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teachers  (Xolleoe 
Columbia  XDlniversU^ 


A  Digest  of 
Educational  Sociology 

By  DAVID  SNEDDEN,  Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR    OF    EDUCATION,    TEACHERS    COLLEGE 
COI.TJ  M  HIA   UNIVERSITY 


Published  by 

Gbarlpra  (UoUfgje,  (Ealttmbia  Httiuwrattg 

NEW  YORK  CITY 
1920 


A  Digest  of 
Educational  Sociology 

By  DAVID  J5NEDDEN,  Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR    OF    EDUCATION,    TEACHERS    COLLEGE 
COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY 


Published  by 

2fearljera  <&all*g*,  CMmttbta  Intorattij 

NEW  YORK  CITY 
1920 


Copyright,  1920,  by  David  Snedden 


J* 


CONTENTS 

I  The   Meaning  of   Educational    Sociology 1 

II  Social    Structures 11 

III  Social    Functionings 28 

IV  Social  Standards  Determining  Educational  Objectives 51 

V  Specific  Objectives  of  Education 55 

VI     The  Evolution  of  Education 60 

VII     Physical    Education 64 

VIII     Vocational    Education 73 

IX     Social    Education 79 

X     Cultural   Education 85 

XI     Miscellaneous    Obj  ectives 89 

XII     Agencies   of   Education 92 

XIII  Mechanisms  of  Education 98 

XIV  Construction  of   Curricula 105 

XV  Objectives     in    Developmental     Control     of     Children, 

Ages   1-4 112 

XVI     Objectives  of  Education  and  Development  of  Children, 

Ages  4-6 113 

XVII     Objectives  of  School  Education,  Ages  6-9 120 

XVIII     Objectives  of  School  Education,  Normals,  Ages  9-12 126 

XIX    Objectives  of  School  Education,  Normals,  Ages  12-14  130 

XX     Objectives     of     General     School     Education,     normal 

Youths,  Ages  12-18 135 

XXI     Objectives  of  Liberal  Schools  for  Persons,  Ages  18-22. . .  .138 
XXII    Adaptations  of  Education  to  Special  Social  Classes 139 

XXIII  Objectives  of  Special  Education  for  Physical  Defectives. .  .143 

XXIV  Objectives  of  Special  Education  for  the  Blind 145 

XXV    Objectives  of  Special  Education  for  Social  Offenders 147 

XXVI     English   Language 150 

XXVII     Foreign  Languages  and  Literature — Ancient 156 

XXVIII    Foreign  Languages  and  Literature — Modern 159 

XXIX    Mathematics     : 163 

XXX    Natural   Science 166 

iii 

£73539 


IV  CONTENTS 

XXXI  Mental  Science 170 

XXXII  Social    Science    (including    History) 174 

XXXIII  Geography    184 

XXXIV  The  Fine  Arts 188 

XXXV  English    Literature 192 

XXXVI  Practical    Arts 198 

XXXVII  Agricultural    Vocational    Education 203 

XXXVIII  Commercial  Vocational  Education    207 

XXXIX  Homemaking  Vocational  Education 210 

XL  Industrial    Vocational    Education 213 

XLI  Professional     Education 218 

XLII  Physical     Education 220 

XLIII  Guidance     224 

XLIV  Curriculum  Problems  for  Investigation 237 

XLV  Problems  of  Objectives  of  Subjects  for  Investigation 248 

XLVI  Miscellaneous   Problems    for   Investigation 255 

XLVII  Bibliographical    References 256 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  MEANING  OF  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

A.    Introductory 

Sociology  denotes  the  science  and  study  of  human  social  groupings, 
including  the  factors  that  condition  such  social  groupings,  the  evolution 
of  group  forms,  and  the  processes  by  which  groups  may  be  improved, 
both  as  collective  agencies  and  as  means  of  promoting  qualities  desired  in 
individuals.  Human  social  groups  are  of  many  kinds  in  form  and  in 
functioning. 

Education  may  be  distinguished  as  of  two  kinds — that  carried  on  in 
schools  or  other  agencies,  specialized  for  educational  purposes;  and  that 
effected  as  a  by-product  of  vocational  pursuits,  family  nurture,  worship, 
recreation,  social  control,  defence,  and  the  like.  Both  kinds  of  education 
are  designed,  in  so  far  as  they  are  at  all  purposive,  to  prepare,  adjust,  or 
re-shape  individuals  for  increased  usefulness  to  themselves  or  to  others 
(including  deities),  according  as  such  usefulness  is  conceived  at  the  time. 

Many  social  groupings  are  relatively  permanent — nations,  cities,  churches 
— while  it  is  the  constant  desire  of  the  best  members  of  society  that 
others,  less  continuous — families,  corporations,  parties,  labor  unions — 
shall  take  approved  forms  and  functions. 

But  individual  members  of  all  groups  come  and  go — their  effective 
membership  in  all  groups  rarely  exceeding  fifty  years,  and  being  in  fact 
commonly  only  two  or  three  decades.  Hence  a  large  part  of  purposive 
education  has  always  been  designed  rather  to  prepare  the  individual  child, 
youth,  or  adult  for  more  effective  fitting  into  one  or  more  groups  than 
for  usefulness  to  himself — although  in  the  long  run  the  two  forms  of 
usefulness  tend  in  the  main  to  coincide. 

Furthermore,  by  all  ordinary  standards,  social  or  group  life  tends  to 
become  more  involved,  more  extensive,  more  potential  of  good  or  bad 
results — states  become  larger,  customs  must  be  replaced  by  laws,  economic 
specialization  and  interdependence  increase.  The  processes  of  preparing 
the  young  for  good  group  membership  become  more  difficult,  require  more 
scieatific  knowledge,  necessitate  more  complicated  administration. 

Hence  the  convictions  of  modern  peoples  that  a  constantly  increasing 
amount  of  purposive  and  systematic  education  of  both  young  and  adults 
is  needed  to  insure  right  social  membership  on  the  part  of  oncoming  gen- 
erations of  individuals. 

In  its  prescientific  stages,  both  the  specific  objectives  (aims,  purposes) 
of  education  and  its  methods  were  crystallized  in  customs  and  traditions, 
products  usually  of  insensible  accretions,  perpetuated  by  "trial  and  success" 

I 


2  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

processes,  and  occasionally  by  the  inventiveness  of  a  genius.  Under 
dynamic  social  conditions  educational  practice  often  lags  heavily,  as  do 
practices  in  other  departments  where  custom  and  precedent  play  large 
parts — religion,  law,  sumptuary  standards.  (Cf.  China,  England,  classical 
education,  education  of  women,  and  unnumbered  instances  in  current 
curricula.) 

The  twentieth  century  finds  many  attempts  to  make  education  more 
varied,  extended,  flexible,  individualized,  socially  functional.  Movements 
for  "enrichment  of  curricula,"  for  "child  study,"  and  for  socialization  of 
school  life  are  symptomatic  of  new  interests  and  points  of  view.  Psychol- 
ogy, always  expected  to  furnish  guidance  to  methods  of  teaching,  has 
lately  reached  the  point  where  it  can  actually  do  so.  Educational  adminis- 
tration becomes  scientific  in  certain  material  aspects — buildings,  finance, 
control. 

But  endless  old  difficulties  persist  and  new  ones  develop  because  objec- 
tives remain  so  largely  on  faith  levels — tied  up  in  beliefs,  customs,  tradi- 
tions, radical  aspirations,  the  catch-words  and  formulae  of  partisan  cults 
and  sects.  Sociology  itself,  just  emerging  from  metaphysical  swaddling 
clothes,  has  not  been  regarded  as  a  promising  source  of  guidance.  Little 
scientific  effort  has  yet  been  given  to  direct  analysis  of  aims  and  values 
in  any  but  a  few  departments  of  education. 

Ultimately,  a  developed  sociology  must  chiefly  provide  the  objectives 
required  to  give  definiteness  of  purpose  to  major  and  minor  educational 
procedures.  Sociology  must  reveal  what  are  the  goals  expected  to  be 
realized  for  individuals  (of  various  kinds  and  potentialities)  as  well  as 
for  social  groups  through  their  adjusted  individual  members.  Out  of  a 
thousand  possible  paths  that  may  be  taken  by  education  there  must,  in  a 
given  situation,  be  found  the  score  that  are  most  timely  and  essential, 
while  psychology  will  provide  means  of  ascertaining  the  educabilities  of 
given  individuals  and  the  most  effective  means  of  reaching  stated  goals. 
Some  concrete  problems  will  reveal  existing  needs.' 

