'  Ueber  das  Leben  und  die  Werke  des  Antonio 
Salieri' (ibid.,  Wallishauser,  1827);  'Geschichte 
der  Hofbibliothek '  (ibid.,  Beck,  1835) ;  and  arti- 
cles in  various  periodicals  on  the  history  of  music, 
including  '  Die  Tonkunst  in  Wien  wahrend  der 
letzten  5  Dezennien'  (1808,  revised  and  repub- 
lished 1840).  Von  Mosel  died  in  Vienna,  April 
8,  1844.  [C.F.P.] 

MOSE  IN  EGITTO.  An  'oratorio' ;  libretto 
by  Tottola,  music  by  Rossini.  Produced  at  the 
San  Carlo  Theatre,  Naples,  in  Lent  181 8,  and  at 
the  Theatre  Italien,  Paris,  in  1822.  The  libretto 
was  adapted  by  Balocchi  and  De  Jouy,  and 
the  music  much  modified  by  the  composer ;  and 
it  was  re-produced,  under  the  title  of  Mo'ise, 
at  the  Academie  Royal,  Paris,  March  26,  1827. 
On  the  bills  it  was  entitled  'Oratorio,'  and  on 
the  book  'Mouse  et  Pharaon,  ou  le  Passage 
de  la  Mer  Rouge.'  The  opera  was  produced  at 
the  King's  Theatre,  Haymarket,  London,  as 
Pietro  rEremita,  April  23,  1822.  On  Feb.  22, 
1833,  it  was  brought  out  at  the  Co  vent  Garden 
oratorios  as  'The  Israelites  in  Egypt;  or,  The 
Passage  of  the  Red  Sea,'  with  scenery  and 
dresses,  and  additions  from  Israel  in  Egypt.  On 
April  20  it  was  again  brought  out  at  the  Royal 
Italian  Opera,  Covent  Garden,  as  Zora.  In 
1845  it  was  performed  by  the  Handel  and  Haydn 
Society  of  Boston,  U.S.A.,  in  an  English  version 
of  the  original  2]ibretto,  and  on  May  24,  1878, 
was  also  performed  with  great  success  by  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society,  at  Exeter  Hall,  in  an 
English  version  by  Arthur  Matthison.  [G.] 

MOSES.  An  oratorio,  the  words  and  music 
of  which  were  composed  by  A.  B.  Marx,  and 
which  was  first  performed  at  Breslau  in  Dec. 
1 841,  and  a  few  times  subsequently  in  Germany. 
The  book  was  originally  compiled,  at  Marx's 
request,  by  Mendelssohn,  though  afterwards  re- 
jected ;  and  the  autograph  is  preserved  by  the 
Mendelssohn  family  in  Berlin,  with  the  date 
Aug.  31,  1832.  [G.] 

MOSEVVIUS,  Johann  Theodob,  born  Sept. 
25,  1788,  at  Konigsberg  in  Prussia;  like  so 
many  others,  forsook  the  law  for  music  and  the 
theatre.  After  a  regular  musical  education  he 
became  in  1S14  director  of  the  opera  in  his 
native  town.  He  married,  and  in  1816  went  to 
Breslau,  and  for  8  years  he  and  his  wife  were 
the  pillars  of  the  opera.  His  wife  dying  in 
1825  he  forsook  the  stage,  and  founded  the  Bres- 
lau Singakademie.   He  had  before  this  started  the 

>  Hasllnger  published  the  scores  of '  Belshazzar'  and  '  Jephtba.' 
2  The;  have  performed  it  45  times  down  to  1878. 


MOTET. 


371 


Liedertafel  of  the  town.  In  1827  he  followed 
Berner  as  Professor  at  the  University,  and  in 
1829  became  Director  of  the  music  there.  In 
1 831  he  succeeded  Schnabel  as  head  of  the  Royal 
Institution  for  Church  Music,  which  he  appears 
to  have  conducted  most  efficiently,  bringing  for- 
ward a  large  number  of  pieces  by  the  greatest 
of  the  old  Italian  masters,  as  well  as  the  vocal 
works  of  Mendelssohn,  Lowe,  Spohr,  Marx,  etc. 
His  activity  was  further  shown  in  the  foundation 
of  an  elementary  class  as  a  preparative  for  the 
Singakademie,  and  a  society  called  the  Musikal- 
ische  Cirkel  (1834)  f°r  *ne  practice  of  secular 
music.  He  also  initiated  the  musical  section  of 
the  Vaterlandische  Gesellschaft  of  Silesia,  and 
became  its  secretary.  In  England  this  active 
and  useful  man  is  probably  only  known  through 
two  pamphlets — reprints  from  the  Allg.  Musikal- 
ische  Zeitung — 'J.  S.  Bach  in  seinen  Kirchen 
cantaten  und  Choralgesiingen'  (Berlin,  1845), 
and  'J.  S.  Bach's  Matthaus  Passion'  (Berlin, 
1852).  These  valuable  treatises  are  now  su- 
perseded by  the  publication  of  the  works  of 
which  they  treat,  but  in  the  copious  examples 
which  they  contain,  some  Englishmen  made 
their  first  acquaintance  with  Bach's  finest  com- 
positions. [G.] 

MOSKOWA.     See  Prince  de  la  Moskowa. 

MOSZKOWSKI,  Moritz,  pianist  and  com- 
poser, born  at  Berlin  August  23,  1854,  studied 
first  at  Dresden  and  afterwards  at  Berlin.  He 
has  published  several  pianoforte  solos  and  duets 
(among  the  latter,  some  charming  '  Spanish 
Dances'  in  two  books),  also  two  concert  pieces 
for  violin  and  piano.  A  pianoforte  concerto,  and 
two  symphonies,  remain  in  MS.  [J.A.F.M.] 

MOTET  (Barb.  Lat.  Motetum,  Motectum,  Mu- 
tetus,  Mot  ell  as,  Motulus  ;  Ital.  Mottetto).  A  term, 
which  for  the  last  three  hundred  years  has  been 
almost  exclusively  applied  to  certain  pieces  of 
Church  Music,  of  moderate  length,  adapted  to 
Latin  words  (selected,  for  the  most  part,  either 
from  Holy  Scripture,  or  the  Roman  Office- Books), 
and  intended  to  be  sung,  at  High  Mass,  either  in 
place  of,  or  immediately  after,  the  Plain  Chaunt 
Offertorium  for  the  Day.  [See  Mass  ;  Offertob- 
ium.]  This  definition,  however,  extends  no  farther 
than  the  conventional  meaning  of  the  word.  Its 
origin  involves  some  very  grave  etymological 
difficulties,  immeasurably  increased  by  the  varied 
mode  of  spelling  adopted  by  early  writers.  For 
instance,  the  form  Motulus,  can  scarcely  fail  to 
suggest  a  corruption  of  Modulus— &  Cantilena,  or 
Melody ;  and,  in  support  of  this  derivation,  we 
may  remind  our  readers,  that  in  the  13th  and 
14th  Centuries,  and  even  earlier,  the  terms  Mo- 
tetus  and  Motellus,  were  constantly  applied  to 
the  Voice-part  afterwards  called  Medius  or  A  It  us. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  idea  that  the  true  etymon 
is  supplied  by  the  Italian  word,  Mottetto,  diminu- 
tive of  Motto,  and  equivalent  to  the  French  mot, 
or  bon  mot,  a  jest,  derives  some  colour  from  the 
fact  that  it  was  unquestionably  applied,  in  the 
first  instance,  to  a  certain  kind  of  profane  music, 
which,  in  the  13th  Century,  was  severely  censured 
Bb2 


372 


MOTET. 


by  the  Church,  in  common  with  the  Rondellus, 
another  kind  of  popular  melody,  and  the  Con- 
ductus,  a  species  of  Saecular  Song,  in  which 
the  subject  in  the  Tenor  was  original,  and  sug- 
gested the  other  parts,  after  the  manner  of  the 
Guida  of  a  Canon.  Again,  it  is  just  possible 
that  the  varying  orthography  to  which  we  have 
alluded  may,  originally,  have  involved  some  real 
distinction  no  longer  recognisable.  But,  in  op- 
position to  this  view  it  may  be  urged  that  the 
charge  of  licentiousness  was  brought  against  the 
Motet  under  all  its  synonyms,  though  Eccle- 
siastical Composers  continued  to  use  its  themes  as 
Cantifermi,  as  long  as  the  Polyphonic  Schools 
remained  in  existence — to  which  circumstance 
the  word  most  probably  owes  its  present  conven- 
tional signification. 

The  earliest  purely  Ecclesiastical  Motets  of 
which  any  certain  record  remains  to  us  are  those 
of  Philippus  de  Vitriaco,  whose  Ars  composl- 
tionis  de  Motetis,  preserved  in  the  Paris  Library, 
is  believed  to  have  been  written  between  the 
years  1290  and  13 10.  Morley  tells  us  that  the 
Motets  of  this  author  •  were  for  some  time  of  all 
others  best  esteemed  and  most  used  in  the 
Church.'  Some  others,  scarcely  less  antient,  are 
printed  in  Gerbert's  great  work  De  Cantu  et 
musica  sacra — rude  attempts  at  two-part  har- 
mony, intensely  interesting,  as  historical  records, 
but  intolerable  to  cultivated  ears. 

Very  different  from  these  early  efforts  are  the 
productions  of  the  period,  which,  in  our  article, 
Mass,  we  have  designated  as  the  First  Epoch  of 
practical  importance  in  the  history  of  Polyphonic 
Music — a  period  embracing  the  closing  years  of 
the  13th  Century,  and  the  first  half  of  the  14th, 
and  represented  by  the  works  of  Guglielmo  Du 
Fay,  Egydius  Bianchoys,  Eloy,  Dunstable,  Vin- 
cenzo  Faugues,  and  some  other  Masters,  whose 
compositions  are  chiefly  known  through  the  richly 
illuminated  volumes  which  adorn  the  Library  of 
the  Sistine  Chapel,  in  which  they  are  written,  in 
accordance  with  the  custom  of  the  Pontifical 
Choir,  in  characters  large  enough  to  be  read  by 
the  entire  body  of  Singers,  at  one  view.  These 
works  are  full  of  interest ;  and,  like  the  earliest 
Masses,  invaluable,  as  studies  of  the  polyphonic 
treatment  of  the  Modes. 

Equally  interesting  are  the  productions  of  the 
Second  Epoch,  extending  from  the  year  1430  to 
about  1480.  The  typical  Composers  of  this  period 
were  Giovanni  Okenheim  (or  Ockegem),  Caron, 
Gaspar,  Antonius  de  Fevin,  Hobrecht,  and 
Giovanni  Basiron,  in  whose  works  we  first  begin 
to  notice  a  remarkable  divergence  between  the 
music  adapted  to  the  Motet  and  that  set  apart 
for  the  Mass.  From  the  time  of  Okenheim,  the 
leader  of  the  School,  till  the  middle  of  the  16th 
Century,  Composers  seem  to  have  regarded  the 
invention  of  contrapuntal  miracles  as  a  duty 
which  no  one  could  avoid  without  dishonour. 
For  some  unexplained  reason,  they  learned  to 
look  upon  the  Music  of  the  Mass  as  the  natural 
and  orthodox  vehicle  for  the  exhibition  of  this 
peculiar  kind  of  ingenuity :  while,  in  the  Motet, 
they  were  less  careful  to  display  their  learning, 


MOTET. 

and  more  ready  to  encourage  a  certain  gravity  of 
manner,  far  more  valuable,  from  an  aesthetic 
point  of  view,  than  the  extravagant  complications 
which  too  often  disfigure  the  '  more  ambitious 
compositions  they  were  intended  to  adorn.  Hence 
it  frequently  happens,  that,  in  the  Motets  of  this 
period,  we  find  a  consistency  of  design,  combined 
with  a  massive  breadth  of  style,  for  which  we 
search  in  vain  in  contemporary  Masses. 

The  compositions  of  the  Third  Epoch  exhibit 
all  the  merits  noticeable  in  those  of  the  First  and 
Second,  enriched  by  more  extended  harmonic  re- 
sources, and  a  far  greater  amount  of  technical 
skill.  It  was  during  this  period,  comprising  the 
two  last  decads  of  the  15th  Century,  and  the  two 
first  of  the  16th,  that  the  Great  Masters  of  the 
Flemish  School,  excited  to  enthusiasm  by  the 
matchless  genius  of  Josquin  des  Pres,  made  those 
rapid  advances  towards  perfection,  which,  for  a 
time,  placed  them  far  above  the  Musicians  of  any 
other  country  in  Europe,  and  gained  for  them  an 
influence  which  was  everywhere  acknowledged 
with  respect,  and  everywhere  used  for  pure  and 
noble  ends.  The  Motets  bequeathed  to  us  by  these 
earnest-minded  men  are,  with  scarcely  any  excep- 
tion, constructed  upon  a  Canto  fermo,  supplied  by 
some  fragment  of  grave  Plain  Chaunt,  or  suggested 
by  the  strains  of  some  well-known  Saecular  Melody. 
Sometimes,  this  simple  theme  is  sung,  by  the 
Tenor,  or  some  other  principal  Voice,  entirely  in 
Longs,  and  Breves,  while  other  Voices  accompany 
it,  in  florid  Counterpoint,  with  every  imaginable 
variety  of  imitation  and  device.  Sometimes,  it 
is  taken  up  by  the  several  Voices,  in  turn,  after 
the  manner  of  a  Fugue,  or  Canon,  without  the 
support  of  the  continuous  part,  which  is  only  in- 
troduced in  broken  phrases,  with  long  rests 
between  them.  When,  as  is  frequently  the  case, 
the  Motet  consists  of  two  movements — a  Pars 
prima,  and  Pars  secunda — the  Canto  fermo  is 
sometimes  sung,  by  the  Tenor,  first,  in  the  or- 
dinary way,  and  then  backwards,  in  Retrograde 
Imitation,  cancrizans.  In  this,  and  other  cases, 
it  is  frequently  prefixed  to  the  composition,  on 
a  small  detached  Stave,  and  thus  forms  a  true 
Motto  to  the  work,  to  the  imitations  of  which 
it  supplies  a  veritable  key,  and  in  the  course  of 
which  it  is  always  treated  in  the  same  general 
way.  [See  Inscription.]  But,  side  by  side  with 
this  homogeneity  of  mechanical  construction,  we 
find  an  infinite  variety  of  individual  expression. 
Freed  from  the  pedantic  trammels,  which  at  one 
period  exercised  so  unhealthy  an  influence  upon 
the  Mass,  the  Composer  of  the  Motet  felt  bound 
to  give  his  whole  attention  to  a  careful  rendering 
of  the  words,  instead  of  wasting  it,  as  he  would 
certainly  have  done  under  other  circumtances, 
upon  the  concoction  of  some  astounding  Inversion, 
or  inscrutable  Canon.  Hence,  the  character  of 
the  text  frequently  offers  a  tolerably  safe  criterion 
as  to  the  style  of  work  ;  and  we  are  thus  en- 
abled to  divide  the  Motets,  not  of  this  Epoch 
only,  but  of  the  preceding  and  following  periods 
also,  into  several  distinct  classes,  each  marked  by 
some  peculiarity  of  more  or  less  importance 

Nowhere,  perhaps,  do  we  find  more  real  feel- 


feel- 


MOTET. 

ing  than  in  the  numerous  Motets  founded  on 
passages  selected  from  the  Gospels,  such  as 
Jacobus  Vaet's '  Egressus  Jesus,'  JahnGero's  ren- 
derings of  the  Parable  of  the  Pharisee  and  the 
Publican,  and  others  of  similar  intention.  'The 
treatment  of  these  subjects,  though  exhibiting  no 
trace  of  the  dramatic  element,  is  highly  charac- 
teristic, and  shews  a  deep  appreciation  of  the 
sense  of  the  Sacred  Text,  embracing  every  variety 
of  expression,  from  the  triumphant  praises  of  the 
Magnificat,  to  the  deep  sadness  of  the  Passion  of 
our  Lord.  The  oldest  known  example  of  the  for- 
mer subject,  treated  in  the  Motet  style,  is  a 
Magnificat,  for  three  Voices,  by  Du  Fay.  One  of 
the  earliest  renderings  of  the  latter  is  Hobrecht's 
•Passio  D.N.J.C.  secundum  Matthseum,'  a  work 
full  of  the  deepest  pathos,  combined  with  some 
very  ingenious  part-writing.  Scarcely  less  beauti- 
ful is  the  later  'Passio  secundum  Marcum,'  by 
Johannes  Galliculus ;  and  Loyset  Compere  has 
left  us  a  collection  of  Passion  Motets  of  extraor- 
dinary beauty. 

The  Book  of  Canticles  was  also  a  fruitful  source 
of  inspiration.  Among  the  finest  specimens  ex- 
tant are  three  by  Johannes  de  Lynburgia  (John 
of  Limburg) — '  Surge  propera,'  'Pulcra  es  anima 
mea,'  and  '  Descende  in  hortum  meum ' ;  Du  Fay's 
'Anima  mea  liquefacta  est';  a  fine  setting  of  the 
same  words,  by  Enrico  Isaac;  Antonius  de  Fevin's 
'  Descende  in  hortum  meum ' ;  and,  among  others, 
by  Craen,  Gaspar,  Josquin  des  Pre"s,  and  the 
best  of  their  compatriots,  a  remarkably  beau- 
tiful rendering  of  '  Quam  pulcra  es  anima  mea,' 
for  Grave  Equal  Voices,  by  Mouton,  from  which 
we  extract  the  opening  bars,  as  a  fair  example  of 
the  style : — 


fe$ 


3E 


Quam    pul  -  era 


pul 


lp£ 


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£ 


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Quam 

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pul    -    -   era 


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rrrf1-^ 


d^& 


csl^S- 


^ 


B^E 


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<= 


ntma         me  -   -  a. 

A  host  of  beautiful  Motets  were  written  in 
honour  of  Our  Lady,  and  all  in  a  style  of 
peculiarly  delicate  beauty ;  such  as  Du  Fay's 
'Salve  Virgo,' '  Alma  Redemptoris,'' Ave  Regina,' 
and  'Flos  florum,  fons  amorum' ;  Brasart's  'Ave 
Maria' ;  Bianchoys'  'Beata  Dei  genitrix ' ;  Archa- 
delt's  'Ave  Maria';  several  by  Brumel,  and  Loyset 


MOTET. 


373 


Compere ;  and  a  large  number  by  Josquin  des 
Pres,  including  the  following  beautiful  little 
'Ave  vera  virginitas'  in  Perfect  Time,  with  its  re- 
markable progression  of  Consecutive  Fifths  arising 
from  the  necessity  of  maintaining  the  strictness 
of  a  Canon,  in  the  Fifth  below,  led  by  the  Supe- 
rius,  and  resolved  by  the  Tenor. 


|e 


3=g=g: 


■Is"  W  =>'  ,st" 


-m-      -mr      -m-      RegollltiO 
-S>-  -^-  -iS1-  -<s>-    -&•    ■ 


S2£XH 


3- 


*=c 


V9     ve  -  ra 


SE 


HeVl — <&«•- 


map  m    -&-  -<s>-  -^- 


3=t 


Im  -  ma  -  cu  -  la 


cas  -  tl  -  tas,     Cu    - 


Sg^s 


^a= 


Sti 


4t^g: 


S:2: 


a 


i         etc. 


m&A 


jus    pur  -i-fl-ca---tl     --     o 

The  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  have  furnished 
the  text  of  innumerable  beautiful  movements,  in 
the  Motet  style,  by  Joannes  Tinctor,  Hykaert, 
Gaspar,  Pierre  de  la  Rue,  Agricola,  and,  above 
all,  Carpentrasso,  whose  Lamentations  were  an- 
nually sung  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  until,  in  the 
year  1587,  they  were  displaced  to  make  room  for 
the  superb  compositions  of  Palestrina.  [See 
Lamentations.] 

The  greater  Festivals  of  the  Church,  as  well  as 
those  of  individual  Saints,  gave  occasion  for  the 
composition  of  countless  Motets,  among  which 
must  be  reckoned  certain  Sequences,  set,  in  the 
Motet  style,  by  some  of  the  Great  Composers  of 
the  1 5th and  16th  Centuries;  notably  a  '  Victimae 
paschali,'  by  Josquin  des  PrG"s,  founded  on  frag- 
ments of  the  old  Plain  Chaunt  Melody,  inter- 
woven with  the  popular  Rondelli,  'D'ung  aultre 
amer,'  and  'De  tous  biens  pleine,'  and  a  'Stabat 
Mater,'  by  the  same  writer,  the  Canto  fermo  of 
which  is  furnished  by  the  then  well-known  Saecular 
Air,  'Comme  femme.'  This  last  composition,  too 
long  and  complicated  to  admit  of  quotation,  was 
reprinted,  by  Choron,  in  1820,  and  will  well 
repay  serious  study. 

Less  generally  interesting  than  the  classes  we 
have  described,  yet,  not  without  a  special  historical 
value  of  their  own,  are  the  laudatory  Motets, 
dedicated  to  Princes,  and  Nobles  of  high  degree, 
by  the  Maestri  attached  to  their  respective 
Courts.  Among  these  may  be  cited  Clemens 
non  Papa's  'Caesar  habet  naves,'  and  'Quis  te 
victorem  dicat,'  inscribed  to  Charles  V ;  Adrian 
Willaert's  '  Argentum  et  aurum' ;  and  many 
others  of  like  character. 

Finally,  we  are  indebted  to  the  Great  Masters 


374 


MOTET. 


of  the  15th  and  16th  Centuries  for  a  large  collec- 
tion of  Nanice,  or  Funeral  Motets,  which  are 
scarcely  exceeded  in  beauty  by  those  of  any  other 
class.  The  Service  for  the  Dead  has  been  treated, 
by  Composers  of  all  ages,  with  more  than  or- 
dinary reverence.  In  the  infancy  of  Discant,  the 
so-called  Organizers  who  were  its  recognized  ex- 
ponents did  all  they  could  to  make  the  'Officium 
Defunctorum'  as  impressive  as  possible  :  and, 
acting  up  to  their  light,  endeavoured  to  add  to  its 
solemnity  by  the  introduction  of  discords  which 
were  utterly  forbidden  in  Organum  of  the  ordin- 
ary kind.  Hence  arose  the  doleful  strain,  an- 
tiently  called  '  Litaniae  mortuorum  discordantes.' 


It  is  interesting  to  compare  these  excruciating 
harmonies  with  the  Dirge  of  Josquin  des  Pre"s  in 
memory  of  his  departed  friend  and  tutor,  Oken- 
heiin.  This  fine  Motet  is  founded  on  the  Plain 
Chaunt  Melody  of  'Requiem  seternam,'  which  is 
Bung  in  Breves  and  Semibreves  by  the  Tenor,  to 
the  original  Latin  words,  while  the  four  other 
Voices  sing  a  florid  Counterpoint,  to  some  French 
verses,  beginning,  '  Nymphes  des  boir,  Deesses 
des  fontaines.'  It  was  printed,  at  Antwerp,  in 
1 544 ;  and  presents  so  many  difficulties  to  the 
would-be  interpreter,  that  Burney  declares  him- 
self 'ashamed  to  confess  how  much  time  and 
meditation'  it  cost  him.  The  simple  harmonies 
of  the  peroration,  'Bequiescat  in  pace,'  are  so 
touchingly  beautiful,  that  we  transcribe  them  in 
preference  to  the  more  complicated  passages  by 
which  they  are  preceded. 

J-J- 


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The  earliest  printed  copies  of  the  Motets  we 
have  described  were  given  to  the  world  by  Otta- 
viano  dei  Petrucci,  who  published  a  volume,  at 
Venice,  in  1502,  called  'Motette,  A.  numero  tren- 
tatre";  another,  in  1503,  called  'Motetti  de  pas- 
sioni,  B.' ;  a  third,  in  1504,  called  'Motetti,  c.  C.'; 
a  fourth,  in  1505 — 'Motetti  libro  quarto';  and,  in 
the  same  year,  a  book,  for  five  Voices — '  Motetti  a 
cinque  libro  primo' — which,  notwithstanding  the 
promise  implied  in  its  title,  was  not  followed  by 
the  appearance  of  a  companion  volume.  In  151 1, 
the  inventor  of  printed  music  removed  to  Fossom- 


MOTET. 

brone ;  where,  between  the  years  15 14,  and 
1 5 1 9,  he  published  four  more  volumes  of  Motets, 
known,  from  a  figure  engraved  on  the  title-page, 
as  the  'Motetti  della  Corona.'  In  1538,  Antonio 
Gardano  published,  at  Venice,  a  collection,  called 
— also  from  a  figure  on  its  title-page — '  Motetti  del 
Frutto'.  These  were  pirated,  at  Ferrara,  under 
the  name  of  'Motetti  della  Scimia,'  with  the  figure 
of  an  Ape  devouring  a  Fruit :  whereupon,  Gar- 
dano issued  a  new  volume,  with  the  figure  of  a 
Lion,  and  Bear,  devouring  an  Ape.  Between  the 
years  1527,  and  1536,  nineteen  similar  volumes 
were  issued,  in  Paris,  by  Pierre  Attaignant ;  and 
many  more  were  printed,  in  the  same  city,  by 
Adrian  le  Roy,  and  Robert  Ballard.  These 
collections,  containing  innumerable  works  by  all 
the  great  Composers  of  the  earlier  periods,  are  of 
priceless  worth.  Of  some  of  Petrucci's  only  one 
copy  is  known  to  exist,  and  that,  unhappily,  in- 
complete. The  Library  of  the  British  Museum 
possesses  his  Second,  Third,  and  Fourth  Books  of 
4  Motetti  della  Corona,'  besides  his  First  and  Third 
Books  of  Josquin's  Masses,  and  the  First  of  Gar- 
dano's  'Motetti  del  Frutto';  and  this,  taking  into 
consideration  the  splendid  condition  of  the  copies, 
must  be  regarded  as  a  very  rich  collection  indeed. 

During  the  Fourth  Epoch — embracing  the  in- 
terval between  the  death  of  Josquin  des  Pr^s,  in 
1 5  2 1,  and  the  production  of  the  '  Missa  Papae 
Marcelli',  in  1565 — the  development  of  the  Motet 
coincided  so  closely  with  that  of  the  Mass,  that 
it  seems  necessary  to  add  but  very  Uttle  to  the 
article  already  written  upon  that  subject.  The 
contemporaneous  progress  of  the  Madrigal  did, 
indeed,  exercise  a  healthier  influence  upon  the 
former  than  it  could  possibly  have  done  in  pre- 
sence of  the  more  recondite  intricacies,  common  to 
the  latter  :  but,  certain  abuses  crept  into  both. 
The  evil  habit  of  mixing  together  irrelevant 
words  increased  to  such  an  extent,  that,  among 
the  curiosities  preserved  in  the  Library  of  the 
Sistine  Chapel,  we  find  Motets  in  which  every 
one  of  the  five  Voices  is  made  to  illustrate  a 
different  text,  throughout.  In  this  respect,  if  not 
in  others,  an  equal  amount  of  deterioration  was 
observable  in  both  styles. 

The  Fifth  Epoch — extending  from  the  year 
1565,  to  the  beginning  of  the  following  Century 
— witnessed  the  sudden  advance  of  both  branches 
of  Art  to  absolute  perfection :  for  Palestrina,  the 
brightest  genius  of  the  age,  was  equally  great  in 
both,  and  has  left  us  Motets  as  unapproachable 
in  their  beauty  as  the  'Missa  Papas  Marcelli." 
The  prolific  power  of  this  delightful  Composer 
was  no  less  remarkable  than  the  purity  of  his 
style.  The  seven  Books  of  Motets  printed  during 
his  life-time  contain  two  hundred  and  two  com- 
positions, for  four,  five,  six,  seven,  and  eight 
Voices,  among  which  may  be  found  numerous  ex- 
amples of  all  the  different  classes  we  have  de- 
scribed. About  a  hundred  others,  including 
thirteen  for  twelve  Voices,  are  preserved,  in  MS., 
in  the  Vatican  Library,  and  among  the  Archives 
of  the  Pontifical  Chapel,  the  Lateran  Basilica, 
S.  Maria  in  Vallicella,  and  the  Collegium  Ro- 
manum ;  and  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that 


MOTET. 

many  were  lost  through  the  carelessness  of  the 
Maestro's  son,  Igino.  The  entire  contents  of  the 
seven  printed  volumes,  together  with  seventy- 
two  of  the  Motets  hitherto  existing  only  in  MS., 
have  already  been  issued  as  a  first  instalment  of 
the  complete  edition  of  Palestrina's  works  now  in 
course  of  publication  by  Messrs.  Breitkopf  & 
Hartel  of  Leipzig ;  and  this,  probably,  is  as 
many  as  we  can  now  hope  for,  as  it  is  well  known 
that  some  of  the  MS.  copies  we  have  mentioned 
are  incomplete.  Among  so  many  gems,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  select  any  number  for  special  notice. 
Perhaps  the  finest  of  all  are  those  printed  in  the 
Fourth  Book  of  Motets  for  five  Voices,  the  words 
of  which  are  taken  from  the  Book  of  Canticles  : 
but,  the  two  Books  of  simpler  compositions  for 
four  Voices  are  full  of  treasures.  Some  are  mar- 
vels of  contrapuntal  cleverness  ;  others — where 
the  character  of  the  words  is  more  than  usually 
solemn — as  unpretending  as  the  plainest  Faux 
bourdon.  As  an  example  of  the  more  elaborate 
style,  we  transcribe  a  few  bars  of  '  Sicut  cervus 
desiderat,'  contrasting  them  with  a  lovely  passage 
from  'Fratres  ego  enim  accepi,'  a  Motet  for 
eight  Voices,  in  which  the  Institution  of  the 
Last  Supper  is  illustrated  by  simple  harmonies 
of  indescribable  beauty. 


Sicut  cervus. 


MOTET. 


375 


cut  cer  -    -    vus      de    -    si  -  -  de  -  rat 


wFTr 


*3= 


^Trr^ 


rrs 


d 


5-J- JJT-U 


vus    de   -  si    -   de-rat    ad        for   -   -   tes. 
Fratres  ego. 


4 


Chorus  IT.     ,  |       , 

^A,1AA~.  A^:iJ. 


nem.  Hoc     fa  -    ci-te       in      me  -  am     com- 


mo  -  ra  -  ti 


-     o   -  -   -   uem. 


Palestrina's  greatest  contemporaries,  in  the 
Roman  School,  were,  Vittoria,  whose  Motets 
are  second  only  in  importance  to  his  own,  Mo- 
rales, Felice  and  Francesco  Anerio,  Bernadino 
and  Giovanni  Maria  Nanini,  Luca  Marenzio,  and 
Francesco  Suriano.  The  honour  of  the  Flemish 
School  was  supported,  to  the  last,  by  Orlando  di 
Lasso,  a  host  in  himself.  The  Venetian  School 
boasted,  after  Willaert,  Cipriano  di  Bore,  An- 
drea and  Giovanni  Gabrieli,  and,  especially,  Gio- 
vanni Croce,  the  originality  of  whose  style  was 
only  exceeded  by  its  wonderful  delicacy  and 
sweetness,  which  are  well  shewn  in  the  following 
example. 


i 


sa     -   -     crum 


£g 


^ 


z+1 


wm 


-*   «-: 


sa   -    -   -   crum  con  -  vi 


^ -yui^^iEg 


mm 


^J  J- A 


vT^rj 


-    -     vi  -  um  in     quo    Christus     su   -    mi-tur 

In  England,  the  Motet  was  cultivated,  with 
great  success,  by  some  of  the  best  Composers  of 
the  best  period.  The  'Cantiones  sacraa*  of  Tallis 
and  Byrd,  will  bear  comparison  with  the  finest 
productions  of  the  Roman  or  any  other  School, 
those  of  Palestrina  alone  excepted.  And,  besides 
these,  we  possess  a  number  of  beautiful  Motets 
by  Dr.  Tye,  John  Taverner,  John  Shepherd,  Dr. 
Fayrfax,  Robert  Johnson,  John  Digon,  John 
Thorne,  and  several  other  writers  not  unknown  to 
fame.  Though  the  Latin  Motet  was,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  banished  from  the  Services  of  the 
Church  after  the  change  of  Religion,  its  style 
still  lived  on,  in  the  Full  Anthem,  of  which  so 
many  glorious  examples  have  been  handed  down 
to  us,  in  our  Cathedral  Choir-books  ;  for,  the 
Full  Anthem  is  a  true  Motet,  notwithstanding 
the  language  in  which  it  is  sung ;  and  it  is  cer- 
tain that  some  of  the  purest  specimens  of  the 
style  were  originally  written  in  Latin,  and 
adapted  to  English  words,  afterwards — as  in  the 
case  of  Byrd's  '  Ci vitas  sancti  tui,'  now  always 
sung  as  '  Bow  thine  ear,  O  Lord.'  Orlando 
Gibbons's  First  (and  only)  Set  of  'Madrigals  and 
Mottets,'  printed  in  1612,  furnishes  a  singular 
return  to  the  old  use  of  the  word.  They  are  all 
Ssecular  Songs ;  as  are,  also,  Martin  Pierson's 
'  Mottects,'  published  eighteen  years  later. 

The  Sixth   Epoch,  beginning  with  th6  early 
years  of  the  1 7th  Century,  was  one  of  sad  deca- 


376 


MOTET. 


dence.  The  Unprepared  Dissonances  introduced 
by  Monteverde  sapped  the  very  foundations  of  the 
Polyphonic  Schools,  and  involved  the  Motet,  the 
Mass  and  the  Madrigal  in  a  common  ruin. 
Men  like  Claudio  Casciolini  and  Gregorio  Al- 
legri,  did  their  best  to  save  the  grand  old  man- 
ner; but,  after  the  middle  of  the  Century,  no 
Composer  did  it  full  justice. 

The  Seventh  Epoch  inaugurated  a  new  style. 
During  the  latter  half  of  the  1 7th  century,  In- 
strumental Music  made  a  rapid  advance;  and 
Motets  with  Instrumental  Accompaniments, 
were  substituted  for  those  sung  by  Voices  alone. 
In  these,  the  old  Ecclesiastical  Modes  were 
naturally  abandoned,  in  favour  of  the  modern 
Tonality ;  and,  as  time  progressed,  Alessandro 
Scarlatti,  Leo,  Durante,  Pergolesi,  and  other 
men  of  nearly  equal  reputation,  produced  really 
great  works  in  the  new  manner,  and  thus  pre- 
pared the  way  for  still  greater  ones. 

The  chief  glories  of  the  Eighth  Epoch  were 
confined  to  Germany,  where  Reinhard  Keiser, 
the  Bach  Family — with  Johann  Christoph,  and 
Johaun  Sebastian,  at  its  head  —  Graun,  and 
Hasse,  clothed  the  Motet  in  new  and  beautiful 
forms  which  were  turned  to  excellent  account 
by  Homilius,  and  Rolle,  Wolf,  Hiller,  Fasch,  and 
Schicht.  The  Motets  of  Sebastian  Each  are  too 
well  known  to  need  a  word  of  description — 
known  well  enough  to  be  universally  recognised 
as  artistic  creations  of  the  highest  order,  quite 
unapproachable  in  their  own  peculiar  style.  With 
Handel's  Motets  few  Musicians  are  equally 
familiar ;  for  it  is  only  within  the  last  few  years 
that  the  German  Handel  Society  has  rescued 
them  from  oblivion.  Nevertheless,  they  are  ex- 
traordinarily beautiful ;  filled  with  the  youthful 
freshness  of  the  Composer's  early  manner.  Be- 
sides a  '  Salve  Regina,'  the  MS.  of  which  is  pre- 
served in  the  Royal  Library  at  Buckingham 
Palace,  we  possess  a  '  Laudate  pueri,'  in  D,  used 
as  an  Introduction  to  the  Utrecht  Jubilate; 
another  in  F,  a  '  Dixit  Dominus,'  a  '  Nisi  Domi- 
nus,'  and,  best  of  all,  a  lovely  'Silete  venti,'  for 
Soprano  Solo,  with  Accompaniments  for  a  Stringed 
Band,  two  Oboes,  and  two  Bassoons,  the  last 
movement  of  which,  'Dulcis  amor,  Jesu  care,' 
was  introduced  in  Israel  in  ^gypt,  on  its  second 
revival,  in  1756,  adapted  to  the  words,  'Hope, 
a  pure  and  lasting  treasure.'  It  is  to  be  hoped, 
that,  now  these  treasures  are  really  given  to  the 
world,  they  will  not  long  be  suffered  to  remain 
a  dead  letter. 

Of  the  Ninth,  or  Modern  Epoch,  we  have  but 
little  to  say.  The  so-called  Motets  of  the  present 
Century  have  no  real  claim  to  any  other  title 
than  that  of  Sacred  Cantatas.  They  were,  it  is 
true,  originally  intended  to  be  sung  at  High 
Mass :  but,  the  '  Insanae  et  vanae  curae  of  Haydn, 
the  '  Splendente  te  Deus '  of  Mozart,  and  the  '  0 
salutaris '  of  Cherubini,  exquisitely  beautiful  as 
they  are,  when  regarded  simply  as  Music,  have 
so  little  in  common  with  the  Motet  in  its  typical 
form,  that  one  can  scarcely  understand  how  the 
name  ever  came  to  be  bestowed  upon  them.  The 
Motets  of  Mendelssohn,  again,  have  but  little 


MOTETUS. 

affinity  with  these — indeed,  they  can  scarcely  be 
said  to  have  any ;  for,  in  spite  of  the  dates  at 
which  they  were  produced,  they  may  more  fairly 
be  classed  with  the  great  works  of  the  Eighth 
Epoch,  to  which  their  style  very  closely  assi- 
milates them.  We  need  scarcely  refer  to  his 
three  Motets  for  Treble  Voices,  written  for  the 
Convent  of  Trinita  de'  Monti,  at  Rome,  as  gems 
of  modern  Art. 

All  that  we  have  said  in  a  former  article,  on 
the  traditional  manner  of  singing  the  Polyphonic 
Mass,  applies,  with  equal  force,  to  the  Motet.  It 
will  need  an  equal  amount  of  expression,  and  an 
equal  variety  of  colouring ;  and,  as  its  position  in 
the  Service  is  anterior  to  the  Elevation  of  the 
Host,  a  vigorous  forte  will  not  be  out  of  place, 
when  the  sense  of  the  words  demands  it.  It  would 
scarcely  be  possible  to  find  more  profitable  studies 
for  the  practice  of  Polyphonic  singing  than  the 
best  Motets  of  the  best  period.  [W.S.R.] 

MOTETT  SOCLETY,  THE,  was  established 
in  1847,  its  chief  promoter  being  the  late  William 
Dyce,  R.A.  The  object  was  to  print  'A  Col- 
lection of  Ancient  Church  Music,'  adapted  to 
English  words,"  with  a  compressed  score,  for  the 
purpose  of  accompaniment.  The  subscription 
was  a  guinea  a  year.  The  musical'  portion  was 
under  the  charge  of  the  late  Dr.  Rimbault,  who 
acknowledges  in  his  preface  that '  the  greater  part 
of  the  Motetts  of  Palestrina  were  adapted  by 
Mr.  William  Dyce.' 

The  works  were  published  in  large  folio,  and 
in  parts,  forming  three  divisions : — No.  1,  An- 
thems for  Festivals;  No.  2,  Services;  No.  3, 
Miscellaneous  Anthems:  in  all  192  pages  of 
music,  and  a  few  more  of  introductory  matter. 

Division  1.  Division  2. 

Bedford,  Rejoice  in  the  Lord,  4JVittoria,  Communion  Service,  4  v, 

voices. 
Lupi,  Now  it  is  high  time,  6  v. 
Vlttorla,  Behold  I  bring  you,  8  v, 


Palestrina,  If  thou  shalt  confess, 

4v. 
Do.    Almighty  and  Everlasting, 

4  V. 
Do.    O  Jerusalem,  4  v. 
Do.    These  things  have  1, 4  v. 
Do.    These  are  they.  4  v. 
Do.    This  shall  be,  6  v. 
Do.    Break  forth,  6  v. 

F.  della  Porta,  I  have  appeared, 
4v. 

Lasso,  Behold  I  will  send,  4  v. 
Vittoria,  Come  unto  me,  4  v. 
Lasso,  And  the  Angel,  4  v. 

Do.    If  ye  keep  my,  4  v. 
Masera,  Blessed  is  the  man,  4  v. 
Lasso,  For  he  was  a  good,  4  v. 

Do.    The  voice  of  him,  4  V. 

Do.    He  faith  unto  them,  4  T. 

Do.    Are  ye  able  to  drink.  4  v. 
Croce,  And  they  went  forth,  4  v. 

Do.    Charge  them  that  are,  4  v. 
Byrd,  Bless  the  Lord  ye,  S  v. 
Lasso,  But  watch  thou,  4  v. 
Croce,  Now  unto  Him,  4  v. 

G.  M.  Nannlno,  All  thy  works,  5  v. 
Lasso,  Miserere,  6  v. 
Palestrina,  Behold  the  Lamb  of 

God,  5  v. 
Do.    How  beautiful,  4  v. 
Tallls,  If  ye  love  me,  4  v. 
Palestrina,  Holy,  Holy,  8  t. 


Cotonna,  Magnif.  and  N.  Dim.  8  v. 
Gabrielll,  Do.  Do.,  8  v. 
Barcroft,  Te  Deum  and  Ben.,  4  v. 
Stonard,  Magnif.  and  N.  Dim.  5  v. 
Palestrina,  Do.  Do.  4  v. 
Blow,  Sanctus  and  Gloria,  4  v. 

Division  3. 
Barcroft,  0  Almighty  God,  4  v. 
0.  Gibbons, Why  art  thou  so  heavy, 

4v. 
Lasso,  0  praise  the  Lord,  5  v. 

Do.    Not  unto  us,  S  v. 
P.  Certon,  I  will  alway  give,  8  v. 
Byrd,  Prevent  us,  O  Lord,  4  v. 
Tallis,  Hear  the  voice,  4  v. 
Palestrina,  O  God.  Thou  art,  4  v. 
Tallls,  All  people  that  on  earth.  4  v 
Farrant,  Unto  Thee,  0  Lord,  4  v. 
Palestrina,  I  will  magnify  Thee. 

St. 
F.  della  Porta,  Be  merciful,  4  v. 

Do.    Righteous  art  Thou,  4  v. 
Palestrina,  O  Lord  my  God,  4  v. 
0.  Gibbons,  0  Lord,  increase,  4  v. 
Vittoria,  I  will  give  thanks,  4  v. 

Do.    It  is  a  good  thing,  4  v. 

Do.    Teach  me,  O  Lord,  4  v. 

Do.    How  long  wilt  Thou.  4  y. 

Do.    My  God.  my  God,  4  v. 

Do.    Unto  Thee,  0  God,  4  v. 

Do.    Behold,  now  praise,  4  v. 
Palestrina,  0  Lord    God   of 

salvation.  5v. 
Tallls,  Great  and  marvellous,  5  v. 

[W.  C] 


MOTETUS.  A  name  given,  in  the  infancy 
of  Polyphonic  Music,  to  a  middle  part,  written 
for  the  Voice  which  was  afterwards  called  Medivs, 


MOTETUS. 

or  Altus.  The  term  was  constantly  used,  in  this 
sense,  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries,  and  pro- 
bably, still  earlier.  [W.  S.  R.] 

MOTIF  (Germ.  Moiiv),  a  word  which  is  in 
process  of  naturalization  into  English,  and  which 
has  no  less  than  three  distinct  meanings,  accord- 
ing to  which  it  will  be  found  under  separate 
heads  :  1st,  the  German  word  originally  means 
what  we  call  'figure,'  that  is,  a  short  group  of 
notes,  'which  produce  a  single,  distinct,  and 
complete  impression'  [see  Figube]  ;  2nd,  it  is 
used  as  a  synonym  for  Subject,  which  see ;  3rd, 
as  equivalent  to,  and  an  abbreviation  of,  Leit- 
Motiv,  which  has  been  fully  treated.  [J.A.F.M.] 

MOTION  is  change  of  pitch  in  successive 
sounds,  when  they  are  allotted  to  a  single  part 
or  voice,  or  to  groups  of  parts  or  voices  which 
sound  simultaneously.  The  motions  of  a  single 
part  are  classified  according  as  the  successive 
steps  do  or  do  not  exceed  the  limits  of  a,  degree 
of  the  scale  at  a  time,  the  former  being  called 
•  disj  unct,'  and  the  latter '  conjunct '  motion.  The 
following  examples  illustrate  the  two  forms  : — 
Conjunct  Bkkthoven. 


MOUNTIER. 


377 


I 


BE 


rrr~rr? 


fe* 


Disjunct 


Bach. 


The  independent  motions  of  different  parts 
sounding  together  constitute  counterpoint,  and 
are  classified  according  to  their  relations,  as 
'contrary,'  'similar,'  and  'oblique'  motions.  In 
the  first  the  parts  either  distinctly  converge  or 
diverge,  one  rising  when  the  other  falls.  In  the 
second  the  parts  either  rise  or  fall  together, 
though  not  necessarily  at  equal  distances.  The 
third  refers  to  one  part  only,  which  moves  up  or 
down  while  another  stands  still. 

Further  explanations  and  examples  will  be 
found  under  the  respective  headings.  [C.H.H.P.] 

MOUNSEY.  The  name  of  two  English  lady 
organists  and  musicians.  The  elder  of  the  two, 
Ann  Sheppard,  was  born  in  London  April  17, 
181 1,  and  studied  under  Logier.  She  is  alluded 
to  by  Spohr  in  his  'account  of  his  visit  to  Logier's 
academy  in  1820.  In  1828  she  was  elected 
organist  to  a  church  at  Clapton;  in  1829  to 
St.  Michael's,  Wood  Street,  E.C.,  and  in  1837 
to  St.  Vedast's,  Foster  Lane,  where  she  still 
plays.  In  1834  MissMounsey  became  a  member 
of  the  Philharmonic  Society.  In  1843  she  gave 
the  first  of  six  series  of  Classical  Concerts,  at 
Crosby  Hall,  London,  for  one  of  which  (that  of 
1844)  Mendelssohn 2 composed  'Hear  my  Prayer,' 
for  voices  and  organ.  In  1853  she  married  Mr. 
W.  Bartholomew,  and  in  1855  composed  the 
oratorio  of  '  The  Nativity,'  which  was  performed 
in  the  same  year  under  the  direction  of  Mr. 

1  Autobiography,  il.  99. 100. 

2  See  h'.s  letter,  In  Polko's  Reminiscences,  p.  220.  The  autograph  I* 
now  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum. 


Hullah  at  St.  Martin's  Hall.  Mrs.  Bartholomew 
is  well  known  in  London  as  a  teacher ;  she  has 
published  upwards  of  ioo  songs,  40  part-songs, 
and  a  large  number  of  works  for  piano  and  for 
organ. 

The  second  sister,  Elizabeth,  was  born  in 
London  Oct.  1819,  and  developed  considerable 
musical  ability  at  a  very  early  age.  She  was 
appointed  organist  of  St.  Peter's,  Cornhill,  in 
1834,  when  only  14  years  old,  a  post  she  still 
holds.  The  organ  of  St.  Peter's,  a  fine  instru- 
ment by  Hill,  was  one  of  those  on  which  Men- 
delssohn frequently  played  during  his  visits  to 
London.  (See  pp.  2770,  2796.)  In  1842  Miss 
Elizabeth  Mounsey  was  elected  member  of  the 
Philharmonic  Society.  Besides  the  organ  and 
piano,  she  at  one  time  devoted  much  study  to 
the  guitar,  and  in  1833  and  34  appeared  in 
public  as  a  performer  thereon.  She  has  published 
many  works  for  all  three  instruments.  [G.] 

MOUNTAIN  SYLPH,  THE.  A  romantic 
ballet  opera  in  2  acts ;  words  by  J.  T.  Thackeray, 
music  by  John  Barnett.  Produced  at  the  English 
Opera  House  (Lyceum)  Aug.  25,  1834.  [G.] 

MOUNT-EDGCUMBE,  Richard  Edgcumbe, 
second  Earl  of,  born  Sept.  13,1 764,  an  amateur 
musician  and  composer,  whose  Italian  opera 
'Zenobia'  was  performed  at  the  King's  Theatre 
in  1800  for  the  benefit  of  Banti.  He  is  best 
known  as  author  of  'Musical  Reminiscences, 
containing  an  Account  of  the  Italian  Opera  in 
England  from  1773,'  London,  1825  ;  an  amusing, 
gossiping  book,  containing  much  useful  infor- 
mation. Two  other  editions,  with  a  continua- 
tion, appeared,  and  in  1834  a  fourth,  including 
the  Musical  Festival  in  Westminster  Abbey  in 
that  year.    He  died  Sept.  26,  1839.     [W.H.H.] 

MOUNTIER,  who  is  called  by  Burney  '  the 
Chichester  boy,'  was  probably  of  French  origin, 
and  educated  musically  in  the  choir  of  Chichester 
Cathedral.  He  made  his  first  appearance  '  in 
Character  on  any  stage '  as  Acis,  to  the  Galatea 
of  Miss  Arne  (afterwards  Mrs.  Cibber),  May  1 7, 
1732,  at  the  Haymarket  Theatre, — the  perform- 
ance got  up  by  the  elder  Arne.  Mountier  sang, 
in  the  same  year,  the  part  of  Neptune  (though 
advertised  for  that  of  Phoebus,  which  was  given 
afterwards  to  Barret)  in  Lediard's  'Britannia, 
an  English  Opera,'  with  music  by  Lampe, 
'after  the  Italian  manner,'  a  work  not  mentioned 
by  the  biographers  of  that  composer.  It  may  be, 
therefore,  interesting  to  record  that  the  caste 
included  Cecilia  Young  (Britannia),  afterwards 
Mrs.  Arne,  Susanna  Mason  (Publick  Virtue), 
Comano,  or  Commano  (Discord),  a  basso  who 
had  sung  the  year  before  on  the  Italian  stage, 
Waltz  (Honour),  the  well-known  singer  who, 
from  being  'Handel's  cook,'  became  afterwards 
the  performer  of  many  of  that  master's  principal 
bass  parts  in  opera  and  oratorio, — and  other 
performers.  In  the  following  year  we  find  Moun- 
tier promoted  to  the  Italian  stage,  and  singing 
the  part  of  Adelberto  in  Handel's  '  Ottone 
(revived),  after  which  his  name  does  not  appear 
again  in  the  bills.  [J.M.] 


378 


MOUNT  OF  OLIVES. 


MOUTON. 


MOUNT  OF  OLIVES.  The  English  name  of 
Beethoven's  oratorio,  '  Christus  am  Oelberg.'  It 
was  first  produced  in  this  country  on  Feb.  25, 
18 1 4,  by  Sir  George  Smart,  in  the  Lenten  ora- 
torios at  Drury  Lane ;  and  the  English  version 
was  probably  made  by  Arnold,  at  that  time 
manager  of  the  King's  Theatre  and  a  prominent 
person  in  all  theatrical  matters.  Another  version 
was  made  by  the  late  Thos.  Oliphant,  and  a 
third,  more  recently,  by  Mr.  Bartholomew.  The 
strong  feeling  prevailing  in  England  against  the 
appearance  of  our  Saviour  as  a  personage  in  the 
oratorio,  which  led  to  the  modifications  in  the 
versions  already  mentioned,  led  to  one  by  Dr. 
Hudson  of  Dublin  in  1842,  in  which  the  story 
was  changed  to  that  of  David,  and  the  title  to 
Engedi.  This  however  is  now  given  up ;  and 
indeed  in  the  latest  version  of  the  book,  by  the 
Rev.  J.  Troutbeck  for  the  Leeds  Festival,  the 
Saviour  reappears  among  the  characters.        [G.] 

MOUSQUETAIRES  DE  LA  REINE,  LES. 
An  opera  -comique  in  3  acts ;  words  by  St.  Georges, 
music  by  Hale'vy.  Produced  at  the  Opera 
Comique  Feb.  3,  1846.  [G.] 

MOUTHPIECE  (Fr.  Bee,  Bocal,  Embouchure ; 
Ger.  Mundstilck).  That  portion  of  a  wind-in- 
strument which,  as  the  name  implies,  is  inserted 
into  the  player's  mouth,  or  applied  to  his  lips. 
Mouthpieces  may  be  divided  into  those  of  the 
Flute  and  Flageolet,  Cupped  mouthpieces  as  in 
brass  instruments,  and  Reed  mouthpieces  single 
or  double. 

The  simplest  of  all  forms  is  that  adopted  in 
the  Nay  or  Egyptian  flute,  in  which  the  stream 
of  air  is  directed  against  the  thinned  edge  of  the 
tube  itself.  [See  Flute.]  This  edge  in  the 
ordinary  flute  is  modified  into  a  lateral  orifice, 
the  instrument  being  held  transversely.  In  the 
Flageolet,  the  column  of  air  is  directed  by  a 
channel  against  a  transverse  edge  similar  to  that 
of  a  flue-pipe  in  the  Organ.  From  the  beak- 
shaped  termination  thus  given  to  the  mouthpiece, 
the  instrument  derives  its  name  of '  Flute  a  bee' 

Cupped  mouthpieces  are  applied  to  the  outer 
surface  of  the  lips,  not  inserted  between  them. 
The  lips  thus  stretched  across  the  calibre  of  the 
cup  form  a  kind  of  double  reed,  closely  resem- 
bling the  Vocal  Chords  of  the  Larynx.  Each  in- 
strument of  this  class  has  a  somewhat  different 
form  of  cup,  which  is  described  under  their 
respective  headings.  In  the  older  examples, 
however,  and  in  those  used  by  uncivilised  tribes, 
the  cup  consists  of  a  simple  hole,  at  the  end  of  a 
cow's  horn  for  instance,  or  in  the  side  of  an  ivory 
tusk,  communicating  with  the  medullary  cavity. 
The  transition  from  this  to  the  shaped  cup  can 
be  well  seen  in  the  Swiss  Alpenhorn,  in  which  a 
small  globular  cavity,  like  the  mouthpiece  of  the 
Trumpet,  is  rudely  carved  out  of  the  wooden 
strips  of  which  the  long  tube  is  built  up.  In 
more  finished  instruments  of  this  class,  the 
mouthpiece  is  turned  out  of  Brass,  Ivory,  Alu- 
minium, or  Silver,  with  a  rounded  cushion-shaped 
edge  for  the  accurate  and  painless  pressure  of 
the  lips.  Glass  has  also  been  used,  and  of  late 
the  cushion  has  been  made  of  vulcanized  India 


Rubber.  The  weight  and  elasticity  of  the  mate- 
rial employed,  like  the  shape  of  the  cup,  exert 
a  certain  influence  over  the  pitch  and  quality 
of  the  notes  produced. 

The  single-reed  mouthpiece  is  used  in  the 
Clarinet  and  in  the  Saxophone.  It  is  described 
at  length  under  the  former  heading.  It  may  be 
noted  here  that  it  can  be  applied,  though  rather 
ineffectually,  to  the  Bassoon  and  its  diminutives. 
The  Dolcino  or  small  bassoon,  in  the  Bb  of  the 
four-foot  octave,  was  actually  played  in  military 
bands  by  means  of  a  single  reed  as  late  as  the 
early  years  of  the  present  century. 

The  double-reed,  consisting  of  two  parallel 
vibrators,  constitutes  the  mouthpiece  of  the  Oboe 
and  Bassoon  family.  It  is  probably  the  oldest 
mode  of  producing  sound  in  existence.  Such 
reeds  are  found  in  the  sepulchral  chambers  of 
Egypt,  lying  beside  the  pipes  to  which  they  have 
evidently  been  fitted.  Mr.  William  Chappell  has 
succeeded  in  replacing  a  similar  sound-producer 
in  facsimiles  of  the  original  pipes,  and  has  obtained 
from  them  a  scale  fairly  agreeing  with  that  prob- 
ably employed  by  the  Egyptians,  and  borrowed 
from  them  by  the  Greeks.  In  the  Bagpipe  both 
the  single  and  double  reed  have  been  employed 
since  ancient  times.  These  are  described  in  detail 
in  the  article  on  that  instrument.  [W.  H.  S.] 

MOUTON,  Jean,  French  composer,  born 
about  the  year  1475 *  in  the  department  of  the 
2  Somme,  pupil  of  Josquin,  teacher  of  Willaert, 
musician  to  Louis  XII  and  Francis  I  of  France, 
canon  of  3Therounne,  and  afterwards,  like  Jos- 
quin, canon  of  the  collegiate  church  of  S.  Quentin, 
in  which  place  he  died  and  was  buried  in  1522, 
the    following    words    being   inscribed   on   his 

*  tomb : — 

Ce  gist  maistre  Jean  de  Hollingue  dit  Mouton,  en  son 
vivant  chantre  du  Roy,  chanoine  de  Therouanne  et  de 
cet  eglise,  qui  trepassa  le  penultieme  jour  d'Octobre 
JUDXX1I.    Priez  Dieu  pour  son  a  me. 

When  Petrucci  began  to  print  music,  Mouton 
was  in  his  prime,  and  the  edition  of  5  masses 
(a  4)  in  1508  is  an  early  example  of  a  whole 
book  devoted  to  one  composer.  This  book,  which 
5Glarean  found  'in  manibus  omnium*  is  now 
scarce,  and  Fe"tis  thinks  the  copy  of  the  •  2nd 
edition  in  the  British  Museum  the  only  com- 
plete one.  Burney  carefully  examined  the 
4th  Tmass,  and  scored  several  movements,  dis- 
covering no  variety  of  measure  or  subject,  no 

1  Date  proposed  by  Fi-t is.  Mouton's  first  publication  appeared  in  1505. 

9  See '  Joannis  Mouton  8ameracensis  . . .  aliquot  moduli ';  Paris,  Le 
Bo;  &  Ballard,  1556  (Brit.  Mus.  A.  132)— an  edition  apparently  un- 
known abroad,  or  the  word  '  Sameracensis '  would  not  have  escaped 
attention.  Glarean  merely  calls  Mouton  •  Gallus."  Fet is  thinks,  from 
the  inscription  on  the  tomb,  that  Hulling,  a  little  town  near  Metz, 
may  have  been  his  birthplace.  In  that  case '  Sameracensis '  may  refer 
simply  to  Mouton's  residence  at  S.  Quentin. 

•*  Whence  he  removed,  probably,  when  the  English  took  the  town  in 
1513. 

<  See  "Etudes  St.  Quentlnoises'  (8.  Quentin  1851-62,  etc),  torn.  I. 
p.  302.  Ch.  Gomart,  the  author,  took  the  inscription  from  a  MS.  of 
(jutntin  Delafotu,  but  does  not  state  where  it  Is  to  be  found.  It  is  the 
only  authority  for  the  date  of  Mouton's  death,  and  for  his  two  church 
preferments.  *  '  AoiSeKaYopSov '  (Basileee  1548),  p.  464. 

6  •  Mlssee  J.  Mouton '  (Fossombrone,  Fetrutius,  Aug.  11,  1515),  con- 
taining '  Mlssa  sine  nomine," '  Alleluia,"  '  AlmaBedemptorls,"  another 

•  Sine  nomine," '  Beglna  mearum '  (Brit.  Mus.  B  15). 

i  For  Burney's  examples  from  Mouton,  and  critical  notes,  see  '  Mu- 
sical Extracts"  (vol.  ii.  pp.  104, 134, 137, 169)  in  Brit.  Mus.  (Add.  MSS. 
11  582).  Most  of  the  notes  are  incorporated  in  his  History  (vol.  Ii. 
p.  533;. 


MOUTON. 

melody,  no  ingenuity  of  contrivance,  no  learning 
of  modulation.  Yet  the  masses  were  highly 
valued  in  their  day,  reprinted  by  other  pub- 
lishers '  and  much  admired,  according  to  Glarean 
and  Le  *  Koy,  by  Pope  Leo  X,  Giov.  di 3  Medici. 
As  for  motets,  Mouton  saw  21  printed  in  the 
best  collection  of  his  time,  Petrucci's  Motetti  de 
la  4  Corona.  Posthumous  publications  continued 
for  nearly  40  years,  and  the  list  of  known  printed 
works  includes  9  'masses,  about  75  motets  and 
psalms,  and  a  few  French  chansons. 

The  British  Museum  has  a  single  voice -part 
(superius)  of  Mouton's  22  'motets  printed  by 
Le  Eoy  in  1555,  and  happily  a  complete  MS.  score 
of  the  same  collection.  This  gives  many  inter- 
esting pieces,  the  '  Nesciens  Mater '  (8  a)  with 
4  of  the  parts  derived  canonically  from  the  others, 
the  '  Quis  dabit  oculis'  composed  in  15 14  on  the 
death  of  Anne  of  Bretagne,  Queen  of  France, 
some  Easter  pieces,  '  Alleluia,'  and  '  In  illo  tem- 
pore,' and  one  for  Christmas,  •  Noe,  noe,  psallite,' 
on  which  Arcadelt  afterwards  wrote  a  mass. 

Burney  has  scored,  besides  the  mass  move- 
ments, 3  7  motets,  and  in  this  style  of  com- 
position finds  Mouton  more  smooth  and  polished 
than  his  contemporaries.  '  Life  in  a  court '  can 
scarcely  account  for  it.  Most  great  musicians  of 
the  time  had  the  same  surroundings.  Glarean, 
more  reasonably,  attributes  to  zeal  and  industry 
the  rare  facility  which  separated  Mouton  from 
his  fellows.  The  numerous  examples  drawn  from 
his  works  for  the  '  Dodecachordon,'  and  the  evi- 
dent pride  with  which  Glarean  8  recalls  the  meet- 
ing in  Paris,  are  evidence  of  the  high  value  set 
upon  the  French  composer.  Had  Mouton  left  no 
compositions  of  his  own,  he  would  still  be  re- 
membered as  belonging  to  a  remarkable  line  of 
great  teachers,  Ockenheim,  Josquin,  Mouton, 
Willaert,  Zarlino.  [J.K.S.-B.] 

MOVEMENT.  A  definite  and  complete  item 
in  a  musical  composition,  sometimes  forming 
part  of  a  large  work,  and  sometimes  single  and 
independent.  So  called  because  each  portion  as 
a  rule  maintains  the  same  rate  of  '  movement.' 
On  the  other  hand,  a  'number'  in  an  opera  or 
oratorio  will  often  contain  several  movements. 
This  latter  expression  is  sometimes  used  instead 
of  it,  as  in  Schumann's  '  Faschingsschwank,' 
which  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  sonata  in 
five  movements,  though  numbered  as  if  it  were 
a  series  of  separate  pieces.  [J.A.F.M.] 

>  The  'Alma  redemptoris'  was  reprinted,  and  a  new  one,  'dittes 
moy  toutes  vos  pensiSes,"  added  la  Antlquls'  famous '  Liber  qulndeclm 
Missarum '  (Bom.  1516). 

2  See  preface  to  work  quoted  in  note  2  of  previous  page. 

3  '  A  passionate  lover  of  music  . .  .  the  sounds  of  which  were  dally 
heard  floating  through  the  palace.  Leo  himself  humming  the  airs  that 
were  performed.'    (Banke's  History  of  the  Popes.) 

•  8  in  book  L  (1514) ;  10  in  book  11.  (1519) ;  3  in  book  ill.  (1519). 

5  Besides  the  six  mentioned  In  note  6  of  previous  page  and  note  1 
above,  the  'Mlssa  d'Allemagne,'  'Tua  est  potent ia,'  and  'Quem 
dicunt'  were  printed.  Fetls  mentions  a  MS.  'Hlssa  sans  cadence'  at 
Cambral.  Zarlino  speaks  of  a  Mass  'Benedicam  Dominum,'  a  6 
(Istltutloni  Harm.  pt.  Iv.  p.  414). 

6  See  note  2  on  previous  page. 

'  '  Quls  dabit  oculis,' '  Non  nobis  Domine,'  composed  In  1509  at  the 
birth  of  Benee,  daughter  of  Louis  XII.  Also  '  Quam  pulcra  es,'  which 
Burney  likes  so  much  that  he  gives  the  first  movement  In  his  History. 
This  motet  had  In  Its  own  time  been  ascribed  to  Josquin. 

»  Speaking  of  it  continually  In  the  '  Dodecachordon.'  See  pp.  295, 
320,  464.    They  conversed  by  means  of  an  Interpreter. 


MOZART. 


379 


MOZART,  Leopold,  father  of  the  great  com- 
poser, and  son  of  Johann  Georg,  a  bookbinder, 
of  Augsburg,  was  born  Nov.  14,  1719.  Intelli- 
gent, sagacious,  and  persevering,  he  determined 
to  push  his  way  beyond  the  narrow  circle  of  his 
parental  home.  From  the  first  he  was  addicted  to 
music ;  on  leaving  school  he  went  for  two  years 
(*  737-39)  to  the  University  of  Salzburg,  after 
which  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  music 
as  a  profession,  and  having  become  an  excellent 
violinist,  was  appointed  Hofmusikus  by  Arch- 
bishop Leopold  (Firmian)  in  1743,  afterwards 
Hofcompositor,  and  in  1762  vice-Capellmeister 
by  Archbishop  Sigismund  (Schrattenbach).  On 
Nov.  21,  1747,  he  married  Anna  Maria  Pertlin, 
daughter  of  an  official  of  St.  Gilgen.  They 
were  described  as  the  handsomest  couple  in 
Salzburg.  Of  seven  children,  only  two  survived — 
a  daughter,  Maria  Anna,  born  July  30,  1751, 
and  a  son,  the  immortal  Wolfgang.  His  travels 
with  his  children  are  detailed  in  the  succeeding 
article.  He  discerned  at  once  their  immense  gifts, 
and,  with  pious  trust  in  Providence,  devoted  his 
whole  energies  to  their  education  in  music.  He 
died  at  Salzburg  May  28,  1787,  bearing  to  the 
grave  the  honourable  distinction  of  having  trained 
one  of  the  greatest  musicians  the  world  ever  saw. 
He  composed  much — oratorios,  dramatic  music, 
including  the  operas  'Semiramis'  and  'Die  ver- 
stellte  Gartnerin ' ;  but  especially  church  and  in« 
strumental  works,  several  of  which  were  circu- 
lated either  in  print  or  MS.  He  engraved  six 
of  his  own  sonatas  in  1740.  His  great  work, 
however,  was  his  'Versuch  einer  grundlichen 
Violinschule '  (Augsburg,  1756),  which  passed 
through  many  editions  in  various  languages,  and 
was  for  long  the  only  Method  for  the  violin.  From 
this  work  alone  we  should  judge  him  to  have 
been  a  man  of  culture  far  above  the  average,  and 
of  solid  worth,  as  indeed  he  was.  Marpurg, 
Schubart,  Zelter,  and  others,  have  all  mentioned 
the  book*  in  the  highest  terms.  A  steel  en- 
graving of  him  from  the  family  portrait  in  the 
Mozarteum  at  Salzburg,  is  given  in  vol.  1  of 
Otto  Jahn's  'Mozart'  (2nd  ed.).    His  daughter 

Maria  Anna,  whom  he  early  taught  the 
•piano,  and  who  shared  her  brother's  successes 
as  a  pianist  on  their  joint  tours,  married  in  1 784 
Baron  von  Berchthold  zu  Sonnenberg,  Hofrath 
of  Salzburg,  and  Warden  of  St.  Gilgen.  On  his 
death  she  returned  to  Salzburg,  and  occupied 
herself  with  teaching.  She  became  blind  in  1820, 
aDd  died  Oct.  29th,  1829.  [C.  F.  P.] 

MOZART,  Wolfgang  Amadeus10,  born  at 
Salzburg,  Jan.  27,  1756,  even  as  a  child  of  three 
showed  his  love  for  music  in  a  remarkable  manner. 
He  listened  eagerly  to  his  sister  Marianne's 
music- lessons,  amused  himself  for  hours  with 
picking  out  thirds,  and  showed  a  good  memory 
for  the  pieces  he  heard.     Encouraged  by  these 

•  Her  lessons  first  brought  out  Wolfgang's  extraordinary  musical 
gifts. 

10  He  was  christened  in  full  Joannes  Chrysostomus  Wolfganguj 
Theophllus:  Instead  of  Theophilus  his  father  wrote  Gottlieb— In  Latin 
Amadeus.  In  his  earlier  letters  Mozart  added  his  confirmation-name 
Slgismundus.  On  his  first  works,  and  those  engraved  in  I'aris  in  1764, 
he  signs  himself  J.  G.  Wolfgang,  afterwards  Wolfgang  Amade;  u> 
private  life  he  was  always  Wolfgang. 


380 


MOZART. 


indications  his  father  began,  almost  in  play,  to 
teach  him  little  minuets  on  the  harpsichord ; 
but  the  boy  showed  such  aptitude  that  the  play 
soon  became  real  work.  Marianne's  MS.  music- 
book1  was  called  into  requisition,  the  father 
writing  down  in  it  pieces  of  progressive  difficulty. 
The  impulse  to  compose  similar  pieces  for  him- 
self was  soon  roused  in  the  boy ;  these,  which 
already  betray  his  feeling  for  beauty  both  of 
sound  and  form,  he  played  to  his  father,  who 
wrote  them  down  in  the  book.  Before  long  he 
was  able  to  enter  his  own  compositions.  He  even 
ventured  on  a  concerto,  but  it  was  so  difficult  that 
no  one  could  play  it ;  he  stood  his  ground  how- 
ever, maintaining  to  his  father  that  '  that  is  just 
why  it  is  called  a  concerto ;  people  must  practise 
till  they  can  play  it  perfectly.'  Schachtner  the 
court  trumpeter,  and  a  friend  of  the  family, 
relates2  many  touching  instances  of  his  lively 
and  essentially  child-like  disposition;  of  his  eager- 
ness in  learning  anything,  especially  arithmetic  ; 
of  his  warm  love  for  his  father  ('next  after  God 
comes  papa '  he  used  to  say) ;  of  his  docility, 
which  was  such  that  even  in  those  days  of  severity 
he  never  was  whipped ;  of  his  ear,  which  was  so 
delicate  that  he  could  detect  and  remember  to 
the  next  day  a  difference  of  half  a  quarter  of  a 
tone,  and  so  susceptible  that  he  fainted  away  at 
the  sound  of  a  trumpet ;  of  his  disinclination  to 
ordinary  childish  amusements,  and  his  earnest- 
ness over  his  music-lessons.  His  father  wrote 
to  him  in  1778,  'as  a  child  and  a  boy  you  were 
too  serious  even  to  be  childish :  and  when  sitting 
at  the  harpsichord,  or  doing  anything  in  the 
shape  of  music,  you  would  not  stand  a  joke  from 
any  one.  Indeed,  from  the  precocity  of  your 
talent,  and  the  extremely  thoughtful  expression  of 
your  countenance,  many  people  feared  you  would 
not  live  to  grow  up.'  It  has  but  lately  been 
discovered3  that  when  a  little  over  5I,  Mozart 
took  part  in  a  comedy,  '  Sigisinundus  Hungarise 
Rex,'  set  to  music  by  Eberlin  the  court  organist, 
and  performed  in  the  hall  of  the  University  of 
Salzburg,  Sept.  1  and  3,  1 761.  There  were  about 
150  performers,  including  young  counts,  students, 
and  choristers  of  the  chapel. 

This  was  Mozart's  first  appearance  in  public. 

The  father,  struck  by  the  rapid  progress  of 
his  children,  determined  to  travel  with  them. 
Their  first  excursion  was  in  Jan.  1 762,  to  Munich, 
where  the  Elector  received  them  kindly,  and 
expressed  great  admiration ;  and  encouraged  by 
this  success  the  family  next  went  to  "Vienna, 
giving  a  concert  at  Linz  by  the  way. 

The  reputation  of  the  little  prodigies  had 
preceded  them  to  Vienna,  but  the  reality  far 
exceeded  the  expectations  formed  by  the  court 
and  nobility.  The  Emperor  was  especially  taken 
with  the '  kleinen  Hexenmeister'  (little  magician), 
and  in  joke  made  him  play  first  with  one  finger 
only,    and    then    with    the    keyboard    covered. 

1  Now  In  the  Mozartenm  at  Salzburg. 

2  Letter  to  Mozart's  sister,  dated  Salzburg  1792;  given  entire  by 
Jahn  1. 19.    The  references  throughout  are  to  Jahn's  2nd  edition. 

3  Neue  BeltrSge  fiir  Salzburgische  Geschlchte,  etc.  An  extract  from 
the  MS. '  Chronik  des  Gesanges  und  der  Muslk  lm  Salzburgischen,'  by 
A.  J.  Hammerle  (Salzburg  1877). 


MOZART. 

"Wolfgang  asked  expressly  for  Wagenseil,  the 
court  composer,  that  he  might  be  sure  of  having 
a  real  connoisseur  among  his  hearers.  '  I  am 
playing  a  concerto  of  yours,'  he  said,  'you  must 
turn  over  for  me.'  He  treated  the  Empress  with 
all  the  frankness  of  an  unspoilt  child,  jumping 
up  into  her  lap,  throwing  his  arms  round  her 
neck  and  kissing  her.  Of  course  the  upper 
classes  went  wild  about  the  children,  and  'all 
the  ladies  lost  their  hearts  to  the  little  fellow.' 
Rut  a  change  soon  came,  for  Wolfgang  took  the 
scarlet-fever,  and  even  after  his  recovery  people 
held  aloof  from  fear  of  infection.  After  a  short 
excursion  to  Pressburg  they  returned  to  Salzburg 
in  the  beginning  of  1763. 

The  father  now  considered  himself  justified  in 
attempting  a  longer  journey,  his  main  aim  being 
Paris.  They  left  Salzburg  on  the  9th  of  June,  and 
travelled  by  Munich,  Augsburg,  Schwetzingen, 
Mayence,  Frankfort,4  Coblenz,  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
and  Brussels,  giving  public  concerts,  or  playing 
at  the  various  courts.  Wolfgang  played  the  vio- 
lin, and  also  the  organ  at  the  various  churches. 

They  arrived  in  Paris  on  Nov.  18,  and  stayed 
five  months.  The  children  played  before  the 
court  at  Versailles,  gave  two  concerts,  and 
excited  the  greatest  enthusiasm.  Grimm,  the 
cultivated  man  of  letters,  took  them  up  warmly, 
and  was  of  great  use  in  procuring  them  in- 
troductions, and  rendering  services  of  various 
kinds.  To  show  Wolfgang's  talent  in  composi- 
tion, the  father  had  4  sonatas  for  pianoforte  and 
violin  engraved,  two  (6,  7)  5  being  dedicated  to 
the  Princess  Victoire,  the  King's  second  daughter, 
and  two  (8,  9)  to  the  witty  Comtesse  de  Tesse. 
The  whole  family  was  painted  by  Carmontelle, 
and  the  picture  is  now  in  the  possession  of  Mrs. 
Baring  of  London. 

They  left  Paris  April  10,  1764,  and  went  by 
Calais  to  London,  where  they  took  lodgings  in 
Cecil  Court,  St.  Martin's  Lane.6  Here  also  they 
met  with  a  gracious  reception  at  court,  and  the 
children,  especially  Wolfgang,  made  an  extra- 
ordinary impression.  The  King  put  before  the 
'invincible'  Wolfgang  pieces  by  Bach,  Abel, 
Wagenseil,  and  Handel,  which  he  played  at 
sight,  and  also  made  him  play  on  his  organ,  to 
the  still  greater  admiration  of  everybody.  He 
then  accompanied  the  Queen  in  a  song,  and  a 
flute-player  in  his  solo,  and  improvised  a  charm- 
ing melody  to  the  bass-part  of  one  of  Handel's 
airs.  He  became  very  intimate  with  the  Queen's 
music-master,  J.  Christian  Bach,  and  with  the 
singers  Tenducci  and  Manzuoli,  the  latter  of 
whom  gave  him  singing  lessons  of  his  own  accord. 
He  also  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  Hon. 
Daines  Barrington,  a  man  of  very  versatile  attain- 
ments, who  after  putting  him  to  the  severest 
tests,  wrote  a  paper  for  the  Royal  Society,7  in 

*  Here  the  father  announced  In  the  programme,  Aug.  30.  that '  he 
would  play  with  the  keyboard  covered.'  thus  turning  the  Emperor's 
joke  to  account.  Here  also  Goethe  heard  him—'  I  was  about  14,  and 
I  still  distinctly  remember  the  little  man.  with  his  frizzled  wig,  and 
•word.'    Eckermann's  '  Gespriiche  mit  Goethe,'  11. 180. 

5  The  numbers  throughout  refer  to  KOchei's  Mozart-Catalogue. 

6  For  the  details  of  Mozart's  stay,  and  the  condition  of  music  at  the 
time,  see  Pohl's  '  Mozart  In  London '  (Vienna  1867). 

7  Philosophical  Transactions,  voL  Ix.  for  the  year  1770,  p.  54. 


MOZART. 

which  he  detailed  the  facts  and  his  own  ad- 
miration and  astonishment.  After  a  second 
performance  at  court,  the  children  gave  their 
first  concert  on  Tuesday  June  5,  at  the  Great 
Boom  in  Spring  Gardens.  In  the  advertise- 
ment the  father  called  his  children  'prodigies 
of  nature,'  and  directed  special  attention  to 
Wolfgang ;  '  his  father  had  brought  him  to  Eng- 
land, not  doubting  but  that  he  will  meet  with 
success  in  a  kingdom  where  his  countryman 
Handel,  the  late  famous  virtuoso,  received  during 
his  lifetime  such  particular  protection.'  Town 
was  very  full  for  the  King's  birthday  (June  4), 
and  the  receipts  were  as  much  as  100 guineas; 
moreover  many  of  the  professors  engaged  de- 
clined receiving  any  remuneration  for  their  ser- 
vices. The  sensation  was  immense ;  even  the 
father  was  astonished,  and  wrote  home  describing 
their  progress.  'To  play  the  British  patriot' 
he  next  allowed  Wolfgang  to  play  the  harpsichord 
and  organ  at  a  concert  at  Ranelagh  on  June  29, 
'for  the  benefit  of  a  useful  public  'charity.' 
After  this  the  family  went  to  Tunbridge  Wells, 
then  at  the  height  of  its  fashion,  returning  at  the 
end  of  July;  shortly  after  the  father  took  cold 
in  returning  from  a  concert  at  Lord  Thanet's, 
and  had  a  severe  illness.  During  his  convales- 
cence they  went  to  Chelsea,  then  a  detached 
village,  and  lived  at  the  house  of  a  Dr.  Randal 
in  Five-fields  (now  Lower  Ebury  Street).  Not 
being  able  to  play  any  instrument,  on  their 
father's  account,  Wolfgang  composed  his  first 
Symphony  (15),  followed  by  three  others  in 
1765  (17-19).  On  their  return  to  town  they 
lodged  at  Williamson's  in  Thrift  Street  (now 
Frith  St.,  Soho) ;  and  on  October  29  were  again 
invited  to  court.  In  acknowledgement  of  so 
much  gracious  kindness,  the  father  had  six  of 
Wolfgang's  sonatas  for  harpsichord  and  violin 
(10-15)  engraved  at  his  own  cost,  and  dedicated 
to  the  Queen,  who  sent  him  50  guineas.  The 
last  two  concerts,  in  which  'all  the  overtures 
were  of  the  little  boy's  own  composition,'  took 
place  respectively  on  Feb.  12,  1765,  at  the  Little 
Theatre,  Haymarket,  and  May  13,  in  Hickford's 
Great  Room,  Brewer  Street,  the  latter  at  reduced 
prices,  as  the  charm  of  novelty  had  worn  off. 
Here  the  children  played  a  piece  of  Wolfgang's 
for  4  hands  on  the  same  harpsichord,  a  thing 
then  quite  new.  He  also  played  on  a  pianoforte 
with  2  manuals  and  pedals,  made  by  Burkhard 
Shudy  for  the  King  of  Prussia. 

From  this  time  the  father  put  forth  repeated 
invitations  to  the  public  to  hear  and  test  the 
youthful  prodigies  in  private,  'every  day  from 
12  to  3,  admittance  2/6  each  person,'  first  at 
their  lodgings,  and  afterwards  at  the  Swan  and 
Hoop  Tavern,  Cornhill.  Playing  with  the  key- 
board covered  is  mentioned  as  a  special  attrac- 
tion. Visitors  however  became  constantly  fewer, 
in  spite  of  the  increasing  urgency  with  which 
they  were  invited  (the  '  Advertiser '  of  July  1 1 
contains  the  last  advertisement),  and  some  popu- 
lar disturbances,  together  with  the  appearance  of 

l  Probably  the  Lying-in-Hospital  (Surrey),  the  fouudatiun-stoiie  of 
which  was  laid  in  1765. 


MOZART. 


381 


the  first  symptoms  of  George  the  Third's  malady, 
made  the  elder  Mozart  determine  to  leave  the 
country.  The  family  however  first  visited  the 
British  Museum  (opened  Jan.  15, 1 759),  to  which 
the  father  presented  all  Wolfgang's  printed  com- 
positions, and  a  copy  of  the  engraving  from 
Carmontelle's  picture.  In  memory  of  his  visit 
Wolfgang  composed,  by  request,  a  4-part  motet,2 
his  only  vocal  piece  to  English  words,  and  pre- 
sented the  autograph  to  the  Museum,  receiving 
a  note  of  thanks  from  the  secretary,  Mr.  Maty 
(July  19,  1765).  They  started  July  24,  stopped 
at  Canterbury,  and  at  Bourne  with  Horace 
Mann,  and  on  August  1  left  England  for  the 
Hague  in  consequence  of  an  invitation  to  the 
court  of  Holland. 

They  were  detained  a  month  at  Lille  by  Wolf- 
gang's falling  ill,  but  on  their  arrival  at  the  Hague 
in  September  were  most  graciously  received  by 
the  Prince  of  Orange  and  his  sister  Princess 
Caroline  of  Nassau- Weilburg.  First  however 
the  little  girl  fell  ill,  and  then  Wolfgang  took  a 
violent  fever  which  lasted  many  weeks.  It  was 
not  till  Jan.  1766  that  he  was  able  to  give  two 
concerts  at  Amsterdam,  at  which  all  the  instru- 
mental music  was  his  own  composition,  including 
a  symphony  (22).  In  March  they  were  again  at 
the  Hague  for  the  fetes  on  the  installation  of  the 
Prince  of  Orange  as  Stadtholder,  for  which  Wolf- 
gang composed  harpsichord  variations  on  an 
allegretto,  and  on  the  old  Volkslied  'Willem 
van  Nassau'  (24,  25),  which  were  immediately 
printed.  He  also  composed  for  the  Festival  a 
kind  of  concerto  grosso  which  he  called  '  Gali- 
mathias  musicum '  (32);  it  concludes  with  a 
fugue  on  the  Volkslied.  Six  sonatas  for  P.  F. 
and  violin  (26-31),  dedicated  to  the  Princess,  were 
also  engraved.  At  Ghent  and  Haarlem  he  played 
the  organ  in  public. 

They  next  travelled  by  Mechlin  to  Paris, 
where  they  arrived  on  May  10.  The  children 
played  repeatedly  at  court,  and  their  improve- 
ment was  appreciated,  but  here  too  there  was  a 
falling  off  in  interest.  On  July  9  they  left  Paris, 
and  passing  through  Lyons  to  Switzerland,  spent 
many  pleasant  days  at  Lausanne,  Berne,  Zurich, 
and  Schaffhausen.  They  were  feted  everywhere, 
but  most  of  all  at  Zurich  by  the  poet  Gessner, 
from  whom  they  parted  with  great  regret.  It 
has  lately  been  discovered s  that  the  father  took 
his  children  over  from  Geneva  to  Ferney,  having 
a  letter  of  introduction  from  Damilaville  of  Paris. 
But  Voltaire  had  been  in  bed  for  six  weeks,  and 
Mme.  Denis,  Rameau's  pupil,  was  ill  too ;  '  Com- 
ment pourrais-je  recevoir  vdtre  jeune  joueur  de 
clavecin  ?  Ah  !  nous  sommes  bien  loin  de  donner 
des  fetes ! '  he  wrote  to  his  friend  in  Paris  ;  and 
so  this  strange  encounter  between  Leopold  Mo- 
zart the  sincere  believer,  and  Voltaire,  did  not 
take  place.  That  the  former  should  have  desired 
it  is  a  proof  of  his  readiness  to  sacrifice  even  his 
scruples  to  the  interests  of  his  children.4     At 

>  '  God  is  our  Refuge  and  Strength.'  For  facsimile  of  the  "autograph 
see  Fohl's  '  Mozart  in  London.' 

1 '  Voltaire  Muslcien,'  by  Edmond  ran  der  Straeten. 

«  The  above  interesting  fact  throws  light  on  the  passage  on  Vol- 
taire's death  In  Mozart's  Letters  (Paris,  July  3, 1778). 


382 


MOZART. 


Donaueschingen  they  spent  twelve  pleasant  days 
with  the  Prince  of  Fiirstenherg,  who  had  music 
nearly  every  evening,  and  after  remunerating  them 
very  handsomely,  took  leave  of  them  with  tears  in 
his  eyes.  At  Biberach  Count  Fugger  of  Baben- 
hausen  made  Wolfgang  compete  on  the  organ 
with  Sixtus  Bachmann,  a  gifted  boy  two  years 
older  than  himself ;  neither  was  able  to  obtain  a 
decided  advantage  over  the  other.  Passing 
through  Munich,  where  the  Elector  was  much 
pleased  with  Wolfgang's  progress,  they  arrived 
in  Salzburg  in  November  1766. 

The  father's  first  care  was  to  carry  on  Wolf- 
gang's interrupted  studies ;  and  as  a  solid  founda- 
tion took  him  through  Fux's  'Gradus  ad  Par- 
nassum.'  The  Archbishop,  not  believing  in  the 
boy's  powers,  gave  him  the  first  part  of  a  sacred 
cantata  'Die  Schuldigkeit  des  ersten  Gebotes' 
(35)i  to  compose  under  strict  surveillance.  Quite 
within  our  own  time  it  has  been  ascertained1 
that  this  work  was  performed  on  March  1 2,  and 
April  2,  1767,  by  the  students  in  the  University 
hall.  To  this  period  also  belong  a  Passions- 
cantate  or  Grabmusik  (42),  his  first  P.  F.  con- 
certos (37,  39-41),  and  a  Latin  comedy  'Apollo 
et  Hyacinthus,'  performed  May  13,  at  the  Aula, 
at  which  (according  to  Hammerle)  he  also  played 
the  harpsichord.  In  the  beginning  of  September 
the  family,  attracted  by  the  approaching  be- 
trothal of  the  Archduchess  Josepha,  went  to 
Vienna ;  but  they  came  in  for  a  series  of  mis- 
fortunes. The  Princess  died  of  small-pox,  the 
upper  classes  took  flight  for  fear  of  infection,  and 
the  Mozarts  also  fled  to  Olmiitz,  where  however 
both  children  took  the  disease,  and  Wolfgang 
was  blind  for  nine  days.  Count  Podstatzky 
generously  gave  them  free  quarters  in  the  Dean- 
ery, and  every  care  was  lavished  upon  them. 
After  their  recovery  they  made  a  short  stay  at 
Brtinn,  where  they  were  kindly  welcomed  by 
Count  Schrattenbach,  and  other  nobles. 

They  arrived  in  Vienna  in  January  1768,  and 
were  very  kindly  received  at  court ;  but  the 
Empress  was  living  in  retirement  after  the  death 
of  her  husband,  the  Emperor  set  an  example  of 
parsimony  which  was  scrupulously  followed  by 
the  aristocracy,  and  the  general  public  had  no 
feeling  for  art.  But  worse  than  all  was  the 
envy  and  jealousy  shown  by  their  professional 
brethren.  In  the  midst  of  these  various  dif- 
ficulties and  trials  the  Emperor  invited  Wolfgang 
to  compose  an  opera,  and  conduct  it  at  the  harp- 
sichord. Coltellini's  'La  finta  Semplice '  (51)  was 
chosen,  but  a  series  of  intrigues  prevented  its 
being  produced.  Wolfgang  had  however  the  satis- 
faction of  producing  his  little  German  operetta 
'Bastien  und  Bastienne*  (50) 2  in  the  private 
theatre  of  their  friends  the  Messmers.3  He  had 
also  an  opportunity  of  appearing  in  public  as  a 
composer,  being  commissioned  to  furnish  a  mass 
(49),  an  offertorium  (47),  and  a  trumpet- concerto, 

1  Hammerle  quotes  the  notice  In  the  University  minutes :—' 1707, 
12  Martii,  Joyls:  Vacatio  (Post  prandlum).  Hora  media  7  in  Aula 
Oratorium  fuit  decantatum  a  D.  Wolfgango  Mozart  adulescentulo  10 
annorum  in  modulos  musicos  egregie  redactum.' 

2  Translation  of  a  parody  on  Rousseau's  '  Devin  du  Village.' 

3  A  medical  man,  not  the  celebrated  magnetiser. 


MOZART. 

for  the  consecration  of  the  new  church  at  the 
Waisenhaus.  The  ceremony  took  place  Dec.  7, 
and  Wolfgang  conducted  in  presence  of  the  Em- 
peror and  the  court. 

A  great  pleasure  awaited  Wolfgang  on  his 
return  to  Salzburg;  the  Archbishop  had  his 
rejected  opera  performed  in  the  palace.  He  also 
made  him  his  Concertmeister,  though  without 
salary.  Wolfgang  again  devoted  himself  to 
study,  composing  two  masses  (65,  66),  and  the 
charming  Johannes  Offertorium  (72)  for  a  priest 
in  the  monastery  of  Seeon.  His  father  now 
resolved  to  take  him  to  Italy  for  further  culti- 
vation, and  also  as  a  means  of  making  his  name 
known.  The  father  and  son  left  Salzburg  in  the 
beginning  cf  December  1769,  and  travelling  by 
Innspruck,  where  Wolfgang  was  greatly  admired 
at  a  private  concert  given  by  Count  Ktinigl,  they 
visited  Roveredo,  Verona,  Mantua,  Milan,  Lodi, 
where  Wolfgang  composed  his  first  quartet  (80), 
Bologna,  Rome,  Florence,  Naples,  and  on  their 
return,  Bologna,  Milan,  and  Venice.  At  Roveredo 
Wolfgang  played  at  Baron  Todeschi's,  and  the 
day  after  played  the  organ  in  the  parish  church  to 
an  immense  crowd.  At  Vercna  one  of  his  sym- 
phonies was  performed,  and  his  playing  at  sight, 
and  composing  and  singing  an  air  to  given  words, 
caused  great  astonishment.  Pietro  Lugiati  had 
a  picture  taken  of  him,  and  poets  celebrated  his 
praises.  In  Mantua,  at  a  concert  of  the  Societa 
Filarmonica,  nine  out  of  twelve  pieces  were 
by  Wolfgang.  In  Milan  they  were  lodged  in 
S.  Marco,  and  Count  Firmian,  the  Governor- 
General,  who  was  a  great  connoisseur,  introduced 
them  to  all  the  principal  families.  'It  is  the 
same  here  as  everywhere,'  writes  the  father, 
'  so  there  is  no  need  to  describe  it.'  The  fore- 
most musician  in  the  city,  the  aged  Giambattista 
Sammartini  subjected  Wolfgang  to  severe  tests. 
After  a  brilliant  soiree  at  Count  Firmian' s,  for 
which  he  composed  three  airs  to  words  by  Me- 
tastasio  (77~79)>  he  was  commissioned  to  write 
an  opera  for  the  next  'stagione.'  At  Parma 
they  admired  the  celebrated  singer  Agujari.  At 
Bologna  they  were  most  hospitably  received  by 
Count  Pallavicini,  who  gave  a  brilliant  academy, 
at  which  even  Padre  Martini  was  present,  al- 
though he  had  then  given  up  attending  concerts. 
The  father  writes  that  Wolfgang  was  more  ad- 
mired there  than  anywhere,  and  anticipates  that 
from  Bologna,  the  residence  of  so  many  artists 
and  scientific  musicians,  his  fame  will  soon 
spread  over  Italy.  And  he  was  right ;  for  the 
recommendation  of  Padre  Martini,  the  great 
church  composer,  and  referee  in  all  musical  dis- 
putes, at  once  gave  him  a  position  in  the  eyes  of 
the  world.  After  each  visit  to  the  Padre,  Wolf- 
gang carried  away  a  fugue  to  work  out  at  home, 
and  in  every  case  acquitted  himself  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  great  contrapuntist.  His  acquaint- 
ance too  with  the  great  singer  Farinelli  was  of 
service  to  him  from  an  artistic  point  of  view. 

In  Florence,  where  they  arrived  March  30,  the 
Mozarts  were  graciously  received  by  the  Arch- 
duke Leopold,  who  had  known  them  in  Vienna. 
Wolfgang  played  at  court,  accompanied  Nardini 


MOZART. 

the  great  violinist,  and  solved  '  as  easily  as  if  lie 
were  eating  a  bit  of  bread,'  the  hardest  problems 
set  him  by  the  Marquis  de  Ligniville,  director  of 
the  court-music,  and  a  thorough  contrapuntist. 
Wolfgang  copied  for  his  own  use  9  pieces  from 
the  Marquis's  Stabat  Mater  with  30  canons,  and 
composed  in  imitation  of  it  a  Kyrie  a  cinque  con 
diversi  canoni  (89).  Here  to  his  great  delight 
he  again  met  Manzuoli,  who  had  taught  him 
to  sing  in  London.  He  also  struck  up  a  great 
friendship  with  Thomas  Linley,  the  young  com- 
poser of  14,  who  was  a  pupil  of  Nardini,  and 
already  gave  remarkable  promise.  The  two 
young  artists  were  inseparable  for  the  few  days 
of  Mozart's  stay,  and  competed  'not  like  boys, 
but  like  men.'  They  parted  with  many  tears, 
and  never  met  again,  Linley  being  drowned  in 
1 778.  Long  afterwards  in  Vienna  Mozart  spoke 
of  him,1  and  lamented  his  early  death.  Burney 
says  that  the  talk  throughout  Italy  was  of  the 
two  genuises,  little  Mozart  and  '  Tomasino,'  from 
both  of  whom  much  was  expected. 

The  travellers  reached  Rome  on  Wednesday 
in  Holy  Week,  and  went  straight  to  the  Sistine 
Chapel  to  hear  Allegri's  celebrated  Miserere, 
when  Wolfgang  gave  the  well-known  proof  of  his 
ear  and  memory,  by  writing  down  the  entire 
work,  after  one  hearing,  merely  correcting  one 
or  two  passages  during  the  repetition  on  Good 
Friday.  [See  Miserere.]  This  feat  made  a 
great  sensation.  The  principal  people  received 
him  with  open  arms,  and  Wolfgang  played  every- 
where. For  these  concerts  he  composed  a  sym- 
phony (81)  and  two  soprano  airs  (82,  83),  and 
sent  a  contredanse  to  his  sister  in  return  for 
Haydn's  minuets. 

On  May  8  they  went  direct  to  Naples. 
Wolfgang  was  not  invited  to*  play  before  the 
court,  but  the  nobility  treated  both  father  and 
son  with  great  respect ;  they  also  met  many 
previous  acquaintances,  who  were  of  use  to  them 
in  various  ways.  On  the  28th  Wolfgang  gave  a 
concert,  which  was  brilliantly  attended,  and 
brought  in  a  good  sum.  When  he  played  at 
the  '  Conservatorio  alia  Pieta,'  his  hearers  were 
superstitious  enough  to  attribute  his  marvellous 
execution  to  the  charm  of  a  ring  on  his  finger,  and 
when  he  laid  it  aside  their  astonishment  knew 
no  bounds.  They  had  made  acquaintance  with 
Piccini  in  Milan,  and  did  the  same  here  with 
Jomelli.  On  June  25  they  went  back  to  Rome, 
and  the  Pope  in  a  private  audience  bestowed  on 
Wolfgang  the  order  of  the  'Golden  Spur' — 'the 
same  that  Gluck  has,'  as  the  father  wrote  home 
with  pardonable  pride.  He  also  told  as  a  good 
joke,  how  the  guards  let  them  pass,  taking  Wolf- 
gang for  a  young  prince,  and  himself  for  his 
tutor.  Now  he  was  Signor  Cavaliere  Amadeo, 
and  his  father  insisted  on  his  thus  signing  his 
compositions.  Wolfgang  however  was  less  pre- 
tentious, and  soon  let  the  title  drop.  He  was 
painted  again  in  Rome  by  Battoni. 

Leaving  Rome  on  July  10,  they  arrived  on 
the  20th  in  Bologna,  where  a  great  distinction 
awaited  Wolfgang.    The  Accademia  Filarmonica, 

i  Kelly's  '  Reminiscences,'  i.  223. 


MOZART. 


383 


after  testing  his  powers,2  admitted  him  to  their 
ranks  as  '  compositore,'  although  the  statutes,  be- 
sides other  qualifications,  required  that  members 
should  be  at  least  20.  His  election  as  '  maestro 
di  3  capella'  followed  on  June  5,  1771.  Again 
they  saw  much  of  Padre  Martini,  and  under  his 
influence  Wolfgang  wrote  for  practice  a  series  of 
sketches  in  the  forms  of  strict  counterpoint.*  A 
Miserere  (85)  shows  the  influence  of  the  one 
heard  in  Rome.*  Finally  Martini  gave  him  a 
formal  testimonial. 

By  Oct.  10  they  were  in  Milan,  and  Wolfgang 
set  seriously  to  work  on  his  opera,  before  the 
completion  of  which  the  usual  battles  with  the 
singers,  and  in  this  case  with  jealous  rivals,  had 
to  be  gone  through.  On  Dec.  26,  however, 
'  Mitridate  Re  di  Ponto '  was  produced  for  the 
first  time,  Wolfgang  conducting ;  and  it  was 
repeated  to  full  houses  twenty  times,  amid  cries 
of  '  Evviva  il  Maestro  !  Evviva  il  Maestrino ! ' 
After  an  excursion  to  Turin,  they  again  passed 
through  Milan  on  their  way  to  Venice,  entered 
into  all  the  amusements  of  the  Carnival,  were 
feted  by  the  nobility,  and  gave  a  brilliant  con- 
cert. On  March  12  they  went  to  Padua,  where 
Wolfgang  played  the  organ  in  S.  Giustina,  and 
was  commissioned  to  compose  an  oratorio,  which 
Jahn  conjectures  to  have  been  'Betulia  liberata' 
(118),  performed  in  all  probability  during  Lent, 
1772.  After  some  days  detention  in  Vicenza  and 
Verona,  they  arrived  at  Salzburg,  March  28, 
1 77 1.  His  success  in  Italy  procured  him  two 
commissions, — one  from  Milan  for  an  opera  for  the 
Carnival  of  1 773,  and  the  other  from  the  Empress 
Maria  Theresa  for  a  dramatic  serenata  for  the 
marriage  of  the  Archduke  Ferdinand,  to  take 
place  in  Milan  in  October.  During  their  short 
stay  at  Salzburg,  Wolfgang  composed  a  Litany 
(109),  a  Regina  coeli  (108),  and  a  symphony 
(no).  They  started  again  Aug.  13,  1 771*  *™ 
arrived  in  Milan  on  the  21st;  but  the  libretto 
was  not  ready  till  the  end  of  the  month.  The 
score  was  completed  in  a  fortnight,  a  remarkable 
instance  of  rapidity,  considering  that  he  had  a 
violinist  overhead,  an  oboe-player  beneath,  and 
a  pianoforte-teacher  next  door,  all  hard  at  work 
the  whole  day  long — a  Babel  of  sounds  which  he, 
however,  pronounced  to  be  '  delightful  (lustig)  for 
composing,  as  it  gave  ideas '  !  He  was  now  so 
firmly  established  in  the  favour  both  of  the  court 
and  the  public,  that  he  had  no  intrigues  to  en- 
counter. He  was  on  the  best  terms,  too,  with 
Hasse,  who  was  composing  'Ruggiero,'  and  who 
with  commendable  generosity,  prophetically  re- 
marked, 'This  boy  will  cause  us  all  to  be  for- 
gotten' (Questo  ragazzo  ci  fara  dimenticar  tutti). 
The  marriage  of  the  Archduke  and  the  Princess 
Beatrice  of  Modena  took  place  Oct.  15  ;  Hasse's 
opera  was  performed  on  the  16th,  and  Wolf- 
gang's Serenata  '  Ascanio  in  Alba'  (in)  on  the 
17th,  with  a  success  which  enabled  the  father 
to  write  home  'I  am  sorry  to  say  Wolfgang's 

2  An  Antlpbon  was  given  him  to  set  In  4  parts  (86). 
>  Jahn  gives— Minutes.  II.  613 ;  Letter  from  the  father,  L 126 ;  Test- 
composition.  II.  Notenbeilage  vlll,  p.  20;  Diploma  II.  614. 
«  Jahn  II.  Notenbeilage  v.  '■>  Ibid.  vL 

e  Jahn  il.  616. 


284 


MOZART. 


Serenata  has  cut  out  Hasse's  Opera  to  an  extent 
I  cannot  describe.'  Besides  his  fee,  the  Em- 
press sent  him  a  gold  watch  set  with  diamonds, 
with  her  portrait  at  the  back.  After  the  opera 
he  composed  another  symphony  (112),  and  a 
divertimento  (113). 

They  returned  home  in  the  middle  of  Decem- 
ber, 1 771.  In  the  last  days  of  the  year  Wolfgang 
composed  another  symphony  (114),  and  was  then 
laid  up  by  serious  illness.  Meantime  the  Arch- 
bishop died,  and  Wolfgang  was  commissioned  to 
compose  an  opera  for  the  allegiance  festival  of 
his  successor  Hieronymus,  Count  von  Colloredo, 
whose  election  caused  universal  astonishment 
and  dismay.  The  piece  chosen  was  Metastasio's 
'  II  Sogno  di  Scipione,'  very  inappropriate,  and 
apparently  wanting  in  inspiration,  as  the  music 
is  superficial  and  entirely  'de  circonstance.'  It 
was  performed  probably  in  May,  1772.  About 
the  same  period  he  composed  4  symphonies  ( 1 24, 
128-130);  a  grand  divertimento  (131);  3  quar- 
tets (136-138);  a  very  important  Litany  'de 
venerabili '  (125) ;  and  a  Regina  cceli  (127). 

The  travellers  again  set  out  for  Milan  on  Oct. 
24,  1872,  and  arrived  on  Nov.  4.  Here  Wolf- 
gang completed  his  new  opera,  'Lucio  Silla' 
(135),  produced  on  Dec.  26,  and  repeated  more 
than  twenty  times  to  crowded  and  enthusiastic 
audiences.  Rauzzini  was  one  of  the  singers,  and 
Wolfgang  composed  for  him  a  motet,  '  Exul- 
tate '  (165),  which  he  sang  in  the  church  of  the 
Theatines. 

They  returned  in  the  beginning  of  March 
1773  to  Salzburg,  where  Wolfgang  composed  4 
symphonies  (1 81-184),  3  divertimenti  for  wind- 
band  (186-188),  a  grand  concerto  for  two 
violins  (190),  and  a  mass  (167).  In  the  summer 
the  father  and  son  took  the  opportunity  of  the 
Archbishop's  absence  in  Vienna,  to  go  there 
themselves.  Their  immediate  object  is  not 
known,  but  probably  the  father  was  trying  to 
obtain  some  court  appointment.  He  had  made 
a  similar  attempt  in  Florence,  but  without  suc- 
cess. He  wrote  to  his  wife  and  daughter, 
'Things  will  and  must  alter;  take  comfort,  God 
will  help  us.'  They  returned  home  however  with 
their  object  unattained.  In  Vienna  Wolfgang 
composed  a  grand  serenata  for  Salzburg  (185), 
and  six  quartets  (168-173),  and  was  'bold 
enough,'  as  his  father  wrote,  to  play  a  violin- 
concerto  at  a  festival  in  the  Theatine  monastery, 
the  organ  not  being  worth  playing  on.  One  of 
his  masses  (66)  was  performed  by  the  Jesuits. 

In  1773  Wolfgang  also  composed  at  Salzburg 
a  string  quintet  (174),  and  a  P.F.  concerto 
(175),  the  first  since  those  of  1767.  The  family 
were  together  at  Salzburg  nearly  the  whole  of 
1774,  Wolfgang  being  very  busy  with  his  studies, 
and  with  composition.  To  this  period  belong — 
2  masses  (192,  194);  a  grand  litany  (195);  2 
vesper-psalms  (193)  ;  an  offertorium  for  soprano 
and  tenor  soli  (198)  ;  a  bassoon-concerto  (191) ; 
4  symphonies  (199-202) ;  2  serenatas  (203,  204) ; 
an  interesting  divertimento  (205),  and  P.F.  va- 
riations on  Fischer's  favourite  minuet  (179), 
which  he  frequently  played  on  his  tour. 


MOZART. 

On  Dec.  6  the  father  and  son  started  for 
Munich,  where  Wolfgang  was  engaged,  through 
the  influence  of  his  patron.  Count  Ferdinand  von 
Zeil,  Prince  Archbishop  of  Chiemsee,  to  compose 
an  opera  for  the  Carnival  of  1775.  Stimulated 
doubtless  by  the  rich  resources  at  his  disposal. 
Wolfgang  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost,  and 
'Lafinta  Giardiniera'  (196),  produced  Jan.  13, 
1775,  was  a  great  success.  Schubart,  who  had 
heard  it,  speaks  of  the  '  wonderful  genius '  of 
the  composer,  and  adds,  '  unless  Mozart  should 
prove  to  be  a  mere  overgrown  product  of  the 
forcing-house,  he  will  be  the  greatest  composer 
that  ever  lived.'  Court  and  public  vied  with  each 
other  in  paying  him  attentions,  and  the  court- 
chapel  performed  one  of  his  grand  litanies  (125), 
his  two  latest  masses,  and  an  offertorium, '  Miseri- 
cordias  Domini'  (222),  written  in  haste  at  the 
request  of  the  Elector,  and  an  admirable  speci- 
men of  strict  counterpoint. 

Soon  after  their  return  to  Salzburg  in  March 
1775,  a  series  of  fetes  were  given  at  court  in 
honour  of  the  Archduke  Maximilian,  afterwards 
Archbishop  of  Cologne,  and  Wolfgang's  dramatic 
cantata  to  Metastasio's  much-used  'H  Re  pas- 
tore'  (208)  was  performed  on  April  23.  To  the 
remainder  of  this  year  belong,  another  mass 
(220);  2  airs  for  tenor  (209,  210);  an  air  for 
soprano  (217);  a  divertimento  (213) ;  9  canons 
for  2,  3,  and  4  voices  (226-234)  >  and  5  violin- 
concertos  (207,  211,  216,  218,  219),  to  which 
a  6th  (268)  was  added  in  1776.  The  concertos 
show  that  he  was  working  at  the  violin,  which 
he  did  to  please  his  father,  as  he  disliked  play- 
ing at  court,  though  it  was  one  of  his  duties. 
His  father  writes  to  him  in  1777,  '  You  have  no 
idea  how  well  you  play  the  violin ;  if  you  would 
only  do  yourself  justice,  and  play  with  boldness, 
spirit,  and  fire,  you  would  be  the  first  violinist  in 
Europe.'  Again,  '  I  suspect  you  have  scarcely 
touched  the  violin  since  you  were  in  Munich  ;  I 
should  be  very  sorry  if  that  were  the  case ' ;  and 
later,  'The  violin  is  hanging  up  on  its  nail,  I 
suppose' — and  the  conjecture  was  right.  The 
remark  about  Munich  refers  to  his  Cassation 
(287),  'Everybody  was  staring  away;  and  I 
played  as  if  I  had  been  the  greatest  violinist  in 
Europe.'  Later,  in  Vienna,  he  preferred  taking 
the  viola  in  quartets. 

The  whole  of  1776,  and  as  far  as  Sept.  1777, 
passed  quietly  in  the  old  routine,  numerous  com- 
positions testifying  to  Wolfgang's  industry.  To 
this  period  belong  5  masses  (257-259,  262, 
275)  ;  a  litany  '  de  venerabili '  (243)  ;  an  offer- 
torium for  2  choirs  'Venite  populi'  (260);  a 
graduale  'Sancta  Maria'  (273);  a  serenade  for 
the  wedding  of  Burgermeister  Haffner's  daughter 
(249,  250);  a  serenade  for  2  violins  principali 
with  accompaniments  (239)  ;  a  divertimento  for 
various  instruments  (251);  a  notturno  for  ditto 
(286) ;  2  divertimenti  or  Cassationen  for  string 
quartet  and  2  horns  (247,  287)  for  the  name-day 
of  Countess  Antonie  Lodron ;  5  divertimenti  for 
2  oboi,  2  bassoons,  and  2  horns  (240,  252,  253, 
270,  289)  ;  a  sonata  for  bassoon  and  cello  (292) ; 
an  oboe-concerto  (293)  for  Ferlendi,  frequently 


MOZART. 

played  by  Ramm  of  Mannheim,  who  used  to  call 
it  his  'cheval  de  bataille.'  The  P.F.  also  re- 
appears— variations  (264,  265)  ;  6  sonatas  (279- 
284),  ordered  by  Baron  Diirnitz,  who  forgot  to 
pay  for  them;  a  trio  (254)  ;  2  concertos  (238, 
246)  ;  and  a  concerto  for  3  P.F.'s  (242)  for  the 
three  Countesses  Lodrow,  a  favourite  piece,  often 
played  on  his  next  tour  by  Mozart  himself.  Of 
17  sonatas  for  organ,  generally  with  violin  and 
bass,  intended  as  graduates,  6  (241,  244,  245, 
363,  274,  278)  belong  to  this  period. 

Besides  all  this  mass  of  music,  Wolfgang 
studied  the  works  of  other  masters,  and  even — 
an  example  well  worth  following — put  into  score 
from  the  parts  a  number  of  church-pieces  in  the 
strict  style  by  Michael  Haydn  and  Eberlin.  He 
sent  from  Vienna  for  a  note-book  of  this  kind  for 
van  Swieten's  benefit. 

We  have  now  before  us  a  youth  of  21,  a 
skilled  performer  on  three  instruments,  and  at 
home  in  the  most  varied  branches  of  composition. 
His  father  had  given  him  a  conscientious  and 
systematic  education,  protected  him  from  all 
injurious  influences,  and  made  him  concentrate 
his  whole  powers  on  his  artistic  cultivation.  All 
that  teaching  could  do  for  him  had  been  done  in 
Salzburg ;  the  time  had  now  come  for  him  to  go 
out  into  the  world,  and  let  the  discipline  of  life 
complete  the  work.  His  existence  at  Salzburg 
had  long  been  intolerable  to  him  ;  beyond  a  few 
intimate  friends  he  had  no  society ;  he  was  dis- 
gusted at  the  want  of  appreciation  for  art,  and 
his  position  with  regard  to  Archbishop  Hierony- 
mus  became  daily  more  critical.  On  this  point 
both  he  and  his  father  became  anxious.  Some- 
thing must  be  done.  Not  daring  as  yet  to  send 
his  son  alone  into  the  world,  the  father  asked 
leave  to  take  a  professional  tour  with  him.  It 
was  refused,  the  Archbishop's  reason  being,  as 
he  said  afterwards,  that  '  he  could  not  bear 
people  going  about  begging  in  that  fashion.' 
The  cup  was  now  full,  and  Wolfgang  applied  for 
his  discharge.1  Irritated  that  any  one  should 
dare  to  leave  him  so  abruptly,  and  quite  aware 
of  what  he  was  losing,  the  Archbishop  granted 
the  request  on  Aug.  28,  adding  that,  '  after  the 
Gospel  both  father  and  son  were  free  to  seek  their 
fortune  wherever  they  pleased.'  He  relented, 
however,  with  regard  to  the  father,  who  came  to 
the  painful  resolve  of  sending  his  son  away  with 
his  mother.  It  was  true  that  she  had  little 
energy,  and  less  intellectual  power  ;  but  she  was 
an  experienced  traveller,  and  could  be  useful  to 
her  son  in  many  practical  ways.  The  necessary 
preparations  were  accordingly  made,  even  to  the 
purchase  of  a  carriage,  that  they  might  present 
a  suitable  appearance.  On  Sept.  23,  1777, 
mother  and  son  left  home.  The  father  bore  up 
bravely  till  they  were  really  off,  and  then  going 
to  his  room  sank  exhausted  on  a  chair.  Sud- 
denly he  remembered  that  in  his  distress  he  had 
forgotten  to  give  his  son  his  blessing.    He  rushed 

1  This  Interesting  document  has  lately  been  found  ta  the  archl- 
eplscopal  archives  by  Pirckmeyer  the  custodian,  and  published  with 
other  matter  under  the  title  of  'Zur  Lebensgeschichte  Mozarts,' 
Salzburg  1876:  also  copied  lu  the  Preface  to  Kohl's  Mozart brlefe, 
2nd  ed.,  1S77. 

VOL.  II.    FT.  10. 


MOZART. 


385 


to  the  window  with  outstretched  hand,  but  the 
carriage  was  already  out  of  sight.  His  son,  how- 
ever, breathed  freely  when  once  fairly  off;  the 
deliverance  from  a  position  which  he  had  long 
groaned  under  was  delightful  enough  to  mitigate 
even  the  pain  of  separation  from  his  father  and 
sister.  Fortunately  for  him  he  could  not  foresee 
the  life  which  lay  before  him, — a  life  full  to  its 
close  of  crosses  and  disappointments,  and  with 
bo  few  joys  1 

Their  first  halting-place  was  Munich,  but  here 
they  met  with  nothing  but  discouragement,  and 
had  to  leave  without  accomplishing  anything.  At 
Augsburg  Mozart  visited  G.  Andreas  Stein,  the 
celebrated  maker  of  organs  and  pianofortes,  and 
both  at  his  house  and  in  the  monastery  of  St. 
Ulrich  charmed  all  hearers  by  his  playing.  A 
concert,  however,  produced  but  a  small  sum.  On 
Oct.  30  they  reached  Mannheim,  where  they 
stayed  much  longer  than  they  anticipated.  The 
good  prospects  which  at  first  seemed  to  open 
before  them  were  not  indeed  realised;  but  the 
visit  formed  a  decisive  epoch  in  Mozart's  life. 
Under  the  Elector  Karl  Theodor,  Mannheim  pos- 
sessed a  good  opera,  with  an  orchestra  contain- 
ing virtuosi  of  the  first  rank,  and  at  that  time 
considered  the  first  in  Europe  for  instrumental 
music.2  Mozart  made  great  friends  with  Canna- 
bich,  an  excellent  conductor  and  good  teacher, 
and  gave  pianoforte  lessons  to  his  daughter 
Rose,  who  attracted  him  in  spite  of  her  youth. 
He  also  became  intimate  with  the  poets  Wieland 
and  Freiherr  von  Gemmingen,  the  composers 
Holzbauer  and  Schweitzer,  Raaff  the  great  tenor, 
Wendling,  Ramm,  and  Ritter,  excellent  per- 
formers on  the  flute,  oboe,  and  bassoon.  Here 
also  his  playing,  both  on  the  pianoforte  and  the 
organ,  was  much  admired,  and  he  had  oppor- 
tunities of  measuring  himself  with  Sterkel  and 
Vogler,  neither  of  whom  impressed  him  much. 
The  latter,  indeed,  he  positively  disliked.  While 
vainly  endeavouring  to  gain  admittance  to  the 
Elector's  Chapel,  Wendling,  Ramm,  and  Ritter 
tried  to  persuade  him  to  accompany  them  to  Paris 
and  give  concerts  there.  He  was  inclined  to  the 
plan,  and  his  father  agreed,  though  with  reluct- 
ance ;  but  when  it  came  to  the  point  he  allowed  his 
friends  to  start  without  him.  The  truth  was  he 
had  fallen  in  love.  Aloysia,  the  second  daughter 
of  Fridolin  Weber,  prompter  and  copyist,  was  a 
gifted  singer,  with  a  fine  voice  and  considerable 
beauty,  and  these  qualities  made  a  due  impression 
upon  Wolfgang,  during  an  excursion  to  Kirch- 
heim,  in  Poland,  where  the  Princess  of  Orange 
kept  a  private  orchestra,  and  had  daily  concerts. 
Aloysia  returned  his  attachment,  and  allowed 
him  to  teach  her  singing;  and  he,  touched  by  the 
poverty  of  the  family,  resolved  to  take  her  to 
Italy,  and  there  write  a  new  opera  for  her  first 
appearance.  So  romantic  a  proposition  drove 
his  father  nearly  out  of  his  senses.  In  such  a 
case  quick  action  was  everything.  Urging  upon 
him  the  doubtful  character  of  the  plan,  he  used 
all  his  endeavours  to  tear  him  away  from  these 

t  It  was  here  that  Mozart  first  learnt  the  value  of  the  clarinet  as  an 
orchestral  instrument. 

C  0 


386 


MOZART. 


dangerous  surroundings.  '  Off  with  you  to  Paris, 
and  that  immediately!  Take  up  your  position 
among  those  who  are  really  great, — aut  Casar 
ant  nihil !  From  Paris  the  name  and  fame  of  a 
man  of  talent  spreads  throughout  the  world.'  As 
for  his  Aloysia,  he  advised  him  to  commend  her 
to  Raaff,  who  would  not  only  be  able  to  teach 
her,  but  whose  good  word  would  have  great 
weight  with  impresarios.  It  was  a  hard  struggle 
for  Wolfgang,  but  his  love  for  his  father  enabled 
him  to  defer  to  his  authority,  and  the  time  for 
departure  was  fixed.  Before  leaving,  however, 
he  gave  some  concerts,  at  which  he  played,  and 
produced  both  his  compositions  and  his  pupils ; 
and  now  for  the  first  time  Mannheim  became 
aware  of  what  it  was  losing.  Parting  with  the 
Webers  was  hard  work;  they  all  wept,  and 
thanked  him  as  their  '  greatest  benefactor.'  In 
Mannheim  he  composed — a  soprano  air  for  Aloysia 
(294) ;  a  tenor  air  for  Raaff  (295) ;  2  Lieder  (307, 
308)  ;  2  flute-concertos  (313-314)  ;  Romanze  for 
flute  (315)  ;  quartet  for  flute  and  strings  (285)  ; 
7  sonatas  for  P.F.  and  violin,  partly  composed  in 
Paris  (296, 301-306)  ;  3  P.F.  sonatas  (309-311), 
including  the  beautiful  one  in  A  minor. 

Leaving  Mannheim  on  March  14,  1778,  they 
reached  Paris  on  the  23rd.  The  father's  antici- 
pations did  not  in  this  instance  prove  correct ; 
their  old  friend  Grimm  was  still  there,  but  by  no 
means  so  devoted  to  their  interests  as  he  had 
been ;  the  youth  was  not  the  same  attraction  as  the 
marvellous  boy  had  been ;  and  the  musical  world 
was  absorbed  in  the  Gluck  and  Piccini  contro^ 
versy.  Nor  had  they  succeeded  in  obtaining  from 
Vienna  a  recommendation  to  Marie  Antoinette. 
They  were  thus  tin-own  upon  their  Mannheim 
friends,  and  upon  Count  von  Sickingen,  to  whom 
von  Gemmingen  had  given  them  an  introduction. 
Wolfgang  renewed  his  acquaintance  with  Pic- 
cini, whom  he  had  met  in  Italy,  but  they  never 
got  beyond  the  terms  of  ordinary  courtesy ;  '  I 
know  my  business,  and  he  his, — that  is  enough,' 
writes  Wolfgang.  Gossec  he  calls,  'my  very 
good  friend,  and  an  uncommonly  dry  man.' 
There  is  no  trace  of  any  acquaintance  with 
Gre"try.  Grimm  procured  him  admittance  to 
the  Due  de  Guisnes,  who  played  the  flute 
superbly,  as  Mozart  says,  and  his  daughter  the 
harp.  Accordingly  he  had  to  compose  a  concerto 
(299)  for  these  two  instruments,  for  which  he 
cared  less  than  any  other.  To  the  daughter  he 
gave  daily  lessons  in  composition,  and  he  had  a 
few  other  lady-pupils.  But  he  was  not  allowed 
to  write  an  opera.  Noverre,  ballet-master  at  the 
Opera,  promised  to  use  his  influence,  which  was 
great,  in  his  favour;  but  all  he  did  was  to 
employ  him  to  compose  twelve  pieces  for  hia 
ballet,  '  Les  petits l  riens.'  He  composed  a  sym- 
phony for  flute,  oboe,  bassoon,  and  French  horn, 
at  the  request  of  Le  Gros,  director  of  the  Concerts 
Spirituels,  but  it  was  never  performed.  Some 
airs  in  a  Miserere  by  Holzbauer,  produced  at  the 
Concerts  Spirituels  without  Mozart's  name,  passed 
unnoticed,  except  by  Gossec,  who  expressed  great 
admiration.  Le  Gros  afterwards  ordered  another 
>  Discovered  and  printed  a  few  Tears  ago. 


MOZART. 

symphony,  which  pleased  greatly — the  Paris  or 
French  symphony  in  three  movements  (297); 
and  at  his  request  Mozart  wrote  a  second  An- 
dante in  place  of  the  original  one. 

In  the  meantime,  his  mother,  who  had  never 
been  well  in  Paris,  became  seriously  ill,  and  died 
in  Wolfgang's  arms  on  July  3.  With  great 
thoughtfulness  he  wrote  to  their  friend  Bullinger 
to  prepare  his  father  for  the  sad  news,  and  then 
sent  a  letter  direct,  which  gives  a  high  idea  of 
the  love  which  bound  the  family  together,  and  of 
the  manliness  of  his  own  conduct  in  so  distress- 
ing a  position.2  Remain  longer  in  Paris  he  felt 
he  could  not,  and  his  father  even  urged  his  de- 
parture, especially  as  there  was  now  some  prospect 
for  him  in  Salzburg,  owing  to  the  deaths  of 
Adigasser  the  court  organist,  and  Lolli  the  old 
Capellmeister.  Moreover  the  Archbishop  had 
promised  to  allow  him  to  go  anywhere  to  super- 
intend the  production  of  an  opera,  should  he  be 
commissioned  to  write  one.  His  last  few  days  in 
Paris  were  cheered  by  his  old  London  friend 
Christian  Bach,  who  had  come  over  for  the  per- 
formance of  his  '  Amadis.'  '  His  joy,  and  mine 
too,  at  meeting  again,  you  can  well  imagine,' 
he  wrote  to  his  father.  With  Bach  came  Ten- 
ducci,  and  the  three  spent  a  few  pleasant  days 
at  the  Marechal  de  Noailles's  chateau  at  Saint 
Germain.  Mozart  wrote  a  scena3  for  Tenducci, 
with  accompaniment  for  pianoforte,  oboe,  horn, 
and  bassoon,  and  this  was  played  by  the  Mare- 
chal's  servants,  who  were  all  Germans.  To  the 
compositions  already  mentioned  in  Paris  must  be 
added  a  gavotte  (300),  and  a  quartet  for  flute  and 
strings  (298). 

On  Sept.  26,  1 778,  Mozart  left  Paris  with  a  still 
heavier  heart  than  he  had  entered  it  six  months 
before.  He  went  by  Nancy  and  Strassburg, 
which  he  reached  in  the  middle  of  October. 
Here  he  gave  three  concerts,  which  produced 
much  applause  but  little  money,  and  played  on 
Silbermann's  two  best  organs  in  the  Neukirche 
and  St.  Thomas.  On  Nov.  3  he  started  for 
Mannheim,  although  it  was,  as  his  father  said,  a 
foolish  notion  to  go  there  when  the  Court,  the 
Webers,  and  his  best  friends  were  all  absent  at 
Munich,  and  there  was  nothing  for  him  to  do. 
But  it  did  him  good  to  recall  the  old  memories, 
and,  as  he  said,  '  I  love  Mannheim,  and  Mann- 
heim loves  me.'  Besides,  he  had  some  prospect 
of  an  engagement  for  an  opera.  Seyler's  troupe 
was  still  at  the  theatre  ;  they  were  indeed  only 
an  operetta-company,  but  there  was  some  talk  of 
founding  a  German  national  opera.  Here  too 
Mozart  saw  two  of  Benda's  melodramas,  'Medea' 
and  '  Ariadne  auf  Naxos,'  and  was  so  delighted 
with  them  that  he  willingly  undertook  von 
Gemmingen's  'Semiramis.'*  Von  Dalberg,  direc- 
tor   of   the   theatre,   also    had    his   eye    upon 

»  Jahn  gives  both  letters,  II.  691-2,  with  a  facsimile  of  that  to 
Bullinger  In  an  appendix  to  rol.  I. 

>  Tenducci  appears  to  have  taken  this  composition  with  him  to 
London.  Burney  (see  Barrlngton's  '  Miscellanies,'  289)  speaks  of  it  as 
a  masterpiece  oi  invention  and  technique  (Fohl's  '  Mozart  In  London, 
121). 

*  He  took  the  libretto  home  with  htm  to  compose  '  gratuitously.' 
1  You  see,'  he  writes  to  his  father, '  how  strong  my  liking  for  this  kind 
of  composition  Is."  Jahn  (1. 514)  has  not  been  able  to  discover  whether 
be  ever  composed  It,  or  whether  the  poem  was  lost. 


MOZART. 

Mozart  for  his  opera  'Cora,'  although  he  was 
already  in  negotiation  with  Gluck  and  Schweitzer. 
However,  all  came  to  nothing ;  and  his  father, 
who  had  run  into  debt  on  his  account,  and  had 
moreover  great  hopes  of  seeing  him  well  placed  in 
Salzburg,  put  forth  his  authority  to  make  him 
return — '  You  will  start  immediately  on  receipt  of 
this.'  The  son  obeyed,  and  by  Dec.  25  was  at 
Munich  ;  but  his  father,  anxious  lest  he  should 
be  detained  for  good,  and  fearing  the  proximity 
of  his  beloved,  did  not  let  him  rest  there.  Canna- 
bich  and  Raaff  were  indeed  'working  for  him 
hand  and  foot,'  but  there  was  no  need  for 
anxiety  on  Aloysia's  account.  Her  family  wel- 
comed him  warmly,  but  she  who  '  had  wept  for 
him '  seemed  now  scarcely  to  remember  him,  and 
was  even  displeased  that  he  had  altered  the 
fashion  of  his  clothes.  Yet  he  again  offered  her 
his  musical  homage,  composing  a  grand  aria 
(316)  suited  to  her  present  capabilities,  to  words 
taken,  with  a  trace  of  Belf-complacency,  from 
Gluck's  'Alceste,'  and  with  an  obligate  accompa- 
niment intended  for  Ramm  and  Ritter.  This  air 
was  his  farewell  to  Aloysia  Weber,  about  whom 
he  wrote  to  his  father  in  May  1781,  'I  did  love 
her  truly,  and  feel  still  that  I  am  not  indifferent 
to  her;  but  luckily  for  me  her  husband  is  a 
jealous  fool,  and  never  lets  her  go  anywhere,  so 
that  I  rarely  see  her.'1 

In  mourning  for  his  mother,  disappointed  in 
his  first  love,  and  with  all  his  hopes  falsified, 
Mozart  returned  in  the  middle  of  June  1779  to 
the  home  of  his  childhood.  In  such  circum- 
stances the  warmth  with  which  he  was  received 
was  doubly  grateful.  A  good  many  of  his  old 
friends  were  still  there  to  rally  round  him,  but 
nothing  could  overcome  his  dislike  of  Salzburg. 
Even  the  duties  entailed  by  his  position  as 
Concert-meister  and  organist  to  the  Court  and 
Cathedral,2  were  fulfilled  as  an  irksome  task. 
His  desire  to  write  for  the  stage  was  re-kindled 
by  the  presence  of  a  dramatic  company  under 
Bohm  and  Schikaneder  (1779-80).  This  was 
the  beginning  of  his  intimacy  with  the  latter,  to 
whom  he  furnished  entr'actes  and  choruses  for 
Freiherr  von  Gebler's  Dramma  eroica  '  Thamos, 
Kbnig  von  Egypten'  (345).  To  this  period  also 
belongs  a  German  opera,  libretto  by  Schachtner, 
to  which  Andre  afterwards  gave  the  title  of 
'Zaide'  (344) — performed  in  1866  at  Frankfort. 

During  his  stay  at  Salzburg  in  1779-80  he 
produced  the  following  works  : — 2  masses  (317, 
'Coronation  mass,'  and  337);  a  Kyrie  (323);  2 
vespers  (321,  339),  among  his  best  compositions ; 
a  trio  for  3  voices  with  3  corni  di  basseto  (346)  ; 
2  Lieder  (349,  351);  2  canons  (347,  348);  2 
symphonies  (319,  338) ;  movement  of  a  symphony* 

i  She  m  engaged  as  prima  donna  In  Vienna  In  1780,  and  married 
Joseph  Lange,  the  court  actor.  She  acknowledged  afterwards  that  as 
a  young  girl  she  had  not  appreciated  Mozart  as  highly  as  she  ought  to 
have  done,  but  she  became  a  great  admirer  of  his  music,  and  a  true 
friend.  She  did  not  live  happily  with  her  husband,  but  their  inter- 
course with  Mozart  was  quite  unconstrained.  He  composed  for  her 
in  Vienna  five  more  airs,  and  they  gave  mutual  assistance  at  each 
others'  concerts.  Kelly  (•  Beminlscences,'  i.  253)  admired  her  as  a 
singer  of  the  first  rank.    Her  voice  was  exceptionally  high. 

2  His  father  succeeded  in  getting  him  appointed  successor  to  Adl- 
«rasser,  with  a  salary  of  400  florins  (about  407.). 

3  (ienerallj  quoted  as  overture  composed  for  Bianchi'f  '  Villaaella 
rapita.' 


MOZART. 


387 


(318) ;  duo  concertante  for  violin  and  viola  (364) ; 
2  serenades  (320,  361)  ;  divertimento  for  string- 
quartet  and  2  horns  (334);  4  sonatas  for  P.F. 
(33°-333)  J  variations  for  P.F.  and  violin  (359, 
360) ;  sonatas  for  4  hands  (357,  358)  ;  variations 
for  P.F.  (35a-354)  ;  a  concerto  for  2  P.F.'s  (365); 
and  the  last  organ  sonatas  (328,  329,336).  At 
Munich  he  composed : — Kyrie  of  an  unfinished 
mass  (341) ;  concert-aria  for  Countess  Baumgarten 
(369) ;  and  quartet  for  oboe,  violin,  viola,  and 
cello,  for  Ramm  (370). 

His  next  employment  was  most  congenial. 
Through  the  exertions  of  his  friends  at  Munich 
the  grand  opera  for  the  Carnival  of  187 1  was  put 
into  his  hands.  The  libretto  was  by  Abbate 
Varesco,  court  chaplain  at  Salzburg,  who  con- 
sulted Mozart  at  every  step,  as  he  began  the 
work  at  home.  He  went  to  Munich  in  the 
beginning  of  November,  and  at  the  very  first 
rehearsals  the  music  was  highly  approved  by  the 
Elector  and  the  performers.  His  father  even 
wrote  to  him  from  Salzburg,  '  the  universal  sub- 
ject of  conversation  here  is  your  opera.'  The 
Archbishop  being  in  Vienna  at  the  time,  his 
father  and  sister  were  able  to  go  to  Munich  for 
the  first  performance  on  Jan.  29,  1781.  'Ido- 
meneo,  Re  di  Creta,'  opera  seria  (366,  ballet- 
music  367),  was  enthusiastically  received,  and 
decided  once  for  all  Mozart's  position  as  a 
dramatic  composer. 

While  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  the  pleasures  of 
the  Carnival,  into  which  he  plunged  as  soon  as 
his  labours  were  over,  he  received  a  summons 
from  the  Archbishop  to  join  him  in  Vienna,  and 
started  immediately. 

On  March  16,  1781,  after  a  journey  of  four 
days,  Mozart  arrived  'all  by  himself  in  a  post 
chaise '  in  Vienna,  where  his  destiny  was  to  be 
accomplished.  He  was  made  to  live  with  the 
Archbishop's  household,  and  dine  at  the  servants' 
table — treatment  in  striking  contrast  to  that  he 
received  from  the  aristocracy  in  general.  The 
Countess  Thun,  'the  most  charming  and  at- 
tractive woman  I  have  ever  seen  in  my  life,' 
invited  him  to  dinner,  and  so  did  vice-chancellor 
Count  Cobenzl,  and  others.  The  Archbishop 
liked  the  prestige  of  appearing  in  society  with 
Mozart,  Ceccarelli,  and  Brunetti,  as  his  domestic 
virtuosi,  but  did  not  allow  Mozart  either  to  play 
alone  in  any  house  but  his  own,  or  to  give  a 
concert.  He  was  obliged  however  to  yield  to 
the  entreaties  of  the  nobility,  and  allow  him  to 
appear  at  the  concert  of  the  Tonkiinstler-Societat. 
'I  am  so  happy,'  Mozart  exclaimed  beforehand, 
and  wrote  to  his  father  afterwards  of  his  great 
success.  At  the  Archbishop's  private  concert  too 
he  excited  the  greatest  enthusiasm,  though  he 
was  often  addressed  in  that  very  house  as  '  Gas- 
senbube'  (low  fellow  of  the  streets).  In  vain 
did  his  father  urge  him  to  forbearance,  he  was 
determined  not  to  remain  in  a  position  where  he 
had  such  indignities  to  endure.  The  opportunity 
came  only  too  soon.  The  Archbishop,  detested 
by  the  nobility,  and  above  all  by  the  Emperor 
Joseph,  did  not  receive  an  invitation  to  Laxen- 
burg,  the  summer  residence  of  the  court,  and  in 
Cc2 


388 


MOZART. 


MOZART. 


his  disgust  determined  to  leave  Vienna.  The 
household  was  to  start  first,  but  Mozart,  'the 
villain,  the  low  fellow/  was  turned  out  of  the 
house  before  the  others.  He  took  lodgings  with 
the  Webers,  who  were  living  in  the  Petersplatz 
at  a  house  called '  zum  Auge  Gottes,'  reduced  in 
number  by  the  death  of  the  father  and  the 
marriage  of  Aloysia.  At  his  next  audience  he 
was  greeted  with  'Lump,'  'Lausbube,'  and 
'  Fex '  (untranslateable  terms  of  abuse).  '  None 
of  his  servants  treated  him  so  badly,'  continued 
the  Archbishop.  '  Your  Grace  is  dissatisfied  with 
me  then?'  said  Mozart.  'What!  you  dare  to 
nse  threats  ?  (using  all  the  time  the  contemptuous 
'  Er ')  Fex !  there  is  the  door ;  I  will  have 
nothing  more  to  do  with  such  a  vile  wretch' 
('elenden  Buben').  'Nor  I  with  you,'  retorted 
Mozart,  and  turned  on  his  heel.  Not  having 
received  an  answer  to  his  application  for  his 
discharge,  Mozart  drew  up  a  fresh  memorial, 
with  which  he  presented  himself  in  the  ante- 
chamber of  this  Prince  of  the  Church ;  but  as  if 
to  culminate  all  the  brutal  treatment  he  had 
already  received,  Count  Arco  the  high-steward, 
addressed  him  as  'Flegel'  (clown),  'Bursch' 
(fellow)  etc.,  and  kicked  him  out  of  the  room.  This 
took  place  on  the  8th  of  June.  Mozart  was 
now  free,  though  he  had  not  received  his  formal 
dismissal ;  '  I  will  never  have  anything  more  to 
do  with  Salzburg,'  he  wrote  to  his  father,  '  I  hate 
the  Archbishop  almost  to  fury.'  It  was  summer, 
the  nobility  were  all  going  into  the  country,  and 
there  was  no  demand  for  either  concerts  or  lessons. 
The  Countess  Rumbeck  was  his  only  pupil.  Com- 
position was  of  course  his  resource,  and  while 
thus  employing  his  leisure,  he  fulfilled  his 
long-cherished  desire  of  writing  an  opera  for 
the  National  Singspiel  (German  opera),  founded 
by  the  Emperor  in  1778.  The  Emperor  in- 
terested himself  in  his  favour,  and  he  soon 
received  a  libretto  to  his  taste.  He  was  hurt 
however  at  finding  himself  passed  over  at  the 
fetes  in  honour  of  the  Grand-duke  Paul  and  his 
wife ;  even  his  '  Idomeneo '  had  to  give  way  to 
two  operas  of  Gluck's.  His  contest  with  Clementi, 
in  the  presence  of  the  Emperor  and  the  Grand- 
duchess  on  Dec.  24,*  afforded  him  some  slight 
compensation.  He  had  previously  (Nov.  16) 
played  at  the  house  of  Archduke  Maximilian, 
who  was  very  fond  of  him,  though  under  the 
circumstances  unable  to  do  anything  for  him. 
In  spite  of  unremitting  intrigues  his  '  Entfiihrung 
aus  dem  Serail '  (384),  libretto  by  Bretzner,  was 
produced  by  the  Emperor's  express  command, 
with  great  success  on  July  16,8  1782.  Mo- 
zart was  arranging  it  for  a  wind  band  when 
he  received  through  his  father  a  request  for  a 


1  The  date  In  Mozart's  letter— the  14th,  in  Jahn  L  687,  ii  a  mis- 
print. In  Nohl's  '  Mozartbriefen,'  both  editions.  Dee.  26  should  be 
substituted  for  22.  as  may  be  seen  from  the  letter  Itself.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  theme  of  the  sonata  played  by  Clementi  (cKuvres 
Ti.  1)  on  this  occasion  was  adopted  by  Mozart  in  the  overture  to  the 
'Zauberflste.' 

1  July  12,  in  Jahn  i.  648,  Is  wrong.  The  Emperor  Is  reported  to 
have  said, '  Too  fine  for  our  ears,  lieber  Mozart,  and  much  too  many 
notes,'  meaning  that  the  accompaniments  overpowered  the  voices. 
Mozart  answered  frankly, '  Exactly  as  many  notes  as  are  necessary, 
your  Majesty. ' 


serenade  to  be  composed  in  all  haste,  for  the 
Haffners  of  Salzburg.  This  is  the  well-known 
Symphony  in  D  (385),  at  which,  when  looking 
over  it  long  afterwards,  he  was  'quite  surprised,' 
and  thought  'it  must  have  had  a  very  good 
effect.'  To  this  was  added  the  fine  Nachtmusik 
in  C  minor,  for  a  wind-band,  better  known  as  a 
string-quintet  (388). 

On  the  Grand-duke's  second  visit  to  Vienna  in 
October,  he  attended  Mozart's  opera,  which  was 
still  attracting  '  swarms  of  people ' ;  the  com- 
poser conducted  in  person,  'to  show  himself 
the  father  of  his  own  child.'  Prague  soon  pro- 
duced it  with  great  success;  a  foretaste  of  the 
many  honours  Mozart  was  to  receive  in  that 
city. 

He  found  his  new  abode  with  the  Webers  very 
comfortable ;  but  the  world  soon  began  to  en- 
quire whether  he  were  not  intending  to  marry 
one  of  the  daughters.  The  report  reached  his 
father,  who  admonished  him  seriously ;  but  Wolf- 
gang solemnly  declared  that  he  was  thinking 
of  nothing  of  the  kind,  and  to  prove  his  statement 
took  another  lodging,  in  the '  Graben.'  Here  how- 
ever the  want  of  the  attentions  to  which  he  had 
been  accustomed  drove  him  to  a  new  step,  for  which 
we  soon  find  him  preparing  his  father.  '  To  my 
mind  a  bachelor  lives  only  half  a  life '  he  writes, 
and  hesitatingly  names  the  object  of  his  love. 
'  But  surely  not  a  Weber  ?  Yes,  a  Weber,  Con- 
stanze,  the  third  daughter.'  All  attempts  at 
dissuasion  were  vain;  his  resolution  was  fixed, 
and  on  Aug.  16,  scarcely  a  month  after  the  pro- 
duction of  his  opera,  he  led  Constanze  to  the 
altar,  at  St.  Stephen's.  Bringing  home  his  bride 
was  his  '  Entfiihrung  aus  dem  Auge  Gottes '  as 
he  told  his  friends.  '  As  soon  as  we  were  married, 
my  wife  and  I  both  began  to  weep ;  all  present, 
even  the  priest,  were  touched  at  seeing  us  so 
moved,  and  wept  too.' 

His  marriage  involved  Mozart  in  innumerable 
troubles.  With  many  good  qualities  his  wife 
was  a  thoroughly  bad  manager,  and  this  was 
the  worst  defect  possible,  since  Mozart  was 
naturally  careless  in  money  matters,  and  of  course 
his  life  as  a  busy  artist  was  an  unfavourable  one 
for  economy.  They  began  housekeeping  with 
next  to  nothing,  and  their  resources  were  un- 
certain at  the  best.  No  wonder  then  that  in  six 
months  they  were  in  serious  difficulties ;  and  so 
it  went  on  to  the  end.  His  friends,  the  worthy 
Puchberg  especially,  were  always  ready  to  come 
to  his  assistance,  but  they  could  not  prevent  his 
often  being  put  to  embarrassing  and  humiliating 
straits.  Without  even  a  prospect  of  a  fixed 
appointment  he  was  thrown  back  upon  lessons 
and  concerts.  Pupils  were  scarce,  but  he  waa 
more  fortunate  as  a  virtuoso ;  and  for  the  next  few 
years  he  was  constantly  employed  with  concerts, 
his  own  and  those  of  other  artists,  and  still  more 
in  playing  at  the  houses  of  the  nobility.  Lent 
and  Advent  were  the  regular  concert  seasons  in 
Vienna.  The  Emperor  was  frequently  pre- 
sent, and  always  had  a  loud  'bravo'  for  Mozart, 
speaking  of  him  too  at  his  own  table  '  in  the 
highest   terms'    as    'un   talent  decide.'     This 


MOZART. 

makes  it  all  the  more  difficult  to  exonerate 
his  majesty  from  the  charge  of  yielding  to 
the  efforts  of  those  immediately  about  him,  to 
prevent  his  bestowing  some  suitable  post  on 
Mozart.  The  latter  writes  on  this  subject  to 
his  father,  *  Countess  Thun,  Count  Zichy,  Baron 
van  Swieten,  even  Prince  Kaunitz,  are  all  much 
vexed  at  the  little  value  that  the  Emperor  puts 
on  men  of  talent.  Kaunitz  said  lately,  when 
talking  to  the  Archduke  Maximilian  about  me, 
that  men  of  that  stamp  only  came  into  the  world 
once  in  a  hundred  years,  and  that  they  ought  not 
to  be  driven  out  of  Germany,  especially  when,  as 
good  luck  would  have  it,  they  were  already  in  the 
capital^  After  the  success  of  his  first  concert 
in  Lent  1782,  Mozart  entered  into  an  engage- 
ment with  Martin,  who  had  instituted  a  series  of 
concerts  held  in  the  winter  at  the  • '  Mehlgrube,' 
and  removed  in  May  to  the  2Augarten,  where 
Mozart  played  for  the  first  time  on  May  26. 
He  afterwards  joined  the  pianist  Richter,  who 
gave  subscription  concerts.  Among  the  artists 
at  whose  concerts  he  appeared,  were  the  singers 
Laschi,  Teyber,  and  Storace,  and  his  sister- 
in-law,  Mme.  Lange. 

His  own  subscription  concerts,  generally  three 
or  four,  were  held  in  the  theatre,  at  the  Mehlgrube, 
or  in  the  Trattnerhof,  and  being  attended  by  the 
eream  of  the  nobility,3  produced  both  honour  and 
profit.  The  programme  consisted  chiefly,  some- 
times entirely,  of  his  own  compositions — a 
eymphony,  two  P.  F.  concertos,  an  orchestral 
piece  with  an  instrument  concertante,  three  or 
four  airs,  and  an  improvised  fantasia.  The 
latter,  in  which  he  showed  incomparable  skill, 
always  roused  a  perfect  storm  of  applause.  For 
each  concert  he  composed  a  new  P.  F.  concerto, 
the  greatest  number  and  the  best  belonging  to 
this  time.  With  so  much  on  his  hands  he  might 
well  say,  when  excusing  himself  to  his  sister  for 
writing  so  seldom,  'Has  not  a  man  without  a 
kreutzer  of  fixed  income  enough  to  do  and  to 
think  of  day  and  night  in  a  place  like  this  ?' 
A  list  he  sent  to  his  father  of  the  concerts  for 
1784  will  best  show  the  request  he  was  in. 
During  six  weeks  (Feb.  26  to  April  3)  he  played 
five  times  at  Prince  Gallitzin's,  nine  times  at 
Count  John  Esterhazy's,  at  three  of  Richter's 
concerts,  and  five  of  his  own. 

Tired  of  waiting  for  an  appointment,  which 
must  have  been  most  trying  to  one  of  his  ex- 
citable nature,  Mozart  seriously  thought  of  going 
to  London  and  Paris,  and  began  to  practise 
himself  in  English  and  French.    He  had  even 

>  A  very  old  building,  with  rooms  in  which  balls  and  concerts  were 
held.  A  flour-warehouse  In  the  basement  gave  Its  name  to  the 
bouse.    It  Is  now  the  Hotel  Munsch. 

*  See  Acqaetejj,  toI.  1.  p.  104  o. 

»  In  the  list  of  his  subscribers  for  1784  we  And,  besides  his  regular 
patrons,  Countess  Thun,  Baroness  Waldstadten,  Count  Zlchy,  van 
Swieten,  etc,  the  Duke  of  Wlrtemberg,  Princes  Llehtensteln,  Auers- 
perg,  Kaunitz,  LIchnowsky,  Lobkowitz,  Paar,  Falm,  and  8chwarzen- 
berg ;  the  distinguished  families  of  Bathyany,  Dietrlchstein.  ErdOdy. 
Esterhazy,  Harrach,  Herberstein,  Keglewicz,  Nostiz.  Pally,  SchafT- 
gotsch,  Stahrenberg,  and  Waldstein ;  the  Russian,  Spanish,  Sardinian, 
Dutch,  and  Danish  ambassadors;  the  eminent  financiers  Fries, 
Henickstein,  Arenfeld,  Blenenfeld,  Ployer,  and  Wetzlar ;  government 
officials  of  position,  and  scientific  men,  such  as  Isdenczy,  Bedekovlch, 
Nevery,  Braun,  Greiner,  Eeess,  Puffendorf,  Born,  Martini  Sounen- 
fels,  etc. 


MOZART. 


389 


written  to  Le  Gros  in  Paris  about  engagements 
for  the  Concerts  Spirituels,  and  the  Concerts  des 
Amateurs,  but  his  father,  horrified  at  the  idea  of 
a  newly  married  man  without  resources  thus 
wandering  about  the  world,  succeeded  in  putting 
a  stop  to  the  scheme.  As  a  compensation  for  the 
postponement  of  one  desire,  he  was  able  to 
fulfil  another,  that  of  presenting  his  young  wife 
to  his  father.  Starting  after  her  recovery  from 
her  first  confinement  (June  17)  they  reached 
Salzburg  at  the  end  of  July  1783. 

Before  his  marriage  Mozart  had  made  a  vow 
that  if  ever  Constanze  became  his  wife,  he  would 
have  a  new  mass  of  his  own  composition  per- 
formed in  Salzburg.  The  work  was  nearly  ready, 
and  the  missing  numbers  having  been  supplied 
from  one  of  his  older  masses,  this  fine  and  broadly 
designed  composition  (427)  was  given  at  the  end 
of  August  in  the  Peterskirche,  Constanze  herself 
singing  the  soprano.  Opera  buffa  having  been 
reintroduced  in  Vienna  he  began  a  new  opera, 
'L'Oca  del  Cairo'  (422),  but  after  some  pro- 
gress found  the  libretto  (by  Varesco)  so  wretched 
that  he  let  it  drop.4  A  second  opera,  '  Lo 
Sposo  deluso'  (430),  only  reached  the  fifth 
number,  partly  perhaps  because  he  despaired  of 
being  able  to  produce  it,  as  Sarti  and  Paisiello 
were  then  in  Vienna,  absorbing  public  attention 
with  the  triumph  of  the  latter's  'II  Re  Teo- 
doro.'  In  the  meantime  Mozart  rendered  a 
service  of  love  to  his  friend  Michael  Haydn,  who 
was  incapacitated  by  illness  from  completing  two 
duets  for  violin  and  viola  for  the  Archbishop. 
The  Archbishop  characteristically  threatened  to 
stop  his  Concertmeister's  salary,  but  Mozart 
came  to  the  rescue,  and  undertook  to  write 
the  two  pieces  'with  unmistakable  pleasure.' 
His  friend  retained  his  salary,  and  the  Arch- 
bishop received  the  duets  (423,  424)  as  Haydn's. 
Mozart  also  took  an  active  interest  in  his  father's 
pupils — Marchand  the  violinist  of  1 2  (then  play- 
ing in  Vienna),  his  sister  Margarethe,  then  14, 
afterwards  Mme.  Danzi,  the  well-known  singer, 
and  a  child  of  9,  the  daughter  of  Brochard 
the  celebrated  actor.  He  also  became  intimate 
with  Marie  Therese  Paradies  the  blind  pianist, 
who  was  then  in  Salzburg,  and  for  whom  he 
afterwards  composed  a  concerto  (456).  The  main 
object  of  his  visit  however  was  not  fulfilled.  It 
was  only  after  long  opposition  that  his  father 
had  unwillingly  given  his  consent  to  his  mar- 
riage, but  Wolfgang  hoped  that  his  prejudice 
against  Constanze  would  disappear  on  acquaint- 
ance ;  neither  his  father  nor  his  sister  however 
took  to  her. 

Leaving  Salzburg  on  the  30th  of  October,  and 
stopping  at  Lambach  for  Mozart  to  play  the 
organ  in  the  monastery,  they  found  Count  Thun 
on  the  look-out  for  them  at  Linz,  and  made  some 
stay  with  him,  being  treated  with  every  con- 
sideration.    For  a  concert  which  Mozart  gave  in 


*  It  was  completed  by  Andre\  with  a  Bondean,  quartetto  from  '  Lo 
Sposo  deluso,'  finale  from  'La  VUlanella  rapita,'  by  Mozart;  was 
adapted  to  new  words  by  Victor  Wilder,  and  performed  In  Paris, 
Theatre  des  fantalsles-Parlslennes,  June  6,  1867 ;  at  Vienna  in  the 
Carl  Theatre,  1868 ;  at  Drury  Lane,  May  12. 1870. 


390 


MOZART. 


MOZART. 


the  theatre,  he  composed  in  haste  a  new  sym- 
phony (425).1 

In  1785  the  father  returned  his  son's  visit, 
staying  with  him  in  the  Grosse  Schulerstrasse 
(now  No.  8)  from  Feb.  11  to  April  25.  He 
was  rejoiced  to  find  their  domestic  arrangements 
and  money  matters  for  the  time  being  in  good 
order.  He  found  a  grandson  too — 'little  Karl  is 
very  like  your  brother.'  Though  not  yet  on 
thoroughly  good  terms  with  his  son  or  his 
daughter-in-law,  he  derived  all  the  old  pleasure 
from  his  successes  as  an  artist,  and  listened  with 
delight  to  his  productions.  He  had  come  just  at 
the  right  time,  when  concerts  were  succeeding 
each  other  as  fast  as  possible,  and  his  son  taking 
part  in  all ;  and  at  the  first  he  attended  his 
eyes  filled  with  tears  of  happiness  at  Wolfgang's 
playing  and  compositions.  The  day  after  his 
arrival  Wolfgang  invited  his  friend  Haydn  and 
the  two  Barons  Todi ;  and  his  father  wrote  home 
a  full  account  of  this  memorable  evening ; 
memorable  indeed!  for  setting  aside  other  con- 
siderations, it  was  not  often  that  two  men  of 
such  remarkable  solidity  of  character  as  Leopold 
Mozart  and  Haydn  could  be  found  together. 
•Three  new  quartets  were  played,'  writes  the 
happy  father,  '  the  three  (458,  464,  465)  he  has 
added  to  those  we  already  have  (387,  421,  428); 
they  are  perhaps  a  trifle  easier,  but  excellently 
composed.  Herr  Haydn  said  to  me,  I  declare  to 
you  before  God  as  a  man  of  honour,  that  your 
son  is  the  greatest  composer  that  I  know,  either 
personally  or  by  reputation;  he  has  taste,  and 
teyond  that  the  most  consummate  knowledge  of  the 
art  of  composition.'  In  return  for  this  avowal 
Mozart  dedicated  to  Haydn,  with  a  laudatory 
preface,  these  six  quartets,  'the  fruits  of  long  and 
arduous  toil.'  '  It  is  but  his  due,'  he  said,  '  for 
from  Haydn  I  first  learnt  how  to  compose  a 
quartet.'  The  success  of  his  pupil  Marchand, 
and  the  great  progress  of  Aloysia  Lange,  both  as 
a  singer  and  actress,  also  afforded  pleasure  to 
Leopold  Mozart.  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  a 
man  of  his  way  of  thinking  should  have  joined 
the  Freemasons,  avowedly  through  his  son's  in- 
fluence. This  however  was  their  last  meeting, 
for  soon  after  his  return  from  Vienna  his  health 
began  to  fail,  and  on  May  28,  1787,  he  ended  a 
life  which  had  been  wholly  consecrated  to  his 
children. 

Mozart  the  son  belonged  to  the  eighth  and 
oldest  Freemasons'  lodge  ('zur  gekrbnten  Hoff- 
nung ')  in  Vienna.  His  interest  in  the  order  was 
great,  indeed  he  at  one  time  thought  of  founding 
a  society  of  his  own  to  be  called  'Die  Grotte,' 
and  had  drawn  up  the  rules.  A  letter  to  his 
father,  during  his  illness,  in  which  he  enlarges 
upon  the  true  significance  of  death  to  a  Mason, 
is  a  proof  of  the  serious  light  in  which  he  con- 
sidered his  obligations.  His  connection  with  the 
order  also  inspired  many  of  his  compositions. 
For  it  he  wrote — '  Gesellenlied '  (468)  ;  '  Mau- 
rerfreude'  (471),  a  short  cantata,  at  the   per- 

1  Dedicated  to  Count  Thun.  Andre1  Imagines  No.  444  to  have  been 
the  one  composed  for  this  occasion,  from  Mozart  having  copied  some 
ol  the  part*. 


formance  of  which  his  father  was  present 
shortly  before  his  death ;  '  Maurerische  Trauer- 
musik'  (477),  for  strings  and  wind;  'Lied.' 
with  chorus,  and  a  chorus  in  3  parts,  both  with 
organ  (483,  484),  for  the  ceremony  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  '  Neugekronten  Hoffnung '  (by  a 
decree  of  the  Emperor  Joseph)  in  1785;  and 
a  short  cantata  for  tenor,  with  closing  chorus 
(623),  composed  Nov.  15,  1791,  the  last  of  his 
recorded  works  which  he  conducted  himself.  A 
short  adagio  for  2  corni  di  bassetto  and  bassoon 
(410) ;  an  adagio  for  2  clarinets  and  3  corni  di 
bassetto  (411)  ;  and  an  unfinished  cantata  (429) 
were  probably  intended  for  the  same. 

In  March  1785  Mozart  produced  at  the  concert 
of  the  Tonkunstler  Societat,  a  cantata,  '  Davidde 
penitente'  (469),  the  materials  for  which  he 
drew  from  his  last  unfinished  mass  (427),  writing 
the  Italian  words  below  the  Latin,  and  adding 
two  new  airs.  There  was  an  object  for  this 
work;  his  name  was  down  at  the  time  for  ad- 
mittance into  the  Society,  but  in  accordance  with 
the  statutes  he  was  rejected,  on  the  ground  that  he 
could  not  produce  the  certificate  of  his  baptism ! 

After  a  long  delay  he  was  again  gratified  by 
an  opportunity  of  writing  for  the  stage.  An 
opera-buffa  had  been  organised  as  far  back  as 
April  1783,  and  the  Emperor  had  secured  an 
excellent  "company;  and  after  a  failure  the  Na- 
tional-Singspiel    had  been  revived    in   October 

1785.  A  libretto,  'Rudolf  von  Habsburg,'  sent 
to  Mozart  from  Mannheim  remained  unused,  but 
at  length  he  and  Salieri  were  requested  to  supply 
German  and  Italian  '  pieces  de  circonstance '  for 
some  fStes  in  honour  of  distinguished  visitors  at 
Schonbrunn.  To  Mozart's  lot  fell  'Der  Schau- 
spieldirector '  (486),  a  disjointed  comedy  by 
Stephanie  junior,  produced  at  Schonbrunn  Feb.  7, 

1786,  and  afterwards  at  the  Karnthnerthor 
Theatre.8 

In  the  next  month  a  gratifying  performance  of 
'  Idomeneo '  took  place  at  the  palace  of  Prince 
Auersperg,  by  a  troupe  of  titled  and  efficient 
performers,  under  Mozart's*  own  supervision. 
This  mark  of  the  favourable  disposition  of  the 
aristocracy  towards  him  bore  fruit,  attracting  the 
attention  of  Lorenzo  da  Ponte,  the  well-known 
dramatist.  His  proposal  to  adapt  Beaumar- 
chais's  '  Mariage  de  Figaro '  for  Mozart  received 
the  Emperor's  consent, — reluctantly  given  on  ac- 
count of  the  offensive  nature  of  the  plot  in  the 
original,  —  and  the  first  performance  of  '  Le 
Nozze  di  Figaro'  (492)  took  place  after  violent 
intrigues,  on  May  1,  1786.  The  theatre  was 
crowded,  and  the  audience  enthusiastic ;  several 
numbers  were  repeated  twice,  and  the  little  duet 
three  times,  and  this  went  on  at  succeeding  re- 
presentations till  the  Emperor  prohibited  en- 
cores.5    Kelly,  who  took  the  parts  of  Basilio  and 

2  Including  Nancy  Storace,  her  brother  Stephen,  and  the  tenor 
Kelly,  all  English. 

8  This  Singspiel  was  given  several  times  with  a  new  libretto,  and 
several  interpolations.  A  recent  attempt  by  Schneider  (1861)  intro- 
duced both  Mozart  and  Schlkaneder,  and  was  particularly  unfor- 
tunate. 

«  He  composed  for  It  a  new  duet  for  two  soprani  (489),  and  a  rondo 
for  soprano  with  violin  solo  (490). 

s  Kelly  relates  ('Reminiscences,'  I.  262),  'When  the  singers  were  one 
day  rehearsing,  the  Emperor  said, "  I  dare  say  you  are  all  pleased  that 


MOZART. 

Don  Curzio,  writes  with  great  spirit:  'Never 
was  anything  more  complete  than  the  triumph 
of  Mozart,  and  his  Nozze  di  Figaro,  to  which 
numerous  overflowing  audiences  bore  witness. 
Even  at  the  first  full  band  rehearsal,  all  pre- 
sent were  roused  to  enthusiasm,  and  when 
Benucci  came  to  the  fine  passage  "Cherubino, 
alia  vittoria,  alia  gloria  militar,"  which  he  gave 
with  stentorian  lungs,  the  effect  was  electric, 
for  the  whole  of  the  performers  on  the  stage, 
and  those  in  the  orchestra,  as  if  actuated  by  one 
feeling  of  delight,  vociferated  "Bravo!  Bravo, 
Maestro !  Viva,  viva,  grande  Mozart ! "  Those 
in  the  orchestra  I  thought  would  never  have 
ceased  applauding,  by  beating  the  bows  of  their 
violins  against  the  music  desks.'  And  Mozart  ? 
'  I  never  shall  forget  his  little  animated  counten- 
ance, when  lighted  up  with  the  glowing  rays  of 
genius ; — it  is  as  impossible  to  describe  it,  as  it 
would  be  to  paint  sunbeams.' 1 

And  yet,  after  all  this  success,  nothing  was  done 
for  him.  Earning  a  living  by  giving  lessons 
and  playing  in  public  was  in  every  respect  un- 
satisfactory. '  You  lucky  man,'  he  said  to  young 
Gyrowetz  as  he  was  starting  to  Italy,  '  and  I  am 
still  obliged  to  give  lessons  to  earn  a  trifle.' 
Moreover  he  soon  found  himself  eclipsed  on  the 
stage  by  two  new  pieces,  which  for  a  time  ab- 
sorbed the  public  entirely;  these  were  Ditters- 
dorf  s  Singspiel  '  Der  Apotheker  und  der  Doctor ' 
(July  11),  and  Martin's  'Cosa  rara'  (Nov.  17). 
Again  he  resolved  to  go  to  England,  and  was 
again  dissuaded  by  his  father.  A  gleam  of  light 
came  however  from  Prague,  whither  he  was 
invited  to  see  for  himself  the  immense  success  of 
his  '  Figaro,'  produced  there  first  after  Vienna, 
as  had  been  the  case  with  the  '  Entfuhrung.' 
Count  Johann  Jos.  Thun,  one  of  the  greatest 
amateurs  in  Prague,  placed  his  house  at  Mozart's 
disposal,  and  he  joyfully  accepted  the  invita- 
tion. His  first  letter2  states  the  condition  in 
which  he  found  Prague,  '  the  one  subject  of  con- 
versation here  is — Figaro ;  nothing  is  played,  sung, 
or  whistled  but — Figaro ;  nobody  goes  to  any 
opera  but  —  Figaro  ;  everlastingly  Figaro  ! ' 
He  was  literally  overwhelmed  with  attentions, 
and  felt  himself  at  the  summit  of  bliss ;  at  the 
opera,  given  quite  to  his  satisfaction,  he  received 
a  perfect  ovation.  Furthermore  two  concerts 
were  brilliantly  successful ;  at  the  first,  his  new 
symphony  (504)  having  been  loudly  applauded, 
he  sat  down  to  the  piano,  and  improvised  for 
full  half  an  hour,  rousing  the  audience  to  the 
highest  pitch  of  enthusiasm.  Again,  and  yet  once 
again  he  had  to  resume,  till,  obeying  the  general 
acclamation,  he  finished  by  extemporising  vari- 
ations on  '  Non  piu  andrai,  which  completed  his 
triumph.  The  receipts  also  were  thoroughly 
satisfactory.  Having  made  the  remark,  that  he 
should  like  to  compose  an  opera  for  so  intelligent 
and  appreciative  a  public,  the  impresario  Bondini 
took  him  at  his  word,  and  concluded  a  contract 

I  have  desired  there  shall  be  no  more  encores."  To  which  they  all 
boned  assent,  but  Kelly  said  boldly,  "  Do  not  believe  them.  Sire,  they 
all  like  to  be  encored,  at  least  I  am  sure  I  always  do." ' 

1  '  Reminiscences,'  1. 259. 

*  To  his  friend  Gottfried  von  Jacquin,  Jan.  15, 17.-7. 


MOZART. 


891 


with  him  for  an  opera  for  the  ensuing  season, 
for  which  he  was  to  receive  the  usual  fee  of 
ioo  ducats,  and  the  librettist  50.  The  distrac- 
tions of  society  in  Prague  took  up  all  his  time, 
and  his  only  compositions  while  there  were  nine 
contredanses  for  orchestra  (510)  written  for  Count 
Paehta,  who  locked  him  in  for  an  hour  before 
dinner  for  the  purpose,  and  six  Teutsche  for  full 
orchestra  (509). 

On  his  return  to  Vienna  after  this  magnificent 
reception,  he  felt  his  position  more  galling  than 
ever ;  and  his  desire  to  visit  England  was  re- 
kindled by  the  departure  of  his  friends  Nancy 
Storace,  and  her  brother,  Kelly,  with  his  own 
pupil  Attwood.  They  promised  to  endeavour  to 
secure  him  some  position  there,  so  that  he  would 
be  able  to  go  without  undue  risk. 

The  libretto  of  '  Figaro '  having  proved  so 
satisfactory,  he  applied  again  to  Da  Ponte,  and 
this  time  their  choice  fell  upon  '  Don  Giovanni.' 
In  September  1787  he  and  his  wife  went  to 
Prague,  and  took  lodgings  '  Bei  den  drei  Lowen ' 
No.  420  in  the  Kohlmarkt.  But  his  favourite 
resort  was  the  vineyard  of  his  friend  Duschek 
at  Koschirz  near  the  city,  where  are  still  shown 
his  room,  and  the  stone  table  at  which  he  used 
to  sit  working  at  his  score,  often  in  the  midst  of 
conversation  or  skittle  playing.3  Before  the 
production  of  his  new  opera,  Mozart  conducted 
a  festival  performance  of  'Figaro'  on  Oct.  14 
in  honour  of  the  Archduchess  Maria  Theresia, 
bride  of  Prince  Anton  of  Saxony.  He  was  very 
anxious  about  the  success  of  his  opera,  al- 
though, as  he  assured  Kucharz  the  conductor  of 
the  orchestra,  he  had  spared  neither  pains  nor 
labour  in  order  to  produce  something  really  good 
for  Prague.  On  the  evening  before  the  repre- 
sentation the  overture  was  still  wanting,  and  he 
worked  at  it  far  into  the  night,  while  his  wife 
kept  him  supplied  with  punch,  and  told  him 
fairy-stories  to  keep  him  awake.  Sleep  however 
overcame  him,  and  he  was  obliged  to  rest  for  a 
few  hours,  but  at  7  in  the  morning  the  copyist 
received  the  score,  and  it  was  played  at  sight  in 
the  evening.  This  first  performance  of  'Don 
Giovanni'  (527)  took  place  on  Oct.  29,  1787. 
On  Mozart's  appearance  in  the  orchestra  he 
was  greeted  with  enthusiastic  applause,  and 
a  triple  flourish  of  trumpets,  and  the  opera 
was  accompanied  from  beginning  to  end  with 
rapturous  marks  of  approval.  He  had  of  course 
no  time  for  other  compositions,  but  his  friend 
Mme.  Duschek  locked  him  into  her  summer- 
house  to  ensure  his  writing  an  aria  he  had  pro- 
mised her.  He  revenged  himself  by  making  it 
difficult,  and  would  only  give  it  her  on  condition 
that  she  should  sing  it  at  sight.  It  is  one  of  his 
finest  airs  (528). 

About  the  time  of  his  return  to  Vienna  Gluck 
died  (Nov.  15,  1787),  and  Mozart  had  reason  to 
hope  that  some  suitable  position  would  now  be 
open    to   him.     But    the  Emperor  was  in  no 

•  The  Villa  Is  now  called  'Bertramka.'  A  bust  of  Mozart,  by 
Seldan,  was  placed  on  a  slight  eminence  in  the  grounds,  and  solemnly 
unveiled  on  June  3, 1876,  by  the  then  possessor,  Herr  Lambert  l'opelka, 
who  died  June  9,  1879.  A  hitherto  unpublished  letter  of  Mozart's, 
dated  Prague,  Oct.  15, 1787,  was  printed  at  the  same  time. 


392 


MOZART. 


hurry.  By  way  however  of  recognising  his  re- 
cent triumph  at  Prague,  and  in  order  to  retain 
him  in  Vienna  (his  hankering  after  England  being 
well  known)  he  appointed  him  Kammer-com- 
positor  with  a  salary  of  800  gulden1  (about  £80) 
Mozart  looked  upon  this  appointment  as  a  mere 
beggar's  dole,  and  when,  according  to  custom,  he 
had  to  send  in  a  sealed  letter  stating  his  income, 
he  wrote  bitterly  'Too  much  for  what  I  ''pro- 
duce; too  little  for  what  I  could  produce.'  '  Don 
Giovanni '  was  not  given  in  Vienna  till  May  7, 
1788,  and  then  did  not  please?  Mozart  added 
a  new  air  for  Donna  Elvira,  No.  25  (K.  527),  an 
air  for  Masetto,  No.  26,  a  short  air  for  Don 
Ottavio,  No.  27,  and  a  duet  for  Zerlina  and 
Leporello,  No.  28. 

In  spite  of  the  success  of  his  last  opera,  Mo- 
zart's pecuniary  condition  continued  desperate. 
This  is  shown  convincingly  by  a  letter  (June  27) 
to  his  friend  Puchberg,  in  which  the  poor  fellow 
begs  piteously  for  a  loan,  and  speaks  of  '  gloomy 
thoughts  which  he  must  repel  with  all  his  might.' 
And  yet  at  the  very  height  of  his  distress  he 
manifests  extraordinary  power.  Besides  other 
compositions,  he  wrote  within  six  weeks  (June  26 
to  Aug.  10)  his  three  last  and  finest  symphonies, 
in  Eb,  G  minor,  and  C  (Jupiter)  (543,  550,  551). 
But  other  very  congenial  work  awaited  him. 
From  the  beginning  of  his  life  in  Vienna  he  had 
been  acquainted  with  van  Swieten,  director  of 
the  Hofbibliothek,  who  was  a  great  amateur  of 
classical  music,  and  who  with  a  small  band  of 
friends  devoted  every  Sunday  morning  to  study- 
ing the  works  of  the  old  masters.  He  himself 
sang  the  4  treble,  Mozart  (who  sat  at  the  piano) 
the  alto,  and  Starzer  and  Teyber  tenor  and  bass. 
It  was  for  these  practices  that  Mozart  sent  for 
his  MS.  book  of  pieces  by  Michael  Haydn  and 
Eberlin,  and  afterwards  for  the  fugues  of  Bach 
and  Handel.  They  also  served  as  an  incentive 
to  him  to  compose  pianoforte  pieces  of  a  solid 
description;  several  remained  fragments,  but 
among  those  completed  are — Prelude  and  Fugue, 
a  3,  in  C  (394)  ;  Fugue  in  G  minor  (401)  ;  Cla- 
viersuite  in  the  style  of  Bach  and  Handel  (399)  ; 
an  arrangement  of  the  fugue  in  C  minor  (origin- 
ally for  2  P.F.s)  for  string-quartet,  with  a  short 
adagio  (546).  He  also  arranged  5  fugues  from 
Bach's  Wohltemperirte  Clavier  for  string-quartet 

(4°5)> 

By  1 788,  however,  van  Swieten's  practices  had 
assumed  larger  proportions.  At  his  instigation 
a  number  of  gentlemen  united  to  provide  the  ne- 
cessary funds  for  performances  of  oratorios  with 
chorus  and  orchestra.  The  fine  large  hall  of 
the  Hofbibliothek  served  as  their  concert-room, 
Mozart  conducted,  and  young  Weigl  took  the 
pianoforte.  It  was  for  these  performances  that 
he  added  wind  parts  to  Handel's  'Acis  and  Gala- 

1  His  father  did  not  lire  to  see  this  partial  realisation  of  his  hopes; 
be  had  died,  as  already  stated,  on  May  28. 

2  Viz.  the  dances  for  the  Imperial  Bedouten-balls,  which  it  was  his 
duty  to  supply. 

3  According  to  Da  Ponte  the  Emperor  said,  'The  opera  is  divine, 
finer  perhaps  than  Figaro,  but  it  is  not  the  meat  for  my  Viennese.' 
When  the  saying  was  reported  to  Mozart  he  replied,  ■  We  must  give 
them  time  to  chew  It.' 

<  '  Diskant:    Mozart's  letter,  March  12, 1783. 


MOZART. 

tea'1  (Nov.  1788),  'Messiah*  (March  1789), 
1  Ode  to  St.  Cecilia's  Day,'  and  '  Alexander's 
Feast'  (July,  1790). 

Such  work  as  this,  however,  did  nothing  to  im- 
prove his  pecuniary  condition ;  and  in  the  hope 
that  the  journey  might  bring  to  light  some  means 
of  extricating  himself,  he  gratefully  accepted  an 
invitation  from  his  pupil  and  patron  Prince  Karl 
Lichnowsky,  to  accompany  him  to  Berlin. 

Leaving  Vienna  on  April  8,  1 789,  their  first 
halting-place  worth  noting  was  Dresden,  where 
Mozart  played  at  court,  exciting  great  admiration 
and  receiving  100  ducats.  He  was  well  received 
also  in  private  circles,  and  the  general  interest 
was  increased  by  a  competition  with  J.  W. 
Hassler  of  Erfurt,  then  distinguished  as  pianist 
and  organist.6  Without  considering  him  a 
formidable  opponent,  Mozart  acknowledged  his 
talent.  Here  also  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
the  poet  Kbrner,  and  his  sister-in-law  Dora 
Stock,  who  drew  a  charming  portrait  of  Mozart 
with  a  silver  pencil.  He  produced  a  still  greater 
effect  in  Leipzig,  where  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Rochlitz,  who  has  preserved  innumerable 
interesting  traits  both  of  the  man  and  the  artist. 
On  April  22  he  played  the  organ  in  the  St. 
Thomas  Church,  Doles  the  Cantor  and  Gdrner 
the  organist  pulling  out  the  stops  for  him.  All 
present  were  enchanted,  especially  Doles,  who 
could  almost  have  believed  in  the  restoration  to 
life  of  his  teacher,  the  great  Bach  himself.  In 
return  he  made  the  choir  of  the  Thomas-school 
sing  Bach's  8-part  motet '  Singet  dem  Herrn,'  at 
which  Mozart  exclaimed  with  delight,  'Here  is 
something  from  which  one  may  still  learn,'  and 
having  secured  the  parts  of  the  other  motets  (no 
score  being  at  hand),  he  spread  them  out  before 
him,  and  became  absorbed  in  study. 

On  their  arrival  in  Berlin  the  travellers  went 
straight  to  Potsdam,  and  Prince  Lichnowsky 
presented  Mozart  to  the  King,  who  had  been 
anxiously  expecting  him.  Frederic  William  II. 
was  musical,  played  the  cello  well,  (he  was  a 
pupil  of  the  elder  Duport,)  and  had  a  well- 
selected  orchestra.  The  opera  was  conducted  by 
Reichardt,  and  the  concerts  by  Duport.  The 
King's  favourable  anticipations  were  fully  realised 
in  Mozart,  but  Reichardt  and  Duport  were  set 
against  him  by  his  candidly  replying  to  the 
King's  question,  what  he  thought  of  the  band, 
'  it  contains  great  virtuosi,  but  if  the  gentlemen 
would  play  together,  they  would  make  a  better 
effect.'  The  King  apparently  laid  this  remark 
to  heart,  for  he  offered  Mozart  the  post  of  Capell- 
meister,  with  a  salary  of  3000  thalers  (about 
£600).  After  a  moment's  hesitation,  he  replied 
with  emotion,  'How  could  I  abandon  my  good 
Emperor  V 

In  the  meantime,  preparations  having  been 
made  for  a  concert,  Mozart  went  again  to  Leipzig. 
The  programme  consisted  entirely  of  his  own  un- 
published   compositions,    and   at   the    close  he 


»  Also  performed  at  Mozart's  benefit-concert  in  the  Jahn'scheo 
Concertsaal  in  the  same  month. 

«  Hftssler  played  a  concerto  of  Mozart's  at  his  concert  in  London. 
May  SO,  1792.    See  Fohl's  '  Haydn  in  London,'  200. 


MOZART. 

improvised  by  general  request ;  but  the  audience 
was  a  scanty  one.    For  Engel,  the  Court-organist, 
he  composed  a  charming  little  Gigue  for  piano- 
forte (574).     Returning  to  Berlin  on  May  19,  he 
rushed  to  the  theatre,  where  his  'Entfuhrung' 
was  being  performed,  and  taking  a  seat  near  the 
orchestra,  made  observations  in  a  half-audible 
tone  ;  the  2nd  violins,  however,  playing  D  sharp 
instead  of  D,  he  called  out,  '  Confound  it,  do  take 
D  !'  and  was  recognised  immediately.     He  was 
much  pleased  to  meet  his  pupil  Hummel,  who 
only  became  aware  while  playing  of  his  master's 
presence    at    his    concert.      This  time  Mozart 
played  before  the   Queen,  but  gave  no  public 
performance.    The  King  sent  him  100  Friedrichs 
d'or,  and  asked  him  to  compose  some  quartets 
for  him.    As  to  the  pecuniary  results  of  the  tour, 
Mozart  wrote  laconically  to  his  wife,  '  On  my 
return  you  must  be  glad  to  have  me,  and  not 
think  about  money.'     He  started  on  his  home- 
ward journey  on  May  28,  and  passing  through 
Dresden  and  Prague,  reached  Vienna  on  June  4, 
1 789.     He  set  to  work  immediately  on  the  first 
quartet  (575)  for  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  re- 
ceived a  kind  letter  of  thanks,  with  a  gold  snuff- 
box and  a  second  100  Friedrichs  d'or.     The  two 
others  (589,  590)  followed  in  May  and  June,  1 790. 
His  position  still  continued  a  most  melancholy 
one,  his  wife's  constant  illnesses  adding  to  his 
expenses.    Again  he  applies   to  his  friend  and 
brother  freemason  '  for  immediate  assistance.     I 
am  still  most  unfortunate !    Always  hovering  be- 
tween hope  and  anxiety ! '    In  this  state  of  things 
he  yielded  to  the  pressure  put  upon  him  by  his 
friends,  and  informing  the  Emperor  of  the  offer 
of  the  King  of  Prussia,  tendered  his  resignation. 
Surprised  and  disconcerted,   the    Emperor  ex- 
claimed, '  What,  Mozart,  are  you  going  to  leave 
me  ? '   and  he   answered  with  emotion,   '  Your 
Majesty,  I  throw  myself  upon  your  kindness — I 
remain  1'    This  circumstance,  and    the    success 
of  'Figaro,'1  revived  after  a  long  pause,  probably 
induced  the  Emperor  to  order  a  new  opera,  for 
which  Da  Ponte  again  furnished  the  libretto 
(said  to  have  been  founded  on  recent  occurrences 
in  Vienna).    This  was  the  opera  buffa  '  Cosl  fan 
tutte*  (588),  produced  Jan.  26,  1790,  but  soon 
interrupted   by  the    Emperor's  serious   illness, 
terminating  in  death  on  Feb.  20.    Musicians  had 
little  to  expect  from  his  successor,  Leopold  II, 
and  there  was  no  break  in  the  clouds  which  over- 
shadowed poor  Mozart.     The  rough  draft  is  still 
preserved  of  an  application  for  the  post  of  second 
Capellmeister,  but  he   did  not  obtain  it.     The 
magistrate  did  indeed  grant  (May  9,  1791)  his 
request  to  be  appointed  assistant,  'without  pay  for 
the  present,'  to  the  cathedral  Capellmeister,  which 
gave  him  the  right  to  succeed  to  this  lucrative 
post  on  the  death  of  Hoffmann  the  Capellmeister, 
but  Hoffmann  outlived  him. 

The  coronation  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  at 
Frankfurt  on  Oct.  9,  was  the  occasion  of  his  last 
artistic  tour.  Having  pawned  his  plate  to  pro- 
cure funds,  he  started  on  Sept.  26,  and  after  a 
journey  of  six  days  arrived  in  the  ancient  Reich  - 

1  Mozart  composed  a  new  »!r  (577)  for  Mile.  Ferrarese  del  Bene. 


MOZART. 


393 


stadt.  He  gave  a  concert  on  Oct.  14  in  the 
Stadttheater,  the  programme  consisting  entirely 
of  his  own  compositions.  During  a  short  Btay 
made  in  Mayence,  Tischbein  took  a  life-size  half- 
length  portrait.  On  the  return  journey  he  visited 
Mannheim  and  Munich,  where,  at  the  Elector's 
request,  he  played  at  a  court  concert  given  in 
honour  of  the  King  of  Naples.  He  had  not  been 
invited  to  play  before  the  latter  in  Vienna,  and 
he  wrote  to  his  wife  with  some  bitterness,  'It 
sounds  well  for  the  court  of  Vienna,  that  mem- 
bers of  their  own  family  should  hear  me  for  the 
first  time  at  a  foreign  court ! '  Soon  after  his 
arrival  in  Vienna,  Mozart  had  to  take  leave  of 
his  best  friend,  for  Salomon,  the  impresario,  had 
come  in  person  to  carry2 Haydn  off  to  London. 
With  a  heavy  heart  he  said  good-bye  to  the 
only  artist  who  understood  him  thoroughly  and 
honestly  wished  to  see  him  prosper.  They  were 
never  to  meet  again. 

His  affairs  were  now  worse  than  ever;  the 
Berlin  journey  had  produced  nothing,  and  a  spe- 
culation on  which  he  had  set  his  hopes  failed. 
And  yet  he  went  on  working  his  hardest.  A 
series  of  his  best  and  most  varied  compositions, 
including  the  beautiful  motet  'Ave  Verum'  (618) 
— written  at  Baden,  near  Vienna,  afterwards 
Beethoven's  favourite  resort — were  but  the  fore- 
runners of  the  '  Requiem '  and  the  '  Zauberflbte. 
His  last  appearance  as  a  virtuoso  (he  had  not 
played  the  piano  in  public  since  1 788)  was  in  all 
probability  at  a  concert  given  by  Bahr,  the  clarinet- 
player,  on  March  4, 1 79 1 .  Perhaps  he  played  his 
last  Concerto  in  Bb  (595)  composed  in  January. 
In  this  very  month  of  March,  Schikaneder, 
the  Salzburg  acquaintance  of  1780,  and  now 
manager  of  the  little  theatre,  scarcely  more  than 
a  booth,  in  the  grounds  of  Prince  Starhemberg's 
house  in  the  suburb  of  Wieden,  began  to  urge 
Mozart  to  compose  a  magic  opera  to  a  libretto  he 
had  in  hand,  which  he  hoped  would  extricate 
him  from  his  embarrassments.  Ever  ready  to 
help  anybody,  Mozart  agreed,  and  set  to  work  on 
the  score,  the  greater  part  of  which  was  written 
in  a  little  pavilion3  near  the  theatre,  and  in  a 
summer-house  in  the  little  village  of  Josefedorf, 
on  the  Kahlenberg,  close  to  Vienna.  To  keep 
him  in  good  humour,  Schikaneder  provided  him 
with  wine,  and  amusing  society, — his  enjoyment 
of  which  good  things,  grossly  exaggerated,  has 
tended  more  than  anything  to  throw  discredit 
upon  his  character. 

In  July,  while  hard  at  work,  he  received 
a  visit  from  a  stranger,  who,  enjoining  secrecy, 
commissioned  him  to  write  a  Requiem  for  an  un- 
known individual.4  The  price  (50,  or  according 
to  some,  100  ducats)  was  fixed,  and  Mozart  set  to 
work  with  the  more  ardour  for  having  composed 
no  church-music  since  the  mass  of  1783.  Again 
he  was  interrupted  by  an  urgent  invitation  from 
the  Estates  of  Bohemia  to  compose  an  opera  for 

a  He  made  preliminary  offers  of  a  similar  kind  to  Mozart 

>  Now  on  the  Capucmerberg,  In  Salzburg,  a  gift  from  the  present 

Prince  Starhemberg. 
4  Proved  after  his  death  to  hare  been  Count  Walsegg,  an  amateur 

anxious  to  be  thought  a  great  composer,  and  who  really  had  the 

Bequlem  performed  under  his  own  name.    The  messenger  was  his 

steward  Leutgeb. 


394 


MOZART. 


the  approaching  coronation  of  Leopold  H.  at 
Prague.  Mozart  was  on  the  point  of  stepping 
into  the  travelling  carriage  when  the  mysterious 
messenger  suddenly  stood  before  him,  and  asked 
what  had  become  of  the  requiem.  Touched  and 
distressed  by  the  question,  Mozart  assured  the 
man  that  he  would  do  his  best  on  his  return; 
and  so  saying  departed  with  his  pupil  Siiss- 
mayer.  He  worked  hard  at  the  opera  during 
the  journey,  Siissmayer  filling  in  the  reci- 
tativo  secco.  The  coronation  took  place  on 
Sept.  6,  and  'La  Clemenza  di  Tito*  (621)  was 
performed  the  same  evening  in  the  National 
theatre,  in  presence  of  their  Majesties  and  a 
select  audience,  who  were  too  much  absorbed 
by  the  occurrences  of  the  day  to  pay  great  atten- 
tion to  the  opera.  Indeed,  the  Empress  is  said  to 
have  made  very  disparaging  remarks  on  the 
'  porcheria '  of  German  music.  Mozart,  who  was 
not  well  when  he  came  to  Prague,  suffered 
severely  from  the  strain,  but  he  spent  a  few 
pleasant  hours  with  his  friends,  and  parted  from 
them  with  tears. 

Disappointed  and  suffering  he  reached  home  in 
the  middle  of  September,  and  at  once  set  to  work 
with  energy  at  Schikaneder  s  opera.  The  over- 
ture and  introductory  march  to  the  2nd  act  were 
finished  Sept.  28,  and  two  days  later,  on  the  30th, 
the  '  Zauberflbte '  (620)  was  given  for  the  first 
time.  Mozart  conducted  at  the  piano,  Siissmayer 
turned  over  for  him,  and  Henneberg,  who  had 
conducted  the  rehearsals,  played  the  bells.  It 
was  coldly  received  at  the  outset,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  first  act  Mozart,  looking  pale  and 
agitated,  went  on  the  stage  to  Schikaneder,  who 
endeavoured  to  comfort  him.1  The  audience 
recovered  from  their  coldness  so  far  as  to  call 
for  Mozart  at  the  close,  but  he  was  with  dif- 
ficulty persuaded  to  appear  before  the  curtain. 
The  interest  in  the  opera  increased  with  each 
representation,  and  soon  the  '  Zauberflbte '  was 
as  great  a  '  draw '  as  Schikaneder  could  desire. 

Mozart  now  hoped  to  be  able  to  devote  his 
whole  time  to  the  Requiem,  but  his  late  exertions 
and  excitement  had  proved  too  much  for  him, 
sorely  tried  as  he  was  in  other  respects.  Fainting 
fits  came  on,  and  he  fell  into  a  state  of  deep  depres- 
sion.3 His  wife  tried  in  vain  to  raise  his  spirits. 
During  a  drive  in  the  Prater,  he  suddenly  began 
to  talk  of  death,  and  said  with  tears  in  his  eyes 
that  he  was  writing  the  Requiem  for  himself.  '  I 
feel  certain,'  he  continued,  ■  that  I  shall  not  be 
here  long  ;  some  one  has  poisoned  me,  I  am  con- 
vinced.   I  cannot  shake  off  the  idea.' s    By  the 

>  Scbenk,  In  his  autobiography,  tells  how  he  had  a  place  In  the 
orchestra  at  the  first  performance,  and  was  so  enchanted  with  the 
overture  that  he  crept  up  to  the  conductor's  chair,  seized  Mozart's 
hand  and  kissed  It.  Mozart,  putting  out  his  right  hand,  looked 
kindly  at  him,  and  stroked  his  cheek. 

2  A  note  ( Jahn  11.  £39)  to  some  unknown  person  (?  Da  Fonte)  strik- 
ingly confirms  this. 

•  It  is  notorious  that  Salierl  was  very  much  suspected,  but  he  In- 
dignantly repudiated  the  accusation.  His  own  words  (reported  by 
Niemetschek,  p.  81)  prove  that  he  was  not  displeased  at  Mozart's 
death :— '  It  is  indeed  a  pity  to  lose  so  great  a  genius,  but  his  death  is 
a  good  thing  for  us.  If  he  had  lived  longer  not  a  soul  would  have 
given  us  a  bit  of  bread  for  our  compositions.'  The  answer  given  to 
the  accusation  by  Salieri's  friend,  Capellmelster  Schwanenberg,  was, 
to  say  the  least  of  it,  remarkable  r— '  Pazzi  1  non  ha  fatto  niente  per 
meritar  un  tal  onore  I '  (Geese !  what  has  he  done  to  deserve  so  great 
an  honour  1) 


MOZART. 

advice  of  his  physicians,  his  terrified  wife  took  the 
score  away  from  him,  and  he  rallied  sufficiently 
to  compose  on  Nov.  15  a  cantata  (623)  for  his 
Lodge  to  words  by  Schikaneder.  He  even  con- 
ducted the  performance  himself;  but  the  improve- 
ment was  of  short  duration,  and  he  took  to  his 
bed.  Now,  when  it  was  too  late,  favourable  pros- 
pects opened  before  him.  He  was  informed  that 
some  of  the  nobility  of  Hungary  had  clubbed  to- 
gether to  guarantee  him  a  yearly  sum,  and  at  the 
same  time  a  subscription  was  got  up  in  Amster- 
dam, for  which  he  was  to  furnish  compositions  to 
become  the  property  of  the  subscribers.  When 
the  hour  for  the  theatre  arrived,  he  would  follow 
in  imagination  the  performance  of  the  '  Zauber- 
flbte,' and  the  Requiem  continued  to  occupy  his 
mind.  On  Dec.  4  he  had  the  score  brought 
to  him  in  bed,  and  tried  a  passage,  singing  the 
alto  himself,  while  his  brother-in-law  Hofer  took 
the  tenor,  and  Schack  and  Gerl  from  the  theatre 
the  soprano  and  bass.  When  they  got  to  the  first 
few  bars  of  the  Lacrimosa,  it  suddenly  came 
home  to  him  that  he  should  never  finish  it,  and 
he  burst  out  crying,  and  put  away  the  score.  In 
the  evening  Siissmayer  came  in,  and  he  gave  him 
some  directions  about  the  Requiem,  with  which 
his  thoughts  seemed  constantly  occupied,  for  even 
while  dozing  he  puffed  out  his  cheeks  as  if  try- 
ing to  imitate  the  drums.  Towards  midnight 
he  suddenly  sat  up  with  his  eyes  fixed ;  then  he 
turned  his  head  on  one  side,  and  appeared  to  fall 
asleep.  By  one  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  Dec.  5, 
1 79 1,  his  spirit  had  fled.  He  died  of  malignant 
typhus  fever.  At  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon 
of  the  6th  his  body  was  removed  from  the  house 
of  mourning 4  to  St.  Stephen's  ;  the  service  was 
held  in  the  open  air,  as  was  the  custom  with  the 
poorest  class  of  funeral,  and  van  Swieten,  Siiss- 
mayer, Salieri,  Roser,  and  Orsler,  stood  round  the 
bier.5  They  followed  as  far  as  the  city  gates,  and 
then  turned  back,  as  a  violent  storm  was  raging, 
and  the  hearse  went  its  way  unaccompanied 
to  the  churchyard  of  St.  Marx.  Thus,  with- 
out a  note  of  music,  forsaken  by  all  he  held 
dear,  the  remains  of  this  prince  of  harmony  were 
committed  to  the  earth, — not  even  in  a  grave  of 
his  own,  but  in  the  common  paupers'  grave  ( Allge- 
meine  'Grube).  The  Lodge  to  which  he  belonged 
held  in  his  honour  a  ceremonial  worthy  of  the  de- 
ceased ;  the  '  Wiener  Zeitung '  announced  '  the 
irreparable  loss '  in  a  few  eloquent  lines,  and 
afterwards  inserted  the  following  epitaph  :— 
MOZARDI 
TVMOLO  INSCKIBENDVM 

Qui  iacet  hie,  Chordis  Infans  Miracnla  Mimdi 

Auxi t  et  Orpheum  Vir  superavit,  Abi ! 

Et  Animae  eius  bene  precare. 


*  Rauhensteingasse,  on  the  site  of  the  present  Galvani'schen  Ge- 
bSude,  in  the  vestibule  of  which  the  builder  has  placed  a  bust  of 
Mozart. 

•  Schikaneder  was  too  much  overcome  to  be  present.  Walking  up 
and  down  he  exclaimed,  '  his  spirit  pursues  me  everywhere ;  I  have 
him  continually  before  my  eyes.' 

«  By  Van  Swieten's  orders  (himself  well  off)  the  strictest  economy 
was  observed  in  the  funeral  arrangements.  The  site  of  the  actual 
grave  was  soon  forgotten ;  but  the  city  of  Vienna  erected  on  the  pro- 
bable spot  a  handsome  monument  by  Hans  Gasser,  solemnly  uuveiled 
on  the  anniversary  of  Mozart's  death,  Dec.  S,  1853. 


MOZART. 

To   the   compositions    already   mentioned   in 
Vienna  must  be  added  the  following  : — 

Airs  for  soprano  (368.  374);  con-|  for  clarinet,  2  violins,  viola,  and 
certarias  fur  his  sister-in-law, Mme.  cello  (581) ;  quintet  for  harmonica, 
Lange  (383, 416, 538) ;  air  with  P.F. '  flute,  oboe,  viola,  and  cello  (617)  j 


MOZART. 


895 


obi.  for  Nancy  Storace  (506) ;  1  ditto 
for  Adamberger,  the  tenor  (431) ; 
bass  airs  for  Fischer  (432,  512), 
Gottfried  von  Jacquln  (513),  Gerl 
(who  sang  Sarastro),  with  contra- 
basso  obllgato  for  Pischlberger 
(612),  and  Benuccl  (584).  Airs  In- 
serted in  operas  by  other  com- 
posers :  2  for  Mme.  Lange  In  An- 
fossi's  'II  curioso  indiscreto'  (418, 
419) ;  bass  air  for  Albertarelll  In 
'  Le  Gelosie  fortunate '  (Anfossi) 
(511) ;  for  Mile.  Villeneuve  in  Ci- 
marosa's  '  I  due  Baroni '  (578),  and 
In  Martin's  'II  burbero  dl  buon 
cuore '  (582,  583) ;  for  his  sister-in- 
law  Mme.  Hoferln  Falsiello's '  Bar- 
biere '  (580).  Trios  for  the  Jacquin 
family  (436-39) ;  comic,  nicknamed 
the  Bandel-Terzet  (441);  for  Bl- 
anch! "s  'Yillanella  rapita,'  trio 
(480)  and  quartet  (479).  20  Lieder 
for  a  single  voice.  Including  '  Das 
Veilchen'  (476);  a  'Abendempfln- 
dung'  (523),  'An  Chloe'  (524);  12 
canons. 

Instrumental:  serenade  for  wind- 
instruments  (375);  Kleine  Nacht- 
muslk  (525);  3  marches  (408); 
dances,  25  Nos. ;  'Ein  musikal- 
Ischer  Spass '  (522) ;  4  string-quin- 
tets (515,  516,  593,  614);  1  quintet 


trio  (divertimento)  for  violin,  viola, 
and  cello  (563);  rondo  for  violin 
(373) ;  4  horn  concertos  (412,  417, 
447,  495) ;  clarinet  concerto  (622). 
For  P.F. :  sonata  in  C  minor  (457) 
with  Introductory  fantasia  (475) ;  3 
sonatas  (545. 570, 576) ;  Allegro  and 
Andante  (533) ;  2  fantasias  (396, 
3975;  Adagio  In  B  minor  (540) ;  2 
rondos  (485,  fill) ;  variations  (398, 
455,  460,  500.  573.  613) ;  6  sonatas 
with  violin,  completed  In  Vienna, 
and  published  by  subscription, 
Mozart  editing  (296,  376-380);  7 
ditto  (402-4,  454,  481,  626,  847); 
sonatas  for  4  hands  (497, 521) ;  An- 
dante with  5  variations  (501) ;  for 
a  musical  clock  (also  arranged  for 
4  hands)  Adagio  and  Allegro  (594) ; 
fantasia  (680) ;  Andante  (616) ;  6 
trios  with  violin  and  cello  (442, 
496,  602,  642,  648,  564) ;  trio  with 
clarinet  and  viola  (498);  2  quar- 
tets, G  minor  and  E  flat  (478, 493) ; 
quintet  in  E  flat,  with  oboe,  clari- 
net, horn,  and  bassoon  (452) ;  17 
concertos  (413-15,  449-51,  463,  456, 
459.  466,  467,  482,  488,  491,  503,  637, 
695) ;  concert-rondo  (382),  printed 
as  the  last  movement  of  an  earlier 
concerto  (175). 


In  contemplating  Mozart  as  an  artist  we  are 
first  struck  by  the  gradual  growth  of  his  powers. 
God  bestowed  on  him  extraordinary  genius,  but 
nearly  as  extraordinary  is  the  manner  in  which 
his  father  fostered  and  developed  it.  We  have 
seen  him  laying  a  solid  foundation  by  the  study 
of  Fux's  Gradus,  and  anxiously  enforcing  early 
practice  in  technique.  We  have  also  seen  Mozart 
studying  in  Salzburg  the  works  of  contempo- 
raneous composers.  In  Italy  his  genius  rapidly 
mastered  the  forms  of  dramatic  and  ancient 
church  music  ;  van  Swieten's  influence  led  him 
to  Bach,  whose  works  at  Leipzig  were  a  new- 
found treasure,  and  to  Handel,  of  whom  he  said, 
'  He  knows  how  to  make  great  effects  better  than 
any  of  us ;  when  he  chooses  he  can  strike  like  a 
thunderbolt.'  How  familiar  he  was  with  the 
works  of  Emanuel  Bach  is  shown  by  his  remark 
to  Doles,  '  He  is  the  father,  we  are  his  children ; 
those  of  us  who  can  do  anything  worth  having 
have  learnt  it  from  him,  and  those  who  do  not 

see  this  are  .'     The  eagerness  with  which 

he  laid  hold  of  Benda's  melodramas  as  something 
new  has  already  been  described. 

His  handwriting  was  small,  neat,  and  always 
the  same,  and  when  a  thing  was  once  written 
down  he  seldom  made  alterations.  'He  wrote 
music  as  other  people  write  letters,'  Baid  his  wife, 
and  this  explains  his  apparently  inexhaustible 
power  of  composing,  although  he  alwayB  declared 
that  he  was  not  spared  that  labour  and  pains 
from  which  the  highest  genius  is  not  exempt.  His 
great  works  he  prepared  long  beforehand ;  sitting 
up  late  at  night,  he  would  improvise  for  hours 
at  the  piano,  and  '  these  were  the  true  hours  of 
creation  of  his  divine  melodies.'     His  thoughts 

i  The  autograph  is  Inscribed  'composta  per  la  Sgra.  Storace  dal  suo 
servo  ed  amico  W.  A.  Mozart,  26  di  Dec.  1786.' 
J  Facsimile  in  Jahn,  voL  1,  Appendix. 


were  in  fact  always  occupied  with  music  ;  ■  You 
know,'  he  wrote  to  his  father,  'that  I  am,  so  to 
speak,  swallowed  up  in  music,  that  I  am  busy 
with  it  all  day  long — speculating,  studying,  con- 
sidering.' But  this  very  weighing  and  consider- 
ing often  prevented  his  working  a  thing  out ; 
a  failing  with  which  his  methodical  father  re- 
proached him  : — '  If  you  will  examine  your  con- 
science properly,  you  will  find  that  you  have 
postponed  many  a  work  for  good  and  all.'  When 
necessary,  however,  he  could  compose  with  great 
rapidity,  and  without  any  preparation,  impro- 
vising on  paper  as  it  were.  Even  during  the 
pauses  between  games  of  billiards  or  skittles  he 
would  be  accumulating  ideas,  for  his  inner  world 
was  beyond  the  reach  of  any  outer  disturbance. 
During  his  wife's  confinement  he  would  spend 
his  time  between  her  bed-side  and  his  writing- 
table.  When  writing  at  night  he  could  not  get 
on  without  punch,  of  which  he  was  very  fond, 
and  'of  which,'  says  Kelly,3  'I  have  seen  him 
take  copious  draughts.'  At  the  same  time  he 
would  get  his  wife  to  tell  him  stories,  and  would 
laugh  heartily. 

We  have  already  remarked  on  his  powers  as 
a  virtuoso  on  the  piano,  organ,  and  violin,  and 
also  on  his  preference  for  the  viola.  He  con- 
sidered the  first  requisites  for  a  pianist  to  be 
a  quiet  steady  hand,  the  power  of  singing  the 
melody,  clearness  and  neatness  in  the  ornaments, 
and  of  course  the  necessary  technique.  It  was 
the  combination  of  virtuoso  and  composer  which 
made  his  playing  so  attractive.  His  small  well- 
shaped  hands  glided  easily  and  gracefully  over 
the  keyboard,  delighting  the  eye  nearly  as  much 
as  the  ear.  Clementi  declared  that  he  had  never 
heard  anybody  play  with  so  much  mind  and 
charm  as  Mozart.  Dittersdorf  expressed  his  ad- 
miration of  the  union  of  taste  and  science,  in 
which  he  was  corroborated  by  the  Emperor 
Joseph.  Haydn  said  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  that 
as  long  as  he  lived  he  should  never  forget 
Mozart's  playing,  'it  went  to  the  heart.'  No 
one  who  was  fortunate  enough  to  hear  him 
improvise  ever  forgot  the  impression.  '  To  this 
hour,  old  as  I  am,'  said  *  Rieder,  '  those  harmo- 
nies, infinite  and  heavenly,  ring  in  my  ears,  and 
I  go  to  the  grave  fully  convinced  that  there  was 
but  one  Mozart.'  His  biographer  Niemetschek, 
expresses  himself  in  similar  terms,  '  If  I  might 
have  the  fulfilment  of  one  wish  on  earth,  it 
would  be  to  hear  Mozart  improvise  once  more 
on  the  piano ;  those  who  never  heard  him  can- 
not have  the  faintest  idea  of  what  it  was.' 
Vienna  was  the  very  place  for  him  in  this  re- 
spect ;  when  he  was  thinking  of  settling  there, 
his  father,  with  characteristic  prudence,  warned 
him  of  the  fickleness  of  the  public,  but  he  replied 
that  his  department  was  too  favourite  a  one, 
'  this  certainly  is  pianoforte -land.'  And  he  was 
right;  from  his  first  appearance  to  the  last,  the 
favour  of  the  public  never  wavered.  As  a  teacher 
he  was  not  in  much  request,  Steffan,  Kozeluch, 

t '  Reminiscences,'  1. 226. 

4  Ambros  Rieder,  organist  and  choirmaster  at  Percbtolsdorf,  near 
Vienna,  died  lsil. 


896 


MOZART. 


Righini,  and  others,  having  more  pupils  though 
charging  the  same  terms  as  he.  The  fact  is,  he 
•was  neither  methodical  nor  obsequious  enough  ; 
it  was  only  when  personally  attracted  by  talent, 
earnestness,  and  a  desire  to  get  on,  that  he 
taught  willingly.  Many  people  preferred  to 
profit  by  his  remarks  in  social  intercourse,  or 
took  a  few  lessons  merely  to  be  able  to  call  them- 
selves his  pupils.  Fraulein  Auernhammer  is  an 
instance  of  the  first,  and  the  celebrated  physician 
Joseph  Frank  of  the  second.  With  such  pupils 
as  these  he  used  to  say,  '  You  will  profit  more 
by  hearing  me  play,  than  by  playing  yourself,' 
and  acted  accordingly.  Among  his  best  lady 
pupils  were  the  Countesses  Eumbeck  and  Zichy, 
Frau  von  Trattnern,  wife  of  the  wealthy  book- 
seller, Franziska  von  Jacquin,  afterwards  Frau 
von  Lagusius,  and  Barbara  Ployer.  Hummel 
•came  to  him  in  1787,  he  lived  in  the  house,  and 
his  instruction  was  most  irregular,  being  given 
only  as  time  and  inclination  served ;  but  personal 
intercourse  amply  supplied  any  deficiencies  of 
method.  Mozart  could  always  hear  him  play, 
and  played  constantly  before  him,  took  him  about 
with  him,  and  declared  that  the  boy  would  soon 
outstrip  him  as  a  pianist.  Hummel  left  in  Nov. 
1 788  to  make  his  first  tour  with  his  father.1  Of 
Thomas  Attwood,  who  came  to  him  from  Italy 
in  1785  for  a  course  of  composition,  and  became 
his  favourite  pupil,  he  said  to  Kelly,  '  Attwood 
is  a  young  man  for  whom  I  have  a  sincere  affec- 
tion and  esteem ;  he  conducts  himself  with  great 
propriety,  and  I  feel  much  pleasure  in  telling 
you,  that  he  partakes  more  of  my  style  than  any 
other  scholar  I  ever  had,  and  I  predict  that 
he  will  prove  a  sound  2  musician.'  Kelly,  who 
wrote  pretty  songs,  wished  to  have  some  instruc- 
tion from  Mozart  in  composition,  but  he  dis- 
suaded him  from  it,  as  his  profession  of  the  stage 
ought  to  occupy  all  his  attention.  •  Reflect,'  he 
said,  '  a  little  knowledge  is  a  dangerous  thing . .  .; 
•do  not  disturb  your  natural  gifts.  Melody  is 
the  essence  of  music ;  I  compare  a  good  melodist 
to  a  fine  racer,  and  counterpointists  to  hack 
post-horses:  therefore  be  advised,  let  well  alone, 
and  remember  the  old  Italian  proverb — Chi  sa 
piu,  meno  3  sa.'  Mozart  also  taught  composition 
to  a  few  ladies,  a  cousin  of  Abbe-  Stadler's  among 
the  number.  The  MS.  book  *  he  used  with  her 
is  in  the  Hofbibliothek,  and  is  interesting  as 
showing  the  cleverness  with  which,  in  the  midst 
of  jokes  and  playful  remarks,  he  managed  to  keep 
his  lady  pupils  to  their  grammar.  With  more 
advanced  pupils  he  of  course  acted  differently. 
Attwood  began  by  laying  before  him  a  book  of  his 
own  compositions,  and  Mozart  looked  it  through, 
criticising  as  he  went,  and  with  the  words,  'I 
*hould  have  done  this  so,'  re-wrote  whole  pas- 
sages, and  in  fact  re-composed  the  book. 5 

1  His  first  concert  In  London  was  at  the  Hanover  Square  Booms, 
Hay  5, 1792,  when  be  played  a  concerto  of  Mozart's.  Fool's  '  Haydn 
lu  London,'  p.  43. 

2  '  Reminiscences,'  1. 228.  »  Ibid.  1.  227. 

•  It  has  been  published  more  than  once  as  '  Kurzgefasste  General- 
bassschule  von  W.  A.  Mozart '  (Vienna,  Stelner)  and  '  Fundament  des 
Generalbasses '  (Berlin,  8iegmeyer,  1822). 

s  Holmes,  p.  316.    This  book  is  now  in  the  possession  of  Sir  John 

<iOSS. 


MOZART. 

He  held  regular  concerts  at  his  own  house  on 
Sundays,  his  friends  being  invited,  and  amateurs 
admitted  on  payment. 

Of  his  intercourse  with  other  artists  on  his 
tours  we  have  spoken,  but  something  remains  to 
be  said  of  his  relations  with  his  brethren  in 
"Vienna.  Of  Bonno,  at  whose  house  his  newest 
symphony  was  twice  performed  in  1781  with  an 
unusually  large  orchestra  (60  strings,  wind-in- 
struments doubled,  and  8  bassoons),  Mozart  said, 
'he  is  an  honourable  old  man.'  Gluck  appre- 
ciated him,  and  was  inclined  to  be  friendly,  but 
they  were  never  intimate.  At  his  request  the 
'  Entfuhrung'  was  performed  out  of  its  turn, 
and  '  Gluck  paid  me  many  compliments  upon  it. 
I  dine  with  him  to-morrow.'  On  another  occa- 
sion Gluck  was  at  Mme.  Lange's  concert,  where 
Mozart  played.  'He  could  not  say  enough  in 
praise  of  the  symphony  and  aria  (both  by 
Mozart),  and  invited  us  all  four  (the  Mozarts 
and  Langes)  to  dinner  on  Sunday.'  Salieri  was 
unfriendly.  He  had  great  influence  with  the 
Emperor,  and  could  easily  have  secured  an  ap- 
pointment for  Mozart,  but  though  astute  enough 
not  to  show  his  dislike  openly,  he  put  obstacles 
in  his  way.  Other  still  more  bitter  opponents 
were  Kozeluch,  Kreibich,  and  Strack,  who  with 
Salieri  had  it  all  their  own  way  in  the  Emperor's 
music-room.  Kozeluch  also  hated  Haydn,  and 
this  inspired  Mozart  with  a  contempt  he  took 
no  pains  to  conceal,  and  which  Kozeluch  never 
forgave.  We  have  already  spoken  of  the  rela- 
tions between  Mozart  and  Haydn :  '  It  was  quite 
touching,'  says  Niemetschek,  'to  hear  Mozart 
speak  of  the  two  Haydns,  or  of  any  other  great 
master ;  it  was  like  listening  to  an  admiring 
pupil,  rather  than  to  the  great  Mozart.'  He 
recognised  in  the  same  generous  way  the  merit 
of  those  who  merely  crossed  his  path,  such  as 
Paisiello  and  Sarti,  with  both  of  whom  he  was 
on  very  friendly  terms.  Kelly  •  dined  at  Mozart's 
house  with  Paisiello,  and  was  a  witness  of  their 
mutual  esteem.  Mozart's  pupil,  Barbara  Ployer, 
played  some  of  his  compositions  to  Paisiello,  who 
in  his  turn  asked  for  the  score  of  '  Idomeneo.' 
Of  Sarti,  Mozart  writes  to  his  father,  '  He  is  an 
honest  upright  man  ;7  I  have  played  a  great  deal 
to  him  already,  including  variations  on  one  of  his 
own  airs  (460)  with  which  he  was  much  pleased.' 
He  immortalised  this  very  theme  by  introducing 
it  into  the  second  Finale  of 'Don  Giovanni ' ;  and 
did  a  similar  service  for  a  theme  from  Martin's 
'  Cosa  rara/  an  opera  which  at  that  time  threw 
even  Mozart  into  the  shade.  Of  that  composer, 
then  a  universal  favourite,  he  said :  '  much  that 
he  writes  is  really  very  pretty,  but  in  ten  years 
time  his  music  will  be  entirely  forgotten.'  Mozart 
took  a  great  interest  in  all  striving  young  artists, 
augmented  in  the  case  of  Stephen  Storace  by  his 
esteem  for  his  sister  Nancy,  the  first  Susanna  in 
'Figaro.'  His  sympathy  with  Gyrowetz  has 
been  mentioned :  of  Pleyel's  first  quartets  he 
wrote  to  his  father,  '  They  are  very  well  written, 

*  'Bemlniscences,'  1.  238. 

7  The  'honest'  man  afterwards  wrote  a  very  malicious  critique  on 
Mozart's  quartets. 


MOZAKT. 

and  really  pleasing ;  it  is  easy  to  see  who  his 
master  was  (Haydn).  It  will  be  a  good  thing 
for  music  if  Pleyel  should  in  time  replace 
Haydn.'  When  Beethoven  came  to  Vienna  for 
the  first  time  in  the  spring  of  1787,  and  found 
an  opportunity  of  playing  before  Mozart,  he  is 
said  to  have  observed  to  the  bystanders,  '  Mark 
him ;  he  will  make  a  noise  in  the  world.'  Of 
Thomas  Linley,  with  whom,  as  we  have  seen, 
he  made  friends  in  Florence,  he  said,  '  That  he 
was  a  true  genius,  and  had  he  lived  would  have 
been  one  of  the  greatest  ornaments  of  the  musical 
world.'  * 

Mozart  was  short,  but  slim  and  well-propor- 
tioned, with  small  feet  and  good  hands ;  as  a 
young  man  he  was  thin,  which  made  his  nose  look 
large,  but  later  in  Ufe  he  became  stouter.  His 
head  was  somewhat  large  in  proportion  to  his 
body,  and  he  had  a  profusion  of  fine  hair,  of 
which  he  was  rather  vain.  He  was  always  pale, 
and  his  face  was  a  pleasant  one,  though  not 
striking  in  any  way.  His  eyes  were  well-formed, 
and  of  a  good  size,  with  fine  eyebrows  and  lashes, 
but  as  a  rule  they  looked  languid,  and  his  gaze 
was  restless  and  absent.  He  was  very  particular 
about  bis  clothes,  and  wore  a  good  deal  of  em- 
broidery and  jewelry;  from  his  elegant  appear- 
ance Clementi  took  him  for  one  of  the  court 
chamberlains.  On  the  whole  he  was  perhaps 
insignificant-looking,  but  he  did  not  like  to  be 
made  aware  of  the  fact,  or  to  have  his  small 
stature  commented  upon.  When  playing  the 
whole  man  became  at  once  a  different  and  a 
higher  order  of  being.  His  countenance  changed, 
his  eye  settled  at  once  into  a  steady  calm  gaze, 
and  every  movement  of  his  muscles  conveyed  the 
sentiment  expressed  in  his  playing.  He  was  fond 
of  active  exercise,  which  was  the  more  necessary 
as  he  suffered  materially  in  health  from  his  habit 
of  working  far  into  the  night.  At  one  time  he 
took  a  regular  morning  ride,  but  had  to  give  it 
up,  not  being  able  to  conquer  bis  nervousness. 
It  was  replaced  by  billiards  and  skittles,  his 
fondness  for  which  we  have  mentioned.  He 
even  had  a  billiard-table  in  his  own  house : 
*  Many  and  many  a  game  have  I  played  with 
him,'  says  Kelly,  'but  always  came  off  second 
best.'  When  no  one  else  was  there  he  would 
play  with  his  wife,  or  even  by  himself.  His 
favourite  amusement  of  all  however  was  dancing, 
for  which  Vienna  afforded  ample  opportunities. 
This  too  Kelly  mentions  (i.  226),  'Mme.  Mozart 
told  me  that  great  as  his  genius  was,  he  was  an 
enthusiast  in  dancing,  and  often  said  that  his 
taste  lay  in  that  art,  rather  than  in  music.'  He 
was  particularly  fond  of  masked  balls,  and  had 
quite  a  talent  for  masquerading  in  character,  as 
he  showed  at  the  Rathhaus  balls  in  Salzburg. 
In  1 783  he  sent  home  for  a  harlequin's  suit,  to  play 
the  character  in  a  pantomime  got  up  by  some 
friends  for  the  Carnival  Monday ;  Mme.  Lange 
and  her  husband  were  Columbine  and  Pierrot, 
Merk,  an  old  dancing-master  who  trained  the 
company,  was  Pantaloon,  and  the  painter  Grossi 
the  Dottore.  Mozart  devised  the  whole  thing,  and 

1  Kelly's  '  Reminiscences, '  1.  225. 


MOZART. 


397 


composed  the  music,  which  was  of  course  very 
simple ;  thirteen  numbers  have  been  preserved 
(446). 

In  society  Mozart  found  amusement  of  the 
highest  kind,  and  inspiration,  as  well  as  affection 
and  true  sympathy.  No  house  offered  him  so 
much  of  these  as  that  of  Countess  Thun,  '  die 
charmanteste,  liebste  Dame,  die  ich  in  meinem 
Leben  gesehen,'  of  whom  Burney,  Reichardt,  and 
George  Forster,  wrote  in  the  highest  terms.  Other 
associates  were  the  Countess's  son-in-law  and 
Mozart's  pupil  Prince  Karl  Lichnowsky,  Hofrath 
von  Born,  Baron  Otto  von  Gemmingen,  Hofrath 
von  Spielmann,  Prince  Kaunitz,  Count  Cobenzh 
Field-marshal  Haddik,  Geheimrath  von  Kees, 
who  had  weekly  orchestral  concerts  at  his  house, 
the  botanist  Jacquin,  and  his  son  and  daughter 
[Jacquin  von],  Count  Hatzfeld,  an  intimate  friend 
who  played  in  his  quartets,  Kaufmann  Bridi, 
a  good  tenor  who  sung  in '  Idomeneo,'  the  families 
Greiner,  Martinez,  and  Ployer,  all  of  whom  had 
constant  music,  and  van  Swieten,  who  has  been 
mentioned  already.  Another  great  admirer  of 
his  was  Barisani  the  physician,  '  that  noble 
man,  my  best  and  dearest  friend,  who  saved 
my  life'  (when  seriously  ill  in  1784),  and  whose 
unexpected  death  in  1787  affected  him  much. 
One  can  quite  understand  that  the  refreshment 
of  social  intercourse  was  a  real  necessity  after 
his  hard  brain-work.  On  such  occasions  he  was 
full  of  fun,  ready  at  a  moment's  notice  to  pour 
out  a  stream  of  doggrel  rhymes  or  irresistibly 
droll  remarks;  in  short  he  was  a  frank  open- 
hearted  child,  whom  it  was  almost  impossible 
to  identify  with  Mozart  the  great  artist.  His 
brother-in-law  Lange a  sajte  that  he  was  most 
full  of  fun  during  the  time  he  was  occupied  with 
his  great  works.  It  has  been  reiterated  ad 
nauseam  that  Mozart  was  a  drunkard,  whose 
indulgence  in  this  and  cognate  vices  brought 
him  to  an  early  3  grave,  but  that  such  a  charge 
was  totally  unfounded  no  one  who  has  studied 
his  life  can  doubt  for  a  moment.  That,  like  other 
people,  he  enjoyed  a  good  glass  of  wine  nobody 
can  deny,  but  his  laborious  life  and  the  prodi- 
gious number  of  his  compositions  convincingly 
prove  that  he  was  never  given  up  to  excess. 
Those4  who  accused  him  of  intemperance  also 
magnified  his  debts  tenfold  when  he  died,  and 
thus  inflicted  grievous  injury  on  his  widow. 
These  'friends'  propagated  the  worst  reports  as  to 
his  domestic  affairs  and  constant  embarrassments. 
Undoubtedly  his  wife  was  a  bad  manager,  and 
this  was  a  serious  defect  in  a  household  which 
only  acquired  a  regular  income  (800  fl. !)  in  1788, 
and  whose  resources  before  and  after  that  time 
were  most  irregular.  His  wife's  constant  ill- 
nesses too  were  a  great  additional  burden.  Though 
naturally  unfitted  for  anything  of  the  kind,  he 
made  many  serious  attempts  to  regulate  his  ex- 
penses,  and  would  every  now  and  then  keep 


1  Selbstblographle,  p.  171. 

•  Compare  SchlichtegroU's  'Nekrolog';  Arnold's  language  is  even 
worse  (Mozart's  Geist ,  p.  65). 

*  His  association  with  Schlkaneder  gave  some  colour  to  the  reports. 
Hummel  protested  vehemently  against  such  accusations. 


398 


MOZART. 


strict  accounts  of  income  and  1  expenditure,  but 
these  good  resolutions  did  not  last.  As  Jahn 
remarks  with  point,  how  could  he  when  writing 
to  Puchberg  for  assistance  (July  17,  1789)  have 
appealed  to  his  friend's  knowledge  of  his  cha- 
racter and  honesty,  if  these  exaggerations  had 
been  true  ?  In  most  cases  he  was  led  astray  by 
sheer  good-nature,  as  he  never  could  refuse  any 
one  in  need.  His  kindness  was  grievously  abused 
by  false  friends,  whose  acquaintance  was  damaging 
to  his  character,  but  he  never  learned  prudence. 
The  worst  offender  in  this  respect  was  Stadler, 
the  eminent  clarinet-player,  who  often  dined  at 
his  table,  and  repeatedly  wheedled  money  out  of 
him  under  pretext  of  poverty.  After  all  that 
had  passed,  Mozart  composed  a  concerto  (622)  for 
Stadler's  tour,  finishing  it  two  days  only  before 
the  production  of  the  Zauberflote,  when  he  was 
of  course  particularly  hard  pressed. 

His  religious  sentiments,  more  especially  his 
views  on  death,  are  distinctly  stated  in  a  letter 
to  his  father  at  first  hearing  of  his  illness.  '  As 
death,  strictly  speaking,  is  the  true  end  and  aim 
of  our  lives,  I  have  for  the  last  two  years  made 
myself  so  well  acquainted  with  this  true,  best 
friend  of  mankind,  that  hig  image  no  longer 
terrifies,  but  calms  and  consoles  me.  And  I 
thank  God  for  giving  me  the  opportunity  (you 
8  understand)  of  learning  to  look  upon  death 
as  the  key  which  unlocks  the  gate  of  true  bliss. 
I  never  fie  down  to  rest  without  thinking  that, 
young  as  I  am,  before  the  dawn  of  another  day 
I  may  be  no  more ;  and  yet  nobody  who  knows 
me  would  call  me  morose  or  discontented.  For 
this  blessing  I  thank  my  Creator  every  day,  and 
wish  from  my  heart  that  I  could  share  it  with 
all  my  fellow-men.' 

Mozart  has  often  been  compared  with  other 
great  men,  Shakespeare,  Goethe,  Beethoven, 
Haydn,  etc.,  but  the  truest  parallel  of  all  is  that 
between  him  and  Raphael.  In  the  works  of 
both  we  admire  the  same  marvellous  beauty  and 
refinement,  the  same  pure  harmony  and  ideal 
truthfulness ;  we  also  recognise  in  the  two  men 
the  same  intense  delight  in  creation,  which  made 
them  regard  each  fresh  work  as  a  sacred  task, 
and  the  same  gratitude  to  their  Maker  for  His 
divine  gift  of  genius.  The  influence  of  each 
upon  his  art  was  immeasurable ;  as  painting  has 
but  one  Raphael,  so  music  has  but  one  Mozart. 

In  reviewing  Mozart's  instrumental  compo- 
sitions, we  will  first  consider  those  for  pianoforte. 
They  comprise  all  the  different  branches,  and  are 
thoroughly  suited  to  the  instrument — grateful, 
and  for  the  present  state  of  technique,  easy ;  they 
contain  no  mere  bravura-writing,  the  passages 
being  for  the  most  part  founded  on  the  scale,  or 
on  broken  chords.  In  playing  them,  clearness, 
taste,  and  the  power  of  singing  on  the  instru- 
ment are  required.  In  variations,  written  almost 
entirely  for  pupils  and  amateurs,  he  employs  for 
the  most  part  the  melismatic  style.     His  themes 

1  In  one  of  these  orderly  fiti  he  began  0784)  a  thematic  register  of 
•11  his  compositions  as  they  were  completed,  and  continued  the  prac- 
tice up  to  a  short  time  before  his  death.  This  invaluable  document 
was  first  published  by  Andre1  in  1828. 

2  A  reference  to  the  doctriae  of  the  Freemasons. 


MOZART. 

were  taken  from  well-known  pieces,  such  as 
Fischer's  minuet,  and  airs  by  Paisiello,  Gluck, 
Sarti,  Duport,  etc.  A  good  many  that  were  not 
his  were  circulated  under  his  name,  a  proof  of 
the  demand  for  them.  Of  these  only  two  need 
be  specified,  one  by  Forster  on  a  theme  from 
Sarti's  opera  *  I  finti  Eredi ' ;  the  other  by  Eberl, 
on '  Zu  Steffen  sprach  im  Traume,'  from  Umlauf  's 
'  Irrlicht.'  Of  three  Rondos  the  last,  in  A  minor 
(511)  is  well  known;  it  is  characterised  through- 
out by  a  tenderness  which  makes  it  most  attrac- 
tive. Two  Fantasias  (396,  397),  and  a  short 
sustained  Adagio  (540)  are  almost  improvisations ; 
a  third  Fantasia  forms  the  prelude  to  an  excellent 
fugue  in  the  style  of  Bach  (394) ;  a  fourth  (475) 
full  of  depth  and  earnestness,  was  united  by 
Mozart  himself  with  the  sonata  in  C  minor  (457). 
The  charming Gigue  (574)  is  well  known;  but  a 
P.F.  Suite  in  the  style  of  Bach  and  Handel  (499) 
was  unfortunately  not  finished ;  the  Abbe"  Stadler 
completed  a  more  formal  and  abstract  Fugue 
(401).  In  his  Sonatas  of  the  Viennese  period 
Mozart  retained  the  conventional  three  move- 
ments ;  they  overflow  with  melody,  but  the  last 
movements,  generally  in  the  form  of  an  easy 
rondo  or  variations,  are  as  a  rule  not  mucu 
worked  out.  The  C  minor  (457),  already  men- 
tioned, is  full  of  fire  and  passion,  not  excepting 
the  last  movement,  and  already  indicates  what 
Beethoven  was  destined  to  do  for  the  sonata. 
Two  others  in  Bb  and  D  (570,  576),  both  pleasing, 
lively  and  easy,  also  deserve  mention.  Sonatas 
by  others  were  published  under  his  name,  for 
instance,  one  in  C  minor  (Kochel's  Anhang,  204) 
recommended  by  Czerny  in  his  'Piauoforteschule' 
(iv.  162),  even  though  of  doubtful  authenticity, 
and  afterwards  published  by  Artaria  with  the 
composer's  name — '  Anton  Eberl,  ceuvre  I.' 
Another  favourite  one  is  in  Bb  (Kochel's  An- 
hang 136),  partly  put  together  from  Mozart's 
concertos  by  A.  E.  Mtiller  as  op.  26.  The  most 
striking  sonata  for  four  hands  is  the  last  but  one 
in  F  (497).  Two  pieces  for  a  musical  clock  (594, 
608)  ordered  by  Count  Deym  for  Muller's  Kunst- 
cabinet,  are  only  known  in  the  P.F.  arrangement 
for  four  hands ;  they  belong  to  the  close  of  his  life, 
and  the  earnestness  of  purpose  and  thoroughness 
of  technique  which  we  find  in  them  show  how 
conscientiously  Mozart  executed  such  works  to 
order.  For  two  pianos  we  have  a  lively  sonata 
in  D  (448),  and  an  energetic  fugue  in  C  minor 
(426)  arranged  by  Mozart  for  string-quartet  with 
introductory  adagio  (546).  The  Sonatas  for  P.  F. 
and  violin  were  generally  written  for  his  lady- 
pupils  (the  violin  at  that  time  was,  generally 
speaking,  a  man's  instrument).  They  are  neither 
deep  nor  learned,  but  interesting  from  their 
abundant  melody  and  modulations.  One  of 
the  finest  is  that  in  Bb  (454)  composed  in  1784 
for  Mdlle.  Strinasacchi ;  the  last,  in  F  (547), 
is  ' for  beginners' ;  the  last  but  one  in  Eb  (481), 
is  also  easy,  and  contains  in  the  first  movement 
the  favourite  subject  which  he  treats  in  the  finale 
of  the.Jupiter  Symphony.  The  P.F.  Trios  were  in- 
tended for  amateur  meetings ;  the  most  important 
is  the  one  in  E  (542)  composed  in  1 78S  for  his 


MOZART. 

friend  Puchberg.  The  one  in  Eb  (498")  with 
clarinet  and  viola  has  been  already  mentioned  ; 
they  were  all  written  between  1786  and  1788. 
Broader  in  design  and  more  powerful  in  expres- 
sion are  the  two  Quartets  in  G  minor  and  Eb 
(478,  493),  especially  the  first,  which  is  effective 
even  at  the  present  day.  The  Quintet  in  Eb  with 
oboe,  clarinet,  horn,  and  bassoon  (45  2),  composed 
in  1 7  84,  is  particularly  charming.  Mozart  played 
it  to  Paisiello,  and  wrote  to  his  father  '  I  consider 
it  the  best  I  have  yet  written.'  His  Concertos, 
however,  are  the  works  which  best  represent  him 
as  a  composer  for  the  pianoforte.  Their  merit  is 
incontestable,  the  solo  instrument  and  the  or- 
chestra being  welded  into  an  organic  whole.  The 
first  four  were  composed  in  1767;  six  between 
1773  and  1777 ;  and  the  remaining  seventeen  in 
"Vienna.  Of  the  latter,  the  first  three  (41 3-415) 
were  published  in  1783  by  Mozart  himself; 
thirteen  were  composed  between  1784  and  1788, 
and  the  last  in  Bb  (595)  in  1791.  The  last  but 
one  in  D  (537)  is  the  '  Coronation  concerto,'  which 
he  is  said  to  have  played  at  Frankfort,  though 
according  to  other  authorities  it  was  that  in  F 
(459).  The  best  and  most  popular  are  those  in 
D  minor  (466),  in  C  (467),  C  minor  (491),  and 
in  C  (503).  The  characteristics  of  the  concertos 
maybe  thus  "summarised — those  inF,  A,  C  (413- 
415),  C  minor  (449)  and  Bb  (456)  are  easiest  of 
comprehension  for  a  large  audience;  those  in 
Bb,  G,  and  A  (450,  453,  488)  bright  and  pleasing ; 
those  in  D  minor  and  C  minor  (466,  491)  pas- 
sionate and  agitated;  those  in  Eb  and  Bb  (482, 
595)  serious  and  sustained ;  those  in  C  and  D  (503 , 
537),  brilliant  and  showy ;  the  one  in  C  (467) 
grand  and  poetic.  The  following  have  been  already 
mentioned — Concerto  for  two  P.F.s  in  Eb  (365) 
composed  in  1780,  fine  in  the  first  and  lively  in 
the  last  movement;  ditto  for  three  P.F.s  in  F 
(242)  composed  1776,  and  arranged  by  Mozart 
for  two  P.F.s  with  cadenzas ;  and  a  Concert- 
rondo  in  D  (382),  printed  as  the  last  movement 
of  the  concerto  in  D  (1 75). 

We  now  pass  to  the  compositions  for  strings 
and  wind.  The  Duets  are  few ;  and  include  those 
composed  for  Michael  Haydn.  The  only  Trio  for 
violin,  viola,  and  cello,  in  Eb  (563)  composed  in 
1 788,  is  in  six  movements,  like  a  divertimento ; 
it  is  broadly  designed,  and  worked  out  with  the 
greatest  zeal  and  care,  'a  true  x cabinet-picture.' 
Of  the  first  sixteen  Quartets  for  two  violins, 
viola,  and  cello,  that  in  D  minor  (173),  composed 
*&  1773,  rises  obviously  to  a  higher  level.  It 
was  only  after  a  pause  of  nine  years  (Nov.  1782) 
that  Mozart  resumed  this  branch  of  composition 
with  the  six  dedicated  to  Haydn,  each  one  a  gem. 
Such  however  was  not  the  popular  verdict  at 
the  time;  a  critic  of  the  day2  found  them  'much 
too  highly  spiced' — and  asks  'whose  palate  can 
s  tand  that  for  any  length  of  time  ? '  Prince  Grassal- 
kowics  tore  up  the  parts  in  a  rage  at  finding  that 
they  really  contained  the  hideous  stuff  which  was 
being  played  before  him ;  and  they  were  returned 
to  Artaria  from  Italy  as  so  full  of  mistakes  that 
it  was  impossible  to  play  from  them.  The  chief 
1  J«*n.  »  Cramer's '  Magazin  der  Muslk,1  11.  1275. 


MOZART. 


399 


stumblingblock  was  the  much-abused  introduc- 
tion to  the  last  quartet.  In  his  next  one,  in  D 
(499),  Mozart  tried  to  accommodate  himself  to 
the  wishes  of  the  public.  The  last  three,  in  D,  Bb, 
and  F  (575,  589,  590),  were  composed  for  the 
King  of  Prussia  at  a  time  when  he  was  nearly 
crushed  beneath  a  load  of  care  and  poverty,  of 
which,  however,  the  works  bear  no  trace.  The 
king's  favourite  instrument,  the  cello,  has  more 
than  its  full  share  of  work",  and  in  spite  of  the 
fine  treatment  and  wealth  of  invention  this  is 
injurious  to  the  character  of  the  quartet.  The 
Adagio  with  fugue  (546)  has  been  already  noticed. 
The  Quartets  for  flute  and  strings  (285,  298), 
and  for  oboe  obligate  (370)  are  easy  of  execution, 
and  of  no  special  importance. 

The  Quintets  must  all  be  ascribed  to  external 
influences :  Mozart  invariably  doubled  the  viola, 
instead  of  the  cello  as  Boccherini  did.  The  first, 
in  Bb  (46),  was  written  in  Vienna3  in  1768,  and 
the  autograph  shows  his  still  unformed  boyish 
hand;  the  next,  dated  five  years  later,  is  in  Bb 
(174);  and  the  third,  in  C  minor  (406),  an  ar- 
rangement of  the  eight-part  serenade  for  wind 
instruments  (388),  follows  ten  years  later.  Of 
those  belonging  to  1787  in  C  and  G  minor  (515, 
516),  the  latter  full  of  passion  and  movement,  is 
the  ne  plus  ultra  of  its  kind.  The  two  last,  in 
D  and  Eb  (593,  614),  were  written  in  December 
1790  and  April  1791,  'at  the  urgent  request  of 
an  amateur,'  whose  object  evidently  was  to  give 
assistance  in  a  delicate  manner  to  the  hard- 
pressed  composer ;  both  show  the  clearness  and 
firmness  of  the  master-hand,  although  the  end 
was  so  near.  Three  other  Quintets  must  be  in- 
cluded in  this  series ;  one  in  Eb  (407)  composed 
in  1787  for  Leitgeb  the  horn-player,  with  only 
one  violin,  and  a  French  horn  or  cello ;  another 
in  A  (581),  the  charming  'Stadler  quintet,'  for 
clarinet,  two  violins,  viola,  and  cello,  completed 
Sept.  29, 1789  ;  and  a  third  in  C  minor  (617)  for 
glass  harmonica,  flute,  oboe,  viola,  and  cello, 
composed  in  May  1791  for  Kirchgassner.  The 
accompanying  instruments  are  obviously  selected 
with  a  view  to  the  special  timbre  of  the  solo,  an 
effect  which  is  lost  by  substituting  the  piano. 

We  have  already  seen  that  at  the  time  he  was 
working  hard  at  the  violin,  Mozart  composed  six 
Concertos  for  it — 207,  211,  216,  218,  219  in 
*775>  aQd  268  in  1776.  They  consist  of  three 
movements  each,  the  first  being  generally  the 
most  worked-out,  the  second  in  the  style  of  a 
romance  (the  adagio  in  216  is  of  larger  propor- 
tions), and  the  third  in  rondo-form.  Previous 
to  these  came  a  concertone  (190)  for  two  solo 
violins,  and  orchestra,  with  obligate  parts  for  cello 
and  oboe,  interesting  from  the  artistic  manner  in 
which  the  various  instruments  are  grouped. 
Quite  different  again  is  a  '  Concertante  Sympho- 
nic '  for  violin  and  viola  (364)  written  in  1 780. 
The  solo-parts  are  treated  simply,  seldom  moving 

>  KSchel  gives  Salzburg,  bat  the  family  were  then  la  Vienna  after 
their  return  from  Olmutz  and  Brunn.  The  quintet  was  metamor- 
phosed by  Mozart  Into  a  serenade  (361)  In  1780.  The  fine  adagio  No.  3 
was  arranged  in  Vienna  by  an  unknown  hand  as  an  offertorlum,  to  the 
words  '  Qui*  te  comprehendat/  for  4  voices,  organ  and  violin  solo,  2 
violins,  viola,  2  horns,  and  bass.  Farts  published  with  others  by  Dia- 
belli,  In  Eb. 


400 


MOZART. 


independently  when  playing  together,  the  orches- 
tra is  stronger,  and  the  tutti  more  important,  so 
that  its  character,  as  indicated  by  the  title,  is 
rather  that  of  a  symphony. 

Nine  Concertos  remain  to  be  considered: — 
the  one  composed  in  Paris  for  flute  and  harp  is 
brilliant  without  being  difficult  for  the  solo  in- 
struments; the  orchestra  is  discreetly  handled, 
and  the  andantino  accompanied  by  string  quartet 
alone,  graceful  and  tender.  A  concerto  for  bassoon 
(191)  was  composed  in  Salzburg;  two  for  flute 
(313,  314)  in  Mannheim;  four  for  French  horn 
(41 2,  41 7,  447,  495)  at  Vienna,  at  the  house  and 
in  the  presence  of  Leutgeb.  These  last  are  evi- 
dently written  hastily  and  carelessly,  and  are  of 
no  special  significance  ;  the  autograph  is  full  of 
absurd  marginal  notes.  [See  Leutgeb,  p.  126.] 
The  last  concerto,  composed  for  Stadler  (622), 
brings  out  all  the  fine  qualities  of  the  clarinet ; 
Jahn  regards  it  as  the  basis  of  modern  execution. 

The  Serenades,  Nocturnes,  and  Divertimenti  or 
Cassationen,  mostly  with  solo  instruments  concer- 
tante,  consist  generally  of  from  six  to  eight 
movements.  One  of  the  nocturnes  (286)  has 
four  orchestras,  of  two  violins,  viola,  bass,  and 
two  horns  each,  by  means  of  which  a  triple 
echo  is  produced;  a  short  serenade  (239)  has 
only  strings  and  drums.  Another  serenade  for 
wind  instruments  with  cello  and  bass  (361), 
remodelled  in  1 780  from  a  youthful  quintet  (46), 
is  an  important  work.  Of  solid  merit  are  three 
divertimenti  for  string-quintet  and  horns  in  F, 
Bb,  and  C  (247,  287,  334)  ;  the  second  is  well 
known.  They  have  six  movements  each,  and 
are  essentially  in  quartet-style,  in  spite  of  the 
horns.  Though  written  when  he  was  not  much 
above  twenty,  his  mastery  of  this  kind  of  com- 
position is  complete.  Another  divertimento  for 
the  same  instruments  '  Ein  musikalischer  Spass, 
oder  auch  Bauern-Symphonie'  ('a  musical  joke'), 
composed  in  1787,  is  irresistibly  comic. 

The  Tafelmusik,  Nachtmusik,  etc.,  for  wind- 
instruments,  with  from  six  to  eight  movements 
each,  often  present  the  most  extraordinary  com- 
binations, such  as  2  flutes,  5  trumpets,  and 
5  drums  (187,  188),  intended  it  is  true  for 
festal  occasions,  and  2  oboi,  2  bassoons,  and 
2  horns,  in  six  divertimenti  (213,  240,  252, 
253>  a7°»  289)  composed  in  1775  and  1776, 
and  graceful  in  spite  of  their  concise  form. 
Superior  to  these,  and  indeed  to  all  mere  f§te 
music,  are  two  serenades  for  wind  in  Eb  and 
C  minor  (375,  388),  composed  in  Vienna  in  1781 
and  1782  ;  the  latter  also  arranged  by  Mozart  as 
a  quintet  (406).  Of  dance-music  for  full  orchestra 
the  first  published  was  four  contredanses  (267, 
Salzburg,  1776) ;  in  1784  followed  two  quadrilles 
(463)  each  consisting  of  a  minuet  and  an  allegro ; 
and  in  1787  six  German  dances  (509)  and  nine 
contredanses  (510).  The  dances,  written  for  six 
of  the  Redouten-Balls  in  Vienna,  begin  in  Dec. 
1788  with  the  German  dances  (567)  and  twelve 
minuets  (568). 

In  the  Symphonies  we  are  able  to  follow  the 
steps  of  his  progress  most  closely.  He  first 
makes  sure  of  his  materials  and  technique,  then 


MOZART. 

the  separate  parts  acquire  more  freedom  and 
independence,  melody  and  invention  grow,  the 
subjects  gain  in  character,  there  is  more  sub- 
stance in  the  whole,  the  details  are  better  worked 
out ;  the  wind-instruments,  no  longer  used 
merely  to  strengthen  the  strings,  take  their 
own  line  and  materially  assist  in  the  light 
and  shade;  in  a  word,  the  various  component 
parts  of  the  orchestra  become  one  animated 
whole.  Mozart  had  a  great  advantage  over 
Haydn  in  having  heard  and  studied  the  fine 
orchestras  at  Mannheim,  Munich,  and  Paris, 
while  Haydn  was  entirely  restricted  to  his  own. 
Mozart  at  first  learned  from  Haydn,  but  after 
1 785  the  reverse  took  place ;  Haydn's  London 
symphonies  also  show  how  much  his  orches- 
tration gained  in  fullness  and  brilliance  from 
contact  with  the  world.  Mozart's  first  attempts 
in  London  and  the  Hague  are  in  three  move- 
ments; in  those  composed  at  Vienna  in  1767 
and  1768  the  minuet  is  introduced.  His  later 
treatment  of  this  movement  is  distinguished  for 
refinement  and  dignified  cheerfulness,  in  contrast 
to  the  jovial  good-humour  and  banter  which  cha- 
racterise Haydn's  minuets.  Of  twenty  symphonies 
composed  in  Salzburg,  two  are  distinctly  supe- 
rior, that  in  G  minor  (183)  being  serious,  almost 
melancholy,  and  in  some  sense  the  precursor  of 
the  later  one  in  the  same  key,  to  which  the  other 
in  A  (201),  bright,  fresh,  and  sunny,  forms  a 
striking  contrast.  Next  comes  the  lively  Parisian 
or  French  symphony  in  D  (297)  with  three 
movements;  then  three  more  in  Salzburg,  in- 
cluding one  in  G  (318)  in  one  movement,  pro- 
bably intended  as  an  overture  to  a  play.1  With 
the  exception  of  two  in  C  and  G  (425,  444) 
composed  in  Linz,  and  plainly  showing  Haydn's 
influence,  all  the  rest  were  written  in  Vienna. 
In  the  lively  bustling  symphonies  in  D  (385), 
composed  1782,  and  C  (504),  composed  1786,  for 
the  Haflher  family  of  Salzburg,  the  orchestration 
reminds  us  that  they  had  just  been  preceded  by 
'Figaro.'  The  last  three,  in  Eb,  G  minor,  and  C 
with  the  fugue  (Jupiter)  (543, 5  50, 55 1 ),  were  com- 
posed in  1778  between  the  26th  of  June  and  the 
10th  of  August*  just  over  six  weeks !  Ambros2 
says  of  them,  'Considered  as  pure  music,  it  is 
hardly  worth  while  to  ask  whether  the  world 
possesses  anything  more  perfect.'  Jahn  calls  the 
first  a  triumph  of  beauty  in  sound,  the  second 
a  work  of  art  exhausting  its  topic,  and  the  third 
in  more  than  one  respect  the  greatest  and  noblest 
of  Mozart's  symphonies. 

Next  come  the  Vocal  Compositions.  Lieder  he 
only  wrote  casually ;  and  unfortunately  to  very 
insignificant  words.  The  greater  number  are 
in  stanzas,  but  some  few  are  continuously  com- 
posed, such  as  'An  Chloe'  (524),  more  in  the 
Btyle  of  an  Italian  canzonet ;  '  Abendempfind- 
ung'  (523)  fine  both  in  form  and  expression; 
'Ungluckliche  Liebe'  and  'Trennung  und  Wie- 
dervereinigung '  (520,  519)  almost  passionate  ; 
and  ■  Zu  meiner  Zeit '  (517)  in  a  sportive  tone. 

1  Not,  as  often  stated,  Bianchi's  '  Villanella  rapita,'  first  produced 
1111786. 
-  'Grenzen  der  Uusik  und  Foesie,'  p.  123. 


MOZART. 

Of  three  Kinderlieder  (529,  596,  59S)  the  second, 
'Komm'  lieber  Mai,'  still  survives;  nor  will 
the  '  Wiegenlied '  (350)  be  forgotten.  Goethe's 
'Veilchen '  (476)  is  perfection,  and  shows  what 
Mozart  could  have  produced  in  this  direction. 
Many  spurious  Lieder  have  been  published  under 
his  name ;  there  are  38  in  Kochel's  Catalogue 
(Anhang  V.  Nos.  246-283).  The  canons  re- 
quire sifting  ;  even  Byrd'a  '  Non  nobis  Doniine' 
has  been  set  to  German  words,  and  ascribed  to 
him.  Several  are  composed  to  words  in  the 
Viennese  dialect,  and  the  effect  is  quite  neutral- 
ised by  the  modern  drawing-room  text  which  is 
often  substituted.  'Difficile  lectu  mitii  Mars' 
(559)  is  a  comic  canon,  followed  on  the  reverse 
side  of  the  sheet  by  '0  du  eselhafter  xPeyerl' 
(560).  The  double  canon  on  '  Lebet  wohl,  wir 
sehn  uns  wieder '  and  '  Heult  noch  gar  wie  alte 
Weiber,'  written  on  taking  leave  of  Doles  at 
Leipzig,  is  well-known. 

As  we  have  s»en  already,  he  was  frequently 
called  upon  to  write  airs  for  concerts,  and  for 
insertion  in  operas :  many  of  these  still  bear 
repetition;  for  instance,  the  soprano-airs  '  Mi  sera 
dove  son'  (369),  'Non  temer  amato  bene'  with 
P.F.  obligato  (505),  'TJn  moto  di  gioja'  (579), 
'  Bella  mia  fiamma '  (528),  one  of  his  finest  airs ; 
the  tenor  air  'Per  pieta'  (420),  and  the  bass 
airs  'Non  so  d'onde  viene'  (512),  'Mentre  ti 
lascio'  (513),  and  'Per  questa  bella  mano'  with 
double-bass  obligato  (612). 

To  prepare  the  way  for  his  Masses  we  must 
first  consider  his  Church  music  of  various  kinds. 
First  and  foremost  come  the  Litanies  and  Ves- 
pers, each  a  complete  whole  formed  of  several 
independent  parts.  The  chief  characteristic  of 
the  Litania  de  venerabili  is  solemnity,  and  of  the 
Lauretanae  or  Marienlitanei,  tenderness;  and 
these  Mozart  has  succeeded  in  preserving.  [See 
Litany.]  Of  the  latter,  the  first,  in  Bb,  com- 
posed in  1771,  already  shows  fluency  in  part- 
writing,  and  mastery  of  form  and  modulation ; 
but  the  second,  in  D  (195),  composed  in  1774, 
is  far  more  important,  the  voices  being  treated 
contrapuntally  with  independent  orchestra.  We 
have  also  two  litanies  de  venerabili  in  Bb  and 
Eb  (125,  143),  composed  in  1772  and  1776,  the 
lapse  of  time  between  the  two  being  clearly 
marked  in  the  compositions  themselves.  The 
fine  choruses  in  Nos.  3  and  5  of  the  latter,  point 
to  the  Requiem,  and  like  the  fugue  'Pignus 
futurae '  almost  startle  by  their  power,  as  does 
also  the  opening  of  the  '  Panis  vivus,'  identical 
with  the  'Tuba  mirum'  in  the  Requiem.  A 
still  stronger  sense  of  the  dignity  of  church  music 
is  shown  in  two  vespers  in  C  (321,  339)  com- 
posed in  1779  and  1780,  the  greater  part  of  both 
thoroughly  deserving  a  place  among  his  most 
important  works.  The  '  Confitebor'  in  the  first, 
and  '  Laudate  pueri '  and  '  Laudate  Dominum ' 
in  the  latter,  are  real  gems.  The  motet  '  Miseri- 
cordias  Domine'  (222),  an  exercise  for  Padre 
Martini,  who  gave  him  a  brilliant  testimonial 
for  it  in  1 775,  is  in  strict  counterpoint  throughout. 
In  1 776  he  composed  a  '  Venite  populi'  for  double 

>  Iieferring  to  the  defective  utterance  or  Peyerl,  toe  tenor. 
VOL.  II.  FT.  IO. 


MOZART. 


401 


chorus;  the  parts  are  in  imitation,  strict  or 
free,  and  the  whole  work  teems  with  force  and 
freshness.  A  list  of  innumerable  small  pieces  of 
church  music  closes  with  the  angelic  motet '  Ave 
verum'  (618),  composed  on  the  18th  of  June, 
1 79 1,  at  Baden,  near  Vienna. 

His  first  Masses  (49,  65,  66),  written  while  he 
was  still  a  mere  boy,  show  how  thoroughly  he 
had  mastered  the  forms  then  in  use  for  that 
style  of  music.  We  pass  at  once  to  the  6th 
2  Mass,  in  F  (192),  the  whole  of  which  is  in 
counterpoint,  with  only  two  violins,  bass,  and 
organ  as  accompaniment.  This  mass,  in  which 
the  master-hand  is  clearly  discernible,  recalls  the 
finest  models  of  the  old  Neapolitan  school,  and 
justly  ranks  next  to  the  Requiem ;  the  Credo  is 
based  throughout  on  the  subject  so  well-known  in 
the  finale  to  the  Jupiter  Symphony.  The  next,  3in 
D  (194),  is  also  next  in  order  of  merit ;  it  has  per- 
haps more  grace,  but  less  earnestness  and  ideality. 
These  two  masses  show  what  he  was  capable  of 
in  church  music  when  unfettered ;  but  in  the 
4five  which  followed  (220,  257-259,  262)  he  was 
forced  to  suit  his  patron's  taste  by  aiming  at 
display,  and  the  result  is  less  fortunate.  Un- 
happily these  being  his  best-known  masses,  are 
generally  taken  as  his  standard  church  works. 
Hardly  more  important  are  the  next  'three  (275, 
317,  337),  although  Mozart  himself  seems  to 
have  had  a  preference  for  the  first,  in  Bb,  since 
he  chose  it  to  conduct  himself  in  1 791.  The 
second,  in  C,  composed  in  1779,  is  called  the 
'  Coronation -mass,'  why,  nobody  knows;  the 
third,  also  in  C,  was  composed  in  1780,  and  all 
three  fulfil  the  conventional  requirements,  but 
seldom  show  a  glimpse  of  the  true  Mozart,  and 
then  only  in  court  uniform.  We  have  already 
mentioned  the  last  mass,  in  C  minor  (427), 
and  the  circumstances  under  which  it  was 
written.  It  is  broadly  designed,  each  section 
being  treated  as  a  separate  movement,  and  the 
whole  bears  clear  traces  of  his  studies  at  the 
time  (1 783)  with  van  Swieten.  It  is  to  be  re- 
gretted that  it  was  never  finished ;  the  Kyrie, 
Gloria,  Sanctus  and  Benedictus  alone  are  com- 
plete ;  the  Credo  is  only  half  done.  Very  re- 
markable are  the  inequality  of  the  different 
movements,  the  large  dimensions  of  the  choruses 
and  fugues,  and  the  bravura  style  of  the  solos. 
The  Kyrie,  Gloria,  and  Sanctus  are  excellent, 
the  five -part  Gratias,  and  the  eight -part  Qui 
tollis,  of  incomparable  beauty. 

We  now  come  to  the  Requiem,  that  work  of 
pain,  which  he  was  not  permitted  to  finish.  The 
following  pieces  are  in  his  own  handwriting : — 
(1)  Requiem  and  Kyrie,  complete;  (2)  voice- 
parts,  organ,  and  notes  of  the  accompaniment 
of  Nos.  2  to  9,  as  follows — '  Dies  irae,  68  bars ; 
Tuba  mirum,  62;  Rex  tremendae,  22  ;  Recordare, 
130;    Confutatis,  40;    Lacrymosa,  8;  Domine, 

»  Mozart's  Masses,  arranged  by  V.  Novello,  No.  S. 

i  Novello,  No.  6. 

4  The  second,  In  Bb  (257 ;  Novello  2),  Is  called  the  'Credo  Mass.* 
from  the  peculiar  treatment  of  the  Credo.  It  to  printed  In  a  very 
mutilated  form ;  even  the  characteristic  subject  In  the  Credo  Itself 
being  left  out  whenever  possible.  The  much-used  subject  from  the 
Jupiter  Symphony  is  introduced  again  in  the  Sanctus. 

•  Novello  10. 1, 14. 

Dd 


402 


MOZART. 


78  ;  Hostias,  54  :  the  last  eight  bars,  containing 
voice-parts,  organ,  and  first-violin,  go  to  the 
words  '  Fac  eas  Domine  de  morte  transire  ad 
vitam,'  followed  by  the  direction  '  Quam  olim 
Da  Capo,'  that  is  to  say,  repeat  the  last  35  bars 
of  the  Domine.  His  widow,  in  her  anxiety  to 
have  the  score  completed,  and  thus  satisfy  the 
person  who  had  ordered  it,  first  applied  to  Eybler, 
but  after  a  few  attempts  he  threw  up  the  task, 
and  she  then  entrusted  it  to  Siissmayer,  who 
not  only  had  more  courage,  but  was  able  to 
imitate  Mozart's  hand.  He  copied  what  Mozart 
had  sketched  in,  filled  up  the  gaps,  wrote  a 
Sanctus,  Benedictus,  and  Agnus  Dei,  of  his  own, 
and,  to  give  unity  to  the  work,  wound  it  up  by 
repeating  the  fugue  of  the  Kyrie  to  the  words 
•  Cum  Sanctis  tuis.'  The  score  thus  completed 
was  handed  to  the  messenger,  who  afterwards 
proved  to  have  been  Leutgeb,  steward  to  Count 
Franz  von  Walsegg,  of  Ruppach.  The  Count, 
who  had  lost  his  wife  Anna  Edlen  von  Flamm- 
berg,  on  Feb.  14,  1791,  and  wished  to  perform 
a  Requiem  to  her  memory,  copied  out  the 
score,  inscribed  it  '  Requiem  composto  dal  Conte 
Walsegg,'  and  absolutely  had  it  performed  as 
his  own  on  Dec.  14,  1793.  After  wanderings 
almost  as  complicated  as  those  of  Ulysses,  the 
various  portions,  in  the  original  handwriting, 
were  at  length  safely  landed  in  the  Hof  bibliothek 
of  Vienna.  They  consist  of — (1)  the  autograph 
J  Requiem  and  Kyrie,  with  the  remainder  com- 
plete in  Sussmayer's  hand,  bought  by  the  Hof- 
bibliothek  in  1839  for  fifty  ducats;  (2)  Nos.  2 
to  9  just  as  they  were  left  by  Mozart;  (3)  twelve 
sheets  presented  by  the  Abbe"  Stadler,  and  (4) 
thirteen  bequeathed  by  Eybler  in  1846.  The 
discovery  of  the  autograph  was  the  most  con- 
clusive reply  to  Gottfried  Weber,  who,  as  is 
well-known,  disputed  for  years  the  authenticity 
of  the  Requiem.  It  has  been  analysed  with 
becoming  love  and  reverence  by  2  Holmes,  and 
by  Jahn  in  his  second  volume.  The  latter  con- 
cludes his  observations  thus — '  It  is  the  true  and 
legitimate  expression  of  his  artistic  nature  at 
its  highest  point  of  finish — his  imperishable 
8  monument.'  An  admirable  summary  of  the 
whole  story  will  be  found  in  '  Mozart's  Requiem, 
by  W.  Pole,  F.R.S.,  Mus.  Doc.'  j  London,  No- 
vello,  1879. 

We  have  seen  Mozart,  when  a  mere  boy,  turn- 
ing from  childish  play  to  serious  occupations :  a 

'  The  heading  'Requiem  di  me,  W.  A,  Mozart  mp  792'  la  touching, 
as  showing  how  he  looked  forward  to  Its  completion. 

'  A  Critical  Essay,  etc. 

3  This,  Mozart's  last  work,  was  the  first  of  his  vocal  works  (Including 
his  operas)  to  be  performed  in  England.  John  Ashley  Introduced  it  at 
Covent  Garden  Theatre  on  the  first  oratorio  evening  during  tent, 
Feb.  20, 1801.  The  piece  which  preceded  it  was  a  Dead  March  with 
cornl  di  bassetto,  double  bassoons,  and  two  pair  of  double  drums ; 
after  it  came  a  F.F.  concerto  played  by  John  Field,  and  Handel's 
'  V Allegro  ed  11  Fensieroso.'  Books  of  the  words,  with  a  translation 
of  the  Requiem  and  a  biographical  sketch  of  Mozart,  were  sold  at  6<J. 
each.  Of  the  Requiem  Farke  says,  '  It  is  a  composition  of  Infinite 
science  and  dulness,  from  the  effects  of  which  the  audience  was  hap- 
pily relieved  by  Incledon's  song  In  L'Allegro,  "  Haste  thee  Nymph." ' 
The  Morning  Fost  said, '  The  talents  which  have  celebrated  the  name 
of  Mozart  can  scarcely  be  Justly  appreciated  by  such  a  composition  as 
the  Requiem ';  and  wound  up  with, '  It  is  upon  the  whole  a  composi- 
tion which  could  only  have  come  from  the  hand  of  a  master.  From 
the  performers  It  received  ample  Justice.'  According  to  the  Porcu- 
pine '  the  performance  was  far  from  being  well-  managed.'  It  was 
repeated  on  March  4.    (Pool, '  Mozart  In  London,'  p.  144.) 


MOZART. 

striking  instance  of  this  is  his  '  Grabmusik  *  or 
German  cantata  (42)  written  in  1767,  which 
is  anything  but  a  boyish  composition.  About 
five  years  later  he  wrote,  apparently  in  conse- 
quence of  his  visit  to  Padua,  an  oratorio  by 
Metastasio  called  'Betulia  liberata'  (118),  corre- 
sponding to  an  opera  seria  of  the  period.  The 
refrain  in  the  last  number  but  one,  alternately 
sung  by  solo  and  chorus,  is  an  ancient  canto- 
fermo  harmonised  in  four  parts,  in  fact  the 
same  which  is  introduced  in  the  Requiem  to  the 
words  '  Te  decet  hymnus.'  This  is  the  only  in- 
dependent work  of  the  kind,  his  other  cantata 
'  Davidde  penitente '  (469)  being  made  up  from 
the  Kyrie  and  Gloria  of  his  last  unfinished  mass 
(42  7)  set  to  Italian  words,  with  two  interpolated 
airs  in  concert  style,  which  serve  to  render  more 
prominent  the  inherent  want  of  unity  and  con- 
gruity  in  the  piece. 

Of  smaller  cantatas,  the  two  (471,  623)  for  the 
Freemason's  Lodge  are  the  only%pecimens.  Both 
show  much  earnestness  and  depth  of  feeling ;  the 
first,  for  tenor  solo  and  chorus,  was  composed 
in  1785  ;  the  latter,  consisting  of  six  numbers, 
written  on  Nov.  15, 1 791,  he  conducted  in  person 
only  two  days  before  his  last  illness. 

The  long  list  of  Mozart's  dramatic  composi- 
tions is  headed  by  a  sacred  Singspiel,  '  Die 
Schuldigkeit  des  ersten  Gebotes,'  in  three  parts, 
the  first  being  composed  by  him  in  Salzburg 
during  the  winter  of  1766-67,  and  the  others 
added  by  Michael  Haydn  and  Adlgasser,  the 
court  organist.  Mozart's  work  occupies  208 
pages,  and  is  in  the  style  of  the  Italian  ora- 
torios of  the  period,  the  forms  being  handled 
with  perfect  certainty.  Mingled  with  the  boy's 
unsteady  writing  there  are  occasional  passages, 
mostly  florid,  in  his  father's  hand,  and  the 
words  to  the  recitatives  are  by  a  third  per- 
son. The  third  tenor  air  is  interesting,  and 
Mozart  himself  evidently  thought  it  good,  as 
he  introduced  it  with  slight  variations  into 
his  first  opera.  Immediately  afterwards  fol- 
lowed a  Latin  comedy  'Apollo  et  Hyacinthus,' 
which,  in  spite  of  the  restraint  of  a  foreign  lan- 
guage, was  eo  far  a  success  that  it  was  per- 
formed once.  In  Vienna  in  1 768  he  composed 
a  German  operetta  or  pastorale  in  one  act, 
'  Bastien  et  Bastienne,'  and  an  opera  buffa  in 
three  acts,  'La  finta  Semplice.'  According  to 
Jahn  these  rise  above  the  ordinary  level  of 
contemporary  comic  operas  in  spite  of  their 
wretched  librettos ;  and  he  remarks  that  in  these 
early  dramatic  works  Mozart  fixes  the  two 
opposite  poles  which  he  touched  in  his  artistic 
career.  The  chief  number  in  the  '  Finta  Sem- 
plice '  is  the  tenor  air  No.  7,  previously  men- 
tioned. The  three  operas  composed  and  per- 
formed in  Milan,  *  Mitridate,'  ■  Ascanio  in 
Alba,'  and  'Lucio  Silla,'  each  mark  a  step  in 
advance.  They  succeeded  beyond  the  expecta- 
tions of  himself  and  his  father;  as  did  also 
'La  finta  Giardiniera,'  produced  in  Munich, 
Jan.  1775,  when  he  wrote  home,  'Everything 
has  gone  off  so  well,  the  noise  was  greater  than 
I  can  describe  to  Mama.'    The  German  opera 


MOZART. 

*  Zaide,'  in  which  he  made  use  of  the  melodrama 
by  Benda  which  he  admired  so  much,  has  nei- 
ther overture  nor  finale,  and  once  set  aside,  its 
subject  is  too  much  like  that  of  the  'Entfuhr- 
ung'1 to  allow  of  its  being  again  performed. 
To  this  period  also  belongs  the  heroic  drama 
'  Thamos,  Kbnig  von  Egypten,'  consisting  of  three 
choruses  and  four  instrumental  pieces.  The 
choruses,  like  those  of  Racine's  '  Athalie,'  were 
intended  to  add  dignity  to  the  action,  and  as 
choruses  were  at  that  time  his  'most  favourite 
composition,'  he  worked  at  them  with  great 
satisfaction.  They  are  on  a  far  grander  scale, 
especially  as  regards  the  orchestral  accompani- 
ments, than  those  of  his  masses  of  the  same 
period.  Unfortunately  the  play  had  been  given 
up  in  Vienna,  and  he  much  regretted  not  being 
able  to  use  his  music.  The  choruses  were  pub- 
lished with  Latin  words — '  Splendente  te,'  '  Ne 
pulvis,'  '  Deus  tibi ' — in  which  form  they  are  well 
known  in  England.2  With  *  Idomeneo'  he  started 
on  a  fresh  career,  for  which  all  his  previous  works 
had  been  merely  preparatory.  Oulibicheff  de- 
clares that  in  it  three  styles  may  be  easily  dis- 
tinguished, the  first  in  which  he  is  still  fettered 
by  the  formalism  of  opera  seria,  the  second  in 
which  he  strives  to  imitate  Gluck  and  French 
opera,  and  the  third  in  which  his  own  artist 
nature  developes  itself  freely.  Jahn  says,  'In 
Idomeneo  we  have  the  genuine  Italian  opera 
seria  brought  to  its  utmost  perfection  by  Mozart's 
highly  cultivated  individuality.'  He  put  his 
best  work  into  the  parts  of  Ilia  and  Electra, 
which  most  struck  his  fancy.  The  choruses  form 
a  prominent  feature,  especially  those  which  so 
much  enhance  the  beauty  of  the  second  Finale. 
The  handling  of  the  orchestra  is  still  admirable 
and  worthy  of  study.  In  fact,  this  opera  is 
the  work  of  one  who,  though  in  the  prime  of 
manhood,  has  not  lost  the  vigour  and  freshness 
of  youth.  Mozart  was  very  anxious  to  have 
it  performed  in  Vienna,  when  he  intended  to 
rearrange  it  more  after  the  French  model ;  but 
we  have  seen  that  he  had  to  be  content  with  a 
private  performance  by  distinguished  amateurs, 
for  which  he  made  several  alterations,  and  com- 
posed a  duet  for  two  soprani  (489),  and  a  scena 
with  rondo  for  soprano  and  violin  solo  (490). 

In  the  '  Entfuhrung '  it  is  interesting  to  ob- 
serve the  alterations  in  Bretzner's  libretto  which 
Mozart's  practical  acquaintance  with  the  stage 
has  dictated,  to  the  author's  great  disgust.3 
Indeed  Osmin,  one  of  the  most  original  cha- 
racters, is  entirely  his  own  creation  at  Fischer's 
suggestion.  Jahn  quotes  Weber's  *  excellent 
remark  on  this  opera — '  Here  I  seem  to  see  what 
the  bright  years  of  youth  are  to  every  man,  a  time 
of  blossom  and  exuberance  which  he  can  never 

1  Andre  added  an  overture  and  finale,  and  a  new  libretto  was 
written  by  Gollmlck.  A  performance  in  Frankfort,  Jan.  27.  l-0>, 
1$  only  of  historical  interest.  Mozart's  unfinished  '  L  Oca  del  Cairo ' 
(1783),  completed  from  others  of  his  works,  was  performed  In  1'aris 
(Theatre  des  Fantaisles-rarLsieni.es,  June  6,  1867)  under  the  title 
'  L'ole  du  Cains' ;  In  Vienna  in  March,  1868,  at  the  Carltheater,  and 
at  Drury  Lane,  May  12, 1870. 

J  Von  Vlucke  wrote  a  connecting  poem  for  concert  use.  They  were 
afterwards  translated  Into  German. 

a  Berliner  Litt.  nnd  Theater-Zeitung,  1783,  il.  398. 

<  C.  M.  yon  Weber,  Bin  Lebensbild,  ill.  191. 


MOZART. 


403 


hope  to  read  again.  As  time  goes  on  defects 
are  eradicated,  but  with  them  many  a  charm  is 
rooted  up  also.  I  venture  to  affirm  that  in  the 
Entfuhrung  Mozart  had  reached  the  full  maturity 
of  his  powers  as  an  artist,  and  that  his  further 
progress  after  that  was  only  in  knowledge  of 
the  world.  Of  such  operas  as  Figaro  and  Don 
Juan  we  might  have  had  many  more ;  but 
with  all  the  good  will  in  the  world  he  could 
never  have  written  another  Entfuhrung.' 

In  'Figaro'  we  admire  'the  spontaneous  growth 
of  the  whole  organism,  the  psychological  truth 
and  depth  of  sentiment,  which  make  the  cha- 
racters so  life-like,  and  resulting  from  these 
the  striking  harmony  in  the  use  of  means  and 
forms,  and  the  mixture  of  dignity  and  grace,  all 
founded  on  something  higher  than  mere  sensu- 
ous beauty.'  In  it '  we  feel  the  throbbing  of  our 
own  life-blood,  recognise  the  language  of  our 
own  hearts,  and  are  captivated  by  the  irresistible 
charm  of  unfading  beauty — it  is  Art,  genuine, 
immortal,  making  us  free  and  happy.' 

'Don  Giovanni,'  inferior  perhaps  to  'Figaro' 
as  regards  artistic  treatment,  has  one  manifest 
superiority;  all  the  moods  and  situations  are 
essentially  musical.  There  is  scarcely  a  feeling 
known  to  humanity  which  is  not  expressed  in 
some  one  of  the  situations  or  characters,  male  or 
female.  '  Cosl  fan  tutte,'  taken  either  as  a  whole 
or  in  detail,  is  unquestionably  a  falling  off  from 
the  two  previous  operas,  and  yet  even  here  in 
detached  pieces,  especially  in  the  chief  r61es,  many 
brilliant  touches  show  the  master-hand.  Even 
this  opera,  therefore,  we  can  in  some  respects 
consider  an  enlargement  of  his  boundaries.  'Titus' 
(Clemenza  di  Tito)  carries  us  back  to  the  old  opera 
seria.  'Cosi  fan  tutte '  had  recalled  the  old  opera 
buffa,  and  Metastasio's  libretto,  written  in  1734, 
required  considerable  modifications  to  suit  the 
taste  of  the  day;  the  most  important  being  the 
introduction  of  ensembles  wherever  the  situations 
allowed,  and  the  curtailment  of  the  original 
three  acts  to  two.  Nothing  however  availed  to 
make  the  plot  or  characters  interesting ;  through- 
out it  was  evident  that  the  characteristics  which 
had  most  attracted  in  Metastasio's  day,  were 
now  only  so  many  obstacles  and  hindrances  to 
the  composer.  Moreover  two  of  the  singers, 
imported  purposely  from  Italy,  demanded  spe- 
cial opportunities  for  display;  Mozart  was  ill, 
had  the  '  Zauberflote '  in  his  head,  and  was  deep 
in  the  'Requiem' — a  combination  of  unfavour- 
able circumstances,  sufficient  of  itself  to  preclude 
success.  '  Making  due  allowance  for  these  facts,' 
writes  5Rochlitz, '  Mozart  found  himself  compelled 
to  take  one  of  two  courses,  either  to  furnish  a 
work  of  entire  mediocrity,  or  one  in  which  the 
principal  movements  should  be  very  good,  and 
the  less  interesting  ones  treated  lightly  and  in 
accordance  with  popular  taste ;  he  wisely  chose 
the  latter  alternative.' 

We  now  come  to  the  'Zauberflote,'  which 
made  an  impression  on  the  public  such  as  no 
work  of  art  had  ever  produced  before.  The 
libretto  is  so  extraordinary  that  it  is  necessary 

.    «  Allg.  Mus.  Zeitung.  1. 154. 

Dd2 


404 


MOZART. 


MOZART. 


to  explain  its  origin.  Schikaneder,  at  his  little 
theatre  in  the  Wieden  suburb,  had  produced 
with  great  success  a  romantic  comic  opera  after 
Wieland,  '  Oberon,  Konig  der  Elfen,'  set  by 
Paul  Wranitzky.  Encouraged  by  this  success  he 
had  a  second  libretto  constructed  upon  a  fairy- 
tale, 'Lulu,  oder  die  Zauberflote,'  from  Wi eland's 
*  Dschinnistan.'  Just  as  it  was  ready  he  found 
that  the  same  subject  had  been  adapted  by  an 
actor  named  Perinet  for  the  theatre  in  the  Leo- 
poldstadt  of  Vienna,  under  the  title  '  Kaspar 
der  Fagottist,  oder  die  Zauberzither,'  with  music 
by  Wenzl  Miiller.  He  therefore  remodelled  his 
materials,  introduced  sympathetic  allusions  to 
the  Freemasons,  who  were  just  then  being  hardly 
treated  by  the  government,  added  the  parts  of 
Papageno  and  Papagena,  and  laid  claim  to  the 
entire  authorship.  Such  was  the  origin  of  this 
patchwork  libretto,  which,  with  all  its  contra- 
dictions, improbabilities,  and  even  vulgarity,  is 
undeniably  adapted  for  the  stage.  Schikaneder 
knew  how  to  gain  the  attention  of  an  audience 
by  accumulating  and  varying  his  stage  effects. 
In  proof  of  this  we  have  not  only  the  long  run 
of  the  opera  itself,  but  the  testimony  of  '  Goethe, 
who,  while  acknowledging  that  it  was  full  of 
indefensible  improbabilities,  added,  'in  spite  of 
all,  however,  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  the 
author  had  the  most  perfect  knowledge  of  the 
art  of  contrast,  and  a  wonderful  knack  of  intro- 
ducing stage  effects.'  It  is  well  known  that 
Goethe  contemplated  a  continuation  of  the  li- 
bretto, and  entered  into  an  agreement  with 
Wranitzky  on  the  subject  in  1 796.*  Beethoven s 
declared  it  to  be  Mozart's  greatest  work — that 
in  which  he  showed  himself  for  the  first  time  a 
truly  German  composer,  and  Schindler 4  adds  that 
his  reason  for  estimating  it  so  highly  was,  that 
in  it  were  to  be  found  specimens  of  nearly  every 
species  of  music  from  the  lied  to  the  chorale 
and  fugue.  Jahn  (ii.  533)  thus  concludes  his 
critique :  '  The  Zauberflote  has  a  special  and 
most  important  position  among  Mozart's  operas ; 
the  whole  musical  conception  is  pure  Ger- 
man ;  and  here  for  the  first  time  German  opera 
makes  free  and  skilful  use  of  all  the  elements  of 
finished  art.  If  in  his  Italian  operas  he  assimi- 
lated the  traditions  of  a  long  period  of  develop- 
ment, and  in  some  sense  put  the  finishing  stroke 
to  it,  with  the  Zauberflote  Mozart  treads  on 
the  threshold  of  the  future,  and  unlocks  for  his 
countrymen  the  sacred  treasure  of  natural  art.' 

We  append  a  list  of  Mozart's  operas,  in  the 
order  in  which  they  were  first  performed  in 
London.* 


'La  Clemenza  dl  Tito,*  1808. 
March  27,  King's  Theatre ;  fur  Mrs. 
Bllltngton's  benefit,  'ably  sup- 
ported by  Mr.  Braham.'  (1812, 
March  3,  Catalanl  appeared  as 
vitellia,  and  Stg.  Tramezzanl  as 
Sextus.) 

•Cosi  fan  tutte.'  1811,  May  9, 
King's  Theatre ;  for  the  benefit  of 
Mme.  Bertlnottl  Badlcatl. 


'  II  Flauto  magi co, '  1811,  Jane  6 ; 
King's  Theatre ;  Signor  Xaldl'i 
benefit. 

'Le  Nozze  dl  Figaro,'  1812, 
June  18,  King's  Theatre ;  In  aid  of 
the  funds  of  the  Scottish  Hospital. 
Among  the  performers  were  Cata- 
lanl, Mrs.  Dickons,  Sig.  Naldl,  and 
Fischer.  It  was  a  decided  success, 
further  Increased  on  Its  revival  In 


'  Eckenhann's  '  Gesprlche  mlt  Goethe,'  iii.  17. 
»  Orpheus,  Mus.  Taschenbuch,  1841.  p.  252. 
»  Sejfrled,  Beethoven's  Studien,  Anhang,  p.  31. 
«  Biographle,  H.  164,  322. 
•  Fohl,  '  Mozart  In  London,'  pp.  145-151. 


1817  (Feb.  1)  under  Ayrton,  with  a  lated.  Performed  In  Italian  at 
powerful  cast.  j  Her  Majesty's  June  30, 1866. 

'  Don  Giovanni,'  1817,  April  12,  '  Der  Schauspieldlrector,'  1861 ; 
King's  Theatre.  Extraordinary  music  given  at  Crystal  Falaca 
success.  (summer  concert.  In  Italian.    Also 

'  The  Seraglio '  (Entfilhrung  aus  in  English  (Sept  18,  1877)  In  the 
dem  Serail '),  1827.  Nov.  24,  Covent !  Crystal  Palace  Theatre  as  '  The 
Garden.  Music  and  libretto  mutl- 1  Manager.' 

Mozart's  likeness  has  been  preserved  in  every 
form  and  variety  of  portrait ;  only  a  few  need 
be  specified,  (i)  The  earliest,  an  oil-painting  to 
the  knee,  taken  in  Vienna  in  1762,  represents 
him  in  the  Archduke  Maximilian's  gold-laced 
court  suit,  given  him  by  the  Empress.  (2)  In  the 
small  family  picture,  painted  by  Carmontelle  in 
Paris  in  1763,  Mozart  is  sitting  at  the  harpsi- 
chord, with  his  sister  by  his  side,  and  his  father 
standing  behind  him  playing  the  violin.  This 
drawing  is  now  in  the  possession  of  Mrs.  Baring 
of  London.  It  was  engraved  by  Delafosse,  and 
was  reproduced  in  coloured  facsimile  by  Gou- 
pil's  Photogravure  process  for  Colnaghi  &  Co., 
London,  in  1879.  (3)  In  the  Museum  of  Versailles 
is  a  small  oil-painting  of  the  same  date,  crowded 
with  figures,  representing  Mozart  sitting  at  the 
harpsichord  in  the  Prince  de  Conti's  saloon. 
As  has  been  mentioned,  his  picture  was  taken 
in  1770,  both  in  Verona  and  Rome.  (4)  In 
the  first  he  is  seated  at  the  harpsichord  in  a 
crimson  and  gold  court  suit,  with  a  diamond 
ring  on  the  little  finger  of  his  right  hand.  Above 
the  key-board  is  '  Joanni  Celestini  Veneti, 
mdlxxxiii,'  and  on  the  open  music-book  may  be 
clearly  deciphered  what  was  apparently  a  favour- 
ite piece  of  the  period.  This  picture,  a  half- 
length,  is  now  in  the  possession  of  the  heirs  of 
Leopold  von  Sonnleithner,  through  whom  it  was 
discovered.  The  head  is  given  in  the  frontis- 
piece of  Jahn's  1st  vol.  (5)  In  Pompeo  Bat- 
toni's  portrait,  taken  in  Rome — now  in  the  pos- 
session of  John  Ella,  Esq.,  of  London — the  right 
hand  holds  a  roll  of  music ;  the  countenance  is 
full  of  life,  but  highly  idealised;  an  engraving 
by  Adlard  is  given  in  the  Record  of  the  Mu- 
sical Union  for  1S65  ;  in  Mr.  Ella's  'Musical 
Sketches,'  vol.  i,  and  in  the  second  edition  of 
Nohl's  '  Mozartbriefe.'  (6)  Delia  Croce  painted 
a  large  picture  of  the  family  in  1780:  Mozart 
and  his  sister  are  at  the  piano  playing  a  duet ; 
the  father  with  his  violin  stands  at  the  side, 
and  the  mother's  portrait  hangs  on  the  wall.  A 
large  steel-engraving  from  it  by  Blasius  Hofel 
id  published  at  Salzburg.  The  half-lengths 
of  Mozart  and  his  father  in  Jahn's  1st  vol. 
(p.  1  and  564)  are  from  this  picture.  (7)  A 
half-length  profile  carved  in  box-wood  by  Poscb 
(1781),  and  now  in  the  Mozarteum  at  Salzburg, 
was  engraved  by  J.  G.  Mansfeld,  and  pub- 
lished by  Artaria,  with  the  inscription  '  Dignum 
laude  virum  Musa  vetat  mori.'  This,  the  univer- 
sally accepted  portrait,  is  out  of  print,  and  Kohl's 
engraved  copy  (1793)  by  no  means  comes  upto- 
the  original.  (8)  During  his  short  stay  at  Dres- 
den in  1 789,  Dora  Stock,  the  talented  sister-in-law 
of  Korner  and  friend  of  Schiller,  drew  him  in 
her  own  refined  and  spirited  style.  The  likeness 
is  caught  with  the  tenderness  peculiar  to  & 
woman  s  hand ;    the  outlines  are  correct,  and 


MOZART. 

the  thoughtful  expression  of  the  eye  rivets  the 
beholder ;  the  luxuriant  silky  hair,  of  which  he 
was  proud,  is  more  truthfully  rendered  than 
in  any  of  his  portraits ;  and  even  the  small  sta- 
ture is  sufficiently  indicated.  Hofcapellmeister 
Eckert  of  Berlin  (died  Oct.  14,  1879),  possessed 
the  original,  of  which  we  have  here  attempted 
an  engraving. 


MOZART. 


405 


(9)  Lange,  Mozart's  brother-in-law,  drew  him 
Bitting  at  the  piano  absorbed  in  improvisa- 
tion. The  picture,  complete  only  to  the  waist, 
was  pronounced  by  his  son  Karl  to  be  very  like. 
It  is  now  in  the  Mozarteum  at  Salzburg ;  and  a 
lithograph  from  it  by  Ed.  Lehmann  was  pub- 
lished at  Copenhagen.  (10)  The  last  of  his 
portraits  is  a  life-size  half-length  painted  at 
Mayence  in  1790  by  Tischbein,  given  in  Jahn 
(ii.  456)  ;  there  is  more  intellect  and  refinement 
in  it  than  in  that  by  Posch,  which,  however,  is 
more  like. 

The  Mozart  literature  is  copious;  but  it  has 
been  ably  summarised  by  Jahn  in  his  '  W.  A. 
Mozart'  (1st  ed.  4  vols,  1856-9  ;  2nd  ed.  2  vols. 
1862,  Breitkopf  &  Hartel).  In  the  preface  he 
expressly  describes  his  method  of  procedure,  and 
the  use  he  has  made  of  all  the  printed  matter 
in  existence,  assigning  to  each  work  its  relative 
value  and  importance.  Here  we  find  Schlich- 
tegroll,  Niemetschek,  Rochlitz,  Arnold,  Schlosser, 
G.  N.  von  Nissen,  Holmes,  Oulibicheff,  Gottfried 
Weber,  Andre,  Lorenz,  Fuchs,  Nohl,  Marx, 
and  others.  Breitkopf  &  Hartel  also  pub- 
lished in  1878  a  second  edition  of  'Mozart's 
Briefe.'  Conjointly  with  Jahn's  second  edition 
should  be  used  Dr.  von  Kochel's  ■  Chronologisch 
thematisches  Verzeichniss  sammtlicher  Ton- 
werke  W.  A.  Mozarts'  (Breitkopf  &  Hartel, 
1862).  As  will  be  evident  to  the  reader,  the 
present  article  is  founded  on  the  above  two  ex- 
cellent works,  the  substance  of  which,  in  a  com- 


pressed form,  is  now  presented  for  the  first  time 
to  the  English  public. 

Comparatively  few  of  Mozart's  compositions 
were  published  in  his  lifetime  ;  the  greater  part 
being  circulated,  with  or  without  his  acquiescence, 
in  MS.  His  publishers  in  Vienna  were  Artaria, 
Toricella,  and  Hoffmeister.  Breitkopf  &  Hartel 
published  the  first  comprehensive  edition  in 
1800,  and  the  12  vols,  of  '  CEuvres  complets'  were 
long  and  widely  known.  The  same  enterprising 
firm  issued  the  first  scores  of  his  Symphonies, 
Requiem,  and  other  works.  Steiner  of  Vienna 
followed  in  1820  with  an  engraved  edition  of  his 
collected  works  in  30  parts.  Numerous  'com- 
plete' collections  of  his  P.F.  works,  quartets, 
quintets,  etc.,  came  out  afterwards.  Breitkopf 
&  Hartel  next  issued  his  last  great  operas  in 
score,  revised  from  the  autographs,  preparatory  as 
it  were  to  their  '  Ersten  kritisch  durchgesehenen 
Gesammtausgabe '  of  his  works,  begun  in  1876 
and  now  considerably  advanced.  Von  Kbchel 
with  great  liberality  provided  a  special  fund  to 
start  this  work — the  finest  possible  monument  to 
Mozart,  and  at  the  same  time  an  honourable 
memorial  of  his  most  worthy  admirer. 


Classified  List  of  Mozart's  works ;  from  the 
Catalogue  of  Breitkopf  &  Hartel's  'Erste 
kritisch  durchgesehene  Gesammtausgabe.' 

1.    VOCAL. 

Series  1.    15  Masses.  iPastore,'  dramatic  Cantata,  2  acts. 

Series  2.  4  Litanies,  2  Vespers,  '  Zalde,'  German  opera,  2  acts. 
1  Dixit  and  Magnificat.  | '  Thamos,  KSnlg  In  Aegypten,'  he- 

Series  3.  4  Kyries,  1  Madrigal,  roisches  Drama  ;  Choruses  and 
1  Venl  Sancte,  1  Miserere,  1  Antl-  Entr'actes.  '  Idomeneo,  Ke  <J! 
phon,  3  Eegina  ccsli,  1  Te  Deum,  Creta,  ossia.  Ilia  et  Adamante,' 
2 Tantura  ergo, 2 German  Kirchen- ;  opera  serla  in  3  acts.  Ballet-music 
Heder,90ffertolres,lDeprofundls,;to  'Idomeneo.'  'Die  Entfilhrung 
1  Air  for  soprano,  1  Motet  for  ditto,  jaus  dem  Serall,'  komisches  Slng- 

1  Motet  for  4  voices.  1  Graduate,  I  spiel,  3  acts.     '  Der  Schauspie) 

2  Hymns.  |  director,'  comedy  with  music,  1 
Series  4.      1  Passions  -cantate  act.    '  Le  Nozze  di  Figaro.'  opera 

(Grabmuslk);  "La  Betulia  llberata,'  I  buft*a,  4  acts.  '  II  Dissoluto  punlto. 
oratorio; '  Davidde  penltente,'  can-  j  ossia,  II  Don  Giovanni/opera  buffa, 
tata ;  'Die  Maurerfreude,'  short , 2 acts.  ' Cos!  fan tutte ' (' Weiber- 
cantata  for  tenor  with  final  chorus; 'treue'),  opera  bulla,  2  acts.  'La 
'  Eine  kletne  Freimaurer  cantate,'  Clemenza  di  Tito.'  opera  serla,  2 
for  2  tenors  and  bass.  acts.  'DieZauberflote'OIlFlauto 

Series  6.    '  Die  Schuldlgkelt  des  magico ')  Gey  nan  opera,  2  acts, 
ersten  Gebothes,'  sacred  Singspiel      Series  6.    27  airs,  1  rondo  for  so- 
ln  3  parts  (1st  only  by  Mozart).  |  prano  with  orchestra  obllgato ;  1 
Apollo    et    Hyaclnthus,'    Latin  ditto  for  alto ;  8  ditto  for  tenor  t 


comedy.  'Bastlen  et  Bastienne, 
German  operetta,  1  act.  '  La  flnta 
Semplice,' opera  buffa,  3  acts.  'Mi- 
trldate,  Be  dl  Ponto,'  opera,  S  acts. 
'Ascanlo  In  Alba,"  theatrallsche 
Serenade,  2  acts.  'II  Sogno  di 
Scipione,'  dramatische  Serenade, 
1  act.    '  Luclo  8111a,'  dramma  per 


5  ditto  for  bass ;  1  arlette  for  bass ; 

1  deutsches  Kriegslled ;  1  duet  for 

2  soprani ;  1  comic  duet  for  soprano 
and  bass ;  6  terzettos ;  1  quartet. 

Series  7.  34  Lleder  for  single 
voice  with  P.F.  accompaniment; 
1  Lied  with  chorus  and  organ; 
1  three-part  chorus  with  organ; 


musica,  3  acts.    'La  flnta  Glardi-  comic  terzetto  with  P.P.;  20  canons 
niera.'  opera  buffa,  3  act*.   '  U  Be  I  for  2  or  more  voices. 


H.    INSTEUMENTAL. 


ORCHESTRAL  WORKS. 

Series  8.    41  Symphonies. 

Series  9.  28  Divertlmenti,  Seren- 
ades, and  Cassatlonen  for  orchestra 
(12  Divertlmenti  for  wind  Inst  r.) ; 
3  Divertlmenti  for  2  violins,  viola, 
2  horns,  and  bass. 

Series  10.  9  Nos.  Marches  for  or- 
chestra ;  2  symphonic  movements ; 
'  Maurerische  Trauermuslk '  for 
orch. ;  '  Eln  musikalischer  Spass ' 
for  2  violins,  viola,  bass,  and  2 
horns ;  1  Sonata  for  bassoon  and 
cello ;  short  Adagio  for  2  cornl  dl 


bassetto  and  bassoon ;  Adagio  for 
2  clarinets  and  3  cornl  dl  bassetto ; 
Adagio  for  harmonica;  Adagio  and 
Allegretto  for  harmonica,  flute, 
oboe,  viola,  and  cello ;  Adagio  and 
Allegretto  for  a  musical  clock; 
Fantasia  for  ditto;  Andante  for  a 
small  barrel-organ. 

Series  11.  25  Nos.  various  kind* 
of  dance-music  for  orchestra. 

Series  12.  Concertos,  and  smaller 
pieces  with  orch.  -  6  Concertos  for 
violin;  3  short  pieces  for  ditto; 
1  Concertone  tor  2  solo  violins ; 
1  Symphonic  concertante  for  violin 


406 


MOZART. 


MUDIE. 


and  viola;  1  Concerto  for  bassoon ; 

1  ditto  for  flute  and  harp ;  2  ditto 
for  flute ;  1  Andante  for  ditto ;  4 
Concertos  for  horn;  1  ditto  for 
clarinet. 

Chamber-Music. 
Series  13.  7  Quintets  for  2  violins, 

2  violas,  and  cello ;  1  ditto  for  1 
violin,  2  violas,  born,  and  cello  (or 
i  cellos  Instead  of  horn);  1  ditto  for 
clarinet,  2  violins,  viola,  and  cello. 

Series  14.  26  Quartets  for  2  vio- 
lins, viola,  and  cello;  1  short  Nacht- 
musik  for  2  violins,  viola,  cello,  and 
double-bass;  Adagio  and  Fugue  for 
2  violins,  viola,  and  cello ;  1  Quartet 
for  oboe,  violin,  viola,  and  cello. 

Series  15.  2  Duets  for  violin  and 
Tiola ;  1  Duet  for  2  violins ;  1  Diver- 
timento for  violin,  viola,  and  cello. 

P.F.  Music. 

Series  16.    25  Concertos  for  P.F. 

and  orchestra ;  1  ditto  for  2  P.Fs. ; 

1  ditto  for  3  r  .Fs. ;  1  Concert-rondo 
for  1  P.F. 

Series  17.  1  Quintet  for  P.F., 
oboe,  clarinet,  horn,  and  bassoon ; 

2  Quartets  for  P.F.,  violin,  viola, 
and  cello ;  7  Trios  for  P.F.,  violin, 
and  cello ;  1  ditto  for  P  J.,  clarinet, 
and  viola. 

Series  18.    42  Sonatas  for  P.F. 


variations  for  ditto;  6  variations 
for  ditto. 

Series  19.  5  P.F.  Sonatas  for  4 
hands ;  Andante  with  5  variations 
for  ditto;  Fugue  for  2  P .Fs. ;  Son- 
ata for  ditto. 

Series  20.  17  Sonatas  for  P.F.; 
Fantasia  and  Fugue ;  3  Fantasias 
for  ditto. 

Series  21.  15  Collections  of  vari- 
ations for  P.  F. 

Series  22.  18  short  pieces  for  P J". 
(Minuets,  3  Rondos,  Suite,  Fugue, 
2  Allegros ;  Allegro  and  Andante ; 
Andantino ;  Adagio ;  short  Gigue ; 
35  Cadenzas  for  P.  F.  concertos). 

Series  23.  17  Sonatas  for  organ 
with  accompaniment  (chiefly  2  vio- 
lins and  bass). 

Series  24.  Supplement.  Contains 
all  the  unfinished  and  doubtful 
works,  additional  accompani- 
ments, and  transcriptions.  Among 
others:  The  'Kequiem';  'L'Oca 
del  Cairo,'  opera  buffa ;  '  Lo  Sposo 
deluso,'  opera  buffa ;  Handel's 
'  Acis  and  Galatea,'  '  Messiah,' 
'  Alexander's  Feast,'  and  '  Ode  on 
St.  Cecilia's  Day"  additional  ac- 
companiments ;  5  Fugues  from  J. 
S.  Bach's  '  Wohltemperirte  Cla- 
vier '  (arranged  for  2  violins,  viola, 
and  bass);  3  Sonatas  of  Johann 
Bach's  (arranged  as  a  concerto  for 


and  violin ;  Allegro  for  ditto ;  12 1  P.  F.,  2  violins,  and  bass) ;  etc. 

[C.F.P.] 
MOZART,  Constanze,  Wolfgang's  wife  (nee 
Weber),  born  at  Zell,  in  Lower  Austria,  had  a 
pretty,  well-trained  voice,  and  played  the  piano 
in  a  pleasing  manner.  Mozart  dedicated  to  her, 
always  in  affectionate  terms,  many  of  his  composi- 
tions, but,  characteristically,  finished  none  of  them. 
She  was  a  good  and  loving  wife,  accommodated 
herself  in  everything  to  her  husband's  disposition, 
and  restrained  him  from  many  heedless  actions. 
He  was  sincerely  attached  to  her,  and  she,  in 
return,  lavished  upon  him  every  care  and  atten- 
tion. After  Mozart's  death  she  and  her  two 
children  had  a  hard  struggle  for  existence,  but 
her  necessities  were  in  some  measure  relieved  by 
the  success  of  concerts  which  she  gave  in  Vienna, 
Prague,  Berlin,  and  other  cities.  In  Berlin,  the 
King  granted  her  the  use  of  the  Opera-house, 
and  the  services  of  his  own  band,  for  a  concert, 
at  which  she  sang.  In  1 799  she  sold  all  her  hus- 
band's remaining  MSS.  to  Andre  for  1000  ducats 
(£500).  In  1809  she  married  George  N.  Nissen, 
an  official  in  the  Danish  diplomatic  service, 
whose  acquaintance  she  had  made  in  Vienna  in 
1797.  Henceforth  her  life  was  peaceful  and  un- 
eventful. On  Nissen's  retirement  from  office  in 
1820  they  went  to  live  in  Salzburg,  where  he  col- 
lected the  materials  for  his  '  Mozart-Biographie.' 
He  died  in  1826,  and  Constanze  on  March  6, 
1842,  a  few  hours  after  the  arrival  of  the  model 
of  Mozart's  statue. 

Of  the  two  sons  of  Wolfgang  and  Constanze 
Mozart,  the  elder,  Karl,  first  took  to  commerce, 
practising  music  as  a  pastime,  and  afterwards 
became  an  employe'  of  the  Austrian  government 
at  Milan,  where  he  died  in  1859.  Mendelssohn 
met  him  there  in  1831,  and  delighted  him  by 
playing  the  Overtures  to  Don  Giovanni  and  the 
Zauberflote.     The  younger, 

Wolfgang  Amadeos,  born  July  26,  1791,  in 
Vienna,  studied  the  piano  and  composition  with 
Neukomm,  A.  Streicher,  Albrechtsberger,  and 
Salieri.     He  made  his  first  appearance  in  public, 


being  led  forward  by  his  mother,  at  a  concert 
given  on  April  8,  1805,  at  the  theatre  'an  der 
Wien,'  when  he  played  a  concerto  of  his  father's, 
and  variations  on  the  minuet  in  Don  Juan.  The 
latter,  and  a  cantata  in  honour  of  Haydn's  73rd 
birthday,  were  his  own  compositions.  In  1S08 
he  became  music-master  to  the  family  of  Count 
Joseph  von  Bawarowsky,  in  Gallicia.  He  made 
repeated  professional  tours,  and  in  1814  became 
Musikdirector  at  Lemberg,  where  he  founded 
the  Cacilienverein,  in  1826.  As  a  pianist  and 
composer  he  was  held  in  esteem — his  name  alone 
was  sufficient  to  preclude  his  rising  to  emi- 
nence. He  died  July  30,  1844,  at  Carlsbad  in 
Bohemia.  [C.  F.  P.] 

MOZARTEUM  OF  SALZBURG,  THE,  an 
educational  institute  for  musicians,  which  also 
gives  annual  concerts.  With  it  is  connected  the 
Dom  Musikverein,  which  undertakes  the  music 
for  the  cathedral  services.  Dr.  Otto  Bach  has  been 
the  director  since  1868.  In  1869  an  'Interna- 
tional Mozart  Stiftung'  or  Fund  was  created, 
with  the  double  object,  as  yet  unrealised,  of  as- 
sisting poor  musicians,  and  founding  an  'Inter- 
national Conservatorium.'  [C.  F.  P.] 

MOZARTSTIFTUNG,  THE,  at  Frankfort, 
was  founded  in  1 838,  to  assist  poor  but  talented 
musicians  in  their  studies.  Scholarships  are  re- 
tained as  a  rule  for  four  years.  [C.  F.  P.] 

MUDIE,  Thomas  Molleson,  was  born  at 
Chelsea  on  St.  Andrew's  Day  (so,  in  reference  to 
his  Scottish  descent,  he  was  wont  to  style  the 
date),  1809.  He  died,  unmarried,  in  London 
July  24,  1876,  and  is  interred  in  Highgate 
cemetery.  He  is  said  to  have  shown  musical 
aptitude  in  infancy,  and  the  saying  is  corro- 
borated by  his  success  in  the  first  examination  of 
candidates  for  admission  into  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Music,  Feb.  10,  1823,  when,  from  thirty-two 
competitors,  ten  were  elected.  At  the  founda- 
tion of  this  institution  the  Utopian  idea  was 
entertained  of  giving  free  education  to  its  pupils 
and  defraying  the  cost  from  funds  raised  by 
subscription;  hence  the  large  number  of  candi- 
dates ;  and  hence  also  the  severity  of  the  test  by 
which  their  musical  aptitude  was  proved,  for 
eleven  musicians,  each  an  artist  of  highest  note 
at  the  time,  sat  in  judgment  on  the  young 
aspirants  and  probed  their  powers  to  the  utmost. 
Mudie  was  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Crotch  for  composition, 
of  Cipriani  Potter  for  the  pianoforte — who  also 
gave  him  useful  advice  as  to  his  writings— and 
of  Willman  for  the  clarinet.  He  studied  this  last 
in  compliance  with  the  rule  that  male  students 
must  take  part  in  the  orchestral  practices,  and 
thus  obtain  the  priceless  benefit,  to  a  musician, 
of  this  experience  ;  he  obtained  much  proficiency 
on  the  instrument,  and  had  a  remarkably  beau- 
tiful tone,  but  he  ceased  its  use  when  he  dis- 
continued his  studentship.  In  the  Academy  he 
gained  prizes  for  pianoforte -playing  and  for  com- 
position, and  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  brightest 
among  the  highly  talented  few  who  first  received 
the  advantages  of  the  institution  on  which  they 
now  reflect  the  honour  of  their  names.    His  song 


MUDIE. 

'  Lungi  dal  caro  bene,'  was  so  esteemed  that  the 
Committee  of  Management  paid  the  cost  of  its 
publication,  an  act  repeated  in  the  case  of 
Sterndale  Bennett's  First  Concerto,  but  in  no 
other.  Several  vocal  pieces  with  orchestral 
accompaniment,  a  Symphony  in  C,  and  one  in 
Bb  were  also  works  of  his  student  time.  The 
last  named  is  especially  notable,  and  may  be 
remembered  by  its  Minuet  with  two  Trios,  all 
three  finally  played  together  as  a  Coda.  Mudie's 
pupilage  terminated  in  1832,  by  his  appointment 
as  a  professor  of  the  pianoforte  in  the  Academy, 
which  post  he  held  till  1844.  In  1834  ^e 
entered  into  some  relationship,  partly  of  friend- 
ship and  partly  stipendiary,  with  Lord  Monson, 
with  whom  he  spent  much  of  his  time  at  Gatton 
in  Surrey.  This  relation  was  closed  by  Lord  Men- 
son  s  death  in  1 840,  who  bequeathed  to  Mudie  an 
annuity  of  £100,  which  however,  the  estate  being 
somewhat  involved,  the  musician  relinquished  in 
favour  of  his  patron's  widow.  He  continued  to 
reside  in  Gatton  as  organist  to  the  small  church 
till  1844.  The  Society  of  British  Musicians, 
founded  in  1834,  furnished  an  arena  for  the  per- 
formance of  several  of  the  works  of  Mudie.  The 
Symphony  in  B  b  already  mentioned,  was  played 
at  the  concerts  of  Feb.  9,  1835,  and  Feb.  19, 
1 838  ;  a  Symphony  in  F,  remarkable  for  a  move- 
ment in  F  minor,  Nov.  10,  1835  ;  a  Symphony  in 
D,  March  10,  1837;  a  Quintet  in  Eb  for  piano- 
forte and  bowed  instruments  Jan.  5,  1843  and 
March  7,  1844 ;  a  Trio  in  D  for  pianoforte  and 
bowed  instruments  Oct.  6,  1843;  and  several 
songs  and  concerted  vocal  pieces  on  many  occa- 
sions. Young  musicians  have  now  more  oppor- 
tunities of  being  heard  than  they  had,  though 
still  too  few  to  satisfy  all  the  meritorious  claims 
to  public  attention ;  but,  in  recording  the  above 
small  portion  of  the  doings  of  an  extinct  in- 
stitution, proof  is  given  of  the  value  it  had 
both  to  the  world  and  to  the  artists  it  fostered. 
On  the  death  of  Alfred  Devaux,  his  former 
school-fellow  and  friend,  in  1844,  Mudie  went 
to  succeed  him  in  his  occupation  as  teacher  in 
Edinburgh.  While  there  he  published  several 
pianoforte  pieces  and  songs,  and  wrote  accom- 
paniments to  a  large  proportion  of  the  numbers 
in  Wood's  voluminous  collection  of  the  Songs 
of  Scotland ;  he  also  occasionally  gave  pianoforte 
recitals.  In  1863  he  returned  permanently  to 
London,  but  from  that  time,  except  with  an 
overture  at  one  of  the  Crystal  Palace  concerts, 
came  little  before  the  public.  A  complete  reverse 
of  the  brilliant  prospects  of  his  early  days  clouds 
the  latter  period  of  Mudie's  career,  when  his 
playing  lost  its  charm,  and  his  music  had  rarely 
the  power — amounting  even  to  mastership — 
that  distinguished  hi3  first  productions.  Some  of 
his  best  pieces  of  this  period  are  in  the  possession 
of  different  friends,  some  were  played  to  them 
but  never  written;  while  the  matter  given  to 
the  world  was  produced  with  a  view  to  sale 
more  than  to  beauty.  His  published  music  com- 
prises 48  original  pianoforte  solos,  including  the 
1 2  melodies  dedicated  to  Sir  Sterndale  Bennett ; 
6  duets  for  the  same  instrument;   19  fantasias, 


MUFFAT. 


407 


some  of  which  are  on  Scottish  airs ;  a  collection 
of  24  sacred  songs,  which  constitutes  a  work  of 
remarkable  interest ;  3  sacred  duets ;  3  chamber 
anthems  for  three  voices ;  42  separate  songs,  and 
2  duets.  The  existing  scores  of  his  symphonies 
and  the  entire  of  his  printed  works  are  deposited 
in  the  library  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music. 

In  the  obscurity  of  provincial  practice  as  a 
teacher  Mudie  seems  to  have  lost  incentive  to 
artistic  exertion,  and  with  the  incentive  almost 
the  power.  He  must  be  regarded  less  as  a 
musician  of  promise  than  as  one  of  fulfilment, 
and  it  would  be  highly  to  the  credit  of  any  con- 
cert-giving institution  of  the  day  to  unearth  some 
of  those  works,  which  having  made  their  effect 
would  be  sure  of  making  it  again,  now  that  the 
capabilities  of  performance  are  perhaps  more 
favourable  than  they  were.  [G.A.M.] 

MUETTE  DE  PORTICI,  LA.  Opera  in  5 
acts ;  words  by  Scribe  and  Delavigne,  music  by 
Auber.  Produced  at  the  Academie,  Feb.  29, 
1828,  and  performed  there  471  times  up  to  Oct. 
28,  1873.  In  England  known  as  Masaniello, 
under  which  name  it  was  produced  at  Drury  Lane, 
in  English  (3  acts),  May  4,  1829 ;  in  Italian,  at 
Covent  Garden  (3  acts)  March  15,  49 ;  at  Her  Ma- 
jesty's, April  10,  51,  as  La  Muta  di  Portici.    [G.] 

MUFFAT,  Geoeg,  highly  esteemed  composer, 
studied  Lulli's  style  for  six  years  in  Paris ;  was 
organist  of  Strassburg  Cathedral  till  1675  ;  then 
visitedVienna  and  Rome ;  became  in  1 690  organist, 
and  in  1695  Capellmeister  and  Master  of  the  Pages 
to  the  Bishop  of  Passau,  and  died  there  Feb.  23, 
1 704.  He  published '  Suavioris  harmonise  instru- 
mental hyporchematicae  Florilegium  primum,' 
50  pieces  for  4  or  8  violins  with  basso  continuo 
(Augsburg,  1685);  'Florilegium  secundum,'  62 
pieces  (Passau,  1698),  both  with  autobiographic 
preface  in  four  languages;  'Apparatus  musico- 
organisticus' — 12  toccatas,  chaconne,  passacaglia, 
(Augsburg,  1690,  dedicated  to  Leopold  I) — of 
importance  as  regards  the  development  of  organ- 
playing.     His  son 

August  Gottlieb  (Theophilus),  born  about 
1690,  a  pupil  of  J.  J.  Fux,  became  in  171 7  court 
and  chamber-organist  to  the  Emperor  Charles  VI, 
and  to  the  widowed  Empress  Amalie  Wilhelmine, 
(died  1 742),  and  music-master  to  the  royal  chil- 
dren. He  retired  on  a  pension  in  1764,  and  died 
in  Vienna,  Dec.  10, 1 770,  aged  80.  He  was  a  dis- 
tinguished organist,  and  a  composer  of  taste,  and 
published,  for  organ,  * '  72  Versetten  oder  Fugen, 
sammt  1 2  Toccaten,  besonders  zum  Kirchendienst 
bei  Choral- Aem tern  und  Vespern  dienlich'  (Vi- 
enna, 1726);  for  harpsichord,  'Componimentimu- 
sicali,'  containing  overtures,  caprices,  sarabandes, 
etc.,  with  a  preface;  and  ending  with  'Parti- 
colari  segni  delle2  maniere,'  etc.  (Vienna,  1727, 
dedicated  to  Charles  VI,  at  whose  expense  it  was 
engraved).  Zellner  has  recently  arranged  a  toc- 
cata and  fugue  in  C  minor,  composed  by  Muffat 
in  1 7  20,  as  a  concert-piece  for  harmonium  (Vienna, 
Spina).     A  Courante  and  2  Minuets  of  his  are 

1  About  50  years  ago  LOschenkohl  of  Vienna  republished  from  tbif 
work  'XII  klelne  Fugen  sammt  II  Toccaten.' 
>  Manieren  —  Agrumens— turns,  beats,  etc 


408 


MUFFAT. 


given  by  Pauer  in  Alte  Klaviermusik  (Senff). 
He  was  one  of  the  many  composers  whom 
Handel  laid  under  contribution  for  subjects  and 
phrases  in  his  oratorios. 

There  were  two  violinists  of  the  same  name  in 
the  Imperial  chapel,  Gottfbied,  from  1701  to 
1709,  and  Johann  Ebnst,  appointed  in  1730, 
died  in  1 746,  aged  48.  [C.  F.  P.] 

MULLER,  August  Eberhabdt,  born  Dec. 
1 3, 1 767,  at  Nordheim,  in  Hanover.  His  father, 
organist  at  Rinteln,  was  his  first  instructor.  In 
1785  he  went  to  Leipzig  to  study  law,  but  soon 
gave  it  up,  and  became  in  1789  organist  of 
St.  Ulrich's  church,  Magdeburg.  In  1792  he 
was  chosen  to  direct  the  concerts,  etc.,  at  Berlin, 
and  there  became  intimate  with  Marpurg,  Fasch, 
Reichardt,  and  other  distinguished  men.  He  was 
made  organist  of  St.  Nicholas'  church,  Leipzig, 
in  1794.  He  played  the  organ  and  harpsichord 
equally  well,  and  was  also  a  proficient  on  the 
flute.  In  1 810  he  moved  to  Weimar,  and  died 
in  181 7.  The  following  is  a  list  of  his  com- 
positions:— (1)  Piano.  2  concertos;  a  trio  for 
piano  and  strings,  op.  17;  2  sonatas  for  violin 
and  piano ;  4  sonatas  for  piano  solo,  besides  vari- 
ations, etc.  (2)  Organ.  Suites ;  a  sonata  and 
chorale,  variations.  (3)  Flute.  1 1  concertos ; 
a  fantasia  with  orchestra,  and  4  duets  for  two 
flutes.  (4)  Vocal.  Cantata  for  4  voices  and 
wind  band ;  songs  with  piano  accompaniment. 
(5)  Instruction.  Method  for  the  piano,  and  in- 
struction-book for  the  flute.  [J.A.F.M.] 

MULLER,  the  brothers,  celebrated  quartet- 
players,  four  sons  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick's 
Hoi'musikus,  Aegidius  Christoph  Muller,  who 
died  Aug.  14,  1841,  at  Brunswick,  where  all  his 
sons  were  born.  The  brothers  were  Karl 
Friedrich,  1st  violin  and  concertmeister  to  the 
Duke,  born  Nov.  11,  1797,  died  April  4,  1873; 
Theodor  Heinrich  Gustav,  viola,  born  Dec.  3, 
1799,  died  Sept.  7,  1855;  August  Theodor, 
cello,  born  Sept  27,  1802,  died  Oct.  20,  1875  ; 
Franz  Ferdinand  Georg,  2nd  violin  and  Capell- 
meister  to  the  Duke,  born  July  29,  1808,  died 
May  22,  1855.  Educated  by  their  father  ex- 
pressly with  a  view  to  quartet-playing,  they 
brought  the  art  to  a  perfection  then  unknown. 
The  Duke  of  Brunswick's  somewhat  tyrannical 
regulation,  by  which  none  of  his  musicians  were 
allowed  to  take  any  part  in  the  music  of  the 
town,  obliged  them  to  prepare  in  secret  for 
appearing  in  public,  and  in  1830  they  sent  in 
their  resignations.  They  gave  concerts  at  Ham- 
burg in  1 83 1,  and  in  1832  at  Berlin,  where  the 
public  gradually  learned  to  appreciate  their 
wonderful  ensemble.  In  1833  they  left  Berlin, 
and  visited  in  turn  all  the  principal  cities  of 
Germany  and  Paris,  extending  their  tours  farther 
and  farther,  till  1845,  when  they  went  to  Russia. 
Their  repertoire  consisted  almost  entirely  of  the 
works  of  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven,  and 
they  thus  contributed  immensely  to  the  spread 
of  a  taste  for  really  good  music.  Their  rendering 
of  Haydn's  'Gott  erhalte  Franz  den  Kaiser' 
especially  had  a  world-wide  reputation. 

The  eldest  brother,  Karl  Friedrich,  also  had 


MUNDY. 

four  sons,  known  as  the  younger  Muller  brothers : 
Bernhard,  viola,  born  Feb.  24,  1825  ;  Karl, 
1st  violin,  born  April  14, 1829 ;  Hugo,  2nd  violin, 
born  Sept.  21,  1832  ;  and  Wilhelm,  cello,  the 
most  important,  born  June  1,  1834.  They  were 
court  quartet-players  to  the  Duke  of  Meiningen, 
and  also  made  extended  tours,  visiting  Russia, 
Denmark,  and  France.  In  1866  they  settled 
for  a  short  time  in  Wiesbaden,  and  then  at 
Rostock,  where  Karl  became  Capellmeister,  his 
place  in  the  quartet  being  supplied  when  tra- 
velling by  Leopold  Auer.  It  was  however 
broken  up  entirely  in  1873,  by  the  appointment 
of  Wilhelm  as  Kammermusikus,  and  teacher 
at  the  Hochschule  fur  Musik  in  Berlin.  The 
younger  Miillers,  though  distinguished  for  their 
ensemble,  did  not  reach  the  standard  of  perfection 
maintained  by  the  elder  brothers;  the  chief 
reason  being  that  instead  of  restricting  them- 
selves to  genuine  quartets,  they  played  music 
which,  though  good  of  its  kind,  was  in  reality 
more  suited  to  a  small  orchestra.  [F.G.] 

MULLER,  Wilhelm,  author  of  the  poems 
of  Schubert's  beautiful  Liedercyclus  '  Die  schone 
Mullerin '  and  '  Die  Winterreise,'  and  father  of 
Max  Muller  the  eminent  philologist,  was  born  at 
Dessau  Oct.  7,  1794,  son  of  a  well-to-do  trades- 
man, who  educated  him  carefully  in  accordance 
with  the  liberal  tendencies  of  the  times.  In 
181 2  he  studied  philology  at  Berlin  under  F.  A. 
Wolf,  and  history.  In  181 3  he  joined  the 
Prussian  army  as  a  volunteer,  and  took  part  in 
Lutzen,  Bautzen,  and  other  battles,  and  in  the 
occupation  of  the  Netherlands.  Returning  to 
Berlin  in  1814,  he  devoted  himself  to  ancient 
German  language  and  literature.  On  his  return 
from  Italy  in  1819  he  became  librarian  to  the 
Duke  of  Dessau.  He  died  at  Dessau  on  Oct.  1, 
1827.  The  best-known  of  his  poems  are  'Ge- 
dichte  auB  den  hinterlassenen  Papieren  eines 
Waldhornisten,'  2  vols.  (1821-24);  'Lieder  der 
Griechen,'  5  parts  (1821-24);  a  translation  of 
Fauriel's  modern  Greek  national  airs,  2  vols. 
(Leipzig,  1825);  'Lyrische  Spaziergange '  (ibid. 
1827).  His  miscellaneous  works  were  edited  by 
Schwab,  5  vols.  (1830).  His  collected  poems, 
published  after  his  death  (Leipzig,  1837),  are 
among  the  choicest  lyrical  treasures  of  Germany.1 
Warmth  and  truth  of  expression,  keen  observa- 
tion of  nature,  and  melodiousness  of  language, 
have  made  him  a  universal  favourite  with  com- 
posers. Randhartinger  states  that  the  first  time 
Schubert  met  with  the  Miillerlieder,  he  was  so 
enchanted  that  he  set  several  before  the  next 
day.  [F.G.] 

MUNDY,  John,  Mus.  Doc.,  son  of  William 
Mundy,  Gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  was 
educated  by  his  father,  became  organist  of  Eton 
College,  and  about  1585  succeeded  John  Mer- 
becke  as  one  of  the  organists  of  St.  George's 
Chapel,  Windsor.  On  July  9, 1586,  he  graduated 
as  Mus.  Bac.  at  Oxford.  Both  he  and  his 
father  are  mentioned  in  some  verses  at  the  end 
of  a  MS.  collection  of  Motets  and   Madrigals 

1  See  an  essay  on  Wilhelm  Mailer.  In  Max  Mailer's  'Chips  from  a 
German  Workshop,"  TOl.  Hi.  pp.  103—121. 


MUNDY. 

transcribed  in  1591  by  John  Baldwin,  singing 
man  of  Windsor,  recounting  the  celebrated  mu- 
sicians of  the  time.  In  1594  he  published  '  Songs 
and  Psalmes,  composed  into  3,  4,  and  5  parts, 
for  the  use  and  delight  of  such  as  either  love  or 
learne  Musicke.'  He  contributed  a  madrigal, 
'  Lightly  she  tripped  o'er  the  dales,'  to  '  The 
Triumphes  of  Oriana,'  1601.  He  took  his  Mus. 
Doc.  degree  in  1624.  An  anthem  by  him  is  con- 
tained in  Barnard's  MS.  collections,  and  three 
of  the  pieces  in  his  'Songs  and  Psalmes'  were 
scored  by  Burney  (Brit.  Mus.  Add.  MS.  11,588). 
Several  of  his  compositions  for  organ  and  virginals 
are  contained  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  Virginal  Book, 
among  them  a  curious  Fantasia  describing  'Faire 
Wether,'  'Lightning,'  'Thunder,'  'Calme Wether,' 
and  'A  faire  Day.'  He  died  in  1630  and  was 
buried  in  the  Cloisters  at  Windsor. 

William  Mundy,  his  father,  was  a  vicar 
choral  of  St.  Paul's,  and  on  Feb.  31,  1563-4  was 
sworn  a  Gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal.  A  ser- 
vice and  three  anthems  by  him,  and  also  the 
anthem  '0  Lord,  the  Maker  of  all  thing'  (some- 
times assigned  to  Henry  VIII.),  are  printed  in 
Barnard's  'Selected  Church  Music'  Another 
service  and  two  other  anthems  are  contained  in 
Barnard's  MS.  collections,  and  eleven  Latin 
motets  in  a  set  of  MS.  parts  by  him,  both  in 
the  library  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society.  The 
words  of  several  of  his  anthems  are  contained  in 
Clifford's  '  Divine  Services  and  Anthems,'  1664. 
He  was  probably  one  of  those  who,  although 
outwardly  conforming  to  the  Reformed  worship, 
retained  a  secret  preference  for  the  old  faith, 
since  he  is  mentioned  by  Morley  in  his  'Intro- 
duction,' in  company  with  Byrd  and  others,  as 
never  having  '  thought  it  greater  sacriledge  to 
spurne  against  the  Image  of  a  Saint  then  to  take 
two  perfect  cordes  of  one  kinde  together.'  The 
date  of  his  death  is  not  recorded,  but  it  was 
probably  in  1591,  as  on  Oct.  12  in  that  year 
Anthony  Anderson  was  sworn  Gentleman  of  the 
Chapel  Royal  in  his  room.  [W.H.H.] 

MURSCHHAUSER,  Franz  Xavek  Anton, 
born  at  Zabern  in  Alsace,  about  1670;  came 
early  to  Munich,  and  became  a  pupil  of  Johann 
Caspar  Kerl,  with  whom  he  remained  till  his 
death  in  1 690.  From  the  title-page  of  his  book 
'  des  Vespertinus  Cultus '  (Ulm,  1 700 ;  for  4 
voices,  2  principal  and  4  ripieno  violins),  we 
learn  that  he  was  then  Capellmeister  to  the 
Frauenkirche  at  Munich.  He  died  there  1 733.1 
Besides  the  work  already  mentioned,  he  left : — 
'Octitonum  novum  Organum'  (Augsburg  1696); 
'Prototypon  longebreve  organicum'  (Nuremberg) 
— preludes  and  fugues  for  organ,  lately  re-edited  by 
Franz  Commer.  A  second  part  appeared  later. 
His  most  important  and  best-known  work  is  the 
'Academia  Musicopoetica  bipartita,  oder  hohe 
Schule  der  musikalischen  Composition'  (Nurem- 
berg 1 721).  Towards  the  close  of  the  first  part 
he  incautiously  used  the  words  •  to  give  a  little 
more  light  to  the  excellent  Herr  Matheson,'  for 
which  he  was  so  severely  taken  to  task  by  that 
irascible  musician  in  a  pamphlet '  melopoetische 

1  Lipowsky,  ■  Baierischet  M aslklexlcon.' 


MUSAItD. 


409 


Lichtscheere  in  drei  verschiedenen  Schneutzungen ' 
(Critica  Musica,  pp.  1-88),  that  he  relinquished 
the  publication  of  the  'Academia.'  An  'Aria 
pastoralis  variata'  of  his  is  given  in  Pauer's '  Alte 
Klaviermusik '  (Senff ).  [F.  G.] 

MURSKA,  Ilma  de,  a  native  of  Croatia,  born 
about  1843,  and  taught  singing  at  Vienna  and 
Paris  by  Madame  and  Signor  Marchesi;  made 
her  deTiut  in  opera  at  the  Pergola,  Florence,  in 
1862,  sang  at  Pesth,  Berlin,  Hamburg,  etc. ; 
obtained  an  engagement  in  Vienna  and  ap- 
peared in  London  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  as 
Lucia,  May  11,  1865.  She  played  also  Linda, 
Amina,  and  Astrifiammante,  and  sang  at  the 
Philharmonic  May  29,  and  always  with  great 
applause.  Between  this  date  and  1873  she  acted 
and  sang  repeatedly  in  London,  at  Her  Majesty's, 
Covent  Garden,  and  Drury  Lane,  returning  to 
the  continent  in  the  off  seasons.  One  of  her  most 
congenial  parts  and  best  achievements  was  Senta 
in  the  'Ollandese  dannato,'  July  23,  1870.  Be- 
tween 1873  and  1876  she  visited  America, 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  etc.,  returning  to  this 
country  in  1879.  Her  voice  is  a  soprano  of 
nearly  three  octaves  compass,  with  great  execu- 
tion. Her  acting  is  brilliant  and  original,  though 
sometimes  bordering  on  extravagance.  Her 
parts,  besides  those  mentioned,  include  Dinorah, 
Isabella,  Ophelia,  Marguerite  de  Valois,  Gilda, 
Marta,  Filine,  etc.  [A.  C] 

MUSARD,  Philippe,  born  in  Paris  in  1793, 
was  not  educated  at  the  Conservatoire,  but  took 
private  lessons  for  some  years  from  Reicha,  to 
whom  he  dedicated  his  '  Nouvelle  Me"thode  de 
Composition  musicale'  (1832).  This  long-for- 
gotten work,  of  which  only  eight  chapters  ap- 
peared, contains  the  announcement  of  a  '  Traite 
complet  et  raisonne"  du  systeme  musical,'  with 
curious  historical  notes,  implying  that  Musard 
was  dissatisfied  with  his  position  as  an  obscure 
violinist  and  conductor,  and  proposed  to  make 
his  mark  as  a  solid  and  erudite  musician.  A 
series  of  concerts  and  '  bals  masque's,'  held  in  the 
bazaar  in  the  Rue  St.  Honore"  (now  the  Salle 
Valentino),  however,  gave  him  the  opportunity 
of  distinguishing  himself  in  a  different  direction. 
The  most  salient  feature  of  these  promenade  con- 
certs (instituted  Nov.  1833)  was  the  introduction 
of  the  cornet-a-pistons.  In  fact  Dufresne,  the 
cornet-player,  owed  much  of  his  success  to  the 
solos  composed  for  him  by  the  conductor.  In 
1835  and  36  Musard  conducted  the  balls  at  the 
Opera,  and  his  band  of  seventy  musicians  was 
rapturously  applauded.  '  Gustave  III '  had  Get 
the  fashion  of  the  galop,  and  with  Musard's  music, 
and  the  '  entrain '  of  the  orchestra,  the  new  dance 
deserved  its  nickname  of  'Le  galop  infernal.' 
Meantime  a  better  room  had  been  built  in  the 
Rue  Vivienne,  and  thither  Musard  removed  in 
1837.  Here  he  had  to  sustain  a  competition  with 
Johann  Strauss  of  Vienna,  whose  waltzes  were  so 
superior  to  his  own,  that  in  order  to  avoid  sinking 
to  the  level  of  a  mere  composer  of  quadrilles, 
Musard  was  driven  to  expedients.  His  first  ex- 
periment, the  introduction  of  a  chorus,  having 


410 


MUSARD. 


succeeded,  he  next  attempted  classical  music,  and 
in  Holy  Week  gave  a  'concert  spirituel,'  consisting 
of  Handel's  music  only.  This  opened  the  way  for 
numerous  imitators.  Having  secured  a  reputa- 
tion in  France  he  came  to  England,  and  made 
his  first  appearance  at  Drury  Lane  on  Monday, 
Oct.  12,  1840,  as  conductor  of  the  Promenade 
Concerts,  or  Concerts  d'hiver,  given  there  under 
the  management  of  Eliason.  The  series  ter- 
minated in  March  1841,  and  on  Sept.  30  Musard 
appeared  again  as  conductor  of  a  set  of  Pro- 
menade Concerts  at  the  Lyceum,  under  the  man- 
agement of  Henri  Laurent,  which  continued  up 
to  Christmas.  He  is  still  remembered  in  London, 
and  amateurs  of  that  period  will  doubtless  recol- 
lect Hood's  '  jeu  d'esprit,'  one  verse  of  which  well 
takes  off  his  look  and  manner : — 

Prom  bottom  to  top 
There 's  110  bit  of  the  Fop, 
No  trace  of  your  Macaroni ; 
But  looking  on  him, 
So  solemn  and  grim, 
You  think  of  the  Marshals  who  served  under  Boney. 

Up  to  1852  Musard  was  considered  the  best 
composer  of  dance-music  and  conductor  of  pro- 
menade concerts  in  France.  His  quadrilles — 
■  Venise,'  '  Les  Echos,'  etc. — contain  many  happy 
and  at  that  time  novel  effects,  and  his  music  is 
well  written  and  well  scored.  Having  made  money 
he  bought  a  house  at  Auteuil,  where  he  lived 
much  respected.  Symptoms  of  paralysis  appeared 
in  1852,  and  he  died  March  31,  1859.  His  son 
Alfred,  born  1828  in  Paris,  followed  his  father's 
profession.  As  early  as  1847  he  conducted  the 
orchestra  at  a  ball  given  at  the  Opera  Comique, 
and  in  1856  Besselievre  selected  him  to  conduct 
the  'Concerts  des  Champs  Elysees,'  but  he  did  not 
retain  the  post,  and  never  rose  above  mediocrity 
— at  least  in  music.  [G.  C] 

MUSETTE,  diminutive  of  the  old  French 
'  muse,'  both  meaning  an  instrument  of  the  bag- 
pipe family,  consisting  of  two  pipes  or  reeds 
and  a  drone,  supplied  with  wind  from  a  leathern 
reservoir.  [See  Bagpipe.]  Like  the  Irish  bag- 
pipe it  is  inflated  by  bellows  placed  under  the 
performer's  arm.  The  original  compass  was  ten 
notes  (a)  ;  but  by  the  addition  of  holes  and  keys 
the  scale  was  increased  to  thirteen  (6)  : — 
(a)      +.  (b) 


Limited  as  were  its  resources,  this  instrument 
was  once  a  favourite,  and  under  Louis  XIV  was 
introduced,  first  into  the  court  ballets,  and  then 
into  the  divertissements  or  entr'actes  of  operas. 
Ladies  even  learned  to  play  it,  and  had  highly 
ornamented  instruments  made  for  their  use. 

The  best  information  on  the  subject  is  to  be 
obtained  from  Mersenne's  'Harmonie  Univer- 
aelle,'  Borjon's  'Traite"  de  la  Musette,'  a  folio 
with  plates  (Lyons  1672),  and  '  Me"thode  pour  la 
Musette'  (Paris,  Ballard,  1737),  by  Louis  Hotte- 
terre,  a  well-known  flute  player,  the  son  (accord- 
ing to  his  own  statement)  of  Martin  Hotteterre, 
composer  and  virtuoso.  From  these  works  we 
learn  that  the  best  makers  were  Le  Vacher ;  the 


MUSICA  ANTIQUA. 

Hotteterres,  father  and  two  sons,  Nicolas  and 
Jean  ;  Lissieux ;  Perrin,  etc.  The  best-known 
players  were  Philippe  Chedeville  (died  in  Paris 
1782),  a  valued  member  of  the  orchestra  at  the 
Opera  from  1725  to  1749,  and  his  brother  Nicolas. 
Both  published  pieces  for  two  musettes,  now  in 
the  library  of  the  Conservatoire  at  Paris. 

2.  Also  a  small  oboe  without  keys,  generally 
in  G ;  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  '  hautbois 
de  foret '  or  '  oboe  piccolo.' 

3.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  an  air  in  2-4, 
3-4  or  6-8  time,  of  a  moderate  tempo,  and  smooth 
and  simple  character,  appropriate  to  the  instru- 
ment from  which  it  takes  its  name.  Thus  a 
musette  generally  has  a  pedal-bass  answering  to 
the  drone  or  bourdon,  and  the  upper  part  abounds 
in  grace-notes  and  rapid  passages.  To  these  airs 
were  arranged  pastoral  dances,  also  called  mu- 
settes, which  were  in  great  favour  under  Louis 
XIV  and  Louis  XV,  especially  the  latter,  as  may 
be  seen  by  the  pictures  of  Watteau  and  others 
of  that  school. 

Among  the  most  celebrated  musettes  may  be 
mentioned  those  in  '  Callirhoe"'  and  '  Nina,'  operas 
by  Destouches  and  Dalayrac.  They  are  to  be 
found  in  Bach's  English  Suites,  nos.  3  and  6,  and 
in  the  sixth  of  Handel's  Grand  Concertos,  of  which 
we  quote  a  few  bars : — 


[G.C.] 


MUSICA  ANTIQUA.  A  collection  of  music 
compiled  and  edited  by  John  Stafford  Smith,  and 
published  in  181 2  in  2  vols,  folio,  with  a  preface 
and  translations  of  the  Provencal  songs  inserted 
in  the  work  by  John  Sidney  Hawkins,  and  some 
notes  by  the  editor.  Its  nature  and  objects 
will  be  best  described  by  quoting  the  very  ample 
title — '  Musica  Antiqua.  A  Selection  of  Music  of 
this  and  other  countries  from  the  commencement 
of  the  twelfth  to  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  comprising  some  of  the  earliest  &  most 
curious  Motetts,  Madrigals,  Hymns,  Anthems, 
Songs,  Lessons  &  Dance  Tunes,  some  of  them 
now  first  published  from  manuscripts  and  printed 
works  of  great  rarity  &  value.  The  whole  cal- 
culated to  shew  the  original  sources  of  the  melody 
&  harmony  of  this  country,  &  to  exhibit  the  dif- 
ferent styles  and  degrees  of  improvement  of  the 
several  periods.'  The  work  contains  190  separate 
pieces.  The  selections  are  made  with  great  skill 
and  judgment,  but  are  very  ill  digested,  as  instead 


MUSICA  ANTIQUA. 

of  being  arranged  in  strict  chronological  order, 
they  are  intermingled  in  a  very  confused  manner. 
The  composers  from  whose  works  the  specimens 
are  selected  are  John  Ambrose,  Hugh  Aston, 
Thibaut  de  Blason,  Dr.  John  Blow,  Gaces  Brulez, 
William  Byrd,  Dr.  Thomas  Campion,  Peter  Cer- 
ton,  Dr.  William  Child,  Clemens  non  Papa,  John 
Cole,  Raoul  de  Coucy,  Perrin  Dangecourt,  John 
Dowland,  John  Earsden,  Jehan  Erars,  Thomas 
Erars,  Francesco  Geminiani,  Jhan  Gero,  Orlando 
Gibbons,  Heath,  Henry  VIII,  Pelham  Humfrey, 
Simon  Ives,  John  Jenkins,  Robert  Johnson, 
Robert  Jones,  Nicholas  Laniere,  Orlando  de 
Lasso,  Jehan  de  Latre,  William  Lawes,  Matthew 
Lock,  George  Mason,  Tiburtio  Massaino,  Chris- 
tofero  Morales,  Thibaut  King  of  Navarre,  Jacob 
Obrecht,  Johannes  Okeghem,  Parker,  monk  of 
Stratford,  Francis  Pilkington,  Jodocus  Pratensis, 
Daniel  Purcell,  Henry  Purcell,  Richafort,  Dr. 
Nicholas  Staggins,  Thomas  Tallis,  Thierres,  Ora- 
zio  Vecchi,  Thomas  Weelkes,  Giaches  Wert, 
Adrian  Willaert  and  Gioseffo  Zarlino,  besides 
others  whose  names  are  unknown.  The  principal 
pieces  include  four  ancient  chants  for  the  'Te 
Deum'  as  given  by  Meibomius,  Diruta,  Lucas 
Lossius,  and  Merbecke ;  the  canon,  '  Sumer  is 
icumen  in';  Chansons  by  Troubadours  of  Na- 
varre and  Normandy ;  part  of  Robert  Johnson's 
music  for  Middleton's  'Witch';  two  or  three 
masques  of  the  time  of  James  I,  copious  extracts  i 
from  'Musick's  Handmaid,'  two  parts,  1678  and 
1 689 ;  etc.,  etc.  [W.  H.  H.] 

MUSICA  DIVINA.  A  collection  of  church 
music,  edited  by  Carolus  Pboske,  priest  and 
Capellmeister  of  the  Cathedral  at  Ratisbon,  and 
published  there  by  Pustet.  The  materials  were 
collected  by  Proske  himself  from  the  libraries  of 
the  Papal  Chapel,  St.  Peter's,  St.  John  Lateran, 
S.  Maria  Maggiore,  S.  Maria  in  Valicella,  the 
Vatican,  the  Roman  College,  and  other  libraries 
in  Rome,  and  also  from  the  best  collections  in 
Naples.  The  prospectus  was  issued  in  January 
1853,  and  the  first  volume  was  published  in  the 
8am e  year.  The  second  volume  followed  in  1854, 
the  third  in  1859,  and  the  fourth  at  Easter  1862. 
All  these  contained  compositions  for  4  voices, 
and  belong  to  the  'first  year.'  The  publication 
was  continued  by  a  'Selectus  novus  missarum' 
in  2  vols.  (1857-1861),  after  which  Proske  died, 
Dec.  20,  1861.  An  'Annus  secundus'  has  since 
been  issued  containing  a  vol.  of  masses,  a  vol.  of 
motets,  a  vol.  of  litanies,  and  a  Liber  Vesper- 
tinus.  The  work  is  an  upright  quarto,  in  bold 
clear  music  type ;  each  volume  of  the  scores  has 
a  preface,  a  table  of  contents,  a  list  of  clefs  of  the 
originals,  etc.,  and  short  biographical  notices  of 
the  composers.  The  voice  parts  are  also  printed 
separately.  The  list  of  the  entire  work  is  as 
follows : — 

ANNUS  PRIMUS. 
Tom.  I.    Liter  Missarum. 


MUSICA  DIVINA 


411 


1.  Missa  brevls.    Falestrina, 

2.  Do.    Iste  confessor.    Do. 

5.  Do.    Dies  sanctificatus.    Do. 
*.    Do.    Octavi  tout.    O.  Lasso. 

6.  Do.    'Fuisquej'ay  perdu.'  Do. 
6.    Do.    Quart!  toni.    Vlttoria. 


7.  Missa  brevis.    A.  Gabriell. 

8.  Do.    •  Dixit  Maria."    Ha-ler. 

9.  Do.    In 'Nat.  Domini.'  l'itonl. 

10.  Do.    Lotti. 

11.  Do.    pro  defunctls.    Asola. 

12.  Do.  Do.  Fitoui. 


Tom.  IL    Liber  Motettoruro, 
Advent. 

Domine.    J.  J.  Fux. 

Ecce  concipies.    J.  HandL 
Ft.  2.  Super  solium  David. 

Obsecro  domine.       Do. 

Cum  audisset.    M.  Cardoso. 

Dicite  pusillanimes.    J.  J.  Fux. 

Egredietur  virga.    J.  llandl. 
Ft.  2.  Radix  Jesse. 

De  ceelo  veniet.  Do. 

Ave  Maria.    P.  Canniciari. 
Nativity  of  Christ. 

Dies  sanctificatus.    Falestrina. 

Hodie  Christus.    G.  M.  Nanlnl. 

O  magnum  mysterium.  Vlttoria. 

Hodie  nobis  de  ccelo.    C.  Porta. 

Natus  est  nobis  Deus.    J.  Handl. 

Hodie  Christus.    Gr.  Turini. 
St.  Stephen. 

Lapidabunt  Stephanum.     G.  M. 
Nanini. 

Sepelierunt  Stephanum.    L.  Ma- 
renzio. 
St.  John. 

Hie  est  beat isslmus.  G.M.Nanlni, 

Valde  honorandus.    Falestrina. 
Innocents. 

Vox  In  Rama.     Clemens  non 
Papa. 
Circumcision. 

O  admirabile   commercium.    F. 
ConstantinL 

Ecce  Maria  genuit.    R,  de  Lasso. 
Epiphany. 

Tribus  miraculls.    L.  Marenzio. 

Ab  oriente.    J.  HandL 
Sundays  after  Epiphany. 

Jubilate.    O  de  Lasso. 

Dextera  domtni.    Do. 
Septuagesima. 

Ubi  est  Abel  ?    G.  Aichinger. 
Sexagesima. 

Exurge.    J.  de  Kerie. 
Ft.  2.  Exurge. 
Quinquagesima. 

Benedictaj  es.    0  de  Lasso. 
Quadragesima. 

Exaltabo  te.    G.  Croce. 

Angelis  suls.    M.  Cardoso. 

Meditabor.    0  Lasso. 

Erat  Jesus.    Orazfo  VecebL 

Laetatus  sum.    A.  Scarlatti. 
Passion  Sunday. 

Erlpe  me  de  inimlcis.    O.  Lasso. 
Ft.  2.  Confitebor  tibi. 
Palm  Sunday. 

Pueri  Hebraeorum.    Falestrina. 

Improperium.    0.  Lasso. 
Coena  Domini. 

Christus  factus  est.    Asola. 
Good  Friday. 

Fopule  meus.    Vlttoria. 

Adoramus.    Aichinger. 
Easter  Eve. 

Vespere  autem.   J.  HandL 
Faster  Day. 

Haec  dies.    Palestrina. 

Angelus  autem.    F.  Anerio. 

Alleluja  Christus.     Do. 

Maria  Magdalenaa.    A.  Gabrieli. 

Christus  resurgens.    O.  Lasso. 

Et  respiclentes.    Marenzio. 
Sundays  after  Easter. 

Surrexit  Pastor.    Falestrina. 

Virtute  magna.    G.  Croce. 

Lauda  anima  mea.  G.  Aichinger. 

Cantate  Domino.   G.  TurinL 

Benedlcite  gentes.    O  Lasso. 

0  rex  glorine.    Maren/in. 

Ascendens  Christus.   J.  HandL 

(mines  gentes.    G.  M.  CaslnL 
Whitsunday. 

Loquebantur.    Falestrina. 

Vent  Sancte  Splritus.  K.  Allegri. 

Factus  est  repent e.    G.  Aichinger. 
Ft.  2.  Confirma  hoc  Deus. 
Trinity  Sunday. 

Te  Deum  Patrem.    A.  Gabriell. 

Tibi  laus.    O  Lasso. 

Benedicts  sit.    Agazzari. 
Corpus  ChristL 

O  sacrum  convlvlum.    G.  Croce. 
Do.  G.A.Bernabei. 

Caro  mea.    A.  Gabrieli. 

Ego  sum  panis.    A. ConstantinL 
Do.  P.  Agostinl. 

In  voce  exultationis.    1  ltont. 


Exaltarituo.    Pltoni. 

Qui  terrena  triumphat.    Do. 

Transflge.    G.  Biordi. 

Domine  non  sumdignus.      Vlt- 
toria. 
Pt.  2.  Miserere  mei. 

Duo  Seraphini.    Vlttoria. 
Ft  2.  Tres  sunt  qui. 

Domine  convertere.    0.  Lasso. 

Sperent  in  te  omites.       Do. 

lllumina.  Do. 

Benedieam.  Do. 

In  te  speravL  Do. 

Expectans.  Do. 

Domine  in  auxilium.       Do. 

Super  flumina.  Do. 

St.  Andrew. 

Doctor  bonus.    Vittoria, 
St.  Nicholas. 

Beatus  Nicolas.    Anon. 
Conception. 

Quampulchrl.    Falestrina. 

Conceptio  tua.    Marenzio. 
Do.  0.  Porta. 

St  Thomas. 

Quiavidisti.    Hasler. 
Name  of  Jesus. 

In  nomine.    J.  HandL 

O  Jesu  benignissime.  Rud.  Lasso. 
Purification. 

Senex  puerum.    Vlttoria. 

Hodie  beata.    F.  Costantlni. 
Annunciation. 

Gabriel  Angelus.    Marenzio. 

Ne  timeas.    Vittoria. 

Dixit  Maria.    Hasler. 
Invention  of  the  Cross. 

Nos  autem.    F.  Anerio. 
St.  John  Baptist. 

Fuit  homo.    Palestrina. 

Joannes  est  nomen.    0.  Lasso. 
SS.  Peter  ft  Paul. 

TuesFetrus.  Clemens  non  Papa. 

Quern  dicunt.  Marenzio. 

Hodie  Paulus.       Do. 
Visitation  B.  V.  M. 

Beata  es.    Hasler. 
Mary  Magdalene. 

Mulier  quae  erat.    A.  Gabriell. 
St.  Lawrence. 

Levita  I.aurentius.    A.  Gabrieli. 
Assumption. 

Quas  est  1st*.    Falestrina 

Vidi  speciosam.    F.  Anerio. 

Sicut  cedras.  Do. 

Assumpta  est,  A  S.    G.  Aichinger 
Beheading  of  S.  J.  Baptist. 

Missa  Herodes.    Palestrina. 
Nativity  of  B.V.M. 

Nativitas  gloriosae.    Marenzio. 

Regali  ex  progenie.    J.  Handl. 

Cum  jucunditate.    Bai. 

Felix  namque.    Pltoni. 
Exaltation  of  the  Cross. 

Adoramus.    Falestrina. 

Crux  fidelis.    Anerio. 

Factum  est.     Do. 
Guardian  Angels. 

Omnes  sancti  Angeli.   Aichinger. 
All  Saints. 

Falvator  mundL    Talestrlna. 

Angeli,  Archangel!.    A.  Gabrieli. 

Vidi  turbam.    C.  Porta. 

0  quam  gloriosum.    Vlttoria. 
Do.  Marenzio. 

St.  Martin 

O  quantus  luctus.    ralestrina. 

0  beatum.    Marenzio. 
Presentation  ofB  V.  M. 

Congratulamini.    Palestrina. 
St.  Caecilla. 

Dum  aurora.    Palestrina. 

Cantantlbus  organls.    Marenzio 

Triduanas.   Bal. 

Istl  sunt  vlri.    Palestrina. 
Estote  fortes.    Vlttoria. 
Tollitejugum.    A.  GabrielL 
Beatl  eritla.    G.  Croce. 
Beatus  vlr.    A.  GabrielL 
Iste  Sanctns.    Vlttoria. 
Honestum  fecit.    F.  Anerio 
Deslderium  animae.  Do. 
Gaudent  in  coelis.    Vlttoria. 
Lstamlnl.  A  3.    G.  M.  N'anint. 
Istorum  est  enlm.   C.  CasciollnL 
Filiae  Jerusalem.    A.  Gabrieli . 


412 


MUSICA  DIVINA. 


MUSICA  FICTA. 


Ecce  sacerdos.    Vittoria. 
Sacerdos  et  pontifex.    A.  Gabriell. 
Dum  esset  summus.    Marenzio. 
lnmedloEcclesiae,43.  G.F.BrissIo. 
lllc  vir  desptciens.    Vittoria. 
Bimilabo  euin.    Marenzio. 
Euge  serve.    Orazio  VeccbJ, 
6erve  bone.    Bai. 


lntercessio  nos.    Anon. 

Veui  sponsa  Christ!.    Falestrma. 

Do.  Vittoria. 

Do.  A.  Gabriel!. 

Regnum  mundl.    F.  Anerio. 
Exaudi  Domine.    I'alestrina. 
O  quam  metuendus.    Vittoria. 
Domum  tuam.    J.  Handl. 


Appendix. 
Preface,  tables  of  contents,  clefs, 'Cantabo  Domino.    Orazio  VeccbJ. 
etc.  Velociter  exaudi. 


Blcut  cervus.    Palestrina. 

Ft.  2.  Sitirit  anima. 
Foetus  est  Dominus.    0.  Lasso. 
Benedicam.    Vittoria. 
Ego  dixi.    F.  Anerio. 
Cantate  Domino.    J.  L.  Hasler. 
Domine  Deus.  Do. 

Gratias  agiraus.  Do. 


Exaude  Deus.    G.  Croce. 
Voce  tuea.  Do. 

Ego  sum  pauper.  Do. 
Benedicam.  Do. 

Confitemini.    A.  CostantinL 
Cantate  Domino.    Pitoni. 
Laudate  Dominum.  Do. 
Exultate  Deo.    A.  Scarlatti. 


Tom.  III.    Liber  Vesperarum. 
Collaudamus, 


Falsibordoni,  by 
Vittoria, 
Bernabei, 
C.  de  Zachariis, 
L.  Viadana. 
Psalmodia  Modulata,  by 
Demantius. 
0.  de  Zachariis. 
Psalmi  ad  Vesperas. 
Ortiz. 
G.  Turin!. 
8  Psalmi,  F.  Anerio. 
4  Psalmi,  B.  Nanino. 
4  Psalmi,  Anon. 
Psalmi. 
Dixit.    R.  Giovanelli. 
Laudate.    0.  Pitoni. 
Laudate.    Anon. 
Nisi  Dominus.    J.  J.  Fuz. 
Beati.  Do. 

De  profundis.         Do. 
Magnificat  8  tonorum.  Suriano. 
Do.  Do.       O.  Lasso. 

8th  tone.    Palestrina. 
1st    Do.      0.  Lasso. 
8th  Do. 
5th   Do. 
5th   Do. 
4th  Do. 
4th   Do. 
4th  Do. 
Hymns  for  Vespers. 
Chrlste  redemptor.    F.  Anerio. 
Hostes  Herodes.    Palestrina. 
Vexilla  Regis.  Do. 

Jesu  nostra  redemptio.  Vittoria. 
Veni  Creator.    Palestrina. 
O  lux  beata.    Vittoria. 
Pause  lingua.       Do. 
Do.  Pitoni. 

Caslni. 
Ortiz. 
Ortiz. 


Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 


Morales. 

Ortiz. 

F.  Anerio. 

Marenzio. 

Pitoni. 

Fux. 


Do. 

Nuntius  celso. 
Junctor  ccell. 


Anon. 

Christe  redemptor.    Ortiz. 
Urbs  beata.    Vittoria. 
Aye  maris  Stella.    Do. 
Do.       Do.     Suriano. 
Do.       Do.     Hasler. 
Do.       Do.     BiordL 
Antiphons  of  the  B.  V.  M. 
Alma  redemptoris.    F.  Suriano. 
Ave  regina.  Do. 

Regina  cceli.  Do. 

Salve  regina.  Do. 

Do.  Do. 

Alma  redemptoris.    F.  Anerio. 
Ave  regina.  Do. 

R  '.i:i:l  coeli.  Do. 

Salve  regina.  Do. 

Alma  reJemptorls.  G.Aichinger. 
Ave  regina.  Do. 

Kegina  ccelL  Do. 

Salve  regina.  Do. 

Alma  redemptoris.  Do. 

Ave  regina.  Do. 

Kegina  coeli.  Do. 

Ft.  2.  Resurrexlt, 
Salve  regina.  Do. 

Alma  redemptoris.    Palestrina. 
Ft.  2,  Tu  quae  genulsti. 
Alma  redemptoris.    F.  Anerio. 
Do.  Aichinger. 

Ave  regina.    O.  Lasso. 
Do.  C.  Porta. 

Do.  Aichinger. 

Do.  Fux. 

Kegina  coeli.    Ortiz. 
Pt.  2.  Eesurrexit. 
Regina  cceli.    C.  Ports. 

Do.  Lotti. 

Salve  regina.    O.  Lasso, 
rt.  2.  Et  Jesum. 
Salve  regina.    F.  Anerio. 
Do.  Aichinger. 


Tom.  IV.     Liber  Vespertinus. 


Passlo  Christl.    Suriano. 

Matthew. 

Mark. 

Luke. 

John. 
Lamentationes.    Talestrln*. 

In  Ciena  Domini. 

Parasceve. 

Sabbato  Sancto. 
Besponsorla. 

In  monte  Oiivetl.    G.  Croce. 

Trlstis  est  anlma.       Do. 

Ecce  vidimus.    Viadana. 

Amicus  meus.         Do. 

Judas  merc.it or.    A.  Zollo. 

1'nus  ex  disclpulis.    G.  Croce. 

E  ram  quasi  Agnus.       L.  Via- 
dana. 

I'na  hora.    Ferrarlo. 

Seniores  populi.   Viadana. 

Omnesamlcl.  Do. 

Velum  tcmpli.    G.  Croce. 

Vinea  mea.    Viadana. 

Tenebrae  factae.    G.  Croce. 

Tradiderunt.    A.  Zoilo. 

CaTigaverunt.       Do. 

Sicutovls.    Viadana. 

Jerusalem  surge.    Do. 

Flange  quasi  virgo.    Do. 

Recepit  pastor.    J.  Handl. 
lu 2.  Ante cujus ronspectum. 


O  vos  omnes.    G.  Croce. 
Ecce    quomodo     moritur.       J. 
Handl. 

Pt.  2.  In  pace  factus. 
Aestimatus.    A.  Zoilo. 
Sepulto  Domino.    J.  Handl. 
Tt.  2.  Ne  forte  veniant. 
18  Selectissimae  Modulationes. 
For  Thursday,  Friday  and  Satur- 
day in  Holy  Week.    Vittoria. 
Supplementum  Harmoniarum  for 
Holy  Week. 
Miserere  In  Falso  bordone,  by 
Palestrina. 
F.  Dent  ice. 
S.  M.  Nanini. 
Lud.  Viadana  (8X 
Miserere.    Handl. 
Turini. 
Uttendal. 
Benedictus  in  Falso    bordone. 

Guldettl  (3). 
Benedictus.    Palestrina. 
Do.  Vittoria. 

Do.  J.  Handl. 

Do.  Did.  Ortiz. 

Christ  us  factus  est.    J.  Handl. 

Do.       Do.  Pitoni. 

Improperia.    Palestrina. 

Do.  G.  A.  Bernabei. 

Adoramus.    Eosselli. 


Adoramus.    O.  Lasso. 
Do.  P.  Agostiui. 

Do.  Anon. 

Selection  of  Litanies. 
Litany  ofB.V.M.43.  G.Aichinger. 
O.  Lasso. 
J.  de  Fossa. 
J.  Fine  tt  i. 
A.  Agazzari. 
G.  Biordi. 
G.  Zuchino. 
Palestrina. 


Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Litany  of  Name  of  Jesus.    S.  Vlo- 
torlnus. 
Do.  of  All  Saints.  0.  Lasso. 
Stabat  mater,  a  3.  G.  Aichinger. 
Do.  Ant.  Agazzari. 

Asperges  me.    Vittoria. 
Vidi  aquam.        Do. 
Pater  noster.    L.  Faminger. 
Ave  Maria.    Vittoria. 
Te  Deum.    Anerio. 
Do.         Did.  Ortiz. 
Do.  J.  Handl. 


Selectui  Novus  Missarum. 
Tom.  L 


Venl  sponsa  Christe,  a  4.  Pales- 
trina. 

Hor  le  tue  forze  adopra,  a  4.  F. 
Anerio. 

Qual  donna  attende  a  gloriosa 
fama,  a  5.    0.  Lasso. 

AssumptaeslMaria,a6.  Palestrina. 

Tor 

0  quam  gloriosum.  a  4.  Vittoria. 
Si  bona  suscepimus,  A  5.  Paclotti. 
In  die  t ribulat ionis,  a  5.  0.  Lasso. 
Dumcomplerentur,46.  Palestrina. 


Simile  est  regiium  ccelorum,  a  4. 

Vittoria. 
Vldl  speciosurn,  a  6.    Do. 
Super  voces  muslcales,    4  6.     F. 

Soriano. 
Missa,  4  8.    Leo  Hasler. 


Nos  autem  gloriari,  4  4.  F.  Soriano 
Trahe  me  post  te,  4  5.    Vittoria. 
Pater  peccavi,  4  6.    A.  Gabrieli. 
Pro  defunctis.  4  8.   Orazio  Vecclii. 


ANNUS  6ECUNDUS. 
Tom.  I.    Liber  Missarum. 


Octavi  toni,  4  4.  G.  M.  Asola. 
Pro  Defunctis,  4  4.  F.  Anerio. 
Quatuor  vocum.  J.  L.  Hasler. 
Tu  es  I'etrus,  4  6.    Palestrina. 


Pro  defunctis,  4  ft,    Vittoria. 
Ascendo  ad  Patrem,  45.  Palestrina 
Fapaa  Marcelli.  4  6.     Do. 
Aeterua  Christ i,  44.   Do. 


Tom.  IL    Liber  Motettorum. 


AngelusDomtnl.  ClaudioCasciollni. 
Laudemus  Domini.    Anerio. 
Justorum  anlmae.    O.  di  Lasso. 
Benedicta.    K.  Giovanelli. 
Ave  Maria.    O.  di  Lasso. 
Taedet  animam  meam.    Vittoria. 
Ecce  sacerdos.    Constanzo  Porta. 
0  sacrum  convivlum.    A.  Gabrieli. 
Beatus  vir.    3.  Handl. 
Diligam  te.    J.  a  Cruce  ClodlensL 
Diffusa  est  gratia.    Palestrina. 
Ave  Maria.    C.  Verdonck. 


Hodie  Christus.    L.  Marenzio. 
Hodie  nobis  ccelorum.  G.  B.  Nanlnl 
Venl  Creator.    Fomponio  Nenna. 
Pange  lingua.    Vittoria. 
Ecce  Domine  venerit.    Vittoria. 
Dies  sanctificatus.  J.aC.Clodiensi. 
De  profundis.    A.  Gabrieli. 
Cum  transisset.    Jac.  Reiner. 
Confirma  hoc  Deus.   O.  dl  Lasso. 
O  quam  suavls  est.    B.  Giovanelli. 
Domine  non  sum.    G.  Aichinger. 
Vidi  turbam  magnam.  Palestrina. 


Tom.  IIL    Liber  Litanlarum. 
Lltaniae  lauretanse.    Auctore  ig- 
noto. 
Do.  Do.      O.  di  Lasso. 

Do.  Do.      Rinaldo  del  Mel. 

Do.  Do.      F.  Cornazzono.    I 


Vesp.  Comm.  de  unius  martyr!. 
Vittoria;  G. A. Bernabei ;  F.C. 
Andreas;  L.  Viadana;  E.  G. 
Stemmelio;  Auctore  incerto; 
B.  liattl :  0.  de  2achariis. 


Tom.  IV.    Liber  Vespertinus. 
Pialml  VeipertlnL  Var.  auctorum. !  Magnificat,  a  8.    G.  Gabrieli. 

[G.] 

MUSICA  FICTA,  or  Falsa,  or  Colorata 
(Cantusfictas),  i.e.  Feigned,  or  Artificial  Music. 
One  of  the  earliest  discoveries  made  by  the  in- 
ventors of  Figured  Music  was,  the  impossibility 
of  writing  a  really  euphonious  Counterpoint  upon 
a  given  Canto  fermo,  without  the  use  of  occa- 
sional semitones  foreign  to  the  Mode.  The  em- 
ployment of  such  semitones,  in  Plain  Chaunt, 
was  as  strictly  forbidden  by  the  good  taste  of  all 
educated  Musicians,  as  by  the  Bull  of  Pope  John 
the  22nd.  Hence,  they  were  never  permitted  to 
appear  in  the  Canto  fermo  itself.  But  it  soon 
became  evident,  that  unless  they  were  tolerated 
in  the  subordinate  parts,  no  farther  progress 
could  be  made  in  a  style  of  composition  which 
was  already  beginning  to  attract  serious  atten- 
tion. It  was  indispensable  that  some  provision 
should  be  made  for  the  correction  of  imperfect 
harmonies;  and — as  Zarlino  justly  teaches1 — 
Nature's  demand  for  what  we  should  now  call 
a  '  Leading-Note'  was  too  strong  to  be  resisted. 
On  these  points,  a  certain  amount  of  concession 

>  'InztituzlonI  armoniche.'    Venice,  1558,  p.  222. 


I 


MUSICA  FICTA. 

was  claimed  by  Composers  of  every  School. 
Nevertheless,  the  early  Contrapuntists  yielded 
bo  far  to  prejudice  as  to  refrain  from  committing 
their  accidentals  to  writing,  whenever  they  could 
venture  to  do  so  without  danger  of  misconception. 
Trusting  to  the  Singer  for  introducing  them  cor- 
rectly, at  the  moment  of  performance,  they  in- 
dicated them  only  in  doubtful  cases  for  which 
no  Singer  could  be  expected  to  provide.  The 
older  the  Part-books  we  examine,  the  greater 
number  of  accidentals  do  we  find  left  to  be  sup- 
plied at  the  Singer's  discretion.  Music  in  which 
they  were  so  supplied  was  called  Cantus  fictas,  or 
Mu#ica  ficta ;  and  no  Chorister's  education  was 
considered  complete,  until  he  was  able  to  sing 
Cantos  fictii8  correctly,  at  sight. 

In  an  age  in  which  the  functions  of  Composer 
and  Singer  were  almost  invariably  performed  by 
one  and  the  same  person,  this  arrangement  caused 
no  difficulty  whatever.  So  thoroughly  was  the 
matter  understood,  that  Palestrina  thought  it 
necessary  to  indicate  no  more  than  two  acciden- 
tals, in  the  whole  of  his  '  Missa*brevis,'  though 
some  thirty  or  forty,  at  least,  are  required  in  the 
course  of  the  work.  He  would  not  have  dared 
to  place  the  same  confidence  either  in  the  Singers, 
or  the  Conductors,  of  the  present  day.  Too  many 
modern  editors  think  it  less  troublesome  to  fill  in 
the  necessary  accidentals  by  ear,  than  to  study 
the  laws  by  which  the  Old  Masters  were  governed: 
and  ears  trained  at  the  Opera  are  too  often  but 
ill  qualified  to  judge  what  is  best  suited,  either 
to  pure  Ecclesiastical  Music,  or  to  the  genuine 
Madrigal.  Those,  therefore,  who  would  really 
understand  the  Music  of  the  15th  and  16th  cen- 
turies, must  learn  to  judge,  for  themselves,  how  far 
the  modern  editor  is  justified  in  adopting  the  read- 
ings with  which  he  presents 1  them :  and,  to  assist 
them  in  so  doing,  we  subjoin  a  few  definite  rules, 
collected  from  the  works  of  Pietro  Aron  (1529), 
Zarlino  (1558),  Zacconi  (1596),  and  some  other 
early  writers  whose  authority  is  indisputable. 

I.  The  most  important  of  these  rules  is  that 
which  relates  to  the  formation  of  the  Clausula 
vera,  or  True  Cadence— the  natural  homologue, 
notwithstanding  certain  structural  differences,  of 
the  Perfect  Cadence  as  used  in  Modern  Music. 
[See  Clausula  veea,  in  Appendix.] 

The  perfection  of  this  Cadence — which  is  al- 
ways associated,  either  with  a  point  of  repose  in 
the  phrasing  of  the  music,  or  a  completion  of  the 
sense  of  the  words  to  which  it  is  sung — depends 
upon  three  conditions,  (a)  The  Canto  fermo,  in 
whatever  part  it  may  be  placed,  must  descend 
one  degree  upon  the  Final  of  the  Mode.  (6)  In 
the  last  Chord  but  one,  the  Canto  fermo  must 
form,  with  some  other  part,  either  a  Major  Sixth, 
destined  to  pass  into  an  Octave ;  or  a  Minor 
Third,  to  be  followed  by  Unison,  (c)  One  part, 
and  one  only,  must  proceed  to  the  Final  by  a 
Semitone — which,  indeed,  will  be  the  natural  re- 
sult of  compliance  with  the  two  first-named  laws. 

1  Proske,  In  his  'Music*  Dlvlna,'  has  placed  all  accidentals  given 
by  the  Composer.  In  their  usual  position,  btfort  the  notes  to  which 
they  refer:  but,  those  suggested  by  himself,  abovt  the  notes.  It  is 
much  to  be  desired  that  all  who  edit  the  works  of  the  Old  Masters 
should  adopt  this  most  excelleut  and  conscientious  plan. 


MUSICA  FICTA. 


413 


In  Modes  III,  IV,  V,  VI,  XIII,  and  XIV,  it 

is  possible  to  observe  all  these  conditions,  with- 
out the  use  of  accidentals.  For,  in  the  Third  and 
Fourth  Modes,  the  Canto  fermo  will  naturally 
descend  a  Semitone  upon  the  Final;  while,  in 
the  others,  the  Counterpoint  will  ascend  to  it  by 
the  same  interval,  as  in  the  following  examples, 
where  the  Canto  fermo  is  shewn,  sometimes  in 
the  lower,  sometimes  in  the  upper,  and  some- 
times in  a  middle  part,  the  motion  of  the  two 
parts  essential  to  the  Cadence  being  indicated 
by  slurs. 

Modes  III  and  IV. 


Modes  XIII  and  XIV. 


$ 


-94- 


"25"  "S3" 

But  accidentals  will  be  necessary  in  all  other 
Modes,  whether  used  at  their  true  pitch,  or  trans- 
posed.   (See  Modes,  the  Ecclesiastical.) 

Natural  Modes. 
I  and  II. 


$ 


*= 


T5-jg: 


■ 


VII  and  VIII. 


$ 


3g£ 


IX  and  X. 


Transposed  Modes. 
I  and  II. 


$ 


Jfi: 


^-35: 


VII  and  VIII. 


Moreover,  it  is  sometimes  necessary,  even  in 
Modes  V  and  VI,  to  introduce  a  B  b  in  the  pen- 
ultimate Chord,  when  the  Canto  fermo  is  in  the 
lowest  part,  in  order  to  avoid  the  False  Relation 
of  the  Tritonus,  which  naturally  occurs  when  two 
Major  Thirds  are  taken  upon  the  step  of  a  Major 
Second ;  although,  as  we  have  already  shewn,  it 
is  quite  possible,  as  a  general  rule,  to  form  the 
True  Cadence,  in  those  Modes,  without  the  aid  of 
Accidentals. 


414 


MUSICA  FICTA. 


Modes  V  and  VI. 


pi 


S3      be 


-b^— — ■ 


^    fe=     ^ 

-fi>-         »         -<S>- 

II.  In  the  course  of  long  compositions,  True 
Cadences  are  occasionally  found,  ending  on  some 
note  other  than  the  Final  of  the  Mode.  When 
these  occur  simultaneously  with  a  definite  point 
of  repose  in  the  music,  and  a  full  completion  of 
the  sense  of  the  words,  they  must  be  treated  as 
genuine  Cadences  in  some  new  Mode  to  which 
the  Composer  must  be  supposed  to  have  modu- 
lated ;  and  the  necessary  accidentals  must  be  in- 
troduced accordingly :  as  in  the  Credo  of  Pales- 
trina's  Missa  Brevis — 
Mode  XIII  (transp.). 


¥ 


=M=fc 


T=rf 


m 


»;" 


j?; 


Mode  I  (transp.). 


III.  An  accidental  is  also  frequently  needed 
in  the  last  Chord  of  a  Cadence.  The  rule  is, 
that  every  Cadence  which  either  terminates  a 
composition,  or  concludes  a  well-defined  strain, 
must  end  with  a  Major  Chord.  It  naturally 
does  so  in  Modes  V,  VI,  VII,  VIII,  XIII,  and 
XIV.  In  Modes  I,  II,  III,  IV,  IX,  and  X,  it 
must  be  made  to  do  so  by  means  of  an  accidental. 
The  Major  Third,  thus  artificially  supplied,  in 
Modes  in  which  it  would  naturally  be  Minor,  is 
called  the  '  Tierce  de  Picardie,'  and  forms  one  of 
the  most  striking  characteristics  of  Mediaeval 
Music  \ 

Modes  I  and  II. 

-i — &- 


Modes  III  and  IV. 


P 


~-&=W 


S 


Modes  IX  and  X. 


It  is  not,  however,  in  the  Cadence  alone,  that 
the  laws  of  '  Cantus  Fictus'  are  to  be  observed. 

IV.  The  use  of  the  Augmented  Fourth  ( Tri- 
tonus), and  the  Diminished  Fifth  ( Quinta  Falsa), 
as  intervals  of  melody,  is  as  strictly  forbidden  in 
Polyphonic  Music,  as  in  Plain  Chaunt.  [See 
Mi  contka  fa.]  Whenever,  therefore,  these 
intervals  occur,  they  must  be  made  perfect  by  an 
accidental;  thus — 


P 


<M 


m 


<D 


<M 


It  will  be  seen,  that,  in  all  these  examples,  it 
is  the  second  note  that  is  altered.     No  Singer 

1  Except  In  compositions  in  more  than  four  parts,  Mediaeval  Com. 
posers  usually  omitted  the  Third,  altogether,  in  the  final  chord.  In 
this  case,  a  Major  Third  is  always  supposed. 


MUSICA  FICTA. 

could  be  expected  to  read  so  far  in  advance  as  to 
anticipate  the  necessity  for  a  change  in  the  first 
note.  For  such  a  necessity  the  text  itself  will 
generally  be  found  to  provide,  and  the  Singers 
of  the  1 6th  century  were  quite  content  that  this 
should  be  the  case ;  though  they  felt  grievously 
insulted  by  an  accidental  prefixed  to  the  second 
note,  and  called  it  an  '  Ass's  mark '  (Lat.  Sig- 
num  asininum,  Germ.  EselszeicJien).  Even  in 
conjunct  passages,  they  scorned  its  use;  though 
the  obnoxious  intervals  were  as  sternly  condemned 
in  conjunct  as  in  disjunct  movement. 


These  passages  are  simple  enough :  but,  some- 
times, very  doubtful  ones  occur.  For  instance, 
Pietro  Aron  recommends  the  Student,  in  a  dilem- 
ma like  the  following,  to  choose,  as  the  least  of 
two  evils,  a  Tritonus,  in  conjunct  movement,  as 
at  (a),  rather  than  a  disjunct  Quinta  falsa,  as 
at  (6). 

. ? ,  JOSQUIN  DKS  PRtS. 


m-r-^=^=r^m 


he 


wr^^=^f^ 


V.  In  very  long,  or  crooked  passages,  the 
danger  of  an  oversight  is  vastly  increased :  .and, 
in  order  to  meet  it,  it  is  enacted,  by  a  law  of  fre- 
quent, though  not  universal  application,  that  a 
B,  between  two  A  s — or,  in  the  transposed  Modes, 
an  E,  between  two  Ds — must  be  made  flat, 
thus — 


$ 


$ 


VI.  The  Quinta  falsa  is  also  forbidden,  as  an 
element  of  harmony  :  and,  except  when  used  as  a 
passing  note,  in  the  Second  and  Third  Orders  of 
Counterpoint,  must  always  be  corrected  by  an 
accidental ;  as  in  the  following  example  from  the 
Credo  of  Palestrina's  'Missa  Sterna  Christi 
munera.'     [See  Fa  Fictum,  in  Appendix.] 


The  Tritonus  is  not  likely  to  intrude  itself,  as 
an  integral  part  of  the  harmony  ;  since  the  Chords 
of  6-4  and  6-4-2  are  forbidden  in  strict  Counter- 
point, even  though  the  Fourth  may  be  perfect. 

VII.  But  both  the  Tritonus  and  Quinta  falsa 
are  freely  permitted,  when  they  occur  among  the 


MUSICA  FICTA. 

upper  parts  of  a  Chord,  the  Bass  taking  no  share 
in  their  formation.  In  such  cases,  therefore,  no 
correction  will  be  required. 


VIII.  The  last  rule  we  think  it  necessary  to 
mention  is  strongly  enforced  by  the  learned  Padre 
Martini,  though  Zarlino  points  out  many  excep- 
tions to  its  authority.  Its  purport  is  that  Im- 
perfect Concords,  when  they  ascend,  must  be  made 
Major,  and,  when  they  descend,  Minor.  That 
this  is  true,  in  some  of  the  progressions  pointed 
out  in  the  subjoined  example,  is  evident ;  but,  it 
is  equally  clear  that  in  others  the  law  is  in- 
applicable. 

(8)  (b)  Exception.    Exception. 


MUSICA  MENSURATA. 


415 


Jin 


m 


:g=22r 


(8) 

These  laws  will  suffice  to  give  a  fair  general 
idea  of  a  subject,  the  difficulties  of  which  seem 
greater,  at  first  sight,  than  they  really  are.  It  is 
impossible  but  that  we  should  sometimes  meet 
with  ambiguous  cases — as,  for  instance,  when  it 
seems  uncertain  whether  a  point  of  repose  in  the 
middle  of  a  composition  is,  or  is  not,  sufficiently 
well-marked  to  constitute  a  True  Cadence ;  or  the 
conclusion  of  a  strain  definite  enough  to  demand  a 
Tierce  de  Picardie.  But,  a  little  experience  will 
soon  enable  the  Student  to  form  a  correct  judg- 
ment, whenever  a  choice  is  presented  to  him  ;  if 
only  he  will  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  always  safer 
to  reject  a  disputed  accidental,  than  to  run  the 
risk  of  inserting  a  superfluous  one. 

On  one  other  point,  only,  will  a  little  farther 
explanation  be  necessary. 

Among  the  few  accidentals  introduced  into  the 
older  Part-books,  we  rarely  find  a  Natural.  Com- 
posers limited  themselves  to  the  use  of  the  Sharp 
and  Flat,  in  order  to  remove  a  trifling  difficulty 
connected  with  the  process  of  Transposition.  It 
constantly  happens,  that,  for  the  convenience  of 
particular  Singers,  pieces,  originally  written  in 
transposed  Modes,  are  restored,  in  performance, 
to  their  natural  pitch.  In  this  case,  the  B  flat  of 
the  transposed  scale,  raised  by  a  Natural,  is  re- 
presented, at  the  true  pitch,  by  an  F,  raised  by  a 
Sharp ;  thus — 

Mode  VII,  transposed.        ^2£*£j  *  ta 
4-^= «sU=*- 


Now,  to  us,  this  use  of  the  Natural,  in  the  one 
case,  and  the  Sharp,  in  the  other,  is  intelligible 
enough.  But,  when  accidentals,  of  all  kinds, 
were  exceedingly  rare,  there  was  always  danger 
of  their  being  misunderstood :  and  the  early  Com- 
posers, fearing  lest  the  mere  sight  of  a  Natural 
should  tempt  the  unwary,  in  the  act  of  transpos- 
ing, to  transfer  it  from  the  B  to  the  F,  sub- 
stituted a  Sharp  for  it ;  thus — 

Mode  VII,  transposed. 


This  method  of  writing,  which  is  found  as 
late  as  last  century,  is  exceedingly  puzzling 
to  the  beginner ;  but,  all  difficulty  will  vanish, 
if  he  will  only  remember  that  notes,  flat  by  the 
Signature,  simply  become  Natural,  when  a  Sharp 
is  prefixed  to  them.  [W.S.R.] 

MUSICA  FIGURATA  (Figured  music).  I. 
In  its  earliest  sense,  this  term  was  applied  to 
Plain-Chaunt  Melodies,  corrupted  by  the  intro- 
duction of  forbidden  intervals,  and  overloaded 
with  those  ill-conceived  embellishments,  which, 
in  the  year  1322,  were  so  sternly  condemned  by 
the  celebrated  Bull  of  Pope  John  the  22nd. 
[See  Macicotaticum.]  II.  In  later  times,  it 
was  more  generally  understood  to  indicate  the 
Polyphonic  Music  of  the  14th,  15th,  and  16th 
centuries,  in  which  the  beauty  of  a  Plain-Chaunt 
Canto  fermo  was  enhanced  by  the  addition  of 
an  elaborate  and  regularly-constructed  Counter- 
point. [W.S.R.] 

MUSICA  MENSURATA  or  Cantus  Men- 
subabilis  (Measured  Music).  The  notes  of 
Plain  Chaunt  were  originally  of  equal  length ; 
or,  at  least,  were  only  lengthened  or  shortened 
indefinitely,  in  accordance  with  the  accent  of 
the  words  to  which  they  were  adapted.  But, 
after  the  invention  of  Figured  Music,  it  became 
necessary  to  design  a  system  of  Notation  capable 
of  expressing  the  relative  duration,  as  well  as  the 
pitch,  of  every  note  intended  to  be  sung ;  and 
thus  arose  a  new  species  of  Song,  called  Canlut 
men&urabilis,  or  Measured  Music. 

One  of  the  earliest  known  writers  on  this  sub- 
ject was  the  celebrated  Franco  of  Cologne,  who, 
upon  the  strength  of  his  Tract,  entitled  Ars  cantus 
tnensuraiili8,  written  during  the  later  half  of  the 
nth  century,  has  frequently  been  credited  with 
the  invention  of  the  Time-Table.  It  is  but  fair 
however,  to  say,  that,  in  this  very  Tract,  Magister 
Franco  himself  speaks  of '  many  others,  both  re- 
cent, and  antient,'  (multos  tarn  novos  quam  anti- 
quos),  who  have  written  on  the  same  subject ; 
whence,  notwithstanding  the  testimony  of  Mar- 
chetto  de  Padova,  who  wrote  two  centuries  later, 
we  must  infer  that  we  are  indebted  to  our  author 
rather  for  a  compendium  of  what  was  already 
known  at  the  time  when  he  flourished,  than  for 
a  new  or  original  discovery.  In  confirmation  of 
this  view,  Coussemaker,  in  his  'Scriptores  de 
musica  medii  sevi,'  cites  several  MSS.  which 
appear  to  be  of  earlier  date  than  the  Treatise  of 
Franco ;  and  prints,  in  extenso,  examples  which 
set  forth  systems  far  less  completely  developed 
than  that  which  Franco  describes. 

Next,  in  point  of  antiquity,  to  Franco's  Treatise, 
is  one  written  by  our  own  countryman,  Walter 
Odington,  of  Evesham,  in  the  year  1220.  Others 
follow,  by  Marchetto  de  Padova,  in  1274; 
Johannes  de  Muris,  in  1321 ;  Robert  de  Handlo 
— another  Englishman — in  1326  ;  Prodoscimus  de 
Beldomandis,  in  14 10;  Franchinus  Gafurius,  in 
1480  ;  and  numerous  other  authors,  who  all  con- 
cur in  representing  Franco  as  an  authority  entitled 
to  the  utmost  possible  veneration. 

A  detailed  analysis  of  these  interesting  works 
would  far  exceed  the  limits  of  the  present  Article. 


416 


MUSICA  MENSURATA. 


The  systems  they  set  forth  are,  of  course,  pro- 
gressive ;  and  a  sufficiently  explicit  summary  of 
their  successive  stages  of  development  will  be  found 
in  the  Articles  Notation,  Time-Table,  and  others 
therein  mentioned.  [W.S.R.] 

MUSICA  TRANSALPINA.  The  name  of 
the  first  printed  collection  of  Italian  madrigals 
with  English  words.  It  was  published  in  London 
in  1588  (the  dedicatory  epistle  is  dated  Oct.  1) 
soon  after  Byrd  had  issued  his  'Psalmes,  Sonets, 
and  Songs,'  the  first  printed  collection  of  English 
madrigals.  The  title  is  'Musica  Transalpina. 
Madrigales  translated  of  foure,  five  and  sixe  parts, 
chosen  out  of  diuers  excellent  Authors,  with  the 
first  and  second  part  of  La  Verginella,  made  by 
Maister  Byrd  vpon  two  Stanz's  of  Ariosto,  and 
brought  to  speak  English  with  the  rest.  Pub- 
lished by  N.  Yonge,  in  fauour  of  such  as  take 
pleasure  in  Musick  of  voices.  Imprinted  at  Lon- 
don by  Thomas  East,  the  assigne  of  William 
Byrd.  1588.  Cum  Priuelegio  Regia  Maiestatis.' 
Nicholas  Yonge,  the  compiler,  tells  us  that  dur- 
ing his  residence  in  London  he  had  annually 
received  music  books  from  Italy  and  elsewhere, 
and  that  his  house  was  much  resorted  to  by  gen- 
tlemen and  merchants,  English  and  foreign,  at- 
tracted by  the  music  which  was  daily  performed 
there  ;  that  five  years  previously  a  gentleman  had 
translated  many  Italian  madrigals,  and  that  he, 
having  obtained  copies,  had  often  been  importuned 
to  publish  them,  and  had  at  length  done  so.  The 
number  of  madrigals  in  the  collection  is  57,  viz. 
16  by  Ferabosco,  10  by  Marenzio,  4  each  by  Pales- 
trina  and  Filippo  di  Monte,  3  by  Conversi,  2  each 
by  Byrd,  Fagnient,  Donato,  Orlando  di  Lasso, 
Ferretti  and  Felis,  and  one  each  by  di  Macque, 
Pordenoni,  de  Vert,  Verdonck,  Palestina,  Rinaldo 
del  Mel,  Bertani  and  Pinello.  In  the  table  of 
contents  the  original  initial  Italian  words  are 
given,  side  by  side  with  the  English.  In  1597 
Yonge  published  a  second  book  under  the  same 
name,  containing  24  madrigals,  viz.  6  by  Fera- 
bosco, 3  each  by  Marenzio,  Croce  and  Quintiani, 
2  each  by  Eremita  and  Palavicino,  and  one  each 
by  Vecchi,  Nanino,  Venturi,  Feliciani,  and  Bicci. 
The  madrigals  in  both  books  are  very  judiciously 
chosen,  and  many  are  still  in  constant  use.  The 
English  words  are  almost  literal  translations  of 
the  original  Italian,  and  are  generally  well  fitted 
to  the  notes,  but  as  verses  are  singularly  crude, 
and  in  some  instances — notably  the  well-known 
'  Cynthia,  thy  song  and  chanting '  of  Giovanni 
Croce — almost  unmeaning.  [W.  H.  H.] 

MUSICAL  ANTIQUARIAN  SOCIETY, 
THE,  'for  the  publication  of  scarce  and  valu- 
able works  by  the  early  English  composers,'  was 
established  in  1 840,  and  commenced  its  publica- 
tions in  November  of  that  year.  Specimens  of 
old  English  melody  had  been  reproduced  in  '  A 
Collection  of  National  English  Airs,'  then  re- 
cently completed,  and  this  society  was  designed 
to  afford  specimens  of  the  English  school  of  har- 
mony in  and  after  the  madrigalian  era.  As 
motets,  madrigals,  and  other  choral  music  were 
originally  published  only  in  separate  parts,  it 


MUSICAL  ANTIQUARIAN  SOCIETY. 

became  necessary,  for  this  object,  to  reproduce 
them  in  score.  The  separate  parts  were  difficult 
of  attainment,  and  not  in  all  cases  correct;  the 
editors  had  therefore  a  considerable  amount  of 
labour,  and  occasionally  of  thought,  in  making 
the  scores.  Nevertheless,  the  duties  were  cheer- 
fully undertaken  by  eminent  musicians  of  the 
time,  some  of  whom  added  biographies  of  the  com- 
posers, or  other  interesting  introductory  matter — 
all  without  remuneration,  as  the  object  was  a 
national  one. 

Nineteen  works  were  published,  in  large  folio, 
and  to  these  were  added  sixteen  correspond- 
ing folios  of  compressed  scores  by  Professor  G. 
A.  Macfarren.  These  were  undertaken  by  the 
publisher  on  his  own  responsibility,  with  a  view 
of  increasing  the  subscription  list.  The  council 
of  the  society  had  decided  against  the  addition 
of  accompaniments  under  the  vocal  scores.  Be- 
sides the  editors,  there  were  many  eminent 
musicians  who  assisted  on  the  council  and  at  the 
rehearsal  of  each  work,  being  then  occasionally 
called  upon  to  advise  in  cases  of  doubtful  notes. 

The  society  lasted  seven  years,  and  in  its 
second  year  numbered  nearly  a  thousand  mem- 
bers, but  they  gradually  fell  away,  chiefly  alleg- 
ing as  reasons  that  the  works  were  more  fitted 
for  societies  than  for  private  families,  in  which 
there  are  rarely  a  sufficient  number  of  voices  ; 
and,  secondly,  that  the  books  occupied  too  much 
space.  The  annual  subscription  was  one  pound, 
and  the  works  were  supplied  to  the  members  at 
prime  cost. 