1.  For  many  years  American  elementary  schools  have  made  much  of 
the  subjects  of  arithmetic,  as  the  high  schools  have  of  algebra  and  plane 
geometry.  In  each  case  the  subjects  have  grown  in  elaborateness  and 
complexity  while  various  traditions  have  gained  currency  as  to  their 
educational  values.  Private  schools,  women's  colleges,  and  other  habitu- 
ally conservative  institutions  still  impute  mystic  values  to  algebra  and 
geometry,  as,  naturally,  also  successful  laymen,  whose  conceptions  of 
educational  values  were  formed  two  or  more  decades  ago. 

If  systematic  experimentation  (for  which  education  is  now  ready  in 
this  field)  should  show  that  the  mathematical  subjects,  and  especially 
their  more  involved  and  less  "practical"  phases,  possess  unique  values  for 
mental  training  (discipline  of  "reasoning  powers,"  etc.)  analogous  to  the 
alleged  values  of  Indian  clubs  or  the  trapeze  in  physical  discipline,  then, 
of  course,  justification  for  the  prescription  of  these  subjects  for  admission 

(i)   See   Snedden.   D.,    "Educational   Sociology,"   Am.   Jour,    of  Soc.    25:120. 


MEANING  OF   EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY  3 

to  college,  graduation  from  high  school,  or  promotion  in  elementary- 
school  would  exist. 

Apart  from  these  still  uncertain  values,  the  mathematical  studies  possess 
obvious  values  to  some  or  all  individuals  and  therefore  to  society.  Cer- 
tain vocations — electrical  engineering,  bookkeeping,  pharmacy,  artillery 
direction,  navigation,  the  plumber's  trade — require,  respectively,  for  their 
successful  prosecution  certain  specialized  knowledge  and  ability  to  use 
mathematics.  All  persons  must  buy  commodities,  and  all  ought  to  read 
journals,  and  to  invest  savings!  ("consumers  needs").  For  each  of  these 
functions  some  (perhaps  not  much)  knowledge  of  arithmetic  is  very 
desirable,  if  not  indispensable,  for  all.  Here  we  find  justification  for 
"general  mathematics." 

But  our  methods  of  meeting  "social  needs"  through  these  studies  are. 
now  probably  ill-adjusted  and  wasteful  in  extreme.  General  arithmetic 
is  filled  with  topics  appropriate  only  for  specialized  vocations.  Very  few 
girls  can  ever  expect  to  use  algebra  vocationally.  Slow  children  are 
seldom  well  trained  in  needed  elemental  processes.  Essential  "approxima- 
tion" calculation  is  neglected.  Cultural  ("appreciation")  values  are  rarely 
realized. 

Can  we  now  as  results  of  careful  studies  of  social  needs:  (a)  define 
"consumers  needs"  which  should  be  basis  of  general  or  universally  pre- 
scribed arithmetic;  (b)  define  actual  prevocational  offerings  possible  to 
elementary  school,  high  school,  and  liberal  arts  college,  holding  them  as 
electives  for  persons  reasonably  sure  of  needing  them;  (c)  define  the 
specialized  mathematics  appropriate  to  various  types  of  vocational  (basic 
and  extension)  schools;  and  (d)  promote  the  development  of  "apprecia- 
tion" subjects  as  elective  offerings  to  increase  "general  culture"?  Here 
lie  important  fields  of  investigation. 

2.  Much  time  is  now  given  in  elementary  schools  to  the  teaching  of 
"oral  reading."  Nevertheless  most  adults  (including,  sad  to  say,  most 
teachers)  read  aloud  poorly.  Once  when  books  and  papers  were  scarce 
oral  reading  served  a  useful  social  function — can  it  ever  again?  We  all 
move  towards  silent  reading,  individualized  to  tastes  and  needs.  Only  a 
half-score  of  vocations  put  a  premium  on  the  "good  oral  reader."  These 
questions  of  social  objective  now  need  answers:  (a)  Under  present  con- 
ditions are  oral  reading  abilities  of  any  special  significance  to  adults 
generally,  for  cultural,  civic  or  vocational  purposes?  (&)  Is  "silent  read- 
ing," now  obviously  a  universal  need,  well  taught  (or  systematically  taught 
at  all)  at  present?  (c)  Except  in  very  elementary  stages  (first  two 
grades)  is  oral  reading  probably  a  hurtful  rather  than  a  helpful  means 
of  teaching  silent  reading?  (d)  What  are  the  vocations  which  really 
require  oral  reading,  and  for  them  can  it  be  elected  in  advance  as  a  pre- 
vocational1 subject  or  can  it  best  be  given  in  a  vocational  school? 

(i)  A  subject  is  here  called  "prevocational"  when  its  functioning  in  a  given  vocation 
is  known,  whilst  its  character  is  such  that  it  can  profitably  be  taught  in  schools  normally 
attended  before  entry  on  vocational  schools.  Trigonometry  taken  in  high  schools  by 
students  expecting  to  enter  engineering  schools,  "pre-medical"  biology,  and  "pre- 
legal"  economics  taken   in   liberal  arts   colleges,   are   established   examples. 


4  EDUCATIONAL    SOCIOLOGY 

3.  The  several  states  now  expend  together  probably  between  eight  and 
ten  million  dollars  annually  on  modern  language  instruction  in  high 
schools.  What  are  the  purposes,  and  what  the  present  results,  of  this 
expenditure?  What  results  do  we  expect  in  terms  of  adult  powers  of 
reading?  speaking?  written  composition?  What  standards  do  we  hold 
of  these  powers,  and  what  expenditures  of  time  and  energy  have  we 
estimated  to  be  necessary  to  their  realization?  What  are  really  our  ex- 
pectations as  to  obscure  cultural  appreciations — of  peoples,  literatures, 
reactions  on  English,  vocational  guidance?  Are  these  realized?  Why 
do  we  permit,  even  encourage,  sometimes  prescribe,  two  modern  languages 
when  tangible  results  in  one  are  very  doubtful?  Hardly  any  criticism  can 
be  too  severe  in  reference  to  the  superficial,  aspirational,  hit-or-miss  objec- 
tives of  American  modern  language  instruction.  Difficulties  involved  are 
more  fundamental  than  poor  methods  of  teaching.  They  lie  first  in 
domain  of  social  purposes. 

Elaborate  studies  of  social  need  should  soon  be  provided,  (a)  Is  it 
important  that  some  American  adults  should,  in  the  next  generation,  read 
with  ease  one  of  these:  French,  German,  Japanese,  Russian,  Chinese, 
Spanish,  Portuguese?  How  many,  roughly,  in  each — for  their  own  voca- 
tional needs?  for  the  social  needs  of  the  nation?  for  society's  needs  of 
radiant  sources  of  cultural  appreciations?  Similarly,  are  speaking  (and 
auditory)  powers  necessary?     Writing  powers?     For  what  numbers? 

(b)  What  investment  of  time  and  learning  energy  will  normally  be 
required  in  the  case  of  persons  of  super-average  native  linguistic  abilities 
to  attain  to  profitable  powers  in  above  directions,  if  learning  is  begun  at 
age  20?  18?  14?  Is  earlier  beginning — at  age  6  or  2 — practicable  for 
public  education? 

(c)  What  means  shall  be  employed:  (i)  to  select  schools  which  should 
or  can  profitably  undertake  teaching  of  one  or  more  modern  language? 
(2)  to  select  the  learners  who  shall  be  encouraged,  perhaps  endowed,  to 
pursue  such  studies  to  worth-while  ends? 

4.  The  place  of  the  fine  arts  in  modern  life  is  as  yet  far  from  clear, 
and  hence  the  responsibilities  of  the  schools  are  naturally  most  uncer- 
tain. Here  is  still  an  active  battleground  of  faiths,  aspirations,  prejudices 
— protagonistic  and  antagonistic.  A  marked  example  can  be  found  in 
music.  The  American  people  now  spend  much  wealth  on  music  of  com- 
mercial (and  often  mechanical)  kinds.  Persons  fond  of  "better"  music 
believe  standards  of  utilization  should  be  raised,  but  their  reasons  seem 
to  rest  largely  on  unproven  assumptions.  We  need  sociological  studies  of 
these  questions:  (a)  What  are  the  primary,  and  what  the  incidental, 
functions  of  music  in  modern  life — moral  refinement  and  uplift,  filling 
leisure  time  richly,  promotion  of  socialization  (sociability,  harmony), 
furthering  of  right  worship? 

(b)  What  are  the  best  means  of  causing  music  to  function  desirably — 
training  a  few  to  advanced  powers  of  execution  (vocational  or  specialized 
amateur),  training  many  talented  ones  to  moderate  powers  of  execution 


MEANING   OF   EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY  5 

(singing,  playing,  chorus  leading),  or  striving  to  train  all  in  some  degree 
of  execution,  e.  g.,  chorus? 

(c)  What  are  the  social  values  of  developed  or  cultivated  capacities 
for  appreciation,  unaccompanied  by  any  abilities  in  execution;  and  can 
such  capacities  be  cultivated,  quite  independently  of  attempts  at  vocal  or 
instrumental  execution  ? 