The  nineteen  works  issued  by  the  society 
were  : — 


1.  A  Mass  for  5  voices,  by  William 
Byrd.    Edited  by  E.  F.  Bimbault. 

2.  The  first  set  of  Madrigals  by 
John  Wilbye.  Edited  by  James 
Turle. 

3.  Madrigals  and  Motets  for  5 
voices,  by  Orlando  Gibbons.  Edited 
by  Sir  George  Smart. 

4.  Didoand  J£neas,atragicopera 
by  Henry  Purcell.  Edited  by  G.  A. 
Macfarren. 

6.  The  first  set  of  Ballets  for  5 
voices  by  Thomas  Morley.  Edited 
by  E.  F.  Bimbault. 

6.  Bk.  I  of  Cantiones  sacne  for  5 
voices,  by  William  Byrd.  Edited 
by  W.  Horsley. 

7.  Bonduca,  a  tragedy  by  Henry 
Purcell.  Edited  by  E.F.  Bimbault. 

8.  The  first  set  of  Madrigals  by 
Thomas  Weelkes.  Edited  by  Ed- 
ward J.  Hopkins. 

9.  Fantasies  In  3  parts  composed 
for  Viols,  by  Orlando  Gibbons. 
Edited  by  E.  F.  Bimbault. 

10.  King  Arthur,  an  opera,  by 
Henry  Purcell.  Edited  by  Profes- 
sor Edward  Taylor. 


11.  The  whole  Book  of  Fsalmt 
with  their  wonted  tunes,  In  4  parts, 
as  published  by  Thomas  Este. 
Edited  by  E.  F.  Bimbault. 

12.  The  first  set  of  Songs  by  John 
Dowland.  Edited  by  William 
Chappell. 

IS.  Airs  or  Fa  las  by  John  Hilton. 
Edited  by  Joseph  Warren. 

14.  A  collection  of  Anthems  by 
M.  Este,  T.  Ford,  Weelkes,  and 
Bateson.  Edited  by  E.F.Bimbault 

15.  Madrigals  by  John  Bennet 
Edited  by  E.  J.  Hopkins. 

16.  The  second  set  of  Madrigals 
by  John  Wilbye.  Edited  by  George 
William  Budd. 

17.  The  first  set  of  Madrigals  by 
Thomas  Bateson.  Edited  by  E.  F. 
Bimbault. 

18.  Parthenia,  or  the  first  music 
ever  printed  for  the  Virginals, 
by  W.  Byrd,  John  Bull,  and  Or- 
lando Gibbons.  Edited  by  E.  F. 
Bimbault. 

19.  Ode  composed  for  St.  Cecilia's 
Day  by  Henry  Purcell.  Edited  by 
E.  F.  Bimbault. 


Among  members  of  the  council  not  included 
in  the  above  list  were  Sir  John  Goss,  Sir  W. 
Sterndale  Bennett,  Sir  Henry  Bishop,  Henry 
Smart,  George  Hogarth,  William  Hawes,  Charles 
Lucas,  Charles  Neate,  John  Barnett,  Tom  Cooke, 
George  Cooper,  W.  H.  Callcott,  J.  Blackbourn, 
W.  Bayley,  E.  Hawkins,  I.  Moscheles,  and  others. 
The  late  Dr.  Rimbault  acted  throughout  as  hon. 
secretary,  and  W.  Chappell,  the  projector  of  the 
society,  acted  for  about  five  years  as  treasurer 
and  manager  of  the  publications.     He  was  then 


MUSICAL  ANTIQUARIAN  SOCIETY. 

succeeded  by  bis  younger  brother,  Thomas  P. 
Chappell.  [W.  CJ 

MUSICAL  ASSOCIATION,  THE,  esta- 
blished in  1874,  after  preliminary  meetings  at  the 
house  of  Mr.W.Spottiswoode,  F.R.S.,and  atSouth 
Kensington  Museum,  at  the  latter  of  which,  on 
May  29,  Mr.  John  Hullah  presided  and  several 
members  were  enrolled.  On  August  4,  1874, 
the  first  general  meeting  of  the  members  was 
held,  Mr.  A.  J.  Ellis,  F.R.S.  in  the  chair,  and  it 
was  resolved  that  the  Society's  title  should  be 
•  Musical  Association  for  the  investigation  and 
discussion  of  subjects  connected  with  the  Science 
and  Art  of  Music*  The  members,  according  to  the 
rules,  'consist  of  practical  and  theoretical  musi- 
cians as  well  as  those  whose  researches  have  been 
directed  to  the  science  of  Acoustics,  the  history 
of  Music  or  other  kindred  subjects.'  The  Asso- 
ciation meets  at  the  Beethoven  Rooms,  Harley 
Street,  on  the  first  Monday  of  every  month 
from  November  to  June,  when  papers  are  read 
and  discussed  and  published.  Subscription  is 
one  guinea  a  year,  and  members  are  elected  by 
ballot.  The  President  is  the  Rev.  Sir  F.  A.  G. 
Ouseley,  Bart.  The  Vice-presidents  are  Messrs. 
W.  Chappell;  Otto  Goldschmidt ;  G.  Grove;  J. 
Hullah ;  Prof.  G.  A.  Macfarren,  Mus.  Doc. ; 
G.  A.  Osborne ;  W.  Pole,  Mus.  Doc. ;  C.  K. 
Salaman ;  W.  Spottiswoode ;  W.  H.  Stone,  and 
J.  Tyndall.  The  Council  includes  the  vice- 
presidents  and  Messrs.  W.  A.  Barrett,  Mus. 
Bac. ;  C.  H.  Barry ;  J.  Bennett ;  R.  H.  M. 
Bosanquet ;  J.  F.  Bridge,  Mus.  Doc. ;  W.  H. 
Cummings ;  W.  H.  Monk ;  A.  H.  D.  Prender- 
gast ;  J.  Stainer,  Mus.  Doc. ;  and  C.  E.  Stephens. 
The  other  officers  are — Treasurer,  Mr.  Stanley 
Lucas  ;  Auditors,  Messrs.  W.  S.  Collard  and 
C.  Mackeson  ;  and  Hon.  Sec,  Mr.  J.  Higgs, 
Mus.  Bac  During  the  five  sessions  since  the 
establishment  of  the  Society,  papers  on  a  great 
variety  of  subjects  have  been  read,  including 
musical  nomenclature,  musical  notation,  pitch, 
temperament,  systems  of  harmony,  ecclesiastical 
music,  musical  criticism,  Bach's  Art  of  Fugue, 
Purcell  and  his  family,  the  formation  of  a 
national  musical  library,  orchestral  music,  the 
history,  character  and  possible  improvements  of 
certain  instruments,  and  questions  connected 
with  acoustics  and  the  mathematics  of  music. 
The  Society's  Proceedings  are  published  annually 
by  Lucas  &  Weber.  [CM.] 

MUSICAL  BOX.  [See  Snuffbox,  Musical.] 

MUSICAL  FEASTS.  The  Musical  Feasts 
which  preceded  the  Musical  Drama  were  so 
called  because  it  was  the  custom  in  Italy  to 
celebrate  any  joyful  occasion,  such  as  the  marriage 
of  princes,  with  feasts,  and  games,  and  melo- 
dramatic poetry,  accompanied  with  theatrical  re- 
presentations. Feats  of"  arms,  jousts  and  tourna- 
ments, also  made  part  of  the  entertainment,  which 
was  in  Italy  of  much  the  same  character  as  the 
masques  and  pageants  in  England  in  the  time  of 
Elizabeth  and  James  I.  So  much  were  these 
Musical  Feasts  in  request  that  the  most  celebrated 
poets  and  musicians  of  the  day  were  employed 
VOL.  11.   pt.  10. 


MUSICAL  LIBRARIES. 


417 


to  arrange  the  scheme,  celebrated  architects  de- 
vised the  extraordinary  and  elaborate  machinery 
brought  in  to  enhance  the  effect,  and  great  paint- 
ers— in  one  instance  a  pupil  of  Perugino,  Bastiano 
di  san  Gallo — condescended  to  paint  the  scenery. 

'Like  the  musical  feasts,'  says  Burney  (Hist, 
ii.  50), '  the  first  Italian  operas  were  performed  in 
the  palaces  of  princes,  for  the  celebration  of  mar- 
riages, or  on  some  particular  occasion  of  joy  and 
festivity,  at  the  expense  of  the  Sovereign  or  the 
Republic,  and  not  in  theatres  supported  by 
general  contribution.'  (See  H  Quadrio,  vol.  v. 
p.  500.)  [CM. P.] 

MUSICAL  GLASSES.     [See  Harmonica.] 

MUSICAL  LIBRARIES.  The  authors  of 
this  article  cannot  hold  themselves  responsible 
for  the  correctness  of  the  statements  contained 
in  their  accounts  of  the  principal  European  and 
American  collections  of  music.  It  has  not  been 
possible  to  examine  every  library  for  the  pur- 
poses of  this  work,  but  every  care  has  been 
taken  to  ensure  accuracy  by  obtaining  the 
information  direct  from  librarians,  cathedral 
dignitaries,  organists,  or  other  persons  who 
have  access  to  the  collections.  Circulating 
libraries  have  not  been  noticed,  as,  although  they 
often  contain  many  thousands  of  musical  works, 
they  are  not  generally  of  a  permanent  nature, 
and  consist  principally  of  modern  works.  It  is 
to  be  regretted  that  libraries  devoted  solely  to 
music  should  be  so  rare.  Even  where,  as  in  the 
British  Museum,  the  musical  part  of  the  col- 
lection is  kept  separate,  musical  literature  has  to 
be  sought  for  in  the  general  library.  The 
Imperial  Libraries  at  Berlin  and  Vienna,  and  the 
libraries  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society  and 
Paris  Conservatoire  are  gratifying  exceptions  to 
this  rule. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Cambridge,  a.  The  Fitzwilliam  Museum 
contains  a  valuable  collection  which  has  been 
already  noticed.  [Vol.  i.  p.  530.]  A  new  cata- 
logue has  been  recently  (1879)  completed. 

b.  The  University  Library,  besides  a  consider- 
able and  somewhat  miscellaneous  collection  of 
printed  music  (chiefly  of  the  present  century) 
contains  a  few  MS.  books  of  music,  consisting 
principally  of  collections  of  well-known  airs, 
dance-tunes,  and  lessons  for  the  lute,  bass 
viol  and  recorder,  arranged  and  composed  by 
Bachelor,  Dowland,  Holborne,  Byrd,  Tallis, 
Johnson  and  other  composers  of  the  early  part 
of  the  17th  century.  They  are  written  in 
tablature  and  date  principally  from  1600  to 
1640.  Besides  these  there  is  a  valuable  volume 
of  16th-century  anthems  and  masses  by  Fayrfax, 
Prowett,  Davy,  Austen,  Taverner,  Lovell,  Pasche, 
and  Ashwell.  Amongst  the  masses  in  this 
volume  may  be  mentioned  a  'Missa  Regalis' 
and  a  mass,  '  God  save  King  Harry.'  There  is 
also  preserved  here  an  undoubted  15th-century 
mass  in  two  parts,  unfortunately  wanting  one 
page.  MS.  installation  odes  by  Boyce  and 
Walmisley  are  also  in  the  library,  and  it  is 
hoped  that  in  consequence  of  a  recent  regulation, 

E  e 


418 


MUSICAL  LIBRAKIES. 


an  extensive  collection  of  exercises  for  the 
University  musical  degrees  will  be  gradually 
accumulated. 

c.  Trinity  College.  The  library  contains  a 
small  collection  of  musical  works  and  treatises, 
including  copies  of  the  '  Psalterium  Carolinum ' 
of  J.  Wilson  (1652) ;  Locke's  'Present  Practice 
of  Music  Vindicated '  (1673)  ;  Carr's '  Vinculum 
Societatis'  (1687)  ;  4  volumes  of  Zarlino's  works 
(1589),  and  early  editions  of  the  works  of  Byrd, 
Watson,  Morley,  Playford,  Bannister,  Wilson, 
Gamble,  Lawes,  Mace,  etc. 

d.  Magdalene  College.  The  Pepysian  library 
contains  a  few  early  works  on  music  by  Butler, 
Holder,  Morelli,  Victorini,  Wallis  and  Alstedius ; 
valuable  MS.  collections  of  vocal  music  of  the  time 
of  Edward  IV  and  Henry  VII  (containing  com- 
positions by  Joseph  Guinneth  and  Robert  Davis ; 
and  a  volume  which  belonged  to  Henry  VIII 
when  he  was  Prince  of  Wales) ;  English,  French, 
Scotch  and  Latin  psalters ;  an  opera  by  Grabu 
('Albion  and  Albianus') ;  compositions  by  Blome, 
de  Bacilly,  Kircher,  Mersenne,  Morley,  Salmon, 
Deering,  Merbeck,  Coperario,  Lawes,  King,  Pur- 
cell,  and  Finger ;  ballads,  songs,  and  other  com- 
positions adjusted  to  the  compass  of  Mr.  Pepys' 
voice,  and  solos,  duets,  and  trios  for  stringed  and 
wind  instruments,  which  seem  to  show  that  he 
carried  out  his  resolution  to  'practice  wind- 
musique,  and  to  make  my  wife  do  the  like.' 

e.  St.  Peter's  College.  In  the  college  library 
is  a  valuable  collection  of  MS.  anthems,  services, 
masses,  motets,  etc.,  both  Latin  and  English,  in 
separate  part-books.  The  anthems  and  services 
are  by  composers  of  the  early  1 7th  century,  and 
were  probably  collected  when  Dr.  Cosin  was 
Master  of  Peterhouse  (1634-1660).  They  are 
in  various  handwritings  and  contain  some  auto- 
graph compositions  by  Cambridge  organists  of 
the  period.  The  masses  and  motets  (in  four  part- 
books)  date  from  the  early  part  of  the  1 6th  century 
and  contain  many  rare  and  valuable  compositions 
of  the  time  of  Henry  VII  and  Henry  VlII,  in- 
cluding 4  masses  by  Fayrfax,  a  Stabat  Mater  by 
Hunt,  3  masses  by  Ludford,  and  1 1  compositions 
by  Taverner.  The  collection  contains  works  by 
upwards  of  80  different  musicians,  as  well  as 
many  anonymous  compositions.  There  is  a  MS. 
catalogue  compiled  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Jebb. 

Canterbury.  The  Cathedral  library  contains 
a  number  of  volumes  of  music  and  works  on 
music,  including  an  incomplete  copy  of  the 
contra-tenor  cantoris  of  Barnard's  Church  Music 
(1641). 

Chester.  The  Cathedral  library  contains  a 
good  collection  of  modern  church  music. 

Dublin,  a.  Royal  Irish  Academy  of  Music. 
This  society  possesses  a  good  library  of  scores 
and  orchestral  parts  of  the  works  of  the  great 
composers.  It  also  includes  the  library  of  the 
long  defunct '  Antient  Concerts.' 

0.  The  library  of  Christ  Church  Cathedral 
contains  valuable  MS.  copies  of  anthems  and 
services  by  Purcell,  Child,  Battishill  and  others, 
which  are  said  to  differ  greatly  from  those  printed 
in  England  during  the  last  fifty  years. 


MUSICAL  LIBRARIES. 

Durham.  The  Cathedral  library  contains  a 
few  books  of  glees  and  catches  of  the  early  18th 
century,  and  some  long  disused  MS.  anthems  and 
services  formerly  performed  in  the  Cathedral. 

Edinburgh,  a.  The  library  of  musical  works 
belonging  to  the  chair  of  music  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh  was  formed  from  the  collections  of 
the  late  Professor  of  Music  (Donaldson)  and  the 
present  (Sir  Herbert  Oakeley),  and  bequests 
from  Signor  Bucher,  General  Reid  and  others. 
There  are  some  750  works  on  music,  comprising 
standard  theoretical  treatises;  rare  old  copies 
of  the  works  of  Boethius,  Morley,  Zarlino  and 
Praetorius ;  and  a  remarkable  MS.  copy  of  a 
Kyrie  and  Gloria  in  48  real  parts  by  Gregorio 
Balabene.  Perhaps  the  rarest  MS.  is  the  original 
autograph  copy  of  the  great  B  minor  Prelude  and 
Fugue  for  organ  (Peters'  edition,  vol.  2,  no.  10) 
by  Sebastian  Bach,  which  belongs  to  Sir  H. 
Oakeley.  This  library  also  possesses  most  of  the 
compositions  of  the  great  masters,  including 
orchestral  scores,  and  a  unique  collection  of 
musical  instruments  and  of  acoustical  apparatus. 

6.  The  Advocate's  library,  in  common  with 
the  British  Museum,  Bodleian,  Cambridge  and 
Dublin  libraries,  receives  under  the  copyright 
act  copies  of  all  music  entered  at  Stationers' 
Hall.  The  volumes  of  bound  music  in  this 
library  number  about  500,  each  volume  contain- 
ing from  15  to  20  pieces.  There  are  also  a  few 
volumes  of  MSS.  and  other  music  of  no  great 
rarity  or  value. 

Ely.  [See  vol.  i.  p.  487  &.] 

Glasgow.  The  Euing  library.  This  library 
was  collected  by  the  late  W.  Euing,  Esq.,  of 
Glasgow,  and  bequeathed  by  him  to  Anderson's 
College,  where  it  is  now  preserved.  It  is  a  large 
and  valuable  collection,  particularly  rich  in 
treatises  and  histories  of  music.  The  catalogue, 
which  was  prepared  and  printed  in  accordance 
with  Mr.  Euing' s  will,  contains  256  pages,  140 
of  which  are  filled  with  the  list  of  treatises, 
essays,  etc.  These  form  the  nucleus  of  the  col- 
lection, and  comprise  the  treatises  accumulated 
by  the  late  Dr.  Rimbault.  Amongst  the  ancient 
music  in  this  collection  the  following  works  may 
be  mentioned  :  early  editions  of  Byrd's  Psalms, 
etc. ;  the  Corale  Constantini  (1550-57) ;  Faber's 
Melodiae  Prudentianae  (1533)  >  3  volumes  of 
Frescobaldi's  works ;  Nicolas  de  la  Grotte's 
Chansons  (1575) ;  47  volumes  of  Praetorius's 
works  (1 607-1 61 8)  ;  9  volumes  of  J.  de  Wert's 
works  (1583-1589)  ;  and  a  valuable  and  ex- 
tensive collection  of  English  psalters  and  hymn- 
books. 

Gloucester.  The  Cathedral  library  possesses 
several  old  choir  books  containing  unpublished 
anthems  by  Rogers,  Tye,  Wise,  Blackwell, 
Turner,  Pickhaver,  Henstridge,  Davies,  Jefferies, 
Portman,  Parsons,  etc.,  unfortunately  wanting 
several  of  the  parts ;  a  complete  full  service 
(in  F),  and  two  anthems  in  MS.  by  Fortunate 
Santini ;  a  full  MS.  score  of  Boyce's  anthem 
•  Blessed  is  he  that  considereth' ;  a  few  leaves  of 
illuminated  MS.  music,  and  some  printed  and 
MS.  church  music  of  the  1 7th  century. 


MUSICAL  LIBRARIES. 

Hereford.  The  principal  musical  treasure 
of  the  Cathedral  library  is  the  set  of  IO  volumes 
of  Barnard's  Church  Music  (1641).  Eight  of 
the  volumes  are  nearly  perfect,  the  remaining 
two  are  in  MS.,  and  were  compiled  with  much 
care  by  Mr.  John  Bishop,  of  Cheltenham.  There 
are  also  a  few  old  organ  books  and  other  volumes 
for  the  use  of  the  choir,  and  a  copy  of  Kircher's 
Musurgia  (1650). 

Lichfield.  There  are  1 89  volumes  of  printed 
and  MS.  music  belonging  to  the  Cathedral.  The 
MSS.  include  a  volume  of  Croft's  anthems  and 
Te  Deum  dn  D)  with  orchestral  accompaniments ; 
2  volumes  of  Blow's  anthems ;  2  volumes  of  an- 
thems by  Purcell,  Blow,  etc.;  and  a  large  col- 
lection of  part-books.  The  chief  treasure  of  the 
printed  works  is  seven  parts  (3  counter-tenors, 
2  tenors,  and  2  basses)  of  Barnard's  Church  Music 
(1641). 

Lincoln.  The  Cathedral  library  contains  a 
considerable  collection  of  madrigals  and  motets, 
dating  from  1549  to  1620,  by  many  now  for- 
gotten and  nearly  unknown  composers,  amongst 
whom  the  following  names  occur :  Rogier-Pathie, 
Josquin  Baston,  Costeley,  Sandrin,  Godart, 
Benedictus  d'Appenzell,  Francois  Roupel,  Gian- 
etto  da  Palestrina,  Lochenburgo,  Nasco,  Essenga, 
Pace,  Vopa,  Memo,  Manenti,  Prima  vera  'dell' 
Arpa,'  Taglia,  Ruflb,  dal'  Aquila,  Cadeac.  Petrus 
Philippus  Anglus,  Deering,  Corona,  Di  Mayo, 
Rufolo,  Chamatero,  di  Cataldo,  Valenzola,  Sabino, 
and  Raimundus.  There  are  also  compositions 
by  other  better  known  composers,  and  anthems 
(dating  from  1665  to  1800)  by  former  organists 
and  lay  vicars  of  the  cathedral,  including  compo- 
sitions by  Hecht  (organist  1665-1690),  Allanson 
(1690-1705),  Holmes  (1705-1720),  Heardson, 
Cutts,  Blundevile,  etc.  [W.  B.  S.] 

London,    a.  British  Museum.    The  musical 

{tortion  of  the  library  of  the  British  Museum  be- 
ongs  partly  to  the  department  of  Printed  Books, 
and  partly  to  that  of  MSS.  In  both  depart- 
ments there  is  a  constant  increase  ;  in  the  former 
by  the  operation  of  the  Copyright  Act,  which 
gives  the  Museum  a  claim  to  all  music  published 
in  this  country,  as  well  as  in  foreign  countries 
which  demand  copyright  here  ;  and  in  both  by 
purchase,  which  is  now  made  on  a  large  scale,  as 
well  as  by  presentation  or  bequest. 

The  MS.  catalogue  of  Printed  Music  in  1858 
consisted  of  22  volumes;  in  1878  it  occupied  372 
volumes,  with  about  185,000  entries.  According 
to  an  estimate  made  in  a  report  at  the  beginning 
of  the  latter  year,  there  were  1 1 ,048  volumes  of 
vocal  and  5705  of  instrumental  printed  music,  em- 
bracing together  a  total  of  about  70,000  distinct 
works.  The  present  annual  increase  is  estimated 
at  about  6000  works.  The  most  important  early 
contribution  to  the  collection  was  Dr.  Burneyss 
musical  library,  which  was  bequeathed  to  the 
Museum,  and  transferred  to  its  shelves  on  his 
death  in  1814:  this  is  especially  rich  in  old 
English  songs.  Another  important  collection 
embodied  in  the  library  is  that  of  the  great 
contrabassist  Dragonetti,  consisting  of  182 
yolumes  of   scores   of   classical    operas,    which 


MUSICAL  LIBRARIES. 


41«J 


I  became   the  property  of  the   Museum  by  be- 

I  quest  on  his  death  in  1846.  [See  DBAQONETTr.]  A 

I  notable  purchase  was  made  in  1863  of  duplicates 

'  from  the  Berlin  library,  consisting  chiefly  of  old 

German  and  Italian  madrigals  and  church  music, 

valued  at  about  £1000.     In  specimens  of  the 

'  earliest  printed  music,  such  as  that  produced  by 

!  Petrucci  at  Venice  in  the  fifteenth  century  and 

j  beginning  of  the  sixteenth,  the  British  Museum 

is  less  strong,  as  indeed  any  library  of  so  recent  an 

origin  necessarily  must  be.     But  otherwise  it  is 

well  supplied  with  rarities,  as  is  evident  from 

the  fact  that  of  376  rare  musical  works  (chiefly 

English)  sold  at  the  auction  of  Dr.  Rimbault's 

library  in  1878,  it  was  found  that  this  library 

already  possessed  all  but  39.     The  works  here 

referred  to  are  all  music  strictly  speaking,  i.e. 

written  in  musical  notation;    all  books  on  the 

science  and  history  of  music  (such  as  the  choice 

treatises  presented  by  Sir  John   Hawkins    in 

1778),  with  biographies  of  musicians,  etc.,  are 

included  in  the  general    library,   as  are    also 

service-books,  such  as  Graduals,  Antiphoners  and 

Processionals,  which,  although    exhibiting    the 

ancient  musical  notes,  find  their  place  among 

Liturgies. 

The  collection  of  musical  MSS.  amounts  to 
from  1200  to  1500  volumes.  The  following 
are  among  the  most  noteworthy  articles.  A 
large  volume  of  autograph  music  by  Purcell. 
A  volume  known  as  Thomas  Mulliner's  book, 
containing  airs  and  chants  for  the  virginals,  by 
Tallis  and  others,  and  including  the  earliest 
known  copy  of  Richard  Edwards'  madrigal '  In 
going  to  my  naked  bed.'  Services  and  anthems 
of  the  Church  of  England  down  to  Queen  \nne's 
reign,  collected  by  Dr.  Tudway,  1715-20,  in  six 
volumes,  containing  works  by  Aldrich,  Blow, 
Gibbons,  Humphrey,  Purcell,  Tudway,  etc.  Two 
or  three  volumes  of  autograph  pieces  by  Handel, 
some  leaves  of  which  supply  the  place  of  leaves 
wanting  in  the  autograph  of  'Admetus'  in 
Buckingham  Palace.  Two  volumes  of  rough 
draughts  by  Beethoven,  in  which  the  first  ideas 
of  themes  of  some  of  his  great  works  were  jotted 
down.  1 1  volumes  of  autograph  musical  extracts, 
chiefly  vocal,  made  by  Dr.  Burney  for  his  History 
of  Music.  28  volumes  of  MS.  motets,  masses, 
madrigals,  duets,  etc.  by  Italian  and  English 
composers,  copied  by  Henry  Needier  from  the 
libraries  at  Oxford,  and  bequeathed  in  1782. 
John  Barnard's  first  book  of  Selected  Church 
Music,  a  manuscript  copy  scored  by  John  Bishop 
of  Cheltenham  from  the  various  voice  parts  of 
this  book,  of  which  no  single  perfect  copy  is 
known  to  exist.  There  are  many  interest- 
ing collections  of  Italian  and  early  English  (16th 
and  17th  centuries)  songs,  having  both  words 
and  music.  61  volumes  of  autograph  musical 
compositions,  collections  for  a  dictionary  of 
music,  etc.  by  Dr.  J.  W.  Callcott.  39  operas  or 
musical  dramas  by  Sir  Henry  R.  Bishop,  in  auto- 
graph score.  Further,  40  volumes  of  scores  of 
Balfe's  operas,  presented  by  his  widow ;  and 
a  large  collection  of  Dibdin's  songs  and 
operas.  There  is  also  a  good  deal  of  lute 
Ee2 


,420 


MUSICAL  LIBRARIES. 


music  in  the  peculiar  lute  notation.  Among 
the  more  important  articles  acquired  by  purchase 
from  time  to  time,  are  scores  of  operas — manv,  if 
pot  most,  probably  unpublished  in  score— espe- 
cially by  Rossini,  Meyerbeer,  Donizetti,  Paisiello, 
Hasse,  Winter,  Ricci,  and  Mercadante ;  and 
church  music,  chiefly  Italian,  in  18th  cen- 
tury copies,  comprising  compositions  by  Pales- 
trina,  the  Scarlattis,  Durante,  Leo,  Bai,  Clari, 
Perez,  Pergolesi,  and  others.  There  is  also 
church  music  in  the  old  notation,  contained  in 
ancient  service-books,  some  of  which  is  older 
than  the  invention  of  the  stave-lines.  The  pur- 
chase of  MS.  music  has  been  much  more  exten- 
sive since  1872  than  before  that  date. 

It  remains  to  say  a  word  on  the  subject  of 
catalogues  of  the  music.  The  only  existing 
printed  catalogue  is  that  of  the  MS.  music, 
which  was  published  in  1842,  having  been 
drawn  up  by  Thos.  Oliphant,  Esq.,  who  was 
specially  engaged  by  the  Trustees  for  the  purpose. 
Later  acquisitions  are  duly  registered  in  the 
catalogues  of  Additional  and  Egerton  MSS. 
among  the  other  possessions  of  the  depart- 
ment, but  cannot  be  found  except  by  aid  of  an 
index,  and  then  but  imperfectly.  A  new  edition 
of  Oliphant's  catalogue  including  all  these  recent 
acquisitions  is  urgently  needed  by  musical 
students,  and  (as  the  works  are  already  more  or 
less  perfectly  described  in  notices  scattered 
through  the  lists  of  Additional  MSS.)  would 
entail  no  great  labour,  nor  be  in  itself  a  large 
or  expensive  book.  For  the  printed  music  the 
existing  MS.  catalogue  is  all  that  readers  can 
desire  when  once  they  are  in  the  reading-room ; 
but  a  printed  catalogue  which  could  be  bought 
would  be  most  valuable,  especially  as  it  would 
reveal  at  once  the  existence  of  much  curious  old 
music,  which  is  now  scarcely  known  even  to 
antiquaries ;  it  need  not  extend  farther  than  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century  at  latest, 
as  the  more  recent  music  might  be  assumed  to  be 
in  the  library.  [R.M.] 

b.  Royal  Academy  of  Music.  The  library  of 
this  institution  contains  many  interesting  and 
valuable  works,  amongst  which  may  be  men- 
tioned a  collection  of  English  glees  (in  16 
volumes')  by  Atterbury,  Callcott,  Danby,  etc., 
and  MS.  operas  by  Leonardo  Leo,  Gasparini, 
Buononcini,  Porpora,  and  others,  which  were 
presented  to  the  Academy,  together  with  the 
whole  of  his  valuable  musical  library,  by  R.  J. 
Stevens,  Esq.  There  is  also  a  collection  of  the 
works  of  Sebastian  Bach,  being  the  library  of 
the  (now  defunct)  Bach  Society  which  was 
established  by  Sir  Sterndale  Bennett.  The 
Royal  Academy  of  Music  also  possesses  a  large 
collection  of  valuable  compositions  presented  by 
the  various  London  music  publishers,  containing 
especially  orchestral  works  by  Beethoven,  Ben- 
nett, Hummel,  Mozart,  Schumann  and  Schubert. 

0.  Sacred  Harmonic  Society.  This  library  is 
undoubtedly  the  best  arranged  and  one  of  the 
most  valuable  in  England.  There  is  an  admir- 
able published  catalogue,  the  last  (3rd)  edition 
of  which  appeared  in  1872.     The  library  then 


MUSICAL  LIBRARIES. 

contained  nearly  3000  works  (4851  volumes), 
which  are  classified  as  Printed  Music,  MSS.,  and 
Musical  Literature,  these  divisions  being  again 
subdivided.  In  the  first  of  these  divisions  '  the 
extensive  assemblage  of  early  musical  works 
printed  from  type,  comprising  church  music, 
madrigals,  songs,  and  other  vocal  and  instru- 
mental compositions,  many  of  uncommon  rarity, 
calls  for  particular  notice.  The  madrigals  include 
a  nearly  perfect  series  of  the  productions  of  that 
brilliant  constellation  of  talented  men — the 
English  madrigal  writers  who  flourished  during 
the  1 6th  and  17th  centuries.'  Amongst  the 
chief  treasures  of  this  division  (Printed  Music) 
we  may  mention  eight  of  the  ten  parts  of  that  rare 
work  Barnard's  Church  Music  (1641);  the  'Mo- 
dulorum  Hortus '  and  '  Canonicus  de  Silvestris  a 
Barbarano '  of  Floridus ;  early  editions  of  motets 
by  Palestrina;  Willaert's  Psalms  ( Venice,  1565); 
Antony  and  William  Holborne's  '  Cittharn 
Schoole'  (1597) — probably  unique;  Starter's 
'Friesche  Lust-Hof  (1627);  and  a  large  col- 
lection of  English  and  Italian  operas  and  musical 
pieces,  comprising  several  hundred  works.  The 
MSS.  include  a  full  score  (in  the  composers 
autograph)  of  an  unperformed  opera,  '  Armida,' 
by  Joseph  Haydn,  and  works  of  various  de- 
scriptions by  Durante,  Clari,  Geminiani,  Purcell, 
Blow,  Croft,  Greene,  Boyce  and  Arne.  There  is 
also  a  Pianoforte  score  of  Mendelssohn's  'Elijah,' 
principally  in  the  composer's  own  handwriting, 
being  the  version  made  for  the  production  of  the 
oratorio  at  Birmingham  in  1 846.  Seven  volumes 
containing  the  collections  from  which  Barnard 
compiled  his  '  Church  Music,'  and  a  collection  of 
music  in  19  volumes,  chiefly  in  Dr.  Cooke's 
handwriting,  and  consisting  principally  of  his 
own  compositions,  may  also  be  mentioned.  There 
is  also  a  small  collection  of  autograph  letters  etc. 
of  Beethoven,  Boieldieu,  Donizetti,  Frescobaldi, 
Gibbons,  Gre"try,  Handel,  Lully,  Mendelssohn, 
Meyerbeer,  Rossini,  Spohr,  Weber,  Zingarelli, 
and  other  eminent  composers.  But  it  is  in 
works  comprised  under  the  heading  'Musical 
Literature '  that  this  collection  is  particularly 
rich,  and  these  constitute  its  chief  claim  to 
occupy  a  unique  position  among  English  musical 
libraries.  'The  musical  literature  in  the  Society's 
library  consists  of  treatises  and  other  works  on 
the  theory  and  practice  of  the  art,  including 
nearly  every  important  work,  ancient  and 
modern,  on  the  subject:  works  relating  to  the 
history  of  music,  or  the  lives  of  its  professors 
and  others  directly  or  indirectly  connected  with 
its  practice  :  lyric  and  other  poetry,  including  a 
large  collection  of  the  word-books  issued  for 
performances  at  the  provincial  and  other  festivals, 
concerts,  etc.,  works  showing  the  state  of  cathe- 
dral and  other  choirs,  and  the  condition  of 
church  music  at  different  periods :  works  on  the 
drama,  threatres,  etc.,  illustrating  the  state  of 
dramatic  music :  with  others  of  a  more  miscel- 
laneous character,  but  all  tending  to  enlighten 
us  as  to  the  progress  of  music'  Amidst,  so  many 
treasures  it  is  difficult  to  name  particular  works, 
and  our  space  will  not  allow  of  our  doing  more 


MUSICAL  LIBRARIES. 

than  to  name  the  valuable  early  editions  of  the 
works  of  Aiguino,  Aron,  Boethius,  Gaforius, 
Listenius,  Morley,  Ornithoparcus,  Playford, 
Simpson,  Vicentino,  Zacconi  and  Zarlino,  which 
are  to  be  found  in  this  collection.  The  library 
is  only  accessible  to  members  of  the  society,  but 
students  desirous  of  consulting  particular  works 
find  little  or  no  difficulty  in  the  way;  the  present 
hbrarian  is  Mr.  W.  H.  Husk,  from  whose  interest- 
ing remarks,  contained  in  the  preface  to  the  cata- 
logue this  notice  has  been  chiefly  compiled. 

d.  South  Kensington  Museum.  The  library 
of  this  Museum  contains  a  useful  collection  of 
works  onmusic  of  recentdate,  several  little-known 
German  operas,  published  by  Simrock,  the 
original  MS.  scores  of  Mendelssohn's  Psalm, 
'  Hear  my  Prayer '  and  of  Bishop's  '  Legends  of 
the  Rhine,'  and  a  small  collection  of  musical 
instruments  and  apparatus,  including  a  glass 
Harmonica  invented  by  Benjamin  Franklin,  and 
a  Spinet  constructed  by  T.  Hitchcock  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  1 7th  century.  It  also  contains  more 
than  300  volumes  of  printed  and  MS.  music 
(chiefly  old  Italian),  as  well  as  treatises  etc.  from 
the  library*  of  the  Musical  Union,  which  were 
presented  by  Mr.  Ella.  There  is  a  good  printed 
catalogue  of  the  whole  collection. 

c.  Lambeth.  The  Archiepiscopal  library  con- 
tains many  fine  Psalters,  Missals  and  Breviaries, 
both  printed  and  MS. ;  a  good  collection  of  early 
editions  of  psalm  and  hymn  books ;  MS.  treatises 
by  Chelle  and  Otteby ;  a  MS.  volume  of  English, 
French  and  Italian  songs  with  lute  accompani- 
ment (written  in  tablature),  containing  composi- 
tions by  Charles  and  Edward  Coleman,  Alphonso 
Marsh,  Matthew  Locke  and  John  Gulgrum,  and 
an  explanation  of  the  tablature  ;  a  MS.  volume 
of  harpsichord  music  (dances  and  airs)  by  R. 
Ayleward  and  others ;  a  copy  of  Tye's  curious 
'  Acts  of  the  Apostles ' ;  and  a  MS.  volume  con- 
taining the  treble  part  of  services  and  anthems 
by  Talli8,  Parsons,  Byrd,  Tomkins,  Gibbons, 
Munday,  Portman,  Strogers,  Morley,  and  many 
anonymous  compositions. 

/.  The  Madrigal  Society.  This  Society  pos- 
sesses a  valuable  collection  of  more  than  300 
madrigals,  anthems,  etc.,  comprising  works  by 
more  than  100  composera,  principally  of  the 
English  and  Italian  schools. 

g.  The  Philharmonic  Society.  This  library 
dates  from  the  formation  of  the  Society  in  181 3. 
It  contains  all  the  parts  of  the  principal  works 
of  the  classical  composers  necessary  for  an  or- 
chestra, and  many  full  scores  and  MSS.  of  unique 
interest.  Amongst  the  autographs  may  be  men- 
tioned three  of  Haydn's  grand  Symphonies ; 
Beethoven's  dedication  to  the  Society  of  his  9  th 
Symphony  ;  a  MS.  symphony  by  Cherubini ; 
Mendelssuhn'8  Symphony  in  C  ('No.  XIIL' 
known  as  'No.  I.'),  dedicated  to  the  Society; 
also  Melusina,  the  Trumpet  Overture,  and  the 
original  setting  of  the  scena '  Infelice,'  with  violin 
obligato — all  three  with  notes  or  alterations  by 
himself;  also  original  scores  by  Cipriani  Potter, 
Ries,  dementi,  Spohr,  and  other  composers. 

h.  Westminster  Abbey.    The  Chapter  library 


MUSICAL  LIBRARIES. 


421 


contains  a  collection  of  music  (chiefly  in  MS.) 
which  comprises  works  of  about  100  composers. 
Amongst  the  MSS.  the  following  are  worthy  of 
mention :  an  oratorio  ('  Judith ')  by  Dr.  Arne, 
in  full  score  ;  three  oratorios  ('  Jephthah,'  '  The 
Judgment  of  Solomon,'  and  'La  Santissima 
Vergine ')  by  Carissimi ;  a  Mass  (a  5)  by  Ga- 
brielli;  a  Kyrie  (a  4,  with  accompaniment  of 
strings)  by  Leo;  motets  and  litanies  byBassani; 
two  masses  and  psalms  by  Pergolese  ;  a  masque 
by  Dr.  Blow ;  '  Diocletian,'  by  H.  Purcell ;  a 
small  book  containing  French  chansons  by  Cara- 
bert,  le  Camus,  Bastido,  Farinel,  Lalande,  etc. ; 
psalms  by  Colonna ;  a  remarkably  fine  anony- 
mous Te  Deum  of  considerable  length,  scored 
for  strings,  trumpets  and  drums ;  and  many 
other  works,  chiefly  by  Italian  composers.  There 
is  also  a  fine  collection  of  early  printed  madrigals, 
both  EngUsh  and  Italian,  published  between  the 
years  1559  and  1695.  There  is  an  inadequate 
MS.  catalogue. 

i.  The  Chapel  Royal,  St.  James's,  contains  a 
small  collection  of  part-books  and  scorea  (both 
MS.  and  printed)  of  services  and  anthems  which 
have  been  in  use  by  the  choir  for  the  last  century 
and  a  half.  There  is  nothing  of  great  rarity  in 
the  collection:  it  consists  principally  of  well- 
known  works  of  the  English  School. 

Manchester.  In  the  Chetham  library  is  pre- 
served a  collection  of  nearly  4000  proclamations, 
broadsides,  ballads  and  poems,  accumulated  by 
and  presented  to  the  library  by  J.  O.  Halliwell, 
Esq.  Amongst  these  will  be  found  the  music 
of  many  old  popular  songs  ranging  through  the 
16th,  17th,  and  1 8th  centuries,  and  containing 
songs,  catches,  odes,  etc.,  by  Purcell,  Eccles,  Leve- 
ridge,  Courteville,  Croft,  Carey,  Weldon  and  Pe- 
pusch,  and  a  large  collection  of  single  sheet  songs 
with  music,  published  between  1680  and  1740. 
Many  of  the  songs  in  this  collection  were  intro- 
duced into  operas  for  special  occasions,  and  are 
therefore  not  to  be  found  in  the  printed  editions. 
Mr.  Halliwell  has  prepared  and  printed  a  cata- 
logue of  this  collection  for  private  circulation. 

Oscott,  St.  Mary's  College.  The  library 
contains  a  collection  of  masses,  sequences,  offer- 
tories, psalms,  hymns,  responses,  etc.,  in  7 
volumes,  by  Palestrina ;  masses  by  Alfieri,  and 
unpublished  MSS.  by  Guglielmi,  Alfieri,  Morales, 
Zingarelli,  Marotti,  Festa,  Rovalli,  Cascolini, 
Bolloffi,  Fioravanti,  and  Borroni. 

Oxford,  a.  The  Bodleian  library.  This  li- 
brary has  received  additions  of  music  since  the 
year  160a.  In  1759  and  1761  music  began  to  be 
received  from  Stationers'  Hall,  which  was  allowed 
to  accumulate  until,  in  the  present  century,  it 
was  arranged  and  bound  up  in  some  300  or  400 
volumes.  In  1801  a  large  collection  of  both  MS. 
and  printed  music  was  bequeathed  by  the  Rev. 
O.  Wight.  It  comprises  190  volumes  of  MS. 
anthems,  etc.,  by  Arnold,  Boyce,  Blow,  Croft, 
Greene,  Purcell,  etc. ;  a  large  number  of  works 
by  Drs.  W.  and  P.  Hayes,  and  both  early  Eng- 
lish and  Italian  madrigals  and  motets.  In  1856, 
valuable  MS.  madrigals  were  purchased  for  the 
library,  and  since  then  the  collection  has  been 


422 


MUSICAL  LIBRARIES. 


increased  by  the  gift  of  a  few  volumes  from  Mr. 
Macray,  and  some  French  cantatas  from  Sir  F.  A. 
G.  Ouseley.  There  are  also  some  rare  early  trea- 
tises on  music  in  this  library.  A  remarkable  early 
Psalter  is  noticed  under  Notation. 

6.  Christ  Church.  The  library  of  this  college 
contains  a  very  large  and  valuable  collection  of 
early  English  and  foreign  music,  chiefly  be- 
queathed to  the  college  by  Dean  Aldrich  and 
Mr.  Goodson,  but  since  then  increased  by  many 
additions.  The  printed  works  comprise  compo- 
sitions by  more  than  180  different  composers, 
while  the  MSS.  contain  1075  anonymous  pieces, 
and  2417  pieces  by  known  composers,  of  whom 
182  are  English,  80  Italian,  and  14  composers  of 
other  nations.  This  estimate  does  not  include 
the  many  separate  movements  of  operas,  services, 
etc.,  and  the  almost  numberless  Fancies  for  instru- 
ments, which  if  enumerated  would  amount  to 
nearly  5000.  Amongst  the  MSS.  here  are  30 
anthems  by  Dr.  Aldrich ;  23  anthems,  7  motets, 
4  services,  and  a  masque  ('Venus  and  Adonis') 
by  Dr.  Blow  ;  29  anthems,  43  motets,  19  madri- 
gals, etc.,  and  a  very  curious  piece  of  programme 
music  ('Mr.  Bird's  Battle")  by  W.  Byrd ;  18 
motets  by  R.  Deering ;  20  anthems  and  21 
madrigals  and  canzonets  by  T.  Ford ;  24  anthems 
by  Orlando  Gibbons ;  2 1  anthems  by  John  Gold- 
win  ;  33  motets  by  M.  Jeffrey;  21  canzonets  by 
J.  Jenkins ;  17  motets  by  W.  Mundy ;  15  operas 
by  Henry  Purcell ;  39  motets  by  J.  Shepperde ; 
17  motets  by  John  Taverner;  10  madrigals  by 
J.  Warde  ;  25  motets  by  R.  Whyte  ;  47  motets 
and  45  cantatas  by  Carissimi ;  15  cantatas  by 
Cesti;  67  motets  by  Gratiani ;  27  cantatas  by 
Michaeli ;  30  motets  by  Falestrina ;  1 1 2  cantatas 
by  Luigi  Rossi ;  1 2  cantatas,  a  serenata,  2  dramas, 
and  an  opera  by  A.  Scarlatti ;  and  the  following 
anonymous  compositions: — 239  motets,  162  can- 
tatas, etc.,  to  English  words  (including  a  Passion 
on  the  death  of  Prince  Henry,  and  a  dialogue  be- 
tween Cromwell  and  Charon1),  and  408  cantatas, 
etc.,  to  Italian  words.  There  is  a  MS.  catalogue 
of  the  collection  compiled  in  1845-47  by  the  late 
Rev.  H.  E.  Havergal. 

c.  The  Music  School.  The  library  of  the 
Music  School  contains  a  valuable  collection  of 
old  music,  principally  in  MS.  It  comprises  the 
gifts  to  the  university  of  Dr.  Heather  (the  founder 
of  the  chair  of  music  at  Oxford),  the  Rawlinson 
collection  (bequeathed  in  175=1),  a  collection  of 
the  MS.  scores  of  most  of  the  exercises  written 
for  musical  degrees  from  1750  to  the  present 
time,  and  a  small  collection  of  printed  works  of 
about  300  composers.  Among  the  valuable  MSS. 
preserved  here  are  1 8  masses  by  Taverner,  Bur- 
ton, Merbecke,  Fayrfax,  Easar,  Aston,  Ash  well, 
Norman,  Shepparde,  Tye,  and  Alwood ;  a  collec- 
tion of  In  Nomines  in  4  and  5  parts,  by  English 
composers  of  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  ;  5 -part 
motets  by  Felice  Sances ;  motets,  etc.,  for  voices 
and  orchestra  by  Rosenmuller,  Schelling,  and 
Kniipfer ;  Christopher  Simpson's  '  Monthes  and 
Seasons,  for  2  basses  and  a  treble';  collections  of 

>  According  to  a  copy  In  Mr.  Taphouse'!  collection,  thl»  piece  U  by 
Henry  Hall. 


MUSICAL  LIBRARIES. 

vocal  and  instrumental  compositions  by  W.  Lawes 
and  Orlando  Gibbons ;  Occasional  Odes  by  Dr. 
Boyce ;  many  anthems  and  services ;  and  collec- 
tions of  rare  English  instrumental  music,  and 
French  and  Italian  songs.  There  is  a  good  MS. 
catalogue  of  the  collection,  compiled  in  1854. 

Rochester.  The  music  library  of  the  cathe- 
dral consists  of  478  volumes,  84  of  which  are  in 
MS.,  and  contain  anthems  and  services  (some  of 
which  are  unpublished)  by  the  following  com- 
posers :— Hopkins,  Henstridge,  Lock,  Wootton, 
Hine,  Turner,  Elvey,  Child,  Dupuis,  Lambert, 
Fussell,  Mason,  Walmisley,  Russell,  Rogers, 
Marsh,  and  Pratt. 

Stonthubst.  This  college  possesses  the  origi- 
nal MS.  of  de  Vico's  responses  for  Holy  Week, 
MS.  music  by  Cartoni,  and  a  few  litanies,  motets, 
sequences,  etc.,  by  Palestrina. 

Windsor.  St.  George's  Chapel.  The  Chapel 
library  contains  a  good  collection  of  old  church 
music,  many  MS.  services  and  anthems,  an  in- 
teresting old  organ  book  containing  the  Bene- 
dicite  to  Child's  service  in  G  (in  score),  and  a 
copy  of  Tompkins'  'Musica  Deo  Sacra'  (1668). 

Wobcesteb.  The  Cathedral  librttay  possesses 
a  fine  Sarum  Missal,  and  a  MS.  volume  contain- 
ing several  fine  ancient  Latin  services. 

York.  The  Minster  library  contains  258  musi- 
cal works,  both  printed  and  MS.,  besides  a  large 
quantity  of  anthems  and  services.  Amongst  the 
MSS.  the  following  works  may  be  mentioned  : — 
a  collection  of  duets,  glees,  etc.,  by  Aldrich,  Wise, 
Blow,  etc.  ;  an  installation  ode  by  Hague  ;  Te 
Deums  by  Haydn,  Neukomm,Schicht,  and  Weber; 
'  The  Nativity,'  an  oratorio  by  Homilius ;  a  mass 
by  Naumann ;  *  The  Intercession,'  an  oratorio  by 
King ;  the  upper  part  of  several  duets  by  Purcell ; 
and  23  volumes  of  anthems  and  services.  The 
printed  music  includes  early  editions  of  works  by 
Amner,  Bassani,  Byrd,  Cnerici,  Diving,  Este, 
Gibbons,  Locke,  Marcello,  Monteverde,  Morley, 
Mundy,  Praetorius,  and  Purcell. 

Pbivate  Collections,  a.  The  collection  o! 
Her  Majesty  the  Queen,  preserved  at  Bucking- 
ham Palace,  is  principally  renowned  for  its  price- 
less Handel  autographs  (87  volumes'),  which  have 
been  already  noticed.  But  in  addition  to  these, 
this  library  (which  contains  about  2000  works) 
is  remarkable  both  for  its  valuable  MSS.  and 
fine  printed  works.  Amongst  the  chief  treasures 
are  some  splendid  volumes  of  autograph  MSS.  by 
Purcell ;  a  complete  copy  of  the  original  Venetian 
edition  of  Marcello 's  psalms  ;  a  fine  and  curious 
volume  of  puzzle  canons  by  Dr.  John  Bull ;  a 
unique  collection  of  puzzle  canons,  in  from  two  to 
twenty  parts,  by  Elway  Bevin,  in  the  composer's 
own  handwriting ;  a  fine  copy  of  the  2nd  edition  of 
Monteverde's  'Orfeo';  a  volume  of  'Aires  and 
Phantasies,'  by  Coperario,  which  formerly  be- 
longed to  Charles  I. ;  an  original  copy  of  Men- 
delssohn's 'ffidipus  in  Colonos,'  sent  by  the  com- 
poser to  the  Prince  Consort  for  the  production  of 
the  work  at  Buckingham  Palace ;  curious  masques 
by  Schmied ;  a  complete  copy  of  '  Parthenia';  a 
unique  collection  of  Steffani's  operas,  splendidly 


MUSICAL  LIBRAKIES. 

bound  for  the  use  of  the  opera  at  Hanover ;  the 
organ  compositions  of  Frescobaldi ;  many  full 
scores  of  operas  by  Lully,  Mozart,  Christian  Bach, 
Graun,  etc. ;  and  a  very  fine  collection  of  madrigals 
(including  a  complete  set  of  part-books  of  madri- 
gals by  Rinaldo  del  Mel),  most  of  which  were 
formerly  in  the  possession  of  Sir  John  Hawkins. 
The  collection  is  in  particularly  good  condition, 
and  is  rich  in  fine  copies ;  additions  are  still  made 
to  it  from  time  to  time.  The  present  Director  of 
Her  Majesty's  Music  (Mr.  Cusins)  is  preparing  a 
new  catalogue  for  the  press,  in  place  of  the  old 
MS.  list  made  at  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century. 

b.  The  library  of  the  Rev.  Sir  F.  A.  G.  Ouseley, 
Bart.,  contains  nearly  2000  volumes,  mostly  rare 
full  scores  and  treatises.  It  includes  the  old 
Palais  Royal  collection,  with  the  French  royal 
arms  on  the  covers,  consisting  of  scores  of  operas, 
motets,  etc.,  by  Lully,  Colasse,  Destouches,  La- 
lande,  Campra,  and  many  other  French  composers 
now  forgotten.  Sir  Frederick  Ouseley  has  also  a 
very  large  collection  of  MS.  Italian  sacred  music 
of  the  Palestrina  school,  copied  from  the  magni- 
ficent library  of  the  late  Abbate  Santini,  of  Rome. 
He  is  also  the  possessor  of  a  very  valuable  MS. 
of  Handel's  '  Messiah,'  partly  in  the  composer's 
own  autograph,  and  partly  in  that  of  J.  C.  Smith. 
It  was  from  this  copy  that  Handel  conducted  the 
work  on  its  first  performance  in  Dublin,  and  it 
contains  some  various  readings  and  curious  anno- 
tations in  his  own  handwriting.  Amongst  the 
autographs  in  this  library  may  be  mentioned  a 
large  collection  of  curious  vocal  music,  original 
and  selected,  in  the  handwriting  of  Dr.  Crotch ; 
a  full  score  of  one  of  Spohr's  symphonies ;  and 
autographs  of  Orlando  di  Lasso,  Orazio  Benevoli, 
Blow,  Croft,  Bononcini,  Travers,  Boyce,  Arnold, 
Mozart,  Paganini,  and  Mendelssohn.  Probably 
the  only  copy  in  England  of  Eslava's  '  Lira  Sacro- 
Hispana '  is  in  Sir  Frederick  Ouseley's  library, 
which  also  contains  copies  of  all  the  treatises  of 
Gaforius,  including  the  earliest  and  rarest  one, 
published  at  Naples  in  1480.  For  further  infor- 
mation as  to  the  rare  and  valuable  treatises  in 
this  collection  we  must  refer  to  a  paper  read 
before  the  Musical  Association  on  March  3,  1879. 

c.  Mr.  Julian  Marshall  possesses  an  extensive 
and  valuable  library  of  instrumental  and  vocal 
works  (both  MS.  and  printed),  psalmodies,  theo- 
retical and  bibliographical  dictionaries,  and  his- 
tories of  music.  Among  the  printed  works  in 
this  collection  the  following  rarities  are  worthy 
of  mention: — Marcello's  psalms  (Venice,  1724); 
1 7  editions  of  Playford's  Introduction ;  a  complete 
set  of  the  celebrated  controversy  between  Sal- 
mon and  Lock ;  R.  Dowland's  'Musical  Banquet' 
(16 10),  probably  unique ;  early  treatises  by  Aron, 
Gaforius  (1496,  etc.),  Galilei,  and  Cizzardi ;  Kaps- 
berger's  works  (engraved,  1604,  etc.) ;  Muffat's 
•Componimenti  Musical! '  (Vienna,  1727);  Binder's 
*  Sei  Suonate '  (Dresden,  1 730) ;  original  editions 
of  the  works  of  early  English,  Italian,  French,  and 
German  composers ;  many  early  English  madri- 
gals, songs,  and  song-books ;  musical  playing  cards ; 
a  large  collection  of  early  English  and  foreign 


MUSICAL  LIBRARIES. 


423 


libretti,  etc.  The  MS.  part  of  the  collection  in- 
cludes a  '  Graduale  Cartusianum,'  written  wholly 
in  transitional  neums  (12th  or  early  13th  cen- 
tury), and  other  breviaries  and  missals  ;  a  fine 
folio  MS.  entitled  « A  booke  of  In  Nomines  and 
other  Solfainge  Songes  of  v,  vi,  vii,  and  viii.  partes 
for  voyces  or  Instrumentes '  (16th  century)  ;  a 
small  book  of  canons  in  Byrd's  autograph ;  a  splen- 
did Virginal-book  bearing  the  names  of  Philip  and 
Mary;  a  large  collection  of  autograph  letters  and 
MSS.,  including  works  by  Beethoveu  (sketches  for 
the  Pastoral  Symphony),  Haydn  (Symphony  No. 
1,  Salomon  set),  Mozart  (quintet,  fantasia  and 
sonata,  quartet,  etc.),  Schubert,  Spohr,  and  many 
others ;  MSS.  of  Locke,  H.  and  W.  Lawes.  Purcell, 
Travers,  and  Arne ;  full  scores  of  operas,  including 
some  used  by  Handel  in  conducting,  and  contain- 
ing his  corrections  and  additions.  Mr.  Marshall 
is  also  the  possessor  of  the  original  caricature  by 
Goupy  of  Handel,  as  well  as  of  the  portrait  by 
Kyte,  which  was  considered  by  Hawkins  to  be 
the  best  likeness  of  that  master  in  existence. 

d.  Mr.  W.  H.  Cummings  has  a  musical  Ubrary 
of  a  Very  varied  character,  comprising  autographs 
of  Purcell,  Handel,  Beethoven,  Weber,  Mendels- 
sohn, Bennett,  and  other  composers  of  note. 
Amongst  these  we  may  particularly  mention  the 
duplicate  of  Handel's  autograph  will ;  unpublished 
compositions  by  the  same  master ;  and  a  score  of 
the  music  to  Macbeth,  believed  by  Mr.  Cummings 
to  be  the  original  in  Purcell's  handwriting.  In 
printed  works  this  collection  contains  fine  copies 
of  various  editions  of  the  treatises  of  Gaforius ; 
all  the  editions  of  Morley's  'Plaine  and  Easie 
Introduction';  a  perfect  set  of  the  Salmon  and 
Lock  controversy;  early  editions  of  madrigals 
and  of  Marot  and  Beza's  Psalters;  Wilson's 
Ayres ;  Lawes'  Ayres  and  Psalms ;  a  perfect  copy 
of  the  3  parts  of  Purcell's 'Don  Quixote'  (probably 
unique) ;  a  copy  of  Bach's  •  Kunst  der  Fuge  * 
(1752)  ;  the  copy  of  Goudimel's  Psalms  (1565) 
which  formerly  belonged  to  Joseph  Warren  (said 
to  be  unique) ;  and  many  rare  works  by  Purcell, 
in  which  this  library  is  especially  rich. 

e.  Mr.  John  Bishop,  of  Cheltenham,  possesses 
an  extensive  and  valuable  library,  comprising  a 
very  large  collection  of  every  different  class  of 
music  (principally  full  scores),  and  a  still  larger 
collection  of  ancient  and  modern  treatises,  in  seven 
different  languages,  including  the  rare  Spanish 
works  of  Cerone  and  Lorente,  historical  and  bio- 
graphical works,  and  miscellanies. 

/.  Mr.  Alfred  H.  Littleton  possesses  a  small 
but  valuable  collection  of  about  200  volumes, 
which  comprise  several  works  that  are  unique  in 
England,  as  well  as  especially  fine  early  printed 
books.  Amongst  the  principal  rarities  are  the 
following  works : — Burtius,  'Musices  Opusculum' 
(Bologna,  1487);  4  editions  of  the  treatises  of 
Gafurius,  including  the  one  of  1502  ;  Agricola's 
'Musica  Instrumentalis '  (Wittenberg,  1529); 
Senfel's  'Liber  Selectarum  Cantionum  '  (1520)  ; 
Animuccia's  Masses  (1567);  and  Davante's 
'Pseaumes  de  David  '  (1560). 

g.  Mr.  Victor  Schcelcher  formerly  possessed 
an  extensive  collection  of  music,  but  he  has  lately 


424 


MUSICAL  LIBRARIES. 


presented  the  greater  part  of  it  to  the  Paris  Con- 
servatoire. Mr.  Schoelcher  has,  however,  still  seve- 
ral very  rare  works  by  Charpentier,  Destouche, 
Campra,  Lully,  Rameau,  Sacchini,  Colasse,  Zin- 
garelli,  Clari,  Martini,  and  Pleyel;  as  well  as 
valuable  French  treatises  and  works  on  music. 

h.  Mr.  John  Ella,  the  Director  of  the  Musical 
Union,  has  a  considerable  collection  of  music  and 
musical  literature,  chiefly  of  the  present  century. 

i.  Mr.  J.  W.  Taphouse,  of  Oxford,  has  a  good 
collection  of  miscellaneous  theoretical  and  bio- 
graphical works  on  music;  a  collection  of  MS. 
songs  by  Barrett,  Hall,  Leveridge,  Purcell,  Croft, 
Hayden,  etc. ;  rare  editions  of  psalters  and  of 
works  by  Mersenne,  Morley,  Playford,  and 
Withers ;  a  copy  of  the  rare  '  Agenda  Ecclesie 
Moguntinensis '  (1490);  'A  Philosophick  Essay 
on  Musick,'  attributed  by  Hawkins  to  Sir  Francis 
North  ;  Lowe's  '  Directions  for  Performing  Cathe- 
dral Service'  (1664);  many  autograph  letters  of 
Dr.  Burney  and  Dr.  Crotch;  and  a  few  auto- 
graphs of  Mozart,  Jomelli,  and  other  musicians. 
Mr.  Taphouse  has  also  a  fine  harpsichord,  made 
by  Shudi  and  Broadwood  in  1 78 1 ;  one  of  the 
earliest  known  pianofortes,  made  by  Zumpe  in 
1 767 ;  and  a  spinet  by  Baudin  (1723). 

Mr.  A.  G.  W.  Kurtz,  of  Wavertree,  Liverpool, 
has  a  fine  collection  of  autograph  music  and  letters 
of  musicians,  engraved  portraits,  and  caricatures. 
The  autographs  embrace  a  Motet  by  Bach  ;  the 
Strinasacchi  Sonata  and  seven  other  large  works 
by  Mozart ;  a  Quartet  by  Haydn ;  the  Bb  Con- 
certo and  Songs  by  Beethoven ;  Meyerbeer's 
'Emma  di  Resburgo,'  and.Auber's  'Chaperons 
blancs' ;  and  compositions  by  Weber,  Mendels- 
sohn, Spohr,  Rossini,  Schubert,  Chopin,  etc. 
Among  the  letters  are  specimens  by  Orlando 
Gibbons  (1)  Haydn  (1),  Beethoven  (7),  Spohr 
(10),  Weber  (10),  Schumann  (5),  Mendelssohn, 
Spontini  (8),  Hummel  (6),  etc.,  representing  in 
all  nearly  seventy  composers.  [W.  B.  S.] 

Germany,  Austria,  and  Switzerland. 

Berlin,  a.  The  library  of  the  Joachimsthal 
Gymnasium  received  in  1787  the  music  collected 
by  the  Princess  Amalia  of  Prussia,  and  in  1858 
190  vols,  of  musical  works  from  the  library  of 
Dr.  Spiker.  (See  Meierotti's  Nachricht,  etc. 
Berlin,  1788).  Amongst  the  music  are  auto- 
graphs and  many  ancient  copies  of  the  works  of 
J.  S.  Bach. 

0.  The  library  of  the  Grey  Friars,  zum  Grauen 
Kloster,  contains  an  important  collection  of  works 
of  the  1 6th  and  1 7  th  centuries,  in  parts,  carefully 
arranged  so  as  to  present  a  view  of  ancient  vocal 
music,  by  the  director  Bellermann,  and  his  son, 
Prof.  Heinrich  Bellermann.  (See  catalogue  in 
the  prospectus  of  the  institution,  1856). 

c.  The  Royal  library  (founded  in  1650;  the 
musical  division,  of  which  Queen  Charlotte's  col- 
lection formed  the  nucleus,  added  in  1705)  ac- 
quired in  1 841  its  most  important  addition,  the 
Poelchau  collection  (autographs  and  copies  of  J. 
S.  Bach,  and  the  most  important  Italian  writers 
on  theory  of  the  17th  and  iSth  centuries):  in 
1855  the  Bach  collection  and  autographs  of  the 


MUSICAL  LIBRARIES. 

Singakadeinie ;  2779  Nos.  from  the  Fulda  library 
of  hymnology ;  and  103  MS.  vols,  from  Winter- 
feld's  collection:  in  1859,  3978  nos.  from  the 
collection  of  Fischhof,  of  Vienna  (Beethoveniana, 
copies  revised  by  Beethoven):  in  i860,  216 
printed  and  81 12  MS.  sheets,  and  142  auto- 
graphs from  the  Landsberg  collection  (Beetho- 
ven's sketch-  and  conversation-books,  first  ex- 
amined by  Thayer).  The  complete  catalogue  of 
the  Landsberg  collection  is  in  the  Royal  library 
of  Brussels  (acquired  after  the  death  of  Fe"tis, 
from  his  collection).  All  these  works  have  been 
completed  and  admirably  arranged  by  Dehn  and 
his  successor  Franz  Espagne,  lately  deceased. 
Dehn  negotiated  the  purchase  of  the  Poelchau 
and  Landsberg  collection ;  Espagne,  that  of  Otto 
Jahn's  Mozart  collection,  bought  in  1869.  Here 
may  be  seen  the  precious  autographs  of  nearly 
all  Mozart's  great  operas  (with  the  exception  of 
Don  Juan,  which  is  in  the  possession  of  Mme. 
Viardot,  in  Paris),  and  of  several  of  Beethoven's 
symphonies  and  most  important  works  ;  also  a 
very  large  collection  of  autographs  of  J.  S.  Bach, 
and  42  vols,  of  autographs  by  Mendelssohn. 
In  the  Landsberg  collection  are  scarce  theoretical 
works  by  Italian  and  Spanish  masters — such  as 
'El  Melopeo'  by  Cerone.  Dr.  Kopfermann  is 
now  (1880)  provisional  custos. 

Brandenburg.  The  church  of  St.  Katharina 
contains  an  important  collection  of  parts,  and  of 
vocal  music  of  the  16th,  17  th,  and  18  th  centu- 
ries, described  by  Taglichsbeck  in  the  prospectus 
of  the  Gymnasium  for  1857. 

Darmstadt,  a.  The  Grand  Duke's  library, 
lately  enriched  by  the  purchase  of  the  scores  of 
many  French  operas  of  the  18th  century.  (See 
Accessions-catalog,  printed  1873.) 

b.  The  Grand  Duke's  library,  founded  by 
Ludwig  I.,  formerly  administered  by  the  director 
of  the  Court  theatre,  but  incorporated  with  the 
above  in  1873.  It  is  rich  in  modern  operatic 
literature. 

Dresden,  a.  The  Catholic  Hofkirche  con- 
tains 1500  nos.  of  Catholic  church-music.  Cus- 
tos, C.  Risse. 

b.  The  King  of  Saxony's  collection  (Custos, 
Moritz  Fiirstenau)  contains  400  vols,  and  300 
cases  of  operas  and  instrumental  music  of  the 
17th  and  1 8th  centuries,  including  operas  by 
Lotti  and  Marcello,  and  Gluck's  'Feste  d' Apollo' 
and  other  early  works. 

c.  The  Tonkunstlerverein  (library  founded 
in  1854)  possesses  550  nos.  of  instrumental 
music  of  the  18th  and  19th  centuries,  also  sym- 
phonies by  J.  J.  Fux,  Court-capellmeister  at 
Vienna.     Custos,  H.  Doring. 

Einsiedeln,  Switzerland.  The  library  of  the 
Benedictine  Abbey  contains  important  MSS.  of 
the  first  10  centuries,  written  in  'neums'  and 
indispensable  to  the  student  of  Gregorian  music. 

Erlangen.  The  seminary  for  church  music 
has  a  library  of  its  own.  Principal,  Dr.  Herzog, 
a  well-known  organist. 

Frankfort.  The  libraries  of  St.  Peter's 
church  and  the  Gymnasium  contain  scarce  vocal 
music  of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  of  great 


MUSICAL  LIBRARIES. 

importance  for  the  musical  history  of  Frankfort, 
described  by  Carl  Israel  (Franklort,  Mahlau  & 
Waldschmidt,  1872). 

St.  Gall,  Switzerland.  The  library  of  the 
monastery  is  remarkable  for  its  ancient  church 
music  written  in  'neums.'  Director  and  presi- 
dent, Gmuer. 

Geneva,  Lancy,  near.  Herr  G.  Becker  s  li- 
brary is  a  choice  collection  of  ancient  works  on 
theory,  and  very  old  instrumental  music. 

Hamburg.  The  city  library  contains  the  cele- 
brated collection  of  Handel's  works — So  vols, 
folio ;  being  copies,  partly  in  J.  C.  Smith's  writing 
— formerly  belonging  to  Kerslake,  of  Bristol,  then 
toSchcelcher  (Handel's  biographer),  andpurchased 
for  the  above  at  Dr.  Chrysander's  instigation. 

Konigsbebg,  Prussia.  The  royal  and  univer- 
sity library  contains  the  collection  (about  25,000 
vols.)  made  by  Director  Gotthold  (died  1 858)  ;  of 
importance  for  hymnology  and  vocal  music  of  the 
17th  century.  (Described  by  Dr.  J.  Muller, 
Bonn  1870). 

Leipzig,  a.  The  city  library  contains  the 
theoretical  works  and  instrumental  music  of  the 
17th  century,  collected  byC.  F.  Becker,  the  well- 
known  musicologist.     [See  vol.  i.  p.  161.] 

o.  The  archives  of  Messrs.  Breitkopf  &  Hartel 
are  of  the  highest  importance. 

Mabbobg.  Professor  Wagner  has  a  very  rich 
collection  of  instrumental  music  of  the  1 7th  and 
1 8th  centuries.printed  in  London  and  Amsterdam. 

Munich.  The  royal  and  national  library  con- 
tains (after  that  of  Vienna)  the  most  important 
collection  of  ancient  printed  music  (from  the 
presses  of  Ottaviano  Petrucci  and  other  printers 
of  Nuremberg  and  Venice).  The  German  Lied 
is  also  richly  represented  by  Forster's  celebrated 
collection  (in  parts).  The  addition  of  part  of 
the  Monte  Cassino  collection,  and  of  that  of 
Professor  Thibaut,  have  made  this  collection 
unusually  complete.  Custos,  Professor  Maier 
(editor  of  English  Madrigals  by  Morley,  etc.) 
'  Munsteb,  Westphalia.  The  library  of  the 
Musikverein,  founded  60  years  ago,  managed  by 
Musikdirector  Grimm. 

Nubembebg.  The  Germanisches  National- 
museum  contains  MSS.  and  old  German  printed 
music. 

Ratisbon.  a.  The  musical  library  (the  collec- 
tions of  Dr.  Proske  and  Metterdeiter  united)  is 
the  private  property  of  the  see.  It  contains 
20,000  vols,  and  800  MSS.,  from  the  13th  to  the 
1 7th  centuries,  and  though  practically  unexplored, 
is  the  finest  collection  of  church  music  in  exist- 
ence.   Custos,  Domvicar  Jacob. 

6.  The  private  collection  of  Bishop  Haberl, 
noted  for  music  printed  by  Petrucci  and  his 
contemporaries. 

Salzbubg.  The  Mozarteum  (1841),  important 
for  Mozart's  sketches,  and  227  letters  from  Wolf- 
gang and  Leopold  Mozart,  and  many  highly  in- 
teresting relics. 

Torgag  on  the  Elbe.  The  library  of  the 
Cantorei  (founded  in  1864)  contains  200  works 
of  church  music  of  the  18th  and  19th  centuries. 
Custos,  Dr.  0.  Taubert. 


MUSICAL  LIBRARIES. 


425 


Vienna,  a.  The  Court  library  received  in 
1826  and  29  all  the  music  not  connected  with 
church  music  in  the  archives  of  the  Court  chapel. 
In  course  of  time  it  has  acquired  much  scarce 
printed  music  (by  Petrucci,  etc.),  and  is  also  rich 
in  autographs  of  different  musicians,  including 
a  number  of  letters  and  MSS.  by  Beethoven. 
Kiesewetter's  collection  of  church  music  (cata- 
logue published  at  Vienna,  1847)  was  incorpor- 
ated by  Legat  in  the  Court  library,  which  is 
estimated  to  contain  about  10,000  volumes.  Li- 
brarians, Dr.  Pachler  and  Haupt. 

6.  Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde.  [See  article, 
vol.  i.  p.  591.] 

c.  Dr.  Gehring's  private  library  contains  works 
by  Froberger,  Frescobaldi,  different  editions, 
Hadrianus  ('Pratum  Musicum,'  one  of  the  most 
ancient  lute  tablatures  known,  1583),  Antonio 
da  Bologna  (the  oldest  organ  tablature  in  modem 
notation,  1543),  Lully,  Gluck,  Gre"try,  old  Eng- 
lish MS.  song  books  of  the  time  of  Charles  II. 
and  James  II.,  and  all  the  modern  operas. 

Weimar.  The  Grand  Duke's  library  contains 
the  music  collected  by  the  Duchess  Amalia  dur- 
ing her  visit  with  Goethe  to  Italy,  including  in- 
teresting opera  scores  of  the  Neapolitan  school. 
Also  the  score  of  Haydn's  opera  '  La  vera  Cos- 
tanza.' 

Wernigebode.  Count  Stolberg  has  a  valuable 
collection  of  hymnology. 

Italy. 

Bologna.  The  library  of  the  Liceo  filhar- 
monico  (president,  De  Gasparis)  has  a  valuable 
collection  of  instrumental  music  of  the  iSth  cen- 
tury. Also  unique  examples  of  some  of  Petr  ucci's 
earliest  publications,  and  a  superb  collection  of 
the  printed  music  of  the  1 6th  century.  Catalogue 
drawn  up  by  Dehn,  in  the  royal  library  at  Brussels. 

Flobence.  a.  TheBibliothecaMagliabecchiana 
contains  operas  by  Peri,  Rinuccini,  and  Cava- 
lieri,  also  many  editions  by  Marescotti. 

b.  Professor  Abramo  Basevi  possesses  many  of 
Scarlatti's  operas. 

Monte  Cassino,  near  San  Germano.  Operas 
by  the  Scarlattis,  Alessandro  and  Giuseppe; 
comic  operas;  and  many  little- known  works  of 
the  Neapolitan  school  during  the  first  half  of 
the  last  century.  Dr.  Gehring,  of  Vienna,  has  an 
almost  complete  catalogue  drawn  up  in  1 864  by 
himself.  Part  of  this  collection  (catalogue  by 
Aiblinger)  was  purchased  40  years  ago  for  the 
library  at  Munich. 

Naples.  The  Conservatorio  Pietro  a  Majella 
has  a  large  collection  of  modern  operas  by 
Neapolitan,  Roman,  and  Venetian  composers,  in- 
cluding nearly  all  by  Rossini  and  Mercadante. 

Rome.  a.  The  monastery  of  Minerva,  b.  the 
Corsini,  and  c.  the  Vatican  libraries,  all  contain 
ancient  church  music  and  theoretical  works. 
Santini's  collection  of  ancient  church  music  and 
madrigals  has  totally  disappeared.  The  com- 
plete catalogue  in  MS.  is  in  the  royal  library  of 
Brussels,  and  in  that  of  Herr  Gehring  at  Vienna.1 

1  See  '  L'Abbe  Santiui  et  s»  collection  muslcala,'  by  Wladlmlr  Stu- 

soff  (Florence  186W.  J 


426 


MUSICAL  LIBRARIES. 


Belgium. 

Brussels.  The  Belgian  government  were 
induced  by  Herr  Gevaert,  director  of  the  Brussels 
Conservatoire,  to  purchase  in  1872  the  library  of 
M.  Fe"tis  for  152,000  francs.  A  catalogue  has 
since  been  drawn  up  by  the  chief  conservator, 
Alvin,  and  published  (7525  nos.;  Paris,  Firmin 
Didot,  1877).  This,  as  a  whole,  is  one  of  the 
most  complete  collections  on  the  Continent,  and  is 
full  of  rarities,  as  a  glance  at  the  catalogue  will 
convince  the  connoisseur.  (The  copy  of  Hadri- 
anus'  '  Pratum  Musicum '  is  only  the  edition  of 
1600.) 

Portugal. 

Lisbon.  The  library  founded  by  King  John 
IV,  described  by  J.  de  Vasconcellos  (Oporto, 
1873).  [F.G.] 

France. 

Paris,  a.  We  have  already  given  an  account 
of  the  library  of  the  Conservatoire,  situated  2 
Rue  du  Conservatoire,  vol.  i.  p.  393.  Since  the 
publication  of  that  article  it  has  acquired  more 
than  200  full  scores  of  Italian  operas,  none  of 
which  have  ever  been  engraved.  Even  in  Italy 
it  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  larger  or  more 
important  collection.  The  MS.  department  of 
this  library,  the  collections  of  autographs  and  of 
portraits  of  musicians,  are  daily  increasing,  and 
have  long  ago  made  this  library  the  favourite 
resort  of  artists  and  of  writers  on  musical 
literature.  There  is  no  printed  catalogue,  but 
access  to  the  MS.  catalogues  is  readily  granted. 

6.  The  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  in  the  Rue 
Richelieu,  is  very  rich  in  French  music,  both 
printed  and  engraved.  It  is  also  more  complete 
than  any  other  in  Paris  in  respect  of  musical 
literature,  periodicals,  almanacs,  dictionaries,  and 
similar  works  of  reference.  It  is  rich  in  valuable 
MSS.  of  Dom  Caffiaux,  Parfait,  Baini,  Adrien 
de  La  Page,  and  other  distinguished  writers, — and 
many  fresh  discoveries  may  yet  be  made  in  the 
MS.  department  of  the  library.  No  printed  cata- 
logue of  the  musical  works  in  this  library  exists. 

c.  The  library  of  the  New  Opera  House 
contains  full  scores,  autograph  and  copied,  of  the 
works  produced  at  the  Opera,  as  well  as  books  on 
music  and  on  the  history  of  the  musical  theatres ; 
and  documents,  both  printed  and  MS.  referring 
to  the  history  of  the  Academy  of  Music.  These 
works  are  admirably  catalogued  in  the  publica- 
tion of  M.  Lajarte,  which  we  have  noticed  under 
his  name. 

d.  The  library  of  the  Arsenal  contains  very 
interesting  MSS.,  such  as  the  '  Mazarinades ' — 
songs  sung  under  the  Fronde,  with  their  airs ; 
collections  of  airs  by  Michael  Lambert,  and 
other  little-known  compositions  of  the  1 7th  and 
1 8th  centuries,  etc.     No  printed  catalogue. 

e.  The  library  of  St.  Genevieve  contains  a 
large  number  of  rare  works  on  music,  a  fine 
collection  of  chansons  and  dramatic  works,  with 
the  music,  and  many  curious  MSS. 

/.  The  Bibliotheque  de  la  Ville  de  Paris 
(City  library),  Hotel  Carnavalet,  contains  all  the 
books,  and  many  MSS.,  referring  to  the  history 


MUSICAL  LIBRARIES. 

of  the  theatres  of  Paris  and  the  instrument 
makers  of  the  city. 

g.  The  library  of  the  Bibliotheque  des  Arts  et 
Metiers  contains  few  musical  works,  but  is  rich 
in  materials  for  the  history  of  the  music  trade, 
such  as  patents,  trade  registers,  etc. 

Versailles.  This  library  is  rich  in  sacred 
music,  dramatic  works,  and  books  on  music ;  and 
contains  also  several  interesting  MSS.  of  the 
17th  century. 

Montpellier.  Amongst  other  very  rare 
MSS.  is  a  celebrated  Antiphonaire,  as  well  as 
compositions  of  the  12th,  13th,  14th  and  15th 
centuries,  of  which  M.  Coussemaker  has  availed 
himself  for  his  learned  works  on  the  music  of 
the  middle  ages. 

Rouen.  This  library  has  a  superb  illuminated 
missal  and  many  works  in  plain-chant;  also 
some  autographs  of  modern  writers.  [G.C.] 

United  States  of  America. 

a.  The  Harvard  Musical  Association,  a  society 
of  amateurs,  graduates  of  the  university,  organised 
about  40  years  ago  for  the  purpose  of  promoting 
the  cause  of  good  music  in  the  community  in  such 
ways  as  may  be  most  practicable,  has  collected 
about  2000  volumes,  which  number  is  constantly 
increasing. 

b.  The  Boston  public  library  (the  largest  in  the 
United  States)  has  about  2000  volumes  in  its 
alcove  devoted  to  music,  but  very  little  attention 
is  given  to  increasing  this  department. 

c.  The  library  of  Harvard  University  has  about 
2000  volumes  of  music,  which  number  is  con- 
stantly and  rapidly  increasing. 

d.  The  library  of  Congress  has  little  but  what 
comes  to  it  under  the  copyright  law,  which  is 
considerable  in  quantity,  but  of  little  value. 

e.  The  new  College  of  Music  in  Cincinnati  has 
begun  the  formation  of  a  library  adapted  to  its 
object  as  a  conservatory,  and  meanwhile  enjoys 
the  use  of  Mr.  Theodore  Thomas's  collection  of 
several  thousand  volumes  of  orchestral  works, 
scores,  etc.  [H.  W.  j 

/.  The  Lowell  Mason  library  of  music,  be- 
longing to  the  theological  department  of  Yale 
College,  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  was  the  gift  of 
the  widow  of  Dr.  Lowell  Mason.  The  nucleus  of 
this  collection  is  the  library  formed  by  Dr.  C.  H. 
Rinck,  of  Darmstadt,  which  was  bought  by  Dr. 
Mason  in  1852.  It  now  contains  8460  distinct 
publications,  and  630  MSS.  More  than  one  half 
belongs  to  the  department  of  sacred  music,  and 
is  particularly  rich  in  hymnology  (700  volumes). 
Roman  Catholic  and  early  French  Protestant 
church  music  are  also  well  represented,  and  there 
is  much  valuable  material  here  for  the  history  of 
music  in  America.  The  vocal  secular  music  com- 
prises some  1 200  works  of  every  description,  and 
there  is  also  a  valuable  collection  of  educational 
and  theoretical  works,  including  some  16th  and 
17th  century  treatises.  In  general  literature 
there  are  about  850  volumes,  one  half  being  in 
the  English  language.  Amongst  the  rare  works 
in  this  library  the  following  may  be  mentioned  : — 
Riccio's  Introitus  (Venice,  1589);  Andreas  Spaeth's 


MUSICAL  LIBRARIES. 

Paraphrase  of  the  Psalms  (Heidelberg,  1 596)  ;  de 
Moncrif's  Chansons  (Paris,  1755);  Krieger's 
Musikalische  Partien  (Nuremberg,  1697) ;  and 
autograph  MSS.  by  Dr.  Mason,  Kinck,  A.  Andre", 
Beczwarzowsky,  Fesca,  Nageli,  G.  A.  Schneider, 
and  N.  A.  Strungk. 

g.  The  Yale  College  library  has  a  small  but 
valuable  collection,  comprising  about  300  volumes 
of  music,  and  100  of  musical  literature,  gathered 
principally  with  the  income  of  a  fund  given  by 
the  late  Mrs.  William  A.  Larned,  which  yields 
about  60  dollars  a  year.  This  has  been  devoted 
mainly  to  the  purchase  of  the  works  of  the  great 
composers,  principally  in  score,  of  which  there  is 
•  good  collection  in  this  library.  [W.  B.  S.] 

MUSICAL  PERIODICALS.  Musical  jour- 
nalism began  in  England  in  181 8  with  The 
Quarterly  Musical  Magazine' and  Review,  in  a 
small  octavo  form.  It  was  intended  to  contain 
articles  of  the  following  kind : — 1.  Original  cor- 
respondence upon  all  the  branches  of  the  science, 
theoretical  and  practical ;  2.  Critical  and  im- 
partial accounts  of  musical  performers ;  3.  Re- 
views of  musical  publications ;  4.  Anecdotes  of 
music  and  musical  men  ;  5.  Poetry,  original  or 
selected,  that  might  appear  calculated  for  musical 
adaptation  ;  6.  A  register  or  chronicle  of  musical 
transactions.  Among  the  most  interesting  articles 
which  appeared  were — a  review  of  Forkel's  Life  of 
Bach  in  vol.  ii. ;  an  account  of  the  performance 
at  the  Philharmonic  of  Beethoven's  8th  Sym- 
phony (vol.  7,  1825),  and  in  vol.  9,  1827,  a 
criticism  of  Beethoven  and  his  works,  the  two 
latter  of  which  are  signed  '  Musicus,'  and  are 
written  in  the  style  which  a  modern  reviewer 
would  use  in  writing  of  Wagner.  In  the  last 
article  *  Musicus '  gives  the  following  opinion : 
'  The  effect  which  the  writings  of  Beethoven 
have  had  on  the  art  must,  I  fear,  be  considered 
as  injurious.'  In  vol.  3  began  the  publication 
of  music  in  each  number,  which  was  continued 
till  the  end  of  the  magazine  in  1828. 

In  1823  appeared  The  Harmonicon,  which 
has  been  described  in  its  own  place.  [See  Har- 
monicon, vol.  i.  p.  663].  Three  years  after  the 
demise  of  that  journal  appeared  The  Musical 
World  (the  space  had  been  partly  filled  up  from 
1835  to  36  by  The  Musical  Magazine,  a  monthly, 
edited  by  C.  H.  Purday,  which  had  but  little 
success). 

The  Musical  World  began  on  a  new  footing :  its 
policy  was  not  entirely  to  confine  itself  to  musical 
matters,  but  to  combine  general  interests  with 
those  of  music.  It  was  edited  by  Cowden  Clarke, 
with  the  co-operation  of  an  able  staff  of  writers, 
comprising  the  following  names — Samuel  Wesley, 
the  elder,  who  contributed  the  first  paper,  'A 
Sketch  of  the  State  of  Music  in  England  from 
1778';  Dr.  Gauntlett  ;  Dr.  Hodges;  Egerton 
Webbe;  Carl  Klingemann ;  W.  J.  Thorns; 
John  Parry,  the  elder;  C.  H.  Purday;  J.  A. 
Strumpf;  Lowell  Mason,  of  Boston,  U.S.A.; 
Collet  Dobson ;  John  Ella ;  Joseph  Warren ;  etc. 
It  was  originally  published  by  J.  A.  Novello,  in 
small  8vo,  weekly,  from  March  10,  1836,  to  Dec. 
39i  x837»  which  date  completed  its  seventh  quar- 


MUSICAL  PERIODICALS. 


427 


terly  volume.  A  new  series  began  on  Jan.  5, 
1838,  in  large  8vo,  published  by  Henry  Hooper. 
With  its  third  series  it  became  4to,  a  form  it  has 
since  retained.  It  changed  hands  frequently  till 
the  beginning  of  1854,  when  tt  was  taken  byBoosey 
&  Co.,  who  published  it  till  1863,  when  it  went 
to  its  present  proprietors,  Duncan  Davison  &  Co. 
During  its  4to  existence  it  has  been  edited  by 
Desmond  Ryan  and  J.  W.  Davison,  and  few 
periodicals  have  embraced  a  more  varied  and 
curious  mass  of  literature  more  or  less  directly 
connected  with  music,  and  in  a  great  measure 
of  a  humorous,  often  Rabelaisian  cast.  Among 
the  contributors  since  1840  may  be  mentioned 
G.  A.  Macfarren — Analytical  essays  on  Bee- 
thoven's works ;  on  Mendelssohn's  Antigone, 
ffidipus,  Athalie,  etc. ;  on  the  Messiah ;  on 
Mozart ;  on  Day's  Theory  of  Harmony  ;  on  the 
Leipzig  Bach  Society's  publications,  etc.  Dr. 
Kenealy — Translations  from  the  Italian,  Danish, 
and  Icelandic,  and  original  papers.  John  Oxen- 
ford — Original  poetry  (171  sonnets) ;  Transla- 
tions from  the  Greek  Anthology,  Goethe's  Ve- 
netian Epigrams,  Goethe's  Affinities,  Aristotle, 
Lessing,  Winkelmann,  etc.  J.  V.  Bridgeman— 
Translations  of  Oulibichef  on  History  of  Music, 
and  on  Don  Giovanni ;  Hiller's  Conversations 
with  Rossini ;  Lenz's  Beethoven ;  Lobe's  Men- 
delssohn; Wagner's  Oper  und  Drama,  and  Lo- 
hengrin ;  Lampadius's  Mendelssohn ;  Hanslick 
on  Wagner,  etc.  Other  contributors  are  Dr. 
Rimbault,  W.  Chappell,  H.  S.  Edwards,  Shirley 
Brooks,  Joseph  Bennett,  and  many  other  well- 
known  members  of  the  Press.  During  the  last 
few  years  clever  humorous  caricatures  by  Lyall 
have  been  added. 

In  1 843- 1 844  appeared  two  new  weekly  mu- 
sical journals,  The  Dramatic  and  Musical 
Review,  edited  and  held  by  the  brothers  Eames, 
one  a  violinist  and  the  other  organist  of  St.  Paul's, 
Covent  Garden,  which  lasted  for  a  few  volumes ; 
and  The  Musical  Examiner,  edited  by  J.  W. 
Davison,  among  the  contributors  to  which  were 
Henry  Smart.  Dr.  Macfarren,  E.  J.  Loder,  Dion 
Boucicault,  Albert  Smith,  etc.,  etc. 

The  Musical  Times  appeared  first  in  1844 
(June  1),  edited  and  published  by  Novello 
(monthly,  octavo).  It  was  a  continuation  of  a 
periodical  of  the  same  name  published  by  Mainzer. 
The  interest  of  the  paper  dates  from  about  1846, 
when  Mr.  Edward  Holmes  began  writing  for  it. 
From  this  time  till  his  death  in  1859  ne  was  a 
constant  contributor.  Among  his  most  interest- 
ing series  of  articles  are  the  following — '  Life  of 
Henry  Purcell'  (1847),  'Curiosities  of  Musical 


(1852,  etc.),  'Addenda  to  the  life  of  Mozart' 
and  'Beethoven's  Mass  in  0*  (1858).  In  1855- 
56  appeared  translations  by  Sabilla  Novello  of 
Berlioz's '  Soirees  de  Forchestre,'  and  his  treatise 
on  orchestration.  Also  a  series  of  papers  trans- 
lated by  her  called  *  Truth  about  Music  and  Mu- 
sicians '  (1856-7).  From  Dec.  1853  to  Sept.  1854 
several  essays  were  contributed  by  Leigh  Hunt. 


428 


MUSICAL  PERIODICALS. 


In  Sept.  1863,  Mr.  Henry  C.  Lunn  undertook 
the  office  of  editor,  which  he  still  holds,  contri- 
buting constantly  interesting  articles  of  criticisms 
on  current  musical  subjects.  Among  the  most 
frequent  contributors  have  been  Dr.  Macfarren, 
Dr.  Rimbault,  W.  H.  Cummings,  Carl  Engel,  E. 
Prout,  \V.  A.  Barrett,  H.  H.  Statham,  Joseph 
Bennett,  etc.,  etc.  From  time  to  time  series  of 
articles  of  special  interest  have  appeared,  as  for 
example,  Dr.  Wm.  Pole's  '  Story  of  Mozart's  Re- 
quiem' (1869),  Dr.  Chrysander's  'Sketch  of  the 
History  of  Music  Printing  from  the  1 5th  to  the 
19th  centuries '  (1877).  This  periodical  also  con- 
tains a  monthly  issue  of  part-music. 

The  Tonic  Sol-fa  Reporter  was  begun  in  1853 
(a  tentative  double-number  having  been  issued  in 
1 85 1,  but  not  continued)  under  the  editorship  of 
Mr.  John  Curwen,  whose  lectures  at  Newcastle 
on  the  Tonic  Sol-fa  Notation  were  the  origin  of 
the  publication.  The  double-number  of  1851 
contained,  besides  an  account  of  the  progress  of 
the  movement,  Tonic  Sol-fa  arrangement  of  the 
Hallelujah  Chorus,  'in  which  is  omitted  (sic)  the 
parts  too  difficult  for  Congregational  Singing,' 
and  '  several  hymns !  (words  only).  The  issue 
has  continued  at  intervals  of  a  month  until  the 
present  time,  containing  criticisms,  reports  of  the 
progress  of  the  Sol-fa  movement  in  different  parts 
of  England,  etc.,  and  a  series  of  Anthems,  Glees, 
Rounds,  Hymn-tunes,  etc.,  in  the  Sol-fa  notation. 
Of  late  Mr.  J.  Spencer  Curwen  has  been  associated 
with  Mr.  John  Curwen  in  the  editorship. 

The  Musical  Standard,  projected  by  an  ama- 
teur, Mr.  A.  W.  Hammond,  who  was  both  pro- 
prietor and  editor,  appeared  first  on  Aug.  2,  1862. 
It  was  issued  fortnightly ;  its  size  8vo,and  price  2d. 
It  professed  to  be  unfettered  by  clique,  and  not 
devoted  to  the  behests  of  houses  in  the  trade.  It 
was  especially  to  look  after  the  interests  of  church 
music  and  organists.  It  contains,  besides  leading 
articles  on  topics  of  current  interest,  notices  of 
concerts,  etc.,  specifications  of  old  and  new  organs, 
extracts  from  ancient  church  registers  relating  to 
musical  matters,  biographical  notices  of  the  lesser 
masters  and  public  performers,  and  reprints  of  old 
and  curious  works  bearing  on  the  subject  of  music. 
Among  the  contributors  to  the  early  numbers  were 
Dr.  W.  J.  Westbrook,  Dr.  Gauntlett,  Joseph  Ben- 
nett, J.  Crowdy,  etc.,  etc.  In  an  early  number 
proposals  were  made  to  establish  a  Musical  Col- 
lege. This  was  the  originof  the  College  of  Organists. 
In  May  1864  a  prize  was  offered  for  a  new  hymn- 
tune  ;  this  feature  was  continued  for  some  time. 
In  the  same  year  interesting  reprints  of  old  works 
were  commenced,  and  were  continued  in  each 
number.  In  vol.  5  the  paper  began  a  weekly 
issue.  In  vol.  1 2  there  are  notices  and  a  con- 
siderable controversy  on  the  two  oratorios  by  H. 
H.  Pierson  (then  living),  '  Hezekiah '  and '  Jeru- 
salem.' The  old  series  of  the  journal  ended  with 
vol.  1 3,  when  Mr.  Hammond  sold  the  copyright 
to  Mr.  George  Carr,  and  Mr.  T.  L.  Southgate 
became  editor.  The  scope  of  the  journal  was  now 
considerably  widened,  containing  letters  and  no- 
tices from  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  America. 
Vocal  music  as  well  as  instrumental  was  now 


MUSICAL  PERIODICALS. 

given  weekly  in  the  paper,  among  which  were 
compositions  by  Sir  W.  Sterndale  Bennett,  Sir 
J.  Goss,  H.  Gadsby,  E.  J.  Hopkins,  Berthold 
Tours,  etc.  In  Feb.  1872,  Messrs.  Reeves  & 
Turner  purchased  the  paper.  Mr.  Southgate 
retired  in  1873,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mr.  J. 
Crowdy.  In  1875  Mr.  Bowden  became  the  pro- 
prietor. In  vol.  8  it  was  enlarged  to  folio  size, 
and  the  price  raised  to  3d.,  the  weekly  issue  of 
music  being  discontinued.  In  May  1876  Mr. 
Broadhouse  became  editor.  Among  the  most 
prominent  articles  that  have  lately  appeared  may 
be  mentioned  an  extraordinary  series,  entitled 
'  Beethoven's  Symphonies  critically  and  sym- 
pathetically discussed,'  by  Mr.  A.  Teetgen. 

The  year  1863  brought  two  new  weekly  musical 
periodicals,  The  Orchestra  and  The  Choir.  The 
first,  a  folio  of  16  pages,  published  by  Cramer, 
Wood,  &  Co.,  contains,  besides  criticisms  of  music 
in  London  and  the  provinces,  correspondence 
from  the  principal  musical  centres  of  the  continent, 
serial '  feuilletons,'  etc.  It  1874  it  began  a  new 
series  in  a  quarto  form,  issued  monthly,  published 
by  Swift  &  Co.,  155  Newton  Street,  W.C. 

The  Choir  and  Musical  Record,  published 
weekly  by  Thomas  Wright,  'Choir'  Office,  188 
Strand,  was  intended  '  to  prove  serviceable  and  in- 
teresting to  Clergymen,  Choirmasters,  Organists, 
Members  of  Choirs,  and  all  who  are  interested  in 
Music.'  Its  object  was  to  'promote  the  art  of 
church  music  by  the  publication  of  essays  and 
papers  advocating  sound  principles  and  directing 
taste.'  Among  the  contributors  were  Dr.  Rim- 
bault, Dr.  Macfarren,  E.  J.  Hopkins,  etc.  4  pages 
of  music  are  issued  weekly. 

The  Monthly  Musical  Record  was  begun  in 
1871,  under  the  editorship  of  Mr.  E.  Prout, 
Augener  &  Co.  being  the  publishers.  It  has 
appeared  monthly  since  that  time.  Its  form  is 
a  small  quarto,  and  its  price  id.  Among 
the  principal  contributors  are — W.  G.  Cusins, 
E.  Dannreuther,  S.  Jadassohn,  L.  Nohl,  F. 
Nieoks,  E.  Pauer,  C.  F.  Pohl,  Xaver  Scharwenka, 
etc.  Historical  and  analytical  notices  in  a  serial 
form  are  given  from  time  to  time,  by  Herrn  E. 
Pauer,  F.  Niecks,  etc.  In  vol.  2  appeared  Herr 
Dannreuther's  articles  on  'Wagner,  his  tendencies, 
life,  and  writings.'  From  1874  to  1876  the  editor 
was  Mr.  C.  A.  Barry ;  since  that  time  the  post 
had  been  held  by  Mr.  W.  A.  Barrett.  Admirable 
analyses  of  Schubert's  Masses,  Schumann's  Sym- 
phonies, Weber's  Cantatas,  etc.,  and  descriptions 
of  Urio's  Te  Deum  and  Stradella's  Serenade,  with 
reference  to  Handel's  plagiarisms  from  them,  all 
by  Mr.  Prout,  appeared  in  the  earlier  volumes.  The 
issue  of  four  sheets  of  music  with  the  publication 
began  in  the  number  for  February  1880. 

'  Concordia,  a  journal  of  music  and  the  sister 
arts,'  was  first  published  by  Messrs.  Novello, 
Ewer,  &  Co.,  under  the  editorship  of  Mr.  Joseph 
Bennett,  on  May  1,  1875.  The  paper  consisted 
of  articles,  reviews,  criticisms,  and  London,  pro- 
vincial, and  foreign  intelligence  on  music,  poetry, 
the  drama,  and  the  fine  arts  ;  and  was  published 
weekly.  The  principal  contributors  were  Dr. 
W.    H.   Stone,  Dr.  Gauntlett,    Rev.    Maurice 


MUSICAL  PERIODICALS. 

Davies,  W.  Chappell,  W.  H.  Cummings,  J. 
Knight,  Walter  Thornbury,  H.  H.  Statham,  C 
K.  Salaman,  Clement  Scott,  E.  Prout,  H.  Suther- 
land Edwards,  H.  Howe,  H.  C.  Lunn,  Joseph 
Bennett,  etc.  The  following  specially  interesting 
articles  appeared  in  this  paper :  Recollections  of 
Catalani,  Czerny,  Mozart's  son,  Mozart's  widow, 
Charles  Neate,  Schumann,  Thalberg,  the  Phil- 
harmonic Society,  the  Lent  Oratorios,  the  Shake- 
speare Jubilee  of  1830,  etc.,  etc.,  by  C.  K. 
Salaman ;  A  comparison  of  the  original  and 
revised  scores  of  Elijah,  by  Joseph  Bennett; 
Witty  French  Songs  of  the  last  century,  by  W. 
Chappell ;  Helmholtz's  New  Musical  Theories, 
by  W.  Chappell ;  London  Choirs,  by  Rev.  Maurice 
Davies  ;  Portraits  of  Old  Actors  (Betterton, 
Kemble,  Kean,  Charles  Matthews  the  elder, 
etc.)  by  Walter  Thornbury  ;  Don  Juan  and 
Faust,  by  H.  Sutherland  Edwards;  Purcell's 
works,  by  Dr. .  Rimbault ;  Purcell's  Yorkshire 
Feast  and  Theatre  Music,  by  W.  H.  Cummings ; 
and  a  series  of  interesting  facsimiles,  letters  and 
a  song  by  Handel,  caricature  of  Handel,  auto- 
graph of  J.  S.  Bach,  MS.  and  letters  of  C.  P.  E. 
Bach,  etc.  A  weekly  list  of  services  in  London 
churches,  and  a  Shakespearean  calendar  were  also 
included.  The  publication  was  withdrawn  in 
1876. 

The  London  and  Provincial  Music  Trades 
Review,  large  4to,  was  started  in  Nov.  1877,  an(i 
appears  on  the  15  th  of  each  month.  Besides 
much  information  on  the  trades  connected  with 
music,  patents,  bankruptcies,  etc.,  it  has  full 
notices  of  concerts  and  other  musical  events,  and 
reviews  of  both  books  and  music,  lists  of  new 
inventions  and  publications,  and  much  miscella- 
neous intelligence.  The  reviews  are  signed  by 
the  authors,  Mr.  Henry  F.  Frost,  and  Mr.  T. 
Percy  M.  Betts,  the  latter  of  whom  is  understood 
to  be  the  editor.  [J.  A.  F.  M.] 

France. 

L'Art  musical,  a  weekly  journal  started  by 
M.  Leon  Escudier,  first  appeared  Dec.  6,  i860. 
It  is  published  every  Tuesday,  and  contains  8 
pages  of  two  or  three  columns.  Among  the  con- 
tributors the  following  may  be  mentioned : — 
Scudo,  F.  de  Villars,  Ad.  de  Pontecoulant,  G. 
Chouquet,  A.  de  Lauzieres-Themines,  Ernest 
Thoinau,  Edmond  Neukomm,  Paul  Laconne,  J. 
Ruelle,  A.  Vizertini,  etc.  The  following  are 
some  of  the  most  interesting  articles  which  have 
appeared : — *  Mes  Souvenirs '  (L.  Escudier) ;  *  Les 
Chants  nationaux  de  la  France '  (G.  Chouquet) ; 
'  Les  Iphigenies  de  Gluck '  and  '  Les  freres  Ricci ' 
(F.  de  Villars) ;  '  Mangars '  and  '  Deplorations 
de  G.  Cre'tin  sur  le  trepas  de  Jean  Okeghem' 
(E. Thoinau)  ;  'CM. v.  Weber '  (E.  Neukomm), 
besides  interesting  notices. 

Bibliographic  Musicale  francaise,  a  monthly 
publication,  begun  Jan.  1875  by  the  Chambre 
syndicale  du  commerce  de  musique,  is  a  catalogue 
of  all  musical  works  published  in  France. 

La  Chroniquc  Musicale.  Two  entirely  distinct 
periodicals  have  appeared  under  this  name ;  the 
first  in  1865-66,  edited  by  M.  Malibran,  contain- 


MUSICAL  PERIODICALS. 


429 


ing  some  very  good  articles ;  the  second  in  July 
1873.  lasting  till  June  1876,  edited  by  M.Arthur 
Heulhard,  which  appeared  fortnightly  (8vo.),  and 

L'Echo  des  Orphtons,  begun  in  Paris  in  1861, 
and  at  first  edifed  by  Ernest  Gebauer  (nephew  to 
the  bassoon  player  of  the  same  name),  who  con- 
tinued to  be  at  the  head  of  it  for  many  years, 
and  now  managed  by  M.  Victor  Lory,  under  the 
direction  of  M.  Laurent  de  Rille".  Besides  criti- 
cisms, etc.  this  paper  issues  part-songs,  choruses, 
etc.    It  is  published  two  or  three  times  a  month. 

L 'Europe  artiste,  in  which  music  occupies  but 
a  secondary  place,  was  begun  in  1853,  and  is  now 
edited  by  M.  Elie  Fre"bault.  It  is  a  weekly  jour- 
nal of  the  drama  and  the  fine  arts. 

La  France  chorale.  This  journal  appeared 
three  times  a  month  from  Nov.  1861.  M.  J.  F. 
Vaudin,  a  clever  but  intemperate  writer,  chiefly 
known  by  the  poetry  which  he  wrote  for  part- 
songs,  choruses,  etc.,  being  the  editor  until  his 
death  in  1869,  when  the  journal  was  re-consti- 
tuted under  the  title  of  La  France  chorale ;  le 
Moniteur  des  Orphtons  et  des  Sociitis  instrument 
tales.  It  now  appears  only  twice  a  month,  the 
editor  being  M.  Camille  de  Vos.  It  is  not  only 
devoted  to  the  interests  of  choral  music,  but 
contains  accounts,  criticisms,  etc.  of  orchestral 
music. 

La  France  musicale.  A  weekly  journal  which 
appeared  from  Dec.  1837  to  July  1870,  under  the 
direction  of  MM.  Marie  and  Le"on  Escudier,  con- 
taining biographies  and  many  other  articles  of 
interest.  Among  its  contributors  at  different 
times  were  Castil-Blaze  and  J.  Maurel,  MM. 
Mery,  Philarete  Chasles,  V.  Schcelcher,  etc. 

Le  Journal  de  musique.  A  weekly  publica- 
tion, containing  4  pages  of  letter- press  and  2 
pieces  of  music,  edited  by  M.  Armaud  Gouzier ; 
the  property  of  M.  Paul  Dalloy. 

Jownal  special  de  musique  militaire.  This  pub- 
lication has  for  17  years  continued  under  the 
direction  of  M.  Tilliard,  issuing  24  pieces  of 
music  for  military  bands  in  the  year. 

Le  Menestrel.     [See  MSnestbel.] 

Le  Monde  artiste.  A  weekly  journal  of  8 
pages,  founded  in  i860.  It  was  for  some  time 
very  unimportant,  but  now,  having  become  the 
property  of  M.  Achille  Lemoine,  and  having  for 
its  editor  M.  Jules  Ruelle,  it  is  the  greatest 
authority  on  the  dramatic  and  musical  doings  in 
the  departments  of  France  and  in  Algeria. 

The  other  musical  periodicals  of  France  will  be 
noticed  under  their  several  heads.  [G.C.] 

Germany. 

Allgemeinc  musikalische  Zeitung  [see  Leipzig, 
ii.  115],  Oct.  1798 — Dec.  28,  1848.  The  import- 
ance of  this  periodical  for  information  on  all 
musical  matters  during  the  first  half  of  the  19th 
century  will  be  best  estimated  from  the  conclud- 
ing remarks  of  the  publishers  in  the  last  number. 
'  This  journal  was  founded  when  musical  pro- 
duction was  at  its  richest  and  best.  Mozart  was 
not  long  dead,  Haydn  was  near  the  end,  and 
Beethoven  at  the  beginning  of  his  career.  To 
bring  the  works  of  such  a  period  as  this  before 


430 


MUSICAL  PERIODICALS. 


the  notice  of  connoisseurs  and  amateurs,  to  eluci- 
date and  explain  them,  to  educate  the  public  up 
to  understanding  them — such  were  the  objects  of 
the  Musikalische  Zeitung ;  and  these  objects 
were  attained  in  a  degree  which  entitles  it  with- 
out hesitation  to  a  high  place  in  the  history  of 
music.  But  with  the  lapse  of  time  the  conditions 
of  the  musical  world  have  materially  changed. 
There  is  no  longer  a  centre  either  for  musical 
production  or  appreciation,  both  being  now  dis- 
seminated far  and  wide.  Under  these  circum- 
stances, a  general  musical  journal  is  an  anachron- 
ism ;  local  papers  are  better  fitted  to  supply  the 
various  necessities  of  the  musical  world.' 

The  Deutsche  Musikzeitung,  founded  by  Selmar 
Bagge  in  Vienna,  i860,  was  in  some  sense  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  above,  and  after  it  had  had  a 
successful  existence  of  three  years,  Breitkopf  & 
Hartel  resolved  to  revive  the  Allgemeine  mus. 
Zeitung  under  Bagge's  editorship,  but  it  was  not 
supported,  and  the  publishers,  tired  of  so  costly 
an  undertaking,  relinquished  it  in  1865  to  the 
firm  of  Rieter-Biedermann  (Leipzig  and  Winter- 
thur).  The  first  numbers  of  the  new  series  were 
interesting  on  the  one  hand  from  the  support 
given  to  the  rising  talent  of  Brahms,  and  on  the 
other  to  the  revival  of  the  old-classical  school 
and  the  cultus  of  Bach  and  Handel.  Bagge  was 
succeeded  by  Eitner,  and  he  again  by  Dr.  Chry- 
sander.  He  attracted  a  brilliant  staff,  and  many 
of  the  articles,  such  as  Nottebohm's  'Beetho- 
veniana,'  would  do  credit  to  any  periodical. 
Chrysander  was  succeeded  in  1871  by  Joseph 
Muller  (compiler  of  the  catalogue  of  the  Gott- 
hold  musical  library  in  the  library  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Konigsberg),  but  he  resumed  the 
editorship  in  1875.  Though  the  number  of  sub- 
scribers is  small,  the  paper  stands  high  among 
the  musical  papers  of  Germany.  It  notices 
French  and  English  music,  inserting  reports  of 
Crystal  Palace  Concerts  and  Handel  Festivals, 
and  articles  on  English  musical  literature. 

Berliner  allgemeine  musikalische  Zeitung, 
1824-30  (Schlesinger),  founded  by  A.  B.  Marx, 
did  important  service  to  the  rapid  spread  of 
Beethoven's  works  in  North  Germany  even  during 
his  lifetime,  and  in  promoting  the  revival  of  the 
taste  for  Bach's  and  Handel's  music  in  Berlin. 
In  his  farewell  address  Marx  says,  'The  usual 
habit  of  critics  is  to  give  way  to  the  fluctuating 
inclinations  of  the  public,  in  order  to  insinuate  a 
little,  a  very  little,  of  the  truth.  This  has  never 
been  my  way ;  I  have  never  been  carried  away 
by  the  fashion  of  the  day,  for  I  have  neither 
formed  my  opinions  by  it,  nor  succumbed  to  its 
attractions,  and  thus  I  have  been  preserved  from 
inconsistency.  For  instance,  with  regard  to 
Spontini,  I  neither  lauded  his  "  Vestale"  as  the 
work  of  a  great  artist,  nor  depreciated  his  later 
compositions  as  the  productions  of  a  mere  aca- 
demical pupil,  or  an  imbecile,  like  so  many 
musicians  of  our  day.  Nor  again  was  I  so  far 
dazzled  by  the  novelty  of  Rossini's  and  Auber's 
operas,  as  to  endorse  the  popular  verdict  upon 
them.'  There  is  something  elevating  in  recalling 
such  sentiments  as  these  at  the  present  day,  when 


MUSICAL  PERIODICALS. 

differences  of  opinion  may  be  said  virtually  to 
have  disappeared  under  the  all  but  universal 
dominion  of  Wagner's  works. 

Berliner  musikalische  Zeitung,  1844-47,  the 
first  periodical  to  praise  Wagner's  works  on  their 
production  in  Dresden,  was  started  by  Gaillard, 
and  continued  as  the  xNeue  Berliner  Musik- 
zeitung (Bote  &  Bock)  up  to  the  present  day. 
It  contains  amongst  others  well-known  articles  by 
von  Lenz. 

Caecilia  (see  i.  294).  A  continuation  of  this 
periodical,  called  the  Silddeutsche  Musikzeitung 
(Schott,  Mayence),  was  edited  by  Foeckerer 
1849-66. 

Monatshefte  fur  MusUc-Geschichte,  founded 
(1869)  and  edited  by  R.  Eitner  (Trautwein, 
Berlin).  Contains  Lists  and  Bibliographies  of 
ancient  composers,  Hucbald,  Lasso,  Ockeghem, 
Criiger,  etc.,  and  many  valuable  articles.  An 
Index  to  the  first  ten  years  was  published  in 
1879. 

Important  for  the  state  of  music  in  the  Rhenish 
Provinces  is  the  Rheinische  Musikzeitung.  while 
under  the  editorship  (1850-53)  of  the  weli-known 
Professor  L.  Bischoff  (inventor  of  the  expression 
'music  of  the  future'),  who  in  the  latter  year 
founded  the 

Niederrheinische  Musikzeitung  (Dumont  Schau- 
berg,  Cologne).  The  contributors  included  such 
men  as  Gervinus,  and  the  paper  held  an  important 
place  till  Bischoff's  death  in  1867,  when  it  was 
dropped. 

Echo  (Schlesinger,  Berlin),  conducted  in  1851 
and  52  by  Kossak  the  well-known  feuilletonist, 
then  by  the  publisher.  In  66  it  passed  into  the 
hands  of  Robert  Lienau  (with  Mendel  as  editor), 
in  73  into  those  of  Oppenheim  (editor  Dr.  Lang- 
•  haus),  in  74  returned  to  Lienau,  and  finally 
ceased  Dec,  1879.  ^*  had  a*  one  *ime  a  certain 
importance  as  an  opposition-paper  to  Wagner. 

Fliegende  Blatter  filr  Musik  by  Professor  Lobe 
(at  one  time  editor  of  the  Allg.  mus.  Zeitung), 
collected  in  3  vols,  of  6  parts  each,  1855-57, 
was  distinguished  for  polemics,  serious  essays, 
and  pertinent  observations  on  art. 

Tonhalle  (Payne,  Leipzig),  edited  by  Oscar 
Paul  from  March  23,  1868,  to  the  end  of  69, 
when  it  was  merged  in  the  Musikalische  Wochen- 
blatt  (the  first  illustrated  paper  of  the  kind) 
(Fritzsch),  which  soon  became  a  demonstrative 
organ  of  the  Wagner  party,  and  at  the  same 
time  a  champion  of  Brahms.  It  also  contains 
the  Nottebohm's  *  Neue  Beethoveniana,'  and 
may  thus  fairly  be  called  eclectic  in  its  views. 
The  first  ten  numbers  were  edited  by  Paul,  but 
it  has  since  been  managed  entirely  by  the  pub- 
lisher. It  has  a  very  large  circulation  in  Ger- 
many, and  is  distinguished  for  its  notices  of 
foreign  music. 

Signale  filr  die  Musikalische  Welt,  Jan.  2, 1843; 
the  first  article  was  a  panegyric  by  Bauschke  on 
a  fugue  by  Drobisch.  In  No.  44  (1847)  Bartholf 
Senff  was  announced  as  publisher,  and  he  still 
conducts  it  with  a  staff  of  eminent  contributors, 

1  From  1853  to  69  It  wu  carried  on  u  a  kind  of  musical  trtdt 
circular. 


MUSICAL  PERIODICALS. 

at  the  head  of  whom  is  Bernsdorff.  Its  specialty 
is  the  circulation  of  short  pieces  of  news — hence 
the  name  '  Signale.*  The  correspondent  in  Vienna 
is  Herr  C.  F.  Pohl.  It  contains  more  general 
intelligence  and  has  more  subscribers  than  any 
other  German  musical  paper. 

Neue  Zeitschrifl  filr  Musik,  founded  by  Robert 
Schumann,  who  relates  in  his  '  Gesammelte 
Schriften '  how  a  number  of  musicians,  who  had 
met  in  Leipzig  in  the  end  of  1833  to  compare 
ideas  on  the  new  lights  Mendelssohn  and  Chopin, 
were  roused  to  do  something  more  for  the  cause 
of  art  than  merely  carrying  on  their  calling  as 
musicians.  Thus  arose  the  Neue  Zeitschrift 
(April  3,  1834),  which  in  spite  of  many  vicissi- 
tudes still  exists.  Hartmann  the  publisher  was 
the  first  editor,  but  from  1835  to  44  Schumann 
conducted  it  himself.  After  him  Oswald  Lorenz 
took  it  for  a  short  time,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Franz  Brendel  (45  to  68),  under  whom  it  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  so-called  new-German  school. 
Kahnt  has  been  the  publisher  since  57. 

Musikalische  Zeitung  fwr  die  oeslerreichischen 
Staaten,  Apr.  15,  181 2,  issued  fortnightly  by  the 
Musikalische  Zeitungs-bureau,  indirectly  gave 
rise  to  the  Wiener  musikalische  Zeitung.  Both 
expired  in  1813. 

Allgemeine  musikalische  Zeitung,  Jan.  2,  18 17 
(Strauss),  important  for  special  information  on 
music  in  Vienna,  was  edited  by  von  Seyfried  in 
1819  and  20,  and  from  21  to  the  end  of  23  by 
Kanne.  It  contained  portraits  of  celebrated 
musicians,  including  Beethoven,  and  was  remark- 
able as  the  first  independent  effort  of  Viennese 
journalism. 

Allgemeine  Wiener  musikalische  Zeitung,  edited 
from  1841  to  47  by  Dr.  Aug.  Schmidt  (joint- 
founder  of  the  Viennese  Mannergesangverein), 
contains  a  series  of  articles  (beginning  No.  28, 
1846)  by  Eduard  Hanslick,  highly  laudatory  of 
Wagner's  Tannhauser  I  Tempora  mutantur  ! 
Luib  was  editor  in  1847-48,  the  last  twelve 
months  of  its  existence.    It  was  replaced  by  the 

Wiener  Musikzeitung,  1852-60,  editor  Gloggl, 
almost  the  only  correct  source  of  information  on 
musical  affairs  for  that  period. 

Monatschrift  filr  Theater  und  Musik,  1855-61 
(Wallishauser,  Vienna),  editor  Joseph  Klemm, 
goes  less  into  detail,  but  like  the 

Recensionen  und  Mittheilungen  filr  Theater 
Musik  und  bildende  Kunst,  1862-65,  contains 
valuable  articles  by  Sonnleithner  on  Mozart,  and 
music  in  Vienna  of  that  date. 

The  oldest  of  the  German  musical  papers  is 
J.  A.  Hiller's  Wochentliche  Nachrichten  und 
Anmerkungen  die  Musik  betreffend,  which  came 
out  weekly  in  Leipzig  from  July  1,  1766,  to 
June  26,  1769.  A  supplement  of  26  numbers  car- 
ried it  down  to  the  end  of  69,  and  a  fourth  year, 
Jan.  1  to  Dec.  24,  1770,  followed. 

The  next  in  point  of  time  was  the  Musikalische 
Realzeitung,  1788-92  (Bossier,  Spire),  the  title 
of  which  was  changed  to  Musikalische  Corre- 
spondenz  der  deutschen  philarmonisclier  Gesell- 
echaft. 

In  the  same  year  Reichardt  made  similar  at- 


MUSICAL  SOCIETY  OF  LONDON.  431 

tempts  in  Berlin ;  his  Musikalisches  Wochenblatt, 
1 791,  not  answering  was  superseded  by  the 
Musikalische  Monatschrift,  1792. 

Berliner  musikalische  Zeitung,  1794,  edited  by 
Spazier,  was  historical  and  critical.  [F.  G.j 

Italy. 

The  Italian  musical  periodicals  are  said  to  be 
very  numerous.  The  chief  of  them  appear  to  be — 

Milan.  Gazetta  Musicale,  started  in  1845  by 
Ricordi  in  Milan.  It  is  a  folio  (weekly)  of  8 
pages,  edited  by  Salvatore  Farina,  containing 
criticisms,  reviews,  correspondence  from  the  chief 
towns  of  Europe ;  and  the  annual  subscription  is 
20  lire.  II  Trovatore.  Revista  Melodrammatica. 
Revista  del  Teatri.    Mondo  Artistico. 

Florence.  Gazetta  musicale  di  Firenze.  Boc- 
cherini,  monthly — 4  pages,  edited  by  G.  Guidi. 

Rome.     Palestra  musicale,  edited  by  Marchesi. 

Naples.  Napoli  musicale,  edited  by  Umberto 
Mazzoni. 

United  States  op  America. 

The  leading  musical  periodical  in  the  States  is 
DwigMs  Journal  of  Music  (Boston),  which  has 
been  noticed  under  its  own  head,  vol.  i.  p.  478. 

Another  Boston  periodical  is  The  Musical 
Herald  (monthly),  No.  1  of  which  appeared  in 
January  1880. 

The  Music  Trade  Review  (New  York),  is  pub- 
lished weekly,  large  folio,  price  10  cents,  edited 
by  Gotthold  Carlberg,  and  now  in  its  8th  year. 
It  does  not  confine  itself  to  the  music  trade,  but 
contains  notices  of  concerts,  criticism,  reviews, 
and  correspondence  on  musical  subjects  in  gene* 
ral,  all  marked  by  great  intelligence. 

The  Musical  Review  (New  York),  weekly,  was 
started  Oct.  16,  1879,  and  bids  fair  to  be  an  able 
and  satisfactory  periodical. 

Tlie  Philharmonic  Journal  and  Advertiser 
(New  York)  is  edited  by  Jerome  Hopkins,  and 
published  monthly — 8  pages. 

MUSICAL  SOCIETY  OF  LONDON,  THE. 
This  society  was  founded  in  April  1858  by  a 
body  of  musicians,  professional  and  amateur, 
who  had  originally  been  members  of  the  New 
Philharmonic  Society,  and  wished  to  re-consti- 
tute it.  This  being  found  impracticable,  they 
established  a  new  institution,  under  the  name  of 
the  Musical  Society  of  London.  Among  the 
names  of  this  body  are  found  those  of  Charles 
Salaman,  Esq.,  the  chief  mover  of  the  project 
(to  whose  kindness  the  writer  of  the  present  ar- 
ticle is  indebted  for  his  information),  who  held 
the  post  of  Honorary  Secretary  until  1865,  when 
Mr.  G.  C.  Verrinder  succeeded  him  ;  Augustine 
Sargood,  Esq.  (Treasurer) ;  C.  E.  Horsley,  Esq. 
(Honorary  Librarian)  ;  W.  V,  Wallace ;  G.  A. 
Macfarren;  Henry  Smart;  Jules  Benedict; 
Stephen  Elvey ;  John  Goss ;  E.  J.  Hopkins ;  B. 
Molique ;  Sir  F.  A.  Gore-Ouseley ;  and  Dr.  S.  S. 
Wesley ;  besides  other  prominent  musicians.  The 
objects  of  the  society,  as  stated  in  its  early  pro- 
spectuses, were  : — To  promote  social  intercourse 
among  its  members  and  with  musicians  of  this 
and  other  countries;  to  form  a  musical  library 


432  MUSICAL  SOCIETY  OF  LONDON. 

for  the  use  of  members  ;  to  hold  conversazioni,  at 
which  papers  on  musical  subjects  might  be  read, 
and  subjects  of  musical  interest  discussed ;  to 
give  orchestral,  choral,  and  chamber  concerts,  and 
occasionally  lectures;  to  afford  the  opportunity 
of  trying  new  compositions ;  to  publish  occasional 
papers,  calculated  to  extend  the  theoretical  and 
historical  knowledge  of  music.  The  members 
consisted  of  fellows,  associates,  and  lady -as- 
sociates, whose  subscription  was  fixed  at  one 
guinea.  The  following  were  honorary  fellows : — 
Auber,  Berlioz,  Ernst,  Joachim,  Meyerbeer,  Mo- 
scheles,  Rossini,  and  Spohr.  The  Conductor  of  the 
society  during  the  whole  period  of  its  existence  was 
Mr.  Alfred  Mellon.  The  first  concert  took  place 
on  Jan.  26,  1859,  when  the  C  minor  Symphony 
of  Beethoven,  the  'Melusina'  Overture  of  Men- 
delssohn, and  a  cantata  by  Dr.  Macfarrren, '  May- 
Day,'  etc.,  were  given.  Gade's  Highland  Over- 
ture was  performed  at  the  second  concert.  Among 
the  most  interesting  items  of  the  programme  may 
be  mentioned,  Schumann's  Symphony  (No.  1), 
May  1861 ;  Joachim's  Concerto  in  the  Hun- 
garian style,  played  by  the  composer,  March  1 2, 
1862  ;  the  Choral  Symphony  of  Beethoven,  April 
30,  1862,  on  which  occasion  Stephen  Heller 
played  Mozart's  Concerto  for  two  pianos  with 
Charles  Halle ;  Sullivan's  Tempest  Music,  May 
31, 1862  ;  Schumann's  Symphony  in  E  b,  June  13, 
1866.  Besides  the  regular  concerts,  conversa- 
zioni were  occasionally  given,  at  which  the  pro- 
grammes were  frequently  remarkable,  and  objects 
of  antiquarian  and  artistic  interest  were  exhi- 
bited. At  the  first  conversazione,  for  example, 
Mr.  Charles  Salaman  played  two  pieces  by  Or- 
lando Gibbons  on  a  virginal.  At  the  last  concert, 
March  20,  1867,  the  most  interesting  feature  of 
the  programme  was  Beethoven's  Choral  Fantasia, 
the  pianoforte  part  of  which  was  played  by 
Mme.  Schumann.  On  April  15  following  the 
operations  of  the  society  were  suspended,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  inadequacy  of  the  funds  for  carry- 
ing out  the  proposed  schemes,  and  the  proceedings 
were  never  resumed.  [J.A.F.M.] 

MUSICAL  UNION,  THE.  An  association, 
managed  by  a  President,  Vice-President,  Com- 
mittee of  15  noblemen  and  gentlemen,  and  a 
Director  (John  Ella,  Esq.),  which  gives  eight  ma- 
tinees of  classical  chamber  music  every  season  in 
London.  The  Musical  Union  took  its  origin  in 
social  gatherings  held  at  Mr.  Ella's  residence, 
but  in  1 844  the  society  assumed  its  present  shape, 
since  when  its  annual  concerts  have  never  failed 
to  sustain  the  high  standard  of  excellence  for 
which  they  were  remarkable  from  the  first.  Space 
forbids  our  inserting  a  list  of  all  the  artists 
who  have  appeared  at  the  Musical  Union ;  such 
a  list  would  include  the  names  of  all  the  most 
celebrated  executants  of  the  last  30  years,  many 
of  whom  were  first  introduced  into  England  by 
Mr.  Ella.  We  can  only  mention  that  since  the 
foundation  of  the  society  204  artists  have  per- 
formed at  its  concerts,  of  whom  75  were  pianists, 
U2  stringed,  and  27  wind  instrumentalists.  It 
is  impossible  to  estimate  too  highly  the  important 
influence  this  society  has  had  in  disseminating  a 


MUSICIANS'  COMPANY,  LONDON. 

taste  for  good  music  amongst  the  upper  classes  in 
London.  The  system  of  placing  the  performers 
in  the  centre  of  a  circle,  which  is  adopted  at  these 
concerts,  gives  them  a  social  charm  to  which  a 
considerable  share  of  their  success  is  no  doubt 
owing ;  but  the  greatest  boon  which  musicians 
owe  to  the  Musical  Union  is  the  introduction  of 
analytical  programmes,  which  were  first  adopted 
by  Professor  Ella  at  these  concerts.  The  pro- 
grammes are  delivered  to  the  members  a  day  or 
two  before  the  performances  take  place — a  plan 
which  is  highly  to  be  commended.  [W.  B.  S.] 
MUSICIANS'  COMPANY  OF  THE  CITY 
OF  LONDON,  THE,  was  established  by  letters 
patent  under  the  great  seal  of  England  on  April 
24  in  the  ninth  year  of  the  reign  of  Edward  IV 
(1472-3).  The  charter  is  printed  in  Rymer's 
Fcedera  (xi.  642).  The  company  was  instituted 
as  a  perpetual  Guild,  or  Fraternity  and  Sister- 
hood of  Minstrels, — a  minstrel  being  a  musician 
qualified  to  sing  or  play  in  public.  It  had  to 
control  all  'pretenders  to  minstrelsy,'  and  to  fine 
and  silence  the  unqualified  until  they  had  studied 
so  as  to  fit  themselves  to  take  part  in  public 
performances.  Until  then  their  music  was  to  be 
kept  at  home.  The  first  court  of  the  company 
was  formed  of  experienced  musicians  then  in  the 
service  of  the  king,  and  previously  in  that  of  his 
predecessor  Henry  VI.  Walter  Haliday  was  Mas- 
ter, or  Marshal  of  the  Guild,  and  John  Cliff, 
Robert  Marshall,  Thomas  Grene,  Thomas  Cal- 
thorn,  William  Christian,  and  William  Eynes- 
ham,  formed  the  court.  The  appointment  to 
the  office  of  marshal  was  for  life,  whereas  the 
two  wardens  (Custodes  ad  fraternitatem)  were 
elected  annually  from  the  Court  of  Assistants. 
The  guild  was  attached  to  the  Chapel  of  the 
Virgin  under  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  and  to  the 
free  Chapel  Royal  of  St.  Anthony,  both  in  the 
City  of  London.  The  power  of  the  guild  ex- 
tended over  all  parts  of  the  kingdom  except  the 
County  Palatine  of  Chester,  and  all  minstrels 
were  to  join  it,  and  to  pay  three  shillings  and 
fourpence  upon  being  admitted  as  members  of 
the  guild.  A  further  source  of  income  was  de- 
rived from  fees  and  from  fines.  Out  of  the  latter 
the  guild  was  to  keep  wax  tapers  burning  in 
each  of  the  two  chapels  above-named,  and  to  pray 
for  the  health  and  for  the  souls  of  the  King,  the 
Queen,  the  late  Duke  of  York,  the  king's  father, 
and  for  other  progenitors  of  the  royal  family. 
At  this  time  good  minstrels  were  highly  paid, 
and  Edward  IV  was  not  only  very  liberal  to  his 
own  musicians,  but  also  anxious  to  sustain  the 
musical  reputation  of  the  country.  In  1 466  the 
Bohemian  baron,  Leo  von  Rozmital,  brother-in- 
law  of  the  reigning  king  of  Bohemia,  visited 
England,  among  other  countries,  during  a  pil- 
grimage undertaken  'for  the  sake  of  piety  and 
religion.'  Edward  IV  received  him  with  honour, 
and  entertained  him  at  a  banquet  and  state  ball, 
after  which  a  state  concert  commenced.  The 
baron's  secretary,  Schassek,  wrote  an  account  of 
his  visit ;  and  of  this  entertainment  he  says — 
'We  heard  in  no  country  more  agreeable  and 
sweeter    musicians    than    there ;    their   chorus 


MUSICIANS'  COMPANY,  LONDON. 

consists  of  about  sixty  voices ' ;  while  another  of 
the  suite,  Gabriel  Tetzel,  a  German,  says — '  After 
the  ball  came  the  king's  singers  and  sang.  I 
believe  there  are  no  better  singers  in  the  world.' 
Edward  showed  due  consideration  for  the  ears  of 
his  subjects,  and  this  policy  was  followed  by  all 
the  sovereigns  of  the  Tudor  line.  Hence  the 
universally  favourable  reports  of  foreigners  upon 
public  musical  performances  in  England  during 
this  and  the  following  century.  Among  the 
Bemembrancia  of  the  City  of  London  recently 
brought  to  light,  No.  16  is  a  letter  from  the 
Lord  Keeper,  Sir  John  Puckering,  to  the  Lord 
Mayor,  requesting  him  to  see  that  William  War- 
ren, lately  chosen  Master  of  the  Musicians' 
Company,  but  prevented  from  the  peaceful  exer- 
cise of  his  office  by  some  of  the  members  of  the 
company,  be  not  further  interfered  with.  As 
this  letter  is  dated  Sept.  29,  1594,  it  may  be 
assumed  that  the  company  acted  under  the  old 
charter  during  Elizabeth's  reign,  and  until  the 
granting  of  a  new  one  by  James  I  on  July  8, 1 604. 
In  this  the  powers  of  the  company  were  restricted 
to  the  City  of  London  and  within  three  miles  of 
its  boundaries,  but  it  gave  their  freemen  virtually 
a  monopoly  in  out-door  performances,  and  at 
weddings,  dances,  playing  under  windows,  etc., 
because  all  performers  under  one  of  the  com- 
pany's bye-laws  required  its  licence.  This  ob- 
noxious regulation  induced  Charles  I  to  restrict 
the  powers  of  the  company  to  within  the  City 
of  London  itself.  The  charter  of  James  dispenses 
with  the  sisterhood  and  makes  the  election  of 
the  master  an  annual  one,  instead  of,  as  before, 
for  life.  It  gives  the  power  to  sue  as  a  body  cor- 
porate, a  common  seal,  and  the  right  to  hold 
land  and  houses.  But  its  powers  to  examine 
musicians  and  to  control  them  have  become  a 
dead  letter,  and  its  income  is  derived  from  the 
subscriptions  of  its  members  and  of  those  of 
former  days.  The  cost  of  taking  up  the  livery  is 
£15  17*.  6d.  and  the  freedom  confers  a  vote  for 
the  election  of  members  of  parliament,  for  bridge- 
master,  and  other  offices.  The  livery  dinner, 
with  music,  is  annual,  and  the  court  dine  after 
three  of  the  quarterly  meetings  for  the  trans- 
action of  business.  Of  late  years  some  eminent 
musicians,  amateurs  of  music,  and  others  inter- 
ested in  the  progress  of  the  art  and  science,  have 
joined  the  company  as  a  social  centre  and  to 
increase  its  funds,  with  the  ultimate  object  of 
advancing  music  educationally  or  otherwise. 
Among  them  are  John  Hullah  LL.D,  Dr.  W.  H. 
Stcne,  Dr.  Stainer,  Dr.  Bridge,  Sir  Henry  Cole, 
K.C.B.,  Mr.  Deputy  Sheriff  Crawford,  Mr.  Wilbye 
Cooper,  Mr.  Frank  Chappell,  Mr.  Henry  Phillips, 
Mr.  Molineux,  Mr.  Crews,  Mr.  Hunter,  Mr. 
Porter,  and  other  members  of  the  Madrigal 
Society.  Mr.  George  Wood,  Mr.  W.  Stewartson 
Collard,  and  Mr.  W.  Chappell  are  members  of  the 
court.  The  Musicians'  is  the  only  city  company 
for  the  exercise  of  a  profession.  [W.  C] 

MUSIC-PRINTING.    There  are  several  ways 
in  which  an  unlimited  number  of  copies  of  de- 
signs or  characters  may  be  produced.    If  a  block 
VOL.  11.  PT.  10. 


MUSIC-PRINTING. 


433 


o(  wood  or  metal  is  cut  away  so  as  to  leave  in 
relief  the  required  shapes  of  the  characters,  then 
by  inking  the  raised  surface  an  impression  is 
easily  obtained  on  paper.  A  great  improvement 
on  such  block -printing  was  effected  by  making 
each  letter  a  separate  type  in  cast  metal,  so  that 
the  types  might  be  used  over  and  over  again  for 
different  works.  The  converse  of  surface  printing 
is  copper-plate  printing :  here  the  design  is  en- 
graved in  intaglio  on  a  sheet  of  metal,  and  the  ink 
is  contained  in  the  sunken  lines  of  the  engraving 
and  not  on  the  surface  of  the  plate.  A  third  way 
is  by  lithography,  in  which  characters  are  drawn 
with  peculiar  greasy  pencils  on  the  surface  of  cer- 
tain porous  stones.  The  stone  being  wetted,  the 
ink  is  applied ;  and  it  adheres  to  the  drawing, 
but  refuses  the  stone.  All  these  methods  have 
been  applied  to  the  printing  of  music. 

I.  Block-printing  was  of  course  the  earliest 
plan  adopted,  and  the  oldest  known  example  is 
a  book  with  Gregorian  notes  printed  at  Augsburg 
by  Hans  Froschauer  in  1473.1  A  little  later, 
Gregorian  music  was  printed  by  types,  at  two 
printings,  as  in  a  missal  published  by  Oct.  Scotus 
(Venice,  1482),  in  the  possession  of  Alfred  Little- 
ton, Esq.  Wenssler  and  Kilchen,  of  Basle,  in 
1488,  produced  the  'Agenda  parochialium,'  and 
in  1492  Ratdolt,  probably  at  Augsburg,  a  missal. 
In  these  the  stave-lines  were  red  and  the  notes 
black,  all  being  from  type,  but  at  two  printings, 
one  for  the  stave  and  another  for  the  notes. 
Figurated  or  florid  song,  however,  presented 
greater  difficulties  to  the  type  printer.  Block- 
printing  therefore  continued  to  be  employed  for 
the  musical  portions  of  such  books  as  the '  Musices 
Opusculum'  of  Nicolaus  Burtius,  printed  at 
Bologna  in  1487,  by  Ugo  de  Rugeriis,  in  open 
lozenge-shaped  notes;  and  the  '  Practica  Musicae ' 
of  Franchinus  Gafforius,  printed  at  Milan,  1492. 
Even  as  late  as  1520,  Conrad  Peutinger  published 
at  Augsburg  a  collection  of  motets  for  five  voices 
in  wood-engraving.2  On  the  following  page  we 
give  a  facsimile  from  Burtius's  work. 

Meanwhile  Ottaviano  dei  Petrucci  (born  at 
Fossombrone,  1466)  so  advanced  the  art  that, 
practically  speaking,  he  may  be  considered  as 
the  inventor  of  printing  florid  song  with  move- 
able types.  He  was  settled  in  Venice,  and 
there  produced  his  first  work,  a  collection  of  96 
songs,  in  1501.  Another  of  his  publications  ap- 
peared in  1503,  and  is  a  collection  of  masses  by 
Pierre  de  la  Rue,  a  copy  of  which  may  be  seen 
in  the  British  Museum.  The  stave  lines  and  the 
notes  are  produced  at  two  separate  printings ; 
the  lines  being  unbroken  and  perfectly  con- 
tinuous, and  the  notes  set  up  in  moveable  types. 
The  annexed  specimen  gives  a  tolerable  idea  of  the 

1  The  Mayence  Putter,  now  In  the  British  Museum,  Is  the  oldest 
printed  book  known,  with  one  exception.  It  was  printed  by  Fust  * 
Schoeffer  at  Mayence  in  1457  In  a  fine  large  black-letter  type,  and  on 
vellum.  Where  musical  notes  were  required,  the  four  lines  of  the 
stave  were  printed  In  red  Ink,  but  the  notes  were  Inserted  afterwards 
by  hand.  In  a  second  edition,  1459.  the  lines  were  black.  This  can- 
not therefore  be  cited  as  an  example  of  true  music  printing,  any  more 
than  similar  books  In  which  the  notes  were  added  to  the  printed  stave 
by  means  of  Inked  stamps  or  punches  worked  by  hand,  called  pattern 

Prj"see  Eltnert  '  Blbllographle,'  p.  14.  The  Illustrations  to  Oullbl- 
chefs  great  work  on  Mozart  (Moscow,  1343)  are  all  cut  In  wood. 

Ff 


434 


MUSIC-PRINTING. 


effect.  The  only  objection  to  this  system  was 
the  expense  of  the  double  printing;  and  this 
was  overcome  in  1507  by  Erhard  ^^  l_gzr 
Oeglin  of  Augsburg,  who  printed  r^ —1r-J  - 
both  stave  and  notes  simultane-  '  ~" 

ously,  entirely   superseding  Petrucci's   method. 


MUSIC-PRINTING. 

Schoffer  at  Mainz  did  the  same  in  151 1,  and  so 
did  the  Gardano  family  at  Venice  from  1536  for 
about  a  century  and  a  half.  Palestrina's  Masses 
were  printed  in  parts  at  Rome  in  1572,  with 
a  coarse  but  very  legible  type.  And  the 
process  used  at  the  present  day  is  pretty  nearly 


Tage  (Tractatus  2dus  p.  76)  from  the  '  Opusculum '  of  Burtius  (Burzio), 
iu  the  Library  of  A.  H.  Littleton,  Esq. 


^^^^s 


the   same,    only   greatly    improved    in    all    its 
details. 

In  England  the  first  known  attempt  at  Music- 


Westminster  in  1495  by  Wynken  de  Worde. 
The  characters  (see  reduced  fac-simile  annexed) 
represent  the  consonances  of  Pythagoras.     This 


printing  is  in  Higden's  Policronicon,  printed  at  j  appears  to  have  been  set  up  piecemeal  and  not 


m  i  ■ 


MUSIC-PRINTING. 

engraved  on  a  solid  wood-block.  It  is  however 
the  only  bit  of  music  in  the  book.  There  is  a 
mistake  in  the  double -octave, 
which  has  one  note  more  than 
the  proper  interval.  In  the 
first  edition  of  this  work, 
printed  by  Caxton  1482,  a 
space  was  left  for  the  mu- 
sical characters  to  be  filled  in 
by  hand.  Both  editions  are 
in  the  British  Museum.  In 
Merbecke's  'Boke  of  Com- 
mon Praier  noted '  (Grafton,  London,  1550)  the 
four  lines  of  the  stave  are  continuous  and  not 
made  up  of  small  pieces,  and  are  printed  in 
red  ink ;  the  square  notes  are  black  and  appear 
to  be  each  a  separate  type.  Only  four  sorts 
of  notes  are  used,  and  are  thus  explained  in  a 
memorandum  by  the  printer.  '  The  first  note  is 
a  strene1  note  and  is 
a  breve;  the  second  is 
a  square  note  and  is  a 

semybreve ;  the  third  is  a  pycke  and  is  a  myn- 
ymme ;  the  fourth  is  a  close,  and  is  only  used  at 
the  end  of  a  verse,  etc.' 

A  book  in  the  British  Museum  (Music  Cata- 
logue, C316;  'Book'),  proves  that  florid  music 
was  printed  in  England  in  1530.  It  is  the 
bass  part  of  a  collection  of  20  songs,  and  is 
attributed  to  Wynkyn  de  Worde,  the  successor 
of  Caxton.  The  typography  is  identical  with 
that  of  Petrucci,  already  mentioned  as  being 
produced  by  means  of  two  impressions.  John 
Day  of  Aldersgate,  in  1560,  published  the 
Church  Service  in  four  and  three  parts  in  an 
improved  style  of  typography,  and  in  1562 
the  whole  Book  of  Psalms.  And  Thomas  Vau- 
trollier  in  1575  published  the  Cantiones  of  Tallis 
and  Byrd  under  a  patent  from  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, the  first  of  the  kind  granting  a  monopoly 
or  sole  right  of  printing  music.  To  them  suc- 
ceeded Thomas  Este — who  changed  his  name  to 
Snodham — John  Windet,  William  Barley,  and 
others  who  were  the  assignees  of  Byrd  and 
Morley,  under  the  patents  respectively  granted 
to  them  for  the  sole  printing  of  music.  In  1641 
Edward  Griffin  of  Paul's  Alley,  London,  printed 
a  collection  of  church  music  in  score  and  parts 
selected  by  John  Barnard,  a  minor  canon  of  St. 
Paul's.  The  notes  were  of  lozenge  shape,  and  the 
stave  lines  not  very  well  joined  together,  the  whole 

being  inelegant  though  very  legible, 

after  this  fashion.  But  the  expense  "JP~y~~^: 
of  two  printings  was  saved.  —"    '    — 

These  men  followed  the  practice  of  the  foreign 
printers,  and  no  improvement  was  made  until  the 
time  of  John  Playford  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
Until  his  time,  the  quavers  and  semiquavers, 
however  numerous  in  succession,  were  all  dis- 
tinct; but  in  1660  he  introduced  the  'new  tied 
note,'  forming  them  into  groups  of  four  or  six. 
The  Dutch,  French,  and  Germans  followed  his 
example;  but  Marcello's  Psalms,  published  at 
Venice  in   a   splendid    edition   in    1724,  were 

'  Strene.  i.  t.  strained  or  stretched  out,  perhaps  from  its  being  the 
longest  note  used  in  chanting. 


MUSIC-PRINTING. 


435 


printed  after  the  old  manner.  From  the  time  of 
Charles  II.  round  notes  began  to  supersede  the 
lozenge  form  both  in  writing  and  printing,  and 
John  Playford's  'Whole  Book  of  Psalms'  (about 
1675)  was  printed  in  the  new  character. 

As  regards  France,  Founder  ('  Traite"  historique 
et  critique  sur  l'origine  et  les  progres  des  carac- 
teres  de  fonte  pour  l'impression  de  la  musique,' 
Berne,  1765)  says  that  Pierre  Hautin  of  Paris 
made  the  first  punches  for  printing  music  about 
the  year  1525.  The  notes  and  the  stave  were 
represented  on  the  punch,  consequently  the 
whole  was  printed  at  once.  These  types  he 
used  himself,  as  well  as  selling  them  to  Pierre 
Attaignant  and  other  printers.  Hautin  printed 
as  late  as  1576.  GuiUaume  le  Be"  in  1544-5 
engraved  music  types  for  printing  first  the  lines 
and  then  the  notes ;  but  this  inconvenient  system 
was  abandoned.  Nicholas  Duchemin  printed 
music  at  one  printing  in  the  years  1550  to  1556. 
Robert  Granjon  printed  music  at  Lyons  about 
1572.  The  works  of  Claude  Le  Jeune  were 
printed  in  France  by  Pierre  Ballard  in  1603 
and  1606  ;  the  beauty  and  elegance  of  the  cha- 
racters employed  showing  that  the  French  had 
greatly  the  advantage  of  their  neighbours.  About 
this  time  also  madrigals  were  printed  at  Antwerp 
by  Phalesio,  and  sold  at  his  shop,  the  sign  of 
King  David. 

The  above-named  eminent  house  of  Ballard 
in  Paris  was  established  in  the  middle  of  the 
1 6th  century  by  Robert  Ballard  and  his  son-in- 
law  Adrien  Le  Roy,  and  continued  from  father 
to  son  for  two  centuries,  enjoying  a  royal  privi- 
lege or  patent  until  the  time  of  the  Revolution 
of  1789.  [See  vol.  i.  p.  1296;  and  vol.  ii. 
p.  1230.] 

Type  music  was  greatly  improved  in  the  18th 
century.  The  'Musical  Miscellany,'  printed  by 
John  Watts,  London  1729,  has  the  stave  lines 
fairly  joined,  although  the  notes  are  not  elegant 
in  form.  Fournier  (Paris  1766)  published  a 
'  Manuel  typographique,'  the  musical  specimens 
in  which  are  very  good  and  clear.  But  still 
finer  are  the  types  cut  by  J.  M.  Fleischman  of 
Nuremberg  in  1760.  The  stave  and  notes  are 
equal  to  any  plate-music  for  clearness  and 
beauty.  These  types  now  belong  to  J.  Enschede 
&  Son  of  Haarlem.  For  Foogt's  patent  (1767) 
see  Appendix. 

In  1 755  Breitkopf  of  Leipzig  effected  improve- 
ments in  the  old  system  of  types,  which  his  son 
(in  conjunction  with  his  partner  Hartel)  carried 
still  further.  [See  vol.  i.  272,  273.]  Gustav 
Schelter  of  Leipzig  entirely  reformed  the  system, 
while  Carl  Tauchnitz  of  Leipzig  was  the  first  to 
apply  stereotype  to  music-notes. 

Mr.  Clowes,  the  eminent  London  printer,  did 
much  to  improve  music  types.  The  'Harmoni- 
con'  (1823-33),  the  'Musical  Library'  (1834), 
and  the  'Sacred  Minstrelsy'  (1835),  are  excel- 
lent specimens  of  the  art,  the  stave  lines  being 
more  perfectly  united  than  before. 

The  late  Professor  Edward  Cowper  invented 
a  beautiful  but  expensive  process  of  printing 
music  from  the  raised  surface  of  copper  or  brasa 
Ff2 


436 


MUSIC-PRINTING. 


MUSIC-PRINTING. 


characters  inserted  in  a  wooden  block,  the  stave 
lines  being  also  of  copper  inserted  in  another 
block  and  printed  separately  from  the  notes. 
The  words  were  set  up  in  ordinary  types,  then 
stereotyped  and  inserted  in  grooves  in  one  of 
the  blocks.  His  patent  is  dated  April  5,  1827, 
and  numbered  5484. 

In  Scheurman's  process  (1856)  the  notes,  set  up 
in  type,  were  impressed  on  a  wax  mould  and  the 
stave  lines  superadded  to  the  same  mould,  from 
which  a  stereotype  cast  was  taken.  But  the 
double  operation  was  difficult,  and  the  mould 
liable  to  damage  ;  and  the  plan  was  abandoned. 

The  old  system,  however,  of  using  separate 
types  has  been  so  much  improved  upon  by 
Messrs.  Novello  &  Co.,  Henderson,  Rait,  and 
Fenton,  and  other  printers,  and  the  stave  lines 
are  now  so  well  joined,  that  the  appearance 
and  distinctness  of  type-music  leave  little  to 
be  desired.  This  result,  as  has  been  justly 
observed  by  Mr.  Henderson,  is  due  chiefly  to 
the  use  of  stereotype,  which  enables  printers  to 
employ  the  most  perfect,  and  consequently  very 
expensive,  kind  of  types.  If  these  were  used 
to  print  a  large  edition,  they  would  soon  be 
damaged ;  and  even  if  this  were  not  the  case, 
it  would  never  pay  the  publisher  to  keep  such 
a  mass  of  type  set  up  against  the  time  when 
a  fresh  edition  might  be  required.  The  types 
must  be  distributed  and  used  for  other  works; 
and  the  expensive  labour  of  setting  up  must  be 
incurred  afresh  for  each  new  edition.  All  this  is 
avoided  by  taking  a  stereotype  cast  from  the 
types,  which  can  be  done  at  a  small  cost,  and 
kept  in  store  to  be  printed  from  whenever  there 
is  afresh  demand  for  copies.  The  type  is  then 
released,  and  serves  over  again  for  other  works  or 
other  pages  of  the  same  work,  retaining  its  sharp- 
ness unimpaired.  Another  advantage  of  stereo- 
typing is  that  many  little  defects  in  the  types 
can  be  remedied  in  the  plate — greatly  to  the 
advantage  of  the  impression. 

An  inspection  of  the  following  examples  will 
shew  how  type-music  is  built  up  of  many  small 
parts.  Thus  the  single  quaver  and  its  stave  are 
composed  of  seven  small  pieces,  which  are  dis- 
sected and  shown  separately  in  the  second  ex- 
ample. The  same  is  done  for  the  group  of  three 
quavers,  which  is  made  up  of  sixteen  separate 
pieces. 


—  '_-  = 


II.  The  printing  of  music  from  engraved  cop- 
per plates  is  supposed  to  have  begun  at  Rome, 
where  a  collection  of  Canzonets — '  Diletto  spiri- 
tuale' — was  engraved  by  Martin  van  Buyten, 
and  published  by  Simone  Verovio  in  1586,  and 
subsequently  books  of  airs,  etc.,  composed  by 
Kapsperger,  dated  1604-1612.  In  France  the 
great  house  of  Ballard,  already  mentioned,  began 
to  use  engraving  towards  the  end  of  Louis  XI  V.'s 
reign ;  some  of  Lully's  operas  being  printed  from 
types  and  some  from  engraved  copper-plates.   The 


Germans  of  course  practised  the  art,  the  most 
interesting  specimen  of  which  is  a  book  of  Cla- 
vieriibung,  or  exercises,  composed  and  engraved 
by  the  great  John  Sebastian  Bach  himself.  In 
England  the  same  process  was  used  for  a  collec- 
tion of  pieces  by  Bull,  Byrd,  and  Gibbons,  en- 
titled *  Parthenia,'  engraved  by  Wm.  Hole,  and 
published  in  1611 ;  for  single  songs  engraved  by 
Thomas  Cross  before  and  after  1700;  by  Cluer 
for  Handel's  '  Suites  de  Pieces '  and  other  music 
(1720  etc.),  and  for  Dr.  Croft's  'Musicus  Appa- 
ratus Academicus'  (171 3  ?),  and  'Musica  Sacra' 
(1724).    [See  Cross,  Cluer,  Croft,  in  vol.  i.] 

The  process  of  scratching  each  note  separately 
on  the  copper  with  a  graver  was  obviously  an 
expensive  one ;  but  the  Dutch  contrived  to  soften 
the  metal  so  as  to  render  it  susceptible  of  an  im- 
pression from  the  stroke  of  a  hammer  on  a  punch, 
the  point  of  which  had  the  form  of  a  musical 
note — a  method  not  only  much  cheaper,  but  also 
insuring  greater  uniformity  of  appearance ;  and 
accordingly  they  were  very  successful  with  their 
numerous  publications  from  and  after  the  year 
1 700.  A  punched  copper-plate  from  Dublin,  only 
about  40  years  old,  was  shown  at  the  Caxton 
Exhibition  in  1877. 

As  early  as  1710  it  was  found  that  pewter 
plates  were  cheaper  and  easier  to  stamp  than 
copper.  In  London  John  Walsh  and  John 
Hare,  Richard  Mears,  Cluer  and  Creake,  Thomas 
Cross,  junior,  and  William  Smith  (an  apprentice 
of  Walsh's)  printed  music  from  stamped  pewter 
plates.  These  were  very  coarsely  executed ; 
but  at  length  one  Phillips,  a  Welshman,  so  im- 
proved the  process  that,  according  to  Hawkins, 
music  was  scarcely  anywhere  so  well  printed  as 
in  England  in  his  time. 

This  is  the  process  that  continues  to  be  used  to 
the  present  day,  and  by  which  such  magnificent 
specimens  as  the  editions  of  the  Bachgesellschaft, 
and  that  of  Palestrina  (both  by  Breitkopfs  of 
Leipzig),  or  the  edition  of  Handel  by  Dr.  Chry- 
sander,  are  produced.  Messrs.  Novello  &  Co. 
have  recently  imported  German  workmen,  and 
their  edition  of  Mendelssohn's  P.  F.  works  in  one 
volume  (Christmas  1879),  or  the  first  publication 
of  the  Purcell  Society,  rival  the  best  produc- 
tions of  Leipzig  for  clearness  and  elegance.  In 
order  to  save  the  pewter  plates  from  wear,  it  is 
now  the  custom  to  transfer  an  impression  from 
the  plate  to  a  lithographic  stone  or  to  zinc,  and 
then  print  copies  at  the  lithographic  press.  This 
also  enables  the  printer  to  use  a  better  and  blacker 
ink  than  if  the  plates  themselves  had  to  be  printed 
from ;  but  the  impressions  are  liable  to  smudge, 
and  are  inferior  in  clearness  to  those  from  the 
plates,  unless  indeed  these  are  engraved  in  a  very 
superior  style  of  sharpness.  In  Germany,  zinc 
has  of  late  been  used  instead  of  pewter:  the 
punches  make  a  clearer  impression,  and  the  plates 
allow  of  a  larger  number  being  printed  without 
damage. 

In  estimating  the  relative  merits  of  type  and 
plate  printing  from  a  commercial  point  of  view, 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  cheaper  to 
engrave  a  pewter  plate  than  to  set  up  a  page  of 


MUSIC-PRINTING. 

type,  but  that  the  cost  of  printing  from  the  plate 
is  greater  than  from  the  types.  If  therefore  a 
email  number  of  copies  only  is  required,  say 
iooo,  it  is  cheaper  to  engrave.  But  if  several 
thousands  are  likely  to  be  sold,  then  the  type 
system  is  most  profitable. 

III.  Lithography  has  in  a  few  instances  been 
used  to  multiply  manuscript  music,  which  is  trans- 
ferred to  the  stone  from  a  paper  copy  written 
•with  a  special  ink.  This  may  be  useful  when  a 
few  copies  are  wanted  on  an  emergency,  as  any 
copyist  would  be  able  to  write  on  the  transfer 
paper.  But  by  employing  trained  copyists,  ac- 
customed to  write  backwards,  the  music  may  be 
written  at  once  on  the  stone ;  and  in  this  way 
Breitkopf  &  Hartel  of  Leipzig  have  produced 
useful  editions  of  Mozart's  operas  and  other 
works,  both  notes  and  words  being  very  clear 
and  neat.  Alfieri's  edition  of  Palestrina  (6  vols., 
Rome,  1841-45)  is  a  splendid  specimen  of  litho- 
graphed music. 

For  part  of  the  above  information  the  writer 
is  indebted  to  a  series  of  articles  by  Dr.  Chry- 
Bander  in  the  Musical  Times  of  1877.  [V.  de  P.] 

MUSIC  SCHOOL,  THE,  Oxford,  is  situated 
on  the  south  side  of  the  Schools  quadrangle, 
under  the  Bodleian  Library.  This  building  was 
rebuilt  in  its  present  form  at  the  beginning  of 
the  1 7th  century,  but  the  interior  of  the  Music 
School  was  altered  in  1780  by  the  architect 
Wyatt  under  the  direction  of  the  then  Professor 
of  Music,  Dr.  Philip  Hayes.  The  expenses  of 
these  alterations  were  defrayed  by  a  grant  of 
£50  from  the  University  and  by  the  proceeds  of 
three  choral  concerts  given  at  the  following  Com- 
memoration, at  one  of  which  Dr.  Hayes's  oratorio 
'  Prophecy '  was  performed.  The  Music  School 
was  formerly  used  for  the  performance  of  the 
exercises  for  the  Degree  of  Mus.  Bac.  and  Mus. 
Doc.,  but  during  the  last  ten  years  the  orchestra 
has  been  removed,  and  the  room  is  now  used  for 
the  University  Examinations.  The  collection  of 
music  (noticed  in  the  article  Musical  Libraries) 
which  belongs  to  the  Music  School  is  no  longer 
preserved  there,  having  been  recently  removed 
to  the  Radcliffe  Library  ;  but  the  building  still 
contains  a  valuable  collection  of  portraits  of  mu- 
sicians, etc.,  of  which  the  following  is  a  list : — 

C.  F.  AbeL  Sir  John  Hawkins. 

Dr.  J.  Bull.  James  Hasletine. 

Dr.  Burney.  Dr.  W.  Hayes. 

Thomas  Blagrave.  Dr.  P.  Hayes. 

Colonel  Blaithwait.  John  Hingeston. 

Dr.  Boyce.  B,  Hudson. 
Lord  Crewe,  Bp.  of  Durham.  J.  Hilton. 

Dr.  Child.  Nicholas  Laniere. 

Dr.  Croft.  Henry  Dawes. 

Corelli.  William  Lawes. 

J.  P.  Eiffert.  Orlando  di  Lasso. 

Bernard  Gates.  Matthew  Lock. 

Christopher  Gibbons.  Dr.  Pepusch. 

Orlando  Gibbons.  Bernard  Smith. 

W.  Gregory.  Christopher  Simpson. 

Handel.  Dr.  Thomas  Tudway. 

Dr.  Heather.  Dr.  Wilson. 

In  Anthony  a  Wood's  account  of  the  Univer- 
sity, he  states  that  the  Music  School  also  pos- 
sessed busts  of  King  Alfred,  Dr.  W.  Hayes,  and  H. 
Purcell,  as  well  as  portraits  of  W.  Hine,  Dr.  Par- 
sons, Salomon,  and  John  Weldon.     The  busts 


MUSIK,  HOCHSCHULE  FUR.      437 

are  no  longer  in  the  School,  but  there  aro  four 
unidentified  portraits,  which  are  possibly  those  of 
the  above-named  musicians.  [W.  B.  S.] 

MUSIK,  KONIGLICHE  HOCHSCHULE 
FUR.  The  Royal  High  School  for  Music  at  Berlin 
was  established  in  its  present  form  in  1875,  on 
the  reorganisation  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts. 
It  was  formed  by  the  amalgamation  of  two  dis- 
tinct bodies.  The  first  of  these,  which  constitutes 
the  'Abtheilung  fur  musikalische  Composition* 
of  the  present  School,  was  founded  in  March 
1833.  In  1869  the  'Abtheilung  fur  Ausiibende 
Tonkunst '  (consisting  only  of  Instrumental  classes 
for  violin,  violoncello,  and  piano)  was  added  under 
the  direction  of  Professor  Joachim.  In  187 1  an 
Organ  class,  in  1872  classes  for  Brass  Instru- 
ments, Double  Bass,  and  Solo  Vocalists,  and 
in  1873  a  Choral  class  were  added;  and  in 
1874  a  full  chorus  was  organised.  The  High 
School  thus  consists  of  two  departments.  The 
first  of  these  is  devoted  solely  to  instruction  in 
Composition.  There  are  four  Professors,  and  the 
number  of  pupils  in  the  summer  term  of  1878 
(the  report  for  which  is  the  last  issued)  was  18. 
The  second  department  is  devoted  to  executive 
music,  and  is  under  the  direction  of  Professor 
Joachim.  There  are  36  professors,  and  instruc- 
tion is  given  in  the  violin,  violoncello,  quartet 
playing,  pianoforte  (both  as  a  principal  and  a 
secondary  subject),  playing  from  score,  organ, 
double  bass,  flute,  oboe,  clarinet,  bassoon,  horn, 
trumpet,  ensemble  playing,  solo  playing  with 
orchestral  accompaniment,  orchestral  playing, 
solo  singing,  part  singing,  choral  singing,  train- 
ing choruses,  theory  of  vocal  instruction,  decla- 
mation and  acting,  Italian,  pianoforte  (with  re- 
gard to  vocal  music),  theory,  and  history.  The 
number  of  pupils  in  the  summer  term  of  1878 
was  208.  This  division  receives  from  the  State 
a  grant  of  149,868  marks  (£7493).  The  receipts 
are  estimated  at  41,760  marks  (£2088),  so  that 
the  institution  costs  the  State  about  £5400. 
One  fifth  of  the  number  of  pupils  receive  free 
instruction,  awarded  according  to  progress  or 
talent,  and  a  yearly  sum  of  1200  marks  is  de- 
voted to  the  assistance  of  needy  and  deserving 
pupils.  The  orchestra  consists  of  70  or  80  per- 
formers, amongst  whom  are  1  o  professional  leaders, 
each  with  a  salary  of  600  marks  (£30).  Since  1872 
the  pupils  of  the  High  School  have  given  three  or 
four  public  concerts  every  year,  and  since  1876 
semi -public  concerts  and  occasional  dramatic  and 
operatic  performances  have  been  given  by  the 
pupils  twice  a  month. — The  Royal  Institution  for 
Church  Music,  although  unconnected  with  the 
High  School  for  Music,  may  be  noticed  here. 
This  Institution  was  founded  in  1822,  and  was 
placed  under  the  direction  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Arts  in  1875,  since  when  the  Director  of  the 
Institution  is  a  member  of  the  Senate  of  the 
Academy.  The  Institution  is  devoted  to  the 
education  of  organists,  cantors,  and  music  masters 
for  high-grade  schools  and  seminaries.  There 
are  four  professors,  giving  instruction  in  the  organ, 
pianoforte,  violin,  singing,  harmony,  counter- 
point and  form,  organ  construction,  and  criticism 


438      MUSIK,  HOCHSCHULE  FUR. 

of  exercises.  The  average  number  of  pupils  is 
90.  [W.B.S.] 

MUSIKALTSCHES  OPFER,  i.  e.  Musical 
Offering.  One  of  Bach's  works,  containing  various 
treatments  of  a  subject  given  him  by  Frederick 
the  Great  to  extemporise  upon  during  his  visit 
to  Potsdam  in  li747-  The  work,  as  published 
by  Breitkopf  &  Hartel  (Nov.  1831),  containB 
2  Ricercare,  one  for  3  voices  and  one  for  6  voices 
(the  latter  in  score),  1  Fuga  canonica  for  2  voices, 
5  Sonatas  for  Flute  (the  king's  own  instrument), 
Violin,  and  Continuo,  and  8  Canons ;  16  pieces  in 
all.  The  work  was  published  by  Bach  with  a 
dedication  dated  July  7,  1747 — a  curious  medley 
of  5  sheets  oblong  folio  and  1  sheet  upright  folio, 
containing  the  Ricercar  a  3,  and  a  Canon  per- 
petuus (the  3rd  in  B.  &  H.'s  edition),  5  Canons, 
and  the  Fuga  canonica.  In  the  Dedication  copy, 
now  in  the  Amalienbibliothek  at  Berlin,  Bach 
has  written  'Regis  Iussu  Cantio  Et  Reliqua 
Canonica  Arte  Resoluta* — the  theme  demanded 
by  the  king  with  other  things  developed  by  can- 
onical art.  Four  more  oblong  folio  sheets  seem 
to  have  been  afterwards  added,  containing  the 
Ricercar  a  6  and  2  Canons,  and  lastly  3  sheets 
containing  the  Sonatas  and  1  Canon.  (See 
Spitta's  Bach,  ii.  671-676  ;  843-845.)  [G.] 

MUSTEL,  Victob,  a  manufacturer  of  har- 
moniums, whose  long  struggles  against  poverty, 
and  final  success,  entitle  him  to  be  called  the 
'Palissy  of  music,'  was  born  at  Havre  in  181 5. 
Left  an  orphan  at  the  age  of  12,  he  was  ap- 
prenticed to  a  shipbuilder,  and  in  1838  set  up  in 
business  for  himself  in  that  trade  at  the  little 
hamlet  of  Sanvic.  Endowed  from  youth  with  a 
peculiarly  constructive  genius,  his  first  attempts 
at  making  musical  instruments  were  devoted  to 
the  improvement  of  an  accordion  which  he  had 
bought  in  Havre.  Elated  with  his  success,  he 
disposed  of  his  workshop  in  May  1844,  and  set 
out  for  Paris  with  his  wife  and  two  children. 
For  the  next  nine  years  he  worked  in  several 
different  workshops,  but  never  obtained  high 
wages.  In  1853  he  determined  to  start  in 
business  for  himself  as  a  harmonium  maker,  and 
in  1855  exhibited  his  harmonium  with  'Double 
Expression,'  and  a  new  stop  '  Harpe  Eolienne,' 
lor  which  he  gained  a  medal  of  the  first  class. 
For  the  first  year  after  this,  Mustel  (now  as- 
sisted by  his  two  sons)  did  fairly  well,  but 
business  rapidly  declined,  and  he  would  perhaps 
have  been  obliged  to  succumb,  but  for  the  sale 
of  a  little  land  which  he  had  inherited  from  his 
father.  Even  in  1866  his  receipts  did  little 
more  than  cover  the  costs,  but  since  that  date 
the  firm  of  'Victor  Mustel  et  ses  Fils'  has 
gained  a  reputation  that  has  been  as  noteworthy 
in  England  as  in  France. 

The  inventions  due  to  MM.  Mustel  are — '  La 
Double  Expression '  (patented  1 854),  whereby 
the  natural  preponderance  of  the  bass  tones  over 
those  of  the  treble  is,  with  complete  power  of 
increase  and  decrease  in  either  half,   brought 

1  Spltta  (ii.  710)  tars  Mar  7  and  8.  Mr.  Carlyle.  on  the  other  hand, 
lays  April  7. 


MUSURGIA  UNIVERSALIS. 

under  direct  control  of  the  player  by  means  of 
knee  pedals  (genouilleres)  that  control  the  energy 
and  pressure  of  the  wind  ;  '  Le  Forte"  expressif,' 
a  divided  swell  governed  by  pneumatic  agency ; 
and  '  La  Harpe  Eolienne,'  a  tremolo  register  of 
two  ranks  of  vibrators,  2  ft.  pitch,  which  offer  a 
gently  beating  variation  to  the  unison  by  being 
slightly  less  and  more  than  the  normal  pitch  of 
the  instrument,  the  impression  of  which  remains 
unimpaired.  M.  Mustel  has  recently  invented 
'Le  Typophone,'  and  '  Le  Megaphone.'  The  first 
of  these  is  a  keyboard  percussion  instrument, 
made  of  tuning-forks  in  resonance  boxes  of  the 
proper  acoustic  capacity.  It  is  not  at  this 
moment  in  fabrication,  since  its  manufacture 
would  need  larger  funds  than  the  firm  has  at 
its  disposal,  but  it  was  lately  used  with  success 
at  the  Paris  Opera  Comique  in  Mozart's  '  Flute 
enchante'e.'  The  Me"taphone  (patented  in  1878) 
is  an  invention  to  soften  at  pleasure  the  some- 
what strident  tones  of  the  harmonium.  It  is 
produced  by  a  sliding  shutter  of  leather  to 
each  compartment,  and  is  governed  by  draw- 
stops,  as  with  other  modifications  of  tone  and 
power.  [A.J.H.] 

MUSURGIA  UNIVERSALIS.  The  name 
of  a  voluminous  work,  published  at  Rome  in  the 
year  1650,  by  the  Jesuit  Father,  Athanasius 
Kirch er,  and  translated  into  German,  by  An- 
dreas Hirsch,  of  Hall,  in  Suabia,  in  1662. 

The  ten  Books  into  which  the  treatise  is  divided 
contain  much  useful  matter,  interrupted,  unfor- 
tunately, by  a  host  of  irrelevant  disquisitions,  and 
an  inordinate  amount  of  empty  speculation. 

In  the  First  Book,  the  author  describes  the 
Construction  of  the  Ear,  the  Comparative  Ana- 
tomy of  the  Vocal  Organs,  and  the  sounds  emitted 
by  Beasts,  Birds,  Reptiles,  and  Insects,  including 
the  Death-Song  of  the  Swan. — The  Second  Book 
treats  of  the  Music  of  the  Hebrews,  and  the 
Greeks. — In  the  Third,  are  contained  discussions 
on  the  Theory  of  Harmonics,  Proportion,  the 
Ratios  of  Intervals,  the  Greek  Scales,  the  Scale  of 
Guido  d'Arezzo,  the  system  of  Boethius,  and  the 
Antient  Greek  Modes. — The  Fourth  Book  is  de- 
voted to  a  description  of  the  Monochord,  and  its 
minute  divisions. — The  Fifth  Book  treats  of  Nota- 
tion, Counterpoint,  and  other  branches  of  Com- 
position; and  contains  a  Canon  which  may  be 
sung  by  twelve  million  two  hundred  thousand 
voices.  [See  Nodds  Salomonis.] — The  Sixth 
Book — founded  chiefly  on  the  Harmonicorum 
libri  XII  of  Mersennus — contains  a  long  dissert- 
ation upon  Instrumental  Music. — The  Seventh 
Book  describes  the  difference  between  Antient  and 
Modern  Music. — The  Eighth,  Ninth,  and  Tenth 
Books  are  filled  with  discussions  of  a  very  trans- 
cendental character ;  and,  dealing  largely  in  '  the 
Marvellous,'  treat  of  the  Bite  of  the  Tarantula 
and  its  musical  cure,  the  Harmony  of  the  Spheres, 
and  of  the  Four  Elements,  the  Principles  of  Har- 
mony as  exemplified  in  the  Proportions  of  the 
Human  Body  and  the  Affections  of  the  Mind, 
and  other  subjects  equally  visionary  and  recon- 
dite, some  compensation  for  the  absurdity  of 
which  will  be  found  in  a  really  practical  de- 


MUSURGIA  UNIVERSALIS. 

Bcription  of  the  ^Eolian  Harp,  of  which  Father 
Kircher  claims  to  be  the  inventor. 

A  careful  perusal  of  this  curious  work  will  be 
found  neither  useless  nor  uninteresting,  pro- 
vided its  statements  be  received  cum  grano  salis. 
Remembering  that  its  author  was  rather  a  well- 
read  Scholar  than  a  practical  Musician,  we  can 
scarcely  wonder  at  the  errors  it  contains.  Its 
merits  are  the  result  of  laborious  research.  Its 
faults  arise  from  Father  Kircher's  inability  to 
form  a  correct  judgment  on  points,  which,  to  a 
more  experienced  Artist,  would  have  presented 
but  little  difficulty.  And,  the  like  may  be  said  of 
the  same  writer's  Phonurgia  nova — a  work  on 
the  Nature  and  Properties  of  Sound — which  ap- 
peared in  1673.  [W.S.R.] 

MUTA  (Italian),  i.e.  change.  A  word  often 
seen  attached  to  Horn  parts — 'muta  in  Es,' 
'  muta  in  B,'  etc.,  meaning  simply  '  change  to 
Eb  or  Bb,'  etc.;  that  is,  take  off  the  crook  in 
which  you  are  playing  and  put  on  that  which 
will  make  the  horn  sound  in  Eb  or  Bb.  [G.] 

MUTATION.  (Lat.  Mutatio,  from  muto  to 
change.)  I.  When,  in  the  Solmisation  of  a  Plain 
Chaunt  Melody,  it  becomes  necessary  to  pass 
from  one  Hexachord  to  another,  the  process  by 
which  the  transfer  is  effected  is  called  a  Muta- 
tion. [See  Hexachord.]  In  ascending  from  the 
Hexachordon  durum  to  the  Hexachordon  natu- 
rale,  the  change  may  be  conveniently  made  by 
substituting  the  re  of  the  latter  for  the  sol  of  the 
former,  at  the  note  D — whence  this  particular 
Mutation  is  known  as  that  of  Sol  Re.  [See 
example,  vol.  i.  p.  7346.] 

In  descending  from  the  Hexachordon  naturale 
to  the  Hexachordon  durum,  the  sol  of  the  latter 
must  be  taken,  instead  of  the  re  of  the  former,  at 
the  same  note ;  and  the  Mutation  is  then  called 
Re  Sol.  The  same  process  will  also  serve  for 
the  mutual  interchange  between  the  Hexachor- 
don naturale  and  the  Hexachordon  molle,  at  the 
note  G. 

But,  in  ascending  from  the  Hexachordon  natu- 
rale to  the  Hexachordon  durum,  the  re  of  the 
latter  must  be  substituted  for  the  la  of  the  former, 
at  the  note  A,  by  means  of  the  Mutation  La 
Re  :  and,  in  descending  from  the  Hexachordon 
durum  to  the  Hexachordon  naturale,  the  la  of 
the  second  will  be  sung  instead  of  the  re  of  the 
first — Re  La. 

Direct  communication  between  the  Hexa- 
chordon durum,  and  the  Hexachordon  molle,  is 
rarely  used,  on  account  of  the  False  Relation 
described  under  the  head  of  Mi  Contba  Fa. 

Many  different  systems  of  Mutation  have  been 
recommended  by  early  writers ;  but  all  agree  in 
the  necessity  of  so  arranging  that  the  Semitone 
shall  always  fall  between  the  Syllables  mi  and  fa. 
Lucas  Lossius  (Erotemata  musicse,  1 563)  directs 
the  change  to  be  always  made  by  means  of  re  in 
ascending,  and  la  in  descending ;  and  enforces 
his  rule  in  the  following  distich — 
Vocitmg  utaria  solum  mutando  duabus : 
Per  re  quidem  sursum  mutatur,  per  la  deorsum. 

II.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  change 
which  takes  place  in  a  Boy's  Voice,  when   it 


MUTE. 


439 


passes  from  Treble,  or  Alto,  into  Tenor,  or  Bass. 
The  period  of  this  transformation  is  uncertain ; 
but  it  generally  declares  itself  between  the  ages 
of  fourteen  and  sixteen,  and  is  very  rarely 
deferred  later  than  the  completion  of  the  seven- 
teenth year.  During  the  time  that  it  is  in  pro- 
gress, the  vocal  organs  undergo  so  much  dis- 
turbance, that  great  care  is  necessary  in  order  to 
prevent  them  from  being  seriously  injured  by 
incautious  exercise. 

III.  More  rarely,  the  word  is  used  to  denote 
that  change  in  the  position  of  the  hand  upon  the 
Violin,  which,  by  English  Violinists,  is  called  the 
Shift.  [W.S.R.] 

MUTATION  STOPS,  in  an  organ,  are  those 
registers  which  do  not  produce  a  sound  agreeing 
with  the  name  of  the  key  pressed  down,  but 
either  the  perfect  fifth  or  the  major  third  to  it,  as  G 
or  E  on  the  C  key.  The  former  are  called  fifth- 
sounding,  or  Quint  stops ;  the  latter  third-sound- 
ing, or  Tierce  stops.  The  proper  relative  size  of 
the  largest  fifth-sounding  stop  is  one-third  that  of 
the  Foundation  stop  from  which  it  is  deduced ;  as 
1  of,  5£,  or  2%,  from  the  32,  16,  or  8  feet  stops 
respectively.  The  largest  Tierce-sounding  stops 
are  one-fifth  the  size  of  the  Foundation  stops  from 
which  they  are  deduced ;  as  6£,  3^,  and  i§  feet 
respectively.  The  third-sounding  rank  on  the 
manual  has  been  much  more  sparingly  used  since 
the  introduction  of  Equal  Temperament,  as  it  does 
not  sound  agreeably  with  that  system  of  tuning ; 
and  an  additional  rank  of  pipes  consequently  be« 
comes  available  for  some  other  purpose. 

The  only  Mutation  stop  in  use  in  England  pre- 
viously to  the  arrival  of  Smith  and  Harris  (1660) 
was  the  twelfth  (2$  feet).  After  that  date  the 
Tierce  (i£  foot),  Larigot  (i£  foot),  and  their 
octaves  (among  the  small  Mixture  ranks)  became 
not  uncommon.  [E.  J.  H.] 

MUTE  (sordino ;  sourdine;  dampfer).  A  con- 
trivance applied  to  a  musical  instrument  for  the 
purpose  of  deadening  or  lessening  the  sound.  In 
the  pianoforte  the  effect  is  produced  by  the  dampers 
or  the  soft  pedal. 
In  instruments  of 
the  violin-tribe  the 
mute  is  a  piece  of 
brass  so  formed  as 
to  stick  on  to  the 
bridge  and  stand 
clear  of  the  strings. 
It  adds  weight  to 
the  bridge  and 
thus  checks  the 
vibrations  of  the 
body  of  the  instru- 
ment. [See  Appen- 
dix, Dolce  cam- 
pan  a.]  In  the  horn  and  trumpet  a  sort  of 
leathern  pear  is  employed,  which  fills  the  bell 
to  a  great  extent,  and  thus  prevents  the  sound 
from  coming  fully  out. 

Beethoven  mutes  the  strings  of  the  orchestra 
in  the  slow  movement  of  his  3rd  and  5th  P.F. 
Concertos,  and  in  that  of  the  Violin  Concerto. 
A  fine  instance  is  the  middle  portion  of  Weber's 


440 


MUTE. 


Overture  to  Euryanthe.  Mendelssohn  rarely  if 
ever  uses  this  means  of  effect.  [G.] 

MY  MOTHER  BIDS  ME  BIND  MY 
HAIR.  One  of  the  most  favourite  of  Haydn's  1 2 
Canzonets.  The  words  were  originally  written 
by  Mrs.  Hunter  to  the  andante  of  a  sonata  by 
Pleyel.  The  stanzas  were  reversed  by  Haydn, 
so  that  the  present  first  verse  was  originally  the 
second.  [G.] 

MYSLIWECZEK,  Josef,  a  Bohemian  com- 
poser, son  of  a  miller,  born  near  Prague,  March 
9,  1737;  had  a  good  education  in  the  common 
school,  and  after  his  father's  death  devoted  him- 
self to  music.  After  many  attempts  at  compo- 
sition, and  much  wandering,  he  fell  upon  his  feet 
at  Parma,  in  1 764,  with  an  opera,  the  success  of 
which  was  so  great  as  to  induce  the  Neapolitan 
ambassador  to  engage  him  to  write  the  opera  for 
the  celebration  of  the  next  birthday  of  the  king  at 
Naples.  The  new  piece  was  called  Bellerofonte, 
and  made  his  reputation  to  that  degree  that 
though  he  returned  to  the  north  of  Italy  he  was  re- 
called to  Naples  no  less  than  nine  times.  Mozart 
met  him  at  Bologna  in  Nov.  1772,  and  again  at 
Munich  in  1777.  He  was  evidently  very  gifted. 
Mozart  says  of  his  sonatas  that  '  they  are  bound 
to  please,  not  difficult,  and  very  effective,'  and 
urges  his  sister  to  learn  them  '  by  heart.  Else- 
where he  speaks  of  him  2as  a  prize  difficult  to 
replace.  He  was  evidently  very  s  fascinating,  but 
as  evidently  a  loose  fish,  unable,  with  all  his  en- 
gagements, to  keep  himself  respectable.  * 


NACHSCHLAG. 

In  1778  he  gave  his  Olimpiade  at  Naples, 
which  threw  every  one  into  transports  of  en- 
thusiasm. The  famous  singer  Gabrielli  sang 
his  songs  everywhere,  and  was  accustomed  to 
say  that  none  were  so  suited  to  her  voice.  He 
died  at  Rome,  Feb.  4,  1781,  adding  another 
to  the  long  list  of  musicians  whose  great  popu- 
larity during  their  lifetime  was  not  sufficient 
to  preserve  their  works  from  swift  oblivion. 
Mysliweczek  is  said  to  have  had  a  young  Eng- 
lish friend  named  Barry,  who  buried  him  in 
San  Lorenzo  in  Lucina,  and  erected  a  monu- 
ment to  him  there.  The  Italians  called  him 
II  Boemo,  in  despair  at  the  pronunciation  of 
his  proper  name.  [G.] 

MYSTERES  D'ISIS,  LES.  An  arrange- 
ment, or  derangement,  of  Mozart's  Zauberflote, 
words  by  Morel,  music  adapted  by  Lachnith ; 
produced  at  the  Acade"mie  Aug.  26,  1801.  The 
opera  was  torn  to  pieces ;  some  of  the  best  num- 
bers (c.  g.  the  2nd  quintet,  the  terzet,  the  chorus 
'  0  Isis,'  Pamina's  song)  were  taken  out,  numbers 
from  other  operas  inserted  {e.g.  'Fin  ch  han  dal 
vino '  as  a  duet).  The  concluding  chorus  opened 
the  opera,  and  immense  liberties  were  taken  with 
what  was  left.  But  such  was  the  beauty  and 
spirit  of  the  music  that  its  success  was  immense, 
and  it  kept  the  boards  till  May  2,  1827.  The 
real  Zauberflote  was  first  produced  in  Paris  in 
1829.  Lachnith  was  much  ridiculed  at  the  time; 
he  was  called  '  Le  Derangeur,'  and  his  work  '  Les 
Miseres  d'ici.'     [See  Lachnith.]  [G.] 


N 


NAAMAN.  An  oratorio  in  2  parts;  the 
words  by  W.  Bartholomew,  the  music  by 
Costa.  Composed  for  the  Birmingham 
Festival,  and  produced  there  Sept.  7, 1864. 

Sir  M.  Costa's  former  oratorio,  Eli,  was  also 
written  to  words  by  Bartholomew,  is  in  2  parts, 
and  was  produced  at  the  Birmingham  Festival, 
on  Aug.  29,  1855.  [G.j 

NABUCCO,  or  NABUCODONOSOR.  Opera 
in  3  acts;  libretto  by  Solera,  music  by  Verdi. 
Produced  at  the  Scala,  Milan,  in  Lent  1842  ;  at 
Paris,  Oct.  16,  1845  ;  in  London  as  'Nino'  at 
Her  Majesty's,  March  3,  1846.  [G.] 

NACHBAUR,  Fbanz,  a  noted  German  tenor, 
born  March  25,  1835,  at  Schloss  Giessen,  near 
Friedrichshafen,  Wurtemburg.  He  was  educated 
at  the  Polytechnic  School,  Stuttgard.  As  a  mem- 
ber of  a  Gesangverein,  his  fine  voice  attracted  the 
notice  of  Pischek,  who  advised  him  to  take  re- 
gular instruction  in  singing.  He  began  his  career 
as  a  chorister  at  Basle,  and  afterwards  became  a 
member  of  a  German  troupe  travelling  in  France. 
Through  the  liberality  of  M.  Passavant,  a  banker 
at  Luneville,  he  found  means  for  the  culture  of 
his  voice,  first  through  Orti,  the  bass  singer,  and 


1  Letter.  Nov.  is,  1777. 
s  Aug.  7. 1778. 


»  Oct.  11, 1777. 

<  Feb.  22, 1778;  Oct.  11. 1777. 


afterwards  with  Lamperti  of  Milan.  He  after- 
wards sang  in  opera  at  Mannheim,  Prague,  Darm- 
stadt, Vienna,  and  in  1866  at  Munich,  where  he 
obtained  a  permanent  engagement  at  the  opera. 
More  recently  he  has  sung  in  Italy,  and  created 
Lohengrin  at  Rome  in  1878.  His  parts  comprise 
Raoul,  the  Prophet,  Arnold,  etc.  [A.  C] 

NACHDRUCK.M1T  (With  pressure,Heavily ; 
corresponding  nearly  to  the  Italian  pesante).  A 
direction  used  by  Beethoven  in  the  Rondo  of  the 
Pianoforte  Concerto  in  E  b,  No.  5.  Op.  73  (Bars 
9,  102,  106),  to  indicate  that  the  bass  is  to  be 
well  emphasized.  The  term  espressivo  is  coinci- 
dently  used  in  the  treble.  [J.A.F.M.] 

NACHRUF,  i.  e.  Farewell.  The  title  given  by 
Mendelssohn  to  the  slow  movement  which  he 
composed  to  his  Quintet  in  A,  in  Paris,  after 
hearing  of  the  death  of  his  great  friend  Edward 
Ritz.  It  replaced  a  minuet  and  trio  in  Fg  and 
D,  the  trio  in  double  canon.  [G.] 

NACHSCHLAG.  The  German  name  for  one 
of  the  graces  of  instrumental  and  vocal  music. 
It  consists  of  a  note  played  or  sung  at  the  end  of 
the  note  to  which  it  serves  as  an  ornament,  and 
it  thus  forms,  as  its  name  indicates,  the  anti- 
thesis to  the  Vorschlag,  or  short  appoggiatura, 


NACHSCHLAG. 


NACHSCHLAG. 


441 


which  is  played  at  the  beginning.     [Appoggia- 

TURA.] 

Vorschlag.  Nachschlag. 

1.        Written.  Played.  Written.  Played. 


$ 


^mt 


£ 


3 


w^ 


Like  all  graces,  the  Nachschlag  forms  part  of 
the  value  of  its  principal  note,  which  is  accord- 
ingly curtailed  to  make  room  for  it,  just  as  in 
the  Vorschlag  the  principal  note  loses  a  portion 
of  its  value  at  the  beginning.  Emanuel  Bach, 
who  is  the  chief  authority  on  the  subject  of 
grace-notes,  does  not  approve  of  this  curtail- 
ment. He  says — 'All  graces  written  in  small 
notes  belong  to  the  next  following  large  note, 
and  the  value  of  the  preceding  large  note  must 
therefore  never  be  lessened.'  And  again — '  The 
ugly  Nachschlag  has  arisen  from  the  error  of 
separating  the  Vorschlag  from  its  principal  note, 
and  playing  it  within  the  value  of  the  foregoing 
note,'  and  he  gives  the  following  passage  as  an 
instance,  which  he  considers  would  be  far  better 
rendered  as  in  Ex.  4  than  as  in  Ex.  3. 

2.  3.  4. 


Nevertheless,  Emanuel  Bach's  successors,  Mar- 
purg,  Turk,  Leopold  Mozart,  etc.,  have  all  re- 
cognised the  Nachschlag  as  a  legitimate  grace, 
though  they  all  protest  against  its  being  written 
as  a  small  note,  on  account  of  its  liability  to  be 
confounded  with  the  Vorschlag.  Marpurg  refers 
to  an  early  method  of  indicating  it  by  means  of 
a  bent  line  ^-s,  the  angle  being  directed  upwards 
or  downwards  according  as  the  Nachschlag  was 
above  or  below  the  principal  note  (Ex.  5),  while 
for  a  springing  Nachschlag,  the  leap  of  which 
was  always  into  the  next  following  principal 
note,  an  oblique  line  was  used  (Ex.  6).  'But  at 
the  present  day  (1755),'  he  goes  on  to  say,  'the 
Nachschlag  is  always  written  as  a  small  note, 
with  the  hook  turned  towards  its  own  principal 
note'  (Ex.  7). 


The  Nachschlag  was  not  limited  to  a  single 
note,  groups  of  two  notes  (called  by  Turk  the 
double  Nachschlag")  forming  a  diatonic  progres- 
sion, and  played  at  the  end  of  their  principal 
note,  being  frequently  met  with,  and  groups  of 
even  more  notes  occasionally. 


In  the  works  of  the  great  masters,  the  Nach- 
schlag, though  of  very  frequent  occurrence,  is 
almost  invariably  written  out  in  notes  of  or- 
dinary size,  as  in  the  following  instances,  among 
many  others. 

9.  Handel,  '  Messiah.' 


P 


Bach,  Fugue  No.  1.     (Double  Nachschlag.) 


5: 


W& 


J3    ** 


Modern  composers,  on  the  other  hand,  have 
returned  to  some  extent  to  the  older  method  of 
writing  the  Nachschlag  as  a  small  note,  ap- 
parently not  taking  into  account  the  possibility 
of  its  being  mistaken  for  a  Vorschlag.  It  is  true 
that  in  most  cases  there  is  practically  little 
chance  of  a  misapprehension,  the  general  charac- 
ter and  rhythm  of  the  phrase  sufficiently  indi- 
cating that  the  small  notes  form  a  Nachschlag. 
Thus  in  many  instances  in  Schumann's  piano- 
forte works  the  small  note  is  placed  at  the  end 
of  a  bar,  in  the  position  in  which  as  Nachschlag 
it  ought  to  be  played,  thus  distinguishing  it  from 
the  Vorschlag,  which  would  be  written  at  the 
beginning  of  the  bar  (Ex.  10).  And  in  the  ex- 
amples quoted  below  from  Liszt  and  Chopin, 
although  the  same  precaution  has  not  been 
taken,  yet  the  effect  intended  is  sufficiently  clear 
— the  small  notes  all  fall  within  the  time  of  the 
preceding  notes  (Ex.  11). 

10.  Schumann,  •  Warum,'  Op.  12. 

Bar  7.     Nachschlag.  Bar  11.     Vorschlag. 


i 


ft* 


Chopin,  Nocturne,  Op.  32,  No.  2. 

1ST 


*7°HG- 


I 


'ipy  * 


442 


NACHSCHLAG 


Although  the  employment  of  the  Nachschlag 
is  bo  general  in  composition,  it  appears  to  have 
no  distinctive  name  in  any  language  except  Ger- 
man. Some  English  authors1  have  adopted  the 
translation  Afternote,  but  it  has  never  come  into 
general  use,  while  among  the  old  French  agr6- 
mens  there  is  one  called  Accent,  which  is  identi- 
cal both  as  to  sign  and  execution  with  the 
Nachschlag  described  by  Marpurg  (Ex.  5),  but 
which,  according  to  Rousseau,  who  speaks  of  it  as 
a  coup  de  gosier,  only  belonged  to  vocal  music. 

The  term  Nachschlag  also  signifies  the  turn  of 
a  trill.     [See  Trill.]  [F.T.] 

NACHSPIEL,  i.  e.  Afterpiece.  A  name  given 
by  the  modern  German  school  of  organists  to 
pieces  intended  to  be  played  at  the  conclusion  of 
the  service,  while  the  congregation  is  leaving  the 
church.  This  form  of  composition  is  also  called 
Postludium,  and  has  even  been  englished  as 
'  Postlude.'  The  German  title  corresponds  to  the 
word  Vorspiel,  used  as  an  equivalent  to  Pralu- 
dium  or  Prelude.  Examples  of  the  name  (Nach- 
spiel)  may  be  found  in  the  works  of  Joseph 
Andre"  and  Rinck,  and  examples  of  Postlude  in 
that  of  the  late  Henry  Smart,  and  in  the  Or- 
ganist's Quarterly  Journal,  etc.  [J.A.F.M.] 

NACHTSTUCKE  (Night  Pieces).  The  name 
of  four  pieces  for  pianoforte  solo  by  Schumann, 
constituting  op.  23  of  his  published  works.  They 
were  written  in  Vienna  in  1839  (the  same  year 
as  the  Fasschingsschwank  aus  Wien,  the  Three 
Romances,  the  Humoreske,  etc.)  and  are  dedi- 
cated to  F.  A.  Becker  of  Freiberg.  The  name 
is  taken  from  the  title  of  a  series  of  tales  by 
Hoffmann,  whose  works,  like  those  of  Jean  Paul 
Richter,  had  a  great  fascination  for  Schumann 
at  this  period  of  his  life.  [See  Kreisleriana, 
which  were  written  the  year  before  the  Nacht- 
stiicke.]  They  are  entirely  distinct  in  character 
from  the  ordinary  Nocturne,  though  the  name 
would  seem  to  imply  a  resemblance;  in  fact, 
they  are  much  more  like  the  '  Nuits  Blanches ' 
of  Stephen  Heller,  being,  with  one  exception 
(No.  4,  the  simplest  and  most  popular,  as  well  as 
the  quietest  of  the  series),  excited  and  restless 
yet  full  of  vigour.  [J.  A.  F.  M.] 

NAGELI,  Johann  Georo,  an  eminent  music 
publisher,  and  also  a  composer  and  litterateur, 
born  at  Zurich  in  1768.  He  started  his  music 
business  in  his  native  town  in  1793,  and  quickly 
issued  editions  of  Handel,  Bach  (48  Preludes  and 
Fugues,  Art  of  Fugue)  and  other  classics,  large 
oblong  folio,  in  a  style  of  great  clearness  and 
beauty  for  the  time.  In  1803  he  started  the 
'Repertoire  des  clavecinistes,'  a  periodical  publi- 
cation in  which  new  works  by  Clementi,  Cramer, 
Beethoven  and  others  appeared.  For  Beethoven 
he  published  the  three  grand  solo  sonatas  now 
known  as  op.  31,  but  which  appeared  without 
opus  number,  the  first  and  2nd  in  1803  in  Pt.  5 
of  the  Repertoire,  the  3rd  in  1804  in  Pt.  II. 
It  is  in  connection  with  the  1st  of  the  three 
that  the  circumstance  occurred  which  will  pre- 
vent Nageli   from   being   forgotten   as   long  as 

>  Dr.  Callcott,  '  Grammar  of  Music' 


NALDI. 

Beethoven's  sonatas  are  studied.  He  actually 
interpolated  4  bars  into  the  1st  movement  of  that 
sonata,  between  the  28th  and  27th  bars  from  the 
end: — 


■*£& 


PffU-i>i|, 


^^ 


ta 


m 


fMf\-^p 


te=* 


,HS 


Beethoven  however  must  have  pardoned  this 
crime ;  for  several  of  his  later  letters  to  Nageli 
are  couched  in  terms  of  affection,  and  he  did  his 
utmost  to  induce  the  Archduke  Rodolph  to  sub- 
scribe to  a  volume  of  Nageli's  poems  in  1824. 

Nageli's  compositions  were  chiefly  vocal — 
choruses  for  Church  and  School  use,  etc.,  popular 
enough  in  their  day.  He  founded  an  association 
for  the  encouragement  of  music  and  acted  as  its 
President.  He  was  a  great  adherent  of  the 
Pestalozzian  system  of  education,  and  wrote  in 
support  of  it.  But  these  and  his  other  active 
labours  for  his  beloved  art,  his  disputes  with 
Thibaut  and  with  Hottinger,  were  brought  to  an 
end  by  his  death  at  Ziirich  Dec.  26,  1836,  and 
are  all  now  forgotten.  An  exception  may  be 
made  for  an  air  which  was  long  highly  popular 
in  England  under  the  name  of  '  Life  let  us 
cherish,'  and  which  is  even  now  sometimes  heard. 
The  Finale  in  Woelfl's  sonata  '  Non  plus  ultra ' 
is  a  set  of  variations  on  that  air.  [G.} 

N^ENIA.  A  cantata  for  chorus  and  orches- 
tra on  Schiller's  words  'Auch  das  Schone  muss 
sterben '  by  Hermann  Goetz.  It  is  op.  10  of  his 
published  works.  Naenia  or  Nenia  was  a  classical 
term  for  a  funeral  dirge.  [G.} 

NALDI,  Giuseppe,  born  at  Bologna,  Feb. 
2,  1770,  was  the  only  son  of  Giuseppe  Naldi, 
of  the  same  city,  who  held  a  government  appoint- 
ment of  high  trust.  The  son  was  educated  in  the 
universities  of  Bologna  and  Pavia,  where  he 
made  very  rapid  progress  in  his  studies  for  the 
law,  the  profession  of  his  choice.  Finding  this, 
however,  uncongenial  after  a  short  time,  he  ob- 
tained, at  the  personal  request  of  the  Marchese 
Litta,  a  secretary's  place  in  a  government  depart- 
ment, where  he  gave  promise  of  ability  and  dis- 
tinction ;  but  the  Italian  Revolution  put  an  end 
to  his  career  in  this  direction,  and  he  left  the 
country. 

He  next  appeared  at  Milan,  where  he  was 
persuaded  to  give  way  to  his  natural  genius  for 
music,  and  where  he  achieved  his  first  success 
upon  the  stage.  According  to  F6tis  (who,  how- 
ever, is  incorrect  in  some  details  of  his  bio- 
graphy), Naldi  appeared  at  Rome  in  1789,  then 
at  Naples,  and  next  at  Venice  and  Turin.  In 
1796  and  7  he  reappeared  at  Milan.  In  London 
he  made  his  cUbut  April  15,  1806,  and  he  con- 
tinued to  sing  here  every  subsequent  season  up 
to  1 819  (inclusive).  His  principal  characters 
were  in  '  Le  Cantatrici  Villane,'  *  Cosl  fan  tutte/ 
and  '  H  Fanatico  per  la  musica.'  In  the  latter, 
he  showed  his  skill  in  playing  the  violoncello,  on 


NALDI. 

which  he  was  no  mean  performer.  Lord  Mount- 
Edgcumbe  describes  his  voice  as  '  weak  and  un- 
certain'; while  another  critic  calls  it  'sonorous 
and  powerful,'  but  excepts  from  his  successful 
rdles  that  of  Sancho  in  the  'Villeggiatori  bizarri,' 
which  he  rather  foolishly  excuses  on  the  plea 
that  he  was '  too  much  the  gentleman  to  play  the 
clown '  (Monthly  Mirror).  All  agree,  however, 
that  Naldi  was  extremely  clever,  could  write 
very  fair  verses  and  compose  very  tolerable 
music ;  had  an  accurate  ear ;  could  play  the 
piano  and  cello  very  well;  and  read  at  sight 
with  perfect  ease  and  intonation.  As  an  actor, 
he  was  excellent,  and  played  with  'irresistible 
humour,  effect,  judgment,  and  truth.'  A  good 
portrait-sketch  of  him,  as  Figaro  in  'Le  Nozze,' 
'Drawn  and  Etched  expressly  for  the  British 
Stage,'  appeared  in  Feb.  1818.  In  the  next  year, 
he  was  engaged  at  Paris,  where  he  made  his 
cUbut  in  'Cos!  fan  tutte';  but  his  powers  were 
much  faded.  He  returned  once  more  to  London 
in  that,  his  last,  season:  and  in  the  following 
year,  at  Paris,  met  an  untimely  death,  in  the 
apartments  of  his  friend  Garcia,  by  the  bursting 
of  a  newly-invented  cooking-kettle,  a  trial  of 
which  he  had  been  invited  to  witness.  His 
daughter,  Mlle.  Naldi,  made  her  <M>ut  in  1819. 
She  sang  at  Paris  in  1822-3,  and  is  said  (by 
Fe'tis)  to  have  '  shared  the  public  applause  with 
Pasta  for  some  years,  particularly  in  Tancredi 
and  Romeo  e  Giulietta.'  Without  attaching  im- 
plicit credit  to  this  statement,  we  may  believe 
that  she  was  an  excellent  singer,  and  that  she 
was  a  loss  to  the  stage  when  she  retired  (1824), 
having  married  the  Conte  di  Sparre,  after  which 
she  was  no  more  heard,  except  in  her  own  salon, 
or  those  of  her  friends.  [J.  M.] 

NALSON,  Rev.  Valentine,  Sub-chanter  of 
York  Cathedral  in  the  early  part  of  the  18th 
century,  composed  an  Evening  Service  in  G,  and 
also,  on  the  occasion  of  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  in 
1 71 3,  a  Morning  Service  in  the  same  key,  both 
which  are  contained  in  the  Tudway  Collection, 
Harl.  MSS.  7341  and  7342.  Some  anthems  by 
him  are  also  extant.  He  died  in  1 7  2  2 .    [W.H.H.] 

NANINI,1  Giovanni  Bernabdino,  was  born, 
about  the  middle  of  the  1 6th  century,  at  Vallerano, 
where  he  studied  Counterpoint  under  his  elder 
brother,  Giovanni  Mabia.  Removing,  at  a  later 
period,  to  Rome,  he  held  the  appointment  of 
Maestro  di  Cappella,  first  at  the  Church  of  S.  Luigi 
de'  Francesi,  and  afterwards  at  that  of  S.  Lorenzo 
in  Damaso.  Beyond  this,  little  is  known  of  his 
personal  history;  though  it  is  certain  that  he 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  management  of  his 
brother's  Music  School, — an  institution  to  which 
some  of  the  most  celebrated  Composers  of  the 
period  were  indebted  for  their  early  training. 
The  exact  date  of  his  death  has  not  been  ascer- 
tained, and  can  only  be  surmised  from  that  of  his 
latest  publication,  which  was  printed  in  1620. 

As  a  Composer,  G.  B.  Nanini  takes  rank  among 
the  best  Masters  of  his  time ;  but  his  works  are, 
for  the  most  part,  far  less  characteristic  of  the 

1  Sometime*  Incorrectly  spelled  Naniso. 


NANINI. 


443 


true  Polyphonic  style  than  those  of  his  brother. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  who  ventured  so  far 
to  depart  from  the  traditions  of  the  Roman 
School  as  to  write  Church  Music  with  Organ 
Accompaniment ;  and  his  later  productions 
bear  evident  marks  of  that  '  progress '  which 
ultimately  led  to  its  extinction.  His  published 
works  are,  a  volume  of  delightful  Madrigals 
entitled,  'Madrigali,  a  5  voci,'  Lib.  I.  (Venice, 
1579.  J588»  x598);  Idem, Lib.  II.  (Venice,  1599); 
Id.,  Lib.  III.  (Rome,  161 2);  'Mottecta,  a  i.  ii. 
iii.  iv.  v.  voc.  una  cum  gravi  voce  ad  organi 
sonum  accomodata,  Lib.  I.'  (Roma,  1608);  Id., 
Lib.  II.  (Rome,  161 1) ;  Id.,  Lib.  III.  (Rome, 
1612);  Id.,  Lib.  IV.  (Rome,  1618);  'Salmi,  a  4 
voc.  con  l'organo'  (Rome,  1620);  and  'Venite, 
exultemus  Domino,  a  3  voc.  col'  organo'  (Assisi, 
1620).  In  addition  to  these  important  works, 
many  Madrigals,  and  other  detached  composi- 
tions, will  be  found  in  the  collections  published 
by  Phalesius,  and  others,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
1 7th  century :  and  many  more  still  remain  in 
MS.  Of  these  last,  the  most  important  are,  some 
Psalms  and  Motets  for  8  Voices,  and  a  Salve 
Regina  for  12,  formerly  in  the  collection  of  the 
Abbe  Santini;  and  a  Treatise  on  Counterpoint, 
written,  in  conjunction  with  Giov.  Maria,  per- 
haps for  the  use  of  the  pupils  in  the  Music 
School.  Proske  has  included  four  of  his  Psalms 
in  the  '  Musica  Divina.'  [W.  S.  R.] 

NANINI,  Giovanni  Mabia,  elder  brother  of 
the  preceding,  was  also  a  native  of  Vallerano, 
where  he  is  believed  to  have  been  born,  about 
1540.  In  early  youth  he  studied  Counterpoint, 
at  Rome,  under  Claude  Goudimel,  in  whose 
Music  School  he  and  Palestrina  are  said  to  have 
been,  for  a  time, 2  fellow-students.  His  education 
completed,  he  returned  to  his  birth-place,  as 
Maestro  di  Cappella  :  but  when,  in  consequence 
of  Palestrina's  acceptance  of  office  at  the  Vatican 
Basilica,  it  became  necessary,  in  1571,  to  elect 
a  new  Maestro  di  Cappella  for  the  Basilica  Liberi- 
ana  (S.  Maria  Maggiore),  he  was  invited  to 
Rome,  as  the  fittest  person  upon  whom  the  vacant, 
preferment  could  be  bestowed ;  and  he  continued 
to  hold  the  appointment,  until  1575,  when  he  re- 
signed it  in  favour  of  Ippolito  Tartaglini. 

Finding  his  talents  now  fairly  appreciated, 
Giov.  Maria  established  a  public  Music  School — 
the  first  ever  opened  in  Rome  by  an  Italian — in 
the  management  of  which  he  was  assisted  by  hia 
brother,  Giov.  Bernadino,  as  well  as  by  Palestrina 
himself,  who  constantly  gave  instruction  to  the- 
pupils,  and  took  a  lively  interest  in  the  institu- 
tion. The  School  prospered  exceedingly ;  and  was 
frequented  by  more  than  one  talented  youth 
whose  genius  afterwards  bore  abundant  fruit. 
Nanini's  reputation  as  a  learned  Contrapuntist, 
and  gifted  Composer,  was  secured.  His  works- 
were  received  at  the  Sistine  Chapel  with  marks 
of  special  approbation ;  and  on  Oct.  27,  1577,  he 

l  This,  at  least,  Is  the  generally-received  tradition.  But,  assuming. 
1540  as  the  correct  date  of  O.  M.  Nanini's  birth,  he  was  Palestrina's 
junior  by  16  years :  and  this  difference  of  age  Is  considered,  both  by 
Ambros  and  Proske,  to  justify  the  belief  that  the  two  Composers  did 
not  study  under  Goudlnel  at  the  same  time. 


444 


NANINI. 


was  elected  a  member  of  the  Pontifical  Choir, 
to  which  he  contributed,  during  the  last  30  years 
of  his  life,  many  valuable  compositions.  His 
death  took  place  on  March  n,  1607;  and  his 
remains  were  deposited  in  the  Church  of  S.  Luigi 
de'  Francesi. 

Nanini  was  one  of  the  brightest  ornaments  of 
the  great  Roman  School,  the  highest  qualities  of 
which  he  cultivated  in  a  remarkable  degree. 
His  Motet,  for  six  Voices — '  Hodie  nobis  coelorum 
rex ' — annually  sung,  in  the  Sistine  Chapel,  on  the 
morning  of  Christmas  Day,  is  a  noble  compo- 
sition ;  and  he  has  left  us  many  others,  of  equal 
merit,  a  large  proportion  of  which  still  remain  in 
MS.  among  the  Archives  of  the  Pontifical  Choir, 
the  Vatican  Basilica,  the  Collegium  Romanum, 
the  Oratory  of  S.  Maria  in  Vallicella,  and  other 
noted  collections.  P.  Martini  mentions  a  MS. 
collection  of  Canons,  entitled  'Cento  cinquanta 
sette  Contrappunti  e  Canoni  a  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8, 
€  11  Voci,  sopra  del  Canto  fermo  intitolato  La 
Base  di  Costanzo  Festa,'  which  contains  some 
miracles  of  ingenuity  and  learning.  Some  of 
these,  at  least,  have  already  appeared  among  his 
published  works :  but,  a  dissertation  on  Counter- 
point, called  '  Regole  di  Giov.  Maria  e  di  Ber- 
nardino Nanini,  per  fare  contrappunto  a  mente 
sopra  il  Canto  fermo,'  written,  conjointly,  by  him- 
self, and  his  younger  brother,  exists  only  in  a 
MS.  copy — unhappily,  imperfect — transcribed  by 
Orazio  Grim,  and  preserved  in  the  Library  of  the 
Palazzo  Corsini  alia  Lungara. 

The  published  works  of  Nanini  comprise  a 
volume  of  'Motetti,  a  3  voci'  (Venice,  1578); 
'Motetti,  a  5  voci'  (1578);  'Madrigali,'  Lib.  I. 
(1578);  Idem,  Lib.  II.  (1580, 1582,  1587, 1605); 
Id.,  Lib.  III.  (1 584) ;  Id.,  Lib.  IV.  (1 586) ;  'Can- 
zonetti,  a  3  voci*  (1587),  all  published,  at  Venice, 
in  4to,  by  Gardano ;  some '  Salmi,  a  8  voci,'  printed 
in  the  well-known  collection  of  Fabio  Costantini 
(Napoli,  1615) ;  and  a  number  of  Motets,  Madri- 
gals, and  other  isolated  works,  included  in  Costan- 
tini's '  Motetti,'  Waelrant's  'Symphonia  Angelica,' 
and  other  collections  published  in  Italy,  and  by 
P.  Phalese  of  Antwerp.  Some  very  fine  Motets — 
including  a  masterly  '  Hodie  Christus  natus  est,' 
in  which  the  characteristic  Noe  !  Noe  !  is  intro- 
duced with  great  effect — will  be  found  in  Proske's 
' Musica  Divina.'  [See  Noel.]  Others  are  given 
in  the  collections  of  the  Prince  de  la  Moskowa, 
Kochlitz,  etc.  [W.S.R.] 

NANTIER-DIDIEE,  Constance  Betsy 
Rosabella,  was  born  at  St.  Denis  in  the  Isle  of 
Bourbon  (now  He  de  la  Reunion)  Nov.  16,  1831. 
Mdlle.  Nantier,  who  derived  her  second  name 
from  her  marriage  with  a  singer  named  Didie"e, 
received  instruction  in  singing  at  the  Paris  Con- 
servatoire under  Duprez,  from  1847  to  1849,  and 
obtained  an  aecessit  in  the  latter  year  in  his  class, 
and  the  first  prize  in  the  Opera  class.  She  made 
her  debut  on  the  stage  at  the  Carignan  Theatre, 
Turin,  in  Mercadante's '  La  Vestale.'  She  played 
in  Paris  at  the  Salle  Ventadour  in  185 1,  and 
afterwards  joined  an  Italian  company,  of  which 
Giuglini  was  one,  and  who  played  at  Lyons, 
Nimes,  Montpelier,  etc. 


NAPLES. 

Madame  Nantier-Didie'e  made  her  first  ap- 
pearance in  England  at  Covent  Garden  in  1853 
as  the  Chevalier  de  Gondi,  in  '  Maria  di  Rohan,' 
afterwards  as  Maddalena,  in  'Rigoletto'  on  its 
production  here,  and  as  Ascanio  in  'Benvenuto 
Cellini ' ;  and  in  all  three  parts  was  successful. 
From  1853  to  1864  inclusive  she  sang  here 
every  year  in  Italian  opera,  at  Covent  Garden 
and  the  Lyceum,  the  usual  mezzo  soprano  or 
contralto  parts,  creating  amongst  others  Nancy 
in  'Marta,'  Rita  on  the  revival  of  'Zampa,' 
L'Amore  'Orfeo',  Ulrica  in  Verdi's  'Ballo,' 
and  Siebel  in  '  Faust.'  In  this  last  opera  Gounod 
wrote  the  popular  air '  Quando  a  te  lieta'  expressly 
for  her.  During  this  time  Madame  Nan  tier-Did  ie"e 
sang  at  Court  and  public  concerts,  made  an  ope- 
ratic provincial  tour  in  1855,  later  in  that  year 
and  the  early  part  of  1856  played  in  opera  in 
America,  and  took  part  at  the  Bradford  Festival 
of  1859.  The  rest  of  each  year  she  was  engaged 
at  the  Italian  Opera  of  Paris,  St.  Petersburg, 
Moscow,  Madrid,  etc.,  or  sang  at  concerts  in  the 
French  provinces.  She  died  at  Madrid,  Dec.  4, 1 8  6  7. 
Apropos  to  Maddalena,  Mr.  Chorley  remarks, 
'  Her  gay  handsome  face,  her  winning  mezzo- 
soprano  voice,  not  without  a  Cremona  tone  in  it, 
redeeming  the  voice  from  lusciousness,  and  her 
neat  lively  execution,  were  all  displayed  in  this 
part,  short  as  it  is.  For  such  occupation  as  falls  to 
the  share  of  a  first-rate  singer  of  the  second  class, 
this  lady  has  never  been  exceeded.  Subsequently 
when  .  .  .she  tried  to  win  first  honours  as  a 
contralto,  the  natural  limits  of  her  powers  made 
themselves  felt,  and  she  lost  rather  than  gained 
in  public  favour.'  [A.  C] 

NAPLES.  The  first  school  of  music  at  Naples 
was  founded  towards  the  middle  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury by  John  Tinctor.  His  school  was  short-lived, 
but  it  was  immediately  succeeded  by  the  illus- 
trious Neapolitan  Conservatorios  which  were  both 
the  first  examples  and  models  of  all  similar 
musical  institutions,  not  only  in  Italy  but  in  the 
other  countries  of  Europe. 

The  Conservatorios  of  Naples,  four  in  number 
— (1)  Santa  Maria  di  Loreto,  (2)  San  Onofrio, 
(3)  De'  Poveri  di  Gesh  Cristo,  (4)  Delia  Pieta 
de'  Turchini — were  originally  founded  by  private 
benefactors  for  the  purpose  of  affording  both 
shelter  and  instruction  to  the  homeless  orphans 
of  Naples.  The  children  were  taken  out  of  the 
streets  and  clad  in  a  particular  dress,  each  Conser- 
vatorio  being  distinguished  from  the  others  by 
its  peculiar  colour.  They  were  moreover  closely 
shaven,  and  this,  coupled  with  the  clerical  charac- 
ter of  their  dress  caused  them  to  be  called  '  Pre- 
terelli'  (little  priests).  Many  of  them  were 
indeed  destined  for  Holy  Orders.  Ecclesiastical 
music  was  at  first  the  primary  object  of  these 
institutions.  They  were  governed  after  the  pat- 
tern of  a  priest's  seminary,  and  each  had  a  church 
of  which  the  pupils  formed  the  choir.  The  funds 
of  the  institution  were  increased  by  the  services 
of  the  pupils  in  other  city  churches  and  in  the 
Royal  Chapel,  for  which  they  received  a  monthly 
salary.  Also  by  other  pious  offices,  such  as  watch- 
ing and  chanting  hymns  and  prayers  over  the  dead 


NAPLES. 

previous  to  burial.  This  was  the  task  of  the 
younger  pupils,  while  the  elder  ones  would  carry 
the  dead  to  the  grave  and  even  bury  them.  These 
elder  pupils  were  called  'Paranze'  (i.e.  a  small 
corps  or  company)  and  the  younger  ones  '  Sopra- 
nelli'  and '  Contraltini,'  according  to  their  voics. 
Besides  these  pious  services,  which  were  almost 
daily  in  request,  the  pupils  were  engaged  to  sing 
in  the  great  musical  processions,  or  '  Flottole' — so 
called  from  '  Flotto,'  a  term  for  the  choir,  a  cor- 
ruption of  •  Frotta,'  a  crowd,  because  of  the  num- 
ber of  the  pupils.  Afterwards,  when  dramatic 
music  began  to  revive,  they  represented  the  mys- 
teries in  the  monasteries  and  convents  during 
carnival,  and  later  still  performed  in  the  theatres, 
more  especially  in  that  of  San  Carlo,  for  which 
the  pupils  of  the  Pieta  de'  Turchini  were  princi- 
pally selected  on  account  of  their  proximity  to  it. 
These  efforts  of  the  pupils  brought  in  to  each 
Conservatorio  an  average  of  iooo  ducats  a  year, 
but  despite  these  and  the  private  benefactions  of 
individuals,  the  endowment  of  each  institution 
was  barely  sufficient  to  supply  the  bare  neces- 
saries of  life  to  the  pupils,  while  the  space  was  so 
cramped  that  many  of  them  had  to  sleep  in  the 
corridors  and  refectories,  and  the  supply  of 
musical  instruments  was  far  too  scanty  for  the 
performers.  Yet  from  this  humble  origin  sprang 
the  great  masters  of  music  whose  compositions 
are  inseparably  associated  with  Italy. 

(i)  Santa  Mabia  di  Loreto.  This  originated 
in  1535  with  a  poor  artisan  of  the  name  of  Fran- 
cesco, who  received  into  his  house  on  the  Mer- 
cato  orphans  of  both  sexes,  and  caused  them  to 
be  fed  and  clothed  and  instructed  in  music.  The 
rich  citizens  of  the  Mercato  assisted  his  pious 
design  by  every  means  in  their  power.  The  fame 
of  the  school  reached  the  ears  of  Giovanni  da 
Tappia,  a  Spanish  priest  domiciled  in  Naples, 
and  he,  having  the  progress  of  music  greatly  at 
heart,  volunteered  to  direct  it,  and  extend  its 
powers  of  usefulness  by  a  permanent  endowment. 
This  he  obtained  by  begging  alms  from  house  to 
house  through  the  Neapolitan  Provinces.  At  the 
end  of  nine  years  he  returned  to  Naples  with  a  suf- 
ficient sum  for  the  purpose.  The  original  humble 
institution  was  transferred  to  a  larger  building 
close  to  the  Church  of  Sta.  Maria  de  Loreto.  This 
building  was  formally  ceded  by  the  government 
to  da  Tappia,  received  the  title  of  'Conservatorio,' 
and  was  endowed,  in  1566,  with  the  'Jus  del 
forno'  and  'della  beccaria.'  Thus  established, 
rich  citizens  from  time  to  time  left  their  fortunes 
to  this  institution,  which  grew  and  flourished. 
The  pupils  of  both  sexes  reached  the  num- 
ber of  800.  Among  the  illustrious  musicians 
whose  names  are  connected  with  Santa  Maria 
di  Loreto  are  Alessandro  Scarlatti,  Durante, 
Porpora,  Traetta,  Sacchini,  Guglielmi,  and  many 
more. 

In  1797  the  two  Conservatorios  of  San  Onofrio 
and  Santa  Maria  di  Loreto  were  united,  the  for- 
mer being  absorbed  in  the  latter.  In  1806, 
by  order  of  Joseph  Buonaparte,  the  Conservatorio 
of  Loreto  was  united  to  that  of  the  '  Pieta  de' 
Turchini,'  and  the  building  of  Santa  Maria  di 


NAPLES. 


445 


Loreto  then  became  a  hospital.  It  is  still  called 
l'Ospedale  del  Loreto,  and  over  the  doorway  the 
following  inscription  may  still  be  read : — 

'  XJn  di  ad  Apollo,  ad  Esculapio  or  sacro.' 

'Once  dedicated  to  Apollo,  now  to  Aesculapius.' 

(2)  San  Onofrio  a  Capuana.  So  called  be- 
cause it  was  situated  in  the  district  of  Naples 
known  as  Capuana.  It  was  founded  in  1576  by 
private  benefactions  under  the  name  of  the  '  con- 
fraternity of  the  Bianchi.'  It  received  1 20  orphans, 
who  were  instructed  in  religion  and  music.  The 
funds  of  this,  as  of  the  other  similar  institutions, 
were  augmented  by  the  exertions  of  the  pupils  as 
already  described.  In  course  of  time  it  was  taken 
out  of  the  hands  of  the  confraternity  and  esta- 
blished as  a  Conservatorio  by  royal  warrant  with 
the  title  of  San  Onofrio.  The  dress  of  the  pupils  wa3 
black  and  white — hence  the  name  '  de'  Bianchi.' 
At  a  later  date  foreign  pupils  were  admitted  on 
terms  of  monthly  payment,  and  on  the  under- 
standing that  they  should  continue  to  give  their 
services  for  a  few  years  after  the  end  of  their 
term  of  instruction.  In  1797  the  building  of  San 
Onofrio  was  turned  into  barracks  and  the  pupils 
were  transferred  to  Santa  Maria  di  Loreto.  A. 
Scarlatti  was  a  teacher  in  this  Conservatorio  also, 
likewise  Durante,  Leo,  Feo,  Cotumacci ;  amongst 
their  pupils  were  Gizzi,  Jommelli,  Piccinni,  and 
Paisiello.  Gizzi,  by  the  advice  of  Scarlatti,  opened 
in  1 720  a  school  of  singing  in  connexion  with  this 
Conservatorio,  the  famous  singer  Gioacchino  Conti 
di  Arpino  was  one  of  his  pupils,  and  out  of  gra- 
titude to  his  master  took  the  name  of  Gizziello. 
[See  Gizziello.] 

(3)  De'  Poveri  di  Gesu  Cristo.  This  was 
established  in  1589  by  a  Franciscan,  Marcelkv 
Foscataro  di  Nicotera,  for  the  foundlings  of  Na- 
ples. By  means  of  alms  collected  from  the 
Neapolitans,  he  obtained  the  necessary  funds, 
and  drew  up  the  rules,  which  were  ratified  by 
Alfonso  Gesualdo,  the  then  Cardinal  Archbishop 
of  Naples.  The  pupils,  100  in  number,  varying 
in  age  from  7  to  11,  and  literally  taken  out  of 
the  streets,  were  clothed  at  first  in  the  sober 
dress  of  the  Franciscan  order,  afterwards  in  blue 
and  red,  were  fed  and  instructed  in  their  own 
language  and  in  music,  and  were  governed  by  two 
canons  of  the  cathedral  of  Naples. 

This  Conservatorio  existed  till  1 744,  when,  by 
order  of  Cardinal  Spinelli,  it  was  converted  into 
a  Diocesan  Seminary.  It  now  bears  the  title 
of  'Seminarium  Archiepiscopale  Diocesanum,' 
whereas  it  had  for  years  borne  the  inscription 
of  *  Pauperum  Jesu  Christi  Archiepiscopale  Col- 
legium.' The  pupils  were  distributed  among  the 
three  remaining  Conservatorios — San  Onofrio, 
Loreto,  and  the  Pieta  de'  Turchini. 

This  Conservatorio  is  by  some  considered  as 
the  oldest  of  all,  and  as  the  cradle  of  the  great 
Neapobtan  School  of  Music.  Fago,  Greco,  Du- 
rante, Vinci — all  pupils  of  Scarlatti — Cotumacci, 
Ignazio  Gallo,  and  Pergolesi,  were  among  the  most 
famous  composers  which  it  produced. 

(4)  Della  Pieta  de'  Turchini.  This  ori- 
ginated  with  the  confraternity  of  Sta.  Maria 


446 


NAPLES. 


della  Incoronatella,  who,  towards  the  year  1584 
made  their  house  an  asylum  both  for  the  home- 
less orphans  of  Naples,  and  also  for  children  whose 
parents  were  unable  to  support  them.  At  first 
the  children  were  only  taught  to  read  and 
write,  and  were  clad  in  long  blue  garments 
('  color  turchino '),  hence  the  name  of  '  Pieta  de' 
Turchini,'  which  was  adopted  by  the  institution 
instead  of  that  of  the  '  Incoronatella.'  It  was 
not  till  a  century  later  that  musical  instruction 
was  given  to  the  pupils.  In  1600  it  was  placed 
■under  the  protection  of  Philip  III  of  Spain,  and 
in  1670  Francesco  Provenzale  and  Gennaro  Ursino 
were  appointed  to  be  its  Professors  of  Music, 
Provenzale  having  preceded  Scarlatti  as  Maestro 
of  the  Palatine  Chapel  at  Naples.  It  produced 
many  famous  composers,  such  as  Feo,  Fago, 
Carapella,  Leo,  Cafaro  and  Sala.  In  1806,  on 
the  abolition  of  the  Conservatorio  of  Sta.  Maria 
di  Loreto,  the  pupils  were  received  into  the  Pieta 
de'  Turchini.  In  1 808  this,  the  last  of  the  Con- 
servatories, was  also  suppressed  on  the  repre- 
sentation of  Monsignore  Capecelatro,  Archbishop 
of  Taranto,  '  that  the  Neapolitan  Conservatorios 
had  fallen  from  their  ancient  glory  on  account  of 
bad  administration  and  lack  of  discipline,  and 
that  the  only  remedy  was  to  re-organize  them  in 
one  great  college  established  on  a  broader  basis.' 
Thus  the  'Reale  Collegio  di  Mosica'  came 
into  existence,  first  with  the  title  of  San  Sebas- 
tiano,  and  afterwards  with  that  of  S.  Pietro  a 
Maiella,  which  it  still  retains. 

Tritta,  Paisiello,  and  Feneroli  were  the  first 
directors  and  general  administrators  of  the  new 
Royal  College  of  Music.  They  were  succeeded 
in  1 81 3  by  Zingarelli.  In  181 7  'external'  pre- 
paratory schools  of  music  were  added ;  and  the 
pupils  who  passed  creditable  examinations  there 
were  admitted  into  the  Royal  College.  In  the 
revolution  of  1820  half  the  building  of  San  Sebas- 
tiano  was  seized  for  the  use  of  the  government, 
the  other  half  was  made  over  to  the  Jesuits,  and 
the  monastery  of  San  Pietro  a  Maiella  was 
assigned  to  the  Royal  College  of  Music.  In  1837 
Zingarelli  was  followed  by  Donizetti,  and  he 
again  in  1840  by  Mercadante,  who  made  great 
reforms  in  the  discipline  and  efficiency  of  the  col- 
lege. In  1 S61,  on  account  of  his  blindness,  Carlo 
Conti  was  appointed  his  coadjutor.  Conti  died  in 
1868,  and  was  succeeded  by  Paolo  Serrao  Mer- 
cadante, who  retained  his  post  as  President  till 
his  death  in  1870.  Since  that  date  the  College 
appears  to  have  lost  ground,  and  a  fatal  economy 
seems  to  have  beset  its  management.  In  1874 
the  scholarships  were  reduced  from  100  to  50, 
and  25  of  these  were  thrown  open  to  women, 
with  allowance  for  lodging;  but  in  1879  *ms  a^" 
lowance  was  abolished.  The  post  of  Director  is 
now  vacant,  and  the  College  is  governed  by  a 
board  of  professors  and  amateurs.  Manfroce, 
Bellini,  Luigi  Ricci,  and  Michael  Costa  are  the 
most  distinguished  names  on  the  roll  of  the  Nea- 
politan School  of  Music  since  the  establishment 
of  the  Reale  Collegio  di  Napoli.  [C.  M.  P.] 

NARDINI,  Pietro,  an  eminent  violinist  and 
composer,   was   bom  at   Fibiana,  a  village   in 


NARES. 

Tuscany,  in  1722.  He  received  his  first  musical 
instruction  at  Leghorn,  and  afterwards  studied 
for  several  years  under  Tartini  at  Padua.  We 
know  nothing  further  of  his  early  career.  About 
the  year  1753  he  was  appointed  Solo-violinist  at 
the  Ducal  court  at  Stuttgardt,  where  he  re- 
mained for  fifteen  years.  In  1767  he  returned  to 
Italy,  settled  at  Leghorn,  and  stayed  with  his 
old  master  Tartini  during  his  last  illness.  In 
1770  he  accepted  an  appointment  as  director  of 
the  music  at  the  court  of  the  Duke  of  Tuscany, 
and  died  in  1793  at  Florence. 

Nardini  was  the  most  eminent  of  Tartini's 
disciples.  Leopold  Mozart,  the  best  possible 
judge  in  matters  of  violin-playing,  writes  of  him: 
'  the  beauty,  purity,  and  equality  of  his  tone,  and 
the  tastefulness  of  his  cantabile-playing,  cannot 
be  surpassed ;  but  he  does  not  execute  great  diffi- 
culties.' The  well-known  poet-musician  Schu- 
bart  relates  in  his  flowery  style :  '  his  playing 
brings  tears  into  the  eyes  of  stony-hearted  cour- 
tiers— nay,  his  own  tears  run  down  on  his 
violin ! ' 

That  Nardini  was  not  a  mere  executant,  but  a 
thorough  musician,  is  evident  from  the  character 
of  his  compositions  for  the  violin.  Vivacity, 
grace,  a  sweet  sentimentality,  are  the  main  char- 
acteristics of  his  style,  which  is  altogether  more 
modern  in  form  and  feeling  than  Tartini's.  His 
Allegros  are  often  largely  developed,  and  already 
display  the  full  sonata- form,  while  his  slow 
movements  are  not  unlike  Viotti's.  If  never- 
theless the  greater  part  of  his  works  appear 
to  us  old-fashioned  and  antiquated  compared 
with  those  of  Tartini,  the  reason  is,  that 
he  has  neither  the  depth  of  feeling,  the  grand 
pathos,  nor  the  concentrated  energy  of  his  great 
master. 

His  published  compositions  (according  to  Fetis) 
are :  6  Concertos,  op.  1  (Amsterdam) ;  6  Son- 
atas pour  violon  et  bassi,  op.  2  (Berlin,  1765  ; 
a  new  edition  published  by  Cartier,  Paris) ;  6 
Trios  pour  flute  (London) ;  6  Solos  pour  violon, 
op.  5  (London);  6  Quartets  (Florence,  1782); 
6  Duos  pour  deux  violons  (Paris). 

Some  of  bis  sonatas  have  latterly  been  re-edited 
by  Alard  and  F.  David.  [PD.] 

NARES,  James,  Mus.  Doc.,  born  at  Stanwell, 
Middlesex,  in  1715,  was  a  chorister  in  the 
Chapel  Royal  under  Bernard  Gates,  and  after- 
wards a  pupil  of  Dr.  Pepusch.  He  acted  for 
some  time  as  deputy  for  Pigott,  organist  of  St. 
George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  and  in  1734  was  ap- 
pointed, on  the  resignation  of  Salisbury,  organist 
of  York  Minster.  On  Jan.  13,  1756,  he  was 
appointed  to  succeed  Dr.  Greene  as  organist  and 
composer  to  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  in  the  same 
year  graduated  as  Mus.  Doc.  at  Cambridge.  In 
Oct.  1757  he  was  appointed  Master  of  the 
Children  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  vice  Gates,  his  old 
master.  In  1 7  70  he  gained  a  prize  from  the  Catch 
Club  for  his  glee,  '  To  all  lovers  of  harmony.'  He 
resigned  the  mastership  of  the  Chapel  boys  July 
1,  1780,  died  Feb.  10,  1783,  and  was  buried  in 
St.  Margaret's,  Westminster.  Dr.  Nares  pub- 
lished '  Eight  Sets  of  Harpsichord  Lessons,'  1 748 ; 


NARES. 

•  Five  Harpsichord  Lessons,'  1 758 ;  '  Three  Easy 
Harpsichord  Lessons' ;  '  A  Treatise  on  Singing' ; 
'II  Principio,  or,  A  regular  Introduction  to 
playing  on  the  Harpsichord  or  Organ'  (the  first 
set  of  progressive  lessons  published  on  a  sys- 
tematic plan)  ;  '  The  Royal  Pastoral,'  a  dramatic 
ode  ;  ■  Collection  of  Catches,  Canons,  and  Glees' ; 

*  Six  Organ  Fugues' ;  '  Second  Treatise  on  Sing- 
ing, with  a  Set  of  English  Duets' ;  and  '  Twenty 
Anthems,'  1778.  'A  Morning  and  Evening 
Service  and  Six  Anthems'  were  published  in 
1 788,  with  a  portrait  of  him,  setat.  65,  engraved 
by  Ward  after  Engleheart,  prefixed.  His  Ser- 
vice in  F  and  three  anthems  are  included  in 
Arnold's  'Cathedral Music,'  an  anthem  in  Page's 
■  Harmonia  Sacra,'  and  two  anthems  in  Stevens's 
'Sacred  Music'  Two  canons,  two  glees,  two 
rounds,  and  a  catch  by  him  are  contained  in 
Warren's  collections.  Nares  was  a  poor  com- 
poser, but  some  of  his  Church  Music  is  still  in 
use  in  our  cathedrals.  [W.H.H.] 

NATHAN,  Isaac,  born  of  Hebrew  parents  at 
Canterbury  in  1 792,  being  intended  for  the  priest- 
hood, was  in  1805  sent  to  Cambridge  to  study 
Hebrew,  but  his  natural  bent  being  for  music  he 
was  articled  to  Domenico  Corri,  and  devoted  his 
attention  principally  to  singing  and  composition. 
He  appeared  at  Covent  Garden  as  Henry  Bertram, 
in  'Guy  Mannering.'  After  composing  several 
songs,  he  produced  in  1823  'Hebrew  Melodies,' 
to  Lord  Byron's  poetry,  with  much  success.  In 
1823  he  supplied  part  of  the  music  for  the  comedy 
'  Sweethearts  and  Wives ' — one  song  in  which, 
'  Why  are  you  wandering  here  I  pray,'  became 
very  popular — and  published  'An  Essay  on 
the  History  and  Theory  of  Music,'  and  on  the 
qualities,  capabilities  and  management  of  the 
Human  Voice.'  In  1824  he  brought  out  'The 
Alcaid,'  comic  opera,  and  in  1827  'The  Illus- 
trious Stranger,'  operatic  farce.  In  1836  he 
published  "The  Life  of  Madame  Malibran  de 
Beriot,  interspersed  with  original  anecdotes  and 
critical  remarks  on  her  musical  powers.'  He 
subsequently  emigrated  to  Sydney,  where  he  was 
accidentally  killed,  by  being  run  over  by  a  tram- 
way car,  Jan.  15,  1864.  He  was  much  esteemed 
as  a  singing  master.  [ W.  H.  H.] 

NATIONAL  CONCERTS.  A  series  of  con- 
certs given  in  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  in  October, 
November,  and  December,  1850,  with  Balfe  and 
Charles  d' Albert  as  conductors.  The  prospectuses 
contained  a  rarely-equalled  list  of  performers,  and 
promises  of  new  works,  most  of  them  by  English 
composers  (probably  the  only  origin  of  the  name 
of  the  concerts),  none  of  which  however  saw  the 
light;  while  the  performances  consisted  almost 
entirely  of  the  ordinary  ingredients  of  'monster' 
concerts,  with  a  very  meagre  number  of  features 
interesting  enough  to  be  recorded.  During  the 
season,  however,  the  following  works  came  to 
a  hearing:  Spohr's  symphony,  'The  Seasons'; 
Mendelssohn's  'Fingal's  Cave'  and  'Melusina' 
overtures,  the  latter  so  badly  played  that  it  had 
to  be  abandoned  as  impracticable ;  besides  one  or 
two  symphonies,  and  a  movement  or  two  from  a 
concerto  by  Beethoven.   The  following  artists  ao- 


NATURAL. 


447 


tually  appeared :  Halle,  Molique,  Sainton,  Piatti, 
Arabella  Goddard  (her  first  appearance),  Stock- 
hausen,  and  Sims  Reeves.  The  concerts  were  in 
the  hands  of  Cramer,  Beale  &  Co.,  and  proved 
an  unequivocal  failure,  chiefly  because  of  the 
enormous  expectations  that  were  excited  but  not 
fulfilled.  An  attempt  was  made  a  year  or  so 
afterwards  to  start  another  series  with  the  same 
title,  but  the  scheme  fell  to  the  ground  after  a 
few  concerts.  [J.  A.  F.  M.] 

NATIONAL  TRAINING  SCHOOL  FOR 
MUSIC,  THE.  This  institution,  which  had 
been  projected  and  discussed  since  1854,  and  the 
idea  of  which  had  emanated  from  the  late  Prince 
Consort,  was  not  founded  until  1873,  when  a  plot 
of  ground  was  granted,  free  of  cost,  by  Her 
Majesty's  Commissioners  for  the  Exhibition  of 
1 85 1,  on  their  estate  at  South  Kensington,  and 
the  present  building  was  begun  at  the  cost  of 
C.  J.  Freake,  Esq.,  who  presented  it  to  the 
country  on  its  completion  in  1875.  In  that  year 
(June  15)  the  matter  was  fully  discussed  at  a 
meeting  convened  by  the  Prince  of  Wales  at 
Marlborough  House,  and  the  first  scholarships 
were  promised.  The  building,  on  the  west  side 
of  the  Albert  Hall,  was  designed  by  Lieut.  H.  H. 
Cole,  R.E.,  in  the  English  style  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, with  panels  decorated  with  sgraffito.  In 
1876,  fifty  scholarships  having  been  established, 
and  upwards  of  twenty  more  promised,  the  School 
was  opened  for  study.  The  ultimate  number  of 
scholarships  is  to  be  300,  of  the  value  of  £40  a 
year  each,  for  five  years. 

The  control  of  the  school  is  placed  in  the 
hands  of  a  small  General  Committee  of  Manage- 
ment, consisting  of  representatives  of  Her  Ma- 
jesty's Commissioners  for  the  Exhibition  of  1851, 
of  the  Council  of  the  Corporation  of  the  Albert 
Hall,  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  and  of  the  founders 
of  scholarships.  Among  the  members  of  the 
committee  are  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh  (Chair- 
man), Prince  Christian,  the  Chairman  of  the 
Council  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  the  Lord  Mayor, 
Sir  Henry  Cole  (who  has  always  taken  an 
active  part  in  the  scheme  from  the  beginning), 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Freake,  etc.  The  lay  administra- 
tion is  under  a  Registrar  (the  Rev.  John  Richard- 
son, M.A.),  a  Lady-Superintendent,  etc.  The 
professional  work  is  under  the  direction  of  a 
Principal  (Dr.  Sullivan),  and  a  board  of  profes- 
sors, consisting  of  Mr.  Ernst  Pauer,  Dr.  Stainer, 
Mr.  Alberti  Visetti,  and  Mr.  J.  T.  Carrodus.  The 
instruction  of  the  scholars  is  carried  on  by  the 
members  of  the  board,  and  an  additional  body  of 
professors,  among  whom  are  Mr.  John  F.  Barnett, 
Dr.  Bridge,  Mr.  Ebenezer  Prout,  Mr.  Franklin 
Taylor,  etc.  The  lady-professors  are  Signora  Maz- 
zucato  and  Miss  Edith  Jerningham.    [J.A.F.M.] 

NATURAL.  A  word  formerly  applied  to 
the  scale  of  C  major,  which  was  called  'the 
natural  scale '  because  it  has  no  accidentals.  It 
thus  became  used  for  the  sign  (||)  which  cancels  a 
preceding  sharp  or  flat,  whether  used  as  a  chro- 
matic accidental  or  occurring  in  the  signature. 
In  other  words,  when  the  use  of  a  sharp  or  flat 


448 


NATURAL. 


has  indicated  that  the  note  a  semitone  above 
or  below  that  in  the  diatonic  series  of  C  major 
is  to  be  taken,  the  introduction  of  a  Natural 
indicates  that  the  unaltered  note  is  to  be  re- 
sumed ;  and  hence  a  naturalised  note  is  always 
a  white  key  on  the  pianoforte  or  organ,  unless 
it  be  combined  with  a  sharp  or  flat,  as  [JJ  or  ijb, 
to  cancel  a  chromatic  double-sharp  or  double- 
flat,  and  indicate  the  corresponding  note  of 
the  diatonic  series  indicated  by  the  existing  sig- 
nature. 

Naturals  do  not  occur  in  the  signatures  of 
keys,  except  when  it  is  necessary  to  cancel  all 
or  part  of  a  previous  signature,  at  a  change  of 
key  in  the  course  of  a  piece  of  music ;  as  at  the 
change  from  C  minor  to  C  major  in  the  Marcia 
Fune"bre  of  the  Eroica  Symphony,  or  the  change 
from  Eb  minor  to  Eb  major  at  the  end  of  the 
Introduction  of  Spohr's  Overture  to  Jessonda. 
Where  a  complete  change  is  made  from  a  sharp 
key  to  a  flat  key,  or  vice  versd,  the  naturals  are 
often  indicated,  but  with  very  little  reason,  as 
the  mere  statement  of  the  new  signature  must 
cancel  the  former  one.  [C.H.H.P.] 

NAU,  Mabia  Dolobes  Benedicta  Josefina, 
was  born  of  Spanish  parents  at  New  York, 
March  18,  1818.  Having  entered  the  Conserva- 
toire at  Paris,  July  23,  1832,  she  became  a  pupil 
of  Mme.  Damoreau-Cinti,  and  soon  developed  a 
clear  and  flexible  voice.  This,  with  a  large  share 
of  intelligence,  musical  feeling,  and  application, 
enabled  her  to  take  the  first  prize  at  the  concours 
of  1834. 

On  March  1,  1836,  at  the  age  of  18,  Mile. 
Nau  made  her  first  appearance  at  the  Opera,  in 
the  character  of  the  Page  in  the  'Huguenots,' 
and  achieved  a  success,  in  spite  of  her  inexperi- 
ence. She  remained  six  years  at  that  establish- 
ment, but  playing  only  secondary  parts,  which 
did  not  allow  her  real  worth  to  appear ;  and  at 
the  end  of  that  time  her  engagement  was  not 
renewed.  Mile.  Nau  determined,  therefore,  to 
travel  in  the  provinces  and  abroad,  where  she 
soon  was  appreciated  much  more  highly  than  in 
the  French  capital ;  and  in  Brussels,  particularly, 
her  excellent  vocalisation  and  phrasing  produced 
a  marked  impression.  During  1843  and  44  she 
continued  her  travels,  impersonating  Mme.  Da- 
moreau's  chief  characters.  In  October  and  No- 
vember, 1844,  she  sang  in  London.  Her  foreign 
successes  now  opened  the  eyes  of  the  Opera- 
managers  at  Paris,  where  she  was  re-engaged 
at  thrice  her  former  salary.  She  re  appeared 
there  in  December,  receiving  a  warm  welcome ; 
and  continued  to  sing  on  that  stage  till  the 
end  of  1848,  with  unabated  e"clat.  Her  farewell 
was  on  Oct.  11  of  that  year,  in  'Lucia';  after 
which  she  went  to  London,  and  thence  to  the 
United  States,  where  she  had  a  triumphal  pro- 
gress. Returning  to  London,  she  sang  at  the 
Princess's  Theatre  for  nearly  18  months,  with 
great  success ;  and  thence  betook  herself  once 
more  to  the  Opera  at  Paris,  where  she  remained 
during  1851,  52,  and  53.  Mile.  Nau  re-visited 
her  native  country  in  1854,  and  received  ex- 
travagant  adoration.      She  returned    to  Paris 


NAUMANN. 

again  in  1856,  when  she  finally  quitted  the 
stage.  [J.  M  J 

NAUDIN,  Emilio,  born  at  Parma  Oct.  23, 
1823,  was  taught  singing  by  Giacomo  Panizza 
of  Milan,  made  his  debut  at  Cremona  in 
Pacini's  'Saflb,'  and  afterwards  sang  at  the 
principal  theatres  of  Italy,  at  Vienna  and  St. 
Petersburg.  He  made  bis  first  appearance  in 
England  June  2,  1858,  at  Drury  Lane,  as  the 
Duke  in  '  Rigoletto,'  and  remained  for  the  sea- 
son, playing  Edgardo,  Ernesto,  and  Arturo,  and 
singing  in  concerts.  In  the  winter  he  went  to 
Madrid,  and  passed  two  seasons  there,  playing  at 
Turin  in  the  summer  of  1859. 

Sig.  Naudin  reappeared  in  England  May  30, 
1862,  at  Mrs.  Anderson's  farewell  concert  at  Her 
Majesty's,  and  on  the  31st  acted  Manrico  at  the 
same  theatre.  On  April  7,  1863,  he  appeared 
at  Covent  Garden  as  Masaniello,  and  remained 
there  every  season  up  to  1872  inclusive,  except 
1865,  when,  at  the  instance  of  Meyerbeer,  he 
was  engaged  at  the  Academie  de  Musique,  and 
created  Vasco  di  Gama,  on  the  production  of 
'L'  Africaine,'  April  28.  During  all  these  seasons 
he  undertook  several  characters  in  addition  to 
the  above,  viz.  Don  Ottavio,  Raoul,  Vasco, 
Danilowitz,  Fra  Diavolo,  Horace  de  Massarena, 
Carlo,  etc.,  as  well  as  Phoebus,  on  the  production 
of  Campana's 'Esmeralda,' June  14,  1870;  Silvio, 
in  Prince  Poniatowski's  '  Gelmina,'  June  4, 
1872;  Don  Carlos,  on  the  production  of  Verdi's 
opera  of  that  name  in  England,  June  4,  1867  ; 
and  was  always  acceptable  on  account  of  his 
careful  singing  and  acting.  In  1873  he  sang  in 
concerts  only.  In  1874  he  sang  at  Drury  Lane 
for  the  season,  adding  Henrique  de  Sandoval  to 
his  already  extensive  list,  and  in  1875  returned 
to  Covent  Garden.  In  the  autumn  of  that  year 
he  played  Lohengrin  for  the  first  time  in  the 
English  provinces.  Since  then  he  has  not  ap- 
peared in  England. 

The  rest  of  the  year,  when  not  in  this  country, 
Sig.  Naudin  has  sung  either  in  opera  or  concerts 
in  France,  Germany,  Spain,  or  Russia.  In  Mos- 
cow he  played  Tannhauser,  on  its  reproduction 
there  in  1877.  More  recently  (1879)  he  has 
sung  at  Barcelona,  and  was  at  Milan  in  June  of 
last  year.  [A.C.] 

NAUMANN,  Johann  Gottlieb  (or  Giovanni 
Amadeo),  well-known  composer  in  his  day,  born 
April  17,  1 741,  at  Blasewitz  near  Dresden. 
Though  the  child  of  a  peasant  he  was  educated 
at  the  Kreuzschule  in  Dresden,  and  intended  for 
a  schoolmaster.  He  studied  music  by  himself, 
until  a  Swedish  musician  resident  in  Dresden 
named  Weestroem,  happening  to  visit  his  home 
was  struck  by  seeing  Bach's  (probably  Emman- 
uel's) sonatas  on  the  harpsichord,  and  determined 
to  take  him  on  a  professional  tour.  Starting  in 
May  1757,  they  first  went  to  Hamburg,  where 
they  were  detained  10  months  by  VVeestroem's 
ill  health,  and  then  to  Padua  where  Weestroem 
took  lessons  from  Tartini,  in  which  he  did  not 
allow  Naumann  to  share.  His  treatment  was 
altogether  so  bad  that  the  young  man  left  him, 
but  was  able  to  proceed  with  his  training,  as 


NAUMANN. 

Tartini  taught  him  for  nothing,  and  a  Saxon 
musician  named  Hunt  gave  him  pecuniary  assist- 
ance. During  his  stay  of  three  years  in  Padua 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Hasse.  He  next 
went  to  Naples  with  a  pupil  named  Pitscher,  to 
study  dramatic  music  for  six  months ;  and  then, 
armed  with  a  recommendation  from  Tartini, 
visited  Padre  Martini  at  Bologna,  and  received 
from  him  some  instruction  in  counterpoint. 
During  a  lengthened  stay  at  Venice  he  produced 
his  first  opera  at  San  Samuele.  In  1763  he 
returned  home,  and  through  the  influence  of  the 
Electress  was  appointed  court  composer  of  sacred 
music.  Soon  after  we  find  him  again  in  Italy, 
composing  'Achilla  in  Scire'  for  Palermo,  and 
'Alessandro  nelle  Indie'  for  Venice.  In  1769 
he  produced  'La  Clemenza  di  Tito'  (Metastasio's 
text)  in  Dresden,  and  in  1772  'Solimanno'  and 
'  Nozze  disturbate '  in  Venice,  and  '  Armida '  in 
Padua.  On  his  return  to  Dresden  he  declined 
a  flattering  invitation  from  Frederic  the  Great 
to  Berlin,  and  was  rewarded  by  the  Elector  with 
the  title  of  Capellmeister,  and  a  salary  of  1 200 
thalers.  During  a  temporary  residence  in  Stock- 
holm he  produced  in  Swedish  '  Amphion,' '  Gustav 
Wasa,'  and  'Cora,'  his  best  and  most  popular 
work,  published  for  P.F.  In  1 786  he  was  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  Obercapellmeister,  with  a  salary 
of  2000  thalers,  for  his  refusal  of  a  brilliant 
position  at  Copenhagen.  In  1793  he  produced 
*  Protesilao,'  an  opera,  at  Berlin,  and  an  ora- 
torio 'Davidde  in  Terebinto'  at  Potsdam,  for 
which  he  received  a  gold  snuff-box  with  400 
Friedrichs  d'or  from  the  King  Frederic  Wil- 
liam II,  who  also  induced  Hummel  to  take  lessons 
from  him.  His  last  opera  was  produced  April  25, 
1801,  at  Dresden,  where  he  died  of  apoplexy  on 
the  23rd  of  the  following  October.  For  further 
particulars  the  reader  is  referred  to  Meissner's 
'Bruchstucke  aus  Naumann's  Lebensgeschichte' 
(Prague,  1803-4). 

Naumann  was  also  a  prolific  composer  of 
church  music  ;  11  oratorios,  and  21  masses,  with 
Te  Deums,  and  smaller  church-pieces,  being  pre- 
served in  Dresden.  The  court  chapel  still  performs 
some  of  his  compositions,  but  the  single  work 
of  his  now  known  beyond  Dresden  is  his  setting 
of  Klopstock's  'Vater  unser,'  an  effective  com- 
position for  its  day.  Though  a  good  musician, 
capable  of  turning  his  talents  to  account,  he  had 
not  a  particle  of  genius.  Entirely  uninfluenced 
by  the  works  of  Haydn  and  Mozart,  he  trudged 
on  to  the  end  of  his  life  in  the  footsteps  of  Hasse 
and  Graun.  On  hearing  for  the  first  time  one  of 
J.  A.  Hiller's  performances  of  the  '  Messiah '  he 
expressed  the  strongest  disapproval  of  the  music, 
a  fact  which  speaks  for  itself. 

The  Library  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society 
contafins  a  Mass  of  his  (in  G)  published  in 
London  with  an  accompaniment  arranged  by 
Edmund  Harris;  and  'The  Pilgrims  at  the 
Holy  Sepulchre,'  an  oratorio,  edited  with  a  bio- 
graphy by  Mainzer.  By  his  marriage  with  the 
daughter  of  Admiral  Grotschilling  he  left  three 
sons,  the  eldest  of  whom,  Karl  Friederich,  became 
a  well  known  mineralogist,  whose  son  Ernst, 
vol.  II.  PT.IO. 


NAVOIGILLE. 


449 


born  Aug.  15,  1832,  studied  the  organ  with 
Johann  Schneider,  and  composition  with  Haupt- 
mann,  and  has  been  since  i860  professor,  organist, 
and  musikdirector  at  Jena.  He  published  an  ex- 
cellent treatise  *  Ueber  die  verschiedenen  Bestim- 
mungen  der  Tonverhaltnisse '  (Leipzig,  185S),  as 
well  as  some  music,  among  which  may  be  named  a 
string  quintet,  and  a  serenade  for  strings  and  wind. 

The  elder  Naumann's  second  son,  Moritz 
Ernst  Adolf,  a  well-known  physician  and  pro- 
fessor in  Bonn,  was  father  to  Dr.  Emil,  pupil  of 
Mendelssohn  and  Hauptmann,  and  a  composer 
of  merit,  born  Sept.  8,  1827,  in  Berlin,  where  he 
holds  the  sinecure  post  of  court-director  of  sacred 
music.  He  lives  chiefly  in  Dresden,  engaged  in 
musical  literature.  Readers  of  Mendelssohn's 
letters  will  not  forget  the  excellent  counsels 
which  he  addresses  to  his  young  friend  in  a 
letter  dated  March  1845.  His  last  work  is  '  Die 
moderne  musikalische  Zopf  (1880),  a  pamphlet 
of  conservative  tendency.  He  succeeded  W.  Rust 
as  organist  of  S.  Thomas's,  Leipzig  (March  1 880), 
on  the  promotion  of  the  latter  to  be  Cantor. 

The  third  brother,  Constantin  August,  was 
a  mathematician  and  astronomer.  [P-G.] 

NAVA,  Gaetano.  A  distinguished  Italian 
teacher  of  singing,  and  writer  of  vocal  exercises, 
born  at  Milan  1802.  His  father,  Antonio, 
taught  and  composed  for  the  French  guitar,  then 
a  favourite  instrument,  but  the  son  received  a 
college  education  previous  to  entering  the  Milan 
Conservatoire  under  Federici.  Here  in  1837 
Nava  was  appointed  professor,  retaining  his 
connection  with  the  institution — where  he  gave 
instruction  both  in  harmony  and  in  singing — for 
38  years,  that  is  up  to  the  time  of  his  death  in 
1875.  His  skill  as  a  vocal  teacher,  enhanced  by 
his  cultivated  intelligence  and  uncommon  earnest- 
ness and  honesty  of  purpose  brought  him  a  large 
clientele  of  private  pupils.  Distinguished  among 
these  stands  our  own  countryman,  Charles  Santley. 
None  of  Nava's  scholars  have  achieved  a  more 
brilliant  reputation  than  that  eminent  barytone ; 
nor  could  a  better  exemplification  be  desired  of 
the  master's  method  of  careful  vocal  development, 
as  opposed  to  the  forcing  system.  Nava's  works, 
published  at  Milan,  by  the  firms  Ricordi,  Lucca, 
and  Conti,  comprise  numerous  books  of  solfeggi 
and  vocalizzi,  several  masses  and  separate  pieces 
of  vocal  church  music,  and  a  Method  of  Sing- 
ing that  has  appeared  also  in  London  and  at 
Leipzig.  [B.  T.] 

NAVOIGILLE,  whose  real  name  was  Guil- 
LAUMB  Julien,  was  born  at  Givet  about  1 745 ; 
came  to  Paris,  was  adopted  by  an  Italian,  patron- 
ised by  Monsigny,  entered  the  band  of  the  Duke 
of  Orleans,  and  opened  a  free  violin  school,  in  which 
Boucher,  the  well-known  virtuoso,  was  educated. 
He  composed  duets  and  trios  for  strings,  and 
two  theatrical  pieces,  the  music  of  which  largely 
consisted  of  well-known  airs.  Navoigille  died 
in  Paris,  Nov.  181 1.  He  was  a  good  leader,  but 
his  name  would  have  been  forgotten,  but  for  the 
mistake  committed  by  Fe"tis  in  attributing  to  him 
the  authorship  of  the  '  Marseillaise.'  [G.  C] 

Gg 


450 


NEAPOLITAN  SIXTH. 


NEAPOLITAN  SIXTH  is  the  name  by  which 
a  chord  consisting  of  a  minor  sixth  and  minor 
third  on  the  subdominant  has  long  been  known ; 
as  (a)  in  the  key  of  C  minor — 

Bach,  Violin  Sonata,  No.  4. 


(a)  ,  "*""■ 


& 


v 


& 


■efagg 


Theorists,  starting  from  different  radical  as- 
sumptions, suggest  different  derivations  for  this 
chord.  Some,  taking  the  major  and  minor  scales 
to  comprise  all  the  notes  which  can  be  used  for 
essential  harmonies,  except  in  the  cases  where 
important  root-notes  in  those  scales  bear  funda- 
mental harmonies  on  such  principles  as  they 
accept,  derive  the  chord  from  a  combination  of 
two  roots;  so  that  the  dominant  is  the  root  of 
the  two  lower  notes  which  are  respectively  its 
seventh  and  minor  ninth,  and  the  tonic  of  the 
xipper,  which  is  its  minor  ninth.  Others,  ac- 
cepting the  unquestionably  frequent  use  of  some 
chromatic  harmonies  in  relation  to  an  established 
Tonic,  by  many  great  masters,  indicate  the  major 
concord  on  the  minor  or  flat  supertonic  (as  the 
major  common  chord  of  Db  in  relation  to  the 
Tonic  C)  as  one  of  them,  and  hold  the  •  Neapo- 
litan sixth'  to  be  its  first  inversion.  Others, 
again,  hold  this  sixth  to  be  found  in  the  minor 
scale  of  the  subdominant;  and  others,  yet  fur- 
ther, that  it  is  merely  produced  by  the  artificial 
lowering  of  the  sixth  for  artistic  purposes,  similar 
to  the  artificial  sharpening  of  the  fifth  which  is 
commonly  met  with ;  and  that  its  object  may 
either  be  to  bring  the  supertonic  melodically 
nearer  the  Tonic  in  downward  progression,  or 
to  soften  the  harshness  which  results  from  the 
augmented  fourth  in  the  chord  of  the  sixth  and 
minor  third  on  the  subdominant  of  the  usual 
minor  scale.  In  the  theory  which  explains  some 
chromatic  combinations  as  reflections  of  the  old 
ecclesiastical  modes,  this  chord  would  spring  from 
the  use  of  the  ecclesiastical  Phrygian,  which  was 
the  same  as  the  Greek  Doric  mode,  or  mode  of 
the  minor  sixth.  [C.H.H.P.] 

NEATE,  Charles,  born  in  London,  March 
28,  1784,  received  his  early  musical  education 
from  William  Sharp,  and  afterwards  from  John 
Field,  with  whom  he  had  formed  a  close  intimacy. 
Besides  the  pianoforte  he  performed  on  the  vio- 
loncello, he  and  Field  both  being  instructed  on 
that  instrument  by  Sharp.  He  first  appeared 
in  public  as  a  pianist  at  Covent  Garden  at  the 
Lent  'oratorios,'  in  1800,  and  soon  established 
a  reputation  as  an  excellent  performer  of  the 
school  of  Clementi  and  Field.  He  studied  com- 
position under  Woelfl,  and  in  1808  published  his 
first  work,  a  sonata  in  C  minor.  In  18 13  he  was 
one  of  the  original  members  of  the  Philharmonic 
Society,  of  which  he  was  for  many  years  a  director, 
often  a  performer,  and  occasionally  conductor,  at 
its  concerts.  His  admiration  of  Beethoven  in- 
duced him  in  181 5  to  visit  Vienna,  where  he 
remained  for  eight  months,  enjoying  the  friend- 
ship and  profiting  by  the  advice  of  the  great 


NEEFE. 

composer.  He  then  went  to  Munich,  where  he 
stayed  five  months,  studying  counterpoint  under 
Winter.  After  an  absence  of  two  years  he 
returned  to  England,  and  was  long  esteemed 
as  one  of  the  best  performers  upon,  and  teachers 
of  the  pianoforte.  He  was  the  first  to  introduce 
into  England  Beethoven's  Concertos  in  C  minor 
and  Eb,  Weber's  Concertstuck,  and  Hummel's 
Concerto  in  E,  and  Septuor  in  D  minor.  He  did 
not  publish  a  second  work  until  1822,  when  he 
produced  his  sonata  in  D  minor,  and  subsequently 
several  other  works ;  but  notwithstanding  his 
sound  technical  knowledge,  he  was  not  successful 
as  a  composer,  as  he  lacked  fancy  and  originality. 
He  died  at  Brighton,  March  30.  1877,  having 
many  years  before  retired  from  the  exercise  of 
his  profession.  [W.H.H.] 

NEEDLER,  Henry,  born  in  London  in  1685, 
was  an  amateur  violinist,  who  was  instructed  on 
the  instrument  first  by  his  father  and  afterwards 
by  the  younger  Banister,  and  became  a  proficient 
performer.  He  is  said  to  have  been  taught 
harmony  by  Purcell,  which  must  probably  be 
taken  to  mean  Daniel  Purcell.  About  1 710  he 
was  appointed  Accountant-General  of  the  Excise, 
and  in  the  same  year  assisted  in  establishing  the 
Academy  of  Ancient  Music,  where  he  long  filled 
the  post  of  principal  violin.  He  was  the  first  to 
lead  the  concertos  of  Corelli  in  England.  He  died 
Aug.  1,  1760.  28  volumes  of  music,  almost  en- 
tirely transcribed  by  him  from  the  libraries  at 
Oxford,  were  presented  by  his  widow  to  James 
Mathias,  who,  in  1782,  bequeathed  them  to  the 
British  Museum,  where  they  form  Add.  MSS. 
5035  to  5062.  [W.H.H.] 

NEEFE,  Christian  Gottlob,  a  musician  of 
some  distinction  in  his  day,  but  whose  claim  to 
being  remembered  is  his  having  been  Beethoven's 
instructor.  He  was  born  at  Chemnitz  Feb.  5, 
1 748,  the  son  of  a  poor  tailor,  and  possessing  a 
lovely  voice  sang  in  the  church  choir  and  learnt 
music  in  the  school.  His  parents  contrived  to 
place  him  at  the  University  of  Leipzig  to  study 
jura,  but  the  love  of  music  was  too  strong,  all 
his  spare  time  was  spent  over  the  treatises  of 
Marpurg  and  Emanuel  Bach ;  and  the  acquaint- 
ance of  J.  A.  Hiller,  then  cantor  of  Leipzig,  and 
a  leading  musician  of  Germany,  was  a  great 
incentive.  He  broke  with  law  and  began  his 
musical  career  by  writing  operettas  for  the 
theatre.  In  1776  he  took  Hiller's  place  as 
conductor  of  a  travelling  orchestra  known  as 
the  Seyler  Society,  which  made  him  known  in 
the  Rhine  district.  At  Frankfort  he  found  a 
wife,  in  1779  settled  at  Bonn  as  conductor  of 
another  association  called  the  '  Grossmann-Hell- 
muth  Society,'  and  on  Feb.  15,  1781,  entered 
the  service  of  the  Elector,  Max  Friedrich,  as 
aspirant  to  the  post  of  court-organist,  vice  Van 
den  Eeden.  With  the  organ  Neefe  took  over 
van  den  Eeden's  pupil,  Ludwig  van  Beethoven, 
then  just  entered  on  his  eleventh  year.  Van 
den  Eeden  died  June  29,  1782,  and  on  April  26, 
1783,  Neefe  was  promoted  to  the  direction  of 
both   sacred  and   secular  music  at  the   court. 


NEEFE. 

A  year  after  this,  April  15,  1784,  the  Elector 
died,  the  theatrical  music  was  put  down,  and  a 
series  of  economies  begun  by  the  new  Elector 
Max  Franz,  which  resulted  in  the  reduction  of 
Neefe's  pay  from  400  to  200  florins.  In  1788 
a  new  court  theatre  was  organised,  with  Reicha 
as  director,  and  Neefe  accompanyist  and  stage 
manager.  Then  came  the  war,  and  in  1 794  the 
theatre  was  shut  up,  the  company  disbanded, 
and  Neefe  lost  his  place.  He  led  a  poor  exist- 
ence as  municipal  oflicial  under  the  French,  his 
family  were  dispersed,  and  at  last  we  hear  of  him 
as  conductor  at  the  theatre  at  Dessau.  Here 
his  wife  fell  seriously  ill,  and  ultimately  he  him- 
self sank  under  his  troubles,  and  died  Jan.  26, 
1798.  Neefe  was  an  industrious  musician;  the 
names  of  eight  pieces  are  preserved  which  he  wrote 
for  the  theatres  of  Leipzig  and  Bonn  between 
1772  and  1782.  He  wrote  also  for  the  church, 
and  a  mass  of  chamber-music,  besides  arranging 
and  adapting  many  operas.  He  also  published 
articles  on  musical  subjects  in  the  periodicals  of 
the  time,  and  left  an  autobiography  which  was 
communicated  by  his  wife  to  the  Allg.  musikal- 
ische  Zeitung  of  1799  (p.  241).  (See  Thayer's 
•Beethoven,'  i.  81-85,  JI7>  ete)«  [G-.] 

NEGRI,  Maria  Catterina,  otherwise  Maria 
Anna  Catterina,  a  distinguished  singer,  was 
born  at  Bologna  about  1705.  She  was  taught  by 
Pad,  himself  a  pupil  of  Pistocchi.  In  1724  she 
was  engaged  at  the  theatre  of  Count  Sporck,  at 
Prague,  where  she  continued  to  sing  until  1727, 
when  she  returned  to  Italy.  She  appeared  at 
many  of  the  Italian  theatres  from  1727  to  33, 
after  which  she  came  to  London.  Here  she,  with 
her  sister  Rosa,  formed  part  of  the  new  company 
with  which  Handel  opened  the  season  at  the 
Haymarket,  Oct.  30,  1733;  and  very  useful 
members  of  this  company  the  sisters  Negri  proved 
to  be,  one  or  both  of  them  singing  in  all  the 
operas  produced  by  the  great  Saxon  down  to 
1 737,  as  well  as  in  '  Deborah.'  Maria  Catterina 
appears  to  have  sung  both  soprano  and  contralto 
parts,  the  former  of  these  having  probably  been 
transposed  for  her,  as  her  voice  was  undoubt- 
edly a  contralto.  That  of  her  sister  was  a 
soprano.  [J.  M.] 

NEIGE,  LA,  ou  le  Noovel  Eginhard.  Opera 
comique  in  4  acts ;  words  by  Scribe  and  Dela- 
vigne,  music  by  Auber.  Produced  at  the  Theatre 
Feydeau  Oct.  8,  1823 ;  in  London  at  Covent  Gar- 
den, as  '  The  Frozen  Lake,'  Nov,  26,  1824.    [G.] 

NEITHARDT,  August  Heinrich,  founder 
of  the  Berlin  Domchor  (Cathedral  choir),  was 
born  at  Schleiz,  Aug.  10,  1793.  His  early 
musical  studies  were  interrupted  at  20  years  of 
age  by  his  military  service,  which  lasted  through 
the  campaigns  of  1813-15.  This  led  to  his 
becoming  bandmaster  to  the  Garde-Schiitzen 
Battalion  (1816-22)  for  which  he  composed  and 
arranged  a  host  of  pieces.  From  1823  to  1840 
he  was  master  of  the  band  of  the  Kaiser  Franz 
Grenadiers,  and  wrote  and  did  much  for  the 
improvement  of  military  music.  In  1839  he 
was  made  'konigliche   Musikdirector,'   and  in 


NERTJDA. 


451 


1 843  was  commissioned  to  found  a  regular  choir 
for  the  Berlin  Cathedral,  which  he  did  by  uniting 
the  scholars  and  seminarists  who  sang  the 
ordinary  Cathedral  service  with  the  smaller 
choir  who  sang  in  the  Court-chapel,  about  80 
strong  in  all.  Thus  was  formed  the  famous 
Domchor,  for  which  Mendelssohn  wrote  his  noble 
psalms  and  motets.  In  1846  Neithardt  went  to 
St.  Petersburg  to  hear  the  famous  Russian 
choirs,  and  in  1850  he  and  his  choir  visited 
London  and  created  much  astonishment  by  their 
extraordinarily  refined  and  effective  performances. 
Neithardt  died  at  Berlin  April  18,  1861.  He 
was  a  remarkably  able  conductor,  indefatigable 
in  drilling  his  choir  and  in  providing  them  with 
masterpieces  of  all  schools,  some  of  which  were 
edited  by  him  under  the  title  of  *  Musica  Sacra ' 
in  8  vols.  (Berlin,  Bote  &  Bock).  [G.] 

NEL  COR  PIU  NON  MI  SENTO.  A  duet 
in  Paisiello's  Molinara,  which  was  for  a  long 
time  a  remarkable  favourite.  Beethoven  and 
many  others  wrote  variations  upon  it,  In  Eng- 
land it  was  known  as  'Hope  told  a  flattering 
tale.'  [G.J 

NERON.  An  opera  in  4  acts ;  words  by 
Jules  Barbier ;  music  by  A.  Rubinstein.  In- 
tended for  the  French  stage,  but  first  performed, 
in  German,  as  'Nero,'  at  the  Stadt  Theatre, 
Hamburg,  on  Nov.  1,  1879,  under  the  direction 
of  the  composer.  [G.] 

NERTJDA.  A  distinguished  familyofviolinists. 
According  to  l  Dlabacz,  the  founder  was  Jakob, 
who  belonged  to  Rossicz,  near  Prague,  and  died 
Feb.  19,  1732.  He  left  two  sons;  first,  Johann 
Chrtsostom,  born  at  Rossicz  December  1,  1705, 
learnt  music  at  Prague,  became  famous  on  the 
violin,  and  took,  orders  at  the  Prsemonstratensian 
convent  there,  a  few  months  after  his  father's 
death ;  became  choir-master  of  the  convent,  and 
died  December  2,  1763.  The  next  brother, 
Johann  Baptist  Georg,  was  first  at  Prague, 
and  then,  for  thirty  years,  at  the  Elector's 
Chapel  at  Dresden,  where  he  died  in  1780,  aged 
73,  leaving  a  mass  of  compositions  behind  him, 
and  two  sons,  Ludwig  and  Anton,  both  chamber 
musicians  to  the  Elector  of  Dresden. 

Another  member  of  the  Neruda  family  was 
Josef,  organist  of  the  Cathedral  at  Briinn,  in 
Moravia,  who  was  born  in  1807,  and  died  Feb. 
18,  1875.  He  had  five  children,  Victor,  Amalie, 
Wilhelmine,  born  March  21,  1840,  Marie  and 
Franz.  Amalie  adopted  the  P.F.,  and  made  no 
important  career ;  Franz  became  a  cellist.  Wil- 
helmine began  to  play  the  violin  almost  as  soon 
as  she  could  walk,  became  a  pupil  of  Jansa,  and 
made  her  first  appearance,  with  her  sister,  in  the 
winter  of  1846  at  Vienna,  where  she  excited 
much  astonishment  for  the  extraordinary  power 
of  her  bow,  and  her  great  execution,  notwithstand- 
ing the  smallness  of  her  hands,  and  the  deep 
sentiment  of  her  cantile'ne.  (Hanslick.)  From 
Vienna  the  family  journeyed  northwards,  visit- 
ing Leipzig,  Berlin,  Breslau,  Hamburg,  and 
other  cities.    In  London,  Wilhelmine  made  an 

1  Kunstler- Lexicon  fur  BOhmen. 

Gga 


452 


NERUDA. 


appearance  at  the  Philharmonic,  on  June  II, 
1849,  in  a  concerto  of  De  Beriot's.  They  returned 
immediately  to  the  Continent,  and  passed  several 
years  in  travelling,  chiefly  in  Russia.  In  1864 
Mile.  Neruda  found  herself  in  Paris,  where  she 
played  at  the  Pasdeloup  Concerts,  the  Conserva- 
toire, etc.,  and  awakened  an  extravagant  enthu- 
siasm. At  this  time  she  married  Ludwig  Nor- 
mann,  a  Swedish  musician,  and  was  henceforth 
known  as  Mad.  Normann-Neruda.  In  1869  she 
again  visited  London,  played  at  the  Philharmonic 
on  May  17,  and  was  with  some  difficulty  induced, 
by  the  entreaties  of  Vieuxtemps,  to  remain  till 
the  winter,  when  she  took  the  first  violin  at  the 
series  of  Monday  Popular  Concerts  before  Christ- 
mas, and  at  once  made  her  mark.  From  that 
time  she  has  been  in  England  for  each  winter 
and  spring  season,  playing  at  the  Popular  Con- 
certs, the  Philharmonic,  the  Crystal  Palace,  Mr. 
Charles  Halle's  Recitals  and  Manchester  Con- 
certs, etc.,  etc.,  and  always  with  increasing  power 
and  refinement,  and  increasing  appreciation  by 
the  public.  [G.] 

NEUKOMM,  Sigismund,  Chevalier,  born 
at  Salzburg,  July  10,  1778,  first  learned  music 
from  Weissauer  and  from  Michael  Haydn,  who 
in  1798  sent  him  to  his  brother  at  Vienna.  He 
studied  music  with  Joseph  Haydn  for  some  years, 
and  was  treated  by  him  more  as  a  son  than  a 
pupil.  His  first  compositions  appeared  in  1808, 
and  in  1806  he  went  vid  Sweden  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, where  he  became  Capellmeister,  and 
director  of  the  Emperor's  German  theatre.  He 
returned  to  Vienna  just  in  time  to  close  the  eyes 
of  Haydn,  and  shortly  after  took  up  his  residence 
in  Paris,  and  there  lived  on  terms  of  intimacy 
with  Gr^try,  Cherubini.Cuvier,  and  other  eminent 
men,  and  especially  with  Talleyrand,  in  whose 
establishment  he  succeeded  Dussek  as  pianist. 
Their  friendship  survived  the  downfall  of  the 
Empire,  and  he  accompanied  Talleyrand  to  the 
Congress  of  Vienna.  There  he  composed  a  Re- 
quiem for  Louis  XVI,  which  was  performed  at 
St.  Stephen's  before  a  crowd  of  the  greatest 
notabilities,  and  for  which  in  181 5  Louis  XVIII 
made  him  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honour, 
with  letters  of  nobility.  In  181 6  he  went  in  the 
suite  of  the  Duke  of  Luxemburg  to  Rio  Janeiro, 
and  remained  there  as  maitre  de  chapelle  to 
Dom  Pedro  till  the  revolution  of  182 1  drove 
that  monarch,  and  Neukomm  with  him,  back  to 
Lisbon.  Having  resigned  his  pension,  he  re- 
turned to  Talleyrand,  whom  he  accompanied  on 
several  of  his  grand  tours.  He  came  to  London 
in  the  same  year  with  Mendelssohn  (1829),  and 
they  met  at  the  house  of  Moscheles,  with  whom 
Neukomm- remained  on  terms  of  great  friendship 
and  mutual  esteem.  The  last  20  years  of  his 
life  he  divided  between  England  and  France,  and 
died  in  Paris  April  3,  1858.  In  England  his 
intelligence  and  cultivation  gave  him  a  high 
position.  His  Symphony  in  Eb  was  played 
by  the  Philharmonic,  March  21,  1831,  and  many 
other  pieces  at  various  times.  His  oratorio 
'Mount  Sinai,'  was  repeatedly  performed  in 
London,  and  at  Worcester,  Derby,  etc.,  and  he 


NEW  PHILHARMONIC  SOCIETY. 

wrote  his  oratorio  '  David'  specially  for  the  Bir- 
mingham Festival  of  1834,  where  so  highly  was 
he  prized  as  to  be  familiarly  called  'the  King  of 
1  Brummagem.'  In  fact  his  two  songs  '  Napoleon's 
Midnight  Review'  and  'The  Sea,'  both  to  Barry 
Cornwall's  words,  may  be  said  to  have  made  him 
for  some  months  the  most  popular  person  in  Eng- 
land. But  there  were  no  lasting  qualities  in  his 
longer  pieces,  and  Mendelssohn's  arrival  at  Bir- 
mingham in  1837  eclipsed  Neukomm's  fame,  and 
even  caused  him  to  be  as  unjustly  depreciated 
as  he  had  before  been  unduly  extolled.  This 
reverse  he  bore  with  a  philosophy  which  elicited 
Mendelssohn's  warmest  expressions.8 

Neukomm  was  a  man  of  remarkable  diligence 
and  method,  which  nothing  interrupted.  The 
number  of  his  compositions  is  prodigious.  They 
embrace  about  1000  church  works,  including 
5  oratorios,  an  opera,  '  Alexander,'  and  music  for 
Schiller's  '  Braut  von  Messina,'  in  which  he 
endeavoured  to  resuscitate  the  ancient  Greek 
chorus.  He  had  a  great  predilection  for  Pales- 
trina,  and  attempted  to  revive  his  style.  He  also 
wrote  for  several  musical  periodicals,  especially 
the  '  Revue  et  Gazette  musicale  de  Paris.'  He 
was  destitute  of  genius,  and  therefore  produced 
nothing  that  will  live ;  indeed  he  was  more  a 
highly  cultivated  amateur  than  an  artist,  in  tha 
strict  sense  of  the  term.  But  he  was  above  all 
a  man  of  great  refinement  and  of  an  extra- 
ordinarily fine  and  sincere  character,  to  which 
the  strong  attachment  of  friends  like  the  Bunsens 
and  Mendelssohn  is  in  itself  the  most  convincing 
testimony.  [FG.] 

NEW  PHILHARMONIC  SOCIETY,  THE. 
The  prospectus,  dated  from  Cramer's,  January 
1852,  states  that  the  Society  was  founded  to  give 
more  perfect  performances  of  the  great  works 
than  had  hitherto  been  attained,  and  to  afford 
to  modern  and  native  composers  a  favourable 
opportunity  of  coming  before  the  public.  Clas- 
sical music  was  not  to  be  exclusively  adhered 
to  ;  Exeter  Hall  was  chosen  as  the  locale ;  Mr. 
Berlioz  was  engaged  as  conductor  for  the  first 
season  ;  the  band  was  magnificent  (20  first  violins, 
led  by  Sivori) ;  the  chorus  was  professional ; 
and  the  subscription  for  stalls  for  6  concerts  was 
£2  2s.,  professional  subscribers,  £1  is.  The  pro- 
gramme of  the  first  season  (1852)  embraced — Sym- 
phonies :  Mozart's  Jupiter ;  Beethoven's  Nos. 
5  and  9  (twice) ;  Mendelssohn's  Italian ;  part 
of  Berlioz's  Romeo  and  Juliet  (twice) ;  Selec- 
tions from  Berlioz's  Faust,  Spontini's  Vestale, 
H.  Smart's  Gnome  of  Hartzburg,  Dr.  Wylde's 
Prayer  and  Praise,  etc.,  etc.  The  concerts  of 
the  second  season  were  conducted,  4  by  Lind- 
paintner,  and  2  by  Spohr,  in  combination  with 
Dr.  Henry  Wylde.  The  orchestra  was  enlarged 
to  24  first  violins,  etc.,  and  the  programmes  in> 
eluded,  amongst  other  symphonies,  the  Ninth 
of  Beethoven,  Spohr 's  'IrdischesundGottliches,' 
and  the  Quartet  with  Orchestra,  op.  1 2 1 ;  Weber's 
Kampf  und  Sieg,  Cherubini's  Requiem,  Lind 
paintner's  Widow  of  Nain,  Mendelssohn's  Finale 
to  Loreley  and  Walpurgisnight,    Dr.  Wylde's 


1  Mendelssohn's  Letters,  ii.  124. 


>  lb.  ii.  121.  132. 


NEW  PHILHAEMONIC  SOCIETY. 

music  to  Paradise  Lost ;  Selections  from  Gluck's 
Iphigenie,  Barnett's  Fair  Rosamond,  and  Silas's 
Mass ;  Overtures  to  Don  Carlos  (Macfarren),  and 
Genoveva  (C.  E.  Horsley).  For  the  third  season 
the  concerts  were  removed  to  St.  Martin's  Hall, 
•were  conducted  partly  by  Lindpaintner,  partly 
by  Dr.  Wylde,  and  included  the  Overture  to 
Tannhauser,  Cherubini's  Mass  in  C,  etc.  For 
the  fourth  season  they  returned  to  Exeter  Hall. 
For  the  fifth  and  sixth,  1856  and  57,  Hanover- 
square  Booms  was  chosen.  In  1858  Dr.  Wylde 
assumed  the  entire  responsibility  of  the  under- 
taking, and  the  concerts  were  henceforward  held 
in  St.  James's  Hall  season  by  season  as  the 
'New  Philharmonic  Concerts,'  until  1879,  when 
Dr.  Wylde  retired  in  favour  of  Mr.  William  Ganz. 
The  programmes  have  throughout  maintained 
that  preference  for  novelties  which  distinguished 
them  at  the  outset.  In  1859  the  practice  of 
making  the  rehearsals  public  was  begun.         [G.] 

NIBELUNGEN.  Der  Ring  des  Nibelungen 
— '  The  Ring  of  the  Niblung ' — a  tetralogy  or 
sequence  of  four  music-dramas,  words  and 
music  by  Richard  Wagner,  was  first  performed 
in  its  entirety  at  Bayreuth,  August  13,  14,  16, 
and  17,  1876,  and  repeated  during  the  two 
following  weeks.  Wagner's  libretto  is  founded 
on  the  Icelandic  Sagas,  and  has  little  in  common 
with  the  Nibelungenlied,  or  more  correctly  '  Der 
Nibelunge  Ndt,'  a  medieval  German  poem  of  the 
beginning  of  the  13th  century,  in  which  the 
mythical  types  of  the  old  Norse  sagas  appear  in 
humanised  modifications.  [F.  H.] 

NICHOLSON,  Chables,  born  at  Liverpool, 
1795,  son  of  a  flutist,  became  the  most  eminent 
of  English  flutists.  After  performing  in  the 
orchestras  of  Drury  Lane  and  Covent  Garden  he 
was  engaged,  about  1823,  as  principal  flute  at  the 
Opera,  the  Philharmonic  Society,  the  country 
festivals,  etc.  His  playing  was  remarkable  for 
purity  and  brilliance  of  tone  and  neatness  of 
execution,  and  his  admirable  manner  of  per- 
forming an  adagio.  He  published  a  flute  pre- 
ceptor and  numerous  concertos,  fantasias,  solos 
and  other  pieces  for  his  instrument.  He  died  in 
London,  March  26,  1837.  [W.H.H.] 

NICOLAI,  Otto,  eminent  composer  and  con- 
ductor, born  at  Kbnigsberg  June  9,  18 10.  His 
home  was  unhappy  and  his  education  neglected, 
except  for  the  piano,  which  he  was  well  taught. 
At  16  he  ran  away,  but  found  a  protector  in 
Justizrath  Adler  of  Stargard,  who  assisted  him 
in  his  studies,  and  in  1827  sent  him  to  Berlin, 
where  he  took  lessons  from  Zelter  and  Klein. 
In  1833  the  Chevalier  de  Bunsen  sent  for  him 
to  Rome  as  organist  to  the  chapel  of  the  Prus- 
sian Embassy,  and  there,  under  Baini,  he  studied 
the  ancient  Italian  masters,  without  neglecting 
those  of  modern  date.  Towards  the  close  of  1837 
he  went  to  Vienna,  and  became  Capellmeister 
and  singing-master  of  the  court  opera,  returning 
to  Rome  in  Oct.  1838.  He  then  composed  a 
series  of  operas  in  the  prevailing  taste  of  the  day. 
'Enrico  Secondo'  and  'Rosmonda  d'lnghilterra* 
(1839)  were  given  at  Trieste,  and  'II  Templario' 


NICOLINI. 


453 


( 1 840)  with  great  success  at  Turin ;  but '  Odoardo 
e  Gildippe '  (Genoa)  and  '  H  Proscritto '  (Milan) 
were  not  so  well  received.  In  1841  he  accepted 
the  first  Capellmeistership  of  the  court  opera  at 
Vienna,  and  remained  till  Easter  1847,  highly 
appreciated  as  a  conductor.  Here  were  produced 
his  'Templario'  (1841,  German  45)  and  'Die 
Heimkehr  des  Verbannten '  (1844)  a  remodelling 
of  '  H  Proscritto,'  in  which  Staudigl  was  much 
applauded.  With  the  avowed  object  of  giving 
first-rate  performances  of  Beethoven's  Sym- 
phonies, he  founded  the  Philharmonic  concerts, 
the  first  of  which  took  place  March  28,  1842. 
A  mass  (composed  1843)  dedicated  to  Frederic 
William  IV,  and  a  Fest-ouverture  for  the  Jubilee 
of  the  University  of  Kbnigsberg  (1844)  led  to 
his  appointment  as  director  of  the  newly -founded 
Domchor,  and  Court-Capellmeister  of  the  opera 
in  Berlin,  and  he  gave  a  farewell  concert  in  the 
large  Redoutensaal  at  Vienna  (April  I,  1847)  at 
which  Jenny  Lind  sang,  and  some  of  the  instru- 
mental music  in  'Die  lustigen  Weiber  von 
Windsor'  was  produced  for  the  first  trme.  He 
completed  that  opera  in  Berlin,  and  the  first 
performance  took  place  on  March  9,  1849,  with 
brilliant  success,  which  he  did  not  live  to  enjoy, 
as  he  expired  of  apoplexy  on  May  II.  The 
opera  was  given  in  Vienna  (with  recitatives 
by  Proch)  Feb.  12,  1852,  and  in  London  (as 
'Falstafl")  May  3,  1864,  and  holds  its  place  as 
one  of  the  most  popular  of  comic  operas. 

Nicolai  had  a  fine  collection  of  Italian  and 
German  scores,  which  he  left  to  the  Imperial 
library  at  Berlin.  Mendel's  'Otto  Nicolai' 
(Berlin,  Heimann)  contains  a  catalogue  of  all  his 
works,  printed  and  in  MS.,  the  latter  being 
numerous.  He  was  an  honorary  member  of  the 
Societa  Cecilia  of  Rome  and  of  the  Filarmonici 
of  Bologna.  The  Tonkiinstler-Verein  of  Berlin 
erected  in  1851  a  monument  over  his  grave  in 
the  churchyard  of  Dorotheenstadt.  [C.F.P.] 

NICOLINI,  originally  Ekkest  Nicolas,  son 
of  an  hotel-keeper  of  Dinard,  Brittany,  was  born 
at  Tours,  Feb.  23,  1834.  He  was  for  a  short  time 
a  pupil  at  the  Paris  Conservatoire,  and  in  1855 
gained  a  second  aceessit  in  Comic  Opera.  Shortly 
after  he  was  engaged  at  the  Opera  Comique, 
where  he  remained  until  1859,  without  any 
marked  success.  In  that  year  he  went  to  Italy, 
and  under  the  name  of  Nicolini  sang  at  Milan, 
Florence,  Turin,  and  elsewhere,  with  fair  success. 
He  returned  to  Paris  in  1862,  to  the  Salle  Ven- 
tadour,  with  better  results  than  before,  and  sang 
there  for  several  seasons  till  1870. 

His  first  appearances  in  England  were  May  26, 

1866,  at  a  concert  given  by  Madame  Lucca,  at 

St.  James's  Hall,  and  on  the  29th  of  the  same 

month  at  Covent  Garden,  as  Edgardo,  but  with 

such  moderate  success  that  he  did  not  return  to 

London  until  April  25,  1871,  when  he  reappeared 

at  Drury  Lane  under  Mapleson,  as  Faust,  with 

very  fair  results,  and  remained  for  the  season, 

distinguishing  himself  especially  as  Raoul.     In 

I  1872  he  was  engaged  at  Covent  Garden,  where 

1  he  has  sung  each  successive  year,  as  the  inter- 

!  preter  of  Lohengrin  and  Radames.     He  has  a 


454 


NICOLINI. 


voice  of  moderate  power,  a  good  stage  presence, 
and  is  a  fair  actor,  but  he  has  adopted  the  pre- 
vailing tremolo  to  such  a  degree  as  seriously  to 
prejudice  the  method  of  singing  which  he  ac- 
quired at  the  Conservatoire.  During  the  winter 
and  spring  seasons  he  has  sung  in  Russia,  Vienna, 
and  other  places,  and  latterly  has  taken  starring 
engagements  with  Mme.  Adelina  Patti,  both  in 
concert  and  opera  in  Germany  and  Italy,  and  in 
short  concert  tours  in  the  English  provinces.  [A.C.] 

NICOLINI,  Nicolino  Gbimaldi,  detto,  one 
of  the  greatest  singers  of  the  last  century,  was 
born  at  Naples  about  1673.  He  received  a  good 
education,  and  could  write  very  fair  verses,  as 
appears  from  the  libretti  which  bear  his  name  as 
their  author.  His  voice,  originally  a  soprano, 
soon  sank  into  a  fine  contralto.  The  first  dramas 
in  which  his  name  has  been  found  are  'Tullo 
Ostilio'  and  'Serse,'  set  by  Buononcini,  at  Rome, 
1604,  in  which  he  sang  with  the  celebrated 
Pistocchi.  During  1697-8,  he  was  the  principal 
singer  in  the  operas  at  Naples ;  and  in  1699  and 
1 700  was  again  performing  at  Rome.  After  this, 
he  sang  in  other  Italian  cities,  including  Milan 
and  Venice ;  and,  being  decorated  at  the  latter 
place  with  the  Order  of  St.  Mark,  he  was  thence- 
forth always  known  as  the  '  Cavaliere  Nicolini.' 

Late  in  the  autumn  of  1 708,  he  came  to  Eng- 
land, drawn  hither  by  the  report  of  our  passion 
for  foreign  operas,  and  'without  any  particular 
invitation  or  engagement'  (Cibber).  Here  he 
made  his  first  appearance,  Dec.  14,  in  the  'Pyr- 
rhus  and  Demetrius '  of  A.  Scarlatti,  translated 
into  English  by  Owen  Swiny,  the  manager,  and 
arranged  by  N.  Haym,  who  wrote  a  new  over- 
ture and  some  songs  for  it.  In  this,  of  course, 
Nicolini  sang  his  part  in  Italian,  while  other 
singers  performed  theirs  in  English.  Steele  de- 
scribes this  opera  as  '  a  noble  entertainment,'  and 
declares  that  he  'was  fully  satisfied  with  the 
sight  of  an  Actor  [Nicolini]  who,  by  the  Grace 
and  Propriety  of  his  Action  and  Gesture,  does 
Honour  to  an  Human  Figure,'  and  '  sets  off  the 
Character  he  bears  in  an  Opera  by  his  Action,  as 
much  as  he  does  the  Words  of  it  by  his  Voice. 
Every  Limb,  and  every  Finger,  contributes  to  the 
Part  he  acts,  insomuch  that  a  deaf  Man  might 
go  along  with  him  in  the  Sense  of  it,' — with  much 
more  to  the  same  '  purport.  The  opera  prices 
were  raised  on  the  arrival  of  this  performer,  the 
first  truly  great  singer  who  had  ever  sung  in  our 
theatre  (Burney).  In  fact,  the  whole  scheme 
of  the  subscription  was  probably  remodelled 
according  to  his  recommendations.  Some 
curious  papers  2  exist,  the  collection  of  Vice- 
Chamberlain  Coke,  by  which  it  appears  that 
Nicolini  furnished  that  official  with  a  full 
account  of  the  system  on  which  the  Venetian 
opera  was  managed,  and  that  he  suggested  a 
similar  system  for  that  of  London.  One  chief 
feature  was  that  a  subscription  of  1000  gs.  should 
be  got  from  the  Queen  (Anne) ;  and  on  this  Coke 
founded  a  calculation  which  led  to  the  remodel- 
ling of  the  opera-subscription  and  raising  of  the 


>  Tatler,  Jan.  3.1709. 


'  In  the  writer's  possession. 


NICOLINI. 

priceB,  in  order  to  remedy  what  Nicolini  described 
as  the  '  annual  and  certain  loss  of  money '  which 
our  Opera  had  till  then  suffered. 

Though  not  attracted  to  London  by  an  engage- 
ment, Nicolini  had  been  immediately  secured  by 
Swiny  for  a  year.  Tosi,  in  his  Treatise  on  Sing- 
ing, doubts  whether  a  perfect  singer  can  at  the 
same  time  be  a  perfect  actor ;  but  Galliard,  the 
translator  of  that  Treatise,  says  (in  a  note,  1 742), — 
'  Nicolini  had  both  qualities,  more  than  any  that 
have  come  hither  since.  He  acted  to  perfection, 
and  did  not  sing  much  inferior.  His  variations 
in  the  airs  were  excellent;  but  in  his  cadences 
he  had  a  few  antiquated  tricks.'  Nicolini  next 
appeared  in  'Camilla';  and  in  May  he  signed 
an  engagement  with  Swiny  for  three  years,  at  a 
salary  of  800  gs.;  the  singer  to  receive,  in  addition, 
£150  for  a  new  opera  'to  be  by  him  fitted  for 
the  English  stage  every  season,  if  such  opera 
shall  be  approved  of.'3 

On  June  4,  Nicolini  had  a  concert  for  his  bene- 
fit at  the  Opera  House,  where  he  continued  to 
sing  as  before.  In  1710,  however,  he  quarrelled 
with  Swiny,  and  sought,  in  a  letter  dated 4  May  1 8, 
to  free  himself  from  an  'esclavage  inquiet  et 
honteux  qu'on  ne  scauroit  non  plus  s'immaginer 
ailleurs  hors  de  l'Angleterra,' — his  engagement 
with  Swiny.  The  principal  grievance,  as  usual, 
was  that  he  had  not  been  paid  his  due  salary ; 
but  the  Vice-Chamberlain  patched  up  the  quarrel, 
and  Nicolini  continued  to  sing  at  the  theatre  in 
'  Almahide '  and  '  Hydaspes,'  the  libretto  of  the 
latter  being  his  own,  or  at  least  edited  by  himself. 
In  this  piece  occurred  the  famous  combat  with 
the  lion,  about  which  Addison  was  so  witty, 
while  giving  the  greatest  possible  credit  to  Nico- 
lini for  his  acting,  which  gave  'new  majesty  to 
kings,  resolution  to  heroes,  and  softness  to  lovers.' 
He  wished  '  that  our  tragedians  would  copy  after 
this  great  master  in  action.  Could  they  make 
the  same  use  of  their  arms  and  legs,  and  inform 
their  faces  with  as  significant  looks  and  passions, 
how  glorious  would  an  English  tragedy  appear 
with  that  action,  which  is  capable  of  giving  a 
dignity  to  the  forced  thoughts,  cold  conceits,  and 
unnatural  expressions  of  an  Italian  opera  ? ' s  On 
February  24,  1711, '  Rinaldo '  appeared,  the  chief 
part  being  created  by  Nicolini,  who  had  in  it  many 
opportunities  for  displaying  his  powers  of  decla- 
mation, execution,  and  acting.  He  played  in 
'Antioco,'  Dec.  12,  and  in  'Ambleto'  (his  own 
libretto)  in  the  beginning  of  1 7 1 2.  Addison*  says, 
'  I  am  sorry  to  find,  by  the  Opera  bills  for  this  day, 
that  we  are  likely  to  lose  the  greatest  performer  ii 
dramatic  Music  that  is  now  living,  or  that  perhaj 
ever  appeared  upon  a  stage.  I  need  not  acquaii 
my  readers,  that  I  am  speaking  of  Signor  Nic< 
lini.  The  town  is  highly  obliged  to  that  excellei 
artist,  for  having  shewn  us  the  Italian  Music  ii 
its  perfection,  as  well  as  for  that  generous  appro- 
bation he  lately  gave  to  an  opera  of  our  ot 
country7  in  which  the  composer  endeavour* 
to  do  justice  to  the  beauty  of  the  words,  b: 

>  In  the  writer's  possession.  *  lb. 

«  Spectator.  March  15, 1710—11.  e  lb.  June  14, 1712. 

7  Galliard's  '  Calf  pso  and  Telemachus,'  words  by  Hughes. 


NICOLINI. 

following  that  noble  example  which  has  been  set 
him  by  the  greatest  foreign  masters  in  that  art.' 
Nicolini,  who  took  his  benefit,  on  March  22,  in 
'the  Music  performed  before  the  Queen  on  her 
birthday,  and  the  famous  scene  in  Thomyris, 
by  Scarlatti,'  left  England  at  the  end  of  this 
season,  and  did  not  return  till  1714,  when  he 
appeared,  June  14,  'for  the  last  time  before 
his  voyage  to  Italy.'1  He  returned,  however, 
in  the  following  winter,  for  he  sang  in  'Ri- 
naldo'  (revived),  Jan.  4,  17 15,  and  afterwards 
in  '  Amadigi.'  According  to  the  idea  which  tra- 
dition gives  us  of  the  abiUties  of  Nicolini,  his 
part  in  this  latter  opera  must  have  drawn  out  all 
his  powers,  both  as  singer  and  actor  (Burney). 
He  took  his  benefit  in  '  Rinaldo.'  In  the  follow- 
ing season  (1716),  Nicolini  appeared  in  'Lucio 
Vero,'  'Amadigi,'  and  '  Clearte';  and  in  1717  he 
sang  again  in  'Rinaldo'  and  'Amadigi' — his 
last  appearances  in  England.  We  find  him  at 
Venice  in  a  long  run  of  'Rinaldo'  in  171 8,  again 
in  1723,  singing  in  Leo's  'Timocrate,*  and  Quanz 
met  him  there  in  1 726,  when  his  singing  was  on 
the  decline,  though  his  acting  still  commanded 
admiration.  The  date  of  his  death  is  not 
known.  [J.M.] 

NICOLO.    The  ordinary  name  in  France  for 

NlCOLO  ISOUABD.  [G.] 

NICOLSON,  Richard,  Mus.  Baa,  was  on 
Jan.  23,  1595-6,  appointed  organist  and  in- 
structor of  the  choristers  of  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford.  In  Feb.  following  he  graduated  as  Mus. 
Bac.  He  contributed  a  madrigal,  'Sing,  shep- 
herds all,'  to  'The  Triumphes  of  Oriana,'  1601. 
In  1626  he  was  appointed  the  first  Professor  of 
Music  upon  Heyther's  foundation  at  Oxford. 
He  resigned  his  place  at  Magdalen  College  in 
1639,  and  died  in  the  same  year.  [W.H.H.] 

NIEDERMEYER,  Louis,  born  at  Nyon, 
Lake  of  Geneva,  April  27,  1802,  studied  under 
Moscheles  and  Forster  in  Vienna,  Fioravanti  in 
Rome,  and  Zingarelli  in  Naples,  where  he 
formed  a  lasting  intimacy  with  Rossini.  At 
Naples  he  produced  his  first  opera  'II  reo  per 
amore.'  He  next  settled  in  Geneva,  taught  the 
piano,  and  composed  melodies  to  Lamartine's 
poetry,  one  of  which,  '  Le  Lac,'  obtained  great 
success,  and  made  his  name  known  in  Paris, 
before  his  arrival  there  in  1823.  Through 
Rossini's  influence  his  one-act  opera  'La  Casa 
nel  bosco '  was  produced  at  the  Theatre  Italien 
(May  28,  1828),  but  its  reception  not  satisfying 
him  he  left  Paris  and  became  music-master  at  a 
school  in  Brussels.  Wearied  of  this  drudgery,  he 
returned  to  Paris,  and  published  melodies  distin- 
guished for  style  and  sentiment,  and  worthy  of 
the  poems  by  Lamartine,  Victor  Hugo,  and 
Emile  Deschamps,  which  they  illustrated.  The 
success  of  these  songs  made  Niedermeyer  anxious 
to  return  to  the  theatre,  but  'Stradella'  (5  acts, 
March  3, 1837)  failed,  though  supported  by  Mile. 
Falcon,  Nourrit,  and  Levasseur.  It  was  however 
revived  in  1843  in  3  acts.  '  Marie  Stuart,'  5  acts 
(Dec.  6,  1 844),  was  scarcely  more  successful,  and 
1  D«iljr  Coanmt. 


NIEDERRHEINISCHE  MUSIKFESTE.    455 

would  be  forgotten  but  for  its  'Adieu  a  1% 
France.'  Other  numbers  however,  deserve  at- 
tention. The  revival  of  the  'Donna  del  Lago' 
having  been  resolved  on  at  the  Academic, 
Rossini  summoned  Niedermeyer  to  his  resi- 
dence at  Bologna,  and  empowered  him  to  adapt 
the  score  to  a  French  libretto  entitled  'Robert 
Bruce'  in  3  acts  (Dec.  30,  1846).  The  opera 
failed,  but  the  introduction  of  the  saxhorn, 
the  eight  trumpets  in  four  different  keys  in 
the  overture,  and  the  skill  with  which  various 
movements  from  'Zelmira'  and  'Armida'  were 
adapted,  attracted  the  attention  of  musicians. 
Niedermeyer's  last  attempt  at  opera  was  'La 
Fronde'  (5  acts,  May  2,  1853) — a  failure  like  its 
predecessors.  His  true  vocation  was  sacred 
music.  His  mass  with  full  orchestra,  his '  messes 
basses,'  motets,  and  anthems,  pure  in  style,  and 
abounding  with  graceful  melody,  are  still  sung. 
We  have  mentioned  elsewhere  his  connexion 
with  d'Ortigue  in  the  foundation  of  a  periodical 
for  sacred  music,  intended  to  maintain  the  old 
traditions.  [See  Maitrise.]  Unfortunately 
he  knew  but  Httle  of  either  the  history  or  the 
practice  of  plain-song,  and  his  'Me"thode  d'accom- 
pagnement  du  Plain  Chant'  (1855),  hastily 
compiled,  was  severely  criticised.  Niedermeyer 
must  be  ranked  among  the  musicians  whose 
merits  are  greater  than  their  success.  Some  of 
his  melodies  will  live,  and  the  Ecole  de  Musique 
still  known  by  his  name  (a  continuation  of  that 
founded  by  Choron)  will  ensure  for  his  sacred 
works  an  honourable  place  in  the  repertoires  of 
the  Maltrises  de  France.  He  died  in  Paris, 
March  14,  1861.  [G.  C] 

NIEDERRHEINISCHE  MUSIKFESTE, 
i.e.  Lower  Rhenish  Musical  Festivals,  now 
held  in  triennial  turn  at  Whitsuntide,  at  either 
Diisseldorf,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  or  Cologne,  and 
from  an  artistic  point  of  view  perhaps  the  most 
important  existing.  The  originator  is  said  to 
have  been  Dr.  Ludwig  F.  C.  Bischofp,  a  very 
active  musician  and  litterateur,  who  some  seventy 
years  ago  assembled  together  the  musicians  in  his 
province,  and  instituted  a  '  Thuringian  Musical 
Festival,'  which  was  held  at  Erfurt  in  181 1.  In 
1 8 1 7  Johann  Schornstein,  music- director  at  Elber- 
feld,  following  the  example  of  Bischoff,  collected 
the  musical  forces  of  Elberfeld  and  Diisseldorf,  and 
gave  a  performance  on  a  large  scale  in  the  former 
town,  thus  laying  the  foundation  of  the  Lower 
Rhenish  Festivals.  For  the  success  of  the  Elber- 
feld attempt  was  decided  enough  to  induce  several 
of  the  most  influential  persons  in  the  two  towns 
mentioned  to  take  the  matter  in  hand,  and  to 
arrange  two  grand  concerts  for  Whitsuntide, 
which  should  take  place  alternately  at  Elberfeld 
and  Diisseldorf.  The  organisation  of  these  con- 
certs exacted  so  much  labour  and  trouble  that  it 
was  resolved  to  propose  to  a  third  neighbouring 
city  to  take  part  in  them,  and  an  offer  of  co- 
operation was  made  to  Cologne,  which  at  first 
declined  the  proposal.  The  first  four  festivals 
were  therefore  held  at  Elberfeld  and  Diisseldorf 
alternately. 

From  the  time  of  the  retirement  of  Elberfeld 


456 


NIEDERRHEINISCHE  MUSIKFESTE. 


in  1827,  Aix  gave  in  its  definite  adhesion,  and 
except  during  the  political  disturbances  from 
1848  to  1850,  and  also  in  1852  and  1859,  these 
festivals  have  since  occurred  at  Diisseldorf,  Aix, 
or  Cologne. 

Without  entering  into  the  detail  of  each  occa- 
sion, a  few  facts  may  be  mentioned.  The  15th 
meeting,  at  Diisseldorf,  in  1833,  may  be  con- 
sidered the  most  important  which  had  occurred, 
and  as  marking  a  new  epoch  in  the  history  of 
these  now  renowned  festivals.  For  it  was  on 
this  occasion  that  the  direction  of  the  music 
was  first  entrusted  to  Mendelssohn,  then  in 
his  26th  year.1  Another  distinguishing  feature 
was  a  third  concert  improvised  by  him  on  the 
morning  of  Whit-Tuesday,  which  was  subse- 
quently known  as  the  '  Artists'  concert,'  in  con- 
sequence of  the  introduction  at  it  of  detached 
and  solo  pieces.  In  1835  Mendelssohn  con- 
ducted at  Cologne,  and  on  the  following  Whit- 
suntide directed  the  18th  festival  at  Diisseldorf, 
on  which  occasion  his  oratorio  'St.  Paul'  was 
produced.  He  reproduced  Handel's  'Joshua' 
at  Cologne  in  1838,  and  on  that  occasion  con- 
tinued his  great  work  for  his  country  and  for 
the  musical  world  generally  of  reviving  the 
superb  choral  works  of  Sebastian  Bach,  which, 
partly  in  consequence  of  their  extraordinary 
number  and  want  of  classification  and  publica- 
tion, had  been  suffered  to  remain  almost  in 
disuse,  until  resuscitated  by  one  of  the  greatest 
disciples  of  the  glorious  '  Cantor  of  Leipzig.' 

At  the  2 1st  festival,  at  Diisseldorf,  in  1839, 
Mendelssohn  was  again  at  the  helm,  introducing 
there  his  42nd  Psalm  '  As  the  hart  pants,'  and 
at  the  '  Artists'  concert '  playing  his  second 
pianoforte  concerto.  In  1842  he  conducted  at 
Diisseldorf,  and  made  its  festival  memorable  by 
the  introduction  of  the  ■  Lobgesang,'  which  had 
been  already  performed  at  Leipzig  and  Birming- 
ham; and  in  1846,  at  Aix,  for  the  seventh  and 
last  time,  he  directed  a  grand  selection,  when 
Jenny  Lind  sang,  and  produced  extraordinary 
enthusiasm — the  occasion  being  recorded  as  the 
'  Jenny-Lind-Fest.'  Her  singing  of  Mendels- 
sohn's 'Auf  Fliigeln  des  Gesanges'  and  'Friih- 
lingslied,'  at  the  'Artists'  concert'  is  described 
by  chroniclers  of  this  festival  as  producing  an 
effect  wholly  unparalleled.  In  1852  no  festival 
took  place,  but  in  the  following  year  Hiller  and 
Schumann  shared  the  direction  at  Diisseldorf, 
respectively  contributing  a  Psalm — the  125th, 
and  a  Symphony — in  D  minor. 

From  this  time  the  Rhenish  Festivals  became 
in  some  respects  even  more  than  previously 
interesting.  The  great  composer  who  had  done 
so  much  for  them  had  indeed  passed  away,  but 
so  great  a  fame  had  been  secured  for  them, 
partly  in  consequence  of  the  memorable  occasions 
on  which  Mendelssohn  had  presided,  and  also 
on  account  of  the  engagement  of  more  celebrated 
soloists  and  of  the  selection  of  fuller  if  not  more 
interesting  programmes,  as  to  attract  for  these 
Whitsuntide  meetings  more  attention,  and  to 
draw  musical  visitors  from  all  parts.  In  1855, 
>  See  under  Mendelssohn,  pp.  270. 271. 


at  Diisseldorf,  Mme.  Lind-Goldschmidt  Bang  in 
Haydn's  '  Creation,'  Schumann's  '  Paradise  and 
Peri,'  and  at  the  Artists'  concert. 

Diisseldorf  was  fortunate  enough  in  1863  again 
to  secure  her  services,  and  the  choral  selections 
were  conducted  by  Herr  Otto  Goldschmidt.  An 
unusual  and  interesting  feature  on  this  occasion 
was  an  organ  solo  by  Herr  van  Eyken,  who 
played  Bach's  great  prelude  and  fugue  in  Gminor. 
The  following  Whitsuntide,  1866,  Madame  Lind- 
Goldschmidt  was  once  more  heard  at  a  Diisseldorf 
festival,  in  Handel's  '  Messiah '  and  Schumann's 
'Paradise  and  Peri,'  etc.,  Madame  Schumann, 
Auer,  and  Stockhausen  being  the  other  soloists, 
and  Herren  0.  Goldschmidt  and  Tausch  con- 
ducting. 

The  table  on  the  opposite  page  shows  the 
localities,  the  directors,  and  the  chief  choral  and 
instrumental  works  from  18 18  to  the  present 
year. 

To  this  brief  glance  at  their  origin  and  pro- 
gress, a  few  remarks  may  be  added  as  to  the 
distinctive  features  of  these  and  other  German 
festivals,  which  strike  an  habitue"  at  our  own 
large  musical  gatherings.  Perhaps  the  most 
important  difference  is  the  greater  care  in  pre- 
paration. Far  more  time  is  devoted  to  rehearsals 
of  full  band  and  chorus,  under  the  conductor's 
direction,  than  with  us.  Hence  the  performances 
are  undoubtedly  more  finished  than  at  English 
festivals,  at  which  only  two  hurried  rehearsals 
take  place  for  seven  or  eight  performances.  In 
Germany  six  full  rehearsals  are  held  for  three 
concerts. 

In  the  next  place,  the  first  object  in  England 
is  to  raise  money :  in  Germany  the  great  object 
is  to  benefit  art.  One  of  the  bad  results  of  our 
system  is  that  committees  shrink  from  risking 
the  performance  of  any  but  popular  works  which 
will  draw  and  'pay.'  One  of  the  good  results 
of  the  foreign  plan  is  that  only  classical  workB  of 
high  artistic  merit  are  given.  No  such  selections 
as  some  of  those  at  evening  concerts  at  our  festi- 
vals would  be  tolerated  in  Germany. 

In  the  Rhineland  all  classes  rejoice  at  an  op- 
portunity to  take  part  in '  das  liebliche  Friihlings- 
fest.'  Remuneration  appears  to  be  a  secondary 
consideration ;  indeed  the  services  of  the  chorus, 
which  often  comprises  members  of  the  best 
families,  are  gratuitous,  and  are  given  con  amore. 
And  one  consequence  of  this,  and  of  a  general 
agreement  and  enthusiasm  on  the  part  of  the 
amateur  performers,  is  a  moderate  charge  for 
tickets.  The  admission  to  the  best  places  is  less 
than  a  third  of  that  chez  nous.  Moreover,  in 
consequence  of  the  occurrence  of  the  great '  Feast 
of  Pentecost,'  the  whole  population  of  these 
Rhenish  towns  seems  to  be  then  en  fete,  and  to 
take  the  liveliest  interest  in  the  festal  musical 
performances  now  so  thoroughly  associated  there 
with  Whitsuntide. 

Carl  Klingemann,  Mendelssohn's  friend, 
writing  to  England  concerning  the  Diisseldorf 
meeting  of  1836,  says : — '  Never  did  I  hear  such 
chorus-singing.  All  the  singers,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  soloists,  were  amateurs,  as  also  the 


NIEDERRHEINISCHE  MUSIKFESTE. 


457 


DOsseldorf 
Elberfeld  . 
DOsseldorf 
Cologne  . 
Dusseldorf 
Elberfeld  . 
Cologne  • 
Aix-la-Chapelle 
DOsseldorf 
Elberfeld  . 
Cologne  . 
All  .  . 
Dusseldorf 
Cologne  . 
DOsseldorf 
Alz  .  . 
Cologne  . 
DOsseldorf 
All  . 
Cologne  . 
DOsseldorf 
Aii  .  . 
Cologne  . 
DOsseldorf 
Aii  .  . 
Cologne  . 
DOsseldorf 
AU  .  . 
Cologne  . 
AU  .  . 
DOsseldorf 
AU  .  . 
DOsseldorf 
DOsseldorf 
Alx  .  . 
Cologne  . 
DOsseldorf 
Alz  .  . 
Cologne  . 
DOsseldorf 
AU  .  . 
Cologne  . 
DOsseldorf 
AU  .  . 
Cologne  . 
DOsseldorf 
AU  .  . 
Cologne  . 
DOsseldorf 

AU    .      . 

Cologne  . 
DOsseldorf 
AU  .  . 
Cologne  . 
DOsseldorf 
Alz  .  . 
Cologne    . 


Rnrgmflller 
Schornstein 
Burgm  Oiler 
Do. 
Do. 
Schornstein 
F.  Schneider 
F.  Rles  .       . 
Rles  and  Spohr 
Schornstein 
Rles  and  Klein 
Ries      .      . 

Do.     .       . 

Do.  .  . 
Mendelssohn 
Ries  .  . 
Mendelssohn 

Do. 
Ries       .       . 
Mendelssohn 

Do. 
Spohr  . 

Kreutzer  . 
Mendelssohn 
Reissiger  . 
Dora  .  • 
Rietz  .  . 
Mendelssohn 
Dorn  and  Spontinl 
Llndpaintner 
F.  Hiller  , 
Lindpaintner 
Hiller  .  . 
Rietz  .  . 
Liszt  .  . 
Hiller   .      . 

Do.    .      . 
F.  Lachnar  . 
Hiller    .      . 
Otto  Goldschmldt 
Rietz     .      . 
Hiller    .       . 
O.  Goldschmldt 
Rietz     . 
Hiller   .      . 
Rietz    .       . 
Lachner       . 
Hiller    .       . 
Rubinstein  . 

Rietz     . 

Hiller   .  . 

Joachim  . 

Breunung  . 

Hiller    .  . 
Joachim 

Breunung  ■ 

Hiller    .  . 


Principal  Choral  and  Orchestral  Work. 


Haydn's  Seasons  and  Creation. 

Handel's  Messiah ;  and  Symphony  2,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Samson ;  and  Eroica  Symphony. 

Schneider's  Das  Weltgericht ;  0  minor  8ymphony,  Beethoven. 

Stadler's  Das  befrelte  Jerusalem ;  and  Symphony  4,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Jephthah,  and  Symphony  7,  Beethoven. 

Schneider's  Deluge ;  Symphony  4,  Rles. 

Handel's  Alexander's  Feast ;  Symphony  9,  Beethoven. 

Spohr's  Last  Judgment ;  Messiah ;  Symphony  In  D,  Kiea. 

Schneider's  Paradise  Lost ;  Symphony  5,  Beethoven. 

Klein's  Jephta ;  Symphony  4,  Beethoven. 

Creation ;  Symphony  4,  Ries ;  and  Eroica,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Judas  Maccabseus ;  Symphony  5,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Samson ;  Symphony  7,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Israel  in  Egypt ;  Pastoral  Symphony,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Deborah ;  Jupiter  Symphony,  Mozart ;  and  part  of  9,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Solomon ;  Symphony  8,  Beethoven. 

Mendelssohn's  St.  Paul ;  Symphony  9,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Belshazzar  ;  Kings  of  Israel,  Rles. 

Handel's  Joshua ;  Symphony  In  D,  Mozart. 

Handel's  Messiah ;  Eroica  Symphony,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Judas  ;  Symphony  7,  Beethoven. 

Klein's  David ;  8ymphony  9,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Israel ;  Lobgesang ;  Symphony  5,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Samson ;  Symphony  G  minor,  Mozart ;  Eroica,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Jephthah ;  Missa  Solennis,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Joshua ;  Symphony  9,  Beethoven. 

Creation ;  Alexander's  Feast ;  Symphony  5,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Messiah ;  Symphony  7,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Judas ;  Eroica  Symphony,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Messiah ;  Symphony  9,  Beethoven ;  and  4,  Schumann. 

Handel's  Israel ;  Symphony  7,  Beethoven. 

Creation ;  Paradise  and  Perl,  Schumann  ;  Symphony  5,  Beethoven. 

Mendelssohn's  Elijah ;  Alexander's  Feast ;  Symphony  9,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Messiah ;  Symphony  In  C,  Schubert. 

Hitler's  Saul ;  Walpurgisnacht ;  Eroica  Symphony,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Samson ;  Symphony  7,  Beethoven  ;  and  1,  Schumann. 

Beethoven's  Missa  Solennis ;  Joshua ;  Eroica  Symphony,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Solomon  ;  Symphony  9,  Beethoven. 

Mendelssohn's  Elijah ;  St.  Cecilia's  Ode ;  Symphony  5,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Belshazzar ;  Magnificat,  Bach ;  Symphony  9,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Israel ;  Symphony  7,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Messiah ;  Eroica  Symphony,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Judas ;  Symphony  5,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Messiah,  Cantata,  Bach ;  Symphony  9,  Beethoven ;  3,  Schumann. 

Handel's  Joshua ;  Magnificat,  Bach ;  Symphony  7,  Beethoven. 

Beethoven's  Missa  Solemnis ;  Eroica  Symphony,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  Joshua ;  Symphony  9,  Beethoven. 

Handel's  St.  Cecilia's   Ode ;  Toner  of  Babel,  Rubinstein ;  Symphony  8, 

Beethoven ;  4,  Schumann. 
Handel's  Messiah ;  Symphony  9.  Beethoven . 

Handel's  Samson ;  Pastoral  Symphony,  Beethoven ;  and  Italian,  Mendels- 
Handel's  Hercules ;  Missa  Solennis ;  Symphony  1,  Schumann.  [sohn. 

Handel's  Solomon ;  Eroica  Symphony,  Beethoven. 
Haydn's  Seasons ;  Symphony  9,  Beethoven ;  and  Hiller  In  C. 
Schumann's  Faust ;  Orpheus,  Gluck ;  Symphony  2,  Brahms. 
Beethoven's  Missa  Solennis ;  Symphony  2,  Schumann ;  9,  Schubert. 
Handel's  Israel ;  Violin  Concerto,  Beethoven. 


Thus  Dusseldorf  has  held  20,  AU  17,  Cologne  IS,  and  Elberfeld  3  Lower  Rhenish  Festivals. 


greater  number  of  the  instrumental  performers. 
It  is  this  circumstance  which  gives  to  this  fes- 
tival its  peculiar  excellence  and  beauty.  From 
all  the  neighbouring  towns  and  the  whole 
country  round  the  dilettanti  were  gathering, 
arriving  in  steamboats  or  Eilwagen,  not  to  toil 
at  an  irksome  ill-paid  task,  but  for  a  great 
musical  field-day,  full  of  soul  and  song.  All 
ranks  and  ages  unite  for  the  one  harmonious  end. 
....  Add  to  this  love  of  the  art,  good  training, 
well  cultivated  taste,  and  general  knowledge  of 
music,  and  it  is  explained  how  such  an  effect  is 
produced.  You  felt  the  life,  the  pulsation  of 
this  music,  for  their  hearts  as  well  as  their 
understandings  were  in  it.  It  was  in  this  chorus 
and  in  this  band  that  public  interest  was  cen- 
tred ;  the  audience  listened  and  enjoyed,  but  the 
amateur  performers  constituted  the  festival.' 
The  importance  of  these  Rhine  festivals,  from 


an  artistic  point  of  view,  was  alluded  to  at  the 
commencement  of  this  record  of  them.  The  roll 
of  eminent  musicians  of  European  fame  who 
have  conducted  them  alone  claims  such  re- 
cognition ;  while  the  long  catalogue  of  master- 
pieces performed,  especially  those  for  orchestra, 
in  which  English  festivals  are  as  a  rule  sadly 
deficient,  is  in  itself  an  extraordinarily  interesting 
and  suggestive  document.  The  following  list 
of  the  number  of  times  of  performances  of  Bee- 
thoven's Symphonies  at  these  Rhenish  festivals 
gives  a  tolerably  fair  estimate  of  the  proportionate 
admiration  in  which  those  masterpieces  are  held 
by  the  great  composer's  countrymen : — 

No.  2,  performed  once. 
„  4,  do.  twice. 
„    6,       do.  do. 

„    8,       do.  do. 


No.  5,  performed  eight  times. 
„   7,        do.  do. 

„   3,        do.       nine  times. 
„   9,        do.      twelve  times. 


[H.S.O.] 


458 


NIEMANN. 


NIEMANN,  Albert,  one  of  the  most  famous 
living  tenors  of  Germany,  was  born  Jan.  15, 1831, 
at  Erxleben,  Magdeburg,  where  his  father  kept 
an  hotel.  He  was  placed,  when  1 7  years  old,  in 
a  machine  factory,  but  want  of  means  prevented 
his  remaining  there,  and  he  went  on  the  stage 
at  Dessau  in  1849,  first  as  an  actor  of  small 
parts,  and  afterwards  as  a  chorus  singer.  Here 
the  Hof kapellmeister  Friedrich  Schneider  dis- 
covered his  musical  talent,  and  gave  him  some 
instruction.  A  baritone  singer  named  Nusch 
taught  him  singing,  and  with  such  success  that 
Niemann  soon  obtained  engagements  at  Halle 
and  other  small  theatres.  He  thus  came  under 
the  notice  of  Herr  von  Hiilsen,  General  Inten- 
dant  of  the  German  royal  theatres,  who  called 
him  to  Berlin,  and  gave  him  the  means  of 
further  improvement.  He  afterwards  played  at 
Stuttgardt  and  Konigsberg,  and  through  the 
kindness  of  the  King  of  Hanover  was  sent  to 
Paris  to  study  under  Duprez.  On  his  return  he 
joined  the  company  at  Hanover,  and  afterwards 
went  to  Berlin,  where  he  is  engaged  at  the 
present  time,  having  been  created  'Kammer- 
sanger'  to  the  Emperor.  In  Germany  he  has 
for  a  long  time  past  enjoyed  a  great  reputation, 
especially  in  *  heroic  parts,'  for  which  his  hand- 
some person  and  powerful  voice  eminently  fit 
him.  He  has  played  the  parts  of  the  Wagner 
heroes,  also  Cortez,  Joseph,  Raoul,  John  of  Ley- 
den,  Arnold,  George  Brown  (La  Dame  Blanche) 
and  Chapelon  (Postilion) ;  and  was  selected  by 
Wagner  to  play  Siegmund  in  '  Die  Walkiire,'  at 
Bayreuth  in  1876. 

Niemann  has  not  sung  out  of  Germany  except 
when  he  played  Tannhauser  in  Paris,  on  its  pro- 
duction at  the  Academic  on  March  1 3, 1 861 ;  when 
as  is  well  known,  the  opera  was  received  with 
great  disfavour,  only  being  played  twice.    [A.C.] 

NIEMETSCHEK,  Franz  Xaver,  Doctor 
of  Philosophy,  Professor  of  Latin  at  Pilsen,  and 
of  Philosophy  at  Prague  (181 5),  born  at  Saczka  in 
Bohemia,  a  musical  amateur,  who  played  the 
piano  with  taste,  and  is  of  importance  in  musical 
history  as  the  author  of  a  life  of  Mozart,  the 
best  in  its  day  (Prague,  1798,  2nd  edition, 
Leipzig  1808).  [C.F.P.] 

NIGHT  DANCERS,  THE.  A  romantic 
opera,  in  2  acts,  founded  on  the  same  legend 
with  the  ballet  of  Giselle ;  words  by  G.  Soane, 
music  by  Edward  J.  Loder.  Produced  under  the 
title  of '  The  Wilis,  or  the  Night  Dancers,'  at  the 
Princess's  Theatre,  London,  Oct.  28,  1846.  The 
notice  of  the  performance  in  the  '  Times '  is  his- 
torical, since  it  was  the  first  account  of  an  opera 
contributed  by  Mr.  J.  W.  Davison,  who  until 
1878  was  the  musical  critic  of  that  paper.  The 
opera  was  revived  at  the  Royal  English  Opera, 
Covent  Garden,  Nov.  10,  i860.  [G.] 

NILSSON,  Christine,  was  born  Aug.  20, 
1843,  near  Wexio  in  the  district  of  Wederslof, 
Sweden,  where  her  father  was  a  very  small  farmer 
on  the  estate  of  Count  Hamilton.1  From  an  early 

'  This  little  farm,  called  SJOabol,  was  afterwards  purchased  by  Miss 
Nllsson,  after  the  death  of  her  parents,  with  her  first  professional 
earnings,  and  glren  to  her  eldest  brother. 


NILSSON. 

date  she  showed  great  aptitude  for  music,  and  her 
voice  proved  the  means  of  her  introduction  to 
Baroness  Leuhusen,  nee  Valerius,  herself  formerly 
a  singer,  from  whom  the  young  vocalist  received 
some  lessons.  She  was  afterwards  instructed  by 
Franz  Berwald  of  Stockholm,  and  in  six  months 
sang  at  Court.  Miss  Nilsson  accompanied  the 
Baroness  Leuhusen  to  Paris,  and  studied  singing 
under  M.  Wartel.  She  made  her  de"but  at  the 
Theatre  Lyrique  Oct.  27,  1864,  as  Violetta,  in  a 
French  version  of  La  Traviata ;  and  afterwards 
appeared  as  Lady  Henrietta,  Astrifiammante, 
and  Elvira  (Don  Giovanni),  etc.  She  remained 
at  the  Lyrique  nearly  three  years,  after  which  she 
came  to  England,  and  made  her  first  appearance 
June  8,  1867,  at  Her  Majesty's  as  Violetta,  with 
great  success,  subsequently  playing  in  the  other 
characters  mentioned  above,  and  as  Margaret  in 
Faust.  The  same  season  she  sang  at  the  Crystal 
Palace,  and  also  at  the  Birmingham  Festival  in 
oratorio,  for  which  she  was  instructed  by  Mr. 
Turle,  organist  of  Westminster  Abbey,  more 
especially  with  regard  to  the  traditional  style  of 
Handel's  songs.  On  Oct.  23  she  took  farewell  of  the 
Theatre  Lyrique  by  creating  the  principal  part 
in  2  Les  Bluets  of  Jules  Cohen.  She  was  then 
engaged  by  the  Acade"mie  de  Musique  for  the 
part  of  Ophelia  in  Ambroise  Thomas's  Hamlet, 
in  which  she  appeared  on  its  production  March  9, 
1 868,  with  very  great  success. 

In  1868  Miss  Nilsson  reappeared  in  Italian 
Opera  at  Drury  Lane,  whither  the  company  had 
migrated  by  reason  of  the  fire  at  Her  Majesty's, 
with  the  same  eclat  as  before,  and  added  to  her 
repertoire  the  rdles  of  Lucia  and  Cherubino. 
In  that  year  she  sang  '  From  mighty  kings,'  and 
'  Wise  men  flattering,'  at  the  Handel  Festival. 
She  sang  in  the  autumn  at  Baden-Baden,  appear- 
ing for  the  first  time  as  Mignon,  and  in  the  win- 
ter returned  to  the  Academic,  Paris.  In  1 869  she 
played  Ophelia  in  the  production  of  Hamlet  at 
Covent  Garden.  In  the  autumn  she  made  a  pro- 
vincial tour,  singing  later  in  London,  at  Exeter 
Hall,  in  the  Messiah,  Creation,  Hymn  of  Praise, 
etc.,  and  returning  to  Paris  for  the  winter. 

In  the  summer  season  of  1870,  Mr.  Wood 
having  taken  Drury  Lane  for  Italian  Opera,  Miss 
Nilsson  was  engaged  as  one  of  the  stars,  and  she 
then  played  for  the  first  time  in  England  as 
Alice,  the  Countess  (Figaro),  Desdemona,  and 
Mignon.  On  July  17  she  sang  the  scena  'Ah 
perfido,'  at  the  Philharmonic,  on  the  comme- 
moration of  the  centenary  of  Beethoven's  birth, 
with  a  beauty  of  conception  and  expression  which 
can  never  be  forgotten  by  those  who  heard  it. 

From  the  autumn  of  1870  to  the  spring  of  1872 
Miss  Nilsson  was  in  America  singing  in  concerts 
and  Italian  opera  under  M.  Strakosch,  when  she 
added  Flotow's  comic  opera  'L' Ombre'  to  her 
other  parts.  She  returned  to  Drury  Lane  in  the 
summer  of  1872,  and  on  July  27  was  married  at 
Westminster  Abbey  to  M.  Auguste  Rouzaud  of 
Paris.  From  1872  to  1877  Madame  Nilsson  sang 
every  season  in  Italian  opera  at  Drury  Lane 
and  Her  Majesty's,  creating  Edith  in  Balfe's 

2  An  opera  which  fell  flat  in  spite  of  her  singing. 


NILSSON. 

Talisinano,  June  18,  1874,  and  Elsa  on  the  pro- 
duction of  Lohengrin  at  Drury  Lane  in  1875,  a 
part  which  she  had  previously  played  in  America. 
During  the  winter  and  spring  of  these  last 
years,  Madame  Nilsson  has  either  sung  in  the 
provinces  in  opera  or  at  concerts,  or  been  engaged 
at  the  Opera  of  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  Vienna, 
etc.  She  paid  a  second  visit  to  America  for  the 
winter  seasons  of  1873  and  74.  She  has  only  once 
visited  her  native  country  in  a  professional  ca- 
pacity, viz.  in  1876,  when  she  made  a  tour  in 
Scandinavia  with  remarkable  '  success. 

Her  voice  is  of  moderate  power,  great  sweet- 
ness, brilliancy,  and  evenness  in  all  the  register, 
the  compass  being  about  two  and  a  half  octaves, 
from  G  natural  to  D  in  alt.2  Her  style  is  espe- 
cially suited  to  the  mor.e  pathetic  parts  of  opera, 
being  peculiarly  excellent  as  Elsa,  Margaret,  and 
Mignon ;  for  Valentine,  while  looking  the  part 
to  perfection,  she  lacks  the  necessary  physique. 
During  her  earlier  seasons  her  success  was  helped 
by  a  certain  naivete"  of  look  and  manner  which 
was  very  charming.  [A.C.] 

NINTH.  The  compound  intervals  called 
ninths  exceed  the  octave  either  by  a  tone  or  a 
semitone;  if  the  former  the  ninth  is  called 
'  major '  (a),  if  the  latter  it  is  called  '  minor ' 
(6).  The  interval  of  an  'augmented  ninth' 
which  exceeds  the  octave  by  three  semitones  (c) 
also  occasionally  occurs,  as  will  be  presently 
noted,  but  it  has  not  by  any  means  the  pro- 
minence and  importance  of  the  major  and  minor 
forms.  (Ex.  I.) 

Ninths  differ  from  all  other  compound  inter- 
vals in  the  higher  degree  of  invariability 
with  which  they  are  distinct  both  in  character 
and  treatment  from  their  corresponding  simple 
intervals  the  ma j  or,  minor,  and  augmented  seconds. 
They  may  be  broadly  divided  into  two  classes — 
those  which  require  preparation  somewhat  per- 
emptorily, and  further  prompt  resolution  after 
percussion;  and  those  which  satisfy  the  under- 
standing ear  so  far  that  preparation  appears 
superfluous,  and  haste  to  change  the  harmony 
after  percussion  unnecessary.  The  former  belong 
to  the  class  of  artificial  combinations  arrived  at 
by  processes  which  imply  counterpoint,  and  the 
latter  to  that  of  essential  or  fundamental  chords 
which  can  exist  intelligibly  in  the  sense  of 
harmony  alone. 

The  first  class  is  generally  divided  by  theorists 
into  two  sub-classes,  called  respectively  •  suspen- 
sions '  and  •  prepared  discords.'  The  intimate 
relationship  of  these  chords  has  already  been  in- 
dicated in  the  article  Habmokt;  the  above 
classification  will  therefore  only  be  accepted  here 
provisionally,  for  convenience  in  explanation. 
Suspended  ninths  which  are  resolved  while  the 
chord  which  accompanies  them  stands  still,  can 
occur  on  every  note  of  the  scale,  though  that  on 
the  leading  note  is  extremely  harsh;  they  are 
commonly  accompanied  by  third  and  fifth,  as 

1  She  U  at  present  (Feb.  1880),  singing  at  Madrid. 

3  It  was  formerly  nearly  three  octaves,  but  she  has  spared  the 
higher  part  lately  on  the  advice  of  Kossinl,  on  acount  of  the  great 
strain. 


NINTH. 


459 


in  Ex.  2,  and  not  unfrequently  by  a  major 
seventh,  suspended  with  the  ninth,  and  resolving 
with  it ;  sometimes  also  by  a  suspended  fourth 
as  well,  which  resolves  on  the  third  simultane- 
ously with  the  resolution  of  the  ninth  and 
seventh.  Suspended  major  ninths  resolve  either 
upwards  or  downwards ;  in  the  former  case  alone 
they  resemble  suspended  seconds,  which  obviously 
must  rise  in  resolution;  and  in  this  form  also 
the  artificial  chromatic  heightening  of  the  major 
ninth  to  an  augmented  ninth  takes  place,  as  in 
the  following,  from  the  Vorspiel  to  Wagner's 
Tristan  und  Isolde.     (Ex.  3.) 

1.     (a)    (6)    (c)         2.     Beethoven.      3.  AVagnkr. 

s>-  k<s>-  &s»- 


This  device  is  similar  to  the  chromatic 
alteration  of  the  augmented  fifth  ;  and,  in  fact, 
eight  bars  further  on  than  the  above  quotation, 
the  augmented  ninth  and  the  augmented  fifth 
actually  occur  together  in  the  same  chord,  in  a 
way  which  is  highly  suggestive  of  their  common 
origin. 

The  second  sub-class  mentioned  above  differs 
from  those  which  are  distinguished  as  suspensions 
chiefly  in  the  process  of  resolution ;  in  which,, 
instead  of  the  rest  of  the  chord  (that  is,  its  root 
and  concordant  notes)  being  stationary  while 
the  suspended  notes  are  resolved,  and  moving 
afterwards,  the  process  is  condensed,  so  that 
when  the  discord  has  been  arrived  at  by  pre- 
paration, which  is  practically  the  same  as  the 
process  of  suspension,  the  root  of  the  chord  and  its 
dependent  notes  change  simultaneously  with  the 
resolution.  So  that  though  the  resolution  is 
upon  the  same  note  as  it  would  have  been  if 
the  chord  had  remained  unchanged,  its  relation 
to  the  root  note  of  the  new  chord  is  different. 
The  root  commonly  rises  a  fourth,  but  it  is 
also  possible  for  it  to  fall  a  third. 

The  above  class  of  ninths  may  be  accompanied 
by  thirds  and  sevenths  which  are  either  major 
or  minor,  but  in  the  last  and  most  important 
class  the  accompanying  third  must  be  major 
and  the  seventh  minor.  These  ninths,  both 
major  and  minor,  are  commonly  held  to  be 
fundamental  harmonies,  on  the  ground  of  their 
representing  the  compound  tone  of  the  root  or 
generator.  The  major  ninth  is  represented  by 
the  eighth  harmonic,  which  is  only  removed  two- 
octaves  and  a  note  from  the  root, — and  is  easily 
and  clearly  obtained,  as  for  instance  in  horns  and 
trumpets.  The  minor  ninth  is  similarly  taken 
by  some  theorists  to  be  represented  by  the  six- 
teenth harmonic,  which  however  is  four  octaves 
removed  from  the  generator,  and  is  so  closely 
hemmed  in  by  other  harmonics  at  the  distance 
of  a  semitone  apart,  that  it  seems  doubtful  if  it 
could  be  clearly  distinguished  or  easily  obtained 
as  the  major  ninth  is.    It  may  however  possibly 


460 


NINTH. 


be  taken  as  a  modification  or  softening  of  the 
major  ninth,  and  is  certainly  used  with  equal 
freedom.  Examples  from  so  trustworthy  a  source 
as  Haydn,  are  given  in  the  article  Harmony 
(p.  683) :  Schumann's  Overture  to  Genoveva 
actually  commences  with  a  full  chord  of  the 
minor  ninth ;  and  Mendelssohn's  Andante  con 
Variazioni  in  Eb,  with  second  inversion  of  the 
major  ninth. 

The  ninths  belonging  to  this  class  are  not  only 
free  in  the  manner  of  their  assumption,  but 
singularly  so  in  the  manner  of  their  resolution ; 
they  are  both  commonly  resolved  after  the  man- 
ner of  suspensions,  either  upwards  or  downwards, 
while  the  rest  of  the  chord  stands  still ;  or  after 
the  manner  of  the  so-called  '  prepared  '  discords ; 
while  the  chord  changes,  as  from  Dominant  to 
Tonic  harmony.  They  also  resolve  by  leaps,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Dominant  ninths ;  in  which  the 
part  having  the  ninth  frequently  leaps  down- 
wards to  the  third  or  fifth  of  the  chord,  and 
then  passes  with  change  of  harmony  to  a  prox- 
imate concordant  note  in  the  Tonic  chord.  Occa- 
sionally the  ninth  appears  to  be  resolved  rather 
by  a  change  of  the  mass  of  harmony  than  by  the 
progression  of  the  parts ;  and  further  it  is  found 
persisting  through  such  changes  of  harmony,  and 
being  resolved  without  moving,  as  in  the  follow- 
ing from  Mr.  Macfarren's  '  Joseph ' : — 


The  Dominant  major  ninth  is  only  used  in  the 
major  mode,  the  minor  ninth  in  both ;  and  it 
will  be  clear  at  the  mere  statement  that  the 
minor  ninth  from  the  Dominant  is  not  a  note 
which  occurs  in  the  diatonic  series  of  the  major 
scale,  and  therefore  the  chord  is  chromatic  in 
that  relation.  But  not  only  this  ninth,  but 
several  others  which  are  more  distinctly  chroma- 
tic, are  commonly  affiliated  in  the  range  of  a  key 
without  its  being  considered  that  the  tonality  is 
thereby  obscured.  The  most  conspicuous  of 
these  are  the  ninths  of  the  Tonic  and  Supertonic, 
which  represent  the  compound  tone  of  those 
respective  notes,  and  also  stand  in  the  favourable 
position  of  Dominant  chords  in  the  closely  related 
keys  of  the  Subdominant  and  Dominant  to  the 
original  key.  In  these  the  minor  seventh  and 
minor  ninth  of  the  Tonic,  and  the  major  third 
and  minor  ninth  of  the  Supertonic  are  chromatic 
in  relation  to  the  major  scale.  The  major  ninth  of 
the  Supertonic  will  not  chime  conveniently  with 
the  minor  mode  because  of  its  contradicting  the 
vital  minor  third  of  the  scale ;  in  all  the  other 
ninths  which  can  be  used  in  either  scale,  there 
will  be  at  least  one  note  which  is  chromatic. 

From  the  minor  ninth  are  derived  thatconspicu- 
ous  class  of  discords  called  diminished  sevenths, 
which  are  its  inversions  with  the  root-note 
omitted.     They  are  said  theoretically,  that  is 


NOCTURNE. 

in  just  intonation,  to  be  very  harsh ;  but  modern 
musicians  seem  to  be  exceedingly  well  content, 
with  the  chord,  and  even  go  to  the  length 
of  using  the  interval  of  a  diminished  seventh 
melodically;  which  shows  at  least  that  the  mind 
can  readily  grasp  it.  This  facility  may  of  course 
be'  partly  owing  to  the  frequency  with  which  the 
chord  occurs  in  modern  music.  Theorists  have 
complained  that  it  is  used  to  excess,  and  in  some 
senses  this  may  be  true ;  but  if  so  it  is  not  un- 
likely that  it  is  a  good  deal  their  fault,  for  they 
rarely  miss  the  opportunity  to  show  off  much 
superfluous  ingenuity  in  pointing  out  to  their 
disciples  the  chameleonlike  qualities  of  the  chord 
and  its  various  uses,  which  it  would  be  much 
better  for  worthy  disciples  to  find  out  for  them- 
selves. It  may  comfort  those  who  feel  disposed 
to  use  the  chord  a  good  deal  at  times  for  really 
musical  purposes,  to  point  out  a  singular  example 
in  a  prelude  in  G  minor  for  organ,  by  Bach 
(Dbrffel  No.  822),  too  long  for  quotation,  in  which 
there  is  a  descending  series  of  twelve  diminished 
sevenths  alternating  with  transitional  resolutions, 
and  followed  by  four  more  diminished  sevenths 
descending  in  a  row  ;  making  in  all  a  notable  total 
of  sixteen  diminished  sevenths  in  thirteen  bars. 

Further  particulars  concerning  the  characteris- 
tics of  this  chord  will  be  found  under  the  heads 
of  Diminished  Interval  and  Change. 

The  complete  chord  of  the  Dominant  ninth 
is  sometimes  called  the  '  Added  ninth '  be- 
cause the  third  which  produces  the  interval 
is  added  to  the  complete  chord  of  the  Dominant 
seventh.  [C.H.H.P.] 

NISSEN,  Georg  Nicolaus  von,  Staatsrath 
of  Denmark,  was  born  at  Hardensleben  (Den- 
mark), Jan.  22,  1 761.  When  charge-d'affaires 
at  Vienna  in  1797  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Mozart's  widow,  assisted  her  in  regulating  her 
embarrassed  affairs,  and,  in  1809,  married  her. 
Retiring  from  official  life  in  1820  he  settled  in 
Salzburg,  where  he  died  March  24,  1826.  His 
biography  of  Mozart,  compiled  from  the  mass 
of  documents  then  in  existence,  and  from  the  re- 
collections of  his  wife  and  Mozart's  sister,was  pub- 
lished after  his  death  by  his  widow,  with  preface 
by  Dr.  Feuerstein  of  Pirna,  and  '  Anhang '  (pub- 
lished by  Breitkopf  &  Hartel,  with  2nd  and  cheap 
edition  by  G.  Senff,  Leipzig,  1828).       [C.  F.  P.] 

NOCTURNE,  NOTTURNO.  A  name  and 
form  of  composition  the  origin  of  which  is  due  to 
John  Field,  whose  18  or  19  so-called  Nocturnes 
(although  not  more  than  about  12  of  them 
deserve  the  title — see  Field)  are  widely  and 
deservedly  popular,  not  only  for  their  intrinsic 
charm  of  freshness  and  simplicity,  but  also  on 
account  of  their  being  the  predecessors  of 
Chopin's  Nocturnes,  which  undoubtedly  owe 
their  form,  though  not  their  characteristic  me- 
lancholy, to  those  of  Field.  It  is  very  inter- 
esting to  compare  some  of  the  Nocturnes  of  both 
Composers, — for  instance,  Field's  No.  5  in  Bb, 
with  Chopin's  op.  32,  No.  2,  both  the  first  and 
second  subjects  of  each  bearing  a  striking  re- 
semblance to  those  of  the  other  composer.    The 


NOTTUENO. 

Italian  form  of  the  word,  Notturno,  is  employed  by 
Mozart  to  denote  a  piece  in  three  movements  for 
strings  in  two  horns  (K.  286).  It  is  also  used  by 
Mendelssohn  for  the  title  of  the  lovely  entr'acte  in 
the  Midsummer  Night's  Dream  Music,  which  re- 
presents the  sleep  of  the  lovers.  More  recently  the 
name  has  been  used  to  cover  a  multitude  of  sins  in 
more  than  one  branch  of  art.  [J.A.F.M.] 

XOCTURNS  (Lat.  Nocturni,  Nocturnce  Ora- 
tiones.  The  Night  Hours).  Portions  of  the  Office 
of  Matins,  consisting  of  Psalms,  Antiphons,  and 
Lessons,  of  which  three  divisions  are  usually 
sung,  on  Sundays  and  Festivals,  and  one  only  on 
Ferial  Days.     [See  Matins.]  [W.  S.  P.] 

NODE  (Latin  nodus,  a  knot).  The  vibration 
of  a  string  may  assume  many  different  forms.  In 
Fig.  I  the  string  is  shewn  vibrating  as  a  whole  ; 
in  Fig.  2  it  divides  into  two  equal  segments ;  in 
Fig.  3  into  three  equal  segments.  These  seg- 
ments, where  the  amplitude  of  vibration  is  great- 
est, are  called  Loops  (I,  Figs.  2  and  3),  and  the 
points  of  rest  between  them  are  called  Nodes  (n). 


Fio.  2. 


NODUS  SALOMONIS. 


461 


Fio.  8. 


Fig.  4. 


But  when  a  string  is  plucked,  as  in  the  harp 
and  guitar,  or  bowed  as  in  the  violin,  it  does  not 
vibrate  in  any  one  of  the  simple  forms  just  de- 
scribed, but  in  several  of  them  at  once.  The  mo- 
tion of  the  whole  string  combined  with  that  of  its 
halves  would  be  represented  by  Fig.  4.  Here 
the  node  is  no  longer  a  point  of  complete  rest  but 
a  point  where  the  amplitude  of  vibration  is  least. 

If  the  string  while  vibrating  be  touched  at 
h  h  i>  etc-  of  its  length,  as  in  playing  har- 
monics on  the  harp  or  violin,  all  forms  of  vibra- 
tion which  have  loops  at  these  points  vanish, 
and  all  forms  which  have  nodes  there  become 
more  marked.  Thus  it  is  possible  to  damp  the 
vibrations  of  the  whole  string,  of  its  third  parts, 
of  its  fifth  parts,  etc.,  leaving  the  vibrations  of 
its  halves,  of  its  fourth  parts,  of  its  sixth 
parts,  etc.,  unimpeded. 

The  column  of*  air  in  an  open  pipe  vibrating 
as  a  whole  has  a  node  in  the  centre,  towards 
which  the  particles  of  air  press  and  from  which 
they  again  draw  back  (see  Fig.  5,  «). 


Fio.  5. 


the  loop  (I)  there  is  no  change  of  density  but 
great  amplitude  of  vibration.  The  open  ends  of 
the  pipe  are  always  loops,  for  the  density  at 
these  points  being  the  same  as  that  of  the  outer 
air,  does  not  change.  This  remains  true  whether 
the  pipe  have  two,  three,  or  more  nodes,  as 
shewn  in  Figs.  6  and  7. 

n  l  n 


Fio.  6. 

;-> 

:                         i 

-*J 

n 

I        »       I 

n 

Fio.  7. 

»-*i 

*-     I     -* 

;<- 

In  a  stopped  pipe  the  closed  end  is  always  a 
node,  and  the  open  end  a  loop,  whether  the 
column  of  air  vibrate  as  a  whole  (see  Fig.  8), 
or  divide  into  segments  as  shown  in  Figs  9 
and  10. 


n               I                  n 

n         I 

n 

I         t 

Fio.  10.  I  — >    ;       <— 

-+ 

Thus  at  the  node  the  air  does  not  move  but 
undergoes  the  greatest  changes  of  density.     At 


In  practice  both  an  open  and  a  stopped  pipe 
vibrate  not  in  any  one  of  the  ways  just  de- 
scribed, but  in  several  of  them  at  once.  Here, 
too,  as  in  the  case  of  strings,  the  node  is  not  a 
point  of  complete  rest  but  of  least  motion. 

Chladni  showed  that  sand  strewn  on  vibrating 
plates  or  membranes  collects  along  the  lines 
where  the  motion  is  least.  These  are  called 
nodal  lines,  and  may  assume  a  variety  of  sym- 
metric forms.  [J.  L.] 

NODUS  SALOMONIS  (Solomon's  knot). 
A  celebrated  Canon,  composed  by  Pietro  Va- 
lentini,  and  described  by  Fr.  Kircher,  in  his 
Musurgia.  It  was  originally  intended  to  be 
sung  by  ninety-six  Voices,  disposed  in  twenty- 
four  Choirs  :  but  Kircher  afterward  ascertained, 
that,  provided  the  distribution  into  four-part 
Choirs  was  properly  carried  out,  the  number  of 
Voices  might  be  increased  to  five  hundred  and 
twelve,  or  even  to  twelve  millions  two  hundred 
thousand.  The  Guida — in  which  four  notes  only 
are  used — stands  as  follows  : — 


The  First  Choir  leads;  the  Bass  and  Tenor 
entering  together ;  the  former,  with  the  Guida, 
and  the  latter,  with  its  Inversion,  beginning  on  the 
Twelfth  above.  After  a  Semibreve  Rest,  the  Alto 
sings  the  Guida,  and  the  Treble  its  Inversion  in 
the  Twelfth  above,  both  beginning  together,  as 
before.  All  the  other  Choirs  enter  in  the  same 
way,  each  pair  of  voices  beginning  one  Semibreve 
later  than  the  preceding  pair.     But,  when  the 


462 


NODUS  SALOMONIS. 


number  of  Voices  exceeds  thirty-two,  the  notes 
must  be  sung  of  different  lengths,  some  Choirs 
taking  each  one  as  a  Large,  others  as  a  Long, 
and  so  on.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  a  Canon  of  this 
kind  is  no  work  of  Art  at  all.  Arithmetically 
considered,  it  reduces  itself  to  a  very  simple  cal- 
culation ;  while,  musically,  it  is  nothing  more  than 
an  intolerable  drawl  on  the  Chord  of  G.  But  no 
Canon,  written  for  so  great  a  number  of  Voices, 
could  possibly  be  founded  on  more  than  one 
single  Chord.  [W.S.R.] 

NOEL  (Old  Fr.  Nouel;  Burgundian  No6; 
Norman  Nud ;  Poitevin  Nau ;  Germ.  Weihnachts 
Gesang ;  Eng.  Nowell,  Nouell,  Christmas  Carol). 
A  peculiar  kind  of  Hymn,  or  Canticle,  of  mediaeval 
origin,  composed,  and  sung,  in  honour  of  the  Na- 
tivity of  Our  Lord. 

The  word  Noel  has  so  long  been  accepted  as 
the  French  equivalent  for  'Christmas,'  that  we 
may  safely  dispense  with  a  dissertation  upon 
its  etymology.  Moreover,  whatever  opinions  may 
be  entertained  as  to  its  root,  it  is  impossible 
to  doubt  the  propriety  of  retaining  it  as  the 
generic  name  of  the  Carol :  for  we  continually 
find  it  embodied  in  the  Christmas  Hymn  or 
Motet,  in  the  form  of  a  joyous  'exclamation; 
and  it  is  almost  certain  that  this  particular  kind 
of  Hymn  was  first  cultivated  either  in  France 
or  Burgundy,  and  commonly  sung  there  in  very 
antient  times. 

Of  the  numerous  early  examples  which  have 
fortunately  been  preserved  to  us,  the  most  inter- 
esting is,  undoubtedly,  the  famous  'Prose  de 
l'ane.'  This  curious  Carol  was  annually  sung,  at 
Beauvais,  and  Sens,  on  the  Feast  of  the  Cir- 
cumcision, as  early  as  the  12th  century;  and 
formed  an  important  part  of  the  Ceremonial  con- 
nected with  a  certain  popular  Festival  called  the 
'  Fete  de  l'Sne,'  on  which  an  ass,  richly  capari- 
soned, and  bearing  upon  its  back  a  young  maiden 
with  a  child  in  her  arms,  was  led  through  the 
city,  in  commemoration  of  the  Flight  into  iEgypt, 
and  finally  brought  in  solemn  procession  to  the 
Cathedral,  while  the  crowd  chaunted  the  follow- 
ing quaint,  but  by  no  means  unmelodious  ditty : — 


Or-l-en-tls  par -tl- bus,  Ad  -  ven-ta  -  vit  as  -  i  -  nus, 
Ilez,  sire  Asnes,  car  chan  tez,  Bel  -  le  bouche  re  -  chig-nez. 


m 


m 


^ 


=gt= 


Pulcher  et     for-tls  -  si  -  mus,    Sar  -  cl  -  nis  ap  -  tis  -  si  -  mus. 
Vous  aurez     da  foin   as  -  sez,       Et     de  I'avoine   a      plantez. 


Hez,    sire   As  -  nes,   hez! 
Hez.   sire   As  •  nes,  bezl 

Scarcely  less  popular  in   Germany,  than  the 
'  Prose  de  l'ane '  in  France,  were  the  beautiful 

1  A  modern  German  critic,  P.  M.  B8hme,  mistakes  the  vowels 
E.V.O.V.A.E— the  mediaeval  abbreviation  for  icculorum.  Amsn— for  a 
similar  cry  of  joy,  and  is  greatly  exercised  at  the  admission  of  a 
'Bacchanalian  shout '  into  the  Office-Books  of  the  Church!  'Statt 
i4ra«nderbacchlscheFreudenruf,  eroeat f  (Bohms,  Das  Oratorium; 
Leipzig,  1861.)   [See  Appendix,  Evovae.] 


NOEL. 

Carols  '  Resonet  in  laudibus '  (Wir  loben  all'  daa 
Kindelein),  and  'Dies  est  laetitiae'  (Der  Tag  der 
ist  so  freundlich) — the  latter,  equally  well  known 
in  Holland  as  'Tis  een  dach  van  vrolichkeit.' 
Both  these  examples  are  believed  to  be  as  old  as 
the  13th  century;  as  is  also  another — 'Tempus 
adest  floridum'— of  equally  tuneful  character. 
'In  dulci  jubilo' — a  curious  mixture  of  Latin 
and  Patois,  set  to  a  deliciously  simple  Melody- 
may  possibly  be  of  somewhat  later  date. 

These  early  forms  were  succeeded,  in  the  16th 
and  1 7th  centuries,  by  Carols  treated,  with  more 
or  less  success,  in  the  Polyphonic  style.  The 
credit  of  having  first  so  treated  them  is  generally 
given  to  Francois  Eustache  du  Caurroy,  Maitre 
de  Chapelle  to  Charles  IX,  Henri  III,  and 
Henri  IV,  on  the  strength  of  a  collection  of 
pieces,  entitled  '  Melanges  de  la  Musique,'  pub- 
lished, at  Paris,  in  1610 — the  year  following  his 
decease.  But,  Giovanni  Maria  Nanini,  who 
died,  at  Rome,  in  1607,  has  left  us  a  magnificent 
example,  in  the  form  of"  a  Motet — '  Hodie  Christus 
natus  est ' — in  the  course  of  which  he  introduces 
the  exclamation,  Noe- !  Noe* !  with  striking  effect ; 
and  Luca  Marenzio  published  a  similar  composi- 
tion, adapted  to  the  same  words,  as  early  as  1588. 
As  Du  Caurroy's  collection  was  contained  in  a 
posthumous  volume,  it  would  perhaps  be  impossi- 
ble, now,  to  reconcile  the  claims  of  the  rival  Com- 
posers, as  to  priority  of  invention ;  though  the 
French  Noels  will,  of  course,  bear  no  com- 
parison with  those  written  in  Italy,  in  point  of 
excellence.  Still,  it  is  only  fair  to  say  that  the 
Italian  Composers  seem  to  have  excited  no  spirit 
of  emulation  among  their  countrymen ;  while, 
for  more  than  a  century  after  the  death  of  Du 
Caurroy,  collections  of  great  value  appeared,  from 
time  to  time,  in  France :  such  as  Jean  Francois 
Dandrieu's  'Suite  de  Noels,'  published  early  in 
the  1 8th  century;  'Noei  Borguignon  de  Gui 
Barozai,'  1720;  'Traduction  des  Noels  Bour- 
guignons,'  1 735 ;  '  Nouveaux  Cantiques  Spirituels 
Provencaux,'  Avignon,  1750;  and  many  others. 
We  subjoin  a  few  bars  of  Nanini's  Motet,  and 
of  one  of  Du  Caurroy's  Noels,  as  specimens  of  the 
distinctive  styles  of  Italy,  and  France,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  1 7th  century. 


G.M.  Nanini. 


No  -   e.      No  -  e\       No 


1  tr^r 

-  4,  No   - 


ig-^LJ. 


T=^ 


'i  ^ 


e.        No  -   e,        No    -    6,        No   -   -    4. 


3 


4,        No  -   e,        NO 


iSs 


-   e.        No 


NOEL. 


NONE. 


463 


Du  Caurroy. 

No         el,        No    - 


I 


'<'.    = 


5, 


S 


No  -  61,  N08I,  No-61,  etc 


^ 


w 


No  -  61,  No -61,     No-ei. 
61.   No-61,    No -61,  etc. 


No-61. 1 


The  history  of  our  own  English  Carols  has  not 
yet  been  exhaustively  treated ;    nor  has  their 
Music  received  the  attention  it  deserves.     In  no 
part  of  the  world  has  the  recurrence  of  Yule -Tide 
been  welcomed  with  greater  rejoicings  than  in 
England;    and,  as  a  natural  consequence,  the 
Christmas  Carol  has  obtained  a  firm  hold,  less 
upon  the  taste  than  the  inmost  affections  of  the 
People.     Not  to  love  a  Carol  is  to  proclaim  one- 
self a  churl.     Yet,  not  one  of  our  great  Com- 
posers seems  to  have  devoted  his  attention  to 
this  subject.     We  have  no  English  Noels  like 
those  of  Eustache  du  Caurroy.      Possibly,  the 
influence    of   national  feeling    may  have  been 
strong  enough,  in  early  times,  to  exclude  the 
refinements  of  Art  from  a  Festival  the  joys  of 
which  were  supposed  to  be  as  freely  open  to  the 
most  unlettered  Peasant  as  to  his  Sovereign. 
But,  be  that  as  it  may,  the  fact  remains,  that 
the  old  Verses  and  Melodies  have  been  perpetu- 
ated among  us,  for  the  most  part,  by  the  process 
of  tradition  alone,  without  any  artistic  adornment 
whatever ;  and,  unless  some  attempt  be  made  to 
preserve  them,  we  can   scarcely  hope  that,  in 
these  days  of  change,  they  will  continue  much 
longer  in  remembrance.     There  are,  of  course, 
some  happy  exceptions.    We  cannot  beHeve  that 
the  famous  Boar's  Head  Carol — '  Caput  apri  de- 
fero' — will  ever  be  forgotten  at  Oxford.     The 
fine  old  melody  sung  to  '  God  rest  you,  merrie 
Gentlemen,'  possessing  as  it  does  all   the  best 
qualifications  of  a  sterling  Hymn  Tune,  will 
probably  last  as  long  as  the  Verses  with  which 
it  is  associated.    [See  Hymn.]     But,  the  beauty 
of  this  noble  Tune  can  only  be  fully  appreciated, 
when  it  is  heard  in  Polyphonic  Harmony,  with 
the  Melody  placed,  according  to  the  invariable 
custom  of  the  17th  century,  in  the  Tenor.    A 
good  collection  of  English  Carols,  so  treated,  would 
form  an  invaluable  addition  to  our  store  of  popu- 
lar Choir  Music. 

The  best,  as  well  as  the  most  popular  English 
Carols,  of  the  present  day,  are  translations  from 
well-known  mediaeval  originals.  The  Rev.  J.  M. 
Neale  has  been  peculiarly  happy  in  his  adapta- 
tions ;  among  which  are  the  long-established  fa- 
Tourites,  'Christ  waB  born  on  Christmas  Day' 


('Resonet  in  laudibus');  'Good  Christian  men, 
rejoice,  and  sing '  ('  In  dulci  jubilo') ;  '  Royal  Day 
that  chasest  gloom'  ('Dies  est  laetitiae');  and 
'Good  King  Wenceslas  looked  out'  ('Tempus 
adest  floridum')— though  the  Legend  of  'Good 
King  Wenceslas'  has  no  connection  whatever 
with  the  original  Latin  Verses.1 

Of  Modern  Carols,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word,  it  is  unnecessary  to  say  more  than  that 
they  follow,  for  the  most  part,  the  type  of  the 
ordinary  Part  Song.  [\y.  S.  R.] 

NOHL,  Carl  Friedbich  Lddwio,  a  well- 
known  writer  on  music  and  musical  subjects,  was 
born  at  Iserlohn  in  Westphalia,  on  Dec.  5,  1831. 
His  father  is  a  legal  functionary,  and  it  was  in- 
tended that  the  son  should  follow  the  same  profes- 
sion, although  his  taste  for  music  showed  itself 
while  he  was  still  a  child.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Gymnasium  of  Dinsburg,  and  in  1850  entered  the 
University  of  Bonn.  From  Bonn  he  proceeded  to 
Heidelberg,  in  order  to  pursue  his  legal  studies, 
which  were  however  neglected  for  musical  and 
literary  pursuits.  At  Heidelberg  he  determined 
to  make  music  his  profession,  but  this  idea  was 
abandoned  in  accordance  with  his  father's  wishes, 
and  he  continued  the  study  of  jurisprudence  at 
Berlin,  at  the  same  time  receiving  instruction 
in  the  theory  of  music  from  Professor  Dehn. 
In  1853  Nohl  entered  the  Prussian  Civil  Service 
as  Referendarius,  but  in  1856  his  health  broke 
down,  and  he  had  to  undertake  a  journey  to 
France  and  Italy.  He  returned  to  Berlin  in  1857, 
and  continued  his  musical  studies  under  Pro- 
fessor Kiel.  In  1858  he  finally  abandoned  the 
legal  profession,  and  settled  at  Heidelberg,  the 
University  of  which  place  conferred  upon  him 
the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  (i860).  In 
the  following  year  he  went  to  Munich,  where,  in 
1865  King  Ludwig  II  appointed  him  an  Honor- 
ary Professor  in  the  University.  In  1872  he  re- 
turned to  Heidelberg,  where  he  has  since  resided, 
and  where  he  teaches  musical  history  and  aes- 
thetics. Space  will  not  allow  of  our  inserting  a 
complete  list  of  Nohl's  works:  many  of  them 
have  been  translated  into  English,  and  are 
known  in  this  country.  His  '  Mozart's  Letters ' 
(1865),  'Beethoven's  Letters'  (1865  and  1870), 
'  Letters  of  Musicians '  (1866),  '  Gluck  and 
Wagner'  (1870),  'Die  Beethoven  Feier '  (1871), 
'Beethoven  according  to  the  representations  of 
his  Contemporaries'  (1877),  'Life  of  Bee- 
thoven' (1877),  and  other  works  on  Mozart  and 
Beethoven,  are  valuable  contributions  to  the  mu- 
sical literature  of  the  century,  and  have  gone 
through  many  editions.  [W.  B.  S.] 

NONE  (Lat.  Officium  (vel  Oratio)  ad  Horam 
Nonam,  Ad,  Nwiam),  The  last  of  the  'Lesser 
Hours,'  in  the  Roman  Breviary. 

The  Office  consists  of  the  Versicle,  and  Re- 
sponse, *  Deus  in  adjutorium' ;  a  Hymn — '  Rerum 
Deus  tenax  vigor' — which  never  changes ;  the  last 
forty-eight  verses  of  the  Psalm, '  Beati  immaculati ,' 

1  See  the  Kev.  T.  Helmore'i  'Carols  for  Christ  mastlde';  a  work, 
which,  notwithstanding  Its  modest  pretensions.  is  by  far  the  best 
Collection  published  in  a  popular  form. 


464 


NONE. 


NON  NOBIS  DOMINE. 


sung  in  three  divisions,  but,  under  a  single  An- 
tiphon ;  the  Capitulum,  and  Responsorium  for 
the  Season ;  and  the  Prayer,  or  Collect,  for  the 
Day.  The  Plain  Chaunt  Music  for  None  will 
be  found  in  the  '  Antiphonarium  Romanum,' 
and  the  'Directorium  Chori.'  [W.S.R.] 

NONET  (Ital.  Nonetto).  A  Composition, 
written  for  nine  Voices,  or  Instruments. 

A  Vocal  Nonet  is  rarely  called  into  existence, 
without  some  special  raison  d'Stre.  For  instance, 
in  the  Polyphonic  Schools,  it  not  unfrequently 
results  from  the  union  of  two  Choirs,  one  for  five, 
and  the  other  for  four  Voices,  as  in  the  case  of 
Allegri's  celebrated  Miserere :  while,  in  Operatic 
Music,  it  becomes  a  self-evident  necessity,  when- 
ever nine  Characters  are  brought  upon  the  Stage, 
either  together,  or  in  succession,  during  the  course 
of  a  continuous  series  of  movements,  as  in  the 
Finale  to  the  first  Act  of  '  Die  Zauberflote.' 

Among  the  few  Instrumental  Nonets,  produced 
since  the  time  of  Mozart,  the  first  place  must 
unquestionably  be  accorded  to  Spohr's  delight- 
ful Op.  31,  for  Stringed  and  Wind  Instruments 
combined.  [W.S.R.] 

NON  NOBIS  DOMTNE.  A  celebrated 
Canon,  generally  sung,  in  England,  as  a  substitute 
for  '  Grace  after  meat,'  at  public  dinners,  and  on 
other  festive  occasions. 

English  historians  are  unanimous  in  describing 
*  Non  nobis  Domine '  as  the  composition  of  William 
Byrd :  but  it  is  not  to  be  found  in  any  volume  of 
his  published  works,  though  the  subject  appears 
in  one  of  the  '  Cantiones  sacrse,'  printed  by  Byrd 
and  Tallis  in  1575.  Burney  tells  us  that  the 
earliest  copy  to  which  Byrd's  name  is  appended 
is  that  inserted  in  Hilton's  '  Catch  that  Catch 
can.'  It  is  undoubtedly  to  be  found  in  that 
curious  work ;  but,  neither  in  the  edition  of 
1652,  nor  that  of  1658,  is  the  author's  name  men- 
tioned ;  and  the  existence  of  an  earlier  edition, 
printed  in  165 1,  though  strongly  suspected,  has 
never  been  satisfactorily  proved.  Dr.  Pepusch, 
in  his  "Treatise  on  Harmony'  (1 730-1 731),  dis- 
tinctly calls  it  '  the  famous  Canon  by  William 
Byrd,'  and  no  doubt  seems  to  have  been  felt  on 
the  subject  until  about  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century,  when  Carlo  Ricciotti  published,  at 
Amsterdam,  a  Concerto,  founded  on  the  well- 
known  theme,  which  he  attributed  to  Palestrina. 
Palestrina  has,  indeed,  used  its  opening  clause 
more  than  once ;  notably  in  his  Madrigal, '  When 
flowery  meadows  deck  the  year' — one  of  the  love- 
liest that  ever  was  written.  This,  however,  proves 
nothing.  He  has  not  treated  it  as  a  Canon — in 
which  form  it  bears  far  less  resemblance  to  his 
peculiar  style  than  to  that  of  Josquin  des  Pr£s. 
The  Subject,  moreover,  is  by  no  means  an  un- 
usual one  ;  and  has  even  been  called,  by  Morley, 
'  a  most  common  point.'  Handel  has  used  it,  in 
his  •Hallelujah  Chorus,'  in  '  I  will  sing  unto  the 
Lord'  (Israel),1  and  in  other  places  too  numerous 
to  mention.  Bach  has  employed  it  as  the  sub- 
ject of  an  'Allabreve  per  Organo  pleno,'  in  D 
(Dorffel,  No.  1053).    Mendelssohn  has  also  used 

>  See  Burney's '  Commemoration  of  Handel,'  p.  39. 


the  few  opening  notes  in  '  Not  only  unto  him' — 
the  last  chorus  in  S.  Paul ;  and  these  notes, 
phrased  exactly  as  in  the  Canon,  will  be  found 
among  the  works  of  so  many  composers,  that  it 
is  clear  they  are  looked  upon  as  common  property. 
But,  the  Subject  is  not  the  Canon.  It  is  in  the 
ingenuity  of  that  that  the  true  merit  lies.  We 
claim  that  merit  for  Byrd.  Ricciotti  may  pos- 
Bibly  have  been  tempted  to  accord  it  to  Palestrina, 
on  the  authority  of  a  very  antient  copy,  said  to 
be  preserved  in  the  Vatican,  engraved  upon  a 
plate  of  gold.  But  it  does  not  appear  that  Pa- 
lestrina's  name  is  appended  to  this  copy ;  and  it 
is  worthy  of  remark,  that,  in  the  Introduction  to 
Dr.  Blow's  'Amphion  Anglicus,'  printed  in  1700, 
special  mention  is  made  of  'Bird's  Anthem  in 
golden  notes,'  '  Preserv'd  intire  in  the  Vatican.' 

The  Canon — a  perpetual  one,  in  the  Mixo- 
lydian  Mode — is  capable  of  many  solutions,  all 
exhibiting  a  freedom  of  treatment  not  quite 
consistent  with  the  strict  laws  of  Counterpoint. 
The  most  noticeable  deviations  from  rule,  are, 
some  Hidden  Octaves,  which  seem  to  form  an 
essential  element  in  the  construction  of  the  second 
clause"  ;  and  a  certain  Changing-Note,  in  the 
form  of  an  ascending  Seventh — which  last  fault, 
however,  would  not  appear,  were  the  parts  made 
to  leave  off,  in  the  old-fashioned  way,  one  at  a 
time,  as  they  began.  The  leading  part — tech- 
nically termed  the  Guida, — taken  at  its  true 
pitch,  is  as  follows : — 


$ 


£ 


d=^H^M 


r*« 


Hon    no  -  bis    Do  -  mi-ne,  non     no  -  bis 


m 


^33^=F^ 


tuo     da     glo-ri-am.         sed    nomlnl     tuo     da     glo-ri-am 

The  simplest  solution  of  which  it  seems  capable 
is  in  two  parts ;  of  which  the  first  leads,  with  the 
Guida,  while  the  second  follows,  after  a  Breve 
rest,  in  the  Fifth  below,  singing  the  B  flat,  in 
order  to  preserve  the  tonality.  The  chief 
demerit  of  this  lies  in  the  prominence  which  it 
gives  to  the  Hidden  Octaves  already  mentioned. 

In  another  two-part  solution,  the  upper  Voice, 
leading  with  the  Guida,  is  followed,  after  a 
Semibreve  rest,  by  the  lower  one,  in  the  Fourth 
below ;  all  the  Fs  in  the  second  Voice  being 
made  sharp. 

In  a  third,  the  Guida  leads,  as  before,  and 
the  lower  Voice  follows,  after  three  Semibreve 
rests,  in  the  Octave  below. 

These  three  solutions — in  so  far  as  they  are 
complete  in  two  parts — Beem,  hitherto,  to  have 
escaped  notice:  but  they  form  the  basis  of  all 
solutions  for  a  greater  number  of  Voices. 

The  solution  usually  sung  is  in  three  parts.  The 
Treble  leads.  The  Alto  follows,  after  a  Semibreve 
Rest,  in  the  Fourth  below,  singing  all  the  Fs 
sharp.  And  the  Tenor  enters,  three  Semibreve 
rests  after  the  Guida,  in  the  Octave  below  it.1 

Another  three-part  solution  may  be  formed,  as 

t  We  are  here  assuming  that  the  Canon  is  sung  at  its  true  pitch. 
It  is  more  frequently  transposed  at  least  a  Fifth  lower ;  aud  sung  by 
an  Alto,  a  Tenor,  and  a  Bass. 


NON  NOBIS  DOMINE. 


NORTH. 


4G5 


follows.  The  Treble  leads,  with  the  Guida.  The 
Alto  follows,  after  a  Breve  Rest,  in  the  Fifth  below, 
singing  the  B  flat.  And  the  Tenor  enters,  one 
Semibreve  later  than  the  Alto,  in  the  Octave 
below  the  Guida.  We  believe  that  this  solution 
—which  is  at  least  as  effective  as  that  in  general 
use,  and,  in  some  places,  even  more  so — has  also 
remained  hitherto  undiscovered. 

Among  the  MSS.  preserved  in  the  Royal 
Library  at  Buckingham  Palace  is  a  solution  in 
four  parts.  The  Tenor  leads  with  the  Guida. 
The  Bass  follows,  after  a  Breve  rest,  in  the 
Fifth  below,  singing  the  B  flat.  The  Alto  enters, 
a  Breve  after  the  Bass,  in  the  Fourth  above  the 
Guida,  singing  the  B  flat.  The  Treble  begins  a 
Semibreve  after  the  Alto,  an  Octave  above  the 
Guida.  In  order  to  work  out  this  solution,  the 
seventh  note  in  the  Alto  must  be  made  a  Semi- 
breve, and  the  eighth  a  Minim  ;  and  the  three 
last  notes  in  the  Treble  must  be  F,  F,  C,  instead 
B,  B,  A.  No  clue  can  be  obtained,  either  as 
to  the  authorship,  or  the  date,  of  this  very  in- 
teresting MS. 

Furthermore,  Burney  entertains  us,  on  the 
authority  of  Hilton,  with  a  solution  in  which  all 
the  parts  are  inverted ;  thus — 


fpo*  "  r-r^^^^^^ 


Non    no-bls      Do-mi-ne,  non   no  -  bis,        sed  nomine 


^ay^ 


3 


tuo    da     glo-rl-am,         sed  nomini       tuo     da    glo-ri-am. 

The  Guida  is  here  led  off  by  the  second  voice. 
The  first  follows,  after  a  Semibreve  rest,  in  the 
Fourth  above.  The  third  enters,  two  Semibreves 
after  the  second,  in  the  Twelfth  below  the  Guida. 
We  give  this  solution  for  what  it  is  worth  ;  but, 
it  presents  so  many  crudities  that  it  is  impossible 
to  believe  it  can  ever  have  entered  into  the 
Composer's  original  design.  [W.  S.  R.] 

NON  PLUS  ULTRA,  the  title  of  a  pianoforte 
sonata  in  F  by  Woelfl  (op.  41),  published  in 
1 807  (?),  and  intended  to  express  that  mechanical 
difficulty  could  no  further  go.  The  finale  is  a 
set  of  variations  on  '  Life  let  us  cherish.'  The 
challenge  was  answered  by  '  Plus  ultra,'  the  title 
affixed  by  the  publishers  to  Dussek's  sonata  '  Le 
retour  a  Paris'  (op.  71)  on  its  publication  in 
England.  [G.] 

NONNE  SANGLANTE,  LA.  Opera  in  5 
acts ;  words  by  Scribe  and  Delavigne,  from 
Lewis's  '  Monk ' ;  music  by  Gounod.  Produced 
at  the  Academic,  Oct.  18,  1854.  [G.] 

NORCOME,  Daniel,  lay-clerk  of  St.  George's 
Chapel,  Windsor,  contributed  a  madrigal,  *  With 
angel's  face  and  brightness,'  to  'The  Triumphes 
of  Oriana,'  1601.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  bio- 
graphy. [W.H.H.] 

NORMA.  Opera  in  2  acts;  words  by  Romani, 
music  by  Bellini.  Produced  at  Milan,  Lent  1832 
(Donzelli,  Pasta,  Grisi).  In  Paris,  Italiens,  Dec. 
8,  1855.  In  London,  in  Italian,  King's  Theatre, 
June  20,  1833;  in  English  (Planche-),  Drury 
Lane,  June  24,  1837.  [G.] 

VOL.  II.   ft.  10. 


NORRIS,  Thomas,  Mus.  Baa,  born  about 
1745,  was  a  chorister  of  Salisbury  Cathedral 
under  Dr.  Stephens.  He  appeared  as  one  of  the 
principal  soprani  at  Worcester  Festival,  1761, 
and  Hereford  Festival,  1762,  and  in  the  latter 
year  at  Drury  Lane  in  'The  Spring,'  a  pasticcio. 
In  1765  he  was  appointed  organist  of  Christ 
Church  Cathedral,  Oxford  ;  in  November  of  the 
same  year  graduated  at  Oxford  as  Mus.  Baa,  his 
exercise  (two  anthems,  '  The  Lord  is  king '  and 
'  I  will  alway  give  thanks ')  being  performed  in 
the  Music  School,  Nov.  12  ;  and  on  Dec.  15  was 
chosen  organist  of  St.  John's  College.  In  1766 
he  appeared  at  Gloucester  Festival  as  a  tenor 
singer,  and  continued  to  sing  at  the  Meetings 
of  the  Three  Choirs  until  1788.  On  Nov.  5, 
1 7  71,  he  was  admitted  a  lay  clerk  of  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford.  He  sang  at  the  Commemoration 
of  Handel  in  1784  (where  his  delivery  of  the 
final  recitatives  in  '  Israel  in  Egypt,'  and  of  '  Thy 
rebuke,'  and  '  Behold  and  see,'  in  '  Messiah,'  was 
greatly  admired),  and  at  most  of  the  subsequent 
performances  in  the  Abbey.  He  sang  also  at 
the  oratorios  in,  London.  In  1790  he  was  en- 
gaged at  the  Birmingham  Festival.  But  the  effort 
proved  fatal ;  ten  days  afterwards  (Sept.  s,  1 790), 
ne  expired  at  Himley  Hall,  near  Stourbridge,  the 
seat  of  Lord  Dudley  and  Ward.  Norris  com- 
posed several  anthems,  only  one  of  which  has 
been  printed ;  6  symphonies  for  strings,  with  two 
hautboys  and  two  horns ;  and  some  glees  and 
other  vocal  pieces,  of  which  5  glees  and  3  canons 
are  printed  in  Warren's  Collections.  His  career 
was  much  prejudiced  by  habits  of  intemper- 
ance. [W.H.H.] 

NORRIS,  William,  one  of  the  Children  of  the 
Chapel  Royal  at  the  coronation  of  James  II  in 
1685 ;  afterwards  a  member  of  the  choir,  and  mas- 
ter of  the  choristers  of  Lincoln.  An  anthem  by 
him, '  Blessed  are  those,'  was  printed  in  Playford's 
'  Divine  Companion,'  and  a  service  and  two 
anthems  are  in  the  Tudway  Collection  (Harl. 
MS.  7340).  He  composed  an  ode  for  St.  Cecilia's 
day,  believed  to  have  been  performed  in  London 
in  1702  ;  the  MS.  was  in  the  possession  of  Ben- 
jamin Jacob,  and  was  sold  with  the  rest  of  his 
library  in  1830,  but  has  not  been  traced.  Norris 
is  supposed  to  have  died  about  1 7 10.      [ W.  H.  H.] 

NORTH.  Fbancis,  Lord  Guilpobd,  born  at 
Rougham,  Norfolk,  about  1640,  Chief  Justice 
of  the  Common  Pleas,  and  afterwards  Lord 
Chancellor,  one  of  the  best  amateur  musicians  of 
his  time,  published  anonymously  in  1677  'A. 
Philosophical  Essay  on  Musick,'  containing  some 
curious  observations  on  the  phenomena  of  sounds. 
He  died  Sept.  7,  1685. 

The  Hon.  Roger  Nobth,  his  brother,  born 
at  Rougham  in  1650,  was  also  bred  to  the  bar, 
and  became  Attorney-General  to  James  II.  He 
wrote  several  family  biographies  and  other  works, 
but  his  claim  to  mention  here  is  as  amthor  of 
'Memoirs  of  Musick,'  a  well-written  sketch  of 
the  progress  of  the  art  from  the  time  of  the 
ancient  Greeks  to  about  1730.  The  MS.  re- 
mained in  the  family's  possession,  unpublished, 
until  1842,  when  it  came  into  the  hands  of 
Hh 


466 


NORTH. 


George  Townshend  Smith,  then  organist  of  Lynn, 
Norfolk,  through  whose  exertions  it  was  pub- 
lished in  1846  under  the  editorship  of  Dr.  Rim- 
bault.  North,  who  was  a  skilled  musical  amateur, 
died  at  Rougham  in  1733.  [W.H.H.] 