(d)  Is  it  practicable  or  desirable  clearly  to  differentiate  social  func- 
tions that  can  be  ministered  to  by  particular  types  of  music  and  in  educa- 
tion concentrate  on  approved  varieties  of  music  to  these  ends — patriotism, 
worship,  social  reform,  appreciation  of  nature,  stimulation  of  filial  affec- 
tion, elevation  of  relations  of  sexes,  serenity  in  affliction?  What  can  we 
determine  as  to  varieties  of  music  most  suited  to  "wise  use  of  leisure," 
diversion  for  the  mentally  fatigued,  recreation  for  the  physically  fatigued? 
What  are  specific  characteristics  of  socializing  or  "democratizing"  music? 
What  values  inhere  in  "popular"  music?  Are  there  cultural  values  in 
music  not  explicitly  to  be  defined  or  consciously  to  be  sought? 

5.  The  photodrama  has  come  to  play  a  great  part  in  the  life  of  the 
young.  It  is  obviously  an  emotional  agency  of  much  force,  whilst  its 
influence  in  revealing  the  social  standards  of  others  and  in  affecting  those 
of  persons  still  plastic  is  probably  much  greater  than  is  ordinarily 
assumed.  What  are  the  various  specific  influences  exerted  by  it,  inter- 
preted qualitatively  as  socially  constructive,  socially  destructive,  etc.? 
(Our  own  mature  subjective  valuations  may  easily  mislead  us  here)  : 
Does  the  moving  picture  make  for  "intellectual  instability"?  What  is 
the  evidence?  Does  it  injure  eyes  or  nerves?  What  evidence?  Does 
it  provide,  for  tired  persons,  a  "good  use  of  leisure"?  Why?  In  what 
ways  can  it,  as  a  commercial  agency,  be  further  subjected  to  right  kinds 
of  social  control? 

B.  Summary 
1.  Educational  Sociology  has  its  analogues  in:  educational  psychol- 
ogy, engineering  mathematics,  agricultural  chemistry,  medical  biology, 
navigational  astronomy,  architectural  drawing  (or  art),  mining  geology, 
etc.  In  each  case  a  body  of  "pure"  or  "detached"  knowledge  or  art  is 
drawn  upon  for  particular  contributions  to  a  field  of  practical  effort  or 
"applied  science"   (or  "art"). 

a.  A  "pure  science"  has  its  customary  logical  organization.  Also, 
a  field  of  applied  knowledge  (in  reality  a  field  of  practice)  has 
its  logical  organization.  But  a  "hyphenated"  subject,  connect- 
ing a  field  of  practice  and  a  pure  subject,  can  rarely  have  a 
logical  organization.  It  must  be  selective,  first  of  the  elements 
of  the  pure  subjects  that  are  applicable,  then  of  the  portions  of 
the  practice  field  that  are  assisted  by  the  knowledge  thus  carried 
over. 

b.  But,  in  practice,  teachers  of  "applied"  sciences  have  either  re- 
quired as  prerequisite  to  their  work  a  general  course  in  the 


6  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

pure  science,  or  else  have  made  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
applied  course  consist  in  reality  of  the  logically  arranged  ma- 
terials of  the  pure  subject — e.g.,  "agricultural"  physics  often 
presupposes  general  physics,  although  such  topics  as  optics, 
acoustics,  and,  usually,  electricity  and  magnetism,  have  no  rela- 
tion to  farm  work. 

2.  Education,  as  the  scientific  study  of  a  field  of  practice,  is  reinforced 
by  contributions  from  such  "pure"  subjects  as  history,  psychology,  phil- 
osophy, physiology,  economics,  architecture,  statistics,  sociology,  etc. 

a.  Educational  history,  philosophy,  and  architecture  are  clearly 
defined  fields. 

b.  Educational  psychology,  starting  with  certain  perceived  needs 
or  problems  (especially  as  regards  methods  of  instruction, 
learners'  capacities,  etc.)  in  education  selects  from  psychology, 
helpful  knowledge  and  method  towards  meeting  these  needs 
and  solving  these  problems,  especially  as  regards  learning  capac- 
ity and  effective  methods. 

c.  Educational  physiology  applies  in  school  hygiene,  etc.;  educa- 
tional economics  in  the  administration  of  education ;  and  educa- 
tional statistics  involves  use  of  those  facts  and  methods  of 
statistics  as  a  scientific  study  that  applies  to  elucidation  of 
education  problems. 

3.  Education,  as  a  field  of  practice,  (a)  deals  with  persons  already 
living  in  group  (i.e.,  social)  relationships;  and  (b)  its  largest  determin- 
ing purpose  is  to  fit  the  young  for  effective  participation  in  group  or  social 
life,  especially  as  regards  vocational,  moral,  civic,  and  cultural  qualities. 

But  the  "pure"  study  of  society  and  societies  is  sociology  (with  its 
auxiliary  sciences,  anthropology,  ethnology,  social  ethics,  civics,  and  even 
political  economy  and  economics). 

Hence  educational  sociology  designates  the  study  that,  starting  with 
vital  problems  of  education,  selects  from  sociology  (and  the  other  social 
sciences)  materials  and  methods  that  will  contribute  to  the  solution  of 
these  problems. 

o.  A  minor  field  of  usefulness  for  educational  sociology  involves 
interpretation  of  the  instinctive  social  life  of  children  —  as  seen 
in  gangs,  cliques,  sports,  taboos,  imitation,  submission  to  author- 
ity—  which  may  guide  in  making  educational  programs  and 
providing  for  discipline,  school  management,  cooperation  with 
non-school  agencies  of  by-education  (home,  shop,  etc.). 
b.  The  major  field  of  usefulness  for  educational  sociology  will  be 
found  in  its  contributions  to  the  determination  and  comparative 
evaluation  of  educational  objectives  (goals,  aims,  purposes)  ; 
in  throwing  light  on  the  means  and  methods  requisite  to  the 
realization  of  these;  and  in  testing  the  ultimate  efficacy  of  these 
means  and  methods. 


MEANING   OF   EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY  7 

c.  In  a  measure  other  sciences  can  be  drawn  upon  for  definition 
of  educational  objectives.  Standards  of  physical  fitness  desired 
or  sought  on  behalf  of  the  individual  (in  a  non-social  sense) 
could  be  derived  from  biology,  "human"  zoology,  medicine,  thus 
giving  educational  biology,  etc.  Standards  of  aesthetic  or  in- 
tellectual development  in  a  relatively  individualistic  sense  could 
be  derived  from  such  contributions  of  educational  psychology 
as  are  specialized  to  this  end.  But  so  many  of  the  ends  of 
education  are  to  be  evaluated  in  terms  of  social  results  that  we 
may  assume  educational  sociology  to  be  the  major  study  for 
this  purpose. 

C.    Problems 

The  variety  and  number  of  problems  presented  by  the  study  of  the 
possible  and  desirable  objectives  of  education  are  almost  endless.  For 
convenience  these  can  be  classified  as: 

1.  Problems  of  the  objectives  which  shall  be  held  for  school  education 
for  normal  children  in  regular  or  customary  schools  of  general  education. 
For  example : 

a.  What  are  the  results  to  society  of  kindergarten  education  as 
now  administered? 

b.  Assuming  the  financial  and  administrative  practicability  of  pn> 
viding  for  a  substantial  amount  of  school  education  of  all 
children  between  four  and  six  years  of  age,  (or  three  and  five), 
what  should  be  the  primary  aims  of  that  education?  To  offset 
deficiencies  in  home  education?  To  provide  for  certain  forms 
of  fuller  and  more  rapid  intellectual  (or  moral  or  physical) 
development  than  the  home  can  provide? 

c.  What  are  desirable  objectives  in  the  training  of  children,  six  to 
twelve,  in  appreciation  of  the  harmonies  found  in  plastic  art? 
musical  art?     literary  art? 

d.  What  are  the  actual  social  objectives  that  should  control  in 
the  organization  of  materials  of  history  for  elementary  school 
purposes?  Or,  what  are  the  types  of  social  ideals  and  what  the 
bodies  of  organized  social  knowledge  that  should  be  possessed 
by  boys  from  ten  to  fifteen  years  of  age  as  a  part  of  their 
equipment  towards  citizenship,  and  how  far  can  these  be  at- 
tained through  instruction  in  history  or  other  forms  of  social 
science  ? 

e.  Of  what  value  to  society  is,  or  would  be,  certain  definite  forms 
of  physical  and  mental  training  which  are  or  might  be  accom- 
plished through  school  education,  e.g.,  advanced  ability  to  handle 
mental  arithmetic,  great  accuracy  in  mechanical  drawing,  pre- 
cision in  use  of  grammatical  constructions,  sharpened  percep- 
tion of  harmonies  of  form  and  color  in  surroundings,  accurate 
markmanship  with  rifle,  fine  penmanship,  skill  in  debating,  etc.? 