NORWICH  FESTIVAL.  The  establishment 
of  Triennial  Festivals  at  Norwich  dates  from  the 
year  1824,  but  previous  to  this,  Musical  Festivals 
were  held  in  1770, 1802,  1809,  1811,  1813,  1814, 
and  181 7.  These  generally  consisted  of  two  or 
more  miscellaneous  concerts  held  either  in  St. 
Andrew's  Hall  or  the  theatre,  and  of  oratorios 
and  selections  of  sacred  music  performed  in  the 
church  of  St.  Peter's  Mancroft.  On  these  occa- 
sions the  band  was  chiefly  composed  of  local 
musicians,  both  amateur  and  professional,  led  by 
London  principals  under  different  conductors,  the 
most  prominent  of  whom  was  Dr.  Beckwith.  In 
1824  the  scheme  of  Triennial  Festivals,  after 
having  been  discussed  for  some  years,  was  finally 
adopted  on  the  motion  of  Mr.  Philip  Martineau, 
surgeon,  of  Norwich.  A  chorus  of  150  voices 
was  formed  and  trained  by  Mr.  Edward  Taylor, 
afterwards  Gresham  Professor,  "assisted  by  the 
Cathedral  organist,  Mr.  Z.  Buck.  The  band  con- 
sisted of  no  performers,  and  the  conductor  was 
Sir  George  Smart.  The  Festival  was  attended 
by  10,087  people,  and  was  a  great  financial  suc- 
cess, the  sum  of  £241 1  4s.  2d.  being  handed  over 
to  the  Norfolk  and  Norwich  Hospital,  after  pay- 
ing all  expenses.  Since  1824  Festivals  have  been 
held  at  Norwich  trienially,  but  the  pecuniary 
success  has  never  been  so  great  as  in  that  year ; 
in  1836,  1854,  and  1869  the  expenses  were  in 
excess  of  the  receipts.  The  conductor  from  1824 
to  1836  was  Sir  George  Smart;  from  1839  to 
1842,  Professor  Taylor;  and  from  1842  to  1878, 
Sir  Julius  Benedict.  In  1839  Spohr  was  present, 
conducted  his  'Calvary,'  played  his  Concertino, 
'  Sonst  und  Jetzt,'  and  with  Blagrove  a  Concer- 
tante  for  2  violins.  He  would  have  come  again 
in  1842  for  the  performance  of  his  'Fall  of 
Babylon '  if  he  could  have  obtained  leave  of  ab- 
sence from  Cassel.  It  is  impossible  to  give  a  list 
of  all  the  artists  who  have  sung  at  these  Fes- 
tivals ;  it  would  include  the  names  of  all  the 
greatest  vocalists  of  the  century,  from  Mrs.  Bil- 
lington  and  Braham  (in  1802)  to  Mme.  Albani 
and  Mr.  Santley  (in  1878).  Handel's  'Messiah' 
has  been  performed  at  every  Festival  except  four; 
and  amongst  less  known  works  the  following 
may  be  mentioned :  Mozart's  '  Davidde  Peni- 
tente'  (1848),  Bexfield's  'Israel Restored'  (1852), 
Pierson's  'Jerusalem'  (1852),  and  'Hezekiah' 
(1869),  Molique's  'Abraham'  (i860),  and  Han- 
del's '  Passion  Music '  ( 1 866).  [W.  B.  S.] 

NOTA  CAMBITA  (Ital.  Nota  Cambiata, 
Germ.  Wechselnole,  Eng.  Changing  Note.)  I. 
A  Note  of  Irregular  Transition :  in  other  words,  a 
Passing-,Note,  on  the  strong  part  of  the  measure ; 
as  opposed  to  the  Note  of  Regular  Transition,  or 
true  Passing-Note,  which,  though  equally  foreign 
to  the  harmony,  produces  a  less  discordant  effect, 
because  it  invariably  occurs  upon  the  weak  part 
of  the  measure. 


NOTATION. 

In  the  following  example  from  Cherubini,  the  D 
is  a  Changing,  and  the  second  G  a  Passing-Note. 

t 


I 


^E=£ 


=2 


IS 


3 


E 


The  use  of  Changing-Notes  is  only  permitted, 
in  strict  Counterpoint,  as  a  means  of  escape  from 
some  grave  difficulty ;  and,  of  course,  only  in  the 
Second,  Third  and  Fifth  Orders.  [See  Counter- 
point; Part-Writing.] 

II.  Fux  applies  the  term,  Nota  cambita,1  to 
a  peculiar  Licence,  by  virtue  of  which  the  Poly- 
phonic Composers,  instead  of  resolving  a  Passing 
Discord,  at  once,  suffered  it  to  descend  a  Third, 
and  then  to  rise  a  Second  to  its  Resolution. 
Cherubini  condemns  this  Licence,  as  one  which 
should  'neither  be  admitted,  nor  tolerated,  in 
strict  Counterpoint.'  Fux  accounts  for  it  by  the 
omission  of  an  imaginary  Quaver.  The  norm  of 
the  passage  is,  he  says,  as  at  (a),  in  the  following 
example.  By  leaving  out  the  first  Quaver,  it  is 
made  to  appear  as  at  (0) ;  by  leaving  out  the 
second,  as  at  (c). 

(a)  (6)  (c) 


i 


@ 


j  1 1 1 


£g5E 


1  ■&-     &  -&, 

Cherubini  recommends  the  form  shown  at  (I)). 
The  common  consent  of  the  great  Polyphonic  Com- 
posers justifies  the  preference  of  (c) ;  and  their  best 
defence  lies  in  the  exquisitely  beautiful  effects  they 
produce  by  means  of  it.  Without  multiplying  ex- 
amples, we  may  mention  innumerable  instances 
in  the  'Missa  Papse  Marcelli,'  and  in  Orlando 
Gibbons's  Full  Anthem  'Hosanna  to  the  Son  of 
David.'  [See  Harmony,  p.  678.]  The  last-named 
Composition — one  of  the  finest  in  existence,  in 
the  English  Polyphonic  School — derives  a  great 
part  of  its  wonderful  beauty  from  the  judicious 
use  of  this  unjustly  condemned  Licence.  [W.  S.  R.] 

NOTATION  (Lat.  Notatio;  Fr.  Semiographie ; 
Germ.  Notirung,  Notenschrift,  Tonschrift).  The 
Art  of  expressing  musical  ideas  in  writing. 

Apart  from  its  intrinsic  value,  the  history  of 
Notation  derives  much  collateral  importance  from 
the  light  it  throws  upon  that  of  Music,  generally. 
From  its  earliest  infancy,  the  Art  has  known  no 
period  of  absolute  stagnation.  Incessant  pro- 
gress has  long  been  recognised  as  a  fundamental 
law  of  its  existence ;  and  a  more  or  less  extensive 
change  in  its  written  language  has  been  naturally 
demanded,  at  each  successive  stage  of  its  develop- 
ment. This  conceded,  we  can  scarcely  wonder  that 
the  study  of  such  changes  should  materially  aid 
our  attempts  to  trace  the  story  of  its  inner  life. 

Three  different  systems  of  Notation  have  been 
accepted  as  sufficient  for  all  practical  purposes, 
at  different  periods.  In  very  early  times,  when 
Melody  was  simple,  and  Harmony  unknown, 
musical  sounds  were  represented  by  the  Letters 

1  '  Nota  cambita,  ab  Italis  cambiata  nuncupata.'  (Gradiu  ad  Tarnac 
sum,  ed.  1725,  p.  65.) 


NOTATION. 

of  the  Alphabet.  Many  centuries  later,  these 
were  superseded  by  a  species  of  Hieratic  Charac- 
ter, the  components  of  which  were  known  to  the 
Monks  of  the  Middle  Ages  under  the  name  of 
Neumae.  The  final  stage  of  perfection  was 
reached,  when  these  last  were  developed  into  the 
characters  now  called  Notes,  and  written  upon 
the  Lines  and  Spaces  of  the  Stave. 

The  Greeks  made  use  of  Uncial  Letters,  inter- 
mixed occasionally  with  a  few  Minusculae,  and 
written  in  an  endless  variety  of  different  posi- 
tions— upright,  inverted,  lying  on  the  right  or 
left  side,  divided  in  half,  placed  side  by  side,  and 
otherwise  grouped  into  some  hundred  and  twenty 
well-marked  combinations,  which,  with  more  than 
a  thousand  minor  variations,  have  been  so  clearly 
described  by  Alypius,  Aristides  Quintilianus,  and 
other  Hellenic  writers,  that,  could  we  but  obtain 
authentic  copies  of  the  Hymns  of  Pindar,  or  the 
Choruses  of  Sophocles,  we  should  probably  find  them 
easier  to  decypher  than  many  mediaeval  MSS.1 

When  Greece  succumbed  beneath  the  power  of 
Western  Europe,  Roman  Letters  took  the  place 
of  the  more  archaic  forms,  but  with  a  different 
application  ;  for,  while  the  details  of  Greek  No- 
tation were  designed  with  special  reference  to 
the  division  of  the  system  into  those  peculiar 
Tetrachords  which  formed  its  most  prominent 
characteristic,  the  Roman  Letters  were,  at  a 
very  early  period,  applied,  in  alphabetical  order, 
to  the  Degrees  of  the  Scale — a  much  more  simple 
arrangement,  the  value  of  which  is  too  well  known 
to  need  comment.  Boethius,  writing  in  the  6th 
century,  sanctioned  the  use  of  the  first  fifteen 
Letters  of  the  Roman  Alphabet,  for  certain  special 
purposes.  This  number  was  afterwards  reduced 
to  seven — it  is  not  easy  to  say  by  whom.8  Tra- 
dition ascribes  the  first  use  of  the  lesser  number 
to  S.  Gregory,  but  on  very  insufficient  grounds ; 
though  the  reactionary  idea  that  he  was  unac- 
quainted with  the  Alphabetical  System,  cannot 
for  a  moment  be  entertained.3  It  is  certain  that 
Letters  were  used,  for  many  centuries,  in  the 
Notation  of  Plain  Chaunt,  in  the  West ;  just  as 
the  use  of  the  Greek  Characters  was  retained  in 
the  Office-Books  of  the  Eastern  Church.  After 
the  8th  century,  though  they  rarely  appeared  in 
writing,  the  Degrees  of  the  Scale  were  still  named 
after  them.  As  symbols  of  these  Degrees,  they 
have  never  been  discarded.  Guido  used  them,  in 
the  nth  century,  in  connection  with  the  Solmisa- 
tion  of  the  Hexachords  ;  though  their  presence, 
as  written  characters,  was  then  no  longer  needed. 
The  first  eight,  indeed,  lived  on,  in  a  certain 
way,  until  quite  recent  times,  in  the  Tablature  for 
the  Lute,  which  always  claimed  a  special  method 

i  The  authenticity  of  the  three  Hymns,  printed.  In  1581,  by  Vln- 
eenzo  Galilei,  rests  on  such  slender  grounds,  that  it  would  be  ex- 
tremely unsafe  to  accept  them  as  genuine. 

3  The  teptem  diterimina  varum  of  Virgil  (JEn.  vl.  645)  have  been 
supposed  to  allude  to  these  seven  letters ;  and  the  context  certainly 
suggests  some  possible  connection  with  the  subject. 

3  Though  discussion  of  individual  authorities  is  quite  foreign  to  the 
purpose  of  the  present  article,  it  may  be  well  to  observe,  that,  within 
the  last  five  years,  a  well-known  Belgian  writer— F.  A.  Gevaert— has 
advanced  certain  opinions  connected  with  the  subject  of  antient 
Notation,  very  much  at  variance  with  those  of  most  earlier  Historians. 
The  reader  will  find  Mons.  Gevaert's  views  fully  explained  in  his 
*  Histoire  et  Theorie  de  la  Muslque  dans  I'AntlquiteV  Paris,  1876, 


NOTATION. 


467 


of  its  own.  This,  however,  was  an  exceptional 
case.  Long  before  the  invention  of  the  Stave,  the 
system  came  virtually  to  an  end :  and,  in  our  own 
day,  it  survives  only  in  the  nomenclature  of  our 
notes,  and  the  employment  of  the  F,  C,  and  G 
Clefs.    [See  Hexachokd,  Tablature.] 

Though  wanting  neither  in  clearness  nor  in  cer- 
tainty, this  primitive  system  was  marred,  through- 
out all  its  changes,  by  one  very  serious  defect. 
A  mere  collection  of  arbitrary  signs,  arranged  in 
straight  lines  above  the  poetical  text,  it  made 
no  attempt  to  imitate,  by  means  of  symmetrical 
forms,  the  undulations  of  the  Melody  it  repre- 
sented. To  supply  this  deficiency,  a  new  system 
was  invented,  based  upon  an  entirely  different 
principle,  and  bringing  into  use  an  entirely  new 
series  of  characters,  of  which  we  first  find  well- 
formed  examples  in  the  MSS.  of  the  8  th  cen- 
tury, though  similar  figures  are  believed  to  have 
been  traced  back  as  far  as  the  6th.  These  cha- 
racters consisted  of  Points,  Lines,  Accents,  Hooks, 
Curves,  Angles,  Retorted  Figures,  and  a  multi- 
tude of  other  signs,  or  1  Neumae,  placed,  more  or 
less  exactly,  over  the  syllables  to  which  they 
were  intended  to  be  sung,  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
indicate,  by  their  proportionate  distances  above 
the  text,  the  places  in  which  the  Melody  was  to 
rise  or  fall.  Joannes  de  Muris  mentions  seven 
different  species  of  Neumae.  A  MS.  preserved  at 
Kloster  Murbach  describes  seventeen.  A  still 
more  valuable  Codex,  once  belonging  to  the 
Monastery  of  S.  Blasien,  in  the  Black  Forest, 
gives  the  names  and  figures  of  forty  :  and  many 
curious  forms  are  noticed  in  Fra  Angelico  Ottobi's 
Calliopea  leghale  (written  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  14th  century),  and  other  similar  works. 
The  following  were  the  forms  most  commonly 
used ;  though,  of  course,  mediaeval  caligraphy 
varied  greatly  at  different  periods. 


;  ;;  m   *   :'\ 

y\f\  *>  9  a 

5-              6. 

7- 

8. 

Is 

9- 

10. 

1.  The  Virga  indicated  a  long  single  note, 
which  was  understood  to  be  a  high  or  a  low  one, 
according  to  the  height  of  the  sign  above  the 
text.  A  group  of  two  was  called  a  Bivirga,  and 
one  of  three,  a  Trivirga — representing  two  and 
three  notes  respectively. 

2.  The  Functus  indicated  a  shorter  note,  sub- 
ject to  the  same  rule  of  position,  and  of  multipli- 
cation into  the  Bipunctus,  and  THpunctus. 

3.  The  Fodatus  represented  a  group  of  two 

1  From  yeO/ia,  a  nod,  or  sign ;  or,  as  some  have  supposed,  from 
-rrvevixa,  the  long  succession  of  notes  song  after  a  1'lain  Chaunt 
•  Alleluia.' 

Hh2 


468 


NOTATION. 


NOTATION. 


notes,  of  which  the  second  was  the  highest.     Its 
figure  varied  considerably  in  different  MSS. 

4.  The  CUvis,  Clinis,  or  Flexa,  indicated  a 
group  of  two  notes,  of  which  the  second  was  the 
lowest.     This,  also,  varied  very  much  in  form. 

5.  The  Scandicus  denoted  a  group  of  three 
ascending  notes. 

6.  The  Climacus  denoted  three  ndtes,  de- 
scending. 

7.  The  Cephalicus — sometimes  identified  with 
the  Torculus — represented  a  group  of  three  notes, 
of  which  the  second  was  the  highest. 

8.  The  Flexa  resupina — described  by  some 
writers  as  the  Porrectm — indicated  a  group  of 
three  notes,  of  which  the  second  was  the  lowest. 

9.  The  Flexa  strophica  indicated  three  notes, 
of  which  the  second  was  lower  than  the  first,  and 
the  third  a  reiteration  of  the  second. 

10.  The  Quilisma  was  originally  a  kind  of 
shake,  or  reiterated  note ;  but  in  later  times  its 
meaning  became  almost  identical  with  that  of 
the  Scandicus. 

These,  and  others  of  less  general  importance — 
as  the  Ancus,  Oriscus,  Salicus,  Pressus,  Tramea, 
etc.,  etc. — were  frequently  combined  into  forms 
of  great  complexity,  of  which  a  great  variety  of 
examples,  accurately  figured,  and  minutely  de- 
scribed, will  be  found  in  the  works  of  Gerbert, 
P.  Martini,  Coussemaker,  Kiesewetter,  P.  Lam- 
billotte,  Ambros,  and  the  Abbe"  Eaillard.  Beyond 
all  doubt,  they  were,  originally,  mere  Accents, 
analogous  to  those  of  Alexandrian  Greek,  and 
intended  rather  as  aids  to  declamation,  than 
to  actual  singing :  but,  a  more  specific  meaning 
was  soon  attached  to  them.  They  served  to 
point  out,  not  only  the  number  of  the  notes 
which  were  to  be  sung  to  each  particular  syllable 
of  the  Poetry,  but,  in  a  certain  sense,  the  manner 
in  which  they  were  to  be  treated.  This  was  a  most 
important  step  in  advance ;  yet,  the  new  system 
had  also  its  defects.  Less  definite,  as  indications 
of  pitch,  than  the  Letters  they  displaced,  the 
Neumae  did,  indeed,  shew  at  a  glance  the 
general  conformation  of  the  Melody  they  were 
supposed  to  illustrate,  but  entirely  failed  to  warn 
the  Singer  whether  the  Interval  by  which  he  was 


expected  to  ascend,  or  descend,  was  a  Tone,  or 
■a  Semitone,  or  even  a  Second,  Third,  Fourth, 
or  Fifth.  Hence,  their  warmest  supporters  were 
constrained  to  admit,  that,  though  invaluable  as 
a  species  of  memoria  technica,  and  well  fitted  to 
recal  a  given  Melody  to  a  Singer  who  had  already 
heard  it,  they  could  never — however  carefully 
(curiose)  they  might  be  drawn — enable  him  to 
sing  a  new  or  unknown  Melody  at  sight.  This 
will  be  immediately  apparent  from  the  following 
antient  example,  quoted  by  P.  Martini  in  the 
first  volume  of  his  '  Storia  di  Musica ' : — 

Cff,\  c£lo^  UuEate  JUnm 

Probable  solution. 


Qg    a>    a    ^-^    a    g,^    <g_ 


-es> — <&- 


Coa  - li      cm-lo  •  rum  lau   -   -    da  -  te  De  -  tun 

Towards  the  close  of  the  8th  century,  we  find 
certain  small  letters  interspersed  among  the 
more  usual  Neumae.  In  the  celebrated  'Anti- 
phonarium'  of  S.  Gall1 — an  invaluable  MS., 
which  has  long  been  received,  on  very  weighty 
evidence,  as  a  faithful  transcript  of  the  Anti- 
phonary  of  S.  Gregory — these  small  letters  form 
a  conspicuous  feature  in  the  Notation  ;  and  they 
are,  beyond  all  doubt,  the  prototypes  of  our  so- 
called  '  Dynamic  Signs,'  the  earliest  recorded 
indications  of  Tempo  and  Expression.  It  is 
amusing  to  find  our  familiar  forte  foreshadowed 
by  a  little  /  (diminutive  of  fragor)  ;  and  tenuto, 
or  ben  tenuto,  by  t,  or  bt  (teneatur,  or  bene  tenea- 
tur).  A  little  c  stands  for  celeriter  {con  moto) ; 
and  other  letters  are  used,  which  are  interesting 
as  signs  of  a  growing  desire  for  something  more 
than  an  empty  rendering  of  mechanical  sounds. 
But,  about  the  year  900,2  a  far  greater  improve- 
ment was  brought  into  general  use — an  invention 
which  contains  within  itself  the  germ  of  all  that 
is  most  logical,  and,  practically,  most  enduring, 
in  our  present  perfect  system.  The  idea  was 
very  simple.  A  long  red  line,  drawn  horizontally 
across  the  parchment,  formed  the  only  addition 
to  the  usual  scheme.    All  Neumae,  placed  directly 

1 


of  P*r' fit*  crtef  fmf   its**?      vrfe.      -nt-vfrt^"   t*- -if 


Probable  solution. 


upon  this  line,  were  understood  to  represent 
the  note  F.  Graver  sounds  were  denoted  by 
characters  placed  below,  and  more  acute  ones 
by  others  drawn  above  it.  Thus,  while  the 
position  of  one  note  was  absolutely  fixed,  that 
of  others  was  rendered  much  more  definite  than 
heretofore. 

The  advantage  of  this  new  plan  was  so  obvious, 
that  a  yellow  line,  intended  to  represent  C,  was 
soon  added,  at  some  little  distance  above  the  red 
one.     This  quite   decided  the  position  of  two 


notes  ;  and,  as  it  was  evident  that  every  note 
placed  between  the  two  lines  must  necessarily  be 
either  G,  A,  or  B,  the  place  of  the  others  was  no 
longer  very  difficult  to  determine. 

1  Printed,  at  Brussels,  In  foe-simile,  by  T.  LambiUotte,  In  1851. 
The  first  page  Is  also  given  In  the  2nd  vol.  of  Fertz's  '  Monuments 
Germanlae  histories.'  All  authorities  agree  in  regarding  the  MS.  as 
one  of  the  most  Interesting  reliques  of  early  Notation  we  possess  ;  but 
It  is  only  right  to  say  that  its  date  has  been  hotly  disputed,  and  that 
doubt  has  even  been  thrown  upon  the  Identity  of  its  forms  with  those 
used  In  the  older  Antlphonarium. 

s  It  Is  Impossible  to  give  the  exact  date.  The  antiquity  of  MSS.  can 
very  rarely  be  proved  beyond  the  possibility  of  cavil. 


NOTATION". 


?<r~ 


-m»  * 


•pTJopi^t^  mt  nf 


* 


Probable  solution. 


In  the  plainer  kind  of  MSS.,  written  in  black 
ink  only,  the  letters  F  and  C  were  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  their  respective  lines,  no  longer  dis- 
tinguishable by  difference  of  colour ;  and  thus 
arose  our  modern  F  and  C  Clefs,  which,  like  the 
G  Clef  of  later  date,  are  really  nothing  more  than 
conventional  modifications  of  the  old  Gothic  let- 
ters, transformed  into  a  kind  of  technical  Hiero- 
glyphic, and  passing  through  an  infinity  of 
changes,  before  arriving  at  the  form  now  univer- 
sally recognised. 

F  Clefs. 

3^=gr-ar~'ig=E3i3^ 


3E 


^E^£=i^l^j 


G  Clefs. 


^=HF5^i=%~n$: 


Early  in  the  loth  century,  Hucbaldus,  a  Monk 
of  S.  Amand  sur  l'Elnon,  in  Flanders,1  introduced 
a  Stave  consisting  of  a  greater  number  of  lines, 
and  therefore  more  closely  resembling,  at  first 
sight,  our  own  familiar  form,  though  in  reality 
its  principle  was  farther  removed  from  that  than 
the  older  system  already  described.  The  Lines 
themselves  were  left  unoccupied.  The  syllables 
intended  to  be  sung  were  written  in  the  Spaces 
between  them  ;  and,  in  order  to  shew  whether 
the  Voice  was  to  proceed  by  a  Tone,  or  a  Semitone, 
the  letters  T  and  S  (for  Tonus,  and  Semitonium) 
were  written  at  the  beginning  of  each,  some- 
times alone,  but  more  frequently  accompanied 
by  other  characters  analogous  to  the  signs  used 
in  the  earlier  Greek  system,  and  connected  with 
the  machinery  of  the  Tetrachords,  which  formed 
a  conspicuous  feature  in  Hucbald's  teaching. 


T 

la 

T 

"/ 

T 

Ec\                    lsra\     / 

S 

ce\           /         he 

T 

verp/ 

T 

Solution. 

■a     a 

One  great  advantage  attendant  upon  this  sys- 
tem was,  that  by  increasing  the  number  of  lines, 
it  could  be  applied  to  a  Scale  of  any  extent,  and 

'  Hence,  frequentlj  called  '  Monachus  Elnonensis.'    Ob.  930. 


NOTATION. 


469 


even  used  for  a  number  of  Voices  singing  at  the 
same  time.  Hucbaldus  himself  saw  this;  and 
has  left  us  specimens  of  Discant,  written  in  four 
different  parts,  which  are  easily  distinguishable 
from  each  other  by  means  of  diagonal  lines  placed 
between  the  syllables.  [See  Organum;  Part- 
Writing.] 


T_ 

T~ 

T         Sit\         ona/ 

S 


Uo\ 


/  miiii\ 


glo/  l>o\ 


in  \  eula 


/  mini  \ 


sae/ 


T        (Mt\  ona/ 


in\  cula 


g'Q/ 


sae/ 


Uo\ 


etc. 


/  mini  \ 


T        Sit  \         oria  / 


in\  cula 


gio/  i>o\ 


S 

T        Sit  \         oria  / 
S 


"7  mini  \ 


sae/ 


in  \  cula 


gio/ 


sae/ 


fni_ 

-T3 *~n — >rs — n — rJ    &    & 

—-— __ 

Sit     glo    -   -   ri  -  a      Do-ml-nl 

»*"-_ — ^ — =| — o  p  ra 

-«"-  -S-  «■ 
in      sb  -cu 

la    etc. 

^': 

rz    jjfj     rz     r-i     rz — ^^-S"   <s> 

t)      |      B 

CJ 

Not  long  after  the  time  of  Hucbaldus,  we  find 
traces  of  a  custom — described  by  Vincenzo  Galilei, 
in  1 581,  and  afterwards,  by  Kircher — of  leaving 
the  Spaces  vacant,  and  indicating  the  Notes  by 
Points  written  upon  the  Lines  only,  the  actual 
Degrees  of  the  Scale  being  determined  by  Greek 
Letters  placed  at  the  end  of  the  Stave. 


y 

* 

P 

The  way  was  now  fully  prepared  for  the  last 
great  improvement;  which,  despite  its  incal- 
culable importance,  seems  to  us  absurdly  simple. 
It  consisted  in  drawing  two  plain  black  Lines 
above  the  red  and  yellow  ones  which  had  pre- 
ceded the  broader  Stave  of  Hucbald — whose 
system  soon  fell  into  disuse — and  writing  the 
Notes  on  alternate  Lines  and  Spaces.  The  credit 
of  this  famous  invention  is  commonly  awarded 
to  Guido  d'Arezzo  ;  but,  though  far  from  espous- 
ing the  views  of  certain  critics  of  the  modern 
destructive  school,  who  would  have  us  believe  that 
that  learned  Benedictine  invented  nothing  at  all, 
we  cannot  but  admit,  that,  in  this  case,  his  claim 
is  not  altogether  incontestable.  His  own  words 
prove  that  he  scrupled  not  to  utilise  the  inven- 
tions of  others  when  they  suited  his  purpose. 
He  may  have  done  so  here.  We  have  shewn 
that  both  Lines  and  Spaces  were  used  before  his 
time,  though  not  in  combination.  But  this  is 
not  all.  In  an  antient  Office-Book — a  highly 
interesting  '  Troparium ' — once  used  at  Winches- 
ter Cathedral,  and  now  preserved  in  the  Bodleian 


470 


NOTATION. 


Library  at  Oxford,1  the  Notes  of  the  Plain  Chaunt 
are  written  upon  the  alternate  Lines  and  Spaces 
of  a  regular  four-lined  Stave.  This  precious 
MS.  is  generally  believed  to  have  been  written 
during  the  reign  of  King  Ethelred  II,  who  died  in 
1016.  The  words  Vt  Mhelredum  regem  et  exer- 
citum  Anglorum  conservare  digneris,  inserted  in 
the  Litany,  at  fol.  18.  B,  certainly  confirm  this 
opinion.     But  a  great  part  of  the  MS.,  including 

( 


NOTATION. 

this  paiticular  Litany,  is  written  in  the  old 
Notation,  without  the  Stave;  and  sometimes 
both  forms  are  found  upon  the  same  sheet.  The 
subjoined  facsimile,  for  instance,  shewing  the 
places  at  which  the  Four-line  Stave  first  makes 
its  appearance  in  the  volume,  is  taken  from  the 
middle  of  a  page,  the  first  part  of  which  is 
filled  with  Music  written  upon  the  more  antieut 
system. 


X 


Kovys  te  intmwcriA  term- 


«r 


agrix 


fmat 


We  do  not  pretend  to  under-rate  the  chrono- 
logical difficulties  which  surround  the  question 
raised  by  this  remarkable  MS.  Unless  it  was 
written  at  two  different  periods,  two  different 
methods  would  seem  to  have  been  used  simulta- 
neously in  England  at  the  opening  of  the  1 1  th 
century,  some  considerable  time  before  the  ap- 
pearance of  Guido's  'Micrologus' — the  most  im- 
portant of  his  works — which,  it  is  tolerably  cer- 
tain, was  not  written  before  the  year  1024,  if 
even  so  early  as  that.  Now  a  portion  of  the 
MS.  was  most  certainly  written  before  that 
date ;  and,  if  the  evidence  afforded  by  a  close 
examination  of  its  caligraphy  may  be  trusted, 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  it  was 
transcribed,  throughout,  by  the  same  hand;  in 


which  case,  we  may  fairly  infer  that  the  Stave 
of  Four  Lines  was  known  and  used  in  this 
country,  at  a  period  considerably  anterior  to  its 
supposed  invention  in  Italy.  The  advantages  it 
presented,  when  made  to  serve  as  a  vehicle  for 
Neumse,  were  obvious.  It  fixed  their  positions  so 
clearly,  that  no  doubt  could  now  exist  as  to  the 
exact  notes  they  were  intended  to  represent ;  and 
comparatively  little  difficulty  was  henceforth  expe- 
rienced, by  the  initiated,  in  reading  Plain  Chaunt 
at  sight.  A  careful  comparison  of  the  subjoined 
example2  with  that  given  upon  page  468  will 
illustrate  the  improvement  it  effected  far  more 
forcibly  than  any  verbal  description.  The  careful 
drawing  of  the  Neumae  here  sets  all  doubt  at 
defiance. 


± 


m 


4^ 


*pT 


At- <+ 


W 


Vv* 


0  io~~-  nftt  te~-jem  onrnmm 


I 


'-<£>    —    *-,   G>   <S>   g5— 


gem  om    -    -    ni  -  um 


So  long  as  unisonous  Plain  Chaunt  demanded 
no  rhythmic  ictus  more  strongly  marked  than 
that  necessary  for  the  correct  pronunciation  of 
the  words  to  which  it  was  adapted,  this  method 
was  considered  sufficiently  exact  to  answer  all 
practical  purposes.  But,  the  invention  of  Mea- 
sured Chaunt  discovered  a  new  and  pressing  need. 
[See  Mosica  Mensubata.]  In  the  absence  of  a 
system  capable  of  expressing  the  relative  dura- 
tion as  well  as  the  actual  pitch  of  the  notes  em- 
ployed, the  accurate  notation  of  Rhythmic  Melody 
was  impossible.     No  provision  had  as  yet  been 

1  Bodley  MSS.  775. 


made  to  meet  this  unforeseen  contingency.  We 
first  find  one  proposed  in  the  'Ars  Cantus  men- 
surabilis '  of  Franco  de  Colonia,  written,  if  we 
may  trust  the  opinion  of  Fe"tis,  and  most  of  his 
critical  predecessors,  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
nth  century — though  Kiesewetter,  rejecting  the 
generally  accepted  date,  argues  in  favour  of 
the  first  half  of  the  13th.     Franco's  plan  does 

!  From  a  MS.  of  the  14th  century,  preserved  In  the  library  or  the 
University  at  Prague,  (xiv.  G.  46.)  In  the  original  Codex,  an  extra 
line  has  been  added  (ungeschickter  Weise  gezogen,  Ambros  says) 
between  the  Third  and  Fourth,  to  mark  the  place  of  the  F  Clef. 
In  order  to  preserve  the  clearness  of  the  example,  we  have  her» 
omitted  it. 


NOTATION. 

not  appear  to  have  been  an  original  one ;  but, 
rather,  a  compendium  of  the  praxis  in  general 
use  at  the  time  in  which  he  wrote  :  nevertheless, 
it  is  certain  that  we  owe  to  him  our  first  know- 
ledge of  the  Time-Table.  He  it  is,  who  first 
introduces  to  us  the  now  familiar  forms  of 
the  Large — described  under  the  name  of  the 
Double  Long — the  Long,  the  Breve,  and  the 
Semibreve.  The  relationship  of  these  new  cha- 
racters to  preexistent  Neumae  is  plainly  shewn 
by  their  outward   form,    the   Large  (^)   and 

the  Long  (^)  being  self-evident  developments 
of  the  Virga  (7),  while  the  Breve  (■)  and  the 

Semibreve  (^  or  ♦)  are  equally  recognisable 
as  the  offspring  of  the  Functus  (•).  Franco 
makes  each  of  the  longer  Notes  equal,  when 
Perfect,  to  two  Notes  of  the  next  lesser  de- 
nomination ;  when  Imperfect,  to  two  only — the 
term  Perfect  being  applied  to  the  number  Three, 
in  honour  of  the  Ever  Blessed  Trinity.1  The 
Long  was  always  Perfect,  when  followed  by 
another  Long,  and  the  Breve,  when  followed 
by  another  Breve ;  but  a  Long  preceded  or 
followed  by  a  Breve,  or  a  Breve  by  a  Semibreve, 
became,  by  Position,  Imperfect.  This  simple 
rule  was  of  immense  importance  j  for  it  resulted 
in  enabling  the  Composer  to  write  in  Triple 
or  Duple  Rhythm  at  will.  The  Semibreve, 
so  long  as  it  remained  the  shortest  note  in  the 
series,  was,  of  course,  indivisible.  But,  after 
the  invention  of  the  Minim — either  by  Philippus 
de  Vitriaco  in  the  13th  century,  or  Joannes  de 
Muris  in  the  14th — the  Semibreve  was  also  used, 
both  in  the  Perfect  and  the  Imperfect  form; 
being  equal,  in  the  one  case,  to  three,  and,  in  the 
other,  to  two  Minims.  The  Introduction  of  the 
Minim  prepared  the  way  for  that  of  the  Greater 
Semiminim,  now  known  as  the  Crotchet ;  the 
Lesser  Semiminim,  afterwards  called  the  Croma 
or  Fusa,  and  in  English  the  Quaver  ;  and  the 
Semicroma  or  Semifusa,  answering  to  the  modern 
Semiquaver.  These  three  notes,  like  the  Minim, 
were  always  Imperfect ;  and,  for  many  centuries, 
they  were  used  only  after  the  manner  of  embel- 
lishments. 

Originally,  the  notes  of  Measured  Chaunt  were 
entirely  black :  but,  after  a  time,  red  notes  were 
intermixed  with  them,  on  condition— as  Morley 
tells  us — of  losing  one-fourth  of  their  value.  They 
do  not,  however,  appear  to  have  remained  very 
long  in  use,  or  to  have  been,  at  any  time,  exten- 
sively employed.  About  the  year  1370  both  the 
black  and  red  forms  fell  gradually  into  disuse ; 
their  place  being  supplied  by  white  notes,  with 
square  or  lozenge-shaped  heads,  which  seem  to 
have  made  their  earliest  appearance  in  France, 
though  they  were  first  brought  into  general  notice 
by  the  leaders  of  the  great  Flemish  School.  The 
figures  of  these  notes,  and  their  corresponding 
rests,  given  in  one  of  the  earliest  works  on  Music 
ever  issued  from  the  press — the  'Practica  mu- 
sicse '  of  Franchinus  Gafurius,  printed  at  Milan, 

1  ■  Quod  a  summa  Trlnitate,  qu«e  vera  est  et  summa  perfectlo,  nomen 
usunislt.'    (Franco,  '  llusica  et  cantus  mensurabilis,'  cap.  It.) 


NOTATION. 


471 


in  1496 — differed  little  from  the  forms  retained 
in  use  until  the  close  of  the  16th  century. 


Rpmi.  Greater 

targe.  Long.  Breve,     greve.  Mmlm-      ^mi- 


Lesser 

Semi-        Semi- 

minim.    m'"lm'or    crom»- 


Perfect      Imperrect      Perfect      Imperfect 
Large  Larue  Long  Long 

Best.  Rest.  Best.  Best. 


SS^I^ 


Minim  Best,  or 
Suspirium. 


Greater  Semi- 
minim Best,  or 
Semisuspirium. 


White-headed  notes  were  always  written  upon 
a  Stave  of  Five  Lines.  Traces  of  this  Stave  are 
found,  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury, in  a  MS.  Tract,  '  De  speculatione  musices,' 
by  Walter  Odington,  a  Monk  of  Evesham  in 
Worcestershire,  whose  work,  now  preserved  at 
Cambridge,  is  only  second  in  value  to  that  of 
Franco  ;  but  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  uni- 
versally recognised  until  after  the  invention  of 
printing.  A  few  square  black  notes  were  occa- 
sionally interspersed  among  the  white  ones,  on 
conditions  analogous  to  those  attached  to  the  em- 
ployment of  red  notes  among  black  ones  at  an 
earlier  epoch — the  loss  of  a  third  of  their  value 
when  Perfect,  and  a  fourth  when  Imperfect.  We 
shall  find  it  necessary  to  describe  the  office  of 
these  black  notes  more  particularly,  when  speak- 
ing of  the  Points  of  Augmentation,  Division,  and 
Alteration.  The  lesser  Semiminim,  Croma,  and 
Semicroma  always  remained  black. 

Apart  from  the  modifications  producible  by 
Position,  the  Rhythm  of  Measured  Music  was 
regulated  by  the  three-fold  mechanism  of  Mode, 
Time,  and  Prolation ;  three  distinct  systems,  each 
of  which  might  be  used,  either  alone,  or  in  com- 
bination with  one  or  both  of  the  others;  each 
being  distinguished  by  its  own  special  Time-Sig- 
nature.  [See  Mode,  Time,  Prolation,  Time- 
Signature.] 

Mode  governed  the  proportion  between  the 
Large  and  the  Long,  and  the  Long  and  the 
Breve ;  and  was  of  two  kinds — the  Greater,  and 
the  Lesser ;  each  of  which  might  be  either  Per- 
fect or  Imperfect.  In  the  Greater  Mode  Perfect, 
the  Large  was  equal  to  three  Longs;  in  the 
Greater  Mode  Imperfect,  it  was  equal  to  two 
only.  In  the  Lesser  Mode  Perfect,  the  Long 
was  equal  to  two  Breves;  in  the  Lesser  Mode 
Imperfect,  it  was  equal  to  two.  The  Modal 
Signs  by  which  these  varieties  were  indicated 
differed  considerably  at  different  periods;  but 
the  following  were  the  formB  most  frequently 
employed : — 

Great  Mode  Perfect.  Great  Mode  Imperfect. 


Lesser  Mode  Perfect. 


Lesser  Mode  Imperfect. 


Time  regulated  the  proportion  between  the 


472 


NOTATION. 


Breve  and  the  Semibreve  ;  and  was  of  two  kinds, 
Perfect  and  Imperfect.  In  Perfect  Time,  the 
Breve  was  equal  to  three  Semibreves ;  in  Imper- 
fect Time,  to  two  only.  The  following  example 
shews  the  Time  •  Signatures  most  frequently 
used : — 

Perfect  Time ;  or,  thus ;  or,  thus. 


Imperfect  Time ; 

1 u 

or,  thus  ; 

or,  thus. 

Prolation  concerned  the  proportion  between 
the  Semibreve  and  the  Minim ;  and  was  also  of 
two  kinds,  the  Greater  and  the  Lesser— or,  as 
Morley  calls  them,  'the  More  and  the  Lesse.' 
In  the  Greater  Prolation,  the  Semibreve  was 
equal  to  three  Mimins  ;  in  the  Lesser,  to  two. 

The  Greater  Prolation ;         or,  thus ;  or,  thus. 


(.' 

— rtrfl — fl 

^-4> — H 

The  Lesser  Prolation  ;          or,  thus ;           or,  thus. 

The  general  principle  observed  in  the  formation 
of  these  Time-Signatures  is,  that  the  Rests  shew 
the  proportion  between  the  Large,  the  Long,  and 
the  Breve ;  the  Circle,  the  figure  3,  and  the 
Point,  are  signs  of  Perfection;  the  Semicircle, 
and  the  figure  2,  denote  Imperfection ;  while 
the  Bar  drawn  through  the  Circle,  or  Semicircle, 
indicates  Diminution  of  the  value  of  the  notes, 
to  the  extent  of  one-half,  as  does  also  the  inver- 
sion of  the  figures,  thus  (J)  (£)  (£  <t  0  Q.  In  a 
few  rare  cases,  a  double  Diminution,  to  the  ex- 
tent of  one  fourth,  was  denoted  by  a  double  Bar 
drawn  through  the  Circle,  or  Semicircle,  thus 
(ft)  (ft .  These  rules,  however,  though  applicable 
to  most  cases,  were  open  to  so  many  exceptions, 
that  Ornithoparcus,  writing  in  15 17,  and  Morley, 
in  1597.  roundly  abuse  their  uncertainty.  In 
very  early  times,  the  three  rhythmic  systems  were 
combined  in  proportions  far  more  complex  than 
any  of  the  Compound  Common  or  Triple  Times 
of  modern  Music.  In  Canons,  and  other  learned 
Compositions,  two  or  more  Time-Signatures  were 
frequently  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  same 
Stave.  In  a  portion  of  the  Credo  of  Hobrecht's 
Missa  '  Je  ne  demande '  we  find  as  many  as 
five : — 

=0= 


:E: 


:q: 


-c~qzzE 


These  complications  were  much  affected  by 
Josquin  des  Pre"s,  and  the  early  Composers  of 
the  Flemish  School ;  but,  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  1 6th  century — the  so-called  'Golden  Age' — 
the  only  combinations  remaining  in  general  use 
were,  Perfect  Time,  with  the  Lesser  Prolation 
(O  3»  or  O^  >"  Imperfect  Time,  with  the  Lesser 
Prolation  [& ) ;  the  Greater  Prolation  alone 
((])  |)  ;  and  the  Lesser  Prolation  (Q ) — answer- 
ing, respectively,  to  the  J,  Alia  Breve,   g,   and 


NOTATION. 

Common  Time,  of  our  present  system.   [See  Pro- 
portion.] 

The  Perfection  and  Imperfection  of  the  longer 
notes,  and  the  duration  of  the  shorter  ones,  was 
also  materially  affected  by  the  addition  of  Points, 
of  which  several  different  kinds  were  in  use,  all 
similar  in  form  (•),  but  differing  in  effect,  accord- 
ing to  the  position  in  which  they  were  placed. 

The  Point  of  Augmentation  was  the  exact 
equivalent  of  the  modern  Dot — that  is  to  say,  it 
increased  the  length  of  the  note  to  which  it  was 
attached,  by  one  half.  It  could  only  be  used  with 
notes  naturally  Imperfect ;  and  was  necessarily 
followed  by  a  shorter  note,  to  complete  the  beat. 

Sometimes,  the  place  of  this  sign  was  supplied 
by  two  black  notes ;  the  first  of  which,  losing  one 
fourth  of  its  value  by  virtue  of  its  colour,  repre- 
sented the  note  with  the  Point,  while  a  shorter 
black  note  completed  the  beat.  Passages  are 
constantly  written  in  both  ways,  in  the  same 
compositions. 

Written ;  or  thus.  Sung. 


i  I  o  •  A- 


a^g 


*at 


^ 


Written ; 


or  thus ;       more  rarely.      Sung. 


^F^tr+^tzk^V+k 


B 


The  Point  of  Perfection  was  used  for  two  dif- 
ferent purposes.  When  placed  in  the  centre  of  a 
Circle,  or  Semicircle,  it  indicated  either  Perfect 
Time,  or  the  Greater  Prolation.  When  placed 
after  a  note,  Perfect  by  virtue  of  the  Time-Sig- 
nature, but  made  Imperfect  by  Position  (see 
page  471),  it  restored  its  Perfection.  In  this 
case,  the  Point  itself  served  to  complete  the 
triple  beat ;  in  which  particular  alone  it  differed 
from  the  Point  of  Augmentation.  Thus,  the 
second  Semibreve  in  the  following  example,  being 
succeeded  by  a  Minim,  would  become  Imperfect 
by  Position,  were  it  not  followed  by  a  Point  of 
Perfection.  The  third  Semibreve,  being  preceded 
by  a  Minim,  really  does  become  Imperfect ;  while 
the  first  and  last  Semibreves  remain  Perfect,  by 
virtue  of  the  Time-Signature. 
Written.  Sung. 


3= 


The  Point  of  Alteration,  or,  as  it  was  some- 
times called,  the  Point  of  Duplication,  was  less 
simple  in  its  action.  When  used,  in  Ternary 
Rhythm,  before  the  first  of  two  short  notes  placed 
between  two  long  ones,  it  doubled  the  length  of 
the  second  short  note,  and  restored  the  Perfection 
of  the  two  long  ones,  which  would  otherwise 
have  become  Imperfect  by  Position.  In  order  to 
distinguish  this  sign  from  the  Point  of  Augmen- 
tation, the  best  typographers  usually  placed  it 
above  the  general  level  of  the  notes  to  which  it 
belonged — a  precaution  the  neglect  of  which 
causes  much  trouble  to  modern  readers. 


Written. 


Sung. 


NOTATION. 

Sometimes  the  old  writers,  dispensing  with  the 
actual  Point,  used,  in  its  stead,  two  black  notes, 
which,  it  will  be  remembered,  lost,  in  Perfect 
Time,  one  third  of  their  value.  Thus  the  second 
clause  of  the  following  example  precisely  corre- 
sponds with  the  first ;  since  the  black  Breve,  being, 
by  virtue  of  its  colour,  equal  to  two  Semibreves 
only,  serves  exactly  to  complete  the  measure 
begun  by  the  black  Semibreve  (which,  in  this 
case,  retains  its  full  value).  Examples,  both  of 
the  Point  and  the  black  notes,  will  be  found,  not 
only  in  works  of  the  1 5th  century,  but  even  in 
those  of  Palestrina,  and  most  of  his  contem- 
poraries. 

Written ;  or  thut.  Sung. 


The  Point  of  Division,  sometimes  called  the 
Point  of  Imperfection,  exercised  a  contrary  effect. 
When  two  Semibreves  were  placed  between  two 
Breves,  in  Perfect  Time,  or  two  Minims  between 
two  Semibreves,  in  the  Greater  Prolation,  a  Point 
of  Division  inserted  between  the  two  shorter 
notes — generally  on  a  higher  level — served  to 
shew  that  the  two  longer  ones  were  to  be  con- 
sidered Imperfect. 

Written.  Sung. 


NOTATION. 


473 


(±2z3=y=3b=0=l3- 

ij-|=t     &  ■ 

— a. — m—\ 

Written. 


Sung. 


32=§=zp 


2± 


As  these  notes  were  already  Imperfect,  by 
Position,  the  Point  made  no  real  difference,  but 
was  merely  added  for  the  sake  of  preventing  all 
possibility  of  misconception.  Joannes  Tinctoris, 
writing  in  the  15th  century,  expressed  his  con- 
tempt for  such  unnecessary  signs  by  calling  them 
A  ss's  Points  (Puncti  asinei).  Nevertheless,  they 
were  constantly  used  by  Palestrina  and  his  con- 
temporaries ;  who,  however,  sometimes  dispensed 
with  the  Point,  and  wrote  the  two  last  notes  of 
the  passage  black,  with  the  understanding,  that, 
in  this  case,  they  were  to  retain  their  full  value. 
The  effect  of  this  arrangement  was,  that  the 
several  clauses  of  the  following  example  were  all 
sung  exactly  in  the  same  way. 

Written ;  or  thus ;  or  thus. 


Sung. 


While  the  Virga,  and  Punctus,  of  the  earlier  sys- 
tem were  thus  developed  into  the  detached  notes 
of  Measured  Music,  the  more  complicated  Neumce 
gradually  shaped  themselves  into  Ligatures — that 
is  to  say.  passages  of  two  or  more  notes,  sung  to  a 
single  syllable.  As  the  most  important  of  these 
have  already  been  described,  in  a  former  article 
[see  Ligature],  we  shall  content  ourselves  with 
•a  rapid  sketch  of  the  changes  through  which  they 
passed,  at  different  periods  of  their  history.  In 
Plain  Chaunt,  they  were  always  black,  and  more 


or  less  angular  in  form,  whereas  the  older  Neumce 
were,  for  the  most  part,  rounded.  In  Measured 
Music,  they  were  white ;  and  formed  of  square 
or  diagonal  (not  lozenge-shaped)  figures,  placed 
in  close  contact  with  each  other,  and  sometimes 
provided  with  Tails,  the  varied  position  of  which 
regulated  their  classification  into  Larges,  Longs, 
Breves,  and  Semibreves ;  notes  shorter  than  the 
Semibreve  not  being  'ligable.'  In  the  15th  cen- 
tury, the  number  of  notes  contained  in  a  single 
group  was  often  very  considerable ;  and  their  dura- 
tion was  governed  by  many  complicated  laws,  of 
which  ihe  following  were  the  most  strictly  en- 
forced, especially  by  the  earlier  Composers  of  the 
Flemish  School. 

The  first  note  of  every  Ligature  was  a  Long, 
provided  it  had  no  Tail,  and  the  second  note 
descended — a  Breve,  if  it  had  no  Tail,  and  the 
second  note  ascended.  In  the  first  of  these  cases, 
it  was  called  a  Ligatura  cum  proprietate ;  in  the 
second,  a  Ligatura  sine  proprietate. 

If  the  first  note  had  a  Tail,  descending,  on  the 
left  side,  it  was  a  Breve,  and  sine  proprietate. 
If  it  had  a  Tail  ascending,  on  the  left  side,  it 
was  a  Semibreve,  and  the  Ligature  was  said  to 
be  cam  opposita  proprietate- 

If  the  last  note  descended,  it  was  a  Long ; 
if  it  ascended,  a  Breve.  In  the  first  case,  the 
Ligature  was  said  to  be  Perfect.,  in  the  second, 
Imperfect.  But,  when  placed  obliquely,  whether 
ascending  or  descending,  it  was  a  Breve,  unless 
it  had  a  Tail  descending  on  the  right  side,  in 
which  case  it  was  a  Long. 

All  intermediate  notes  were,  as  a  general  rule, 
Breves  :  but,  if  one  of  them  had  a  Tail,  ascending 
on  the  left  side,  it  was  a  Semibreve. 

Lastly,  a  Large,  in  whatever  part  of  the  Liga- 
ture it  might  be  placed,  was  always  a  Large. 

In  the  1 6th  century,,  these  laws  were  very 
much  simplified.  The  Ligatures  used  in  the 
time  of  Palestrina  seldom  contained  more  than 
two  notes  ;  or,  if  more  were  included  in  the  figure, 
they  were  treated  as  if  not  in  Ligature.  The 
following  easy  rules  will  serve  for  most  Music 
of  later  date  than  the  year  1550. 

Square  notes,  in  Ligature,  without  Tails,  were 
almost  always  Breves:  but,  if  the  second  note 
descended,  they  were  sometimes  Longs ;  or,  the 
first  might  be  a  Long,  and  the  second  a  Breve. 

Square  notes,  in  Ligature,  with  a  Tail  descend- 
ing on  the  right,  were  Longs ;  those  with  a  Tail 
descending  on  the  left,  Breves;  those  with  a 
Tail  ascending  on  the  left,  Semibreves. 

Black  notes  were  sometimes  combined  with 
white  ones ;  and,  occasionally,  figures  were  made 
half  white,  and  half  black.  In  these  cases,  each 
colour  was  subject  to  its  own  peculiar  laws. 

Points  attached  to  a  Ligature  affected  it  as 
they  would  have  affected  ordinary  notes. 

In  the  15th  century,  the  F,  C,  and  G  Clefs 
were  used  on  a  great  variety  of  Lines.  Before  the 
invention  of  Ledger  Lines,  their  position  was  fre- 
quently changed,  even  in  the  middle  of  a  Melody, 
in  order  to  bring  the  extreme  notes  of  the  Scale 
within  the  compass  of  the  Stave.  This  being  the 
case,  it  was  impossible  to  assign  a  distinctive 


474 


NOTATION. 


Clef  to  each  particular  quality  of  Voice,  as  we 
do.  The  Clefs  were,  therefore,  divided  into  the 
four  general  classes  of  Cantus,  Altus,  Tenor, 
and  Bassus ;  and  varied,  in  position,  according  to 
circumstances.  When  more  than  four  Voices  were 
used,  the  fifth  part  was  called  Quintus,  or  Quinta 
pars ;  the  sixth,  Sextus,  or  Sexta  pars ;  and  so 
with  the  rest :  but,  as  care  was  taken  that  each 
additional  Voice  should  exactly  correspond  in 
compass  with  one  of  the  normal  four,  we  scarcely 
ever  find  more  than  four  Clefs  used  in  the  same 
Composition.  The  ten  forms  most  frequently  em- 
ployed in  the  infancy  of  Polyphonic  Music  are 
shewn  in  the  following  example,  with  the  old 
classification  indicated  above  the  Stave,  and  the 
modern  names,  below  it. 


Con-   Bary-  Basso.  Con- 
High  Treble.   So-    Mezzo     °r  „tra'     *«">•  tra- 
Treble.     or     prano.   So-     .c9n"              Tenore.                       Basso. 
Violino.           prano.  tra"°- 

The  Polyphonic  Composers  of  the  best  periods 
were  extremely  methodical  in  their  choice  of 
Clefs,  which  they  so  arranged  as  to  indicate, 
within  certain  limits,  whether  the  Modes  in 
which  they  wrote  were  used  at  their  natural 
pitch,  or  transposed.  [See  Modes,  the  Ecclesi- 
astical]. The  Natural  Clefs — Chiavi  naturali 
— were  the  well-known  Soprano,  Alto,  Tenor, 
and  Bass,  which  have  remained  in  common  use, 
among  Classical  Composers,  to  the  present  day. 
The  transposed  Clefs — Chiavi  trasportati,  or 
Chiavette — were  of  two  kinds,  the  Acute,  and 
the  Grave.  The  former  were  the  Treble  (Violino), 
Mezzo  Soprano,  Alto,  and  Tenor, — or  Barytone. 
The  latter  consisted  of  the  Alto,  Tenor,  Barytone, 
and  Bass — or  Contra-Basso.  The  effect  of  this 
method  of  grouping  was,  that,  when  the  Mode 
was  written,  at  its  true  pitch,  in  the  Chiavi 
naturali,  the  Chiavette  served  to  transpose  it  a 
Fourth  higher,  or  a  Fifth  lower :  if,  however,  it  was 
written  at  its  natural  pitch,  in  the  Chiavette,  it 
was  transposed  by  aid  of  the  Chiavi  naturali. 
The  High  Treble  and  Contra-Tenore  were  very 
rarely  used,  after  about  the  middle  of  the  16th 
century;  and  the  Contra-Basso  did  not  long 
survive  them ;  but  the  remaining  seven  forms 
were  so  constantly  employed,  that  a  familiar 
acquaintance  with  them  is  indispensable  to  all 
students  of  Polyphonic  Music. 

The  Flat  and  the  Natural  were  known  and  used 
at  a  very  early  period — certainly  long  before  the 
time  of  Guido — the  former,  under  the  name  of 
the  B  rotundum,  or  B  molle  (b),  and  the  latter, 
under  that  of  B  quadrum,  or  B  durum  ( (] ).  [See 
B,  vol.  i.  107.]  The  Sharp,  or  Diesis,  has  not  been 
traced  back  farther  than  the  latter  half  of  the  13th 
cent.,  when  we  find  it,  in  some  French  MSS.  in 
the  form  of  a  double  S.  Andrew's  cross  (;gfc) — as 
in  Adam  de  la  Hale's  Rondellus  '  Fines  amour- 
ettes.' In  the  14th  century,  Ottobi  classes  it  with 
the  B  rotundum,  and  B  quadrum,  and  calls  it 
B  giacenle  (_o).    In  the  15th  and  16th  centuries 


NOTATION. 

it  quite  displaced  the  Natural ;  and  was  used,  in 
its  stead,  to  correct  a  B  which  would  otherwise 
have  been  sung  Flat.  A  single  B  b  was  always 
placed  at  the  Signature,  in  the  transposed  Modes. 
The  use  of  two  Flats,  indicating  a  double  trans- 
position— as  in  P.  de  la  Rue's  '  Pour  quoi  non,' 
preserved  in  Petrucci's  Odhecaton — is  excessively 
rare.  Still  more  so  is  a  Sharp  Signature :  though 
examples  may  be  found  in  Zarlino  ;  and  in  Oke- 
ghem's  'Prennez  sur  moy,'  printed  in  Petrucci's 
'Canti  cento  cinquanta.' 

In  Hobrecht's  '  Forseulement,'  and  Barbyrau's 
Missa  '  Virgo  parens  Christi,'  an  F  b  is  placed  at 
the  Signature,  as  a  sign  that  the  Mode  is  Mixo- 
lydian,  at  its  natural  pitch,  and  that  its  Seventh 
Degree  is  not  to  be  sharpened.  These  cases, 
however,  are  altogether  abnormal,  and  must  not 
be  taken  as  precedents.  Both  the  spirit  and  the 
letter  of  Mediaeval  Music  forbade  the  intro- 
duction of  anything,  at  the  Signature,  beyond 
the  orthodox  B  rotundum. 

Accidental  Sharps,  Flats,  and  Naturals,  very 
rarely  appeared  in  writing ;  the  Singer  being  ex- 
pected to  introduce  the  necessary  Semitones,  in 
their  proper  places,  at  the  moment  of  perform- 
ance, in  obedience  to  certain  laws,  with  an  epitome 
of  which  the  reader  has  already  been  furnished. 
[See  Musica  Ficta.]  This  practice  remained  in 
full  force,  until  the  close  of  the  16th  century ; 
and  is  even  now  observed  in  the  Pontifical  Chapel. 

Indications  of  Tempo,  Dynamic  Signs,  and 
Marks  of  Expression  of  all  kinds,  were  altogether 
unknown  to  the  Composers  of  the  15th  and  16th 
centuries,  unless,  indeed,  we  are  prepared  to 
recognise  their  prototypes  in  the  singular  Mottos, 
and  Enigmas,  prefixed  to  the  Canons,  which, 
in  the  time  of  Ockeghem,  and  Josquin  des  Pres, 
were  so  zealously  cultivated  by  Composers  of 
the  Flemish  School.     [See  Inscription.] 

A  few  arbitrary  signs,  however,  were  in  con- 
stant use. 

When  Canons  were  written  on  a  single  Stave, 
the  Presa  (•&•)  shewed  the  place  at  which  the 
second,  third,  or  other  following  Voice  was  to 
begin. 

The  Pause  («\)  indicated  the  note  on  which 
such  Voices  were  to  close.  But  it  was  also 
placed,  as  in  modern  Music,  over  a  note  which  the 
Singer  was  expected  to  prolong  indefinitely — as 
inBasiron's  'Messa  de  franza'  (printed  in  1508), 
wherein,  at  the  words  'Et  homo  factus  est,'  Pauses 
are  placed  over  no  less  than  eight  Breves  in 
succession. 

The  sign  of  repetition  was  a  thick  bar,  with 
dots  on  either  side,  like  our  own.  When  the 
bar  was  double,  the  passage  was  sung  twice; 
when  it  was  triple,  thrice.  A  passage  in  Ho- 
brecht's Missa  '  Je  ne  demande '  is  directed  to  be 
sung  five  times  (:||:  :|||:  :|||||:).  When  words 
were  to  be  repeated,  a  smaller  sign  was  used 
(•#•),  and  reiterated  at  each  repetition  of  the  text. 

Ottaviano  dei  Petrucci  —  who  first  printed 
Music  from  moveable  types,  in  the  year  1501  — 
Antonio  Gardano,  Riccardo  Amadino,  Christoph 
Plantinus,  Peter  Phalesius,  Pierre  Attaignant, 
Robert  Ballard,  Adrian  le  Roy,  our  own  John 


NOTATION. 

Daye,  and  Vautrollier,  and  other  early  typo- 
graphers, each  gloried  in  a  certain  individuality 
of  style  which  the  Antiquary  never  fails  to  re- 
cognise at  a  glance.  But,  the  general  character 
of  musical  typography  underwent  no  radical 
change,  from  the  first  invention  of  printing, 
until  the  close  of  the  16th  century.  In  this 
respect  Plain  Chaunt  was  even  more  conservative 
than  Measured  Music.  After  the  invention  of 
the  Square  Notes — Notulce  quadrates,  the  Gros 
fa  of  French  Musicians — it  was  always  printed, 
as  now,  in  black  Longs,  Breves,  and  Semibreves, 
on  a  Stave  of  Four  Lines,  on  either  of  which 
the  F  or  C  Clef  might  be  placed,  indiscriminately. 
The  G  Clef  was  never  used.  Time-Signatures, 
Rests,  Points,  and  other  signs  used  in  Measured 
Music,  were,  of  course,  quite  foreign  to  its 
nature:  but,  black  Ligatures,  angular  in  char- 
acter, and  of  infinitely  varied  form,  were  of 
constant  occurrence.  As  no  change  in  the  con- 
stitution of  Plain  Chaunt  is  possible,  no  change 
in  its  Notation  is  either  needed  or  desired.  But, 
with  Rhythmic  Music,  the  case  is  very  different ; 
and  we  can  readily  understand  that  the  Notation 
of  the  1 6th  century  proved  insufficient,  in  many 
ways,  to  meet  the  necessities  of  the  1 7th. 

The  daily-increasing  attention  bestowed  upon 
Instrumental  Accompaniment,  during  the  de- 
velopment of  the  Monodic  Style,  led  to  some 
very  important  changes.  [See  Monodia.]  The 
varying  compass  of  the  Instruments  employed 
demanded  a  corresponding  extension  of  the  Stave, 
which  was  provided  for  by  the  unlimited  use  of 
Ledger  Lines.  A  single  Ledger  Line,  above  or 
below  the  Stave,  may,  indeed,  be  occasionally 
found  among  the  Polyphonic  Music  of  the  16th 
century ;  but,  only  in  very  rare  cases.  The 
number  of  additional  lines  was  now  left  entirely 
to  the  Composer's  discretion ;  and  it  has  continued 
steadily  to  increase,  to  the  present  day. 

Polyphonic  Music  was  always  printed  in  se- 
parate parts.  .  Sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of 
Ottavio  dei  Petrucci's  rare  volumes,  each  part 
appeared,  by  itself,  in  a  delicious  little  oblong 
4to.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  Roman  editions  of 
Palestrina's  Masses,  four  or  more  parts  were 
exhibited,  at  a  single  view,  on  the  outspread 
pages  of  a  large  folio  volume.  But,  the  con- 
nection between  the  parts  was  never  indicated  ; 
and  the  Music  was  never  barred — a  peculiarity, 
which,  in  this  case,  seems  to  have  produced  no 
inconvenience.  This  plan,  however,  was  quite 
unsuited  to  the  new  style  of  composition.  When 
Peri  published  his  'Euridice,'  in  the  year  1600,  he 
placed  the  Instrumental  Accompaniment  below 
the  Vocal  part,  and  indicated  the  connection 
between  the  two  by  means  of  Bars,  scored  through 
the  Stave — whence  the  origin  of  our  English  word 
Scobe.  The  same  plan  was  followed  by  Caccini, 
in  his  'Nuove  Musiche,'  in  1602;  and,  by  Monte- 
verde,  in  'Orfeo,'  in  1 608 :  and  the  practice  of  print- 
ing in  Partition,  as  score  has  always  been  called 
everywhere  but  in  England,  soon  became  universal. 

The  new  Bars  were  a  great  help  to  the  reader ; 
but,  the  invention  of  the  Cantata,  the  Opera, 
and  the  Oratorio,  introduced  new  forms  of  Rhythm 


NOTATION. 


475 


which  it  was  all  but  impossible  to  express  with 
clearness,  even  with  their  assistance,  so  long  as  the 
cumbrous  machinery  of  Mode,  Time,  and  Prolation, 
remained  in  common  use.  To  meet  this  difficulty, 
the  Time-Table  itself  was  entirely  remodelled 
— not  in  essence,  for  the  broad  distinction  be- 
tween Binary  and  Ternary  Rhythm  formed  the 
basis  of  the  new,  as  well  as  of  the  old  system — 
but,  in  the  means  by  which  that  fundamental 
principle  was  enunciated,  and  its  results  expressed 
in  writing.  The  great  advantage  of  the  new 
method  lay  in  the  recognition  of  a  definite  value 
for  every  note  employed.  The  longer  notes  were 
no  longer  made  Perfect,  or  Imperfect,  by  Posi- 
tion; but  all  were  referred  to  the  Semibreve,  as 
a  fixed  standard  of  duration;  and  all,  without 
exception,  were  subject,  in  their  natural  forms, 
to  binary  division,  and  could  only  be  made  ter- 
nary by  the  addition  of  a  dot — the  old  Point  of 
Augmentation — which  increased  their  value  by 
one  half.  The  chief  factors  of  the  system  were, 
the  aliquot  parts  of  the  Semibreve,  as  represented 
by  the  Minim,  the  Crotchet,  the  Quaver,  and  the 
Semiquaver.  A  certain  number  of  these  factors, 
now  called  the  Beats  of  the  Bar,  was  allotted 
to  each  Measure  of  the  Music.  When  that  num- 
ber was  divisible  by  2,  the  Time  was  said  to  be 
Common;  when  it  was  divisible  only  by  3,  the 
Time  was  Triple.  To  express  the  more  compli- 
cated forms  of  Rhythm,  the  several  Beats  were 
themselves  subjected  to  a  farther  process  of  sub- 
division, which  might  be  either  binary,  or  ternary, 
at  will.  When  it  was  binary,  the  Time,  whether 
Common,  or  Triple,  was  said  to  be  Simple. 
When  it  was  ternary,  in  which  case  each  Beat 
represented  a  dotted  note,  the  Time  was  called 
Compound ;  and  with  very  good  reason ;  each 
Measure  being,  in  reality,  compounded  of  two  or 
more  shorter  Measures  of  Simple  Triple  Time. 

The  Time-Signatures  by  which  this  new  system 
was  expressed  in  writing  were,  for  the  most  part, 
fractions ;  the  denominators  of  which  indicated 
the  proportion  between  the  Beats  of  the  Bar 
and  the  typical  Semibreve,  while  the  numerators 
denoted  the  number  of  such  beats  to  be  taken  in 
a  Measure.  When  the  numerator  was  divisible 
only  by  2,  it  indicated  Simple  Common  Time ; 
when  only  by  3,  Simple  Triple.  In  Compound 
Common  Time  it  was  divisible  either  by  2,  or  3  ; 
and,  in  Compound  Triple,  by  3,  and  3  again. 
The  only  exceptions  to  this  practice  were  formed 
by  the  retention  of  the  Semicircle,  for  Common 
Time  with  four  Crotchets  in  a  Measure,  and  the 
barred  Semicircle,  for  the  Time  called  Alia  Breve, 
with  four  Minims.1  The  Simple  Common  Times 
most  used  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  were, 
(j»,  C,  and  f ;  the  Simple  Triple  Times,  ?,  3,  £ 
and  £ ;  the  Compound  Common  Times  were  §,  £,  f, 
^r»  V»  !?>  i%>  an(*  ?#  >  an(*  foe  Compound  Triple 
Times,  f,  £ ,  £,  and  ^.  Mozart,  as  if  in  emulation 
of  the  departed  mysteries  of  Proportion,  has  used 
-J,  -*,  and  §,  simultaneously,  and  with  wonderful 

1  A  quick  form  of  Simpla  Common  Time,  with  two  Minim  Beata  In 
the  Measure,  is  used,  in  modern  Music,  with  the  Signature  of  the 
barred  Semicircle,  and  very  improperly  called  Alia  Breve.  Mendels- 
sohn much  regretted  that  he  did  not  bar  the  Semicircle  In  his  Over- 
ture to  Vie  ileereutille. 


476 


NOTATION. 


effect,  in  the  well-known  Minuet  in  'Don  Gio- 
vanni ' ;  and  Spohr  has  used  similar  combinations 
in  the  Slow  Movement  of  his  Symphony,  'Die 
Weihe  der  Tone.'  The  last-named  Composer  has 
also  used  f ,  in  the  Overture  to  his  finest  Opera, 
'Faust;  and  §,  in  the  Second  Act  of  the  same 
work. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  this  admirable 
system  sprang  into  existence  in  a  moment  of 
time.  It  was  the  result  of  long  experience,  and 
many  tentative  experiments  ;  but  we  have  pre- 
ferred to  treat  of  it,  in  its  perfect  condition, 
rather  than  to  dwell  upon  the  successive  stages  of 
its  progress;  and  the  more  so,  because,  since  the 
time  of  Bach,  and  Handel,  it  has  undergone 
scarcely  any  change  whatever.2  Those  who  care 
to  study  its  transitional  forms  will  find  some 
curious  examples  among  the  numerous  Bicercari, 
Toccate,  and  Capricci,  composed  for  the  Organ 
by  Frescobaldi,  during  the  earlier  half  of  the 
1 7th  century. 

When  the  old  Ecclesiastical  Modes  were 
abandoned  in  favour  of  the  modern  Major  and 
Minor  Scales,  the  insertion  of  accidental  Sharps, 
Flats,  and  Naturals,  was  no  longer  left  to  the 
discretion  of  the  performer.  The  place  of  every 
Semitone  was  indicated,  exactly,  in  writing ; 
and,  in  process  of  time,  the  Double-Sharp  (  x  )  and 
Double-Flat  (bb)  corrected  by  the  faj  and  fab, 
were  added  to  the  already  existing  signs.  A 
curious  relique  of  the  mediaeval  custom  was, 
however,  retained  in  general  use,  until  nearly 
the  end  of  the  18th  century,  when  the  last  Sharp 
or  Flat  was  suppressed,  at  the  Signature,  and 
accidentally  introduced,  during  the  course  of  the 
piece,  as  often  as  it  was  needed.  Thus,  Han- 
del's Fifth  Lesson  for  the  Harpsichord  (contain- 
ing the  'Harmonious  Blacksmith')  was  originally 
written  with  three  Sharps  only  at  the  Signature, 
the  D  being  everywhere  made  sharp  by  an  acci- 
dental. (See  the  editions  of  Walsh  and  of  Arnold.) 
A  few  of  these  'Antient  Signatures' — as  they 
are  now  called— may  still  be  seen,  in  modern  re- 
prints ;  as  in  Mills's  edition  of  Clari's  Duet, 
'Cantando  un  di,'  which,  though  written  in  A 
major,  has  only  two  Sharps  at  the  Signature. 

The  rapid  passages  peculiar  to  modern  Instru- 
mental Music,  and  not  unfrequently  emulated  by 
modern  Vocalists,  naturally  led  to  the  adoption  of 
characters  more  cursive  in  style  than  the  quaint 
old  square  and  lozenge-headed  notes,  and  capable 
of  being  written  with  greater  facility.  Thus 
arose  the  round,  or  rather  oval-headed  notes,  which, 
in  the  18th  century,  completely  supplanted  the 
older  forms.  Lozenge -headed  Quavers,  and  Semi- 
quavers, whatever  their  number,  were  always 
printed  with  separate  Hooks.  The  Hooks  of  the 
round-headed  ones  were  blended  together,  so  as 
to  form  continuous  groups,  containing  any  num- 
ber of  notes  that  might  be  necessary — a  plan 
which  greatly  facilitated  the  work  both  of  the 

1  In  the  P.F.  arrangement,  only :  not  in  the  Full  Score. 

2  Unless  we  except  the  praxis  of  the  Modern  Italian  Composers,  who 
always  write  in  Simple  Time,  and  make  it  Compound  by  the  In- 

24 
♦ertion  of  Triplets— a  strange  contrast  to  the  conscientious  -  of  the 

'  Harmonious  blacksmith.' 


NOTATION. 

writer,  and  the  reader.  Moreover,  with  the 
increase  of  executive  powers,  arose  the  demand 
for  notes  indicating  increased  degrees  of  rapidity ; 
the  Semiquaver  was,  accordingly,  subdivided  into 
Demisemiquavers,  with  three  Hooks,  and  Half- 
Demisemiquavers,  with  four — the  number  of  ad- 
ditional Hooks  being,  in  fact,  left  entirely  to  the 
discretion  of  the  Composer.3 

The  introduction  of  the  dramatic  element 
played  a  most  important  part  in  the  development 
of  modern  Music  ;  and,  in  order  to  do  it  justice, 
it  became  imperatively  necessary  to  indicate,  as 
precisely  as  might  be,  the  particular  style  in 
which  certain  passages  were  to  be  performed. 
As  early  as  1608,  we  find,  in  the  Overture  to 
Monteverde's  '  Orfeo,'  a  direction  to  the  effect 
that  the  Trumpets  are  to  be  played  con  sordini. 
It  was  manifestly  impossible  to  dispense,  much 
longer,  with  indications  of  Tempo.  Frescobaldi 
was  one  of  the  first  great  writers  who  employed 
them ;  and — strangely  enough,  considering  his 
birth  in  Ferrara,  and  long  residence  in  Borne — 
one  of  his  favourite  words  was  Adagio,  spelled, 
as  in  the  Venetian  dialect,  Adasio.  The  idea 
once  started,  the  words  Allegro,  Largo,  Grave, 
and  others  of  like  import,  were  soon  brought 
into  general  use ;  and  their  number  has  gradu- 
ally increased,  until,  at  the  present  day,  it  has 
become  practically  infinite.  As  a  general  rule, 
Composers  of  all  nations  have,  by  common  con- 
sent, written  their  directions  in  Italian ;  and, 
as  a  natural  consequence  of  this  practice,  many 
Italian  words  have  been  invested  with  a  con- 
ventional signification,  which  it  would  now  be 
difficult  to  alter.  Beethoven,  however,  at  one 
period  of  his  life,  substituted  German  words  for  the 
more  usual  terms,  and  we  find,  in  the  Mass  in  D, 
and  some  of  the  later  Sonatas,  such  expressions 
as  Mit  Andacht,  Nicht  zu  geschwind,  and  many 
others.  [See  Beethoven,  vol.  i.  p.  1936.]  He  soon 
relinquished  this  novel  practice ;  but  Mendels- 
sohn sometimes  adopted  it — as  in  Op.  62,  No.  4, 
marked  Mit  vieler  InnigTceit  vorzutragen,  and 
numerous  other  instances.  Schumann,  also, 
wrote  almost  all  his  directions  in  German  :  and 
the  custom  has  been  much  affected  by  German 
Composers  of  the  present  day.  A  few  French 
Musicians  have  fallen  into  the  same  habit  ;4  and 
it  was  not  unusual,  at  the  close  of  the  last  and 
beginning  of  the  present  century,  to  find  English 
Composers — especially  in  their  Glees — substitut- 
ing such  words  as  'Chearful,'  and  'Slower,'  for 
A  llegro,  and  Piii  Lento.  Nevertheless,  the  Italian 
terms  still  hold  their  ground  ;  and  the  adoption 
of  a  common  language,  in  such  cases,  is  too 
obvious  an  advantage  to  be  lightly  sacrificed  to 
national  vanity. 

We  have  already  noticed  the  first  indications  of 
Dynamic  Signs,  in  the  Antiphonary  of  S.  Gall. 
This,  however,  was  quite  an  exceptional   case. 


«  The  slowness  with  which  these  Innovations  were  accepted  Is  well 
exemplified  in  an  article  in  the  'Penny  Cyclopaedia,'  (1833-5)  the 
writer  of  which,  lamenting  the  addition  of  unnecessary  Hooks,  regret! 
that  he  is  obliged  to  mention  the  name  of  Beethoven  among  those 
who  have  been  guilty  of  this  monstrous  absurdity! 

*  Berlioz,  for  instance,  indicates  the  use  of '  Harpes,  deux  au  moius,' 
and  '  Baguettes  d'eponge '  1 


NOTATION. 

Such  marks  were  utterly  unknown  to  the  Poly- 
phonists  of  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  ;  and  it 
was  not  until  the  1 7th  was  well  advanced,  that 
they  met  with  general  acceptance.  In  the  1 8th 
century,  however,  all  the  more  essential  signs, 
such  as  /,  p,  fp,  fz,  cres.,  dim.,  and  their  well- 
known  congeners,  were  in  full  use  ;  and  the 
numerous  forms  now  commonly  employed  are 
really  no  more  than  elaborate  synonyms  for 
these.  Marks  of  expression,  properly  so  called, 
such  as  —==,  =— ,  «=,  =»,  A,  and  a  host  of  others, 
though  not  unknown  in  the  last  century,  were 
much  less  frequently  used  than  now.  The  Slur, 
however,  the  modern  substitute  for  the  Me- 
diaeval Ligature,  and  an  infinite  improvement 
upon  it,  was  constantly  employed,  both  to  shew 
how  many  notes  were  to  be  sung  to  a  '  single 
syllable,  and  to  indicate  the  Legato  style.  So, 
also,  were  the  marks  for  Staccato  (•)  Staccatis- 
simo  ('),  and  Mezzo  Staccato  (<^>).  But  the  op- 
posite to  these  (-)  is  of  very  recent  invention 
indeed ;  and  has  only,  within  a  very  few  years, 
taken  the  place  of  the  far  less  convenient  term 
ten.  (dim.  of  tenuto).  The  Tie,  or  Bind  (*-<), 
is  found  in  the  Score  of  Peri's '  Euridice,'  printed 
in  1600.  The  Swell  (—=:=—)  was  first  used  by 
Domenico  Mazzocchi,  in  a  collection  of  Madri- 
gals, printed  in  1 638.  The  Pause  has  undergone 
no  change  whatever,  either  in  form,  or  significa- 
tion, since  the  time  of  Basiron.  As  in  the  days 
of  Obrecht,  the  Dotted  Double  Bar  is  still  used 
as  the  sign  of  repetition ;  though  a  tripled  bar 
would  no  longer  be  understood  to  indicate  that 
the  passage  was  to  be  sung  or  played  thrice ;  and 
the  dots  are  not  now  placed  on  both  sides  of  the 
bar,  unless  the  passages  on  both  sides  are  in- 
tended to  be  repeated.  The  convenient  forms 
of  im»  and  2nd»  volta  date  from  the  last  century. 
We  first  find  the  term  Da  Capo — now  better 
known  by  its  diminutive,  B.C. — in  Alessandro 
Scarlatti's  Opera,  '  Theodora,'  produced  in  1693. 
For  this,  when  the  performer  is  intended  to  go 
back  to  the  Prcsa  (•£•)  the  words  Dai  Segno  are 
more  correctly  substituted,  with  the  word  Fine, 
to  indicate  the  final  close. 

The  innumerable  Graces  which  formed  so  con- 
spicuous a  feature  in  the  Music  of  the  last  century, 
and  the  greater  number  of  which  are  now  en- 
tirely obsolete,  had  each  their  special  sign.  By 
far  the  most  important  of  these  was  the  true 
Appoggiatura,  which,  though  always  written  as 
a  small  note,  took  half  the  value  of  the  note  it 
preceded,  unless  that  note  was  dotted,  in  which 
case  it  took  two  thirds  of  it ;  while  the  Acciacca- 
tura,  though  exactly  similar  in  form,  was  always 
played  short.  The  Appoggiatura  is  now  always 
written  as  a  large  note,  and  the  Acciaccatura  as 
a  small  one:  but,  it  is  impossible  to  play  the 
works  of  Haydn,  or  Mozart,  correctly,  without 
thoroughly  understanding  the  difference  between 
the  two.  [See  Appoggiatuba  ;  Acciacoatdba.] 
The  variety  of  Shakes,  Turns,  Mordents,  Cadents, 
Backfalls,  and  other  Agrimens,  cultivated  by 
performers  who  have  scarcely,  even  yet,  passed 

'  8ee  Mendelssohn's  protest  agalmt  this  la  Letter  to  Macfarren, 
•Goethe  and  Mendelssohn/  2nd  ed.  p.  1T7. 


NOTATION. 


477 


out  of  memory,  was  very  great.  A  valuable 
explanation  of  some  of  those  used  in  the  last 
century,  is  given  in  Griepenkerl's  edition  of  the 
Organ  Works  of  J.  S.  Bach,  on  the  authority  of 
a  letter  written  by  that  Master  himself,  and, 
happily,  still  in  existence.  [See  Agbejieus, 
Mordent,  Shake,  Torn,  etc.,  etc.] 

Of  the  numerous  Clefs  employed  in  the  16th 
century,  five  only  have  been  retained.  In  Full 
Scores,  Classical  Composers  still  write  their  Voice 
Parts  in  the  time-honoured  Chiavi  naturali — 
Soprano,  Alto,  Tenor,  and  Bass.  In  the  so- 
called  P.F.  Scores  of  the  present  day,  the  Treble 
Clef  is  always  substituted  for  the  Soprano ;  and, 
very  often,  for  the  Alto  and  Tenor  also,  with  the 
understanding  that  the  Tenor  is  to  be  sung  an  Oc- 
tave lower  than  it  is  written.  When  this  method 
was  first  invented,  the  Alto  was  also  written  in 
the  Octave  above  that  in  which  it  was  intended  to 
be  sung — as  in  Dr.  Clarke's  edition  of  Handel's 
Works  :  but  this  most  inconvenient  plan  is  now 
happily  abandoned  ;  and  the  Alto  part  is  always 
written  at  its  true  pitch,  even  when  transposed 
into  the  Treble  Clef.  Solo  Voice-parts  are  also 
written,  in  full  Scores,  in  their  proper  Clefs.  In 
P.F.  Scores,  all  except  the  Bass  are  always 
written  in  the  Treble  Cle1-.  Handel  sometimes 
used  the  Treble  Clef,  so  far  as  the  Songs  were 
concerned,  even  in  his  Full  Scores ;  and  hence  it 
is  that,  in  many  cases,  we  only  know  by  tradition 
whether  a  certain  Song  is  intended  to  be  sung  by 
a  Soprano  or  a  Tenor.  Of  course  this  observation 
does  not  apply  to  the  great  Composer's  Choruses, 
which  were  always  written  in  their  proper  Clefs. 

Every  Orchestral  or  other  Instrument  has, 
also,  its  proper  Clef ;  and,  in  many  cases,  a  dis- 
tinctive Method  of  Notation.  Violin  Music  is 
always  written  in  the  Treble  Clef — to  which, 
indeed,  the  name  of  the  Violin  Clef  is  given, 
everywhere  but  in  England ;  and  to  save  Ledger 
Lines,  the  high  notes  are  sometimes  written 
in  the  octave  below,  with  the  diminutive  8ra, 
and  the  dotted  line,  above  them. 

The  Viola  always  plays  from  the  Alto  Clef. 

The  Violoncello  has  a  peculiar  Notation  of  its 
own.  Its  normal  Clef  is  the  Bass ;  but  the  higher 
notes  are  generally  written  in  the  Tenor — some- 
times, though  less  frequently,  in  the  Alto.  The 
highest  notes  of  all  are  written  in  the  Treble 
Clef ;  but,  with  the  understanding  that  they  are 
to  be  played  an  Octave  lower  than  they  are  written, 
unless  the  word  loco  is  placed  over  them,  in 
which  case  they  are  to  be  played  in  their  true 
place.  When  Sva  ...  is  placed  over  them,  they 
are  played  an  Octave  higher  than  they  are  written. 
Beethoven,  in  his  P.F.  Trio  in  Bb,  Op.  97,  gives 
full  directions  to  this  effect;  but  some  writers 
for  the  Violoncello,  dispensing  with  the  word  loco, 
place  8i;a  . .  .  over  the  notes  which  they  wish  to 
be  played  at  their  true  pitch. 

The  Contra-Basso  part  is  always  written  in  the 
Bass  Clef;  but  the  Instrument  sounds  the  note 
an  octave  lower  than  it  is  written.  In  the  Or- 
chestra, the  player  sits  at  the  same  desk  as  the 
Violoncello,  and  plays  from  the  same  part :  but 
it  is  understood  that  he  is  to  be  silent,  when  any 


478 


NOTATION. 


other  than  the  Bass  Clef  is  used,  or,  when  the 
part  is  marked  '  cello ' ;  and  not  to  play  again, 
until  the  Bass  Clef  is  resumed,  or  the  part  marked 
Basso.  Since  the  time  of  Beethoven,  a  separate 
part  has  often  been  written  for  the  Contra-Basso ; 
but  the  player  always  looks  over  the  same  book 
as  the  Violoncello. 

Flutes  and  Oboes  always  play  from  the  Treble 
Clef.  Clarinets  also  play  from  the  Treble  Clef; 
but  parts  for  the  Bb  Clarinet  are  written  a 
Major  Second,  and  those  for  the  A  Clarinet  a 
Minor  Third,  higher  than  they  are  intended 
to  sound.  Thus,  in  Beethoven's  Symphony  in 
C  minor,  the  Bb  Clarinet  parts  are  written 
in  D  minor ;  and  in  Mozart's  Overture  to 
Figaro  (in  D),  the  A  Clarinet  parts  are  written 
in  F ;  while,  in  both  cases,  the  Instrument  trans- 
poses the  notes  to  the  required  pitch,  without 
farther  interference  on  the  part  of  the  player. 
The  Corno  di  Bassetto,  or  Tenor  Clarinet,  plays 
every  note  a  Fifth  lower  than  it  is  written  ;  its 
part,  therefore,  when  intended  to  be  played  in 
the  key  of  F,  must  be  written  in  that  of  C  :  and 
the  same  peculiarity  characterises  the  Cor  An- 
glais, or  Tenor  Oboe. 

The  normal  Clef  for  the  Bassoon  is  the  Bass ; 
but  the  Tenor  Clef  is  frequently  employed,  for 
the  highest  notes,  to  save  Ledger  Lines.  The 
Double  Bassoon  also  uses  the  Bass  Clef,  sounding 
every  note  an  Octave  lower  than  it  is  written. 

Trumpet  parts  are  written  in  the  Treble  Clef, 
and  always  in  the  key  of  C ;  the  Instrument 
being  made  to  transpose  them  to  the  required 
pitch  by  the  addition,  or  removal,  of  Crooks. 
In  the  time  of  Handel,  Trumpets  rarely  played 
in  any  other  keys  than  those  of  C  and  D ;  and 
the  parts  were  then  always  written  in  the  key 
in  which  they  were  intended  to  be  played. 
Horn  parts  are  written  exactly  in  the  same  way 
as  Trumpet  parts ;  and  the  Instrument  transposes 
them,  in  like  manner,  but  in  the  Octave  below. 
The  few  lower  notes  for  the  Horn  are,  however, 
frequently  written  in  the  Bass  Clef.  The  Alto, 
Tenor,  and  Bass  Trombones,  play  from  the  Alto, 
Tenor,  and  Bass  Clefs,  respectively. 

The  Drums,  as  a  general  rule,  play  only  two 
notes — the  Tonic,  and  Dominant :  and  these  are 
usually  written  in  C,  and  transposed  by  the  man- 
ner of  tuning  the  Instrument.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever,  the  true  notes  are  written ;  especially  when 
more  than  two  Drums  are  used. 

The  Wind  Instruments  used  in  Military  Bands 
stand  in  a  great  variety  of  keys,  thereby  causing 
much  complication  in  the  Notation  of  the  Score. 

In  the  Scores  of  Handel,  Haydn,  and  Mozart,  the 
Organ  is  usually  made  to  play  from  the  ordinary 
Bass  part,  which  is  figured  throughout,  and  thus 
converted  into  a  'Thorough-base,'  in  order  to 
indicate  the  chords  with  which  the  Organist  is 
expected  to  enrich  the  composition.  When  the 
letters  T.  S. — for  Tasto  solo — are  substituted 
for  the  figures,  the  Organist  omits  the  Chords, 
and  plays  the  Bass  only,  in  unison,  until  the 
figures  reappear.  The  Organ  part  is  only  written 
in  full,  on  two  Staves,  when  it  is  purely  obbli- 
gato — as  in   Handel's   '  Saul.'      In  old   Organ 


NOTATION. 

and  Harpsichord  Music — both  written  in  precisely 
the  same  way — frequent  use  is  made  of  the 
Tenor  Clef;  but  it  has  never  been  used  for  the 
Pianoforte,  the  Notation  for  which  is  chiefly 
remarkable  for  the  number  of  its  Ledger  Lines, 
notwithstanding  the  constant  use  of  the  di- 
minutive 8va.  placed  over  notes  written  in  the 
octave  below.  When  the  Pedal  was  first  brought 
into  general  use,  it  was  indicated  by  the  sign 
3fr,  or  the  words  senza  sordino ;  the  sign  <£,  or 
the  words  con  sordino,  shewing  the  place  at 
which  it  was  to  be  removed.  It  is  now  indicated 
by  the  abbreviation  Ped. ;  and  its  removal,  by 
an  asterisk  sfr,  or,  as  in  some  of  Beethoven's  later 
works,  a  little  cross  + .  The  words  una  corda, 
or  the  letters  U.C.,  indicate  the  'Soft  Pedal'; 
and  the  words  tre  corde,  or  the  letters  T.C.,  are 
used  to  direct  its  removal.  In  Beethoven's  Son- 
ata, Op.  1 06,  the  gradual  removal  of  the  'Soft 
Pedal'  is  indicated  thus  : — Una  corda.  Poco  a 
poco  due  ed  allora  tutte  le  corde.  In  the  days 
when  he  affected  German  terms,  he  used  the 
words  mit  Vei'schiebung.    [See  Verschiebung.] 

In  old  Pianoforte  Music,  Abbreviations  are 
of  frequent  occurrence.  They  are  now  very 
rarely  used ;  and  are,  indeed,  commonly  supposed 
to  indicate  a  very  debased  style  of  typography : 
nevertheless,  they  frequently  serve  to  facilitate  the 
process  of  reading  very  considerably.  In  Orchestral 
Parts,  they  are  still  extensively  used ;  especially 
in  tremolos,  and  other  similar  passages,  in  which, 
while  economising  space,  they  save  readers  an 
immensity  of  trouble.  [See  Abbreviations, 
Horn,  Trumpet,  Bassoon,  Double  Bassoon, 
Clarinet,  etc.,  etc.] 

If  perfect  adaptation  of  the  means  used  to  the 
end  proposed  be  accepted  as  a  fair  standard  of 
excellence,  our  present  system  of  Notation  leaves 
little  to  be  desired ;  for  it  is  difficult  to  con- 
ceive any  combination  of  sounds,  consistent  with 
what  we  believe  to  be  the  true  principles  of 
Musical  Science,  which  it  is  incapable  of  ex- 
pressing. Attempts  have  been  made,  over  and 
over  again,  to  supersede  it  by  newer  inventions  : 
but,  with  the  exception  of  the  'Tonic  Sol-fa' 
1  system,  and  its  French  equivalent,  the  Me'thode 
Galin-Paris-Cheve\  not  one  of  them  has  succeeded 
in  commanding  serious  attention.  It  is  impossible 
that  we  can  set  aside  arrangements,  the  conveni- 
ence of  which  has  been  tested  by  so  many  centuries 
of  experience,  in  favour  of  such  Methods  as  that 
advocated  by  the  '  Chroma- Verein  des  gleich- 
stufigen  Tonsystems,'  the  '  Keyboard  Method  of 
Notation,  or  Chromatic  Stave,'  or  any  other  sys- 
tems, good  or  bad,  of  modern  invention,  whether 
based  upon  the  results  of  private  experience,  or 
scientific  calculation,  whatever  may  be  the  amount 
of  ingenuity  displayed  in  their  construction.  Like 
the  Ohiffres  proposed  by  Louis  Bourgeois,  in  the 
1 6th  century,  they  may,  for  a  time,  attain  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  delusive  popularity  ;  but,  sooner 
or  later,  they  must,  and  invariably  do,  fall  to  the 
ground.  And  the  reason  is  obvious.  Our  recog- 
nised system  is  an  universal  Language,  common 

1  For  an  account  of  the  "Moveable  Do,'  which  forms  the  chief 
characteristic  of  this  system,  see  Solmisation. 


NOTATION. 

to  all  civilised  countries  ;  whereas,  the  empirical 
methods  which  have  been  proposed  as  substi- 
tutes for  it  are,  like  the  Tablature  for  the  Lute, 
fitted,  at  their  best,  only  to  answer  some  special 
purpose,  often  of  very  slight  importance.  The 
'  Tonic  Sol-fa '  system,  for  instance, — even  set- 
ting aside  the  grave  faults  which  it  shares  with 
the  older  Alphabetical  Method  long  since  con- 
demned— could  never  be  used  for  any  other 
purpose  than  that  of  very  commonplace  Part 
Singing,  while  the  time  spent  in  acquiring  it 
could  scarcely  fail,  if  devoted  to  the  study  of 
ordinary  Notation,  to  lead  to  far  higher  results. 
jSee  Tonio  sol-fa;  Key,  II,  vol.  ii.  p.  55a; 
Bourgeois,  Louis,  Appendix.]  We  may,  there- 
fore, safely  predict,  for  the  present  Written 
Language  of  Music,  a  future  co-ordinate  with  that 
of  the  Scientific  Principles  of  which  it  has  so 
long  been  the  recognised  exponent.       [W.  S.  R.] 

NOTE,  NOTES  (Lat.  nota).  The  marks  or 
signs  by  which  music  is  put  on  paper.  [See 
Notation.]  Hence  the  word  is  used  for  the 
sounds  represented  by  the  notes.  [See  Scale.] 
Also  for  lie  keys  of  a  pianoforte ;  and  for  a  tune 
or  song,  as  the  '  note'  of  a  bird.  [G.] 

NOTTEBOHM,  Mabtin  Gustav,  composer, 
teacher,  and  writer  on  music,  born  Nov.  12,1817, 
at  Liidenscheid  near  Arnsberg  in  Westphalia, 
son  of  a  manufacturer.  In  1838  and  39,  when 
in  Berlin  as  a  volunteer  in  the  Garde-Schiitzen- 
bataillon,  he  took  lessons  on  the  piano  and  com- 
position from  L.  Berger  and  Dehn.  In  1840  he 
removed  to  Leipzig,  where  he  became  intimate 
with  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann,  particularly 
the  latter.  A  testimonal  from  Mendelssohn, 
stating  his  qualifications  as  a  musician,  procured 
his  discharge  from  the  army,  and  in  Sept.  1846 
he  settled  finally  in  Vienna.  In  1847  he  went 
through  a  course  of  counterpoint  with  Sechter, 
and  has  since  been  esteemed  as  an  able  and 
conscientious  teacher  of  the  pianoforte  and  com- 
position. But  it  is  as  a  solid  and  scientific 
writer  on  music  that  his  name  will  live  ;  indeed 
his  critical  researches  on  Beethoven's  works  con- 
stitute him  an  authority  of  the  first  rank.  His 
cooperation  in  the  revised  editions  of  the  works 
of  Bach,  Handel,  Beethoven,  Mendelssohn,  and 
Mozart,  is  of  the  highest  value  as  a  guarantee 
for  the  thoroughness  with  which  undertakings  so 
important  should  be  conducted.  If  not  the  first 
to  explore  Beethoven's  sketch-books,  he  has  cer- 
tainly investigated  them  more  thoroughly  and 
to  more  purpose  than  any  one  else,  and  his  works 
on  this  subject  deserve  the  gratitude  of  every 
student  of  the  great  composer.  [See  vol.  i.  p.  1 74.] 
It  is  to  be  regretted  that  so  far  no  public  institu- 
tution  has  been  inclined  to  offer  a  man  of  his 
great  attainments  a  position  commensurate  with 
his  services. 

Up  to  the  present  date  (April  1880)  Notte- 
bohm  has  published  : — '  Musikwissenschaftliche 
Beitrage '  in  the  '  Monatschrift  fur  Theater  und 
Musik'(i855  and  57,  Vienna,  Klemm) ;  'Em 
Skizzenbuch  von  Beethoven,'  description  with 
extracts  (1865,  Breitkopf  &  Hartel)  ;  'Thema- 
tisches  Verzeichniss  der  im  Druck  erschienenen 


NOURR1T. 


479 


Werke  von  Beethoven,'  2nd  ed.  enlarged,  and 
with  chronological  and  critical  observations  (1868, 
B.  &  H.)  ;  ' Beethoveniana '  (1872,  Rieter-Bie- 
dermann)  ;  '  Beethoven's  Studien,'  vol.  i.  con- 
taining the  instruction  received  by  Beethoven 
from  Haydn,  Albrechtsberger,  and  Salieri ;  from 
the  original  MSS.  (1873,  ibid.) ;  *  Thematisches 
Verzeichniss  der  im  Druck  erschienenen  Werke 
von  Franz  Schubert'  (1874,  Vienna,  Schreiber)  ; 
4  Neue  Beethoveniana,'  papers  appearing  from 
time  to  time  in  the  'Musikalisches  Wochenblatt' ; 
1875  to  79 — this  last,  and  the  'Beethoveniana,' 
are  founded  on  the  examination  of  Beethoven's 
sketch-books  to  which  allusion  has  been  made ; 
'Mozartiana'  (1880,  B.  &  H.)  His  compositions 
include — op.  1 ,  Clavier-quartet ;  op.  4,  Clavier-trios 
(both  Peters) ;  Solos  for  P.F.  op.  2  and  3  (Peters) ; 
op.  6,  10,  ii,  13-15  (Spina);  op.  16  (Peters); 
op.  1 7  '  Variationen  fiber  ein  Thema  von  J.  S. 
Bach'  P.F.  4  hands  (B.  &  H.).  [C.F.P.] 

NOURRIT,  Louis,  tenor-singer,  born  Aug.  4, 
1780,  at  Montpellier,  and  educated  in  the 
Maltrise  there ;  through  the  influence  of  Mehul 
entered  the  Conservatoire  at  Paris,  became  the 
favourite  pupil  of  Garat,  and  won  prizes.  He 
made  his  first  appearance  at  the  Opera  as 
Renaud  in  Gluck's  'Armide.'  A  good  singer," 
but  unambitious  and  cold,  he  contented  himself 
with  taking  Lamp's  parts  in  the  old  operas,  and 
seldom  created  new  roles.  He  retired  in  1826, 
and  lived  at  his  country  house  at  Brunoy  till 
his  death,  which  took  place  on  Sept.  23,  1831. 
During  the  whole  of  his  operatic  career  he  carried 
on  the  business  of  a  diamond  merchant,  and 
wished  to  make  a  tradesman  of  his  eldest  son. 

Adolphe,  born  in  Paris,  March  3,  1802.  This 
gifted  youth  received  a  good  classical  education 
at  the  College  Ste.  Barbe,-  but  was  then  put  into 
an  office,  the  drudgery  of  which  he  beguiled  by 
studying  music  in  secret.  On  the  representation 
of  Garcia,  however,  he  was  allowed  to  follow  his 
wishes.  His  first  appearance  at  the  Opera  took 
place  Sept.  10,  1 821,  as  Pylade  in  Gluck's  'Iphi- 
genie  en  Tauride,'  when  he  was  favourably 
received,  partly  because,  in  voice,  manner,  and 
appearance,  he  was  strikingly  like  his  father. 
This  resemblance  suggested  to  MeTiul  an  opera- 
feerie,  'Les  deux  Salem'  (July  12,  1824),  which 
however  failed.  Adolphe  was  intelligent  and 
well-educated,  and  determined  to  succeed. 
Flexibility  of  voice  he  acquired  by  singing  in 
Rossini's  operas,  and  he  studied  hard  to  excel 
as  an  actor  both  in  comedy  and  tragedy.  On 
his  father's  retirement  he  succeeded  him 
as  leading  tenor,  and  for  more  than  ten 
years  created  the  first  tenor  r6le  in  all 
the  operas  produced  at  the  Academic.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  list  of  the  parts  written  for  him  : — 

1826,  Neocles    in    '  Le    Siege    de    Corinthe.' 

1827,  Amenophis  in  Molse';  and  Douglas  in 
'  Macbeth.'  1828,  Masaniello  in  '  La  Muette  de 
Portici' ;  and  'Le  Comte  Ory.'  1829,  Arnold  in 
•Guillaume  Tell.'  1830,  Leonard  da  Vinci  in 
Ginestet's  'Francois  I  a  Chambord';  and  Un 
Inconnu  in  *Le  Dieu  et  la  Bayadere.'  1831, 
Adhemar  in  'Euryanthe';    Guillaume  in  'Le 


480 


NOURRIT. 


Philtre' ;  and  Robert  in  '  Robert  le  Diable.' 
1832,  Edmond  in  'Le  Serment.'  1833,  'Gustave 
III';  and  Nadir  in  Cherubini's  'Ali  Baba.' 
1834,  Don  Juan  in  a  new  translation  of  Mozart's 
opera.  1835,  Eleazar  in  'La  Juive.'  1836, 
Raoul  in  '  Les  Huguenots' ;  and  Phoebus  in  '  La 
Esmeralda'  by  Louise  Bertin.  1837,  'Stradella' 
in  Niedermeyer's  opera. 

The  writer  of  this  article  was  a  personal  friend 
of  Nourrit's,  and  heard  him  in  nearly  all  the 
roles  which  he  created,  and  to  which  he  im- 
parted a  distinct  stamp  of  his  own.  Though 
rather  stout,  and  short  in  the  neck,  he  had  a  fine 
presence,  and  could  be  refined  and  pleasing  in 
comedy,  or  pathetic  and  commanding  in  tragedy 
at  will.  He  used  his  falsetto  with  great  skill, 
and  was  energetic  without  exhausting  his  powers. 
He  was  idolised  by  the  public,  and  his  influence 
both  with  them  and  with  his  brother  artists 
was  great.  He  was  consulted  by  managers  and 
authors  alike  ;  he  wrote  the  words  for  Eleazar' s 
fine  air  in  'La  Juive,'  and  suggested  the  abrupt 
and  pathetic  close  of  the  duet  in  the  '  Huguenots.' 
His  poetic  imagination  is  shown  by  the  libretti 
for  the  ballets  of  '  La  Sylphide,'  '  La  Tempete,' 
'  L'lle  des  Pirates,'  '  Le  Diable  boiteux,'  etc,, 
.  danced  by  Taglioni  and  Fanny  Elssler — all  which 
were  written  by  him.  Besides  securing  large 
receipts  for  the  Opera,  he  popularised  Schubert's 
songs  in  France,  made  the  fortune  of  various 
composers  of  romances,  and  was  always  ready  to 
sing  the  1st  act  of  '  La  Dame  Blanche'  with 
Mme.  Damoreau  for  any  charitable  purpose.  In 
conversation  he  was  witty  and  refined.  Duprez's 
engagement  at  the  opera  was  a  severe  mortifica- 
tion for  so  earnest  and  so  popular  an  artist, 
and  rather  than  divide  honours  to  which  he 
felt  he  had  an  exclusive  right,  or  provoke  com- 
parisons which  would  in  all  probability  have 
been  made  in  his  favour,  he  resolved  to  retire. 
On  his  last  appearance  at  the  Acade"niie  (April  1, 
1837)  he  received  the  most  enthusiastic  and  flat- 
tering ovation  ever  perhaps  accorded  to  a  French 
artist,  but  nothing  would  induce  him  to  remain 
in  Paris.  He  obtained  leave  of  absence  from  the 
Conservatoire,  where  he  had  been  professeur  de 
declamation  lyrique  for  the  last  ten  years,  started 
for  Brussels,  and  thence  proceeded  to  Marseilles, 
Lyons,  and  Toulouse.  His  idea  was  to  produce 
during  his  tournee  scenas  or  acts  composed  ex- 
pressly for  him,  and  Ambroise  Thomas  furnished 
him  with  a  dramatic  cantata  called  '  Silvio  Pel- 
lico'  (words  by  Legouve),  which  he  carried  off 
with  expressions  of  delight  at  having  found 
something  which  would  display  his  powers  in  a 
new  light.  Of  this  piece,  however,  nothing  has 
ever  been  heard  since.  While  at  Marseilles  and 
Toulouse  Nourrit's  customary  excitement  in- 
creased to  an  alarming  degree,  and  was  aggra- 
vated after  his  return  to  Paris,  by  a  series  of 
newspaper  articles  praising  Duprez  at  his  ex- 
pense. These  drove  him  away  a  second  time. 
He  started  for  Italy  in  a  state  of  deep  depression, 
but  was  temporarily  restored  by  Rossini's  kind- 
ness and  by  the  cordiality  of  his  reception  in  most 
of  the  great  towns.     Unfortunately  '  Polyeucte,' 


NOVELLO. 

which  Donizetti  had  composed  for  him,  was  inter- 
dicted in  Naples,  and  he  made  his  first  appearance 
at  San  Carlo  in  Mercadante's  'II  Giuramento.' 
He  was  well  received  both  in  this  and  in  'Norma,' 
but  could  not  be  persuaded  of  the  fact.  After 
singing  at  a  benefit  concert  in  a  state  of  great 
mental  fatigue,  he  had  a  sudden  access  of  delirium 
in  the  night,  and  throwing  himself  out  of  window 
was  killed  on  the  spot,  March  8,  1839.  His  re- 
mains were  brought  to  Paris,  and  interred  amid  a 
crowd  of  sorrowing  friends.  He  was  much  valued 
by  Mendelssohn,  who  made  his  acquaintance  in 
1 83 1,  and  who  notices  his  death  in  terms  of  great 
sorrow.     (Hiller's  Mendelssohn,  p.  137.) 

There  is  a  fine  marble  medallion  of  Nourrit  by 
Pradier;  and  he  was  often  painted  in  scenes 
from  '  La  Muette,' '  Robert,' '  La  Juive,'  and  '  Les 
Huguenots.'  The  portrait  by  F.  R.  Spencer  is 
very  like.  M.  L.  Qnicherat,  one  of  his  sons-in- 
law,  published  '  Adolphe  Nourrit ;  sa  Vie,'  etc. 
(Paris,  1867,  3  vols.)  containing  ample  details. 

His  brother  Auguste  (born  Paris  1808,  died 
at  l'lsle  d'Adam  July  11,  1853),  was  also  a 
distinguished  tenor  singer,  and  for  some  time 
directed  the  chief  theatres  at  the  Hague,  Amster- 
dam, and  Brussels.  He  visited  the  United  States, 
and  after  his  return  devoted  himself  to  teaching 
singing.  [G.  C] 

NOVELLETTEN.  The  title  of  a  series  of 
eight  pieces  for  pianoforte  solo  by  Schumann 
(op.  21),  written  in  1838,  and  dedicated  to 
Adolph  Henselt.  There  is  also  another  Novel- 
lette  of  great  beauty  not  included  in  this  series, 
but  written  in  the  same  year,  which  Schumann 
afterwards  inserted  in  his  'Bunte  Blatter,'  14 
short  pieces,  op.  99.  The  name,  like  so  many 
others  of  Schumann's,  suggests  the  influence  of 
Jean  Paul's  writings.  '  He  had  found  at  last 
(says  Mr.  Niecks ')  the  proper  form  for  his  confi- 
dential communications, — for  the  Kreisleriana 
and  Novelletten  are  a  kind  of  confessions.  These 
pieces  read  like  a  romance,  to  the  interest  and 
beauty  of  which  they  add  the  truthfulness  of 

reality They  are  characterised  by 

Schumann  as  'larger  connected  romantic  stories.' 
'  Here  we  have  no  painful  forcing,  no  oozing  out 
of  thoughts,  but  a  full  stream,  a  rich  outwelling, 
such  as  is  rare  even  with  this  master.  .  .  . 
They  differ  from  the  Kreisleriana  in  the  pre- 
ponderance of  the  humorous  element,  and  are  of 
a  more  hopeful  and  cheery  tone.'         [J.A.F.M.] 

NOVELLO,  Vincent,  son  of  an  Italian  father 
and  English  mother,  was  born  at  240,  Oxford 
Street,  Sept.  6,  1781.  He  was  a  chorister  at  the 
Sardinian  Chapel,  Duke  Street,  Lincoln's-Inn- 
Fields,  under  Samuel  Webbe,  the  organist,  and 
after  the  breaking  of  his  voice  officiated  as  deputy 
for  Webbe,  and  also  for  Danby,  organist  of  the 
Spanish  Chapel,  Manchester  Square.  At  16 
years  of  age  he  became  organist  of  the  Portu- 
guese Chapel  in  South  Street,  Grosvenor  Square, 
which  office  he  held  until  1822.  In  1812  he 
was  pianist  to  the  Italian  Opera  Company  at  the 
Pantheon.     He  was  one  of  the  original  members 

l  Monthly  Musical  Record  for  August  1876. 


NOVELLO. 

of  the  Philharmonic  Society,  and  occasionally 
directed  its  concerts.  Having  attained  great 
eminence  as  an  organist  he  was  selected  to  take 
the  organ  in  the  '  Creation '  at  the  Westminster 
Abbey  Festival  in  1834.  From  1840  to  1843  he 
was  organist  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Chapel  in 
Moorfields.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Classical  Harmonists  and  Choral  Harmonists 
Societies,  of  both  which  he  was  for  some  time 
conductor.  In  1849  he  quitted  England  for 
Nice,  where  he  resided  until  his  death,  Aug.  9, 
1 86 1.  Novello's  compositions  were  numerous  and 
varied,  and  if  not  remarkable  for  invention  or 
originality,  are  marked  by  grace  and  solid  mu- 
sicianship. They  include  '  Rosalba,'  a  cantata 
composed  for  the  Philharmonic  Society;  'Old 
May  Morning,'  a  '  cheerful  glee,'  which  gained  a 
prize  at  Manchester  in  1832  ;  and  'The  Infant's 
Prayer,'  a  recitative  and  air  which  was  long  the 
favourite  of  every  choir  boy  who  was  qualified 
for  concert  singing,  and  of  which  nearly  100,000 
copies  were  sold.  He  also  composed  many 
masses,  motets,  and  sacred  pieces  to  Latin 
words,  which,  if  not  very  original,  were  good  sound 
music,  and  have  helped  to  form  the  taste  of 
many  a  living  amateur  in  England.  But  it  was 
as  an  editor  and  arranger  that  he  principally 
deserves  the  gratitude  of  lovers  of  music.  His 
first  work  was  'A  Collection  of  Sacred  Music' 
(masses  and  motets,  including  many  by  himself), 
2  vols.,  181 1,  2nd  edit.,  1825;  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  '  Twelve  Easy  Masses,'  3  vols.,  1816; 
'  The  Evening  Service,'  including  the  Gregorian 
hymns,  2  vols.,  1822 ;  '  The  Fitzwilliam  Music,'  a 
noble  selection  of  sacred  pieces  by  Italian  com- 
posers from  MSS.  in  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum, 
Cambridge,  5  vols.,  1825;'  Purcell's  Sacred  Music,' 
5  vols.,  1829,  containing  many  anthems,  services, 
and  other  pieces  never  before  printed,  afterwards 
republished  in  4  vols. ;  18  Masses  by  Mozart,  and 
16  by  Haydn,  of  which  10  of  the  former  and  9  of 
the  latter  were  printed  for  the  first  time ;  '  Con- 
vent Music,'  a  collection  of  pieces  for  treble 
voices,  2  vols.,  1834;  'The  Psalmist,'  a  collec- 
tion of  psalm  tunes ;  '  The  Congregational  and 
Chorister's  Psalm  and  Hymn  Book ;'  Croft's  An- 
thems, 2  vols. ;  Greene's  Anthems,  2  vols. ; 
Boyce's  Anthems,  4  vols. ;  Organ  part  to  Boyce's 
'Cathedral  Music';  the  masses  of  Beethoven, 
Hummel,  etc.  He  took  a  number  of  madrigals 
by  Wilbye  and  others,  originally  written  for  3 
and  4  voices,  and  added  2,  3,  and  even  4  addi- 
tional parts  to  them  with  great  ingenuity.  For 
the  organ  he  published,  amongst  others,  '  Select 
Organ  Pieces,  3  vols. ;  '  Cathedral  Voluntaries,' 
1  vols. ;  and  '  Short  Melodies,'  1  vol.  But  it  is 
impossible  to  enumerate  all  the  arrangements  of 
this  industrious  musician,  or  the  benefits  which 
he  thereby  conferred  on  lovers  of  music  at  a  time 
when  it  was  difficult  of  access  to  a  degree  now 
hard  to  realise.  Novello  possessed  well-culti- 
vated literary  taste,  and  numbered  among  his  in- 
timate friends  Charles  and  Mary  Lamb,  Shelley, 
Keats,  Leigh  Hunt,  Hazlitt,  Edward  Holmes, 
and  Charles  Cowden  Clarke,  the  latter  of  whom 
married  his  eldest  daughter.  Lamb  has  men- 
VOL.  11.  PT.  10. 


NOVELLO. 


481 


tioned  him  with  affection  in  more  than  one  pas- 
sage. His  family  circle  was  greatly  beloved  by 
those  who  had  access  to  it,  amongst  others  by 
Mendelssohn,  who  was  often  there  during  his 
early  visits  to  this  country,  and  many  of  whose 
extraordinary  improvisations  took  place  in  the 
Novellos'  drawing-room. 

Cecilia,  his  second  daughter,  studied  singing 
under  Mrs.  Blane  Hunt,  and  appeared  upon  the 
stage.  She  was  a  good  musician,  and  an  ex- 
cellent and  useful  singer  of  secondary  parts. 
She  became  the  wife  of  Thomas  James  Serle, 
actor,  dramatist  and  journalist.  Their  daughter, 
Emma  Clara,  a  promising  soprano  singer,  died 
at  an  early  age,  Oct.  4,  1877. 

Claba  Anastasia,  his  fourth  daughter,  born 
June  10,  18 1 8,  was  at  9  years  of  age  placed 
under  Miss  Hill  and  John  Robinson,  at  York, 
to  learn  singing  and  pianoforte-playing.  In  1829 
she  became  a  pupil  of  the  Conservatoire  at  Paris, 
but  returned  to  England  in  the  following  year  on 
account  of  the  Revolution.  In  1833  she  made 
her  first  public  appearance  at  a  concert  at  Wind- 
sor, with  such  success  that  she  was  immediately 
engaged  at  the  Ancient  and  Philharmonic  Con- 
certs and  Worcester  Festival,  and  in  the  next 
year  at  the  Westminster  Abbey  Festival.  She 
sang  at  all  the  principal  concerts  and  festivals 
until  1837,  when,  at  the  invitation  of  Mendels- 
sohn, she  went  to  Leipsic,  and  appeared  at  the 
Gewandhaus  Concerts,  whence  she  passed  on  to 
Berlin,  Vienna,  St.  Petersburg,  and  Dusseldorf. 
Writing  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Philharmonic 
Society  in  Jan.  1839,  Mendelssohn  speaks  of  her 
and  Mrs.  Shaw  as  '  the  best  concert  singers  we 
have  heard  in  Germany  for  a  long  time,'  and 
Schumann  (Gesamm.  Schriften,  iii.  47)  dwells  on 
the  extraordinary  interest  she  excited,  and  the 
universal  surprise  at  her  noble  simple  style  of 
interpreting  Handel.  In  1839  she  went  to 
Italy  to  study  for  the  stage,  and  became  a  pupil 
of  Micheroux  at  Milan,  with  whom  she  re- 
mained for  a  year.  She  made  her  first  ap- 
pearance in  opera  at  Padua,  July  6,  1841,  in 
Rossini's  '  Semiramide,'  with  great  success.  She 
afterwards  sang  at  Rome,  Milan,  Bologna,  Mo- 
dena,  and  other  places.  She  returned  to  England 
in  March,  1 843,  and  appeared  in  opera  at  Drury 
Lane,  and  in  oratorio  at  the  Sacred  Harmonic 
Concerts,  and  the  Birmingham  Festival.  On  Oct. 
22,  1843,  she  was  married  to  Count  Gigliucci, 
and  withdrew  from  public  life ;  but  circumstances 
compelled  her,  a  few  years  later,  to  return  to  the 
exercise  of  her  profession,  and  in  1850  she  sang 
in  opera  at  Rome  and  Lisbon.  In  185 1  she  re- 
turned to  England  and  appeared  in  oratorio,  in 
which  she  achieved  her  greatest  successes,  and  at 
concerts.  She  also  made  one  more  appearance 
here  on  the  stage,  namely,  in  the  Puritani  at 
Drury  Lane  July  5,  1853.  In  1854  she  sang  in 
opera  at  Milan.  Her  greatest  triumphs  were  at 
the  opening  of  the  Crystal  Palace,  June  10,  1854, 
and  at  the  Handel  Festivals  in  1857  and  1859, 
where  her  clear  pure  notes  penetrated  the  vast 
space  in  a  manner  not  to  be  easily  forgotten.  In 
Nov.  i860  she  took  leave  of  the  public  in  a 

I  i 


482 


NOVELLO. 


performance  of '  Messiah '  at  the  Crystal  Palace, 
and  at  a  benefit  concert  at  St.  James's  Hall,  and  re- 
turned to  Italy,  where  she  now  resides.  Her  voice 
was  a  high  soprano,  extending  from  C  below  the 
stave  to  D  in  alt,  remarkable  for  purity  of  tone, 
brilliance  and  power.  She  excelled  in  oratorio, 
particularly  in  devotional  songs,  and  she  enjoys 
the  distinction  of  having  drawn  praise  from 
Charles  Lamb,  notwithstanding  his  insensibility 
to  music.     (See  his  poem  '  To  Clara  N.') 

Mary  Sabilla,  his  sixth  daughter,  was  also  a 
soprano  vocalist,  but  delicacy  of  throat  and  sus- 
ceptibility to  cold  compelled  her  to  relinquish 
singing.  She  has  translated  several  theoretical 
works  into  English.  Since  1 849  she  has  resided 
in  Italy,  at  first  at  Nice,  and  since  at  Genoa. 

Joseph  Alfred,  his  eldest  son,  born  18 10, 
was  a  bass  singer,  and  for  many  years  sang  in 
oratorios  and  concerts.  He  was  for  some  time 
choir-master  at  Lincoln's-Inn  Chapel.  He  adapted 
the  English  text  to  the  *  Lobgesang,'  and  several 
of  the  Psalms  of  Mendelssohn.  He  was  actively 
engaged  in  obtaining  the  repeal  of  the  advertise- 
ment duty,  the  paper  duty,  the  stamp  on  news- 
papers, and  other  imposts  generally  known  as 
the  'Taxes  upon  Knowledge.'  He  is  however 
best  known  as  a  music  publisher.  [See  Novello, 
Eweb  &  Company.]  He  retired  in  1856,  and 
went  to  reside  at  Nice,  whence  he  removed  to 
Genoa,  where  he  is  now  living.  [W.H.H.] 

NOVELLO,  EWER,  &  Co.,  Musio  Pub- 
lishers. The  foundation  of  this  firm  dates  from 
the  year  18 11,  when  Vincent  Novello,  already 
well  known  as  a  professor  of  music  and  organist, 
put  forth  his  first  publication,  '  Novello's  Sacred 
Music  as  performed  at  the  Royal  Portuguese 
Chapel.' 

Vincent  Novello,  while  much  engaged  both  as 
teacher  and  organist,  found  time  to  compose,  edit, 
and  issue  from  his  private  residence  from  time 
to  time  many  important  works,  amongst  others, 
•  Twelve  Easy  Masses '  (3  vols,  folio)  ;  '  Motetts 
and  other  Pieces  principally  adapted  for  the 
Morning  Service  '  (2  vols,  folio)  ;  'Evening  Ser- 
vice, being  a  collection  of  Pieces  appropriate  to 
Vespers,  Complin,  and  Tenebrse'  (2  vols,  folio), 
and  many  others  enumerated  in  the  preceding 
article.  At  this  time  he  also  commenced  his 
greatest  work,  '  Purcell's  Sacred  Music '  (4  vols., 
large  folio).  The  publication  of  this,  which, 
when  completed,  consisted  of  upwards  of  1000 
pages,  was  finished  after  his  son,  Joseph  Alfred 
Novello,  had  begun  business  as  a  regular  music- 
publisher  at  No.  67,  Frith  Street,  Soho,  which 
he  did  in  1829.  From  Frith  Street  he  removed 
in  1834  to  more  extensive  premises  at  No.  69, 
Dean  Street,  Soho,  which  house,  in  conjunction 
with  No.  70,  is  still  occupied  by  the  present  firm  as 
a  printing-office.  In  those  early  days  no  less  than 
18  masses  by  Mozart  and  16  by  Haydn,  of  which 
only  8  and  7  respectively  had  previously  been  pub- 
lished, and  that  only  in  full  score,  were  issued 
under  the  editorship  of  Vincent  Novello  in  the 
practical  and  useful  form  of  vocal  scores.  In 
thus  taking  up  sacred  music,  Novello  was  the 
first  legitimate  successor  to  John  Day,  since 


NOVELLO. 

whose  time  the  publication  of  sacred  music  in 
England  had  been  limited  to  the  issue  of  works 
such  as  Barnard's  'Selected  Church  Music,' 
Boyce's  '  Cathedral  Music,'  Croft's  '  Musica  Sa- 
cra,' etc.,  which  were  issued  on  subscription  by 
the  editor  or  composer. 

Joseph  Alfred  Novello  was  the  first  person  who 
made  the  practical  discovery  that  music  could  be 
supplied  in  large  quantities  at  a  much  lower  rate 
than  had  hitherto  been  charged,  and  that  the 
necessary  demand  might  be  created  by  bringing 
out  what  were  then  considered  extraordinarily 
cheap  editions  of  standard  works.  How  different 
the  meaning  of  the  term  '  cheap '  was  at  that  early 
period  from  what  it  is  now,  may  be  gathered  from 
the  fact  that  the  small  engraved  oblong  editions 
of  Haydn's  and  Mozart's  Masses,  then  considered 
very  low  in  price,  were  charged  to  the  public  at 
sums  varying  from  8s.  6d.  downwards. 

Mr.  Alfred  Novello  soon  advanced  still  further 
in  the  same  direction,  by  turning  his  attention  to 
type-printing,  as  the  only  means  of  meeting  a 
really  large  demand.  In  1846  he  began  the  issue 
of  music  in  8vo — that  form  being  then  an  entire 
novelty — printed  from  type.  The  'Messiah'  and 
the  '  Creation'  were  issued  in  that  year  in  sixpenny 
numbers,  and  were  followed  by  many  others. 
In  1857  the  '  Messiah'  was  issued  at  18.4^.,  and 
now  (1880)  not  only  that  but  67  other  oratorios 
and  large  works  of  Handel,  Haydn,  Bach,  Mo- 
zart, Weber,  Cherubini,  Mendelssohn,  Gounod, 
Schumann,  Brahms,  Goetz,  and  many  others  are 
published  at  one  shilling.  Concurrently  with 
the  progress  of  the  type-printing,  a  reduction  in 
the  price  of  sheet-music  by  about  50  per  cent 
was  made  in  the  year  1849,  thus  placing 
it  before  a  large  section  of  the  public  by  whom 
it  had  before  been  unattainable.  But  while  thus 
lowering  the  price  of  music  and  extending  its 
range,  the  firm  has  not  been  unmindful  of  excel', 
lence  of  execution.  Vincent  Novello's  early  pro- 
ductions are  distinguished  for  a  peculiar  grace 
and  neatness ;  and  very  recently,  by  introducing 
German  engravers,  his  successors  have  produced, 
in  the  Purcell  Society's  volume  for  1878,  and 
in  their  complete  edition  of  Mendelssohn's  P.  F. 
works,  specimens  of  plate  music  equalling  any  that 
are  turned  out  by  the  great  foreign  publishers, 
and  fully  up  to  the  same  very  high  level  of  ex- 
cellence which  distinguishes  their  type-music. 

In  the  year  1861  the  business  began  to  be 
conducted  under  the  style  of  Novello  &  Co.,  Mr. 
Henry  Littleton,  who  had  taken  an  increasingly 
active  part  in  the  house  since  1841,  and  had  for 
some  years  the  sole  direction  of  the  business, 
being  admitted  a  partner :  five  years  later  he 
became  the  sole  proprietor,  by  the  retirement  of 
Mr.  Novello;  and  in  1867  he  purchased  the 
business  of  Ewer  &  Co.,  thus  acquiring  the  whole 
of  the  copyright  works  of  Mendelssohn.  In  the 
same  year  the  premises  at  No.  1,  Berners  Street, 
Oxford  Street,  were  opened,  and  the  firm  became 
known  under  its  present  style  of  Novello,  Ewer 
&  Co.  Later  still,  in  1878,  large  bookbinding 
establishments  were  opened  at  III  and  113 
Southwark  Street.  [G.] 


NOVERRE. 

NOVERRE,  Jean  Georges,  born  in  Paris, 
April  29,  1727.  His  father,  who  had  formerly 
served  under  Charles  XII,  intended  him  for  the 
army,  but  his  love  of  dancing  and  the  theatre 
were  invincible,  and  he  became  the  great  au- 
thority on  dancing,  and  the  reformer  of  the 
French  ballet.  A  pupil  of  the  celebrated  dancer 
Dupre-,  he  made  his  de"but  before  the  court  at 
Fontainebleau  in  1 743,  but  apparently  without 
success,  as  we  find  him  soon  afterwards  well  re- 
ceived at  Berlin.  In  1 747  he  returned  to  Paris, 
and  composed  several  ballets  for  the  Opera 
Comique,  the  success  of  which  aroused  so  much 
jealousy  as  to  induce  him  to  accept  Garrick's 
invitation  to  London  in  1755.  There  he  spent 
two  years,  profiting  in  more  ways  than  one,  as 
may  be  seen  by  the  more  extended  knowledge 
and  more  elevated  imagination  of  his  ballets  of 
that  date.  He  returned  to  Paris  hoping  for  the 
appointment  of  ballet-master  to  the  Academic, 
but  failing  this,  he  accepted  a  lucrative  engage- 
ment at  the  large  theatre  of  Lyons.  Here,  in 
conjunction  with  Granier,  he  produced  three 
ballets  (1758  and  59)  of  which  the  scenarios 
were  printed.  Here  also  he  published  his  '  Let- 
tres  sur  la  Danse  et  les  Ballets '  (1 760, 1  vol.  8vo), 
which  attracted  general  notice,  and  greatly  in- 
creased his  reputation.  Remaining  still  without  a 
summons  to  Paris,  he  found  a  patron  in  the  Duke 
of  Wirtemberg.for  whom  he  composed  no  less  than 
twenty  divertissements  and  ballets  pantomimes. 
The  Empress  Maria  Theresa  next  summoned 
him  to  Vienna,  as  director  of  the  court-fetes, 
and  dancing-master  to  the  Imperial  family  ;  and 
here  again  he  composed  a  dozen  ballets  for  the 
court  theatre,  the  scenarios  of  which  were 
printed  separately.  On  the  marriage  of  Arch- 
duke Ferdinand,  Noverre  received  the  order  of 
Christ,  and  permission  to  take  part  in  the  wed- 
ding fetes  at  Milan,  when  he  produced  several 
new  ballets,  afterwards  given  in  Vienna. 

On  his  return  to  Paris  in  1775,  Noverre  obtained, 
through  his  former  pupil  Marie  Antoinette,  now 
Queen  of  France,  the  long-coveted  post  of  '  Maitre 
des  ballets  en  chef  at  the  Academie.  In  addi- 
tion to  revivals  of  earlier  works  he  composed 
Bpecially  for  the  Ope"ra  'Les  Caprices  de  Gala- 
theV  (Sept.  30,  1776);  'Annette  et  Lubin' 
(June  9,  1778) ;  'Les  petits  Riens'  (June  II, 
1 778),  for  which  Mozart  wrote  twelve  pieces ; 
and  'Me'de'e'  (Jan.  30,  1780).  He  also  ar- 
ranged the  divertissements  of  several  operas  by 
Gluck  and  Piccinni.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution  he  fled  to  London,  and  there  pro- 
duced two  of  his  best  ballets,  '  Les  Noces  de 
Thetis'  and  'Iphigenie  en  Aulide.'  After  so 
successful  a  career  he  was  justified  in  looking 
forward  to  an  old  age  of  affluence,  but  during  the 
Revolution  he  lost  the  savings  of  50  years  and 
was  reduced  to  poverty,  which  he  bore  with 
dignity  and  resignation.  His  death  took  place 
at  St.  Germain  en  Laye  in  18 10,  in  the  end  of 
October,  according  to  Choron  and  Fayolle,  on 
Nov.  19,  according  to  Fe*tis.  Some  give  1807, 
but  that  is  apparently  a  mistake. 

Noverre  several  times  remodelled  his  standard 


NUANCES. 


483 


work.  An  edition  published  at  St.  Petersburg 
(1803-4)  'Lettres  sur  la  Danse,  sur  les  Ballets 
et  les  Arts,'  4  vols.,  scarce,  and  apparently  un- 
known to  Fe"tis,  contains  analyses  of  numerous 
ballets.  The  best-known  is  the  Paris  edition  of 
1807,  'Lettres  sur  les  Arts  imitateurs  en  general, 
et  sur  la  Danse  en  particulier,'  2  vols.,  with  por- 
trait engraved  by  Roger  after  Guerin,  and  the 
following  lines  by  Imbert : — 

Du  feu  de  son  penie  il  anima  la  danse : 
Aux  beaux  jours  de  la  Grece  il  sut  la  rappelerj 
Et,  recouvrant  par  lui  leur  antique  eloquence, 
Les  gestes  et  les  pas  apprirent  a  parler 

which  give  a  good  summary  of  what  Noverre 
effected.  He  invented  the  ballet  d'action,  re- 
formed the  costume  of  the  dancers,  abolished 
routine  in  favour  of  taste,  compelled  composers 
to  conform  their  music  to  the  situations  in  the 
drama  and  the  sentiments  of  the  characters, 
and  succeeded  in  making  the  pantomime  appeal 
to  the  intellect  as  well  as  to  the  eye. 

Among  Noverre's  writings  may  be  specified 
'  Observations  sur  la  construction  d'une  nouvelle 
Salle  de  l'Ope'ra'  (Amsterdam,  1787);  and 
'Lettres  a  un  artiste  sur  les  fetes  publiques' 
(Year  IX.).  The  MS.  notes  of  an  eminent 
bibliophile  allude  to  another,  'Thebrie  et  pra- 
tique de  la  Danse  en  general,'  which  seems  not  to 
have  been  printed,  and  was  doubtless  intended 
for  the  '  Dictionnaire  de  la  Danse,'  projected  by 
Noverre,  but  not  finished.  [G.  C.} 

NOWELL.     [See  Noi£L.] 

NOZZE  DI  FIGARO,  LE.  Opera  buffa  by 
Mozart,  in  4  acts ;  the  libretto  by  L.  da  Ponte 
after  Beaumarchais'  '  Mariage  de  Figaro,'  on 
Mozart's  own  suggestion.  It  is  dated,  in  Mozart's 
Autograph  Catalogue,  Vienna,  April  29,  1876, 
and  the  first  performance  took  place  at  the 
National  Theatre,  Vienna,  May  I.  In  Paris  as 
'Le  Mariage  de  Figaro,'  in  5  acts,  with  Beau- 
marchais' spoken  dialogue,  at  Academic,  March 
20,  1 793  ;  at  Theatre  Lyrique,  as  '  Les  Noces  de 
Figaro,'  by  Barbier  and  Carre",  in  4  acts,  May  8, 
1858.  In  London,  in  Italian,  at  the  King's 
Theatre,  June  18,  181 2.  [G.] 

NUANCES  (shades).  This  word  is  used  in 
music  to  denote  the  various  modifications  of  time, 
force,  and  expression,  which  are  the  most  promi- 
nent characteristic  of  modern  music,  whether 
indicated  by  the  composer  or  inserted  by  the 
performer.  As  examples  of  modifications  of  time 
may  be  cited  the  directions  rallentando,  acceller- 
ando,  calando,  lentando,  stringendo,  etc. ;  of  force, 
crescendo,  diminuendo,  pesante,martellato,  besides 
piano  and  forte  with  their  own  modifications,  as 
mezzo  piano,  pianissimo,  etc.,  the  marks  -«=:  s=»- 
for  crescendo  and  diminuendo,  and  A  or  >  for 
sforzando ;  o{  expression,  dolce,espressivo,  marcato, 
lusingando,  etc.  No  exact  date  can  be  given  for 
the  time  when  these  marks  originated,  as  they 
came  very  gradually  into  use.  They  became 
more  and  more  common  as  the  instruments  were 
gradually  improved.  Burney  (vol.  iv.  p.  187) 
says,  speaking  of  Matthew  Lock :  '  In  his  third 
introductory  music  to  the  Tempest '  (written  in. 
I  i  2 


484 


NUANCES. 


1670),  'which  is  called  a  Curtain  Tune,  probably 
from  the  curtain  being  first  drawn  up  during  the 
performance  of  this  species  of  overture,  he  has, 
for  the  first  time  that  has  come  to  my  knowledge, 
introduced  the  use  of  crescendo  (louder  by  degrees) 
with  diminuendo  and  lentando,  under  the  words 
soft  and  slow  by  degrees.'  From  the  fact  of  these 
directions  being  in  Italian,  we  may  gather  that 
they  had  been  previously  used  by  Italian  com- 
posers, but  the  date  cannot  be  put  much  earlier 
than  1670  for  their  first  appearance.  From  this 
time  until  about  1740,  when  they  were  quite 
settled  and  in  constant  use,  these  marks  of  ex- 
pression were  used,  at  first  very  sparingly,  and 
gradually  more  and  more  frequently.  A  com- 
parison has  been  made  (vol.  i.  p.  205)  between 
Beethoven's  marks  and  those  of  Mozart  with 
respect  to  number,  to  which  may  be  added  the 
following  calculation,  showing  that  their  fre- 
quency depends  in  a  great  measure  on  the  de- 
velopment of  the  pianoforte.  In  the  Adagio 
of  Beethoven's  sonata,  op.  106,  there  are  150 
marks  to  188  bars,  and  in  Chopin's  Largo  in 
the  sonata  in  B  minor,  op.  58,  there  are  141 
marks  to  120  bars.  The  place  of  accents  was 
taken,  on  keyed  instruments,  by  the  manieren, 
or  grace-notes,  which  served  to  emphasize  the 
notes  before  which  they  were  placed.  Possi- 
bly it  is  from  this  cause  that  the  confusion, 
so  common  in  some  musical  criticisms,  has 
arisen  of  using  the  word  nuances  to  indicate 
the  grace-notes  or  fioriture  of  singers.  These 
marks  occur  occasionally  in  the  works  of  Bach, 
as  for  instance  in  the  Italian  Concerto,  and  they 
are  used  by  Rameau  and  Couperin,  who  give 
them  in  French,  retaining  their  own  language  in 
spite  of  the  general  use  of  Italian  for  musical 
purposes.  This  custom  remains  still  in  French 
music,  in  which  such  terms  as  'pressez  le  temps,' 
*  animez  un  peu,'  etc.,  are  of  frequent  occur- 
rence ;  and  of  late,  German  composers  have  taken 
to  excluding  Italian  expressions  altogether,  sub- 
stituting '  zunehmend*  and  '  abnehmend'  for  cres- 
cendo and  diminuendo,  etc.  This  is  the  latest 
development  of  the  practice  originated  by  Bee- 
thoven in  one  or  two  of  his  later  works,  and 
continued  by  Schumann,  who  confined  himself, 
almost  entirely,  to  the  German  language. 

With  regard  to  the  nuances  which  are  left  to 
the  performer,  no  rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to 
their  use,  nor  can  their  insertion  be  a  matter  of 
teaching.  Almost  all  modern  music  requires  the 
use  of  certain  modifications  of  time  and  expres- 
sion, which  it  is  impossible  to  convey  altogether 
by  words  or  signs.  These  should  never  be  at- 
tempted by  any  but  a  more  or  less  finished 
musician.  The  difficulty  of  steering  between  the 
error,  on  the  one  hand,  of  going  through  the 
composition  in  a  dry  and  desultory  manner, 
without  attempting  any  'interpretation,'  as  it  is 
called,  of  the  composer's  thoughts,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  of  exaggerating  or  setting  at  defiance 
the  marks  which  are  put  for  the  guidance  of  the 
performer,  and  bringing  out  the  performer's 
own  individuality  at  the  sacrifice  of  that  of 
the  composer,  is  very  great,  and  can  only  be 


NUNC  DIM1TTIS. 

entirely  overcome  by  those  artists  who  have  the 
rare  gift  of  losing  their  own  individuality  alto- 
gether, and  merging  it  in  the  composer's  idea. 
Two  of  the  best  instances  of  the  utmost  limit  of 
this  kind  of  nuances,  are  Herr  Joachim's  render- 
ing of  the  Hungarian  Dances  by  Brahms,  and 
(in  a  very  different  grade  of  art)  the  playing  of 
Strauss's  Waltzes  by  his  own  band  in  Vienna. 
In  both  these  examples  there  is  an  utter  absence 
of  exaggeration,  and  yet  the  greatest  possible 
freedom  of  expression.  This  kind  of  liberty  of 
interpretation  is  only  allowable,  it  will  be  under- 
stood, in  the  works  of  the  later  modern  masters ; 
for  example,  in  those  of  Bach  it  would  be  quite 
inadmissible,  and  should  be  only  used  very  spar- 
ingly in  those  of  the  masters  from  Beethoven  to 
Schumann,  while  in  Schumann  and  Chopin  a  great 
deal  more  licence  is  given.  It  is  almost  entirely 
by  means  of  these  unwritten  nuances  that  the 
comparative  merits  of  the  greatest  performers  can 
be  judged.  [J.A.F.M.] 

NUITS  BLANCHES  (Restless  Nights).  The 
French  and  English  names  respectively  of  the 
series  of  18  '  Morceaux  Lyriques,'  for  pianoforte 
solo,  by  Stephen  Heller  (op.  82),  also  called 
•  Blumen-Frucht-und  Dornenstiicke,'  after  Jean 
Paul's  work  with  the  same  title.  They  differ  in 
character  from  one  another,  some  being  through- 
out restless,  excited,  and  impassioned,  and  others 
entirely  calm  and  peaceful.  [J.A.F.M.] 

NUMBER.  The  several  pieces  or  sections  of 
operas,  oratorios,  or  other  long  works,  are  num- 
bered for  convenience  of  reference,  etc.  This  is 
sometimes  very  arbitrarily  done  even  by  so 
methodical  a  person  as  Mendelssohn.  (Compare 
e.g.  in  Elijah,  Nos.  40  and  41.)  The  overture 
is  never  counted,  but  '  No.  1 '  is  the  first  piece 
after  it.     See  also  Opus-numbeb.  [G.] 

NUNC  DIMITTIS.  The  first  words  of  the 
Song  of  Simeon,  occurring  in  the  29th,  30th,  31st 
and  32nd  verses  of  the  2nd  chapter  of  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Luke.  This  canticle  has  been  used 
at  either  Vespers  or  Compline  from  the  earliest 
ages.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  Apostolical  Consti- 
tutions (written  about  the  beginning  of  the  5th 
century)  and  though  St.  Benedict  does  not  ordei 
its  use  in  his  Rule  (a.d.  530),  Amalarius,  writing 
early  in  the  9th  century  mentions  it  as  in  use  in 
his  own  time,  and  English  versions  of  it  are  ex- 
tant as  far  back  as  the  14th  century.  It  appeal 
that  in  the  most  ancient  times  this  hymn  was 
sung  at  Vespers,  of  which  service  it  still  forms 
part  in  the  Greek  Use.  The  Roman  and  Ar- 
menian Uses,  however,  appoint  it  to  be  sung  at 
Compline,  the  solemn  character  of  the  hymi 
seeming  more  appropriate  to  the  last  service 
the  day.  (It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  Armeniai 
differs  from  the  Western  Use  in  having  two  dis- 
tinct Offices  of  Compline,  one  for  public,  and  th< 
other  for  private  use.  The  former  contains  neithei 
Magnificat  nor  Nunc  Dimittis,  but  the  latter  in- 
cludes both  canticles,  thus  resembling  the  Even- 
ing Office  of  the  Anglican  Church). 

The  Anglican  Evensong  was  formed  by  com- 
bining the  two  ancient  services  of  Vespers  and 


NUNC  DIMITTIS. 

Compline,  the  ist  Lesson  and  Magnificat  being 
taken  from  the  former,  the  2nd  Lesson  and  the 
Nunc  Dimittis  from  the  latter.  In  the  Second 
Service  Book  of  Edward  VI  (published  in  1552), 
the  67  th  Psalm  (Deus  Misereatur),  which  the 
Sarum  Use  had  rendered  familiar,  was  allowed 
to  be  sung  instead  of  the  Nunc  Dimittis.  The 
fact  of  this  canticle  being  generally  sung  at 
Compline — the  least  elaborate,  as  well  as  the 
last  of  the  daily  services — accounts  for  the  neg- 
lect it  has  received  in  musical  treatment  from 
the  hands  of  the  great  mediaeval  masters  of 
Church  Music.  In  Merbecke's  '  Booke  of  Com- 
mon praier  noted '  it  is  adapted  to  the  Fifth 
Church  Tone  and  to  a  chant  founded  on  the 
Seventh  Tone ;  indeed,  settings  of  the  hymn  are 
almost  entirely  confined  to  the  Post  Reformation 
composers  of  the  English  school.  With  these  it 
has  always  been  a  favourite,  and  although  it  is 
the  shortest  of  the  canticles  used  in  the  Anglican 
Service,  yet  the  peculiar  solemnity  of  the  words, 
and  the  unity  of  idea  which  pervades  it  have 
caused  the  Nunc  Dimittis  to  be  more  generally 


OBERTHUR. 


435 


set  and  sung  than  the  alternative  Psalm  Deus 
Misereatur.  [W.  B.  S.] 

NUT.  1.  Of  the  Violin  (Fr.  Billet;  Ger. 
Sattel).  A  slip  of  ebony  or  ivory  (the  former 
chiefly  used)  glued  to  the  neck  of  the  violin  at 
the  upper  end  of  the  fingerboard,  and  over  which 
the  strings  pass.  It  is  slightly  raised  above  the 
level  of  the  fingerboard,  and  serves  to  keep  the 
strings  from  touching  it  except  when  pressed 
down  by  the  finger.  It  existed  in  the  old 
instruments  which  preceded  the  violin,  and  in 
them  was  ruder  and  larger. 

2.  Of  the  Bow  (Fr.  Hausse ;  Ger.  Frosch). 
A  piece  of  ebony  or  ivory,  over  which  the  hairs 
pass,  attached  to  the  end  of  the  bow  by  a  metal 
shank  working  in  a  groove  cut  in  the  bow.  A 
screw  working  in  the  shank  serves  to  tighten  or 
slacken  the  hairs.  The  nut  is  slightly  hollowed 
in  the  cheeks,  and  is  accurately  fitted  to  the 
stick  by  means  of  a  metallic  groove.  The  nut 
is  as  old  as  the  bow  itself. 

The  name  in  both  cases  is  equivalent  to 
'  knob '  or  '  proj ection '  [E.  J.  P.] 


0. 


OAKELEY,  Sib  Herbert  Stanley,  Knt., 
Mus.  Doc.,  second  son  of  Sir  Herbert 
Oakeley,  Bart.,  born  at  Ealing,  July  22, 
1830,  was  educated  at  Rugby  and  Christ  Church, 
Oxford.  He  graduated  as  B.A.  in  1853,  and  as 
M.A.  in  1856.  He  studied  harmony  under  Dr. 
Stephen  Elvey,  and  the  organ  under  Dr.  Johann 
Schneider  at  Dresden,  and  completed  his  mu- 
sical studies  at  Leipsic.  In  1 865  he  was  elected 
Professor  of  Music  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. He  received  his  Mus.  Doc.  degree  from 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (Tait)  in  1871, 
and  was  knighted  in  1876.  Among  his  publi- 
cations are  some  20  songs,  with  pianoforte  or 
orchestral  accompaniment,  3  vocal  duets,  12 
part-songs,  Students'  songs  and  choral  arrange- 
ments of  12  Scottish  National  melodies,  and 
of  various  others  for  male  voices.  For  the 
Church,  some  dozen  anthems,  a  Morning  and 
Evening  Service,  and  many  contributions  to 
collections  of  church  music,  including  the  well- 
known  setting  ('Edina')  of  'Saviour,  blessed 
Saviour,'  and  (Abends)  'Sun  of  my  Soul,'  in 
'Hymns  Ancient  and  Modern.'  He  has  also 
published  a  few  of  his  compositions  for  piano- 
forte and  organ,  and  for  orchestra,  including  a 
festal  and  a  funeral  march. 

Sir  Herbert  Oakeley  is  an  organ-player  of 
exceptional  ability,  and  the  Recitals  which  he 
gives  during  the  session  of  the  university  are 
much  esteemed.  He  has  since  his  appointment 
given  a  great  impulse  to  the  public  performance 
of  music  at  the  Reid  Concert  and  the  annual 
festival,  which  both  in  programme  and  in 
execution  are  a  great  boon  to  the  musical  portion 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Edinburgh.         [W.  H.  H.] 


OBBLIGATO,  t.  e.  necessary.  A  term  signify- 
ing that  the  instrument  with  which  it  is  coupled 
is  indispensable  in  that  place  or  that  piece.  It  is 
in  this  respect  the  opposite  to  Ad  libitom.    [G.] 

OBERON.  A  romantic  opera  in  3  acts ;  words 
(English)  by  J.  R.  Planche*,  music  by  Carl  Maria 
von  Weber.  Produced  at  Covent  Garden  Theatre 
April  1 2, 1 8  26.  In  Italian  (by  Maggione)  at  Her 
Majesty's  (in  4  acts)  July  3,  i860,  with  recita- 
tives by  Benedict  and  6  additional  numbers  from 
Euryanthe  and  elsewhere.  In  German  at  Leip- 
zig (Hell's  translation)  Dec.  23,  1826.  [G.] 

OBERTHUR,  Charles,  a  distinguished  per- 
former on  and  composer  for  the  harp,  was  born 
on  the  4th  of  March,  1 8 1 9,  at  Munich,  where  his 
father  carried  on  a  manufactory  of  strings  for 
musical  instruments.  His  teachers  were  Elise 
Brauchle  and  G.  V.  Rbder,  the  Court  Director  of 
Music.  In  the  autumn  of  1837  he  was  engaged 
by  Charlotte  Birch-Pfeifler  as  harp-player  at  the 
Zurich  theatre.  He  stayed  there  until  September 
1839,  when,  after  a  concert  tour  through  Switzer- 
land, he  accepted  an  engagement  at  Wiesbaden. 
In  1842  he  went  to  Mannheim,  where  he  re- 
mained until  1844.  -*-  difference  with  V.  Lachner, 
and  the  representations  of  English  friends  then 
living  at  Mannheim,  induced  Herr  Oberthur  in 
October  1844  to  come  to  England,  where  he 
found  a  firm  protector  in  Moscheles,  and  where 
he  has  since  lived.  He  first  obtained  an  engage- 
ment at  the  Italian  Opera,  but  soon  gave  this  up, 
and  has  since  devoted  himself  to  private  teaching 
and  composition,  with  occasional  appearances  as 
a  soloist  at  the  principal  concerts  in  England  and 
abroad.  The  list  of  Herr  Oberthiir's  compositions 


,486 


OBERTHUR. 


(more  than  aoo  in  number)  includes  an  Opera, 
'Floris  de  Namur,'  successfully  performed  at 
Wiesbaden;  a  grand  Mass,  'St.  Philip  de  Neri'; 
Overtures  ('Macbeth'  and  'Rubezahl');  Trios 
for  harp,  violin,  and  violoncello ;  a  Concertino 
for  harp  and  orchestra  ;  '  Loreley ' — a  legend 
for  harp  and  orchestra ;  a  Quartet  for  4  harps, 
etc.  [W.B.S.] 

OBLIQUE  PIANO.  A  cottage  pianoforte 
the  strings  of  which  are  disposed  diagonally,  in- 
stead of  vertically  as  is  usual  in  upright  instru- 
ments. The  greatest  angle  however  is  at  the 
longest  and  lowest  string:  the  bias  gradually 
diminishing  until  the  shortest  and  highest  string 
is  vertical  or  nearly  so.  The  object  is  to  get 
greater  length  in  the  bass  strings.  The  inven- 
tion of  the  Oblique  Piano  is  due  to  Robert 
Wornum,  of  London,  who,  in  1811,  took  out  a 
patent  for  an  upright  piano  with  the  strings  set 
diagonally,  and  the  heads  of  the  hammers  in  the 
same  rake  as  the  strings.  The  Oblique  Piano 
was  comparatively  early  adopted  in  France,  es- 
pecially by  Messrs.  Roller  &  Blanchet,  who 
made  very  distinguished  small  instruments  in 
this  manner.  The  principle  has  since  been  gene- 
rally adopted  by  the  best  French  and  English 
makers,  and  more  recently  by  the  Germans  and 
Americans.     [See  Pianofobte.]  [A.  J.  H.] 

OBOE  (Fr.  ffautbois  ;  Ger.  Edboe,  Hochholz). 
A  wooden  reed  instrument  of  two- foot  tone,  bor- 
rowing one  or  two  semitones  from  the  four-foot 
octave.  It  is  played  with  a  double  reed,  although 
it  is  possible  to  produce  all  its  scale  with  a  single- 
reed  mouthpiece  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the 
clarinet.  It  is  of  the  highest  antiquity,  and  in  one 
form  or  another  is  used  in  all  parts  of  the  globe. 
It  can  be  traced  in  the  sculptures  and  paintings 
of  ancient  Egypt  and  Greece  ;  indeed,  specimens 
are  preserved  in  the  British  and  Leyden  Museums, 
which  were  found  with  straws  beside  them,  pro- 
bably to  be  used  in  making  the  reed.  Instruments 
from  Arabia,  ancient  America,  China,  Hindostan, 
Italy,  and  Wallachia  are  deposited  in  the  South 
Kensington  Museum.  It  occurs  under  many 
names  in  the  older  writers,  such  as  Schalmei, 
Schalmey,  Chalumeau,  and  Shawm.  There  was 
also  a  family  of  instruments  named  Bombardi,  of 
which  the  Oboe  was  the  treble.  This  name  was 
corrupted  into  Pommer  in  Germany,  the  Bassoon 
being  named  Brummer. 

Many  kinds  of  Oboe  were  known  in  the  1 7th 
century,  and  are  named  in  Bach's  scores.  [See 
O.  d'Amobe  ;  0.  di  Cacota.]  There  is  evidence 
to  the  effect  that  in  1727  Hoffmann  added  the  GJ 
and  B  keys.  It  had  been  used  for  military  pur- 
poses long  before  it  was  introduced  into  church 
and  secular  music.  Indeed,  military  bands  were 
in  Germany  termed  '  Hautboisten,'  and  a  well- 
known  copper-plate  engraving  of  the  18th  century 
shows  the  band  of  the  English  Guards  passing  to 
St.  James's  Palace,  consisting  principally  of  oboes 
of  different  sizes,  with  bassoons  of  primitive 
Bhape,  drums,  and  cymbals. 

At  the  present  day  it  is  usually  made  in  three 
1  pieces,  a  top,  bottom,  and  bell  joints,  to  which  is 


OBOE. 

added  a  short  metal  tube,  the  staple,  on  which 
the  reed,  consisting  of  two  blades  of  thin  cane,  is 
attached  by  means  of  silk.  It  is  essentially  an 
octave  instrument,  like  the  flute  and  bassoon, 
with  a  conical  bore  enlarging  downwards,  thus 
differing  from  the  flute  ;  and  without  the  extra 
joint  which  carries  the  scale  of  the  bassoon  down 
several  tones  below  its  natural  tonic.  It  is 
understood  to  stand  in  the  key  of  C,  and  is 
always  written  for  in  the  G  or  treble  clef.  Bb 
oboes  are  occasionally  used  in  military  bands, 
by  way  of  reducing  the  number  of  flats  in  the 
signature.  These  require  the  same  transposition 
of  the  written  parts  a  whole  tone  higher,  as  is 
habitually  practised  with  the  Bb  clarinet.  An 
Eb  soprano  oboe,  resembling  the  corresponding 
clarinet,  is  not  uncommon,  and  is  known  under 
the  name  of  the  Musette  or  Pastoral  Oboe. 
There  is  slight  confusion  in  this  name  between 
the  oboe  proper  and  a  similar  instrument  of  the 
bagpipe  family.  It,  of  course,  has  to  be  written 
for  a  minor  third  lower  than  the  corresponding 
note  on  the  scale  of  C.  With  the  exception 
however  of  the  now  almost  obsolete  Oboe  d'amore, 
oboes  in  C  are  invariably  employed  in  orchestral 
music.  It  will  be  seen  elsewhere  that  the  Oboe 
da  Caccia  was  rather  a  modification  of  the  bass 
oboe,  bassoon,  or  brummer,  than  of  the  treble 
instrument,  and  that  it  corresponded  to  the  for- 
gotten Chalumeau,  which  figures  in  the  scores  of 
Gluck.  The  harmonics  of  the  oboe,  like  those 
of  conical  instruments  generally,  are  consecutive, 
and  similar  to  those  of  an  open  organ-pipe.  Its 
extreme  compass,  excluding  the  low  Bb — not 
present  in  many  instruments,  and  only  occa- 
sionally needed,  as  in  the  Intermezzo  of  Mendels- 
sohn's Midsummer  Night's  Dream  music — is  of 
two  octaves  and  a  fifth,  from  the  Bb  or  Bfl  below 
the  treble  stave ;  or  even  two  semitones  higher, 
the  last  three  or  four  upper  notes  being  difficult 
to  produce  and  ineffective  in  combination.  In 
consequence  of  its  peculiar  and  somewhat  strident 
tone,  it  is  not  well  adapted  to  rapid  or  arpeggio 
passages,  although  a  long  and  difficult  solo  of  this 
character  has  been  allotted  to  it  in  the  Benedictus 
of  the  Mass  known  as  'Mozart  No.  12,'  extending 
to  the  upper  Eb,  very  little  below  the  extreme 
compass  of  the  instrument. 

The  fingering  in  the  older  and  less  complicated 
specimens  is  not  dissimilar  from  that  of  the  flute 
and  bassoon,  the  latter  of  which  is  its  natural 
bass.  From  the  lowest  note,  whether  Bb  or  B  |j 
(1),  to  the  B  \  next  above  (2),  thirteen  or  fourteen 
consecutive  semitones  are  successively  obtained 
by  lifting  fingers  or  depressing  keys,  those  of  the 
lowest  C  and  CJf  being  very  unnecessarily  trans- 
posed. The  next  C  (3)  resembles  that  of  the 
flute  in  its  cross  fingering  by  lifting  the  fore- 
finger, and  keeping  the  middle  finger  of  the  left 
hand  pressed  down,  or  the  upper  F  of  the  bassoon 
in  adding  to  this  a  depression  of  the  three  first 
fingers  of  the  right  hand  also.  The  top  orifice 
remains  open  or  half  stopped,  for  the  C$,  D,  and 
Eb.  E  \\  (4)  is  produced  by  closing  this  and  the 
other  left-hand  orifices,  as  well  as  the  first  two 
for  the  right,  and  pinching  the  embouchure  with 


OBOE. 

the  lips.  In  older  instruments  the  scale  is  thus 
carried  up  to  the  Eb  above  (5),  beyond  which 
the  slide,  or  octave-key,  manipulated  by  the 
thumb  of  the  left  hand,  is  called  into  requisition. 
Extreme  treble  A  can  thus  be  reached  (6),  though 


OBOE. 


487 


$ 


(l) 


(2)       (3)       (4) 


U 


#1*  (5)       (6) 

the  F  below  this  may  be  considered  as  the  practi- 
cal limit  of  the  oboe's  compass.  In  more  modern 
instruments  a  second  octave-key  has  been  intro- 
duced, worked  by  the  knuckle  of  the  left  fore- 
finger, which  is  usually  lifted  on  reaching  A 
above  the  stave.  In  the  most  recent  instruments 
of  all,  these  two  '  vent-holes,'  or  harmonic  keys, 
which  serve  only  to  determine  a  node  in  the  tube, 
and  which,  unlike  the  corresponding  mechanism 
of  the  clarinet,  do  not  furnish  an  independent 
note  of  their  own,  are  made  automatic,  and  prac- 
tically independent  of  the  player's  will.  For 
most  of  the  higher  notes  above  A,  the  bottom 
Dfl  key  requires  to  be  raised  by  the  right  little 
finger,  just  as  occurs  in  the  flute. 

The  above  scale,  from  its  close  similarity 
to  those  of  the  flute  and  bassoon,  may  be 
looked  upon  as  traditional  and  fundamental. 
But  hardly  any  wind-instrument,  except  the 
flute,  has  been  so  altered  and  modified  of  late 
years  in  its  mechanism  as  the  oboe.  The  so- 
called  Boehm  fingering  has  been  applied  to  it 
with  considerable  success,  though  the  system  has 
not  been  largely  adopted  by  musicians.  The 
form  most  in  use  at  the  present  day  is  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  older  model  described  above,  but  with 
many  devices  borrowed  from  the  Boehm  system. 
It  has  thus  become  by  far  the  most  elaborate 
and  complicated  of  reed  instruments,  and  it  is  a 
question  whether  a  return  to  an  older  and  sim- 
pler pattern,  by  lessening  the  weight  of  the 
machine,  and  the  number  of  holes  breaking  the 
continuity  of  the  bore,  and 
by  increasing  the  vibratory 
powers  of  the  wooden  tube, 
would  not  conduce  to  an 
improved  quality  of  tone. 

The  bulk  of  these  ad- 
ditions is  due  to  the  late 
M.  Barret,  at  once  a  dis- 
tinguished artist  and  an 
ingenious  mechanic,  who 
devoted  a  long  and  laborious 
professional  life  solely  to  the 
elaboration  of  his  favourite 
instrument.  In  this  task 
he  was  ably  seconded  by  the 
French  instrument  maker, 
Triebert,  with  whom  he  was 
in  constant  correspondence, 
and  whose  instruments  have, 
until  of  late,  almost  mono- 
polised the  trade. 

Comparative  woodcuts  of 
the  simpler  form  as  made  by 
Mahillon  of  Brussels,  and  of  the  more  elaborate 


model  adopted  by  Morton  of  London,  exhibit 
these  differences  better  than  verbal  description. 

Barret's  chief  modifications  may  be  briefly 
named  as  (1)  the  introduction  of  a  plate  for  the 
left-hand  thumb,  somewhat  similar  to  that  on 
modern  flutes,  by  which  this  member,  formerly 
idle,  is  called  into  action  ;  (2)  the  double  auto- 
matic octave  keys  named  above ;  (3)  a  vast  num- 
ber of  double,  triple,  and  even  quadruple  alterna- 
tive fingerings  for  particular  notes  which  mate- 
rially reduce  the  mechanical  difficulty  of  incon- 
venient passages.  On  these  and  other  points, 
the  writer  has  to  thank  Mr.  Mitcalfe,  of  Lowes- 
toft, for  some  valuable  suggestions. 

It  is  not  however  in  the  mechanism  only  that 
the  oboe  of  to-day  is  entirely  different  from  that 
of  half  a  century  ago,  but  also  in  the  sound- 
producer  or  reed.  The  writer  is  happy  to  have 
it  in  his  power  to  illustrate  this  fact  by  parallel 
photographs,  reduced  in  the  woodcut  to  half 
dimensions,  of  two  oboe 
reeds,  which  stand  to  each 
other  in  about  the  chronolo- 
gical relation  named  above. 
The  right-hand  cut  is  a 
reproduction  of  the  modern 
reed  as  just  sent  over  from 
France  by  Triebert.  That 
on  the  left-hand  is  one  of 
several  given  to  the  writer 
by  the  late  Mr.  Waddell, 
formerly  bandmaster  of  the 
First  Life  Guards,  and 
which  belonged  to  the 
oboist  who  accompanied 
Rossini  on  his  first  visit  to  this  country,  in 
1823,  the  great  melodist  being  unwilling  to 
entrust  his  elaborate  oboe  parts  to  any  English 
pretender.  It  will  be  at  once  seen  that  it  is 
a  reproduction  of  the  Pifferaro  reed,  approxi- 
mating more  to  that  of  the  bassoon  and  oboe  di 
caccia,  than  to  that  of  the  modern  oboe.  A  very 
similar  reed  was  used  even  by  so  recent  a  player  as 
Grattan  Cooke.  The  effect  of  26  such,  as  in  the 
first  Handel  celebration,  against  about  40  violins, 
is  difficult  to  realise. 

The  oboe  has  from  ancient  times  held  the  pre- 
scriptive right  to  give  the  tuning  A  to  the  or- 
chestra. This  doubtful  privilege  obviously  dates 
from  the  period  before  Handel,  when  it  was  the 
only  wind-instrument  present.  The  writer  has 
elsewhere  expressed  his  opinion  that,  for  acous- 
tical reasons,  the  function  should  rather  devolve 
on  the  far  more  refractory  and  untuneable 
clarinet,  than  on  any  member  of  the  double-reed 
family.  For  the  bass  section  of  the  band  however 
the  low  D  of  the  bassoon,  reproducing  the  open 
note  of  the  middle  string  of  the  double  bass,  has 
many  advantages. 

It  is  impossible  within  brief  limits  to  do  more 
than  indicate  the  use  made  by  great  composers  of 
an  instrument  which  is  at  once  historically  the 
oldest  and  musically  the  most  important  of  the 
reed  band.  It  may  however  be  noted  that  it 
possesses  singularly  little  solo  or  concerted  music. 
Handel  composed  six  concertos  for  it  in  1703, 


488 


OBOE. 


which  are  still  occasionally  performed.  Mozart 
also  wrote  one  for  G.  Ferlandi,  of  the  Salzburg 
band,  which  was  on  several  occasions  played  by 
Raima ;  the  composer  himself  in  a  letter  noting 
its  performance  for  the  fifth  time  in  1778,  and 
playfully  terming  it '  Ramm's  cheval  de  bataille.' 
The  score  was  formerly  in  the  possession  of 
Andre,  but  appears  to  have  been  lost  or  mislaid, 
as  no  trace  of  it  can  now  be  found.  Kalliwoda 
wrote  for  his  friend  Reuther  a  concertino  (op.  1 10) 
of  considerable  length  and  difficulty.  Schumann 
contributes  three  romances  for  'Hoboe,  ad  libitum 
Violine  oder  Clarinet,'  which  seem  better  known 
under  the  latter  instruments.  Beethoven  has 
(op.  87)  a  trio  for  the  singular  combination  of 
two  oboes  and  English  Horn,  an  early  compo- 
sition in  symphony  form  with  four  complete 
movements.    . 

Six  concertos  of  Sebastian  Bach  for  trumpet, 
flute  and  oboe,  with  a  sextet  of  strings,  were 
first  published  from  the  original  MSS.  in  the 
library  at  Berlin  by  Dehn  in  1 850.  Two  oboes, 
with  a  like  number  of  clarinets,  horns,  and 
bassoons,  take  part  in  several  ottets  by  Haydn, 
Mozart,  and  Beethoven.  They  have  been  already 
referred  to  under  Clarinet. 

It  is  however  in  the  great  symphonies,  ora- 
torios, and  masses  that  its  full  value  must  be 
appreciated.  Bach  indeed  uses  chiefly  the  more 
ancient  form  of  the  oboe  d'amore.  [See  Oboe 
d'amore.]  But  the  scores  of  Handel  abound 
with  fine  passages  for  it.  Indeed,  it  seems  at 
his  period  to  have  been  almost  convertible  with 
the  violins  as  the  leading  instrument.  This  fact 
probably  accounts  for  the  large  number  in  pro- 
portion to  the  strings  which,  as  named  above, 
were  present  at  once  in  the  orchestra.  The  oboe 
is  distinctly  anterior  in  use  to  its  bass  relative 
the  bassoon,  although  this  also  often  figures  as 
reinforcing  the  violoncellos  and  basses  in  a 
similar  manner.  Haydn's  works  are  equally 
liberal  in  its  use.  With  him  it  appears  as  a 
solo  instrument,  usually  in  melodies  of  a  light 
and  sportive  character.  It  may  be  noted  that 
in  a  large  number  of  his  symphonies  the  minuet 
and  trio  are  assigned  to  this  instrument,  often 
answered  by  the  bassoon.  Probably  its  pastoral 
tone  and  history  pointed  it  out  for  use  in  a 
dance  movement.  There  is  however  a  fine  adagio 
for  it  in  the  oratorio  of  '  The  Seasons,'  as  well  as 
a  long  and  difficult  solo  passage  (No.  1 1)  in  which 
the  crowing  of  the  cock  is  imitated,  and  which  is 
a  perfect  study  of  minute  realism  in  notes. 


OBOE  D'AMORE. 

No  writer  has  made  more  frequent  and  varied 
use  of  the  oboe  than  Beethoven.  It  takes  a 
prominent  part  in  many  of  his  symphonies,  in 
the  opera  of  Fidelio,  and  in  his  church  music. 
In  the  two  last,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  name 
the  air  of  Florestan,  and  passages  in  the  Masses 
in  C  and  in  D.  In  the  Symphonies  it  leads 
the  wind  band  in  the  funeral  march  of  the 
Eroica,  has  a  singular  little  cadenza  of  six  notes 
and  a  turn  in  the  first  movement  of  the  C  minor, 
and  the  reprise  of  the  Trio  in  the  Finale ;  a 
long  rustic  melody  preceding  the  storm  in  the 
Pastoral,  several  effective  passages  in  the  7th, 
and  the  scherzo  in  the  Choral  Symphony. 

Mozart  is  in  no  wise  behind  Beethoven  in  the 
prominence  he  awards  to  the  oboe  ;  indeed,  the 
fact  that  many  of  his  greatest  works,  such  as  the 
Jupiter  Symphony,  several  of  his  masses,  and 
even  of  his  operas,  were  written  for  limited 
bands  in  which  all  the  wind-instruments  were 
not  represented  at  once,  gives  this,  which  except 
in  the  Eb  Clarinet  Symphony  is  almost  always 
present,  a  still  more  marked  predominance. 

It  is  perhaps  from  the  increase  and  greater 
development  of  the  wind  band  that  later  writers, 
such  as  Weber  and  Mendelssohn,  appear  to  make 
less  use  of  the  oboe  than  their  forerunners.  The 
former  of  these  writers,  however,  evidently  had  a 
predilection  for  the  clarinet  and  horn,  as  is  shown 
by  his  concerted  music  ;  the  latter  lias  used  the 
oboe  most  effectively  in  St.  Paul,  Elijah,  the 
Hymn  of  Praise,  and  elsewhere. 

Hummel,  in  his  fine  Mass  in  Eb,  assigns  it  the 
subject  of  the  '  Et  incarnatus, '  which  as  being  less 
familiar  to  many  readers  may  deserve  quotation. 


Berlioz  quotes  several  instances  of  the  use  of 
the  oboe  by  Gluck.  It  is  moreover  probable 
that  the  '  chalumeau '  which  occurs  in  his  scores 
was  some  form  of  this  instrument. 


He  has  also  left  as  op.  102  a  series  of  variations 
for  oboe  with  orchestra. 

Solos  etc.  for  Oboe. 

Handel. — Six  Concertos  for  Oboe. 

Mozart. — Grand  Quintet  in  A  for  Oboe,  2 
Violins,  Tenor  and  Violoncello,  op.  108. 

Beethoven. — Trio  for  two  Oboes  and  Cor 
Anglais,  op.  87. 

Hummel. — Variations,  with  Orchestra,  op.  i©2. 

Kalliwoda. — Concertino  in  F  with  Orchestra, 
op.  no. 

Kreutzer. — TrioforOboe,Tenor,andBassoon. 

Schumann. — Drei  Romanzen,  etc.,  op.  94. 

For  other  concerted  music  see  Clarinet  and 
Bassoon.  [W.H.S.] 

OBOE  D'AMORE  (Fr.  Hautbois  oVamour). 
An  instrument  of  exactly  the  same  compass  and 
construction  as  the  ordinary  oboe,  except  that  it 
stands  a  minor  third  lower  than  that,  being  in 
the  key  of  A.  It  has  also  a  hollow  globular 
bell  instead  of  a  conical  one,  which  renders  the 
tone  more  veiled  and  pathetic.     In  this  respect 


OBOE  D'AMORE. 

it  is  intermediate  between  the  first  and  the 
Corno  Inglese.  It  is  chiefly  in  the  scores  of 
Bach  that  this  instrument  is  met  with,  most  of 
his  works  containing  important  parts  for  it.  As 
a  good  instance  may  be  cited  the  air  No.  4  in 
the  first  part  of  the  Christmas  oratorio — 'Bereite 
dich  Zion.' 

It  has  been  common  of  late  to  replace  this  fine 
but  almost  obsolete  instrument  by  the  ordinary 
oboe.  Occasionally,  however,  as  in  No.  7  of  the 
work  above  named,  the  two  are  written  for 
together,  and  the  extreme  note  A  is  required, 
two  lines  below  the  treble  stave,  which  is  below 
the  compass  of  the  ordinary  oboe. 

The  instrument  has  lately  been  reconstructed 
by  Mons.  Maliillon,  of  Brussels,  according  to  the 
designs  of  Mons.  Gevaert,  the  learned  director  of 
the  Conservatoire  of  Music  in  that  capital,  for  the 
special  purpose  of  playing  Bach's  scores  correctly. 
It  was  thus  used  in  Westminster  Abbev  on  Jan. 
15,  1880.  [W.H.S.] 

OBOE  DI  CACCIA,  i.  e.  hunting  oboe  (Fa- 
gottino  ;  Tenoroon).  An  old  name  for  an  instru- 
ment of  the  Oboe  or  Bassoon  family  standing  in 
the  F  or  Eb  between  those  respectively  in  use. 
It  occurs  frequently  in  the  scores  of  Bach,  who 
assigns  prominent  solo  and  concerted  parts  to  it. 
There  is  also  a  double  part  for  instruments  of 
this  nature  in  Purcell's '  Dioclesian' ;  and  two  im- 
portant movements,  the  '  O  quam  testis'  and  the 
'Virgo  virginum  praeclara'  in  Haydn's  Stabat 
mater  are  scored  for  two  oboi  di  caccia  obbligati. 
As  specimens  of  Bach's  treatment  of  the  instru- 
ment may  be  named  the  Pastoral  Symphony 
and  other  movements  of  the  Christmas  Oratorio, 
scored  for  two,  and  a  beautiful  Aria  in  the 
Johannes  Passion  for  the  singular  quartet  of 
flute,  soprano,  oboe  di  caccia,  and  basso  con- 
tinuo,  preceded  by  an  Arioso  for  tenor,  with 
2  flutes,  2  oboi  di  caccia,  and  quartet  of  strings. 
It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  this  magnificent 
instrument  has  almost  entirely  gone  out  of  use, 
and  is  confounded  by  recent  writers  with  the 
very  different  Corno  Inglese.  For  whereas  the 
latter  is  essentially  an  oboe  lowered  through  a 
fifth,  the  real  oboe  di  caccia  is  a  bassoon  raised 
a  fourth.  It  therefore  carries  upwards  the  bass 
tone  of  the  latter,  rather  than  depresses  the 
essentially  treble  quality  of  the  oboe.  It  is 
obvious  from  Bach's  practice  that  he  looks  on  it 
as  a  tenor  and  not  as  an  alto  voice.  In  his 
older  scores  the  part  is  headed  Taille  cle  Boston, 
Taille  being  the  usual  name  for  the  Tenor  Voice 
or  Violin.  In  the  older  scores  of  Haydn's  Sta- 
bat the  parts  are  actually,  and  as  a  recent 
writer1  says  'curiouslyenough,'  marked  'Fagotti 
in  Eb,'  that  being  the  older  name  by  which  it 
was  designated.  Even  as  late  as  the  time  of 
Rossini  the  instrument  was  known,  and  to  it  is 
given  the  beautiful  Ranz  des  Vaches,  imitating 
very  exactly  the  Alpenhorn,  in  the  Overture  to 
Guillaume  Tell.  This  is  scored  in  the  F  or  bass 
clef,  as  is  also  remarked  by  the   writer  above 

1  Mr.  E.  Prut.  'On  the  growth  of  the  Modern  Orchestra, '  •  paper 
read  before  the  Musical  Association,  Jan.  6, 1879. 


OBRECHT. 


489 


referred  to,2  who  singularly  concludes  that  the 
notation  is  '  an  octave  lower  than  the  real  sounds 
produced.'  The  fact  is  that  when  the  opera  was 
first  beard  in  this  country,  the  passage  was 
actually  played  as  written  on  the  oboe  di  caccia 
by  a  gentleman  still  living,  namely  Signor  Tam- 
plini.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  Beethoven's 
Trio  for  two  oboes  and  cor  anglais  (op.  87)  was 
really  intended  for  this  instrument,  since  it 
takes  the  fundamental  bass  part  throughout. 

In  construction,  scale,  and  compass  the  oboi  di 
caccia  in  F  and  Eb  exactly  resemble  bassoons  on 
a  miniature  scale.  They  are  played  with  a  small 
bassoon  reed.  The  writer  is  fortunate  enough  to 
possess  two  fine  specimens  in  F  by  the  great 
maker  Savary,  and  one  in  Eb  by  Marzoli.  The 
former  he  has  twice  played  in  Bach's  Christmas 
Oratorio  in  Westminster  Abbey,  and  also  at  the 
Hereford  Festival  of  1879.  [W.H.S.] 

OBRECHT,  Jacob,  sometimes  given  Hob- 
BECHT,  one  of  the  great  masters  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury, born  probably  about  the  year  1440.  In 
early  life  he  was  chapel-master  at  Utrecht,  and 
Erasmus3  learnt  music  from  him,  as  a  choir-boy 
in  the  cathedral,  about  the  year  1474.  He  was 
also  living  some  time  in  Florence,  where  Aaron 
met  him  in  company  with  Josquin,  Isaac,  and 
Agricola,  at  the  court  of  Lorenzo  il  Magnifico. 

In  1 49 1  Obrecht  was  elected  chapel-master  in 
Antwerp  cathedral,  already  a  great  musical  centre, 
with  a  fine  choir  of  nearly  70  voices,  exclusive  of 
boys.  Of  the  higher  honours  and  emoluments  he 
received  there,  of  the  visits  paid  him  by  foreign 
musicians,  of  his  work  in  the  revision  of  the 
cathedral  music-books,  and  lastly  of  his  poor 
health,  M.  Leon  de  Burbure  has  found  ample 
evidence  in  the  records  of  that  church.* 

Many  of  his  works  are  preserved,  and  8  masses 
were  printed,  the  merits  of  which  are  fully  dis- 
cussed by  Ambros.8  The  finest  of  these, 
'Fortuna  desperata,'  has  been  published  in 
modern  notation  (Amsterdam,  1870).  The  first 
volume  of  printed  music  in  1501  contained  two 
secular  pieces,  and  Petrucci  included  many  more 
in  his  collection  of  the  next  few  years.  Eitner 
gives  titles  of  about  30  printed  chansons  and 
motets  still  existing.  Dr.  Burney  has  scored 
some  movements  from  the  mass  'Si  dedero,'  in 
his  note-books,  and  Forkel  has  given  two  ex- 
amples in  his  history. 

Baini  speaks  of  MS.  works  in  the  Papal  Chapel, 
and  there  is  reason  to  think  that  among  them 
is  the  mass  written  for  the  Bruges  choir.  This 
mass  was  so  appreciated  that  the  singers  came  to 
Antwerp  in  a  body  to  thank  the  great  master. 
Surely,  to  provoke  such  enthusiasm,  there  must 
be  some  power  which  we  can  hardly  appreciate, 
hidden  behind  that  'clean  and  clear  counter- 
point '  which  Dr.  Burney  so  coldly  admires.  To  the 
mind  of  Erasmus,  Obrecht  ever  remained  '  nulli 
secundus.'  He  was  greatly  struck,  as  amateurs 
are  to  this  day,  by  the  wonderful  rapidity  with 

2  '  Instrumentation,'  In  Novello  and  Co.'s  Music  Primers. 
>  Glarean.  who  was  a  pupil  of  Erasmus,  mentions  this  In  the 
'  Dodecachordon." 

4  See  article '  Obrecht'  In  Fltls's  Blographle, 

5  Geschichte  der  Musik,  iil.  ISO. 


490 


OBRECHT. 


which  a  great  musician  could  throw  off  his  work. 
A  certain  mass  of  Obrecht's  astonished  the  old 
music  world,  as  the  'Don  Juan'  overture  has 
done  the  new,  in  being  the  superhuman  product 
of  a  single  night's  toil.  [J.R.S.-B.] 

OCA  DEL  CAIRO,  L\  Opera  buffa  in  2  acts ; 
libretto  by  Varesco,  music  by  Mozart,  1783. 

Mozart  left  it  unfinished,  being  dissatisfied 
with  the  text.  It  was  completed  by  Andre  with 
pieces  from  other  operas  of  Mozart's,  was  adapted 
to  new  French  words  by  Victor  Wilder,  and  per- 
formed at  the  Theatre  des  Fantaisies  Parisiennes 
June  6,  1867  ;  at  Vienna  1868  ;  at  Drury  Lane, 
in  Italian,  May  12,  1870.  [G.j 

OCARINA.  A  family  of  small  terra-cotta  in- 
struments, in  character  somewhat  resembling 
flageolets,  made  of  various  sizes,  and  introduced 
into  this  country  some  years  ago  by  a  travelling 
troupe  of  German  or  Tyrolese  musicians.  The 
fingering  is  something  intermediate  between  the 
instrument  named  above  and  that  of  the  '  picco ' 
pipe.  The  only  point  of  acoustical  importance 
they  illustrate  is  due  to  their  large  internal 
cavity,  and  the  absence  of  any  beE.  They  have  in 
consequence  a  hollow,  rather  sweet  tone,  similar 
to  that  of  a  stopped  organ  pipe.  They  are  of  no 
musical  significance  whatever.  [W.H.S.] 

O'CAROLAN,  or  CAROLAN,  Turlogh,  one 
of  the  last  and  certainly  the  most  famous  of  the 
bards  of  Ireland,  was  born  in  the  year  1670,  at 
a  place  called  Newtown,  near  Nobber,  in  the 
county  of  Meath.  He  lost  his  sight  at  16  years 
of  age  from  small-pox,  and,  in  allusion  to  this 
used  to  say,  'my  eyes  are  transplanted  into  my 
ears.'  He  was  descended  from  an  ancient  and 
respectable  family  in  Meath,  where  a  district  is 
still  known  as  Carolanstown.  Turlogh  began  to 
learn  the  harp  at  12  years  of  age,  but  owed 
nearly  all  his  education  to  Madame  Mac- 
Dermot  Roe  of  Alderford,  a  fine  dame  of  the 
old  school,  who  lived  to  80  years  of  age,  and 
survived  her  protege.  She  it  was  who,  when 
O'Carolan's  father  settled  at  Carrick-on-Shan- 
non,  perceived  the  talent  of  the  boy,  had  him 
taught  the  Irish  language  and  music,  and  pro- 
vided him  with  a  horse  and  an  attendant,  when, 
at  22,  he  became  an  itinerant  minstrel.  He 
was  susceptible  towards  the  gentler  sex ;  his 
first  love  was  one  Bridget  Cruise,  and  he  must 
have  preserved  a  tender  remembrance  of  her, 
since  long  after  they  parted  he  recognised  her 
fingers,  as  his  hand  touched  them  accidentally  in 
a  boat  at  Lough  Dearg.  He  solaced  himself  for 
her  loss  by  falling  in  love  with  Mary  Maguire,  a 
young  lady  from  Tempo,  Fermanagh.  She  be- 
came his  wife,  and  they  lived  happily  together. 
He  now  took  a  farm  in  Leitrim,  but  imprudent 
hospitality  soon  dissipated  his  means.  He  then 
(1692)  adopted  the  life  of  a  travelling  minstrel. 
Wherever  he  went,  the  doors  of  the  nobility  and 
gentry  were  thrown  open,  and  he  was  ever  ready 
to  compose  both  words  and  music  in  praise  of 
those  who  welcomed  him.  Later  in  life  O'Carolan 
was  much  addicted  to  intemperance ;  he  required 
to  be  supplied  with  stimulants  before  composing, 


O'CAROLAN. 

but  after  drinking,  his  muse  rarely  failed  him. 
One  instance  however  is  recorded  in  which  his 
invention  was  utterly  at  fault.  It  related  to  a 
Miss  Brett.  In  order  to  celebrate  her  charms, 
O'Carolan  tried  and  tried  in  vain,  till  throwing 
aside  the  harp  in  a  fit  of  vexation  he  declared 
to  the  young  lady's  mother  that  after  frequent 
attempts  to  compose  for  her,  there  was  not  a 
string  in  his  harp  that  did  not  vibrate  with 
a  melancholy  sound ;  '  I  fear,'  said  he,  '  she  is 
not  long  for  this  world  :  nay,'  he  added,  with 
emphasis,  '  she  will  not  survive  twelve  months ! ' 
The  event  proved  the  bard  a  true  prophet,  for 
Miss  Brett  died  within  that  time.  With  a  view 
to  wean  him  from  his  inordinate  fondness  for 
drink,  O'Carolan's  friends  made  him  promise  to 
shun  all  places  where  liquor  could  be  purchased, 
and  he  for  a  while  abstained ;  but  at  last, 
visiting  the  town  of  Boyle,  and  chancing  to  pass  a 
spirit-shop,  he  prevailed  on  the  shopman  to  pour 
out  a  glass  of  the  spirit,  intending  to  smell  but 
not  to  taste.  His  resolution  however  failed  him, 
and  he  not  only  swallowed  the  one  draught,  but 
many  others,  until  his  mind  had  fully  recovered 
its  tone,  and  in  this  state  of  exhilaration  he  pro- 
duced his  famous  tune '  The  Receipt  for  drinking 
whiskey.'  It  was  said  that  Geminiani  and  other 
foreign  artists  entertained  a  very  high  opinion  of 
his  musical  talents,  but  though  some  stories  are 
told  of  his  immediately  executing  from  memory 
long  and  difficult  pieces  which  the  Italian 
musicians  had  just  played,  these  tales  are 
musically  improbable,  and  are  inconsistent  with 
the  generally  received  accounts  of  his  moderate 
skill  on  the  harp.  It  is  enough  to  allow  him  the 
decided  talent  for  improvising  music  and  words, 
to  which  his  claim  has  been  undisputed. 

In  1733  his  wife  died.  She  had  borne  him 
six  daughters  and  also  one  son,  who  subsequently 
taught  the  Irish  harp  in  London,  and  before  he 
quitted  Ireland,  in  1 747,  published  an  imperfect 
collection  of  his  father's  compositions.  Turlogh 
O'Carolan  died  March  25,  1738,  at  Alderford. 
House,  where  his  room  is  still  shown,  with  his 
high-backed  chair,  his  engraved  punch-ladle,  and 
a  press  in  the  wall  where  he  kept  his  whiskey. 
His  funeral  was  attended  by  60  clergymen  of 
different  denominations,  by  a  number  of  the 
gentry  of  the  district,  and  by  a  vast  crowd  of 
the  humbler  class ;  and  his  wake  lasted  four, 
days,  during  which  the  harp  was  never  silent, 
and  the  bottle  never  ceased  to  flow.  Some 
biographies  allude  to  the  visible  preservation  of 
the  poet's  skull ;  the  facts  are  these : — Early  in 
the  present  century  it  occurred  to  a  Ribbonman 
named  Reynolds,  to  steal  the  skull  of  O'Carolan, 
and  dispose  of  it  to  Sir  John  Caldwell,  for  his 
museum.  The  museum  however  has  long  ceased 
to  exist,  and  the  skull  and  letter  describing  it 
are  both  gone.  Of  late  years  the  grave  of  the 
bard  (hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  those 
of  the  Macdermot  Roes  amongst  whom  he  lies) 
has  been  neatly  enclosed,  and  an  inscription 
placed  near  the  spot,  by  Lady  Louisa  Tenison. 
O'Carolan's  fecundity  as  a  musician  was  un- 
doubted ;  one  of  the  ten  harpers  assembled  at 


O'CAKOLAN. 

Belfast  in  1792  had  acquired  more  than  100 
tunes  composed  by  him,  and  asserted  that  this 
was  but  a  small  portion  of  them.  In  1809  a  sort 
of  commemoration  of  him  was  held  in  Dublin. 
The  late  Lady  Morgan  bequeathed  £100  to  the 
Irish  sculptor  Hogan,  for  the  purpose  of  executing 
a  bas-relief  of  the  head  in  marble,  which  has  been 
placed  in  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral.  It  was  copied 
from  a  rather  youthful  and  idealized  portrait  pre- 
fixed to  '  Hardiman's  Irish  Minstrelsy.'   [R.P.S.] 

OCHETTO  (Lat.  Ochetus ;  Fr.  Hoquet ;  Old 
Eng.  Hocket).  A  curious  device  in  mediaeval 
Discant,  the  sole  merit  of  which  consisted  in 
interrupting  one  or  more  Voice  parts — generally 
including  the  Tenor — by  meaningless  rests,  so  in- 
troduced as  to  produce  an  effect  analogous  to 
that  of  the  hiccough — whence  the  origin  of  the 
word.  [See  Hocket.]  It  seems  to  have  made 
its  first  appearance  in  the  Saecular  Music  of  the 
1 3th  century ;  but  no  long  time  elapsed  before 
it  was  introduced  into  the  Discant  sung  upon 
Ecclesiastical  Plain  Chaunt,  on  which  account  it 
was  severely  condemned  in  the  Decretal  issued 
by  Pope  John  XXII,  in  1322.  The  following 
specimen  is  from  a  Saecular  Song  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury, preserved  in  MS.  at  Cambrai,  and  printed 
in  extenso  in  Coussemaker's  'Histoire  de  l'Har- 
monie  au  Moyen  Age'  (Paris,  1852). 


OCTAVE. 


491 


Triplum. 


i 


^m 


-U 


JjJl'-'-Jl-iJj 


te 


Wzs^SsM 


In  the  latter  half  of  the  14th  century  the 
popularity  of  the  Ochetus  began  rapidly  to  wane ; 
and  in  the  1 5th  it  was  so  far  forgotten  that  Jo- 
annes Tinctoris  does  not  even  think  it  necessary 
to  mention  it  in  his  '  Diffinitorum  Terminorum 
Musicorum.' 

But  though  the  Ochetus  so  soon  fell  into  dis- 
repute as  a  contrapuntal  device,  its  value,  as  a 
means  of  dramatic  expression,  has  been  recognised, 
by  Composers  of  all  ages,  with  the  happiest  pos- 
sible result.  An  early  instance  of  its  appearance, 
as  an  aid  to  expression,  will  be  found  in  Orazio 
Vecchi's  Motet,  '  Velooitur  exaudi  me'  (Venice, 
I59°)»  where  it  is  employed,  with  touching 
pathos,  at  the  words  defecit  spiritus  mens. 


de    fe  -   • 

-   -   clt       spl    - 

•  •  •  rl  -  tns 

1  1         ~  1 

I 

1 
-C2..            £*. 

etc 

i.  \"'  1  B 

g>               ~       - 

de  -   fe    -    -    .     cit       ipi  -    .    .  ri  -  to* 


As  instances  of  its  power  in  the  hands  of  our 
greatest  Operatic  Composers,  we  need  only  men- 
tion the  death-scenes  of  Handel's  Acis,  the  Com- 
mendatore  in  'Don  Giovanni,'  and  Caspar  in 
'Der  Freischiitz.'  [W.  S.  R.] 

OCTAVE.  An  octave  is  the  interval  of  eight 
notes,  which  is  the  most  perfect  consonance  in 
music.  The  ratio  of  its  sounds  is  1  :  2  ;  that  is, 
every  note  has  twice  the  number  of  vibrations  of 
its  corresponding  note  an  octave  lower.  The  sense 
of  identity  which  appears  to  us  between  notes  of 
the  same  name  which  are  an  octave  or  more 
apart,  arises  chiefly  from  the  upper  octaves  and 
their  harmonics  corresponding  with  the  most 
prominent  harmonics  of  the  lower  note.  Thus 
Hebnholtz  says,  'when  a  higher  voice  executes 
the  same  melody  an  octave  higher,  we  hear 
again  a  part  of  what  we  heard  before,  namely 
the  even-partial  tones  of  the  former  compound 
tones,  and  at  the  same  time  we  hear  nothing 
that  we  had  not  previously  heard.  Hence  the 
repetition  of  a  melody  in  the  higher  octave  is  a 
real  repetition  of  what  has  been  previously 
heard,  not  of  all  of  it,  but  of  a  part.  If  we 
allow  a  low  voice  to  be  accompanied  by  a  higher 
in  the  octave  above  it,  the  only  part-music 
which  the  Greeks  employed,  we  add  nothing 
new,  we  merely  reinforce  the  even-partials.  In 
this  sense,  then,  the  compound  tones  of  an  octave 
above  are  really  repetitions  of  the  tones  of  the 
lower  octaves,  or  at  least  of  part  of  their  con- 
stituents.' 

Irregularly  consecutive  octaves  are  forbidden 
in  music  in  which  the  part-writing  is  clearly 
defined.  The  prohibition  is  commonly  explained 
on  the  ground  that  the  effect  of  number  in  the 
parts  variously  moving  is  pointlessly  and  inartis- 
tically  reduced ;  at  the  same  time  that  an  equally 
pointless  stress  is  laid  upon  the  progression  of  the 
parts  which  are  thus  temporarily  united  either  in 
octaves  or  unison.  Where  however  there  is  an 
appreciable  object  to  be  gained  by  uniting  the 
parts,  for  this  very  purpose  of  throwing  a  melodic 
phrase  or  figure  into  prominence,  such  octaves 
are  not  forbidden,  and  small  groups  or  whole 
masses  of  voices,  or  strings,  or  wind  instruments, 
are  commonly  so  united  with  admirable  effect. 

The  interval  of  an  augmented  octave,  exceed- 
ing the  octave  by  a  semitone,  is  occasionally  met 
with ;  as  in  the  following  example  from  the  first 
subject  of  the  Overture  to  Don  Giovanni : — 


It  is  very  dissonant. 


fC.H.H.P.] 


492 


OCTAVE. 


OCTAVE,  or  PRINCIPAL.  An  open  metal 
cylindrical  organ-stop,  of  four  feet  on  the  manual 
and  eight  feet  on  the  pedal ;  the  scale  and 
strength  of  tone  of  which  are  determined  by 
those  of  the  open  diapason  on  the  same  depart- 
ment. Where  there  are  two  Principals  the 
second  one  is  sometimes  of  wood,  open,  as  at 
Christ's  Hospital,  when  it  partakes  of  the  flute 
character.  In  the  Temple  organ  the  two  stops, 
of  metal,  are  called  '  Octave'  and  '  Principal'  re- 
spectively ;  the  former  being  scaled  and  voiced 
to  go  with  the  new  open  diapason,  and  the  latter 
to  produce  the  first  over-tone  to  the  old  diapason. 
In  foreign  organs  the  Octave  stop  sounds  the  first 
octave  above  the  largest  metal  Register  of  Princi- 
pal (Diapason)  measure  on  the  clavier;  and  is 
therefore  of  eight,  four,  or  two  feet  size  according 
to  circumstances.  [See  Principal.]  [E.J.H.] 
OCTAVE  FLUTE.  [See  Piccolo.] 
OCTET,  or  OTTETT  {Ottetto),  a  composition 
for  eight  solo  instruments.  It  differs  from  a  double 
quartet,  such  as  those  of  Spohr,  as  that  master 
explains  in  his  Autobiography  (ii.  153)  ;  the  eight 
instruments  working  together  independently, 
and  not  in  two  bodies — just  as  in  the  case  of  a 
composition  for  eight  voices  compared  with  one 
for  two  choirs  or  double  chorus.  Mendelssohn's 
Octet  for  strings  is  a  splendid  example.  [See 
Mendelssohn,  2586.]  So  is  Schubert's,  for  2 
violins,  viola,  cello,  contrabass,  clarinet,  horn,  and 
bassoon.  (Jade  and  Svendsen  have  each  written 
one  for  strings.  Beethoven's  '  Grand  Octuor ' 
(op.  103"),  originally  entitled  '  Parthia  inEs,'  is  an 
arrangement  of  his  early  String  Quintet  (op.  4), 
for  2  oboes,  2  clarinets,  2  horns,  and  2  bassoons.  [G.] 

ODE  (Gr.  cvSt],  from  aeiSu,  I  sing).  A  form  of 
poetry  which,  both  in  its  origin  and  in  its  later 
forms,  has  been  peculiarly  adapted  for  musical 
expression  ;  in  fact,  the  words  of  the  earliest  odes 
were  probably  written  to  fit  music  already 
existing.  The  form  which  has  been  most  fre- 
quently and  successfully  set  to  music  in  modern 
times  is  that  of  the  Greek  odes,  in  which  the 
rhythm  and  metre  are  constantly  changing,  thus 
giving  great  scope  for  variety  of  treatment. 
Modern  instances  of  this  kind  of  odes  are  Mil- 
ton's '  L' Allegro  '  and  'II  Penseroso,'  Dryden's 
'Ode  on  St.  Cecilia's  Day,'  Gray's  'Bard'  and 
'  Progress  of  Poesy,'  Collins's  '  Ode  to  the  Pas- 
sions,' Wordsworth's  '  Ode  on  Intimations  of  Im- 
mortality,' and  Shelley's  odes.  Another  form  of 
ode  is  where  the  metre  of  the  verses  remains  the 
same,  as  in  the  odes  of  Horace,  Milton's  '  Ode  on 
the  Nativity,'  etc.  To  this  class  belongs  Schil- 
ler's '  Ode  to  Joy,'  used  by  Beethoven  in  the  9th 
Symphony.  Of  musical  settings  of  odes  the  fol- 
lowing are  the  most  important,  besides  those 
already  mentioned  : — Handel's  four  odes,  a  list 
of  which  is  given  in  the  catalogue  of  his  works 
(see  Handel,  vol.  i.  p.  657  a) ;  Purcell's  'Odes  and 
Welcome  Songs,'  28  in  number,  many  of  which 
are  still  in  MS. ;  in  later  times,  Sir  W.  Sterndale 
Bennett's  setting  of  Tennyson's  '  Ode  for  the 
opening  of  the  International  Exhibition  of  1  S6-\' 
Most  of  these  compositions  are  for  chorus  and 


CEDIPUS. 

orchestra,  and  in  many  there  are  solos  or  semi- 
choruses  interspersed,  representing  the  Strophe 
and  Antistrophe  of  the  classic  chorus.  [J.  A.  F.  M.] 

ODEON.  A  theatre  near  the  Luxembourg  in 
Paris,  known  at  various  times  under  different 
names.  The  original  building,  by  Peyre  and 
de  Wailly,  containing  1500  seats,  was  begun  in 
1773  on  the  site  of  the  Hotel  de  Conde.  at  right 
angles  to  its  present  position,  to  which  it  was 
transferred  in  1779  by  command  of  Louis  XVI. 
It  was  opened  in  1782  as  the  'Theatre  Franeais,' 
became  in  1790  the  'Theatre  de  la  Nation,'  was 
burnt  down  March  18,  1799,  and  rebuilt  in  1807 
by  Chalgrin  as  the  '  Ode'on,  The'atre  de  1'  Imper- 
atrice,'  again  partially  burnt  March  20,  1818, 
but  immediately  restored.  As  an  offshoot  of  the 
'Comedie  Franchise'  (,'le  second  The'atre  Fran- 
cais ')  it  receives  a  subsidy  from  the  state ;  but 
its  musical  relations  alone  concern  us. 

From  1808  to  1814  comedy  was  given  at  the 
Odeon  four  days  in  the  week,  and  on  the  other 
three  Italian  opera  ;  the  chief  works  of  Paisiello, 
Mozart,  Salieri,  Zingarelli,  and  Cimarosa,  being 
produced  together  with  those  of  the  second-rate 
composers  popular  at  the  beginning  of  the  century, 
Simon  Mayer,  Generali,  Nasolini,  Pavesi,  etc. 

In  1816  ballets  were  tried,  but  none  were  pro- 
duced of  any  musical  importance.  From  1824  to 
28  the  Ode'on  became  almost  a  branch  of  the  Opera, 
and  took  an  important  part  in  popularising  the 
revolution  of  Rossini  and  of  Weber.  In  1824  the 
'Barbiere  di  Siviglia,'  translated  by  Castil  Blaze, 
was  performed  there  for  the  first  time  in  Paris  on 
May  6;  and  on  Dec.  7  'Freischutz'  was  produced 
and  hissed.  Castil  Blaze  then  remodelled  it  to 
suit  French  taste,  and  as  '  Robin  des  Bois '  it 
reappeared  on  Dec.  16,  and  ran  for  327  nights! 
The  able  conductor,  Pierre  Cre'mont  ( 1 7S4- 
1846),  also  a  good  player  on  the  violin  and  clari- 
net, contributed  much  to  the  success  of  the  operas 
given  there,  among  which  may  be  specified  Mo- 
zart's 'Figaro'  and  'Don  Juan' ;  Rossini's  'Gazza 
Ladra,'  '  Otello,'  'Tancredi,'  and  'Donna  del 
Lago' ;  Winter's  '  Sacrifice  interrompu  ' ;  Meyer- 
beer's '  Marguerite  d'Anjou ' ;  and  Weber's 
'  Preciosa,'  all  in  French  ;  besides  several  adapt- 
ations, such  as  '  La  Foret  de  Senart,'  '  Pour- 
ceaugnac,'  '  Ivanhoe,'  and  '  Le  dernier  jour  de 
MissOlonghi,'  set  by  Herald,  in  which  the  over- 
ture alone  was  a  success. 

On  Oct.  2,  183S,  M.  Louis  Viardot's  Italian 
company  took  refuge  at  the  Ode'on  after  the  burn- 
ing of  the  Salle  Favart  in  the  previous  January, 
and  continued  there  till  the  autumn  of  1841. 
Since  that  date  it  has  remained  open,  but  as  a 
second  'Theatre  Francais,'  music  being  only 
occasionally  introduced,  e.g.  Mendelssohn's  'Anti- 
gone' in  1844,  and  Elwart's  'Alceste'  in  1847. 
Of  late  years  a  success  was  achieved  by  Leconte 
de  Lisle' s  tragedy  '  Les  Erinnyes,'  with  inci- 
dental music  by  Massenet,  whose  fine  oratorio 
'  Marie  Magdeleine '  was  also  performed  for  the 
first  time  at  the  Ode'on.  [G.C.] 

OZDIPUS.  Mendelssohn  was  commanded  by 
the  king  of  Prussia  to  set  music  to  the   three 


(EDIPUS. 

plays  of  Sophocles — Antigone,  (Edipus  Tyrannus, 
and  (Edipus  at  Colonus — as  a  trilogy.*  Anti- 
gone was  first  performed  at  the  New  Palace, 
Potsdam,  Oct.  28,  1841.  On  March  12,  1845, 
Mendelssohn  informs  His  Majesty  that  the  music 
to  QLdipus  at  Colonos  is  finished  and  ready  for 
performance,  and  that  for  ffidipus  Tyrannus 
completely  sketched,  meaning  no  doubt  in  full 
score,  as  was  usually  the  case  with  his  '  sketches.' 
The  first  of  the  two  was  produced  at  Potsdam 
on  Nov.  1,  1845,  and  was  published,  before  the 
end  of  1851,  as  op.  93  (22  of  the  posthumous 
works).  It  contains  an  introduction  and  nine 
numbers.  A  full  analysis  of  the  work  by  Mr. 
G.  A.  Macfarren  will  be  found  in  the  earlier 
numbers  of  the  Musical  World  for  1854.  Oedipus 
Tyrannus  appears  never  to  have  come  to  per- 
formance, and  the  finished  sketch  of  the  music 
seems  to  have  disappeared.  [G.] 

OESTEN,  Theodob,  born  at  Berlin,  Dec.  31, 
181 3,  learned  various  instruments,  both  wind 
and  string,  from  Politzki,  Stadtmusicus  of  Fiir- 
stenwald,  a  small  town  between  Berlin  and 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  At  nineteen  he  went  to 
Berlin,  and  studied  composition  with  Bobmer, 
Fvungenhagen,  Schneider,  and  A.  W.  Bach,  but 
before  this  he  had  written  a  quantity  of  dance- 
music,  variations,  etc.  He  also  learned  the 
clarinet  from  Tanne,  a  Eammermusicus.  He  was 
soon  in  great  request  as  a  teacher,  and  in  1843 
his  P.  F.  rondo  called  '  Les  premieres  Violettes,' 
cleverly  written  in  the  sentimental  taste  of  the 
day,  had  an  enormous  success,  and  was  followed 
by  a  host  of  similar  pieces,  easy  to  play  and  with 
attractive  titles,  which  ruled  the  market  for 
many  years.  He  had  many  more  or  less  suc- 
cessful imitators,  his  own  son  Max  among  the 
number.     Oesten  died  March  16,  1870.     [F.G.] 

OFFENBACH,  Jacques,  born  at  Cologne, 
June  21,  1819,  of  Jewish  parents;  came  to 
Paris  as  a  youth,  and  in  Nov.  1833,  entered  the 
cello  class  of  Professor  Vaslin  at  the  Conserva- 
toire. He  quitted  in  a  year,  without  having  dis- 
tinguished himself,  or  shown  any  taste  for  serious 
study.  He  then  entered  the  orchestra  of  the 
Opera  Comique,  where  he  played  by  the  side  of 
Seligmann,  and  doubtless  picked  up  much  of  his 
knowledge.  He  first  appears  as  the  composer  of  some 
chansonettes  to  parodies  of  La  Fontaine's  poems. 
He  then  became  conductor  of  the  orchestra  at  the 
'  Theatre  Francais,'  and  composed  the  '  Chanson 
de  Fortunio,'  in  Alfred  de  Musset's  '  Chandelier ' 
(1848),  a  song  which  is  certainly  one  of  the  best 
of  his  melodies.  Henceforward  he  made  use  of 
every  expedient  to  place  himself  before  the 
public,  giving  concerts  of  a  kind  to  excite  public 
curiosity,  and  in  various  ways  illustrating  the 
saying  that  'a  grain  of  wit  is  better  than  a 
bushel  of  learning'  (le  savoir-faire  vaut  mieux 
que  le  savoir).  His  first  piece, '  Pepito,'  produced 
at  the  Ope"ra  Comique  Oct.  28,  1853,  attracted 
little  notice,  but  he  followed  it  by  a  host  of 
operettas,  suited  to  small  theatres,  and  careless 
audiences,  and   at  last  found  his  real  field  in 

>  Letter  of  Muller  Id  Mendelssohn's  Briefe,  March  19. 1845. 


OFFENBACH. 


493 


'  Les  deux  Aveugles,'  '  Le  Violoneux,'  and  other 
musical  trifles  which  he  gave  at  the  small 
theatre  in  the  Champs  Elyse'es.  At  length,  in 
Dec.  1855,  he  took  the  'Theatre  Comte,'  in  the 
Passage  Choiseul,  named  it  the  'Bouffes  Pari- 
siens,'  and  produced  a  succession  of  operettas 
which  became  immensely  popular,  and  eventually 
opened  to  him  the  doors  of  the  Opera  Comique, 
and  even  of  the  Acade'mie,  where  his  ballet- 
pantomime,  'Le  Papillon,'  was  brought  out, 
Nov.  26,  i860,  with  considerable  success.  Thus 
this  very  clever  and  prolific  musical  caricaturist 
ran  some  danger  of  being  treated  as  a  first-rate 
composer  at  a  time  when  Cafes-concerts  were 
encouraged,  and  Concerts  du  Conservatoire  were 
out  of  fashion  at  the  Tuileries.  The  following 
list  of  his  works  is  arranged  for  convenience'  sake 
in  alphabetical  order. 


Apothicalre  et  Perruquter,  1  »ct ; 

1862. 
Bagatelle.  1  act ;  1874. 
Barbe  bleue.  3  acts ;  1866. 
Barkouf.  3  acts ;  1S61. 
Ba-ta-clan,  1  act ;  1856. 
Bavards,  Les,  2  acts ;  1863. 
Belle  HC-lene,  La,  3  acts ;  1865. 
Bergers,  Les,  3  acts ;  1866. 
Boite  au  lait.  La,  4  acts ;  1877. 
Bonne  il 'enfant,  La,  1  act ;  1856. 
Boulangere,  La,  a  des  ecus,  3  acts ; 

1875. 
Boule  de  nelge.  3  acts ;  1872. 
Braconnlers,  Les,  3  acts ;  1873. 
Brigands,  Les,  3  acts ;  1870. 
Chanson  de  Fortunio,  La,  1  act; 

1861. 
Chateau,  a  Toto,  Le,  3  acts ;  1868. 
Chatte,   La,    metamorphostie    en 

femme,  1  act ;  1858. 
Criole,  La,  3  acts ;  1875. 
Croquefer,  1  act ;  1857. 
Daphnls  et  Chlo<5, 1  act ;  1860. 
Deux  Aveugles,  Les,  1  act ;  1855. 
Diva,  La,  3  acts ;  1869. 
Docteur  Ox,  Le,  3  acts ;  1877. 
Dragonette,  1  act ;  1857. 
Fantasio.  3  acts;  1872. 
Flfre  enchante\  Le,  1  act ;  1868. 
Fille  du  Tambour  major.  La,  3 

acts;  1879. 
Financier,  Le,  et  le  Savetier,  1  act ; 

1856. 
Folre    St.  Laurent,    La,   3  acts; 

1877. 
Genevieve    de  Brabant,   3  acts ; 

1860. 
GSorgiennes,  Les,  3  acts ;  1864. 
Grande  duchesse    de  Gerolstein, 

La,  3  acts ;  1867. 
De  de  Tullpatan,  L\  1  act ;  1868. 
Jeanne  qui  pleure  et  Jean  qui  rit, 

lact;  1865. 


Jolle    Parfumeuse,    La,    3    acts; 

1873. 
Madame  Favart,  3  acts ;  1878. 
Madame  l'Archiduc,  3  acts ;  1874. 
Maltre  Feronilla,  3  acts ;  1878. 
Mariage  aux  lantemes,  Le,  1  act ; 

1858. 
Marocalne,  La,  3  acts ;  1879. 
Mesdames  de  la  Halle,  1  act ;  1858. 
Monsieur  Choufleuri,  1  act ;  1861. 
Monsieur  et    Madame    Denis,    1 

act ;  1862. 
Orphee  aux  enfers,  3  acts ;  1858. 
Papillon,  Le.  ballet,  2  acts ;  1860. 
Pepito,  1  act ;  1863. 
Perichole.  La,  3  acts ;  1868. 
Permission  de  dlx  heures,  La,  i 

act;  1874. 
Pierrette  et  Jacquot,  1  act ;  1876. 
Pomme  d'api,  1  act ;  1873. 
Pont  des  souplrs,  Le,  2  acts ;  1861. 
Princesse  de  Treblzonde,  3  acts; 

1S70. 
Robinson  Crusoe\  3  acts ;  1867. 
Hoi  Carotte.  Le,  4  acts ;  1872. 
Romance,  La,  de  la  rose,  1  act ; 

1870. 
Rose  de  St.  Flour,  La,  1  act ;  1856. 
Signor  Fagotto,  1  act ;  1888. 
Solxante  slxieme,  Le,  1  act ;  1856. 
Trois  balsers  du  diable,  Les,  1  act; 

1857. 
Tromb  al  Cazar,  1  act ;  1856. 
Une  demoiselle  en  loterie,  1  act* 

1857. 
Une  nult  blanche,  1  act ;  1855. 
Un  marl  a  la  porte,  1  act ;  1859. 
Vent  du  Solr,  1  act ;  1857. 
Vert -Vert,  3  acts ;  1869. 
Vie  partsienne,  La,  5  acts ;  1866. 
Violoneux,  Le,  1  act ;  1855. 
Voyage  dans  la  lune,  4  acts ;  1876. 
Voyage,  Le,  de  MM.  Dunanan,  9 

acts;  1862. 


— 69  pieces  and  143  acts,  written  in  25  years! 
Such  astonishing  facility  implies  abundance  of 
ideas,  rather  than  originality  or  fastidiousness. 
Offenbach '8  melodies  are  often  vulgar  and  often 
wanting  in  piquancy.  He  never  hesitates  to  repeat 
a  good  phrase,  or  to  break  a  rule,  if  any  purpose 
is  to  be  served  by  it ;  but  this  and  other  faults 
are  much  concealed  by  the  bustle,  gaiety,  and  ex- 
travagance of  his  effects,  the  frequent  happy  hits, 
and  the  strong  natural  vein  of  irony.  It  is  melan- 
choly to  predict  that  of  all  these  musical  bouffon- 
neries  little  or  nothing  will  remain ;  since  in  order 
to  live,  a  work  of  art  must  possess  either  style  or 
passion,  whilst  these  too  often  display  merely  a 
vulgar  scepticism,  and  a  determination  to  be 
funny  even  at  the  cost  of  propriety  and  taste. 
Offenbach  has  twice  visited  England.   In  1844 


494 


OFFENBACH. 


he  played  the  cello  in  public  (e.g.  with  Dohler, 
at  the  Musical  Union)  and  private.  In  1866, 
when  his  Belle  Helene  was  running  at  the 
Adelphi,  he  made  no  public  appearance.  [G.C.] 

OFFERTORIUM  (Fr.  Offer toire).  A  portion 
of  a  Psalm,  or  Verse  from  some  other  part  of 
Holy  Scripture,  sung  by  the  Choir,  at  High 
Mass,  immediately  after  the  Credo,  during  the 
time  occupied  by  the  Priest  in  making  ready 
the  Oblations,  and  offering  them  upon  the  Altar. 

A  proper  Offertorium  is  appointed  for  every 
Festival  and  Feria  in  the  year,  except  Good 
Friday  and  the  Saturday  in  Holy  Week ;  and  the 
Plain  Chaunt  Melodies  adapted  to  the  entire 
series  are  contained  in  the  Gradual.  As  these 
Melodies  are  rarely  long  enough  to  fill  up  the 
interval  which  must  necessarily  elapse  before 
the  priest  is  ready  to  begin  the  Surswm,  Corda, 
they  are  usually  supplemented,  either  by  a  Motet 
— as  in  the  Pontifical  Chapel — or  by  a  grand 
Voluntary  on  the  Organ.  Palestrina  provided 
for  this  contingency  by  setting  the  special  forms 
for  all  the  Sundays  and  most  of  the  principal 
Festivals  in  the  year  in  the  Motet  style,  for  five 
Voices,  and  publishing  them  in  the  year  1593  in 
two  books,  entitled  'OfFertoria  totius  'anni.'  But 
when  the  appointed  words  have  already  been 
sung  in  Plain  Chaunt,  it  is  not  at  all  de  rigueur 
that  they  should  be  repeated  in  the  Motet  which 
follows,  provided  this  be  an  appropriate  one  for 
the  Festival.  It  is,  indeed,  in  this  part  of  the 
Mass  that  the  Motet,  properly  so  called,  finds  its 
strongest  raison  oVttre ;  and  a  rich  store  of  com- 
positions, well  adapted  to  the  end  in  view,  has 
been  bequeathed  to  us  by  the  Great  Masters  of 
the  15th  and  16th  centuries.     [See  Motet.] 

Among  the  so-called  Motets  of  the  modern 
school,  a  few  are  specially  entitled  Offertories ; 
but  these  differ  in  no  respect  from  the  ordinary 
'  Motet '  with  Instrumental  Accompaniment. 
Many  very  popular  Offertoires,  in  the  form  of 
Organ  Voluntaries,  will  be  found  among  the 
works  of  modern  French  Composers.  Among 
the  best  are  those  of  Lefebure  Wely,  Batiste,  and 
Mons.  Widor,  the  talented  organist  of  S.  Sulpice. 

The  Sentences  appointed  to  be  used  at  the 
Offertory,  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  were 
printed  by  John  Marbeck  in  his  'Booke  of 
Common-Praier,  noted'  in  1550,  with  Plain 
Chaunt  Melodies,  evidently  adapted  from  antient 
sources ;  but  the  best  English  Composers  of  the 
Polyphonic  School  do  not  seem  to  have  thought 
it  desirable  to  harmonise  them.  [W.  S.  R.] 

OGINSKI.  A  noble  and  distinguished  Polish 
family.  (1)  Prince  Michael  Casimib,  who  died 
at  Warsaw  in  1803,  resided  at  Slonim  in  Lithu- 
ania, where  he  maintained  an  establishment  of 
orchestra  and  singers.  He  is  said  to  have  in- 
vented the  addition  of  pedals  to  the  harp,  and  to 
have  proposed  the  Creation  to  Haydn  as  the 
subject  of  an  oratorio.  He  formed  a  canal  be- 
tween two  rivers  at  his  own  expense — a  national 
work,  which  connected  the  Baltic  with  the  Black 

1  They  form  the  6th  vol.  of  Alflerl's  edition  »nd  the  9th  of  Breitlcopfi. 
Burner  has  printed  one  of  them—'  Exalt  abo  te  Domine,'  the  Offertory 
for  the  Uth  Sunday  after  I'entecost— in  vol.  iii.  p.  191. 


OKEGHEM. 

Sea.  (a)  His  nephew,  Michael  Cleopas,  born 
Sept.  25,  1765,  at  Gutzow,  near  Warsaw,  was 
grand  treasurer  of  Lithuania  and  Senator  of 
the  Russian  Empire.  Of  his  diplomatic  and 
literary  achievements  we  need  not  speak.  In 
the  matter  of  music  he  was  a  pupil  of  Kozlowski's, 
and  was  known  for  his  Polonaises.  Of  these  14 
are  published,  one  of  which  became  very  widely 
celebrated  owing  to  its  merit  and  to  a  romantic 
story  attached  to  its  origin.  It  is  printed  in 
the  Musical  Library,  with  the  story  referred  to. 
Twelve  others  are  printed  in  the  Harmonicon  of 
1824.  He  also  wrote  songs  to  French  words.  Dur- 
ing his  residence  in  Paris  in  1823  Prince  Oginski 
was  well  known  in  the  best  musical  circles.  He 
died  at  Florence,  Oct.  31,  1833,  and  is  buried  in 
Santa  Maria  Novella.  (3)  Prince  Gabriel,  born 
in  1788,  though  a  musician  and  violin-player, 
left  no  compositions.  He  was  driven  from  home 
by  the  revolutions  of  183 1,  but  was  forced  to  re- 
return  by  nostalgia,  and  died  in  Lithuania  in 
1843.  [G.] 

OKEGHEM,  Joannes,  born  early  in  the 
15  th  century,  probably  at  Termonde  in  East 
Flanders,  where  a  family  of  that  name  then  re- 
sided. The  form  Ockenheim  was  introduced  by 
Glarean,  and  has  been  very  generally  copied, 
but  Okeghem  (with  such  slight  variations  as 
Okenghem,  Okekem,  etc.)  appears  on  his  com- 
positions and  in  all  important  documents  re- 
lating to  him.  As  he  belonged  to  the  college 
of  singers  in  Antwerp  cathedral  in  1443,  w-e 
may  place  his  birth  as  early  as  141 5  or  1420. 
There  is  some  reason  for  supposing  Binchois  to 
have  been  his  master,  but  in  any  case  there  was 
no  lack  of  excellent  musicians  at  the  time  when 
he  was  a  boy.  He  gave  up  his  place  at  Antwerp 
in  1444,  and  soon  afterwards  entered  the  service 
of  the  king  of  France.  In  1461,  the  year  of 
Charles  VII's  death,  he  is  mentioned  as  head  of 
the  chapel.  With  Louis  XI  he  appears  to  have 
been  in  great  favour,  and  was  by  him  appointed 
treasurer  of  the  church  of  St.  Martin's  at  Tours, 
where  he  resided  the  greater  part  of  his  life. 
He  is  said  to  have  served  three  kings  of  France 
for  forty  years,  and  resigned  his  position  at  Tours 
soon  after  the  year  1490.  He  then  lived  in  re- 
tirement for  many  years  and  died  about  the  year 
1513  nearly  100  years  old. 

No  wonder  if  by  this  time  he  was  somewhat 
out  of  fashion,  and  that  the  invention  of  music- 
printing  at  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century 
was  more  to  the  advantage  of  his  distinguished 
pupils  than  to  his  own.  In  the  earliest  of  Pe- 
trucci's  publications  five  French  chansons  are 
given ;  but  no  mass  or  motet  bearing  Okeghem's 
name  was  printed  till  many  years  after  his 
death,  and  even  then  the  mass  which  Petreius 
published,  '  Missa  cujusvis  toni,'  seems  to  have 
been  chosen  on  account  of  its  special  scientific 
interest,  and  no  others  were  printed  entire.  Ex- 
tracts from  the  '  Missa  Prolationum '  were  given 
in  various  theoretical  treatises,  but  both  these 
masses  exhibit  Okeghem  as  a  great  teacher, 
rather  than  a  great  church  composer.  The 
Brussels  library  possesses  two  MS.  masses,  '  Pour 


OKEGHEM. 

quelque  peine '  and  '  Ecce  ancilla  Domini,'  and 
the  papal  chapel,  one,  '  De  plus  en  plus.'  Baini 
speaks  of  others  at  Rome,  but  does  not  name 
them,  and  though  looked  for  since,  they  have  not 
been  found.  A  tradition  asserts  that  costly 
music  books  containing  many  of  Okeghem's 
works  were  destroyed  when  the  imperial  troops 
plundered  the  city  in  1527,  and  his  composi- 
tions at  St.  Martin's  at  Tours  were  probably  lost 
in  the  same  way.  Ambros  speaks  of  one  motet, 
'  Alma  redemptoris,'  and  three  songs,  '  D'ung 
aultre  amer,' 'Aultre  Venus,'  and  'Rondo  Royal' 
in  MS.  at  Florence,  and  of  other  chansons  at 
Rome  and  Dijon. 

These  compositions,  insufficient  as  they  are  for 
forming  a  satisfactory  judgment  on  Okeghem's 
powers,  are  sufficient  to  separate  him  very  dis- 
tinctly from  his  predecessors,  and  show  the 
astonishing  progress  made  during  the  forty 
years  of  his  supremacy  (1 550-1590).  He  is 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  second  or  new 
Netherland  school,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
older  school  of  Dufay,  Brasart,  Eloy,  Binchois 
and  Faugues.  Kiesewetter,  who  first  made  this 
classification,  and  has  given  numerous  examples 
from  the  works  of  the  earlier  period,  distin- 
guishes Okeghem  and  his  contemporaries  '  by  a 
greater  facility  in  counterpoint  and  fertility  in 
invention;  their  compositions,  moreover,  being 
no  longer  mere  premeditated  submissions  to  the 
contrapuntal  operation,  but  for  the  most  part 
being  indicative  of  thought  and  sketched  out 
with  manifest  design,1  being  also  full  of  inge- 
nious contrivances  of  an  obligate  counterpoint, 
at  that  time  just  discovered,  such  as  augmen- 
tation, diminution,  inversion,  imitation :  together 
with  canons  and  fugues  of  the  most  manifold 
description.'  One  of  these  canons  has  gone  the 
round  of  the  musical  histories,  but  its  solution 
has  not  always  been  successful,  and  Fe'tis  has 
had  to  correct  the  editions  given  by  Forkel, 
Kiesewetter,  Burney  and  Hawkins.  The  'Missa 
cujusvis  toni,'  which  Kiesewetter,  without  suffi- 
'cient  reason,  regards  as  a  comical  mass,  is  a 
work  possibly  written  for  the  sake  of  his  pupils, 
but  more  probably  as  an  intellectual  treat  for 
the  highly  educated  musicians  who  formed  the 
church  choirs  in  those  days.  It  would  be  valued 
by  them,  not  only  as  a  test  of  their  thorough 
acquaintance  with  the  church  modes,  and  an 
exercise  in  the  transposition  of  the  mass  from 
one  mode  to  the  next,  but  also  for  the  endless 
charm  of  variety,  which  the  special  character- 
istics of  the  various  modes  would  impart  to  it. 
Many  years  after  Okeghem's  death  it  was  still 
used  by  the  great  chapel  choir  at  Munich,  and 
the  copy  now  exists  there,  with  the  notes  and 
corrections  made  by  those  who  actually  sang 
from  it.  Another  piece  of  Okeghem's,  famous 
in  its  time,  was  a  motet  for  36  voices,  which 
was  probably  (like  Josquin 's  '  Qui  habitat  in 
adjutorio')  written  with  6  voices,  the  other 
parts  being  derived  from  them  canonically.* 
Asa  teacher  Okeghem  stands  alone  in  the  whole 

>  Ambros  (111.  175)  mentions   the  motet  'Alma  redemptoris'  M 
affording  a  proot  ol  this  statement.'  a  Ambros.  Ufa  174. 


OLD  HUNDREDTH  TUNE.       495 

history  of  music.  •  Through  his  pupils  the  art 
was  transplanted  into  all  countries,  and  he  must 
be  regarded  (for  it  can  be  proved  by  genealogy) 
as  the  founder  of  all  schools  from  his  own  to  the 
present  age.'3  The  names  of  Josquin  *  and  De  la 
Rue  stand  foremost  in  the  list  of  his  pupils. 
Josquin,  himself  a  great  teacher,  carried  the 
new  Netherland  art  into  Italy,  and  the  first 
important  representatives  both  of  German  and 
French  music,  Isaac  and  Mouton,  with  many 
others  less  famous,  learnt  through  him  the 
Okeghem  traditions.  [  J.R.S.-B.] 

OLD  HUNDREDTH  TUNE,  THE.  The 
great  popularity  of  this  tune  in  England  and 
America  has  given  birth  to  much  discussion  re- 
specting its  origin  and  authorship.  The  greater 
part  however  of  what  has  hitherto  been  written 
on  the  subject  is  either  purely  conjectural  or 
based  on  an  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  facts. 
The  recent  researches  of  *  Bovet,  4  Douen,  and 
others  into  the  history  of  the  Genevan  Psalter 
have  cleared  up  almost  all  difficulties,  and  shown 
that  it  was  in  that  work  that  the  tune  first 
appeared.  A  brief  sketch  of  the  history  of 
the  Genevan  Psalter  will  be  given  in  a  sup- 
plemental notice  of  Louis  Bourgeois.7  For 
the  present  it  is  enough  to  say  that  the  '  Old 
Hundredth '  was  the  melody  adapted  to  Beza's 
version  of  the  134th  Psalm  included  in  the  first 
instalment  of  psalms,  34  in  number,  added  by 
him  to  the  Genevan  Psalter  in  1551.  No  copy  of 
that  Psalter  containing  the  tunes  to  these  psalms 
is  known  of  earlier  date  than  1554,  but  there  is 
little  doubt  that  they  were  added  to  the  psalms 
either  at  the  time  of  publication  of  the  latter  or 
in  1552  ;  and,  as  will  be  seen  in  another  article, 
this  date  falls  within  the  time  when  Bourgeois 
was  musical  editor  of  the  Genevan  Psalter — that 
is,  from  1542  to  1557.  To  Bourgeois  therefore 
the  tune  in  its  present  form  may  be  ascribed, 
but  how  far  it  is  original  is  uncertain.  The 
greater  part  of  the  melodies  in  the  Genevan 
Psalter  are  known  to  be  adaptations  of  secular 
tunes  of  the  time,  and  the  '  Old  Hundredth  '  is, 
no  doubt,  one  of  the  number.  Douen  cites  a 
melody  from  '  Chansons  du  XV"  Siecle  publie'es 
par  G.  Paris  et  A.  Gevaert,'  Paris,  1875,  which 
commences  as  follows 


to  the  words  '  II  n'y  a  icy  celluy  Qui  n'ait  sa 
beUe-'  .         *    V        ,J 

It  was  a  not  uncommon  practice  of  the  old 
writers  to  construct  new  tunes  by  adding 
different  terminations  to  the  same  fragment  of 
older  melody.  The  strain  with  which  the  '  Old 
Hundredth'  commences  seems  to  have  been 
very  popular  from  this  point  of  view.  We  find 
it,  with  different  endings,  in  '  Souter  Liedekens 

»  Klesewettert  History  of  Music,  English  edition,  p.  131. 

4  The  elegy  composed  by  Josquin  In  memory  of  bis  master  Is  spoken 
of  elsewhere.    See  articles  Josquin  and  Motet. 

s  '  Bistolre  du  I'sautler  des  egllses  reformees,'  Neucbatel  and 
Paris.  1872. 

e  '  Clement  Marot  et  le  Fsautler  Huguenot,'  2  Toll..  Paris,  1878-79. 

1  Bee  appendix,  Bourgeois. 


496        OLD  HUNDREDTH  TUNE. 

ghemaect  ter  eeren  Gods '  (Pure  Songs  made  to 
the  honour  of  God),  Antwerp,  1I540;  in  Uten- 
hove's  Dutch  Psalter  ('Hondert  Psalmen  Da- 
vids'), printed  in  London  by  John  Daye  in 
1561  ;  in  Este's  Psalter,'  1592,  and  elsewhere.8 

The  Genevan  tune  soon  found  its  way  to 
England,  where  it  was  set  to  Kethe's  version  of 
the  1  ooth  psalm, '  All  people  that  on  earth  do 
dwell,'  with  which  it  has  since  remained  inchs- 
solubly  connected. 

The  name  '  Old  Hundredth '  is  peculiar  to 
England.3  The  psalm  was  originally  known  as 
the  'Hundredth,  but  after  the  appearance  of 
the  New  Version  by  Brady  and  Tate  in  1696,  the 
word  '  Old '  was  added  to  the  titles  of  the  tunes 
continued  in  use  from  the  preceding  Psalter  of 
Sternhold  and  Hopkins,  to  which  no  special 
names  had  been  given.  The  name '  Savoy,'  some- 
times applied  to  the  Old  Hundredth  in  the 
last  century,  was  derived,  not,  as  Mr.  Havergal 
supposes,  from  a  vague  fancy  respecting  its 
Savoyard  origin,  but  from  its  use  by  the  French 
congregation  established  in  the  Savoy,  London, 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  The  original  form 
of  the  Old  Hundredth  is  as  follows. 


ft: 


33 


■^&^ 


3= 


^ 


EiB3=£ 


—s>- 

— h 

1 
rr 

1— 

— s> £*» ~ 

<g  ■ 

■"2 

:-, 

-P- 

Several  variations  of  the  tune  are  found  in 
English  and  German  tune-books,  but  chiefly  in 
the  value  of  the  notes,  the  melody  remaining  un- 
changed. The  version  most  commonly  adopted 
in  England  in  the  present  century  is  that  in 
which  all  the  notes,  except  the  final  note  of  each 
strain,  are  of  equal  length.  This  form  however 
tends  to  produce  monotony,  and  necessitates  too 
slow  a  time,  the  tune  being  essentially  jubilant 
in  character.  Its  original  form  is  in  all  respects 
the  best,  with  perhaps  a  slight  modification  in 
the  fourth  strain  for  the  sake  of  symmetry,4  as 
in  Ravenscroft's  '  Booke  of  Psalmes,'  162 1 : 


$ 


■1  a  mk 


An  interesting  monograph  on  the  history  of 

1  In  this,  the  earliest  Flemish  Psalter,  all  the  psalms  (excepting  the 
116th  and  the  118th,  and  also  the  Song  of  Simeon)  are  set  to  popular 
Flemish  and  French  tunes.  Fsalm  xlx.  which  begins  with  the  same 
strain  as  the  Old  Hundredth,  Is  to  the  melody  of— 

'  Ick  had  een  boelken  utuercoren,  die  Ick  met  Herten  minne.' 
I  had  chosen  a  lover  whom  I  heartily  loved, 
l  The  tune  adapted  to  Psalm  xxv  in  the  Genevan  Psalter  of  1561, 
replacing  the  melody  to  which  that  Psalm  had  been  set  In  the  pre- 
vious editions,  commences  with  a  similar  melodic  progression— 


P 


id; 


;o 


8  In  America  the  tune  Is  commonly  called  'Old  Hundred';  pro- 
bably an  English  provincialism  imported  by  some  of  the  early 
colonists.  In  fact  the  writer  has  some  recollection  of  hearing  that 
this  name  was  In  use  in  some  parts  of  England  not  many  years 
since. 

i  The  old  psalter  tunes  being  originally  unbarred,  strict  symmetry 
between  the  strains  was  sometimes  disregarded  for  the  sake  of  effect. 


OLIPHANT. 

the  Old  Hundredth  psalm-tune  was  published 
in  1854  by  the  Rev.  W.  H.  Havergal,  with  an 
appendix  of  28  specimens  of  the  tune  as  har- 
monised by  different  composers  from  1563  to 
1847.  In  the  light  of  our  present  knowledge, 
however,  several  of  Mr.  Havergal's  conjec- 
tures and  statements  must  now  be  regarded  as 
obsolete. 

See  also  the  works  of  Bovet  and  Douen  al- 
ready cited.  [G.A.C.] 

O'LEARY,  Arthur,  was  born  in  1834  near 
Killarney  in  the  south  of  Ireland.  He  received 
his  early  instruction  in  music  at  home.  When 
between  7  and  8  years  old,  his  pianoforte  playing 
attracted  the  attention  of  Mr.  Wyndham  Goold, 
through  Whose  instrumentality  he  was  sent  to 
the  Leipzig  Conservatorium  in  the  year  1847. 
At  Leipzig  he  studied  the  piano  with  Moscheles 
and  Plaidy,  counterpoint  with  Hauptmann,  and 
composition  with  Julius  Rietz.  He  lived  in  the 
house  of  Herr  Preusser,  where  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  Mendelssohn,  Robert  and  Clara 
Schumann,  and  many  other  musical  celebrities. 
After  a  five  years'  stay  at  Leipzig,  Mr.  O'Leary 
returned  to  London  and  entered  at  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music,  studying  under  Cipriani 
Potter  and  Sterndale  Bennett.  In  1856  Lord 
Westmoreland  appointed  him  Professor  at  the 
Academy,  and  on  the  opening  of  the  National 
Training  School  for  Music,  he  was  appointed  to 
that  institution.  Mr.  O'Leary's  compositions 
include  songs,  dance-music,  transcriptions  and 
original  pieces  for  the  pianoforte,  etc.  He  has 
also  edited  Bach's  Christmas  Oratorio,  Bennett's 
Pianoforte  works,  and  Masses  by  Hummel, 
Sechter,  and  Schubert. 

His  wife,  Rosetta,  is  the  daughter  of  Mr.  W.  S. 
Vinning,  and  was  married  to  Mr.  O'Leary  in  i860. 
She  was  elected  King's  Scholar  at  the  Academy 
in  1 85 1,  and  is  known  as  the  composer  of  several 
successful  songs.  [W.B.S.] 

OLE  BULL.     [See  Appendix,  Bull,  Ole.] 

OLIMPIADE.  An  opera  of  Metastasio's, 
written  to  celebrate  the  birthday  of  the  Empress 
Elizabeth,  wife  of  Charles  VI,  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many in  1 733.  It  supplies  a  good  instance  of  the 
persistent  adherence  of  the  composers  of  the  last 
century  to  one  libretto,  having  been  composed  no- 
less  than  31  times,  by  the  following  composers 
— Caldara  (1733),  Pergolesi,  Leo,  Duni,  Scolari. 
Latilla,  Perez,  Sarti,  Hasse,  Piccinni  (2),  Ber- 
nasconi,  Gassmann,  Bertoni,  Jomelli,  Cafaro, 
J.  C.  Bach,  Traetta,  Arne,  Anfossi,  Mysliwecz, 
Andreozzi,  Schwanberg,  Gatti,  Borghi,  Paisiello- 
Federici,  Reichardt,  Tarchi,  Perrino.Conti  (1829), 
as  given  in  Clement's  Diet.  Lyrique.  [G.] 

OLIPHANT,  Thomas,  born  1799,  was  in 
1830  admitted  a  member  of  the  Madrigal  So- 
ciety, and  soon  afterwards  became  its  Honorary 
Secretary.  He  adapted  English  words  to  many 
Italian  madrigals,  some  of  which  have  become 
exceedingly  popular,  notably  '  Down  in  a  flow'ry 
Vale,'  to  Festa's  'Quando  ritrovo.'  In  1834  he 
published   'A  Brief  Account  of  the  Madrigal 


OLIPHANT. 

Society,'  and  in  1836  'A  Short  Account  of  Mad- 
rigals.' In  1837  he  published  an  8vo  volume 
entitled  'La  Musa  Madrigalesca,'  a  collection  of 
the  words  of  nearly  400  madrigals,  with  remarks 
and  annotations.  He  wrote  an  English  version 
of  Beethoven's  '  Fidelio,'  and  English  words  to 
several  songs,  and  edited  Tallis's  '  Service  and 
Responses."  In  his  latter  years  he  was  President 
of  the  Madrigal  Society.  He  died  March  9, 
1873.  [W.H.H.] 

OLYMPIE.  Trage'die  lyrique,  in  3  acts, 
imitated  from  Voltaire  by  Dieulafoy  and  Briffaut 
(and  others') ;  music  by  Spontini.  Produced  at  the 
Academic  Royale  Dec.  22,  1 819.  At  Berlin,  in 
German(E. J.A.Hoffmann), May  14, 1821.   [6.] 

ONSLOW,  Geobge,  born  at  Clermont-Ferrand 
(Puy-de-Ddme)  July  27, 1784,  was  a  grandson  of 
the  first  Lord  Onslow,  and  descended  through  his 
mother,  a  de  Bourdeilles,  from  the  family  of 
Brantdme.  Although  eventually  a  prolific  com- 
poser, he  showed  as  a  child  no  special  love  for 
music,  and  the  lessons  he  took  on  the  piano  from 
Hullmandel,  Dussek,  and  Cramer,  during  a  stay 
of  some  years  in  London,  developed  nothing  be- 
yond manual  dexterity.  Having  returned  to 
France,  and  settled  in  a  province  more  famous 
for  its  scenery  than  for  its  opportunities  of  artis- 
tic relaxation,  he  associated  with  some  amateurs 
who  played  chamber-music,  and  was  thus  in- 
duced first  to  study  the  cello,  and  then  to  com- 
pose works  modelled  after  those  which  gave  so 
much  pleasure  to  himself  and  his  friends.  The 
analytical  faculty,  properly  used,  reveals  to  its 
possessor  many  secrets,  but  it  neither  supersedes 
lessons  from  an  experienced  teacher,  nor  can  in 
any  case  supply  genius.  Thus  Onslow,  even  after 
he  had  composed  a  considerable  amount  of  cham- 
ber-music, felt  the  necessity  for  further  instruction 
before  attempting  dramatic  composition,  and  ap- 
plied to  Reicha,  who  was  an  able  master  so  far  as 
grammar  went,  but  incapable  of  transmitting  to 
his  pupil  that  sacred  fire  which  he  did  not  pos- 
sess himself.  Onslow  therefore  proved  as  cold  on 
the  stage  as  he  had  done  in  the  concert- room,  and 
his  three ope'ras-comiques,  'L' Alcalde  dela  Vega' 
(Aug.  10, 1824),  ' Le  Colporteur '  (Nov.  22, 1827), 
and  'Le  Due  de  Guise'  (Sept.  8,  1837),  after 
securing  successive '  succ^s  d'estime,'  disappeared, 
leaving  the  overture  to  'The  Colporteur'  which  till 
lately  was  to  be  heard  in  concert  rooms,  as  their 
only  representative.  His  three  published  sym- 
phonies, though  performed  several  times  by  the 
Socie'te'  des  Concerts  du  Conservatoire,  are  also 
forgotten.  A  musician  of  respectable  attainments 
and  indefatigable  industry,  an  accomplished 
gentleman,  and  moreover  a  man  of  fortune,  he 
had  no  difficulty  in  finding  either  editors  or  appre- 
ciative friends,  as  was  proved  by  his  election  in 
1842  to  succeed  Cherubini  at  the  Institut.  Such 
an  appointment  must  have  been  gratifying  to 
those  musicians  who  believe  with  Buffon  that 
'  genius  is  nothing  more  than  a  great  power  of 
patience.'  With  the  above  reservations  it  must 
be  admitted  that  Onslow,  by  the  number  of  his 
works,  and  the  elegant  style  of  his  best  passages, 
merited  the  reputation  he  enjoyed  during  his  fife- 
vol.  11.   ft.  10. 


OPERA. 


497 


time.  He  died  at  Clermont  on  Oct.  3,  1853,  leav- 
ing 34  quintets  and  36  quartets  for  strings,  6  trios 
for  P.F.,  violin  and  cello ;  a  sextuor  (op.  30)  for 
P.F.,  flute,  clarinet,  horn,  bassoon  and  contra- 
basso,  or  P.F.,  2  violins,  viola,  cello,  and  contra- 
basso  ;  a  nonetto  (op.  77)  for  violin,  viola,  cello, 
contrabasso,  flute,  oboe,  clarinet,  bassoon,  and 
horn,  which  he  also  arranged  (op.  77  bis)  as  a 
sextuor  for  P.F.,  flute,  clarinet,  horn,  bassoon 
and  contrabasso,  or  for  P.F.,  2  violins,  viola, 
cello,  and  contrabasso  ;  a  septet  (op.  79)  for 
P.F.,  flute,  oboe,  clarinet,  horn,  bassoon,  and 
contrabasso ;  sonatas  and  duos  for  P.F.  and 
violin,  or  cello ;  sonatas  for  P.F.,  4  hands,  and 
many  pieces  for  P.F.  boIo.  His  quintets  are 
undoubtedly  his  best  works,  and  contain  much 
charming  music.  No.  1 5,  called  '  Le  Quintette 
de  la  balle,'  describes  his  emotions — the  pain,  the 
irregular  beating  of  his  pulse,  and  his  gratitude 
on  his  recovery — consequent  on  an  accident  that 
happened  to  him  at  a  wolf-hunt,  where  a  Bpent 
ball  hit  him  in  the  face,  rendering  him  some- 
what deaf  in  one  ear  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 
His  earlier  quintets  were  written  for  2  celli,  but 
at  a  certain  performance  in  England  the  2nd 
cello  failed  to  arrive,  and  it  was  proposed  that 
Dragonetti  should  play  the  part  on  his  double- 
bass.  Onslow  positively  refused,  saying  the  ef- 
fect would  be  dreadful.  However,  after  waiting 
some  time,  he  was  obliged  to  consent,  and 
after  a  few  bars  was  delighted  with  the  effect. 
After  this  he  wrote  them  for  cello  and  double-bass, 
and  the  preceding  ones  were  then  re-arranged  in 
that  way  under  his  own  inspection  by  GouS6,  the 
accomplished  double-bass  of  the  Paris  Opera. 
Halevy  pronounced  his  eulogium  at  the  Institut, 
and  printed  it  in  his  'Souvenirs  et  Portraits.' 
D'Ortigue  collected  materials  for  his  biography, 
but  only  published  an  abstract  of  them  in  the 
'Menestrel*  (1863-64,  p.  113).  Fe"tis  drew  his 
information  from  these  two  sources,  to  which  the 
reader  is  referred  for  further  detail.  [G.C.] 

OPERA  (Ital.  Opera,  abbrev.  of  Opera  in 
Musica,  a  'Musical  Work,'  Dramma  per  la 
Musica;  Fr.  Optra;  Germ.  Oper,  Singspiel).  A 
Drama,  either  Tragic  or  Comic,  sung,  through- 
out, with  appropriate  Scenery  and  Acting,  to  the 
Accompaniment  of  a  full  Orchestra. 

It  may  seem  strange  to  speak  of  the  Opera  as 
one  of  the  oldest  institutions  in  existence ;  yet,  our 
search  for  its  origin  leads  us  back  to  a  time  long 
antecedent  to  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  iEra ; 
and  he  who  would  read  the  story  of  its  infancy 
aright,  must  collect  its  details  from  the  History  of 
Antient  Greece :  for  it  is  as  old  as  the  Drama 
itself.  It  was  nurtured  at  Athens,  in  that 
glorious  Theatre,  the  acoustic  properties  of  which 
have  never  yet  been  rivalled.  Its  earliest  libret- 
tists were  /Eschylua  and  Sophocles ;  and  its 
earliest  Orchestra,  a  band  of  Lyres  and  Flutes. 
There  is  no  doubt  about  this.  It  is  quite  certain 
that  not  only  were  the  Choruses  of  the '  Agamem- 
non'and  the  'Antigone'  sung  to  the  grandest 
music  that  could  be  produced  at  the  time  they 
were  written,  but  also  that  every  word  of  the 
Dialogue  was  musically  declaimed.  Musical 
K  k 


498 


OPERA. 


Dialogue  has  been  censured,  by  unmusical  critics, 
as  contrary  to  Nature.  It  is,  undoubtedly,  con- 
trary to  the  practice  of  every-day  life,  but  not 
to  the  principles  of  Art.  It  is  necessary  that  the 
truth  of  this  proposition  should  be  very  clearly 
established  ;  for  unless  we  make  it  our  starting- 
point,  we  shall  never  arrive  at  the  true  raison 
d'itre  of  the  Lyric  Drama,  nor  be  prepared  with 
a  satisfactory  answer  to  the  cavils  of  those  who, 
like  Addison  and  Steele,  condemn  it  as  a  mon- 
strous anomaly.  It  is  open  to  no  charge  of  in- 
consistency to  which  the  Spoken  Drama  is  not 
equally  exposed.  The  Poet  writes  his  Tragedy 
in  Verse,  because  he  thereby  gains  the  power  of 
expressing  great  thoughts  with  the  greatest 
amount  of  dignity  that  language  can  command. 
His  Verses  are  sung,  in  order  that  they  may  be 
invested  with  a  deeper  pathos  than  the  most 
careful  form  of  ordinary  declamation  can  reach. 
No  one  objects  to  the  Iambics  of  the  '  Seven 
against  Thebes,'  or  the  Blank  Verse  of  'King 
John ' ;  yet  surely  our  sense  of  the  fitness  of 
things  is  not  more  rudely  shocked  by  the  melo- 
dious Ah  I  soceorso  I  ton  tradito  I  uttered  by  the 
Commendatore  after  Don  Giovanni  has  pierced 
him  through  with  his  sword,  than  by  the  touch- 
ing couplet  with  which  Prince  Arthur,  at  the 
moment  of  his  death,  breaks  forth  into  rhyme — 

O  me !  my  uncle's  spirit  is  in  these  stones : — 
Heaven  take  my  soul,  and  England  keep  my  bones  I 

The  conventionalities  of  common  life  are  vio- 
lated no  less  signally  in  the  one  case  than  in  the 
other ;  yet,  in  the  Opera  as  well  as  in  the  Play, 
the  result  of  their  violation  is  an  artistic  concep- 
tion, as  easily  defensible  on  logical  grounds  as 
the  proportions  of  a  statue  or  the  colouring  of 
a  picture — neither  of  which  are  faithful  imita- 
tions of  Nature,  though  founded  upon  a  natural 
Ideal. 

These  appear  to  have  been  the  views  enter- 
tained, towards  the  close  of  the  16th  century,  by 
a  little  band  of  Men  of  Letters  and  Musicians — 
all  ardent  disciples  of  the  Renaissance — who  met- 
in  Florence  at  the  house  of  Giovanni  Bardi, 
Conte  di  Vernio,  with  the  avowed  object  of  resus- 
citating the  style  of  musical  declamation  peculiar 
to  Greek  Tragedy.  This  end  was  unattainable. 
The  antagonism  between  Greek  and  modern 
tonalities  would  alone  have  sufficed  to  make 
it  an  impossibility,  had  there  been  no  other  diffi- 
culties in  the  way.  But,  just  as  the  search  for 
the  Philosopher's  Stone  resulted  in  some  of  the 
most  important  discoveries  known  to  Chemistry, 
this  vain  endeavour  to  restore  a  lost  Art  led  to 
the  one  thing  upon  which,  above  all  others,  the 
future  fate  of  the  Lyric  Drama  depended — and 
compassed  it,  on  this  wise. 

Among  the  Musicians  who  frequented  the 
Count  of  Vernio's  reunions  were  three  whose 
names  afterwards  became  celebrated.  Vincenzo 
Galilei — the  father  of  the  great  Astronomer — was 
a  pupil  of  the  old  school,  but  burning  to  strike 
out  something  new.  Jacopo  Peri  and  Giulio 
Caccini  were  young  men,  with  little  or  no  know- 
ledge of  Counterpoint,  but  gifted  with  a  wealth 
of  original  genius,  and  sufficient  energy  of  char- 


OPERA. 

acter  to  enable  them  to  turn  it  to  the  best  ac- 
count. All  were  thoroughly  in  earnest,  thoroughly 
dissatisfied  with  the  Music  of  the  period,  and 
longing  for  a  style  of  composition  better  fitted  to 
express  the  varying  shades  of  human  passion 
than  that  then  generally  cultivated.  The  first 
result  of  their  tentative  efforts  to  reach  this  long- 
cherished  Ideal  was  the  invention  of  the  Cantata 
— a  saecular  composition,  for  a  single  Voice  ac- 
companied by  a  single  Instrument.  Galilei  pro- 
duced a  work  of  this  description,  entitled  '  II 
Conte  Ugolino,'  which  has  unhappily  been  lost. 
Caccini — already  celebrated  for  the  beauty  of 
his  Voice,  and  the  excellence  of  his  performance 
upon  the  Lute — wrote* a  number  of  shorter 
pieces,  which  he  sang  with  unbounded  applause 
at  Bardi's  house,  to  the  Accompaniment  of 
a  Theorbo,  played  by  Bardilla.  Some  of  these 
Canzonette  were  published,  in  1602,  under  the 
title  of  'Le  nuove  Musiche' ;  and  an  entire  verse 
of  one  of  them  will  be  found  in  the  article 
Monodia  in  the  present  volume.  They  are, 
indeed,  most  interesting,  as  examples  of  the 
earliest  phase  of  the  style — fitly  called  Monodic 
— which  exchanged  the  contrapuntal  richness  of 
the  Polyphonic  School  for  the  simplest  of  Melo- 
dies, confined  to  a  single  part,  and  accompanied 
by  a  Bass,  which  was  often  not  only  simple,  but 
of  the  rudest  possible  construction.  The  particu- 
lar verse  to  which  we  have  referred — Diteli  voi 
se  di  me  vi  cale — is  exceptionally  symmetrical  in 
form.  As  a  general  rule,  the  Melodies  of  this 
transitional  period  were  so  destitute  of  what  we 
now  call  '  Figure '  as  to  be  all  but  amorphous ; 
and  it  is  precisely  to  this  peculiarity  that  we  are 
indebted  for  the  extraordinary  effect  they  wrought. 
All  that  their  Composers  aimed  at  in  construct- 
ing them,  was  the  exact  oratorical  rendering  of 
the  words  with  which  they  had  to  deal ;  and  in 
striving  to  attain  this  they  unconsciously,  and  as 
if  by  a  kind  of  inspiration,  achieved  that  potent 
medium  of  passionate  expression  which  alone  was 
needed  to  make  the  Lyric  Drama  possible— pure, 
well-accented,  declamatory  Recitative.  Not, 
as  they  fondly  imagined,  the  exact  method  of 
delivery  cultivated  by  the  Greek  Dramatists ; 
but,  we  may  fairly  believe,  the  nearest  approach 
to  it  consistent  with  the  modern  Scale — the  true 
Musica  parlante,  or  Stilo  rappresentativo,  which, 
by  regulating  the  inflections  of  the  Voice  in 
accordance  with  the  principles  of  sound  rhe- 
torical science,  invests  them,  if  the  experience  of 
nearly  three  centuries  may  be  trusted,  with  an 
amount  of  dramatic  power  attainable  by  no 
other  means. 

The  necessity  for  some  such  provision  as  this 
must  have  been  painfully  apparent  to  all  think- 
ing men.  The  Polyphonic  School,  brought  to 
absolute  perfection  by  Palestrina  and  his  great 
contemporaries,  was  utterly  unfit  for  dramatic 
purposes ;  yet,  in  ignorance  of  a  more  appropriate 
form  of  expression,  attempts  to  turn  it  to  account 
in  that  direction  had  not  been  wanting.  It 
certain  that  great  part  of  Poliziano's  '  Orfeo,' 
written  in  the  latter  half  of  the  1 5th  century, 
was  set  to  Music  of  some  kind ;  and  Leo  Allativ; 


OPEEA. 

mentions,  in  his  '  Drammaturgia,'  the  names  of 
eight  Musical  Kepresentations  produced  between 
the  years  1569  and  15S2.  The  bare  titles  of  these 
works,  to  one  of  which  the  name  of  Claudio 
Merulo  is  attached,  are  all  that  now  remain  to 
us;  and,  unfortunately,  we  possess  no  printed 
copies  of  three  still  more  important  productions — 
'  II  Satiro,'  'La  Disperazione  di  Fileno,'  and  '  II 
Giuoco  della  Cieca ' — set  to  Music  by  Emilio  del 
Cavaliere,  the  two  first  in  1590,  and  the  last  in 
1595  :  but  we  may  form  a  tolerably  safe  esti- 
mate of  their  style  from  that  of  Orazio  Vecchi's 
*  L'Amfiparnasso,  performed  at  Mantua  in  1594, 
and  printed  soon  afterwards  in  Venice.  This 
curious  Commedia  armonica,  as  the  Composer  him- 
self calls  it,  is  presented  in  the  form  of  a  series 
of  Madrigals,  for  five  Voices,  written  in  the  true 
Polyphonic  Style,  and  equally  remarkable  for 
the  beauty  of  their  effect,  and  the  learning  dis- 
played in  their  construction.  There  is  no  Over- 
ture ;  and  no  Instrumental  Accompaniment,  or 
Ritornello,  of  any  kind.  When  the  Stage  is  occu- 
pied by  a  single  character  only,  the  four  super- 
fluous Voices  are  made  to  sing  behind  the  Scenes; 
when  two  persons  are  needed  for  the  action,  three 
are  kept  out  of  sight.  All  doubt  on  this  point 
is  removed  by  the  woodcuts  with  which  the  Music 
is  illustrated  :  but,  before  we  condemn  the  ab- 
surdity of  the  arrangement,  we  must  remember 
that  the  grand  old  Madrigalist  only  uses  his 
unseen  Voices  as  later  Composers  have  used  the 
Orchestra.  He  could  not  leave  his  characters 
to  sing  without  any  accompaniment  whatever; 
and  has  therefore  supported  them,  and,  to  the 
best  of  his  ability,  enforced  the  action  of  the 
Scene,  by  the  only  harmonic  means  within  his 
reach. 

It  must  be  confessed  that,  though  Orazio 
Vecchi  was  a  skilful  Contrapuntist  and  Peri  was 
not,  the  Florentine  Composer  had  all  the  ad- 
vantage on  his  side,  when,  three  years  after  the 
first  performance  of  'L'Amfiparnasso,'  he  pro- 
duced his  Music  to  Einuccini's  '  Dafne.'  Count 
Bardi  having  been  summoned  to  Rome  in  1592 
to  act  as  Maestro  di  camera  to  Pope  Clement 
VIII,  the  meetings  formerly  held  at  his  house 
were  transferred  to  that  of  his  friend  Jacopo 
Corsi,  as  enthusiastic  a  patron  of  the  Pine  Arts 
as  himself.  It  was  at  the  Palazzo  Corsi  that 
'  Dafne'  was  first  privately  performed,  in  1 597. 
No  trace  of  it  now  remains  ;  but  Peri  himself  tells 
us,  in  the  preface  to  his '  Euridice,'  that  he  wrote 
it  at  the  instigation  of  Signor  Corsi  and  the 
Poet  Rinuccini,  'in  order  to  test  the  effect  of 
the  particular  kind  of  Melody  which  they 
imagined  to  be  identical  with  that  used  by  the 
antient  Greeks  and  Romans  throughout  their 
Dramas' ;  and  we  learn  from  the  account  given 
by  Giov.  Batt.  Doni,  that '  it  charmed  the  whole 
city.'  The  success  of  the  experiment  was,  indeed, 
so  decided,  that,  in  the  year  1600,  Peri  was 
invited  to  provide  a  still  greater  work,  to  grace 
the  festivities  which  followed  the  marriage  of 
King  Henri  IV  of  France  with  Maria  de'  Medici. 
It  was  on  this  occasion  that  he  produced  his 
famous  '  Euridice,'  the  first  true  Italian  Opera 


OPERA. 


49:> 


that  was  ever  performed  in  public,  and  the  ac- 
knowledged prototype  of  all  later  developments 
of  the  Dramma  per  la  musica.  The  work  excited 
an  extraordinary  amount  of  attention.  Ottavio 
Rinuccini  furnished  the  Libretto.  Several  noble- 
men took  part  in  the  public  performance.  Behind 
the  Scenes,  Signor  Corsi  himself  presided  at  the 
Harpsichord,  assisted  by  three  friends,  who  played 
upon  the  Chitarone,  the  Lira  grande,  or  Viol  di 
gamba,  and  the  Theorbo,  or  Large  Lute.  These 
Instruments,  with  the  addition  of  three  Flutes 
used  in  a  certain  Ritornello,  seem  to  have  com- 
prised the  entire  Orchestra  :  and  a  considerable 
amount  of  freedom  must  have  been  accorded  to 
the  performers,  with  regard  to  their  manner  of 
employing  them ;  for,  in  the  barred  Score  pub- 
lished at  Florence,  with  -a  dedication  to  Maria 
de'  Medici,  in  1600,  and  reprinted  at  Venice  in 
1608,  the  accompaniment  consists  of  little  more 
than  an  ordinary  Figured  Bass.  This  Score  is 
now  exceedingly  scarce.  Hawkins  did  not  even 
know  of  its  existence ;  and  Burney  succeeded  in 
discovering  one  example  only,  in  the  possession 
of  the  Marchese  Rinuccini,  a  descendant  of  the 
Poet,  at  Florence :  but  a  copy  of  the  Venice 
edition  is  happily  preserved  in  the  Library  of  the 
British  Museum,  and  from  this  we  transcribe 
a  portion  of  one  of  the  most  melodious  Scenes  in 
the  Opera  —  that  which  introduces  the  three 
Flutes  to  which  we  have  already  alluded. 

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Peri  himself  tells  us,  in  his  preface,  that  a 
portion  of  this  interesting  work  was  written  by 
Caccini,  though  his  own  name  alone  appears 
upon  the  title-page :  but  Caccini  also  set  the 
entire  Libretto  to  Music,  on  his  own  account, 
and  published  it  in  Florence  in  the  same  year 
(1600),  with  a  dedication  to  Giovanni  Bardi. 
The  style  of  the  two  Operas  is  so  nearly  identical, 
that  whole  Scenes  might  easily  be  transferred 
from  one  to  the  other,  without  attracting  notice ; 
though  it  cannot  be  denied  that  there  are  situ- 
ations, such  as  that  in  which  Orpheus  returns 
with  Euridice  from  Hades,  wherein  Peri  has 
reached  a  higher  level  of  dramatic  expression 
than  his  rival.  It  is,  perhaps,  for  this  reason, 
that  Caccini's  'Euridice'  seems  never  to  have 
been  honoured  with  a  public  performance :  the 
young  Composer  was,  however,  commissioned  to 
produce,  for  the  wedding  festivities,  another 
Favola  in  musica,  entitled  'II  Rapimento  di 
Cefalo,'  Borne  portion  of  which  afterwards  ap- 
peared among  the  '  Nuove  musiche.' 

The  study  of  these  early  attempts  becomes 
especially  interesting,  when  we  regard  them  as 
the  fairest  possible  types  of  the  style  of  com- 
position which  characterised  the  Fibst  Period 
of  the  history  of  the  modern  Lyric  Drama. 

The  immediate  result  of  their  success  was 
the  recognition  of  the  Opera  as  a  form  of  Art 
no  longer  tentative,  but  fairly  established  upon 
true  aesthetic  principles,  embarrassed  by  no  grave 
practical  difficulties,  and  perfectly  consistent,  in 
all  its  details,  with  the  received  traditions  of 
Classical  Antiquity — which  last  recommendation 
was  no  light  one,  in  the  estimation  of  men  whose 
reverence  for  Greek  and  Roman  customs  amounted 
to  a  species  of  insanity.  It  was  impossible  that 
Florence  could  be  permitted  to  monopolise  an 
invention  conceived  in  such  complete  accordance 
with  the  spirit  of  the  age — the  latest  product 
of  the  Renaissance.  Accordingly  we  find  the 
scene  of  its  triumphs  transferred  before  long  to 
Mantua,  in  which  city  the  Second  Period  of 
its  history  was  inaugurated  with  extraordinary 
splendour  in  the  year  1607,  on  the  occasion  of 
the  marriage  of  Francesco  Gonzaga  with  Mar- 
gherita,  Infanta  of  Savoy.  At  the  invitation  of 
Vincenzo  Gonzaga,  the  reigning  Duke,  Rinuc- 
cini  prepared  for  this  Festival  the  Libretti  of  two 
Operas,  entitled  'Dafne'  and  *  Arianna,'  the  first 
of  which  was  set  to  Music  by  Marco  di  Zanobi 
da  Gagliano,  and  the  second  by  Claudio  Monte- 
verde, the  Duke's  Maestro  di  Cappeila — a  man 


OPERA. 

of  extraordinary  genius,  already  famous  for  the 
boldness  of  his  opposition  to  the  established  rules 
of  Counterpoint.  Both  Operas  were  written  in 
the  newly  invented  Stilo  rappresentativo ;  and 
both  were  deservedly  successful,  though  not  in 
an  equal  degree.  After  the  first  performance  of 
'Dafne'  we  hear  of  it  no  more;  but  'Arianna* 
produced  so  extraordinary  an  effect  upon  the 
audience,  more  especially  in  the  Scene  in  which 
the  forsaken  Ariadne  bewails  the  departure  of 
her  faithless  lover, l  that  Monteverde  was  at 
once  invited  to  compose  another  Opera,  for  the 
ensuing  year.  For  the  subject  of  this  he  chose 
the  never-wearying  story  of  Orpheus  and  Eury- 
dice,  which  was  dramatised  for  him  by  some 
Poet  whose  name  has  not  transpired.  The  new 
work — entitled  'Orfeo,'  to  distinguish  it  from 
Peri's  illustration  of  the  same  myth — was,  in 
many  respects,  immeasurably  superior  to  any 
that  had  preceded  it.  Though  Monteverde  did 
not  actually  invent  the  Opera,  he  proved  himself 
more  competent  to  deal  with  it  than  any  man 
then  living.  Dramatic  expression  was  one  of 
the  most  prominent  characteristics  of  his  genius. 
Moreover,  he  was  an  accomplished  Violist : 
and,  while  his  natural  love  for  Instrumental 
Music  tempted  him  to  write  for  a  far  larger 
Orchestra  than  any  of  his  predecessors  had  ven- 
tured to  bring  together,  his  technical  skill  en- 
abled him  to  turn  its  resources  to  excellent 
account.  The  Instruments  used  on  the  occasion 
of  the  first  performance  were — 


2  Gravicembani. 

2  Contrabassi  de  Viola. 

10  Viole  da  brazzo. 

1  Arpa  doppia. 

2  Violini  piccoli  alia  Fran- 

2  Chitaroni. 

2  Organi  di  legno. 


3  Bassi  da  gamba. 

4  Trombom. 

1  Regale. 

2  Cornetti. 

1   JTlautino   alia  vigesima 

seconda. 
1  Clarino,   con   3  Trombe 

sordine. 


Hawkins,  strangely  misinterpreting  the  lists 
of  Characters  and  Instruments   given   at  the 
beginning  of  the  printed  Score,  imagines  every 
Singer  to  have  been  accompanied  by  an  Instru 
ment  of  some  particular  kind  set  apart  for  hi: 
exclusive  use.    A  very  slight  examination  of  the 
Music  will  suffice  to  expose  the  fallacy  of  thii 
idea.     Nevertheless,  the  Instruments  are  reallj 
so  contrasted  and  combined  as  to  invest  each 
Character  and   Scene  with  a  marked  individu 
ality  which  cannot  but  have  added  greatly  to  the 
interest  of  the  performance.     The  introductor 
Toccata — founded,    throughout,   upon    a    single 
Chord — is  followed  by  a  Ritornello,  so  gracefully 
conceived,  that,  had  it  been  written  even  in  01; 
own  time,  its  simple  beauty  could  scarcely  have 
failed  to  please.2     Another  Ritornello,  in  five 
parts,  is  written  in  close  imitation,  almost 
sembling  Canon.      The  Recitatives  are  accor 
panied,  sometimes,  by  a  Figured  Bass  only  ;  and 
sometimes   by  two   or  more  Instruments,   the 

1  This  Scene— Laseiatani  morire— generally  known  as  the  '  Lame 
of  Ariadne,'— Is  almost  the  only  portion  of  the  Opera  that  has  be< 
preserved  to  us.     It  may  be  found  entire  In  0.  von  Winterfeld'i 
'Joannes  Gabrieli,'  and  also  In  a  Memoir  of  Monteverde  published  i 
the '  Musical  Times'  for  March  1880. 

2  The  Toccata  and  Ritornello  will  be  found  entire  In  an  Essay  ' 
the  Life,  Work,  and  Influence,  of  Monteverde,'  printed  In  the  '  Music 
Times '  for  April  1880. 


OPERA. 

names  of  which  are  indicated  at  the  beginning. 
A  complete  Score  of  the  Opera  was  published 
at  Venice  in  1609,  and  reprinted  in  161 3.  A 
copy  of  the  second  edition,  now  preserved  in  the 
Royal  Library  at  Buckingham  Palace,  was  for- 
merly in  the  possession  of  Sir  John  Hawkins,  who 
quoted  from  it  largely,  in  vol.  iii.  of  his  'History 
of  Music'  As  specimens  of  the  general  style 
of  the  work,  we  subjoin  a  few  bars  of  Recitative 
from  a  Scene  in  the  First  Act,  and  the  'Moresca' 
or  '  Moorish  Dance '  with  which  the  Opera  con- 
cludes— a  movement  full  of  interest,  as  an  indi- 
cation of  the  Composer's  desire  to  unite  a  grace- 
ful flow  of  melody  with  a  symmetrical  and  well 
constructed  Form.     [See  Fobm.] 


OPERA. 


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The  expense  attendant  upon  the  production  of 
these  early  Operas  must  have  been  enormous. 
The  gorgeous  dresses,  and  other  incidental  appoint- 
ments, occasionally  mentioned  by  writers  of  the 
period,  sufficiently  explain  why  the  Dramma  in 
Musiea  was  reserved  exclusively  for  the  enter- 
tainment of  Princes,  on  occasions  of  extraordinary 
public  rejoicing.  No  such  occasions  appear  to 
have  presented  themselves  for  some  considerable 
time  after  the  marriage  of  Franceso  Gonzaga. 
Accordingly  we  find,  that,  after  following  up 
'Orfeo'  with  a  grand  Mythological  Spectacle  called 
'II  Ballo  delle  Ingrate,'  Monteverde  produced 
no  more  dramatic  works  till  the  year  1624,  when, 
having  settled  permanently  in  Venice,  he  wrote, 
at  the  instance  of  Girolamo  Mocenigo,  an  Inter- 
mezzo, '  II  Combattimento  di  Tancredi  e  Clorin- 
da,'  in  which  he  introduced,  for  the  first  time, 
two  important  Orchestral  Effects,  which  have 
remained  in  common  use  to  the  present  day — 
pizzicato  passages  for  the  Stringed  Instruments, 
and  the  well-known  tremolo.  [See  Monteverde.] 
In  1630  he  again  took  higher  ground,  and  com- 
posed, for  the  marriage  of  Giustiniana  Mocenigo 
with  Lorenzo  Giustiniani,  a  grand  Opera  called 
'  Proserpina  Rapita,'  which  was  brought  out  with 
extraordinary  magnificence,  and  seems  to  have 
been  very  successful.  The  Music,  however,  was 
soon  destined  to  be  forgotten ;  for  this  was  the 
year  rendered  memorable  by  the  terrible  plague, 
which,  completely  devastating  the  larger  Italian 
Cities,  rendered  all  intellectual  advancement  for 
the  time  being  impossible.  As  we  shall  presently 
see,  when  it  had  had  time  to  recover  from  this 


502 


OPERA. 


OPERA. 


serious  hindrance,  Art  flourished  more  brilliantly 
than  ever ;  but,  before  proceeding  with  the  history 
of  its  triumphs  in  Venice,  it  is  necessary  that  we 
should  glance,  for  a  moment,  at  its  position  in 
some  other  parts  of  Italy. 

Pietro  della  Valle,  writing  in  1640,  tells  us 
that,  like  Tragedy  at  Athens  under  the  guidance 
of  Thespis,  the  Lyric  Drama  made  its  first  ap- 
pearance in  Rome  upon  a  Cart.  During  the 
Carnival  of  1606,  this  ambulant  Theatre  was 
driven  from  street  to  street,  surmounted  by  a 
moveable  Stage,  whereon  five  masked  performers 
enacted  a  little  Play,  set  to  Music  for  them  by 
Paolo  Quagliati.  The  idea  seems  to  have  origin- 
ated with  Della  Valle  himself.  He  it  was  who 
arranged  the  performances,  and  induced  Quag- 
liati to  write  the  Music :  and  so  great  was  the 
success  of  the  experiment,  that  from  four  o'clock 
in  the  afternoon  until  after  midnight,  the  little 
band  of  Strollers  found  themselves  surrounded  by 
a  never-failing  concourse  of  admiring  spectators. 
Rough  indeed  must  these  primitive  performances 
have  been  when  compared  with  the  entertain- 
ments presented  to  the  Florentines  by  Peri  and 
Caccini ;  yet  it  is  strange,  that,  notwithstanding 
their  favourable  reception,  we  hear  of  no  attempts 
either  to  repeat  them  or  to  encourage  the  intro- 
duction of  anything  better,  until  the  year  1632, 
when  a  Musical  Drama  called  'II  Ritorno  di 
Angelica  nell'  Indie,'  by  a  Composer  whose  name 
is  not  recorded,  appears  to  have  been  privately 
performed  in  the  palace  of  one  of  the  Roman 
nobles.  Representations  of  this  kind  were  after- 
wards not  uncommon;  but  many  years  elapsed 
before  any  really  great  Opera  was  produced  in 
the  Eternal  City. 

The  Bolognese  claim  to  have  encouraged  the 
Opera  in  very  early  times,  and  even  to  have 
invented  it ;  but  they  are  far  from  being  able 
to  prove  their  case.  A  Chronological  Catalogue, 
published  at  Bologna  in  1737,  gives  a  list  of  all 
the  Musical  Dramas  performed  in  the  city  from 
the  year  1600  down  to  that  in  which  it  was 
printed.  The  names  of  the  Poets  who  furnished 
the  Libretti  are  here  very  carefully  recorded, 
from  the  earliest  times ;  but  no  native  Composer 
is  mentioned  until  the  year  16 10,  when  Giro- 
lamo  Giacobbi  brought  forward  his  '  Andromeda,' 
which  produced  so  great  an  impression  that  it 
was  again  revived  in  1628.  The  works  of  the 
Florentine  and  Venetian  Composers  seem  how- 
ever to  have  met  with  a  more  favourable  re- 
ception at  Bologna  than  the  products  of  native 
genius.  Peri's  'Euridice'  was  performed  there 
in  1 60 1,  and  again  in  1616,  on  which  occasion 
it  attracted  a  vast  and  most  enthusiastic  audience ; 
and  for  very  many  years  afterwards  the  Bolog- 
nese were  quite  contented  with  the  importation 
of  successful  Operas  from  Venice. 

The  early  records  of  the  Neapolitan  Drama 
are  lamentably  imperfect.  We  hear  of  no  Opera 
produced  in  Naples,  until  1 646,  when  mention  is 
made  of  a  Pasticcio  called  '  Amor  non  a  legge,' 
by  several  different  Composers,  none  of  whose 
names  have  transpired.  It  seems  however  more 
reasonable  to  believe  that  our  information  is  at 


fault,  than  that  a  School  which  afterwards  be 
came  so  deservedly  famous,  should  have  been 
first  called  into  existence  at  so  late  a  period. 
Still,  we  cannot  fail  to  observe,  that,  notwith- 
standing the  enthusiastic  cultivation  of  Dramatic 
Music,  the  centres  of  its  development  were,  at 
this  period,  very  far  from  numerous.  The  more 
luxuriantly  it  flourished  in  any  highly  privileged 
city,  the  less  we  hear  of  it  elsewhere. 

The  Third  Period  in  the  history  of  the  Lyric 
Drama  was  preluded  by  the  bold  transfer  of  its 
patronage  from  the  Prince  to  the  people.  In  the 
year  1637  the  famous  Theorbo  player,  Benedetto 
Ferrari,  and  Francesco  Manelli  da  Tivoli,  the 
Composer,  opened  at  their  own  private  risk  the 
first  public  Opera  House  in  Venice,  under  the 
name  of  the  Teatro  di  San  Cassiano.  For  this 
new  Theatre,  Ferrari  wrote  the  words,  and  Man- 
elli the  Music,  of  an  Opera  called  '  Andromeda,* 
which  was  so  well  received,  that  in  the  following 
year  the  same  two  authors  brought  out  a  second 
work,  'La  Maga  fulminata' ;  while  in  1639 
the  text  of  Giulio  Strozzi's  '  La  Delia,  ossia  la 
Sposa  del  Sole'  was  set  to  Music,  either  by  Man- 
elli or  Paolo  Sacrati — it  is  difficult  to  say  which, 
and  Ferrari  produced  'L'Armida'  to  poetry  of  his 
own.  This  was  an  eventful  season.  Before  its 
close,  Monteverde  once  more  appeared  before  the 
public  with  a  new  Opera  called  '  L'Adone,'  which 
ran  continuously  till  the  Carnival  of  1640;  and 
his  pupil,  Pier-Francesco  Caletti-Bruni,  nick- 
named by  the  Venetians  'H  Checco  Ca-Cavalli,'  * 
made  his  first  appearance  as  a  Dramatic  Com- 
poser with  '  Le  Nozze  di  Peleo  e  di  Tetide ' — a 
work  which  proved  him  to  be  not  only  the  faith- 
ful disciple  of  an  eminent  Maestro,  but  a  true 
genius,  with  originality  enough  to  enable  him  to 
carry  on  that  Maestro's  work  in  a  spirit  free  from 
all  trace  of  servile  imitation.  His  natural  taste 
suggested  the  cultivation  of  a  more  flowing  style 
of  Melody  than  that  in  which  his  contemporaries 
were  wont  to  indulge ;  and  he  was  not  so  bigoted 
a  disciple  of  the  Renaissance  as  to  think  it  ne- 
cessary to  sacrifice  that  taste  to  the  insane  Hel- 
lenic prejudice  which  would  have  banish 
Rhythmic  Melody  from  the  Opera  for  no  bet 
reason  than  that  it  was  unknown  in  the  tiin 
of  Pericles.  Vincenzo  Galilei  and  his  Florentine 
associates  condemned  such  Melody  as  puerile 
and  degraded  to  the  last  degree.  Monteverde 
never  ventured  to  introduce  it,  save  in  his  Ritor- 
nelli.  But  Cavalli — as  he  is  now  generally  called 
— not  only  employed  it  constantly,  for  the  sake 
of  relieving  the  monotony  of  continuous  Recita- 
tive, but  even  foreshadowed  the  form  of  the- 
regular  Aria,  by  that  return  to  the  first  part 
which  Alessandro  Scarlatti  afterwards  indicated 
by  the  term  Da  Capo.  Cavalli's  genius  was  as  pro- 
lific as  it  was  original.  The  author  of '  Le  Gloria 
della  Poesia  e  della  Musica '  (Venice,  1 730)  gives 
the  names  of  34  Operas  which  he  produced,  for 
Venice  alone,  between  the  years  1637  and  1665. 
Fetis  mentions  39,  but  Quadrio  assures  us  that 
he  wrote,  altogether,  more  than  40;  Burney 
laments  that  after  diligent  search  he  could 
I  That  is. '  Little  Frank,  of  the  House  of  Cavalli." 


I 


OPERA. 

meet  with  the  Music  of  only  one,  'L'Erismena,' 
produced  in  1655  :  but,  complete  copies  of  20, 
including  two  undoubted  autographs,  may  be 
found  in  the  Contarini  collection  in  the  Library 
of  S.  Mark  at  Venice;  and  the  autograph  of 
'  L'Egisto '  is  preserved  in  the  Imperial  Library 
at  Vienna.  Some  interesting  examples  from 
'L'Erismena'  will  be  found  in  vol.  iv.  of  Burney's 
History;  and  a  comparison  of  these  with  the 
subjoined  extract  from  an  Air  in  'II  Giasone' 
(1649),  ^rith  Accompaniments  for  two  Violins 
and  a  Bass,  will  shew  that  the  Composer's  feeling 
for  Melody  was  by  no  means  exhibited  in  one 
production  only. 


OPERA. 


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Cavalli's  predilection  for  Rhythmic  Melody 
was  fully  shared  by  his  talented  contemporary, 
Marc  Antonio  Cesti — a  pupil  of  the  celebrated 
Roman  Maestro,  Giacomo  Carissimi,  to  whose 
example,  though  he  himself  did  not  care  to  write 
for  the  Stage,  the  Dramatic  Composers  of  the 
day  were  indebted  for  a.  higher  ideal  than  they 
could  possibly  have  conceived  without  his  assist- 
ance. Honest  work  in  one  branch  of  Art  seldom 
fails  to  react  favourably  upon  another :  and  it 
is  certain,  that,  by  transferring  to  the  Opera  the 
methods  of  phrasing  and  instrumentation  em- 
ployed by  Carissimi  in  the  Cantata  di  Camera,  Cesti 
not  only  elevated  the  former  to  a  more  dignified 
level  than  it  had  ever  before  attained,  but  at  the 
same  time  laid  the  foundation  of  his  own  trium- 
phant success.  His  earliest  attempt, '  L'Orontea 
— first  performed  at  Venice  in  1649,  a*  tne 
Teatro  dei  SS.  Apostoli,  in  the  teeth  of  Cavalli's 
•  Giasone '  at  the  rival  House  of  S.  Cassiano — 
retained  its  popularity,  throughout  the  whole  of 
Italy,  for  more  than  30  years.  Of  his  later 
Operas,  six — 'Cesare  amante,'  'La  Dori,  o  lo 
schiavo  regio,'  'Tito,' '  Argene,' '  Genserico,'  and 
'Argia' — were  written  for  Venice,  and  two — 
'La  Schiava  fortunata'  and  'II  Pomo  d'oro' — 
for  Vienna.  Many  of  these  are,  it  is  to  be  feared, 
irretrievably  lost ;  but  we  still  possess  enough  to 
give  us  a  very  clear  idea  of  the  Composer's  general 
style.  Some  fragments  from  'L'Orontea,'  dis- 
covered in  a  MS.  Music-book  once  belonging  to 
Salvator  Rosa,  will  be  found  in  vol.  iv.  of  Bur- 
ney's History ;  and  a  complete  Score  of '  II  Pomo 
d'oro'  is  preserved  at  Vienna,  in  the  Imperial 
Library.  A  Score  of '  La  Dori '  is  also  mentioned 
in  the  catalogue  of  the  collection  formed  by  the 
late  Abbe"  Santini :  and  the  Library  of  Christ- 
church,  Oxford,  boasts  1 5  of  Cesti's  Cantatas,  which 
differ  but  little  in  style  from  his  Music  written 
for  the  Theatre. 

The  honours  of  the  Venetian  School  were  up- 
held, about  this  time,  by  a  crowd  of  popular 
Composers,  the  most  successful  of  whom  were 
Carlo  Pallavicino,  D.  Giov.  Legrenzi,  Antonio 
Sartorio,  Pietro  and  Marc  Antonio  Ziani,  Castro- 
villari,  Strozzi,  and  some  other  aspirants  for 
public  fame,  who  found  ample  employment  in 
the  numerous  Opera  Houses  which  before  the 
close  of  the  century  sprang  up  in  every  quarter 
of  the  City.  We  have  already  had  occasion  to 
mention  the  inauguration  of  the  Teatro  di  S. 
Cassiano  in  1637.  It  was  not  long  suffered  to 
stand  alone.  The  Teatro  di  SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo 
was  opened  in  1639  with  'La  Delia,  ossia  la 
Sposa  del  Sole ';  the  Teatro  di  S.  Mose  in  164 1 
with  a  revival  of  Monteverde's  'Arianna';  the 
Teatro  nuovo,  in  the  same  year,  with  Strozzi's 
'La  finta  pazza';  the  Teatro  dei  SS.  Apostoli 
in  1649  with  'L'Orontea,'  as  already  described; 
the  Teatro  di  S.  Aponal  in  1651  with  Cavalli's 
'L'Oristeo';  the  Teatro  di  S.  Luca,  o  di  San 
Salvatore,  in  1661,  with  Castrovillari's  'La 
Pasife ' ;  the  Teatro  di  S.  Gregorio  in  1 670  with 
a  Pasticcio  entitled  '  Adelaida';  the  Teatro  di 
S.  Angelo  in  1677  with  Freschi's  'Elena  rapita 
da  Paride';  the  Teatro  di  S.  Giovanni  Griso- 


504 


OPERA. 


stomo  in  1678  with  Pallavicini's  '  Vespasiano' ; 
and  the  Teatro  di  S.  Fantin  in  1699  with 
Pignotta's  '  Paolo  Emilio.'  The  mere  existence 
of  these  eleven  Theatres  proves,  more  clearly 
than  any  amount  of  written  description,  the 
readiness  with  which  the  Venetians  received  the 
Opera  as  one  of  their  most  cherished  amusements. 
They  had  already  learned  to  look  upon  it  as  quite 
a  national  institution ;  and  supported  it  with  a 
liberality  altogether  unknown  elsewhere.  In 
Rome,  for  instance,  there  were,  at  this  time, 
three  Opera  Houses  only — the  Torre  di  Nona, 
opened  in  1671  with  Cavalli's  'Giasone';  the 
Sala  de'  Signori  Capranica,  for  the  inauguration 
of  which  Bernardo  Pasquini  composed  his  •  Dov' 
e  Amore  e  Pieta  'in  1679 ;  and  a  Theatre  in  the 
Palazzo  Aliberti,  which  started  with  Perti's 
'  Penelope  la  casta '  in  1696.  No  public  Theatre 
was  established  in  Bologna  till  1680. 

The  Fourth  Period  of  our  history  was  a 
very  significant  one,  and  productive  of  results  so 
important,  that  it  may  be  said  to  mark  the 
boundary  between  a  class  of  works  interesting 
chiefly  from  an  antiquarian  point  of  view,  and 
those  grander  productions  the  intrinsic  value  of 
which  entitles  them  to  be  remembered  through- 
out all  time. 

The  earlier  Dramatic  Composers,  from  Peri 
downwards,  held  the  Art  of  Counterpoint  in 
undisguised  contempt,  and  trusted  for  success 
entirely  to  the  brilliancy  of  their  natural  talents. 
Alessandro  Scarlatti,  beyond  all  comparison  the 
brightest  genius  of  the  epoch  we  are  considering, 
had  wisdom  enough  to  perceive  that  natural  gifts 
lose  more  than  half  their  force,  when  unculti- 
vated by  study.  Acting  upon  this  conviction, 
he  never  ceased  to  labour  at  the  Science  of  Com- 
position, until  he  found  himself  universally  recog- 
nised as  the  most  learned  Musician  of  his  day  ; 
and  thus  it  was  that  he  took  even  the  best  of  his 
contemporaries  at  an  incalculable  disadvantage. 
His  knowledge  of  Counterpoint  so  far  aided  him 
in  the  construction  of  his  Basses  and  the  elabora- 
tion of  his  Accompaniments,  that,  under  his 
masterly  treatment,  the  timidity,  which,  in  the 
infancy  of  Modern  Art,  so  fatally  weakened  its 
effect,  and  rendered  it  so  miserable  a  substitute 
for  the  richer  combinations  of  Polyphony,  was 
exchanged  for  a  freedom  of  style  and  breadth  of 
design  which  at  once  elevated  it  to  the  rank  of  a 
finished  School,  capable  indeed  of  future  develop- 
ment to  an  unlimited  extent,  but  no  longer  either 
tentative  in  conception  or  rudimentary  in  struc- 
ture. On  the  other  hand,  his  splendid  natural 
talents  did  him  good  service  in  quite  another 
way.  Tired  of  the  monotony  of  uninterrupted 
Recitative,  he  boldly  started  on  a  new  path,  and, 
rejecting  the  experience  of  his  immediate  prede- 
cessors as  altogether  effete,  availed  himself  of 
three  distinct  forms  of  dramatic  expression — 
the  simple  form  of  Recitative,  called  by  the 
Italians  Recitativo  secco ;  Accompanied  Recita- 
tive, or  Recitativo  stromentato ;  and  the  regular 
Aria.  The  first  of  these  he  employed  for  the 
ordinary  business  of  the  Stage;  the  second,  for 
the  expression  of  deep  pathos,  or  violent  emotion, 


OPERA. 

of  any  kind ;  the  third,  for  impassioned,  or  at 
least  strongly  individualised  soliloquy.  As  these 
three  methods  of  enunciation  are  still  used,  for 
exactly  similar  purposes,  we  shall  frequently  have 
occasion  to  refer  to  them  hereafter.  For  the 
present,  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  no  radical 
change  has  ever  taken  place  in  the  structure  of 
Recitativo  secco  since  it  was  first  invented.  Then, 
as  now,  it  was  supported  by  a  simple  *  Thorough- 
bass,'the  Chords  of  which  were  filled  in,  in  former 
times,  upon  the  Harpsichord,  but  are  now  more 
frequently  played  by  the  principal  Violoncello, 
in  light  Arpeggios,  to  which  the  late  Robert 
Lindley  was  wont  to  impart  a  charm  which  no 
old  frequenter  of  Her  Majesty's  Theatre  will  ever 
forget.  Accompanied  Recitative,  on  the  con- 
trary, unknown,  so  far  as  we  can  discover,  before 
the  time  of  Scarlatti,  has  since  passed  through 
an  infinity  of  changes,  naturally  dictated  by  the 
gradual  enlargement  of  the  Orchestra,  and  the 
increased  strength  of  its  resources.  But,  it  is 
still  what  its  inventor  intended  it  to  be  —  a 
passionate  form  of  declamation,  in  which  the  sense 
of  the  verbal  text  is  enforced  by  the  continual 
interposition  of  Orchestral  Symphonies  of  more 
or  less  elaborate  construction.  Lastly,  the  sym- 
metrical form  of  the  Aria  had  only  been  very 
imperfectly  suggested,  before  Scarlatti  completed 
it  by  the  addition  of  a  '  Second  Part,'  followed 
by  that  repetition  of  the  original  Strain  now 
known  as  the  Da  Capo.  Within  the  last  hun- 
dred years  this  Da  Capo  has  been  discontinued, 
from  a  not  unnatural  objection  to  the  stiffness  of 
its  effect ;  but  that  very  stiffness  was,  in  the 
first  instance,  a  notable  sign  of  life.  We  cannot 
but  welcome  it  as  the  healthy  indication  of  a 
desire  to  escape  from  the  dreariness  of  the  inter- 
minable Monologue  which  preceded  it ;  and, 
however  formal  we  may  now  think  it,  we  owe 
something  to  the  Composer  who  first  made  it  a 
distinctive  feature  in  the  Dramatic  Music  he  did 
so  much  to  perfect,  and  whose  love  of  regular 
design  led  him  to  introduce  improvements  of 
equal  value  into  the  form  of  the  Instrumental 
Prelude  which  was  afterwards  recognised  as  the 
indispensable  Overture. 

Scarlatti's  first  Opera,  'L'Onesta  nell'  Amore,' 
produced  at  Rome  in  the  Palace  of  Christina,  ex- 
Queen  of  Sweden,  in  1680,  was  followed  by«o8 
others,  written  from  Rome,  Vienna,  Venice,  and 
more  especially  Naples,  which  justly  claims  him 
as  the  founder  of  its  admirable  School.  The  most 
successful  of  them  seem  to  have  been,  ■  Pompeo' 
(Naples,  1684);  *La  Teodora'  (Rome,  1693); 
•Pirro  e  Demetrio,'  'II  Prigioniero  'fortunate,' 
'H  Prigioniero  Buperbo',  •  Gli  Equivochi  nel 
sembiante,'  '  Le  Nozze  col  nemico,'  '  Laodicea 
Berenice,'  'II  Figlio  delle  Selve  '  (Naples,  1694- 
1703);  'H  Medo'  and  'II  Teodoro'  (Rome, 
17°3-17°9)  I  'II  Trionfo  della  Liberta'  and 
'  Mitridate'  (Venice,  1707) ;  and  the  most  cele- 
brated of  all,  '  La  Principessa  fedele.'  To  these 
must  be  added  an  enormous  collection  of  Can- 
tatas, of  more  or  less  dramatic  character,  MS. 

1  A  MS.  Score  of  this  Opera  will  be  found  In  the  Dragonetti  collection 
in  the  British  Museum. 


OPERA. 

copies  of  which  are  preserved  in  most  of  the 
larger  European  Libraries,  both  public  and 
private,  though  very  few  were  ever  published — 
a  circumstance  the  more  to  be  regretted,  since 
the  freshness  of  their  Melodies  rarely  fails  to 
attract  attention,  even  at  the  present  day.  It 
would  be  difficult,  for  instance,  to  find,  in  a  com- 
position of  any  date,  a  more  delicious  phrase  than 
the  following : — 

2i 


OPERA. 


505 


The  most  talented  of  Scarlatti's  contemporaries 
were,  among  Neapolitans,  Alessandro  Stradella 
and  Francesco  Rossi;  in  Venice,  Antonio  Caldara 
and  Antonio  Lotti ;  in  Bologna,  Antonio  Perti, 
Francesco  Pistocchi.and  Giovanni  Maria  Buonon- 
cini ;  and,  in  "Vicenza,  Domenico  Freschi.  But 
for  his  untimely  death,  Stradella's  genius  would 
nndoubtedly  have  entitled  him  to  take  rank  as 
the  founder  of  an  original  and  highly  charac- 
teristic School.  As  it  was,  he  lived  but  to  com- 
pose one  single  Opera,  'La  Forza  dell'  Amor 
paterno,'  the  Libretto  of  which  was  printed  at 
Genoa  in  1678.  Rossi,  though  born  in  Naples, 
wrote  chiefly  for  Venice,  where  he  met  with 
very  great  success.  Lotti  produced  eighteen  suc- 
cessful Operas  in  that  city,  between  the  years 
1683  and  1 71 7;  and  one  in  Dresden.  Caldara 
enriched  the  Venetian  School  with  five,  besides 
writing  many  more  for  Vienna,  founded  for  the 
most  part  upon  the  Libretti  of  Apostolo  Zeno 
and  Metastasio.  The  greater  number  of  Freschi's 
works  were  also  written  for  Venice ;  but  his 
famous  '  Berenice '  was  first  performed  at  Padua, 
in  1680,  the  year  in  which  Scarlatti  made  his 
first  appearance  in  Rome,  with  a  raise  en  scene 
which  exceeded  in  magnificence  anything  that 
had  ever  been  previously  attempted.  Among  the 
attractions  mentioned  in  the  printed  book  of  the 
Opera,  we  find  Choruses  of  100  Virgins,  100 
Soldiers,   and  100  Horsemen   in  iron  armour ; 


besides  40  Cornets,  on  horseback ;  6  mounted 
Trumpeters ;  6  Drummers ;  6  Ensigns  ;  6  Sack- 
buta  ;  6  Flutes  ;  1 2  Minstrels,  playing  on  Turkish 
and  other  Instruments  ;  6  Pages  ;  3  Sergeants ; 
6  Cymbaleers ;  1 2  Huntsmen  ;  1 2  Grooms  ;  1 2 
Charioteers;  2  Lions,  led  by  2  Turks;  2  led 
Elephants ;  Berenice's  Triumphal  Car,  drawn  by 
4  Horses ;  6  other  Cars,  drawn  by  1 2  Horses ; 
6  Chariots,  for  the  Procession;  a  Stable,  con- 
taining 100  living  Horses ;  a  Forest,  filled  with 
Wild-boar,  Deer,  and  Bears;  and  other  scenic 
splendours,  too  numerous  to  mention  in  detail,  but 
highly  significant,  as  indicative  of  a  condition 
of  the  Drama  in  which,  notwithstanding  an 
honest  desire  on  the  part  of  many  a  true  Artist 
to  attain  aesthetic  perfection,  the  taste  of  the 
general  public  was  as  yet  unable  to  soar  above  the 
vulgarities  of  a  frivolous  peep-show.  To  so  great 
an  extent  was  this  absurdity  carried,  that  Pis- 
tocchi's  'Leandro'  (1679")  an°l  'Girello'  (1682) 
were  performed  in  Venice  by  Puppets,  and 
Ziani's  *  Damira  placata '  by  mechanical  Figures, 
as  large  as  life,  while  the  real  Singers  officiated 
behind  the  scenes.  Concerning  the  influence  of 
such  vanities  upon  the  future  prospects  of  Art 
we  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  more  particularly 
hereafter. 

The  Fifth  Peeiod,  though  very  nearly  syn- 
chronous with  the  Fourth,1  differs  from  it  in  so 
many  essential  characteristics,  that  it  may  be  said 
to  possess,  not  merely  a  history,  but  an  Art-life 
peculiar  to  itself.  The  scene  of  its  development 
was  Paris,  to  which  city  its  leading  spirit,  Gio- 
vanni Battista  Lulli,  was  brought  from  Florence 
in  the  year  1646,  in  the  character  of  Page  to 
Mademoiselle  de  Montpensier,  Niece  of  Louis 
XIV.  For  the  personal  history  of  this  extra- 
ordinary genius  we  must  refer  our  readers  to  pp. 
172-174  of  the  present  volume ;  all  that  concerns 
us  here  is  his  influence  upon  the  Musical  Drama. 
Removed  from  Italy  at  the  age  of  13,  he  brought 
none  of  its  traditions  to  France,  and  was  thus 
left  to  form  a  School — for  he  did  nothing  less — 
by  the  aid  of  his  own  natural  talent  alone.  He 
has  not,  indeed,  escaped  the  charge  of  plagiarism ; 
and  it  is  well  known  that  he  profited  not  a  little 
by  the  study  of  such  works  of"  Cavalli  and  Cesti 
as  he  could  obtain  in  Paris  :  but  the  assertion 
that  he  imitated  the  forms  invented  by  the  great 
leaders  of  the  Venetian  School,  from  inability 
to  strike  out  new  ones  for  himself,  is  equally 
inconsistent  with  the  known  conditions  under 
which  his  Operas  were  produced,  and  the  internal 
evidence  afforded  by  a  careful  analysis  of  the 
works  themselves.  The  French  Grand  Opera 
was  no  importation  from  foreign  parts.  It  had  an 
independent  origin  of  its  own  ;  and  is  as  clearly 
traceable  to  the  Ballet,  as  its  Italian  sister  is  to 
Classical  Tragedy.     As  early  as  the  year  1581,  a 

1  Throughout  this  Article,  we  hare  used  the  word  Period  less  for 
the  purpose  of  expressing  a  definite  term  of  years,  than  for  that  of 
Indicating  a  definite  stage  of  artistic  development.  Benoe,  though 
our  '  Periods '  will  be  constantly  found  to  overlap  each  other  In  point 
of  time,  they  will  introduce  no  confusion  either  of  styles  or  nation- 
alities. Notwithstanding  certain  anomalies  Inseparable  from  this 
method  of  classification,  we  venture  to  offer  It  as  the  best  we  have 
been  able  to  devise,  after  long  and  careful  consideration  of  this  very 
difficult  subject. 


506 


OPERA. 


piece,  called  *  Le  Ballet  comique  de  la  Royne,' 
arranged  by  Baltazar  de  Beaujcyeaulx,  with 
Dance  Tunes,  Choruses,  Musical  Dialogues,  and 
Ritornelli,  composed  for  the  occasion  by  Beaulieu 
and  Salmon,  was  acted,  at  the  Chateau  de  Mou- 
tiers,  in  presence  of  Henri  III,  with  extraordinary 
splendour.  [Vol.  i.  p.  133  a.]  The  entire  work 
is,  fortunately,  still  in  existence ;  and  the  Music 
— of  which  an  example  will  be  found  under 
Orchestration — is  far  more  likely  to  have  sug- 
gested ideas  to  Lulli  than  the  productions  of  his 
own  oountrymen.  The  first  attempt  to  introduce 
Italian  Music  was  made  by  Rinuccini,  who 
visited  France  in  the  suite  of  Maria  de'  Medici 
in  1600  ;  but  it  does  not  seem  to  have  accorded 
with  the  national  taste.  During  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIII,  the  Ballet  was  more  warmly 
patronised  at  Court  than  any  other  kind  of 
musical  entertainment.  Cardinal  Mazarin  en- 
deavoured to  re -introduce  the  Italian  Opera, 
during  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV ;  but  its 
success  was  very  transient,  and  far  less  en- 
couraging than  that  of  the  early  attempts  at 
French  Opera.  The  first  of  these  was  '  Akebar, 
Roi  de  Mogol,'  written  and  composed  by  the 
Abbe"  Mailly,  and  performed  at  Carpentras  in 
1646,  in  the  presence  of  the  Papal  Legate, 
Cardinal  Bichi.  In  1659,  Perrin  wrote  a  Pas- 
toral, with  Music  by  Cambert,  which  was  first 
privately  performed  at  Issy,  and  afterwards,  in 
presence  of  the  King,  at  Vincennes.  Louis  was 
delighted  with  it;  and,  supported  by  his  approval, 
its  authors  produced  some  other  works,  of  which 
the  most  successful  was  '  Pomone,'  played  first  in 
1669  at  the  Hotel  de  Nevers,  and  in  1677  in  the 
Tennis  Court  at  the  Hotel  de  Gue'ne'gaud.  This 
was  the  first  French  Opera  ever  publicly  performed 
in  Paris.  Meanwhile,  Lulli  was  industriously 
engaged  in  the  composition  of  Ballets,  designed 
to  meet  the  taste  of  the  young  King,  who  was 
passionately  fond  of  dancing,  and  cared  little  for 
any  kind  of  Music  unsuited  to  his  favourite 
pastime.  But  in  March,  1672,  he  obtained,  by 
Royal  Patent,  the  entire  monopoly  of  the  '  Aca- 
demic de  Musique,'  and  then  it  was  that  he 
entered  upon  that  portion  of  his  career  which 
exercised  the  strongest  influence  upon  the  subse- 
quent progress  of  Dramatic  Music  in  France. 
Too  politic  to  imperil  his  position  at  Court  by 
the  introduction  of  unwelcome  novelties,  he  still 
made  Ballet  Music  his  cheval  de  bataille ;  and, 
bo  popular  were  his  Dance  Tunes  and  rhythmic 
Choruses,  that  the  occupants  of  the  Parterre  are 
said  to  have  been  constantly  tempted  to  join  in 
singing  them.  Moreover,  his  bold  and  highly 
cultivated  taste  for  Instrumental  Music  led  him 
to  mould  the  Overture  into  a  form  more  perfect 
than  any  with  which  it  had  been  previously  in- 
vested. [See  Overture.]  For  the  meagre  Pre- 
lude affected  by  his  Italian  contemporaries  he 
substituted  a  dignified  Largo,  followed  by  an 
Allegro,  in  the  Fugato  style,  with  a  well-marked 
Subject,  and  many  clever  points  of  imitation, 
broadly  conceived,  and  designed  rather  to  please 
by  their  natural  sequence  than  to  surprise  by  any 
extraordinary  display  of  ingenuity.     Sometimes 


OPERA. 

he  added  a  third  Movement,  in  the  form  of 
a  Minuet,  or  other  stately  Dance  Tune,  which 
never  failed  to  delight  the  hearer  :  and  so  suc- 
cessful was  the  general  effect  of  the  whole,  that 
no  long  time  elapsed  before  it  was  imitated  by 
every  Composer  in  Europe.  Had  Lulli  done 
nothing  for  Art  but  this,  posterity  would  still 
have  been  indebted  to  him  for  a  priceless  bequest : 
but  he  did  far  more.  Inspired  by  the  Verses  of 
Quinault,  who  wrote  20  pieces  for  him  between 
the  years  1672  and  1686,  he  had  genius  enough 
to  devise  a  style  of  Recitative  so  well  adapted  to 
the  spirit  of  the  best  French  Poetry,  that  the 
declamatory  portions  of  his  Operas  soon  became 
even  more  attractive  than  the  scenes  which  de- 
pended for  their  success  upon  mere  spectacular 
display.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  purpose,  he 
availed  himself  of  an  expedient  already  well- 
known  in  the  Venetian  School  —  the  constant 
alternation  of  Duple  and  Triple  Rhythm.  This 
he  used  to  an  excess,  which,  while  it  secured  the 
perfect  rhetorical  expression  of  the  text,  injured 
the  flow  of  his  Melody  very  seriously,  and  would 
be  a  fatal  bar  to  the  revival  of  his  Music  at  the 
present  day.  But,  it  helped  him  to  found  the 
great  French  School ;  and  France  will  ever  be 
grateful  to  him  for  doing  so.  A  comparison  of  the 
following  extract  from  'Atys*  (1676)  with  the 
Scene  from  Cavalli's  'Giasone'  given  at  page  503, 
will  clearly  exemplify  the  distinction  between  his 
style  and  that  of  the  Venetian  Composers  : — 


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Lulli  was  the  last  man  in  the  world  to  en- 
courage the  talent  of  a  possible  rival,  or  even  to 
allow  him  a  fair  hearing.  While  he  lived,  he 
reigned  supreme;  and  his  successors,  Colasse, 
Danchet,  Campra,  and  Destouches,  were  quite 
incompetent  to  carry  on  his  work.  But  though 
Art  languished  in  France,  good  service  was  done 
in  its  cause,  in  our  own  country,  by  a  contem- 
porary writer,  the  originality  of  whose  genius 
renders  it  necessary  that  we  should  treat  of  the 
epoch  in  which  he  flourished  as  a  Sixth  Period. 

With  the  sole  exception  of  Alessandro  Scarlatti, 


OPERA. 

no  dramatic  Composer  of  the  17  th  century  has 
left  behind  him  so  great  a  number  of  works,  the 
beauty  of  which  time  has  no  power  to  destroy,  as 
Henry  Purcell.  In  all  essential  points,  he  was 
immeasurably  in  advance  of  the  age  in  which  he 
lived.  His  Melodies  sound  as  fresh  to-day  as 
they  did  when  they  were  first  written ;  and  for 
the  best  of  all  possible  reasons.  Apart  from  their 
skilful  construction,  which  betrays  the  hand  of 
the  accomplished  Musician  in  every  bar,  they  are 
pervaded  throughout  by  a  spontaneity  of  thought 
which  can  never  grow  old.  Springing  directly  from 
the  depths  of  the  Composer's  heart,  they  never  fail 
to  find,  in  the  hearts  of  their  hearers,  a  response 
over  which  the  tyranny  of  fashion  can  exercise 
no  influence.  It  is  not  surprising  that  their 
author  should  have  created  his  own  model, 
instead  of  following  the  example  of  the  French 
or  Italian  Composers.  The  idea  of  English 
Opera  was  suggested  neither  by  the  Ballet  nor 
the  Tragedy.  It  was  the  legitimate  offspring  of 
the  Masque;  and  the  Masque,  in  England  at 
least,  was  very  far  from  presenting  the  charac- 
teristics of  a  true  Lyric  Drama.  Its  Music  was, 
at  first,  purely  incidental — as  much  so  as  that 
introduced  into  the  Plays  of  Shakespeare.  It  is 
true,  that  as  early  as  161 7  Nicolo  Laniere  set 
an  entire  Masque  of  Ben  Jonson's  to  Music,  in 
the  Stilo  recitativo,  and  may  therefore  justly  claim 
the  credit  of  having  composed  the  first  English 
Opera,  though  he  was  by  birth  an  Italian.  But 
the  practice  was  not  continued.  The  Music 
written  by  Henry  Lawes  for  Milton's  'Comus,'  in 
1634,  is  far  less  dramatic  than  Lock's  *  Macbeth' ; 
and  it  was  really  Purcell  who  first  transformed 
the  Masque  into  the  Opera;  or  rather,  anni- 
hilated the  one,  and  introduced  the  other  in  its 
place :  and  this  he  did  so  satisfactorily,  that, 
measuring  his  success  by  the  then  condition  of 
Art  in  France  and  Italy,  he  left  nothing  more  to 
be  desired.  His  Recitative,  no  less  rhetorically 
perfect  than  Lulli's,  was  infinitely  more  natural, 
and  frequently  impassioned  to  the  last  degree ; 
and  his  Airs,  despite  his  self-confessed  admiration 
for  the  Italian  style,  shew  little  trace  of  the  forms 
then  most  in  vogue,  but  breathing  rather  the 
spirit  of  unfettered  National  Melody,  stand  forth 
as  models  of  refinement  and  freedom.  PurcelTs 
dramatic  compositions  are  very  numerous,  and 
it  is  not  improbable  that  many  of  them  have  been 
lost.  The  names  have  been  preserved  of  '  Dido 
and  ^Eneas'  (1677),  'Abelazor'  (ib.),  'Timon  of 
Athens'  (1678),  'The  Virtuous  Wife'  (1680), 
'Theodosius'  (ib.),  'The  Indian  Queen,'  'Dio- 
clesian,  or  the  Prophetess'  (1690),  Dryden's 
'  Tempest '  (ib.), '  King  Arthur '  (1691),  'Amphi- 
trion'  (ib.),  'The  Gordian  Knot  untied'  (ib.), 
'Distressed  Innocence'  (ib.),  'The  Fairy  Queen' 
(1693), '  The  Old  Bachelor '  ( 1 693),  'The  Married 
Beau '  (1694),  'The  Double  Dealer '  (ib.),  '  Don 
Quixote*  (ib.),  and  'Bonduca'  (1695).  Of  these, 
some  were  complete  Operas ;  some,  Plays  with 
Incidental  Music  ;  and  some,  dramatic  pieces  for 
which  he  wrote  only  the  Overtures  and  Act 
Tunes.  The  complete  Score  of '  Dioclesian '  was 
published  in  1691,  with  a  dedication  to  Charles 


OPERA. 


507 


Duke  of  Somerset.  A  splendid  edition  of '  King 
Arthur '  was  published  by  the  Musical  Antiqua- 
rian Society.  MS.  Scores  of  '  Dido  and  ^Eneas,' 
'  Bonduca,'  '  Timon  of  Athens,' '  Dioclesian,'  and 
'A  Second  Interlude,'  will  be  found  in  the 
Dragonetti  Collection,  in  the  British  Museum  ; 
and  a  large  selection  of  Songs  and  other  pieces 
from  the  entire  series  are  preserved  in  a  work 
called  'Orpheus  Britannicus,'  published  by  the 
Composer's  widow  in  1698,  and  now  becoming 
scarce.  It  would  be  difficult  to  point  to  a  finer 
example  of  his  style  than  the  following  enchant- 
ing Melody  from  '  King  Arthur ' : 


f 


3 


•  m  •  g  • 


•• 


Fairest  Isle,       all     isles 


ex  -  cell    -    lug. 


^F1  r  .ijrrg 


gft-He?-'  Jlfl^gl 


+=&=* 


Seat        of     pleasures        and  of      loves ; 


What  Lulli  did  for  France,  and  Purcell  for 
England,  Reinhard  Keiser,  the  leading  Composer 
of  our  Seventh  Pebiod,  did  for  Germany.  The 
Opera  was  first  imported  into  that  country  from 
Italy  in  1627,  when  Rinuccini's  '  Dafne,'  trans- 
lated into  German  by  Martin  Opitz,  and  set  to 
Music  by  Heinrich  Schiitz,  was  performed  at 
Torgau,  on  the  occasion  of  the  marriage  of 
George  II,  Landgraf  of  Hesse,  with  the  sister 
of  the  Elector  of  Saxony.  At  Regensburg,  the 
Musical  Drama  made  its  first  appearance  with 
Benedetto  Ferrari's  *  L'Inganno  d'Amore,'  in 
1653.  Antonio  Draghi's  'Alcindo,'  and  'Clo- 
ridia,'  were  produced  in  1 665  at  Vienna  ;  and 
Giulio  Riva's  'Adelaida  Regia  Principessa  di 
Susa,'  at  Munich.  But  all  these  last-named 
works  were  sung  in  Italian.  The  true  cradle  of 
the  German  Opera,  despite  its  transient  success 
at  Torgau,  was  Hamburg ;  in  which  city  Johann 
Theile  produced  his  *  Adam  und  Eva' — the  first 
'  Singspiel '  ever  publicly  performed  in  the  Ger- 
man language — in  1678.  This  was  followed,  in 
the  same  year,  by  'Orontes';  and  from  that 
time  forward  the  Hamburg  Theatre   retained 


508 


OPERA. 


the  first  place  among  the  public  Opera  Houses 
of  Germany  for  more  than  half  a  century.  Niko- 
laus  Strunck  wrote  6  operas  for  it,  between  the 
years  1678  and  1685.  Between  1679  and  1686, 
Johann  Franck  wrote  13.  Johann  Fortsch  wrote 
12,  between  1684  and  1690;  Johann  Conradi, 
8,  between  1691  and  1693 ;  johann  Cousser,  5, 
between  1693  and  1697 ;  and  Mattheson,  3, 
between  1699  and  1704:  but  between  1694 
and  1734,  Reiser  produced  quite  certainly  not 
less  than  116,  and  probably  many  more.  Handel 
also  brought  out  his  '  Almira'  and  'Nero'  there 
in  1 705,  and  his  *  Daphne '  and  '  Florinda  '  in 
1 706  ;  his  connection  with  Hamburg  was,  how- 
ever, of  no  long  duration,  and  it  was  to  Reiser's 
exertions  alone  that  the  Theatre  was  indebted 
for  its  world-wide  fame.  Keiser's  first  attempt 
— 'Basilius' — which  had  already  been  success- 
fully performed  at  Wolfenbiittel  in  1693,  was 
received  in  1694  with  the  utmost  possible  enthu- 
siasm ;  and,  after  that,  his  popularity  continued 
undiminished,  until,  40  years  later,  he  took  leave 
of  his  admiring  audience  with  his  last  pro- 
duction, 'Circe.'  The  number  of  his  published 
works  is,  for  some  unexplained  reason,  exceed- 
ingly small.  By  far  the  greater  portion  of  them 
was  long  supposed  to  be  hopelessly  lost,  in  the 
city  which  had  once  so  warmly  welcomed  their 
appearance  ;  but  in  18 10,  Pblchau  was  fortunate 
enough  to  discover  a  large  collection  of  the 
original  MSS.,  which  are  now  safely  stored  in 
Berlin.  Their  style  is  purely  German ;  less 
remarkable  for  its  rhetorical  perfection  than  that 
of  Lulli,  but  exhibiting  far  greater  variety  of 
expression,  and  a  more  earnest  endeavour  to 
attain  that  spirit  of  dramatic  truth  which  alone 
can  render  such  Music  worthy  of  its  intended 
purpose.  Their  author's  love  for  scenic  splendour 
did  indeed  sometimes  tempt  him  to  place  more 
reliance  upon  its  effect  than  was  consistent  with 
the  higher  aspirations  of  his  genius  ;  yet  he  was 
none  the  less  a  true  Artist ;  and,  though 
Schiitz  and  Theile  were  before  him  in  the  field, 
it  would  be  scarcely  just  to  deny  him  the  honour 
of  having  founded  that  great  German  School 
which  has  since  produced  the  finest  Dramatic 
Composers  the  world  has  ever  known. 

But  the  advance  we  have  recorded  was  not 
confined  to  one  School  only.  The  opening  decades 
of  the  1 8th  century  introduce  us  to  a  very 
important  crisis  in  the  annals  of  the  Lyric 
Drama,  in  most  of  the  principal  cities  of  Europe. 
So  steadily  had  it  continued  to  increase  in 
general  favour,  since  it  was  first  presented  to 
a  Florentine  audience  in  the  year  1600,  that, 
after  the  lapse  of  little  more  than  a  hundred 
years,  we  find  it  firmly  established,  in  Italy, 
France,  England,  and  Germany,  as  a  refined 
and  highly  popular  species  of  entertainment. 
Meanwhile,  its  progress  towards  artistic  per- 
fection had  been  so  far  unimpeded  by  any  serious 
difficulty,  that  a  marked  improvement  in  style 
is  perceptible  at  each  successive  stage  of  its 
career  ;  and  the  Eighth  Period  of  its  history, 
upon  which  we  are  now  about  to  enter,  is  preg- 
nant with  interest,  as  suggestive  of  a  far  higher 


OPERA. 

ideal  than  any  that  we  have  hitherto  had  occasion 
to  consider. 

Though  Handel,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
made  his  first  essay,  at  Hamburg,  in  German 
Opera,  his  natural  taste  sympathised  entirely 
with  the  traditions  of  the  Italian  School,  which 
had  already  been  ennobled  by  the  influence  of 
Carissimi,  Colonna,  and  other  great  writers  of 
Chamber  Music,  as  well  as  by  the  works  of 
Alessandro  Scarlatti,  and  the  best  Dramatic 
Composers  of  the  Fourth  Period.  Attracted  by 
the  fame  of  these  illustrious  Maestri,  he  studied 
their  works  with  all  possible  diligence  during 
his  sojourn  in  Italy ;  and  having  learned  from 
them  all  that  he  cared  to  know,  put  his  ex- 
perience to  the  test  by  producing  his  first  Italian 
Opera,  '  Roderigo,'  at  Florence,  in  1706,  and  his 
second,  'Agrippina,'  in  the  following  year,  at 
Venice,  besides^  composing,  at  Rome,  a  third 
Musical  Drama,  called  '  Silla,'  which,  though 
never  publicly  performed,  served  afterwards  as 
the  basis  of  *  Amadigi.'  Even  in  these  early 
works,  his  transcendant  genius  asserted  itself 
with  a  power  which  completely  overcame  the 
national  exclusiveness  of  the  Italians,  who  affec- 
tionately surnamed  him  'II  caro  Sassone':  but 
a  still  more  decided  triumph  awaited  him  in 
London,  where  he  brought  out  his  famous  '  Ri- 
naldo '  (composed  in  a  fortnight !)  at  the  Queen's 
Theatre  in  the  Haymarket,  on  February  24, 
1 71 1.  This  was,  beyond  all  comparison,  the 
finest  opera  that  had  ever  been  placed  upon  the 
Stage,  in  any  country  ;  and  its  success  was  both 
brilliant  and  lasting.  On  its  first  production, 
it  was  played  fifteen  times  in  succession.  It  had 
a  second  run,  of  nine  nights,  in  the  following 
year;  a  third  in  171 5  ;  a  fourth  in  171 7,  and 
another  as  late  as  1731.  Moreover,  it  was 
enthusiastically  received  in  1 715  at  Hamburg; 
and  equally  so,  three  years  afterwards,  at  Naples. 
For  this  long-continued  popularity  it  was  chiefly 
indebted  to  the  exceeding  beauty  of  its  Arias,  of 
which  it  contained  many,  such  as  '  Lascia  ch'io 
1  pianga,'  '  Cara  sposa,'  '  Vieni  o  cara,'  '  Figlia 
mia,' '  II  tricerbero  2umiliato,' and  others  equally 
fine,  concerning  which  it  may  be  safely  prophesied, 
that,  like  the  magnificent  March,  afterwards 
introduced  by  Dr.  Pepusch  into  the  '  Beggar's 
Opera,'8  (1727),  they  will  last  for  ever.  The 
original  decorations  were  very  splendid ;  and, 
if  the  testimony  of  an  avowed  enemy  may  be 
trusted,  not  altogether  conceived  in  irreproachable 
taste.  Though  it  is  pretty  well  understood  that 
we  owe  some  portion,  at  least,  of  the  pleasantries 
contained  in  No.  V.  of  the  '  Spectator,'  to  Addi- 
son's disgust  at  the  failure  of  his  own  so-called 
English  Opera,  '  Rosamond,'  the  remarks  there 
passed  upon  the  release  of  a  flight  of  living  birds 
during  the  Flute  Symphony4  of  *  Augelletti  che 

■  Originally  written,  in  the  form  of  an  instrumental  Sarabande,  for 
'Almira,'  at  Hamburg,  in  1705. 

a  Once  extremely  popular  as  an  English  Bacchanalian  Song,  'Let 
the  waiter  bring  clean  glasses." 

3  To  the  words, '  Let  us  take  the  road.  Hark  1  I  hear  the  sound  of 
coaches.'  Another  equally  fine  March,  from  'Scipio,'  afterwards 
appeared  In  '  Polly,"  as  '  Brave  Boys,  prepare.' 

*  This  Symphony,  though  contained  in  Handel's  'conducting' 
Score,  is  not  given  in  the  early  printed  copies. 


OPERA. 

cantate'  serve  to  show  that  the  puerilities 
which  had  amused  the  Venetians  in  the  time 
of  Freschi  and  Ziani,  had  not  yet  passed  entirely 
out  of  fashion,  and  that  the  Lyric  Drama  was 
■till  disfigured  by  anomalies  which  needed  careful 
excision.  When  Italian  Operas  were  first  intro- 
duced into  this  country,  in  place  of  the  miserable 
productions  which  succeeded  the  really  great 
works  of  Purcell,  they  were  performed  by  a 
mixed  company  of  Italians  and  Englishmen,  each 
of  whom  sang  in  his  own  language.  A  similar 
absurdity  had  long  prevailed  in  Hamburg,  where 
the  Airs  of  certain  popular  Operas  were  sung  in 
Italian,  and  the  Recitatives  in  German ;  and 
even  in  Italy  the  conventionalities  of  fashion, 
and  the  jealousies  of  favourite  Singers,  exercised 
a  far  more  potent  influence  upon  the  progress  of 
Dramatic  Art  than  was  consistent  with  true 
aesthetic  principles.  During  the  greater  part  of 
the  1 8th  century,  the  laws  which  regulated  the 
construction  of  an  Opera  were  so  severely  formal, 
that  the  Composer  was  not  permitted  to  use  his 
own  discretion,  even  with  regard  to  the  distribution 
of  the  Voices  he  employed.  The  orthodox  num- 
ber of  Personaggi  was  six — three  Women  and 
three  Men ;  or,  at  most,  three  Women  assisted 
by  four  Men.  The  First  Woman  {Prima  donna) 
was  always  a  high  Soprano,  and  the  Second  or 
Third  a  Contralto.  Sometimes  a  Woman  was 
permitted  to  sing  a  Man's  part,  especially  if  her 
voice,  like  those  of  Mrs.  Barbier  and  Mrs. 
Anastasia  Robinson,  happened  to  be  a  low  one : 
but,  in  any  case,  it  was  de  rigueur  that  the  First 
Man  (Primo  uomo)  should  be  an  artificial  So- 
prano, even  though  the  role  assigned  to  him 
might  be  that  of  Theseus  or  Hercules.  The 
Second  Man  was  either  a  Soprano,  like  the  first, 
or  an  artificial  Contralto ;  and  the  Third,  a 
Tenor.  When  a  Fourth  male  Character  {Ul- 
tima parte)  was  introduced,  the  part  was  most 
frequently  allotted  to  a  Bass  :  but  Operas  were 
by  no  means  uncommon  in  which,  as  in  Handel's 
'  Teseo,'  the  entire  staff  of  male  Singers  consisted 
of  artificial  Sopranos  and  Contraltos,  who  mono- 
polised all  the  principal  Songs,  and  upon  whose 
popularity  for  the  time  being  the  success  of  the 
work  in  no  small  degree  depended. 

The  Airs  entrusted  to  these  several  performers 
were  arranged  in  five  unvarying  Classes,  each 
distinguished  by  some  well-defined  peculiarity  of 
style,  though  not  of  general  design ;  the  same 
mechanical  form,  consisting  of  a  First  and  Second 
Part,  followed  by  the  indispensable  Da  Capo, 
being  common  to  all  alike. 

I.  The  Aria  cantabile  was  a  quiet  Slow  Move- 
ment, characterised,  in  the  works  of  the  best 
Masters,  by  a  certain  tender  pathos  which  seldom 
failed  to  please,  and  so  contrived  as  to  afford 
frequent  opportunities  for  the  introduction  of 
extempore  ornamentation  at  the  discretion  of  the 
Singer.  Its  accompaniment,  always  very  simple, 
was  limited  in  most  cases  to  a  plain  Thorough- 
Bass,  the  chords  of  which  were  filled  in  upon  the 
Harpsichord.  The  following  beautiful  melody, 
from  Handel's  '  Tolomeo,'  was  sung  with  great 
effect  by  Signora  Faustina,  in  the  year  1 728. 


OPERA. 


509 


at*; 


Vol  dol  -  cl  auretto,  «1  oor  most  rate      u'  mat  s'ag- 


&*e,  iii  r  r  f  if-F-"r~n>  s=e 

11    1  — 

s 

I  .  J. fc-, 


!■     13     S:z> 


^m 


•  r r  f  r   1 

gira  l'a  •  ma  •  to   mlo  to  •  sor. 


f    *•  1  g  e~l  r  e  ^  1 " 

i   3  6^  6  6 


#=F=fc 


UL 


gg^li 


T^     7 

ca  -  ro   0     dol    -   -    ce      ben.      etc. 


S 


a.  The  Aria  di  portamento  was  also  a  Slow 
Movement,  and  generally  a  very  telling  one. 
Its  Rhythm  was  more  strongly  marked  than  that 
of  the  Aria  cantabile,  its  style  more  measured, 
and  its  Melody  of  a  more  decidedly  symmetrical 
character,  freely  interspersed  with  sustained  and 
swelling  notes,  but  affording  few  opportunities 
for  the  introduction  of  extempore  embellishments. 
Flowing  and  graceful  in  design,  its  expression 
was  rather  sedate  and  dignified  than  passionate ; 
and  its  Accompaniment  rarely  extended  beyond 
a  well-phrased  Thorough-Bass,  with  one  or  two 
Violins,  used  chiefly  in  the  Symphonies.  The 
following  example  is  from  Handel's  'Riccardo 
Primo,'  in  which  Opera  it  was  first  sung,  by 
Signora  Cuzzoni,  in  the  year  1727* 


3.  The  Aria  di  mezzo  carattere  was  open  to 


510 


OPERA. 


OPERA. 


great  variety  of  treatment.  As  a  general  rule, 
it  was  less  pathetic  than  the  Aria  Cantdbile, 
and  less  dignified  than  the  Aria  di  portamento,  but 
capable  of  expressing  greater  depths  of  passion 
than  either.  Its  pace  was  generally,  though  not 
necessarily,  Andante ;  the  second  part  being 
sung  a  little  faster  than  the  first,  with  a  return 
to  the  original  time  at  the  Da  Capo.  Its  Ac- 
companiment was  rich  and  varied,  including  at 
least  the  full  Stringed  Band,  with  the  frequent 
introduction  of  Oboes  and  other  Wind  Instru- 
ments. Some  of  Handel's  most  celebrated  Songs 
belong  to  this  class,  the  style  of  which  is  well 
exemplified  in  the  subjoined  Air  from  'Teseo,' 
sung  in  1 713  by  Margherita  de  l'Epine. 


pm& 


m 


S 


M- 


S 


Vie  -  ni     tor 


na  I  -  do  -  lo      mi  - 


w&=s. 


s: 


¥¥ 


Tutti  ^^ 


mM 


m 


$35         3 

4.  The  Ariaparlante  was  of  a  more  declamatory 
character,  and  therefore  better  adapted  for  the 
expression  of  deep  passion,  or  violent  emotion  of 
any  kind.  Its  Accompaniments  were  sometimes 
very  elaborate,  and  exhibited  great  variety  of  In- 
strumentation, which  the  best  Masters  carefully 
accommodated  to  the  sense  of  the  Verses  they 
desired  to  illustrate.  Different  forms  of  the  Air 
were  sometimes  distinguished  by  special  names  : 
for  instance,  quiet  Melodies,  in  which  one  note 
was  accorded  to  each  several  syllable,  were  called 
Arte  di  nota  e  parola ;  while  the  terms  Aria 
agitata,  A  ria  di  strepito,  and  even  A  ria  infuriata, 
were  applied  to  Movements  exhibiting  a  greater 
or  less  amount  of  dramatic  power.  The  following 
example,  from  Handel's  ■  Sosarme,'  was  sung  in 
1 732  by  Signora  Bagnolesi,  to  an  obbligato 
Violin  Accompaniment  played  by  Castrucci. 
f 


pi 


E^SE 


J    ,  1  .   f  J*  *-& 


Cuor     di    ma-dre  E    cuor  di    mog 

4    4 


Violino  solo. 


MMijmi 


^^ 


&z 


h 


ti  to-glie 


J*=t^ 


chi  t'inrola 


r3^ 


^m 


5.  The  Aria  di  bravura,  or  d'agilita,  was 
generally  an  Allegro,  filled  with  brilliant '  divi- 
sions '  or  passages  of  rapid  fioritura  calculated 
to  display  the  utmost  powers  of  the  Singer  for 
whom  the  Movement  was  intended.  Some  of 
the  passages  written  for  Elizabetta  Pilotti  Schia- 
vonetti,  Cuzzoni,  Faustina,  Nicolini,  Farinelli, 
and  other  great  Singers  of  the  period,  were  so 
amazingly  difficult,  that  few  Artists  of  the  present 
day  would  care  to  attack  them  without  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  preparatory  study,  though  it 
is  certain  that  the  Vocalists  for  whom  they  were 
originally  composed  overcame  them  with  ease. 
Among  such  volate  we  may  class  the  following, 
sung  in  '  Ricardo  Primo/  by  the  celebrated 
Sopranist,  Senesino. 


Allegro 


AH'  or-rordel-le  pro -eel    -   - 


Violinl 


OPERA. 

Though  we  sometimes  meet  with  Operatic  Airs 
of  the  1 8th  century  which  seem,  at  first  sight, 
inconsistent  with  this  rigid  system  of  classifica- 
tion, a  little  careful  scrutiny  will  generally  enable 
us  to  refer  them,  with  tolerable  certainty,  to  one 
or  other  of  the  universally-recognised  orders. 

The  Gavatina,  for  instance,  distinguished  from 
all  other  types  by  the  absence  of  a  Second  Part 
and  its  attendant  Da  capo,  is,  in  reality,  nothing 
more  than  an  abbreviated  form,  either  of  the 
Aria  cantabile,  the  Aria  di  portamento,  or  the 
Aria  di  mezzo  carattere,  as  the  case  may  be. 
The  Second  Act  of  *Teseo'  opens  with  an  ex- 
ample which  establishes  this  fact  very  clearly, 
needing  only  the  addition  of  a  subordinate  Strain 
in  order  to  convert  it  into  a  regular  Aria  cantabile. 

The  Aria  dimitazione  was  written  in  too 
many  varieties  of  style  to  admit  the  possibility 
of  its  restriction  to  any  single  Class.  Warlike 
Airs  with  Trumpet  obbligato,  Hunting -Songs 
with  Horn  Accompaniment,  Echo-Songs — such  as 
'  Dite  che  fa,'  in  '  Tolomeo ' — Airs  with  obbligato 
Flute  passages  or  vocal  trills  suggestive  of  the 
warblinga  of  birds,  and  descriptive  pieces  of  a 
hundred  other  kinds,  all  fell  within  this  category, 
and  generally  exhibited  the  prominent  character- 
istics of  the  Aria  di  mezzo  carattere,  unless,  as 
was  sometimes  the  case,  they  were  simple  enough 
to  be  classed  as  Arie  cantabUi,  or  even  Arie 
parlanti,  with  a  more  or  less  elaborate  obbligato 
Accompaniment,  or  contained  volate  of  sufficient 
brilliancy  to  enable  them  to  rank  as  Arie 
d'agUitd,. 

The  Aria  alV  unisono  is  of  comparatively  rare 
occurrence.  'Bel  piacer,'  sung  by  Isabella 
Girardeau,  in  '  Rinaldo,'  and  generally  regarded 
as  the  typical  example  of  the  style,  is  a  pure 
Aria  cantabile,  written  for  an  expressive  Soprano, 
supported  only  by  a  single  Violin  part,  playing 
in  unison  with  the  Voice  throughout.  In  the 
Symphonies,  a  Violoncello  part  is  added ;  but  it 
is  never  heard  simultaneously  with  the  Singer. 
Similar  Airs  will  be  found  in  •  H  Pastor  Fido  * 
and  '  Ariadne' ;  but  we  meet  with  them  so 
seldom,  that  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  were 
ever  held  in  any  great  degree  of  favour,  either 
by  Singers  or  the  public.  The  fine  Song,  'II 
tricerbero  umiliato,'  in  'Rinaldo,'  represents  a 
less  rare  form,  wherein  the  Basses  and  other 
Instruments  all  supported  the  Voice  in  Unisons 
or  Octaves. 

The  Aria  concertata  waB  simply  an  Aria  di 
ntezzo  carattere,  or  an  Aria  parlante,  with  a  more 
than  usually  elaborate  or  original  Accompaniment. 
Among  the  finest-known  examples  of  this  class, 
we  may  mention  'Priva  son,'  in  'Giulio  Cesare,' 
with  Flute  obbligato ;  '  Hor  la  tromba,'  in  '  Ri- 
naldo,' with  four  Trumpets  and  Drums  obbligati ; 
an  Air  in '  II  Pastor  Fido,'  with  Accompaniments 
for  VioUns,  and  Violoncellos  in  Octaves  pizzi- 
cato, with  a  Harpsichord  part,  arpeggiando, 
throughout;  'Ma  quai  notte,'  in  '  Partenope,' 
accompanied  by  a  Flutes,  2  VioUns,  Viola,  and 
Theorbo,  with  Violoncelli  and  Bassi  pizzicato ; 
'  Se  la  mia  vita,'  in  '  Ezio,'  for  1  Violin,  Viola, 
Violoncello,  2  Flutes,  and  2  Horns ;  *  Alle  sfere 


OPERA. 


511 


della  gloria,'  in  ■  Sosarme,'  for  the  Full  Stringed 
Band,  enriched  by  2  Oboes,  and  2  Horns  ;  and  a 
highly  characteristic  Scena,  in  '  Semele' — 'Som- 
nus,  awake  1' — for  2  Violins,  Viola,  Violoncello, 
a  Bassoons,  and  Organ. 

The  sequence  and  distribution  of  these  varied 
Movements  was  regulated  by  laws  no  less  strin- 
gent than  those  which  governed  their  division 
into  separate  Classes.  It  was  necessary  that 
every  Scene  in  every  Opera  should  terminate 
with  an  Air ;  and  every  member  of  the  Dra- 
matis persona  was  expected  to  sing  one,  at  least, 
in  each  of  the  three  Acts  into  which  the  piece 
was  almost  invariably  divided ;  but  no  Per- 
former was  permitted  to  sing  two  Airs  in  suc- 
cession, nor  were  two  Airs  of  the  same  Class 
allowed  to  follow  each  other,  even  though  as- 
signed to  two  different  Singers.  The  most  im- 
portant Airs  were  played  at  the  conclusion  of 
the  first  and  second  Acts.  In  the  second  and 
third  Acts,  the  hero  and  heroine  each  claimed 
a  grand  Scena,  consisting  of  an  Accompanied 
Recitative — such  as  'Alma  del  gran  Pompeo,'  in 
'Giulio  Cesare' — followed  by  an  Aria  dagilitd. 
calculated  to  display  the  power  of  the  Vocalist  to 
the  greatest  possible  advantage;  in  addition  to 
which  the  same  two  characters  united  their 
Voices  in  at  least  one  grand  Duet.  The  third 
Act  terminated  with  a  Chorus  of  lively  cha- 
racter, frequently  accompanied  by  a  Dance :  but 
no  Trios,  Quartets,  or  other  Concerted  Move- 
ments were  permitted  in  any  part  of  the  Opera, 
though  three  or  more  Characters  were  sometimes 
suffered — as  in  *  Rinaldo ' ' — to  join  in  a  harmon- 
ised exclamation,  at  the  close  of  a  Recitative. 


Rinaldo, 


Almirena. 


Rinaldo. 
Eustazio. 


F>mFm 


E  svanisca  ogni  tor -men 


k. 


■I  contento,  »1  con- 


t  Mora  than  seventy  yean  afterwards,  Mozart  used  the  same  ex- 
pedient, with  Irresistible  effect,  in  '  Le  Nozze  dl  Figaro.'  Old  Opera- 
goers  will  scarcely  need  to  be  reminded  of  the  frantic  '  double  encore* 
which  followed  the  delivery  of  the  words, '  E  schlatti  II  SIgnor  Conte  al 
gusto  mlo.'  by  Mile.  Jenny  I.lnd,  Mme.  Urimaldi,  SIgnor  Lablache 
and  Herr  Staudigl,  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  In  the  year  1817. 


612 


OPERA. 


It  seems  strange,  that  with  so  many  Voices  at 
command,  so  little  advantage  should  have  heen 
taken  of  the  opportunity  of  combining  them ; 
but  the  law  was  absolute,  and  no  doubt  owed  its 
origin  to  the  desire  of  popular  singers  rather  to 
shine  alone,  at  any  cost,  than  to  share  their 
triumphs  with  rival  candidates  for  public  favour. 

The  effect  of  these  formal  restrictions,  pressing 
with  equal  severity  on  the  Composer  and  the 
author  of  the  Libretto,  was  fatal  to  the  develop- 
ment of  a  natural  and  consistent  Drama.  Of 
the  numerous  Poets  who  wrote  for  the  Lyric 
Stage,  during  the  earlier  half  of  the  18th  century, 
two  only,  ApoBtolo  Zeno  and  Metastasio,  suc- 
ceeded in  producing  really  good  pieces,  in  spite 
of  the  difficulties  thrown  in  their  way.  Goldoni 
would  probably  have  been  equally  successful, 
had  he  been  equally  persevering ;  but  after  one 
or  two  vexatious  failures,  he  threw  up  the  Opera 
in  disgust,  and  devoted  his  attention  to  Comedy. 
Among  Composers,  Handel  alone  so  far  over- 
came the  trammels  of  pedantry  as  to  suffer  them 
to  exercise  no  deleterious  influence  whatever 
upon  his  work.  When  it  suited  his  good  plea- 
sure to  submit  to  them,  he  did  so  with  such 
exceeding  grace  that  they  seemed  to  have  been 
instituted  rather  for  his  convenience  than  other- 
wise. When  submission  would  have  interfered 
with  his  designs,  he  followed  the  dictates  of  his 
own  clear  judgment,  and  set  both  Critics  and 
Singers  at  defiance.  For  instance,  contrary  to 
all  precedent,  he  enriched  the  third  Act  of 
*  Radamisto'  with  an  elaborate  Quartet;  while, 
in  '  Teseo' — the  Scenes  of  which  are  distributed 
into  five  Acts — he  seems,  from  first  to  last,  to 
have  made  it  a  point  of  conscience  to  assign 
two  Airs  in  succession  to  each  of  his  principal 
Characters,  as  often  as  it  was  possible  to  find  an 
opportunity  for  doing  so. 

That  Critics  should  attack,  and  Singers  openly 
rebel  against  a  Composer  who  shewed  so  little 
consideration  for  their  prejudices  was  only  to  be 
expected  :  but,  meanwhile,  the  jealousies  he  ex- 
cited, and  the  opposition  he  provoked,  served  the 
double  purpose  of  bearing  testimony  to  the  great- 
ness of  his  genius,  and  stimulating  him  to  the 
most  strenuous  exertions  of  which  it  was  capable. 
His  famous  contest  with  Giovanni  Battista 
Buononcini  was  triumphantly  decided,  in  the 
year  1721,  by  the  verdict  unanimously  passed 
upon  '  Muzio  Scevola,'  of  which  he  composed  the 
third  Act,  Buononcini  the  second,  and  Attilio 
Ariosti '  the  first.  A  full  description  of  the 
work  will  be  found  in  Burney,  vol.  iv.  pp.  273- 
278 ;  and  the  student  who  desires  to  form  his 
own  conclusion  on  the  subject  will  scarcely  feel  in- 
clined, after  consulting  the  MS.  Score  preserved 
in  the  Dragonetti  Collection  in  the  British 
Museum,  to  dispute  the  fairness  of  Burney's 
criticism.  This  however  was  by  no  means  one 
of  his  greatest  successes.  He  was  continually 
working  at  high  pressure;  and,  as  a  natural 
consequence,  even  the  weakest  of  the  42  Grand 
Operas  he  has  bequeathed  to  us  contain  beauties 

I  Chrysander  attributes  the  first  Act  to  Fllippo  Mattel.  In  the 
Dragonetti  Score  it  Is  said  to  be  by  '  Signor  Plpo.' 


OPERA. 

enough  to  render  them  imperishable.     The  four 
produced  at  the  Opera  House  in  the  Haymarket 
between  the  years  1711  and  171s,  rank  among 
his  best.     In  1717  a  change  took  place  in  the 
arrangements  at  the   Theatre,   followed,   three 
years  later,  by  the  inauguration  of  the  '  Royal 
Academy  of  Music,'  of  which  he  undertook  the 
entire  direction,  and  for  which  he  wrote  a  series 
of  fourteen  Operas,  beginning  with  *  Radamisto,' 
in  1 720,  and  terminating,  in  1 728,  with  'Tolomeo, 
Re  d'Egitto.'     Soon  after  the  production  of  this 
last-named  work,  the  Company  became  bankrupt, 
and  the  Theatre  passed  into  the  hands  of  a  Swiss, 
named  Heidegger — one  of  the  heroes  of  Pope's 
'Dunciad' — for  whom  Handel  wrote  six  Operas 
between  the  years  1729  and  1733.    Heidegger's 
management  was  brought  to  an  untimely  close 
by  a  quarrel  between  Handel  and  Senesino.     A 
large  party  of  the  nobility  espoused  the  cause  of 
the  popular  Sopranist ;  and,  under  their  patronage, 
a  rival  Opera  Company  was  established  at  the 
•  Little  Theatre,  in  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields.'  Nearly 
all  the  Singers  previously  engaged  at  the  Hay- 
market  deserted   to    the    opposition.       Handel 
endeavoured  to  make  good  their  defection  by  the 
engagement  of  the  celebrated  Contralto,  Carestini. 
The  rival  Company  secured  the  still  more  famous 
Farinelli.    But,  the  result  was  equally  disastrous 
to  both  parties.  We  need  not  enter  into  the  details 
of  the  feud.     Suffice  it  to  say  that  Handel  fought 
the  battle  bravely;  took  the  Theatre  in  Lincoln's 
Inn  Fields,  and,  afterwards,  Covent  Garden,  on 
his  own  account;   and  only  succumbed  at  last 
under  the  pressure  of  expenses  which  resulted  in 
the  loss  of  his  entire  fortune,  and  but  for  the 
success  of  his  Oratorios,  would  have  reduced  him 
to  beggary.     It  is  difficult  to  understand  how 
his  Singers  could  have  been  so  imprudent  as  to 
quarrel  with  him;  for  no  man  then  living  un- 
derstood so  well  as  he  how  to  make  the  most 
of  their  several  capabilities.     We  see  this  very 
clearly   in    the    Airs    he     wrote    for    Isabella 
Girardeau,   Mrs.  Robinson,   Cuzzoni,  Faustina, 
Strada,  Margherita  de  l'Epine,  and  Durestanti, 
the  artificial  Sopranos,  Nicolini,  Bernacchi,  Va- 
lentini,  Valeriano,  Senesino,  and  Carestini ;  and 
the  host  of  illustrious  Vocalists  who  took  part, 
at  different  times,  in  his  Operas,  and  no  doubt 
benefitted  largely  by  his  advice — for  he  always 
insisted  on  having  his  own  Music  sung  in  the 
way  which  seemed  to  him  best.     In  his  power  of 
adapting  the  most  difficult  melodic  phrases  to 
the  varying  range  of  the  vocal  register  he  has 
indeed  been  equalled  only  by  very  few  of  the 
best  Composers  of  any  age,  and  surpassed  by 
none ;    and   to  this  rare  though  indispensable 
quality  his  Operas  are  indebted  for  some  of  their 
most  irresistible  charms.    It  has  been  said  that 
they  have  had  their  day,  and  can  never  again  be 
placed  upon  the  Stage;  but  much  remains  to 
be  said  on  the  opposite  side.     While  preparing 
our  materials  for  the  present  article,  we  subjected 
the  entire  series  to  a  most  careful  and  minute 
re-examination ;  and  the  more  closely  we  carried 
out  our  analysis,  the  more  deeply  were  we  im- 
pressed by  the   dramatic  power   which   proves 


OPERA. 

almost  every  Scene  to  have  been  designed  for  an 
accomplished  Actor,  as  well  as  a  finished  Singer. 
The  opportunities  thus  afforded  for  histrionic 
display  are  unlimited;  while,  as  far  as  the  Music 
is  concerned,  it  seems  almost  incredible  that  such 
a  host  of  treasures  should  have  been  so  long 
forgotten — for  the  works  contain,  not  merely  a 
few  beautiful  Songs,  here  and  there,  but  scores 
of  deathless  Melodies,  which  only  need  to  be  as 
well  known  as  '  Angels  ever  bright  and  fair,'  or 
'  Let  the  bright  Seraphim,'  in  order  to  attain  an 
equally  lasting  popularity.  It  is  true  that  a 
large  proportion  of  these  Songs  were  written  for 
artificial  Voices,  now,  happily,  no  longer  culti- 
vated :  but,  the  Contralto  parts  invariably  lie 
well  within  the  range  of  Female  Voices ;  while 
those  originally  designed  for  such  Singers  as 
Nicolini  or  Valeriano,  might  safely  be  entrusted 
to  an  accomplished  Tenor — an  exchange  with 
which  we  are  all  familiar  in  the  case  of  some 
of  our  best-known  Oratorio  Music.1  That  the 
formality  of  the  Libretti  need  no  longer  be 
regarded  as  an  insuperable  bar  to  their  re- 
production was  sufficiently  proved,  in  1842,  by 
the  successful  run  which  followed  the  revival  of 
'  Acis  and  Galatea,'  at  Drury  Lane,  under  the 
management  of  Macready.  If  a  work  never  in- 
tended to  be  acted  could  command  attention 
under  such  circumstances,  surely  it  would  not 
be  too  much  to  hope  for  the  same  success  from 
Operas,  such  as  '  Rinaldo,'  or  '  Ariadne,'  full  of 

>  It  Is  by  no  means  certain  that  the  part  of  Acts  m  not  originally 
Intended  for  a  Soprano  Voice.    The  subject  is  not  free  from  per- 
plexities, which  are  increased  bj  Handel's  frequent  custom  of  writing 
Tenor  and  Alto  parts  In  the  Treble  (Violin)  clef,  when  intended  for 
English  Singers.    Even  with  Italian  Singers  there  are  difficulties. 
Concerning  such  Voices  as  those  of  Senesino,  Carestini.  and  Farinelli, 
we  have  already  been  told  as  much  as  it  is  desirable  that  we  should 
know:  but  we  should  be  thankful  for  more  detailed  information 
touching  the  Voci  di  Falsetto,  both  Soprano  and  Contralto,  which 
were  in  common  use  in  Italy  before  the  middle  of  the  17th  century. 
We  know  that  until  some  time  after  the  close  of  the  16th  century 
Boys'  Voices  were  used,  not  only  in  the  Papal  Choir,  but  in  many 
royal  and  princely  chapels,  both  in  and  out  of  Italy— as,   for  in- 
stance, that  of  Bavaria,  when  under  the  command  of  Orlando  di  Lasso. 
It  is  eren  certain  that  the  part  of  Dafne,  in  Peri's  '  Euri dice."  was 
originally  sung  by  Jacopo  Giusti,  'un/nnriullttto  Lucchese.';  though, 
except  in  England,  Boys'  Voices  were  not  much  used  on  the  Stage. 
Their  place  was  afterwards  supplied,  in  Italy,  by  FaltetU,  who  sang 
extremely  high  notes,  and  managed  them  with  wonderful  skill,  by 
rirtue  of  some  peculiar  method  which  seems  to  be  entirely  lost— like 
the  art  of  playing  upon  the  old-fashioned  Trumpet.     Delia  Valle 
mentions  a  certain  Giovanni  Luca,  who  sang  roulades  and  other 
*  passages  which  ascended  as  high  as  the  stars ' ;  and  speaks  highly  of 
another  Singer,  called  Ludovico  Falsetto,  whose  Voice  was  of  so  lovely 
a  quality,  that  a  single  long  note  sung  by  him  was  more  charming 
than  all  the  effects  produced  by  later  Singers,  though  he  seems  to 
have  possessed  but  little  execution,  and  to  have  pleased  rather  by 
the  excellence  of  his  method  and  the  delicate  sweetness  of  his  sus- 
I    tained  notes  than  by  any  extraordinary  display  of  musical  ability. 
These  FaUctti  were  mostly  Spaniards ;  but  they  found  no  difficulty  in 
obtaining  employment  in  Italy,  where  at  one  time  they  were  preferred 
to  Boys,  whose  Voices  so  frequently  change  Just  when  they  are  begin. 
I    ning  to  sing  with  true  expression.  The  last  Soprano  falsetto  who  sang 
1    In  the  Papal  Chapel  was  a  Spaniard  named  Giovanni  de'  Sanctos,  who 
I    died  in  1625.    The  first  artificial  Soprano  was  the  Padre  Girolamo 
I    Rossini  da  Perugia,  a  Priest  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Oratory,  who 
I    was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Pontifical  Choir  in  1601,  and  died  in 
1644.    From  this  time  forward,  artificial  Voices  were  preferred  to  all 
others  in  Italy :  but  they  were  never  tolerated  in  France,  and  only  at 
the  Italian  Opera  In  England  ;  the  Soprano  parts  being  still  sung,  in 
this  country,  by  Boys,  and  the  Contralto  by  adult  Falsetti,  as  well  on 
I    the  Stage  at  in  Cathedral  Choirs.    Ben  Jonson's  Lament  for  the  little 
i    Performer  for  whom  'Death  himself  was  sorry,'  Is  familiar  to  every 
I    one.     In  the  Masques  sung  in  his  day,  the  principal  parts  were 
I    almost  always  sung  by  Boys,  who  were  generally  selected  from  the 
Children  of  the  King's  Chapel.    It  was  by  these  Boys  that  Handel's 
!    '  Esther '  was  sung,  with  dramatic  action,  in  1731 ;  and  he  frequently 
I     used  Boys'  Voices  in  his  later  works.  Thus  a  Boy,  named  Goodwill, 
I   tang  in   'Acis  and    Galatea'  in  1732.  and  In  'Athallah'  In  1735; 
another,  called  Boblnson's  Boy,'  In  '  Israel  in  .Egypt '  In  1738 ;  and  a 
i     third,  named  Savage,  In  '  Sosanne '  In  1749,  and  '  Jephtha '  In  1751. 
VOL.  II.    FT.  II. 


OPERA 


513 


equally  beautiful  Music,  and  expressly  designed 
for  a  splendid  mise  en  seine.  An  attempt  has 
already  been  made  by  the  revival  of  '  Almira,' 
Handel's  first  German  opera,  at  the  commemor- 
ation festival  of  the  Hamburg  Opera-house  in 
Jan.  1878.  Let  us  hope  that  some  enterprising 
Manager  will,  one  day,  turn  his  attention  to  the 
still  finer  Italian  Operas.  Meanwhile,  a  clever 
party  of  Dilettanti  might  do  good  service  to  the 
cause  of  Art  by  testing  their  powers  upon  many 
detached  Scenes,  or  even  entire  Acts,  which  they 
would  find  quite  within  their  compass. 

Though  Handel's  Operas  so  far  excelled  all 
others  produced,  either  during  his  lifetime,  or 
for  many  years  after  his  death,  they  seem, 
except  in  a  few  isolated  cases,  to  have  excited 
very  much  less  attention  on  the  Continent  than 
in  our  own  country.  While  they  were  steadily 
increasing  his  lame  and  ruining  his  fortune  in 
London,  a  Ninth  Period  was  progressing  suc- 
cessfully on  the  banks  of  the  Elbe,  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  greatest  of  his  contempo- 
raries, Johann  Adolph  Hasse,  a  native  of  North 
Germany,  who,  after  a  long  course  of  study  in 
Naples,  adopted  the  Italian  style,  and  eventually 
settled  in  Dresden,  where,  between  the  years 
1 731  and  1763,  he  brought  the  Italian  Opera 
to  a  higher  state  of  perfection  than  it  enjoyed 
in  any  other  continental  City.  He  died  at 
Venice  in  1783,  leaving  behind  him  more  than 
100  Operas,  most  of  which  exhibit  great  merit 
though  little  depth  of  inspiration,  while  all, 
probably,  owed  some  part  at  least  of  their 
popularity  to  the  matchless  singing  of  his  wife, 
the  celebrated  Faustina.  To  this  Period  belong 
also  the  Operas  produced  by  Graun,  at  Bruns- 
wick and  Berlin,  between  the  years  1726  and 
1 759,  and  those  written  about  the  same  time,  by 
Fux,  at  Vienna.  These  compositions,  though 
they  never  became  equally  famous,  were  un- 
doubtedly greater,  considered  as  works  of  Art, 
than  those  of  Hasse  ;  as  were  also  those  given 
to  the  world  a  little  later  by  John  Christian 
Bach.  Meanwhile,  good  service  was  done,  in 
Italy,  by  Vinci— one  of  the  greatest  geniuses 
of  the  age — Domenico  Scarlatti,  Leonardo  Leo, 
Francesco  Feo,  Nicolo  Porpora,  and  many  other 
talented  Composers  whose  works  we  have  not 
space  to  notice,  including  the  now  almost  for- 
gotten Buononcini,  who  was  by  no  means  a  poor 
Composer,  and,  but  for  his  unfortunate  contest 
with  Handel,  would  probably  have  attained  an 
European  reputation.     [See  vol.  i.  649  note.] 

The  history  of  our  Tenth  Pebiod  transports 
ub  once  more  to  Naples,  where  rapid  progress 
was  made,  about  the  middle  of  the  18th  century, 
in  a  new  direction.  We  have  already  described, 
in  our  Article  Intermezzo,  the  gradual  develop- 
ment of  the  Opera  Buffa  from  the  Interludes 
which  were  formerly  presented  between  the  Acts 
of  an  Opera  Seria,  or  Spoken  Drama.  These 
light  works  were,  at  first,  of  very  simple  cha- 
racter :  but  a  significant  change  in  their  con- 
struction was  introduced  by  Nicolo  Logroscino, 
a  Neapolitan  Composer,  who  first  entertained 
the  idea  of  bringing  his  principal  Characters  on 

L  1 


614 


OPERA. 


the   Stage  together  towards  the  close  of  the 

{liece,  and  combining  their  Voices  in  a  more  or 
ess  elaborate  Concerted  Finale.1  Originally,  this 
consisted  of  a  single  Movement  only  ;  and  that, 
comparatively,  a  simple  one.  Later  Composers 
enlarged  upon  the  idea ;  extended  it  to  several 
Movements  in  succession,  often  in  different  Keys ; 
and  finally  introduced  it  into  the  Opera  Seria, 
in  which  it  soon  began  to  play  a  very  important 
part,  naturally  leading  to  the  introduction  of 
Trios,  Quartets,  and  the  host  of  richly  harmonised 
pezzi  concertati  upon  which  the  dignity  of  the 
Grand  Opera  was  afterwards  made  so  largely  to 
depend. 

The  distribution  of  parts  in  the  Opera  Buffa 
differed,  in  some  important  particulars,  from  that 
which  so  long  prevailed  in  the  Opera  Seria; 
introducing  fewer  artificial  Voices,  and  giving 
far  greater  prominence  to  the  Basses.  The 
Personaggi  were  grouped  in  two  divisions.  The 
chief,  or  Buffo  group,  consisted  of  two  Female 
Performers,  called  the  Prima  and  Seconda  Buffa, 
and  three  Men,  distinguished  as  the  Primo  Buffo, 
the  Buffo  caricato,  and  the  Ultima  parte,  of 
whom  the  first  was  a  Tenor,  while  the  second 
was  generally,  and  the  third  always,  a  Bass. 
The  subordinate  group  was  limited  to  the  two 
inevitable  lovers,  entitled  the  Donna  seria,  and 
TJomo  serio.  This  arrangement  was,  originally, 
very  strictly  enforced ;  but,  as  time  progressed, 
departures  from  the  orthodox  formula  became  by 
no  means  uncommon. 

Most  of  the  great  Composers  of  this  Period 
excelled  equally  in  Opera  Buffa  and  Opera 
Seria ;  and  the  style  of  their  Melodies  was  so 
much  more  modern  than  that  cultivated  either 
by  Handel  or  Hasse,  that  we  have  found  it 
necessary  to  include  among  them  some,  whose 
names,  by  right  of  chronology,  should  rather 
have  been  referred  to  the  preceding  epoch,  with 
which  however  they  can  claim  but  very  little 
aesthetic  connection.     First  among  them  stands 

l  LOGKOSCIKO,  NicoLd,  composer  of  comic  opens,  was  born  at 
Naples  about  the  year  1700.  His  contemporaries,  Leo,  Pergolesi,  and 
Hasse,  also  wrote  works  in  the  buffo  style  that  are]ustly  celebrated,  but 
logroscino's  seem  to  have  differed  from  these  in  being  more  entirely 
and  grotesquely  comic.  From  the  outset  of  his  career  his  chief  en- 
deavour was  to  find  fit  subjects  for  the  exercise  of  his  Inexhaustible 
vein  of  burlesque  humour.  He  succeeded  so  well  as  to  be  called  by 
his  countrymen  II  Dio  dell'  Opera  buffa,  and  his  operas  were  so  popu- 
lar in  Naples  that  when  the  young  Piccinni  first  came  into  notice 
as  a  possible  rival,  no  small  amount  of  diplomacy  and  powerlul 
Influence  had  to  be  exercised  to  obtain  a  hearing  for  even  one  of  his 
works.  These  however  eventually  displaced  those  of  the  popular  idol. 

Very  little  of  Logroscino's  music  exists  now,  although  some  MS. 
fpecimens  are  to  be  found  in  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum. 
He  never  would  compose  but  in  Neapolitan  dialect,  and  so  was  little 
known  beyond  his  own  country,  even  during  his  lifetime.  But  he 
deserves  to  be  remembered  for  the  invention,  which  is  due  to  him,  of 
the  finale,  such  as  we  now  understand  it.  For  the  duet,  trio,  or 
quartet,  with  which,  up  to  that  time,  it  had  been  the  fashion  to  con- 
clude each  act  of  an  opera,  he  substituted  a  continuous  series  of 
pieces  more  or  less  connected  with  each  other,  including  several 
scenes,  and  as  many  musical  themes,  or  various  treatments  of  one 
principal  theme,  solo,  concerted  and  choral.  By  this  combination 
of  forces  he  more  vividly  conveyed  the  dramatic  situation,  and  im- 
mensely added  to  the  general  effect. 

For  a  long  time  however  these  concerted  finales  were  only  intro- 
duced into  comic  pieces,  and  Faislello  was  the  first  to  extend  the  idea 
to  serious  opera. 

In  1747  Logroscino  settled  in  Palermo,  where  the  God  of  Comedy 
became  first  master  of  counterpoint  In  the  Conservatorio  of  the 
'Figliuoli  Dispersi.'  He  ultimately  returned  to  Naples,  and  died 
there  In  1763.  FiStls  mentions  by  name  four  of  his  works;  these  are, 
1. '  Glunlo  Bruto,' serious  opera ;  2. '11  governatore';  S.  'II  Vecchio 
Marito ' ;  and  4, '  Tanto  bene,  tanto  male,'  all  comic  operas.  [F.A.M] 


OPERA. 

Pergolesi,  whose  serious  Opera  'Sallustia'  pro- 
duced a  furoi'e  in  Naples  in  1732,  while  his 
comic  Intermezzo, '  La  serva  padrona,'  written  in 
1734»  was  received  with  acclamations  in  every 
Capital  in  Europe.  Jomelli's  style,  though  less 
truly  Italian  than  Pergolesi's,  so  nearly  resembled 
it,  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  class  him  with 
any  other  Composer.  He  wrote  an  immense 
number  of  Operas,  both  Serious  and  Comic ; 
and  the  Melodies  he  introduced  into  them  ob- 
tained for  him  an  amount  of  public  favour  which 
had  by  no  means  begun  to  wane  when  Burney 
visited  him,  at  Naples,  in  1770.8  The  work  of 
these  great  Masters  was  vigorously  supplemented 
by  the  efforts  of  Sacchini,  Guglielmi,  Galuppi, 
and  Perez;  and  still  more  nobly  by  those  of 
Paisiello  and  Piccinni,  both  of  whom  brought 
rare  and  brilliant  talents  into  the  field,  and 
enriched  their  School  with  a  multitude  of  valu- 
able productions.  The  graceful  spontaneity  of 
Paisiello's  manner  prevents  many  of  his  Songs 
from  sounding '  old-fashioned,'  even  at  the  present 
day.  Piccinni  was  also  a  most  melodious  writer ; 
but  our  thanks  are  chiefly  due  to  him  for  the 
skilful  development  of  his  Finales,  which  ho 
wrought  into  long  Concerted  Pieces,  not  only  ex- 
cellent as  Music,  but  remarkable  as  the  earliest 
known  instances  of  an  attempt  to  make  the 
interest  of  the  piece  culminate,  as  it  approaches 
its  conclusion,  in  the  richest  harmonies  producible 
by  the  united  Voices  of  the  entire  Dramatis 
persona. 

By  a  deplorable  perversion  of  justice,  Piccinni's 
real  merits  are  too  frequently  passed  over  in 
silence  by  Critics  who  would  lead  us  to  be- 
lieve that  his  only  claim  to  remembrance  rests 
upon  the  details  of  a  miserable  feud,  the  con- 
sideration of  which  will  occupy  our  attention  in 
connection  with  the  Eleventh  Period  of  our 
history. 

The  leading  spirit  of  this  eventful  epoch  was 
Christoph  Willibald  Gluck ;  a  Composer  whose 
clear  judgment  and  unerring  dramatic  instinct 
exercised  an  influence  upon  the  progress  of  Art 
which  has  not,  even  yet,  ceased  to  make  its 
presence  felt,  and  to  which  the  modern  German 
School  is  largely  indebted  for  the  strength  of  its 
present  position.  An  accomplished  rather  than 
a  learned  Musician,  Gluck  rendered  himself  re- 
markable, less  by  any  extraordinary  display  of 
technical  skill,  than  by  his  profound  critical 
acumen ;  but  it  was  not  until  he  was  well 
advanced  in  life  that  this  great  quality  bore  the 
fruit  which  has  since  rendered  his  name  so 
deservedly  famous.  In  early  youth,  and  even 
after  the  approach  of  middle  age,  he  seems  to 
have  been  perfectly  contented  with  the  then 
prevailing  Italian  style,  which  he  cultivated  so 
successfully,  that,  but  for  a  certain  depth  of 
feeling  peculiar  to  himself,  his  'Artamene,'  or 
*  Semiramide,'  might  be  fairly  classed  with  the 
best  productions  of  Jomelli  or  Sacchini,  as  may 
be  seen  in  the  following  extract  from  the  former 
Opera : — 

2  See  bis  'Present  State  of  Music,  In  France  and  Italy,'  p. SI 6,  et 
seq. 


OPERA. 


OPERA. 


515 


non  4       ver,       non  e       ver,    non  vado  a     mor-te, 

i      i      J       J  J.   J 


T.S. 


mor-te, 

-* 


=f= 


His  first  doubt  as  to  the  logical  consistency  of 
the  orthodox  Italian  Opera  seems  to  have  been 
suggested  by  the  unsatisfactory  effect  of  a  Pas- 
ticcio,1 called  'Piramo  e  Tisbe,'  which  he  pro- 
duced in  London  in  the  year  1746.  In  this 
piece  he  contrived  to  introduce  a  large  collection 
of  Airs,  chosen  from  his  best  and  most  popular 
works :  yet  it  wholly  failed  to  fulfil  his  expecta- 
tions, not  because  the  Music  was  in  fault,  but 
because  it  was  altogether  unsuited  to  the  situa- 
tions of  the  Drama.  The  reader  will,  it  is  to 
be  hoped,  remember  the  grand  principle  which 
we  assumed  as  our  point  d'appui  at  the  opening 
of  the  present  article — that  the  Lyric  Drama 
could  neither  be  pronounced  inconsistent  nor 
illogical,  so  long  as  Music  was  employed  as  a 
means  of  intensifying  the  expression  of  Poetry, 
and  therefore  (as  a  natural  consequence)  of  in- 
creasing the  dramatic  power  of  the  Scenes  it 
depicted.  It  was  upon  this  principle  that  Peri 
and  Caccini  based  their  experiments,  at  Florence, 
when  they  first  attempted  to  clothe  the  theories 
of  Giovanni  Bardi  and  his  enthusiastic  associates 
with  a  definite  form ;  and,  theoretically,  the 
position  was  never  disputed.  But  as  the  Art  of 
Composition,  assisted  by  increased  orchestral  re- 
sources and  an  improved  system  of  Vocalisation, 
threw  off  the  trammels  of  its  early  stiffness,  and 
attained,  step  by  step,  the  perfection  of  sym- 
metrical Form,  Composers  were  tempted  to 
sacrifice  the  interest  of  the  Drama  to  that  of  the 
Music  which  should  have  tended  to  illustrate  it. 
The  real  force  of  the  most  striking  situations  was 
lost  in  the  endeavour  to  fill  them  with  captivating 
Arias,  calculated  to  gratify,  at  the  same  time, 
the  popular  taste  and  the  vanity  of  individual 
Singers.  As  the  number  of  great  Singers  mul- 
tiplied, the  abuse  grew  daily  more  and  more 
antagonistic  to  the  enunciation  of  aesthetic  truth, 

'  That  is,  a  piece  made  up  of  Airs  selected  from  other  Operas,  often 
by  several  different  Composers.    [See  Pasticcio.] 


until  the  Opera  was  degraded  into  a  mere  col- 
lection of  Songs,  connected  together  by  Recita- 
tives which  seemed  designed  more  with  the  idea 
of  providing  breathing- time  for  the  Singer,  than 
that  of  developing  the  plot  of  the  piece,  or 
rendering  its  details  intelligible  to  the  audience. 
In  Handel's  Operas  we  find  no  trace  of  the 
weakness  engendered  by  this  ill-judged  though 
almost  universal  conformity  to  the  prevailing 
fashion.  His  Recitativo  secco  is  designed  on  so 
grand  a  scale,  and  is  made  the  vehicle  of  so 
much  dramatic  expression,  that  the  action  of  his 
pieces  is  never  permitted  to  drag :  but,  in  the 
works  of  Hasse,  and  Porpora,  and  other  popular 
writers  of  the  Ninth  Period,  the  defect  we 
speak  of  is  painfully  apparent.  Against  this 
state  of  things,  which  Benedetto  Marcello  had 
already  censured  in  no  measured  terms, 
Gluck's  hatred  of  falsehood  and  incongruity 
in  all  that  concerned  his  beloved  Art  could 
not  fail  to  rebel.  He  felt  that  the  system  was 
based,  from  first  to  last,  on  a  fatal  mistake ; 
yet  could  not,  for  the  time,  suggest  a  remedy 
sufficiently  potent  to  remove  an  evil  so  deeply 
rooted.  He  therefore  patiently  endeavoured  to 
attain  a  clearer  insight  into  the  sources  of  the 
error,  studying  diligently,  and  in  the  meantime 
making  a  great  name  by  the  production  of 
Operas  written  in  a  style  which  he  himself  was 
rapidly  learning  to  despise,  but  with  which  the 
general  public  were  enchanted.  It  was  not 
until  1762,  sixteen  years  after  his  memorable 
visit  to  England,  that  he  made  any  serious  attempt 
to  express  his  new  ideas  in  a  tangible  form.  He 
was,  at  that  time,  settled  at  Vienna,  and  on 
terms  of  intimate  friendship  with  the  Italian 
poet  Calsabigi,  who  fully  entered  into  his  views, 
and,  at  his  request,  furnished  him  with  a  Li- 
bretto, written  on  principles  totally  opposed  to 
those  of  Metastasio,  with  whom  he  had  previously 
worked  in  concert.  The  new  Opera  was  an 
experimental  one,  both  on  the  part  of  the  Com- 
poser and  the  Librettist.  Gluck  carried  out  his 
new  theories,  as  far  as  he  had  succeeded  in 
perfecting  them;  made  his  Music  everywhere 
subservient  to  the  action  of  the  Drama  ;  finished 
his  Airs  without  the  stereotyped  Da  capo ; 
introduced  appropriate  Choruses,  and  other 
Concerted  Pieces ;  and  never  sacrificed  the  true 
rendering  of  a  dramatic  situation  for  the  sake 
of  attracting  attention  to  his  own  powers  as  a 
Composer,  or  of  affording  a  popular  Singer  the 
opportunity  of  displaying  the  flexibility  of  his 
Voice.  On  the  other  hand,  he  was  most  careful 
to  make  the  musical  portion  of  the  work  as 
interesting  as  was  compatible  with  due  regard 
to  the  demands  of  its  scenic  construction.  When 
it  was  possible  to  introduce  a  fascinating  Melody, 
without  injury  to  the  general  effect,  he  gladly 
availed  himself  of  the  opportunity  of  doing  so — 
witness  his  delightful '  Che  farb  senza  Euridice,* 
than  which  no  lovelier  Song  was  ever  written : 
while,  so  far  as  the  Choruses  were  concerned,  he 
was  equally  expressive  in  the  pathetic  strains  al- 
lotted to  the  Shepherds  in  the  First  Act,  and  the 
shrieks  of  the  threatening  Fiends  in  the  Second. 

L12 


516 


OPERA. 


OPERA. 


The  result  of  this  conscientious  endeavour  to 
carry  out  a  reform,  which  he  believed  to  be  not 
only  desirable,  but  absolutely  necessary,  was  a 
truly  magnificent  work,  which,  though  its  success 
at  first  seemed  doubtful,  soon  found  a  place  in 
the  repertoire  of  every  theatre  in  Europe.  Even 
those  most  violently  opposed  to  innovation  felt 
compelled  to  applaud  it ;  for  its  dramatic  force 
was  irresistible,  and  in  flow  of  Melody  it  was 
excelled  by  none  of  the  best  Operas  of  the 
period.  But  Gluck  had  not  yet  accomplished 
his  full  desire.  Encouraged  by  the  triumph  of 
his  first  attempt  in  a  new  style,  he  carried 
out  his  principles  still  farther,  in  two  other 
Operas,  'Alceste*  (1767),  and  '  Paride  ed 
Elena'  (1769),  which  were  not  received  at 
Vienna  with  very  great  favour.  The  critics 
of  the  day  were  not  yet  fully  prepared  for  the 
amount  of  reform  indicated  in  their  construction. 
Metastasio  and  Hasse  had  reigned  too  long  to 
be  deposed  in  a  moment ;  and  Gluck  met  with  so 
much  opposition,  that  he  determined  to  make  his 
next  venture  in  Paris,  where,  in  1 774,  he  brought 
out  his  first  French  Opera,  '  Iphigenie  en  Aulide,' 
under  the  patronage  of  his  old  pupil,  Marie  An- 
toinette. The  result  fully  justified  his  reliance 
upon  the  critical  discernment  of  an  audience  less 
easily  influenced  by  the  sensuous  allurements  of 
Italian  Art  than  by  the  declamatory  powers  of 
their  own  old  favourites,  Lulli,  and  his  great 
successor,  Rameau,  who  both  regarded  the  per- 
fection of  Accompanied  Recitative  as  a  matter  of 
far  greater  importance  than  a  continuous  flow  of 
rhythmic  melody.  To  Lulli's  rhetorical  purity, 
Gluck  communicated  an  intensity  of  passion, 
which,  though  it  would  have  scandalised  the 
courtiers  of  the  Grand  Monarque,  to  whom  the 
Voice  of  Nature  was  an  unknown  language,  was 
welcome  enough  to  those  of  Louis  XVI.  He 
enriched  his  scenic  effects  with  an  orchestral 
background  with  which  the  most  ambitious  at- 
tempts of  Rameau  would  bear  no  comparison 
whatever.  In  place  of  Lulli's  formal  Fugue,  and 
Rameau's  scarcely  less  inelastic  Orchestral  Pre- 
lude, he  introduced  an  Overture,  intended — 
in  his  own  words — '  to  prepare  the  audience  for 
the  action  of  the  piece,  and  serve  as  a  kind  of 
argument  to  it.'  Superior  to  both  these  popular 
Composers  on  their  own  ground,  and  gifted  be- 
sides with  a  refinement  of  taste  which  lent 
charms  of  its  own  to  every  melodic  phrase  he 
wrote,  it  is  not  surprising  that  he  should  have 
taken  Paris  by  storm.  The  new  Opera  was  re- 
ceived with  acclamation,  and  Parisian  critics, 
with  the  Abbe*  A  maud  at  their  head,  proved 
that  they  not  only  appreciated  its  beauties,  but 
thoroughly  understood  the  principles  upon  which 
it  was  conceived.  The  only  mistake  they  made 
— a  mistake  which  more  modern  critics  have 
been  only  too  ready  to  endorse — lay  in  sup- 
posing that  these  principles  were  new.  They 
were  not  new — and  it  is  well  that  we  should  state 
this  fact  clearly,  because  we  shall  have  occasion 
to  refer  to  it  again.  The  abstract  Ideal  which  in 
the  year  1600  found  its  highest  attainable  ex- 
pression in  Peri's  'Euridice,'  was  not  merely 


analogous  to,  but  absolutely  identical  with  that 
which,  in  1774,  the  rich  genius  of  Gluck  clothed 
in  the  outward  form  of  'Iphigenie  en  Aulide.' 
To  compare  the  two  works  in  the  concrete  would 
be  manifestly  absurd.  Peri  wrote  at  a  time 
when  Monodic  Art  was  in  its  infancy,  and,  with 
all  his  talent,  was  at  heart  an  incorrigible 
pedant.  To  more  than  a  century  and  a  half 
of  technical  experience  Gluck  added  one  grand 
qualification  with  which  pedantry  can  in  no  wise 
co-exist — a  passionate  love  of  Nature.  Hence 
his  irresistible  power  over  all  who  heard  him. 
A  certain  critic,  speaking  of  a  passage  in 
'Iphigenie  en  Tauride,'  in  which  Orestes,  after 
a  Scene  full  of  the  most  fearful  agitation,  exclaims 
'  Le  calme  rentre  dans  mon  cceur  ! '  found  fault 
with  it  on  the  ground  that  the  agitation  still 
carried  on  in  the  Accompaniment  belied  the  ex- 
pression of  the  words.  '  Not  so,'  said  Gluck.  '  He 
mistakes  physical  exhaustion  for  calmness  of 
heart.  Has  he  not  killed  his  mother?'  Equally 
thoughtful  was  his  defence  of  the  well-known 
Movement,  Caron  t'appelle,  in  'Iphigenie  en 
Aulide,'  against  the  charge  of  monotony — '  My 
friend,  in  Hell  the  passions  are  extinguished,  and 
the  Voice,  therefore,  needs  no  inflexions.'  Could 
Shakespeare  himself  have  studied  the  passions  of 
the  human  heart  more  deeply  ? 

Gluck's  triumph  was  complete ;  but  it  was 
short-lived.  A  reaction  soon  set  in.  Piccinni 
was  invited  to  Paris  in  1776,  and  with  the  as- 
sistance of  Marmontel  as  his  Librettist,  produced 
two  Operas — '  Roland '  and  '  Atys ' — in  the  Ita- 
lian style,  both  of  which  excited  general  admira- 
tion. This  however  was  not  enough  to  satisfy 
the  party  spirit  of  a  large  body  of  malcontents, 
who,  on  the  arrival  of  the  Italian  Composer, 
divided  the  Art-world  of  Paris  into  two  rival  fac- 
tions— the  Gluckiste  and  the  Piccinniste — which 
fought  with  a  bitterness  of  prejudice  infinitely 
greater  than  that  displayed  by  the  followers  of 
Handel  and  Buononcini  in  London.  Both  parties 
were  equally  unjust  to  their  opponents,  and  the 
battle  raged  with  a  violence  proportioned  to  the 
unreasonableness  of  its  exciting  cause.  The  im- 
mense success  which  attended  the  production  of 
Gluck's  'Iphigenie  en  Tauride  'in  1779  brought 
matters  to  a  crisis.  The  Piccinnists,  irritated  at 
so  signal  a  triumph  on  the  opposite  side,  urged 
their  favourite  Composer  to  produce  another 
Opera  on  the  same  subject.  Nothing  could  pos- 
sibly have  been  more  unfair  to  Piccinni.  He 
was  by  far  the  most  accomplished  representative 
of  the  Italian  School  then  living,  and  so  deeply 
attached  to  its  traditions  that  the  task  forced 
upon  him  was  not  so  much  beyond  as  opposed  in 
every  possible  way  to  his  powers.  He  brought 
out  his  version  of  the  work  in  1 781  ;  and,  as 
might  have  been  expected,  it  was  a  miserable 
failure  :  but  this  severe  blow  did  not  put  an  end 
to  the  pretensions  of  his  party,  and  the  feud  was 
continued  with  undiminished  violence  on  either 
side,  until  long  after  the  Composer  of  '  Orfeo  1 
had  retired  into  private  life  at  Vienna.  Its  in- 
fluence upon  Art  has  proved  to  be  indelible. 
Few  French  Composers,  with  the  exception  of 


•I 


OPERA. 

MeTml,  have  made  any  serious  attempt  to  carry 
out  the  principles  laid  down  by  Gluck  as  indis- 
pensable to  the  perfection  of  Dramatic  Music ;  but, 
notwithstanding  their  early  rejection  at  Vienna, 
they  were  afterwards  unhesitatingly  adopted  in 
Germany,  and  have  ever  since  formed  one  of  the 
strongest  characteristics  of  German  Opera.  On 
the  other  hand,  Piccinni's  powerful  development 
of  the  Finale  enriched  the  Italian  School  with  a 
means  of  effect  of  which  it  was  not  slow  to  avail 
itself,  and  which  its  greatest  Masters  have  never 
ceased  to  cherish  with  well-directed  care.  Of 
the  work  wrought  by  one  of  the  greatest  of 
these  Maestri  we  shall  now  proceed  to  speak  in 
treating  of  our  Twelfth  Period. 

We  have  already  explained,  that,  after  formal 
recognition  of  the  Opera  Buffa  as  a  legitimate 
branch  of  Art,  it  was  cultivated  with  no  less 
assiduity  than  Serious  Opera,  and  that  the  greatest 
writers  attained  equal  excellence  in  both  styles. 
Of  none  can  this  be  more  truly  said  than  of  Cima- 
rosa,  to  whose  fertility  of  invention  Italian  Opera 
is  indebted  for  the  nearest  approach  to  perfection 
it  has  as  yet  been  permitted  to  achieve  at  the 
hands  of  a  native  Composer.  The  raciness  which 
forms  so  conspicuous  a  feature  in  '  H  Matrimonio 
segreto '  is  not  more  remarkable  than  the  intense 
pathos,  reached  evidently  without  an  effort,  in 
'Gli  Orazij  e  Curiazij.'  In  neither  style  do  we 
find  a  trace  of  the  stiffness  which  no  previous 
Composer  was  able  entirely  to  shake  off.  Cima- 
rosa's  forms  were  as  far  removed  as  the  latest 
productions  of  the  present  day  from  the  anti- 
quated monotony  of  the  Da  capo ;  and  we  see  them 
moulded  with  equal  care  in  Movements  of  every 
possible  description.  The  delightful  Aria,  'Pria 
che  spunti  in  ciel  l'aurora '  (said  to  have  been  in- 
spired by  the  view  of  a  magnificent  sunrise  from 
the  Hradschin,  at  Prag),  is  not  more  graceful 
in  construction  than  the  irresistibly  amusing 
Duet,  '  Se  fiato  in  corpo  awete,'  or  the  still  more 
highly-developed  Trio,  '  Le  faccio  un  inchino,' 
though  these  are  both  encumbered  with  the 
necessity  for  broad  comic  action  throughout.  It 
is,  indeed,  in  his  treatment  of  the  Pezzo  concer- 
tato  that  Cimarosa  differs  most  essentially  from 
all  his  predecessors.  Taking  full  advantage  of 
the  improvements  introduced  by  Piccinni,  he  be- 
stowed upon  them  an  amount  of  attention  which 
proved  the  high  value  he  set  upon  them  as  ele- 
ments of  general  effect.  Under  his  bold  treat- 
ment they  served  as  a  powerful  means  of  carrying 
on  the  action  of  the  piece,  instead  of  interrupting 
it,  as  they  had  too  frequently  done  in  the  works 
of  earlier  Masters.  This  was  a  most  important 
modification  of  the  system  previously  adopted  in 
Italian  Art.  It  not  only  furnished  a  connecting 
link  to  the  various  Scenes  of  the  Drama,  which 
could  no  longer  be  condemned  as  a  mere  assem- 
blage of  Concert  Arias  ;  but  it  strengthened  it  in 
every  way,  added  to  the  massive  dignity  of  its 
effect,  and  gave  it  a  logical  status  as  unassail- 
able as  that  for  which  Gluck  had  so  nobly 
laboured  in  another  School.  Henceforward  Ger- 
many might  pride  herself  upon  her  imaginative 
power,  and  Italy  upon  her  genial  Melody ;  but 


OPERA. 


517 


neither  could  reproach  the  other  with  the  encou* 
ragement  of  an  unnatural  Ideal. 

What  Haydn  would  have  done  for  this  Period 
had  he  devoted  his  serious  attention  to  Dramatic 
Music,  at  any  of  the  larger  theatres,  is  of  course 
mere  matter  of  conjecture ;  though  it  seems  im- 
possible to  believe  that  he  would  have  rested 
satisfied  with  the  prevailing  Italian  model.  His 
'Orfeo  ed  Euridice,'  written  for  the  King's  Theatre 
in  the  Haymarket  in  1791,  but  never  performed, 
in  consequence  of  a  change  in  the  management, 
is  remarkable  rather  for  its  supreme  refinement 
than  for  dramatic  power,  a  qualification  which 
it  would  have  been  unreasonable  to  expect  from 
a  Composer  whose  former  Operas  had  been  written 
expressly  for  Prince  Esterhazy's  private  theatre, 
and,  though  well  adapted  for  performances  on  a 
small  scale,  were  not,  as  he  himself  confessed, 
calculated  to  produce  a  good  effect  elsewhere. 
The  Scores  of  many  of  these  were  destroyed  when 
the  little  theatre  was  burned  down  in  1779;  but 
the  original  autograph  of  'Armida,'  first  per- 
formed in  1783,  is  happily  preserved  in  the 
Library  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society.  '  Orfeo 
ed  Euridice '  was  printed  at  Leipzig  in  1806 ;  and 
a  beautiful  Air  from  it,  'II  pensier  sta  negli 
oggetti,'  will  be  found  in  the  collection  called 
'Gemme  d'antichita'  (Ashdown  &  Parry),  and 
will  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  general  style  of  the 
work.  Zingarelli,  Salieri,  and  their  Italian  contem- 
poraries, though  undoubtedly  possessing  talents 
of  a  very  high  order,  were  so  far  inferior  to 
Cimarosa,  in  all  his  greatest  qualities,  that  he  will 
always  remain  the  typical  writer  of  the  age ;  and 
to  his  works  alone  can  we  look  for  the  link  which 
connects  it  with  the  great  Thirteenth  Period — 
the  most  glorious  one  the  Lyric  Drama  has  ever 
known,  since  it  witnessed  the  elevation  both  of 
the  Italian  and  German  Schools  to  what,  in  the 
present  state  of  our  knowledge,  we  must  needs 
regard  as  absolute  perfection. 

Though  Mozart  was  born  only  seven  years 
later  than  Cimarosa,  and  died  many  years  before 
him,  the  phase  of  Art  he  represents  is  infinitely 
more  advanced  than  that  we  have  just  described. 
His  sympathies,  like  Handel's,  were  entirely  with 
the  Italian  School ;  but  to  him,  as  to  Handel 
and  the  elder  Scarlatti,  it  was  given  to  see 
that  the  Monodists  of  the  17th  century  had 
committed  a  fatal  mistake  in  rejecting  the  con- 
trapuntal experience  of  their  great  predecessors. 
So  carefully  was  his  own  Art-life  guarded  against 
the  admission  of  such  an  error,  that  before 
he  was  fifteen  years  old  (1770)  he  was  able 
to  write  a  four-part  Counterpoint,  upon  a  given 
Canto  fermo,  strict  enough  to  justify  his  ad- 
mission, as  Compositore,  into  the  ranks  of  the 
Accademia  Filarmonica  at  Bologna.  In  later 
life  he  studied  unceasingly.  Founding  his  praxis 
(as  Haydn  had  done  before  him,  and  Beethoven 
did  afterwards)  on  the  precepts  laid  down  by 
Fux  in  his  'Gradus  ad  Parnassum'  (1725),  he 
was  able  to  take  the  fullest  possible  advantage 
of  the  gifts  bestowed  upon  him  by  Nature, 
and  was  never  at  a  loss  as  to  the  best  method 
of  treating  the  inexhaustible  wealth  of  Melody 


Si* 


OPERA. 


she  placed  at  his  command.  In  dramatic  situa- 
tions, of  whatever  character,  he  struck  out  the 
truth  by  mere  force  of  natural  instinct,  where 
Gluck  would  have  arrived  at  it  by  a  long  process 
of  synthetic  induction ;  and  this  faculty  enabled 
him  to  illustrate  the  actual  life  of  the  Scene 
without  for  a  moment  interrupting  the  continuity 
of  his  melodic  idea,  and  to  enforce  its  meaning 
with  a  purity  of  expression  diametrically  opposed 
to  the  coarseness  inseparable  from  an  exaggerated 
conception.  For  instance,  when  Papageno  pre- 
pares to  hang  himself,  he  takes  leave  of  the 
world  with  such  unaffected  pathos,  that  we  lose 
all  thought  of  absurdity  in  our  sorrow  for  the 
poor  clown  who  is  so  truly  sorry  for  himself,  and 
who  yet  remains  the  most  absurd  of  clowns  to 
the  end.  On  the  other  hand,  when  elaboration 
of  Form  was  desirable,  he  did  not  disdain  to 
avail  himself  of  the  experience  of  his  predecessors, 
but  enlarged  a  thousandfold  upon  the  ideas  of 
Piccinni  and  Cimarosa,  and  produced  symmetrical 
movements  the  complications  of  which  had  never 
entered  into  their  minds  as  possible.  Thus  the 
Sestets  'Sola,  sola'  and  'Riconosci  in  questo 
amplesso'  surpass  in  fulness  of  design  the 
grandest  denouements  to  be  found  in  any  other 
Operas  of  the  period ;  while  the  two  concerted 
Finales  in  '  Le  N ozze  di  Figaro '  contain  re- 
spectively nine  and  seven,  and  those  in  '  II  Don 
Giovanni*  no  less  than  eleven  distinct  Move- 
ments, all  written  with  the  most  masterly  skill, 
and  linked  together  in  such  natural  sequence 
that  it  is  impossible  but  to  accept  them,  in  each 
particular  case,  as  the  component  parts  of  a 
single  comprehensive  idea,  as  homogeneous  as 
that  of  a  Symphony  or  a  Concerto.  Again, 
Mozart's  command  of  the  Orchestra,  as  a  medium 
of  dramatic  effect,  stands  unrivalled.  He  was 
accused  by  some  of  his  contemporaries  of  over- 
loading the  Voice  with  unmeaning  Accompani- 
ments ;  but  the  charge  was  made  in  ignorance  of 
the  principle  upon  which  he  worked.  Gre"try, 
when  asked  by  Napoleon  to  define  the  difference 
between  the  styles  of  Mozart  and  Cimarosa,  re- 
plied, '  Sire,  Cimarosa  places  his  Statue  on  the 
Stage,  and  its  Pedestal  in  the  Orchestra  :  Mozart 
places  the  Statue  in  the  Orchestra,  and  the  Pe- 
destal on  the  Stage.'  The  metaphor,  though 
pretty  enough,  conveyed  a  palpable  untruth. 
Neither  Mozart  nor  Cimarosa  reversed  the  re- 
lative positions  of  the  Statue  and  the  Pedes- 
tal ;  but  Cimarosa  used  the  latter  simply  as 
a  means  of  support;  whereas  Mozart  adorned 
it  with  the  most  exquisite  and  appropriate 
Bassi-rilievi.  His  Accompaniments  are  always 
made  to  intensify  the  expression  of  the  Voice, 
and  to  aid  it  in  explaining  its  meaning ;  and 
he  attains  this  end  by  a  mode  of  treatment 
as  varied  as  it  is  original.  Though  his  system  of 
Instrumentation  has  served  as  the  basis  of  every 
other  method,  without  exception,  used  by  later 
Composers,  his  own  combinations  are  marked  by 
a  freshness  which  never  fails  to  make  known 
their  true  authorship  at  the  very  first  hearing. 
Unhappily  we  are  rarely  permitted,  now-a-days, 
to  hear  them  in  their  integrity — at  any  rate,  in 


OPERA. 

London  or  Paris.  The  awful  tones  with  which 
the  Trombones  support  the  Voice  of  the  Statue 
in  '  II  Don  Giovanni,'  lose  all  their  significance 
after  we  have  heard  them  introduced  into  every 
forte  passage  in  the  previous  part  of  the  Opera. 
The  Overture  to  the  same  great  work  is  deprived 
of  all  its  point  when  any  attempt  is  made  to 
interfere  with  the  delicate  arrangement  of  the 
Score,  by  means  of  which  Mozart  intended  to 
depict  the  struggle  between  good  and  evil  in  the 
mind  of  the  dissolute  hero  of  the  piece,  using 
the  stately  passage  of  Minims  and  Crotchets  to 
represent  the  one,  and  the  light  groups  of  Qua- 
vers to  delineate  the  other.  The  airy  lightness 
of '  Le  Nozze  di  Figaro'  profits  us  nothing  when 
rendered  inaudible  by  the  din  of  a  Brass  Band 
fit  only  for  a  field-day  on  Woolwich  Common. 
Mozart  himself  never  conceived  a  more  charming 
Scene  than  that  in  which  Count  Almaviva'a 
clever  '  Factotum '  takes  upon  himself  to  lecture 
the  little  Page  upon  the  proper  bearing  of  a 
Soldier,  and  marches  up  and  down  the  Stage  in 
illustration  of  his  precepts,  while  Susanna  looks 
admiringly  on.  When  the  Scene  was  first  re- 
hearsed, at  Vienna,  in  1786,  every  performer  on 
the  Stage  and  in  the  Orchestra  shouted  '  Viva  il 
grande  Mozart.'  Now,  we  are  favoured,  instead 
of  it,  with  a  vulgar  Chorus,  brought  together  in 
defiance  of  all  dramatic  possibility,  made  to  sing 
Voice-parts  which  Mozart  never  wrote,  and 
accompanied  by  a  crash  of  Bass-drums  and 
Ophicleides  through  which  the  voice  of  Stentor 
himself  could  never  have  been  made  to  penetrate. 
If  we  would  know  what  Mozart  really  meant,  we 
must  study  him,  not  at  the  Opera,  but  in  his 
own  delightful  Scores ;  and  from  these  we  shall 
learn  that  he  did  not  arrive  at  his  full  perfection 
until  after  long  years  of  careful  study.  Though 
the  cachet  of  true  genius  is  impressed  upon 
earliest  inspirations,  it  is  in  '  Idomeneo,  Re 
Creta,'  produced  at  Munich  in  1781,  that  we 
first  find  him  claiming  his  right  to  be  numbere 
among  the  greatest  Composers  the  world  has  eve 
known.  We  have  here  the  perfection  of  me 
lodious  grace,  the  perfection  of  dramatic  truth 
and  the  perfection  of  choral  dignity.  In  tl 
last-named  quality — more  especially  as  exhibite 
in  the  Choruses  '  Pieta !  Numi,  Pieta  ! '  and 
voto  tremendo' — it  is  doubtful  whether  'Ido 
meneo '  has  ever  been  equalled,  even  by  Moz 
himself;  while  it  is  certain  that,  in  its  compr 
hensive  grasp  of  a  grand  and  always  logically 
consistent  Ideal,  it  has  never  been  surpassed : 
but,  in  richness  of  invention  and  exhaustive 
technical  development,  it  must  undoubtedly  yield 
to  '  Cosl  fan  tutte,'  '  La  Clemenza  di  Tito,' 
Nozze  di  Figaro,'  and  'II  Don  Giovanni.' 
these  four  great  works  Italian  Opera  reache 
a  grade  of  excellence  above  which  it  seems  ex- 
tremely improbable  that  it  will  ever  be  fated 
rise.  Yet  Mozart  did  not  rest  satisfied  even 
here.  It  was  given  to  him  to  raise  German 
Opera  to  the  same  high  level,  and  concernin 
this  a  few  words  of  explanation  will  be  neces- 
sary. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  Hamburg  as  tl 


OPERA. 

cradle  of  the  German  Opera,  and  of  Handel,  Mat- 
theson,  and  Reinhard  Keiser,  as  the  guardians  of 
its  infancy.  After  the  death  of  Keiser,  in  1 739, 
the  Hamburg  Theatre  lost  much  of  the  prestige  it 
had  acquired  during  his  magnificent  rule :  but, 
some  thirty  years  later,  a  notable  impulse  was 
given  to  Teutonic  Art,  at  Leipzig,  by  Johann 
Adam  Hiller,  a  really  talented  Musician,  cele- 
brated as  the  first  Director  of  the  Gewandhaus 
Concerts,  and,  at  a  later  period,  as  Cantor  of  the 
Thomas  Schule.  At  the  instigation  of  Koch,  the 
Manager  of  the  Leipzig  Theatre,  Hiller  devoted 
his  attention  to  a  light  kind  of  dramatic  effusion, 
with  spoken  dialogue,  plentifully  interspersed 
with  Music  of  a  pleasing  character,  based,  for 
the  most  part,  upon  a  highly-developed  form  of 
the  German  Lied,  though  sometimes  taking  the 
shape  of  concerted  pieces  of  considerable  com- 
pleteness. These  little  pieces  succeeded  admira- 
bly, some  of  them,  such  as  'Der  Teufel  ist 
los ' — founded  upon  the  English  Play,  4  The 
Devil  to  pay' — 'Der  Dorfbarbier,'  and  'Die 
Jagd,'  attaining  an  enormous  popularity.  And 
thus  arose  that  best  and  truest  form  of  German 
Opera,  the  'Singspiel,'  which,  though  less  de- 
fensible, on  pure  aesthetic  principles,  than  either 
the  Opera  Seria  or  the  Opera  Buffa,  has  given 
birth  to  some  of  the  grandest  Lyric  Dramas  we 
possess.  We  say  'less  defensible,'  because  it  is 
evident  that  a  Scene,  partly  spoken  and  partly 
sung,  cannot  possibly  bring  out  the  Poet's  mean- 
ing with  the  clearness  which  is  easily  enough 
attainable  when  a  single  mode  of  expression  is 
employed  throughout.  There  must  be  a  most 
awkward  and  unnatural  solution  of  continuity 
somewhere.  All  the  Composer  can  do  is,  to  put 
it  in  the  least  inconvenient  place.  J.  F.  Reich- 
ardt  afterwards  made  an  attempt  to  overcome 
this  difficulty  in  the  '  Liederspiel ' — an  imitation 
of  the  French  'Vaudeville' — in  which  he  was 
careful  that  the  Action  of  the  piece  should  never 
be  carried  on  by  the  Music,  which  was  almost 
entirely  of  a  semi-incidental  character.  A  third 
form  of  Musical  Drama  was  introduced,  at  Gotha, 
in  1774,  by  George  Benda,  who,  in  his  'Ariadne 
auf  Naxos '  and  '  Medea,'  assisted  the  effect  of  a 
spoken  Dialogue  by  means  of  a  highly-coloured 
Orchestral  Accompaniment,  carried  on  uninter- 
ruptedly throughout  the  piece,  after  the  manner 
of  what  is  now  called  a  Melodrama.  Mozart 
heard  some  of  Benda's  productions  at  Mannheim 
in  1778,  and,  though  he  never  adopted  the 
method  in  any  of  his  greater  works,  was  delighted 
with  its  effect.  He  took,  indeed,  the  greatest  pos- 
sible interest  in  all  that  concerned  the  advance- 
ment of  German  Art ;  and  when  commissioned  to 
write  a  work  for  the  National  Opera  founded  at 
Vienna  in  1 778,  by  the  Emperor  Joseph,  he  threw 
his  best  energies  into  the  welcome  task,  and  pro- 
duced, in  1782,  a  masterpiece — 'Die  Entfuhrung 
aus  dem  Serail* — which  at  once  elevated  the 
Singspiel  to  the  level  he  had  already  won  for 
the  Italian  Opera,  and  secured  it  a  recognised 
status  as  the  embodiment  of  a  conception  pecu- 
liar to  and  truly  worthy  of  the  great  Teutonic 
School.     We  rarely  hear  this  delightful  Opera 


OPERA. 


519 


now,  even  in  Germany ;  but  its  beauty  is  of  a 
kind  which  can  never  grow  old.  It  teems  with 
lovely  Melodies  from  beginning  to  end ;  and  the 
disposition  of  its  Voices  leads  to  the  introduction 
of  a  wealth  of  Concerted  Music  of  the  highest 
order.  It  was  received  with  enthusiasm  both  in 
Vienna  and  at  Prague.  Mozart  followed  it  up  in 
1 786  with  '  Der  Schauspieldirektor,'  a  charming 
little  piece,  filled  with  delightful  Music  ;  and  in 
1 791  he  crowned  his  labours  by  the  production 
of  the  noblest  Lyric  Comedy  existing  in  the 
German  language — 'Die  Zauberflote.'  One  of 
our  best  English  critics  has  lately  thought  it 
necessary  to  speak  apologetically  of  this  great 
work,  as  if  its  finest  Scenes  were  marred  by  the 
juxtaposition  of  others  containing  Music  inca- 
pable of  adding  to  the  Composer's  reputation. 
There  can  be  no  greater  mistake.  As  well  might 
we  make  excuses  for  'The  Tempest,'  because 
the  prose  put  into  the  mouth  of  Trinculo  is  less 
sonorous  than  the  measured  tones  spoken  by 
Prospero  and  Miranda.  A  work  of  Art  is  great 
in  proportion,  and  only  in  proportion,  to  its  truth. 
The  moment  its  conceptions  cease  to  be  natural, 
it  ceases  to  be  worthy  of  our  regard.  '  Die 
Zauberflote '  is  true  to  Nature,  from  its  first  note 
to  its  last;  and  the  hand  of  the  greatest  of 
modern  Masters  is  as  clearly  perceptible  in  the 
tinkle  of  Papageno's  '  Glockenspiel,'  as  in  the 
grandest  contrapuntal  triumph  of  the  last  Finale. 
An  ingenious  critic  can  always  manufacture 
'  weak  points ' ;  but  Mozart  left  none  in  his 
work ;  and  to  those  who  carefully  Btudy  '  Die 
Zauberflote '  side  by  side  with  '  Le  Nozze  di 
Figaro'  and  * II  Don  Giovanni,'  the  conclusion 
will  be  inevitable  that,  in  German  as  well  as  in 
Italian  Opera,  he  soared  to  heights  which, 
hitherto  at  least,  have  set  all  emulation  at  de- 
fiance.1 

But  the  history  of  our  Fourteenth  Period 
will  teach  us  that  the  peculiar  phase  of  German 
Art  over  which  Mozart  asserted  such  absolute 
supremacy  was  not  the  only  one  in  which  it  was 
capable  of  manifesting  itself.  The  possible  va- 
riety of  styles  is  unlimited ;  and  it  was  evident 
from  the  first  that  many  promising  paths  to 
excellence  still  remained  unexplored.  One  of 
these  was  selected  by  Beethoven,  with  results 
for  which  the  world  has  reason  to  be  profoundly 
grateful.  Over  this  great  Master's  early  youth 
the  Stage  seems  to  have  exercised  none  of  that 
strange  fascination  which  so  frequently  mono- 
polises the  young  Composer's  interest,  almost 
before  he  has  had  time  to  ascertain  his  true 
vocation :  and  when,  in  the  full  maturity  of  his 
genius,  he  turned  his  attention  to  it,  he  does  not 

1  Ferdinand  David— no  over-Indulgent  critic— once  told  the  writer 
that  the  Libretto  of  ' Die  Zauberflote'  was  by  no  means  the  flimsy 
piece  It  was  generally  supposed  to  be ;  but,  that  no  one  who  was  not 
a  Freemason  could  appreciate  Its  merits  at  their  true  value.  For 
Instance,  the  grand  chords  played  by  the  Trombones  at  the  end  of  the 
first  part  of  the  Overture,  and  In  the  First  Scene  In  the  Second  Act. 
enuntiate— he  said— a  symbol  which  no  Freemason  could  possibly  fall 
to  understand.  Not  many  years  ago,  these  chords  were  always  played. 
In  England,  with  the  minims  tied  together,  so  that  the  notes  were 
■truck  twice,  instead  of  thrice  at  each  repetition.  By  this  false 
reading,  which  is  perpetuated  in  Oianchettlni's  edition  of  the  score, 
the  force  of  the  symbol  Is  entirely  lost,  and  the  whole  intention  of 
the  passage  defeated. 


520 


OPERA. 


appear  to  have  been  attracted,  like  Mozart,  by 
the  force  of  uncontrollable  instinct,  but  rather 
to  have  arrived  at  perfection,  as  Gluck  did, 
by  the  assistance  of  earnest  thought  and  unre- 
mitting study.  He  wrote  an  Opera,  simply 
because  the  Manager  of  the  Theater-an-der- 
Wien  found  it  worth  while  to  offer  him  an 
engagement  for  that  purpose :  but,  having  un- 
dertaken the  work,  he  threw  his  whole  soul  into 
it ;  laboured  at  it,  as  his  sketch-books  prove, 
incessantly ;  and  identified  himself  so  completely 
with  its  progress  that  he  seems  as  much  at  home 
in  it  as  he  had  ever  previously  been  in  a  Sonata 
or  a  Symphony.  The  subject  selected  was 
Bouilly's  '  Leonore,  ou  l'amour  conjugale,'  which 
had  already  been  set  to  music  as  a  French 
'  Opera  comique,"  by  Gaveaux,  and  very  success- 
fully, to  Italian  words,  by  Paer.  A  German 
translation  was  now  made  by  Sonnleithner ;  and 
that  Beethoven  was  satisfied  with  it,  and  was  con- 
scious of  no  inconsistency  in  the  dialogue  being 
spoken,  must  be  inferred  from  the  carefid  solici- 
tude with  which  he  strove,  not  only  to  give 
due  effect  to  the  various  situations  of  the  Drama, 
but  to  bring  out  the  sense  of  the  text,  even  to 
its  lightest  word.  The  work  was  produced  in 
1805,  under  the  name  of  'Fidelio,  oder  die 
eheliche  Liebe';  and  again  performed,  in  the 
following  year,  with  extensive  alterations  and  a 
new  Overture  :  but  its  success  was  more  than 
doubtful.  In  1 814  it  was  revived  at  the  Karnth- 
nerthor  Theater,  still  under  the  name  of  '  Fidelio,' 
with  farther  alterations  consequent  upon  a 
thorough  revision  of  the  text  by  Friedrich 
Treitschke,  and  a  new  Overture  in  E — the  fourth 
which  had  been  written  for  it — and,  on  this  oc- 
casion, its  beauties  were  more  clearly  appreciated, 
though  not  to  the  extent  they  deserved.  Never 
during  the  Composer's  lifetime  was  '  Fidelio ' 
understood  as  we  understand  it  now.  Perhaps 
no  work  of  the  kind  ever  caused  its  author  more 
serious  annoyance.  Even  in  18 14,  the  Prima 
donna,  Madame  Milder-Hauptmann,  presumed, 
on  her  own  confession,  to  dispute  Beethoven's  will 
with  regard  to  the  magnificent  Scena,  'Komm, 
Hoffnung,  lass  den  letzten  Stern.'  Yet  the  un- 
wearying care  he  bestowed  upon  the  minutest 
details  of  the  piece,  no  less  than  upon  its 
general  effect,  resulted  in  a  work  which  really 
leaves  no  room  for  hostile  criticism.  The  most 
censorious  analyst,  if  he  be  honest,  will  find 
himself  constrained  to  admit  that,  however  deeply 
he  may  seek  into  the  inner  meaning  of  the  Scenes 
it  presents  to  us,  Beethoven  has  been  beforehand 
with  him,  and  sought  into  it  more  deeply  still. 
Not  Gluck  himself  ever  produced  an  Opera 
bearing  traces  of  such  intense  devotion  to  pure 
dramatic  truth.  The  principles  upon  which  it 
is  modelled  are,  indeed,  almost  identical  with 
Gluck's,  so  far  as  theory  is  concerned  ;  but  Gluck, 
in  his  latest  works,  undoubtedly  sacrificed  musical 
form  to  dramatic  expression;  while  Beethoven 
has  shown  that  the  perfection  of  the  one  is  not 
inconsistent  with  the  fullest  possible  enunciation 
of  the  other. 

With  these  great  qualities  to  recommend  it, 


OPERA. 

Fidelio  stands  alone,  and  has  necessarily  be- 
come immortal ;  while  the  works  of  Paer,  Stiss- 
mayer,  and  other  Composers  who  enjoyed  a  high 
degree  of  popularity  in  the  earlier  years  of  the 
19th  century,  have  been  long  since  almost  for- 
gotten. The  only  other  productions  of  the  Period 
that  can  for  a  moment  be  placed  in  competition 
with  it  are  the  later  Operas  of  Cherubim,  who, 
after  writing  for  many  years  in  the  light  Neapoli- 
tan style,  struck  out,  in  'Lodoiska'  (1791),  a 
manner  of  his  own,  strikingly  original,  and  far 
above  the  possibility  of  imitation,  but  based,  like 
Beethoven's,  upon  the  principles  laid  down  by 
Gluck,  and  presenting  the  curious  anomaly  of  a 
German  method,  cultivated  by  an  Italian,  for  the 
amusement  of  a  Parisian  audience.  Beethoven 
is  known  to  have  spoken  of  Cherubini  as  'the 
greatest  of  all  living  writers  for  the  Stage,'  and 
to  have  admired  '  Les  deux  Journees '  and  '  Fan- 
iska '  exceedingly :  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark, 
that  a  strong  analogy  is  observable  between  the 
Libretti  of  '  Fideblo,'  '  Faniska,'  '  Les  deux 
Journees,'  and  '  Lodoiska,'  in  each  of  which  the 
leading  incident  is  the  rescue  of  an  unjustly- 
detained  prisoner,  through  the  devotion  of  a 
faithful  friend  whose  life  is  risked,  though  not 
lost,  in  the  labour  of  love  necessary  to  effect  the 
desired  object.  We  can  scarcely  believe  it  possi- 
ble that  the  two  great  Composers  would  have 
selected  subjects  so  exactly  similar  in  character, 
and  bringing  into  play  exactly  the  same  delicate 
shades  of  emotion,  passion,  and  feeling,  had  there 
not  been  a  strong  community  of  thought  between 
them  :  yet  their  mode  of  expressing  that  thought 
was,  in  each  case,  so  completely  a  part  of  them- 
selves, that  not  the  slightest  trace  of  similarity  is 
discernible  in  their  treatment  even  of  those  Scenes 
which  most  closely  resemble  each  other  as  wel 
in  their  outward  construction  as  in  their  inne 
meaning.  In  all  such  cases,  the  most  careful 
criticism  can  only  lead  to  the  conclusion  that 
each  Master  did  that  which  was  best  for  his  own 
work  in  his  own  peculiar  way;  and  the  more 
closely  we  analyse  these  works,  the  deeper  will 
be  our  reverence  for  the  genius  of  those  who 
attained  such  splendid  results  by  such  very  dif- 
ferent means. 

Our  Fifteenth  Period  introduces  us  to 
new  and  very  remarkable  development  of  the 
German  Opera,  known  among  musical  historians 
as  the  Romantic  School — a  form  of  Art  which, 
since  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  has 
exercised  a  more  decided  influence  upon  the  pro- 
gress of  Dramatic  Music  than  any  other  recog- 
nised agent.  The  invention  of  the  Romantic 
Opera  has  been  almost  unanimously  ascribed  to 
Weber ;  we  must  not,  however,  pass  over  in 
silence  a  claim  which  has  been  brought  forward, 
within  the  last  few  years,  in  favour  of  Spohr, 
though  we  believe  it  to  be  indefensible.  It  is 
quite  true  that  'Faust/  Spohr's  greatest  triumph 
in  this  peculiar  style,  was  completed  and  ready 
for  performance  in  181 3  ;  while  Weber's  master- 
piece, '  Der  Freischutz,'  was  not  produced  till 
182 1.  But  the  decision  of  the  controversy  does 
not  rest,  as  has  been  pretended,  upon  the  com- 


OPERA. 

parative  chronology  of  these  two  great  works. 
As  early  as  1 806  Weber  had  given  good  promise  of 
what  was  to  come,  in  a  decidedly  Romantio  Opera, 
*  Riibezahl,'  written  for  the  theatre  at  Breslau, 
but  never  publicly  performed.  The  only  por- 
tions of  this  Opera  now  known  to  be  in  existence 
are,  a  Scena,  a  Quintet,  and  a  Chorus  of  Spirits,  in 
MS.,  and  the  Overture — published,  with  exten- 
sive alterations,  under  the  title  of  'Der  Beherrs- 
cher  derGeister'  ('The  Ruler  of  the  Spirits'). 
It  is  sad  indeed  to  feel  that  the  remainder  is 
hopelessly  lost;  but  the  Overture  alone  affords 
us  all  the  evidence  we  need.  Not  only  is  it  the 
first  example  we  meet  with,  in  modern  times,  of 
a  grand  Orchestral  Prelude  written  in  6-4  time  ; 
but  its  Subjects,  its  Instrumentation,  and  its 
general  design,  establish  its  '  Romantic '  charac- 
ter beyond  all  controversy,  and,  taken  in  con- 
nection with  the  date  of  its  production,  remove 
the  necessity  for  bringing  forward  any  farther 
testimony  in  the  Composer's  favour.  Priority  of 
invention,  therefore,  unquestionably  rests  with 
him ;  while  those  who  judge  the  question  on 
aesthetic  grounds  have  never  hesitated  to  accept 
'  Der  Freischutz '  as  an  embodiment  of  the  highest 
Ideal  the  School  is  capable  of  realising,  its  truest 
prototype  as  well  as  its  brightest  ornament.  To 
Weber,  therefore,  the  full  honour  must  be  ac- 
corded ;  and  it  is  in  his  works  that  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  School  may  be  most  profitably 
■tudied. 

It  is  by  no  means  indispensable  that  the 
Libretto  of  the  Romantic  Opera  should  deal  with 
the  Supernatural.  Though  it  certainly  finds  a  con- 
genial habitat  in  the  realm  of  Ghosts,  Daemons, 
Faeries,  Gnomes,  Witches,  Mermaids,  and  Sprites 
of  all  sorts  and  conditions,  it  is  equally  at  home 
among  the  splendours  of  Chivalric  Pageantry,  in 
the  solitude  of  the  Black  Forest,  or  under  the 
arches  of  a  Cloister.  Its  Dramatis  persona  may 
be  Queens  and  Princes,  a  troop  of  Spectres,  or  a 
company  of  Peasants  with  hearts  as  innocent  as 
their  dresses  are  homely.  Only,  whoever  they 
are,  they  must  speak  in  their  real  character, 
natural  or  imaginary.  The  Scene  cannot  very 
well  be  laid  in  the  streets  of  a  modern  City,  nor 
must  the  incidents  be  such  as  one  would  be 
likely  to  encounter  in  ordinary  domestic  life; 
but  the  domestic  affections,  and  all  other  pas- 
sions which  form  the  common  inheritance  of 
every  age  and  country  alike,  may,  and  neces- 
sarily must,  be  represented  in  their  fullest 
integrity.  The  only  condition  laid  upon  the 
Composer  is,  that  when  he  is  called  upon  to  deal 
with  natural  things,  he  must  be  truly  and  un- 
affectedly natural.  When  he  soars  into  the 
regions  of  Fancy,  he  must  trust  entirely  to  the 
power  of  his  Imagination ;  and,  in  proportion  to 
the  extent  of  that  power  will  be  the  measure  of 
his  success.  Let  us  see  how  these  conditions  are 
fulfilled  in  Weber's  masterpiece. 

The  plot  of  'Der  Freischutz '  consists  of  the 
simplest  possible  love  story,  surrounded  by  an 
atmosphere  of  horror,  which,  though  having  no 
real  connection  with  it,  influences  its  progress 
from   beginning  to   end.     It  is   by   his   clever 


OPERA. 


521 


recognition  of  this  fact  that  Weber  has  proved 
himself  the  greatest  Master  of  the  style  that 
ever  lived.  He  presents  his  heroine  to  us  as  a 
high-souled  maiden,  faithful  and  true,  and  above 
all,  earnestly  and  unaffectedly  God-fearing.  We 
learn  all  this,  not  from  anything  she  says  or 
does,  but  simply  from  the  style  of  the  Music  he 
has  given  her  to  sing.  In  like  manner,  and  by 
the  same  means  of  expression,  he  depicts  his  hero 
as  an  honest  fellow,  very  much  in  love,  but  very 
weak  and  vacillating  when  his  best  affections  are 
used  as  temptations  to  draw  him  into  evil.  We 
see  this  last-named  trait  in  his  character  very 
clearly  exemplified  in  the  grand  concerted  piece, 
•  0  !  diese  Sonne,'  and  the  Terzetto,  '  Wie  ?  was  ? 
entsetzen  1 '  and  the  first,  in  '  Durch  die  Walder ' : 
but,  when  the  shadow  of  Samiel  appears  behind 
him,  he  entirely  loses  his  individuality.  He  is 
no  longer  one  of  ourselves.  His  cry  of  despair, 
'O  dringt  kein  Strahl  durch  diese  Nachte,' 
reaches  us  like  a  wail  from  the  other  world ;  and 
we  are  instantly  transported  from  the  realms  of 
human  passion  into  those  of  pure  imagination. 
Caspar,  on  the  other  hand,  is  never  natural.  He 
has  consorted  with  Daemons  until  he  has  himself 
become  a  Fiend;  and  he  betrays  this  fact  as 
clearly  in  his  rollicking  Trinklied,  as  in  his  Death- 
Song.  The  same  just  discrimination  of  styles  is 
exhibited  in  the  Music  allotted  to  the  Peasants, 
the  Bridesmaids,  and  the  grisly  Followers  of 
'  The  Wild  Huntsman,'  who  are  all  made  to  sing 
passages  so  well  suited  to  their  several  characters, 
whether  real  or  imaginary,  that  no  spoken  words 
could  illustrate  them  with  equal  plainness.  In 
the  famous  '  Incantation  Scene,'  the  Art  of  Tone- 
painting  is  used  with  a  power  which  needs  the 
aid  of  no  scenic  horrors  to  impress  its  meaning 
upon  the  most  unimaginative  comprehension,  and 
which  is,  indeed,  only  too  frequently  distracted 
by  the  noise  and  confusion  inseparable  from  a  too 
exuberant  '  Spectacle ' :  while  the  Overture,  a 
triumph  of  descriptive  Instrumentation,  furnishes 
us,  by  means  of  its  leading  themes,  with  an  epitome 
of  the  entire  story.  The  constant  use  of  the  Leit- 
motif, throughout  the  whole  of  this  remarkable 
Opera,  seems  indeed  to  entitle  Weber  to  the 
honour  of  its  invention,  notwithstanding  the  sug- 
gestive notes  sung  by  the  Statue  in  'II  Don 
Giovanni.'  His  skill  in  making  the  Overture 
serve  as  an  argument  to  the  piece  to  which  it  is 
prefixed,  in  accordance  with  the  principles  laid 
down  many  years  previously  by  Gluck,  is,  at 
all  times,  very  conspicuous.  In  '  Euryanthe ' 
(1823),  for  instance,  the  spirited  '  First  Subject' 
prepares  us  at  once  for  the  knightly  pomp  of  the 
coming  Drama;  while  the  weird  episode  for 
Violini,  con  sordini,  tells  the  secret  of  the  plot 
with  a  ghastly  fidelity  to  which  the  shuddering 
tremoli  of  the  Viola — played  senza  sordini — 
lends  an  intensity  truly  wonderful,  when  we  re- 
member the  extreme  simplicity  of  the  means 
employed.  The  raison  d"4tre  of  this  extraordinary 
episode — to  which  no  one  seems  ever  to  give  a 
thought  in  England — is,  the  temporary  rising  of 
the  Curtain,  for  the  purpose  of  displaying  the  Vault 
containing  the  Sarcophagus  of  Adolar's  Bister 


::■: 


OPERA. 


■MBH  ii  II  km  tan  m  Sana*!  BBS  Bass* 
i  bn^t  forward  in  evidence  of  Euryanthe  s 
The  whole  passage  k  treated  with 
:  force  sever  afterwards  exceeded  even 
by  Weber  himself.  He  seems,  indeed,  to  have 
hiatus  ui  wpwhl  pains  upon  'Euryanthe,'  in 
which  he  so  far  departed  from  German  custom 
as  to  substitute  heavily  accompanied  BecitatiTe 
for  spoken  dialogae  throughout — an  expedient 
which  he  did  not  follow  np  in  his  later  English 
Opera  'Oberon,*  and  for  the  introduction  of 
which  is  k  certain  that  neither  English  nor  Ger- 
were  at  that  time  prepared. 
Spohr  cannot  be  justly  credited  with 
the  isualioa  of  the  'Bomantic  Opera,'  his  ima- 
iT.z^t'.Te  tnusnanssnaa'  nui  n  cr^tive  nsassni 
enabled  him  to  cultivate  it  with  very  great  suc- 
cess; while  his  unlimited  command  orer  the  m- 

lentapecaCai^defitionscohairiagtohmmethod 
of  treatment.  His  sFaust'— now  temporarily 
thrnst  aside  to  make  room  for  another  work  of 

more  all  danger  of  its  permanent  extinction. 
'Der  Berggekt'  (1825),  though  km  generally 
known,  is,  in  some  respects,  still  finer;  and  is 
especially  remarkable  for  its  magnificent  Over- 
ture, as*  well  as  for  the  skflfol  treatment  of  a 
Scene,  in  which  the  phantom  of  the  heroine's 
>  are  sent,  by  the  power  of  a  magic  spell,  to 
her  in  her  solitude.  The  shadowy  Music 
to  the  ghostly  forma,  contrasted  with 
I  -j  :_r  ;-r.r  Bsausunussi  Msni  zTr^z.: 
own  proper  pfrwrw,  tells  the  story  with 
*^4f»  also  reached  a 
very  high  standard  in  'Zemire  und  Axor'  (1819), 
Der  Akhymkt'  (1830),  and  'Der  Kreuxfahrer' 
(1845).  In  'Jessonda,'  produced  in  1823,  and 
regarded  by  himsflf  as  his  best  Opera,  he 
attempt,  like  Weber,  to  abolish  spoken 
in  favour  of  Accompanied  Recitative; 
,  Eke  Weber,  that  popular  feeling  was 

it  still  holds  its  ground,  both  in  Ger- 
r,  France,  and  England.     In  Italy  alone  has 
been  always  regarded  as  a 
nine  qua  mm  at  the  Opera. 

Next  in  order  of  merit  are  the  Romantic 
Operas  of  TT«J ifr*  M»mtMi_  whose  more  im- 
portant productions,  'Der  Yampyr'  (1828), 
'Der  Tempkr  and  die  Jadin'  (1829),  'Hans 
Hefling*  <j833),  and  'Adolph  von  Nassau' 
(1844X  tank  among  the  best  works  of  the  kind 
that  hare  been  produced  in  modem  times.  Of 
the  eleven  Operas  written  by  Ernst  Theodor 
now  preserved  nMSk  at  Berlin, 
amy,  founded  on  De  la  Motto  Fouque  3 
immg  story  of  'Undine,'  seems  to  have  pro- 
m  any  very  strong  impression.  Wcoer  Mas 
ksticaDy ;  yet,  notwith- 
v.  ;:-  mmanmamfk  Inatan- 


faprrklry  as  f ,  ihOntod  in  the  part  of  Kn  hlehorn — 
nothing  has  ever  been  heard  of  it  since  it  was 

first  produced  in  1 81 7.    Almost  equally  forgotten 
am  the  P— stir  Operas  of  7 


OPERA. 

' Lichtenstein,'  ' Die  Sicilianische  Vesper.'  'Der 
Bergkonig,'  and  '  Der  Ysmpyr,'  far  excel,  both  in 
artistic  conception  and  technical  development, 
many  works  which  have  unaccountably  outlived 
them.  Iindpaintaer  died  in  1S56;  and,  in 
making  hk  works,  we  virtually  bring  oar  his- 
tory of  the  German  Opera  down  to  the  present 
time;  far  it  k  mm  riff  sail  y  that  we  Khoolfl  eritkko 
tiw  ephemeral  productions  of  Conradm  Kreutasr, 
Lortamg,  and  other  writers  who  confessedly  en- 
tertained no  higher  aim  than  that  of  pleasing  the 
frequenters,  of  the  theatres  at  which  they  were 
severally  engaged ;  and — except  in  one  important 
instance,  too  grave  to  be  either  passed  over  in 
atlence  or  discussed  in  company  with  others— 
we  think  it  best  to  leave  the  inspirations  of  living 
to  the  judgment  of  a  future  gene- 


When  Cherubini  fulfilled  hk  great  Art-mksion 
in  Paris,  he  worked  side  by  side  with  men,  who, 
though  wholly  unworthy  to  be  placed  in  the  same 
category  with  himself,  or  with  Beethoven— the 
only  other  Composer  whose  Dramatic  Musk 
bean  the  Brightest  analogy  to  hk  own — were, 
m  njilkulini,  earnest  enough,  in  their  way,  and 
conscientiously  acted  up  to  their  light.  Ofthese 
Composers  we  now  propose  to  speak,  as  the  chief 
actors  in  our  Sixteenth  Pxbiod,  the  most  bril- 
liant in  the  hktory  of  the  Opera  eomiqme. 

After  the  retirement  of  duck,  Pkeinni  still 
enjoyed  a  certain  term  of  popularity :  but,  when 
the  excitement  of  faction  had  sttUcd  down  into 
the  calm  of  sounder  judgment,  the  field  was 
really  open  to  any  French  Composer  with  talent 
enough  to  secure  a  fair  hearing.  At  tins  junc- 
ture, Gretry  and  Mehul  stepped  forward  to  fill 
the  gap.  Both  were  men  of  more  than  ordinary 
talent,  and  the  works  of  both  became  extremely 
popular,  and  held  firm  possession  of  the  Stage 
for  many  years.  Gretry  s  style  was  light  and 
pleasing,  and  exactly  adapted  to  the  taste  of  n 
"Pr*^"  andknop  Mehul  was  even  a  more 
thorough  Miasriss,  and  aimed  at  higher  things; 
striving  consckntioualy  to  carry  out  the  princi- 
ples of  hk  instructor,  Gluck,  for  whom  he  en- 
tertained the  deepest  reverence,  and  to  whose 
wise  counsck  he  was  indebted  for  many  of  the 
sterling  qualities  which  tended  to  make  hk  work 
deservedly  famous.  It  was  chiefly  by  the  exer- 
tions of  these  two  genial  writers,  and  their  equally 
I  sh  mUt~  f  wintry  s>an  and  contemporary,  Boieldieu, 
that  the  Opera  eomiqme  was  raised  to  the  position 
which  it  has  ever  since  maintained,  as  one  of  the 
most  popular  branches  of  French  Dramatic  Art — 
for  the  great  works  of  Cherubini,  though  Operas 
eomiqua  in  name,  are,  in  style,  much  more  nearly 
allied  to  the  German  'Bomantic  Opera.'  The 
true  Opera  eomiqme  k  essentially  a  French  crea- 
tion. Da  title  k  somewhat  anomalous,  far  it  k 
not  at  all  necessary  that  it  should  introduce 
a  single  comic  Scene  or  Character  :  but  its 
denouement  most  be  a  happy  one,  and  the  dia- 
logue most  be  spoken.  Even  Mehol's  'Joseph* 
(1807),  though  founded  strictly  upon  the  Scrip- 
ture narrative,  k  included,  by  virtue  of  this 
1  the  category,  as  are  many  other 


OPERA. 

works,  the  action  of  which  is  serious,  or  even 
gloomy,  throughout.1  Since  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century,  the  best  French  Composers  have 
desired  nothing  better  than  to  succeed  in  the 
style  which  was  so  signally  adorned  by  their  im- 
mediate predecessors.  Monsigny,  Berton,  Isouard, 
Lesueur,  and  Catel,  all  cultivated  it  with  more  or 
less  success  ;  as  did,  at  a  later  period,  Clapisson, 
Adam,  Herold,  Halevy,  and  Auber.  The  last 
two  Composers  also  attained  great  celebrity  in 
Grand  Opera,  concerning  the  development  of 
which  we  shall  have  occasion  to  speak  more 
particularly  in  a  later  section  of  the  present 
Article;  for  the  present,  it  is  enough  to  say 
that  their  lighter  works  have  been  received 
little  less  cordially  in  England  and  Germany 
than  at  the  Parisian  theatres  for  which  they 
were  originally  composed. 

As  Germany  boasted  its  Romantic  Opera,  and 
France  its  Opera  eomique.  so  England  gave  birth 
to  a  style  of  Opera  peculiar  to  itself,  and  differ- 
ing in  so  many  important  points  from  all  other 
known  forms,  that  we  shall  find  it  convenient  to 
place  it  in  a  class  by  itself,  and  speak  of  it  as 
the  creation  of  a  Skvkmkjctth  Period. 

In  describing  the  dramatic  works  of  PurceU 
(see  p.  507  a),  we  stated  our  belief  that  English 
Opera  owed  its  origin  to  the  Masque.  Now,  the 
Music  of  the  Masque  was  wholly  incidental — that 
is  to  say,  it  formed  no  essential  element  of  the 
piece,  but  was  introduced,  either  for  the  purpose  of 
adding  to  the  effect  of  certain  Scenes,  of  affording  op- 
portunities for  certain  Actors  to  display  their  vocal 
powers,  or,  of  «nnirfng  or  interesting  the  audience 
in  any  way  that  might  be  thought  most  desirable. 
The  only  purpose  for  which  it  was  not  used  was 
that  of  developing  the  action  of  the  Drama, 
which  was  carried  on  entirely  in  spoken  dialogue: 
declamatory  Music,  therefore,  was  quite  foreign 
to  its  character,  and  all  that  was  demanded  of 
the  Composer  was  a  succession  of  Songs,  Dances, 
and  tuneful  Choruses.  PurceU  rebelled  against 
this  state  of  things,  and  introduced  a  decidedly 
dramatic  feeling  into  much  of  his  best  Music ; 
but  he  died  early,  and  his  work  was  not  success- 
fully followed  up.  The  history  of  our  Eighth 
Period  shows  how  completely  the  Italian  Opera 
banished  native  Art  from  the  Stage,  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  iSth  century.  Attempts  were 
indeed  made  to  bring  it  forward,  from  time  to 
time,  sometimes  successfully,  but  often  with 
very  discouraging  results.  Several  English  Operas 
were  sung  at  the  'Little  Theatre  in  the  Hay- 
market,'  while  Handel's  splendid  works  were 
rapidly  succeeding  each  other  at  the  King's 
Theatre  across  the  street ;  and,  more  than  once, 
English  Operas  were  advertised  to  be  performed 
'  after  the  Italian  manner,' — that  is  to  say,  with 
Recitatives  in  place  of  dialogue,  and  measured 
Melody  for  the  Airs.  None  of  these,  however, 
produced  any  real  effect ;  and  no  success  worth 
recording  was  attained  until  the  year  1728,  when 


■  TIN  Uffcter  kn  of  tfc*  Fn  t  ml 
— M»»r»J.wtttH  rlliililSan p.) 
4o  not  think  it  1 
Article.    I  Sot  Vacbstillk.1 


OPERA 


sa 


•tkk  tk*  praam 


Gay  wrote,  and  Dr.  Pepusch  adapted  Mask  to,  the 
'Beggars  Opera.'  This  was  an  embodiment  of 
"feigiish  Art,  pure  and  simple.  The  plot  was 
laid  in  an  English  Prison;  the  dialogues  were 
spoken,  as  in  an  ordinary  Play;  and  the  Mask 
consisted  of  the  loveliest  TvnglUh  »nd  frniitht 
Melodies  that  could  be  collected,  either  from 
the  inexhaustible  treasury  of  National  Song,  or 
the  most  popular  Ballad  Music  of  the  day.  The 
success  of  this  venture  was  quite  unprecedented, 
and  led  to  the  production  of  a  sequel  to  the 
story,  similarly  'treated,  and  made  ready  for 
performance,  in  1729,  though  not  presented  to 
the  public  until  1777,  when  it  was  played,  for 
the  first  time,  under  the  name  of '  Polly .*  [See 
Pollt.] 

No  English  Opera  composed  '  after  the  Italian 
manner'  was  ever  so  cordially  welcomed  as 
the  'Beggars  s Opera.'  Nevertheless,  attempts 
were  still  made  in  that  style.  In  1733,  Dr. 
Arne  produced  a  piece  called  (after  Fielding's 
'Tragedy  of  Tragedies')  'Torn  Thumb,  The 
Opera  of  Operas,'  in  which  his  little  brother, 
then  known  as  Master  Arne,  sang  the  part  of 
the  hero  with  great  success ;  and  Lampe  was 
still  happier,  in  1737,  with  his  famous  Burlesque 
'  The  Dragon  of  Wantley.'  Arne,  however, 
aimed  at  higher  things  than  these.  His  great 
ambition  was  the  formation  of  a  School  of 
English  Opera,  based  upon  the  then  faamonahlp 
Italian  model;  and,  with  this  end  in  view,  he 
translated  and  set  to  Mask  the  text  of  Metas- 
tases 'Artaserse,'  and  produced  it,  under  the 
name  of  •  Artaxerxes,'  in  1762.  Its  reception 
was  extremely  encouraging,  and  deservedly  so, 
for  it  contained  much  excellent  Musk,  and  was 
performed  by  a  very  strong  company;  bat  its 
success  was  rendered  almost  nugatory,  so  far  as 
its  effect  upon  the  future  was  concerned,  by  the 
interference  of  a  certain  class  of  critics — men, 
for  the  most  part,  with  some  amount  of  literary 
ability,  but  utterly  ignorant  of  the  first  principles 
of  Art,  and  therefore  knowing  nothing  whatever 
of  the  merits  of  the  question  they  pretended  to 
decide — who,  having  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  Frigliah  language  was  unfitted  for  Recitative, 
reiterated  this  opinion  until  they  persuaded  a 
large  section  of  the  public  to  agree  with  them.* 
But  for  this,  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  idea, 
had  it  been  conscientiously  developed,  might  have 
led  to  results  of  real  importance.  As  it  was.  no 
farther  attempt  was  made  to  sing  an  English 
Opera,  throughout,  though  no  objection  was 
raised  against  the  introduction  of  any  amount  of 
Recitative,  Accompanied  or  Unaccompanied, 
into   an    Oratorio.     Arne's    project,   therefore. 


524 


OPERA. 


brought  forth  no  permanent  fruit,  though  he 
had  no  cause  to  be  dissatisfied  with  the  result  of 
his  own  private  venture  :  but  pieces  constructed 
more  or  less  exactly  upon  the  model  of  the 
4  Beggar '8  Opera,'  though  containing,  for  the 
most  part,  only  original  Music,  became  enor- 
mously popular,  and  were  produced  in  almost  in- 
credible numbers.  Between  the  years  1788  and 
j  796  Storace  wrote  fifteen,  the  most  successful  of 
which  were '  The  Haunted  Tower,'  '  No  Song,  no 
Supper,' '  The  Iron  Chest,'  and  'Mahmoud.'  Dib- 
din  wrote  a  still  greater  number,  including  '  The 
Padlock' (1768),  ' The  Waterman '  (1774),  and 
'  The  Quaker'  (1775).  His  Songs  were  character- 
ised by  a  genial  raciness  which  brought  them  into 
universal  fame  at  the  time  they  were  written, 
and  has  been  the  means  of  preserving  many  of 
them  to  our  own  day,  though  the  pieces  into  which 
they  were  introduced  have  been  long  since  utterly 
forgotten — with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  '  The 
Waterman,'  which  still  occasionally  appears,  as 
an  '  Afterpiece,'  at  Provincial  Theatres,  and  in 
which  Mr.  Sims  Reeves  achieved,  not  many, 
years  ago,  a  very  great  success.  Shield  was 
gifted  with  a  true  genius  for  Melody.  His  Songs 
are  delightful ;  and,  among  the  thirty  Operas 
he  produced  between  1782  and  1807,  are  many, 
such  as  'Rosina,'  'Lock  and  Key,'  and  'The 
Castle  of  Andalusia,'  which  abound  with  beauties 
now  very  undeservedly  forgotten.  Michael  Kelly 
was  a  prolific  writer  of  English  Operas,  and 
won  much  fame  by  '  The  Castle  Spectre '  (1797), 
'Bluebeard'  (1798),  and  'The  Wood  Daemon' 
(1807).  Hook,  Davy,  Ware,  Reeve,  and  many 
other  equally  popular  writers,  contributed  their 
quota  of  works  which  have  long  since  passed 
out  of  memory,  but  which  our  grandfathers 
held  in  no  light  esteem.  To  them  succeeded 
Braham,  whose  really  good  Songs,  so  perfectly 
adapted  to  the  powers  of  his  matchless  voice, 
commanded  success  for  '  The  English  Fleet' 
and  many  other  pieces,  which,  as  true  works  of 
Art,  were  certainly  not  on  a  level  with  those 
of  Shield.  Very  different  were  the  productions 
of  Sir  Henry  Bishop,  a  thorough  master  of 
Harmony,  and  a  more  than  ordinarily  accom- 
plished Musician.  He  made,  indeed,  no  attempt 
to  improve  upon  the  form  of  the  English  Opera, 
which,  in  his  hands,  as  well  as  in  those  of  his 
predecessors,  was  still  no  more  than  a  Play — 
generally  a  very  poor  one — diversified  by  a  goodly 
collection  of  Songs,  Duets,  and  Choruses.  But 
neither  his  Songs  nor  his  Concerted  pieces  be- 
trayed the  slightest  sign  of  weakness.  Had 
they  formed  parts  of  a  well-constructed  Drama, 
instead  of  being  scattered  through  the  various 
Acts  of  such  ill-conceived  medleys  as  'The 
Knight  of  Snowdoun'  (1810),  'The  Miller  and 
his  Men'  (1813),  or  'Guy  Mannering' (1816); 
had  their  writer  devoted  his  life  rather  to  ,the 
regeneration  of  English  Opera  than  to  the  less 
exalted  task  of  adorning  it  with  gems  of  which 
it  was  not  worthy — the  name  of  Bishop  would 
not  have  stood  very  low  down  upon  the  list  of 
the  great  Operatic  Composers  of  the  present 
century.     But  there  seems  to  have  been  a  great 


OPERA. 

lack  of  energy  in  the  right  direction  at  this  par- 
ticular epoch.  Charles  Horn,  another  delightful 
Composer  of  English  Operas,  was  equally  con- 
tent to  let  the  general  character  of  the  piece 
remain  as  he  found  it.  It  would  be  scarcely  just 
to  say  the  same  of  Balfe,  who  first  made  himself 
famous,  in  1835,  by '  The  Siege  of  Rochelle,'  and, 
in  1843,  produced  the  most  successful  modern 
English  Opera  on  record,  the  far-famed  'Bo- 
hemian Girl.'  Balfe's  style  was  not  an  elevated 
one ;  but  he  possessed  an  inexhaustible  fund  of 
Melody,  and  by  careful  study  of  the  Optra 
cornique,  he  certainly  raised  the  standard  of  the 
pieces  he  wrote,  so  far  as  their  general  structure 
was  concerned,  though  in  so  doing  he  deprived 
them  of  the  most  salient  characteristics  of  the 
older  models,  and  produced  a  novelty  to  which 
it  is  difficult  to  assign  any  definite  artistic  status 
— a  peculiarity  which  is,  also,  to  some  extent 
observable  in  the  works  of  Rooke,  J.  Barnett, 
Lavenu,  Wallace,  and  E.  J.  Loder.  Happily 
we  find  no  such  difficulty  with  regard  to  the 
works  of  our  best  living  Operatic  Composers, 
Sir  Julius  Benedict,  Professor  Macfarren,  and 
Mr.  Arthur  Sullivan.  With  these  talented 
writers  it  rests  to  raise  the  English  School  to  a 
higher  level  than  it  has  ever  yet  attained. 
They  have  already  done  much  towards  that 
most  desirable  end;  and  we  cannot  doubt  that 
Artists  who  have  hitherto  so  conscientiously 
striven  to  turn  their  gifts  to  the  best  account 
will  continue  their  labour  of  love  until  they 
have  invested  our  National  Lyric  Drama  with 
a  very  different  form  from  that  which  it  presented 
during  the  earlier  half  of  the  present  century. 
Should  they  succeed  in  this  great  work,  they  will 
certainly  not  fail  to  find  a  Manager  able  and 
willing  to  do  them  justice ;  for  enterprising 
Managers  have  never  been  wanting  when  their 
presence  was  needed — witness  the  work  wrought 
by  Arnold,  Harrison,  Miss  Louisa  Pyne,  Carl 
Rosa,  and  many  others.  The  prospects  of  English 
Opera  are  not,  then,  so  dark  as  some  of  us  may 
imagine. 

The  Eighteenth  Period  of  our  history  takes 
us  once  more,  and  for  the  last  time,  to  Italy, 
where  we  find  the  work  of  Cimarosa  followed  up 
by  one  of  the  most  brilliant  geniuses  the  world 
has  ever  known.  While  Weber  was  studiously 
developing  the  Romantic  School  in  Germany, 
Rossini  was  introducing  unheard-of  changes — 
not  always  for  the  better,  but  always  striking 
and  effective — into  the  inmost  constitution  of 
Italian  Art,  and  carrying  them  out  with  such 
trenchant  vigour,  and  on  so  extensive  a  scale, 
that  he  may  be  said  to  have  entirely  remodelled 
both  the  Opera  Seria  and  the  Opera  Buffa. 
Though  by  no  means  a  learned  Musician,  he 
knew  enough  of  the  Grammar  of  his  Art  to 
enable  him  to  do  full  justice  to  the  delicious 
conceptions  which  continually  presented  them- 
selves to  his  mind,  without  costing  him  the  labour 
of  a  second  thought.  From  first  to  last  he  never 
troubled  himself  to  work.  Nature  had  bestowed 
upon  him  the  power  of  giving  a  nameless  grace 
to  everything  he  touched.     His  Melodies  were 


OPERA. 

more  sensuous^  his  Instrumentation  more  rich 
and  varied,  and  his  forms  more  concise,  than  any 
that  had  been  previously  produced  in  Italy ;  it 
was  but  natural,  therefore,  that  he  should  be 
hailed,  at  first,  as  Cimarosa's  legitimate  successor, 
or  that  he  should  eventually  succeed  in  very  nearly 
supplanting  him,  notwithstanding  his  manifest 
inferiority  to  that  great  Master  in  most,  if  not 
all,  of  those  higher  qualities  which  tend  to  make 
their  possessor  immortal.  Possibly  a  greater 
amount  of  learning  might  have  dimmed  the 
lustre  of  his  natural  gifts.  As  it  was,  his  country 
had  just  reason  to  be  proud  of  him,  for  his 
weakest  productions  were  infinitely  stronger  than 
the  strongest  of  those  brought  forward  by  the 
best  of  his  Italian  contemporaries.  Like  Cima- 
rosa  and  Mozart,  he  was  equally  great  in 
Opera  Seria  and  Opera  Buffa.  His  first  great 
triumph  in  the  former  style  took  place  in  the 
year  1813,  when  he  produced  'II  Tancredi'  at 
Venice  and  took  the  city  by  storm.  This  was 
followed  by  many  other  works  of  the  same  class ; 
and  notably,  in  1816,  by  'Otello,'  which  marks 
an  epoch  in  the  history  of  Serious  Opera,  inas- 
much as  it  is  written  in  Recitativo  strumentato 
throughout,  in  place  of  the  ordinary  Recitativo 
secco — a  peculiarity  extensively  adopted  in  the 
Grand  Operas  of  a  later  period.  It  was  in  18 16 
that  he  also  produced  his  greatest  Opera  Buffa, 
'II  Barbiere  di  Siviglia' — a  work  which,  not- 
withstanding the  extraordinary  popularity  of '  La 
Cenerentola,'  '  La  Gazza  Ladra,  and  some  other 
equally  well-appreciated  favourites,  has  always 
been  regarded  as  his  chef  (Tceuvre.  Of  his 
'Guillaume  Tell,'  written  in  1829,  in  a  style 
entirely  different  from  anything  he  had  ever 
previously  attempted,  this  is  not  the  place  to 
speak ;  but  the  number  of  his  Italian  Operas 
is  prodigious,  and  though  many  of  them  have 
long  since  been  forgotten,  the  revival  of  an  old 
one  may  always  be  looked  upon  as  a  certain 
success. 

Rossini's  greatest  contemporaries  and  successors 
were  Mercadante,  Giovanni  Pacini,  Bellini,  and 
Donizetti.  The  first  of  these  cultivated  a  pecu- 
liar elegance  of  style,  and  won  bright  laurels  by 
bis  '  Nitocri,'  produced  in  1826.  In  the  same 
year  Pacini  produced  his  best  Opera,  '  Niobe,'  in 
which  Madame  Pasta  achieved  one  of  her  most 
memorable  triumphs.  Of  the  masterpieces  of 
Bellini  and  Donizetti  it  is  surely  unnecessary  to 
speak,  since  they  still  hold  firm  possession  of  the 
Stage,  and  are  not  likely  to  be  soon  replaced  by 
newer  favourites.  Bellini  died  in  1835,  and 
Donizetti  in  1848  ;  and,  as  most  of  their  succes- 
sors are  still  living,  including  Verdi  (born  1814), 
their  works  do  not  fall  within  the  compass  of  the 
present  article. 

In  enumerating  the  Composers  most  celebrated 
in  the  history  of  the  Optra  comique,  we  spoke  of 
some  who  had  attained  equal  distinction  by  the 
production  of  Grand  Operas.  To  these  we  must 
again  allude,  in  narrating  the  events  of  our 
Nineteenth  Period. 

We  have  already  noticed  the  invention  of  the 
Grand  Opera  by  Lulli,  and  its  thorough  reforma- 


OPERA. 


525 


tion  by  Gluck.  Gluck's  greatest  successors  were 
Cherubini  and  Spontini ;  the  former  of  whom, 
after  many  splendid  successes  at  the  Opera 
comique,  produced  his '  Anacreon'  at  the  Academie 
in  1803,  'Les  Abencerages '  in  1813.  and  'Ali 
Baba'  in  1833,  while  the  latter  achieved  a  triumph 
in  1807  with  'La  Vestale,'  and  in  1809  with 
Ferdinand  Cortez — works  which,  though  now 
most  undeservedly  forgotten,  exhibit  qualities 
entitling  them  to  a  place  among  the  best  Operas 
of  their  kind  that  have  ever  been  placed  upon 
the  stage.  Rossini  enriched  the  repertoire  in 
1828  with  'Le  Comte  Oiy,'  and  in  1829  with  his 
matchless  'Guillaume  Tell.'  Auber  produced 
'  La  Muette  de  Portici'  in  1828.  These  were  fol- 
lowed in  due  time  by  Hale"vy's  'LaJuive'  (1835) 
and  'Charles  VI'  (1843),  and  the  *  Benvenuto 
Cellini'  of  Hector  Berlioz  (1838).  But  though 
'  Les  Abencerages,' '  La  Vestale,'  and  'Guillaume 
Tell '  are  by  far  the  finest  examples  of  the  style 
we  possess — so  fine  that  they  might  well  form  the 
glory  of  any  style  or  any  age — the  representative 
Composer  of  the  Grand  Opera  is  unquestionably 
Meyerbeer.  To  him  it  owes  its  present  brilliant 
reputation,  its  gorgeous  surroundings,  its  clever 
mixture  of  Ballet  and  Spectacle,  so  flattering  to- 
the  national  taste.  He  also  it  is  who  has  made 
the  most  of  the  one  great  characteristic  by  which 
the  style  is  distinguished  from  that  of  the  Opira 
comique — for  it  is  indispensable  that  the  Voices 
should  be  accompanied  by  the  full  Orchestra,  or 
at  least  the  full  Stringed  Band,  throughout  the 
entire  piece,  to  the  utter  exclusion  not  only  of 
spoken  dialogue,  but  even  of  Recitativo  secco ;  and  it 
is  very  seldom  indeed  that  the  full  Stringed  Band 
is  sufficient  for  the  expression  of  his  ideas,  without 
the  aid  of  Wind  Instruments.  •  His  three  great 
works, '  Robert  le  Diable '  ( 1 8 3 1 ) , '  Les  Huguenots ' 
(1836),  and  'Le  Prophete'  (1849),  exhibit  in 
their  fullest  possible  form  of  development  all  the 
most  prominent  features  of  the  School,  more  es- 
pecially those  which  bring  it  into  antagonism, 
not  only  with  the  Classical  Schools  of  Italy  and 
Germany,  as  represented  by  Cimarosa  and  Mozart, 
but  with  the  later  creations  of  Rossini,  and  the 
imaginative  productions  of  the  successors  of  Weber. 
Since  he  first  made  known  the  fulness  of  his 
power  in  '  Robert,'  no  later  Composer  has  ever 
attempted  to  rob  him  of  his  well-earned  fame  ; 
and  his  death  would  have  been  an  irreparable 
loss  to  the  Academic,  had  he  not  left  behind 
him  the  Composer  of  'La  Nonne  sanglante' 
(1854),  'Faust'  (1859),  'Mireille' (1864),  and 
«Polyeucte'(i878). 

In  approaching  the  Twentieth  Period  of  our 
history,  the  last  into  which  we  have  thought  it 
necessary  to  subdivide  it,  we  find  ourselves 
brought  face  to  face  with  a  Master  whose  ear- 
nest devotion  to  the  cause  of  Art  entitles  bis 
opinions  to  a  more  than  ordinary  measure  of 
respectful  consideration.  We  have,  it  is  true, 
expressed  our  intention  of  avoiding,  as  far  as 
may  be,  the   invidious   task  of  criticising  the 

1  Though  Cherublnl's '  Medee '  and  'Les  deux  Jounces,'  are  grander 
than  any  Grand  Operas  that  ever  were  imagined,  they  are  classed  as 
Optrat  comiquei  by  virtue  of  their  spoken  dialogue. 


526 


OPERA. 


productions  of  living  authors,  from  a  firm  convic- 
tion that  the  time  for  fairly  and  dispassionately 
considering  the  extent  of  their  influence  upon 
the  progress  of  Art  has  not  yet  arrived  ;  hut  in 
this  case  no  choice  is  left  to  us.  The  theories  of 
Richard  Wagner  have  already  been  so  loudly  pro- 
claimed and  so  freely  discussed,  his  works  have 
been  so  fiercely  attacked  by  one  class  of  critics, 
and  so  extravagantly  praised  by  another,  that 
it  is  no  longer  possible  to  ignore  either  their 
present  significance,  their  connection  with  the 
history  of  the  past,  or  their  probable  effect  upon 
the  future.  We  therefore  propose  to  conclude 
our  rapid  sketch  of  the  changes  which  the 
Opera  has  undergone  since  its  new  birth  in  the 
opening  years  of  the  17  th  century,  by  reviewing, 
as  briefly  as  the  nature  of  the  case  will  permit, 
the  peculiarities  of  the  phase  through  which  it 
is  now  passing,  and  thus  enabling  our  readers 
to  form  their  own  opinion  as  to  its  relation  to, 
or  points  of  divergence  from,  the  Schools  we 
have  already  attempted  to  describe. 

Wagner's  contemplated  regeneration  of  the 
Lyric  Drama,  as  he  himself  explains  it,  demands 
changes  far  more  significant  than  the  mere  adop- 
tion of  a  new  style ;  changes  which  can  only  be 
met  by  the  creation  of  an  entirely  new  Ideal — a 
conception  so  different  from  any  proposed  since 
the  time  of  Gluck,  that  the  experience  of  a 
hundred  years  is  utterly  valueless  as  a  guide 
to  its  elaboration,  except,  indeed,  as  affording 
examples  of  the  faults  to  be  avoided.  Reject- 
ing the  very  name  of  Opera  as  inapplicable — 
which  it  certainly  is — to  this  new  conception,  he 
contents  himself  with  the  simple  title  of  Drama. 
The  Drama,  he  tells  us,  depends,  for  the  per- 
fection of  its  expression,  upon  the  union  of 
Poetry  with  Music,  Scenery,  and  Action.  When- 
ever one  of  these  means  of  effect  is  neglected  for 
the  sake  of  giving  undue  prominence  to  another, 
the  result  is  an  anomalous  production  which  will 
not  bear  the  test  of  critical  analysis.  If  we  are  to 
accept  him  as  our  oracle,  we  must  believe  that, 
hitherto,  Composers,  one  and  all,  have  erred 
in  making  the  Music  of  the  Drama  the  first 
consideration,  and  sacrificing  all  others  to  it. 
That  they  have  weakened  rhetorical  delivery, 
for  the  sake  of  pleasing  the  ear  by  rhythmic 
Melodies  which  cannot  co-exist  with  just  dra- 
matic expression.  That  they  have  impeded  the 
action  of*  the  piece,  by  the  introduction  of 
Movements  constructed  upon  a  regular  plan, 
which,  whether  good  or  not  in  a  Sonata,  is 
wholly  out  of  place  in  a  Musical  Drama. 
That  they  have  kept  the  Stage  waiting,  in 
order  that  they  might  give  a  favourite  Singer 
the  opportunity  of  executing  passages  entirely 
out  of  character  with  the  Scene  it  was  his  duty 
to  interpret.  In  place  of  such  rhythmic  Melo- 
dies, such  symmetrically-constructed  Movements, 
and  such  brilliant  passages  of  execution,  Wagner 
substitutes  a  species  of  Song,  which  holds  a 
place  midway  between  true  Recitative  and  true 
Melody — a  kind  of  Mezzo  redtativo,  to  which 
he  gives  the  name  of '  Melos.'  This  he  supports 
by  a  rich   and   varied   Orchestral  Accompani- 


OPERA. 

ment,  designed  to  form,  as  it  were,  the  back- 
ground to  his  picture,  to  enforce  the  expression 
of  the  words  by  appropiate  instrumental  effects, 
and  to  individualise  the  various  members  of  the 
Dramatis  persona  by  assigning  a  special  com- 
bination of  harmonies,  or  a  well-defined  Leit- 
motif, to  each.  The  management  of  this  Ac- 
companiment is  incontestably  his  strongest  point. 
No  man  now  living  possesses  a  tithe  of  his 
command  over  the  resources  of  the  Orchestra. 
The  originality  of  his  combinations  is  as  start- 
ling as  their  effect  is  varied  and  beautiful.  He 
can  make  them  express  whatever  he  feels  to  be 
needful  for  the  effect  of  the  Scenes  he  is  treat- 
ing ;  and  he  frequently  does  so  with  such  com- 
plete success,  that  his  meaning  would  be  per- 
fectly intelligible  even  were  the  Voice-part  can- 
celled. His  '  Melos,'  thus  supported,  adds  power 
and  expression  to  the  poetical  text,  and  furnishes 
us  with  a  very  high  type  of  purely  declamatory 
Music — the  only  Music  he  considers  admissible 
into  the  'Drama,'  except  in  an  incidental  form; 
while  the  infinite  variety  of  orchestral  colouring 
he  is  able  to  impart  to  it  deprives  it,  to  some 
extent,  in  his  hands,  of  the  intolerably  mo- 
notonous effect  it  would  certainly  be  made  to 
produce  by  an  inferior  Composer.  That  he  has 
selected  this  style  from  conviction  that  it  is  more 
exactly  adapted  to  the  desired  purpose  than  any 
other,  and  not  from  any  natural  inability  to 
produce  rhythmic  Melody,  is  certain ;  for  his 
earlier  Operas  clearly  show  him  to  be  a  more 
than  ordinarily  accomplished  Melodist  in  the 
best  sense  of  the  term.  '  Mit  Gewitter 
und  Sturm  aus  fernem  Meer,'  'Traft  ihr  das 
Schiff  im  Meere  an,'  and  '  Steuermann !  lass 
die  Wacht ! '  in  '  Der  fliegende  Hollander,' 
would  alone  prove  this,  had  he  never  written 
anything  else.  His  principles,  however,  were 
but  very  faintly  perceptible  in  'Der  fliegende 
Hollander. '  We  find  them  more  clearly  enounced 
in  '  Tannhauser,'  more  strongly  still  in  '  Lohen- 
grin' and  '  Tristan  und  Isolde';  but  they  only 
attain  their  complete  development  in  his  last 
great  Drama,  '  Der  Ring  des  Nibelungen,'  a  so- 
called  'Tetralogy,'  consisting  of  four  divisions, 
each  long  enough  to  form  a  complete  work,  and 
respectively  named,  '  Das  Rheingold,'  '  Die 
Walkiire,'  'Siegfried,'  and  ' Gotterdammerung.' 
From  this  quadripartite  conception  the  Aria  in 
all  its  forms  is  strictly  banished,  and  Music  is 
made  throughout  the  handmaid  of  the  Libretto, 
and  not  its  mistress.  The  correlation  existing 
between  the  two  is  so  intensely  close,  that  we 
may  well  believe  it  could  never  have  been 
satisfactorily  carried  out,  had  not  the  poetical 
text  been  furnished  by  the  Composer  himself. 
Wagner  evidently  takes  this  view  of  the  matter, 
for  he  has  written  the  Libretti  as  well  as  the 
Music  of  all  his  later  Operas  ;  and  it  is  evident 
that,  where  this  arrangement  is  possible — that 
is  to  say,  where  the  Dramatist  is  great,  and 
equally  great,  both  as  a  Poet,  and  a  Musician — it 
must  of  necessity  lead  to  higher  results  than  any 
which  are  attainable  when  the  work  is  divided 
between  two  men  of  genius,  who,  however  closely 


OPERA. 

their  ideas  may  be  in  accordance,  can  never 
think  exactly  alike.  In  the  '  Tetralogy,'  the 
subject  selected,  and  carried  on  throughout  the 
four  grand  divisions  of  the  work,  is  founded 
upon  certain  Teutonic  Myths,  wh;ch  it  is  scarcely 
possible  for  two  great  writers — a  Word-Poet  and 
a  Tone-Poet — to  contemplate  from  exactly  the 
same  point  of  view :  the  advantage,  therefore, 
is  immeasurable,  when  one  mind,  of  great  and  va- 
ried attainments,  can  arrange  the  whole.  Wagner 
inclines  to  the  idea  that  Myths  of  this  descrip- 
tion furnish  the  best  if  not  the  only  subjects 
on  which  the  Musical  Drama  can  be  founded, 
though  both  '  Lohengrin '  and  '  Tristan  und 
Isolde'  are  founded  upon  Keltic  Legends.  But, 
in  this  he  would,  perhaps,  lay  down  no  very  strict 
law ;  for  the  Teutonic  Myth  could  scarcely 
appeal  very  strongly  to  the  imagination  of 
an  English  audience,  and,  to  a  French  one, 
the  'Nibelungenlied'  would  be  utterly  unintel- 
ligible. 

The  force  of  our  remarks  will  be  best  under- 
stood by  those  who  have  enjoyed  an  opportunity 
of  hearing  Wagners  works  performed  in  his 
own  way  ;  but  a  mere  perusal  of  the  Score  will 
illustrate  them  with  sufficient  clearness  to  an- 
swer all  practical  purposes.  In  either  case,  the 
student  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  by  the  undoubted 
originality  of  the  style :  but,  is  the  general  con- 
ception a  new  one  ?  Assuredly  not.  It  is  the 
fullest  possible  development  of  the  Ideal  which 
was  proposed,  in  the  year  1 600,  at  the  house 
of  Giovanni  Bardi,  in  Florence.  Wagner  looks 
back  to  Greek  Tragedy  as  the  highest  available 
authority  on  the  subject.  So  did  Binuccini. 
Wagner  condemns  rhythmic  Melody  as  alto- 
gether opposed  to  dramatic  truth.  So  did  Peri. 
Wagner  keeps  his  Instrumental  Performers  out 
of  sight,  in  order  that  he  may  the  better  carry 
out  the  illusions  of  the  Drama.  So  did  Emilio 
del  Cavaliere,  and  Peri  after  him.  Wagner 
uses  all  the  orchestral  resources  at  his  com- 
mand, for  the  purpose  of  enforcing  his  dramatic 
meaning.  So,  in  1607,  did  Monteverde.  The 
only  difference  is,  that  Monteverde  had  but  a 
rude  untutored  band  to  work  with,  while  Wagner 
has  a  magnificent  Orchestra,  fortified  by  the  ex- 
perience of  two  hundred  and  eighty  years.  It 
was  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  Monteverde's 
style  of  Recitative  grew  wearisome,  or  that, 
when  the  power  of  introducing  orchestral  colour- 
ing was  so  very  small,  Alessandro  Scarlatti  en- 
deavoured to  increase  the  interest  and  beauty 
of  his  works  by  the  introduction  of  measured 
Melody  and  well-constructed  Movements.  In  pro- 
cess of  time  these  well-intentioned  improvements 
attracted  too  much  attention,  and  weakened  the 
true  power  of  the  Drama.  Then  Gluck  arose, 
and  resolutely  reformed  the  abuse — but  for  the 
time  only.  No  one  can  say  that  his  principles 
have  been  fully  carried  out  by  later  Composers 
— that  too  many  Operas  of  the  present  day,  in 
more  Schools  than  one,  are  not  grievously 
lowered  in  tone  by  the  pernicious  habit  of  in- 
troducing irrelevant,  if  not  positively  flippant 
tunes,  in  situations  where  they  are  altogether 


OPERA. 


527 


out  of  place.  Against  these  abuses  Wagner  has 
waged  implacable  war ;  and,  in  so  doing,  he  has 
merited  the  thanks  of  all  who  have  the  true 
interests  of  the  Lyric  Drama  at  heart :  for  the 
evils  which  he  has  made  it  the  business  of  his  life 
to  eradicate  are  no  light  ones,  and  he  has  entered 
upon  his  task  with  no  faltering  hand.  Only, 
while  giving  him  all  due  honour  for  what  he  has 
done,  let  us  not  wrong  either  himself  or  his 
cause  by  pretending  to  give  him  more  than  his 
due.  He  has  called  our  attention,  not,  as  some 
will  have  it,  to  a  new  creation,  but  to  a  necessary 
reform.  He  has  nothing  to  tell  us  that  Gluck 
has  not  already  said ;  and  Gluck  said  nothing 
that  had  not  already  been  said  by  Peri.  The 
reformation,  so  far  as  Recitative,  Declamation, 
and  Melody  are  concerned,  is  nothing  more  than 
a  return  to  the  first  principles  laid  down  at  the 
Conte  di  Vernio's  reunions.  It  brings  us  there- 
fore not  one  step  in  advance  of  the  position  that 
was  reached  little  less  than  three  centuries  ago. 

These,  however,  are  not  the  only  points  con- 
cerning which  it  is  necessary  to  call  the  reader's 
attention  to  the  strange  analogy  existing  between 
the  new  School  of  the  19th  century  and  that 
which  flourished  in  the  17th.  The  disciples  of 
Peri  and  Caccini  cast  aside,  as  mere  vexatious 
hindrances,  the  restrictions  imposed  upon  them 
by  the  laws  of  Counterpoint.  Modern  Composers 
have  done  the  same  ;  and  striving,  like  Monte- 
verde, to  invent  harmonic  combinations  hitherto 
unheard,  have  justified  their  innovations  by  the 
not  very  easily  controvertible  dictum,  •  That 
which  sounds  well  must,  of  necessity,  be  right.' 
Admitting  the  force  of  this  argument,  must  not 
its  converse — *  That  which  does  not  sound  well 
must,  of  necessity,  be  wrong' — be  equally  true  ? 
It  seems  difficult  to  dispute  this  ;  yet  our  ears  are 
sometimes  very  sorely  tried.  Can  any  one,  for  in- 
stance, really  take  pleasure  in  the  hideously  'out- 
of-tune '  effect  of  the  following  '  False-relation ' 
from  the  Third  Act  of  '  Der  fliegende  Hollander '  ? 


The  great  danger  attendant  upon  such  aber- 
rations as  these,  is  that  the  progression  used  by 
the  Master,  in  a  few  isolated  instances,  for  rea- 
sons of  his  own,  is  too  often  mistaken  by  the 
disciple  for  a  'characteristic  of  the  style,'  and 
introduced  everywhere,  usque  ad  nauseam. 
Should  the  disciples  of  the  School  we  are  con- 
sidering fall  into  this  pernicious,  though  almost 
universally  prevalent  error,  its  results  cannot  fail 
to  exercise  a  most  disastrous  effect  upon  the  future 
prospects  of  the  Drama.  We  have  already  said 
that  the  value  of  a  work  of  Art  depends  entirely 
upon  the  amount  of  Natural  Truth  it  embodies, 
whether  that  Truth  be  exhibited  in  the  perfection 
of  symmetrical  form,  as  in  '  II  Don  Giovanni '  or 
'Le  Nozze  di  Figaro,'  in  power  of  emotional 
expression,  as  in  '  La  Sonnambula,'  '  Norma.'  or 


528 


OPERA. 


'Lucia  di  Lammermoor,'  or  in  purity  of  harmo- 
nious concord,  as  in  'II  Matrimonio  Segreto.' 
Wagners  strict  adherence  to  Dramatic  Truth 
distinguishes  his  writings  from  those  of  all  other 
Composers  of  the  present  day.  He  declares 
himself  ready  to  sacrifice  all  less  important  con- 
siderations for  its  sake,  and  proves  his  loyalty 
by  continually  doing  so.  No  one  will  ven- 
ture to  assert  that  the  value  of  his  own  works, 
strengthened  as  they  are  by  his  conscientious 
adherence  to  a  noble  principle,  is  materially 
diminished  by  a  heterodox  resolution,  or  an  occa- 
sional exhibition  of  harshness  in  the  harmony  of 
an  orchestral  accompaniment ;  but,  should  his 
School,  as  a  School,  encourage  the  use  of  pro- 
gressions which  can  be  defended  upon  no  natural 
principle  whatever,  we  may  be  sure  that  no  long 
time  will  be  suffered  to  elapse  before  it  is  pushed 
aside,  to  make  room  for  the  creations  of  a 
Twenty-first  Period. 

That  such  a  period  must  dawn  upon  us  sooner 
or  later  is,  of  course,  inevitable.  Progress — 
even  though  it  '  progress  backwards '  —  is  an 
essential  condition  of  Art ;  and  we  cannot  sup- 
pose that  any  exception  will  be  made  to  the 
general  law  in  the  present  instance.  This  being 
the  case,  it  may  not,  perhaps,  be  altogether  un- 
profitable to  consider,  as  closely  as  circumstances 
will  permit,  the  probable  character  of  the  Future 
which  lies  before  us,  more  especially  with  regard 
to  the  influence  which  Wagner's  works  and 
teachings  are  likely  to  exercise  upon  it. 

We  are  not  left  wholly  without  such  data 
as  may  enable  us  to  form  an  opinion  on  cer- 
tain points  connected  with  this  very  important 
subject :  and,  first,  we  may  state  our  belief  that 
it  is  simply  impossible  for  such  works  as  'Der 
fliegende  Hollander,'  or  'Die  Meistersinger  von 
Niirnberg,'  to  be  forgotten,  twenty  years  hence. 
It  seems  much  more  probable  that  they,  and 
•  Tannhauser,'  and  '  Lohengrin,'  and  perhaps  also 
•Tristan  und  Isolde,'  will  be  better  understood, 
and  more  frequently  performed,  than  they  are  at 
present.  But,  what  about  the  Tetralogy  ?  Does 
there  seem  a  reasonable  hope  that  that,  too,  may 
live  ?  The  probable  longevity  of  a  Work  of  Art 
may  be  pretty  accurately  measured  by  the  nobility 
of  its  conception.  '  Die  Zauberflote '  is  as  young, 
to-day,  as  it  was  on  the  evening  when  it  first 
saw  the  light :  '  Der  Dorfbarbier '  is  not.  Now 
it  is  an  universally  received  axiom,  that,  of  two 
Works  of  Art,  both  equally  true  to  Nature,  that 
in  which  the  greatest  effect  is  produced  by  the 
least  expenditure  of  means  will  prove  to  be  the 
noblest.  The  greatest  Operas  we  have  are  placed 
upon  the  Stage  with  wonderfully  little  expense. 
For  the  worthy  representation  of  'Fidelio,'  we 
need  only  some  half-dozen  principal  Singers,  a 
Chorus,  an  ordinary  Orchestra,  and  a  couple  of 
Scenes  such  as  the  smallest  provincial  theatre 
could  provide  at  a  few  hours'  notice.  For  '  Der 
Freischiitz,'  we  only  need,  in  addition  to  this,  a 
few  special  'properties,'  and  a  pound  or  two  of 
'  red  fire.'  But,  in  order  that  '  Der  Ring  des 
Nibelungen '  might  be  fitly  represented,  it  was 
found  necessary  to  build  a  new  Theatre ;  to  con- 


OPERA. 

struct  an  Orchestra,  upon  principles  hitherto 
untried,  and  to  fill  it  with  a  matchless  company 
of  Instrumentalists  representing  the  most  bril- 
liant talent  in  Europe ;  to  enrich  the  mist  en 
scene  with  Waves,  Clouds,  Mists,  Flames,  Va- 
pours, a  Dragon — made  in  London,  and  sent  to 
Bayreuth  in  charge  of  a  special  messenger — and 
other  accessories  which  put  the  stabled  Horses 
and  led  Elephants  of  'Berenice,'  and  the  Singing- 
Birds  of  '  Rinaldo,'  to  shame ;  and,  regardless  of 
expense,  to  press  into  the  service  of  the  new 
School  all  the  aids  that  modern  science  could 
contribute  or  modern  ingenuity  invent.  Surely 
this  is  a  great  sign  of  weakness.  There  must 
be  something  wanting  in  a  Drama  which  needs 
these  gorgeous  accompaniments  to  make  it  at- 
tractive ;  and  it  is  difficult  to  believe  that  such 
a  display  will  ever  again  be  attempted,  except 
under  the  immediate  superintendence  of  the 
author  of  the  piece.  But,  supposing  the  '  Tetra- 
logy' should  be  banished  from  the  Stage,  from 
sheer  inability  to  fulfil  the  necessary  conditions 
of  its  production,  will  the  principles  upon  which 
it  is  composed  be  banished  with  it?  Is  it  not 
possible  that  Wagner's  teaching  may  live,  even 
though  some  of  the  grandest  of  his  own  indi- 
vidual conceptions  should  be  forgotten?  Un- 
doubtedly it  will  live,  in  so  far  as  it  is  founded 
upon  purely  natural  principles.  We  have  already 
spoken  of  his  intense  reverence  for  dramatic 
truth.  He  cannot  have  taught  us  the  necessity 
for  this  in  vain.  It  is  absolutely  certain,  that, 
in  this  particular,  he  will  leave  a  marked  im- 
pression for  good  upon  the  coming  generation. 
Whether  or  not  he  has  carried  his  theories  too 
far  for  successful  practice  is  another  question. 
His  disciples  say  that  he  has  not :  and  are  so 
firmly  convinced  of  the  truth  of  their  position 
that  they  will  not  even  hear  an  argument  to  the 
contrary.  Nevertheless,  there  are  many,  who, 
despite  their  unfeigned  admiration  for  his  un- 
doubted talent,  believe  that  the  symmetrical 
forms  he  has  so  sternly  banished  might  have 
been,  and  still  may  be,  turned  to  good  account, 
without  any  real  hindrance  to  dramatic  action : 
and  many  more  there  are  who  doubt  whether  the 
old  Florentine  Ideal,  reinforced  by  all  that  modern 
improvement  can  do  for  it,  can  ever  be  made  to 
take  the  place  of  that  which  Mozart  so  richly 
glorified,  and  from  which  even  Beethoven  and 
Weber  only  differed  in  individual  treatment. 
The  decision  of  these  questions  must  be  left  for 
the  future.  At  present,  '  Non  piu  andrai '  and 
'Madamina'  still  hold  their  ground,  and  may 
possibly  win  the  day,  after  all. 

In  close,  and  not  very  encouraging  connection 
with  this  subject,  there  still  remains  another 
question,  which  we  would  willingly  have  passed 
over  in  silence,  had  it  been  possible :  but,  having 
entered  upon  our  enquiry,  we  must  pursue  it  to 
the  end.  We  may  be  sure  that  Wagner's  most 
enthusiastic  supporters  will  attempt  to  carry  out 
his  views  very  much  farther  than  he  has  carried 
them  himself.  Will  they  also  think  it  desirable 
to  imitate  his  style  ?  It  is  to  be  hoped  not. 
It  would  take  a  long  day  to  tire  us  of  Wagner — 


OPERA. 

but  we  cannot  take  him  at  second-hand.  •  Wag- 
nerism,'  nor  gods  nor  men  can  tolerate.  Yet 
there  are  signs  of  imitation  already.  Not  only 
in  the  lower  ranks — there,  it  is  a  matter  of  no 
consequence  at  all,  one  way  or  the  other — but 
among  men  who  have  already  made  their  mark 
and  need  no  stepping-stones  to  public  favour. 
Nor  is  it  only  at  the  Opera — the  place  in  which 
we  should  naturally  have  Bought  for  its  earliest 
manifestation — but  even  in  Instrumental  Music  : 
one  whose  name  we  all  revere,  and  from  whom 
we  confidently  expect  great  things,  has  been  be- 
trayed into  this  imitation,  in  a  marked  degree, 
in  the  Finale  of  one  of  his  most  important  orches- 
tral works.  It  is  more  than  possible,  that,  in 
this  case,  the  plagiarism  of  manner — it  does  not, 
of  course,  extend  to  the  notes — was  the  result  of 
an  unconscious  mental  process,  not  unnaturally 
produced  by  too  keen  an  interest  in  the  con- 
troversies of  the  day.  But,  be  the  cause  what  it 
may,  the  fact  remains ;  and  it  warns  us  of  serious 
danger.  Danger  that  the  free  course  of  Art  may 
be  paralysed  by  a  soulless  mannerism,  worthy 
only  of  the  meanest  copyist.  Danger,  on  the 
other  hand,  of  a  reaction,  which  will  be  all  the 
more  violent  and  unreasonable  in  proportion  to 
the  amount  of  provocation  needed  to  excite  it. 
Should  the  cry  of  the  revolutionary  party  be 
for  Melody,  it  will  not  be  for  Melody  of  that 
heavenly  form  which  true  genius  alone  can  pro- 
duce, but  for  the  vulgar  twang  with  which  we 
have  long  been  threatened,  and  of  which  we  have 
already  endured  far  more  than  enough.  Between 
these  two  perils,  stagnation  and  reaction,  which 
beset  our  path  like  'a  ditch  on  one  side, 
and  a  quagmire  on  the  other,'  we  shall,  in  all 
probability,  come  to  some  considerable  amount 
of  grief.  Yet  we  must  not  lose  heart  on  that 
account.  Art  is  not  now  passing  through  her  first 
dangerous  crisis :  and  our  history  has  been  writ- 
ten in  vain  if  we  have  not  shown  that  her  worst 
crises  have  always  been  succeeded  by  her  bright- 
est triumphs.  There  may  be  such  a  triumph  in 
store  for  her,  even  now.  Before  the  new  Period 
dawns,  a  Leader  may  arise,  strong  enough  to 
remove  all  difficulties  from  her  path ;  a  Teacher, 
who,  profiting  by  the  experience  of  the  last  half 
century,  may  be  able  to  point  out  some  road,  as 
yet  untried,  which  all  may  follow  in  safety.  Let 
those  who  are  young  enough  to  look  forward  to 
the  20th  century  watch  cheerfully  for  his  ap- 
pearance :  and,  meanwhile,  let  them  prepare  for 
the  difficult  work  of  the  Future,  by  earnest  and 
unremitting  study  of  the  Past.  [W.  S.  R.] 

In  the  United  States  the  Opera  has  always 
lived  the  life  of  an  exotic.  Finding  congenial 
soil  in  some  of  the  larger  and  wealthier  cities,  it 
has  there  flourished  for  a  while,  then  suddenly 
drooped  and  withered.  Large  and  elegant 
theatres,  to  which  have  been  applied  the  digni- 
fied title  of  Academy  of  Music  or  Opera  House, 
have  been  built,  it  having  been,  in  some  cases, 
the  primary  purpose  of  the  owners  to  devote  the 
establishment  solely  to  representations  of  the 
lyric  drama.  But  in  no  case  has  it  been  possible 
VOL.  II.  PT.  II. 


OPERA. 


529 


to  long  adhere  to  this  intention.  With  the  single 
exception  of  New  Orleans  no  city  in  the  United 
States  has  proved  itself  capable  of  maintaining 
Opera  through  the  month*— September  to  May, 
inclusive  —  usually  included  in  the  theatrical 
season.  At  the  close  of  the  late  Civil  War 
New  Orleans  found  a  large  part  of  its  commerce 
diverted  to  other  ports,  and  since  the  return  of 
peace  the  French  opera  in  that  city,  which 
before  had  borne  a  high  reputation  for  enter- 
prise, has  led  a  fitful  life.  The  directors  of 
operatic  troupes  in  the  United  States  have  been 
obliged,  after  beginning  as  a  rule  their  seasons 
in  New  York,  to  take  their  companies  all  over 
the  Union — from  Augusta  in  the  East  to  St. 
Louis  in  the  West — oftentimes  extending  their 
journeys  as  far  South  as  New  Orleans,  and  in 
some  cases  even  to  San  Francisco  and  other 
cities  on  the  Pacific  slope.  All  dramatic  enter- 
prises have  been  in  the  hands  of  private  indi- 
viduals. The  operatic  managers  who  have  won 
the  most  reputation  have  been  Seguin,  who 
conducted  a  party  in  New  York  as  early  as 
1838;  Max  Maretzek,  whose  checkered  career  in 
America  began  in  November  1848  ;  the  brothers 
Max  and  Maurice  Strakosch  ;  Carl  Rosa  ;  H.  L. 
Bateman;  Bernhard  Ullmann;  J.  H.  Hackett, 
under  whose  management  Grisi  and  Mario  made 
their  successful  American  tour  in  1854-55  >  Jacob 
Grau  and  his  son  Maurice  ;  C.  D.  Hess.  Mme. 
Anna  Bishop,  Ole  Bull,  and  Sigismund  Thalberg 
have  also  been  concerned  in  operatic  specula- 
tions in  the  New  World.  Lorenzo  da  Ponte, 
in  early  life  the  friend  and  coadjutor  of  Mozart, 
was,  in  1832,  an  active  worker  in  the  cause 
of  Italian  opera  at  New  York.  Ferdinand 
Palmo,  an  Italian,  keeper  of  a  famous  cafe  in 
New  York,  opened  Feb.  3,  1844,  with  Bel- 
lini'B  'Puritani,'  Palmo's  Opera  House,  the  first 
exclusively  lyric  theatre  in  the  metropolis  ;  but 
it  did  not  maintain  its  character  more  than  a 
season  or  two.  From  researches  made  by  Mr. 
Joseph  N.  Ireland,  the  author  of '  Records  of  the 
New  York  Stage '  it  appears  that  the  theatre-goers 
of  a  century  ago  in  New  York  were  occasionally 
gratified  with  operas  of  the  English  ballad  school, 
•The  Beggar's  Opera'  having  been  sung  in  1751, 
'  Love  in  a  Village'  in  1 768,  '  Inkle  and  Yarico,' 
'TheDuenna,'  'TheTempest'  (PurcelTs  music),  in 
1 791,  and  others,  whose  very  names  are  unknown 
to  the  amateurs  of  to-day,  in  1 800.  '  The  Archers, 
or  The  Mountaineers  of  Switzerland' — on  the  story 
of  William  Tell — brought  out  April  18,  1796, 
may  lay  claim  to  being  the  first  American  opera, 
though  the  music  was  by  an  Englishman, 
Benjamin  Carr,  a  brother  of  Sir  John  Carr,  who 
came  to  America  in  1794.  William  Dunlop,  of 
great  repute  in  his  day  as  an  author,  actor,  and 
manager,  furnished  the  text.  '  Edwin  and  Ange- 
lina,' founded  on  Goldsmith's  poem,  words  by 
Dr.  E.  H.  Smith,  of  Connecticut,  music  by  M. 
Pellesier,  a  French  resident  of  New  York,  was 
produced  Dec.  19,  1798.  M.  Pellesier  also  Bet 
Dunlop' s  'Sterne's  Maria,'  brought  out  Jan.  11, 
1798.  Bishop's  'Guy  Mannering'  (1816),  and 
adaptations  of  Rossini's  'Barber'  (18 19)  and  of 
M  m 


530 


OPERA. 


Mozart's  'Figaro'  (1824),  Davy's  'Rob  Roy* 
(1818),  with  other  English  operas,  and  versions  in 
the  vernacular  of  standard  works  in  Continental 
tongues,  had,  with  the  opportunities  for  hearing 
good  singing  afforded  by  the  engagements  of 
Incledon  and  Thomas  Phillipps  (1817),  and  other 
excellent  English  vocalists,  gradually  prepared 
the  way  for  the  first  season  of  Italian  Opera, 
which  began  at  the  Park  Theatre,  New  York, 
Nov.  26,  1825,  with  Rossini's  'Barber.'  The 
company,  imported  by  Dominick  Lynch,  a  French 
wine -merchant,  included  Manuel  Garcia  and 
his  celebrated  daughter  Maria  Felicita.  [See 
Gabcia.]  At  the  same  house  there  was  begun, 
July  13,  1827,  the  first  regular  season  of  French 
opera,  with  Rossini's '  Cenerentola/  German  opera 
was  introduced  Sept.  16,  1856,  at  Niblo's 
Garden,  Meyerbeer's  'Robert  der  Teufel'  being 
the  work  sung.  The  conductor  was  Mr.  Carl 
Bergmann,  and  the  leader  of  the  orchestra  Mr. 
Theodore  Thomas,  who  had  then  barely  attained 
his  majority. 

Opera-bouffe  was  introduced  in  New  York,  at 
the  French  Theatre,  Sept.  24,  1867,  by  H.  L. 
Bateman;  Offenbach's  'La  Grande  Duchesse'  was 
the  work,  with  Mile.  Lucille  Postee  in  the  title- 
rdle.  It  ran  for  158  nights.  A  troupe  of  Mexican 
children  performed,  in  Spanish,  the  same  work, 
in  several  cities  of  the  Union,  1875-76. 

In  the  winter  of  1869-70,  a  company  of  Rus- 
sians gave  performances  of  operas  in  their  native 
tongue,  by  Slavonic  composers,  at  New  York. 

The  theatres  which  have  most  faithfully 
answered  their  avowed  purpose  as  opera-houses, 
have  been  the  Academy  of  Music,  New  York, 
opened  Oct.  3,  1854,  with  Grisi  and  Mario, 
in '  Norma,*  now  under  the  management  of  James 
Henry  Mapleson,  of  Her  Majesty's  Opera  ;  and 
the  Academy  of  Music,  Philadelphia,  opened 
Feb.  26,  1857,  with  Mine.  Gazzaniga,  Sig. 
Brignole  and  Sig.  Amadio,  in  '  II  Trovatore.'  It 
should  be  recorded  to  the  credit  of  American 
entrepreneurs  that  several  important  works  have 
been  produced  at  New  York  before  they  had 
been  sung  at  either  London  or  Paris — Verdi's 
'A'ida,'  Wagner's  'Lohengrin 'and' Die Walkiire' 
being  the  most  notable  instances.  American  com- 
posers have  received  but  little  encouragement 
from  the  managers.  Three  works — George  Bris- 
tow's  'Rip  van  Winkle,'  Niblo's  Garden,  New 
York,  Sept.  27,  1855;  W.  H.  Fry's  'Leonora,' 
New  York  Academy,  March  29, 1858 ;  and  'Notre 
Dame  de  Paris,'  by  the  same  composer,  Phila- 
delphia Academy,  April  1864 — have  been  the 
most  important  productions :  no  one  of  these 
lived  long  beyond  its  birth.  There  is  a  for- 
midable list  of  extravaganzas,  and  of  operettas  in 
the  serio-comic  vein  or  in  imitation  of  French 
opera-bouffe,  by  American  musicians,  the  greater 
part  of  which  have  vanished  after  fluttering  a 
butterfly's  life  in  the  glare  of  the  footlights. 
Composers  of  recognised  ability  have  written 
grand  operas,  but  the  scores  have  only  gathered 
ignoble  dust  in  their  author's  libraries,  or  found 
their  only  market  among  collectors  when  pub- 
lished.    '  The  Doctor  of  Alcantara,'  an  operetta 


OPERA  BUFFA. 

by  Julius  Eichberg,  a  native  of  Diisseldorf,  but 
for  twenty  years  a  resident  at  Boston,  may  be 
cited  as  the  most  successful  work  of  any  pre- 
tentions  with  an  exclusively  American  reputa- 
tion. Produced  at  the  Boston  Museum,  April  7, 
1862,  it  has  been  sung  over  a  large  part  of  the 
Union,  and  still  retains  its  popularity.  Mr. 
Eichberg  has  also  written  three  other  operettas 
which  have  been  favourably  received — '  The  Rose 
of  Tyrol,'  '  A  Night  in  Rome,'  and  '  The  Two 
Cadis.'  No  distinctive  school  of  music  has  yet 
arisen  in  the  United  States,  nor,  so  long  as  the 
Union  maintains  itself  in  its  present  extent,  and 
its  inhabitants  present  the  cosmopolitan  charac- 
teristics of  to-day,  is  it  likely  that  there  will  be 
one.  But  this  want  has  not  prevented  the  birth, 
education,  in  a  large  degree,  and  liberal  en- 
couragement, of  operatic  singers  whose  worth  has 
been  proclaimed  in  two  hemispheres.  Known 
nearly  as  well  in  England  as  in  America  are  the 
names  of  Miss  Clara  Louise  Kellogg,  Miss  Annie 
Louise  Cary,  Miss  Adelaide  Phillipps,  Miss 
Emma  C.  Thursby,  Mr.  Charles  R.  Adams,  and 
Mr.  Myron  W.  Whitney.  Mile.  Emma  Albani, 
Mile.  Minnie  Hauk,  Mr.  Jules  Perkins,  and 
Sig.  Fob:  were  also  born  and  began  their  brilliant 
careers  in  the  New  World ;  and  to  this  list  should 
be  added  the  names  of  Mme.  von  Zandt,  Miss 
Julia  Gaylord  and  Mr.  F.  C.  Packard,  now  at- 
tached to  Mr.  Carl  Rosa's  English  opera  company. 
The  Patti  sisters,  Adelina  and  Carlotta,  gathered 
their  first  harvests  of  applause  in  America.  The 
greater  part  of  the  facts  herein  presented,  bear, 
it  will  be  seen,  reference  to  New  York,  for  the 
reason  that  of  no  other  city  has  there  been  pre- 
pared so  complete  and  accurate  a  chronology  as 
is  included  in  the  '  Records,'  already  cited.  New 
York  too  has  been  for  more  than  a  century  the 
American  metropolis  ;  and  being  the  wealthiest 
city  of  the  Union  greater  encouragement  has  been 
given  to  operatic  enterprises  than  elsewhere,  with 
the  exception  of  New  Orleans  for  a  number  of 
years  before  the  Civil  War,  as  already  noted. 

In  Boston  the  first  season  of  Italian  Opera  began 
at  the  Howard  Athenaeum,  April  23,  1847,  with 
'  Ernani.'  The  company  was  the  famous  Havana 
party,  which  had  previously  appeared  for  two 
nights  at  New  York.  Sig.  Luigi  Arditi  was  the 
conductor,  and  the  orchestra  included  Sig.  Botte- 
sini,  the  contra-bassist.  The  history  of  opera  in 
Boston  previous  to  the  advent  of  this  troupe 
presents  the  same  characteristics  as  have  been 
noted  in  the  case  of  New  York.  [F.  H.  J.] 

OPERA  BOUFFE.  A  French  Comic  Opera, 
of  exceedingly  light  character,  and  constructed 
on  too  trivial  a  scale  to  entitle  it  to  rank  as  an 
Opera  Comique.  [W.  S.  R.] 

OPERA  BUFFA.  An  Italian  Opera,  of  light 
and  playful  character,  in  which  the  Dialogue  is 
carried  on  in  Ilecitativo  secco,  interposed  be- 
tween the  Airs,  Duets,  and  Choruses,  which  form 
the  chief  attraction  of  the  piece.  The  subject  of 
the  Opera  Bufla  is  always  more  or  less  comic, 
and  not  unfrequently  extravagantly  so.  The 
finest  examples  extant  are,  Cimarosa's  '  II  Matri- 


OPERA  BUFFA. 

monio  segreto,'  Mozart's  'Cosl  fan  tutte,'  and 
Rossini's  '  II  Barbiere  di  Siviglia.'  [See  Opera, 
10th,  1 2th,  and  18th  Periods,  vol.  ii.  pp.  513, 
516,  and  524.    Also  Comic  Opera.]     [W.S.R.] 

OPfiRA  COMIQUE.  A  French  Opera,  in 
which  the  denouement  is  happy,  and  the  Dialogue 
spoken.  Provided  these  two  conditions  be  present, 
it  is  not  at  all  necessary  that  the  piece  should  in- 
troduce any  really  comic  Scenes,  or  Characters  ; 
for  instance,  one  of  the  finest  Operas  comiques  in 
existence  is  Cherubini's  '  Les  deux  journe'es/  in 
which  the  hero  is  only  saved  from  what  appears 
to  be  almost  certain  destruction  by  the  devotion 
of  an  humble  friend.  [See  Opera,  16th  Period, 
vol.  ii.  p.  522  ;  also  Comic  Opera.]         [W.S.R.] 

OPERA  COMIQUE,  THE,  at  Paris,  a  theatre 
for  French  pieces  with  spoken  dialogue,  origin- 
ated in  the  '  spectacles  de  la  Foire.'  For  its 
early  history  we  refer  the  readers  to  Chouquet's 
4  History  of  Dramatic  Music  in  France '  (Paris, 
Didot,  1873),  and  will  only  state  that  the  title  of 
'  Ope'ra  comique '  dates  from  the  execution  of  an 
agreement  between  the  comedians  and  the  direc- 
tors of  the  Acade'mie  royale  de  Musique  in  1715. 
The  new  enterprise,  thus  recognised,  succeeded 
so  well  as  to  excite  the  jealousy  of  the  large 
theatres,  and  in  1745  to  cause  the  closing  of  the 
Ope'ra  Comique.  In  1752,  however,  Monet  re- 
ceived permission  to  reestablish  it  at  the  Fair  of 
St.  Germain,  and  under  his  skilful  management 
it  progressed  so  rapidly  that  in  1762  the  Ope'ra 
Comique  joined  the  Come'die  Italienne,  and  took 
possession  of  the  room  in  the  Rue  Mauconseil, 
whence  in  1783  they  migrated  to  the  theatre  in 
the  Rue  Favart.  In  179 1  a  second  Ope'ra  Com- 
ique Company  established  itself  in  the  Rue  Fey- 
deau,  and  a  fierce  competition  ensued,  which 
ended  in  the  ruin  and  closing  of  both  houses  in 
1 801.  After  this  the  two  companies  were  united 
into  one,  which  settled  itself  at  the  Theatre  Fey- 
deau,  leaving  the  Salle  Favart  to  the  Italian 
troupe.  At  the  Feydeau  they  remained  till 
April  1829,  when  the  theatre,  being  no  longer 
habitable,  was  closed.  The  Favart  theatre  being 
still  in  the  hands  of  the  Italians,  the  Opera 
Comique  took  possession  of  the  Salle  Ventadour, 
but  quitted  it  in  1832  for  the  little  Theatre  des 
Nouveaute's  in  the  Place  de  la  Bourse  (no  longer 
existing),  and  at  length  hi  1840  returned  to  the 
Salle  Favart,  where  it  is  still  located.  The  house 
looks  on  to  the  Place  Boieldieu.  It  holds  1500 
persons.  In  1879  it  was  completely  restored  by 
Cre"pinet,  to  the  improvement  of  its  acoustic 
qualities,  which  before  were  not  good.        [G.  C.] 

OPERA,  ENGLISH.  [See  Opera,  6th  and 
17th  Periods,  vol.  ii.  pp.  5066-507,  523-524; 
also  English  Opera.]  [W.S.  R.] 

OPERA,  FRENCH.  [See  Opera,  5th,  1  ith, 
16th,  and  19th  Periods,  vol.  ii.  pp.  505-506,  515  b 
-516,  522  6,  and  525.]  [W.S.R.] 

OPERA,  GERMAN.  [See  Opera,  7th,  13th, 
14th,  15th,  and  20th  Periods,  vol.  ii.  pp.  507  6- 
508,  518  6-519,  519  6-520,  520  6-522,  5256- 
5*8-  [W.S.R.] 


OPHICLEIDE. 


531 


OPERA,  GRAND.  1 .  A  French  Opera,  sung 
throughout,  with  the  accompaniment  of  the  full 
Orchestra,  to  the  entire  exclusion  of  spoken 
dialogue.  The  finest  examples  we  possess  are, 
Rossini's  ■  Guillaume  Tell,  Cherubini's  '  Les 
Abencerrages,' and  Spontini's  'LaVestale' :  the 
most  popular  are,  Meyerbeer's  'Robert  le  Diable,' 
'Les  Huguenots,'  and'LeProphete.'  [SeeOPERA, 
19th  Period,  vol.  ii.  p.  525.] 

1.  A  magnificent  Theatre,  in  Paris,  near  the 
Boulevard  des  Capucines  (opposite  to  the  Rue 
de  la  Paix),  devoted  to  the  performance  of  Orands 
Oplras.  [See  Academie  de  Musique.]  [W.S.R.] 

OPERA,  ITALIAN.  [See  Opera,  ist,  2nd, 
3rd,  4th,  8th,  9th,  10th,  1 2th,  13th,  and  18th 
Periods,  vol.  ii.  pp.  497-500, 500-502,  502  6-504, 
5°4-5°5>  508-513,  513  6-514,5166-517,  5176- 
518,5246-525.  [W.S.  P..] 

OPERETTA.  A  little  Opera,  generally  of  a 
buffo  character,  too  short  to  furnish  an  evening's 
amusement,  but  useful  as  an  Afterpiece,  or  Inter- 
mezzo. We  can  scarcely  point  out  more  charming 
examples  of  the  Btyle  than  Mozart's  '  II  Direttor 
della  Commedia'  (the  Italian  version  of  his 
'  Schauspieldirektor ')  and  Rossini's  '  L'Inganno 
felice.'  Both  these  little  masterpieces  are  in  one 
Act ;  and  this  condition  is  really  an  essential 
characteristic  of  the  Operetta  ;  but,  of  late  years, 
Operettas  in  two  Acts  have  been  not  at  all  un- 
common, as  in  the  case  of  Mr.  Arthur  Sullivan's 
'  H.M.S.  Pinafore ' — the  most  successful  work  of 
the  kind  on  record.  Pieces  extending  to  this 
length  are  prevented,  for  the  most  part,  from  taking 
rank  as  true  Operas,  either  by  triviality  of  subject, 
or  by  the  evanescent  character  of  the  Music  by 
which  it  is  accompanied,  and  are,  therefore,  cor- 
rectly described  as  Operettas  in  two  Acts,  notwith- 
standing the  anomaly  implied  in  the  title. 

In  Italy,  the  Dialogue  of  the  Operetta  is  always 
carried  on  in  Recitativo  secco.  In  England, 
Germany,  and  France,  it  is  spoken.       [W.  S.  R.] 

OPHICLEIDE  (Eng.  and  Germ. ;  Fr.  Basse 
(FHarmonie).  A  barbarous  name,  compounded 
of  the  Greek  words  for  snake  and  door-key,  which 
has  been  given  to  an  improvement  on  the  Ser- 
pent, Russian  bassoon,  or  Bass-horn. 

The  invention  of  this  instrument  is  attri- 
buted by  Fe'tis  to  Frichot,  a  French  musican 
settled  in  London  about  the  year  1790.  He 
states  moreover  that  Frichot  published  in 
London  in  the  year  1800  a  description  and 
method  of  playing  it,  under  the  title  of  'A  Com- 
plete Scale  and  Gammut  of  the  Bass-horn,  a  new 
instrument,  invented  by  M.  Frichot,  and  manu- 
factured by  J.  Astor.'  It  seems  however  that 
a  musician  of  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  at  Lille, 
by  name  Regibo,  had  already,  in  1780,  made  im- 
provements on  the  serpent,  by  adding  several 
keys  and  modifying  the  bore,  so  that  Regibo 
may  in  fact  be  considered  as  the  inventor  even 
of  the  so-called  Russian  bassoon,  'which  returned 
from  the  north  of  Europe  about  thirty  years  later.' 
It  seems  agreed  on  all  hands  that  the  French 
were  made  acquainted  with  this  instrument  by 
the  bands  of  the  allied  sovereigns,  when  the  latter 
M  m  2 


632 


OPHICLEIDE. 


OPUS. 


occupied  Paris  in  1815.  In  this  year  its  dis- 
covery is  claimed  by  Halary  of  Paris,  who  pa- 
tented it  in  1 82 1,  and  whose  successor  is  said  to 
possess  the  original  model,  with  7  keys  and  a  scale 
of  2  7  notes.  Labbaye  added  new  keys  to  it,  and 
the  number  has  been  since  raised  to  11. 

Two  of  these  instruments  were  employed  at  the 
Musical  Festival  in  Westminster  Abbey  in  June 
1834.  At  the  Birmingham  Festival  of  the  same 
year  an  ophicleide  as  well  as  a  contrabass  ophi- 
cleide  were  introduced,  and  are  noticed  in  a  peri- 
odical of  the  time  as  '  destined  to  operate  a  great 
change  in  the  constitution  of  the  orchestra.' 

The  early  specimens  were  termed  Serpent- 
cleides,  and  seem  to  have  been  made  partially 
in  wood,  like  their  predecessors  the  Serpents ;  but 
of  late  brass  has  been  exclusively  employed  for 
the  whole  construction.  The  ophicleide  has  been 
made  in  many  keys,  viz.  in  alto  F  and  Eb,  in 
C  and  Bb  bass,  and  in  the  lower  octave  of  the 
two  first,  viz.  the  F  and  Eb  of  the  16-foot  octave. 
That  now  commonly  used  stands  in  8 -foot  C,  and 
borrows  a  single  note  from  the  16-foot  octave, 
namely  the  Bt],  one  semitone  below  the  lowest 
note  of  the  violoncello  and  a  whole  tone  above  the 
last  note  of  the  three-stringed  double-bass. 

The  mouthpiece  consists 
of  a  large  metal  or  ivory 
cup,  not  dissimilar  to  those 
of  the  bass  trombone  and 
euphonium.  The  ophi- 
cleide possesses  the  usual 
harmonic  series  of  all  brass 
instruments.  The  funda- 
mental tone  is  not  however 
employed,  its  compass  com- 
mencing on  the  first  har- 
monic, as  before  noted  with 
respect  to  the  horn.  We 
thus  have  in  succession  C, 
with  its  octaveand  twelfth, 
double  octave,  major  third, 
and  fifth  above. 


m 


isr-t 


p  gj= 


The  first  key  for  the 
thumb  of  the  left  hand, 
usually  standing  open, 
lowers  all  these  notes  by 
a  semitone,  giving  the 
chord  of  Bt]  with  five 
sharps.  The  second,  which 
is  habitually  closed,  raises 
the  original  pitch  by  a  like  interval,  giving  the 
chord  of  Db  or  Cjf.  The  principle  thus  stated 
runs  through  the  remaining  mechanism ;  the  3rd 
key  giving  D  and  its  derivatives,  the  4th  Eb,  the 
5th  Eh,  the  6th  F,  or  seven  semitones  in  all. 
The  7th  key  furnishes  Fjf,  which  was  formerly 
missing  in  the  scale,  and  Ab,  the  8th  G|j,  the 
9th  Ab,  the  10th  Al],  the  nth  Bb. 

A  compass  is  thus  obtained  of  38  semitones, 
or  a  little  over  three  octaves — from  the  low  BJ| 
given  above,  to  C  in  the  treble  stave.     It  will 


be  obvious  that  from  the  overlapping  and  coin- 
cidence of  the  various  harmonic  series  many 
alternative  methods  of  producing  the  same  note 
with  slight  enharmonic  changes  are  open  to  a  good 
player.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  the  seven  semi- 
tonic  keys  exactly  reproduce  by  a  different  me- 
chanism the  successive  shifts  of  the  violin  family, 
and  the  slide  positions  of  the  trombone.  The  in- 
strument is  therefore  of  far  greater  capabilities  for 
accurate  intonation  than  the  three  or  even  the  four- 
valved  contrivances  which  bid  fair  to  supersede  it. 
It  is  theoretically  equivalent  to  a  conical  tube 
which  can  be  shortened  by  any  given  number  of 
semitones  in  succession.  This  shortening  is  not 
however  obtained,  as  in  the  French  horn,  from  the 
upper  part  by  means  of  crooks,  but  from  the  bot- 
tom upwards,  by  the  contrivances  of  lateral  holes 
and  keys.  It  is  the  bass  correlative  of  the  key  or 
Kent  bugle,  in  which  also  the  method  of  keys  pre- 
ceded the  more  modern  invention  of  valves. 

The  tone  of  the  ophicleide  is,  from  its  differ- 
ence of  scale  and  of  material,  less  tender  and 
veiled  than  that  of  its  predecessor  the  serpent, 
but  on  the  other  hand  it  has  greater  compass  and 
equality  than  that  rather  primitive  contrivance. 
For  the  reason  stated  above  its  intonation  is 
more  accurate  than  that  which  can  be  obtained 
from  any  valve  instrument  whatever. 

There  is  very  little  concerted  music  for  this  in- 
strument. Indeed  Mendelssohn,  who  employs  it 
freely  in  some  of  his  works,  such  as  the  '  Elijah,' 
where  it  is  written  for  down  to  16-foot  A,  three 
lines  below  the  bass  stave,  and  the  '  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream'  music,  where  it  has  an  important 
part  in  the  overture,  may  be  considered  as  the  only 
classical  writer  who  systematically  introduces  it 
in  his  scores.  Wagner  has  replaced  it  by  bass 
and  contrabass  tubas.  It  figures  in  modern 
operatic  music;  and  in  the  hands  of  its  only 
living  player,  Mr.  Samuel  Hughes,  is  deservedly 
a  popular  solo  instrument.  The  serpent  parts  of 
the  older  music  are  usually  allotted  to  it ;  though 
even  these,  in  the  band  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic 
Society  and  elsewhere,  have  been  transferred  to 
the  far  more  profound  and  powerful  contra- 
fagotto.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  an  instrument 
which  presents  considerable  accuracy  of  intona- 
tion and  a  characteristic  quality,  should  be  al- 
lowed to  fall  into  entire  disuse. 

Tutors  and  instruction-books  for  the  Ophicleide 
are  published  by  Schiltz,  by  Berr  &  Caussinus, 
and  by  V.  Cornette,  of  which  the  second  named 
is  the  most  complete.  [W.H.S.] 

OPUS,  OPUS-NUMBER,  OPERA,  GEUVRE. 
A  method  of  numbering  musical  compositions  in 
the  order  of  their  publication,  using  the  Latin 
word  opus  (work),  began  to  come  into  use  in  the 
time  of  Mozart,  but  was  not  fully  established  until 
Beethoven's  time,  the  numbering  not  being  car- 
ried out  to  all  the  published  works  of  the  former 
master.  No  rule  is  observed  as  regards  the  size 
of  an  opus :  for  instance,  Beethoven's  op.  1  consists 
of  three  pianoforte  trios,  while  Schubert's  op.  1 
is  only  the  song  'Erlkonig.'  The  opus-number 
has  nothing  to  do  with  the  date  of  composition, 
but  only  with  that  of  the  publication  ;  thus  some 


OPUS. 

of  Mendelssohn's  early  works  were  published 
(posthumously)  with  very  late  opus-numbers. 
Several  mistakes  have  occurred  in  the  number- 
ing of  Beethoven's  works  in  various  editions :  for 
instance,  the  three  pianoforte  sonatas  (op.  31) 
have  often  been  called  'op.  29,'  which  is  the 
number  of  the  String  Quintet  in  C,  and  the  last 
four  of  the  so-called  '  posthumous '  quartets  have 
been  numbered  in  two  different  ways.  The 
proper  numbering  is  as  follows :  the  A  minor 
Quartet  should  be  op.  130,  not  132  ;  that  in  lib 
major,  op.  131,  not  130;  that  in  Cg  minor, 
op.  132,  not  131,  and  that  in  F  major,  op.  133, 
not  135.  [J.A.F.M.] 

ORATORIO  (Lat.  Oratorium ;  Ital.  Dramma 
eacra  per  Musica,  Oratorio ;  Germ.  Oratorium). 
A  Sacred  Poem,  usually  of  a  dramatic  character, 
sung  throughout  by  Solo  Voices  and  Chorus,  to 
the  accompaniment  of  a  full  Orchestra,  but — at 
least  in  modern  times — without  the  assistance  of 
Scenery,  Dresses,  or  Action. 

The  dramatic  instinct  is  so  deeply  implanted 
in  the  human  mind,  that  it  would  be  as  hopeless 
to  search  for  the  earliest  manifestation  of  its 
presence  as  for  the  origin  of  language.  We  have 
already  endeavoured  to  trace  back  the  history 
of  the  Opera  to  the  infancy  of  Greek  Tragedy. 
But,  it  is  clear  that  dramatic  performances  must 
have  had  an  incalculably  earlier  as  well  as  an 
infinitely  ruder  origin  than  that ;  and  equally 
certain  that  they  have  been  used  from  time  im- 
memorial as  a  means  of  inculcating  moral  and 
religious  truth,  and  instructing  the  masses  in  his- 
torical and  legendary  lore  which  it  would  have 
been  difficult  to  impress  upon  them  by  the  mere 
force  of  verbal  description.  That  they  were  so 
used  in  the  Middle  Ages  is  proved  by  abundant 
evidence.  The  Mysteries,  Moralities,  and  Miracle 
Plays,  which  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries  were 
so  extensively  popular  throughout  the  whole  of 
Europe,  did  more  towards  familiarising  the  multi- 
tude with  the  great  events  of  Scripture  History 
than  could  have  been  effected  by  any  amount  of 
simple  narrative;  and  it  is  to  these  primitive 
performances,  rude  though  they  were,  that  we 
must  look  for  the  origin  of  that  grand  artistic 
creation — the  noblest  ever  yet  conceived  with 
Music  for  its  basis — which  still  serves  to  invest 
the  Sacred  Story  with  a  living  interest  which  we 
cannot  but  regard  as  a  valuable  help  to  the  real- 
isation of  its  inner  meaning,  and  to  impress  upon 
our  minds  a  more  elevated  Ideal  than  we  could 
ever  hope  to  reach  without  the  aid  of  Song. 

It  is  impossible  to  say  when,  where,  or  by 
whom,  the  first  dramatic  representation  of  a 
Scene  from  Holy  Writ  was  attempted.  One  of 
the  oldest  examples  of  which  we  have  any  certain 
record  is  the  '  Festum  Asinorum,'  celebrated  at 
Beauvais  and  Sens,  in  the  12  th  century,  and 
long  remembered  in  connection  with  a  famous 
Carol  called  the  '  Prosa  de  Asino,'  the  Melody  of 
which  will  be  found  at  page  462  a  of  the  present 
volume.  But  it  was  not  only  in  France  that 
such  representations  found  favour  in  the  sight  of 
the  people.  William  Fitz  Stephen  mentions  a 
Monk  of  Canterbury  who  wrote  many  Miracle- 


ORATORIO. 


533 


Plays  during  the  reign  of  King  Henry  II,  and  died 
in  1 191 ;  and  we  know,  from  other  sources,  that  an 
English  audience  was  always  ready  to  greet  en- 
tertainments of  this  description  with  a  hearty 
welcome.  The  Clergy  also  took  them  under 
their  especial  protection,  and  retained  their  in- 
terest in  them  for  so  long  a  period,  that,  in  1378 
the  Choristers  of  S.  Paul's  performed  them  re- 
gularly, under  careful  ecclesiastical  superinten- 
dence. In  other  countries  they  attained  an  equal 
degree  of  popularity,  but  at  a  somewhat  later  date. 
In  Italy,  for  instance,  we  hear  of  a  'Commedia 
Spirituale '  performed  for  the  first  time  at  Padua 
in  1243,  and  another  at  Friuli  in  1298;  while 
'Geistliche  Schauspiele'  first  became  common  in 
Germany  and  Bohemia  about  the  year  1322. 

The  subjects  of  these  primitive  pieces  were 
chosen  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  certain  in- 
cidents selected  from  the  history  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  the  lives  of  celebrated  Saints, 
or  the  meaning  of  Allegorical  Conceits,  intended 
to  enforce  important  lessons  in  Religion  and 
Morality.  For  instance,  'II  Conversione  di  S. 
Paolo  '  was  sung  in  Rome  in  1440,  and  '  Abram 
et  Isaac  suo  Figluolo'  at  Florence  in  1449. 
Traces  are  also  found  of '  Abel  e  Caino '  (1554), 
'  Sansone  '  (1554),  '  Abram  et  Sara '  (1556),  'II 
Figluolo  Prodigo'  (1565),  an  allegorical  piece, 
called  '  La  Commedia  Spirituale  dell'  Anima,' 
printed  at  Siena,  without  date  (and  not  to  be 
confounded  with  a  very  interesting  work  bearing 
a  somewhat  similar  title,  to  be  mentioned  pre- 
sently), and  many  different  settings  of  the  history 
of  the  Passion  of  our  Lord.  This  last  was  always 
a  very  favourite  subject ;  and  the  music  adapted 
to  it,  combining  some  of  the  more  prominent 
characteristics  of  Ecclesiastical  Plain  Chaunt 
with  the  freedom  of  the  saecular  Chanson  was 
certainly  not  wanting  in  solemnity.  Particular 
care  was  always  taken  with  that  part  of  the 
Sacred  Narrative  which  described  the  grief  of 
Our  Lady  at  the  Crucifixion ;  and  we  find  fre- 
quent instances  of  the  'Lamentation'  of  Mary, 
or  of  S.  Mary  Magdalene,  or  of  The  Three 
Maries,  treated,  in  several  different  languages,  in 
no  unworthy  manner.  The  following  is  from  a 
MS.  of  the  14th  century,  formerly  used  at  the 
Abbey  of  Origny  Saint  Benoit,  but  now  pre- 
served in  the  Library  at  S.  Quentin. 

Let  Troit  Maries. 


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mout    now   a  -  molt  ll-vrais. 


No  great  improvement  seems  to  have  been 
made  fa  the  style  of  these  performances  after 
the  14th  century  ;  indeed,  so  many  abuses  crept 
into  them  that  they  were  frequently  prohibited 


534 


ORATORIO. 


ORATORIO. 


by  ecclesiastical  authority.  But  the  principle 
upon  which  they  were  founded  still  remained 
untouched,  and  the  general  opinion  seemed  to 
be  rather  in  favour  of  their  reformation  than 
their  absolute  discontinuance.  S.  Philip  Neri, 
the  Founder  of  the  Congregation  of  Oratorians, 
thought  very  highly  of  them  as  a  means  of  instruc- 
tion, and  warmly  encouraged  the  cultivation  of 
Sacred  Music  of  all  kinds.  On  certain  evenings 
in  the  week  his  Sermons  were  preceded  and 
followed  either  by  a  selection  of  popular  Hymns 
(see  Laudi  Spibituali),  or  by  the  dramatic 
rendering  of  a  Scene  from  Scripture  History, 
adapted  to  the  comprehension  of  an  audience  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  Roman  youths  of  the  humbler 
classes,  the  Discourses  being  delivered  between 
the  Acts  of  the  Drama.  As  these  observances 
were  first  introduced  in  the  Oratory  of  S.  Philip's 
newly-built  Church  of  S.  Maria  in  Vallicella, 
the  performances  themselves  were  commonly 
spoken  of  as  Oratorios,  and  no  long  time  elapsed 
before  this  term  was  accepted,  not  in  Rome  only, 
but  throughout  the  whole  of  Europe,  as  the  distin- 
guishing title  of  the  '  Dramma  sacra  per  musica.' 

S.  Philip  died  in  1595,  but  the  performances 
were  not  discontinued.  The  words  of  some  of 
them  are  still  extant,  though  unfortunately  with- 
out the  Music,  which  seems  to  have  aimed  at  a 
style  resembling  that  of  the  Madrigale  Spirituale 
— just  as  in  the  'Amfiparnasso'  of  Orazio  Vecchi 
we  find  a  close  resemblance  to  that  of  the  saecular 
Madrigal.  Nothing  could  have  been  more  ill 
adapted  than  this  for  the  expression  of  dramatic 
sentiment ;  and  it  seems  not  improbable  that  the 
promoters  of  the  movement  may  themselves  have 
been  aware  of  this  fact,  for  soon  after  the  inven- 
tion of  the  Monodic  Style  we  meet  with  a  notable 
change  which  at  once  introduces  us  to  the  First 
Period  in  the  History  of  the  true  Oratorio. 
[See  Monodia.] 

While  Peri  and  Caccini  were  cautiously  feeling 
their  way  towards  a  new  style  of  Dramatic  ' 
Music  in  Florence,  Emilio  del  Cavaliere,  a  Com- 
poser of  no  mean  reputation,  was  endeavouring 
with  equal  earnestness  to  attain  the  same  end 
in  Rome.  With  this  purpose  in  view  he  set 
to  Music  a  Sacred  Drama,  written  for  him  by 
Laura  Guidiccioni,  and  entitled  'La  Rappre- 
sentazione  dell'  Anima  e  del  Corpo.'  The  piece 
was  an  allegorical  one,  complicated  in  structure, 
and  of  considerable  pretensions ;  and  the  Music 
was  written  throughout  in  the  then  newly- 
invented  stilo  rappresentativo  of  which  Emilio 
del  Cavaliere  claimed  to  be  the  originator.  [See 
Opera,  p.  499 ;  Recitative.]  The  question  of 
priority  of  invention  is  surrounded,  in  this  case, 
with  so  many  difficulties,  that  we  cannot  interrupt 
the  course  of  our  narrative  for  the  purpose  of 
discussing  it.  Suffice  it  to  say  that,  by  a 
singular  coincidence,  the  year  1600  witnessed 
the  first  performance,  in  Rome,  of  Emilio's  'Rap- 
presentazione '  and,  in  Florence,  of  Peri's  '  Euri- 
dice ' — the  earliest  examples  of  the  true  Oratorio 
and  the  true  Opera  ever  presented  to  the  public. 
The  Oratorio  was  produced  at  the  Oratory  of 
S-  Maria  in  Vallicella  in   the  montli   of  Feb- 


ruary, ten  months  before  the  appearance  of 
•  Euridice '  at  Florence.  Emilio  del  Cavaliere 
was  then  no  longer  living,  but  he  had  left  such 
full  directions,  in  his  preface,  as  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  work  was  to  be  performed,  that  no 
difficulty  whatever  lay  in  the  way  of  bringing 
it  out  in  exact  accordance  with  his  original  inten- 
tion, which  included  Scenes,  Decorations,  Action, 
and  even  Dancing  on  a  regular  Stage  (in  Palco). 
The  principal  characters  were  II  Tempo  (Time), 
La  Vita  (Life),  H  Mondo  (the  World),  H  Piacere 
(Pleasure),  L'Intelletto  (the  Intellect),  L' Anima 
(the  Soul),  II  Corpo  (the  Body),  two  Youths,  who 
recited  the  Prologue,  and  the  Chorus.  The  Or- 
chestra consisted  of  1  Lira  doppia,  1  Clavicembalo, 
1  Chitarone,  and  2  Flauti,  '  o  vero  due  tibie  all* 
antica.'  No  Part  is  written  for  a  Violin ;  but  a 
note  states  that  a  good  effect  may  be  produced  by 
playing  one  in  unison  with  the  Soprano  Voices, 
throughout.  The  Orchestra  was  entirely  hidden 
from  view,  but  it  was  recommended  that  the 
various  characters  should  carry  musical  instru- 
ments in  their  hands,  and  pretend  to  accompany 
their  Voices,  and  to  play  the  Ritornelli  interposed 
between  the  Melodies  allotted  to  them.  A  Mad- 
rigal, with  full  Instrumental  Accompaniment, 
was  to  take  the  place  of  the  Overture.  The 
Curtain  then  rose,  and  the  two  Youths  delivered 
the  Prologue ;  after  which  a  long  Solo  was  sung 
by  Time.  The  Body,  when  singing  the  words 
'  Se  che  hormai  alma  mia,'  was  to  throw  away 
his  golden  collar  and  the  feathers  from  his  hat. 
The  World  and  Life  were  to  be  very  richly 
dressed,  but  when  divested  of  their  ornaments, 
to  appear  very  poor  and  wretched,  and  ulti- 
mately dead  bodies.  A  great  number  of  Instru- 
ments were  to  join  in  the  Ritornelli.  And, 
finally,  it  was  directed  that  the  Performance 
might  be  finished  either  with  or  without  a  Dance. 
1  If  without,'  says  the  stage-direction,  '  the  Vocal 
and  Instrumental  Parts  of  the  last  Chorus  must 
be  doubled.  But  should  a  Dance  be  preferred, 
the  Verse  beginning  Chiostri  altissimi  e  stel- 
lati  must  be  sung,  accompanied  by  stately  and 
reverent  steps.  To  these  will  succeed  other 
grave  steps  and  figures  of  a  solemn  character. 
During  the  ritornelli  the  four  principal  Dancers 
will  perform  a  Ballet,  embellished  with  capers 
(saltato  con  capriole)  without  singing.  And 
thus,  after  each  Verse,  the  steps  of  the  Dance 
will  always  be  varied,  the  four  chief  Dancers 
sometimes  using  the  Gagliarde,  sometimes  the 
Canario,  and  sometimes  the  Corrente,  which  will 
do  well  in  the  Ritornelli.^ 

The  general  character  of  the  Music — in  which 
no  distinction  is  made  between  Recitative  and 
Air — will  be  readily  understood  from  the  follow- 
ing examples  of  portions  of  a  Solo  and  Chorus. 

L'Intelletto. 


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Had  Emilio  del  Cavaliere  lived  to  follow  up 
his  first  Oratorio  with  others  of  similar  character, 
the  result  of  his  labours  could  scarcely  have  failed 
to  add  greatly  to  his  already  high  reputation,  for 
his  first  attempt  met  with  a  very  enthusiastic  re- 
ception. Unfortunately,  the  most  popular  among 
his  successors  devoted  so  much  attention  to  the 
development  of  the  Opera,  that  for  a  time  the 
Oratorio  was  almost  forgotten ;  and  it  was  not 
until  more  than  twenty  years  after  his  death 
that  it  again  excited  sufficient  interest  to  lead  to 
the  production  of  the  series  of  works  which  illus- 
trate the  Second  Period  of  our  history. 

The  occasion  which  immediately  led  to  this 
revival  was  the  Canonisation  of  SS.  Ignatius 
Loyola  and  Francis  Xavier.  In  honour  of  this 
event  Kapsberger  set  to  music  an  Allegorical 
Drama,  called  '  Apotheosis,  seu  consecratio  SS. 
Ignatii  et  Francisci  Xaverii,'  which  was  several 
times  performed  at  the  Collegio  Romano,  with 
magnificent  scenic  decorations  and  full  dramatic 
action,  in  the  year  1622.  The  Music  of  this 
piece,  which  is  still  extant,  is  miserably  poor, 
and  so  much  inferior,  both  in  originality  and  dra- 
matic form,  to  the  works  of  Monteverde  and 
other  popular  writers  of  the  period,  that  it  is 
impossible  to  believe  it  could  have  succeeded, 
had  it  not  been  for  the  splendour  of  the  mise  en 
seine  with  which  it  was  accompanied.     Another 


piece,  on  the  same  subject,  entitled  '  S.  Ignatius 
Loyola,'  was  set  to  Music  in  the  same  year  by 
Vittorio  Loreto.  Neither  the  Poetry  nor  the 
Music  of  this  have  been  preserved,  but  Erythraeus ' 
assures  us  that,  though  the  former  was  poor,  the 
latter  was  of  the  highest  order  of  excellence,  and 
that  the  success  of  the  performance  was  unprece- 
dented. Vittorio  Loreto  also  set  to  Music  '  La 
Pelligrina  constante,'  in  1647,  and  'II  Sagrifizio 
d'Abramo,'  in  1648.  Besides  these,  mention  is 
made  of  '  II  Lamento  di  S.  Maria  Vergine,'  by 
Michelagnolo  Capellini,  in  1627;  «S.  Alessio,' 
by  Stefano  Landi,  in  1634 ;  'Erminio  sul  Gior- 
dano,' by  Michel  Angelo  Rossi,  in  1637  ;  and 
numerous  Oratorios  by  other  Composers,  of  which, 
in  most  instances,  the  words  only  have  survived, 
none  appearing  to  have  been  held  in  any  great 
amount  of  popular  estimation.  An  exception 
must  however  be  made  in  favour  of  the  works  of 
Domenico  Mazzocchi,  by  far  the  greatest  Com- 
poser of  this  particular  period,  whose  '  Queri- 
monia  di  S.  Maria  Maddelena'  rivalled  in 
popularity  even  the  celebrated  '  Lamento  d'Arian- 
na  of  Monteverde.  Domenico  Mazzocchi,  the 
elder  of  two  highly  talented  brothers,  though  a 
learned  Contrapuntist,  was  also  an  enthusiastic 
cultivator  of  the  Monodic  Style,  and  earnestly 
endeavoured  to  ennoble  it  in  every  possible  way, 
and  above  all,  to  render  it  a  worthy  exponent  of 
musical  and  dramatic  expression.  He  it  was 
who  first  made  use  of  the  well-known  sign  now 
called  the  '  Swell '  (-«=  ==-)  ;  and,  bearing  this 
fact  in  mind,  we  are  not  surprised  to  find  in  his 
Music  a  refinement  of  expression  for  which  we 
may  seek  in  vain  among  the  works  even  of  the 
best  of  his  contemporaries.  His  Oratorio,  '  II 
Martirio  di  SS.  Abbundio  ed  Abbundanzio,'  was 
produced  in  Rome  in  1631 ;  but  his  fame  rests 
chiefly  upon  the  '  Querimonia,'  which  when  per- 
formed at  S.  Maria  in  Vallicella,  by  such  singers  as 
Vittorio  Loreto,  Buonaventura,  or  Marcantonio, 
drew  tears  from  all  who  heard  it.  The  following 
extract  will  be  sufficient  to  show  the  touchingly 
pathetic  character  of  thiB  famous  composition — 
the  best  which  the  Second  Period  could  boast. 

S.  Maria  Maddelena. 


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tfr     *   Pfr 


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>  EpIstolaB  ad  dlversos,  lib.  tr. 


536 


ORATORIO. 


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Our  Thikd  Period  introduces  us  to  a  greater 
Composer  than  any  of  whom  we  have  hitherto 
had  occasion  to  speak — one  of  those  representa- 
tive men  whose  rare  genius  is  powerful  enough 
not  only  to  inaugurate  a  new  era  in  the  annals 
of  Art,  but  to  leave  its  impress  upon  all  time. 

Giovanni  Carissimi  was  the  first  Composer  of 
the  Monodic  School  who  succeeded  in  investing 
the  new  style  with  a  sufficient  amount  either  of 
dignity  or  pathos  to  encourage  a  reasonable  hope 
that  it  might  one  day  produce  results  in  some 
degree  commensurate  for  good  with  the  loss  it 
occasioned  by  the  destruction  of  Polyphony. 
Considered  as  Music,  the  united  value  of  all  the 
Monodic  works  produced  within  the  first  thirty 
years  of  the  17  th  century  would  be  outweighed 
over  and  over  again  by  one  single  bar  of  the 
least  of  Luca  Marenzio's  Madrigals.  Except  as 
stepping-stones  to  something  better,  they  were 
absolutely  worthless.  Their  only  intrinsic  merit 
was  a  marked  advance  in  correctness  of  rhetorical 
expression.  But  this  single  good  quality  repre- 
sented a  power  which,  had  it  been  judiciously 
used,  would  have  led  to  changes  exceeding  in 
importance  any  that  its  inventors  had  dared  to 
conceive,  even  in  their  wildest  dreams.  Un- 
happily, it  was  not  judiciously  used.  Blinded 
by  the  insane  spirit  of  Hellenism  which  so  fatally 
counteracted  the  best  effects  of  the  Renaissance, 
the  pioneers  of  the  modern  style  strove  to  find 
a  royal  road  to  dramatic  truth  which  would  save 
them  the  trouble  of  studying  Musical  Science ; 
and  they  failed,  as  a  matter  of  course ;  for  the 
expression  they  aimed  at,  instead  of  being  en- 
forced by  the  harmonious  progression  of  its  ac- 
companiment, was  too  often  destroyed  by  its 
intolerable  cacophony.1  It  remained  for  Caris- 
simi to  prove  that  truth  of  expression  and  purity 
of  harmonic  relations  were  interdependent  upon 
each  other  ;  that  really  good  Music,  beautiful  in 
itself,  and  valuable  for  its  own  sake,  was  not 
only  the  fittest  possible  exponent  of  dramatic 
sentiment,  but  was  rendered  infinitely  more 
beautiful  by  its  connection  therewith,  and  be- 
came the  more  valuable  in  exact  proportion  to 
the  amount  of  poetical  imagery  with  which  it 
was  enriched.  Forming  his  style  upon  this  sure 
basis,  and  trusting  to  his  contrapuntal  skill  to 
enable  him  to  carry  out  the  principle,  Carissimi 
wrote  good  Music  always — Music  which  would 
have  been  pleasant  enough  to  listen  to  for  its 
own  sake,  but  which  became  infinitely  more  in- 
teresting when  used  as  a  vehicle  for  the  expression 
of  all  those  tender  shades  of  joy  and  sorrow  which 
make  up  the  sum  of  what  is  usually  called '  human 
passion.'     His  refined  taste  and  graceful  manner 

1  Stefano  Landl .  In  his  Preface  to '  8.  Alessto '  (Roma  1634),  tells  us 
that  the  Kitornelll  are  written  for  Violins,  in  three  parts ;  but  that  a 
Bass  is  often  added  to  them,  moving  purposely  in  Fifths  or  Octaves 
with  one  of  the  parts,  for  the  sake  of  the  beaut;  of  the  effect  1 


ORATORIO. 

enabled  him  to  do  this  so  successfully,  that  he 
soon  outshone  all  his  contemporaries,  who  looked 
upon  him  as  a  model  of  artistic  excellence.  His 
first  efforts  were  devoted  to  the  perfection  of  the 
Sacred  Cantata,  of  which  he  has  left  us  a  multi- 
tude of  beautiful  examples ;  but  he  also  wrote 
numerous  Oratorios,  among  which  the  best  known 
are  '  Jephte,'  '  Ezechias,'  '  Baltazar,'  '  David  et 
Jonathas,'  'Abraham  et  Isaac,'  'Jonas,'  'Judi- 
cium Salomonis,' '  L'Histoire  de  Job,'  'La  Plainte 
des  Damnes,'  'Le  Mauvais  Riche,'  and  'Le 
Jugement  Dernier.'  These  are  all  full  of  beau- 
ties, and,  in  '  Jephte'  especially,  the  Composer 
has  reached  a  depth  of  pathos  which  none  but 
the  greatest  of  Singers  can  hope  to  interpret 
satisfactorily.  The  Solo,  'Plorate  colles,'  as- 
signed to  Jephtha's  Daughter,  is  a  model  of 
tender  expression ;  and  the  Echo,  sung  by  two 
Sopranos,  at  the  end  of  each  clause  of  the  Melody, 
adds  an  inexpressible  charm  to  its  melancholy 
effect.2 


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It  was  about  this  time  that  the  spectacular 
representation  began  gradually  to  fall  into  disuse, 
though  the  dramatic  character  of  the  Poem  was 

>  Handel  has  been  accused  of  borrowing  '  Hear  Jacob's  God,'  In 
'Samson,'  from  the  final  Chorus  of  this  beautiful  little  Oratorio. 
With  equal  show  of  reason  might  we  accuse  Beethoven  of  having 
copied  his  Sonata, '  Nlcht  iu  geschwind '  from  the '  Harmonious  Black- 
smith,' on  the  ground  that  both  are  in  the  key  of  £  major. 


ORATORIO. 

still  retained,  with  certain  modifications,  chief 
among  which  was  the  introduction  of  a  Personage 
called  the  '  Historicus,'  to  whom  were  assigned 
certain  narrative  passages  interpolated  between 
the  clauses  of  the  Dialogue  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  on  the  story  intelligibly  in  the  absence 
of  scenic  action.  This  idea  was  no  doubt  sug- 
gested by  the  manner  of  singing  the  History  of 
the  Passion  during  Holy  Week  in  the  Pontifical 
Chapel,  where  the  '  First  Deacon  of  the  Passion ' 
Bings  the  words  of  Our  Lord,  the  Second  those  of 
the  Chronista  (or  Evangelista),  and  the  Third 
those  of  the  Synagoga  (or  Turba).  Carissimi 
used  this  expedient  freely,  and  his  example  soon 
led  to  its  general  adoption,  both  in  Italy  and 
Germany.  His  Oratorios  indeed  excited  such 
universal  admiration,  that  for  very  many  years 
they  served  as  models  which  the  best  Com- 
posers of  the  time  were  not  ashamed  to  imitate. 
As  a  matter  of  course,  they  were  sometimes 
imitated  very  badly ;  but  they  laid,  neverthe- 
less, the  foundation  of  a  very  splendid  School, 
of  which  we  shall  now  proceed  to  sketch  the 
history,  under  the  title  of  our  Fodbth  Period. 

C'arissimi's  most  illustrious  disciple — the  only 
one  perhaps  whose  genius  shone  more  brightly 
than  his  own — was  Alessandro  Scarlatti,  a  Com- 
poser gifted  with  talents  so  versatile  that  it  is 
impossible  to  say  whether  he  excelled  most  in 
the  Cantata,  the  Oratorio,  or  the  Opera.  His 
Sacred  Music,  with  which  alone  we  are  here 
concerned,  was  characterised  by  a  breadth  of 
style  and  dignity  of  manner  which  we  cannot 
but  regard  as  the  natural  consequence  of  his 
great  contrapuntal  skill,  acquired  by  severe 
study  at  a  time  when  it  was  popularly  regarded 
as  a  very  unimportant  part  of  the  training  ne- 
cessary to  produce  a  good  Composer.  Scarlatti 
was  wiser  than  his  contemporaries,  and  carrying 
out  Carissimi's  principles  to  their  natural  con- 
clusion, he  attained  so  great  a  mastery  over  the 
technical  difficulties  of  his  Art  that  they  served 
him  as  an  ever  ready  means  of  expressing,  in 
their  most  perfect  forms,  the  inspirations  of  his 
fertile  imagination.  Dissatisfied  with  the  meagre 
Recitative  of  his  predecessors,  he  gave  to  the  Aria 
a  definite  structure  which  it  retained  for  more 
than  a  century — the  well-balanced  form,  con- 
sisting of  a  first  or  principal  strain,  a  second 
part,  and  a  return  to  the  original  subject  in  the 
shape  of  the  familiar  Da  Capo.  The  advantage 
of  this  symmetrical  system  over  the  amorphous 
type  affected  by  the  earlier  Composers  was  so 
obvious,  that  it  soon  came  into  general  use  in 
every  School  in  Europe,  and  maintained  its 
ground,  against  all  attempts  at  innovation,  until 
the  time  of  Gluck.  It  was  found  equally  useful 
in  the  Opera  and  the  Oratorio ;  and,  in  connection 
with  the  latter,  we  shall  have  to  notice  it  even 
as  late  as  the  closing  decades  of  the  18th  century. 
Scarlatti  used  rhythmic  melody  of  this  kind  for 
those  highly  impassioned  Scenes  which,  in  a 
spoken  Drama,  would  have  been  represented  by 
the  Monologue,  reserving  Accompanied  Recita- 
tive for  those  which  involved  more  dramatic 
action  combined  with  less  depth  of  sentiment, 


ORATORIO. 


537 


and  using  Recltativo  secco  chiefly  for  the  pur- 
pose of  developing  the  course  of  the  narrative — 
an  arrangement  which  has  been  followed  by 
later  Composers,  including  even  those  of  our 
own  day.  Thus  carefully  planned,  his  Oratorios 
were  full  of  interest,  whether  regarded  from  a 
musical  or  a  dramatic  point  of  view.  The  most 
successful  among  them  were  '  I  Dolori  di  Maria 
sempre  Vergine'  (Rom.  1693),  «I1  Sagrifizio 
d'Abramo,'  '  II  Martirio  di  Santa  Teodosia,'  and 
'La  Concezzione  della  beata  Vergine';  but  it 
is  to  be  feared  that  many  are  lost,  as  very  few  of 
the  Composer's  innumerable  works  were  printed. 
Dr.  Burney  found  a  very  fine  one  in  MS.  in  the 
Library  of  the  Chiesa  nuova  at  Rome,  with  •  an 
admirable  Overture,  in  a  style  totally  different 
from  that  of  Lulli,'  and  a  song  with  Trumpet 
obbligato.  He  does  not  mention  the  title  of  the 
work,  but  the  following  lovely  Melody  Beems  in- 
tended to  be  sung  by  the  Blessed  Virgin  before 
the  finding  of  our  Lord  in  the  Temple. 


o    -   TV-  chc  fi,       Fig-lio  che    Ct   dove  stiV     dove 


gEJrf    rH  f  f 


1HBFW 


Alessandro  Scarlatti  died  in  1725,  at  the  age 
of  66.  Among  the  most  popular  of  his  contem- 
poraries were  D.  Francesco  Federici,  who  wrote 
two  Oratorios,  'Santa  Cristina'  and  'Santa 
Caterina  de  Siena,  for  the  Congregation  of  Ora- 
torians,  in  1676  ;  Carolo  Pallavicini,  who  dedi- 
cated 'II  Trionfo  della  Castita'  to  Cardinal 
Otthoboni,  about  the  year  1689;  Fr.  Ant. 
Pistocchi,  whose  '  S.  Maria  Vergine  addolorata,' 
produced  in  1698,18  full  of  pathetic  beauty;  Giulio 
d'Alessandri,  who  wrote  an  interesting  Oratorio 
called  'Santa  Francesca  Romana,'  about  1690; 
and  four  very  much  greater  writers,  whose  names 
are  still  mentioned  with  especial  honour — Cal- 
dara,   Colonna,  Leo,  and  Stradella.      Caldara 


538 


ORATORIO. 


composed — chiefly  at  Vienna — a  large  collection 
of  delightful  Oratorios,  most  of  which  were 
adapted  to  the  Poetry  of  Apostolo  Zeno  and 
Metastasio.  The  most  successful  of  these  were 
4  Tobia,' '  Assalone,'  '  Giuseppe,'  *  Davidde,'  '  La 
Passione  di  Gesii  Cristo,'  'Daniele,'  'San  Pietro 
a  Cesarea,'  '  Gesu  presentato  al  Tempio,'  *  Geru- 
salemme  convertita,'  and  most  especially '  Sisera,' 
which,  as  Zeno  himself  confesses,  owed  its  repu- 
tation entirely  to  the  beauty  of  the  Music. 
Colonna's  style — especially  that  of  his  Cho- 
ruses— was  broader  and  more  dignified  than 
Caldara's,  and  he  did  much  towards  raising  the 
Oratorio  to  the  noble  level  it  attained  in  the 
1 8th  century.  Leo  rose  still  higher.  His  Ora- 
torio, •  Santa  Elena  al  Calvario,'  is  far  in  advance 
of  the  age  in  which  it  was  written,  and  contains 
a  Chorus — '  Di  quanta  pena  e  frutta — which  has 
excited  much  attention.  But  in  point  of  natural 
genius  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Alessandro 
Stradella  excelled  all  the  best  writers  of  this 
promising  though  clearly  transitional  period ;  and 
our  regret  for  his  untimely  death  is  increased  by 
the  certainty  that  but  for  this  he  could  scarcely 
have  failed  to  take  a  place  among  the  greatest 
Composers  of  any  age  or  country.  There  seems 
no  reason  to  doubt  the  veracity  of  the  tradition 
which  represents  his  first  and  only  Oratorio, 
'  San  Giovanni  Battista,'  as  having  been  the 
means  of  saving  his  life,  by  melting  the  hearts  of 
the  ruffians  who  were  sent  to  assassinate  him,  on 
the  occasion  of  its  first  performance  in  the  Church 
of  S.  John  Lateran  ;  but  whether  the  story  be 
true  or  not,  the  work  seems  certainly  beautiful 
enough  to  have  produced  such  an  effect.  The 
most  probable  date  assigned  to  it  is  1676 ; 
but  it  differs,  in  many  respects,  from  the 
type  most  in  favour  at  that  period.  It  opens 
with  a  Sinfonia,  consisting  of  three  short 
Fugal  Movements,  followed  by  a  Recitative  and 
Air  for  S.  John.  The  Accompaniment  to  some 
of  the  Airs  is  most  ingenious,  and  not  a  little 
complicated,  comprising  two  complete  Orchestras, 
— a  Concertino,  consisting  of  two  Violins  and  a 
Violoncello,  reinforced,  as  in  Corelli's  Concertos, 
by  the  two  Violins,  Viola,  and  Bass,  of  a  Con- 
certo grosso.  These  Instruments  were  frequently 
made  to  play  in  as  many  real  parts  as  there 
were  Instruments  employed ;  but  many  of  the 
Songs  were  accompanied  only  by  a  cleverly-con- 
structed Ground-Bass,  played  con  tutti  i  bassi 
del  concerto  grosso.  Some  of  the  Choruses,  for 
five  Voices,  are  very  finely  written,  and  full  of 
contrivances  no  less  effective  than  ingenious ; 
but  the  great  merit  of  the  work  lies  in  the 
refinement  of  its  expression,  which  far  exceeds 
that  exhibited  in  any  contemporary  productions 
with  which  we  are  acquainted.  This  quality  is 
beautifully  exemplified  in  the  following  Melody, 
sung  by  the  '  Consigliero.' 


i 


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j  1 g j  a  1 ■  g=3 


An  -  co  in  da     - 


fe&3 


•#=s^'  1  j  ^  i 


=^& 


r  r  r  r  -j  11111111 


=*=* 


H*3^ 


:t=t 


si  rag    -    gi    - 


-J       -J    -J- 


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In    -    tor    -    -    no. 


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_  =5 

To  this  period  also  must  be  referred  Handel's 
Italian  Oratorio,  '  La  Resurrezione' ;  a  com- 
position now  almost  forgotten,  yet  deeply  in- 
teresting as  an  historical  study.  We  have  no 
means  now  of  ascertaining  whether  this  work 
was  ever  publicly  performed  or  not.  All  that 
can  be  discovered  respecting  it  is,  that  it  was 
composed  in  the  palace  of  the  Marchese  di 
Ruspoli,  during  Handel's  residence  in  Rome 
in  1 708.  There  is  no  evidence  to  prove  whether 
it  was  originally  intended  for  representation  at 
the  Theatre,  or,  without  action,  in  a  Church; 
but  the  dramatic  force  exhibited  in  it  from 
beginning  to  end,  far  exceeds  in  intensity  any- 
thing to  be  found  in  the  most  advanced  works 
of  any  contemporary  Composer.  The  originality 
of  the  Air,  'Ferma  l'ali,'  sung  by  S.  Maria 
Maddelena,  in  which  the  most  tenderly  pathetio 
effect  is  produced  by  a  'Pedal-Point'  of  thirty- 
nine  bars  duration  is  very  striking ;  and  still 
more  so  is  the  furious  accompaniment  to  Luci- 
fero's  Air, '  0  voi  dell'  Erebo  potenze  orribili,' — 
a  passage  which  we  find  imitated  in  connection 
with  the  Enchantment  of  Medea,  in  the  Third 
Act  of  '  Teseo,'  written  four  years  later. 

Violini  all'  Sva. 


iifei 


0   vol  dell'    E  -  re  -  bo       potenze  or  -  rl-bi  -  li 
T.S. 


S-rt 


^^ 


^ 


Tutti  Bassi  una. 


ORATORIO. 


ORATORIO. 


"3!- 


We  can  scarcely  find  a  stronger  proof  than 
this  of  Handel's  wonderful  power  of  adapting 
himself  to  surrounding  circumstances.  He  had 
already,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  composed  a 
German  Oratorio,  full  of  earnest  thought  and 
devotional  expression  :  yet  here,  in  Italy,  he  gives 
his  entire  attention  to  dramatic  effect ;  and  so 
far  lays  aside  his  contrapuntal  accomplishments 
as  to  introduce  two  little  choruses  only,  both 
conceived  on  the  smallest  possible  scale,  and 
the  concluding  one  neither  more  nor  less  than 
a  simple  Gavotte,  of  the  kind  then  generally 
used  at  the  close  of  an  Opera. 

Ima  Volta  Soprani  soli.    2nda  Volta,  Soprani,  AUi,  e 
Tenori,  air  Sva. 


p^T  f  t  LtLf-T^n^-fJ 


Dia    si        lode  In     Clelo  In       terra  a      chi    reg 


m 


*^ 


~ 


r  i1  r  f  f- 


Tutti  Bam  ;  e,  2nda  Volta,  Bassi  del  Coro. 


na  in  terra  in  Ciel.  Dia  si 


Dia  si  lode  In  Cielo  In 


■flj-fl 


terra  achl   reg  -  na  In   terrain      Ciel 


iJJJ  .    iQJ 


Up  to  this  point  the  development  of  the  Ora- 
torio corresponded,  step  for  step,  with  that  of  the 
Opera.  Both  were  treated,  by  the  same  Com- 
posers, in  very  nearly  the  same  manner;  the 
only  difference  being,  that  the  more  superficial 
writers  were  incapable  of  rising  to  the  sublimity 
of  scriptural  language,  while  the  men  of  real 
genius  strove  to  surround  their  several  subjects 
with  a  dignity  which  would  have  been  quite  out 


of  place  if  used  to  illustrate  a  mere  mythological 
fable.  Earnestly  endeavouring  to  accommodate 
the  sentiment  of  their  Music  to  that  of  the  words 
to  which  it  was  adapted,  this  latter  class  of 
writers  succeeded,  as  we  have  seen,  in  striking 
out  for  themselves  a  style  which  was  generally  re- 
cognised as  peculiar  to  the  Sacred  Music  of  Italy. 
But  it  was  in  Italy  alone  that  this  style  prevailed.. 
In  Germany,  the  Oratorio  started,  indeed,  from 
the  Miracle  Play,  as  its  primary  basis :  but  it  tra- 
velled on  quite  another  road  to  perfection  ;  and, 
in  treating  of  our  Fifth  Period,  we  shall  have- 
to  take  entirely  new  elements  into  consideration. 
The  Oratorio  proper,  as  distinguished  from  the 
earlier  Mystery,  made  its  first  appearance  in  Ger- 
many not  long  after  the  beginning  of  the  1 7th 
century.  It  had,  indeed,  been  foreshadowed, 
even  before  that  time,  in  the  '  Passio  secundum 
Matthseum,'  printed  at  Nuremberg,  in  1570,  by 
Clemens  Stephani ;  but  this  can  scarcely  be 
called  an  Oratorio,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word.  The  oldest  example  of  the  true  German 
Oratorio  that  has  been  preserved  to  us  is  '  Die- 
Auferstehung  Christi '  of  Heinrich  Schtitz,  pro- 
duced at  Dresden  in  1623  ;  a  very  singular  work,. 
in  which  the  conduct  of  the  Sacred  Narrative  is 
committed  almost  entirely  to  a  Chor  des  Evan- 
gelisten,  and  a  Chor  der  Personal  Colloquenlen, 
the  Accompaniments  consisting  of  four  Viole  di 
gamba  and  Organ,  concerning  the  arrangement 
of  which  the  Composer  gives  very  minute  direc- 
tions in  the  printed  copy  of  the  Music.  This 
remarkable  piece,  though  it  was  accompanied  by 
no  dramatic  action,  occupies  a  place  in  the  his- 
tory of  German  Sacred  Music  very  nearly  analo- 
gous to  that  which  we  have  accorded  to  Euiilio 
del  Cavaliere's  '  Anima  e  Corpo '  in  the  annals  of 
the  Italian  Oratorio.  It  was  the  first  of  a  long 
line  of  works  which  all  carried  out,  more  or  les* 
closely,  the  leading  idea  it  set  forth  for  imitation. 
Schiitz  followed  it  up  with  another  Oratorio, 
called  '  Die  sieben  Worte  Christi,'  and  four 
settings  of  the  Passion  of  our  Lord.  To  the 
illustration  of  this  last-named  subject  the  Teu- 
tonic Composers  of  this  century  dedicated  the 
noblest  efforts  of  their  skill ;  presenting  it  some- 
times in  a  dramatic  and  sometimes  in  an  epic 
form,  but  always  setting  it  to  Music,  throughout, 
for  Solo  Voices  and  Chorus,  without  the  intro- 
duction of  spoken  dialogue,  and  without  scenic- 
action  of  any  kind.  A  very  fine  example  was 
published  at  Konigsberg  in  1672  by  Johann 
Sebastian! ;  and  in  the  following  year  Theile 
produced  a  '  Deutsche  Passion '  at  Liibeck.  But 
these  tentative  productions  were  all  completely 
eclipsed  in  the  year  1 704  by  the  appearance  at 
Hamburg  of  two  works  which  at  once  stamped 
the  German  Oratorio  as  one  of  the  grandest  Art- 
forms  then  in  existence.  These  were  the '  Passions- 
Dichtung  des  blutigen  und  sterbenden  Jesu,' 
written  by  Hunold  Menantes,  and  set  to  music 
by  Reinhard  Keiser ;  and  the  '  Passion  nach 
Cap.  19  S.  Johannis,'  written  by  Postel,  and 
composed  by  Handel,  in  a  manner  so  different 
from  that  which  he  adopted  four  years  later 
in    his    Italian    Oratorio,    that,    without   over- 


540 


ORATORIO. 


whelming  evidence  to  prove  the  fact,  it  would 
be  impossible  to  believe  that  both  works  were 
by  the  same  Composer.  These  were  followed,  in 
1 705,  by  Mattheson's  '  Das  heilsame  Gebet,  und 
die  Menschwerdung  Christi' ;  and  some  years 
later  by  Brockes's  Poem,  '  Der  fur  die  Siinde  der 
Welt  gemartete  und  sterbende  Jesus,'  set  to  music 
by  Keiser  in  1714,  by  Handel  andTelemann  in 
1716,  and  by  Mattheson  in  1718.  The  general 
tone  of  German  Music  was  more  elevated  by 
these  great  works  than  by  anything  that  had 
preceded  them.  That  their  style  should  be 
diametrically  opposed  to  that  exhibited  in  the 
Italian  Oratorios  of  the  period  was  only  to  be 
expected;  for,  though  the  Germans  were  not 
averse  from  cultivating  the  Monodic  Style,  they 
never  abetted  their  Italian  contemporaries  in 
their  mad  rebellion  against  the  laws  of  Counter- 
point. The  ingenious  devices  of  Polyphony  were 
respected  in  Germany,  even  during  the  first  three 
decades  of  the  17th  century,  when  Italian  dra- 
matic Composers  affected  to  deride  them  as  follies 
too  childish  for  serious  consideration ;  and  they 
were  not  without  their  effect  upon  the  national 
style.  It  is  true,  they  had  not  long  had  an 
opportunity  of  leavening  it ;  yet  the  influence  of 
the  Venetian  School  upon  that  of  Nuremberg, 
consecrated  by  the  life-long  friendship  of  Giovanni 
Gabrieli  and  Hans  Leo  Hosier,  was  as  lasting  as 
it  was  beneficial,  and,  strengthened  by  the  ex- 
amples of  Orlando  di  Lasso  at  Munich,  and 
Leonard  Paminger  at  Passau,  it  communicated 
to  German  Art  no  small  portion  of  that  solidity 
for  which  it  has  ever  since  been  so  deservedly 
famous,  and  which  even  now  forms  one  of  its 
most  prominent  characteristics.  Had  this  influ- 
ence been  transmitted  a  century  earlier,  it  might 
very  well  have  had  the  effect  of  fusing  the  Ger- 
man and  Italian  Schools  into  one.  It  came  too 
late  for  that.  Germany  could  accept  the  Counter- 
point, but  felt  herself  independent  of  the  Plain 
Chaunt  Canto  fermo.  In  place  of  that  she  sub- 
stituted that  form  of  Song  which,  before  the  close 
of  the  1 6th  century,  had  already  become  part  of 
her  inmost  life — the  national  Chorale,  which,  ab- 
sorbing into  itself  the  still  more  venerable  Volks- 
lied,  spoke  straight  to  the  hearts  of  the  people 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land. 
When  the  idea  of  the  'Passion  Oratorio'  was  first 
conceived,  the  Chorale  entered  freely  into  its  con- 
struction. At  first  it  was  treated  with  extreme 
simplicity — accompanied  with  homophonic  har- 
monies so  plain  that  they  could  only  be  distin- 
guished from  those  intended  for  congregational 
use  by  the  fact  that  the  Melody  was  assigned 
to  the  Soprano  Voice  instead  of  to  the  Tenor. 
Its  clauses  were  afterwards  used  as  Fugal 
Subjects,  or  Points  of  Imitation,  sometimes  very 
learnedly  constructed,  and  always  exhibiting  an 
earnestness  of  manner  above  all  praise.  But, 
however  treated,  the  subject  of  the  Chorale  was 
always  noble,  and  always  introduced  with  a 
greatness  of  purpose  far  above  the  pettiness  of 
Rational  pride  or  bigotry.  It  would  seem  as  if 
its  cultivators  had  sent  it  into  the  world,  in  those 
■troublous  times,  as  a  message  of  peace — a  sort  of 


ORATORIO. 

common  ground  on  which  Catholic  and  Protestant 
might  meet  to  contemplate  the  events  of  that  awful 
Passion  which,  equally  dear  to  both,  is  invested  for 
both  with  exactly  the  same  doctrinal  significance. 
And  the  tradition  was  faithfully  transmitted  to 
another  generation. 

The  works  we  have  described,  and  many 
others  by  contemporary  Musicians  of  good 
reputation,  gave  place  in  process  of  time  to  the 
still  grander  creations  of  the  Sixth  Period — 
creations  so  sublime  that  two  Composers  only  can 
claim  to  be  mentioned  in  connection  with  them : 
but  those  two  Composers — Karl  Heinrich  Graun 
and  Johann  Seb.  Bach— cherished  the  Chorale 
even  more  tenderly  than  their  predecessors  had 
done,  and  interwove  it  so  closely  into  the  con- 
struction of  their  Passion  Music  that  it  became 
its  most  prominent  feature,  the  key-stone  of  the 
entire  fabric.  While  still  a  pupil  of  the  Kreuz- 
schule  at  Dresden,  and,  if  tradition  may  be 
trusted,  before  he  had  completed  his  fifteenth 
year,  Graun  wrote  a  'Grosse  Passions  -  Orato- 
rium,'  in  which  he  introduced  the  melody  of 
'  Ach  wie  hungert  mein  Gemuthe'  with  extra- 
ordinary effect,  and  in  a  way  which  no  other 
Composer  had  ever  previously  attempted,  in  con- 
nection with  the  Institution  of  the  Lord's 
Supper.  His  greatest  work,  '  Der  Tod  Jesu,' 
first  produced  in  the  Cathedral  at  Berlin  in  1 755, 
begins  with  an  exquisite  setting  of  '0  Haupt 
voll  Blut  und  xWunden'  in  homophonic  har- 
mony, and  afterwards  introduces  five  other  Me- 
lodies, mostly  treated  in  the  same  quiet  manner, 
though  one  is  skilfully  combined  with  a  Bass 
Solo.  The  Poem,  by  Rammler,  is  epic  in  struc- 
ture, but  is  so  arranged  as  to  present  an 
effective  alternation  of  Recitatives,  Airs,  and 
Choruses.  The  fugal  treatment  of  the  latter  is 
marked  by  a  clearness  of  design  and  breadth  of 
form  which  have  rarely  been  exceeded  by  Com- 
posers of  any  age;  and  the  whole  work  hangs 
together  with  a  logical  sequence  for  which  one 
may  search  in  vain  among  the  Scores  of  ordinary 
writers,  or  indeed  among  the  Scores  of  any  Ger- 
man writers  of  the  period,  excepting  Bach  him- 
self. Bach  wrote  three  grand  Oratorios,  besides 
many  of  smaller  dimensions  which  are  usually 
classed  as  Cantatas.  These  three  were  '  Die 
Johannis- Passion'  (1720);  'Die  grosse  Passion 
nach  Matthaus,'  first  produced  in  the  Thomas 
Kirche  at  Leipzig  on  Good  Friday,  1729;  and 
'  Das  Weihnachts  Oratorium '  ( 1 734).  The  Pas- 
sion according  to  S.  John  is  composed  on  a  scale 
so  much  smaller  than  that  employed  for  the  later 
work  according  to  S.  Matthew,  that  we  think  it 
scarcely  necessary  to  speak  of  both.  The  Text 
of  S.  Matthew's  version  was  prepared  by  Chris- 
tian Freidrich  Henrici  (under  the  pseudonym  of 
Picander),  and  is  written  partly  in  the  dramatic 
and  partly  in  the  epic  form,  with  an  Evangelist — 
the  principal  Tenor  —  who  relates  the  various 
events  in  the  wondrous  History,  but  leaves  our 
Lord,  S.  Peter,  and  the  rest  of  the  Dramatis 
persona  to  use  their  own  words,  whenever  the 
Sacred  Text  makes   them  speak  in  their  own 

>  Originally  a  Volkslied,  beginning  '  Mein  G'muth  1st  mir  venrirret.' 


ORATORIO. 

proper  persons ;  a  double  Chorus,  sometimes  of 
Disciples,  and  sometimes  of  raging  Jews,  treated 
always  in  the  Dramatic  form  ;  certain  Airs  and 
Choruses,  called  at  the  time  they  were  written 
Soliloquice,  containing  Meditations  on  the  events 
narrated ;  and  a  number  of  Chorales,  in  which  the 
general  Congregation  was  expected  to  join.  It 
is  impossible  to  say  which  of  these  different 
classes  of  Composition  displays  the  greatest 
amount  of  genius  or  learning.  The  part  of  the 
Evangelist,  and  the  Recitatives  assigned  to  our 
Lord  and  His  Apostles,  are  full  of  gentle  dignity. 
The  Choruses,  though  not  fugal,  abound  with 
superb  and  exceedingly  intricate  part-writing, 
and  are,  moreover,  marked  by  an  amount  of 
dramatic  power  extremely  remarkable  in  a  Com- 
poser who  never  gave  his  attention  to  pure  dra- 
matic Music :  the  last  one  in  particular,  '  Ruhet 
sanfte,  sanfte  ruh't,'  is  a  model  of  touching  and 
pathetic  expression.  The  Airs  are  always  accom- 
panied in  as  many  real  parts  as  there  are  Instru- 
ments in  the  Score,  and  consequently  exhibit  as 
much  contrapuntal  ingenuity  as  the  Choruses. 
Finally,  the  Chorales  are  treated  with  a  depth  of 
feeling  to  which  Bach  alone  has  ever  attained 
in  this  peculiar  style  of  composition.  In  the 
Christmas  Oratorio,  though  the  general  con- 
formation is  very  similar,  the  dramatic  element 
is  much  less  plainly  brought  forward.  The 
work  is  divided  into  six  portions — one  for  each 
of  the  first  six  days  of  the  Christmas  Festival ; 
but  it  may  quite  as  conveniently  be  divided  into 
three  for  general  performance.  The  Second 
Part  begins  with  a  Symphony,  in  12-8  time, 
and  of  Pastoral  character,  second  only  in  beauty 
to  the  'Pastoral  Symphony'  in  the  Messiah.  The 
Choruses  are  much  more  elaborately  developed 
than  those  of  the  Passion,  with  more  frequent 
points  of  Imitation,  and  very  much  less  dramatic 
effect.  But  in  the  Chorales  the  treatment  is  ex- 
actly the  same  as  in  the  two  Passion  Oratorios, 
and  we  cannot  doubt  that,  in  all  these  cases  the 
Congregation  sang  the  Melody,  while  the  Chorus 
and  Orchestra  supplied  the  simple  and  wonder- 
fully beautiful  harmonies  with  which  it  is  adorned. 
We  can  scarcely  illustrate  our  remarks  upon  these 
Oratorios — the  invaluable  productions  of  the  Fifth 
and  Sixth  Periods — better  than  by  subjoining 
Chorales  from  Handel's  '  Johannis  Passion,' 
Graun's  *Tod  Jesu,'  and  Bach's  Passion  ac- 
cording to  S.  Matthew. 


ORATORIO. 


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ORATORIO. 

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ORATORIO. 

In  the  works  of  these  great  Masters  the  Ger- 
man School  of  Sacred  Music  reached  its  culmin- 
ating point.  Their  successors  made  no  attempt 
to  compete  with  them  on  their  own  ground  ; 
and,  before  very  long,  the  style  they  had  so 
successfully  cultivated  yielded  to  the  demands 
of  fashion,  and  its  traditions  passed  quite  out 
of  memory,  to  be  revived,  in  our  own  day,  with 
results  concerning  which  it  is  not  yet  time  to 
speak.  But,  grand  as  their  Ideal  was,  it  was 
not  the  grandest  the  Oratorio  was  destined  to 
embody;  nor  was  Germany  the  country  fated 
to  witness  the  most  splendid  development  of  that 
noblest  of  all  Art-forms.  Our  search  for  it,  in  its 
highest  perfection,  leads  us  to  England,  where  the 
Seventh  Period  of  its  history  presents  it  to  us 
under  the  influence  of  some  very  important  modi- 
fications both  of  general  construction  and  detail. 

We  have  already  seen  Handel  writing  a  true 
German  Oratorio  at  Hamburg  in  1704,  and  one 
after  the  prevailing  Italian  manner  at  Rome  in 
1 708  ;  but  neither  of  these  works  represents  the 
style  for  which  he  afterwards  became  so  justly 
famous ;  nor  does  even  the  second  Passion  Ora- 
torio of  1 716  clearly  foreshadow  it,  as  a  whole, 
though  it  may  be  said  to  do  so  in  certain  places. 
Not  but  that  there  are  beauties  enough,  even  in 
the  first  Passion  Oratorio  and  the  '  Resurrezione,' 
to  pronounce  him,  young  as  he  was  when  he  wrote 
them,  the  greatest  Composer  of  the  age.  We 
may  search  in  vain,  among  contemporary  pro- 
ductions, for  evidence  of  such  power  as  that  dis- 
played in  '  0  voi  dell'  Erebo  potenze  orribili,'  or 
the  Recitative  which  precedes  and  introduces  it. 
But  this  only  entitles  him  to  rank  as  Primus 
inter  pares.  He  had  not  yet  perfected  the 
stupendous  conception  which  gave  him  a  place, 
not  among,  but  above,  all  other  writers  of  the 
1 8th  century,  analogous  to  that  which  Palestrina 
held  above  all  those  of  the  16th — a  position  to 
which  was  attached  the  title,  not  of  Primus,  but 
of  Solus.  Let  us  endeavour  to  analyse  this 
great  conception ;  to  measure  the  extent  of  the 
resources  which  rendered  its  embodiment  possi- 
ble ;  and  to  trace,  as  carefully  as  we  may,  the 
progress  of  its  development. 

When  Handel  wrote  his  first  English  Oratorio, 
'  Esther,'  he  was  no  longer  an  aspiring  debutant, 
but  the  first  Musician  in  Europe.  Since  the 
production  of '  La  Resurrezione,'  he  had  written, 
for  the  King's  Theatre  in  the  Haymarket,  five 
Italian  Operas,  two  of  which,  'Rinaldo'  and 
'Radamisto,'  rank  among  the  best  he  has 
bequeathed  to  us.  In  these,  he  exhibited  a 
power  of  dramatic  expression  immeasurably  ex- 
ceeding anything  that  had  ever  been  previously 
attempted.  Every  shade  of  human  passion,  from 
the  tenderest  pathos,  through  the  varying  phases 
of  sorrow,  anxiety,  fear,  terror,  scorn,  anger, 
infuriated  madness,  or  curdling  horror,  may  be 
found  depicted  in  them,  with  sufficient  fidelity 
to  prove  that  he  had  the  entire  series  absolutely 
at  his  command.  This  was  much,  to  begin  with  ; 
but  there  was  more  behind.  Too  little  stress  is 
laid,  by  musical  critics,  upon  the  distinction 
between  dramatic  and  epic  power — yet,  the  two 


ORATORIO. 

forms  of  illustration  are  essentially  different. 
Dramatic  expression  necessarily  presupposes  the 
presence  of  the  Actor,  who  describes  his  own 
emotions  in  his  own  words.  Epic  power  is  entirely 
subjective.  Its  office  is,  so  to  act  upon  the  hearer's 
imagination,  as  to  present  to  him  a  series  of  pic- 
tures— whether  of  natural  scenery,  of  historical 
events,  or  even  of  dramatic  scenes  enacted  out 
of  sight — sufficiently  vivid  to  give  him  a  clear 
idea  of  the  situation  intended  to  be  described. 
Now,  if  in  '  Deeper  and  deeper  still '  Handel  has 
given  us  a  convincing  proof  of  his  power  as  a 
dramatist,  it  is  equally  certain  that,  in  the  Flute 
Symphony  to  'Augellati  che  Cantate'  in  'Ri- 
naldo,'  the  Pastoral  Symphony  in  the  '  Messiah,' 
and  the  Dead  March  in '  Saul,'  he  has  shown  him- 
self no  less  successful  as  a  Tone  painter.  The 
perfection  of  these  wonderful  pictures  may  be 
tested  by  the  entire  absence  of  the  necessity  for 
scenic  accessories  to  give  them  their  full  force. 
When  Mr.  Sims  Reeves  declaims  '  Deeper  and 
deeper  still,'  in  ordinary  evening  dress,  he  speaks 
as  directly  to  our  hearts,  and  pourtrays  Jephtha's 
agony  of  soul  quite  as  truly,  as  he  could  possibly 
do  were  he  dressed  in  the  robes  of  an  Israelitish 
Judge.  Before  we  have  listened  to  the  first 
three  notes  of  the  Dead  March  in  '  Saul,'  we 
have  called  up  an  imaginary  picture  of  a  Funeral 
Procession,  compared  with  which  the  finest  stage 
effect  that  ever  machinist  put  together  would 
confess  itself  a  heap  of  worthless  tinsel.  The 
value  lies  in  the  Music  itself ;  the  only  condition 
needful  for  its  success  is,  that  it  sbould  be  well 
performed.  In  possessing  the  power  of  produc- 
ing such  Music,  Handel  was  more  than  half  pre- 
pared for  the  elaboration  of  his  gigantic  scheme ; 
but  one  thing  was  still  wanting — the  religious 
element.  The  Scripture  Narrative,  considered 
merely  as  history,  needed  for  its  illustration  no 
farther  qualifications  than  those  of  which  we 
have  already  spoken.  But  it  was  not  enough 
that  it  should  be  treated  merely  as  history;  it 
was  indispensable  that  its  symbolical  meaning 
should  be  brought  out ;  and  that  that  meaning 
should  be  made  the  turning-point  of  the  whole. 
As  means  of  effecting  this,  dramatic  and  epic 
expression  were  equally  powerless  ;  but  Handel's 
resources  were  not  yet  at  an  end.  Since  the 
production  of  '  La  Resurrezione ' — in  which  this 
religious  element  was  wholly  wanting — he  had 
written  the  Twelve  Chandos  Anthems;  works 
now  so  little  known  that  it  is  necessary  to  ex- 
plain that  they  are  not  Anthems,  in  our  present 
acceptation  of  the  term,  but  grand  Sacred  Can- 
tatas, consisting  of  Overtures,  Solos,  and  Choruses, 
with  accompaniments  for  a  full  Orchestra,  and  so 
highly  developed,  that  many  of  them  are  quite 
as  grand  and  as  long  as  a  whole  Act  of  an 
Oratorio.  The  chief  characteristic  of  these  great 
works — as  of  the  Utrecht '  Te  Deum,'  and  '  Jubi- 
late,' and  the  two  settings  of  the  *  Te  Deum '  for 
the  Duke  of  Chandos,  produced  during  the  same 
period — is  deep  religious  feeling.  Not  the  ab- 
stract devotional  feeling  peculiar  to  true  Eccle- 
siastical Music,  like  that  of  Palestrina.  From 
first    to    last,    Handel    never    attempted    this. 


ORATORIO. 


543 


But,  the  sincere  reverence  of  a  devout  mind, 
accompanied  by  a  keen  appreciation  of  the  inner 
meaning  of  the  text — a  thorough  understanding 
of  the  spirit,  as  well  as  of  the  letter.  And  here 
Handel's  learning  and  ingenuity  proved  of  in- 
calculable advantage  to  him.  The  dignity  of  his 
grand  Choruses  demanded  that  all  the  subtle 
mysteries  of  Counterpoint  should  be  brought 
into  requisition  as  means  of  assisting  their  ar- 
tistic development ;  and,  of  these  mysteries  he 
was  thoroughly  master.  The  smoothness  of  his 
part-writing  is,  indeed,  little  less  than  miracu- 
lous. However  close  the  imitation,  or  compli- 
cated the  involutions  of  the  several  Voices,  we 
never  meet  with  an  inharmonious  collision.  He 
seems  always  to  have  aimed  at  making  his  parts 
run  on  velvet — whereas  Bach,  writing  on  a 
totally  different  principle,  evidently  delighted  in 
bringing  harmony  out  of  discord,  and  made  a 
point  of  introducing  hard  Passing-notes  in  order 
to  avail  himself  of  the  pleasant  effect  of  their 
ultimate  resolution.  Again,  no  other  writer, 
either  of  earlier  or  later  date,  with  the  sole 
exception  of  Palestrina,  ever  possessed  so  great 
a  power  of  concealing  his  learning.  Carissimi, 
when  complimented  on  this  great  quality,  is 
reported  to  have  said,  'Ah !  questo  facile,  quanto 
6  difficile!'  (Ah!  this  ease,  how  difficult  it  is 
to  attain !)  But  Carissimi  never  imagined  the 
possibility  of  such  a  complication  as  that  ex- 
hibited in  the  Stretto  of  the  'Amen  Chorus' — one 
of  the  closest  examples  of  Imitation  in  existence, 
and  that  creeps  in  so  unobtrusively  that  the  very 
last  feeling  it  is  likely  to  excite  is  wonder  at  its 
ingenuity. 

These,  then,  were  the  resources  which  Handel 
found  ready  for  his  use,  when  his  genius  enabled 
him  to  strike  out  the  splendid  Ideal  to  which  he 
owes  by  far  the  greater  part  of  his  world-wide 
reputation.  If  we  examine  his  Oratorios,  one  by 
one,  we  shall  find  that  that  Ideal  was  susceptible 
of  a  threefold  expression.  It  was  capable  of 
being  embodied  in  a  wholly  dramatic,  or  a  wholly 
epic  form ;  or,  in  a  form  radically  dramatic  but 
relieved  by  frequent  episodes,  of  an  epic,  a  di- 
dactic, or  even  of  a  contemplative  character. 
Though  his  two  greatest  works,  '  The  Messiah,' 
and  '  Israel  in  ^Egypt,'  are  purely  epic,  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  dramatic  form — without,  of 
course,  either  Scenery  or  Action — was  the  one 
which  he  himself  preferred  ;  and,  in  carrying  it 
out,  he  adhered  strictly  to  the  conditions  at  that 
time  observed  with  regard  to  the  technical  con- 
struction of  the  Lyric  Drama.  Of  the  hundreds 
of  Airs  he  wrote  for  his  Oratorios,  we  shall  not 
find  one  which  cannot  be  referred  to  one  or 
other  of  the  well-defined  classes  into  which  the 
Italian  Opera  Airs  of  the  18th  century  were,  by 
common  consent  both  of  Composers  and  Singers, 
invariably  divided.  [See  Opera,  pp.  509-511, 
vol.  ii.]  Thus,  we  see  the  Aria  Cantabile  most 
strikingly  exemplified  in  '  Angels  ever  bright  and 
fair ' ;  the  A  ria  di  Portamento  in  '  I  know  that  my 
Redeemer  liveth';  the  Aria  di  mezzo  carattere 
in  'Waft  her,  Angels,  through  the  skies';  the 
Aria  parlante  in  *He  was  despised';  and  the 


544 


ORATORIO. 


Aria  di  bravura,  in  '  Rejoice  greatly.'  Even  the 
minordivisionsarenoless  clearly  represented.  We 
recognise  the  Cavatina  in  '  Sin  not,  0  king ' ;  the 
Aria  d'imituzione  in  ■  Their  land  brought  forth 
frogs';  the  Aria  all'  unisono  in  'Honour  and 
arms';  and  the  Aria  concertata  in  'Let  the 
bright  Seraphim':  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark 
that  the  classification  is  marked  with  equal  pre- 
cision, whether  the  examples  be  selected  from 
dramatic  or  epic  works.  So  far  as  Airs  were 
concerned,  Handel  found  plenty  of  room  for  his 
genius  to  assert  itself  within  the  limits  defined 
by  universal  custom.  But,  with  his  Choruses, 
the  case  was  very  different.  Here,  he  was  abso- 
lutely free.  Fashion  had  made  no  attempt  to 
interfere  with  choral  writing  —  in  fact,  such 
choral  writing  as  his  had  not  yet  been  heard. 
It  is  from  him  that  we  learn  what  a  Chorus 
ought  to  be — and  he  presents  it  to  us  in  an 
endless  variety  of  forms.  Sometimes  he  uses  it 
— as  it  is  frequently  used  in  Greek  Tragedy — as 
a  means  of  drawing  a  lesson  from  some  portion 
of  the  dramatic  story,  or  moralising  upon  some 
event  mentioned  in  the  epic  narrative.  He  has 
so  used  it  in  'Envy,  eldest  born  of  Hell,'  'Is 
there  a  man  ?'  and  '  0  fatal  consequence  of  rage,' 
in  Saul ;  '  The  name  of  the  wicked,'  in  Solomon ; 
•  Thus,  one  with  every  virtue  crowned,'  in  Joseph ; 
and  in  innumerable  other  cases.  Sometimes  he  is 
forcibly  dramatic ;  as  in  '  Help !  help  the  King! ' 
in  Belshazzar ;  or,  '  We  come,  in  bright  array,' 
in  Judas  Macchabseus.  More  frequently,  he  is 
descriptive,  as  in  'He  gave  them  hailstones,' 
'  Eagles  were  not  so  swift  as  they,'  and  a  hundred 
other  instances  with  which  the  reader's  memory 
will  readily  supply  him.  In  this  form  of  ex- 
pression he  never  fails  to  produce  a  marvellous 
effect.  No  matter  what  may  be  the  subject  he 
undertakes  to  illustrate,  he  is  always  equal  to 
it.  In  '  Chear  her,  0  Baal,'  and  '  May  no  rash 
intruder,'  he  soothes  us  with  his  delicious  Ac- 
companiments. In  '  He  sent  a  thick  darkness,' 
we  shudder  at  the  awful  gloom.  In  'See  the 
conquering  Hero  comes,'  he  conjures  up  a  Scene 
which  presents  itself  before  us,  in  all  its  successive 
details,  with  the  fidelity  of  a  Dutch  picture.  But 
here,  even  when  the  subject  is  sacred,  he  speaks 
only  of  its  earthly  surroundings.  When  he  would 
raise  our  thoughts  to  Heaven,  he  uses  means  which 
seem  simple  enough,  when  we  subject  them  to  a 
technical  analysis,  but  which  nevertheless  possess 
a  power  which  no  audience  can  resist — the  power 
of  compelling  the  hearer  to  regard  the  subject 
from  the  Composer's  point  of  view.  Now,  that 
point  of  view  was  always  a  sincerely  devout  one  : 
and  so  it  comes  to  pass  that  no  one  can  scoff  at 
the  '  Messiah.'  We  may  go  to  hear  it  in  any 
spirit  we  please :  but  we  shall  come  away  im- 
pressed, in  spite  of  ourselves,  and  confess  that 
Handel's  will,  in  this  matter,  is  stronger  than 
ours.  He  bids  us  '  Behold  the  Lamb  of  God ' ; 
and  we  feel  that  he  has  helped  us  to  do  so.  He 
tells  us  that  '  With  His  stripes  we  are  healed ' ; 
and  we  are  sensible,  not  of  the  healing  only,  but 
of  the  cruel  price  at  which  it  was  purchased. 
And  we  yield  him  equal  obedience  when  he  calls 


ORATORIO. 

upon  us  to  join  him  in  his  Hymns  of  Praise. 
Who,  hearing  the  noble  subject  of  'I  will  sing 
unto  the  Lord '  led  off  by  the  Tenors,  and  Altos, 
does  not  long  to  reinforce  their  voices  with  his 
own  ?  Who  does  not  feel  a  choking  in  his  throat 
before  the  first  bar  of  the  '  Hallelujah  Chorus '  is 
completed,  though  he  may  be  listening  to  it  for 
the  hundredth  time?  Hard  indeed  must  his 
heart  be  who  can  refuse  to  hear  when  Handel 
preaches  through  the  Voices  of  his  Chorus.  But 
it  is  not  alone  with  voices  that  he  speaks.  The 
Orchestra  was  his  slave  :  and  by  its  aid  he  teaches 
us  much  that  is  worthy  of  our  attention.  It  is 
true  that  we  are  very  rarely  permitted  to  hear 
what  he  has  to  say,  as  an  instrumentalist :  but, 
his  secrets  are  worth  finding  out ;  and,  though 
the  subject  is  a  vexed  one,  we  do  not  intend  to 
let  it  pass  undiscussed. 

The  Orchestra,  in  Handel's  time,  consisted  of 
a  Bmaller  Stringed  Band  than  we  are  accustomed 
to  use  at  the  present  day  ;  but  the  Violins  were 
reinforced  by  a  greater  number  of  Oboes,  and  the 
Basses,  by  a  far  stronger  body  of  Bassoons.  Flutes 
were  chiefly  used  as  Solo  Instruments ;  but  some- 
times played  in  unison  with  the  Oboes.  The 
Brass  Instruments  were,  Trumpets  (doubled  ad 
libitum),  with  Drums  for  their  natural  Bass ; 
Horns ;  and  Trombones  (Alto,  Tenor,  and  Bass), 
when  the  character  of  the  music  demanded  their 
presence.  The  Harp,  Viola  da  gamba,  and  other 
soft  Instruments  were  occasionally  used  for  obbl'e 
gato  accompaniments,  in  which  they  sometimes 
played  an  important  part.  The  Organ  was  used 
throughout ;  and  its  part  was  provided  for  by  the 
Figures  of  the  Thoroughbass,  which  served  also  for 
the  Harpsichord.  With  these  means  at  his  com- 
mand, Handel  was  able  to  accomplish  all  that  his 
fiery  genius  suggested ;  and  his  method  of  combin- 
ing and  contrasting  the  various  elements  of  which 
his  Band  was  composed  may  be  studied  with 
very  great  profit.  It  was  his  constant  practice, 
in  Airs  of  the  cantabile  class,  to  leave  the  Voice 
quite  free  from  instrumental  embarrassments,  and 
supported  only  by  the  Basses,  and  the  Chords 
indicated  beneath  the  Thorough-Bass  —  which 
Chords  were  supplied  either  by  the  Harpsichord, 
or  the  Organ.  Sometimes,  the  Symphonies  to 
these  Airs  were  played,  like  those  usually  found 
in  the  Aria  di  portamento,  by  the  Violins  in 
unison,  which,  thus  used,  between  the  vocal 
phrases,  produced  double  their  ordinary  effect. 
In  the  grander  Airs,  the  Accompaniments  were 
much  more  elaborate,  and  served  to  contrast 
these  pieces  strongly  with  those  of  the  former 
class.  In  the  Choruses,  though  the  entire  Band 
was  brought  into  constant  requisition,  there  were 
often  long  and  highly  complicated  passages  ac- 
companied solely  by  the  Organ  and  the  Basses  ; 
and,  in  cases  of  this  description,  the  introduction 
of  the  Violins,  at  certain  important  points,  pro- 
duced a  very  striking  effect — as  in  the  'Amen 
Chorus'  of  the  'Messiah' — not  unlike  that  to 
which  we  have  already  alluded  in  speaking  of 
the  Symphonies  of  the  Aria  cantabile.  When  the 
Trumpets  and  Drums  were  introduced,  it  was 
always  with    electrical    effect.     Handel   never 


ORATORIO. 

wrote  unnecessary  notes  for  these  wonder-working 
Instruments,  for  the  mere  sake  of  keeping  them 
going  ;  but  took  care  that  their  silvery  tone 
should  sustain  its  due  part  in  the  fulfilment  of 
his  preconceived  intention — a  task  to  which  they 
always  proved  themselves  equal.  The  great 
strength  of  these  arrangements  lay  in  the  perfect 
balance  of  the  whole.  From  the  beginning  to  the 
end  of  the  work,  each  of  its  several  subdivisions 
was  exactly  proportioned  to  all  the  rest.  Yet, 
there  was  no  lack  of  variety.  Taking  the  Thorough- 
Bass  with  its  accompanying  chords  as  the  lowest 
attainable  point  in  the  scale  of  effect,  and  the  Full 
Band,  with  the  Trumpets  and  Drums,  as  the 
highest,  there  lay,  between  these  two  extremes, 
an  infinity  of  diverse  shades,  as  countless  as  the 
half-tones  in  Turner's  summer  skies,  all  of  which 
we  find  turned  to  good  account,  and  so  arranged 
as  to  play  into  each  other,  and  contrast  together, 
with  the  happiest  possible  influence  upon  the 
general  design.  But,  unhappily,  the  delicate 
gradations  they  once  represented  are  now  ren- 
dered altogether  indistinguishable  by  the  intro- 
duction of  Clarinets,  Trombones,  Ophicleides, 
Bombardons,  Euphoniums,  and  the  loud  unmiti- 
gated crash  of  a  full  Military  Band — an  innovation 
quite  fatal  to  the  Composer's  original  intention, 
inasmuch  as  it  entirely  destroys  the  unity  of  pur- 
pose he  so  carefully  endeavoured  to  express.  An 
English  critic — by  no  means  a  revolutionary  one — 
in  describing  the  Autograph  Copy  of  the '  Messiah,' 
speaks  in  a  slighting  tone  of '  For  unto  us  a  Child 
is  born,'  as  '  meagrely  scored  for  voices  and  a 
stringed  quartet.'  Handel's  'meagre  score,'  by 
accompanying  the  softer  parts  only  with  the  Organ 
and  Basses,  and  delaying  the  entrance  of  the 
rest  of  the  Orchestra  until  the  forte  at  the  word 
'Wonderful,'  provides  for  the  finest  effect  the 
Chorus  can  be  made  to  produce,  and  furnishes 
us  with  an  infinitely  grander  reading  than  that 
which,  by  its  excessive  contrast  between  pppp 
and  ffff,  borders  rather  upon  the  extravagant 
than  the  sublime.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
'  For  unto  us  a  Child  is  born'  is  utterly  ruined 
by  the  liberties  which  are  taken  with  it  in  per- 
formance. In  other  Choruses  we  hear  a  Fugal 
Point  taken  up,  over  and  over  again,  by  Bass 
Trombones,  or  Euphoniums,  with  such  rousing 
vigour  that  the  Voice  part  is  rendered  com- 
pletely inaudible :  and,  in  cases  like  this,  the 
result  is,  not  a  richness,  but  a  thinness  of  effect 
quite  unworthy  of  the  Composer's  meaning.  We 
are  quite  alive  to  the  beauty  of  Mozart's  In- 
strumentation, which  has  certainly  never  been 
equalled  in  more  modern  times :  but,  would  it 
be  sacrilege  to  say  that  even  he  has  not  risen  to 
the  level  of  the  '  Messiah '  ?  We  must  feel  that 
there  is  something  wanting,  when  we  listen  to 
his  exquisite  description  of  'The  people  that 
walked*  not  'in  darkness,'  but  in  a  golden 
twilight  so  enchantingly  beautiful  that  the  '  great 
light*  afterwards  mentioned  rather  tends  to 
diminish  than  to  add  to  its  ineffable  charms. 
Only,  let  it  be  clearly  understood  that  Mozart 
by  no  means  satisfies  the  taste  of  the  present  day. 
When  we  hear  of  the  '  Messiah,'  with  his  '  Ad- 
vol.  n.  PT.  II. 


ORATORIO. 


545 


ditional  Accompaniments,'  we  are  to  understand 
the  farther  'addition'  of  a  complete  Military 
Band;  and  the  aggregate  result  does  not  leave 
us  much  margin  for  the  criticism  of  Handel's 
original  idea.  Great  as  this  evil  is,  it  is  still  on 
the  increase.  Let  us  hope  that  the  rapidity  of  its 
advance  may  the  sooner  provoke  a  reaction ;  and 
that  some  of  us  may  yet  live  to  hear  the '  Messiah ' 
sung  in  accordance  with  its  author's  intention. 

Handel  wrote,  altogether,  seventeen  English 
Oratorios,  beside  a  number  of  saccular  works 
which  are  sometimes  incorrectly  classed  with 
them.  '  Esther,'  the  first  of  the  series,  was 
first  performed  in  the  private  Chapel  of  the 
Duke  of  Chandos,  at  Cannons,  on  August  29, 
1720.  That  the  Duke  fully  appreciated  its  sig- 
nificance as  a  Work  of  Art  is  proved  by  the 
fact  that  he  presented  the  Composer  with 
£1000  in  exchange  for  the  Score:  yet,  after 
three  or  four  private  performances  it  was  un- 
accountably laid  aside ;  and  we  hear  no  more  of 
it  for  eleven  years.  In  1731  it  was  revived  by 
the  Children  of  the  King's  Chapel,  who  repre- 
sented it,  in  action,  at  the  house  of  their  pre- 
ceptor, Mr.  Bernard  Gates,  in  James  Street, 
Westminster,  and  again,  at  a  subscription  concert, 
at  the  '  Crown  and  Anchor.'  These  performances 
were,  in  a  certain  sense,  private.  But,  in  1732, 
the  Oratorio  was  publicly  performed,  without 
the  Composer's  consent,  at  the  Great  Room,  in 
Villars  Street,  York  Buildings,  under  the  manage- 
ment of  a  speculator  who  is  believed  to  have  been 
identified  as  the  father  of  Dr.  Arne.  This  act  of 
piracy  provoked  Handel  into  bringing  out  the 
Oratorio  himself  at  the  King's  Theatre  in  the 
Haymarket,  where  it  was  performed,  '  by  his 
Majesty's  command,'  without  dramatic  action, 
on  May  2  in  the  same  year.  The  success  of  this 
experiment  fully  justified  the  preparation  of  a 
second  work  of  similar  character,  which  was 
produced  on  April  2,  1733,  under  the  title  of 
'Deborah.'  A  careful  comparison  of  the  two 
Oratorios  furnishes  us  with  a  valuable  means  of 
measuring  the  progress  of  the  Composer's  Art- 
life,  at  a  very  eventful  period.  As  the  *  Esther ' 
of  1720,  though  enriched  by  several  important 
additions  before  its  reproduction  in  1732,  was 
not  actually  re-written,  it  may  be  accepted  as  a 
fair  representative  of  its  author's  ideas  at  the 
time  it  first  saw  the  light.  '  Deborah '  represents 
the  enlargement  of  these  ideas,  after  thirteen 
years  of  uninterrupted  study  and  experience. 
The  amount  of  advancement  indicated  is  very 
great ;  great  enough  to  remind  us  of  that  ob- 
servable between  Beethoven's  Symphony  in  D, 
and  the  '  Eroica ' ;  only  that  we  see  no  sign  of  a 
change  of  style;  no  change  of  any  kind,  save 
that  the  old  style  has  grown  immeasurably 
grander.  The  Overture  to  'Esther'  has  always 
been  more  generally  appreciated  than  that  to 
'Deborah,'  not  from  any  real  or  fancied  supe- 
riority, but  solely  by  reason  of  its  long-continued 
repetition,  at  S.  Paul's  Cathedral,  for  the  benefit 
of  the '  Sons  of  the  Clergy.'  But,  the  magnificent 
Double  Chorus  with  which  the  latter  Oratorio 
opens  so  far  excels  anything   to  be  found  in 

N  n 


546 


ORATORIO. 


*  Esther '  that  farther  comparison  is  needless. 
Handel  himself  has  rarely  reached  a  higher 
standard  than  in  'Immortal  Lord  of  earth  and 
skies ' ;  which,  in  fixity  of  purpose,  breadth  of 
design,  and  massive  grandeur  of  effect,  may  well 
be  ranked  with  some  of  the  finest  passages  in 

•  Solomon,'  or  even  '  Israel  in  ^Egypt  :  and  it  is 
enough  to  say  that  the  promise  given  in  this 
glorious  beginning  is  amply  fulfilled  in  the  Second 
and  Third  Acts.  In  the  first  Act  of '  Athaliah ' 
— produced  in  the  Theatre  at  Oxford  on  July 
10  in  the  same  year  (1733)— this  massive  style 
is  wisely  modified,  to  some  extent,  in  order  to 
depict  the  voluptuous  surroundings  of  the  Baal- 
worshipping  Queen :  but  when  Joash  and  the 
Hebrew  Priesthood  make  their  appearance,  in 
the  Second  Act,  it  is  resumed  with  all  its  original 
force.  A  large  quantity  of  Music  selected  from 
this  Oratorio  was  introduced  by  Handel  into  a 
Serenata,  called  '  Parnasso  in  Festa,'  which 
was  prepared  in  haste  for  the  marriage  of  the 
Princess  Royal,  and  performed  before  the  King 
and  the  whole  of  the  Royal  Family  on  March 
x3>  1 734-  After  this  we  hear  of  no  more  Sacred 
Music  till  1 739.  in  which  year  '  Saul '  was  pro- 
duced on  January  16,  and  'Israel  in  ^Egypt  on 
April  4.1  In  force  of  dramatic  expression, '  Saul ' 
certainly  surpasses  even  the  finest  Scenes  presented 
in  either  of  the  three  earlier  works.  The  Song 
of  Triumph  in  the  First  Act,  with  its  picturesque 
Carillon  accompaniment,  marking  out  each  suc- 
cessive stage  in  the  Procession,  while  the  jealous 
Monarch  bursts  with  envy ;  the  wailing  notes  of 
the  Oboes  and  Bassoons  in  the  Witch's  Incanta- 
tion; the  gloomy  pomp  of  the  terrible  'Dead 
March,'  and  the  tender  pathos  of  David's  own 
personal  sorrow,  so  clearly  distinguished  from 
that  felt  by  the  Nation  at  large ;  these,  and  a 
hundred  other  noticeable  features,  would  stamp 
'  Saul '  as  one  of  the  finest  dramatic  works  we 
possess,  even  were  it  shorn  of  its  splendid 
Choruses,  its  fiery  Instrumental  Symphonies,  and 
its  Movements  for  Organ  Obbligato,  designed  for 
the  Composer's  own  interpretation.  In  'Israel in 
.(Egypt,'  on  the  other  hand,  Handel  first  showed 
his  power  of  treating  a  purely  Epic  Poem.  There 
is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  Composer 
arranged  the  Text  of  this  Oratorio  for  himself. 
At  any  rate,  it  is  certain,  from  his  method  of 
dealing  with  it,  that  he  highly  approved  of  the 
arrangement,  and  no  doubt  chose  the  epic  form 
from  conviction  of  its  perfect  adaptability  to  his 
purpose ;  illustrating  it — now  that  the  dramatic 
element  would  have  been  clearly  out  of  place — 
with  Music,  for  the  most  part  of  a  boldly  de- 
scriptive character;  never  descending  to  the 
picturesqueness  of  detail  which  we  have  before 
had  occasion  to  notice,  yet  never  leaving  untold 
anything  that  was  necessary  to  the  intelligent 
rendering  of  the  whole.     Except   in  describing 

1  We  believe  these  dates  to  be  correct.  In  Arnold's  edition  'Israel 
In  iEgypt '  Is  said  to  have  been  composed  In  17S8,  and  'Saul*  in  1740. 
The  former  work  really  was  composed  In  1738.  though  not  performed 
until  the  following  year.  The  mistake  with  regard  to '  Saul '  probably 
arises  from  the  fact  that  it  was  again  performed  in  1740  by  the 
Academy  of  Antient  Musick.  Throughout  this  Article  we  have 
preferred  giving  the  date  of  the  first  performance  to  that  of  the  com- 
pletion of  the  composition. 


ORATORIO. 

the  *  Plague  of  Flies,'  and  in  a  few  other  instances, 
his  intention  seems  to  have  been  to  speak  not 
to  the  outward  but  to  the  inward  sense.  Not  to 
present  the  Scenes  mentioned  in  the  Text  by 
means  of  vividly  painted  pictures,  but  to  produce 
in  the  mind  feelings  analogous  to  those  which,  it 
is  to  be  presumed,  would  have  been  produced  by 
the  contemplation  of  the  Scenes  themselves.  It 
is  enough  that  we  are  made  to  feel  the  horror  of 
the  '  Thick  darkness/  and  the  might  of  the 
crashing  'Hailstones,'  without  seeing  them.  If 
we  have  been  made  to  rejoice,  with  the  Israelites, 
on  hearing  that '  The  Horse  and  his  Rider '  have 
been  '  thrown  into  the  sea,'  we  need  no  galloping 
triplets  to  portray  their  headlong  flight.  Any 
other  mode  of  treatment  than  this  would  have 
been  beneath  the  dignity  of  the  Scripture  Nar- 
rative, the  stupendous  character  of  which  de- 
manded, for  each  several  Miracle,  a  choral 
structure  of  such  colossal  proportions  as  had 
never  previously  been  attempted.  Some  of  the 
Movements  in  the  Second  Part — which  was 
composed  before  the  First — have  been  adapted 
from  a  '  Magnificat,'  the  Score  of  which,  in 
Handel's  handwriting,  is  preserved  in  the  Royal 
Library  at  Buckingham  Palace.  This  is  not  the 
place  to  discuss  the  authenticity  of  the  MS, 
concerning  which  Dr.  Chrysander  holds  one 
opinion,  and  Professor  Macfarren  and  M.  Schcelcher 
another  [see  Ebba]  ;  but  we  do  not  think  that 
any  unprejudiced  critic  after  carefully  studying 
this  Oratorio,  can  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
a  single  note  of  it  betrays  the  touch  of  an 
inferior  hand.  It  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say 
that  unity  of  design  is  the  first  characteristic  we 
look  for  in  a  really  great  work;  and  unity  of 
design  is  evidently  the  one  thing  which  the 
Composer  has  here  borne  in  mind,  from  the 
beginning  of  his  work  to  the  end.  Hence  it  is 
that '  Israel  in  ^Egypt '  holds  a  place  far  above 
all  other  works  of  its  own  peculiar  kind  that  ever 
have  been,  or  are  ever  likely  to  be  written.  But 
this  peculiar  form  of  Epic  is  not  the  only  one 
possible.  There  are  other  feelings  to  be  excited 
in  the  human  mind  besides  those  of  awe,  and 
horror,  and  wild  thanksgiving  for  a  great  and 
unexpected  Deliverance.  And  with  some  of 
these  Handel  has  dealt,  as  no  other  Composer 
could  have  dealt  with  them,  in  the  next  great 
work  which  falls  under  our  notice. 

It  is  too  late  now  to  ascertain  whether 
Handel  himself  chose  the  subject  of  the  '  Mes- 
siah,' or  whether  it  was  suggested  to  him  in  the 
first  instance  by  his  friend,  Mr.  Charles  Jennens. 
It  is  certain,  however,  that  Jennens  arranged 
the  general  plan  of  the  work,  and  selected  from 
the  Old  and  New  Testament  the  words  which  are 
now  so  closely  associated  with  its  Airs  and 
Choruses ;  for,  in  a  letter  written  to  him  from 
Dublin,  and  dated  Dec.  29,  1741,  Handel  alludes 
to  it  as  '  your  Oratorio,  Messiah,  which  I  set  to 
Music  before  I  left  England.'  The  Music,  as 
we  learn  from  the  dates  upon  the  original  Score, 
preserved  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Buckingham 
Palace,  was  begun  on  the  22nd  of  August,  1741. 
The  First  Part  was  finished  on  the  2Sth,  and  the 


ORATOKIO. 

Second,  on  the  6th  of  September  ;  while,  at  the 
end  of  the  Third  Part  we  find  the  inscription, 
'Fine  dell'  Oratorio,  G.  F.  Handel.  Septembre 
12.  Ausgefiillt  den  14  dieses,'  the  word  '  ausge- 
fiillt '  probably  applying  to  changes  made  after 
the  completion  of  the  copy.  Early  in  the  fol- 
lowing November  Handel  started  on  his  jour- 
ney to  Ireland;  and  on  April  13,  1742,  he 
directed  the  first  performance  of  the  'Messiah,' 
in  the  '  Musick  Hall,  in  Fishamble  Street,  Dub- 
lin,' with  the  most  gratifying  success.  In  the 
following  year  he  returned  to  England,  and  first 
presented  the  Oratorio  to  a  London  audience 
at  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  on  the  23rd  of  March, 
1743,  repeating  the  performance  on  the  25th, 
and  again  on  the  29th.1  Though  strictly  epic 
in  construction,  the  new  work  presents  but  little 
affinity  with  its  predecessor,  *  Israel  in  ./Egypt.' 
The  grandeur  of  the  Choruses  in  '  The  Song  of 
Moses  'is  of  an  impassive  kind,  partaking  quite 
as  much  of  fear  and  wonder  as  of  thanksgiving 
for  mercies  received.  In  the  '  Messiah,'  a  more 
personal  element  is  introduced.  The  affections 
are  powerfully  excited ;  and  we  are  brought  face  to 
face  with  many  different  manifestations  of  Hope, 
Love,  Sorrow,  and  even  Dereliction,  followed, 
not  by  a  National  Triumph,  but  by  quite  another 
kind  of  Joy  which  speaks  to  the  heart  of  each 
individual  listener.  To  express  this  Joy,  gi- 
gantic Double  Choruses  like  those  in  '  Israel 
in  .<Egypt'  were  unnecessary.  A  really  great 
Composer  can  write  as  grandly  in  four  parts 
as  in  eight.  It  is  the  fire  of  genius  that 
creates  the  effect;  and  that  we  have,  in  the 
•  Messiah,'  from  the  first  note  to  the  last. 
Jennens,  in  a  letter  still  extant,  objects  to  the 
Overture,  on  the  ground  that  it  contains  'some 
passages  far  unworthy  of  Handel,  but  much  more 
unworthy  of  the  Messiah';  but  Handel,  he 
says,  retained  it  *  obstinately ' — his  intention  evi- 
dently being,  not  to  produce  an  effect  at  this 
point,  as  Jennens  no  doubt  desired,  and  still  less 
to  write  anything  either  worthy  or  unworthy  of 
himself,  but  simply  by  the  calm  dignity  of  his  In- 
strumental Prelude,  to  bring  the  mind  of  his 
hearers  into  exactly  the  right  condition  for  lis- 
tening to  the  solemn  story  that  was  to  follow. 
Perhaps  nothing  was  ever  conceived  in  all  Music 
more  beautiful  than  the  reiterated  Major  Chords 
which  succeed  the  wailing  Minor  of  the  Over- 
ture, in  the  introductory  Symphony  to  '  Comfort 
ye  My  people.'  They  speak  the  '  comfort,'  long 
before  the  word  is  sung.  Nearly  the  whole  of 
the  First  Part  is  solemnly  prophetic,  though  not 
without  descriptive  touches — as  in  '  Thus  saith 
the  Lord,'  and  'The  people  that  walked  in 
darkness' — working  gradually  up  to  the  tre- 
mendous climax  at  the  words  '  Wonderful  1 
Counsellor !'  After  this,  we  have  a  picture,  such 
as  no  one  short  of  Raffaelle  could  have  displayed 

1  The  story  that  the  'Messiah'  was  first  performed  In  London  In 
1741.  that  It  was  very  coldly  received,  and  that  It  was  not  until  after 
Handel's  return  from  Ireland  that  it  met  with  worthy  recognition 
from  an  English  audience,  has  been  shown  to  be  fabulous,  notwith- 
standing its  repetition  by  Sir  J.  Hawkins.  It  rests  chiefly  on  the 
authority  of  the  Bey.  John  Kainwarlng.  who  wrote  in  1760,  nearly 
twenty  years  after  the  first  performance  of  the  work.  (Burney,  vol.  It. 
pp.  661,  662.) 


ORATORIO. 


547 


upon  canvas,  introduced  by  the  '  Pastoral  Sym- 
phony'— a  glorified  Calabrian  Tune,  which  in 
the  original  Score  is  called,  'Pifa  larghetto  e 
Mezzo-piano' — and  terminating  with  'Glory  to 
God  in  the  highest.'  In  this  Chorus  the  Trum- 
pets are  heard  for  the  first  time — and,  be  it 
noted,  without  their  natural  bass,  the  Drums, 
which  Handel  clearly  considered  out  of  place 
in  an  Anthem  sung  by  the  'Heavenly  Host.' 
Then  follows  a  burst  of  irrepressible  joy,  in 
the  brilliant  Aria  cFagilita,  'Rejoice  greatly'; 
and  then  the  prophetic  comfort  again,  in  'He 
shall  feed  His  flock,'  and  'His  yoke  is  easy.' 
The  Second  Part  differs  entirely  from  this.  It 
begins  by  calling  upon  us  to  '  Behold  the  Lamb 
of  God,'  and  then  paints  the  Agony  of  the 
Passion,  not  in  its  separate  details,  but  as  one 
great  and  indivisible  sorrow,  which  is  treated 
with  a  tenderness  of  feeling  such  as  is  nowhere 
else  to  be  found ;  beginning  with  the  unapproach- 
able pathos  of  JHe  was  2  despised,'  and  bringing 
the  sad  recital  to  a  conclusion  with  the  no  less 
touching  strains  of '  Behold  and  see.'  The  Com- 
poser has  been  accused  of  having  taken  too  low 
a  view  of  one  particular  passage  in  this  part  of 
the  Oratorio.  It  has  been  said  that,  in  '  All  we 
like  sheep,'  he  has  described  the  wanderings  of 
actual  sheep,  and  not  the  backslidings  of  human 
sinners.  The  truth  is,  he  has  gone  far  more 
deeply  into  the  matter  than  the  critics  who  have 
ventured  to  find  fault  with  him.  Rebellion 
against  God  is  an  act  of  egregious  folly,  as  well 
as  of  wickedness.  More  men  sin  from  mere 
thoughtlessness  than  deliberate  and  intentional 
disobedience.  Handel  has  looked  at  the  case  in 
both  lights.  In  the  first  part  of  the  Chorus  he 
has  shown  us  what  thoughtless  sinners  do ;  in 
the  last  fourteen  bars,  he  describes  the  fatal 
consequence  of  their  rebellion,  and  the  price 
which  must  be  paid,  not  only  for  deliberate  wick- 
edness, but  for  thoughtlessness  also.  After  the 
last  Recitative  of  this  division  of  the  work,  '  He 
was  cut  off,'  comes  a  gleam  of  Hope,  in  'But 
Thou  didst  not  leave,'  followed  by  the  triumphant 
4  Lift  up  your  heads';  and  again,  through  a  series 
of  Airs  and  Choruses  of  transcendant  beauty, 
we  are  led  on,  step  by  step,  to  that  inimitable 
climax,  in  which,  disguising  his  contrapuntal  skill 
under  the  deceptive  appearance  of  extreme  simpli- 
city, Handel  himself  seems  to  have  fixed  the  limits 
beyond  which  even  his  genius  could  not  soar' — 
for  not  even  the  learned  and  supremely  gorgeous 
'  Amen '  with  which  the  Oratorio  concludes  can 
be  said  to  exceed  the  'Hallelujah  Chorus'  in  sub- 
limity. The  difficulty  of  keeping  up  the  hearer's 
interest  throughout  the  Third  Part,  after  having 
already  wrought  him  up  to  so  great  a  pitch  of  ex- 
citement, was  one  under  which  any  ordinary  Com- 
poser must  of  necessity  have  succumbed ;  but  in 
truth  this  Third  Part  is  another  miracle  of  Art. 
Not  without  careful  consideration,  we  maybe  sure, 
did  Handel  begin  it  with  an  Aria  di  portamento, 
of  surpassing  beauty,  though  only  accompanied 

3  There  Is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  veracity  of  the  well-known  tradi- 
tion that  Handel  was  found  bathed  In  tears  when  writing  this 
exquisitely  beautiful  movement. 

Nn2 


548- 


ORATORIO. 


by  a  Thoroughbass,  with  Violins  in  unison.  Any 
more  elaborate  combination  would  have  served 
as  a  foil  to  the  preceding  Chorus.  But  this  takes 
such  new  ground,  that  it  immediately  attracts 
attention  ;  and  from  it  the  Composer  works  up, 
through  a  series  of  masterpieces,  to  the  only 
Chorus  in  the  world  that  will  bear  mentioning 
in  the  same  breath  with  the  '  Hallelujah ' — 
•Worthy  is  the  Lamb,'  with  its  fitting  con- 
clusion, the  'Amen,'  which  the  careless  listener 
may  easily  mistake  for  the  simplest  of  Fugues, 
until  he  suddenly  becomes  aware  that  its  Streiti 
partake  more  nearly  of  the  character  of  very 
complex  Canons.  The  Autograph  Score — now 
happily  accessible  to  every  one,  through  the  me- 
dium of  a  photo-lithographic  facsimile,  executed 
under  Her  Majesty's  permission,  by  the  Sacred 
Harmonic  Society,  and  sold  by  Messrs.  Novello 
&  Co. — proves  that  Handel  thought  more  than 
once  before  this  Chorus  perfectly  satisfied  him. 
The  MS.  indicates  many  other  changes,  some  of 
very  great  importance ;  and  introduces  also  a  con- 
siderable number  of  additional  Movements,  most 
of  which  are  to  be  found  in  Dr.  Arnold's  edition 
of  the  Score,  though  they  are  not  included  in  the 
compressed  arrangements  of  our  own  day.  Some  of 
these  pieces — now  generally  described  as  belong- 
ing to  the  Appendix — are  exceedingly  fine ;  but 
the  Movements  usually  selected  for  performance 
are  almost  always  those  which  give  the  Composer's 
idea  in  the  phase  which  we  may  fairly  accept  as  his 
own  estimate  of  the  best  he  was  able  to  produce. 

After  this,  Handel  wrote  no  more  Oratorios 
on  the  pure  epic  model,  though  he  did  not  ab- 
stain from  the  frequent  use  of  passages  of  a 
more  or  less  epic  character.  His  next  great 
work  was  'Samson,'  first  performed  at  Covent 
Garden  Theatre  on  February  18,  1743,  pre- 
sented eight  times  in  succession,  and  then  re- 
moved to  make  room  for  the  'Messiah,'  which 
had  not  yet  been  heard  in  London.  No  less 
rich  in  dramatic  form  than  '  Saul,'  '  Samson ' 
presents  us  with  some  of  Handel's  finest  in- 
spirations, not  the  least  important  among  which 
are,  the  Overture,  with  its  fiery  Fugue  and 
world -famed  Minuet  (supposed  to  be  danced  by  the 
votaries  of  Dagon,  before  the  opening  Chorus), 
the  equally  celebrated  Air,  'Let  the  bright 
Seraphim,'  and  seventeen  magnificent  Choruses. 
'  Joseph '  followed  in  1 744,  and  '  Belshazzar '  in 
1 745 ;  both  fine  works,  written  in  the  same 
powerful  dramatic  style.  The  '  Occasional  Ora- 
torio '  was  produced  in  1 746.  Many  interpre- 
tations of  its  unusual  name  have  been  suggested, 
the  most  probable  being  that  which  represents 
it  to  have  been  composed  in  order  to  make  up 
a  certain  set  of  performances  for  which  Handel 
had  pledged  himself  to  his  subscribers.  Taken 
as  a  whole,  the  work  can  only  be  regarded  as 
a  Pasticcio ;  for,  though  the  Music  of  the  first 
two  Parts  is  new,  the  Third  is  chiefly  made  up 
of  Movements  selected  from  '  Israel  in  iEgypt ' 
and  the  '  Coronation  Anthem.'  The  well-known 
Overture  is  one  of  the  finest  of  Handel's  Instru- 
mental Compositions.  '  Judas  Macchabasus,'  a 
purely  dramatic  work,  well  worthy  to  rank  with 


ORATORIO. 

'  Saul  *  and  '  Samson,'  was  produced  at  Covent 
Garden  on  April  1,  1 747  ;  and  '  Alexander  Balus ' 
on  March  9,  1748,  which  year  also  witnessed 
the  first  performance  of  '  Joshua.'  ■  Susannah ' 
and  'Solomon'  were  both  produced  in  1749. 
In  the  latter,  which  introduces  the  epic  form  to 
some  considerable  extent,  Handel  has  again 
written  some  magnificent  Double  Choruses  which 
rank  among  his  finest  inspirations.1 

In  '  Theodora,'  on  the  contrary,  the  dramatic 
character  has  been  rigidly  preserved.  This  great 
work,  which  Handel  himself  considered  his  best, 
was  first  performed  on  March  15,  1750,  when 
he  was  sixty-five  years  of  age,  and  already  threat- 
ened with  blindness.  Though  now,  as  a  whole, 
almost  forgotten,  it  abounds  with  Movements 
quite  comparable,  in  beauty,  with  the  few  which 
have  remained  popular  favourites ;  and,  though 
it  might  perhaps  be  impossible  to  present  it  in 
a  complete  form  without  a  careful  revision  of 
the  Libretto,  it  would  well  repay  the  attention 
of  great  Singers  in  search  of  great  Songs.  It  was 
performed  four  times,  in  its  first '  Season ' ;  but 
never  again  during  the  Composer's  lifetime : 
and  no  new  Oratorio  succeeded  it,  until  1752, 
when,  on  February  26,  Handel  produced  his 
last  work,  '  Jephtha.'  Though  his  blindness  had, 
by  this  time,  increased  so  much,  that  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  Score  occupied  him  seven  months 
— whereas  the  '  Messiah '  had  been  completed 
in  less  than  one — we  find  no  falling  off  at  all 
in  the  style  of  the  work,  which  contains  some  of 
his  finest  pieces,  and  is  one  of  the  few  that  has 
remained  popular  to  our  own  day.  Besides  this, 
the  'Messiah,'  'Israel  in  iEgypt,'  'Judas  Mac- 
chabseus,'  '  Solomon,'  and  '  Samson,'  are  almost 
the  only  Oratorios  now  performed  in  public  in 
their  integrity;  and  those  who  were  not  fortunate 
enough,  in  the  days  of  their  youth,  to  enrol  them- 
selves members  of  the  Csecilian  or  Sacred  Har- 
monic Societies,  have  probably  no  farther  know- 
ledge of  the  rest  than  that  which  may  be  gained 
by  a  perusal  of  the  printed  copies.  Happily,  these 
copies  are  sold  at  a  price  which  places  them  within 
the  reach  of  everybody;  but,  unhappily,  they 
are  not  always  thoroughly  trustworthy.  Handel 
never,  by  any  chance,  wrote  the  Second  Inversion 
of  the  Dominant  Seventh,  but  we  shall  find  few 
modern  arrangements  in  which  this  Chord  is  not 
substituted  for  the  original  Chord  of  the  Sixth, 
notwithstanding  the  extraordinary  pains  which 
the  Composer  frequently  took  to  avoid  it. 

In  addition  to  the  seventeen  grand  Oratorios 
we  have  described,  Handel  wrote  nine  other 
works  which  are  sometimes  erroneously  called 
Oratorios,  although  their  subjects  were  altogether 
saccular.  The  reason  of  this  misnomer  is,  that 
they  were  all,  save  one,  brought  out  by  the 
Composer  in  a  way  which,  in  those  days,  was 
called  '  after  the  manner  of  Oratorios' — that  is  to 
say,  without  the  attraction  of  Scenery,  Dresses,  or 

1  Mendelssohn  had  a  great  affection  for  this  Oratorio.  In  the  year 
1845,  while  the  writer  was  describing  to  him.  at  Frankfort,  a  per- 
formance of  It  which  he  had  lately  heard  in  Exeter  Hall,  he  suddenly 
said,  'Tell  me,  how  did  they  give  out  this?'  and  sang  the  subject  of 
'  Lire,  live  for  ever,  pious  David's  son,'  as  If  he  longed  to  direct  it, 
lu  full  orchestra,  then  and  there. 


ORATORIO. 

Action.  The  only  exception  to  the  rule  was  '  Acis 
and  Galatea ' — one  of  the  freshest  and  most 
delightful  of  the  entire  series — which  was  first 
privately  performed  at  Cannons  in  1721;  *n<l 
afterwards,  on  June  16,  1732,  with  Scenery, 
Dresses,  and  appropriate  Decorations,  but  still 
without  Action,  at  the  King's  Theatre  in  the 
Haymarket.  The  other  pieces  were,  '  Parnasso  in 
Festa'  (1734),  'Alexander's  Feast'  (1736),  'Ode 
for  S.  Cecilia's  Day  (1739),  'L' Allegro,  II  Pen- 
eieroso,  ed  II  Moderato'  (1739),  'Seniele'  (1743), 
•Hercules'  (1744),  'The  Choice  of  Hercules' 
(1745),  and  'The  Triumph  of  Time  and  Truth' 
(1757)-  IQ  these,  neither  Scenery  nor  Dresses 
were  used ;  nor  were  such  meretricious  adorn- 
ments needed,  for  they  were  all  works  of  the 
first  class,  and,  if  they  could  not  Bucceed  on  their 
own  merits,  would  certainly  not  have  been  made 
to  do  so  by  the  addition  of  a  few  theatrical 
accessories.  The  '  Triumph  of  Time  and  Truth ' 
was  originally  written  in  Italy,  in  1 708,  and  had 
been  sung  in  Italian  in  1737  and  1739;  but  in 
1757  Handel,  though  then  totally  blind,  adapted 
it  to  English  words,  made  great  additions  to  it, 
and  brought  it  out  at  Covent  Garden  Theatre, 
where  it  was  performed  four  times  during  that 
year,  and  twice  in  1758.  The  last  public  per- 
formance which  Handel  directed  was  that  of  the 
'Messiah'  at  Covent  Garden,  on  April  6,  1759. 
On  the  14th  of  the  same  month,  he  peacefully 
breathed  his  last,  '  in  hope,'  as  he  said,  '  of  meet- 
ing the  good  God,  his  sweet  Lord  and  Saviour, 
on  the  Day  of  His  Resurrection.' l 

It  is  manifestly  impossible  to  associate  Han- 
del's Oratorios  with  those  of  any  other  Com- 
poser. They  must  needs  form  a  class  by  them- 
selves. Indeed,  notwithstanding  the  jealousies  of 
which  he  was  made  the  unfortunate  victim,  he 
was  held  in  bo  great  reverence,  that  very  tew 
Oratorios  were  produced  in  England  by  rival 
Composers  for  many  years  after  his  decease ; 
and,  of  these  few,  one  only,  Dr.  Arne's  '  Judith,' 
calls  for  special  comment,  not  in  recognition  of 
its  intrinsic  worth — though  its  author  was  an  ac- 
complished Musician,  and  thoroughly  in  earnest 
— but,  because  it  was  the  first  work  of  the  kind 
in  which  Female  Voices  had  been  permitted  to 
take  part  in  an  English  Chorus ;  for,  though 
Madame  Duparc  (generally  called  'La  Fran- 
cescina')  sang  as  Prima  Donna  in  most  of 
Handel's  Oratorios,  the  ripieni  Trebles  were 
always  supplied  by  the  Children  of  the  Chapel 
Royal  and  S.  Paul's  Cathedral.  'Judith,'  per- 
formed first  at  the  Chapel  of  the  Lock  Hospital, 
on  Feb.  29,  1 764,  and  afterwards,  with  Female 
Voices  in  the  Chorus,  at  Covent  Garden,  on 
Feb.  26,  1773,  was  by  no  means  unsuccessful; 
but  the  memory  of  Handel  was  still  too  green 
to  permit  the  possibility  of  a  triumph.  Han- 
del's influence  did  not,  however,  extend  to 
Germany,  in  which  country  the  progress  of  Art 
was,  about  this  time,  surrounded  with  certain 

1  The  date  given  by  Barney  ('Commemoration  of  Handel,'  p.  IS)  Is 
Good  Friday,  April  IS.  He  gives  it  on  the  authority  of  Dr.  Warren, 
who  attended  Handel  during  his  last  illness,  and  whose  testimony  as 
to  the  fact  that  his  patient  died  '  before  midnight  on  the  13th,'  he 
quotes  as  '  indisputable.'     [See  this  Diet.  i.  651.] 


ORATORIO. 


549 


serious  difficulties.  The  effect  of  the  noble  work 
wrought  by  Joh.  Seb.  Bach,  at  Leipzig,  did  not 
even  reach  so  far  as  Dresden.  There,  between 
1 731  and  1 763,  Hasse  reigned  supreme ;  and  it  is 
there,  under  his  influence,  that  we  must  begin  our 
study  of  the  Oratorios  of  the  Eighth  Period. 

Despite  his  cultivated  tastes  and  undoubted 
talent,  Hasse  was  wanting  in  the  elevation  of 
style  necessary  to  constitute  a  really  great  Com- 
poser, especially  in  his  Sacred  Music;  yet  he 
was  able  to  appreciate  true  dignity  in  the  works 
of  others.  When  invited  to  London,  to  take  the 
direction  of  the  newly-opened  Opera  House  in 
Lincoln's-  Inn  -Fields,  he  asked,  'Is  Handel, 
then,  dead?'  and,  on  being  told  that  his  famous 
countryman  still  lived,  but  that  he  was  expected 
to  enter  into  rivalry  with  him,  he  at  once  de- 
clined the  invitation.  This  line  of  conduct  was, 
no  doubt,  prompted  by  true  delicacy  of  feeling : 
but  it  proves,  also,  that  Hasse  did  not  misjudge 
his  own  powers.  The  real  secret  of  his  immense 
success  seemB  to  have  lain  in  his  ceaseless  endea- 
vour to  please.  This  weakness  led  him  into 
practices  which,  as  we  have  already  explained 
elsewhere,2  tended  greatly  to  the  deterioration  of 
his  Operas ;  and  exercised  so  enervating  an  effect 
upon  his  Sacred  Music  that  it  eventually  resulted 
in  the  production  of  a  set  form  which  has  been 
not  inaptly  termed  the  'Concert  Oratorio' — a 
mere  collection  of  Sacred  Airs,  united  by  no 
other  tie  than  that  of  a  common  subject,  which 
however  they  make  no  attempt  to  illustrate  by 
working  together  as  for  a  common  purpose.  No 
doubt  these  productions  were  very  charming, 
especially  when  Faustina  —  Hasse's  talented 
wife — sang  in  them  as  Prima  donna  :  but,  when 
judged  by  a  fair  aesthetic  standard,  they  indi- 
cate a  long  step  backward.  Unhappily,  so  many 
of  the  Composer's  MSS.  were  destroyed,  during 
the  bombardment  of  Dresden,  in  1 760,  that  we 
possess  little  more  than  the  names  of  the 
greater  number  of  his  Oratorios,  of  which  the 
most  popular  were  'H  serpente  in  deserto,'  'La 
virtu  a  pie  della  Croce,' '  La  deposizione  della 
Croce,'  '  La  caduta  di  Gerico,'  '  Maddelena,'  '  II 
Cantico  dei  Fanciulli,'  '  La  Conversione  di  San 
Agostino,'  *I1  Giuseppe  Riconosciuto,'  'I  Pelle- 
grini al  Sepolcro  di  nostro  Salvatore,'  'Sant'  Elena 
al  Calvario,'  and  a  German  Oratorio,  called  '  Die 
Busse  des  heiligen  Petrus.'  Of  theBe,  one  only, 
'  I  Pellegrini  al  Sepolcro,'  is  readily  accessible,  in 
print,  in  the  form  of  a  German  translation.3  Of 
many  of  the  rest  we  possess  only  fragmentary 
portions,  beautiful  enough  in  themselves,  though 
the  works  to  which  they  belong  fail,  as  a  whole. 
The  same  fault  is  observable  in  the  Oratorios  of 
Porpora,  the  most  successful  of  which  were  '  Da- 
vidde,' '  Gedeone,'  '  II  Verbo  Incarnato,'  and  '  II 
trionfo  della  divina  giuatizia.'  We  also  possess 
ten  Oratorios,  written  about  this  time,  by  Fux  ; 
I  but  they  still  remain  in  MS.,  never  having  been  re- 
vived since  the  occasion  of  their  first  production. 
The  Composers  of  the  Ninth  Period  made 
no  attempt  to  improve  the  general  form  of  the 

2  See  p.  615  In  the  present  volume. 

>  '  Die  Pilgrimme  auf  Golgotha'  (Schwickert,  Leipzig). 


550 


ORATORIO. 


Oratorio ;  but,  while  quite  content  to  follow  the 
example  of  their  immediate  predecessors  in  this 
particular,  they  infused  into  their  Airs  and 
Duets  a  spirit  of  freshness  and  spontaneity  which, 
towards  the  close  of  the  1 8th  century,  had  the 
effect  of  making  the  Concert  Oratorio  a  very  de- 
lightful species  of  entertainment.  True,  its  Music 
was  distinguishable  from  that  of  the  Concert 
Opera  only  by  the  words  appended  to  it :  but, 
setting  aside  all  considerations  of  religious  feel- 
ing and  consistency,  the  Music,  as  Music,  was 
the  best  that  the  age  could  produce,  though 
the  use  to  which  it  was  applied  cannot  be  de- 
fended upon  any  aesthetic  principle  whatever. 
The  best  writers  of  this  epoch  were  Sacchini, 
whose  most  admired  productions  were  '  Esther,' 
'San  Filippo,'  'I  Maccabei,'  'Jefte,'  and  'Le 
Nozze  di  Ruth';  Paisiello,  whose  'Passione  di 
Gesii  Cristo '  was  undoubtedly  one  of  his  best 
works ;  Jomelli,  who  also  wrote  a  •  Passion'  which 
was  long  remembered  with  affection,  besides  set- 
ting to  music  Metastasio's  'Betulia  liberata,'  and 
'Isacco  figura  del  Redentore;'  and  Pietro  Gug- 
lielmi,  whose  'Debora'  and  'Sisera'were  more 
than  successful,  though  perhaps  he  did  more  than 
any  writer  of  the  period  to  lower  the  tone  of 
Sacred  and  even  Church  Music ;  for  his  own 
taste  led  him  to  cultivate  the  most  ornate  bravura 
style,  while  his  position  as  Maestro  di  Capella 
at  S.  Peter's  gave  him  the  opportunity  of  intro- 
ducing that  style  into  Music  in  which  it  was 
scandalously  out  of  place. 

But  the  most  beautiful  composition  produced 
during  this  Period,  though  a  true  Italian  Ora- 
torio in  all  its  broadest  features,  was  not  com- 
posed in  Italy.  Haydn's  studies  under  Porpora, 
assisted  by  the  natural  acutenessof  his  observation, 
had  taught  him  all  that  it  was  possible  to  learn 
concerning  the  mysteries  of  the  Italian  School ; 
and,  while  the  refinement  of  his  taste  enabled 
him  to  separate  the  good  from  the  bad,  his 
matchless  genius  raised  his  work  to  a  level  far 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  best  of  his  early  models. 
When  he  set  Boccarini's  'II  ritorno  di  Tobia'  to 
music  for  Prince  Esterhazy  in  1774,  he  had 
already  perfected  that  •  Classical  Form '  which, 
had  he  left  us  no  other  bequest,  would  alone 
have  sufficed  to  immortalise  him;  and  in  this 
work  he  has  used  it  to  excellent  purpose,  though 
the  general  plan  of  the  piece  is  that  of  the 
Concert  Oratorio,  pur  et  simple.  The  Airs 
throughout  are  overflowing  with  Melody,  such 
as  Haydn  alone  knew  how  to  produce.  The 
Choruses  which  conclude  the  First  and  Second 
Acts  are  powerful  and  well-developed  Fugues, 
with  bold  yet  tuneful  Subjects,  like  those  fami- 
liar to  us  all  through  the  medium  of  his  well- 
known  Masses.  The  first  is  a  Prayer  for  the 
restoration  of  Tobit's  sight. 
Allegro  con  brio. 


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«EE 


JKirp* 


The  final  Fugue  is  in  6-8  time,  and  founded  on 
a  highly  characteristic  Subject. 


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Yet  still  more  clearly  do  we  detect  the  Com- 
poser's identity  in  the  richly  instrumented  Over- 
ture, which,  beginning  in  grand  symphonic  style, 
leads  in  the  most  masterly  manner  into  the  intro- 
ductory Movement  of  the  Oratorio.  Can  anything 
be  more  genial  or  more  forcibly  characteristic  of 
its  author,  than  the  following  lovely  motivo  ? 


Send!   a    To  -  bit  la       lu  -  ce,  O 


Haydn's  '  Ritorno  di  Tobia,'  which  has  prob- 
ably never  been  performed  as  a  whole  since  it 
was  given  at  Vienna  by  the  Tonkiinstler-Societat 
in  1808,  is  now  as  completely  forgotten  as  his 
'  Orfeo  ed  Euridice' — and  with  equal  injustice, 
for  both  contain  a  treasury  of  lovely  Movements. 
We  have  of  necessity  classed  it  with  the  works 
of  Jomelli  and  Paisiello,  for  the  reason  which 
induced  us,  when  narrating  the  history  of  our 
Fourth  Period,  to  class  Handel's  '  Resurrezione  I 
with  those  of  Aless.  Scarlatti  and  Stradella — a 
community  of  external  form  too  strong  to  be 
passed  over,  even  in  the  presence  of  the  most 
marked  divergence  of  individual  feeling.  But, 
as  we  did  not  place  Handel's  earlier  and  later 
Oratorios  in  the  same  category,  neither  can  we  do 
so  with  those  of  Haydn,  whose  '  Creation  '  (Die 
Schopfung)  and  '  Seasons '  (Die  Jahreszeiten)  fall 
within  the  limits  of  our  Tenth  Period. 


ORATOKIO. 

Though  Haydn  was  no  longer  a  young  man 
when  he  wrote  the  '  Creation,'  he  was  the  most 
genial  of  old  ones,  able  to  look  back  with  a  clear 
conscience  upon  a  well-spent  and  not  unhappy 
life,  and  to  throw  himself,  with  all  the  eagerness 
of  youth,  into  the  enjoyment  either  of  the  beau- 
ties of  Nature  or  the  amenities  of  Art.  Unless 
we  bear  this  well  in  mind,  we  shall  never  under- 
stand how,  in  the  year  1798,  when  he  was  not 
far  from  seventy  years  of  age,  he  was  able  to 
produce  that  series  of  delightful  Pictures  which 
has  never  failed  to  inspire  the  Tone-painters  of 
later  generations  with  feelings  of  mingled  ad- 
miration and  despair.  During  the  twenty-four 
years  which  had  elapsed  since  the  production  of 
'  II  ritorno  di  Tobia,'  he  had  taught  himself  many 
things :  a  broader  manner,  a  richer  texture,  a 
more  perfect  homogeneity  of  conception,  which 
enabled  him  to  articulate  the  various  members 
of  his  Oratorio  into  as  consistent  a  whole  as 
that  produced  by  the  four  Movements  of  a  Sym- 
phony. Moreover — and  this  is  no  such  small 
matter  as  it  may  seem  at  first  sight — he  had 
learned  the  true  use  of  the  Clarinet,  an  instru- 
ment which  proved  invaluable  to  him  as  a  means 
of  producing  variety  of  colouring,  and  in  the 
management  of  which  few  later  Composers  have 
excelled  him.  The  words  of  'The  Creation* 
were  compiled  by  Lidley  from  Milton's  '  Paradise 
Lost,'  and  translated  into  German  by  Freiherr 
van  Swieten,  at  whose  suggestion  Haydn  under- 
took the  preparation  of  a  work  which,  at  his  age, 
must  have  demanded  a  terrible  strain  upon  his 
mental  powers.  Early  in  the  year  1798  the 
veteran  Composer  brought  his  labours  to  a  suc- 
cessful issue,  and  announced  the  completion  of 
the  work.  It  had  really  been  a  labour  of  love  to 
him,  for  he  entered  into  it  with  even  more  affec- 
tionate ardour  than  he  had  displayed  in  the  pro- 
duction of  many  of  his  more  youthful  effusions ; 
and  he  himself  declared  that  he  was  deeply  and 
almost  uncontrollably  affected  at  the  first  per- 
formance, which  took  place  at  the  Schwarzenberg 
Palace,  on  April  29,  1798.  The  Oratorio  was  re- 
peated on  the  following  day,  and  again,  more  pub- 
licly, at  the  National  Theatre,  on  March  19, 1 799. 
Though  nominally  dramatic — inasmuch  as  each 
Solo  Singer  is  invested  with  a  representative  per- 
sonality— the  Libretto  is  really  epic  throughout, 
for  the  principal  singers  are  never  employed  for 
any  other  purpose  than  that  of  describing,  either 
the  beauties  of  the  'new-created  world,'  or  the 
wonders  attendant  upon  its  mysterious  birth. 
There  is  therefore  an  utter  absence  of  declama- 
tory Music,  as  well  as  of  those  powerful  means 
of  expression,  passion  and  pathos.  In  place  of 
these  Haydn  contents  himself  with  the  only  style 
really  suited  to  the  subject — the  style  which  de- 
scribes without  exaggeration,  and  paints  without 
extravagance.  And  of  this  style  he  proves  him- 
self to  be  a  consummate  Master.  The  descrip- 
tion of  Chaos  with  which  the  Oratorio  opens, 
the  Creation    of  Light,1  the  confusion  of  the 

'  It  must  not  however  be  forgotten  that  Handel  first  struck  out 
this  grand  idea,  though  with  different  details,  in  'O  first-created 


OPtATORIO. 


551 


'infernal  host,'  the  lovely  Melody  which  first 
introduces  the  mention  of  the  '  new-created 
world,'  these,  and  a  hundred  other  beautiful 
passages,  are  familiar  to  all  of  us.  The  Airs, 
equally  remarkable  for  their  delicious  flow  of 
Melody  and  their  masterly  Instrumentation,  de- 
scribe the  scenes  to  which  they  allude,  yet  always 
by  inference  rather  than  in  a  realistic  spirit, 
and  with  a  chastened  tone  which  sets  the  sneer 
of  the  hypercritic  at  defiance.  The  Choruses 
far  excel  any  of  those  to  be  found  in  the  author's 
earlier  works,  and,  still  more,  those  produced  by 
other  writers  of  the  period,  either  German  or 
Italian.  That  they  do  not  equal  those  of  Handel 
will  be  easily  understood.  Had  nothing  else  pre- 
vented them  from  doing  so,  the  improvements 
introduced  by  Haydn  himself  would  have  had 
that  effect.  The  elaborate  Accompaniments  which 
he  knew  so  well  how  to  use,  and  actually  did 
use  with  much  telling  effect,  tended  to  reduce 
the  scale  upon  which  these  grand  Choruses  were 
conceived.  The  Quaver  passages  which  add  so 
much  to  the  brilliant  effect  of  '  The  Heavens  are 
telling,'  take  just  as  much  away  from  the  dignity 
of  its  vocal  Themes  ;  and  in  every  other  Chorus 
the  same  phenomenon  is  more  or  less  perceptible. 
We  must  not  look  upon  this  as  an  unmitigated 
weakness.  What  we  have  lost  in  one  way  we 
have  gained  in  another.  We  owe  so  much  to 
Haydn  for  his  improvements  in  Instrumentation, 
that  we  can  afford  a  certain  amount  of  diminu- 
tion in  the  scale  of  the  works  we  look  upon  as 
the  greatest ;  yet,  more  than  this,  the  fact  re- 
mains, that,  with  increased  facilities  for  utilising 
the  resources  of  the  Orchestra,  comes,  and  always 
will  come,  a  perceptible  falling  off  of  that  great 
quality  of  breadth,  that  immense  simplicity 
which  most  of  all  leads  on  towards  the  sublime — 
a  reduction  of  the  gigantic  scale  which  first  made 
Handel's  Choruses  unapproachable,  and  has  ever 
since  left  them  unapproached.  We  in  no  wise 
depreciate  the  merits  of  either  Composer  when 
we  say  that  the  one  was  the  High  Priest  of  the 
Sublime,  and  the  other  the  Father  of  Modern 
Beauty.  Each  excelled  in  his  own  way,  and 
each  way  was  in  itself  perfect.  Handel  could 
no  more  have  written  'The  Creation'  than 
Haydn  could  have  written  *  Israel  in  Egypt'; 
nor  could  any  one  but  Haydn  have  written  '  The 
Seasons ' — another  work  full  of  delicious  imagery, 
and,  if  more  saccular  in  its  character  than  '  The 
Creation,'  only  just  so  much  so  as  was  necessary 
in  order  to  bring  the  Music  into  closer  harmony 
with  the  subject.  The  words  of  this  Oratorio 
were  also  compiled  by  Freiherr  van  Swieten, 
who,  delighted  with  the  success  of  '  The  Crea- 
tion,' took  Thomson's  well-known  poem  as  the 
basis  of  a  somewhat  similar  work,  and  persuaded 
Haydn  to  undertake  the  composition,  though 
he  himself  felt  unwilling  to  trust  his  then  mani- 
festly failing  powers.  The  result  found  Van 
Swieten  to  be  in  the  right.  Haydn  soon  over- 
came his  diffidence,  entered  enthusiastically  into 
the  scheme,  disputed  manfully  over  points  on 
which  he  and  his  friend  disagreed,  and  pro- 
duced a  work  as  full  of  youthful  freshness  as  the 


552 


ORATORIO. 


'Creation'  itself.  Not  a  trace  of  the  'failing 
power '  of  which  the  grand  old  man  complained 
is  to  be  found  in  any  part  of  it.  It  is  a  model 
of  descriptive  writing ;  true  to  Nature  in  its 
minutest  details,  yet  never  insulting  her  by  trivial 
attempts  at  outward  imitation  where  artistic 
suggestion  of  the  hidden  truth  was  possible. 
It  is  this  great  quality,  this  depth  of  insight  into 
the  •  Soul  of  Nature,'  which  places  Haydn's 
Tone-pictures  so  far  above  all  meaner  imitations. 
To  this  we  owe  our  untiring  interest  in  the 
Scenes  depicted  in  the  Oratorio  ;  in  the  delicious 
softness  of  the  opening  Chorus,  which  seems 
actually  to  waft  a  perfumed  breeze  into  the  midst 
of  the  Concert-room ;  in  the  perfection  of  rustic 
happiness  portrayed  in  the  Song  which  describes 
the  joy  of  the  'Impatient  husbandman' — 'im- 
patient '  only  because  he  longs  to  hurry  on  from 
one  'joy'  to  another.  These  things  all  prove 
conclusively  that  Haydn's  genius  was  not  failing. 
Yet,  in  another  sense,  he  was  quite  right  and  Van 
Swieten  wrong :  the  labour  of  producing  such 
Music  was  too  great  for  his  physical  strength. 
The  first  performance  of  '  The  Seasons '  took 
place  at  the  Schwartzenberg  Palace,  on  the  24th 
of  April,  1 801.  It  was  repeated  on  the  27th, 
and  on  the  1st  of  May ;  and  on  the  29th  of  May 
the  Composer  conducted  a  grand  public  per- 
formance at  the  Redoutensaal.  Its  success  was 
as  great  as  that  of  '  The  Creation,'  and  Haydn 
was  equally  delighted  with  it ;  but  he  was  never 
really  himself  again,  and  never  attempted  another 
great  work.  Strange  that  his  last  almost  super- 
human effort,  though  it  cost  so  much,  should  in 
itself  have  exhibited  no  sign  of  the  weakness 
which  was  soon  to  become  so  painfully  apparent. 
Haydn  stands  almost  as  much  alone,  with  re- 
gard to  his  greatest  works,  as  Handel:  but, 
though  it  is  impossible  to  class  his  Oratorios 
with  those  of  any  other  writer,  we  must  not 
suppose  that,  during  his  long  life,  the  rest  of  the 
world  was  idle.  In  Italy,  especially,  we  find 
traces  of  a  rapid  progress,  the  results  of  which 
will  serve  to  illustrate  the  history  of  our  Eleventh 
Period.1 

We  have  already  shown,  in  our  Article 
Opeea,  that  the  principles  set  forth  by  Gluck 
found  no  direct  response  in  Italy.  Yet  the 
productions  of  this  epoch  go  far  to  prove  that, 
even  then,  they  were  not  without  an  indirect 
influence  for  good:  an  influence  which  is  as 
clearly  discernible — strange  as  it  may  seem  to 
say  so — in  the  writings  of  Piccinni  himself,  as 
in  those  of  his  contemporaries.  When  we  last 
Bpoke  of  the  Italian  Oratorio,  it  had  degenerated, 
like  the  Opera,  into  a  mere  Concert  of  attractive 
Airs.  Now,  in  Italy,  the  progress  of  the  Ora- 
torio has,  at  all  times,  corresponded  exactly  with 
that  of  the  Opera:  and,  to  the  manifest  improve- 
ment observable  in  the  Operas  of  this  Period  we 

1  The  word  *  Period '  is  here  used,  as  In  our  article  OTera,  rather  for 
the  purpose  of  indicating  a  definite  style  than  a  chronological  epoch. 
Thus,  several  of  the  composers  whose  names  we  are  about  to  men- 
tion in  our  Eleventh  Period  died  before  Haydn,  while  others 
survived  him  by  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century ;  but  in  no  case 
had  their  works  the  slighest  affinity  with  his,  though  they  all  bore 
the  strongest  possible  class  resemblance  to  each  other.  [See  foot- 
note, p.  £061  of  the  present  volume.] 


ORATORIO. 

must  attribute    the    synchronous    advance   ex- 
hibited in  its  Oratorios.     After  Gluck  had  once 
opened  the  eyes  of  the  artistic  world  to  the  value 
of  dramatic  truth,  the  Concert  Opera,  and  the 
Concert  Oratorio,  became  alike  impossible,  even 
among  those  who  professedly  held  the  reformer's 
views  in  the  utmost  abhorrence.     Influenced,  no 
doubt,  in  spite  of  himself,  and  probably  quite 
unconsciously,  Piccinni  was  one  of  the  first  who 
attempted  to  incorporate  the  Airs  and  Duets  of 
the  Concert  Opera  into  a  consistent  whole;   to 
enrich  that  whole  with  Concerted  Movements 
and  Choruses,  worthy  of  a  great  Composer ;  and 
to  bind  its  several  elements  together  in  such  a 
way  as  to  assist  the  development  of  the  Drama 
which  formed   its  raison  d'etre,  instead  of,  as 
heretofore,  retarding  it.    His  efforts  to  introduce 
a  higher  style  and  a  more  truly  aesthetic  Ideal, 
were  nobly  seconded  by  more  than  one  of  his 
most  talented  countrymen :    and,  that  the  im- 
provement he  thus  effected  in  the  construction  of 
the  Opera  extended  to  the  Oratorio  also,  is  suf- 
ficiently proved  by  the  fact  that  his  own  Oratorio, 
'Jonathas,'  produced  in  1792,  has  always  been 
regarded  as  one  of  the  best,  if  not  actually  the 
greatest  of  his  works.  His  most  illustrious  coadju- 
tors in  this  great  reform  were — Salieri,  whose  best 
Oratorios  were  Metastasio's  'Passione  di  Gesu 
Cristo'  and  'Gesu  al  limbo';  Zingarelli,  whose 
'  Distruzzione  di  Gerusalemme '  will  be  found, 
in  the  form  of  a  MS.  Score,  in  the  Dragonetti 
Collection  in  the  British  Museum;  and,  lastly, 
Cimarosa,  the  greatest  Italian  Composer  of  the 
age,  whose  '  Sagrifizio  d' Abramo '  and '  Assalone ' 
— the  last  of  which  will  be  also  found  among  the 
Dragonetti  MSS. — are  models  of  dramatic  truth, 
and   the  most  touchingly  pathetic  expression.2 
It  is  true  that  these  fascinating  works  almost 
entirely  ignore  the   broad   line    of   distinction 
which  ought  always  to  be  drawn  between  Sacred 
Music  and  that  which  is  of  a  purely  saccular 
character,  in  which  respect  they  are  not  to  be 
commended  as  models.    On  the  other  hand,  they 
undoubtedly  do,  to  a  certain  extent,  illustrate 
the    dramatic  sense  of  the   Sacred  Narrative, 
though  in  too  superficial,  not  to  say  too  unworthy 
a  spirit.    We  meet  with  the  same  fault,  though 
perhaps  not  quite   so  prominently  forced  into 
notice,  in  the  works  of  a  once  celebrated  but  now 
very  unjustly  forgotten  German  writer,  Johann 
Gottlieb  Naumann,  who  studied,  for  many  years, 
in  Italy,  and,  as  Hasse  had  done  before  him, 
entirely  abandoned  himself  to  the  seductions  of 
the  Italian  style,  with  all  its  beauties  and  all  its 
shortcomings :    only,  the  Italian  style  he  culti- 
vated was  a  later  one  than  that  with  which  Hasse 
had  some  thirty  years  previously  so  completely 
identified  himself.     He  wrote  no  unconnected 
strings  of  Concert  Airs,  but  brought  out  the  best 
points  of  the  Period  we  are  now  considering,  en- 
riched Italian  Melody  with  many  beauties  de- 
rived from  the  German  style,  and  produced  a 
long  list  of  Oratorios,  of  which  the  best  known 
were, '  La  morte  d'Abel,'  '  Davidde  nella  valle  di 

i  One  of  Madame  Malibran's  greatest  successes  was  achieved  in  an 
Air  from  the  '  Sagrifizio." 


ORATORIO. 

Terebinto,'  Metastases  'La  Passione  de  Gesh 
Cristo,'  '  Isacco  figura  del  Redentore,'  '  Giuseppe 
Riconosciuto,'  'Sant'  Elena  al  Calvario,'  '  I  Pel- 
legrini,' and  'Betulia  liberata,'  and  Miglia- 
veccha's  *  II  figliuol  prodigo.'  Himmel,  Winter, 
Weigl,  and  several  other  talented  German  Com- 
posers also  contributed  Italian  Oratorios,  of  more 
or  less  value,  to  this  Period;  to  which  must 
be  referred  Mozart's  youthful  production,  '  La 
Betulia  liberata,'  written,  it  is  believed,  when 
he  had  just  completed  his  sixteenth  year ;  Dit- 
tersdorf  s  '  Giudacco  nella  Persia,  ossia  l'Esther,' 
'Giobbe,'  and  'La  liberatione  del  Popolo';  and 
many  other  works,  by  writers  whose  talent  was 
undeniable,  though  it  must  be  admitted,  that,  as 
Composers  of  Oratorios,  they  made  no  attempt 
to  soar  to  heights  which  they  might  easily  have 
reached,  had  they  been  more  in  earnest,  or  less 
desirous  to  attain  a  short-lived  popularity;  for 
it  was  unquestionably  to  the  low  standard  of 
popular  taste  that  the  best  interests  of  this 
otherwise  promising  Period  were  sacrificed. 

The  history  of  our  Twelfth  Period  brings  us 
into  contact  with  one  single  Composer  only — 
the  composer  of  one  single  Oratorio. 

We  must  not,  however,  suppose  that  Bee- 
thoven's single  Oratorio  can  be  placed  on  a  level 
with  his  single  Opera.  He  wrote  'Fidelio'  in 
1805,  when  he  was  in  the  plenitude  of  his  ar- 
tistic power :  *  Christus  am  Oelberge '  ('  The 
Mount  of  Olives')  was  produced  in  1803,  when 
he  was  not  yet  really  Beethoven,  not  having  as 
yet  produced  the  '  Eroica  Symphony.'  Those 
two  years  made  all  the  difference ;  for  they 
represented  the  distinction  between  the  First 
and  Second  Styles.  Nevertheless,  '  The  Mount 
of  Olives '  is  so  great  a  work,  that,  though  it  may 
not  bear  comparison  with  some  of  its  author's 
later  productions,  it  cannot  possibly  be  associated 
with  the  writings  of  any  other  Composer :  and 
therefore  it  is  that  we  have  here  thought  it 
necessary  to  place  it  in  a  class  by  itself.  More- 
over, its  idiosyncrasy  presents  so  many  exceptional 
features,  that,  if  we  have  erred  at  all,  it  is  in 
having  allowed  only  one  category  for  its  re- 
ception: for,  critics  have  described  it  under 
almost  as  many  different  aspects  as  the  Chame- 
leon in  the  Fable.  Qua  Music,  it  is  simply 
enchanting :  overflowing  with  that  delicious 
freshness  which  so  frequently  invests  its  Com- 
poser's 'First  Manner'  with  a  charm  scarcely 
less  potent  than  that  exercised  by  the  grander 
magic  of  the  'Second.'  Qud  Oratorio,  it  shocks 
us  as  a  monstrous  anomaly.  Undoubtedly,  Huber, 
the  writer  of  the  words,  is  chargeable  with  the 
worst  part  of  its  extravagance :  the  wonder  is, 
that  any  consideration  on  earth  could  have  in- 
duced Beethoven,  who  was  generally  so  scrupu- 
lously careful  in  Buch  matters,  to  set  one  single 
word  of  such  a  Libretto  to  Music.  Without  entering 
into  details,  it  is  enough  to  say,  that,  contrary  to 
all  precedent,  our  Lord  is  made  to  sing  a  long 
Scena  ed  Aria;  a  Duet  with  the  Angel,  in  which 
the  two  voices  constantly  move  in  long  passages 
of  Thirds  and  Sixths  ;  and  a  Trio  with  the 
Angel    and    St.    Peter.      Beethoven's  religious 


ORATORIO. 


553 


opinions  are  known  to  have  been,  to  say  the 
least  of  it,  original : '  yet,  supposing  him  to"  have 
seen  no  impropriety  in  this  departure  from  esta- 
blished usage,  one  might  fairly  have  expected 
from  him  some  recognition  of  the  fact,  that, 
apart  from  all  religious  feeling,  the  events  of  the 
night  preceding  the  Passion  were  so  inexpressibly 
mournful  that  none  can  read  of  them  unmoved. 
Yet  we  find  no  sign,  even  of  this.  Not  only  is 
the  style  purely  saecular,  but,  in  certain  places — 
6uch  as  the  Trio,  for  instance — it  is  absolutely 
sparkling.  An  attempt  has  been  made,  in  Eng- 
land, to  remove  these  grave  incongruities  by  sub- 
stituting an  entirely  new  Libretto,  called '  Engedi,' 
and  founded  on  the  sojourn  of  David  in  the 
Wilderness.  A  substituted  Libretto  never  can 
be  really  successful  :  but  the  mere  fact  that  the 
experiment  has  been  tried  sufficiently  proves  the 
gravity  of  the  evil  it  was  intended  to  palliate. 
To  those  who  are  capable  of  reconciling  them- 
selves to  an  evil  so  deeply  seated,  or,  at  least,  of 
ignoring  the  want  of  correspondence  between  the 
subject  and  its  treatment,  the  Music  must  be  an 
unmixed  treat.  In  every  Movement  we  meet 
with  beauties  of  conception,  of  design,  or  of  in- 
dividual colouring,  such  as  are  never  found  save 
in  the  works  of  the  greatest  Masters.  The  Chorus 
is  extensively  employed,  and  keeps  the  interest 
alive  throughout ;  and  the  whole  culminates  in  a 
magnificent  burst  of  jubilant  Song,  far  exceeding 
in  grandeur  any  part  of  the  Mass  in  C — the 
splendid  'Hallelujah,'  the  first  Movement  of 
which  is  almost  suggestive  of  the  Old  Masters,  in 
its  stern  and  unwavering  Accompaniment,  while 
the  spirited  and  finely-developed  Fugue,  full  of 
interest  and  fire,  and  weakened  only,  like  that 
we  have  described  in  the  'Creation,'  by  the 
exuberance  of  its  masterly  Instrumentation,  has 
always  been  regarded  as  a  masterpiece  of  modern 
Part-writing.  It  is  something,  though  the  work 
cannot  be  relieved,  as  a  whole,  from  the  charge 
of  inconsistency,  to  be  able  to  select  from  it  so 
many  Movements  of  superlative  excellence. 

Nine  years  after  the  first  performance  of  '  The 
Mount  of  Olives'  at  Vienna,  Spohr  inaugurated 
the  Thirteenth  Period  by  bringing  out  his 
first  Oratorio  'Das  jiingste  Gericht,'2  at  Erfurt, 
where  it  was  produced  under  his  own  super- 
intendence in  1 8 1 2 .  Though  the  great  Violinist, 
then  twenty-eight  years  old,  had  already  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  characteristic  and  highly  ori- 
ginal style  by  which  his  works  are  distinguished 
from  those  of  all  other  Composers,  he  had  not  yet 
brought  it  to  that  full  perfection  which,  in  later 
years,  made  it  a  part  of  himself.  As  a  natural 
consequence,  this  early  Oratorio,  notwithstanding 
its  undoubted  merits,  is  unequal,  and  to  a  certain 
extent  disappointing.  Perhaps  it  would  seem 
less  so  had  we  no  opportunity  of  comparing  it  with 
greater  works  of  later  date ;  for  it  is  recorded 
that  the  Choruses  produced  a  profound  impres- 
sion on  the  occasion  of  the  first  performance, 


I  See  toI.  I,  p.  169. 

!  Literally  translated, '  The  Last  Judgment.'  This  work,  however, 
as  will  be  presently  seen,  has  no  connection  with  the  Oratorio  known 
by  that  name  in  England. 


554 


ORATORIO. 


ORATORIO. 


and  it  is  certain  that  the  part  of  Satan  is 
finely  conceived,  and  carried  out  with  masterly 
skill :  but  that  there  are  weak  points  cannot  be 
denied.  Very  different  is  it  with  *  Die  letzten 
Dinge,'  composed  at  Cassel  in  1825,  and  first 
performed  in  1826.  We  here  see  the  Master  at 
his  best;  his  style,  more  conspicuous  for  its 
individuality  than  that  of  any  other  Composer 
of  this  century,  fully  developed  ;  his  experience 
matured  by  long  and  unbroken  familiarity  with 
the  Orchestra,  under  circumstances  scarcely  less 
favourable  than  those  which  exercised  so  happy 
an  effect  upon  the  Art-life  of  Haydn;  and  his 
genius  free  to  lead  him  where  it  would.  It 
led  him,  in  this  case,  to  attempt  the  illustration 
of  Mysteries  which  might  well  have  appalled 
a  less  bold  spirit  than  his.  But  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  subject  presented  a  peculiar 
attraction  for  him.  There  is,  in  all  his  Music — 
even  in  his  most  joyous  strains — an  undercurrent 
of  unfathomable  depth  which  seems  continually 
striving  to  lead  the  hearer  away  from  the  exter- 
nal aspect  of  things,  in  order  to  show  him  a  hidden 
meaning  not  to  be  revealed  to  the  thoughtless  lis- 
tener. Even  the  glorious  March  in  '  Die  Weihe 
der  Tone '  leaves  a  feeling  rather  of  sadness  than 
exultation  behind  it.  The  value  of  such  a  quality 
as  this  in  '  Die  letzten  Dinge '  was  incalculable. 
Spohr's  familiarity  with  the  profoundest  secrets 
of  the  Chromatic  and  Enharmonic  genera,  which 
had  by  this  time  become  a  second  nature  to  him, 
afforded  him  access  to  regions  of  musical  expres- 
sion as  yet  unexplored  ;  and  he  entered  them,  not 
with  the  timidity  of  a  pioneer,  but  with  the  cer- 
tainty of  a  finished  Master.  His  refined  taste 
precluded  the  possibility  of  an  inharmonious  pro- 
gression :  yet  he  dared  modulations  which,  in 
less  skilful  hands,  would  have  been  excruciating. 
Diatonic  and  Chromatic  '  False  Relations '  are 
two  very  different  things :  but,  there  are  such 
things  as  Chromatic,  and  even  Enharmonic '  False 
Relations' — a  sad  fact  of  which  Spohr's  imitators 
appear  to  be  profoundly  ignorant.  Spohr  never 
writes  one.  In  the  space  of  half  a  bar,  he  may 
take  us  miles  from  the  Key  in  which  we  started  : 
but  the  journey  is  performed  bo  smoothly  that 
we  scarcely  know  we  have  performed  it.  The 
quality  one  most  misses  in  his  Music  is  that  of 
sternness;  yet  in  'Die  letzten  Dinge,'  we  are 
not  without  indications  even  of  that.  This  great 
Oratorio,  the  name  of  which  literally  signifies 
'  The  last  Things,'  is  the  one  now  so  well  known 
in  this  country  as  'The  last  Judgment.'  The 
English  title  is  a  very  unfortunate  one ;  for  be- 
sides being  a  gross  mistranslation,  it  gives  a  very 
false  idea  both  of  the  scope  and  the  intention  of 
the  work.  The  words  are  selected,  for  the  most 
part,  from  those  parts  of  the  Apocalypse  which 
describe  the  terrible  Signs  and  Portents  to  be 
sent,  hereafter,  as  precursors  of  the  consumma- 
tion of  all  things.  Dramatic  treatment  would 
manifestly  have  been  an  insult  to  the  solemnity  of 
such  a  subject.  Spohr  has  not  even  ventured  to 
look  upon  it  as  a  Sacred  Epic.  His  interpreta- 
tion is  purely  contemplative.  He  first  strives  to 
lead  our  thoughts  as  far  as  possible  beyond  the 


reach  of  all  external  impressions ;  and  then,  with 
the  irresistible  force  of  that  oratory  which  far 
exceeds  in  power  the  rhetoric  of  words,  invites 
us  to  meditate  upon  some  of  the  most  thrilling 
passages  to  be  found  in  any  part  of  the  Bible. 
The  amount  of  artistic  skill  made  subservient  to 
this  great  end  is  almost  incredible.  The  form  of 
the  Movements,  the  disposition  of  the  Voices, 
the  Instrumentation  of  the  Accompaniments,  are 
all,  in  turn,  brought  to  bear  upon  it.  There  is  but 
one  idea,  from  beginning  to  end.  The  Composer 
makes  no  attempt  to  please,  but  is  content  to  come 
before  us  simply  in  the  character  of  Preacher. 
Hence  it  is  that  the  work  does  not  contain  a  single 
Air.  The  lovely  Duet  for  Treble  and  Tenor, 
'Forsake  me  not,'  is  the  only  regularly-constructed 
Movement  allotted  to  the  Solo  Voices.  Except 
for  this,  they  are  exclusively  employed,  either  in 
conjunction  with  the  Chorus,  which  is  in  constant 
requisition,  or  in  the  declamation  of  highly- wrought 
Accompanied  Recitative,  so  melodious  in  cha- 
racter, that,  had  it  been  produced  at  the  present 
day,  it  would  probably  have  been  called  'Melos.' 
The  Instrumentation  of  this  Recitative  exhibits  the 
Composer  in  his  fullest  strength,  but  proclaims, 
at  the  same  time,  a  most  commendable  amount 
of  self-renunciation.  In  a  certain  sense  it  may 
be  described  as  Tone-painting,  but  its  imagery 
is  purely  subjective.  Ever  striving  so  to  influence 
the  mind  as  to  bring  it  more  and  more  closely  en 
rapport  with  the  written  text  as  the  work  ap- 
proaches its  climax,  it  never  attempts  to  depict 
realities,  but  aims  rather  at  the  suggestion  of  un- 
spoken thoughts  which  serve  its  purpose  far 
more  readily  than  any  amount  of  realistic  delinea- 
tion— and  it  attains  its  end  by  many  a  master- 
stroke. In  the  well-known  Chorus,  'All  glory 
to  the  Lamb  that  died,' — which,  by  the  way, 
is  almost  always  sung,  in  England,  much  faster 
than  Spohr  himself  used  to  take  it — the  pas- 
torale character  of  the  pizzicato  accompani- 
ment brings  instantly  before  us  the  Birtli  of 
the  Lamb  Whose  Incarnation  formed  the  first 
step  in  the  great  Sacrifice  we  are  contem- 
plating. It  is  like  a  glimpse  of  Van  Eyck's 
marvellous  Picture  in  the  Cathedral  at  Ghent. 
The  tumultuous  horror  of  the  Chorus,  'Destroyed 
is  Babylon  the  mighty'  is  increased  a  thousandfold 
by  the  freezing  lull  during  which  '  the  Sea  gives 
up  its  dead.'  And,  when  the  horror  is  over,  and 
we  have  felt  rather  than  heard  its  thunders  dying 
away  in  the  distance,  and  have  learned,  from  the 
Voice  of  the  Angel,  that  'All  is  fulfilled,'  and 
Babylon  no  more,  the  wrathful  sounds,  already 
nearly  inaudible,  continue  to  fade  through  a  still 
softer  pianissimo,  until  they  lead  us  into  the 
opening  strains  of  the  ineffably  beautiful  Quartet, 
'Blessed  are  the  dead,'  which  forms  the  cul- 
minating point  of  the  whole.  There  is  nothing 
in  the  Oratorio  more  striking  than  this  truly 
sublime  conception.  Spohr  himself  evidently  felt 
this,  and  intended  that  it  should  be  so :  for  he 
attempts  nothing  more.  Henceforward,  all  is 
peace ;  and  even  the  bold  Chorus,  '  Great  and 
wonderful,'  with  its  fine  fugal  writing  and  beauti- 
ful contrasts,  dies  away,  at  last,  into  a  pianissimo. 


OEATOEIO. 

May  there  not  be  a  hidden  meaning  even  in  this  ? 
— that  we  are  to  go  home,  not  to  talk  about  what 
we  have  heard,  but  to  think  about  it  ? 

Spohr  wrote  no  other  Oratorio,  after  this,  until 
1835,  when,  still  living  at  Cassel,  he  composed 
and  superintended  the  performance  of  '  Des 
Heilands  letzte  'Stunden,'  a  work  which  first 
became  known  in  England  under  the  title  of 
'  The  Crucifixion,'  and,  at  a  later  period,  under 
that  of  '  Calvary.'  Some  of  the  Choruses  in  this 
are  characterised  by  a  tenderness  to  which  their 
chromatic  structure  lends  an  inexpressible  charm ; 
and  the  whole  work  is  pervaded  by  a  solemn 
beauty  which  leads  us  deeply  to  regret  that  it 
should  be  so  rarely  performed  in  public.  It  was 
followed,  some  years  later,  by '  The  Fall  of  Baby- 
lon,' a  work  of  greater  proportions,  which,  on 
July  SI,  1843,  the  Composer  himself  directed, 
for  the  first  time,  at  Exeter  Hall,  by  special  in- 
vitation of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society,  on 
which  occasion  the  effect  produced  by  the 
opening  bars  of  the  Chorus,  '  The  Lion  roused 
from  slumber  is  springing,'  was  one  which  those 
who  were  fortunate  enough  to  hear  it  will  not 
easily  forget.  Spohr,  indeed,  was  a  model  Con- 
ductor, and  sometimes  electrified  his  audience 
by  a  single  stroke  of  his  Eaton,  though  never 
with  a  rude  or  unwelcome  shock. 

One  of  Spohr's  most  illustrious  contemporaries 
was  the  indefatigable  and  highly-gifted  Fried  rich 
Schneider,  a  writer  who  once  enjoyed  an  extra- 
ordinary degree  of  popularity  which  is  now  some- 
what on  the  wane.  Between  the  years  18 10 
and  1838,  he  produced,  besides  numerous  Operas 
and  other  important  works,  no  less  than  sixteen 
German  Oratorios  ;  viz.  '  Die  Hollenfahrt  des 
Messias'  (1810)  ;  ■  Das  Weltgericht '  (18 19),  the 
most  celebrated  of  all  his  writings ;  '  Die  Tod- 
tenfeier'  (1821);  'Die  Siindfluth'  (1823);  'Der 
verlorene  Paradies*  (1824);  'Jesus  Geburt' 
(1825);  'Christus  der Meister' (1827);  'Pharao* 
(1828);  'Christus  das  Kind' (1829);  'Gideon' 
(1829)  ;  'Absalom  '  (1830)  ;  '  Das  befreite  Jeru- 
salem '  (1835)  ;  '  Salomonis  Tempelbau  '  (1836) ; 
'Bonifacius'  (1837),  unfinished;  'Gethsemane 
und  Golgotha'  (1838);  and  'Christus  der  Erlo- 
ser'  (1838).  All  these  works  were  more  than 
ordinarily  successful,  in  their  day — as  were  also 
Lindpaintner's  'Abraham'  and  'Der  Jiingling 
von  Nain' — but,  with  the  exception  of  'Das 
Weltgericht,'  they  are  now  almost  forgotten,  even 
in  Germany;  to  Spohr,  therefore,  the  Thirteenth 
Period  is  alone  indebted  for  its  immortality. 

The  history  of  our  Foobteenth  Period  is  a 
glorious  one ;  but,  again,  it  depends  for  its  cele- 
brity entirely  upon  the  genius  of  a  single  Com- 
poser— who,  however,  is  one  not  likely  to  be 
soon  forgotten. 

Though  Mendelssohn,  when  he  first  enter- 
tained the  idea  of  writing  an  Oratorio,  had  not 
yet  completed  his  twenty-third  year,  he  was  al- 
ready a  finished  Scholar,  an  accomplished  Mu- 
sician, a  profound  Thinker,  and  the  Composer  of  a 
large  collection  of  works,  not  a  few  of  which  are 

1  Literally,  'The  Saviour's  last  hours,"  though  that  title  has  never 
been  applied  to  It  la  this  country. 


OEATOEIO. 


555 


classed,  even  by  critics  of  the  present  day,  among 
his  best.  He  did  not,  therefore,  enter  upon  his 
task  without  consideration,  or  without  expe- 
rience. He  knew  what  an  Oratorio  ought  to  be ; 
and  he  had  already  made  choice  of  the  School 
which  pleased  him  best — the  School  we  have 
attempted  to  describe  in  treating  of  our  Sixth 
Period,  the  brightest  luminary  of  which  was 
Joh.  Seb.  Bach.  But,  let  us  not  be  misunder- 
stood. Mendelssohn  was  no  imitator,  either  of 
Bach,  or  any  other  Composer  :  he  simply  set  to 
work  upon  Bach's  principles,  just  as  Mozart  set 
to  work  upon  Haydn's,  and  afterwards  wrought 
out  his  own  ideas  in  his  own  way.  And  that 
way  proved  to  be  a  very  original,  as  well  as  a 
very  attractive  one.  The  idea  of  choosing  the. 
life  and  mission  of  S.  Paul  for  a  subject  was  sug- 
gested to  him  by  the  Frankfort '  Cacilien-Verein,' 
in  the  year  1831.  He  accepted  the  proposal,  and 
requested  Marx  to  write  a  Book  for  him.  Marx 
refused,  on  the  ground  that  the  Chorales  which 
Mendelssohn  wished  to  introduce  were  unsuited 
to  the  date  of  the  narrative.  Mendelssohn,  there- 
fore, with  the  assistance  of  his  friends  Fiirst  and 
Schubring,  compiled  a  Book  for  himself,  selecting 
the  words,  with  very  few  exceptions,  from  the  Ger- 
man translation  of  the  Bible.  An  eminent  critic 
of  the  present  day  (Hand,  'Aesthetik  der  Ton- 
kunst,'  ii.  p.  576)  finds  fault  with  its  construction, 
on  the  ground  that  the  Hero  of  the  story  is  not 
made  its  central  point.  '  We  see  here,'  he  says, 
'not  one  Oratorio,  but  two — S.  Stephen,  and 
S.  Paul — bound  together  by  external  ties  ;  while 
S.  Paul,  who,  as  the  Hero,  should  in  the  fulness 
of  bis  strength  fight  the  battle  with  himself  and 
with  the  world,  passes,  through  a  series  of  trials, 
into  the  background,  surrounded  by  companions 
scarcely  less  worthy  than  himself,  without  ever  ap- 
pearing as  the  central  point  of  the  dramatic  unity.' 
Hand's  criticisms  are  generally  valuable ;  but  he 
was  altogether  wrong,  here,  and  utterly  mistook  the 
Composer's  meaning.  Mendelssohn's  conception 
— perfectly  homogeneous  in  essence,  though  some- 
what complicated  in  structure — embraced  three 
historical  facts,  over  which  one  other  fact,  of 
greater  significance  than  all,  dominated  supreme. 
The  three  facts,  which  he  presents  to  us  in  three 
distinct  pictures,  each  half  dramatic  and  half 
epic,  are  the  Martyrdom  of  S.  Stephen,  the 
Conversion  of  S.  Paul,  and  the  Apostle's  later 
career  ;  symbolical  respectively  of  the  determined 
opposition  of  the  world  to  the  True  Faith,  the 
power  of  the  True  Faith  to  make  friends  even  of 
its  persecutors,  and  the  Preaching  of  the  True 
Faith  through  all  the  world.  The  one  predomi- 
nant fact,  which  governs  all  these,  and  to  the 
exposition  of  which  they  each  contribute  a  most 
important  share,  is  the  ultimate  triumph  of 
Christianity;  and,  precisely  because  the  great 
Apostle  laboured  so  zealously  to  promote  that 
triumph,  he  not  only  appears  as  the  central- 
point  of  the  whole,  but  we  are  made  to  feel  his 
influence,  either  as  persecutor  of  the  Faithful,  or 
Preacher  of  the  Faith,  even  in  those  Scenes  in 
which  he  is  not  actually  present.  He  stands  be- 
fore us,  throughout,  as  the  visible  representative 


556 


ORATORIO. 


of  the  one  grand  thought  which  permeates  the 
entire  design.  A  symbolical  Apostle,  with  just 
enough  personality  to  secure  our  affectionate  re- 
cognition, but  not  enough  to  prevent  us  from 
regarding  him  as  the  embodiment  of  an  abstract 
idea — the  dissemination  of  the  great  truths  of 
the  Gospel,  by  the  mouths  of  duly  appointed 
Messengers,  to  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth. 
Bearing  these  things  in  mind,  we  can  at  once  see 
why  it  was  that  Mendelssohn  insisted  so  strongly 
on  the  introduction  of  the  Chorale.  In  Protestant 
Germany,  the  Chorale  is  universally  understood  to 
represent  the  united  Voice  of  the  whole  Christian 
Church.  How  then  could  the  trials,  the  hopes, 
the  faith,  and  the  final  victory  of  the  Church  be 
intelligibly  expressed,  to  German  hearers,  with- 
'  out  its  aid?  Mendelssohn  makes  it  the  keystone 
of  the  whole.  It  opens  his  magnificent  Overture 
with  an  exhortation  to  vigilance  which  no  Ger- 
man could  possibly  misunderstand.  In  the  mas- 
sive opening  Chorus,  the  passage  beginning  with 
the  words  '  The  Heathen  furiously  rage '  suffici- 
ently explains  the  need  of  such  watchfulness ;  and 
then  the  Church  sets  forth  her  faith  and  trust,  in 
a  new  Chorale,  '  To  God  on  high  be  thanks  and 
praise ' — the  calm  beauty  of  which  must  needs 
dispel  all  fear  for  the  future.  Then  follows  the 
Martyrdom  of  S.  Stephen,  illustrated  in  a  series 
of  Movements  the  most  noticeable  of  which  are 
the  angry  Chorus  '  Now  this  man  ceaseth  not ' ; 
the  beautiful  and  highly-wrought  Scena  sung  by 
S.  Stephen  himself  ;  the  reiterated  comminations 
of  the  Jews ;  the  heavenly  note  of  warning, 
•  Jerusalem !  Jerusalem ! '  interposed  between 
two  violent  outbursts  of  popular  fury  ;  and  the 
most  characteristic  Chorus  of  all, '  Stone  him  to 
death ! '  after  which  the  Church  again  breathes 
forth  a  sigh  of  hopeful  submission,  in  the  Chorale 
'  To  Thee,  0  Lord,  I  yield  my  spirit,'  and  the 
delightfully  melodious  Chorus,  'Happy  and  blest 
are  they,'  which  succeeds  it.  If  any  proof  were 
needed  of  the  correctness  of  the  theory  we  have 
advanced,  it  would  be  afforded  by  the  fact  that 
it  is  not  until  this  point  that  Saul  makes  his  ap- 
pearance upon  the  Scene  in  his  own  proper  person. 
Most  dramatists  would  certainly  have  introduced 
him  at  the  close  of  the  Martyrdom,  if  not  before. 
Mendelssohn  contents  himself  with  allowing  us 
to  feel  his  influence  only  during  the  trial,  reserv- 
ing his  entrance  until  all  is  over,  when  he  brings 
him  before  us  as  the  true  Hero  of  the  piece,  with 
the  fiery  Bass  Solo — '  Consume  them  all ! '  In  spite 
ot  threaten ings,  and  persecution,  and  slaughter,  the 
Church  still  sings  of  comfort — this  time,  through 
the  medium  of  a  Solo  Voice — in '  But  the  Lord  is 
mindful  of  his  own.'  There  is  hope — she  would 
say — that  even  the  persecutor  may  be  saved.  And 
then  follows  the  Conversion,  in  which  the  expedient 
of  assigning  our  Lord's  words  to  a  Chorus  of  four 
Treble  Voices,  though  not  altogether  new — for  it 
dates  from  the  15th  century ' — introduces  a  well- 
conceived  and  appropriate  effect  in  which  a  long 
and  skilfully  managed  crescendo  leads  with  ever 
increasing  excitement  into  the  fiery  Chorus, 
1  Rise  up  1  arise !  rise  and  shine ! '  The  Light  has 
1  See  Passion  Music. 


ORATORIO. 

broken  in  upon  the  soul  of  the  future  Apostle  : 
and  again  the  Church  speaks  to  him,  and  indi- 
cates his  appointed  work,  in  the  fine  old  Chorale 
'  Sleepers  wake ! '  each  phrase  of  which  is  followed 
by  a  simultaneous  crash  of  all  the  brass  instru- 
ments. But  he  cannot,  at  once,  realise  the  great 
things  that  have  been  done  for  him.  The  Light 
has  blinded  him,  for  the  time  ;  and  he  must  needs 
crave  forgiveness  and  mercy,  until  they  are  assured 
to  him  by  the  mouth  of  Ananias.  Then  it  is  that 
he  expresses  his  unbounded  joy,  in  a  great  cry, 
'  I  praise  Thee,  O  Lord  my  God,'  while  the  Church 
watches  over  him,  still  speaking  words  of  comfort, 
and  concluding  the  First  Part  with  the  grand 
contemplative  Chorus,  '  0  great  is  the  depth.' 

The  conception  of  the  Second  Part  is  really 
far  grander  than  that  of  the  First,  though  it  is  less 
forcibly  dramatic,  and  even  keeps  the  epic  element 
in  the  background,  except  when  it  is  needed  for 
the  purpose  of  bringing  the  personality  of  S.  Paul 
himself  into  sufficiently  strong  relief.  It  opens 
with  a  fine  five-part  Chorus,  'The  Nations  are  now 
the  Lord's,'  in  which  Mendelssohn's  power  as  a 
Fugue-writer  is  well  utilised.  It  then  takes  up 
the  subject  at  the  point  for  which  the  whole  of 
the  First  Part  was  but  a  necessary  preparation 
— the  actual  preaching  of  the  Apostle.  This  is 
interrupted  by  a  Chorus  of  Jews,  'Is  this  he?* 
carrying  out  the  same  idea  as  the  tumultuous  pas- 
sages in  the  First  Part,  and  thus  contributing  to 
the  unity  of  the  general  intention  by  exhibiting  the 
same  crowd,  at  one  moment  persecuting  S.  Ste- 
phen, and,  at  another,  S.  Paul  himself.  Again  the 
Church  perceives  the  danger,  and  prays  for  direc- 
tion, in  the  Chorale,  '  O  Thou  the  true  and  only 
Light ! '  after  which  S.  Paul,  and  his  companion 
S.  Barnabas,  turn  to  the  Gentiles.  In  the  Scene 
of  the  Sacrifice  at  Lystra,  the  epic  element  reap- 
pears ;  and  the  sensuous  Chorus  sung  by  the  wor- 
shippers of  Jupiter  is  contrasted  with  admirable 
skill  with  the  solemn  strains  of  '  But  our  God 
abideth  in  Heaven.'  The  Jews  interpose  again  in 
a  Chorus  no  less  characteristic  of  the  raging  mul- 
titude than  those  we  have  already  heard  :  after 
which  the  Apostle,  having  been  cheered  by  the 
mingled  exhortation  and  promise  '  Be  thou  faith- 
ful unto  death,'  takes  that  affecting  leave  of '  the 
Brethren '  which,  as  described  by  S.  Luke,  brings 
all  the  most  beautiful  traits  of  his  character  into 
the  noblest  and  most  touching  relief;  and  the 
Oratorio  concludes  with  the  Choruses,  '  See  what 
love  hath  the  Father  bestowed  on  us,'  and  '  Not 
only  unto  him,  but  unto  all  them  that  love  truly,' 
bringing  prominently  into  view  the  idea  which 
has  been  persistently  kept  before  us,  from  first  to 
last — the  universal  triumph  of  the  Church  as  ex- 
emplified in  that  of  one  of  the  greatest  of  her 
Apostles,  who,  faithful  to  the  last,  passes  from  our 
Bight,  that  he  may  receive  the  promised  Crown. 

'  S.  Paul '  was  first  performed  at  Diisseldorf, 
on  Whitsunday,  May  22,  1836;  and  in  English, 
at  Liverpool,  on  Oct.  3  following.  '  Elijah ' 
was  produced  at  the  Birmingham  Festival  on 
Aug.  26, 1846,  Mendelssohn  having,  meanwhile, 
passed  ten  of  the  best  years  of  his  life  in  inde- 
fatigable work,  and  the  accumulation  of  a  vast 


ORATORIO. 

amount  of  experience.  Yet  it  cannot  be  said 
that  'Elijah'  is  really  a  greater  work  than 
*  S.  Paul ' :  it  is  great  in  a  different  way.  The 
history  of  its  gradual  development  having  already 
been  narrated  at  length  in  the  article  Mendels- 
sohn, it  remains  for  us  only  to  speak  of  it  in 
its  perfect  form.  In  one  respect,  the  main  idea 
is  the  same  as  that  treated  in  '  S.  Paul ' — the 
triumph  of  Truth  over  Falsehood.  In  both  Ora- 
torios, the  instrument  by  which  this  triumph  is 
accomplished  is  a  Heaven-commissioned  Teacher, 
whose  influence  is  distinctly  perceptible  through- 
out the  entire  work ;  only,  in  '  Elijah,'  the 
personality  of  this  Teacher  is  more  frequently 
brought  before  us  than  in  '  S.  Paul,'  where  we 
are  so  frequently  made  to  feel  his  influence  with- 
out actually  seeing  him.  As  a  natural  conse- 
quence, the  later  Oratorio  is  much  more  dramatic 
In  structure  than  the  earlier  one.  The  character 
of  the  Prophet  is  drawn  with  minute  attention 
to  the  peculiar  traits  by  which  it  is  distinguished 
in  the  Scripture  Narrative :  and  the  Scenes  in 
which  he  stands  forth  as  the  principal  figure  are 
painted  with  intense  descriptive  power.  Eight 
such  Scenes  are  brought  most  prominently  into 
the  foreground :  four  in  the  First  Part — the  Pro- 
phecy of  the  Drought,  the  Raising  of  the  Widow's 
Son,  the  Sacrifice  on  Mount  Carmel,  and  the 
Coming  of  the  Rain  ;  and  four  in  the  Second — 
the  Persecution  of  Elijah  by  Jezebel,  the  Pro- 
phet's sojourn  in  the  Desert,  with  all  its  awful 
revelations  of  Almighty  Power,  his  return  to  his 
People  and  subsequent  departure  in  the  Fiery 
Chariot,  and  the  magnificent  conclusion  which 
teaches  us  the  deep  signification  of  the  whole. 
The  Recitative  in  which  the  opening  Prophecy  is 
announced,  placed  before  the  Overture  which  so 
vividly  describes  its  terrible  effects,  is  a  grand 
conception,  scarcely  exceeded  in  dramatic  force 
by  any  subsequent  passage,  and  immeasurably 
enhanced  by  the  four  solemn  Chords  with  which 
the  Brass  Instruments  prelude  the  first  words  of 
the  terrible  denunciation.  The  despairing  phrases 
of  the  Overture  lead  so  naturally  into  the  cry  of 
the  wailing  People,  '  Help,  Lord !  the  harvest 
is  over,  the  summer  days  are  gone,'  that  we  can- 
not but  believe  the  whole  chain  of  Movements  to 
have  been  the  result  of  the  same  individual 
idea,  the  gradual  development  of  which  finds  con- 
sistent expression  in  Obadiah's  exhortation  to 
repentance— clothed  in  the  lovely  Tenor  Air,  •  If 
with  all  your  hearts' — and  the  noble  chain  of 
Movements,  beginning  with  'Yet  doth  the  Lord,' 
which  forms  the  climax  of  this  division  of  the 
subject.  In  the  next  picture  we  find  Elijah  '  by 
the  brook  Cherith,'  whence,  after  having  been 
comforted  by  the  soothing  strains  of  the  Double 
Quartet,  'He  shall  give  His  Angels  charge  over 
thee,'  he  is  summoned  to  Zarephath,  to  the  house 
of  the  Widow,  the  Raising  of  whose  Son  is  painted 
in  tender  accents  which  find  their  fitting  response, 
not,  as  the  careless  hearer  might  have  expected, 
in  a  Chorale — for  the  Chorale  belongs  exclusively 
to  the  Christian  Dispensation,  and  this  is  pre- 
eminently a  Jewish  Oratorio — but,  in  the  con- 
templative  Chorus,  'Blessed  are  the  men  who  | 


ORATORIO. 


557 


fear  Him,'  which  brings  the  Scene  to  so 
appropriate  and  well-considered  a  conclusion. 
Then  follows  the  Sacrifice,  in  which  the  tho- 
roughly worldly  yet  never  trivial  strains  sung  by 
the  Baal-worshippers  are  so  strikingly  contrasted 
with  Elijah's  sublime  Prayer,  'Lord  God  of  Abra- 
ham,' the  softer  harmonies  of  '  Cast  thy  burthen 
upon  the  Lord,'  and  the  Descent  of  the  Fire, 
and  consequent  recognition  of  the  true  God — a 
tremendous  Scene,  which  readies  its  climax  in  the 
destruction  of  the  prophets  of  Baal,  and  needs 
all  the  resources,  both  choral  and  instrumental, 
that  the  Orchestra  can  afford,  for  its  efficient 
representation.  How  these  resources  are  used 
will  be  best  understood  by  those  who  have  not 
only  heard,  but  studied  the  Oratorio,  and  endea- 
voured to  interpret  it  in  the  spirit  in  which  it 
was  composed.  But  this  is  not  the  culminating 
point  of  the  First  Part.  After  the  beautiful  Alto 
Song,  '  Woe  unto  them,'  we  again  meet  the  Pro- 
phet on  Mount  Carmel,  to  watch  with  him  for 
the  coming  rain,  until  the  Orchestra  actually 
shows  us  the  'little  cloud'  arising  'out  of  the 
sea,  like  a  man's  hand,'  and  the  storm  bursts  over 
us  in  welcome  torrents,  bringing  salvation  to  the 
famine-stricken  people,  who,  intoxicated  with 
wonder  and  delight,  unite  in  the  thrilling  Chorus, 
'  Thanks  be  to  God,'  which  is  so  placed  as  to 
bring  out  its  strongest  points  to  the  best  advan- 
tage, while  it  derives  additional  effect  from  the 
skill  with  which  it  is  fitted  into  its  important 
position,  where  it  forms  so  fitting  a  complement 
to  the  ail-but  despairing  cry  for  mercy  with  which 
the  Oratorio  began. 

The  Second  Part  opens  with  the  Soprano  Solo, 
*I  am  He  that  comforteth,'  followed  by  the 
quite  exceptional  Chorus,  'Be  not  afraid,'  in 
which  so  many  different  emotions  are  portrayed 
by  the  master  hand  which  makes  them  all  sub- 
servient to  a  common  end.  After  this,  we  are 
brought  face  to  face  with  the  hateful  Jezebel, 
who  comes  before  us,  in  all  her  meanness,  and 
deceit,  and  treachery,  to  incite  the  People  against 
the  Prophet  whose  prayers  have  saved  them, 
and  so  to  compass  his  destruction.  The  Recita- 
tive in  which  Obadiah  counsels  the  Seer  to  fly 
from  persecution  is  strangely  beautiful,  and  intro- 
duces us  to  oneof  the  most  impressive  pictures  that 
have  ever  been  attempted  in  the  whole  range  of 
descriptive  Music — the  hiding  in  the  Wilderness  ; 
the  comfort  proffered  by  the  Angels,  in  the 
heavenly  Trio  '  Lift  thine  eyes,'  and  the  Chorus 
which  follows  it ;  the  sadness  which  almost  over- 
comes even  Elijah's  constancy ;  the  calm  peace 
of  the  beautiful  Air,  '0  rest  in  the  Lord';  and 
then  the  awful  history  which  tells  how  the 
Holy  One  of  Israel,  Who  was  not  in  the  Wind, 
nor  in  the  Earthquake,  nor  in  the  Fire,  revealed 
Himself,  at  length,  in  the  Still  Small  Voice.  It  is 
impossible  to  do  adequate  justice  to  the  power 
with  which  this  terrible  event  is  depicted — the 
combination  of  technical  skill  and  depth  of  feel- 
ing needed  to  render  that  possible,  which,  had 
either  quality  failed,  or  even  existed  in  excess  of 
the  other,  could  only  have  resulted  in  irreverence 
too  ghastly  for  contemplation.    There  can  be  no- 


558 


ORATORIO. 


doubt  that  this  is  the  finest  part  of  the  Oratorio : 
and  in  order  to  calm  the  excitement  which  it 
never  fails  to  produce,  it  is  absolutely  necessary 
that  the  hearer  should  return  for  a  moment  to 
things  of  earth,  and  join  in  converse  with  the 
Sons  of  the  Prophets  before  he  is  privileged  to 
hear  of  the  '  Chariot  of  Fire,  and  Horses  of  Fire,' 
in  which  the  Man  of  God  is  taken  to  receive  his 
reward.  Then  follows  the  Peroration — including 
the  Tenor  Air  '  Then  shall  the  Righteous  shine,' 
the  Quartet, '  0  come,  every  one  that  thirsteth,' 
and  the  splendid  Chorus, '  And  then  shall  your 
light  break  forth ' — in  which  is  summed  up  the 
lesson  of  the  whole :  the  lesson  of  faith  in  the 
Future,  founded  on  experience  of  the  Past ;  the 
lesson  of  Hope,  and  Peace,  and  Joy,  which  the 
Composer  has  striven  to  impress  upon  us  through- 
out, and  that  so  clearly,  that,  if  we  have  not 
learned  it,  we  have  learned  nothing  at  all. 

Had  Mendelssohn  lived  to  complete  '  Christus,' 
it  is  quite  possible  that  he  might  have  produced 
a  work  more  perfect  than  either  'S.  Paul,'  or 
'  Elijah.'  But,  we  dare  not  grieve  for  the  loss  of 
it.  For,  surely,  if  it  be  true,  as  one  of  the  most 
judicious  of  modern  German  critics  has  said,  that 
the  ultimate  purpose  of  the  Oratorio  is  'neither  to 
minister  to  our  senses,  nor  to  afford  us  what  we 
ordinarily  understand  by  the  words  pleasure 
and  entertainment,  but  to  elevate  our  souls,  to 
purify  our  lives,  and,  so  far  as  Art  can  conduce 
to  such  an  end,  to  strengthen  our  Faith,  and  our 
Devotion  towards  x  God,' — surely,  if  this  be  the 
legitimate  aim  of  the  great  Art-form  we  are  con- 
sidering, no  writer,  antient  or  modern,  has  ever 
striven  more  earnestly  to  attain  it  than  did  Men- 
delssohn, and  the  efforts  of  very  few  indeed  have 
been  blessed  with  an  equal  measure  of  success. 

As  in  our  Article  Opera,  we  have  thought  it 
desirable  to  leave  the  productions  of  living  Com- 
posers to  the  judgment  of  a  future  generation  of 
Critics.  Had  it  not  been  for  our  firm  belief  in 
the  justice  as  well  as  the  expediency  of  this 
reservation,  we  would  gladly  have  found  space  to 
discuss  the  merits  and  call  attention  to  the 
designs  of  '  S.  John  the  Baptist,'  '  The  Resurrec- 
tion,' and  '  Joseph ' ;  of  '  Eli,'  and  '  Naaman ' ; 
of  ■  S.  Cecilia,'  and  « S.  Peter ' ;  of  ■  The  Light  of 
the  World';  of  'S.  Polycarp'  and  'Hagar';  of 
Hiller's  'Saul,'  and  'Die  Zerstorung  Jerusa- 
lems,'  of  Rheinthaler's  'Jephtha';  and  of  many 
another  familiar  work,  the  interest  of  which  lies 
less  in  its  own  individual  significance  than  in  the 
hope  it  gives  that  those  who  are  now  turning 
their  talents  to  such  excellent  account,  may,  by 
their  life-long  earnestness,  raise  a  fabric  to  which 
their  successors  may  point  with  pride  as  well  as 
pleasure.  But  since  for  the  present  this  part  of 
our  subject  must  needs  be  left  in  abeyance,  it  re- 
mains only  to  speak  of  the  beautiful  Inspiration 
bequeathed  to  posterity  by  one  who  has  so  lately 
left  us  that  it  seems  almost  sacrilegious  to  exa- 
mine his  work  in  the  spirit  of  analytical  criticism. 
Yet  we  should  lose  so  much  by  neglecting  to  do 
so,  that  we  have  no  choice  but  to  proceed  to  the 

i  0.  H.  Bitter,  '  BeltrSce  lur  Geschlchte  del  Oraioriums,'  p.  46. 
(Berlin  1872.) 


ORATORIO. 

consideration  of  the  single  piece  which  forms  the 
sum  and  substance  of  our  Fifteenth  Period. 

Though,  with  the  characteristic  modesty 
which  graced  his  every  action,  Sir  Sterndale 
Bennett  was  content  to  call  'The  Woman  of 
Samaria'  a  Cantata,  it  is,  to  all  intents  and 
purposes,  an  Oratorio  in  one  Part.  To  wish  that 
it  were  longer  would  be  a  great  mistake ;  for  it 
is  exactly  what  it  was  meant  to  be,  and  fulfils 
its  purpose  perfectly.  The  subject,  indeed,  would 
scarcely  admit  of  greater  extension.  Yet,  the 
work  is  none  the  less  an  Oratorio  on  that  ac- 
count ;  for,  within  the  limits  dictated  by  the 
Evangelist,  the  treatment  of  the  Narrative  is 
exhaustive.  In  several  respects,  the  mode  of 
this  treatment  differs  from  that  adopted  by  some 
other  great  Composers.  As  might  have  been 
expected,  we  meet,  from  first  to  last,  with  no 
attempt  at  dramatic  expression.  The  story  is 
told,  by  the  principal  Singers,  exactly  in  the 
words  in  which  we  find  it  narrated  in  the  Gospel 
according  to  S.  John ;  while,  from  time  to  time, 
Choruses,  the  words  of  which  are  selected  from 
other  portions  of  the  Sacred  Writings,  are  intro- 
duced, for  the  purpose  of  assisting  the  hearer  in 
his  meditation  upon  the  lesson  taught  by  the 
principal  subject.  In  one  instance  only — '  Now 
we  believe ' — does  the  Chorus  assist  in  carrying 
on  the  narrative;  and,  even  here,  it  shows  no 
trace  of  dramatic  expression.  The  tone  of  the 
work  is  contemplative  and  devotional  through- 
out; for  the  most  part,  deeply  and  touchingly 
pathetic,  yet  never  lacking  energy,  where  energy 
is  needed,  though  the  sternest  passages  are  tem- 
pered with  the  exquisite  refinement  of  feeling 
which  is  inseparable  from  the  Composer's  style, 
for  the  simple  reason  that  it  was  a  part  of  himself. 
This  is  very  remarkable  in  the  opening  Chorale 
'Ye  Christian  People,  now  rejoice,' founded  on 
the  old  German  melody  'Es  ist  gewisslich  an 
der  2Zeit,'  in  which  the  bold  syncopations  in  the 
Melody,  and  the  powerfid  treatment  of  the 
Accompaniment  in  no  wise  diminish  the  effect 
produced  by  the  perfect  finish  of  the  whole.  It 
is  to  this  all-pervading  finish  that  the  entire 
work  owes  one  of  its  greatest  charms.  It  ex- 
hibits itself  everywhere,  alike  in  conception 
and  execution;  in  the  reverence  with  which 
the  Sacred  Text  is  treated,  and  the  perfection  with 
which  every  bar  of  Accompaniment  is  rounded 
into  form ;  in  the  minute  attention  bestowed 
upon  the  rhetoiical  enunciation  of  the  words, 
and  the  care  shown  in  the  resolution  of  each 
passing  dissonance — for,  how  could  a  man  who 
was  never  heard  to  speak  a  hard  word  of  any 
one  introduce  either  a  false  accent,  or  a  '  false 
relation '  ?  As  an  instance  of  the  reverence 
shown  to  the  Text,  we  may  call  attention 
to  the  fact  that  Our  Lord  is  never  made  to 
sing  in  His  own  proper  person,  but  in  that 
of  the  Evangelist.  For  example,  in  the  Reci- 
tative, No.  i  o,  the  Bass  Voice  sings,  '  He  said 
unto  her,  Woman,  believe  me.'  Bach,  himself 
the  most  reverent  of  men,  would  have  assigned 
the  first  clauses  of  the  Verse  to  the  Evangelist, 

s  Formerly  sung  to  '  Nun  freut  euch  lleben  Christen  G'meln.' 


I 


ORATORIO. 

and  the  last  three  words  to  Our  Lord,  speaking 
with  His  own  voice.  As  it  ia  only  in  the  case 
of  Our  Lord  Himself  that  this  expedient  is  in- 
troduced, there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  spirit 
which  prompted  it :  we  may  remark,  indeed,  that 
at  the  beginning  of  the  very  Recitative  we  have 
quoted,  the  Evangelist  says,  '  The  Woman  saith 
unto  Him,'  and  the  Woman  herself  then  takes 
up  the  theme  with, '  Sir,  I  perceive  that  Thou 
art  a  Prophet.'  It  is  to  this  beautiful  spirit  of 
reverence  that  the  Oratorio  owes  much  of  its 
devotional  effect.  There  is  no  doubt  that  its 
production  was  a  pure  labour  of  love;  and 
there  is  strong  reason  for  believing  that  the 
Composer  meditated  upon  it  for  many  years 
before  he  began  to  put  his  ideas  into  sys- 
tematic form.  It  was  first  produced  at  the  Bir- 
mingham Festival  in  1867.  Yet  as  long  ago  as 
1843  Sterndale  Bennett  showed  the  writer  a 
Chorus  for  six  Voices,  treated  antiphonally, 
which,  after  having  played  it  through  from  a 
neatly-written  Score,  he  said  he  intended  to 
introduce  into  an  Oratorio  he  was  then  medi- 
tating. After  the  lapse  of  so  many  years  the 
writer  cannot  pretend  to  remember  details,  but 
he  is  quite  certain  that  if  not  absolutely  identical 
throughout  with  '  Therefore  they  shall  come,'  the 
Chorus  to  which  he  alludes  was  the  first  embodi- 
ment of  the  idea  upon  which  that  delightful 
Movement  is  founded. 

When  the  20th  century  dawns  upon  us, 
will  those  who  are  now  in  their  childhood  be 
able  to  speak  of  new  Oratorios  worthy  to  stand 
side  by  side  with  the  immortal  works  to  which 
we  have  directed  the  reader's  attention  I  Will 
the  revolutionary  spirit  which  is  now  working 
such  radical  changes  in  the  construction  of  the 
Opera  affect  the  Oratorio  also  ?  Will  the  neg- 
lect of  Counterpoint,  the  contempt  for  Fugue,  the 
hatred  of  Polyphony,  which  so  many  young  Mu- 
sicians— and  not  young  ones  only — are  rapidly 
learning  to  regard  as  signs  of  •  progress,'  under- 
mine the  very  foundations  of  Sacred  Music  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  render  the  production  of  new  and 
worthy  works  impossible  ?  Is  there  genius 
enough  in  the  world  to  strike  out  an  entirely 
new  conception,  and  learning  enough  to  ensure 
its  successful  embodiment?  These  are  difficult 
questions ;  but  it  is  possible  that  the  history  of 
the  past  may  suggest  a  not  improbable  answer 
to  some  of  them.  Twenty  years  must  pass  away 
before  the  new.  century  begins.  Who  thought 
of  the  '  Messiah '  in  1731,  or  of  *  S.  Paul'  in 
1816?  Certainlynot  the  Composers  of  these  great 
works ;  and  if  not  the  Composers,  assuredly  no 
one  else.  Why  then  may  we  not  hope  for  the  in- 
auguration of  a  new  and  glorious  Period  before 
the  year  1900!  a  Period  that  may  shed  as  much 
lustre  over  the  closing  years  of  the  nineteenth 
century  as  the  Oratorios  of  Spohr  and  Men- 
delssohn did  over  its  earlier  half?  There  is 
nothing  at  all  Utopian  in  the  thought ;  and 
we  do  not  believe  that  such  a  Period,  should  it 
ever  dawn  upon  us,  would  be  in  the  least  in- 
fluenced by  any  contemporary  changes  which  j 
might  affect  the  Lyrio  Drama.    The  advocates  '' 


ORATORIO. 


559 


of  such  changes  are  not  likely  to  forsake  the 
fascinations  of  the  Stage  for  the  sake  of  the  Ora- 
torio ;  and  the  changes  themselves  could  never 
be  successfully  adapted  to  it.  The  next  question 
is  a  more  serious  one.  If  Counterpoint,  and 
Fugue,  and  Polyphonic  Imitation,  be  neglected, 
the  tone  of  Sacred  Music  must,  of  necessity,  de- 
teriorate. Whatever  it  may  be  the  fashion  to 
think  now,  the  men  who  wrote  the  greatest  Ora- 
torios we  possess  were  the  greatest  Masters  of 
Fugue  that  ever  lived,  and  thought  it  no  sign  of 
pedantry  to  show  their  mastery  over  that  most 
difficult  Art  in  their  grandest  Choruses.  This 
cannot  possibly  have  been  the  result  of  a  mere 
meaningless  coincidence.  Let  those  who  think 
it  was,  compare  the  productions  of  the  Sixth, 
Seventh,  and  Fourteenth  Periods  with  those  of 
the  Ninth;  or  even  the  works  of  Spohr  with 
those  of  Sacchini.  If  there  be  any  moral  at  all 
in  the  history  we  have  written,  it  is,  that,  with- 
out contrapuntal  skill,  no  really  great  Sacred 
Music  can  ever  be  produced.  If  it  be  conceded 
that  the  Sublime  is  the  highest  quality  in 
Art,  we  may  say  with  certainty,  that  the  Su- 
blime in  Art  can  never  be  reached  by  the  un- 
learned. But  learning  alone  is  not  enough — there 
must  be  genius  also ;  and  this  brings  us  to  our 
last  question,  Is  there  original  genius  enough 
in  the  world  to  lead  to  great  things  in  the 
Future  ?  We  cannot  deny,  that,  since  '  S.  Paul ' 
and  'Elijah'  saw  the  bight,  there  has  been  a 
manifest  tendency,  both  in  this  country,  and  in 
Germany,  to  follow  Mendelssohn's  lead  more 
closely  than  is  consistent  with  true  originality  of 
thought.  This  tendency  ought  to  be  corrected — 
and  must  be,  if  any  real  work  is  to  be  done.  It 
would  be  better  far  to  go  back  to  Bach,  at  once : 
for  it  was  upon  Bach's  principles  that  Mendels- 
sohn founded  his  practice,  as  we  have  already 
said,  though  he  never  adopted  Bach's  style.  It 
is  imitation  of  style  that  constitutes  plagiarism, 
not  acceptance  of  abstract  doctrines.  The  man 
who  can  condescend  to  imitate  a  style  is  in- 
capable of  producing  a  great  Oratorio,  and  had 
much  better  not  attempt  to  produce  one  at  all, 
for,  in  this,  the  highest  walk  of  Art,  mediocrity 
is  intolerable.  It  is  perhaps  fortunate  that  only 
few  Composers  ever  get  the  chance  of  hearing 
an  Oratorio,  even  after  they  have  composed  it. 
Let  it  not  be  for  a  moment  supposed  that  there 
is  any  cruelty  in  saying  so.  The  Oratorio  is  to 
the  Musician  the  exact  analogy  of  what  the 
Cathedral  is  to  the  Architect — the  highest  Art- 
form  to  the  construction  of  which  he  can  aspire. 
Very  few  Architects  get  the  chance  of  building 
a  Cathedral.  Certainly  such  a  work  is  never 
entrusted  to  any  one  who  has  not  already  given 
abundant  proof  of  his  talent  and  experience. 
Think  what  our  towns  would  be,  were  builders 
of  villas  permitted  to  set  up  a  Cathedral  at  the 
corner  of  every  street !  It  is  the  same  with  Ora- 
torios. We  do  not  want  many:  but  those  we 
have  must  be  of  no  doubtful  excellence.  We 
may  even  go  farther,  and  say,  that,  for  the 
present,  we  have  plenty  to  go  on  with.  But, 
should  a  Master  arise  capable  of  stepping  into 


360 


ORATORIO. 


that  highest  place  which  only  a  very  very  few 
have  occupied  before  him,  we  may  be  sure  that 
he,  at  least,  will  find  no  difficulty  in  bringing 
his  work  to  the  light.  It  is  impossible  that 
works  of  the  highest  class  should  remain  hidden 
from  want  of  opportunity  to  bring  them  forward; 
and,  so  far  as  the  Oratorio  is  concerned,  it  is  for 
works  of  the  highest  class  only  that  the  field 
remains  open.  [W.  S.  R.] 

ORAZZI  E  CURIAZI.  Opera  in  3  acts ; 
libretto  by  Sografi,  music  by  Cimarosa.  Produced 
at  Venice,  1 794,  and  at  the  Theatre  Odebn,  Paris, 
June  16,  18 1 3.  [G.] 

'ORCHESOGRAPHIE1,  et  traicte"  en  forme 
de  dialogue,  par  lequel  toutes  personnes  peuvent 
facilement  apprendre  et  pratiquer  l'honneste  exer- 
cice  des  dances,'2  is  the  title  of  a  rare  4to  volume 
of  104  pages,  published  by  Jehan  des  Preys  at 
Langres  in  1589.  In  the  Privilegium  of  another 
edition  is  the  date  Nov.  22,  1588,  and  the  work 
was  reprinted  at  Langres  in  1596  with  a  some- 
what different  title.  The  author,  who  writes  under 
the  anagram  of  Thoinot  Arbeau,  was  one  Jehan 
Tabourot,  a  canon  of  Langres,  of  whom  nothing 
is  known  except  that  he  was  the  uncle  of  the 
poet  Etienne  Tabourot  (1 549-1 590),  Seigneur  des 
Accords  (sometimes  called  'the  Burgundian  Rabe- 
lais'),  that  he  was  the  author  of  the  'Orche"so- 
graphie,'  and  of  an  equally  rare  Shepherd's  Calen- 
dar in  dialogue,  and  that  he  died  in  1 595,  aged  76.s 
The  'Orche"sographie'  is  a  particularly  valuable 
work,  as  it  is  the  earliest  treatise  on  dancing  ex- 
tant, which  contains  the  notation  of  the  different 
dance-tunes.  Quaintly  written  in  the  form  of  a 
dialogue  between  Thoinot  Arbeau  and  Capriol  (a 
lawyer  who  finds  that  the  art  of  dancing  is  a 
necessary  accomplishment  in  his  profession),  the 
work  contains  a  review  of  dancing  as  practised 
by  the  ancients,  directions  for  playing  drums, 
fifes,  oboes,  etc.,  as  well  as  minute  descriptions 
of  the  manner  of  dancing  Basse  Dances.  The  book 
is  illustrated  with  curious  woodcuts,  representing 
the  different  steps  to  be  executed  in  the  dances, 
and  contains  music  for  fifes  and  drums,  as  well  as 
for  the  following  dances,  several  of  which  may 
be  found  in  the  present  work.  See  Bbanle, 
Mattachins,  Morris  Dance,  Pa  van,  Toubdion, 
Trihoris,  Volt. 

Pavanes. 

Tourdions. 

Gaillardes— '  La  traditore  my  fa  morire';  *  Antoi- 
nette'; 'Baisons  nous  belle';  'Si  j'ayme  ou  non';  'La 
fatigue ' ;  '  La  Milannoise ' ;  '  J'aymerois  mieulx  dormir 
seulette';  '  L'ennuy  qui  me  tourmente.' 

La  Volte. 

La  Courante. 

L'Allemande. 

1 '  Description  of  dancing,'  from  opx'jo'is,  dancing  j  and  ypd<f>eiv, 
to  write. 

2  'Orchesography,  and  treatise  in  dialogue  form,  by  means  of 
which  all  may  easily  learn  and  practise  the  goodly  exercise  of  dances.' 

3  The  information  given  above  is  taken  from  the  Abb6  Papillon's 
"Bibliotheque  des  Auteurs  de  Bourgogne.'  CzerwinskiCGeschichte 
der  Tanzkunst '),  without  naming  his  authorities,  gives  the  following 
additional  particulars.  He  says  that  Jehan  Tabourot  was  the  son 
of  Etienne  Tabourot,  a  lawyer  of  Dijon,  and  from  his  childhood 
showed  a  great  inclination  for  dancing,  which  he  had  learned  at 
Poitiers.  It  was  originally  intended  that  he  should  follow  his  father's 
profession,  but  being  attacked  by  a  severe  illness,  his  mother  vowed 
that  if  he  recovered  he  should  become  a  priest.  He  was  accordingly 
ordained  in  1530,  and  was  made  canon  of  Langres  in  1571. 


ORCHESTRA. 

Branles — Double,  Simple,  Gay,  de  Bourgogne,  du 
Hault  Barrois. 

Branles  couppes — 'Cassandre';  'Pinagay';  'Charlotte'; 
de  la  Guerre ;  '  Aridan.' 

Branles  de  Poictou ;  d'Escosse ;  de  Bretagne  (Triory) ; 
de  Malte ;  des  Lavandieres ;  des  Pois ;  des  Hermites ;  du 
Chandelier ;  de  la  Torche ;  des  Sabots ;  des  Chevaulx ;  do 
la  Montarde ;  de  la  Haye ;  de  l'Official. 

Gavotte. 

Morisque. 

Canaries. 

Pavane  d'Egpagne. 

Boufibns,  or  Mattachins. 

a.  A  work  entitled '  Orchesography,  or  the  Art 
of  Dancing  by  characters  and  demonstrations,' 
etc.,  was  published  in  1 706  by  J.  Walsh.  It  is 
a  translation  by  J.  Weaver  of  R.  A.  Feuillet's 
'  Chore"graphie,  ou  l'Art  de  Decrire  La  Danse,  par 
caracteres,  figures  et  signes  demonstratifs,'  etc., 
which  was  published  in  1699,  and  is  founded  on 
a  system  invented  by  the  famous  dancing-master 
Charles  Louis  Beauchamps  (1636-1705).  The 
book  is  curious  as  showing  the  degree  of  elabora- 
tion to  which  the  old  French  dances  were  brought 
at  the  Court  of  Louis  XIV,  but  it  is  now  almost 
useless,  owing  to  the  extreme  intricacy  of  the 
diagrams.  Feuillet's  work  was  followed  by  a 
supplement,  containing  an  interesting  collection 
of  old  dance-tunes.  [ W .  B .  S .] 

ORCHESTRA  (Gr.  ipxvffrpa,  i.e.  a  dancing 
place;  Ital.  Orchestra;  Germ.  Orchester;  Fr. 
Orchestre). 

I.  That  portion  of  a  Theatre,  or  Concert-room, 
which  is  set  apart  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
Instrumental  Band — in  the  latter  case,  of  the 
Chorus  also. 

The  word  is  of  Greek  origin,  and  in  classical 
times  denoted  an  open  space,  in  which  Dances 
were  performed,  to  the  sound  of  various  Instru- 
ments. This  space  was  situated  between  the 
seats  for  the  audience,  and  the  koiXov  (from 
koiXos,  concave),  another  curvilinear  space  en- 
closed for  the  use  of  the  Chorus,  immediately  in 
front  of  the  Proscenium  (wpoff/rtjvjov).  In  Ro- 
man theatres  the  Orchestra  was  diverted  from 
its  original  purpose,  and  filled  with  seats  for  the 
Senators;  for  which  reason  it  was  placed  at  a 
lower  level  than  its  Greek  prototype,  though  it 
occupied  exactly  the  same  situation  on  the 
groimdplan  of  the  building. 

In  modern  theatres  the  normal  position  of 
the  Orchestra  is  in  front  of  the  Stage,  but,  on  a 
level  with  the  floor  of  the  Stalls  and  Pit — the 
parterre  of  the  French  Opera-houses.  The  ad- 
vantages of  this  arrangement  are  very  great.  It 
permits  the  sound  of  the  Instrumental  Band  to 
be  heard  in  every  part  of  the  house,  and  effec- 
tually prevents  it  from  overpowering  the  Singer, 
who  throws  his  Voice  over  it  from  the  higher 
level  of  the  Stage.  Yet  exception  has  been 
taken  to  it.  The  construction  of  the  new  theatre 
at  Bayreuth  for  the  performance  of  Wagner's 
'  Tetralogy,'  afforded  the  Composer  an  excellent 
opportunity  for  carrying  out,  to  its  fullest  extent, 
his  long-cherished  idea  of  keeping  the  Instru- 
mental Band  entirely  out  of  sight  of  the  audience ; 
accordingly,  the  Orchestra  was  so  enclosed  as 
to  render  it  absolutely  invisible  to  a  spectator 
seated  in  any  part  of  the  house,  while  its  tones 


ORCHESTRA. 

were  perfectly  audible,  and  its  performances  as 
completely  under  the  command  of  the  Conductor 
ax  they  would  have  been  in  an  ordinary  theatre. 
Not  the  least  of  the  difficulties  which  presented 
themselves,  during  the  time  that  this  bold  ex- 
periment was  in  progress,  was  that  of  so  regu- 
lating the  numerical  strength  of  the  Instru- 
mentalists as  to  neutralise  the  deadening  effect 
of  the  enclosure :  this  however  was  so  triumph- 
antly vanquished,  that,  so  far  as  the  audience 
were  concerned,  the  result  left  nothing  to  be  de- 
sired. The  performers  however  were  not  equally 
well  satisfied  with  the  arrangement:  and  there 
certainly  does  seem  room  for  fearing  that  their 
convenience  was — perhaps  unavoidably — made  a 
secondary  consideration.  So  great  was  the  dis- 
tress caused  by  the  heated  atmosphere  of  the 
house,  and  the  absence  of  proper  ventilation,  that 
many  of  them,  it  is  said,  announced  their  firm  de- 
termination never  again  to  submit  to  such  severe 
and  health-destroying  discomfort.  That  the  griev- 
ance was  a  real  one  is  admitted  on  all  hands ;  but 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  this  was  the  first  ex- 
periment of  the  kind  that  had  ever  been  tried  on 
an  extensive  scale ;  and  it  is  not  at  all  improbable 
that  an  efficient  remedy  for  the  evil  may  suggest 
itself  in  time  for  the  next  grand  Festival. 

In  concert-rooms,  the  Orchestra  is  usually 
placed  at  one  end  of  the  apartment,  at  such  a 
height  above  the  general  level  of  the  floor  that 
the  '  full  length  *  figure  of  a  Performer,  standing 
in  front,  may  be  visible  to  a  seated  audience.  In 
these  cases,  the  seats  in  the  Orchestra  are 
generally  placed  in  rows,  one  above  another,  in 
the  form  of  the  segment  of  an  amphitheatre; 
while  in  order  to  throw  the  sound  more  forcibly 
into  the  midst  of  the  Auditorium,  the  wall  behind 
is  frequently  moulded  into  a  quasi-hemispherical 
form.  The  arrangements  at  the  old  Hanover 
Square  Rooms  were  very  perfect  in  this  respect. 
Those  at '  Exeter  Hall.  S.  James's  Hall,  the  Albert 
Hall,  and  the  Crystal  Palace,  are  too  well  known 
to  need  description.  In  almost  every  newly-built 
concert-room,  some  new  experiment  is  tried  :  but, 
as  no  theory,  at  once  certain  and  practicable,  has 
as  yet  been  advanced  on  the  subject,  the  attempts 
to  introduce  improvements  are  almost  always 
empirical.  It  seems  strange,  that  in  these  days 
of  scientific  progress  no  infallible  model  can  be 
proposed ;  but  we  must  hope  that  reiterated  at- 
tempts will  eventually  lead  to  the  desired  result. 

II.  Both  in  England  and  on  the  Continent 
the  term  Orchestra  is  also  applied,  collectively, 
to  the  body  of  Instrumental  Performers  offici- 
ating at  a  Theatre,  in  a  Concert-room,  or  on  a 
Stage  or  raised  Platform  in  the  open  air.  It  is 
not,  however,  extended  to  a  company  of  Solo- 
players,  however  numerous,  on  the  ground  that, 
unless  the  stringed  parts,  or  at  least  some  of  the 
parts,  be  doubled,  the  performance  assimilates 
itself  to  one  of  Chamber-Music :  nor  is  it  applied 
either  to  the  Performers  attached  to  a  Regiment, 
or  to  a  company  of  Instrumentalists,  who,  playing 
in  the  open  air,  stand  upon  the  ground  instead 

t  This  Terr  day  (July  12,  1880)  doomed  u  a  concert-room,  after 
46  fears'  service. 

VOL.  II.    FT.  11. 


ORCHESTRA. 


661 


of  upon  a  raised  platform.  In  these  two  last 
cases,  the  word  substituted  for  it  is  Band.  [Sea 
vol.  i.  p.  134.] 

III.  In  a  third  sense,  the  term  is  applied,  not 
only  to  the  body  of  Performers,  but  to  the  Instru- 
ments upon  which  they  play — and  with  which 
they  are  of  course,  in  technical  language,  identi- 
fied. Thus  we  constantly  hear  of  'an  Orchestra 
consisting  of  thirty  Stringed  Instruments,  with  a 
full  complement  of  Wind.' 

Three  hundred  years  ago  the  number  of  Or- 
chestral Instruments  was  very  small,  and  so  unde- 
cided that  it  was  not  always  possible  to  say 
whether  a  certain  Instrument  was  orchestral  or 
not.  Lutes  and  Viols  of  all  kinds  were  indeed 
in  constant  use,  together  with  Flutes — in  the  form 
of  the  old  Flute  a  bee — Cornets,  Trumpets,  Drums, 
and  even  Saracenic  Instruments  dating  from  the 
time  of  the  Crusades ;  but  there  was  no  rule  as 
to  their  combination,  so  that  they  could  scarcely 
be  said  to  constitute  an  Orchestra  at  all.  For 
instance,  in  the  'Ballet  comique  de  la  Royne' 
performed  at  the  Chateau  de  Moutiers,  on  the 
occasion  of  the  marriage  of  Margaret  of  Lor- 
raine with  the  Due  de  Joyeuse  in  1581,  men- 
tion is  made  of  Hautboys,  Flutes,  Cornets, 
Trombones,  Viole  di  (Jamba,  Lutes,  Harps,  a 
Flageolet — played  by  Pan — and  ten  Violins, 
played  by  as  many  Ballet-dancers  in  full  dress.2 
Such  an  array  would,  at  first  sight,  lead  us  to 
expect  great  things,  did  we  not  find  that  the 
Performers  were  separated  into  ten  Bands  (dix 
concerts  de  musique)  ;  that  the  Violins  were  re- 
served for  one  particular  scene,  in  which  they 
played  alone,  five  on  each  side  ;  that  in  another 
Scene  Neptune  and  his  followers  were  armed 
with  '  lyres,  luths,  harpes,  flustes,  et  autres  in- 
struments'; and  that  in  another  Jupiter  de- 
scended from  a  golden  dome,  in  which  were 
placed  forty  Musicians,  '  avec  nouveaux  instru- 
ments, et  differents  de  precedens.'  This  alone 
will  be  sufficient  to  show  the  confused  state  of 
Instrumental  Music  in  the  16th  century ;  and 
when  we  add  that  the  manner  of  writing,  even 
for  a  Concert  of  Viols,  was  exactly  the  same  as 
that  used  for  unaccompanied  Voices — insomuch 
that  we  constantly  meet  with  compositions  '  apt 
for  Voyces  or  Viols ' — it  will  be  readily  under- 
stood that,  in  France  at  least,  the  Orchestra  was 
in  its  infancy.  Nevertheless,  this  is  really  the 
earliest  Instrumental  Band  used  in  connection 
with  a  dramatic  performance  of  which  we  have 
any  certain  record ;  we  must  therefore  accord  to 
France  the  honour  which  is  justly  her  due. 

In  Italy  the  Orchestra  developed  itself  from 
small  beginnings,  with  an  uninterrupted  regu- 
larity which  led  to  very  unexpected  results. 
The  earliest  dramatic  representation  in  which 
we  hear  of  the  employment  of  a  regular  staff  of 
Instrumental  Performers  is  the  Oratorio  called 
'  La  Rappresentazione  dell'  Anima  e  del  Corpo,* 
composed  by  Emilio  del  Cavaliere,  and  first  per- 
formed at  Rome,  in  the  Oratory  attached  to  the 
Church  of  S.  Maria  in  Vallicella,  in  the  month 

2  See  vol.  1.  p.  133  a.  For  an  example  of  the  music  of  this  curious 
ballet,  see  Obcbestratiok.  p.  Ktb. 

Oo 


562 


ORCHESTRA. 


of  February,  1600.  The  Orchestra  used  on  this 
occasion  consisted  of  a  Double  Lyre  (or  Viol  di 
Gamba),  a  Harpsichord,  a  Double  Guitar  (or 
Bass  Lute),  and  two  Flutes.  This  little  Band — 
modest  indeed  compared  with  that  used  at  the 
Chateau  de  Moutiers— was  kept  entirely  out  of 
sight,  like  the  Orchestra  at  Bayreuth ;  but  the 
Composer  recommended  that  the  various  Charac- 
ters employed  in  the  Drama  should  carry  Instru- 
ments in  their  hands,  and  at  least  play,  or 
pretend  to  play,  during  the  Symphonies,  and 
also  that  a  Violin  should  play  in  unison  with 
the  Soprano  Voice  throughout. 

Ten  months  after  the  production  of  this  prim- 
itive Oratorio,  that  is  to  say  in  December  1600, 
Peri  produced  at  Florence  the  first  Opera  Seria, 
'Euridice,'  which  was  accompanied  by  an  Or- 
chestra, consisting  of  a  Harpsichord,  a  Large 
Guitar,  a  Great  Lyre  (or  Viol  di  Gamba),  and  a 
Large  Lute  (or  Theorbo).  These  Instruments 
were  also  hidden  behind  the  Proscenium,  as  were, 
in  all  probability,  three  Flutes  used  in  a  certain 
Scene,  in  which  the  Shepherd,  Tirsi,  pretends  to 
play  upon  a  triple  pipe  (Triflauto),  which  he 
holds  in  his  hand. 

The  next  advance  was  made  by  Monteverde, 
who  used  for  the  accompaniment  of  his  '  Orfeo,' 
produced  at  Mantua  in  1608,  an  Orchestra  con- 
sisting of  two  Harpsichords,  two  Bass  Viols 
(Contrdbassi  di  Viola),  ten  Tenor  Viols  (Viole 
da  brazzo),  one  Double  Harp,  two  little  French 
Violins,  two  Large  Guitars,  two  Organs  of  wood, 
two  Viole  di  Gamba,  four  Trombones,  one  Regal, 
two  Cornets,  one  little  Octave  Flute  (Flautino 
alia  vigesima  secunda),  one  Clarion,  and  three 
Trumpets  with  Mutes  (1  Clarino,  e  3  Trombe 
sordine).  We  have  no  means  of  ascertaining 
whether  the  performers  upon  these  Instruments 
were  kept  out  of  sight  or  not,  though  it  seems 
scarcely  probable  that  Monteverde  would  have 
abandoned  a  plan  which  had  already  been  suc- 
cessfully adopted  both  by  Emilio  del  Cavaliere 
and  Peri.  The  one  thing  that  strikes  us  as 
peculiar  is,  that  the  Performers  should  have  been 
allowed  so  very  much  latitude  with  regard  to  the 
notes  they  were  to  play.  So  much  of  the  Opera 
is  accompanied  by  a  simple  Figured  Bass,  that 
unless  separate  parts  not  included  in  the  Score 
were  written  for  the  other  Instruments — which 
seems  very  unlikely  indeed — the  members  of  the 
Orchestra  must  have  been  allowed  to  play  pretty 
much  as  they  pleased. 

As  the  rapid  progress  of  Dramatic  Music 
rendered  the  exhibition  of  more  artistically- 
constructed  Accompaniments  an  absolute  neces- 
sity, this  heterogeneous  mixture  of  Instruments 
gradually  gave  place  to  a  more  orderly  arrange- 
ment, in  which  Viols  of  various  kinds  played  an 
important  part,  the  Thoroughbass  being  played 
by  the  Viol  di  Gamba  and  other  large  Stringed 
Instruments,  while  the  Harmony  was  sustained 
by  the  Harpsichord.  After  a  time  the  Violin 
began  to  assert  its  true  position  in  the  Score, 
and  when  this  great  step  was  gained  the  rest  was 
easy.  In  1549  Cavalli,  in  'II  Giasone,' accom- 
panied a  Song  with  two  Violins  and  a  Bass, 


ORCHESTRA. 

very  much  in  the  way  in  which  Handel  would 
have  used  the  same  Instruments  fifty  years 
later.1  Alessandio  Stradella,  in  his  Oratorio 
■  S.  Giovanni  Battista,'  composed  about  1676,  uses 
a  double  Orchestra,  consisting  of  two  solo  Vio- 
lins and  Violoncello,  del  concertino,  and  a  large 
body  of  ripieni  Violins,  Tenors,  and  Basses,  del 
concerto  grosso.  About  the  same  time  we  find 
Alessandio  Scarlatti  writing  for  two  Violins, 
Viola,  and  Bass,  and  using  them  exactly  as  they 
have  ever  since  been  used  by  Composers  of  every 
School  in  Europe  : 2  and  Burney  tells  us  that  he 
saw  in  Rome  a  Song  by  this  great  Master,  with 
Trumpet  obbligato,  written  in  a  style  which  proved 
him  to  have  studied  the  peculiarities  of  the  In- 
strument with  the  closest  possible  attention. 

Here  then,  before  the  close  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, we  find  the  elements  of  a  complete  and  well- 
ordered  Orchestra,  consisting  of  the  full  Stringed 
Band— sometimes  succinctly,  but  very  inexactly, 
called  the  '  Stringed  Quartet ' — with  the  addition 
of  Wind  Instruments,  available  either  for  pro- 
ducing variety  of  effect,  or  of  communicating 
that  special  colouring  upon  which,  in  Dramatic 
Music,  so  many  passages  depend,  not  only  for 
their  success  but  for  their  title  to  rank  as 
parts  of  a  logical  and  consistent  whole.  So  far 
as  general  principles  are  concerned  no  change 
has  taken  place  from  that  time  to  this.  Then, 
as  now,  the  Stringed  Band  formed  the  founda- 
tion of  all  things,  while  the  Wind  Instruments 
were  used  to  strengthen,  to  enlarge,  or  to 
beautify  the  structure  raised  by  its  efforts,  and 
supported  byits  firm  tone  and  massive  proportions. 
We  do  not  mean  to  say  that  no  improvements 
have  since  been  made,  that  no  mistakes  were 
committed  in  times  past,  or  that  the  Composers 
of  the  17th  century  understood  one  hundredth 
part  as  much  about  the  Orchestra  as  Handel,  or 
Mozart,  or  Beethoven,  or  could  produce  one 
thousandth  part  of  the  effect  with  it  that  they 
could ;  but  we  do  say  that  the  law  to  which  we 
have  called  attention  is  immutable,  and  that,  so 
long  as  it  is  recognised  in  theory  and  carried  out 
in  practice,  there  can  be  no  inherent  weakness 
in  the  constitution  of  the  Orchestra,  and  no  lack 
of  opportunities  for  the  display  of  varied  and 
original  Orchestration.  Scarlatti  evidently  took 
this  view  of  the  case ;  and  no  great  Composer 
of  later  date  has  ventured  to  dispute  it.  [See 
Orchestration.] 

Passing  from  Italy  to  Germany,  we  find  the 
Orchestra  arranged  upon  the  same  general  plan, 
though  with  important  modifications  of  detail. 
That  the  same  fundamental  principle  should  be 
accepted  in  both  countries  is  not  at  all  surprising, 
for  experience  has  long  since  proved  the  impossi- 
bility of  devising  a  better  one.  The  differences 
of  detail  are  the  necessary  consequence  of  dif- 
ferences alrea.ly  existing  between  the  styles  of 
composition  adopted  in  the  German  and  Italian 
Schools.  In  Germany,  the  Art  of  Counterpoint 
was  never  either  neglected  or  despised.  When 
strict  Counterpoint  save  place  to  the  system  of 
free  Part-writing  which  is  sometimes  erroneously 

»  See  example  p.  503.  J  See  example  p.  £05. 


ORCHESTRA. 

called  by  its  name,  the  true  Polyphony  of  the 
16th  century  was  also  replaced  by  that  Polyodic 
Style,  which,  no  less  ingenious  or  complicated 
than  the  older  method,  was  equally  antagon- 
istic to  the  Monodic  School  then  so  zealously 
defended  in  Italy.  This  new  German  School 
reached  its  highest  perfection  in  the  works  of 
Joh.  Seb.  Bach :  and  no  one  understood  better 
than  he  the  kind  of  Orchestra  needed  for  the 
support  of  its  vocal  harmonies.  Thoroughly  re- 
cognising the  necessity  for  using  the  Stringed 
Band  as  the  basis  of  the  whole,  he  preferred  to 
employ  Wind  Instruments  for  the  purpose  of 
enlarging  his  original  design,  rather  than  that  of 
strengthening  or  decorating  it.  When  he  added 
a  Flute  or  Oboe  or  Bassoon  to  his  Score,  he 
loved  not  only  to  make  it  obbligato,  but  to  write 
it  in  such  wise  that  it  should  form  a  new  real 
part.  Hence,  even  in  his  regularly-constructed 
Arias,  the  Voice  is  scarcely  so  much  accompanied 
by  the  various  Instruments  employed  as  made  to 
sing  in  concert  with  them,  the  Scores  containing 
as  many  real  parts  as  there  are  Solo  Voices  or 
Instruments  introduced  into  it.  This  plan  has 
not  been  extensively  adopted  in  later  times. 
Indeed,  it  could  only  succeed  in  the  hands  of  a 
Master  of  the  highest  rank ;  for  it  causes  a  strain 
upon  the  faculties  of  the  hearer,  which,  if  unre- 
lieved by  a  well-balanced  series  of  more  simple 
combinations,  would  become  intolerable.  Bach 
saw  this  need,  and  provided  for  it  very  carefully. 
His  power  of  self-abnegation  was  as  great  as  his 
power  of  production ;  and  he  used  it  with  equal 
effect.  Interspersed  among  his  passages  for  the 
full  Orchestra  we  find  a  multitude  of  others, 
written  very  thinly  indeed ;  sometimes  employing 
only  the  Bass,  and  a  single  Solo  Instrument,  for 
the  accompaniment  of  the  Voice ;  sometimes  using 
nothing  but  a  Thoroughbass,  with  Figures  indi- 
cating the  Chords  to  be  applied  upon  the  Organ 
or  Harpsichord.  These  are  the  half-tints  of  the 
picture,  introduced  with  magical  skill  in  the 
exact  places  were  relief  is  needed,  and  always 
so  arranged  as  either  to  afford  a  point  of  neces- 
sary repose,  after  an  exciting  passage,  or  a 
moment  of  calm  preparation  for  a  coming  effect. 
Bach's  constant  employment  of  this  artifice,  for 
the  purpose  of  throwing  in  his  lights  and  sha- 
dows, and  thereby  producing  some  of  his  finest 
effects,  is  very  remarkable:  but  it  has  been — 
and,  alas !  still  is — entirely  overlooked  by  some 
of  his  most  zealous  admirers.  It  is  supposed 
that  Bach  did  not  leave  these  '  bare  places ' 
intentionally — that  he  meant  them  to  be  'filled 
up.'  So  they  have  been  filled  up  already  in 
some  of  his  greatest  works,  and  are  to  be,  we  be- 
lieve, Btill  more  extensively  so  in  time  to  come  ; 
not  by  noisy  lovers  of  the  Bass  Drum  and  Ophi- 
cleide,  but  by  learned  Musicians,  incapable  of 
vulgarity  or  roughness  of  any  kind.  First 
among  these  is  Robert  Franz,  a  profound  Master 
of  the  Art  of  Part-writing,  who  has  studied  Bach 
so  deeply,  and  so  thoroughly  imbibed  his  style, 
that,  were  his  'Additional  Accompaniments' 
to  the  '  Matthaus  Passion,'  the  *  Magnificat,' 
and    the   '  Kirchen-cantaten,'   submitted    to    a 


ORCHESTRA. 


5G3 


competent  jury,  with  no  written  guide  to  dis- 
tinguish the  added  portions  from  the  original 
work,  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  one  might 
sometimes  be  mistaken  for  the  other.  It  would 
be  by  no  means  disgraceful  to  fancy  that  Bach 
had  written  some  of  Franz's  additions — only,  he 
did  not  write  them.  Why  not  ?  Because  he  did 
not  wish  to  impose,  either  upon  the  ear  or  the 
mind,  an  uninterrupted  strain  which  he  knew 
could  be  borne  by  neither.  Because  he  did  not 
stoop  to  court  popularity  by  introducing  a  grand 
effect  into  every  bar,  after  the  manner  of  some 
later  writers,  well  knowing  that  every  such 
forced  effort  becomes  an  anticlimax,  alike  de- 
structive to  the  symmetry  and  the  consistency  of 
the  general  design.  It  is  said  that  our  Orchestras 
differ  so  much  from  those  used  by  Bach  that  his 
Music  produces  no  effect  when  played  without 
these  unhappy  additions.  Our  Orchestras  do 
really  differ  from  the  older  German  ones,  in  three 
particulars  :  in  the  number  of  Instruments  em- 
ployed ;  in  the  proportion  observed  between  the 
Stringed  and  Wind  Instruments ;  and,  in  the 
absence  of  many  Instruments  used  by  Bach  and 
his  contemporaries,  which  are  now  quite  obsolete. 
Concerning  the  question  of  numerical  strength 
we  need  say  nothing ;  for  it  is  a  matter  of  no 
consequence  whatever,  provided  the  proper  pro- 
portion be  maintained  :  but,  this  proportion  is  a 
matter  of  vital  importance.  Knowing,  as  we  do, 
that  Bach's  Stringed  Band  rarely  numbered 
more  than  twelve  or  fourteen  Instruments,  does 
it  not  follow  that,  if  we  increase  that  number, 
we  must  proportionately  increase  the  number  of 
the  Wind  Instruments  also  1  If  Bach  considered 
fourteen  Stringed  Instruments  a  fair  balance  for 
two  Hautboys  and  two  Bassoons,  common  sense 
should  tell  us  that  to  balance  fifty-six  Stringed 
Instruments  we  shall  need  eight  Hautboys  and 
eight  Bassoons.  Yet,  in  practice,  though  our 
stringed  power  is  continually  on  the  increase,  our 
Wind  Instruments — except  at  great  Festivals — 
are  scarcely  ever  even  doubled.  The  treatment 
of  the  parts  written  for  Instruments  now  obsolete 
is  undoubtedly  surrounded  with  greater  diffi- 
culties. Bach  constantly  wrote  for  the  Oboe 
d'amore,  the  Oboe  di  caccia  (or  Taille  de  Basson), 
the  Viol  d'amore,  the  Viol  di  gamba,  and  other 
Stringed  and  Wind  Instruments  now  regarded 
only  as  antique  curiosities.  Moreover,  his 
Trumpet  parts  could  not  possibly  be  played  with 
the  mouthpieces  now  in  use,  even  supposing 
the  art  of  playing  on  the  old-fashioned  Trumpet 
to  be  not  utterly  lost.  In  cases  of  this  kind,  a 
certain  amount  of  compromise  is  of  course  un- 
avoidable ;  but  surely  it  would  be  better  to  play 
a  Trumpet-part  on  the  Cornet,  than  to  change 
the  disposition  of  the  Score. 

Handel  used  a  larger  Orchestra,  and  treated 
it  very  differently.  It  is  true  that  he  frequently 
produced  delightful  effects  by  writing  in  real 
parts,  but  as  a  general  rule  he  preferred  treating 
the  Acompaniment  as  a  background  to  his  pic- 
ture, only  elevating  it  to  the  rank  of  an  essential 
element  in  the  design  where  he  desired  to  invest 
it  wi'.h  more  than  ordinary  interest.  A  large 
Oo2 


564 


ORCHESTRA. 


proportion  of  his  Songs  are  accompanied  only  by 
a  Thoroughbass,  the  Chords  to  which  were  sup- 
plied in  Church  on  the  Organ,  and  in  Chamber 
Music  on  the  Harpsichord,  at  which  Instrument 
the  Conductor  was  accustomed  to  preside  until  the 
practice  of  beating  time  with  a  Baton  became 
general.1  In  many  cases  this  simple  Thorough- 
bass, with  its  quiet  Chords,  was  contrasted  in  the 
same  Song  with  a  Violin  part,  or  with  the  full 
Stringed  Band,  or  even  with  Stringed  and  Wind 
Instruments  combined.  In  his  Overtures,  and  the 
Accompaniments  to  his  Choruses,  Handel  gener- 
ally strengthened  the  Violin  parts  with  Hautboys 
in  unison,  and  the  Basses  with  Bassoons  and 
even  Double  Bassoons,  as  in  'L' Allegro';  but 
he  also  constantly  occupied  the  Wind  Instru- 
ments with  independent  parts,  forming  a  sort  of 
ornamentation  upon  the  simple  structure  provided 
by  the  Stringed  Band.  Again,  he  constantly 
used  the  Stringed  and  Wind  Band  in  separate 
bodies,  each  complete  in  itself,  and  each  con- 
trasted with  and  employed  in  constant  response 
to  the  other,  with  the  happiest  possible  effect, 
and  a  very  close  approach  to  the  praxis  of  the 
19th  century.  He  rarely  used  obsolete  Instru- 
ments, except  in  his  earlier  works ;  but  we  do 
occasionally  find  important  parts  written  for  the 
Viola  da  Gamba,  or  the  Violetta  marina.  In  his 
grander  pieces  he  delighted  in  the  use  of  three 
Trumpets — the  third  being  called  '  Principale ' ; 
and  in  '  Rinaldo'  he  uses  four,  with  the  Drums 
for  their  characteristic  Bass.  In  many  of  his 
Oratorios  and  Operas  he  strengthens  the  Brass 
Band  with  two  Horns,  and  in  'Saul*  he  adds 
three  Trombones.  Flutes  he  rarely  used,  except 
as  Solo  Instruments,  in  which  form  he  some- 
times produced  great  effects  with  them,  especially 
in  '  Rinaldo,'  one  of  the  Songs  in  which  is  ac- 
companied by  two  Flutes  and  an  Ottavino. 
With  the  use  of  the  Organ,  or  at  least  the  Harp- 
sichord, he  never  dispensed  ;  but  he  very  seldom 
wrote  a  separate  part  for  it,  leaving  the  Per- 
former to  fill  in  the  Chords  a3  he  pleased,  from 
the  Figures  written  under  the  Thoroughbass. 
We  see  therefore  that,  with  the  sole  exception  of 

1  It  Is  not  possible  to  fix  the  date  at  which  the  practice  of  con- 
ducting from  the  Harpsichord  was  superseded  by  the  use  of  the 
Baton :  Indeed,  the  change  took  place  so  gradually  that  it  Is  probable 
the  two  systems  were  long  used  simultaneously.  The  general 
opinion  Is,  that  the  custom  of  beating  time  was  first  adopted  about 
the  close  of  the  18th  century ;  and.  In  support  of  this,  It  Is  said  that 
the  celebrated  leader.  William  Cramer— the  father  of  the  great 
Pianist— indignantly  refused  obedience  to  the  Baton  of  Dr.  Philip 
Hayes,  who  died  in  1797.  The  story  Is  told  so  circumstantially  that 
we  cannot  doubt  its  truth ;  but  its  value  as  a  piece  of  historical 
evidence  Is  contradicted  by  two  curious  facts,  which  point  In  exactly 
opposite  directions.  On  May  25,  1829,  Mendelssohn  conducted  his 
Symphony  In  0  minor  at  the  Philharmonic  Concert— then  held  at 
the  Argyll  Kooms— from  the  Pianoforte,  to  which  he  was  led  by  John 
Cramer:  the  practice  of  conducting  from  the  Piano,  therefore,  long 
outlived  the  18th  century.  But  that  the  practice  of  beating  time 
with  the  Baton  must  be  at  least  as  old  as  the  middle  of  the  17th  is 
proved  by  evidence  which  admits  of  no  contradiction.  On  the  Sound- 
board of  a  beautiful  Harpsichord,  dated  'Andreas  Ruckers  me  fecit 
Antwerptse.  1651,"  is  painted  a  Concert  of  Monkeys,  one  of  whom, 
standing  in  the  midst  of  his  anthropoid  brethren,  Is  deliberately  beat- 
ing time  with  a  regular  Baton.  This  valuable  instrument,  believed 
on  strong  evidence  to  have  belonged  to  Handel,  was  formerly  to  be 
seen  at  the  show-rooms  of  Messrs.  Broadwood  4  Co.,  by  whose  kindness 
It  Is  now  exhibited  at  the  Kensington  Museum.  Schoelcher  mentions 
It,  and  describes  the  picture,  but  does  not  notice  the  fact  that  the 
monkey  is  beating  time— a  circumstance  first  pointed  out  to  the 
writer  by  the  late  Mr.  Black.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  picture 
may  be  a  later  addition  j  but  this  Is  Impossible.  It  must  have  been 
painted  before  the  Instrument  was  strung. 


ORCHESTRA. 

the  Clarinet,  he  was  acquainted  with,  and  used, 
every  Instrument  now  found  in  an  ordinary  clas- 
sical Orchestra.  But  he  very  rarely  used  them 
all  together,  and  took  especial  care  not  to  let  them 
pall  upon  the  ear  by  introducing  them  into  too 
many  pieces  in  succession — circumstances  which 
have  given  grievous  offence  to  more  than  one 
modern  chef  cTorchestre.  If  Bach's  works  are 
treated  tenderly  in  the  matter  of  *  Additional 
Accompaniments,'  no  such  reserve  is  practised 
with  regard  to  those  of  Handel.  All  that  seems 
necessary,  in  the  present  state  of  public  opinion, 
is  to  supplement  his  Instrumentation  with  the 
largest  Brass  Band  that  can  possibly  be  brought 
together — a  proceeding  which  entirely  destroys 
the  individuality  and  obscures  the  dignity  of 
every  work  subjected  to  its  baleful  influence. 
The  practice  is  defended,  on  the  ground  that 
our  Orchestras  do  not  fairly  express  Handel's 
meaning.  Then  let  us  make  them  do  so,  by  re- 
storing them  to  their  old  proportions,  as  we  have 
already  proposed  to  do  with  the  Orchestras  used 
by  Bach.  Let  us  strengthen  the  Violin  parts 
by  making  a  powerful  body  of  Hautboys  play  in 
unison  with  them,  and  reinforce  the  Bass  with 
an  equally  sonorous  army  of  Bassoons,  and  as 
many  ContraFagotti  as  can  be  brought  together  ; 
and  above  all,  let  us  fill  in  the  Chords  on  the 
Organ,  whenever  we  are  directed  to  do  so  by 
the  Figures  placed  under  the  Bass.  It  will  be 
time  enough  to  talk  of  additions  to  the  Score 
when  these  expedients  have  been  tried  on  a 
grand  scale,  and  in  an  earnest  spirit  — not  in  the 
hope  that  they  may  fail.  Meanwhile,  cannot 
something  be  done  in  the  way  of  a  beginning  ? 
Are  we  nevermore  to  hear  the  '  Occasional  Over- 
ture' except  in  a  disguise  worthy  of  that  to 
'  Tannhauser,'  or  the  March  at  the  end  of  it 
played  by  other  Instruments  than  those  used  for 
the  March  in  the  'Prophete'?  In  no  Art  save 
that  of  Music  would  abuses  such  as  those  of 
which  we  complain  be  permitted.  Were  a 
highly-educated  member  of  the  once  famous 
'  Pre-Raphaelite  Brotherhood '  to  spend  the  best 
years  of  his  life  in  covering  the  dark  back- 
ground of  one  of  Titian's  magnificent  portraits 
with  an  elaborately-finished  landscape,  we  might 
wonder  at  his  cleverness,  but  we  should  scarcely 
feel  very  grateful  to  him  for  his  contribution  to 
the  treasury  of  Art — yet  we  are  expected  to  be 
very  grateful  indeed  for  the  elaborated  editions 
of  Bach's  works  with  which  we  are  from  time  to 
time  presented.  Were  an  inferior  painter  to 
cover  a  similar  background  with  red  or  yellow 
drapery,  we  should  greet  him  with  a  howl  of 
execration — yet  the  red  and  yellow  drapery 
would  not  be  more  vulgar  than  the  sound  of  an 
Ophicleide  in  the '  Messiah.'  Our  fathers  under- 
stood these  matters  better  than  we  do.  They 
strengthened  the  Orchestra  on  the  exact  plan 
we  have  proposed.  At  the  '  Handel  Commemo- 
ration,' held  in  Westminster  Abbey  in  1 784,  the 
Orchestra  contained  48  First  and  47  Second 
Violins,  26  Violas,  21  Violoncellos,  15  Double 
Basses,  6  flutes,  26  Hautboys,  26  Bassoons, 
I  Double  Bassoon,  12  Trumpets,  12  Horns,  6 


ORCHESTRA. 

Trombones  (which  were  needed  for  the  selections 
from '  Saul '),  4  Drums,  and  2  Organs.  Here  the 
proportion  of  Hautboys  and  Violins  was  consider- 
ably more  than  one  to  four ;  while  the  Bassoons 
actually  outnumbered  the  Violoncellos,  and  the 
Trumpet  and  Horn  parts  were  doubled  over 
and  over  again.  We  can  quite  understand  the 
feeling  which  led  Burney  to  say  that  the  effect 
of  this  grand  array  of  Drums  and  Trumpets  in 
the  opening  of  the  Dettingen  '  Te  Deum '  was 
4  indescribable.' 

It  is  time  that  we  should  now  proceed  to 
classify  the  various  aspects  under  which  we 
have  met  with  the  Orchestra,  in  order  that  we 
may  the  better  understand  its  later  modifica- 
tions. Up  to  this  time  it  has  presented  itself  to 
us  in  five  different  forms,  which  we  shall  enu- 
merate in  the  order  of  their  relative  importance. 

1.  A   complete     Stringed    Band,    consisting 

of  two  Violins,  Viola,  Violoncello,  and 
Contra  Basso,  the  parts  being  doubled 
ad  libitum. 

2.  A    complete    Stringed   Band,    as    above, 

strengthened,  by  means  of  Wind  Instru- 
ments playing  in  unison  with  the  Violins, 
Viole,  or  Basses. 

3.  A  complete   Stringed   Band,  enlarged  by 

Wind  Instruments  playing  in  real  parts. 

4.  A   complete  Stringed    Band,   assisted  by 

Wind  Instruments  playing  independent 
passages. 

5.  A  complete  Stringed  Band,  contrasted  with, 

and  supported  by,  a  complete  Wind 
Band. 
All  these  forms  are  used  by  modern  writers  ; 
and,  by  their  artistic  combination,  the  best  of 
our  orchestral  effects  are  produced.  It  is  need- 
less to  say  that  the  effects  of  to-day  are  very  dif- 
ferent from  those  produced  a  hundred  and  fifty, 
or  even  a  hundred  years  ago.  The  materials 
employed  were  very  nearly  the  same,  but  the 
grouping  is  different.  This  will  be  very  clearly 
seen,  if  we  compare  the  Orchestra  used  at  the 
'  Handel  Commemoration'  with  an  ordinary  Clas- 
sical Orchestra  of  the  present  day.  The  consti- 
tution of  the  former  has  already  been  described ; 
that  of  the  latter  is  shown  in  the  following  table, 
which  gives  the  average  numerical  strength  of 
a  Band,  of  fair  proportions,  such  as  would  be 
needed  for  the  effective  performance  of  the  later 
works  of  Haydn,  or  all  those  of  Mozart,  Beetho- 
ven, Weber,  Cherubini,  Spohr,  and  Mendelssohn. 
Stringed  Band. 

First  Violins  (from  6  to  12). 

Second  Violins  (from  6  to  12). 

Viole  (from  4  to  8). 

Violoncelli  (from  4  to  8). 

Contra- Bassi  (from  4  to  8). 


ORCHESTRA. 


565 


Wood  Wind. 
2  Flutes. 
2  Oboes. 
2  Clarinets. 
2  Bassoons. 


Brass  Instrument), 
2  Trumpets. 

2  or  4  Horns. 

3  Trombones. 
2  Drums.1 


1  For  the  Compass,  quality  of  Tone,  and  other  peculiarities  of  theM 
Instruments,  see  each  described  under  its  own  proper  name. 


An  Orchestra  consisting  of  these  component 
parts  is  generally  looked  upon  as  sufficiently 
complete  for  all  practical  purposes,  including  the 
performance  of  the  Oratorio,  the  Opera,  or  the 
Symphony.  It  may  however  be  necessary,  on 
special  occasions,  to  make  additions  to  it.  Thus, 
for  Beethoven's  Overture  to  'Egmont'  a 
Flauto  Piccolo  is  needed;  for  Haydn's  'Crea- 
tion,'a  Double  Bassoon ;  for  Mozart's  'Requiem,' 
2  Corni  di  Bassetto ;  for  Mendelssohn's  Over- 
ture to  'A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,'  an 
Ophicleide  (used  for  the  purpose  of  imitating 
the  Voice  of  the  spell-bound  Bottom).  These 
however  are  exceptional  cases.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  scheme  we  have  laid  down  will  be 
found  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  all  ordinary 
Classical  Music  ;  and  the  best  proof  of  its  excel- 
lence is,  that  all  the  great  classical  writers  of  the 
present  century  have  unhesitatingly  adopted  it. 

Now,  one  of  the  most  obvious  peculiarities  of 
an  Orchestra  thus  constituted  is,  that  it  naturally 
divides  itself  into  at  least  three  distinct  groups, 
and  may,  by  a  little  consideration,  be  easily  sub- 
divided into  as  many  more.  The  first  group  is 
formed  by  the  full  Stringed  Band,  of  which  we 
have  already  spoken  as  the  foundation  of  the 
whole.  The  second  comprises  the  Instruments 
popularly  called  the  '  Wood  Wind ' — that  is  to 
say,  the  Flutes,  Oboes,  Clarinets,  and  Bassoons. 
The  third  includes  all  the  Brass  Instruments, 
whether  Trumpets,  Horns,  or  Trombones ;  and, 
as  the  Drums  form  the  natural  Bass  to  the 
Trumpets,  it  may  without  inconsistency  be  made 
to  include  them  also.  The  Stringed  Band  is  less 
frequently  subdivided  than  the  Wind :  some- 
times, however,  we  meet  with  a  sub-group,  con- 
sisting of  four  Violin  parts,  as  in  Weber's  Over- 
ture to  '  Euryanthe '  and  Wagner's  Introduction 
to  'Lohengrin';  and,  sometimes,  as  in  Beetho- 
ven's Seventh  Symphony,  the  Violoncellos  and 
Double  Basses  are  formed  into  a  sub-group, 
either  with  or  without  the  Violas.  The  '  Wood 
Wind'  easily  divides  itself  into  Flutes  and  Oboes, 
and  Clarinets  and  Bassoons ;  or  into  Flutes  and 
Clarinets,  and  Oboes  and  Bassoons.  The  Brass 
Band  also  very  naturally  subdivides  itself  into  two 
sub-groups;  the  Trumpets,  Horns,  and  Drums; 
and  the  three  Trombones.  Each  of  these  groups 
and  sub-groups  serves  its  own  great  purpose  in 
the  ceconomy  of  modern  Instrumentation.  Each 
is  complete  in  itself,  and  capable  of  expressing  a 
perfect  and  independent  haimony.  Each  there- 
fore may  claim  to  be  regarded  as  a  diminutive 
Orchestra,  capable  either  of  separate  treatment, 
or  of  combination  with  its  fellow  sub-Orchestras, 
into  a  grand  and  well-contrasted  whole.  With 
such  a  comprehensive  engine  at  his  command,  it 
is  indeed  strange  if  the  Composer  cannot  strike 
out  effects,  not  only  telling,  but  original ;  not 
only  new,  but  characteristic.  It  must  not  how- 
ever be  supposed  that  we  are  permitted  at  the 
present  day  to  enjoy  the  privilege  of  hearing  the 
effects  imagined  by  the  Composers  of  fifty  years 
ago  in  the  form  in  which  they  were  originally 
written.  Mozart  used  three  Trombones  in  'II 
Don  Giovanni';  but  modern  taste  decrees  that  he 


566 


ORCHESTRA. 


did  not  use  them  enough,  and  therefore  Introduces 
them  into  an  infinity  of  passages  in  which  he  did 
not  permit  them  to  be  heard.  In  '  Le  Nozze  di 
Figaro '  he  did  not  use  them  at  all ;  yet  they  are 
played  in  all  the  loud  passages  in  the  Opera,  just 
as  in '  Israel  in  ^Egypt '  they  are  played  in  nearly  all 
the  Choruses.  The  weakness  of  the  pioneers  of  Art 
was  manifested  in  cautious  attempts  at  effects  as 
yet  untried  :  that  of  the  present  age  betrays  itself 
in  a  restless  impatience  of  repose ;  a  morbid  desire 
to  achieve  some  new  and  striking  success  at  every 
turn ;  an  utter  absence  of  that  sublime  self-control 
which  enables  the  great  Poet,  the  great  Orator, 
the  great  Painter,  or  the  great  Composer,  pur- 
posely to  tone  down  a  large  proportion  of  his 
work,  in  order  that  it  may  not  diminish  the 
effect  of  certain  passages  to  which  he  desires  to 
attract  attention  as  the  crowning  points  of  the 
whole.  If  there  is  to  be  a  crowning  point,  all 
lesser  details  must  be  kept  in  subjection  to  it. 
The  last  three  centuries  have  not  produced  ten 
Musicians  capable  of  managing  an  anticlimax. 
Those  who  tamper  with  the  Scores  of  the  Great 
Masters  think  nothing  of  all  this.  It  is  to  their 
forgetfulness  of  it  that  we  owe  nine-tenths  of 
the  spurious  Instrumentation  that  is  daily  foisted 
upon  us  in  the  name  of  Handel,  or  Bach,  or 
Mozart ;  and  it  is  to  this  also  that  we  are  in  a 
great  measure  indebted  for  the  pernicious  system, 
now  so  prevalent,  of  enlarging  our  Orchestras 
at  the  wrong  end — of  filling  them  with  noisy 
Brass  Instruments,  originally  intended  for,  and 
only  endurable  in,  a  Military  Band  played  in  the 
open  air,  instead  of  increasing  the  fulness  of  their 
tone  by  augmenting  the  strength  of  the  Strings, 
and  doubling,  or,  if  necessary,  even  quadrupling 
that  of  the  Wood  Wind.  The  number  of  large 
Orchestras  free  from  this  defect  is  exceedingly 


ORCHESTRA. 

small,  in  England,  as  well  as  on  the  Continent ; 
but  an  exception  must  be  made  in  favour  of 
Orchestras  enlarged  for  a  special  purpose.  Some 
years  ago,  Berlioz  produced  some  gorgeous 
orchestral  effects  by  means  of  combinations  which 
rendered  a  disturbance  of  the  normal  balance  abso- 
lutely necessary.  Wagner  constantly  does  the 
same.  In  '  Lohengrin '  he  uses,  in  addition  to 
the  usual  stringed  Band,  3  Flutes,  I  Piccolo,  3 
Oboes,  1  Corno  Inglese,  3  Clarinets,  I  Bass 
Clarinet,  3  Bassoons,  3  Trumpets,  4  Horns,  3 
Trombones,  1  Bass  Tuba,  3  Kettle  Drums,  Side 
Drum,  Cymbals,  Triangle,  Tambourine,  and 
Harp  ;  and,  on  the  Stage,  or  behind  the  Scenes, 
2  Flutes,  1  Piccolo,  3  Oboes,  3  Clarinets,  2 
Bassoons,  4  Trumpets,  3  Horns,  3  Trombones, 
Kettle 'Drum,  and  Cymbals.  In  'Tannhauser* 
the  Wind  Instruments  employed  are,  3  Flutes,  1 
Piccolo,  2  Oboes,  2  Clarinets,  1  Bass  Clarinet, 
2  Bassoons,  2  Horns,  2  Valve  Horns,  3  Tram- 
pets,  3  Trombones,  and  1  Bass  Tuba,  with  1 
Pair  of  Kettle  Drums,  Bass  Drum,  Cymbals, 
Triangle,  Tambourine,  and  Harp ;  and,  on  the 
Stage,  4  Flutes,  2  Piccolos,  4  Oboes,  6  Coini 
Inglesi,  6  Clarinets,  6  Bassoons,  12  Trumpets. 
1 2  Horns,  4  Trombones,  Cymbals,  Triangle,  and 
Tambourine.  These,  howTever,  are  exceptional 
cases,  and,  as  such,  must  be  taken  for  what  they 
are  worth.  Since  the  death  of  Mozart,  tlie 
normal  form  of  the  Orchestra  has  undergone 
no  important  change  whatever,  apart  from  the 
abuses  we  have  condemned,  save  in  its  numerical 
proportions ;  and  in  order  to  give  the  reader  a 
fair  idea  of  these,  we  shall  conclude  our  article 
with  a  list  of  the  Instruments  contained  in  some 
of  the  most  celebrated  Orchestras  of  the  present 
day,  beginning  with  that  of  the  Philharmonic 
Society. 


Inttrvmentt. 

4 

U 

13 

Sis 

1. 

11 

I* 

3*  . 

ii 
If 

s 

s  s 
11 

•s" 

I! 

0"  . 
11 

ll 

«  fc  S 

Vi 

i 

C  So 

■S  i-i 

•5*0 
!l 

Si? 

•H  06 

§~- 

k   (S 

1] 

!  1 

1*1 

hi 
111 

1  Eg 

it 

■ZJS 

11 

c 

14 

<3 

<S 

0 

CQ 

a. 

c>" 

i 

m£ 

4 

tq 

a;* 

1st  Violins    .      .       .       . 

14 

15 

14 

12 

20 

8 

23 

16 

28 

22 

IS 

48 

92 

2nd  do. .       .       .      .      . 

12 

14 

14 

14 

10 

20 

7 

20 

16 

26 

22 

10 

47 

85 

10 

10 

10 

» 

8 

e 

4 

16 

12 

20 

20 

8 

26 

57 

Violoncellos        .       •      • 

10 

10 

12 

9 

9 

12 

3 

14 

12 

17 

19 

8 

21 

58 

Double  Basses     .      •      • 

8 

10 

• 

6 

6 

10 

3 

15 

8 

17 

14 

8 

15 

48 

2 

2 

4 

2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

3 

4 

4 

2 

6 

8 

to 

1* 

la 

1 

to 

.. 

1 

1 

6 

Cor  Anglais.      .      .      . 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

5 

3 

3 

4 

4 

3 

26 

8 

1* 

to 

.. 

1 

to 

1 

1 

1 

Clarinet        .... 

2 

2 

2* 

2 

2 

a 

4 

8 

4 

4 

2 

8 

Corno  di  Bassetto      .      . 

1* 

1* 

.  . 

1 

to 

1 

1 

Bassoon       .      •      .      . 

2 

2 

4 

2 

S 

2 

S 

3 

8 

4 

4 

4 

26 

8 

Double  bassoon .      •      • 

to 

to 

.. 

.  . 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

Trumpets     .       .      •      • 

4 

2 

2 

2 

4 

4 

3 

3 

3 

2 

4 

4 

12 

6 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

2 

8 

8 

4 

6 

4 

12 

12 

Trombones  .... 

3 

s 

3 

8 

S 

3 

4 

3 

3 

8 

3 

6 

9 

Timpani,  pairs    ... 

1 

1 

1 

.. 

1 

1 

3 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

4 

1 

2 

• 

1 

1 

2 

Ophicleide,  Bass  tuba,  etc. 

1» 

to 

1* 

.. 

1 

.. 

1 

2 

1 

1 

2 

.. 

1 

1 

Contrabass  trombone       . 

1 

to 

to 

to 

.. 

2 

2 

2 

6 

2 

.  . 

1 

,. 

Bass  drum  .... 

]• 

to 

i» 

!• 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Cymbals,  pairs   . 

1* 

i* 

1* 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1      1 

1 

4 

•  Whenever  indicated  in  the  score. 


[W.S.R.] 


ORCHESTRATION. 

ORCHESTRATION  (Instrumentation).  The 
art  of  adapting  musical  ideas  to  the  varied  capa- 
bilities of  Stringed,  Wind,  Keyed,  and  other  In- 
struments.    [See  Orchestra.] 

It  is  scarcely  possible  to  over-estimate  the  influ- 
ence exercised  by  this  branch  of  technical  Science 
upon  the  advancement  of  modern  Music.  The 
modifications  through  which  it  has  passed  are  as 
countless  as  the  styles  to  which  it  has  given  rise : 
yet  its  history,  as  recorded  in  the  Scores  of  the 
Great  Masters,  proves  the  principles  upon  which 
it  is  based  to  be  as  unalterable  as  their  outward 
manifestation  is,  and  always  must  be,  variable, 
and  subject  to  perpetual  progress.  Unaccom- 
panied Vocal  Music,  however  marked  may  be 
the  differences  existing  between  its  individual 
Schools,  must,  perforce,  remain  permanently  sub- 
ject to  the  laws  imposed  upon  it  by  the  character 
of  the  human  Voice.  For  Instrumental  Music 
no  permanent  legislation  is  possible.  Eveiy  new 
Instrument  introduced  into  the  Orchestra  in- 
fluences, more  or  less,  every  one  of  its  com- 
panions. Every  improvement  in  the  form,  com- 
fass,  quality  of  tone,  or  executive  powers  of  the 
nstruments  already  in  use,  suggests  new  ideas 
to  the  Composer,  and  results  in  an  endless  variety 
of  new  combinations.  To  the  number  of  such 
improvements  there  is  no  limit.  Stringed  Instru- 
ments, it  is  true,  change  but  little,  except  in  the 
manner  of  their  handling.  The  Violin  of  to-day 
is  the  Violin  of  two  centuries  ago.  Not  so  the 
Wind  Instruments.  The  Trumpet  now  in  common 
use  differs  almost  as  much  from  that  with  which 
Handel  and  Bach  were  familiar  as  it  does  from 
the  Organ  Stop  to  which  it  lends  its  name.  The 
Flute,  as  known  to  Haydn  and  Mozart,  could 
scarcely  hold  its  own,  except  in  the  upper  octave, 
against  half-a-dozen  Violins :  the  tone  of  its 
modern  successor  is  as  powerful  as  that  of  the 
Clarinet,  and  brilliant  enough  to  make  itself 
heard  with  ease  through  the  full  Orchestra  ;  its 
powers  of  execution  are  almost  unlimited ;  and; 
better  still,  it  can  be  played  perfectly  in  tune — 
which  the  old  Flute  could  not.  Improvements 
scarcely  less  important  have  been  made  in  the 
Horn,  the  Clarinet,  and  the  Oboe.  The  Trom- 
bone has  suffered  comparatively  little  change ;  and 
the  Bassoon  retains,  substantially  unaltered,  the 
form  it  bore  when  Handel  wrote  for  it :  but  these 
alone,  among  Wind  Instruments,  have  escaped  a 
sweeping  metamorphosis  since  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century  ;  and.  remembering  this,  we 
can  scarcely  feel  surprised  that  the  orchestration 
of  the  '  Occasional  Overture '  should  bear  but 
little  outward  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Over- 
ture to  '  Tannhauser.'  Yet  the  bond  of  union 
subsisting  even  between  such  extremes  as  these 
is  much  closer  than  might,  at  first  sight,  be 
supposed.  The  principle  is  in  all  cases  the  same. 
The  best  Composers  of  every  epoch  have  aimed 
at  the  same  general  characteristics  ;  and  experi- 
ence has  proved  that,  where  these  are  present, 
no  combinations  can  be  condemned  as  wholly 
ineffective,  whether  they  bear  the  stamp  of  true 
genius  or  not. 

The  most  prominent   characteristics    of  good 


ORCHESTRATION. 


567 


Instrumentation  are  (I.)  Solidity  of  Structure. 
(II.)  Breadth  of  Tone,  (III.)  Boldness  of  Con- 
trast, and  (IV.)  Variety  of  Colouring.  We  will 
endeavour  to  illustrate  each  of  these  necessary 
qualities  by  examples  selected  from  the  Scores  of 
a  few  Great  Masters  of  different  periods. 

I.  Solidity  of  structure  can  only  be  obtained 
by  careful  management  of  the  Stringed  Instru- 
ments. If  the  part  allotted  to  these  be  not 
complete  in  itself,  it  can  never  be  completed  by 
Wind  Instruments.  Whether  written  in  five, 
four,  three,  or  two  parts,  or  even  in  unison,  it 
must  sound  well,  alone.  This  principle  was 
thoroughly  understood  even  as  early  as  the  close 
of  the  16th  century,  when  the  originators  of  the 
newly-invented  instrumental  Schools  bestowed 
as  much  care  upon  their  Viols  as  their  imme- 
diate predecessors  had  devoted  to  their  vocal 
parts.  For  instance,  the  following  air,  from 
'  Le  Balet  comique  de  la  Royne  ' — a  piece  writ- 
ten in  1 58 1  and  alluded  to  in  the  preceding 
article — is  so  arranged  as  to  be  equally  com- 
plete, whether  played  by  Viols  alone  or  with 
each  separate  part  aided  by  a  ripieno  Wind  In- 
strument. 

Le  Son  de  la  Clochette,  auquel  Circi  sortit 
de  ton  Jardin . 

\      I      1    J.     I     I     j      I        !      1      I 


PMsar-r+ 


^^•=^rr*r=f 


J    J  Jjljjj 


E?E3T: 


=p=t 


?= 


Handel  constructed  many  of  his  finest  Over- 
tures upon  this  principle  ;  and,  in  common  with 
Sebastian  Bach  and  other  great  Composers  of  the 
1 8th  century,  delighted  in  its  fine,  bold,  mascu- 
line effect.  Later  writers  improved  upon  it  by 
embellishing  the  stringed  foundation  with  in- 
dependent passages  for  Wind  Instruments.  Thus 
Mozart,  in  his  Overture  to  '  Figaro,'  first  gives 
the  well-known  subject  to  the  Violins  and  Bas>es 
in  unison,  and  then  repeats  it,  note  for  note,  with 
the  addition  of  a  sustained  passage  for  the  Flute 


568 


ORCHESTRATION. 


and  Oboe,  which  brings  it  out  in  quite  a  new 
and  unexpected  light — 
Presto  F,autolmo.         ^f1  '**«_■*'" 


Sometimes  we  find  this  order  reversed;  the 
subject  being  given  to  the  Wind,  and  the  accom- 
paniment to  the  Stringed  Instruments ;  as  in  the 
opening  movement  of  Weber's  Overture  to  '  Der 
Freischutz ' — 

2  Corn! in  C 


In  either  case,  the  successful  effect  of  the 
passage  depends  entirely  upon  the  completeness 
of  the  stringed  skeleton.  A  weak  point  in  this 
— whether  the  principal  subject  be  assigned  to  it 


ORCHESTRATION. 

or  not — renders  it  wholly  unfit  to  support  the 
harmony  of  the  Wind  Instruments,  and  deprives 
the  general  structure  of  that  firmness  which  it  is 
one  of  the  chief  objects  of  the  great  Master  to 
secure. 

II.  Breadth  of  tone  is  dependent  upon  several 
conditions ;  not  the  least  important  of  which  is 
the  necessity  for  writing  for  every  instrument 
with  a  due  regard  to  its  individual  peculiarities. 
This  premised,  there  is  little  fear  of  thinness, 
when  the  stringed  parts  are  well  arranged,  and 
strengthened,  where  necessary,  by  Wind  Instru- 
ments, which  may  either  be  played  in  unison 
with  them — as  in  the  Overture  to  'Jephtha,' 
where  Handel  has  reinforced  the  Violins  by 
Oboes,  and  the  Basses  by  Bassoons — or  so  dis- 
posed as  to  enrich  the  harmony  in  any  other  way 
best  suited  to  the  style  of  particular  passages — 
as  in  that  to  '  Acis  and  Galatea,'  in  which  the 
Oboes  are  used  for  filling  in  the  harmonies  indi- 
cated by  the  Figured  Bass,  while  a  brilliant  two- 
part  counterpoint,  so  perfect  in  itself  that  it 
scarcely  seems  to  need  anything  to  add  to  its 
completeness,  is  played  by  the  Violins  and  Basses, 
the  latter,  as  indicated  by  the  expression  Tutti 
Bassi,  being  strengthened  by  the  Bassoons — 


Presto 


:gp^t#BFIp1^ 


Among  more  modern  writers,  Beethoven  stands 
pre-eminent  for  richness  of  tone,  which  he  never 
fails  to  attain,  either  by  careful  distribution  of 
his  harmony  among  the  instruments  he  employs, 
or  in  some  other  way  suggested  by  his  ever-ready 


ORCHESTRATION. 

invention.  In  the  following  passage,  from  the 
Adagio  of  the  Fourth  Symphony  (in  Bb),  this 
richness  is  secured  by  the  perfect  proportion 
established  between  the  tone  of  the  Stringed  and 
Wind  Instruments,  which  afford  each  other  the 
exact  amount  of  support  needed  for  the  comple- 
tion of  the  general  effect — 

Adagio  _J_ 


ORCHESTRATION. 


569 


The  fulness  of  the  next  example,  from  Men- 
delssohn's Hebrides  Overture,  is  chiefly  due  to 
the  sustained  notes  played  by  the  Horns,  on  the 
cessation  of  which  the  weak  point  which  would 
otherwise  have  marred  the  effect  of  the  passage 
is  guarded  by  the  entrance  of  the  Violins  and 
Double-basses — 


All"  Mod". 

2CIar.  In  A 


pp. 


2  Viole       I 

pptd 


mm 


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=n= 


Contrabassi  i 

Other  composers  have  attained  similar  results 
in  innumerable  different  ways :  but  it  will 
generally  be  found  that  the  most  satisfactory 
passages  are  those  which  exhibit  a  judicious 
disposition  of  the  harmony,  a  just  balance  be- 
tween the  Stringed  and  Wind  Instruments,  and 
a  perfect  adaptation  of  the  parts  to  the  Instru- 
ments for  which  they  are  written. 

III.  Boldness  of  contrast  is  produced  by  so 
grouping  together  the  various  instruments  em- 
ployed as  to  take  the  greatest  possible  advantage 
of  their  difference  of  timbre.  We  have  already 
shown,  in  the  preceding  article,  that  the  In- 
strumental Band,  as  now  constituted,  naturally 
divides  itself  into  certain  sections,  as  distinct  from 
each  other  as  the  Manuals  of  an  Organ.  Concern- 
ing the  first  and  most  important  of  these — the 
'  Stringed  Band' — enough  has  already  been  said. 
The  second — sometimes  called  the  'Wood  Wind' 
— is  led  by  the  Flutes,  and  completed  by  Reed 
Instruments,  such  as  the  Oboe,  the  Clarinet,  and 
the  Bassoon.  The  third — the  'Brass  Band' — is 
subdivided  into  two  distinct  families ;  one  formed 
by  the  Horns  and  Trumpets,  to  which  latter 
the  drums  supply  the  natural  bass ;  the  other 
comprising  the  three  Trombones,  and,  in  the 
noisy  Orchestras  of  the  present  day,  the  Ophi- 
cleide  and  Euphonium.  The  principle  of  sub- 
division is,  indeed,  frequently  extended  to  all  the 
great  sections  of  the  Orchestra.  For  instance, 
the  Flutes  and  Oboes  are  constantly  formed  into 
a  little  independent  Band,  and  contrasted  with 
the  Clarinets  and  Bassoons.  Handel  even  divides 
the  Stringed  Band,  and  produces  fine  effects  of 
contrast  by  so  doing.  In  a  large  proportion  of 
his  best  and  most  celebrated  Songs,  the  Voice  is 
accompanied  by  a  '  Thoroughbass '  alone  :  that 
is  to  say,  by  a  part  for  the  Violoncello  and 
Double  Bass,  with  figures  placed  below  the  notes 


570 


ORCHESTRATION. 


to  indicate  the  Chords  intended  to  be  filled  in  on 
the  Organ  or  Harpsichord.  The  Symphonies 
are  played  by  the  "Violins,  in  unison,  with  a 
similar  '  Thoroughbass '  accompaniment ;  and  the 
entrance  of  these  instruments,  between  the  vocal 
passages,  is  marked  by  a  contrast  as  striking 
as  it  is  agreeable.  In  the  following  example, 
from  the  '  Messiah,'  the  Chords  indicated  by  the 
figures — which  no  one  who  claims  to  be  con- 
sidered a  '  Musician'  ought  to  find  any  difficulty 
in  filling  in  at  sight — are  printed  in  small  notes. 


m 


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O !  thou  that  tellest  good  tidings  to  Zion 
,Organ,  or  Harpsichord 


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get  thee  up  in -to  the  high  moun  -  tain 


T 


In  some  of  his  Sona;s,  Handel  has  enlarged 
upon  this  method ;  as  in  '  Lascia  ch'io  pianga,' 
from  '  Rinaldo,'  the  first  part  of  which  is  accom- 
panied by  the  full  Stringed  Band,  and  the  second 
by  a  '  Thoroughbass '  only,  the  Violins  and  Viola 
reappearing  at  the  Da  capo.  It  is  impossible 
to  believe  that  the  great  Composers  of  the  last 
century,  with  Handel  and  Bach  at  their  head, 
adopted  this  style  of  accompaniment  without 
having  duly  considered  its  effect  :  and  any  at- 
tempt  to   heighten  that   effect   by   'additional 


ORCHESTRATION. 

accompaniments  '  —  by  whomsoever  designed  — 
shews  as  little  reverence  for  Art  as  would  be 
evinced  by  a  desire  to  cover  the  Madonna  di 
San  Sisto  with  '  additional  glazings.'  The  Songs 
are  perfect  as  they  stand  :  and  the  contrast  they 
display  is  as  marked  in  its  degree  as  that  in  the 
celebrated  passage  from  Beethoven's  Fifth 
Symphony  (in  C  minor),  in  which  the  Stringed 
Instruments  and  Wood  Wind  are  made  to  answer 
each  other  in  alternate  Chords — 


All' con  Brio. 


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This  last  expedient  is  by  no  means  uncommon 
in  modern  music ;  and  has  been  most  successfully 
used  by  Mendelssohn  in  his  Overture  to  '  A 
Midsummer  Night's  Dream,'  where  a  few  sus- 
tained notes  on  the  Wind  Instruments  are  con- 
trasted with  the  rapid  passage  for  four  Violins 
with  excellent  effect.  The  Trio,  for  Brass  In- 
struments, in  the  Minuet  of  Sterndale  Bennett's 
Symphony  in  G  minor,  is  another  striking  in- 
stance of  fine  and  quite  unexpected  contrast : 
and  cases  abound  in  which  Composers  of  Instru- 
mental Music  have  treated  the  several  sections 
of  the  Orchestra  very  much  in  the  way  in  which 
vocal  writers  treat  alternate  Choirs,  producing 
thereby  innumerable  beautiful  effects  of  bold  re- 
lief, and  strongly  contrasted  tone. 

IV.  Variety  of  colouring  results  from  the 
judicious  blending  together  of  the  several  ele- 
ments which  we  have  just  considered  as  opposed 
to  each  other  in  more  or  less  violent  contrast. 
In  the  Instrumentation  of  the  Great  Masters 
this  quality  is  always  conspicuous  :  in  that  of 
inferior  writers  never.  Its  presence  may,  indeed, 
be  regarded  as  one  of  the  surest  possible  indica- 
tions of  true  genius,  which  never  fails  to  attain  it 
in  the  face  of  any  amount  of  difficulty. 