8  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

/.  To  what  extent  shall  physical  education  (or  physical  develop- 
ment) be  promoted  through  the  schools?  And  what  part  can 
best  be  played  in  this  by:  regular  teacher  (in  lower  grades)? 
a  special  teacher  of  hygiene  (upper  grades)?  playground 
teacher?  school  nurse?  school  physician?  lecturer? 

g.  What  are  desirable  objectives  of  practical  arts  instruction,  ages 
6-12?  training,  same  ages?  same  subject,  ages        12-14  14-16? 

h.  What  specific  values  can  be  comprehended  under  the  term 
"mental  training"  or  "trained  mind"?  Which  of  these  are 
feasible  and  under  what  circumstances?  What  are  current 
illusions  as  to  mental  training? 

i.  What  are  the  actual  results  of  the  by-education  for  children 
10-15  of:  moving  pictures?  newspapers?  libraries?  Sunday 
schools?  street  life  and  playground?  police  power?  participation 
in  productive  work? 

/.  How  are  deleterious  results  to  be  overcome?  How  are  valu- 
able results  to  be  furthered? 

k.  What  is  meant  by  moral  education?  What  are  the  essential 
phases  of  moral  by-education  resulting  from  the  school?  Does 
the  school  now  achieve  any  direct  moral  education?  Can  it  be 
made  to  do  so?     What  are  some  possible  means? 

/.  What  part  has  physical  work  played  in  development  of  youth 
in  the  past?  What  are  contemporary  deficiencies?  By  what 
means  might  these  be  remedied? 

2.  Problems  of  the  objectives  which  shall  be  held  for  general  education 
for  special  classes. 

a.  Shall  educational  objectives  for  subnormals  be  sharply  differ- 
entiated, according  as  these  will  probably  (a)  be  prepared  for 
independent  living  in  the  competitive  social  order;  or  (b)  be 
retained  by  the  state  under  custody? 

b.  What  are  desirable  minimums  of  cultural  education  (including 
mastery  of  instrumental  subjects)  for  (a)  the  blind?  (&)  the 
deaf?  (c)  the  severely  crippled?  (d)  the  moron?  (e)  the 
imbecile?  and  (/)  the  deaf -blind? 

c.  What  are  desirable  and  feasible  objectives  of  education  for 
immigrants  (non-English  speaking)  reaching  here  at  15-25 
years  of  age? 

d.  What  is  desirable  and  feasible  in  extended  general  education 
of  average  adults  early  entered  on  specialized  occupations? 

e.  What  are  the  objectives  of  religious  education?  What  are 
the  most  effective  agencies  for  it?  What  are  useful  means? 
What  is  possible  place  of  public  school? 

3.  Problems  of  objectives  for  vocational  education. 

a.   What   has    been   effectiveness    of    agencies    of    vocational   by- 


MEANING   OF   EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY  9 

education  in  the  past?  Are  these  of  diminishing  potency? 
Specify  by  occupations. 

b.  What  are  factors  determining  the  individual's  productive  com- 
petency: (natural  qualities;  social  inheritance — skill,  insight, 
arts,  invention;  industrial  organization;  capital;  leadership; 
exchange;  individual's  health,  happiness,  will,  training,  age, 
etc.)  ? 

c.  Wherein  do  liberal  (or  general)  education  and  vocational  edu- 

cation differ  fundamentally  as  to  objectives?  What  are  the 
essential  characteristics  of  man  as  producer?  As  consumer? 
Show  graphically  man's  normal  life  area  of:  (a)  consumption 
in  excess  of  production;  (b)  production  in  excess  of  con- 
sumption. 

d.  Shall  we  classify  as  producers :  public  singers  ?  soldiers  ? 
policemen?  merchants?  non- wage-earning  housewives?  teach- 
ers? inventors?  children  being  educated?  non-working  hold- 
ers of  inherited  capital?  bankers?  prisoners?  gamblers? 
pensioners  ? 

e.  To  what  extent  can  vocational  efficiency  (for  specified  voca- 
tions) be  enhanced  by  intellectual  study  (as  distinguished  from 
training   for   skill)    of    factors    involved? 

/.  What  part  can  apprehension  of  sociological  significances  of 
occupational  processes  play  in  enhancing  vocational  interest, 
comprehension,  satisfaction,  advancement,  efficiency? 

g.  To  what  economic  tests,  or  conditions,  can  learners  of  vocations 
be  subjected,  ideally?    practically? 

D.    Miscellaneous    Problems   and   Topics 

a.  What  is  a  "pure  science"?  Name  ten.  What  is  "applied 
science"?  Show  how  chemistry  may  be  applied  in  cooking, 
soil  tillage,  tanning,  medicine,  war,  clothing  manufacture,  pho- 
tography, laundry  operations.  Can  you  give  any  acceptable 
meaning  to  the  phrase  "the  study  of  applied  chemistry"?  Or 
to  the  phrases,  applied  physics,  applied  mathematics,  applied 
bacteriology,  applied  psychology  or  applied  sociology? 

b.  What  are  the  sciences  drawn  on  for  help  in  war?  agriculture? 
homemaking?  manufacture  of  steel?  medicine?  street  pav- 
ing? food  conservation?  navigation?  Would  it  be  correct  to 
describe  each  of  these  as  a  "field  of  applied  science"?  As  a 
field  of  practice,  is  each  capable  of  being  organized  as  a  system- 
atic study? 

c.  Show  the  places  of  the  following  sciences  in  the  administration 
and  processes  of  education:  psychology;  hygiene;  architecture; 
finance  and  accounting;  sociology. 

d.  Does  agriculture  draw  upon  the  same  departments  of  chemis- 


10  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

try  as  photography?  What  portions  of  astronomy  do  naviga- 
tors require?  What  are  the  essentials  of  bacteriology  to  the 
cook?  To  the  food  conservator?  To  the  tropical  plantation 
manager?  What  conclusions  can  you  draw  as  to  the  extent 
to  which  a  "field  of  practice"  needs  to  draw  on  a  "pure" 
science?  Have  you  any  conclusions  as  to  how  an  average 
practitioner  can  best  master  the  portions  of  the  applied  sciences 
needed  by  him?  Illustrate  from:  navigation  (astronomy, 
mathematics,  meteorology)  ;  farming  (physics,  chemistry,  bot- 
any, bacteriology,  zoology,  meteorology,  economics,  mathe- 
matics);  war;  cotton  manufacture;  live-stock  husbandry;  tele- 
phony; primary  education  (psychology,  architecture,  plastic  art, 
physiology  and  hygiene,  sociology,  social  psychology). 
e.  Illustrate  some  of  the  possible  contributions  of  sociological 
studies  to  practical  problems  of: 

(1)  School  discipline  and  government  as  a  means  of  prepar- 
ing for  adult  citizenship? 

(2)  The  need  of  special  oral  English  instruction  and  training 
for  children  of  immigrants    (by  racial  groups). 

(3)  Determination  of  the  needs  of  vocational  education  in 
schools  for  the  factory  vocations  followed  chiefly  by 
girls  aged  16-20. 

(4)  Discovery  of  the  desirability  of  teaching  Latin  as  a 
means  to  better  English. 

(5)  Effects  of  city  life  on  growth  processes  of  a  physical 
kind? 
References  :  From  bibliographies  on  Educational  Sociology,  Social  Aspects 
of  Education,  and  General  Sociology  ascertain  various  meanings  of  (a) 
"educational  sociology";  (b)  "socialized  education";  (c)  education  as  a 
means  to  "social  efficiency."  For  more  general  treatment  of  relations  of 
"pure"  to  "applied"  science,  see  chapter  references  in  Walter  Libby's 
Introduction  to  the  History  of  Science.  Also  various  articles  indexed  in 
American  Journal  of  Sociology.  Prescribed  references:  4:  3-21;  25: 
247-304;  27:  1-47:  21  :  652-91;  23:  705-28:  22:  21-51;  28:  427-51.  Small, 
214-301;  Todd,  505-35;  Ward  (3)    (II),  540-634;  Ellwood. 


CHAPTER  II 
SOCIAL  STRUCTURES 
A.   General  Postulates 

Men,  women,  and,  children  nearly  always  live,  work,  fight,  and  play  in 
groups.  Membership  in  groups  is  almost  always  advantageous  to  the 
individual,  and  also  disadvantageous  in  certain  respects  felt  by  him.  The 
child  in  the  family,  the  sailor  in  the  crew,  the  soldier  in  a  company,  the 
member  of  the  community,  could,  probably,  not  live  long  if  all  support 
of  others  were  withdrawn;  but  at  the  moment  each  of  these  tends  to 
resent  the  constraints,  the  restrictions,  the  obligations  imposed  by  his  fel- 
lows. So  in  practically  all  social  groups,  and  especially  with  younger  or 
less  "domesticated"  or  "socialized"  members,  there  exists  a  constant  ten- 
sion ;  the  group  tries  to  "tame"  the  individual,  while  he  has  a  tendency  to 
run  alone.    Hence  result  differences,  strife,  sin,  crime,  and  revolt. 