In  the  18th  century  Handel  wrought  marvels 
with  the  slender  means  at  his  command  :  with 
Trumpets  and  Oboes  in  the  opening  movements 
of  the  '  Occasional  Overture '  and  the  '  Dettingen 
Te  Deum' ;  with  Oboes  and  B;issoons  in  '  The 
Lord  is  a  man  of  War' ;  with  Flutes  and  Horns 
in  '  Surge  procelle,  ancora' ;  with  a  somewhat 
larger  number  of  Wind  Instruments  in  '  Wise 
men  flattering ' ;  but  often,  as  in  '  Angels  ever 
bright  and  fair,'  with  the  Stringed  Band  alone, 
and  always  with  infinite  variety  of  tone  and  ex- 
pression. Sebastian  Bach  anticipated,  in  like 
manner,  many  of  our  most  highly-prized  modern 
effects,  as  in  the  delicious  combination  of  Horn 


ORCHESTRATION. 

and  Bassoons  in  the  '  Quoniam  tu  solus '  of  his 
Mass  in  B  minor — 

Allegretto. 


ORCHESTRATION. 


571 


As  new  Wind  Instruments  were  invented,  or 
old  ones  improved,  the  power  of  producing 
variety  of  colouring  became,  of  course,  immea- 
surably increased.  Haydn  took  signal  advantage 
of  this  circumstance  in  the  'Creation'  and  the 
*  Seasons ' :  but  Mozart's  delightful  system  of 
Instrumentation  surpasses,  in  beauty,  that  of  all 
his  contemporaries.  His  alternations  of  light  and 
shade  are  endless.  Every  new  phrase  introduces 
us  to  a  new  effect ;  and  every  Instrument  in  the 
Orchestra  is  constantly  turned  to  account,  always 
with  due  regard  to  its  character  and  capabilities, 
and  always  with  a  happy  result.  In  the  follow- 
ing passage  from  the  Overture  to  '  Die  Zauber- 
flote,'  for  instance,  the  whole  strength  of  the 
Wood  Wind  is  so  employed  as  to  shew  off  every 
Instrument  at  its  best,  while  the  stringed  accom- 
paniment gives  point  to  the  idea,  and  the  sus- 
tained notes  on  the  Horns  add  just  support 
enough  to  perfect  its  beauty — 


It  would  be  incorrect  to  say  that  Beethoven 
was  a  greater  master  of  this  peculiar  phase  of 
Instrumentation  than  Mozart ;  though  in  this, 
as  in  everything  else,  he  certainly  repeated  his 
own  ideas  less  frequently  than  any  writer  that 
ever  lived.  The  wealth  of  invention  exhibited  in 
the  orchestral  effects  of  this  Composer — even  in 
those  of  his  works  which  were  produced  after  his 
unhappy  deafness  had  increased  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  he  could  not  possibly  have  heard  any 
one  of  them — is  boundless.  In  every  composi- 
tion we  find  a  hundred  combinations ;  all  per- 
fectly distinct  from  one  another,  yet  all  tending, 
in  spite  of  their  infinite  variety,  to  the  same 
harmonious  result ;  and  all  wrought  out,  with 
indefatigable  care,  in  places  which  many  less 
conscientious  authors  would  have  passed  over  as 
of  comparatively  little  importance — such,  for  in- 
stance, as  the  two  or  three  concluding  bars  of 
the  slow  movement  of  the  Pastoral  Symphony 
(No  6,  in  F)— 

h 

Flauti    •; 


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572 


ORCHESTRATION. 


ORCHESTRATION. 


This  minute  attention  to  detail  is  observable 
throughout  the  entire  series  of  Beethoven's  or- 
chestral works :  and  we  may  well  believe  that  it 
{stimulated  in  no  small  degree  the  emulation  of 
his  contemporaries ;  for  the  age  in  which  he 
lived  produced  more  than  one  instrumentalist  of 
the  highest  order.  Schubert,  we  need  hardly 
say,  is  a  host  in  himself.  Weber's  mastery  over 
the  Orchestra  is  perfect,  and  adds  not  a  little  to 
the  charm  of  his  delightful  compositions.  The 
dreamy  opening  of  his  Overture  to  'Oberon,' 
with  its  three  sweet  notes  for  the  Horn,  followed 
by  one  of  the  most  faerylike  passages  for  the 
Flutes  and  Clarinets  that  ever  was  imagined ; 
the  lovely  melody  allotted  to  the  Horns  in  the 
Overture  to  'Der  Freischiitz,'  and  the  eldritch 
sounds  which  succeed  it ;  above  all,  the  mys- 
terious Largo,  for  four  Violini,  con  sordini, 
which  so  strangely  interrupts  the  Allegro  of 
the  overture  to  '  Euryanthe,'  and  the  gloomy 
tremoli  for  the  Viola  which  add  so  much  to 
its  weird  effect;  these,  and  a  hundred  similar 
passages,  evince  a  purity  of  taste  and  an  origin- 
ality of  conception  which  have  rarely,  if  ever, 
been  exceeded  by  the  greatest  Masters.  Men- 
delssohn exhibits  scarcely  less  richness  of  inven- 
tion in  his  Symphonies,  his  Concertos,  and, 
especially,  in  his  charming  Concert  Overtures  to 
'  Die  Schone  Melusine '  and  '  A  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream.'  In  freshness  of  colouring,  and 
inexhaustible  fertility  of  resource,  Spohr's  great 
Symphony,  *  Die  Weihe  der  Tone '  has  never 
been  surpassed.  Berlioz — whose  'Traite"  d'ln- 
strumentation  '  no  young  composer  should  neglect 
to  read — studied  the  subject  deeply,  and  with 
extraordinary  success.  And,  undoubtedly,  the 
strongest  of  Richard  Wagner's  strong  points  is 
that  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  Orchestra  in 
all  its  phases,  which,  guided  by  his  keen  percep- 
tion of  effect,  enables  him  to  weave  its  elements 
into  any  new  combinations  best  suited  to  bis 
purpose.  He  it  was  who  first  conceived,  among 
other  daring  and  beautiful  innovations,  the 
idea  of  using  the  high  harmonic  sounds  of  the 


Violin,  in  unison  with  Flutes  and  other  Wind 
Instruments.  The  Prelude  to  'Lohengrin'  de- 
pends, almost  entirely,  for  its  enchanting  effect, 
upon  four  solo  Violins  and  three  Flutes,  used 
in  a  way  before  unknown,  and  crowned,  it  is 
needless  to  say,  with  triumphant  success — 


Want  of  space  forbids  us  to  add  to  the  number 
of  our  examples  :  but  we  trust  enough  has  already 
been  said  to  shew  that  modern  Composers  have 
not  been  idle  in  this  matter.  It  is  indeed  cer- 
tain, that  during  the  half-century  that  has  elapsed 
since  the  death  of  Beethoven,  more  real  progress 
has  been  made  in  Instrumentation  than  in  al- 
most any  other  branch  of  Art.  Innumerable  new 
effects  have  been  attempted,  with  more  or  less 
success  :  and,  though  much  evil  has  been  wrought 
of  late  years  by  a  growing  tendency  to  over- 
weight the  Brass  Band  with  coarse-toned  Instru- 
ments fit  only  for  military  use,  the  best  Composers 
have  uniformly  resisted  the  movement,  and,  pre- 
ferring sonority  to  noise,  have  left  the  latter  to 
those  who  aim  at  nothing  higher  than  the  short- 
lived approval  of  a  vulgar  audience.  In  truth, 
less  mischief  has  been  done  by  Composers  even 
of  the  lowest  class  of  Dance-music,  than  by  in- 
judicious Conductors,  who,  never  satisfied  when 
the  Trombones  are  silent,  have  overloaded  the 
Scores  of  the  Great  Masters  with  additions  of 
the  most  unwarrantable  character.  So  far  has 
this  abuse  extended,  that  the  student  can  never 
be  sure  that  he  is  listening  to  the  effect  really 
intended  by  the  Composer.  Let  him,  then, 
endeavour  to  gain  experience,  by  studying  the 
Scores  of  all  the  best  works  to  which  he  can  ob- 
tain access :  and,  when  he  shall  have  attained  the 
power,  not  only  of  recognising,  in  performance, 
the  effects  he  has  already  read  upon  paper,  but 
even  of  hearing  them  distinctly,  in  imagination, 
while  he  is  reading  them,  he  will  have  gained  the 
first  step  in  that  road  which  all  must  tread  who 
would  write  well  for  the  Orchestra,  and  delight 
their  hearers  with  really  good  Instrumentation. 
It  is  in  this  way  alone  that  the  Art  can  be  satis- 
factorily studied.  It  cannot  be  taught  in  words. 
Much  valuable  information  may  indeed  be  gleaned 
from  the  well-known  Treatises  of  Berlioz,  Lobe, 


ORCHESTRATION-. 

and  Gevaert,  which  no  earnest  student  should 
neglect  to  read.  But  even  the  most  careful 
writers  find  it  less  easy  to  lay  down  definite  rules 
for  their  readers'  guidance  than  to  convey  in- 
struction by  constant  reference  to  examples  se- 
lected from  the  works  of  the  Great  Masters.  It 
is  for  this  reason  that  we  have  thought  it  better 
to  take  a  general  view  of  our  subject  than  to 
enter  minutely  into  its  details.  This  course  has 
at  least  enabled  us  to  give  due  prominence  to  the 
fundamental  principles  upon  which  the  science  of 
Orchestration  is  based ;  whereas  the  opposite  one 
would  have  led  to  the  consideration  of  a  series 
of  isolated  facts  of  far  less  value  to  the  general 
reader.  [W.S.R.] 

ORFEO  ED  EURIDICE.  Opera  by  Calsa- 
bigi ;  music  by  Gluck,  the  first  in  his  new  style. 
Produced  at  Vienna,  Oct.  5,  1762,  and  in  Paris, 
where  it  was  published  in  score  at  the  cost  of 
Count  Durazzo,  in  1 764.  Its  great  success  was 
in  the  French  translation  as  Orphee  et  Euri- 
dice,  ten  years  later.  It  was  produced  in  London 
at  the  Royal  Italian  Opera,  Covent  Garden, 
June  27,  i860 — Orfeo,  Mad.  Csillag.  [G.j 

ORGAN (Fr.  Orgue;  Ital.  Organo;  Ger.  Orgel). 
I.  History.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the 
■  organ'  referred  to  in  the  Old  Testament  (Gen.  iv. 
2 1 ) — '  Jubal ;  he  was  the  father  of  all  such  as 
handle  the  harp  and  organ' — bore  any  resem- 
blance to  the  stately  instrument  with  which  we 
are  all  so  familiar  by  that  name  at  the  present  day. 
At  the  same  time,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  principle  of  the  three  great  classes  of  organ- 
pipe — Stopped,  Open,  and  Reed — was  known  at 
a  very  early  period,  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to 
show. 

It  is  here  purposed,  as  far  as  practicable,  to 
trace  from  the  remotest  beginnings,  to  its  present 
exalted  dimensions,  the  gradual  growth  of  that 
great  triumph  of  human  skill  which  so  justly 
enjoys  the  distinction  of  being  the  most  perfect 
musical  instrument  that  the  ingenuity  of  man 
has  hitherto  devised ;  the  impressive  tones  of 
which  so  greatly  enrich  the  effect  of  the  religious 
services  celebrated  in  our  great  sacred  edifices. 
The  materials  available  for  this  purpose  are  not 
indeed  always  of  the  plainest  kind,  the  accounts 
being  not  unfrequently  incomplete,  exaggerated, 
or  surrounded  by  a  somewhat  apocryphal  air ;  but 
much  may  be  done  by  selecting  the  most  probable, 
and  placing  them  in  intelligible  order. 

The  first  idea  of  a  wind-instrument  was  doubt- 
less suggested  to  man  by  the  passing  breezes  as 
they  struck  against  the  open  ends  of  broken  reeds ; 
and  the  fact  that  reeds  of  different  lengths  emitted 
murmurs  varying  in  pitch  may  have  further  sug- 
gested that  if  placed  in  a  particular  order,  they 
would  produce  an  agreeable  succession  of  sounds ; 
— in  other  words,  a  short  musical  scale.  A  few 
such  reeds  or  tubes,  of  varied  growths  or  diameters, 
and  of  graduated  lengths,  bound  together  in  a  row, 
with  their  open  tops  arranged  in  a  horizontal 
line,  would  form  an  instrument  possessing  suffi- 
cient capacity  for  the  performance  of  simple  pri- 
mitive melodies  ;  and  of  such  kind  doubtless  was 


ORGAN. 


573 


Fio.  1. 


Jubal's  'organ'  (ougab) l  already  mentioned.  It 
probably  was  not  more;  and  it  could  scarcely 
have  been  less.  Necessity  precedes  supply ;  and 
nothing  is  known  that  would  lead  to  the  supposi- 
tion that  the  music  of  the  time  of  Jubal  called  for 
anything  beyond  a  few  tubes,  such  as  those  just 
described,  for  its  complete  accompaniment. 

The  myth  that  Pan  was  the  originator  of  the 
Syrinx  led  to  its  being  called  '  Pan's-pipe,'  under 
which  name,  or  that  of  'Mouth-organ,'  it  is  known 
to  the  present  day.     [Pandean  pipes.] 

The  number  of  tubes  that  in  the  course  of  time 
came  to  be  used  was  seven,  sometimes  eight,  oc- 
casionally as  many  as  ten  or  twelve ;  and  the 
Greek  and  Roman  shepherds  are  recorded  as 
being  among  the  makers  of  these  '  organs,'  as  well 
as  the  performers  upon  them. 

The  pipes  of  the  Syrinx  being 
composed  of  reeds  cut  off  just  be- 
low the  knot — which  knot  did  not 
permit  the  wind  to  escape,  but 
caused  it  to  return  to  the  same 
place  where  it  entered,  thus  tra- 
versing the  length  of  the  tube 
twice — were  in  principle  so  many 
examples  of  the  first  class  of  pipes 
mentioned  above.  They  were  prac- 
tically '  Stopped  pipes,'  producing 
a  sound  nearly  an  octave  lower  than  that  of  an 
Open  pipe  of  the  same  length.2 

The  mode  of  playing  upon  this  earliest  organ 
must  have  been  troublesome  and  tiring,  as  either 
the  mouth  had  to  be  in  constant  motion  to  and  fro 
over  the  tubes,  or  they  had  incessantly  to  be 
shifted  to  the  right  or  left  under  the  mouth. 
Some  other  method  of  directing  wind  into  them 
must  in  course  of  time  have  been  felt  to  be  desir- 
able ;  and  the  idea  would  at  length  occur  of  con- 
ducting wind  into  the  tube  from  below  instead  of 
above.  This  result — an  enormous  step  forward — 
would  be  obtained  by  selecting  a  reed,  as  before, 
but  with  a  short  additional  portion  left  below  the 
knot  to  serve  as  a  mouthpiece  or  wind-receiver 
(the  modern  '  foot');  by  making  a  straight  narrow 
slit  through  the  knot,  close  to  the  front,  to  serve- 
as  a  passage-way  for  the  breath ;  and  by  cutting 
a  small  horizontal  opening  immediately  above 
that  slit,  with  a  sloping  notch,  bevelling  upwards 
and  outwards  over  that  again.  The  breath  blown 
in  at  the  lower  end,  in  passing  through  the  slit 
would  strike  against  the  edge  of  the  notch  above, 
and  there  produce  rapid  flutterings,  which  would 
be  communicated  to  the  air  in  the  tube,  and 
would  cause  a  sound  to  be  emitted.  In  this 
manner  a  specimen  of  the  second  class  of  pipe 
mentioned  above — that  of  the  Open  species — 
would  be  brought  into  existence. 

In  course  of  time  the  idea  would  occur  of 
trying  to  obtain  more  than  one  sound  from  a 
single  pipe,  for  which  purpose  first  one  hole — to 
be  covered  or  exposed  by  a  finger — then  a 
second,  and  so  on,  would  be  cut  laterally,  in  the 

1  Rendered  by  Qesenlus  '  pipe,  reed,  syrinx.'  The  word  occurs  also 
In  Job  zxl.  12,  Psalm  cl.  4. 

»  An  exact  model  of  a  Stopped  Diapason  pipe  of  wood  Is  presented 
by  the  weU-known  '  pitch-pipe '  of  the  present  day. 


574 


ORGAN. 


body  of  the  pipe,  in  a  line  with  the  slit  just 
described,  which  experiment  would  be  attended 
with  the  same  result  on  the  pitch  of  the  sound  as 
if  the  tube  were  shortened  at  each  hole  in  suc- 
cession. Thus  the  same  short  succession  of 
agreeable  sounds  as  those  of  the  Pan's-pipe,  or 
any  pleasant  admixture  of  them,  would  be  ob- 
tainable from  one  tube,  and  a  rude  model  pro- 
duced of  an  instrument  which  in  its  more  finished 
form  subsequently  became  the  Flute-a-bec.  Fa- 
miliar examples  of  this  kind  of  perforated  tube 
are  presented  by  the  wooden  and  tin  toy-whistles 
of  the  present  day. 

When  the  first  'squeaker'  was  made,  such  as 
country  lads  still  delight  to  construct  of  osiers  in 
spring-time,  a  primitive  model  of  a  pipe  of  the 
third  kind  mentioned  above,  a  Reed-pipe,  was 
produced.  It  consisted  of  a  '  vibrator '  and  a 
tube ;  the  former  sounded  by  being  agitated  by 
compressed  wind  from  an  air-cavity, — the  breath 
from  the  human  mouth.  Reed-pipes,  although 
freely  used  as  separate  wind-instruments  in  ancient 
times — the  Bag-pipe  among  the  number — were 
not  introduced  into  organs  until  the  fifteenth 
century,  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  and  need 
not  therefore  be  further  considered  in  this  place. 

A  series  of  pipes  of  the  second  class  (receiving 
air  from  below),  would  be  less  conveniently  under 
the  immediate  control  of  the  mouth  than  their 
predecessors ;  hence  a  wooden  box  was  devised 
(now  the  wind-chest),  containing  a  row  of  holes 
along  the  top,  into  which  were  placed  the  lower 
ends  of  the  pipes ;  and  the  wind  was  sometimes 
provided  by  two  attendants,  who  blew  with  their 
mouths  alternately  into  pliable  tubes,  the  one 
while  the  other  took  breath.  An  antique  organ 
supplied  in  this  manner  is  sculptured  under  a 
monument  in  the  Museum  at  Aries,  bearing  the 
date  of  xx.m.viii.1 

Fig.  2. 


This  piece  of  carving  is  of  the  hignest  in- 
terest as  showing  the  ancient  organ  at  its  first 
step  from  a  state  of  the  utmost  simplicity — dis- 
mounted indeed  from  the  breast  of  the  player,  yet 
still  supplied  by  the  mouth,  and  before  the  ap- 
plication of  bellows ;  and  it  has  not  previously 
appeared  in  any  English  article  on  the  organ. 

The  pipes  are  held  in  position  by  a  cross -band, 
just  as  were  those  of  the  earlier  Syrinx.     The 

i  From  Dom  Bedot,  '  L'Art  da  ftctcur  d'Orjuei '  (Twis  1766). 


ORGAN. 

carving  represents  the  back  of  the  instrument,  as 
is  indicated  not  only  by  the  'blowers'  being  there, 
but  also  by  the  order  of  the  pipes,  from  large  to 
small,  appearing  to  run  the  wrong  way.  namely, 
from  right  to  left  instead  of  the  reverse.  The 
pipes  of  the  early  organs  are  said  to  have  sounded 
at  first  altogether,  and  those  which  were  not 
required  to  be  heard  had  to  be  silenced  by.mean.s 
of  the  fingers  or  hands.  An  arrangement  so 
defective  would  soon  call  for  a  remedy ;  and  the 
important  addition  was  made  of  a  slide,  rule,  or 
tongue  of  wood,  placed  beneath  the  hole  leading 
to  each  pipe,  and  so  perforated  as  either  to  admit 
pJO  „  or  exclude  the  wind 

as  it  was  drawn  in 
or  out.  Kircher 
gives  a  drawing, 
here  reproduced,  to 
show  this  improve- 
ment. 

The  wind  was  con- 
veyed to  the  chest 
through  the  tube 
projecting  from  the  right-hand  side,  either  from 
the  lips  or  from  some  kind  of  hand-bellows.  In 
each  case  the  stream  would  be  only  intermittent. 
Another  drawing  given  by  Kircher  (said  to  be 
that  of  the  Hebrew  instrument  called  Magre- 
phah),  exhibits  the  important  addition  of  two 
small  bellows,  which  would  afford  a  continuous 
wind-supply,  the  one  furnishing  wind  while  the 
other  was  replenishing. 

Fio.  4. 


It  is  very  doubtful,  however,  whether  this  is  an 
authentic  representation.  The  pipes  are  pic- 
turesquely disposed,  but  on  account  of  their 
natural  succession  being  so  greatly  disturbed  for 
this  purpose,  and  their  governing  slides  doubtless 
also  similarly  intermixed,  the  task  to  the  organist 
of  always  manipulating  them  correctly  must  have 
been  one  of  extreme  difficulty,  if  not  impossibility. 
Nevertheless,  as  soon  as  the  apparatus  received 
the  accession  of  the  two  little  bellows  placed  to 
the  rear  of  the  wind-box,  in  lieu  of  two  human 
beings,  the  small  instrument  arrived  at  the  im- 
portance of  being  essentially  a  complete  and  in- 
dependent, albeit  a  primitive  Pneumatic  organ. 

Whether  the  two  bellows  produced  as  unequal 
a  wind  as  is  sometimes  supposed,  is  perhaps 
scarcely  apparent.  At  the  present  day  the  work- 
ing of  the  two  'feeders'  of  the  popular  house- 
instrument — the  Harmonium — when  the  Expres- 
sion-stop is  drawn,  demonstrates  that  it  is  quite 
possible  to  supply  air  from  two  separate  sources 
alternately  without  any  appreciable  interruption 


ORGAN. 

to  its  equability ;  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  in 
old  times,  when  the  necessary  care  and  attention 
were  bestowed,  a  tolerably  uniform  current  of  air 
and  a  fairly  even  quality  of  tone  were  obtained. 

At  any  rate,  a  means  of  producing  an  abso- 
lutely equal  pressure  of  wind,  and  one  that  could 
not  possibly  be  disturbed  by  any  inexpertness  of 
the  blower,  was  secured  in  the  Hydraulic  organ. 
This  variety  was  invented  by  an  Egyptian  of  the 
name  of  Ctesibius,  who  flourished  in  the  third 
century  B.C.  The  title  is  scarcely  correct,  since 
the  instrument  was  '  hydraulic'  only  so  far  as  the 
method  of  weighting  the  wind  was  concerned. 
It  had  not  a  single  '  water-pipe '  in  it,  and  in  all 
respects  save  that  just  mentioned  was  Pneumatic. 
The  principle  of  the  wind-regulating  apparatus, 
which  was  both  simple  and  ingenious,  was  as  fol- 
lows. Into  a  cistern  made  to  almost  any  conveni- 
ent shape,  a  vessel  was  placed,  shaped  somewhat 
like  an  inverted  basin,  supported  upon  wooden 
wedges  about  two  inches  from  the  bottom,  and 
thus  leaving  an  opening  all  round.  This  recep- 
tacle was  the  wind-receiver,  and  was  nearly  or 
quite  immersed  in  water.  Attached  to  the  top  of 
the  receiver  was  a  pipe  (furnished  with  a  valve 
below)  through  which  air  was  forced  by  a  wind- 
pump.  When  no  wind  was  in  the  receiver, 
water  would  of  course  pass  under  its  rim  from 
without,  and  rise  as  high  inside  as  outside,  upon 
the  well-known  principle  that  water  will  always 
find  its  own  level.  When  wind  was  passed 
into  the  receiver,  the  water  previously  within 
would  be  partially  or  entirely  expelled,  but 
would  in  its  turn  press  its  weight  upon  the  air 
that  had  dislodged  it,  which  would  thus  acquire 
the  elastic  force  required  to  adapt  it  to  its  pur- 
pose. A  second  tube  then  conveyed  away  the 
air  thus  compressed,  from  the  receiver  to  the 
pipes.1 

An  organ  thus  supplied  with  wind  could  not 
be  over-bloicn,  because  if  more  air  were  sent 
forward  by  the  wind-pump  than  the  receiver 
could  hold,  the  surplus  would  pass  under  the 
rim  of  the  receiver,  and  escape  in  bubbles  from 
the  surface.  The  general  force  of  the  wind  could 
be  increased  by  pouring  more  water  into  the  tank, 
which  added  to  its  weight,  and  consequently  to 
its  pressure  upon  the  air,  or  could  be  decreased  by 
subtracting  water  from  the  previous  quantity. 

The  Hydraulic  organ  occurs  in  the  Talmud 
under  the  name  of  hirdaulis  or  ardablis ;  and  a 
certain  instrument  is  mentioned  as  having  stood 
in  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem,  which  is  called 
Magrephah,  and  had  ten  notes,  with  ten  pipes  to 
each  note.  This  organ,  however,  was  not  a  hy- 
draulic one.* 

G  reat  as  may  have  been  the  theoretical  merits 
of  the  Hydraulic  system,  yet  in  practice  it  does 
not  seem  to  have  supplanted  the  purely  Pneu- 
matic. This  fact  would  imply,  in  the  first  place, 
that  the  defects  of  the  Pneumatic  system  were 
not  of  so  radical  a  nature  as  has  generally  been 

I  A  drawing  of  a  Hydraulic  Organ  Is  given  in  Mr.  W.  CbappeU's 
History  of  Music. 

I  TaL  Jer..  Sukkah  v.  6 ;  Tal.  Bab..  Arakhln  106. 11  a.  We  are  in- 
debted to  Dr.  Schiller-Siinessy,  of  Cambridge,  for  this  information. 


ORGAN. 


575 


supposed ;  and  in  the  second,  that  the  Hydraulic 
system  itself  was  by  no  means  free  from  objections, 
one  of  which  certainly  would  be  that  of  causing 
damp  in  the  instrument,  an  intruder  towards 
whom  organ-builders  always  entertain  the  great- 
est horror.  The  Hydraulic  organ  nevertheless 
continued  in  occasional  use  up  to  about  the  com- 
mencement of  the  14th  century,  when  it  appears 
finally  to  have  died  out.  Its  weight  and  size 
seem  to  have  originated  a  distinction  between 
portable  and  stationary  organs,  which  began 
early,  and  was  perpetuated  in  the  terms  fre- 
quently used  of  '  Portative '  and  '  Positive.' 

Although  nothing  very  precise  can  be  deduced 
from  the  ancient  writers  as  to  the  time,  place, 
or  manner  in  which  some  of  the  progressive  steps 
in  the  invention  of  the  organ  already  detailed 
were  made,  yet  it  is  certain  that  the  germ  of 
many  of  the  most  important  parts  of  the  instru- 
ment had  been  discovered  before  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Christian  era,  the  period  at  which 
we  have  now  arrived. 


During  the  first  ten  centuries  but  little  appears 
to  have  been  done  to  develop  the  organ  in  size, 
compass,  or  mechanism ;  in  fact,  no  advances 
are  known  to  have  been  made  in  the  practice  of 
music  itself  of  a  kind  to  call  such  improvements 
into  existence.  Yet  a  number  of  isolated  records 
exist  as  to  the  materials  used  in  the  construction 
of  the  instrument ;  the  great  personages  who 
exerted  themselves  about  it ;  and  its  gradual 
introduction  from  Greece,  where  it  is  said  to  have 
taken  its  origin,  into  other  countries,  and  into  the 
church;  and  these  have  only  to  be  brought  together 
and  placed  in  something  approaching  to  chrono- 
logical order,  with  a  few  connecting  words  here 
and  there,  to  form  an  interesting  and  continuous 
narrative. 

In  the  organ  of  Ctesibius,  described  by  Hero,3 
it  appears  that  the  lower  extremity  of  each 
pipe  was  enclosed  in  a  small  Bhallow  box,  some- 
thing like  a  domino  box  inverted,  the  sliding 
lid  being  downwards.  Each  lid  had  an  orifice 
which,  on  the  lid  being  pushed  home,  placed  the 
hole  in  correspondence  with  the  orifice  of  the  pipe, 
and  the  pipe  then  sounded.  When  the  sliding 
lid  was  drawn  forward,  it  closed  the  orifice,  and 
so  silenced  the  pipe.  With  certain  improvements 
as  to  detail,  this  action  is  in  principle  substan- 
tially the  same  as  that  shown  in  Figs.  3  and  4,  and 
it  continued  in  use  up  to  the  nth  century.  But 
the  most  interesting  part  of  this  description  is 
the  reference  to  the  existence  of  a  simple  kind 
of  key-action  which  pushed  in  the  lid  on  the  key 
being  pressed  down,  the  lid  being  pulled  back  by 
a  spring  of  elastic  horn  and  a  cord  on  the  key 
being  released.  Claudian  the  poet,  who  flourished 
about  a.d.  400,  has  in  his  poem  '  De  Consulatu  F. 
MalliiTheodori'  (316-19)  left  a  passage  describing 
an  organist's  performance  upon  an  instrument  of 
this  kind,  and  also  its  effect,  of  which  the  follow- 
in"  is  a  literal  version :  '  Let  there  be  also  one 
who  by  his  light  touch  forcing  out  deep  murmurs, 

»  Sec  Mr.  CbappeU's  careful  account.  History  of  Music,  1. 343  etc 


576 


ORGAN. 


and  managing  the  unnumbered  tongues  of  the  field 
of  brazen  tubes,  can  with  nimble  finger  cause  a 
mighty  sound  ;  and  can  rouse  to  song  the  waters 
stirred  to  their  depths  by  the  massive  lever.* 
The  reference  to  water  implies  that  the  organ  was 
a  Hydraulic  one. 

A  Greek  'epigram,  attributed  to  the  Emperor 
Julian  the  Apostate  (died  a.d.  363),  conveys 
some  particulars  concerning  another  kind  of  4th- 
century  organ,  of  which  the  following  is  a  literal 
translation  :  '  I  see  a  strange  sort  of  reeds — they 
must  metliinks  have  sprung  from  no  earthly,  but 
a  brazen  soil.  Wild  are  they,  nor  does  the  breath 
of  man  stir  them,  but  a  blast,  leaping  forth  from 
a  cavern  of  ox-hide,  passes  within,  beneath  the 
roots  of  the  polished  reeds ;  while  a  lordly  man, 
the  fingers  of  whose  hands  are  nimble,  stands  and 
touches  here  and  there  the  concordant  stops  of 
the  pipes ;  and  the  stops,  as  they  lightly  rise  and 
fall,  force  out  the  melody.'  This  account  de- 
scribes a  Pneumatic  organ,  and  one  which  had 
no  keyboard.  Both  accounts  particularise  the 
material  of  which  the  pipes  were  made — bronze, 
and  it  is  not  improbable  that  pipes  of  metal  were 
at  that  time  a  novelty. 

Theodoret  (born  about  393,  died  457)  also 
refers  to  musical  organs  as  being  furnished  with 
pipes  of  copper  or  of  bronze. 

On  an  obelisk  at  Constantinople,  erected  by 
Theodosius  (died  393),  is  a  representation  of  an 
organ,  which  is  here  copied. 


Fig.  5. 


The  pipes  are  eight  in  number,  and  appear 
to  be  formed  of  large  reeds,  or  canes,  as  those 
of  Chinese  organs  are  said  to  be  at  the  present 
day.  They  are  not  sufficiently  varied  in  length 
to  indicate  the  production  of  a  proper  musical 
scale,  which  is  possibly  an  error  of  the  sculptor. 
They  are  supported  like  those  shown  in  Fig.  2. 
This  example  is  very  interesting  as  affording  the 
earliest  illustration  known  of  a  method  of  com- 
pressing the  organ  wind  which  some  centuries 
afterwards  became  common— namely,  by  the 
weight  of  human  beings.  From  the  drawing  it 
seems  as  if  the  two  youths  were  standing  on  the 
same  bellows,  whereas  they  were  more  probably 
mounted  on  separate  ones  placed  side  by  side. 
St.  Jerome,  a  little  later  (died  420),  is  said  "to 
mention  an  organ  at  Jerusalem,  with  twelve 
brazen  pipes,  two  elephants'  skins,  and  fifteen 
smiths'  bellows,  which  could  be  heard  at  the 
Mount  of  Olives, — it  is  nearly  a  mile  from  the 
centre  of  the  city  to  the  top  of  the  mount, — 

>  Palatine  Anthology,  Bk.  lx.  No.  S6.'>. 

»  Kitto,  Cyc.  Bib.  Lit.  3rd  ed.  li.  2T.56.     Kitto's  reference  (Ad 
DarUauum.).  however,  does  not  appear  to  be  correct. 


ORGAN. 

and  therefore  must  have  been  an  instrument  of 
great  power.  Cassiodorus,  who  was  consul  of 
Rome  under  King  Vitigas  the  Goth  in  514,  de- 
scribed the  organ  of  his  day  as  an  instrument 
composed  of  divers  pipes,  formed  into  a  kind  of 
tower,  which,  by  means  of  bellows,  is  made  to 
produce  a  loud  sound ;  and  in  order  to  express 
agreeable  melodies,  it  is  constructed  with  certain 
tongues*  of  wood  from  the  interior,  which  the 
finger  of  the  master  duly  pressing  or  forcing  back, 
elicits  the  most  pleasing  and  brilliant  tones. 

The  exact  period  at  which  the  organ  was  first 
used  for  religious  purposes  is  not  positively 
known ;  but  according  to  Julianus,  a  Spanish 
bishop  who  flourished  A.D.  450,  it  was  in  com- 
mon use  in  the  churches  of  Spain  at  that  time. 
One  is  mentioned  as  existing  'in  the  most  ancient 
city  of  Grado,'  in  a  church  of  the  nuns  before  the 
year  580.  It  is  described  as  being  about  two 
feet  long,  six  inches  broad,  and  furnished  with 
fifteen  playing-slides  and  thirty  pipes,  two  pipes 
to  each  note.  Sir  John  Hawkins  has  given  a 
drawing  of  the  slide-box  of  this  organ  in  his 
History  of  Music  (i.  401).  the  '  tongues '  of  which 
are  singularly  ornate.  The  number  of  notes  on 
the  slide-box  (fifteen  in  a  length  of  two  feet) 
would  show  that  the  pipes  were  of  small  diameter, 
and  therefore  that  the  notes  were  treble  ones. 

The  advantage  of  using  the  organ  in  the  ser- 
vices of  the  church  was  so  obvious  that  it  would 
soon  be  perceived ;  and  accordingly  in  the  7th 
century  Pope  Vitalian,  at  Rome  (about  the  year 
666),  introduced  it  to  improve  the  singing  of 
the  congregations.  Subsequently,  however,  he 
abolished  the  singing  of  the  congregations,  and 
substituted  in  its  place  that  of  canonical  singers. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  8th  century  the 
use  of  the  organ  was  appreciated,  and  the  art  of 
making  it  was  known  in  England.  The  na- 
tive artificers  had  even  introduced  the  custom  of 
pipe  decoration,  for,  according  to  Aldhelm,  who 
died  a.d.  709,  the  Anglo-Saxons  ornamented  the 
front  pipes  of  their  organs  with  gilding.  Organ- 
making  was  introduced  into  France  about  the 
middle  of  the  same  century.  Pepin  (714-768), 
the  father  of  Charlemagne,  perceived  that  an 
organ  would  be  an  important  aid  to  devotion; 
and  as  the  instrument  was  at  that  time  unknown 
either  in  France  or  Germany,  he  applied  (about 
the  year  757)  to  the  Byzantine  Emperor  Constan- 
tine  Copronymus  the  Sixth,  requesting  him  to 
send  one  to  France.  Constantino  not  only  com- 
plied with  this  solicitation  by  presenting  him  with 
a  large  organ,  but  forwarded  it  by  a  special  depu- 
tation, headed  by  the  Roman  bishop  Stephanns. 
The  organ  was  deposited  in  the  church  of  St. 
Cornelius  at  Compiegne.  It  was  a  Pneumatic 
organ,  with  pipes  of  lead ;  and  is  said  to  have 
been  made  and  played  by  an  Italian  priest,  who- 
had  learnt  the  method  of  doing  both  at  Constan- 
tinople. 

The  first  organ  introduced  into  Germany  was 
one  which  the  Emperor  Charles  the  Great,  in  81 1 

»  The  term  '  tongues '  (lingua)  remained  In  use  for  the  sliders  up 
to  the  time  when  the  slide-box  was  superseded  by  the  spring-box 
about  the  eud  of  the  11th  century. 


ORGAN. 

or  812,  caused  to  be  made  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 
after  the  model  of  that  at  Compiegne.  The  copy 
was  successful,  and  several  writers  expressed 
themselves  in  terms  of  high  praise  at  its  power- 
ful yet  pleasing  tone.  What  became  of  it  is  not 
recorded. 

In  82a  or  826  an  organ  was  sent  to  Charle- 
magne by  the  Caliph  Haroun  Alraschid,  con- 
structed by  an  Arabian  maker  of  the  name  of 
Giafar,  which  was  placed  in  a  church  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  It  was  a  Pneumatic  organ  of  extra- 
ordinarily soft  tone. 

Venice  was  favourably  known  for  its  organ- 
makers  about  this  time;  a  monk  of  that  city, 
of  the  name  of  Georgius,  a  native  of  Benevento, 
having  in  the  year  822  constructed  an  instru- 
ment for  Louis  le  De'bonnaire,  which  was  a 
Hydraulic  organ,  and  was  erected  in  the  palace 
of  the  king  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Its  pipes  were 
of  lead. 

The  French  and  Germans  were  both  desirous 
of  rivalling  the  foreign  specimens  of  ingenuity 
that  had  come  under  their  notice ;  and  so  suc- 
cessful were  they  in  their  endeavours,  that  after 
a  time  the  best  organs  were  said  to  be  made  in 
France  and  Germany.  The  progress  of  Ger- 
many in  making  and  using  them  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  9  th  century,  particularly  in  East 
Franconia,  was  so  great,  that  Pope  John 
VIII  (88o),  in  a  letter  to  Anno,  Bishop  of 
Friesingen,  requests  that  a  good  organ  may  be 
sent  to  him,  and  a  skilful  player  to  instruct  the 
Roman  artists. 

By  this  time  organ-building  had  apparently 
made  its  way  into  Bavaria ;  and  a  large  instru- 
ment, with  box-wood  pipes,  is  said  to  have  been 
erected  in  the  Cathedral  of  Munich  at  a  very 
early  date. 

In  the  9th  century  organs  had  become  com- 
mon in  this  country,  the  English  artificers  fur- 
nishing them  with  pipes  of  copper,  which  were 
fixed  in  gilt  frames.  In  the  loth  century  the 
English  prelate  St.  Dunstan  (925-988),  famous 
for  his  skill  in  metal  work,  erected  or  fabricated 
an  organ  in  Malmesbury  Abbey,  the  pipes  of 
which  were  of  brass.  He  also  gave  an  organ  to 
Abingdon  Abbey,  and  is  said  to  have  furnished 
many  other  English  churches  and  convents  with 
similar  instruments.  In  this  same  century  Count 
Elwin  presented  an  organ  to  the  convent  at 
Ramsey,  on  which  he  is  said  to  have  expended 
the  then  large  sum  of  thirty  pounds  in  copper 
pipes,  which  are  described  as  emitting  a  sweet 
melody  and  a  far-resounding  peal. 

A  curious  representation  of  an  organ  of  about 
this  date  is  given  in  a  MS.  Psalter  of  Edwin 
preserved  in  the  library  of  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge.1 The  pipes  are  placed  within  a  frame, 
apparently  after  the  manner  referred  to  above. 
The  surface  of  the  organ  is  represented  as  being 
perforated  to  receive  a  second  set  of  pipes,  though 
the  draughtsman  appears  to  have  sketched  one 
hole  too  many.    The  two  organists,  whose  duties 


1  Engraved  from  a  photograph,  by  the  kind  permission  of  the 
authorities. 

VOL.  II.    PT.  11. 


ORGAN. 


577 


seem  for  the  moment  to  have  been  brought  to 
an  end  by  the  inattention  of  the  blowers,  are 
intent  on  admonishing  their  assistants,  who  are 
striving  to  get  up  the  wind-supply,  which  their 


Fig.  6. 


neglect  has  apparently  allowed  to  run  out.  The 
four  bellows  are  blown  in  a  manner  which  we 
here  meet  with  for  the  first  time — namely, 
through  the  intervention  of  handles  instead  of 
directly  by  the  hands;  and  as  in  so  small  an 
organ  there  could  not  have  been  room  for  four 
persons  to  compress  the  wind  by  standing  upon 
the  bellows,  we  may  infer  that  they  were  loaded 
with  weights  in  the  manner  that  has  generally 
been  supposed  not  to  have  been  introduced  until 
some  centuries  later. 

At  the  end  of  the  10th  century  several  organs 
existed  in  Germany  (St.  Paul's,  Erfurt ;  St. 
James's,  Magdeburg ;  and  Halberstadt  cathedral), 
which,  although  small  and  unpretending  instru- 
ments, were  objects  of  much  astonishment  and 
attraction  at  the  time. 

In  the  nth  century  we  find  a  treatise  on 
the  construction  of  organs,  included  in  a  larger 
work  on  Divers  Arts,  by  a  monk  and  priest  of 
the  name  of  Theophilus,  which  is  of  consider- 
able interest  as  showing  the  exact  state  of  the 
art  of  organ-making  at  that  period;  the  more 
so  as  even  the  existence  of  such  a  tract  was  un- 
known to  all  the  historians,  foreign  or  English, 
who  wrote  on  the  subject,  until  it  was  discovered 
by  Mr.  Hendrie,  who  published  a  translation 
of  it  in  1847.*  It  is  too  long  to  quote  in 
extenso,  and  is  also  rather  obscure  in  parts; 
but  the  following  particulars  may  be  gathered 
from  it : — that  the  slide-box  was  made  two  and  a 
half  feet  in  length,  and  rather  more  than  one  foot 
in  breadth  ;  that  the  pipes  were  placed  upon  its 
surface ;  that  the  compass  consisted  of  7  or  8 
notes;  that  the  length  of  the  slide-box  was 
measured  out  equally  for  the  different  notes 
or  slides,  and  not  on  a  gradually  decreasing 
scale  as  the  pipes  became  smaller,  since  the  play- 
ing-slides  would  not  in  that  case  have  been  of  one 
width  or  at  one  distance  apart ;  that  the  organ 
was  played  by  these  movable  slides ;  that  each 
slide  worked  in  little  side-slits,  like  the  lid  of  a 
box  of  dominos ;  that  there  were  two  or  perhaps 
even  more  pipes  to  each  note ;  that  the  projecting 

*  ' Theophill,  qui  et  Bugerus,  Fresbyterl  et  HonachI  I.lbri  III.,  da 
Dlversis  Artibus.  Opera  et  Studio  Bobertl  Hendrie.  Londini,  Jo- 
hannes Murray,  HDCCOXLVII.  8vo.' 


578 


ORGAN. 


'  tongue '  of  each  slide  was  marked  with  a  letter 
to  indicate  to  which  note  it  belonged — a  custom 
that  continued  in  use  for  centuries  afterwards  (as 
for  instance  in  the  Halberstadt  organ  finished 
in  1361 ;  and  in  the  old  organ  in  the  church  of 
St.^Egidien,  in  Brunswick,  built  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  15th  century,  and  illustrated  farther  on) ; 
that  a  hole  was  cut  through  the  slide  under  each 
pipe  about  an  inch  and  a  half  across,  for  the 
passage  of  the  wind ;  that  all  the  pipes  of  a  note 
sounded  together;  that  a  note  was  sounded  by 
the  slide  being  pushed  in,  and  silenced  by  its 
being  drawn  forward;  and  that  in  the  front  of 
each  slide,  immediately  behind  the  handle  or 
tongue,  a  narrow  hole  about  two  inches  long  was 
cut,  in  which  was  fixed  a  copper-headed  nail, 
which  regulated  the  motion  of  the  slide  and  pre- 
vented its  being  drawn  out  too  far. 

The  following  illustration,  deduced  from  Theo- 
philus's  description,  shows  the  slide,  and  three 
passages  for  wind  to  as  many  pipes  above.  The 
slide  intercepts  the  wind,  but  will  allow  it  to  pass 
on  being  moved  so  that  its  openings,  shown  by 
the  unshaded  parts,  correspond  with  those  below 
and  above. 

Fig.  7. 


Gori'a  'Thesaurus  Diptychorum,'  1759,  vol.  ii. 
contains  a  most  interesting  engraving,  copied 
from  an  ancient  MS.,  said  to  be  as  old  as  the 
time  of  Charlemagne,  which  shows  a  person  play- 
ing upon  an  instrument  of  the  Theophilus  type. 

Fig.  8. 


But  of  all  the  information  given  by  Theophilus, 
the  most  important,  because  previously  unknown 
and  unsuspected,  is  that  which  relates  to  the 
finishing  of  the  pipes  so  as  to  produce  different 
qualities  of  tone.  They  were  made  of  the  finest 
copper ;  and  the  formation  of  a  pipe  being 
completed,  Theophilus  thus  proceeds  :  '  He  (the 
maker)  can  bring  it  (the  pipe)  to  his  mouth  and 
blow  at  first  slightly,  then  more,  and  then 
strongly;   and,  according  to  what  he  discerns 


ORGAN. 

by  hearing,  he  can  arrange  the  sound,  so  that  if 
he  wish  it  strong  the  opening  is  made  wider ; 
but  if  slighter,  it  is  made  narrower.  In  this 
order  all  the  pipes  are  made.'  Here  we  see  that 
the  means  for  producing  a  fuller  tone  by  a  wide 
or  high  mouth,  and  a  more  delicate  sound  by  a 
narrower  or  lower  one,  were  well  known  in  the 
nth  century;  and  that  the  manner  of  testing 
the  '  speech  by  blowing  the  pipe  with  the  mouth 
in  various  ways,  is  precisely  that  often  em- 
ployed by  the  '  voicer '  of  the  present  day,  when 
'  regulating '  or  '  finishing '  a  stop.  It  is  worthy 
of  observation  that  although  Theophilus  inci- 
dentally recognises  an  addition  to  the  number  of 
pipes  to  a  note  as  one  means  of  increasing  the 
utility  of  the  organ,  he  as  distinctly  indicates  its 
range  or  compass  as  simply  seven  or  eight  notes. 
It  would  have  been  of  great  importance  had  he 
mentioned  the  names  of  the  sounds  which  formed 
a  sufficient  scale  for  the  accompaniment  of  the 
chants  of  his  day.  His  record,  as  a  priest  and 
monk,  as  well  as  an  organ-maker,  would  have 
been  most  valuable. 

We  have  intentionally  introduced  the  account 
of  Theophilus  somewhat  before  its  due  chronolo- 
gical place,  as  it  materially  assists  in  elucidating 
the  description  of  the  remarkable  organ  erected 
in  Winchester  Cathedral  in  the  10th  century  by 
order  of  Bishop  Elphege  (died  95 1),  and  described 
in  a  poem  by  a  monk  of  the  name  of  Wulstan  who 
died  in  963.  It  is  ot  further  use  in  this  place, 
since  Wulstan's  description  has  up  to  this  time 
been  a  great  puzzle  to  most  writers  on  the  history 
of  the  organ. 

The  following  is  a  translation  of  the  portion  of 
the  Latin  poem  with  which  we  are  concerned, 
as  given  by  Mr.  Wackerbarth  in  his  '  Music  and 
the  Anglo-Saxons,'  pp.  12-15. 

Such  organs  as  you  have  built  are  seen  nowhere, 
fabricated  on  a  double  ground.  Twice  six  bellows  above 
are  ranged  in  a  row,  and  fourteen  lie  below.  These,  by 
alternate  blasts,  supply  an  immense  quantity  of  wind, 
and  are  worked  by  seventy  strong  men,  labouring  with 
their  arms,  covered  with  perspiration,  each  inciting  his 
companions  to  drive  the  wind  up  with  all  his  strength, 
that  the  full-bosomed  box  may  speak  with  its  four 
hundred  pipes  which  the  hand  of  the  organist  governs. 
Some  when  closed  he  opens,  others  when  open  he  closes, 
as  the  individual  nature  of  the  varied  sound  requires. 
Two  brethren  (religious)  of  concordant  spirit  sit  at  the 
instrument,  and  each  manages  his  own  alphabet.  There 
are,  moreover,  hidden  holes  in  the  forty  tongues,  and 
each  has  ten  (pipes)  in  their  due  order.  Some  are  con- 
ducted hither,  others  thither,  each  preserving  the  proper 
point  (or  situation)  for  its  own  note.  They  strike  the 
seven  differences  of  joyous  sounds,  adding  the  music  of 
the  lyric  semitone.  Like  thunder  the  iron  tones  batter 
the  ear,  so  that  it  may  receive  no  sound  but  that  alone. 
To  such  an  amount  does  it  reverberate,  echoing  in  every 
direction,  that  every  one  stops  with  his  hand  his  gaping 
ears,  being  in  no  wise  able  to  draw  near  and  bear  the 
sound,  which  so  many  combinations  produce.  The  music 
is  heard  throughout  the  town,  and  the  flying  fame  thereof 
is  gone  out  over  the  whole  country. 

From  this  we  learn  that  the  organ  was  built 
in  two  stages,  as  are  most  of  those  of  the  present 
day,  but  of  which  no  previous  example  is  met 
with  ;  the  chief  department; — corresponding  with 
the  Great  organ  of  after-time,  and  fed  by  fourteen 
bellows — being  below,  and  the  two  smaller  de- 
partments— answering  to  the  Choir  and  Echo 
organs  of  later  times,  and  each  supplied  by  six 


ORGAN. 

bellows — being  above.  Several  of  the  pipes  were 
bo  far  of  an  exceptionally  large  size,  probably 
foreshadowing  the  Double  Diapason  of  subsequent 
times,  that  some  were  'conducted  hither,  others 
thither ' ;  that  is  to  say,  in  organ-builders'  lan- 
guage, they  were  'conveyanced  off'  pipes,  and  were 
probably  brought  into  view  and  so  grouped  as  to 
form  an  ornamental  front,  exactly  as  in  the  present 
day.  The '  tongues '  were  perforated  with '  hidden 
holes,'  after  the  manner  explained  by  Theophilus ; 
and  there  were  the  remarkable  number  of  ten 
pipes  to  each  playing-slide  '  in  their  due  order,' 
whatever  that  ■  order '  may  have  been. 

The  organ  had  a  total  number  of  forty  tongues  ; 
and  as  the  organist  had  the  help  of  two  assist- 
ants, and  each  '  managed  his  own  alphabet,'  the 
lettered  tongues  must  have  been  assorted  into 
three  sets.  The  remarks  of  the  same  writer  on 
the  voicing  of  pipes  show  it  to  be  quite  proba- 
ble that  the  three  divisions  of  this  organ  pro- 
duced as  many  different  strengths  of  tone,  like 
the  separate  manuals  of  a  modern  instrument. 
The  gamut  of  the  instrument  consisted  of  the 
seven  diatonic  sounds,  with  'the  music  of  the 
lyric  semitone  (B  fiat)  added.'  This  last  expres- 
sion is  interesting,  as  showing  not  only  that  the 
introduction  of  the  B  flat  was  unusual,  but  that 
its  effect  was  musical.  It  modified  the  tritone 
which  existed  between  F  and  B. 

Sufficient  is  indicated  in  this  account  to  enable 
one,  after  some  thought,  to  offer  a  suggestion  as 
to  the  most  probable  range  of  the  three  sets  of 
playing-slides  of  this  Winchester  organ.  A  series 
of  eleven  diatonic  sounds,  from  C  to  F,  making 
with  the  B  flat  (lyric  semitone)  twelve,  would 
be  all  that  was  required  by  the  old  chants  as  an 
accompaniment,  and  would  dispose  of  thirty-six 
of  the  notes.  The  chief  alphabet  may  not  im- 
probably have  descended  one  note  lower,  to  Bfl, 
and  three  higher,  to  Bb,  a  compass  that  was  after- 
wards frequently  adopted  by  the  mediaeval  organ- 
makers  ;  or  may  have  had  two  extra  diatonic  notes 
both  above  and  below,  extending  the  range  to 
two  octaves,  namely  from  A  to  A,  corresponding 
with  the  ancient  'Disjunct  or  Greater  System 
Complete.'  In  either  case  the  exact  number  of 
'  forty  tongues'  would  thus  be  accounted  for. 
These  assumed  ranges  are  exhibited  in  the  fol- 
lowing diagram. 


ORGAN. 


579 


The  description  of  the  organist's  opening  or 
closing  the  holes  'as  the  individual  nature  of 
the  varied  sound  requires,'  clearly  indicates  that 
he  manipulated  for  single  notes  only ;  in  fact, 
with  slides  he  could  for  successive  Bounds  do  no 
more  than  draw  forward  with  one  hand  as  he 
pushed  home  with  the  other. 

The  contrast  from  'loud*  to  'soft'  and  back, 
which  from  an  organ  was  probably  heard  for  the 
first  time  in  this  example,  would  be  obtained  by 


'the  organist'  himself  ceasing,  and  letting  one 
of  his  assistants  take  up  the  strain,  and  then  by 
his  again  resuming  it;  but  whether  the  three, 
when  simultaneously  engaged,  still  played  the 
melody  only,  or  whether  they  occasionally  '  bat- 
tered the  ears'  of  the  congregation  with  some  of 
the  hideous  progressions  instituted  by  Hucbald 
in  his  'Organum'  in  the  ioth  century,  it  probably 
now  would  not  be  easy  to  ascertain.  If  the  latter, 
it  is  quite  possible  that  the  chants  of  the  period 
were  sometimes  clothed  in  such  harmony  as  the 
following  ;  the  '  organist'  playing  the  plain-song, 
and  each  of  the  attendants  one  of  the  under 
parts: — 

A     -5"     A       .£=2.     s>.  _ 

-•-       -*       -•-         -•-      ^^     -»-     -^- 


m 


If  the  din  caused  by  the  zealous  organist  and  his 
'two  brethren  (religious)  of  concordant  spirit' 
was  such  that  the  tone  '  reverberated  and  echoed 
in  every  direction,  so  that  no  one  was  able  to 
draw  near  and  hear  the  sound,  but  had  to  stop 
with  his  hands  his  gaping  ears,'  which  could 
'receive  no  sound  but  that  alone,'  it  is  evident 
that  the  race  of  noisy  organ  accompanyists  dates 
much  farther  back  than  has  generally  been  sup- 
posed, and  existed  before  'lay'  performers  were 
heard  of. 


We  now  arrive  at  a  period  when  a  vast  im- 
provement was  made  in  the  manner  of  construct- 
ing the  organ.  It  has  been  shown  that  when 
the  Winchester  organ  was  made,  and  onwards 
to  the  date  of  the  treatise  by  Theophilus,  the 
method  of  admitting  wind  to,  or  of  excluding  it 
from  the  pipes  of  a  note,  was  by  a  slide,  which 
alternately  covered  and  exposed  the  underside  of 
the  holes  leading  up  to  its  pipes.  The  frictional 
resistance  of  the  slides,  at  all  times  trying,  would 
inevitably  be  increased  by  their  swelling  in  damp 
weather  and  becoming  tight ;  they  would  cer- 
tainly have  to  be  lengthened  for  every  pipe  added, 
which  would  make  them  heavier  and  harder  to 
move  with  the  hand ;  and  they  involved  the  two- 
fold task,  already  mentioned,  of  simultaneously 
thrusting  one  slide  back  while  another  was  being 
drawn  out.  These  circumstances,  added  to  the 
fact  that  a  given  resistance  can  be  overcome  with 
less  difficulty  by  a  blow  than  by  a  pull  with  the 
fingers  and  thumb,  must  have  directed  attention 
to  the  possibility  of  substituting  pressure  for  trac- 
tion in  the  manipulation  of  the  organ.  Thus  it  is 
recorded  that  towards  the  end  of  the  nth  century 
huge  keys,  or  rather  levers,  began  to  be  used  as  the 
means  for  playing  the  instrument ;  and  however 
unwieldy  these  may  have  been,  they  were  never- 
theless the  first  rude  steps  towards  providing  the 
organ  with  a  keyboard.  A  spring-box,  too,  of  some 
kind  was  almost  of  necessity  also  an  improvement 
of  the  same  period ;  for  without  some  restoring 
power,  a  key,  on  being  knocked  down,  would  have 
remained  there  until  picked  up ;  and  that  restor- 
ing power  would  be  the  most  readily  supplied  by 
a  spring  or  springs.  In  some  of  the  early  spring- 
Ppa 


580 


ORGAN. 


ORGAN. 


boxes  a  separate  valve  seems  to  have  been  placed 
against  the  hole  leading  up  to  every  pipe  of  each 
note,  where  it  was  held  in  position  by  an  elastic 
appliance  of  the  nature  just  named.  The  valves 
were  brought  under  outward  control  by  strings  or 
cords,  which  passed  through  the  bottom  of  the 
spring-box,  and  were  attached  to  the  key  lying  in 
a  direct  line  beneath.  As  the  keys  must  have 
been  hung  at  their  inner  end,  and  have  had  their 
greatest  fall  in  front,  the  smallest  pipes  of  a  note 
were  no  doubt  from  the  first  placed  quite  inside, 
and  the  largest  in  front,  with  those  of  graduating 
scale  occupying  an  intermediate  position  in  pro- 
portion to  their  size  ;  and  thus  the  small  valves, 
opening  a  lesser  distance,  were  strung  where  the 
key  had  the  least  fall,  and  the  larger  pallets 
where  they  had  the  greatest  motion. 

The  late  Herr  Edmund  Schulze,  of  Paulinzelle, 
about  twenty  years  ago  made  for  the  present 
writer  a  rough  sketch  of  the  spring-box  of  an 
organ  about  400  years  old  which  he  assisted  in 
taking  to  pieces  when  he  was  quite  a  youth ;  from 
which  sketch  the  drawing  for  the  following  illus- 
tration was  prepared. 

Fro.  9. 


The  early  keys  are  described  as  being  from 
three  to  five  inches  wide,  or  even  more ;  an  inch 
and  a  half  thick  ;  from  a  foot  and  a  half  to  a  yard 
or  more  in  length,  with  a  fall  sometimes  of  as 
much  as  a  foot  in  depth.  They  must  at  times 
therefore  have  been  as  large  as  the  treadle  of  a 
knife-grinder's  machine.  Their  size  and  amount 
of  resistance  would  on  first  thought  appear  to 
have  been  most  unnecessarily  great  and  clumsy ; 
but  this  is  soon  accounted  for.  We  have  seen 
that  the  gauge  of  the  keys  was  influenced  by  the 
size  of  pipe  necessary  for  the  lowest  note.  Their 
width  would  be  increased  when  the  compass  was 
extended  downwards  with  larger  pipes ;  and  their 
length  would  be  increased  with  the  number  of 
valves  that  had  to  be  strung  to  them ;  while  the 
combined  resistance  of  the  many  strong  springs 
of  the  larger  specimens  would  render  the  touch 
insensible  to  anything  short  of  a  thump. 

It  was  in  the  Cathedral  at  Magdeburg,  towards 
the  end  of  the  century  of  which  we  have  been 
speaking  (the  nth),  that  the  earliest  organ  with 
a  keyboard  of  which  we  have  any  authentic  re- 
cord, was  erected.  It  is  said  to  have  had  a  com- 
pass of  sixteen  notes, — the  same  range  as  that  of 
our  assumed  'chief  alphabet'  of  the  Winchester 


organ, — but  no  mention  is  made  as  to  what  the 
notes  were. 

In  the  1 2  th  century  the  number  of  keys  was 
sometimes  increased  ;  and  every  key  further  re- 
ceived the  addition  of  two  or  three  pipes,  sound- 
ing the  fifth  and  octave  to  the  unison.  Ac- 
cording to  Seidel *  (p.  8)  a  third  and  tenth  were 
added.  Provided  a  rank  of  pipes  sounding  the 
sub-octave  were  present,  the  fifth,  octave,  and 
tenth  would  sound  at  the  distance  of  a  twelfth, 
fifteenth,  and  seventeenth  thereto,  which  would 
be  in  acoustic  proportion ;  but  a  rank  producing  a 
major  third  above  the  unison  as  an  accompani- 
ment to  a  plain-chant  conveying  the  impression 
of  a  minor  key,  must  have  sounded  so  atrocious, 
that  it  would  probably  be  introduced  only  to  be 
removed  on  the  earliest  opportunity,  unless  a 
rank  of  pipes  sounding  the  second  octave  below 
the  unison  (afterwards  the  32-feet  stop),  were 
also  present.  Although  the  number  of  pipes  to 
each  key  thus  continued  to  be  added  to,  no  means 
was  devised  for  silencing  or  selecting  any  of  the 
several  ranks  or  tiers.  All  sounded  together,  and 
there  was  no  escaping  from  the  strong  incessant 
'Full  Organ'  effect. 

There  is  a  curious  account  written  by  Lootens* 
— an  author  but  little  known — of  a  Dutch  organ 
said  to  have  been  erected  in  the  church  of  St. 
Nicholas  at  Utrecht  in  the  year  1 1 20.  The  organ 
had  two  manuals  and  pedals.  The  compass  of  the 
/,y         2  former  was  from  the  low  F  of 

*S£  (fly1^-  the  bass  voice,  which  would  be 
*  *^  "    represented  by  a  pipe  of  6  feet 

standard  length,  up  to  the  Bb  of  the  soprano, 
namely,  two  octaves  and  a  half.  The  chief 
manual  had  twelve  pipes  to  each  key,  including 
one  set  of  which  the  largest  pipe  would  be  1 2  feet 
in  length,3  and  which  therefore  was  identical  with 
the  Double  Open  Diapason  of  subsequent  times. 
The  soundboard  was  without  grooves  or  draw- 
stops,  consequently  there  were  probably  nearly  as 
many  springs  for  the  organ-beater  to  overcome  as 
there  were  pipes  to  sound.  The  second  manual 
was  described  as  havirig  a  few  movable  draw- 
stops  ;  and  the  pedals  one  independent  stop, — 
oddly  enough  a  Trumpet, — details  and  peculi- 
arities which  strongly  point  to  the  last  two  de- 
partments having  been  additions  made  at  a  much 
later  period ;  for  a  '  double  organ '  is  not  known 
to  have  existed  for  two  centuries  after  the  date 
at  which  this  one  is  said  to  have  been  completed ; 
still  less  a  triple  one. 

In  the  13th  century  the  use  of  the  organ  in 
divine  service  was,  according  to  Seidel,  pp.  80-9, 
deemed  profane  and  scandalous  by  the  Greek  and 
Latin  clergy,  just  as  in  the  17th  century  the 
instrument  was  called  a  '  squeaking  abomina- 
tion' by  the  English  Puritans.      The  Greek 


»  Joharm  Julius  Seidel,  "Die  Orgel  und  lhr  Bau '  (Breslau  1842). 

*  '  Nouveau  manuel  complet  de  1'Organlste '  (Paris). 

•  No  record  Is  known  to  exist  as  to  the  pitch  to  which  the  very  early 
organs  were  tuned,  or  whether  they  were  tuned  to  any  uniform  pitch 
whatever,  which  is  extremely  doubtful.  In  referring  to  the  lowest 
pipe  as  being  12  feet  In  speaking  length,  a  system  of  pipe  measure- 
ment h  made  use  of  which  is  not  known  to  have  been  adopted  until 
centuries  after  the  date  at  which  this  organ  Is  stated  to  have  been 
made. 


•       ORGAN. 

Church  does  not  tolerate  its  use  even  at  the 
present  day. 

Early  in  the  14th  century — in  the  year  131 2 — 
an  organ  was  built  in  Germany  for  Marinus 
Sanutus,  a  celebrated  Venetian  Patrician,  which 
was  erected  in  the  church  of  St.  Raphael,  in 
Venice.  It  excited  great  admiration ;  and  as  it 
no  doubt  contained  all  the  newest  improvements, 
it  was  a  pleasing  return  to  make  for  the  organ 
sent  from  Venice  to  Aix-la-Chapelle  nearly  five 
hundred  years  before. 

One  of  the  greatest  improvements  effected  in 
the  organ  in  the  14th  century  was  the  gradual 
introduction  of  the  four  remaining  chromatic 
semitones.  Fg  was  added  in  the  early  part  of 
the  century;  then  followed  Cf  and  Eb  ;  and  next 
GJ.  The  Bb  already  existed  in  the  Winchester 
and  other  medieval  instruments.  By  Dom  Bedos 
the  introduction  of  these  four  notes  is  assigned 
to  the  13th  century ;  while  others  place  the  first 
appearance  of  three  of  them  as  late  as  the  15th. 
Prsetorius  gives  them  an  intermediate  date — the 
middle  of  the  14th  century;  and  he  is  undoubt- 
edly correct,  as  they  were  certainly  in  the  Hal- 
berstadt  organ,  finished  in  the  year  1361. 

Dom  Bedos  refers  to  a  curious  MS.  of  the 
14th  century  in  the  Bibliotheque  Royale,  as  af- 
fording much  further  information  respecting  the 
organ  of  that  period.  This  MS.  records  that 
the  clavier  of  that  epoch  sometimes  comprised 
as  many  as  31  keys,  namely,  from  B  up  to  F, 
two  octaves  and  a  fifth;  that  ,— - 
wooden  rollers,  resembling  those  *&-£ 
used  until  within  the  last  few 
years  in  English  organs,  were  employed  to 
transmit  the  movement  of  the  keys  to  the  valves ; 
that  the  bass  pipes  were  distributed,  right  and 
left,  in  the  form  of  wings ;  and  that  those  of  the 
top  notes  were  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  instru- 
ment, as  they  now  are. 

To  appreciate  the  importance  of  the  improve- 
ments just  mentioned,  and  others  that  are  neces- 
sarily implied,  it  is  necessary  to  remember  that 
bo  long  as  it  was  a  custom  in  organ-making  to 
have  the  pipes  above  and  the  keys  below  placed 
parallel  one  to  the  other,  every  little  expansion 
of  the  organ  involved  an  aggravation  of  the  un- 
wieldy size  of  the  keys,  at  the  same  time  that  the 
convenient  reach  of  the  player  set  most  rigid 
bounds  to  the  legitimate  expansion  of  the  organ, 
and  fixed  the  extent  of  its  limits.  The  ingenious 
contrivance  of  the  roller-board  at  once  left  the 
dimensions  of  the  organ  free  to  be  extended 
laterally,  wholly  irrespective  of  the  measure  of 
the  keyboard. 

This  emancipation  was  necessary  before  the 
additional  semitones  could  be  conveniently  ac- 
commodated ;  for  as  they  would  materially  in- 
crease the  number  of  pipes  in  each  rank,  so  they 
would  require  wider  space  to  stand  in,  a  larger 
spring-box,  such  as  was  then  made,  to  stand 
upon,  and  rollers  equal  in  length  to  the  sum  of 
the  distance  to  which  the  pipes  were  removed 
out  of  a  parallel  with  each  key. 

With  regard  to  the  distribution  of  the  pipes, 
they  had  generally  been  placed  in  a  single  row, 


ORGAN. 


581 


as  shown  in  medieval  drawings,  but  as  the 
invention  of  the  chromatic  notes  nearly  doubled 
the  number  in  the  septave — increasing  them 
from  seven  to  twelve — half  the  series  would  now 
form  nearly  as  long  a  row  as  the  entire  diatonic 
range  previously  did.  The  two  smallest  pipes 
were  therefore  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  organ, 
and  the  remainder  alternately  on  each  side; 
and  their  general  outline — spreading  outwards 
and  upwards — gave  them  the  appearance  of  a 
pair  of  outstretched  wings.  The  '  zig-zag '  plan- 
tation of  pipes  was  doubtless  a  subsequent  ar- 
rangement. 

In  1350  Poland  appears  in  connection  with 
our  subject.  In  that  year  an  organ  was  made 
by  a  monk  at  Thorn  in  that  kingdom,  which 
had  22  keys.  As  this  is  the  exact  number 
possessed  by  the  Halberstadt  organ,  completed 
eleven  years  later,  it  is  possible  that  the  Thorn 
organ  may  have  been  an  anticipation  of  that  at 
Halberstadt,  as  far  as  the  chromatic  keyboard  is 
concerned. 


Up  to  this  time  (14th  century),  we  have  met 
with  nothing  to  indicate  that  the  organ  had  been 
employed  or  designed  for  any  other  purpose  than 
the  execution  of  a  primitive  accompaniment  to 
the  plainsong;  but  the  instrument  which  now 
comes  under  notice  breaks  entirely  fresh  ground, 
and  marks  a  new  starting  point  in  the  use  of  the 
organ  as  well  as  its  construction  and  develop- 
ment. The  Halberstadt  Cathedral  organ,  al- 
though, strictly  speaking,  a  '  single  organ '  only, 
with  a  compass  of  scarcely  three  octaves,  had 
three  claviers,  and  pipes  nearly  equal  in  size  to 
any  that  have  ever  been  subsequently  made.  It 
was  built  by  Nicholas  Faber,  a  priest,  and  was 
finished  on  Feb.  23,  1361.  Our  information  re- 
garding it  is  obtained  from  the  description  of 
Michael  Praetorius  in  his  '  Syntagma  musicum,* 
It  had  22  keys,  14  diatonic,  and  8  chromatic, 
extending  from  B  Q  up  to  A,  and 
20  bellows  blown  by  10  men.  Its 
largest  pipe,  B,  stood  in  front,  and 
was  3 1  Brunswick  feet  in  length,  and  3^  ft.  in  cir- 
cumference, or  about  14  inches  in  diameter.  This 
note  would  now  be  marked  as  the  semitone  below 
the  C  of  32  feet,  and  the  pipe  would  naturally 
be  expected  to  exceed  the  pipe  of  that  note  in 
length ;  but  the  pitch  of  the  Halberstadt  organ 
is  known  to  have  been  more  than  a  tone  sharper 
than  the  highest  pitch  in  use  in  England  at  the 
present  day,  which  accounts  for  the  want  of  length 
in  its  Bt|  pipe.1 

In  the  Halberstadt  instrument  a  successful 
endeavour  was  made  for  the  first  time  to  obtain 
some  relief  from  the  constant  '  full  organ '  effect, 

1  As  the  history  of  musical  Pitch  Is  treated  of  under  Its  proper 
head.  It  Is  only  necessary  here  to  refer  briefly  to  the  remarkable  fact 
that  the  pitch  of  old  organs  sometimes  varied  to  no  less  an  extent 
than  half  an  octave,  and  that  too  at  one  and  the  same  date,  as  shown 
by  Arnold  Schlick  In  1611.  One  reason  given  for  this  great  shifting 
of  the  pitch  was,  that  the  organ  should  be  tuned  to  suit  higher  or 
lower  voices,  without  the  organist  having  to  '  play  the  chromatics, 
which  was  not  convenient  to  every  one ' ;  a  difficulty  that  must  have 
arisen  as  much  from  the  construction  of  the  keyboards,  and  the  un- 
equal tuning,  as  from  lack  of  skill  in  the  performer  to  use  them. 


582 


ORGAN. 


which  was  all  that  had  previously  been  com- 
monly produced.  For  this  purpose  a  means  was 
devised  for  enabling  the  pipes  standing  in  front 
(afterwards  the  Principal,  Praestant,  or  Open  Dia- 
pason), and  the  larger  pipes  in  the  side  towers 
(subsequently  part  of  the  Great  Bass  Principal, 
or  32-feet  Diapason),  to  be  used  separately  and 
independently  of  the  other  tiers  of  pipes,  which 
were  located  behind,  and  hence  called  the  Hinter- 
satz,  or  'hinder-position.'  This  result  was  ob- 
tained by  introducing  three  claviers  instead  of 
one  only  ;  the  upper  one  for  the  full  organ,  con- 
sisting of  all  the  tiers  of  pipes  combined ;  the 
middle  one,  of  the  same  compass  as  the  upper, 
and  called  '  Discant,'  for  the  open  diapason  alone ; 
and  the  lower  one,  with  a  compass  of  an  octave, 
from  \  (Bt])  to  H  (Bl]),  for  the  lower  portion  of 
the  bass  diapason.  The  result  of  this  arrange- 
ment was  that  a  change  from  forte  to  -piano 
could  be  obtained  by  playing  with  the  right  hand 
on  the  middle  manual  and  the  left  hand  on  the 
lower.  It  was  even  possible  for  the  organist  to 
strike  out  the  plainsong,  forte,  on  the  Hintersatz 
with  his  left  fist,  and  play  a  primitive  counter- 
point (discant)  with  the  right.  Praetorius  men- 
tions incidentally  that  the  large  bass  pipes,  which 
sounded  the  third  octave  below  the  unison,  would 
have  been  scarcely  definable,  but  being  accom- 
panied by  the  numerous  pipes  of  other  pitches 
in  the  general  mixture  organ,  they  became  effec- 
tive. A  rank  of  pipes  sounding  a  '  third '  above 
the  unison,  like  that  mentioned  by  Seidel,  and 
already  quoted,  might  very  well  have  been  among 
these. 

The  claviers  of  the  Halberstadt  organ  pre- 
sented several  interesting  features ;  and  being 
the  earliest  examples  of  chromatic  keyboards 
known,  are  here  engraved  from  Praetorius. 

Fio.  10. 


Fig.  11. 

'-•           "-: 

-/I^Lfc;  JL>$\r~     ~     i 

r    i 

^E^W^&K%E%&m^m^l 

A-  ~ 

The  keys  of  the  Halberstadt  organ  were  made 
at  a  time  when  the  five  chromatic  notes  —  or  I 


ORGAN. 

as  we  now  call  them,  the  'sharps  and  flats'— 
were  placed  in  a  separate  row  from  the  '  naturals,' 
almost  as  distinctly  so  as  a  second  manual  of  the 
present  day.  The  keys  of  the  upper  (Hintersatz) 
and  middle  (Discant)  claviers  (Fig.  10)  measured 
four  inches  from  centre  to  centre,  and  the  diatonic 
notes  were  ornamentally  shaped  and  lettered,  thus 
preserving  the  'alphabetic'  custom  observed  in 
the  10th-century  organ  at  Winchester,  and  de- 
scribed by  Theophilus  in  the  nth.  The  chro- 
matic notes  were  square-shaped,  and  had  their 
surface  about  two  and  a  half  inches  above  that 
of  the  diatonic,  were  two  inches  in  width,  and 
one  inch  in  thickness,  and  had  a  fall  of  about  an 
inch  and  a  quarter.  The  chromatic  keys  were 
no  doubt  pressed  down  by  the  three  inner  fingers, 
and  the  diatonic  by  the  wrist  end  of  the  hand.  The 
diatonic  notes  of  the  lower  clavier  (Fig.  n),  eight 
in  number,  namely  t|  (B  ft,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  A,  H 
(Bl]),  were  quite  differently  formed,  being  square- 
fronted,  two  inches  in  breadth,  and  with  a  space 
of  about  the  same  width  on  each  side.  These 
keys  were  evidently  thrust  down  by  the  left  hand, 
by  pressure  from  the  shoulder,  like  handles,  the 
space  on  each  side  being  left  for  the  fingers  and 
thumb  to  pass  through.  This  clavier  had  four 
chromatic  notes,  Cj,  Eb,  Ff ,  and  G  J,  but  curiously 
enough,  not  Bb,  although  that  was  the  'lyric  semi- 
tone '  of  which  so  much  is  heard  long  before. 

The  contrast  between  the  forte  and  piano 
effect  on  the  Halberstadt  organ — from  the  full 
organ  to  a  single  set  of  pipes — must  have  been 
very  violent ;  but  the  experiment  had  the  good 
effect  of  directing  attention  to  the  fact  that  a 
change,  if  less  marked,  would  be  grateful  and  use- 
ful ;  for  Seidel  (p.  9)  records  that  from  this  time 
instruments  were  frequently  made  comprising 
two  manual  organs,  the  upper  one,  interestingly 
enough,  being  named  '  discant ' ;  and  he  further 
gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  this  kind  of  construc- 
tion probably  led  to  the  invention  of  Couplers. 

He  likewise  mentions  that  large  churches  were 
often  provided  with  a  second  and  smaller  organ  ; 
and  Praetorius  speaks  of  primitive  little  organs 
which  were  hung  up  against  a  column  in  the 
church '  like  swallows  nests,'  and  contained  twelve 
or  thirteen  notes  almost  or  entirely  diatonic, 
thus, 

B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F;  or 
C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  A,  Bb,C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  A. 
Dom  Bedos  relates  that  in  the  14th  century 
an  organ  was  erected  in  the  church  of  St.  Cy- 
prian, at  Dijon,  which  not  only  had  two  manuals, 
but  had  the  choir  organ  in  front.  The  front 
pipes  were  made  of  tin,  those  inside  of  lead  ; 
there  were  said  to  be  soundboard  grooves,  covered 
underneath  with  white  leather ;  three  bellows  4 
feet  7  inches  long,  and  2  feet  1  inch  wide ;  and  an 
arrangement  by  which  a  continuous  wind  could 
be  provided  from  one  bellows  only.  This,  how- 
ever, is  manifestly  the  account  of  an  organ  which 
had  received  improvements  long  after  its  con- 
struction, such  additions  afterwards  coming  to  be 
described  as  part  of  the  original  work. 


ORGAN. 

We  now  come  to  the  15th  century,  which 
was  prolific  in  its  improvements  of  the  spring- 
box,  keys,  pedals,  wind-supply,  etc.  And  first 
of  the  Spring-box. 

The  first  endeavour  was  to  obtain  more  than 
one  strength  of  tone  from  the  same  manual.  It 
appears  that  to  establish  the  power  of  prevent- 
ing some  of  the  sets  of  pipes  (doubtless  those 
that  afterwards  constituted  the  mixture  and 
other  bright-sounding  ranks)  from  speaking  when 
required  to  be  silent,  a  sliding  board  was  placed 
over  the  valves  that  opened  and  closed  the  en- 
trance for  the  wind  at  the  feet  of  those  pipes. 
The  remaining  tiers  of  pipes,  doubtless  those 
sounding  the  unison  (8),  octave  (4),  and  sub- 
octave  (16),  could  thus  be  left  in  readiness  to 
sound  alone  when  desired.  The  effect  of  this  con- 
trivance must  have  greatly  resembled  that  of  the 
'  shifting  movement '  of  subsequent  times. 

Two  distinct  effects  were  thus  obtained  from 
one  organ  and  one  set  of  keys  ;  and  tbe  question 
would  soon  arise,  '  if  two,  why  not  more  ? '  A 
further  division  of  the  organ-sound  soon  followed ; 
and  according  to  Praetorius  the  credit  of  first 
dividing  and  converting  the  Hintersatz  into  an 
Instrument  of  several  single  sets  of  pipes  (after- 
wards called  registers  or  stops)  is  due  to  a 
German  artificer  of  the  appropriate  name  of 
Timotheus,  who  constructed  a  soundboard  pos- 
sessing this  power  for  an  organ  which  he 
rebuilt  for  the  monastery  of  the  Bishop's  palace 
at  Wurtzburg. 

The  '  Spring  soundboard'  was  formed  in  the 
following  manner.  The  valves  of  each  note  were 
closed  in  on  each  side  by  two  diminutive  walls 
(soundboard  bars)  extending  from  the  back  to 
the  front  of  the  wind-box,  and,  together  with  the 
top  and  bottom,  forming  and  enclosing  each  valve 
within  a  separate  canal  (soundboard  groove)  of 
its  own.  The  entire  area  of  the  former  wind-box 
was  partitioned  off  in  this  manner,  and  occupied 
by  the  'bars'  and  'grooves'  of  the  newly  devised 
soundboard.  A  playing-valve  (soundboard  pallet) 
was  necessary  below  each  groove  to  admit  or  ex- 
clude wind.  These  were  collectively  enclosed 
within  a  box  (wind-chest)  now  added  to  fulfil  the 
duty  of  the  transformed  wind-box.  The  valves 
immediately  under  the  several  pipes  of  a  note 
were  no  longer  drawn  down  from  below  by  cords, 
but  were  pressed  down  from  above,  as  shown  in 
the  following  cut,  which  is  a  transverse  section 
of  a  small  spring  soundboard  for  three  stops. 
F10. 13. 


ORGAN. 


583 


A  metal  pin  passed  down  through  the  surface 
of  the  soundboard  and  rested  on  the  front  end 


of  the  'register-valve'  as  it  was  called.  A  move- 
ment or  draw-stop  was  provided,  on  drawing 
which  the  longitudinal  row  of  metal  pins  was 
pressed  down,  and  the  valves  lowered.  The  com- 
bined resistance  of  the  set  of  springs  beneath  the 
valves  was  very  considerable,  hence  great  force 
was  necessary  in  '  drawing  a  stop,'  which  had  to 
be  hitched  on  to  an  iron  bar  to  keep  it  '  out.' 
When  released  it  sprang  back  of  its  own  accord. 
The  set  of  pipes  of  which  the  register-valves  were 
open,  would  then  be  ready  for  use  ;  and  in  the 
woodcut  the  front  set  is  shown  as  being  thus 
prepared.  The  wind  would  be  admitted  into  the 
groove  by  drawing  down  the  soundboard  pallet, 
which  is  seen  immediately  below. 

By  this  means  the  power  was  created  of  using 
each  separate  set  of  pipes,  except  the  small  ones, 
singly  or  in  any  desired  combination,  so  that  the 
organ  could  be  played  loud  or  soft,  or  at  any  in- 
termediate strength  between  the  two  extremes ; 
and  they  now  for  the  first  time  received  distinc- 
tive names,  as  Principal  (Open  Diapason,  8  feet) ; 
Octave  (Principal,  4  feet);  Quint  (Twelfth,  2§ 
feet) ;  Super-octave  (Fifteenth,  2  feet) ;  etc. ; 
and  each  separate  series  was  then  called  a 
Register  (Stop).  The  smaller  sets  of  pipes  were 
left  to  be  used  in  a  group,  and  were  called  '  Mix- 
ture'1 (Sesquialtera,  etc.).  The  stops  sounding 
a  note  in  accordance  with  the  key  struck,  as  C 
on  the  C  key,  were  afterwards  called  Foundation- 
stops  ;  those  which  produced  a  different  sound, 
as  G  or  E  on  the  C  key,  were  named  Mutation- 
stops  ;  while  those  that  combined  the  two  classes 
of  sounds  were  distinguished  as  Compound  or 
Mixture  Stops. 

The  spring  soundboard  was  much  admired  by 
some  Hollanders ;  and  some  organ-builders  from 
the  Low  Countries,  as  well  as  from  Brabant,  went 
to  see  it,  and  constructed  soundboards  on  the 
same  system  for  some  time  afterwards. 

The  pipe-work,  however,  was  all  of  one  class, 
— open,  metal,  cylindrical,  and  of  full  propor- 
tionate scale — similar  in  general  model  to  the 
second  great  class  of  pipe  referred  to  at  the  com- 
mencement of  this  article  as  Open.  Great  there- 
fore as  was  the  gain  resulting  from  the  invention 
of  the  registers,  the  tone  still  remained  of  one 
general  character  or  quality.  It  then  occurred  to 
some  of  the  thinking  men  of  the  time  that  other 
qualities  of  tone  would  probably  ensue  if  modifica- 
tions were  made  either  in  the  shape,  proportion, 
outline,  or  material  of  the  pipes,  etc. ;  and  the 
experiments  justified  the  hypothesis. 

Stopped  pipes  (our  first  great  class)  were  made 
either  of  wood  closed  with  a  plug,  or  of  metal 
covered  with  a  sliding  cap;  and  so  a  soft  pleasing 
mild  tone  was  obtained.  Thus  originated  the 
Gedact  (Stopped  Diapason),  Bordun  (Bourdon), 
Klein-gedact  (Flute),  etc.  Some  Reed-stops  (our 
third  class)  were  also  invented  about  this  time, 

l  Dr.  Burner.  Dr.  Crotch,  Klesewetter,  and  other  writers,  took  con- 
siderable pains  to  ventilate  and  enforce  their  various  theories  as  to  the 
origin  of  the  Mixture-stop  in  an  organ  ;  but  they  all  omitted  to  re- 
member that  for  centuries  the  whole  organ  was  nothing  but  one 
huge  stop  of  the  kind ;  and  that  when  the  larger  sets  of  pipes  were 
separated  ofT  for  use,  the  Mixture  was  self-formed  out  of  the  residue, 
consisting  of  rows  of  little  pipes  that  were  thought  scarcely  worth  the 
trouble  of '  drawing  on '  separately. 


584 


ORGAN. 


as  the  Posaune  (Trombone),  Trumpet,  Vox 
humana,  etc.  Stops  composed  of  cylindrical  pipes 
of  small  diameter  were  likewise  constructed,  and 
made  to  produce  the  string-tone,  which  stops 
were  hence  called  Violone  (Double  Bass),  Viol 
di  gamba,  etc. ;  and  further  modifications  of  tone 
were  secured  by  either  making  the  pipes  taper 
upwards,  as  in  the  Spitz-note,  Gemshorn,  etc.,  or 
spread  out,  as  in  the  Dolcan.  Thus  was  brought 
about  as  great  a  contrast  in  the  organ  'tone-tints' 
as  there  is  between  the  graduated  but  similar 
tones  of  a  photograph  and  the  varied  tints  of  a 
coloured  drawing. 

In  the  course  of  the  15th  century  the  keys 
were  reduced  in  size  several  times,  as  fresh 
contrivances  for  manipulating  the  instrument 
were  from  time  to  time  thought  of,  or  new  re- 
quirements arose. 


An  early  improvement  consisted  in  combining 
the  '  long  and  short  keys '  on  one  manual,  and 
bo  far  reducing  their  size  that  they  could  be 
played  by  perhaps  a  couple  of  fingers  and  the 
thumb  alternately.  The  manuals  of  the  old 
organ  in  the  church  of  St.  ^Egidien,  in  Bruns- 
wick, presented  this  advance;  and  as  they  are 
early  examples,  perhaps  the  very  first  to  fore- 
shadow the  modern  keyboard,  a  representation 
of  a  few  notes  of  one  of  them  is  here  given  from 
Praetorius. 

Fig.  14. 


The  naturals  of  the  Great  manual  were  about 
an  inch  and  three  quarters  in  width,  two  inches 
and  three  eighths  in  length  in  front  of  the 
short  keys,  while  the  short  keys,  three  inches 
long  and  an  inch  wide,  stood  an  inch  and  a  half 
above  the  naturals.  The  keys  of  the  second 
manual  (Riick-positif),  curiously  enough,  ap- 
pear to  have  been  made  to  a  somewhat  smaller 
gauge,  the  naturals  being  an  inch  and  a  half  in 


ORGAN. 

width.  On  this  organ  the  intervals  of  a  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  lay  within  the  span  of  the  hand, 
and  were  doubtless  sometimes  played. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  plan  of  lettering 
the  keys  was  still  followed ;  but  the  formation  of 
the  clavier  was  quickly  becoming  so  compact,  well 
defined,  and  susceptible  of  being  learnt  without 
such  assistance,  that  the  'alphabet'  probably  fell 
into  disuse  as  superfluous  soon  after  this  time. 

The  name  given  to  the  second  manual, — Riiek- 
positif,  Back-choir  organ,  or,  as  it  is  called  in 
England,  '  Choir  organ  in  front,' — is  interesting 
as  showing  that  at  this  time  the  double  organ  (to 
the  eye)  was  certainly  in  existence. 

Franchinus  Gaffurius,  in  his  'Theorica  Musica,' 
printed  at  Milan  in  1492,  gives  a  curious  en- 
graving of  an  organist  playing  upon  an  early 
clavier  of  this  period,  with  broad  keys,  of  which 
a  copy  is  given  on  the  opposite  page  (Fig.  15). 

The  illustration  is  of  peculiar  interest,  as  it 
represents  the  player  using  his  hands — to  judge 
from  their  position,  independently  of  each  other — 
in  the  execution  of  a  piece  of  music  in  two  distinct 
parts ;  the  melody — possibly  a  plainsong — being 
taken  with  the  right  hand,  which  appears  to  be 
proceeding  sedately  enough,  while  the  left  seems 
to  be  occupied  in  the  prosecution  of  a  contrapuntal 
figure,  the  elbows  meanwhile  being  stretched  out 
into  almost  a  flying  position. 

The  keys  of  the  organs  in  the  Barefooted 
Friars'  church  at  Nuremberg  (Rosenberger, 
1475),  the  cathedral  at  Erfurt  (Castendorfer, 
1483),  and  the  collegiate  church  of  St.  Blasius 
at  Brunswick  (Kranz,  1499),  were  less  again  in 
size  than  the  foregoing,  so  that  an  octave  was 
brought  within  about  a  note  of  its  present  width. 
The  next  reduction  must  therefore  have  intro- 
duced the  scale  of  key  still  in  use.  Seidel  (p.  10) 
mentions  that  in  1493  Rosenberger  built  for  the 
cathedral  at  Bamberg  a  still  larger  organ  than 
his  former  work  at  Nuremberg,  and  with  more 
keys.  He  further  observes  that  the  manual  of 
the  organ  in  the  Barefooted  Friars'  church  had 
the  upper  keys  of  ivory  and  the  under  keys  of 
ebony.  Here  then  we  reach  a  period  when 
the  keys  were  certainly  capped  with  light  and 
dark  hued  materials,  in  the  manner  which  con- 
tinued to  be  followed  up  to  the  end  of  the  last 
century,  when  the  naturals  were  usually  black, 
and  the  sharps  and  flats  white.  Seidel  states  also 
that  all  the  above-named  organs  were  provided 
with  pedals. 

The  invention  of  the  Pedals  ranks  among  the 
most  important  improvements  that  were  effected 
in  the  15th  century.  For  a  long  time  they  did 
not  exceed  an  octave  in  compass,  and  consisted 
of  the  diatonic  notes  only — []  (B  tl),  C,  D,  E,  F, 
G>  A,  H  (B[|) — and  their  use  was  for  some 
time  confined,  as  might  have  been  expected,  to 
the  holding  of  long  sustained  sounds  only.  The 
manual  clavier  was  attached  to  them  by  cords. 
This  kind  of  'pedal-action'  could  only  be  applied 
conveniently  when  the  pedals  were  made  to  a 
similar  gauge  to  the  manual  clavier,  as  the 
clavier  keys  had  previously  been  made  to  accord 
in  position  with  the  valves  in  the  early  spring- 


ORGAN. 

box.  This  correspondence  of  gauges  was  actually 
observed  by  Georgius  Kleng  in  the  pedals  which 
he  added  to  the  organ  at  Halberstadt  in  1495  ; 
and  as  those  pedals  were  at  the  same  time  the 
earliest  of  which  a  representation  is  to  be  traced, 
an  engraving  has  already  been  given  of  them  be- 
low the  Halberstadt  claviers  (Fig.  12,  p.  582).  It 
will  be  observed  that  in  addition  to  the  diatonic 
keys  already  mentioned,  they  had  the  four  chro- 
matic notes  corresponding  with  those  on  the 
lower  manual  with  which  they  communicated. 
The  naturals  were  made  of  the  kind  that  were 
afterwards  called  ■  toe  pedals.' 

Fig.  15. 


ORGAN. 


585 


60 

Uli 


11 


M 


k 


In  the  early  part  of  the  1 5th  century — in  the 
year  141 8 — the  pedals  received  the  important 
accession  of  a  stop  of  independent  pedal-pipes, 
and  thus  were  initiated  the '  Pedal  Basses'  which 
were  destined  to  impart  so  much  dignity  and 
majesty  to  the  general  organ  tone. 

The  manner  in  which  the  date  of  the  construc- 
tion of  the  first  pedal  stop  was  discovered,  is  thus 
related  in  the  Leipsic  Musical  Gazette  for  1836 
(p.  128): — 'In  the  year  1818  a  new  organ  was 
erected  in  the  church  of  Beeskow,  five  miles 
from  Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  on  which  occasion 
the  organ-builder,  Marx  senior,  took  some  pains 


to  ascertain  the  age  of  the  old  organ  which  he 
had  to  remove.  On  a  careful  investigation  it 
appeared  that  the  old  organ  had  been  built  just 
four  hundred  years,  the  date  mccccxviii  being 
engraved  on  the  upper  side  of  the  partition  (kern) 
of  the  two  principal  pedal-pipes,  for  that  these 
two  pipes  did  belong  to  the  pedal  was  clear  from 
their  admeasurement.' 

In  1468  or  69  Traxdorff,  of  Mayence,  made 
an  organ  for  the  church  of  St.  Sebald  at  Nurem- 
berg, with  an  octave  of  pedals,  which  adjuncts 
led  to  his  being  afterwards  at  times  quoted  as 
the  originator  of  them. 

Their  invention  has  more  usually  been  attri- 
buted to  Bernhard  in  1470  or  1471,  organist  to 
the  Doge  of  Venice ;  but  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  they  were  known  long  before  his  time. 
Several  improvements  connected  with  the  pedals 
seem  not  to  have  been  traced  to  their  originators ; 
such  as  the  introduction  of  the  semitones,  the 
formation  of  the  frame  pedal-board  as  now  made, 
the  substitution  of  rollers  for  the  rope-action 
when  the  breadth  of  the  manual  keys  was  made 
less  than  that  of  the  pedals ;  the  separation  of 
the  32-feet  stop  from  the  manual,  and  its  appro- 
priation, together  with  that  of  other  registers, 
exclusively  to  the  use  of  the  pedals,  etc.  Bern- 
hard  may  perhaps  have  been  the  first  to  originate 
some  of  these  alterations,  and  Traxdorff  others, 
which  tradition  afterwards  associated  with  the 
•  invention  of  the  pedals.' 

Dom  Bedos  mentions  that  in  the  course  of 
the  15th  century,  16-  and  even  32-feet  pipes  began 
to  be  heard  of,  and  that  they  necessitated  a 
general  enlargement  of  the  several  parts  of  the 
organ,  particularly  of  the  bellows.  Pipes  of  16 
and  nearly  32  feet  were,  as  we  have  seen,  in 
existence  a  century  earlier  than  the  period  to 
which  Dom  Bedos  assigns  them.  His  observation 
therefore  may  be  taken  as  applying  more  probably 
to  the  fact  that  means,  which  he  specifies,  had 
been  taken  to  rectify  the  feebleness  existing  in 
the  tones  of  large  pipes,  such  for  instance  as  those 
at  Halberstadt.  Hand-bellows  were  no  longer 
adequate  to  the  supply  of  wind,  either  in  quantity 
or  strength,  and  hence  more  capacious  ones  were 
substituted.  Prsetorius,  in  1620,  illustrates  this 
improvement  by  giving  a  representation  of  the 
twenty  bellows  which  he  found  existing  in  the  old 
organ  in  the  church  of  St.  iEgidien  in  Brunswick, 
and  which  we  have  copied  (Fig.  16,  next  page).1 

Upon  each  bellows  was  fixed  a  wooden  shoe ; 
the  blowers  held  on  to  a  transverse  bar,  and  each 
man,  placing  his  feet  in  the  shoes  of  two  bellows, 
raised  one  as  he  lowered  the  other.  Great  in- 
genuity and  constructive  labour  were  bestowed 
on  such  bellows ;  but  a  supply  of  wind  of  uniform 
strength  could  never  have  been  obtained  from 
them,  and  consequently  the  organ  could  never 
have  sounded  in  strict  tune. 

About  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century  the 
very  ingenious  but  complicated  spring  sound- 
board  was    discontinued    as    being    subject    to 

1  The  reader  will  remember  that  this  method  of  compressing  the 
organ-wind  had  been  thought  of  upwards  of  a  thousand  years  earlier 
at  Constantinople. 


586 


ORGAN. 


frequent  and  very  difficult  repairs,  and  for  it  was 
substituted  the  soundboard  with  sliding  registers. 


In  this  soundboard  were  ingeniously  combined 
the  chief  features  of  the  two  kinds  of  wind-control- 
ling apparatus  that  had  been  in  use  in  previous 
centuries.  Between  the  holes  in  the  top  of  the 
grooves,  and  those  now  made  parallel  therewith 
in  the  pipe-stocks,  into  which  the  feet  of  the  pipes 
fitted,  were  now  introduced  the  slides,  shown  in 
profile  in  the  following  cut ;  which  were  now 
laid  the  length-way  of  the  soundboard,  instead  of 
the  cross-way  as  in  the  old  spring-box ;  and  as 
they  were  placed  in  the  opposite  direction  they 
likewise  operated  in  the  reverse  way  to  what  they 
formerly  did  ;  that  is,  each  slide  opened  or  closed 
one  pipe  of  the  several  notes,  whereas  before  it 
Fig.  17. 


1 


J 


acted  on  the  several  pipes  of  one  note,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  7,  p.  578.  The  pallets  and  springs  in  the 
windchest  were  of  course  retained;  but  the 
forest  of  valves  etc.  which  had  been  imbedded 


ORGAN. 

in  the  grooves  was  done  away  with,  and  the 
soundboard  simplified  and  perfected  in  the  form 
in  which  it  still  continues  to  be  made.  (Fig.  1 7.) 
In  the  early  part  of  the  16th  century  (15 16- 
1518)  a  large  and  handsome  organ  was  erected 
in  St.  Mary's  church,  Liibeck,  which  had  two 
Manuals  from  D  to  A  above  the  treble  stave, 
and  a  separate  pedal  down  to  C.  The  latter  had 
a  great  Principal  of  32  feet,  and  a  second  one  of 
16  feet,  made  of  the  finest  English  tin,  and 
both  '  in  front.'  This  organ  however  was  tuned 
to  a  very  sharp  pitch  —  a  whole  tone  above 
the  highest  now  in  use.  Its  largest  pipe  there- 
fore, although  named  C,  really  sounded  D,  and 
was  therefore  scarcely  so  long  as  the  biggest 
pipe  at  Halberstadt,  made  a  century  and  a  half 
earlier.  This  organ  received  the  addition  of 
a  third  Manual  (then  called  « Positiv  im  Stuhl ') 
in  1560  and  1561,  and  subsequently  underwent 
many  other  enlargements  and  improvements ;  so 
that  by  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century,  when 
the  celebrated  Buxtehude  was  organist,  its  dis- 
position stood  nearly  as  follows  ;  though  the  list 
may  possibly  include  a  few  subsequent  additions 
of  minor  importance. 

Hauptwerk.    13  Stops. 
Feet 


Principal      ... 

.       16 

Rausch-pfeife  (12  &  15)       . 

Quintatim      .       .       • 

.       16 

Mixture,  7  ranks 

Octav              .       •       • 

8 

Scharff,  4  ranks 

Spltz-flOt*       .       .       . 

8 

Trompete      .... 

Octav      .       .       .       . 

4 

Trompete       .      •      .      • 

Rohr-flSte      ... 

4 

Nassat    .... 

.        -i.. 

TJntib-webk.    14  stops. 

Bordun          .       •      . 

16  ;  Sesqulaltera,  (12  k  IT) 

.        8  j  Mixture.  4  ranks 

Eohr-flOte      .       .       . 

8    Scharff,  5  ranks 

Viola  di  Gamba    .      . 

.        8    Fagott            .... 

QuintatOn      •       •      • 

.        8    Bar-pfeife       .... 

.        4    Trichter-Begal     .       .      . 

Spitz-flote       .       • 

S  1  Vox-humana        ... 

Brust-werk.    IS  stops. 

Principal 

Gedact           •      •       • 

8     Cormorn        .       ,       .      . 

Octave           ... 

Kohr-flOte,     .      .       • 

4  |                   (In  a  swell) 

Nassat           .              • 

Sesqulaltera  (12  &  17) 

2     Trompete       .... 

Mixtur,  8  ranks 

:  Trompete       .... 

Cimbal,  3  ranks 

Vox  humana        .      .      . 

Pedal.    15  stops. 

Principal       ... 

32 

Mixtur,  6  ranks 

Principal        .      • 

16 

Posaune         .... 

Sub-bass        .      •      . 

16 

Posaune         .      .      .      . 

Octave    .... 

8 

Basson            .... 

Gedact    .... 

8 

Trompete       .      .      .      • 

Octav      .... 

4 

Cormorue      .      .      •       • 

Nacht-horn           .       . 

4 

Trompete      .... 

Octav      .... 

2 

This  is  the  organ,  to  visit  which  and  to  hear 
Buxtehude  play,  Sebastian  Bach  walked  50  miles 
in  1705.  Two  years  earlier  (in  1703),  Handel 
visited  Liibeck,  as  a  candidate  for  the  office  of 
organist  to  one  of  the  other  churches  in  that 
ancient  Hans  town ;  but  finding  that  one  of 
the  conditions  was  that  the  successful  competitor 
must  become  the  husband  of  the  daughter  of  the 
late  organist — an  appointment  for  which  Handel 
had  certainly  sent  in  no  application — he  excused 
himself  from  continuing  the  contest,  and  retreated 
to  Hamburg. 

Both  the  musicians  just  named,  then  so  young 
and  afterwards  so  greatly  venerated,  very  prob- 
ably not  only  listened  to  but  played  upon  this 


OKGAN. 

organ  ;  and  as  it  contained  examples  of  most  of 
the  varieties  of  stop  of  which  mention  has  been 
made,  this  notice  of  the  progress  of  organ-build- 
ing abroad  may  for  the  present  be  fitly  closed 
with  the  foregoing  account  of  the  enlarged  form 
of  the  earliest  3  2 -ft.  C  compassed  organ  that 
was  ever  made,  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained. 


ORGAN. 


587 


Having  traced  the  history  and  growth  of  the 
organ  in  various  kingdoms,  attention  may  now  be 
devoted  to  its  special  progress  in  England. 

1407.     Ely  Cathedral. 

The  earliest  record  known  to  exist  that 
gives  any  particulars  as  to  the  cost  of  making 
an  organ  in  England,  is  that  preserved  in  the 
Precentor's  accounts  of  Ely  Cathedral,  under  the 
date  1407.  The  items,  translated  from  the  Latin, 
read  as  follows : — 

«.  d. 

20  stones  of  lead, 16    9 

4  white  horses'  hides  for  4  pair  of  bellows,       .     7    8 

Ashen  hoops  for  tho  bellows 0    4 

10  pairs  of  hinges, 1  10 

The  carpenter,  8  days,  making  the  bellows,  .  2  8 
12  springs,  ....•••.03 
1  pound  of  glue, 0    1 

1  pound  of  tin,         .......03 

6  calf  skins,      ........26 

12  sheep  skins,         .......24 

2  pounds  of  quicksilver, 2    0 

Wire,  nails,  cloth,  hoops,  and  staples,  .  .10 
Fetching  the  organ-builder,  and  his  board, 

13  weeks, 40    0 

Total,     3  17    8 

These  particulars,  although  scanty,  contain 
entries  that  help  us  to  trace  a  few  of  the  features 
of  this  early  instrument.  The  'ashen  hoops' 
indicate  that  the  bellows  were  of  the  forge  kind. 
The  'ia  springs'  were  doubtless  the  'playing 
springs,'  and  if  so,  denote  that  the  organ  had 
a  compass  of  12  notes;  exactly  the  number  re- 
quired for  the  Gregorian  Chants  (C  to  F),  with 
the  Bb  added.  The  metal  for  the  pipes,  com- 
pounded of  '  1  pound  of  tin'  ODly  to  '  20  stones 
of  lead'  must  have  been  rather  poor  in  quality 
and  texture.  The  circumstance  of  the  organ- 
builder  being  fetched,  and  his  board  paid  for, 
indicates  that  the  useful  class  of  artificers  to 
which  he  belonged  sometimes  led  rather  an 
itinerant  life,  as  we  shall  presently  see  they  con- 
tinued to  do  two  centuries  later. 

About  the  year  1450,  Whethamstede,  Abbot 
of  St.  Albans,  presented  to  his  church  an  organ 
on  which  he  expended,  including  its  erection, 
fifty  pounds — an  enormous  sum  in  those  days. 
This  instrument,  we  are  told,  was  superior  to 
everything  of  the  kind  then  in  England  for  size, 
tone,  and  workmanship  ;  but  no  record  is  left  as 
to  where  or  by  whom  it  was  made,  nor  as  to 
what  its  contents  or  compass  were. 

1 500- 1670.    A  Pair  of  Organs. 

The  term  'pair  of  organs,'  so  much  used  in 
the  1 6th  and  the  greater  part  of  the  17th  cen- 
turies, has  been  a  source  of  as  much  difficulty  to 
the  commentators,  as  the  spelling  of  the  words 


themselves  became  to  the  scribes  of  the  period. 
(See  note  below. )  It  grew  gradually  into  use ;  and 
the  most  interesting  fact  connected  with  it,  namely 
that  there  were  various  hinds  of  '  pairs '  in  use, 
has  passed  without  hitherto  receiving  sufficient 
notice.  At  York  in  1419,  1457,  1469,  and 
1485,  the  instrument  is  spoken  of  in  the  sin- 
gular number,  as  'The  organ,'  or  'The  great 
organ.'  In  1475  it  is  referred  to  as  'An  organ.' 
In  1463  we  meet  with  '  ye  players  at  y°  orgenys/ 
and  in  1482  a  payment  is  made  for  'mending  of 
organys.'  In  1501  the  complete  expression  is 
met  with,  'one  peyre  of  orgynys';  and  it  con- 
tinued in  use  up  to  the  time  of  Pepys,  who 
wrote  his  'Diary'  in  the  second  half  of  the  17th 
century. 

One  commentator  considered  the  term  '  pair '  to 
refer  to  the  '  double  bellows ' ;  but  besides  the  fact 
that  a  single  bellows  is  sometimes  itself  called 
a  '  pair,'  a  '  pair  of  virginals,'  containing  wires, 
required  no  wind  whatever.  Another  annotator 
thought  that  a  '  pair  *  signified  two  organs  con- 
joined,with  two  sets  of  keys,  one  above  the  other — 
'one  called  the  choir  organ,  and  the  other  the 
great  organ';  but  this  explanation  is  answered 
by  an  entry  of  the  expense  incurred  for  'a  pair 
of  new  organs '  for  the  Church  of  St.  Mary  at 
Hill,  in  the  year  1521,  which,  including  the  cost 
'for  bringing  them  home,'  amounted  altogether 
to  '  x*.  viijd.'  only.  If  this  were  not  sufficient, 
there  would  be  the  fact  that  many  churches 
contained  'two  pay  re  of  ]orgyns';  and  if  they 
were  of  the  bulk  supposed,  there  would  be  the 
question  how  much  room,  if  any,  could  have 
remained  in  the  church  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  congregation.  A  third  writer  suggested 
that  a  '  pair '  meant  an  organ  with  two  pipes  to 
each  note;  but '  a  pair  of  regals'  sometimes  had 
but  a  single  pipe  to  each  key.  The  term  in  all 
probability  meant  simply  an  instrument  with 
at  least  one  complete  set  of  pipes.  It  might 
have  more,  as  in  Duddington  s  organ  noticed 
farther  on. 

The  most  interesting  question  here,  however,  is 
not  simply  the  fact  that  a  church  had  frequently 
two  pair  of  organs,  but,  when  so,  why  one  was 
generally  '  the  grete  orgones '  and  the  other  '  the 
small  orgones.'  It  is  quite  possible  that  the 
custom  mentioned  by  Prsetorius,  and  already 
quoted,  may  have  prevailed  in  England,  of  regu- 
lating the  pitch  of  the  organ  according  to  the 
prevailing  pitch  of  the  voices  (whether  high  or 
low),  and  that  when  there  were  two  organs,  one 
was  made  to  suit  each  class  of  voice ;  and  as  an 
alteration  of  pitch,  made  for  this  purpose,  of  say 
half  an  octave,  would  have  caused  one  organ  to 
be  nearly  half  as  large  again  as  the  other,  their 
difference  of  size  may  have  led  to  the  distinction 
of  name  as  a  natural  sequence.  This  opinion 
seems  to  receive  support  from  the  fact  that  at 
Bethersden  they  had  not  a  '  great '  but  '  a  base 
peare  of  organes.' 

I  Ashford.  '  Item  ij  payer  of  great  organes.' 

Canterbury  (Westgate).  '  Item,  two  paire  of  organs.' 

Guildford  (Holy  Trinity).  'Item,  ij  paire  of  orgaynes." 

Norwich  (St.  Andrew).  '  Item,  U  pelr  of  orgonnej.' 

Slngfleld.  '  Item.  U  peyr  of  orgens.' 


588  ORGAN. 

1 5 19.     All  Hallows,  Barking. 
Anton*  Duddtngton. 

Under  the  date  15 19  we  meet  with  the  earliest 
specification  of  an  English  organ  that  is  known 
to  exist.  It  is  found  embodied  in  an  '  endenture ' 
or  ■  bargayn '  entered  into  by  '  Antony  Duddyng- 
ton,  citezen  of  London,'  to  make  a  '  payer  of 
organs '  for  the  '  P'isshe  of  Alhalowe,  Barkyng, 
next  ye  Tower  of  London.'  It  was  to  have  three 
stops,  namely,  a  '  Diapason,  containing  length  of 
x  foot  or  more,'  and  '  dowble  principalis  throwe- 
out,  to  contain  the  length  of  v  foote.'  The  com- 
pass was  to  be  '  dowble  Ce-fa-ut,'  and  comprise 
4  xxvij  playne  keyes,'  which  would  doubtless  be 
the  old  four-octave  short  octave  range,  in  which 
the  apparent  EE  key  sounded  CC,  up  to  C  in 
alt.  The  requisite  number  of  '  elevated  keyes' 
(sharps,  flats,  etc.)  was  doubtless  understood. 
It  was  further  specified  that  '  the  pyppes  w*in- 
forth  shall  be  as  fyne  metall  and  stuff  as  the 
utter  parts,  that  is  to  say  of  pure  Tyn,  w*  asfewe 
stoppes  as  may  be  convenient';  and  the  cost  was 
to  be  'fyfty  poundes  sterlinge.'  It  was  also  a 
condition  '  that  the  aforesaid  Antony  shall  convey 
the  belowes  in  the  loft  abowf,  wn  a  pype  to  the 
sond  boarde.'  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
although  made  so  few  years  after  the  invention 
of  '  stops '  and  the  '  soundboard '  abroad,  the 
English  builder  had  made  liimself  acquainted 
with  these  improvements,  and  here  inserted 
them. 

1500-1815.    Short  Octaves. 

As  this  is  the  first  time  that  the  term  '  short 
octave '  has  been  used  in  this  article,  and  as  it 
will  frequently  be  met  with  in  the  accounts  of 
historical  organs  given  farther  on,  it  will  be  as 
well  to  give  here  an  explanation  of  the  meaning 
of  that  somewhat  comprehensive  expression.  By 
the  end  of  the  15  th  century  the  manuals  had 
in  foreign  organs  been  extended  to  four  octaves 
in  compass,  and  those  of  this  country  had  most 
likely  also  reached  the  same  range ;  the  lowest 
octave  however  being  either  a  '  short  octave '  or 
a  '  broken  octave.'  In  the  short  octave  two  of 
the  natural  keys  were  omitted,  and  the  succession 
stood  thus :— CC  (on  the  EE  key),  FF,  G,  A,  B, 
C.  A  short  octave  manual,  CC  to  C  in  alt,  there- 
fore, had  only  27  natural  keys  instead  of  29. 
The  three  short  keys  in  the  lower  octave  were 
not  all  chromatic  notes,  but  sounded  DD  on  the 
FF$  key,  EE  on  the  G}J  key,  and  Bb.  The  object 
of  this  device  no  doubt  was  to  obtain  a  deep  sound 
for  the  '  tonic '  of  as  many  of  the  scales  and  chords 
in  use  at  the  time  as  was  practicable.  When 
the  lowest  octave  was  made  complete,  the  EEb 
note  was  present ;  DD  occupied  its  correct  posi- 
tion; and  the  CCg  key  sounded  AA.  Father 
Smith's  organs  at  the  University  Church,  Oxford, 
the  Danish  Chapel,  Wellclose  Square,  and  St. 
Nicholas,  Deptford,  were  originally  made  to  this 
compass.  A  key  was  sometimes  added  beyond 
CC,  sounding  GG,  which  converted  the  compass 
into  '  GG  short  octaves.'  There  is  a  painting  in 
the  picture  gallery  at  Holyrood,  of  about  the  date 


ORGAN. 

of  the  end  of  the  15th  century,  representing  St. 
Cecilia  playing  upon  a  Positive  Organ,  which 
shows  quite  clearly  the  lower  keys  and  pipes  of 
a  GG  short  octave  manual.  Both  Smith  and 
Harris  sometimes  constructed  organs  to  this 
compass,  and  subsequent  builders  also  did  so 
throughout  the  18th  and  early  part  of  the  19th 
centuries.  The  FFF  short  octave  manual, 
which  would  seem  to  have  existed,  although  we 
have  at  present  no  record  of  it,  might  have  had 
the  note  acting  on  the  AA  long  key,  or  on  a 
supplementary  Bhort  key  between  the  BB  and 
CC  keys. 

Many  entries  follow  closely  on  the  date 
given  above ;  but  none  that  supply  any  additional 
matter  of  sufficient  interest  to  be  quoted  here, 
until  nearly  the  end  of  the  century,  when  the 
list  of  payments  made  to  John  Chappington  for 
an  organ  he  built  in  1597  for  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  shows  that  the  practice  of  painting  the 
front  pipes  wa3  sometimes  observed  at  that 
period.    It  is  short,  and  runs  thus : — 


Paid  Mr.  Chappington  for  the  organ 
For  colour  to  decorate  the  same 
For  wainscot  for  the  same 


I.    *.  d. 

35  13  8 

2  2  0 

3  14  0 
41    9  8 


1605-6.    King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge. 
Thomas  Dallam. 

A  great  progressive  step  was  made  when 
Thomas  Dallam,  in  1605-6,  built  for  King's  Col- 
lege Chapel,  Cambridge,  the  handsome  'double 
organ,'  the  case  of  which  remains  to  this  day. 
It  was  a  complete  two-manual  organ,  the 
earliest  English  specimen  of  which  we  have  a 
clear  trace;  and  to  construct  it  Dallam  and 
his  assistants  closed  their  workshop  in  London 
and  took  up  their  residence  in  Cambridge.  As 
this  instrument  is  the  first  of  importance  out  of 
several  that  were  made  before  the  time  of  the 
Civil  War,  but  of  which  the  accounts  are  more 
or  less  vague  or  incomplete,  it  will  be  worth 
while  to  follow  out  some  of  their  leading  par- 
ticulars. 

No  record  is  known  to  exist  of  the  contents 
or  compass  of  this  instrument.  The  only  stop 
mentioned  is  the  'shaking  stoppe'  or  tremulant. 
The  compass  however  can  be  deduced  with  some 
approach  to  certainty.  Mr.  Thomas  Hill,  who 
with  his  father  rebuilt  this  organ  some  years  ago, 
states  that  the  '  fayre  great  pypes '  mentioned  by 
Dallam  still  occupy  their  original  positions  in  the 
eastern  front  of  the  case,  where  they  are  now 
utilised  as  part  of  the  double  diapason.  As  the 
largest  pipe  sounds  the  GG  of  the  present  lower 
pitch  (nearly  a  whole  tone  below  what  is  known 
to  have  been  the  high  ecclesiastical  pitch  of  the 
first  half  of  the  1 7th  century),  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  the  King's  College  Chapel  organ  was 
originally  of  FFF  compass,  as  Father  Smith's 
subsequent  instruments  were  at  the  Temple, 
St.  Paul's  (choir  organ),  and  Durham.  Smith 
in  that  case  must  simply  have  followed  an  old 
tradition.  More  is  said  on  this  subject  farther 
on.     The  east  front  pipes,  as  well  as  those  in 


ORGAN. 

the  'Chayre  Organ,'  were  handsomely  embossed, 
gilded,  and  coloured. 

1633-4.     York  Cathedral.    Robebt  Dallam. 

On  March  20,  1632,  Robert  Dallam,  '  citizen 
and  blacksmith  of  London,'  entered  into  an 
agreement  with  '  the  right  worshippfull  John 
Scott,  deane  of  the  cathedrall  and  metropoliticall 
church  of  St.  Peter  of  Yorke,  touchinge  the  mak- 
inge  of  a  great  organ  for  the  said  church.'  Most 
of  the  particulars  respecting  this  instrument  have 
fortunately  been  preserved,  from  which  we  learn 
that  *  the  names  and  number  of  the  stoppes  or 
setts  of  pipes  for  the  said  great  organ,  to  be  new 
made ;  every  stopp  containeinge  fiftie-one  pipes ; 
the  said  great  organ  containeing  eight  stoppes,' 
were  as  follows  : — 

Great  Organ.    9  stops. 

1  and  2.   Imprimis  two  open  diapasons  of  tynn,  to 
stand  in  sight,  many  of  them  to  be  chased. 

3.  Item  one  diapason  stopp  of  wood. 

4  and  5.  Item  two  principals  of  tynn. 

6.  Item  one  twelft  to  the  diapason. 

7.  Item  one  small  principall  of  tynn.    (15.) 

8.  Item  one  recorder,  unison  to  the  said  principall.  (15.) 

9.  Item  one  two  and  twentieth. 

'  The  names  and  number  of  stoppes  of  pipes 
for  the  chaire  organ,  every  stopp  containeinge 
fiftie-one  pipes,  the  said  chaire  organ  containeinge 
five  stoppes,'  were  as  follows : — 

Chaire  Organ.    5  stops. 

10.  Imprimis  one  diapason  of  wood. 

11.  Item  one  recorder  of  tynn,  unison  to  the  voice. 

12.  Item  one  principal  of  tynn,  to  stand  in  sight,  many 

of  them  to  be  chased. 

13.  Item  one  flute  of  wood. 

14.  Item  one  small  principall  of  tynn.   (15.) 

Three  bellows. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  this  organ  contained 
neither  reeds  nor  mixtures,  and  but  one  muta- 
tion-stop, namely  the  '  twelfth.' 

No  mention  is  made  as  to  what  was  the  compass 
of  the  old  York  Minster  organ.  All  that  is  stated 
is  that  each  'stoppe'  had  a  series  of  'fiftie-one 
pipes' — an  unusual  number,  for  which  it  would 
be  interesting  to  account.  The  old  case  of  the 
organ  remained  until  the  incendiary  fire  of  1829, 
and  contained  the  two  original  diapasons  ;  and  as 
the  largest  pipes  of  these  stops  sounded  the  GG 
of  the  lowered  pitch  of  the  18th  century,  it  is 
quite  possible  that  the  compass  was  originally 
FFF,  short  octave  (that  note  sounding  on  the 
AA  key),  up  to  C  in  alt,  which  range  would  have 
required  exactly  the  number  of  notes  specified  in 
the  agreement.  Robert  Dallam  built  organs 
similar  to  that  at  York  for  St.  Paul's  and  Durham 
Cathedrals,  the  latter  costing  £1000.  If  they 
were  of  FFF  compass,  that  circumstance  would 
perhaps  account  for  the  schemes  for  Smith's  new 
organs  for  both  those  churches  having  been  pre- 
pared for  that  exceptional  range. 

In  August  and  September  1634  three  musical 
enthusiasts,  *a  Captaine,  a  Lieutenant,  and  an 
Ancient  (Ensign),  of  the  Military  Company  in 
Norwich,'  went  on  'a  Seaven  Weekes'  Journey' 
through  a  great  part  of  England,  in  the  course  of 
which  they  occasionally  took  particular  notice  of 
the  organs,  in  describing  which  they  made  use  of 
many  pleasant  adjectives.     At  York  they  'saw 


ORGAN. 


58» 


and  heard  a  faire,  large,  high  organ,  newly  built ' 
— the  one  just  noticed ;  at  Durham  they  '  were 
wrapt  with  the  sweet  sound  and  richness  of  a 
fayre  organ ' ;  at  Lichfield  '  the  organs  were  deep 
and  sweet ' ;  at  Hereford  was '  heard  a  most  sweet 
organ ' ;  at  Bristol  they  found  a  '  neat,  rich, 
melodious  organ ' ;  while  at  Exeter  the  organ  was 
'  rich,  delicate,  and  lofty,  with  more  additions  than 
any  other ;  and  large  pipes  of  an  extraordinary 
length.'  Some  of  these  instruments  were  destined . 
in  a  few  years  to  fall  a  prey  to  axes  and  hammers. 
The  organ  at  Carlisle  however  was  described  as 
being  'like  a  shrill  bagpipe.'  Its  destruction  as 
an  ecclesiastical  instrument  was  perhaps  therefore 
a  matter  not  to  be  so  very  much  deplored. 


1637. 


Magdalen  College,  Oxford. 
Habbis. 


Three  years  afterwards  (in  1637)  a  maker  of 
the  name  of  Harris  —  the  first  of  four  genera- 
tions of  organ-builders  of  that  name,  but  whose 
christian  name  has  not  been  traced — built  a 
'  double  organ '  (Great  Organ,  with  Choir  Organ 
in  front)  for  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  Its 
Manuals  ranged  from  Do,  Sol,  Re  (double  C) 
without  the  C  Cj  up  to  D  in  alt,  50  notes  ;  and 
the  Great  Organ  had  eight  stops,  while  the  Choir 
had  five.     The  following  was  its  specification  : — 

Great  Organ.    8  stops. 

Feet,  Feet 

1*2,  Two  open  Diapasons .        8    5  4  6,  Two  Fifteenths  .      .        2 
3  4k  4.  Two  Principals   .      .        4    7*8,  Two  Two-and-twentleths  1 

Choir  Oboan,  5  stops. 
Feet  tone.  Feet  tone 

9,  One  Stopped  Diapason         8         12,  One  Recorder  .        .        4 

10  *  11,  Two  Principals  .        4         13,  One  Fifteenth  .        .        2 

This  was  the  organ  which  Cromwell  had  taken 
down  and  conveyed  to  Hampton  Court,  where  it 
was  placed  in  the  great  gallery.  It  was  restored 
to  the  college  in  1660,  and  remained  there  until 
1 737,  when  it  was  removed  to  Tewkesbury  Abbey. 
The  Diapasons  and  Principal  of  the  Great  Organ, 
and  the  Principal  in  the  Choir  still  remain,  and 
are  made  of  tin  alloyed  with  about  eight  pounds 
of  lead  to  the  hundredweight. 

This  organ  was  tuned  to  a  high  pitch,  as  is 
shown  by  one  of  the  items  in  Renatus  Harris's 
agreement  for  improving  it  (1690),  which  specifies 
that  he  '  shall  and  will  alter  the  pitch  of  the  said 
organs  half  a  note  lower  than  they  are  now.' 

This  is  the  last  organ  of  which  we  have  any 
authentic  particulars  as  being  made  previously 
to  the  outburst  that  checked  the  art  of  organ- 
building  in  this  country  for  several  years. 


On  August  23,  1643,  an  ordinance  was  passed 
by  the  Lords  and  Commons  assembled  in 
Parliament  for  abolishing  superstitious  monu- 
ments. On  May  9,  1644,  a  second  ordinance  was 
passed  '  for  the  further  demolishing  of  monu- 
ments of  Idolatry  and  Superstition,'  in  which  the 
destruction  of  organs  was  enjoined.  This  ordin- 
ance has  not  yet  been  included  in  any  history 
of  the  organ.    Its  wording  ran  as  follows  : — 

The  Lords  and  Commons  in  Pari'  the  better  to 
accomplish  the  blessed  Beformation  so  happily  begun 
and  to  remove  all  offences  and  things  illegal  in  tho 


590 


ORGAN. 


■worship  of  God  Do  Ordain  That  all  representations  of 
the  Trinity,  or  any  Angel  etc.,  etc.  in  and  about  any 
Cathedral,  Collegiate  or  Parish  Church  or  Chapel  shall 
be  taken  away,  defaced  and  utterly  demolished,  etc.  etc. 

And  that  all  organs  and  the  frames  and  cases  wherein 
they  stand  in  all  Churches  and  Chapells  aforesaid  shall 
be  taken  away  and  utterly  defaced,  and  none  other  here- 
after set  up  in  their  places. 

And  that  all  Copes,  Surplices,  superstitious  Vestments, 
Roods,  and  Fonts  be  likewise  utterly  defaced  etc.  etc. 

In  consequence  of  this  ordinance  collegiate  and 
parochial  churches  were  stripped  of  their  organs 
and  ornaments ;  some  of  the  instruments  were  sold 
to  private  persons,  who  preserved  them ;  some 
were  totally  and  others  partially  demolished; 
some  were  taken  away  by  the  clergy  to  prevent 
their  being  destroyed,  and  some  few  escaped 
injury  altogether.  Two  extracts  will  be  sufficient 
to  indicate  the  kind  of  result  that  frequently 
followed  on  these  actB  of  wantonness.  'At  West- 
minster Abbey,'  we  are  told,  '  the  soldiers  brake 
down  the  organs  and  pawned  the  pipes  at  severall 
ale-houses  for  pots  of  ale';  while  at  Mr.  Ferrer's 
house  at  Little  Gidding  in  Huntingdonshire  the 
soldiers '  broke  the  organ  in  pieces,  of  which  they 
made  a  large  fire,  and  at  it  roasted  several  of 
Mr.  Ferrer's  sheep,  which  they  had  killed  in  his 
grounds.' 

Organs  having  been  banished  from  the  churches, 
every  effort  was  made  to  discourage  their  use 
even  in  private  houses.  At  a  convocation  in 
Bridgwater  in  1655  the  question  was  proposed 
'  whether  a  believing  man  or  woman,  being  head 
of  a  family,  in  this  day  of  the  gospell,  may  keepe 
in  his  or  her  house  an  instrument  of  musicke 
playing  on  them  or  admitting  others  to  play 
thereon?'  The  answer  was  '  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
saintes  to  abstaine  from  all  appearance  of  evil, 
and  not  to  make  provision  for  the  flesh  to  fulfill 
ye  lusts  thereof.' 

Among  the  organs  that  nevertheless  escaped 
destruction  or  removal  were  those  of  St.  Paul's, 
York,  Durham,  and  Lincoln  Cathedrals ;  St. 
John's  College,  Oxford;  Christ's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, etc.  Cromwell  himself  had  some  love  of 
music,  and  *  made  provision  for  the  flesh '  by 
having  the  '  double  organ,'  which  Evelyn  heard 
in  the  chapel  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  in 
July  1654,  taken  down  and  removed  to  Hampton 
Court,  where  it  was  placed  in  the  great  gallery, 
and  frequently  played  upon,  to  Cromwell's  great 
content.  In  1660  (the  date  of  the  Eestoration) 
it  was  returned  to  the  college;  £16  io«.  being 
paid  for  its  transference  thither. 


During  the  sixteen  years  that  elapsed  be- 
tween the  date  of  the  ordinance  already  quoted 
and  that  of  the  Restoration,  most  of  the  Eng- 
lish organ-builders  had  been  dispersed,  and 
compelled  to  work  as  ordinary  joiners,  carpenters, 
etc. ;  so  that  at  the  expiration  of  the  period  just 
mentioned,  there  was,  according  to  Sir  John 
Hawkins,  '  scarce  an  organ-maker  that  could  be 
called  a  workman  in  the  kingdom,'  excepting 
the  Dallams  (three  brothers) ;  Thamar  of  Peter- 
borough, concerning  whom  however  nothing  is 
known ;  Preston  of  York,  who  repaired  the 
organ  in  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  in  1680 — 


ORGAN. 

and  who,  among  other  doings,  according  to 
Renatus  Harris  (1686),  spoiled  one  stop  and 
several  pipes  of  another ;  and  Henry  Loosemore 
of  Exeter,  who  built  the  organ  in  the  cathedral 
of  that  city.  Inducements  were  therefore  held 
out  to  encourage  artists  from  the  continent  to 
settle  in  this  country;  and  among  those  who 
responded  to  this  invitation  were  a  German, 
Bernhardt  Schmidt,  known  as  'Father  Smith,' 
with  his  two  nephews,  Christian  and  Gerard ;  and 
Thomas  Harris,  an  Englishman,  who  had  taken 
refuge  in  France  during  the  troublous  times, 
together  with  his  son  Renatus,  a  young  man  of 
great  ingenuity  and  spirit. 

Smith  and  the  Dallams  had  for  some  years  the 
chief  business  of  the  kingdom,  the  Harrises  not 
receiving  an  equal  amount  of  encouragement ;  but 
on  the  death  of  Robert  and  Ralph  Dallams,  in 
1665  and  1672  respectively,  and  of  the  elder 
Harris  shortly  after,  Renatus  Harris  became  a 
formidable  rival  to  Smith. 

Smith  seems  to  have  settled  at  once  in  London, 
was  appointed  'organ-maker  in  ordinary'  to  King 
Charles  II,  and  put  into  possession  of  apart- 
ments in  Whitehall,  called  in  an  old  plan  of  the 
palace  'The  Organ-builder's  Workhouse.'  The 
Harrises  appear  to  have  taken  up  their  abode  at 
'Old  Sarum,'  but  on  the  death  of  the  father, 
Renatus  removed  to  the  metropolis. 

In  order  to  follow  the  narrative  of  the  suc- 
cessive improvements  that  were  effected  in 
organ-building  in  England,  it  is  necessary  to 
bear  in  mind  that  the  instruments  made  in  this 
country  previous  to  the  civil  wars  consisted  of 
nothing  beyond  Flue  stops  of  the  Foundation 
species  with  the  exception  of  the  Twelfth ; — 
no  Mixtures,  Reeds,  nor  Doubles,  and  no  Pedals. 
To  illustrate  the  gradual  progress  from  this 
starting  ground,  a  description  will  now  be  given 
of  a  series  of  representative  organs,  the  ac- 
counts of  which  are  derived  from  sources  not 
now  generally  accessible,  including  notices  of 
many  historical  instruments  which,  since  the 
time  of  their  original  construction,  have  either 
been  much  altered  or  removed  altogether. 

1660.  Banqueting  Room,  Whitehall. 

Bebnhabd  Schmidt  (Father  Smith). 

Compound  and  Flue  stops,  and  Echo. 

Smith,  immediately  on  his  arrival,  was  com- 
missioned to  build  an  organ  for  the  Banqueting 
Room,  Whitehall,  not  for  the  Chapel  Royal, 
Whitehall,  as  is  generally  stated.  The  Chapel 
Royal,  where  Pepys  attended  on  July  8,  1660, 
and  '  heard  the  organs  for  the  first  time  in  his 
life,'  stood  east  of  the  present  chapel,  and  was 
destroyed  'by  that  dismal  fire  on  Jan*  4th,  1697.' 
The  Banqueting  Room  was  not  used  as  a  Chapel 
Royal  until  1715. 

From  the  haste  with  which  Smith's  first  English 
organ  was  put  together,  it  did  not  in  some  respects 
quite  come  up  to  all  expectations ;  but  it  never- 
theless contained  a  sufficient  number  of  novelties 
beyond  the  contents  of  the  old  English  specific*- 


ORGAN. 

tions,  in  the  shape  of  Compound,  Flute,  and  Reed 
stops,  and  the  '  Eccho,'  to  cause  it  to  create  a 
most  favourable  impression  on  its  hearers. 

Smith  adopted  the  compass  of  manual  down- 
wards reaching  to  GG,  with  *  long  octaves,' 
without  the  GGf ;  he  placed  the  GG  open 
diapason  pipe  in  the  centre  of  one  of  the  inner 
towers  of  the  case,  and  the  AA  in  the  middle 
of  the  other  inner  tower ;  the  handsome  case, 
which  still  remains,  having  been  constructed 
with  four  circular  towers,  with  a  double  tier  of 
pipes  in  each  of  the  intermediate  flats.  He  also 
carried  his  'Eccho'  to  fiddle  G,  though  the  shorter 
range,  to  middle  C,  afterwards  became  the  usual 
compass.  As  the  'Swell  and  Echo  Organ'  is 
noticed  under  its  separate  head,  no  more  need 
be  said  respecting  it  in  this  place. 

It  may  be  mentioned  here  that '  Hol-flute '  was 
the  name  which  Father  Smith  usually  attached 
to  a  metal  Stopped  Diapason  with  chimneys; 
'  Nason '  he  applied  to  a  stopped  wood  Flute  of 
octave  pitch  ;  and  'Block-flute'  to  a  metal  Flute 
of  super-octave  pitch,  consisting  of  pipes  several 
scales  larger  than  those  of  the  Open  Diapason. 


ORGAN. 


591 


Griat  Organ.    10  stops. 


1.  Open  Diapason 

Pipes 
.       63 

2.  Holflute 

.       63 

3.  Principal      • 

.       63 

4.  Nason     •       • 

.       63 

8.  Twelfth  .      . 

.       .       63 

6.  Fifteenth      . 

.       .       63 

7.  Block  Flute,  metal  to 

middle  CJ 

8.  Sesquialtera,  3  ranks  . 

9.  Cornet,  to  middle  0,  do. 
10.  Trumpet        ... 


Pipes 


Choir  Organ.    6  stops. 

11.  Stopped  Diapason       .       53    1 14.  Cremona,  through  .       53 

12.  Principal       .       .       .      63      15.  Vaux  Humane     .  .      63 

13.  Flute,  wood,  to  middle  0    25    |  237 

Eccno  Organ.    4  stops. 

16.  Open  Diapason  29     18.  Cornet.  2  ranks,  (12  *  17)    68 

17.  Principal       ...      29     19.  Trumpet       .       .       .       29 

I  Total    1008 

Compass,  Great  and  Choir,  GG,  without  GG?  to  0  In  alt,  53  notes. 
Eccho,  Fiddle  G  to  0  In  alt,  29  note*. 


It  is  not  quite  certain  to  what  pitch  this 
first  organ  of  Smith's  was  tuned,  though  it  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  to  his  high  one.  He  made  use 
of  several  different  pitches.  His  highest,  arising 
from  placing  a  pipe  of  one  English  foot  in  speaking 
length  on  the  A  key,  he  used  at  Durham  Cathe- 
dral. It  must  have  been  nearly  identical  with 
that  afterwards  adopted  at  New  College,  and  men- 
tioned below.  His  next,  resulting  from  placing  a 
similar  pipe  on  the  Bb  key,  he  used  for  Hampton 
Court  Chapel;  which  pitch  is  said  to  be  that  now 
commonly  used  by  all  English  organ-builders.1  The 
pitch  a  semitone  lower  than  the  last,  produced  by 
placing  the  i-ft.  pipe  on  Btl  was  used  by  Renatus 
Harris  towards  the  latter  part  of  the  1 7th  century. 
It  was  Handel's  pitch,  and  that  of  the  organ- 
builders  generally  of  the  18th  and  early  part  of 
the  19th  centuries,  as  well  as  of  the  Philharmonic 
Society  at  the  time  of  its  establishment  (181 3). 
The  lowest  pitch  of  all,  arising  from  placing 
the  1 -ft.  pipe  on  the  C  key,  was  used  by  Smith 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  These  variations 
were  first  clearly  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Alexander 
Ellis  in  his  'History  of  Musical  Pitch,  1880.' 

1  As  to  pitch,  a  pipe  of  this  length  would  be  about  midway  between 
the  Bb  and  B$  pipes  of  the  Temple  organ. 


1661  (about).  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor. 

Ralph  Dallam. 

Divided  stops  on  shifting  movements. 

Soon  after  the  Restoration,  Ralph  Dallam 
built  an  organ  for  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor, 
containing  the  recently  imported  novelties  of 
Compound  and  Trumpet  Stops  (nos.  6  and  7, 
below).  It  was  a  single-manual  organ  only ;  and 
its  specification,  given  below,  is  very  interesting 
as  showing  that  means  were  taken  even  at  that 
early  time  to  compensate,  as  far  as  might  be,  for 
the  lack  of  a  second  manual,  by  the  adoption  of 
mechanical  arrangements  for  obtaining  variety  of 
effect  from  a  limited  number  of  registers  governed 
by  a  single  set  of  keys.  Thus  there  were  two 
'shifting  movements,'  or  pedals,  one  of  which 
reduced  the  '  Full  Organ '  to  the  Diapasons  and 
Principal,  and  the  other  to  the  Diapasons  alone. 
Thus  two  reductions  of  tone,  in  imitation  of  choir- 
organ  strength,  could  quickly  be  obtained;  which, 
in  a  place  like  St.  George's  Chapel,  where  choral 
service  was  celebrated,  was  very  necessary.  Be- 
sides this,  the  Compound  and  the  Trumpet  stops 
were  both  made  to  draw  in  halves  at  middle  C, 
that  is  to  say,  the  Treble  portion  could  be  used 
without  the  Bass,  so  that  a  solo  could  be  played 
prominently  with  the  right  hand  and  a  soft  accom- 
paniment with  the  left ;  and  the  solo  stop  could 
also  be  suddenly  shut  off  by  the  foot  at  pleasure.2 

Great  Organ.     9  draw  stops. 

Pipes  Pipes 

1.  Open  Diapason  to  CO,  6.  Fifteenth       ...       62 

then  Stopped  and  Oc-  6.  Cornet  Treble,  3  ranks  78 

tare  pipes  ...  64           Sesquialtera  Bass,  3  ranks  78 

2.  Stopped  Diapason  •  52  7.  Trumpet  Treble  .  .  26 
a  Principal  ...  62  I  Trumpet  Bass  .  .  26 
4.  Twelfth  .       .       .       .  62  I 

Compass,  GG,  short  octaves,  to  D  In  alt,  52  notes. 

1 66 1.  New  College,  Oxford.  Robert  Dalham. 
Organ  tuned  to  lowered  pitch. 

Under  the  date' May  io,  1661,'  Dr.  Woodward, 
Warden  of  New  College,  Oxford,  made  a  note 
that 

Some  discourse  was  had  with  one  Mr.  Dalham,  an 
organ-maker,  concerning  a  fair  organ  to  be  made  for  our 
College  Chapel.  The  stops  of  the  intended  organ  were 
shown  unto  myself  and  the  thirteen  seniors,  set  down 
in  a  paper  and  named  there  by  the  organist  of  Christ 
Church,  who  would  have  had  them  half  a  note  lower 
than  Christ  Church  organ,  but  Mr.  Dalham  supposed 
that  a  quarter  of  a  note  would  be  sufficient. 

The  original  specification  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  preserved,  but  the  case  was  made  for 
and  received  a  pipe  as  large  as  the  GG  of  the 
present  day,  which  shows  that  the  organ  was  of 
sharp  pitch  FFF  compass ;  the  compass  remaining 
the  same  after  the  repair  of  the  organ  by  Green 
in  1776.  Woodward's  record  of  the  discussion 
as  to  the  extent  to  which  the  organ  should  be 
tuned  below  the  Christ  Church  Organ,  is  very 
valuable,  as  testifying  not  only  to  the  prevalence 
of  the  high  pitch,  but  also  to  its  inconvenience. 
According  to  the  '  unequal '  or  mean-tone  tem- 
perament to  which  organs  were  then  tuned,  the 
best  keys  were  the  major  of  C,  D,  F,  G,  and  Bb, 
and  the  minor  of  D,  G,  and  A;  all  of  which 

2  The  'Cornet'  quickly  became  a  favourite  'solo'  stop,  and  con- 
tinued to  be  so  for  nearly  150  year*.   (See  Corkct,  vol.  i.  p.  403.] 


592 


ORGAN. 


however  were  sounded  nearly  a  tone  higher  than 
on  a  modern  organ,  and  hence  the  inconvenience ; 
for  transposition  on  an  unequally  tempered 
organ  was  impracticable,  on  account  of  the  'howl- 
ing of  the  wolf,'  as  the  defective  tuning  of  the 
other  scales  was  termed  ;  and  equal  temperament 
did  not  take  its  rise  until  1688-93,  and  then  only 
in  Germany;  the  organ  in  the  Church  of  St. 
Jacobi,  Hamburg,  being  apparently  the  earliest 
one  tuned  according  to  that  system. 

1664-5.  WimbourneMimter.  Robert  Hatwabd. 
Mutation  stops  (Nos.  6  and  7  below). 

In  1663  (July  28)  a  rate  was  made  at  Wim- 
bourne  for  buying  a  new  organ;  and  in  1664. 
(Sept.  10)  an  arrangement  was  made  with  'Robert 
Hayward,  of  the  Citty  of  Bath,  orgin-master,  to 
erect  and  set  up  a  payre  of  organs  in  the  Church,' 
for  £180 ;  which  contract  was  completed  in  1665. 
Although  this  maker's  name  is  not  to  be  found 
in  the  list  of  native  members  of  his  craft  contained 
in  the  standard  works  on  the  subject,  yet  in  ex- 
cellence he  was  not  a  whit  behind  his  countrymen 
whose  names  have  become  better  known. 

The  instrument  originally  consisted  of  '  Great 

Organ  with  Choir  Organ  in  front.'    The  Stopped 

Diapasons  were  of  metal  down  to  Tenor  F,  with 

chimneys.   Hayward  anticipated  Harris's  type  of 

organ  to  a  remarkable  extent,  as  will  be  perceived 

on  comparing  the  following  list  of  stops  with  the 

St.  Sepulchre's  specification  given  farther  on. 

Gbeat  Organ.    10  stops. 

Pipes  Pipe* 

7.  Larigot,  metal      .       .       52 

8.  Sesqulaltera,  4  ranks, 
metal         ...     208 

9.  Cornet,  to  middle  0, 
mounted,  5  ranks,  metal    135 

10.  Trumpet,  metal    .       .       62 
767 
In  front  4  stops. 

113.  Flute,  wood,  closed     .      62 
14.  Fifteenth,  metal  .       .       52 
Total    905 
Compass,  Great  and  Choir,  GG,  short  octaves  to  D  In  alt,  52  notes. 

Neither  Dallam's  nor  Hayward's  organ  con- 
tained an  Echo. 

1665-6.  Exeter  Cathedral.  John  Loosemobe. 
Double  Diapason,  Bass,  etc. 

The  organ  in  Exeter  Cathedral,  constructed 
by  John  Loosemore,  possessed  a  remarkable 
feature  in  its  Double  open  Diapason,  which  con- 
tained the  largest  pipes  ever  made  in  this  country. 
The  fourteen  pipes  of  which  this  stop  consisted, 
were  grouped  in  two  separate  sets  of  seven  each, 
against  two  of  the  columns  of  the  great  central 
tower,  and  therefore  at  some  distance  from  the 
main  body  of  the  organ ;  and  were  acted  upon 
by  an  additional  set  of  pallets.  The  dimensions 
of  the  largest  pipe  (GGG),  were  as  follows : — 


1.  Open  Diapason,  metal 

2.  Stopped  Diapason,  metal 

treble         .       .      . 

3.  Principal,  metal  .      . 

4.  Twelfth,  metal     . 

5.  Fifteenth,  metal  .      . 
0.  Tierce,  metal        .       .       52 

Choir  Organ. 

11.  Stopped  Diapason,  metal 

treble    ....       62 

12.  Principal,  metal  .       .       52 


■ 


Speaking  part,  long 
Nose  .      . 

Circumference  .       . 
Diameter    .      • 


20  ft.  6  In. 
4        0 


Contents  of  the  speaking  part, 

3  hogs.  8  gal. 
Weight,  360  lbs. 


The  large  Exeter  pipes,  like  those  at  Hal- 
berstadt,  did  not  produce  much  effect  when 
tried  by  themselves,  for  an  old  writer,  the  Hon. 


ORGAN. 

Roger  North,  says  of  them,  '  I  could  not  be  so 
happy  to  perceive  that  in  the  musick  they 
signified  anything  at  all ' ;  but  (like  those  at 
Halberstadt)  they  manifested  their  influence 
when  used  in  combination ;  for  another  writer, 
at  the  commencement  of  the  present  century, 
observes  respecting  them,  'no  effect  alone,  but 
very  fine  with  the  Diapasons  and  Principal.' 

The  following  was  the  scheme  of  the  Exeter 
Cathedral  organ,  in  which  we  find  the  open 
diapason  duplicated : — 

GBEAT  ORGAN.      10  Stops. 

Pipes  Pipes 


1.  Double  Diapason 

2.  Open  Diapason     . 

3.  Open  Diapason     • 

4.  Stopped  Diapason 
6.  Principal       .      . 


55 


6.  Twelfth  . 

7.  Fifteenth 

8.  Sesqulaltera.  6  ranks  . 

9.  Cornet  to  middle  O,  do. 
10.  Trumpet       . 


275 
UB 

55 

tot 


CHOIB  OBSAN. 

11.  Stopped  Diapason       .      5 

12.  Principal       ...       6 

13.  Flute  5 


In  front,  5  stops. 

14.  Fifteenth       ...       65 

15.  Bassoon         .       .       .       55 
Total    1064 

Compass,  Great  and  Ohoir,  GO,  long  octaves,  no  GG  5,  to 
D  In  alt,  65  notes. 


1666-7.  Worcester  Cathedral.  Thomas  Harris. 
Chiefly  Foundation-stops. 

On  July  5,  1666,  Thomas  Harris  entered  into 
an  agreement  with  the  Dean  and  Chapter  of 
Worcester,  according  to  which  '  within  eighteen 
months  he  shall  set  up  in  the  choyre  a  double 
organ,  consisting  of  great  organ  and  chaire 
organ.'  The  list  of  the  stops  for  this  instrument 
has  been  preserved,  and  goes  far  to  explain  why 
Harris  did  not  for  some  time  meet  with  quite  as 
much  encouragement  as  Smith.  His  specifica- 
tion is  made  up  simply  of  the  same  kind  of  stops 
as  were  in  vogue  in  England  before  the  Common- 
wealth, and  presents  but  slight  indication  of  its 
author's  having  profited  by  his  sojourn  abroad. 
The  specification  was  as  follows : — 

Gbeat  Obsan.   9  stops. 
1*2.    two   open    Diapasons,    of  j  6.  one  Twelfth,  of  metal. 

7  &  &  two  Fifteenths,  of  metal. 

9,  one  place  for  another  stop. 


metal 

3.  one  Recorder,  of  metal. 
4*5.  two  Principals,  of  metal. 

Chaise  Organ.   6  stops. 


10.  one  Open  Diapason,  of  wood 

having  nine  pipes  towards 
the  bases  beginning  in  A  re. 

11.  one  Stopped  Diapason,  of  wood. 


12.  one  Principal,  of  metal. 

13.  one  Fifteenth,  of  metal. 

14.  one  Two-and-20th  (as  they  call 

tt). 


The  compass  of  the  organ  is  not  given,  but 
some  interesting  particulars  occur  as  to  the 
dimensions  for  two  of  the  metal  pipes.  The  two 
great  open  diapasons,  which  were  '  to  be  in  Bight, 
east  and  west,'  were  to  contain  *  a  io-ft.  pipe, 
as  at  Sarum  and  Gloucester,  following  the  pro- 
portion of  8  in.  diameter  in  the  io-ft.  pipe ;  and 
4  in.  diameter  in  a  pipe  of  5ft.' l 

Although  he  specified  the  dimensions  of  his 
largest  pipe,  Harris  mentioned  nothing  as  to  the 
key  upon  which  it  was  to  act — whether  F,  Fj, 
or  G ;  and  the  omission  of  this  particular  would 
have  left  the  question  as  to  the  downward  com- 
pass and  consequent  pitch  of  his  organ  in  great 
uncertainty,  were  there  not  means  for  obtaining 
the  information  by  deduction. 

Thomas  Tomkins,  organist  of  Worcester  Cathe- 
dral, who  published  his  '  Musica  Deo  Sacra '  in 

1  '  The  Monastery  and  Cathedral  of  Worcester,  by  John  Soake. 
1886.'  p.  483. 


ORGAN. 

1668,  appended  to  it  a  recommendatory  Latin  note 
(of  which  Sir  Frederick  Ouseley  has  a  rare  copy), 
which,  when  translated,  runs  thus  : — '  let  the 
(tenor)  F  pipe  be  2\  feet  or  30  inches  in  length.' 
Such  a  pipe,  as  being  one  half  and  one  quarter 
the  length  of  Harris's  5  ft.  and  10  ft.  pipes  re- 
spectively, would  give  their  octave  and  super- 
octave  sounds.  That  Harris's  10  ft.  pipe  was 
attached  to  the  Fj  key  is  not  at  all  likely,  since 
Fg  was  never  treated  as  a  *  tonic '  at  that  period. 
That  it  communicated  with  the  G  key  is  equally 
beyond  belief,  since  that  would  have  been  identi- 
cal with  the  pitch  of  the  present  day,  which  is 
lower  by  a  tone  than  it  then  was ;  while  F  was 
one  of  the  tonics  most  frequently  used  by  the  then 
leading  church  musicians.  There  can  be  little 
doubt,  therefore,  that  Harris's  Worcester,  Salis- 
bury, and  Gloucester  Organs,  were  all  '  FFF  or- 
gans,' 'short  octaves '  perhaps,  and  'sharp  pitch* 
by  a  whole  tone,  as  already  surmised. 

The  identity  between  Tomkins's  and  Harris's  F 
pitch  and  a  G  pipe  of  the  present  day,  is  conclu- 
sively established  thus.  The  fiddle  G  pipe  in  the 
Manual  Open  Diapason  at  the  Temple  is  exactly 
of  the  specified  '  i\  feet  or  30  inches  in  length,' 
while  for  the  GG  metal  on  the  Pedal  (made  by 
Forster  &  Andrews)  there  is  precisely  a  '  10  ft. 
pipe,'  which  by  a  coincidence  is  also  of  the  '  pro- 
portion of  8  in.  diameter.' 

The '  proportion '  for  the  Worcester  organ,  quoted 
above,  incidentally  points  to  a  second  reason  why 
Thomas  Harris  was  no  match  for  Smith.  To 
emit  an  even  quality  and  strength  as  the  tones 
ascend,  the  diameter  or  '  scale '  of  a  set  of  pipes 
should  not  be  reduced  to  one  half  until  the  interval 
of  a  major  tenth  is  arrived  at ;  whereas  Harris, 
according  to  the  above,  made  his  pipe  of  half 
width  as  soon  as  it  became  of  half  length,  i.  e.  at 
the  octave.  His  tone  must  therefore  have  been 
either  light  and  feeble,  or  thin  and  penetrating, 
in  the  treble  part. 

1670  (about).  St.  Sepulchre's,  Snow  Hill. 

Thomas  and  Renatcs  Harris. 

Mutation  stops,  Clarion,  etc. 

The  instrument  for  this  church  consisted  of 

Great  Organ  with  Choir  Organ  in  front,  and  was 

the  first,  so  far  as  is  known,  that  the  Harrises 

built  for  London.     The  scheme  differs  so  widely 

from  that  of  the  Worcester  organ  just  noticed,  as 

to  suggest  that  the  younger  hand  of  Renatus  took 

an  important  part  in  its  preparation.   It  included, 

however,  rather  an  over-amount  of  'chorus  stops'; 

and  an  old  notice  states  that  the  general  effect 

was  fine  with  the  reeds,  but  thin  without  them. 


ORGAN. 


593 


Great  Oroas.    12  stops. 


1.  Open  Diapason     . 

2.  Stopped  Diapason 
8.  Principal 

4.  Twelfth  .       . 

6.  Fifteenth        . 
6.  Tierce     ... 


7.  Larlgot  .       .       . 

8.  Sesquialtera,  S  ranks  . 

9.  Mixture.  2  ranks  . 

10.  Comet  to  mid.  C".  5 do. 

11.  Trumpet       ... 

12.  Clarion  . 


Pipes 


Choir  Organ  in  front.    0  stops. 
IS.  Stopped  Diapason        .       62     1 18.  Fifteenth 

14.  Principal       ...       62      17.  Vox  Humana 

15.  Flute      .      .      .      .      62    .is.  Cremona       . 


62 


.       62 

•       M 

Total    1170 
Compass.  Ot.  and  Chr.  GO.  short  octaves,  to  D  In  alt,  52  note*. 
VOL.  II.   PT.  11. 


Renatus  Harris  probably  came  up  to  London 
to  erect  the  St.  Sepulchre's  organ,  and  took  up 
his  abode  there ;  as  we  find  him  making  several 
organs  for  the  metropolis  and  the  provinces  in  the 
course  of  the  next  ten  years. 

1682-4.  The  Temple  Church. 
Bernard  Schmidt  (Father  Smith). 
Two  quarter  notes.    Three  manuals. 

In  September  1682  the  Treasurers  of  the  two 
Hon.  Societies  of  the  Inner  and  Middle  Temple 
had  some  conversation  with  Smith  respecting 
the  construction  of  an  organ  for  their  church. 
Renatus  Harris,  who  was  then  residing  in '  Wyne 
Office  Court,  Fleet  Street.'  and  was  therefore 
close  upon  the  spot,  made  interest  with  the  So- 
cieties, who  were  induced  to  arrange  that  if  each 
of  these  excellent  artists  would  set  up  an  organ, 
the  Societies  would  retain  that  which,  in  the 
greatest  number  of  excellences,  deserved  the  pre- 
ference. This  proposal  was  agreed  to,  and  by  May 
1 684,  the  two  organs  were  erected  in  the  church. 
Smith's  stood  in  the  west-end  gallery,  and  Harris's 
on  the  south  (Inner  Temple)  side  of  the  Com- 
munion Table.  They  were  at  first  exhibited  separ- 
ately on  appointed  days,  and  then  tried  on  the 
same  day;  and  it  was  not  until  the  end  of  1687, 
or  beginning  of  1688,  that  the  decision  was  given 
in  favour  of  Smith's  instrument ;  Harris's  organ 
being  rejected  without  reflecting  any  loss  of 
reputation  on  its  ingenious  builder.1 

Smith's  organ  reached  in  the  Bass  to  FFF; 
and  from  FF  upwards  it  bad  two  additional  keys 
or '  quarter  notes '  in  each  octave, '  which  rarityes,' 
according  to  an  old  book  preserved  in  the  library 
of  the  Inner  Temple, '  no  other  organ  in  England 
hath ;  and  can  play  any  tune,  as  for  instance  j* 
tune  of  ye  119th  Bsalm,  (in  E  minor,)  and  severall 
other  services  set  by  excellent  musicians ;  which 
no  other  organ  will  do.'  The  order  of  the  keys  ran 
thus :  FFF,  GG,  A  A,  BBb,  BBl},  then  semitones 
to  gamut  G,  after  which  the  two  special  quarter 
tones  in  each  octave ;  the  compass  ending  on  C 
in  alt,  and  the  number  of  keys  on  each  manual 
being  sixty-one.2 

The  keys  for  the  two  extra  notes  (A  b  and  D J) 
were  provided  by  those  for  GJ  and  Eb  being  cut 
across  midway ;  the  back  halves,  which  acted  on 
the  additional  pipes,  rising  as  much  above  the 
front  halves  as  the  latter  did  above  the  long  keys. 

>  The  Interesting  details  of  this  musical  contest  are  not  given  here. 
as  they  have  been  printed  separately  by  one  of  the  Benchers  of  the 
Middle  Temple,  Edmund  Macrory,  Esq.,  under  the  title '  A  few  notes 
on  the  Temple  Organ.' 

»  Dr.  Armes,  the  organist  of  Durham  Cathedral,  has  brought  under 
the  notice  of  the  present  writer  a  very  curious  discovery— namely,  that 
the  organ  in  that  Church  was  originally  prepared  for,  and  afterwards 
received,  quarter  notes  exactly  similar  to  those  at  the  Temple.  Thfc 
original  order  for  the  organ,  dated  August  18, 1683,  does  not  provide 
for  them,  the  number  of  pipes  to  each  single  stop  being  specifically 
given,  'fifty-four,'  which  would  Indicate  the  same  compass  as  the 
Temple  organ,  viz.  FFF  to  C  In  alt.  without  the  quarter  tones ;  but 
the  sound-boards,  roller-boards,  etc  were  unquestionably  made  from 
the  first  with  two  extra  grooves,  movements,  etc.,  for  each  octave 
from  FF  upwards,  and  the  large  extra  diapason  pipes,  as  being  re- 
quired for  the  east  and  nest  fronts,  were  also  inserted.  The  original 
contract  was  completed  by  May  1.  1685;  and  Dr.  Armes  Is  of  opinion 
that  the  601.  paid  in  1691  to  Smith  by  '  the  Worshi.  the  Dean  and 
Chapter  of  Durham  for  work  done  at  y*  Organ '  was  for  the  Insertion 
of  the  quarter-tone  pipes. 

Qq 


594 


ORGAN. 


ORGAN. 


Smith's  organ  had  three  complete  manuals,  ! 
which  was  also  a  novelty.     Two  complete  stops  j 
were  allotted  to  the  upper  set  of  keys,  forming  a 
kind  of  Solo  organ,  with  which  the  'Ecchos' 
acted  in  combination. 

The  following  is  a  copy  of  the  Schedule  of 
Father  Smith's  organ  as  delivered  to  the  two 
societies,  signed,  and  dated  June  a  I,  1688. 


Its  amended  specification 


Great  Obqan.    10  stops. 


L  Frestand  of  Met- 
tle      ..       .     61 

«.  Holflute  or  Wood 

and  Mettle        .     61 

3.  Prlncipall  of  Mettle   61 

4.  Gedackt  of  Walns- 

cott     ...     61 


11.  Gedackt  or  Walns- 

cott     ...     61 

12.  A  Sadt  of  Mettle        61 

13.  Holflute  of  Mettle     61 

14.  Spittsflute  of  Mettle  61 


Qulnta  of  Mettle  .  61 

Super  Octavo       .  61 
Sesquialtera  of 

Mettle        .       .  183 

Mixture  of  Mettle  226 

,  Cornette  of  Mettle  112 

,  Trumpet  of  Mettle  J>1 

948 

6  stops. 

.  A  Vloll  and  Violin 

of  Mettle    .       .  61 

.  Voice  humane  of 

Mettle        .       .  61 
366 


ECCH08.    7  stops. 


17.  Gedackt  of  Wood 

18.  Super  Octaveo  of 

Mettle 

19.  Gedackt  of  Wood 

20.  Flute  of  Mettle     . 


21.  Sesquialtera  of 

Mettle        .       .    106 

22.  Cornett  of  Mettle       87 

23.  Trumpett      .       .     29 

401 


Total    1715 
With  3  full  setts  or  Keys  and  quarter  notes  to  C  In  alt,  61  note*. 

1690.  Magdalen  College,  Oxford. 

Renatus  Harris. 

Compare  with  specification  on  p.  589. 

Not  long  after  this  date,  in  1690,  Renatus 
Harris  undertook  to  repair  and  improve  the  organ 
erected  by  his  grandfather  in  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford;  and  the  conditions  he  named  showed 
how  thoroughly  such  renovations  were  sometimes 
undertaken  in  those  days.  He  'covenanted'  to 
render  all  the  mechanism  '  strong,  staunch,  good, 
and  serviceable,'  and  to  make  the  pipes  'bear 
a  good  tone,  strong,  clear,  aDd  sweet.'  He 
also  undertook  to  '  alter  the  pitch  of  the  said  or- 
gans'— which  had  been  tuned  to  a  very  high  one — 
'  half  a  note  lower  than  they  now  are ' ;  and  to 
make  the  '  two  sets  of  keys  fall  as  little  as  can  be 
to  give  the  pipes  their  due  tone  ;  the  touch  to  be 
ready,  soft,  and  even  under  the  finger.'  Renatus 
Harris  therefore  took  honest  thought  of  the  in- 
terest of  his  patrons,  the  pleasure  of  the  listeners, 
the  ease  of  the  singers,  and  the  comfort  of  the 
player.1  Among  the  new  stops  which  he  in- 
troduced was  a  Cedirne  (Cithern),  doubtless  a 
string-toned  stop  ;  and  he  applied  the  terms '  Fur- 
niture '  and  '  Cymbal '  to  the  compound  stops  for 
the  first  time  in  England.     Harris  introduced  no 

t  Some  Clavier  Instruments,  In  the  course  of  their  numerous  im- 
provements, have  had  their  touch  deepened  and  its  resistance  to  the 
finger  increased ;  so  that  the  keys  or  a  modern '  Broadwood  Grand '  have 
now  a  rail  of  three-eighths  of  an  inch,  and  a  resistance  in  the  bass  of  four 
ounces.  In  some  modern  organs,  with  scarcely  more  manual  stops 
than  the  one  under  consideration,  the  fall  or  the  keys  has  been  as 
much  as  half  an  inch,  and  the  resistance  twice,  or  even  thrice,  as 
great  as  that  or  a  Grand  Piano,  particularly  when  the  coupler  has 
been  drawn.  Such  a  touch  inflicts  great  punishment  on  ladies,— the 
clergyman's  wife,  or  the  squire's  daughter,— who  in  country  places  or 
remote  parishes  are  frequently  the  ready  but  not  over-muscular 
assistants  at  the  smaller  services.  A  touch  with  a  note  here  and 
there  half-an-ounce  heavier  than  its  neighbours,  is  even  more  em- 
barrassing than  a  deep  one. 


5.  Great  Twelfth,  or  metal 

6.  Fifteenth,  or  metal 

7.  Furniture  or  3  ranks 

8.  Cymbal  or  2  ranks 


Pipes 


reeds  into  this  organ 
stood  as  follows  : — 

Great  Organ.    8 stops. 
Pipes 

1.  Open  Diapason,  or  metal    50 

2.  Stopped  Diapason,  of 

wood  .  .  .  .  60 
S.  Principal,  of  metal  .  50 
4.  Cedirne,  of  metal         .       60 

Choir  Obqan.   5  stops. 

9.  Stopped  Diapason       .       60    1 12.  Nason,  of  metal    .      .       50 

10.  Principal,  of  metal      .       50      13.  Fifteenth      ...     JO 

1L  Flute,  of  metal  80    I  Total     800 

Compass,  CC,  no  CCfl,  to  D  in  alt,  50  notes.   Three  bellows. 

1694-6.  St.  PauVs  Cathedral. 
Bernard  Schmidt. 
Manual  to  16  feet  C,  and  large  '  Chayre.* 
Father  Smith's  success  at  the  Temple  doubtless 
had  much  to  do  with  his  being  invited  to  erect 
an  organ  in  the  Metropolitan  Cathedral ;  the 
contract  for  which  was  dated  and  signed  Dec.  19, 
1694.  The  instrument  was  to  consist  of  Great 
and  Chayre  Organs,  and  Echoes,  it  was  to  be  com- 
pleted by  Lady  Day,  1696,  and  the  price  to  be 
£2000.  The  compass  was  to  be  the  same  as  that 
at  the  Temple,  namely  '  Double  F  fa  ut  to  C  sol 
fa  in  Alt  inclusive,'  54  notes.  Smith's  contract 
was  for  the  inside  of  the  organ  only;  the  case 
being  provided  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren.  The  list 
of  stops  originally  agreed  upon  was  as  follows : — 

Great  Organ.    12  stops. 

1.  Open  Diapason.  7.  Fifteenth. 

2.  Open  Diapason.  8.  Small  Twelfth. 

3.  Stop  Diapason.  9.  Sesquialtera. 

4.  Principal.  10.  Mixture. 

5.  Holfleut.  11.  Cornet. 

6.  Great  Twelfth.  12.  Trumpet. 

Cbatre  Organ.  9  stops. 

13.  Stop  Diapason.  i        18.  Fifteenth. 

14.  Qulnta  dena  Diapason.  19.  Cymball. 

15.  Principal.  20.  Voice  Humane. 

16.  Holfleut.  21.  Crumhorne. 

17.  Great  Twelfth.  I 

Echoes  or  haire  stops ;  6. 

22.  Diapason.  I        25.  Fifteenth. 

23.  Principal.  26.  Cornet. 

24.  Nason.  27.  Trumpet. 

After  the  contract  was  signed,  Smith  extended 
his  design,  and  made  the  Great  Manual  to  the  com- 
pass of  1 6  ft.,  instead  of  la  ft.  only;  and  he  added 
the  six  large  extra  notes — CCC,  DDD,  EEEb, 
EEEl],  FFFJ,  and  GGJ— at  his  own  expense. 
He  had  previously  given  Sir  Christopher  Wren 
the  dimensions  of  the  case  he  would  require  for 
his  1 2 -ft.  organ ;  and  he  now  desired  these  to  be 
increased,  but  this  Sir  Christopher  refused,  de- 
claring that  the  building  was  already  spoiled  by 
the  'confounded  box  of  whistles.'  Smith  took 
his  revenge  on  Wren  by  letting  the  larger  open 
diapason  pipes  in  the  two  side  towers  project 
through  the  top  of  the  case  nearly  a  foot,  which 
vexed  Sir  Christopher  exceedingly,  and  compelled 
him  to  add  ornaments  several  feet  in  height  to 
hide  the  disfigurement.  The  Choir  Organ  case, 
too,  was  made  so  small  that  it  had  no  room  for 
the  Quinta-dena,  which  therefore,  though  made, 
had  to  be  left  out. 

1 700  (about).  St.  John's  Chapel,  Bedford  Row. 
Renatus  Harris. 
Stops  '  by  Communication.* 
Renatus  Harris  was  very  partial   to  an  in- 


ORGAN. 

genious  arrangement  by  which  the  lower  portion 
of  a  stop,  or  even  the  stop  entire,  could  be  made 
to  act  on  two  different  manuals  'by  commu- 
nication '  as  it  was  termed.  He  introduced  this 
device  for  the  first  time  in  his  organ  at  the 
Temple,  and  afterwards  in  those  at  St.  Andrew's 
Holborn,  St.  Andrew  Undershaft,  St.  John's 
Chapel,  Bedford  Bow,  etc. ;  but  the  account  of 
the  last-mentioned  instrument  is  here  selected  for 
illustration,  as  it  presented  some  other  noticeable 
peculiarities.  This  organ  had  a  '  Sesquialtera 
Bass'  of  reeds,  consisting  of  1 7th,  19th,  and  22nd, 
up  to  middle  B,  planted  on  a  small  separate  sound- 
board ;  each  rank  being  made  to  draw  separately. 
(See  nos.  13, 14,  and  15,  below.)  It  was  however 
nearly  always  out  of  order,  and  produced  at  best 
but  an  indifferent  effect.  The  four  ranks  of  the 
Cornet  in  the  Echo  (12th,  15th,  Tierce,  and  Lari- 
got)  were  made  to  draw  separately ;  an  arrange- 
ment evidently  adopted  rather  for  ostentation,  as 
these  sets  of  little  pipes  could  scarcely  have  been 
required  separately  for  any  useful  purpose. 

Gbeat  Organ.     15  stops. 


ORGAN. 


595 


Pipes 

Pipes 

1.  Open  Diapason 

52 

9.  Sesquialtera,  5  ranks  . 

260 

2.  Stopped  Diapason 

.       62 

10.  Cornet  to  mid.Cj,  6  ranks  ISO 

3.  Principal 

.       52 

11.  Trumpet        .       .       • 

02 

4.  Flute      .       .      . 

.       62 

12,  Clarion  .... 

02 

'  5.  Twelfth  .       .      . 

.       62 

In  .Reeds. 

6.  Fifteenth       .       . 

.       62 

13.  Tierce     .... 

25 

7.  Tierce     ... 

.       62 

14,  Larigot   .       .             . 

25 

8.  Larigot  .       .       . 

.       62 

15.  Twenty-second     .      . 

26 

Cboib  Organ.    2  rei 

i!  stops  ;  4  borrowed. 

685 

a.  Open  Diapason    Borrowed  by 

16.  Bassoon 

62 

b.  Stopped  Dia-     |  communlca- 

17.  Cremona       ... 

52 

pason               Vtlon  from  the 

789 

e.  Principal           I  Great  Organ. 

d.  Flute                J 

Echo. 

10  stops. 

18.  Open  Diapason    • 

.       27 

23.  Tierce     .... 

27 

19.  Stopped  Diapason 

.       27 

24.  larigot  .... 

27 

2a  Principal       .      . 

.       27 

25.  Trumpet        ... 

27 

21.  Twelfth  .      .      . 

.       27 

26.  Hautboy       .      .       . 

27 

22.  Fifteenth       .       . 

.       27 

27.  Vox  Humana       .      . 

27 

Compass,  Grt.  and  Chr.  GG,  short  octaves,  to  D  in  alt,  52  notes. 
Echo,  Middle  C  to  D  In  alt,  27  notes. 

The  above  organ  was  standing,  a  few  years 
ago,  in  a  church  at  Blackheath. 

1703.  St.  Saviours,  Southwark. 
Abbaham  Jordan,  Sen. 
Double  Diapason  and  Large  Choir. 
This  organ  is  said  to  have  been  built  by  '  one 
Jordan,  a  distiller,  who,'  as  Sir  John  Hawkins 
tells  us  in  his  History  of  Music, '  had  never  been 
instructed  in  the  business,  but  had  a  mechanical 
turn,  and  was  an  ingenious  man,  and  who,  about 
the  year  1700,  betook  himself  to  the  making  of 
organs,  and  succeeded  beyond  expectation.'  He 
certainly  built  several  excellent  and  substantial 
instruments.  The  one  under  notice  had  a  16-ft. 
octave  of  metal  pipes  acting  on  the  Great  Organ 
keys  from  tenor  C  down  to  CC.  These  large 
pipes  originally  stood  in  the  front  of  the  case, 
where  they  made  a  very  imposing  appearance, 
as  their  full  length  was  presented  to  view,  with- 
out nearly  a  yard  of  the  upper  part  being  hidden 
behind  the  case,  as  at  St.  Paul's.  They  however 
were  dismounted  many  years  ago,  and  put  out  of 
sight,  and  the  instrument  was  enclosed  in  a  case 


of  inferior  dimensions.    This  organ  doubtless  had 
an  Echo;  but  no  account  of  it  has  been  preserved. 

IS  stops. 


L  Double  Open  Diapason, 

ceo  to  00,  no  cue; 

2.  Open  Diapason    . 

3.  Open  Diapason     .       . 

4.  Stopped  Diapason       , 

5.  Principal 

6.  Flute      .... 


GBEAT  ORGAN. 

Pipes 


7.  Twelfth  .       .       . 

8.  Fifteenth 

9.  Sesquialtera,  4  ranks 

10.  Furniture,  3  ranks 

11.  Cornet,  5  ranks    . 

12.  Trumpet        . 

13.  Clarion  . 


Tipes 


216 
162 
145 


Choir  Organ.    7  stops. 


14.  Open  Diapason,  wood 

15.  Stopped  Diapason 

16.  Principal       .      . 

17.  Flute      .      .       .       . 


54 


18.  Fifteenth 

19.  Mixture,  3  ranks 

20.  Vox  Humana 


Compass,  GG,  short  octaves,  up  to  E  in  alt,  54  notes. 

1710.  Salisbury  Cathedral.  Renatus  Harris. 
Four  manuals. 
In  the  year  1710  Renatus  Harris  erected  in 
Salisbury  Cathedral,  in  place  of  the  instrument 
put  up  by  his  father,  an  organ  possessing  four 
manuals  (for  the  first  time  in  England)  and  fifty 
stops,  including  'eleven  stops  of  Echos,'  and  on 
which  '  may  be  more  varietys  express'd,  than  by 
all  y°  organs  in  England,  were  their  several  excel- 
lencies united.'  Such  was  the  glowing  account 
given  of  the  capabilities  of  this  new  organ,  on  the 
engraving  of  its  '  East  Front.'  The  instrument, 
however,  presented  little  more  than  an  amplifi- 
cation of  the  peculiarities  exhibited  in  the  St. 
John's  Chapel  organ  already  noticed.  The  extra 
department  consisted  of  a  complete  borrowed  organ 
of  13  stops  derived  from  the  Great  organ.  The 
Choir  organ  had  its  own  real  stops ;  and  the  '  1 1 
Stops  of  Echos'  were  to  a  great  extent  made  up  of 
the  single  ranks  of  the  ordinary  Cornet.  There 
was  a  '  Drum  Pedal,  CC,'  the  '  roll '  of  which  was 
caused  by  the  addition  of  a  second  pipe  sounding 
a  semitone  below  the  first  pipe,  with  which  it 
caused  a  rapid  beat.  Smith  had  previously  put 
•  a  Trimeloe '  into  his  organ  at  St.  Mary-at-Hill, 
and  '  a  Drum,'  sounding  D,  into  that  at  St.  Nicho- 
las, Deptford. 

First  Gbeat  Organ.    15  real  stops. 

Pipes  Pipes 


1.  Open  Diapason     . 

.       60 

9.  Larigot  . 

2.  Open  Diapason     . 

.       60 

10.  Sesquialtera,  4  ranks 

3.  Stopped  Diapason 

.       60 

11.  Cornet,  5  ranks     . 

4.  Principal 

.       50 

12.  Trumpet        .       • 

5.  Flute      ... 

.       50 

13.  Clarion  . 

6.  Twelfth  .      .      . 

.       60 

14.  Cromhorn      .       . 

7.  Fifteenth       .       . 

.       BO 

15.  Vox  Humana       . 

8.  Tierce     .      .      . 

.       CO 

Second  Gbeat  Obga 

».    IS  borrowed  stops. 

a.  Open  Diapason 

.       00 

h.  Larigot    ... 

o.  Stopped  Diapason . 

.       00 

<.    Sesquialtera  . 

e.  Principal         .       . 

.       00 

j.  Trumpet        .       . 

d.  Flute       .       .      . 

.       00 

4.  Clarion    . 

«.  Twelfth    .      .      . 

.       00 

1.    Cromhorn      .      . 

/.  Fifteenth        .      . 

.       00 

m.  Vox  Human*        . 

g.  Tierce      ... 

.      00 

DHOIE  ORQA 

N.     7  stops. 

16.  Open  Diapason,  to  Gamut  42 

20.  Twelfth  ,       .       , 

17.  Stopped  Diapason 

.       60 

21.  Fifteenth       .      . 

18.  Principal 

.       60 

22.  Bassoon  ... 

19.  Flute      .      .      • 

.      60 

ECHO. 

11  stops. 

23.  Open  Diapason     . 

.      28 

29.  Tierce     .      .      . 

24.  Stopped  Diapason 

.       25 

SO.  Larigot   ... 

25.  Principal 

.       25 

31.  Trumpet        .      • 

26.  Flute 

.       25 

32.  Vox  Humana       • 

27.  Twelfth  .      .       . 

.       25 

S3.  Cromhorn      .       • 

28.  Fifteenth 

.       25 

_60 
342 


Compass,  Gt.  and  Chr.  GG,  short  8ves,  to  C  In  alt,  50  notes. 
Echo,  middle  C  to  C  in  alt,  25  notes. 

Qq2 


596 


ORGAN. 


1 71 2.  St.  Magnus,  London  Bridge.    Jordan. 

The  first  Swell. 

In  1712  the  Jordans  (Abraham,  sen.  and  jun.) 
built  an  organ  for  the  church  at  the  opposite  end 
of  London  Bridge  to  St.  Saviour's,  namely  St. 
Magnus,  which  deserves  special  notice  as  being 
the  first  instrument  that  contained  a  Swell.  This 
organ  also  had  four  sets  of  keys,  the  fourth  no 
.  doubt  being  a  counterpart  of  the  third  (Echo)  but 
'  adapted  to  the  act  of  emitting  sounds  by  swelling 
the  notes,'  so  that  passages  played  with  expression 
could  be  contrasted  with  those  played  without. 
A  list  of  the  stops  in  the  Swell  has  not  been 
preserved  ;  but  we  know  from  those  subsequently 
made,  that  its  compass  and  capacity  must  have 
been  very  limited,  though  sufficient  to  illustrate 
the  importance  of  the  improvement. 

1716.    St.  Chad's,  Shrewsowy. 

Thomas  Schwarbrook. 

Swell  and  Choir  on  one  Manual. 

Four  years  after  the  invention  of  the  Swell, 
in  1 71 6,  Thomas  Schwarbrook  adopted  a  device  in 
his  organ  at  St.  Chad's,  Shrewsbury,  which  after- 
wards became  a  very  favourite  one  with  the 
builders  of  the  last  century,  namely,  that  of  at- 
taching to  the  choir  manual  a  few  treble  stops 
enclosed  in  a  swell-box.  This,  in  a  small  way, 
foreshadowed  the  combination  'swell  to  choir' 
which  remains  a  frequent  and  favourite  one  to 
this  day.  The  Echo  organ  contained  a '  Flageolet,' 
the  earliest  example  that  we  have  met  with. 

Great  Organ.    IS  stops. 

1.  Open  Diapason. 

2.  Stopped  Diapason. 

3.  Principal. 

4.  Octave  to  middle  C. 

5.  Twelfth. 

6.  Fifteenth. 

7.  Tierce  (17).  I 

Choir  Organ.    6  stops. 

14.  Open  Diapason,  to  middle  C.    1 17.  Flute,  to  middle  0. 

15.  Stopped  Diapason.  18.  Fifteenth. 

16.  Principal.  1 19.  Trumpet,  to  middle  0. 

Nos.  14  and  19  were  enclosed  as  a  Swell,  and  the  box  was  opened  bj 
a  pedal. 

Echo.  7  stops. 

20.  Open  Diapason.  1  24.  Twelfth. 

21.  Stopped  Diapason.  25.  Fifteenth. 

22.  Principal.  26.  Trumpet. 

23.  Flageolet,  I 

Compass,  Gt.  and  Chr.  GQ.  short  8ves,  to  D  In  alt,  52  notes. 

Echo,  middle  0  to  D  In  alt,  27  notes. 

Drum  pedal,  sounding  G  and  F $• 

Schwarbrook's  masterpiece  was  at  St.  Michael's, 
Coventry.  It  originally  contained  a  Harp,  Lute, 
and  Dulcimer ;  but  the  strings  and  action  were 
so  liable  to  get  out  of  order  that  they  were  re- 
moved in  1 763. 

1722-4.  St.  Dionis  Backchurch. 

Renatcs  Harris,  Jun. 

Many  Reed  Stops. 

This  admirable  organ,  made  by  one  of  the 
fourth  generation  of  Harrises,  who  died  young, 
was  remarkable  for  the  number  and  excellence 
of  its  reed-stops,  as  well  as  for  the  general  good- 
ness of  its  Flue-work.     [See  Fluewobk.]     This 


8.  Lesser  Tierce  (!»>. 

9.  Cornet,  treble. 

10.  Sesquialtera.  base. 

11.  Fournlture. 

12.  Trumpet. 

13.  Clarion. 


ORGAN. 

organ  had  several  stops  '  by  communication,' 
either  wholly  or  partially,  and  from  different 
notes.  The  introduction  of  the  GG$  was  an 
unusual  feature.  It  appears  to  have  been  the 
earliest  organ  to  contain  a  '  French  Horn '  stop. 
'  Tenor  D '  was  a  peculiar  note  for  it  to  be  ter- 
minated upon  ;  but  it  nevertheless  remained  the 
standard  note  for  special  stops  for  many  years. 
The  Swell  had  no  separate  Principal.  Where  this 
was  the  case,  the  Principal  was  included  in  the 
Cornet. 

Great  Organ.    13  stops. 


Pipes 

Pipe* 

1.  Open  Diapason    .      . 

56 

9.  Comet  to  mid.  C,  5  ranks  13f 

2.  Stopped  Diapason 

56 

10.  Trumpet        . 

56 

3.  Principal       .       .      . 

56 

11.  French  Horn  to  tenor  D 

37 

4.  Twelfth  .... 

56 

12.  Clarion  .... 

56 

5.  Fifteenth       .       .       . 

56 

13.  Cremona,  from  Choir 

C  Tierce     .... 

66 

Organ,  by  communi- 

7. Larigot   .... 

56 

cation 

°o 

8.  Sesquialtera,  4  ranks  . 

224 

900-  ' 

Choir  Organ.     7  stops. 

14.  Open  Diapason  to  mid- 

17. Flute      .... 

56 

dle  0,  by  communi- 

18. Fifteenth        .       .       . 

58 

cation  below 

27 

19.  Cremona       ... 

56 

15-  Stopped  Diapason  to  ga 

20.  Bassoon  .... 

58 

mut  G.  by  communi- 

21. Vox  Humana 

56 

cation  below     .       • 

44 

22.  Clarion,  from  Great  Or- 

1(3. Principal       .      .      . 

SS 

gan,  by  communication  00 

Swell  Organ.    T  stops. 

MS 

23.  Open  Diapason     .       . 

82 

27.  Clarion  .      .       .      • 

32 

24.  Stopped  Diapason       . 

32 

28.  Cremona        ... 

32  ' 

25.  Cornet,  4  ranks    .       . 

128 

29.  Vox  Humana       .      . 

32 

26.  Trumpet        ... 

32 

32ft 

Total 

166- 

Compass,  Gt.  and  Chr.  GG  with  GGf  to  D  in  alt,  56  notes. 
Swell,  Fiddle  G  to  D  In  alt,  32  notes. 


1726.  St.  Mary  Redcliff,  Bristol. 
First  Octave  Coupler. 

In  1726  John  Harris  and  John  Byfield,  sen. 
erected  a  fine  and  imposing-looking  organ  for  the 
church  of  St.  Mary  Kedcliff,  Bristol,  which  had 
a  '16  ft.  speaking  front.'  The  compass  of  this 
instrument  was  in  some  respects  unusually  com- 
plete, the  Great  Organ  descending  to  CCC,  in- 
cluding CCCJ,  and  the  Choir  Organ  going  down 
to  GG  with  GG  J ;  the  Swell  consisted  of  the 
unusual  number  of  nine  stops.  Four  of  the  Stops 
in  the  Great  Organ  descended  to  GG  only ;  and 
one  of  the  open  Diapasons  had  stopped-pipes  to 
the  last  four  notes.  There  was  '  a  spring  of  com- 
munication' attached  to  the  Great  Organ,  by 
which  CC  was  made  to  act  on  the  CCC  key,  and 
so  on  throughout  the  compass.  The  Redcliff 
organ  therefore  contained  the  first  'octave  coupler' 
that  was  ever  made  in  England ;  in  fact,  the  first 
coupler  of  any  kind  with  which  any  organ  in  this 
country  was  provided.  Some  old  printed  accounts 
of  this  organ  state  that  the  Swell  originally  went 
to  tenor  C,  with  the  lower  notes  of  the  reeds  very 
fine ;  and  that  it  was  afterwards  shortened  to  the 
fiddle  G  compass ;  but  Mr.Vowles,  organ-builder 
of  Bristol,  who  a  few  years  ago  reconstructed  the 
organ,  and  had  all  its  original  mechanism  under 
his  eye,  assures  the  present  writer  that  the  state- 
ment was  erroneous,  and  probably  took  its  rise 
from  the  circumstance  that  the  key-maker,  doubt- 
less by  mistake,  made  the  Swell  Manual  down 
to  tenor  C,  and  that  the  seven  extra  keys  were 
therefore  allowed  to  remain  as  '  dummies.' 


ORGAN. 

Great  Organ-.    11  stop*. 

Pipes 

Pipe 

I.  Open  Diapason     .  •    . 

63 

6.  Fifteenth,  to  GO  .       . 

66 

Z.  Open  Diapason,  metal 

7.  Tierce,  to  GG         .       . 

56 

to  EEK  ;  stopped 

&  Sesquialtera,  5  ranks, 

pipes  below       .       . 

63 

to  GG  . 

280 

3.  Stopped  Diapason 

63 

9.  Cornet,  to  mid.  0. 5  rks. 

135 

4.  Principal 

63 

10.  Trumpet       •       •      • 

63 

5.  Twelfth,  to  GO     .       . 

G6 

11.  Clarion  .... 

63 

ORGAN.- 


597 


Choir  Organ.    6  stops. 

12.  Stopped  Diapason       .       56    1 15.  Block  flute     . 

13.  Principal       ...      53      16.  Besquialtera,  3  ranks 

14.  Flute      .       .      .      .       68    1 17.  Bassoon .       .       . 


Swell  Oboak.    g  stops. 

18.  Open  Diapason      .       .      32      23.  Hautboy        . 

.       .      82 

19.  Stopped  Diapason       .      32    1 24.  Trumpet 

.       .       82 

20.  Principal       .       .       .       32      25.  Cremona 

.       .       82 

21.  Flute       ....       32     26.  Vox  Humana 

.       .       82 

22.  Cornet,  3  ran  ks                   96    1 

Total    1761 

Compass,  Great  Organ,  CCC  with  CCO  J  to  D  in  alt.  63  notes. 
Choir     do.     GG  with  GG  2  to  Din  alt,     56  notes. 
Swell      do.    Fiddle  G  to  D  in  alt,       .       82  notes. 
Four  Bellows. 


i73°- 


Christ  Church,  Spitalfields. 
Richabd  Bridge. 


Largest  Organ  in  England. 

In  1730,  Richard  Bridge,  then  a  young  man, 
made  himself  favourably  known  by  the  construc- 
tion of  a  fine  organ  for  Christ  Church,  Spitalfields, 
which  was  at  the  time  the  largest  in  England. 
Like  the  St.  Dionis  organ,  it  contained  more  than 
the  average  number  of  excellent  reed-stops.  The 
second  Open  Diapason  had,  instead  of  open  pipes 
in  the  lowest  octave,  stopped  pipes  and  'helpers,' 
as  they  used  to  be  termed. 

16  stops. 

Pipes 


1.  Open  Diapason 

2.  Open  Diapason  to  ga- 

mut G,  then  Stopped 
and  Principal  pipes . 

3.  Stopped  Diapason        . 

4.  Principal       .       .      . 

5.  Principal       .      . 

6.  Twelfth  .... 

7.  Fifteenth       .       .      . 


GREAT  ORGAN. 
Pipes 


8.  Tierce      .       . 

9.  Larigot  .       ...  56 

10.  Sesquialtera.  5  ranks  .  280 

11.  Furniture.  3  ranks      .  168 

12.  Cornet  to  mid.  C  f,  5  rks.  130 

13.  Trumpet        ...  66 

14.  Trumpet        ...  66 

15.  Clarion   ....  66 

16.  Bassoon  ....  56 


Choir  Organ.    9  stops. 


1318 


17.  Stopped  Diapason 

18.  Principal  . 

19.  Flute      .       . 
90.  Fifteenth 

21.  Mixture,  3  ranks  . 


22.  Cremona       ... 

23.  Vox  Humana 

24.  French  Horn  to  tenor  D 

25.  Hautboy  to  tenor  D    . 


26.  Open  Diapason     . 

27.  Stopped  Diapason 

28.  Principal       .       . 

29.  Flute      .       .       , 
SO.  Cornet,  3  ranks     , 


Swell  Oboak.    8  stops. 

31.  Trumpet 

32.  Hautboy 

33.  Clarion   . 


Total    2268 

Compass,  Great  and  Choir,  GG,  long  octaves,  without  GG  t ,  to 

Din  alt;  56  notes. 
Bwell,  fiddle  G  to  D  in  alt ;  32  notes.    Drum  pedal  on  C ;  2  pipes. 

1 749.    Foundling  Hospital.     Parkee. 
Four  quarter  tones. 

The  organ  built  by  Parker  in  1749  wr  *ne 
chapel  of  the  Foundling  Hospital  was  specially 
remarkable  for  having  four  quarter  notes  in  each 
octave,  or,  in  the  words  of  a  writer  in  the  'Euro- 
pean Magazine  '  for  February  1799,  'four  demi- 
tones,  and  other  niceties  not  occurring  in  other 
organs.'  At  the  Temple  there  were  two,  Djf  and 
Ab.  At  the  Foundling  there  were  in  addition, 
Ag  and  Db.  These  supplementary  notes  were  not 
furnished  with  extra  keys,  but  were  controlled  by 


Great  Organ.    12  stops. 

Pipes 

iapa- 

7.  Flute       .       .       . 

1       .      76 

&  Twelfth  .       .       . 

.       .       76 

9.  Fifteenth 

.       .       76 

10.  Block-flute     . 

.       76 

11.  Sesquialtera,  3  ranks 

.       .       76 

12.  Trumpet 

certain  mechanism  whereby  they  could  be  sub- 
stituted for  four  of  those  ordinarily  in  connection 
with  the  short  keys.  The  external  mechanism 
for  this  consisted  of  six  levers,  two  for  each 
manual,  placed  over  the  draw-stops  on  each  side, 
moving  in  as  many  horizontal  slots,  and  each 
having  three  places  of  rest.  When  the  levers 
stood  in  the  centre,  the  1 2  Bounds  were  those  of 
the  usual  unequal  temperament.  If  a  left-hand 
lever  were  pushed  full  to  the  left,  Eb  was  changed 
into  D %  ;  and  if  a  right-hand  lever  were  pushed 
full  to  the  right,  Bb  was  changed  to  Aj.  If  how- 
ever a  right-hand  lever  were  pu(  full  to  the  left, 
Gj  was  changed  into  Ab ;  and  if  a  left-hand  lever 
were  put  full  to  the  right,  Cg  becameDb.  There 
were  thus  two  levers  belonging  to  each  of  the 
three  manuals. 

Handel  conducted  the  music  at  the  perform- 
ance given  on  the  occasion  of  the  opening  of  this 
organ  in  1 749. 


1.  Double-stopped  Diapa- 

son, all  through 

2.  Open  Diapason 
a  Open  Diapason 
4.  Stopped  Diapason 
6.  Principal 
6.  Principal       . 

Cboib  Organ.    6  stops. 

15.  Dulciana  to  CO     .       .       71    1 16.  Fifteenth       .       .      . 
14.  Stopped  Diapason       .       76      17.  Vox  Humana 

16.  Principal       ...       76    | 

Swell  Organ.    4  stops. 

18.  Open  Diapason     .       .      46    |  20.  Trumpet 

19.  Stepped  Diapason        .       46    I  21.  Cremona 

Total       j 
Compass,  Gt.  and  Cr.  GG,  long  8ves.  to  E  in  alt,  76  notes. 
Swell,  Fiddle  G  to  E  in  alt,  46  notes. 


1754.  St.  Margaret's,  Lynn  Regie. 

John  Schnetzler. 

The  first  Dulciana. 
Schnetzler  is  the  fourth  German  organ-builder 
whom  we  have  met  with  in  England.  More 
than  one  incident  of  interest  is  connected  with 
the  erection  of  the  orLran  built  by  him  for  the 
parish  church  of  Lynn  Regis.  There  was  an  old 
organ  in  the  building  that  was  so  much  decayed 
that  portions  of  some  of  the  pipes  crumbled  to 
dust  when  they  were  taken  out  to  be  cleaned. 
The  churchwardens  nevertheless  wished  to  retain 
this  organ  if  possible,  and  asked  Schnetzler  to 
state  what  it  was  worth,  and  also  what  would 
be  the  expense  of  repairing  it.  He  said  the 
organ  as  it  stood  was  worth  a  hundred  pounds  ; 
and  if  they  would  lay  out  another  hundred  upon 
it,  it  would  then  perhaps  be  worth  fifty !  This 
answer  settled  the  matter,  and  the  new  organ 
was  ordered.  The  Lynn  organ  is  the  first  that 
contained  a  Dulciana,  of  which  it  had  two,  one 
in  the  Choir  and  one  in  the  Swell.  It  also  had 
a  Bourdon  in  the  Great  Organ  to  CC,  of  metal 
throughout,  except  the  lowest  two  notes,  which 
were  of  wood.  The  three  manuals  were  com- 
plete, and  a  Bass  to  the  Swell  was  obtained 
from  three  of  the  Choir  Organ  Stops,  by  three 
additional  sliders  and  as  many  separate  draw- 
stops. 


SDS 


ORGAN. 


ORGAN. 


1.  Bourdon,  to  CO    . 

2.  Open  Diapason     . 

3.  Stopped  Diapason 

4.  Principal 
6.  Twelfth  .       .       . 
6.  Fifteenth       .      . 


Great  Organ.    12  stop-. 

Pipes  Pipes 

7.  Tierce     ....  57 

8.  Sesqulaltera,  4  ranks  .  223 

9.  Furniture,  3  ranks       .  171 
10.  Cornet  to  mid.  0.6  ranks  145 


11.  Trumpet 

12.  Clarion 


Cboib  Organ.    7  stops. 


13.  Dulclana,    of    metal 

throughout       .      • 

14.  Stopped  Diapason       . 

15.  Principal 


R 


IS.  Flute      .... 

17.  Fifteenth       .      .      . 

18.  Bassoon  up  to  Fiddle  G 

19.  Vox  Humana        .       . 


Swell.    8  stops,  and  3  borrowed  Bass  stops. 


20.  Open  Diapason     . 

21.  Stopped  Diapason        . 

22.  Dulclana        .       . 

23.  German  Flute,  to  mid.  0 

24.  Cornet,  4  ranks     . 

25.  French  Horn         .       • 


67 

67 

1083 

67 
67 
36 

*L 
378 

36 


26.  Trumpet 

27.  Hautboy        ...       36 
;  a.  Stopped  Bass  1 

:  6.  Dulclana  Bass  >from  Choir. 
I   e.  Flute  Bass       J 

Total       1860 


Compass,  Gt.  and  Chr.  GG,  long  Sves.  no  GG  J,  to  E  in  alt,  57  notes. 
Swell,  Tenor  F  to  E  in  alt,  36  notes. 

1789.  Greenwich  Hospital.   Samuel  Gbeen. 

Swell  to  FF. 
In  the  organ  made  for  the  chapel  of  the  Royal 
Hospital  at  Greenwich,  Green  extended  the  com- 
pass of  the  Swell  down  to  FF,  a  most  important 
improvement;  and  included  therein  not  only  a 
Dulciana  but  also  its  octave,  the  Dulcet  or  Dul- 
ciana  Principal.  The  disposition  of  this  organ 
stood  as  follows  : — 

Great  Organ.    11  stops. 

Pipes  Plpei 

7.  Fifteenth 


1.  Open  Diapason     .       .  59 

2.  Open  Diapason     .      .  59 

3.  Stopped  Diapason        .  69 

4.  Principal       ...  69 

5.  Flute       ....  59 

6.  Twelfth  ....  59 

Choir  Organ.    6  stops. 

12.  Stopped  Diapason        .  59    1 15.  Fifteenth 

13.  Principal       .      .       .  59      16.  Bassoon . 

14.  Flute      ....  59    I 

Swell  Organ.    8  stops. 


8.  Sesqulaltera,  3  ranks  .  177 

9.  Mixture,  2  ranks   .       .  118 

10.  Cornet  to  mid.  0,4  ranks  116 

11.  Trumpet        ...  59 


17.  Open  Diapason     . 

18.  Stopped  Diapason 

19.  Dulciana 

20.  Principal 

21.  Dulciana  Principal 


22.  Cornet.  3  ranks 

23.  Trumpet 

24.  Hautboy 


480 
1668 


1 790.  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor. 
Samuel  Green. 
Great  Organ  in  general  Swell. 
In  the  organ  built  for  the  Chapel  Royal  at 
Windsor  in  the  following  year,  Green  further 
extended  the  effect  of  the  '  crescendo '  and  '  di- 
minuendo '  by  enclosing  the  entire  Great  Organ 
in  a  large  general  Swell.  The  upper  manual 
organ  thus  became '  a  Swell  within  a  Swell.'  The 
great  front  pipes,  east  and  west,  were  therefore 
all '  mutes,'  but  were  replaced  by  speaking  pipes 
when  the  general  swell  was  taken  away  some 
years  ago  by  Gray.  The  compass  of  the  Great 
and  Choir  Organs  was  carried  down  to  FFF, 
12  ft.,  as  in  Green's  organ  at  Greenwich,  and  also 
in  those  which  he  restored  at  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  and  York  Minster. 

Great  Organ.    11  stops. 

Pipes  Pipes 

7.  Sesqulaltera.  3  ranks  .     177 

8.  Mixture,  2  ranks  .       .     118 

9.  Cornet  to  mid.  C.  4  ranks    116 


1.  Open  Diapason     . 

2.  Open  Diapason     . 

3.  Stopped  Diapason 

4.  Principal       .       , 

5.  Twelfth  .       .       . 

6.  Fifteenth       .      . 


10.  Trumpet        ...       59 

11.  Small  Trumpet  (Clarion)    69 


12.  Dulclana,  to  FF   , 

13.  Stopped  Diapason 

14.  Principal       .      , 


18.  Open  Diapason     , 

19.  Stopped  Diapason 

20.  Dulciana       .       , 

21.  Principal       .       , 


Choir  Organ.    6  stops. 

>      .      48    1 15.  Flute      .  .  . 

69      16.  Fifteenth  .  . 

.       59    1 17.  Bassoon  .  .  . 

Swell  Organ.    8  stops. 

22.  Dulciana  Principal 

23.  Cornet,  3  ranks     . 
36      24.  Trumpet        .       . 

25.  Hautboy        .      . 
Total 


Compass,  Gt.  and  Chr.  FFF,  no  FFF},  to  E  In  alt,  59  notes. 
Swell.  Tenor  F,  to  E  In  alt ;  36  notes. 

1 790.  Introduction  of  Pedals. 

Although,  as  we  have  seen,  Pedals  were  known 
in  Germany  upwards  of  four  hundred  years  ago, 
yet  they  were  not  introduced  into  England  until 
nearly  the  close  of  the  last  century.  Who  first 
made  them,  or  which  was  the  first  organ  to  have 
them,  are  matters  of  some  doubt.  The  organs 
in  Westminster  Abbey,  the  German  Lutheran 
Church  in  the  Savoy,  and  St.  Matthew's,  Friday 
Street,  each  claim  the  priority.  The  first  organ 
that  is  known  for  certain  to  have  had  them,  was 
that  made  in  1 790  by  G.  P.  England,  and  erected 
by  him  at  St.  James's,  Clerkenwell,  which  in- 
strument, according  to  the  words  of  the  original 
specification,  was  ■  to  have  Pedals  to  play  by  the 
feet.'  These,  like  the  early  German  specimens, 
were  an  octave  only  in  compass,  GG  to  Gamut  G ; 
and  also,  as  at  Halberstadt,  etc.,  had  no  pipes 
of  their  own,  but  only  drew  down  the  manual 
keys.  Before  1793  Avery  put  Pedals  to  the 
Westminster  Abbey  organ,  together  with  an 
octave  of  Unison  wood  GG  Pedal -pipes;  and 
from  that  date  he  frequently  introduced  both 
into  his  own  instruments.  In  1 8 1 1  G.  P.  England 
built  an  organ  for  Lancaster  with  1 1  octave  of 
Pedals,  GG  to  Tenor  C  ;  and  two  couplers,  Great 
and  Choir  to  Pedal.  He  also,  like  Avery,  became 
a  strong  advocate  for  separate  pipes  for  the  pedals, 
introducing  them  in  1803  into  his  organ  at  New- 
ark, which  had  the  FFF  (12  ft.)  pipe. 

After  a  time  pipes  of  double  size,  speaking 
down  to  GGG  (2i£  feet  length)  were  made,  as  by 
Elliott  &  Hill  at  Westminster  Abbey,  etc.  Be- 
sides the  Unison  and  Double  Pedal-pipe  ranges, 
a  mongrel  scale  crept  into  use,  which,  though 
most  defective,  was  for  a  few  years  the  most 
frequently  followed.  This  consisted  of  an  octave 
of  double  pipes  from  CC  down  to  CCC,  and  then 
five  unison  pipes  from  BB  down  to  GG.  The  five 
pedal  keys,  B  to  G,  at  each  extremity  of  the 
pedal-board,  were  thus  without  any  difference  in 
the  pitch  of  their  five  sounds. 

1809.    Composition  Pedals.    J.  C.  Bishop. 

In  1809  the  late  J.  C.  Bishop  effected  the  im- 
provement on  the  old  Shifting  movement  which 
afterwards  became  so  generally  known  as  the 
Composition  Pedals.  [See  vol.  i.  p.  382  &.]  An 
important  modification  on  his  original  mechanism 
is  now  generally  made,  by  a  long  arm  of  iron, 
called  a  fan,  extending  horizontally  in  front  of 
the  vertical  draw-rods,  where  by  suitable  me- 
chanism it  is  made  to  wave  up  and  down. 
As  the  fan  moves  it  comes  in  contact  with  small 
'  blocks '  of  wood,  by  which  it  moves  the  rods ; 


ORGAN. 

and  the  improvement  consists  in  the  facility  with 
which  these  blocks  can  be  added  to,  or  any  of 
them  removed,  and  so  the  '  composition '  be  al- 
tered in  a  few  minutes,  if  a  change  be  desired. 

1825.    Concussion  Bellows.    J.  C.  Bishop. 

These  were  first  applied  by  Bishop,  in  1825,  to 
the  organ  which  he  built  in  that  year  for  the 
Theatre  Royal,  Covent  Garden.  [See  vol.  i.  216.] 

1829.  St.  James's,  Bermondsey.  J.  C.  Bishop. 
Large  GG  Pedal  Organ. 
The  most  complete  GG  Pedal  Organ  that  was 
ever  made,  both  as  to  compass  and  stops,  was 
the  one  erected  by  the  late  J.  C.  Bishop  in 
St.  James's  Church,  Bermondsey,  in  1829.  It 
had  three  stops  of  a  range  of  two  octaves  each. 
The  following  was  the  general  specification  of  it : — 

Great  Organ.    10  stops. 
Pipes 


ORGAN. 


599 


1.  Open  Diapason     . 

2.  Open  Diapason     . 

3.  Stopped  Diapason 

4.  Principal        .       . 

6.  Twelfth  .       .       . 


09 


6.  Fifteenth 

7.  Sesqulaltera,  3  ranks 

8.  Mixture,  2  ranks  . 

9.  Trumpet        .       . 
10.  Clarion  . 


Pipes 


Choir  Organ.    8  stops. 

11.  Open  Diapason     .       .       59    ,  15.  Flute      .       . 

12.  Dulclana  to  gamut  Q  .       47      16.  Fifteenth 

13.  Stopped  Diapason        .       59      17.  Cremona,  treble 

14.  Principal       .       .       .       59    1 18.  Bassoon,  bass 

Swell  Organ.    8  stops. 
19.  Open  Diapason    .      .      47      23.  Cornet.  5  ranks 
2a  Open  Diapason     .       .       47    :  24.  French  Horn 

21.  Stopped  Diapason        .       47    I  25.  Trumpet 

22.  Principal       .       .       .       47    1 26.  Hautboy 


47 


Pipes 


Pedal  Organ.    3  stops. 

27.  Double  Pedal  Pipes,  down  to  GGU,  21  i  feet 

28.  Unison  Pedal  Pipes,  down  to  GG,  10J  feet    .       25 

29.  Trombone,  down  to  GG,  10$  feet     ...       25 
Compass,  Gt.  and  Chr.  GG,  with  GG  f ,  to  F  In  alt,  59  notes.    Swell, 

Gamut  G  to  F  In  alt,  47  notes ;  Keys  to  GG  acting  on  Choir  Organ. 
Pedal  Organ,  GG  to  fiddle  G,  25  notes. 

Couplers,  Swell  to  Great.  Swell  to  Choir.  Choir  to  Great.  Great 
to  Pedal.    Choir  to  Pedal. 

Three  Composition  Pedals  to  Great,  shifting  to  reduce  Swell  to 
Diapason.    Pedal  to  couple  Swell  to  Great. 

There  was  a  keyboard  on  the  left-hand  side 
of  the  manuals,  acting  on  the  pedal  organ ;  and 
the  writer  remembers  seeing  in  print  a  copy  of 
Handel's  chorus,  'But  the  waters  overwhelmed 
their  enemies,"  arranged  for  three  performers, — 
a  duet  for  the  manuals,  with  the  rolling  bass  part 
for  a  third  player  at  the  side  keyboard, — pre- 
pared expressly  for  and  played  at  the  opening  of 
this  organ. 

1832.  The  Pneumatic  Lever.  Barker. 
In  a  large  organ  with  several  pallets  to  a  key, 
and  perhaps  some  stops  on  a  heavy  pressure  of 
wind,  the  touch  becomes  heavier  than  the  most 
muscular  finger  (or  foot)  can  control  without  ex- 
periencing great  exhaustion.1  The  number  of 
springs  in  the  several  soundboards  to  some  ex- 
tent bring  back  the  resistance  existing  in  the  old 
16th-century  spring-boxes,  which  resistance  how- 
ever can  now  no  longer  be  overcome  by  brute 
force,  but  must  be  controlled  by  the  elastic  ac- 
tion from  the  knuckles  or  ankle.  This  power  is 
supplied  by  the  pneumatic  lever.     The  late  Mr. 

1  The  organist  at  Haarlem  strips  like  a  blacksmith  preparatory  to 
giving  his  usual  hour's  performance,  and  at  the  end  of  it  retire* 
covered  with  perspiration. 


Joseph  Booth,  of  Wakefield,  was  the  first  organ- 
builder  to  whom  the  idea  seems  to  have  occurred 
of  establishing  pneumatic  agency,  and  of  thus 
i  ingeniously  turning  the  wind-power,  one  of  the 
organist's  antagonists,  into  his  assistant.  It  was 
to  some  of  the  bass  pipes  of  the  organ  he  built 
for  the  church  of  Attercliffe,  near  Sheffield,  in 
the  year  1827,  that  Mr.  Booth  first  applied  his 
little  invention.  The  lower  notes  of  the  wood 
open  diapason  of  the  GG  manual  were  placed  on 
a  small  separate  soundboard,  and  to  the  pull- 
down of  each  pallet  he  attached  a  small  circular 
bellows  below.  From  the  great  organ  sound- 
board-groove a  conveyance  conducts  wind  into  this 
bellows,  which,  opening  downwards,  draws  the 
pallet  with  it.  These  small  bellows  Mr.  Booth 
used  to  call  puff-valves. 

It  was  in  1832  that  the  late  Mr.  Barker  first 
thought  of  his  invention  that  has  since  been 
called  the  pneumatic  lever.  On  the  completion  of 
the  organ  in  York  Minster,  the  touch  of  which,  in 
consequence  of  the  great  size  of  the  instrument, 
was  of  course  very  heavy,  he  wrote  to  Dr.  Camidge, 
then  the  organist  of  the  Cathedral,  begging  to 
be  allowed  to  attach  one  of  his  levers  in  a  tem- 
porary way  to  one  of  the  heaviest  notes  of  his 
organ.  Dr.  Camidge  admitted  that  the  touch  of 
his  instrument  was  'sufficient  to  paralyse  the 
efforts  of  most  men';  but  financial  difficulties 
stood  in  the  way  of  the  remedy  being  applied ; 
and  in  1837  he  went  to  France  to  superintend 
its  introduction  into  the  organ  then  being  built 
by  the  eminent  builder  Cavaille'-Coll  for  the  royal 
Church  of  St.  Denis,  near  Paris.  M.  Cavaille 
had,  among  his  other  experiments,  made  Flue 
and  Reed  pipes  to  produce  harmonic  tones  by 
means  of  wind  of  heavy  pressure,  but  these 
discoveries  he  had  looked  upon  as  practically 
useless  on  account  of  their  leading  to  the  pro- 
duction of  a  touch  which  no  human  muscles 
could  overcome.  Mr.  Barker's  apparatus,  which 
simply  overpowered  the  resistance  that  could  not 
be  removed,  was  therefore  an  opportune  present- 
ation ;  and  M.  Cavaille  immediately  introduced 
it,  together  with  several  Harmonic  stops,  into 
the  large  organ  he  was  then  (1841)  building  for 
the  Abbey  Church  of  St.  Denis,  near  Paris. 

In  1835  Mr.  David  Hamilton,  of  Edinburgh, 
made  a  pneumatic  movement,  which  he  applied 
to  the  organ  in  St.  John's  Episcopal  Church  in 
that  city;  and  in  1839  a  paper  was  read  at  a 
meeting  of  the  British  Association  at  Birmingham 
explanatory  of  a  pneumatic  lever  which  he  then 
exhibited. 

The  pneumatic  lever  consists  of  a  bellows 
shaped  very  like  a  small  concussion  bellows,  two 
or  three  inches  in  width,  and  about  ten  inches  in 
length.  The  key  of  the  clavier  opens  a  small 
circular  valve  beneath  this,  and  compressed  air 
being  thus  admitted,  the  bellows  rises,  drawing 
with  it  a  tracker  that  communicates  the  motion 
to  the  whole  of  the  pallets  and  to  such  of  the 
coupling  movements,  etc.,  as  may  be  'drawn'; 
all  of  which  immediately  answer  to  the  putting 
down  of  the  key.  When  the  key  is  released  the 
valve  that  admitted  the  air  is  closed  and  another 


600 


ORGAN. 


opened,  the  bellows  consequently  closing.  The 
key  is  thus  relieved  from  the  combined  resist- 
ance of  the  main  pallets,  coupling  movements, 
and  the  heavy  wind-pressure ;  and  the  touch  can 
consequently  be  adjusted  to  any  degree  of  elastic 
resistance  pleasant  to  the  performer. 

1834.     York  Minster.    Elliott  &  Hill. 
Radiating  Pedal-board. 

The  organ  in  York  Minster,  which  had  been 
twice  enlarged — about  1754,  anc*  agam  *n  I^.I3 
— was  a  third  time  altered  and  considerably  in- 
creased in  size  in  1823,  by  Ward  of  York;  who 
among  other  things  added  a  Pedal  Organ  of  thir- 
teen stops  to  FFF,  containing  two  Double  Diapa- 
sons down  to  FFFF,  24  feet  length,  etc.  The  fire 
of  1 8  29  cleared  all  this  away ;  and  Messrs.  Elliott 
&  Hill  were  then  engaged  to  erect  an  entirely  new 
organ,  under  the  superintendence  of  the  late  Dr. 
Camidge. 

It  had  been  found  from  experience  that  the 
vast  area  of  York  Minster  required  an  immense 
amount  of  organ  tone  to  fill  it  adequately,  and 
with  the  view  of  supplying  this,  Dr.  Camidge 
seems  to  have  selected  as  the  foundation  of  his 
plan,  the  type  of  a  large  ordinary  Great  Organ 
of  the  period,  of  twelve  stops,  which  he  followed 
almost  literally,  and  then  had  that  disposition 
inserted  twice  over.  The  compass  of  the  Great 
and  Choir  Manuals  he  extended  downwards  to 
CCC,  16  feet,  and  upwards  to  C  in  altissimo; 
and  the  Pedal  Organ  he  designed  to  include  four 
'  Double '  Stops  of  32  feet,  and  four  '  Unisons '  of 
16  feet.  The  great  fault  in  the  scheme  lay  in 
the  entire  omission  from  the  Manuals  of  all  sub- 
octave  Foundation-stops — ».  e.  stops  sounding  the 
16-feet  tone  on  the  8-feet  key — and  consequently 
also  of  all  the  Mutation-stops  due  to  that  sound. 
In  spite  of  the  great  aggregation  of  pipes,  there- 
fore, the  numerous  manual  stops  produced  no 
massiveness  of  effect,  while  as  the  Pedal  had  no 
less  than  four  ponderous  sub -octave  registers,1 
and,  with  the  manuals  coupled,  a  total  of  over 
forty  stops,  the  only  possible  result  from  such  an 
arrangement  was  a  '  top-and-bottom'  effect. 

The  original  scheme  of  the  organ — which  un- 
derwent thorough  revision  and  improvement  in 
1859 — is  given  below.  This  organ  had  a  radi- 
ating pedal-board.  The  organ  erected  in  Miteham 
church  in  1834,  and  originally  made  by  Bruce  of 
Edinburgh,  also  had  a  radiating  pedal-board,  of 
peculiar  construction. 

Gseat  Organ.   24  stops. 


25.  Open  Diapason     . 

26.  Open  Diapason     . 

27.  Dulclana  .  . 
23.  Stopped  Diapason 
29.  Horn  Diapason    . 


(East  soundboards.) 

1.  Open  Diapason     . 

2.  Open  Diapason     . 

3.  Stopped  Diapason 

4.  Principal 
6.  Principal 

6.  Principal,  wood  (Flute) 

7.  Twelfth 

8.  Fifteenth 

9.  Sesquialtera  7  ranks 

10.  Mixture  . 

11.  Trumpet 

12.  Trumpet        .       . 


,  (West  soundboards.) 

13.  Open  Diapason    .  . 

1 14.  Open  Diapason     .  . 

j  15.  Stopped  Diapason  . 

j  16.  Principal       .       .  . 
i  17.  Principal 

18.  Principal,  wood  (Flute) 

19.  Twelfth          .       .  . 
2a  Fifteenth 

21.  Sesquialtera,  7  ranks 
!  22.  Mixture  .... 
!  23.  Trumpet        .       .       . 
I 24.  Trumpet        .       .       . 


ORGAN. 

Choir  Organ.  9  stops. 
!  SO.  Principal 
i  31.  Flute  . 
j  32.  Fifteenth 
j  33.  Bassoon  . 
I 

Swell  Organ.   12  stops. 


34.  Open  Diapason     . 

35.  Stopped  Diapason 

36.  Dulciana       .       . 

37.  Harmonica    . 
88.  Principal 

39.  Principal,  wood    . 


4a  Fifteenth 

41.  Sesquialtera,  4  ranks 

42.  Horn       . 

43.  Trumpet 

44.  Oboe 

45.  Cremona       .       . 


46.  Double  open,  wood     , 

47.  Double  open,  metal 

48.  Double  stopped,  wood 

49.  Open  Diapason,  wood 

50.  Open  Diapason,  wood 


Pedal  Organ.   9  stops. 

32    i  51.  Open  Diapason,  metal 
32    I  52.  Sacbut  (reed),  wood    . 
32    1 53.  Trumpet,  wood    . 
54.  Trumpet,  metal    . 


16 


1  It  was  stated  at  the  time  this  organ  was  made  that  the  largest 
pedal-pipe  would  hold  a  glass  of  ale  for  every  man,  woman,  and  child 
then  residing  within  the  walls  of  the  city  of  York. 


Compass,  Gt.  and  Chr.  CCC  to  0  In  altmo  (6  octaves) ;  73  notes. 
Swl.  CO  to  0  In  altmo.  (5  octaves) ;  61  notes.  Pedal  Organ,  CCC  to 
Tenor  C ;  25  notes. 

Manual  and  Pedal  couplers.      Radiating  Pedal-board. 

Not  long  after  the  completion  of  the  York 
organ  the  late  Dr.  (then  Mr.)  Gauntlett  made  a 
praiseworthy  effort  to  introduce  some  of  the 
leading  features  of  the  Continental  principle  of 
organ-building  into  England  ;  and  being  heartily 
seconded  by  the  late  Mr.  William  Hill,  his  en- 
deavours were  attended  with  a  considerable 
amount  of  success.  The  8-feet  compass  was 
gradually  accepted  as  the  proper  range  for  the 
Manuals,  although  at  times  greatly  opposed : 
the  sub-octave  (16  feet)  manual  stops,  which  had 
been  essayed  successively  by  Parker,  Schnetzler, 
and  Lincoln,  at  last  obtained  favourable  recogni- 
tion, together  with  the  Twelfth  thereto,  viz.  the 
Quint  of  5^  feet.  Double  manual  2  reeds  were 
incorporated  ;  and  the  importance  of  and  ne- 
cessity for  the  independent  Pedal  Organ  was 
also  demonstrated.  The  weak  points  were  the 
number  of  half  and  incomplete  stops,  which  re- 
tarded the  process  of  quick  registering ;  and  the 
short  range  of  the  Pedal  Organ,  which,  instead 
of  being,  like  the  pedals  themselves,  upwards  of 
two  octaves  in  compass,  from  CCC,  consisted  of 
a  single  octave  only,  which  then  repeated.  This 
defect — a  continuation  of  the  old  '  return  pedal- 
pipe'  system — had  to  be  remedied  before  a  clear 
and  intelligible  reading  of  Bach's  Fugues,  or 
any  other  essentially  organ  music,  could  be 
given. 

1840.     Town  Hall,  Birmingham. 

Elliott  &  Hill. 

*  Borrowed'  Solo  Organ. 

The  peculiarity  in  this  organ,  independently 
of  its  general  excellence,  consisted  in  its  '  Com- 
bination or  Solo  Organ.'  By  an  ingenious  me- 
chanical contrivance  almost  any  stop  or  stops  of 
the  swell  or  choir  organs  could  be  played  on  a 
fourth  manual,  without  interfering  with  their 
arrangement,  or  their  own  separate  keyboards. 
The  stops  that  could  thus  be  used  in  combina- 
tion were  the  following : — 


J  A  double  reed-stop  (double  bassoon,  down  to  the  DDD  pipe) 
formed  a  portion  of  the  Great  Organ  of  the  instrument  erected  by 
John  Byfleld,  jun.,  in  Christ  Cburch  Cathedral,  Dublin,  in  1751. 


ORGAN. 


ORGAN. 


601 


Os  Solo  Manual. 


From  Choir  OtgU. 

1.  Open  Diapason 

2.  Stopped  Diapason    . 

3.  Dulciana    .... 

4.  Flute 

6.  Harmonica       ... 

6.  Cornopean       ..       •       • 

7.  Cremona    .       •       .       . 
6.  Bells. 


Feet  I 


From  Swell  Organ. 


1.  Open  Diapason 

2.  Stopped  Diapason 

3.  Clarabella 

4.  Principal  . 

5.  Fifteenth  . 

6.  Horn .      . 

7.  Hautboy  . 
R.  Trumpet  . 
9.  Clarion     . 


This  was  the  first  organ  that  had  the  '  Great 
Ophicleide,'  or  '  Tuba,'  on  a  heavy  wind. 

1842.    Worcester  Cathedral.    Hill  &  Sons. 
Non-return  Pedal  Organ. 

In  1842  Messrs.  William  Hill  &  Sons  con- 
structed a  new  organ  for  the  Choir  of  Worcester 
Cathedral,  in  which  the  Pedal  Organ  was  made 
of  the  same  range  as  the  pedal  keys ;  and  the 
Swell  contained  an  '  Echo  Cornet,'  then  a  com- 
paratively new  feature,  and  a  development  of 
Green's  'Dulciana  Principal.'  It  also  had  a 
sub-octave  stop  (Double  Dulciana)  of  the  same 
species.  The  following  is  the  specification  of  the 
organ  just  mentioned. 

Great  Organ.    14 stops. 

Feet  1  Feet 

,  8.  Wald  Flote    .       . 
!   8.  TVellth  .       .      . 
[10.  Fifteenth 
;  11.  Sesquialtera.  3  ranks 


1.  Tenoroon  Diapason     . 

2.  Bourdon  to  meet  No.  1 
S.  Open  Diapason,  front  • 

4.  Open  Diapason,  back  • 

5.  Stopped  Diapason  . 
«.  Quint  .... 
7.  Principal       .      .      . 


15.  Dulciana       .      . 
H.  Clarabella     . 
17.  Stopped  Diapason 
IS.  Principal 


12.  mixture.  2  ranks  . 
5J    13.  Doublette,  2  ranks 
4     14.  Posaune  .      .     • 
Choir  Organ. 

8    1 19.  Stopped  Flute      . 
8      20.  Oboe  Flute    . 
8    1 21.  Fifteenth 
4    '■  22.  Cremona       .      . 
Swell  Organ.   11  stops. 


29.  Flageolet 

30.  Doublette.  2  ranks 

31.  Echo  Dulciana  Cornet 

5  ranks. 

32.  Oboe       .       .       . 
S3.  Cornopean    .      . 


23.  Double  Dulciana  Id      29.  Flageolet  .        t 

24.  Open  Diapason     .       .        R      30.  Doublette,  2  ranks       .        2 

25.  Stopped  Diapason       . 

26.  Dulciana       .       .       . 

27.  Principal       .       .       . 

28.  Suabe  Flute  . 

Pedal  Organ.   6  stop*. 

34.  Open  Diapason  16    1  Fifteenth     .       .      , 

35.  Stopped  Diapason        .       16      Sesquialtera,  5  ranks 

36.  Principal       ...        81  Trombone    . 
Compass.  Gt.  and  Cbr.  CO  to  F  In  alt,  54  notes.    Swell,  Tenor  C  to 

F  In  alt,  42  notes.    Pedal,  CCC  to  Tenor  E,  29  notes. 

Couplers,  Swell  to  Great.    Swell  to  Choir.    Great  to  Pedal.   Choir 
to  Pedal. 

Five  Composition  Pedals. 

185 1.  Exhibition  Organ.   M.  DUOBOQUET. 

In  the  year  1851  the  first  great  Industrial 
Exhibition  was  held  in  London  in  Hyde  Park. 
On  that  occasion,  among  the  numerous  musical 
instruments  presented  to  public  notice  were  two 
foreign  organs  (Ducroquet  and  Schulze),  which, 
though  moderate  in  size,  presented  several  fea- 
tures, in  the  form  of  stops  and  principles  of  con- 
struction, that  were  then  new  to  this  country,  and 
many  of  which  were  afterwards'  gradually  intro- 
duced into  the  English  system  of  organ-building. 
To  these  reference  must  therefore  here  be  made. 

The  scheme  of  Ducroquet's  French  organ  stood 
as  follows : — 

Great  Organ.   10  stops. 

Feet  I  Feet 

1.  Bourdon        .       .       .      16       6.  Prestant 


2.  llontre  .       . 

3.  Flute-a-pavillon 

4.  Salicional      . 

5.  Bourdon 


7.  Plelnjeu.12,15,19, 

8.  Bombarde 
I  9.  Trompette     , 
;  10.  Clairon  .      . 


22,26       2} 
.       16 


11.  Flute  (Open  Diapason) 

12.  Flute  Harmonlque      . 

13.  Viola  di  Gamba    .       . 

14.  Bourdon        ... 


Recit  or  Swell  Organ.   8  stop*. 
Feet 


Feet 


15.  Prestant        ...  4 

16.  Trompette     ...  X 

17.  Hautbois  et  Basson     .  8 

18.  Cor  Anglais  ...  8 
Fedal  Organ.   2  stops. 

19  Flute  (Open  wood)       .       16    |  20.  Bombarde,  (reed) .       .  16 

Compass,  Gt.  and  Swl.  CC  to  C  In  altmo.,  61  notes.  Pedal  CCC  to 
Tenor  C,  25  notes. 

Six  Mechanical  Pedals :  1.  Great  to  Pedal.  2  Great  organ  reeds  oa 
or  off.  3.  Entire  Great  organ  on  or  off.  4.  Swell  to  Great,  unison. 
5.  Swell  to  Great,  octave.    6.  Swell  to  Great,  sub-octave. 

1 85 1.  Exhibition  Organ.    M.  Schulze  and  Son. 

The  specification  of  Schulze's  German  Organ 
was  as  follows  : — 

Great  Organ.   8  stops. 
Feet 

1.  Bordun  ....       16 

2.  Principal  (wood  bass)  s 
&  Gamba,   grooved   Into 

No.  2  In  the  bass      .        8 
4.  Gedact    ....         8 

Choir  Organ.    6  stops. 


5.  Hohlflote.  grooved  into 

No.  4  In  the  bass       . 

6.  Octave    .... 

7.  Mixture,  15, 19, 22, 26, 29 

8.  Clarinette      . 


12.  Gelgen  Principal . 

13.  Lleblich  FlOte      . 


I 


9.  Lleblich  Bordun.  to  G.       16 

10.  Gelgen  Principal  .       .        8 

11.  Lleblich  Gedact  through- 

out, and  Flauto  Travel  so    8 

Pedal  Organ.    2  real  stops. 
a.  Sub-bass    borrowed  1 14.  Octave-bass,  open  wood        8 

from  Gt.  Bordun      .      16    1 15.  Posaune.       ...      16 
Compass,  Gt.  and  Cr.,  CO  to  F  In  alt,  54  notes.  Pedal,  CCC  to  Tenoi 
D,  27  notes. 

Couplers,  Choir  to  Great  Unison.  Choir  to  Great  Sub-Octave.  Great 
to  Pedal. 

1.  In  Ducroquet's  organ  the  Flute-a-pavillon 
(No.  j)  was  composed  of  cylindrical  pipes  with 
a  bell  on  the  top,  the  tone  of  which  stop  was 
very  full  and  clear.  The  Flute  Harmonique 
(No.  12)  was  a  stop  which  in  the  upper  part 
•  overblew,'  or  sounded  its  octave,  as  in  the  real 
flute,  and  was  therefore  composed  of  pipes  of 
double  length,  to  render  the  pitch  correct.  It 
produced  a  very  effective  imitation  of  an  or- 
chestral flute.  The  Cor  Anglais  (No.  18)  was 
a  free  '  reed,  and  gave  a  very  good  imitation  of 
the  instrument  after  which  it  was  named.  The 
reed  stops  in  this  organ  were  more  numerous 
than  they  would  have  been  in  an  English  in- 
strument of  the  same  size,  besides  being  most 
excellent.  They  numbered  seven  in  a  specifica- 
tion of  twenty  stops,  and  included  two  of  16 
feet.  The  three  reeds  of  the  great  organ  were 
placed  on  a  separate  soundboard,  and  were 
supplied  with  wind  at  a  higher  pressure  than 
that  used  for  the  Flue-work.  They  were  there- 
fore very  powerful  and  effective,  and  imparted 
a  very  brilliant  effect  to  the  full  organ.  Of  the 
six  mechanical  pedals,  the  titles  of  most  of  which 
indicate  their  purpose,  one  (No.  3)  threw  the 
Great  Organ  on  or  off  its  keys,  so  that  when  the 
Swell  was  coupled  to  the  Great  Manual,  a  sud- 
den forte  or  piano  could  be  obtained.  Its  effect 
therefore  was  similar  to  that  of  the  English 
'  sforzando  pedal,'  though  scarcely  equal  to  it  for 
practical  purposes. 

2.  In  Schulze's  organ  the  Gedact  (No.  4)  was 
formed  of  stopped  wood  pipes  that  produced  a 
fuller  tone  than  the  usual  Stopped  Diapason,  at 
the  same  time  that  it  retained  the  pure  character 
of  the  best  specimens  of  that  class  of  stop.     The 

1  For  Free-reed  see  vol.  I.  p.  562  a. 


602 


ORGAN. 


'Lieblichs'  of  16,  8,  and  4  feet  (Nos.  9,  II,  and 
13),  the  invention  of  Schulze,  in  the  Choir 
organ,  were  singularly  beautiful  in  quality  of 
tone,  and  formed  a  most  effective  group  of  stops. 
The  'Flauto  Traverso'  (No.  11),  like  the  French 
'  Flute  Harmonique,'  was  composed  of  pipes  of 
double  length  in  the  upper  part ;  and  the  pipes 
being  of  wood,  bored  and  turned  to  a  cylindrical 
shape,  were  in  reality  so  many  actual  flutes. 
The  'Gamba'  and  'Geigen  Principal'  (Nos.  3 
and  10),  were  open  stops,  metal  in  the  treble 
and  tenor,  and  produced  the  '  string  tone '  most 
effectively.  The  Hohlflbte  (No.  5)  was  an 
open  wood  stop,  with  the  mouth  on  the  broad 
side  of  the  pipe,  and  produced  a  thick,  '  hollow' 
tone;  hence  its  name.  The  'Clarinette'  and 
'Posaune'  (Nos.  8  and  15)  were  reed  stops  of 
the  '  free '  species,  the  latter  having  zinc  tubes 
of  half  length,  and  producing  an  excellent  quality 
of  tone.  The  pedal  coupler  acted  on  a  second 
set  of  pallets  in  the  soundboard,  and  did  not 
take  down  the  manual  keys — a  great  conveni- 
ence, as  it  did  not  interfere  with  the  hands. 
The  pedal  clavier  was  made  in  a  form  then 
quite  new  to  this  country,  with  the  notes  at  the 
extreme  right  and  left  somewhat  higher  than 
those  in  the  middle — concave.  This  shape  and 
Elliott  &  Hill's  radiating  plan  were  afterwards 
combined  by  Mr.  Henry  Willis,  in  his  'con- 
cave and  radiating  pedal- board.'  The  flue-stops, 
that  are  usually  intended  to  have  great  power, 
possessed  considerable  boldness  and  strength  in 
this  organ  of  Schulze's,  which  was  partly  due  to 
the  scales  having  been  kept  'well  up.'  This 
effect  was  secured  without  any  extra  pressure  of 
wind — for  the  wind  only  stood  at  the  ordinary 
pressure  of  three  inches — but  simply  by  allowing 
twice  or  thrice  the  usual  quantity  of  wind  to 
enter  at  the  feet  of  the  pipes. 

The  French  organ,  then,  brought  the  Har- 
monic flutes,  the  Gamba,  the  octave  and  sub- 
octave  couplers,  and  the  reed-stops  on  a  stronger 
pressure  of  wind,  into  prominent  notice,  al- 
though this  latter  was  also  illustrated  in  Willis's 
larger  organ  at  the  west  end  of  the  Exhibition 
building ;  while  Schulze's  organ  drew  attention 
to  the  sweet-toned  (Lieblich)  covered  stops,  the 
Harmonic  flute,  the  string- toned  stops,  and  the 
bold  voicing  and  copious  winding  of  full-scaled 
flue-stops,  on  the  successful  imitation  of  which 
latter  Mr.  T.  Lewis  has  built  a  part  of  his  re- 
putation. 

3.  Messrs.  A.  and  M.  Ducci,  organ-builders  of 
Florence,  exhibited  a  small  organ,  the  bellows 
of  which  possessed  a  novelty,  in  that  the  feeder, 
consisting  of  a  movable  board  swaying  parallel 
between  two  fixed  ones,  supplied  wind  both  by 
its  upward  and  downward  motion,  and  in  double 
quantity,  as  it  moved  bodily  instead  of  being 
hinged  on  at  one  end. 

4.  Mr.  Willis's  great  organ  had  three  manuals 
and  pedal,  seventy  sounding  stops  and  seven 
couplers.  There  were  four  different  pressures  of 
wind.  The  Swell  had  its  own  separate  bellows 
placed  within  the  swell-box,  as  in  Green's  organ 
at  St.  George's,  Windsor,  already  noticed.    It 


ORGAN. 

also  presented  several  novelties,  the  principal  of 
which  was  the  introduction  of  studs  or  pistons 
projecting  through  the  key-slips,  acting  on  the 
draw-stops,  operated  upon  by  the  thumbs,  and 
designed  as  a  substitute  for  the  ordinary  Compo- 
sition Pedals.  This  was  effected  by  the  aid  of  a 
pneumatic  apparatus  on  the  same  principle  as  that 
applied  to  the  keys.  A  stud,  on  being  pressed, 
admitted  compressed  air  into  a  bellows,  which 
immediately  ascended  with  sufficient  power  to 
act,  by  means  of  rods  and  levers,  on  the  ma- 
chinery of  the  stops,  drawing  those  which  the 
given  combination  required,  and  pushing  in 
those  that  were  superfluous.  In  most  cases  there 
was  a  duplicate  stud  for  each  combination,  so 
that  it  could  be  obtained  by  using  either  the 
right  or  the  left  thumb. 

The  leading  improvements  that  have  been 
introduced  since  the  first  Exhibition,  are  of  too 
recent  a  date  to  belong  to  the  History  of  the 
organ ;  and  more  properly  belong  to  its  De- 
scription. 

Of  the  celebrated  foreign  organs  we  may  men- 
tion the  four  following  typical  specimens. 

1735-8.  Haarlem.  Christian  Mulleb. 
This  organ  has  long  been  celebrated  as  one  of 
the  largest  and  finest  in  the  world.  It  was 
built  by  Christian  Miiller  of  Amsterdam,  and 
was  nearly  three  years  and  a  half  in  course  of 
construction,  having  been  commenced  on  April 
23,  1735,  and  finished  on  Sept.  13,  1738.  It  has 
60  stops,  of  which  the  following  is  a  list : — 


1.  Prestant   . 

2.  Bourdon  .       . 
S.  Octaav      . 

4.  Roerflult  . 

5.  Viol  dl  Gamba 

6.  Koer-quint       . 

7.  Octaav 

8.  Gemshorn 

9.  Quint  prestant 


Great  Organ-.    16  stops.    1209  pipes. 
Feet     Pipes 


1(5 


78 


16  (tone)  51 
8  .  78 
8(tone)51 
8  .  51 
5i  .  61 
4  .  51 
4  .  51 
2f  .   51 


10.  Woud-fluit 

11.  Tertian,  2  ranks 

12.  Mixture,  6,  8,  and 

10  ranks 

13.  Trompet  . 

14.  Trompet  . 

15.  Hautbois  . 

16.  Trompet  . 


Feet     Pipe* 


17.  Prestant 
lft.  Quintadena 

19.  Hohlflult . 

20.  Octaav.     . 

21.  Fluit-donz 

22.  Speel-fluit 

23.  Super-octaay 

24.  Sesquialtera,  2,  3, 


Choir,  in  front.    14  stops.    1268  pipes. 


95 

8  (tone)  51 
8  .  51 
4  .  61 
4  .  51 
2j    .     51 


and  4  ranks  . 

25.  Mlxtur,  6,  7,  and 

8  ranks . 

26.  Cimbel,  2  ranks 

27.  Cornet,  5  ranks 

28.  Fagot        .       .       16 

29.  Trompet  .       .        8 

30.  Kegal        .       .        8 


SI.  Quintadena 
82.  Prestant  . 
S3.  Baar-pyp  . 

34.  Quintadena 

35.  Octaav     . 

36.  Flag-flult . 

37.  Nassat       . 

38.  Nacht-horn 


ECHO.    15  stops.    1098  pipes. 


8  (tone)  51 


39.  Flageolet .       .        1 J 

40.  Seiquialter,  2ranks    . 

41.  Miitur.  4,  5,  and  6 

ranks 

42.  Cimbel,  4  ranks 

43.  Schalmei         .         8 

44.  Dulcian     .       .         8 

45.  Vox  Humana  .        8 


Pedal.    15  stops.    513  pipes. 


46.  Sub-Principal .  32 

47.  Prestant  .       .  16 

48.  Sub-Bass  .       .  16 

49.  Koer-quint  (tone)  10| 

50.  Octaav     .       .  8 

51.  Holfluit  .  .  8 
62.  Quint  .  .  r-i 
53.  Octaav      .       .  4 


27 


54.  Holfluit  .       .         2 

55.  Kuis-quiut,  5  ranks.  2| 

56.  Buzaln  . 

57.  Buzaln 

58.  Trompet  . 

59.  Trompet  . 

60.  Cinq  . 


Accessory  Stops,  Movements,  etc. 
1.  Coupler,  Choir  to  Great.  6.  Wind  to  Choir  organ. 

1  Coupler,  Echo  to  Great. 
3. 4.  Two  Tremulants. 
6.  Wind  to  Great  organ. 


7.  Wind  to  Echo  organ. 

8.  Wind  to  Pedal  organ. 
Twelve  Bellows,  9  feet  by  3. 


ORGAN. 

Compass.   Manuals,  CC  to  D  in  alt,  61  notes. 
Pedals,  CCC  to  tenor  D,  27  notes. 

Number  of  Pipes. 

Great 1209    I  Echo 1098 

3hoIr 1268      Pedal SIS 

I                                   Total  4068 

1750.   Weingarten.    Gableb. 

This  is  another  very  celebrated  instrument 
among  those  made  in  the  18th  century.  The 
32-feet  stop,  in  front,  is  of  fine  tin.  The  organ 
originally  contained  6666  pipes ;  and  it  is  said 
that  the  monks  of  Weingarten,  who  were  very 
rich,  were  so  satisfied  with  the  efforts  of  Gabler, 
the  builder,  that  they  presented  him  with  6666 
florins  above  his  charge,  being  an  additional 
florin  for  each  pipe. 


Great  Oroan.    16  stops. 


1.  Prestant 

2.  Principal 

3.  linhrflute 

4.  Plflara    . 

5.  Quintaton 

6.  Octave    . 

7.  KohrflOte 

8.  FlOte  douce 


Feet 

.       18 

8 

(tone)  8 

8 

(tone)  8 

4 

(tone)  4 


9.  QnerflSto      .      . 

10.  HohlflOto       .      . 

11.  Super-octave 

12.  Sesqulaltera,  8  ranks 
IS.  Mixture,  20  ranks 

14.  Cornet,  8  ranks    . 

15.  Trompeten  (new) 

16.  Cymbelstern. 


Choie.    12  stops. 


17.  Bordun  .       .       .   (tone)  16 

18.  Principal  tuttl  (strong)       8 

19.  Violoncello    ...        8 

20.  Coppel    ....        8 

21.  HoblflSte       ...        8 

22.  Unda  Marls   ...        8 


23.  Salcional       . 

24.  Octav  douce  . 

25.  Viola      .       .      . 

26.  Nasat      . 

27.  Mixture,  21  ranks 
2S.  Cymbal,  2  ranks  . 


Echo.  13  stops. 

29.  Bordun  .       .      .  (tone)  16  36.  Piffaro    .       .       . 

SO.  Principal       ...        8  37.  Super-octave 

31.  Quintaton     .       .     (tone)  8  38.  Mixture,  12  ranks 

32.  Viola  douce  .      •      .        8  39.  Cornet,  4  ranks    , 
S3.  Flauten  ....        8  40.  Clarinet  (new) 

34.  Octave   ....        8  41.  Carillon,  from  tenor  F 

35.  HoblflSte       ...        4  upwards. 


PosiTir.    12  stops. 


42.  Principal  douce,  In  front     8 

43.  Violoncello    ...        8 

44.  Quintaton      . 

45.  Flute  douce  . 

46.  PiSaro    . 

47.  Flauto  traverso 


48.  KohrflOte       . 

49.  QuerflOte 

50.  Flageolet 

51.  Cornet,  12  ranks 

52.  Hautbols 

03.  Volxhumalne 


(tone)  4 


54.  Contra-bass,    tin.    In 

front    ....  S3 

55.  Sub-bass,  wood    .  (tone)  32 

56.  Octave-bass,  wood       .  16 

67.  Violon-bass.  wood       .  16 

68.  Qulntaton-bass     .       .  16 

69.  Super-octave-bass,    In 

front    ....  8 

6U  FlSte-douce-bass .       .  8 

61.  Violoncello-bass  .      .  8 


Pedal.  17  stops. 

62.  Hohlfl6te-bass      . 

63.  Sesqulaltera- bass,  2  ft  8 
ranks  . 

64.  M  Ixtur  en-bass,  5  rks. 

65.  Bombarde-bass     . 

66.  Posaune-bass 

67.  Trompette-bass   . 

68.  Fagott-bass   . 

69.  Cornet-bass  . 

70.  Carillon  Pedal     . 


Compass.   Manuals,  CO  to  O  In  alt ;  Pedals,  COO  to  tenor  D. 
(Flat  pitch.) 

Accessory  Stops,  Movements,  ate. 

1.  Coupler,  Echo  to  Great.  4.  RoslgnoL 

2.  Tremulant.  6.  Cymbals, 
a  Cuckoo.                                 I  6.  La  force. 


1834.  Freiburg  (St.  Nicholas).    Aloys  Mooseb. 

The  Freiburg  organ  is  so  well  known  that 
a  list  of  its  contents  as  constructed  by  Mooser 
can  scarcely  fail  to  be  interesting.  It  ori- 
ginally contained  61  stops,  4  manuals,  and  2 
pedals,  and  is  said  to  have  recently  received 
additions. 


1.  Montre    , 

2.  Bourdon, 
a  Octave    . 

4.  Principal 

5.  Bourdon . 

6.  Gamba    . 

7.  Prestant 

8.  Dulciana 


17.  Qulntadena 

18.  Principal 

19.  Principal 

20.  Gamba    . 

21.  Flute  douce 

22.  Octave    . 

23.  Flute      . 


31.  Montre   . 

32.  Bourdon 

33.  Viola      . 

34.  Salicional 

35.  Prestant . 

36.  Calcan    . 


43.  Montre    . 

44.  Bourdon 

45.  Flute      . 

46.  Salicional 


51.  Bass-Bourdon 

52.  Sous-bass 

53.  Octave    .      . 


57.  Montre    . 

68.  Principal 

69.  Flute      . 


ORGAN. 

Gbeat  Orqax.    16  stops. 
Feet 


603 


.       16 
(tone)  16 


(tone)  8 


Feet 
9.  Doublette      ...        2 

10.  Fournlture,  6  and  7  ranks. 

11.  Cymbale,  3  ranks  .       .        2 

12.  Scharf,  8  ranks      .       .        2 

13.  Petit  Cornet.  3  ranks. 

14.  Grand  Cornet,  a  Beed .       16 

15.  Trombone      ...        8 

16.  Clalron    ....        4 


Choir.  14  stops. 


(tone)  8 


1.  Choir  to  Great. 

2.  Great  to  Pedal. 


rosiTip.    12  stops. 

37.  Flate  bouchee 

38.  Dulciana 
.      39.  Quint  Flute  . 

.      .         8      40.  Flageolet 

•      •        4     41.  Cornet,  5  ranks. 

.      .        4     42.  Cromorne 

Echo.  8  stops. 

8  1 47.  Qulnte  Flate 
.     (tone)  8     48.  Flageolet 
.       .        8      49.  Volx  humalne 

8  1 60.  Cornet    . 

Great  Pedal.   6  stops. 
.   (tone)  32    1 54.  Prestant 

16     65.  Bombarde      . 
.       .        8    1 66.  Trombone      . 

Choir  Pedal.  5  stops. 
.      .      16    1 60.  Prestant 
.       .        8     61.  Trompette     . 
.    (tone)  8   I 

Accessory  Stops,  etc. 


24.  Flate  a  cheminee      (tone)  4 

25.  Nazard    .       . 

26.  Doublette      . 

27.  Flageolet 

28.  Fournlture,  4*5  ranks 

29.  Comet,  5  ranks 

30.  Trompette     . 


4 


3.  Tremulant  Great. 

4.  Tremulant  Echo. 


Compass.   Manuals,  CC  to  F  In  alt ;  Pedals,  COO  to  tenor  0. 

1846.  The  Madeleine,  Paris. 
MM.  Cavaillb-Coll  &  Co. 

This  organ  is  perhaps  the  best  known  of 
Cavaille"'8  instruments.  Though  not  one  of  his 
largest,  it  is  one  of  his  most  excellent  and  effec- 
tive. It  has  4  manuals  and  pedal,  and  the  48 
stops  mentioned  below. 

Clavier  dd  Grand  Orgoe.   12  stops. 


Feet 

1.  Montre   .       .      • 

.       16 

7.  Prestant        .       . 

2.  Vlolon-Basse 

.       16 

8.  Qulnte    . 

a  Montre  ... 

8 

9.  Doublette     . 

4.  Bourdon        .      . 

8 

10.  Pleln  Jeu,  10  ranks. 

6.  Salicional      .      . 

.        8 

11.  Trompette     .       . 

a  FlOte  Harmonlque 

8 

12.  Oor  Anglais  . 

Clavier  de  Bombardeb.  10  stops. 


IS.  Sous-Basse     . 

14.  Basse 

15.  Flate  Harmonlqne 

16.  Flate  traverslere  . 

17.  Flate  Octavlante 


18.  Ootavln  .      .      • 

19.  Bombarde      .      . 

20.  Trompette  Harmonlque 

21.  Deuxieme  Trompette  , 

22.  Clarion  . 


Clavier  do  PosiTir.   10  stops. 

23.  Montre    ....        8     28.  Dulciana       .       . 

24.  Viol  di  Gamba      .       .        8      29.  Octavln  . 

25.  Flate  douce  ...        8     30.  Trompette     . 

26.  Voix-celeste*  .        8      31.  Basson  et  Hautbols 

27.  Prestant        ...        4      82.  Clalron  . 


33.  Flate  Harmonlque 

34.  Bourdon 

35.  Muzette  .       .       . 

36.  Flate  Octavlante  . 


Clavier  de  Becit.  ExpRSSsrr.  8  stops. 
87.  Octavln  . 

38.  Votx  Humalne 

39.  Trompette  Harmonlque 

40.  Clalron  Harmonlque 


41.  Quintaton 

42.  Contre-Basse 

43.  Basse  Contra 

44.  Vloloneelle 


Clavier  de  Pedal  es.  8  stops. 

45.  Grosse  Flftte . 

46.  Bombarde 

47.  Trompette 

48.  Clalron  . 


«04 


ORGAN. 


PIPE8. 

Geeat  Organ. 
fj     Open  diapason,  metal. 

In  front. 
i/g  Stopt  do. 
hh  Dulciana. 
it  Principal, 
mm  Stopt  wood  Flute. 
hh  Clarionet. 
oo     Flautino. 

Swell. 

Jik  Open  diapason,  wood. 

ii  Violin  do.,  metal. 

M>  Stopt  do.,  metal. 

qq  Oboe. 

rr  Spitz-flate. 

•vj  Gamba. 

vv  Piccolo. 

Pedal. 
y,  y  Bourdon,  wood,  stopt. 

JJ.B.— The  Swell  is  shewn 
shut ;  s,  s,  are  the  swell 
shutter-arms,  and  v,  v, 
is  the  swell  rod. 


General  Section  of  an  Organ  with  two  Manuals,  Great  and  Swell,  and  Pedals. 


ORGAN. 


Combination  Pedals,  etc. 


ORGAN. 


605 


1.  Posltlf  to  Great. 

2.  Great  to  Fedal. 

3.  Bombarde  to  Posltlf. 

4.  Pedal  to  Great. 

5.  Great  Organ  Sub-octave 

6.  Bombarde  Sub-octave. 

7.  Pedal  octave  above. 

Compass.    Manuals.  CC  to  F  In  alt.  54  note*. 
Pedal,  CCC  to  tenor  D,  27  note*. 


8.  Tremulant  to  Choir  and  Swell. 

9.  Great  Reeds. 

10.  Bombarde  Heeds. 

11.  Choir  Reeds. 

12.  Swell  Reeds. 

13.  Pedal  Reeds. 


II.  Description.  It  has  been  shown  in  the  pre- 
ceding History  of  the  organ,  how  that  abroad 
tiers  of  pipes  from  nearly  the  largest  in  size  to 
the  smallest  were  accumulated  on  one  keyboard 
before  they  were  assorted  and  appropriated  to 
different '  departments ' ;  how  that  in  England,  on 
the  contrary,  little  instruments  with  compara- 
tively few  pipes  were  dignified  with  the  name  of 
'pair' ;  and  how  that  an  example  possessing  two 
manuals,  if  it  also  had  two  cases,  was  distinguished 
by  the  name  of  a  '  double  organ.' 

Turning  from  the  rules  of  the  past  to  the  cus- 
tom of  the  present,  it  is  found  that  '  an  organ '  of 
to-day  sometimes  consists  really  of  as  many  as 
five  separate  and  distinct  organs — Great,  Swell, 
Choir,  Solo,  and  Pedal ;  but  all  being  enclosed 
in  one  case,  or  at  any  rate  brought  under  the 
control  of  one  performer,  they  are  spoken  of 
collectively  as  constituting  a  single  instrument. 
To  describe  such  an  organ  completely  and  in 
detail  would  require  a  volume,  which  is  impos- 
sible here,  and  is  besides  unnecessary,  as  the 
smallest  specimen  equally  with  the  largest  com- 
prises a  certain  number  of  necessary  parts  ; 
namely,  (i)  the  apparatus  for  collecting  the  wind, 
viz.  the  bellows ;  (2)  the  means  for  distributing 
the  wind,  viz.  the  wind-trunk,  the  wind-chest, 
and  the  soundboard-grooves;  (3)  the  mechanism 
for  playing  the  organ,  viz.  the  clavier  and  the 
key-movement ;  (4)  the  mechanism  for  control- 
ling the  use  of  the  tiers  of  pipes,  viz.  the  draw- 
stop  action.  To  these  have  to  be  added  the 
couplers,  composition  pedals,  etc. 

1.  The  Bellows  that  collect  and  compress  the 
wind  have  already  been  described  in  vol.  i.  p.  214. 
They  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  woodcut 
occupying  their  usual  position  in  the  lower  part 
of  the  organ  ;  the  reservoir  being  marked  r,r,  r,r, 
and  the  feeder  t,  t,  t.  From  the  reservoir  of  the 
bellows  the  wind  is  conducted  through  a  large 
service-pipe  or  '  wind-trunk '  to  the  wind-cisterns 
or  wind-chests  z,  z,  where  it  remains  for  further  use 
in  smaller  quantities.  The  wind-trunk,  which 
could  not  be  conveniently  shown  in  the  woodcut, 
is  made  either  of  wood  or  metal,  and  traverses  the 
distance  between  the  reservoir  and  wind-chest  by 
the  shortest  convenient  route.  The  wind-chest  is 
a  substantial  box  of  wood  extending  the  whole 
length  of  the  soundboard ;  about  equal  to  it  in 
depth ;  and  about  two-thirds  its  width.  In  this 
chest  are  located  the  soundboard  pallets  (d  and  k), 
which  prevent  the  wind  proceeding  any  farther, 
unless  one  or  more  of  them  are  drawn  down  (or 
opened)  by  the  means  next  to  be  noticed. 

2.  The  Key  action  is  the  system  of  mechanism 
by  which  the  performer  is  able  to  draw  open  the 
pallets,  which  are  otherwise  far  beyond  his  reach. 


In  an  action  of  simple  construction  this  consists 
of  a  key  (a),  sticker  (6),  roller  and  tracker  (c), 
communicating  with  a  pull-down  (d)  attached  to 
the  pallet.  On  pressing  down  the  front  end  of 
the  key  (o) — which  key  works  on  a  metal  pin  or 
centre — the  further  end  rises,  lifting  with  it  the 
vertical  sticker  (6).  This  sticker,  lifting  the  first 
arm  of  the  horizontal  roller,  causes  the  roller 
partly  to  revolve.  At  the  opposite  end  of  this 
roller  is  a  second  arm  projecting  from  the  back, 
which  consequently  descends  (c).  To  this  is  at- 
tached a  tracker  made  to  any  length  necessary 
to  reach  from  the  second  roller-arm  to  the  pull- 
down (d).  The  course  of  the  motion  trans- 
mitted by  these  parts  is  as  follows  : — The  key- 
tail  carries  the  motion  inwards,  the  sticker 
carries  it  upwards ;  the  roller  conveys  it  to 
the  necessary  distance  right  or  left,  while  the 
tracker  again  carries  it  upwards  to  the  pallet. 
In  modern  organs  of  superior  construction,  small 
discs  of  crimson  cloth  are  placed  at  each  end  of 
the  sticker,  to  prevent  any  rattling  between  the 
contiguous  parts  of  the  mechanism.  A  pin  passes 
down  from  the  sticker,  through  the  key-tail,  to 
prevent  the  former  from  slipping  off  the  latter. 
A  second  one  is  placed  on  the  top,  and  passes 
through  an  eye  in  the  roller-arm  to  secure  the 
certain  action  of  the  roller.  The  two  studs  into 
which  the  roller-pins  pass  to  sustain  the  roller 
are  lined  with  cloth,  or  '  bushed,'  as  it  is  termed, 
also  to  secure  silence  in  action  ;  and  the  rollers 
themselves  are  made  of  iron  tubing,  which  is 
more  firm  and  rigid  than  the  old  wood  rollers, 
and  has  the  additional  advantage  of  taking 
much  less  space. 

It  is  a  matter  of  much  importance  to  lessen 
the  strain  on  the  key-movement  just  noticed  by 
reducing  the  resistance  at  the  pallet  as  much 
as  possible,  and  thus  also  relieving  the  finger 
of  the  player  from  all  unnecessary  labour  and 
fatigue.  For  this  purpose  most  builders  make 
use,  under  certain  circumstances,  of  what  are 
called  relief  pallets.  When  wind,  in  however 
small  quantity,  gains  admission  above  a  pallet, 
the  wind-pressure  ceases  by  becoming  equal  all 
round,  and  there  remains  only  the  elastic  resist- 
ance of  the  spring  to  be  overcome.  To  effect  this 
relief  numerous  devices  have  been  thought  of, 
as  the  'jointed  pallet,'  in  which  two  or  three 
inches  of  the  fore  part  move  first,  and  then  the 
remainder,  perhaps  for  nearly  a  foot  in  length. 
There  is  also  the  'double  pallet,'  in  which  a  small 
valve  is  placed  on  the  back  of  the  large  one,  and 
opens  first,  etc.,  etc.  In  large  organs  some 
builders  use  relief  pallets  to  obviate  the  necessity 
for  '  pneumatics,'  though  the  two  are  sometime* 
used  at  the  same  time. 

3.  The  Draw  stop  action  is  a  second  system  of 
mechanism,  by  means  of  which  the  performer  is 
enabled  to  draw-out  or  push-in  any  slider  that 
lies  beneath  a  separate  set  of  pipes  or  stop.  In 
the  accompanying  drawing  each  separate  pipe 
depicted  represents  a  single  member  of  a  different 
stop  [see  Stop],  and  the  slider-ends  are  the  little 
shaded  portions  that  are  shown  immediately  over 
the  toundboard  groove  (e,e,e  and  0,0,0,0).    The 


«06 


ORGAN. 


unshaded  intermediate  parts  are  the  bearers,  which 
sustain  the  weight  of  the  upper-boarda  on  which 
the  pipes  are  seen  standing,  as  well  as  of  the  pipes 
themselves ;  the  sliders  being  thus  left  unfettered 
to  move  freely  to  and  fro.  In  the  small  movable 
(Portative)  organs  of  the  middle  ages,  when  the 
surface  of  the  soundboard,  or  'table*  on  which 
the  pipes  stood,  was  scarcely  any  higher  above 
the  keys  than  the  top  of  a  modern  square  piano- 
forte above  its  clavier,  and  when  the  soundboard 
measured  only  about  a  couple  of  feet  in  length, 
the  slider- ends  could  be  easily  reached  by  the 
player,  and  be  moved  in  or  out  with  the  fingers 
and  thumb.  When  the  soundboard  became  longer, 
and  the  sliders  longer  and  heavier,  a  lever  was 
added,  to  move  them  to  and  fro.  This  was  the 
arrangement  in  the  16th-century  organ  at  Radnor. 
At  that  period,  and  for  a  long  time  after,  the  Btops 
were  arranged  before  the  playing  commenced,  and 
were  not  varied  during  the  performance. 

In  a  modern  organ  of  what  would  now  be 
considered  small  dimensions,  the  slider-ends  are 
always  beyond  the  reach  of  the  performer,  being, 
in  relation  to  the  claviers,  generally  farther  in, 
considerably  to  the  right  or  left,  as  the  case  may 
be,  and  at  a  much  higher  level.  The  '  action ' 
to  a  single  stop  therefore  consists  of  a  draw-stop 
rod,  which  passes  into  the  organ  to  the  necessary 
extent ;  a  movable  trundle,  which  turns  the  cor- 
ner ;  a  trace-rod,  which  Bpans  the  distance  from 
the  trundle  to  the  end  of  the  soundboard  ;  and 
the  lever  that  is  in  connection  at  its  upper  end 
with  the  slider.  These  attached  parts  act  in  the 
following  manner.  The  draw-stop  rod  is  drawn 
forward  in  the  direction  from  middle  to  front ; 
the  trundle  partly  revolves  and  moves  the  trace- 
rod  in  the  direction  from  side  to  middle ;  and  the 
lower  end  of  the  lever  is  drawn  inwards,  causing 
the  upper  end  to  move  outwards,  and  to  take  the 
slider-end  with  it.  The  stop  is  now  ready  for  use. 
On  pushing  in  the  draw-stop,  the  action  of  the 
several  parts  is  reversed,  and  the  stop  is  Bilenced. 

The  end  of  the  draw-stop  rod  projects  through 
the  jamb  at  the  side  of  the  keys,  and  is  finished 
off  with  a  knob  ornamented  with  an  ivory  shield 
bearing  the  name  of  the  stop  that  it  controls. 

The  Concussion-bellows  was  duly  described 
under  the  head  of  Bellows  (Bee  vol.  i.  p.  a  16); 
it  is  only  necessary  therefore  here  to  add  that  in 
the  subjoined  cut  it  is  shown  in  position  (Bee  q) 
attached  to  the  underside  of  the  wind-chest. 

Besides  the  two  primary  systems  of  mechanism 
just  noticed,  most  organs,  however  small,  have  a 
greater  or  less  number  of  members  belonging  to 
certain  subsidiary  systems,  foremost  among  which 
rank  the  Couplers.  Thus  an  organ  with  one 
Manual  and  separate  Pedal  generally  has  at  the 
leaBt  one  coupler,  '  Manual  to  Pedal.'  By  means 
of  this  the  lower  i'2  octaves  of  the  Manual  are 
brought  under  the  control  of  the  feet,  so  that 
their  sounds  may  materially  supplement  the  Pedal 
stops,  which  are  always  moderate  in  number  in 
small  organs.  [See  Couples,  vol.  i.  p.  410.]  A 
modern  organ  with  two  Manuals  and  separate 
Pedal  has  generally  three,  four,  or  even  five 
couplers;  'Great  to  Pedal,'  'Swell  to  Pedal,' 


ORGAN. 

'  Swell  to  Great,'  which  is  understood  to  act  in 
the  unison  unless  otherwise  expressed;  'Swell 
octave,'  which  is  understood  to  act  in  the  octave 
above  unless  otherwise  expressed.  (It  will  be  re- 
membered that  an  octave-coupler  formed  part  of 
the  original  work  in  Byfield's  organ  in  St.  Mary 
Redcliif,  Bristol,  1726.)  The  '  Swell  sub-octave ' 
acts  in  the  octave  below.  At  first  this  was  called 
a  '  Double  coupler,'  as  its  effect  resembled  that 
of  a '  Double  diapason,'  etc.  In  the  organ  built 
by  Robson  for  St.  Dunstan's  in  the  West  in  1834, 
there  was  a  double  coupler,  Choir  to  Great,  which 
operated  by  means  of  a  second  set  of  pallets,  and 
therefore  did  not  take  down  the  Choir  keys. 

The '  action '  of  a  manual-coupler  of  the  modern 
improved  kind  consists  simply  of  a  set  of  levers 
or  backfalls,  one  to  each  key.  The  front  end  of 
the  backfall  is  lifted,  the  far  end  descending,  and 
pressing  down  a  sticker  resting  on  the  back  end  of 
the  T-shaped  backfall  of  the  swell-action,  which 
is  then  set  in  motion  (</,  h,  i,  i,  lc)  as  completely 
as  though  it  had  been  started  at  /  by  the  swell 
upper-manual  key.  An  octave  coupler  consists 
of  a  set  of  diagonal  backfalls,  which  extend  suffi- 
ciently to  the  right  to  reach  from  any  given  key 
to  the  tracker  of  its  octave.  The  upper  backfall 
above  h  shows  this.  A  sub-octave  coupler  has 
a  set  of  diagonal  backfalls  acting  on  the  octave 
bdow.  When  not  required  to  be  used,  the  draw- 
stop  is  'put  in,'  which  raises  the  frame  and 
backfalls  from  the  stickers  at  the  front  end,  and 
from  the  tracker-button  at  the  other. 

The  Pedal-couplers  are  in  modern  examples 
made  in  manner  similar  to  those  just  described, 
one  of  which  may  here  be  traced.  On  pressing 
down  the  pedal  aa  the  trackers  and  roller-arms, 
bb,  bb  descend,  drawing  down  the  front  end  cc  of 
the  backfall.  The  far  end  dd  is  thus  made  to 
rise,  lifting  with  it  the  sticker,  which,  communi- 
cating with  the  under-side  of  the  tail  (ee)  of  the 
great-organ  key,  lifts  it  and  thus  plays  the  note 
as  exactly  as  though  it  had  been  pressed  down 
by  a  finger. 

The  'Sforzando  coupler '  is  a  movement  worked 
by  a  pedal,  by  the  aid  of  which  the  Great 
Organ  is  suddenly  attached  to  the  Swell.  It 
reinforces  the  strength  of  the  Swell  to  a  far 
greater  extent,  and  more  quickly  than  by  the 
'  crescendo '  pedal ;  and  is  therefore  useful  when 
a  quick  and  remarkable  accent  is  required.  It 
is  formed  of  a  backfall,  the  far  end  of  which 
presses  down  a  sticker  resting  on  the  back  part 
of  the  square  backfall  of  the  Great  Organ,  which 
it  depresses,  and  bo  seta  the  Great  Organ  tracker 
in  motion.  The  first  coupler  of  the  kind  was 
made  by  Lincoln,  and  introduced  by  him  into 
his  organ  at  St.  Olave's,  Southwark,  erected  in 
1844.  This  coupler  is  always  worked  by  a  pedal, 
on  pressing  which  the  backfalls  descend  into 
position.  On  releasing  the  pedal  the  backfalls 
are  raised  from  their  work  by  a  spring.  Other 
subsidiary  pedals  are  occasionally  introduced, 
such  as  '  Great  to  Pedal,  off  or  on,  and  *  Swell 
to  Great,  off  or  on.'  These  are  of  such  constant 
use,  that  they  ought  to  find  a  place  in  every 
organ  of  even  moderate  dimensions. 


ORGAN. 

The  Composition  Pedals  have  already  heen 
noticed.  Their  use  is  so  generally  felt,  that  in 
addition  to  those  attached  to  the  Great  Organ 
■tops,  there  are  usually  two  or  three  provided 
for  the  Swell  of  organs  of  even  average  size. 
In  instruments  that  have  a  Pedal  Organ  of  fair 
dimensions,  the  Great  Organ  composition  pedals 
usually  do,  or  at  any  rate  should,  act  also  on 
those  of  the  Pedal,  '  in  proportion ' ;  particularly 
where  the  latter  has  any  Mutation,  Mixture,  or 
16-feet  Reed  stops.  In  such  cases  a  '  Piano 
Pedal'  for  reducing  the  Pedal  Organ  so  that  it 
may  be  available  for  use  with  the  Swell  or 
Choir,  is  very  desirable. 

Sometimes,  instead  of  silencing  some  of  the 
stops  by  composition  pedals,  they  are  rendered 
mute  by  means  of  a  trap  or  ventil  in  the  local 
wind-trunk,  which,  by  closing,  cuts  off  the  supply 
of  wind.  This  lessens  the  wear  and  tear  of  the 
mechanical  parts  of  the  organ.  On  the  other  hand 
the  draw-stops,  or  registers,  may  all  be  duly  pre- 
pared, and  may  announce  that  all  is  in  readiness, 
yet  if  the  ventils  are  forgotten,  there  may  be  as 
distinctly  a  false  start  as  if  there  were '  no  wind  in.' 

In  his  large  organs  Mr.  Henry  Willis  intro- 
duces combination  pistons  projecting  through  the 
key-slips  in  lieu  of  composition  pedals ;  and 
devotes  the  width  over  the  pedal-board  to  pedals 
acting  on  the  various  couplers,  etc. 

Notioe  may  now  be  taken  of  two  substitutes 
which  modern  thought  has  devised  for  the  first  of 
the  primary  systems  of  organ  mechanism  already 
described  under  the  title  of '  Key-movement.' 

I.  In  large  organs  the  long  trackers  are  apt 
to  shorten  in  dry  seasons,  and  to  lengthen  in 
wet  ones,  causing  the  touch  in  the  one  case  to 
become  shallow,  in  the  other  to  become  deep, 
and  exposing  the  organ  to  ciphers.  Protection 
is  sought  against  these  atmospheric  disturbances, 
by  varnishing  the  trackers  and  other  woodwork ; 
and  the  various  mechanical  parts  of  the  instru- 
ment are  also  furnished  with  regulating  screws 
and  nuts  by  means  of  which  the  necessary  length 
of  these  transmitters  of  the  key-motion  may  be 
re-established  when  interrupted.  Still,  there  are 
circumstances  and  distances,  curves  and  creeping 
courses,  which  can  scarcely  be  traversed  by  the 
rigid  mechanism  referred  to.  Seeing  what  had 
been  accomplished  by  telegraphy,  by  which  the 
most  delicate  movements  could  be  transmitted 
with  rapidity  and  precision,  and  to  indefinite 
distances,  the  thought  occurred  as  to  whether 
it  might  be  possible  to  apply  the  principle  of 
electricity  to  the  organ,  in  which  case  the  key- 
board would  represent  the  manipulator  and  the 
Billets  of  the  organ  the  receptors.  To  the  late 
r.  Gauntlett  belongs  the  credit  of  having  been 
the  first  to  start  this  theoretical  idea.  His  first 
proposal,  made  at  the  time  of  the  Great  Exhi- 
bition of  1 85 1,  was  to  play  all  the  organs  in  the 
place  at  one  and  the  same  time ;  but  the 
suggestion  met  with  no  response.  When  the  in- 
tention of  the  Crystal  Palace  Company  to  build  an 
immense  organ  was  announced  in  1853,  he  met  the 
Provisional  Committee  and  proposed  the  erection 
of  facsimiles  of  the  eight  most  celebrated  con- 


ORGAN. 


607 


tinental  organs  in  various  parts  of  the  Palace, 
and  of  playing  them,  either  all  together  or  se- 
parately, in  the  centre  of  the  building ;  but  this 
suggestion  also  remained  unembodied.  Dr.  Gaunt- 
lett patented  his  invention  in  1852,  and  in  1863 
another  plan  was  patented  by  Mr!  Goundry ;  but 
no  organs  appear  to  have  been  built  to  illustrate 
the  practicability  of  either  of  them. 

In  1867  the  late  Mr.  Barker  erected  an 
electric  organ  in  the  church  of  St.  Augustin 
in  Paris,  which  attracted  the  attention  of  Mr. 
Bryceson  who  was  then  paying  a  visit  to  the 
Paris  Exhibition,  and  who  made  arrangements 
with  Mr.  Barker  for  introducing  the  electric 
system  into  England.  Mr.  Barker's  English 
patent  was  taken  out  in  January  1868.  It  pro- 
tected his  special  applications  for  playing  the 
manual  and  pedal  organs;  for  coupling  the 
various  manuals  as  well  as  the  pedals,  either  in 
the  unison,  or  in  the  octave  or  sub-octave,  and 
for  commanding  the  large  traps  in  the  wind- 
trunks  known  in  England  as  ventils,  to  which 
was  afterwards  added  an  arrangement  for  draw- 
ing the  stops.  Mr.  Bryceson  added  in  April 
1868  a  perfectly  new  form  of  pallet  which 
offered  no  resistance  in  opening ;  and  he  sub- 
sequently introduced  several  other  improve- 
ments, including  an  arrangement  for  using 
attenuated  air  instead  of  pressure ;  and  Mr. 
Henry  Willis  took  out  a  patent  almost  simul- 
taneously with  Mr.  Bryceson  for  using  exhaust 
and  power  alternately  for  actuating  a  'floating 
valve,'  in  connection  with  a  novel  arrangement  of 
draw-stop  action ;  neither  builder  manifestly  being 
aware  of  the  conclusion  arrived  at  by  the  other. 

Among  the  electric  organs  erected  or  recon- 
structed by  Mr.  Bryceson  are  included  St. 
M  ichael's,  Cornhill ;  St.  George's,  Tufnel  Park ; 
St.  Augustine's,  Highbury ;  Milney  Manor,  etc. 

2.  A  second  substitute  for  the  long  tracker 
movements,  etc.,  in  large  or  separated  organs,  is 
the  'pneumatic  tubular  transmission  system.' 
The  germ  of  this  application  existed  of  course 
in  the  late  Mr.  Booth's  contrivance  (already 
noticed),  which  consisted  of  a  tube  receiving 
compressed  wind  at  one  end,  and  having  a  motor 
at  the  other;  but  there  is  as  much  difference 
between  the  primitive  device  of  1827  and  the 
now  perfected  '  system,'  as  between  the  early 
trials  of  Papin  and  the  steam  engines  of  Watt 
and  Stephenson.  It  was  not  till  1867  that  the 
principle  was  turned  to  practical  account,  when 
it  was  applied  to  an  organ  that  was  publicly 
shown  at  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  that  year.  IU 
importance  was  recognised  by  Mr.  Henry  Willis, 
who  introduced  it  with  improvements  into  his 
organ  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  in  1874  ;  and  em- 
ployed it  extensively  in  that  at  the  Alexandra 
Palace  ;  and  it  was  used  by  Messrs.  Bryceson  in 
the  organ  removed  by  them  from  St.  Paul's  to 
the  Victoria  Rooms,  Bristol;  by  Mr.  T.  Hill 
in  his  organ  at  Manchester  cathedral ;  by  the 
Messrs.  Bishop  in  the  Yarmouth  organ  as  rebuilt 
by  them  ;  by  Messrs.  Foster  &  Andrews  at  the 
City  Temple ;  and  by  Messrs.  Lewis  &  Co.,  for  the 
Pedal  Organ  of  their  new  instrument  at  Ripon. 


608 


ORGAN. 


3.  It  was  naturally  a  source  of  considerable 
pleasure  to  an  organist  to  have  the  advantage 
of  couplers  to  unite  from  above  and  below,  and 
from  the  right  and  left,  to  improve  the  effect  of 
his  performance  ;  but  this  happy  state  of  feeling 
was  apt  to  be  qualified  by  the  reflection  that  in 
consequence  of  the  demand  upon  the  wind,  and 
the  greatly  increased  rapidity  with  which  it  had 
to  be  supplied,  there  was  just  the  possibility  of 
his  being  required  at  some  time  to  attend  an 
inquest  on  a  dead  blower,  and  of  his  being 
pronounced  to  have  contributed  materially  to 
the  demise  of  the  unfortunate  man.  Hence  the 
invention  of  some  mechanical  means  for  blowing 
the  bellows,  and  for  increasing  or  decreasing  the 
speed  of  the  supply,  according  as  much  or  little 
might  be  required,  became  a  matter  of  some 
concern  and  much  importance. 

The  first  piece  of  mechanism  devised  for  this 
purpose  was  the  'Hydraulic  Engine'  of  Joy  and 
Holt, — afterwards  David  Joy,  of  Middlesborough. 
This  consists  of  a  cylinder  similar  to  that  of  an 
ordinary  steam-engine,  but  deriving  its  motion 
from  the  pressure  of  a  column  of  water,  admitted 
alternately  to  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  piston. 
Engines  of  this  kind  are  attached  to  the  organs  at 
the  Town  Hall,  Leeds ;  the  parish  church,  Leeds; 
Rochester  Cathedral ;  the  Temple  Church.etc.,  etc. 

The  '  Liverpool  Water  Meter,'  as  patented  by 
the  late  Mr.  Thomas  Duncan,  and  made  by 
Messrs.  Forrester  &  Co.,  of  Liverpool,  consists 
of  two  cylinders,  with  pistons  and  slotted  piston- 
rods  working  a  short  crank-shaft.  There  is  an 
engine  of  this  kind,  alBO,  at  the  Temple  Church. 

Gas  Engines  are  also  used  for  blowing  organs. 
There  is  a  large  one  in  daily  operation  at  York 
Cathedral,  another  at  Salisbury  Cathedral,  and 
another  at  the  Normal  College  for  the  Blind, 
Upper  Norwood. 

Among  the  most  notable  organs  recently  erected 
by  English  organ-builders  maybe  mentioned  those 
in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  Albert  Hall,  and  Alex- 
andra Palace,  by  Willis ;  in  Christ  Church,  West- 
minster Road,  Newington  parish  church,  and  St. 
Peter's,  Eaton  Square,  by  Lewis  &  Co. ;  in  the 
City  Temple,  and  the  Temple  Church  (rebuilt),  by 
Porster  &  Andrews  ;  in  the  Cathedrals  at  Man- 
chester and  Worcester,  and  at  St.  Andrew's  Hol- 
born,  by  Mr.  T.  Hill ;  at  the  Oratory,  Brompton, 
by  Messrs.  Bishop  &  Starr ;  at  St.  Peter's  Church, 
Manchester,  by  Messrs.  Jardine  &  Co. ;  at '  The 
Hall,'  Regent's  Park,  by  Messrs.  Bryceson  &  Co. ; 
and  in  St.  Pancras  Church,  and  St.  Lawrence 
Jewry,  by  Gray  &  Davison ;  etc.,  etc. 

The  eminent  French  builders,  Cavaille'-Coll  & 
Co.  have  erected  some  favourable  examples  of 
their  work  in  the  Town  Halls  of  Manchester 
and  Sheffield,  etc. ;  while  the  excellent  firm  of 
Schulze  &  Co  has  constructed  fine  organs  in  the 
parish  church  at  Doncaster  and  at  St.  Mary's, 
South  Shields. — This  account  would  be  incom- 
plete were  we  to  omit  to  mention  that  Messrs. 
E.  &  G.  Hook,  and  Jardine  &  Son,  of  New 
York,  and  others,  have  enriched  a  vast  number 
of  the  churches  and  other  buildings  in  America 
with  fine  modern  specimens  of  organs  of  their  con- 


ORGANUM. 

struction ;  and  that  a  very  fine  example  by  Messrs. 
Walcker  &  Son,  of  Ludwigsburg,  was  imported 
in  1863,  and  erected  in  the  Boston  Music  Hall, 
United  States,  where  it  gave  an  impetus  to  the 
art  in  that  enterprising  country. 

The  following  works  have  been  consulted  in 
the  preparation  of  this  article. 

Prsetorius,  'Theatrum  instrumentorum.'  Wblfenbttttel, 
1620.— J.  Schmid,  'Ii'Orgue  d'Aloyse  Mooser.'  Eribourg, 
1840.— Schlimbach,  'Die  Orgel.'  Leipzig,  1843.— Seidel, 
'  Die  Orgel  und  ihr  Bau.'  Breslau,  1843. — '  Beschrijving 
der  groote  Orgel  in  St.  Bavo-Kerk  te  Haarlem.'  Haarlem, 
1845. — 'Orgue  de  l'eglise  royale  de  St  Denis,  construit 
par  MM.  Cavaille-Coll '  Paris,  1846.— Dom  Bedos,  'Fac- 
tettr d'Orgues.'  Paris,  1849 ireprint). — 'L'Organiste,' Paris. 
— T6pfer, '  Lehrbuch  der  Orgelbaukunst.'  Weimar,  1855. — 
H.  Jimmerthal,  'Die  grosse  Orgel  in  der  St.  Marien- 
Kirche  zu  Ltibeck.'  Erfurt  und  Leipzig,  1859. — E.  J.  Hop- 
kins, and  E.  F.  Kimbault,  'The  Organ,  its  history  and 
construction.'  London,  Cocks  &  Co.,  1877. — Otto  Wange- 
mann,  'Geschichte  der  Orgel  und  der  Orgelbaukunst. 
Demmin,  1879.  [E.  J.  H.] 

ORGAN-PART.  The  music  of  the  part  to  be 
played  by  the  organist  in  an  oratorio,  psalm, 
cantata,  or  other  sacred  work.  Formerly  the 
organist  sat  at  performance  with  the  score  before 
him ;  and  from  the  figures  attached  to  the  bass  line, 
with  the  assistance  of  such  directions  as  Organo, 
Senza  organo,  Tasto  solo,  Unisono,  etc.,  he  con- 
structed the  organ  accompaniment  according  to 
his  ability ;  and  in  the  case  of  airs  it  required 
the  special  training  of  that  contrapuntal  age  to 
do  it  properly.  Nowadays  less  reliance  is  put  on 
the  casual  ability  of  a  performer,  and  the  com- 
poser writes  out  the  organ-part  as  completely 
as  he  does  that  for  the  violin,  harp,  or  oboe. 
St.  Paul,  the  Lobgesang,  and  Elijah,  have  each 
their  published  organ-part.  Mendelssohn  also 
wrote  organ-parts  for  Handel's  Solomon  and  Is* 
rael  in  Egypt — the  latter  in  his  edition  of  Israel 
for  the  London  'Handel  Society' — grounded  on 
the  figured-bass  of  the  composer.  [G.] 

ORGANO  denotes  the  organ  part  in  a  score. 
Organo  pieno  means  Full  organ — that  is,  the 
entire  power  of  the  instrument.  [E.J.H.] 

ORGANUM  (equivalent  to  Diaphonia  ;  and, 
though  less  exactly,  to  Discantus).  It  is  impos- 
sible to  ascertain  the  date  at  which  Plain  Chaunt 
was  first  harmonised;  and  equally  so,  to  discover 
the  name  of  the  Musician  who  first  sang  it  in 
harmony.  We  know,  however,  that  the  primi- 
tive and  miserably  imperfect  Counterpoint  with 
which  it  was  first  accompanied  was  called  Or- 
ganum ;  and  we  have  irrefragable  proof  that 
this  Organum  was  known  at  least  as  early  as 
880;  for  Scotus  Erigena,  who  died  about  that 
date,  speaks  of  it  in  his  treatise  '  De  divina 
natura,'  in  such  terms  as  to  leave  no  doubt  as  to 
its  identity,  and  to  show  clearly  that  it  was 
sufficiently  well  understood  at  the  time  he  wrote 
to  serve  as  a  familiar  illustration.1 

No  mediaeval  writer  has  given  us  the  slightest 
hint  as  to  the  etymology  of  the  word ;  but  most 
modern  historians  are  agreed  that  the  prima  facie 
derivation  is,  in  all  probability,  the  true  one. 
When  Organs  were  first  introduced  into  the  Ser- 
vices of  the  Church — probably  in  the  7th  century, 
but  certainly  not  later  than  the  middle  of  the 

1  'Ut  enlm  organlcum  melos  exdtversis  qualitatibus  et  quantiU- 
tlbus  conficltur,'  etc 


ORGANUM. 

8th1 — it  must  have  been  almost  impossible  for 
an  Organist,  playing  with  both  hands,  to  avoid 
sounding  concordant  intervals  simultaneously: 
and,  when  once  the  effects  thus  produced  were 
imitated  in  singing,  the  first  step  towards  the  in- 
vention of  Polyphony  was  already  accomplished. 
This  granted,  nothing  could  be  more  natural  than 
that  the  Instrument  should  lend  its  name  to  the 
new  style  of  singing  it  had  been  the  accidental 
means  of  suggesting ;  or  that  the  Choristers  who 
practised  that  method  of  vocalisation  should  be 
called  Organizers,  though  we  well  know  that  they 
sang  without  any  instrumental  accompaniment 
whatever,  and  that  they  were  held  in  high  esti- 
mation for  their  readiness  in  extemporising  such 
harmony  as  was  then  implied  by  the  term  Or- 
ganum.  A  Necrologium  of  the  13th  century, 
quoted  by  Du  Cange,  ordains,  in  one  place,  that 
'the  Clerks  who  organize  the  "Alleluia,"  in  two, 
three,  or  four  parts,  shall  receive  six  pence';  and 
in  another,  that  'the  Clerks  who  assist  in  the 
Mass  shall  have  two  pence,  and  the  four  Or- 
ganizers of  the  "Alleluia"  two  pence  each.'  This 
'organization  of  the  Alleluia'  meant  nothing 
more  than  the  addition  of  one  single  Third, 
which  was  sung  below  the  penultimate  note  of 
a  Plain  Chaunt  Melody,  in  order  to  form  a  Ca- 
dence. When  this  Cadence  was  in  two  parts 
only,  it  was  sung  by  two  Tenors ;  when  a  third 
part  was  added,  it  was  sung  an  Octave  above  the 
Canto  fermo,  by  the  Voice  called  'Triplum' 
(whence  our  word  Treble) ;  the  fourth  part,  a 
Quadruplum,  was  added  in  the  Octave  above  the 
Organum,  thus — 

In  Two  Parts. 


ORGANTJM. 


609 


noticeable  that,  though  the  multilinear  Stave  pro- 

Eosed  by  this  learned  Musician  is  mentioned  as 
is  own  invention,  he  prefers  no  claim  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  originator  of  the  new  method  of 
Singing,  but  speaks  of  it  as  a  practice  *  which  they 
commonly  call  organization.'  He  understood  it, 
however,  perfectly ;  and  gives  very  clear  rules 
for  its  construction.  From  these  we  learn  that, 
though  it  is  perfectly  lawful  to  sing  a  Plain  Chaunt 
Melody  either  in  Octaves  or  doubled  Octaves,  this 
method  cannot  fairly  be  said  to  constitute  a  true 
Organum,  which  should  be  sung  either  in  Fourths 
or  Fifths  as  shown  in  the  following  examples. 

In  Fourths. 


per  -  1    -   biu      su 

In  Fifths. 


I 


Canto  fermo. 


'yj    ggg;i- 


_g    g    cm: 


Org.  Al 


le   -   lu   -   la. 


In  Three  Parts. 


S£ 


lu    Ft-  t  ris    sem  -  pi  -  ter  -  nus     es     FI  -  U  -  us. 

When  four  Voices  are  used,  either  the  Fourths 
or  the  Fifths  may  be  doubled. 


m 


ess 


i 


o    -    per  -  I    -    bus       su    -    is. 


g     S?_ 


£2.    £2.    £2.    £2.    £2. 


m 


z^r-zs- 


Tu    Pa  -  trl»    sem  -  pi  -  ter  -  nus     es     Fi  -  U  -  us. 

These  two  methods,  in  which  no  mixture  of 
Intervals  is  permitted,  have  been  called  by  some 
modem  historians  Parallel-Organum,  in  contra- 
distinction to  another  kind,  in  which  the  use  of 
Seconds  and  Thirds  is  permitted,  on  condition 
that  two  Thirds  are  not  allowed  to  succeed  one 
another.  Hucbald  describes  this  also  as  a  per- 
fectly lawful  method,  provided  the  Seconds  and 
Thirds  are  introduced  only  for  the  purpose  of 
making  the  Fourths  move  more  regularly. 


Org.    Al      •      -       -       •       -       •       -       le  -   lu  -  ia. 

After  a  time  the  single  Third  gave  place  to  a 
continuous  Organum.  The  earliest  writer  who 
gives  us  any  really  intelligible  account  of  the 
method  of  constructing  such  a  Harmony  is  Huc- 
baldus,  a  Monk  of  S.  Amand  sur  l'Elnon,  in 
Flanders,  who  died  at  a  very  advanced  age  in 
the  year  930,  and  whose  attempts  to  improve  the 
Notation  of  Plain  Chaunt  have  already  been  de- 
scribed at  page  469  of  the  present  volume.    It  is 

>  An  Organ  was  presented  to  King  Pepin  bj  the  Emperor  Con- 
stantino VI.  In  787. 

VOL.  II.  PT.  11. 


Tu  Fa  -  trls  sem  -  pi  -  ter  -  nus  ea  Ft  -  II  •  us. 
To  the  modern  student  this  stern  prohibition 
of  even  two  Consecutive  Thirds,  where  any 
number  of  Consecutive  Fifths  or  Octaves  are 
freely  permitted,  is  laughable  enough ;  but  our 
mediaeval  ancestors  had  some  reason  on  their 
side.    In  the  days  of  Hucbald,  the  Mathematics 

Br 


610 


ORGANUM. 


of  Music  were  in  a  very  unsatisfactory  condition. 
He  himself  had  a  very  decided  preference  for 
the  Greek  Scales;  and  even  Guido  d'Arezzo, 
•who  lived  a  century  later,  based  his  theory  on 
the  now  utterly  obsolete  Pythagorean  Section  of 
the  Canon,  which  divided  the  Perfect  Fourth 
(Diatessarori)  into  two  Greater  Tones  and  a 
Limma,  making  no  mention  whatever  of  the  more 
natural  system  of  Ptolemy,  which  resolved  it 
into  a  Greater  Tone,  a  Lesser  Tone,  and  a  Dia- 
tonic Semitone.  The  result  of  this  mistaken 
theory  was,  that  every  Major  Third  in  the  Na- 
tural Scale  was  tuned  exactly  a  Comma  too 
sharp,  and  every  Minor  Third  a  Comma  too  fiat. 
Were  this  method  of  Intonation  still  practised, 
some  of  us  might,  perhaps,  desire  to  hear  as  few 
Thirds  as  possible. 

Neither  S.  Odo  of  Cluni,  nor  any  other  writer 
of  the  age  immediately  succeeding  that  of  Hue- 
bald,  throws  any  light  upon  the  subject  suffi- 
ciently important  to  render  it  necessary  that  we 
should  discuss  it  in  detail ;  but  Guido  d'Arezzo's 
opinions  are  too  interesting  to  be  passed  over  in 
silence.  He  objects  to  the  use  of  united  Fourths, 
and  Fifths,  in  an  Organum  of  three  parts,  on 
account  of  its  disagreeable  harshness. 

■C2.     ^    J=2.    S    J=2.    ^s>.    ^0. 


Mi  -  u  •  re  - 
In  place  of  this  he  proposes  to  leave  out  the 
upper  part,  which  in  this  example  is  nothing 
more  than  a  reduplication  of  the  Organum — the 
Canto  fermo  being  assigned  to  the  middle  Voice, 
and  to  sing  the  two  lower  parts  only :  or,  better 
still,  to  substitute  an  improved  method,  which, 
from  the  closeness  of  the  parts  to  each  other  as 
they  approach  the  conclusion  of  the  Melody,  he 
calls  Occursus. 


w 


■333.     "->     a     °^ — r?     g^ej 


pru  -  den    -    tl 


After  the  death  of  Guido  the  subject  was 
treated,  more  or  less  fully,  by  Franco  of  Cologne, 
Walter  Odington,  Marchetto  de  Padova,  Philip- 
pus  de  Vitriaco,  Joannes  de  Minis,  Prodoscimus 
de  Beldomandis,  and  many  other  writers,  each 
of  whom  contributed  something  towards  the 
general  stock  of  knowledge,  and  suggested 
some  improvement  upon  the  usual  praxis:  but 
the  next  critical  stage  was  only  reached  when 
the  Sixth  became  recognised  as  an  Interval  of 
greater  practical  importance  than  either  the 
fourth  or  the  Fifth.  Joannes  Tinctoris  (1434- 
1 5  20)  saw  this  very  clearly ;  and  gives  the 
following  example  of  a  Melody  accompanied  in 
Sixths  and  Octaves. 


Tirr" 

™        Z3 

«7" 

Liu  -  da 

Si    - 

on 

Sal  -  va   - 

to  - 

rem. 

etc. 

\_/    =-> 

ORIANA. 

But,  before  the  death  of  Joannes  Tinctoris, 
these  successions  of  Sixths  had  already  merged 
into  the  well-known  Faux-bourdon,  and  Or- 
ganum into  Counterpoint ;  though  the  fact  that 
Organizers  still  held  their  ground  is  sufficiently 
proved  by  the  allusions  made  to  them  in  the 
Minstrel -Laws  of  Eberhard  von  Minden,  in 
1404,  and  even  in  a  document  preserved  at 
Toledo,  of  as  late  date  as  1566,  in  which  distinct 
mention  is  made  of  the  '  musica  qua  organica 
dicitur' 

For  an  account  of  the  gradual  process  through 
which  Organum,  Diaphonia,  and  Discant  suc- 
cessively passed  before  they  became  developed 
into  pure  Counterpoint,  see  Part-writing.  [See 
also  Counterpoint.]  [W.  S.  R.] 

ORGENYI,  Aglaia,  a  native  of  Vienna, 
and  the  daughter  of  an  officer  in  the  Austrian 
army,  received  instruction  in  singing  from 
Mme.  Viardot  Garcia.  Miss  Orge"nyi  made  her 
first  appearance  on  the  stage  Sept.  28,  1865,  as 
Amina,  at  the  Royal  Opera  House,  Berlin,  and 
was  highly  successful,  both  on  account  of  her 
excellent  singing  and  acting,  and  of  the  natural 
charm  of  her  person  and  manner.  She  confirmed 
this  success  in  the  parts  she  next  played,  viz. 
Lucia,  Agatha,  Violetta,  Rosina,  Margaret, 
Martha,  and  Norma.  She  first  appeared  in  Eng- 
land April  7,  1866,  at  the  Royal  Italian  Opera, 
Covent  Garden,  as  Violetta,  and  was  very  well 
received,  subsequently  playing  Lucia  and  Marta. 
She  also  sang  in  concerts,  and  gained  great  praise 
for  her  singing  of  Agatha's  scena  from  'Der 
Freischiitz'  (of  which  a  contemporary  remarked, 
'  we  have  not  heard  anything  better  than  the 
opening  of  the  great  scene  ....  her  measure 
and  expression  in  delivery  of  the  Largo  bespoke  a 
real  'artist') ;  and  also  of  Bach's  now  favourite  air 
'  Mein  glaubiges  Herz,'  to  the  cello  obbligato  of 
Piatti,  of  which  the  same  writer  remarks  that 
'  the  elegance  and  distinction  of  her  manner  and 
her  real  musical  acquirements  have  secured  her 
a  a  public'  In  spite  of  the  large  measure  of 
favour  given  her,  she  never  played  on  the  stage 
again  in  England,  but  in  1870  sang  in  concerts 
for  a  short  period,  being  well  received  at  the 
Philharmonic  in  the  above  scena  of  Weber,  and 
that  from  Lucia.  Miss  Orgenyi,  after  her  first 
season  in  London  (having  refused  as  an  Austrian 
to  sing  at  that  time  in  Berlin  on  account  of 
the  war  of  66)  went  to  Vienna  in  September 
of  that  year,  and  played  there  with  success,  and 
afterwards  was  heard  in  opera,  festivals,  and  con- 
certs, at  Leipzig  and  other  cities,  chiefly  at 
Dresden;  also  at  Bremen,  Stettin,  Copenhagen, 
etc.,  returning  to  Berlin  (concert,  71)  and  Vienna 
(72);  also  in  Italian  opera  at  Berlin  (72),  with 
Artot-Padilla  and  her  husband,  and  at  Florence. 
She  has  recently  been  appointed  Grand-Ducal 
chamber  singer  at  the  court  of  Schwerin.   [A.C.] 

ORGUE  EXPRESSIF.  A  French  name  for 
the  reed  organ  or  Harmonium.  [A.  J.  H.] 

ORIANA,  The  Triumphs  op.  A  collection 
of  25  madrigals  in  praise  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 


I  Athenicum.  Ma;  It,  1866. 


2  Ibid.  June  7. 1S66. 


ORIANA. 

who  figures  under  the  name  of  Oriana,  com- 
posed by  the  most  eminent  musicians  of  the  time, 
and  published,  under  the  editorship  of  Thomas 
Morley,  in  1601,  with  the  title  of  'Madrigales. 
The  Triumphes  of  Oriana,  to  5  and  6  voices :  com- 
posed by  diuers  seuerall  aucthors.  Newly  pub- 
lished by  Thomas  Morley,  Batcheler  of  Musick 
and  one  of  the  gentlemen  of  her  Maiesties  honor- 
able Chappell.  The  composers  engaged  upon 
the  work  were  Michael  Este,  Daniel  Norcome, 
John  Mundy,  Mus.  Baa,  John  Benet,  John  Hil- 
ton, Mus.  Baa,  George  Marson,  Mus.  Baa, 
Richard  Carlton,  Mus.  Baa,  John  Holmes,  Rich- 
ard Nicolson,  Thomas  Tomkins,  Michael  Caven- 
dish, William  Cobbold,  John  Farmer,  John  Wil- 
bye,  Thomas  Hunt,  Mus.  Baa,  Thomas  Weelkes, 
John  Milton,  George  Kirbye,  Robert  Jones, 
John  Lisley,  and  Edward  Johnson,  who  each 
contributed  one  madrigal,  and  Ellis  Gibbons  and 
Morley  himself,  who  each  furnished  two  madri- 
gals. The  words, — they  cannot  be  called  poetry, 
— are  by  an  anonymous  author  or  authors,  and 
abound  with  allusions  to  the  Queen's  beauty, 
virtue,  grace,  etc.  etc.  Each  madrigal,  with  a 
few  exceptions,  ends  with  the  couplet, 

'  Then  sang  the  Nymphs  and  Shepherds  of  Diana 
Long  live  fair  Oriana.' 

Various  conjectures  have  been  made  as  to  the 
occasion  upon  which  the  work  was  written,  but 
as  they  are  mere  conjectures  it  is  unnecessary  to 
enter  upon  a  consideration  of  them.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  the  person  named  in  several  of 
the  madrigals  as  a  singer  and  dancer.  [See 
Bonny  Boots.]  The  work  was  dedicated  by 
Morley  to  Charles  Howard,  Earl  of  Nottingham, 
Baron  of  Effingham,  and  Lord  High  Admiral  of 
England,  so  well  known  in  connection  with  the 
defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada  in  1588.  The 
title  and  form  of  this  collection  seem  to  have 
been  suggested  by  a  set  of  Italian  madrigals 
called  '  11  Trionfo  di  Dori,'  written  in  praise  of 
a  lady  who  is  figured  under  the  name  of  Doris, 
each  of  which  ends  with  the  words  'Viva  la 
bella  Dori';  the  earliest  extant  edition  of  which 
was  printed  at  Antwerp  in  1601  (the  same  year 
in  which  'The  Triumphes  of  Oriana'  was  pub- 
lished), but  which  was  undoubtedly  originally 
issued  at  some  earlier  period,  since  not  only  were 
some  of  the  composers  who  contributed  to  it  dead 
before  1601,  but  one  of  the  madrigals  in  it  — 
'  Ove  tra  l'herbi  e  i  fiori,'  by  Giovanni  Croce  — 
had  been  adapted  to  the  English  words,  'Hard 
by  a  crystal  fountain '  (afterwards  set  by  Morley 
for  the  Oriana  collection),  and  printed  in  the 
Second  Book  of  'Musica  Transalpina,'  in  1597. 
4 The  Triumphes  of  Oriana'  was  about  18x4 
printed  in  score  by  William  Hawes,  who  added 
to  it  two  madrigals  by  Thomas  Bateson  and 
Francis  Pilkington,  which  were  sent  too  late  for 
insertion  in  the  original  publication,  the  before- 
named  madrigal  by  Giovanni  Croce,  and  a  mad- 
rigal by  Bateson,  written  after  •  the  death  of 
Elizabeth,  entitled  '  Oriana's  Farewell.* 

The  Italian  work  just  named  is  entitled  'II 
Trionfo  di  Dori,  descritto  da  diversi  et  posti  in 
musica  da  altretanti  Autori.    A  Sei  Voci.'     The 


ORPHEON. 


611 


madrigals  contained  in  it  are  29  in  number,  the 
words  and  music  being  furnished  by  as  many 
different  authors  and  composers.  The  composers 
were  Felice  Anerio,  Giovanni  Matteo  Asola, 
Hippolito  Baccusi,  Ludovico  Balbi,  Lelio  Ber- 
tani,  Pietro  Andrea  Bonini,  Paolo  Bozi,  Giovanni 
Cavaccio,  Orazio  Columbano,  Gasparb  Costa,  Gio- 
vanni Croce,  Giulio  Eremita,  Giovanni  Florio, 
Giovanni  Gabrieli,  Giovanni  Giacomo  Gastoldi, 
Ruggiero  Giovanelli,  Leon  Leoni,  Giovanni  de 
Macque,  Luca  Marenzio,  Tiburtio  Massaino, 
Filippo  de  Monte,  Giovanni  Palestina,  Costanzo 
Porta,  Alfonso  Preti,  Hippolito  Sabino,  Anni- 
bal  Stabili,  Alessandro  Striggio,  Orazio  Vecchi, 
and  Gasparo  Zetto.  Besides  the  impression  of 
1 60 1,  another  appeared,  also  at  Antwerp,  in 
1614.  [W.H.H.] 

ORNITHOPARCUS  or  ORNITOPAR- 
CHUS,  Andreas,  the  author  of  a  rare  Latin 
treatise,  entitled  '  Musicae  Activse  Micrologus,' 
which  was  published  at  Leipzig  in  15 16.  [See 
Micrologcs.]  His  real  name  was  Vogelsang  or 
Vogelgesang,  and  he  seems  to  have  adopted  the 
Greek  pseudonym  of  Ornithoparcus  on  account 
of  the  many  countries  which  he  had  visited,  and 
of  which  he  gives  a  list  at  the  end  of  the  third 
book  of  his  work.  Nothing  further  is  known 
about  him,  except  that  he  was  a  native  of  Mein- 
ingen,  and  that  he  entitled  himself  'Magister 
Artium.'  His  book  was  translated  into  English 
by  John  Dowland  (London,  1609).     [W.B.S.] 

ORPHARION.    See  Orpheoreon. 

ORPHEE  AUX  ENFERS.  Opera  bouffon, 
in  2  acts  and  4  tableaux  ;  words  by  Hector 
Cre"mieux,  music  by  Offenbach.  Produced  at  the 
Bouffes-Parisiens,  Oct.  a  I,  1858  ;  in  London,  in 
French  (Schneider),  at  St.  James's  Theatre,  July 
12,  1869.  [G.] 

ORPHEE  ET  EURIDICE.  'Heroic  drama 
in  3  acts,'  translated  and  adapted  by  Moline  from 
the  Obfeo  ed  Euridice  of  Calsabigi ;  music  by 
Gluck,  also  slightly  altered  from  the  earlier  work. 
Produced  at  the  Acade"mie  de  Musique,  Aug.  2, 
1774.  It  ran  for  45  consecutive  nights,  and  was 
played  297  times  up  to  1848.  It  was  revived  at 
the  Theatre  Lyrique  Nov.  19,  1859,  *>y  Madame 
Viardot.     [See  Orfeo.]  [G.] 

ORPHEON,  L\  This  periodical,  the  organ 
of  the  Orphe"ons,  and  the  choral  and  orchestral 
societies  of  France,  Algiers,  and  Belgium,  comes 
out  twice  a  month,  and  has  become  the  model 
for  similar  productions.  It  was  founded  in  1855 
by  Abel  Simon,  and  is  now  conducted  by  M. 
Henry  Abel  Simon,  with  a  zealous  and  energetic 
staff,  foremost  among  whom  is  M.  Julien  Torchet, 
the  able  organiser  of  the  musical  contests  in  the 
departments.  [G.  C] 

ORPHEON,  ORPHEONISTE.  The  general 
name  of  the  French  singing  societies  and  their 
members.  Choral  singing  had  been  largely  cul- 
tivated in  Germany  and  Switzerland,  and  Lieder- 
tafeln  bad  existed  for  someyears,  before  the  French 
established  similar  institutions.  As  Goethe  had 
assisted  Zelter  in  founding  the  first  Liedertafel 
Rr2 


612 


ORPHEON. 


in  Berlin  in  1 808,  so  ten  years  later  BeVanger 
materially  contributed  to  the  success  of  the 
Orphe'on,  by  nominating  Bocquillon-Wilhem  as 
teacher  of  singing  in  the  Ecoles  d'enseignement 
mutuel,  at  Paris,  when  music  was  made  one  of 
the  subjects  of  study  in  October  1818.  It  was 
not  however  till  1835  that  the  Conseil  municipal 
of  Paris  voted  the  adoption  of  singing  in  all  the 
communal  schools.  Three  years  later  it  was 
adopted  at  the  universities,  and  thus  the  whole 
youth  of  France  had  the  opportunity  of  cultivat- 
ing an  ear  for  music. 

The  working-classes  in  Paris  and  the  depart- 
ments next  came  under  consideration,  and  at  the 
suggestion  of  Wilhem  and  under  his  superinten- 
dence, evening  classes  were  opened  in  1835  in  the 
Rue  Montgolfier  by  Hubert,  who  afterwards  be- 
came conductor  of  the  Orphe'on.  The  success  of 
this  attempt  encouraged  the  formation  of  similar 
classes  in  different  quarters  of  Paris,  all  directed 
by  followers  of  Wilhem's  method.  These  classes 
were  all  for  male  voices  only,  and  thus  the 
Orphe'on  had  at  its  disposal  hundreds  of  tenors 
and  basses,  who  could  be  used  to  reinforce  the 
choirs  of  the  Ecoles  communales  for  choral  sing- 
ing on  a  grand  scale.  The  interest  in  performances 
of  this  kind  increased  rapidly,  and  soon,  through 
the  exertions  of  M.  Delaporte  and  others,  'con- 
tests' and  festivals  were  established,  to  which 
choral  unions  flocked  from  all  parts  of  France. 

Influenced  doubtless  by  the  growing  import- 
ance of  these  gatherings,  the  corporation  of 
Paris  resolved  to  place  at  the  head  of  the  Or- 
phe'on a  composer  of  the  first  rank,  capable  of 
managing  the  institution  on  sound  musical  prin- 
ciples; their  choice  fell  on  M.  Gounod,  who  be- 
came conductor  in  1852,  and  under  whom  the 
society  prospered  immensely.  On  his  resignation 
in  i860,  owing  to  the  increase  of  Paris  it  was 
divided  into  two  sections,  that  of  the  left  bank  of 
the  Seine  being  conducted  by  M.  Francois  Bazin, 
and  that  of  the  right  bank  by  M.  Pasdeloup. 
Hubert  became  inspector  of  the  Ecoles  com- 
munales on  the  right  bank,  and  Foulon  of  those 
on  the  left.  In  the  spring  of  each  year  a  test- 
performance  was  held  at  the  Cirque  des  Champs 
Elyse"es,  and  in  the  Cirque  d'hiver^  at  which  1 200 
picked  singers — about  half  the  number  in  atten- 
dance at  the  schools  and  adult  classes — sang  the 
new  pieces  learned  during  the  year  before  the 
Pre*fet  of  the  Seine,  and  the  members  of  the 
Commission  de  surveillance  du  chant.  This 
organisation  was  maintained  till  1872,  but  the 
societies  were  seriously  affected  by  the  war,  and 
in  1873  the  Orphe'on  was  again  united  under  the 
sole  conductorship  of  Bazin,  who  retained  it  till 
his  death.  His  favourite  pupil,  M.  Danhauser, 
inspector  of  singing  in  the  Ecoles  communales 
since  1875,  was  appointed  in  July  1878  Inspec- 
tor-General of  singing,  a  position  really  equiva- 
lent to  that  previously  held  by  Bazin  and  by 
Gounod. 

The  repertoire  of  the  Orpheonists  is  very  varied, 
and  comprises  pieces  in  various  styles  composed 
expressly  for  them  by  Hale'vy,  Adolphe  Adam, 
Felicien    David,    Arabroise    Thomas,    Gounod, 


ORPHEOREON. 

Bazin,  Boulanger,  Semet,  Delibes,  Massenet, 
Dubois,  and,  most  of  all,  Laurent  de  Rill<5,  who 
has  composed  over  a  hundred  choral  melodies. 
In  Belgium  also,  wherechoral-singing  is  cultivated 
with  great  success,  several  composers  have  written 
for  the  Orphe'onistes,  especially  Hanssens  (born  at 
Ghent  July  12,  1802  ;  died  at  Brussels  April  8, 
1871),  Gevaert,  Soubre,  Denefve,  Radoux,  and 
Camille  de  Vos,  the  Belgian  rival  of  de  Rille*. 

An  institution  which  in  1867  numbered  in 
France  alone  3.243  choral  societies,  with  147,500 
effective  members,  and  which  still  (1880)  com- 
prises 1500  Orphans  and  60,000  Orphe"oni.stes, 
naturally  required  organs  of  its  own,  especially 
for  the  ventilation  of  topics  connected  with  the 
'concours'  and  festivals.  The  most  important  of 
these  are  '  La  France  chorale,'  '  L'Echo  des  Or- 
phans,' '  La  nouvelle  France  chorale,'  and  '  L' Or- 
phe'on.'   [See  Musical  Periodicals.] 

There  is  at  present  no  history  of  the  Orphe'on, 
but  ample  materials  exist  in  the  above  periodi- 
cals. They  give  details  of  the  '  grands  jours," 
and  of  the  principal  feats  accomplished  by  the 
French  and  Belgian  choral  societies  ;  such  as 
the  journey  of  3000  Orphe'onistes  under  M. 
Delaporte  to  London  in  June  i860,  and  the 
international  contests  of  Lille  (1862),  AtnM 
(1864%  Paris  (1867  and  78),  Rheims  (1869  and 
76),  Lyons  (1877)  and  Brussels  (1880).  For 
these  occasions  the  best  pieces  in  their  repertoire 
have  been  composed,  and  attention  may  be 
directed  specially  to  '  Le  Tyrol,'  '  Le  Carnaval 
de  Rome,'  •  La  Nuit  du  Sabbat,'  and  others,  by 
A.  Thomas,  to  words  by  the  writer  of  this  article, 
striking  productions,  which  within  the  limits  of  a 
simple  chorus,  exhibit  the  variety,  interest,  and 
movement  of  a  dramatic  scene.  [G.  C] 

ORPHEOREON,  ORPHEORON,  or  OR- 
PHARION.  An  instrument  of  the  cither 
kind,  with  flat  back,  but  with  the  ribs  shaped 
in  more  than  one  incurvation.  The  varieties  of 
the  orpheoreon  also  differed  from  the  usual  cither 
in  the  bridge  being  oblique,  rising  towards  the 
treble  side.  According  to  Prsetorius  ('  Organo- 
graphia,'  Wolfenbuttel,  16 19,  p.  54)  the  orpheo- 
reon was  tuned  like  a  lute  in  '  Kammerton  (a). 
[See  Lute.]  The  strings  were  of  brass  or  iron, 
in  six  or  seven  pairs,  and  were  played  with  a 
plectrum.  A  larger  orpheoreon  was  called  Pe- 
norcon,  and  a  still  larger  one  Pandore, — Prse- 
torius spells  this  Pandorra  or  Bandoer.  According 
to  his  authority  it  was  invented  in  England ;  to> 
which  another  adds  the  name  of  John  Rose,  citi- 
zen of  London,  living  in  Bridewell,  and  the  date 
of  about  1560.  It  must  however  have  been  a 
rather  different  orpheoreon.  Following  Prseto- 
rius, the  pandore,  and  we  presume  its  congeners, 
had  no  chanterelle  or  melody  string,  and  could 
therefore  have  been  used  only  for  accompaniment, 
like  the  common  cither,  sutoribus  et  sartoribu* 
usitatum  instrumentutn.  He  gives  cither  tunings 
for  several  strings,  including  the  common  'four- 
course'  (6)  and  '  Italian'  (c) ;  old  tunings  (d),  (e), 
often  used  an  octave  lower  on  the  lute  in  France, 
and  the  old  Italian  six-course  (/),  but  no  other 
than  the  lute  tuning  above  mentioned  for  the 


ORPHEOREON. 


ORPHEUS. 


618 


orpheoreon  family.  The  player  probably  tuned 
as  he  chose.  The  forms  '  Orpharion'  and  '  Pan- 
dora' occur  in  a  book  on  the  Lute  and  other 
instruments,  entitled  'The  Schoole  of  Musicke,' 
by  Thomas  Robinson,  London,  1 60  3.  A  copy  is 
in  the  British  Museum.  There  is  another  instru- 
ment which  Prsetorius  describes  as  being  like  a 
pandore  in  the  back ;  this  was  the  Quinterna,  or 
Chiterna.  It  differed,  however,  in  other  respects, 
as  the  ribs,  belly,  etc.,  were  of  simple  outline,  and 
the  bridge  was  straight.  He  says  it  was  tuned 
like  the  very  earliest  lutes  (g),  and  depicts  it  in 
his  illustrations  as  not  unlike  a  guitar. 


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[A.J.H.] 

ORPHEUS.  A  collection  of  Part-songs  or 
Vocal  Quartets  by  German  composers,  with 
English  words,  published  in  parts  and  com- 
pressed score.  It  was  started  by  Messrs.  Ewer 
about  1840,  and  has  been  continued  to  the  present 
day  by  their  successors,  Novello,  Ewer  &  Co. 
The  books  and  songs  marked  with  *  are  for 
Mixed  voices ;  the  others  for  Equal  ditto. 


1.  Bright  sword.    Weber. 

2.  Youthful  flower.    Blum. 

3.  Si'ent  night.    Weber. 

4.  O'er  moor  and.    Spohr. 
6.  Come,  buys.    Hardliner. 

6.  Merry  and  free.    H.  Werner. 

2. 

7.  The  sabbath  call.    Kreutzer. 

8.  Evening.    De  Call. 

9.  Piano,  piano.    Seyfried. 

10.  Banish,  oh  1  maiden.    Lorenz. 

11.  Liitzow's  wild  hunt.    Weber. 

12.  Soldier's  song.    Werner. 

S. 

13.  Hark  1  above  us.    Kreutzer. 

14.  In  the  twilight.    Weber. 

15.  Lovely  night.    Chwatal. 

16.  The  two  roses.    Werner. 

17.  The  toper's  glee.    Zelter. 

18.  Hunting  chorus.    Weber. 

19.  Integer  vitas.    Flemming. 

4. 

20.  The  huntsmen.    F.  Kreutzer. 

21.  Parting.    F.  Otto. 

22.  O!  sanctlsslma.    Do. 

23.  He  who  trusts.    Eisenhoier. 

24.  Haying.    Mailer. 

25.  Absence.    F.  Schneider. 

6. 

26.  On  fragrant  myrtles.    UClller. 

27.  Oh  1  cruel  maid.    Kallinoda. 

28.  Twine,  ye  roses.    Pohlentz. 

29.  The  sun  Is  gone.    Bergt. 

30.  Den  con  me.    Seyfried. 

31.  Dear  maid.    De  Call. 

32.  The  sacrifice.    Fuss. 

6. 
S3.  I  tell  thee.  boy.    Grass! nl. 
34.  Soldier's  chorus.    Werner. 
a">.  The  ladles.    Beichardt. 

36.  Mariner's  song.    M.  Haydn. 

37.  To  song.    Weber. 

38.  King  Joy.    Werner. 

39.  »Lucl  serene.    Seyfried. 

7. 

40.  »The  vesper  hymn.  Beethoven. 

41.  The  miner's  song.    Annacker. 

42.  •lufelice.    Nauoianu. 


SERIES  I. 

43.  Wave  high  your  hats.    Baur. 

44.  »The  swallows.    Pohlentz. 

45.  Harold  Harfager.    H.  Werner. 

46.  Dr.  St.  Paul.    Zelter. 

47.  Oft  when  night.    De  Call. 


48.  The  twelve.    G.  W.  Fink. 

49.  Libera   me,  Domlnel     Kalli- 
woda. 

50.  The  chapel.    Kreutzer. 

51.  Under  every  tree-top.  Kuhlau. 

52.  The  rifleman.    F.  Otto. 

53.  Pleasing  pain.    De  Call. 

54.  Thro' woods*  fields.  Kreutzer. 

55.  »Ah !  tell  me  not.  Mendelssohn. 


56.  The  cuckoo.    Spohr. 

57.  Life's  deceit.    Steinacker. 

58.  Huntsman's  joy.    C  Kreutzer. 

59.  Maiden,  listen.    C  F.  Adam, 
no.  Beauteous  clouds.    F.  Werner. 

61.  Parting.    F.  Otto. 

10. 

62.  The  first  day  of  spring.    Men- 

delssohn. 

63.  War  song.    H.Werner. 

64.  Serenade.    Eisenhofer. 

65.  Bacchanalian.    Pohlentz. 

66.  The  mariner's  return.  Hoesler. 

67.  Huntsman's  song.    Pohlentz. 

68.  Spring  time.    Kreutzer. 

69.  *Hope  and  faith.   Weber. 

11. 

70.  »The  equinox.    Kreutzer. 

71.  Hilarity.    Dehn. 

72.  The  recompense.  Mendelssohn. 

73.  The  request.    Bertelsmann. 

74.  The  wood  nymph.    Sutor. 

12. 

75.  »Hai  k.  hark  1  the  lark.  KCtcken. 
70.  oLorrt,  have  mercy.    Mendels- 
sohn. 

77.  Hope  and  fear.    F.  Otto. 

78.  Boat  song.    F.  Schubert. 

79.  The  dying  child.    J.  J.  Viotta. 

80.  Soldier's  love.    F.  KQcken. 

81.  The  complaint.    F.  Otto. 

82.  Gondolier's  serenade.  K.Schu- 

bert. 


IS* 
,  The  woods.    Mendelssohn. 
,  Spring  is  come.    Do. 
,  O  hills,  O  vales  I    Do. 
i  The  nightingale.    Do. 
,  The  vale  of  rest.    Do. 
,  Hunting  song.   Do. 

14. 
.  Turkish  drinking  song.    Do. 
.  The  hunter's  farewell.   Do. 
,  Summer  song.    Do. 
.  The  voyage.    Do. 
.  Love  and  wine.    Do. 
.  Spring's  journey.    Do. 

15. 
,  »On  the  sea.    Do. 
,  »In  the  woods.    Do. 
.  Hie  thee,  shallop.    KQcken. 
.  War  song.    Do. 
,  The  miller's  daughter.  Hartel. 

16. 
,  Go,  speed  thy  flight.   Otto. 
,  Let  us  be  joyful.    Schneider. 
,  The  trooper's  song.    Weber. 
.  Not  a  spot  on  earth.    Winter. 
.  Shall  e'er  my  heart.    Do. 
.  *May  song.    Mendelssohn. 
.  »The  morning  walk.    Gade. 
.  Che  bel  contento.    Seyfried. 

17. 
.  The  merry   wayfarer.     Men- 
delssohn. 
.  Farewell  meeting.    Do. 
.  Serenade.    Do. 
.  Eastern  drinking  song.    Do. 


2.->. 


18. 

30.  Song  of  the  worthy  man.    Do. 

31.  The  Rhine.    Do. 

32.  Tis  the  song  whose  spirit.  Do, 

33.  Student's  parting  song.    Do. 

19. 

34.  The  Slst  of  May.    Molique. 

35.  cLove.    Cherublnt. 

36.  Where  'a  the  gain  ?    L.  De  Call. 

37.  Convivial  song.    Molique. 

38.  Evening  comes.    Belcke. 

20.* 

39.  The  New  Year.    Mendelssohn. 

40.  The  happy  lover.    Do. 

41.  The  shepherd's  song.    Do. 

42.  The  wood  minstrels.    Do. 

43.  The  victors'  return.    Do. 

44.  The  wandering  minstrels.  Do. 

21. 

45.  Tell  me  on  what  holy.    Fuss. 

46.  When  the  hues.    Relsslger. 

47.  What  is  life?    Blum. 

48.  I  think  and  dream.    Sutor. 

49.  Old  Bacchus.    Ackers. 

50.  Serenade.    Busse. 

22.* 

51.  Remembrance.    Mendelssohn. 

52.  Praise  of  spring.    Do. 

53.  Spring  song.    Do. 

54.  In  the  forest.    Do. 

23.* 

55.  Life's  bright  dream.  F.  Geyer. 


56.  The  young  musicians.  KQcken. 

57.  The  Rhine.    Do. 

58.  O  wert  thou.    Do. 


31* 


old    romance.    In    three!  28.  Song  of  night.    Mendelssohn, 


movements.    Mendelssoh: 
I  would  that  my.    Reissiger. 

,  The  brook.    Do. 

,  Winter  song.    Dorn. 
26. 

.  Love  beareth  patiently.    Ries. 

,  The  time  of  song  has  come.  Do. 

.  Good  night.    KQcken. 

,  »The  secret.    Reissiger. 

,  *It  is  decreed.    Mendelssohn. 
27* 

,  The  unknown   land.     Fanny 
Hensel,  nee  Mendelssohn. 

,  In  autumn.    Do. 

,  Morning's  greetings.    Do. 

.  The  woodland  valley.    Do. 

.  The  woods  are  glowing.    Do. 
28. 

.  Love  and  courage.    Spohr. 

.  Toast.    Zollner. 

.  Serenade.    KQcken. 

.  Hard  times.    DQrrner. 
29.» 

.  Thedeeprepoe  of  night.  Men- 
delssohn. 

.  Autumn  song.    Do. 

.  The  lark  song.    Do. 

.  The  primrose.    Do. 

.  Homage  to  spring.    Do. 
30. 

.  0  world,  thou  art.    Hlller. 

.  Image  of  the  rose.   Reichardt. 

.  Tears  of  anguish.    Do. 

.  Serenade.    Mailer. 


29.  An  old  love  song 

30.  Alone.    Do. 

31.  Greeting.    I 

32.  Spring  song, 


1)0. 


32* 
33.  Home.    Benedict. 
31.  Faith.    Franz. 

35.  Spring.    MQller. 

36.  On  the  water.    Cuvr. 

37.  The  water  lily.    Gade. 

33.* 

38.  Swiss  Volkslied.    KQcken, 

39.  Volkslied.    Swabiau. 

40.  Tyrolese  Volkslied.    KQcken. 

41.  Farewell.    Swabiau. 


r.i.. 


AM. 


.  Hasten  to  the  flght.    Mozart. 
.  Union.    Marschner. 
.  The  battle-field.    H.Werner. 
.  The  united  band.    J.  Otto. 
.  On  the  march.    Becker. 

88* 
,  Thy  goodness.    Beethoven. 
.  God  Is  my  song.    Do. 
,  1  love  my  God.    Do. 
.  Swiftly  fades  my  lire.    Do. 
.  The  heavens  proclaim.    Do. 
.  God  my  help.    Hauptmann. 
.  Look  up  to  God.    Do. 
.  Prayer.    Do. 

39.» 
.  A  lament.    Volkslied. 
.  To  the  sunshine.    Do. 
,  Annie  of  Tharaw.    Do. 


42.  How  can  a  bird 

43.  In  spring  time.    Do. 

44.  The  rover's  joy.    Do. 

45.  Evening  song.    Do. 

46.  The  flower's  review.    Do. 

35. 

47.  Laura's  prayer.    A.  Dlabelli. 

48.  The  morning  stroll.    11.  Esser. 


49.  O  fatherland.    Abt. 

50.  Merry  May.    Do. 

51.  Thuringian  Volkslied.    Do. 

52.  Farewell,  thou  lovely.    Do. 

53.  Evening.    Do. 


SERIES  IV. 

17.  A  spring  lament.    Do. 

18.  Farewell.    Do. 

19.  The  Lurley.    Do. 
40* 

20.  Vlneta.    F.  Abt. 

21.  The  three  chafers.    H.  Truhn. 

22.  Northman's  song.    KQcken. 

23.  The  dance.    J .  Otto. 
41* 

24.  The  Inconstants.    Schumann. 

25.  The  heath  rose.    Do. 

26.  The  recruit.    Do. 

27.  The  Highland  lassie.    Do. 


42. 

23.  Rattlln'  roarln'  Willie.    Do. 
29.  Fellow  passengers.    Do. 

50.  Thelovely  Adelaide.  Volkslied. 

51.  To  the  wood  we'll  go.    Do. 


614 


ORPHEUS. 


A  similar  work — but  for  equal  voices  only — 
appeared  in  Germany,  entitled  *  Orpheus :  Samm- 
lung  auserlesene  mehrstimmige  Gesange  fur 
Mannerstiinmen,'  in  many  volumes,  published  at 
Leipzig,  by  Friedlein,  and  by  Zollner.  [G.] 

■  ORPHEUS  BR1TANNICUS ;  a  Collection 
of  all  the  choicest  songs  for  One,  Two,  find  Three 
voices,  composed  by  Mr.  Henry  Purcell;  together 
with  such  Symphonies  for  Violins  or  Flutes  as 
were  by  him  designed  for  any  of  them,  and  a 
Thorough-bass  to  each  Song,  figur'dforthe  Organ, 
Harpsichord,  or  Theorbo  Lute,'  with  portr;iit ; 
2  vols,  small  folio,  London  1698-1702.  Second 
edition  1 706-1 713.    [See  Purcell.] 

ORTIGUE,  Joseph  Lodis  D',  born  at  Ca- 
vaillon,  May  22,  1802,  died  suddenly  in  Paris, 
Nov.  20,  1866,  one  of  the  most  conscientious 
musical  litterateurs  of  modern  France.  He 
studied  at  first  merely  as  an  amateur,  under 
the  Castil  Blazes,  father  and  son.  He  went 
to  Aix  in  Provence  to  study  law,  but  "music 
proved  more  powerful,  and  he  finally  resolved 
to  abandon  the  law  for  musical  literature. 
With  this  view  he  came  to  Paris  in  1829,  and 
began  by  writing  musical  critiques  in  the  '  Me- 
morial Catholique';  then,  becoming  intimate 
with  La  Mennais,  he  wrote  for  '  L'Avenir,'  and, 
after  its  failure,  for  '  La  Quotidienne,'  besides  the 
'Gazette  musicale'  and  'La  France  musicale.' 
After  his  marriage  in  1835  he  redoubled  his  ex- 
ertions and  contributed  to  half  a  score  of  periodi- 
cals, including  the  'Temps,'  '  Revue  des  deux 
Mondes,' '  National,'  '  L'Univers,'  '  L'Universite" 
Catholique,'  'L' Opinion  Catholique,'  and  above 
all  the  '  Journal  des  Debats.'  To  this  last  paper 
he  mainly  owed  his  reputation,  and  his  place  in 
several  commissions,  historical  and  scientific,  to 
which  he  was  appointed  by  government. 

His  important  works  are  his  large  'Diction- 
naire  liturgique,  historique,  et  theorique  de 
Plain  Chant  et  de  Musique  religieuse'  (Paris 
1854  and  1S60,  small  .fto),  and  'La  Musique  a 
l'Eglise'  (ibid.  1861,  nmo).  To  the  former  of 
these  the  Abbe"  Normand  contributed  a  number 
of  articles  under  the  norm,  de  plume  of  Theodore 
Nisard.1  D'Ortigue  was  associated  with  Nieder- 
meyer  in  founding  *  La  Maltrise'  (1857),  a  perio- 
dical for  sacred  music, and  in  the  'Trait 6  theorique 
et  pratique  de  l'accompagnement  du  Plain-Chant ' 
(Paris  1856,  large  8vo.)  In  1862  he  started,  with 
M.  Felix  Clement,  the  'Journal  des  Maltrises,'  a 
periodical  of  reactionary  principles  in  sacred 
music,  which  soon  collapsed.  He  was  an  honest 
and  laborious  writer ;  his  name  will  live  through 
his  '  Dictionnaire,'  which  contains  some  excellent 
articles,  but  his  other  books  are  mere  musical 
miscellanies,  thoughtfully  written  but  not  en- 

>  NISARD,  Theodore,  whose  real  name  was  Theodule  Xavier 
Norm.mil.  born  at  Quaregnon  In  Belgium,  Jan.  27. 1812,  was  ordained 
in  lest  in  1835,  and  In  1842  became  organist  of  a  church  In  Paris,  and 
was  employed  by  a  large  ecclesiastical  bookseller  to  edit  books  of 
plain-song.  Being  naturally  of  a  controversial  turn  of  mind,  he  pub- 
lished many  pamphlets  on  questions  connected  with  musical  archae- 
ology; but  these  are  of  less  value  than  his  edition  of  Dom  Jumllhac's 
treatise  on  '  La  Science  et  la  Pratique  du  liaiu-Cliant,'  from  which  he 
extracted  his  pamphlet '  De  la  Notation  proportionelleduMoyen-Age* 
(Paris,  1847);  his  'Etudes  sur  les  anciennes  notations  musicales  de 
1' Europe'  (no  date),  directed  against  Kttis :  and  finally  his  remark- 
able articles  in  d'Ortigue's  Dictionnaire. 


O  SALUTARIS  HOSTIA. 

dowed  with  any  of  those  qualities  of  style  or 
matter  which  ensure  any  lasting  influence.  [G.C.] 

O  SALUTARIS  HOSTIA,  a  Hymn  sung 
during  the  Office  called  Benediction,2  at  the 
moment  when  the  Tabernacle  is  opened,  in  order 
that  the  Consecrated  Host  may  be  removed  and 
placed  in  the  Monstrance  prepared  for  its  solemn 
Exposition. 

Sometimes  also,  though  less  frequently,  '  0  sal- 
utaris  hostia'  is  sung  at  High  Mass,  immedi- 
ately after  the  '  Benedictus':  not  indeed  as  an 
integral  part  of  the  Mass  itself,  to  which  it  does 
not  properly  belong,  but  in  order  to  prevent  the 
long  and  distracting  pause  which  would  other- 
wise ensue,  when — as  is  so  frequently  the  case 
in  Plain  Chaunt  Masses — the  '  Benedictus '  is 
too  short  to  fill  up  the  time  which  must  neces- 
sarily elapse  between  the  Elevation  of  the  Host 
and  the  '  Pater  noster.' 

The  Plain  Chant  Melody  of  *0  salutaris  hostia' 
is  a  very  beautiful  one,  in  the  Eighth  Mode,  and 
introduces  some  ligatures,  which,  when  carefully 
sung,  add  greatly  to  its  effect.  It  needs,  how- 
ever, an  experienced  Choir  to  do  it  full  justice. 


?fi rsa  •  m "~ ~° 1 

**         0       sa    -   -   -    -    -    lu    -    -    ta   -   -   ris     ho-sti-a. 

— ?"3 ; — 

qu£e  cce  -  11      pan-dis            o    -    -    stl  -   -  um,     bel  -  la 

? — ^ 

pre   -    munt  ho     -    sti  -  -   li  -  a,       da     ro  -  -   bur, 

S'      l="   r~t       ■        ^       1 

au    -   -   xi    - 


A    -    -   -    men. 


Pierre  de  la  Rue  has  treated  the  theme  of 
'0  salutaris'  with  marvellous  ingenuity,  in  a 
very  celebrated  Mass,  wherein  he  seems  to  have 
deliberately  sacrificed  all  higher  aims  to  the 
desire  of  exhibiting  his  stupendous  learning  to 
the  utmost  possible  advantage,  the  result  of  his 
labours  being  a  series  of  infinitely  complicated 
Canons,  of  which  one — the  Kyrie  eleison — will 
be  found  at  page  229  of  the  present  volume. 
Happily,  Pierre  de  la  Rue  did  not  always  write 
in  this  ultra-pedantic  style.  In  another  of  his 
Masses — the  '  Missa  de  S.  Anna ' — he  has  sub- 
stituted for  the  Benedictus  a  Polyphonic  setting 
of '  O  salutaris '  of  surpassing  beauty,  full  of  rich 
harmony,  and,  so  far  as  its  style  is  concerned, 
very  much  in  advance  of  the  age  in  which  he 
lived.  We  are  the  more  indebted  to  him  for 
this,  because,  in  the  first  place,  the  position  of  the 
Hymn,  between  the  Sanctus  and  Agnus  Dei, 
proves  the  custom  of  introducing  it  at  High 
Mass  to  be  at  least  as  old  as  the  15th  century ; 
and  secondly,  because,  in  consequence  of  the  com- 
paratively late  date  of  the  Office  of  '  Benedic- 
tion,' the  number  of  genuine  polyphonic  settings 
of  the  Music  needed  for  it  is  exceedingly  small. 

In  modern  times  '  0  salutaris '  is  treated  in  a 
very  different  spirit.  Most  Composers  of  the 
present  century  have  adapted  it  for  a  Solo  Voice, 


O  SALUTARIS  HOSTIA. 

with  a  highly  elaborate  accompaniment,  and  a 
not  always  very  moderate  amount  of  fioritwa. 
Cherubini  has  written  many  settings  of  it,  one 
of  which  is  almost  as  popular  as  his  celebrated 
'Ave  Maria';  and  Rossini  has  introduced  it 
into  his  Messe  Solennelle,  in  company  with  a 
Melody  of  ravishing  beauty.  Both  these  inspi- 
rations— for  we  can  call  them  nothing  less — are 
all  that  can  be  wished,  so  far  as  Music  is  con- 
cerned, but  utterly  unfit  for  their  intended 
position,  either  in  the  Office  of  Benediction  or 
the  Mass.  [W.S.B.] 

OSBORNE,  George  Alexander,  born  in  1806 
at  Limerick,  where  his  father  was  an  organist,  was 
a  self-instructed  pianist  until  he  reached  the  age 
of  18,  when  he  determined  on  making  music  his 
profession  and  seeking  instruction  on  the  Con- 
tinent. In  1825  he  repaired  to  Belgium,  and 
found  a  home  in  the  house  of  the  Prince  de 
Chimay,  Cherubini's  friend,  the  well-known  musi- 
cal amateur,  who  made  him  acquainted  with  the 
works  of  the  best  German  composers.  In  1826 
he  went  to  Paris,  and  studied  the  pianoforte 
under  Pixis,  and  harmony  under  Fe"tis.  He  after- 
wards placed  himself  under  Kalkbrenner,  and 
soon  obtained  a  good  position  among  the  pianists 
of  the  day,  took  his  full  share  in  the  musical 
life  at  that  time  so  abundant  in  Paris,  and 
amongst  other  advantages  enjoyed  the  privilege 
of  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  Chopin  and 
Berlioz.  His  recollections  of  these  remarkable 
men  he  has  recently  communicated  to  the  Musi- 
cal Association.  In  1843  Mr.  Osborne  settled  in 
London,  where  he  has  for  many  years  been  one 
of  the  most  esteemed  and  genial  teachers.  He 
composed,  in  conjunction  with  De  Beriot,  duos 
for  pianoforte  and  violin,  on  themes  from  Rossini 
and  Auber.  His  other  works  consist  of  string 
quartets  and  fantasias,  rondos  and  variations 
lor  the  pianoforte.  His  '  Pluie  des  Perles,'  a 
brilliant  and  charming  drawing-room  piece,  was 
extraordinarily  popular  in  its  day.        [W.H.H.] 

OSSIA,  OPPURE,  OVVERO.  These  words 
(the  meaning  of  which  is  respectively '  Or  it  may 
be,' '  Or  besides,'  '  Or  else ')  are  used  indifferently 
to  mark  a  passage,  generally  printed  above  the 
treble  or  below  the  bass,  which  may  be  sub- 
stituted for  that  written  in  the  body  or  text  of 
the  work,  being  in  most  cases  an  easier  version 
of  the  same  kind  of  effect.  For  instance,  'ossia' 
is  so  used  by  Beethoven  in  the  first  movement  of 
the  Pianoforte  Concerto  in  Eb  op.  73,  21  bars 
from  the  end.  The  same  direction  also  occurs 
frequently  in  the  pianoforte  works  of  Schumann, 
Chopin,  and  Brahms.  Liszt  sometimes  gives  the 
easier  passage  in  the  text,  and  writes  the  more 
difficult  one  over  it.  These  words  were  also 
used  when  the  compass  of  the  piano  was  in  pro- 
cess of  alteration ;  thus  Moscheles  sometimes 
adapts  passages  originally  written  for  a  full-sized 
piano,  to  the  smaller  compass,  writing  the  passage 
for  the  smaller  piano  above  that  of  the  full-sized 
one. 

The  same  object  is  attained  by  the  words  Plus 
facile  or  leichier,  [J.  A.F.M.] 


OTTHOBONI. 


615 


OTELLO.  Opera  ;  the  libretto  based  on  Shake- 
speare's play,  the  music  by  Rossini.  Produced  at 
the  Fondo,  Naples,  in  18 16.  In  French  at  the 
Acade"mie,  as  Othello,  Sept.  2, 1844,  but  with  very 
little  success.  In  London  at  the  King's  Theatre, 
May  16,  1822.  Desdemona  was  one  of  the  great 
parts  of  both  Pasta  and  Malibran.  [G.] 

OSTINATO,  i.e.  Obstinate.  'Basso  ostinato' 
is  the  Italian  term  for  a  ground  bass,  which  re- 
curs obstinately  throughout  the  composition. 
[See  Ground  Bass,  vol.  i.  634  6.]  « I  shall  seem 
to  you,'  says l Mendelssohn, '  like  a  Basso  ostinato, 
always  grumbling  over  again,  and  at  last  be- 
coming quite  tiresome.'  [G.} 

OTTAVINO.  An  octave  flute.  [See  Piccolo.] 

OTTHOBONI,  the  Cardinal  Pietro,  ne- 
phew to  Pope  Alexander  VIII,  was  born  in  the 
year  1668,  advanced  to  the  Purple  in  1690,  and 
afterwards  appointed  Vice-Chancellor  of  the  Holy 
See.  He  was  a  munificent  patron  of  Art,  and  a 
firm  friend  to  all  great  Artists,  whether  native 
or  foreign.  In  proof  of  this  may  be  cited  his 
patronage  of  Corelli,  and  his  intimacy  with  Do- 
menico  Scarlatti  and  Handel,  for  both  of  whom 
he  entertained  a  sincere  regard.  It  was  indeed 
at  his  suggestion  that,  during  Handel's  short 
residence  in  Rome,  these  two  great  Musicians 
entered  upon  the  memorable  trial  of  skill,  which 
resulted  in  a  drawn  battle  upon  the  Harpsichord, 
though  Scarlatti  himself  confessed  to  Handel's 
great  superiority  over  him  upon  the  Organ. 

Cardinal  Otthoboni  is  best  known  to  the  pre- 
sent generation  of  Musicians  by  his  splendid 
Library.  He  was  an  enthusiastic  collector  of 
MSS. ;  and  on  the  dispersion  of  the  Library 
belonging  to  the  noble  house  of  Altaemps,  he 
was  fortunate  enough  to  obtain  possession  of 
some  priceless  treasures  which  had  remained  in 
custody  of  the  family  ever  since  they  were  first 
acquired  by  the  Duke  Giovanni  Angelo  in  the 
1 6th  century.  The  interest  attached  to  these 
volumes  is  no  ordinary  one.  Duke  Giovanni 
Angelo  Altaemps  was  not  only  the  friend  of 
Palestrina,  but  his  pupil  also.  His  Choir  ranked 
next  in  excellence  to  that  of  the  Pontifical 
Chapel ;  and  Palestrina  and  other  great  Masters 
of  the  age  supplied  him  with  a  vast  number  of 
original  works,  the  greater  part  of  which  still 
remain  unedited.  Many  of  these  works  appear 
to  be  hopelessly  lost :  but  two  large  volumes  are 
still  preserved  in  the  Collegio  Romano  *  and  six 
in  the  Vatican  Library.  Those  belonging  to  the 
College  contain  eight  Motets  for  four,  and  nine 
for  eight  Voices,  by  Palestrina,  all  of  which  have 
lately  been  published  for  the  first  time  by  Messrs. 
Breitkopf  &  Hartel,  in  their  complete  collection. 
Those  in  the  Vatican  Library  contain  Masses  and 
other  compositions,  which  for  the  most  part  still 
remain  unpublished.  These  last,  now  known  as 
the  Altaemps- Otthoboni  Collection,  were  the 
volumes  secured  by  the  learned  Cardinal,  after 
whose  death,  in  the  year  1740,  they  were  pur- 
chased and  presented  to  the  Vatican  Library  by 

1  Letter  Jan.  8, 1838. 

»  Unless  they  h»ve  (alien  Into  the  bands  or  the  present  Italian 
Government. 


616 


OTTHOBONI. 


Pope  Benedict  XIV.  Their  authenticity  as 
faithful  copies,  made  from  original  MSS.  during 
the  lifetime  of  Palestrina  and  the  other  great 
Masters  whose  works  they  contain,  is  indis- 
putable ;  and,  in  common  with  the  volumes  in 
the  Collegio  Romano,  they  possess  an  additional 
interest  from  the  fact  that  the  Accidentals  de- 
manded by  the  laws  of  Cantus  fictus  are  supplied 
in  them  throughout.  [See  Musica  ficta.]  It  is 
impossible  to  ascertain  by  whose  hand  those 
Accidentals  were  inserted.  In  all  probability 
they  were  introduced  for  the  convenience  of  the 
Ducal  Choir.  But  it  is  certain  that  they  date 
from  a  time  when  Cantus  fictus  was  much  more 
generally  studied  than  it  is  now ;  and  on  this 
account  they  are  invaluable  authorities  on  dis- 
puted points. 

Cardinal  Otthoboni  died,  as  we  have  said,  in 
1740.  In  the  March  number  of  the  'Gentle- 
man's Magazine'  for  that  year,  the  obituary  con- 
tains the  following  account  of  his  honours  and 
liberality.  'Cardinal  Ottoboni  died  on  Feb.  17, 
aged  72.  He  advanced  to  the  Purple  at  the 
age  of  22.  He  died  possessed  of  nine  Abbeys 
in  the  Ecclesiastical  States,  five  in  Venice,  and 
three  in  France,  which  last  only  amounted 
to  56,000  livres  per  annum.  He  was  Dean  of 
the  Sacred  College,  and,  in  that  quality,  Bishop 
of  Velletri  and  Ostia,  Protector  of  France, 
Archpriest  of  S.  John  Lateran,  and  Secretary  of 
the  Holy  Office.  He  had  a  particular  inclina- 
tion, when  young,  to  Music,  Poetry,  and  Clas- 
sical Learning  —  composing  Airs,  Operas,  and 
Oratorios.  He  made  the  greatest  figure  of  any 
of  the  Cardinals ;  or,  indeed,  of  any  other  person 
in  Borne,  for  he  had  the  soul  of  an  Emperor,  nor 
was  there  any  princely  notion  but  what  he  en- 
deavoured to  imitate,  entertaining  the  people 
with  Comedies,  Operas,  Puppet-shows,  Oratorios, 
Academies,  etc.  He  was  magnificent  in  his 
alms,  feasts,  and  entertainments  at  festivals.  In 
the  Ecclesiastical  Functions  he  likewise  showed 
great  piety  and  generosity,  and  his  Palace  was 
the  refuge  of  the  Poor,  as  well  as  the  resort  of 
the  Virtuosi.  In  his  own  Parish,  he  entertained 
a  physician,  surgeon,  and  apothecary,  for  the  use 
of  all  that  needed  their  assistance.'       [W.  S.  R.] 

OTTO,  Ernst  Julius,  born  at  Kbnigstein 
Sept.  r,  1804 ;  though  always  musical,  was  not 
educated  exclusively  for  music.  On  the  con- 
trary, he  passed  his  '  maturity  examination '  at 
Dresden  in  1822  with  honour,  and  studied  theo- 
logy for  three  years  at  Leipzig.  While  doing  this 
he  worked  at  music  with  Schicht  and  Weinlig. 
His  compositions  are  of  a  solid  character — ora- 
torios ;  masses  ;  an  opera  ('Schloss  am  Rhein') 
performed  at  Dresden  1838,  and  another  at  Augs- 
burg ;  sonatas ;  cycles  of  songs  for  men's  voices, 
etc.  In  1830  lie  was  appointed  Cantor  at  Dresden, 
a  post  which  he  held  with  honour  to  himself  up 
till  his  death,  March  5,  1S77. 

His  brother  Franz,  a  bass  singer  (born  1806), 
and  another  brother  a  tenor,  came  to  England  in 
1S33  as  directors  of  a  Part-singing  society.     [G.] 

OULIBICHEFF,  Alexander  von,  Russian 
nobleman,  and  enthusiastic  amateur,  born  1795 


OURS,  L\ 

at  Dresden,  where  his  father  was  Russian  am- 
bassador. From  his  earliest  years  he  was  de- 
voted to  music,  and  studied  the  violin  sufficiently 
to  become  a  good  quartet-player.  He  served 
first  in  the  army,  and  then  as  a  diplomatist,  but 
retired  on  the  accession  of  the  Emperor  Nicholas, 
and  lived  on  his  estates  near  Nijni-Novgorod 
till  his  death  on  January,  24,  1858.  Mozart 
was  his  idol,  and  he  re-awakened  attention  to  his 
works  at  a  time  when  Germany  at  least  was 
entirely  pre-occupied  with  Meyerbeer  and  Spon- 
tini.  OulibichefFs  great  work  'Nouvelle  bio- 
graphic de  Mozart,'  3  vols.  (Moscow,  1844), 
contains  much  valuable  matter,  biographical  and 
Besthetical,  and  has  been  largely  used  by  Otto 
Jahn.  His  admiration  for  Mozart  however  led 
him  to  depreciate  Beethoven,  and  for  this  he  was 
attacked  by  Lenz.  In  his  reply,  'Beethoven, 
ses  critiques  et  ses  glossateurs'  (Leipzig  and 
Paris,  1857),  he  expressed  with  even  greater 
vehemence  his  opinion  on  the  extravagance  of 
Beethoven's  later  works,  and  drew  down  a  storm 
of  abuse  and  controversy  with  which  he  was 
little  fitted  to  cope,  and  which  is  said  to  have 
hastened  his  end.  It  is  but  just  to  admit  that 
his  views,  less  caustically  expressed,  were  held 
by  many  eminent  musicians,  including  Ries  and 
Spohr.  [F.G.] 

OU  PEUT-ON  ETRE  MIEUX  QU'AU 
SEIN  DE  SA  FAMILLE?  'Where  can  one 
be  better  than  in  the  bosom  of  one's  family  ' ' 
A  quartet1  in  Gretry's  'Lucile'  (1769),  which 
has  become  historical  from  its  having  been  sung 
on  several  occasions — as  for  instance  at  Versailles, 
July  15, 1789;  at  Carlton  House  at  the  first  visit 
of  George  III.  and  Queen  Charlotte  to  the  Prince 
of  Wales,  Feb.  3,  1795 ;  and  at  Korythnia,  on  the 
retreat  from  Moscow,  Nov.  15,  181 2. *  The  air 
is  as  follows  : — 


«  -  tre  mieux.qu'auaeln  da  n  fa  -  mil  -  le?  Tout  est  content,  tout 


s 


§^ 


=t=t 


t=^ 


est  content,  Le  cceur,  le»  yeux,  le  coeur,  les  yeux.  Vi-vons,  aimons,  vi- 


^^£ 


*^= 


vons,  ai-mons  comnie  nos  bons     a  -  leux.  VI  -  vons,  al  -  mous,  vl- 


=R=f=E=Sg^^P^ 


vons,  aimons,  comme  nos  bons  a'teux,  comme  nos  bons    ai  -  eux ! 

It  was  adopted  by  the  Bourbons  after  the  Re- 
storation as  r  loyal  air.  [G.] 

OURS,  L' — The  Bear.  A  name  sometimes 
given  to  one  of  the  six  symphonies  composed 
by  Haydn  in  1786  for  the  Society  of  the  '  Loge 
Olympique  '  in  Paris.     [See  vol.  i.  p.  721.]     The 

1  Not  a  duet,  as  stated  under  Giietry,  toI.  I.  628  o. 
*  See  veii.lo.N3  ad  salut. 


OURS,  L\ 

title  is  due  to  the  finale,  which  opens   with  a 
passage  &  la  Cornemnse,  recalling  a  bear-dance. 


OUSELEY. 


617 


Vivace  asm 


OURY,  Madame  {nit  Anna  Caroline  de 
BELLEVILLE).  This  once-celebrated  pianiste, 
the  daughter  of  a  French  nobleman,  director  of 
the  opera  in  Munich,  was  born  at  Landshut  in 
Bavaria,  Jan.  24,  1806,  and  spent  the  first 
ten  years  of  her  life  at  Augsburg  with  her 
parents,  studying  with  the  cathedral  organist, 
on  whose  recommendation  she  was  taken  to 
Vienna  in  18 16,  and  placed  under  the  direction 
of  Czerny  for  four  years,  during  which  time  she 
was  introduced  to  Beethoven,  and  heard  him 
improvise  on  the  piano.  She  appeared  on  two 
occasions  in  Vienna,  on  one  of  which  (Madame 
Catalani's  farewell  concert)  she  played  a  Hummel 
concerto  with  orchestra.  In  1820  she  returned 
to  her  parents  at  Munich,  and  played  there  with 
great  success.  The  next  year  was  spent  in  Paris, 
where  she  was  well  received.  She  resumed  her 
studies  with  Andreas  Streicher  in  Vienna  in 
1829,  after  which  she  made  a  professional  tour 
to  Warsaw,  Berlin,  etc.  In  1831  she  came  to 
London,  and  made  her  debut  at  her  Majesty's 
theatre  at  Paganini's  concert  in  July.  Her  own 
concert  took  place  in  August,  and  in  October 
she  married  M.  Oury  the  violinist,  with  whom 
she  then  proceeded  to  make  a  long  tour  to 
Russia,  where  they  remained  two  years,  to  the 
principal  cities  of  Germany.  Austria,  and  Hol- 
land, settling  at  length  in  Paris  for  two  years 
and  a  half.  In  April  1839  they  returned  to 
England,  which  from  that  time  became  their 
home.  Until  1846  Madame  Oury  divided  her 
time  between  London  and  Brighton,  being  par- 
ticularly successful  at  the  latter  place.  From 
that  time  she  devoted  herself  entirely  to  com- 
position, and  during  the  twenty  years  that  fol- 
lowed published  no  less  than  180  pieces,  princi- 
pally of  the  class  known  as  '  drawing-room '  mu- 
sic. In  1 S66  she  retired  from  all  artistic  pur- 
suits, and  continued  to  live  near  London. 

The  following  is  Schumann's  criticism  of  her 
playing  :  '  Anna  de  Belleville  and  Clara  [Wieck]. 
They  should  not  be  compared.  They  are  dif- 
ferent mistresses  of  different  schools.  The  play- 
ing of  the  Belleville  is  technically  the  finer  of  the 
two ;  Clara's  is  more  impassioned.  The  tone  of 
the  Belleville  flatters,  but  does  not  penetrate  the 
ear ;  that  of  Clara  reaches  the  heart.    Anna  is 


1  a  poetess ;  Clara  is  poetry  itself.  (Music  and 
Musicians,  p.  68.)  Mme.  Oury  died  at  Munich 
on  July  22,  1 880.  [J.  A.  F.  M.] 

OUSELEY,  the  Rev.  Sir  Frederick  Arthur 
Gore,  Bart.,— son  of  the  Rt.  Hon.  Sir  Gore  Ouse- 
ley,  Bart.,  the  eminent  Orientalist,  and  Ambassa- 
dor at  the  courts  of  Persia  and  St.  Petersburg, 
was  born  in  London  Aug.  12,  1825,  and  from 
early  childhood  evinced  great  talent  for  music, 
and  an  extraordinarily  accurate  ear.  His  skill 
in  playing  and  extemporising  was  very  unusual, 
and  at  the  age  of  eight  he  composed  an  opera, 
'  L'Isola  disabitata.'  In  1844  Sir  Frederick  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  and  was  educated  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  at  which  University  he  gradu- 
ated B.A.  in  1846,  and  M.A.  in  1849.  In  that 
year  he  was  ordained,  and  until  1851  held  a 
curacy  at  St.  Paul's,  Knightsbridge.  In  1850 
he  took  the  degree  of  Mus.  Bac.  at  Oxford,  his 
'exercise'  being  a  cantata,  'The  Lord  is  the  true 
God,'  and  in  1854  took  the  higher  grade  of  Mus. 
Doc.,  for  which  his  oratorio  'St.  Polycarp'  was 
composed  and  performed.  Upon  the  death  of 
Sir  Henry  R.  Bishop  in  1855,  Sir  Frederick  was 
elected  to  the  Professorship  of  Music  at  Oxford, 
an  office  which  he  has  held  ever  since  with 
honour  and  esteem.  The  same  year  he  was  or- 
dained priest  and  appointed  Precentor  of  Here- 
ford Cathedral.  In  1 856  he  was  admitted  to  the 
ad  tandem,  degrees  of  Mus.  Bac.  and  Mus.  Doc. 
at  Durham,  and  became  vicar  of  St.  Michael's, 
Tenbury,  as  well  as  warden  of  St.  Michael's  Col- 
lege there  for  the  education  of  boys  in  music  and 
general  knowledge,  of  which  establishment  he  is 
the  principal  munificent  founder  and  maintainer. 
The  daily  choral  service  in  the  beautiful  church 
of  St.  Michael's,  which  Sir  Frederick  erected 
adjoining  his  college,  is  served  by  the  masters 
and  boys.  His  library  has  been  already  noticed 
(p.  423  a). 

As  a  practical  and  theoretical  musician  and 
composer,  Sir  Frederick  occupies  a  high  place. 
He  is  skilled  both  as  pianist  and  organist.  In 
extemporaneous  performance  on  the  organ,  espe- 
cially in  fugue-playing  and  in  contrapuntal  treat- 
ment of  a  given  theme,  he  is  at  the  present  time 
and  in  this  country  perhaps  unsurpassed.  His 
two  excellent  treatises,  published  in  the  Oxford 
Clarendon  Press  Series,  on  '  Harmony,'  and  on 
'  Counterpoint  and  Fugue '  are  standard  works. 
His  treatise  on  '  Form  and  General  Composition,' 
in  the  same  series,  is  also  a  valuable  contribution 
to  musical  literature. 

As  composer  Sir  Frederick  is  known  chiefly 
by  his  works  for  the  Church.  In  these  he  has 
adhered  closely  to  the  traditions  of  the  Anglican 
school.  He  has  composed  11  services,  one  of 
which,  in  8  parts,  is  still  in  MS.,  and  another, 
recently  written,  has  orchestral  accompaniments. 
He  has  also  published  upwards  of  70  anthems, 
and  has  edited  the  sacred  works  of  Orlando  Gib- 
bons. His  compositions  for  organ  include  a  set 
of  6,  one  of  7,  and  one  of  1 8,  preludes  and  fugues, 
also  6  preludes,  3  andantes,  and  2  sonatas.  He 
has  also  written  some  dozen  glees  and  part-songs, 
several   solo  songs  with    P.F.    accompaniment, 


CIS 


OUSELEY. 


and  2  string-quartets.  His  oratorio,  'Hagar,' 
was  produced  at  the  Hereford  Festival  of  1873, 
and  performed  in  the  following  year  at  the  Crystal 
Palace. 

As  Oxford  Professor  he  has  effected  consider- 
able improvements  and  reforms.  The  office  of 
Choragus,  which  had  fallen  into  disuse,  has  been 
re-established,  and  is  now  held  by  Dr.  Corfe  ;  the 
standard  of  qualifications  for  degrees  has  been 
considerably  raised,  and  recently  the  excellent 
system  of  a  preliminary  examination  in  elemen- 
tary mathematics,  classics,  etc.,  originated  by 
Sir  Robert  Stewart  at  Dublin,  and  adopted  at 
Cambridge,  has  been  made  necessary  at  Oxford ; 
so  that  a  degree  in  music  is  no  longer  conferred 
by  our  Universities  on  persons  who  have  not 
received  some  general  education.  Sir  Frederick 
has  also  induced  his  University  to  grant  honorary 
degrees  in  music,  which  had  never  been  given  by 
Oxford  previous  to  1879. 

In  addition  to  the  works  already  named,  Sir 
Frederick  has  edited  a  collection  of  Cathedral 
Services  (1853),  and  with  Dr.  Monk,  Anglican 
Psalter  Chants  (1872).  [H.  S. O.] 

OVER-BLOWING  is  the  production  of  a 
higher  note  than  the  natural  note  of  a  pipe,  by 
forcing  the  wind.  In  the  flute  the  upper  octaves 
are  legitimately  so  produced.  In  the  organ  it  is 
apt  to  arise  when  the  feeders  of  a  bellows  pump 
wind  into  the  reservoir  in  greater  quantities  or 
at  greater  speed  than  its  consumption,  and  when 
the  reservoir  is  therefore  liable  to  become  more 
than  sufficiently  full.  If  more  wind  were  then 
to  be  supplied  it  might  become  more  compressed, 
— stronger, — causing  the  pipes  to  produce  a  mo- 
mentary scream  rather  than  a  musical  sound. 
To  prevent  this  natural  consequence  of  '  over- 
blowing,' a  safety-valve  or  waste-pallet  is  provided, 
which  allows  the  superadded  wind  to  pass  from 
the  reservoir.  [E.  J-  H.] 

OVEREND,  Marmaduke,  organist  of  Isle- 
worth,  and  scholar  of  Dr.  Boyce.  whose  MSS.  on 
the  theory  of  music  he  acquired — enjoyed  much 
repute  as  a  theorist.  He  composed  '  Twelve  So- 
natas for  two  Violins  and  a  Violoncello,'  pub- 
lished in  1779.  *n  x/83  he  published  'A  Brief 
Account  of,  and  Introduction  to  Eight  Lectures 
on  the  Science  of  Music'  A  canon  for  8  voices 
by  him,  '  Glory  be  to  the  Father,'  is  printed  in 
Warren's  collection.  In  his  will,  dated  1781, 
he  described  himself  as  '  Student  in  Music.'  He 
died  in  1790.  His  library  was  sold  in  1 791, 
when  his  MSS.  (including  those  of  Dr.  Boyce,) 
passed  into  the  hands  of  Callcott.       [W.  H.  H.] 

OVERSPUN,  equivalent  to  the  German 
iibersponnen,  applied  to  the  large  strings  in  a 
pianoforte,  or  the  G  string  in  a  violin,  etc.,  which 
are  wound  or  spun  round  with  tine  wire  to  in- 
crease their  weight  and  also  the  depth  and  rich- 
ness of  their  tone.  [A.  J.  H.] 

OVERSTRINGING.  A  method  adopted  by 
some  pianoforte-makers  of  raising  the  lower  bass 
strings  and  leading  them  diagonally  over  the 
others,  to  obtain  length  and  a  different  arrange- 
ment of  the  scale.  [See  Pianoforte.]    [A.J.H.] 


OVERTURE. 

OVERTONES.  A  word  formed  in  imitation 
of  the  German  Obertone  which  Heltuholtz  uses 
as  a  contraction  for  Oberpartialtone,  meaning 
Upper  Partial  Tones.  Like  '  Clang '  and 
'  Clangtint '  the  word  Overtones  is  rejected  by 
the  English  translator  of  Helmholtz's  work  as 
not  agreeing  with  English  idiom.  [J.  L.] 

OVERTURE  (Fr.  Ouverture  ;  Ital.  Overturn), 
i.  e.  Opening.  This  term  was  originally  applied  to 
the  instrumental  prelude  to  an  opera,  its  first  im- 
portant development  being  due  to  Lulli,  as  exem- 
plified in  his  series  of  French  operas  and  ballets, 
dating  from  1672  to  1686.  The  earlier  Italian 
operas  were  generally  preceded  by  a  brief  and 
meagre  introduction  for  instruments,  usually 
called  Sinfonia,  sometimes  Toccata,  the  former 
term  having  afterwards  become  identified  with 
the  grandest  of  all  forms  of  orchestral  music,  the 
latter  having  been  always  more  properly  (as  it 
soon  became  solely)  applied  to  pieces  for  keyed 
instruments.  Monteverde's  opera,  'Orfeo'  (1608) 
commences  with  a  short  prelude  of  nine  bars, 
termed  'Toccato,'  to  be  played  three  times 
through — being,  in  fact,  little  more  than  a  mere 
preliminary  flourish  of  instruments.1  Such  6mall 
beginnings  became  afterwards  somewhat  ampli- 
fied, both  by  Italian  and  French  composers  ;  but 
only  very  slight  indications  of  the  Overture,  as  a 
composition  properly  so  called,  are  apparent 
before  the  time  of  Lulli,  who  justly  ranks  as  an 
inventor  in  this  respect.  He  fixed  the  form  of 
the  dramatic  prelude ;  the  overtures  to  his  operas 
having  not  only  served  as  models  to  composers 
for  nearly  a  century,  but  having  also  been  them- 
selves extensively  used  in  Italy  and  Germany  as 
preludes  to  operas  by  other  masters.  Not  only 
did  our  own  Purcell  follow  this  influence ;  Handel 
also  adopted  the  form  and  closely  adhered  to 
the  model  furnished  by  Lulli,  and  by  his  tran- 
scendent genius  gave  the  utmost  development 
and  musical  interest  attainable  in  an  imitation 
of  what  was  so  entirely  conventional.  The  form 
of  the  Overture  of  Lulli' s  time  consisted  of  a  slow 
Introduction,  generally  repeated,  and  followed  by 
an  Allegro  in  the  fugued  style  ;  and  occasionally 
included  a  movement  in  one  of  the  many  dance- 
forms  of  the  period,  sometimes  two  pieces  of  this 
description.  The  development  of  the  ballet 
and  of  the  opera  having  been  concurrent,  and 
dance-pieces  having  formed  important  constitu- 
ents of  the  opera  itself,  it  was  natural  that  the 
dramatic  prelude  should  include  similar  features, 
and  no  incongruity  was  thereby  involved,  either 
in  the  overture,  or  the  serious  opera  which  it 
heralded,  since  the  dance  music  of  the  period  was 
generally  of  a  stately,  even  solemn,  kind.  In 
style,  the  dramatic  overture  of  the  class  now 
referred  to — like  the  stage  music  which  it  pre- 
ceded, and  indeed  all  the  secular  compositions  of 
the  time,  had  little,  if  any,  distinguishing  char- 
acteristic to  mark  the  difference  between  the 
secular  and  sacred  styles.  Music  had  been 
fostered  and  raised  into  the  importance  of  an 
art  by  the  Church,  to  whose  service  it  had  long 
been  almost  exclusively  applied ;  and  it  retained 

I  It  b  printed  In  tbe  '  Musical  Times '  for  April  1890. 


OVERTURE. 

a  strong  and  pervading  tinge  of  serious  formalism 
during  nearly  a  century  of  its  earliest  application 
to  secular  purposes,  even  to  those  of  dramatic 
expression.  The  following  quotations,  first  from 
Lulli's  overture  to  'The'see'  (1675),  and  next 
from  that  to  'Phaeton'  (1683),  will  serve  to  in- 
dicate the  style  and  form  of  the  dramatic  prelude 
as  fixed  by  him.  They  are  scored  for  stringed 
instruments.  The  overture  to  '  Thesee '  begins  as 
follows : — 


■-  — F- — 1 1 — 1 — P-» — *-= — «-» 


:2-gi 


*?- 


=1= 


^fe£ 


-*^i 


=so== 


This  introduction  is  carried  on  for  16  bars  further, 
with  a  repeat,  and  is  followed  by  a  movement 
'Plus  vite'  (in  all  33  bars),  commencing  as 
follows  : — 


l^ff^g 


£g 


•>' 


& 


t=±. 


£ 


** — "-^Elfi^gi 


-dJ^L 


:t£t 


The  overture  to  '  Phaeton  '  starts  thus : — 


ri>     4 '  ' ' !  J  1  a4y^u+trJJ^ 


W 


^ 


±±± 


=££ 


8  bars  more  follow  in  similar  style,  ending  on 
the  dominant — with  a  repeat — and  then  comes  the 
quick  movement,  in  free  fugal  style,  commencing 
thus : — 


OVERTURE. 


619 


There  are  2  2  more  bars  of  similar  character,  fol- 
lowed by  a  few  marked  '  lentement,'  and  a  repeat. 
In  illustration  of  Lulli's  influence  in  this  re- 
spect on  Purcell,  the  following  extracts  from  the 
overture  to  Purcell's  latest  opera,  '  Bonduca ' 
(1695),  may  be  adduced.  It  opens  with  a  slow 
movement  of  14  bars,  beginning  as  follows  : — 


J.  J  I     MJ    J.  „N 


: 


3=^^H 


T*      * 


^^m 


1  r 

The  Allegro  commences  thus  : — 


m**zs=&f$ 


P 


.fljrpiljjcp^ 


This  is  carried  on  for  67  bars  further,  and  merges 
into  a  closing  Andante  of  9  bars  : — 


^nz2 


gaiyTTW^^-^'^ 


€20 


OVERTURE. 


OVERTURE. 


As  an  example  of  the  Italian  style  of  operatic 
'  Sinfonia '  the  following  quotations  from  the  Nea- 
politan composer  Alessandro  Scarlatti  are  interest- 
ing, as  showing  an  independence  of  the  prevailing 
Lulli  model  that  is  remarkable  considering  the 
period.  The  extracts  are  from  the  orchestral  pre- 
lude to  his  opera  '  II  Prigioniero  fortunato,'  pro- 
duced in  1698.  They  are  given  on  the  authority  of 
a  MS.  formerly  belonging  to  the  celebrated  double- 
bass  player  Dragonetti,  and  now  in  the  British 
Museum  (Add.  MSS.  16,126).  The  score  of  the 
Sinfonia  (or  Overture)  is  for  four  trumpets  and 
the  usual  string  band,  the  violoncello  part  being 
marked  'con  fagotto.'  It  begins  Allegro,  with 
a  passage  for  1st  and  2nd  trumpet : — 


This  is  repeated  by  the  other  two  trumpets  ;  and 
then  the  strings  enter,  as  follows : — 


■it.  a  ana  4 


m 


Bisi 


ti-fttrn 


Then  the  trumpets  are  used,  in  alternate  pairs, 
after  which  come  passages  for  strings  on  this 
figure : — 


This  is  followed  by  12  bars  more  in  similar  style  ; 
the  trumpets  being  sometimes  used  in  florid  pas- 
sages, and  sometimes  in  harmony,  in  crotchets. 


Then  comes  a  movement '  Grave '  for  strings  only, 
commencing  thus : 

-4 _L 


§H 


rzujisji 


-nnjju^ 


i 


* PC 


m 


r-        r 


U2.JJ1.JJ1 


19  more  bars  of  a  corresponding  kind  lead  to  a 
snort '  Presto,'  the  1  st  and  2nd  trumpets  in  unison, 
and  the  3rd  and  4th  also  in  unison  : 


i 


s^ssjalLtJ 


t 


j 


glilill ^=^_4-M 


-P^Tr  'j'T'^tt-\  *'  g  e  '~*~ 


6  more  bars  of  a  like  kind  follow,  with  a  repeat ; 
then  a  second  part,  consisting  of  similar  passages, 
also  repeated.  This  '  Sinfonia,'  it  will  be  seen, 
has  no  analogy  with  the  stereotyped  form  of  the 
Lulli  overture. 

The  increased  musical  importance  given  to  the 
Overture  by  Handel,  while  still  adhering  to  the 
model  fixed  by  Lulli,  is  proved  even  in  his 
earliest  specimens.  A  few  quotations  from  the 
overture  to  'Rinaldo,'  the  first  Italian  opera 
which  he  produced  in  England  (1 71 1),  will  serve 
as  indications  of  the  influence  adverted  to.  The 
instrumentation  is  for  string  quartet,  the  1st  oboe 
playing  with  the  1st  violin,  and  the  2nd  oboe 
with  the  2nd  violin. 


hj    4   14 


10  more  bars  follow,  in  a  similar  style ;  the  move- 


OVERTURE. 

mentis  repeated,  and  closes  on  the  dominant; 
after  which  comes  a  fugued  Allegro,  beginning  as 
follows : — 


OVERTURE. 


621 


£§£ 


■P  F  •  F 

i  hi 


±m&& 


J"Sn 


Bf 


— = 


^ 


J?Ji^n 


^=ta^ 


}•=*: 


This  is  carried  on,  with  fluent  power,  for  33 
bars  more ;  a  short  slow  movement  follows, 
chiefly  for  the  oboe ;  and  the  overture  concludes 
with  a  '  Gigue.'  Handel's  inventive  originality, 
and  his  independence  of  all  prescribed  forms  in 
the  -  choruses  of  his  oratorios,  stand  in  curious 
contrast  to  his  subservience  to  precedent  in  his 
overtures  ;  those  to  his  Italian  operas  and  those 
to  his  English  oratorios  being  similar  in  form, 
style,  and  development ;  insomuch,  indeed,  that 
any  one  might  be  used  with  almost  equal  appro- 
priateness for  either  purpose.  There  is  a  minuet 
extant  which  is  said  (we  believe  on  the  authority 
of  the  late  Mr.  Jones,  organist  of  Canterbury 
Cathedral),  to  have  been  designed  by  Handel 
as  the  closing  movement  of  the  overture  to  the 
'  Messiah '  when  performed  without  the  oratorio.1 
The  first  strain  of  this  minuet  is  as  follows  : — 


As  regards  the  Overture,  then,  Handel  perfected 
the  form  first  developed  by  Lulli,  but  cannot  be 
considered  as  an  inventor  and  grand  originator, 
such  as  he  appears  in  his  sublime  sacred  choral 
writing. 

Hitherto,  as  we  have  said,  the  dramatic  Overture 
had  no  special  relevance  to  the  character  and 
sentiment  of  the  work  which  it  preceded.  The 
first  step  in  this  direction  was  taken  by  Gluck,  who 
was  for  some  time  contemporaneous  with  Handel. 
It  was  he  who  first  perceived,  or  at  least  real- 
ised, the  importance  of  rendering  the  overture 
to  a  dramatic  work  analogous  in  style  to  the 
character  of  the  music  which  is  to  follow.  In 
the  dedication  of  his  '  Alceste '  he  refers  to  this 

1  See  'Musical  Standard,'  June  17, 1871,  and  '  Monthly  Mus.  Record," 
Aug.  1871. 


among  his  other  reforms  in  stage  composition. 
[See  Gluck,  vol.  i.  603  6;  Opera,  vol.  ii.  516  a.] 
The  French  score  of '  Alceste '  includes,  besides  the 
invariable  string  quartet,  flutes,  oboes,  a  clarinet, 
and  three  trombones.  Even  Gluck,  however,  did 
not  always  identify  the  overture  with  the  opera 
to  which  it  belonged,  so  thoroughly  as  was  after  • 
wards  done,  by  including  a  theme  or  themes  in 
anticipation  of  the  music  which  followed.  Still, 
he  certainly  rendered  the  orchestral  prelude  what, 
as  a  writer  has  well  said,  a  literary  preface  should 
be — '  something  analogous  to  the  work  itself,  so 
that  we  may  feel  its  want  as  a  desire  not  else- 
where to  be  gratified.'  His  overtures  to '  Alceste  * 
and  '  Iphige"nie  en  Tauride '  run  continuously  into 
the  first  scene  of  the  opera — and  the  latter  is 
perhaps  the  most  remarkable  instance  up  to 
that  time  of  special  identification  with  the  stage 
music  which  it  heralds ;  inasmuch  as  it  is 
a  distinct  foreshadowing  of  the  opening  storm 
scene  of  the  opera  into  which  the  prelude  is 
merged.  Perhaps  the  finest  specimen  of  the 
dramatic  overture  of  the  period,  viewed  as  a  dis- 
tinct orchestral  composition,  is  that  of  Gluck  tc 
his  opera  '  Iphige"nie  en  Aulide.' 

The  influence  of  Gluck  on  Mozart  is  clearly 
to  be  traced  in  Mozart's  first  important  opera, 
'Idonieneo'(i78i),  the  overture  to  which,  both  in 
beauty  and  power,  is  far  in  advance  of  any  pre- 
vious work  of  the  kind;  but,  beyond  a  general 
nobility  of  style,  it  has  no  special  dramatic 
character  that  inevitably  associates  it  with  the 
opera  itself,  though  it  is  incorporated  therewith 
by  its  continuance  into  the  opening  scene.  In 
his  next  work,  'Die  Entfiihrung  aus  dem  Serail' 
(1782),  Mozart  has  identified  the  prelude  with 
the  opera  by  the  short  incidental  '  Andante ' 
movement,  anticipatory  (in  the  minor  key)  of 
Belmont's  aria  '  Hier  soil  ich  dich  denn  sehen." 
In  the  overture  to  his  '  Nozze  di  Figaro '  (1 786) 
he  originally  contemplated  a  similar  interrup- 
tion of  the  Allegro  by  a  short  slow  movement 
— an  intention  afterwards  happily  abandoned. 
This  overture  is  a  veritable  creation,  that  can 
only  be  sufficiently  appreciated  by  a  comparison 
of  its  brilliant  outburst  of  genial  and  graceful 
vivacity  with  the  vapid  preludes  to  the  comic 
operas  of  the  day.  In  the  overture  to  his  '  Don 
Giovanni'  (1787)  we  have  a  distinct  identification 
with  the  opera  by  the  use,  in  the  introductory 
'  Andante,'  of  some  of  the  wondrous  music  intro- 
ducing the  entry  of  the  statue  in  the  last  scene. 
The  solemn  initial  chords  for  trombones,  and  the 
fugal  '  Allegro '  of  the  overture  to  '  Die  Zauber- 
flote '  may  be  supposed  to  be  suggestive  of  the 
religious  element  of  the  libretto  ;  and  this  may  be 
considered  as  the  composer's  masterpiece  of  its 
kind.  Since  Mozart's  time  the  Overture  has 
adopted  the  same  general  principles  of  form 
which  govern  the  first  movement  of  a  Symphony 
or  Sonata,  without  the  repetition  of  the  first 
section. 

Reverting  to  the  French  school,  we  find  a  char- 
acteristic overture  of  Mehul's  to  his  opera  'La 
Chasse  du  Jeune  Henri'  (1797),  the  prelude  to 
which  alone  has  survived.   In  this  however,  as  in 


622 


OVERTURE. 


French  music  generally  of  that  date  (and  even  j 
earlier),  the  influence  of  Haydn  is  distinctly  I 
apparent  ;  his  symphonies  and  quartets  had 
met  with  immediate  acceptance  in  Paris,  one  of 
the  former  indeed,  entitled  'La  Chasse,'  having 
been  composed  17  years  before  Me"hul's  opera. 
Cherubini,  although  Italian  by  birth,  belongs  to  , 
France ;  for  all  his  great  works  were  produced 
at  Paris,  and  most  of  his  life  was  passed  there. 
This  composer  must  be  specially  mentioned  as  | 
having  been  one  of  the  first  to  depart  from  the  ! 
pattern  of  the  Overture  as  fixed  by  Mozart. 
Oherubini  indeed  marks  the  transition  point 
between  the  regular  symmetry  of  the  style  of  j 
Mozart,  and  the  coming  disturbance  of  form  j 
effected  by  Beethoven.  In  the  dramatic  effect  I 
gained  by  the  gradual  and  prolonged  crescendo, 
both  he  and  Mehul  seem  to  have  anticipated 
one  of  Rossini's  favourite  resources.  This  is 
specially  observable  in  the  overture  to  his  opera 
'Anacreon'  (1803).  Another  feature  is  the 
abandonment  of  the  Mozartian  rule  of  giving  the 
second  subject  (or  episode)  first  in  the  dominant, 
and  afterwards  in  the  original  key,  as  in  the 
symphonies,  quartets,  and  sonatas  of  the  period. 
The  next  step  in  the  development  of  the  Over- 
ture was  taken  by  Beethoven,  who  began  by  fol- 
lowing the  model  left  by  Mozart,  and  carrying  it 
to  its  highest  development,  as  in  the  overture  to 
the  ballet  of  Prometheus  (1800).  In  his  other 
dramatic  overtures,  including  those  to  von 
Collin's  'Coriolan'  (1807)  and  to  Goethe's  '  Eg- 
mont'  (18 10),  the  great  composer  fully  asserts 
his  independence  of  form  and  precedent.  But  he 
had  done  so  still  earlier  in  the  overture  known 
as  '  No.  3 '  of  the  four  which  he  wrote  for  his 
opera  '  Eidelio.'  In  this  wonderful  prelude 
(^composed  in  1806),  Beethoven  has  apparently 
reached  the  highest  possible  point  of  dramatic 
expression,  by  foreshadowing  the  sublime  heroism 
of  Leonora's  devoted  affection  for  her  husband, 
and  indicating,  as  he  does,  the  various  phases 
of  her  grief  at  his  disappearance,  her  search  for 
him,  his  rescue  by  her  from  a  dungeon  and 
assassination,  and  their  ultimate  reunion  and 
happiness.  Here  the  stereotyped  form  of  over- 
ture entirely  disappears  :  the  commencing  scale 
passage,  in  descending  octaves,  suggesting  the 
utterance  of  a  wail  of  despairing  grief,  leads 
to  the  exquisite  phrases  of  the  'Adagio'  of  Flo- 
restan's  scena  in  the  dungeon,  followed  by  the 
passionate  '  Allegro  '  which  indicates  the  heroic 
purpose  of  Leonora ;  this  movement  including  the 
spirit-stirring  trumpet-call  that  proclaims  the 
rescue  of  the  imprisoned  husband,  and  the  whole 
winding  up  with  a  grandly  exultant  burst  of  joy ; 
— these  leading  features,  and  the  grand  develop- 
ment of  the  whole,  constitute  a  dramatic  prelude 
that  is  still  unapproached.  In  'No.  1'  of  these 
Fidelio  Overtures  (composed  1807)  he  has  gone 
still  further  in  the  use  of  themes  from  the  opera 
itself,  and  has  employed  a  phrase  which  occurs 
in  Florestan's  Allegro  to  the  words  'An  angel 
Leonora,'  in  the  coda  of  the  overture,  with  very 
fine  effect. 

While  in  the  magnificent  work  just  described 


OVERTURE. 

we  must  concede  to  Beethoven  undivided  pre- 
eminence in  majesty  and  elevation  of  style,  the 
palm,  as  to  romanticism,  and  that  powerful 
element  of  dramatic  effect, '  local  colour,'  must 
be  awarded  to  Weber.  No  subjects  could  well  be 
more  distinct  than  those  of  the  Spanish  drama 
'  Preciosa  '(1820),  the  wild  forest  legend  of  North 
Germany,  'Der  Freischiitz '  (182 1),  the  chivalric 
subject  of  the  book  of  '  Euryanthe'  (1823),  and 
the  bright  orientalism  of'  Oberon'  (1826).  The 
overtures  to  these  are  too  familiar  to  need  specific 
reference ;  nor  is  it  necessary  to  point  out  how 
vividly  each  is  impressed  with  the  character  and 
tone  of  the  opera  to  which  it  belongs.  In  each  of 
them  Weber  has  anticipated  themes  from  the 
following  stage  music,  while  he  has  adhered  to  the 
Mozart  model  in  the  regular  recurrence  of  the 
principal  subject  and  the  episode.  His  admirable 
use  of  the  orchestra  is  specially  evidenced  in  the 
'  Freischiitz '  overture,  in  which  the  tremolando 
passages  for  strings,  the  use  of  the  chalumean  of 
the  clarinet,  and  the  emp'oyment  of  the  drums, 
never  fail  to  raise  thrilling  impressions  of  the 
supernatural.  The  incorporation  of  portions  of  the 
opera  in  the  overture  is  so  skilfully  effected  by 
Weber,  that  there  is  no  impression  of  patchiness 
or  want  of  spontaneous  creation,  as  in  the  case  of 
some  other  composers — Auber  for  instance  and 
Rossini  (excepting  the  latter's  'Tell'),  whose 
overtures  are  too  often  like  pot-pourris  of  the  lead- 
ing themes  of  the  operas,  loosely  strung  together, 
intrinsically  charming  and  brilliantly  scored,  but 
seldom,  if  ever,  especially  dramatic.  Most  musical 
readers  will  remember  Schubert's  clever  tra vest  ie 
of  the  last-named  composer,  in  the  '  Overture  in 
the  Italian  style,'  written  offhand  by  the  former 
in  181 7,  during  the  rage  for  Rossini's  music  in 
Vienna. 

Berlioz  left  two  overtures  to  his  opera  of 
'Benvenuto  Cellini,'  one  bearing  the  name  of  the 
drama,  the  other  called  the  '  Carnaval  Romain,' 
and  usually  played  as  an  entracte.  The  themes 
of  both  are  derived  more  or  less  from  the  opera 
itself.  Both  are  extraordinarily  forcible  and 
effective,  abounding  with  the  gorgeous  instru- 
mentation and  bizarre  treatment  which  are  asso- 
ciated with  the  name  of  Berlioz. 

Since  Weber  there  has  been  no  such  fine 
example  of  the  operatic  overture — suggestive  of 
and  identified  with  the  subsequent  dramatic 
action — as  that  to  Wagner's  'Tannhauser,'  in 
which,  as  in  Weber's  overtures,  movements  from 
the  opera  itself  are  amalgamated  into  a  consistent 
whole,  set  off  with  every  artifice  of  contrast  and 
with  the  most  splendid  orchestration.  A  notice- 
able novelty  in  the  construction  of  the  operatic 
overture  is  to  be  found  in  Meyerbeer's  incorpora- 
tion of  the  choral  'Ave  Maria'  into  his  Overture 
to  '  Dinorah '  (Le  Pardon  de  Ploermel). 

In  some  of  the  modern  operas,  Italian  and 
French  (even  of  the  grand  and  heroic  class),  the 
work  is  heralded  merely  by  a  trite  and  meagre 
introduction,  of  little  more  value  or  significance 
than  the  feeble  Sinfonia  of  the  earliest  musical 
drama.  Considering  the  extended  development 
of  modern  opera«,  the  absence  of  an  overture  of 


OVERTURE. 

proportionate  importance  or  (if  a  mere  introduc- 
tory prelude)  one  of  such  beauty  and  significance 
as  that  to  Wagner's  'Lohengrin,'  is  a  serious 
defect,  and  may  generally  be  construed  into  an 
evidence  of  the  composer's  indolence,  or  of  his  want 
pf  power  as  an  instrumental  writer.  Recurring 
to  the  comparison  of  a  preface  to  an  operatic  over- 
ture, it  may  be  said  of  the  latter,  as  an  author  has 
well  said  of  the  former,  that  '  it  should  invite 
by  its  beauty,  as  an  elegant  porch  announces  the 
splendour  of  the  interior.' 

The  development  of  the  oratorio  overture  (as 
already  implied)  followed  that  of  the  operatic 
overture.  Among  prominent  specimens  of  the 
former  are  those  to  the  first  and  second  parts  of 
Spohr's  '  Last  Judgment '  (the  latter  of  which  is 
entitled  *  Symphony ' )  ;  and  the  still  finer  over- 
tures to  Mendelssohn's  '  St.  Paul,'  and  '  Elijah,' 
this  last  presenting  the  specialty  of  being  placed 
after  the  recitative  passage  with  which  the  work 
really  opens.  Mr.  Macfarren's  overtures  to  his  ora- 
torios of  'John  the  Baptist,'  'The  Resurrection,' 
and '  Joseph,'  are  all  carefully  designed  to  prepare 
the  hearer  for  the  work  which  follows,  by  employ- 
ing themes  from  the  oratorio  itself,  by  introducing 
special  features,  as  the  Shofar-horn  in  'John  the 
Baptist,'  or  by  general  character  and  local  colour, 
as  in  'Joseph.'  The  introduction  to  Haydn's 
'  Creation' — a  piece  of '  programme  music '  illus- 
trative of '  Chaos' — is  a  prelude  not  answering  to 
the  conditions  of  an  overture  properly  so  called,  as 
does  that  of  the  same  composer's '  Seasons,'  which 
however  is  rather  a  cantata  than  an  oratorio. 