But  only  through  support  and  protection  of  groups  can  human  beings 
accomplish  much.  The  child  needs  the  family;  young  workers  need 
parents  or  other  employers ;  learners  need  teachers ;  play  is  not  satisfactory 
without  companionship;  most  work  requires  cooperators,  if  not  at  the 
moment,  at  least  as  a  previous  means  of  providing  tools,  arts,  etc.;  while 
most  worship  also  seems  to  require  joint  effort.  For  the  time  a  strong 
man  may  live  alone,  a  genius  may  work  alone ;  but  even  a  Robinson  Crusoe 
succeeds   only  by  what  generations  have   taught  him. 

Hence  by  long  evolution,  survival  of  the  fit,  elimination  of  the  unfit, 
has  been  produced  that  being  called  man  who  is  first  a  combination  of 
social  and  individualistic  innate  tendencies  and  second  the  builder  of  cus- 
toms and  laws  which  in  most  cases  confirm  and  extend  his  native  quali- 
ties, but  in  some  few  cases  check  or  divert  them.  (Kropotkin;  Dealey; 
Boaz;  Fiske   (2);  Sumner   (2). 

It  is  probable  that  man  has  lived  in  small  social  groups  in  anthropoid 
and  primitive  human  stages  for  hundreds  of  thousands,  if  not  millions,  of 
years  before  he  reached  the  stage  where  pastoral  and  agricultural  develop- 
ments made  practicable  large  groups.  Hence  man's  deepest  social  in- 
stincts center  in  small  group  relationships — filial,  fraternal,  parental,  gang, 
clique,  clan,  partnership,  chum,  company,  village.  Most  of  the  customs, 
conventions,  taboos,  ceremonies,  social  habits,  morals,  etc.,  that  make  up 
moral  behavior  have  to  do  with  small  group  life.     (McDougall,265-302.) 

When  human  beings  find  it  necessary  to  fight,  work,  live,  and  play  in 
large  groups,  many  difficult  adjustments  must  be  made.  Native  instincts 
towards  strangers,  submission,  routine  work,  separation  from  home,  post- 

II 


12  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

ponement  of  satisfaction,  self-abnegation,  all  make  onerous  and  distaste- 
ful the  conditions  imposed  by  large  group  "efficiency."  Hence  conquest, 
slavery,  laws,  penalties,  regimentation,  education,  property,  nationalism, 
and  extensions  of  religion.  Evolution  takes  direction  of  destroying,  or 
denying  descendants  to,  groups  that  cannot  meet  conditions  of  "large 
group"  cooperation,  control,  advance.  Even  social  systems  thus  compete; 
the  poor  form  of  state,  of  army  organization,  of  mechanism  for  pro- 
curing justice,  education,  invention,  or  devoted  leadership  fails,  and  carries 
to  extinction  those  relying  on  it.  "Large  group"  systems  capable  of  win- 
ning in  evolution  must  also  work  back  towards  improving  individuals — in 
health,  physique,  fighting  and  working  qualities,  morals,  culture;  and  also 
towards  improving  small  groups, — families,  communities,  partnerships, 
corporations,  schools,  cities,  states. 

Social  groups  are  of  different  kinds  according  to  the  services  they 
render.  The  family  group  for  reproduction;  the  partnership,  band,  guild, 
company,  union,  corporation,  army,  for  defence,  aggression,  work;  the 
community  (village,  town,  countryside)  and  commonwealth  (city,  prov- 
ince, state,  nation,  empire)  for  joint  occupation  of  territory,  division  of 
labor,  and  political  functions ;  churches,  denominations,  for  worship ;  clubs 
for  sociability  and  culture;  schools,  cults,  societies  for  education  and  cul- 
ture; parties  for  the  promotion  of  political  or  other  propaganda;  and  the 
like.  Each  child  is  born  into  certain  groups,  grows  into  others,  and  "joins" 
still  others  as  he  approaches  or  enters  maturity. 

Social  groups  are  often  longer  lived  than  any  individuals  composing 
them;  their  members  come  and  go.  Groups  newly  formed  usually  are 
made  up  of  selected  "like-minded"  personalities.  Established  groups  have 
processes  more  or  less  elaborate  by  which  they  select  (when  they  can)  and 
shape  newcomers  to  their  standards  and  ideals   (social  control). 

Rarely  are  all  the  members  of  a  group  of  equal  age,  native  strength, 
experience,  training,  moral  goodness,  wealth,  health,  cooperative  power, 
etc.  Those  having  the  most  of  these  qualities  exert  a  larger  influence  on 
the  weaker — prestige,  leadership,  ascendancy,  guidance.  In  any  group  the 
tendency  is  always  towards  specialization  of  function — leadership  and  fol- 
lowership,  division  of  labor,  regimentation.  "Good"  membership  in  any 
group  presupposes  at  least  either  well-developed  instinctive  adaptation; 
prolonged  habituation,  motivated  by  fear,  love,  ambition;  or  intelligent 
perception  of  advantages  of  group  action. 

Social  groupings  often  present  analogies  to  individuals,  as  respects 
having  youth  and  age,  losing  or  winning  in  struggle  for  existence,  in 
having  functions  well  or  poorly  coordinated,  in  rendering  real  service,  etc. 

A  species  or  stock  carries  and  passes  on  its  acquisitions  as  biological 
inheritance  (organs,  instincts)  or  social  inheritance  (knowledge,  customs, 
inventions,  arts).  Animals  (consider  especially  ants,  bears,  crows,  and 
the  like)  are  strong  in  relatively  definite  instincts  and  weak  in  transmis- 
sion by  social  inheritance.  Man  is  a  unique  animal  in  the  magnitude  of 
the  social  inheritance  he  rolls  up  through  the  generations  and  transmits 
through    tools,    language,    experience— knowledge,    arts,    customs,    laws, 


SOCIAL  STRUCTURES  13 

science.  He  has  probably  more  general  and  fewer  specific  instincts  than 
most  animals.  Man  therefore  evolves  finally  a  social  inheritance  that  be- 
comes civilization,  a  very  artificial  thing,  pulling  far  away  from  original 
nature — and  doing  so,  becomes  superior  to  (master  of)  animals,  plants. 
He  shapes  the  earth  to  his  needs,  domesticates  animals,  develops  knowl- 
edge of  the  remote,  conceives  higher  ends,  develops  endless  new  wants 
and  means  of  satisfying  them.  He  may  so  over-cultivate  himself,  over- 
organize  his  life,  as  to  break  down  original  nature. 

Man,  like  other  organic  forms,  tends  to  increase  faster  than  means  of 
subsistance.  Competition,  conflict,  extermination  result.  The  coopera- 
tions necessary  to  strengthen  group  life  are  strengthened  by  natural  evo- 
lution and  external  means,  while  the  qualities  of  competition  necessary  to 
subdue  or  destroy  rivals  for  available  goods  are  similarly  developed,  nat- 
urally and  artificially.  But  competition  steadily  forces  enlargement  of 
competing  groups,  and  hence  range  and  intensity  of  cooperation  of  those 
having  like  interests  in  given  groups.  In  a  crowded  world,  struggle  for 
food  and  other  needed  wealth  (giving  "economic  determinism"),  may 
transcend  all  other  struggles;  but  under  some  conditions  other  forms  of 
struggle  seem  paramount. 

Examine  the  foregoing  postulates  in  connection  with  these  social  groups 
or  forms  of  grouping: 

1.  The  family:  conjugal  pair;  parents  and  children;  patriarchal  family; 
the  "family"  as  large  grouping  of  relatives;  "family"  of  several  genera- 
tions; fraternal  group. 

2.  The  household,  clan,  phratry,  tribe,  confederation. 

3.  The  band,  clique,  gang,  company,  host,  mob,  crowd. 

4.  The  patriarchal  (and  slave-holding)  household,  village,  shire,  muni- 
cipality (town,  city). 

5.  The  city-state,  province,  county,  state,  nation,   empire,   league. 

6.  The  squad,  company,  regiment,  brigade,  army,  battleship  crew. 

7.  The  partnership,  corporation,  syndicate,  trust. 

8.  The  guild,  trade  union,  grange,  federation  of  unions,  association. 

9.  The  party,  sect,  "ism,"  school    (of  thought),  cult. 

10.  The  congregation,  church,   denomination,   monastic   order. 

11.  The   "society,"  association,   guild,   school,   college. 

12.  The  fraternity,  "secret  society,"  knights,"  "club." 

13.  The  reception,  "party,"  dance,  "fiesta,"  celebration,  commencement, 
court,  etc. 

14.  Race,  caste,  "lower  class,"  "ruling  class,"  "poor  whites,"  "east  siders," 
"half  breeds,"  "laboring  class,"  "capitalist  class,"  nobility,  club  women. 

15.  Christians,  liberals,  intelligenzia,  suffragists,  socialists,  scientists, 
agnostics,  barbarians,  "Huns." 

References:  1:  349-73;  1:  1-51;  51-97;  149-91;  3:  6-55;  81-101;  21: 
29-42;  84-109;  449-551 ;  22:  153-176;  256-299;,23:  325-97;  25: 
1-49;  49-126;  26:  57-90;  28:  17-73. 


14  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

B.    Social  Groupings 

Social  groupings  of  all  sorts  are  chiefly  products  of  natural  evolution- 
ary processes  (accidental  variations  and  inceptions,  blind  experimenta- 
tion, survival  and  perpetuation  of  the  fit,  elimination  of  the  unfit,  etc.)  ; 
but  conscious  and  purposive  action  plays  an  increasing  part  in  the  later 
stages  (empire  builders,  colonizers,  constitution-makers,  reformers, 
church- founders, — Caesar,  Mohammed,  Brigham  Young,  Luther,  Gompers, 
Cecil  Rhodes,  Rousseau,  Thomas  Jefferson).  Some  primitive  groupings, 
once  very  strong,  but  now  non-existent  or  diminished  in  function,  still 
repay  study  because  of  light  they  shed  on  social  psychology  and  especially 
on  retrogressive  tendencies  in  modern  life  and  compensatory  contributions 
needed  from  education.  (111.  from  the  patriarchal  household,  clan,  tribe, 
guild,  partnership,  agricultural  village,  autocratic  state,  racial  caste,  sump- 
tuary and  cultural  caste,  etc.).  But  of  chief  importance  is  searching  study 
and  evaluation  of  social  groupings,  now  matured  or  inceptive,  of  appar- 
ently vital  functioning — monogamous  family,  city,  nation,  corporation, 
labor  union,  cultural  association,  political  party,  democratic  church,  socia- 
bility club,  etc.  Every  current  sociological  tendency  is  here  in  direction 
of  supplementing,  if  not  substituting  for,  blind  evolutionary  processes 
scientific  and  purposive  consideration,  control  and  reconstruction  by  pro- 
cesses partly  educational  and  partly  legalistic  in  nature. 

1.  Genetic  or  kinship  groupings  are  the  family,  household,  clan,  phratry, 
tribe  and,  in  a  sense,  the  ethnic  nationality  and  the  "race."  Where  com- 
mon ancestry  does  not  exist,  adoption  is  necessary  ritual— -of  captured  or 
received  wives,  men  seeking  asylum,  etc. 

a.  The  family  is  still  a  vital  grouping,  but  it  tends  to  lose  its 
inclusive  character  (close  affiliation  of  uncles,  cousins,  off- 
spring families)  and  some  of  its  functions  (family  worship, 
family  education,  cooperative  production,  joint  recreation). 
Other  functions  increase  (family  support  into  maturity,  spe- 
cialization of  mother  functions  towards  child-care  and  sumptuary 
control).  The  monogamous  family  with  social  strivings  for 
marital  fidelity,  probably  originating  in  cold  or  dry  climes 
where  conquest  and  enslavement  are  not  extensive,  tends  to 
become  generally  approved  form,  largely,  perhaps,  because  of 
increased  guarantee  of  effective  rearing  of  offspring.  Society 
uses  many  means  to  preserve  and  improve  the  family  (legisla- 
tion, urgings  of  religion,  elevation  of  women,  inheritance  of 
property,  conventions  of  courtship,  education  in  home-making, 
pride  of  family,  ancestor  respect,  taboos  on  prostitution).  But 
degenerative  influences  are  ceaselessly  operative.  Some  are 
ancient,  as  promiscuity  in  sex  relations;  instability  of  man's 
interests,  thrift,  and  earning  power;  and  results  of  war.  Some 
are  essentially  modern,  as  mobility  of  labor;  rapidly  rising 
standards  of  living;  physical  impairment  of  woman  through 
preoccupation  in  youth  with  pursuit  of  culture,  social  decora- 


SOCIAL  STRUCTURES  1 5 

tiveness,  and,  possibly,  specialized  nervous  indoor  wage-earning 
vocations;  excessive  refinement  of  standards  imposed  by  living 
in  upper  economic  levels  and  by  romantic  ideals  of  marriage; 
some  anti-social  effects  of  diffusion  of  ideals  and  knowl- 
edge of  means  of  birth  control;  and  removal  of  restrictions  on 
divorce. 

Each  of  above  types  of  social  action  has  its  advantageous  fea- 
tures and  effects;  but  under  some  conditions  its  results  on 
family  life  are  obviously  disastrous,  especially  where  propor- 
tions involved  are  large  or  best  stocks  are  affected.  Mobility 
of  labor  as  produced  by  slavery;  diffused  (as  opposed  to  mass) 
migration;  dispersive  effects  of  life  of  soldiers,  sailors,  hunt- 
ers, explorers,  miners,  builders,  railway  workers,  students; — 
precludes  the  normal  settled  residence  best  for  family  solidar- 
ity, encourages  marital  instability,  irregular  sex  relations,  early 
flight  of  children,  and,  in  higher  levels  of  intelligence,  exces- 
sive restriction  of  progeny  and  preoccupation  with  immediate 
satisfactions  of  adults. 

Rising  standards  of  living  lead  to  postponement  or  abandon- 
ment of  marriage,  postponement  and  excessive  restriction  of 
progeny,  undue  strain  on  income  earner  and  "society  position" 
maker,  wrong  ideals  as  to  what  constitutes  normal  size  and 
character  of  family,  excessive  preoccupation  with  material  gains 
on  behalf  of  present  generation.  Remark  purposive  character 
of  family  restriction  among  Catholic  clergy,  professional  men, 
ambitious  women,  military  officers,  sons  and  daughters  of  the 
prosperous,  and  demoralizing  effects  among  artists,  singers, 
writers  and  business  leaders,  many  of  whom  seek  the  satis- 
factions, but  avoid  the  responsibilities,  of  mating  and  marriage. 

Little  is  scientifically  known  yet  of  effects  on  progeny  bear- 
ing and  rearing  of  early  forced  or  induced  preoccupation  of 
girls  with  "mental"  work,  pursuit  of  decorative  ideals  ("woman 
as  social  decoration"  for  man  or  "society")  and  consequent 
restrictions  on  physical  play  and  denial  of  physical  ("large 
muscle")  work.  But  in  view  of  conditions  of  ancestral  evolu- 
tion it  is  inherently  probable  that  effects  are  often  sterility, 
abnormally  hurtful  parturition,  defunctionalized  nursing  organs, 
waning  of  instinctive  interests  in  wifehood  and  motherhood. 
Teaching,  indoor  salesmanship,  and  "light"  factory  work  in 
which  millions  of  girls  now  engage  in  pre-marriage  years, 
nerve  wearing  and  indoor,  may  have  similar  effects. 

Among  certain  highly  cultivated  classes,  or  those  with  spe- 
cialized expensive  tastes,  celibacy  is  prevalent,  due  to  inability  to 
find  "ideal"  mate.  This  is  closely  related  to  rising  standards,  but 
is  also  accompaniment  of  "romantic"  appreciations  gone  to 
seed,  of  incompatibility,  and  of  willingness  to  sacrifice  future 
of    species    to    present    satisfactions.      (Celibacy    of    monastic 


1 6  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

orders  not  to  be  included  here,  probably,  because  of  their  pre- 
occupation  with   "other   worldly"   life.) 

Ideals  of  families  not  excessive  in  size  (the  irresponsibly 
produced  "rabbit  warren"  type),  ideals  of  self-restraint  and 
continence  in  family  relations,  increasing  intelligence  and  inde- 
pendent position  of  women,  social  approval  of  divorce  for 
proved  incompatibility,  diffusion  of  knowledge  of  means  of 
birth  control,  may  all  operate,  in  spite  of  their  beneficent  effects, 
as  "diseases"  of  family  group  life,  under  conditions  suggested 
above. 

"Race  suicide"  may  or  may  not  be  disastrous  in  the  "long 
run"  to  a  society  whose  membership  is  rapidly  increasing  and 
standards  rising,  according  as  it  tends  to  eliminate  the  best  or 
worst  stock. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  STUDY 

(1)  Describe  twenty  social  groups  in  which  you  have  membership. 
Arrange  in  respective  orders  of:  (a)  their  importance  to  you;  (b)  their 
appeals  to  your  interests;  (c)  their  claims  on  your  time;  (d)  their  claims 
on  your  money;    (e)   their  importance  to  the  state  now. 