Reference  has  hitherto  been  made  to  the  Over- 
ture only  as  the  introduction  to  an  opera,  ora- 
torio, or  drama.  The  form  and  name  have  been 
however  extensively  applied  during  the  present 
century  to  orchestral  pieces  intended  merely 
for  concert  use,  sometimes  with  no  special  pur- 
pose, in  other  instances  bearing  a  specific  title 
indicating  the  composer's  intention  to  illustrate 
some  poetical  or  legendary  subject.  Formerlv  a 
symphony,  or  one  movement  therefrom,  was  en- 
titled 'Grand  Overture,'  or  'Overture,'  in  the 
concert  programmes,  according  to  whether  the 
whole  work,  or  only  a  portion  thereof  was  used. 
Thus  in  the  announcements  of  Salomon's  Lon- 
don concerts  (1791-4).  Haydn's  Symphonies,  com- 
posed expressly  for  them,  are  generally  so  de- 
scribed. Among  special  examples  of  the  Overture 
— properly  so  called — composed  for  independent 
performance  are  Beethoven's  'Weihe  des  Hauses,' 
written  for  the  inauguration  of  the  Josephsstadt 
Theatre  in  1822;  Mendelssohn's  'Midsummer 
Night's  Dream  Overture'  (intended  at  first  for 
concert  use  only,  and  afterwards  supplemented 
by  the  exquisite  stage  music),  and  the  same  com- 
poser's 'Hebrides,'  'Calm  Sea  and  Prosperous 
Voyage,'  and  'Melusine.'  These  overtures  of 
Mendelssohn's  are,  indeed,  unparalleled  in  their 
kind.  It  is  scarcely  necessary  here  to  comment 
on  the  wondrous  Shaksperean  prelude,  pro- 
duced in  the  composer's  boyhood  as  a  concert 
overture,  and  in  aftsr  years  associated  with  the 
charming  incidental  music  to  the  drama,  pas- 
sages of  the  overture  occurring  in  the  final  chorus 


OXFORD. 


623 


of  fairies,  and  thus  giving  unity  to  the  whole ; 
nor  will  musical  readers  require  to  be  reminded 
of  the  rare  poetic  and  dramatic  imagination,  or 
the  exquisite  skill,  by  which  the  sombre  romanti- 
cism of  Scottish  scenery,  the  contrasted  sugges- 
tions of  Goethe's  poem,  and  the  grace  and 
passion  of  the  Rhenish  legend,  are  so  happily 
illustrated  in  the  other  overtures  referred  to. 

Schumann's  Overtures  of  this  class — '  Bride  of 
Messina,'  'Festival  Overture,'  'Julius  Caesar,' 
'Hermann  and  Dorothea' — though  all  very 
interesting  are  not  very  important;  but  in  his 
•  Overture  to  Manfred '  he  has  left  one  work  of 
the  highest  significance  and  power,  which  will 
always  maintain  its  position  in  the  first  rank  of 
orchestral  music.  As  the  prelude,  not  to  an 
opera,  but  to  the  incidental  music  to  Byron's 
tragedy,  this  composition  does  not  exactly  fall  in 
with  either  of  the  classes  we  have  given.  It  is 
however  dramatic  and  romantic  enough  for  any 
drama,  and  its  second  subject  is  a  quotation  from 
a  passage  which  occurs  in  the  piece  itself. 

Berlioz's  Overture  'Les  Francs  Juges,'  em- 
bodying the  idea  of  the  Vehmgericht  or  secret 
tribunals  of  the  Middle  Ages,  must  not  be  omitted 
from  our  list,  as  a  work  of  great  length,  great 
variety  of  ideas,  and  imposing  effect. 

The  Concert-Overtures  of  Sterndale  Bennett 
belong  to  a  similar  high  order  of  imaginative 
thought,  as  exemplified  in  the  well-known  over- 
tures entitled  '  Parisina,' '  The  Naiads,'  and  '  The 
Wood -Nymph,'  and  that  string  of  musical  pearls, 
the  Fantasia-Overture  illustrating  passages  from 
'Paradise  and  the  Peri.*  Benedict's  Overtures 
'  Der  Prinz  von  Homburg '  and  '  Tempest,'  Sulli- 
van's '  In  Memoriam'  (in  the  climax  of  which  the 
organ  is  introduced)  and  '  Di  Ballo '  (in  dance 
rhythms),  J.F.Barnett's  'Overture  Symphonique,' 
Cusins's  'Les  Travailleurs  de  la  Mer,'  Cowen's 
'  Festival  Overture,'  Gadsby's  'Andromeda,'  Pier- 
son's  '  Faust'  and  '  Romeo  and  Juliet,'  and  many 
more,  are  all  independent  concert  overtures. 

The  term  has  also  been  applied  to  original 
pieces  for  keyed  instruments.  Thus  we  have 
Bach's  Overture  in  the  French  style  ;  Handel's 
Overture  in  the  first  set  of  his  Harpsichord 
Suites,  and  Mozart's  imitation  thereof  among  his 
pianoforte  works.  Each  of  these  is  the  opening 
piece  of  a  series.  Beethoven  has  prefixed  the 
word  '  Ovettura '  to  the  Quartet-piece  which 
originally  formed  the  Finale  to  his  Bt>  quartet 
(op.  131),  but  is  now  numbered  separately  as 
op.  133  ;  but  whether  the  term  is  meant  to  apply 
to  the  whole  piece  or  only  to  the  twenty-seven 
bars  which  introduce  the  fugue  we  have  nothing 
to  guide  us.  [See  Entree  ;  Intrada  ;  Introduc- 
tion ;  Prelude  ;  Symphony.]  [H.  J.  L.] 

OXFORD.  An  outline  of  the  history  of 
musical  studies  at  the  University  of  Oxford  bas 
been  given  under  the  head  Bachelor.  The  regu- 
lations for  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Music  have 
undergone  change  since  the  issue  of  that  article, 
and  are  now  (June,  1880)  as  follows.  Every  can- 
didate for  the  degree  of  Bachelor  in  Music  must 
previously  matriculate  at  the  University,  i.e. 
enter  his  name  on  the  books  of  some  College  or 


624 


OXFOKD. 


Hall,  or  as  an  Unattached  Student :  but  he  is 
not  required  to  have  resided  or  kept  terms.  He 
must  show  to  the  Professor  of  Music  either  a 
certificate  that  he  has  passed  Responsions,  or 
a  certificate  that  he  has  passed  the  ■  Previous 
Examination '  at  Cambridge,  or  a  certificate  from 
the  Delegates  of  the  Examination  of  Schools,  or 
evidence  that  he  has  satisfied  the  Delegates  of 
Local  Examinations  as  a  Senior  Candidate  in 
English,  in  Mathematics,  in  Latin,  and  in  either 
Greek,  French,  German,  or  Italian.  The  candi- 
date has  then  to  undergo  the  following  examina- 
tions, etc.  The  First  Examination  is  held 
annually  in  Hilary  Term,  and  comprises  merely 
Harmony  and  Counterpoint  in  not  more  than 
four  parts.  It  is  conducted  partly  in  writing, 
partly  vird  voce.  Candidates  who  have  obtained 
their  certificate  of  having  passed  the  First  Exa- 
mination must  in  the  next  place  compose  an  exer- 
cise, which  must  be  sent  to  the  Professor  of 
Music,  for  the  inspection  and  approval  of  the 
Examiners.  The  exercise  must  be  a  vocal  com- 
position, either  secular  or  sacred,  containing  pure 
five-part  harmony,  with  good  fugal  counterpoint, 
and  with  accompaniment  for  at  least  a  quintet 
string-band.  It  should  be  of  such  length  as 
would  occupy  in  performance  from  twenty  to 
forty  minutes.  Each  candidate  must  send  with 
the  exercise  a  written  declaration  signed  by  him- 
self, stating  that  it  is  entirely  his  own  unaided 
composition.  No  public  performance  of  the  exer- 
cise is  now  required  for  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Music.  The  Examiners  having  signified  their 
approval  of  the  exercise,  the  candidate  must  pre- 
sent himself  for  the  Second  Examination,  which 
is  held  annually  in  Michaelmas  Term.  The  ex- 
amination embraces  the  following  subjects : — 
Harmony,  Counterpoint  in  not  more  than  five 
parts,  Canon,  Imitation  etc.,  Fugue,  Form  in 
Composition,  Musical  History ;  a  critical  know- 
ledge of  the  full  scores  of  such  standard  classical 
compositions  as  shall  be  previously  selected 
by  the  Professor  of  Music  and  duly  announced. 
This  examination  is  conducted,  like  the  former, 
partly  in  writing,  partly  vivd  voce.  Before 
being  presented  for  his  degree,  the  candidate 
must  deliver  the  bound  MS.  full  score  of  his 
exercise  to  be  deposited  in  the  library  of  the 
Music  School.  The  fees  for  this  degree  amount 
to  about  £20.  The  principal  change  introduced 
in  the  new  regulations,  which  were  passed  in 
1878,  is  the  provision  requiring  a  candidate  for 
a  degree  in  Music  to  have  passed  a  mixed  lite- 
rary examination  recognised  by  the  University. 
It  was  imagined,  when  this  test  was  added  to  the 
Musical  examination,  that  it  would  add  to  the 
value  of  Musical  degrees :  its  real  effect  has 
been  to  sever  the  connection  between  the  Uni- 
versity and  the  musical  world,  which,  through 
the  apathy  and  mismanagement  of  the  University 
in  past  times  (see  Bachelor,  Choragus),  had 
become  a  very  slight  one,  but  was  beginning  to 
gain  strength  under  the  sensible  rules  in  opera- 
tion before  1878.    The  number  of  persons  taking 


OX-MINUET. 

I  the  Bachelor's  degree  had  risen  from  3  in  1866 
1  to  21  in  1878.     Immediately  after  the  passing  of 
'  the  new  statute  it  fell  to  12  in  1879,  although 
the  operation  of  the  new  statute  did  not  affect 
'  persons  who  had  passed  the  First  Examination 
before  1878.   In  1877,  when  the  last  examination 
was  held  under  the  old  statutes,  i.  e.  in  independ- 
ence of  any  literary  test,  the  number  of  persons 
passing  the  First  Examination  was  53  :  in  1878, 
when  the  literary  test  was  added,  it  fell  to  2  :  in 
1879  it  was  3,  and  in  1880  the  same. 

Between  the  degree  of  Bachelor  and  that  of 
Doctor  in  Music  an  interval  of  five  years  must 
intervene.  This  period  may  be  so  computed, 
however,  as  to  include  both  the  Terms  in  which 
the  respective  degrees  are  conferred.  A  certifi- 
cate is  required,  which  must  be  signed  by  three 
credible  witnesses,  stating  that  the  candidate  has 
studied  music  for  the  last  preceding  five  years. 
The  examination  and  the  exercise  of  candidates 
for  the  Doctorate  will  be  found  under  the  article 
Doctor.  The  fees  amount  to  about  £15.  The 
exercise  for  this  degree  must  be  performed  at  the 
candidate's  expense. 

The  following  names  of  Oxford  Doctors  may 
be  added  to  the  list  given  under  Doctor  : — Wil- 
son, 1644;  Child,  1663;  Christopher  Gibbons, 
1664;  Benjamin  Rogers,  1669;  Pepusch,  1713  ; 
William  Hayes,  1749  ;  Wainwright,  1774  ; 
Philip  Hayes,  1777;  Dupuis,  1790;  Aylward, 
1 791,  Clement  Smith,  1800  ;  Marshall,  1840  ;  Sir 
F.  A.  G.  Ouseley,  1854;  E.  G.  Monk,  1856; 
J.Stainer,i865;  W.Pole,  1867;  J.  F.  Bridge,  1874; 
J.  Varley  Roberts,  1876.  The  degree  of  Doctor 
of  Music,  honoris  causa,  was  conferred  without 
examination,  in  1879,  upon  Sir  Herbert  Oakeley, 
Professor  of  Music  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh (MA.  Oxon,  1856),  Mr.  G.  A.  Macfarren, 
Professor  of  Music  in  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge, and  Mr.  Arthur  Sullivan. 

A  Commission,  under  the  chairmanship  of 
Lord  Selborne,  is  at  present  dealing  with  the 
affairs  of  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  has  re- ' 
ceived  evidence  on  the  state  of  Musical  as  well 
as  of  other  studies.  The  evidence  has  not  yet 
been  laid  before  Parliament,  nor  have  the  Com- 
missioners yet  completed  their  enactments.  Any 
regulations  made  by  the  Commissioners  affecting 
jVlusic  at  the  University  will,  if  possible,  be  given 
under  the  head  Universities.  [C-  A.  F. j 

OX-MINUET,  THE.  The  title  of  a  Sing- 
spiel  by  Hofmann,  founded  on  an  anecdote  from 
Haydn's  life,  the  music  selected  from  his  works 
and  arranged  by  Seyfried  (P.F.  arrangement  by 
C.  W.  Henning ;  Berlin,  Trautwein).  It  was 
often  performed  in  Vienna,  Berlin,  and  else- 
where, and  in  Paris  is  known  as  '  Le  Menuet  du 
bceuf.'  The  play  is  founded  on  an  anecdote  of  a 
Hungarian  butcher  having  requested  Haydn  to 
write  a  minuet  for  the  marriage  of  his  daughter, 
in  exchange  for  which  the  yrateful  butcher  sent 
the  composer  a  live  ox.  The  minuet,  however, 
is  not  by  Haydn,  and  the  story  is  entirely  apo- 
cryphal.   [See  vol.  i.  p.  720,  note  14.]     [C.F.  P.] 


p. 


PACCHIEROTTI,  Gaspabo,  perhaps  the 
greatest  singer  of  the  second  half  of  the  18th 
century,  was  born  in  1 744  at  Fabriano,  near 
Ancona.  His  ancestors  came  from  Siena,  where 
one  of  them,  Jacopo  dal  Pecchia,  called  Pacchie- 
rotto,  studied  the  works  of  Perugino  and  Raffaelle 
to  such  good  effect  that  his  own  pictures  have 
been  sometimes  taken  by  connoisseurs  to  be  by 
the  hand  of  the  latter  great  master.1  Driven  from 
Siena  by  political  troubles,  the  family  of  Pacchie- 
rotto  in  1575  took  refuge  in  Pianca-stagnaio ; 
from  whence  a  branch  settled  in  Fabriano. 

About  1757  Gasparo  Pacchierotti  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  choir  of  S.  Mark's  at  Venice, 
where  the  great  Bertoni  was  his  master,  accord- 
ing to  the  memoir  written  by  the  singer's  adopted 
son,  Giuseppe  Cecchini  Pacchierotti.2  This,  how- 
ever, is  contradicted  by  Fe"tis,  who  states  that 
it  was  in  the  choir  of  the  cathedral  at  Forli  that 
the  young  singer  received  his  first  instruction, 
and  that  it  was  impossible  that  he  could  have 
sung  under  Bertoni,  since  boys  were  never  em- 
ployed at  S.  Mark  s,  where  Bertoni  did  not 
become  Maestro  di  Cappella  till  1785,  having 
been  up  to  that  date  (from  1752)  only  organist. 
However  this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  the 
young  Pacchierotti,  having  been  prepared  for  the 
career  of  a  sopranist,  studied  long  and  carefully 
before  he  began,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  to  sing 
secondary  parts  at  Venice,  Vienna,  and  Milan. 

Endowed  with  a  vivid  imagination,  uncommon 
intelligence,  and  profound  sensibility,  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  with  a  tall  and  lean  figure,  and 
with  a  voice  which,  though  strong  in  the  lowest 
register  and  rising  easily  to  the  high  C,  was 
often  uncertain  and  nasal, — Pacchierotti  required 
much  determination  and  strength  of  character  to 
overcome  the  defects,  and  take  advantage  of  the 
qualities,  with  which  he  found  himself  provided 
by  nature.  This  he  accomplished  only  by  pain- 
ful and  laborious  study,  retiring  to  a  garret  in 
Venice,  where  he  practised  the  most  difficult  ex- 
ercises which  the  masters  of  those  days  prescribed 
as  necessary  to  the  education  of  the  voice ;  and 
success  at  last  crowned  his  endeavours. 

Milan  was  the  last  place  in  which  he  sang  a 
secondary  role.  Be  turning  to  Venice  in  1 769,  he 
took  the  place  of  Guarducci,  primo  musico  at  the 
S.  Benedetto,  then  the  chief  theatre  in  that  city. 
Successful  here,  he  was  immediately  invited  by 
the  Impresario  of  the  Opera  at  Palermo  for  the 
season  of  1771.  H.  E.  the  Procuratore  Tron, 
his  good  and  generous  patron,  furnished  Pac- 
chierotti with  recommendations,  and  the  latter 
set  out,  taking  Naples  in  his  way.  Arrived 
there,  he  was  informed  that  the  celebrated 
prima  donna,  De  Amicis,  had  protested  against 

1  Land,  torn.  i.  p.  306.  >  Padora,  1844.  Svo. 

VOL.  II.   PT.  11. 


the  proposition  that  she  should  sing  with  him,  •  a 
player  of  second  parts.'  The  Venetian  minister, 
to  whom  he  was  recommended,  comforted  him  in 
this  juncture,  but  only  with  the  humiliating  per- 
mission, accorded  to  him,  to  show  his  powers  by 
singing  two  pieces,  with  full  orchestra,  at  the 
San  Carlo,  before  Lacillo,  Piccinni,  and  Caffarelli, 
as  judges.  Here  he  was  brilliantly  successful, 
and  was  immediately  offered  his  choice  between 
the  theatres  of  Palermo  and  Naples.  He  proudly 
chose  the  former,  where  he  met  the  great  De 
Amicis,  and  had  to  submit  to  another  ordeal  in 
a  duet  with  her  at  the  first  general  rehearsal  of 
'  Didone.'  She  had  refused  to  try  over  the  duet 
with  him  previously,  and  treated  him  with  studied 
coldness  and  contempt;  but  Pacchierotti  over- 
came this  and  the  prejudice  of  the  audience  by 
his  noble,  impassioned,  and  skilful  singing.  Even 
De  Amicis  herself  was  surprised  into  sincere  and 
kindly  admiration. 

This  set  the  seal  on  Pacchierotti's  reputation, 
which  never  faded  for  35  years,  during  which  he 
delighted  the  cognoscenti  of  Europe.  He  re- 
mained for  a  time  inltaly,  singing  at  Parma,  Milan, 
Florence,  and  Forli,  and  at  Venice  in  1777. 
After  this,  he  sang  at  Milan  in  the  carnival  of 
1778,  then  at  Genoa,  Lucca,  and  Turin  ;  but  in 
the  autumn  of  that  year  he  came  to  London  with 
Bertoni,  and  made  his  first  appearance  here  with 
Bernasconi  in  the  pasticcio  '  Demofoonte.'  Great 
expectations  had  been  formed  of  him,  not  only 
from  his  continental  reputation,  but  from  the 
account  given  by  Captain  Brydone  in  his  Travels, 
and  from  some  airs  sung  '  in  his  manner '  by 
Piozzi,  '  in  a  style  that  excited  great  ideas  of  his 
pathetic  powers.'  These  expectations  were  not 
disappointed ;  and  Dr.  Burney's  warm  but  in- 
telligent praise  of  his  beautful  voice,  his  perfect 
command  of  it,  the  taste  and  boldness  with  which 
he  invented  new  ornaments,  the  truth  and  origin- 
ality of  his  expression,  and  his  other  musicianly 
qualities,  must  be  read  by  those  who  would  form 
an  idea  of  the  truly  great  singer  that  Pacchie- 
rotti was.  Though  intimately  connected  with 
his  friend  Bertoni,  he  sang  with  no  less  ardour 
and  energy  the  music  of  Sacchini,  and  other  rival 
composers :  and,  indeed,  he  seems  to  have  had  a 
most  amiable  character,  never  withholding  his 
commendation  of  another  artist,  when  due,  though 
of  his  own  performance  he  was  always  the  most 
severe  critic. 

Lord  Mount-Edgcumbe  also  speaks  in  the 
highest  terms  of  the  talent  of  Pacchierotti,  whom 
he  calls  'decidedly  the  most  perfect  singer  it 
ever  fell  to  his  lot  to  hear.' 

In  a  letter*  to  the  Rev.  W.  Mason,  dated 
Lucca,  Sept.  15,1 780,  Pacchierotti  shows,  in  very 
•  In  the  possession  of  the  present  writer. 

S  s 


626 


PACCHIEROTTI. 


good  English,  the  friendly  terms  on  which  he 
stood  with  literary  men  of  this  country,  and  his 
familiarity  with  some,  at  least,  of  our  literature. 

'My  search,'  he  writes,  'after  a  translation  of  Mr. 
Gray's  poems  has  been  as  yet  fruitless ;  however,  I  still 
entertain  hopes  of  succeeding  at  Venice,  where  learning 
is  perhaps  more  cultivated  than  in  other  parts  of  Italy. 
Your  Divine  Dramas  I  have  not  been  able  to  discover  in 
Toscany :  at  Venice,  probably,  I  may  be  more  fortunate. 
But  should  I  look  in  vain,  still  permit  me  to  trouble 
you  with  my  letters,  and  flatter  myself  with  the  hopes 
of  hearing  sometimes  that  you  are  well,  and  that  you 
have  not  forgotten  me.  My  native  country  has  produced 
its  usual  effect,  and  restored  me  to  voice  and  sentiment 
both  which  were  cruelly  damped  in  England.  Could  I 
but  maintain  these  acquisitions  upon  my  return,  I  should 
be  more  worthy  the  attention  of  the  Publick,  and  of  the 
great  Ideas  you  are  pleased  to  intertain  of  the  pro- 
fession.' 

The  account  that  Pacchierotti  gives  here,  with 
so  much  modesty,  of  the  effect  of  our  climate 
upon  him,  is  confirmed  by  Dr.  Burney,  who  re- 
lates that  '  though  he  was  never  obliged  by  in- 
disposition to  be  absent  from  the  stage,  when  his 
duty  called  him  thither,  above  once  or  twice 
during  four  years'  residence  among  us,  yet  his 
voice  was  sometimes  affected  by  slight  colds.' 

After  a  second  visit  to  London  Pacchierotti 
again  returned  to  Italy.  He  sang  at  the  Tui- 
leries  in  Paris  on  his  way  back  again  to  Eng- 
land from  Venice,  where  Bertoni  had  written 
fresh  operas  for  him.  Galuppi  had  died  there 
in  1785,  and  at  his  funeral  Pacchierotti  took 
part  in  a  Requiem.  '  I  sang  very  devoutly 
indeed,'  he  wrote  to  Burney,  '  to  obtain  a  quiet 
to  his  soul.'  He  used  on  another  occasion,  a 
familiar  but  picturesque  expression,  when  dis- 
cussing Pergolesi's  setting  of  'Se  Cerca  se  dice,' 
saying  that  'he  had  hit  the  right  nail  on  the 
head.'  Pacchierotti  arrived  here,  on  his  third 
visit,  in  1 790,  and  sang  at  the  Pantheon,  and  at 
the  Festival  in  Westminster  Abbey  in  1 791.  At 
the  opening  of  the  Fenice  at  Venice  in  1 792,  he 
took  his  leave  of  the  stage,  after  which  he  settled 
in  Padua.  In  1 796,  however,  he  was  compelled  to 
appear  once  more  to  sing  before  General  Buona- 
parte, who  was  passing  through  the  city,  though 
the  great  artist  had  then  been  living  four  years 
in  retirement.     He  sang,  but  most  unwillingly. 

At  Padua  he  enjoyed  the  society  and  the  es- 
teem of  all  the  literati  of  the  city,  among  whom 
he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  a  peaceful  and  happy 
manner,  only  interrupted  by  one  unfortunate  in- 
cident. Having  imprudently  lamented  '  le  splen- 
dide  miserie  della  vittoria,'  in  a  letter  to  Catalani, 
which  he  had  entrusted  to  Dragonetti,  who  was 
on  the  point  of  escaping  from  Italy,  both  fugitive 
and  letter  were  intercepted ;  and  the  unlucky 
Pacchierotti  was  thrown  into  prison,  where  he 
was  detained  for  a  month.  Not  long  before  his 
death  he  was  visited  by  Rossini,  to  whom  he  de- 
plored the  depraved  modern  taste  in  singing,  and 
the  growth  of  a  noisy  and  rococo  style,  for  which, 
doubtless,  the  old  singer  thought  the  Pesarese  in 
a  great  degree  to  blame  :  '  Give  me  another  Pac- 
chierotti,' the  latter  replied,  '  and  I  shall  know 
how  to  write  for  him ! ' 

During  his  remaining  years,  Pacchierotti  did 
not  cease  his  daily  practice  and  enjoyment  of 
einging,  in  private ;  but  mainly  devoted  himself 


PACINI. 

to  the  Psalms  of  Marcello,  '  from  which,'  he  said, 
'  he  had  learnt  the  little  that  he  knew.'  From 
the  midst  of  this  quiet  life  he  departed  Oct.  28, 
1 82 1.1  Only  a  few  moments  before  his  death  he 
had  repeated,  as  usual  with  him,  some  of  Metas- 
tasio's  sacred  verses,  in  the  most  pathetic  tones ; 
and  he  died  praying  '  to  be  admitted  to  one  of 
the  humblest  choirs  of  heaven.'  [J.  M.] 

PACHELBEL,  Johann,  eminent  organist  and 
composer,  born  at  Nuremberg,  Sept.  1, 1653,  first 
learned  the  harpsichord  and  other  instruments 
from  H.  Schwemmer,  studied  at  Altdorf,  Ratis- 
bon,  and  then  went  to  Vienna,  where  he  became 
deputy-organist  at  the  Cathedral.8  He  was  then 
successively  organist  at  the  court  of  Eisenach 
in  1675,  at  the  Predigerkirche  in  Erfurt  in  1680, 
and  at  Stuttgart  in  1690.  In  1692  the  ap- 
proach of  the  French  army  drove  him  to  Gotha, 
and  in  1695  he  became  organist  of  Saint  Sebald 
in  his  native  city,  where  he  remained  till  his 
death,  March  3,  1706.  Mattheson3  states  that 
he  had  the  offer  of  an  organist's  post  at  Oxford  in 
1692,  and  was  invited  to  return  to  Stuttgart  on 
the  cessation  of  hostilities,  but  declined  to  leave 
Nuremberg  on  account  of  his  family.  Of  his 
compositions  a  few  only  are  in  print,  viz. '  Musical- 
ische  Sterbens-Gedanken,  4  variirte  Chorale' 
(Erfurt,  1683),  composed  during  a  visitation  of 
the  plague  ;  *  VIII  Chorale  zum  Praeambuliren* 
(Nuremberg,  1693);  '  Hexachordum  Apollinis, 
VI  variirte  Arien'  (Nuremberg,  1699).  In  the 
Grand-ducal  library  at  Weimar  is  the  autograph 
of  a  '  Tabulatur-Buch '  of  hymns  by  Luther 
and  others,  with  Choral-fugues,  etc.,  by  Johann 
Pachelbel,  organist  at  St.  Sebald,  Nuremberg, 
1704.  Specimens  of  his  vocal  works  are  given 
by  Von  Winterfeld  (Evang.  Kirchengesang,  ii. 
p.  201,  etc.),  and  of  his  organ  compositions  by 
Korner  (Orgelvirtuos)  and  Commer  (Musica 
Sacra,  vol.  i.).  A  fugue  in  C  will  be  found  in  the 
Auswahl  vorz.  Musikwerke  No.  24.       [C.  F.  P.] 

PACINI  (or  PACCINI),  Andbea,  an  Italian 
contralto,  born  about  1700.  In  1724  he  ap- 
peared in  the  title-part  of  '  Tamerlano,'  on  Oct. 
31,  in  London,  and  remained  there  during  the 
whole  of  the  season  of  1724-5,  taking  part  in 
'  Artaserse,' '  Rodelinda,'  '  Dario,* '  Elpidia,'  and 
the  revival  of  'Giulio  Cesare' ;  singing,  in  the  lat- 
ter, the  r6le  previously  sustained  by  Berenstadt, 
and  afterwards  by  Mengozzi.  In  1725,  again, 
he  was  singing  with  success  at  Venice.     [J.  M.] 

PACINI,  Giovanni,  was  born  in  Catania, 
Feb.  19,  1796.  Being  the  son  of  a  celebrated 
tenor,  he  was  trained  to  the  musical  profession 
from  his  childhood.  He  studied  under  Marchesi 
in  Bologna,  and  afterwards,  from  1808  to  181  a, 
was  a  pupil  of  Furlanetto  in  Venice. 

In  181 3,  when  only  sixteen  years  old,  he  wrote 
his  first  opera,  'Annetta  e  Lucinda,'  for  the 
theatre  S.  Redegonda,  in  Milan  ;  and  from  that 
year  until  1834  ne  produced  at  the  principal 
theatres  of  Italy  42  operas  with  various  success. 

1  Cecchinl. 

»  The  statement  that  he  profited  by  hearing  Kerf's  playing  Is  erro- 
neous, as  Kerf  held  the  office  of  Imperial  organist  from  1680  to  1692. 
>  Grundlage,  p.  244. 


PACINL 

Of  such  operas,  those  which  met  the  warmest 
approval  and  deserve  to  be  mentioned,  are  '  La  Sa- 
cerdotessa  d'  Irminsul,'  given  in  1 817  at  Trieste; 
'Cesare  inEgitto'(Rome,  1822);  'L'  ultimo  giorno 
di  Pompei'  and  '  Niobe '  (S.  Carlo,  Naples,  1825) ; 
and  'Gli  Arabi  nelle  Gallie'  (Scala,  Milan,  1827). 
In  1834,  on  the  failure  of  his  'Carlo  di  Bor- 
gogna  at  the  Fenice  in  Venice,  he  left  off  com- 
posing and  went  to  live  at  Viareggio,  where  he 
opened  a  School  of  Music.  He  had  already  been 
appointed  Kapellmeister  to  the  Empress  Marie 
Louise,  widow  of  Napoleon  I.,  and  had  married  in 
1825  Adelaide  Castelli,  of  Naples.  His  Musical 
Institute,  for  which  he  also  built  a  theatre  seating 
800  spectators,  met  with  great  success,  and  pupils 
flocked  there  from  all  parts  of  Italy.  For  these 
he  then  wrote  a  History  of  Music,  a  Treatise  on 
Counterpoint,  and  another  on  Harmony.  Among 
the  many  artiste  whom  he  successfully  trained  in 
his  school  we  may  mention  M.  Sellerfe",  who 
became  Director  of  the  Conservatoire  of  Mont- 
pellier;  Corelli  (whose  real  name  was  Quaran- 
totti),  who  afterwards  lived  in  London  ;  Papini, 
Bartolini,  Marchetti,  etc.  He  afterwards  trans- 
ferred this  school  to  the  town  of  Lucca. 

It  is  interesting  to  find  him  at  this  advanced 
period  of  his  life  studying  the  masterpieces  of  the 
great  German  composers.  Of  the  works  of  Bee- 
thoven, Haydn,  and  Mozart,  he  wrote  at  the  time 
in  the  following  strain : — 

This  study  is  quite  a  revelation  of  harmonic  science, 
and  it  brightens  the  mind  of  the  student  in  a  marvellous 
way;  since  these  classic  compositions  are  a  continuous 
progression  of  developments  of  most  beautiful  and 
simple  melodies ;  to  which  Horace's  words  may  well  be 
applied : 

'  Deniqne  sit,  quod  vis,  simplex  duntaxat,  et  unum.' 

In  the  works  of  Beethoven  are  to  be  found  gigantic 
and  sublime  formulae ;  those  of  Haydn  contain  a  melodic 
sweetness  mixed  with  artifices,  which  are  always  agree- 
able ;  whilst  Mozart  shows  his  unequalled  genius  in  every- 
thing: lean  only  compare  them  to  Michael  Angelo,  Guido, 
and  Kaphael. 

In  1840  he  produced  in  Naples  his  best  opera, 
'  Saffo,'  which  met  with  a  great  and  well-deserved 
success,  notwithstanding  it  had  been  written  in 
the  short  period  of  four  weeks.  In  1843  his 
'Medea'  was  enthusiastically  received  in  Palermo, 
and  the  Sicilians  there  and  then  went  so  far  as  to 
erect  a  statue  to  him  by  the  side  of  that  of  Bellini 
in  the  Royal  Villa.  '  La  Regina  di  Cipro,'  given 
in  1846  at  Turin ;  and  'Niccol6  de'  Lapi,'  a  post- 
humous opera  given  in  Florence  in  1873,  are  also 
amongst  his  best. 

Pacini  was  thrice  married,  and  by  each  of  his 
wives  had  three  children,  five  of  whom  (four 
daughters  and  an  only  son,  Luigi)  survived  him. 
He  was  named  Musical  Director  of  the  musical 
school  of  Florence,  and  was  a  knight  of  half 
a  dozen  continental  orders.  In  1854  he  went  to 
Paris  to  superintend  the  representations  of  his 
'Arabi  nelle  Gallie,'  under  the  new  title  of  '  L' ul- 
timo de'  Clodovei,'  and  there  wrote  a  cantata  for 
Napoleon  III.,  who  had  applauded  that  same 
opera  2  7  yeare  previously  in  Rome.  He  died  in 
Pescia,  Dec.  6,  1867. 

Pacini  wrote  altogether  80  operas,  of  which 
seven  are  still  unpubhshed,  and  more  than  70 
other  compositions,  such  as  masses,  oratorios, 


PAER. 


627 


and  cantatas,  which  do  not  call  for  particular 
mention,  if  we  except  a  beautiful  Quartet  in  C 
and  the  Cantata  for  Dante's  Centenary. 

Pacini,  though  a  successful  imitator  of  Rossini, 
■was  still  an  imitator ;  and  for  that  reason  he  can 
rank  only  among  the  minor  masters  of  Italy.  He 
tried  in  'Saffo'  to  free  himself  from  the  yoke, 
but  it  was  too  late,  nor  was  he  altogether  suc- 
cessful. He  was  called  il  maestro  delle  cabaktte 
by  his  contemporaries ;  and  the  immense  number 
of  cabalettas  which  he  wrote,  their  beauty  and 
endless  variety,  show  plainly  how  well  he  deserved 
that  appellation.  He  made  even  his  recitatives 
melodic,  and  was  accustomed  to  use  his  accom- 
paniments for  strengthening  the  voices,  by  merely 
making  them  sustain  the  upper  part.  His  instru- 
mentation is  consequently  very  weak  and  some- 
times inaccurate.  All  his  operas  were  written 
hastily;  and,  as  he  himself  avows  in  his  letters, 
without  much  study  or  reflection.  One  of  Pacini's 
great  merits  was  that  he  devoted  himself  to  his 
vocal  parts  ;  he  always  suited  them  to  the  capa- 
bilities of  his  executants,  and  thus  insured,  at 
least,  the  temporary  success  of  his  works.  [L.  R.] 

PADUA.  The  first  musical  academy  at 
Padua  was  that  of  the  'Costanti,'  founded  in 
1566  by  the  nobles  of  the  city.  It  embraced, 
besides  music,  natural  philosophy,  ethics,  oratory, 
poetry,  and  languages.  The  first  president  was 
Francesco  Portenari.  But  that  the  science  of 
music  must  have  been  studied  far  earlier  in  the 
ancient  Paduan  university  appears  from  the 
writings  of  Marchetto  di  Padova,  the  next  writer 
upon  music  after  Guido  d'Arezzo,  which  date 
between  the  years  1274  and  1309.  Prosdocimo 
di  Beldomando,  the  musical  theorist,  was  also  a 
native  of  Padua.  He  was  Professor  of  Astrology 
there  in  1422,  with  a  stipend  of  40  silver  ducats 
annually.  His  works  on  music  are  still  preserved 
in  the  library  at  Padua.  But  he  is  outside  our 
limits,  and  we  therefore  refer  the  reader  to 
Burney,  Hist.  ii.  350.  Padua  gave  its  name  to 
the  ancient  dance  Paduan,  or  Pavan,  which  is 
discussed  under  its  own  heading.  [CM. P.] 

PAER,  Febdinando,  Italian  opera  composer 
and  maestro  di  capella,  born  June  1,  1771,  at 
Parma,  where  he  studied  under  a  violinist  named 
Ghizetti.  At  20  he  became  maestro  di  capella 
at  Venice,  and  there  composed  industriously, 
though  leading  a  gay  and  dissolute  life.  His 
operas  were  not  all  equally  successful,  but  they 
made  his  name  known  beyond  Italy,  and  in  1797 
he  received  an  invitation  to  Vienna,  whither  he 
went  with  his  wife,  a  singer  named  Riccardi,  who 
was  engaged  at  the  Italian  Opera.  The  most 
celebrated  of  the  operas  which  he  composed  for  the 
national  theatre,  and  indeed  his  best  work,  was 
'Camilla,  ossia  il  Sotteraneo*  (1799).  In  1801 
he  went  to  Dresden  as  capellmeister,  remaining, 
except  for  occasional  tours  and  visits  to  Vienna 
and  Italy,  till  1806.  Here  he  composed  '  Sargino, 
ossia  1'  Allievo  dell'  amore'  (1803),  and '  Eleonora, 
ossia  l'Amore  conjugale'  (1804),  the  same  subject 
which  Beethoven  has  immortalised  in  '  Fidelio.* 
In  1806  Paer  accompanied  Napoleon  to  Warsaw 
and  Posen,  and  in  1807  was  formally  installed  as 
Ss2 


628 


PAER. 


PAGANINI. 


his  maitre  de  chapelle,  and  took  tip  his  abode  in 
Paris.  In  1 812  he  succeeded  Spontini  at  the 
Italian  Opera,  to  which  he  remained  attached 
until  1827,  in  spite  of  many  changes  and  dis- 
putes, and  of  the  pecuniary  embarrassments  which 
beset  the  theatre.  He  and  Rossini  were  tem- 
porarily associated  from  1824  to  26.  During 
this  period  he  produced  but  8  operas,  including^ 
•Agnese'  (i8n),  and  'Le  Maitre  de  Chapelle 
(1822),  none  of  which  were  marked  successes. 
In  1 83 1  he  became  a  member  of  the  Academic, 
and  in  1832  director  of  the  king's  chamber- 
music,  as  then  reconstituted.  He  died  on  May 
3,  1839.  As  a  man  Paer  was  not  beloved  ; 
self-interest  and  egotism,  servility  to  his  supe- 
riors, and  petty  intrigues  against  his  professional 
brethren,  being  faults  commonly  attributed  to 
him.  But  as  a  composer  he  is  one  of  the  most 
important  representatives  of  the  Italian  operatic 
school  at  the  close  of  the  last  century.  His  in- 
vention is  flowing,  his  melody  suave  and  pleasing, 
his  form  correct,  and  in  simple  compositions 
finished,  although  not  developed  to  the  fullest 
extent ;  where  he  fails,  both  in  melody  and  har- 
mony, is  in  depth  of  expression.  Like  all  the 
other  Italian  composers  of  his  time,  he  had  the 
gift  of  true  comedy,  so  common  among  his  lively 
countrymen.  In  lyric  expression  he  was  also 
successful,  as  here  his  Italian  love  of  sweet 
sounds  stood  him  in  good  stead ;  but  he  was 
completely  wanting  in  the  force  and  depth  ne- 
cessary for  passionate,  pathetic,  or  heroic  music, 
and  when  such  was  required,  he  fell  back  upon 
common  opera  phrases  and  stock  passages. 
This  is  perhaps  most  apparent  in  the  operas  com- 
posed after  he  left  Italy,  when  his  acquaintance 
with  German  music,  especially  that  of  Mozart, 
may  have  influenced  his  style.  His  treatment  of 
the  orchestra  was  original  and  remarkable,  and 
his  instrumentation  very  effective.  The  partial 
success  only  of  the  operas  composed  during  his  stay 
in  Paris  is  easily  explained ;  he  had  not  sufficient 
means  of  expression  to  attempt  French  opera, 
and  in  Italian  opera  he  could  not  contend  with 
Rossini,  whose  genius,  with  its  indifference  to 
the  trammels  of  form,  and  its  exuberant  melody, 
fairly  captivated  the  public.  Paer  also  com- 
posed much  for  church  and  chamber — oratorios, 
motets,  cantatas  for  one  and  more  voices ;  also  in- 
strumental music,  a  Bacchanalian  symphony,  etc., 
now  of  historical  interest  only.  [A.M.] 

PAGANINI,  Nicolo,  the  most  famous  of 
violin  virtuosos,  was  born  at  Genoa,  Feb.  18, 
1784.  His  father  was  a  small  tradesman,  and, 
although  quite  uneducated,  a  great  lover  of  music, 
and  a  performer  on  the  mandoline.  He  soon 
perceived  the  musical  talent  of  his  son,  and 
began  to  instruct  him  at  a  very  early  age.  He 
then  handed  him  over  to  G.  Servetto,  and,  for  six 
months,  to  G.  Costa,  the  principal  violinist  and 
conductor  at  Genoa.  When  eight  years  old  he  had 
already  acquired  considerable  proficiency,  and  had 
also  composed  a  sonata  for  his  instrument.  In 
1793  he  made  his  first  appearance  in  public 
at  Genoa,  and  played  variations  on  the  air  '  La 
Carmagnole,'    then    so    popular,    with  immense 


success.  He  also  used  to  play  every  Sundav 
violin  concerto  in  church,  a  circumstance  to  which 
Paganini  himself  attached  much  importance,  as 
having  forced  him  to  the  constant  study  of  fresh 
pieces.  About  the  year  1795  his  father  took 
him  to  Parma,  with  the  intention  of  putting 
him  under  the  famous  violinist  Alessandho 
Rolla.  Paganini  himself  thus  'relates  their 
first  meeting :  '  Coming  to  Rolla  we  found  him 
laid-up.  He  appeared  little  inclined  to  see  us, 
but  his  wife  showed  us  into  a  room  adjoining 
his  bedroom,  until  she  had  spoken  to  him. 
Finding  on  the  table  a  violin  and  the  music  of 
Rolla's  latest  concerto,  I  took  up  the  instrument 
and  played  the  piece  at  sight.  Astonished  at 
what  he  heard,  the  composer  asked  for  the  name 
of  the  player :  and  when  told  that  it  was  but 
a  young  boy,  would  not  believe  it  until  he 
had  seen  for  himself.  He  then  told  me  that  he 
had  nothing  to  teach  me,  and  advised  me  to 
go  to  Paer  for  instruction  in  composition.'  Fe"tis, 
in  his  monograph  on  Paganini,  maintains  that 
this  statement  rests  on  a  mistake,  as  Paer  was 
then  in  Germany,  and  that  it  was  under  Ghiretti 
that  Paganini  studied  for  some  time.  It  is  also 
stated  on  good  authority  that  for  several  months 
he  had  regular  lessons  from  Rolla,  and  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  explain  why  he  was  in  later  years  un- 
willing to  acknowledge  the  fact. 

Paganini  was  already  bent  on  finding  out  new 
effects  on  the  violin.  After  his  return  to  Genoa 
he  composed  his  first  studies,  which  were  of  such 
unheard-of  difficulty,  that  he  himself  is  reported 
sometimes  to  have  practised  a  single  passage 
for  ten  hours  running.  That  such  intense  study 
should  have  resulted  in  the  acquisition  of  un- 
limited execution,  but  should  also  have  affected 
his  health,  is  not  to  be  wondered  at.  Up  to  this 
time  he  appears  to  have  been  wholly  under  the 
control  of  his  father,  who  was  a  harsh  and  rough 
man.  The  boy  naturally  wished  to  escape  from 
what  he  considered  intolerable  slavery.  Being 
allowed  to  travel  for  the  first  time  alone  to  Lucca, 
where  he  played  with  immense  success  at  a  music- 
festival  in  Nov.  1798,  he  did  not  return  home, 
but  went  on  to  Pisa  and  other  towns.  Although 
only  fifteen,  he  had  already  begun  to  lead 
a  dissipated  life,  in  which  gambling  took  a  pro- 
minent part.  Alternate  fits  of  study  and  gam- 
bling, interrupted  by  periods  of  utter  exhaustion, 
and  by  protracted  illnesses,  easily  explain  his 
frequent  disappearances  from  public  view,  and 
his  miserable  health  in  later  life.  One  day  at 
Leghorn  he  gambled  away  everything  he  had ; 
even  to  his  violin.  In  order  to  enable  him  to 
appear  at  the  concert,  a  M.  Levron,  an  ama- 
teur, lent  him  a  beautiful  Josef  Guarnerius ;  and 
after  having  heard  him  play  on  it,  presented  it 
to  him.  This  was  the  instrument  which  Paga- 
nini used  for  the  rest  of  his  life  in  preference 
to  any  other.  He  bequeathed  it  to  his  native 
town  of  Genoa,  and  it  is  preserved  in  a  glass 
case  in  the  Municipal  Palace.  Another  fine 
violin,  a  Stradivarius,  was  given  to  him  by 
Pasini,  a  painter. 

I  Id  a  Vienna  periodical. 


, 


PAGANINI. 

From  1 80 1  till  1804  Paganini  lived  in  ab- 
solute retirement  at  the  chateau  of  a  lady  of 
high  rank,  devoting  much  time  to  the  study 
of  the  guitar,  the  lady's  favourite  instrument. 
He  there  composed  two  sets  of  Sonatas  for 
guitar  and  violin  (op.  2  and  3).  In  1804  he 
returned  to  Genoa,  and  for  a  year  re-applied 
himself  in  an  almost  furious  manner  to  the 
study  of  the  violin.  At  this  period  he  first  learnt 
to  know  the  extravagant  «tudies  of  Locatelli 
(see  that  name),  especially  his  '  Arte  cli  nuova 
modulazione,'  and  endeavoured  to  emulate  and 
outdo  Locatelli's  tours  de  force.  He  also  com- 
posed three  quartets  for  violin,  viola,  guitar  and 
cello  (op.  4),  a  second  set  of  the  same  (op.  5), 
and  a  set  of  Variations  di  bravura  with  guitar 
accompaniment. 

In  1805  he  began  again  to  travel.  Wherever 
he  played  he  excited  unbounded  enthusiasm. 
At  Lucca  he  accepted  an  engagement  as  solo- 
player  to  the  court,  and  as  teacher  to  Prince 
Bacciochi,  the  husband  of  Napoleon's  sister 
Elisa.  It  was  there  that  he  began  his  famous  per- 
formances on  the  G-string  alone.  He  resided 
at  Lucca  till  1808,  and  during  the  next  nineteen 
years  gave  hundreds  of  concerts  in  all  parts  of 
Italy — his  fame  and  the  enthusiasm  for  his  art 
ever  and  ever  increasing.  At  the  same  time 
he  was  not  unfrequently  attacked  by  jealous 
rivals,  and  altogether  his  life  was  not  free  from 
strange  adventures.  '  One  day  at  Leghorn ' — so 
he  himself  relates — '  a  nail  had  run  into  my  heel 
and  I  came  on  limping,  at  which  the  audience 
laughed.  At  the  moment  I  was  about  to  com- 
mence my  concerto,  the  candles  of  my  desk  fell 
out.  Another  laugh.  After  the  first  few  bars  of 
my  solo  my  first  string  broke,  which  increased  the 
hilarity  ;  but  I  played  the  piece  on  three  strings, 
and  the  sneers  quickly  changed  into  general  ap- 
plause.' At  Ferrara  he  had  a  narrow  escape  from 
being  lynched.  Enraged  by  a  hiss  from  the  pit, 
Paganini  resolved  to  avenge  the  outrage,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  concert  proposed  to  the  audience 
to  imitate  the  voices  of  various  animals.  After 
having  rendered  the  notes  of  different  birds,  the 
mewing  of  a  cat,  and  the  barking  of  a  dog,  he 
finally  advanced  to  the  footlights,  and  calling 
out,  '  Questo  e  per  quelli  che  han  fischiato'  (this 
is  for  those  who  hissed),  imitated  in  an  un- 
mistakeable  manner  the  braying  of  a  donkey. 
At  this  the  pit  rose  to  a  man,  rushed  through 
the  orchestra,  climbed  the  stage,  and  would 
probably  have  killed  Paganini  if  he  had  not 
taken  to  instantaneous  flight.  The  explanation 
of  this  strange  occurrence  is,  that  the  people  of 
Ferrara  had  a  special  reputation  for  stupidity, 
and  that  the  appearance  of  a  Ferrarese  outside 
the  town  was  the  signal  for  a  significant  'hee- 
haw.' We  may  well  believe  that  this  was 
Paganini's  last  public  appearance  there. 

At  Milan  his  success  was  greater  than  any- 
where. He  gave  there  in  181 3  no  less  than 
thirty-seven  concerts.  In  1814,  at  Bologna,  he 
first  made  the  acquaintance  of  Rossini.  In  1816 
he  met  the  French  violinist  Lafont  (see  that 
came)  at  Milan,  and  had  with  him — quite  against 


PAGANINI. 


629 


his  wish — a  public  contest.  Both  played  solos, 
and  they  joined  in  a  concertante  duet  by  Kreutzer. 
It  does  much  honour  to  Paganini's  character  that 
in  relating  the  event  he  writes  :  '  Lafont  probably 
surpassed  me  in  tone.'  That  the  victory  after  all 
rested  with  Paganini  need  hardly  be  added.  A 
similar  contest  took  place  in  181 7  at  Placentia 
between  Paganini  and  Lipinski  (see  that  name). 
In  1827  Pope  Leo  XII  conferred  on  him  the 
order  of  the  Golden  Spur. 

Hitherto  Paganini  had  never  played  outside 
Italy.  Encouraged  to  visit  Vienna  by  Prince 
Metternich,  who  had  heard  and  admired  him  at 
Borne  in  181 7,  he  repeatedly  made  plans  for 
visiting  Germany,  but  the  wretched  state  of  his 
health  always  prevented  their  execution.  A 
sojourn  in  the  delicious  climate  of  Sicily  at  last 
restored  him  to  comparative  health,  and  he  started 
for  Vienna,  where  his  first  concert,  March  29, 

1828,  created  an  unparalleled  sensation.  A  per- 
fect fever  appears  to  have  seized  all  classes  of 
society :  the  shop  windows  exhibited  hats,  gloves, 
and  boots  a  la  Paganini ;  dishes  of  all  sorts  were 
named  after  him ;  his  portrait  was  to  be  seen  on 
snuff-boxes,  and  his  bust  on  the  walking-sticks  of 
the  Viennese  dandies.  He  himself  obtained  the 
Grand  Gold  Medal  of  St.  Salvator  from  the 
town,  and  the  title  of  Virtuoso  to  the  Court  from 
the  Emperor. 

During  the  following  years  Paganini  travelled 
in  Germany,  repeating  his  Vienna  triumphs  in 
all  the  principal  towns  of  the  country,  espe- 
cially in  Berlin,  where  he  played  first  in  March 

1829.  On  March  9,  1831,  he  made  his  first 
appearance  at  Paris  in  a  concert  at  the  Opera. 
His  success  was  quite  equal  to  any  that  he  had 
had  elsewhere.  In  the  following  May  he  came 
to  England,  and  gave  his  first  concert  at  the  Opera 
House  on  June  3.  Here  he  excited  perhaps  more 
curiosity  than  enthusiasm.  He  himself,  in  a  MS. 
letter,  dated  London,  Aug.  16,  1831,  complains 
of  the  '  excessive  and  noisy  admiration'  to  which 
he  was  a  victim  in  London,  which  left  him  no 
rest,  and  actually  blocked  his  passage  from  the 
theatre  every  time  he  played.  'Although  the 
public  curiosity  to  see  me,'  says  he, '  is  long  since 
satisfied,  though  I  have  played  in  public  at  least 
thirty  times,  and  my  likeness  has  been  repro- 
duced in  all  possible  styles  and  forms,  yet  I  can 
never  leave  my  home  without  being  mobbed  by 
people  who  are  not  content  with  following  and 
jostling  me,  but  actually  get  in  front  of  me,  and 
prevent  my  going  either  way,  address  me  in 
English  of  which  I  do  not  know  a  word,  and  even 
feel  me,  as  if  to  find  out  if  I  am  flesh  and  blood. 
And  this  not  only  the  common  people,  but  even 
the  upper  classes.'  The  financial  results  of  his 
concerts  in  London,  the  Provinces,  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  were  very  large.  He  repeated  his  visits 
in  the  following  two  years,  played  at  a  fare- 
well concert  at  the  Victoria  Theatre,  London, 
June  17,1832,  and  then  returned  to  the  Continent 
in  possession  of  a  large  fortune,  which  he  invested 
chiefly  in  landed  estates.  The  winter  of  1 833  he 
passed  in  Paris,  and  it  was  early  in  January  1834 
that  he  proposed  to  Berlioz  to  write  a  concerto 


630 


PAGAN1NI. 


PAGANINI. 


for  his  Stradivarius  viola,  which  resulted  in  the 
Symphony  called  Habold  en  Italie.  [See  vol.  i. 
p.  685  a.]  For  the  next  two  years  his  favourite 
residence  was  the  Villa  Gaiona  near  Parma.  But 
his  eagerness  to  amass  money  did  not  allow 
him  to  rest  or  attend  to  his  health.  In  1836 
he  received  an  invitation  from  Paris  to  take  part 
in  a  money  speculation  on  a  large  scale.  It 
was  proposed  to  establish,  under  the  name  Casino 
Paganini,  in  a  fashionable  quarter  of  Paris,  a 
large  and  luxurious  club — ostensibly  with  the 
view  of  giving  concerts,  but  in  reality  for 
gambling  purposes.  Unfortunately  he  could  not 
resist  the  temptation  to  embark  in  so  doubt- 
ful an  enterprise.  The  club-house  was  opened, 
but  the  gambling  licence  was  refused,  and  the 
concerts  alone  did  not  nearly  cover  the  expenses 
of  the  establishment.  Paganini  hurried  to  Paris 
to  save  the  concern,  if  possible,  by  appearing 
in  the  concerts.  But  he  arrived  in  so  exhausted 
a  state  that  he  could  not  play.  The  company 
became  bankrupt,  and  he  himself  suffered  a  per- 
sonal loss  of  50,000  francs.  He  remained  in 
Paris  for  the  winter  of  1838,  and  it  was  on  De- 
cember 18  of  that  year  that  he  bestowed  on 
Berlioz  the  large  sum  of  20,000  francs,  as  a 
mark  of  his  admiration  for  the  Symphonie 
Fantastique.1 

The  annoyance  arising  from  the  unfortunate 
affair  of  the  Casino  greatly  increased  his  malady, 
which  was  phthisis  of  the  larynx.  Seeking  relief 
in  a  warmer  climate,  he  went  to  Marseilles,  and 
stayed  for  some  time  in  the  house  of  a  friend. 
Here,  although  almost  a  dying  man,  he  would 
now  and  then  take  up  his  violin  or  his  guitar, 
and  one  day  even  played  his  favourite  Quartet 
— Beethoven's  F  major,  op.  59,  No.  I.  On  the 
approach  of  winter  he  went  to  Nice.  Here  his 
malady  progressed  rapidly;  he  lost  his  voice 
entirely,  and  was  troubled  with  an  incessant 
cough.  He  died  May  27,  1840,  at  the  age  of  56. 
A  week  before  his  death  the  Bishop  of  Nice 
sent  a  priest  to  convey  to  him  the  last  sacrament. 
Paganini  not  believing  that  his  end  was  so  near, 
would  not  receive  it.  The  wording  of  his  will, 
in  which  he  recommends  his  soul  to  the  mercy 
of  God  and  fixes  a  sum  for  masses  to  be  said  for 
its  repose,  proves  his  adherence  to  the  Catholic 
Church.  But  as  the  priest  did  not  return,  and  as 
Paganini  in  consequence  died  without  the  rites 
of  the  Church,  the  bishop  refused  him  burial  in 
consecrated  ground.  The  coffin  remained  for  a 
long  time  in  a  hospital  at  Nice :  it  was  afterwards 
removed  to  Villa  Franca,  and  it  was  not  till  1845 
that  Paganini's  son,  by  a  direct  appeal  to  the 
Pope,  obtained  leave  to  inter  it  in  the  village 
church  near  Villa  Gaiona. 

He  left  to  his  son  Achille  a  large  fortune, 
estimated  at  £80,000.  Although  as  a  rule 
chary  with  his  money,  he  was  occasionally  very 
generous,  as  his  gift  to  Berlioz,  already  mentioned, 
shows.  The  mystery  which  surrounded  Paganini 
the  man  no  doubt  helped  to  increase  the  interest 
taken  in  the  artist.     The  strangest  rumours  ac- 

>  Berlioz,  Hdmolres,  chap.  49.  A  facsimile  of  his  letter  and  Berlioz's 
reply  will  be  found  In  the  Allg.  musik.  Zeitung  for  1839,  p.  52. 


companied  him  wherever  he  went.  It  was  com- 
monly reported  that  he  owed  his  wonderful 
execution  on  the  G  string  to  a  long  imprison- 
ment, inflicted  on  him  for  the  murder  of  a  rival 
in  love,  during  which  he  had  a  violin  with 
one  string  only.  Paganini  himself  writes  :  '  At 
Vienna  one  of  the  audience  affirmed  publicly 
that  my  performance  was  not  surprising,  for 
he  had  distinctly  seen,  while  I  was  playing  my 
variations,  the  devil  at  my  elbow  directing  my  arm 
and  guiding  my  bow.  My  resemblance  to  the 
devil  was  a  proof  of  my  origin.'  But  even  sensible 
and  educated  people  believed  that  Paganini  had 
a  secret  which  enabled  him  to  execute  what 
appeared  impossible  to  any  other  player.  In  fact 
he  has  been  suspected  to  have  himself  originated 
such  rumours.  As  there  was  no  doubt  an  ad- 
mixture of  charlatanism  in  the  character  of  this 
extraordinary  man,  he  may  perhaps  at  first  have 
done  so.  But  on  the  other  hand,  he  more  than 
once  contradicted  them.  At  Prague  he  actually 
published  a  letter  from  his  mother  to  disprove  the 
rumour  that  he  was  the  son  of  the  devil ;  and  at 
Paris  he  furnished  Fe"tis  with  all  the  necessary 
material  and  dates  to  refute  publicly  the  number- 
less absurdities  circulated  about  him.  This  was 
done  by  a  letter  inserted  in  the '  Revue  Musicale,' 
but  it  availed  little.  Fe'tis,  in  his  monograph  on 
Paganini,  by  establishing  the  chronology  of  his 
travels  and  his  sojourns  at  various  places,  proves 
clearly  that  he  could  not  have  suffered  a  length- 
ened imprisonment.  It  was  not  only  the  perfectly 
novel  and  astonishing  character  of  his  perform- 
ances, but  to  a  large  extent  his  extraordinary 
ghost-like  appearance,  which  caused  these  absurd 
rumours.  His  tall,  skeleton-like  figure,  the  pale, 
narrow,  wax-coloured  face,  the  long  dark  hair, 
the  mysterious  expression  of  the  heavy  eye,  have 
been  described  often  enough. 

But  after  all,  the  extraordinary  effect  of  his 
playing  could  have  had  its  source  only  in  his  extra- 
ordinary genius.  If  genius,  as  has  been  justly 
remarked,  is  'the  power  of  taking  infinite  pains,' 
he  certainly  showed  it  in  a  wonderful  degree  in 
the  power  of  concentration  and  perseverance 
which  enabled  him  to  acquire  such  absolute  com- 
mand of  his  instrument.  Mere  perfection  of 
technique,  however,  would  never  have  thrown  the 
whole  of  musical  Europe  into  such  paroxysms. 
With  the  first  notes  his  audience  was  spell-bound ; 
there  was  in  him — though  certainly  not  the  evil 
spirit  suspected  by  the  superstitious — a  daemonic 
element  which  irresistibly  took  hold  of  those 
that  came  within  his  sphere.  '  His  constant  and 
daring  flights,'  writes  2Moscheles,  'his  newly 
discovered  flageolet  tones,  his  gift  of  fusing  and 
beautifying  subjects  of  the  most  diverse  kind — all 
these  phases  of  genius  so  completely  bewilder  my 
musical  perceptions  that  for  days  afterwards  my 
head  is  on  fire  and  my  brain  reels.'  He  was  no 
'  mere  virtuoso ' — there  was  a  something  in  his 
playing  that  defied  description  or  imitation,  and 
he  certainly  had  in  a  high  degree  originality  and 
character,  the  two  qualities  which  distinguish  the 
man  of  genius  from  the  ordinary  talent. 


PAGANINI. 

His  tone  was  not  great :  it  could  not  be,  for 
the  one  reason  that  the  constant  use  of  double- 
harmonics  and  other  specialities  of  his  style 
necessitate  very  thin  strings,  which  again  pre- 
clude the  production  of  a  large  and  broad  tone. 


PAGANINI. 


631 


From  a  tkelch  by  Sir  Edwin  Landseer,  R.A. 

But  even  his  severest  critics  have  always  granted 
that  his  cantilena  was  extremely  expressive.  '  I 
never  wearied  of  the  intense  expression,  soft  and 
melting  as  that  of  an  Italian  singer,'  says  Moscheles 
again.  Spohr,  in  his  Autobiography  (ii.  1 80),  says 
of  him :  '  The  execution  of  his  left  hand  and 
his  never-failing  intonation  appeared  to  me  as 
much  as  ever  deserving  admiration.  In  his  com- 
positions however,  and  in  his  style  of  playing, 
I  find  a  strange  mixture  of  true  genius  and  want 
of  taste,'  etc.  A  distinguished  English  amateur, 
who  heard  him  at  York  in  1832,  writes  in  a 
letter,  full  of  enthusiasm  :  '  In  the  concerto  on 
the  fourth  string  he  contrived  to  give  some 
passages  a  tremolous  sound,  like  the  voice  of  a 
person  crying.  He  makes  great  use  of  sliding 
his  fingers  along  the  strings  —  sometimes  pro- 
ducing a  most  beautiful,  at  other  times  laughable 
effect.'  *  Paganini,'  says  Thos.  Moore  (Mem.  vi. 
210),  'abuses his  powers;  he  could  play  divinely, 
and  does  so  sometimes  for  a  minute  or  two ;  but 
then  come  his  tricks  and  surprises,  his  bow  in  con- 
vulsions, and  his  enharmonics,  like  the  mewlings 
of  an  expiring  cat.'  Here  no  doubt  is  an  explan- 
ation, and  to  a  certain  extent  a  justification  of 
Spohr's  criticism.  The  frequent  use  of  tremolo  and 
of  sliding  indicate  an  impure  style,  which  ought 
not  to  serve  as  a  model ;  it  was  Paganini's  style, 
founded  on  the  man's  inmost  nature,  which  was 


as  peculiar  and  exceptional  as  his  talent.  Spohr'a 
criticisms — sincere  enough,  but  often  biassed  and 
narrow — prove  nothing  more  than  that  Paganini 
was  no  scion  of  the  classical  school  of  Viotti  and 
Rode.  In  fact  he  belonged  to  no  school.  He  fol- 
lowed the  bent  of  his  individuality,  in  which  the 
southern  element  of  passion  and  excitement  was 
very  strong,  and  showed  itself  in  a  manner  which 
to  a  colder  northern  taste  appeared  exaggerated 
and  affected. 

If  the  modern  French  school  of  violin-playing 
has  lost  sight  of  the  traditions  of  its  great 
founders,  Viotti,  Rode,  and  Kreutzer,  and  has 
formed  a  Btyle  which  with  all  its  undoubted 
elegance  and  piquancy  does  not  satisfy  a  more 
serious  musical  taste,  this  must  be  largely  attri- 
buted to  Paganini's  influence.  The  effect  he  pro- 
duced was  so  immense,  that  the  younger  players 
could  not  resist  the  temptation  of  imitating  him. 
Unfortunately  the  shell  alone,  the  advanced  tech- 
nique, could  be  imitated,  while  the  kernel,  the  real 
secret,  his  peculiar  individuality,  nobody  could 
imitate.  His  wonderful  execution  certainly  incited 
others  to  attempt  difficulties  which  before  him 
were  considered  impossible,  and  so  far  his  ex- 
ample gave  an  impetus  to  the  development  of 
technique ;  but  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  his 
style  were  fatal  to  the  broad  and  dignified  style 
of  the  older  school,  which  alone  suits  the  works 
of  the  great  classical  composers.  Even  Fe"tis, 
with  his  unbounded  admiration  for  Paganini, 
admits  that  his  performances  of  the  concertos  of 
Rode  and  Kreutzer  were  failures  ;  and  similarly, 
as  a  quartet-player,  he  was  unable  to  do  justice 
to  the  composer.  His  individuality  was  too  strong 
to  accommodate  and  subordinate  itself  to  another. 
On  German  violinists  his  influence  was  not  nearly 
so  great.  Here  Spohr's  powerful  example 'and 
the  earnest  musical  spirit  of  the  great  composers 
counterbalanced  the  effect  of  his  performances. 

The  main  technical  features  of  Paganini's 
playing  were  an  unfailing  intonation,  a  lightning- 
like rapidity  on  the  fingerboard  and  with  the 
bow,  and  a  command  of  double-stops,  harmonics 
and  double-harmonics,  hardly  equalled  by  any 
one  before  or  after  him.  He  also  produced  most 
peculiar  effects,  which  for  a  long  time  puzzled 
all  violinists,  by  tuning  his  violin  in  various 
ways.  He  was  not  the  first  to  adopt  this  trick 
[see  Biber],  but  no  one  before  him  had  made 
any  extensive  use  of  it.  As  he  took  good  care 
never  to  tune  his  violin  .within  hearing,  a  pas- 
sage like  the  following  appeared  inexplicable  and 
impossible, 


^-WJT^g: 


C32 


PAGANINI. 


PAINE. 


yet  by  tuning  a  semitone  higher,  it  presents  no 
peculiar  difficulty.  This  was  the  case  in  his  first 
Concerto,  where  the  band  played  in  Eb,  and  he 
inD. 

He  did  not  much  use  the  slow  staccato  of 
Rode  and  Spohr,  which  is  produced  by  a  distinct 
movement  of  the  wrist  for  every  single  note,  but 
made  his  staccato  by  throwing  the  bow  violently 
on  the  string  and  letting  it  spring  with  great 
rapidity.  Another  peculiarity  of  his  playing  was 
the  frequent  introduction  of  pizzicato  passages 
for  the  left  hand.  [See  Pizzicato.]  His  perform- 
ances on  the  G-string  alone  never  failed  to  make 
a  great  sensation.  For  these  he  tuned  a  very 
thin  G  string  up  to  Bb  or  B,  and  by  the  use  of 
harmonics  attained  a  compass  of  three  octaves. 

As  a  composer  Paganini  was  not  without 
originality.  The  24  Caprices,  op.  1,  and  a  few 
other  movements,  such  as  the  famous  '  Moto 
perpetuo '  and  the  Hondo  '  La  Clochette,'  have 
not  yet  lost  their  charm.  Schumann  found 
it  worth  while  to  transcribe  the  Caprices  for 
piano  (op.  3,  10);  Liszt  has  done  the  same  (op. 
66,  83);  and  Brahms  has  written  28  variations 
on  a  subject  of  Paganini's  (op.  35).  The  majority 
of  his  works,  however  interesting  from  a  technical 
point  of  view,  are  now  thoroughly  antiquated. 
The  following  list  is  taken,  like  most  of  the 
facts  related  in  this  article,  from  Fetis's  excellent 
monograph  on  Paganini : — 

1.  Ventiquattro  Capricci  perViolino  solo,  dedicati  agli 
astisti,  op.  1. 

2.  Sei  Sonati  per  Violono  e  Chitarra,  op.  2. 

3.  Sei  Sonati  per  Violono  e  Chitarra,  op.  3. 

4.  Tre  gran  Quartetti  a  Violono,  Viola,  Chittarra  e 
Violoncello,  op.  4  and  5. 

These  are  the  only  works  which  Paganini  pub- 
lished during  his  lifetime.  He  only  carried  with 
him  on  his  travels  the  orchestral  parts  of  the 
pieces  he  played.  Long  after  his  death  were  pub- 
lished : — 

5.  Concerto  in  K  b  (D),  op.  6,  the  first  movement  of  which 
is  still  occasionally  performed  by  "Wilhelmj  and  others. 

6.  Concerto  in  B  minor  <  Rondo  a  la  Clochette),  op.  7. 

7.  Le  Streghe  (Witches'  Dance),  a  set  of  variations  on 
an  air  of  S.  Mayer. 

8.  Variations  on  '  God  save  the  King,'  op.  0. 

9.  Le  Carnaval  de  Venise.  Burlesque  variations  on  a 
popular  air,  op.  10. 

10.  Moto  perpetuo.    Allegro  de  Concert,  op.  11. 

11.  Variations  on  '  Non  piu  mesta,'  op.  12. 

12.  Variations  on  'Di  tanti  palpitl,'  op.  13. 

13.  Sixty  variations  in  all  keys  on  the  air,  Barucaba. 

There  exists  a  whole  literature  on  Paganini, 
both  as  a  man  and  an  artist.  Fetis  gives  a  long 
list  of  such  publications.  The  most  important 
contribution  towards  an  appreciation  of  Paganini's 
peculiar  treatment  of  the  violin  is  that  by  Guhr 
'On  Paganini's  art  of  Playing  the  Violin'  (1S31), 
English  translation  by  Sabilla  Novello  ;  London, 
Novello.  [P.D.] 

PAGE,  John,  a  tenor  singer,  was  elected  a  lay 
clerk  of  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  Dec.  3, 
1790.  He  resigned  the  appointment  Nov.  9, 
1795,  having  for  some  time  previously  officiated 
as  deputy  at  the  Chapel  Royal  and  St.  Paul's. 
In  1800  he  edited  and  published  'Harmonia 
Sacra  ;  a  collection  of  Anthems  in  score,  selected 
from  the  most  eminent  masters  of  the  16th,  17th, 
and   18th  centuries,'   3  vols.  fob;    an   excellent 


work,  supplementary  to  the  collections  of  Boyce 
and  Arnold.  On  Jan.  10,  1801,  upon  the  resig- 
nation of  Richard  Bellamy,  he  was  appointed. 
a  vicar  choral  of  St.  Paul's.  In  1804  he  issued 
'A  Collection  of  Hymns  by  various  composers, 
with  12  Psalm  tunes  and  an  Ode  composed  by 
Jonathan  Battishill.'  Also 'Festive  Harmony;  a 
collection  of  the  most  favourite  Madrigals,  Elegies, 
and  Glees,  selected  from  the  works  of  the  most 
eminent  composers.'  In  1806  he  published  'The 
Burial  Service,  Chant,  Evening  Service,  Dirge 
and  Anthems  appointed  to  be  performed  at  the 
funeral  of  Lord  Nelson,  9th  January,  1806,  com- 
posed by  Dr.  Croft,  Purcell,  Dr.  Greene,  Attwood, 
and  Handel.'  In  1808  he  joined  William  Sexton, 
organist  of  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  in  the 
publication  of  a  selection  from  Handel's  Chandos 
Anthems,  in  a  mutilated  form.  He  died  in  Aug. 
181 2.  The  following  are  the  contents  of  the 
'Harmonia  Sacra' : — 


Vol.  1. 

Verse  Anthems. 
Croft,  Blessed  is  the  people. 

Do.   Deliver  us,  0  Lord. 
Weldon,  I  will  lift  up  mine  eyes. 
Boyce,  Let  my  complaint. 
Furcell,  Out  of  the  deep. 
Kent,  0  Lord  our  Governor. 
Croft,  Praise  the  Lord. 
Greene,  Ponder  my  words. 
Clark.  The  Lord  is  my  strength. 
Dupuis,  The  Lord,  even  the  most. 
Kent,  The  Lord  is  my  shepherd. 
Arnold,  Who  is  this  that  cometh. 

Full  Anthems  with  Verses. 
Battishill,  Call  to  remembrance. 
Aldrich,  God  is  our  hope. 
Stroud,  Hear  my  prayer. 
Dupuis,  I  cried  unto  the  Lord. 
Goldwin,  I  will  sing. 
Mason,  Lord  of  all  power. 
Reynolds,  My  God,  my  God. 
King,  0  be  joyful. 
Attwood,  Teach  me,  0  Lord. 

Full  Anthems. 
Boyce,  Burial  Service. 
Farrant,  Lord  for  Thy  tender. 
Tucker,  O  give  thanks. 
Richardson,  O  how  amiable. 
King,  Unto  Thee,  0  Lord. 

VOL.  II. 
Verse  Anthems. 
Handel,  As  pants  the  hart. 
Purcell,  Blessed  is  he. 
Clark.  Bow  down  Thine  ear. 
Battishill,  How  long  wilt  Thou. 
Greene,  Hoar  my  crying. 
Furcell,  I  wis  glad. 
S.  Wesley.  I  sail.  I  will  take  heed. 
King,  I  will  alway  give  thanks. 
C.  Wesley,  My  soul  hath  patiently. 
Croft,  O  Lord,  Thou  hast  searched. 
Marcello,  0  Lord  our  Governor. 


Ooldwin,  0  praise  God. 
Hine,  Rejoice  in  the  Lord. 
Greene.  Save  me,  0  God. 
Croft,  The  Lord  is  king. 
Greene,  The  Lord  is  my  strength. 

Full  Anthems  with  Verse. 
Nares,  Blessed  be  the  Lord  God. 
Blake,  I  have  set  God. 
Baildon,  Behold,  how  good. 
Travers.  Keep,  we  beseech  Thee. 
Wood,  Lord  of  all  power. 
(Mark,  OLord  God  of  my  salvation. 
Blow,  Sing  we  merrily. 
( :rol t.  Sing  praises  to  the  Lord. 
King,  The  Lord  is  full. 

Vol.  III. 
Verse  Anthems. 
Holmes,  Arise  and  shine. 
Handel,  Behold,  I  tell  you. 
Linley,  Bow  down  Thine  ear. 
Henley,  Hear  my  prayer. 
Greene,  I  will  alway  give  thanks. 
Boyce,  I  will  magnify  Thee. 
Hine,  I  will  magnify  Thee. 
Greene,  0  look  down  from  heaven. 
Handel,  There  were  shepherds. 
Croft.  The  Lord  is  my  light. 
Handel,  Thou  art  gone  up  on  high. 

Full  Anthems  with  Verse. 
Battishill,  Behold,  how  good. 
Handel,  Behold  the  Lamb  of  God. 
Battishill,  I  will  magnify  Thee. 
Handel,  Moses  and  the  Children. 
Busby,  0  God,  Thou  art  my  God. 
Banks,  0  Lord,  grant  the  King. 

Full  Anthems. 
Greene,  Bow  down  Thine  ear. 
Battishill,  Deliver  us,  O  God. 
Tye,  From  the  depth  1  called. 
Rogers,  Lord,  who  shall  dwell. 
Marsh,  O  Lord,  who  hast  taught. 
Marenzlo,  Save  Lord,  hear  us. 


[W.H.H.] 

PAINE,  John  Knowles,  born  at  Portland, 
Maine,  U.S.A.,  Jan.  9,  1839.  His  earliest  teacher 
in  piano,  organ,  and  composition  was  Hermann 
Kotzschmar,  of  Portland.  He  made  his  first 
appearance  in  public  as  an  organist,  in  his  native 
city,  June  25,  1S57;  and  on  Jan.  I,  1858,  was 
intrusted  with  the  organ  accompaniments  to 
'  The  Messiah,'  without  the  assistance  of  an 
orchestra.  In  the  same  year  he  went  to  Berlin 
for  three  years,  and  studied  the  organ,  composi- 
tion, instrumentation,  and  singing,  under  Haupt, 
Wieprecht,  and  Teschner,  giving  several  organ 
concerts  during  his  stay.  He  returned  to  the 
United  States  in    1861,  and  gave  a  number  of 


PAINE. 

organ  concerts,  at  which  the  principal  composi- 
tions of  Bach  and  Thiele  were  introduced  to  the 
American  public.  In  1862  he  was  appointed 
instructor  of  music  at  Harvard  University,  and 
in  1876  was  raised  to  a  full  professorship  as  the 
first  occupant  of  the  chair.  Other  leading  events 
in  his  career  have  been  the  production  of  his 
Mass  at  the  Singakademie,  Berlin,  under  his 
direction,  Feb.  1867  ;  of  the  oratorio  '  Saint 
Peter,'  also  under  his  own  direction,  at  Portland, 
June  3,  1873  (afterwards  given  by  the  Handel 
find  Haydn  Society,  Boston,  May  9,  1874)  ;  an<* 
of  his  first  symphony,  by  Thomas's  orchestra,  at 
Boston,  Jan.  6,  1876.  Paine's  compositions 
evince  nobility  and  high  aspiration,  and  mastery 
of  the  classical  forms.  His  later  works,  beginning 
with  the  Trio  in  D  minor  (op.  22),  show  a  gra- 
dually increasing  tendency  to  the  modern  Ro- 
mantic school,  in  both  form  and  treatment.  His 
orchestral  works,  with  the  exception  of  op.  34 
(1879),  have  all  been  performed  at  Boston,  New 
York,  and  other  cities  in  the  United  States. 
Many  of  the  piano  pieces  and  chamber  composi- 
tions have  also  frequently  appeared  in  American 
concert  programmes. 

His  published  works  consist  of: — Op.  3.  Varia- 
tions for  organ — '  Austrian  Hymn,'  •  The  Star- 
Spangled  Banner.'  Op.  7.  '  Christmas  gift,'  P.F. 
Op.  9.  Funeral  march,  P.F.  Op.  10.  Mass  (D), 
for  solos,  chorus,  and  orchestra.  Op.  II.  Vier 
Character-Stiicke,  P.F.  Op.  12.  Romance,  C 
minor,  P.  F.  Op.  19.  Two  preludes,  organ. 
Op.  20.  *  Saint  Peter,'  oratorio.  Op.  25.  Four 
characteristic  pieces,  P.  F.  Op.  26.  'In  the 
Country,'  10  sketches,  P.F.  Op.  27.  Centennial 
Hymn,  words  by  Whittier  ;  sung  at  the  opening 
of  the  Centennial  Exhibition,  Philadelphia,  May, 
1876.     Op.  29.  Four  songs,  soprano. 

The  unpublished  works  comprise  Sonatas  for 
P.F.  solo,  and  P.F.  and  violin ;  Fantasias,  Varia- 
tions, etc.,  for  organ  ;  a  String  Quartet ;  2 
P.  F.  trios  ;  an  Overture  on  '  As  You  Like  It,' 
and  a  Symphonie-fantasia  on  '  The  Tempest ' ;  a 
Symphony  in  C  minor  (op.  23),  and  a  ditto  in  A 
(op.  34),  entitled  '  Spring ' ;  a  Duo  Concertante 
for  violin,  cello,  and  orchestra;  songs;  motets, 
etc.,  etc.  [F.H.J.] 

PAISIBLE,  an  eminent  flutist,  resident  in 
London  in  the  latter  part  of  the  1 7th  and  begin- 
ning of  the  1 8th  century.  He  composed  overtures 
and  act  times  for  the  following  pieces — 'King 
Edward  the  Third,'  1691 ;  '  Oroonoko'  and  'The 
Spanish  Wives,'  1696;  '  The  Humours  of  Sir  John 
Falstaff '  [Henry  IV,  Part  i.],  1700 ;  'She  would 
and  she  would  not,1 1 703 ;  and  *  Love's  Stratagem.' 
He  also  composed  three  overtures,  published  under 
the  title  of  'Music  performed  before  Her  Majesty 
and  the  new  King  of  Spain';  Duets  for  flutes, 
published  in  'Thesaurus  Musicus,'  1693-96 ;  and 
Sonatas  and  other  pieces  for  flutes  published  at 
Amsterdam.  He  assisted  St.  Evremond  in  com- 
posing music  for  the  Duchess  of  Mazarine's  con- 
certs at  Chelsea.  [W.H.H.] 

PAISIELLO,  Giovanni,  eminent  composer 
of  the  Italian  school  in  its  pre-Rossinian  period, 


PAISIELLO. 


633 


was  the  son  of  a  veterinary  surgeon  at  Tarento, 
and  was  born  May  9,  1741.  At  five  years  old 
he  entered  the  Jesuit  school  at  Tarento,  where 
he  attracted  notice  by  the  beauty  of  his  voice. 
The  elements  of  music  were  taught  him  by  one 
Carlo  Presta,  a  priest  and  tenor  singer,  and  he 
showed  such  talent  that  his  father,  who  had 
intended  to  educate  him  for  the  legal  profession, 
abandoned  this  idea,  and  succeeded  in  obtaining 
admission  for  him  to  San  Onofrio,  at  Naples,  where 
he  received  instruction  from  the  veteran  Durante, 
and  afterwards  from  Cotumacci  and  Abos. 

During  his  five  years  of  studentship,  Pai- 
siello's  powers  were  exercised  on  church  music, 
but,  at  the  end  of  this  time,  he  indulged  in  the 
composition  of  a  dramatic  intermezzo,  which,  per- 
formed at  the  little  theatre  of  the  Conservatorio, 
revealed  where  his  real  talent  lay.  The  piece 
pleased  so  much  that  its  composer  was  summoned 
to  Bologna  to  write  two  comic  operas,  'La  Pupilla' 
and  '  II  Mondo  a  Rovescio ' ;  which  inaugurated 
a  long  series  of  successes  in  all  the  chief  Italian 
towns.  'H  Marchese  di  Tulipano,'  written  for 
Rome,  enjoyed  for  years  a  European  popularity. 
At  Naples,  where  Paisiello  finally  took  up  his 
abode,  he  found  a  formidable  rival  in  Piccinni, 
and  later,  when  Piccinni  had  departed  to  Paris, 
in  Cimarosa.  The  enthusiastic  reception  met 
with  by  his  own  operas,  and  by  '  L'Idolo  Cinese ' 
in  particular,  was  insufficient  to  set  him  at  ease 
while  his  own  supremacy  was  at  all  in  danger. 
He  seems  all  his  life  to  have  regarded  every 
possible  rival  with  jealous  dislike,  and  on  more 
than  one  occasion  to  have  stooped  to  intrigue, 
not  only  to  ensure  his  own  success,  but  to  defeat 
that  of  others. 

In  1776,  on  the  invitation  of  the  Empress 
Catherine,  who  offered  him  a  splendid  salary, 
Paisiello  left  Naples  for  St.  Petersburg.  Among 
a  number  of  operas  written  there  must  be  men- 
tioned *I1  Barbiere  di  Siviglia,'  one  of  his 
best  works,  and  to  which  a  special  interest  at- 
taches from  its  effect  on  the  first  representation 
of  Rossini's  opera  of  the  same  name.  Coldly 
received  when  performed  at  Rome  (after  Pai- 
siello's  return  from  Russia),  it  ended  by  obtain- 
ing so  firm  a  hold  on  the  affections  of  the  Roman 
public,  that  the  attempt  of  another  composer  to 
write  a  new  *  Barber '  was  regarded  as  sacrilege, 
nor  would  this  audience  at  first  give  even  a  hear- 
ing to  the  famous  work  which  finally  consigned 
its  predecessor  to  oblivion. 

After  eight  years  in  St.  Petersburg,  Paisiello 
returned  to  Italy,  stopping  at  Vienna  on  his  way 
back,  where  he  wrote  twelve  '  symphonies '  for 
Joseph  II,  and  an  opera  '  II  Re  Teodoro,'  con- 
taining some  of  his  best  music.  He  was  now 
named  Chapelmaster  to  Ferdinand  IV.  of  Naples, 
and  during  the  next  thirteen  years  produced 
several  of  the  works  by  which  he  became  most 
widely  known,  notably  'I  Zingari  in  Fiera,' 
'Nina,  0  la  Pazza  d'Amore,'  and  'La  Molinara.' 
In  1 797,  on  the  death  of  General  Hoche,  Paisiello 
wrote  a  Funeral  March,  to  order,  for  Napoleon, 
then  General  Buonaparte,  who  always  showed 
a  marked  predilection  for  this  composer's  music, 


634 


PAISIELLO. 


and  now  gave  preference  to  his  work  over  one 
by  Cherubim. 

When,  in  1799,  the  Republican  government 
was  declared  at  Naples,  Paisiello  accommodated 
himself  to  the  new  state  of  things,  and  was  re- 
warded by  the  post  of  '  Director  of  the  National 
Music'  At  the  Restoration  he  naturally  found 
himself  out  of  favour  with  his  old  patrons,  and 
lost  his  former  appointment.  After  two  years  he 
succeeded  in  getting  it  back  again,  but  this  had 
hardly  come  about  when  the  First  Consul  de- 
manded the  loan  of  his  favourite  musician  from 
the  King  of  Naples  to  organise  and  direct  the 
music  of  his  chapel.  Paisiello  was  accordingly 
despatched  to  Paris,  where  Buonaparte  treated 
him  with  a  magnificence  rivalling  that  of  Cathe- 
rine of  Russia,  and  an  amount  of  favour  that  ex- 
cited frantic  jealousy  in  the  resident  musicians, 
especially  M^hul  and  Cherubini,  who  did  not 
care  for  Paisiello's  music,  and  whom  he  spited 
in  return  by  bestowing  on  their  enemies  all  the 
patronage  at  his  disposal. 

He  was  occupied  chiefly  in  writing  sacred  com- 
positions for  the  First  Consul's  chapel,  but  in 
1803  he  gave  an  opera,  'Proserpine,'  which  was 
not  a  success.  This  probably  determined  him 
next  year  to  beg  for  permission  to  return  to 
Naples,  on  the  plea  of  his  wife's  ill-health.  It 
was  granted,  although  unwillingly,  by  Napoleon, 
who  desired  him  before  leaving  to  name  his  suc- 
cessor, when  he  surprised  every  one  by  designat- 
ing Lesueur,  who  was  then  almost  unknown,  and 
in  destitute  circumstances. 

On  Paisiello's  return  to  Italy  he  was  endowed 
with  a  considerable  pension,  was  re-established 
in  his  old  place  at  Naples,  and  was  maintained  in 
it  by  Joseph  Buonaparte,  and  after  him  byMurat. 
But  the  favour  he  enjoyed  under  Napoleonic 
dynasties  inevitably  brought  him  once  more  into 
trouble  when  the  Bourbons  returned.  He  then 
lost  all  the  pensions  settled  on  him  by  the  various 
crowned  heads  he  had  served.  He  retained,  it  is 
true,  his  salary  at  the  Royal  Chapel,  but  this, 
after  the  luxury  he  had  known,  was  poverty. 
Anxiety  had  undermined  his  health,  and  he  suf- 
ered  a  fresh  blow  in  the  loss  of  his  wife,  in  1815. 
He  did  not  long  survive  her,  dying  June  5  in  the 
same  year. 

As  a  man  Paisiello  does  not  command  our 
Bympathy,  although  by  his  industry  and  devotion 
to  Art  he  merits  esteem.  Spoiled  by  success,  he 
lacked  generosity  towards  his  rivals.  Spoiled  by 
prosperity,  he  had  no  endurance  and  no  dignity 
in  misfortune.  Like  many  others  of  his  time,  he 
was  a  most  prolific  writer.  He  composed  about 
a  hundred  operas,  and  at  least  as  many  other 
works,  of  different  kinds.  If  novelty  is  not  aimed 
at,  or  is  only  occasionally  expected,  the  art  of  pen- 
ning easy,  flowing  melody  seems  capable  of  being 
cultivated  into  a  habit.  Expression,  within 
certain  restricted  limits,  was  Paisiello's  strong 
point.  All  his  airs  are  remarkable  for  sim- 
plicity and  grace,  and  some  have  considerable 
charm,  such  as  '  Nel  cor  piu  non  mi  sento '  in 
the  '  Molinara,'  long  known  in  England  as 
'Hope  told  a  flattering  tale,'  and  destined  to 


PALADILHE. 

survive  still  longer  owing  to  the  variations  on 
it  written  by  Beethoven.  Some  of  his  music  ia 
tinged  with  mild  melancholy,  as  in  'Nina'  (a 
favourite  part  of  Pasta's),  but  it  is  never  tragic  ; 
or  with  equally  mild  bonhomie,  as  in  the  '  Zingari 
in  Fiera,'  but  it  is  never  genuinely  comic.  It  has 
great  purity  of  style.  No  bravura  songs  for  prime 
donne,  such  as  figure  in  the  works  of  Hasse 
and  Porpora  do  we  find  in  these  operas.  No 
doubt  his  simple  airs  received  embellishment 
at  the  hands  of  singers;  we  know  that  the 
custom  prevailed,  at  that  time,  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  determine  Rossini  to  write  down  all  his 
own  fioriture  for  himself.  This  may  account  for 
the  degree  of  repetition  to  be  found  in  Paisiello's 
pieces,  and  which,  to  our  ears,  seems  insufferably 
tedious.  In  his  work  the  principle  of  'expo- 
sition, illustration  and  repetition '  is  non-existent 
as  to  its  second  stage.  His  only  method  of 
expanding  his  theme  to  the  desired  dimension 
was  numerous  verbatim  repetitions,  with  a  short 
alternative  phrase  between,  producing  the  feeling 
of  a  continual  series  of  rondos,  and  which,  for 
variety  of  effect,  must  have  depended  on  the 
singer.  Trios,  quartets,  etc.  enter  largely  into 
his  works,  and  he  was  among  the  first,  if  not  the 
first,  to  introduce  concerted  finales  into  serious 
opera.  In  his  orchestration  he  arrives  at  charm- 
ing effects  through  very  simple  means ;  it  is  dis- 
tinguished by  clearness  and  good  taste,  and  by 
the  independent  parts  given  to  the  instruments. 

The  mild  light  of  such  men  as  Paisiello  paled 
before  the  brilliance  of  Rossini.  His  music  is 
practically  obsolete,  yet  it  must  not  be  put  aside 
with  that  of  many  so-called  composers  who 
merely  illustrate  the  passing  fancies  of  their  day. 
It  is  music.  Not  immortal  music ;  for  art  that  is 
immortal  is  always  young,  and  this  has  become 
old-fashioned.  Yet  like  many  a  quaint  old 
fashion  it  has  a  certain  beauty  of  association 
now,  because  it  possessed  actual  beauty  once. 
No  one  would  willingly  call  it  back  into  an 
existence  where  it  would  find  itself  out  of  place. 
Yet  much  of  it  may  repay  attention  on  the  part 
of  those  who  may  care  to  turn  aside  for  a  mo- 
ment from  the  intricate  path  of  modern  art,  and 
examine  the  music  which  stirred  the  admiration 
and  moved  the  heart  of  a  past  generation  of  men 
and  women  like  themselves. 

For  a  complete  list  of  Paisiello's  compositions 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Fe'tis's  '  Biographie  des 
Musiciens,'  ed.  1870.  They  embrace  94  operas; 
103  masses  and  other  church  pieces;  51  instru- 
mental ditto.  [F.  A.  M .] 

PALADILHE,  Emilb,  born  at  Montpellier 
June  3,  1844;  at  nine  entered  the  Conservatoire 
under  the  protection  of  HaleVy,  and  studied 
hard,  carrying  off  the  first  piano  prize  in  1857, 
and  the  organ-prize  and  'Prix  de  Rome'  in  i860. 
The  cantata  which  won  him  the  latter  dis- 
tinction, '  Le  Czar  Ivan  IV,'  he  neither  printed 
nor  sent  to  the  library  of  the  Conservatoire, 
doubtless  from  the  consciousness  that  it  was  an 
immature  work.  The  specimens  of  his  composi- 
tion received  by  the  Institut  during  his  stay  in 
Italy  gave  a  favourable  idea  of  his  powers,  but 


PALADILHE. 

on  his  return  to  Paris  he  had  great  difficulty  in 
obtaining  a  libretto.  A  charming  song,  'La 
Mandolinata,'  at  length  drew  attention  to  his 
merits,  and  he  obtained  Coppee's  one-act  piece, 
'  La  Passant,'  which  was  produced  at  the  Opera 
Comique  April  24,  1872.  Notwithstanding  the 
favourable  reception  of  the  music,  sung  by  Mme. 
Galli-Marie,  and  Marguerite  Priola,1  three  years 
passed  before  the  appearance  of  *L' Amour 
Africain'  (May  8,  1875),  in  two  acts.  The 
libretto  of  this,  though  by  Legouv6,  was  not 
approved,  and  the  music  was  condemned  as 
laboured.  Nevertheless  many  of  the  numbers 
bear  traces  not  only  of  solid  musicianship,  but 
of  spontaneous  and  original  melody.  Up  to  the 
present  time  Paladilhe's  best  and  most  im- 
portant work  is  'Suzanne'  (Dec.  30,  1878),  an 
opera-comiqua  in  three  acts.  Here  we  find 
something  beyond  mere  ingenuity  in  devising 
effects ;  the  melodies  are  graceful  and  refined, 
and  show  an  unconventionality  of  treatment 
which  is  both  charming  and  piquant.  It  is 
much  to  be  regretted  that  this  young  composer 
has  hitherto  been  unsuccessful  in  finding  a  really 
interesting  libretto ;  should  he  succeed,  the 
French  stage  will  in  all  probability  gain  an 
opera  destined  to  live. 

M.  Paladilhe  has  also  published  detached 
songs  with  P.F.  accompaniment,  marked  by  flow- 
ing and  melodious  treatment.  [G.  C] 

PALESTRINA,2  Giovanni  Pierluigi  da, 
was  born  of  humble  parents  at  Palestrina  in  the 
Campagna  of  Rome.  The  exact  date  of  his  birth 
is  unknown.  Maria  Torrigio  and  Leonardo 
Ceceoni  fix  it  in  1528,  Andrea  Adami  in  1529. 
The  inscription  on  an  old  portrait  of  him  in  the 
muniment  room  of  the  Pontifical  Chapel  at  the 
Quirinal  states  that  he  died  at  about  80  years  of 
age  in  1594,  and  if  this  were  true  he  would  have 
been  born  in  1514  or  1515.  The  Abbe  Baini 
interprets  a  doubtful  phrase  used  by  his  son 
Igino,  in  the  dedication  of  a  posthumous  volume 
of  his  Masses  to  Pope  Clement  VIII,  to  mean 
that  his  father  died  at  the  age  of  70  in  the 
year  1594.  The  truth  is  that  the  exact  date  of 
his  birth  cannot  be  stated.  The  public  registers 
of  Palestrina,  which  would  probably  have  cer- 
tified it,  were  destroyed  by  the  soldiery  of  Alva 
in  1557,  and  no  private  documents  have  been 
discovered  which  make  good  their  loss.  It  is 
certain,  however,  that  at  a  very  early  age,  and 
probably  about  the  year  1 540,  he  came  to  Rome 
to  study  music.  Towards  this  career  the  different 
capitals  of  Italy  offered  many  inducements  to 
boys  with  musical  aptitudes,  and  it  is  said  by 
Ottavio  Pitoni  that  Palestrina  owed  his  reception 
into  a  school  to  his  being  overheard  singing  in 
the  street  by  the  Maestro  of  the  Chapel  of  Santa 
Maria  Maggiore.  The  authenticity  of  this  anec- 
dote is  at  least  doubtful.    In  the  first  place 


>  A  promising  singer  who  died  young. 

>  'Joannes  Petraloysius  Praenestinus'  Is  hit  full  Latin  name: 
Rami  styles  him  'J.  P.  Alolsius.'  In  the  old  editions  he  Is  called 
limply  Gianetto ;  or  Olanetto  with  various  affixes— such  as  da  (or 
without  the  da)  Palestrina,  Palestrino.  Pallestrina,  Palestina,  or 
Pelestrino ;  also  Jo.  de  Palestina.  (See  JCitner, '  Bibliographic,'  1877, 
pp.  766, 768.) 


PALESTRINA. 


635 


Palestrina,  at  all  events  as  a  man,  had  but  a 
poor  voice  ;  in  the  next,  a  Maestro  who  had  thus 
caught  wild  a  promising  pupil  would  infallibly 
have  kept  him  to  himself,  whereas  Palestrina 
very  soon  after  his  arrival  in  Rome  appears  as  a 
pupil  of  Claudio  Goudimel,  a  Fleming,  who  had 
opened  a  public  school  of  music  in  the  city.  The 
personality  of  Goudimel,  a  moot  point  with  Baini, 
Burney,  and  Hawkins,  is  no  longer  doubtful,  and 
a  reference  to  p.  612  of  the  former  volume  of  this 
Dictionary  will  show  who  and  what  he  was,  and 
that  he  was  killed  at  Lyons  in  the  St.  Bartholo- 
me  w  massacre,  1572. 

In  1 55 1  Rubino  finally  retired  from  the 
teachership  of  music  in  the  Cappella  Giulia  of 
the  Vatican,  and  in  September  of  that  year 
Palestrina,  who  during  the  eleven  years  that  had 
elapsed  since  his  arrival  in  Rome  must  have 
given  good  proofs  of  his  quality,  was  elected  to 
the  vacant  post.  He  was  invested  with  the 
novel  title  of  '  Magister  Cappellae,'  his  prede- 
cessors having  been  styled  '  Magister  Puerorum,' 
'Magister  Musicae,'  or  'Magister  Chori.'  His 
salary  was  fixed  at  six  scudi  per  month,  with  a 
residence  and  certain  allowances.  He  was  at 
this  time,  if  we  accept  Baini's  dates,  about  27 
years  of  age. 

In  1554  he  published  his  first  volume,  con- 
taining four  masses  for  fqur  voices  and  one  for 
five.  These  he  dedicated  to  Pope  Julius  III.  It 
is  worth  saying,  in  order  to  show  the  dominance 
of  the  Flemish  school  in  Italy,  that  this  was 
the  first  volume  of  music  that  had  ever  been  dedi- 
cated by  an  Italian  to  a  Pope.  It  was  printed  in 
Rome  by  the  Brothers  Dorici  in  1554 ;  a  second 
edition  of  it  was  published  by  their  successors  in 
1572,  and  a  third  by  Gardano  of  Rome  in  1591. 
In  the  last  edition  Palestrina  included  his  mass 
'Pro  Defunctis'  for  five  voices,  and  another 
entitled  '  Sine  Nomine '  for  six.  The  other  masses 
in  the  volume  were  'Ecce  Sacerdos  Magnus,' 
'  0  regem  Coeli,'  '  Virtu te  magna,'  and  '  Gabriel 
Archangelus,'  all  for  four  voices,  and  'Ad  coenam 
agnum  providi '  for  five. 

About  this  time  Palestrina  married.  Of  his 
wife  we  know  nothing  more  than  that  her 
Christian  name  was  Lucrezia,  that  she  bore  to 
her  husband  four  sons,  and  that  after  a  long 
married  Ufe  which  seems  to  have  been  marked  by 
uncommon  affection,  she  died  in  the  year  1580.* 

In  the  year  1555  Julius  III,  mindful  of  the 
dedication  of  the  book  of  masses,  offered  their 
author  a  place  among  the  twenty-four  collegiate 
singers  of  his  private  chapel.  The  pay  was 
greater  than  that  which  he  was  receiving  as 
Maestro  in  the  Vatican.  Palestrina  was  poor, 
and  he  had  already  four  children.  On  the  other 
hand  he  was  a  layman,  he  had  a  bad  voice,  and 
he  was  a  married  man.    For  each  one  of  these 


•  Ottavio  Pitoni,  with  unpardonable  carelessness,  so  misread  an 
entry  In  the  books  of  the  Confraternity  of  the  Corpo  di  Christo.  of 
which  Palestrina  was  a  member,  as  to  conclude  that  he  had  been 
married  twice.  The  words  that  misled  him  are  as  follows :  '  Giovanni 
da  Palestrina,  Maestro  di  Cappella  di  San  Pletro,  Lucrezia  sua  moglie 
e  Angelo  suo  figliolo,  e  Doralice  sua  moglie,  e  Igino  suo  figlio.'  The 
Doralice  here  mentioned  was  the  wife  of  Angelo,  as  is  proved  by  the 
register  of  the  baptism  of  their  daughter  Aurelia,  still  extant  at  the 
Vatican. 


■636 


PALESTRINA. 


PALESTRINA. 


reasons  his  appointment  was  a  gross  violation  of 
the  constitutions  of  the  college,  and  a  high-handed 
and  unwarrantable  act  upon  the  part  of  Julius. 
All  this  he  knew,  and  to  his  credit  he  hesitated 
to  accept  the  offer ;  but  his  desire  to  do  his  best 
for  his  family  combined  with  a  fear  of  offending 
his  patron  to  enforce  his  acceptance.  He  re- 
signed his  old  post,  and  on  January  13,  1555, 
was  formally  admitted  as  one  of  the  Pontifical 
Singers. 

In  the  course  of  this  year  he  published  his 
first  volume  of  madrigals  for  four  voices.  His 
intention  to  dedicate  this  to  Julius  was  frustrated 
by  the  death  of  that  pontiff,  which  took  place 
while  they  were  still  in  the  press.  The  book  was 
published  by  the  Brothers  Dorici,  and  was  after- 
wards five  times  reprinted  in  different  editions 
by  Scoto  and  Gardano  of  Venice  and  their  suc- 
cessors. Marcellus  II,  who  succeeded  Julius  III 
in  the  papacy,  died  after  a  reign  of  twenty-three 
days,  and  was  succeeded  in  his  turn  by  Paul  IV. 
Paul  was  a  reformer,  and  one  of  the  first  acts  of 
his  reign  was  to  weed  the  College  of  Pontifical 
Singers  of  those  members  whose  qualifications 
would  not  bear  scrutiny.  Among  these  was 
undoubtedly  Palestrina,  and  he  was  dismissed 
accordingly,  along  with  Leonardo  Bari  and  Do- 
menico  Ferrabosco.  The  Pope  tempered  his 
severity  by  assigning,  to  each  of  the  dismissed 
singers  a  pension  of  six  scudi  per  month.  But 
not  the  less  did  his  expulsion  seem  ruin  to 
the  anxious  and  over-sensitive  Palestrina.  He 
straightway  took  to  his  bed,  and  for  some  weeks 
lay  prostrate  under  an  attack  of  nervous  fever. 
As  might  have  been  foreseen,  his  despair  was 
premature.  A  young  man  who  had  so  speedily 
and  so  surely  left  his  mark  upon  the  music  of 
his  generation  was  not  likely  to  starve  for  want 
of  employment.  Within  two  months  he  was 
invited  to  the  post  of  Maestro  della  Cappella  at 
the  Lateran.  He  was  careful  to  enquire  at  the 
Vatican  whether  in  the  event  of  his  obtaining 
fresh  preferment  he  would  be  allowed  to  keep 
his  pension,  and  it  was  only  upon  receiving  a 
favourable  answer  that  he  accepted  the  proferred 
office,  upon  which  he  entered  in  October  1555. 

Palestrina  remained  at  the  Lateran  until  Feb- 
ruary 1 561,  when  he  was  transferred  to  a  similar 
post  at  Santa  Maria  Maggiore.  At  the  last- 
named  basilica  he  remained  for  ten  years  at  a 
monthly  salary  of  sixteen  scudi,  until  the  month 
of  March,  1571,  when,  upon  the  death  of  Giovanni 
Animuccia,  he  was  once  more  elected  to  his  old 
office  of  Maestro  at  the  Vatican. 

The  fifteen  years  which  thus  elapsed  since  the 
rigorous  reform  of  Paul  IV  had  set  him  for  a 
moment  adrift  upon  the  world,  had  been  years  of 
brilliant  mental  activity  in  Palestrina.  His 
genius  had  freed  itself  from  the  influence  of  the 
pedantry  by  which  it  had  been  nursed  and 
schooled, — and  had  taken  to  itself  the  full  form 
and  scope  of  its  own  speciality  and  grandeur. 
His  first  volume  had  been  full  of  all  the  vagaries 
and  extravagances  of  the  Flemish  School,  and  in 
it  the  meaning  of  the  words  and  the  intention  of 
the  music  had  alike  been  subordinated,  according 


to  the  evil  fashion  of  his  epoch,  to  the  perplexing 
subtleties  of  science.  But  beyond  this  first  volume 
few  traces  of  what  Baini  calls  the  '  Fiammingo 
Squalore '  are  to  be  found.  His  second  volume, 
'  The  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,'  for  four  voices, 
shows  more  than  the  mere  germs  of  his  future 
manner ;  and  although  the  third,  a  set  of  '  Mag- 
nificats '  for  five  and  six  voices,  is  full  of  science 
and  learning,  it  is  of  science  and  learning  set 
free.  A  hymn,  '  Crux  Fidelis,'  and  a  collection 
of  '  Improperia,'  all  for  eight  voices,  written  in 
1560,  obtained  speedily  so  great  a  renown,  that 
Paul  IV,  who  had  dismissed  him,  could  not 
restrain  himself  from  asking  to  have  them  sung 
at  the  Vatican,  and  after  hearing  them  had  them 
added  at  once  to  the  collection  of  the  Apostolic 
Chapel.  The  publication  of  all  these  works  was 
made  anonymously,  and  was  completed  within 
the  six  years  of  Palestrina' s  stay  at  the  Lateran. 
So  far  as  is  known,  the  only  piece  during  that 
period  to  which  his  name  was  affixed  was  a 
madrigal  composed  in  honour  of  a  lady  with 
a  beautiful  voice  and  much  skill  in  song.  It  is 
entitled  '  Donna  bella  e  gentil,'  and  was  printed 
by  Scoto  of  Venice  in  1560  in  a  volume  of 
madrigals  by  Alessandro  Striggio. 

The  ten  years  during  which  he  remained  at 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore  formed  at  once  the  most 
brilliant  decade  in  the  life  of  Palestrina  and  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  epochs  in  the  history  of 
his  art.  It  is  not  easy  for  us  at  this  moment  to 
realise  the  position  of  church  music  at  the  date 
of  the  Council  of  Trent.  It  may  be  said  that  it 
had  lost  all  relation  to  the  services  which  it  was 
supposed  to  illustrate.  Bristling  with  inapt  and 
distracting  artifices,  it  completely  overlaid  the 
situations  of  the  Mass ;  while  founded,  as  it  was 
for  the  most  part,  upon  secular  melodies,  it  was 
actually  sung,  except  by  two  or  three  prominent 
voices  in  the  front  row  of  the  choir,  to  the  words 
with  which  its  tunes  were  most  naturally  and 
properly  associated.  It  was  usual  for  the  most 
solemn  phrases  of  the  Kyrie,  Gloria,  Credo,  and 
Agnus  to  blend  along  the  aisles  of  the  basilica 
with  the  unedifying  refrains  of  the  lewd  chansons 
of  Flanders  and  Provence,  while  ballad  and  other 
dance  music  were  played  every  day  upon  the 
organ.  Other  irregularities  and  corruptions  hardly 
less  flagrant  were  common  among  the  singers; 
and  the  general  condition  of  affairs  was  such  that 
a  resolution  as  to  the  necessity  of  reform  in 
church  music,  which  very  nearly  took  the  shape 
of  a  decree  for  its  abandonment  altogether,  was 
solemnly  passed  in  a  full  sitting  of  the  Council 
of  Trent.  In  1563  Pius  IV  issued  a  commission 
to  eight  cardinals  authorising  them  to  take  all 
necessary  steps  to  carry  out  the  resolution  of  the 
Council.  Among  these,  two  of  the  most  active 
were  the  Cardinals  Borromeo  and  Vitellozzi.  At 
their  instance  Palestrina  was  commissioned  to 
write  a  mass  as  a  type  of  what  the  music  of  the 
sacred  office  should  be.  With  a  noble  mixture 
of  modesty  and  energy  the  great  composer  de- 
clined to  trust  the  fate  of  his  art  to  one  work. 
He  composed  a  series  of  three  masses  and  sent 
them  without  titles  to  the  Cardinal  Borromeo.    It 


PALESTRINA. 

is  supposed  that  he  feared  to  attach  names  to  them 
lest  he  should  arouse  by  an  ill-judged  choice  of 
words  either  powerful  prejudices  or  unfounded 
fears.  They  were  performed  in  the  first  instance 
with  the  greatest  care  at  the  house  of  the  Cardinal 
"Vitellozzi.  The  verdict  of  the  audience  assembled 
to  hear  them  was  final  and  enthusiastic.  Upon 
the  first  two,  praises  lavish  enough  were  bestowed ; 
but  by  the  third,  afterwards  known  as  the  mass 
*  Papae  Marcelli,'  all  felt  that  the  future  style  and 
destiny  of  sacred  art  was  once  for  all  determined. 
Baini  likens  its  transcendent  excellence  to  that 
of  the  relative  grandeur  of  the  33rd  canto  of  the 
Inferno.  Parvi,  contemporary  musical  copyist  at 
the  Vatican,  transcribed  it  into  the  Chapel  collec- 
tion in  characters  larger  than  those  which  he 
commonly  employed.  The  Pope  ordered  a  special 
performance  of  it  in  the  Apostolic  Chapel ;  and 
at  the  close  of  the  service  the  enraptured  Pontiff 
declared  that  it  must  have  been  some  such  music 
that  the  Apostle  of  the  Apocalypse  heard  sung 
by  the  triumphant  hosts  of  angels  in  the  New 
Jerusalem.  Cardinal  Pisani  exclaimed  in  the 
words  of  the  '  Paradiso,' 

Bender  e  questo  voce  a  voce  in  tempra 
Ed  in  dolcezza  ch'  esser  non  piu  nota 
Se  non  cola  dove '1  gioir  s'  insempra ; 

and  Antonio  Sorbelloni,  the  Pope's  cousin,  re- 
joined with  a  happy  adaptation  from  the  same 
source, 

Bisponda  dnnque ;  Oh,  fortunata  sorte  I 

Bisponda  alia  divina  cantilena, 

Da  tutte  parti  la  beata  Corte 

Si  ch'  ogni  vista  ne  sia  piu  serena. 

In  short,  there  was  a  general  agreement  of  prelate 
and  singer  that  Palestrina  had  at  last  produced 
the  archetype  of  ecclesiastical  song.1 

The  post  of  Composer  to  the  Pontifical  Choir 
was  created  for  Palestrina  by  the  Pope  in  honour 
of  this  noble  achievement,  and  so  the  amends,  if 
any  were  needed,  from  the  Vatican  to  its  dis- 
missed chapel  singer,  were  finally  and  hand- 
somely made.  But  the  jealousy  of  the  singers 
themselves,  which  had  been  evinced  upon  his 
original  appointment  as  one  of  their  number  in 
1555,  was  by  no  means  extinct.  His  present 
appointment  was  received  in  surly  silence,  and 
upon  the  death  of  Pius,  in  August  1565,  their 
discontent  took  a  more  open  and  aggressive  form. 
The  new  Pope,  however,  Michele  Ghislieri,  who 
had  taken  the  title  of  Pius  V,  confirmed  the  great 
musician  in  his  office,  as  did  the  six  succeeding 
pontiffs  during  whose  reigns  he  lived.3 

The  production  of  this  series  of  masses  by  no 
means  represents  the  mental  activity  of  Palestrina 
during  the  period  between  1555  and  1571.  In 
1562,  in  gratitude  for  his  monthly  pension,  he 
had  sent  for  the  use  of  the  Apostolic  Chapel  two 

1  The  AbW  Alfieri,  in  his  edition  of '  Selected  Works  of  Palestrina,' 
published  at  Borne  in  1836,  states  indeed  his  own  preference  for  the 
mass  '  Fratres  ego  enim."  At  least,  he  says  that  it  is  '  piu  grandiosa ' 
in  his  opinion.  But  the  regret  which  he  expresses  for  the  signi- 
ficant fact  that  it  has  never  been  performed  since  the  death  of  its  com- 
poser, suggests  the  strongest  presumption  against  the  wisdom  of  his 
preference. 

2  The  pension  which  he  had  hitherto  enjoyed  from  the  Pope  was 
merged  in  the  salary  of  his  new  office,  which  was  fixed  at  nine  scudl 
per  month.  He  still  kept  his  situation  at  Santa  Maris  Maggiore,  at 
sixteen  scudi.    This  was  all  his  income. 


PALESTRINA. 


637 


motetti,  *Beatus  Laurentius,'  and  '  Estote  fortes 
in  bello,'  and  a  mass  for  six  voices,  intituled 
'Ut  Re  Mi  Fa  Sol  La.'  To  the  Cardinal  Pio 
di  Carpi,  who  had  shown  him  some  personal 
kindness,  he  had  dedicated  a  volume  of  graceful 
motetti,  which  were  printed  by  the  Brothers 
Dorici  in  1563,  and  were  republished  in  four 
other  editions  by  Gardano  and  Coattino  of  Rome, 
during  the  life  of  the  author,  and  after  his  death 
by  Gardano  of  Venice  and  Soldi  of  Rome.  In 
the  year  1565  the  Cardinal  Pacacco,  Spanish  re- 
presentative at  the  papal  court,  intimated  that 
the  dedication  to  Philip  II  of  a  work  by  Pales- 
trina would  be  pleasing  to  that  monarch.  The 
musician  consulted  his  friend  Cardinal  Vitellozzi, 
and  arranged  the  dedication  of  a  volume  which 
should  contain  the  famous  mass,  which  he  then 
christened  'Papae  Marcelli,'  with  four  others 
for  four  voices,  and  two  for  five  voices.  These, 
with  an  appropriate  inscription,  were  forwarded 
to  the  Spanish  king.  They  were  printed  by  the 
Dorici  as  Palestrina's  second  volume  of  masses,  in 
1 569,  and  in  a  fresh  edition  by  Gardano  of  Venice, 
in  1598.  A  year  or  two  afterwards  he  published 
a  third  volume  of  masses,  which  he  also  inscribed 
to  Philip.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  a  message 
of  thanks  was  all  that  he  ever  received  in  return 
for  so  splendid  a  homage  from  the  heartless, 
wealthy,  and  penurious  bigot  at  the  Escurial. 

It  is  well  to  state  that  Palestrina  must  not  be 
held  responsible  for  certain  inferior  adaptations- 
which  exist  of  the  mass  '  Papae  Marcelli,'  one 
into  a  mass  for  four  voices  by  Anerio,  and 
another  into  one  for  eight  voices  by  Soriani. 
Anerio's  arrangement  went  through  three  editions 
in  1600,  1626,  and  1649  respectively.  Soriani's 
was  confined  to  one  issue  in  1609.3  It  is  well, 
too,  to  notice  an  assertion  of  Gerbert  that  Pales- 
trina first  of  all  wrote  the  mass  for  four  voices, 
and  afterwards  amplified  and  improved  it  into  one 
for  six.  Had  Gerbert  been  a  man  of  genius  him- 
self, he  would  have  felt  the  improbability  of  such 
a  story.  There  was  also  an  arrangement  of  this 
work  for  twelve  voices,  a  copy  of  which  Baini 
had  seen  in  the  collection  of  Santa  Maria  in 
Vallicella  at  Rome.  The  widespread  popularity 
of  the  work  at  least  is  shown  even  by  the  bad 
taste  of  its  adapters.  One  curious  myth  was 
current  about  it  for  a  time,  to  which  Pellegrini 
in  his  '  Museum  Historico-Legale '  has  given  cur- 
rency. He  says  that  he  took  the  story  from 
Platina.  It  is  to  the  effect  that  the  mass  was 
written,  not  by  Palestrina  and  dedicated  to  his 
patron  Marcellus  II,  but  by  Marcellus  I,  Saint 
and  Martyr,  at  the  end  of  the  3rd  or  begin- 
ning of  the  4th  century.  To  suppose  that  on 
the  morrow  of  the  persecution  of  Diocletian, 
while  Maxentius  and  Constantine  were  disputing 
the  possession  of  the  Empire,  and  while  the 
services  of  the  Christian  Church  were  still  prin- 
cipally confined  to  the  Catacombs,  music  or  the 
appliances  for  the  performance  of  music  could 
have  either  produced  or  executed  such  a  work,  is 
a  folly  that  would  need  no  exposure,  even  if  the 

>  A  critical  edition  of  the  three  has  been  published  by  Proske 
(Sehotts). 


638 


PALESTRINA. 


historic  clearness  of  the  matter  were  not  what 
it  is.     [See  Mass,  vol.  ii.  229,  230.] 

In  an  enumeration  of  the  works  of  Palestrina, 
published  during  this  period  of  his  life,  we  must 
not  forget  to  mention  five  secular  madrigals  of 
his  which  Vincenzo  Galilei,  father  of  the  astrono- 
mer, and  a  musical  virtuoso  of  no  mean  order, 
set  for  the  lute,  and  included  in  a  collection  of 
similar  compositions  which  he  published  under 
the  title  of  '  Fronimo,'  through  Scoto  of  Venice, 
in  1568,  and  again  in  1584.  The  secular  works 
of  Palestrina  are  so  few  in  number  that  the  names 
of  the  madrigals  are  worth  preservation.  They  are 
'  Vestiva  i  colli' ;  '  Cosl  le  chiome  mie' ;  ' Io  son 
ferito,  ahi  lasso' ;  '  Se  ben  non  veggon  gli  occhi' ; 
and  •  Se  tra  quail'  erbe  e  fiori.'  With  the  excep- 
tion of  '  Io  son  ferito,'  which  is  of  a  very  high 
order  of  merit,  these  madrigals  call  for  no  more 
especial  mention  ;  nor  can  they  be  placed  by  any 
means  among  his  more  important  works.  Only 
the  two  first  named  have  been  published  in  or- 
dinary notation.  These  were  printed  in  1585. 
Baini,  however,  mentions  that  he  had  seen  an 
antique  manuscript  of  the  third  and  fourth  in  the 
Corsini  Library,  and  had  collated  this  carefully 
with  the  arrangement  by  Galilei. 

Somewhere  about  the  year  1560,  Palestrina 
had  acquired  the  patronage  of  the  Cardinal 
Ippolito  d'Este,  and  for  many  years  subsequently 
was  treated  by  him  with  much  kindness.  As  an 
acknowledgement  of  this  he  dedicated  to  this 
personage  his  first  regular  volume  of  motetti, 
which  was  published  by  the  Dorici  at  Rome  in 
1569.  This  remarkable  volume  contains  several 
works  of  the  very  highest  class.  We  may  in- 
stance those  entitled  *  Viri  Galilaei,'  and  '  Dum 
complerentur,'  for  six  voices.  These  are  perhaps 
the  best,  though  hard  upon  them  in  merit  follow 
'  0  admirabile  commercium,'  '  Senex  portabat 
puerum,'  and  'Cum  pervenisset  beatus  Andreas,' 
for  five  voices,  and  'Solve  jubente  Deo,'  'Vidi 
magnam  turbam,'  and  '  O  Domine  Jesu  Christe 
adoro  te,'  for  six  voices.  The  rest  of  the  col- 
lection, says  Baini,  though  fine,  are  inferior. 
There  are  two  later  editions  of  these,  both  by 
Scoto  of  Venice,  one  of  1586,  and  the  other  of 
1600. 

It  was  in  1570  that  he  published  his  third 
volume  of  masses,  dedicated  to  Philip  II.  It 
contains  four  masses  for  four  voices,  entitled 
'  Spem  in  altum,'  '  Primi  toni,'  '  Brevis,'  and 
*  De  Feria';  two  for  five  voices, '  Lome  arme",'  and 
'Repleatur  os  meum';  and  two  for  six  voices, 
'  De  Beata  Virgine,'  and  '  Ut  Re  Mi  Fa,'  etc. 
Baini  will  have  it  that  the  mass  '  Primi  Toni ' 
was  thus  technically  designated  because  it  was 
really  founded  upon  the  melody  of  a  well-known 
madrigal  in  the  10th  novella  of  Boccaccio's 
9th  Decameron,  'Io  mi  son  giovinnetta ' ;  and 
Palestrina  feared  that  if  its  origin  were  avowed 
it  would  come  within  the  meaning  of  the  reso- 
lution of  the  Council  of  Trent  against  the 
'  mescolamento  di  sagro  e  profano '  in  church 
music.  This  supposition  is  highly  improbable ; 
for  •  L'homme  arme '  bears  its  title  boldly  enough, 
yet  it  is  as  directly  descended  from  a  secular 


PALESTRINA. 

song.  ^  Palestrina  composed  this  last-mentioned 
mass  in  competition  with  a  number  of  others  that 
already  existed  on  the  same  subject,  and  he  seems 
in  his  treatment  of  it  to  have  consciously  adopted 
the  Flemish  style.  It  is  wonderfully  elaborate. 
He  has  gone  out  of  his  way  to  overlay  it  with 
difficulties,  and  to  crowd  it  with  abstruse  eru- 
dition, apparently  from  a  desire  once  for  all  to 
beat  the  Flemings  upon  their  own  ground.  On 
account  of  its  scientific  value  Zacconi,  in  1592, 
inserted  it  in  his  '  Practica  Musicale,'  testifying 
— and  his  was  no  mean  testimony — that  it  was 
superior  to  the  work  of  Josquin  des  Pres  bearing 
the  same  name.  He  appends  a  careful  analysis 
of  it  for  the  instruction  of  his  readers.  [See 
L'Homme  Arme,  vol.  ii.  p.  127.]  The  mass 
called  '  Brevis '  was  directly  composed  upon  one 
of  Goudimel's,  called  'Audi  Filia';  the  subject 
was  probably  selected  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
trasting his  own  method  of  treatment  with  those 
which  it  was  his  destiny  and  intention  to  sup- 
plant. It  is  among  those  which  are  best  known 
and  most  frequently  sung  at  the  present  day, 
and  no  more  favourable  specimen  of  his  powers 
could  well  be  cited. 

We  have  now  completed  our  survey  of  the 
works  of  Palestrina  down  to  the  date  of  his  re- 
appointment to  the  Vatican.  He  had  accepted 
the  post  from  a  love  for  the  basilica  in  whose 
service  his  first  fame  had  been  gained.  But  he 
suffered  what  to  him  must  have  been  a  serious 
loss  of  income  when  he  left  Santa  Maria  Mag- 
giore.  For  this  however  he  obtained  some  com- 
pensation in  his  appointment  as  Maestro  di  Cap- 
pella  to  the  new  oratory  founded  by  S.  Filippo 
Neri,  his  confessor  and  intimate  friend.  But  at 
no  time  had  Palestrina  any  large  share  of  worldly 
prosperity.  His  largest  regular  earnings  were 
during  the  few  years  that  he  held  the  two  offices 
of  Maestro  at  Santa  Maria,  and  Compositore  to 
the  Capella  Apostolica.  The  salaries  of  these  two 
amounted  together  to  less  than  thirty  scudi  per 
month,  besides  certain  trivial  allowances.  We 
never  hear  that  he  derived  any  profit  from  the 
sale  of  his  works ;  nor,  indeed,  can  it  be  sup- 
posed that  at  that  epoch  there  was  much  money 
to  be  made  by  musical  publications.  He  gave 
lessons  for  a  short  period  in  the  school  carried  on 
by  Nanini ;  but  it  is  not  at  all  likely  that  he  did 
so  with  any  other  object  than  to  assist  his  friend, 
or  that  he  accepted  any  payment  for  his  assist- 
ance. Throughout  the  whole  course  of  his  career 
he  only  taught  seven  private  pupils,  and  three  of 
these  were  his  own  sons.  The  others  were  An- 
nibale  Stabile,  Andrea  Dragone,  Adriano  Ciprari, 
and  Giovanni  Guidetti.  It  is  probable  therefore 
that,  save  for  a  few  exceptional  gifts  from  patrons 
and  a  little  temporary  employment  as  Director  of 
Concerts,  he  had  to  subsist  upon  the  very  humble 
salaries  attached  to  the  permanent  offices  which  he 
held.  In  addition  to  this  chronic  penury  he  had  to 
endure  stroke  after  stroke  of  the  severest  domes- 
tic affliction.  His  three  promising  sons,  Angelo, 
Ridolfo,  and  Silla,  all  died  one  after  the  other, 
just  as  they  had  given  substantial  proofs  of  their 
intellectual  inheritance  of  their  father's  genius ; 


i 


PALESTRINA. 

in  1580  his  wife  died;  and  his  remaining  son, 
Igino,  was  a  wild  and  worthless  man.  Yet 
neither  poverty  nor  sorrow  could  quench  the  fire 
of  his  genius,  nor  check  the  march  of  his  in- 
dustry. The  years  between  1571  and  1594,  when 
he  died,  were  to  the  full  as  fruitful  as  those 
which  had  preceded  them.  And  though  he  him- 
self had  little  to  gain  in  renown,  the  world  has 
profited  by  a  productiveness  which  continued 
unabated  down  to  the  very  month  of  his  death. 

No  sooner  was  he  reinstated  at  the  Vatican 
than  he  sent  a  present  of  two  masses,  one  for 
five  and  the  other  for  six  voices,  to  the  Papal 
Choir.  The  subject  of  the  first  of  these  was 
taken  from  one  of  the  motetti  in  his  first  volume, 
'  0  Magnum  Mysterium' ;  that  of  the  other  from 
the  old  hymn,  'Veni  Creator  Spiritus,'  of  the 
Libri  Corali.  They  are  in  his  finest  and  most 
matured  manner,  and  were  probably  composed 
in  the  year  of  their  presentation.  They  have 
never  been  printed,  but  they  may  be  seen  in  the 
Collection  of  the  Vatican.  In  the  following  year, 
1572,  he  published  at  Eome,  probably  with  Ales- 
sandro  Gardano,  his  second  volume  of  motetti. 
It  is  not  certain  that  any  copies  of  this  edition 
exist,  but  reprints  of  it  are  extant,  by  Scoto,  of 
Venice,  in  1580  and  1588,  and  by  Gardano,  of 
Venice,  in  1594.  It  was  in  this  volume  that  he 
included  four  motetti  written  by  his  three  sons. 
It  was  dedicated  to  one  of  the  most  persistent 
of  his  friends,  the  Cardinal  Ippolito  d'Este,  who 
died  that  same  year.  Among  the  finest  contents 
of  this  volume  are  'Derelinquat  impius  viam 
suam,'  and  '  Canite  tuba  in  Sion,'  for  five  voices, 
and  'Jerusalem,  cito  veniat  salus  tua,'  'Veni 
Domine,'  '  Sancta  et  immaculata  Virginitas,'  and 
'  Tu  es  Petrus,'  each  for  six  voices.  But  beyond 
them  all  for  sweetness  and  tenderness  of  feeling 
is  'Peccantem  me  quotidie  et  non  me  poeni- 
tentem  timor  meus  conturbat  me,  quia  in  in- 
ferno nulla  est  redemptio ;  miserere  mei  Domine, 
et  salva  me.' 

Inferior,  on  the  whole,  to  its  predecessors,  was 
the  third  volume  of  motetti,  which  he  printed 
in  I575i  with  a  dedication  to  Alfonso  II,  Duke 
of  Ferrara,  and  cousin  to  his  lost  friend  the 
Cardinal  Ippolito.  There  are,  however,  certain 
brilliant  exceptions  to  the  low  level  of  the  book  ; 
notably  the  motetti  for  eight  voices,  which  are 
finer  than  any  which  he  had  yet  written  for  the 
same  number  of  singers,  and  include  the  well- 
known  and  magnificent  compositions,  '  Surge  il- 
luminare  Jerusalem,'  and  '  Hodie  Christus  natus 
est.'  Besides  the  original  edition  of  this  work, 
by  Gardano  of  Borne,  there  are  no  less  than  four 
reprints  by  Scoto  and  Gardano  of  Venice,  dated 
I575>  x58l»  I589»  and  1594  respectively.  It  forms 
vol.  3  of  the  complete  edition  of  Messrs.  Breitkopf 
&  H  artel,  now  in  course  of  publication. 

In  this  year,  1575,  the  year  of  the  Jubilee, 
an  incident  occurred  which  must  have  made  one 
of  the  brightest  passages  in  the  cloudy  life  of 
Palestrina.  Fifteen  hundred  singers  from  his 
native  town,  belonging  to  the  two  confraternities 
of  the  Crucifix  and  the  Sacrament,  came  to 
Borne.    They  had  divided  themselves  into  three 


PALESTRINA. 


639 


choruses.  Priests,  laymen,  boys  and  ladies  went 
to  form  their  companies ;  and  they  made  a  solemn 
entry  into  the  city,  singing  the  music  of  their 
townsman,  with  its  great  creator  conducting  it  at 
their  head. 

In  the  following  year,  Gregory  XIII  com- 
missioned Palestrina  to  revise  the  'Graduale' 
and  the  '  Antifonario'  of  the  Latin  Church.  This 
was  a  work  of  great  and  somewhat  thankless 
labour.  It  involved  little  more  than  compila- 
tion and  rearrangement,  and  on  it  all  the  finer 
qualities  of  his  genius  were  altogether  thrown 
away.  Uncongenial  however  as  it  was,  Pales- 
trina, with  unwavering  devotion  to  his  art,  and 
to  the  Church  to  which  he  had  so  absolutely 
devoted  both  himself  and  it,  undertook  the  task. 
Well  aware  of  its  extent,  he  called  to  his  aid  his 
favourite  pupil,  Guidetti,  and  entrusted  to  him 
the  correction  of  the  'Antifonario.'  Guidetti  car- 
ried this  part  of  the  work  through  under  the 
supervision  of  his  master,  and  it  was  published 
at  Borne  in  1582  under  the  title  'Directorium 
Chori.'  [See  Guidetti  ;  vol.  i.  p.  639  a.]  The 
'Graduale,'  which  Palestrina  had  reserved  to 
himself,  he  never  completed.  There  is  a  limit 
to  the  perseverance  of  the  most  persevering  ;  and 
the  most  loving  of  churchmen  and  the  most  faith- 
ful of  artists  fell  back  here.  He  seems  to  have 
finished  a  first  instalment,  but  the  rest  he  left 
less  than  half  done,  and  the  whole  was  found 
after  his  death  among  his  abandoned  manuscripts. 
His  mean  son,  Igino,  who  survived  him,  on  finding 
it  among  his  papers,  got  some  inferior  musician  to 
finish  it,  and  then  contracted  to  sell  it  to  a  care- 
less printer  for  2500  scudi,  as  the  sole  and  genuine 
work  of  his  father.  The  purchaser  had  just  cau- 
tion enough  to  send  the  MS.  for  the  revision  and 
approval  of  the  Vatican  Chapter.  The  fraud  was 
thus  discovered,  and  the  result  was  a  lawsuit, 
which  terminated  in  the  abrogation  of  the  con- 
tract, and  the  consignment  of  the  manuscript  to 
a  convenient  oblivion. 

The  loss  of  his  patron  Ippolito  d'Este  was  to 
some  extent  made  up  to  Palestrina  by  the  kind- 
ness of  Giacomo  Buoncompagni,  nephew1  of 
Gregory  XIII,  who  came  to  Borne  in  1580,  to 
receive  nobility  at  the  hands  of  his  relative.  He 
was  a  great  lover  of  music,  and  proceeded  at 
once  to  organise  a  series  of  concerts,  under  the 
direction  of  Palestrina.  To  him  Palestrina  dedi- 
cated a  volume  of  twenty  six  madrigals  for  five 
voices.  Eight  of  these  were  composed  upon 
Petrarch's  '  Canzoni '  to  the  Virgin  Mary ;  the 
rest  were  set  to  miscellaneous  sacred  words.  The 
publication  of  these  was  followed  by  that  of  an- 
other volume  of  motetti  for  four  voices  only. 
Several  editions  of  both  works  are  extant.  The 
madrigals  call  for  no  comment ;  but  the  volume 
of  motetti  is  unusually  beautiful.  They  were 
probably  composed  in  the  year  of  their  publi- 
cation, during  the  first  force  of  his  grief  for  the 
loss  of  Lucrezia ;  and  to  this  the  intensity  of 
their  pathos  and  the  choice  of  the  words  to  which 
they  are  written  may  be  ascribed.  '  Supra  flu- 
mina  Babylonis,  illic  sedimus  et  flevimus,  dum 

1  Orson. 


640 


PALESTRINA. 


PALESTRINA. 


recordaremur  tui,  Sion ;  in  salicibus  in  medio 
ejus  suspendimus  organa  nostra,'  which  are  the 
words  of  the  finest  of  them  all,  may  well  have 
represented  to  himself  the  heartbroken  composer 
mourning  by  the  banks  of  the  Tiber  for  the  lost 
wife  whom  he  had  loved  so  long. 

Upon  these,  in  1562,  followed  the  fourth  in 
the  series  of  masses  for  four  and  five  voices, 
a  volume  by  no  means  remarkable,  save  that  it 
was  written  and  dedicated  to  Gregory  at  his  own 
request.  Palestrina  seems  to  have  been  aware 
of  its  inferiority,  and  to  have  resolved  to  present 
the  Pontiff  with  something  more  worthy  of  them 
both.  He  accordingly  conceived  the  idea  of  com- 
posing a  series  of  motetti  to  words  chosen  from 
the  Song  of  Solomon.  The  execution  of  these, 
with  the  doubtful  exception  of  the  Great  Mass, 
was  the  happiest  effort  of  his  genius.  In  them 
all  his  critics  and  biographers  unite  to  say  that 
he  surpassed  himself.  Flushed  with  the  glorious 
sense  of  his  success,  he  carried  the  book,  when 
completed,  in  person  to  Gregory,  and  laid  it  at 
the  foot  of  his  chair.  It  was  printed  by  Gardano 
in  1584,  but  so  great  was  its  renown  that  in  less 
than  sixty  years  from  the  date  of  its  composition 
it  had  passed  through  ten  fresh  editions  at  the 
hands  of  some  half-a-dozen  different  publishers. 

Palestrina  had  now  arrived  at  the  last  decade 
of  his  life.  In  it  we  can  trace  no  diminution 
of  his  industry,  no  relaxation  in  the  fibre  or  fire 
of  his  genius.  In  1584  he  published,  and  dedi- 
cated to  Andrea  Battore,  nephew  of  Stephen, 
King  of  Poland,  who  had  been  created  a  Car- 
dinal, his  fifth  volume  of  motetti  for  five  voices. 
It  is  a  volume  of  unequal  merit,  but  it  contains 
one  or  two  of  the  rarest  examples  of  the  master. 
Such  especially  are  those  entitled  •  Peccavi,  quid 
faciam  tibi,  oh  custos  hominum,'  'Peccavimus 
cum  patribus  nostris,'  and  'Paucites  dierum 
meorum  finietur  brevi.'  Baini  admired  these 
so  extravagantly  as  to  say  that  in  writing  them 
Palestrina  must  have  made  up  his  mind  to  con- 
sider himself  the  simple  amanuensis  of  God ! 
There  are  four  different  editions  of  this  work  by 
Scoto  of  Venice,  and  the  two  by  the  Gardani  of 
Venice  and  Eome.  To  the  sacred  motetti  of 
this  volume  are  prefixed  two  secular  pieces, 
written  to  some  Latin  elegiac  verses,  in  honour 
of  Prince  Battore  and  his  uncle.  The  style  of 
these  is  light  and  courtly ;  rather  fit,  says  Baini, 
for  instruments  than  the  voice  ;  and  the  rhythm 
has  a  smack  of  the  hallo.  La  the  third  edition 
of  these  motetti,  Gardano  of  Venice  published 
a  posthumous  motetto,  'Opem  nobis,  o  Thonia, 
porrige,'  in  order  to  sell  his  book  the  better. 

Palestrina  had  intended  to  dedicate  the  last- 
mentioned  volume  to  the  Pope ;  but  the  arrival  of 
Battore,  and  his  kindness  to  him,  made  him  change 
his  mind.  In  order  however  to  atone  for  such 
a  diversion  of  homage,  he  sent  to  Gregory  three 
masses  for  six  voices.  Of  these  the  two  first  were 
founded  on  the  subjects  of  his  motets  'Viri 
Galilaei '  and  '  Dum  complerentur.'  They  had  all 
the  beauties  of  the  earlier  works,  with  the  result 
of  the  maturity  of  the  author's  genius  and  ex- 
perience superadded.      The    third,    '  Te   Deum 


laudamus,'  Baini  states  to  be  rather  heavy, 
partly  owing,  perhaps,  to  the  '  character  of  the 
key'  in  which  it  is  written,  but  more,  probably, 
from  too  servile  an  adherence  to  the  form  of  an 
old  Ambrosian  hymn  on  which  it  is  founded. 

About  this  time  we  notice  traces  of  a  popular 
desire  to  get  hold  of  the  lighter  pieces  of  Pales- 
trina. Francesco  Landoni  possessed  himself,  for 
instance,  of  copies  of  the  two  madrigals,  '  Vestiva 
i  colli,'  and  '  Cosl  le  chiome  mie,'  which  Vincenzo 
Galilei  had  arranged  for  the  lute.  He  printed 
them  in  a  miscellaneous  volume,  entitled 
'  Spoglia  Amorosa,'  through  Scoto  of  Venice,  in 
1585.  Gardano  of  Borne,  too,  published  a  col- 
lection of  madrigals  by  sundry  composers,  under 
the  name  of  '  Dolci  Affeti.'  Among  these  there 
was  one  of  Palestrina's  to  the  words — 

Oh  bella  Ninfa  mia,  ch'  al  fuoco  spent o 
Bendi  le  fiamme,  anzi  riscaldi  il  gelo,  etc. ; 

and  two  or  three  other  stray  pieces  of  his  were 
published  in  like  manner  about  the  same  time. 

In  April  1585   Gregory  died,  and  was   suc- 
ceeded by  Sixtus  V.     Palestrina  made  somewhat 
too  much  haste  to  pay  his  homage  to  the  new 
Pontiff.     A  motetto  and  a  mass — each  entitled 
'Tu   es   pastor  ovium' — which  he  sent  to  hhn 
were  so  hurriedly  composed  that  on  the  perform- 
ance  of  the  mass  on  Trinity  Sunday,  Sixtus 
said  a  little  bluntly,  '  H  Pierluigi  ha  dimendicato 
la  Messa  di  Papa  Marcelli  ed  i  Motetti  della 
Cantica.'     These  regrettable  productions  would 
have  been  well  lost  to  sight  but  for  the  reckless 
brutality  of  Igino,  who  looking  only  to  what 
money  they  would  fetch,  published  them  after 
his  father's  death  with  a  bold-faced  inscription  to 
Clement  VIII.   Palestrina  atoned  for  his  misdeed 
by  writing  forthwith  the  beautiful  mass,  'As- 
sumpta  est  Maria  in  Coelum.'    This  masterpiece 
he  had  just  time  to  get  printed  off  without  date 
or  publisher's  name — there  was  no  time  to  make 
written   copies  of  it — before   the   feast   of  the 
Assumption.     It  was  performed  before  Sixtus  in 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore  on  that  day  (Aug.  15). 
The  delight  of  the  Pontiff  was  unbounded ;  but 
his  goodwill  took  a  form  which  led  to  the  last 
unpleasant  occurrence  in  Palestrina's  life.     It 
will  be  remembered  that  he  had  for  many  years 
held  the  position  of  Composer  to  the  Apostolic 
Chapel.    The  Pope  now  conceived  the  idea  of 
investing  him  with  the  title  and  duties  of  Maestro. 
He  commissioned  Antonio  Boccapadule,  the  ac- 
tual Maestro,  to  bring  about  the  change.  At  first 
sight  this  seems  a  strange  selection  of  an  agent ; 
for  it  was  Boccapadule  who  of  all  others  would 
have  to  suffer  by  his  own  success.    It  is  of  course 
possible  that  a  promise  of  some  higher  preferment 
may  have  purchased  his  assistance.     Be  that  as 
it  may,  he  seems  to  have  set  to  work  with  a  will. 
Taking  Tommaso  Benigni,    one  of  the  junior 
singers,  into  his  confidence,  he  employed  him  to 
sound  his  brethren.     Benigni  in  a  short  time  an- 
nounced that  there  was  a  respectable  number  of 
the  college  who  favoured  the  Pope's  views.     The 
event  proved  that  Benigni  either  misled  his  em- 
ployer, or  was   himself  purposely  deceived  by 
those  to  whom  he  spoke,  or  else  that  he  augured 

[K.H.P.1 


PALESTEINA. 

too  freely  from  one  or  two  stray  expressions  of 
half-goodwill.  In  any  case,  his  report  was  so 
encouraging  that  Boccapadule  called  a  meeting 
of  the  college,  at  which  he  broached  the  subject. 
He  was  astonished  to  find  an  opposition  so 
strong,  and  expressed  with  so  much  warmth, 
that  he  not  only  desisted,  but  to  shield  himself 
he  disingenuously  laid  the  whole  responsibility 
of  his  overtures  upon  Palestrina.  The  singers 
probably  knew  better  than  either  to  believe  or 
to  pretend  to  disbelieve  him.  But  they  gave 
vent  to  their  displeasure  by  imposing  a  fine  upon 
the  unfortunate  Benigni.  At  a  subsequent  meet- 
ing Boccapadule,  remorseful  that  his  emissary 
should  be  made  a  scapegoat,  begged  him  off,  tell- 
ing his  comrades  that  they  had  not  possessed 
themselves  of  the  true  story.  Benigni  was  ac- 
cordingly excused  his  fine;  but  the  Pope,  who 
had  become  highly  incensed  at  the  independent 
action  of  his  choir,  was  not  appeased  by  their 
clemency.  He  immediately  struck  off  the  list  of 
singers  four  of  the  more  prominent  members  of 
the  opposition.  Two  of  these  he  subsequently 
restored ;  but  the  other  two  remained  permanent 
victims  to  their  expression  of  a  jealousy  the 
vitality  of  which  was  a  disgrace,  not  only  to 
themselves,  but  to  the  whole  body  to  which  they 
belonged.  Palestrina,  in  order  to  show  a  generous 
content  with  his  old  position  of  Compositore  to 
the  choir,  immediately  dowered  it  with  three 
new  masses,  two  for  five  voices  and  another  for 
1  six  ;  and  so  drew  honour  upon  himself  by  an  act 
of  courtesy  to  those  by  whom  a  well-deserved 
honour  had  been  so  churlishly  denied  to  him. 

In  the  same  year,  1586,  he  paid  to  Cesar e 
Colonna,  Prince  of  Palestrina,  the  homage  of  a 
dedication.  It  was  of  his  second  volume  of 
madrigals  for  four  voices.  Some  of  these  are 
the  best  of  his  secular  works.  Not  so  is  his  con- 
tribution to  a  volume  of  sonnets  by  Zuccarini, 
written  in  honour  of  the  marriage  of  Francesco 
de'  Medici  and  Bianca  Cappello,  and  put  to  music 
by  different  composers.  Whether  or  not  he  set 
himself  deliberately  to  write  down  to  the  level  of 
the  poetaster's  words,  as  Baini  suggests,  or 
whether,  as  was  natural,  they  only  failed  to 
inspire  him,  it  is  not  worth  while  to  enquire. 
The  fact  is  sufficient  that  Zuccarini  and  the 
occasion  got  all  that  they  deserved  but  no  more. 

From  this  time  to  his  death  the  materials  for 
his  biography  resolve  themselves  into  a  catalogue 
of  publications  and  dedications.  In  1587  and 
1588,  in  answer  to  the  persistent  solicitations  of 
Sixtus  V,  who  had  tired  of  the  Lamentazioni  of 
Carpentrasso,  he  wrote  a  series  of  three  to  take 
their  place  in  the  services  of  the  Holy  Week. 

tSee  Lamentations,  vol.  ii.  p.  86.]  In  1589 
e  arranged  a  harmonised  version  of  the  Latin 
Hymnal  for  the  whole  year.  This  work  was 
also  undertaken  at  the  instance  of  Sixtus.  Its 
utility  was  interrupted  for  a  time  when  in  163 1 
Urban  VIII  had  the  words  of  the  Hymnal 
revised  and  reduced  to  correct  Latin  and  metrical 
exactness.     This  reform,  by  no  means  unneeded, 

1  ' Salve  Begina,"  and  ' 0  sacrum  couvivium,'  both  for  5,  and ' Ecca 
ego  Joannes'  for  6  voices. 
VOL.11.   PT.  12. 


PALESTRINA. 


641 


dislocated  altogether  the  setting  of  Palestrina. 
Urban  therefore  ordered  his  music  to  be  re- 
arranged in  its  turn  to  fit  the  amended  words. 
This  was  done  by  Naldini,  Ceccarelli,  Laudi,  and 
Allegri,  and  a  new  edition  of  the  words  and 
music  together  was  published  at  Antwerp  in 
1644.    [See  Hymn,  vol.  i.  p.  7606.] 


PALESTEINA    IN    1572. 


While  the  Hymnal  was  yet  in  type  Sixtus 
died.  He  was  succeeded  by  Urban  VII,  who 
only  reigned  thirteen  days.  Urban's  successor 
was  Gregory  XIV,  to  whom  Palestrina  straight- 
way inscribed  a  volume  containing  fifteen  motetti 
for  six  and  eight  voices,  a  sequenza — the  Magni- 
ficat— and  a  setting  of  the  *  Stabat  Mater '  both 
for  eight  voices.  This  book,  otherwise  excellent, 
is  marred  by  the  presence  of  an  early  production, 
the  seventh  of  the  motetti  for  six  voices,  'Tra- 
dent  enim  vos,'  which  is  unworthy  of  his  old 
age,  being  cramped  and  strained  by  the  leading- 
strings  of  Goudimel.  The  motetti  for  eight 
voices  are  also  all  inferior.  One  of  them,  named 
'Et  ambulabunt  gentes  in  lumine  tuo'  is  in- 
tended unworthily  to  form  the  2nd  part  of  that 
named  'Surge,  illuminare  Jerusalem'  in  the 
volume  dedicated  to  the  Duke  of  Ferrara.  The 
Magnificat  is  also  below  the  average  of  his 
work.  But  the  true  redeeming  feature  of  the 
book  is  the  '  Stabat  Mater.'  Dr.  Burney's  admira- 
tion of  this  was  limitless.  He  obtained  a  sight 
and  copy  of  it  through  the  celebrated  singer 
Santarelli,  and  had  it  printed  in  England  along 
with  the  rest  of  the  music  for  the  Holy  Week 
used  in  the  Cappella  Apostolica.  It  has  been 
often  reprinted  and  has  very  recently  been  edited, 
with  marks  of  expression  etc.,  by  no  less  a  person 
than  Eichard  Wagner.  The  rest  of  this  volume 
remains  in  the  Vatican  collection,  and  has  within 
a  few  years  been  printed  for  the  first  time  in  full 
as  vol.  6  of  the  edition  of  Breitkopf  &  Hartel. 

Old  as  Palestrina  now  was,  work  followed  work 
during  the  last  years  of  his  life.  In  1591  he 
sent  his  fifth  volume  of  masses  to  William  V, 
Duke  of  Bawiria;  it  contains  amongst  others 
the  two  entitled  'JEterna  Christi  munera'  and 

Tt 


642 


PALESTRINA. 


'  Iste  Confessor,'  which  are  very  widely  known  in 
modern  times.  In  the  same  year  he  wrote  and 
dedicated  to  Gregory  XIV  a  book  containing 
sixteen  arrangements  of  the  '  Magnificat.'  Eight 
of  these  were  upon  the  first,  third,  fifth,  seventh, 
and  ninth,  and  eight  upon  the  alternate  verses  of 
the  canticle.  The  second  of  them  especially  took 
the  fancy  of  Dr.  Burney,  who  gives  it  very  high 
praise.  In  1593,  to  Antonio  Abbot  of  Baume  in 
Franche  Comte,  who  had  taken  refuge  in  Rome 
during  the  troubles  in  France  and  Germany,  he 
dedicated  a  series1  of  '  Offertoria,'  for  five  voices, 
for  the  whole  year.  Baini  and  Burney  both  join 
in  extolling  these;  Burney  especially  selecting 
the  first  of  the  second  portion  ('  Exaltabo  te 
Domine ')  to  illustrate  the  superiority  of  Pales- 
trina  over  all  other  ecclesiastical  composers.  In 
the  same  year  too  he  published  a  volume  of 
'  Litanies,'  for  four  voices,  and  his  sixth  volume 
of  Masses  for  four  and  five  voices,  which  he  dedi- 
cated to  Cardinal  Aldobrandini  who  had  made 
him  director  of  his  concerts.  But  the  end  of 
this  indefatigable  life  was  at  hand.  In  January 
1594  he  issued  his  last  publication.  It  was  a 
collection  of  thirty  '  Madrigali  spirituali,'  for  five 
voices,  in  honour  of  the  Virgin,  dedicated  to  the 
young  Grand-Duchess  of  Tuscany,  wife  of  Fer- 
dinand de'  Medici.  Of  this  volume  Baini  says 
that  it  is  in  the  true  style  of  his  motetti  on  the 
Song  of  Solomon ;  and  Dr.  Burney  once  more 
echoes  the  praises  of  his  Italian  biographer. 
He  had  also  begun  to  print  his  seventh  volume 
of  masses  to  be  dedicated  to  Clement  VIII,  the 
last  of  the  Popes  who  had  the  honour  of  be- 
friending him.  But  while  the  work  was  still  in 
the  press  he  was  seized  with  a  pleurisy,  against 
the  acuteness  of  which  his  septuagenarian  con- 
stitution had  no  power  to  contend.  He  took 
to  his  bed  on  January  26,  1594,  and  died  on 
February  2.  When  he  felt  his  end  approaching 
he  sent  for  Filippo  Neri,  his  friend,  admirer, 
counsellor,  and  confessor  of  many  years,  and 
for  Igino,  the  sole  and  wretched  inheritor  of 
his  name.  As  the  saint  and  the  scapegrace 
stood  by  his  bed,  he  said  simply  to  the  latter, 
'My  son,  I  leave  behind  me  many  of  my 
works  still  unpublished ;  but  thanks  to  the  gene- 
rosity of  my  benefactors,  the  Abbot  of  Baume, 
the  Cardinal  Aldobrandini,  and  Ferdinand  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  I  leave  with  them 
money  enough  to  get  them  printed.  I  charge 
you  to  see  this  done  with  all  speed,  to  the  glory 
of  the  Most  High  God,  and  for  the  worship  of 
His  holy  temple.'  He  then  dismissed  him  with 
a  blessing  which  he  had  not  merited,  and  spent 
the  remaining  twenty-four  hours  of  his  life  in  the 
company  of  the  saintly  Neri.  It  was  in  his  arms 
that  he  breathed  his  last,  true,  even  upon  the 
brink  of  death,  to  that  sympathy  with  piety  and 
purity  which  had  drawn  him  during  half  a 
century  to  devote  to  their  illustration  and 
furtherance  all  the  beauties  of  his  fancy  and 
all  the  resources  of  his  learning. 

>  Divided  Into  two  parts,  the  first  containing  40  Offertories,  from 
Advent  Sunday  to  the  10th  Sunday  after  Pentecost;  the  second  28, 
tor  the  rest  of  the  ecclesiastical  year. 


PALESTRINA. 

The  foregoing  account  will  have  prepared  the 
reader  for  the  immense  number  of  Palestrina's 
works.  The  list  appended  to  the  prospectus  of 
the  complete  critical  edition2  of  Messrs.  Breit- 
kopf  &  Hartel  contains  93  Masses,  of  which  1 2 
have  never  yet  been  printed.  Of  these,  39  are 
for  4  voices,  28  for  5,  21  for  6,  and  5  for  8 
voices.  In  addition  to  these  there  are  63  motets 
for  4  voices,  52  for  5,  11  for  6,  2  for  7,  47  for  8, 
and  4  for  1 2  voices.  A  large  number  of  these 
have  a  second  part  of  equal  length  with  the 
first.  The  Hymns  for  the  whole  year,  for  4 
voices,  are  45  in  number ;  and  the  Offertories, 
for  5  voices,  are  68.  Of  Lamentations  for  4,  5, 
and  6  voices,  3  books  are  announced ;  of  Litanies 
for  4  and  6  voices,  3  books ;  of  Magnificats  for 
4.  5»  6,  and  8  voices,  2  books ;  of  Madrigals  for 
4  voices,  with  Ricercari,  3  books ;  and  of  Madri- 
gals for  5  voices,  2  books. 

Alfieri's  edition,  forming  part  of  his  Raccolta 
di  Musica  Sacra  (lithographed,  in  large  folio,  at 
Rome)  is  in  7  vols. — vol.  i.  9  Masses ;  vol.  ii. 
Motets  for  5  voices ;  vol.  iii.  Hymni  totius  anni; 
vol.  iv.  Lamentations,  3  books  ;  vol.  v.  Offertoria 
totius  anni ;  vol.  vi.  Motets  for  6,  7,  and  8  voices ; 
vol.  vii.  Motets  and  Magnificats. 

The  Musica  Divina  of  Proske  and  Pustet 
contains  9  Masses  (including  '  Assumpta,'  •  Tu 
es  Petrus,'  *Dum  complerentur '),  19  motets, 
1  Magnificat,  4  Hymns,  3  Lamentations,  1  Mise- 
rere, 1  Improperia,  1  Benedictus,  and  1  Litany. 
[See  vol.  ii.  p.  411.] — 5  Masses  and  20  Motets. 
edited  by  Lafage,  are  published  in  8vo.  by 
Launer  of  Paris. — A  large  volume,  edited  by 
J.  M.  Capes  and  published  by  Novello  in  1847 
contains  4  Masses,  3  Lamentations,  3  Chants,  5 
Motets,  and  2  Hymns. — The  volumes  of  the 
Motett  Society  contain  15  motets,  with  English 
words.  [See  Motett  Society,  vol.  ii.  p.  376.] — 
Numerous  pieces  are  included  in  the  Collections 
of  Choron,  Hullah,  the  Prince  de  la  Moskowa, 
Rochlitz,  Schlesinger,  and  others. 

The  materials  for  this  article  have  been  de- 
rived from  the  Histories  of  Burney  and  Hawkins; 
Fe"tis's  'Biographie  des  Musiciens';  but  espe- 
cially from  Baini's  'Memorie  storico-critiche 
della  vita  e  dell'  opere  di  Giovanni  Pierluigi  da 
Palestrina,'  etc.  (2  vols.  4to,  Rome,  1828),  with 
the  useful  re'sume'  of  Kandler  and  Kiesewetter 
(Leipzig  1834).  The  head  of  Palestrina  given 
on  the  preceding  page — the  only  contemporary 
portrait  known — is  an  exact  facsimile  of  a  portion 
of  the  frontispiece  of  his  'First  book  of  Masses' 
(Rome,  I572)>  representing  the  great  musician 
handing  his  book  to  the  Pope,  engraved  from  the 
copy  of  that  work  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  characteristics  of  Palestrina's  music,  and 
its  relations  to  his  predecessors  and  successors,  will 
be  examined  under  the  head  of  School.   [E.H.P.] 

*  The  publication  of  this  edition  was  begun  In  1862,  with  a  volume  of 
5-part  motets  edited  by  Th.  von  Witt,  and  6  volumes  were  published 
at  intervals.  But  In  January  1879  a  complete  systematic  Prospectus 
was  Issued  by  the  firm,  and  the  work  Is  now  proceeding  with  vigour. 
It  will  be  a  noble  monument  to  the  enterprise  and  accuracy  of  the 
house  which  has  published  the  complete  editions  of  Beethoven, 
Mendelssohn,  and  Mozart,  and  the  magnificent  series  of  the  Bach 
and  Handel  Societies. 


PALFFY. 

PALFFY,  Count  Febdinand  von  ErdOd,  an 
enthusiastic  amateur,  born  at  Vienna,  Feb.  I, 
1774,  died  there  Feb.  4.  1840.  He  was  one  of  the 
committee  of  noblemen,1  who  bought  the  Theatre 
an-der-Wien  from  Baron  von  Br  aim  in  1807, 
and  leased  the  two  court  theatres.  When 
they  quarrelled  and  parted,  Palffy  took  on  the 
theatre,  and  became  his  own  manager,  dur- 
ing the  most  brilliant  period  of  its  career.  He 
also  founded  the  dramatic  benefit-fund  which 
bears  his  name,  and  is  still  in  existence.  He 
engaged  first-rate  singers,  and  gave  performances 
of  a  high  order  of  merit,  but  the  expenses  were 
ruinous,  and  heavy  losses  obliged  him  to  relinquish 
the  undertaking  at  the  close  of  1821.  He  asso- 
ciated a  good  deal  with  Beethoven,  who  was  wont 
however  to  speak  with  scant  courtesy  of  Palffy 
and  his  opinion  on  matters  of  art.  [0.  F.  P.] 

PALOTTA,  Matteo,  called  II  Panormitano, 
from  his  birthplace  Palermo,  studied  in  the  Con- 
servatorio  San  Onofrio  at  Naples,  apparently  at 
the  same  time  as  Pergolesi.  On  his  return  to 
Palermo  he  passed  the  necessary  examinations, 
and  was  ordained  secular  priest.  He  then  devoted 
himself  with  great  ardour  to  studies  in  part- writing 
and  counterpoint,  and  produced  a  valuable  work 
'  Gregoriani  cant  us  enucleata  praxis  et  cognitio ' 
being  a  treatise  on  Guido  d'Arezzo's  Solmisation, 
and  an  instruction-book  in  the  church-tones.  It 
has  been  supposed  that  the  Emperor  Charles 
VI  invited  Palotta  to  Vienna  as  Capellmeister, 
but  Palotta  himself  applied  to  the  Emperor  in 
1 733«  asking  for  the  post  of  Composer  of  a  cappdla 
music.  The  then  Court-capellmeister  warmly  re- 
commended him,  and  he  was  appointed  one  of 
the  court-composers  with  a  salary  of  400  florins 
on  Feb.  35, 1733,  was  dismissed  in  1 741,  and  rein- 
stated in  1 749.  He  died  in  Vienna  on  March  28, 
1 758,  aged  70.  The  libraries  of  the  Court-chapel 
and  the  Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde  possess  a 
number  of  his  masses  in  4  to  8  parts,  motets,  etc., 
all  written  in  a  pure  and  elevated  church  style, 
the  parts  moving  easily  and  naturally  in  spite  of 
their  elaborate  counterpoint.  In  many  points  they 
recall  Caldara.  One  special  feature  in  Palotta's 
music  is  the  free  development  of  the  chief  subject, 
and  the  skilful  way  in  which  he  combines  it  with 
the  counter-subjects.  [C.  F.  P.] 

PAMMELIA.  The  first  collection  of  Canons, 
Hounds,  and  Catches,  published  in  this  country. 
It  was  issued  in  1609,  under  the  editorship  of 
Thomas  Ravenscroft,  with  the  title  of  'Pam- 
melia.  Mvsicks  Miscellanie,  Or,  Mixed  Varietie 
of  Pleasant  Roundelayes,  and  delightf  ull  Catches, 
of  3.  4.  5.  6.  7.  8.  9.  10  Parts  in  one.  Never  so 
ordinarie  as  musicall,  none  so  musical,  as  not  to 
all  very  pleasing  and  acceptable.'  It  contains 
100  compositions,  many  of  considerable  antiquity, 
several  of  which  are  still  well  known  and  have 
been  reprinted  in  modern  publications,  amongst 
them  'Hey hoe  to  the  green  wood,'  'All  in  to 
service,'  'Now  kiss  the  cup,  cousin,'  'Joan,  come 
kiss  me  now,'  'There  lies  a  pudding,'  'Jack  boy, 

1  His  associates  In  the  undertaking  were  Frince  Lobkowitz.  Count 
Lodron,  Count  Zichj-,  Count  Ferdinand  Ksterhazjr,  and  1'rince  Nicho- 
las Esterhazj,  president. 


PANDEAN  PIPE. 


643 


ho  boy'  (alluded  to  in  Shakspere's  'Taming  of 
the  Shrew '),  '  Banbury  Ale,'  '  Now  Robin  lend  to 
me  thy  bow,'  and  'Let's  have  a  peal  for  John 
Cook's  soul.'  A  second  edition  appeared  in  161 8. 
A  second  part  was  issued,  also  in  1609,  under 
the  title  of 'Deuteromelia:  or,  The  Second  part 
of  Musicks  melodie,  or  melodius  Musicke  of 
Pleasant  Roundelaies ;  K.  H.  mirth,  or  Freemens 
Songs  and  such  delightfull  Catches.  Qui  Canere 
potest  canat.  Catch  that  catch  can.  Vt  Mel 
Os,  sic  Cor  melos  afficit  <b  refinC  This  contains 
31  compositions,  viz.  7  Freemen's  Songs  for  3, 
and  7  for  4  voices,  and  8  rounds  or  catches  for  3, 
and  9  for  4  voices.  Of  the  Freemen's  Songs  the 
following  are  still  well  known ;  'As  it  fell  on  a 
holy  day'  (John  Dory),  'We  be  soldiers  three,' 
'We  be  three  poor  mariners,'  'Of  all  the  birds,' 
and  '  Who  liveth  so  merry  in  all  this  land ' ;  and 
of  the  catches,  'Hold  thy  peace,  thou  knave' 
(directed  to  be  sung  in  Shakspere's  'Twelfth 
Night')  and  'Mault's  come  down.'  No  com- 
poser's names  are  given  in  either  part.  [W.  H.  H.] 

PANDEAN  PIPE  (Fr.  Mute  de  Pan ;  Ger. 
Syrinx).  A  simple  instrument,  of  many  forms 
and  materials,  which  is  probably  the  oldest  and 
the  most  widely  disseminated  of  any.  It  is 
thought  to  be  identical  with  the  Vgab,  the  first 
wind-instrument  mentioned  in  the  Bible  (Gen. 
iv.  21,  and  Psalm  cl.),  in  the  former  of  these 
passages  translated  'organ,' in  the  latter,  'pipe.' 
It  was  well  known  to  the  Greeks  under  the 
name  of  syrinx,  being  made  with  from  three  to 
nine  tubes,3  but  usually  with  seven,  a  number 
which  is  also  mentioned  by  Virgil.3  It  is 
depicted  in  a  MS.  of  the  11th  century  pre- 
served in  the  Bibliotheque  Royale  of  Paris,  and 
is  probably  the  frestele,  fritel  or  fritiau,  of  the 
MSne'triers  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries.  It 
is  known  in  China  as  Koan-tfee,  with  twelve 
tubes  of  bamboo;  was  used  by  the  Peruvians 
under  the  name  of  huayra-puhura,  being  made 
of  cane,  and  also  of  a  greenish  steatite  or  soap- 
stone.  Of  the  former  material  is  a  fine  speci- 
men now  in  the  British  Museum,4  consisting 
of  fourteen  reed  pipes  of  a  brownish  colour  tied 
together  with  thread  in  two  rows,  so  as  to 
form  a  double  set  of  seven  reeds.  Both  sets  are 
of  almost  exactly  the  same  dimensions,  and  are 
placed  side  by  Bide,  the  shortest  measuring  3, 
the  longest  6  k  inches.  One  set  is  open  at  the 
bottom,  the  other  closed,  in  consequence  of  which 
arrangement  octaves  are  produced.  The  scale  is 
pentatonic. 

The  soapstone  instrument  is  even  more  re- 
markable. It  measures  5$  inches  high  by  6\  wide, 
and  contains  eight  pipes  bored  from  the  solid 
block,  and  quaintly  ornamented.  Four  of  the 
tubes  have  small  lateral  finger-holes,  which,  when 
closed,  lower  the  pitch  a  semitone.  Thus  twelve 
notes  in  all  can  be  produced.  The  scale  is  pecu- 
liar and  perhaps  arbitrary ;  or  the  holes  may  have 
served  for  certain  modes,  of  the  use  of  which  by 

a  Theocritus.  Idyll  Ix. 

1  'Est  mihl  dlsparibus  septem  compacta  cicutls  Fistula.' 
*  See  Catalogue  of  Instruments  In  South  Kensington  Museum,  bj 
C.  Engel,  p.  65,  for  a  woodcut  of  this  specimen. 

Tt2 


644 


PANDEAN  PIPE. 


the  Peruvians  there  is  evidence  in  Garcilasso  de 
la  Vega  and  other  historians. 

A  modern  Roumanian  specimen,  containing 
twenty-five  tubes  arranged  in  a  curve,  is  in  the 
South  Kensington  Museum ;  the  longest  pipes 
over  12  inches  in  length. 

There  is  an  excellent  and  well  preserved  ex- 
ample in  a  bas-relief  from  the  Abbey  of  St. 
George  de  Boscherville,  Normandy,  of  nth  cen- 
tury date,  which  is  figured  in  Mr.  Engel's  excel- 
lent work  above  quoted. 

The  Pandean  Pipe  is  theoretically  a  series  of 
stopped  tubes  blown  from  the  edge  of  the  upper, 
and,  in  this  case,  the  only  orifice,  as  already  de- 
scribed under  Flute.  One  note  and  occasional 
harmonics  are  usually  produced  from  each  tube, 
the  scale  being  diatonic,  and  of  variable  extent 
according  to  the  skill  and  convenience  of  the 
performer.  At  the  present  day  it  is  rarely  heard 
except  as  an  accompaniment  to  the  drama  of 
Punch  and  Judy,  and  is  commonly  termed  the 
'mouth-organ.'  It  is  enclosed  in  a  leather  or 
paper  case  which  is  pushed  into  the  open  waist- 
coat of  the  player,  the  different  parts  of  the  scale 
being  reached  by  rotation  of  the  head.  The 
quality  of  the  tone  is  reedy  and  peculiar,  some- 
what veiled  from  the  absence  of  harmonics  of 
even  numbers,  it  being  a  stopped  pipe,  of  which, 
however,  the  first  harmonic  on  the  twelfth,  and 
not  the  fundamental  tone,  is  habitually  sounded. 
In  this  respect  and  in  its  quality  it  closely  resem- 
bles the  '  Harmonic  flute '  stop  of  the  organ. 

It  had  a  temporary  popularity  in  this  country 
at  the  commencement  of  the  present  century, 
when  itinerant  parties  of  musicians,  terming  them- 
selves Pandeans,  went  about  the  country,  and  gave 
performances.  'The  lowest  set  of  reeds  (the  'sep- 
tem  discrimina  vocum'  of  Virgil),  says  a  writer 
in  182 1,  is  called  the  contra  basso  or  double  base ; 
the  next  fagotto,  or  bassoon ;  the  third  septenary 
is  the  tenor  or  second  treble ;  and  the  fourth  or 
highest  range  of  pipes,  the  first  treble ;  so  that 
in  the  aggregate  there  is  a  complete  scale  of  four 
octaves,  and  they  can  play  in  three  or  four  parts. 
The  reeds  or  pipes  are  fastened  under  the  chin 
of  the  performer,  and  the  lip  runs  from  one  to 
the  other  with  seeming  facility,  without  moving 
the  instrument  by  manual l  assistance. 

'  A  company  of  them  was  introduced  at  Vaux- 
hall  Gardens  a  few  years  ago,  and  since  that  they 
are  common  enough  in  the  streets  of  London.  It 
is  to  be  observed  that  some  of  the  performers, 
particularly  the  first  treble,  have  more  than  seven 
pipes,  which  enables  them  to  extend  the  melody 
beyond  the  septenary.'  (Encyclop.  Londinensis, 
1821.) 

A  tutor  for  this  instrument  was  published  in 
1807,  entitled  'The  Complete  Preceptor  for 
Davies's  new  invented  Syrrynx  (sic)  or  patent 
Pandean  Harmonica,  containing  tunes  and 
military  pieces  in  one,  two,  three,  and  four  parts.' 
The  writer  states  that  '  by  making  his  instru- 
ment of  glass  he  gains  many  advantages  over  the 
common  reed,  the  tone  being  inconceivably  more 

1  '  Et  supra  calamc*  unco  percurrere  l&bro.'  Lucretius.  This  line 
clear!  j  indicates  the  identity  of  the  instrument. 


PANSERON. 

brilliant  and  sonorous.'  The  scale  given  com- 
mences on  A  below  the  treble  stave,  rising  by 
fifteen  intervals  to  the  A  above  the  same  stave. 
The  C  is  indicated  as  the  key-note,  which  is 
marked  as  such.  The  instrument  appears  to 
have  been  susceptible  of  Double-tongueing  like 
the  Flute.  [W.H.S.] 

PANDORA  or  PANDORE.  A  Citherof  larger 
dimensions  than  the  Orpheoreon.         [A.J.H.] 

PANNY,  Joseph,  son  of  the  schoolmaster  of 
Kolmitzberg,  Austria ;  born  Oct.  23,  1 794  ;  was 
well  grounded  in  music  and  the  violin  by  his 
father,  and  at  length  obtained  the  means  of  plac- 
ing himself  under  Eybler  at  Vienna.  Here  his 
talent  and  his  progress  were  remarkable  ;  Paga- 
nini  selected  him  to  compose  a  scena  for  violin 
and  orchestra,  and  played  it  at  his  farewell  con- 
cert in  1828.  Panny  wandered  through  North 
Germany,  playing,  teaching,  conducting,  as  he 
found  opportunity,  and  at  length  settled  in 
Mayence,  married,  and  founded  a  school  for 
vocal  and  instrumental  music,  among  the  pupils 
at  which  was  our  own  countryman  Pearsall. 
Panny  died  Sept.  7,  1838.  [G.] 

PANOFKA,  Heinrich,  born  Oct.  2,  1807,  at 
Breslau.  His  early  life  was  a  struggle  between 
duty  in  the  shape  of  the  law,  and  inclination  in 
that  of  music.  Music  at  length  prevailed,  his 
father  consented  to  his  wishes,  and  at  the  age 
of  17  he  quitted  the  College  of  Breslau  and  put 
himself  under  Mayseder  for  the  violin,  and  Hoff- 
mann for  composition,  both  at  Vienna.  He  re- 
mained with  them  studying  hard  for  three  years. 
In  1827  he  gave  his  first  concert.  In  1829  he 
left  Vienna  for  Munich,  and  thence  went  to 
Berlin.  In  1831  his  father  died,  and  Panofka 
came  into  his  patrimony.  After  some  length- 
ened travelling  he  settled  at  Paris  in  1834  as  a 
violin-player.  After  a  time  he  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  singing,  and  in  conjunction  with  Bor- 
dogni  founded  in  1842  an  '  Academie  de  chant.' 
In  44  he  came  to  London,  and  in  47  (Jenny 
Lind's  year)  was  engaged  by  Mr.  Lumley  as  one 
of  his  assistants  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre.  The 
Revolution  of  1848  fixed  him  here;  he  pub- 
lished a  'Practical  Singing  Tutor,'  and  was 
widely  known  as  a  teacher.  In  1852  he  returned 
to  Paris,  where  he  is  still  residing.  His  principal 
works  are  '  L'Art  de  chanter '  (op.  81) ; '  L'Ecolo 
de  Chant,'  of  which  a  new  edition  has  very 
lately  appeared ;  24  Vocalises  progressives  (op. 
85)  ;  Abece"daire  vocal  (2nd  ed.) ;  12  Vocalises 
d'artiste  (op.  86) ; — all  published  by  Brand  us. 
He  has  translated  Baillot's  *  Nouvelle  Me"thode ' 
for  the  violin  into  German.  Panofka  has  also 
published  many  works,  violin  and  piano,  and 
violin  and  orchestra,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to 
give  these.  [G.] 

PANSERON,  Auguste,  born  in  Paris  April 
26,  1796,  received  his  first  instruction  in  music 
from  his  father,  a  musician,  who  scored  many 
of  Gre'try's  operas  for  him.  He  entered  the 
Conservatoire  as  a  child,  passed  successfully 
through  the  course,  and,  after  studying  harmony 


PAXSEROX. 

and  composition  with  Berton  and  Gossec,  ended 
by  carrying  off  the  '  Grand  prix  de  Rome  '(1813). 
He  made  good  use  of  his  time  in  Italy,  took  les- 
sons in  counterpoint  and  fugue  from  the  Abbe* 
Mattei,  at  Bologna,  and  studied  especially  the 
art  of  singing,  and  the  style  of  the  old  Italian 
masters.  After  travelling  in  Austria  and  Ger- 
many, and  even  reaching  St.  Petersburg,  he  re- 
turned to  Paris,  and  became  a  teacher.  Shortly 
afterwards  he  was  appointed  '  accompagnateur ' 
to  the  Opera  Comique,  a  position  which  enabled 
him  to  produce  two  small  one-act  pieces  long 
since  forgotten.  He  does  not  appear  to  have 
possessed  the  necessary  qualities  for  success  on 
the  stage,  but  he  had  a  real  gift  of  tune,  and  this 
secured  great  popularity  for  a  number  of  French 
romances  composed  between  1825  and  40,  melo- 
dious, well  written  for  the  voice,  easily  remem- 
bered, and  often  pleasing  or  even  more;  but 
marred  by  too  much  pretension.  The  merits  of 
such  sentimental  trifles  as  these  would  scarcely 
have  earned  Panseron  a  European  fame,  if  it 
had  not  been  for  his  didactic  works.  His  wide 
experience  during  his  professorships  at  the  Con- 
servatoire— solfeggio,  1826;  vocalisation,  Sept. 
1831  ;  and  singing,  Jan.  1836 — taught  him  the 
requirements  of  pupils,  and  how  those  require- 
ments can  best  be  met.  His  works  are  thus  of 
value  from  an  educational  point  of  view,  and  we 
give  a  complete  list,  classified  under  the  various 
heads. 

1.  Progressive  solfeggios  for 
•lugle  voico— 'A  B,  C  musical': 
Continuation  of  do.;  Solfege  for 
mezzo  soprano ;  Do.  in  F,  low  tenor 
and  baritone;  Do.  for  contralto; 
Do.  for  artists ;  Do.  with  changing 
clefs ;  SO  Exercises  on  changing 
clefs  ;  Do.,  do.,  difficult. 

2.  Progressive  solfeggi  for  several 
voices— Primary  manual,  for  2  and 
S  voices ;  SolKge  for  2  voices ; 
Progressive  do.  for  bass  and  bari- 
tone ;  Do.  concertante  for  2. 3,  and 
4  voices ;  Do.  d'ensemble  for  2.  3, 
and  4  voices ;  Solfege  a  due  with 
changing  clefs. 

3.  Do.  for  Instrumental  per- 
formers— Do.  for  Pianists  j  Do.  for 
Violin  players. 

4.  On  the  art  of  singing— Method 
for  soprano  and  tenor,  in  2  parts ; 
Appendix  to  do.  (2r>  easy  exercises 

Panseron  also  composed  2  masses  for  3  treble 
voices,  and  a  'Mois  de  Marie'  containing  motets 
and  cantiques  for  1,  2,  and  3  voices.  This  pains- 
taking musician,  who  was  kind  and  amiable  in 
{irivate  life,  and  possessed  as  much  ability  as 
earning,  died  in  Paris,  July  29,  1859.      [G.O.] 

PANTALEON  or  PANTALON.  A  very 
large  Dulcimeb  invented  and  played  upon  in 
the  early  part  of  the  last  century  by  Pantaleon 
Hebenstreit,  whose  name  was  transferred  to  the 
instrument  by  Louis  XIV.  The  name  was  also 
given  in  Germany  to  horizontal  pianofortes  with 
the  hammers  striking  downwards.  [A.J.H.] 

PAXTHEON.  A  building  in  Oxford  Street, 
erected  in  1770-71  from  the  designs  of  James 
Wyatt,  at  a  cost  of  £60,000,  for  masquerades, 
concerts,  balls,  etc.,  and  as  'a  Winter  Ranelagh.' 
It  occupied  a  large  space  of  ground,  and  besides 
the  principal  entrance  in  Oxford  Street  there 


PANTOMIME. 


6i5 


for  young  tenor  or  soprano) ;  12 
Special  studies  with  12  Exercises 
for  soprano  or  tenor ;  12  Exercises 
and  2)  do.  for  2 sopranos ;  Method 
of  singing  fur  low  tenor,  baritone, 
or  contralto  ;  25  Exercises  and  25 
Progressive  do.  for  bass,  baritone, 
or  contralto;  12  Special  studies, 
with  12  Exercises  for  bass,  bari- 
tone, or  contralto ;  Complete  me- 
thod for  mezzo  soprano ;  25  Exer- 
cises for  mezzo  soprano,  and  25 
easy  and  progressive  do. 

5.  On  the  art  of  composition— A 
Practical  Treatise  on  harmony 
and  modulation ;  with  €0  exercises 
on  figured  basses  and  70  on  un- 
figured  do.,  and  a  course  of  lec- 
tures on  writing  a  bass  to  a  given 
melody.  The  art  of  modulating 
on  the  Violin. 


were  entrances  in  Poland  Street  and  Great  Marl- 
borough Street.  The  interior  contained  a  large 
rotunda  and  fourteen  other  rooms  most  splendidly 
decorated ;  the  niches  in  the  rotunda  being  filled 
with  white  porphyry  statues  of  the  heathen 
deities,  Britannia,  George  III,  and  Queen  Char- 
lotte. The  building  was  opened  for  the  first 
time  Jan.  26,  1772.  For  some  years  it  proved  a 
formidable  rival  to  the  Italian  Opera,  as  the  pro- 
prietors always  provided  the  best  performers.  In 
1775  *^e  famous  songstress,  Agujari,  was  engaged, 
who  was  succeeded,  a  few  years  later,  by  the 
equally-famed  Giorgi,  afterwards  Banti.  In 
1 783  a  masquerade  took  place  in  celebration  of 
the  coming  of  age  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  after- 
wards George  IV.  The  second  concert  of  the  Com- 
memoration of  Handel  was  given  here,  May  27, 
1 784,  the  place  being  specially  fitted  up  for  the 
occasion.  Later  in  the  same  year  the  balloon  in 
which  Lunardi  had  made  his  first  successful 
ascent  from  the  Artillery  Ground  was  exhibited. 
The  King's  Theatre  having  been  burnt  down  in 
1 788,  the  Pantheon  was  fitted  up  as  a  theatre  and 
opened  for  the  performance  of  Italian  operas, 
Feb.  17,  1 791.  On  Jan.  14,  1792,  the  theatre 
was  destroyed  by  fire.  In  1 795  the  interior  of 
the  building  was  re-constructed  for  its  original 
purpose  and  opened  in  April  with  a  masquerade, 
but  it  met  with  little  success,  and  in  181 2  was 
again  converted  into  a  theatre,  and  opened  Feb. 
17,  with  a  strong  company,  principally  composed 
of  seceders  from  the  King's  Theatre,  for  the  per- 
formance of  Italian  operas.  The  speculation 
however  failed,  and  the  theatre  closed  on 
March  19.  In  the  following  year  (July  23, 
1813)  an  attempt  was  made  to  open  it  as  an 
English  opera  house,  but  informations  being 
laid  against  the  manager  and  performers,  at 
the  instance  of  the  Lord  Chamberlain,  for  per- 
forming in  an  unlicensed  building,  and  heavy 
penalties  inflicted  (although  not  exacted),  the 
speculation  was  abandoned.  Subsequent  efforts 
to  obtain  a  license  failed,  and  in  Oct.  18 14  the 
whole  of  the  scenery,  dresses,  properties,  and 
internal  fittings  were  sold  under  a  distress  for 
rent,  and  the  building  remained  dismantled  and 
deserted  for  nearly  20  years.  In  1834  the  in- 
terior was  reconstructed  by  Sydney Smirke,  at  a 
cost  of  between  £30,000  and  £40,000,  and  opened 
as  a  bazaar;  part  being  devoted  to  the  sale  of 
paintings,  and  the  back  part,  entered  from  Great 
Marlborough  Street,  fitted  up  as  a  conservatory 
for  the  sale  of  flowers  and  foreign  birds.  The 
bazaar  in  its  turn  gave  way,  and  early  in  1867 
the  premises  were  transferred  to  Messrs.  Gilbey, 
the  well-known  wine-merchants,  by  whom  they 
are  still  occupied.  During  all  the  vicissitudes  of 
the  building  Wyatt's  original  front  in  Oxford 
Street  has  remained  unaltered.  [W.H.H.] 

PAXTOMIME  (Gr.  'An  imitation  of  every- 
thing'). A  kind  of  dramatic  entertainment  in 
which  the  performers  express  themselves  by 
gestures  to  the  accompaniment  of  music,  and 
which  may  be  called  a  prose  ballet.  It  has 
been  in  use  among  Oriental  nations  from  very 
ancient   times.      The    Greeks    introduced  pan- 


646 


PANTOMIME. 


tomime  into  their  choruses,  some  of  the  per- 
formers gesticulating,  accompanied  by  music, 
whilst  others  sang.  The  Romans  had  entire 
dramatic  representations  consisting  of  dancing 
and  gesticulation  only,  and  some  of  their  per- 
formers attained  high  excellence  in  the  art. 
A  mixture  of  pantomime  and  dancing  consti- 
tuted the  modern  ballet  (Paction,  so  long  an 
appendage  to  the  Italian  opera.  The  enter- 
tainment commonly  known  in  this  country  as 
a  Pantomime  was  introduced  about  17*5  a' 
Lincoln's  Inn  Fields  Theatre  by  John  Rich,  who 
himself,  under  the  name  of  Lun,  performed  the 
character  of  Harlequin  in  a  style  which  extorted 
the  admiration  of  those  who  most  disapproved  of 
the  class  of  piece.  His  pantomimes  were  origin- 
ally musical  masques,  usually  upon  some  classical 
mythological  subject,  between  the  scenes  of 
which  harlequinade  scenes  were  introduced,  the 
two  parts  having  no  connection.  The  music  for 
the  majority  of  them  was  composed  by  J.  E. 
Galliard.  Their  popularity  compelled  the  man- 
agers of  Drury  Lane  to  adopt  pantomimes  in 
order  to  successfully  compete  with  their  rival, 
and  they  were  then  soon  produced  at  other  thea- 
tres also.  After  a  time  the  original  form  was 
changed,  and  in  lieu  of  the  mythological  masque, 
a  short  drama,  of  three  or  four  scenes,  was  con- 
structed, the  invariable  characters  in  which, 
under  different  shapes,  were  an  old  man,  his 
pretty  daughter,  or  ward — whom  he  was  desirous 
of  uniting  to  a  wealthy  but  foolish  suitor,  but 
who  had  a  poorer  and  favoured  lover — and  the 
old  man's  knavish  serving-man.  The  girl  and  her 
lover  were  protected  by  a  benevolent  fairy, 
whilst  the  old  man  and  his  favourite  had  the 
assistance  of  a  malevolent  spirit.  To  counteract 
the  machinations  of  the  evil  being,  the  fairy 
determined  that  her  protege's  should  undergo  a 
term  of  probation  under  different  shapes,  and 
accordingly  transformed  them  into  Harlequin 
and  Columbine,  giving  to  the  former  a  magic  bat 
to  assist  him  in  his  progress.  The  evil  spirit  then 
transformed  the  old  man  and  his  servant  into  Pan- 
taloon and  Clown,  and  the  wealthy  suitor  into  the 
Dandy  Lover,  and  the  harlequinade  commenced, 
the  two  lovers  being  pursued  by  the  others  through 
a  variety  of  scenes,  but  always  foiling  them  by  the 
aid  of  the  bat.1  At  length  the  fairy  reappeared 
and  declared  the  success  of  the  lovers,  and  the 
piece  terminated.  This  form  continued  in  use 
for  many  years ;  and  indeed,  although  much  al- 
tered in  detail,  it  still  constitutes  the  basis  of 
modern  pantomime.  Vocal  music  was  largely 
introduced,  not  only  in  the  opening,  but  also  in 
the  harlequinade,  and  the  best  English  composers 
did  not  disdain  to  employ  their  talents  in  pro- 
ducing it.  The  two  Ames,  Dibdin,  Battishill, 
Linley,  Shield,  Attwood,  and  others,  all  composed 
music  for  this  class  of  entertainment.  About 
1830  the  length  of  the  opening  was  greatly 
extended  and  more  spectacular  effects  introduced, 

1  The  name?  Harlequin,  Columbine,  and  Pantaloon  are  derived 
from  the  Italian— Arlecchlno,  Colomblna,  and  Pantalone.  Clown  Is 
known  In  Italy  as  Pagliaccio ;  In  France  as  Paillasse,  or  Pitre ;  in 
German  as  Bajaz,  or  Hanswurst  (Jack-pudding). 


PAPE. 

and  the  'transformation  scene'  became  by  de- 
grees the  climax  of  the  whole.  Original  music 
was  still  composed  for  the  pantomime,  but  the 
task  of  producing  it  was  entrusted  to  inferior 
composers.  Gradually  the  harlequinade  scenes 
were  reduced  in  number,  the  opening  assumed 
the  character  of  an  extravaganza  upon  the  subject 
of  some  nursery  tale,  and  the  music  became  a 
selection  of  the  popular  tunes  of  the  day.  In  the 
early  pantomimes  Harlequin  was  the  principal 
character,  and  continued  so  until  the  genius  of 
Grimaldi  placed  the  Clown  in  the  most  promi- 
nent position.  While  modern  Clowns  are  content 
to  display  their  skill  as  acrobats,  Grimaldi  aimed 
at  higher  objets ;  he  was  a  singing  Clown,  wit- 
ness, amongst  many  others,  his  famous  songs, 
'  Tipitywichet,'  and  '  Hot  Codlins,'  and  his  duet 
with  the  oyster  he  was  about  to  open  :— 

Oyster.  O  gentle  swain,  thy  knife  resign, 

Nor  wound  a  heart  so  soft  as  mine. 
Gloicn.  Who  is 't  that  would  my  pity  move  ? 
Oytter.  An  oyster  that  is  cross'd  in  love,  etc. 

In  pantomimes  of  the  middle  period  the  pan- 
tomimists  who  sustained  the  principal  parts  in  the 
harlequinade  invariably  performed  in  the  opening 
the  characters  who  were  transformed.  A  con- 
sideration of  the  difference  between  the  Italian 
Arlecchino  and  the  English  Harlequin  is  beyond 
the  scope  of  our  present  purpose.  [W.H.H.] 

PAPE,  Jean- Henry,  pianoforte  maker,  born 
July  I,  1 789,  at  Sarsted  near  Hanover.  He  went. 
to  Paris  in  1.811,  and  after  visiting  England  his 
services  were  secured  by  Ignace  Pleyel  to  organise 
the  works  of  the  piano  factory  which  he  had  just 
founded.  About  181 5  he  appears  to  have  set  up  on 
his  own  account ;  and  thenceforward,  for  nearly  hal  f 
a  century,  there  was  perhaps  no  year  in  which  he 
did  not  produce  something  new.  His  active  mind 
never  rested  from  attempts  to  alter  the  shape, 
diminish  the  size,  radically  change  the  framing, 
bellying,  and  action  of  the  pianoforte;  yet,  in 
the  result,  with  small  influence,  so  far,  upon  the 
progress  of  its  manufacture.  In  shape  he  pro- 
duced table  pianos,  rounded  and  hexagonal :  he 
made  an  oval  piano,  a  piano  console  (very  like  a 
chiffonier),  and  novel  oblique,  vertical,  and  hori- 
zontal forms.  Like  Wornum  in  London  and 
Streicher  in  Vienna,  to  do  away  with  the  break 
of  continuity  between  wrestplank  and  sound- 
board in  the  grand  piano,  he  repeated  the  old 
idea  that  had  suggested  itself  to  Marius  and 
Schroeter,  of  an  overstriking  action — that  is, 
the  hammers  descending  upon  the  strings.  This 
is  said  to  have  been  in  1826.  In  this  action  he 
worked  the  hammers  from  the  front  ends  of  the 
keys,  and  thus  saved  a  foot  in  the  length  of  the 
case,  which  he  strengthened  up  to  due  resistance 
of  the  tension  without  iron  barring.  He  lowered 
the  soundboard,  glueing  the  belly-bars  to  the 
upper  instead  of  the  under  surface,  and  attached 
the  belly-bridge  by  a  series  of  soundposts.  His 
constant  endeavour  was  to  keep  down  the  ten- 
sion or  drawing  power  of  the  strings,  and  to 
reduce  the  length  and  weight  of  the  instrument ; 
for,  as  he  says  ('  Notice  de  M.  H.  Pape,'  Benard, 
Paris,  1862),  'it  is  not  progress  in  art  to  make 


PAPE. 

little  with  much ;  the  aim  should  be  to  make 
much  with  little.'  Yet  he  extended  compass 
to  the  absurd  width  of  8  octaves,  maintaining 
that  the  perception  of  the  extremes  was  a  ques- 
tion of  ear-education  only.  He  reduced  the  struc- 
ture of  his  actions  to  the  simplest  mechanism 
possible,  preferring  for  understriking  grand 
pianos  the  simple  crank  escapement  of  Petzold, 
and  for  upright  pianos  that  of  Wornum,  which 
he  adopted  in  1 8 15,  as  stated  in  the  Notice 
already  referred  to.  An  excess  of  ingenuity  has 
interfered  with  the  acceptance  of  many  ofPape's 
original  ideas,  which  may  yet  find  consideration 
when  the  present  tendency  to  increase  strain 
and  pressure  is  less  insisted  upon.  At  present, 
his  inventions  of  clothed  key  -mortices  and  of  felt 
for  hammers  are  the  only  important  bequests 
makers  have  accepted  from  him,  unless  the  cross 
or  overstringing  on  different  planes,  devised  by 
Pape  for  his  table  instruments,  and  already 
existing  in  some  old  clavichords,  was  first  intro- 
duced into  pianos  by  him.  He  claimed  to  have 
invented  it,  and  in  1840  gave  Tomkisson,  a 
London  maker,  special  permission  to  use  it.  [See 
Pianoforte.]  He  made  a  piano  with  springs 
instead  of  strings,  thus  doing  away  with  tension 
altogether ;  added  reed  attachments,  and  invented 
a  transposing  piano,  moving  by  his  plan  the  whole 
instrument  by  means  of  a  key  while  the  clavier 
remained  stationary.  He  also  invented  an  in- 
genious saw  for  veneers  of  wood  and  ivory ;  in 
1839  he  veneered  a  piano  which  is  now  at  St. 
James's  Palace,  entirely  with  the  latter  substance. 
Pape  received  many  distinctions  in  France,  in- 
cluding the  decoration  of  the  Legion  of  Honour. 
He  died  Feb.  2,  1875.  [A.  J.  H.] 

PAPILLONS.  The  name  of  twelve  pianoforte 
pieces  by  Schumann,  constituting  his  op.  2,  which 
are  dedicated  to  his  sisters-in-law,  Theresa, 
Emilia,  and  Rosalia  Schumann.  They  were  com- 
posed at  different  times — Nos.  1,  3,  4,  6  and 
8  in  1829,  and  the  others  in  1831.  They  may 
be  regarded  as  the  germ  of  the  better-known  and 
more  highly-developed  'Carneval,'  op.  9.  The 
form  of  the  two  compositions  is  the  same,  but  in 
the  earlier  work  there  are  no  characteristic  titles 
to  the  several  pieces.  The  subject  of  No.  1  of 
the  'Papillons'  is  referred  to  in '  Florestan,'  No.  6 
of  the  Carneval,  and  the '  Grossvatertanz'  is  made 
use  of  in  the  finales  of  both  works.  Many  theories 
have  been  propounded  as  to  the  meaning  or  story 
of  these  pieces,  and  Schumann  himself  refers  it 
to  the  last  chapter  of  Jean  Paul's  '  Flegeljahre,' 
*  where,'  as  he  says  in  a  letter  to  Henriette  Voigt, 
'all  is  to  be  found  in  black  and  white.'  (See 
Wasielewsky's  Life,  3rd  ed.  p.  328.)  It  is  evident 
that  the  idea  of  a  Carnival  is  already  in  his 
mind,  for  the  last  few  bars  of  the  finale  bear  the 
following  superscription :  '  The  noise  of  the  car- 
nival-night dies  away.  The  church  clock  strikes 
six.'  [J.A^.M.] 

PAPINI,  GuiDO,  born  Aug.  1,  1847,  at 
Camagiore  near  Florence,  a  distinguished  vio- 
linist, was  a  pupil  of  the  Italian  violin  professor 
Giorgetti,  and  made  his  de"but  at  thirteen  years 
of  age  in  Florence,  in  Spohr's  third  concerto. 


PARADIES. 


647 


He  was  for  some  years  leader  of  the  Societa  del 
Quartette  in  that  city.  In  1874  he  appeared  at 
the  Musical  Union,  which  continues  to  be  his 
principal  locale  during  his  annual  visits  to  Lon- 
don, though  he  has  been  also  heard  at  the 
Crystal  Palace,  the  Old  and  New  Philharmonic 
Societies,  etc.  In  1876  he  appeared  in  Paris 
with  success  at  the  Pasdeloup  concerts.  His 
published  compositions,  besides  arrangements, 
transcriptions,  etc.,  comprise  two  concertos,  for 
violin  and  violoncello  respectively ;  '  Exercises 
de  mecanisme  pour  le  Violon  seul,'  and  smaller 
pieces,  such  as  'Feuilles  d' Album,'  romances, 
nocturnes,  etc.,  for  violin  or  violoncello.  Two 
other  concertos,  for  violin  and  cello  (the  latter 
dedicated  to  Piatti),  an  Allegro  di  Concerto,  for 
violin  and  orchestra,  and  some  vocal  works, 
remain  unpublished.  [J.A.F.M.] 

PAQUE,  Gcillaume,  a  well-known  violon- 
cellist, born  in  Brussels  July  24,  1825.  He 
entered  the  Conservatoire  of  his  native  city  at 
an  early  age  as  Demunck's  pupil,  and  at  fifteen 
gained  the  first  prize.  He  then  went  to  Paris 
and  was  solo  cello  at  Musard's  Concerts.  Thence 
he  went  to  Madrid  as  cellist  to  the  Queen  of 
Spain.  In  1851  he  was  employed  by  Jullien  for 
his  English  Concerts,  and  thenceforward  London 
became  his  home.  He  played  in  the  Royal  Italian 
Opera  orchestra,  occasionally  replaced  Piatti  at 
the  Monday  Popular  Concerts,  was  leader  of  the 
cellos  at  the  new  Philharmonic,  Professor  of  his 
instrument  at  Dr.Wylde's  London  Academy,  and 
a  member  of  the  Queen's  Private  Eand.  He 
played  at  the  Philharmonic  June  18,  i860.  He 
died  March  2,  1876,  and  was  buried  in  Brompton 
Cemetery.  As  a  man  Paque  was  deservedly  be- 
loved and  esteemed.  As  a  player  he  had  every 
quality,  except  tone,  which  was  poor.  He  left 
numerous  works. 

His  brother,  Philippe  J.  Paqde,  has  been 
Trumpeter  to  the  Queen  since  1864,  and  is  a 
member  of  Her  Majesty's  Private  Eand.        [G.] 

PARADIES,  Pietbo  Domenico,  born  at  Na- 
ples in  1 710,  a  pupil  of  Porpora,  and  an  esteemed 
teacher  and  composer,  lived  for  many  years  in 
London.  In  1 747  he  produced  at  the  King's 
Theatre  '  Phaeton,'  6  airs  from  which  were  pub- 
lished by  Walsh,  and  frequently  sung  at  concerts 
by  Signora  Galli.  He  also  printed '  Sonate  di  gra- 
vicembalo,'  dedicated  to  the  Princess  Augusta 
(Johnson;  2nd.  ed.  Amsterdam,  1770).  Such 
players  as  dementi  and  Cramer  studied  his 
works  conscientiously,  and  he  was  in  great  request 
as  a  teacher.  When  Miss  Schmahling  (after- 
wards Mme.  Mara)  made  her  first  appearance  in 
London  as  a  violinist  of  11,  Paradies  was  en- 
gaged as  her  singing  master,  but  her  father  soon 
found  it  necessary  to  withdraw  her  from  his  in- 
fluence. An  earlier  pupil,  and  one  of  his  best, 
was  Miss  Cassandra  Frederick,1  who  at  the  age 
of  5  £  gave  a  concert  in  the  Little  Hay  market 
Theatre  (1749),  playing  compositions  by  Scarlatti 

1  Miss  Frederics,  a  favourite  of  Handel's,  also  played  the  organ  In 
public  In  1760,  and  sang  In  Handel's  oratorios.  She  married  Thomas 
Wynne,  a  land-owner  In  South  Wales,  and  exercised  considerable 
Influence  over  the  musical  education  of  her  nephew  MazziughL 


€48 


PARADIES. 


and  Handel.  The  last  we  hear  in  England  of 
this  eccentric  Italian  is  his  connection  with  the 
elder  Thomas  Linley,  to  whom  he  gave  instruc- 
tion in  harmony  and  thorough-bass.  He  returned 
to  Italy,  and  died  at  Venice  in  1792.  A  Sonata 
byParadies  inD  is  printed  byPauer  in  his  'Alte 
Meister,'  and  another,  in  A,  in  his  'Alte  Klavier- 
musik';  and  a  Toccata  is  given  in  Breitkopf's 
'  Perles  Musicales.*  The  Fitzwilliam  Collection 
at  Cambridge  contains  much  MS.  music  by  him, 
apparently  in  his  autograph.  [C.  F.  P.] 

PARADIS,  in  the  French  theatres,  is  the  top 
row  of  the  boxes.  It  is  called  so  either  because 
it  is  the  highest,  and  therefore  nearest  heaven, 
or,  as  some  one  wittily  said,  because  like  the 
real  Paradise  the  top  boxes  contain  more  of  the 
poor  than  the  rich.  [G.] 

PARADIS,  Marie  Therese  von,  daughter 
of  Joseph  Anton,  an  Imperial  Councillor,  born 
in  Vienna  May  15,  1759.  She  was  a  highly- 
esteemed  pianist,  and  Mozart  wrote  a  concerto 
for  her  (in  Bb,  Kochel  456).  She  also  attained  to 
considerable  skill  on  the  organ,  in  singing,  and  in 
composition,  and  this  in  spite  of  her  being  blind 
from  early  childhood.  The  piano  she  studied 
with  Richter  (of  Holland),  and  afterwards  with 
Kozeluch,  whose  concertos  were  her  favourite 
pieces ;  singing  with  Salieri  and  Righini ;  and 
composition  with  Friberth,  and  the  Abbe"  Vogler. 
The  Empress  her  godmother  took  a  great  interest 
in  her,  and  made  her  a  yearly  allowance.  In 
1784  she  went  to  Paris,  where  she  remained  6 
months,  playing  before  the  court,  and  at  the  Con- 
certs spirituels,  with  great  applause.  In  No- 
vember she  went  to  London.  Here  she  stayed 
five  months,  played  before  the  King,  Queen,  and 
Prince  of  Wales,  whom  she  accompanied  in  a 
cello  sonata,  at  the  then  recently-founded  Profes- 
sional Concerts  (Hanover  Square  Rooms,  Feb.  16, 
1785),  and  finally  at  a  concert  of  her  own,  con- 
ducted by  Salomon,  in  Willis's  Rooms  on  March  8. 
A  notice  of  her  appeared  in  the  St.  James's 
Chronicle  for  Feb.  19.  She  next  visited  Brussels, 
and  the  more  important  courts  of  Germany, 
attracting  all  hearers  by  her  playing  and  her 
intellectual  accomplishments.  After  her  return 
to  Vienna  she  played  twice  at  the  concerts  of  the 
Tonkiinstler-Societat,  and  took  up  composition 
with  great  ardour,  using  a  system  of  notation1 
invented  for  her  by  a  friend  of  the  family  named 
Riedinger.  Of  her  works,  the  following  were 
produced:  'Ariadne  und  Bacchus,' a  melodrama, 
played  first  at  Laxenburg  before  the  Emperor  Leo- 
pold ( 1 79 1),  and  then  at  the  national  court-theatre ; 
'  Der  Schulcandidat '  a  pastoral  Singspiel  (Leo- 
poldstadt  theatre,  1792);  'Deutsches  Monument,' 
a  Trauer-cantate  for  the  anniversary  of  the  death 
Louis  XVI  (small  Redoutensaal  Jan.  at,  1794, 
repeated  in  the  Karnthnerthor  theatre) ;  and 
'Rinaldo  und  Algina'  a  magic  opera  (Prague). 
She  also  printed  a  Clavier-trio,  sonatas,  varia- 
tions (dedicated  to  Vogler) ;  12  Lieder;  Burger's 
*  Leonore,'  etc.  Towards  the  close  of  her  life  she 
devoted  herself  exclusively  to  teaching  singing 

1  Described  In  detail  Id  the  Leipzig  Allgemeine  Musikalische  Zeit- 
nng,  1810.  No.  67. 


PAREPA-ROSA. 

and  the  pianoforte,  and  with  great  success.  She 
died  Feb.  1,  1824.  [C.  F.  P. 

PARADISE  AND  THE  PERI,  the  second 
of  the  four  poems  which  form  Moore's  Lalla  Rookh, 
has  been  several  times  set  to  music. 

1.  'Das  Paradies  und  die  Peri,'  by  Robert 
Schumann,  for  solos,  chorus,  and  orchestra 
(op.  50)  in  3  parts,  containing  26  nos.  Tho 
words  were  compiled  by  Schumann  himself  from 
the  translations  of  Flechsig  and  Oelkers,  with 
large  alterations  of  his  own.  It  appears  to  have 
been  composed  shortly  before  its  production  at 
Leipzig,  Dec.  2,  1843.  In  England  it  was  first 
performed  by  the  Philharmonic  Society  (Madame 
Goldschmidt)  June  23,  1856.  But  it  had  pre- 
viously been  produced  in  Dublin  under  the  con- 
ductorship  of  Mr.  W.  Glover,  Feb.  10,  1854.2 

2.  'A  Fantasia-Overture,  Paradise  and  the 
Peri'  (op.  42),  composed  by  Sterndale  Bennett 
for  the  Jubilee  Concert  of  the  Philharmonic 
Society,  July  14,  1862,  and  produced  then.  A 
minute  programme  of  the  connexion  of  the  words 
and  music  was  furnished  by  the  composer  for  the 
first  performance,  and  is  usually  reprinted. 

3.  A  Cantata,  for  solos,  chorus,  orchestra  and 
organ,  by  John  Francis  Barnett ;  the  words  se- 
lected from  Moore's  poem.  Produced  at  the 
Birmingham  Festival  Aug.  31,  1870.  [G.] 

PARDON  DE  PLOERMEL,  LE.  An  opera- 
comique  in  3  acts ;  words  by  Barbier  and  Carre", 
music  by  Meyerbeer.  Produced  at  the  Opera- 
Comique  April  4,  1859.  In  London,  in  Italian, 
as  '  Dinorah,  ossia  11  pellerinaggio  di  Ploermel,' 
at  Covent  Garden,  July  26,  1859  ;  in  English  as 
'  Dinorah '  at  same  theatre  Oct.  3,  1859.        [G.] 

PAREPA-ROSA,  Euphrosyne  Parepa  de 
Boyesku,  born  May  7, 1836,  at  Edinburgh.  Her 
father  was  a  Wallachian  boyard,  of  Bucharest, 
and  her  mother  (who  died  in  1870,  in  London) 
was  Miss  Elizabeth  Seguin,  a  singer,  sister  to 
Edward  Seguin,  a  well-known  bass  singer.  On 
her  father's  death,  the  child,  having  shown  great 
aptitude  for  music,  was  educated  by  her  mother 
and  eminent  masters  for  an  artistic  career.  At 
the  age  of  16  Miss  Parepa  made  a  successful 
debut  on  the  stage  as  Amina,  at  Malta,  and 
afterwards  played  at  Naples,  Genoa,  Rome, 
Florence,  Madrid,  and  Lisbon.  In  this  country 
she  made  her  first  appearance  May  21,  1857,  as 
Elvira  in  '  I  Puritani '  at  the  Royal  Italian 
Opera,  Lyceum,  and  played,  Aug.  5,  1858,  as 
Camilla  on  the  revival  of '  Zampa'  at  Covent  Gar- 
den, on  each  occasion  with  fair  success.  During 
some  of  the  seasons  between  1859  and  65  she 
played  in  English  opera  at  Covent  Garden  and 
Her  Majesty's,  and  created  the  parts  of  Vic- 
torine  in  Mellon's  opera  of  that  name  (Dec.  19, 

59)  ;  the  title-part  of  '  La  Reine  Topaze '  of 
Masse",  on  its  production  in  England  (Dec.  26, 

60)  ;  that  of  Mabel  in  Macfarren's  '  Helvellyn' 
(Nov.  «3,  64) ;  playing  also  Arline,  Satanella, 
Dinorah,  Elvira  ('Masaniello'),  and  the  Zerlinas 
(' Fra  Diavolo '  and  'Don  Giovanni).  Her  fine 
voice  combined  power  and  sweetness,  good  execu- 

>  See  Musical  World,  March  9, 1878,  p.  174. 


PAREPA -ROSA. 

tion  and  extensive  compass  (of  two  octaves  and 
a  half,  extending  to  D  in  alt) ;  but  in  spite  of  these 
great  merits  and  a  fine  figure,  she  obtained  but 
moderate  success  in  opera.  On  the  other  band, 
she  won  almost  from  the  first  a  great  reputation 
in  oratorios  and  in  the  concert-room,  and  was 
frequently  engaged  at  the  various  Societies  and 
Festivals,  including  the  Handel  Festivals  of  1862 
and  65.  She  also  sang  abroad  in  Germany  and 
elsewhere.  At  the  close  of  1865  she  went  to 
America  for  a  concert  tour  with  Mr.  Carl  Rosa 
(whom  she  afterwards  married  there  in  Feb. 
1867 x)  and  Levy  the  cornet-player,  returning 
to  England  the  following  year.  After  their  mar- 
riage Madame  Parepa-Rosa  and  her  husband 
remained  in  America  for  four  years,  and  esta- 
blished their  famous  Opera  Company,  in  which 
she  was  principal  singer,  achieving  great  success 
in  English  and  Italian  opera,  oratorio  and 
concerts.  On  her  return  to  England,  1871, 
she  was  prevented  by  illness  from  fulBlling  an 
engagement  at  the  Royal  Italian  Opera,  Covent 
Garden,  but  played  for  the  winter  season  in 
Italian  opera  at  Cairo,  and  the  next  year  was 
heard  with  pleasure  at  Covent  Garden  as  Donna 
Anna  and  Norma,  and  sang  at  the  Philharmonic 
'  Ah  Perfido '  of  Beethoven.  In  the  autumn  of 
1 871  Madame  Parepa  and  her  husband  made  a 
third  visit  to  America  with  their  company,  the 
lady  singing  the  next  year  in  Italian  opera  with 
Wachtel  and  Santley.  They  returned  in  73  to 
England  with  the  intention  of  introducing  an 
English  version  of  'Lohengrin'  at  Drury  Lane 
in  March  1874,  Dut  previously  thereto  Madame 
Parepa  was  seized  with  a  severe  illness,  from 
which  she  died,  Jan.  21,  1874,  *°  *ne  universal  re- 
gret of  a  large  circle  of  friends  and  admirers  both 
in  England,  and  America.  Madame  Parepa  was 
highly  educated,  speaking  and  writing  several 
languages  with  fluency  and  correctness.  She 
brought  a  letter  of  introduction  from  the  King  of 
Portugal  to  the  Prince  Consort,  and  was  in  con- 
sequence invited  to  Osborne  on  her  arrival  in 
this  country.     [See  Rosa,  Cabl.]  [A.C.] 

PARISHALVARS,  Emas,  was  of  Hebrew 
descent  and  born  at  Teignmouth  in  1816.  He 
studied  the  harp  under  Dizi,  Labarre,  and  Bochsa, 
and  became  one  of  the  most  distinguished  per- 
formers on  that  instrument.  He  was  also  an 
excellent  pianist.  In  1831  he  visited  Germany, 
and  performed  at  Bremen,  Hamburg,  and  other 
places,  with  great  success.  In  1834  ne  went  to 
Upper  Italy  and  gave  concerts  at  Milan.  In 
1836  he  went  to  Vienna,  where  he  remained  for 
two  years,  occasionally  visiting  London.  From 
1838  to  1842  were  occupied  by  a  journey  to  the 
East,  where  he  collected  many  Eastern  melodies. 
He  returned  to  Europe  and  gave  concerts  at 
Leipsic  in  1842,  and  at  Berlin,  Frankfort,  Dres- 
den and  Prague  in  1843.  In  1844  he  went  to 
Naples,  where  he  was  received  with  enthusiasm. 
In  1846  he  stayed  some  time  at  Leipsic,  where 
his  association  with  Mendelssohn  produced  a 
sensible  improvement  in  his  style  of  composition. 

>  She  hod  been  previously  married  to  a  Captain  Henry  De  Wolfe 
t'arvell,  who  died  at  Lima,  I'eru,  April  26, 1866. 


PARISIENNE. 


649 


In  1847  he  settled  at  Vienna,  where  he  was  ap- 
pointed chamber  musician  to  the  Emperor ;  and 
there  he  died,  Jan.  25,  1849.  His  compositions 
consist  of  concertos  for  harp  and  orchestra,  and 
numerous  fantasias  for  harp  and  pianoforte,  and 
harp  alone.  He  was  remarkable  for  his  assiduity 
in  seeking  for  new  effects  from  his  instruments, 
in  some  of  which  he  anticipated  Thalberg's  most 
characteristic  treatment.  [W.H.H.] 

PARISIAN,   or  FRENCH,  SYMPHONY, 
THE.     A  symphony  of  Mozart's  in  D — 


Allegro  assai. 


entered  in  his  own  autograph  list  as  'No.  127,* 
and  in  Kochel's  Catalogue  No.  297.  Composed 
in  Paris  June  1 788,  and  first  performed  at  the 
Concert  Spiribuel  on  Corpus  Christi  Day,  June  18, 
of  the  same  year.  The  slow  movement,  An- 
dantino  in  G,  6-8,  did  not  please  him,  and  he 
wrote  a  second  in  the  same  key  and  much  shorter, 
Andante,  3-4.  But  he  returned  to  the  old  one, 
and  altered  it,  and  it  is  now  universally  played. 
The  other  was  performed  at  the  Crystal  Palace, 
March  15,  1873.  [G.] 

PARISIENNE,  LA.  Out  of  the  many 
melodies  associated  with  the  Revolution  of  1830 
two  have  survived,  and  in  some  sense  become 
national  airs,  '  La  Parisienne '  and  '  Les  Trois 
Couleurs.'  The  first  commemorates  the  influence 
of  Paris,  and  the  triumph  of  the  Orleanist  party ; 
the  second  is  Republican,  and  in  the  name  of 
France  proclaims  the  triumph  of  democracy.  [See 
Tbois  Couleurs,  Les.] 

CasimirDelavigne,  librarian  of  the  Palais  Royal, 
and  the  favourite  poet  of  Louis  Philippe,  was  the 
first  to  celebrate  the  Revolution  in  verse,  his 
stanzas  dating  from  the  day  after  the  Parisians 
had  defeated  the  troops  of  Charles  X.  (Aug.  1, 
1830).  Among  his  intimate  friends  were  Auber 
and  Brack,  the  latter  a  good  musician  and  singer, 
devoted  to  Volkslieder.*  In  his  collection  was  one, 
apparently  composed  in  1757  at  the  time  of  the 
siege  of  Harburg,  and  to  this  Delavigne  adapted 
his  words.  Auber  transposed  it  into  A,  and 
added  a  symphony,  very  simple,  but  bold  and 
martial  in  character.  We  give  the  first  of  the 
seven  stanzas. 


Peuple  fran-cals.     peuple  ds     bra  -  ves.  LaU-ber- 


r  r  c"E I r  ra=i::^?l^=5 


£* 


rouvre  MS    bras  I 


On  nous  di  •  talt :   soy-e*   ea  • 


-  /•^•S4=^^'1Trr^j!r'6 


cla  -  ves !  Xous  avons     dlt:  soyons     sol-datsl 


rrr\r-vT£$\T-irr-i 


rla     danssa       mi!  -  moi  -  re     A  re-trou-re       son  cri      da 
*  These  details  are  derived  from  Auber  himself- 


650 


PARISIENNE. 


glol  -re:   En  a -Taut!  marchons  Contra   leurs  canons !  A   tra- 


I       I       I 


=fc=b= 


P--  f 


▼era  la    fer,    la     feu  des  ba  -  taillom       Con  -  rons  a    la       ?ic- 


toi  -  ret  Cou-rons  a   la    yic-tui  -  re  I 

The  *  Parisienne '  was  first  heard  in  public  at 
the  Theatre  of  the  Porte  St.  Martin  on  Monday, 
Aug.  2,  1830.  Two  days  later  the  Opera  was 
reopened,  and  the  playbill  announced  the  'Muette 
de  Portici'  reduced  to  four  acts,  and  'LaMarche 
Parisienne,'  a  cantata  by  Casimir  Delavigne, 
sung  by  Adolphe  Nourrit.  On  this  occasion 
Auber  had  the  last  phrase  repeated  in  chorus, 
and  produced  the  symphony  already  mentioned. 

The  defect  of  the  '  Parisienne,'  from  a  musical 
point  of  view,  is  the  constant  recurrence  of  the 
three  notes,  C,  E,  and  A,  especially  C:  this 
harping  on  the  third  of  the  key  has  a  monotonous 
effect,  which  not  even  Nourrit's  singing  could 
disguise.  The  jovial  turn  of  the  refrain  too  is 
quite  inconsistent  with  the  words.  It  is  also  a 
pity  that  the  last  line  ends  with  a  feminine 
rhyme;  the  final  'e'  of  the  word  'victoire'  being 
tame  and  unwarlike  to  a  degree. 

But,  though  wanting  in  martial  spirit,  the  air 
had  a  great  success  at  the  time ;  and  some  years 
later  the  usual  controversy  as  to  its  origin  arose. 
On  this  subject  Georges  Kastner  published  an 
interesting  article  in  the  'Revue  et  Gazette 
musicale '  (April  9,  1849)  to  which  the  reader  is 
referred.  The  writer  of  the  present  article  is  in- 
debted to  Germain  Delavigne  (Casimir's  brother) 
for  the  curious  and  little-known  fact,  that  Scribe 
and  he  had  previously  introduced  the  air  into  'Le 
Baron  de  Trenck,'  a  two-act  comeclie-vaudeville, 
produced  in  Paris,  Oct.  14,  1828.  [G.C.] 

PARISINA.  1.  An  opera  in  3  acts ;  libretto 
(founded  on  Byron's  poem)  by  Romani,  music  by 
Donizetti.  Produced  at  the  Pergola  theatre, 
Florence,  March  18,  1833.  At  the  Theatre  des 
Italiens,  Paris,  Feb.  24,  1838.  In  London,  at 
Her  Majesty's  theatre,  June  1,  1838. 

3.  '  Overture  to  Lord  Byron's  Poem  of  Parisina,' 
for  full  orchestra,  by  W.  Sterndale  Bennett  (op.  3), 
in  Fj  minor;  composed  in  1835,  while  Bennett 
was  a  student ;  performed  at  the  Philharmonic 
on  June  8,  1840.  [G.] 

PARKE,  John,  born  in  1745,  studied  the 
oboe  under  Simpson,  and  the  theory  of  music 
under  Baumgarten.  In  1 768  he  was  engaged  as 
principal  oboist  at  the  Opera,  and  in  1771  suc- 
ceeded the  celebrated  Fischer  as  concerto  player 
at  Vauxhall,  and  became  principal  oboist  at 
Drury  Lane.  In  1776  he  appeared  .in  the  same 
capacity  in  the  Lenten  oratorios  conducted  by 
J.  C.  Smith  and  John  Stanley,  and  soon  after- 
wards at  Ranelagh  and  Marylebone  Gardens. 
He  was  appointed  one  of  the  King's  band  of 
music,  and  in  1783  chamber  musician  to  the 
Prince  of  Wales.     He  was  engaged  at  the  Con- 


PARRY. 

cert  of  Ancient  Music,  and  other  principal  con- 
certs, and  at  all  the  provincial  festivals,  until  his 
retirement  in  181 5.  He  died  Aug.  2,  1829. 
He  composed  many  oboe  concertos  for  his  own 
performance,  but  never  published  them. 

Mabia  Hester,  his  daughter  (born  1775),  was 
instructed  by  him  in  singing  and  pianoforte  play- 
ing, and  made  her  first  appearance  as  a  singer  at 
Gloucester  Festival  in  1790,  being  then  very 
young,  and  for  about  seven  years  afterwards  sang 
at  the  principal  London  concerts  and  oratorios  and 
the  provincial  festivals.  She  afterwards  became 
Mrs.  Beardmore  and  retired  from  the  musical 
profession,  but  distinguished  herself  by  her  at- 
tainments in  science,  languages,  and  literature. 
She  died  in  1822,  her  husband  surviving  her  only 
four  months.  She  composed  several  sets  of  piano- 
forte sonatas,  some  songs,  and  a  set  of  glees. 

William  Thomas  Paeke,  his  younger  brother, 
born  in  London  in  1762,  commenced  the  study  of 
music  under  his  brother  in  1770.  He  subse- 
quently studied  under  Dance,  Burney  (nephew 
of  Dr.  Burney),  and  Baumgarten.  In  1775  he 
was  a  soprano  chorister  at  Drury  Lane,  and  in 
1776  was  engaged  as  viola-player  at  Vauxhall. 
In  1779  ne  appeared  at  Vauxhall  as  an  oboist, 
and  in  1783  was  employed  as  principal  oboist  at 
Covent  Garden.  He  was  afterwards  engaged  at 
the  Ladies'  and  the  Professional  Concerts,  and  in 
1800  appointed  principal  oboist  and  concerto 
player  at  Vauxhall,  where  he  continued  until  1 8  2 1 . 
He  extended  the  compass  of  the  oboe  upwards  to 
G  in  alt,  a  third  higher  than  former  performers 
had  reached.  He  composed  several  concertos  for 
his  instrument,  the  overtures  to  '  Netley  A  bbey ' 
(1794),  and  'Lock  and  Key'  (1796),  and  nu- 
merous songs,  glees,  etc.,  for  the  theatre  and 
Vauxhall.  He  retired  in  1825,  and  in  1830  pub- 
lished 'Musical  Memoirs;  comprising  an  Ac- 
count of  the  General  State  of  Music  in  England 
from  1784  to  1830,'  2  vols.  8vo,  an  amusing  work, 
but  of  very  little  authority.  He  died  Aug.  26, 
1847.  [W.H.H.] 

PARLANDO,  PARLANTE,  '  speaking.'  A 
direction  allowing  greater  freedom  in  rendering 
than  cantando  or  cantabile,  and  yet  referring  to 
the  same  kind  of  expression.  It  is  generally  used 
in  the  case  of  a  few  notes  or  bars  only,  and  is 
often  expressed  by  the  signs  -; — •—  placed  over 
single  notes,  and  by  a  slur  together  with  staccato 
dots  over  a  group  of  notes.  Sometimes,  however, 
it  is  used  of  an  entire  movement,  as  in  the  6th 
Bagatelle  from  Beethoven's  Op.  33,  which  is 
headed  'Allegretto  quasi  Andante.  Con  una 
certa  espressione  parlante,'  and  in  the  2nd  of 
Schumann's  variations  on  the  name  'Abegg,' 
Op.  1,  where  the  direction  'Basso  parlando' 
stands  at  the  beginning  and  refers  to  the  whole 
variation.  [J.A.F.M.] 

PARRY,  Chables  Hubert  Hastings,  born 
Feb.  27,  1848,  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  Mus.  Bac. 
in  1867  and  B.A.  in  1870.  He  passed  the  ex- 
amination for  the  Mus.  Bac.  while  still  at  Eton. 
The  exercise  for  the  degree  (a  Cantata  entitled 


PARRY. 

•  0  Lord,  thou  hast  cast  us  out ')  was  performed 
in  the  Music  School  according  to  the  regulations. 
He  took  a  few  lessons  in  harmony  from  Dr.  Elvey, 
in  1 868,  and  since  that  time  studied  with  H.  H. 
Pierson  at  Stuttgart,  with  Professor  Macfarren 
and  Mr.  Dannreuther. 

A  Morning  and  Evening  Service  in  D  (Novello) , 
still  a  favourite,  dates  from  his  Eton  days,  and 
bo  possibly  do  two  anthems  for  4  voices  (Ditto)  ; 
three  Odes  of  Anacreon ;  six  Shakespearean  and 
other  old-fashioned  songs ;  and '  Characterbilder,' 
a  set  of  seven  PF.  pieces.  His  maturer  works 
are  numerous,  and  consist  of: — Sonata  for  PF. 
in  Bb  (L.  Cock) ;  Do.  Do.  in  D  minor  (Lucas 
&  Weber)  ;  Grosses  Duo,  for  2  PF.s  in  E  minor 
(Breitkopf);  Trio  for  PF.,  V.,  and  Cello  in  E 
minor  (Halle's  Recitals  1 880)  ;  Quartet  for  PF. 
and  Strings  in  A  minor ;  Do.  for  Strings  in 
G. ;  Fantaisie-sonata  PF.  and  V.  in  B ;  Sonata 
for  PF.  and  Cello  in  A ;  Nonet  for  Wind  Instru- 
ments in  Bb ;  Overture  for  Orchestra  '  Guillem 
de  Cabestanh'  (performed  at  the  Crystal  Palace, 
March,  15,  1879);  Concerto  for  PF.  and  Or- 
chestra in  Fj  (do.  April  3,  1880,  and  Richter, 
May  10,  1880) ;  Fantasia  and  Fugue  for  Organ; 
Variations  for  PF. ;  Miniatures  for  do. 

His  setting  of  Shelley's  'Prometheus  Unbound ' 
for  solo  voices,  chorus,  and  orchestra,  commis- 
sioned for  the  Gloucester  Festival,  was  produced 
there  Sept.  7,  1880.  [G.] 

PARRY,  John,  born  at  Denbigh,  North 
Wales,  in  1776,  received  his  earliest  musical  in- 
struction from  a  dancing  master,  who  taught  him 
also  to  play  the  clarinet.  In  1795  he  joined 
the  band  of  the  Denbighshire  militia,  and  in 
1797  became  master  of  it.  In  1807  he  resigned 
his  appointment,  and  settled  in  London  as  a 
teacher  of  the  flageolet,  then  greatly  in  vogue. 
In  1809  he  was  engaged  to  compose  songs,  etc., 
for  Vauxhall  Gardens,  which  he  continued  to  do 
for  several  years  afterwards,  and  also  adapted 
English  words  to  a  selection  of  Welsh  melodies. 
He  composed  the  music  for  T.  Dibdin's  extrava- 
ganza, '  Harlequin  Hoax  ;  or,  A  Pantomime  pro- 
posed,' 1814;  'Oberon's  Oath,'  1816;  'High 
Notions,  or,  A  Trip  to  Exmouth,'  18 17  ;  and 
adapted  the  music  for  'Ivanhoe,'  1820 ;  and  'Cas- 
wallon,'  a  tragedy,  1829.  He  was  author  as 
well  as  composer  of  the  musical  pieces,  'Fair 
Cheating,'  1814;  'Helpless  Animals,'  1818 ; 
and  'Two  Wives,  or,  A  Hint  to  Husbands,' 
1 82 1.  For  very  many  years  he  conducted  the 
Cymmrodorion  and  Eisteddvodau,  or  Congresses 
of  Welsh  Bards,  which  were  held  in  various 
places  in  Wales,  etc.,  and  in  182 1  he  received 
the  degree  of  'Bardd  Alaw,'  or  Master  of  Song. 
He  was  author  of  '  An  Account  of  the  rise  and 
progress  of  the  Harp';  'An  Account  of  the 
Royal  Musical  Festival  held  in  Westminster 
Abbey  in  1834'  (of  which  he  had  been  secre- 
tary) ;  and  '  II  Puntello,  or,  The  Supporter,' 
containing  the  first  Rudiments  of  Music.  In 
June  1837  he  gave  a  farewell  concert,  at 
which  he  sang  his  own  ballad  of  'Jenny  Jones' 
(made  popular  by  Charles  Mathews  the  year 
before),  accompanied  on  the  harp  by  his  son. 


PARRY. 


651 


From  1834  to  1848  he  was  concert  music  critic 
to  '  The  Morning  Post.'  He  published  a  collec- 
tion of  Welsh  Melodies,  embodying  the  greater 
part  of  Jones's  'Relics  of  the  Welsh  Bards,' 
under  the  title  of  '  The  Welsh  Harper.'  From 
1831  to  Aug.  5,  1849,  he  was  treasurer  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Musicians.  He  died  April 
8,  1851. 

His  son,  John  Orlando,  born  in  London,  Jan. 
3,  1810,  studied  the  harp  under  Bochsa,  and  in 
May,  1825,  appeared  (as  Master  Parry)  as  a  per- 
former on  that  instrument.  He  also  became  an 
excellent  pianist.  In  1831  he  came  forward  as  a 
barytone  singer,  chiefly  of  ballads  accompanied  by 
himself  on  the  harp.  At  his  benefit  concert  in  June 
1836  he  gave  the  first  public  indication  of  the  pos- 
session of  that  extraordinary  vis  comica  by  which 
he  was  afterwards  so  remarkably  distinguished,  by 
joining  Madame  Malibran  in  Mazzinghi's  duet, 
'  When  a  little  farm  we  keep,'  and  introducing 
an  admirable  imitation  of  Harley.  Later  in  the 
same  year  he  appeared  upon  the  stage  at  the  St. 
James's  Theatre  in  Hullah's '  Village  Coquettes ' 
and  other  pieces.  In  the  following  year  he  gave 
his  '  Buffo  Trio  Italiano '  (accompanied  by  himself 
on  the  pianoforte),  in  which  he  successfully 
imitated  Grisi,  Ivanoff,  and  Lablache.  In  1840 
he  introduced  '  Wanted,  a  Governess '  (words  by 
George  Dubourg),  the  success  of  which  induced 
him  to  abandon  serious,  and  devote  himself 
wholly  to  comic,  singing.  The  songs  he  selected 
differed  materially  from  those  of  the  immediately 
preceding  generation  in  the  absence  of  coarse- 
ness or  vulgarity,  and  were  consequently  most 
favourably  received.  They  comprised,  among 
others,  '  Wanted,  a  Wife,'  '  Berlin  Wool,'  '  Blue 
Beard,'  '  Matrimony,'  '  Fayre  Rosamonde,'  and 
'The  London  Season';  the  words  being  mostly 
by  Albert  Smith  and  the  music  arranged  by 
Parry  himself.  In  1849  he  gave  up  concert 
singing  and  produced  an  entertainment  written 
by  Albert  Smith,  in  which  he  exhibited  a  number 
of  large  water-colour  paintings  executed  by  him- 
self, and  which  was  very  successful.  He  gave 
similar  entertainments  in  1850  and  1852.  In 
1853  ill  health  compelled  him  to  retire  from 
public  performance,  and  he  became  organist  of 
St.  Jude's,  Southsea,  and  practised  as  a  teacher. 
In  i860  he  again  appeared  in  public  at  the  en- 
tertainments of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  German  Reed,  but 
in  1869  ill  health  again  necessitated  his  retire- 
ment. He  took  final  leave  of  the  public  at  a 
performance  for  his  benefit  at  the  Gaiety  Theatre 
in  1877.  He  died  at  East  Molesey,  Feb.  20, 
1879.  [W.H.H.] 

PARRY,  John,  of  Rhuabon,  North  Wales, 
was  domestic  harper  to  Sir  Watkin  Williams 
Wynne,  of  Wynnstay.  He  came  to  London, 
where  his  playing  is  said  to  have  been  admired 
by  Handel,  and  to  have  excited  Gray  to  the  com- 
pletion of  his  poem, '  The  Bard.'  In  1 742  he  put 
forth  the  earliest  published  collection  of  Welsh 
melodies  under  the  title  of  'Ancient  British 
Music  of  the  Cambro-Britons.'  He  afterwards 
published  (undated)  'A  Collection  of  Welsh 
English  and  Scotch  Airs;  also,  Lessons  for  the 


652 


PARRY. 


Harpsichord' ;  and, in  1 78 1 .  'Cambrian Harmony ; 
a  Collection  of  Ancient  Welsh  Airs,  the  tradi- 
tional remains  of  those  sung  by  the  Bards  of 
Wales.'  He  died  1782.  Though  totally  blind,  he 
is  reported  to  have  been  an  excellent  draught- 
player.  [W.H.H.] 

PARRY,  Joseph,  Mus.  Doc.,  born  atMerthyr 
Tydvil,  May  21,  1841,  of  poor  Welsh  parents, 
the  mother  a  superior  woman  with  much  music 
in  her  nature.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  singing 
and  brass-band-playing  among  the  Welsh  work- 
men, and  at  chapel  and  elsewhere  the  boy  soon 
picked  up  enough  to  show  that  he  had  a  real 
talent.  At  10  however  he  was  forced  to  go  to 
the  puddling  furnaces  and  stop  all  education  of 
any  kind.  In  1853  his  father  emigrated  to  the 
United  States,  and  in  1854  the  family  followed 
him.  After  a  few  years  Joseph  returned  from 
America,  and  then  received  some  instruction  in 
music  from  John  Abel  Jones  of  Merthyr  and 
John  Price  of  Rhymney.  In  1862  he  won  prizes 
at  the  Llandudno  Eisteddfod.  He  then  went 
again  to  America,  and  during  his  absence  there 
a  prize  was  adjudged  to  him  at  the  Swansea 
Eisteddfod  of  1863,  for  a  harmonised  hymn  tune. 

Its  excellence  roused  the  attention  of  Mr. 
Brinley  Richards,  one  of  the  musical  adjudica- 
tors of  the  meeting,  and  at  his  instance  a  fund 
was  raised  for  enabling  Parry  to  return  to  Eng- 
land and  enter  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music. 
The  appeal  was  well  responded  to  by  Welshmen 
here  and  in  the  States,  and  in  Sept.  1868  he  en- 
tered the  Academy  and  studied  under  Sterndale 
Bennett,  Garcia,  and  Steggall.  He  took  a  bronze 
medal  in  1870,  and  a  silver  one  in  1871,  and 
an  overture  of  his  to  '  The  Prodigal  Son '  (Mab 
Afradlon)  was  played  at  the  Academy  in  1871. 
He  was  appointed  Professor  of  Music  at  the  Uni- 
versity College,  Aberystwith,  and  soon  after  took 
his  Mus.  Bac.  degree  at  Cambridge,  proceeding, 
in  May  1878,  to  that  of  Mus.  Doc.  at  the  same 
University.  An  opera  of  his  named  '  Blodwen,' 
founded  on  an  episode  in  early  British  history, 
was  performed  at  Aberdare  in  1878  and  shortly 
afterwards  at  the  Alexandra  Palace,  Muswell 
H  ill.  He  has  lately  published  an  oratorio  entitled 
*  Emmanuel,' — words  by  Dr.  W.  Rees  and  Prof. 
Rowlands — which  was  performed  at  S.  James's 
Hall,  May  12,  1880,  and  which  from  the  favour- 
able notices  of  the  press  appears  to  be  a  work  of 
great,  though  unequal,  merit.  [G.] 

PARSIFAL  (i.e.  Percival).  A  '  Buhnenweih- 
festapiel  *  (festival  acting  drama) ;  words  and 
music  by  Richard  Wagner.  Poem  published  in 
1877  ;  music  completed  in  1879.  Text  translated 
into  English  by  H.  L.  and  F.  Corder  (Schotts, 
1879).  [G.] 

PARSONS,  Robebt,  a  native  of  Exeter,  was 
on  Oct.  17,  1563,  sworn  a  gentleman  of  the 
Chapel  Royal.  He  is  said,  but  erroneously,  to 
have  been  organist  of  Westminster  Abbey.  He 
composed  some  church  music.  A  Morning,  Com- 
munion, and  Evening  Service  is  printed  in  Bar- 
nard's '  Selected  Church  Musick,'  and  a  Burial 
Service  in  Low's  'Directions,'  1664.  Aa  anthem, 


PART  ANT  POUR  LA  SYRIE. 

'  Deliver  us  from  our  enemies,'  is  contained  in  the 
Tudway  Collection  (Harl.  MS.  7339  \  and  an  '  In 
Nomine,'  and  a  madrigal,  '  Enforced  by  love  and 
feare,'  are  in  Add.  MS.  11,586.  Three  services 
and  an  anthem,  'Ah,  helpless  wretch,'  are  in 
Barnard's  MS.  collections  in  the  Sacred  Har- 
monic Society's  Library.  Many  of  his  composi- 
tions are  extant  in  MS.  in  the  library  of  Christ 
Church,  Oxford.  He  was  drowned  in  the  Trent 
at  Newark,  Jan.  25,  1569-70. 

John  Pabsons,  probably  his  son,  was  in  1616 
appointed  one  of  the  parish  clerks  and  also  or- 
ganist of  St.  Margaret's,  Westminster.  On  Dec. 
7,  1 62 1  he  was  appointed  organist  and  master  of 
the  choristers  of  Westminster  Abbey.  A  Burial 
Service  by  him  is  contained  in  a  MS.  volume  in 
the  library  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society.  He 
died  in  1623,  and  was  buried,  Aug.  3,  in  the  clois- 
ters of  Westminster.  A  quaint  epitaph  on  him  is 
preserved  in  Camden's  '  Remains.'      [W.  H.  H.] 

PARSONS,  Sib  William,  Knt.,  Mus.  Doc., 
born  1 746,  was  a  chorister  of  Westminster  Abbey 
under  Dr.  Cooke.  In  1 768  he  went  to  Italy  to 
complete  his  musical  education.  On  the  death  of 
Stanley  in  1 7.86  he  was  appointed  master  of  the 
King's  band  of  music.  On  June  26, 1 790,  he  accu- 
mulated the  degrees  of  Mus.  Bac.  and  Mus.  Doc. 
at  Oxford.  In  1795,  being  in  Dublin,  he  was 
knighted  by  the  Lord  Lieutenant,  Earl  Camden. 
In  1796  he  was  appointed  musical  instructor  to 
the  Princesses  and  a  magistrate  for  Middlesex,  in 
which  latter  capacity  he  acted  for  several  years 
at  the  police  office  in  Great  Marlborough  Street. 
He  died  July  17,  181 7.  [W.H.H.] 

PARTANT  POUR  LA  SYRIE.  This  popu- 
lar romance  dates  from  1 809,  shortly  before  the 
battle  of  Wagram.  The  words  were  by  Count 
Alexandre  de  Laborde,  a  man  of  lively  imagina- 
tion in  considerable  repute  as  a  poete  de  circon- 
stance.  One  evening  Queen  Hortense  showed  him 
a  picture  representing  a  knight  clad  in  armour, 
cutting  an  inscription  on  a  stone  with  the  point 
of  his  sword,  and  at  the  request  of  the  company 
he  elucidated  it  by  a  little  romance  invented  on 
the  spot.  An  entreaty  to  put  it  into  verse 
followed,  and  Queen  Hortense  set  the  lines  to 
music.  Such  was  the  origin  of  '  Le  Depart 
pour  la  Syrie,'  of  which  we  give  the  music, 
and  the  first  stanza. 


i 


^ 


.?. 


Far-tarn  pourU     87 


c  r  r  I  r  T,J:^^ 


j-i^lj.ijy-^^ 


Jeune  at  beau  Du  -  nois  Al  •  la    pri-er   Ma  -  ri 


.j/jyj  n\±±ii\i.j,i 


W  -  nlr  aat       ex  -  plolts :      Fal-tes.  Eelne  immor-tsl  -  •  le,  Lul 


jf-^-^-h^^-^U^^-LJU 


dit  -  11,    eii     par  -  taut,        que 


plus 


PARTANT  POUR  LA  SYRIE. 


PARTIAL  TONES. 


653 


sols  le  plui 


The  troubadour  style  of  both  words  and  music 
hit  the  taste  of  the  day,  the  song  went  through 
every  phase  of  success,  and  was  even  parodied. 
When  Louis  Napoleon  mounted  the  throne  of 
France  in  1853,  his  mother's  little  melody  was 
recalled  to  mind,  and  although  of  a  sentimental 
rather  than  martial  turn,  it  became  the  national 
air,  arranged,  in  default  of  fresh  words,  solely 
for  military  bands.  In  this  arrangement  the 
last  phrase  is  repeated,  closing  for  the  first  time 
on  the  third  of  the  key. 

The  credit  of  having  composed  this  little  song 
has  more  than  once  been  denied  to  Queen  Hor- 
tense,  and  Drouet  in  his  Memoirs  claims  to  have 
had  at  least  a  half  share  in  the  composition. 
Others  have  advanced  a  similar  claim  in  favour 
of  Narcisse  Carbonel  (1773  to  1855),  who 
organised  Queen  Hortense's  concerts,  and  was 
her  usual  accompanyist.  No  doubt  he  looked 
over  and  corrected  most  of  his  royal  pupil's  im- 
provisations ;  at  least  that  is  no  unfair  inference 
from  Mile.  Cochelet's  (Mme.  Parquin) '  Memoires 
sur  la  Reine  Hortense'  (i.  45).  But  there  is  no 
decisive  evidence  either  one  way  or  the  other. — 
Dussek's  variations  on  the  tune  were  at  one  time 
very  popular.  [G.  C] 

PART  DU  DIABLE,  LA.  An  opera-comique 
in  3  acts;  words  by  Scribe,  music  by  Auber. 
Produced  at  the  Opera-Comique,  Paris,  Jan.  16, 
1843.  [&-] 

^  PARTHENIA.  The  first  music  for  the  vir- 
ginals published  in  England.  The  title  is  '  Par- 
thenia  or  The  Maydenhead  of  the  first  inusicke 
that  euer  was  printed  for  the  Virginalls  Com- 

e>sed  By  three  famous  Masters  William  Byrde, 
r.  John  Bull  and  Orlando  Gibbons  Gentilmen 
of  his  Matle»  most  Illustrious  Chappell.  Ingrauen 
by  William  Hole.'  The  work  consists  of  the  fol- 
lowing 21  pieces,  all  upon  6-line  staves,  and  en- 
graved upon,  copper  plates,  being  the  first  musical 
work  so  produced. 


W.  Byrde. 
Preludlum. 
Parana ;  Sir  W.  retro. 
Galiardo. 
Preluilium. 

Galiardo  ;  Mrs.  Mary  Urownlo. 
Pavana;  The  Earl  of  Salisbury. 
Galiardo. 
Galiardo,  2  do. ;  Mrs.  Mary  Broirolo 

Dr.  Bull. 
Preludlum. 
Pavano ;  Sir  Tbos.  Wake. 


Galiardo ;  Sir  Thos.  Wake. 

Parana. 

Galiardo. 

Galiardo. 

Galiardo. 

0.  Gibbons. 
Galiardo. 

Fantazla  of  four  parts. 
The  Lord  of  Salisbury,  his  Parln. 
Galiardo. 

The  Queen's  command. 
Preludlum. 


It  first  appeared  in  1611.  On  the  title  is  a 
three-quarter-length  representation  of  a  lady 
playing  upon  the  virginals.  Commendatory 
verses  by  Hugh  Holland  and  George  Chap- 
man are  prefixed.  It  was  reprinted  in  161 3 
with  a  dedication  to  the  Elector  Palatine  and 
Princess  Elizabeth.  Other  impressions  appeared 
in  1635,  1650  and  1659,  the  latter  with  a  letter- 
press title  bearing  the  imprint  of  John  Playford. 
All  these  impressions  were  from  the  same  plates. 


The  work  was  reprinted  by  the  Musical  Antiqua- 
rian Society  in  1847,  under  the  editorship  of 
Dr.  Rimbault,  with  facsimiles  of  the  title-page 
and  a  page  of  the  music.  [W.H.  H.] 

PARTIAL  TONES  (Fr.  Sons  partieh;  Ger. 
Partialtone,  Aliquotlime).  A  musical  sound  is 
in  general  very  complex,  consisting  of  a  series 
of  simple  sounds  called  its  Partial  tones.  The 
lowest  tone  of  the  series  is  called  the  Prime 
(Fondamental,  Grundton),  while  the  rest  are 
called  the  Upper  partials  (ffarmoniques ;  Ober- 
partialtone,  Obertone).  The  prime  is  usually 
the  loudest,  and  with  it  we  identify  the  pitch  of 
the  whole  compound  tone.  For  each  vibration 
given  by  the  prime  the  upper  partials  give  re- 
spectively 2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  etc.  vibrations.  The 
number  of  partial  tones  is  theoretically  infinite, 
but  it  will  be  enough  here  to  represent  the  first 
16  partials  of  C,  thus  : — 


C    c  g 


J  e  V  M>  c"  d"  t»f"%  cf  a"  1A>  6"tJ  cm 

■».".,;   7  8   9  10  11  12  13  14  10  IS 


When  the  notes  of  this  diagram  are  played  on 
the  ordinary  Piano,  tuned  in  equal  temperament, 
the  Octaves  alone  agree  in  pitch  with  the  partial 
tones.  The  3rd,  6th,  9th,  and  12th  partials  are 
slightly  sharper,  and  the  5th,  7th,  10th,  14th, 
and  15th  much  flatter  than  the  notes  given 
above.  But  even  in  just  intonation  the  nth 
and  13th  partials  are  much  flatter  than  any  Fg 
and  A  recognised  in  music. 

When  a  simple  tone  is  heard,  the  kind  of 
motion  to  and  fro  executed  by  the  sounding  body 
resembles  that  of  the  pendulum,  and  is  hence 
called  pendular  vibration.  [Vibration.]  When 
a  compound  tone  is  heard,  the  form  of  vibration 
is  more  complex,  but  may  be  represented  as  the 
sum  of  a  series  of  pendular  vibrations  of  different 
frequencies.  In  order  that  the  compound  tone 
shall  be  musical  it  is  necessary  that  the  vibration 
should  be  periodic,  and  this  happens  only  when 
the  frequencies  of  the  vibrations  which  sound 
the  upper  partials  are  multiples  of  that  which 
sounds  the  prime  tone.  In  the  article  on  Nodb 
it  has  been  already  explained  in  what  manner 
a  string  or  the  column  of  air  in  an  organ  pipe 
produces  this  compound  vibration.  The  real 
motion,  as  Helmholtz  remarks,  is  of  course  one 
and  individual,  and  our  theoretical  treatment  of 
it  as  compound  is  in  a  certain  sense  arbitrary. 
But  we  are  justified  in  so  treating  it,  since  we 
find  that  the  ear  as  well  as  all  bodies  which 
vibrate  sympathetically,  can  only  respond  to 
a  compound  tone  by  analyzing  it  into  its  simple 
partials. 

It  may  seem  difficult  to  reconcile  this  with  the 
fact  that  many  ears  do  not  perceive  the  com- 
posite nature  of  sound.  Helmholtz  has  treated 
this  question  at  length,1  and  his  explanation  may 
be  thus  indicated.  The  different  partials  really 
excite  different  sensations  in  the  ear,  but  whether 
they  are  perceived  or  not,  depends  on  the  amount 

1  'Sensations  of  Tone,'  pp.  93-105. 


654 


PARTIAL  TONES. 


of  attention  given  to  them  by  the  mind.  In 
general  we  pay  attention  to  our  sensations  only 
in  so  far  as  they  enable  us  to  form  correct  ideas 
of  external  objects.  Thus  we  can  distinguish  two 
comparatively  simple  tones  coming  from  different 
instruments.  On  the  other  hand  when  a  com- 
pound tone  is  produced  by  one  instrument  we 
disregard  the  several  partials  because  they  do 
not  correspond  to  different  portions  of  the  vibrat- 
ing body ;  each  portion  executes  the  compound 
motion  corresponding  to  all  the  partials  at  once. 
Moreover  it  would  hinder  our  musical  enjoy- 
ment if  we  were  habitually  to  concentrate  our 
attention  on  the  upper  partials,  and  we  have 
therefore,  in  general,  no  interest  in  doing  so. 
Hence  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  when  we 
fail  to  distinguish  the  partials  of  a  compound 
tone  they  are  not  really  present,  or  that  when 
we  hear  them  but  faintly  their  intensity  is  small. 
Helmholtz  gives  an  experiment  which  strikingly 
illustrates  this.  He  obtained  two  nearly  simple 
tones  an  Octave  apart,  and  by  listening  to  each 
tone  in  succession  he  was  able  to  distinguish 
them  when  sounding  together.  But  he  could 
do  so  only  for  a  while,  for  the  higher  sound  was 
gradually  lost  in  the  lower,  and  a  quality  of  tone 
different  from  either  was  the  result.  This  hap- 
pened even  when  the  higher  was  somewhat 
stronger  than  the  lower  sound. 

Notwithstanding  the  difficulty  of  hearing  the 
upper  partial  tones,  many  musicians  have  been 
able  to  do  so  by  their  unaided  ears.  Thus, 
Mersenne 1  could  distinguish  six  partials  in  the 
tones  of  strings,  and  sometimes  seven.  Rameau  a 
also  succeeded  in  perceiving  the  partials  of  the 
voice,  which  are  much  harder  to  distinguish 
than  those  of  strings.  There  are  several  methods 3 
by  which  the  ear  can  be  trained  to  recognise  the 
upper  partials.  It  is  better  to  begin  with  the 
uneven  tones,  Twelfth,  Seventeenth,  etc.,  which 
are  easier  to  hear  than  the  Octaves.  Touch  the 
note  g  softly  on  the  piano,  damp  the  string,  and 
strike  e  loudly.  Keep  the  attention  directed  to 
the  pitch  of  the  g',  and  this  note  will  be  heard  in 
the  compound  tone  of  c.  Similarly  by  sounding 
e"  softly  and  then  c  loudly,  the  latter  will  be 
observed  to  contain  the  former.  It  must  not  be 
supposed  that  when  these  partials  are  heard  it 
is  due  to  an  illusion  of  the  ear,  for  the  note  e" 
on  the  piano  as  ordinarily  tuned  is  appreciably 
sharper  than  the  5th  partial  of  c.  The  difference 
of  pitch  between  the  two  sounds  proves  that 
one  cannot  be  the  echo  of  the  other.  There  is 
another  and  still  better  method  of  directing  the 
attention  of  the  ear  to  any  given  partial  tone. 
Touch  a  vibrating  string  at  one  of  its  nodes,  for 
example  at  }  of  its  length,  and  the  5th  partial 
will  be  heard,  faintly  accompanied  by  the  10th, 
1 5th,  etc.  It  will  then  be  easy  to  hear  the  5th 
partial  in  the  compound  tone  of  the  whole  string. 

The  ear  is  however  hardly  able  to  carry  out 
researches  of  this  kind  without  mechanical  as- 

1  '  Harmonic  Universale,'  Paris,  1638,  pp.  208, 9,  and  221  of  the  4th 
book  on  Instruments.  He  gives  a  false  ratio  for  the  7th  partial,  viz. 
10: 3  instead  of  7:1. 

a  '  Nouveau  Systeme  de  Muslque  theorlque.'   Paris,  1726.    Preface. 

a  Helmholtz,  'Sensations  of  Tone,'  pp.  79-82. 


PARTIAL  TONES. 

sistance.  Hence  Helmholtz  made  use  of  Re- 
sonators, which  are  hollow  globes  or  tubes  of 
glass  or  metal,  having  two  openings,  one  to  re- 
ceive the  sound,  the  other  to  transmit  it  to  the 
ear.  From  the  mass  of  compound  tone  each 
resonator  singles  out  and  responds  to  that  partial 
which  agrees  with  it  in  pitch,  but  is  unaffected 
by  a  partial  of  any  other  pitch.  By  this  means 
Helmholtz  has  shown  that  the  number  of  the 
partial  tones  and  their  relative  intensities  vary 
in  different  instruments,  and  even  in  the  same 
instrument,  according  to  the  way  it  is  played. 
These  various  combinations  are  perceived  by  us 
as  different  qualities  of  tone,  by  which  we  dis- 
tinguish the  note  of  a  violin  from  that  of  a  horn, 
or  the  note  of  one  violin-player  from  that  of 
another.  The  nearest  approach  to  a  simple 
tone  is  given  by  tuning-forks  of  high  pitch.  Dr. 
Preyer  *  was  unable  to  detect  any  upper  partials 
in  forks  tuned  to  g"  (768  vibrations)  or  higher. 
On  the  other  hand,  he  showed  that  as  many  as 
10  partials  were  present  in  a  fork  tuned  to  c 
(128  vibrations).  But  these  are  very  weak  and 
can  only  be  heard  when  great  care  has  been 
taken  to  exclude  all  other  sounds.  The  general 
effect  of  such  comparatively  simple  tones  is  very 
smooth  but  somewhat  dull,  and  they  seem  to  be 
deeper  in  pitch  than  they  really  are.  Flutes 
and  widestopped  organ  pipes  have  few  effective 
partials,  and  are  much  inferior  in  musical  effect 
to  open  organ  pipes  and  to  the  piano.  The 
tones  of  the  voice,  violin,  and  horn,  are  more 
complex  still,  and  are  characterised  by  fuller 
and  richer  qualities.  When  the  partials  above 
the  7  th  are  strong  they  beat  with  each  other, 
and  the  quality  becomes  harsh  and  rough  as  in 
reed  instruments.  Mr.  Ellis  has  obtained  beats 
from  the  20th  partial  of  a  reed  and  even  higher, 
and  Dr.  Preyer  has  proved  a  reed  to  possess 
between  30  and  40  partials. 

The  clarinet  and  the  stopped  organ  pipe  are 
exceptions  to  the  general  rule,  for  they  give  only 
the  unevenly  numbered  partials  1,  3,  5,  7,  9,  etc. 
Neither  of  these  instruments  will  set  into  vibra- 
tion a  resonator  an  Octave  or  two  Octaves  above 
it  in  pitch,  proving  that  the  2nd  and  4th  partials 
are  absent.  The  resulting  quality  of  tone  is 
hollow  and  nasal,  and  may  be  obtained  from  a 
string,  by  plucking  or  bowing  it  in  the  middle. 
The  effect  is  to  make  a  Loop  there,  and  hence 
to  prevent  the  vibrations  of  the  halves,  quarters, 
etc.  of  the  string,  which  require  a  Node  at  that 
point.     [See  Node.] 

Helmholtz  has  also  discovered  that  the  dif- 
ferent vowel  sounds  are  due  to  various  com- 
binations of  simple  tones,  and  he  verified  his 
theory  by  reproducing  several  vowels  from  a 
series  of  tuning-forks  set  in  motion  by  electri- 
city. Each  fork  had  a  resonator  the  mouth  of 
which  could  be  opened  or  closed  in  order  to  ob- 
tain any  required  degree  of  intensity. 

Bells,  gongs,  and  drums  have  a  variety  of 
secondary  tones  generally  inharmonic  with  the 
prime,  and  the  result  is  that  their  vibration  is 
not  periodic.      Hence  the  sounds  they  produce 

i  '  Akustlsche  Untersuchungen."   Jena,  Gustav  Fischer,  1879. 


PARTIAL  TONES. 

are  felt  to  be  more  of  the  nature  of  noise  than 
musical  tone,  and  this  explains  why  they  are  so 
much  less  used  than  other  instruments.  Tuning- 
forks  also  produce  very  weak  inharmonic  tones, 
not  only  when  struck,  but,  as  Dr.  Preyer  has 
shown,  when  bowed  strongly. 

The  use  of  upper  partial*  is,  then,  to  produce 
different  qualities  of  tone,  for  without  them, 
all  instruments  would  seem  alike.  Thus  Dr. 
Preyer  found  that  for  the  Octave  clJ-c*  (2048  to 
4096  vibrations)  many  good  observers  were  un- 
able to  distinguish  the  tones  of  forks  from  those 
of  reeds,  unless  both  were  very  loud.  More- 
over organ-builders  have  long  been  accustomed 
to  obtain  artificial  qualities  of  tone  by  combining 
the  Octave,  Twelfth,  Fifteenth,  Seventeenth,  etc. 
in  the  so-called  compound  stops  (Sesquialtera, 
Mixture,  Cornet).  This  was  done  not  from  any 
knowledge  of  the  theory,  but  from  a  feeling  that 
the  quality  of  the  single  pipe  was  too  poor  for 
musical  effect. 

A  still  more  important  use  of  the  upper  par- 
tials is  in  distinguishing  between  consonance  and 
dissonance.  It  was  formerly  supposed  that  the 
dissonance  of  two  musical  sounds  depended  solely 
on  the  complexity  of  the  ratio  between  their 
prime  tones.  According  to  this  view  c'-f'% 
being  as  45  :  32,  would  be  dissonant  even  if 
there  were  no  upper  partials.  Helmholtz  has 
however  shown  that  when  c'  and  ft  are  struck 
together  on  any  instrument  whose  tones  are 
compound,  the  dissonance  arises  from  the  3rd 
and  4th  partials  of  c  beating  with  the  2nd  and 
3rd  of  f'%,  thus  (1)  : — 


.««    fe 


PARTICIPANT. 


655 


and  that  the  prime  tones  continue  sounding 
without  interruption.  Hence  when  c'  and  f'% 
are  simple  tones  they  give  no  beats,  and  in  fact 
form  as  smooth  a  combination  as  c'  and  /'. 
This  theory  has  been  carefully  verified  by 
Dr.  Preyer.  He  used  tuning-forks  having  from 
1000  to  2000  vibrations  per  second ;  and  by  bow- 
ing them  in  such  a  manner  as  to  get  practically 
simple  tones,  he  found  that  5  :  7,  10  :  13,  14  :  17, 
and  many  like  intervals  were  pronounced  by 
musicians  to  be  consonant.  By  stronger  bow- 
ing the  upper  partial  and  resultant  tones  were 
brought  out,  and  then  these  intervals  were  im- 
mediately felt  to  be  dissonant.  In  the  consonant 
intervals,  on  the  other  hand,  the  upper  partials 
either  coincide  and  give  no  beats,  or  are  too  far 
apart  to  beat  roughly.  Thus  in  the  Fourth  c'-f 
the  affinity  between  the  two  notes  depends  on 
their  possessing  the  same  partial  c"\  and  this 
relation  is  but  slightly  disturbed  by  the  dis- 
sonance of  g"  and/"  (see  (2)  above). 

This  theory  also  explains  why  such  intervals  as 
11:13  are  excluded  from  music.  They  are  not 
consonant,  for  though  they  have  a  common  partial 
it  is  high  and  feeble,  and  to  get  to  it  we  have 
to  pass  over  a  mass  of  beating  intervals.  Nor 
are  11  :  13  connected  by  a  series  of  consonant 


intervals  as  is  the  case  with  the  dissonances  in 
ordinary  use.  For  example,  C  and  F  |  are  linked 
together  thus,  C-G-D-Ffl,  or  thus,  C-E-B-Fj. 

Though  the  partial  tones  are  generally  heard 
simultaneously,  they  are  sometimes  separated  by 
being  made  to  traverse  a  considerable  distance 
before  reaching  the  ear.  Regnault *  found  that 
when  a  compound  tone  is  sent  through  a  long 
tube,  the  prime  is  heard  first,  then  the  2nd 
partial,  then  the  3rd,  and  so  on.  He  also  noted 
that  the  velocity  of  sound  increases  or  diminishes 
with  its  intensity.  Hence,  as  the  lower  partials 
are  usually  the  louder,  they  arrive  before  the 
higher. 

The  word  'harmonics'  was  formerly  (and  is 
sometimes  even  now)  used  to  mean  partial  tones. 
But  a  harmonic  produced  by  touching  a  string 
at  one  of  its  nodes,  or  by  increasing  the  force  of 
wind  in  an  organ  pipe,  is  not  a  simple  tone. 
If  we  touch  the  string  at  1  of  its  length  we 
quench  the  1st,  2nd,  4th,  5th,  7th,  etc.  tones,  but 
leave  the  3rd,  6th,  9th,  12th,  etc.  unchecked. 
Hence  it  is  proposed  by  Mr.  Ellis  to  limit  the  word 
'harmonics  to  its  primary  sense  of  a  series  of 
compound  tones  whose  primes  are  as  1,  2,  3,  4,  5, 
etc.,  and  to  use  the  words  '  partial  tones '  to  mean 
the  simple  tones  of  which  even  a  harmonic  is 
composed.  .  [J.L.] 

PARTICIPANT  (from  the  Lat.  participare, 
to  share  in).  One  of  the '  Regular  Modulations* 
of  the  Ecclesiastical  Modes.  [See  Modes,  the 
Ecclesiastical;  Modulations,  Regular  and 
Conceded.] 

The  Participant,  though  less  significant,  as  a 
distinguishing  feature  of  the  Mode,  than  either 
the  Final,  the  Dominant,  or  the  Mediant,  is  of 
far  greater  importance  than  any  of  the  Conceded 
Modulations.  In  the  Authentic  Modes,  its 
normal  position  lies,  either  between  the  Final 
and  the  Mediant,  or  between  the  Mediant 
and  the  Dominant ;  with  the  proviso,  that, 
should  two  notes  intervene  between  the  Medi- 
ant and  Dominant,  either  of  them  may  be  used 
as  the  Participant,  at  will.  In  the  Plagal 
Modes  it  is  always  the  lowest  note  of  the  Scale, 
unless  that  note  should  be  B  or  F;  in  which 
cases,  C  or  G  are  substituted,  in  order  to  avoid 
the  False  Relation  of  Mi  contra  Fa  :  it  is  there- 
fore always  coincident,  in  name,  with  the  Au- 
thentic Dominant,  though  it  is  not  always  found 
in  the  same  Octave.  In  some  cases,  however, 
either  Octave  may  be  used  indiscriminately  as 
the  Plagal  Participant ;  and  even  the  choice  of 
some  other  note  is  sometimes  accorded. 

The  following  Table  exhibits,  at  one  view,  the 
Participants  of  all  the  Modes  in  general  use, 
both  Authentic  and  Plagal. 

Mode   I.  G.          Mode   V.  G.  Mode  IX.  D. 

„      II.  AJ.  As.      ,,     VI.  C.  n        X.  W.  E*. 

„    III.  A.    B.       „   VII.  A.  »   XIII.  D. 

„    IV.  C.   F.       „VUI.  D«.  „    XIV.  G*. 

In  some  few  of  the  Authentic  Modes,  and  in 


>  Helmholtz,  ,8eni»tion«  of  Tone,'  p.  721. 

*  The  lowest  note  of  the  Mode. 

*  The  highest  note  of  the  Mode. 


656 


PARTICIPANT. 


all  the  Plagal  forms,  the  Participant  is  used  as 
an  Absolute  Initial;  and,  by  virtue  of  this 
privilege,  it  may  be  used  as  the  first  note  of  a 
Plain  Chaunt  Melody  of  any  kind.  In  all  cases 
it  may  begin  or  end  any  of  the  intermediate 
phrases  of  a  Melody,  and  may  even  begin  the 
last ;  but  it  can  never  end  the  concluding 
phrase.  This  rule  is  not  even  broken  in  those 
Endings  of  the  Gregorian  Tones  for  the  Psalms 
which  close  upon  the  Participant — such  as  the 
Second  Ending  of  the  First  Tone  :  for,  in  these 
cases,  the  real  close  is  found  in  the  Antiphon, 
which  always  terminates  upon  the  Final  of  the 
Mode.  [W.S.R.] 

PARTIE,  PARTITA.  The  German  and 
Italian  forms  respectively  of  a  name  said  to 
have  originated  about  the  beginning  of  the  17th 
century,  with  the  Kunst-  or  Stadt-Pfeifers,  or 
town  musicians,  and  given  by  them  to  the  collec- 
tions of  dance-tunes  which  were  played  conse- 
cutively, and  which  afterwards  were  taken  to  form 
suites.  Bach  uses  the  name  in  two  senses ;  first, 
as  the  equivalent  of  'Suite'  in  the  Six  Partitas  for 
Clavier ;  and  second,  for  three  sets  of  Variations 
on  Chorales  for  Organ,  viz.  those  on  '  Christ,  der 
du  bist  der  helle  Tag'  (7  Partitas,  including  the 
theme  itself),  on  '  0  Gott,  du  frommer  Gott ' 
(9  Partitas  including  the  theme),  and  on  'Sey 
gegriisset  Jesu  gutig'  (11  Partitas  or  varia- 
tions, exclusive  of  the  theme  itself).  He  also 
wrote  three  Partitas  (in  the  Suite-form)  for  the 
lute.  The  name  has  very  seldom  been  used 
since  Bach ;  the  chief  instance  of  its  occur- 
rence is  in  the  original  title  of  Beethoven's 
Octuor,  'Parthia  in  Es'  (see  vol.  ii.  p.  49a  a). 
But  in  the  modern  rage  for  revivals  it  may  pos- 
sibly reappear.  [J.A.F.M.] 

PARTIMENTI,  'divisions.'  Exercises  in 
florid  counterpoint,  written  generally,  but  not 
always,  on  a  figured  bass,  for  the  purpose  of  cul- 
tivating the  art  of  accompanying  or  of  playing  at 
sight  from  a  figured  bass.  [J.A.F.M.] 

PARTITION  and  PARTITUR,  the  French 
and  German  terms  for  what  in  English  is  termed 
the  Score  ;  that  is,  the  collection  in  one  page  of 
the  separate  parts  of  a  piece  of  music,  arranged 
in  order  from  top  to  bottom.  When  all  the  parts, 
instrumental,  or  instrumental  and  vocal,  are 
given,  it  is  called  'Partition  d'orchestre' — 
'  Full  score.'  When  the  voice  parts  and  a  PF. 
arrangement  are  given,  'Partition  de  Piano' — 
'  Short  score,'  or  '  Vocal  score.'  For  the  various 
modes  of  placing  the  parts  see  Score.  [G.] 

PART  MUSIC,  a  collection  of  vocal  music 
made  by  Mr.  John  Hullah  for  the  use  of  his 
Singing  Classes,  and  published  by  John  W.  Par- 
ker, London.  It  consists  of  three  series — '  Class  A 
for  S.  A.T.  B.'  (vol i.  1842,  vol  ii.  1845) ;  'Class 
B  for  the  voices  of  women  and  children '  (1845) ; 
'Class  C  for  the  voices  of  men'  (1845).  Each 
series  contains  sacred  and  secular  pieces.  Each 
was  printed  both  in  score  and  in  separate  parts, 
in  royal  8vo.,  and  the  whole  forms  a  collection 
unexampled  (at  least  in  England),  for  extent, 


PART  MUSIC. 

excellence,  and  variety,  and  for  the  clearness  and 
accuracy  of  its  production. 

CLASS  A. 

Hosanna    (Canon).      T.  F.  W»l- 

misley. 
Help  us,  O  God.    Durante. 
The  daj  must  come.    N.  Declus. 
Hear  me  when  I   call   (Canon). 

W.  Horsley. 
Sanctus.    0.  Gibbons. 
Let  all  the  people.    Palestrlna. 
Blessed  be  God.    Greene. 
O  God,  Thou  art.    Purcell. 
Mock   not  God's  name  (Canon), 

Tye. 
The  Toice  of  Joy.    Jannaconl. 

2.  Secular. 
Vol.  I. 
Rule  Britannia.    A  me. 
All  ye  who  music  love.    Donate 
Hard  by  a  fountain.    Waelient. 
Ye  spotted  snakes.    Stevens. 
Flow  O  my  tears.    John  Bennet. 
The  Walts.    Savllle. 
Come  let  us  all.    Atterbury. 
Long  may  life  and  health. 
Freemen  rejoice.    Purcell. 
Hall  hallowed  fane.  Mornington. 
Crabbed  age  and  youth.    Stevens. 
In  going  to  my  lonely  bed.    l£d- 

wardes. 
Ah  me !  where  Is.    F.  Anerlo. 
Nymphs  of  the  forest.  W.  Horsley. 
0  never  fear  though  rain  be  falling. 
May  day.    Neithart. 
Solfeggio.    Scarlatti. 
Lady  see !  Marenzlo. 
How  sleep  the  brave.    Dr.  Cook* 
Hark   the   village   maids.     Che- 

rublnl. 
All  hail  Britannia.    Lottl. 
Upon  the  poplar  bough.    Paxton. 
Since  first  I  saw.    Ford. 
How  glad  with  smiles.    Gluck. 
Sing  a  song  of  sixpence.    Mao- 

farren. 
Happy  are  they.    Paxton. 
See  from  his  ocean  bed.    V.  KufTo. 
Daybreak.    Moscheles. 
The  hardy  Norseman's,  rearsall. 
Come  again  sweet  love.  Dowlaud. 
In  paper  case.    Dr.  Cooke. 
Harvest  time. 

Thy  voice  O  Harmony.    Webb». 
Awake  JSollan  lyre.    Danby. 
My  lady  is  as  fair.    J.  Bennet. 
Sing  loud  a  joyful.    Gluck. 
April    is  In    my    mistress'  face. 

Morley. 

Vol.  II. 
The  Joyous  birds.    B.  Sponton*. 
Here  in  cool  grot.    Mornington. 
Girls  and  boys.    Macfarren. 
Swiftly  from  the  mountain's  brow. 

Webbe. 
Our  native  land.    G.  Relchardt. 
Like  to  the  grass.    Benedict. 
Ode  to  Spring.    Paxton. 
Come  shepherds.    J.  Bennet. 
Hark,  hark,  the  lark.    Dr.  Cooks. 
Come  my  friends.    W.  Horsley. 
0  how  sweet  'tis.    Sir  J.  Rogers. 
Long  live   the    Queen    (Canon). 

Boyee. 
Come  shepherds.    Grast. 
Dulce  Domum.    J.  Reading. 
Thyrsis  when  he  left  me.  Callcott. 
Which  Is  the  properest  da}'.  Arne. 
Albion,    thy    sea-encircled    isle. 

Dr.  Cooke. 
Pack  clouds  away.    Hullah. 
Breathe  soft  ye  winds.    Webbe. 
Amid  the  din.    Gluck. 
Who  will  bring  back.   G.  de  Vert. 
Hark,  hark  a  merry  note. 
Thyrsis  steepest  thou?  J.  rennet. 
Unto  the  merry  greenwood. 
Dance  we  so  gaily.    F.  Schubert. 
Blow,  blow,   thou  winter   wind. 

Stevens. 
Awake  sweet  Love.    Dowland. 
Twas  on  a  bank.    Hullah. 
From  Oberon.    Stevens. 
Thus  saith  my  Chloris.    Wilbye). 
Now ,  0  now.    Dowland. 
Happy  are  we  met.    Webbe. 


1.  Sacred. 
Vol.  I. 
God  save  the  Queen. 
Lord  for  Thy  tender.    Farrant. 
With  one  consent  (Psalm  100). 
O  Lord  the  maker.    Henry  VIII. 
Sanctus  and  Responses.    Tallis. 

0  praise  ye  the  Lord.  (Psalm  149) 

1  will  give  thanks.    Palestrlna. 
Since  on  the  cross  (Ein  feste  Burg), 

Luther. 
God  Is  gone  up.    Croft. 
When  as  we  sat  in  Babylon.    (Pa 

1S7). 
O  bejoyful.    Palestrlna. 
Ye  gates  lift  up  (Psalm  24). 
The  day  is  past.    Hullah. 
Thou    that    from    Thy    throne. 

Haydn. 
Venlte.    Tallis. 
Thou  art  beautiful.    G.  Croce. 
0  Lord,  another  day.    M.  Haydn. 
O  Lord,  1  will  (Fs.  34).   H.  Lawes. 
Praise  the  Lord.    Jer.  Clarke. 
Gloria  Patri  (Canon).    Purcell. 
Sanctus.  Creyghton. 
Be  not  Thou  far.    Palestrlna. 
Hide  not  Thou  Thy  face.   Farrant. 

0  Jesu  Lord.    Lejeuue. 
Give  ear,  O  God.    Hlmmel. 
Praise  the  Lord.    Dr.  Child. 
Blessed  be  Thou.    Lotti. 

Forth  from  the  dark.    Rousseau. 
Almighty  God  1  Forde, 

1  will  arise.    Creyghton. 
Sing  to  the  Lord.    Tye. 
Hear  my  prayer.    M.  Haydn. 
O  King  eternal  (Fs.  8).  Croft. 
O  God  of  truth.    B.  Rogers. 

O  remember  not.    Rossini. 
Give  to  us  peace.    [Lvoff.] 
Thou  knowest,  Lord.    Purcell. 
Amen.    Dr.  Cooke. 
Sweet  day.  so  cool.  H.  Dumont. 
Go  not  far  from  me.    Zingarelli. 
O  how  amiable.    V.  Richardson. 
To  laud  the  heav'nly  King  (Ps.  148). 

Jer.  Clarke. 
Almighty  a  everlasting.   Gibbons. 
Awake  thou  that  sleepest  (Canon). 

W.  Horsley. 
Hallelujah.   Boyce. 
Vol.11. 
0  King  of  kings.    Kreutzer. 
My   soul  doth  magnify  (Chant). 

Dr.  Cooke. 
Responses.    Dr.  Child. 
O  come  ye  faithful  ( Adeste  fideles). 
Hosanna  (Canon).    Berg. 
Amen.    Neukomm. 

0  Lord  grant  the  king.    Child. 
Ut  queant  (Canon).    Harrington. 
Sanctus.    Rogers. 

Why  do  the  heathen.    Palestrlna. 

1  will  magnify  Thee  (Chant).   P. 

Humphrey. 
Plead  Thou  my  cause.    G.  Croce. 
Ponder  my  words.    Zingarelli. 
Awake  my  soul.    Jer.  Clarke. 
Sleep,  downy  sleep.    Do. 
Thou    shalt  shew  me    (Canon). 

Callcott. 
My  God,  my  God.    Reynolds. 
Wherewithal  shall  a  young  man. 

Alcock. 
O  Saviour  1  W.  Horslev. 
O  most  merciful.    Hullah. 
Praise  the  Lord.    Gossec. 
Sanctus.    Bassani. 
We  will  rejoice.    Croft. 
0  Lord  in  Thee  (Canon).   Paxton. 
Try  me  0  God.    Nares. 

0  Lord  teach  us  (Canon). 
Praise  ye  the  Lord.    Brassettl. 

1  will  remember.    G.  Croce. 
Peace  be  to  this  habitation.    M. 

Haydn. 
Hallelujah  (Canon).    E.  Bevln. 
All  people  that  on  earth.    (Old 

100th). 
Praise  theLord  (Canon).  Callcott. 
Behold  now.    Rogers. 
The  Lord  hear  thee.    Blow. 


PART  MUSIC. 


PART-SONG. 


657 


1.  Sacred. 
God  save  the  Queen. 
Hallelujah.    Boyce. 
Shew  me  Thy  ways.    Palestrina. 
Not  unto  us.    Salleri. 
My  shepherd  is  the  Lord  (Ps.  23). 
Come  let  us  strive  to  Join. 
It  is  a  good  and  pleasant  thing 

(P».  92). 
Lord  dismiss  us. 
O  Absalom  my  son.    C.  King. 
Servants  of  God.    C.  Barbice. 
From  everlasting.    Webbe. 
Hear  my  crying.    Palestrina. 
Jehovah.  Thou    my    maker    art 

(Ps.  119). 
Prostrate  before  Thee.    Carafa. 
O  all  ye  works  or  the  Lord. 
Stand  up  and  bless.    Immler. 
He  hath  put  down.    Palestrina. 
Benedictus.    Chant. 
My  voice  went  up  (Ps.  67). 
Christ  whose  glory  fills  the  skies. 
Great  God  what  do  I.    Luther. 
The  midnight  cry.    Glasse. 
Be  merciful.    Jackson. 
Unto  Thee  0  God.    Hayes. 
Great  God  of  hosts.    Pleyel. 
And  His  mercy.    Palestrina. 
Thee  will  I  lore.   Hofmelster. 
0  sing  unto  God. 


Sacred. 
God  save  the  Queen. 
Non  nobis.    W  Byrd. 
Amen.    Dr.  Cooke. 
How  blest  the  man  (Ps.l). 
Jerusalem.    Boselngrave. 
Sanctus.    Jer.  Clarke. 
And  now  the  sun's.    Berner. 
My  soul  with  patience  (Ps.  130). 
Glory  be  to  God  on  high.    Boyce. 
O  God  that  madest.    Hullah. 
Hallelujah  (8  v.).  Hayes. 
Jehovah, O  Jehovah.    Spaeth. 
Cantate  (Chant). 
In  sleep's  serene  oblivion.    Freck. 
Gloria  In  Excelsis. 

0  celebrate  Jehovah's  (Ps.  107). 
Soft  slumbers  now.    Miller. 
Haste  Thee  O  God.    Cirri. 
Heaven  and  earth. 

He  hath  filled.    Palestrina. 
Lord  how  are  they  increased. 

1  will  praise  the  Name.    Hayes. 
I  will  be  glad.    W.  Byrd. 

O  Thou,  to  whose  all-searching. 
Who  are  these  like  stars.    Niigeli. 
Draw  nigh  unto.    Palestrina. 
Not  unto  us  O  Lord.    Hayes. 
Let  hymns  of  praise. 
Lord  now  we  part.    Bolle. 
Make  a  joyful  noise.    Carlssiml. 
Glory  to  Thee  my  God  this  night. 


I  will  always  give  thanks. 
Be  glad  O  ye  righteous. 

2.  Secular. 
Child  of  the  sun.    Kreutzer. 
Come,  follow  me.    Danby. 
Come  sprightly  mirth.    Hilton. 
Dear  pity.    Wilbye. 
Fugato  from  Les  Solfeges  d'  Italic. 
Gentle  moon.    Do. 
Go.  gentle  breezes.    Do. 
Hail  green  fields  and  shady  woods. 

Dr.  Greene. 
Heigh  ho.  to  the  greenwood.  Byrd. 
Hot  cross  buns.    Atterbury. 
Huntsman,  rest.    Dr.  Arne. 
May-day.    W.  Horsley. 
Prythee.   do  not   chide    mo    so. 

Mozart. 
Rule,  Britannia.    Dr.  Arne. 
See,    where    the    morning    sun. 

Mozart. 
Solfeggio  fromLes  Solfeges  d'ltalle. 
The  flowers  their  buds.    Mozart. 
The  load  stars.    Shield. 
The  sunbeams  streak.    Pohlenz. 
Though  I  soon  must  leave.  Berg. 
Three  blind  mice. 
Weep  o'er  his  tomb.    Hayes. 
When  the  rosy  morn  appearing. 
Why  do  you  sigh  ?    J.  Bennett. 


Secular. 
The  Smith.  Kreutzer. 
Past  twelve  o'clock.   Let's  have  ft 

peal.    Bow  the  boat. 
St.  Martin's  bells.    Lldartl. 
How  exquisite  the  feeling.   L.  Do 

Call. 
Halcyon  days.    Dr.  Cooke. 
With  horns  and  hounds.   Atter- 
bury. 
Hal  fan  hour  past  twelve.  Marella. 
The  war-cry  Is  sounding.  Werner. 
Come,  come,  all  noble  souls.    Dr. 

B.  Rogers. 
Fairest  Isle.    Pnrcell. 
To  the  old,  long  life.    Webbe. 
Clad  in  springtide  beauty. 
When   for    the    world's    repose. 

Mornlngton. 
Come  let  us  all.    Hilton. 
How  sweet    in    the    woodlands. 

Harrington. 
Would    you    know    my    Celia's 

charms?  Webbe. 
How  sweet,  how  fresh !  Paxton.' 
Well  done!    Come  let  us  singl 

Whitesand!  Hot  mutton  pies  I 
The  cloud-capt  towers.  Stevens. 
You  gentlemen  of  England.    Dr. 

Callcott. 
Rule  Britannia.    Arne. 
fawning  catch.   Harrington. 


Class  A  was  republished  in  1868,  in  score 
and  parts,  under  the  editor's  superintendence, 
by  Messrs.  Longmans,  in  a  larger  size  though 
smaller  type  than  before.  A  few  of  the  original 
pieces  were  omitted,  and  the  following  were 
added,  chiefly  from  Mr.  Hullah 's  '  Vocal  Scores.' 


Sacred. 
Credo.    Lottl. 
O  remember.    Haeser. 
Who  is   the  king?  (Canon).    Mf 

Murdie. 
Like  as  the  hart.    B.  Klein. 
Haste  Thee  0  God.    ZlngarellL 
O  magnify  the  Lord.    Spohr. 
To  Thee  my  God.    C.  Vervollle. 
Methlnks  I  bear.    Crotch. 
Praise  the   Lord   (Canon).    T.A, 

Walmlslev. 
The  Lord  Is  King.    Bolle. 
O  Saviour  of  the  world.  Palestrina. 
1'gr  God  is  the  King   (Canon). 

E.J.Hopkins. 
O  Lord  Increase.    0.  Gibbons. 
Pater  noster.    Homlllus. 

VOL.  II.  FT.  12. 


Secular. 
Come  live  with  me.    Sterndale 

Bennett. 
Music  when  soft  voices.   Weber. 
Softly,    softly,    blow   ye  breezes. 

Tieck. 
Song  should  breathe.    Hullah. 
See  the  chariot  at  hand.   Horsley. 
Slender's  ghost.    M.  Bock. 
Come  follow  me.    O.  May. 
Hall,  blushing  goddess.    Paxton. 
Best  sweet  nymph.    Pllklngton. 
Hark  the  hollow  woods.     J.  S. 

Smith. 
When    the  toll  of  day.    K.J.  S. 

Stevens. 
As  it  fell  upon  a  day.   Mornlngton. 


[G.] 


PART-SONG.  (Ger.  Mehrstimmiges  Lied; 
Ft.  Chanson  a  parties.)  A  composition  for  at 
least  three  voices  in  harmony,  and  without  ac- 
companiment. This  definition  must  of  course 
exclude  many  compositions  frequently  styled  part- 
songs,  and  perhaps  so  named  by  their  composers, 
but  which  would  be  better  described  under  some 
other  heading.  For  example,  the  two-part  songs 
of  Mendelssohn,  Rubinstein,  and  other  modern 
musicians  (Zweistimmige  Lieder)  are,  more  pro- 
perly speaking,  duets.  [See  Duet,  Trio,  Quartet.] 
The  term  'part  song'  will  here  be  employed  ex- 
clusively as  the  proper  signification  of  one  of 
the  three  forms  of  secular  unaccompanied  choral 
music;  the  others  being  the  madrigal  and  the  glee. 
Unlike  either  of  its  companions,  its  etymology  is 
plain  and  simple,  being  neither  of  obscure  origin, 
as  in  the  instance  of  the  Madrigal,  nor  of  mis- 
leading sense,  as  in  that  of  the  Glee. 

Before  proceeding  to  enquire  into  the  origin 
and  growth  of  the  part-song,  it  will  be  as  well 
to  note  the  special  characteristics  by  which  it  is 
distinguished  from  other  forms  of  composition. 
The  words  to  which  the  music  is  set  may  be 
either  amatory,  heroic,  patriotic,  didactic,  or  even 
quasi-sacred  in  character,  e.  g.  Mendelssohn's 
'  Morgengebet '  (op.  48,  no.  5),  and  '  Sonntags- 
morgen'  (op.  77,  no.  1)  ;  this  wide  choice  of  sub- 
jects giving  the  composer  scope  for  variety  in  his 
music  which  the  somewhat  rigid  form  of  the  com- 
position might  otherwise  seem  to  deny.  Rhyming 
verse1  is  ail-but  essential,  and  though  the  question 
of  metre  is  to  a  certain  extent  an  open  one,  iambics 
are  employed  in  the  vast  majority  of  instances. 
The  first  requisite  of  the  music  is  well-defined 
rhythm,  and  the  second  unyielding  homophony. 
The  phrases  should  be  scarcely  less  measured  and 
distinct  than  those  of  a  Chorale,  though  of  course 
in  style  the  music  may  be  lively  or  sedate,  gay 
or  pathetic.  Tunefulness  in  the  upper  part  or 
melody  is  desirable,  and  the  attention  should  not 
be  withdrawn  by  elaborate  devices  of  an  imitative 
or  contrapuntal  nature  in  the  harmonic  substruc- 
ture. It  is  obvious  that  if  these  principles  are 
to  be  observed  in  the  composition  of  a  part-song 
— and  any  wide  divergence  from  them  would 
invalidate  the  claim  of  a  piece  to  the  title — 
it  must,  as  a  work  of  art,  be  considered  as  dis- 
tinctly inferior  to  either  the  madrigal  or  the 
glee.  And  it  is  worthy  of  surprise  and  perhaps 
of  regret  that  while  the  forms  of  instrumental 
composition  are  constantly  showing  a  tendency 
to  move  in  the  direction  of  increased  elaboration, 
choral  music  should  exhibit  a  decided  retrogres- 
sion from  the  standard  attained  in  the  16th  and 
17th  centuries.  It  has  even  been  observed  by 
those  who  regard  with  some  distrust,  if  not  with 
actual  dislike,  the  immense  and  ever-increasing 
influence  of  Germany  in  modern  musical  impulse, 
that  the  existing  popularity  of  the  part-song,  in 
so  far  as  it  is  detrimental  to  the  interests  of 
higher  forms  of  vocal  music,  is  one  of  the  baneful 
products  of  this  Teutonic  supremacy.  But  the 
statement  that  the  part-song  is  fundamentally 

1  Horace's  Ode  '  Integer  vitee '  has  been  set  by  Flemmlng  (Orpheus. 
No.  S),  and  '  Fauue,  Nympharum '  by  Mr.  Hullah. 

Uu 


658 


PART-SONG. 


German  in  its  inception  must  be  accepted  with 
considerable  reservation.  If  we  go  back  three 
centuries,  that  is  to  the  zenith  of  the  madrigalian 
era,  we  shall  find  examples  perfect  in  every 
respect  except  in  name ;  and  it  is  to  Italian  com- 
posers that  we  must  look  for  the  earliest  speci- 
mens of  the  genus.  The  best-known  of  Costanzo 
Festa's  madrigals,  'Down  in  a  flowery  vale,'  is  to 
all  intents  and  purposes  a  part-song,  allowance 
being  made  for  certain  peculiarities  of  tonality 
and  rhythm  common  to  music  of  that  period. 
Gastoldi,  who  flourished  a  few  years  later,  has 
left  similar  examples  in  his  •  Balletti  da  suonare," 
two  of  which  in  their  English  versions — 'Maidens 
fair  of  Mantua's  city '  and  '  Soldiers,  brave  and 
gallant  be' — are  popular  to  this  day.  Thomas 
Morley  seems  to  have  been  the  earliest  among 
English  composers  to  take  advantage  of  this  style 
of  vocal  writing.  His  canzonets  and  ballets, 
written  in  obvious  imitation  of  those  of  Gastoldi, 
include  perfect  examples  of  the  part-song  as  we 
understand  it.  'My  bonny  lass  she  smileth* 
and  'Now  is  the  month  of  Maying,'  maintain 
their  position  in  the  repertory  of  choral  societies 
by  reason  of  their  crisp,  well-marked  rhythm, 
and  simple  pleasing  melody.  John  Douland  (or 
Dowland),  whose  genius  was  more  tender  and 
lyrical  than  that  of  Morley,  has  left  some  exqui- 
site specimens  of  the  amatory  part-song  in  his 
'  Awake,  sweet  love,'  '  Come  again,  sweet  love,' 
and  '  Now,  0  now  I  needs  must  part.'  Compared 
with  these  the  canzonets  of  Thomas  Ford,  who 
was  contemporary  with  Douland,  are  greatly  in- 
ferior in  grace,  subtlety  of  expression,  and  pure 
poetic  feeling.  Thomas  Ravenscroft  and  Weelkes, 
among  other  composers  of  the  madrigalian  epoch, 
may  be  included  among  those  who  contributed 
to  a  form  of  art  too  generally  accepted  as  the 
musical  product  of  the  1 9th  century.  The  blight- 
ing influence  of  the  Puritans  proved  fatal  to  every 
description  of  musical  work  in  England,  and  when 
secular  part-music  again  occupied  the  attention 
of  composers,  it  took  the  form  of  the  glee  rather 
than  that  of  the  madrigal  or  the  part-song.  In 
the  works  of  many  composers  between  1650  and 
1 750,  we  may  of  course  discover  isolated  pieces 
in  which  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the  part- 
song  are  present.  This  may  be  said  of  Purcell's 
'  Come  if  you  dare '  and  '  Come  unto  these  yel- 
low sands,'  and  of  Handel's  '  See  the  conquering 
hero  comes,'  to  quote  some  of  the  best-known 
instances.  But  practically  the  18th  century  may 
be  passed  over  entirely  in  the  consideration  of 
our  present  subject,  and  the  impression  generally 
prevalent  that  the  part-song  is  of  wholly  modern 
growth  is  explained  by  the  intervention  of  this 
long  and  barren  epoch.  Another  impetus  from 
abroad  was  required,  and  eventually  it  came, 
only  not  as  before  from  Italy,  but  from  Ger- 
many. The  latter  country,  as  rich  in  national 
and  traditionary  music  as  England  is  poor,  had, 
in  its  Volkslieder  of  ancient  origin,  and  in  the 
almost  equally  representative  songs  of  Arndt, 
Kbrner,  and  others,  the  foundation  on  which 
to  build  ready  to  hand.  [See  Volkslied.] 
The   works    of   Haydn,   Mozart,   and    Beetho- 


PART-SONG. 

ven1  include  very  few  compositions  that  may 
be  rightly  placed  under  the  heading  of  part-songs ; 
but  that  most  distinctively  German  composer,  We- 
ber, has  produced  some  spirited  examples  in  his 
'  Bright  sword  of  liberty,'  '  Lutzow's  wild  hunt,' 
and  the  Hunting  Chorus  in  '  Der  Freischutz.' 
Schubert  was  more  prolific  in  this  branch  of  art. 
The  catalogue  of  his  compositions  contains  some 
50  pieces  of  the  kind,  of  which  22  are  for  un- 
accompanied male  voices,  and  only  two  for  mixed 
voices.  Many  of  the  former  display  his  genius 
in  a  favourable  light,  and  but  for  the  fact  that 
our  choral  societies  are  mostly  of  mixed  voices, 
would  doubtless  be  better  known  than  they  are 
in  this  country.2  The  establishment  of  Lieder- 
tafeln  and  Gesangvereine,  answering  in  some 
respects  to  our  older  glee  clubs,  went  on  rapidly 
about  the  period  of  which  we  are  speaking,  and 
of  course  led  to  the  production  of  a  large  quantity 
of  part-music,  most  of  which  it  must  be  confessed 
had  but  little  value,  the  verses  being  doggrel 
and  the  music  infinitely  inferior  to  that  of  the 
best  English  glee-writers.  The  exceptions  noted 
above  were  not  more  than  sufficient  to  prove  the 
rule,  until  the  advent  of  another  great  genius, 
whose  works  of  every  description  were  destined 
to  exercise  an  almost  overwhelming  influence 
over  musical  thought  and  action  in  this  country. 
We  refer  to  Felix  Mendelssohn  Bartholdy.  It 
is  not  too  much  to  say  that  his  '  songs  for  singing 
in  the  open  air,'  so  redolent  of  blue  sky  and  sun- 
shine and  nature's  freshness,  worked  a  revolu- 
tion, or,  to  speak  more  accurately,  inaugurated 
a  revival,  in  the  choral  music  of  England, 
the  influence  of  which  is  ever  widening  and  ex- 
tending. The  appearance  of  these  delightful 
works  was  coeval  with  the  commencement  of 
that  movement  which  has  since  resulted  in  the 
establishment  of  choral  societies  and  more  modest 
singing  classes  in  every  district  throughout  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  land.  The  study  of 
these  fascinating  little  gems  led  to  the  search 
after  similar  treasures  of  home  manufacture  which 
had  been  half  forgotten  under  the  accumulated 
dust  of  centuries,  and  it  also  induced  musicians 
without  number  to  essay  a  style  of  composition 
in  which  success  seemed  to  be  a  comparatively 
easy  matter.  For  the  space  of  a  generation 
the  part-song  has  occupied  a  position  second 
only  to  the  ballad  as  the  expression  of  musical 
ideas  in  a  form  suited  to  the  popular  taste. 
Before  proceeding  to  take  note  of  those  who 
have  followed  most  successfully  Mendelssohn's 
lead,  it  is  necessary  to  revert  for  an  instant  to 
Germany.  Robert  Schumann  wrote  about  a 
dozen  Lieder  for  male  voices,  and  nearly  double 
that  number  for  mixed  voices,  but  the  strange 
prejudice  which  so  long  existed  against  this 
composer  has  even  to  the  present  time  proved 
fatal  to  the  popularisation  of  these  works,  which 
deserve  to  be  in  the  repertory  of  every  tolerably 


1  'Basch  tritt  der  Tod,'  a  S-part  song  drawn  from  him  by  the 
sudden  death  of  a  friend,  is  Beethoven's  only  experiment  iu  this 
direction. 

a  His  setting  of  '  Wer  nur  die  Sehnsucht  kennt,'  as  a  quintet  fix 
mala  voices,  is  a  composition  of  astonishing  beaut;  and  pathos. 


PART-SONG. 

advanced  choral  society.  Less  abounding  in 
geniality  and  inviting  melody  than  those  of 
Mendelssohn,  they  breathe  the  very  spirit  of 
poetry,  and  are  instinct  with  true  German  feeling. 
Of  other  foreign  composers  who  have  contributed 
towards  the  enrichment  of  this  form  of  art,  we  may 
mention  Ferdinand  Hiller,  Robert  Franz,  Midler, 
Seyfried,  Werner,  Kiicken,  Franz  Abt,  Truhn, 
Otto,  Raff,  and  Brahms.  In  England  part-song- 
making  proceeds  apace,  and  no  material  modi- 
fication of  the  Mendelssohnian  model  is  as  yet 
apparent,  nor  have  many  of  the  examples  by  the 
composers  just  enumerated  attained  any  general 
popularity  among  us.  But  several  of  our  native 
musicians  have  succeeded  in  rivalling  Mendelssohn 
himself,  at  least  temporarily,  in  the  affections  of 
the  public.  Sterndale  Bennett  left  but  three  part- 
songs,  '  Sweet  stream  that  winds,'  'Of  all  the  arts,' 
and  '  Come  live  with  me,'  of  which  the  last  is  an 
established  favourite.  R.  L.  de  Pearsall,  whose 
madrigals  combine  so  artistically  the  quaintness 
of  the  old  style  with  modern  grace  and  elegance, 
has  also  written  some  charming  part-songs,  of 
which  'The  Hardy  Norseman'  and  '0  who  will 
o'er  the  downs  so  free,'  are  perhaps  the  most 
popular,  but  by  no  means  the  best.  His  song  in 
ten  parts,  '  Sir  Patrick  Spens,'  is  a  wonderfully 
spirited  and  effective  piece;  and  for  genuine 
humour  '  Who  shall  win  my  lady  fair,'  may  pair 
off  with  Ravenscroft's  quaint  old  ditty,  '  In  the 
merry  spring.'  In  a  quieter  vein  and  beautifully 
melodious  are  'Why  with  toil,'  'When  last  I 
strayed,'  '  Purple  glow,'  and  '  Adieu,  my  native 
shore.'  Henry  Smart  wrote  several  pleasing  pieces 
of  this  kind— of  which  'The  waves'  reproof  is 
one  of  the  finest — but  he  failed  as  regards  dis- 
tinctiveness of  character,  and  it  is  unnecessary  to 
quote  any  others  as  being  representative  of  the 
species.  Several  living  composers  have  achieved 
excellent  results.  Mr.  Joseph  Barnby's  '  Sweet 
and  low '  is  perhaps  the  best  of  the  many  settings 
of  Tennyson's  words,  and  Mr.  Henry  Leslie's 
'  The  Pilgrims '  and  '  Resurgam '  are  exquisite 
examples  of  the  sacred  part-song.  Ciro  Pinsuti, 
who  may  be  almost  claimed  as  an  English  com- 
poser, has  contributed  some  valued  items  to  the 
national  collection.  His  '  Spring  Song '  is  a  suc- 
cessful imitation  of  the  Mendelssohn  Friihlings- 
lieder,  and  for  delicacy  and  sentiment  'In  this 
hour  of  softened  splendour '  deserves  high  com- 
mendation. Mr.  Arthur  Sullivan's  'The  long 
day  closes '  is  in  a  similar  vein ;  '  Joy  to  the 
victors'  and  '0  hush  thee,  my  babie *  are  only 
two  out  of  many  bright  and  tuneful  songs.  Yet 
more  spirited  are  Mr.  Walter  Macfarren's  '  You 
stole  my  love'  and  'Up,  up,  ye  dames,'  while 
the  compositions  of  Mr.  Samuel  Reay  are  on  the 
whole  more  tender  and  graceful.  Mr.  J.  L.  Hatton 
has  devoted  himself  extensively  to  this  field  of 
musical  labour,  some  of  his  compositions  for  men's 
voices,  such  as  '  The  Tar's  song/  '  When  even- 
ing's twilight,'  'Summer  eve,'  and  'Beware,' 
having  gained  extensive  popularity.  The  Shake- 
speare songs  of  Professor  G.  A.  Macfarren  must 
not  fail  to  be  noted,  and  among  other  composers 
who  have  written  part-songs  of  more  or  less  merit 


PASDELOUP. 


63& 


we  may  mention  Sir  Julius  Benedict,  Dr.  Henry 
Hiles,  Mr.  J.  B.  Calkin,  and  Mr.  A.  R.  Gaul. 
The  growth  of  Orpheonist  Societies  in  France 
has  of  course  resulted  in  the  composition  of  a 
large  quantity  of  unaccompanied  part-music  for 
male  voices,  to  which  the  majority  of  the  best 
musicians  have  contributed.  These  works  are 
generally  more  elaborate  than  English  part-songs, 
and  the  dramatic  element  frequently  enters  prom- 
inently into  them.    [See  Orpheon.] 

It  only  remains  to  say  a  few  words  as  to  the 
performance  of  the  part-song.  Like  the  madrigal, 
and  unlike  the  glee,  the  number  of  voices  to  each 
part  may  be  multiplied  within  reasonable  limits. 
But  as  the  chief  desideratum  is  a  strict  feeling  of 
unity  among  the  performers  the  best  effects  can 
be  obtained  from  a  carefully  selected  and  well 
balanced  choir  of  1 50  to  300  voices.  The  part-song 
being  essentially  a  melody  with  choral  harmony, 
the  upper  part  is  in  one  sense  the  most  important. 
But  it  must  not  be  allowed  to  preponderate  to 
the  weakening  of  the  harmonic  structure.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  almost  inevitable  absence  of 
melody,  and  of  phrases  of  special  interest  and 
importance  in  the  middle  and  lower  parts,  may 
tend  to  engender  a  feeling  of  carelessness  among 
those  who  have  to  sing  these  parts,  which  the  con- 
ductor must  be  quick  to  detect  lest  the  ensemble 
be  marred  thereby.  The  idea  of  independence  or 
individuality,  desirable  enough  in  contrapuntal 
and  polyphonic  music,  must  here  yield  itself  to 
the  necessity  for  machine- like  precision  and  homo- 
geneity. When  all  has  been  said,  the  highest 
qualities  of  musicianship  cannot  find  fitting  ex- 
ercise in  the  part-song.  But  art  may  be  dis- 
played alike  in  the  cabinet  picture  and  in  the 
more  extended  canvas,  and  the  remark  will  ap- 
ply equally  to  the  various  phases  of  musical  thought 
and  action.  Of  the  many  collections  of  Part- 
songs  we  may  mention  Orpheus ;  and  Novello's 
Part-song  Book,  in  two  series,  containing  in  all 
338  compositions.  [H.F.F.] 

PASCAL  BRUNO.  A  romantic  opera  in 
3  acts ;  music  by  John  L.  Hatton.  Produced  at 
the  Karnthnerthor  theatre,  Vienna  ('Pasqual 
Bruno'),  March  2,  1844.  Staudigl  sang  in  it, 
and  it  was  given  thrice.  [G.] 

PASDELOUP,  Jules  Etienne,  born  in 
Paris  Sept.  15,  18 19,  gained  the  1st  prize  of  the 
Conservatoire  for  solfeggio  in  1832,  and  the  1st 
for  the  piano  in  1834.  He  then  took  lessons  in 
harmony  from  Dourlen,  and  in  composition  from 
Carafa.  Though  active  and  ambitious,  he  might 
have  had  to  wait  long  for  an  opportunity  of 
making  his  powers  known,  had  not  a  post  in  the 
Administration  des  Domaines  fallen  to  his  lot 
during  the  political  changes  of  1848,  and  enabled 
him  to  provide  for  his  family.  As  Governor  of 
the  Chateau  of  St.  Cloud,  he  was  not  only  thrown 
into  contact  with  persons  of  influence,  but  had 
leisure  at  command  for  composition.  The  gen- 
eral refusal  of  the  societies  in  Paris  to  per- 
form his  orchestral  works  had  doubtless  much 
to  do  with  his  resolve  to  found  the  'Socie'te 
des  jeuues  artistes  du  Conservatoire,'  the  first 
Uu2 


660 


PASDELOUP. 


concert  of  which  he  conducted  on  February  20, 
1 85 1.  M.  Pasdeloup  had  now  found  his  voca- 
tion, which  was  neither  that  of  a  government 
official,  nor  a  composer,  but  of  an  able  con- 
ductor, bringing  forward  the  works  of  other 
masters  native  and  foreign.  At  the  concerts 
of  the  'Socie'te'  des  jeunes  artistes'  in  the  Salle 
Herz,  Rue  de  la  Victoire,  he  produced  the 
symphonies  of  Gounod,  Lefebure-Wely,  Saint- 
Saens,  Gouvy,  Demersseman,  and  other  French 
composers,  and  there  Parisians  heard  for  the 
first  time  Mozart's  ■  Entfuhrung,'  Meyerbeer's 
'Struensee,'  and  several  of  Schumann's  standard 
works.  After  two  years  spent  in  forming  his 
young  band,1  and  struggling  against  the  in- 
difference of  the  paying  portion  of  the  public, 
M.  Pasdeloup  resolved  on  a  bold  stroke,  and 
moved  his  quarters  to  the  Cirque  d'hiver,  then 
the  Cirque  Napoleon,  where  on  October  27, 1861, 
he  opened  his  '  Concerts  populaires,'  given  every 
Sunday  at  the  same  hour  as  the  concerts  of  the 
Conservatoire.  The  striking  and  well-deserved 
success  of  these  entertainments  roused  universal 
attention,  and  procured  their  conductor  honours 
of  various  kinds.  Baron  Hausmann  had  already 
requested  him  to  organise  and  conduct  the  con- 
certs at  the  Hotel  de  Ville ;  the  Prefect  of  the 
Seine  appointed  him  one  of  the  two  directors 
of  the  Orphe"on  [Orpheon]  ;  and  M.  de  Nieuwer- 
kerke,  Surintendant  des  Beaux  Arts,  frequently 
called  upon  him  to  select  and  conduct  the  con- 
certs which  formed  the  main  attraction  of  the 
soire'es  givenby  theDirector  of  the  Museum  of  the 
Louvre.  He  also  received  the  Legion  of  Honour. 
Time  passed  on,  and  M.  Pasdeloup  increased  his 
exertions,  striving  year  by  year  to  add  fresh 
interest  to  the  '  Concerts  Populaires,'  at  which 
he  produced  much  music  previously  unknown  in 
Paris.  By  engaging  the  services  of  first-rate 
artists,  and  by  care  in  the  selection  and  exe- 
cution of  works  classical  and  modern,  he  has  done 
much  to  form  the  taste  and  enlarge  the  knowledge 
of  his  audiences,  and  has  thus  contributed  to  raise 
the  level  of  music  throughout  France. 

An  ardent  admirer  of  Wagner,  M.  Pasdeloup 
made  use  of  his  short  managership  of  the  Theatre 
Lyrique  (1868-1870)  to  produce  'Rienzi'  (April 
6,  1869).  He  undertook  this  office  on  disadvan- 
tageous terms,  and  lost  heavily  by  it.  The 
Franco-German  war  gave  a  serious  check  to  his 
career,  but  when  it  was  over  he  resumed  the 
•  Concerts  populaires,'  which  are  still  ( March 
1880)  carried  on,  with  the  aid  of  a  government 
subsidy  of  25000  fir.  But  the  '  Concerts  du  ChSte- 
let,'  and  the  numerous  'Matinees  dramatiques' 
have  drawn  off  many  of  his  old  subscribers. 
Elwart  compiled  a  history  of  the  concerts,  but  he 
does  not  go  beyond  their  first  start,  and  they 
have  now  been  in  existence  19  years.  During 
this  lengthened  period  the  indefatigable  conductor 
has  never  once  broken  faith  with  the  public,  and 
is  still  as  ardent,  as  energetic,  and  as  heartily 
devoted  to  his  art,  as  on  the  first  day  on  which 
he  held  the  baton.  [G.C.] 

»  Recruited  from  the  pupils  of  the  Conservatoire. 


PASQUINI. 

PASQUALATI,  a  name  frequently  recurring 
in  Beethoven's  life.  Ries  states-  that  Beethoven 
in  1803-4  na(l  f°ur  se*s  of  rooms  at  once.  The 
fourth,  which  had  been  taken  for  him  by  Ries,3 
was  in  a  house  on  the  Molker  Bastei,4  near  the 
Schottenthor  or  Scottish  gate,  on  the  fourth  floor, 
with  a  fine  view  over  the  glacis  towards  the 
Kahlenberg  mountains.  It  is  now  No.  8.  Bee- 
thoven frequently  left,  but  always  came  back 
again,  and  the  landlord,  Baron  Pasqualati,  used 
to  refuse  to  let  the  apartment,  saying  '  Beethoven 
is  coming  back  again,'  which  was  literally  true, 
as  we  find  him  here  in  1800,  1804  to  180S,  1S10, 
1812  to  1816.  Joseph  Benedict  Baron  von  Pas- 
qualati-Osterberg,  a  distinguished  physician  from 
Trieste,  built  the  house  (two  thrown  into  one)  in 
1795.  On  his  death  in  1799  his  property  passed 
to  hia  two  sons  and  three  daughters,  and  the 
house  was  occupied  by  the  eldest  son  Johann 
Baptist,  born  March  2, 1777,  died  April  30, 1830. 
That  Beethoven's  friendly  intercourse  with  him 
was  undisturbed  even  after  he  had  finally  left 
the  apartments,*  is  shown  by  his  letters,  which 
always  begin  with  '  Verehrter  Freund '  (Respected 
friend)  and  end  with  '  Mit  herzlicher  Hochach- 
tung'  (with  sincere  esteem).  In  his  last  illness 
Pasqualati  sent  him  wine  and  delicacies,  and 
Beethoven,  writing  to  thank  him,  says,  'Heaven 
bless  you  above  all  for  your  loving  sympathy.' 
Only  ten  days  before  the  end,  he  sent  a  pencil 
note  in  a  visibly  shaky  hand — the  last  lines  ever 
received  from  him — to  ask  for  more  nourishing 
»food.  In  1812,  though  Pasqualati  continued  to 
live  there,  the  house  became  the  property  of 
Peter  von  Leber,  whose  son  married  Mathilde  von 
Frank.  She  was  a  niece  of  Baroness  Ertmann,* 
whom  Beethoven  met  in  Feb.  1809  at  the  house 
of  her  sister,  the  wife  of  Frank  a  banker,  and 
to  whom  he  dedicated  his  sonata,  op.  101.  Frau 
von  Leber,  who  died  in  1875,  was  fond  of  talking 
of  her  aunt  and  of  her  friendship  for  the  great 
composer.  Thus  there  was  a  pleasant  bond  of 
intercourse  between  the  Pasqualati  family  and 
Beethoven,  from  which  we  gain  a  glimpse  of  the 
best  side  of  his  life.  [C.  F.  P.] 

PASQUINI,  Bernardo,  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant musiciansof  the  latter  half  of  the  1 7th  century, 
born  Dec.  8, 1 637,  at  MassaValnievola  in  Tuscany, 
died  Nov.  22,  17 10,  according  to  his  monument  in 
the  church  of  S.  Lorenzo  in  Lucina,  at  Rome,  which 
also  states  that  he  was  in  the  service  of  Battista 
Prince  Borghese.  His  masters  were  Vittoria  and 
Antonio  Cesti,  but  the  study  of  Palestrina's  works 
did  more  for  him  than  any  instruction.  While 
still  young  he  came  to  Rome,  and  was  appointed 
organist  of  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore.  Among  his 
numerous  pupils  were  Durante  and  Gasparini ; 
the  Emperor  Leopold  also  sent  young  musicians 
to  benefit  by  his  instruction.     Special  mention  is 

J  '  Biogr.  Notlzen,'  pt.  II.  p.  112.  He  gives  the  name  Incorrectly— 
Pasquillatl.    See  also  Thayer  11.  258. 

a  See  Beethoven,  vol.  1. 172. 

*  Or  Melker-Bastel.  so  called  from  the  large  house  belonging  to  tha 
monastery  of  Jlelk.  which  adjoins  It. 

a  His  ouly  son.  Baron  Joseph  Benedict  von  rasqualati-Osterberg, 
born  in  1802.  and  still  living,  conlirms  the  statement. 

«  See  vol.  1. 403. 


PASQUINI. 

made  of  an  opera,  produced  at  the  Teatro  Capra- 
uica  in  1679,  in  honour  of  Queen  Christina  of 
Sweden.  Matheson  on  visiting  the  opera-house 
in  Borne  was  much  struck  at  finding  Corelli  play- 
ing the  violin,  Fasquini  the  harpsichord,  and 
Gattani  the  lute,  all  in  the  orchestra.  Pasquini'B 
music  is  terse,  vigorous,  and  at  the  same  time 
graceful ;  in  fact  he  had  much  in  common  with 
Handel,  and  exercised  a  certain  amount  of  in- 
fluence upon  German  musicians.  The  writer  of 
this  article  possesses  a  Favola  pastorale,  or  small 
opera  in  three  parts,  called  '  La  Forza  d'amore ' 
(libretto  by  Apolloni,  a  gentleman  in  Prince 
Chigi's  household),  the  music  of  which  is  fine, 
and  elevated  in  style.  [F.  G.] 

PASSACAGLIA,  PASSACAGLIO,  or  PAS- 
SECAILLE,  an  early  Italian  or  Spanish  dance, 
similar  in  character  to  a  Chaconne.  The  name 
(according  to  Littr£)  is  derived  from  the  Spanish 
jxisur,  to  walk,  and  calle,  a  street,  in  which 
case  a  Passacaglia  may  mean  a  tune  played  in 
the  streets  by  itinerant  musicians.  This  deriva- 
tion is  confirmed  by  Walther's  Lexicon,  where 
the  name  is  translated  by  '  Gassenhauer.'  Other 
authorities  have  attempted  to  connect  the  word 
Passacaglia  with  gallo,  a  cock ;  thus  Mendel 
translates  it  '  Hahnentrapp.'  The  original  dance 
was  performed  by  one  or  two  dancers ;  it  survived 
in  France  until  the  18th  century,  and  directions 
for  dancing  it  may  be  found  in  Feuillet's  '  Chore'- 
graphie.'  But  the  feature  which,  in  common  with 
the  Chaconne,  has  elevated  the  Passacaglia  above 
the  majority  of  dance  forms,  is  the  construction 
of  the  music  on  a  ground  bass,  generally  consist- 
ing of  a  short  theme  of  two,  four,  or  eight  bars. 
This  form  attracted  the  attention  of  the  organ 
and  harpsichord  composers  of  the  17  th  and  18th 
centuries,  with  whom  the  construction  of  elaborate 
Passacaglias  and  Chaconnes  became  a  favourite 
exercise  for  contrapuntal  skill.  It  is  somewhat 
difficult  to  ascertain  in  what  the  difference  be- 
tween these  two  dance  forms  consists.  Mathe- 
son,1 a  contemporary  authority,  distinguishes 
four  points  : — the  Chaconne  was  slower  and  more 
stately  than  the  Passacaglia  ;  the  former  was  al- 
ways in  a  major  key,  the  latter  in  a  minor;  Pas- 
sacaglias were  never  sung ;  and  Chaconnes  were 
always  on  a  ground-bass.  The  above  distinction 
of  keys  is  not  borne  out  by  the  specimens  that 
have  come  down  to  us,  and  the  Passacaglia  is,  if 
anything,  generally  of  a  more  solemn  character 
than  the  Chaconne.  The  only  material  difference 
between  the  two  seems  to  be  that  in  the  Chaconne 
the  theme  is  kept  invariably  in  the  bass,  while 
in  the  Passacaglia  it  was  used  in  any  part, 
often  so  disguised  and  embroidered  amid  ever 
varying  contrapuntal  devices  as  to  become 
hardly  recognisable.  Among  the  most  celebrated 
Passacaglias  may  be  mentioned  those  by  Buxte- 
hude,  Bach  (Bach  Gesellschaft,  vol.  xv.),  Fresco- 
lialdi  (Toccate  d'Intavolatura,  vol.  i.),  and  Handel 
(Suite  VII).  The  following  less-known  instance 
is  from  Sonata  4  of  Handel's  *  VII  Sonatas  or 
Trios.' 

>  Vollkommener  Kapellmeister,  p.  233. 


PASSAGGIO. 


661 


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There  are  also  in  existence  some  curious  'Passa- 
gagli  flebili,'  by  Salvatore  Mazzella,  in  his  '  Balli, 
Correnti,  Gighe,  Gavotte,  Brande,  e  Gagliarde, 
con  la  misura  giusta  per  ballare  al  stile  lnglese* 
(Rome,  1689).  [W.B.S.] 

PASSAGE.  The  word  'passage'  is  used  of 
music  in  the  same  general  sense  that  it  is  used 
of  literature,  without  any  special  implication  of 
its  position  or  relations  in  the  formal  construction 
of  a  work,  but  merely  as  a  portion  identifiable 
through  some  characteristic  trait  or  conterminous 
idea. 

Thus  in  modern  writings  on  music  such  ex- 
pressions as  '  passage  in  first  violins,'  '  passage 
in  strict  counterpoint,'  '  passage  where  the  bas.-es 
go  gradually  down  through  two  octaves,'  show 
that  the  amount  or  extent  of  music  embraced  by 
the  term  is  purely  arbitrary,  and  may  amount  to 
two  bars  or  to  two  pages  at  the  will  of  the  person 
using  the  term,  so  long  as  the  definition,  epithet  or 
description  given  with  it  sufficiently  covers  the 
space  so  as  to  make  its  identification  easy  and 
certain ;  short  of  this  the  word  by  itself  conveys 
no  meaning. 

It  is  however  sometimes  used  in  a  special 
though  not  very  honourable  sense,  of  runs  and 
such  portions  of  music  as  are  meaningless  except 
as  opportunities  for  display  of  dexterity  on  the 
part  of  executants,  which  are  therefore  in  fact 
and  by  implication  nothing  more  than  '  passages.' 
In  this  respect  literature  and  language  are  for- 
tunate in  having  long  ago  arrived  at  such  a  pitch 
of  development  that  it  is  hardly  possible  to  find 
a  counterpart  except  in  the  byways  of  gushing 
sentimental  poetry  or  after-dinner  oratory.  It  is 
possible  that  the  musical  use  of  the  term  origin- 
ated in  the  amount  of  attention  and  labour  which 
executants  have  had,  especially  in  former  days,  to 
apply  to  such  portions  of  the  works  they  under- 
took, and  the  common  habit  of  speaking  of  prac- 
tising '  passages,'  growing  by  insensible  degrees 
to  imply  practising  what  it  is  hardly  worth  the 
while  of  an  intelligent  audience  to  listen  to,  ex- 
cept for  the  sake  of  the  technique.  It  is  probable 
that  this  use  of  the  word  in  its  special  sense, 
except  for  mere  exercises,  will  become  less  fre- 
quent in  proportion  to  the  growth  of  public 
musical  intelligence.  [C.H.H.P.] 

PASSAGGIO,  '  passage.'  This  word  is  used 
in  two  senses:  (i)  of  the  passing  from  one  key 


6G2 


PASSAGGIO. 


to  another ;  hence  used  for  all  modulations : 
(2)  of  bravura  ornaments  introduced,  either  in 
vocal  or  instrumental  music,  whether  indicated 
by  the  composer  or  not,  in  order  to  show  off  the 
skill  of  the  performer.  Bach  uses  Passaggio  for 
a  •'  flourish '  at  the  beginning  of  the  Prelude  to 
the  Suite  in  G  minor  marked  No.  8  in  Peters's 
edition.  [J.A.F.M.] 

PASSAMEZZO  or  PASSEMEZZO,  an  old 
Italian  dance  which  was  probably  a  variety  of 
the  Pavan.  In  England,  where  it  was  popu- 
lar in  Queen  Elizabeth's  time,  it  was  some- 
times known  as  the  'Passing  Measures  Pavan.'1 
Tabourot  in  his  '  Orchdsographie '  says  that  when 
the  Pavan  was  played  less  solemnly  and  more 
quickly,  it  was  called  a  '  Passemezzo.'  Hawkins 
says  that  the  name  is  derived  from  'passer,  to 
walk,  and  mezzo,  middle  or  half,'  and  that  the 
dance  was  a  diminutive  of  the  Galliard ;  but  both 
these  statements  are  probably  incorrect.  Prae- 
torius  (Syntagma,  iii.  24)  says  that  as  a  Galliard 
has  five  steps,  and  is  therefore  called  a  Cinquepas, 
so  a  Passamezzo  has  scarcely  half  as  many  steps 
as  the  latter,  and  is  therefore  called '  mezzo  passo.' 
These  derivations  seem  somewhat  far-fetched,  and 
it  is  probable  that  the  name  '  Passemezzo '  (in 
which  form  it  is  found  in  the  earliest  authorities), 
is  simply  an  abbreviation  of  '  Passo  e  mezzo,'  i.  e. 
a  step  and  a  half,  which  may  have  formed  a  dis- 
tinctive feature  of  the  old  dance.  Reismann 
(Geschichte  der  Musik,  ii.  22)  quotes  a  'Pass  e 
mezzo  antico,'  from  Jacob  Paix's  '  Ein  Schon 
Nutz  Lautentabulaturbuch,'  in  which  periods  of 
eight  bars  can  be  distinguished.  It  is  written 
with  five  variations  and  a  '  ripresa.' 

Full  directions  for  dancing  the  Passamezzo  may 
be  found  in  Caroso  da  Sermoneta's  curious  works 
'II  Ballarino'  (Venice,  1581)  and  '  Nobilta  di 
Dame'  (lb.  1600),  from  which  the  following  ex- 
ample is  taken. 


Ci 


gUi 


3m=fT**a?CT 


^a 


m^TT^v^m 


^^^pEf^EP 


F^m 


t=±=£ 


ir^J-^^^^-^ 


3^s 


m^ 


=33= 


Ufh^JrJ1^^ ,  J,  J 1  J  g 


At  page  102  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  Virginal 
Book  [see  vol.  i.  p.  5306]  there  is  a  'Passamezzo 
Pavana'  by  William  Byrd,  and  at  page  142 
another  (dated  1592)  by  Peter  Philips ;  both  are 
written  in  an  elaborate  style,  and  followed  by  a 
'  Galiarda  Passamezzo.'  [W.  B.  S.] 

1  In  a  MS.  volume  of  airs  and  dances  by  Strogers,  Dowland,  and 
Reade,  preserved  In  the  Cambridge  University  Library,  It  Is  called 
' l'assmezures  Tavan.'    See  '  Twelfth  Sight,'  Act  v,  Sc. L 


PASSING  NOTES. 

PASSEPIED  (English  Paspy),  a  dance  which 
originated  amongst  the  sailors  of  Basse  Bretagne, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  first  danced  in  Paris 
by  street-dancers  in  the  year  1587.  It  was  in- 
troduced into  the  ballet  in  the  time  of  Louis 
XIV,  and  was  often  included  in  instrumental 
Suites  and  Partitas ;  it  was  placed  among  the 
'intermezzi,'  or  dances  which  strictly  form  no 
part  of  the  Suite,  but  were  sometimes  introduced 
into  it  between  the  Saraband  and  the  final  Gigue. 
[See  Suite.]  Bach,  however,  does  not  adhere  to 
this  rule,  but  in  his  Partita  in  B  minor,  places 
the  Passepied  before  the  Saraband.  In  character 
the  Passepied  somewhat  resembles  the  Minuet,  but 
it  is  played  much  faster,  and  should  always  begin 
on  the  last  beat  of  the  bar,  although  in  some  ex- 
amples, chiefly  by  English  composers,  it  begins  on 
the  first  beat.  It  is  written  in  3-4  or  3-8  time, 
and  generally  consists  of  two,  three,  or  four  parts 
of  eight  or  sixteen  bars  each,  played  with  two  or 
more  repeats.  We  give  the  first  half  of  one  from 
Couperin's  Suites. 


juxy^tsE^i^ 


^^lp 


In  the  Suite  the  first  part  (or  first  two  parts, 
if  the  Passepied  consists  of  three  or  four  divisions) 
is  generally  in  a  major  key,  and  the  last  part  (or 
last  two  parts,  if  it  consists  of  four  divisions) 
forms  a  sort  of  Trio  or  2nd  Passepied,  and  is 
in  the  minor,  in  which  key  the  dance  concludes. 
Couperin  develops  this  still  further,  and  has  a 
Passepied  with  variations.  The  dance  became 
popular  in  England  towards  the  beginning  of  the 
1 8th  century,  and  many  examples  by  English 
composers  are  extant.  Directions  for  dancing2  it, 
as  it  was  performed  in  the  ballet  by  one  or  two 
dancers,  will  be  found  in  Feuillet's  'Choregra- 
phie.'     [See  Orchesographie.]  [W.B.S.] 

PASSING  NOTES  are  inessential  discordant 
notes  which  are  interposed  between  the  essential 
factors  of  the  harmonic  structure  of  music  on 
melodic  principles.  Their  simplest  form  is  the 
succession  of  notes  diatonically  connected  which 
fill  up  the  intervals  between  the  component  notes 
of  essential  chords,  and  fall  upon  the  unaccented 
portions  of  the  bar  :  as  in  the  following  example 

*  The  proper  expression  seems  to  be  'to  run  a  Passepied.'  Thus 
Noverre  "Lettres  sur  la  Danse,' p.  164.  has  the  following:— 'Us  foot 
des  Piwepiedt  parce  que  Mademoiselle  I'rt'vot  les  coiiroit  avec  Ele- 
gance.' 


PASSING  NOTES. 


PASSION  MUSIC. 


663 


from  Pergolesi ;  in  which  the  melody  passing  from 
note  to  note  of  the  chord  of  F  minor  touches  the 
discordant  notes  G,  B,  D,  and  E  in  passing. 


lite 


Jnrrn,  J5Ej 


Equally  simple  are  the  passing  notes  which 
are  arrived  at  by  going  from  an  essential  note  of 
harmony  to  its  next  neighbour  in  the  degrees 
of  the  scale  on  either  side  and  back  again,  as  in 
the  following  example  from  Handel. 


I 


hL 


*-*- 


=**=i»3E 


iU 


I 


The  remaining  simple  form  is  the  insertion 
of  notes  melodically  between  notes  of  different 
chords,  as  (a).  In  modern  music  notes  are  used 
chromatically  in  the  same  ways,  as  (b). 


It  would  appear  from  such  simple  principles 
that  passing  notes  must  always  be  continuous 
from  point  to  point;  but  the  early  masters  of  the 
polyphonic  school  soon  found  out  devices  for 
diversifying  this  order.  The  most  conspicuous 
of  these  was  the  process  of  interpolating  a  note 
between  the  passing  note  and  the  arrival  at  its 
destination,  as  in  the  following  example  from 
Josquin  des  Pres — 


6' 


~: 


^-r~r: 


-r—f^ 


in  which  the  passing  note  E  which  lies  properly 
between  F  and  D  is  momentarily  interrupted  in 
its  progress  by  the  C  on  the  other  side  of  D  being 
taken  first.  This  became  in  time  a  stereotyped 
formula,  with  curious  results  which  are  men- 
tioned in  the  article  Harmony  [vol.  i.  p.  678]. 
Another  common  device  was  that  of  keeping  the 
motion  of  sounds  going  by  taking  the  notes  on 
each  side  of  a  harmonv  note  in  succession  as 


pmm 


which   is  also  a    sufficiently  common  form   in 
modern  music. 

A  developed  form  which  combines  chromatic 
passing  notes  to  a  point  with  a  leap  beyond,  before 
the  point  is  taken,  is  the  following  from  Weber's 
Oberon,  which  is  curious  and  characteristic. 


A  large  proportion  of  passing  notes  fall  upon 
the  unaccented  portions  of  the  bar,  but  powerful 
effects  are  obtained  by  reversing  this  and  heavily 
accenting  them :  two  examples  are  given  in  the 
article  Harmony  [vol.  i.  p.  683]  and  a  curious 
example  where  they  are  daringly  mixed  np  in  a 
variety  of  ways  may  be  noted  in  the  first  few 
bars  of  No.  5  of  Brahms's  Clavier-Stiicke,  Op.  76. 
Some  writers  classify  as  passing  notes  those  which 
are  taken  preparatorily  a  semitone  below  a  har- 
mony note  in  any  position,  as  in  the  following 
example — 


For  further  examples  of  their  use  in  combina- 
tion and  in  contrary  motion  etc.,  see  Harmony. 

[C.H.H.P.] 

PASSION  MUSIC  (Lat.  Cantus  Passionis 
Domini  nostri  Jesu  Christi ;  Germ.  Passions  Mu- 
sik).  The  history  of  the  Passion  of  our  Lord  has 
formed  part  of  the  Service  for  Holy  Week  in  every 
part  of  Christendom  from  time  immemorial :  and 
though,  no  doubt,  the  all-important  Chapters  of 
the  Gospel  in  which  it  is  contained  were  origin- 
ally read  in  the  ordinary  tone  of  voice,  without 
any  attempt  at  musical  recitation,  there  is  evi- 
dence enough  to  prove  that  the  custom  of  singing 
it  to  a  peculiar  Chaunt  was  introduced  at  a  very 
early  period  into  the  Eastern  as  well  as  into  the 
Western  Church. 

S.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  who  flourished  between 
the  years  330  and  390,  seems  to  have  been  the  first 
Ecclesiastic  who  entertained  the  idea  of  setting 
forth  the  Historyof  the  Passion  in  a  dramatic  form. 
He  treated  it  as  the  Greek  Poets  treated  their 
Tragedies,  adapting  the  Dialogue  to  a  certain 
sort  of  chaunted  Recitation,  and  interspersing  it 
with  Choruses  disposed  like  those  of  ^Eschylus 
and  Sophocles.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that 
we  no  longer  possess  the  Music  to  which  this 
early  version  was  sung ;  for  a  careful  examination 
of  even  the  smallest  fragments  of  it  would  set 
many  vexed  questions  at  rest.  But  all  we  know 
is,  that  the  Sacred  Drama  really  was  sung 
throughout.  [See  pp.  497-498  of  the  present 
volume.] 

In  the  Western  Church  the  oldest  known 
'Cantus  Passionis'  is  a  solemn  Plain  Chaunt 
Melody,  the  date  of  which  it  is  absolutely  im- 
possible to  ascertain.  As  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  it  was,  in  the  first  instance,  transmitted 
from  generation  to  generation  by  tradition  only, 
it  is  quite  possible  that  it  may  have  undergone 
changes  in  early  times ;  but  so  much  care  was 
taken  in  the  16th  century  to  restore  it  to  its 


664 


PASSION  MUSIC. 


pristine  purity,  that  we  may  fairly  accept  as 
genuine  the  version  which,  at  the  instance  of 
Pope  Sixtus  V,  Guidetti  published  at  Rome  in 
the  year  1586,  under  the  title  of '  Cantus  eccle- 
siasticus  Passionis  Domini  nostri  Jesu  Christi 
secundum  Matthseum,  Marcum,  Lucain,  et  Jo- 
annem ' — S.  Matthew's  version  being  appointed 
for  the  Mass  of  Palm  Sunday,  S.  Mark's  for  that 
of  the  Tuesday  in  Holy  Week,  S.  Luke's  for 
that  of  the  Wednesday,  and  S.  John's  for  Good 
Friday. 

Certainly,  since  the  beginning  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury, and  probably  from  a  much  earlier  period, 
it  has  been  the  custom  to  sing  the  Music  of  the 
Passion  in  the  following  manner.  The  Text  is 
divided  between  three  Ecclesiastics — called  the 
'  Deacons  of  the  Passion,' — one  of  whom  chaunts 
the  words  spoken  by  our  Lord,  another,  the  Nar- 
rative of  the  Evangelist,  and  the  third,  the  Ex- 
clamations uttered  by  the  Apostles,  the  Crowd, 
and  others  whose  conversation  is  recorded  in  the 
Gospel.  In  most  Missals,  and  other  Office-Books, 
the  part  of  the  First  Deacon  is  indicated  by  a 
Cross  ;  that  of  the  Second  by  the  letter  C.  (for 
Chronista),  and  that  of  the  Third  by  S.  (for  Syna- 
goga).  Sometimes,  however,  the  First  part  is 
marked  by  the  Greek  letter  X.  (for  Christus),  the 
Second  byE.  (for  Evangelista),  and  the  Third  by 
T.  (for  Turba).  Less  frequent  forms  are,  a  Cross 
for  Christus,  C.  for  Cantor,  and  S.  for  Succentor  ; 
or  S.  for  Salvator,  E.  for  Evangelista,  and  Ch.  for 
Chorus.  Finally,  we  occasionally  find  the  part 
of  our  Lord  marked  B.  for  Bassus ;  that  of  the 
Evangelist  M.  for  Medius ;  and  that  of  the 
Crowd  A.  for  Altus;  the  First  Deacon  being 
always  a  Bass  Singer,  the  Second  a  Tenor,  and 
the  Third  an  Alto.  A  different  phrase  of  the 
Chaunt  is  allotted  to  each  Voice ;  but  the  same 
phrases  are  repeated  over  and  over  again  through- 
out to  different  words,  varying  only  in  the 
Cadence,  which  is  subject  to  certain  changes 
determined  by  the  nature  of  the  Voice  which  is 
to  follow.  The  Second  Deacon  announces  the 
History  and  the  name  of  the  Evangelist,  thus : — 


-G> — bS( — • — G> — >S1 — <S>- 


** 


-*5>t iS>- 


Do-ml-nl     no  -  strl    Ja  -  su      Christ! 


±fe£ 


te  -  cun-dum   Mat  -  th»    -   -    um. 


He  then  proceeds  with  the  Narrative,  thus : — 


In  11  •  lo    tempore,  etc 


But,  if  one  of  the  utterances  of  our  Lord  should 
follow,  he  changes  the  Cadence,  thus : — 


When  the  Crowd  follows,  he  sings  thus  :- 


M 


Or  thus. 


PASSION  MUSIC. 

Our  Lord's  words  are  sung  by  the  First  Deacon, 
thus : — 


Or,  at  a  Final  Close. 


-en5H5Ha-; 


I  vi-fc&t-y&i- 


Until  the  latter  half  of  the  16th  century  the 
Passion  was  always  sung  in  this  manner  by  the 
three  Deacons  alone.  The  difficulty  of  so  singing 
it  is  almost  incredible ;  but  its  effect,  when  really 
well  chaunted,  is  most  touching.  Still,  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Pontifical  Choir  believed  it  possible  to 
improve  upon  the  time-honoured  custom ;  and,  in 
the  year  1585,  Vittoria  produced  a  very  simple 
polyphonic  setting  of  those  portions  of  the  te-\t 
which  are  uttered  by  the  Crowd,  the  effect  of 
which,  intermingled  with  the  Chaunt  sung  by 
the  Deacons,  was  found  to  be  so  striking,  that  it 
has  ever  since  remained  in  use.  His  wailing 
harmonies  are  written  in  such  strict  accordance 
with  the  spirit  of  the  older  Melody,  that  no  sus- 
picion of  incongruity  between  them  is  anywhere 
perceptible.  The  several  clauses  fit  into  each 
other  as  smoothly  as  those  of  a  Litany,  and  the 
general  effect  is  so  beautiful  that  it  has  been 
celebrated  for  the  last  three  centuries  as  one  of 
the  greatest  triumphs  of  Polyphonic  Art. 

Mendelssohn,  indeed,  objects  to  it  rather 
fiercely  in  one  of  his  Letters,  on  the  ground 
that  it  is  neither  dramatic  nor  descriptive  ;  that 
the  Music  does  not  properly  express  the  sense  of 
the  text ;  and  that  especially  the  words,  'Crucifige 
eum,'  are  sung  by  '  very  tame  Jews  indeed'  (sehr 
zahme  Jiiden).  But  we  must  remember  that 
there  was  nothing  whatever  in  common  between 
the  purely  devotional  Music  of  the  Polyphonic 
School  and  that  of  the  '  Reformirte  Kirche '  to 
which  Mendelssohn  was  attached  So  little  did 
he  sympathise  with  it,  that,  as  he  himself  has  told 
us,  he  could  not  even  endure  its  constant  alter- 
nation of  Recitation  and  Cadence  in  an  ordinary 
Psalm  Tone.  He  longed  for  a  more  fiery  reading 
of  the  story;  and  would  have  had  its  awful  scenes 
portrayed  with  all  the  descriptive  energy  proper 
to  an  Oratorio.  But  such  an  exhibition  as  this 
would  have  been  manifestly  out  of  place  in  a 
Holy  Week  Service  Moreover,  the  Evangelists 
themselves  treat  the  subject  in  an  epic  and  not  a 


PASSION  MUSIC. 

dramatic  form ;  and  the  treatment  required  by  the 
two  forms  is  essentially  different.  Mendelssohn 
would  have  embodied  the  words,  '  Crucify  Him  1 
crucify  Him ! '  in  a  raging  Chorus,  like  his  own 
'  Stone  him  to  death.'  Vittoria  sets  them  before 
us  as  they  would  have  been  reported  by  a  weep- 
ing narrator,  overwhelmed  with  Borrow  at  their 
cruelty ;  a  narrator  whose  tone  would  have  been 
all  the  more  tearful  in  proportion  to  the  sincerity 
of  his  affliction.  Surely  this  is  the  way  in  which 
they  should  be  sung  to  us  in  Holy  Week.  The 
object  of  singing  the  Passion  is,  to  lead  men  to 
meditate  upon  it ;  not  to  divert  their  minds  by  a 
dramatic  representation.  And  in  this  sense  Vit- 
toria has  succeeded  to  perfection,  as  even  the  few 
subjoined  extracts  from  his '  Passion  according  to 
S.  John'  will  suffice  to  prove. 
C. 


PASSION  MUSIC. 


665 


Ju      •      d«B  -  0    -    ■ 


M; 


-&> — »S< — «>—  <S> — KS« — <»- 


Cla  -  ma- bant,  dl  -  cen  -  te». 


Francesco  Suriano  also  brought  out  a  poly- 
phonic rendering  of  the  exclamations  of  the 
Crowd,  with  harmonies  which  were  certainly  very 
beautiful,  though  they  want  the  deep  feeling 
which  forms  the  most  noticeable  feature  in 
Vittoria's  settings,  and,  doubtless  for  that  reason, 
have  never  attained  an  equal  degree  of  celebrity. 
Vittoria's  '  Passion'  was  first  printed  at  Rome  by 
Alessandro  Gardano  in  1585;  and  the  first  and 
last  portions  of  it — the  versions  of  S.  Matthew 
and  S.  John — were  published  some  years  ago  by 
R.  Butler,  6  Hand  Court,  High  Holborn,  in  a 
cheap  edition  which  is  no  doubt  still  attainable. 
The  entire  work  of  Suriano  will  be  found  in 
Proske's  '  Musica  Divina,'  vol.  iv. 


But  it  was  not  only  with  a  view  to  its  intro- 
duction into  an  Ecclesiastical  Function  that  the 
Story  of  our  Lord's  Passion  was  set  to  Music. 
We  find  it  in  the  Middle  Ages  selected  as  a  con- 
stant and  never-tiring  theme  for  those  Mysteries 
and  Miracle  Plays  by  means  of  which  the  history 
of  the  Christian  Faith  was  disseminated  among 
the  people  before  they  were  able  to  read  it  for 
themselves.  Some  valuable  reliques  of  the  Music 
adapted  to  these  antient  versions  of  the  Story  are 
still  preserved  to  us.  An  interesting  example 
taken  from  a  French  '  Mystery  of  the  Passion," 
dating  as  far  back  as  the  14th  century,  will  be 
found  at  page  533  of  the  present  volume.  Fonte- 
nelle1  speaks  of  a  'Mystery  of  the  Passion' 
produced  by  a  certain  Bishop  of  Angers  in  the 
middle  of  the  15th  century,  with  so  much  Music 
of  a  really  dramatic  character,  that  it  might 
almost  be  described  as  a  Lyric  Drama.  In  this 
primitive  work  we  first  find  the  germ  of  an  idea 
which  Mendelssohn  has  used  with  striking  effect 
in  his  Oratorio  'S.Paul.'  [See  Oratorio,  p.  555.] 
After  the  Baptism  of  our  Saviour,  God  the 
Father  speaks ;  and  it  is  recommended  that  His 
words  '  should  be  pronounced  very  audibly  and 
distinctly  by  three  Voices  at  once,  Treble,  Alto, 
and  Bass,  all  well  in  tune ;  and  in  this  Harmony 
the  whole  Scene  which  follows  should  be  sung.' 
Here  then  we  have  the  first  idea  of  the  '  Passion 
Oratorio,'  which  however  was  not  developed 
directly  from  it,  but  followed  a  somewhat  cir- 
cuitous course,  adopting  certain  characteristics 
peculiar  to  the  Mystery,  together  with  certain 
others  belonging  to  the  Ecclesiastical  'Cantus 
Passionis'  already  described,  and  mingling  these 
distinct  though  not  discordant  elements  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  produce  eventually  a  form  of  Art, 
the  wonderful  beauty  of  which  has  rendered  it 
immortal. 

In  the  year  1573  a  German  version  of  the 
Passion  was  printed  at  Wittenberg,  with  Music 
for  the  Recitation  and  Choruses — introductory 
and  final — in  four  parts.  Bartholomaus  Gese 
enlarged  upon  this  plan,  and  produced,  in  1588, 
a  work  in  which  our  Lord's  words  are  set  for 
four  Voices,  those  of  the  Crowd  for  five,  those  of 
S.  Peter  and  Pontius  Pilate  for  three,  and  those 
of  the  Maid  Servant  for  two.  In  the  next  cen- 
tury Heinrich  Schiitz  set  to  Music  the  several 
Narratives  of  each  of  the  four  Evangelists,  making 
extensive  use  of  the  Melodies  of  the  innumerable 
Chorales  which  were,  at  that  period,  more  po- 
pular in  Germany  than  any  other  kind  of  Sacred 
Music,  and  skilfully  working  them  up  into  very 
elaborate  Choruses.  He  did  not,  however,  ven- 
ture entirely  to  exclude  the  Ecclesiastical  Plain 
Chaunt.  In  his  work,  as  in  all  those  that  had 
preceded  it,  the  venerable  Melody  was  still 
retained  in  those  portions  of  the  narrative  which 
were  adapted  to  simple  Recitative — or  at  least 
in  those  sung  by  the  Evangelist — the  Chorale 
being  only  introduced  in  the  harmonised  passages. 
But  in  1672  Johann  Sebastiani  made  a  bolder 
experiment,  and  produced  at  Konigsberg  a 
'Passion'   in   which    the   Recitatives   were   set 

)  Hist,  du  Theatre  Franchise. 


666 


PASSION  MUSIC. 


entirely  to  original  Music,  and  from  that  time 
forward  German  composers,  entirely  throwing 
off  their  allegiance  to  Ecclesiastical  Tradition, 
struck  out  new  paths  for  themselves  and  suffered 
their  genius  to  lead  them  where  it  would. 

The  Teutonic  idea  of  the  'Passions  Musik' 
was  now  fully  developed,  and  it  only  remained 
for  the  great  Tone-Poets  of  the  age  to  embody  it 
in  their  own  beautiful  language.  This  they  were 
not  slow  to  do.  Theile  produced  a  'Deutsche 
Passion'  at  Liibeck  in  1673  (exactly  a  century 
after  the  publication  of  the  celebrated  German 
version  at  Wittenberg)  with  very  great  success  ; 
and,  some  thirty  years  later,  Hamburg  witnessed 
a  long  series  of  triumphs  which  indicated  an 
enormous  advance  in  the  progress  of  Art.  In 
1704,  Hunold  Menantes  wrote  a  Poem  called 
'  Die  Passions-Dichtung  des  blutigen  und  ster- 
benden  Jesu,'  which  was  set  to  Music  by  the 
celebrated  Reinhard  Keiser,  then  well  known  as 
the  writer  of  many  successful  German  Operas. 
The  peculiarity  of  this  work  lies  more  in  the 
structure  of  the  Poem,  than  in  that  of  the  Music. 
Though  it  resembles  the  older  settings  in  its 
original  Recitatives  and  rhythmical  Choruses,  it 
differs  from  them  in  introducing,  under  the  name 
of Soliloquia,  an  entirely  new  element,  embodying, 
in  a  mixture  of  rhythmic  phrase  and  declamatory 
recitation,  certain  pious  reflections  upon  the  pro- 
gress of  the  Sacred  Narrative.  This  idea,  more 
or  less  exactly  carried  out,  makes  its  appearance 
in  almost  every  work  which  followed  its  first 
enunciation  down  to  the  great '  Passion  Oratorios' 
of  Joh.  Seb.  Bach.  We  find  it  in  the  Music 
assigned  to  the  'Daughter  of  Zion,'  and  the 
1  Chorales  of  the  Christian  Church,'  in  Handel's 
*  Passion ' ;  in  the  Chorales,  and  many  of  the 
Airs,  in  Graun's  'Tod  Jesu,'  and  in  almost  all 
the  similar  works  of  Telemann,  Matheson,  and 
other  contemporary  writers.  Of  these  works, 
the  most  important  were  Postel's  German  version 
of  the  Narrative  of  the  Passion  as  recorded  by 
S.  John,  set  to  Music  by  Handel  in  1704,  and 
Brockes's  famous  Poem, '  Der  fur  die  Siinden  der 
Welt  gemarterte  und  sterbende  Jesus,'  set  by 
Keiser  in  171 2,  by  Handel  and  Telemann  in 
1 7 1 6,  and  by  Matheson  in  1 7 1 8.  These  are  all  fine 
works,  full  of  fervour,  and  abounding  in  new  ideas 
and  instrumental  passages  of  great  originality. 
They  were  all  written  in  thorough  earnest,  and, 
as  a  natural  consequence,  exhibit  a  great  advance 
both  in  construction  and  style.  Moreover,  they 
were  all  written  in  the  true  German  manner, 
though  with  so  much  individual  feeling  that  no 
trace  of  plagiarism  is  discernible  in  any  one  of 
them.  These  high  qualities  were  thoroughly 
appreciated  by  their  German  auditors ;  and  thus 
it  was  that  they  prepared  the  way,  first,  for  the 
grand  '  Tod  Jesu,  composed  by  Graun  at  Berlin 
in  1755,  and  then  for  the  still  greater  production 
of  Sebastian  Bach,  whose  '  Passion  according  to 
S.  Matthew '  is  universally  regarded  as  the  finest 
work  of  the  kind  that  ever  was  written. 

The  idea  of  setting  the  History  of  the  Passion 
to  the  grandest  possible  Music,  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  oombine  the  exact  words  of  the  Gospel- 


PASSION  MUSIC. 

Narrative  with  finely  developed  Choruses,  medi- 
tative passages  like  the  Soliloquies  first  used  by 
Keiser,  and  Chorales,  sung,  not  by  the  Choir 
alone,  but  by  the  Choir  in  four-part  Harmony, 
and  by  the  Congregation  in  Unison,  was  first 
suggested  to  Bach  by  the  well-known  preacher 
Solomon  Deyling.  This  zealous  Lutheran  hoped, 
by  bringing  forward  such  a  work  at  Leipzig,  to 
counteract  in  some  measure  the  effect  produced 
by  the  Ecclesiastical '  Cantus  Passionis,'  which  was 
then  sung  at  Dresden  under  the  direction  of 
Hasse,  by  the  finest  Italian  Singers  that  could  be 
procured.  Bach  entered  warmly  into  the  scheme. 
The  Poetical  portion  of  the  work  was  supplied, 
under  the  direction  of  Deyling,  by  Christian 
Friedrich  Henrici  (under  the  pseudonym  of 
Picander).  Bach  set  the  whole  to  music.  And, 
on  the  evening  of  Good  Friday,  1729,  the  work 
was  performed  for  the  first  time  in  St.  Thomas's 
Church,  Leipzig,  a  Sermon  being  preached  be- 
tween the  two  Parts  into  which  it  is  divided,  in 
accordance  with  the  example  set  by  the  Oratorians 
at  the  Church  of  S.  Maria  in  Vallicella  at  Rome. 
'  Die  grosse  Passion  nach  Matthaus,'  as  it  is 
called  in  Germany,  is  written  on  a  gigantic 
scale  for  two  complete  Choirs,  each  accompanied 
by  a  separate  Orchestra,  and  an  Organ.  Its 
Choruses,  often  written  in  eight  real  parts,  are 
sometimes  used  to  carry  on  the  dramatic  action 
in  the  words  uttered  by  the  Crowd,  or  the 
Apostles,  and  sometimes  offer  a  commentary 
upon  the  Narrative,  like  the  Choruses  of  a  Greek 
Tragedy.  In  the  former  class  of  Movements, 
the  dramatic  element  is  occasionally  brought 
out  with  telling  effect,  as  in  the  reiteration  of 
the  Apostles'  question,  '  Lord,  is  it  I  ? '  The 
finest  examples  of  the  second  class  are,  the  in- 
troductory Double  Chorus,  in  12-8  Time,  the 
fiery  Movement  which  follows  the  Duet  for 
Soprano  and  Alto  near  the  end  of  the  First  Part, 
and  the  exquisitely  beautiful '  Farewell '  to  the 
Crucified  Saviour  which  concludes  the  whole. 
The  part  of  the  Evangelist  is  allotted  to  a  Tenor 
Voice,  and  is  carefully  restricted  to  the  narrative 
portion  of  the  words.  The  moment  any  Character 
in  the  solemn  Drama  is  made  to  speak  in  his  own 
words,  those  words  are  committed  to  another 
Singer,  even  though  they  should  involve  but  a 
single  ejaculation.  Almost  all  the  Airs  are 
formed  upon  the  model  of  the  Soliloquies  already 
mentioned ;  and  most  of  them  are  sung  by  '  The 
Daughter  of  Zion.'  The  Chorales  are  supposed 
to  express  the  Voice  of  the  whole  Christian 
Church,  and  are  therefore  so  arranged  as  to  fall 
within  the  power  of  an  ordinary  German  Con- 
gregation, to  the  several  members  of  which  every 
Tune  would  naturally  be  familiar.  The  style  in 
which  they  are  harmonised  is  less  simple,  by  far, 
than  that  adopted  by  Graun  in  his  '  Tod  Jesu ' ; 
but  as  the  Melodies  are  always  sung  in  Germany 
very  slowly,  the  Passing-notes  sung  by  the  Choir 
and  played  by  the  Organ  serve  rather  to  help 
and  support  the  unisonous  congregational  part 
than  to  disturb  it,  and  the  effect  produced  by 
this  mode  of  performance  can  scarcely  be  con- 
ceived by  those  who  have  not  actually  heard 


PASSION  MUSIC. 

it.  *  The  masterly  treatment  of  these  old  popular 
Tunes  undoubtedly  individualises  the  work  more 
strongly  than  any  learning  or  ingenuity  could 
possibly  do ;  but,  in  another  point,  the  Mat- 
thiius-Passion  stands  alone  above  the  greatest 
German  works  of  the  period.  Its  Instrumenta- 
tion is,  in  its  own  peculiar  style,  inimitable.  It 
is  always  written  in  real  parts — frequently  in 
very  many.  Yet  it  is  made  to  produce  endless 
varieties  of  effect.  Not,  indeed,  in  a  single  Move- 
ment ;  for  most  of  the  Movements  exhibit  the 
same  treatment  throughout.  But  the  instru- 
mental contrasts  between  contiguous  Movements 
are  arranged  with  admirable  skill.  Perhaps  the 
most  beautiful  instance  of  this  occurs  in  an  Air, 
accompanied  by  two  Oboi  da  caccia,  and  a  Solo 
Flute.  As,  for  some  unexplained  reason,  this 
lovely  air  has  been  frequently  omitted  in  per- 
formance, we  subjoin  a  few  bars  as  an  example 
of  Bach's  delightful  manner  of  using  these  ex- 
pressive Instruments : — 

Voice 


PASTA. 


667 


r    ' 


I'J^'l, 

F^g^fzgfc^ferfcS 

=fE£r 

•-" 

ipgr^ar^ 

-1 

p^*>H    ^*^    H  1   | 

J      J      3~    J       J — 

■— i- — 

-4    T    'f      f      M 

-• — • • — • — • — m- 

5     U       U    £=&=£ 


For        love   of    us    my  Saviour 


^S^P^ 


s 


r=ic 


mm 


r— r 

i  The  writer  well  remembers  the  effect  it  produced  on  him  in  the 
Thonias-Kirche,  at  Leipzig,  on  Good  Friday,  1S40. 


In  this  great  work  the  German  form  of 
'  Passions  Musik '  culminated ;  and  in  this  it 
may  fairly  be  said  to  have  passed  away;  for, 
since  the  death  of  Bach,  no  one  has  seriously 
attempted,  either  to  tread  in  his  steps,  or  to 
strike  out  a  new  Ideal  fitted  for  this  peculiar 
species  of  Sacred  Music.  The  Oratorio  has 
been  farther  developed,  and  has  assumed  forms  of 
which  Bach  could  have  entertained  no  con- 
ception ;  but  the  glory  of  having  perfected  this 
particular  Art-form  remains  entirely  with  him ; 
and  it  is  not  at  all  probable  that  any  future 
Composer  will  ever  attempt  to  rob  him  of  his 
well-earned  honour.  [W.S.R.] 

PASTA,  Giuditta,  was  born  in  1798  at 
Como,  near  Milan,  of  a  Jewish  family  named 
Negri.  She  is  said  to  have  received  her  first 
instruction  from  the  chapelmaster  at  Como, 
Bartolomeo  Lotti ;  but,  at  the  age  of  1 5,  she  was 
admitted  into  the  Conservatorio  at  Milan,  under 
Asioli.  Her  voice  was  then  heavy  and  strong, 
but  unequal  and  very  hard  to  manage ;  she 
never,  in  fact,  succeeded  in  producing  certain 
notes  without  some  difficulty ;  and,  even  in  the 
zenith  of  her  powers,  there  still  remained  a  slight 
veil  which  was  not  dissipated  until  she  had  sung 
through  a  few  scenes  of  an  opera. 

In  1815  she  left  the  Conservatorio;  and,  after 
trying  her  first  theatrical  steps  on  an  amateur 
stage,  she  made  her  debut  in  the  second-rate 
theatres  of  Brescia,  Parma,  and  Leghorn,  where 
she  was  scarcely  noticed.  Nor  did  she  attract 
more  attention  in  Paris,  where  she  sang  with 
Cinti,  Miss  Corri,  and  a  few  other  young  artists, 
humble  satellites  to  the  manageress,  Catalani. 
A  year  later,  181 6,  when  she  appears  to  have 
been  already  married,  she  and  her  husband, 
Pasta,  a  tenor,  were  engaged  by  Ayrton,  at  a 
salary  of  £400  (together)  for  the  season,  for  the 
King's  Theatre.  She  appeared  in  a  subordinate 
part,  Jan.  II,  1817,  in  Cimarosa's  'Penelope,' 
the  chief  rdle  being  sung  by  Camporesi ;  and 
here  she  was  no  more  remarked  than  in  Paris. 
Lord  MountEdgcumbe  does  not  even  mention 


€68 


PASTA. 


her.  She  then  played  Cherubino ;  next  a 
secondary  part  in  '  Agnese ' ;  and  afterwards 
Servilia  in  'La  Clemenza  di  Tito,'  and  the 
part  of  the  pretended  shrew  in  Ferrari's '  Sbaglio ' ; 
but  there  is  no  doubt  that  she  was  a  failure. 
Her  husband  did  not  even  appear. 

The  young  singer,  however,  did  not  despair. 
Though  her  voice  was  rebellious  and  her  style  as 
yet  quite  unfinished,  she  had  many  advantages 
even  then  which  promised  future  excellence  as 
the  reward  of  unremitting  and  laborious  study. 
Below  the  middle  height,  her  figure  was  never- 
theless very  well  proportioned  ;  she  had  a  noble 
head  with  fine  features,  a  high  forehead,  dark 
and  expressive  eyes,  and  a  beautiful  mouth. 
The  dignity  of  her  face,  form,  and  natural 
gestures,  fitted  her  evidently  for  tragedy,  for 
which  she  was  not  wanting  in  the  necessary  fire 
and  energy. 

Having  returned  to  Italy,  she  meditated 
seriously  on  the  causes  of  her  ill  success,  and 
studied  for  some  time  with  Scappa.  In  1819 
she  appeared  at  Venice,  with  marked  effect ; 
and  this  first  success  was  repeated  at  Rome 
and  Milan,  in  that  year  and  the  next.  In  the 
autumn  of  1821  she  first  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  Parisian  public  at  the  •  Italiens '  ;  but  it 
was  after  singing  at  Verona,  during  the  congress 
of  1822,  that  she  returned  to  Paris,  where  she  at 
length  became  suddenly  famous,  and  excited  the 
wildest  enthusiasm.  Her  voice,  a  splendid  soprano, 
extending  from  the  low  A  to  the  highest  D,  even 
then  was  not  absolutely  free  from  imperfection  ; 
but  the  individuality  of  her  impersonations,  and 
the  peculiar  and  penetrating  expression  of  her 
singing  made  the  severest  critics  forget  any  faults 
of  production  in  the  sympathy  and  emotion  she 
irresistibly  created.  She  continued,  however,  to 
work,  to  study,  and  to  triumph  over  her  harsh 
and  rebellious  organ  by  these  means.  Mean- 
while, by  the  force  and  truth  of  her  acting,  she 
delighted  the  Parisians  in  such  parts  as  Tan- 
eredi,  Romeo,  Desdemona,  Camilla,  Nina,  and 
Medea.  'Though  but  a  moderate  musician,' 
says  Fe'tis,  'she  instinctively  understood  that  the 
kind  of  ornaments  which  had  been  introduced 
by  Rossini,  could  only  rest  a  claim  for  novelty 
on  their  supporting  harmony ' ;  and  she  therefore 
invented  the  embellishments  in  arpeggio  which 
were  afterwards  carried  to  a  still  higher  pitch 
of  excellence  by  Malibran.  On  April  24,  1824, 
Pasta  reappeared  in  London  in  '  Otello,'  and  had 
another  enthusiastic  success,  which  she  followed 
up  with  '  Tancredi,' '  Romeo,'  and  '  Semiramide.' 
She  was,  however,  only  one  of  six  prime  donne 
at  the  King's  Theatre,  one  of  whom,  Madame 
Colbran  -Rossini,  had  a  salary  of  £1500,  while 
Pasta  was  to  have  no  more  than  £1400.  And 
even  this  sum  she  never  received  in  full, 
Benelli,  the  manager  and  sub-lessee,  having 
quitted  England,  leaving  the  greater  portion  of 
it  unpaid.  This  made  it  difficult  to  re-engage 
her  for  1825,  as  she  rather  naturally  asked  for 
the  balance  to  be  paid  before  she  should  appear ; 
but  this  was  arranged  by  a  compromise,  and  she 
came,  at  a  salary  of  £1000,  to  sing  till  June  8, 


PASTICCIO. 

the  longest  conge  she  could  obtain  from  Paris. 
While  on  the  subject  of  her  salary,  it  may  be 
added  that  in  1826  she  had  £2200,'  £1000  of 
which  was  paid  to  her  before  she  left  Paris,  and 
£2365  in  1S27.  In  each  succeeding  year  her 
voice  appeared  more  equal  and  her  style  more 
finished  and  refined.  Her  acting  was  always 
extremely  powerful.  Talma,  when  he  saw  and 
heard  her,  is  said  to  have  exclaimed, '  Here  is  a 
woman  of  whom  I  can  still  learn  something.' 

Owing  to  a  misunderstanding  with  Rossini, 
then  managing  the  Italian  Opera  at  Paris,  Pasta 
would  not  engage  herself  for  that  stage  in  1827, 
but  went  to  Italy  instead.  There  she  played 
at  Trieste,  and  at  Naples,  where  Pacini  wrote 
'Niobe'  for  her.  The  Neapolitans  failed  to 
recognise  her  full  merits,  but  she  was  better 
appreciated  at  Bologna,  Milan,  Vienna,  and 
Verona.  At  Milan,  Bellini  wrote  for  her  the 
'Sonnambula'  (1831)  and  'Norma'  (1832). 

In  1833  and  34  Pasta  was  once  more  at  Paris, 
singing  in  '  Sonnambula '  and  '  Anna  Bolena.' 
Now,  for  the  first  time,  her  voice  seemed  to 
have  lost  something  of  its  beauty  and  truth ;  her 
intonation  had  become  very  uncertain,  and  she 
sang  flat  sometimes  through  the  whole  of  an 
opera.  But  her  dramatic  talent,  far  from  being 
impaired,  was  even  more  remarkable  than  ever. 
She  was  as  simple  and  unaffected  a  village  girl 
in  the  'Sonnambula,'  as  she  was  dignified,  noble, 
or  energetic  in  'Anna  Bolena,' '  Semiramide,'  and 
'Norma.'  As  'Desdemona,'  she  was  now  more 
gentle  and  graceful  than  heretofore,  and  in  like 
manner  she  had  improved  and  completed  her 
conception  of  all  her  characters,  till  they  became 
worthy  of  the  admiration  of  critics  and  the  study 
of  actors. 

Once  more  in  Italy,  Pasta  reappeared  in  a 
few  of  her  famous  roles  at  some  of  the  chief 
theatres,  spending  every  summer  at  the  beautitul 
villa  which  she  had  bought  in  1829  near  the 
Lake  of  Como,  where  she  gave  herself  up  to  the 
delights  of  cultivating  a  magnificent  garden. 

Pasta  sang  again  in  England  in  1 837  ;  but  her 
voice  was  nearly  gone,  and  she  gave  her  ad- 
mirers more  pain  than  pleasure.  In  1 840,  though 
so  long  retired  from  the  stage,  she  accepted  an 
offer  of  200,000  frs.  to  sing  at  St.  Petersburg ; 
but  it  would  have  been  better  for  her  reputation 
as  a  singer  had  she  refused  it.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  her  last  visit  to  London,  in  1850,  when 
8he  only  appeared  twice  in  public. 

Madame  Pasta  is  said  to  have  had  only  one 
child,  a  daughter ;  but  she  had  a  son  also,  whom 
she  mentions  in  a  letter 2  to  the  Princess  Belgio- 
joso,  her  'Carissima  Teresa,'  a  cultivated  and 
charming  lady,  with  whom  she  was  on  the  most 
intimate  and  affectionate  terms.  She  had  some 
pupils,  of  whom  Parodi  was  the  most  distin- 
guished. This  great  singer  died  at  her  villa  on 
the  Lake  of  Como,  April  1,  1865.  [J.  M.] 

PASTICCIO,  literally  '  a  pie.'  A  species  of 
Lyric  Drama,  composed  of  Airs,  Duets,  and  other 

•  Not  2,9001.  as  stated  by  Ebers.    The  receipt,  in  the  possession  of 
the  writer,  disproves  this  statement. 
2  In  the  possession  of  the  writer. 


PASTICCIO. 

movements,  selected  from  different  Operas,  and 
grouped  together,  not  in  accordance  with  their 
original  intention,  but  in  Buch  a  manner  as  to 
provide  a  mixed  audience  with  the  greatest  pos- 
sible number  of  favourite  Airs  in  succession. 

It  is  not  at  all  necessary  that  the  Movements 
contained  in  a  Pasticcio  should  all  be  by  the 
same  'Composer.  A  a  a  general  rule,  they  are 
not ;  and  no  attempt  is  made  to  ensure  uni- 
formity, or  even  consistency  of  style.  No  such 
attempt,  indeed,  could  by  any  possibility  be 
successful,  unless  it  were  made  under  the  direc- 
tion of  a  genius  of  the  highest  order;  for  an 
Opera,  if  it  claim  to  be  considered  as  a  work  of 
Art  at  all,  must  of  necessity  present  itself  as  a 
well-ordered  whole,  the  intelligent  expression  of 
a  single  idea ;  not  in  the  form  of  a  heteroge- 
neous collection  of  pretty  tunes,  divorced  from 
the  scenes  they  were  intended  to  illustrate,  and 
adapted  to  others  quite  foreign  to  the  Composer's 
original  meaning.  It  is  true,  that,  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  18  th  century,  when  the  Pas- 
ticcio enjoyed  its  highest  degree  of  popularity, 
some  of  the  greatest  Masters  then  living  patron- 
ised it,  openly,  and  apparently  without  any  feel- 
ing of  reluctance :  but  it  never  inspired  any 
real  respect,  even  in  its  brightest  days,  and  the 
best  examples  were  invariably  short-lived,  and 
incapable  of  resuscitation.  It  was  impossible 
that  any  form  of  Art,  based  upon  false  principles, 
should  be  held  in  lasting  remembrance ;  and  the 
Pasticcio  represented  a  very  false  principle  indeed 
— the  principle  which  culminated  in  the  '  Con- 
cert Opera.' 

In  early  times,  it  was  a  very  common  custom 
to  mention  the  name  of  the  Librettist  of  an 
Opera,  upon  the  public  announcement  of  its  per- 
formance, without  that  of  the  Composer ;  and  it 
seems  exceedingly  probable,  that,  when  this  was 
done,  more  than  one  Composer  was  concerned,  and 
the  work  was,  in  reality,  a  Pasticcio.  We  know 
that  Caccini  contributed  some  of  the  Music  to 
Peri's  '  Euridice,'  in  the  year  1600,  though  his 
name  does  not  appear  upon  the  title-page ;  and 
that,  as  early  as  1646,  a  genuine  Pasticcio  was 
performed,  at  Naples,  under  the  title  of  '  Amor 
non  a  legge,'  with  Music  by  several  different 
Composers,  of  whose  names  not  one  has  been 
recorded.  Such  cases,  however,  are  much  rarer 
in  the  17th  century  than  in  that  which  followed, 
and  serve  only  to  show  how  the  practice  of 
writing  these  compound  Operas  originated. 

Perhaps  the  most  notable  Pasticcio  on  record 
is  'Muzio  Scevola,'  of  which,  in  the  year  1721, 
Attilio  Ariosti*  composed  the  First  Act,  Gio- 
vanni Maria  Buononcini  the  Second,  and  Handel 
the  Third.  Each  Composer  prepared  a  complete 
Overture  to  his  own  share  of  the  work ;  and 
each,  of  course,  did  his  best  to  outshine  the 
efforts  of  his  rivals  :  yet  the  Opera  survived  very 
few  representations,  notwithstanding  the  iclat 

1  In  1789  a  Pasticcio  called  'L'Ape'  was  produced  at  Vienna,  In 
which  no  less  than  12  composers  were  represented.  (Pohl,  'Moiart 
In  London,'  p.  75,  note.) 

2  This  at  least  is  the  commonly-received  opinion.  In  the  Drago- 
nettl  score.  In  the  British  Museum,  the  first  act  is  attributed  to 
'  Signer  ripo.'    Chrjsander  attributes  it  to  Filippo  Mattel. 


PASTICCIO. 


66$ 


which  attended  its  production ;  and  it  was  never 
afterwards  revived.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
the  object  of  associating  these  three  great  Com- 
posers together,  in  this  work,  was  not  rivalry, 
but  ceconomy  of  time — a  most  improbable  sup- 
position, unsupported  by  any  kind  of  evidence. 
The  Pasticcio,  at  the  time  '  Muzio  Scevola '  was 
produced,  was  equally  common  in  England  and 
on  the  Continent ;  and  nothing  was  more  natural 
than  that  all  the  talent  that  could  be  brought 
together  should  be  employed  in  the  production  of 
a  splendid  example  for  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Music.  Handel,  moreover,  the  only  Composer 
in  whose  hands  this  kind  of  piece  ever  attained 
the  degree  of  homogeneity  necessary  to  constitute 
a  really  great  work,  can  never  have  entertained 
any  strong  objection  to  it,  for  he  constantly  intro- 
duced Songs,  which  had  made  their  mark  in  his 
earlier  Operas,  into  the  newer  ones  he  was  so 
frequently  called  upon  to  produce;  and,  in  1738, 
he  brought  out  a  Pasticcio,  called  'Alessandro 
Severo,"  entirely  composed  of  his  own  most 
favourite  Airs.  His  keen  perception  of  dramatic 
truth  enabled  him  to  perform  the  operation  of 
fitting  together  materials,  apparently  quite  in- 
congruous, with  such  inimitable  skill,  that  no 
one  unacquainted  with  the  real  facts  of  the  case 
could  possibly  think  they  had  ever  been  intended 
to  occupy  any  other  position  than  that  in  which 
they  are  actually  found  at  the  time  being.  Had 
other  Composers  possessed  this  power  of  adapta- 
tion in  an  equal  degree,  the  Pasticcio  might  have 
attained  a  longer  term  of  existence  :  but  the 
best  writers  of  the  age,  more  especially  those  of 
the  great  School  founded  by  Hasse,  at  Dresden, 
failed  lamentably,  in  this  particular  ;  and,  strange 
as  it  may  seem  to  say  so,  it  is  to  this  fortunate 
circumstance  that  we  are  indebted  for  one  of  the 
most  important  and  beneficial  revolutions  re- 
corded in  the  history  of  the  Lyric  Drama. 

In  the  year  1746,  Gluck  produced,  at  the 
King's  Theatre,  in  the  Haymarket,  a  Pasticcio, 
called  '  Piranio  e  Tisbe, '  in  which  he  introduced 
all  his  own  most  successful  Airs.  He  wrote,  at 
that  time,  entirely  in  the  Italian  style;  and, 
though  Handel  expressed  great  contempt  for 
his  want  of  learning,  his  airs  were  especially 
melodious,  and  enjoyed  a  high  degree  of  popu- 
lar favour.  Yet  the  piece  did  not  succeed,  and 
he  himself  was  altogether  dissatisfied  with  it. 
Soon  after  its  production,  he  left  England,  and 
settled,  for  a  time,  in  Vienna.  Here  he  attained 
immense  popularity;  but  he  could  not  forget  the- 
failure  of  his  Pasticcio,  and  the  disappointment 
he  felt  led  him  carefully  to  reconsider  the  matter, 
and,  as  far  as  possible,  to  trace  the  defects  of  the 
piece  to  their  true  cause.  The  course  of  ana- 
lytical study  thus  forced  upon  him  led  to  the 
conviction,  that  however  good  an  Air  may  be  in 
itself,  it  is  only  useful  for  dramatic  purposes  in 
so  far  as  it  is  calculated  to  bring  out  the  truth- 
ful expression  of  the  Scene  in  which  it  is  intro- 
duced ;  and  this  simple  thesis  formed  the  founda- 
tion of  that  great  work  of  reformation  which 
made  his  name  so  deservedly  famous,  and  raised 
the  Lyric  Drama  to  a  position  from  which  the 


670 


PASTICCIO. 


false  ideas  of  Hasse  and  Metastasio  would  for 
ever  Lave  excluded  it.  [See  Opera,  Eleventh 
Period,  p.  5146.] 

The  triumphant  success  of  Gluck's  later  works 
put  an  end,  at  once,  to  the  existence  of  the 
'  Concert  Opera,'  both  in  Italy  and  Germany : 
and,  with  it,  the  Pasticcio  necessarily  fell  to  the 
ground.  Since  his  death,  no  genuine  Pasticcio 
of  any  importance  has  ever  been  produced. 
Only  in  a  very  few  cases  have  two  or  more  Com- 
posers consented  to  write  the  separate  Acts  of 
the  same  work  ;  and,  judging  from  past  experi- 
ence, we  may  confidently  hope  that  the  abuse 
will  never  again  be  revived. 

The  leading  principle  of  the  Pasticcio  has 
been  frequently  introduced  into  English  Operas, 
more  especially  those  of  the  older  School.  The 
'  Beggar's  Opera'  will  occur  to  the  reader  as  a 
notable  instance  of  its  application.  But  it  must 
be  remembered  that  in  Operas  of  this  class  the 
Music  is  often  oidy  of  an  incidental  character, 
and  the  objection  to  the  system  is  therefore  far 
less  serious  than  in  the  case  of  Italian  Operas 
of  the  same,  or  even  earlier  date.  [W.  S.  R.] 

PASTORALE.  1.  A  dramatic  composition 
or  opera,  the  subject  of  which  is  generally  of  a 
legendary  and  pastoral  character.  Pastorales 
had  their  origin  in  Italy,  where,  at  the  time  of 
the  Renaissance,  the  study  of  the  Eclogues  of 
Theocritus  and  Virgil  led  to  the  stage  represen- 
tation of  pastoral  dramas  such  as  Politian's 
*  Favola  di  Orfeo,'  which  was  played  at  Mantua 
in  1472.  The  popularity  of  these  dramatic 
pastorales  spread  from  Italy  to  France  and 
Spain,  and  eventually  to  Germany;  but  it  is 
principally  in  France  that  they  were  set  to 
music,  and  became  of  importance  as  precursors 
of  the  opera.  In  April  1659  'La  Pastorale  en 
Musique,'  the  words  by  the  Abbe*  Perrin,  the 
music  by  Cambert,  was  performed  at  Issy,  at  the 
house  of  M.  de  Lahaye,  and  proved  so  success- 
ful that  the  same  authors  wrote  another  similar 
work,  'Pomone,'  which  was  played  in  public 
with  great  success  in  May  1 671.  These  two 
pastorales  are  generally  considered  as  the  earliest 
French  operas.  The  pastorale,  owing  to  the 
weakness  of  its  plot,  was  peculiarly  suited  for 
the  displays  of  ballet  and  spectacle  which  were 
so  much  in  vogue  at  the  French  court,  and  ex- 
amples of  this  style  of  composition  exist  by 
nearly  all  the  French  composers  before  the 
Great  Revolution.  Lully's  'Acis  et  GalatheV 
('Pastorale  heroique  mise  en  musique')  is 
perhaps  one  of  his  finest  compositions.  Mathe- 
son  (' Vollkommener  Kapellmeister'),  with  his 
passion  for  classifying,  divides  pastorales  into 
the  very  obvious  categories  of  comic  and  tragic, 
and  gives  some  quaint  directions  for  treating 
subjects  in  a  pastoral  manner.  The  pastorale 
must  not  be  confounded  with  the  pastourelle, 
which  was  an  irregular  form  of  poetry  popular 
in  France  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries. 

2.  Any  instrumental  or  vocal  composition  in 
6-8,  9-8,  or  12-8  time  (whether  on  a  drone  bass 
or  not),  which  assumes  a  pastoral  character  by 
ito  imitation  of  the  simple  sounds  and  melody 


PASTORAL  SYMPHONY. 

6f  a  shepherd's  pipe.  The  Musette  and  the  Sici- 
liana  are  both  '  pastoral '  forms ;  the  former  is  of 
a  slower  tempo,  and  the  latter  contains  fewer 
dotted  quavers.  '  He  shall  feed  his  flock '  and 
the  'Pastoral  Symphony'  in  the  Messiah  are 
both  in  12-8,  and  so  is  the  Pastoral  Sinfonia 
which  begins  the  second  part  of  Bach's  Christmas 
Oratorio.  Other  examples  of  this  class  of  com- 
position are  the  first  movement  of  Bach's  Pasto- 
rale for  organ  (Dorflel,  788),  and  the  air  '  Pour 
Bertha  moi  je  soupire '  in  Meyerbeer's  opera  '  Le 
Prophete.'  The  'Sonnambula'  was  originally 
entitled  '  Dramma  pastorale.'  [W.  B.  S.] 

PASTORALE.  'Sonata  pastorale'  is  the 
title  'often  given  to  Beethoven's  Sonata  in  D, 
op.  39,  but  apparently  quite  without  warrant. 
Its  opening  Allegro  and  its  Finale  both  begin 
with  long  passages  on  a  pedal  bass,  both  are  also 
in  triple  time,  and  so  far  have  a  '  pastoral '  air ; 
but  Beethoven  has  said  nothing  of  any  such  in» 
tention.  The  original  edition  is  entitled '  Grande 
Sonate  pour  le  Pianoforte,'  and  the  autograph  is 
inscribed  '  Gran  Sonata.'  It  is  worth  notice  that 
this  is  the  first  of  the  Sonatas  which  is  not  com- 
posed expressly  both  for  harpsichord  or  piano- 
forte ;  all  the  preceding  ones  have  the  words '  pour 
le  Clavecin  (or  Clavicembalo)  ou  Pianoforte '  on 
the  title-page. 

It  was  composed  in  1801  and  published  in 
Aug.  1802.  According  to  Czerny  the  Andante 
was  for  long  a  special  favourite  of  the  composer's, 
and  often  played  by  him.  The  fly-leaf  of  the 
autograph — in  the  possession  of  Herr  Johann 
Kaffka  of  Vienna — contains  a  little  piece  of 
1 7  bars  long,  for  2  voices  and  chorus,  aimed  at  the 
unwieldy  figure  of  Schuppanzigh,  Beethoven's 
favourite  first  violin,  and  entitled  '  Lob  auf  den 
Dicken ' — '  Glory  to  the  fat.'    It  begins  thus  : — 


Bchup  -  pan  -  zigh  1st         ein   Lump,    Lump,  Lump. 

[G.] 

PASTORAL  SYMPHONY  in  Handel's  'Mes- 
siah.' A  short  and  unaffected  little  piece  of  music 
in  1 2-8  time,  serving  to  introduce  the  scene  of  the 
'Shepherds  abiding  in  the  field.'  Handel  more 
than  any  other  great  composer  was  accustomed 
to  'prendre  son  bien  partout  oh  il  le  trouvait,' 
and  mostly  without  acknowledgment.  In  the 
present  instance  he  has  affixed  the  word  'Pifa' 
to  this  movement,  more  probably  to  indicate  the 
reason  for  inserting  it  than  to  show  that  it  was 
not  his  own  composition,  a  matter  which  probably 
did  not  occupy  his  thoughts  in  the  least.  People 
in  those  days  had  not  ready  access  either  to  older 
or  contemporaneous  works,  and  were  not  in  a 
position  to  compare  one  thing  with  another ;  and 
our  composer,  often  in  a  great  hurry  to  get 
through  his  mighty  task,  did  not  trouble  himself 
to  enlighten  them :  his  superb  genius  answered 
for  all,  as  it  gave  life  and  immortality  to  any- 
thing he  chose  to  put  on  paper.  When  it  was 
first  called  a  Pastoral  Symphony  is  not  very  clear ; 
Randall  &  Abell's  edition  gives  the  word  '  Pifa ' 
only,  a  fact  overlooked  by  Dr.  Rimbault  in  his 
I  Originally  perhaps  by  Cranz,  the  publisher,  of  Hamburg. 


PASTOKAL  SYMPHONY. 


PASTORAL  SYMPHONY. 


671 


preface  to  the  Handel  Society's  edition  ( 1 850) ;  but 
Arnold's  edition  has  '  Sinfonia  Pastoralle.'  Han- 
del's MS.  and  the  Smith  transcripts  give  only 
'  Pifa.'  As  to  the  origin  of  the  music  Dr.  Rim- 
bault,  in  his  Preface  to  the  edition  of  the  Handel 
Society  professes  to  give  the  melody  note  for  note 
from  a  MS.  collection  of  ancient  hymns  written 
in  1630  ;  but  what  collection,  and  where  it  is  to 
be  found,  is  not  told  us. 


Play  ford's  '  Musick's  Handmaid'  (1678)  has  a 
very  similar  tune,  and  in  Crotch's  specimens  this 
also  figures  as  an  example  of  Italian  music — a 
Siciliana.  In  these  two  works  the  title  of  '  Par- 
thenia'  has  been  added  to  it.  Doubtless  Handel 
heard  the  peasants  playing  such  an  air  about  the 
streets  of  Rome  at  Christmas  during  his  visit 
there,  and  stored  up  the.  idea  for  future  use. 
[See  Pifero.] 

At  first  it  consisted  of  the  first  part  alone,  the 
second  being  added  on  a  slip  of  paper  wafered  into 
the  original  MS.  Of  the  second  part  there  are 
two  versions,  one  which  is  in  use,  10  bars  long, 
the  other,  12  bars,  with  the  sequence  prolonged, 
taking  the  music  into  F,  in  which  key  it  winds 
up  before  the  Da  Capo.  The  second  version, 
which  is  on  the  back  of  the  slip  of  paper  just 
mentioned,  Handel  has  crossed  through. 

This  little  Symphony  is  scored  only  for  strings, 
with  a  third  violin  part  which  has  curiously  often 


been  left  out.  In  a  piece  of  music  intended  to 
represent  the  playing  of  Pifferari,  it  is  singular 
that  Handel  should  not  have  given  the  melody, 
at  least,  to  his  favourite  instrument  the  haut- 
boy, which  had  in  his  day  a  very  broad  reed,  and 
a  tone  somewhat  reminding  one  of  the  Roman 
peasants  who  pipe  a  pastoral  in  our  streets  at 
the  present  time.  [W.G.C.] 

PASTORAL  SYMPHONY,  THE.  'Sin- 
fonia Pastorale,  No.  6,'  is  the  title  of  the  pub- 
lished score  of  Beethoven's  6th  Symphony,  in 
F,  op.  68  (Breitkopf  &  Hiirtel,  May  1826). 

The  autograph,  in  possession  of  the  Baron 
van  Kattendyke,  of  Amheim,  bears  the  following 
inscription  in  Beethoven's  own  writing,  'Sinf'* 
6ta.  Da  Luigi  van  Beethoven.  Angenehme 
heitre  Empfindungen  welche  bey  der  Ankunft 
auf  dem  Lande  bn  Menschen  erwa — Alio  ma 
non  troppo — Nicht  ganz  geschwind — N.B.  die 
deutschen  Ueberschriften  schreiben  sie  alle  in 
die  erste  Violini — Sinfonie  von  Ludwig  van 
Beethoven':  or,  in  English,  '  6th  Symphony,  by 
Luigi  van  Beethoven.  The  pleasant,  cheerful 
feelings,  which  arise  in  man  on  arriving  in  the 
country — Alio  ma  non  troppo — not  too  fast — 
N.B.  [this  is  to  the  copyist]  the  German  titles  are 
all  to  be  written  in  the  first-violin  part — Sym- 
phony by  Ludwig  van  Beethoven.' 

Besides  the  '  titles '  referred  to  in  this  in- 
scription, which  are  engraved  in  the  1st  violin 
part,  on  the  back  of  the  title-page,  Beethoven  has 
given  two  indications  of  his  intentions — (1)  on 
the  programme  of  the  first  performance,  Dec.  22, 
1808,  and  (2)  on  the  printed  score.  We  give 
the  three  in  parallel  columns  :— 


Fint  Violin  Part. 
Pastoral   Sinfonie  oder  Erinnerungen  an 
das  Landleben  (incur  Ausdruck  der  Emp- 
findung  als  Mahlerey). 

1.  Allegro  ma  non  molto.  Erwachen  helt- 
erer  Empfindungeu  bey  der  Ankunft  auf  dem 
Lande. 

2.  Andante  con  moto.    Scene  am  Bach. 

Si  Allegro.  Lustiges  Zusammenseyn  der 
Landleute. 

4.  Allegro.    Gewitter.  Sturm. 

5.  Allegretto.  Hlrtengesang.  Frohe  und 
dankbare  Uefuhle  nach  dem  Sturm. 


Tastoral  Symphony,  or  Kecollections  of 
country  lire.  (More  expression  of  feeling 
than  painting.) 

1.  Allegro  ma  non  molto.  The  awakening 
of  cheerful  feelings  on  arriving  In  the 
country. 

2.  Andante  con  moto.    Scene  at  the  brook. 

3.  Allegro.    Merry  meeting  of  country  folk. 

4.  Allegro.    Thunderstorm,  tempest. 

5.  Allegretto.  Song  of  the  shepherds.  Glad 
and  thankful  feelings  after  the  storm. 

A  book  of  sketches  for  the  first  movement, 
now  in  the  British  Museum,  is  inscribed  'Sin- 
fonie caracteristica.  Die  Erinnerungen  von  der 
Landleben ' ;  with  a  note  to  the  effect  that  'the 
hearer  is  to  be  allowed  to  find  out  the  situations 
for  himself ' — '  Man  uberlasst  dem  Zuhorer  sich 
selbst  die  Situationen  auszutinden.' 

The  work  was  composed  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Vienna,  in  the  wooded  meadows  between 
Heiligenstadt  and  Giinzing,  in  the  summer  of 
1808,  at  the  same  time  with  the  Symphony  in 


Programme  of  Concert,  Dec.  22, 1808. 

Pastoral  Symphonle  (No.  6),  mehr  Au»- 
druck  der  Emptindung,  als  Malerey. 

lstes  Stuck.  Angenehme  Empfindungen, 
welche  bey  der  Ankunft  auf  dem  Lande  lm 
Menschen  erwachen. 

2tes  Stuck.    Scene  am  Bach. 

3tes  Stack.  Lustiges  Beysammenseyn  der 
Landleute ;  fSllt  eln 

4tes  Stack.  Conner  und  Sturm ;  (n  welches 
einfallt 

5tes  Stack.  Wohlthfltige.  mlt  Dank  an  die 
Gottheit  verbundene  Gefuhle  nach  dem 
Sturm.  

Tastoral  Symphony  (No.  5)  more  expression 
of  feeling  than  painting. 