(2)  Describe  certain  social  groups  of  which  you  have  knowledge,  the 
net  effects  of  which  appear  to  be  harmful  to:  (a)  certain  economic 
groups;  (b)  certain  religious  groups;  (c)  certain  political  parties;  (d) 
a  local  city  or  state;  (e)  the  nation;  (/)  an  international  alliance;  (g) 
organized  religion  in  general;   (h)  current  standards  of  family  life. 

(3)  Show  how  the  demands  of  certain  groups  compete  for  your  ser- 
vice. Show  certain  persons  known  to  you  are  failing  in  obligations  to 
highly  important  groups. 

(4)  Do  people  appear  to  you  now  less  or  more  cooperative  than  for- 
merly? Distinguish  several  types  of  cooperation — conjugal,  vocational, 
religious,  political,  sociability,  cultural — and  try  to  prove  your  contention. 
Is  the  corporation  an  "advanced"  form  of  cooperation?  The  city?  The 
transatlantic  steamer?    The  Catholic  church?    A  university?  A  coal  mine? 

(5)  Show  how  cooperative  production  (including  distribution  and  ex- 
change) differs  to-day  in  kind  and  degree  from  cooperative  utilization. 
Describe  various  type  of  cooperative  utilization — in  home,  hotels,  clubs, 
schools,  and  armies.  What  seem  to  you  defects  in  processes  by  which  we 
collectively  obtain  to-day  in  cities:  milk,  streets,  news,  paintings,  results 
of  research,  security  from  burglary. 

(6)  Is  it  probable  that  the  following  have  in  certain  eras  been  socially 
valuable:  slavery;  polygamy;  idolatry;  absolute  monarchy;  wars  of  ex- 
termination; capital  punishment;  wife  purchase;  infanticide;  communism 
(land)  ;  communism  (consumable  goods)  ;  political  government  by  priest- 
hoods? 

(7)  Historically,  has  the  monogamous  family  been  common  in  tropical 


SOCIAL  STRUCTURES  1 7 

regions?  Why,  probably?  Why  should  cold  regions  put  a  premium  on 
the  monogamous  family?  In  what  respects  is  "the  family"  growing 
"worse"  in  America?  In  what  respects  better?  Repeat,  specifying  fami- 
lies of:  farmers;  prosperous  urban  dwellers;  recent  Mediterranean  immi- 
grants; negroes;  skilled  laborers;  professional  men. 

(8)  Under  what  circumstances  does  life  celibacy  seem  socially  desirable 
for:  (a)  men  of  low  economic  ability;  (b)  men  of  exceptional  talents  or 
of  genius;  (c)  women  of  fair  ability;  (d)  women  of  good  earning  power. 

References:  1:  112-57;  2:  311-53;  3:  55-81;  4:  61-78;  21:  525-51;  22: 
273-99;  26:  49-63;  27:  571-606;  Abbott;  Collidge;  Dealey;  Drysdale; 
Fiske;   Goodsell;   Lichtenberger ;    Putnam;   Thomas;   Calhoun. 

2.  Under  conditions  of  disorganization  of  the  more  enduring  social 
groups  whose  members  are  well  "trained,"  domesticated,  or  socialized,  a 
rariety  of  sporadic  social  groupings  appear.  These  are  so  often  patho- 
logical as  to  deserve  careful  consideration  both  as  symptons  of  social  dis- 
integration and  as  forerunners  of  social  explosion.  Such  groupings  tend 
naturally  to  be  formed  of  those  already  like-minded  by  virtue  of  kinship 
or  residential,  vocational,  or  cultural  association;  but,  given  sufficient  con- 
crete incentive,  they  may  be  formed  of  individuals  very  heterogeneous  in 
the  above  respects.  The  solidifying  cause  is  usually  to  be  found  in  com- 
mon perception  of  danger,  concrete  gain,  possible  revenge,  or  other  more 
or  less  temporary  stimulus,  usually  strongly  emotional. 

a.  Youthful  gangs  and  cliques  seem  to  have  a  definite  instinctive 
basis,  easily  taking  elaborate  shapings  in  a  favoring  environ- 
ment. 

b.  Mobs,  crowds,  and  various  "isms"  doubtless  have  instinctive 
foundations  near  the  surface,  but  they  also  express  cumulative 
massing  of  partly  suppressed  aspirations,  grievances,  "new 
growths,"  and  unsuspected  decay  of  old  standards. 

c.  Tribal  and  other  "outcasts"  or  "exiles,"  criminals  and  rebels, 
the  oppressed  and  disinherited,  tend  to  form  bands,  adult  gangs, 
sometimes  "hosts"  with  whom  "organized"  society  is  always  at 
war  except  for  short  periods  of  truce.  In  the  presence  of 
wealth  stored  by  organized  folk,  these  bands  tend  usually  to 
be  parasitic  or  predatory — bound  together  by  perception  of 
immediate  and  concrete  objectives. 

d.  Clan  and  tribal  formations  survive  only  among  very  backward 
peoples,  but  very  probably  some  abnormal  psychological  mani- 
festations express  obscure  vestigial  survivals  of  the  basic  social 
instincts  evolved  within  them.  Feuds  and  vendettas,  the  suc- 
cess of  the  "boss"  in  congested  areas,  fraternities,  secret  so- 
cieties, tongs,  gangs,  loyalties,  initiations,  and  even  the  rival- 
ries of  schools,  cults  and  parties  "may  thus  have  roots  in  the 
"blood  brotherhoods"  of  the  past. 


1 8  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

e.  The  real  or  supposed  "ethnic"  group  or  nationality  is  to-day, 
obviously,  one  of  the  greatest  barriers  to  "large  nation"  solidar- 
ity. The  strong  tendencies  of  economic  life,  of  science,  of 
sumptuary  standards,  of  arts,  and  probably  of  rationalistic  re- 
ligion is  towards  enlargement  of  areas  of  general  intercourse, 
cooperation  and  union ;  whilst  race,  common  ethnic  origins,  and 
emotional  religions  seem  to  interpose  barriers.  The  "small 
national,"  the  oppressed  or  submerged  peoples,  seem  always 
heavily  to  capitalize  their  ethnic  separateness.  Caste  often 
owes  at  least  its  origins  to  racial  differences. 

PROBLEMS   FOR  STUDY 

(i)  What  are  some  of  the  "assimilation"  problems  presented  to-day  by: 
specified  immigrant  groups  in  the  United  States;  French  Canadians  in 
Canada;  Dutch  in  South  Africa;  negroes  in  America;  Irish  in  United 
Kingdom;  ethnic  elements  in  Italy,  France,  Denmark,  Russia. 

(2)  Define  the  meaning  of  Americanization  in  general.  What  are  its 
special  implications  for:  political  ideals,  religious  aspirations,  culture, 
sociability  customs,  moral  customs,  sumptuary  standards? 

(3)  What  parts  are  played  in  America  by:  college  fraternities,  secret 
societies,  tongs  (Chinese),  vendettas  (Italian,  Southern  mountain  whites), 
cults,  "bossed"  parties,  vocational  unions. 

References:  1:  157-72;  2:  233-76;  276-311;  3:  3-55;  316-23;4:  42-61; 
21:  449-581;  22:  153-69;  256-299;  27:  17-73;  Commons;  Davis;  Vincent; 
Starr;  Sumner   (2);  Powers   (2). 

3.  Common  occupancy  of  contiguous  territory  by  persons  among  whom 
kinship  bonds  are  weak  or  not  recognized  forces  beginnings  of  political 
groupings.  If  it  were  not  for  necessities  imposed  by  war  or  resulting 
from  conquest  these  associate  community  groupings — village,  shire,  mir, 
municipality  (town,  city,  borough),  would  tend  to  evolve  more  extensive 
governmental  functions  than  federate  political  groupings — city,  state, 
county,  province,  principality,  kingdom,  state,   nation,   empire. 

a.  Among  pastoral  peoples  and  where  slave-holding  estates  de- 
velop, an  elemental  political  organization  results  that  may  be 
called  the  patriarchal  or  feudal  household. 

b.  The  village  community  has  origins  back  in  clan,  tribe,  and 
feudal  household.  It  is  as  ancient,  or  in  some  respects  more 
ancient,  than  the  family  and  the  generating  agency  of  a  large 
part  of  all  that  we  call  political  consciousness,  public  sentiment, 
public  opinion.  The  conditions  of  the  settlement  of  America 
(Canada  and  United  States)  interrupted  (perhaps  only  tem- 
porarily) evolution  of  village  groupings  here  for  agricultural 
peoples;  but  in  rest  of  world  tillers  of  soil  and  pastorals  dwell 
in  village  groups.  Village  political  organization  and  procedure 
tend    to    remain    in    undocumented    and    often    half-articulate 


SOCIAL  STRUCTURES  19 

forms  of  customs,  conventions,  traditions,  rites,  beliefs,  social 
observances.  Where  conquering  groups  seek  to  impose  uniform 
law  on  villages,  endless  complications  arise — cf.  Rome,  British 
India,  Russia  and  feudal  Europe  generally. 