1st  piece.  The  pleasant  feelings  aroused  In 
the  heart  on  arriving  in  the  country. 

2nd  piece.    Scene  at  the  brook. 

3rd  piece.  Jovial  assemblage  of  country 
folk.  Interrupted  by 

4th  piece.    Thunderstorm,  Interrupted  by 

6th  piece.  Pleasurable  feelings  after  the 
itorm,  mixed  with  gratitude  to  God. 


Printed  Score. 

Sinfonia  Pastorale,  No.  6. 

Erwachen  heiterer  Empfindungen  bey  der 
Ankunft  auf  dem  Lande.  All"  ma  non 
troppo. 

Scene  am  Bach.    Andante  molto  moto. 

Lustiges  Zusammensejn  der  Landleute. 
Allegro. 

Gewitter.    Sturm.    Allegro. 

Hlrtengesang.  Frohe  und  dankbare  Ge- 
fiihle  nach  dem  Sturm.    Allegretto. 


Sinfonia  Pastorale.  No.  6. 

The  awakening  of  cheerful  feelings  on  ar- 
riving In  the  country.    All"  ma  non  troppo. 

Scene  at  the  brook.    Andante  molto  moto. 

Merry  meeting  of  country  folk.    Allegro. 

Thunderstorm,  tempest.    Allegro. 

Song  of  the  shepherds.  Glad  and  thankful 
feelings  after  the  storm. 


C  minor.  The  two  were  each  dedicated  to  the 
same  two  persons,  Prince  Lobkowitz  and  the 
Count  Rasoumoffsky ;  their  opus-numbers  follow 
one  another,  and  so  closely  were  the  two  connected 
that  at  the  first  performance — in  the  Theatre  an 
der  Wien,  Dec.  22,  1808 — their  numbers  were 
interchanged,  the  Pastoral  being  called  '  No.  5 ' 
and  the  C  minor  'No.  6.'  This  confusion  lasted 
as  late  as  1820,  as  is  shown  by  the  list  of  per- 
formances of  the  Concerts  Spirituels  at  Vienna, 
given  by  Han  slick  (Concert  wesen  in  Wien,  p.  189). 


672 


PASTORAL  SYMPHONY. 


The  titles  of  the  movements  were  curiously 
anticipated  by  Knecht,  more  than  twenty  years 
earlier,  in  a  '  Portrait  musical  de  la  Nature.' 
[See  Knecht,  vol.  ii.  660;  and  Programme 
Music] 

Beethoven  himself  (a  very  rare  occurrence) 
anticipated  a  part  of  the  storm  movement  in  his 
Prometheus  music  (1801),  in  the  'Introduction' 
following  the  overture. 

The  Symphony  was  first  played  in  London  at 
a  concert  given  for  the  benefit  of  F.  Griesbach, 
the  oboe-player.  This  was  before  April  14,  18 17, 
the  date  at  which  it  first  appears  in  the  pro- 
grammes of  the  Philharmonic  Society.  [G.] 

PATEY,  Janet  Monach,  nie  Whytock,  was 
born  May  I,  1842,  in  London,  her  father  being 
a  native  of  Glasgow.  She  received  instruction  in 
singing  from  Mr.  John  Wass,  and  made  her  first 
appearance  in  public  at  a  very  early  age,  at  the 
Town  Hall,  Birmingham.  She  became  a  member 
of  Henry  Leslie's  Choir,  and  afterwards  received 
further  instruction  from  Mrs.  Sims  Peeves  and 
Pinsuti.  In  1865  she  was  engaged  by  M.  Lem- 
mens  for  a  provincial  concert  tour.  In  1 866  she 
was  married  to  Mr.  Patey  (see  below),  and  sang 
at  the  Worcester  Festival  of  that  year.  From  that 
time  her  reputation  continued  to  increase,  until 
in  1870,  on  the  retirement  of  Madame  Sainton- 
Dolby,  she  succeeded  to  her  position  as  leading 
contralto  concert-singer,  and  as  such  has  sung  in 
several  of  the  principal  new  works,  such  as  Bene- 
dict's 'St.  Peter,'  Barnett's  'Ancient  Mariner,' 
'  Paradise  and  the  Peri,'  and '  Raising  of  Lazarus,' 
and  in  Macfarren's  'St.  John  the  Baptist,'  'Resur- 
rection,' 'Joseph,'  and  'Lady  of  the  Lake.'  In 
the  part  of  Blanche  of  Devan,  in  the  last  of  these, 
she  developed  an  amount  of  dramatic  power  for 
which  her  admirers  had  not  given  her  credit. 
In  1871  she  started  on  a  concert  tour  in  America 
with  Edith  Wynne,  Cummings,  Santley,  and  her 
husband,  and  enjoyed  great  success.  In  1875  she 
sang  with  her  usual  success  in  Paris,  in  French, 
in  four  performances  of  the  '  Messiah,' on  the  invi- 
tation of  M.  Lamoureux,  and  under  his  direction. 
Also  on  Jan.  31  of  the  same  year  she  sang  in 
English  '0  rest  in  the  Lord,'  at  the  concert  of  the 
Conservatoire,  with  such  effect  that  she  was  re- 
engaged for  the  next  concert,  Feb.  7,  when  she 
more  than  confirmed  the  previous  impression.  In 
commemoration  of  this  the  directors  presented 
her  with  a  medal  bearing  the  dates  of  the  con- 
certs, a  compliment  rarely  accorded  by  that  con- 
servative body  to  any  singer. 

Hervoice  is  a  contralto  of  great  power  and  sweet- 
ness, and  of  extensive  compass,  and  she  is  equally 
excellent  either  in  oratorio  or  ballads.         [A.C.] 

PATEY,  John  George,  husband  of  the  above, 
born  in  1835,  at  Stonehouse,  Devonshire,  son 
of  a  clergyman,  was  educated  for  medicine,  but 
abandoned  it  for  music.  His  voice  is  bari- 
tone. He  studied  at  Paris  and  Milan,  made  his 
first  appearance  Oct.  II,  1858,  at  Drury  Lane,  as 
Plumket,  in  an  English  version  of '  Martha,'  and 
sang  for  several  seasons  in  English  opera  at 
Co  vent  Garden  and  Her  Majesty's,  creating  parts 
in  'Robin  Hood'  (Oct.  10, 60), '  La  Reine  Topaze* 


PATON. 

(Dec.  26, 60),  'Puritan's  Daughter'  (Nov.  30,  61), 
'Lily  of  Killarney'  (Feb.  8,  62),  etc.  He  also 
sang  in  Italian  opera  at  the  Lyceum  in  1861,  and 
was  frequently  heard  in  oratorio  and  concerts. 
Mr.  Patey  has  latterly  retired  from  public  sing- 
ing, and  now  carries  on  the  business  of  a  music 
publisher.  [A.C.] 

PATHETIQUE.  '  Grande  Sonate  pathetique 
pour  le  Clavecin  ou  Piano-Forte  composee  et 
dedie"e  a  Son  Altesse  le  Prince  Charles  de 
Lichnowsky  par  Louis  van  Beethoven'  is  the 
title  of  Beethoven's  7th  Pianoforte  Sonata,  op.  13. 
It  is  in  C  minor,  and  has  an  Introduction  (which 
reappears  in  the  A  llegro)  in  addition  to  the  other 
three  movements.  (The  Pathetique  and  the 
op.  in  are  the  only  PF.  Sonatas  with  Introduc- 
tions.) It  was  published  by  Eder  in  the  Graben, 
Vienna,  in  1 799.  No  clue  has  been  found  to  its 
title.  M.  Nottebohm  however  has  discovered 
from  Beethoven's  sketch-books  that  the  Finale 
was  originally  written  for  Strings,  and  was  pro- 
bably intended  for  the  Finale  of  the  String  trio 
in  C  minor,  Op.  9,  Ne.  3.1  [G.] 

PATON,MARYANNE,daughterof  George  Paton, 
master  in  the  High  School  of  Edinburgh,  where 
she  was  born  in  Oct.  1802  ;  from  a  very  early  age 
manifested  a  capacity  for  music,  and  when  little 
more  than  four  years  old  learned  to  play  the  harp, 
pianoforte,  and  violin.  Music  was  hereditary  in 
her  family.  Her  grandmother,  when  Miss  Anne 
Nicoll,  played  the  violin  before  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland at  Huntly,  on  his  way  to  Culloden,  in 
1 746 ;  and  Miss  Nicoll's  brother  Walter,  an  emi- 
nent merchant  of  Aberdeen,  and  a  good  violin 
player,  took  part  with  the  Duke  of  Gordon  and 
other  local  magnates  in  founding  the  Aberdeen 
Musical  Society  in  1748,  and  acted  for  some 
time  as  its  secretary.  Miss  Paton's  father  was 
also  a  violin  player,  and  was  renowned  in  his 
own  neighbourhood  as  having  built  an  organ. 
In  1 810  Miss  Paton  appeared  at  concerts  in 
Edinburgh,  singing,  reciting,  and  playing — among 
other  pieces,  Viotti's  Concerto  in  G.  She  also 
published  several  compositions.  In  181 1  the 
family  removed  to  London,  and  during  the  next 
three  seasons  she  sang  at  private  concerts,  and 
annually  at  a  public  concert  of  her  own.  In  18 14 
she  was  withdrawn  from  public  life  for  the  pur- 
pose of  completing  her  education.  In  1820  she 
reappeared  and  sang  at  the  Bath  concerts  with 
success,  and  in  1821  at  various  other  places.  On 
Aug.  3,  1822,  she  made  her  first  appearance  on 
the  stage  at  the  Haymarket  Theatre  as  Susanna 
in  'The  Marriage  of  Figaro,'  with  decided  suc- 
cess, and  subsequently  performed  Rosina  in  '  The 
Barber  of  Seville';  Lydia  in  Perry's  'Morning, 
Noon,  and  Night'  (her  first  original  part),  and 
Polly  in  'The  Beggar's  Opera.'  On  Oct.  19, 1822, 
she  appeared  at  Covent  Garden  as  Polly,  and  on 
Dec.  7  fully  established  herself  by  her  impersona- 
tion of  Mandane  in  Arne's  '  Artaxerxes.'  On 
July  22,  1824,  she  achieved  a  great  success 
in  the   part  of  the  heroine  in  Weber's   •  Der 

1  •  Neue  Beethoveniana,"  No.  xx,1u  the '  Musikalisches  WochenblaU,* 
Jmi.14.1876. 


PATON. 

Freischiitz,'  then  first  produced  in  England.  In 
the  same  year  she  was  married  in  Scotland  to 
Lord  William  Pitt  Lennox,  a  younger  son  of  the 
4th  Duke  of  Kichmond,  but  continued  her  pro- 
fessional appearances  under  her  maiden  name. 
On  April  ia,  1826,  on  the  production  of  Weber's 
*  Oberon,'  she  sustained  the  arduous  part  of  Heiza 
to  the  entire  satisfaction  as  well  of  the  composer 
as  the  audience.  Weber  had  previously  written 
to  his  wife,  '  Miss  Paton  is  a  singer  of  the  very 
first  rank,  and  will  play  Reiza  divinely.'  In  the 
same  letter  he  describes  a  concert  in  which  Velluti 
and  all  the  first  Italians  sang,  at  which  '  she 
beat  them  all.'  From  that  time  she  was  at  the 
head  of  her  profession,  alike  in  the  theatre,  the 
concert-room,  and  the  oratorio  orchestra.  Her 
marriage  was  unfortunately  not  a  happy  one,  and 
in  June  1830  she  separated  from  her  husband, 
and  on  Feb.  26,  1831,  obtained  a  decree  of  the 
Court  of  Session  in  Scotland  dissolving  the  mar- 
riage. Shortly  afterwards  she  was  married  to  Mr. 
Joseph  Wood,  the  tenor  singer,  and  in  the  same 
year  reappeared  at  Covent  Garden  and  after- 
wards at  the  King's  Theatre  in  '  La  Cenerentola.' 
She  was  next  engaged  at  Drury  Lane,  and  ap- 
peared as  Alice  in  an  English  version  of  Meyer- 
beer's '  Robert  le  Diable,'  produced  Feb.  20,  1832. 
She  also  sustained  at  various  times  the  principal 
parts  in  the  '  Sonnambula,"  Barnett's  '  Mountain 
Sylph,'  etc.,  etc.  In  1833  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Wood 
began  to  reside  at  Woolley  Moor,  Yorkshire, 
an  estate  belonging  to  Mr.  Wood,  sen.,  and 
this  remained  their  permanent  home  till  1854. 
In  1834  they  paid  a  visit  to  the  United  States, 
and  repeated  it  twice  within  the  next  few 
years.  In  April  1837  Mrs.  Wood  reappeared  in 
London,  and  continued  to  perform  until  Feb. 
1843,  when  she  embraced  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion,  and  took  up  her  residence  in  the  convent 
by  Micklegate  Bar,  York.  The  change  however 
was  of  short  duration,  and  in  July  she  quitted 
the  convent.  In  1844  she  was  engaged  at  the 
Princess's  Theatre.  She  soon  afterwards  retired 
from  her  profession,  and  settled  with  her  husband 
at  Woolley  Moor.  Here  she  took  a  warm  in- 
terest in  the  Anglican  service  at  Chapelthorpe. 
She  composed  for  it,  formed  and  trained  a  choir, 
in  which  she  herself  took  the  leading  part.  In 
1854  they  left  Yorkshire  and  went  abroad.  In 
1863  they  returned  to  Bulcliffe  Hall,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Chapelthorpe,  and  there  Mrs.  Wood 
died,  July  21, 1864,  leaving  a  son  (born  at  Woolley 
Moor  in  1838)  as  the  only  representative  of 
her  family.  Mrs.  Wood's  voice  was  a  pure  so- 
prano, of  extensive  compass  (A  below  the  staff  to 
D  or  E  above),  powerful,  sweet-toned,  and  bril- 
liant. She  was  mistress  of  the  florid  style,  and 
had  great  powers  of  expression.  She  was  re- 
nowned for  her  beauty,  both  of  feature  and  ex- 
pression, inherited  from  her  mother,  Miss  Craw- 
ford of  Cameron  Bank ;  and  the  portraits  of  her 
are  numerous,  including  those  by  Sir  Thos.  Law- 
rence, Sir  W.  Newton,  Wageman,  and  others.  Her 
younger  sisters  were  both  singers  ;  Isabella  ap- 
peared at  Drury  Lane  about  1825,  and  Eliza  at 
the  Haymarket  as  Mandane  in  1833.  [W.H.H.] 
VOL.  II.  PT.  12. 


PATTI. 


673 


PATRICK,  Richard  (sometimes  called  Na- 
than or  Nathaniel),  lay  vicar  of  Westminster 
Abbey  from  1616  until  about  1625,  composed  a 
fine  service  in  G  minor,  which  is  printed  in  vol.  i. 
of  Arnold's  Cathedral  Music.  [W.  H.  H.] 

PATROCINIUM  MUSICES.  A  splendid 
collection  of  church  music  in  10  volumes,  pub- 
lished between  1573  and  1598  by  Adam  Berg  of 
Munich  under  the  patronage  of  the  Duke  of 
Bavaria,  whence  its  quaint  title,  '  the  protection 
of  music'  For  the  list  of  contents  see  this  Dic- 
tionary, i.  230.  It  is  printed  from  types,  not  in 
score,  but  so  that  all  the  parts  can  be  read  at 
once  from  the  two  open  pages,  which  are  of 
immense  folio  size.  There  is  a  copy  in  the 
British  Museum.  [G.] 

PATTER-SONG.  « Patter '  is  the  technical— 
or  rather,  slang — name  for  the  kind  of  gabbling 
speech  with  which  a  cheap-jack  extols  his  wares, 
or  a  conjuror  distracts  the  attention  of  the  audi- 
ence while  performing  his  tricks.  It  is  used  in 
music  to  denote  a  kind  of  song,  the  humour  of 
which  consists  in  getting  the  greatest  number  of 
words  to  fit  the  smallest  number  of  notes.  In- 
stances of  this  form  of  composition  are  Haydn's 
'  Durch  Italien,  Frankreich,  Preussen,'  from  •  Der 
Ritter  Roland';  Gre'try's  syllabic  duet  in  'La 
fausse  Magie '  [see  vol.  i.  p.  628  6]  ;  Dulcamara's 
song  in  Donizetti's  '  L'Elisir  d'amore,'  etc.  Mo- 
zart and  many  other  composers  often  introduce 
bits  of  '  patter '  into  buffo  solos,  as  for  instance 
the  middle  of  '  Madamina '  in  *  Don  Juan,'  etc. 
This  form  of  song  has  for  long  been  popular  with 
'entertainers'  from  Albert  Smith  to  Corney 
Grain,  and  probably  owes  its  name  to  a  song 
sung  by  Charles  Mathews  in  'Patter  versus 
Clatter.'  Its  latest  development  is  in  the  operettas 
of  Messrs.  Burnand,  Gilbert,  and  Sullivan,  in  all 
of  which  patter-songs  fill  an  important  place. 
Excellent  instances  are  '  My  aged  Employer '  in 
'  Cox  and  Box,'  and  '  My  name  is  John  Welling- 
ton Wells '  in  '  The  Sorcerer.'  [J.  A.  F.  M.] 

PATTI,  Adelina  (Adela  or  Ad^le  Juana 
Maria),  born  Feb.  19,  1843,  at  Madrid,  was  the 
youngest  daughter  of  Salvatore  Patti,  an  Italian 
singer,  who  died  in  1869,  and  a  Spanish  mother, 
also  a  singer,  well  known  in  Spain  and  Italy,  before 
her  marriage  with  Patti,  as  Signora  Barili.  The 
parents  of  Adelina  went  to  America,  and  she  was 
taken  there  as  a  child.  Having  shown  great  apt- 
itude for  music,  Mile.  Patti  received  instruction 
in  singing  from  Maurice  Strakosch,  who  married 
her  elder  sister  Amelia ;  she  appeared  in  public 
in  America  at  a  very  early  age,  and  was  well  re- 
ceived ;  but  was  wisely  withdrawn  for  some  years 
for  the  purpose  of  further  study.  She  reappeared 
Nov.  24, 1859,  at  New  York,  as  Lucia,  and  played 
other  parts,  in  all  of  which  she  was  highly  suc- 
cessful. Mile.  Patti  made  her  dibut  in  England 
May  14,  1861,  at  the  Royal  Italian  Opera,  as 
Amina,  with  wonderful  success,  and  from  that 
time  became  famous,  though  quite  unknown  be- 
fore. She  repeated  that  part  no  less  than  eight 
times,  and  confirmed  her  success  by  her  per- 
formance of  Lucia,  Violetta,  Zerlina  ('Don 
Xx 


674 


PATTI. 


PAUER. 


Giovanni'),  Martha  and  Eosina.  She  sang  that 
autumn  at  the  Birmingham  Festival,  in  opera 
at  Liverpool,  Manchester,  etc.,  and  afterwards 
was  engaged  at  Berlin,  Brussels,  and  Paris. 
From  1861  to  the  present  time  Mme.  Patti  has 
sung  at  Covent  Garden  every  year,  and  has 
maintained  her  position  as  perhaps  the  most 
popular  operatic  artist  of  the  time.  Mme.  Patti 
made  an  operatic  tour  in  the  provinces  in  1862  ; 
sang  at  the  Birmingham  Festival  of  1864,  notably 
as  Adah  on  the  production  of '  Naaman' ;  at  the 
Handel  Festivals  of  1865,  1877,  and  1880;  at 
the  Liverpool  Festival  of  1874,  as  well  as  in 
several  brilliant  provincial  concert  tours.  She  has 
enjoyed  the  same  popularity  on  the  continent, 
having  fulfilled  several  engagements  at  Paris,1 
Vienna,  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  etc.,  and  in 
various  cities  of  Germany,  Italy,  Spain,  etc. 

Her  voice  is  of  moderate  power  but  great  com- 
pass, reaching  to  F  in  alt;  her  execution  is 
brilliant  and  finished,  and  she  has  considerable 
charm  both  of  person  and  manner.  Her  reper- 
toire is  extensive,  upwards  of  30  characters,  chiefly 
of  the  Italian  school,  many  of  which,  such  as 
Maria,  Norma,  Adina,  Linda,  Luisa  Miller,  Des- 
demona,  Ninetta,  Semiramide,  etc.,  were  revived 
for  her ;  she  is  also  quite  at  home  in  the  works 
of  Meyerbeer  and  Gounod.  The  new  parts  which 
she  has  created  in  England  are  Annetta  ('  Cris- 
pino  e  la  Comare'),  July  14,  1866;  Esmeralda, 
June  14,  1870;  Gelmina,  June  4,  1872;  Juliet, 
July  11,  1867;  La  Catarina  ('Diamans  de  la 
Couronne'),  July  3,  18725s  Aida,  June  22, 
1876;  and  Estella  ('Les  Bluets')  of  Jules  Cohen 
(Covent  Garden,  under  the  title  of  'Estella,' 
July  3,  1880),  perhaps  with  a  little  more  success 
than  when  Mme.  Nilsson  played  the  part  in 
Paris.  Of  the  other  parts,  only  as  Juliet  and  Aida 
has  she  obtained  any  permanent  popularity.  The 
Zerlina  of  Mozart  is  the  only  character  she  has 
played  in  classical  opera.  Mme.  Patti  married, 
July  29,  1868,  Henri  Marquis  de  Caux,  Equerry 
to  Napoleon  III.     Her  elder  sister, 

Caelotta,  was  born  in  1840  at  Florence.  She 
was  educated  as  a  pianist  under  Herz,  but  aban- 
doned the  piano  in  favour  of  singing.  She  made 
her  cUbut  in  1 86 1  at  New  York  as  a  concert  singer, 
and  afterwards  fulfilled  an  engagement  there  in 
Italian  opera,  and  was  successful,  but  soon  after 
abandoned  the  stage  on  account  of  her  lameness. 
She  made  her  dibut  in  England  April  16, 1863,  at 
a  concert  at  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  attracted  at- 
tention on  account  of  her  pleasant  and  remarkable 
facility  of  execution,  obtained  a  position  here  in 
concerts  as  a  singer  of  the  lighter  class,  and  was  for 
several  seasons  a  great  attraction  at  promenade 
and  other  concerts.  Mile.  Patti  has  made  several 
concert  tours  in  the  provinces,  on  the  continent, 
and  in  America.  She  married,  Sept.  3, 1879,  Ernst 
de  Munck,  of  Weimar,  the  violoncellist. 

Carlo,  their  brother,  born  at  Madrid  in 
1842,  was  taken  to  America,  like  his  sisters, 

1  Mme.  Patti  has  recently  reappeared  there  (Theatre  de  la  GaiteO  In 
Italian  opera. 

2  For  the  first  time  In  England  in  Italian.  In  which  some  of  the 
music  was  cut  out.  and  airs  from  Aubert  earlier  operas  '  La  Nelge' 
and  '  Leicester'  inserted,  to  the  detriment  of  the  general  effect. 


when  a  child,  studied  the  violin,  and  at  the  a| 
of  20  became  leader  at  the  New  Orleans  Ope: 
House,  afterwards  at  New  York,  and  the  Wake- 
field Opera  House,  St.  Louis,  Missouri.    He  died 
at  the  last-named  city  March  17,  1873.      [A.C.] 

PAUER,  Ernst,  pianist  and  eminent  teacher 
of  the  piano,  was  born  at  Vienna,  Dec.  21,  1826. 
His  father  was  first  minister  of  the  Lutheran 
church,  Director  of  the  theological  seminary 
in  Vienna,  and  Superintendent-General  of  the 
Lutheran  churches  of  the  Austrian  Empire  ;  his 
mother  was  a  Streicher,  of  the  great  pianoforte- 
making  family,  so  intimately  connected  with 
Beethoven.  The  cultivation  of  his  early  musical 
talent  was  not  allowed  to  prejudice  his  general 
education ;  the  study  of  the  classics  and  modern 
languages  being  carried  on  concurrently  with 
the  pianoforte,  first  under  Theodor  Dirzka,  and 
then  under  Mozart's  son,  Wolfgang  Amadeus, 
and  with  harmony  and  counterpoint  under  Sech- 
ter.  This  first  stage  in  his  musical  education 
was  terminated  by  a  public  performance  in 
1842,  and  the  publication  of  one  of  bis  com- 
positions. In  1845  he  went  to  Munich  for  a 
year  and  a  half  to  study  instrumentation 
and  dramatic  composition  under  Franz  Lachner. 
Not  content  with  his  musical  studies  he  learnt 
Italian  and  Spanish,  and  by  teaching  and  com- 
posing was  enabled  to  become  independent  of 
his  father,  thus  early  evincing  that  extraordi- 
nary energy  which  has  always  been  one  of  his 
principal  characteristics.  In  April  1847  he 
competed  for  and  obtained  the  appointment  of 
director  of  the  musical  societies  at  Mayence, 
and  was  employed  by  the  great  publishing  firm 
of  Schotts  to  compose  two  operas,  '  Don  Riego ' 
(1849),  and  'Die  rothe  Maske'  (1850),  which 
were  performed  in  Mayence  and  Mannheim ;  also 
some  important  vocal  works,  and  overtures  and 
entr'actes  for  the  use  of  the  local  theatre.  This 
appointment,  in  which  he  gained  great  expe- 
rience, he  resigned  in  April  1851,  and  pr 
ceeded  to  London,  where  his  performances  at  the 
Philharmonic  (June  23,  Hummel's  A  minor  Con- 
certo) and  the  Musical  Union  were  received  wit' 
much  favour.  After  this  success  he  resolved 
pursue  his  career  in  England,  though  returnii 
for  a  time  to  Germany. 

In  1852  he  married  Miss  Andreae,  of  Frankfort, 
and  brought  her  with  him  to  London,  where  they 
have  since  regularly  resided  during  the  musical 
season.  Mrs.  Pauer  is  a  good  contralto  singer, 
and  an  excellent  musician.  During  the  first  few 
years  of  her  married  life  she  was  not  infrequently 
heard  in  public,  but  this  she  has  latterly  given 
up.  She  has  not  however  forsaken  music,  and 
the  Bach  Choir  has  profited  much  by  her  great 
knowledge  and  her  steady  devotion  to  its  re- 
hearsals and  performances. 

In  1 86 1  Mr.  Pauer  adopted  a  new  direction  in 
pianoforte-playing,  one  which  had  been  sketched 
by  Moscheles  some  twenty  years  before,  but  not 
fully  carried  out — the  historical ;  and  gave  a  serie 
of  six  performances  with  the  view  of  illustratirj 
the  foundation  and  development  of  pianofor 
composition  and  playing,  in  chronological  serie 


PAUER. 

from  about  1600  to  the  present  time,  elucidated 
and  assisted  by  programmes  containing  critical 
and  biographical  notices.  Similar  performances, 
but  with  different  programmes,  were  given  in  1 862 
and  1863,  and  again  in  1867,  in  Willis's  and  the 
Hanover  Square  Rooms.  In  1862  he  was  selected 
by  Austria  and  the  Zollverein  for  the  Musical 
Jury  of  the  London  International  Exhibition.  He 
was  at  the  same  time  the  official  reporter  for  the 
Prussian  government,  and  his  report  was  repro- 
duced by  some  of  the  chief  industrial  journals, 
and  was  translated  into  various  languages.  For 
these  services  he  received  the  Imperial  Austrian 
order  of  Francis  Joseph,  and  the  Prussian  order  of 
the  Crown.  During  the  next  few  years  Mr.  Pauer 
played  in  Holland,  Leipzig,  Munich  and  Vienna, 
in  fulfilment  of  special  engagements,  and  was  ap- 
pointed pianist  to  the  Imperial  Austrian  Court 
in  1866. 

In  1870  he  began  a  new  phase  of  his  active 
career,  that  of  lecturing  upon  the  composers  for 
the  harpsichord  (or  clavecin)  and  pianoforte  ;  the 
form  and  spirit  of  the  varieties  of  modern  music, 
as  the  Italian,  French  and  German  ;  the  history  of 
the  oratorio  ;  the  practice  of  teaching ;  and  many 
cognate  subjects.  These  lectures  have  been  given 
at  the  Royal  Institution,  the  South  Kensington 
Museum,  and  in  many  other  important  lecture- 
rooms  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  When 
Cipriani  Potter  retired  from  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Music,  Pauer  took  his  class,  and  retained  it 
for  five  years.  In  1876,  on  the  foundation  of  the 
National  Training  School  for  Music  at  Kensington 
Gore,  he  became  the  principal  pianoforte  pro- 
fessor of  that  institution,  and  in  1878  was  made 
a  member  of  the  Board  for  Musical  Studies  at 
Cambridge  University,  and  the  following  year  an 
Examiner.  Another  of  his  important  occupa- 
tions has  been  editing  the  works  of  the  clas- 
sical and  romantic  composers.  Among  these  will 
be  found  'AlteKlavier-Musik'  (Senff,  Leipzig),  12 
books; '  AlteMeister'  (Breitkopf  &  Hartel,  Leip- 
zig), 40  Nos.  [See  Klavier-Musik,  Alte;  and 
Meister,  Alte.]  Also  '  Old  English  Composers 
for  the  Virginals  and  Harpsichord'  (Augener, 
London) ;  and,  under  the  auspices  of  the  last- 
named  publisher,  an  edition  of  the  classical  com- 
posers in  a  cheap  form,  embracing  and  including 
all  the  great  masters  from  Bach  and  Handel  to 
Schumann,  and  extending,  up  to  July  1880,  to 
nearly  30  volumes,  of  admirable  clearness  and 
convenience.  Besides  this  are  arrangements  for 
children,  and  educational  works,  including  the 
*  New  Gradus  ad  Parnassum,'  100  studies,  some 
of  them  by  himself;  '  Primer  of  the  Pianoforte' 
(Novello,  Ewer  &  Co.  1876)  ;  •  Elements  of  the 
Beautiful  in  Music'  (ditto,  1876)  ;  and  '  Primer 
of  Musical  Forms'  (ditto,  1878).  Also  some  inter- 
esting arrangements  of  Schumann's  Symphonies 
for  four  hands,  and  of  Mendelssohn's  PF.  Con- 
certo for  two  pianos,  thrown  off  as  mere  hors 
d'ceuvres  by  this  clever  and  indefatigable  worker. 
Reference  to  the  publishers'  catalogues  must  sup- 
plement these  specimens  of  the  work  of  an  active 
and  successful  life.  As  may  be  expected,  he  has 
unperformed  and  unpublished  works  in  his  port- 


PAUSE. 


675 


folios;  among  them  an  opera  'Die  Brautschau 
Friedrich  des  Grossen.'  Of  published  pianoforte 
pieces  few  can  be  named  that  have  attained 
greater  popularity  than  Pauer 's  '  Cascade.'  As 
a  pianist  his  style  is  distinguished  by  breadth 
and  nobility  of  tone,  and  by  a  sentiment  in  which 
seriousness  of  thought  is  blended  with  profound 
respect  for  the  intention  of  the  composer.  As  a 
man,  his  simple  genuine  nature  has  gained  him 
the  affection  and  esteem  of  a  very  large  circle  of 
friends  and  pupils.  [A.  J.  H.] 

PAUL,  Oscab,  writer  on  music,  born  April  8, 
1 836,  at  Freiwaldau  in  Silesia,  where  his  father 
was  parish  priest,  and  educated  at  Gorlitz,  where 
he  first  learned  music  from  Klingenberg,  and  at 
the  university  of  Leipzig.  Here  he  studied  music 
with  Plaidy,  Richter,  and  Hauptmann,  of  whose 
system  of  harmony  he  became  a  warm  partisan. 
In  i860  he  graduated  as  Phil.  Doc,  and  after 
spending  some  time  in  various  towns  of  Germany, 
especially  Cologne,  settled  in  Leipzig  in  1866 
Becoming  known  by  his  private  lessons  in  the 
science  of  music,  he  was  made  professor  of  musical 
history  at  the  Conservatorium  in  1869,  and  Pro- 
fessor Extraordinarius  at  the  university  in  1872. 
His  best  and  most  important  work  is  his  transla- 
tion (the  first  in  Germany)  and  elucidation  of 
Boetius  (Leipzig,  Leuckart,  1872).  He  also  edited 
Hauptmann's  '  Lehre  der  Harmonik'  (1868),  the 
'Geschichte  des  Claviers'  (1869),  the  'Handlexi- 
con  der  Tonkunst'  (1871-73),  and  two  musical 
periodicals,  the  '  Tonhalle,'  and  its  successor,  the 
'  Musikalisches  Wochenblatt.'  He  is  now  the 
musical  critic  of  the  '  Leipziger  Tagblatt.'  [F.G.] 

PAUL,  ST.,  or,  German,  PAULUS.  Men- 
delssohn's first  oratorio  (op.  36).  It  was  com- 
missioned by  the  Cecilienverein  of  Frankfort 
early  in  1832,  but  was  not  produced  till  the 
Lower  Rhine  Festival  at  Diisseldorf,  May  23, 

1836.  For  the  book — 'in  the  words  of  Scrip- 
ture ' — he  sought  the  aid  of  Marx,  who  however 
soon  disagreed  with  him,  and  then  of  Fiirst  and 
Schubring;  but  his  own  judgment  was  always 
active.    [See  Mendelssohn,  vol.  ii.  271 6.] 

The  second  performance  took  place  at  Liver- 
pool under  Sir  G.  Smart  on  Oct.  3, 1836.  Others 
in  England  were,  Sacred  Harmonic  Society, 
March  7  and  Sept.  12,  1837,  and  Birmingham 
Festival,  under  Mendelssohn  himself,  Sept.  20, 

1837.  In  the  interval  between  the  first  and 
second  performances  it  had  been  revised  by  the 
composer,  and  published  (May,  1837).  Fourteen 
numbers  were  rejected,  including  two  Chorales, 
'0  treuer  Heiland,'  and  'Ein'  feste  Burg.' 

The  English  version  is  by  Mr.  W.  Ball.     [G.] 

PAUSE  (Ital.  Fermata;  Fr.  Point  tforgue; 
which  last  has  an  equivocal  meaning,  as  it  also 
signifies  what  we  call  'pedal  point').  A  tem- 
porary cessation  of  the  time  of  the  movement, 
expressed  by  the  sign  **  placed  over  a  note  or  a 
rest.  If  the  pause  is  over  a  note,  it  signifies  that 
the  note  is  to  be  prolonged  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
performer,  or  conductor;  if  over  a  rest,  the 
Bound,  as  well  as  the  time,  must  stop.  The 
judicious  use  of  pauses  is  one  of  the  most  striking 
Xx2 


675 


PAUSE. 


effects  at  the  command  of  a  composer.  Handel 
often  introduces  a  pause  with  prodigious  effect 
before  the  last  phrase  of  a  chorus,  as  in  'Then 
round  about  the  starry  throne,'  and  many  another 
case.  Instances  of  the  effect  of  the  pause  may 
be  found  in  the  delay  on  the  last  note  of  each 
line  of  the  chorales  of  the  German  church,  which 
is  happily  imitated  by  Mendelssohn  in  several 
of  the  Organ  Sonatas,  and  in  other  places,  where, 
though  no  pause  actually  occurs,  and  the  strict 
time  is  kept  up,  the  effect  is  produced  by  bringing 
in  the  next  line  of  the  chorale  a  bar  or  more  late. 
Beethoven  had  a  peculiarly  effective  way  of  in- 
troducing pauses  in  the  first  giving  out  of  the 
principal  subject  of  the  movement,  and  so  giving 
a  feeling  of  suspense,  as  in  the  first  movement  of 
the  Symphony  No.  5  in  C  minor,  the  beginning 
of  the  last  movement  of  the  Pianoforte  Trio, 
Op.  70,  No.  1,  etc.  Pauses  at  the  end  of  a 
movement,  over  a  rest,  or  even  over  a  silent  bar, 
are  intended  to  give  a  short  breathing-space 
before  going  on  to  the  next  movement.  They 
are  then  exactly  the  reverse  of  the  direction 
•  attacca'  [for  which  see  vol.  i.  p.  100  &].  '  Pause' 
is  the  title  of  the  last  but  one  of  the  pieces  in 
Schumann's  'Carneval,'  and  is  an  excerpt  of  27 
bars  long  from  the  Pre"ambule  to  the  whole, 
acting  as  a  sort  of  prelude  to  the  '  Marche  des 
Davidsbundler  contre  les  Philistins.'  '  Pause '  is 
also  the  title  of  a  fine  song  in  Schubert's  '  Schbne 
Miillerin.'  [J.A.F.M.] 

PAVAN,  PA  VANE,  or  PAVIN,  a  slow  and 
solemn  dance,  very  popular  in  the  1 6th  and  1 7th 
centuries.  The  name,  derived  from  'Padovana,'1 
points  to  an  Italian  origin,  although  it  is  gener- 
ally said  to  have  come  from  Spain,  owing  to  its 
popularity  in  that  country.  The  Spanish  Pavan, 
however,  was  a  variation  of  the  original  dance. 
According  to  some  authorities,  the  name  is 
derived  from  the  the  Latin  pavo,  owing  to  the 
fancied  resemblance  to  a  peacock's  tail  caused  by 
the  robes  and  cloaks  worn  by  the  dancers,  as 
they  swept  out  in  the  stately  figures  of  the 
dance.  Several  good  descriptions  of  the  Pavan 
have  come  down  to  us.  Rabelais 2  tells  us  that 
it  was  one  of  the  180  dances  performed  at  the 
court  of  the  Queen  of  Lanternois  on  the  visit  of 
Pantagruel  and  his  companions;  Tabourot,  in 
his  '  Orche'sographie,'  says  that  in  his  time, 
Pavans  were  still  popular,  although  not  as  much 
danced  as  formerly.3  At  state  balls  the  dancers 
wore  their  long  robes,  caps,  and  swords,  and  the 
music  was  performed  by  sackbuts  and  oboes. 
In  masquerades,  Pavans  were  played  as  proces- 
sional music,  and  were  similarly  used  at  weddings 
and  religious  ceremonies.  Like  all  early  dances, 
the  Pavan  was  originally  sung  as  well  as  danced, 
and  Tabourot  gives  the  following  example  for  4 

1  In  the  Cambridge  University  Library  Is  a  MS.  volume  of  airs  and 
dances  (in  Lute  Tablature)  by  Dowland  and  Holborne  in  which  there 
occurs  a  '  Padovana  de  la  Milanessa.' 

a  Pantagruel,  Bk.  v,  published  1562. 

3  Biisard,  in  the  Preface  to  his  "Thesaurus  Harmonlcus  Divinl 
Laurencinl  Roman!'  (Cologne,  1C0S),  after  praising  the  sweetness  and 
elegancy  of  the  English  music  of  his  day,  makes  particular  mention 
of  the  Pavans,  adding  that  the  word  'Pavana'  is  nothing  else  than 
the  Italian  ■Paduana.'  He  also  mentions  that  the  French  often  call 
their  l'assomezzos,  Pavans. 


PAVAN. 

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•  The  treble  sings  D.  the  alto  F. 


Sir  JohnDavies,  in  his  'Orchestra'  (1596)  has 
the  following  curious  verses,  in  which  the  mo- 
tions of  the  sun  and  the  moon  are  compared  to 
dancers  of  Pavans  and  Galliards  : 

'  "For  that  braue  Sunne  the  Father  of  the  Day, 
Doth  loue  this  Earth,  the  Mother  of  the  Night ; 
And  like  a  reuellour  in  rich  array, 
Doth  daunce  his  galliard  in  his  lemman's  sight, 
Both  back,  and  forth,  and  sidewaies,  passing  light.* 

•  Who  doth  not  see  the  measures  of  the  Moone, 
Which  thirteene  times  she  dannceth  euery  yeare? 
And  ends  her  pauine  thirteene  times  as  soone 
As  doth  her  brother.' 

There  are  numerous  specimens  extant  of  Pavans 
by  instrumental  composers  of  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries,  and  in  almost  every  case  the  Pavan 
is  followed  by  a  Galliard,  the  two  thus  anti- 
cipating the  Saraband  and  Gigue  of  the  later 
Suite.  Thus  Morley  ('Introduction,'  Part  3)  aftt 
speaking  of  Fantaisies,  says, '  The  next  in  grauitj 
and  goodnes  vnto  this  is  called  a  pauane, 
kind  of  staide  musicke,  ordained  for  graut 
dauncing,  and  most  commonlie  made  of  thre 
straines,  whereof  euerie  straine  is  plaid  or  sui 


PAVAN. 

twice,  a  straine  they  make  to  containe  8,  1 2,  or 
16  semibreues  as  they  list,  yet  fewer  then  eight 
I  haue  not  seene  in  any  pauan.  .  .  .  After 
euery  pauan  we  vsually  set  a  galliard.'  And 
Butler  ('  Principles  of  Music,'  1636),  speaking  of 
the  Doric  mode,  has  the  following : — '  Of  this 
sort  are  Pavins,  invented  for  a  slow  and  soft 
kind  of  Dancing,  altogether  in  duple  Proportion. 
"Unto  which  are  framed  Galliards  for  more  quick 
and  nimble  motion,  always  in  triple  proportion, 
and  therefore  the  triple  is  oft  called  Galliard- 
time  and  the  duple,  Pavin-time.'  Amongst  the 
best  known  of  these  forerunners  of  the  Suite, 
we  may  mention  John  Dowland's  'Lachrymae 
or  Seauen  Teares,  figured  in  seauen  passionate 
Pauans  with  diuers  other  Pauans,  Galliards,  and 
Almands'  (1605)  ;  and  JohannGhro's  30  Pavans 
and  Galliards  'nach  teutscher  art  gesetzet' 
(1604). 

The  Spanish  Pavan,  a  variety  of  the  original 
dance  which  came  from  Spain  (where  it  was 
called  the  Grand  Dance),  was  of  a  more  elaborate 
character  than  the  original.  Judging  from  the 
frequent  occurrence  of  its  air  in  the  early  English 
Lute  and  Virginal  Books,  it  must  have  become 
very  popular  in  England.1  The  following  is  the 
tune  which  Tabourot  gives  for  it :  it  is  not  the 
same  as  that  which  is  found  in  the  English  books. 


PEACE. 


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[W.B.S.] 

PAXTON,  Stephen,  a  composer  of  vocal 
music  in  the  latter  part  of  the  iSth  century, 
produced  several  graceful  and  elegant  glees,  9 
of  which,  with  2  catches,  are  printed  in  Warren's 
Collections.  The  Catch  Club  awarded  him  prizes 
for  the  following  glees  ;  '  How  sweet,  how  fresh,' 
1779;  'Round  the  hapless  Andre's  urn,'  1781; 
'  Blest  Power,'  1 784 ;  and  '  Come,  0  come,'  1 785 ; 
and  for  a  catch,  '  Ye  Muses,  inspire  me,'  1 783. 
He  published  '  A  Collection  of  two  Songs,  Glees 
and  two  Catches,'  and  'A  Collection  of  Glees.' 
Two  masses  by  him  are  printed  in  Webbe's  Col- 
lection.   He  died  in  1787. 

His  brother,  William,  was  a  violoncellist,  who 
composed  several  sets  of  solos  and  duets  for  his 
instrument.  He  gained  prizes  from  the  Catch 
Club  for  2  canons,  '  0  Lord  in  Thee,'  1779,  and 
'  0  Israel,  trust  in  the  Lord,'  1 780.  He  died  in 
1781.  [W.H.H.] 

PEABODY  CONCERTS,  given  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Conservatory  of  Music  of  the  Pea- 
body  Institute,  Baltimore,  Maryland.  Beginning 
in  1865,  eight  concerts  have  been  given  every 
season,  each  being  preceded  by  a  public  rehearsal, 
the  director  of  the  Conservatory  officiating  as 

>  Id  Starter's  'Frtesche  Lust  Hot'  (1634),  It  is  called  'Engelscbe 
indraeyende  Uaus  Londeiteyn.' 


conductor.  The  programmes  have  been  made 
up  of  symphonies,  suites,  overtures,  concertos  and 
vocal  solos,  nearly  everything  presented  being  of 
classic  in  style.  Many  important  compositions 
have  been  performed  for  the  first  time  in  America 
in  the  course  of  these  concerts.  Under  Mr.  Asger 
Hamerik's  direction  (since  187 1)  especial  atten- 
tion has  been  given  to  the  production  of  works 
by  American,  English  and  Scandinavian  com- 
posers.. The  orchestra  has  generally  included  50 
musicians.  The  institution  elicited  the  warm 
approbation  of  Von  Biilow  (1875-76)  for  its 
exceptionally  fine  performances.  [See  '  Peabody 
Institute,'  under  United  States.]        [F.  H.  J.] 

PEACE,  Albert  Lister,  Mus.  Doc.,  is  a  na- 
tive of  Huddersfield.  He  exhibited  in  his  child- 
hood precocity  hardly  exceeded  by  that  of  Crotch 
or  even  Mozart ;  naming  with  unerring  accuracy 
individual  notes  and  combinations  of  notes  when 
sounded,  before  attaining  his  fifth  year.  At  the 
age  of  nine  he  was  appointed  organist  of  the 
parish  church  of  Holmfirth,  and  subsequently  of 
other  churches  in  that  neighbourhood.  In  1866, 
at  the  age  of  2 1 ,  he  removed  to  Glasgow,  to  fill 
the  office  of  organist  to  Trinity  Congregational 
church,  and  soon  afterwards,  along  with  other 
posts,  that  of  organist  to  the  University.  In 
1870  he  graduated  as  Bachelor,  and  in  1875  as 
Doctor  of  Music  in  the  University  of  Oxford. 

Dr.  Peace  is  one  of  a  school  of  organists  which 
has  come  into  existence  in  this  country  only 
within  the  last  half  century,  and  which  may  be 
said  to  owe  that  existence  to  the  late  S.  S. 
Wesley.  Its  distinguishing  characteristic  may 
be  said  to  be  the  employment  of  the  feet  as  a 
third  hand,  concurrently  with  the  extension  of 
the  pedal-board  downwards,  from  G  to  C  below 
it,  and  also  upwards,  to  the  E  or  F,  two  octaves 
and  a  third  or  fourth  above  it.  This  extension 
enables  the  performer  to  lay  out  harmonies  after 
the  manner  of  the  '  harmonic  chord,'  in  which 
the  largest  intervals  are  found  between  the  lowest 
notes.  More  than  this,  it  has  brought  within  his 
reach,  what  on  the  old  G  pedal-board  was  ob- 
viously outside  it,  the  organ  compositions  of  J. 
S.  Bach  and  his  school.  Fifty  years  ago,  or  even 
later,  there  were  probably  not  half  a  dozen  Eng- 
lishmen who  could  have  played  one  of  the  Organ 
Fugues  of  that  great  master;  certainly  there 
were  not  as  many  organs  on  which  they  could 
have  been  played.2  Both  C  organs  and  players 
competent  to  use  them  may  now  be  reckoned  by 
hundreds.  Of  this  school  of  performers  Dr.  Peace 
is  one  of  the  most  distinguished  members  living. 
His  mechanical  powers  enable  him  not  merely 
to  deal  with  everything  as  yet  written  expressly 
for  his  instrument,  but  to  realise  upon  it  compo- 
sitions designed  for  all  the  combinations  of  the 
modern  orchestra.  This  he  does  with  unsur- 
passed taste  and  readiness.  Dr.  Peace's  published 

2  In  the  programmes  of  the  numerous  organ  recitals  of  the  late 
Thomas  Adams,  the  organist  par  excellence  of  the  first  half  of 
this  century,  it  is  highly  probable,  if  not  certain,  that  no  one  of  these 
compositions  ever  appeared.  One  of  Adams's  most  favourite  show- 
pieces was  the  Fugue  in  D  in  the  1st  book  of  the  '  Well-tempered 
Clavier.'  But  this— though  Mendelssohn  also  played  it— is  not  one  of 
Eacb's  ptdoMugues. 


678 


PEACE. 


compositions  are  for  the  most  part  connected 
with  the  Service  of  the  Church  of  England. 
They  form  however  but  a  small  portion  of  those 
still  in  MS.,  among  which  may  be  especially 
mentioned  a  setting  of  the  138th  Psalm,  and  a 
cantata  "The  Narrative  of  John  the  Baptist,' 
composed  respectively  for  his  degrees  as  Bachelor 
and  Doctor  of  Music.  On  the  recent  completion 
of  the  new  organ  at  Glasgow  Cathedral — an  in- 
strument by  Willis  embracing  all  the  most  recent 
improvements  in  the  organ-builder's  art — Dr. 
Peace  was  appointed  organist  there.  On  this  and 
on  the  organ,  by  Lewis,  at  the  Glasgow  New 
Music  Hall,  and  on  various  instruments  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  England  and  Scotland,  Dr.  Peace  is 
a  frequent  and  most  popular  performer.  [J.H.] 
PEARS  ALL,  Robert  Lucas,  born  at  Clifton, 
March  14,  1795,  of  an  old  Gloucestershire  family. 
He  showed  much  talent  for  poetry  and  music  at 
an  early  age,  but  was  educated  for  the  bar,  to 
which  he  was  called  in  1821,  and  at  which  he 
practised  till  1825.  He  then  left  England  for 
the  continent,  and  after  some  time  settled  at 
Mayence,  where,  during  four  years  he  took  a 
brilliant  part  in  literary,  artistic,  and  archaeo- 
logical life,  including  music,  in  which  he  was  the 
Eupil  of  Panny,  whose  instructions  in  composition 
e  pursued  with  characteristic  ardour.  In  1829 
he  returned  to  England,  but  after  a  year  went 
back  to  the  Continent  and  settled  with  his  family 
at  Carlsruhe,  he  resuming  his  intellectual  pur- 
suits, and  composing  and  practising  much  music. 
The  next  few  years  were  spent  in  travelling  to 
Munich,  Vienna,  Nuremberg,  and  other  towns, 
for  musical  and  archaeological  purposes.  In  1836 
he  revisited  England,  and  hearing,  apparently 
for  the  first  time,  some  madrigals  sung  at  London 
and  Bristol,  was  so  much  inflamed  by  this  new 
experience  as  to  write  a  treatise  on  that  style  of 
music,  which  he  published  in  Germany.  A  year 
later  he  sold  his  family  property  of  Willsbridge, 
and  again  quitted  England  for  Wartensee,  on  the 
Lake  of  Constance,  where  he  purchased  the  castle. 
In  1847  he  returned  for  a  short  visit,  and  then 
left  his  native  country  for  the  last  time.  Thence- 
forward till  his  death,  Aug.  5,  1856,  he  resided 
at  his  castle  en  grand  seigneur,  eager  to  the 
last  on  all  intellectual  and  artistic  subjects, 
but  especially  on  music.  He  wrote  a  great 
number  of  psalms,  motets,  anthems,  and  other 
church  music,  amongst  them  a  Requiem,  on 
which  he  Bet  much  store,  treatises  on  music,  and 
a  'Catholisches  Gesangbuch'  (1863),  founded  on 
that  of  St.  Gall,  and  still  in  use.  The  bulk  of  this 
is  however  still  in  MS.  His  published  works  con- 
tain 47  Choral  Songs  and  Madrigals,  for  4,  5,  6, 
8,  and  10  voices,  including  '  The  Hardy  Norse- 
man,' and  'Oh,  who  will  o'er  the  downs  so  free' — 
the  fresh  and  spirited  strains  of  which  will  keep 
Pearsall's  memory  green  for  many  a  long  year 
among  the  part-singers  of  England.  But  besides 
these  well-known  songs  the  collection  embraces 
madrigals  such  as  'Great  God  of  Love,'  and 
*  Lay  a  garland,'  both  for  8  voices,  which  may 
be  pronounced  to  be  amongst  the  most  melo- 
dious  and   pure   specimens   of  8-part    writing 


PEDAL  POINT. 

ever  penned  by  an  Englishman,  and  certain  to 
be  popular  abroad  if  published  there. 

In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Pearsall  was  re- 
ceived into  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  he 
added  a  '  de '  to  his  name,  calling  himself  De 
Pearsall.  Had  he  made  music  his  exclusive 
pursuit  there  is  little  doubt  he  would  have  risen 
to  a  very  high  rank.  [G.] 

PEDALIER.  (1)  A  pedal  keyboard  attached 
to  a  pianoforte,  and  acting  by  connection  with  its 
mechanism  upon  the  hammers  and  strings  proper 
to  it ;  or  (2)  an  independent  bass  pianoforte  so 
called  by  its  inventors,  Messrs.  Pleyel,  Wolff 
&  Cie  of  Paris,  to  be  played  by  pedals  only,  and 
used  with  an  ordinary  pianoforte.  J.  S.  Bach 
had  a  harpsichord  with  two  rows  of  keys  and 
pedals,  upon  which  he  played  his  trios,  and  for 
which  he  transcribed  Vivaldi's  string  concertos, 
and  composed  the  famous  Passacaille  in  C  minor. 
Since  Bach  many  clavecinists  and  pianists  have 
had  their  instruments  fitted  with  rows  of  pedals, 
and  compositions  have  been  specially  written — as, 
for  instance,  by  Schumann,  who  wrote  several 
'  Studien '  and  ■  Skizzen '  (op.  56  and  58)  for  the 
Pedal-Fliigel  or  Pedalier  Grand  Pianoforte.  C. 
V.  Alkan,  a  French  composer,  has  also  written 
some  noble  works  for  this  instrument,  which, 
together  with  the  above-mentioned  transcriptions 
by  Bach,  were  brought  before  the  notice  of  the 
London  musical  public  in  1871  by  Monsieur 
E.  M.  Delaborde  of  Paris,  an  eminent  pianist 
and  remarkable  pedalist,  in  his  performance  at 
the  Hanover  Square  Rooms,  upon  a  Pedalier 
Grand  Piano  specially  constructed  for  him  by 
Messrs.  Broadwood.  [A.  J.  H.] 

PEDAL  POINT,  or  Point  tforgue,  in  Harmony 
is  the  sustaining  of  a  note  by  one  part  whilst 
the  other  parts  proceed  in  independent  harmony, 
and  is  subject  to  the  following  strict  laws:  (1) 
The  sustained  note  must  be  either  the  Tonic  or 
Dominant  of  the  key ;  (2)  Consequently  the  other 
parts  must  not  modulate ;  (3)  The  sustained,  or 
pedal  note,  when  first  sounded  or  finally  quitted, 
must  form  part  of  the  harmony. 

The  mere  sustaining  of  a  note  or  a  chord 
against  one  or  more  moving  parts  does  not  con- 
stitute a  pedal :  as  in  the  following  examples  from 
Beethoven — 

Ex.  1.  .         Op.  2,  No.  3. 


nor  does  the  simple  sustaining  of  a  note  through 
harmonies  to  which  it  is  common  ;  though  this  I" 


PEDAL  POINT. 

the  true  origin  of  Pedal,  as  we  shall  presently 
see.  Example  from  the  Mass  known  as  '  Mozart 
No.  12' — 


PEDAL  POINT. 


679 


Ex.  3 


These  remarks  also  apply  to  the  long  drum- 
passage  in  the  middle  of  the  first  movement  of 
Beethoven's  4th  Symphony,  and  in  Wagner's 
Prelude  to  '  Das  Rheingold,'  both  of  which  are 
sometimes  spoken  of  as  Pedals,  but  which  are 
merely  cases  of  a  long  sustained  note  or  chord. 
In  a  true  pedal  the  harmony  must  be  independent 
of  the  sustained  note  and  occasionally  alien  to 
it,  as  for  example  the  grand  instance  in  the 
'  Cum  sancto  spiritu '  of  the  above  Mass,  which 
begins  thus : — 


d: 


mnrm .  jttj  j 


^^ 


and  increases  in  development  for  13  bars  more, 
forming  as  fine  a  specimen  of  true  Pedal  as  can 
be  quoted. 

The  rule  that  the  Pedal-note  must  be  either 
the  Tonic  or  Dominant  would  seem  to  point  to  the 
Drone  as  its  origin.  This  Drone,  or  sustaining 
of  the  keynote  as  an  accompaniment,  is  probably 
the  very  oldest  form  of  harmony,  though  it  may 
not  have  been  considered  as  such  at  all,  having 
no  doubt  originated  in  the  mere  imperfection  of 
ancient  instruments,  the  persistent  sounding  of 
a  drum  or  pipe  with  one  note  against  the  in- 
flected chant  of  voices,  etc.  Among  the  first 
rude  specimens  of  harmony  given  by  Guido  in 
the  '  Micrologus '  is  the  following  : — 


Ex.5. 

Ho  -  mo 

e  - 

rat 

n 

Je 

■   ru    -   - 

sa  -  lem. 

^ — w — n — n- 

-*- 

-M- 

~H- 

-M- 

H    W 

H    N  H 

But  it  is  probable  that  all  such  Drones,  even 
down  to  their  high  development  in  the  bagpipe 
and  hurdygurdy,  rested  on  no  theoretical  basis, 
but  were  of  accidental  origin.  Looked  at  in  the 
light  of  modern  knowledge,  however,  we  see 
in  the  drone  an  unconscious  groping  after  the 
truth  of  the  Harmonic  Scale,  on  which  all  modern 
harmony  rests.  We  now  perceive  that  either 
the  Tonic  or  Dominant,  or  even  both  together, 
may  with  perfect  propriety  be  sounded  through 
any  Tonic,  Dominant,  or  Supertonic  harmonies, 
since  these  must  always  consist  of  harmonics 


generated  by  the  Tonic  or  its  harmonics,  and 
the  generator  is  therefore  always  a  true  bass. 

But  to  leave  theory  and  come  to  practice,  it  is 
to  be  observed  that  in  the  contrapuntal  music  of 
the  1 6th  century  the  desire  for  some  relief  to 
note-against-note  counterpoint  gave  rise  to  the 
sustaining  of  a  note  in  one  part  so  long  as  the 
others  could  be  brought  to  sound  consonant  with 
it,  and  thus  the  fact  of  a  Dominant  forced  itself 
into  notice.  The  following  two  examples  from 
Palestrina  show  how  the  idea  of  a  long  sustained 
note  as  a  climax  or  warning  of  a  conclusion  was 
at  this  time  growing. 

Ex.6. 


$ 


-   J  A^z -A 


mp 


^f=PTrr 


T 


4=H 


Ex.7. 


'^\i.^=m 


A 


T 


£: 


^ 


-H 


* 


1 


The  second  of  these  is  especially  curious,  as  being 
a  real  and  perfectly  modern-sounding  Dominant 
Pedal. 

With  the  development  of  Fugue  and  the  in- 
troduction of  discords  the  Pedal,  as  a  means  of 
climax,  grew  in  importance,  and  in  the  works  of 
Bach  and  Handel  we  find  it  an  almost  indis- 
pensable adjunct  to  a  Fugue.  The  single  speci- 
men from  Bach  which  space  allows  of  our  quoting 
is  interesting  from  the  boldness  with  which  the 
composer  has  seized  the  idea  of  making  a  Pedal 
which  shall  be  first  a  Tonic,  then  a  Dominant, 
and  then  a  Tonic  again.  In  the  Prelude  to  the 
great  Organ  Fugue  in  A  minor  there  is  a  very 
long  Pedal,  which  after  4  bars  modulates  thus — 

Ex.8. 


and  after  5  bars  more  modulates  back  again. 
There  is  nothing  contrary  to  rule  here,  as  the 
Pedal  is  always  either  Tonic  or  Dominant,  but 
it  is  none  the  less  a  precedent  for  modulation  on 
a  Pedal. 

A  curious  example  of  apparent  modulation  on 
a  Pedal  is  to  be  observed  in  the  concluding  bars 
of  a  Dominant  Pedal  which  joins  the  first  and 
second  subjects  of  the  1st  movement  of  Chopin's 
B  minor  Sonata — 


680 


PEDAL  POINT. 


r  >   r  '|  j   )  p  ^ 

i~f  us  nr 

B&SS      ^_ 

— * 

b  i    '     ■ 

ft) 

'  bJJ 

s 


rta 


In  the  fourth  bar  of  this  quotation  we  seem  to 
have  got  into  a  Dominant  seventh  of  Oft,  but 
this  is  not  really  the  case,  the  Clj  being,  as  be- 
fore, an  appoggiatura  over  Bb,  the  Dominant 
minor  ninth  of  A,  and  the  real  third  (Cg)  being 
ingeniously  omitted  in  order  to  carry  out  the 
delusion.  Not  till  the  very  last  group  of  semi- 
quavers are  we  undeceived. 

A  Pedal  may  occur  in  either  an  upper,  middle, 
or  lower  part,  but  it  is  easy  to  understand  from 
its  nature  that  it  is  most  effective  as  a  bass,  the 
clumsy  name  of '  inverted  Pedal '  applied  to  it  in 
any  but  this  position,  seeming  to  stamp  it  as  un- 
natural. The  Trio  of  the  Scherzo  in  Beethoven's 
9th  Symphony  offers  a  good  example  of  a  Pedal 
taken  in  all  positions. 

Being  apparently  alien  to  the  harmony,  it  is 
always  desirable  that  the  Pedal  should  lie  far 
removed  from  the  other  parts,  which  is  impossible 
when  it  occurs  in  a  middle  part.  Even  in 
orchestral  compositions,  where  the  Trumpets  and 
Horns  are  frequently,  from  their  nature,  employed 
on  a  middle  Pedal,  much  harshness  results, 
although  the  pedal  stands  out  in  relief  through 
contrast  of  timbre.  Thus  the  following  passage  in 
Grieg's  Pianoforte  Concerto  sounds  very  strange, 
though  really  it  is  quite  simple  : 


In  the  duet  in  the  first  Act  of  Bizet's  'Carmen,' 
however,  a  concealed  tonic  Pedal  in  a  middle 


PEDAL  POINT. 

part  is  productive  of  novel  and  charming  har- 
monious effect : — 


Ex.11. 


WfJTTJT 


Here,  on  dissecting  the  arpeggios  of  the  accom- 
paniment, the  Bb  is  seen  to  be  a  Pedal,  though 
not  sustained. 

This  brings  us  to  '  figured '  or  '  florid '  Pedal. 
The  Pedal  note  need  not  be  merely  sustained  or 
reiterated,  but  may  bear  any  ornamental  figure, 
varying  from  a  simple  alternation  with  the  note 
next  above  or  below  (as  in  countless  '  spinning- 
wheel  '  pieces),  to  a  scale  passage  or  figure  of  any 
extent,  provided  this  do  not  suggest  harmony  of 
itself.     Thus  in  Beethoven  we  find 


i 


^p= 


2=P 


3EF 


&=£? 


and  many  similar  passages  (Finale  of  Symphony 
in  A,  etc.)  of  striking  effect :  whereas  the  fol- 
lowing, from  Wagner,  is  harsh,  from  the  clashing 
of  Tonic  and  Dominant  harmonies : 


When  both  Tonic  and  Dominant  are  simul- 
taneously sustained  we  have  a  Double  Pedal,  an 
effect  much  used  in  modern  music  to  convey  ideas 
of  a  quaint  or  pastoral  character,  from  its  suggest- 
ing the  drone  of  a  bagpipe.  This  is  a  very  ordinary 
form  of  accompaniment  to  the  popular  songs  and 
dances  of  almost  all  countries,  and  is  so  constantly 
to  be  found  in  the  works  of  Gounod,  Chopin,  and 
Grieg  as  to  form  a  mannerism.  Beethoven  has 
produced  a  never-to-be-forgotten  effect  just  be- 
fore the  Finale  of  the  C  minor  Symphony  by  the 
simple  yet  unique  device  of  placing,  in  his  long 
double  Pedal,  the  Dominant  under  the  Tonic 
instead  of  above,  as  is  usual.  This  passage 
stands  absolutely  alone  as  a  specimen  of  Pedal. 

Several  modern  composers  have  attempted  a 
Triple  Pedal — that  is,  the  sustaining  of  the  Tonic, 
the  Dominant,  and  its  Dominant  (major  ninth  of 
Tonic).  Especially  noteworthy  in  this  respect 
is  the  passage  of  30  bars  opening  the  Finale  of 
Lalo's  Spanish  Symphony.  All  such  attempts 
are  futile,  however,  as  the  three  notes  form  a 
harmony  of  themselves  and  preclude  the  possi- 
bility of  being  treated  as  a  Pedal.  The  fact  is 
to  be  strongly  insisted  on  that  only  the  Tonic 


PEDAL  POINT. 

and   Dominant    can    be   Pedals.     The    famous 
passage  in  the  '  Eroica  '  Symphony 
Ex.  14. 


PEDALS. 


681 


I 


£b     ^5: 


£ 


Bfe^-Jj-fi 


may  be  thought  exquisite  by  some,  and  a  mere 
blunder  by  others,  but  it  is  not  a  Pedal,  or  any- 
thing else  that  Harmony  has  a  name  for.  But 
what  then  is  to  be  said  for  the  following  extra- 
ordinary passage  in  Grieg's  song  '  Ausfahrt'  ? 


Ex.  15. 


JH^ij^ 


armu^ 


Is  the  Db  here  a  Pedal?  If  so,  the  passage  might 
be  cited  as  a  possible  quadruple  Pedal,  for  Bb 
and  a  low  Ab  might  be  added  to  the  bass  with- 
out bad  effect.  The  true  explanation — namely, 
that  here  we  have  no  pedal  at  all,  but  a  melody 
in  double  notes  moving  against  one  continued 
harmony — will  hardly  be  accepted  by  every  one, 
and  the  passage  must  stand  as  a  remarkable 
exception  to  rule. 

Beginning  with  Schumann  we  find  that  modern 
composers  have  all  striven  to  invent  new  Pedal 
effects  by  breaking  one  or  other  of  the  three 
governing  laws.  In  Schumann's  '  Humoreske ' 
occurs  the  following  typical  passage — 


Ex.16. 


•*; 


^wm 


F- 


^P 


5^ 


where,  on  a  sustained  F  we  modulate  from  Bb 
into  C  minor,  D  minor,  E  minor,  and  F  major, 
successively.  Schumann  frequently  on  a  Tonic 
Pedal  modulates  into  the  relative  minor,  as  in 
the  Trio  of  the  Scherzo  in  the  Eb  Symphony,  etc. ; 


but  such  harmony  being  open  to  another  explana- 
tion than  '  pedal '  the  law  remains  in  force.  Raff 
goes  still  farther.  In  the  slow  movement  of  his 
Spring  Symphony  he  modulates  through  numerous 
keys  for  a  space  of  40  bars,  always  contriving 
that  a  high  G  may  be  sounded  on  the  first  beat 
of  each  bar  with  some  bearable  degree  of  concord. 
Again,  the  following  passage  from  the  last  move- 
ment of  the  same  composer's  Forest  Symphony — 
Ex.17. 


which  is  so  far  a  pedal  passage — he  repeats  in 
Bb,  Db,  and  G,  still  with  the  F  in  the  bass, 
producing  an  effect  which  is  certainly  novel,  if 
nothing  else. 

The  only  point  remaining  to  be  noticed  is  that 
our  3rd  rule,  forbidding  motion  to  or  from  the 
pedal  note  when  it  does  not  form  part  of  the 
harmony,  has  been  occasionally  violated  without 
unpleasing  effect.  In  Hiller's  Fjf  minor  Piano 
Concerto,  the  following  occurs  on  each  repetition 
of  the  main  subject 


Spohr  has  used  the  Pedal  perhaps  with  greater 
frequency  than  any  composer,  but  his  mode  of 
treatment  is  invariable  and  calls  for  no  notice. 

Songs  and  short  pieces  have  been  occasionally 
written  entirely  on  a  Pedal  bass ;  and  the  longest 
Pedal  extant  is  perhaps  the  introduction  to  Wag- 
ner's opera  '  Das  Rheingold.'  [F.  C] 

PEDALS  (from  pes,  pedis,  a  foot).  Certain 
appliances  in  the  Organ,  Pianoforte,  and  Harp, 
worked  by  the  feet. 

I.  In  the  Organ  they  are  keys,  sounding  notes, 
and  played  by  the  feet  instead  of  the  hands ; 
and  the  Pedal  -  board  is  the  whole  breadth 
or  range  of  such  keys.  When  pedals  were  first 
applied  to  English  organs — towards  the  end  of 
the  last  century — -they  were  made  (in  the  words 
of  an  old  treatise)  to  '  drag  down '  the  manual 
keys;  and  the  lowest  pedal  was  always  placed 
exactly  below  the  lowest  manual  key.  And  as, 
in  the  organs  of  the  time,  the  manuals  of  one 
would  descend  to  GG  with  short  octaves,  of 
a  second  to  the  same  note  with  long  octaves, 
of  a  third  to  FFF,  of  a  fourth  to  CCC,  while 
those  of  a  fifth  would  stop  at  the  orthodox  CC 
key;  and  as  one  organ  would  have  an  octave 
of  pedals,  a  second  an  octave  and  a  half,  and  a 
third  two,  it  was  quite  possible  to  go  to  half 
a  dozen  organs  in  succession  without  finding 
any  two  with  the  pedals  alike,  either  in  position 
or  approach  towards  efficiency.  The  earliest 
specimens,  too,  were  toe-pedals,  like  those  at 
Halberstadt  [page  582,  fig.  ie"]  ;  but  after  a  time 


PEDALS. 


PEDALS. 


long  pedals,  fitted  in  a  frame,  were  introduced, 
and  called  '  German  pedals.'  Modifications  in  the 
form  and  plan  of  the  pedal-board  soon  began  to 
be  made.  Eadiating  pedals,  struck  from  a  centre 
some  distance  to  the  rear  of  the  organ  stool, 
were  made  by  Elliott  &  Hill,  and  attached 
to  the  York  Minster  organ  in  1834.  Concave 
pedals,  slightly  rising  at  the  extreme  right  and 
left  to  meet  the  shortened  reach  of  the  feet, 
precisely  as  the  plane  of  the  bob  of  a  pendulum 
rises  as  it  swings  to  and  fro,  were  introduced 
into  England  by  Schulze  in  1851.  Mr.  Henry 
Willis  combined  the  two  in  his  •  concave  and 
radiating  pedal-board.'  A  fifth  kind  of  pedal- 
board  consists  of  parallel  pedals,  like  those  first 
described,  but  with  the  fronts  of  the  short  keys 
slightly  radiating. 

The  compass  almost  universally  adopted  in 
England  for  the  pedal-board,  extends  from  CCC 
up  to  tenor  F,  30  notes — 2j  octaves.  Occa- 
sionally they  are  carried  up  even  to  G.  Bach 
wrote  once  only  up  to  F — in  his  Toccata  in  that 
key — and  two  or  three  times  to  E.  Once  he 
wrote  down  to  BB,  for  the  sake  of  preserving 
a  certain  figure  unaltered.  His  usual  upward 
compass  was  to  tenor  D  ;  and  Mendelssohn  never 
wrote  higher  than  that  note  for  the  Pedals. 

The  right  position  for  the  pedal-board  is  with 
the  centre  one  of  the  three  C  pedals  under  the 
'  middle  C '  key  of  the  manuals.  With  this  as  a 
starting-point,  and  the  long  pedals  measuring 
about  2^  inches  from  centre  to  centre,  the  dis- 
tance of  the  several  intervals  can  be  soon  ascer- 
tained. The  two  breaks  in  each  octave  where 
there  are  no  short  keys — between  B  and  C,  and 
between  E  and  F — are  also  excellent  guides 
which  are  readily  available  to  a  practised 
touch.  The  position  for  the  front  of  the  short 
keys  of  the  straight  pedals,  is  in  a  line  with 
the  fronts  of  the  short  keys  of  the  Great  Manual. 
With  radiating  pedals  this  arrangement  is  ne- 
cessarily modified.  Occasionally  some  other 
pedal  than  C  is  placed  under  the  C  of  the 
manuals,  to  bring  the  extreme  upper  pedals 
within  more  easy  reach.  This  disturbs  the 
position  of  the  whole  pedal  range  that  is  in  con- 
stant requisition,  for  the  accommodation  of  a  few 
notes  that  are  rarely  used. 

Composition  Pedals.  Pedals  placed  above 
the  pedal -board  throw  out  or  draw  in  the  stops 
in  groups.  When  they  act  upon  the  wind  and 
not  upon  the  stops,  they  are  sometimes  called 
Combination  pedals,  and  are  practically  the  same 
as  the  '  Ventils '  of  the  old  German  organs,  and 
the  '  Pedales  des  Combinaisons '  of  the  modern 
French  builders. 

Swell  Pedal.  The  treadle,  usually  placed  to 
the  extreme  right,  by  which  the  swell  shutters 
are  opened  or  closed.  The  pedal  is  lowered  by 
the  pressure  of  the  foot,  and  raised  again  by  the 
weight  of  the  shutters.  In  the  Town  Hall 
organ  at  Boston,  U.S.A.,  built  by  Walcker,  the 
swell  is  opened  by  the  pressure  of  the  toe  and 
closed  by  the  pressure  of  the  heel ;  and,  what  is 
most  useful,  remains  in  any  intermediate  position 
in  which  the  foot  leaves  it.     This  good  arrange- 


ment has  been  adopted  by  Messrs.  Lewis  &  Co.  in 
their  fine  organ  in  Glasgow  Hall. 

Other  pedals,  horseshoe-shaped  as  well  as  of 
other  forms,  are  sometimes  introduced  to  act 
upon  the  manual  and  pedal  couplers.      [E.  J.H.] 

II.  In  the  Pianoforte,  the  pedals  are  levers, 
usually  two,1  which  are  pressed  either  to 
diminish  or  to  increase  and  prolong  the  tone 
of  a  pianoforte.  That  for  the  left  foot,  the  piano 
pedal,  acts  by  reducing  the  number  of  strings 
struck  by  the  hammers,  or  softens  their  impact 
either  by  interposing  a  strip  of  felt,  or  by 
diminishing  their  length  of  blow.  That  for  the 
right  foot,  the  forte  pedal,  takes  the  dampers 
out  of  use  altogether,  or  allows  the  player,  by 
judicious  management  with  the  foot,  so  as  to 
avoid  confusing  the  sound,  to  augment  and  pro- 
long it  by  increasing  what  are  called  sympathetic 
vibrations,  an  invaluable  help  to  the  beauty  of 
tone  of  the  instrument.  Pedals  were  first 
adapted  to  the  harpsichord  to  relieve  the  hands 
from  the  interruption  of  moving  stops.  This 
'beautiful  invention,'  as  C.  P.  E.  Bach  calls  it 
(Versuch  etc.  1762,  2ter  Theil,  p.  245),  was  at- 
tributed by  him  to  '  our  celebrated  Herr  Hole- 
feld,'  but  Mace,  in  'Mustek's  Monument,'  en- 
ables us  to  claim  the  invention  for  the  English 
harpsichord-maker,  John  Hay  ward,  about  1670. 
The  pedals  were  attached  on  either  side  of  the 
stand  upon  which  the  harpsichord  rested,  as  they 
did  in  the  grand  pianoforte  until  1806,  or  even 
later.  The  name  of  the  inventor  of  the  lyre- 
shaped  frame  for  the  pedals  is  not  forthcoming. 
Zumpe's  square  piano  (1766  and  later)  had  stops 
next  to  the  left  hand  of  the  player,  to  raise  the 
dampers  in  two  divisions.8  Stein's  and  other 
German  pianos  had  a  lever  to  be  pressed  by  the 
knee.  Beal  Piano  and  Forte  pedals  first  occur 
in  John  Broadwood's  patent  of  November  1 783. 
The  piano  he  effected  by  damping  the  strings 
near  the  belly-bridge  with  a  strip  of  soft  material 
which  he  called  a  '  sordin  '  or  mute ;  the  second 
by  taking  away  the  dampers  from  the  strings. 
Sebastian  Erard  placed  the  strip  of  cloth  be- 
tween the  hammers  and  the  strings,  an  invention 
which  Adolphe  Adam,  in  his  Tutor  for  the  Paris 
Conservatoire,  baptized  as  celeste.  The  Germans 
call  it  fiauto  pedal,  and  Herr  BOsendobffeb,  of 
Vienna,  has 
pianofortes  as 

by  a  notch  when  an  almost  dumb  instrument  is 
required  for  practising.  The  'celeste  pedal' 
cannot  however  rival  the  ^lEolian  charm  of  the 
shifting  pedal,  first  introduced  by  Stein  in  his 
Saitenharmonica,  the  beauty  of  which  arises 
from  the  vibrations  of  the  unused  strings  which 
are  excited  from  the  soundboard ;  and  as  they 
have  not  been  jerked  by  a  hammer-blow,  they 
sound  with  another  and  more  ethereal  timbre 
than  those  which  have  been  struck.  What  a  hold 
this  took  on  the  imagination  of  Beethoven  may 
be  seen  from  the  slow  movement  to  his  4th  PF. 

1  Piano  or  Soft  Pedal  (Fr.  Petite  pedale,  Germ.  Vertchiebtmg. 
Pianotug) ;  Forte  or  Loud  Damper  Pedal  (Fr.  Orande  pedale,  Germ. 
Groeses  Pedal,  Forlezug). 

2  The  division  of  the  dampers  in  grand  pianos  was  retained  until  as 
late  as  US80,  by  division  of  the  right  pedal-foot. 


pedal,  and  Herr  BOsendobffeb,  of 
lately  reintroduced  it  in  grand 
a  third  pedal,  which  may  be  fixed 


PEDALS. 


PELLEGRINI. 


683 


Concerto  (1807)  and  the  Solo  Sonatas,  op. 
101,  106,  109,  110,  in,  in  all  of  which  the 
shifting  pedal  plays  a  great  part.  It  is  this 
quality  of  which  Chopin,  the  great  master  of 
the  refined  use  of  both  pedals,  made  so  much 
in  his  compositions  and  his  performance.'  The 
piano  pedal  used  to  be  controlled  in  its  shifting 
by  a  small  stop  or  wedge  in  the  righthand  key- 
block,  so  that  the  shift  could  be  made  to  either 
two  strings  or  one  at  the  discretion  of  the  player. 
The  latter  was  Stein's '  spinetchen,'  the  wna  corda 
or  eine  Saite  of  Beethoven,  who  expressed  the 
return  to  the  three  strings  by  Nach  und  nach 
mehrere  Saiten,  Tutte  le  corde,  or  Tutto  il  cembalo 
(op.  101).  The  one-string  shift  in  grand  piano- 
fortes has  been  for  many  years  discarded,  sharing 
the  fate  of  the  extra  pedals  that  produced  an 
imitation  of  a  bassoon,  or  added  a  drum,  a  bell, 
etc.  The  use  of  the  celeste  pedal  was  indicated 
by  Hummel  with  a  special  sign,  thus  A  -1 

Turning  to  the  Forte  pedal,  Pollini  invented, 
and  Thalberg,  Henselt,  and  Liszt  carried  to  the 
farthest  limits,  the  relief  of  the  hands  by  the  use  of 
it.  Indeed  it  gave  the  pianist  the  equivalent  to  a 
third  hand ;  since  it  was  no  longer  necessary  to 
bind  the  fingers  to  the  keys  during  the  measured 
values  of  the  notes ;  but  by  combining  stronger 
expressed  tone  with  the  use  of  the  pedal  a  melody 
could  be  made  prominent,  while  the  fingers  were 
immediately  free  to  take  a  share  in  the  accom- 
paniment or  what  not,  in  any  part  of  the  key- 
board. By  this  expedient  all  harmonious  ex- 
tensions become  possible.  The  effect  of  the  forte 
or  damper  pedal  is  to  increase  the  tone  of  the 
note  struck  by  calling  out  the  partial  tones  of 
lower  notes  which  are  equivalent  to  its  full 
vibrating  length  or  prime ;  the  strings  of  higher 
registers  becoming  primes  to  the  partials  com- 
posing the  note  struck ;  in  both  cases  by  relation 
of  measurement  and  by  excitement  from  the 
soundboard.8  The  pedal  thus  adds  a  wonderful 
enrichment  to  the  tone.  The  modern  signs  for 
its  use  and  disuse  are  respectively  'Ped.'  and 
<£,  or  a  star.  Herr  Hans  Schmitt,  in  his 
admirable  lectures  on  the  pedals  (Das  Pedal 
des  Clavieres,  Vienna  1875),  proposes  for  the 
finer  use  of  this  pedal  a  notation  beneath  the 
usual  staves  f»  — " — ,  thus  by  note  and  rest 
marking  the  action  of  the  foot  with  the  greatest 
nicety. 

An  important  pedal  (Pidale  de  prolongement 
ou  tonale ;  Germ.  Kunstpedal)  was  introduced  by 
Montal  of  Paris,  a  blind  man,  and  exhibited  by 
him  in  1862  in  London.  [See  Pianoforte.]  The 
object  of  it  is  to  allow  selected  notes  to  vibrate 
while  the  rest  are  immediately  damped.  It 
has  been  again  brought  forward  by  Steinway 
and  others,  and  its  value  much  insisted  upon. 

>  This  arrangement  of  the  shifting  soft  pedal  exists  In  an  un- 
altered grand  piano  of  John  Broadvrood's  dated  1793.  It  Is  thus 
possible  that  in  this  form  It  maj  hare  been  an  Invention  of  that 
maker,  or,  if  not  his,  an  English  invention  simultaneously  with 
8teln's. 

2  The  partials  above  the  prime  also  excite  their  equivalents  in 
vibrating  length,  but  will  probably  not  be  audible  above  the  third 
or  fourth.  Owing  to  equal  temperament-tuning  the  fifth  partial 
could  only  be  very  feebly  excited.  At  the  seventh  and  eighth  we 
arrive  about  the  striking  place  of  the  hammer  by  which  those  part  ials 
are  obliterated. 


We  cannot  however  believe  that  it  will  be  of  use 
in  a  concert  room.  The  Kunst-pedal  of  Herr 
Zachariae  of  Stuttgart  divides  the  row  of  dampers 
by  four  cleft  pedal  feet  into  eight  sections,  and 
thus  facilitates  the  use  of  the  staccato.  [See 
Sordini.] 

III.  In  the  Harp  the  pedals  are  not  keys,  as 
in  the  Organ,  nor  do  they  modify  the  colour  and 
amount  of  the  tone,  as  in  the  Piano ;  but  it  is 
their  province  to  alter  the  pitch  in  two  gra- 
dations of  a  semitone  each.  The  mechanical 
contrivance  for  this  is  described  in  the  article 
Harp.  [See  vol.  i.  p.  687.]  The  invention  of  these 
chromatic  pedals  is  attributed  to  a  Bavarian, 
named  Hochbrucker,  about  1720.  The  gradual 
improvement  and  extended  use  of  them  culmin- 
ated in  1 810,  in  the  Double  Action  harp  at  that 
date  perfected  by  Sebastian  Erard.  [A.J.H.] 

PEERSON,  PEARSON,  or  PIERSON, 
Martin,  Mus.  Baa,  graduated  at  Oxford  July 
8,  161 3.  He  was  one  of  the  contributors  ta 
Leighton's  'Teares  or  Lamentacions,  etc'  1614. 
In  1620  he  published  •  Private  Musicke,  or  the 
First  Booke  of  Ayres  and  Dialogues.  Contayning 
Songs  of  4,  5  and  6  parts,  of  severall  sorts,  and 
being  Verse  and  Chorus,  is  fit  for  Voyces  and 
Viols.  And  for  want  of  Viols  they  may  be  per- 
formed to  either  the  Virginall  or  Lute,  where 
the  proficient  can  play  upon  the  Ground,  or  for 
a  shift  to  the  Base  Viol  alone.  All  made  and 
composed  according  to  the  rules  of  art.'  The  last 
piece  in  the  collection  the  composer  tells  us  '  was 
made  for  the  King  and  Queenes  entertaynment 
at  High-gate  on  May-day,  1604.'  About  the 
same  period  he  became  master  of  the  children  of 
St.  Paul's.  In  1630  he  published  'Mottects,  or 
Grave  Chamber  Musique,  containing  Songs  of 
five  parts  of  severall  sorts,  some  ful,  and  some 
Verse  and  Chorus.  But  all  fit  for  Voyces  and 
Viols,  with  an  Organ  Part ;  which  for  want  of 
Organs  may  be  performed  on  Virginals,  Base- 
Lute,  Bandora,  or  Irish  Harpe.  Also  a  Mourn- 
ing Song  of  sixe  parts  for  the  Death  of  the  late 
Right  Honorable  Sir  Fulke  Grevil,  Knight  of 
the  Honorable  order  of  the  Bath,  Lord  Brooke, 
&c.  Composed  according  to  the  rules  of  art.'  He 
died  in  1650  and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  St. 
Faith  under  St.  Paul's.  He  bequeathed  to  the 
poor  of  Marsh,  in  the  parish  of  Dunnington,  in 
the  Isle  of  Ely,  £100,  to  be  laid  out  in  a  purchase 
for  their  use.  [W.H.H.] 

PELLEGRINI,  Felice,  an  excellent  bass 
singer,  was  born  at  Turin  in  1774.  After  sing- 
ing as  a  chorister  in  the  Cathedral,  he  became 
the  pupil  of  Ottani,  who  taught  him  counter- 
point and  the  art  of  vocalisation.  At  21  he 
made  his  debut  at  Leghorn.  His  fine  voice  and 
good  method  were  at  once  recognised,  and  he 
continued  to  sing  with  success  at  several  of  the 
chief  Italian  theatres,  at  Rome  in  1805,  at 
Milan  in  1806,  and  at  Naples  from  1807  to  1810. 
In  181 1  the  grand  part  of  the  father  in  '  Agnese ' 
was  written  for  him  by  Paer ;  and  in  this  he 
made  his  first  appearance  at  Paris. 

Though   past  his   youth,    he  was  favourably 


684 


PELLEGRINI. 


received,  and  began  to  be  applauded  in  the 
buffo  rAles  of  Rossini's  operas.  Superseded  by 
Zucchelli,  be  endeavoured,  but  fruitlessly,  to 
find  an  engagement  in  his  native  country ;  Ebers, 
however,  who  had  just  lost  Remorini,  was  glad 
to  engage  him  for  London  at  £500  for  the  season 
of  1826.  He  was  successful  here,  especially  in 
comic  characters.  In  1829  a  place,  as  professor 
of  singing  at  the  Conservatoire  at  Paris,  was 
obtained  for  him  by  the  Vicomte  de  la  Roche- 
foucauld. He  did  not,  however,  long  enjoy 
this  position,  for  in  1832  he  began  to  lose  his 
faculties,  and  he  died,  in  poor  circumstances, 
Sept.  20  of  that  year.  Pellegrini  left  6  opera 
of  Duets,  Trios,  Ariette,  Cantate,  and  Solfeggi, 
published  at  Paris.  [J.M.] 

PELLEGRINI,  Giulio,  a  good  bass  singer, 
was  born  at  Milan,  Jan.  1,  1806.  In  181 7  he 
was  received  into  the  Conservatorio  of  that  city, 
and  was  taught  by  Banderali.  At  the  early 
age  of  16,  he  made  his  dibut  at  Turin  in 
Pacini's  '  Falegname  di  Livonia,'  and  was  suc- 
cessful in  spite  of  his  extreme  youth  and  in- 
experience. Shortly  afterwards,  he  was  engaged 
at  Munich,  sharing  the  principal  parts  with 
Santini,  and  was  much  applauded.  At  the  death 
of  the  king,  the  Italian  Opera  was  closed. 
Pellegrini,  nothing  daunted,  set  to  work  to  learn 
German ;  and,  after  five  months'  steady  applica- 
tion, had  mastered  the  language  sufficiently  to 
appear  in  German  Opera,  in  February,  1826. 
Appointed  singer  to  the  Court  of  Bavaria  and 
first  bass  to  the  Theatre  Royal  of  Munich,  he 
had  now  achieved  a  brilliant  position,  which  he 
enjoyed  for  many  years.  In  1829  he  made  a 
tour  in  Italy,  and  sang  with  unvarying  success. 

In  1832  he  came  to  London  with  Madame 
Schroder  -  Devrient  and  Haitzinger;  but  does 
not  seem  to  have  attracted  very  much  attention. 
Tamburini,  Galli,  and  Lablache  were  here.  On  his 
return  to  Munich  he  resumed  his  post  at  court  and 
theatre ;  and  there  he  died  July  1 2, 1 858.  [J.M.] 

PEPUSCH,  John  Christopher,  Mus.  Doc., 
son  of  the  minister  of  a  Protestant  congregation 
in  Berlin,  and  born  there  in  1667.  He  studied 
the  theory  of  music  under  Gottlieb  Klingenberg, 
organist  at  Stettin,  and  the  practice  of  it  under 
Grosse,  a  Saxon  organist.  Although  his  father's 
means  did  not  admit  of  his  receiving  instruction 
for  more  than  one  year,  he  had  made  such  ex- 
cellent use  of  his  time  that  at  14  years  of  age 
he  obtained  an  appointment  at  the  Prussian 
Court.  Devoting  himself  to  the  study  of  the 
ancient  Greek  writers  he  became  a  deeply 
skilled  theorist.  He  retained  his  appointment 
until  he  was  30  years  old,  when,  being  an  eye- 
witness of  an  act  of  savage  ferocity  on  the  part 
of  the  king  (the  decapitation,  without  trial,  of  an 
officer  who  had  uttered  some  words  at  which  the 
barbarous  despot  took  offence),  he  determined  on 
quitting  his  native  land  for  some  country  where 
human  life  was  not  in  danger  of  destruction  by 
the  unbridled  will  of  an  individual.  He  first 
went  to  Holland,  where  he  remained  for  upwards 
•of  a  year.     He  came  to  England  about  1 700  and 


PEPUSCH. 

was  engaged  in  the  orchestra  at  Drury  Lane.  In 
1707  he  adapted  the  music  of  the  opera,  'Tho- 
myris,  Queen  of  Scythia,'  besides  composing  the 
recitatives  and  some  additional  songs,  and  prob- 
ably did  the  same  for  others  of  the  Anglo-Italian 
operas  produced  about  that  period.  And  at  the 
same  time,  with  the  assistance  of  Abraham  de 
Moivre,  the  celebrated  mathematician,  he  zeal- 
ously pursued  his  study  of  the  music  of  the 
ancients.  In  1 710  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  Academy  op  Ancient  Music 
[see  that  name],  in  which  he  took  a  deep  interest 
throughout  his  life.  In  171 2  he  was  engaged 
by  the  Duke  of  Chandos  as  organist  and  com- 
poser to  his  chapel  at  Canons,  for  which  he  pro- 
duced several  services  and  anthems.  About  the 
same  time  he  published  '  Six  English  Cantatas,' 
the  words  by  John  Hughes,  which  were  received 
with  great  favour,  and  one  of  which,  '  Alexis," 
with  cello  obbligato,  oontinued  to  be  sung  in  pub- 
lic until  the  first  half  of  the  present  century  had 
nearly  passed  away.  He  subsequently  published 
a  similar  set,  the  words  by  various  authors.  On 
July  9,  1713,  he  took  the  degree  of  Mus.  Doc. 
at  Oxford,  his  exercise  (performed  July  13) 
being  a  dramatic  ode  on  the  Peace  of  Utrecht : 
the  words  were  printed  on  both  sides  of  a 
folio  leaf.  About  the  same  time  he  revived 
the  practice  of  solmisation  by  hexachords, 
which  had  been  abandoned  for  upwards  of  a 
century.  Soon  afterwards  he  became  music 
director  at  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields  Theatre,  and 
continued  so  for  many  years.  During  his  en- 
gagement there  he  composed  the  music  for 
'Venus  and  Adonis,'  masque,  1715 ;  'Apollo 
and  Daphne,'  and  '  The  Death  of  Dido,'  masques, 
1 716  ;  and  '  The  Union  of  the  Three  Sister  Arts,' 
masque  for  St.  Cecilia's  Day,  1723  ;  besides 
arranging  the  tunes  and  composing  overtures  for 
'The  Beggar's  Opera,'  1727, and  'The  Wedding,' 
another  ballad  opera,  1734.  He  also  arranged 
the  tunes  for  Gay's  interdicted  opera  'Polly,' 
1729.  In  1724  he  was  induced  to  join  in  Dr. 
Berkeley's  scheme  of  a  college  in  the  Bermudas, 
and  actually  embarked,  but  the  ship  being 
wrecked,  the  undertaking  was  abandoned,  and 
he  returned  to  England.  He  shortly  after- 
wards married  Margarita  de  l'Epine,  the  eminent 
singer,  who  brought  him  a  fortune  of  £10,000. 
In  1730  there  was  published  anonymously  'A 
Treatise  on  Harmony,  containing  the  chief 
Rules  for  composing  in  two,  three  and  four 
parts.'  As  the  rules  contained  in  the  book  were 
those  which  Pepusch  was  in  the  habit  of  im- 
parting to  his  pupils,  and  as  they  were  published 
without  the  necessary  musical  examples,  he  felt 
compelled  to  adopt  the  work,  and  accordingly 
in  1 731  published  a  'Second  Edition'  with  the 
requisite  additions,  but  still  without  his  name. 
It  was  conjectured  that  the  first  edition  was 
put  forth  by  Viscount  Paisley,  afterwards 
Earl  of  Abercorn,  who  had  been  a  pupil  of 
Pepusch's ;  but  on  this  point  nothing  is  known. 
In  1737  ne  obtained  the  appointment  of  or- 
ganist of  the  Charter  House,  where  he  passed 
the  remainder  of  his  days,  devoting  himself  to 


PEPUSCH. 

his  studies,  the  care  of  the  Academy  of  Ancient 
Music,  and  the  instruction  of  a  tew  favourite 
pupils.  His  wife  is  commonly  said  to  have  died 
in  1 740,  but  an  entry  in  a  MS.  diary  kept  by 
Benjamin  (afterwards  Dr.)  Cooke,  then  a  pupil 
of  Pepusch,  proves  her  death  to  have  taken  place 
in  or  about  August  1746.  Cooke  writes,  under 
date  'Sunday,  Aug.  10,  1746/ — 'I  was  at  the 
(Surrey)  Chapel  in  the  morning,  but  in  the  after- 
noon went  to  Vauxhall  with  the  Doctor,  Mrs. 
Pepusch  being  dead.'  Pepusch  lost  his  only 
child,  a  son,  a  youth  of  great  promise,  some 
short  time  before.  He  wrote  a  paper  on  the 
ancient  Genera,  which  was  read  before  the  Royal 
Society,  and  published  in  the  '  Philosophical 
Transactions'  for  1746,  and  for  which  he  was 
elected  F.R.S.  He  died  July  20,  1752,  and  was 
buried  in  the  chapel  of  the  Charter  House,  where 
a  tablet  was  placed  to  his  memory  in  1757.  Be- 
sides the  compositions  before  named  he  produced 
odes  to  the  memory  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire, 
1707  (sung  by  Margarita  de  l'Epine  and  Mrs. 
Tofts)  and  for  the  Princess  of  Wales's  birthday, 
Marchi, 1715-16;  airs,  sonatas,  and  concertos  lor 
various  combinations  of  string  and  wind  instru- 
ments, and  some  Latin  motets.  He  also  edited 
Corelli's  Sonatas  in  score.  In  175 1  he  dictated 
'A  Short  Account  of  the  Twelve  Modes  of  Com- 
position and  their  Progression  in  every  Octave,' 
never  published.  He  bequeathed  his  library 
to  John  Travers  and  Ephraim  Kelner,  on  whose 
deaths  it  was  dispersed.  A  portrait  of  him  is 
in  the  Music  School,  Oxford.  Another  portrait, 
by  Hudson,  has  been  engraved.  Although  Pe- 
pusch was  somewhat  pedantic,  he  was  profoundly 
skilled  in  musical  science,  and  the  musicians  he 
formed  (of  whom  it  is  only  necessary  to  mention 
Travers,  Boyce,  and  Cooke)  sufficiently  attest  his 
skill  as  a  teacher.  [W.H.H.] 

PERABO,  Ernst,  born  at  Wiesbaden,  Nov. 
14,  1845,  one  of  10  children,  all  followers  of 
music.  His  talent  showed  itself  very  early, 
and  when  only  nine  he  is  said  to  have  played 
Bach's  'Well-tempered  Clavier'  by  heart.  In 
1852  his  parents  took  him  to  New  York,  and 
after  a  time  arrangements  were  made  to  send 
him  back  to  Germany  for  education.  He  left 
the  United  States  Sept.  1,  1858,  and  after  nearly 
four  years  at  Hamburg  entered  the  Leipzig  Con- 
servatorium  Oct.  22,  1862.  After  going  success- 
fully through  the  course  there  under  Moscheles, 
Richter,  etc.,  he  returned  to  New  York  in  Nov. 
1865,  and  after  some  hesitation  settled  at  Boston, 
where  he  is  well  known  and  much  esteemed  as  a 
teacher,  a  pianoforte  player,  and  a  composer  and 
arranger  of  music  for  that  instrument.  He  plays 
at  the  Harvard  Musical  Association,  and  at  re- 
citals of  his  own.  His  repertoire  is  good  and 
wide,  and  his  style  of  playing  is  highly  spoken  of. 
Amongst  other  things  he  has  played  the  whole  of 
Schubert's  PF.  Sonatas  in  public.  His  composi- 
tions embrace  a  Scherzo,  op.  2,  an  Introduction 
and  Andante,  op.  45,  and  3  Studies,  op.  9.    [G.] 

PERCUSSION.  The  treatment  of  a  large 
proportion  of  discords  is  divided  into  three  stages 


PEREZ. 


685 


— Preparation,  Percussion,  and  Resolution.  The 
Preparation  is  the  sounding  of  a  discordant  note 
in  a  previous  chord,  Percussion  is  the  actual 
sounding  of  the  discord,  and  Resolution  the  parti- 
cular mode  of  its  release,  or  passage  into  con- 
cordance. In  the  following  example,  where  E  in 
the  treble  of  the  second  chord  is  the  discordant 
note,  (a)  is  the  preparation,  (6)  the  percussion, 
and  (c)  the  resolution.  [See  Pbepabation,  and 
Resolution.] 

<<0  I    P>)  1  (0 


[C.H.H.P.] 

PERCY,  John,  was  a  composer  of  ballads 
which  were  in  favour  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
last  century,  but  which  have  now  passed  out 
of  remembrance,  with  the  single  exception  of 
'Wapping  Old  Stairs.'  He  died  Jan.  24, 
1797-  [W.H.H.] 

PERDENDOSI,  PERDENDO  LE  FORZE, 
'losing  strength.'  A  direction  like  'morendo,' 
nearly  always  used  at  the  end  of  a  movement  or 
section  of  a  movement.  It  denotes  a  gradual 
diminuendo,  and  in  the  later  modern  masters,  a 
slight  rallentando  as  well.  Beethoven  uses 
'  perdendo  le  forze,  dolente  *  in  the  third  move- 
ment of  the  Pianoforte  Sonata  op.  no,  where 
the  slow  time  of  the  movement  (Adagio  ma  non 
troppo)  is  resumed  after  the  interruption  by  the 
fugue.  It  is  used  as  an  Italian  version  of 
'  Ermattet,  klagend,'  which  is  written  above  it. 
He  also  employs  '  sempre  perdendo '  in  the  slow 
movement  of  the  Symphony  in  Bb  (No.  4),  in 
bars  ia  to  10  from  the  end.  'Perdendosi'  is 
used  by  Weber  frequently,  for  instance  in  the 
slow  movement  of  the  pianoforte  sonata  in  C,  op. 
24,  etc.,  and  by  Chopin  in  the  second  of  the  two 
Polonaises  op.  40,  just  before  the  return  to  the 
first  subject.  [J.  A.  F.  M.] 

PEREZ,  Davide,  son  of  a  Spaniard,  born 
in  Naples  1711,  was  admitted  in  1718  to  the 
Conservatprio  of  Sta.  Maria  di  Loreto,  where 
he  studied  the  violin  under  Antonio  Gallo,  and 
counterpoint  under  Francesco  Mancini.  His 
first  opera  'Siroe'1  was  composed  for  San  Carlo 
in  1740.  At  the  invitation  of  Prince  Naselli 
he  went  to  Palermo,  and  became  master  of  the 
Real  Cappella  Palatina.  Here  he  remained  till 
1 748,  andproduced '  L'Eroismo  di  Scipione '( 1 741 ), 
'Astartea,'  'Medea,'  and  'L'Isola  incantata.' 
After  'La  Clemenza  di  Tito'  (1749), given  at  San 
Carlo  in  Naples,  and '  Semiramide '  (1750)  at  the 
Teatro  delle  Dame  in  Rome,  he  composed  operas 
for  all  the  principal  towns  in  Italy.  In  1752  he 
accepted  an  invitation  to  Lisbon,  where  he  com- 
posed '  Demofoonte '  for  Gizziello  and  the  tenor 
Raaff  (Mozart's  Munich  friend),  the  success  of 
which  was  so  great  that  the  King  bestowed  on 
him  the  Order  of  Christ,  and  the  post  of  '  maestro 
at  the  Real  Cappella,'  with  a  salary  of  30,000 
francs.  The  new  theatre  in  Lisbon  was  opened 
in  1 755  with  Perez's  opera  '  Alessandro  nelle 

1  The  score,  dated  1740,  U  In  the  Eeal  Collegio  oi  Maples. 


686 


PEREZ. 


Indie,'  in  which  a  corps  of  cavalry,  and  a  Mace- 
donian phalanx,  as  described  by  Quintus  Curtius, 
appeared  on  the  stage.  Perez  procured  the  best 
Italian  singers  for  the  opera  during  his  manager- 
ship. In  1755  he  came  to  London,  and  produced 
4  Ezio '  with  great  success.  Here  also  was  pub- 
lished in  1774  a  fine  edition,  with  portrait,  of  his 
'  Mattutini  de'  Morti,'  his  best  sacred  work,  though 
he  also  composed  when  in  Lisbon,  a  '  Credo '  for 
two  choirs,  and  other  church  music.  His  compo- 
sitions can  scarcely  be  called  remarkable,  and 
Fe"tis  ranks  him  below  Jomelli.  In  person  he 
resembled  Handel,  and  like  him  lost  his  sight  in 
old  age,  but  worked  on  up  to  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  Lisbon  in  1778.  Specimens  of  Perez 
will  be  found  in  Vincent  Novello's  various  pub- 
lications. [F.  G.] 

PERFECT.  Of  Cadences  the  word  'perfect' 
is  used  to  indicate  such  as  give  the  most  absolute 
effect  of  a  conclusion,  by  passing  through  a  chord 
or  chords  which  are  highly  characteristic  of  a  key 
to  the  tonic  chord  of  that  key  in  its  first  position. 
[See  Cadence.]  Of  Intervals  the  word  is  chiefly 
used  in  modern  times  to  describe  certain  of  the 
purest  and  simplest  kinds,  as  fifths  and  fourths, 
when  in  their  most  consonant  forms ;  in  the  early 
days  of  modern  music  it  was  used  in  contrast  to 
the  terms  '  imperfect '  and  'middle'  to  classify  the 
consonances  in  the  order  of  their  theoretical 
excellence.  [See  Habmont,  Interval,  Tem- 
perament], [C.H.H.P.] 

PERGETTI.  Probably  the  last  castrato  who 
ever  sang  in  England.  He  made  his  first  appear- 
ance at  the  Societa  Armonica,  May  6, 1844,  in  an 
aria  from  '  Ciglio,'  an  opera  of  his  own,  and  is  de- 
scribed as  '  a  brilliant  and  expressive  singer,  who 
won  a  deserved  encore'  (Mus.  Examiner).     [G.] 

PERGOLA,  LA.  La  Pergola  is  the  principal 
theatre  of  Florence,  and  takes  its  name  from 
that  of  the  street  in  which  it  is  situated.  It  is 
under  the  management  of  thirty  proprietors,  who 
form  the  society — or,  to  use  the  English  term, 
the  company — of  the  Immobili.  Operatic  music 
and  ballets  are  the  only  kind  of  performances 
given  in  this  theatre,  which  is  the '  Grand  Opera' 
of  Florence.  The  interior  of  the  house  is  hand- 
somely fitted  and  decorated,  and  is  capable  of 
accomodating  about  2500  spectators. 

The  original  theatre  was  erected  in  1650  upon 
the  designs  of  the  celebrated  architect  Tacca.  It 
was  a  wooden  structure,  and  lasted  until  1 738, 
when  it  was  replaced  by  the  present  solid  build- 
ing. It  was  inaugurated  with  the  opera  '  Dafne'  by 
Peri  and  Caccini,  which  had  been  written  in  1594, 
and  was  the  first  opera  ever  written.         [L.  R.j 

PERGOLESI,  Giovanni  Battista,  though 
born  at  Jesi  in  the  Roman  States,  Jan.  3,  1710, 
was  domiciled  and  educated  at  Naples,  and  ranks, 
by  his  style  and  his  sympathies,  among  Neapoli- 
tan composers.  Various  dates  between  1 703  and 
1707,  and  various  places,  have  been  given  for 
his  birth.  Quadrio  alone,  in  his  'Istoria  della 
volgar  poesia,'  has  stated  the  real  truth,  but  all 
doubt  on  the  subject  was  removed  by  the  Mar- 
quis de  Villarosa,  who  in  1831  obtained  a  copy 


PERGOLESI. 

of  Pergolesi's  baptismal  certificate,  signed  by  the 
priest  of  the  Duomo  where  the  original  exists, 
and  attested  by  the  Confaloniere  of  Jesi,  estab- 
lishing beyond  dispute  that  the  composer  was 
born  there,  in  1710.1 

It  is  not  known  how  he  came  to  be  taken  to 
Naples,  but  he  was  at  an  early  age  admitted  to 
the  Conservatorio  dei  Poveri  in  Gesu  Cristo,  to 
study  violin-playing  under  Domenico  de  Matteis. 
He  first  attracted  notice  by  the  original  passages 
he  invented  for  his  instrument,  not  only  fanciful 
gruppetti  and  ornaments,  but  strange  chromatic 
progressions,  based  on  new  harmonies,  and  quite 
unlike  anything  known  then  and  there  in  that 
style  of  music.  When  an  account  of  this  reached 
the  ears  of  Matteis  he  desired  to  hear  these 
things,  and  having  heard  them,  asked  the  youth 
who  had  taught  him  these  new  modulations  and 
harmonies.  On  being  assured  that  he  had  learnt 
them  from  no  one,  his  next  question  was,  'Could 
he  write  them  down  ? '  The  result  of  which  was 
that  on  the  following  day  the  boy  brought  him 
a  specimen  of  his  powers,  thrown  into  the  form 
of  a  little  sonata.  Matteis  then  placed  him 
under  Gaetano  Greco,  professor  of  counterpoint  at 
the  Conservatorio,  and  after  his  death  he  was 
taught  for  a  short  time  by  Durante,  and  then  by 
Francesco  Feo.  His  progress  was  rapid,  but  he 
speedily  shook  off  to  a  great  extent  the  contra- 
puntal yoke  of  his  masters,  and  wrote  in  a 
style  of  his  own,  more  melodious  and  more 
directly  expressive  than  theirs,  while  of  their 
science  he  retained  just  so  much  as  could  be 
made  strictly  subordinate  to  these  objects  and 
no  more.  The  first  composition  of  his  that  we 
know  was  a  'sacred  drama,'  'La  Conversione 
di  S.  Guglielmo,'  written  while  still  a  student. 
It  was  performed,  with  comic  intermezzi,  in  the 
summer  of  1731,  at  the  Cloister  of  S.  Agnello, 
for  the  '  honest  recreation '  of  the  younger  mem- 
bers of  the  congregation  at  the  church  of  the 
PP.  Filippini,  where  Pergolesi  during  his  school 
years  was  wont  to  go  every  day  to  play  an  organ 
sonata,  or  '  voluntary,'  between  two  sermons. 
Fetis  says  that  this  composition  shows  no  in- 
dication of  genius.  This  may  be  so,  but  it  is 
still  remarkable.  A  sense  of  dramatic  contrast 
is  evinced  in  the  music  given  to  the  Angel 
and  the  Demon,  who  represent  the  good  and 
evil  principles  respectively;  the  former  of  whom 
sings  in  the  florid  style  of  Porpora,  while 
the  Demon's  airs  are  bold  and  broad.  One 
especially  energetic  song  he  has,  expressive  of 
defiance,  in  which  his  admissions  of  temporary 
defeat  and  his  intentions  of  ultimate  triumph, 
are  illustrated  by  flights  of  scales  on  the  violins, 
upwards  or  downwards,  according  to  circum- 
stances ;  an  attempt  at  note-painting,  boyish 
perhaps,  but  still  daring  at  that  time. 

After  leaving  the  Conservatorio  he  received 
lessons  in  vocal  composition  from  Vinci,  whose 
style  was  more  akin  to  his  own  than  that  of  his 
former  teachers,  and,  it  is  said,  from  Hasse,  who, 
if  this  is  true,  must  have  learnt  more  from  his 

1  Memorie  dei  composltore  di  musica  del  Regno  di  Napoli,  raccolte 
dal  Marchese  di  Villarosa,  Napoli,  1810,  p.  111. 


PERGOLESI. 

pupil  than  he  could  teach  him.  His  first  opera, 
'  La  Sallu8tia,'  was  produced  in  the  winter  of  thia 
year,  1731,  at  the  Fiorentini  theatre,  and  many 
novel  effects  were  introduced  in  the  orchestral 
parts.  Villarosa  says  it  deserved  the  highest  ap- 
proval; hut  it  seems  to  have  had  a  mere  succes 
iVestime.  This  was  also  the  case  with  an  inter- 
mezzo, 'Amor  fa  l'uomo  cieco ' ;  while  '  Recimero,' 
a  serious  opera,  produced  at  the  S.  Bartolomeo, 
failed  outright.  It  would  have  gone  ill  with  Per- 
golesi  if  he  had  not  found  a  friend  in  the  Prince 
of  Stegliano,  first  equerry  to  the  King  of  Naples, 
who,  perceiving  his  rare  abilities,  helped  him 
and  got  employment  for  him.  For  this  friend 
he  wrote  the  thirty  Trios  for  two  violins  and 
bass,  twenty-four  of  which  were  afterwards  pub- 
lished at  London  and  Amsterdam.  It  was 
probably  due  to  the  Prince  that  when,  after  a 
terrible  earthquake  at  Naples,  a  solemn  mass 
was  voted  to  the  patron  saint  of  the  town,  Per- 
golesi  was  commissioned  to  compose  the  music, 
a  task  he  performed  by  writing  a  mass,  with 
vespers,  for  ten  voices  and  double  orchestra. 
Soon  after  this  he  wrote  another  mass,  also 
for  double  chorus  of  five  voices  and  two  or- 
chestras. Leo,  whom  he  invited  to  hear  his 
work,  was  astonished,  both  at  the  beauty  of 
the  music  and  the  short  time  in  which  it  had 
been  composed,  and  publicly  praised  the  youth- 
ful maestro.  To  this  mass  Pergolesi  subsequently 
added  a  third  and  fourth  choir,  and  it  was  per- 
formed, entire,  at  the  church  of  the  Filippini. 

Fe'tis  remarks  that  at  this  time  Pergolesi,  dis- 
gusted with  his  ill  success,  had  ceased  to  write 
for  the  theatre,  and  was  now  led  back  to  it  by 
his  artistic  bent.  But  as  all  the  works  yet  enu- 
merated seem  to  have  been  produced  in  1 731,  his 
disgust  cannot  have  lasted  very  long,  and  we  can 
only  suppose  that  the  composition  of  some  of  them 
was  considerably  antecedent  to  their  performance. 
In  the  winter  of  this  same  year  he  wrote  his 
celebrated  intermezzo, '  La  Serva  Padrona.'  This 
little  operetta,  which  retains  its  freshness  and 
charm  at  the  present  day,  must,  when  produced, 
have  been  unique  of  its  kind,  and  has  served  as 
the  foundation  of  every  comic  Italian  opera 
written  since,  up  to  Rossini's  time.  Part  of  its 
success  on  the  stage  is,  no  doubt,  due  to  the 
humorous,  neatly-written  libretto ;  this  however 
would  not  have  survived  commonplace  music  any 
more  than  fine  music  can  secure  a  long  lease  of 
life  for  an  utterly  dull  libretto.  There  are  but 
two  characters,  and  the  orchestra  is  limited  to 
the  string  quartet,  but  the  action  is  so  sustained, 
and  the  music  so  varied,  that  there  is  not  a  dull 
line  in  it.  Servilely  imitated  as  it  has  been  ever 
since,  it  has,  itself,  the  ring  of  young  music. 
The  oppressed  master  who  complains,  threatens, 
blusters,  flinches,  hesitates,  is  lost,  and  finally 
has  to  give  in,  eat  his  own  words,  and  chanter 
apres  to  the  end  of  the  story;  the  uppish  ser- 
vant who  defies  her  master,  frightens  him  with 
her  shrewish  tongue,  cajoles  him,  deceives  him 
by  the  most  transparent  of  artifices,  then,  when 
she  has  worked  on  his  feelings  enough,  turns  on 
him  and  shows  him  what  a  fool  he  has  been, 


PERGOLESI. 


687 


and  gets  her  own  way  all  the  same ;  the  mock 
heroic,  the  deprecatory,  the  pathetic  and  the 
buffo — these  things  may  have  been  as  well  com- 
bined and  much  farther  developed  since  Pergo- 
lesi's  day,  but  at  that  time  there  was  nothing 
like  them.  The  recitatives  are  full  of  animation 
and  spirit.  The  one  blot  on  the  piece  is  the 
inevitable  Da  Capo  in  the  airs,  which  Pergolesi, 
with  all  his  genius,  was  still  too  much  a  child 
of  the  time  to  set  aside. 

The  success  of  the  '  Serva  Padrona'  appears 
to  have  been  very  limited,  but  was  the  greatest 
that  ever  fell  to  Pergolesi's  lot.  His  next  operas, 
the  'Maestro  di  Musica'  (very  popular  at  a  later 
date),  and  *H  Geloso  schernito,'  seem  to  have 
met  with  little  or  no  recognition.  'Lo  Frate 
innamorato,'  a  buffo  opera,  in  Neapolitan  dialect, 
was  performed  at  the  Fiorentini  theatre  in  1 732. 
The  San  Bartolomeo  produced  the  'Prigionier 
superbo,'  and  repeated  the  '  Serva  Padrona.' 
For  this  theatre,  in  1734,  he  wrote  '  Adriano  in 
Siria,'  an  opera  in  three  acts,  and  an  intermezzo 
'  Livietta  e  Fracolo' ;  '  La  Contadina  astuta'  also 
belongs  probably  to  the  same  time.  In  this  year 
he  went  to  live  at  Loreto,  as  chapel-master  there. 

After  writing,  in  1 735,  a  buffo  opera, '  Flaminio,' 
which  met  with  much  success  when  played  in 
T  749,  thirteen  years  after  his  death,  he  undertook 
a  work  of  another  kind,  the  beautiful  and  pa- 
thetic '  Stabat  Mater,'  for  soprano  and  contralto, 
destined  to  become  perhaps  the  most  widely 
known  of  all  his  works.  The  circumstances 
which  led  to  its  composition  were  these.  Every 
Friday  in  March,  for  many  years  past,  ha,d  the 
Confraternity  of  San  Luigi  di  Palazzo  performed 
the  '  Stabat  Mater '  of  Alessandro  Scarlatti. 
Weary  of  always  repeating  the  same  music, 
the  brethren  made  up  their  minds  to  ask  Per- 
golesi to  compose  a  new  Stabat.  The  luxury  was 
not  ruinous.  Ten  ducats  (about  35*.)  was  the 
price  agreed  upon,  and  this  was  paid  in  advance 
to  the  composer.  Just  after  its  commencement, 
however,  the  task  had  to  be  suspended  for  a 
while.  His  fame,  hitherto  solely  confined  to 
Naples,  seems  now  to  have  spread  as  far  as 
Rome,  for  he  was  engaged  to  compose  an  opera 
for  the  Tordinone  theatre  in  that  city.  This  was 
•L'Olimpiade' — the  book  Metastasio's,  the  music 
in  its  composer's  happiest  vein.  It  was,  how- 
ever, received  with  apathetic  indifference,  while 
'Nerone,'  an  opera  composed  for  the  same  house 
at  the  same  time  by  Egidio  Duni,  greatly  Per- 
golesi's inferior,  had  a  brilliant  success.  Even 
Duni  himself  keenly  resented  this  lack  of  appre- 
ciation by  the  Romans,  saying  plainly  that  the 
failure  of  'L'Olimpiade'  was  due  to  its  being  too 
good  for  the  public,  avowing  himself  'frenetico 
contro  il  pubblico  Romano,'  and  doing  all  he 
could,  but  in  vain,  to  bring  about  a  reaction  in 
its  favour. 

Pergolesi  went  back  to  Loreto  much  discouraged 
by  his  theatrical  experiences.  He  set  to  work 
again  at  the  Stabat  Mater,  but  his  health,  which 
had  been  feeble  for  some  time,  became  worse, 
and  consumption  set  in.  A  change  of  climate 
was  declared  imperative ;  he  returned  to  Naples, 


688 


PEKGOLESI. 


PERGOLESI. 


and  went  to  the  sea  at  Pozzuoli.  Here,  "though 
growing  steadily  worse,  he  did  not  desist  from 
his  labours.  He  wrote  the  Cantata  for  a  single 
voice, '  Orfeo  e  Euridice,'  and  the  beautiful '  Salve 
Regina,'  also  for  one  voice,  with  two  violins, 
viola  and  organ,  both  among  his  happiest  inspi- 
rations, the  latter  in  particular  unsurpassed  in 
purity  of  style,  and  pathetic,  touching  expression. 

His  old  master,  Feo,  who  loved  him  tenderly, 
came  to  visit  him  during  his  illness,  and,  finding 
him  working  at  the  Stabat  Mater,  entreated 
him  to  lay  it  aside,  telling  him  that  he  was 
unfit  for  any  exertion.  Pergolesi  answered  that 
he  had  been  paid  ten  ducats  for  a  composition 
which  would  not  be  valued  at  ten  bajoccki,  and 
that  he  could  not  but  fulfil  his  agreement. 
Not  many  days  after,  Feo  found  him  sink- 
ing, and  scarcely  able  to  say  that  the  Stabat 
was  finished  and  sent  off.  He  expired  on 
March  16,  1736,  having  just  completed  his  26th 
year,  and  was  buried  in  the  precincts  of  the 
cathedral  of  Pozzuoli,  where,  nearly  a  century 
afterwards,  a  monument  to  his  memory  was 
erected  by  the  Marquis  de  Villarosa  and  the 
Cavaliere  Corigliano. 

He  had  no  sooner  ceased  to  live  than  he 
became  the  object  of  an  interest  only  equal  to 
the  indifference  shown  him  in  his  lifetime.  It 
was  currently  asserted  that  his  death  was  due 
to  poison — a  report  for  which  there  was  no 
foundation.  The  failure  of  his  health  was  slow 
and  gradual,  the  result  of  natural  causes,  and 
partly,  perhaps,  of  excesses  to  which  disap- 
pointment and  depression  may  have  rendered 
him  prone.  But  public  curiosity,  once  awakened, 
knew  no  bounds.  Unlike  most  other  Italian 
composers  of  his  century,  who,  the  objects  of 
unmeasured  admiration  during  their  lives,  are 
now  forgotten,  or  recalled  occasionally  by  way  of 
a  curiosity,  Pergolesi's  renown  was  entirely  post- 
humous. Rome  revived  the  despised  Olimpiade, 
and  found  that  it  was  good.  All  Italy  was  bent 
on  possessing  and  performing,  not  his  best  works 
only,  but  trivial  farces  and  intermezzi,  probably 
written  as  'pot-boilers.'  The  Serva  Padrona 
was  introduced  into  France  in  1750,  and  made  a 
furore.  It,  and  the  Maestro  di  Musica,  were 
translated  into  French,  and  have  been  popular 
in  Paris  ever  since.  Rousseau,  Marmontel  and 
d'Alembert  extol  his  truth,  simplicity  and  pathos, 
asserting  that  he  restored  music  to  nature,  and 
freed  her  from  the  conventional  trammels  of  an 
arid  science.  Chateaubriand,  on  the  contrary, 
finds  him  too  artificial,  and,  contrasting  his 
sacred  music  with  Gregorian  plain-song,  says  he 
would  have  done  better  if,  instead  of  display- 
ing such  a  wealth  of  resources,  he  had  confined 
himself  to  imagining  a  simple  cantilena,  to  be 
repeated  with  each  strophe.  Villarosa  remarks 
that,  had  he  done  this,  the  Stabat  M*ter  would 
have  had  the  character  of  French  couplets. 

The  fact  is  that  unjust  indifference  reacted  in 
a  somewhat  exaggerated  enthusiasm.  He  did  not 
restore  music  to  nature.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest, 
and  perhaps  the  most  gifted,  of  a  distinguished 
group  of  composers  who  worked,  or  at  any  rate 


began  by  working,  towards  that  object.  Emotion 
predominated  over  intellect  in  his  artistic  nature, 
and  his  science  is  but  slight.  Nor  did  he  show 
much  invention  in  contrapuntal  form.  Certain 
devices  that  suited  him  he  adopted  and  used  re- 
peatedly, but  the  phrases  and  forms  which  are 
peculiarly  his  own  stand  apart  from  these.  His 
masses  for  double  chorus  show  a  sense  of  effect 
which,  had  he  lived  longer,  might  have  mani- 
fested itself  in  other  styles  of  composition.  But 
it  must  not  be  supposed  that  a  double  5-part 
chorus  means,  with  Pergolesi,  10-part  writing, 
the  division  into  two  choirs  being,  more  often 
than  not,  for  purposes  of  effect.  The  same  is  the 
case  with  his  'double  orchestras.' 

His  orchestra  is  simplicity  itself,  consisting 
often  of  the  string  quartet  only,  sometimes  with 
oboes,  and  horns  or  trumpets.  There  is  a  song 
in  '  Adriano  in  Siria '  with  a  curious  florid  oboe 
obbligato.  He  writes  for  the  violins  in  a  way 
that  shows  his  feeling  for  the  instrument  and 
his  knowledge  of  its  expressive  powers.  The  con- 
cluding portion  of  a  Kyrie  in  one  of  his  masses  is 
quoted  on  the  opposite  page.  It  is  a  very  early 
and  a  beautiful  instance  of  combined  vocal  and 
instrumental  effect,  and  seems  to  suggest  an  ima- 
ginative power  in  its  composer  far  beyond  what 
he  actually  realised  in  his  works. 

Pathos  and  sweetness  are  more  characteristic 
of  his  compositions  than  passion  or  great  dramatic 
force.  His  sacred  music  is  said  to  lack  devotional 
fervour,  and  often  to  be  more  suited  to  the  stage 
than  to  the  church,  there  being  no  definite  line 
to  be  drawn  between  his  styles  of  writing  for  the 
two,  and  the  same  ideas  often  recurring  in  each. 
Variety  of  expression  was  in  its  infancy,  and  the 
same  thing  might  he  urged  against  many  of  Per- 
golesi's predecessors — with  this  difference,  that 
their  dramatic  works  seem  more  suited  to  the 
church  than  to  the  stage.  He  undoubtedly  re- 
peated himself  very  much ;  certain  melodic  and 
harmonic  sequences  and  progressions  he  had  a 
fondness  for,  and  used  them  in  all  his  works  in- 
discriminately. It  seems  beyond  question  that 
all  composers  of  that  time  and  school  no  more 
thought  it  necessary  even  to  appear  to  write 
always  what  was  new,  than  we  should  to  say 
something  quite  original  every  time  we  opened 
our  mouths.  Just  as  an  ingenious  contrapun- 
tal device  may  be  used  again  and  again  by  its 
original  discoverer,  and  adapted  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  working  out  of"  various  fugues,  so 
when  a  composer  like  Pergolesi  chanced  on  a 
characteristic  idea  that  pleased  him,  he  intro- 
duced it  wherever  it  served  to  illustrate  or  to 
adorn  his  subject,  quite  without  reference  to  the 
work  in  which  it  may  first  have  appeared.  The 
difference  between  the  two  things  had  not  come 
to  be  perceived,  nor  was  it  fully  recognised  before 
Beethoven.  Such  ideas,  so  used,  were  in  time 
added  to  the  general  vocabulary,  and  adopted  by 
others  as  the  setting  or  background  for  their 
own  ideas,  and  have  often  become  known  to  pos- 
terity in  this  form  only.  Yet  from  their  first 
inventor  they  come  with  a  freshness  that  can  be 
better  felt  than  described,  and  three  or  four  of 


PERGOLESI. 


largo.      Ky    -    rl  -  e 


VOL.  II.    PT.  I  2 


690 


PERGOLESI. 


Pergolesi's  best  works  appear  to  present  in  a 
concentrated  form  what  has  since  been  spread  by 
others  over  hundreds  of  operas  and  masses.  It 
is  impossible  not  to  trace  their  influence  in  the 
works  of  Jommelli,  of  Cimarosa,  of  Haydn  (in 
oratorio),  and  of  Mozart.  Yet  there  remains  a 
something  which  is  still  essentially  Pergolesi's 
own. 

One  important  fact  is  too  little  remembered. 
Owing  to  the  false  dates  usually  given  for  his 
birth,  Pergolesi  is  commonly  supposed  to  have 
lived  to  be  33.  Between  this  and  26,  the  age  at 
which  he  actually  died,  there  is  the  difference  of 
perhaps  the  seven  best  years  of  young  maturity. 
When  we  think  how  small  is  the  number  of  com- 
posers who  would  be  remembered  now  for  what 
they  wrote  before  they  were  five-and-twenty, 
and  bear  in  mind  that  Pergolesi's  last  works 
show  no  symptom  of  exhausted  power,  but  the  re- 
verse, we  cannot  but  wonder  what  he  might  have 
originated  and  achieved  had  he  been  spared  to 
benefit  by  wider  experience  and  more  stimulating 
opportunity.  His  career,  as  it  was,  is  a  mere 
suggestion.  Could  it  have  been  fulfilled,  it  seems 
not  impossible  that  one  Italian  eighteenth -cen- 
tury composer  might  have  belonged  not  to  Italy 
only,  but  to  the  world. 

The  following  list  of  Pergolesi's  works  is  copied 
from  Fe"tis's  '  Biographie  des  Musiciens.' 


Operas  and  Intermezzi. 

1.  La  Sail  11  st i a. 

2.  Amor  fa  1'  uomo  cieco ;  1  act. 
a  Becimero ;  8  acts. 

4.  La  Serra  Fadrona ;  1  act.  The 
original  score  published  In  Paris 
by  Lachevardlere.  An  edition  with 
French  words  published  by  Leduc. 

r>.  11  Maestro  di  Musica.  Also 
published  at  Paris  under  the  name 
of  Le  Maitre  de  Musique. 

6.  II  Geloso  schernito. 

7.  Lo  Frate  lnnamorato.  Buffa 
opera,  in  Neapolitan  dialect. 

8.  11  Prigionier  superbo. 

9.  Adriano  in  Siria. 

10.  Livietta  e  Tracolo. 

11.  La  Contadlna  astuta. 

12.  Flaminio ;  3  acts. 

13.  L'Olimpiade ;  3  acts. 

14.  San  Guglielmo;  sacred  dra- 
ma. 

Church  Music. 

1.  Kyrie  cum  Gloria;  4  voices 
and  orchestra  (pub.  Vienna,  llas- 
linger). 

2.  Mass ;  5  voices  and  orchestra. 

3.  Mass  ;  Two  5-part  choirs  and 
double  orchestra. 

4.  Dixit;  4 voices,  2 violins,  alto, 
bass,  and  organ. 

5.  Dixit ;  double  chorus  and  or- 
chestra. 

6.  Miserere;  4  voices  and  or- 
chestra (Paris,  Pleyel). 

7.  Confltebor ;  4  voices. 

8.  Domine  ad  adjuvandum;  4 
voices. 

S.  Do. ;  5  voices. 

10.  Laudate;  5  voices  and  or- 
chestra. 

11.  Laetatus  sum;  2  sopranos 
a<  id  2  basses. 

12.  Laetatus;  5 voices. 

13.  Laudate;  tingle  voice  with 
Instruments. 

14.  Salve  reglna;  single  voice,  8 


violins,    alto,    bass,    and    organ 
(Paris,  Leduc,  and  Porro). 

15.  Stabat  Mater  for  soprano 
and  contralto;  2  violins,  alto, 
bass,  and  organ  (Paris,  Bonjour, 
also  Porro ;  Lyons,  Carnaud.  Five 
different  editions  with  PF.  ac- 
companiment have  been  pub- 
lished at  Paris.  Here  also  was 
printed  Palsiello's  edition,  with 
wind-instrument  parts  added  by 
him.  Two  German  editions  with 
German  words— one.  In  score, 
Schwickert,  at  Leipzig;  the  other, 
with  PF.,  Christian!,  at  Ham- 
burg. Killer  adapted  Klopstock's 
Passion  to  the  music  of  the  Sta- 
bat, arranged  for  4  voices,  with 
the  addition  of  oboes  and  flutes.) 
It  has  been  recently  published  in 
London  by  Mr.  Hullah. 

16.  Dies  irae ;  soprano  and  con- 
tralto ;  2  violins,  alto,  and  bass. 

17.  Mass ;  2  voices  and  organ. 

18.  Mass  in  D ;  4  voices  and  or- 
chestra. 

19.  Oratorio  sacro  per  la  nasclta 
del  Bedentore. 

Chamber  and  Concert  Music. 

Orfeo ;  cantata  for  single  voice 
and  orchestra.  (Choron  has 
printed  the  score  In  his  '  Principes 
de  composition  des  Ecoles  d'lta- 
lie.') 

Five  cantatas  for  soprano  with 
clavichord. 

Thirty  trios  for  2  violins  and  vio- 
loncello, with  figured  bass. 

Villarosa  also  mentions; — (1) 
Solfeggi  for  2  and  3  voices ;  (2)Gla- 
sone ,  (3)  Cantata  for  5  voices ;  (4) 
A  collection  of  cantatas  or  songs 
printed  in  London ;  (5)  Confltebor, 
for  2  voices;  and  various  frag- 
ments of  less  Importance,  existing 
in  manuscript  in  different  private 
collections. 


Two  movements  from  Psalms  for  6  voices  un- 
accompanied, and  two  for  the  same  with  orchestra, 
are  published  by  V.  Novello  in  his  Fitzwilliam 
music.     The  Fitzwilliam  Library  also  contains 


PERI. 

a  Mass,  and  a  Kyrie  and  Gloria  for  10  voices. 
A  volume  in  the  Add.  MSS.  of  the  British  Mu- 
seum (No.  5044)  contains  3  Psalms,  a  Stabat, 
Salve,  and  Mass.  These  are  all  probably  in- 
cluded in  the  above  list.  An  air  in  F  minor  for 
clavier  is  published  in  Clauss-Szarvady's  Klavier- 
stlicke  (Leipzig,  Senff).  [F.  A.M.] 

PERI,  Jacopo,  a  Composer  to  whom,  not- 
withstanding the  small  amount  of  his  learning, 
the  world  owes  a  heavy  debt  of  gratitude,  was 
born  of  noble  parentage,  at  Florence,  during  the 
latter  half  of  the  16th  century,  and  first 
studied  Music  under  the  guidance  of  Cristoforo 
Malvezzi,  of  Lucca.  The  Florentines,  always 
celebrated  for  their  ready  invention  of  surnames, 
called  him  II  Zazzerino,1  a  little  bit  of  pleasantry 
provoked  by  the  enviable  wealth  of  golden  hair 
which  he  managed  to  preserve  uninjured,  almost 
to  the  day  of  his  death.  After  completing  his 
musical  education  he  was  appointed  Maestro  di 
Cappella,  first,  to  Fernando,  Duke  of  Tuscany, 
and  afterwards  to  Duke  Cosmo  II.  Having  thus 
attained  an  honourable  position,  he  married  a 
noble  and  richly -dowered  lady,  of  the  House  of 
Fortini,  by  whom  he  had  a  son,  who  bade  fair 
to  become  a  distinguished  mathematician,  but 
ultimately  brought  himself  to  ruin  by  his  disso- 
lute habits  and  abandoned  life,  indulging  in  such 
excesses,  that  his  tutor,  the  great  Galileo  Galilei, 
was  accustomed  to  speak  of  him  as  '  my  Daemon.' 
Notwithstanding  this  domestic  trouble  Peri  mixed 
in  all  the  best  society  in  Florence,  and  chose  for 
his  associates  some  of  the  most  advanced  leaders 
of  the  great  Renaissance  movement,  which,  even 
at  that  late  period,  was  still  in  progress,  though 
its  best  days  had  long  since  passed  away.  We 
hear  of  him  especially  at  the  house  of  Giovanni 
Bardi,  Conte  di  Vernio,  where,  in  company  with 
Vincenzo  Galilei,  Ottavio  Rinuccini,  Giulio  Cac- 
cini,  Pietro  Strozzi,  Jacopo  Corsi,  and  other  rest- 
less spirits  imbued  with  the  classical  furore  for 
which  the  age  was  so  strongly  distinguished,  he 
assisted  in  that  memorable  attempt  to  restore  the 
mode  of  declamation  peculiar  to  Hellenic  Tragedy 
which  resulted  at  last  in  the  discovery  of  modern 
Recitative.  Whether  the  first  idea  of  this  gn 
invention  originated  with  Peri,  with  Caccini, 
with  Emilio  del  Cavaliere,  it  is  now  impossi 
to  decide.  In  all  probability  it  suggested  itself 
in  consultation ;  and  each  Composer  endeavoured 
to  carry  it  out  in  his  own  way,  though  the 
ways  of  all  were  so  similar  that  it  is  very 
difficult  to  detect  the  symptoms  of  true  indi- 
viduality in  any  of  them.  V.  Galilei  and  Caccini 
undoubtedly  produced  the  first  Monodic  Can- 
tatas in  which  the  new  style  was  attempted; 
but  their  efforts  were  confessedly  tentative,  and 
their  productions  conceived  upon  a  very  small 
scale,  fitted  only  for  use  as  Chamber  Music. 
Peri  took  a  higher  flight.  At  the  instigation 
of  Jacopo  Corsi,  and  the  Poet  Rinuccini,  he 
attempted  a  regular  Musical  Drama,  called 
'  Dafne.'  The  Libretto  for  this  was  supplied  by 
Rinuccini,  and  Peri  composed  the  Music  entirely 

>  Literally  'Short-hair.'    But  In  this  case  used  ironically. 


s 


PEEI. 

in  the  style  which  was  then  believed  to  be 
identical  with  that  cultivated  by  the  antient 
Greek  Tragedians.  The  work  was  privately  per- 
formed, in  the  Palazzo  Corsi,  in  the  year  1597, 
Peri  himself  playing  the  part  of  Apollo.  To 
him,  therefore,  belongs  the  honour  of  having 
composed  and  assisted  in  the  performance  of 
the  first  true  Opera  that  ever  was  placed 
upon  the  Stage.  A  still  greater  honour,  how- 
ever, was  in  store  for  him.  This  performance 
was  witnessed  only  by  a  select  circle  of  Signor 
Corsi's  personal  friends.  But,  in  the  year  1600, 
Peri  was  commissioned  to  produce  an  Opera  for 
public  performance  on  the  occasion  of  the 
Marriage  of  Henri  IV  of  France  with  Maria 
de'  Medici.  The  subject  chosen  for  this  was 
'Euridice.'  Rinuccini  again  supplied  the  Li- 
bretto, and  Peri  wrote  the  Music  in  the  same 
style  as  that  he  had  already  adopted  in  '  Dafne,' 
though,  it  is  to  be  supposed,  with  greater  freedom 
and  vigour.  The  success  of  the  work  was  all 
that  could  possibly  be  desired.  It  proved  that 
the  Ideal  conceived  by  the  little  band  of  en- 
thusiasts was  capable  of  satisfactory  embodiment 
in  a  practical  form ;  and  that  form  was  at  once 
adopted  as  the  normal  type  of  the  long-desired 
Lyric  Drama.  It  is  true  that,  some  months 
before  the  production  of  'Euridice,'  Emilio  del 
C'avaliere's  Oratorio,  'La  Rappresentazione  di 
anuria  e  di  corpo,'  had  been  publicly  performed, 
at  Rome,  with  Scenery,  Dresses,  and  Action  ;  and 
that  the  Music  of  this  work  is  written  in  exactly 
the  same  kind  of  Recitative  as  '  Euridice.'  But, 
Peri's  claim  to  be  regarded  as  the  Composer 
of  the  first  Opera  rests,  not  on  'Euridice,'  but 
on  'Dafne,'  though  that  work  was  never  pro- 
duced in  public ;  and  the  only  ground  on  which 
that  claim  can  be  disputed  is  the  fact  that 
Emilio  del  Cavaliere  is  known  to  have  composed 
two  saecular  pieces,  called  '  II  Satiro,'  and  '  La 
Disperazione  di  Fileno,'  which  were  both 
privately  performed  in  1590,  and  a  third  work, 
entitled  '11  Giuoco  della  Cieca,'  which  was 
performed  before  the  Archduke  Ferdinand  in 
1595.  Not  a  trace  of  either  of  these  three 
works  now  remains  to  us.  They  are  described 
as  '  Pastorals,'  and  may  or  may  not  have  been 
of  sufficiently  large  dimensions  to  entitle  them 
to  rank  as  Dramas.  Moreover,  we  cannot  be 
quite  certain  that  they  were  written  in  the  same 
style  as  the  Oratorio.  As  the  case  now  stands, 
therefore,  and  until  we  are  furnished  with  more 
decisive  evidence  than  that  we  now  possess, 
Jacopo  Peri  stands  before  us  as  the  acknow- 
ledged Father  of  a  form  of  Art  which  is  very 
nearly  the  greatest  that  it  has  ever  entered 
into  the  mind  of  man  even  to  conceive,  still 
less  to  bring,  through  bo  many  difficulties,  to 
a  successful  issue. 

Strange  to  say,  Peri  made  no  attempt  to  follow 
up  his  wonderful  success.  Probably  no  oppor- 
tunity for  the  production  of  another  public  per- 
formance on  so  extensive  a  scale  occurred  during 
his  life-time — for,  in  those  days,  such  scenic  dis- 
plays were  exhibited  only  on  very  grand  occa- 
Bions,  such  as  Royal  Marriages,  or  other  events 


PERIELESIS. 


691 


of  great  public  interest.  But,  whatever  may  have 
been  the  cause  of  his  retirement,  Peri  produced 
no  more  Operas.  We  hear  of  his  appointment, 
in  the  year  1601,  as  Maestro  di  Cappella  to  the 
Duke  of  Ferrara ;  and,  after  that,  no  record  re- 
mains of  him  beyond  the  publication  of  his  latest 
known  work,  'Le  varie  Musiche  del  Sig.  Jacopo 
Peri,  a  una,  due,  e  tre  voci,  con  alcuni  spirituali 
in  ultimo.'.at  Florence,  in  16 10.  The  precise  year 
of  his  death  has  not  been  ascertained. 

It  does  not  appear  that  'Dafne'  was  ever 
published :  at  any  rate,  no  traces  of  it  have 
been  preserved  to  us,  beyond  a  few  pieces  con- 
tributed by  Caccini,  and  included  in  his  '  Nuove 
Musiche'  (Florence,  1602).  'Euridice'  was 
happily  printed,  in  a  complete  form,  in  the  year 
of  its  production,  under  the  title  of  '  Le  Musiche 
di  Jacopo  Peri,  nobil  fiorentino,  sopra  L' Euri- 
dice del.  Sig.  Ottavio  Rinuccini,'  etc.,  Fiorenza, 
1600 ;  and  reprinted  at  Venice  in  1608,  and  again 
at  Florence  in  1 860,  in  small  8  vo.  Both  the  early 
editions  are  now  exceedingly  rare.  We  ourselves 
have  never  been  fortunate  enough  to  meet  with 
an  example  of  the  first ;  but  a  copy  of  the  Vene- 
tian reprint  is  preserved  in  the  Library  of  the 
British  Museum,  and  some  extracts  from  this 
will  be  found  on  page  499  of  the  present  volume. 
This  interesting  work,  and  the  '  Varie  Musiche ' 
already  mentioned,  are  believed  to  be  the  only 
specimens  of  Peri's  compositions  now  in  existence. 
Kiese wetter  has  reprinted  3  madrigals  for  4 
voices  in  his  '  Schicksale  und  Beschaffenheit  des 
weltlichenGesanges'  (Leipzig,  1841).    [W.S.R.] 

PERIELESIS  (Gr.  irfpiukqats,  a  convolution). 
A  long,  and  sometimes  extremely  elaborate  form 
of  Ligature,  sung  towards  the  close  of  a  Plain 
Chaunt  Melody.  It  differs  from  the  Pneuma  in 
that  it  is  always  sung  to  a  definite  syllable ; 
whereas  the  very  essence  of  the  Pneuma  lies  in 
its  adaptation  to  an  inarticulate  sound.  Like  the 
Cadenza  in  modern  music,  the  Perielesis  gene- 
rally makes  its  appearance  in  connection  with 
the  penultimate  or  antepenultimate  syllable  of 
a  final  phrase :  but  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary 
that  the  phrase  should  be  a  final  one,  or  that  the 
entrance  of  the  Perielesis  should  be  deferred  until 
its  conclusion. 

The  Melody  of  '  JEterna  Christi  munera  *  ex- 
hibits a  fine  example  of  an  antepenultimate 
Perielesis,  in  the  1st  and  4th  lines,  and  an 
equally  effective  one  on  the  final  syllable  of 
the  3rd  line. 


Modb  VII. 


S""^"^- 

W  <g"^,  la  <a> 

ggg^gyj^ —  >y  —       . 

»*                          *■                     n 

:r— ^3— <s>    ^    lg^~tr:i|~i~5 — II 

A  more  elaborate  form  furnishes  the  distin- 
guishing characteristic  of  '  Ite  missa  est '  and 
'Benedicamus  Domino,'  and  is  found,   in  the 
Yy2 


692 


PERIELESIS. 


PERNE. 


former  case,  on  the  first  syllable,  as  well  as  on 
that  before  the  antepenultimate. 


mis  -  sa     est. 


fpEE 


'•=>sfct 


W 


^E^zz: 


'•«^r 


Be  -  ne-dicamus    Do 

The  Perielesis  may  consist  either  entirely  of 
notes  of  equal  length,  or  of  an  intermixture  of 
Longs,  Breves,  and  Semi  breves.  In  the  former 
case,  it  is  not  always  necessary  to  sing  all  the 
notes  with  exact  equality  of  duration.  In  the 
latter,  the  Long  must  always  be  made  longer 
than  the  Breve,  and  the  Breve  longer  than  the 
Semibreve ;  but  it  is  neither  necessary  nor  de- 
sirable that  the  notes  should  be  sung  in  the 
strict  proportion  demanded  by  the  laws  of  Mea- 
sured Music. 

A  good  example  of  Perielesis,  where  we  should 
hardly  look  for  it,  is  in  a  well-known  passage  in 
Mr.  Sullivan's  'H.M.S.  Pinafore'  :— 


PERIGOURDINE,    or    PERIJOTJRDINE, 

a  country  dance  which  takes  its  name  from 
Perigord,  where  it  is  chiefly  danced.  It  is  some- 
times accompanied  by  singing.  The  following 
example  is  from  the  Essai  sur  la  Musique  (Paris, 
1780),  of  De  la  Borde  and  Roussier. 


aaHJm^jat^M 


[W.B.S.] 

PERIOD.  A  Period  is  one  of  the  divisions 
which  characterise  the  form  of  musical  works, 
especially  in  such  as  are  not  very  elastic  in  con- 
struction, as  Tunes  and  Airs ;  and,  frequently,  the 
main  subjects  of  large  works  in  their  simple  ex- 
position. It  is  common  to  find  in  these  a  first 
division  ending  with  a  half  close  followed  by  one 
ending  with  a  full  close,  as  in  this  example  from 
Beethoven's  Sonata,  op.  109  : — 


^gPI 


Mm 


£*i 


m 


T. 


-=i-r-=i- 


These  together  are  held  to  constitute  a  period, 
and  the  lesser  divisions  are  phrases.  A  complete 
tune  is  often  composed  of  two  or  three  such 
periods,  and  such  examples  may  be  taken  as 
types :  but  in  fact  periods  must  be  exceedingly 
variable  in  structure.  Sometimes  the  subdivi- 
sions into  lesser  members  may  be  difficult  to 
realise,  and  in  others  they  may  be  subdivisible 
into  a  greater  number  of  members  of  varying 
dimensions.  A  period  is  defined  by  some  writers 
as  a  complete  musical  sentence,  and  this  gives 
sufficiently  well  the  clue  to  identify  wherever  it 
is  desirable  to  do  so.  [C.H.H.P.] 

PERLE  DU  BRESIL,  LA.  A  lyrical  drama 
in  3  acts ;  words  by  the  MM.  St.  Etienne,  music 
by  Fe"licien  David,  his  first  opera.  Produced 
at  the  Theatre  Lyrique,  Paris,  Nov.  22,  1851. 
David  afterwards  added  recitatives.  [G.] 

PERNE,  Francois  Louis,  born  in  Paris,  1 772, 
was  educated   in  a    maitrise,    and   during  the 
Revolution  became  a  chorus-singer  at  the  Ope"ra. 
In  1799  he  exchanged  into  the  band,  where  he 
played  the  double-bass.    A  mass  for  St.  Csecilia's 
day,  performed  in  1 800  at  St.  Gervais,  secured  him 
the  esteem  of  musicians ;  and  in  the  following  year 
he  published  a  fugue  in  4  parts  with  3  subjects, 
which  placed  him  amongst  the  foremost  masters 
of  harmony  of  the  day.     It  is  not  however  by 
his  compositions  that  Perne's  name  will  be  pre- 
served, but  by  his  laborious  and  erudite  works 
on  some  of  the  most  obscure  points  in  the  history 
of  music.     His  expenditure  of  time,  patience, 
and  learning,  in  hunting  up,  cataloguing,  copy- 
ing, and  annotating  the  most  important  sources 
of  information,  printed  and  MS.,  on  the  music 
of  the  Greeks  and  the  Middle  Ages,  was  almoi 
superhuman.      One    instance    of   his    devotioi 
will  suffice.     After  publishing  his  •  Expositioi 
de  la  Semeiographie,  ou  Notation  musicale  d< 
Grecs'  (Paris,  181 5),  Perne  actually  transcribed 
the  complete   score   of  Gluck's   'Iphige"nie    en 
Tauride'  in  Greek  notation.     In  181 1  he  was 
chosen  to  succeed  Catel  as  professor  of  harmony 
at  the  Conservatoire,  but  his  '  Cours  d'harmoni( 
et    d'accompagnement'    was    not    so    clear 
that  of  his  predecessor.     In   181 6   he  became 
Inspector-general  of  the  Conservatoire,  and 
1820    librarian,   but    in    1822    retired    to    th< 
country,  and  resided  near  Laon.     In   1830  h( 
removed  to  Laon  itself,  but  the  air  was  too  keen 
for  him,  and  he  returned  to  Paris  only  to  die, 
on  May  26,  1832.     His  last  published  work  wj 
the  '  Chansons  du  Chatelain  de  Coucy'  (Pi 
1830)    [Chanson],   but  the   'Revue  musicale' 
contains  many   of  his  articles,    such    as    '  L< 
Manuscrits  relatifs  a    la   musique   de  l'Egli 
Grecque,'  'Josquin  Depres,'   'JerCme  de  Mo- 


PERNE. 

ravie,'  and  '  La  Musiqne  Ancienne.'  Perne  left 
most  of  his  notes  and  MSS.  to  the.  library  of  the 
Institut ;  and  his  books  and  annotated  catalogues, 
bought  in  1834  by  Fetis,  are  now  in  the  Royal 
Library  at  Brussels.  His  unpublished  sacred 
works  also  passed  into  the  hands  of  Fetis,  but 
the  library  of  the  Conservatoire  possesses  the 
autographs  of  his  choruses  for  'Esther,'  per- 
formed in  1821  by  the  pupils  of  the  Ecole  Royale 
de  Musique  (Conservatoire),  his  '  Meese  de  Ste. 
Cecile' (1800),  his  mass  'Vivat  Rex,'  for  4  voices 
(1816),  a  '  Veni  Creator'  for  3  voices,  and  the 
•Offices,'  arranged  in  3  parts  with  the  Plain- 
Song.  [G.  C] 

PERRIN,  Pierre,  called  TAbbe"  Pen-in,' 
though  he  was  neither  ordained  nor  held  a  bene- 
fice, was  born  at  Lyons  about  1616,  and  died  in 
Paris  1676.  He  succeeded  Voiture  as  'intro- 
ducteur  des  Ambassadeurs'  to  Gaston  Duke  of 
Orleans,  a  post  which  brought  him  into  relations 
with  several  great  personages,  including  Mazarin, 
who  became  his  patron,  and  the  musician  Cam- 
bert,  for  whom  he  wrote  the  words  of  '  La 
Pastorale,'  5  acts,  produced  first  at  Issy  (1659), 
and  then  at  Vincennes  before  the  king.  After 
the  deaths'  of  Gaston  d'Orleans  and  Mazarin, 
Perrin  was  reduced  to  living  upon  his  wits ;  and 
fancied  himself  on  the  sure  road  to  fortune  when 
he  obtained  from  Louis  XIV  the  privilege  of 
founding  an  Academie  de  Musique  (Nov.  1  o,  1 668), 
and  letters  patent  securing  him  the  management 
of  the  theatre  (June  28,  1669).  Unfortunately 
the  management  of  an  opera  requires  capital, 
and  the  Abbe  Perrin  was  a  poor  poet  in  all 
senses  of  the  word.  His  partners  quarrelled 
among  themselves,  and  in  spite  of  the  success 
of  Cambert'8  '  Pomone'  (March  19, 167 1)  he  was 
compelled  to  resign  his  privilege  just  as  his 
*  Ariane '  was  about  to  be  produced.  The  patent, 
revoked  on  the  30th  of  March,  1672,  was  trans- 
ferred to  Lully,  who  came  out  of  the  transaction 
with  anything  but  clean  hands.  Perrin's '  CEuvres 
de  Poe"sie  (Paris,  1661,  3  vols.)  contain,  besides 
his  operas,  translations — of  the  ^Eneid  amongst 
others — and  '  Jeux  de  poe"sie  sur  divers  insectes,' 
the  least  bad  perhaps  of  all  his  verses,  which 
even  in  that  licentious  day  drew  forth  the  re- 
bukes of  Boileau  and  Saint  Evremond,  and  are 
now  quite  unreadable.  [G.  C] 

PERRY,  George,  born  at  Norwich  in  1793, 
was  a  chorister  of  Norwich  Cathedral  under  Dr. 
Beckwith.  On  leaving  the  choir  he  learned  to 
play  on  the  violin,  and  in  a  few  years  became 
leader  of  the  band  at  the  theatre.  Whilst  resi- 
dent in  Norwich  he  produced  his  oratorio,  '  The 
Death  of  Abel.'  In  181 7  he  composed  an  over- 
ture for  '  The  Persian  Hunters,'  produced  at  the 
English  Opera  House,  and  in  1 8 1 8  a  short  oratorio, 
'Elijah  and  the  Priests  of  Baal.'  In  1822  he 
settled  in  London  and  was  appointed  director  of 
the  music  at  the  Haymarket  Theatre,  for  which 
he  composed  the  opera  of  '  Morning,  Noon,  and 
Night'  (1822),  and  numerous  songs  for  intro- 
duction into  various  pieces.  He  also  held  the 
post  of  organist  of  Quebec  Chapel.  In  1830  he 
produced  his  oratorio,  '  The  Fall  of  Jerusalem.' 


PERSIANI. 


693 


On  the  establishment  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic 
Society  in  1832  Perry  became  leader  of  the  band, 
an  office  which  he  retained  until  the  end  of  1847. 
On  the  removal  of  Surman  from  the  conductor- 
ship  of  the  Society  early  in  1 848,  Perry  assumed 
the  baton  until  the  end  of  the  season,  but  not 
being  elected  conductor,  he  shortly  afterwards 
resigned  his  leadership  and  quitted  the  Society. 
On  Feb.  10,  1836  he  produced  a  sacred  cantata, 
'  Belshazzar's  Feast,'  and  in  1847  a  short  oratorio, 
'Hezekiah.'  In  1846  he  resigned  his  appoint- 
ment at  Quebec  Chapel  and  became  organist  of  - 
Trinity  Church,  Gray's  Inn  Road.  He  composed 
some  anthems,  including  two  with  orchestra  on 
the  accession  of  Queen  Victoria  (1837)  and  the 
birth  of  the  Princess  Royal  (1840),  and  additional 
accompaniments  to  several  of  Handel's  oratorios 
and  other  pieces.  He  died  March  4,  1862.  His 
'Death  of  Abel'  and  'Fall  of  Jerusalem'  were 
performed  by  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society. 
Perry  was  a  man  of  considerable  ability.  He 
was  in  the  constant  habit  of  doing  that  which  in 
the  case  of  Mozart  is  usually  spoken  of  as  a  re- 
markable effort  of  memory — namely,  writing  out 
the  separate  parts  of  a  large  work  without  first 
making  a  score.  One,  at  least,  of  his  oratorios  was 
committed  to  paper  in  this  way.  [W.H.H.] 

PERSIANI,  Fanny,  one  of  the  most  ac- 
complished and  artistic  singers  of  this  century, 
was  born  at  Rome  on  Oct.  4,  1812.  She  was  the 
second  daughter  of  Tacchinardi,  who  made  her 
begin  to  study  at  a  very  early  age.  He  had  fitted 
up  a  little  theatre  for  the  use  of  his  pupils  at  his 
country  house,  near  Florence,  and  here,  at  eleven 
years  of  age,  Fanny  played  a  prima  donnas  part. 
While  still  quite  young,  she  sang  on  several  occa- 
sions in  public,  with  success,  but  had  then  no 
intention  of  adopting  the  stage  as  a  profession. 

In  1830  she  married  the  composer,  Giuseppe 
Persiani  (1804-1869),  and  in  1832  made  her 
cttbut  at  Leghorn,  in  'Francesca  da  Rimini,' 
an  opera  by  M.  Founder,  where  she  replaced 
Madame  Caradori.  Her  success  was  sufficient 
to  lead  to  her  subsequent  engagement  at  Milan 
and  Florence,  then  at  Vienna,  where  she  made 
a  great  impression,  afterwards  at  Padua  and  at 
Venice.  Here  she  played  in  'Romeo  e  Giulietta,' 
*  II  Pirata,'  '  La  Gazza  Ladra,'  '  L'  Elisire 
d'Amore,'  and  'Tancredi,'  in  the  last  two  of 
which  she  performed  with  Pasta.  Her  success 
was  complete.  In  1834,  at  Naples,  Donizetti 
wrote  for  her  his  'Lucia  di  Lammermoor,' 
which  always  remained  a  favourite  part  with  her. 

When  she  first  appeared  at  the  Opera  in  Paris 
(in  Lucia,  Dec.  12,  1837),  she  was  much  ad- 
mired by  connoisseurs,  but  her  talents  hardly 
met  with  the  recognition  they  deserved  until 
after  her  excellent  performance  of  the  part  of 
Carolina  in  the  '  Matrimonio  Segreto.'  From  that 
time  not  even  Grisi  herself  enjoyed  such  un- 
bounded favour  with  Parisian  audiences  as  did 
Madame  Persiani. 

Her  first  appearance  in  London  (1838)  was 

as  Amina  in  the  '  Sonnambula,'  and,  although 

she  had  been  preceded  in  the  part  by  Mali- 

1  bran  and  Grisi,  she  achieved  a  success  which 


€94 


PERSIAN!. 


PERTI. 


increased  at  each  performance.  She  was  alwaj's, 
however,  a  greater  favourite  with  artists  and  con- 
noisseurs than  with  the  public  at  large.  This  was 
partly  due  to  the  poverty  of  her  stage-presence. 
She  was  exceedingly  refined  in  appearance,  but 
small  and  thin,  with  a  long  colourless  face,  not 
unsightly,  like  her  father,  but,  as  Chorley  puts 
it,  '  pale,  plain,  and  anxious,'  with  no  beauty 
but  her  profusion  of  fine  fair  hair,  while  in 
her  dress  she  was  singularly  tasteless.  Her 
voice,  too,  was  against  her  rather  than  in  her 
favour;  it  was  a  thin,  acute  soprano,  of  great 
range  upwards,  clear  and  penetrating,  but  not 
full  or  mellow,  blending  ill  with  other  voices, 
and  always  liable  to  rise  in  pitch.  But  the 
finish  of  her  singing  has  been  rarely  equalled, 
probably  never  surpassed.  '  Every  conceivable 
passage  was  finished  by  her  to  perfection,  the 
shake,  perhaps,  excepted,  which  might  be 
thought  indistinct  and  thin.'  Her  execution 
was  remarkable  for  velocity,  'poignant,  clear, 
audacious.'  Her  resources  were  vast  and  varied, 
and  when  encored  she  rarely  sang  a  piece 
again  without  adorning  it  with  fresh  fioriture, 
more  dazzling  than  the  first.  'She  had  the 
finest  possible  sense  of  accent  .  .  .  From  her 
every  phrase  had  its  fullest  measure.  Every 
group  of  notes  was  divided  and  expressed  by 
her  with  as  much  precision  as  the  best  of 
violinists  brings  into  his  bowing.  And  this  was 
done  with  that  secure  musical  ease  which  made 
her  anxious,  mournful  face,  and  her  acute,  acid 
voice,  forgotten.'  Whether  in  rapid,  florid  pas- 
sages, or  in  large  and  expressive  movements, 
'Madame  Persiani's  attack  was  not  more  un- 
failing than  the  delicate  sensibility  with  which 
she  gave  every  note  its  fullest  value,  never  herself 
becoming  breathless,  rarely  heavy '  (Chorley).  As 
an  actress  she  preserved  sensibility,  grace,  and 
refinement,  but  lacked  passion  and  animation. 

From  1838  she  sang  alternately  in  London  and 
Paris  for  many  years.  Fe"tis  says  that  a  sudden 
hoarseness,  which  attacked  her  in  London  in 
1843,  proved  the  beginning  of  a  throat-complaint 
that  forced  her  to  quit  the  stage  for  ever.  But 
she  sang  in  London,  in  opera,  in  1 847,  48,  and  49, 
and  at  the  '  Italiens '  in  Paris  in  October,  1 848. 
In  1850  she  went  to  Holland,  and  subsequently 
to  Russia.  After  performing  in  almost  all 
the  principal  countries  of  Europe,  she,  in  1858, 
accepted  an  engagement  from  Mr.  E.  T.  Smith 
and  appeared  at  Drury  Lane  in  several  of  her 
old  parts, — Linda,  Elvira  in  'I  Puritani,'  Zer- 
lina  in '  Don  Giovanni,'  etc.  Never  were  her  rare 
accomplishments  as  a  singer  more  perceptible ; 
compared  with  her,  'her  younger  successors 
sounded  like  so  many  immature  scholars  of  the 
second  class.'  (Chorley.)  In  December  bl  that 
year,  Madame  Persiani  took  up  her  residence 
in  Paris,  but  afterwards  removed  to  Italy,  and 
died  at  Passy  May  3,  1867.  Her  portrait,  by 
Chalon,  in  water-colours,  is  in  the  possession  of 
Julian  Marshall,  Esq.  [F.A.M.] 

PERSUIS,  Lodis  Luc  Loiseau  de,  born  at 
Metz  May  21,  1769,  studied  under  his  father, 
one  of  the  musical  staff  of  the  Cathedral,  and 


soon  became  a  good  violinist.  Having  entered 
the  orchestra  of  the  theatre,  he  fell  in  love  with 
an  actress,  and  followed  her  to  Avignon.  Here 
he  had  opportunities  of  completing  his  studies, 
and  he  also  read  a  great  deal  of  sacred  music. 
Being  of  an  ardent  and  impetuous  character,  he 
began  to  compose  before  he  was  20,  and  his  first 
work,  an  oratorio  '  Le  Passage  de  la  Mer  Rouge,' 
was  produced  at  the  Concerts  Spirituels  in 
1787,  but  was  not  published.  By  this  time 
he  had  settled  in  Paris,  where  his  violin -playing 
was  appreciated,  especially  in  the  orchestras  of 
the  Opera  and  the  Theatre  National.  Active, 
ambitious,  and  self-confident,  he  managed  to 
produce  his  dramatic  compositions,  and  on  the 
foundation  of  the  Conservatoire  in  1795,  suc- 
ceeded in  obtaining  the  professorship  of  the  violin. 
This  post  he  lost  in  1802  on  the  dismissal  of  his 
friend  Lesueur ;  but  in  1804  he  became  chef  du 
chant  at  the  Opera,  and  afterwards,  through 
Lesueur's  interest,  was  appointed  conductor  of 
the  Emperor's  court  concerts,  and  (1810-15)  con- 
ductor of  the  orchestra  of  the  Academic  In  this 
capacity  he  showed  a  high  order  of  ability.  He 
was  indeed  born  to  command,  and  the  first  lyric 
stage  of  Paris  was  never  better  administered  than 
during  the  short  time  (18 17-19)  of  his  manage- 
ment. Prematurely  exhausted  by  his  feverish 
mode  of  life,  he  died  in  Paris  on  Dec.  20,  1819, 
of  pulmonary  consumption.  A  fortnight  before 
his  death  he  received  the  Order  of  St.  Michel 
from  Louis  XVIII,  as  he  had  before  received  the 
Legion  of  Honour  from  Napoleon. 

Persuis's  claim  to  perpetuation  is  that  of  an 
excellent  conductor  and  an  able  administrator. 
His  music  is  forgotten,  though  he  wrote  much 
for  the  stage,  and  often  with  deserved  success. 
The  following  is  a  complete  list  of  his  dramatic 
works: — 'La  Nuit  Espagnole,'  2  acts  (1791) ; 
'Estelle,'  3  acts  (1794);  'Phanor  et  Angela,' 
3  acts ;  '  Fanny  Morna,'  opera  comique  in  3  acts, 
engraved,  and  'Leonidas,'  3  acts,  with  Gresnick 
(1 799)  ;  '  Le  Fruit  deTendu,'  1  act  (1800) ;  '  Mar- 
cel, 1  act  (1 801) ;  '  L' Inauguration  du  Temple 
de  la  Victoire,'  intermede,  and  '  Le  Triomphe  de 
Trajan,'  3  acts,  both  with  Lesueur  (1807) ;  and 
'Jerusalem  detivre'e,'  3  acts  (181 2),  of  which 
the  score  was  engraved.  Besides  these  operas  he 
wrote  pretty  music,  sometimes  in  collaboration 
with  R.  Kreutzer,  to  the  following  ballets: — 'Le 
Retour  d'Ulysse,'  3  acts  (1807) ;  'Nina,'  2  acts 
(181 3);  'L'Epreuve  Villageoise,'  2  acts,  and 
'L'heureux  Retour,'  1  act  (181 5);  and  *  Le 
Carnaval  de  Venise,'  2  acts  (1816).  Glad  to  seize 
any  opportunity  of  making  himself  heard,  Persuis 
also  composed  several  cantates  de  circonstance, 
such  as  the  'Chant  de  Victoire'  (1806),  and 
'Chant  Francais'  (1814),  and  some  unpublished 
church  works  now  in  MS.  in  the  library  of  the 
Paris  Conservatoire.  [G.C.] 

PERTI,  Jacopo  Antonio,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  church-eomposers  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury, born  at  Bologna  June  6, 166 1 ;  at  ten  began 
to  learn  music  from  his  uncle,  Lorenzo  Perti,  a 
priest  of  San  Petronio.  Having  finished  his 
education  at  the  Jesuit  College  and  the  Univer- 


PERTI. 

sity,  he  studied  composition  with  Padre  Petronio 
Franceschini.  In  1680  he  conducted  in  San 
Petronio  a  Missa  solennis  of  his  own  composition 
for  soli,  choir,  and  orchestra.  His  first  two 
operas  '  Atide'  (1679)  and  *  Oreste'  (1681),  were 
given  in  Bologna ;  those  that  followed,  '  Marzio 
Coriolano,'  libretto  by  Frencasco  Valsini  (ana- 
gram of  Francesco  Silvani)  (1683)  ;  '  Brenno  in 
Efeso'  (1690);  '  L'Inganno  scoperto '  (1691); 
'  Furio  Camillo  '  ( 1 692) ;  '  Nerone  fatto  Cesare ' 
(1693)  ;  and  '  Laodicea  e  Berenice '  (1695),  in 
Venice,  at  the  theatres  SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo, 
and  San  Salvatore.  His  oratorio  '  Abramo  vin- 
citor  de*  propri  afFetti '  was  printed  in  Bologna  in 
1687,  and  performed  under  his  own  direction  in 
the  palace  of  Count  Francesco  Caprara.1  Fe'tis, 
followed  by  Mendel,  speaks  of  his  relations  with 
the  German  Emperors  Leopold  and  Carl  VI, 
but  the  writer  of  this  article  has  failed  to  dis- 
cover any  documentary  evidence  to  support  the 
assertion  that  he  was  made  Capelhneister  by  the 
Emperor  Leopold,  and  Hofrath  by  Carl  VI.  In 
Kochel's  Life  of  Fux,  the  most  trustworthy  book 
on  the  period,  no  mention  is  to  be  found  of  Gia- 
como  Perti  in  connection  with  the  court ;  the 
only  instance  of  the  name  being  Antonio  Perti, 
a  bass-singer  in  the  Hofcapelle.  It  is  moreover 
beyond  a  doubt  that  Perti  was  Maestro  di  cappella 
of  San  Petronio  in  Bologna,  and  retained  the  post 
till  his  death,  April  10,  1 756.  Gerber  states  that 
a  Te  Deum  of  Perti's  was  sung  under  his  own 
direction  in  Vienna,  on  the  relief  of  the  Turkish 
siege  in  1683,  but  this  must  be  a  mistake,  as  Perti 
had  then  not  made  his  name,  and  was  scarcely 
known  beyond  Bologna.  He  was  elected  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Filarmonici  on  March  13,  1681,  and  at 
the  time  of  his  death  had  been  '  Principe '  six 
times.  Among  his  friends  was  Pope  Benedict 
XIV,  with  whom  he  kept  up  a  close  corre- 
spondence. Another  friend  was  Padre  Martini, 
who  states  in  his  'Saggio  di  Contrapunto'  (ii. 
142)  that  he  held  communications  on  musical 
subjects  with  Perti  down  to  1750.  Besides 
'Abramo'  he  printed  in  Bologna  'Cantate  morali 
e  spirituali '  (1688),  and  '  Messe  e  Salmi  concer- 
tati'  (1735).  Abbate  Santini  had  a  fine  collec- 
tion of  Perti's  church  works  (4  masses,  3  Con- 
fitebors,  4  Magnificats,  etc.),  unfortunately  now 
dispersed.  His  '  Elogio '  was  pronounced  before 
the  Filarmonici  by  Dr.  Masini  in  181 2,  and 
printed  in  Bologna.  There  is  an  '  Adoramus  Te' 
by  Perti  in  the  Fitzwilliam  Library,  Cambridge, 
and  Novello  has  included  two  fine  choruses  by 
him  in  his  'Sacred  Music'  (vol.  ii)  and  'Mo- 
tetts '  (bk.  xi).  Others  are  given  by  Choron, 
and  in  the  'Auswahl  fur  vorziiglicher  Musik- 
werke.'  [F-G.] 

PESANTE,  '  heavy.'  This  direction  is  as  a 
rule  only  applied  to  music  for  keyed  instruments, 
though  some  writers  have  transferred  it  to  orches- 
tral, or  even  vocal  music.  It  indicates  that  the 
whole  passage  to  which  it  refers  is  to  be  played 
with  great  firmness  and  in  a  marked  manner.  It 
differs  from  marcato,  however,  in  that  it  applies 
to  whole  passages,  which  may  be  quite  legato  at 

1  Clnelli's  '  Blblloteca  volante,'  Scanzle  zlT. 


PETRELLA. 


695 


the  same  time  ;  while  marcato  refers  to  single, 
notes  or  isolated  groups  of  notes,  which  would 
not  as  a  rule  be  intended  to  be  played  smoothly. 
A  good  example  is  the  opening  passage,  or 
introduction,  to  the  1st  Ballade  of  Chopin  (in 
G  minor,  op.  23).  [J.A.F.M.] 

PESCHKA,  Minna,  ne'e  Leutneb,  was  born 
Oct.  25,  1839,  at  Vienna.  She  received  instruc- 
tion in  singing  from  Heinrich  Proch,  and  made 
her  debut  on  the  stage  at  Breslau,  in  1856,  as 
Agatha,  and  afterwards  played  Alice,  remaining 
there  a  year.  She  next  played  at  Dessau  up  to 
the  time  of  her  marriage  with  Dr.  Peschka  of 
Vienna,  in  186 1.  In  Sept.  1863  she  appeared  at 
Vienna  with  great  success  as  Margaret  of  Valois, 
Isabel,  etc.,  and  afterwards  received  further  in- 
struction from  Mme.  Bockholtz  Falconi.  She 
next  appeared  at  Lemberg  and  Darmstadt,  and  in 
1868  at  Leipzig,  where  she  remained  until  1876. 
She  gained  great  popularity  there  both  in  opera 
and  concerts,  being  equally  successful  both  in 
serious  and  the  lighter  operatic  parts.  In  1877 
she  went  to  Hamburg,  where  she  is  at  present 
engaged.  In  1879  she  reappeared  at  Leipzig  for 
a  Bhort  operatic  season  under  Herr  Julius  Hoff- 
mann, and  played  with  great  success  the  title  part 
of  Handel's '  Almira,'  on  the  revival  of  that  opera. 
She  is  at  present  (July  1880)  fulfilling  an  engage- 
ment there  under  the  same  manager.  Mme. 
Peschka-Leutner  visited  England  in  1872,  sang 
(March  20)  at  the  Philharmonic,  and  at  the 
Crystal  Palace,  and  was  well  received  at  both 
concerts.  In  the  autumn  of  that  year  she  went 
to  America,  and  sang  at  the  Boston  Festival  with 
very  great  success.  Her  voice,  a  soprano  of  great 
volume,  and  extraordinary  compass  and  agility, 
her  good  execution  combined  with  good  acting, 
and  her  agreeable  appearance,  have  made  her 
very  popular  in  the  principal  cities  of  her  own 
country,  where  she  is  an  established  favourite 
at  festivals  and  concerts,  as  well  as  on  the 
stage.  [A.  C] 

PETER,  ST.  An  oratorio  in  two  parts ;  the 
words  by  Mr.  Chorley,  the  music  by  Sir  Julius 
Benedict.  Produced  at  the  Birmingham  Festi- 
val, Sept.  2,  1870.  [G.] 

PETERS,  Carl  Friedrich,  bought  in  18 14 
the  '  Bureau  de  Musique '  of  Kiihnel  and  HofF- 
meister  (founded  1800)  in  Leipzig,  and  greatly 
improved  the  business.  Many  important  works 
by  Bach,  Haydn,  Beethoven,  Spohr,  and  Schu- 
mann, were  published  by  him,  besides  the  first 
complete  editions  of  the  works  of  Haydn  and 
Bach  (the  latter  edited  by  Dehn,  Roitzsch,  and 
Griepenkerl).  The  present  members  of  the  firm. 
Dr.  Abraham  and  J.  Friedlander,  carry  on  the  old 
traditions  with  extraordinary  energy  and  judg- 
ment, and  '  the  Peters  editions,'  famous  for  cor- 
rectness, legibility,  and  cheapness,  are  known 
throughout  the  world.  [F.  G.] 

PETRELLA,  Enrico,  was  born  at  Palermo 
Dec.  I,  1 8 13,  and  learnt  music  at  Naples  under 
Zingarelli,  Bellini,  and  Ruggi.  He  made  his  first 
appearance  at  Majella  in  1829,  with  the  opera 
'  II  Diavolo  color  di  rosa.'    It  was  followed  by  four 


696 


PETRELLA. 


others,  and  then,  after  an  interval,  by  •  Le  *Pre- 
cauzioni,'  which  remains  his  masterpiece  in  comic 
opera.  At  the  Scala  he  brought  out '  Marco  Vis- 
conti'  (1855);  'L'Assedio  di  Leyda'  (1856); 
'lone'  (1858) ;  'II  duca  di  Scilla'  (1859) ;  and 
•  Morosina '  (1862).  After  this  nearly  every  year 
produced  its  opera,  but  we  need  only  mention 
■  Giovanna  II  di  Napoli'  (Naples,  Feb.  27,  1869) 
— said  in  some  respects  to  surpass '  lone,'  which  up 
to  that  time  was  his  chef-d'oeuvre — and  '  I  pro- 
messi  sposi '  (Lecco,  Oct.  2, 1869).  For  the  latter 
Petrella  was  called  before  the  curtain  27  times  in 
the  first  evening!  In  1873  he  produced  'Man- 
fredo'  at  Rome ;  it  was  greatly  applauded,  and  a 
silver  crown  presented  to  the  composer. 

Petrella  died  at  Genoa,  April  7,  1877.  In  the 
biography  in  Mendel's  Dictionary  19  operas  of 
his  are  named,  but  there  is  apparently  some  error 
in  the  dates.  His  music,  though  often  violently 
applauded  by  the  enthusiastic  Italians,  pleased 
the  more  critical  audience  of  the  Scala  only 
moderately,  and  has  no  permanent  qualities.  [G.] 

PETREIUS,  Johann,  printer  and  publisher 
of  music,  born  at  Langendorf,  Franconia ;  gradu- 
ated '  Magister '  at  Nuremberg;  in  1526  began 
business  in  that  town  as  a  printer.  His  earliest 
music-publication  appears  to  be  '  Musicse,  id  est, 
Artis  canendi,  libri  duo,  autor  Sebaldus  Heyden. 
Norimbergae  apud  Joh.  Petreium,  anno  salutis 
1537';  and  his  latest,  'Guter,  seltsamer,  und 
kunstreicher  teutscher  Gesang  ....  Gedruckt  zu 
Niirnberg,  durch  Jo.  Petreium.  1544.'  Between 
these  two,  Eitner  (Bibliographic)  gives  6  works 
in  9  volumes,  including  a  collection  of  1 5  masses, 
a  volume  of  45  select  motets,  and  2  volumes  of 
158  four-part  songs.  He  died,  according  to  Fe"tis, 
at  Nuremberg,  March  18,  1550.  [G.] 

PETRUCCI,  Ottaviano  dei,  an  illustrious 
printer,  the  father  of  the  art  of  type-music- 
printing,  was  born  of  a  good  family  at  Fossom- 
brone,  between  Ancona  and  Urbino,  June  14, 
1466.  Before  1498  he  had  established  himself 
at  Venice ;  for  on  May  25  of  that  year  he  ob- 
tained from  the  Seignory  the  sole  privilege,  for 
20  years,  of  printing  '  figured  music  (canto  figu- 
rato)  and  music  in  the  tablature  of  the  organ 
and  lute — a  privilege  which  he  exercised  there 
till  about  1511.  At  that  date  he  left  the  Vene- 
tian business  in  the  hands  of  Amadeo  Scotti  and 
Nicol6  da  Raphael,  and  returned  to  Fossombrone, 
where,  on  Oct.  2  2, 1 5 1 3,  he  obtained  a  patent  from 
Pope  Leo  X  for  the  monopoly  of  music-printing 
in  the  Roman  States  for  15  years.  His  latest 
work  is  dated  1523,  and  shortly  after  that  he 
probably  died. 

Petrucci's  process  was  a  double  one ;  he  printed 
first  the  lines  of  the  stave,  and  then,  by  a  second 
impression,  the  notes  upon  them.  In  fact  he 
discovered  a  method  of  doing  by  the  press  what 
the  German  printers  of  patronendruck  or  pat- 
tern-printing, had  done  by  hand.  His  work  is 
beautifully  executed.  The  'register,'  or  fit,  of 
the  notes  on  the  lines  is  perfect;  the  ink  is  a 
fine  black,  and  the  whole  effect  is  admirable. 

>  l'erfurmed  at  the  Lyceum,  Loudon,  March  21, 1871. 


PEUTINGER. 

But  the  process  was  expensive,  and  was  soon 
superseded  by  printing  in  one  impression,  which 
appears  to  have  been  first  successfully  accom- 
plished by  Oglin2  of  Augsburg  in  I507.s 

Petrucci  printed  no  missals,  service  books,  or 
other  music  in  canto  fermo ;  but  masses,  motets, 
lamentations,  and  frottole,  all  in  canto  figurato, 
or  measured  music,  and  a  few  works  in  lute- 
tablature.  [See  Musica  Mensubata;  Tabla- 
ture.]    His  first  work  was  '  Harmonice  Musices 

Odhecaton  A Venetiis  decimo  octavo  cal. 

junias.  Salutis  anno  1501,' — a  collection  of  96 
pieces  in  3  and  4  parts  by  Isaac,  Josquin,  Obrecht, 
Ockeghem,  and  other  masters  of  the  day,  the 
parts  printed  opposite  one  another  on  the  open 
pages  of  a  small  4to.  His  activity  was  very 
great ;  Chrysander4  gives  a  list  of  18  works  cer- 
tainly and  2  probably  issued  between  June  12, 
1501,  and  Nov.  28,  1504.  The  last  work  cited 
by  Eitner  (Bibliographic)  is  the  '  Motetti  della 
Corona,'  a  collection  of  83  motets  for  4,  5,  and  6 
voices  (in  separate  part  books)  in  4  portions,  the 
4th  portion  of  which  was  published  at  Fossom- 
brone Oct.  31,  1 5 19.  Fe"tis  however5  mentions 
three  masses,  in  large  folio,  printed  for  the  lectern 
of  a  church,  with  the  date  1523-25  and  knocked 
down  to  an  unknown  buyer  at  a  sale  at  Rome 
in  1829.  His  life  and  works  are  exhaustively 
treated  by  Anton  Schmid, ,  '  Ottaviano  dei  Pe- 
trucci,' etc.,  Vienna,  1845.  [**•] 

PETTIT,  Walter,  violoncellist,  was  born  in 
London  on  March  14,  1836,  and  received  his 
musical  education  chiefly  at  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Music.  In  1 85 1  he  was  engaged  by  Balfe  for 
the  orchestra  of  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  in  which 
he  remained  for  many  years.  In  1861  he  suc- 
ceeded Lucas  as  principal  violoncello  in  the  Phil- 
harmonic orchestra,  and  in  1876  took  the  place  of 
Paque  in  Her  Majesty's  private  band.  [T.P.H.] 

PEUTINGER,  Conrad,  a  lover  and  supporter 
of  church  music  at  a  time  when  church  music  was 
the  only  kind,  and  a  keen  devotee  for  the  welfare 
of  literature  and  art.  He  was  born  at  Augsburg 
(the  city  of  the  Fuggers)  in  1465  ;  was  educated 
in  Italy;  in  1493  became  secretary  to  the  senate 
of  Augsburg;  in  152 1,  at  the  diet  of  Worms, 
obtained  the  confirmation  of  the  ancient  privi- 
leges of  the  city,  and  others  in  addition.  He 
was  a  great  collector  of  antiquities,  inscriptions, 
and  MSS.,  and  in  particular  was  the  owner  of 
the  '  Peutinger  Tables,'  a  map  of  the  military 
roads  of  the  Lower  Roman  Empire,  probably 
dating  about  225,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
precious  geographical  monuments  of  antiquity, 
and  is  now  in  the  State  Library  at  Vienna. 
His  devotion  to  music  is  shown  by  his  preface 
to  the  '  Liber  selectarum  Cantionum  quas  vulgo 
Mutetas   appellant,    sex,    quinque,    et    quatuor 


1  In  his  '  Melopolae,'  see  Chrysander  (Musical  Times,  1877,  p.  S26  a). 
Fetls  however  quotes  this  very  work  as  an  evidence  that  Oglin  fol- 
lowed Petruccl'a  method  of  two  printings  (Biogr.  univ.  vol.  vii.  p.  12 
note,  ed.  1864). 

•  The  method  of  printing  by  double  Impression— so  as  to  obtain 
the  stave  lines  continuous  without  the  breaks  Inevitable  In  printing 
by  a  single  impression— was  patented  by  Scheurmann  in  1866.  [See 
Scheukmann.1 

*  Musical  Timet,  p.  325  a.  5  Blog.  uuiv.  Til.  16  a. 


PEUTINGER. 

vocum,'  of  GrimmiuB  and  Wyrsung,  Augsburg 
1520,  a  volume  containing  24  Latin  motets  by 
H.  Izac,  Josquin  des  Pres,  Obrecht,  Pierre  de 
la  Rue,  Senfl,  and  others.  [G.] 

PEVERNAGE,  Andreas,  born  in  the  year 
I543>'  at  Courtrai,  in  Flanders.    He  held  an 
appointment  in  his  native  town  until  his  mar- 
riage,* June  15,  1574,  and  soon  after  moved  to 
Antwerp  as  choirmaster  in  the  cathedral.    There 
he  led  an  active  life,  composing,  editing,  and  giv- 
ing weekly  performances  at  his  house  of  the  best 
native  and  foreign  music.    He  died  at  the  age  of 
48,  and  was  buried  in  the  cathedral.    Sweertius3 
describes  him  as  'vir  ad  modestiam  factus,  et 
totus  candidus,  quae  in  Musico  mireris,  quibus 
cum  leviusculis  notis  annata    levitas  videtur.' 
The  same  author  gives  the  following  epitaph : — 
M.  Andrse  Pevernagio 
Musico  excellenti 
Hujus  ecclesise  phonasco 
et  Marias  filise 
Maria  Haecht  vidua  et  IT.  M.  poss. 
Obierunt  Hie  XXX  Julii.  Aetat  XLVHE. 
Ula  H  Feb.    Aetat  Xn.    MDLXXXLX. 

Fe"tis  mentions  5  books  of  chansons  and  1  book 
of  sacred  motets,  published  in  the  composer's 
lifetime,  and  5  masses  and  a  book  of  motets  for 
the  chief  church  festivals,  as  posthumous.  The 
British  Museum  contains  1  book  of  chansons,  and 
2  imperfect  copies  of  the  'Harmonia  Celeste,' 
a  collection  of  madrigals  edited  by  Pevernage, 
in  which  7  of  his  own  pieces  appear.  In  ad- 
dition to  these  Eitner*  mentions  16  detached 
pieces  in  various  collections  of  the  time.  Two 
pieces  have  been  printed  in  modern  type — an  ode 
to  S.  Cecilia,  '0  virgo  5generosa,'  composed  for  the 
inauguration  of  his  house  concerts,6  and  a  9-part 
'  Gloria  in  excelsis.' 7  [J.R.S.-B.] 

PEZZE,  Alessandro,  an  able  violoncellist, 
was  born  in  Milan  in  1835.  He  received  his 
first  musical  instruction  from  his  father,  an  ex- 
cellent amateur.  In  1846  he  was,  after  competi- 
tion, admitted  to  the  Milan  Conservatorio,  where 
his  master  was  the  celebrated  Merighi.  After 
a  course  of  concerts  in  North  Italy  he  was  ap- 
pointed first  violoncello  at  La  Scala.  Lumley 
brought  him  to  Her  Majesty's  Theatre  in  1857, 
where  he  remained  until  the  theatre  was  burnt 
down.  He  also  played  principal  violoncello  with 
Pettit  at  the  old  Philharmonic,  and  was  for  some 
years  engaged  at  Covent  Garden.  [T.P.H.] 

PHILADELPHIA  is  remarkable  among  the 
cities  of  the  United  States  for  its  vigorous  mu- 
sical life.     No  less  than  sixty-five  societies  for 

1  'Master  A.  Pevernage . . .  died  July  90, 1591.  about  half-past  four 
In  the  afternoon,  after  five  weeks'  Illness.'  (See  note  discovered  by 
M.  de  Burbure  In  Antwerp  Cathedral  books.)  Thus  the  last  two 
letters  of  the  date  In  the  epitaph  have  changed  places ;  It  should 
stand  mdlxxxxl.  Be  died  at  the  age  of  48,  which  fixes  the  date  pi  his 
birth. 

2  Paquot's  '  HTstoire  litteralre  des  Pays-bas,"  Tom.  9,  p.  831  (Lou- 
vain.  1767).  The  author  gives  a  reference, '  Franc.  Hoemi  poemata, 
ed.  1578,  p.  239,  240,  on  11  y  a  deux  Eplthalames :  In  nuptias  Andrea 
Pevernage,  apud  Cortracenses  Symphonascl,  et  Harise  Jteges  vidua). 
17  cal.julli,  anno  1574.' 

*  '  Athens)  Belglca!,'  Antwerp,  1623  (Brit.  Mus.  11901  k).  Both  the 
year  of  death  and  the  name  of  Pevernage's  wife  are  probably  incor- 
rect.   See  notes  1  and  2.  *  Bibliographic. 

5  Commer— '  Collectio  op.  muslcorum  Batav.'  Vol.  vill  (Berlin, 
Trautweiu).  e  Ambros, '  Geschlchte,'  iii.  816. 

»  Cecilia,  von  Oberboffer,  Luxemburg,  1863,  No.  7. 


PHILADELPHIA. 


697 


the  active  practice  of  music  exist  within  its  pre- 
cincts. The  oldest  of  these,  the  Musical  Fund 
Society,  was  established  on  February  29,  1820. 
In  1823  the  society  built  a  hall  for  its  meetings, 
and  about  seven  years  later  an  academy  was 
opened  for  musical  instruction.  After  having 
given,  in  the  course  of  thirty  years,  about  1 00 
concerts,  in  which  nearly  all  the  best  European 
and  American  artists  took  part,  increased  com- 
petition in  musical  affairs  compelled  the  society 
to  alter  its  original  system,  but  for  the  last  15 
years  its  funds  have  been  gradually  accumu- 
lating, so  that  a  capital  has  now  been  secured 
with  which  it  is  hoped  a  permanent  school  of 
music  will  eventually  be  established.  In  the  60 
years  of  its  existence  the  society  has  given  freely 
from  its  funds  to  the  relief  of  its  professional 
members  and  their  families,  and  to  provide  for 
their  children  after  the  death  of  their  parents. 
The  society  has  accumulated  a  considerable 
library  of  vocal  and  orchestral  scores,  etc.  At 
present  there  are  50  members,  14  of  whom  are 
professional  musicians. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  at  the  end  of  this 
article  will  be  found  a  list l  of  musical  societies 
(with  the  names  of  their  conductors)  which  are 
now  in  existence  in  Philadelphia.  Of  these  the 
Orpheus  Club,  a  choral  society  for  men's  voices, 
was  organised  in  August  1872,  and  has  a  limited 
membership  of  30  active  and  300  associate  and 
subscribing  members.  The  Cecilian  Society  was 
organised  May  25, 1875,  and  has  an  active  mem 
bership  of  about  400.  The  Beethoven  Society 
was  founded  in  1869. 

The  university  of  Pennsylvania,  located  in 
Philadelphia,  has  established  a  Faculty  0/ 
Music,  and  confers  degrees  on  students  who 
attend  its  lectures  and  pass  an  examination  in 
harmony,  counterpoint,  and  composition.  Lec- 
tures and  instruction  are  given  by  the  Professor 
of  Music  (Mr.  H.  A.  Clarke)  who  has  also  or- 
ganised an  orchestra  and  a  glee-club,  composed  of 
the  undergraduate  students. 

There  are  several  private  musical  academies 
at  Philadelphia.  The  principal  of  these  is  the 
Philadelphia  Musical  Academy  (President,  Mme. 
Emma  Seiler),  which  has  a  regular  attendance  of 
over  100  pupils. 


MUSICAL  SOCIETIES 
Abt  Society.    H.  A.  Clarke. 
Allemania.    F.  "W.  Kunzel. 
Amphion  Society. 
Arbeiter  Siingerbund. 
Arion.    J.  Schaaf. 
Arion  (of  Germantown). 
Aurora. 
Beethoven  Liederkranz.   F. 

W.  KunzeL 
Beethoven  Mannerchor.    L. 

Grfibl. 
Caecilia. 

Cecilian.    M.  H.  Cross. 
Cecilian  Musical  Beneficial 

Association.     B.    G.   S. 

"Wilks,  President. 
Columbia       Gesangverein. 

W.  Winter. 
Columbia    Burschenschaft 

Ii.  Ockenlander. 


IN  PHILADELPHIA, 

Concordia       Gesangverein. 

E.  Gastel. 
Concordia    Quartet    Club. 

L.  Engelke. 
Eintracht.    H.  Peters. 
Eintracht  Quartet  Club. 
Fidelio  Gesangverein.     G. 

Wilke. 
Fidelio  Mannerchor. 
Gambrinus      Sangerkranz. 

F.  Stadler,  Secretary. 
Germania  Liederkranz.    G. 

Wilke. 
Germania  Mannerchor.    J. 

Brenner. 
Germania  Orchestra.    CM. 

Schmitz. 
Handel  and  Haydn  Society. 

C.  Sentz. 
Harmonie.    F.W.KUnzel. 


>  Compiled  for  this  work  by  Mr.  Edmund  Wolsieffer  and  Mr.  J.  G. 
Rosengarten,  editor  of  the  Philadelphia  Public  Ledger,  to  whose 
kindness  we  are  also  indebted  for  the  information  contained  above. 


698 


PHILADELPHIA. 


PHILHARMONIC  SOCIETY. 


Harmonie  Quartet  Club. 

Kreuznacher  Sangerbund. 
W.  Winter. 

Liederkranz.  Dr.  B6mer- 
mann. 

Liedertafel.    J.  W.  Jost. 

Liedertafel  d.  D.  F.  Ge- 
meinde.    P.  Jost. 

Lotus  Club.    C.  M.  Schmitz. 

La  Lyre.    F.  M.  A.  Perrot. 

Lyric  Club.    H.  Keely. 

Manayunk  Choral  Society. 
W.  A.  Newland. 

MSnnerchor.    E.  Uastel. 

Marburger  Liedertafel.  G. 
Folker. 

Mendelssohn  Club.  W.W. 
Gilchrist. 

Mozart  Harmonie. 

Mozart  Mannerchor.  J.  G. 
Dickel. 

Mozart  Quartet  Club. 

Musical  Fund  Society.  Dr. 
Dunglison,  President. 

Orchester  der  D.  F.  Ge- 
meinde.  C.  Heine- 
mann. 

Orpheus  Club.   M.TT.  Cross. 

Philadelphia  Amateur  Or- 
chestra.   J.  Brophy. 

Philadelphia  Musical  Asso- 
ciation.   L.  Eagelke. 


Philadelphia  Opera  Verein. 
F.  Wink. 

Philharmonia  Mannerchor. 

Quartet  Club.    H.  Peters. 

Roth  manner  Gesang  verein. 
H.  Peters. 

Sangerbund.    C.  Gartner. 

Schiller  Liedertafel.  J. 
Schaaf. 

Schiller  Quartet  Club. 

Schwabischer  Liederkranz. 

Schweitzer  Mannerchor.  J. 
Brenner. 

South wark  Liederkranz. 

Southwark  Sangerbund. 

Teutonia  Mannerchor. 

Teutonia  Sangerbund.  H. 
Peters. 

Tischler  Mannerchor.  J. 
Brenner. 

Turner  Gesang  Section.  J. 
W.  Jost. 

Union  Sangerbund. 

West  Philadelphia  Choral 
Society.  W.  W.  Gil- 
christ. 

West  Philadelphia  Har- 
monie.   A.  Faas. 

West  Philadelphia  Manner- 
chor. 

Young  Mannerchor.  K. 
Gr'aner. 


[W.B.S.] 

PHILEMON  ET  BAUCIS.  A  not  unfrequent 
subject  for  the  musical  stage  both  in  France  and 
Germany.  It  was  set  by  Gounod  to  words  by 
Barbier  and  Carre'  in  3  acts,  and  brought  out  at 
the  Theatre  Lyrique,  Feb.  18,  i860.  [G.] 

PHILHARMONIC  SOCIETY.  This  society 
was  founded  in  London  in  181 3  for  the  en- 
couragement of  orchestral  and  instrumental 
music.  Messrs.  J.  B.  Cramer,  P.  A.  Corri,  and 
W.  Dance  invited  various  professional  friends  to 
meet  them  on  Sunday,  Jan.  24, 181 3,  when  a  plan 
was  formed  which  resulted  in  the  establishment 
of  a  society  with  thirty  members,  afterwards  in- 
creased to  forty — seven  of  whom  were  made 
directors  for  the  management  of  the  concerts — 
and  an  unlimited  number  of  associates.  The 
subscription  for  members  was  three  guineas,  and 
for  associates  two  guineas  each.  Subscribers 
were  admitted  on  the  introduction  of  a  member 
on  paying  four  guineas,  and  resident  families  of 
any  subscriber  two  guineas  each. 

The  principal  musicians  in  London  readily 
joined,  and  gave  their  gratuitous  services  in  the 
orchestra.  The  first  series  of  eight  concerts  on 
Mondays,  at  irregular  intervals,  commenced  on 
March  8,  181 3,  at  the  Argyll  Rooms,  Regent 
Street — '  Leader,  Mr.  Salomon ;  at  the  piano- 
forte (in  lieu  of  the  conductor  as  at  present), 
Mr.  dementi' — and  was  both  financially  and 
artistically  successful. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  members  during 
the  first  season : — J.  B.  Cramer,  P.  A.  Corri, 
W.  Dance,  M.  Clementi,  W.  Ayrton,  W.  Shield, 
J.  J.  Graeff,  H.  R.  Bishop,  W.  Blake,  J.  B. 
Salomon,  C.  Neate,  R.  Potter,  Sir  Geo.  T.  Smart, 
F.  Cramer,  T.  Attwood,  J.  B.  Viotti,  —  Hill, 
—  Moralt,  G.  E.  Griffin,  J.  Bartleman,  W. 
Knyvett,  Louis  Berger,  C.  Ashley,  R.  Cooke, 
F.  Yaniewicz,  S.  Webbe,  jun.,  V.  Novello,  W. 
Horsley,  W.  Sherrington,  A.  Ashe.  Among  the 
associates,  of  whom  at  the  outset  there  were  38, 
are  found  the  names  of  Bridgetower,  Mori,  Naldi, 


Cipriani  Potter,  Spagnoletti,  Samuel  Wesley,  and 
other  eminent  musicians. 

The  following  have  been  the  Treasurers  of  the 
society :— W.  Ayrton  (1813-1 4) ;  W .  Dance  ( 1 8 1 5 ); 
M. Clementi (1816-17) ;  RH. Potter (1818-19) ; 
T.  Attwood  (1820);  W.  Dance  (1821-32);  W. 
Sherrington  (1833-35);  W.  Dance  (1836-39); 
G.  F.  Anderson  (1840-76);  W.  C.  Macfarren 
( 1 8  77-80).  The  Secretaries  have  been  H.  Dance 
(1813);  0.  J.  Ashley  (1813-15);  W.  Watts 
(1815-47);  G.W.Budd(  1 847-50);  G.Hogarth 
(1850-64);  Campbell  Clarke  (1864-66);  Stanley 
Lucas  (1866-80). 

In  the  early  days  of  the  society  two  sym- 
phonies, two  concertos,  two  quartets  or  quintets 
for  string  or  wind  instruments,  with  two  or  more 
vocal  concerted  pieces,  constituted  the  evening's 
programme.  Chamber  instrumental  music  is  now 
excluded,  and  other  arrangements  are  made  con- 
forming to  the  exigencies  of  the  age  and  the 
comfort  of  the  subscribers. 

In  addition  to  the  claims  of  our  own  country- 
men, foreign  non-resident  musicians  have  from 
time  to  time  been  invited  to  direct  the  per- 
formances, often  of  works  composed  at  the 
express  request  of  the  society,  as  Cherubini 
(March  13,  1815),  Spohr  (1820,  1843),  Weber 
(1826),  Mendelssohn  (1829,  42,  44,  47),  Hillct 
(1852),  Wagner  (1855),  Gounod  (1871).  The 
intimate  association  of  the  Society  with  these 
great  composers,  as  well  as  with  Onslow  and 
Beethoven,  etc.  etc.,  need  only  be  mentioned  to 
show  the  artistic  recognition  which  this  institu- 
tion has  received  from  music's  greatest  professors. 
A  good  idea  of  the  popularity  of  the  Society  in 
1820  may  be  formed  from  Spohr's  account  in 
his  Autobiography.  *  Notwithstanding  the  high 
price  of  admission,  says  he,  the  number  of  sub- 
scribers was  so  great  that  many  hundreds  who 
had  inscribed  their  names  could  not  obtain  seats.' 

The  following  summary  of  the  principal  new 
events  of  each  season  will  be  the  best  epitome  of 
the  earnest  artistic  work  done  by  the  Phil- 
harmonic Society.  It  will  show  how  far  the 
Society  since  its  establishment  may  claim  to 
have  kept  pace  with  the  progress  of  music ;  how 
many  masterpieces  of  the  most  different  schools, 
since  become  classic,  were  first  heard  in  England 
at  a  Philharmonic  concert,  and  how  many  great 
players  have  there  made  their  cUbfit  before  an 
English  audience.  These  claims  to  distinction 
are  due  to  the  discretion  and  energy  of  the 
Directors  of  the  Society.  Their  post  is  an  hono- 
rary one,  involving  much  time  and  labour,  and 
it  is  through  their  exertions  that  the  Society  has 
for  so  long  maintained  its  position  against  con- 
tinually increasing  competition,  and  has  on  more 
than  one  occasion  been  rescued  from  pecuniary 
difficulty  and  placed  again  in  a  state  of  prosperity. 

The  list  shows,  with  a  few  exceptions,  only 
the  fresh  works  brought  forward  and  the  first 
appearances  of  artists ;  the  stock  pieces  of  the 
repertoire,  and  the  re-appearances  of  favourite 
players  and  singers  being  but  rarely  named. 

In  the  programmes  of  the  first  season  the 
works  are  but  rarely  specified. 


PHILHARMONIC  SOCIETY. 

N.B.  *  denotes  that  a  work  was  composed  for  the 
Society ;  t,  that  it  was  first  performed  in  England  at 
the  date  named. 

1813.  Symphonies— Haydn  (4\  Mozart  (31,  Beethoven  (31, 
Pleyel  d',  Woelfl  (1),  Clementi  (2),  Romberg  (1). 
Overtures— Cherubini  (4),  Haydn  (1),  Mozart  <li,  Paer 
(11.  Septet— Beethoven.  Quartets  and  Quintets — 
Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven,  J.  C.  Bach,  Romberg, 
Viotti,  etc. 

1814.  tSinfonia  Eroica.  «f2  MS.  Symphonies,  F.  Ries. 
•t  Quartet,  Griffin.  MS.  Symphonies,  Haydn, 
t  Crotch,  and  t  Asioli.  *t  New  Overture,  Cherubini. 
*t Overture,  Berger.  Selection  from  'Mount  of 
Olives.'  B.  Romberg  plays.  N.B.  Cherubini  accepts 
2001.  for  a  new  symphony,  overture,  and  vocal  piece. 

1815.  f  Overture,  '  Anacreoni' conducted  by  Cherubini. 
•tMS.  Symphony  and  MS.  Overture  by  Cherubini. 
tMS.  Symphonies  by  Ries  and  Woelfl;  tMS.  Sestet, 
Kalkbrenner.  Kalkbrenner  and  Lafont  play.  2001. 
voted  for  trial  of  new  works.  3  MS.  Overtures 
bought  from  Beethoven. 

1816.  tSymphony  in  C  minor,  Beethoven.  fMS.  Symphony, 
Ries.  t  MS.  Overture,  Beethoven.  »t  MS.  Bardic 
Overture,  Ries.  «t  MS.  Overture  and  Sestet,  Potter. 
*t  MS.  Symphony,  F6my.  *t  MS.  Overture,  Burrowes. 
Baillot  plays  at  1st,  and  leads  at  6th  and  7th  concerts. 

1817.  t  Overtures,  Fidelio  and  Coriolan.  t  Symphony  in 
A,  Beethoven,  t  MS.  Symphony,  Burghersh.  Anfussi 
plays.    Invitation  to  Beethoven. 

1818.  fHummel's  Septet    t  MS.  Symphony,  Ries. 

1819.  tMS.  Symphony,  Clementi.  MS.  Trio,  Lindley. 
•tMS.  Quintet,  Ries. 

1820.  Spohrs  first  visit ;  plays  his  Dramatic  Concerto, 
and  conducts  his  MS.  *t  Symphony(No.  2)  and  tNonet. 
Neate  plays  a  t  Concerto  by  Beethoven.  Further 
commissions  to  Beethoven. 

1821.  Overtures,  •tin  F,  Spohr,  tin  D,  Romberg.  Mo- 
scheles plays  his  tMS.  Concerto.  Potter  plays 
Mozart's  t  Concerto  in  D. 

1822.  t  Overture,  Leonora,  t  Concerto  for  P.F.  and 
Chorus,  Steibelt  (Neate) ;  Mrs.  Anderson's  first  ap- 
pearance— t  Hummel's  B  minor  Concerto.  H.  Field 
(Bath)  plays  t  Concerto,  Hummel.  MS.  Symphony, 
Bochsa.  t  MS.  Concerto,  Moscheles.  1st  app.  Caradori. 

1823.  t  MS.  Symphony,  Clementi.  t  MS.  Overture  (op. 
124),  Beethoven. 

1824.  Beethoven's  tC  minor  Concerto  (Potter).  tMS. 
Overture,  Clementi.  Kalkbrenner  plays  tMS.  Con- 
certo. Szymanowska  plays.  1st  app.  Miss  Paton, 
Mme.  Pasta. 

1825.  *t  Choral  Symphony  (Mar.  211.  Overtures— fEury- 
anthe,  t  Olimpia,  Spontini :  t  Alcalde,  Onslow.  Con- 
certos—t  Beethoven,  in  G  (Potter),  t  Weber's  Concert- 
stuck  (Neate).  Pasta  and  Caradori  sing.  Female 
Associates  first  elected. 

1826.  Weber  conducts,  April  3.  tMS.  Symphony,  Potter, 
t  Overture,  Jessonda.  De  Beriot  plays  a  Concerto 
by  Rode. 

1827.  tMS.  Overtures  by  Schloesser  and  Goss.  Liszt's 
first  appearance  (May  21)  in  Concerto  by  Hummel. 
1st  app.  Mme.  Stockhausen. 

1828.  tSymphony  in  Eb,  Spohr.  Last  appearance  of 
Clementi.    Puds  plays. 

1829.  Mendelssohn  conducts  his  tC  minor  Symphony 
i  May  25).  tSpohr's  double  Quartet.  Sontag  and 
Mahbran  sing. 

1830.  Argyll  Rooms  burnt  (Feb.  6) ;  library  saved ;  con- 
cert-room of  Opera  House  engaged.  Mendelssohn's 
Overture  toltN.  Dream,  t  Overture,  William  Tell. 
Notturno  for  wind,  Mozart.  1st  app.  Mme.  Dulcken, 
De  Beriot,  Lablache. 

1831.  Selection  from  Spohr's  Last  Judgment,  t  Over- 
ture, Alchymist,  Spohr.  1st  app.  Hummel,  H.  Bla- 
grove,  Rubini,  Miss  Inverarity. 

1832.  Symphonies— t  Moscheles  in  C,  «t  MS.,  Onslow  in 
t  Beethoven's  Violin  Concerto  (Eliason).  t  Mendels- 
sohn's, Isles  of  Fingal  (MS.).  Mendelssohn  plays 
tG  minor  Concerto  twice.  John  Field  (Russia) 
plays  his  Concerto  in  Eb.  Schroder-Devrient,  Cinti- 
Damoreau,  Tamburini,  sing.  Mendelssohn  com- 
missioned to  write  symphony,  overture,  and  vocal 
piece.  Commissions  given  to  J.  B.  Cramer,  Bishop, 
Potter,  Griesbach,  Neukomm,  Moscheles,  Griffin, 
Attwood,  Horsley,  NoveUo,  Goss,  and  T.  Cooke. 
N.B.  dementi's  funeral,  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
conducted  by  the  Society. 

1833.  *t  Mendelssohn's  Italian  Symphony  and  «t  Trum- 
pet Overture.  «t  MS.  Symphony  (A  minor)  by  Potter. 
Mendelssohn  plays  Mozart's  D  minor  Concerto.  1st 
app.  Herz,  Clara  Novello,  Miss  Masson.  N.B.  Con- 
certs transferred  to  Hanover  Square.  Hon.  members 
first  elected— Auber,  Hummel,  Le  Sueur,  Mendels- 
sohn, Meyerbeer,  Onslow. 


PHILHARMONIC  SOCIETY.        69» 

1834.  *t  Bishop's  Cantata,  '  The  Seventh  Day ' ;  •  So- 
vello's  do.  'Rosalba';  *t  Horsley's  motet  Kx- 
altabo.'  »t  Overture,  Griesbach.  Mendelssohn's 
t  Meluaina  *  and  »t '  Infelice.'  Beethoven's  E  b  Con- 
certo, Mrs.  Anderson.  Moscheles  plays  his  t  Concerto 
Fantastique  (MS.).  1st  app.  of  Vieuxtemps.  Grisi, 
Ivanoff. 

1835.  tSpohr's  'Weihe  der  T8ne.'  tMS.  Symphony. 
Maurer.  »t  Concerto  in  D  Minor,  Herz.  1st  app.  of 
W.  S.  Bennett,  H.  Blagrove,  Servais,  Brambilla, 
Miss  Postans. 

1836.  t Mendelssohn's  'Calm  Sea.'  tLachner's  Sym- 
phony in  E  b.  »t  Bishop's  Cantata  '  Departure  from 
Paradise '  (Malibran).  Bennett  plays  his  t  Concerto, 
C  minor.  1st  app.  of  Thalberg,  Ole  Bull,  Lipinski, 
Balfe. 

1837.  tSymphony  in  A,  Onslow.  Overtures— t Ries-; 
t'Cymbeline/ Potter;  f  Naiades'  (MS.),  W.  S.  Ben- 
nett, tlntrod.  and  Fugue,  Mozart.  Choral  Sym- 
phony.   1st  app.  of  Rosenhain,  Miss  Birch,  Ronconi. 

1838.  j  Mendelssohn's  D  minor  Concerto,  MS.  (Mrs. 
Anderson),  t  Bennett's  F  minor  do.,  MS.  (Bennetti. 
tMS.  Concerto,  Hummel  (Dulcken).  Choral  Sym- 
phony. 1st  app.  of  Hausmann,  Heinemeyer,  Pott, 
DHder. 

1839.  Bennett's  MS.  Overtures  t'Wood  Nymphs'  and 
*  Parisina.'  t  Concerto  Pastorale,  Moscheles.  t  Over- 
ture, '  Yelva,'  Reissiger.  1st  app.  of  Mario  (in  Eng- 
land), Dorus  Gras,  Rainforth. 

1840.  t  Symphonies  No.  5  and  '  Historical,'  Spohr.   t  MS. 


Vampyr,' Lindpaintner ;  '  Regicide,' Lucas.  Choral 
Symphony.  Bennett's  C  minor  Concerto.  L'szt, 
Vieuxtemps,  David,  play.  1st  app.  of  Dolby,  Lowe, 
Misses  Williams. 

1842.  tMS.  Symphony  and  tMS.  Concerto,  Molique. 
tMS.  Symphony,  (Virtue  and  Vice),  Spohr.  Men- 
delssohn conducts  t  Scotch  Symphony  and  Hebrides, 
and  plays  his  D  minor  Concerto.  1st  app.  of  Miss 
Bassano,  Adelaide  Kemble,  Parish-Alvars.  Bennett 
and  Thalberg  play ;  Mario  sings. 

1843.  t  Overture,  Macbeth,'  Spohr.  t  Chopin's  F  minor 
Concerto  (Dulcken).  Choral  Fantasia  (Mrs.  Ander- 
son). tMS.  Concert-piece  in  A  minor,  Bennett. 
Choral  Symphony  (twice),  Lobgesang.  Weihe  der 
Tone.  1st  app.  of  Albertazzi,  Staudigl,  Sivori,  Mme. 
Oury,  Dreyschock.  Spohr  plays  and  conducts.  N.B. 
Nine  concerts. 

1844.  t  Overture,  Leonora,  No.  1.  t Ruins  of  Athens, 
t  Overture  and  Suite,  Bach,  t  Walpurgisnight.  Bee- 
thoven's Concerto  in  G,  and  Violin  do.  Midsummer 
N.  D.  music.  1st  app.  of  Ernst,  Sainton,  Joachim, 
Piatti,  Buddeus.  Mendelssohn  conducts  last  5  con- 
certs. Sivori,  Bennett,  play.  1st  app.  of  Castellan, 
A.  Thillon. 

1845.  Macfarren's  Symphony  in  Cjf  minor.  Overture, 
'Cantemire,'  Fesca.  t  Concerto,  D  minor.  Bach 
(Moscheles).  Walpurgisnight.  1st  app.  of  L.  de 
Meyer,  Milanollos,  Pischek,  Cavallini ;  Sainton,  Oury, 
Vieuxtemps,  Bennett,  play. 

1846.  Mr.  Costa  conducts  (till  1854).  t  Beethoven's  Mass 
in  D.  t  Mendelssohn's  Violin  Concerto  (Sivori). 
t  MS.  Concerto,  P.  Alvars  (Mme.  Dulcken).  t  Spohr's 
Concerto  in  G  (Sainton),  t Bennett's  Caprice  in  E 
(Bennett),  t  Spohr's  Concertante,  MS.  1st  app.  Mme. 
Pleyel,  Lockey,  Lavigne.  H.  Field,  Vieuxtemps,  P. 
Alvars,  play. 

1847.  Mass  m  C,  Beethoven,  t  Symphony  in  D  (3  move- 
ments), Mozart.  Beethoven's  Choral  Symphony,  Con- 
certo in  G  (Mendelssohn),  Violin  Concerto  (Joachim). 
Midsummer  N.  D.  music.  Scotch  Symphony.  Men- 
delssohn conducted  and  played  at  the  4th  concert — 
his  last  visit.  1st  app.  of  Kate  Loder,  Hellraesberger. 
Persiani.  Bennett,  Vieuxtemps,  play :  H.  Phillips 
sings '  On  Lena's  gloomy  heath,'  Mendelssohn  (MS.). 


nia,'   Griesbach,  'Parisina,'  Bennett.     1st    app.   of 
Viardot  Garcia,  Alboni,  H  C.  Cooper,  Prudent. 

1849.  Mendelssohn's  t  Athalie  (twice),  tRuy  Bias  (MS.1, 
and  Serenade  and  Alio  giojoso.  Choral  Symphony. 
1st  app.  of  Mile.  Neruda,  L.  Sloper,  Hancock  (cello), 
J.  B.  Chatterton,  Sims  Reeves,  Miss  Lucombe  Jetty 
Treffz,  Wartel. 

1850.  Griesbach's  tMS.  Overture,  'Tempest.'  Concert- 
stuck,  C  minor,  Benedict.  Walpurgisnight.  1st  app. 
of  Charton,  Hayes,  Pyne,  Formes,  Alard,  Benedict, 
Salaman.  Thalberg  plays  Mozart's  D  minor  Concerto. 

1851.  t  MS.  Overture,  Schlosser.  j  Concertos— t  violin— Eb, 
Mozart  (Sainton) ;   tSpohr,  No.  2  (Blagrove) ;   PF. 


700        PHILHARMONIC  SOCIETY. 

Hummel,  A  minor  (Pauer).  Choral  Symphony. 
Trumpet  Overture.  1st  app.  of  Reichardt,  J.  Stock 
hausen,  Bottesini,  W.  H.  Holmes,  Pauer. 

1852.  t  Hiller's  Symphony '  Im  Freien.'  t  Scotch  fantasia, 
Joachim.  Overture,  'Don  Quixote/ Macfarren.  1st 
app.  Clauss,  Halle,  John  Thomas,  Gardoni.  Hiller 
conducts  (June  28). 

1853.  t' Praise  of  Music,'  Beethoven,  t  A  minor  Sym- 
phony, Gade.  t  Overture,  Scherzo,  and  Finale.  Schu- 
mann.     tLoreley     finale,     Mendelssohn     (Pyne). 


t' Harold  in  Italy'  (Sainton);  'Kepose'  (Gardoni); 
Overture,  '  Carnaval  Bomain ' —  all  by  Berlioz, 
t  Hiller's  Concerto  (Hiller)  t  Overture, '  Genueserin,' 
Iiindpaintner.  •  MS.  Symphony,  Cherubini.  Mid- 
summer NJX  music  (twice).  1st  app.  F.  Hiller,  Win- 
terbottom. 

1854.  +  Symphony,  B  flat,  Schumann,  t  MS.  Symphony, 
Rosenhain.    1st  app.  Belletti. 

1855.  Wagner  conducts.  +  Selection, '  Lohengrin.'  MS. 
Symphony  in  Bb,  Lucas.  t  Overture,  '  Chevy 
Cnase,' Macfarren.  tOverture^* Tannhauser ' (twice). 
t  Concerto,  E  minor,  Chopin  (Halle).  1st  app.  Jenny 
Key,  Budersdorff. 

1856.  Sterndale  Bennett  conducts  (till  1866).  Schu- 
mann's t'  Paradise  and  Peri.'  Overtures,  t  'Don  Car- 
los,' Macfarren;  t 'Antony  and  Cleopatra,'  Potter. 
1 13  Vars.  se'rieuses,  Mendelssohn.  1st  app.  Arabella 
Goddard,  Mme.  Schumann,  Mme.  land.  K.B.  Six 
concerts. 

1857.  tPF.  Concerto  in  G,  Rubinstein.  1st  app.  Remenyi, 
ABubinstein.    Six  concerts. 

1858.  t  Concerto  No.  4,  David.  1st.  app.  W.  G.  Cusins,  Bott. 

1859.  tJoachim's  Hungarian  Concerto  (Joachim).  Ben- 
nett's 'May  Queen.'  1st  app.  Csillag,  ArtOt.  Six 
concerts. 

1860.  t Symphony,  'The  Seasons,'  Spohr.  t Concerto, 
Dussek,  G  minor  (Goddard).  1st  app.  Becker,  LU- 
beck,  Kompel,  Paque,  Parepa,  Santley.  Six  concerts. 

1861.  1st  app.  Lemmens  Sherrington,  Delle  Sedie,  J.  F. 
Barnett,  Straus,  O.  Goldschmidt.  Moscheles  s  las: 
appearance.    Fight  concerts  again. 

1862.  Jubilee  year.  Symphony,  Gade.  Overtures,  »f  Para- 
dise and  Peri,'  Bennett;  'Genoveva,'  Schumann. 
Concertos — t  Triple,  Beethoven  (Joachim,  Piatti,  Cu- 
sins); tA  minor,  Viotti  (Joachim);  tCello,  Davidoff 
(Davidoff),  t  Cello,  Piatti  (Piatti),  Violin,  David 
(Becker).  'Hear  my  Prayer,'  Mendelssohn  (Mme. 
Lind).  1st  app.  Titiens,  Miles.  Marchisio,  Davidoff, 
Lavigne.    N.B.  Nine  concerts. 

1863.  +  Music  to  Egmont,  Beethoven.  Overture, '  Ossian,' 
Gade.  March  in  Tannhauser.  t  Fantasia  appassio- 
nata,  Bietz  (Piatti).    1st  app.  Buziau. 

1SC4.  Symphonies — •  t Bennett,  MS.,  G  minor;  Schu- 
mann in  C.  Overtures  — '  Fernan  Cortez,'  Spontini ; 
'  Merry  Wives,'  Nicolai.  Concertos  —  J  Bennett, 
No.  1  (H.  Thomas) ;  t  Joachim,  No.  2,  in  G  (Joachim). 
Serenade  and  Alio  giojoso,  Mendelssohn  (Hart- 
vigson).  1st  app  Bettelheim,  Gunz.Trebelli,  Crozier. 

1SG5.  Overtures — '  Le  Philtre,'  Auber ;  t '  Kienzi,'  Wag- 
ner. Concertos— t  Flute,  Molique  (Svendsen);  PF. 
Schumann  (Mme.  Schumann).  Finale  to  Loreley 
(Titiens).  1st  app.  Murska,  Harriers- Wippern,  Sinico, 
Agnesi.   Lauterbach,  Svendsen. 

1806.  Schumann's  '  Paradise  and  Peri '  (Parepa).  Gou- 
nod's Symphony  in  EK  1st  app.  Ubrich,  Cummings, 
Auer,  Jaell,  Mehlig,  Wieniawsky.  N.B.  Sterndale 
Bennett  resigns. 

1867.  W.  G.  Cusins  appointed  conductor.  •  t  Overture, 
'  Marmion,'  Sullivan.  Symphonies— Beethoven,  Cho- 
ral ;  Schubert,  B  minor ;  Schumann,  D  minor.  1st 
app.  Nilsson,  Mme.  Patey,  Grtttzmacher. 

1S68.  Reformation  Symphony,  Mendelssohn.  Over- 
tures—' Elise,'  Cherubini  ;  t '  Rosenwald,'  Lucas : 
t  Symphonique.  J.  F.  Barnett ;  '  Nonne  Sanglante,' 
Gounod;  t'Selva  incantata,'  Benedict,  t Concert- 
stuck  (op.  92.)  Schumann  (Mme.  Schumann).  Con- 
certos— t MaxBruch  (Straus) ;  t Besekirsky;  Reinecke 
(Jaell).  1st  app.  Foli,  Kellogg,  V.  Rigby,  E.  Wynne, 
Besekirsky,  Carrodus,  Rendano. 

1869.  N.B.  Concerts  removed  to  St.  James's  Hall.  Pro- 
grammes annotated  by  Prof.  Macfarren.  t  Sympho- 
nies— Woelfl,  G  minor.  Overtures— '  Camacho,'  Men- 
delssohn; '  King  Manfred,' Reinecke ;  'Rosamunde,' 
Schubert.  1st  app.  H.  Holmes,  Neruda,  Reinecke, 
Zimmermann,  Regan,  Monbelli. 

1870.  Symphony,  Eb,  Schumann.  Overture, '  In  Memo- 
riam,'  Sullivan.  Concerto,  Bte,  Piatti.  Beethoven's 
9  Symphonies.    1st.  app.  Orgenyi. 

1871.  Symphonies— t  Gounod  in  D;  Schubert  in  C. 
Overtures  — ' Mireille,'  Gounod:  'Wood  Nymph,' 
Bennett;  'Rienzi,'  Wagner.  tSaltarello,  Gounod. 
■(Concerto  grosso,  G  minor,  Handel,  t  Concertino, 
Bottesini.    1st  app.  Brandes,  Capoul,  Faure.   N.B. 


PHILHARMONIC  SOCIETY. 

Bust  of  Beethoven  presented  by  Frau  Linzbauer. 
Gold  medal  struck  by  Wyon  for  presentation  to 
artists. 

1872.  Brahms's  Serenade  in  D.  Overtures  —  Bennett, 
t'  Ajax  '•  Benedict  '  Tempest.'  Concertos— tBach  in  G; 
t  Handel,  oboe,  G  minor;  Liszt,  Eij;  Cusins,  A 
minor.  1st  app.  Delaborde,  Hartvigson,  Carlotta 
Patti.  Peschka-Leutner,  Marimon,  M.  Koze. 

1S73.  Symphony,  t  C.  P.  E.  Bach  in  D ;  t '  Tasso,'  Liszt, 
t  Requiem,  Brahms.  Bach's  Chromatic  Fantasia. 
Overtures—'  Faust,'  Spohr ;  '  Alfonso  and  Estrella,* 
Schubert;  'Medecin,'  Gounod;  'Hollander,'  Wag- 
ner; 'St.  John  the  Baptist'  (MS.),  Macfarren.  Con- 
certos—  Rubinstein,  G;  Brahms,  D  minor;  Mac- 
farren, G  minor  (Straus).  1st  app.  Alvsleben,  Lloyd, 
Colyns,  Von  Btilow. 

1874.  fConcerto  grosso  in  A,  Handel.  Serenade  in  A, 
Brahms.  Overture/ Genoveva,' Schumann ;  t'  Tam- 
ing of  the  Shrew,'  Rheinberger.  tConcerto,  Lalo  in 
F  (Sarasate).  1st  app.  Sterling,  Essipoff,  Krebs, 
Saint-Saens,  Sarasate. 

1S75.  Concert  in  memory  of  Bennett;  his  Prelude 
and  tFuneral  march,  'Ajax':  and  'Woman  of 
Samaria.'  Bymphony,  'Im  Walde,'  Raff.  Fest- 
Overture,  Benedict.  Concertos  —  Vieuxtemps  in  A 
minor  (Wieniawski) :  Raff,  PF.,  C  minor  (Jaell). 
Variations  on  theme  hy  Haydn,  Brahms.  Music  in 
the  'Tempest,'  Sullivan.  •  t  Idyll  on  Bennett,  Mac- 
farren. Choral  Symphony.  1st  app.  Breitner,  Papini, 
Wilhelmj,  TheklaFriedlander,  S.  L6we,  Shakespeare. 
N.B.  Bennett's  funeral,  at  Westminster  Abbey,  con- 
ducted by  Philharmonic  Society,  R.  Acad,  of  Music, 
and  R.  Soc.  of  Musicians. 

1876.  t Dramatic  Symphony,  Rubinstein.  Suite,  B  minor, 
Bach  (flute).  Overtures— 'Merry  Wives,'  Bennett, 
+ ' Wallensteins  Camp,'  'Rheinberger;  t' Love's 
Labour's  Lost,'  Cusins;  ' Meistersinger,'  Wagner. 
Concertos — Hensett,  F  minor  (Barth)  ;  Rubinstein, 
Eh  (Rubinstein)  ;  Goltermann  iLaserrel.  Brahms's 
Requiem  (2nd  time).  1st  app.  Barth,  Osgood,  Rcdeker. 
N.B.  Ten  concerts. 

1877.  Symphonies— t  Silas  In  C;  Brahms  in  C  minor. 
Overtures— Elegiac,  Joachim ;  '  Lay  of  Last  Min- 
strel,'J.  F.  Barnett :  'Parisina,  Bennett.  Concertos- 
Mozart,  harp  and  flute ;  Grieg,  A  minor  ;  Raff, 
cello.  Schumann's  Faust,  Pt.  3.  1st  app.  Dannreu- 
ther,  R.  Hausmann,Henschel,  McGuckin.  P.Viardot. 
N.B.  Ten  concerts. 

1878.  Overture, 'Don Quixote,' Macfarren.  Huldigungs- 
marsch,  Wagner.  Concerto, Violin,  MS.,  Wieniawski. 
t  Violin  Suite,  Raff  (Sarasate).  1st  app.  Brull,  Plants, 
Thursby,  Schou.    N.B.  Eight  concerts. 

1879.  Symphonies— Ocean,  Rubinstein ;  E  minor,  MS., 
Macfarren.  Overture,  Italian,  Schubert.  Concertos- 
Brahms,  Violin,  MS.  (Joachim,  twice);  Saint-Saens, 
G  minor  ;  Fantaisie  Norv^gienne,  Lalo  (Sarasate). 
t  Bach's  Organ  Prelude  and  Fugue,  A  minor  (Saint- 
Saens).  1st  app.  Janotha,  Saint-Saens.  Maas. 

1880.  Symphonies— in  D,  Brahms ;  in  E  minor,  Sullivan. 
Overtures— t' Twelfth  Night,'MS..  Benedict ;  t'Moun- 
tain,  Lake,  and  Moorland,'  MS.,  H.Thomas;  t'  Frtth- 
lings,'  Goetz  •  t '  Phe^lre,'  Massenet;  'Hero  and 
Leander.'  MS.,W.  C.  Macfarren ;  '  Recollections  of  the 
Past,'  MS.,  C.  E.  Stephens ;  '  Gustave,'  Auber.  Con- 
certos—Mozart, 2  PF.s.  (Mehlig,  Bache) ;  t  Jackson, 
PF.,  D  minor,  MS.  (Zimmermann)-  Rubinstein, 
PF.,  in  G  (Timanoff ) ;  Scharwenka,  PF. ;  Piatti,  D 
minor.  Variations  for  Violin,  Joachim.  1st  app. 
Montigny  Remaury,  Sauret,  Scharwenka,  Timanoft 

The  following  remarks,  which  appeared  in  the 
'  Times '  on  the  occasion  of  the  Jubilee  Concert 
of  1862,  give  an  excellent  risurrU  of  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Society  up  to  that  date  : — 

The  'Jubilee  Concert'  was  worthy  to  commemorate 
the  event  in  honour  of  which  it  was  projected— viz.  the 
successful  completion  of  the  50th  year  ot  the  Philharmonic 
Society,  its  'golden  wedding'  with  the  sympathies  of 
our  musical  public.  Since  its  institution  in  Ma  the 
Philharmonic  Society  has,  to  use  a  homely  phrase,  seen 
its  'ups  and  downs.'  Nevertheless,  even  in  its  darkest 
and  most  threatening  periods,  it  has  never  once  departed 
from  the  high  standard  which  it  set  itself  from  the 
beginning,  never  once  by  lowering  the  standard  en- 
deavoured pusillanimously  to  minister  to  a  taste  less 
scrupulous  and  refined  than  that  to  which  it  made  its 
first  appeal,  and  to  which  it  is  indebted  for  a  world-wide 
celebrity.  Thus  it  has  never  forfeited  the  good  opinion 
of  those  who  actually  constitute  the  tribunal  which  in 
this  country  adjudges  the  real  position  of  the  musical 
art.  and  who  have  invariably  rallied  round,  the  '  Phil- 


PHILHARMONIC  SOCIETY. 

harmonic  in  its  moments  of  temporary  trial.  Amid  alT 
kinds  of  well-intended,  however  bigoted,  opposition,  the 
Society  has  submitted  to  reform  after  reform,  and  pre- 
served its  moral  equilibrium— a  sign  that  its  constitution 
is  of  the  strongest  and  the  healthiest.  The  late  Sir  H.  B. 
Bishop,  our  national  English  composer,  the  illustrious 
German,  Felix  Mendelssohn,  and  Herr  Ignatz  Moscheles, 
the  renowned  pianist,  were  alternately  appointed  con- 
ductors of  series  of  concerts ;  and  at  one  time  the  idea 
was  entertained  that  Mendelssohn  himself  would  consent 
to  undertake  the  sole  direction.  Mendelssohn,  however, 
was  too  deeply  absorbed  in  other  pursuits,  and  the  hope 
of  his  becoming  'perpetual  conductor'  was  inevitably 
abandoned.  Ultimately,  in  1846,  the  post  was  offered 
to  and  accepted  by  Mr.  Costa.  That  gentleman  continued 
in  office,  with  manifest  advantage  to  the  performances, 
until  1854,  when,  after  a  brilliant  reign  of  nine  years,  he 
abdicated.  The  year  1855,  during  which  Herr  Bichard 
Wagner  wielded  the  baton,  was  one  of  the  most  disastrous 
on  record.  . .  It  was  then  remembered  there  was  such  an 
English  musician  as  Mr.  Sterndale  Bennett— an  old 
member  of  the  'Philharmonic,'  who  had  frequently 
served  as  director,  and  in  bygone  years  as  often  con- 
ducted the  performances.  To  Mr.  Bennett  was  tendered 
the  conductor's  baton,  which  he  has  wielded  ever  since 
with  honour  to  himself  and  profit  to  his  employers. 
From  the  first  season  during  which  this  eminent  musician 
officiated  as  conductor,  the  star  of  the  '  Philharmonic ' 
has  shone  with  undiminished  lustre,  and  its  fortunes 
have  steadily  risen ;  this  too  in  spite  of  the  involuntary 
secession  of  no  fewer  than  forty-seven  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished members  of  his  orchestra,  whose  duties  at 
the  Italian  Opera  were  in  1861  found  incompatible  with 
those  which  called  them  to  the  Hanover  Square  Booms. 
There  was  no  alternative  for  the  'Philharmonic'  but  to 
change  its  nights  or  give  up  its  concerts.  To  give  up 
the  concerts  was  out  of  the  question.  To  change  the 
nights  of  performance  was  difficult  for  more  reasons 
than  one ;  in  addition  to  which  there  was  a  sort  of 
superstitious  dislike  to  any  such  innovation  on  the  custom 
of  nearly  half  a  century.  The  involuntary  seceders 
were  promptly  replaced,  and  the  forty-ninth  series  of 
the  Philharmonic  Concerts  commenced  as  usual,  with 
a  noble  orchestra  of  nearly  eighty  performers ;  and  the 
directors,  who  had  reduced  the  number  of  concerts  to 
six,  resolved  in  the  interim  to  revive  the  old  system 
(dating  from  1813),  and  wisely  and  boldly  returned  to 
the  time-honoured  'eight.'  The  incidents  of  the  two 
seasons,  1861  and  1862,  are  tolerably  familiar  to  our 
musical  readers.  The  new  (or  almost  new)  hand  has 
been  brought  more  and  more  under  the  control  of  the 
conductor :  and  the  first  eight  symphonies  of  Beethoven 
(to  speak  of  nothing  else)  have  been  twice  performed  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  sustain  the  well-earned  reputation 
of  the  '  Philharmonic'  In  short,  th»  Society  was  never 
in  a  more  flourishing  condition;  and,  instead  of  dissolving 
at  the  end  of  this,  their  fiftieth  season,  as  was  anticipated, 
they  celebrated  it  the  other  night  in  St.  James's  Hall 
(the  Hanover  Square  Booms  not  being  big  enough  for  the 
occasion)  with  a '  Jubilee '  concert  of  varied  and  splendid 
attraction.  Thus,  in  the  year  of  expected  dissolution, 
the  patrons  of  the  '  Philharmonic '  have  had  nine  per- 
formances instead  of  eight,  the  profits  of  the  extra  concert 
amounting  to  little  short  of  5002. 

At  the  close  of  the  season  of  1866  Professor 
Bennett  resigned  the  conductorship,  and  his 
place  at  the  Philharmonic  was  filled  by  Mr.  W. 
G.  Cusins,  then  a  prominent  member  of  Her 
Majesty's  band,  and  now  '  Master  of  the  Music 
to  the  Queen,'  who  has  held  the  baton,  season 
by  season,  up  to  that  which  has  just  concluded. 
In  1 868  it  became  evident  that  the  Hanover 
Square  Rooms  were  too  small  for  the  concerts, 
and  they  were  therefore  in  the  next  season 
removed  to  the  more  spacious  accommodation 
of  St.  James's  Hall,  Piccadilly,  thus  deserting 
a  building  which  had,  through  36  years'  oc- 
cupation, become  identified  with  the  Society, 
and  breaking,  though  inevitably,  an  important 
link  with  the  past.  At  the  same  time  the  pro- 
grammes were  furnished  with  analyses  and  com- 
ments by  Professor  G.  A.  Macfarren,  illustrated 
by  quotations  in  music  type,  a  practice  that 
has  been  maintained  to  the  present  time. 


PHILHAEMONIC  SOC,  NEW  YORK.   701 

Music  has  now  become  more  democratic  than 
it  was,  and  the  Philharmonic  Society,  instead  of 
being  the  sole  and  acknowledged  queen  of  the 
musical  world  of  England,  is  only  one  out  of 
several  concert-giving  institutions,  each  striving 
its  hardest  to  attract  the  favour  of  the  public. 
How  far  the  Society  may  be  able  to  maintain 
itself  in  these  new  conditions  against  so  severe 
and  increasing  a  competition,  it  is  not  for  the 
Dictionary  of  Music  to  predict.  We  hope  for 
the  best  from  the  zeal  and  caution  which  in  the 
past  have  carried  the  directors  of  the  Phil- 
harmonic over  so  many  shoals  safe  to  land.  The 
happy  sagacity  which  in  1844  saved  the  Society 
by  the  engagement  of  Mendelssohn,  may  again 
prove  sufficient  for  the  present  need.  But  what- 
ever may  be  the  result  in  the  future,  there  can 
be  but  one  feeling  as  regards  the  past  of  the 
Philharmonic  Society.  The  consideration  of  the 
list  above  given  can  only  excite  a  warm  sense 
of  gratitude  towards  an  institution  which  for 
more  than  half  a  century  stood  at  the  head  of 
English  concerts,  and  enabled  the  lovers  and 
students  of  music  in  this  country  to  become 
acquainted  with  the  work*,  and  the  persons  of  the 
greatest  composers  and  executants  of  modern  days. 

For  further  details  of  the  Society's  transactions, 
including  copies  of  seven  letters  from  Mendels- 
sohn to  Sterndale  Bennett,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  'The  Philharmonic  Society  of  London  from 
its  foundation  1813  to  its  fiftieth  year  1862.  By 
George  Hogarth'  (8vo.  London,  1862).  The 
society  itself  has  published  the  '  Documents, 
Letters  etc.,  relating  to  the  bust  of  Beethoven 
presented  to  the  society  by  Frau  Fanny  Linz- 
bauer,  translated  and  arranged  by  Doyne  C. 
Bell'  (4k).  London,  18 71)  ;  and,  in  the  Programme 
book  of  Feb.  5,  1880,  five  hitherto  unprinted 
letters  from  Mendelssohn  to  the  Society. 

A  risumi  of  the  contents  of  the  Society's 
Library  has  been  already  given.  See  vol.  ii. 
p.  421  a.  [S.L.] 

PHILHARMONIC  SOCIETY  OF  NEW 
YORK,  THE,  founded  April  5, 1843,  incorporated 
Feb.  17,  1853.  I*8  object  is  the  cultivation 
and  performance  of  instrumental  music.  Its  first 
concert  was  given  at  the  Apollo  Rooms,  Decem- 
ber 7,  1842.  Concerts  have  since  been  regularly 
given  in  each  season,  that  of  April  12,  1879, 
being  the  181st.  The  Chinese  Rooms,  Niblo's 
Garden,  Irving  Hall,  and  the  Academy  of  Music 
have  been  successively  used  for  the  concerts 
and  public  rehearsals.  The  use  of  the  latter, 
begun  November  19,  1859,  was  suspended  April 
20, 1 86 1,  by  the  destruction  by  fire  of  the  theatre, 
and  resumed  November  7,  1863,  Irving  Hall 
in  the  meanwhile  furnishing  an  auditorium. 
The  concerts  have  always  been  of  a  high  order, 
the  orchestra  large  and  efficient,  and  the  pro- 
grammes presenting  selections  from  a  broad 
range  of  composers,  and  the  usual  variety  of 
vocal  and  instrumental  solos,  with  an  occasional 
choral  work.  The  management  of  the  affairs  of 
the  society  remains  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the 
'Actual  Members,'  each  of  whom  must  'be  an 
efficient  performer  on  some  instrument,'  and  a 


702  PHILHARMONIC  SOC,  NEW  YORK. 

permanent  resident  in  the  city  or  its  immediate 
vicinity  for  one  year  preceding  his  nomination. 
The  orchestra  consists  of  these  'Actual  Members' 
only,  who  now  (1879)  number  96,  and  among 
whom  are  divided  the  profits  arising  from  each 
season's  course  of  concerts.  The  rules  for  ad- 
mission and  for  discipline  after  admission  are 
exceedingly  strict.  Rigid  adherence  to  them  has 
done  much  towards  establishing  and  maintaining 
the  high  reputation  enjoyed  by  the  organisation. 
Four  other  grades  of  membership  are  included 
in  the  society's  lists : — Associates,  admitted  to 
public  rehearsals  and  concerts  on  payment  of  the 
sum  annually  stipulated  by  the  society ;  Sub- 
scribers, entitled  to  two  tickets  for  each  regular 
concert,  the  price  being  a  matter  of  annual  regu- 
lation; Honorary,  title  conferred  on  the  most 
eminent  artists  in  music,  by  the  unanimous 
consent  of  the  Actual  Members  ;  Honorary  As- 
sociate, conferred  on  meritorious  individuals  not 
belonging  to  the  musical  profession.  The  names 
of  Julius  Benedict  (1850)  and  of  Madame  Parepa- 
Rosa  (1870)  appear  in  the  list  of  Honorary 
members. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  conductors : — 
H.  C.  Timm  (1842-45);  E.  J.  Loder  (1846-48); 
U.  C.Hill  ( 1 849-51);  Theodore  Eisfeld  (1852- 
60);  Carl  Bergmann  (1861-75);  Leopold  Dam- 
rosch  (1876) ;  Theodore  Thomas  (1877) ;  Adolph 
Neuendorff  (1878).  The  headquarters  of  the 
association  are  at  Aschenbrodel's  Club-house, 
No.  74,  East  4th  Street.  Its  large  and  comprehen- 
sive library  is  kept  at  No.  333,  East  18th  Street. 
The  following  officers  were  chosen  at  the  annual 
meeting,  April  1879  : — Julius  Hallgarten,  pre- 
sident ;  Edward  Boehm,  vice-president ;  David 
iSchaad,  secretary ;  John  Godone,  treasurer ;  and 
six  others  directors.  Theodore  Thomas  was  chosen 
conductor  for  the  38th  season,  1879-80.  [F.H.J.] 

PHILHARMONIC  SOCIETY,  THE,  Brook- 
lyn, New  York,  incorporated  1857.  Its  declared 
object  is  the  'advancement  of  music  in  the  city 
of  Brooklyn,  by  procuring  the  public  performance 
of  the  best  works  in  this  department  of  art.'  Its 
affairs  are  controlled  by  a  directory  of  25  mem- 
bers, chosen  annually,  from  which  a  government 
is  appointed.  Membership  is  secured  by  payment 
of  the  subscription  annually  designated  by  the 
directors,  who  also  prescribe  the  number  of  these 
subscriptions,  limited,  for  several  years,  to  1 200. 
Beginning  in  the  autumn  of  1857,  five  or  more 
concerts  have  been  given  in  each  season,  that  at 
the  close  of  the  21st  season,  May  10,  1879,  being 
the  1 08th — each  preceded  by  three  public  rehear- 
sals. During  the  first  five  seasons  the  concerts 
were  given  at  the  Brooklyn  Athenaeum.  Since 
1862,  the  Brooklyn  Academy  of  Music,  a  large 
theatre  holding  nearly  3000  people,  has  been 
made  use  of.  The  orchestral  conductors  have 
been  —  Theodore  Eisfeld,  1857-62;  Theodore 
Thomas,  part  of  1862 ;  Mr.  Eisfeld  again,  until 
the  election  of  Carl  Bergmann,  September  5, 1865; 
Mr.  Thomas,  re  elected  September  4,  1866;  Mr. 
Bergmann  again,  1870-73  ;  succeeded  May  26, 
,&73>  by  Mr.  Thomas,  who  still  retains  the  posi- 
tion (1879),  assisted  by  William  G.  Dietrich,  who 


PHILIDOR. 

has  charge  of  the  orchestra  at  the  first  Wo  re- 
hearsals of  each  concert.  The  concerts  have 
always  been  of  a  high  order ;  the  orchestra  large 
and  composed  of  the  best  musicians  procurable ; 
the  programmes  of  a  catholic  nature,  no  especial 
school  of  music  having  undue  prominence.  Im- 
portant works  have  been  produced  for  the  first 
time  in  America,  including  several  by  native 
composers.  Large  choral  works  have  occasion- 
ally figured  on  the  society's  programmes,  as  well 
as  solos  and  instrumental  concertos.  The  society's 
library  contains  the  scores  and  parts  of  over  100 
orchestral  works.  Officers  1878-79  :  L.  B.  Wy- 
m&n,  president ;  H.  K.  Sheldon,  B.  H.  Smith, 
vice-presidents ;  C.  L.  Burnet,  treasurer ;  B.  T. 
Frothingham,  secretary.  [F.  H.  J.] 

PHILIDOR.  A  numerous  family  of  French 
musicians,  the  founder  being  Michel  DANI- 
CAN,  a  native  of  Dauphine",  who  died  in 
Paris  about  1650.  He  was  a  good  oboist,  and 
Louis  XIII,  who  had  considerable  knowledge 
of  music,  was  so  delighted  with  his  playing  that 
he  exclaimed,  '  I  have  found  another  Philidor.' 
Filidori  of  Siena  had  formerly  been  a  favourite 
oboist  at  court,  and  the  king's  compliment  pro- 
cured Michel  Danican  the  surname  of  •  Filidor' — 
or  Philidor  according  to  French  spelling.  Event- 
ually the  family  name  was  virtually  suppressed, 
and  the  nickname  took  its  place.  Tradition, 
unsupported  however  by  documentary  evidence, 
states  that  the  first  Michel  Danican-Philidor  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Chapelle  of  Louis  XIII, 
and  left  two  sons ;  but  if  so,  the  name  of  the 
younger  was  Jean,  and  not  Andre",  as  stated  by 
Fetis,  whose  account  of  this  family  is  erroneous 
on  more  points  than  might  have  been  expected 
from  one  so  prompt  in  correcting  the  mistakes 
of  others. 

2.  The  second  Michel  Danican-Philidor 
became  one  of  the  king's  musicians  in  the 
Grande  Ecurie  in  1651,  and  died  in  1659,  leav- 
ing no  children.  He  was  fifth  player  of  the 
''Cromorne'  and  '  Marine  Trumpet,'  instruments 
recently  introduced  into  the  royal  band,  and 
retained  till  the  Revolution. 

3.  Jean — born  about  1620,  died  in  Paris  Sept. 
8,  1679 — had  a  numerous  family,  his  sons  and 
grandsons  being  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Phili- 
dors.  In  1659  he  became  fifer  in  the  Grande 
Ecurie,  and  at  his  death  was  first  player  of  the 
cromorne  and  marine  trumpet.  He  is  said  to 
have  composed  dance -music,  preserved  by  the 
eldest  of  his  sons, 

4.  Andre  ('Philidor  1'aine"),  who  succeeded 
his  uncle  Michel  as  fifth  player  of  the  same  in- 
struments in  the  Grande  Ecurie.  Supposing  him 
to  have  been  12  at  that  time,  he  would  have 
been  born  about  1647.  He  married  young,  and 
his  first  wife,  Marguerite  Monginot,  bore  him  16 
children,  of  whom  Anne,  Michel,  and  Francois, 
distinguished  themselves  as  musicians.  The  ex- 
ertions necessary  for  the  support  of  so  numerous 
a  family  were  no  hardship  to  one  of  his  active 
and  laborious  disposition.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Grande  Ecurie,  the  Chambre,   and  the 

1  Or  Krummhorn ;  In  organs  corrupted  into  'Cremona.' 


PHILLDOR. 

Chapelle,  of  Louis  XIV ;  played  the  bassoon,  cro- 
morne  (his  two  best  instruments),  oboe,  marine 
trumpet,  and  even  the  drum  when  required  ;  and 
after  competing,  at  the  king's  request,  with  Lully 
in  writing  bugle-calls,  fanfares,  and  military 
marches,1  composed  divertissements  for  the  court. 
Of  these  were  produced,  in  presence  of  the  king 
or  the  dauphin,  a  comic  divertissement,  'Le  Canal 
de  Versailles'  (July  16, 1687),  'Le  Mariage  de  la 
Couture  avec  la  grosse  Cathos '  (1688),  and  '  La 
Princesse  de  Crete,'  an  opera-ballet,  the  auto- 
graph of  which  was  in  his  valuable  collection  of 
unpublished  music.  To  these  three  works  should 
be  added  '  La  Mascarade  du  Vaisseau  Marchand,' 
produced  at  Marly  before  Louis  XIV,  Thursday, 
Feb.  18,  1700,  and  hitherto  unnoticed.  The 
splendid  collection  referred  to  included  all  the 
dance-tunes  in  favour  at  court  from  the  reign  of 
Henry  III  to  the  end  of  the  17th  century  ;  all 
the  divertissements  and  operas  of  Lully  and  a 
few  other  composers ;  a  selection  of  old  airs, 
bugle-calls,  military  marches,  and  fanfares  for  the 
court  hunting-parties ;  and  finally  all  the  sacred 
music  in  use  in  the  Chapelle.  Andre-  formed 
it  during  the  time  he  was  Librarian2  of  the 
King's  musical  library,  from  1684  to  his  death. 
It  was  originally  in  the  library  of  Versailles, 
and  the  greater  part  of  it,  57  vols.,  in  his  own 
hand,  was  transferred  to  the  library  of  the  Paris 
Conservatoire,  which  now  however  possesses  only 
36,  the  other  21  having  either  been  purloined 
by  some  unscrupulous  collector  of  rare  MSS,  or 
perhaps  used  for  lighting  fires.  A  few  other 
portions  are  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  and 
the  Bibliotheque  de  Versailles. 

This  remarkable  man,  with  an  excellent  judg- 
ment and  an  even,  cheerful  temper,  possessed  an 
iron  constitution.  About  17I9  he  married  Elisa- 
beth Le  Roy,  a  young  girl  of  19,  by  whom  he  had 
five  children,  the  third  being  Fbancois  Andre, 
the  celebrated  composer.  He  retired  on  a  pen- 
sion in  1722,  and  died  Aug.  11,  1730,  at  Dreux, 
whither  he  had  removed  from  Versailles,  probably 
about  the  time  of  his  marriage.    His  brother, 

K.  Jacques,  known  as  Philidor  le  Cadet,  born 
in  Paris  May  5,  1657,  entered  the  Grande  Ecurie 
when  a  little  over  1 2  as  fifer,  and  was  afterwards 
promoted  to  the  oboe,  cromorne,  and  marine  trum- 
pet. In  1683  he  was  admitted  to  the  Chapelle, 
and  in  1690  to  the  Musique  de  la  Chambre,  in 
which  he  played  the  bassoon.  He  was  a  favourite 
with  Louis  XIV,  who  gave  him  some  land  at 
Versailles,  where  he  built  a  house  and  died,  May 
27,  1708.  He  was  an  amiable  man,  and  led  a 
quiet,  happy  life,  on  the  best  of  terms  with  his 
brother,  in  whose  collection  his  compositions  were 
preserved — marches  for  drums  and  kettle-drums, 
airs  for  oboe,  and  dance-music.  The  military 
music  is  still  in  the  library  at  Versailles,  but  the 
rest  has  disappeared.     Jacques  had  by  his  wife, 

1  Ch.  Ballard  published  In  1685  a  flr«t  book  of  ' Pieces  de  trom- 
pettes  et  timballes  a  2,  3,  et  4  parties.'  This  curious  collection  Is  not 
mentioned  In  any  of  the  biographies,  although  the  catalogue  in 
Thoinan's  study  on  the  Fhllidors  contains  the  '  Suite  de  Danses ' 
(1699)  and  the  'Pieces  a  deux  basses  de  vlole,  basse  de  vlolon  et 
basson'(1700). 

»  He  was  at  first  assistant  to  Francois  Fussard,  a  violinist,  whom 
be  tuou  replaced  altogether. 


PHILIDOR. 


703 


Elisabeth  Hanique,  12  children,  of  whom  four 
sons,  Pierre,  Jacques,  Francois,  and  Nicolas,  be- 
came musicians.  Thus  the  two  brothers  Andre* 
and  Jacques,  Philidor  l'aine"  and  Philidor  le 
cadet,  left  a  numerous  progeny.  We  now  revert 
to  the  four  sons  of  Andre" :  the  eldest, 

6.  Anne,  born  in  Paris  April  11,  1681,  be- 
fore he  was  20  produced  at  court,  through  the 
patronage  of  his  godfather,  Duke  Anne  de 
Noailles,  three  pastorales, '  L' Amour  vainqueur ' 
(1697),  'Diane  et  Endymion'  (1698),  and  an- 
other (Marly,  1701),  name  unknown,  included  in 
one  of  the  lost  vols,  of  the  Collection  Philidor. 
In  1702  he  obtained  the  survival  of  his  father's 
posts  in  the  Grand  Ecurie  and  the  Chambre,  and 
in  1704  became  oboist  in  the  Chapelle,  often 
playing  before  Louis  XIV,  who  had  a  predilec- 
tion for  the  instrument.  He  also  scomposed ;  but 
his  real  title  to  a  place  in  the  history  of  music  is 
that  he  was  the  founder  of  the  '  Concerts  Spiri- 
tuels,'  though  he  conducted  them  for  two  years 
only  (1725-27).  The  time  and  manner  of  his 
death  are  uncertain.  Laborde  says  that,  after 
having  directed  the  concerts  of  the  Duchesse  du 
Maine,  he  became  Surintendant  de  la  Musique 
to  the  Prince  de  Conti ;  but  I  have  not  been 
able  to  verify  these  assertions  ;  and,  as  every  one 
knows,  the  regular  musician  of  the  celebrated 
'  nuits  de  Sceaux '  was  Joseph  Mouret  (born  at 
Avignon,  1682,  died  insane  at  Charenton,  1738), 
called  'le  musicien  des  graces,'  from  the  fresh- 
ness of  his  melodies  and  fertility  of  his  ideas. 

7.  Michel,  the  second  son,  and  third  Philidor 
of  the  name,  born  at  Versailles  in  1683,  a  god- 
son of  Michel  de  Lalande,  played  the  drums 
in  the  king's  band.  All  that  need  be  said  of 
him  is  that  Fe"tis's  account  is  incorrect  in  every 
particular. 

8.  Fbancois,  born  at  Versailles  in  1689,  en- 
tered the  Chapelle  in  1708  as  player  on  the  bass 
cromorne  and  marine  trumpet.  In  1716  he  be- 
came oboist  in  the  Chambre,  and  bass  violinist  in 
the  Grande  Ecurie.  He  seems  to  have  died  either 
in  1717  or  the  beginning  of  1718,  leaving  some 
small  compositions — amongst  others,  two  books 
of '  Pieces  pour  la  flute  traversiere'  (Ballard,  1716 
and  1718).    The  youngest  of  the  brothers  was 

PHILIDOR,  Fbancois  Andbk  Danican,  the 
great  composer  and  chess-player,  born  at  Dreux 
Sept.  7,  1726.  As  a  child  he  showed  an  extra- 
ordinary faculty  for  chess,  which  he  saw  played 
by  the  musicians  of  the  Chapelle  du  Roi.  Being 
a  page  of  the  Chapelle  he  had  a  right  to  music- 
lessons,  and  learned  the  fundamental  rules  of 
harmony  from  Andre"  Campra  (born  at  Aix,  Dec. 
4, 1660,  died  at  Versailles,  July  29, 1744),  com- 
poser of  numerous  operas,  and  the  most  original 
of  the  French  musicians  between  Lully  and 
Rameau.4  At  the  close  of  his  time  as  page  he 
came  to  Paris,  and  supported  himself  by  giving 
lessons  and  copying  music.  Discouraged  perhaps 
by  the  difficulties  of  an  artist's  career,  he  gave 

1  Among  his  printed  works  may  be  specified  'Premier  livre  da 
pieces  pour  la  flute  traversiere,  flute  a  bee,  violons  et  hautbols '  (Paris 
1712).  oblong  4to.  There  is  also  a  MS.  Te  Deum  for  4  voices  in  the 
Conservatoire. 

«  For  Cahpba,  see  the  Appendix  to  this  Dictionary. 


704 


PHILIDOR. 


himself  up  entirely  to  chess,  and,  with  a  natural 
gift  for  abstruse  calculations,  studied  it  to  such 
purpose  that  at  1 8  he  was  a  match  for  the  best 
players,  and  able  to  make  a  livelihood  out  of  it. 
Being  however  hard  pressed  by  his  creditors,  he 
started  in  1 745  on  a  tour  abroad,  going  first  to 
Amsterdam,  where  he  pitted  himself  successfully 
against  Stamma,  author  of  '  Les  Stratagemes  du 
jeu  d' echecs.'  Thence  he  went  on  to  Germany, 
and  spent  some  time  in  1 748  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
occupied  in  a  work  on  the  principles  of  the  game. 
He  next,  on  the  invitation  of  Lord  Sandwich, 
visited  the  English  camp  between  Maestricht  and 
Bois-le-Duc,  and  was  well  received  by  the  Duke 
of  Cumberland,  who  invited  him  to  come  to  Lon- 
don and  publish  his  '  Analyse  du  jeu  des  e'checs.' 
The  subscriptions  of  the  English  officers  en- 
couraged him  to  accept  the  invitation,  and  he 
arrived  in  England,  where  he  eventually  acquired 
a  profitable  celebrity.  The  first  edition  of  his 
book  appeared  in  1 749,  and  met  with  great  and 
deserved  success.  It  was  during  this  first  stay 
in  London  that  Philidor  performed  the  remark- 
able feat  at  the  Chess-Club  of  playing  and  win- 
ning three  games  simultaneously  against  first-rate 
players  without  seeing  the  boards.  Concentration 
of  mind  and  power  of  combination,  when  carried 
to  such  an  extent  as  this,  almost  merit  the  name 
of  genius. 

Meantime  Diderot,  and  his  other  friends,  fear- 
ing that  the  continual  strain  of  the  pursuit  for 
which  he  was  forsaking  his  true  vocation  might 
prove  too  severe,  recalled  him  to  Paris  in  1754. 
He  began  at  once  to  compose.  His  motet 
'Lauda  Jerusalem'  did  not  procure  him  the 
place  of  a  '  Surintendant  de  la  Musique'  to 
the  king,  at  which  it  was  aimed,  but  the  dis- 
appointment turned  his  attention  to  dramatic 
music.  His  first  ope'ra-comique,  '  Blaise  le  Save- 
tier '  (1759),  a  brilliant  success,  was  followed  by 
*  L'Huitre  et  les  Plaideurs '  (1 759)  ;  '  Le  Quipro- 
quo,'  2  acts,  and  'Le  Soldat  Magicien'  (1760); 
'  Le  Jardinier  et  son  Seigneur,'  and  '  Le  Mare"- 
chal'  (1761);  '  Sancho  Pan 9a '  (1762);  'Le 
Bficheron'  and  '  Les  F6tes  de  la  Paix,'  intermezzo 
written  on  the  conclusion  of  peace  with  England 
(1763);  'Le  Sorcier,'  2  acts  (1764);  'Tom  Jones,' 
3  acts  (1764);  'Me"lide,  ou  le  Navigateur,'  2  acts 
(1766) ;  '  Le  Jardinier  de  Sidon,'  2  acts  (1768) ; 
<L'Amant  deguise"'  (1769);  'La  nouvelle  Ecole 
desFemmes,'2  acts  (1770);  'LebonFils'  (1773); 
and  'Les  Femmes  vengees,'  3  acts  (i775)>  all 
given  either  at  the  Theatre  de  la  Foire,  or  at  the 
Come'die  Italienne.  Besides  these  he  composed  a 
Requiem  performed  in  1766  on  the  anniversary 
of  Rameau's  death  at  the  Oratoire,  and  produced 
the  tragedy  of  'Ernelinde,'  his  best  work,  at  the 
OpeYa  (Nov.  24,  1 767 ;  reproduced  in  1 769  as 
'Sandomir'). 

These  successes  did  not  cure  him  of  his  passion 
for  chess.  In  1777  he  returned  to  London, 
brought  out  a  second  edition  of  his  'Analyse,' 
and  set  to  music  Horace's  'Carmen  seculare' 
with  flattering  success  (1779). 

On  his  next  return  to  Paris  he  found  Gre*try 
and  Gluck  at  the  height  of  their  popularity;  but, 


PHILIDOR. 

nothing  daunted,  he  composed  '  PerseV  (Oct.  27, 
1780),  and  '  The'mistocle'  (May  23,  1786),  both 
in  3  acts,  produced  at  the  Acade'mie  without 
success,  and  'L'Amitie"  au  village'  (1785)  and 
'  La  belle  esclave,  ou  Valcour  et  Ze"ila'  (1787). 
'  Belisaire,'  3  acts,  was  not  given  at  the  Opera 
in  1774  as  stated  by  Fe"tis,  but  at  the  Theatre 
Favart  (Oct.  3,  1796)  a  year  after  PhUidor'a 
death. 

He  received  a  regular  pension  from  the  Chess 
Club  in  London,  and  it  had  been  his  habit  to 
spend  several  months  of  every  year  in  England. 
In  1792  he  obtained  permission  for  the  journey 
from  the  Comite*  du  Salut  public,  but  events  pre- 
vented his  return  to  Paris,  and  when  his  family 
had  succeeded  in  getting  his  name  erased  from 
the  list  of  Emigres,  they  learned  that  he  had  just 
died  in  London,  Aug.  31,  1795. 

To  estimate  Philidor 's  work  rightly,  the  con- 
dition of  the  French  stage  at  the  time  he  began 
to  write  must  be  taken  into  consideration ;  he 
will  then  appear  to  have  possessed  not  only 
greater  originality,  but  art  of  a  higher  kind 
than  that  of  his  contemporaries  Duni,  Monsigny, 
and  Grdtry.  His  harmony  is  more  varied,  and 
the  form  and  character  of  his  airs  new.  He 
was  the  first  to  introduce  on  the  stage  the  '  air 
descriptif  ('Le  Marechal'),  and  the  unac- 
companied quartet  (' Tom  Jones'),  and  to  form 
a  duet  of  two  independent  and  apparently  in- 
congruous melodies.  Moreover  he  understood 
to  a  degree  then  rare  the  importance  of  the  or- 
chestra and  chorus,  and  undoubtedly  surpassed 
his  compatriots  in  instrumentation.  He  enjoyed 
an  almost  unexampled  popularity  in  his  day, 
being  called  forward  after  the  representation  of 
his  'Sorcier' — the  first  instance  of  the  kind  in 
Paris.  Nevertheless  his  works  have  not  lived, 
probably  because  their  merit  lay  in  construc- 
tion, rather  than  in  melody,  grace,  or  depth  of 
sentiment.  Nor  had  he  dramatic  instinct  at 
all  in  the  same  degree  as  Monsigny  or  Gre'try. 
There  is  a  fine  bust  of  Philidor  by  Pajou,  and 
an  excellent  portrait  by  Cochin,  engraved  by 
St.  Aubin  in  1772. 

The  four  sons  of  Jacques  Danican  Philidor  le 
cadet  may  be  dismissed  in  few  words.    The  eldest, 

Pierre,  born  in  Paris,  Aug.  22,  168 1,  in  the 
same  house  with  his  cousin  Anne,  studied  with 
him;  became  oboist  in  the  Chapelle  (1704),  the 
Grande  Ecurie  (1708),  and  the  Chambre  (1712), 
and  was  also  a  good  player  on  the  flute  and  the 
viol.  He  was  a  player  on  the  viol  in  the  Chambre 
as  late  as  1736,  but  had  resigned  his  other  places 
in  favour  of  his  brother  Nicolas  in  1 7  2  6.  He  died 
probably  about  1 740.  He  composed  a  pastorale, 
produced  before  the  court  at  Marly  (1697),  and 
three  books  of  '  Suites  a  1  flutes  traversieres 
seules,  et  pour  dessus  et  basses  de  hautbois' 
(1717  and  18). 

Jacques,  born  at  Versailles  Sept.  7, 1686,  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  oboist  in  the  Chambre,  and 
died  about  1725. 

Francois,  born  Jan.  12,  1695,  at  Versailles, 
where  he  died  Nov.  1726,  was  oboist  in  the 
Chambre  and  the  Grande  Ecurie. 


PHILIDOR. 

Nicolas,  born  at  Versailles,  Nov.  3,  1699,  died 
1769,  played  several  instruments,  succeeded  his 
brother  Pierre,  and  in  1 747  played  the  serpent 
in  the  Chapelle  Roy  ale.  He  is  not  known  to 
have  composed. 

The  singer  Fanchon  Danican  Philidor  men- 
tioned by  Fitis,  is  an  imaginary  person. 

For  further  information  the  reader  is  referred 
to  Lardin's  '  Philidor  peint  par  lui-meme '  (Paris, 
1847),  republished  from  the  periodical '  Le  Pala- 
mede'  (Jan.  1847),  and  to  'Les  Philidor,  genealo- 
gie  biographique  des  musiciens  de  ce  nom,'  a  con- 
scientious study  which  appeared  in  '  La  France 
musicale'  (Dec.  22,  67,  to  Feb.  16,  68.)     [G.  C] 

PHILIPPS,  Peter,  known  also  by  his  Latin- 
ised name  of  Petrus  Philippus  and  his  Italianised 
one  of  Pietro  Filippo,  an  Englishman  by  birth, 
was  an  ecclesiastic,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
16th  century  was  canon  of  Bethune  in  French 
Flanders.  He  visited  Italy  and  spent  some  time 
in  Rome.  Returning  to  Flanders  he  became  one 
of  the  organists  of  the  vice-regal  chapel  of  the 
Archduke  and  Duchess,  Albert  and  Isabella,  gover- 
nors of  the  Low  Countries.  On  March  9,  1 6 10 
he  was  appointed  a  canon  of  the  collegiate  church 
of  St.  Vincent  at  Soignies.  He  composed  many 
excellent  motets  and  madrigals.  His  published 
works  are  '  Melodia  Olympica  di  diversi  Excel- 
lentissimi  Musici  a  IV,  V,  VI,  et  VIII  voci,' 
1 59 1,  reprinted  1594  and  161 1 ;  'II  Primo  Libro 
di  Madrigali  a  sei  voci,'  1596  ;  'Madrigali  a  otto 
voci,'  1598  and  1599  ;  'H  Secondo  Libro  di  Ma- 
drigali a  sei  voci,'  1603  and  1604;  'Cantiones 
Sacrae  quinque  vocum,'  1612;  'Cantiones  Sacrse 
octo  vocum,'  1613  ;  'Geinmulse  Sacrae,  binis  et 
ternis  vocibus  cum  basso  continuo  ad  organum,' 
1613  and  1621;  '  Litanise  B.V.M.  in  Ecclesia 
Loretana  cani  solitae,  4,  5,  9  vocum,'  1623  ;  and 
'  Paradisus  Sacris  Cantionibus  consitu  a  1,  2,  3 
vocum  cum  Basso  Continuo,'  1628.  Burney  (His- 
tory, iii.  86)  says  that  the  first  regular  fugue 
upon  one  subject  that  he  had  met  with  was  com- 
posed by  Peter  Philipps.  It  is  contained,  with 
about  18  or  20  other  compositions  by  Philipps, 
in  the  MS.  known  as  Queen  Elizabeth's  Virginal 
Book,  in  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum  at  Cam- 
bridge. Hawkins  has  printed  a  4- part  madrigal 
by  Philipps  (from  the  Melodia  Olympica)  in 
his  History.  [W.H.H.] 

PHILLIPPS,  Arthur,  Mus.  Bac,  born  1605, 
became  in  1622  a  clerk  of  New  College,  Oxford, 
and  was  appointed  organist  of  Bristol  Cathedral 
Dec.  1,  1638.  On  the  death  of  Richard  Nicolson 
in  1639  he  succeeded  him  as  organist  of  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford,  and  Professor  of  Music  in  the 
University,  and  graduated  Mus.  Bac.  July  9, 
1640.  Some  time  afterwards  he  quitted  the  Eng- 
lish Church  for  that  of  Rome,  and  attended  Queen 
Henrietta  Maria  to  France  as  her  organist.  Re- 
turning to  England  he  entered  the  service  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  gentleman  in  Sussex  named 
Caryll.  He  composed  music  in  several  parts  for 
*  The  Requiem,  or,  Liberty  of  an  imprisoned 
RoyaUst,'  1641,  and  a  poem  by  Dr.  Pierce,  en- 
titled 'The  Resurrection,'  1649.  He  describea 
VOL.  II.  PT.  12. 


PHILLIPS. 


705 


himself  in  the  subscription  book  as  son  of  William 
Phillipps  of  Winchester,  gentleman.    [W.H.  H.] 

PHILLIPS,  Henry,  born  in  Bristol,  Aug.  13, 
1 80 1,  was  the  son  of  a  country  actor  and  manager, 
and  made  his  first  appearance  in  public  as  a  sing- 
ing boy  at  the  Harrogate  Theatre  about  1 807.  He 
afterwards  came  to  London  and  sang  in  the  chorus 
at  Drury  Lane  and  elsewhere.  On  the  settlement 
of  his  voice  as  a  baritone  he  placed  himself  under 
the  tuition  of  Broadhurst,  and  was  engaged  in  the 
chorus  at  the  English  Opera  House,  and  to  sing 
in  glees  at  civic  dinners.  He  next  had  an  engage- 
ment at  Bath,  where  he  sang  in  '  Messiah '  with 
success.  Returning  to  London  he  studied  under 
Sir  George  Smart  and  appeared  in  the  Lenten 
oratorios  at  the  theatres.  In  1824  he  was  en- 
gaged at  Covent  Garden  and  appeared  as  Arta- 
banes  in  Arne's  '  Artaxerxes,'  but  made  little 
mark.  In  the  summer  of  the  same  year  he  sang 
the  music  of  Caspar  on  the  production  of  '  Der 
Freischiitz'  with  great  effect.  He  then  made 
progress,  was  engaged  at  the  provincial  festivals, 
and  in  1825  appointed  principal  bass  at  the  Con- 
cert of  Ancient  Music,  and  from  that  time  filled 
the  first  place  at  the  theatre  and  in  the  concert- 
room.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  choir  at  the 
chapel  of  the  Bavarian  Embassy.  About  1843 
he  gave  up  his  theatrical  engagements  and  started 
a  series  of  'table  entertainments,'  which,  notwith- 
standing their  ill-success,  he  persisted  in  giving, 
at  intervals,  until  he  quitted  public  life.  In 
August  1844  he  went  to  America,  and  remained 
there,  giving  his  entertainments  in  various 
places,  for  nearly  a  year.  On  his  return  to  Eng- 
land lie  found  that  his  place  had  been  filled  up 
by  others,  and  it  was  some  months  before  he  re- 
gained his  position.  On  Feb.  25, 1863  (his  powers 
having  been  for  some  time  on  the  wane)  he  gave 
a  farewell  concert  and  retired.  He  then  became 
a  teacher  of  singing,  at  first  at  Birmingham,  and 
afterwards  in  the  vicinity  of  London.  He  died 
at  Dalston,  Nov.  8,  1876.  He  composed  several 
songs,  etc.,  and  was  author  of  '  The  True  Enjoy- 
ment of  Angling,'  1843,  and  'Musical  and  Per- 
sonal Recollections  during  half  a  century,'  1864. 
Phillips  was  heard  to  the  best  advantage  in  the 
songs  of  Handel  and  Purcell,  and  the  oratorio 
songs  of  Haydn,  Mendelssohn,  and  Spohr.  On 
the  stage  he  was  most  successful  in  ballads.  In 
the  comic  operas  of  Mozart  and  Rossini  he  failed 
to  create  any  impression.  [W.H.H.] 

PHILLIPS,  William  Lovell,  born  at  Bristol 
Dec.  26,  1816 ;  at  an  early  age  entered  the 
cathedral  choir  of  that  city,  and  subsequently 
proceeded  to  London,  where  he  sang  as  Master 
Phillips,  the  beauty  of  his  voice  attracting  the  ap- 
probation of  Miss  Stephens,  afterwards  Countess 
of  Essex.  He  studied  at  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Music,  where  he  was  a  pupil  of  Cipriani 
Potter,  and  class-fellow  of  Sterndale  Bennett, 
and  eventually  became  Professor  of  Composition 
at  that  institution.  From  Robert  Lindley  he 
took  lessons  on  the  violoncello,  and  soon  became 
a  member  of  the  orchestras  of  the  Philharmonic, 
Antient  Concerts,  Her  Majesty's,  the    Sacred 

Zz 


706 


PHILLIPS. 


PHRASING. 


Harmonic  Society,  etc.,  besides  being  regularly 
engagedat  all  the  great  Musical  Festivals.  He  was 
at  different  times  musical  director  of  the  Olympic 
and  Princess's  Theatres,  composing  the  music 
for  a  variety  of  dramas.  For  many  years  he 
held  the  post  of  organist  at  St.  Katherine's 
Church,  Regent's  Park,  and  at  one  time  con- 
ducted a  series  of  concerts  at  St.  Martin's  Hall. 
In  addition  to  numerous  songs  he  composed  a 
Symphony  in  F  minor,  which  was  performed 
with  great  success  at  the  concerts  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music,  and  of  the  Society  of  British 
Musicians.  Prior  to  his  fatal  illness  he  was 
engaged  on  an  opera  founded  on  a  Rosicrucian 
story,  and  a  cantata  on  a  Welsh  subject.  He 
also  attained  gre.it  proficiency  on  the  pianoforte, 
playing  at  the  concerts  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
his  last  public  performance  being  the  fifth  con- 
certo of  Moscheles  in  C  major.  He  died 
March  19,  i860,  and  was  buried  at  the  Highgate 
cemetery.  [G.] 

PHILTRE,  LE.  Opera  in  2  acts ;  words  by 
Scribe,  music  by  Auber.  Produced  at  the  Aca- 
demic royale  June  20,  1 831 ;  and  in  English — 
"The  Love  Spell' — at  the  Olympic,  London, 
Oct.  27  of  the  same  year.  The  subject  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Elisire  d'amore  of  Donizetti. 
It  kept  the  Paris  stage  almost  without  interrup- 
tion till  Jan.  8,  1862,  during  which  period  it 
was  played  242  times.  [G.] 

PHRASE  is  one  of  the  smallest  items  in  the 
divisions  which  distinguish  the  form  of  a  musical 
work.  Where  there  are  distinct  portions  marked 
off  by  closes  like  full  stops,  and  half  closes  like 
stops  of  less  emphasis  (as  often  happens  in  Airs, 
Tunes,  Themes,  etc.),  the  complete  divisions  are 
generally  called  periods,  and  the  lesser  divisions 
phrases.  The  word  is  not  and  can  hardly  be 
used  with  much  exactness  and  uniformity,  for 
sometimes  a  phrase  may  be  all,  as  it  were,  con- 
tained in  one  breath,  and  sometimes  subordinate 
divisions  may  be  very  clearly  marked.  See 
Phrasing.  [C.H.H.P.] 

PHRASING.  A  musical  composition,  as  has 
just  been  said,  consists  of  a  series  of  short  sections 
of  various  lengths,  called  phrases,  each  more  or 
less  complete  in  itself;  and  it  is  upon  the  inter- 
dependence of  these  phrases,  and  upon  their  con- 
nection with  each  other,  that  the  intelligibility  of 
music  depends.  The  phrases  are  analogous  to  the 
sentences  of  a  literary  composition. 

The  relationship  of  the  different  phrases  to 
each  other  and  to  the  whole  work  forms  no  part 
of  our  present  subject,  but  may  be  studied  in  the 
article  Form  ;  what  we  have  at  present  to  do 
with  is  the  proper  rendering  of  the  phrases  in 
performance,  that  they  may  be  presented  to  the 
listener  in  an  intelligible  and  attractive  form. 
The  process  by  which  this  is  accomplished  is 
called  Phrasing,  and  is  perhaps  the  most  import- 
ant of  the  various  elements  which  go  to  make 
a  good  and  artistic  rendering  of  a  musical  com- 
position. Rousseau  ('Dictionnaire  de  Musique ') 
Bays  of  it,  '  The  singer  who  feels  what  he  sings, 
and  duly  marks  the   phrases  and  accents,  is  a 


man  of  taste.  But  he  who  can  only  give  the 
values  and  intervals  of  the  notes  without  the 
sense  of  the  phrases,  however  accurate  he  may 
be,  is  a  mere  machine. 

Just  as  the  intelligent  reading  of  a  literary 
composition  depends  chiefly  upon  two  things, 
accentuation  and  punctuation,  bo  does  musical 
phrasing  depend  on  the  relative  strength  of  the 
sounds,  and  upon  their  connection  with  or  se- 
paration from  each  other.  It  is  this  close  rela- 
tionship of  language  to  music  which  makes  their 
union  in  vocal  music  possible  and  appropriate, 
and  accordingly  when  music  is  allied  to  words  it 
is  necessary  that  the  musical  accents  should 
coincide  with  those  of  the  text,  while  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  various  phrases  agrees  with  the  divi- 
sion of  the  text  into  separate  lines  or  sentences. 
In  instrumental  music,  although  the  same  prin- 
ciples underlie  its  construction,  there  is  no  such 
definite  guide  as  that  afforded  by  the  sense  of 
the  words  in  a  song,  and  the  phrasing  must 
therefore  be  the  result  of  a  just  appreciation  on 
the  part  of  the  performer  of  the  general  sense  of 
the  music,  and  of  the  observance  of  certain  marks 
by  which  phrasing  is  indicated. 

If  we  now  consider  more  closely  the  causes  and 
consequences  of  a  variety  in  the  strength  of  the 
notes  of  a  phrase,  we  notice  in  the  first  place  the 
necessity  for  an  accent  on  the  first  note  of  eveiy 
bar,  and,  in  certain  rhythms,  on  other  parts 
of  the  bar  also.  These  regularly  recurring  ac- 
cents, though  an  important  part  of  phrasing, 
Deed  not  be  dwelt  on  here,  as  they  have  already 
been  fully  treated  in  the  article  Accent  ;  but 
there  are  certain  irregular  forms  of  accent  occa- 
sionally required  by  the  phrasing,  which  it  is 
necessary  to  notice. 

In  rapid  passages,  when  there  are  many  notes 
in  a  bar,  it  is  often  necessary  to  introduce  more 
accents  than  the  ordinary  rhythm  requires,  and 
the  number  and  frequency  of  the  accents  will 
depend  upon  the  number  of  changes  of  harmony 
upon  which  the  passage  is  founded.  Thus  in  the 
first  bar  of  the  following  example,  each  couple  of 
notes,  after  the  first  four,  represents  a  new 
harmony,  and  the  bar  will  consequently  require 
seven  accents,  while  the  next  two  bars  will  receive 
the  ordinary  rhythmic  accent  on  the  first  note  of 
each  group ;  and  in  the  fourth  bar,  since  the 
harmony  does  not  change,  two  accents  will  suffice 
In  the  example  the  place  of  the  accents  is  shown 
by  the  asterisks. 

1.    Muller,  Caprice,  Op. 29,  No. 4. 


, 


P  r    wLT  P  i  ■  _ 


^gP 


^ 


PHRASING. 

Sometimes  these  extra  accents  have  the  effect 
of  appearing  to  alter  or  add  to  the  harmonies 
upon  which  the  passage  is  founded,  as  in  Ex.  2, 
where  the  additional  accents  demanded  by  the 
composer's  method  of  writing  in  groups  of  two 
notes  instead  of  four,  seem  to  indicate  an  alter- 
nation of  the  tonic  and  dominant  harmonies  of  C 
minor,  whereas  if  the  passage  were  played  as  in 
Ex.  3  the  effect  would  be  that  of  a  single  C  minor 
harmony. 

2.     Schumann,  'In  der  Xacht.' 


PHRASING. 


707- 


On  the  other  hand,  there  are  cases  in  which 
the  phrasing  requires  the  omission  of  some  of 
the  regular  accents.  This  occurs  in  quick  move- 
ments, when  owing  to  the  introduction  of  a 
melody  written  in  notes  of  great  length,  two  or 
even  four  of  the  actual  written  bars  combine, 
and  appear  to  the  listener  to  form  a  single  bar. 
This  is  the  case  in  Ex.  4,  the  effect  of  which 
is  precisely  that  of  such  a  bar  as  Ex.  5,  and 
the  whole  phrase  of  four  bars  will  only  require 
two  accents,  falling  upon  places  corresponding  to 
the  first  and  third  beats  of  Ex.  5.  In  the  move- 
ment quoted  the  effect  of  the  long  bars  remains  in 
force  during  no  less  than  44  of  the  actual  written 
bars,  the  original  3-4  rhythm  coming  into  use 
again  on  the  entrance  of  the  syncopated  subject. 


4.    Beethoven,  Sonata,  Op. 28. 


As  a  rule,  the  accent  of  a  passage  follows  the 
grouping,  the  first  note  of  each  group  receiving 
the  accent  ;  whenever  therefore  the  grouping  of 
a  passage  consisting  of  notes  of  equal  length 
varies,  the  number  of  accents  in  the  bar  must 
vary  also.  Thus  in  Ex.  6  the  first  bar  will  con- 
tain four  accents,  while  the  third  requires  but  two. 


The  signs  which  govern  the  connection  or  dis- 
connection  of  the  sounds  are  the  dash  (')  or 


*  dot  (•),  and  the  curved  line  indicating  legato. 

',  The  ordinary  use  of  these  signs  has  already  been 
described  [Dash,  Legato],  and  the  due  observ- 
ance of  them  constitutes  a  most  essential  part  of 
phrasing,  but  in  addition  to  this  the  curved  line 
is  used  to  denote  an  effect  of  peculiar  importance, 
called  the  Slur. 

When  two  notes  of  equal  length  in  quick  or 
moderately  quick  tempo  are  joined  together  by  a 
curved  line  they  are  said  to  be  slurred,  and  in 
playing  them  a  considerable  stress  is  laid  on  the 
first  of  the  two,  while  the  second  is  not  only 
weaker,  but  is  made  shorter  than  it  is  written, 
as  though  followed  by  a  rest. 

7.    Haydn,  Sonata. 
Written.  Played. 


^3c£fi3J3jy|^te 


The  rule  that  the  first  of  the  slurred  notes 
receives  the  accent  holds  good  even  when  it  is  in 
an  unaccented  part  of  the  bar  (Ex.  8).  In  such 
a  case  the  slur  causes  a  very  effective  displace- 
ment of  accent. 

8.    Beethoven,  Concerto  in  C  minor. 
Written. 


Played. 


J& 


fezS^^J^^^I 


Groups  of  two  notes  of  which  the  second  is  the 
shorter  may  also  be  slurred  in  the  same  way 
(Ex.  9),  but  when  the  second  is  the  longer  note 
it  must  be  but  slightly  curtailed,  though  still 
perceptibly,  and  there  is  no  displacement  of  ac- 
cent (Ex.  10). 

9.   Haydn,  Sonata. 
Written.  >  Played. 


10.    Mendelssohn.    Presto  Agitato. 

jrw««i. 


The  slur  is  often  used  in  combination  with 
staccato  notes  in  the  same  group  (Ex.  11).  When 
this  is  the  case  the  second  of  the  two  slurred 
notes  must  be  played  both  weaker  and  shorter 
than  the  notes  marked  staccato. 

Zz2 


708  -  PHRASING. 

11.    Beethoven,  Concerto  in  G. 
Written. 


m^ 


I    I    I    l         '  J    '  J  -d — ^r- 


When  the  curved  line  is  drawn  over  two  notes 
of  considerable  length,  or  in  slow  tempo,  it  is  not 
a  slur,  but  merely  a  sign  of  legato  (Ex.  1 2),  and 
the  same  if  it  covers  a  group  of  three  or  more 
notes  (Ex.  13).  In  these  cases  there  is  no  cur- 
tailment of  the  last  note. 

12.    Beethoven,  Horn  Sonata,  Op.  17. 


pm 


*= 


sg 


13.    Mozart,  Rondo  in  F. 


But  if  the  curved  line  is  so  extended  as  to  in- 
clude and  end  upon  an  accented  note,  then  an 
effect  analogous  to  the  slur  is  intended,  and  the 
last  of  the  notes  so  covered  must  be  shortened 
(Ex.  14).  A  similar  effect  is  also  sometimes 
indicated  by  varying  the  grouping  of  the  notes,  so 
that  the  groups  do  not  agree  with  the  rhythmic 
divisions  of  the  bar  (Ex.  15). 

Schumann,  Humoresken. 


^^ 


f3! 

The  great  value  of  definite  and  characteristic 
phrasing  is  perhaps  nowhere  so  strikingly  mani- 
fested as  in  the  performance  of  music  containing 
imitation.  In  all  such  music  the  leading  part  must 
contain  some  marked  and  easily  recognisable 
effect,  either  of  variety  of  force,  as  in  Ex.  16,  or 
of  connection  and  disconnection,  as  in  Ex.  1 7,  and 
it  is  by  means  of  the  repetition  of  such  charac- 
teristic effects  in  the  answering  part  or  parts  that 
the  imitation  is  rendered  intelligible,  or  even  per- 
ceptible, to  the  ordinary  listener. 

16.    Haydn,  Sonata.  sf 


PHRYGIAN  MODE 


17.    Mozart,  Gigue 

Jn  {73  J71jJ>3  —    *^r1  ' 


PHRYGIAN  MODE  (Lat.  Modus  Phrygian 
Modus  mysticus).  The  Third  of  the  Ecclesiastical 
Modes.     [See  Modks,  the  Ecclesiastical.] 

The  Final  of  the  Phrygian  Mode  is  E.  Its 
range  extends  upwards,  in  the  Authentic  form, 
from  that  note  to  the  Octave  above ;  and 
Semitones  occur  between  its  first  and  second, 
and  fifth  and  sixth  Degrees.  Its  Dominant  is  C 
(B,  the  fifth  Degree  of  the  Scale,  being  inadmis- 
sible, on  account  of  its  false  relation  with  F). 
Its  Mediant  is  G  ;  and  its  Participant  A,  for 
which  note  B  is  sometimes  substituted.  Its 
Conceded  Modulations  are  D  (the  note  below 
the  Final),  and  F ;  and  its  Absolute  Initials, 
E,  F,  C,  and,  more  rarely,  G.  Its  principal 
features  are  shewn  in  the  subjoined  example. 


I 


Fin. 


Med.  Pr.rt.  Part.  Dora. 


In  its  Plagal,  or  Hypophrygian  form  (Mode  IV, 
Modus  Hypophrygius  or  Harmon  tens),  its  range 
lies  a  Fourth  lower,  extending  from  B  to  the 
Octave  above.     In  this  form,  the  Semitones  lie 
between  the  first  and  second,  and  the  fourth  and 
fifth  Degrees.  The  Dominant  of  the  Hypophrygian 
Mode  is  A.     Its  Mediant  is  G,  and  its  Partici- 
pant C,  for  which  note  F  is  sometimes  subst 
tuted.     Its  Conceded  Modulations  are  D  and 
(the  lowest  note  of  the  Mode).     Its  Final,  lil 
that  of  the  Authentic  form,  is  E.     The  genera 
conformation  of    the    Mode   is   shown    in 
subjoined  example. 

Part.  Fin.  Part.  Med.  Pom. 


It  will  be  observed  that  the  compass  anci 
intervals  of  this  Mode  correspond  exactly  witl 
those  of  the  rejected  Locrian  ;  yet  Hypophrygiar 
Melodies  have  always  been  considered  perfect 
lawful.  The  reason  is,  that  the  Locrian  Mode, 
being  Authentic,  is  subject  to  the  Harmonic 
Division,  which  produces  a  Quintet  falsa  between 
B  and  F,  and  a  Tritonus  between  F  and  B ; 
whereas,  the  Hypophrygian  Mode,  being  Plagal, 
is  subject  to  the  Arithmetical  Division,  a 
exhibits  a  Perfect  Fourth,   between  B  and 


PHRYGIAN  MODE. 

and  a  Perfect  Fifth,  between  E  and  B.     [See 
pp.  341  -342  of  this  volume.] 

The  antient  Plain  Chaunt  Melody  of  'Te 
Deum  Laudamus'  is  in  the  Mixed  Phrygian 
Mode ;  tliat  is  to  say,  it  extends  through  the  en- 
tire compass  of  the  Authentic  and  Plagal  forms, 
united  ;  and,  as  it  brings  out  the  peculiar  charac- 
teristics of  the  Mode  very  strongly,  it  may  be 
taken  as  a  good  example  of  its  use.  [W.S.R.] 
PHYSHARMONICA.  A  little  reed  organ 
invented  in  Vienna  in  1818  by  Anton  Hiickel, 
who  intended  it  to  be  placed  under  the  keyboard 
of  the  piano,  to  sustain  the  melody.  It  was  in- 
creased in  size  and  importance  and  by  various 
improvements  at  length  developed  into  the 
Harmonium.  The  name  is  used  in  Germany  for 
a  free-reed  stop  in  the  organ.  [A.  J.H.] 

PIACERE,  A,  '  at  pleasure,'  is  generally  pre- 
fixed to  a  cadenza,  or  cadenza-like  passage,  in 
solo  vocal  music,  to  indicate  that  the  expressions, 
and  the  alterations  whether  of  time  or  force,  are 
left  to  the  will  of  the  individual  performer.  In 
such  cases  the  accompaniment  is  generally  di- 
rected to  be  played 'colla  voce,'  'with  the  voice,' 
without  regarding  the  strict  time  of  the  composi- 
tion. A  piacere  is  sometimes  put  to  cadenzas  in 
a  concerto,  but  is  not  of  frequent  occurrence. 
It  is  not  seldom  found  in  cantabile  passages  in 
instrumental  music,  but  ad  libitum  is  the  more 
common  direction  of  the  two,  and  expresses  the 
same  thing.  [J.A.F.M.] 

PIACEVOLE,  'agreeable,  pleasant.'  This 
word,  when  used  as  a  musical  direction,  indi- 
cates that  the  piece  is  to  be  played  in  a  graceful 
way,  without  passion.  It  has  nearly  the  same 
meaning  as  '  grazioso '  or  the  direction  '  con  ama- 
bilita '  used  by  Beethoven  in  the  Pianoforte 
Sonata,  Op.  no  (1st  movement).  'Allegro 
piacevole '  is  used  by  him  in  the  3rd  movement 
of  the  Sonata  for  piano  and  violin,  Op.  12,  No.  2  ; 
and  '  piacevole'  alone  in  the  4th  variation  in  the 
slow  movement  of  the  Sonata,  Op.  109.  A  more 
modern  but  not  less  well-known  instance  of  its 
use  is  Sterndale  Bennett's  lovely  '  Rondo  Pia- 
cevole' for  pianoforte  solo,  Op.  25.  [J.A.F.M.] 
PIANETTE ;  a  very  low  pianino,  or  upright 
pianoforte,  introduced  in  1857  by  Bord,  of  Paris, 
the  well-known  maker.  The  low  price  and  good 
quality  of  these  instruments  soon  extended  their 
sale  to  England,  where  they  received  the  name 
'  pianette ' —  an  impossibility  in  France,  '  piano ' 
being  of  the  masculine  gender.  The  French 
name,  originating  in  Bord's  establishment,  is 
'Bibi/a  workman's  corruption  of  'Be'be'' — 'the 
baby.'  Pianettes  have  been  made  in  London  for 
some  years  by  Broadwood,  Cramer,  and  others. 
This  year  (1880)  a  new  style  in  black  cases  has 
been  named  'Zoulou'  (Zulu),  a  name  already 
generally  accepted.  Bord's  spiral  hopper-spring 
(ressort  a  boudin),  used  in  pianettes,  is  a  useful 
and  very  effective  contrivance,  economical  of 
space.  [A.J.H.] 

PIANGENDO,  '  wailingly.'  A  direction  pro- 
perly only  used  in  vocal  music,  but  affected  a 
good  deal  of  late  by  writers  of  drawing-room 


PIANOFORTE. 


709 


pieces.     Its  proper  instrumental  equivalent   is 
'  dolente '  or  '  con  dolore.'  [J.A.F.M.] 

PIANISSIMO, '  very  softly.'  This  direction, 
which  on  all  ordinary  occasions  is  expressed  by 
pp,  is  sometimes,  but  not  very  often,  written  in 
full — as  a  rule,  to  emphasize  the  fact  of  its  pre- 
sence in  cases  where  it  would  least  be  expected. 
Beethoven  often  uses  the  full  direction  simul- 
taneously with  the  abbreviation,  as  in  the  10th 
Variation  of  the  33  on  a  valse  by  Diabelli,  op. 
120,  in  which  variation  may  also  be  found  an 
instance  of  one  of  his  chief  characteristics,  the 
sudden  leap  from  ff  to  pp  in  the  31st  bar. 
Another  striking  instance  of  both  these  uses  is 
in  the  Scherzo  of  the  Eroica  Symphony,  where 
the  pianissimo  is  insisted  on,  not  only  at  the 
beginning  of  the  movement,  but  on  almost  every 
page  of  the  score  until  the  crescendo  (only  for 
one  bar)  up  to  fortissimo,  after  2  7  bars  of  which 
there  is  a  sudden  piano  which  is  used  again 
frequently  throughout  the  rest  of  the  movement. 
Since  Beethoven's  time,  the  practice  has  become 
very  common  of  using  ppp,  for  what  Weber  in 
the  beginning  of  the  overture  to  Oberon  calls  '  II 
tutto  pianissimo  possibile.'  It  is  used  notably  by 
Berlioz  in  the  'Damnation  de  Faust,'  just  before 
the  '  Danse  des  Sylphes,'  and  in  the  middle  of  it, 
where  the  first  subject  is  resumed.  He  even  goes 
so  far  as  to  use  the  sign  pppp  for  the  last  two 
notes  of  the  clarinets  at  the  end  of  the  dance. 
Verdi,  in  his  Requiem,  has  gone  even  farther,  and 
at  one  point  uses  ppppp-  [J.A.F.M.] 

PIANO,  'soft.'  This  word,  expressed  in  gen- 
eral by  its  initial  p,  is  used  to  denote  the  least 
degree  of  strength  except  pianissimo.  It  is  used, 
as  is  the  case  with  most  other  directions,  in  full 
only  when  it  is  necessary  to  draw  particular 
attention  to  its  presence,  or  where  it  is  unlikely 
that  it  should  stand  ;  for  instance,  in  the  Finale 
of  Beethoven's  PF.  Sonata,  Op.  2,  No.  1,  where 
the  second  subject  is  labelled  'Sempre  piano  e 
dolce.'  Mezzo  piano  (abbreviated  mp)  denotes 
a  degree  of  force  slightly  louder  than  piano. 
Beethoven  was  very  fond  of  using  a  'sudden 
piano'  as  a  kind  of  surprise  directly  after  a 
forte  or  fortissimo.  Examples  are  very  common 
throughout  his  works,  and  the  occurrence  of  the 
sudden  change — only  recently  observed,  and  even 
now  not  always  attended  to — makes  a  material 
difference  in  the  performance  of  his  works.  [See 
Forte  ;  vol.  i.  p.  556  a.]  [J.A.F.M.] 

PIANOFORTE— or  Forte  Piano,  as  often 
written  in  the  18th  century — an  instrument  of 
Italian  origin.  The  earliest  mention  of  the  name 
appears  in  records  of  the  family  of  Este,  in  the 
letters  of  a  musical  instrument  maker  named 
Paliarino,  dated  June  27  and  Dec.  31,  1598,  and 
addressed  to  Alfonso  II,  Duke  of  Modena.  They 
were  found  in  1879  by  Count  L.  F.  Valdrighi, 
custos  of  the  Biblioteca  Estense,  at  Modena ;  and 
the  discovery  was  immediately  announced  in 
the  Florentine  musical  paper,  'Boccherini.'  In 
August  of  that  year  Valdrighi  published  the 
text  of  the  letters,  with  an  essay,  in  a  pam- 
phlet entitled  'Musurgiana'  (Olivari,  Modena, 


710 


PIANOFORTE. 


1879).  In  the  first  letter  Paliarino  mentions  the 
recovery  of  '  the  instrument  Piano  e  Forte,  with 
the  organ1  underneath';  in  the  second,  'the  re- 
covery from  certain  priests,  with  other  instru- 
ments, of  the  Piano  e  Forte  above  mentioned 
and  another  Piano  e  Forte  on  which  the  late 
Duke  Alfonso  had  played.'2  Here  are  two  in- 
struments distinctly  named  Piano  e  Forte  (cor- 
recting Paliarino's  uncertain  spelling).  In  the 
second  letter  the  same  Hippolito  Cricca,  detto 
Paliarino,  as  he  there  signs  himself  (or  Paglia- 
rini  as  he  spells  his  name  elsewhere),  seizes  the 
opportunity  of  his  brother's  visit  to  Venice,  to 
ask  for  sundry  materials  to  be  procured  there,  as 
needful  for  repairs,  and  for  building  a  new  '  Pian 
e  Forte';  namely,  limetree,  boxwood,  and  ebony 
for  keys,  cypress  for  the  belly,  brass  wire,  Ger- 
man glue,  etc.,  etc.  In  Paliarino's  inventory  of 
the  Cuke's  keyed  instruments,  also  given  in 
Count  Valdrighi's  appendix  to  his  essay,  there 
are,  including  organs,  fifty-two,3  but  only  one 
'  Piano  e  Forto,'  the  one  with  the  organ  beneath, 
as  specially  distinguished ;  the  other,  and  perhaps 
more,  being  possibly  recorded  under  the  simple 
name  '  instrument '  (istromento),  which  is  used 
to  describe  11  of  the  52.  The  clavicembalo  or 
cembalo  (harpsichord)  and  spinetta  (spinet)  might 
also  have  been  classed  under  this  general  desig- 
nation, yet  Paliarino  separates  them.  We  can 
come  to  no  conclusion  from  these  names  as  to 
what  kind  of  instrument  this  Piano  e  Forte  was. 
It  was  most  likely,  as  suggested  by  Sig.  Cesare 
Ponsicchi  in  the  'Boccherini'  (1879,  No.  6),  a 
harpsichord  with  a  contrivance  for  dynamic 
change;  but  whether  hammers  were  applied, 
making  it  a  real  pianoforte,  we  are  at  present  in 
the  dark.  The  ' gravecembalo  col  piano  e  forte' 
of  Cristofori  of  Padua,  a  hundred  years  later, 
may  not  have  really  been  the  first  attempt  to 
make  a  hammer-harpsichord ;  indeed  Cristofori's 
invention  seems  almost  too  completely  successful 
to  have  been  the  first  conception  of  this  instru- 
ment— a  dulcimer  with  keys. 

We  must  now  transfer  our  attention  from 
Modena  to  Florence,  and  skip  from  1598  to  1709, 
when  we  find  Prince  Ferdinand  dei  Medici,  a 
lover  of  music,  in  fact  an  eminent  musician,  and 
deeply  interested  in  mathematical  and  mechani- 
cal questions,  accepting  at  the  request  of  three 
scholars,  one  of  whom  was  the  Marchese  Scipione 
Maffei,  the  protection  of  a  quarterly  publication 
intended  for  learned  and  cultivated  readers,  viz. 
the  '  Giornale  dei  Letterati  d'ltalia.'  This  pa- 
tronage was  the  result  of  a  personal  visit  of 
Maffei  to  Florence,  where  he  met  with  Barto- 
lomeo  Cristofori,  harpsichord-maker  and  custo- 
dian of  the  Prince's  musical  instruments,  and 
was  shown  by  him   four  specimens  of  a  new 

■ '  Cossi  lo  ml  rltroTO  l'orghano  dl  carta,  et  l'lnstrumento  Plan  e 
Forte  con  l'orghano  dl  sotto  .  .  . . ' 

2  '  L'altezza  vostra  sappia  che  ml  rltroro  del'  suo  che  lo  recuperrato 
da  quest!  1'retti  1'horggano  dl  carta,  l'lstrumento  Plane  e  Forte  con 
l'horggano  dlsotto,  un  altro  istrumento  dl  dua  registrl  et  11  Piane  e 
Fortte,  quello  che  adoprava  11  Ser.  Slg.  Duca  Alfonso  buona  me- 
moria ' 

>  This  large  number,  as  It  seems  to  us,  was  not  then  remarkable  for 
a  prince  to  hare :  a  hundred  years  later  Prince  Ferdinand  del  Medici 
owned  at  least  40.  See  Appendix  C,  p.  101.  to  Puliti's  'Cenni  Storici 
dolla  vita  del  Ser»« Ferdinando  dei  Medici '  CFlorence  1S74). 


PIANOFORTE. 

harpsichord  with  piano  and  forte,  the  invention 
and  make  of  Cristofori.  Of  these,  three  were  of 
the  usual  long  shape;  the  other  was  different, 
we  know  not  in  what  way,  but  a  detailed  account 
of  Cristofori's  invention,  written  by  Scipione 
Maffei,  appeared  in  the  Giornale  in  1711,  witl 
a  diagram,  from  a  rough  sketch,  of  his  hammer 
action.  He  calls  the  inventor  Cristofali,  whic 
form  of  the  name  has  been  until  now  followed, 
but  an  autograph  and  the  inscriptions  upon  the 
pianofortes  of  his  make  are  decisive  evidence 
favour  of  the  real  name  being  Cristofori.4 

The  complete  text  of  Maffei's  article,  in  the 
original  language,  with  an  indifferent  English 
translation,  is  to  be  found  in  Rimbault's  'The 
Pianoforte'  (Cocks, London,  i860) — the  faults  of 
translation  being  most  obvious  in  the  technica 
terms.  There  is  no  doubt  about  Cristofori  having 
made  these  instruments  under  the  patronage  of 
Prince  Ferdinand,  who  had  brought  him  froii 
Padua  some  time  about  1690.   [See  Cristofoki.] 

We  owe  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  Maffei  for  his 
record  of  the  invention,  which  he  reproduced  ii 
the  collection  of  his  works  entitled  'Rime  e 
Prose,'  1 719.  The  reprint  has  been  the  cause  of 
a  misconception  of  the  date  of  the  inventior 
through  want  of  reference  to  the  earlier  publica- 
tion, which  was  anonymous.  An  accurate  Ger- 
man translation  was  made  at  the  time  by  Koenig, 
and  published  in  Matheson's  '  Musikalische 
Kritik,'  vol.  iii.  p.  340  (Hamburg,  1725).  This 
early  translation  has  been  reprinted  by  Dr.  Osca 
Paul  in  his  'Geschichte  des  Klaviers,'  p.  105 
(Leipzig,  186S),  and  may  be  referred  to  with 
confidence  by  those  who  know  German  and  do 
not  know  Italian. 

We   reproduce   the    diagram    of  Cristofori's 
action  as  the  kernel  of  this  part  of  our  subject, 


Fig.  1. 


a  Is  the  string ;  b  the  key  bottom ;  e  the  first  lever,  or  key.  There 
is  a  pad,  d.  upon  the  key,  to  raise  a  second  lever,  «,  which  is  pivoted 
upon/.  Q  is  the  hopper— Cristofori's  linguetta  mobile— which,  con- 
trolled by  the  springs  i  and  I,  effects  the  escape,  or  immediate  drop, 
of  the  hammer  from  the  strings  after  a  blow  has  been  struck,  al- 
though the  key  is  still  kept  down  by  the  finger.  The  hopper  is 
centred  at  *.  m  is  a  rack  or  comb  on  the  beam,  i,  where  the  butt, 
n.  of  the  hammer,  o.  is  centred.  In  a  state  of  rest  the  hammer  is 
supported  by  a  cross,  or  fork,  p.  of  silk  thread.  On  the  depression 
of  the  key,  c.  the  tall,  7,  of  the  second  lever,  e,  draws  away  the 
damper,  r,  from  the  strings,  leaving  them  free  to  vibrate. 

the  action  being  the  equivalent  to  the  violinist's 
bow  ;  as  the  instrument  itself  is  the  equivalent 
of  the  violin,  though  stopped  by  a  mechanical  con- 
struction instead  of  the  fingers  of  the  player's  left 
hand.  We  follow  Maffei's  lettering  or'  the  parts  ; 
a  lettering  which  will  be  adhered  to  throughout. 

*  This  has  been  adopted  In  Florence  on  the  memorial  stone.    [See 
OKISTOFORI,  TOl,  1.  p.  417.] 


PIANOFORTE. 

The  reader  will  observe  the  smallness  of  the 
hammer  head  and  the  absence  of  what  is  called 
a  'check,'  to  arrest  the  hammer  in  its  rebound  ; 
and  also  of  any  control  but  springs  over  the  for- 
ward movement,  or  escapement,  of  the  hopper. 
To  admit  of  this  machinery — so  much  more 
complicated  than  the  simple  action  of  the  harp- 
sichord— being  taken  out,  Cristofori  inverted  the 
tuning-pin  block  (technically  the  'wrestplank'), 
and  attached  the  wires  to  the  tuning-pins 
( '  wrestpins'),  at  their  lower  ends,  as  in  the  harp. 
Being  obliged  to  use  heavier  strings,  which  ex- 
erted a  greater  pulling  force  or  tension,  to  with- 
stand the  impact  of  his  hammers,  he  found  it 
necessary  to  remove  the  pins  to  which  the  further 
ends  of  the  strings  were  attached  (the  'hitch- 
pins'),  from  their  old  place  on  the  soundboard  of 
the  harpsichord,  to  a  stiff  rail  of  wood  ('string- 
block')  built  round  the  angle-side  and  narrow 
end  of  the  case.  Without  this  alteration  his 
instruments  could  not  have  stood  in  tune  and 
would  soon  have  collapsed. 

Two  pianofortes  of  Cristofori 's  make  are  fortun- 


PIANOFORTE. 


711 


ately  still  existing.  The  earlier  one,  dated  1720, 
belongs  to  Signora  Ernesta  Mocenni  Martelli  of 
Florence,  and  is  described  by  Leto  Puliti,  with 
illustrations  of  the  action,  in  the  essay  referred 
to  in  footnote  3.  The  second,  dated  1726,  is  in 
the  museum  of  the  eminent  collectors  and  musi- 
cologists, the  Signori  Kraus  of  Florence.  The 
writer,  when  making  the  biographical  notice  of 
Cristofori  in  the  present  work  (vol.  i.  p.  417) 
was  unaware  of  the  existence  of  this  instrument, 
or  of  its  having  been  exhibited  with  Signora 
Martelli's,  when  the  commemoration  of  Cristofori 
took  place  in  Florence.  But  in  1878  the  Signori 
Kraus  showed  the  instrument  at  the  Trocadero 
in  Paris,  and  the  writer  then  had  the  opportunity 
of  examining  and  playing  upon  it,  and  found  it 
light,  prompt,  and  agreeable  in  touch,  with  a  tone 
not  at  all  to  be  despised.  The  instrument  happens 
to  be  more  perfect  than  that  of  Signora  Martelli, 
because  the  hammerheads  remain  in  their  original 
condition,  as  may  be  seen  by  comparing  Fig.  1  with 
Fig.  2,  which  represents  the  action  of  the  latter. 
Both  instruments,  the  1720  and  the  1726,  have 


Flo.  2. 


On  further  comparing  the  two  diagrams  we  observe  In  No.  2  first  the  extension  of  the  lever,  or  key,  «:  the  transformation 
of  the  second  lever,  e,  into  what  is  technically  an  '  underharamer,'  removing  the  hopper,  g,  from  direct  attack  upon  the  butt, 
•.  a  change  in  the  wrong  direction,  but  probably  necessitated  by  the  want  of  a  regulating  button  and  screw  to  the  hopper. 
Other  modifications  will  be  noticed;  one  is  a  pin.  k,  passing  through  the  back  part  of  the  key  (replacing  the  piece  of  whalebone 
behind  the  key  j  see  drawing  of  Zumpes  action,  p.  715),  a  step  towards  the  front  pin.  since  used  to  steady  the  lateral  motion.  The 
damper,  r,  now  lies  upon  the  strings,  dropping,  wedge-fashion,  between  the  two  unisons.  But  the  great  improvement  upon  the 
first  action  Is  the  substitution  of  the  check,  p-Crlstofori's  paramartello.  which  graduates  the  rebound  of  the  hammer  according 
to  the  blow— for  the  mere  support  of  the  silk  threads  which  formerly  received  it  when  it  fell 


the  overdampers  and  check,  the  latter  the  me- 
chanical completion  of  the  action.  That  of  1720 
has  been  restored  by  Sig.  Ponsicchi,  a  pianoforte 
maker,  who  has  himself  given,  in  '  11  Pianoforte, 
sua  origine  e  sviluppo  (con  tavole),'  Florence, 
1876,  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  literature 
of  the  instrument.  Both  pianofortes  are  bichord 
and  have  white  natural  keys,  but  the  compass 
differs,  the  earlier  having  4^  octaves,  C  toF,  and 
the  later  only  4  octaves,  C  to  C,  the  old  normal 
compass  equivalent  to  the  human  voice. 

Cristofori  died  in  1731,  aged  80,  and  in  1730. 
the  year  before  his  death,  his  assistant,  Giovanni 
Ferrini,  made  a  pianoforte  which  has  become 
famous  through  Burney's  reference  to  it.  It  was 
bought  by  Elisabetta  Farnese,  Queen  of  Spain  ; 


and  by  her  bequeathed  to  the  singer  Farinelli, 
who  inscribed  upon  it  in  letters  of  gold,  '  Kaf- 
faello  d'Urbino,'  and  esteemed  it  more  highly 
than  any  other  in  his  collection  of  keyed  instru- 
ments. Burney  played  upon  it  in  1 7  71.  There 
were  other  pupils  or  followers  of  Cristofori ;  we 
hear  of  Geronimo  of  Florence,  and  Gherardi  of 
Padua,  but  an  end  soon  came  to  pianoforte  mak- 
ing in  Italy;  possibly,  as  suggested  by  Puliti, 
from  the  difficulty  felt  by  clavicembalists  of 
acquiring  the  touch,  and  which  made  them  decry 
the  new  instrument — or  from  the  imperfection  of 
the  means  for  escapement.  Be  this  as  it  may, 
the  fruits  of  the  invention  were  to  be  gathered 
and  garnered  elsewhere ;  but  the  invention  itself 
remains  with  Italy. 


712 


PIANOFORTE. 


PIANOFORTE. 


The  idea  suggested  by  the  vague  character 
of  the  Estense  '  piano  e  forte,'  that  there  were 
perhaps  attempts  to  construct  a  hammer  action 
before  Cristofori,  we  find  strengthened  by  the 
known  fact,  that  two  men  in  two  different 
countries  outside  of  Italy,  were  endeavouring,  at 
the  very  time  of  his  success,  to  produce  a  similar 
invention  to  his.  The  names  of  Marius  and 
Schroeter,  theformer  a  French  harpsichord-maker, 
the  latter  a  German  musician,  have  been  put 
forward  to  claim  the  credit  of  the  absolute  in- 
vention on  the  strength  of  certain  experiments 
in  that  direction.  Marius,  in  February  1716, 
submitted,  perhaps  a  pianoforte,  and  certainly 
four  models  for  actions  of  'clavecins  a  maillets,' 
or  hammer  harpsichords,  the  description  and 
engravings  of  which  were  published,  nineteen 
years  later,  in  No.  1 72, 1 73,  and  1 74  of '  Machines 
et  Inventions  approuvees  par  L'Accade'mie  Roy- 
ale  des  Sciences,  Tome  Troisieme.  Depuis  1713 
jusqu'en  1719.  A  Paris  mdccxxxv,'  and  are 
to  be  found  in  extenso  in  the  works  of  Rimbault 
and  Puliti.  Both  overstriking  and  understriking 
apparatus  had  occurred  to  Marius,  and  his  draw- 
ings included  the  alteration  of  an  upright  harpsi- 
chord, and  the  addition  of  a  register  of  hammers 
to  an  horizontal  one — rude  contrivances  of  which 
no  subsequent  use  was  or  could  be  made.  His 
object  in  introducing  hammers  was  an  econom- 
ical one — to  save  the  expense  and  trouble  of  con- 
stantly requilling  the  harpsichord.  Schroeter 
must  be  dismissed  less  summarily,  owing  to  the 
frequently  repeated  statement  that  he  was  the 
actual  inventor  of  the  pianoforte ;  reasserted 
perhaps  for  the  last  time,  but  with  a  fervid  ad- 
vocacy in  which  the  bias  of  patriotism  is  con- 
spicuous, by  Dr.  Oscar  Paul  in  his  'Geschichte  des 
Klaviers,'  p.  82.  But  had  Schroeter  not  been  a 
man  of  good  education  and  some  literary  power, 
his  name  would  not  have  been  remembered ;  it 
must  be  distinctly  understood  that  he  was  a  mu- 
sician and  not  an  instrument-maker;  and  he 
never  made  a  pianoforte  or  had  one  made  for  him, 
or  he  would  have  told  us  so.  He  claimed  to  have 
devised  two  models  of  hammer-actions  between 
1 71 7  and  1 721,  which  he  afterwards  neglected, 
but  years  afterwards,  in  1738,  being  vexed  that 
his  name  was  not  connected  with  the  rising 
success  of  the  pianoforte,  he  addressed  a  letter 
to  Mitzler,  which  was  printed  in  the  '  Neue 
eroffnete  musikalische  Bibliotek '  (Leipzig,  1 736— 
54,  vol.  iii.  pp.  474-6).  He  repeated  his  claim, 
with  a  drawing  of  one  of  his  actions  (then  first 
published),  in  1763,  in  Marpurg's  'Kritische 
Briefe  fiber  Tonkunst '  (Berlin,  1 764,  vol.  iii.  p. 
85),  showing,  although  Gottfried  Silbermann  had 
been  dead  ten  years,  and  Cristofori  thirty-two, 
the  animus  to  which  we  owe  these  naive  and 
interesting  communications.  The  particulars  of 
Schroeter's  life  must  be  relegated  to  a  separate 
notice.  [See  Schroeter.]  It  will  suffice  here 
to  state  that  in  1715,  when  Schroeter  was  only 
sixteen  years  old,  being  entrusted  with  good 
pupils  in  Dresden,  he  found  that  their  study 
upon  the  expressive  clavichord  was  thrown  away 
when  they  came  to  show  off  before  their  friends 


upon  so  different  an  instrument  as  the  inexpres- 
sive harpsichord.  Shortly  after  this,  there  came 
to  Dresden  the  great  dulcimer  virtuoso,  Panta- 
leone  Hebenstreit,  whose  performances  astonished 
Schroeter,  and  at  the  same  time  convinced  him 
that  it  was  by  hammers  only  that  the  harpsi- 
chord could  be  made  expressive.  At  this  time, 
like  Marius,  he  could  hardly  have  known  that 
pianofortes  had  not  only  been  invented,  but  had 
for  some  years  been  made  in  Italy,  although  the 
intercourse  prevailing  between  that  country  and 
Dresden  might  have  brought  the  knowledge  to 
him.  But  the  inferiority  of  Schroeter's  action  to 
Cristofori's  at  once  exonerates  him  from  plagiar- 
ism ;  and  the  same  applies  also  to  Marius,  whose 
ideas  were  of  even  less  value  mechanically  than 
Schroeter's. 

Schroeter  gives  us  no  description  of  his  over- 
striking  '  Pantaleon ' :  we  may  conclude  that 
he  suspected  the  difficulties,  not  to  this  day 
surmounted,  of  an  action  in  which  the  hammers 
are  placed  above  the  strings.  Of  the  under- 
striking  action,  his  '  Pianoforte,'  he  has  given  us 
full  particulars  and  a  drawing,  here  reproduced — j 

F:o.  3. 


o^lt 


a  Is  the  string ;  e  Is  the  key :  «.  »  second  lever ;  g,  ajack  to  raise 
the  hammer;  o,  Uie  hammer  itself,  clothed  at  the  tail.  r.  10 
serve  for  a  damper.  The  play,  or  space,  between  the  jack  and 
the  hammer-shank  permitted,  as  in  the  early  square-piano 
action  of  Zumpe  (which  may  have  been  partly  derived  from 
Schroeter's  idea),  the  rebound,  or  escapement,  of  the  hammer. 

For  his  second  drawing,  a  later  fancy  of  no 
practical  value,  it  is  sufficient  to  refer  to  Paul 
or  Puliti. 

But  no  sustained  tone  was  possible,  owing  to 
the  position  of  the  damper,  which  resumed  its 
place  the  moment  the  hammer  fell.  The  rapid 
repetition  of  a  note,  after  the  old  fashion  of 
harps,  mandolines,  and  dulcimers,  would  have 
been  the  only  expedient  to  prolong  it.  Marius's 
defect  was  the  opposite  one ;  he  had  no  dampers 
whatever.  But  Schroeter  had  the  great  merit  of 
perceiving  the  future  use  of  iron  as  a  resisting 
power  in  pianofortes ;  he  invented  a  wider- 
standseisen,  or  resisting  iron,  a  bar  of  metal  here 
marked  t,  which  was  placed  transversely  over 
the  wrestplank,  rested  firmly  upon  the  strings, 
and  formed  the  straight  bridge.  We  do  not 
know  to  whose  piano  this  was  applied,  and  it 
can  hardly  have  been  a  part  of  his  original  con- 
ception. It  is  more  likely  to  have  occurred  to 
him  from  observation  of  the  defects  in  piano- 
fortes, as  did  his  scheme  of  stringing  by  pro- 
ceeding from  one  string  to  a  note  in  the  bass. 


PIANOFORTE. 

to  four  strings  to  a  note  in  the  treble ;  graduated 
with  two  and  three  unisons  of  so  many  notes 
each,  between. 

The  allusions  in  Schroeter's  letter  to  an  '  in- 
genious man  at  Dresden'  ('ein  anderer  sinn- 
reicher  Mann'),  point  to  Gottfried  Silbeb- 
mann,  who,  in  the  second  half  of  last  century, 
was  generally  considered  to  be  the  inventor  of  the 
pianoforte.  As  late  as  1780  De  la  Borde  (Essai 
sur  la  Musique  ancienne  et  moderne)  said  that 
'The  Clavecin  Pianoforte  was  invented  about 
twenty  years  ago  at  Freyberg  in  Saxony  by  M. 
Silbermann.  From  Saxony  the  invention  pene- 
trated to  London,  whence  we  obtain  nearly  all 
those  that  are  sold  in  Paris.'  It  has  been 
hitherto  accepted  in  Germany  and  elsewhere  that 
Silbermann  adopted  Schroeter's  idea,  and  made 
it  practicable ;  employing  in  fact  Schroeter's 
action,  with  some  improvement.  Welcker  von 
Gontershausen,  '  Der  Clavierbau '  (Frankfort, 
1870),  says,  p.  171,  'the  Silbermanns  always  used 
the  action  invented  by  Schroeter.'  It  is  right 
however  to  warn  the  inquirer  who  may  meet 
with  Welcker's  books,  that  they  are  not,  either 
in  text  or  engravings,  always  to  be  depended  on. 

We  must  now  revert  to  the  fact  of  Koenig's 
translation  of  Maffei's  account  of  Cristofori's  in- 
vention, published  at  Hamburg  in  1725,  an 
invention  recorded  and  attributed  exclusively  to 
its  author  in  Walther's  'Musikalisches  Lexicon' 
(Leipzig,  1732).  It  was  thus  early  made  public 
in  Germany,  and  we  think  we  shall  now  be  able 
to  show  that  Gottfried  Silbermann  followed 
Cristofori  rather  than  Schroeter  when  he  began 
to  make  pianofortes.  He  is  said  to  have  made 
two  as  early  as  1726  (the  year  after  Matheson's 
publication  of  Koenig's  translation)  and  to  have 
shown  them  to  J.  S.  Bach,  who  condemned 
them  for  the  weakness  of  their  trebles  and  their 
heavy  touch.  This  adverse  judgment  so  much 
annoyed  Silbermann  that  for  some  years  he  made, 
or  at  least  showed,  no  more.     Some  time  after 


PIANOFORTE. 


713 


this  he  seems  to  have  made  an  instrument  for 
the  Prince  of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  which 
Schroeter  happened  to  see  in  1753;  but,  before 
that,  two  had  been  made,  admitted  to  be  copies 
of  it,  by  Lenker  of  Rudolstadt,  and  had  met 
with  great  praise.  We  may  therefore  assume 
the  success  of  the  original.  In  connection  with 
this  it  is  not  surprising  that  Frederick  the  Great 
(especially  when  we  remember  that  he  had  C.  P. 
E.  Bach,  who  owned  a  most  beautiful  Silber- 
mann clavichord,  in  his  service)  should  have 
acquired  and  placed  in  the  music-room  in  the 
Old  Palace  at  Potsdam,  a  pianoforte  by  that 
maker.  He  is  indeed  said  to  have  had  more,1 
but  no  musical  anecdote  is  better  known  than 
the  visit  of  J.  S.  Bach,  and  his  eldest  son,  to 
Potsdam  in  1 747 ;  his  warm  and  almost  uncere- 
monious reception  by  the  King,  and  the  extem- 
pore performances  which  took  place,  in  which 
we  may  be  sure  that  the  pianoforte  would  not 
be  neglected.  In  1773,  our  own  Burney  (Tour, 
ii.  145)  published  an  account  of  his  visit  to  the 
new  palace  at  Potsdam.  In  His  Majesty's  concert- 
room  there  he  saw  a  Silbermann  pianoforte  ;  in 
other  rooms  the  Tschudi  harpsichords  of  1766. 
Thus  the  pianoforte  had  not  yet  prevailed  over 
the  harpsichord,  these  London  instruments  being 
of  later  date.  But  what  is  of  supreme  interest 
is  that  the  same  piano  which  Burney  saw  is  still 
in  Frederick's  music-room  (1880).  True,  the 
instrument  bears  no  inscription  or  date,  but 
since  everything  in  the  room  remains  as  it  was 
at  the  time  of  the  King's  death,  there  is  no 
reason  to  doubt  its  genuineness  ;  and  it  has  the 
whole  weight  of  local  tradition  in  its  favour. 
A  recent  examination,  made  through  the  kind 
permission  of  Count  Seckendorff  by  Herr  Bech- 
stein,  the  well-known  pianoforte-maker  of  Berlin, 
reveals  the  Cristofori  action  !  There  can  be  no 
doubt  about  it.  Here  is  Herr  Bechstein's  drawing, 
and  a  comparison  of  it  with  that  of  Cristofori's 
action  (Fig.  2)  is  at  once  convincing. 


Fig.  4. 


1  We  quote  from  Forlcel :  '  The  King ....  urged  Bach  (then  known 
is  the  Old  Bach)  to  try  his  Silbermann  Fortepianos  then  standing 
in  various  rooms  or  the  palace.'  A  footnote  adds— 'The  pianofortes 
or  the  Freyberg  Silbermann  pleased  ihe  King  so  much,  that  he  made 
aphis  miud  to  buy  them  all.  He  got  afteen  of  them  together.  They 
must  now  (1801!)  be  all  standing  about,  of  no  use,  in  different  corners 
of  the  palace.'  Becent  search  has  lailed  to  discover  these  instru- 
ments. Fifteen  was  a  large  number  for  Silbermann  to  have  made 
and  had  by  him.  and  it  must  be  remembered  that  Forkel  wrote  at 


secondhand,  and  long  after  the  event,  although  we  have  the  state- 
ment of  an  eye-witness,  W.  Friedemann,  Bach's  eldest  son.  Gerber's 
Lexicon,  published  1792,  art.  'Silbermann,'  states  that  the  King  of 
Prussia  had  one  pianoforte  made  for  him,  before  Bach's  visit,  and 
this  pleasing  him  he  ordered  others  for  Berlin.  Mooter's '  Silbermann 
der  Orgelbauer'  (Strassburg  1 857)  affirms  that  they  were  six  In  number, 
and  that  one  more  was  acquired  after  Silbermann's  death.  Burney 
saw  only  one  at  l'otsdam,  and  that  not  flve-aud-iweuty  years  after 
Bach  s  visit. 


714 


PIANOFORTE. 


PIANOFORTE. 


It  will  be  observed  that  Herr  Bechstein,  as 
frequently  happens  in  drawing  pianoforte  ac- 
tions, has  omitted  the  damper,  but  that  is  of 
no  consequence.  A  sketch  of  the  external  ap- 
pearance of  the  instrument  has  been  kindly 
supplied  from  the  same  source. 

Fiq.  5. 


rp- 
on- 


The  instrument  is  placed  upon  an  elaborate 
stand  having  an  extra  leg  at  the  angle  side, 
thus  reminding  us  of  Mozart's  grand  piano, 
by  Walter,  at  Salzburg.  The  case  is  of  oak ;  the 
Btrings  contain  i  j  octave  of  brass  wire,  not  over- 
spun,  in  the  bass;  the  keys  are  of  nearly  5  octaves 
(F-E),  and  are  covered  with  ebony  for  the  na- 
tural notes,  and  with  ivory  for  the  upper,  or 
sharp  keys.  Before  leaving  the  only  recorded 
instances  of  the  great  J.  S.  Bach's  connexion 
with  the  pianoforte,  we  may  remark  that  the 
special  character  of  the  instrument  does  not 
seem  to  have  struck  him ;  there  can  be  no  doubt 
of  his  having  shared  the  opinion  of  his  son 
Emanuel,  who  regarded  the  pianoforte  as  only  '  fit 
for  rondos,'  and  always  expressed  his  preference 
for  the  clavichord.  It  was  by  the  youngest 
brother  and  pupil  of  Emanuel,  John  Christian, 
known  as  the  'London  Bach,'  that  a  decided 
preference  was  first  shown  for  the  pianoforte  over 
the  clavichord  and  harpsichord. 

The  pianofortes  to  which  we  have  hitherto 
alluded  were  all,  like  harpsichords,  of  the '  wing' 
or  'tail'  shape  (English  Grand  piano;  German 
Flilgel ;  French  Piano  a  queue ;  Ital.  Piano  a 
coda).  The  distinguished  organ-builder,  C.  E. 
Friederici  of  Gera,  is  reputed  to  have  been  the 
first  to  make  a  pianoforte  in  the  clavichord  or 
oblong  shape  (English,  Square  piano  ;  German 
tafelformiges  Piano  ;  French,  Piano  carre ;  Ital. 
Pianoforte  a  tavolino).  Fischhof  (*  Versuch  einer 
Geschichte  des  Clavierbaues,'  Vienna,  1853,  p.  16) 
gives  the  date  of  this  invention  as  1 760,  but  this 
is  possibly  too  late.  Friederici  named  his  square 
piano  'Fortbien,'  perhaps  a  pun  upon  Forte 
Biano,  in  which  form  he  may  often  have  heard 
the  Italian  name  pronounced  by  German  lips. 
Of  his  Action  we  know  nothing;  there  is  no 
description  of  it  forthcoming,  and  we  turn  to 
England  and  another  German  maker  for  the  prac- 
tical introduction  of  the  square  instrument. 

Johannes  Zdmpe  l  is  introduced  by  Burney,  in 
Rees's  Cyclopaedia  (18 19,  article  'Harpsichord'), 

>  It  has  been  suggested  that  Zumpe  may  bare  been  an  altered  name 
from  Zumpt,  to  suit  English  habits  of  pronunciation,  as  the  con- 
i-j:iiporary  Shudi  was  corrupted  from  Tscbudl,  Kirkman  fromKirch- 
111.-1.111t,  etc. 


as  a  German  who  had  long  worked  for  the  hai 
sichord-maker  Shudi,  and  was  the  first  to  con 
struct  small  pianos  of  the  shape  and  size  of  the 
virginal.    H  e  goes  on  to  say  that  there  was  such 
a  demand  for  Zumpe's  square  pianos  that  there 
was  scarcely  a  house  in  the  kingdom  where  a 
keyed  instrument  had  ever  had  ad- 
mission but  was  supplied  with  one  of 
them,  and  there  was  nearly  as  great  a 
call  for  them  in  France  as  in  England. 
Pohlmann,  another  German,  fabricated 
for  those  whom  Zumpe  was  unable  to 
supply.  There  are  instruments  by  both 
these  makers  still  existing ;  the  oldest 
Zumpe  piano  known  is  dated  1 766,  was 
formerly  Sir  George  Smart's,  and  is 
now   owned    by  Messrs.  Broad  wood. 
ggSf^       No  number  has  been  found  in  it ;  yet 
it  can  hardly  be  the  first  of  Zumpe's 
make,  since  he  would  not  have  been  so 
bold  as  to  begin  with  dividing  his  black  notes  and 
thus  have  18  keys  in  the  octave,  as  he  has  in  this 
case.     Mr.  Taphouse  of  Oxford  has  one  with  the 
usual  chromatic  scale  of  1 3  in  the  octave,  inscribed 
'  Johannes  Zumpe,  Londini,  Fecit  1 767,  Princes 
Street,   Hanover    Square,'   and    with   XVIIII 
stamped  on  the  back  of  the  nameboard.    Allow- 
ing Zumpe  to  have  been  a  year  or  two  in  business 
before  he  made  this  number,  he  would  not  have 
started  before  1765.*    The  action  which  Zumpe 
invented  or  adopted  was  simple  and  facile,  having 
reference  to  the  published  model  of  Schroeter  in 
Marpurg  1764,  in  its   artless  escapement.     It 
became  the  norm  for  nearly  all   square  piano 
actions  during  forty  years.     The  writer  of  the 
article  'Pianoforte'  in  the  4th  edition  of  the 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica  (18 10),  claims  the  in- 
vention of  Zumpe's  action  for  the  Rev.  William 
Mason,  composer,  poet,  and  writer  on  church 
music,  and  the  intimate  friend  of  the  poet  Gra; 
Born  in  1 725,  Mason  died  in  1 795,  and  was  the 
fore,  inventor  or  not,  a  witness  to  the  introductio: 
of  the  pianoforte  into  England,  and  to  its  develo; 
ment  to  a  certain  grade  of  perfection — that  name! 
of  pure  wooden  construction.    The  Encyclopaedi; 
writer  betrays  so  dense  an  ignorance  of  the  earl; 
history  of  the  pianoforte  that  we  are  compellei 
to  put  him  aside  as  an  authority ;  although  i: 
this  case  he  may  have  got  his  information  on  tb 
point  direct  from  Mason.    Apart  from  such  con 
jecture  we  have  only  sure  evidence  that  Masoi 
was  one  of  Zumpe's  early  patrons.3 

2  Mr.  Williamson  of  Guildford  had,  In  1879,  a  square  piano 
Zumpe  *  Buntebart,  dated  1769.     In  177G  the  firm  was  Zumpe 
Mayer— the  instruments  remaining  the  same,  almost  clavichon 
with  hammer  actions,  and  nearly  five  octaves  compass,  G— F. 

3  Mason  appears  to  have  first   possessed   a   pianoforte  in  17 
Writing  from  Hanover  to  the  poet  Gray  he  says :— '  Oh,  Mr.  Gray ! 
bought  at  Hamburg  such  a  pianoforte  and  so  cheap  1    It  Is  a  ban 
chord  too  of  two  unisons,  and  the  jacks  serve  as  mutes  when  i 
pianoforte  stop  is  played,  by  the  cleverest  mechanism  imaginable,- 
won't  you  buy  my  Kirkman  ? '  (meaning  his  harpsichord  by  thr 
maker).    Gray,  writing  to  Mason  in  May  1767,  after  the  death 
Mrs.  Mason,  says :— '  You  will  tell  me  what  to  do  with  your  Zump 
which  has  amused  me  much  here.    If  you  would  have  it  sent  dowi 
I  had  better  commit  it  to  Its  maker,  who  will  tune  it  and  pack  it  up 
Dr.  Long  has  bought  the  fellow  to  It.    The  base  is  not  quite  of  a  pie 
with  the  treble,  and  the  higher  notes  are  somewhat  dry  and  stick 
The  rest  discourses  very  eloquent  music.'    Mason  had  married  In  th 
autumn  of  1765.    It  is  possible  that  he  bought  his  Zumpethen,  or  I 
not.  In  the  course  of  the  ensuing  year,  1766.     (The  Correspondence  f 
Thomas  Gray  and  William  Mason.   London  1853,  pp.  33  and  381 ) 


PIANOFORTE. 

Zumpe's,  or  Mason's,  action  drawn  from  the 
instrument  of  1766,  is  shown  in  Fig.  6. 

Square  pianos  were  occasionally  fitted  with 
drawers  for  music,  and  were  sometimes  made  to 


PIANOFORTE. 


715 


look  like  tables :  the  writer  has  seen  a  table 
piano,  in  style  of  furniture  about  1 780,  but  which 
bore  on  a  label  the  name  and  date,  Zumpe  1760. 
This  cannot  be  accepted  as  authentic,  but  the 


In  the  key  e  is  fixed  the  jack  g,  a  wire  with  a  leather  stud  on  the  top,  known  by  the  workmen  as  the  '  old  man's  head.'  This 
raises  the  hammer  0 ;  the  damper,  r,  is  lilted  by  a  whalebone  jack,  v.  called  the  '  mopstick,'  placed  near  the  end  of  the  key, 
and  Is  brought  back  to  its  place  by  the  whalebone  spring,  w ;  a  third  piece  of  whalebone,  x,  projecting  from  the  end  of  the 
key,  works  in  a  groove,  and  serves  exactly  as  in  the  clavichord,  to  keep  the  key  steady,  there  being  no  front  keypin.  The  two 
balance-rail  keypins  shown  in  the  drawing  belong  to  two  keys,  the  natural  and  sharp,  and  indicate  the  different  balancing 
desiderated  in  all  keyboards  by  the  different  lengths  of  the  natural  and  sharp  keys.  The  dampers  were  divided  into  treble 
and  bass  sections,  raised  bodily  by  two  drawstops  when  not  required,  there  being  as  yet  no  pedal. 


action  is  of  so  much  interest  that  it  must  be 
described,  as  publication  may  be  the  means  of 
ultimately  identifying  its  origin.  The  instru- 
ment belongs  to  Mr.  Herbert  Bowman,  and  the 
diagram  is  from  a  careful  drawing  by  Mr.  Robert 
Maitland. 

Fig.  7. 


Here  the  pad,  i,  upon  the  key  e,  is  regulated  In  height  by  a  screw, 
and  when  raised  lifts  the  jack  g,  which  is  attached  by  a  leather 
hinge  to  the  hammer  0.  The  damper  is  conjectural ;  but  Mr.  Halt- 
land  has  probably  indicated  It  correctly.  The  special  feature  Is 
the  fact  of  the  vicarious  space  for  an  escapement  being  below  the 
jack  instead  of  above  it,  as  In  Zumpe's  'old  man's  head.' 

In  1759.  John  Christian  Bach  arrived  in 
London.  According  to  Burney,  who  is  however 
careless  about  chronological  sequence,  the  first 
pianoforte  seen  in  England  was  made  in  Rome 
by  Father  Wood,  an  English  monk.  It  remained 
unique  for  several  years  until  copied  by  an  in- 
strument-maker named  Plenius.  'After  Bach's 
arrival,'  says  Burney  (Rees's  Cyclopaedia,  18 19, 
article  '  Harpsichord '),  '  all  the  harpsichord 
makers  in  this  country  tried  their  mechanical 
powers  on  pianofortes,  but  the  first  attempts  were 
always  on  the  large  size.'  From  a  previous  sen- 
tence we  learn  that  Backers,  a  harpsichord-maker 
of  the  secondrank,  constructed  several  pianofortes, 
•  but  the  tone,  with  all  the  delicacy  of  Schroeter's 
touch,  lost  the  spirit  of  the  harpsichord  and  gained 
nothing  in  sweetness.'  Now  Schroeter  the  pianist 


(not  he  who  has  been  already  mentioned),  came 
to  London  in  1772.1 

The  late  James  Shudi  Broadwood,  writing  in 
the  Gentleman's  Magazine  in  181 2,  attributes  the 
invention  of  the  grand  piano  in  1772  to  a  Dutch- 
man, Americus  Baccers  (accurately  Backers  *) ; 
and  again,  in  his  *  MS.  Notes  and  Observations ' 
(written  1838;  printed  for  private  circulation 
1862)  he  repeats  this  statement  about  Backers, 
but  with  a  later  date — about  1776.  This  pro- 
bably alludes  to  the  pianoforte  of  which  the 
nameboard  is  referred  to  in  footnote  2,  at  that 
time  still  existing.  The  earlier  date  is  nearer 
the  mark,  but  the  'invention'  must  be  in- 
terpreted as  meaning  a  new  action,  an  improve- 
ment on  that  of  Cristofori  (which  may  have  been 
transmitted  through  Silbermann),  or  rather  on 
Cristofori's  first  idea,  by  the  contrivance  of  the 
regulating  button  and  screw  which  rendered  his 
direct  action  certain,  and  was  ultimately  known 
as  the  '  English  action ' — as  Backers's  was  always 
called  abroad.  Mr.  Henry  Fowler  Broadwood, 
the  present  head  of  the  firm  of  John  Broadwood 
&  Sons,  in  a  footnote  to  his  father's  statement 
in  the  'MS.  notes,'  communicates  the  family 
tradition  that  his  grandfather,  John  Broadwood, 
with  his  apprentice,  Robert  Stodart,  assisted 
Backers  to  bring  this  action  to  perfection — a 
word  which  he  may  use  unreservedly,  as  more 
than  a  hundred  years  have  passed  by  and  the 
direct  'English  action'  has  not  yet  been  super- 
seded. It  has  met  all  the  demands  of  the  far- 
advanced  technique  of  the  present  day :  Chopin 
preferred  it  to  any  other,  whether  made  by 
Pleyel  in  Paris  or  Broadwood  in  London,  and 
some  of  the  most  eminent  living  pianists  might 

J  Johann  Samuel  Schroeter  (17W-88).  the  first  pianist  recorded  as 
having  had  a  '  touch,'  came  to  London  in  the  year  above  stated,  and 
played  at  the  Thatched  House  on  the  Forte  Piano  (Haydn  In  London, 
by  C.  F.  l'ohl,  Vienna  1867,  p.  347).  His  wife  was  an  Intimate  friend 
of  Haydn's. 

3  Burney,  In  1773,  praised  Backers'  pianofortes.  We  have  seen  a 
nameboard  inscribed  '  Americus  Backers,  Inventor  et  Fecit,  Jermyn 
Street,  London.  1776.' 


PIANOFORTE. 


716  PIANOFORTE. 

be  quoted  as  practical  witnesses  to  its  efficacy.  I  may  have  been  by  Backers,  but i  to .have .had his 

The  earliest  diagram  of  it  is  that  attached  to  '  ■ 

Robert  Stodart's  patent  of  1777,  for  a  combined 

pianoforte  and  harpsichord,  in  which  we  first 

encounter  the  designation  '  grand '  applied  to  a 

pianoforte.    We  give  it  here,  with  a  diagram  of 

Messrs.  Broadwood's  grand  action  of  the  present 

tirae — the  dampers  omitted  in  both  cases. 


Fig.  8.  (1777.) 


Fig.  9.  (1880.) 


The  differences  In  the  two  cases  are  In  the  proportions  and  form  of  the  parts ;  the  principle 
is  the  same  in  both,  the  only  addition  in  the  present  action— and  that  not  essential— being  a 
strip  of  felt  beneath  the  butt  of  the  hammer,  to  assist  the  promptness  of  the  checking. 
The  differences  of  both  from  that  of  Crlstoforl  are  evident  and  Important.  The  second 
lever  or  underhammer  is  done  away  with,  and  the  jack,  g,  now  acts  directly  in  a  notch 
of  the  butt,  n.  The  regulating  button  and  screw  controlling  tne  escapement  are  at  gg. 
Simplicity  and  security  are  combined. 

The  earliest  public  notice  of  a  pianoforte  in 
England  is  in  the  year  1767,  when  a  Covent 
Garden  playbill1  chronicles  its  first  appearance 
in  an  orchestra,  under  date  of  May  16,  as  an 
accompanying  instrument.  After  Act  1  of  the 
Beggar's  Opera  the  bill  announces  that  '  Miss 
Brickler  will  sing  a  favourite  song  from  Judith, 
accompanied  by  Mr.  Dibdin,  on  a  new  instrument 
call'd  Piano  Forte.'  As  a  solo  instrument  it 
appears  to  have  been  used  for  the  first  time  in 
London  on  June  2,  1 768,  at  the  Thatched  House, 
by  John  Christian  Bach.3  In  1770,  Mr.  Burney, 
nephew  of  Dr.  Burney,  was  appointed  'to  the 
pianoforte'  at  Drury  Lane.  We  do  not  know 
what  pianos  they  were,  or  of  whose  make.   They 


new  action  we   should  have  to  put  back  Mr 
Broadwood's  earliest  date. 

During  the  period  ending  with  1770,  the  fiwt 
division  to  be  observed  in  the  history  of  the 
pianoforte,  there  had  been  no  composition  de- 
voted  to  and  proper  to   the   instrument ;    and 
there  could  have  been  little  or  no  real  piano- 
forte playing.     The  new  instrument  was  too  un- 
important as  compared  with   the  harpsichord, 
and  in  its  then  condition  presented  to  the  touch 
differences  too    essential,   and    difficulties    too 
obstinate,  to  permit  of  the  perception  of  those 
remarkable  attributes  upon  which  the  highest 
style  in  writing  and  treatment  was  ultimately 
to  be  based.  The  earliest  piece  which  we  have  met 
with  naming    the    pianoforte,   and    that    only 
generally,  is  'Duetto  fur  zwey  Claviere,  zwey 
Fortepiano  oder  zwey  Fliigel,'  by  Miithel,  Riga, 
17 7 i.s     There  is   an   undated  work  by  John 
Christian  Bach  naming  the  instrument,  which 
may   possibly  be  equally  early  in  date.     The 
first  real  pianoforte    music   was  published   in 
London  in  1773.     This  was  the  famous  op.  2  of 
Muzio  Clementi  (3  Sonatas),  composed  three 
years  before,  when  he  was  only  eighteen  years 
old.     In  these  pieces  the  young  composer  divined 
the   technique   and  instrumental   treatment  to 
which  the  pianoforte  was  responsive,  and  there 
founded  the  true  school  of  pianoforte-playing. 

We  have  dwelt  thus  long  upon  London,  not 
merely  because  this  is  an  English  Dictionary, 
but  because  at  this  epoch  London  held  the  first 
place  in  harpsichord  and  pianoforte  making.    In 
the  decade  1765-75  there  can  be  no  doubt  about 
the  importance  given  to  the  square  piano   by 
Zumpe,    and    the    final 
start  given  to  the  grand 
piano  by  Backers;  soon 
to  be  the  means  of  suc- 
cess to  Broadwood  and 
to    Stodart,   who    had 
helped  him  in  his  inven- 
tion.    The  great  harpsi- 
chord    makers,     Jacob 

KlRKMANandBURKHABD 

Shodi.*  had  at  this  time 
brought  their  noble  in- 
struments to  the  highest 
point  of  development  and  excellence ;  and  the 
harpsichord  was  now  endowed  with  a  storehouse 
of  noble  compositions,  from  which  the  pianoforte, 
having  as  yet  none  of  its  own,  had  for  a  time  to 
borrow.  We  can  understand  how  little  these 
eminent  makers,  having  realised  fortune  and  done 
their  work  in  life,  would  care  for  the  new  instru- 
ment and  its  improvement.  It  would  be  to  them 
as  aggravating  as  the  Sonatas  and  Symphonies 
of  Beethoven  doubtless  were  to  the  aged  Haydn. 
But  with  J.  C.  Bach,  Schroeter,  and  Clementi  on 
the  one  side,  and  Backers,  Stodart,  and  Broadwood 


>  In  Messrs.  Broadwood's  possession. 

>  l'ohl's  '  Haydn  in  London. 


I  Emmanuel  Bach  possibly  wrote  '  pianoforte '  upon  his  title-page* 
before  this.  Gray,  writing  to  Mason  in  1763,  says:— 'Send  for  six 
lessons  for  the  pianoforte  or  harpsichord  of  Carlo  Bach,  not  th« 
Opera  Bach,  but  his  brother.'    Correspondence,  p.  314. 

*  Shudi  had  his  name  properly  written,  Tschudi,  on  the  Potsdam 
harpsichords. 


PIANOFORTE. 

on  the  other,  the  triumph  of  the  Piano  was  but 
a  question  of  a  few  years.  In  the  most  conserva- 
tive institution  of  the  country,  the  King's  band, 
the  harpsichord  was  replaced  by  the  pianoforte 
in  1795.  It  would  appear  that  Backers  on  his 
deathbed  desired  to  commit  the  care  of  his  in- 
vention to  his  friend.  John  Broadwood ;  but 
Broadwood  devoted  his  attention  to  the  im- 
provement, or  rather  the  reconstruction  of  the 
Square  piano,  which  he  made  public  in  1780,1 
and  patented  in  1783,  allowing  Stodart  to  go  on 
with  the  grand  piano  with  which  he  soon  made 
considerable  reputation.  Excepting  as  to  the 
action,  Zumpe's  instrument  had  been  merely  a 
clavichord  with  a  second  bridge,  Broadwood 
boldly  transferred  the  wrestplank  with  its  tuning- 
pins  to  the  back  of  the  case,  and  straightened 
the  keys,  which  had  hitherto  been  twisted  hither 
and  thither  to  accommodate  an  imperfect  scale. 
Besides  these  radical  improvements  he  substituted 
a  brass  damper,  acting  under  the  string,  for  the 
•  mop8tick-damper '  which  had  acted  above  it; 
and  for  Zumpe's  treble  and  bass  'hand-stops,' 
which  did  away  with  either  half  of  the  dampers 
when  not  required,  he  patented  (in  1783)  two 
pedals,  the  one  to  raise  the  dampers  altogether, 
the  other  to  produce  a  pianissimo  or  sordine, 
by  dropping  a  piece  of  cloth  upon  the  strings 
near  the  curved  bridge  on  the  belly.  This 
was  the  earliest  adaptation  of  pedals  to  a  piano- 
forte. Last  of  all  in  this  patent  he  included 
a  double  soundboard  and  soundpost,  which  he 
imagined  to  be  the  '  most  essential  part '  of  his 
improvements  (see  Patent  no.  1379)  ;  but  neither 
in  his  hands  nor  those  of  others  has  this  notion 
of  resonance  box  and  cavity,  in  analogy  to  the 
violin  and  the  guitar,  been  brought  to  practical 
value.  Having  accomplished  this,  and  being 
stimulated  by  Stodart' s  success,  and  advised  by 
Clementi,  who  then  played  on  Broadwood's 
instruments,  as  to  the  deficiencies  of  the  Grand 
piano,  Broadwood  began  to  consider  seriously  the 
charge  confided  to  him  by  Backers,  and  resolved 
to  improve  the  Grand  instrument.  The  difficulty 
in  this  case  being  the  equalisation  of  the  tension 
or  drawing-power  of  the  strings,  he  sought  the 
advice  of  scientific  men,  and  guided  by  Dr.  Gray 
of  the  British  Museum,  and  Cavallo,  who  calcu- 
lated the  tension  by  a  monochord  (publishing  the 
result  in  1788),  Broadwood  divided  the  bridge 
upon  the  soundboard,  that  is,  made  a  separate 
bridge  for  the  bass  strings,  an  improvement 
which  in  the  absence  of  a  patent  was  at  once 
adopted  by  all  makers.  As  Stodart  continued 
to  use  the  undivided  bridge  (like  a  harpsichord) 
as  late  as  1 788,'  Broadwood's  improvement  can 
hardly  have  been  introduced  before  that  time. 

Meantime  the  Zumpe  square  action  was  not  to 
remain  unimproved.  Broadwood  had  already  in 
1780  transformed  the  instrument,  and  in  1786 
the  action  met  with  improvement   from  John 

>  Messrs.  Broadwood  have  a  Square  Piano  of  John  Broadwood'i 
dated  with  that  year. 

-  This  (irand  Piano  by  Stodart  was  made  for  the  Trince  of  Wales, 
who  gave  it  to  Mr.  Weltji-,  in  whose  house  at  Hammersmith  and 
family  it  remained  in  1880,  a  really  powerful  Instrument.  The  earliest 
known  date  of  a  Broadwood  Grand  is  1781.  No.  40  was  made  in  1786. 
But  Abraham  Klrkman  was  in  the  running  with  a  Grand  In  17S0. 


PIANOFORTE. 


717 


Geib,  a  workman  (probably  a  German),  said  to 
have  been  in  the  employ  of  Longman  and  Brode- 
rip,  the  predecessors  of  Clementi  and  Collard  in 
Cheapside.  He  took  out  a  patent  (London.  No. 
1 5  71)  for  a  new  hopper  and  underhammer;  both 
modifications  of  Cristofori's.  He  regulated  his 
hopper  in  two  ways,  by  piercing  the  blade  with 
the  'set-off"  or  regulating  screw  already  in- 
vented by  Backers,  and  by  turning  this  screw 
down  upon  the  key.  Both  expedients  are  still 
in  use.  Tradition  says  that  Longman  and  Brode- 
rip  first  used  a  modification  of  this  patent,  known 
by  workmen  as  the  'grasshopper,'  with  whom  for 
a  long  while  it  was  unpopular  from  its  supposed 
susceptibility  to  atmospheric  changes,  and  conse- 
quent need  of  constant  attention. 

Mozart,  with  all  his  genius  and  charm  of  can- 
tilena, on  the  importance  of  which  he  dwelt  by 
precept  no  less  than  by  example,  was  yet  not  a 
pianoforte-player  in  the  sense  that  Clementi 
was  ;  his  technique,  as  we  know  from  Beethoven 
(through  Czerny's  report),  was  that  of  the  harpsi- 
chord, to  which  in  his  early  days  he  had  been 
accustomed.  The  late  Herr  Saust,  who  heard 
Mozart  play,  told  the  writer  that  Mozart  had  no 
remarkable  execution  on  the  instrument,  and 
that,  for  instance,  he  would  not  have  compared, 
as  a  virtuoso,  with  Dussek.  And  he  must  have 
met,  at  first,  with  very  imperfect  instruments, 
such  as  those  by  Spaeth,  an  organ  builder  of  Ra- 
tisbon,  mentioned  in  his  letters.  Being  at  Augs- 
burg in  October  1777,  he  was  introduced  to  the 
pianos  of  Stein,  also  an  organ-builder  and  a  good 
musician.  Stein's  newly  contrived  pianoforte 
escapement  appears  to  have  charmed  Mozart. 
In  a  letter  to  his  father  he  refers  to  the 
evenness  of  its  touch,3  saying  that  the  action 
'never  blocks,  and  never  fails  to  sound — as  is 
sometimes  the  case  with  other  pianos.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  never  sounds  too  long,  and  the 
machine  pressed  by  the  knee  [to  act  as  a  forte 
pedal]  is  prompt  to  raise  the  dampers,  or,  on 
discontinuing  the  pressure  ever  so  little,  is  as 
prompt  to  let  them  down  upon  the  strings  again.'  * 
Herr  C.  F.  Pohl  of  Vienna,  the  accomplished 
bibliographer  of  Mozart  and  Haydn,  has  kindly 
made  enquiries  in  Vienna  as  to  the  existence  of 
any  piano  by  Stein.  There  is  not  one,  and  Herr 
Streicher,  the  pianoforte  maker,  Stein's  descen- 
dant, can  give  no  information.  In  the  Library 
of  the  Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde,  of  which 
Herr  Pohl  is  the  accurate  and  obliging  cus- 
dian,  there  is  a  small  pamphlet  entitled  '  Kurze 
Bemerkungen  fiber  das  Spielen,  Stimmen  und 
Erhalten  des  Fortepiano,  welcher  von  den  Ge- 
schwister  Stein  in  Wien  verfertiget  werden '  (the 
'Geschwister  Stein'  rectified  in  ink  to  'welche 
von  Nanette  Streicher  geborne  Stein'),  Vienna, 
1 80 1,  from  which  a  small  engraving  of  Stein's 
escapement  is  here  reproduced  (Fig.  10). 

It  will  be  observed  that  this  escapement  differs 
from  Cristofori's  and  the  English  action  in  the 
fact  that  the  axis  of  the  hammer  changes  its 
position  with  the  rising  of  the  key,  the  hopper 

>  Much  more  like  the  harpsichord  In  fluency  than  the  English 
escapement,  which  Mozart  did  not  know  then,  if  ever, 
«  Letter,  Oct.  17, 1777. 


718 


PIANOFORTE. 


PIANOFORTE. 


(ausVdter)  g  becoming  a  fixture  at  the  back  of 
the  key.  From  this  difference  a  radical  change 
of  touch  took  place ;  and  an  extreme  lightness 
became  the  characteristic  of  the  Viennese  action 
as  developed  by  Andreas  Streicher,  Stein's 

Fig.  10. 


zx 


son-in-law,  who,  in  1794,  improved  and  finally 
established  the  great  renown  of  the  Viennese 
pianofortes. '  The  following  illustration  of  Strei- 
cher's  Viennese  action  is  from  the  'Atlas  zum 

F10.  11. 


been  driven  to  London,  by  the  French  Revolution, 
and  had  gone  back  again — according  to  the  same 
authority,  in  1796 — that  he  accomplished  the 
making  of  a  grand  piano.  Erard  appears  to  have 
been  early  bent  upon  constructing  a  grand  action 
for  himself,  but  while  the  perfecting  of  the 
Double  Action  harp  remained  his  chief  problem, 
the  century  went  out  with  the  English  and 
Viennese  actions  pre-eminent;  the  radical  differ- 
ences of  which,  and  the  effect  of  those  differences 
on  pianoforte  playing,  Hummel,  in  his  Pianoforte 
School,  from  his  point  of  view,  subsequently  ex- 
plained. Extension  of  compass  had  now  set  in, 
and  will  be  found  recorded  in  detail  in  the  article 
Keyboard. 

We  have  referred  to  the  difficulty  which  pre- 
sented itself  to  Cristofori  at  the  outset  of  the 
Pianoforte,  owing  to  the  necessity  of  stringing 
with  thicker  wire  than  before,  to  resist  the  blow 
of  the  hammers,  and  of  strengthening  the  case 
to  bear  the  greater  tension  of  the  thicker  strings, 
which  forced  him  to  shift  the  hitchpins  from 
the  soundboard  to  a  separate  strong  rail.  The 
gap  between  the  wrestplank  and  the  sound- 
board, through  which  the  hammers  of  the  grand 

Fio.  12. 


r  Is  the  damper.  It  must  not  be  overlooked  that  Stein,  who 
bad  not  himself  invented  the  knee  pedal,  did,  in  1789,  invent  a 
shirting  foot  pedal,  by  means  of  which  the  keyboard  moved,  and 
the  three  unisons  were  reduced  to  a  single  string— ipintltchen, 
little  spinet,  as  he  named  this  '  una  corda.'  2 

Lehrbuch  des  Pianofortebaues '  by  Bliithner  and 
Gretschel,  Leipzig,  and  shows  the  damping  as 
well  as  the  escapement. 

Returning  to  Mozart,  his  Concert  Grand  in  the 
Mozarteum  at  Salzburg,  shown  in  Fig.  12,  is  a 
small  5-octave  instrument,  with  black  natural 
keys  and  white  sharps,  made  by  Anton  Walter, 
who  became  in  the  end  Mozart's  favourite  maker, 
as  Schanz  was  Haydn's.  According  to  Schonfeld 
(Jahrbuch  der  Tonkunst  von  Wien  und  Prag, 
1796)  the  pianos  of  Schanz  were  weaker  and 
sweeter  than  those  of  Walter ;  the  touch  also 
easier,  and  the  keyfall  still  less.  But  both  Walter 
and  Schanz  were  mere  copyists  of  Stein.  They 
made  square  pianos  also  in  the  '  English '  form, 
most  likely  imitations  of  the  English  instruments, 
which  at  that  time  had  a  very  wide  market. 

Paris  was  supplied  chiefly  with  English  pianos 
until  Sebastien  Erard  made,  in  1777,  the  first 
French  one,  a  Square,  copied,  according  to  Fe"tis, 
from  one  of  English  make.  [See  Erard.]  For 
some  years  he  appears  to  have  continued  on 
these  lines ;  indeed  it  was  not  till  after  he  had 

1  Stein's  son  seems  to  have  founded  the  Vienna  business,  as  shown 
in  the  following  extracts  from  a  '  Musikalische  Honatschrift,'  edited 
by  F.  X.  GlOggl  (Linz,  Oct.  1803,  p.  99), '  The  clavier  Instruments  which 
have  been  made  by  Andreas  Stein  at  Vienna  are  to  be  properly  un- 
derstood as  Forti  Piano,  meaning  such  as  respond  to  every  possible 
degree  of  strength  or  softness  of  tone  when  played  with  more  or  less 
pressure,  or  rather  stroke  of  the  fingers  on  the  keys ';  and  '  the  action 
in  all  parts  is  as  simple  as  possible  and  at  the  same  time  extra- 
ordinarily durable.  It  is  original  throughout,  that  is,  entirely  the 
invention  of  the  deceased  organ-builder  and  instrument-maker  Stein 
of  Augsburg  (father  of  the  present  maker),  who,  with  the  rarest  love 
of  art,  has  devoted  the  greatest  part  of  his  active  life  to  its  completion.' 
This  communication,  from  Herr  C.  F.  Fohl,  is  an  historical  proof  of 
the  pedigree  of  the  Viennese  action. 

2  Walton,  a  London  maker,  had  shifted  the  hammers,  leaving  the 
keyboard  stationary,  two  yean  earlier,  viz.  1787.    (Patent  No.  1607.) 


piano  rose  to  strike  the  strings,  was  the  first  to 
be  strengthened  by  metal,  as  a  material  at  once 
stronger  than  wood  and  very  economical  of  space. 
This  was  effected  by  steel  arches,  a  contrivance 
that  has  remained  in  universal  employment,  but 
of  the  author  of  which  there  is  no  record.  There 
are  three  in  Stodart's  Grand  of  1 788  previously 
referred  to ;  no  doubt  earlier  examples  exist,  and 
to  know  their  date  is  desirable.  Schroeter  had 
suggested  a  transverse  bar  across  the  instrument ; 
but  it  is  not  known  if  the  experiment  was  made 
at  that  time.  The  first  real  use  of  metal  longi- 
tudinal bracing  was  suggested  in  1 799  by  Joseph 
Smith  (Patent  2345,  London) ;  it  was  to  be 
under  the  soundboard  and  to  replace  the  wooden 
braces,  and  thus  provide  space  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  mechanically  played  tambourine !  But 
for  the  patent  office  we  might  not  have  known 
of  Joseph  Smith's  invention,  as  nothing  came  of 
it.  The  first  to  use  iron  or  steel  in  the  form  of 
bracing  or  tension  bars  placed  above  the  strings 
—  a    method    now    universally   adopted  —  was 


PIANOFORTE. 

James  Shudi  Broad  wood,  who,  in  1804,  having 
carried  the  compass  of  the  grand  piano  up  to  F, 
found  that  the  wrestplank  was  so  much  Sva 
weakened  by  this  extension  that  the 
treble  sank  in  pitch  more  rapidly  than 
the  rest  of  the  instrument.  Accord- 
ingly in  1808,  in  three  grand  pianos,  he 
applied  steel  tension-bars  above  the  strings  to 
remedy  the  inequality.  This  experiment  is  re- 
corded in  Messrs.  Broadwood's  work-books  of 
that  date,  and  the  experiment  was  repeated  in 
1818,  the  metal  bars  being  then  four  in  number 
in  place  of  three.  In  Messrs.  Broadwood's  Inter- 
national Exhibition  book,  1862,  p.  29,  we  learn 
that  the  mode  of  fixing  these  bars  was  at  first 
defective,  the  wood  giving  way  to  the  thrust  of 
the  bars.  It  is  certain  that  they  did  not  use 
tension  bars  at  this  time  constantly,  for  the 
grand  piano  which  was  presented  to  Beethoven 
by  James  and  Thomas  Broad  wood  in  1 8 1 7  [see 
vol.  i.  p.  194]  had  no  tension  bars,  and  moreover 
8M 


PIANOFORTE. 


719 


only  went  up  to  C 


(Six  octaves  C— C.) 


Sebastien  Erard's  patent  in  1808  (No.  3170) 
records  an  ingenious  step  towards  a  successful 
repetition  action,  viz.  the  'double  escapement'; 
and  an  improvement  which  afterwards  proved  to 
be  of  great  importance,  viz.  the  upward  bearing 
of  the  bridge  next  the  tuning-pins  by  substi- 
tuting for  the  pinned  wooden  bridge,  metal 
studs  or  agraffes  drilled  with  holes  for  the  pas- 
sage of  the  strings,  and  separately  fixed  for  each 
note.  The  same  patent  includes  what  is  now 
known  as  the  '  celeste'  piano  pedal,  in  which  the 
hammer  strikes  a  piece  of  leather  (now  always 
felt)  interposed  between  it  and  the  strings. 

About  this  time,  in  the  very  first  years  of  the 
present  century,  an  entirely  new  form  of  piano- 
forte was  invented,  the  Upright,  with  the  strings 
descending  below  the  keyboard.  There  had  been 
upright  harpsichords  and  upright  grands  (the 
latter  patented  by  John  Landreth  in  1787),  but 
these  were  merely  horizontal  instruments  turned 
up  on  end,  with  the  necessary  modification  of 
the  action  to  adapt  it  to  the  position.  In  1800 
Isaac  Hawkins  patented  (No.  2446)  a  perpendi- 
cular pianoforte  from  3  to  4  feet  in  height, 
descending  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the  floor, 
to  give  the  instrument  a  '  more  convenient  and 
elegant  shape  than  any  heretofore  made.'  His 
patent  includes  two  other  important  ideas ;  the  use 
of  coiled  strings  for  the  bas3,  and  a  sostinente,  ob- 
tained by  reiteration  of  hammers  set  in  motion 
by  a  roller.  In  1802  Thomas  Loud  (patent  No. 
2591)  gave  a  diagonal  shape  to  this  upright  piano 
by  sloping  the  strings  in  an  angular  direction, 
portability  being  the  'leading  intention  and  fea- 
ture.' James  Broadwood  claims  to  have  giyen  a 
sketch  for  a  Cabinet  piano  (Some  Notes,  etc., 
p.  9)  in  1804  to  William  Southwell,  who  in 
1807  patented  (No.  3029)  a  damper  action  to  the 
instrument  there  called  by  that  name.  From 
this  tall  instrument  the  lower  upright  or  Cottage 
piano  followed    almost    immediately.      Robert 


Worndm  'the  younger'  patented  (No.  3419)  one 
diagonally  strung  in  181 1,  and  in  1813  made 
a  vertical  one,  naming  it  '  Harmonic'  William 
Fredeuick  Collard,  who  about  1800  had  with 
Muzio  Clementi  taken  up  the  business  of  Long- 
man &  Broderip,  in  181 1  essayed  an  oblique 
pianoforte  (Patent  No.  3481)  by  turning  a  square 
one  '  upwards  on  its  side.'  Nearly  all  improve- 
ments in  the  pianoforte  have  been  of  slow  and 
patient  elaboration,  the  introduction  of  metal  in 
framing,  and  Erard's  special  action  being  pro- 
minent examples.  Wornum's  excellent  cottage 
action  was  no  exception  to  this  general  experience, 
for  he  did  not  complete  it  till  1828  (Patent  No. 
5678).  Camille  Pleyel  recognised  its  value,  and 
through  his  introduction  it  became  generally 
used  in  France,  so  that  at  last  it  was  known  in 
England  as  the  '  French '  action.  But  Wornum's 
merit  as  the  inventor  of  this  'crank'  action 
needs  now  no  vindication,  and  Southwell's 
'  sticker'  action,  long  the  favourite  in  England,  is 
giving  way  and  will  probably  be  in  time  entirely 
superseded  by  it.  In  France  and  Germany 
Wornum's  principle  universally  prevails. 

We  may  now  look  back  a  hundred  years,  in 
the  first  half  of  which  the  pianoforte  had  really 
no  independent  existence  as  a  keyed  instrument ; 
but  between  1770  and  1 8  2  o  we  find  the  grand  piano 
complete  so  far  as  its  construction  in  wood  per- 
mitted, and  a  constellation  of  remarkable  players 
that  included  Clementi  and  Dussek,  Cramer  and 
Field,  Hummel  and  Ries.  Weber  in  Germany 
had  initiated  the  Romantic  school  in  pianoforte 
music ;  Kalkbrenner  in  Paris  was  forwarding 
technical  discipline;  and  above  all,  Beethoven, 
whose  early  eminence  as  a  pianist  has  been  to  a 
large  extent  overshadowed  by  his  sublime  genius 
as  a  composer,  was  in  the  latter  years  of  this  epoch 
engaged  in  completing  that  series  of  masterpieces 
for  the  pianoforte  that  have  not  only  enabled  it 
to  rival  the  orchestra  in  the  wealth  of  its  posses- 
sions, but  have  by  their  own  immortality  ensured 
it  an  existence  as  a  musical  instrument  which 
no  change  of  fashion  can  affect.  The  further 
development  of  technique,  essential  to  the  in- 
terpretation of  Beethoven,  attained  its  highest 
perfection  between  1820  and  1850,  and  was 
based  upon  conditions  rendered  possible  by  the 
introduction  of  iron  as  an  essential  constitu- 
ent in  the  framing  of  grand  pianos,  and  in 
a  certain  degree  of  that  of  the  other  kinds 
also.  Gradation  of  power  was  the  great  desi- 
deratum of  the  player ;  and  the  possibilities  of 
this  were  intimately  connected  with  the  free- 
dom of  the  wrist,  which  had  previously  been 
disallowed,  and  with  the  discovery,  made  almost 
instinctively,  that  to  give  elasticity  to  the  fingers, 
they  should  be  raised  in  order  to  descend  and 
not  be  drawn  inwards  as  was  the  case  with  the 
old  Bach  touch.  This  change  of  practice  involved 
a  blow  by  the  hammer  which  the  indifferent 
Berlin  wire  of  that  time  could  not  stand.  Thicker 
wire  produced  greater  strain  on  the  framing  which 
the  wooden  cases  were  not  strong  enough  to  re- 
sist. The  use  also  of  two  metals  in  the  string- 
ing, brass  and  iron,  led  to  unequal  changes  in 


720 


PIANOFORTE. 


PIANOFORTE. 


the  tuning,  and  another  problem, '  compensation,' 
received  even  more  attention  than  'resistance' 
had  done.  To  solve  this  a  young  Scotch  tuner, 
named  Allen,  employed  at  Stodart's,  set  himself; 
and  with  the  fervour  proverbial  in  the  youth  of 
his  country,  he  soon  succeeded  in  producing  a 
complete  and  satisfactory  upper  framing  of  hollow 
tubes  in  combination  with  plates  of  iron  and 
brass,  bound  together  by  stout  wooden  crossbars, 
the  whole  intended 
to  bear  the  pull  of  F,°- 13' 

the  strings,  and  to 
meet,  by  give-and- 
take,  the  variations 
in  the  length  of  the 
wires,  due  to  altera- 
tion of  temperature. 
The  patent  (No. 
4431)  was  taken  out 
by  William  Allen 
and  James  Thom 
(who  supplied  the 
necessary  technical 
knowledge  of  piano- 
forte making) ;  it  is 
dated  Jan.  15,1820, 
and  the  exclusive 
right  to  use  it  was 
acquired  by  Messrs. 
Stodart  to  the  great 
advantage  of  their 
business.  The  ac- 
companying dia- 
gram of  a  Stodart 
pianoforte  with  Allen's  framing,  shows  the  aim 
and  completeness  of  this  remarkable  invention, 
from  the  inventors  point  of  view. 

But  tension  soon  asserted  itself  as  more  im- 
portant than  compensation,  and  a  rigid  counter- 
poise to  it  by  means  of  metal  still  presented 
itself  as  the  problem  for  solution  to  James  Broad- 
wood,  who  had,  years  before,  initiated  the  idea ; 
and  we  learn  from  Mr.  Henry  Fowler  Broadwood 
('Times,'  May  10,  185 1)  that  Samuel  Herve,  a 
workman  employed  by  his  father,  invented  in  182 1 
the  fixed  stringpiate,  in  that  year  first  applied  to 
a  Square  piano  of  Broadwood's.  From  1822  to 
1827  James  Broadwood  tried  various  combinations 
of  the  stringpiate  and  tension  bars,  and  in  the 
latter  year  permanently  adopted  a  system  of  solid 
metal  bracing  (Patent  No.  5485).  The  tension 
bars  not  having  been  patented  had  been  adopted 
by  other  makers,  and  in  1825  Pierre  Erard  had  in 
his  turn  patented  a  means  of  fixing  the  tension 
bars  to  the  wooden  braces  beneath  the  soundboard 
by  bolts  passing  through  holes  cut  in  the  sound- 
board (Patent  No.  5065).  There  is  no  mention  of 
a  stringpiate  in  this  patent,  but  a  proposition  is 
made  to  strengthen  the  case  by  plating  it  with 
sheet  iron,  which  however  came  to  nothing. 

The  William  Allen  who  had  invented  Stodart's 
compensating  framing  did  not  rest  satisfied  with 
his  first  success,  but  invented,  and  in  1 83 1  patented 
(No.  6140),  a  cast-iron  frame  to  combine  string- 
plate,  tension  bars,  and  wrestplank  in  one  casting. 
Wooden  bars  were  let  into  the  wrestplank  to 


. 


receive  the  ordinary  tuning-pins,  which  would 
not  conveniently  work  in  metal.  This  important 
invention  did  not  find  the  acceptance  which  it 
deserved,  and  the  compound  metal  and  wood 
framing  continued  to  be  preferred  in  Europe 
under  the  idea  that  it  was  beneficial  to  the  tone. 
But  Allen's  proposal  of  one  casting  had  been 
anticipated  in  America  by  Alpheus  Babcock 
of  Boston,  U.S.,  who  in  1825  patented  a  cast- 
iron  frame  for  a  Square  piano.  The  object  of 
this  frame,  like  that  of  Allen's  first  patent,  was 
compensation.  It  failed,  but  Babcock's  single 
casting  laid  the  foundation  of  a  system  of  con- 
struction which  has  been  largely  and  successfully 
developed  in  America.  Besides  Allen  and  Bab- 
cock, who  in  those  days  of  imperfect  communica- 
tion are  hardly  likely  to  have  known  of  each 
other's  attempts,  Conrad  Meyer '  of  Philadelphia 
claims  to  have  invented  the  metal  frame  in  a 
single  casting  in  1832.  Whether  Meyer  was 
aware  of  the  previous  efforts  of  Allen  and  Bab- 
cock or  not,  he  has  the  merit  of  having  made  a 
good  Square  piano  on  this  plan  of  construction  in 
1833.  The  frame  of  it  is  represented  below.  This 
instrument,  which  the  writer  saw  and  tried  at 
Paris  in  1878,  was  exhibited  when  first  made  at 
the  Franklin  Institute,  Philadelphia,  and  was 
sold ;  but  Messrs.  Meyer  bought  it  back  in  1867 
and  exhibited  it  in  the  Centennial  Exhibition  in 
1876,  and  again,  as  mentioned,  in  the  Universal 
Exhibition  of  Paris  in  1878.  Jonas  Checkering 
of  Boston  in  1837  improved  the  single  casting  by 
including  in  it  the  pinbridge,  and  damper  socket- 
rail,  a  construction  which  he  patented  in  1840. 
Fio.  14.  Chickering    subsequently    de- 

vised a  complete  frame  for 
grand  pianos  in  one  casting, 
and  exhibited  two  so  made  at 
the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851. 
On  the  same  occasion  Lichten- 
thal  of  St.  Petersburg  exhibited 
two  grand  pianos  '  overstrung,' 
that  is,  with  the  longest  ba 
spun-strings-  stretched  oblique 
ly  over  the  longest  unspun  one 
a  method  that  is  now  very  we 
known  and  extensively  adopt 
but  the  advantages  of  whic 
have  hitherto  been  impaired  b\ 
inequality  in  the  scale, 
invention  of  overstringing 
had  more  than  one  claimant, 
amongst  others  the  ingenious 
Henry  Pape.  We  have  found 
no  earlier  date  for  it  than 
1835,  when  Theobald  Boehm, 
well  known  in  connection  with  the  flute,  con- 
trived an  overstrung  square,  and  an  overstrung 
cottage  piano,  and  had  them  made  in  Lon- 
don by  Gerock  of  Cornhill.  In  the  next  year, 
1836,  John  Godwin  patented  (No.  7021)  over- 

1  A  native  of  Marburg,  Hesse  Cassel.  who  emigrated  to  Baltimo 
In  1S19,  and  In  1S23  set  up  In  business  as  a  pianoforte-maker  In  Phil) 
delphia.  Mr.  Meyer  and  his  sons  were  still  carrying  on  the  busine 
in  1879. 

2  'Spun,  or  overspun,  strings'  are  surrounded  with  an  exter 
coil  of  fine  wire,  to  add  to  their  weight  and  power  of  tone. 


PIANOFORTE. 

strung  square  and  cottage  pianos.  Whether  he 
acquired  Boehm's  invention  or  not,  we  do  not 
know. 

Great  use  of  iron  was  made  by  Dr.  Steward 
(still  living  at  Handsworth  near  Birmingham)  in 
a  novel  upright  pianoforte  which  he  called  the 
Euphonicon,  and  brought  out  in  London  in  1 844. 
His  patent  (No.  9023),  which  is  dated  July  1841, 
includes  a  complete  metal  framing,  and  separate 
soundboards,  three  in  number.  The  instruments 
were  of  elegant  appearance,  and  the  long  strings, 
in  harplike  form,  were  exposed  to  view.1  Though 
unsuccessful,  the  Euphonicon  should  not  be 
forgotten.  There  is  one  in  South  Kensington 
Museum  in  the  musical  instrument  collection. 

To  return  to  America.  In  1853  Jonas  Chick- 
ering  combined  the  overstringing  with  a  metal 
frame  in  one  casting,  in  a  square  piano  which  he 
did  not  live  to  see  completed,  but  which  was 
finished  by  his  sons.   This  combination  was  taken 


Fio.  15. 


PIANOFORTE. 


721 


a  thoroughly  solid  structure.  His  plan  gets  rid 
of  some  of  the  tension  bars,  which  he  believes  to 
be  more  or  less  inimical  to  carrying  and  equality 
of  tone.  The  difference  between  this  and  his 
father's  or  Erard's  scale  is  great;  and  it  only 
approaches  the  American — which  it  preceded  in 
grand  pianos — in  the  fact  that  the  framing  is 
independent  of  the  wooden  structure  of  the  in- 
strument. A  comparison  of  the  diagram  (Fig.  16) 
with  Steinway's  (Fig.  15)  makes  this  difference 
obvious  (the  diagonal  bar  is  lettered  u,  the  sus- 
pension-bar t).  The  tension-bars  are  flanged  to 
preserve  them  from  twisting  under  the  high  tension 
adopted,  the  wire  for  the  treble  notes  being  now 
thicker  than  that  for  the  bass  formerly  was. 
Allen's  metal  wrestplank  remained  for  more  than 

>  In  the  harp  shape  Or.  Steward  had  been  anticipated  by  Muuard 
of  Lausanne.    We  have  seen  a  piano  so  made  by  him  In  lfOS. 
VOL.  II.    PT.  12. 


up  by  Messrs.  Steinway  &  Sons  of  New  York,  and 
further  improved  in  1859  by  the  addition  of  an 
'  agraffe '  (or  metal  stud)  bridge  ;  they  then,  by 
dividing  the  overstringing  into  two  crossings, 
produced  a  double  overstrung  scale.  In  the  same 
year  this  firm  patented  in  America  a  grand  piano 
with  fan-shaped  overstrung  scale  in  one  casting, 
a  diagram  of  which  will  show  the  arrangement 
of  ironwork  and  bridges  (Fig.  15).  This  system 
of  Messrs.  Steinway's  has  been  adopted  by  some 
of  the  foremost  makers  in  Germany,  which  it 
may  be  mentioned  is  the  native  country  of  the 
firm.     [See  Steinway.] 

Mr.  Henry  Fowler  Broadwood's  special  concert- 
grand  iron  framing,  with  diagonal  tension-bar 
and  transverse  suspension-bar,  was  invented  by 
him  in  1847,  and  has  been  used  by  his  firm  ever 
since.  Mr.  Broadwood  objects  to  single  castings, 
preferring  a  combination  of  cast  and  wrought 
iron,  wedged  up  at  the  points  of  abutment,  into 

Fig.  16. 


twenty  years  in  abeyance,  although  single  plates 
of  metal,  allowing  room  for  the  pin-holes  in  the 
wooden  block,  had  been  used  from  time  to  time.* 
The  late  H.  "Wolfel  of  Paris  brought  out  about 
1854  a  metal  wrestplank  with  mechanical  screw- 
pins,  an  idea  for  tuning  often  tried,  but  always 
unsuccessfully.  Wolfel's  next  idea  was  to  use 
boxwood  plugs  in  the  pinholes,  so  that  the  pins 
should  not  touch  the  metal.  The  difficulty  was 
at  last  met  by  Mr.  H.  F.  Broadwood.  In  his 
invention  the  tuning-pin  screws  accurately  into 
the  thick  metal  wrestpin-piece.and  through  it  into 

a  An  Independent  iron  wrestplate,  attached  to  the  wooden  wrest- 
plank, was  proposed  by  J.  C.  Schwleso,  a  harp-maker  in  London,  who 
took  out  a  patent  (No.  6069)  for  it  in  1831.  Schwleso's  tuning-pin 
pierced  the  wrestplate,  and  was  tapped  at  the  upper  end;  ths 
immobility  of  the  pin,  to  which  the  string  was  attached  at  the  lower 
end  (as  in  a  harp,  or  Cristofori's  first  pianos)  being  ensured  by  friction 
collars  and  washers.  We  do  not  know  if  this  wrestplate  answered,  or 
was  ever  tried  in  a  pianoforte.  Schwleso  adapted  It  for  use  In  harps, 
violins,  and  guitars. 

3  A 


722 


PIANOFORTE. 


PIANOFORTE. 


the  wooden  wrestplank  or  pinblock,  the  great 
length  of  the  pin  and  clinging  of  the  wood  produc- 
ing sufficient  friction  to  counteract  the  pull  of  the 
string.  The  wrestpin-piece  was  introduced  by  the 
firm  in  the  grand  pianos  exhibited  in  1862,  and 
years  have  proved  the  efficiency  of  the  invention. 
This  is  the  successful  completion  of  the  iron  framing 
identified  with  the  third  of  Mr.  Broadwood's  name, 
in  direct  descent  an  improver  of  the  pianoforte. 
Returning  to  the  action,  we  have  seen  the 


. 


steps  first  taken  by  Sebastien  Erard  towards  th 
attainment  of  double  escapement,  whereby  power 
is  regained  over  the  hammer  before  the  key  re- 
turns to  its  equilibrium.  He  had  grown  old 
before  the  full  accomplishment  of  his  idea,  and 
his  famous  '  Repetition  action  *  was  patented  in 
London  in  18  21  (Patent  No.  4631)  by  Pierre 
Erard,  his  nephew.  The  action  is  shown  in 
this  diagram,  which  we  will  describe  as  far  as 
possible  in  untechnical  language. 


Fig.  17. 


0  Is  the  key ;  d  Is  a  pilot,  centred  at  dd  to  give  the  blow,  by  means  of  a  carrier,  e,  holding  the  hopper,  g.  which  delivers 
the  blow  to  the  hammer,  o,  by  the  thrust  of  the  hopper,  which  escapes  by  forward  movement  after  contact  with  a  projection 
from  the  hammer  covered  with  leather,  answering  to  the  notch  of  the  English  action.  This  escapement  is  controlled 
at  x ;  a  double  spring,  tl,  pushes  up  a  hinged  lever,  ««,  the  rise  of  which  is  checked  at  pp.  and  causes  the  second  or 
double  escapement ;  a  little  stirrup  at  the  shoulder  of  the  hammer,  known  as  the  '  repetition,'  pressing  down  ee  at  the 
point,  and  by  this  depression  permitting  g  to  go  back  into  its  place,  and  be  ready  for  a  second  blow,  before  the  key 
has  been  materially  raised.  The  check,  p.  Is  In  this  action  not  behind  the  hammer,  but  before  it,  fixed  Into  the  carrier,  «, 
which  also,  as  the  key  is  put  down,  brings  down  the  under  damper. 


Although  at  once  adopted  by  Hummel  and 
other  pianists  of  note,  including  Liszt,  then  a 
boy,  Erard's  action  was  slow  to  obtain  recogni- 
tion. It  did  not  gain  a  satisfactory  position 
until  Thalberg,  after  1830,  had  identified  his 
admirable  playing  with  its  specialities.  In  1835 
Pierre  Erard  obtained  an  extension  of  his  patent 
on  the  ground  of  the  loss  sustained  in  working 
it.  Then  'repetition'  became  the  pianoforte- 
maker's  dominant  idea  in  this  country  and  else- 
where, each  according  to  his  knowledge  and 
ability  contriving  a  repetition  action  to  call  his 
own,  though  generally  a  modification  of  an  exist- 
ing one.  Names  that  have  come  prominently 
forward  in  connection  with  these  experiments, 
are  BltJthner  in  Germany,  Pletel  and  Krie- 
gelstein  in  Paris,  Southwell  the  younger,  Ramsay 
and  Kind  (under  Broadwood's  patronage  at 
different  times)  Collabd,  Hopkinson,  and 
Beinsmead  in  London.  Other  repetition  actions 
are  the  simplified  copies  of  Erard's  used  by  Hekz 
in  Paris  and  by  Steinwat  in  New  York,  the 
latter  lately  adopted  by  Bechstein  of  Berlin,  in 
place  of  Kriegelstein's. 

Beyond  the  broad  summary  of  inventions  in 
instrument  and  action  which  we  have  sketched, 
it  is  impracticable  in  our  space  to  go  farther  into 
detail ;  it  would  moreover  be  a  task  of  great 
difficulty,  owing  to  the  multiplicity  of  facts 
needing  to  be  sifted,  and  the  fact  that  a  writer 


on  this  subject  must  always  be  influenced 
by  education  in  taste  and  use.  We  may  how- 
ever be  permitted  to  refer  to  the  services  of 
James  Stewart  (particularly  in  connection  with 
Messre.  Collard's  pianos)  and  to  Henry  Pape  of 
Paris,  who  has  tried  more  ingenious  experiments 
in  pianofortes  than  any  other  maker,  although 
the  majority  of  them  are  of  doubtful  utility.  It 
is  to  him  that  we  owe  the  use  of  felt  for  hammers 
(much  improved,  however,  by  Mr.  H.  F.  Broad- 
wood,  who  first  substituted  sheep's  wool  for 
Pape's  rabbit's  hair).  William  Stodart  in- 
vented a  continuous  bridge  for  upward  bearing 
in  1822;  and  the  'harmonic  bar'  in  the  treble, 
as  a  bar  of  alternating  pressure  has  been  called, 
from  the  peculiar  timbre  obtained  by  its  use,1 
was  the  invention  of  Pierre  Erard  about  1838, 
according  to  Dr.  Paul.  The  main  object  of  this 
bar  was  to  consolidate  the  wrestplank  in  the 
treble,  a  screw  tapped  into  the  plank  and  draw- 
ing it  upwards  alternating  with  a  screw  tapped 
in  the  bar  pressing  it  downwards.  In  1843  Mr. 
A.  Bobd  of  Paris  invented  a  different  bar  in- 
dependent of  the  wrestplank,  which  served  as  a 
bridge  of  upward  bearing  and  abolished  the  treble 
wrestplank  bridge.  From  its  simplicity  and  cheap- 
ness this  has  found  favour,  with  some  modifica- 
tions, in  Germany  (where  it  is  known  as  the  Capo 

1  In  the  original  application  of  this  Invention  a  third  screw  pressed 
upon  the  bridge. 


PIANOFORTE. 

tasto,  or  d'astro,  bar)  and  elsewhere.1  There  has 
been  a  recent  revival  of  Mr.  W.  F.  Collard's  idea, 
patented  in  182 1,  of  utilising  the  back  draught  of 
the  wires,  between  the  belly  bridge  and  the  hitch 
pins,  for  sympathetic  vibration,  by  means  of  what 
he  called  (Patent  No.  4542)  a  '  bridge  of  rever- 
beration.' This  reappears,  in  idea,  in  Messrs. 
Steinway's  '  Duplex  Scale3 ;  but  Herr  Bliithner 
of  Leipzig  has  gone  further  in  employing  in- 
dependent sympathetic  strings  of  half  length  in 
his  'Aliquot'  piano.  By  this  he  adds  the  octave 
harmonic  throughout  three  octaves,  and  thus 
produces  something  of  the  shifting  soft  pedal 
timbre :  the  forte  or  damper  pedal  in  the  ordinary 
pianoforte  is  however  an  incomparably  more 
efficient  floodgate  to  these  sympathetic,  or  more 
properly,  ^Eolian  reinforcements. 

The  last  inventions  we  have  to  mention  con- 
cern the  pedals,  and  are  due  to  M.  Montal,  a 
blind  Parisian  pianoforte  maker,  who,  in  1862, 
exhibited  in  London  (1)  a  '  Pe"dale  d'expression,' 
diminishing  the  range  of  the  hammers  instead  of 
shifting  them,  an  expedient  now  employed  by 
American  and  German  makers,  and  (2)  a  '  Pedale 
de  prolongement,'  a  third  pedal,  by  using  which 
a  note  or  notes  may  be  prolonged  after  the  fingers 
have  quitted  the  keys.8    This  pedal  has  been  of 


PIANOFORTE. 


723 


late  years  reintroduced  in  Paris,  Stuttgart  and 
New  York.  Reference  to  Pedals  will  show  the 
radical  change  that  took  place  between  1830  and 
1850  in  'instrumenting'  the  pianoforte,  giving 
it  what  we  may  call  colour  of  tone,  divined  by 
Beethoven,  and  perfected  by  Chopin  and  Liszt. 
By  these  parallel  advances  in  technique  and 
instrument,  the  masterpieces  composed  for  the 
pianoforte  by  Beethoven  have  since  1850  found 
their  fullest  exposition. 

It  cannot  be  too  emphatically  urged  that 
pianoforte  makers,  to  truly  excel,  must  ever  be 
individual  in  their  productions.  They  should 
be  guided  by  care  of  proportions  in  every  detail, 
and  in  equality  of  tension  as  far  as  the  scale  will 
admit ;  and  by  a  fine  discrimination  of  the 
proper  striking  place  or  point  of  attack  upon 
the  strings.  The  highly  complex  nature  of  the 
instrument  offers  inexhaustible  facilities  for 
choice  in  modification  of  these  conditions,  which, 
combined  with  tradition  in  working,  an  important 
factor,  may  be  taken  as  the  distinctive  note  of 
personality  in  a  maker.  But  we  must  not  forget 
that  there  is  also  a  national  taste  in  choice  of 
tone  which  has  an  unmistakable  influence. 

A  table  of  dates  will  be  found  a  useful  con- 
elusion  to  this  article. 


1598 
1709 
1716 


1731 
1738 

U47 

1753 

1758-60 

1759 

1764 

1768 
1767 

17C8 
1770 
1772 

1772 
1773 
1777 
1777 
1777 
1780 
1782 

1783 
1786 
1787 
1787 
1788 

1789 
1790 

1794 
1794 
1794 
1796 
1800 


Piano  e  Forte.    Name  of  a  keyed  Instrument  at  Modena. 

Cristofori  had  made  lour  pianofortes  In  Florence. 

Marius  submitted  models  of  pianofortes  to  the  Academy  In 

Paris. 
Schroeter  submitted  two  models  of  pianoforte  actions  to  the 

Court  at  Dresden. 
Gottfried  Sllbermann,  of  Freiberg,  showed  two  pianofortes 

to  John  Sebastian  Bach. 
Cristofori  died. 
Schroeter  wrote  to  Mitzler,  claiming  to  have  Invented  the 

pianoforte. 

J.  S.  Bach  played  on  a  Sllbermann  pianoforte  before  Frede- 
rick the  Great. 
Gottfried  Sllbermann  died. 

Frlederici,  of  Gera.  made  the  first  square  pianoforte. 
John  Christian  Bach  came  to  London. 
Schroeter  published  in  Marpurg's  work  bis  claim  to  have 

Invented  the  pianoforte. 
Date  of  oldest  Zumpe  square  piano  known. 
A  '  new  instrument  called  Piano  Forte '  announced  at  Cerent 

Garden. 
J.  C  Bach  played  a  solo  on  the  pianoforte  in  London. 
Muzlo  Clementl  composed  pianoforte  music. 
The  pianist  J.  S.  Schroeter  (not  the  organist)  came  to 

London. 
Backers  about  this  time  invented  the  English  Direct  Action 
Burney  praised  Backers'  pianofortes. 
Mozart  played  on  Stein's  pianofortes  at  Augsburg. 
Stodart  adopted  the  name  '  grand '  pianoforte. 
Seb.  Erard  made  the  first  square  piano  In  France. 
John  Broadwood  re-constructed  the  square  piano. 
Mozart  and  Clementl  played  upon  the  pianoforte  before  the 

Emperor  at  Vienna. 
John  Broadwood  patented  loud  and  soft  pedals. 
Gelb  patented  the  square  '  grasshopper'  action. 
John  Landreth  patented  the  'upright'  grand  piano. 
Walton  patented  a  soft  pedal  with  shifting  hammers. 
John  Broadwood  about  this  time  made  a  new  scale  grand 

piano,  dividing  the  curved  bridge. 
Stein,  of  Augsburg,  invented  a  soft  pedal  with  shifting  action. 
John  Broadwood  made  the  first  piano  with  five  and  a  half 

octaves. 
William  Southwell  Invented  the  'Irish'  damper. 
Andreas  Streicher  perfected  the  Viennese  grand  action. 
John  Broadwood  made  the  first  piano  with  six  octaves. 
Seb.  Erard  made  his  first  grand  piano  in  Paris. 
Clementl,  in  partnership  with  Collard.  began  about  this 

time  to  make  pianos. 


1800 
1802 
1807 
1806 
1808 

1820 

1821 

1821 


1825 
1825 

1826 
1827 

1827 

1831 

1833 

1835 
1838 
1840 

1843 
1847 
1851 

1851 

1853 

1854 
1859 


Isaac  Hawkins  patented  an  upright  pianoforte. 

Thomas  Loud  patented  a  diagonal  upright  pianoforte. 

William  Southwell  patented  the  cabinet  pianoforte. 

James  Broadwood  first  applied  tension  bars  to  a  grand  piano 

Seb.  Erard  patented  the  upward  bearing  and  the  'celeste 
pedal. 

Robert  Wornum  made  the  first  cottage  pianoforte. 

William  Allen  invented  and  brought  out  at  Stodart's  a  com- 
pensating grand  piano  with  metal  tubes  and  plates. 

Seb.  Erard  patented  his  double  escapement  action. 

8.  Herve  Invented  the  fixed  stringplate  (brought  out  at 
Broad  woods'). 

James  Broadwood  adapted  tension  bars  to  the  stringplate. 

Liszt  came  out  in  Paris  on  an  Erard  grand  piano.  Seven 
octaves,  C — C. 

P.  Erard  patented  bolts  to  tension  bars. 

Alphaeus  Babcock  patented  in  America  a  cut  iron  frame 
square  piano. 

It.  Wornum  patented  the  crank  action,  improved  1828. 

James  Broadwood  patented  tension  bars  and  stringplate 
combined  in  a  grand  piano. 

James  Stewart  patented  stringing  without  'eyes'  to  the 
strings  (In  Messrs.  CoUards'  pianos). 

W.  Allen  patented  In  London  a  complete  cast-iron  frame 
piano. 

Conrad  Meyer  patented  in  America  a  cast-iron  frame  square 
piano. 

Boehm  had  over-strung  pianos  made  in  London. 

P.  Erard  introduced  the  '  Harmonic  bar.' 

Jonas  Chlckering  patented  In  America  a  cast-iron  frame 
with  damper  socket  (square  piano). 

A.  Bord  of  Paris  invented  the  '  Capo  tasto'  bar. 

H.  F.  Broadwood  invented  his  'Iron'  grand  pianoforte. 

Jonas  Chickering  exhibited  In  London  grand  pianos  with 
frames  in  one  casting. 

Llchtenthal,  of  St.  Petersburg,  exhibited  In  London  over- 
strung grand  pianos. 

Chlckering  1  Son  combined  cut  frame  and  over-stringing 
In  a  square  piano. 

H.  WOlfel,  of  Paris,  invented  an  Iron  wrestplank  with  me- 
chanical screwpins. 

Steinway  *  Sons  patented  in  America  a  cut  frame  over- 
strung grand  piano,  and  doable  overstrung  square  piano. 

Montal,  of  Paris,  exhibited  in  London  a  third  pedal  for 
prolonging  sounds  after  the  fingers  have  quitted  the 
keys. 

H.  F.  Broadwood  patented  the  metal  plnplece  or  wrestplank 
with  screw  tuning-pins  (not  mechanical). 


l  The  Capo  Tuto  bar  recalls  8chroeter"s '  Wlderstandseisen,'  but  wu 
sot  taken  from  It. 
a  From  the  Report  of  M.  Fells  on  the  Paris  Exhibition  ot  1R55.  It 


[A.J.H.] 

appears  that  the  first  Idea  of  this  pedal  had  occurred  to  Xavler 
Bolsselot  of  Marseilles,  who  had  shown  In  the '  Exposition  Nationale,* 
1844,  a  piano  '  a  sons  soutenus  a  volonte." 

3  A  2 


724 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC.  Of  all  musical  in- 
struments the  pianoforte  possesses  the  largest 
library.  Almost  every  composer  has  written 
more  or  less  for  it,  and  its  literature  is  there- 
fore unrivalled  for  richness  and  variety. 

The  aim  of  this  article  is  to  give  an  approxi- 
mate idea  of  the  number  of  pieces  which  have 
been  composed  for  the  pianoforte  alone  ;  all 
duets  with  other  instruments,  all  trios,  quartets, 
quintets,  sextets,  or  septets,  being  excluded,  as 
belonging  to  chamber  music.  Though  compiled 
with  care  from  numerous  catalogues  and  bio- 
graphies, our  list  cannot  lay  claim  to  thorough 
correctness.  The  greatest  difficulty  has  been 
experienced  with  regard  to  English  composers ; 
most  of  the  works  of  the  English  composers  of 
the  last  century  are  out  of  print,  and  are  often 
only  to  be  obtained  with  great  difficulty.  The 
names  of  the  composers  are  given  in  strictly 
chronological  order.  We  begin  our  list  with  the 
year  1760, 14  years  after  the  illustrious  Sebastian 
Bach  had  tried  the  '  Silbermann  Fliigel '  in  the 
presence  of  Frederic  the  Great  in  the  royal  castle 
of  Potsdam.  At  that  time  Carl  Philipp  Emanuel 
Bach  (1 714-1 788),  Sebastian's  second  son,  was 
the  conductor  of  the  king's  private  music  ;  and 
as  he  was  the  first  to  discern  the  necessity  of 
adopting  an  altered  style  and  expression  for  the 
newly  invented  application  of  the  hammer  in- 
stead of  the  tangent  [see  Pianoforte],  it  is 
but  right  to  begin  the  long  string  of  composers 
with  him. 

Emanuel  Bach  left  about  210  pieces,  of 
which  no  less  than  93  are  sonatas.  Of  these  93 
the  best  (18)  have  been  republished  in  Leipzig 
by  Leuckart ;  and  Dr.  E.  F.  Baumgart,  of  Breslau, 
has  written  an  exceedingly  interesting  preface  to 
them,  in  which  the  style  of  performance,  and  the 
true  manner  of  executing  the  graces  and  agri- 
men  8,  are  described  in  the  most  complete  manner. 
The  same  firm  has  also  published  Emanuel  Bach's 
rondos  (1-13)  and  fantasias  (1-6).  The  late 
Aristide  Farrenc,  in  his  '  Tre"sor  de3  Pianistes,' 
has  published  the  entire  collection  of  Bach's 
'Sonaten  fur  Kenner  und  Liebhaber,'  composed 
in  1779,  1780,  1783,  1785,  and  1787.  Besides 
the  210  solo  pieces,  Bach  wrote  not  less  than 
5  2  concertos.  Pier  Domenico  Paradies  ( 1 7 1 2- 
J  795)'  a  Neapolitan  composer,  wrote  12  good 
sonatas  (two  movements  each),  of  which  No.  6,  in 
A  major,  is  a  real  gem.  Johann  Ernst  Eberlin 
( 1 7 1 6-1 776)  wrote  preludes,  toccatas,  and  fugues ; 
distinguished  by  a  certain  melancholy  expres- 
sion and  an  agreeable  tenderness.  Seven  of  the 
preludes  (or  voluntaries)  and  fugues  are  to  be 
found  in  Clementi's  *  Practical  Harmony.'  [See 
Practical  Harmony.]  Friedrich  Wilhelm 
Marpurg  (17 1 8-1 795),  the  eminent  theorist, 
wrote  6  sonatas,  6  fugues,  and  several  caprices. 
The  sonatas,  though  somewhat  dry,  are  not  un- 
interesting. Johann  Philipp  Kirnberger  (1 721 
-1783)  distinguished  himself  by  9  fugues  and 
some  smaller  pieces,  of  which  a  gavotte  in  D 
minor,  and  a  charming  allegro  for  a  musical- 
box,  have  become  justly  popular.  Georg  Benda 
(1721-1795)   left    6   sonatas   (Paris,    Farrenc), 


5  concertos,  and  3  suites  of  various  small 
pieces.  The  sonatas  are  exceedingly  good,  an 
full  of  interesting  matter.  Schobert  (his  Chris 
tian  name  is  unknown)  (1 730-1 768)  left  4  so- 
natas, 5  concertos,  and  1  concerto  pastorale. 
These  were  published  in  London  by  Bland,  but 
are  out  of  print ;  the  sonatas  are  somewhat 
empty,  but  elegant  and  pleasing.  Giuseppr 
Sarti  (1 730-1802)  composed  6  sonatas  (London, 
1762),  which  are  clear,  bright,  and  easy.  Jo- 
seph Haydn's  (1 732-1 809)  contributions  to 
the  pianoforte  literature  consist  of  34  sonatas, 
9  smaller  pieces,  and  20  concertos.  Although 
Haydn's  sonatas  are  not  written  with  the  same 
care  and  affection  as  his  quartets  and  sym- 
phonies, they  contain  manifold  beauties,  and 
are  full  of  interest ;  among  the  smaller  pieces, 
the  beautiful  Andante  with  Variations  in  F 
minor  has  now  become  a  stock  piece  in  so- 
called  'Pianoforte  Recitals.'  Antonio  Maria 
Gaspare  Sacchini  (1735-1786)  composed  12 
sonatas  (op.  3  and  4).  Like  almost  .all  the  sona- 
tas of  Italian  composers,  they  are  written  in  a 
light,  fluent,  and  bright  style,  and  lay  no  claim 
to  refined  workmanship.  Johann  Christian 
Bach  (i 735-1782),  the  so-called  'Milan  or 
London  Bach,'  composed  18  concertos,  12  solo 
sonatas,  1  duet  sonata  for  4  hands,  and  1  for 

2  pianos,  which,  though  possessing  a  certain 
elegance  and  fluency,  are  in  every  instance  in- 
ferior to  those  of  his  brother  Emanuel.  Johann 
Georg  Albrechtsberger  (i  736-1809)  com- 
posed 18  preludes  and  59  fugues.  A  goodly 
number  of  them  are  included  in  Clementi's 
'  Practical  Harmony,'  and  are  still  to  be  obtained 
in  Vienna  (Haslinger  and  Witzendorf).  As  Al- 
brechtsberger was  a  distinguished  organist,  it 
is  natural  that  his  fugues  should  lack  that  life 
and  animation  which  is  suggested  by  the  nature 
of  the  pianoforte  as  an  instrument.  Johann 
Wanhal,  Van  Hall,  or  Wanhall  (1 739-1813), 
once  a  very  popular  composer,  has  left  us  23 
grand  sonatas,  106  sonatinas,  and  49  books  of 
variations,  fantasias,  etc.  His  sonatas  are  not 
devoid  of  melody,  and  were  (in  their  time)  con- 
sidered brilliant ;  but  Wanhal  being  a  contem 
porary  of  Haydn  and  Mozart,  his  works  were 
soon  overshadowed  by  the  sonatas  of  those  two 
illustrious  composers.  Andre  Ernest  Gretry 
(1741-1813)  composed  6  sonatas  (Paris,  1768) 
which  contain  matter  of  great  interest.  John 
Abraham  Fisher  (1 744-1 800)  has  left  9  con 
certos  (London,  Clementi  &  Broderip).  As  he 
was  a  violinist,  his  pianoforte  concertos  cannot 
boast  of  any  special  originality  of  treatment. 
James  Hook  (1 746-1827)  wrote  6  grand  con 
certos  for  Vauxhall  (op.  55),  6  sonatas  (op.  54), 

3  sonatas  (op.  71),  3  sonatas  on  Irish  airs  (op 
92),  several  pieces  for  two  performers,  and  a 
great  number  of  smaller  pieces.  Johann  Wil 
helm  Haessler  (1747-1822)  composed  25  so- 
natas, 6  sonatinas,  1  fantasia  and  sonata,  and 
a  gigue.  His  sonatas  (Breitkopf  &  Hartel)  are 
still  excellent  for  teaching  purposes,  and  his 
spirited  and  exceedingly  brilliant  Gigue  in  D 
minor  deserves  to  be  generally  known.     Carl 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 

Bend  a  (  i  748-1836)  composed  6  sonatas  and 
6  adagios ;  the  latter  to  be  recommended  as 
teaching  -  pieces.  The  3  sonatas  and  other 
smaller  pieces  of  the  Abbe  Johann  Fbanz  Xaveb 
Stebkel  (1750-1817),  are  pleasing  and  not  de- 
void of  a  certain  elegance.  Nicolas  Joseph 
Hullmandel  (1751-1823),  a  pupil  of  Emanuel 
Bach,  composed  6  sonatas  (op.  6),  and  a  grand 
sonata  (op.  n)  ;  the  latter  contains  sufficient 
matter  of  interest.  Muzio  Clementi  (1752- 
1832)  composed  64  sonatas,  6  sonatas  for  four 
hands,  and  1  for  2  pianofortes,  12  monferines 
(op.  49),  100  studies  ('Gradus  ad  'Parnassum'), 
50  lessons,  preludes,  etc.  The  great  value 
and  importance  of  dementi's  pianoforte  com- 
positions are  universally  recognised;  indeed 
his  '  Gradus '  and  some  of  his  sonatas  are  in- 
dispensable for  the  student  who  desires  to  learn 
pianoforte-playing  thoroughly.  Leopold  Koze- 
LDCH  (1753-1814)  wrote  11  concertos,  12  solo 
sonatas,  1  concerto  for  4  hands,  and  2  collections 
of  smaller  pieces ;  some  of  the  latter  have  been 
republished  in  London,  and  possess  a  certain 
quaint  charm.  Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart 
(1756-1791)  wrote  22  solo  sonatas,  4  sonatas, 

2  fantasias,  a  fugue,  and  a  set  of  variations, 
all  for  4  hands,  a  sonata  and  fugue  for  2 
pianofortes,    21    books  of  variations,   3  rondos, 

3  fantasias,  an  overture  (suite)  in  Handel's 
style,  an  adagio,  march,  gigue,  minuet  and 
waltz  for  piano  solo,  25  concertos  for  one 
piano,  one  for  2,  and  one  for  3  pianos,  also  2 
rondos  for  piano  and  orchestra,  very  recently 
published  by  Breitkopf  &  Hartel  in  their  com- 
plete edition  of  Mozart.  The  graceful,  sweet, 
affectionate  expression  of  these  compositions, 
their  irresistible  charm,  perfect  workmanship, 
and  wonderful  union  of  deep  science  and  spon- 
taneous invention,  render  them  quite  unique. 
The  Abbe-  Joseph  Gelinek  (i  757-1825)  was 
one  of  the  most  prolific  composers  for  the  piano- 
forte. He  wrote  2no  books  of  variations,  8 
potpourris,  and  10  rondos.  Among  the  varia- 
tions, Nos.  21,  29,  33,  36,  and  67  (see  Andre's 
catalogue),  were  in  their  time  the  most  popular, 
and  are  even  now  not  undeserving  of  recog- 
nition. Ignaz  Pleyel  (i 757-1831),  a  pupil  of 
Haydn's,  composed  2  concertos,  6  sonatas  (op. 
15)  and  12  sonatinas,  5  sets  of  variations,  5 
rondos,  48  short  easy  pieces,  and  57  lessons 
(studies).  Of  these  the  sonatinas  are  still 
highly  esteemed,  and  their  light,  cheerful,  and 
agreeable  character  is  very  pleasing  to  young 
students.  Emanuel  Aloys  Fobsteb  (1757- 
1823)  composed  18  sonatas,  6  sonatinas,  and  5 
books  of  variations.  It  is  mentioned  in  Kochel's 
thematic  catalogue  of  Mozart's  works  (p.  530), 
that  the  well-known  ten  variations  on  an  alle- 
gretto from  Sarti's  opera,  '  I  finti  eredi,'  are  by 
Forster,  and  not  by  Mozart.  Louis  Adah 
(1 758-1 848)  is  best  known  by  his  '  Methode  de 
Pianoforte  du  Conservatoire,'  but  has  also  writ- 

1  Five  of  these,  Nos.  IS,  14, 23,  40,  45,  have  been  taken  from  other 
works. 

2  Andre   of  Offenbach  has  published   a  thematic  catalogue   of 
Gelinek's  variations,  -N'us.  1—100. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


725 


ten  a  sonata  (op.  31),  polonaises,  and  rondos,  an 
introduction  and  variations,  and  several  smaller 
pieces,  all  to  be  found  in  his  '  Me"thode.' 
Giacomo  Goffredo  Ferrari  (1759-1842)  has 
left  3  sonatinas  (op.  30),  and  15  longer  sonatas 
(op.  14  and  op.  31),  3  solos,  a  concerto  in  C 
(op.  6),  and  12  smaller  pieces.  LuiGl  Chebu- 
bini  (1 760-1842)  wrote  6  sonatas  and  1  fan- 
tasia. The  great  importance  and  fame  which 
Cherubini  obtained  by  his  operas  and  sacred 
compositions  would  not  have  been  procured  by 
these  sonatas.  Johann  Ludwig  Dussek  (1761- 
181 2)  wrote,  according  to  Breitkopf  &  Hartel's 
and  Whistling's  catalogue,  32  sonatas,  12  con- 
certos, and  a  great  number  of  airs  with  vari- 
ations, fugues,  lessons,  etc.  Of  the  sonatas, 
Nos.  21,  27,  29,  and  31  of  Breitkopf 's  new 
edition  have  obtained  the  greatest  popularity ; 
and  among  the  smaller  pieces,  Queen  Hortense's 
favourite  romance,  '  Partant  pour  la  Syrie,' 
'La  Consolation,'  'Les  Adieux,'  all  with  vari- 
ations, are  still  very  popular.  [See  for  detailed 
catalogue,  under  Dussek,  vol.  i.  p.  477.]  Johann 
Christian  LudwigAbeille(i76i-i832)  became 
in  his  time  well  known  by  his  Sonata  and  9 
Variations  in  the  style  of  Mozart ;  less  known 
were  his  4  sonatas  composed  in  1 789.  We  have 
of  his  also  a  concerto  in  Bb  and  a  concerto  for 
4  hands.  Adalbert  Gyrowetz  (1 763-1850), 
once  well  known  and  liked  in  London,  composed 

3  concertos,  and  sonatas  op.  62  and  63 ;  which,  like 
all  his  compositions,  are  pleasing  and  melodious. 
Daniel  Steibelt  (1764-182 3)  wrote  no  less  than 
81  sonatas  and  sonatinas,  117  rondos,  7  concertos, 
of  which  No.  3  contains  the  well-known  '  Storm ' 
rondo,  while  No.  6  is  called  'Voyage  au  mont 
Saint  Bernard,'  and  No.  7  is  the  so-called '  Concert 
militaire '  with  the  accompaniment  of  two  orches- 
tras. Steibelt  was  fond  of  descriptive  pieces,  and 
we  find  among  his  fantasias  one  describing  '  the 
battle  of  Neerwinde'  (1793),  the  'destruction  of 
Moscow'  (181 2),  a  journey  from  Paris  to  Peters- 
burg, and  last,  not  least, '  Les  Adieux  de  Bayard 
a  sa  Dame.'  The  only  pianoforte  pieces  by 
Steibelt  at  present  played  are  the  really  pretty 
rondeau  '  Le  Berger  et  son  troupeau,'  the '  Storm,' 
and  his  50  studies.  Fbanz  Sebaphinus  Lauska 
(1764-1828),  to  whom  Weber  dedicated  his  se- 
cond sonata,  in  Ab,  left  18  sonatas — of  which  op. 

4  and  op.  20  are  the  best — 4  books  of  variations, 
different  rondos  and  polonaises.  Fbiedbich 
Heinbioh  Himhel  (1 765-1814) — more  cele- 
brated by  his  '  Fanchon '  ( 1 809),  his  now  national 
Bongs  '  An  Alexis '  and  '  Es  kann  ja  nicht  immer 
so  bleiben,'  than  by  his  pianoforte  compositions, — 
wrote  only  5  pieces,  among  which  the  1 2  variations 
on  the  air '  Ich  klage  Dir'  were  once  exceedingly 
popular.  Anton  Ebebl  (1 766-1807),  a  fluent 
and  easy  writer,  composed  2  concertos,  one  for 
2  pianos,  6  sonatas,  and  3  sets  of  variations. 
It  must  be  mentioned  that  the  well-known  varia- 
tions attributed  to  W.  A.  Mozart,  '  Zu  Steffan 
sprach  im  Traume,'  and  those  on  Dittersdorf  s 
Andante, '  Freundin  sanfter  Herzenstriebe,'  are 
in  reality  by  Eberl,  and  are  not  among  the  three 
books  just  mentioned.    Ignaz  Anton  Fbanz 


726 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


Xaver  Ladurner  (i  766-1839)  is  a  name  un- 
known to  English  ears.  Ladurner  wrote  2 
books  of  variations,  several  fantasias,  amongst 
which  is  one  in  the  form  of  a  sonata  on  an 
air  of  Mozart's  '  Don  Giovanni,'  interesting 
and  remarkable  for  its  thematic  development. 
Samuel  Wesley  (1 766-1837),  well  remembered 
as  an  early  prodigy  and  a  great  organist,  com- 
posed several  solo  and  4-hand  sonatas,  which  are 
published  by  Hofmeister  of  Leipzig.  August 
Eberhard  Muller  (1767-1817)  composed  17 
sonatas  and  sonatinas,  cadenzas  for  Mozart's 
concertos,  studies  (still  successfully  employed)  ; 
but  his  just  fame  rests  on  his  excellent  caprices 
(six  op.  29,  three  op.  31,  three  op.  33,  and  three 
op.  41).  They  are,  each  and  all,  exceedingly 
useful  for  practice;  full  of  sound,  substantial 
and  agreeable  music,  and  actually  amusing 
for  the  student.  The  most  difficult  and  interest- 
ing are  Nos.  3,  4  and  6  of  op.  29,  No.  4  of 
op.  31,  No.  3  of  op.  34  and  No.  1  of  op.  41.  It 
is  said  that  the  first  movement  of  the  Sonata 
in  Bb  (Pauer's  edition,  No.  20),  commonly  at- 
tributed to  W.  A.  Mozart,  is  really  by  A.  E. 
Muller.  Hyacinthe  Jadin  (1769- 1802)  enjoyed 
in  his  time  a  great  reputation  in  France  ;  5  solo 
sonatas,  1  duet  ditto,  and  4  concertos,  are  all 
that  have  been  published ;  and  at  present  they 
are  no  longer  in  use.  Ludwig  van  Beethoven 
(1770-182 7)  enriched  the  literature  of  the  piano- 
forte with  the  most  valuable  works ;  indeed  we 
may  proudly  point  to  his  sonatas  as  to  a  monument 
which  stands  out  like  the  Pyramids — ever  fresh, 
replete  with  every  charm,  interest,  and  intellec- 
tuality which  music  can  possess,  and  at  'the  same 
time  expressing  all  the  most  different  emotions 
which  agitate  the  human  soul.  Beethoven's 
sonatas  are  really  the  grandest  and  most  perfect 
productions  that  the  Pianoforte  can  boast  of, 
and  may  safely  be  asserted  to  surpass  all  other 
compositions  for  whatever  solo  instrument.  He 
wrote  32  sonatas,  6  smaller  sonatinas,  21  sets 
of  variations,  3  sets  of  bagatelles,  3  rondos,  a 
polonaise,  a  fantasia,  and  several  smaller  pieces, 
such  as  preludes,  minuets,  etc. ;  5  grand  concertos, 
and  several  short  four-hand  pieces.  Johann 
Nepomuk  Wittasek  (1770-1839),  aname  totally 
unknown  to  English  ears,  composed  several 
books  of  peculiarly  graceful  dance-music,  such 
as  Minuets  and  L'andler.  Friedrich  Joseph 
Kirmaib  (1 770-1814),  equally  unknown  here, 
was  in  his  own  time  one  of  the  most  popular 
pianoforte  composers ;  he  published  6  sonatas  and 
upwards  of  40  books  of  variations,  among  which 
the  variations  on  the  minuet  from  Mozart's 
•Don  Giovanni'  were  printed  by  no  less  than 
twelve  different  firms.  John  Baptist  Cramer 
(1771-1858)  was  a  prolific  composer;  he  wrote 
105  sonatas,  7  concertos,  3  duets  for  four  hands, 
18  divertissements,  100  studies,  24  sets  of  varia- 
tions, and  many  rondos  and  fantasias.  Although 
there  is  much  good,  substantial,  and  even  interest- 
ing matter  in  Cramer's  sonatas,  they  cannot  be 
compared  with  his  studies,  which  are  models  of 
a  concise  construction  and  plastic  roundness,  are 
replete  with  interesting  and  charming  melody,  and 


above  all  are  perfect  with  regard  to  euphony 
and  easy,  natural,  modulation.  Joseph  Woelfl 
(1 772-1 8 1 2)  composed  26  sonatas — of  which  only 
two, '  Non  Plus  Ultra,'  op.  41,  and  '  Le  Diable  a 
quatre,'  op.  50,  are  still  played — 5  concertos  and  a 
concerto  mUitaire  (not  without  interest) — 2  fanta- 
sias with  fugues,  14  books  of  variations,  8  rondos 
anda  good  number  of  preludes  and  studies.  Chris- 
toph  Ernst  Friedrich  Weyse  (1774-1842),  a 
Danish  composer,  published 3  sonatas,  4  Allegri  de 
bravura,  and  1 2  most  excellent  studies,  which  de- 
serve to  be  republished;  Robert  Schumann1  speaks 
in  very  high  terms  of  the  two  sets  of  studies  op.  8 
and  op.  60.  Wenzel  Tomaschek  (1774-1850), 
the  teacher  of  Alexander  Dreyschock  and  Julius 
Schulhoff,  a  composer  of  whom  the  Bohemians 
are  very  proud,  has  written  5  sonatas,  1  rondo,  37 
eglogues  (really  idyls)  1 2  rhapsodies,  3  ditirambi, 
and  3  allegri  capriciosi  di  bravura ;  the  ditirambi 
and  some  of  the  e"glogues  still  afford  valuable 
material  for  tuition.  Philipp  Jacob  Riottk 
(1776-1856)  made  his  reputation  by  a  descriptive 
fantasia  called  '  The  Battle  of  Leipsic'  His  1 2 
sonatas,  7  rondos,  and  14  books  of  variations  en- 
joyed less  popularity.  Ludwig  Berger  (1777- 
1 839),  the  respected  teacher  of  Mendelssohn  and 
Taubert,  was  an  industrious  and  successful  com- 
poser ;  he  wrote  I  concerto,  4  sonatas,  4  books  of 
variations  (those  on  the  old  French  air,  'Ah !  vous 
dirai-je  Maman'  are  the  most  popular),  5  rondos, 
29  studies  (27  of  which  have  been  republished  by 
Breitkopf  &  Hartel),  32  smaller  pieces,  preludes 
and  fugues,  a  toccata,  and  last,  not  least,  an  '  Alia 
Turca'  which  is  still  much  played  in  Germany. 
Francesco  Giuseppe  Pollini  (1778-1847),  one 
of  the  most  intelligent  of  Italian  pianoforte  com- 
posers, wrote  3  sonatas,  a  divertimento  pastorale 
(op.  34),  a  capital  toccata  in  G  major,  fantasias, 
capriccios,  and  32  studies,  of  which  one  written 
on  three  staves  was  very  popular  in  Vienna. 
Pollini's  music  is  always  healthy,  and  deserves 
warm  recommendation  as  excellent  material  for 
technical  study.  Johann  Nepomuk  Hummel 
(1 778-1837)  wrote  5  sonatas  (No.  1,  op.  12,  and 
No.  2,  op.  20,  under  the  influence  of  Mozart), 
of  which  the  sonata  (op.  81)  in  Fj  minor  and 
the  grand  sonata  (op.  106)  in  D  present  the  most 
intricate  technical  difficulties ;  3  sonatas  for  four 
hands,  of  which  that  in  Ab  (op.  92)  is  remark- 
ably beautiful ;  several  other  duets,  including  the 
charming  nocturne  op.  99 ;  7  concertos  (those  in 
A  minor,  op.  85,  B  minor,  op.  89,  and  Ab,  op. 
113,  are  standard  works);  16  books  of  smaller 
pieces,  rondos,  divertissements,  of  which  the 
charming  introduction  and  polacca  'La  Bella 
Capricciosa,'  op.  55,  and  the  spirited  and  ex- 
ceedingly difficult  rondo  in  B  minor  (op.  109), 
are  the  most  prominent ;  4  books  of  caprices 
and  studies.  Hummel's  compositions  are  re- 
markable for  their  solid  construction,  elegance 
and  brilliancy,  their  charming  modulation  and 
graceful  ornamentation.  Johann  Horzalka 
(1 7  7  8-1 860),  a  very  talented  Bohemian  composer, 
wrote  an  interesting  sonata  (op.  9),  11  books  of 
variations,    and   several  rondos,    among   which 

1  Gesammelte  Schrlftea  (18M)  U.  25.  Ul.  14. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 

the  Rondo  pastoral  (op.  n),  and  Rondo  hongrois 
(op.  28)  were  great  favourites  in  Vienna ;  his  noc- 
turnes (op.  27),  Fantasia  pastorale  (op.  54),  and 
excellent  studies  (op.  39),  are  also  to  be  recom- 
mended. Johann  Heinbich  Clasing  (1779- 
1829)  published  a  sonata  (op.  5),  6  rondos,  2 
fantasias,  and  several  smaller  pieces  —  all  the 
productions  of  a  sound  musician.  Nicolausvon 
Kbufft  (1 779-1818)  was  a  composer  once  highly 
esteemed  in  Vienna ;  he  left  one  sonata,  12  books 
of  variations,  3  grand  caprices,  1 2  studies,  and  24 
preludes  and  fugues ;  all  full  of  elegance  and  taste. 
Wilhelm  Fbiedrich  Riem  (1779— 1837)  com- 
posed 8  sonatas,  6  sonatinas,  2  books  of  variations, 
polonaises,  ecossaises,  waltzes,  and  anglaises — 
greatly  esteemed  in  the  northern  part  of  Ger- 
many. M.  J.  C.  Leidesdobf,  the  friend  of  Bee- 
thoven andSchubert  (1 780- 1 839),  wrote  4  sonatas, 
22  rondos,  36  books  of  variations,  and  a  quan- 
tity of  fantasias  or  operatic  airs ;  and  may  be 
called  a  forerunner  of  Henry  Herz  and  Carl 
Czerny.  Anton  Diabelli  (1781-1858)  :  this  pro- 
lific composer's  29  solo  sonatinas  and  23  charming 
duet  sonatinas  are  still  very  popular ;  his  36  books 
of  variations  and  426  books  of  potpourris,  were, 
also  once  in  great  request ;  indeed  the  merits  of 
Diabelli  as  an  educational  composer  are  unques- 
tionable. Jonathan  Blewitt  (i  782-1835)  left  a 
concerto,  a  sonata,  and  a  divertissement  on  Scotch 
airs.  John  Field  (1 782-1837),  the  favourite 
pupil  of  Muzio  Clementi,  composed  7  concertos, 
18  nocturnes,  6  sets  of  variations,  3  sonatas,  2 
fantasias  on  national  airs,  and  a  capital  grand 
study,  through  all  the  keys,  the  execution  of 
which  is  a  veritable  tour  de  force.  Among  the 
concertos,  No.  4  in  Eb  and  No.  3  in  Ab  are 
the  best  known.  Geobges  Onslow  (i  784-1 853), 
better  known  by  his  quartets  and  quintets, 
composed  2  excellent  duet  sonatas  in  F  and 
E  minor,  4  books  of  variations  ('Charmante 
Gabrielle'  is  particularly  to  be  recommended),  a 
capital  toccata  in  C  major,  and  a  grand  sonata. 
August  Alexandeb  Klengel  (1 784-1 852),  a 
pupil  of  Clementi's,  wrote  4  sonatas,  8  rondos,  8 
books  of  variations,  4  fantasias,  and  30  studies. 
His  chief  works  however  are  first '  Les  Avant- 
Coureurs,'  consisting  of  24  canons,  a  kind  of 
preparation  for  Sebastian  Bach's  'Wohltempe- 
rirtes  Clavier,'  and  secondly  24  canons  and  24 
fugues.  Among  the  fugues,  that  on  the  theme 
'  La  ci  darem '  is  a  veritable  gem.  Febdinand 
Ries  ( 1 784-1838),  Beethoven's  pupil,  composed 
9  concertos  (those  in  C%  minor  and  Eb  are 
very  much  to  be  recommended),  according  to 
his  own  enumeration  52  sonatas,  15  fantasias, 
35  rondos,  49  books  of  variations,  and  25  duets, 
comprising  sonatas,  marches,  polonaises,  varia- 
tions. Of  Chables  Neate  (1 784-1877),  who 
enjoyed  the  tuition  of  Field  and  Woelfl,  and 
the  friendship  of  Beethoven,  we  have  only  a 
sonatas  (published  in  Germany)  and  a  valuable 
work  on  the  art  of  fingering.  Conbad  Berg 
(1785-1852),  a  highly  respected  Alsatian  pro- 
fessor, composed  1  sonata,  3  books  of  variations, 
and  7  rondos.  Wenzel  Plachy  (1785-1858) 
wrote  35  sets  of  variations,  and  a  very  great 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


727 


number  of  educational  pieces,  among  which  the 
collective  works, '  Amusements '  and '  Les  Delices 
de  1' Opera,'  once  enjoyed  a  vast  popularity  in 
Austria  and  South  Germany.  The  Danish  com- 
poser Fbiedbich  Kuhlau  (1786-1832)  wrote  15 
sonatas,  many  sonatinas  (highly  esteemed),  27 
books  of  variations,  a  goodly  number  of  rondos 
and  other  educational  pieces,  and  19  duets,  among 
which  the  variations  on  Beethoven's  songs  are 
very  good.  Cabl  Mabia  von  Webeb  (1786- 
1826)  has  left  us  four  sonatas,  3  concertos,  2 
polonaises,  2  rondos,  8  books  of  variations,  valses, 
ecossaises,  and  very  charming  duets.  Henbi 
Lemoine  (1786-1854)  occupied  himself  chiefly 
with  educational  works ;  among  them  are  a  good 
number  of  divertissements,  34  books  called 
*  Bagatelles,'  a  collective  work  '  Recreations 
musicales,'  and  the  well-known  'Etudes  en- 
fantines,'  op.  37.  Geobge  Fbedebic  Pinto 
(Sautebs,  1 786-1806),  an  artist  of  rare  promise, 
left  only  a  few  sonatas.1  John  F.  Bubbowes 
(1787-1852)  was  an  educational  writer,  whose 
Pianoforte  Primer  is  even  still  in  some  demand. 
Ludwig  Bohner  (1 787-1860),  who  claimed  the 
authorship  of  the  second  subject  in  Weber's 
Freyschutz  Overture,  wrote  1  sonata,  14  books  of 
variations,  6  fantasias,  12  bagatelles,  and  a  very 
pretty  Ave  Maria.  Hiebonimus  Payeb  (1787 
-1845),  a  composer  little,  if  at  all,  known  to 
English  musicians,  wrote  about  160  light  and 
moderately  difficult  educational  works,  consisting 
of  variations,  rondos,  melanges,  etc.  etc.,  which 
enjoyed  great  popularity  in  Vienna,  and  are  still 
used  there  for  teaching  purposes.  Fbiedrich 
Kalkbbenneb  (1 788-1849)  was  a  prolific  writer. 
We  have  by  him  4  concertos,  8  solo  sonatas  (one 
for  the  left  hand  only),  18  fantasias,  20  rondeaus, 
24  books  of  variations,  6  different  works  of  studies 
(those  op.  143  are  most  excellent),  2  duet  sonatas, 
and  a  considerable  number  of  smaller  pianoforte 
duets.  Chables  Chaulieu  (1 788-1 849)  composed 
variations,  divertissements,  bagatelles,  caprices, 
and  a  great  number  of  very  useful  studies.  Johann 
Peteb  Pixis  (i  788-1874)  left  2  sonatas,  23  books 
of  variations,  20  rondos,  and  different  collections  of 
smaller  pieces.  Simon  Sechteb  (1788-1867),  who 
taught  harmony  and  counterpoint  to  Thalberg, 
Dohler,  Kullak,  Kohler,  Vieuxtemps — and  with 
whom  Schubert  had  begun  to  study  when  death 
snatched  him  away, — composed  23  fugues,  16  pre- 
ludes, canons,  etc. ;  amongst  his  duet  compositions 
the  24  fugues  on  popular  national  and  comic  airs 
are  to  be  recommended  as  highly  amusing.  The 
educational  composer  Aloys  Schmitt(i  789-1866), 
master  of  Ferdinand  Hiller,  whose  numerous  books 
of  studies  are  well  known,  wrote  also  22  solo  so- 
natas and  sonatinas,  16  duet  sonatas,  15  books  of 
variations,  6  concertos,  1  concertstiick,  fantasias, 
10  rondos,  and  a  quantity  of  small  pieces. 
Anton  Halm  (i  789-1872),  a  respected  Vienna 
professor,  composed  3  sonatas,  4  rondos,  4  books 
of  variations,  and  4  of  studies  :  '  Etudes  de  Con- 
cert,' '  Etudes  melodiouses,  pathe"tiques,  et  hero- 
iques.'    Maria  Szymanowska  (nee*  Wolowska) 

1  Onlj  published  In  England,  and  therefore  not  easily  accessible,  as 
the  original  editions  are  no  longer  on  sale. 


728 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


(1790 '-1831)  wrote  5  fantasias,  a  nocturne,  a 
set  of  variations,  and  12  studies;  of  the 
studies  Robert  Schumann  speaks  with  consider- 
able warmth.  Giovanni  Battista  Sammartini 
(1700)  composed  no  less  than  2800  works, 
but  his  industry  is  more  than  rivalled,  and  his 
efficiency  far  surpassed,  by  Carl  Czebny  (1791 
-1857),  the  veritable  Lope  de  la  Vega  of  the 
pianoforte,  who  wrote  such  a  quantity  that  it 
is  .actually  impossible  to  give  a  correct  account 
of  all  his  original  compositions,  or  of  his  ar- 
rangements, transcriptions,  etc.  Suffice  it  to 
say,  that  his  works  extend  beyond  1000 ;  of 
these  one  single  number,  the  '  Decamerone,'  con- 
tains 300  pieces,  and  the  average  content  of 
each  opus  is  100  ;•  indeed  there  is  not  a  single 
branch  or  form  of  pianoforte  music  in  which 
Czerny  was  not  active.  In  addition  to  this,  his 
energy  in  arranging  oratorios,  operas,  sympho- 
nies, overtures,  quartets,  quintets,  etc.,  is  really 
wonderful;  his  name,  however,  will  be  per- 
petuated by  his  eminently  useful  and  practical 
studies.  Johann  Hugo  Wobzischek  (1791- 
1825),  a  richly-gifted  Viennese  composer,  wrote 
a  sonata,  12  rhapsodies,  2  books  of  variations, 
several  polonaises,  and  3  rondos,  among  which 
the  '  Rondeau  espagnol '  was  a  particular  fa- 
vourite of  the  Vienna  pianists.  Fbiedbioh  Wil- 
helm  Gbund  (1 791-187?),  a  highly  esteemed 
Hamburg  professor,  is  still  well  known  by  his 
well- written  studies  (op.  21).  He  composed 
also  sonatas  and  rondos.  Chbistian  Tbaugott 
Bbunneb  (1792-1874)  composed  about  300 
pleasing  and — for  educational  purposes — well- 
written  pieces  and  collections.  Cipeiani  Potter 
(1792-1871)  composed  (according  to  German 
catalogues,  English  editions  being  out  of  print 
and  not  easily  attainable)  2  books  of  varia- 
tions, 3  toccatas,  1  sonata,  2  books  of  studies 
(at  one  time  used  in  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Music),  two  rondos.  Of  this  genial  and  highly 
respected  professor's  pieces,  '  II  compiacente,' 
op.  16,  and  the  divertimento  '  La  Placidita,' 
in  A  major,  are  still  played ;  a  grand  duo 
for  two  pianos  (op.  6)  and  an  introduction  and 
rondo  (op.  8)  for  four  hands  contain  much  inter- 
esting matter.  Mobitz  Hauptmann  (1792- 
1868),  well  known  to  many  English  musicians  as 
an  excellent  teacher,  composed  1 2  detached  pieces 
and  several  sonatinas.  Fbancois  Hunten  (1793 
-1878),  an  educational  composer  of  some  merit, 
wrote  about  200  collections  and  works,  easy  and 
moderately  difficult  of  execution.  Some  of 
Hunten's  pieces,  such  as  '  Les  Emeraudes,' 
'  Trois  Airs  italiens,'  op.  65 ;  the  rondinos 
'  Le  petit  Tambour '  and  '  An  Alexis,'  have  be- 
come very  widely  known.  His  studies  (op. 
158)  are  exceedingly  useful  and  agreeable. 
Ignaz  Moscheles  (1 794-1870)  composed  7  con- 
certos, among  which  that  in  G  minor  still  enjoys 
a  well-merited,  high  reputation ;  5  solo  sonatas, 
2  duet  sonatas  (op.  47,  op.  112),  of  which  the 
first,  in  Eb,  deserves  recollection,  10  books  of 
variations,  20  rondos,  many  fantasias  ('  Recollec- 
tion of  Ireland '),  and  a  great  number  of  smaller 
pieces.      His  famous    duets,    his   pieces  for    2 


pianofortes,  •  Hommage  a  Handel '  and '  Les  Co: 
trastes,'  (8  hands),  and  his  most  excellent  studi 
op.  70  and  op.  95,  are  considered  classical,  and 
fully  merit  that   designation.     Cael   Abnold 
(1794)  wrote  4  sonatas,  3  books  of  variations, 

3  rondos,  and  a  collection  of  studies,  which 
were  well  known  in  Central  Germany  30  years 
ago.  Jacques  Hebz  (1 794-1880),  the  elder 
brother  of  the  celebrated  Henri  Herz,  wrote  but 
a  few  original  pieces  (nocturnes).  His  varia- 
tions (7  books),  10  rondos,  20  airs  de  ballet,  fan- 
tasias, and  more  particularly  his  II  books  of 
brilliant  valses  on  operatic  airs,  were  at  one 
time  great  favourites.  Heineich  Maeschnee 
(1 795-1861)  composed  8  sonatas,  12  rondos,  vari- 
ations, fantasias,  and  7  very  good  duets  (Duo, 
op.  62).     Cael   Loewe  (1 796-1869)   composed 

4  sonatas  (the  'Gipsy'  sonata  was  once  well 
known),  and  several  characteristic  fantasias, 
among  which,  '  Mazeppa,'  '  The  Brother  of 
Mercy,'  and  '  Biblical  Pictures,'  created  great 
attention  in  their  time.  Jacob  Schmitt(i796 
-1853)  wrote  about  400  works,  mostly  edu- 
cational ;  they  consist  of  variations,  rondos, 
nocturnes,  excellent  sonatinas,  good  studies, 
potpourris,  and  a  number  of  very  useful  and 
entertaining  duets.  Fbanz  Schubebt  (1797- 
1828)  wrote  10  sonatas,  2  duet  sonatas  (op. 
30,  140),  8  impromptus  (op.  90,  142),  6  mo- 
mens  musicals,  2  fantasias,  adagio  and  rondo 
(very  charming),  158  valses,  29  Landler  (German 
rustic  dances),  and  21  ecossaises.  Among  his 
duets  the  beautiful  fantasia  in  F  minor  (op.  103), 
the  scarcely  known  '  Divertissement  en  forme 
d'une  Marche  brillante  et  raisonnee '  (op.  63), 
the  splendid  and  highly  characteristic  '  Diver- 
tissement a  la  Hongroise'  (op.  54),  the  charm- 
ing rondo  in  A  (op.  107),  and  the  incomparable 
collection  of  marches  (op.  27,  40,  51,  55,  66, 
121),  are  standard  works  and  full  of  matchless 
beauties.  Fbanz  Schoberlechneb  (1797-1843) 
a  Viennese,  pupil  of  Hummel,  and  well  known  in 
Italy  and  Russia,  was  in  his  time  very  popular. 
He  composed  2  sonatas,  15  books  of  variations, 

5  rondos,  fantasias,  a  'duet-rondo  brillant'  in 
E  minor,  and  several  smaller  pieces.  Hein- 
eich Wohlfahbt  (1797)  obtained  a  great  re- 
putation through  his  well-known  instruction- 
books  for  children  ;  but  his  sonatinas  and  other 
small  pieces  are  also  very  valuable.  Cab: 
Gottlieb  Reissigee  (1 798-1 859)  wrote  2  sona- 
tas, 5  books  of  variations,  25  rondos,  and  several 
fantasias.  Henri  Bertini  jun.  (1 798-1876) 
claims  grateful  recognition  for  his  20  books  of 
excellent  studies,  for  about  250  different  easy, 
moderately  difficult,  and  difficult  collections  of 
solo  pieces,  and  for  a  great  number  of  excellent 
and  most  useful  duets.  His  arrangement  of 
Bach's  '  Wohltemperirtes  Clavier'  for  four  hands 
is  not  sufficiently  well  known.  Cael  Mate: 
(1 799- 1862)  was  a  prolific  composer;  he  wroi 

2  grand  concertos,  several  brilliant  allegros  with 
orchestral  accompaniment,  many  rondos,  scher- 
zos, variations,  fantasias,  toccatas  (in  E),  and 
collections  of  elegant  and  pleasing  drawing-room 
pieces,  such  as  his  '  Jugendbliithen,'   'Immoi 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 

tellen,'  '  Shadow  pictures,'  '  Myrthen,'  etc.  His 
numerous  duets  are  excellent  for  teaching  pur- 
poses; and  his  studies,  op.  31,  55,  61,  92,  93, 
1 00,  and  119  are  highly  to  be  recommended. 
Heinrich  Friedrich  Enckhausen  (i  799-)  ob- 
tained a  good  name  for  his  valuable  and  useful 
sonatinas,  sonatas,  rondos  and  other  educational 
pieces.  Carl  Kulenkamp  (1799-)  wrote  about 
60  works  of  a  light  and  agreeable  character; 
amongst  them  his  polonaises  and  valses  ob- 
tained considerable  reputation.  Joseph  Chris- 
toph  Kessler  (1 800-18 72)  composed  variations, 
bagatelles,  nocturnes,  scherzos,  preludes,  caden- 
zas, and  a  sonata,  in  Eb  (op.  47) ;  and  his  Grandes 
Etudes  (op.  20)  are  still  greatly  and  deservedly 
esteemed.  Johann  Wekzel  Kalliwoda  (1800- 
1866)  composed  a  great  number  of  rondeaus, 
valses,  impromptus,  contredanses,  and  amusing 
duets.  Franz  Xaver  Chotek  (1800-1852),  a 
name  well  known  in  Austria,  arranged  about  130 
works  on  operatic  airs,  chiefly  for  amusement  and 
instruction.  Carl  Schunke  (1801-1839)  wrote 
about  60  educational  works ;  among  them  the 
collection  'Le  Pensionnat'  (op.  52),  both  for  solo 
and  duet,  became  well  known.  Carl  Georg 
Lickl  (1801-1877)  wrote  about  80  works. 
Among  them  the  charming  collections  entitled 
'Ischler  Bilder'  (op.  57),  'Elegieen'  (op.  63), 
and  '  Novelletten '  (op.  66),  deserve  a  nearer 
acquaintance.  Ferdinand  Beyer  (1803-1863) : 
this  prolific  composer  published  over  800 
amusing  and  instructive  pieces,  consisting  mostly 
of  arrangements,  variations,  valses,  and  diver- 
tissements. Jean  Amedee  le  Froid  de 
M£reaux  (1803 -1 8  74)  is  well  known  by  his 
excellent  collective  work  'Les  Clavecinistes.' 
His  grand  studies  and  several  smaller  pieces  are 
well  composed,  but  as  they  are  only  published  in 
France,  they  are  but  little  known  in  Germany 
and  England.  Adolph  Heinrich  Sponholtz 
(1803-1851)  composed  sonatas,  characteristic 
pieces,  studies,  and  several  collections  of  very 
pleasing  dance-music.  Salomon  Borkhardt 
(1803- 1 849)  wrote  about  70  works,  chiefly  edu- 
cational, among  them  many  duets,  still  very 
popular  in  Germany.  Jdles  Benedict  (1804, 
now  Sir  Julius)  has  written  concertos,  sonatas, 
fantasias,  variations,  reveries,  rondos,  divertisse- 
ments, and  many  transcriptions  of  classical 
works.  Ldise  Farrenc  (Dumont)  (1804-1875) 
composed  about  40  works  of  considerable  merit ; 
among  them  her  studies  op.  26,  41,  and  42  are 
well  known  and  much  played  in  Germany.  Her 
cooperation  in  the  publication  of  her  husband's 
great  collective  work,  *Le  Tresor  des  Pianistes,' 
deserves  grateful  recognition.  Carl  August 
Krees  (Miedke,  1 804-1 880)  composed  a  great 
number  of  elegant  and  pleasing  pieces.  Fried- 
rich  Burgmuller  (1804-1874)  composed  a  great 
number  of  educational  works,  particularly  valu- 
able for  their  accuracy  in  the  matter  of  ex- 
pression and  musical  orthography.  Henri  Herz 
(1806-)  is  one  of  the  most  prolific  composers 
for  the  pianoforte;  he  has  written  more 
than  200  works,  among  them  60  books  of 
variations,   many   fantasias,  and    drawing-room 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


729 


pieces  of  every  description.  His  studies,  op.  20, 
100,  119,  151,  152,  153,  are  very  popular  on  the 
continent,  and  his  4  books  of  technical  studies 
have  obtained  a  world-wide  reputation.  His 
duets,  op.  16,  50,  and  70,  are  highly  to  be  re- 
commended for  teaching.  Joseph  Nowakowski 
(1805),  a  Polish  professor,  composed  12  Etudes 
(op.  25,  dedicated  to  Chopin),  and  was  very 
successful  with  his  Polish  airs,  mazurkas,  and 
polonaises.  Julie  von  Baroni-Cavalcabo — 
afterwards  Julie  von  Webenau — (1805)  wrote 
a  sonata,  rondos,  3  caprices,  fantasias,  and 
several  smaller  pieces,  of  which  one  'Au  bord 
du  lac'  is  very  charming.  The  Danish  com- 
poser Johann  Peter  Emil  Hartmann  (1805) 
wrote  a  prize  sonata,  variations,  sketches,  ron- 
deaus, caprices,  of  which  Schumann  speaks  sym- 
pathetically. George  Alexander  Osbornb 
(1806)  composed  a  great  number  of  variations, 
fantasias  on  operatic  and  national  airs,  rondinos, 
and  many  drawing-room  pieces,  of  which  the 
favourite  valse  '  La  Pluie  des  Perles '  made 
the  round  of  the  world.  Johann  Friedrich 
Kittl  (1806-1868)  wrote  1 2  idyls,  scherzi,  diver- 
timenti,  etc.,  which  enjoyed  a  certain  popularity 
in  Bohemia.  Anna  Caroline  de  Belleville- 
Ourt  (1806-1880)  wrote  several  elegant  and 
popular  drawing-room  pieces,  of  which  the 
fantasia  on  Scotch  airs  obtained  great  success 
in  England.  Felix  Dobrzinskt  (1807-1867), 
a  Pole,  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  music  of 
his  native  country.  His  variations  and  fantasias 
are  composed  on  Polish  airs,  and  his  other 
compositions  consist  of  polonaises  and  mazur- 
kas, one  of  which,  '  Mazurka  a  la  Kujawianka,' 
became  well  known.  The  merits  of  Julius 
Knorb  ( 1 807-1 861)  reside  not  in  his  original 
pieces,  but  in  his  carefully  compiled  and  system- 
atically ordered  educational  works — '  Metho- 
discher  Leitfaden  fur  Klavierlehrer,'  and  'Mate- 
rialien  far  das  mechanische  Klavierspiel.'  Franz 
Xaver  Chwatal  ( 1 808-1 880)  left  a  great  number 
of  sonatas  an  d  sonatinas  (for  2  and  4  hands),  rondos, 
variations,  fantasias,  excellent  paraphrases  of 
celebrated  songs,  collective  works,  among  which 
the  '  Musikalisches  Blumengartchen  '  became 
well  known.  His  pieces  are  fluently  and  agree- 
ably written.  Hubert  Ferdinand  Kgfperath 
(1808-),  a  highly  respected  Brussels  professor, 
composed  good  studies  (op.  2  and  8),  divertisse- 
ments, romanzas,  etc. ;  his  arrangements  for  piano- 
forte solo  of  the  andantes  from  Mendelssohn's 
concertos,  op.  25  and  40,  are  eminently  successful. 
Felix  Mendelssohn -Bartholdt  (1809-1847) 
composed  2  concertos,  1  capriccio  (op.  22),  a  rondo 
(op.  29),  a  serenade  and  allegro  giojoso  (op.  43), 
all  with  orchestral  accompaniments ;  1  sonata  (op. 
6)  4  fantasias  (op.  16  and  28),  several  scherzi,  3 
sets  of  variations,  especially  the  1 7  Variations  sen- 
euses  (op.  54) ;  3  caprices  (op.  33),  36  Songs  with- 
out Words  (Nos.  37-48  were  published  after  his 
death),  preludes  and  fugues  (op.  35),  2  sketches, 
a  capriccio  (op.  5),  6  Christmas  pieces,  an  andante 
cantabile  and  presto  agitato,  a  study  in  F  minor, 
scherzo  a  capriccio  in  Fjf  minor,  a  barcarole  in  A, 
and  two  duets,  andante  and  variations  op.  83  a, 


730 


PIANOFOKTE  MUSIC. 


and  allegro  brillant,  op.  92.  Two  sonatas,  pre- 
ludes, etudes,  etc.  were  published  after  his  death. 
The  great  beauty,  plastic  roundness  and  never- 
failing  euphony  of  Mendelssohn's  pianoforte  works 
obtained  for  them  universal  recognition ;  indeed 
some  of  them,  especially  the  Songs  without  Words 
(Books  1-6)  are  true  household  pieces.  In  his 
scherzos,  Mendelssohn  is  unrivalled ;  indeed  all 
his  works  are  marked  with  a  strong  individuality 
which  many  of  his  followers  tried  in  vain  to  imi- 
tate. Frederic  Francois  Chopin  1  ( 1 809- 1 849) 
composed  2  concertos,  variations  on  'La  ci  darem' 
a  grand  fantasia  (airs  polonois),  a  grand  rondo 
(Krakowiak),  and  a  'Grande  Polonoise  pre"- 
ceclee  d'un  Andante  spianato,'  with  orchestral 
accompaniment;  2  sonatas,  1  fantasia  (op.  49), 
1  duet  for  two  pianos,  24  preludes,  37  studies, 
18  nocturnes,  4  ballades,  4  impromptus,  1 7  valses, 
12  polonaises,  56  mazurkas,  4  scherzos,  etc.  etc. 
Not  many  pianoforte  works  have  obtained  such 
general  and  lasting  popularity  as  those  of  Chopin. 
Indeed  it  may  be  said  that  their  popularity 
is  like  that  of  Schumann's  pianoforte  works, 
steadily  increasing.  Adolphe  Claire  le  Car- 
pentier  (1809- 1 869)  wrote  about  160  (mostly 
educational)  works ;  they  consist  of  bagatelles, 
rondos,  variations,  collections  called  Mosaiques, 
which  in  France  enjoy  a  great  reputation.  The 
Danish  composer,  Johann  Ole  Emil  Horseman, 
(1809-18  70)  obtained  a  reputation  through  his 
12  caprices,  12  sketches,  and  'Northern  Songs 
without  Words.'  Robert  Schumann  (1810-1856) 
left  a  rich  legacy :  he  composed  1  concerto, 
1  concertstiick,  1  concert-allegro,  6  sonatas  (op. 
11,  14,  22,  118),  11  fancy-pieces  (phantasie- 
stticke),  8  novelletten,  12  Etudes  symphon- 
iques,  1 2  transcriptions  of  Paganini's  caprices,  6 
studies  in  canon-form,  and  4  sketches  for  the 
pedal  piano ;  characteristic  collections,  '  Les  Pa- 
pillons,'  'Die  Davidsbiindler,'  'Carneval,'  'Scenes 
from  Childhood,'  '  Kreisleriana,'  '  Arabesque,* 
'  Blumenstuck, '  'Humoresque,'  'Night  Visions,' 
•  Vienna  Carnival,'  '  Album  for  the  young,' 
'  Forest  Scenes,'  '  Leaves  of  variegated  colours,' 
'  Album  Leaves,'  '  Morning  Songs ' ;  variations 
on  the  name  'Abegg,'  6  intermezzi,  impromptu 
on  an  air  of  Clara  Wieck,  a  toccata,  an  al- 
legro, a  fantasia,  3  romanzas,  scherzo,  gigue, 
romanza,  and  fughetta ;  6  fugues  on  the  name 
'  Bach' ;  4 fugues,  4  marches,  7  pieces  in  fughetta- 
form ;  besides  as  duets,  '  Oriental  Pictures,'  1 2 
pianoforte  duets  for  players  of  all  ages,  and  '  Ball 
Scenes.'  In  Schumann's  pianoforte  works  we 
possess  one  of  the  greatest  treasures ;  they  are 
unrivalled  for  their  poetical  and  intellectual 
content,  and  afford  an  unceasing  source  of  the 
most  genuine  pleasure.  Felicien  David  (1810- 
1876)  wrote  several  collections  of  very  charm- 
ing melodies,  more  or  less  connected  with  his 
famous  '  Le  Desert ' ;  their  names,  '  Les  Mi- 
narets,' 'Les  Brises  d'Orient,'  suggest  this  rela- 
tion ;  3  '  valses  expressives '  of  bis  composition 
may  also  be  recommended.  Wilhelm  Taubert 
(181 1-),  a  pupil  of  Ludwig  Berger,  has  com- 

1  Compare  Special  Thematic  Catalogue   (Leipzig,  Breltkopt  * 
Bartol). 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 

posed  a  great  number  of  pleasing,  effective,  bril- 
liant, and  interesting  pieces.  We  have  from 
pen,  1  concerto,  5  sonatas,  impromptus,  scherzos. 
12  excellent  studies,  op.  40  (a  sterling  work), 
the  world-renowned  '  Campanella '  and '  Najade ' ; 
collective  works  of  great  merit,  viz.  'Minia 
tures,'  '  Camera  Obscura,' '  Tutti  frutti,'  '  Minne 
lieder,'  '  Souvenir  d'Ecosse,'  etc.  Among  hi 
original  duets  are  four  marches  and  a  duo 
(op.  io)  in  A  minor.  Leopoldine  Blahetk.* 
(1811-)  has  composed  a  concertstiick,  i2books( 
variations,  polonaises,  a  'Dutch'  and  an  'English' 
fantasia.  Camille  Marie  Stamaty  (181 1-1870), 
a  respected  Paris  professor,  composed  a  concerto, 
2  sonatas,  25  studies  (op.  11),  'Etudes  progres- 
sives' (op.  37,  38,  39)  ;  also  the  studies,  'Les 
Concertantes '  (op.  46,  47);  fantasias,  and  nu- 
merous transcriptions.  Henri  Rosellen  (181  i-), 
a  popular  French  professor,  has  composed  about 
1 50  works,  chiefly  consisting  of  fantasias,  rondo 
divertissements  on  favourite  airs,  12  studies  (op. 
60),  several  duets,  excellent  for  tuition.  Ferdi- 
nand Hiller  (181 1-)  has  composed  a  great 
number  of  excellent  and  highly  interesting  pieces, 
full  of  talent  and  intelligence.  Several  concertos 
(op.  5  in  Ab,  op.  69  in  Fj  minor),  and  sonatas,  the 
celebrated  studies  (op.  15,  52),  capriccios,  a  gre 
number  of  small  pieces  ('zur  Guitarre,'  'Album- 
blatt,'  '  La  Danse  des  Fees,' '  La  Danse  des  Fan- 
tdmes'),  'Reveries  au  Piano'  (op.  17,  33),  'Huit 
me"sures  varices,'  24  Claverstucke,  op.  66,  79,  81 ; 
six  sonatas,  op.  95,  'Gavotte,'  'Sarabande,'  and 
'Courante'  (op.  115),  etc.  Franz  Liszt2  (181 1-) 
has  been  active  in  every  branch  of  pianoforte 
composition :  among  his  original  compositions  we 
find  (op.  1)  12  etudes,  later  transformed  into  the 
'  Etudes  d'execution  transcendante' ;  an  '  Allegro 
di  Bravura'  (op.  4),  a  'Valse  di  Bravura'  (op.  6), 
'Album  d'un  Voyageur,'  in  12  pieces,  'Canzone 
napolitana,' '  Harmonies  poe'tiques  etreligieuses,' 
grand  concert  solo,  concerto  pathe"tique  (for 
pianos), Consolations, asonata in Bmajor.  Among 
his  works  composed  on  national  airs  or  those 
of  other  composers  are  his  celebrated  '  Rhap- 
sodies hongroises,'  '  Trois  airs  suisses,'  transcrip- 
tions of  airs  by  Donizetti,  Mercadante,  Rossini, 
Bellini ;  of  songs  by  Schubert,  Schumann,  Men- 
delssohn, Franz,  Dessauer,  Alabieff,  Berlioz, 
Beethoven,  Weber,  Duke  of  Saxe  Coburg;  many 
fantasias  and  variations  on  operatic  airs,  arrange- 
ments of  symphonies  by  Beethoven  and  Berlioz, 
of  organ  fugues  by  Sebastian  Bach,  paraphrases  of 
violin  pieces  by  Paganini  and  Ferdinand  David ; 
indeed  Liszt's  activity  and  versatility  are  truly 
astonishing.  Vtncenz  Lachner  (1811-)  has  com- 
posed several  rondinos,  a  prelude  and  toccata 
in  D  minor,  impromptu  and  tarentella,  'Bunte 
Blatter,'  charming  rustic  dances,  etc.  Sigismdnd 
Thalberg3(i8i2-i87i).  Among Thalberg's ori- 
ginal pieces  are — '  Souvenirs  de  Vienne ' ;  12 
caprices ;  valses,  op.  4 ;  grand  concerto,  op.  5 ; 
caprice  in  E  minor,  op.  15  ;  2  nocturnes,  op.  16; 
caprice  in   Eb,   op.   19;    3  nocturnes,   op.   21; 


*  See  Catalogue  (Leipzig,  Ereitkopf  4  Hgrtel),  and  List  at  pp.  14! 
161  of  this  volume. 
>  Compare  Special  Catalogue  of  Thalberg's  works  (Leipzig,  Senff), 


PIANOFOETE  MUSIC. 

grand  fantasia,  op.  2  2  ;  1 2  etudes,  op.  26 ;  noc- 
turne, op.  28  ;  scherzo,  op.  31  ;  andante,  op.  32  ; 
grand  nocturne,  op.  35 ;  La  Cadence,  im- 
promptu, op.  36,  i. ;  Nouvelle  Etude,  op.  36,  ii. ; 
Romance  sans  paroles,  op.  36,  iii. ;  Romance  et 
Etude,  op.  38 ;  3  romanzas,  op.  41 ;  Theme 
original  et  Etude  in  A  minor,  op.  45 ;  grandes 
valses  brillantes,  op.  47  ;  Graziosa,  Melody;  Le 
Depart,  Romance  (Etude),  op.  55;  Grande  So- 
nate,  op.  56 ;  Marche  funebre  varie"e,  op.  57  ; 
Barcarole,  op.  60  ;  Valse  melodique,  op.  62  ;  Les 
Capricieuses,  valses,  op.  64  ;  Tarentelle,  op.  65. 
Thalberg's  other  works  consist  of  fantasias  on 
operatic  airs  by  Mozart,  Rossini,  Meyerbeer, 
Bellini,  Donizetti,  Verdi,  Auber,  etc.,  and  tran- 
scriptions (L'Artdu  Chant),  of  a  variety  of  songs 
and  arias.  Gdstav  Flugel  (1812-)  an  unknown 
name  in  England,  has  written  about  40  works ; 
among  them  4  sonatas,  fantasias,  variations,  cha- 
racteristic pieces  (Nachtfalter,  etc.).  Joseph 
Schad  (1812-1879)  composed  about  30  works, 
sonatinas,  and  drawing-room  pieces  of  a  some- 
what sentimental  character.  Charles  Valentin 
A  l  k  an  ( 1 8 1 3-) ,  a  highly  original  French  composer, 
became  known  by  his  excellent  e"tudes  (op.  38  and 
39),  by  his  Bourree  d'Auvergne,  Le  Preux,  Le 
Chemin  de  fer ;  his  concerto  and  duets  also  con- 
tain much  of  interest.  Ernst  Haberbier  ( 1 8 1 3- 
1869)  composed  about  60  works,  of  which  the 
beautifulEtudes-Poe"sies(24  characteristic  pieces), 
op.  53,  and  the  8  Nouvelles  Etudes-Poesies, 
op.  59,  deserve  great  and  universal  recognition. 
These  32  pieces  belong  to  the  best  and  most 
interesting  which  have  been  written  during  the 
last  20  years ;  op.  55  and  56  are  also  very  interest- 
ing. Carl  Vollweileb  (1813-1848)  wrote  a 
prize  sonata,  many  fantasias,  tarentelle,  marches, 
variations,  etc.  Jacob  Rosenhain  (181 3-)  has 
made  a  reputation  by  his  12  Etudes  caracteYis- 
tiques  (op.  17),  and  24  Etudes  melodiques  (op. 
30).  His  sonata  (op.  47)  'Morceaux  de  Con- 
cert,' fantasias,  romanzas,  etc.  are  less  known. 
Theodob  Oesten  (1813-1870),  a  prolific  edu- 
cational composer,  wrote  a  very  large  number  of 
collective  works  —  Blumenlese,  Reminiscences 
d'Operas,  Les  Fleurs  de  l'Opera,  Repertoire  de 
l'Opera,  etc. ;  his  rondinos,  valses,  etc.,  are  to  be 
recommended  for  their  clear,  correct,  and  effec- 
tive writing.  Louis  Winkleb  (1813-)  has  com- 
posed but  a  few  original  pieces,  but  his  collec- 
tion of  fantasias,  his  'Les  Devices  de  l'Opera,' 
and  particularly  his  effective  arrangements  of 
Beethoven's  chamber  music  (a  large  and  valu- 
able collection),  have  met  with  great  approval. 
Eduabd  Eggeling  (181 3-),  is  well  known  in 
Germany  for  his  excellent  preparatory  studies  for 
performing  Sebastian  Bach's  works.  Adolph 
Henselt  (1814-)  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
living  composers  for  the  pianoforte.  Among 
his  original  works  are — Variations  de  Concert 
(Elisire  d'amore),op.  1 ;  i2Etudes  caracteristiques, 
op.  2  ;  Poeme  d' Amour,  op.  3 ;  Rhapsody,  op.  4 ; 
1 2  Etudes  de  Salon,  op.  5  ;  2  nocturnes,  op.  6 ; 
impromptu,  op.  7  ;  Pensee  fugitive,  op.  8  ;  Varia- 
tions de  Concert  (Robert  le  Diable),  op.  11 ; 
Tableau  musical,  a  grand  concerto  in  F  minor, 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


731 


op.  16 ;  several  valses.  Besides  these  pieces, 
Henselt  translated  a  good  many  Russian  songs. 
Some  of  his  pieces  have  become  universally 
known.  Delphine  von  Schauroth,  afterwards 
Hill-Handley  (1814-),  wrote  a  sonata  and  a 
capriccio,  of  which  Schumann  reports  very  fa- 
vourably. Felicien  Le  Couppet  (1814-),  an 
experienced  and  meritorious  Paris  professor,  has 
distinguished  himself  by  his  easy,  useful,  prac- 
tical, and  well-sounding  'Etudes  primaires,  ex- 
pressives,  progressives.'  His  collection  of  etudes 
(op.  22)  called  Le  Rhythme,  and  his  'A,  B,  C 
are  still  much  used.  Charles  Kensington 
Salaman  (1814-)  is  well  known  in  London, 
amongst  other  pieces  for  his  Saltarello,  Pavan, 
Rondo  nel  tempo  della  Giga,  a  Toccata,  '6 
characteristic  melodies,'  '  Twilight  Thoughts,' 
etc.  Theodor  Dohler  (1814-1855)  composed  a 
concerto,  12  grand  studies,  50  Etudes  de  salon, 
a  charming  tarentelle  (op.  39),  12  nocturnes, 
ballades,  numerous  variations  and  fantasias. 
Anton  Gerkb  (1814-1870),  a  respected  teacher 
in  St.  Petersburg,  wrote  12  Schema  laMazurek, 
divertissements,  10  Pieces  differentes  et  faciles, 
and  a  considerable  number  of  smaller  pieces. 
Stephen  Heller1  (1815-).  Although  many  of 
Heller's  compositions  have  become  popular,  none 
have  obtained  the  success  of  his  excellent  studies, 
op.  16,  45,  46,  47,  and  90 ;  among  his  greater 
works  are  three  sonatas  and  fantasias,  also  pre- 
ludes, eglogues,  valses,  characteristic  pieces, 
'Dans  les  Bois,'  'Dream  pictures,'  'In  Wald 
und  Flur,'  'Promenades  d'un  Solitaire,'  'Nuits 
blanches,'  7  excellent  tarentellas,  canzonettas, 
allegro  pastorale,  charming  fantasias  and  rondos. 
Robert  Volkmann  (1815-)  has  composed  a 
sonata,  nocturnes,  '  Musical  Picture  Book '  (op. 
11),  'Wander  Sketches'  (op.  23),  'Visegr£d' 
(an  interesting  collection  of  12  pieces),  'Grand- 
mother's Songs,' '  Hungarian  Sketches,' marches, 
a  toccata,  and  several  smaller  pieces.  Charles 
Voss  (181 5-),  a  prolific  writer  of  drawing-room 
pieces,  has  published  about  350  works ;  they  are 
written  with  much  ease  and  fluency,  but  some- 
what carelessly.  Ferdinand  Praege  r  ( 1 8 1 5-)  has 
long  been  well  known  in  London  ;  his  best  works 
are  to  be  found  in  the  Praeger  Album  (2  vols. 
Leipzig).  Eduard  Wolff  (1816-1880)  has  com- 
posed about  300  pieces,  among  which  his'  Etudes, 
24  op.  20,  24  op.  50,  24  op.  100 ;  and  his  48 
studies, op.  189,  190,  191,  192,  'L'art  de  chanter 
sur  le  Piano,'  are  much  used  in  France.  His 
polonaises,  mazurkas,  and  other  national  works, 
are  very  good,  and  his  numerous  fantasias,  varia- 
tions, scherzos,  nocturnes,  valses,  tarentellas,  con- 
tain much  of  interest.  His  collective  work,  '  La 
jeune  Pianiste'  (36  pieces),  is  useful  for  teach- 
ing purposes.  Cabl  Haslingkr  (1816-1868), 
son  and  successor  of  the  well-known  Vienna 
publisher  Tobias  Haslinger,  was  an  experienced 
and  clever  musician,  whose  sonatinas,  variations, 
nocturnes,  fantasias  on  operatic  airs,  are  very  good 
for  instruction.  The  number  of  his  works  is 
about  60.    Leopold  von  Meter  (1816-)  has 

1  See  Special  Catalogue  of  Heller's  works  (London,  Ashdown  A 
Parry). 


732 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


written  specifically  good  Vienna  valses  (see  for 
curiosity's  sake  the  Valses  of  the  Future),  ex- 
cellent polkas,  capital  original  marches,  and 
highly  effective  transcriptions  of  Turkish  airs — 
' Machmudier,'  '  Bajazeth,'  'Air  de  Nedjib 
Pasha,'  etc. ;  his  arrangements  of  Russo-Bohe- 
mian  airs  are  good;  less  so  his  fantasias,  which 
are  weak  copies  of  Thalberg's  style.  SiB  Wil- 
liam Stekndale  Bennett  (1816-1875).1  Of  this 
author,  too  soon  departed,  we  have  4  concertos, 
3  musical  sketches,  op.  10 ;  6  studies  in  the  form 
of  capriccios,  op.  1 1 ;  3  impromptus,  op.  12;  so- 
nata, op.  1353  romanzas,  op.  14  ;  a  fantasia,  op. 
16;  an  Allegro  grazioso,  op.  18;  a  capriccio  (with 
orchestral  accompaniments),  op.  22 ;  a  Suite  de 
pieces,  op.  24  (6  pieces);  Rondo  piacevole,  op. 
25  ;  a  Capriccio  scherzando,  op.  27  ;  introduction 
and  pastorale,  rondino,  caprice,  op.  28 ;  'L'  A  ma- 
bile  e  l'Appassionata,'  2  itudes  caracteristiques, 
op.  29;  theme  and  variations,  op.  30;  preludes 
and  studies,  op.  33  ;  '  Pas  triste,  pas  gai,'  rondo, 
op.  34;  Minuetto  espressivo,  op.  35;  'Joan  of 
Arc,'  sonata ;  prelude  in  Bb  ;  diversions  for  two 
performers.  Antoine  FEAN901S  Marmontel 
(1816-),  one  of  the  most  popular  and  experienced 
Paris  professors,  has  written  a  sonata,  4  books  of 
studies,  2  grandes  valses  (well  known)  40  melodies 
ot  romances,  polonaises  and  mazurkas.  Joseph 
Adalbeet  Pacheb  (1816-1871),  once  a  very 
popular  professor  in  Vienna,  wrote  good  studies, 
°P-  3>  7>  IO'>  caprices,  impromptus,  and  very 
effective  transcriptions  of  songs  and  operatic 
pieces.  Fbitz  Spindleb  (181 7-)  of  Dresden, 
has  provided  students  with  an  unusually  large 
number  of  effective,  not  difficult,  useful,  and 
practically  written  drawing-room  pieces ;  his 
works  number  over  300;  among  them  'Wel- 
lenspiel,'  'Frisches  Griin,'  and  'Husarenritt' 
obtained  general  popularity;  his  transcriptions 
of  operatic  pieces,  Schubert's  songs,  and  national 
melodies  (op.  73),  are  particularly  well  done. 
The  celebrated  Danish  composer,  Niels  W. 
Gade  (181 7-)  has  written  several  exceedingly 
beautiful  works ;  his  Aquarellen,  Arabesque, 
Christmas  pieces,  Fantasiestiicke,  Sonata  (op.  28), 
'  Volkstanze,'  are  highly  to  be  recommended. 
Ignaz  Tedesco  (181 7-)  has  composed  about  70 
works,  among  which  18  are  original  pieces,  and 
the  remainder  consist  of  fantasias  and  transcrip- 
tions of  national  and  operatic  airs.  Antoine 
Chevalieb  de  Kontski  (181 7-)  has  composed 
studies,  5  valses,  fantasias,  caprices,  meditations, 
scherzos ;  among  these  only  one,  '  Le  Reveil  du 
Lion,'  has  obtained  a  wide  circulation.  Alex- 
andbe  Philippe  Billet  ( 1 8 1 7-)  has  published  1 7 
studies,  nocturnes,  rondos,  fantasias  on  operatic 
airs,  mosa'iques,  etc.  etc.  Louis  Jaime  Alpbed 
Lefebube-  W:ely  (1817-1869)  left  a  great  num- 
ber of  agreeable  light  pieces ;  among  them  '  Les 

1  It  is  difficult  to  give  an  accurate  account  of  Bennett's  composi- 
tiuns,  as  there  'is  no  special  catalogue,  and  some  works  have  changed 
their  original  publishers.  Whilst  in  France  and  Germany  the  pub- 
lisher considers  that  an  excellent  work  confers  distinction  and  glory 
upon  his  firm,  and  does  not  allow  it  to  leave  his  catalogue,  some 
of  the  English  publishers  appear  to  regard  a  celebrated  work  merely 
as  an  investment,  and  part  with  it  readily  for  a  profit.  For  an 
attempt  at  a  complete  list  of  Bennett's  works  see  vol.  i.  of  this 
Dictionary,  p.  229. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 

Cloches  du  Monastere,'  'Le  Caline  du  Soir,' 
and  '  La  Retraite  militaire '  are  very  well  known. 
Emile  Pbudent  (1817-1S63)  wrote  about  3c 
original  pieces  in  the  style  of  Thalberg,  elegant 
and  well  sounding ;  in  the  Concert-symphonie 
(op.  34)  he  takes  a  higher  flight ;  his  etudes, '  Le 
Hirondelles,'  'Le  Reveil  des  Fees'  (op.  41).  and 
6  e'tudes  de  salon  (op.  60)  are  highly  to  be  recom- 
mended. Alexandeb  Dreyschock  (1818-1869) 
composed  a  sonata,  6  nocturnes,  rondos,  rhapso- 
dies, and  a  great  number  of  characteristic  pieces; 
his  variations  for  the  left  hand  only  are  an  excel- 
lent study.  W.  Vincent  Wallace  (1818-1865), 
the  richly  gifted  Irishman,  composed  a  great 
number  of  very  effective  pieces ;  his  characteristic 
composition  '  Music  murmuring  in  the  trees,' 
and  his  brilliant  polkas  were  once  very  popular. 
Theodob  Kull ak  ( 1 8 1 8-)  composed  a  symphonie 
de  piano  (op.  27),  a  concerto  (op.  55),  a  sonata 
(op.  7),  many  characteristic  pieces  ('La  Ga- 
zelle,' '  Danse  des  Sylphides '),  many  collective 
works — '  Lieder  aus  alter  Zeit,'  '  Les  Fleurs 
Sud,'  '  Les  Fleurs  anime'es,'  '  Youthful  days/ 
'Dans  les  bois  et  les  champs,'  transcriptions 
of  national  melodies,  excellent  e'tudes  ('  Lea 
Arpeges'),  scherzos,  fantasias,  and  several  very 
meritorious  educational  works.  Henbi  Cbameb 
(1818-1877),  no  relation  of  John  Baptist  Cramer, 
wrote  a  very  large  number  (above  800)  of  pot- 
pourris, chants  nationaux,  melanges,  etc.  Louia 
(Bbodillon)  Lacombe  (18 1 8-)  has  published 
about  40  pieces,  among  which  '  Les  Harmonies 
de  la  Nature'  obtained  a  certain  reputation. 
Felix  Godefboid  (1818-),  actually  a  harpist,  has 
composed  about  180  elegant  and  light  piano 
pieces  ;  consisting  mostly  of  Morceaux  de  genre, 
transcriptions,  fantasias,  Tyroliennes,  etc.,  among 
which  '  La  Danse  des  Sylphes '  has  become 
universally  known.  Adolph  Gutmann  (1818-), 
the  favourite  pupil  and  friend  of  Chopin,  has 
published  about  6o  pieces,  mostly  with  fancy 
titles  ;  some  of  them  (op.  28,  33,  46)  have  become 
known;  his  10  Etudes  caracteristiques,  op.  12, 
are  to  be  recommended.  Henbi  Ravina  (1818- 
1862),  well  known  by  his  elegant  and  prettj 
e'tudes  (op.  2,  and  op.  24),  wrote  also  a  grea 
number  of  drawing-room  pieces,  among  which  the 
Sicilienne,  Barcarole,  Rondo  villageois,  Noctur 
gracieux,  became  very  popular.  His  fantasia 
on  operatic  airs  are  well  compiled.  Johan* 
Kafka  (1819-),  very  popular  in  some  parts 
Germany,  has  published  about  200  numbers  of 
light  and  moderately  difficult  drawing-room 
pieces ;  his  '  Erinnerung  an  Steinbach '  became 
well  known.  Claea  Schumann  (Wieck,  1819-) 
has  published  a  concerto,  a  scherzo  (op.  X4),  4 
pieces  fugitives,  33  preludes  and  fugues  (op.  16); 
4  polonaises,  Caprice  en  formes  de  Valse,  a 
romance  varie'e,  valses  romantiques,  4  pieces 
caracteristiques,  soirees  musicales,  Hexentanz, 
variations  de  concert,  etc.  Albert  Loeschhobn 
(1819-)  has  published  a  great  number  of  nice, 
melodious,  and  effectively  written  drawing-room 
pieces,  and  transcriptions  of  operatic  and  national 
airs.  His  studies,  op.  65,  66,  67,  in  graduated 
difficulty  are  very  valuable.  Cael  Evebs  (1 8 1 9  -) 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 

composed  four  sonatas ;  a  collective  work,  'Jours 
sereins,  jours  d'orage';  tarentelles.  valses,  e'tudes, 
fantasias,  etc. ;  '  Chansons  d'amour,'  a  collection 
of  love-songs,  in  which  the  different  national 
characters  are  imitated.  Brinley  Richards 
(1819-)  the  popular  Welsh  musician,  has  pub- 
lished a  book  of  octave  studies,  caprices,  a 
tarentelle,  '  Recollections  of  Wales,'  and  a  very 
large  number  of  fantasias  and  other  amusing  and 
pleasing  pieces,  which  have  a  wide  circulation. 
Several  of  his  later  original  works  contain  much 
interesting  matter.  Henry  Litolff  (1820-)  has 
written  3  concerto  symphoniques,  caprices,  noc- 
turnes, 6  studies  (op.  18),  fantasias  on  operatic 
airs,  and  a  considerable  number  of  characteristic 
pieces,  among  which  the  '  Spinner-lied '  became 
very  celebrated.  Louis  KOhler  (1820-),  is  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  of  living  educational 
composers  :  the  number  of  his  easy,  moderately 
difficult,  and  very  difficult  studies,  technical 
exercises,  sonatinas,  rondos,  arrangements  of 
dances  and  melodies  of  all  nations,  is  unusually 
great,  and  some  of  his  studies  (particularly 
those  op.  112  and  128)  are  of  lasting  value. 
Wilhelm  Kruger  (182c— )  has  composed  a  great 
number  of  elegant  and  pleasing  pieces ;  '  La 
Harpe  e'olienne '  and  '  Chanson  du  Gondolier ' 
are  very  popular.  Cornelius  Gublitt  (1820-), 
an  excellent  musician,  has  written  most  valuable 
pieces  for  instruction ;  his  sonatas,  sonatinas, 
studies,  and  collections  of  amusing  pieces  for 
young  students  are  exceptionally  good.  ALEX- 
ANDER Ernst  Fesca  (1820-1849)  composed  a 
morceau  de  concert,  3  rondos,  4  fantasias,  2  books 
of  variations,  4  nocturnes,  and  several  character- 
istic pieces,  among  which  'Scene  de  Bal,'  and 
•  La  Danse  des  Sylphides '  are  very  effective  and 
well  written.  Charles  Edward  Horsley  ( 1 8  2 1  - 
1876),  once  well  known  in  London,  has  left  a 
sonata,  and  many  graceful  and  effective  melodies. 
Dietrich  Krug  (1821-1880),  a  very  industrious 
composer  of  educational  pieces  (like  those  of 
Czerny,  Hiinten,  Oesten,  etc.),  wrote  about  400 
books  of  amusing  and  instructive  pieces.  His 
collections, '  Echoes  of  the  Opera '  and  '  Fashion- 
able library'  (Mode  Bibliothek),  are  well  known 
and  very  much  used.  Charles  Bovy  de  Lysberg 
(1821-1873),  a  highly  respected  professor  of 
Geneva,  has  composed  about  70  drawing-room 
pieces  with  fancy  titles,  which  have  become  more 
or  less  popular.  Rudolph  Willmers  (1821-1878) 
composed  about  130  pieces,  among  which  are  2 
concert  solos  with  orchestral  accompaniments 
('Un  jour  d'e'te'  en  Norvege,'  op.  27,  is  very 
good),  sonatas,  6  e'tudes,  many  fantasias  on 
operatic  pieces,  a  great  number  of  highly  effective 
concert  studies  ('Sehnsucht  am  Meere,'  'La 
Pompa  di  Festa,'  '  La  Sylphide,'  '  Trillerketten,' 
etc.).  Willmers's  pieces  are  very  valuable  for  in- 
struction. Charles  Edward  Stephens  ( 1 8  2 1  -) 
has  published  a  sonata,  a  duo  brillant  (4  hands), 
an  allegro-rhapsodie,  impromptus,  fantasias,  and 
characteristic  pieces,  full  of  fancy  and  feeling. 
Joachim  Raff  (182 2-)  has  produced  an  un- 
usually large  number  of  pieces  of  every  de- 
scription,  concertos,   sonatas,    suites,    fantasias, 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


733 


nocturnes,  impromptus,  a  collective  work  'Die 
Oper  im  Salon,'  dances  in  the  old  and  modern  st3'le; 
his  pieces  are  of  different  grades  of  difficulty. 
Theodor  Gouvy  (182 2-)  has  composed  a  sonata 
and  4  se're'nades.  Wilhelm  Kuhe  (1823-)  has 
written  a  great  number  of  light  and  pleasing 
opera  fantasias  and  transcriptions ;  among  his  ori- 
ginal pieces  3  Songs  without  words  (op.  12),  'Das 
Glockenspiel'  (op.  13),  and  'Andante  and  etude' 
(op.  14),  have  found  much  favour.  Alexandre 
Edouard  Goria  ( 1 823-1 860)  composed  about 
130  drawing-room  pieces;  they  are  elegant  and 
effective,  and  some  of  them,  such  as  the  Olga- 
mazurka,  Caprice-Nocturne,  Barcarole,  Berceuse, 
have  become  universally  known.  Among  his  3 1 
grand  studies,  those  in  op.  63  are  very  good ;  his 
fantasias  and  transcriptions  are  very  cleverly 
written  and  highly  effective.  Dr.  Julius 
Schaeffer  (1823-),  a  musician  of  sterling  merit, 
but  unknown  in  England,  has  composed,  among 
other  pieces,  '  Fantasie-Variationen,'  a  highly  re- 
markable work,  full  of  originality  and  boldness ; 
his  Fantasie  Stttcke,  Songs  without  words,  and 
Polonaise  are  also  very  interesting.  Jean  Vogt 
(1823-)  composed  preludes  and  fugues,  about  20 
books  of  drawing-room  pieces,  an  andante  and 
allegro  de  concert  with  orchestral  accompani- 
ments (op.  33),  and  1 2  excellent  studies  (op.  26). 
Theodor  Kirchner  (1824-),  a  richly  gifted 
composer,  has  written  a  good  number  of  highly 
fascinating  pieces ;  among  them  the  collective 
works,  '  Album  leaves,'  '  Preludes,'  '  Legends,* 
'  Griisse  an  meine  Freunde,'  '  Kleine  Lust-und- 
Trauerspiele,'  are  full  of  original  matter;  his 
transcriptions  of  Mendelssohn's  songs  are  the 
work  of  a  refined  musician.  Carl  Relnecke 
(1824-)  has  composed  many  and  good  works; 
among  others  2  concertos,  sonatas,  many  sona- 
tinas, fantasias,  '  Alte  und  neue  Tanze,'  ballades, 
variations  on  a  theme  of  Handel,  many  educational 
pieces  ('  Haus  Musik '),  17  cadenzas  for  concertos 
by  Bach,  Mozart,  Beethoven,  Weber,  excellent 
duets  for  2  pianos,  many  good  pieces  for  4  hands, 
and  very  useful  and  well-written  studies.  Fried- 
rich  Smetana  of  Prague  (1824-)  has  published 
6  Morceaux  caracteristiques,  Album  leaves,  Bo- 
hemian dances,  etc.  Albert  Jungmann  (1824-) 
has  written  more  than  400  easy  and  agreeable 
pieces  for  beginners  and  not  very  advanced  players. 
Edouard  France  (1824-),  a  highly  talented 
composer,  has  published  a  good  many  pieces ; 
among  them,  a  sonata  (op.  6),  scherzo  (op.  7), 
and  25  variations  (op.  14),  have  become  known 
to  a  wide  circle.  Emanuel  Agudlar  (1824-)  pub- 
lished nocturnes,  melodies,  several  morceaux  de 
salon,  also  5  canons  and  a  two-part  fugue,  intended 
as  a  preparation  for  the  study  of  the  works  of 
Sebastian  Bach.  Anton  Herzberg  (1825-)  com- 
posed a  great  number  of  drawing-room  pieces 
(about  1 20  are  published)  ;  among  them  the  ma- 
zurkas are  very  good.  Julius  Carl  Eschmann 
(1825-)  has  made  himself  a  name  by  his  excellent 
selections  of  classical  works  for  beginners.  His 
guide-book  (' Wegweiser')  to  the  literature  of  the 
pianoforte  is  very  valuable.  Charles  Wehlk 
(1825-)  has  written  many  nocturnes,  ballades.. 


734 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


romanzas,  and  other  shorter  pieces;  his  dance- 
music  is  particularly  elegant  and  pleasing.  Jdlius 
Scholhofp(i825-)  has  composed  a  sonata,  9  idyls, 
3  impromptus,  1  morceau  de  concert,  33  noc- 
turnes, valses,  galops,  mazurkas,  etc.,  about  60 
pieces,  most  of  which  have  obtained  a  very  wide 
circulation.  Loois  Ehleet  (1825-)  has  published 
a  '  Sonate  romantique,'  and  several  very  graceful 
and  refined  shorter  pieces.  Mobitz  Stbakosch 
(1825-)  has  written  many  books  of  elegant  dance- 
music  and  transcriptions  of  Italian  operatic  airs. 
Walter  Cecil  Macfabben  (1826-)  has  pub- 
lished gavottes,  impromptus,  characteristic  pieces, 
melodies,  nocturnes,  galops,  valses,  mazurkas,  etc., 
which  are  very  carefully  and  tastefully  composed. 
Lindsay  Slopes  (1826-)  has  composed  good 
studies  (op.  3, 1 3)  and  a  number  of  pleasing  smaller 
pieces,  some  of  them  full  of  interest.  Wilhelm 
Speidel  (1826-)  has  published  several  sonatas, 
Highland  pictures,  and,  among  other  smaller 
pieces,  a  very  good  Saltarello  (op.  20).  Hermann 
Berens  (1826-1880)  left  many  most  excellent 
educational  pieces.  His  studies,  op.  61,  66,  70, 
73,  77,  and  79  are  indeed  very  valuable  ;  so  are 
his  sonatinas,  op.  81  and  89,  and  a  small  work  en- 
titled '  The  Training  of  the  Left  Hand.'  Edward 
Silas  (182 7-)  has  composed  a  great  number  of 
characteristic  pieces,  romanzas,  a  capital  gavotte 
in  E  minor,  and  excellent  duets.  Gustav 
Merkel  (182 7-)  has  composed  many  practically 
written  and  effective  pieces  ;  among  them  op.  18, 
20,  25,  61,  65,  81,  and  84  have  become  very 
popular.  Hermann  A.  Wollenhaupt  (1827- 
1863)  wrote  short  but  melodious  and  pleasing 
pieces,  among  which  his  marches,  waltzes,  and 
scherzos  are  well  worthy  of  the  wide  recognition 
they  have  found.  Adolfo  Fdmagalli  (1828- 
I856)  published  about  90  drawing-room  pieces, 
consisting  of  serenades,  tarentelles,  fantasias, 
very  effective  transcriptions,  etc.  Woldemar 
Bargiel  (1828-)  has  composed  excellent  suites, 
°P-  7>  8,  31,  very  valuable  '  Pianoforte-stiicke,' 
op.  32  and  41,  very  interesting '  Bagatelles,'  op.  4, 
a  vigorous  '  Fantasiestiick,'  op.  27,  and  a  good 
many  other  valuable  pieces.  Hans  Seeling 
(1828-1862)  wrote  11  single  pieces,  among  which 
his  charming  '  Loreley'  obtained  great  success, 
and  3  collective  works — 'Concert  Studies,'  'Schil- 
flieder,'  and  '  Memoirs  of  an  Artist.'  Seeling's 
pieces  are  very  fascinating.  Ernst  Heinrich 
Lubeck  (1829-1876)  wrote  a  small  number  of 
drawing-room  pieces.  L.  M.  Gottschalk  (1829- 
1 869)  composed  about  60  drawing-room  pieces ; 
among  them  are  *  Le  Bananier,' '  Le  Mancenillier,' 
and  '  Bamboulo,'  which  obtained  a  wide  circula- 
tion. Otto  Goldschmidt  (1829-)  has  published 
a  concerto  (op.  10),  12  concert  studies  (op.  13), 
an  andante  and  scherzo,  reveries,  nocturnes, 
•Rondo -Caprice,'  etc.  Anton  Rubinstein1 
(1829-)  has  composed  concertos,  sonatas,  fanta- 
sias, preludes  and  fugues,  studies,  all  kinds  of 
dance-music  (« Le  Bal,'  etc.),  many  collective 
works,  such  as  '  Kamennoi-Ostrow '  (24  pieces), 
suite  (10  pieces),  6morceaux,  op.  51,  'Album  de 

'See   Special  Catalogue  of  Rubinstein's  compositions  (Leipzig, 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 

Peterhof  (12  pieces),  'Miniatures'  (12  pieces) 
'  Miscellanies '  (8  books),  a  great  many  duet 
cadenzas  to  Beethoven's  1st,  2nd,  3rd,  and 
Concertos,  and  to  Mozart's  D  minor  Concerto,  etc. 
Only  a  few  of  Rubinstein's  pianoforte  pieces  have 
obtained  general  popularity;  being  very  difficult 
and  requiring  very  large  hands  for  their  execu- 
tion, not  many  persons  can  play  them  with  proper 
effect.      Heinbich  F.  D.  Stiehl  (1829-)  has 
written  a  considerable  number  of  short  drawing- 
room  pieces.     Renadd  de  Vilbao  (1829-)  has 
composed  many  (40)  drawing-room  pieces,  among 
which  the  3  morceaux  de  salon,  op.  23,  and  3 
caprices,  op.  25,  have  become  well  known ;  his 
duets,  op.  19,  op.  24,  op.  26,  and  particularly  his 
collective  work  'Les  Beautes  des  Operas'  (Nor- 
ma, Barbier  de  Seville,  Euryanthe,  Freischutz, 
etc.),  are  very  popular.     Jacques  Blumenthal 
(1829-)    published  a  considerable    number    of 
drawing-room  pieces,  some  of  which  obtained  a 
certain  popularity.    Hans  von  Bulow  (1830-) 
has  published  several  works,  among  which  the 
collection  of  10  pieces,  '11  Carnovale  di  Milano,' 
op.  21,  has  obtained  popularity.     His  editions 
of  Beethoven's  sonatas  and  other  classical  works 
are  marked  by  devotion  and  enthusiasm,  and  by  a 
remarkable  degree  of  intelligence.  Julius  Hand- 
bock  (1830-)  has  written  a  great  number  of  valu- 
able instructive  pieces,  which  are  much  used  in 
Germany.  Wilhelm  Ganz  (1830-)  has  published 
a  considerable  number  of  brilliant  and  pleas- 
ing drawing-room  pieces.    Adolph  Schloesseb 
(1830-)  has  composed  many  brilliant  and  effective 
drawing-room  pieces;  among  his  more  ambitious 
efforts  is  a  suite,  op.  119,  which  contains  excel- 
lent music.     Gustav  Lange  (1830-)  a  respected 
Berlin  professor,  has  composed  a  great  number  of 
drawing-room  pieces  which  enjoy  also  a  certain 
popularity    in    England.     Kabl    Klindwobth 
(1830-)  is  chiefly  known  by  his  critical  edition 
of  Chopin,   and  by  excellent   arrangements 
Schubert,  Wagner,  Tschaikowsky,  etc.     W.  S. 
ROCKSTBO  (1830-),  besides  having  arranged  and 
edited  various  classical  operas,  is  known  as  a 
voluminous   composer  of  salon   pieces,  such 
'Mes  Songes,' '  Christabel,'  etc.  Salomon  Jadas- 
sohn (1831-)  has  published  well-written  pieces 
among  which  3  morceaux,  bal  masque"  (7  airs  de 
ballet),  serenade,  variations  se"rieuses,  are  popu- 
lar; his  cadenzas  to  Beethoven's  Concerto,  No.  4, 
are  to  be  recommended.    Julius  von    Kolb 
(1831-)    published    reveries    and    intermezzos. 
Alfbed  Jaell  (1832-)  is  the  author  of  a  l 
number  of  effective  drawing-room  and  concerto 
pieces,  and  transcriptions ;  among  these  the  tran- 
scriptions of  some  of  Richard  Wagner's  operatic 
pieces  are  very  well  done,     Joseph  Ascheb 
(1 831-1869)  has  composed  a  great  number  of  light 
and  effective  drawing-room  pieces,  elegant  dance- 
music,  good  marches  (Fanfare  militaire).     Some 
of  his  works  enjoy  great  popularity.     Eduabd 
Hecht  (1832-)  has  composed  several  well-written 
pieces,    which    deserve   a   better  acquaintance. 
Fbancis  Edwabd  Bache  (1 833-1 858),  a  highly 
gifted    musician,   of  great    promise,   published 
about    20  pieces,   full  of  melody  and  natural 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 

expression.  Among  the  most  prominent  are  '  La 
belle  Madeleine,'  and  the  galop,  '  L'irresistible.' 
Johannes  Brahms1  (1833-)  nas  composed  a  con- 
certo, 3  sonatas,  a  scherzo,  variations  on  airs  by 
Handel,  Schumann,  and  Paganini,  ballads,  Hun- 
garian dances  (two  sets),  waltzes,  etc.,  8  clavier- 
stucke  (caprices  and  intermezzi),  and  2  rhapsodies. 
The  interest  of  these  works  is  not  so  much  in 
spontaneous  charm  or  graceful  expression,  as 
in  their  solid  substance,  intellectual  character 
and  logical  development,  which  rivet  the  at- 
tention and  sustain  it  to  the  last.  William 
George  Cusins  (1833-)  is  known  by  his  Con- 
certo in  A  minor,  as  well  as  by  marches  and 
other  pieces.  Franz  Bendel  (1833- 1874) 
wrote  a  great  number  of  effective  and  brilliant 
pieces,  among  which  several  have  become  very 
popular ;  his  transcriptions  of  songs  by  Rubin- 
stein, Chopin,  Brahms,  and  Franz,  are  most  ex- 
cellent. Alexander  Winterberger  (1834-), 
a  pupil  of  Franz  Liszt,  has  composed  a  fantasia 
(op.  19),  2  idyls,  salon  e"tude,  valse-caprice  and 
several  other  short  pieces.  Anton  Krause 
(1834-)  has  produced  sterling  edutional  music — 
namely,  25  sonatas  and  sonatinas  for  2  and  4 
hands,  about  30  studies,  also  2  books  of  arpeggio 
studies.  Camille  Saint-Saens  (1835-)  *s  tne 
composer  of  4  concertos,  and  many  smaller  pieces, 
such  as  gavottes  and  mazurkas ;  also  excellent 
variations  for  2  pianos  on  a  theme  of  Beethoven's, 
etc.  Robert  Goldbeck  (1835-)  nas  published 
a  great  number  of  pleasing  and  light  pieces. 
Bernhard  Scholz  (1835-)  has  composed  a  re- 
markably well-written  collection  of  pleasing  and 
practical  pieces  for  amusement  and  instruction. 
Emil  BRE8LAUR  (1836-) :  among  this  composer's 
works,  his  'Technische  Grundlage  des  Klavier- 
spiels,'  op.  27,  has  created  considerable  attention. 
FriedrichAugustWilhelmBaumfelder(i836-) 
has  written  a  great  number  of  light  pieces,  favour- 
able for  instruction.  Adolph  Jensen  (1837- 
1879)  hefore  his  too-early  death  composed  highly 
interesting  pieces,  among  which  the  Wander- 
bilder,  Lieder,  and  Tanze  (20  pieces)  JagdScene, 
Praeludium  and  Romanze,  Valses,  Caprices, 
Idyllen,  Hochzeit-musik '  (duet),  Landler  aus 
Berchtesgaden,  Wald-Idylle  (op.  47),  and  '  Erin- 
nerungen,'  have  become  well  known.  Joseph 
Wieniawski  (1837-)  Das  published  brilliant 
valses,  fantasias,  variations,  songs  without  words, 
excellent  mazurkas  (op.  23).  Constantin  Borgel 
(1837-)  has  composed  several  sonatas,  a  suite, 
Arietta  eGavotta  (op.  25),  2  dance-caprices,  etc., 
all  of  which  enjoy  a  good  reputation  in  Ger- 
many. Alexandre  Cesar  Leopold  ('  Georges  ') 
Bizet  (1838-75),  left  '  Jeux  d'enfants'  (12 
pieces),  '  Les  Chants  du  Rhin '  (6  do.),  many 
transcriptions  and  arrangements,  and  espe- 
cially '  Le  Pianiste  -  chanteur,'  150  pieces  of 
all  schools,  transcribed,  marked,  and  figured. 
Theodore  Ritter  (1838-)  is  the  author  of  a 
good  number  of  effective  and  brilliant  drawing- 
room  pieces  ('  Chant  du  braconnier,'  '  Sylphes,' 
etc.)    John  Francis  Barnett  (1838-)  has  pub- 

1  See  Special  Catalogue  of  Brahnu'i  compositions  (Leipzig,  Senff), 
and  his  biography. 


PIANOFORTE  MUSIC. 


735 


lished  a  considerable  number  of  characteristic, 
pleasing,  and  instructive  pieces,  also  a  con- 
certo in  D  minor  (op.  25).  Joseph  Rhein- 
berger  (1839-)  nas  composed  a  great  number 
of  pieces  for  2  and  4  hands  (concerto,  fantasias, 
toccatas,  characteristic  pieces,  etc. ) ;  his  op 
5>  53»  **"!  'Jagd- Scene'  are  very  popular. 
Michael  von  Asantschewsky  (1839-)  nas  made 
himself  a  name  by  his  op.  4,  3  pieces ;  op.  6, 
Passatempo ;  op.  8,  6  duets ;  op.  1 2,  '  Festival 
Polonaise.'  Sydney  Smith  ( 1 839-)  has  composed 
a  great  number  of  light  and  pleasing  pieces,  which 
in  certain  circles  are  very  popular.  Friedrich 
GERNSHEDa(i839-)  has  composed  several  highly 
distinguished  works.  Hermann  Goetz  (1840- 
1876) :  of  this  too  soon  departed  composer,  we 
have  Genrebilder  (op.  13),  six  sonatinas,  one 
duet  sonata,  and  a  grand  concerto  (op.  18). 
Peter  Tschaikowski  (1840-)  is  known  by  a 
grand  concerto,  an  impromptu  and  scherzo  russe, 
and  8  other  original  pieces.  Ernst  Rodorff 
(1840-)  has  published  Etude  (op.  29,  no.  1); 
Concert-e'tude  (do.  no.  2) ;  8  Fantasiestiicke  and 
a  Fantasie ;  6  pieces  for  4  hands,  and  Varia- 
tions for  two  PFs.  Carl  Tausig  (1841-1871), 
who,  like  Jensen,  died  too  young,  wrote  2 
Etudes  de  concert,  and  transcribed  gipsy  melo- 
dies, valses  of  Strauss  ('Nouvelles  Soire'es  de 
Vienne'),  several  movements  from  Beethoven's 
quartets,  Wagner's  '  Walkuren  Ritt,'  etc.  Hein- 
rich  Hofmann  (1842-)  has  composed  a  good 
many  pretty  and  highly  effective  pieces.  His 
duets  '  Italienische  Liebes-Novelle '  (op.  19), 
transcriptions  of  Norwegian,  Hungarian,  and 
Russian  melodies,  have  become  very  popular. 
Edvard  Grieg  (1843-)  has  composed  a  concerto, 
a  sonata,  and  several  smaller  pieces,  all  elegant, 
and  strongly  impressed  with  the  Norwegian  cha- 
racter. Alexander  Mackenzie,  of  Edinburgh 
(1847-),  has  published  a  quartet  for  pianoforte 
and  strings  (op.  11),  Trois  Morceaux  (op.  15), 
and  other  pieces.  Philipp  Scharwenka  (1847-) 
has  composed  excellent  solos  and  duets,  and  his 
brother,  Xaver  Scharwenka(i85o-)  has  written 
a  great  number  of  highly  effective,  brilliant,  and 
melodious  works.  Hubert  Parry  (1848-)  has 
composed  2  sonatas,  a  duet  for  2  pianos,  a  con- 
certo, etc.  Moritz  Moszkowski  (1854-)  born 
at  Breslau,  is  one  of  the  most  talented  amongst 
present  composers ;  his  charming  duets,  five 
waltzes,  Album  espagnol,  Spanische  Tanze  (op. 
1 2),  and  the  suite  '  From  Foreign  Countries,'  as 
also  his  excellent  concert  studies,  minuets,  valses, 
polonaises,  have  gained  great  popularity  in  pro- 
portionately short  time. 

The  foregoing  list  gives  but  a  very  incom- 
plete and  inadequate  idea  of  the  enormous 
quantity  of  music  written  for  the  piano.  Each 
year  produces  thousands  of  pieces  ;  and  as  every 
opera,  oratorio,  cantata,  symphony,  or  quartet, 
is  arranged  for  two  or  four  hands,  some  idea 
may  be  formed  of  the  magnitude  and  almost 
bewildering  extent  of  the  pianoforte  library. 
Dance-music  too,  in  its  most  popular  and  prac- 
tical form,  is  the  property  of  the  piano ;  in  fact 
the  number  of  works  written  for  it  far  surpasses 


736 


PIANOFORTE-PLAYING. 


PIANOFORTE-PLA  YING. 


those  written  for  the  church,  the  theatre,  or  all  | 
other  branches  of  music.  Indeed  it  is  not  too  | 
much  to  say  that  the  progress  of  the  art  has 
been  in  great  measure  due  to  this  noble  in- 
strument. The  arrangements  alone,  a  branch 
of  art  which,  in  the  hands  of  such  clever  mu- 
sicians as  Watts,  Czerny,  Mockwitz,  Winkler, 
Horn,  Ulrich,  Hugo,  Horr,  Wittmann,  Klind- 
worth,  Prout,  and  many  others,  may  be  said  to 
have  reached  perfection,  may  literally  be  counted 
by  tens  of  thousands. 

Our  list  has  been  compiled  with  an  earnest 
endeavour  to  do  justice  to  the  names  of  all 
artists  of  importance;  but  so  great  is  the 
activity  of  composers  and  publishers  that  it  is 
possible  some  may  have  been  omitted.  Among 
those  to  whom  we  are  unable  to  give  more 
extended  notice,  but  who  deserve  mention  for 
their  more-or-less-known  productions,  are: — 
Franz  Behr,  Ernst  Berens,  Francesco  Berger, 
Jules  Brissac,  Ignaz  Briill,  J.  B.  Calkin,  Willem 
Coenen,  Charles  Delioux,  Emile  Dore",  Jules 
Egghard  (Count  Hardegen.  dead),  A.  Ehmant, 
G.  J.  van  Eycken  (dead),  Rene*  Favarger  (dead), 
George  Forbes,  Alban  Fbrster,  Adolph  Gollmick, 
Hans  Hampel,  J.  W.  Harmston,  Carl  Hause, 
Heinrich  Henkel,  Siegfried  Jacoby,  E.  Ket- 
terer  (dead),  A.  Klauwell,  Richard  Kleinmichel, 
J.  Leybach,  R.  Loffler,  Joseph  Low,  Carl 
Machtig,  Tito  Mattei,  Theodor  Mauss,  Jean 
Louis  Nicode",  Arthur  O'Leary,  A.  Pieczonka, 
Joseph  L.  Roeckel,  Julius  Rbntgen,  Joseph 
Rummel  (dead),  Gustav  Satter,  J.  Schiffmacher, 
Bernhard  Scholz,  W.  Schulthes  (dead),  Boyton 
Smith,  Berthold  Tours,  Ch.  Wachtmann,  Agnes 
Zimmermann.  [P.] 

PIANOFORTE-PLAYING.  In  order  accu- 
rately to  appreciate  the  pitch  to  which  pianoforte- 
playing  has  reached  in  the  present  day,  it  is 
necessary  to  go  back  to  the  modest  beginnings 
of  virginal,  spinet,  clavichord,  and  harpsichord 
performances,  as  we  find  them  exemplified  in 
the  works  of  the  old  English  composers,  and  in 
those  of  the  German,  French,  and  Italian  writers 
before  1 700.  In  the  old  English  works1  we  meet 
with  a  certain  brilliancy — scales  and  broken 
chords  frequently  applied ;  whilst  the  slower 
pieces  are  to  some  extent  conceived  in  the 
madrigal  style.  The  old  Italian,  French,  and 
German  composers  of  the  16th  and  17th  cen- 
turies treat  their  spinets  and  clavecins  very 
much  like  the  organ,  and  indeed  the  indication 
'  for  the  Organ  or  Clavicembalo '  (clavecin, 
harpsichord)  is  to  be  met  with  on  almost  every 
title-page  of  these  early  publications.  The  only 
life  and  animation  which  the  Suites,  Sonatas, 
and  Fantasias  of  these  ancient  masters  possess, 
is  to  be  found  in  the  dance-movements,  such 
as  the  Gavotte,  Rigaudon,  Bourre'e,  Gaillarde, 
and  Gigue.  A  great  revolution  was  however 
brought  about  in  Italy  by  Domenico  Scarlatti 
(168  3-1 760),  in  France  by  Francois  Couperin 
(1668-1733),  and  in  Germany  by  Sebastian 
Bach  (1685-1750).     Although  Bach  is  by  far 

J  The  'Farthenia'  Is  republished  complete  In  Fauert  'Old  EnglUh 
Composers'  (Augener  *  Co.). 


the  greatest  genius  of  this  remarkable  trium- 
virate, it  cannot  be  denied  that  both  Scarlatti 
and  Couperin  contributed  materially  towards 
the  progress  of  a  regular  clavecin  style,  towards 
a  mode  of  writing  and  a  production  of  effects 
which  have  nothing  in  common  with  the  organ ; 
and  which  rise  by  degrees  to  lightness,  elegance, 
and  grace.  Scarlatti,  although  at  times  crude 
and  harsh  in  his  harmonies,  is  a  highly  original 
and  genial  composer.  HiB  pieces  possess  a  de- 
lightful animation,  the  warm  Italian  blood  runs 
through  them ;  they  testify  to  a  wonderfully 
clever  and  adroit  manipulation,  and  exhibit  at 
times  an  almost  electric  rapidity  of  crossing  the 
hands:  in  fact  even  now,  when  technical  skill 
and  execution  are  so  enormously  developed,  they 
offer  plenty  of  material  for  study  and  interest  to 
the  most  experienced  and  practised  performer. 
Couperin  excels  more  in  the  refined  and  subtle 
working  out  of  his  short  pieces.  Less  brilliant 
by  far  as  an  executant  than  Scarlatti,  he  is  a 
more  elegant,  careful,  and  speculative  musician. 
The  preface  to  his  works  (published  171 3,  17 16, 
and  1 71 7),  in  which  he  alludes  to  the  manner  of 
performing  his  pieces,  is  full  of  most  interesting 
and  useful  hints  and  advice,  and  shows  that  the 
pervading  principle  of  Couperin's  activity  is  the 
desire  to  produce  new  effects.  Scarlatti  how- 
ever is  the  more  strikingly  original,  and  more 
spontaneously  creative  musician  of  the  two.  But 
both  were  surpassed  by  Johann  Sebastian  Bach, 
and  his  Inventions,  Symphonies,  French  and 
English  Suites,  Partitas,  Toccatas,  Preludes,  and 
Fugues,  are  indeed  the  main  source  of  our 
present  style  of  playing.  In  Bach's  music  we 
find  the  greatest  variety  of  expression,  and  hi3 
numerous  works  offer  inexhaustible  material  for 
study.  His  manner  of  playing  on  the  clavichord 
is  said  to  have  been  remarkable  at  once  for 
quietness  and  for  the  most  perfect  clearness ; 
the  time  of  his  performance  was  slightly  ani 
mated,  though  never  so  much  so  as  to  interfere 
with  the  most  absolute  correctness  of  execution 
His  fingers  bent  over  the  keyboard  in  such 
manner  that  they  stood  with  their  points  in  a 
downward,  vertical  line,  each  finger  at  every 
moment  ready  for  action.  In  taking  a  finger  off 
the  key,  he  drew  it  gently  inwards  with  a  sort 
of  movement '  as  if  taking  up  coin  from  a  table." 
Only  the  end-joint  was  moved,  all  the  rest  of  the 
hand  remained  still.  Each  finger  was  equally 
trained.  The  tranquil  grandeur  and  the  dignity 
of  Bach's  playing  were  eminently  remarkable. 
Passionate  passages  he  never  expressed  by  violent 
or  spasmodic  movements,  but  relied  solely  on 
the  power  of  the  composition  itself.  His  im 
provisations  are  said  to  have  been  in  the  style 
of  his  celebrated  Chromatic  Fantasia,  and  some 
times  even  surpassed  that  remarkable  work  in 
brilliancy  and  fire.  His  favourite  instrument 
was  the  clavichord ;  he  often  said  '  that  he  found 
no  soul  in  the  clavecin  or  spinet,  and  that  the 
pianoforte  (then  newly  invented)  was  too  clumsy 
and  harsh  to  please  him.'  On  the  clavichord  he 
could  give  all  the  expression  he  desired,  and  he 
declared  it  to  be  the  fittest  instrument  for  private 


PIANOFORTE-PLAYING. 


PIANOFORTE-PLAYING. 


737 


use  and  for  practice.  In  Bach's  works  we  meet 
with  polyphonic  treatment  in  regard  not  only  to 
quantity,  but  to  quality  also ;  and  it  is  this  treat- 
ment which  gives  its  peculiar  strength,  its  unsur- 
passable vitality,  and  its  never-failing  freshness, 
to  the  music  of  this  great  master. 

We  thus  see  that  at  the  time  when  the  piano- 
forte was  invented  and  came  into  pretty  general 
use  (1740-1780)  the  art  of  playing  had  already 
attained  a  high  degree  of  efficiency:  it  pos- 
sessed indeed  one  special  kind  of  excellence  in 
which  the  generality  of  our  present  performers 
are  wanting — namely,  the  art  of  individualising 
the  single  parts,  and  the  great  tranquillity  and 
dignity  of  performance  which  arise  from  the 
perfect  training  of  each  finger. 

With  the  pianoforte  an  entirely  new  style  of 
expression  came  into  existence ;  the  power  to 
play  soft  or  loud  (piano,  forte)  at  will,  developed 
by  degrees  the  individual  or  personal  feeling  of 
the  performer,  and  new  effects  were  constantly 
invented,  and  applied  with  more  or  less  success. 
If  formerly,  owing  to  the  insufficient  means  of 
the  instrument,  the  art  of  playing  was  considered 
from  a  more  objective  or  external  point  of  view, 
the  richer  means  of  the  pianoforte  allowed  and 
even  suggested  the  indulgence  of  more  subjective 
or  personal  feeling.  And  thus  not  only  the  style 
of  composing,  but  the  manner  of  playing  itself, 
altered  in  a  material  degree.  In  Sebastian  Bach 
we  find  a  polyphonic  treatment  founded  on 
science  and  regulated  by  strict  loyalty  to  rule 
and  order;  we  find  also  a  charming  piquancy 
and  quaintness  of  expression,  resulting  from  the 
adoption  of  dance  movements  already  mentioned, 
and  many  others,  to  which  still  greater  variety 
is  given  by  the  introduction  of  short  movements, 
such  as  the  Caprice,  Rondo,  Burlesca,  Echo,  etc. 
Indeed  the  legacy  which  Sebastian  Bach  be- 
queathed to  the  world  is  one  of  the  greatest 
importance,  and  of  inexhaustible  richness  and 
beauty.  It  was  left  to  his  second  son,  Cabl 
Philipp  Emanuel  Bach  (1714-1788)  to  effect  a 
great  change  in  the  principles  hitherto  observed. 
Emanuel  Bach  was  the  first  to  profit  system- 
atically by  the  change  of  treatment  necessitated 
by  the  introduction  of  the  hammer;  to  recog- 
nise with  accuracy  and  method  the  great  ad- 
vantages suggested  and  allowed  by  the  altered 
condition  of  things,  and  to  adapt  his  style  of 
composition  to  the  new  method  of  producing  the 
tone.  In  Emanuel  Bach's  sonatas  the  poly- 
phonic treatment  and  rigorous  part-writing  of 
his  illustrious  father  disappear  by  degrees  in 
favour  of  a  more  expressive  and  singing  style — 
in  short  of  the  lyrical  style.  In  many  of  his 
Sonatas  we  meet  with  a  fantasia-like  treatment 
hitherto  unknown;  and  in  his  still  valuable 
Essay  '  On  the  true  Method  of  playing  the 
Clavier'  (1753)  he  alludes  over  and  over  again 
to  the  necessity  '  of  singing  as  much  as  possible 
on  the  instrument.'  '  Methinks,'  he  says,  '  music 
ought  principally  to  move  the  heart,  and  in  this 
no  performer  on  the  pianoforte  will  succeed  by 
merely  thumping  and  drumming,  or  by  con- 
tinual arpeggio-playing.      During  the  last  few 

VOL.  II.  PT.  12. 


years  my  chief  endeavour  has  been  to  play  the 
pianoforte,  in  spite  of  its  deficiency  in  sustain- 
ing the  sound,  as  much  as  possible  in  a  singing 
manner,  and  to  compose  for  it  accordingly.  This 
is  by  no  means  an  easy  task,  if  we  desire  not 
to  leave  the  ear  empty,  or  to  disturb  the  noble 
simplicity  of  the  cantabile  by  too  much  noise.' 

Emanuel  Bach's  maxims  were  closely  followed 
by  Haydn  (1732-1809)  and  Mozabt  (1756- 
1791).  In  the  sonatas  and  smaller  pieces  of 
these  great  composers,  but  especially  in  the 
22  concertos  of  Mozart,  we  recognise  a  desire 
to  please  and  to  ingratiate  themselves  with  the 
public  by  sweet  melody  and  agreeable  har- 
mony, by  an  utter  absence  of  eccentricity,  spas- 
modic or  fragmentary  writing,  and  by  the  pre- 
sence of  a  certain  spontaneous  elegance,  suffused 
with  ready  wit  and  refreshing  cheerfulness,  the 
whole  tempered  by  a  never-failing  expression  of 
good-nature  and  innate  amiability.  Although 
Haydn  and  Mozart  never  forgot  their  duties  to 
the  art,  they  regarded  the  taste  and  likings  of 
the  public  as  of  very  great  importance,  and 
without  yielding  to  its  whims  and  caprices,  they 
courted  its  legitimate  demands  loyally  and  in 
perfect  faith,  and  sought  to  effect  a  satisfactory 
compromise  in  doubtful  cases.  The  immense 
practice  of  both  Haydn  and  Mozart  in  writing 
for  the  orchestra  and  for  voices,  both  solo  and  in 
chorus,  largely  influenced  their  pianoforte  com- 
positions, and  as  a  natural  consequence  their 
style  of  playing.  Many  of  Mozart's  most  dis- 
tinguished contemporaries  testify  to  his  excel- 
lence as  a  player,  and  to  his  supreme  command 
over  the  instrument.  His  own  remarks  on 
pianoforte-playing  are  characteristic  and  com- 
pletely to  the  point.  He  declares  '  that  the 
performer  should  possess  a  quiet  and  steady 
hand,  with  its  natural  lightness,  smoothness,  and 
gliding  rapidity  so  well  developed,  that  the 
passages  should  flow  like  oil.'  'All  notes,  graces, 
accents,  etc.,  ought  to  be  brought  out  with 
fitting  expression  and  taste.'  '  In  passages 
(technical  figures)  some  notes  may  be  left  to  their 
fate  without  notice,  but  is  that  right?'  '  Three 
things  are  necessary  for  a  good  performer ' — and 
he  pointed  significantly  to  his  head,  to  his  heart, 
and  to  the  tips  of  his  fingers,  as  symbolical  of 
understanding,  sympathy,  and  technical  skill. 

A  material  change  in  pianoforte-playing  took 
place  at  this  time  (1 790-1 800).  The  great 
technical  execution  of  Clementi  (1752-1832), 
Dussek  (1761-1812),  Steibelt  (1 764-1833), 
A.  E.  Mulleb  (1 767-18 1 7),  and  J.  B.  Cbambb 
(1771-1858),  excited  continual  fresh  interest, 
until  at  length  excellence  of  technical  execution 
claimed  for  itself  an  independent  rank  and  posi- 
tion, which  threw  the  more  modest  and  less  bril- 
liant pieces  of  Mozart  and  Haydn  for  awhile  into 
the  background,  dementi's  alterations,  improve- 
ments, suggestions,  and  additions  to  the  develop- 
ment of  technical  execution  are  of  the  utmost 
importance.  A  glance  at  Nos.  I,  3, 15,  20,  22,  23, 
24, 27, 31, 34. 37. 44. 63, 65, 76, 86,of  his  celebrated 
collection  of  studies,  'Gradus  ad  l  Parnassum,' 
»  Republished  la  Peten's  Edition.  No.  147. 
3B 


738 


PI  ANOFO  RTE-PLAY ING. 


PIANOFORTE-PLAYING 


will  suffice  to  show  the  vast  difference  between 
the  treatment  of  the  pianoforte  by  Mozart  and 
by  dementi.  Clementi  presents  passages  in  thirds 
and  sixths,  he  uses  octaves  in  rapid  succession,  he 
widens  the  chords,  and  exhibits  for  the  first  time 
a  hitherto  unknown  muscular  force.  The  compass 
of  the  piano  of  Haydn  and  Mozart's  Sonatas — 
5  octaves  (rarely  5j  and  less  rarely  6) — was  soon 
extended  to  6  and  6|  octaves,  and  the  instrument 
became  for  the  first  time  a  powerful,  rich,  sonor- 
ous, and  highly  effective  one.  The  fact  that 
Clementi  entered  into  partnership  with  the 
firm  of  Collard,  testifies  to  his  keen  and  lively 
interest  in  the  pianoforte  manufacture,  and  is 
a  guarantee  for  his  intimate  acquaintance  with 
the  connexion  between  the  mechanism  of  the 
instrument  and  the  minutest  details  of  piano- 
playing.  Compared  with  the  manner  in  which 
Clementi  writes  his  most  difficult  Sonatas  and 
Studies — Concertos  by  him  do  not  exist — the 
style  of  Haydn  and  Mozart  appears  almost  small, 
thin  and  poor.  Whilst  Haydii  and  Mozart  regard 
the  instrument  merely  as  a  vehicle  to  convey 
their  ideas,  and  think  more  of  musical  sub- 
stance than  of  technical  brilliancy,  Clementi  uses 
the  instrument  and  the  musical  art  rather  for 
the  display  of  his  remarkable  manual  dexterity: 
his  compositions  are  clever,  in  some  instances 
grand  and  even  bold,  but  on  the  other  hand, 
they  lack  grace  and  especially  warm  and  enthu- 
siastic feeling ;  in  short  they  do  not  possess  that 
feu  sacri  which  distinguishes  so  many  of  the 
productions  of  Haydn  and  Mozart,  and  which  place 
Beethoven's  works  on  so  very  high  a  pinnacle. 
Mozart's  contemporaries  declare  Clementi  to  have 
been  superior  to  Mozart  in  technical  execution, 
brilliancy  of  effect,  and  masculine  force  of  expres- 
sion ;  they  almost  unanimously  praise  dementi's 
thoroughly-trained  velocity,  the  quiet  position  of 
his  hands,  the  extraordinary  power  and  fulness 
of  his  touch,  the  clearness  and  equality  of 
his  performance,  and  the  judicious  delivery  of 
his  slow  movements.  Clementi  wrote  for  the 
pianoforte  only,  for  the  few  Symphonies  which 
he  composed  in  1820,  when  already  68  years  old, 
count  for  little ;  the  piano  was  therefore  his  only 
medium  of  expression,  and  the  one  chosen  expo- 
nent of  his  activity  as  a  composer.  It  was  every- 
thing to  him,  and  to  the  keyboard  he  entrusted 
every  idea  that  crossed  his  mind.  His  ideas  con- 
sequently adapted  themselves  by  degrees  to  the 
nature  of  the  instrument,  and  thus  his  Sonatas 
may  with  truth  be  called  types  of  pianoforte 
compositions  ;  for  these  he  invented  effects,  tech- 
nical passages,  figures,  combinations ;  and  like 
Columbus,  discovered  a  new  world  on  the  piano- 
forte. And  this  peculiar  position  of  Clementi  in  re- 
lation to  the  piano  explains  the  fact  that  Beethoven 
preferred  his  Sonatas  to  those  of  Mozart. 

The  extraordinary  effect  produced  by  Cle- 
menti brought  him  a  host  of  admirers  and  fol- 
lowers, and  he  soon  became  one  of  the  most 
desired  of  teachers.  The  difference  between  his 
style  and  that  of  Mozart  resulted  in  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  so-called  'Vienna'  or 
'Mozart1   school,   and  the  'dementi'  school. 


tx 


The  original  cause  of  this  difference  is  chiefly 
to  be  sought  in  the  instrument  itself.  Clementi 
used  the  English,  Mozart  and  his  successors  the 
Vienna  pianoforte.  The  English  instrument  had 
a  richer,  fuller  and  more  sonorous  tone,  the  ham- 
mer had  a  deeper  fall,  and  was  thus  favourable 
to  the  sure  execution  of  thirds,  sixths,  and 
octaves,  and  to  the  clear  and  precise  playing 
of  chords  in  succession ;  the  tone  of  the  Vienna 
piano,  though  thin  and  of  shorter  duration,  was 
highly  agreeable,  and  its  action  was  so  light  that 
(as  in  the  harpsichord)  the  most  delicate  pres- 
sure produced  a  sound  from  the  key.  From 
this  facile  mechanism  results  the  rather  extra- 
ordinary expression  '  to  breathe  upon  the  keys,' 
an  expression  which  the  most  distinguished  dis- 
ciples of  the  Vienna  school,  Hummel  and  Czerny, 
frequently  used,  dementi's  piano  was  therefor 
favourable  to  a  substantial  and  masculine  treat- 
ment ;  while  the  Vienna  piano  responded  best 
to  a  rapid  fluent  style  and  to  arpeggio  playing, 
dementi's  piano  was  furthermore  well  adapted 
to  the  cantabile,  and  some  of  his  pupils  (a 
J.  B.  Cramer  and  John  Field)  made  good  us 
of  this  advantage,  while  the  Vienna  players, 
feeling  the  weak  points  of  their  native  piano, 
sought  by  cleverness  and  taste  to  make  up  for 
its  deficiencies,  and  surrounded  their  cantabile 
with  such  quantities  of  light,  airy,  elegant, 
tasteful  passages,  runs,  broken  chords,  and  or- 
naments of  all  kinds,  as  in  great  measure  to  hide 
the  failing.  The  Vienna  school  strove  rather  to 
retain  the  character  of  the  piano  as  a  chamber 
instrument,  whilst  the  stronger  and  more  solid 
construction  of  the  English  one  tended  to  make 
it  an  exponent  of  orchestral  music.  Both  schools 
have  their  distinct  history.  The  Vienna  one  de- 
teriorated sooner  than  that  of  Clementi ;  after 
Mozart's  death  it  lost  much  of  the  intellectual 
force  and  the  innate  gracefulness  and  affectionate 
warmth  that  distinguish  the  best  of  his  Sonatas 
and  Concertos,  and  some  of  his  smaller  pieces. 
With  Hummel  and  Moscheles  it  reached  its  cli- 
max. Hummel's  playing  was  distinguished  by 
certainty,  correctness,  and  transparent  clearness, 
an  admirable  evenness  and  subtlety  of  touch 
and  refined  and  correct  rhythmical  feeling, 
high  and  exceptional  powers  as  a  performe 
were,  however,  best  shown  in  his  extempor 
playing,  a  department  in  which  he  had  no  riva 
Moscheles,  superior  to  Hummel  in  the  variety 
of  his  tone-gradations  (light  and  shade  of  touch), 
and  in  a  more  decided  and  energetic  bravur 
style,  excels  him  also  in  grace  and  elegance ; 
but  both  were  wanting  in  warmth  and  spon- 
taneity. In  Mozart  technical  execution  and  in- 
tellectuality were  still  evenly  balanced;  with  his 
successors — although  both  Hummel  and  Mo- 
scheles wrote  works  deserving  the  epithet  'classi- 
cal'— technical  execution  gains  the  preponder- 
ance, and  this  led  Woelfl(i  772-1 812),  Steibelt 
(1764-1823),  Czebkt  (1791-1S57),  and  Herz 
(1805-)  to  devote  themselves  entirely  to  the  de- 
mand for  public  amusement  and  momentary 
excitement,  and  thus  to  lose  sight  of  the  prin- 
ciples which  made  the  school  of  Mozart  so  great. 


PIANOFORTE-PLAYING. 

At  the  same  time  it  must  be  admitted  that  the 
technical  execution  of  Woelfl  was  highly  remark- 
able, and  even  exceptional ;  that  Steibelt  proved 
a  dangerous  rival  to  Beethoven  at  Vienna ;  that 
Czemy's  merits  as  an  educational  writer,  and 
a  most  painstaking,  thorough,  and  successful 
1  teacher  were  quite  exceptional,  and  that  Herz 
had  in  his  best  time  no  equal  for  elegance 
and  brilliancy  of  execution.  The  effect  produced 
by  these  excellent  pianists  was  founded  on  legi- 
timate principles  of  technical  execution,  and  was 
due  to  a  patient  and  complete  training  of  the 
fingers.  Czerny  in  particular,  in  his  *  School  of 
Velocity'  (op.  299),  in  his  admirable  'L'Art  de 
dewier  les  Doigts '  (op.  740),  and  in  his  '  School 
of  the  Legato  and  Staccato '  (op.  335),  shows  a 
consummate  knowledge  of  all  the  minutest  de- 
tails of  pianoforte-playing.  To  complete  this  part 
of  the  subject  it  may  be  mentioned,  that  amongst 
Hummers  pupils  we  find  the  names  of  Hiller, 
Henselt,  and  Willmers. 

dementi's  direct  pupils  were  J.  B.  Cramer 
(1771-1858),  John  Field  (1782-1837),  Ludwig 

BeBGEB    (I777-I839),    A.   A.   KXENGEL   (1784- 

1852) :  as  indirect  pupils  may  be  mentioned,  Dus- 
sek(i76i-i8i2),Kalkbbenneb(i  788-1849),  and 
Chables  Mayeb  (1799-1862).  The  celebrated 
J.  B.  Cramer  was  one  of  the  most  excellent  pianists 
in  the  history  of  the  art.  Though  never  overstep- 
ping the  limits  of  the  legitimate  resources  of  the 
piano  as  a  chamber- instrument,  his  performance 
displayed  an  unusual  sense  of  that  richness  of 
variety  and  treatment  which  the  piano  can  be  made 
to  reveal;  his  playing  possessed  plastic  roundness 
and  rare  expression  of  harmony  and  beauty,  while 
his  appearance  and  deportment  at  the  instrument 
were  eminently  gentlemanlike ;  in  fact,  Cramer 
may  be  said  to  have  combined  the  best  qualities 
of  both  the  Mozart  and  the  Clementi  school. 
Beethoven  preferred  his  '  touch '  to  all  others  ; 
the  quietness,  smoothness,  and  pliability  of  the 
movements  of  his  hands  and  fingers,  the  unex- 
ceptionable clearness  and  correctness  of  his  execu- 
tion, and  the  exquisite  moderation  of  his  style, 
rendered  his  performance  unique ;  added  to  which 
he  possessed  an  innate  nobility  of  expression, 
and  a  rare  suavity  and  euphony  of  delivery.  His 
celebrated  'Studies'  are  the  best  proof  of  his 
incomparable  manner  of  playing. 

At  this  time  the  construction  of  the 
pianoforte  was  making  great  progress,  and 
meeting  more  than  ever  the  desires  and  needs 
of  the  executants.  The  richly  gifted  Irishman 
John  Field,  usually  called  'Russian'  Field, 
the  inventor  of  the  universally  popular  form  of 
the  '  Nocturne,'  was  one  of  the  greatest  pianists 
of  all  time.  His  touch,  with  an  almost  perpen- 
dicular position  of  the  fingers,  surpassed  in 
sweetness,  richness,  and  sostenuto  all  that  had 
been  heard  before ;  and  with  regard  to  the 
picturesque  distribution  of  light  and  shade,  the 
greatest  correctness  and  neatness,  combined  with 
a  peculiar  Irish  frankness  and  simplicity  of 
feeling,  he  had  scarcely  a  rival.     At  this  time 

1  Amongst  hi*  pupils  may  be  named  Mme.  Bcl'.c\llle-0ui7,  Theodur 
Dohler.  L.  tod  Meier,  and  Franz  Liszt. 


PIANOFORTE-PLAYING. 


739 


the  greatest  attention  was  shown  to  the  canta- 
bile  style ;  the  varieties  of  touch,  its  beauty, 
mellowness,  roundness,  and  singing  quality,  its 
brilliancy  and  crispness,  were  studied  with  un- 
remitting zeal  and  care,  and  performers  even 
thought  it  worth  their  while  to  investigate  the 
anatomical  construction  of  their  hands  and  the 
sources  of  strength,  elasticity,  and  endurance;  the 
degrees  of  force  were  carefully  measured,  and  all 
thumping,  banging,  indistinctness  ('smearing'  as 
the  Viennese  called  it),  was  held  up  to  ridicule. 

Ludwig  Bebgeb,  the  teacher  of  Mendels- 
sohn and  Taubert,  was  a  brilliant  and  excellent 
performer,  remarkable  for  a  certain  spiritual- 
istic, dreaming  expression.  August  Alexander 
Klengel,  on  the  other  hand,  was  most  success- 
ful in  the  strict  style  of  performance — fugues, 
canons,  etc., — Dussek,  already  mentioned  as  an 
indirect  pupil  of  Clementi,  was  a  truly  grand 
performer :  he  possessed  a  great  nobility  and 
grandeur  of  style,  combined  with  a  certain  senti- 
mentality, a  characteristic  German  feature  of  his 
time ;  he  could,  like  Field,  boast  of  a  beautiful 
and  singing  touch ;  he  possessed  furthermore 
very  large  hands,  which  allowed  him  to  spread 
his  chords  up  to  tenths  and  elevenths  ;  and  he 
understood  how  to  use  the  pedals  with  effect 
and  judgment.  Kalkbrenner  excelled  in  a 
most  carefully  and  systematically  trained  and 
thoroughly  *  purified '  technical  execution  :  his 
scales,  including  those  in  thirds  and  sixths,  were 
like  strings  of  pearls ;  the  most  complicated 
figures  came  out  with  astonishing  clearness ;  and 
even  during  the  most  daring  and  intricate  gym- 
nastic evolutions  Kalkbrenner  retained  a  per- 
fectly quiet  position  of  body  and  hands.  Although 
entirely  deficient  in  sympathetic  warmth  of  ex- 
pression or  enthusiasm,  he  captivated  his  public 
by  a  singular  elegance  and  neatness  of  style, 
and  a  '  technique '  which  was  absolutely  perfect. 
To  complete  the  group  of  pianists  who  gather 
round  Clementi,  we  mention  Charles  Mater, 
a  pupil  of  Field ;  he  possessed  most  of  Kalkbren- 
ner's  excellent  qualities,  but  was  in  his  best  time 
( 1 830-1 840)  bolder  and  more  original  than  Kalk- 
brenner in  planning  and  carrying  out  new  effects. 

We  now  come  to  the  centre  of  gravity  of  all 
that  concerns  pianoforte-playing  in  its  best, 
noblest,  and  highest  features, — to  Ludwig  van 
Beethoven  (1770-1827).  Himself  one  of  the 
greatest  executants,  endowed  with  rare  muscular 
force,  possessing  an  iron  will,  which  conquered 
all  obstacles,  glowing  with  a  lofty  enthusiasm, 
and  last  not  least,  a  never-surpassed  self-command, 
he  was  enabled  in  his  Sonatas  and  Concertos,  in 
some  of  his  Variations,  Fantasias,  and  Rondos,  to 
produce  entirely  and  astonishingly  new,  rich,  and 
grand  effects;  indeed  he  gave  to  the  piano  a 
soul,  and  succeeded  in  winning  for  it  a  poetical 
expression.  The  great  difference  between  Bee- 
thoven and  all  his  contemporaries  is  found  in  the 
fact  that  in  his  piano  works  the  technical  figures 
grow  out  of  the  principal  idea  ;  they  are  natural 
and  logical  consequences  or  results  of  the  leading 
theme,  and  are  thus  in  every  instance  in  thorough 
harmony  and  relation  with  the  initiative  part. 

tBa 


740 


PIANOFORTE- PLAYING. 


In  his  contemporaries,  on  the  other  hand,  these 
technical  figures  are  more  or  less  annexes  or  sup- 
plements, which  having  no  close  relation  to  the 
principal  theme,  are  wanting  in  that  psychological 
reason  for  existence  which  makes  them  so  strong, 
effective,  and  indispensable,  in  Beethoven's  works. 
For  this  reason  it  is  so  difficult  to  find  studies  or 
exercises  which  bear  on  Beethoven's  Sonatas,  so 
as  to  assist  the  student  immediately  and  directly 
in  improving  his  performance  of  these  unrivalled 
masterpieces.  Beethoven  recognises  the  beauty 
and  importance  of  technical  efficiency  and  bril- 
liancy, but  he  considers  them  merely  as  acces- 
sories and  powerful  contributors  to  the  harmony 
and  unity  of  the  whole.  His  genius  required 
richer  means  of  expression  than  those  hitherto 
invented.  Wefindinhis  pianoforte worksagreater 
polyphony,  stronger  contrasts,  abolder  rhythmical 
expression,  a  broader  design  and  execution ;  in- 
deed we  meet  with  an  entirely  new  instrument : 
yet  in  no  single  instance  does  he  overstep  its 
legitimate  limits.  At  the  same  time  the  im- 
provements which  his  compositions  suggested 
to  the  manufacturers  belong  to  the  greatest  and 
most  important  changes  in  the  history  of  the 
piano.  With  his  fancy  penetrated  by  all  the 
qualities  (timbres)  of  tone  which  distinguish  the 
reed,  brass,  and  stringed  instruments,  and  his 
imagination  pregnant  with  grand  and  noble 
orchestral  effects,  he  seeks  to  impart  some  of 
these  effects  to  the  piano,  and  succeeds  without 
sacrificing  the  speciality — nay  the  idiosyncrasy 
— of  the  keyed  instrument.  It  is  more  particu- 
larly in  the  slow  movements  of  Beethoven's 
Sonatas  that  we  recognise  this  desire  to  assimi- 
late the  piano  to  the  sound  of  the  orchestra. 
The  absolute  mastery  which  he  had  obtained  in 
early  years  over  all  the  various  departments  of 
technical  execution  is  shown  in  his  21  sets 
of  Variations — interesting  collections  of  little 
pieces  which  may  be  called  a  pattern-card  of 
every  conceivable  figure  from  Sebastian  Bach  to 
Beethoven,  all  full  of  originality,  and  in  some  in- 
stances (32  in  C  minor ;  6,  op.  34 ;  33,  op.  120) 
anticipating  many  an  effect  for  the  invention  of 
which  later  pianists  have  obtained  credit. 
Beethoven's  contemporaries  (Tomaschek,  Cramer, 
Pies,  Czerny)  agree  that  he  was  able  both  to 
rouse  his  audience  to  the  highest  pitch  of  ex- 
citement and  enthusiasm,  and  to  fill  them  with 
the  greatest  pleasure ;  they  say  that  his  perform- 
ance was  not  so  much  '  playing'  as  '  painting 
with  tones,'  while  others  express  it  as  recalling 
the  effect  of  'reciting';  all  which  are  attempts 
to  state  the  fact  that  in  his  playing,  the  means — 
the  passages,  the  execution,  the  technical  appli- 
ances— disappeared  before  the  transcendent  effect 
and  meaning  of  the  music.  Beethoven,  with  a 
soul  full  of  the  purest  and  noblest  ideas,  and 
glowing  with  an  enthusiasm  which  soared  from 
the  petty  cares  and  miseries  of  this  world  up  to 
the  highest  regions,  was  not  particular  in  polish- 
ing and  refining  his  performance,  as  were  Hum- 
mel, Woelfl,  Kalkbrenner,  and  others :  indeed 
such  '  special '  artists  he  satirically  calls  '  gym- 
nasts,' and  expresses  his  apprehension  '  that  the 


PIANOFORTE-PLAYING. 

increasing  mechanism  of  pianoforte-playing 
would  in  the  end  destroy  all  truth  of  expression 
in  music'  His  apprehension  was  to  some  extent 
realised.  After  him  the  breach  between  the 
musical  art  in  general,  and  technical  efficiency 
and  brilliancy  in  particular,  became  wider  and 
wider.  But  before  the  fields  of  real  music  were 
inundated  by  those  floods  of  arpeggios  and 
cataracts  of  scales,  two  composers  arose,  who 
enriched  the  piano  with  entirely  new  effects, 
and  offered  to  its  performers  much  material  for 
study.  These  were  Carl  Maria  von  Weber 
(1786-1826)  and  Franz  Schdbert  (1797-1828). 
Weber's  compositions  are  a  proof  of  his  ex- 
traordinary powers  as  a  performer ;  and  the 
tenderness,  romantic  charm,  and  chivalrous 
force  and  energy,  but  above  all  the  enthusiasm 
they  possess,  met  with  universal  sympathy ;  not 
only  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann,  but  Chopin, 
Liszt,  Henselt,  and  Heller,  all  felt  the  influence 
of  Weber.  The  new  features  of  his  pianoforte 
effects  are  the  emancipation  of  the  left  hand  (see 
among  others  the  Introduction  to '  L'Invitation  a 
la  Valse,'Slow  movement  of  2nd  Sonata)  and  the 
happy  method  of  throwing  as  it  were  the  whole 
weight  of  the  tone  into  the  melody,  by  breaking 
the  chords  and  at  once  taking  the  fingers  off 
whilst  the  melody  is  held  (see  beginning  of 
Concertstuck).  Although  Schubert  was  not  a 
public  performer,  his  Sonatas  and  smaller  pieces 
(Impromptus,  Moments  musicals,  etc.)  testify 
to  unusual  skill  in  playing.  His  works  demand 
a  natural,  affectionate,  crisp  and  clear  execution  ; 
they  require  a  full  yet  exceedingly  elastic  and 
supple  touch;  although  Schubert  inclines  in  some 
of  his  pieces  towards  the  Vienna  school,  in  most 
of  them  he  follows  in  the  steps  of  Beethoven. 

It  was  about  1830  that  public  taste  inclined 
more  and  more  in  the  direction  of  technical 
brilliancy,  and  the  lighter,  more  pleasing  style  of 
composition.  The  cyclical  forms  of  composition 
became  by  degrees  more  rare  ;  concerts  without 
the  assistance  of  an  orchestra  began  to  be  more 
frequent ;  even  chamber-music,  such  as  trios, 
quartets,  and  quintets,  with  string  or  wind 
instruments,  were  excluded,  and  the  pianist 
reigned  supreme.  In  one  respect  this  change 
was  satisfactory:  to  rivet  the  attention  of  an 
audience  for  an  hour  and  a  half  to  a  pianoforte 
performance  alone,  the  executant  had  to  be  very 
clever,  to  produce  constant  fresh  variety  and  new 
charm ;  effect  had  to  follow  effect ;  indeed  the 
ingenuity  of  the  performer  was  constantly  tasked 
to  discover  new  devices  for  feeding  the  insatiable 
appetite  of  his  hearers.  It  is  to  this  state  of 
things  indeed  that  we  owe  the  present  extra- 
ordinary development  of  pianoforte  -  playing. 
Technical  efficiency  has  a  thoroughly  legitimate 
and  necessary,  nay  an  indispensable,  existence ; 
it  gives  effect  and  power  to  the  composition ; 
it  is  in  reality  the  garb  in  which  the  musical 
work  is  presented;  but  if  the  importance  of 
this  existence  be  exaggerated,  the  performance 
ceases  to  be  the  reproduction  of  an  intellectual 
work,  and  becomes  merely  an  amusement  or 
excitement    for    the    senses.      Formerly    rapid 


PI  A  NOFORTE-PLAYING. 

passages  acted  as  a  contrast  to  the  cantabile ; 
but  if  that  contrast  is  gradually  reduced  to  a 
mere  alternation  of  more  or  less  rapid  move- 
ment, the  cantiUne  disappears  almost  entirely, 
and  all  becomes  movement  and  bustle.  The 
most  insignificant  figure  is  now  swelled  to  the 
dimensions  of  an  entire  piece  ;  thus  the  e*tude  or 
study  becomes  the  leading  form  of  pianoforte 
pieces.  Ever  more  brilliant  and  dazzling  be- 
comes the  execution;  effects  are  invented  that 
may  vie  with  those  of  the  full  orchestra;  the 
physical  strength  required  to  thunder  out  the 
rapid  octave-passages,  the  dexterity  and  almost 
electric  rapidity  in  changing  hands  so  as  to  pro- 
duce the  effect  of  three  hands  rather  than  two — 
indeed  the  number  of  qualities  required  to 
satisfy  the  various  requirements  of  modern 
pianoforte-playing — is  truly  astonishing.  Such 
increased  force  and  rapidity  demanded  an  alter- 
ation of  the  movement  of  the  arm,  hand,  and 
fingers.  The  quiet  unobtrusive  position  of  the 
older  players  at  the  instrument,  had  to  give  way 
to  a  kind  of  swinging  movement  of  the  hand — 
■  playing  from  the  wrist ' ;  or  to  a  nervous  force, 
that  arises  from  a  stiff  elbow,  and  leads  with 
some  performers  to  the  kind  of  playing  commonly 
called  '  thumping.'  Spasmodic  movements  of 
the  hands  and  arms,  a  continual  rocking  to  and 
fro  of  the  body,  and  a  passionate,  almost  frantic, 
throwing  back  of  the  head,  seem  to  be  part  of 
these  exaggerated  gymnastic  feats.  Curious  to 
say,  by  these  jerky  movements  the  quality  of 
tone  suffered  greatly;  it  lost  its  fulness  and 
sustained  power,  and  became  shorter,  drier,  and 
less  distinct.  The  greatest  heroes  of  this  period 
of  pianoforte-playing  were  Th  alb  erg,  Liszt, 
J  [exselt,  and  Dreyschock  ;  and  in  a  lesser 
though  still  high  degree,  Willmers,  Dohler,  and 
Leopold  von  Meyer.  Thalberg  (1812-1871), 
whose  exquisite  playing  caused  quite  a  commotion 
among  all  who  interested  themselves  in  piano- 
playing,1  possessed  a  wonderfully  well-trained 
mechanism ;  the  smallest  details  were  polished 
and  finished  with  the  utmost  care ;  his  scales 
were  marvels  of  evenness ;  his  shakes  rivalled 
the  trill  of  the  canary-bird;  his  arpeggios  at 
times  rolled  like  the  waves  of  the  sea,  at  others 
resembled  the  airy  and  transparent  folds  of  the 
finest  lace;  his  octaves  were  thundered  forth 
with  never-failing  accuracy,  and  his  chords 
seemed  to  be  struck  out  with  mallets  of  English 
steel  rather  than  played  by  fingers.  Indeed 
he  was  the  Seigneur  de  Bayard  of  pianists, 
'  le  Chevalier  sans  peur  et  sans  reproche ' ;  his 
tone  was  at  once  grand,  delicate,  and  mellow, 
never  harsh  or  short ;  the  gradations  between  his 
forte  and  piano  were  exquisitely  traced :  in  short, 
everything  which  concerned  the  technical  ex- 
ecution was  perfection.2  The  extraordinary  ease 
and  absolute  certainty  with  which  Thalberg 
played,  was  due  to  a  practical  mode  of  fingering, 
from  which,  after  it  was  once  adopted,  he  never 
departed,   and  from   the   fact    that    he    never 


1  £ee  the  letters  and  papers  of  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann. 

2  Strange  to  say,  his  master  was  not  a  pianist,  but  an  excellent 
bassuun-player,  Mittag  of  Vienna. 


PIANOFORTE-PLAYING. 


741 


played  a  piece  in  public  until  he  had  made  it 
the  absolute  property  of  his  fingers.  The  fea- 
ture which  rendered  Thalberg's  so-called  fanta- 
sias (in  reality  they  are  medleys  on  operatic 
airs,  with  variations)  so  celebrated,  was  his 
method  of  dividing  the  melody  between  the  two 
hands,  whilst  at  the  same  time  the  right  hand 
performs  in  the  higher  register  a  brilliant  figure, 
and  the  left  hand  exhibits  a  full  and  rich  bass 
part,  and  supplements  it  with  an  accompani- 
ment in  chords.  This  device  was,  however,  not 
invented  by  Thalberg  3 himself;  it  is  antici- 
pated in  some  studies  of  Francesco  Giuseppe 
Pollini  (177S-1847),  and  was  successfully  applied 
by  the  still  unrivalled  English  harpist,  Eli  Parish- 
Alvars  ( 1 808-1 849) .  Thalberg  merely  extended 
it,  and  adapted  it  to  the  pianoforte.  So  eminently 
successful  was  this  method,  that  even  Mendels- 
sohn, in  his  Concerto  in  D  minor,  could  not  resist 
employing  it ;  and  besides  this  illustrious  com- 
poser, almost  all  contemporary  writers  for  the 
piano  have  more  or  less  followed  Thalberg's  lead. 
But  whilst  Thalberg  devoted  his  intellectual 
and  digital  powers  only  to  his  own  compositions, 
and  seemed  not  to  take  any  interest  in  the 
works  of  other  authors,  Franz  Liszt,  endowed 
with  even  greater  abilities,  devoted  them  to  the 
musical  art  in  general :  his  transcriptions,  para- 
phrases, and  arrangements,  comprise  not  only 
vocal  and  orchestral  works  of  German,  French, 
Italian,  and  Russian  composers,  but  also  the  na- 
tional melodies  of  Europe,  Asia,  etc.  In  versa- 
tility Liszt  has  probably  never  had  an  equal ; 
he  has  tried  (and  in  most  cases  with  success)  to 
assimilate  his  own  talent  with  everything  ot 
note  with  which  he  came  into  contact;  his 
Spanish  Cancion,  'El  Contrabandista,'  is  essen- 
tially Spanish  ;  his  '  Rhapsodies  Hongroises '  are 
true  tone-pictures  of  Hungary  ;  his  transcriptions 
of  Wagner's  operatic  pieces  reproduce  the  orches- 
tral effects  as  well  as  they  can  be  reproduced, 
and  his  famous  arrangements  of  the  songs  of 
Schubert,  Schumann,  Mendelssohn,  and  Franz, 
are  justly  esteemed  and  admired.  Liszt  has 
widened  the  domain  of  the  piano  to  an  extent 
which  seems  almost  incompatible  with  the  special 
nature  of  the  instrument.  His  innovations  in  the 
art  of  playing  are  manifold ;  in  transcribing 
Paganini's  Caprices  he  secured  for  the  piano 
technical  figures  never  before  applied ;  in  ar- 
ranging Beethoven's  and  Berlioz's  Symphonies 
he  expanded  the  chords  to  dimensions  which,  for 
the  majority  of  players,  are  absolutely  impos- 
sible. An  adequate  rendering  of  bis  pieces 
requires  not  only  great  physical  power,  but  a 
mental  energy — we  might  almost  call  it  a  fana- 
tical devotion — which  few  persons  possess.  Liszt 
himself  has  these  physical  powers,  this  iron  will, 
this  spontaneous  enthusiasm,  but  only  a  very  few 
of  his  disciples  can  boast  of  possessing  them  in 
concert.  If  Thalberg  was  blamed  because  his 
successful  Fantasias  promoted  the  composition  of 
shallow  and  worthless  pieces,  Liszt  might  be 

>  Some  writers  assert,  erroneously,  that  It  Is  foreshadowed  by  Bee- 
thoven, whilst  another  report  attributes  Its  actual  source,  still  more 
erroneously,  to  the  Prelude,  op.  35,  of  Mendelssohn— Thalberg's  Molse- 
Fantasia  having  been  composed  previous  to  Mendelssohn's  Prelude. 


742 


PIANOFORTE-PLAYING. 


equally  reproached  for  having  caused  more  bad 
piano-playing,  more  '  thumping,'  and  more  empty 
noise,  than  was  known  before  his  time.  It  must 
be  admitted  that  he  himself,  thanks  to  his 
exceptional  powers,  has,  in  regard  to  technical 
execution,  attained  the  highest  point  that  human 
intelligence  and  skill  can  possibly  attain;  al- 
though even  in  his  best  time  he  was  never  so 
certain  of  a  perfect  performance  as  was  his  more 
phlegmatic,  sober,  and  careful  rival,  Thalberg. 
Occasional  shortcomings,  however,  are  readily 
excused  in  a  man  so  full  of  genius,  and  of  grand 
liberal  ideas  and  intentions,  and  so  rich  in  all 
possible  accomplishments,  a  man  indeed,  who, 
independently  of  his  musical  attainments,  belongs 
to  the  most  distinguished  persons  of  this  century. 
But  the  followers  and  disciples  of  Liszt  cannot 
boast  of  the  exceptional  qualities  of  their  idol, 
and  therefore  their  thumping,  jerky,  and  inco- 
herent playing,  their  inability  to  produce  a 
mellow  singing  tone,  their  want  of  respect  for 
the  old  classical  school,  and  their  one-sidedness, 
will  not  meet  with  such  ready  excuse  as  was 
willingly  granted  to  their  great  master. 

Among  celebrated  musicians  who  took  great 
interest  in  pianoforte-playing  were  Felix  Men- 
delssohn Babtholdy  (1809-1847)  and  Robert 
Schumann  (18 10-1856).  Mendelssohn  was  an 
expert  and  fluent  performer,  but  it  was  not  so 
much  the  brilliancy  of  his  playing  that  was 
admired,  as  his  intelligent,  genial,  and  thoroughly 
musician-like  reading.  Mendelssohn's  charming 
*  Songs  without  Words '  also  afforded  a  welcome 
relief  to  the  turbulence  and  passion  which  raged 
on  the  keyboard.  It  cannot  however  be  said 
that  his  Fantasias,  Sonatas,  Concertos,  or  Caprices 
present  any  particular  novelty  with  regard  to 
technical  execution ;  with  the  exception  of  the 
Capriccio  in  Fjf  minor  (op  .5),  his  pieces  are  not 
very  difficult,  they  are  each  and  all  practically 
written,  sound  uniformly  well,  and  afford,  without 
exception,  capital  material  for  study. 

No  composer  has  taken  a  deeper  interest  in 
pianoforte  music  and  playing  than  Robeet 
Schumann.  His  numerous  remarks1  upon  the 
works  and  performances  of  celebrated  pianists, 
his  suggestions3  as  to  the  practice  of  certain 
figures,  his  desire  to  increase  the  sustaining 
power  of  the  instrument,  are  all  expressed  in 
a  lucid  manner,  and  are  thoroughly  to  the 
point.  But  above  all,  his  own  magnificent, 
original,  and  highly  poetic  pieces  form  an  epoch 
in  the  pianoforte  literature,  and  open  a  new  era 
for  pianoforte-playing.  Schumann's  four  volumes 
of  piano  pieces  contain  indeed  the  noblest  task 
for  the  student :  many  a  new  figure,  many  an 
original  and  ingenious  combination,  or  valuable 
suggestion,  will  be  detected  by  the  attentive  and 
thoughtful  student.  When  Schumann's  pieces 
are  played  in  the  proper  manner,  the  instrument 
appears  in  its  noblest  and  finest  form,  and  in 
novelty  and  decided  beauty  and  ingenuity  of 
effect,  his  pieces  are  unrivalled. 

1  Originally  published  in  the  "Neue  Zeltschrift  far  Musik,'  and 
Since  collected  In  his  '  tiesammelte  Schrit'ten." 
a  See  Preface  to  his  '  Etudes  d'apres  les  Caprices  de  Faganlnl,'  op.  3. 


PIANOFORTE-PLAYING. 

Fbedebic  Fbancois  Chopin  (1809-1849)  was 
one  of  the  most  perfect  pianists  ;  his  'technique' 
was  admirable,  his  touch  supple,  mellow,  rich, 
full,  sweet,  and  ethereal ;  his  execution  clear 
and  uniformly  correct ;  his  expression  noble, 
romantic,  tender,  and  delicate.  If  in  his  Noc- 
turnes he  carries  out  the  suggestions  of  John 
Field,  and  in  other  pieces  recalls  the  romantic 
spirit  and  feeling  of  Carl  Maria  von  Weber,  in 
his  later  works  he  relies  on  his  own  peculiarly 
strong  Polish  individuality.  In  his  Etudes,  op. 
10  and  op.  25,  in  his  Concertos  and  Fantasias, 
Impromptus  and  Preludes,  Polonaises  and  Ma- 
zurkas, Valses  and  Ballades,  in  each  and  all, 
plenty  of  new  material  is  to  be  found.  There  is 
a  great  affinity  between  Chopin  and  Schumann 
in  point  of  poetical  and  romantic  feeling;  but 
Chopin's  music  is  more  like  elegiac  poetry,  whilst 
Schumann's  poetical  feeling  rests  on  an  intel- 
lectual background,  and  has  therefore  a  stronger 
substance.  Each,  however,  completes  the  other, 
and  each  has  rendered  invaluable  service  to 
the  art  of  pianoforte-playing  in  its  best  style. 
Adolph  Henselt  (1814-),  for  eight  months  a 
pupil  of  Hummel,  owes  the  greater  part  of  his 
excellent  playing  to  a  lady,  Madame  de  Fladt. 
His  playing  is  truly  magnificent — a  consummate 
mastery  over  the  most  intricate  technical  dif- 
ficulties, combined  with  a  noble  and  manly  ex- 
pression, producing  a  singularly  rich  and  eupho- 
nious effect  without  the  slightest  effort,  and  with- 
out any  risk  of  injury  to  the  instrument,  or  of 
straining  its  limits  of  endurance.  In  one  respect 
Henselt  might  be  called  a  younger,  stronger, 
brother  of  J.  B.  Cramer ;  he  possesses  the  same 
plastic  roundness,  euphony,  and  mellowness  of 
playing  as  did  the  celebrated  composer  of  the 
excellent  Studies.  The  style  of  performance  of 
William  (afterwards  Sib  W.)  Sterndale  Ben- 
nett (1816-1875),  was  full  of  grace  and  tender- 
ness ;  a  sweet  and  charming  clear  touch,  a  modest 
and  quiet  demeanour  at  the  instrument,  produced 
on  the  listener  a  highly  pleasing  and  satisfactory 
impression — indeed  his  performance  was  that  of 
a  refined,  thoughtful  musician  ;  at  the  same  time 
it  must  be  owned  that  his  playing  lacked  energy, 
force,  and  enthusiasm.  Wilhelm  Taubekt 
(181 1-),  a  pupil  of  Ludwig  Berger,  possesses  the 
best  qualities  of  an  eminent  pianist ;  a  crisp, 
clear,  yet  elastic  touch,  uniform  correctness,  re- 
fined phrasing,  each  and  all  contribute  to  create 
on  the  public  a  rare  and  satisfactory  impression. 
Ferdinand  Hilleb  (181 1-),  a  pupil  of  Hummel, 
understood  how  to  profit  by  the  best  that  his  con- 
temporaries offered,  and  is  justly  admired  for 
the  fluency,  fine  rhythmical  accentuation,  and 
peculiarly  clear  phrasing  of  his  performance. 
Stephen  Helleb  (1815-),  although  seldom  ap- 
pearing in  public,  has  shown  in  his  beautiful 
Studies,  and  in  many  of  his  other  poetical  and 
agreeable  pieces,  that  he  is  intimately  acquainted 
with  all  the  resources  of  the  instrument.  Alex- 
andeb  Dbeyschock  (1818-1869),  a  pupil  of 
Wenzel  Tomaschek  (17  74-1 850),  had,  by  untiring 
industry,  obtained  such  wonderful  facility  and 
force  in  his  left  hand,  as  to  be  nicknamed  the 


PIANOFORTE-PLAYING. 

pianist  with  the  two  right  hands.  Theodob 
Kullak  (i 8 1 8-),  a  pupil  of  Agthe  (1790)  and 
Carl  Czerny  (1 791-1857),  most  valued  as  teacher 
(among  his  pupils  are  Charles  Wehle,  Xaver 
Scharwenka,  Erika  Lie,  Helene  Magnus,  Griin- 
feld,  Alma  Hollander  (Haas),  Heinr.  Hofmami), 
is  also  one  of  the  most  excellent,  thoughtful,  and 
poetical  of  performers ;  in  playing  tender  passages 
and  pianissimo  he  had  in  his  best  time  (1842- 
1852)  no  rival.  Rudolph  Willmebs(i82I-i878) 
was  a  pupil  of  Hummel;  his  specialities  were 
the  shake  and  the  staccato,  and  in  those  de- 
partments of  playing  he  produced  extraordinary 
effects.  We  have  to  mention  also  the  celebrated 
Antoine  Rubinstein ( 1 829-),  a  pupil  of  Villoing 
of  Moscow.  Rubinstein  is  a  performer  of  Titanic 
force,  yet  capable  of  producing  the  softest,  most 
ethereal  tones ;  he  is  besides  the  interpreter  of 
all  imaginable  styles  and  schools.  The  late 
Cabl  Tausig  (1841-1871),  a  pupil  of  Liszt, 
possessed  the  most  patiently  .trained  and  most 
carefully  refined  technical  execution,  and  had  in 
certain  branches  of  pianoforte-playing  no  rival. 
If  at  times  wanting  in  enthusiasm  and  warmth 
of  feeling,  the  perfection  of  his  technical  ex- 
ecution was,  on  the  other  hand,  sufficient  to 
afford  his  audience  the  greatest  pleasure  and 
satisfaction.  Hans  von  Bulow  (1830-)  has 
given  many  proofs  of  a  prodigious  memory,  which 
is  however  not  always  faithful  to  the  original 
text  of  the  composer,  and  for  this  reason  has  not 
the  same  value  for  the  earnest  musician  which 
the  general  public  seems  to  attach  to  it.  His 
undertaking  to  play  the  five  most  advanced  and 
most  difficult  Sonatas  of  Beethoven  at  one  sitting, 
though  in  itself  a  prodigious  feat,  seems  one  of 
those  exaggerations  of  the  present  time,  which 
are  also  to  be  found  amongst  less  interesting 
and  noble  occupations  than  pianoforte-playing. 
Beethoven  himself  would  have  been  the  first 
to  deprecate  such  undertakings,  as  at  once  ex- 
hausting for  the  performer  and  wearisome  for  the 
listener.  With  regard  to  intelligence,  knowledge, 
memory  and  technical  execution,  Bulow  stands 
deservedly  very  high,  and  the  programmes  of 
his  recitals  embrace  the  masters  of  all  schools 
and  styles.  Johannes  Bbahms's  (1833-)  style 
of  playing  differs  greatly  from  that  of  Liszt 
and  his  disciples.  His  piano  works  are  founded 
on  the  polyphonic  system  of  Sebastian  Bach, 
strongly  influenced  by  Robert  Schumann;  his 
style  is  exceedingly  intricate,  and  presents 
many  difficulties  for  the  executant— difficulties 
which  are  hardly  in  proportion  with  the  actual 
effect  they  produce;  and  his  pieces  demand 
for  a  clear  execution  a  muscular  force  and 
a  sustaining  power,  which  few  players  possess ; 
at  the  same  time  their  earnestness,  solid  sub- 
stance, and  intellectual,  logical  development,  are 
matters  of  deep  interest  for  the  true  musician. 

The  distinguished  pianists,  Thalberg,  Liszt, 
and  Chopin,  exercised  a  great  influence  on 
their  contemporaries,  and  we  find  among  those 
who  followed  the  style  and  school  of  Thalberg, 
Theodor  Dohler,  Leopold  von  Meyer,  Rudolph 
Willmers,    Emile    Prudent,    A.   Goria,    Henri 


PIANOFORTE-PLAYING. 


743 


Ravina,  and  Vincent  Wallace.  Among  those 
who  inclined  towards  the  style  of  Liszt  are 
Antoine  Rubinstein,  Hans  von  Bulow,  Carl 
Tausig,  Charles  Valentin  Alkan,  Henry  Litolff, 
Camille  Saint-Saens ;  and  among  those  who  felt 
Frederic  Chopin's  influence  are  Eduard  Wolff, 
Jacob  Rosenhain,  Stephen  Heller,  Julius  Schul- 
hoff,  Joseph  Wieniaw8ki,  Xaver  Scharwenka, 
and  Moritz  Moszkowski.  But  Mendelssohn 
and  Schumann  also  exercised  a  great  influence 
upon  a  number  of  excellent  musicians,  who  fol- 
lowed the  maxims  of  those  illustrious  masters 
in  their  style  both  of  composition  and  per- 
formance. Mendelssohn's  style  is  reproduced  in 
the  works  of  the  Dane,  Niels  W.  Gade  (181 7-), 
William  Sterndale  Bennett,  Otto  Goldschmidt, 
Wilhelm  Kalliwoda,  and  Carl  Reinecke,  whilst 
reminiscences  of  Schumann  are  to  be  found 
in  the  works  of  Woldemar  Bargiel,  Theodor 
Kirchner,  Rudolph  Volckmann,  and  Adolph 
Jensen. 

In  looking  back  over  the  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  pianoforte-playing  in  the  last  hundred 
years  we  find  that  the  rupture  between  the 
school  of  Mozart  (called  by  Fetis  '  les  pianistes 
harmonistes ')  and  that  of  Clementi  ('les  pianistes 
brillants')  took  place  about  1780.  Beethoven, 
whose  first  piano  compositions  were  published  be- 
tween 1790  and  1800,  appears  as  a  connecting  or 
mediating  link  between  these  schools ;  with  Carl 
Maria  von  Weber  romantic  expression  comes  into 
the  foreground ;  whilst  Franz  Schubert  inclines 
more  towards  the  lyrical  phase.  After  this  time 
( 1 830- 1 840)  the  technical  school  appears  entirely 
in  the  ascendant;  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann 
then  succeed  in  diverting  attention  towards  their 
poetical  and  classical  tendency ;  whilst  the  genial 
Pole,  Frederic  Chopin,  refines  and  polishes  the 
technical  material,  and  reintroduces  the  charming 
effect  of  a  sweet,  supple,  and  singing  style  of 
playing.  With  Liszt  and  Thalberg,  Rubinstein 
and  Tausig,  the  brilliancy  of  technical  execution 
reaches  its  culminating  point;  with  regard  to 
rapidity,  force,  ingenuity  of  combinations,  and 
dazzling  effect,  it  is  not  too  much  to  assert  that 
the  highest  point  has  been  gained,  and  that  with 
respect  to  quantity  of  notes  and  effects  our  pre- 
sent players  are  unrivalled ;  whether  the  quality 
is  as  good  as  it  formerly  was  (about  1825)  may 
be  questioned.  Our  present  Grand  or  Concert 
pianos  offer  to  the  performer  every  possible  ad- 
vantage and  facility,  but  the  perfection  of  the 
instruments  has  in  itself  tended  to  lessen  the 
earnest  study  on  the  part  of  the  player  which 
was  formerly  necessary  for  the  production  of 
tone.  This  defect  is  partly  due  to  the  ignorance 
of  too  many  of  the  present  pianists  in  regard  to 
the  construction  of  the  instrument  on  which  they 
perform.  Whilst  every  player  on  the  flute,  oboe, 
clarinet,  bassoon,  horn,  violin,  or  violoncello  is 
intimately  acquainted  with  the  interior  of  hia 
instrument,  few  pianists  are  able  to  describe  the 
distinctive  peculiarity  of  a  Vienna,  half-English, 
or  English  mechanism,  to  appreciate  the  differ- 
ence between  the  actions  of  an  Erard,  a  Pleyel, 
a  Broadwood,  a  Steinway,  or  a  Collard  Grand 


7U 


PIANOFORTE  PLAYING. 


piano,  or  the  degree  of  force  which  each  of  these 
different  actions  is  calculated  to  bear.  Something 
is  also  due  to  the  piano  itself.  Whilst  the  Vienna 
hammer  of  the  time  of  Beethoven  and  Hummel 
(1815-1830)  was  covered  with  four  or  five  layers 
of  buckskin  of  varying  thickness,  the  present 
hammer  is  covered  with  only  one  piece  of  felt, 
and  produces  a  tone  which  though  larger  and 
stronger,  is  undoubtedly  less  elastic ;  the  action 
of  the  Vienna  piano  was  very  simple,  and  it 
lacked  the  escape-movement  and  many  other 
improvements  which  enable  the  present  piano, 
with  its  almost  perfect  mechanism,  to  do  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  work  for  the  performer. 
Thus  we  find  that  while  formerly  tone,  with  its  dif- 
ferent gradations,  touch,  the  position  of  the  finger, 
etc.,  had  to  be  made  matters  of  special  study,  the 
present  piano  with  its  accomplishments  saves  this 
study :  whilst  formerly  the  pedal  was  used  but 
sparingly,  it  is  at  present  used  almost  incessantly. 
Clearness,  neatness  of  execution,  a  quiet  deport- 
ment at  the  instrument,  were  once  deemed  to  be 
absolute  necessities ;  it  is  but  seldom  that  we  are 
gratified  at  present  with  these  excellent  qualities. 
Whilst  in  past  times  the  performer  treated  his 
instrument  as  a  respected  and  beloved  friend, 
and  almost  caressed  it,  many  of  our  present  per- 
formers appear  to  treat  it  as  an  enemy,  who  has 
to  be  fought  with,  and  at  last  conquered.  These 
exaggerated  notions  cannot  last,  and  their  fre- 
quent misapplication  must  in  the  end  become 
evident  to  the  public;  and  it  is  probable  that 
sooner  or  later  a  reaction  will  set  in,  and  the 
sound  principles  of  our  forefathers  again  be 
followed. 

The  enormous  progress  made  by  our  leading 
piano-manufacturers,  the  liberal  application  of 
metal  in  the  body  of  the  instrument,  and  the 
rich,  full,  and  eminently  powerful  tone  thereby 
gained,  are  followed  by  a  serious  disadvantage  in 
the  effective  performance  of  chamber  music.  The 
execution  of  a  piece  for  the  piano,  violin  and 
violoncello,  in  the  style  which  Haydn,  Mozart 
and  Beethoven  desired  and  imagined,  is  now  an 
impossible  thing ;  indeed  the  equilibrium  between 


PIANOFORTE-PLAYING. 

the  instrument  of  percussion  and  the  string  instru- 
ments is  now  lost.  The  just  rival  of  the  present 
piano  is  no  longer  a  single  violin  or  violoncello, 
but  the  full  orchestra  itself.  Increased  muscular 
force  on  the  part  of  the  player,  exerted  on  pianos 
of  ten  times  the  ancient  tone,  is  now  opposed  to 
the  tone  of  instruments  which  have  undergone 
no  increase  of  power — indeed  the  rise  in  the 
pitch  of  the  concert  piano  necessitates  at  times 
the  use  of  thinner  strings  in  the  violin  and 
violoncello.  The  much  fuller  and  almost  incessant 
employment  of  broken  chords  (arpeggios)  in  the 
piano  part  of  sonatas,  trios,  and  other  chamber- 
pieces,  is  absolutely  overwhelming  to  the  string 
instruments ;  passages  which  Mozart  and  Bee- 
thoven introduced  in  single  notes  appear  now 
in  octaves,  which  are  mostly  played  so  loud  as 
almost  to  silence  the  weaker  tone  of  the  string  in- 
strument ;  and  whilst  formerly  the  thinner  tone  of 
the  piano  allowed  an  amalgamation  of  tone-colour, 
the  preponderance  of  metal  in  the  present  instru- 
ment precludes  it.  It  would  therefore  often  be 
most  desirable  for  the  pianist  to  forego  some  of 
his  undoubted  advantages  with  regard  to  force, 
by  playing  with  moderation,  by  using  the  pedal 
with  discrimination,  and  (particularly  in  rooms 
of  smaller  dimensions),  by  not  opening  the  entire 
top  of  the  piano.  If  the  above  assertions  are 
doubted,  a  comparison  of  the  last  movements  of 
Beethoven's  C  minor  Trio  op.i,  and  Mendelssohn's 
C  minor  Trio,  op.  66,  will  at  once  show  their  cor- 
rectness. If  the  piano  is  considered  as  (what  it 
was  to  our  forefathers)  a  chamber  instrument, 
we  may  point  to  it  as  the  most  perfect  and  satis- 
factory of  all ;  but  when,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
is  used  to  substitute  the  orchestra,  it  falls — in 
spite  of  all  its  prodigious  capabilities — short  of 
the  expected  effect.  The  thoughtful  pianist  will 
therefore  exercise  a  just  discretion  and  modera- 
tion, and  will  thus  be  able  to  produce  a  legitimate 
effect  of  which  neither  Mozart  nor  Beethoven  ever 
dreamt. 

A  list  of  the  most  distinguished  executants  on 
the  piano  in  strictly  chronological  order  will  be 
of  interest. 


Carl  Pliilipp  Emanuel  Bach      . 

1714—1788 

August  Alexander  Klengel  .       . 

1730—1768 

Ferdinand  Bies      .... 

Johann  Christian  Bach       .       . 

1735-1782 

J  oh  aim  Wanhal     .... 

1739-1813 

Carl  Maria  von  Weber  .       .       . 

Johann  Wilhelm  Haessler  .       . 

1747—1822 

Ludwig  BOhner      .       .      .      . 

Johann  Franz Xaver  Sterkel  (abb*!)  1750—1817 

Friedrich  Kalkbrenner        .      . 

Nicolas  Joseph  Hullmandel        . 

1751—1823 

Johann  Feter  rixis 

Huzio  Clement!     .... 

1752—1832 

Aloys  Schmitt        .... 

Wolfgang  Amadeus  Mozart        . 

1756-1791 

Maria  Szymanowska     .       .       .  ? 

Joseph  Gelinek  (abbe)  .       .       . 

1757—1825 

Catherina  Cibbini-Kozeluch 

1758-1848 

Nanette  Streicher  (Stein)   .       . 

1760—1833 

Johann  Hugo  Worzischek   . 

Johann  Ludwig  Dussek       .      . 

1761-1812 

Wilhelm  WOrfel    .... 

Daniel  Steibelt      .... 

1764—1823 

Cipriani  Potter      .... 

1766-1807 

Ignaz  Moscheles    .... 

August  Eberhard  Midler     .      . 

1767—1817 

Ludwig  van  Beethoven        •      • 

1770—1827 

Jacob  Schmitt        .... 

John  Baptist  Cramer    ... 

1771—1858 

Lucy  Anderson       .... 

Joseph  Woelfl        .... 

1772—1812 

Christoph  Ernst  Friedrich  Weyse 

1774—1842 

Wenzel  Tomaschek      .       .      . 

1774—1850 

Joseph  Christoph  Kessler    .      . 

Josepha  Aurenhammer       .       . 

1776—1814 

Carl  Georg  Lickl    .... 

Ludwig  Berger       .... 

1777—1839 

Jean  Amedee  Le  Froid  de  M<5reaux 

Francesco  Giuseppe  Folllnl 

1778—1847 

Lulse  Farrenc  (Dumont) 

Johann  Nepomuk  Hummel        . 

1778-1837 

Carl  August  Krebs  (Mledke) 

Johann  Horzalka  .... 

1778—1860 

Sir  Julius  Benedict       ... 

Nicolaus  von  Krufft      . 

1779—1818 

Fanny  Kurzbeck    .      .      .  about  1780— (?) 

Joseph  Nowakowski 

1782-1837 

Anna  Caroline  de  Belleville-Oury 

17S4— 1852 
1784—1838 
1784—1877 
1786-1826 
1787—1860 
1788-1849 
1788—1874 
1789-1866 

'1790-1831 
1790—1858 
1791-1857 
1791—1825 
1791—1852 
1792—1871 
1794—1870 
1794—1880 
1796-1853 
1797—1878 
1798-1876 
1799—1862 
1800-1872 
1801—1877 

:  1803-1874 
1804—1875 
1804—1880 
1804— 
1805— 
1805- 
1806-1880 


George  A.  Osborne        .       .       .  1806— 

Hubert  Ferdinand  Eufferath      .  1808— 

Felix  Mendelssohn-Bartholdy     .  1809—1847 

Frederic  Francois  Chopin    .       .  1809—1849 

Louise  (David)  Dulcken       .       .  1811—1850 

Camille  Marie  Stamaty        .      .  1811—1870 

Marie  Pleyel 1811— 1875 

Wilhelm  Taubert  ....  18U— 

Leopoldine  Blahetka    .       .       .  1811— 

Henri  Bosellen       ....  1811— 

Ferdinand  Hiller   ....  1811— 

Franz  Liszt 1811— 

Sigismund  Thalberg      .      .       .  1812—1871 

Joseph  Schad 1S12—1S79 

William  Henry  Holmes        .       .  1812— 

Gustav  Fliigel 1812— 

Ernst  Haberbier    ....  1813—1869 

Charles  Valentin  Alkan       .      .  1813— 

Jacob  Rosenhain  ....  1813— 

Louis  Winkler       ....  1813— 

Theodor  DOhler     ....  1814—1858 

Anton  Gerke 1814—1870 

Adolph  Henselt     ....  1814— 

Delphlne  von  Schauroth      .      .  1814— 

Stephen  Heller       ....  1815— 

CarlVoss.       .       .      .      .       .  1815- 

Carl  Haslinger       ....  1816-1868 

Sir  William  Sterndale  Bennett  .  1816—1875 

Joseph  Adalbert  Pacher      .       .  1816-1871 


PIANOFORTE-PLAYING. 


PIANO-VIOLIN. 


745 


Eduard  Wolff. 
Leopold  von  Meyer 
Antolne  Francois  Harmontcl 
Emile  Eeunie  Prudent . 
Alexander  Dreyschock . 
Ignaz  Tedesco  .... 
Antolne  de  Kontski       .       . 
Alexandre  Philippe  Billet    . 
Henri  Ravina  .... 
Theodor  Kullak     .       .      . 
Mortier  De  Fontaine     . 
Louis  Lacombe      ... 
Adolph  Gutmann  .       • 
Clara  Schumann,  nit  Wleck 
Albert  Loeschhorn 
Carl  Even       .... 
Carl  Halle  (Charles  HallcS)  . 
Alexander  Ernst  Fesca .       . 
Henry  Lttolff  .... 
Louis  Kohler  .... 
Wilhelm  Kriiger    ... 
Charles  Edward  Horsier     . 
Budolph  Willmers 
Alexandre  Edouard  Goria    . 
Wilhelm  Kuhe 
Adolph  Blassmann        .       . 
Theodor  Kirchner  ... 
Carl  Beinecke .... 


1816—1880 
1816— 
1816— 
1817—1863 
1818— 186.) 
1X17— 
1817— 
1817— 
1818—1862 
1818— 
1818— 
1  Sig- 
1819— 
1819— 
1819— 
1819— 
1820-1849 
1820- 
1820— 
1820- 
1821—1876 
1821  -1878 
1823—1860 
1823— 
1823— 
1824- 
1B24— 


Eduoard  Franck    .       . 

.     1824- 

Francis  Edward  Bache 

.     1833-1*58 

Anton  Herzberg     .       . 

.     1825— 

Charles  Welile        . 

.     1-25— 

Johannes  Brahma  . 

.      1833— 

Julius  Schulhoff    .       . 

.     1825- 

Wilhelmine  Clauss-Szarvady      .     1834— 

Muritz  Strakosch    .       . 

.      1825- 

Alexander  Winterberger 

.      1834— 

Hermann  Berens    .       . 

.      1826—1880 

Guglielmo  Andreoli 

.     1835-1860 

Walter  Cecil  Macfarren 

.      1826- 

Camille  Saint-SaSn*      . 

.     1835- 

Lindsay  Sloper       .       .       , 

.      1826— 

Joseph  Wienlawskl     '  . 

.     1837— 

Wilhelm  Speidel    . 

.      1826— 

Constantin  Blirgel        . 

.     18S7- 

Hermann  A.  Wollenhaupt 

.     1827-1863 

Theodore  Bitter     .      . 

.      1838— 

Edward  Silas 

.     1827— 

John  Francis  Barnett  . 

.      1838- 

Adolfo  FumagalU  .       . 

.     1828-1886 

Arabella  Goddard  .       . 

.     1838- 

Hans  Seeling  .      .       .      , 

.     1828—1862 

Joseph  Bheinberger      .       , 

.      1839- 

Conrad  Baldenecker     . 

.     1828— 

Friedrich  Gemsheim    . 

.     1839- 

August  Dupont      .       . 

.     1828— 

Peter  Tschaikonskl      • 

.     1840— 

L.  M.  Gottschalk    .       . 

.     1829-1869 

Ernst  H.  Lubeck    . 

.     1829-1876 

Otto  Ooldschmldt . 

.     1829— 

Heinrich  Hermann 

.     1842— 

Anton  Rubinstein  .       . 

.     1829— 

Caroline  Montlgny-Bemaury       .     1843— 

Heinrich  F.  D.  Stlehl    . 

.     1829- 

Hans  von  Bulow    .      . 

.       .     1830- 

Edward  Dannreuther. . 

.     1844— 

Adolph  Schloesser .      . 

.     1830— 

Carl  Klindworth    .       . 

.       .     1830- 

Joseph  Ascher        .      . 

.     1831—1869 

Xaver  Scharwenka        . 

.      1850— 

Salomon  Jadassohn       . 

.     1831— 

Julius  von  Kolb     .      . 

.       .     1831- 

Moritz  Hoszowskl  .      . 

,       .     1854— 

Alfred  Jaell     .       .      . 

.     1832— 

Nathalie  Janoths  .       . 

.       .     1853- 

Julius  Epstein      .      . 

.     1832— 

Among  living  pianists  whose  names  are  favour- 
ably known  and  deserve  ample  recognition  are — 
Vincent  Adler,  Carlo  Andreoli,  Walter  Bache, 
Carl  Barmann,  jun.,  Heinrich  Barth,  Oscar 
Beringer,  Ignaz  Briill,  Charles  Delioux,  Mme.  Es- 
sipoff,  Herr  Griinfeld,  Frits  Hartvigsen,  Richard 
Kleinmichel,  Ernst  Rudorff,  Giovanni  Sgambati, 
Franklin  Taylor,  Marie  Wieck,  Agnes  Zimmer- 
mann.  [P.] 

PIANO  MECANIQUE.  An  invention  of 
the  late  M.  Debain  of  Paris  (died  1877),  for  the 
mechanical  performance  of  musical  compositions 
upon  a  pianoforte  without  disturbing  its  key- 
board, or  its  capability  for  manual  performance. 
To  manage  this  the  pinned  barrel  employed  in 
the  street  pianos  and  barrel-organs  has  to  give 
place  to  a  novel  and  ingenious  apparatus  in- 
vented and  adapted  to  his  'Piano  mecanique' 
by  Debain,  about  thirty  years  since.  To  an 
ordinary  upright  piano  he  supplied  a  second 
set  of  hammers  working  the  reverse  way  to  the 
ordinary  ones,  that  is,  from  above.  These 
hammers  are  set  in  motion  by  iron  levers,  the 
further  ends  of  which  are  tempered  hard,  and 
project  as  '  beaks '  through  a  comb  of  four  or 
live  inches  long,  in  which  space  five  octaves 
of  the  keyboard  are  ingeniously  compressed. 
The  comb  crosses  transversely  a  smooth  iron 
plate  fixed  along  the  top  of  the  instrument. 
*  Planchettes,'  or  small  boards  upon  which  the 
piece  to  be  played  is  pinned  (as  on  a  barrel), 
are  by  simple  machinery  connected  with  a 
handle,  made  to  travel  along  this  plate,  the  pins 
doing  the  work  of  the  fingers  upon  the  levers. 
The  dynamic  shades  of  piano  and  forte,  accent, 
etc.,  are  produced  by  varying  the  height  of  the 
pins.  In  this  way  a  mechanical  substitute  for  ex- 
pression is  obtained.  The  planchettes  may  be 
endless,  and  are  sold  by  the  metre  or  yard. 
Perhaps  the  greatest  merit  of  Debain's  invention 
is  that  his  upper  system  of  hammers  has  the 
same  '  striking-place '  (i.e.  measured  division  of 
the  string  for  the  impact  of  the  hammers)  that 
the  keyboard  hammers  have.  This  is  achieved 
by   moving  the   latter  forward  when  the  me- 


chanical apparatus  comes  into  play.  The  great 
defect  of  the  contrivance  is  the  want  of  damping 
during  performance,  but  the  dampers  can  be 
brought  down  bodily  upon  the  strings  by  a  stop 
adjacent  to  the  'beaks'  when  the  playing  is 
over.  The  additional  cost  of  the  planchette 
mechanism  is  25  guineas  ;  it  does  not  disfigure 
the  instrument.  When  applied  by  Debain  & 
Co.  to  the  organ  or  harmonium  it  is  styled 
'  Antiphonal.' 

The  mechanical  pianos  called  '  Handle  pianos ' 
that  are  so  much  used  in  and  about  London, 
come  principally  from  Italy.  According  to  par- 
ticulars supplied  by  Messrs.  Imhof  &  Mukle 
of  Oxford  Street,  London,  there  are  about 
400  of  these  instruments  in  daily  use  in  the 
metropolis,  ranging  in  value  from  £16  to  £100. 
Some  are  let  upon  hire  by  masters  who  charge 
from  8s.  to  18s.  a  week  for  them;  but  in  most 
instances  they  are  the  property  of  the  Italians 
who  take  them  about,  the  price  having  been  paid 
by  instalments.  These  instruments  are  strongly 
made,  to  stand  hard  work  and  weather ;  the  felt 
hammers  have  leather  coating,  and  there  are 
three,  and  in  the  treble  often  four,  strings  to 
each  note.  The  action  is  of  the  simplest  kind, 
the  pin  of  the  barrel  pressing  down  a  crank, 
which  gives  the  blow ;  a  spring  causing  the  im- 
mediate return  of  the  hammer.  There  are  no 
dampers  excepting  in  a  few  instances  in  the 
lowest  bass  notes,  and  no  attempt  to  regulate  the 
pinning  of  the  barrel  to  produce  louder  or  softer 
notes.  Messrs.  Imhof  &  Mukle  make  superior  me- 
chanical pianos  with  chromatic  scale ;  the  peram- 
bulating '  handle-pianos'  having  at  best  a  diatonic 
scale,  with  one  or  two  accidentals.  [A.J.H.] 

PIANO -VIOLIN  (Fr.  Violin  Quatuor ; 
Germ.  Geigenwerk).  Schroeter,  the  >  German 
claimant  to  the  invention  of  the  pianoforte, 
refers  in  an  autobiographical  sketch'  to  a 
'  Geigenwerk,'  that  is  fiddle-work,  from  Nurem- 
berg, which  partly  solved  the  problem  of  a  keyed 
instrument  capable  of  more  expression  than 
the  clavichord ;  but  the  trouble  of  working 
1  See  Dr.  Oku  Fwill  •Geschlchte  des  ClaTlen,'  Lelpric,  1868. 


748 


PIANO-VIOLIN. 


the  treadles — like  a  weaver's,  as  he  said — was 
too  great  a  drawback  to  its  use.  This  must  have 
been  the  '  Niimbergisch  Gambenwerk'  of  Hans 
Haydn,  organist  to  the  church  of  St.  Sebald, 
who  made,  about  1610,  a  harpsichord-shaped 
instrument,  strung  with  catgut.  The  strings 
were  beneath  the  soundboard,  and  were  acted 
upon  by  rollers  covered  with  rosined  parchment. 
The  rollers  were  set  in  motion  by  a  wheel,  and 
by  pressure  of  keys  came  in  contact  with  the 
strings.  The  tone  was  capable  of  increase  and 
diminution,  and  resembled  in  timbre  that  of  the 
Viol  di  Gamba — whence  the  name  'Gamben- 
werk.' The  original  idea  exists  in  the  Hurdy 
Gurdy. 

A  tolerably  long  list  of  similar  experiments 
in  France,  Germany,  and  even  Russia,  is  to  be 
found  in  Welcker's  '  Der  Clavierbau '  (Frankfort, 
1870),  p.  163,  etc.  It  appears  that  Chladni 
much  favoured  the  idea  of  a  piano  violin,  and 
under  his  auspices  one  was  made  in  1795  by 
von  Mayer  of  Gorlitz.  The  form  was  that  of 
a  grand  piano ;  each  key  acted  upon  a  catgut 
Btring,  and  as  many  hairs  as  there  are  in  a  violin 
bow  were  adjusted  in  a  frame  for  each  string, 
a  pedal  setting  them  in  motion.  All  these  at- 
tempts however  failed  to  produce  a  useful  in- 
strument, from  the  impossibility  of  playing  with 
rapidity :  slow  movements  alone  being  insufficient 
to  satisfy  either  player  or  hearer. 

At  last,  in  1865,  Hubert  Cyrille  Baudet  in- 
troduced one  in  Paris  capable  of  rapid  articula- 
tion, and  named  it  '  Piano  Quatuor,'  patenting  it 
in  England  as  'Piano-Violin.'  The  principle  of 
Baudet's  invention  is  very  simple,  although  the 
wheel-machinery  he  employs  is  complex.  The 
Btrings  are  of  wire,  as  in  a  pianoforte,  but  of 
greater  relative  thickness,  there  being  one  only 
to  each  note.  The  strings  are  vertical;  and 
attached  to  a  nodal,  or  nearly  nodal,  point  of 
each,  is  a  piece  of  stiff  catgut,  projecting  in  front 
more  than  an  inch.  A  roller,  covered  with  fine 
linen  and  slightly  rosined,  is  made  to  turn  by 
means  of  treadles  with  great  rapidity,  just  above 
the  catgut  ties,  but  not  touching  them  until  the 
keys  are  put  down,  when  they  rise  into  contact 
with  the  roller.  Motion  is  then  communicated 
through  the  ties  to  the  wires,  and  their  musical 
vibration  is  excited.  The  steel  string  by  its 
vibrating  length  and  tension  determines  the 
pitch  ;  the  catgut  tie  gives  it  the  colour  of  tone 
or  timbre ;  and  the  impression  on  the  ear  is  that  of 
the  tone  of  a  violin.  Still  we  miss  the  attack  of  the 
bow,  which  gives  life  to  the  real  quartet.  [A.  J.H.] 

PIATTI,  Alfredo,  violoncellist,  was  born  at 
Bergamo  Jan.  1822.  His  father  was  first  violin 
in  the  orchestra  and  'chapel'  of  that  town  (not  a 
singer  as  stated  by  Fe"tis).  In  his  earliest  youth 
Piatti  had  the  advantage  of  the  instruction  of 
his  grand  uncle  Zanetti,  an  excellent  musician 
and  performer ;  and  he  began  playing  in  the 
orchestra  at  the  age  of  seven.  On  Zanetti's  death 
he  was  accepted  at  the  Milan  Conservatoire 
in  1832,  studied  under  Merighi,  and  made  his 
public  appearance  as  a  solo  performer  in  1837. 

In  1844  Piatti  came  to  England,  where  he  has 


PIBROCH. 

since  resided  during  the  musical  season.  He 
made  his  first  appearance  at  a  concert  of  the 
Philharmonic  Society  on  June  24,  1844,  in  a 
concertino  by  Kumnier,  his  performance  of  which 
at  once  established  his  claim  to  be  ranked  as  an 
artist  of  extraordinary  excellence. 

It  is  of  interest  to  mention  that  at  this  same 
concert  Mendelssohn  played  Beethoven's  PF. 
Concerto  in  G  immediately  before  Piatti  ap- 
peared ;  in  spite  of  which  the  young  violoncellist 
obtained  an  unqualified  success.  Mendelssohn 
played  with  him  several  times  in  private  during 
this  visit,  and  is  said  to  have  completed  the  first 
movement  of  a  concerto  for  violoncello  and 
orchestra  for  him.  The  MS.  however,  has  not 
been  found.  [See  Mendelssohn,  ii.  285  a.]  The 
instrument 1  (Nicolas  Amati)  he  then  used  had 
been  presented  to  him  by  Liszt.  The  'Times* 
thus  spoke  of  his  first  appearance.  '  Piatti  is  a 
masterly  player  on  the  violoncello.  In  tone, 
which  foreign  artists  generally  want,  he  is  equal 
to  Lindley  in  his  best  days ;  his  execution  is 
rapid,  diversified,  and  certain,  and  a  false  note 
never  by  any  chance  is  to  be  heard.' 

This  criticism  has  been  more  than  justified 
by  Piatti's  career,  so  well  known  to  the  musical 
world  of  England,  and  it  is  not  too  much  to  say 
that  he  has  a  reputation  surpassed  by  that  of  no 
other  musical  artist.  With  an  absolute  command 
over  all  the  technical  difficulties  of  his  instrument 
Piatti  combines  a  faultless  intonation  and  a  rare 
purity  of  tone  which,  without  any  apparent 
exertion,  never  fails  to  sufficiently  assert  itself  in 
the  most  delicate  passages,  while  the  exquisite 
taste  with  which  he  'phrases'  invests  the  simplest 
melody  with  infinite  charm.  Ever  since  their 
commencement  in  1 859  he  has  held  the  post  of 
violoncellist  at  the  well-known  Monday  and 
Saturday  Popular  Concerts,  and  has  perhaps  con- 
tributed as  much  as  any  artist  to  their  deserved 
success. 

Signor  Piatti  is  also  a  composer  of  no  mean 
merit.  A  concertino  and  two  concertos  for 
violoncello  with  orchestra,  and  also  some  graceful 
songs  with  violoncello  obbligato,  are  among  his 
most  important  original  works.  He  has  also  done 
good  service  in  arranging  and  bringing  into  notice 
many  forgotten  sonatas  by  Veracini,  Valentini, 
Locatelli,  Boccherini,  and  other  writersfor  stringed 
instruments  of  the  18th  century.  [T.P.H.] 

PIATTI  (plates),  the  Italian  equivalent  for 
cymbals.  It  is  the  term  by  which  the  cymbals 
are  usually  designated  in  a  score.  '  Senza  piatti* 
indicates  that  the  bass-drum  is  to  be  played 
alone  without  the  cymbals.  [V.  de  P.] 

PIBROCH  (Gaelic  Piobaireachd,  a  pipe  tune). 
A  series  of  variations  for  the  bagpipe,  founded  on 
a  theme  called  the  urlar.  Pibrochs  are  the  highest 
form  of  bagpipe  music,  and  are  often  very  diffi- 
cult to  execute  properly.  The  variations,  gene- 
rally three  or  four  in  number,  increase  in  diffi- 
culty and  speed,  until  the  composition  concludes 
with  a  creanluidh,  or  quick  movement.  Like 
all  bagpipe  music,  pibrochs  are  not  written  in 
any  proper  scale,  and  it  is  impossible  to  note 
l  Now  In  the  possession  of  the  writer  of  this  notice. 


PIBROCH. 

them  down  correctly  for  any  other  instrument, 
owing  to  the  peculiarly  imperfect  tuning  of  the 
bagpipe,  and  particularly  owing  to  the  presence 
of  an  extra  note  between  F  and  FjJ,  a  peculiarity 
which  is  also  found  in  the  Alpenhorn.  [See 
Bagpipe  and  Ranz  dss  Vaches.]  Pibrochs 
are  generally  of  a  warlike  character,  including 
marches  and  dirges  ;  they  often  bear  the  names 
of  various  historical  and  legendary  events.  Thus 
'  The  Raid  of  Kilchrist '  is  ascribed  to  Mac- 
donald  of  Glengarry's  piper,  who  composed  and 
performed  this  pibroch  in  the  year  1603,  during 
the  burning  of  a  church  with  its  whole  con- 
gregation ;  and  the  specimen  of  which  a  portion 
is  given  below — '  Failte  Phroinsa,'  the  Prince's 
Salute — was  composed  by  John  Maclntyre,  piper 
to  Menzies  of  Menzies,  on  the  landing  of  the 
Pretender  in  1715.  It  must  not  however  be 
supposed  that  the  music  is  always  contemporary 
with  the  events  which  the  pibrochs  commemo- 
rate ;  for  although  many  of  them  are  undoubtedly 
of  considerable  antiquity,  yet  the  names  of  old 
pibrochs  which  have  been  lost  are  often  trans- 
ferred to  new  compositions.  There  are  not  many 
collections  of  Highland  music,  but  the  best  are 
those  by  Patrick  Macdonald  (of  Kilmore),  Donald 
Macdonald,  and  Mackay.  The  following  is  the 
first  part  of  the  urlar  of  a  pibroch,  and  is  in- 
teresting, as  showing  the  '  warblers '  or  grace- 
notes  in  which  good  pipers  excel.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  the  note  represented  by  F  is 
rather  sharper  in  the  bagpipe. 


PICCINNI. 


747 


[W.B.S.] 

PICCINNI,  Niccola,  was  born  at  Bari,  in  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  in  1728.  Except  for  the 
circumstances  which  brought  him  into  rivalry 
with  Gluck,  and  the  violent  warfare  waged  be- 
tween the  partisans  of  the  two  masters,  he  is 
little  remembered  now ;  yet  he  was  for  a  con- 
siderable time  the  most  popular  of  Italian  operatic 
composers. 

The  son  of  a  musician,  he  was  at  first  intended 
by  his  father  for  the  church,  but,  as  usual,  the 
attempt  to  repress  a  strong  natural  inclination 
only  resulted  in  confirming  and  strengthening  it. 
He  picked  up  by  ear  all  the  themes  he  heard,  and 
learned  to  play  them  in  secret,  while  the  mere 
sight  of  a  clavichord  was  enough  to  make  him 
tremble  with  emotion.  At  length,  at  the  instance 
of  the  Bishop  of  Bari,  he  was  sent  to  the  Con- 
servator™ of  San  Onofrio,  then  presided  over  by 
Leo.    He  went  there  at  the  age  of  14,  and  was 


at  first  instructed  by  a  maestrino,  a  kind  of  pupil- 
teacher,  who  by  his  dry  dogmatic  lessons  and 
severity  only  succeeded  in  disgusting  the  gifted 
boy,  who  showed  on  his  part  a  disposition  to  throw 
aside  all  control.  Leo  averted  this  by  taking 
him  for  his  own  pupil,  and  Durante  (who,  at 
Leo's  death,  resumed  his  previous  mastership  of 
San  Onofrio)  had  also  an  especial  affection  for 
the  young  student.  '  The  others  are  my  pupils,* 
he  was  wont  to  say ;  '  this  one  is  my  son.' 

Piccinni  quitted  the  Conservatorio  in  1754, 
after  twelve  years  of  study,  and  made  his  dtbut 
as  a  composer  with  the  opera  '  Le  Donne  dispet- 
tose,'  at  the  Florentine  theatre  at  Naples.  The 
success  of  this  piece  was  remarkable,  as  Logros- 
cino's  comic  operas  had  so  monopolised  the  stage 
that  it  was  difficult  for  any  others  to  obtain  a 
hearing.  Equally  fortunate  were  '  Le  Gelosie ' 
and  '  II  Curioso  del  proprio  danno,'  both  in  the 
light  comic  style,  while  'Zenobia'  (San  Carlo, 
1756),  and  'Alessandro  nelle  Indie'  (Rome, 
1758),  not  only  pleased  the  public,  but  showed 
advance  in  power,  the  last-named  opera  contain- 
ing an  overture  which  was  greatly  admired. 
Piccinni  married,  in  1756,  Vincenza  Sibilla,  hi* 
pupil,  who,  to  great  personal  charms,  united  that 
of  a  beautiful  and  touching  voice.  Her  husband 
would  not  allow  her  to  appear  on  the  stage.  She 
was  however  an  exquisite  singer  in  private  cir- 
cles, and  Piccinni,  with  a  wide  experience  of 
prime  donne,  said  he  never  heard  his  own  airs  so 
perfectly  rendered  as  by  her. 

It  was  at  Rome,  in  1760,  that  he  produced 
'Cecchina,  ossia  la  Buona  Figliuola,'  perhaps 
the  most  popular  buffo  opera  that  ever  existed, 
and  which  for  years  had  a  most  extraordinary 
vogue.  It  was  performed  on  every  stage  in, 
Italy,  and  on  most  stages  in  Europe,  and  every- 
where was  received  with  the  same  enthusiasm. 
At  Rome  it  was  played  not  only  at  all  the  prin- 
cipal theatres,  but  at  the  most  insignificant,  even 
that  of  the  Burattini,  or  marionnettes,  and  all 
classes  of  people  were  equally  delighted  with  it. 
Fashions  were  all  alia  Cecchina :  inns,  shops, 
villas,  wines — in  fact  all  things  that  could  be 
named — were  called  after  her.  Nor  was  more 
weighty  appreciation  wanting.  'Sara  qualche 
ragazzo  o  qualche  ragazzata  ('probably  some 
boy  or  boy's  work '),  said  Jommelli,  importuned 
on  his  return  to  Italy  from  Stuttgard  with  per- 
petual praises  of  '  La  Cecchina '  and  its  author. 
He  went  however  to  hear  the  work  performed, 
and  his  dictum  to  the  amateurs  who  crowded 
round  him  at  the  end  to  know  his  opinion, 
was  ' Ascoltate la  sentenzad' Jommelli:  questo  e 
inventore'  ('Hear  the  opinion  of  Jommelli: 
this  is  an  inventor').  It  is  difficult  now  to 
account  for  the  immense  preference  given  to  '  La 
Cecchina'  over  other  works  of  the  time,  although 
the  airs  it  contains  are  lively,  as  well  as  graceful 
and  pleasing.  In  the  next  year  another  triumph 
was  won  by  '  L'Olimpiade,'  previously  set  by  Leo, 
Pergolesi,  Galuppi,  and  Jommelli,  but  never  so 
successfully  as  by  Piccinni.  Among  his  other 
improvements  on  existing  operatic  forms  must  be 
mentioned  his  extension  of  the  Duet,  hitherto 


748 


PICCINNI. 


treated  in  a  conventional,  undramatic  way,  and 
the  variety  and  importance  he  gave  to  the  Finale, 
the  invention  of  which,  in  many  movements,  is 
however  due  to  Logroscino.1  His  fame  was 
equalled  by  his  industry.  In  the  year  1761 
alone  he  wrote  six  operas,  three  serious  and  three 
comic.  In  1 773  a  rival  appeared  in  the  person  of 
Anfossi,  sometime  Piccinni's  pupil,  and  who  owed 
to  him  his  first  theatrical  engagement.  He  was 
very  far  inferior  to  Piccinni,  but  his  '  Incognita 
perseguitata'  had  a  popular  success,  as  had  two 
or  three  weak  operas  that  followed  it.  The  in- 
constant Roman  public  forsook  its  old  favourite ; 
an  opera  of  Piccinni's  was  hissed  by  Anfossi's 
partisans,  and  withdrawn.  This  so  affected  the 
composer's  sensitive  nature  that,  returning  to 
Naples,  he  fell  seriously  ill,  and  was  in  danger 
for  many  months.  On  his  recovery  he  decided 
not  to  return  to  Rome.  In  1774  he  had  given 
at  Naples  a  second  '  Alessandro  nelle  Indie,'  su- 
perior to  the  first ;  he  now  wrote  a  buffo  opera, 
'  I  viaggiatori,'  which  had  at  Naples  almost  the 
success  of '  La  Cecchina '  at  Rome. 

In  1776  he  yielded  to  invitations  and  powerful 
inducements  held  out  to  him  to  go  to  Paris, 
where,  with  his  family,  he  arrived  in  December,  on 
a  promised  salary  of  6000  francs,  with  travelling 
expenses.  He  knew  not  a  word  of  the  French 
language,  but  Marmontel  undertook  to  be  his  in- 
structor, and  to  make  such  changes  in  several 
operas  of  Quinault  as  should  adapt  them  for 
modern  music.  For  some  time  he  passed  every 
morning  with  Piccinni,  explained  a  scene  to  him, 
taught  him  to  repeat  it,  marked  by  signs  the 
quantity  of  each  word  and  each  syllable,  and 
then  left  him  to  work.  The  next  morning  Pic- 
cinni sang  over  to  him  what  he  had  composed. 
His  first  French  opera,  '  Roland '  (produced  Jan. 
17,  1778),  was  completed  after  a  year's  labour  of 
this  kind. 

He  had  not  long  begun  it  when  the  famous 
feud  arose,  already  alluded  to,  between  his  ad 
mirers  and  those  of  Gluck.  This  great  man  had 
brought  about  a  revolution  in  French  serious 
opera,  worthy  in  its  way  to  be  compared  to  the 
political  and  social  revolution  which  followed 
soon  after.  He  had  freed  the  tragic  lyrical  stage 
from  a  mass  of  uncouth  antediluvian  conven- 
tionality, and  had  substituted  for  it  a  new  and 
living  form  of  Art.  Like  all  innovators,  he  had 
enemies,  and  those  who  had  been  disgusted  by  the 
uncompromising  fury  of  his  partisans  ranged 
themselves  under  Piccinni's  banner.  A  war  of 
pamphlets  and  other  writings  raged  unabated  for 
years.  It  divided  society ;  the  subject  was  un- 
safe. Men  met  each  other  for  the  first  time  with 
the  question,  almost  implying  a  challenge,  •  Sir, 
are  you  Gluckist  or  Piccinnist  ? ' 

Poor  Piccinni,  quiet  and  peaceable,  a  stranger 
to  intrigue,  kept  at  a  distance  from  all  the  tur- 
moil, which  was  such  that  on  the  night  of  the 
first  performance  of  •  Roland,'  fears  were  enter- 
tained for  his  personal  safety.  To  the  general 
surprise,  he  was  brought  home  in  triumph  to  his 
family.  The  opera  had  had  a  complete  success, 
1  8ee  vol.  ii.  p.  514,  note. 


PICCINNI. 

especial  enthusiasm  being  elicited  by  the  pretty 
ballet  airs, — a  curious  fact,  as  Piccinni  had  no 
sympathy  with  dancing,  and  disliked  having  to 
write  dance  music. 

He  was  in  favour  with  Marie  Antoinette,  and 
gave  her  two  singing-lessons  a  week  at  Versailles. 
The  satisfaction  of  teaching  so  distinguished  a 
pupil  was  supposed  to  be  its  own  sufficient  reward; 
at  any  rate  he  received  no  other  payment,  not 
even  his  travelling  expenses. 

He  was  appointed  Director  of  a  troupe  of  Ita- 
lian singers  engaged  to  give  performances  on 
alternate  nights  at  the  Grand  Opera,  and  in  this 
capacity  produced  'Le  finte  Gemelle'  (June  11, 
1778);  'La  buona  Figliuola'  (Dec.  7,  1778); 
'La  buona  Figliuola  maritata'  (April  15, 1779); 
'II  Vago  disprezzato '  (May  16, 1 779).  The  idea 
now  occurred  to  the  principal  director  to  get  two 
operas  on  the  same  subject  from  the  famous 
rivals,  and  '  Iphige"nie  en  Tauride  '  was  fixed  on. 
The  poetical  version  given  to  Piccinni  to  set  was 
so  bad,  that  after  composing  the  first  two  acts 
he  took  it  to  Ginguene,  who  to  a  great  extent 
rewrote  the  book.  Meanwhile  the  manager,  vio- 
lating a  promise  made  to  Piccinni  to  the  contrary, 
had  Gluck's  'Iphigenie'  performed  first,  which 
met  with  the  brilliant  success  it  deserved.  Pic- 
cinni in  the  meantime  (Feb.  20,  1780)  produced 
'Atys,'  a  grand  opera,  superior  to  'Roland'; 
some  numbers  of  which,  especially  the  'Chorus 
of  Dreams,'  were  for  many  years  very  popular  at 
concerts ;  and  '  Adele  de  Ponthieu,'  a  lyric  tra- 
gedy (Oct.  27, 1781).  His  '  Iphige'nie,'  produced 
Jan.  23,  1 781,  contained  many  beauties.  It  had 
small  chance  of  succeeding  after  Gluck's,  but  was 
fairly  well  received  in  spite  of  the  untoward  in- 
cident which  marred  its  second  representation. 
No  sooner  had  Mile.  Laguerre,  the  Iphigtnie  of 
the  evening  appeared  on  the  scene,  than  it  be- 
came painfully  evident  that  she  was  intoxicated. 
She  got  through  the  part  without  breaking  down, 
but  the  luckless  composer  heard  Sophie  Arnould's 
bon  mot  going  from  mouth  to  mouth,  '  C'est  Iphi- 
ge'nie en  Champagne.'  The  opera  had,  however, 
seventeen  consecutive  performances. 

Gluck  had  left  Paris  in  1780,  but  a  new  rival 
now  appeared  in  Sacchini,  whose  '  Renaud'  (Feb. 
28,  1783)  had  considerable  success.  '  Didon,' 
reckoned  Piccinni's  best  French  opera,  was  first 
produced,  by  command,  before  the  court  at  Fon- 
tainebleau  (Oct.  16, 1783),  and  afterwards  at  the 
Grand  Ope"ra,  where  it  kept  the  boards  till  Feb. 
8,  1826 — its  250th  representation.  At  the  same 
time  the  smaller  works  of  'Le  Dormeur  eVeiUe-' 
and  '  Le  Faux  Lord'  were  being  performed  by  the 
Italian  company  and  were  very  popular.  About 
this  time  a  school  for  singing  was  established  in 
Paris,  of  which  Piccinni  was  appointed  principal 
master,  and  which  showed  the  results  of  his 
training  in  an  excellent  performance  of '  Roland ' 
by  the  pupils.  But  the  tide  of  fortune  seemed 
now  to  turn  against  him.  'Lucette'  and  'Le 
Mensonge  Officieux'  failed  in  1786  and  1787. 
'Diane  et  Endymion'  and  'Penelope'  had  met 
with  the  same  fate  not  long  before.  He  was 
not,    however,   embittered    by    these    reverses. 


PICCINNI. 

When  Sacchini  died,  of  vexation  and  disappoint- 
ment, Piccinni  pronounced  his  funeral  oration, 
full  of  delicate  and  discriminating  praise  of  all 
that  was  best  in  his  works.  When  Gluck  died, 
in  1787,  Piccinni  was  anxious  to  found,  by  sub- 
scription, an  annual  concert  in  memory  of  the 
great  man  'to  whom,'  he  wrote,  'the  lyrical 
theatre  is  as  much  indebted  as  is  the  French 
stage  to  the  great  Corneille.'  From  lack  of  sup- 
port, the  proposal  was  not  carried  out. 

'  Clytemnestra,'  a  serious  opera,  failed  to  ob- 
tain a  representation,  and  when  the  Revolution 
broke  out  in  1789,  and  he  lost  his  pension,  he 
returned  to  Naples.  Here  he  was  well  received 
by  the  king,  who  gave  him  another  pension. 
Some  of  his  old  works  were  performed,  as  well 
as  an  oratorio,  'Jonathan'  and  a  new  buffo 
opera,  *  La  Serva  onorata.'  But  he  got  into 
trouble  owing  to  the  marriage  of  one  of  his 
daughters  with  a  young  Frenchman  of  avowed 
Liberal  opinions,  was  denounced  as  a  Jaco- 
bin, disgraced  at  Court,  and  his  next  opera 
purposely  hooted  down.  An  engagement  to 
compose  two  operas  at  Venice  gave  him  the 
opportunity  of  absenting  himself,  but  when,  at 
the  end  of  some  months,  he  was  foolish  enough 
to  return  to  Naples,  he  was  immediately  placed 
by  the  first  minister,  Acton,  in  a  kind  of  arrest, 
and  forbidden  to  leave  his  house.  There  he  re- 
mained, in  misery  and  indigence,  for  four  years. 
He  had  previously  heard  that  all  the  property 
he  had  left  in  France  was  lost,  that  a  friend  for 
whom  he  had  become  security  was  bankrupt, 
and  that  all  his  scores  had  been  sold  to  pay  this 
man's  debts.  He  now  supported  himself,  and 
beguiled  the  time  by  composing  music  to  several 
PsahnB,  translated  into  Italian  by  Saverio  Mattei. 
The  convents  and  churches  for  which  these  were 
written  became  possessors  of  the  original  scores, 
as  he  was  too  poor  to  have  them  copied. 

The  treaty  of  peace  with  the  French  Republic 
brought  hope  for  him.  The  ambassador,  Can- 
claux,  procured  for  him  the  means  of  communi- 
cating with  his  friends  in  Paris,  and  David,  the 
famous  singer,  got  him  an  offer  of  an  engage- 
ment at  Venice.  With  some  difficulty  a  passport 
was  procured  for  him  by  Garet,  successor  to 
Canclaux,  and  Lacheze,  secretary  of  legation, 
who  also  furnished  him  with  the  means  of  going, 
he  being  absolutely  penniless.  At  Rome  he 
was  fSted  by  the  French  Fine  Arts  Commission, 
and  persuaded  to  go  direct  to  Paris,  where  he 
arrived  on  Dec.  3,  1798.  The  annual  distri- 
bution of  prizes  in  the  Conservatoire  occurred 
next  day,  and  Piccinni  was  invited  to  be  pre- 
sent. He  was  conducted  on  to  the  stage  and 
presented  to  the  public  amid  deafening  applause. 
5000  fr.  were  granted  him  for  his  immediate 
necessities,  as  well  as  a  small  pension.  This  was, 
however,  most  irregularly  paid,  and  when  some 
months  later  his  family  arrived,  in  utter  desti- 
tution, from  Naples,  whence  they  had  had  to 
fly  in  the  wake  of  the  French  army,  poor  Pic- 
cinni found  himself  again  in  almost  desperate 
circumstances.  His  troubles  brought  on  an 
attack  of  paralysis,  from  which  he  did  not  re- 


PICCIXXI. 


749 


cover  for  some  months.  Many  melancholy  MS. 
letters  of  his  are  extant,  showing  to  what  a 
miserable  state  he  was  reduced.  Some  are  ad- 
dressed to  Bonaparte,  praying  that  his  pension 
might  be  paid,  for  the  sake  of  the  many  de- 
pendent on  him.  Bonaparte  showed  him  kind- 
ness, and  paid  him  25  louis  for  a  military  march. 
A  sixth  inspector's  place  was  created  for  him 
in  the  Conservatoire,  but  he  was  now  again 
prostrated  by  severe  illness,  aggravated  by  the 
treatment  of  surgeons  who  bled  him  recklessly. 
He  rallied,  however,  and  went  to  Passy,  in  the 
hope  of  recovering  his  strength,  but  fresh  do- 
mestic anxieties  pursued  him,  and  he  succumbed 
on  May  7,  1800.  He  was  buried  in  the  com- 
mon cemetery  (which  has  since  been  sold),  and 
a  stone  was  placed  over  him  by  friends. 

His  place  in  the  Conservatoire  was  given  to 
Monsigny,  on  condition  that  half  the  salary 
attached  to  it  should  be  paid  to  Mme.  Piccinni 
during  her  life,  she,  in  return,  instructing  four 
pupils  of  the  Conservatoire  in  singing. 

Piccinni  was  a  good  husband  and  father,  and 
a  man  of  most  mild  and  amiable  temper.  Where 
art  was  concerned,  he  could  be  firm.  Unlike 
many  other  composers  he  would  never  yield  to 
the  caprices  of  imperious  prime  donne,  by  alter- 
ing his  music  to  suit  their  fancies. 

His  Paris  scores  are  much  more  fully  orches- 
trated than  those  of  his  earlier  Italian  works, 
and  show  in  this  the  influence  both  of  the 
French  and  the  German  spirit.  He  was,  how- 
ever, opposed  to  innovation.  It  is  interesting 
to  read,  in  Ginguene's  life  of  him,  his  views  on 
this  question.  His  strictures  on  elaborate  ac- 
companiments, over- orchestration,  profuse  modu- 
lation, etc.,  are,  with  a  mere  difference  of  degree, 
the  very  same  as  those  we  hear  at  this  day  from 
writers  who  represent  the  conservative  side  of 
Art. 

That  he  should  ever  have  been  opposed,  on 
equal  terms,  to  Gluck,  seems  now  incredible. 
Yet  by  numbers  of  contemporaries— critical  and 
cultivated — he  was  reckoned  Gluck's  equal,  and 
his  superior  by  not  a  few.  But  his  art  was  of  a 
kind  that  adapts  itself  to  its  age ;  Gluck's  the 
art  to  which  the  age  has,  in  time,  to  adapt  itself. 
Novelty  brings  such  an  unavoidable  shock,  that 
originality  may  find  itself,  for  the  time,  in  oppo- 
sition to  'good  taste,'  and  the  vero  be  less  readily 
accepted  than  the  ben  trovato.  Piccinni  was  no 
discoverer,  but  an  accomplished  and  successful 
cultivator  in  the  field  of  Art. 

A  complete  list  of  his  very  numerous  works  is 
to  be  found  in  Fe"tis's  '  Biographie  des  Musiciens.' 
They  comprise  80  operas — Guinguene"  says  133 — 
several  oratorios,  and  many  long  pieces  of  church 
music. 

Piccinni  left  two  sons,  the  second  of  whom, 
LUDOVICO,  born  at  Naples  in  1 766,  learned  music 
from  his  father  and  followed  it  as  a  career.  He 
followed  his  father  to  Paris  in  1782,  and  after  a 
long  and  checkered  life  died  there  on  July  31. 
1827.  He  wrote  many  operas,  but  they  are  dis- 
missed by  F^tis  as  works  of  no  value.  Certainly 
none  of  them  have  survived.     The  elder  son. 


750 


PICCINNI. 


Giuseppe,  is  known  only  through  his  natural 
Bon,  Louis  Alexandre,  born  at  Paris  Sept.  10, 
1 779,  a  composer  of  more  than  200  pieces  for  the 
stage,  as  well  as  of  25  comic  operas,  of  which  a 
list  is  given  by  Fetis.  [F.A.M.] 

PICCO,  an  Italian  peasant  (advertised  as  ■  the 
Sardinian  minstrel ')  who  appeared  in  London  in 
1856 — first  at  Co  vent  Garden,  Feb.  21,  and  after- 
wards very  often  during  the  season — and  per- 
formed with  immense  execution  and  'astonishing 
facility,  to  say  nothing  of  delicacy,  taste,  and 
feeling,'  upon  a  '  tibia,'  or  whistle,  as  described 
in  the  following  article.  He  was  then  25  years 
of  age,  and  of  very  prepossessing  appearance,  and 
had  been  blind  from  his  birth.  His  tone  is  de- 
scribed as  'between  that  of  a  flageolet  and  a 
flauto  piccolo ;  at  times  somewhat  shrill,  at  others 
as  soft  and  suave  as  possible.'  Like  GusiKOW,  he 
was  evidently  a  born  genius,  and  we  regret  that 
we  can  obtain  no  information  as  to  what  hap- 
pened to  him  before  or  after  his  appearance 
here.  [G.] 

PICCO  PIPE.  A  small  and  unimportant 
member  of  the  family  of  fitites  &  bee.  It  owes 
whatever  musical  significance  it  may  possess  to 
the  efforts  of  the  single  exceptional  player  named 
in  the  preceding  article.  It  is  stated  that  this  per- 
former was  able  to  produce  from  it  a  compass 
of  three  octaves.  The  only  other  importance 
which  it  displays  is  due  to  its  extreme  simplicity. 
Perhaps  no  wind  instrument  ever  constructed 
exhibits  such  limited  mechanism.  It  consists, 
as  usually  made,  of  a  box-wood  tube  3^  inches 
long.  Of  this,  I  j  inches  are  occupied  by  a  mouth- 
piece, common  to  it  and  to  the  penny  whistle, 
the  flageolet,  th.efiUte  A  bee,  and  the  diapason  pipe 
of  the  organ.  The  remaining  two  inches  form 
all  the  modulative  apparatus  required.  This 
consists  of  three  lateral  holes ;  two  in  front,  one 
at  the  back,  for  the  thumb  and  two  first  fingers 
of  either  hand,  and  an  expanded  bell,  spreading 
to  £  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  obvious  that 
eome  additional  device  is  necessary  to  complete 
even  the  simplest  and  most  rudimentary  diatonic 
scale.  This  is  furnished  by  first  using  it  as  a 
stopped  pipe ;  the  bell  being  blocked,  wholly  or 
partially,  by  the  palm  of  the  hand,  twelve  semi- 
tones being  so  produced ;  then  as  an  open  pipe, 
giving  eight  consecutive  notes  ;  and  lastly,  by 
overblowing  on  the  first  harmonic  of  a  stopped 
pipe  (the  12th),  obtaining  again  with  a  stopped 
bell  six  more  semitones.  Besides  these,  some 
intermediate  sounds  are  indicated  by  half  stopping 
holes,  or  by  forcing  the  wind,  according  as  the 
vibrations  have  to  be  slackened  or  accelerated. 

The  compass  is  usually  26  semitones,  and  is 
made  to  commence  with  B  below  the  treble  stave ; 
rising  to  C  above  it  (1).  The  lowest  note  is  only 
to  be  obtained  by  covering  the  bell  with  the 
palm  of  the  hand  and  closing  all  the  holes.  At 
B  (2)  the  open  scale  commences,  and  at  G  (3)  the 

(')    ?:      (*)        (3) 


harmonic.    It  is  obvious  that  this  notation  is  at 


PICCOLO. 

best  only  approximative,  and  at  least  an  octave 
lower  than  the  real  sounds  emitted.  Probably  C 
is  the  fundamental  note  of  the  instrument,  de- 
pressed somewhat  by  the  irregular  form  of  the 
sounding  tube.  It  is  just  possible  that  this 
primitive  contrivance  may  throw  light  on  some 
of  the  three  and  four-holed  flutes  of  antiquity. 
[See  Flute.]  [W.H.S.] 

PICCOLO  (i.e.  Italian  for  'little'),  an  abbre- 
viation for  Flauto  Piccolo,  usually  applied  to 
the  Octave  Flute,  otherwise  called  Ottavino,  from 
its  tonal  relation  to  the  larger  instruments,  of 
which  it  occupies  the  superior  octave.  Small 
flutes  and  fifes  have  been  made  in  many  keys ; 
those  now  most  commonly  in  use  are  the  D  and 
Eb  piccolos.  The  former  name  is  correct ;  it  being 
the  super-octave  of  the  ordinary  flute,  which  has 
been  shown  to  stand  in  the  key  of  D.  The  D 
piccolo,  however,  is  not  furnished  with  the  ad- 
ventitious keys  of  C,  Bi  (and  sometimes  Bb), 
which  give  the  flute  three  or  four  semitones  below 
its  natural  keynote.  The  so-called  Eb  piccolo  is 
really  in  Db,  as  can  be  easily  demonstrated  by 
attempting  to  play  on  it  music  written  for  the  Eb 
clarinet,  which  actually  stands  in  the  key  named ; 
when  it  will  be  found  to  differ  by  a  whole  tone. 
The  French  scorers  very  properly  term  it  '  Petite 
flute  en  R£b.'  Its  use  is  now  entirely  limited  to 
military  bands,  which  habitually  play  in  flat 
keys.  The  peculiar  tonality  thus  adopted  ex- 
punges five  flats  from  the  signature;  enabling 
the  instrument  to  avoid  many  mechanical  dif- 
ficulties, and  to  range  around  the  lower  sharp 
and  flat  keys  from  D  to  Eb,  in  which  its  in- 
tonation is  most  correct. 

Its  compass  is  from  D  or  Db  within  the  treble 
stave  to  at  least  A  in  altissimo  (2  octaves  and 
5  notes),  or  even  higher  in  the  hands  of  a  good 
player.  It  is  customary  to  write  for  it  an 
octave  lower  than  the  sound  really  produced. 

It  is,  with  the  exception  of  the  higher  har- 
monic notes  of  the  violin,  by  far  the  most  acute 
instrument  used  in  orchestral  music ;  its  sounds 
being  much  more  powerful  and  piercing  than 
the  corresponding  notes  developed  by  a  string. 
On  the  other  hand,  its  lowest  octave  is  feeble 
and  devoid  of  character. 

The  piccolo  appears  to  have  been  a  favourite 
with  composers,  and  especially  with  Berlioz ; 
whose  account  of  its  musical  value  is  so  ex- 
haustive as  to  render  others  unnecessary.  He 
points  out  its  use  by  Gluck ;  by  Beethoven  in 
the  Storm  of  the  Pastoral  Symphony,  to  repro- 
duce the  whistling  of  the  wind  ;  by  Weber  in 
the  drinking  song  of  Der  Freischutz,  and  by 
others ;  though  he  omits  Handel's  wonderful 
accompaniment  to  the  bass  song,  'Oh  ruddier 
than  the  cherry'  in  'Acis  and  Galatea,' where 
the  essentially  pastoral  quality  of  the  little  in- 
strument is  admirably  developed.  He  advocates, 
very  justly,  the  orchestral  use  of  the  so-called 
Eb  piccolo,  sounding  the  minor  ninth  above  the 
violins,  which  in  the  key  of  Eb  would  be  playing 
in  its  best  key,  that  of  D  major.  Berlioz's 
remarks  upon  the  Tierce  flute,  giving  Eb  for  C, 
and  usually  called  the  flute  in  F,  and  on  the  tenth 


PICCOLO. 

piccolo  in  Eb  unisonous  with  the  clarinet  in  Eb 
alt,  but  commonly  named  piccolo  in  F— deserve 
careful  study.  [W.H.S.] 

PICCOLO  PIANO,  a  low  upright  pianoforte 
introduced  by  Robert  Wornum  of  London  in 
1829.  The  novelty  consisted  first  in  its  small 
size,  and  then  in  the  application  of  a  new  action 
invented  by  Robert  Wornum  and  patented  three 
years  before.  [See  Pianoforte.]  Though  the 
strings  were  placed  vertically,  the  height  of  the 
Piccolo  piano  did  not  exceed  40  inches.  The 
facile  touch  gained  by  the  new  mechanism  soon 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  musical  public,  and 
with  its  long  since  proved  durability  has  made  it 
a  favourite  model  of  action  for  the  manufacturers 
of  the  present  day  both  here  and  abroad.  The 
*  piccolo '  was  finished  to  stand  out  in  the  room 
away  from  the  wall ;  its  original  price  was  36 
guineas.  [A.J.H.] 

PICCOLOMINI,  Maria,  born  1834  at  Siena, 
of  the  well-known  Tuscan  family.  Being  pas- 
sionately fond  of  music  she  determined  to  become 
a  public  singer ;  and  in  spite  of  opposition  from 
her  family,  Btudied  under  Signors  Mazzarelli  and 
Pietro  Romani,  both  of  Florence,  and  made 
her  de"but  in  1852  at  La  Pergola  as  Lucrezia 
Borgia ;  she  afterwards  played  at  Rome,  Siena, 
Bologna,  etc.,  and  in  1855  at  *ne  Carignan  Thea- 
tre, Turin,  as  Violetta  in  '  La  Traviata,'  on  its 
production  there,  and  was  highly  successful. 
She  made  her  de"but  in  London  at  Her  Majesty's 
Theatre,  May  24,  1856,  in  the  same  opera,  then 
produced  for  the  first  time  in  England.  She 
immediately  became  the  fashion,  partly  on  account 
of  her  charming  little  figure,  and  clever,  real- 
istic acting — especially  in  the  last  act,  where 
she  introduced  a  consumptive  cough  ;  and  partly 
perhaps  on  account  of  the  plot  of  the  opera, 
which  excited  much  indignation  and  a  warm 
newspaper  controversy.1  She  next  played  Maria, 
in  theFiglia.and  Norma,  with  fair  success.  What- 
ever might  be  the  merits  of  her  acting,  of  her  sing- 
i  ng  there  were  many  adverse  opinions ;  for  instance, 
Chorley  writes  '  Her  voice  was  weak  and  limited, 
a  mezzo-soprano  hardly  one  octave  and  a  half  in 
compass.  She  was  not  sure  in  her  intonation, 
she  had  no  execution ....  Her  best  appearance 
was  in  La  Traviata.'  He  admits  that  Mdlle. 
Piccolomini '  had  the  great  gift  of  speaking  Italian 
with  a  beautiful  easy  finished  pronunciation  such 
as  few  have  possessed,  and  so  for  a  while  she 
prevailed  where  less  appetizing  pretenders  to 
favour  had  failed.'  She  afterwards  played  at 
the  Theatre  des  Italiens,  Paris.  Mdlle.  Picco- 
lomini reappeared  for  the  seasons  of  1857  and 
58  at  Her  Majesty's,  and  added  Adina  (L'Elisir) 
(described  by  Mr.  Henry  Morley*  as  one  of 
her  best  acted  parts),  Zerlina  and  Susanna  of 
Mozart ;  Arline  in  the  Italian  version  of  '  The 
Bohemian  Girl' ;  Lucia,  in  ' Luisa  Miller,'  on  the 
production  of  that  opera  June  8,  1858;  and  'La 

1  This  drama  mi  formerly  forbidden  on  the  English  stage ;  but 
Mme.  Modjeska,  the  Polish  actress,  has  played  In  a  modified  version 
of  the  same  at  the  Court  Theatre  during  the  season  of  1880  with  very 
great  success. 

•  '  Recollections  of  an  Old  Playgoer.' 


PIECE. 


751 


Serva  Padrona'  of  Paisiello,  July  5,  58.*  She  then 
went  to  America,  and  made  a  great  success. 
In  59  she  played  a  short  engagement  at  Drury 
Lane  with  diminished  effect,  and  for  a  few  nights 
in  60  at  Her  Majesty's,  and  took  farewell  of  the 
stage  April  33,  as  Almina,  in  a  new  opera  of 
that  name  by  Campana,  and  in  a  dnet  from 
'  I  Martiri '  with  Giuglini.  Soon  after  this  she 
married  the  Marchese  Gaetani.  She  nevertheless 
returned  to  the  stage  for  four  nights  in  1863,  and 
generously  gave  her  services  in  aid  of  the  benefit 
organised  at  Drury  Lane  for  her  old  manager 
Lumley,  having  travelled  to  England  for  that 
express  purpose.  [A.C.I 

PICHEL,  Wenzel,  good  violinist  and  prolific 
composer,  born  1740  at  Bechin,  Tabor,  Bohemia. 
Having  received  a  good  education,  general  and 
musical,  he  went  to  Prague  to  study  philosophy 
and  theology  at  the  university,  and  counterpoint 
under  Segert.  Here  he  formed  a  friendship 
with  Dittersdorf,  who  engaged  him  as  first  violin 
in  the  band  of  the  Bishop  of  Grosswardein. 
Having  spent  two  years  as  Musikdirector  to 
Count  Louis  von  Hartig  in  Prague,  he  entered 
the  orchestra  of  the  court  theatre  at  Vienna,  and 
was  sent  thence,  on  the  recommendation  of  the 
Empress,  to  Milan,  as  compositore  di  musica  to 
the  Archduke  Ferdinand.  He  now  took  as  much 
pains  in  perfecting  himself  by  intercourse  with 
Nardini,  as  he  had  previously  done  in  .the  case 
of  Dittersdorf.  He  visited  all  the  principal 
cities  of  Italy,  and  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Filarmonici  both  of  Bologna  and  Mantua. 
The  occupation  of  Milan  by  the  French  in  1796 
drove  the  Archduke  back  to  Vienna,  and  Pichel 
not  only  accompanied  him,  but  remained  in  his 
service  till  his  death  on  Jan.  23, 1805,  in  spite  of 
an  offer  twice  renewed  of  the  post  of  Imperial 
Capellmeister  at  St.  Petersburg.  Pichel's  industry 
was  extraordinary,  and  that  his  compositions 
were  popular  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  a  large 
part  of  them  were  published  in  Paris,  London, 
Amsterdam,  Berlin,  Offenbach,  and  Vienna.  He 
sent  a  complete  list  in  1803  to  Dlabacz,  the 
Bohemian  lexicographer,  who  inserted  it  in  his 
'Allgem.  hist.  Kiinstler  •  Lexicon  fur  Bohmen' 
(Prague,  1815).  An  abstract  of  the  extraordinary 
catalogue  is  given  by  Fe'tis  and  Gerber.  The 
works  —  nearly  700  in  number  —  include  88 
symphonies;  13  serenatas;  violin-concertos  and 
solos;  duets,  trios,  quartets  and  quintets  for 
strings ;  concertos  for  various  wind  instruments ; 
sonatas,  etc.,  for  PF. ;  1 4  masses,  and  many  church 
works  of  various  kinds;  25  operas  to  German, 
Latin,  French,  and  Italian  librettos ;  and  '  Sei 
Ariette,'  words  by  Metastasio,  op.  42  (Vienna, 
Eder).  For  Prince  Esterhazy  he  composed  148 
pieces  for  the  baryton  in  several  parts ;  and  in 
addition  to  all  wrote  a  Bohemian  translation  of 
Mozart's  Zauberfldte.  [C  F.  P.] 

PIECE.  This  word,  which  in  the  1 7th  and 
1 8th  centuries  was  used  generally  for  a  literary 
composition  (for  examples  see  the  criticisms  in 

>  Having  sung  the  music  previously  at  Mr.  Benedict  s  annual  con- 
cert. June  a.  at  the  same  theatre. 


752 


PIECE. 


the  Spectator,  vols.  4  and  5,  on  'Paradise  Lost,' 
which  is  constantly  spoken  of  as  '  that  sublime 
piece'),  and  in  later  times  for  a  dramatic  work, 
has  since  the  end  of  the  last  century  been  applied 
to  instrumental  musical  compositions  as  a  general 
and  untechnical  term.  The  earliest  application 
of  the  word  in  this  sense  is  to  the  component 
parts  of  a  suite,  which  are  called  pieces  (compare 
the  French  '  Suite  de  pieces').  It  is  not  as  a  rule 
applied  to  movements  of  sonatas  or  symphonies, 
unless  such  movements  are  isolated  from  their 
surroundings,  and  played  alone :  nor  is  it  applied 
to  the  symphonies  or  sonatas  taken  as  a  whole. 
An  exception  to  this  rule  is  found  in  the  direction 
at  the  beginning  of  Beethoven's  Sonata,  Op.  27, 
No.  2 — 'Si  deve  suonare  tutto  questo  pezzo 
(the  first  movement,  of  course)  delicatissima- 
mente  e  senza  sordini.'  It  is  not  used  of  vocal 
music,  except  in  the  cases  of  portions  of  operas, 
such  as  finales  etc.  for  many  voices,  to  which  the 
name  '  Concerted  piece,'  '  Pezzo  concertante,'  is 
not  unfrequently  given.  Cognate  uses  are  found 
in  most  modern  languages :  the  French  using 
piece  or  morceau,  the  Germans  Stuck,  Musikstiick, 
the  Italians  pezzo.  [J.A.F.M.] 

PIENO,  '  full.'  Examples  of  the  use  of  this 
direction  may  be  found  in  Handel's  organ  con- 
certo, where  'Organo  pieno'  denotes  that  the 
organ  part  is  to  be  played  with  full  harmonies, 
as  well  as  what  is  now  called  'full,'  i.e.  with  the 
full  force  of  the  stops.  [J.A.F.M.] 

PIERSON,  Henkt  Hugo,  was  born  at  Oxford 
on  April  12,  18 15.  He  was  the  son  of  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Pearson,  of  St.  John's  College,  afterwards 
Chaplain  to  George  IV  and  Dean  of  Salisbury. 
He  was  sent  to  Harrow  School,  where  he  gave 
proof  of  the  possession  of  no  common  abilities, 
gaining  the  Governors'  prize  for  Latin  hexa- 
meters. From  Harrow  he  proceeded  to  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  intending,  at  that  time,  to 
take  a  medical  degree.  His  genius,  however,  de- 
veloped so  rapidly  as  to  make  it  evident  that 
music  was  his  destined  career.  He  received  his 
first  instruction  from  Attwood,  and  was  also  in- 
debted to  Arthur  Corfe.  His  first  musical  publi- 
cation was  a  series  of  six  songs  entitled  'Thoughts 
of  Melody ' — the  words  by  Byron — written  while 
an  undergraduate  at  Cambridge. 

Mr.  Pearson  went  to  Germany  for  the  first 
time  in  1839,  and  studied  under  C.  H.  Kink, 
Tomaschek,  and  Reissiger.  At  Leipzig  he  had 
much  intercourse  with  Mendelssohn,  and  during 
his  residence  in  Germany  also  became  ac- 
quainted with  Meyerbeer,  Spohr,  and  Schumann. 
Schumann  reviewed  the  above-mentioned  six 
songs  most  favourably  in  his  'Neue  Zeitschrift 
fur  Musik.'  In  1844  Pearson  was  elected  to  the 
Reid  Professorship  of  Music  in  the  university  of 
Edinburgh,  in  succession  to  Sir  Henry  Bishop; 
but  this  post  he  very  soon  resigned,  and  returned 
to  Germany,  which  from  that  time  he  virtually 
adopted  as  his  country,  changing  his  name  from 
Henry  Hugh  Pearson  to  that  given  above.  He 
had  married  Caroline  Leonhardt,  a  lady  distin- 
guished by  varied  gifts  and  literary  productions ; 


PIERSON. 

and  the  sympathy  thenceforward  accorded  to  hia 
genius  in  continental  society  was  undoubtedly 
more  congenial  to  his  feelings  than  the  slight 
appreciation  he  received  from  English  critics. 

His  first  important  work  was  the  opera  '  Leila,' 
which  was  brought  out  at  Hamburg  with  great 
success  in  Feb.  1848.  From  this  opera  may  be 
instanced  a  striking  song  for  bass  voice,  'Thy 
heart,  O  man,  is  like  the  sea.'  Much  of  his 
music  at  this  time  was  published  under  the  nom 
de  plume  of  '  Edgar  Mansfeldt.' 

In  1852  appeared  his  best  work,  the  oratorio 
'Jerusalem.'  This  was  composed  for  the  Nor- 
wich Festival,  and  was  performed  there  on  Sept. 
23  in  that  year  with  remarkable  effect.  The 
overture,  the  airs  '  Of  the  rock  that  begat  thee ' 
and  *  0  that  my  head  were  waters,'  the  air  and 
chorus  'What  are  these,'  the  quintet  'Blessed 
are  the  dead,'  and  the  chorus  '  The  Eternal  God 
is  thy  refuge,'  are  some  of  the  most  interesting 
numbers.  The  oratorio  was  repeated  at  Exeter 
Hall  on  May  18,  1853,  by  the  'Harmonic 
Union,'  and  was  given  again  in  1862  at  Wiirtz- 
burg.  An  elaborate  criticism  of  'Jerusalem,' 
from  the  pen  of  Dr.  G.  A.  Macfarren,  was  pub- 
lished in  the  'Musical  Times'  of  Sept.  I,  1852. 

Pierson's  next  work  was  the  music  to  the 
second  part  of  Goethe's  'Faust,' composed  in  1854, 
which  added  greatly  to  his  reputation  in  Germany. 
It  was  repeatedly  performed  at  Hamburg,  and 
a  selection  from  it,  including  the  noble  chorus 
'Sound,  immortal  harp,'  was  given  at  the  Nor- 
wich Festival  of  1857.  In  acknowledgment  of 
the  merit  of  this  composition,  the  author  received 
the  Gold  Medal  for  Art  and  Science  from  the 
late  King  of  the  Belgians,  Leopold  I,  who  ac- 
cepted the  dedication  of  the  pianoforte  score. 
It  has  been  performed  several  times  at  Frankfort 
and  other  places,  on  successive  anniversaries  of 
Goethe's  birthday.  Pierson  was  requested  to 
write  for  the  Norwich  Festival  of  1869,  and 
offered  a  selection  from  a  second  oratorio,  'Heze- 
kiah.'  This  work,  unfortunately,  was  never 
completed ;  but  several  numbers  were  performed 
on  the  above-named  occasion  in  Sept.  1869. 
'  Contarini,'  an  opera  in  five  acts,  produced  at 
Hamburg  in  April  1872,  was  Pierson's  last  work 
on  a  large  scale. 

To  those  already  mentioned,  however,  must  be 
added  a  very  large  number  of  songs,  written  at 
different  dates,  and  bearing,  on  the  whole,  more 
than  any  other  of  his  works,  the  stamp  of  his 
characteristic  style  and  delicate  invention.  As 
good  examples  may  be  cited  '  Deep  in  my  soul,' 
'Thekla's  Lament,'  and  'All  my  heart's  thine 
own.'  His  spirited  part-song  'Ye  mariners  of 
England'  is  constantly  performed.  He  left  a 
vast  number  of  works  in  manuscript,  including 
several  overtures,  three  of  which — those  to '  Mac- 
beth,' 'As  you  like  it,'  and  'Romeo  and  Juliet,' 
have  been  performed  at  the  Crystal  Palace 
Concerts. 

He  died  at  Leipzig  Jan.  28,  1S73,  and  lies 
buried  in  the  churchyard  of  Sonning,  Berks. 
His  death  called  forth  remarkable  tributes  from 
the  German  musical  press,  showing   the  high 


PIERSON. 

estimation  in  which  he  is  held  in  the  Land  of 
Music.  A  Leipzig  journal  published  on  the  day 
after  his  death,  after  speaking  of  him  as  a  'great 
artist,  whose  strivings  were  ever  after  the  noblest 
ends,'  continues  as  follows :  '  Holding  no  musical 
appointment,  and  consequently  without  influence; 
highly  educated,  but,  after  the  fashion  of  true 
genius,  somewhat  of  a  recluse,  and  withal  unprac- 
tical, he  did  not  know  how  to  make  his  glorious 
works  valued.  He  showed  himself  seldom,  though 
his  appearance  was  poetic  and  imposing;  and  he 
was  such  a  player  on  both  organ  and  pianoforte 
as  is  rarely  met  with.'  [H.  P.] 

PIETRO  IL  GRANDE.  '  A  new  grand  his- 
torical opera ' ;  words  by  Desmond  Ryan  and 
Maggioni,  music  by  Jullien.  Produced  at  Covent 
Garden  Aug.  17,  1852.  [G.] 

PIFFERO  is  really  the  Italian  form  of  the 
English  word  Fife,  and  the  German  Pfeife.  In 
the  'Dizionario  della  Musica'  it  is  described  as 
a  small  flute  with  six  finger-holes  and  no  keys. 
But  the  term  is  also  commonly  used  to  denote  a 
rude  kind  of  oboe,  or  a  bagpipe  with  an  inflated 
sheepskin  for  reservoir,  common  in  Italy,  and 
occasionally  to  be  seen  about  the  streets  of  London, 
the  players  being  termed  Pifferari.  [See  PAS- 
TORAL Symphony,  vol.  ii.  p.  670  &.] 

Spohr,  in  his  Autobiography  (Dec.  5,  1816), 
quotes  a  tune  which  he  says  was  played  all  over 
Rome  at  that  season  by  Neapolitan  pipers,  one 
playing  the  melody  on  a  sort  of  '  coarse  powerful 
oboe,'  the  other  the  accompaniment  on  a  bagpipe 
sounding  like  three  clarinets  at  once.  We  give 
a  few  bars  as  a  specimen. 


PINSUTI. 


753 


It  is  a  very  different  tune  from  Handel's 
•Pastoral  Symphony.'  [W.H.S.] 

PIGGOTT,  Francis,  Mus.  Baa,  was  appointed 
Jan.  18,  1686,  organist  of  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  which  office  he  resigned  in  1687.  He  was 
chosen,  May  25,  1688,  first  organist  of  the  Temple 
Church.  On  Dec.  II,  1695,  he  was  sworn  organist 
extraordinary  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  on  March 
24,  1697,  on  the  death  of  Dr.  Child,  organist  in 
ordinary.  He  graduated  at  Cambridge  in  1 698. 
He  composed  some  anthems,  now  forgotten,  and 
died  May  15,1 704.  He  was  succeeded  as  organist 
of  the  Temple  by  his  son,  Francis,  afterwards 
organist  of  St.  George's,  Chapel,  Windsor,  who 
became  possessed  of  a  large  fortune  on  the  death 
of  his  relation,  Dr.  John  Pelling,  rector  of  St. 
Anne's,  Soho,  and  died  in  1736.  [W.H.H.] 

VOL.  II.  FT.  12. 


PILGRIME  VON  MEKKA,  DIE.  A  comic 
opera,  translated  from  Dancourt's  'Rencontre -im- 
preVue,'  set  to  music  by  Gluck,  produced  at 
SchOnbrunn  1766,  and  revived  1780.  One  air  in 
it, '  Unser  dummer  Pobel  meint,'  Mozart  has  res- 
cued from  oblivion  by  writing  a  set  of  variations 
upon  it  (Kochel,  No.  455).  He  improvised  them 
at  Madame  Lange's  concert,  March  22,  1783,  in 
Gluck's  presence.  [G.1 

PILKINGTON,  Francis,  Mus.  Baa,  Oxon. 
1595.  was  a  lutenist  and  member  of  the  choir 
of  Chester  Cathedral.  In  1605  he  published 
'  The  First  Booke  of  Songs  or  Ayres  of  4  parts : 
with  Tableture  for  the  Lute  or  Orpharion,  with 
the  Violl  de  Gamba.'  In  161 3  he  issued  'The 
First  Set  of  Madrigals  and  Pastorals  of  3,  4  and 
5  parts,'  and  in  1614  contributed  two  pieces  to 
Leighton's  '  Teares  or  Lamentacions.'  In  1624 
he  published  '  The  Second  Set  of  Madrigals  and 
Pastorals  of  3,  4,  5  and  6  parts ;  apt  for  Violls 
and  Voyces ' ;  on  the  title  of  which  he  describes 
himself  as  •  Chaunter  of  the  Cathedrall  ...  in 
Chester.'  A  part-song  by  him,  'Rest,  sweet 
Nymphs,'  is  included  by  Mr.  Hullah  in  his 
•  Vocal  Scores.'  [ W.  H.  H] 

PINAFORE,  H.M.S.  A  comic  opera  in  2 
acts ;  words  by  W.  S.  Gilbert,  music  by  Arthur 
Sullivan.  Produced  at  the  Opera  Comique, 
Strand,  May  25, 1878.  The  success  of  this  piece 
has  been  prodigious  :  in  London  it  celebrated  its 
209th  night  at  the  Opera  Comique  on  the  24th 
Oct.  1880  ;  and  in  America  no  piece  is  ever  re- 
membered to  have  had  such  an  extraordinary 
and  long  continued  reception.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  on  the  stage  at  four  theatres  at  once,  in 
New  York  alone,  for  months  together.  [G.] 

PINSUTI,  CiRO  (II  cavaliere),  native  of 
Sinalunga,  Siena,  where  he  was  born  May  9, 
1829.  He  was  grounded  in  music  and  the  piano 
by  his  father;  at  ten  he  played  in  public;  at 
eleven,  being  in  Rome,  he  was  made  honorary 
member  of  the  Accademica  Filarmonica,  and 
was  taken  to  England  by  Mr.  Henry  Drum- 
mond,  M.P.,  in  whose  house  he  resided  until 
1845,  studying  the  pianoforte  and  composition 
under  Cipriani  Potter,  and  the  violin  under  H. 
Blagrove.  In  1845  he  returned  home,  and 
entered  the  Conservatorio  at  Bologna,  where  he 
attracted  the  notice  of  Rossini,  and  became  his 
private  pupil.  In  1847  he  took  his  degree  at 
Bologna,  and  remained  there  another  year  under 
Rossini's  eye.  In  1848  he  went  back  to  England 
and  started  as  a  teacher  of  singing,  dividing  his 
time  between  London  and  Newcastle,  where  he 
founded  a  Musical  Society  which  still  exists. 
Since  that  time  Mr.  Pinsuti's  head-quarters  have 
been  in  London,  though  he  keeps  up  his  connection 
with  Italy  by  frequent  visits.  Thus  he  brought 
out  his  first  opera,  '  II  Mercante  di  Venezia,'  at 
Bologna,  Nov.  8,  1873,  and  a  second,  'Mattia 
Corvino,'  at  the  Scala  at  Milan,  March  24, 1877. 
Both  operas  have  been  very  successful  in  Italy, 
and  the  theatre  at  Sinalunga  is  now  the  '  Teatro 
Ciro  Pinsuti.'  In  1 859  he  composed  the  Te  Deum 
for  the  annexation  of  Tuscany  to  the  Italian 
3C 


754 


PINSUTI. 


kingdom,  and  was  decorated  with  the  order  of 
SS. -Maurice  and  Lazarus.  In  1878  King  Hum- 
bert further  created  him  a  knight  of  the  Italian 
crown.  In  18  71  he  was  selected  to  represent 
Italy  at  the  opening  festival  of  the  International 
Exhibition,  and  contributed  a  hymn  in  Ab  to 
words  by  Lord  Houghton,  beginning,  '  0  people 
of  this  favoured  land.' 

In  London  Mr.  Pinsuti  is  well  and  widely 
known.  Since  1856  he  has  been  professor  of 
singing  at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music.  In  addi- 
tion to  a  large  circle  of  pupils  of  all  ranks,  many 
eminent  artists  have  profited  by  his  counsels,  as 
Grisi,  Bosio,  Patti,  Ronconi,  Graziani,  Mario,  etc. 
His  works  are  largely  diffused,  and  his  charm- 
ing part-songs,  full  of  melody  and  spirit,  are  great 
favourites  with  the  singing  societies  of  England. 
The  list  of  his  published  compositions  embraces 
more  than  230  songs,  English  and  Italian,  35 
duets,  14  trios,  45  part-songs  and  choruses,  and 
30  PF.  pieces,  the  Te  Deum  and  the  opera  'II 
Mercante  di  Venezia'  already  mentioned.     [G.] 

PINTO,  Thomas,  son  of  a  Neapolitan  of  good 
family,  born  in  England,  at  11  played  Corelli's 
concertos,  and  led  the  concerts  in  St.  Cecilia's 
Hall  in  Edinburgh.  His  reading  at  sight  was 
marvellous ;  he  would  even  turn  the  book  upside 
down,  and  play  correctly  from  it  in  that  posi- 
tion. His  great  gifts  inclined  him  to  careless- 
ness, from  which  he  was  fortunately  roused  by  the 
appearance  of  Giardini.  After  1750  he  played 
frequently  as  leader  and  soloist  in  benefit  con- 
certs, at  the  Worcester  and  Hereford  Festivals, 
at  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  and,  after  Giardini,  at 
the  King's  Theatre.  His  first  wife  was  Sibilla 
Gronamann,  daughter  of  a  German  pastor ;  after 
her  death  he  married  (1766)  Miss  Brent,  the 
celebrated  singer,  who  died  in  1802.  [See  Ap- 
pendix.] A  speculation  with  regard  to  Maryle- 
bone  Gardens,  into  which  he  had  entered  with 
Dr.  Arnold,  failed,  and  he  took  refuge  in  Scot- 
land, and  finally  in  Ireland,  where  he  died  in 
1773.  A  daughter  by  his  first  wife  married  a 
Londoner  named  Sauters,  and  had  a  son 

George  Frederic,  born  Sept.  25,  1786,  at 
Lambeth,  who  took  his  grandfather's  name.  He 
early  showed  a  decided  talent  for  music,  and  the 
education  and  progress  of  the  pretty  and  lively 
boy  were  watched  over  with  the  greatest  interest 
by  his  gifted  grandmother.  His  first  teachers 
were  soon  outstripped,  and  then  Salomon  proved 
a  first-rate  master  and  true  friend.  From  1796 
to  1 800  the  young  Pinto  frequently  appeared  at 
Salomon's  concerts,  and  afterwards  under  his 
wing  at  Bath,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Winchester, 
and  specially  in  Scotland.  A  second  and  longer 
tour  extended  to  Paris.  Besides  playing  the 
violin,  he  sang  with  taste,  and  made  consider- 
able progress  on  the  pianoforte,  for  which  he 
composed,  among  other  music,  a  sonata  dedicated 
to  his  friend  John  Field.  In  1805  his  health, 
never  strong,  suddenly  broke  down,  having  been 
undermined  by  excesses,  and  he  died  at  Little 
Chelsea,  March  23,  1806.  His  remains  lie  in 
St.  Margaret's,  Westminster,  beneath  the  same 
monument  with  those  of  his  grandmother.    Pinto's 


PIPES,  VIBRATION  OF  AIR  IN. 

technique  was  perfect,  and  his  tone  full,  power- 
ful and  touching.  Salomon,  a  shrewd  observer, 
declared  that  if  he  had  only  been  able  to  con- 
trol his  passions,  he  might  have  been  a  second 
Mozart.  [C.F.P.] 

PIOZZI,  Gabkiel,  a  Florentine  of  good  birth, 
who,  prior  to  1781,  had  established  himself  in 
Bath  as  a  music  master.  He  numbered  among 
his  pupils  the  daughters  of  Henry  Thrale,  the 
opulent  brewer,  and  whilst  engaged  in  instructii 
them  won  the  heart  of  their  widowed  mother, 
whom  he  married  in  1784,  a  proceeding  which 
drew  down  upon  the  lady  the  wrath  of  Dr. 
Johnson,  who  had  been  for  20  years  the  cherished 
guest  of  Thrale  and  herself.  After  his  marriage 
Piozzi  visited  Italy  with  his  wife,  and,  returning 
to  England,  lived  with  her  in  uninterrupted 
happiness  until  his  death,  which  occurred  at  his 
residence,  Brynbela,  Denbighshire,  in  March, 
1809.  A  Canzonet  of  his  composition  for  a  so- 
prano voice,  called  'La Contradizzione,'  is  printed 
in  the  Musical  Library,  vol.  iv.  [W.H.H.] 

PIPE  and  TABOR.  The  pipe  formerly  used 
with  the  tabor  was  of  the  old  English  pattern, 
somewhat  larger  than  the  modern  flageolet, 
blown  at  the  end,  as  already  described  under 
Flute,  and  played  by  the  left  hand.  The  tabor 
was  a  diminutive  drum,  without  snares,  hung 
by  a  short  string  to  the  waist  or  left  arm, 
and  tapped  with  a  small  drumstick.  There  is 
a  woodcut  of  William  Kemp  the  actor  playir 
pipe  and  tabor  in  his  Morris  dance  to  Norwich, 
and  another  of  Tarleton,  the  Elizabethan  jester, 
in  the  same  attitude.  The  writer  is  informed  by 
Mr.  William  Chappell  that  Hardman,  a  music- 
Beller  at  York,  described  the  instruments  to  him 
fifty  years  ago  as  above,  adding  that  he  had  sold 
them,  and  that  country  people  still  occasionally 
bought  them.  [W.H.S.] 

PIPES,  VIBRATION  OF  AIR  IN,  may  be 

illustrated  by  a  simple  experiment.  If  a  piece  of 
stout  tubing,  from  a  foot  to  two  feet  long,  be 
taken,  of  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter,  its  end 
smoothed  and  rounded,  it  will  furnish  all  the 
apparatus  required.  Holding  it  in  one  hand,  and 
striking  the  open  end  smartly  with  the  palm  of 
the  other,  sufficient  vibration  will  be  excited  in 
the  contained  air  to  produce  a  distinct  musical 
note,  often  lasting  a  second  or  more,  long  enough 
for  its  pitch  to  be  heard  and  determined.  If, 
after  striking,  the  hand  be  quickly  removed,  a 
second  note  is  heard  to  follow  the  first  at  the 
interval  of  an  octave  above.  In  the  former  case 
the  pipe  vibrates  as  what  is  termed  a  '  stopped 
pipe '  with  one  end  closed,  in  the  latter  case  as  an 
'  open  pipe.'  All  the  various  forms  of  pipe  used 
in  the  organ  and  elsewhere,  differ  from  this  rudi- 
mentary form  only  in  having  a  more  complex 
mechanism  for  originating  and  maintaining  the 
musical  vibration. 

When  both  ends  of  the  tube  are  open,  a  pulse 
travelling  backwards  and  forwards  within  it  is 
completely  restored  to  its  original  state  after 
traversing  twice  the  length  of  the  tube,  suffering 
in  the  process  two  reflections ;  but  when  one  end 


PIPES,  VIBRATION  OF  AIR  IN. 

is  closed,  a  double  passage  is  not  sufficient  to 
complete  the  cycle  of  changes.  The  original 
state  cannot  be  recovered  until  two  reflections 
have  occurred  from  the  open  end,  and  the  pulse 
has  travelled  over  four  times  the  length  of  the 
pipe.  To  make  the  unstopped  tube  in  the  above 
experiment  yield  the  same  note  as  the  stopped,  it 
would  be  necessary  to  give  it  double  the  length. 
This  law  is  universal,  and  may  easily  be  ex- 
plained. 

Vibration  may  be  set  up  in  the  column  of  air 
otherwise  than  by  the  blow  above  described.  If 
a  gentle  stream  of  breath  from  the  lips  be  sent 
obliquely  across  the  open  end  of  either  an  open 
or  a  stopped  tube,  an  audible  note  results ;  indeed 
a  common  instrument,  the  Pandean  pipe,  acts  on 
this  principle.  [See  Pandean  Pipes.]  This  may 
be  also  seen  in  the  Nay  or  Egyptian  Flute 
figured  under  that  heading.  In  the  organ  pipe, 
a  more  complicated  arrangement  occurs.  From 
the  wind-chest  a  tube  leads  into  a  cavity,  the 
only  outlet  of  which  is  a  linear  crack  forming  the 
foot  of  the  pipe.  Just  over  this  fissure,  the  wood 
or  metal  is  cut  away  so  as  to  leave  a  feather- 
edged  portion  communicating  with  the  interior 
of  the  pipe,  and  exactly  splitting  the  stream  of 
wind.  An  explanation  has  of  late  been  tendered 
as  to  the  action  here  set  up.  The  flat  plate  of 
compressed  air  blown  through  the  slit  is  compared 
to  the  elastic  material  of  a  vibrating  reed.  In 
passing  across  the  upper  orifice  it  momentarily 
produces  a  slight  exhaustive  or  suctional  effect, 
tending  to  rarify  the  air  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
pipe.  This,  by  the  elasticity  of  air,  soon  sets  up 
a  corresponding  compression,  and  the  two  allied 
states  react  upon  the  original  lamina  of  air 
issuing  from  the  bellows,  causing  it  to  com- 
municate its  motion  to  that  within  the  pipe. 
Schneebeli  drove  air  rendered  opaque  by  smoke 
through  a  moveable  slit.  When  it  passed  en- 
tirely outside  the  pipe,  no  sound  was  produced, 
but  appeared  when  the  issuing  sheet  was  gently 
blown  on  at  right  angles  to  its  direction,  con- 
tinuing until  a  counter  current  was  produced  by 
blowing  down  the  upper  orifice  of  the  pipe. 
Little  or  no  smoke  penetrated  into  the  pipe.  If 
the  sheet  of  air  passed  entirely  into  the  pipe 
there  was  also  no  sound,  but  on  blowing  into 
the  upper  end,  it  was  produced.  He  concludes 
that  the  LuftLamelle  or  air-lamina  acts  a  part 
analogous  to  that  of  the  reed  in  reed-pipes. 

In  all  cases  the  air  may  assume  several  modes 
of  undulation.  In  the  Open  Pipe  the  embouchure 
at  which  the  wind  enters  is  obviously  a  place  of 
greatest  motion,  corresponding  to  the  ventral 
segment  of  a  string.  So  also  will  be  the  open 
upper  extremity.  Half-way  between  these,  at 
the  point  where  the  two  opposite  motions  meet 
and  neutralise  each  other,  will  be  a  node  or 
place  of  rest.  In  this  instance  the  pipe  will  give 
its  lowest  or  fundamental  note.  If  the  force  of 
the  current  be  increased,  a  shorter  wave  may  be 
set  in  action,  a  node  being  established  at  one- 
fourth  of  the  whole  length  from  the  embouchure, 
and  another  at  the  same  distance  from  the  top. 
The  pipe  then  speaks  its  first  harmonic,  the 


PIRATA,  1L. 


755 


octave  of  the  fundamental.  By  a  further  wind- 
pressure  three  nodes  may  form,  the  first  one- 
sixth  from  the  mouth,  the  third  at  a  similar 
distance  from  the  top,  and  the  second  half-way 
between  the  two,  the  pipe  giving  its  second  har- 
monic, a  twelfth  above  the  foundation. 

In  Stopped  Pipes  a  different  law  obtains ;  fop 
the  waves  have  clearly  to  traverse  the  length  of 
the  tube  twice,  instead  of  once,  being  reflected  by 
the  closed  end.  This  fact  influences  the  position 
of  the  nodes.  When  the  fundamental  note  is 
struck,  the  only  node  is  at  the  stopped  end.  In 
sounding  the  first  possible  harmonic,  another  node 
is  set  up  at  one-third  of  the  length  from  the  open 
end.  With  the  second  harmonic,  the  first  node 
forms  at  one-fifth  of  the  length  from  the  open  end, 
the  second  dividing  the  lower  four-fifths  into  two 
equal  parts.  In  any  case  the  stopped  end  must 
be  a  node ;  so  that  the  second  form  of  vibration 
of  the  open  pipe,  and  all  others  which  would 
render  the  stopper  the  centre  of  a  loop  or  ventral 
segment,  are  excluded..  Hence  the  harmonics  of  a 
stopped  pipe  follow  the  series  of  odd  numbers,  1,3, 
5,  etc.  These  relations  were  discovered  by  Daniel 
Bernouilli,  and  are  generally  known  as  the  Laws 
op  Bernouilli.  In  both  stopped  and  open  pipes 
the  distance  from  an  open  end  to  the  nearest 
node  is  a  quarter  wave-length  of  the  note  emitted. 
In  the  open  pipe  there  is  no  further  limitation ; 
but  in  the  case  of  the  stopped  pipe,  the  nearest 
node  to  the  mouth  must  also  be  distant  an  even 
number  of  quarter  wave-lengths  from  the  stopped 
end,  which  is  itself  a  node. 

These  laws  hold  good  with  pipes  of  which  the 
bore  is  cylindrical  or  prismatic  with  parallel 
sides.  It  was  shown  by  Wheatstone  that  a  pipe 
of  conical  bore,  while  giving  out  a  similar  funda- 
mental note  to  one  of  the  same  length  of  cylin- 
drical shape,  differs  as  regards  the  position  of  the 
nodes  when  emitting  harmonic  sounds.  The  first 
node  in  a  conical  pipe  is  not  In  the  middle,  but 
some  distance  towards  the  smaller  end.  It  ap- 
pears from  modern  observations  that  the  laws  of 
Bernouilli  require  correction.  If  an  open  pipe  be 
stopped  at  one  end,  its  note  is  not  exactly  an 
octave  below  that  given  by  it  when  open,  but 
about  a  major  seventh.  According  to  theory, 
the  hypothesis  is  made  that  the  change  from 
constraint  to  a  condition  of  no  constraint  takes 
place  suddenly  at  the  point  where  the  wave-sys- 
tem leaves  the  pipe.  This  is  not  the  case,  and 
practically  the  open  pipe  is  equivalent  to  one  a 
little  longer  than  its  actual  length,  by  about  635 
of  the  radius  of  the  pipe  for  the  open  end,  and 
•59  for  the  mouth.  Kundt  has  made  some 
valuable  researches  on  the  influence  of  the  di- 
ameter of  a  pipe  on  the  velocity  of  sound  within 
it,  which  are  beyond  our  present  limits.  They 
are  however  fullv  discussed  in  Lord  Rayleigh's 
*  Theory  of  Sound,'  vol.  ii.  p.  55.  [W.  H.  S.] 

PIRATA,  IL.  Opera  in  two  acts ;  libretto 
by  Romani,  music  by  Bellini.  Produced  at  the 
Scala,  Milan,  in  the  autum  of  1827 ;  in  Paris  at 
Theatre  Italien,  Feb.  1,  1832  ;  in  London,  at 
the  King's  Theatre,  April  17,  1830.  \G.\ 

3Ca 


756        PIRATES  OF  PENZANCE. 

PIRATES  OF  PENZANCE,  THE.  A  comic 
opera  in  2  acts ;  words  by  W.  S.  Gilbert,  music  by 
Arthur  Sullivan.  Produced  at  the  Fifth  Avenue 
Theatre,  New  York,  Dec.  31,  1879  ;  and  at  the 
Opera  Comique,  London,  April  3,  1880.         [G.] 

PISARI,  Pasquale  (called  Pizari  in  Santini's 
catalogue),  eminent  church  composer,  and,  accord- 
ing to  Padre  Martini,  'the  Palestrina  of  the  18th 
century,*  son  of  a  mason,  born  in  Rome  in  1725. 
A  musician  named  Gasparino,  struck  by  his  beau- 
tiful voice  as  a  child,  urged  him  to  devote  himself 
to  music.  His  voice  developed  afterwards  into  a 
fine  bass,  but  he  took  less  to  singing  than  to  com- 
position, which  he  studied  under  Giovanni  Biordi. 
In  1752  he  was  admitted  into  the  Pope's  chapel 
as  supernumerary,  and  remained  a  member  till  his 
death  in  1778.  His  poverty  was  extreme,  and 
many,  perhaps  apocryphal,  stories  are  told  of  his 
writing  his  compositions  with  ink  made  from 
charcoal  and  water,  etc.  His  finest  work  is  a 
'  Dixit'  in  16  real  parts,  sung  at  the  SS.  Apostoli 
in  1 770  by  150  performers.  A  Kyrie  and  Gloria 
in  48  parts  by  Ballabene  were  performed  on  the 
same  occasion.  Burney  was  in  Rome  the  same 
year,  and  speaks  with  astonishment  of  the  learn- 
ing displayed  in  the  'Dixit '  (Present  State,  etc , 
iii.  383).  It  was  composed  for  the  court  of  Lisbon, 
together  with  a  service  for  every  day  in  the  year, 
but  the  payment  was  so  long  delayed  that  by  the 
time  it  arrived  Pisari  had  died,  and  his  nephew,  a 
journeyman  mason,  inherited  it.  The  singers  of 
the  Pope's  chapel,  disappointed  with  Tartini's 
*  Miserere,'  requested  Pisari  to  write  one,  which 
he  did  in  9  parts,  but  it  was  a  comparative  failure. 
Baini  conjectures  that  the  arduous  nature  of  his 
task  for  the  King  of  Portugal  had  exhausted  his 
powers.  For  the  Pope's  chapel  he  composed 
several  masses,  psalms,  motets  in  8  parts,  two 
Te  Deums  in  8  parts,  and  one  in  4,  which  Baini 
pronounces  a  lastingly  beautiful  work.  San- 
tini  had  twelve  large  church  compositions  by 
Pisari ;  for  full  list  see  Fe"tis.  [F.  G.] 

PISARONI,  Benedetta  Rosamunda,  an  ex- 
cellent contralto  singer,  was  born  at  Piacenza, 
Feb.  6,  1793.  Her  instructors  were  Pino,  Mos- 
chini,  and  Marches!.  Her  first  public  appearances 
were  made  at  Bergamo  in  181 1,  in  the  rdles  of 
Griselda,  Camilla,  and  others,  popular  at  that 
period.  Her  voice  was  then  a  high  soprano,  and 
her  accomplishments  as  a  singer  so  great  that,  in 
spite  of  a  singularly  unprepossessing  appearance, 
she  excited  great  admiration,  and  her  fame  spread 
rapidly  all  over  Italy.  A  serious  illness  which  she 
had  at  Parma,  in  1 8 1 3,  resulted  in  the  loss  of  some 
of  her  upper  notes,  which  forced  her  to  abandon 
her  old  soprano  parts.  She  then  applied  herself 
to  cultivating  the  lower  register  of  her  voice, 
which  gained  considerably  in  extent  and  volume, 
while  the  artistic  resources  she  displayed  were  so 
great  that  the  career  by  which  she  is  remembered 
began  in  fact  at  this  time.  Some  few  of  her 
notes  had  always  a  guttural,  unpleasant  sound, 
but  in  spite  of  this  she  was  universally  admitted 
to  be  the  first  Italian  contralto.  She  appeared 
at  Paris,  in  1827,  as  Arsace  in  '  Semiramide.' 
Fe*tis  writes  of  this  occasion:    'Never  shall  I 


PISTON. 

forget  the  effect  produced  on  the  audience  when, 
advancing  up  the  stage  with  her  back  to  the 
public,  contemplating  the  interior  of  the  temple, 
she  enunciated  in  a  formidable  voice,  admirably 
produced,  the  phrase '  Eccomi  alfine  in  Babilonia !' 
A  transport  of  applause  responded  to  these  vigor- 
ous accents,  this  broad  style,  so  rare  in  our  days; 
but  when  the  singer  turned  round,  displaying 
features  horribly  disfigured  by  small-pox,  a  sort 
of  shudder  of  horror  succeeded  to  the  first  enthu- 
siasm, many  among  the  spectators  shutting  their 
eyes  so  as  to  hear  without  being  condemned  to 
see.  But  before  the  end  of  the  opera  her  per- 
formance had  gained  a  complete  victory.  After 
a  few  months  the  public  thought  no  more  about 
Madame  Pisaroni's  face,  dominated  as  all  were 
by  her  wonderful  talent.' 

She  herself  was  so  sensible  of  her  physical 
defects  that  she  never  accepted  an  engagement 
without  first  sending  her  portrait  to  the  manager, 
that  he  might  be  prepared  exactly  for  what  he 
was  undertaking. 

After  singing  in  'La  Donna  del  Lago'  and 
'L'ltaliana  in  Algeri,'  displaying  eminent  dra- 
matic as  well  as  vocal  qualities,  she  appeared 
in  London  in  1829,  but  was  not  appreciated. 
For  two  years  afterwards  she  sang  at  Cadiz, 
and  then  returned  to  Italy.  Here  she  failed  to 
find  the  favour  shown  her  in  past  days.  Con- 
tralto parts  were  out  of  fashion ;  the  had,  too, 
earned  an  independent  fortune.  She  retired 
accordingly  into  private  life,  and  died  at  Piacenza, 
Aug.  6,  1872.  [F.A.M.] 

PISTON.  A  name  given  to  one  form  of  valve 
used  in  brass  instruments  for  altering  the  course 
of  the  vibrating  column  of  air,  and  thus  pro- 
ducing alteration  of  pitch.  The  other  form  is 
termed  a  rotatory  valve.  The  piston  consists  ot" 
a  vertical  tube  inserted  in  the  main  air-way; 
usually,  but  not  necessarily,  at  right  angles  to 
it.  Four  orifices  communicate  with  it  laterally ; 
two  belonging  to  the  original  bore ;  two  con- 
nected with  a  bye-path  or  channel  of  greater 
length  termed  the  '  valve  slide.'  In  the  vertical 
tube  itself  slides  an  air-tight  cylinder  or  piston, 
pressed  upwards  by  means  of  a  spiral  spring 
beneath  it,  and  prolonged  above  into  a  circular 
button  or  finger-piece  which  can  be  depressed  at 
pleasure.  Across  the  cylinder  are  two  oblique 
perforations  occupying  its  central  portion.  In  a 
state  of  rest,  one  of  these  is  continuous  on  either 
side  with  the  bore  of  the  instrument,  and  the 
bye  path  is  obstructed.  But  when  the  finger- 
piece  is  depressed  in  opposition  to  the  action  of 
the  spiral  spring,  the  former  is  closed,  and  com- 
munication is  established  by  the  other  between 
the  main  bore  and  the  valve  slide  or  channel. 
The  ordinary  coiiiet  d  pistons,  so  named  from  this 
ingenious  contrivance,  usually  possesses  three 
of  these  pistons  worked  by  the  first  three  fingers 
of  the  right  hand,  the  musical  effect  of  which 
has  been  described  under  that  title.  [Cobnet, 
vol.  i.  p.  403.]  The  Euphonium  or  bass  saxhorn 
is  generally  furnished  with  a  fourth  valve  for  the 
left  hand.  The  series  may,  however,  be  extended 
to  six  or  more,  though  it  is  rare  to  see  the  above 


PISTON. 

numbers  exceeded.  The  French  horn,  from  the 
closeness  of  its  harmonic  sounds,  hardly  needs 
more  than  two,  respectively  depressing  the  open 
note  a  tone  and  a  semitone :  these  are  usually 
attached  to  a  removable  slide,  and  can  be  re- 
placed by  a  plain  metal  tube.  [See  the  wood- 
cut under  Hoen,  vol.  i.  p.  747.]  The  early  pistons 
were  of  complicated  plan,  causing  several  abrupt 
angles  in  the  air-way,  which  to  a  certain  extent 
interfered  with  the  purity  and  freedom  of  the 
tone.  Modern  improvements  have  to  a  great 
degree  removed  this  defect;  though  there  still 
exists  a  prejudice  against  their  use,  especially 
among  players  of  the  French  horn. 

In  the  rotatory  valve  the  vertical  piston  is 
replaced  by  a  horizontal  fourway  cock,  :dso  kept 
in  position  by  a  spring,  moved  by  a  lever  like 
that  of  a  clarinet  or  flute,  but  possessing  on  its 
circumference  the  same  pair  of  orifices,  and 
establishing  exactly  the  same  connexions  between 
tube  and  slide  as  does  the  piston.  The  rotatory 
valve,  when  really  well  made,  is  perhaps  the  more 
perfect  of  the  two  as  a  mechanical  contriv- 
ance ;  but  it  is  somewhat  more  liable  to  stick 
fast,  and  less  easily  accessible  for  cleaning  than 
the  piston-valve.  The  device  is  quite  of  recent 
invention,  due  in  great  measure  to  M.  Adolphe 
Sax,  and  has  completely  superseded  the  older 
contrivance  of  keys,  as  in  the  key-bugle,  ophi- 
cleide,  and  the  ancient  serpent.  It  is  liable  to 
considerable  imperfections  of  intonation  from  the 
fact  that  it  does  not  distinguish  between  major 
and  minor  tones  and  semitones ;  also  from  the 
different  theoretical  length  of  the  valve-slides 
due  to  alterations  of  key  or  of  crook.  Mr.  Bas- 
Bett  has  ingeniously  added  to  the  trumpet  an 
extra  valve,  which  he  terms  the  '  comma  valve ' 
or  piston,  and  which  corrects  the  former  error  ; 
the  latter  must  be  left  to  the  ear  of  the  per- 
former, and  is  often  sadly  neglected.  [W.  H.  S.] 
PITCH.  This  word,  in  its  general  sense,  re- 
fers to  the  position  of  any  sound  in  the  musical 
scale  of  acuteness  and  gravity,  this  being  deter- 
mined by  the  corresponding  vibration-number, 
i.  e.  the  number  of  double  vibrations  per  second 
which  will  produce  that  sound.  Thus  when  we 
speak  of  one  sound  being  '  higher  in  pitch '  than 
another,  we  mean  that  the  vibrations  producing 
the  former  are  more  rapid  than  those  producing 
the  latter,  so  giving  what  is  recognised  as  a 
higher  sound.  The  general  nature  of  this  rela- 
tion may  be  studied  in  works  on  acoustics  ;  it  is 
sufficient  here  to  state  that,  as  a  matter  of  prac- 
tice, when  the  exact  pitch  of  any  musical  sound 
has  to  be  defined,  this  is  most  properly  done  by 
stating  its  vibration-number. 

Standard  of  Pitch.  It  becomes,  then,  an  im- 
portant practical  question  for  the  musician,  what 
is  the  exact  pitch  corresponding  to  the  written 
notes  he  is  accustomed  to  use  1  or,  to  put  the 
question  in  a  simpler  form,  what  is  the  true  vi- 
bration-number attached  to  any  one  given  note, 


PITCH. 


757 


say,  for  example,  treble  C 


;  for  if  this 


is  known,  the  true  pitch  of  any  other  note  can 
be  calculated  from  it  by  well-known  rules. 


This  opens  the  vexed  question  of  what  is 
called  the  'Standard  of  Pitch.'  According  to 
reason  and  common  sense  there  ought  to  be  some 
agreement  among  the  musicians  of  the  world  as 
to  what  musical  note  should  be  denoted  by  a 
certain  musical  sign  ;  but  unfortunately  there  is 
no  such  agreement,  and  the  question  is  therefore 
still  undetermined.  It  has  been  much  debated,1 
but  it  must  suffice  here  to  state  some  of  the  more 
important  facts  that  have  been  elicited  in  the 
discussion. 

We  have  no  positive  data  as  to  the  pitch  used 
in  the  earliest  music  of  our  present  form,  but  we 
may  arrive  at  some  idea  of  it  by  inference.  The 
two  octaves  of  Pythagoras's  Greek  scale  must 
have  corresponded  with  the  compass  of  male 
voices,  and  when  Guido  added  the  Gamma  (G), 
one  tone  below  the  Proslambanomenos  of  the 
Greeks,  we  may  fairly  assume  that  it  expressed 
the  lowest  note  that  could  be  comfortably  taken 
by  ordinary  voices  of  the  bass  kind.  This  is  a 
matter  of  physiology ,  and  is  known  to  be  somewhere 
about  90  to  100  vibrations  per  second ;  according 
to  which  the  treble  C,  two  octaves  and  a  fourth 
higher,  would  lie  between  480  and  532. 

At  a  later  period  some  information  of  a  more 
positive  kind  is  obtained  by  organ  pipes,  respect- 
ing the  dimensions  of  which  evidence  exists ;  and 
it  is  found  that  the  pitch  varied  considerably, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  music  used,  there 
being  very  different  pitches  for  religious  and 
secular  purposes  respectively.  The  inconvenience 
of  this  however  seems  to  have  been  found  out,  and 
early  in  the  1 7th  century  an  attempt  was  made 
to  introduce  a  Mean  Pilch  which  should  reconcile 
the  requirements  of  the  church  with  those  of  the 
chamber.  It  was  about  a  whole  tone  above  the 
flattest,  and  a  minor  third  below  the  highest 
pitch  used.  The  effort  to  introduce  this  was 
successful,  and  the  evidence  shows  that  from  this 
date  for  about  two  centuries,  down  to  about  the 
death  of  Beethoven,  the  pitch  in  use  was  toler- 
ably uniform.  Mr.  Ellis  gives  a  long  list  of 
examples  taken  at  various  dates  over  this  period, 
varying  for  A,  from  41 5  to  429,  or  for  C  from  498 
to  515  vibrations.  This  is  an  extreme  range  of 
only  about  half  a  semitone,  which,  considering 
the  imperfect  nature  of  the  means  then  prac- 
ticable of  obtaining  identity  and  uniformity,  is 
remarkably  satisfactory.  During  this  period 
lived  and  wrote  all  the  greatest  musicians  we 
know,  including  Bach,  Handel,  Purcell,  Haydn, 
Mozart,  Beethoven,  Weber,  Schubert,  and  partly 
Spohr,  Mendelssohn,  and  Rossini.  That  is  to  say, 
the  heroes  of  music,  the  founders  and  perfecters  of 
modern  musical  art,  all  thought  out  their  music 
and  arranged  it  to  be  played  and  sung  in  this 
pitch.  This  is  therefore  emphatically  the  Clasti- 
cal  Pitch  of  music.  And  singularly  enough,  it 
agrees  with  the  presumptive  determination  we 
have  made  of  the  pitch  that  must  have  been  used 
in  the  earliest  times. 

But,  unhappily,  this  satisfactory  state  of  things 
was  disturbed  by  influences  arising  from  modern 

1  The  mo«t  thorough  Investigation  of  thU  subject  will  be  found  In 
two  papers  read  before  the  Society  of  Arts,  Mar  12. 1S77,  and  March  S 
US80,  bj  Mr.  A.  J.  Kills,  FJLS. 


758 


PITCH. 


progress.  The  orchestra  began  to  assume  greater 
importance  as  regards  its  wind  element,  new  and 
improved  wind  instruments  being  introduced,  and 
the  use  of  them  being  much  extended.  This  led 
to  a  constant  desire  for  louder  and  more  exciting 
effects,  and  both  makers  and  users  of  wind  in- 
struments soon  perceived  that  such  effects  might 
be  enhanced  by  raising  slightly  the  pitch  of  the 
sounds.  The  wind  instruments  were  of  course 
the  standards  in  an  orchestra,  and  so  a  gradual 
rise  crept  in,  which  both  strings  and  voices  were 
obliged  to  follow.  The  conductors,  who  ought  in 
the  interests  of  good  music  to  have  checked  this, 
were  either  ignorant  of,  or  indifferent  to,  the 
mischief  that  was  being  done,  until  at  length  it 
assumed  alarming  proportions.  In  1878  the  opera 
band  at  Covent  Garden  were  playing  at  about 
A  =  450  or  0  =  540,  being  a  rise  of  a  semitone 
above  the  '  classical  pitch '  used  down  to  Bee- 
thoven's day. 

Such  a  change  was  attended  with  many  evils. 
It  altered  the  character  of  the  best  composi- 
tions ;  it  tended  to  spoil  the  performance  and 
ruin  the  voices  of  the  best  singers  ;  and  it  threw 
the  musical  world  into  confusion  from  the  un- 
certainty as  to  the  practical  meaning  of  the 
symbols  used;  and  all  for  no  object  whatever, 
as  no  one  could  affirm  that  the  new  pitch  was 
on  any  ground  better  than  the  old  one.  Accord- 
ingly strong  remonstrances  were  expressed  from 
time  to  time,  and  efforts  were  made  either  to 
restore  the  original  pitch,  or  at  least  to  stop  its 
further  rise,  and  to  obtain  some  general  agree- 
ment for  uniformity.  In  1 834  a  '  Congress  of 
Physicists  '  held  at  Stuttgart  adopted  a  proposal 
by  Scheibler  to  fix  the  A  at  440  (true  0  =  528), 
but  it  does  not  appear  that  this  had  any  practi- 
cal result.  In  1858  the  French  government 
appointed  a  commission,  consisting  partly  of 
musicians1  and  partly  of  physicists,  to  consider 
the  subject.  The  instructions  stated  that  'the 
constant  and  increasing  elevation  of  the  pitch 
presents  inconveniences  by  which  the  musical 
art,  composers,  artists,  and  musical  instrument 
makers  all  equally  suffer,  and  the  difference  ex- 
isting between  the  pitches  of  different  countries, 
of  different  musical  establishments,  and  of  dif- 
ferent manufacturing  houses,  is  a  source  of  em- 
barrassment in  musical  combinations  and  of 
difficulties  in  commercial  relations.'  The  Com- 
mission reported  in  Feb.  i859#a  After  substan- 
tiating the  facts  of  the  rise  (which  they  attributed 
to  the  desire  for  increased  sonority  and  bril- 
liancy on  the  part  of  instrument-makers)  and  the 
great  want  of  uniformity,  they  resolved  to  recom- 
mend a  fixed  standard:  A  =  435  (C  true  =  522; 
C  by  equal  temperament  =  51 7).  This  was  con- 
firmed by  a  legal  decree,  and  it  has  been  adopted 
in  France  generally,  to  the  great  advantage  of 
all  musical  interests  in  that  country. 

Soon  afterwards  an  attempt  was  made  to  do 
something  in  England.     A  committee  was  ap- 

1  The  musicians  were  Auber,  Halevy  (who  drew  the  Report). 
Berlioz.  Meyerbeer,  Rossini,  and  Thomas.  The  other  members  were 
Pelletier,  Despretz,  JJoucet,  Lissajous.  Monnais.  and  Gen.  Meliinet. 

3  Rapport  et  Arretes  pour  retablissement  en  France  d'un  diapason 
musical  uniforms.    Paris,  Imprimerie  Impt'riale.  1858. 


PITCHPIPE. 

pointed  by  the  Society  of  Arts,  who  reported  in 
1869,  recommending  the  Stuttgart  standard  of 
0  =  528  ;  but  the  recommendation  fell  dead,  and 
had  no  influence.  Other  agitations  and  discus- 
sions have  taken  place  since,  but  all  without 
effect,  and  the  state  of  matters  in  this  country  in 
regard  to  the  standard  of  pitch  is  as  follows. 
The  principal  orchestras  continue  to  play  at  the 
elevated  pitch  ;  but  this  is  repudiated  by  the 
general  consensus  of  vocal  performers,  and  in 
all  cases  where  an  orchestra  does  not  come  into 
requisition,  as  in  churches  and  at  vocal  concerts, 
a  much  lower  pitch  is  used,  corresponding  nearly 
with  either  the  French  or  the  'classical'  one. 
Hence  all  idea  of  uniformity  in  the  practical  inter- 
pretation of  music  becomes  out  of  the  question ; — 
a  state  of  things  most  deplorable,  and  a  disgrace 
to  the  musical  education  of  the  country. 

It  is  an  interesting  consideration  whether,  as 
a  matter  of  theory,  a  philosophical  standard  of 
pitch  can  be  devised,  based  on  natural  facts,  like 
the  standards  of  measure,  weight,  and  time. 
Such  a  standard  is  easily  deducible.  We  may 
assume  the  existence  of  a  note  corresponding  to 
the  simplest  possible  rate  of  vibration,  viz.  one 
per  second ;  and  the  various  octaves  of  this  note 
will  be  represented  by  2,  4,  8,  etc.  vibrations, 
being  a  series  of  powers  of  the  number  2. 
This  theoretical  note  is  found  to  agree  so  nearly 
with  the  musician's  idea  of  the  note  C  (the  sim- 
plest or  fundamental  note  in  our  modern  musical 
system),  that   they  may  be  assumed  to  corre- 


spond, and  we  thus  get 


=512  double 


vibrations  per  second,  which  may  be  called  the 
'  Philosophical  Standard  of  Pitch,'  and  which  is 
adopted,  for  theoretical  purposes,  in  many  books 
on  music.  And  as  it  will  be  seen  that  this  cor- 
responds very  fairly  with  the  '  Classical  Pitch ' 
which  was  in  vogue  during  the  best  periods  of 
music,  and  differs  very  little  from  the  authorised 
French  pitch  and  the  vocal  pitch  now  followed 
in  England,  it  would  form  a  reasonably  good 
standard  in  a  practical  as  well  as  in  a  theoretical 
point  of  view.  [W.P.] 

PITCHPIPE.  A  small  stopped  diapason 
pipe  with  long  movable  graduated  stopper,  blown 
by  the  mouth,  and  adjustable  approximately  to 
any  note  of  the  scale  by  pushing  the  stopper 
inwards  or  outwards.  A  pipe  of  this  kind  is  so* 
much  influenced  by  temperature,  moisture,  force 
of  blowing,  and  irregularities  of  calibre,  that  it 
can  only  be  depended  on  for  the  pitch  of  vocal 
music,  and  is  not  to  be  trusted  for  more  accurate 
determinations.  A  small  reed  pipe  of  the  free 
species,  in  which  the  length  of  the  vibrating 
portion  of  metal  is  controlled  by  a  rotating  spiral, 
is  somewhat  superior,  and  far  less  bulky  than 
the  older  contrivance.  It  is  known  as  Eardley's 
patent  chromatic  pitchpipe.  Sets  of  single  free 
reeds,  each  in  its  own  tube,  arranged  in  a  box, 
forming  a  more  or  less  complete  scale,  are  to  be 
obtained,  and  form  comparatively  trustworthy 
implements ;  if  tuned  to  equal  temperament  they 
may  be  employed  to  facilitate  pianoforte  or  organ 


PITCHPIPE. 

tuning.  All  pitchpipes  are  however  inferior  in 
accuracy  to  tuning-forks :  the  only  advantage 
they  possess  over  the  latter  being  their  louder, 
more  strident,  more  coercive  tone,  and  the 
readiness  with  which  beats  are  produced.  No 
accurate  tuning  is  practicable  except  by  the  prin- 
ciple of  beats  and  interferences.  [W.H.S.] 

PITONI,  Giuseppe  Ottavio,  eminent  musi- 
cian of  the  Roman  school,  born  March  18,  1657, 
at  Rieti ;  from  the  age  of  five  attended  the  music- 
school  of  Pompeo  Natale,  and  was  successively 
chorister  at  San  Giovanni  de'  Fiorentini,  and  the 
SS.  Apostoli  in  Rome.  Here  he  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  Foggia,  who  gave  him  instruction  in 
counterpoint  during  several  years.  In  1673  he 
became  Maestro  di  Capella  at  Terra  di  Rotondo, 
and  afterwards  at  Assisi,  where  he  began  to  score 
Palestrina's  works,  a  practice  he  afterwards  en- 
joined on  his  pupils,  as  the  best  way  of  studying 
style.  In  1676  he  removed  to  Rieti,  and  in  1677 
became  Maestro  di  Capella  of  the  Collegio  di  San 
Marco  in  Rome,  where  his  pieces  for  two  and 
three  choirs  were  first  performed.  He  was  also 
engaged  by  various  other  churches,  San  Apolli- 
nare  and  S.  Lorenzo  in  Damaso  in  1686,  the 
Lateran  in  1708,  and  St.  Peter's  in  17 19,  but  he 
retained  his  post  at  San  Marco  till  his  death, 
Feb.  1,  1743,  and  was  buried  there. 

Pitoni's  '  Dixit '  in  16  parts  is  still  one  of  the 
finest  pieces  of  music  sung  at  St.  Peter's  during 
Holy  Week,  and  his  masses  'Li  Pastori  a 
Maremme,'  'Li  Pastori  a  montagna,'and  'Mosca,' 
founded  openly  on  popular  melodies,  still  sound 
fresh  and  new.  His  fertility  was  enormous  ;  for 
St.  Peter's  alone  he  composed  complete  services 
for  the  entire  year.  He  also  wrote  many  pieces 
for  six  and  nine  choirs.  He  compiled  a  history 
of  the  Maestri  di  Capella  of  Rome  from  1500 
to  1700,  the  MS.  of  which  is  in  the  Vatican 
library,  and  was  used  by  Baini  for  his  life  of 
Palestrina.  Gaspari  drew  the  attention  of  Fetis 
to  a  work  of  108  pages,  'Guida  Armonica  di 
Giuseppe  Ottavio  Pitoni,'  presumably  printed  in 
1689.  The  MS.  is  lost.  Among  Pitoni's  num- 
erous pupils  were  Durante,  Leo,  and  Feo.  The 
library  of  the  Corsini  Palace  in  Rome  contains  a 
biography  of  him  by  his  friend  Geronimo  Chiti  of 
Siena.  Proske's  'Musica  Divina'  contains  a 
mass  and  a  requiem,  6  motets,  a  psalm,  a  hymn, 
and  a  *  Christus  factus  est,'  by  Pitoni.       [F.  G.] 

PITTMAN,  Josiah,  the  son  of  a  musician, 
born  Sept.  3,  18 16.  He  began  to  study  both 
theory  and  practice  at  an  early  age,  and  became 
a  pupil  of  Goodman  and  of  S.  S.  Wesley  on  the 
organ  ;  and  at  a  later  date,  of  Moscheles  on  the 
piano.  He  held  the  post  of  organist  at  Syden- 
ham (1831),  Tooting  (1833),  and  Spitalfields 
(1835)  successively — the  last  of  the  three  for 
1 2  years.  Feeling  the  need  of  fuller  instruction 
in  theory  he  visited  Frankfort  in  1836  and  7, 
and  studied  with  Schnyder  von  Wartensee.  In 
1852  he  was  elected  organist  to  Lincoln's  Inn: 
the  service  was  in  a  very  unsatisfactory  condition, 
but  Mr.  Pittman's  zeal,  perseverance  and  judg- 
ment improved  it  greatly,  and  he  remained  there 
for  12  years.     It  was  in  support  of  this  reform 


PIZZICATO. 


759 


that  he  wrote  a  little  book  entitled  'The  People 
in  Church,'  which  at  the  time  excited  much  at- 
tention. He  also  composed  many  services  and 
anthems  for  the  Chapel.  Since  then  Mr.  Pitt- 
man  has  been  connected  with  the  Opera  as  accom- 
panyist,  first  at  Her  Majesty's  (1865-68)  and 
since  at  Covent  Garden.  His  early  predilections 
were  for  the  German  organ  music,  and  like  Gaunt- 
lett,  Jacob,  and  the  Wesleys  he  worked  hard  by 
precept,  example  and  publication  to  introduce 
Bach's  fugues,  and  pedal  organs,  into  England. 
When  Mendelssohn  came  here  he  lost  no  oppor- 
tunity of  hearing  him  play  and  of  profiting  by  his 
society.  For  several  years  Mr.  Pittman  delivered 
the  annual  course  of  lectures  on  music  at  the 
London  Institution.  [G.] 

PIXIS,  a  family  of  musicians.  Fbiedrich 
Wilhelm,  the  elder,  was  a  pupil  of  the  Abbe" 
Vogler  in  Mannheim  in  1770,  and  still  lived 
there  in  1S05.  He  published  organ-music,  and 
sonatas  and  trios  for  PF.     His  eldest  son,  also 

Fbiedrich  Wilhelm,  born  in  Mannheim, 
1 786,  studied  the  violin  under  Ritter,  Luigi,  and 
Franzel,  early  made  a  name,  and  travelled 
throughout  Germany  with  his  father  and  brother. 
At  Hamburg  he  took  lessons  from  Viotti.  In 
1804  he  entered  the  Elector's  Chapel  at  Mann- 
heim, and  afterwards  went  to  Prague,  where  he 
became  professor  at  the  Conservatorium,  and 
Capellmeister  of  the  theatre,  and  died  Oct.  20, 
1842.     His  brother, 

Johann  Peter,  born  1 788,  pianist  and  com- 
poser for  the  PF.,  lived  witn  his  father  and 
brother  till  1809,  when  he  settled  in  Munich. 
In  1825  he  went  to  Paris,  and  became  a  teacher 
of  great  note  there.  His  adopted  daughter, 
Franzilla  Guringeb  (born  1816  at  Lichten- 
thal,  Baden),  developing  a  good  mezzo  soprano 
voice  and  real  talent,  he  trained  her  for  a  singer, 
and  in  1833  started  with  her  on  a  tour,  which 
extended  to  Naples.  Here  Pacini  wrote  for  her 
the  part  of  Saffo  in  his  well-known  opera  of  that 
name.  After  her  marriage  to  an  Italian,  Pixis 
settled  finally  in  Baden-Baden,  and  gave  lessons 
at  his  well-known  villa  there  almost  up  to  his 
death  on  Dec.  21,  1874.  He  composed  much  for 
the  PF. — concertos,  sonatas,  and  drawing-room 
pieces,  all  now  forgotten.  The  fact  that  he  con- 
tributed the  3rd  variation  to  the  '  Hexameron,' 
in  company  with  Liszt,  Czerny,  Thalberg,  Herz 
and  Chopin,  shows  the  position  which  he  held  in 
Paris.  His  works  amount  in  all  to  more  than  1 50. 
Though  not  wholly  devoid  of  originality  he  was 
apt  to  follow  too  closely  in  the  footsteps  of  Mozart, 
Haydn,  and  Beethoven.  In  1831  he  composed  an 
opera  '  Bibiana '  for  Mme.  Schroeder-Devrient, 
produced  in  Paris  without  Buccess.  '  Die  Sprache 
des  Herzens'  was  composed  in  1836  for  the 
Konigstadt  Theatre  in  Berlin.  [F.G.] 

PIZZICATO  (Ital.  for  'pinched').  On  the 
violin,  and  other  instruments  of  the  violin-tribe, 
a  note  or  a  passage  is  said  to  be  played  pizzicato 
if  the  string  is  set  in  vibration  not  by  the  bow, 
but  by  being  pinched  or  plucked  with  the  finger. 
The  pizzicato  is  used  as  much  in  orchestral  and 
chamber  music  as  in  solo  pieces.    A  well-known 


760 


PIZZICATO. 


instance  of  effective  orchestral  pizzicato  occurs 
in  the  scherzo  of  Beethoven's  C  minor  Symphony, 
just  before  the  entry  of  the  finale,  and  also  in 
the  adagio  of  the  same  master's  Bb  Symphony. 
The  canzonetta  in  Mendelssohn's  Quartet  in 
Eb,  op.  12,  affords  an  illustration  of  its  use  in 
chamber-music.  In  solo-playing  a  distinction 
is  made  between  the  pizzicato  executed  with  the 
left,  and  that  with  the  right  hand.  The  former 
one  is  more  frequently  used,  but  not  so  much  in 
classical  as  in  brilliant  modern  pieces.  Paga- 
nini  made  an  .  extensive  use  of  it,  either  by 
playing  a  pizzicato  accompaniment  to  a  tune 
played  with  the  bow  (a),  or  in  quick  passages 
with  arco  notes  interspersed  (b)  and  (c). 


(d)Arco 


I 


A 


^E 


Paganijji. 


Pizzicai 
le/l  han 


saErfT 


r 


Paganini. 


(The  notes  marked  *  to  be  played  pizzicato  with 
the  left  hand.) 

A  natural  harmonic  note,  when  played  pizzi- 
cato, produces  an  effect  very  similar  to  that  of 
a  note  on  the  harp.  Sterndale  Bennett  makes 
use  of  it  in  the  serenade  of  his  Chamber-Trio. 
There  is,  however,  hardly  another  instance  of  this 
effect  to  be  found.  [P-D.] 

PLAGAL  CADENCE  is  the  form  in  which 
the  final  Tonic  chord  is  preceded  by  Subdominant 
Harmony.     [See  Cadence.] 


[C.H.H.P.] 
PLAGAL  MODES  (Lat.  Modi  plagales;  Gr. 
irXdytot  ^x0'1-'  Germ.  Plagaltone,  Seitentime, 
Nehentone).  When  the  Plain  Chaunt  Melodies 
were  first  reduced  to  systematic  order,  tradi- 
tionally by  S.  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan,  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  4th  century,  four  Modes 
only  were  in  use — those  beginning  and  ending 
on  the  notes  now  called  D,  E,  F,  and  G.  These 
venerable  Scales,  known  as  the  'Four  Authen- 
tic Modes,'  were  named  and  numbered,  in  imi- 
tation of  certain  still  more  antient  Greek  tonal- 
ities from  which  they  were  more  or  less  directly 

1  In  contradistinction  to  the  tcvpioi  jjx°'j  or  Authentic  Modes. 


PLAGAL  MODES. 

derived.  Thus,  the  first,  having  D  for  its  Final, 
was  called  '  Authentus  primus,'  or,  the  '  Dorian 
Mode';  the  second,  with  E  for  its  Final,  'Au- 
thentus deuterus,'  or,  the  '  Phrygian  Mode ' ;  the 
third,  with  F  for  its  Final,  'Authentus  tritus,' 
or,  the  'Lydian  2Mode';  the  fourth,  with  G 
for  its  Final,  'Authentus  tetrardus,'  or,  the 
'Mixolydian  sMode.'  And  the  compass  of  these 
Modes  was  sufficiently  expended  to  include  that 
of  all  the  Ecclesiastical  Melodies  then  in  com- 
mon use. 

Some  two  hundred  years  later — if  tradition 
may  be  trusted  —  S.  Gregory  added  to  these 
Modes  four  others,  directly  derived  from  them, 
and  hence  called  Plagal  Modes  (from  ir\ayios, 
oblique,  borrowed).  These  supplemental  Scales 
involved  no  new  combinations  of  Tones  and  Semi- 
tones. They  were  simply  formed  by  enlarging 
the  compass  of  the  Authentic  Modes,  downwards, 
to  the  extent  of  a  Perfect  Fourth,  the  three 
upper  notes  being  removed,  in  order  that  the 
compass  of  the  Scale  might  still  be  comprised 
within  the  limits  of  an  Octave,  while  the  Final 
remained  unchanged.  This  will  be  readily  under- 
stood, if  we  bear  in  mind  that  every  Authen- 
tic Scale  consists  of  a  Perfect  Fifth,  and  a 
Perfect  Fourth,  the  Fourth  being  placed  above 
the  Fifth,  and  beginning  on  the  note  on  which 
the  Fifth  ends.  [See  Modes,  the  Ecclesias- 
tical.] Thus,  the  First,  or  Dori;m  Mode,  con- 
sists of  a  Fifth,  D,  E,  F,  G,  A,  surmounted  by 
a  Fourth,  A,  B,  C,  D.     Now,  if  we  add  an  A, 

B,  and  C,  beneath  the  lower  D,  and  compensate 
for   this   extension   by  removing   the  upper  B, 

C,  and  D,  we  shall  produce  a  Scale  consisting 
of  a  Perfect  Fourth,  A,  B,  C,  D,  surmounted 
by  a  Perfect  Fifth,  D,  E,  F,  G,  A;  and  this 
Scale  will  be  the  Plagal  form  of  the  Dorian 
Mode,  and  will  serve  as  the  type  of  all  similar 
derivations,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
examples : — 

Dorian. 


Phrygian, 


Authentic  Form. 


-rz. — <&- 


-rzr-iS'- 


in 


Lvdian. 


Authentic  Form. 


^     ^ 


^        -^ 


1 


-<s<- 

L_. 


2  The  Hyperphrygian  of  Martianus  Capella.  Called,  also,  by  those 
who  contend  for  the  purely  Greek  origin  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Modes, 
the  .T>lkin  ;  the  true  Greek  Lydian  being  a  whole  Tone  higher  than 
the  Phrygian,  and  not,  as  in  this  case,  a  Semitone. 

3  The  Hyperljdian  of  Capella. 


PLAGAL  MODES. 

Mixolydian. 


PLAGAL  MODES. 


761 


The  number  of  the  Modes  being  thus  increased 
to  eight,  a  new  form  of  nomenclature  was  na- 
turally demanded  for  them,  while  a  new  system 
of  numbering  became  still  more  imperatively 
necessary.  The  change  of  nomenclature  was 
easily  arranged.  In  order  to  prevent  unnecessary 
confusion,  the  old  names  Dorian,  Phrygian,  Ly- 
dian,  and  Mixolydian,  were  still  retained  for 
the  Authentic  Modes,  while  the  Plagal  forms 
were  distinguished  from  them  by  the  addition  of 
the  prefix  Hypo  (under),  the  new  Scales  being 
called  the  Hypodorian,1  Hypophrygian,8  Hypo- 
lydian,  and  Hypomixolydian,3  Modes.  On  the 
other  band,  it  was  indispensable  that  the  numbers 
of  the  Modes  should  be  entirely  changed ;  the 
Phrygian  becoming  the  Third  Mode,  instead  of 
the  Second ;  the  Lydian,  the  Fifth ;  and  the 
Mixolydian,  the  Seventh :  the  Second,  Fourth, 
Sixth,  and  Eighth  places,  being  reserved  for  the 
newer  Plagal  forms. 

The  next  great  change  was  the  introduction 
of  two  new  Authentic  Modes,  called  the  iEolian, 
and  the  Ionian,4  having  A  and  C  for  their 
Finals,  and  naturally  giving  rise  to  two  new 
Plagal  forms,  entitled  the  Hypoaeolian,6  and 
Hypoionian,*  and  lying  between  E  and  E,  and 
G  and  G,  respectively.7 


The  precise  time  at  which  these  new  Modes 
were  brought  into  general  use  cannot  be  ascer- 
tained ;  but  we  hear  of  them,  with  certainty,  as 
early  as  the  reign  of  Charlemagne  (ob.  814), 
though  the  earliest  exhaustive  account  of  the 
entire  system  bequeathed  to  us  is  that  contained 
in  the  Dodecachordon  of  Glareanus,  published  in 
1529.  The  learned  author  of  this  invaluable 
work  insists  strongly  upon  the  use  of  twelve 
distinct  tonalities,  and  prefaces  his  volume  with 

1  The  Hypermlxol  ydlan  of  Ptolemy, 
a  The  Hyperaeollan  of  Capella. 
J  The  Hyperiastlan.  or  Hyperionlan,  of  Capella. 
*  So  called  by  Porphyrias.  By  Apulelus  and  Capella  called  the  Iastlan. 
s  The  Hyperdorlan  of  Capella.  '  The  Hypolastlan  of  Capella. 

7  In  the  Ecclesiastical  Music  of  tho  Eastern  Church,  nine  Modes  only 
»re  admitted,  under  the  following  titles:— 


1.  Dorian  (a') 

II.  Hypodorian  (irAdyioi"  a!). 

III.  Phrygian  (8')- 

iv.  Hypophrygtan  (irAayioi'  (30 . 
v.  Lydian  (y'}. 


tL  Hypolydimn  (irAdyioc  y"). 

vll.  Mixolydian  («'). 
Till.  Hypomlxolydlaa   (trAdytoc 
«). 

lx.  Julian. 


a  list  of  them,  divided  into  two  parallel  columns, 
the  first  of  which  contains  the  Plagal,  and  the 
second  the  Authentic  Modes,  arranged  in  their 
natural  order,  the  series  being  supplemented  by 
the  rejected  Hyperaeolian  Mode,*  having  B  for  its 
Final,  and  its  Plagal  derivative,  the  Hyperphry- 
gian,9  with  the  necessary  caution,  eed  at  error.10 

The  completion  of  the  Gregorian  system  by 
the  addition  of  the  ^Eolian  and  Ionian  Modes, 
with  their  respective  Plagals,  was  productive  of 
very  important  results,  and  enriched  the  series 
with  the  capability  of  introducing  a  far  greater 
amount  of  varied   expression  than  is   apparent  . 
at  first  sight.     Some  writers  have  objected  to 
them,  on  the  ground  that  they  are  in  reality  no 
more  than  unnecessary  reduplications  of  already 
existing  Scales,   since,  in  its  compass,  and  the 
disposition  of  its  Semitones,  the  iEolian  Mode 
corresponds  exactly  with  the  Hypodorian,  the 
Hypoaeolian  with  the  Phrygian,  the  Ionian  with 
the  Hypolydian,  and  the  Hypoionian  with  the 
Mixolydian.11  By  parity  of  reasoning,  the  Hypo- 
mixolydian Mode  should  also  be   regarded  as 
superfluous,  since  its  compass,  and  Semitones,  cor- 
respond precisely  with  those  of  the  Dorian.    But 
a  little  consideration  will  prove  this  argument 
to  be  utterly  fallacious.     In  all  that  concerns 
expression,  the  Eighth  Mode  differs,  toto  ccelo, 
from  the  First ;  for  its  Final — the  note  to  which 
the  ear  is  constantly  attracted — lies  in  the  middle 
of  its  series  of  sounds,  whereas,  in  the  Dorian 
Mode,  it  occupies  the  lowest  place.    This  pecu- 
liarity invests  all  the   Plagal   Modes,   without 
exception,    with  a  character   entirely   different 
from   that   which    distinguishes    the  Authentic 
series;  a  fact  which  was  so  well  known  to  the 
earlier  writers  on  the  subject  that  they  assigned 
to  each  Mode  a  special  epithet   descriptive  of 
its  aesthetic  peculiarities,     Thus,  the  First  Mode 
was  called  'Modus  Gravis,'  the  Second,  'Modus 
Tristis,'  the  Third,  'Modus  Mysticus,'  the  Fourth, 
'  Modus  Harmonious,'  the  Fifth,  '  Modus  Laetus,' 
the  Sixth,  '  Modus  Devotus,'  the  Seventh,  '  Mo- 
dus Angelicus,'  and  the   Eighth,  '  Modus  Per- 
fectus.'12     On   carefully  examining  this   classi- 
fication, we  shall  find  that  the  Plag;il  Modes  are 
everywhere  characterised  by  a  calmer  and  less 
decided  force  of  expression  than  their  authentic 
originals ;   thus,  while  the  latter  are  described 
as  Grave,  Mystical,  Joyful,   and   Angelic,   the 
former  are   merely   Sad,  Harmonious,   Devout, 
and  Perfect.     The  solemn  grandeur  of  the  First 

•  More  generally  known  as  the  Locrlan  Mode, 

•  The  Hyperlydian  of  Pollllanus ;  but  now  more  generally  known 
as  the  Hypolocrian. 

10  It  is  probable  that  this  caution  Is  directed  only  against  rolltlan'i 
method  of  nomenclature ;  but  It  Is  equally  applicable  to  the  Moda 
itseir  which  is  utterly  discarded  by  the  Great  Masters. 

11  The  later  editors  or  Proske's  '  Muslca  Divlna.'  adopting  this  er- 
roneous theory,  have  described  Palestrina's  '  Missa  Pap»  Marcelll '  at 
being  written  in  the  Mixolydian  Mode,  whereas  it  U  really  In  the 
Hypoionian.  In  this  particular  ease,  eren  Balul  has  fallen  Into  an 
error  which  Proske,  himself  the  most  conscientious  of  editors,  was 
always  careful  to  aroid. 

a  Figulus  Interprets  the  sentiment  of  the  Modes  somewhat  dlffer- 
entlv-in  the  case  of  the  Klrst  Mode,  with  a  very  wide  difference 
Indeed.  His  epithets  are.  i.  Hllarls ;  II.  Moestus;  111.  Austerus  ; 
It  Blandus;  v.  Jucundus;  vi.  Mollis;  Til.  Gratis;  Till.  Modestus. 
The  difference  of  sentiment  between  the  Authentic  and  Plagal 
Modes  U  eren  more  strongly  set  forth  here  than  in  the  mora 
geuerally-reeelTed  synopsis  given  above.  In  the  text. 


762 


PLAGAL  MODES. 


Mode  gives  place  to  the  sadness  of  the  Second  ; 
while  the  joy  of  the  Fifth  merges,  in  the  Sixth, 
into  devotion.  That  this  distinction  can  be  in 
no  wise  dependent  upon  the  position  of  the  Semi- 
tones is  evident ;  for  we  have  already  shown  that 
these  are  similarly  placed,  in  different  Modes ; 
it  must,  therefore,  be  entirely  due  to  the  pecu- 
liar aspect  of  the  tonality  with  regard  to  the 
situation  of  its  Final — to  the  difference  of  effect 
produced  by  a  point  of  ultimate  repose  placed  in 
the  middle  of  the  Scale,  as  contrasted  with  that 
peculiar  to  one  resting  on  the  lowest  degree. 
And  a  similar  difference  of  expression  may  be 
found,  even  in  Ssecular  Music,  if  we  only  examine 
it  carefully.  Take,  for  instance,  the  three  fol- 
lowing beautiful  old  Melodies,  in  the  Ionian 
Mode  transposed ;  the  first  of  which  lies  between 
the  Tonic  and  its  Octave ;  the  second,  between 
the  Dominant  and  its  Octave ;  and  the  third, 
between  the  Dominant,  and  the  Tonic  in  the 
Octave  above.  Is  it  possible  to  deny,  that,  apart 
from  its  natural  individuality,  each  of  them  owes 
a  peculiar  character  to  the  position  it  occupies 
in  the  Scale  ? 

Authentic  Melody.    '  The  Blue- Bell  of  Scotland.' 


^H:TH7TFTti,|JJJ/mfl 


gHH  |  rx£fea4f-ffF-r^ 


fcwJ^TTTr 


Plagal  Melody.     'Aileen  Aroon.' 


Mixed  Melody.    « Jock  o'  Hazeldcan.' 


1 

-1      ,          j»1 

Authentic. 

Now,  the  first  of  these  Melodies,  lying  en- 
tirely between  the  Tonic  and  its  Octave,  is 
strictly  Authentic;  the  second,  lying  between 
the  Dominant  and  its  Octave,  is  strictly  Plagal ; 


PLAGAL  MODES. 

and  the  third,  occupying  the  entire  range  of  the 
Mode,  from  the  Dominant  below  to  the  Tonic 
in  the  next  Octave  above,  is  Mixed.  [See 
Modes,  the  Ecclesiastical.]  Here,  then,  are 
three  varieties  of  expression  producible  by  the 
Ionian  Mode  alone ;  and,  when  we  remember  the 
number  of  Modes,  which,  in  addition  to  this  dis- 
tinction, obtainable  by  mere  change  of  position, 
possess  a  distinct  tonality  also,  we  cannot  but 
be  struck  with  the  immense  fund  of  variety  with 
which  the  Gregorian  system  is  endowed.  More- 
over, it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  that  the 
Melody  should  be  restricted  to  the  exact  com- 
pass of  an  Octave.  Originally,  as  we  learn  from 
Hermannus  Contractus,  no  licence  was  per- 
mitted in  this  matter;  but  Theogerus,  Bishop 
of  Metz,  writing  about  the  year  noo,  allows 
the  elongation  of  the  Scale,  whether  Authentio 
or  Plagal,  to  the  extent  of  a  Tone  above,  and  a 
Tone  below  its  normal  limits.  The  same  licence 
is  permitted  by  Hucbaldus  of  S.  Amand,  and 
the  Abbat  Oddo ;  and  it  has  become  a  recognised 
rule  that  the  First  Mode  may  be  extended  a 
Tone  downwards,  and  a  Tone,  or  even  a  Minor 
Third,  upwards ;  the  Second,  a  Tone  downwards, 
and  a  Semitone,  Tone,  or  Minor  Third,  upwards  ; 
the  Third  Mode,  a  Major  Third  downwards,  and 
a  Semitone  upwards ;  the  Fourth,  a  Tone  down- 
wards, and  a  Semitone  upwards ;  the  Fifth,  a 
Semitone,  or  Minor  Third,  downwards,  and  a 
Tone  upwards;  the  Sixth,  a  Semitone  down- 
wards, and  a  Tone  upwards;  the  Seventh,  a 
Tone  downwards,  or  upwards;  the  Eighth,  a 
Tone  downwards,  or  upwards ;  and  so  with  the 
later  forms ;  one  Degree,  either  upwards  or  down- 
wards, being  always  conceded,  and  a  Major  or 
Minor  Third,  in  one  direction,  very  frequently 
claimed.  Guido  d' Arezzo's  rule  is,  that  *  Though 
the  Authentic  Modes  may  scarcely  descend  more 
than  a  single  Degree,  they  may  ascend  to  the 
Octave,  the  Ninth,  or  even  Tenth.  The  Plagal 
Modes,  however,  may  be  extended  by  carrying 
them  down  to  the  Fifth  (i.  e.  below  the  Final)  ; 
but  authority  is  granted  to  extend  them  (up- 
wards) to  the  Sixth,  or  the  Seventh  (i.e.  above 
the  Final)  as  the  Authentic  form  rises  to  the 
Ninth  and  Tenth.' '  Here,  then,  we  see  a  new 
and  prolific  source  of  variety,  in  the  elabora- 
tion of  which  the  Plagal  Modes  play  a  very 
important  part ;  an  advantage  which  is  turned 
to  equally  good  account  in  Plain  Chaunt  and 
Polyphonic  Music.  Indeed,  it  is  perhaps  even 
of  greater  significance  in  the  latter,  than  in 
the  former :  for,  where  numerous  vocal  parts  are 
concerned,  the  benefit  to  be  derived  from  an  ex- 
tended Scale  is  obvious ;  while,  as  we  have  else- 
where explained,  where  the  Tenor,  and  Cantus, 
are  written  in  an  Authentic  Mode,  the  Bassus 
and  Altus,  naturally  fall  within  the  compass  of 
the  Plagal  form,  and  vice  versa.  To  the  Poly- 
phonic Composer,  therefore,  the  use  of  the  Plagal 
Modes  is  indispensable.  [W.S.R.'J 

i  '  Autentl  vlx  a  suo  fine  plus  una  voce  descend  tint— Ascendunt 
autem  autenti  usque  ad  octavam  et  nonam,  Tel  etiara  decimam. 
Flagse  vero  ad  quint  am  remittuntur  et  Intenduntur;  sed  intensioni 
sexta  vet  septlma  auctoritate  tribultur,  slcut  in  autentls  nona  et 
declma.'    (Dlscipl.  Artis  Mus.  xlli.) 


PLAIDY. 

PLAID Y,  Louis,  born  Nov.  28, 1 8 io,at  Werms- 
dorf,  in  Saxony,  learnt  the  pianoforte  from  Agthe, 
and  the  violin  from  Haase,  of  Dresden.  He  was 
first  known  as  a  violinist  in  the  Dresden  concerts, 
but  afterwards  turned  his  attention  especially  to 
the  pianoforte,  and  was  so  successful  as  to  attract 
the  notice  of  Mendelssohn,  who  in  1843  induced 
him  to  take  the  post  of  pianoforte  teacher  in  the 
Leipzig  Con8ervatorium.  There  he  attained  a 
great  and  deserved  reputation.  His  class  was 
always  thronged,  and  his  instruction  eagerly 
sought  by  pupils  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 
This  popularity  arose  from  his  remarkable  gift 
(for  it  was  a  gift)  of  imparting  technical  power. 
Were  a  pupil  ever  so  deficient  in  execution, 
under  Plaidy's  care  his  faults  would  disappear, 
his  fingers  grow  strong,  his  touch  become  smooth, 
singing,  and  equal,  and  slovenliness  be  replaced 
by  neatness.  He  devoted  his  life  to  technical 
teaching,  and  brought  all  his  powers  and  ex- 
perience to  bear  upon  his  celebrated  work '  Tech- 
nische  Studien,'  which  is  now  a  standard  text- 
book in  every  music  school.  Great  attention  to 
every  detail,  unwearying  patience,  and  a  genuine 
enthusiasm  for  the  mechanical  part  of  pianoforte- 
playing  were  his  most  striking  characteristics. 
He  was  a  man  of  a  most  simple  and  kindly 
nature,  and  took  a  warm  interest  in  his  pupils. 
He  died  at  Grimma,  March  3,  1874.  L&] 

PLAIN  SONG  (Lat.  Cantus  planus,  Cantus 
Gregorianus  ;  Ital.  Canto  piano,  Canto  fermo, 
Canto  Gregoriano ;  Fr.  Plain  Chant,  Chant  Gri- 
gorien ;  Gregorian  Chant,  Gregorian  Music,  Plain 
Chant).  A  solemn  style  of  unisonous  Music,  which 
is  believed  to  have  been  sung  in  the  Christian 
Church  since  its  first  foundation. 

The  origin  of  Plain  Song — the  only  kind  of 
Church  Music  the  use  of  which  has  ever  been 
formally  prescribed  by  Ecclesiastical  authority — 
has  given  rise  to  much  discussion  and  many 
diverse  theories.1  On  one  point,  however,  all 
authorities  are  agreed,  viz.  that  it  exhibits  pe- 
culiarities which  can  be  detected  in  no  other  kind 
of  Music  whatever ;  peculiarities  so  marked,  that 
they  can  scarcely  fail  to  attract  the  attention  of 
the  most  superficial  hearer,  and  so  constant,  that 
we  shall  find  no  difficulty  in  tracing  them  through 
every  successive  stage  of  development  through 
which  the  system  has  passed,  from  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  ^Era  to  the  present  time. 

Turning,  then,  to  the  history  of  this  develop- 
ment, we  find  that,  for  nearly  four  hundred 
years  after  its  introduction  into  the  Services  of 
the  Church,  Plain  Song  was  transmitted  from 
age  to  age  by  oral  tradition  only.  After  the 
Conversion  of  Constantine,  when  Christianity 
became  the  established  Religion  of  the  Empire, 

1  Consult,  for  the  different  views :— (1)  P.  Martini,  ■  Storia  dell» 
Musica.'  Tom.  1.  pp.  350,  et  teq. ;  Gerbert,  '  De  Cantu  et  Mus.  Sacr.' ; 
Coussemaker,  '  Memoire  sur  Hucbald.'  pp.  6-7 ;  Fere  Lambtllotte, 
'  Esthetique  theor.  et  prat,  du  Chant  Gregorlen,"  p.  14 ;  Jakob, '  Die 
Kunst  im  Dienste  der  Klrche,"  p.  193,  etc.  etc  (2)  Menestrier, '  Tralt<5 
des  Representations  eo  Musique.  anclennes  et  modernes.'  (3)  Rous- 
seau, ' Ce  Chant,  tel  qu'il  subslste  encore  aujourd'hui,  est  un  reste 
bleu  diSflgunS,  mais  bien  precieux.  de  1'anclenne  Musique  Grecque.' 
i  Diet,  de  Mus.,  art.  Plain-Chant.)  Consult  also  Mersennu.% '  Harmon, 
uiilverselle.*  (4)  '  Ambros,  Geschlchte  der  Musik.'  11.  11.  (5)  Forkel, 
"Alluemelne  Geschlchte  der  Musik,'  Tom.  11.  p.  91.  See  also  Kiese- 
wetter, '  Geschlchte  der  Europ.-abendiandischea  Musik.'  Introd.  p.  3. 


PLAIN  SONG. 


763 


and  the  Church  was  no  longer  compelled  to  wor- 
ship in  the  Catacombs,  Schools  of  Singing  were 
established,  for  preserving  the  old  traditions, 
and  ensuring  an  uniform  method  of  singing.  A 
Schola  Cantorum  of  this  description  was  founded 
at  Rome,  early  in  the  4th  century,  by  S.  Sylvester, 
and  much  good  work  resulted  from  the  establish- 
ment of  this  and  similar  institutions  in  other 
places.  Boys2  were  admitted  into  them  at  a 
very  early  age,  and  instructed  in  all  that  it  was 
necessary  for  a  devout  Chorister  to  know,  under 
the  supervision  of  a  '  Primicerius,'  and  '  Secundi- 
cerius,'  of  high  rank,  and  well-known  erudition ; 
and  by  this  means  the  primitive  Melodies  were 
passed  on  from  mouth  to  mouth  with  as  little 
danger  as  might  be  of  unauthorised  corruption. 
But  oral  tradition  is  at  best  but  an  uncertain 
guide ;  and  in  process  of  time  the  necessity  for 
some  safer  method  of  transmission  began  to  excite 
serious  attention.  The  first  attempt  to  reduce  the 
traditional  Melodies  to  a  definite  system  was  made 
towards  the  close  of  the  4th  century,  by  S.  Am- 
brose, Bishop  of  Milan  (ob.  397),  who,  taking  the 
praxis  of  the  Eastern  Church  as  his  model,  pro- 
mulgated a  series  of  regulations  which  enabled  his 
Clergy  to  sing  the  Psalms,  Canticles  and  Hymns, 
of  the  Divine  Office,  with  a  far  greater  amount 
of  precision  and  purity  than  had  hitherto  been 
attainable.  It  is  difficult,  now,  to  determine  the 
exact  nature  of  the  work  effected  by  this  learned 
Bishop,  though  it  seems  tolerably  certain  that 
we  are  indebted  to  him  for  a  definite  elucidation 
of  the  four  Authentic  Modes,  in  which  alone  all 
the  most  antient  Melodies  are  written.3  [See 
Modes,  the  Ecclesiastical.]  He  is  also  credited 
with  having  first  introduced  into  the  Western 
Church  the  custom  of  Antiphonal  Singing,  in 
which  the  Psalms  are  divided,  Verse  by  Verse, 
between  two  alternate  Choirs,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  Responsorial  method,  till  then  prevalent 
in  Italy,  wherein  the  entire  Choir  responded  to 
the  Voice  of  a  single  Chorister.  Another  ac- 
count, however,  attributes  its  introduction  to 
S.  Hilarius,  as  an  imitation  of  the  usage  of  the 
Eastern  Church,  at  Poictiers,  from  whence — and 
not  from  Milan — S.  Ccelestin  is  said  to  have 
imported  it  to  Rome. 

The  next  great  attempt  to  arrange  in  system- 
atic order  the  rich  treasury  of  Plain  Song  Melo- 
dies bequeathed  to  the  Church  by  tradition, 
was  made,  some  two  hundred  years  after  the 
death  of  S.  Ambrose,  by  S.  Gregory  the  Great. 
The  work  undertaken  by  this  celebrated  re- 
former was  far  more  exhaustive  than  that 
wrought  by  his  predecessor.  During  the  two  cen- 
turies which  had  elapsed  since  the  introduction 
of  the  Ambrosian  Chaunt  at  Milan,  innumerable 
Hymns  had  been  composed,  and  innumerable 
Melodies  added  to  the  already  lengthy  catalogue. 
All  these  S.  Gregory  collected,  and  carefully 
revised,  adding  to  them  no  small  number  of 
his  own  compositions,  and  forming  them  into  a 
volume  sufficiently  comprehensive  to  suffice  for 

1  Mostly  orphans— whence  the  Schools  were  called  '  Orphanotropta.' 
(Anastaslus  Blbllothecarlus.  In  Tit.  Bergll  II.  Fontlf.) 

«  Consult,  on  this  subject,  a  tract  by  the  R.  V.  Cam.  Ferego,  eft- 
titled  '  La  regola  del  Canto  Fermo  Ambroslano.'   (Mllauo,  1622.) 


764 


PLAIN  SONG. 


the  entire  cycle  of  the  Church's  Services.  The 
precise  manner  in  which  these  Melodies  were 
noted  down  is  open  to  doubt :  but,  that  they 
were  committed  to  writing,  in  the  celebrated 
1  Antiphonarium '  which  has  made  S.  Gregory's 
name  so  justly  celebrated,  is  certain ;  and,  though 
the  system  of  Semiography  then  employed  was 
exceedingly  imperfect,  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  this  circumstance  tended  greatly  to  the  pre- 
servation of  the  Melodies  from  the  corruption 
which  is  inseparable  from  mere  traditional  trans- 
mission. [See  Notation.]  But  we  owe  to  S. 
Gregory  even  more  than  this ;  for,  notwith- 
standing the  objections  raised  by  certain  modern 
historians,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  doubt  that  it 
was  he  who  first  introduced  into  the  system  those 
four  Plagal  Modes,  which  conduce  so  materially 
to  its  completeness,  and  place  the  Gregorian 
Chaunt  so  far  above  the  Ambrosian  in  the  scale 
of  aesthetic  perfection.1    [See  Plagal  Modes.] 

For  many  centuries  after  the  death  of  S. 
Gregory,  the  'Antiphonarium'  was  regarded  as 
the  authority  to  which  all  other  Office-Books 
must  of  necessity  conform.  It  was  introduced 
into  our  own  country  in  the  year  596,  by  S. 
Augustin,  who  not  only  brought  it  with  him, 
but  brought  also  Roman  Choristers  to  teach  the 
proper  method  of  singing  it.  The  Emperor 
Charlemagne  (ob.  814)  commanded  its  use  in 
the  Gallican  Church ;  and  it  soon  found  its  way 
into  every  Diocese  in  Christendom.  Neverthe- 
less, the  work  of  corruption  could  not  be  entirely 
prevented.  In  the  year  1323,  Pope  John  II 
found  it  necessary  to  issue  the  famous  Bull, 
Docta  sanctorum,  in  order  to  restrain  the  Singers 
of  his  time  from  introducing  innovations  which 
certainly  destroyed  the  purity  of  the  antient 
Melody.  Cardinal  Wolsey  complained  of  the 
practice  of  singing  Votive  Masses  'cum  Cantu 
fracto  seu  diviso.'  Local  'Uses'  were  adopted 
in  almost  every  Diocese  in  Europe.  Paris,  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  York,  Sarum,  Hereford,  and  a 
hundred  others,  had  each  their  own  peculiar 
Office-Books,  many  of  them  containing  Melodies 
of  undeniable  beauty,  but  all  differing,  more  or 
less,  from  the  only  authoritative  norm.  After 
the  revision  of  the  Liturgy  by  the  Council  of 
Trent,  a  vigorous  attempt  was  made  to  remove 
this  crying  evil.  In  the  year  1576,  Pope  Gre- 
gory XIII  commanded  Palestrina  to  do  the  best 
he  could  towards  restoring  the  entire  system  of 
Plain  Song  to  its  original  purity.  The  difficulty 
of  the  task  was  so  great,  that  the  'Princeps 
Musicae'  left  it  unfinished,  at  the  time  of  his 
death;  but,  with  the  assistance  of  his  friend 
Guidetti,  he  accomplished  enough  to  render  his 
inability  to  carry  out  the  entire  scheme  a  matter 
for  endless  regret.  Under  his  superintendence, 
G  uidetti  published,  in  1 5  8  2 ,  a '  Directorium  chori ' ; 
in  1586,  a  'Cantus  Ecclesiasticus  Passionis  D. 
N.  J.  C. ' ;  in  1587,  a  '  Cantus  Ecclesiasticus  officii 
majori8  hebdomadae';  and,  in  1588,  a  volume  of 

>  It  has  been  objected  to  this,  that  the  so-called  ■  Ambrosian  Te 
Deum '  Is  In  the  Mixed  Phrygian  Mode-whlch  is  true.  But  it  has 
ret  to  be  proved  that  the  Melody,  as  we  now  possess  it,  exhibits  the 
exact  form  in  which  it  was  left  by  8.  Ambrose. 


PLAIN  SONG. 

'Praefationes  in  Cantu  firmo' ;  all  printed  at  Rome, 
the  first  'apud  Robertum  Gran  Ion  Parisien,' 
the  three  last  by  Alexander  Gardanus.  These 
splendid  volumes  were,  however,  anticipated  by 
the  production  of  a  splendid  folio  Antiphona- 
rium, printed  at  Venice  by  Pet.  Liechtenstein  (of 
Cologne),  in  1579-1580.  In  1599  the  celebrated 
'  Editio  Plantiniana '  of  the  Gradual  was  issued 
at  Antwerp;  while,  in  1 614-15,  the  series 
was  closed  by  the  production,  at  Rome,  of  the 
great  Medicean  edition  of  the  same  work,  be- 
lieved to  be  the  purest  and  most  correct  which 
has  yet  appeared.  These  fine  editions  are  now 
exceedingly  scarce;  but  the  necessity  for  a 
really  good  series  of  Office-Books,  obtainable  at 
a  moderate  price,  has  long  been  felt,  and  several 
attempts  have  been  made  to  meet  the  exigencies 
of  the  case.  In  1848  a  Gradual  and  Vesperal 
were  published  at  Mechlin,  the  former  based 
upon  the  Medicean  edition,2  and  the  latter,  upon 
the  Venice  '  Antiphonarium '  of  1579-80.  Both 
these  works,  with  an  'Officium  Hebdomadae 
sanctae'  compiled  with  equal  judgment,  have 
already  passed  through  many  carefully  revised 
editions ;  and,  not  many  years  after  their  appear- 
ance, similar  volumes  were  issued  by  the  Arch- 
bishops of  Rheims  and  Cambrai,  and  also  by  Pere 
Lambillotte,  whose  Gradual  and  Antiphonarium 
were  posthumously  published  in  1857.  All  these 
editions  were  infinitely  more  correct  than  the 
corrupt  reprints  in  general  use  at  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century ;  and,  moreover,  they  were 
issued  at  prices  which  placed  them  within  the 
reach  of  all.  Their  only  fault  was  a  not  un- 
natural clinging  to  local  '  Uses.'  This,  however, 
struck  at  the  root  of  absolute  purity :  and,  to 
obviate  this  difficulty,  Pope  Pius  IX  empowered 
the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites  to  subject  the 
entire  series  of  Office-Books  to  a  new  and  search- 
ing revision,  and  to  publish  them  under  the 
direct  sanction  of  the  Holy  See.  In  furtherance 
of  this  project  the  first  edition  of  the  Gradual 
was  published,  under  special  privileges,  by  Herr 
Pustet  of  Ratisbon,  in  1871,  and  that  of  the 
Vesperal  in  1875.  Other  editions  soon  followed, 
and  we  believe  the  series  of  volumes  is  now 
complete.  A  comparison  of  their  contents  with 
those  of  the  Mechlin  series  is  extremely  interest- 
ing, and  well  exhibits  the  difference  between  a 
Melody  corrupted  by  local  'Use,'  and  the  self- 
same Strain  restored  to  a  better  authenticated 
form,  as  in  the  following  Verse  of  the  Hymn 
'  Te  Deum  laudamus.' 


From  the  Mechlin  Vesperal  (4th  ed.  1870). 


— - ^ — t-a — .  _,_,  ..."  , ,  isTr?' ill 

Te 

Do 

mi 

■  num      con 

■   fl- 

-  te 

■   -   -   -  -  mur. 

"S- 

1 *z 

a — ^ 



C""-     ■- 

ter  -   num       Pa 


2  Except  in  the  'Ordlnarium  Missw,'  which  followed  the  Editio 
riantiniana. 


PLAIN  SONG. 


PLAIN  SONG. 


765 


:s~  :=;.: 


-SH- 


HI 


om  -  nis     ter  -   ra       ve    -    no    -    ra    -   -   •   •  •      tur. 
2.  From  the  Ratisbon  Gradual  (1871). 


lau    -    -    da    - 


Te    Dom   -   -   -   1   -    num 


We  have  already  seen  that  Plain  Song  was 
introduced  into  England  by  S.  Augustin,  in  the 
year  596.  That  it  nourished  vigorously  among 
our  countrymen  is  proved  by  abundant  evidence: 
but  the  difference  observable  between  the  Sarum, 
York,  and  Hereford  Office-Books  proves  that  the 
English  Clergy  were  far  from  adopting  an  uni- 
form Use.  Some  of  us,  perhaps,  may  find  little 
to  regret  in  this,  seeing  that  many  of  the  Melo- 
dies contained  in  those  venerable  tomes — more 
especially  those  belonging  to  the  Diocese  of 
Sarum — are  of  indescribable  beauty:1  yet  none 
the  less  are  such  interpolations  fatal  hindrances 
to  that  uniformity  of  practice  which  alone  can  lead 
to  true  purity  of  style.  No  sooner  was  the  old 
Eeligion  abolished  by  Law  than  the  Litany  was 

Srinted  in  London,  with  the  antient  Plain  Song 
lelody  adapted  to  English  words.  This  work 
was  published  by  Grafton,  the  King's  printer, 
on  June  16,  1544  ;  and  six  years  later,  in  1550, 
John  Marbecke  published  his  famous  '  Booke  of 
Common  Praier,  noted,'  in  which  Plain  Song 
Melodies,  printed  in  the  square-headed  Gregorian 
character,  are  adapted  to  the  Anglicised  Offices 
of  'Mattins,'  'Euen  Song,'  'The  Communion,' 
and  'The  Communion  when  there  is  a  Buriall,' 
with  so  perfect  an  appreciation  of  the  true  feel- 
ing of  Plain  Song,  that  one  can  only  wonder  at 
the  ingenuity  with  which  it  is  not  merely  trans- 
lated into  a  new  language,  but  so  well  fitted  to 
the  exigencies  of  the  'vulgar  tongue'  that  the 
words  and  Music  might  well  be  supposed  to  have 
sprung  into  existence  together. 

Except  during  the  period  of  the  Great  Rebel- 
lion, Marbecke's  adaptation  of  Plain  Song  to 
the  Anglican  Ritual  has  been  in  constant  use 
in  English  Cathedrals  from  the  time  of  its  first 
publication  to  the  present  day.  Between  the 
death  of  Charles  I.  and  the  Restoration,  all  Music 
worthy  of  the  name  was  banished  from  the  Reli- 
gious Services  of  the  Anglican  Church ;  but,  after 
the  Accession  of  Charles  II,  the  practice  of  sing- 
ing the  Plain  Song  Versicles  and  Responses,  was 
at  once  resumed,  but  the  Gregorian  Tones  to  the 
Psalms  fell  into  entire  disuse,  giving  place  in  time 
to  a  form  of  Melody,  of  a  very  different  kind, 

«  Witness  the  glorious  Melody  to  '  8anctorum  merttls '  (printed  In 
the  Rev.  T.  Helmore's  'Hymnal  Noted '),  which  finds  no  place  in  the 
•  Vesperale  Komanum.' 


known  as  the  'Double  Chaunt.'  This  substitute 
for  the  time-honoured  inflections  of  the  more 
antient  style  reigned  with  undisputed  sway, 
both  in  English  Cathedrals,  and  Parish  Churches, 
until  long  after  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century.  Little  more  than  thirty  years  have 
elapsed  since  the  first  attempts  were  made  to 
dethrone  it.  The  campaign  was  opened  by 
Mr.  W.  Dyce,  who,  in  1843-44,  brought  out  his 
'  Book  of  Common  Prayer  Noted,'  on  the  system  of 
Marbecke,  in  two  splendid  quarto  volumes,  which, 
unfortunately,  were  much  too  costly  for  general 
use.  Mr.  Oakeley  soon  afterwards  published  his 
'  Laudes  Diurnae,'  containing  the  Psalms  and  Can- 
ticles, adapted  to  Gregorian  Tones,  for  the  use  of 
Margaret  Street  Chapel.2  A  more  important  step 
was  taken  by  the  Rev. Thomas  Helmore,  who  pro- 
duced his  '  Psalter  and  Canticles  Noted '  in  1 850, 
his  '  Brief  Directory  of  Plain  Song '  in  the  same 
year,  and  his  'Hymnal  Noted'  in  1851.  These 
works,  more  especially  the  first,  obtained  imme- 
diate recognition.  The  '  Psalter  and  Canticles  ' 
and  the  '  Brief  Directory '  were  used  wi  th  striking 
effect  at  S.  Mark's  College,  Chelsea,  which  soon 
came  to  be  regarded  as  a  sort  of  normal  School 
of  Gregorian  Sinking :  and,  at  the  Church  of 
S.  Barnabas,  Pimlico,  not  these  two  works  only, 
but  the '  Hymnal  Noted '  also,  became  as  familiar 
to  the  Congregation  as  is  now  the  popular  Hymn- 
book  of  the  present  day.  Since  that  time  adapt- 
ations of  Plain  Song  to  English  words  have  ap- 
peared in  numbers  calculated  rather  to  confuse 
than  to  assist  the  well-wishers  of  the  movement. 
Warmly  encouraged  by  the  so-called  'High 
Church  Party,'  and  willingly  accepted  by  the 
people,  'Gregorians  '  now  form  the  chief  attrac- 
tion at  almost  every  'Choir  Festival'  in  the 
country,  are  sung  with  enthusiasm  in  innumer- 
able Parish  Churches,  and  frequently  heard  even 
in  Cathedrals. 

Having  now  presented  our  readers  with  a  rapid 
survey  of  the  history  of  Plain  Song,  from  its  first 
appearance  in  the  Christian  Church,  to  the  pre- 
sent day,  we  shall  proceed  to  treat,  with  equal 
brevity,  of  its  laws,  its  constitution,  and  its  dis- 
tinctive character. 

Plain  Song  Melodies  are  arranged  in  several 
distinct  classes,  each  forming  part  of  a  compre- 
hensive and  indivisible  scheme,  though  each  is 
marked  by  certain  well-defined  peculiarities,  and 
governed  by  its  own  peculiar  laws.  Of  these 
Melodies,  the  most  important  are  the  Tones, 
or  Chaunts,  adapted  to  the  Psalms — a  series  of 
Inflections  usually  described  by  modern  writers 
as  the  '  Gregorian  Tones,'  though  four  of  them, 
at  least,  might  bamore  fairly  called '  Ambrosian.' 
[See  Tones,  the  Gregorian.]  That  the  Psalm 
Tones  are  by  far  the  most  antient  examples  of 
Ecclesiastical  Music  in  existence,  has  never  been 
doubted.  In  structure  they  are  nothing  more 
than  the  simplest  imaginable  Chaunts,  each 
written  in  one  of  the  first  eight  Modes,  from 
which  it  derives  its  name— or  rather,  number 

and  each  consisting  of  two  distinct  members, 

corresponding  to  the  two  responsive  phrases  into 
»  Now  the  Church  of  All  Saints",  Margaret  Street. 


766 


PLAIN  SONG. 


which,  in  accordance  with  the  well-known  laws  1 
of  Hebrew  Poetry,  the  Verses  of  the  Psalms  are  ■ 
often  divided,  while,  in  nearly  every  case,  the  final  ' 
Cadence,  or  '  Ending,'  is  invested,  for  the  sake 
of  variety,  with  several  different  forms.  The 
First,  Third,  Fifth,  and  Seventh  Tones,  repre- 
senting the  four  Authentic  Modes,  are  repre- 
sented by  tradition  to  have  been  the  only  ones 
used  by  S.  Ambrose  [see  Modes,  the  Ecclesi- 
astical] ;  and  to  these,  S.  Gregory  is  said  to  have 
added  the  Second,  Fourth,  Sixth,  and  Eighth, 
each  written  in  a  Plagal  Mode :  but  more  than 
one  writer  on  the  subject  is  of  opinion  that 
these  last-named  Tones  were  in  common  use  long 
before  the  time  even  of  S.  Ambrose.  [See  Plagal 
Modes.]  It  is,  in  fact,  impossible  to  trace  back 
the  eight  familiar  forms  to  the  time  of  their 
iirst  adoption  into  the  Services  of  the  Church ; 
and  still  more  so,  to  account  for  the  origin  of 
a  supplementary  form,  which,  though  unques- 
tionably written  in  the  Ninth,  or  ^Eolian  Mode, 
is  uniformly  described,  not  as  the  Ninth  Tone, 
but  as  the  'Tonus  Peregrinus.'  [See  Tonus 
Peregbinds.] 

Every  Psalm  and  Canticle  sung  in  the  Divine 
Office  is  accompanied  by  an  Antiphon,  which, 
on  Festivals,  precedes  and  follows  it,  but,  on 
Ferias,  follows  it  only.  Antiphons,  selected  from 
Holy  Scripture,  and  other  sources,  are  appointed 
for  every  Feast,  Fast,  and  Feria,  in  the  Eccle- 
siastical Year;  and  each  is  provided  with  its 
proper  Plain  Song  Melody,  which  will  be  found 
in  the  '  Antiphonarium  Romanum.'  It  is  in- 
dispensable, that,  in  every  case,  the  Psalm  and 
Antiphon  should  be  sung  in  the  same  Mode ; 
the  Tone  for  the  Psalm  is  therefore  suggested  by 
the  Mode  of  the  Antiphon ;  and,  as  the  Psalm 
Tones — if  we  except  the  Tonus  Peregrinus,  with 
which  we  are  not  now  concerned — are  written 
in  the  first  eight  Modes  only,  it  follows  that 
the  Melodies  proper  to  the  Antiphons  must 
necessarily  conform  to  the  same  rule.  Some  of 
these  Melodies  are  extremely  beautiful.  They 
are  of  later  date,  by  far,  than  the  Psalm  Tones, 
and  much  more  elaborate  in  construction ;  but 
they  are,  none  the  less,  models  of  the  purest 
Ecclesiastical  style.     [See  Antiphon.] 

Next  in  importance — and,  probably,  in  anti- 
quity also— to  the  Psalm  Tones,  are  the  Inflec- 
tions used  for  the  Vebsicles  and  Responses 
proper  to  the  Liturgy  and  the  Divine  Office; 
such  as  the  'Deus  in  adjutorium'  at  Vespers, 
the  '  Dominus  vobiscum,'  and  '  Per  omnia  suecula 
sseculorum,'  in  the  'Ordinarium  Missae,'  and 
other  similar  passages.  All  these  are  exceedingly 
simple,  and  bear  strong  evidence  of  very  high 
antiquity.     [See  Responsobium  ;  Vebsicle.] 

Intimately  connected  with  them  are  the  va- 
rious Accents  which  collectively  constitute  the 
1  Tonus  Orationis,'  the  '  Tonus  Lectionis,'  the 
'Tonus  Capituli,'  the  'Tonus  Prophetise,'  the 
'Tonus  Epistolae,'  and  the  'Tonus  Evangelii.' 
Each  Accent  is,  in  itself,  a  mere  passing  In- 
flection, consisting  of  two,  or  at  most  three 
notes ;  but  the  traditional  commixture  of  the 
various  forms  gives  to  each  species  of  Lection 


PLAIN  SONG. 

a  fixed  character  which  never  fails  to  adapt 
itself  to  the  spirit  of  the  text.     [See  Accents.] 

More  elaborate  than  any  of  the  forms  we  have 
hitherto  described,  and,  no  doubt,  of  considerably 
later  date,  are  the  Melodies  adapted  to  certain 
portions  of  the  Liturgy,  which  have  been  sung 
at  High  Mass  from  time  immemorial.  We  shall 
first  discuss  those  belonging  to  the  'Proprium 
Missae  ' — i.e.  that  part  of  the  Mass  which  varies 
on  different  Festivals. 

The  first,  and  one  of  the  most  important,  of 
these,  is  the  Introit  ;  which  partakes,  in  about 
equal  degrees,  of  the  characters  of  the  Antiphoa 
and  the  Psalm  Tone.  The  words  of  the  Introit 
are  divided  into  two  portions,  of  which  the  first 
is  a  pure  Antiphon,  and  the  second,  a  single 
Verse  of  a  Psalm,  followed  by  the  '  Gloria  Patri,* 
after  which  the  Antiphon  is  again  repeated  in 
full.  Except  that  it  is  perhaps  a  little  more 
elaborate,  the  Melody  of  the  first  division  differs 
but  little,  in  style,  from  that  proper  to  the, 
Antiphons  sung  at  Lauds  and  Vespers ;  and,  for 
the  reasons  we  have  mentioned  in  speaking  of 
these,  it  is  always  written  in  one  of  the  first 
eight  Modes.  The  Verse  of  the  Psalm,  and  its 
supplementary  '  Gloria  Patri,"  are  sung  to  the 
Tone  which  corresponds  with  the  Mode  of  the 
Antiphon  ;  but,  in  this  case,  the  simple  Melody 
of  the  original  Chaunt,  though  permitted  to  ex- 
hibit one  single  'Ending'  only,  is  developed 
into  a  far  more  complicated  form,  by  the  intro- 
duction of  accessory  notes,  which  would  be  alto- 
gether out  of  place  at  Vespers,  when  five  long 
Psalms  are  sung  continuously,  though  they  add 
not  a  little  to  the  dignity  of  this  part  of  the  Mass. 
The  Antiphon  is  then  repeated  exactly  as  before, 
care  being  taken  to  sing  it  in  a  style  which  may 
contrast  effectively  with  the  preceding  Chaunt ; 
and,  in  Paschal  Tide,  this  is  followed  by  a 
double  Alleluia,  of  which  eight  forms  are  given 
in  the  Graduale,  one  in  each  of  the  first  eight 
Modes.     [See  Intboit.] 

The  Gradual,  though  consisting,  like  the  In- 
troit, of  two  distinct  members — the  Gradual 
proper,  and  the  Versus — differs  from  it  in  that 
no  part  of  it  is  recited,  after  the  manner  of  a 
Psalm,  upon  a  single  note.  The  Melody,  through- 
out, bears  a  close  analogy  to  that  of  the  more 
elaborate  species  of  Antiphon,  as  exhibited  in 
the  first  part  of  the  Introit :  and  its  two  sec- 
tions, though  always  written  in  the  same  Mode, 
are  quite  distinct  from  each  other,  and  never 
repeat  the  same  phrases.     [See  Gradual.] 

On  Festivals,  the  Gradual  is  supplemented  by 
a  form  of  Alleluia  peculiar  to  itself,  which,  in 
its  turn,  is  followed  by  another  Versus,  wherei 
from  it  takes  its  Mode,  and  after  which  it  is 
again  repeated,  after  the  manner  of  a  Da  Capo. 
This  Alleluia  is  twice  repeated,  and  then  echoed, 
as  it  were,  by  an  elaborate  Pneuma,  in  the  same 
Mode.  [See  Pneuma.]  The  style  of  the  Versus 
corresponds  exactly  with  that  of  the  Gradual ; 
and,  after  that  has  been  sung,  the  Alleluia  and 
Pneuma  are  repeated  as  before. 

Between  the  Seasons  of  Septuagesima  and 
Easter,  the  Alleluia,  and  Versus,  are  omitted, 


PLAIN  SONG. 

their  place  being  supplied  by  a  Tractus,  with 
one  or  more  Versus  attached  to  it,  the  music  of 
which  corresponds  exactly,  in  style,  with  that  of 
the  Gradual  and  Versus  already  described. 

On  the  Festivals  of  Easter,  Pentecost,  Corpus 
Christi,  and  the  Seven  Dolours  of  our  Lady,  and 
also  at  Masses  for  the  Dead,  the  Gradual  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  Sequbntia,  or  Prosa — a  species  of 
Hymn  of  which  a  great  many  examples  were 
once  in  existence,  though  five  only  now  remain 
in  use.  These  five  are  the  well-known  'Vic- 
timae  Paschali,'  'Veni  Sancte  Spiritus,'  'Lauda 
Sion,'  Stabat  Mater,'  and  '  Dies  irae ' — a  series 
of  Hymns  which,  whether  we  regard  their 
quaint  mediaeval  versification,  or  the  Music  to 
which  it  is  adapted,  may  safely  be  classed  among 
the  most  beautiful  that  ever  were  written.  [See 
Prosa  ;  Sequentia.]  Compared  with  the  Me- 
lodies we  have  been  considering,  those  of  the 
Sequences  are  of  very  modern  origin  indeed. 
The  tuneful  rhymes  of  'Veni  Sancte  Spiritus ' — 
known  among  mediaeval  writers  as  the  '  Golden 
Sequence' — were  composed  by  King  Robert  II 
of  France,  about  the  year  iooo.  'Victimae  Pas- 
chali' is  probably  of  somewhat  later  date.  The 
'Dies  irae'  was  written  about  the  year  it 50,  by 
Thomas  of  Celano,  while  the  *  Lauda  Sion '  of 
S.  Thomas  Aquinas  can  scarcely  have  been  pro- 
duced before  the  year  1 260.  In  all  these  cases,  the 
Plain  Song  Melody  was  undoubtedly  coaeval  with 
the  Poetry,  if  not  composed  by  the  same  author ; 
and  we  are  not  surprised  to  find  it  differing,  in 
more  than  one  particular,  from  the  Hymns  col- 
lected by  S.  Ambrose  and  S.  Gregory.  Four 
out  of  the  five  examples  now  in  use  are  in  mixed 
Modes ;  and,  in  every  instance,  the  Melody  ex- 
hibits a  symmetry  of  construction  which  dis- 
tinguishes it  alike  from  the  Antiphon  and  the 
Hymn.  From  the  former,  it  differs  in  the  regu- 
larity of  its  rhythm,  and  the  constant  repetition 
of  its  several  phrases ;  from  the  latter,  in  the 
alternation  of  these  phrases  with  one  another; 
for,  while  the  Verses  of  the  Hymn  are  all  sung 
to  the  same  Melody,  those  of  the  Sequences  are 
adapted  to  two  or  more  distinct  Strains,  which 
are  frequently  interchanged  with  each  other, 
almost  after  the  manner  of  a  Rondo,  a  peculiar- 
ity which  is  also  observable  in  some  very  fine, 
though  now  disused  Sequences,  which  were  re- 
moved from  the  Missal  on  its  final  revision  by 
the  Council  of  Trent. 

The  style  of  the  Offertoridm  differs  but  little 
from  that  of  the  Gradual,  though  it  is  sometimes 
a  little  more  ornate,  and  makes  a  more  frequent 
use  of  the  Perielesis.  Like  the  Gradual,  it  is 
sometimes — as  in  the  'Missa  pro  Defunctis' — 
followed  by  a  Versus ;  but  it  more  frequently 
consists  of  a  single  member  only,  without  break 
or  repetition  of  any  kind.  In  Paschal  Tide, 
however,  it  is  followed  by  a  proper  Alleluia  in  its 
own  Mode.    [See  Offertoridm  ;  Perielesis.] 

The  last  portion  of  the  '  Proprium  Missae ' 
for  which  a  Plain  Song  Melody  is  provided 
in  the  Office-Books  is  the  Communio.  This  is 
usually  much  shorter  than  either  the  Gradual 
or  the  Offertory ;  from  which  it  differs  in  style 


PLAIN  SONG. 


767 


bo  slightly  as  to  need  no  separate  description. 
It  is  followed,  in  Paschal  Tide,  by  a  proper 
Alleluia,  which,  of  course,  conforms  to  its  own 
proper  Mode. 

The  'Ordinarium  Missae'— i.e.  that  part  of  the 
Mass  which  is  the  same  on  all  occasions — is  pre- 
ceded, on  Sundays,  by  the  Asperges,  which 
exactly  resembles  the  Introit,  both  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  its  words,  and  the  style  of  its 
Music — an  extremely  beautiful  instance  of  the 
use  of  the  Seventh  Mode. 

Of  the  Ktrie,  Gloria,  Sanctus,  Benedictds, 
and  Agnds  Dei,  the  Ratisbon  Gradual  gives  ten 
Plain  Song  versions,  in  different  Modes,  and 
adapted  to  Festivals  of  different  degrees  of  so- 
lemnity ;  besides  three  Ferial  Masses,  in  which 
the  'Gloria'  is  not  sung,  and  the  beautiful 
'Missa  pro  Defunctis.'  The  Mechlin  Gradual 
gives  eight  forms  only  for  Festivals,  and  one 
for  Ferial  Days.  Of  the  Credo,  four  versions 
are  given,  in  each  volume.  It  is  impossible 
even  to  guess  at  the  date  of  these  fine  old  Melo- 
dies, some  of  which  are  exceedingly  complicated 
in  structure,  while  others  are  comparatively 
simple.  The  shorter  movements,  such  as  the 
Kyrie  and  Sanctus,  are  sometimes  very  highly 
elaborated,  with  constant  use  of  the  Perielesis, 
even  on  two  or  more  consecutive  syllables; 
while  the  Gloria  and  Credo  are  developed  from 
a  few  simple  phrases,  frequently  repeated,  and 
arranged  in  a  form  no  less  symmetrical  than 
that  we  have  described  as  peculiar  to  the  Se- 
quence, though  the  alternation  of  strains,  which 
serves  as  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  that 
form  of  Melody,  is  carried  out  in  a  somewhat 
different  way. 

The  oldest  known  copy  of  the  Sorsum  Corda 
and  Prefaces  dates  from  the  year  1075.  The 
style  of  these  differs  very  materially  from  that  of 
the  other  portions  of  the  Mass,  and,  like  that  of 
the  Pater  noster,  is  distinguished  by  a  grave 
dignity  peculiarly  its  own.  In  addition  to  these, 
the  repertoire  is  enriched  by  certain  proper  Me- 
lodies which  are  heard  once  only  during  the 
course  of  the  Church's  Year  ;  such  as  the  EccB 
lignum  Crucis  and  Improferia,  appointed  for 
Good  Friday;  and  more  especially,  the  Exul- 
tet,  sung  during  the  blessing  of  the  Paschal 
Candle  on  Holy  Saturday.  This  truly  great 
composition  is  universally  acknowledged  to  be  the 
finest  specimen  of  Plain  Song  we  possess.  It 
is  written  in  the  Tenth,  or  Hypoaeolian  Mode ; 
and  is  of  so  great  length,  that  few  Ecclesiastics, 
save  those  attached  to  the  Pontifical  Chapel, 
are  able  to  sing  it,  throughout,  without  a  change 
of  pitch  fatal  to  the  perfection  of  its  effect ;  yet, 
though  it  is  developed,  like  the  'Credo,'  and 
some  other  Melodies  we  have  noticed,  from  a 
few  simple  phrases,  often  repeated,  and  woven, 
with  due  attention  to  the  expression  of  the  words, 
into  a  continuous  whole,  the  last  thought  one 
entertains,  during  its  performance,  is  that  of 
monotony  or  weariness.  The  first  phrase,  which 
we  here  transcribe,  will  perhaps  suffice  to  give 
the  reader  a  good  idea  of  the  general  effect  of 
the  whole. 


768 


PLAIN  SONG. 


Ex  -  ul  -    -  tet  jam   an-gel-I-ea    tur  -  ba  cob-1o  -  rum: 


-jTYA  a   *z>z=&z 


** 


ex  -  ul    -   -    tent    di  -   vi 

-  na     mys  -te---ri-a: 

et 

pro    tan   -  - 

-  • 

ti 

Be 

-     Bl« 

vic- 

to  - 

•  ri 

-» 

M  r3 

d    ^ 

kSV 

— 

ea 

— ! — 

44- 

-iS>— 

<s»   1' 

tu  -   -   -  ba    in   -     -so-net»a     --     lu-ta-     -   ri*. 

Very  different  in  style  from  the  '  Exultet ' 
is  the  wailing  Chaunt,  in  the  devoutly  sad 
Sixth  Mode,  to  which,  in  the  Pontifical  Chapel, 
the  Second  and  Third  Lessons,  taken  from  the 
Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  are  sung  on  the  three 
last  days  in  Holy  Week.  The  Chaunt  for  the 
Lamentations,  which  will  be  found  reduced 
to  modern  Notation  at  page  86  of  the  present 
volume,  stands  as  much  alone  as  the  more 
jubilant  Canticle  ;  but  in  its  own  peculiar  way. 
While  the  one  represents  the  perfection  of  trium- 
phant dignity,  the  other  carries  us  down  to  the 
very  lowest  depths  of  sorrow;  and  is,  indeed, 
susceptible  of  such  intensely  pathetic  expression, 
that  none  who  have  ever  heard  it  sung,  in  the 
only  way  in  which  it  can  be  sung,  if  it  is  intended 
to  fulfil  its  self-evident  purpose, — that  is  to  say, 
with  the  deepest  feeling  the  Singer  can  possibly 
infuse  into  it, — will  feel  inclined  to  deny  its  title 
to  be  regarded  as  the  saddest  Melody  within 
the  whole  range  of  Music. 

Well  contrasted  with  this  are  the  Antiphons 
and  Responsokia  for  the  same  sad  days — the 
former  far  more  simple  generally,  than  Antiphons 
usually  are,  while  the  Responsoria  are  often  graced 
with  Perieleses  of  great  beauty. 

Upon  these,  and  many  minor  details,  we  would 
willingly  have  dwelt  at  greater  length ;  but  have 
now  no  choice  but  to  proceed,  in  the  last  place, 
to  speak  of  the  Hymns  included  in  the  Divine 
Office.  The  antiquity  of  these  varies  greatly,  their 
dates  extending  over  many  centuries.  Among  the 
oldest  are  those  appointed  in  the  Roman  Bre- 
viary for  the  ordinary  Sunday  and  Ferial  Offices, 
and  the  Lesser  Hours.  The  more  antient  ex- 
amples are  adapted,  for  the  most  part,  to  simple 
Melodies,  in  which  Ligatures,  even  of  two  notes, 
are  of  rare  occurrence,  a  single  note  being, 
as  a  general  rule,  sung  to  every  syllable.  Of 
these,  the  well-known  inspirations  of  Prudentius, 
'Ales  diei  nuntius,'  'Lux  ecce  surgit  aurea,'  'Nox 
et  tenebrae,' '  Salvete  flores  martyrum,'  and  a  few 
others,  date  from  about  the  year  400.  '  Crudelis 
Herodes,'  and  '  A  solis  ortus  cardine,'  by  Sedu- 
lius,  were  probably  written  some  twenty  years 
later.  'Rector  potens,  verax  Deus,'  'Rerum 
Deus  tenax  vigor,'  '^Eterne  Rex  altissime,'  and 
a  few  others,  are  also  generally  referred  to  the 
5th  century;  'Audi,  benigne  Conditor,'  and 
'  Beati  nobis  gaudia '  to  the  6th.  *  Pange  lingua 
gloriosi,'  and  'Vexilla  Regis  prodeunt,'  were 
written  by  S.  Venantius  Fortunatus,  about  the 
year  570.   'Te  lucis  ante  terminum,' and  'Iste 


PLAIN  SONG. 

Confessor'  are  believed  to  date  from  the  7th  cen- 
tury; 'Somno  refectis  artubus'  from  the  8th; 
and  'Gloria,  laus,  et  honor,'  from  the  9th.  Of 
the  later  Hymns,  'Jesu  dulcis  memoria'  was 
composed  by  S.  Bernard  in  1140  ;  and  '  Verbum 
supernum  prodiens '  by  S.  Thomas  Aquinas,  not 
earlier  than  1 260.  Hymn-melodies  of  later  date 
frequently  exhibit  long  Ligatures  of  great  beauty ; 
and,  as  a  rule,  the  more  modern  the  Hymn,  the 
more  elaborate  is  the  Music  to  which  it  is  adapted ; 
though  it  does  not  follow  that  it  is  to  be  preferred, 
on  that  account,  to  the  rude  but  dignified  strains 
peculiar  to  a  more  hoary  antiquity. 

Leaving  the  student  to  cultivate  a  practical 
acquaintance  with  the  various  forms  of  Plain  Song 
to  which  we  have  directed  his  attention,  by  re- 
ferring to  the  Melodies  themselves,  as  they  stand 
in  the  Graduate,  Vesperale,  and  Antiphonarium 
Romanum,  it  remains  only  for  us  to  offer  a  few 
remarks  upon  the  manner  in  which  this  kind  of 
Music  may  be  most  effectively  performed. 

As  a  matter  of  course,  the  Priest's  part,  in 
Plain  Song  Services  of  any  kind,  must  be  sung 
without  any  harmonised  Accompaniment  what- 
ever, care  only  being  taken  that  the  pitch  chosen 
for  it  may  coincide  with  that  necessarily  adopted 
by  the  Choir,  when  it  is  their  duty  to  respond 
in  Polyphonic  Harmony.  For  instance,  if  the 
'  Sursum  corda,'  and  '  Preface,'  be  unskilfully 
managed  in  this  respect,  an  awkward  break 
will  seriously  injure  the  effect  of  the  '  Sanctus ' ; 
while  the  'Gloria'  and  'Credo'  will  lose  much 
of  their  beauty,  if  equal  care  be  not  bestowed 
upon  their  respective  Intonations.  No  less  judg- 
ment is  required  in  the  selection  of  a  suitable 
pitch  for  the  far  more  difficult  '  Exultet,'  the 
first  division  of  which  is  interupted  by  a  form 
of 'Sursum  corda,'  analogous  to  that  which  pre- 
cedes the  '  Preface ' :  and,  in  all  cases,  a  perfect 
correspondence  of  intention  between  Priest  and 
Choir  is  absolutely  indispensable  to  the  success 
of  a  Plain  Song  Service. 

The  'Kyrie,'  'Gloria,'  'Credo,'  and  other 
movements  pertaining  to  High  Mass,  may  be 
sung  in  unison,  either  by  Grave,  or  Acute  Equal 
Voices,  and  either  with,  or  without,  a  fitting 
Organ  Accompaniment.  It  must,  however,  be 
understood  that  unison,  in  this  case,  does  not 
mean  octaves.  The  clauses  of  the  '  Gloria '  and 
'  Credo '  produce  an  excellent  effect,  when  sung 
by  the  Voices  of  Boys  and  Men  alternately :  but, 
when  both  sing  together,  all  dignity  of  style  is 
lost  in  the  general  thinness  of  the  resulting  tone. 
This  remark  applies  with  equal  force  to  the  Psalms 
sung  at  Lauds  and  Vespers,  and  even  to  the 
Hymns.  In  the  Pontifical  Chapel,  the  Verses 
are  entrusted  either  to  Sopranos  or  Altos  in 
unison,  or  to  Tenors  and  Basses;  alternated,  on 
certain  occasions,  with  the  noblest  and  most 
severe  forms  of  Faux  Bourdon — of  course  un- 
accompanied. At  Notre  Dame  de  Paris,  and 
S.  Sulpice,  one  Verse  of  a  Psalm,  or  Canticle,  is 
very  effectively  sung  by  Tenors  and  Basses  in 
unison,  and  one  in  Faux  Bourdon ;  both  with 
a  grand  Organ  Accompaniment,  which,  when 
well  managed,  by  no  means  destroys  the  peculiar 

[W&B.] 


PLAIN  SONG. 

character  of  the  antient  Melody,  though  it  is 
undoubtedly  preferable,  that,  wherever  it  is  possi- 
ble to  dispense  with  the  instrumental  support, 
the  Voices  should  be  left  to  themselves.  ^  The 
misfortune  is,  so  very  few  Organists  are  willing 
to  confine  themselves  to  the  only  Harmonies  with 
which  Plain  Song  can  be  consistently  accom- 
panied. The  Ecclesiastical  Modes  are  wholly 
unsuited  to  diversified  combinations,  which  have 
no  more  affinity  with  them  than  mediaeval  archi- 
tecture with  that  of  the  Parthenon  :  and  the 
needless  introduction  of  Diminished  Sevenths  and 
Augmented  Sixths  into  the  Accompaniment  of 
the  Psalms  is  as  grave  an  offence  against  good 
taste  as  would  be  the  erection  of  a  Doric  Pedi- 
ment in  front  of  Westminster  Abbey.  Until 
this  fact  is  generally  recognised,  there  will  always 
be  a  prejudice  against  Plain  Song  among  those 
who  judge  by  results,  without  troubling  them- 
selves to  enquire  into  the  causes  which  produce 
them :  for  no  well-trained  ear  can  listen  to  a 
*  Gregorian  Psalm,'  with  Chromatic  Accompani- 
ment, without  a  feeling  of  disgust  akin  to  that 
which  would  be  produced  by  the  association  of 
Chopin's  wild  Melodies  with  the  Harmonies  of 
Orlando  Gibbons.1 

On  the  other  hand,  an  intimate  connection 
exists  between  Plain  Song  and  true  Polyphony 
—which  indeed  was  originally  suggested  by  and 
owes  its  very  existence  to  it.  Almost  every 
class  of  Melody  we  have  described  has  been 
treated  by  the  Great  Masters  in  Counterpoint 
of  more  or  less  complexity;  and  that,  so  fre- 
quently, that  we  possess  Polyphonic  renderings 
of  the  Music  used  at  High  Mass,  at  Solemn 
Vespers,  and  in  the  awful  Services  of  Holy 
Week,  in  quantity  sufficient  to  supply  the  needs 
of  Christendom  throughout  the  entire  cycle  of 
the  Ecclesiastical  Year.  The  Psalm  Tones  have 
been  set,  by  Bernabei,  and  other  learned  Contra- 
puntists, with  a  full  appreciation  of  the  grave 
simplicity  of  their  style,  and  a  careful  adapta- 
tion of  the  four-  and  five-part  Harmony  of  the 
mediaeval  Schools  to  the  Modes  in  which  they 
are  written :  and  Palestrina,  Felice  Anerio,  the 
two  Nanini,  Luca  Viadana,  and  a  host  of  their 
contemporaries,  have  supplemented  them  with  in- 
numerable original  Faux  Bourdons  intended  to 
alternate  with  unisonous  Verses  of  the  simple 
Chaunt.*  A  fine  MS.  collection  of  them  was 
discovered,  in  Rome,  by  Dr.  Barney,  whose  auto- 
graph copy  of  it  is  now  preserved,  in  the  Library 


i  Forbidden  Harmonies  may  be  found.  In  no  small  number,  even  In 
some  of  the  publications  Issued  at  Ratlsbon,  since  the  death  of  Dr. 
Proslte,  who,  himself,  was  the  most  conscientious  of  editors,  and 
tolerated  no  compromise  with  Impurity  of  any  kind. 

J  A  large  collection  of  these  will  be  found  In  Proske'a  '  Music* 
Dlylna,'  Tom.  UL 


PLAIN  SONG. 


769 


of  the  British  Museum,  under  the  title  of  *  Studij 
di  Palestrina';  and  many  others  are  in  exist- 
ence, both  in  MS.  and  in  print.  Of  works  of 
greater  pretension,  the  number  is  inexhaustible. 
Without  reckoning  the  great  Masses  and  Motets 
founded  on  Plain  Song  Canti  fermi,  which 
naturally  fall  into  another  category,  we  possess 
no  end  of  harmonised  Plain  Song,  in  the  form 
of  Litanies,  Responses,  Hymns,  and  other  move- 
ments of  inestimable  value.  Some  of  the  finest 
of  them  will  be  found  among  the  'Cantiones 
sacrse '  of  Tallis  and  Byrd ;  but,  for  the  most 
perfect  work  of  the  kind  we  possess,  we  are  in- 
debted to  the  genius  of  Palestrina,  whose  *Hymni 
totius  anni,'  published  at  Rome  by  F.  Coatti- 
nus,  in  1589,  contain  a  series  of  forty-five  of  the 
Hymns  most  frequently  sung  in  the  various 
Offices  of  the  Church,  in  each  of  which  the  antient 
C;mto  fermo  is  made  to  serve  as  the  basis  of 
a  composition  of  the  rarest  beauty,  no  less  re- 
markable for  the  skill  displayed  in  its  construc- 
tion, than  for  the  true  artistic  feeling  with  which 
that  skill  is  concealed  beneath  the  rugged 
grandeur  of  the  original  Melody.  [See  Hymn, 
vol.  i.  7606.] 

We  find   ourselves,  then,  after  the  lapse  of 
more  than  eighteen  centuries,  in  possession  of  a 
treasury   of  Plain   Song,  rich  enough   to  sup- 
ply the  Church's  every  need,  so  long  as  her 
present  form  of  Ritual  remains  in  use,  and  suffi- 
ciently varied  to  adapt  itself  to  any  imaginable 
contingency.    Though  we  can  bring  forward  no 
evidence  old  enough  to  enable  us  to  trace  back 
the   earliest  of  our    treasures  to  their  origin, 
and  thus  establish  their  purity  beyond  all  possi- 
bility of  doubt,  the  comparison  of  innumerable 
mediaeval  MSS.  justifies  us  in  believing  that  the 
materials  which  have  been  handed  down  to  us 
have  suffered  far  less  deterioration  than  might 
reasonably  have  been  expected,  when  th.ir  ex- 
treme   antiquity  is   taken    into    consideration. 
The  scrupulous  care  which  has  been  bestowed 
upon  these  MSS.  within  the  last  thirty  years 
leaves  little  room  for  fear  that  the  written  text 
will  be  corrupted  in  time  to  come :  but,  that  the 
style  of  performance  is  neither  free  from  present 
corruption,  nor  from  the  danger  of  still  greater 
abuses  in  the  future,  is  only  too  painfully  evi- 
dent.    ThoBe,  then,  who  are  really  in  earnest  in 
their  desire  to  preserve  both  the  letter  and  the 
spirit  of  our  store  of  antient  Melodies  from  un- 
authorised interference,  will  do  well  to  fortify 
their  own  taste  and  judgment  by  careful  study; 
remembering,  that,  however  worthy  of  our  rever- 
ence the  true   Music  of  the    Early   Christian 
Church  may  be,  modernised  Plain  Song  is  an 
abomination  which  neither  gods  nor  men  can 
tolerate.  [W.  S.R.I 


END  OF  VOL.  II. 


vor..  11.  pt.  1  a. 


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