The  village  loses  vitality  in  America.  "If  God  made  the 
country  and  man  the  city,  then  the  devil  must  have  made  the 
small  town."  Political  functions  go  to  county,  state,  or  nation. 
Economic  specialization  by  regions,  and  ease  of  transportation 
destroy  the  economic,  and  to  some  extent  the  cultural  and  social, 
autonomy  and  social  "completeness"  of  the  village. 

America  seems  not  yet  to  have  evolved,  except  in  rare  instances, 
a  genuine  rural  community  of  peoples  sufficiently  in  touch  with 
each  other  to  be  called  "real  associates,"  to  exhibit  the  social 
consciousness  necessary  to  a  considerable  degree  of  political 
autonomy.  But  the  need  for  such  is  keenly  felt  by  rural  lead- 
ers and  students.  Political  functions  of  rural  areas  are  now 
largely  exercised  by  federate  groupings — perhaps  inevitably,  as 
intelligence  of  voters,  ease  of  communication,  and  science  of 
administration  grow.  Economic,  recreative,  cultural  and  even 
religious  functions  tend  towards  commercial  specialization  on 
basis  of  urban  standards. 

Industry  and  commerce  give  rise  to  the  city  which,  everywhere, 
has  had  its  chief  development  during  last  century,  although 
many  political  foundations  were  laid  when  mediaeval  cities 
fought  to  independence  of  feudal  control.  Now  cities  are  very 
vital  theatres  of  political  evolution,  where  customs  give  way  to 
documented  ordinances,  laws,  and  charters,  where  representa- 
tive and  full  paid  specialist  governments  are  indispensable, 
where  common  ownership  of  utilities  increases,  and  enduring 
"party"  groups  are  formed.  The  area  of  the  city  necessitates 
contiguity  of  residence;  but  its  population  numbers  preclude 
"associate"  acquaintance ;  while  its  community  of  interests  neces- 
sitates federate  cooperation  similar  to  that  of  the  nation. 
European  and  American  cities  are  seething  laboratories  of 
conscious   invention   of  political   forms  and   functions. 

The  city  constitutes  a  highly  artificial  environment  for  in- 
dividuals and  for  older  types  of  small  groups.  The  associate 
community  as  a  political  organization  almost  disappears — 
strong  efforts  are  being  made  to  recreate  it.  Productive  func- 
tions of  the  household  group  become  much  reduced.  Facilities 
for  recreation  and  culture  become  commercialized.  In  earlier 
stages  urbanization  created  conditions  that  multiplied  vice, 
crime,  vagabondage,  mob  control  and  disease;  but  corrective 
agencies  have  rapidly  developed  until,  for  many  cities,  it  can 
safely  be  claimed  that  they  are  more  orderly,  uniformly  indus- 
trious,  and   healthy   than   countryside   or  village.     Democracy 


20  EDUCATIONAL    SOCIOLOGY 

has  its  roots  in  family  and  village  life,  but  its  branching  into 
representative  government,  freeman  suffrage,  and  equal  rights 
to  community  possessions  has  been  produced  in  cities — first  in 
those  that  waged  war  against  feudalism.  Over  the  world  cities 
now  lure  the  more  energetic,  the  mobile,  the  gregarious.  They 
impose  severe  strains  upon  the  older  social  virtues,  and  fiercely 
demand  new  types. 

e.  The  state,  formed  first  by  necessities  of  defence  on  a  large 
scale,  by  superposition  of  conquerors  on  conquered  tillers  of  the 
soil  and  craftsmen,  and  later  by  needs  of  economic  aggrandize- 
ment, conservation,  and  administration  of  justice,  seems  in- 
evitably the  resultant  product  of  constructive  forces — of  ad- 
vances in  knowledge,  communication,  cooperation,  inventions, 
and  multiplication  of  peoples,  working  against  the  destructive 
forces  of  ethnic,  economic  and  other  forms  of  conflict,  and  the 
perennially  dissolving  tendencies  inherent  in  local  and  "small 
group"  organization.  The  state  has  had  many  forms,  of  which 
the  city-state — Athens,  Rome,  Carthage, — the  various  forms 
produced  under  feudalism,  and  the  kingdom  are  interesting  his- 
torical examples;  the  constitutional  monarchy,  the  republic,  and 
the  empire  are  the  forms  now  highly  dynamic ;  whilst  either  the 
reservation  of  partial  sovereignty  by  smaller  units  purposefully 
and  voluntarily  federating  (the  United  States,  the  former  Ger- 
man and  Austrian  Empires)  or  the  struggle  of  conquered  or 
colonially  developed  units  for  increase  of  autonomy,  gives  us 
the  very  vital  "states"  of  the  United  States,  dominions,  prov- 
inces, "submerged  nations,"  seceding  states  (here  consider 
Canada,  Ireland,  South  Carolina — nullification, —  Zionism,  the 
Phillipines,  Korea,  Egypt,  India,  Poland,  Cuba,  etc.) 

Many  of  the  most  complex  of  modern  problems  of  economic 
expansion,  increase  of  population,  and  insurance  of  security 
center  in  the  relationships  of  nationalistic  groups.  National 
groups  made  homogeneous  in  ideal  or  composition,  by  common 
speech,  religion,  ethnic  qualities  or  economic  needs  acquire  great 
dynamic  force,  easily  turn  to  aggressive  expansion  or  (if  under 
bondage)  struggle  for  independence.  If  dissimilarities,  real  or 
imagined,  between  neighboring  national  groupings  are  marked, 
destructive  conflict  is  always  imminent.  A  nation  of  limited 
and  well  developed  territory  which  combines  a  rapidly  increas- 
ing population  with  rising  standards  of  culture  and  living  de- 
velops literally,  socially  explosive  forces  (German,  Japan). 
Small,  and  especially  meagrely  developed,  nationalities  are  in- 
tensely individualistic,  like  primitive  family  and  clan  groups, 
hence  engage  constantly  in  destructive  conflict— Balkans,  Cen- 
tral America,  India  (formerly),  perhaps  the  new  European 
nations.     Enforced  union  under  imperial  direction  often  their 


SOCIAL  STRUCTURES  21 

fate,  perhaps  no  other  course  open  (cf.  Germany,  Italy,  Amer- 
ica's Civil  War,  Scotland,  Wales,  Ireland,  India,  mediaeval 
kingdoms). 

The  functions  of  state  government  were  originally  primarily 
defence,  then  administration  of  justice.  Follows  regulation  of 
commerce  (coinage,  tariffs,  weights  and  measures,  quelling  of 
piracy,  establishment  of  light  houses),  conduct  of  education, 
regulation  of  corporate  enterprise,  protection  of  worship  (at 
times),  promotion  of  colonization.  Some  think  nations  now 
stand  at  the  threshold  of  state  socialism — state  conduct  of  eco- 
nomic enterprises,  as  transportation,  distance  communication, 
irrigation,   marketing,   mining,   large   scale   production. 

The  forms  of  control  for  the  state,  ranging  from  dictator- 
ships, through  hereditary  aristocracies,  to  constitutional  mon- 
archies and  representative  republics,  give  rise  to  endless  prob- 
lems of  social  control,  assimilation,  democracy.  Sometimes 
religion,  the  press,  and  the  state;  and  now  universally  the  edu- 
cation of  youth — are  utilized  as  means  of  promoting  the  stabil- 
ity and  experimenting  with  the  improvement  of  the  state. 
Parties  form  and  reform  about  projected  policies  of  govern- 
ment. Suffrage  must  be  interpreted  primarily  as  a  means  of 
collectively  selecting  and  employing  agents  who  shall  give  ex- 
pression and  application  to  aspirations  of  the  rank  and  file.  In 
organization  as  well  as  function  the  state  is  still  endlessly  ex- 
perimental. 

PROBLEMS   FOR    STUDY 

(i)  Describe  social  effects  of  pastoral  life  as  to-day  found  in  Montana, 
Northern  Mexico,  Natal,  Siberia.  What  are  nearest  approximations  to 
patriarchal  organization  found  now? 

(2)  Contrast  rural  village  life  in  Eurasia  and  recently  settled  North 
America.  In  states  now  devoted  chiefly  to  agriculture,  what  are  the 
economic  and  other  functions  of  the  village  or  small  town?  Show  how: 
our  government  land  system ;  dependence  of  frontier  settlers  on  live  stock ; 
and  weakness  of  Indians  made  founding  of  farm  villages  needless  or  dif- 
ficult.   What  were  exceptions  in  New  England? 

(3)  What  is  "the  rural  problem"  in  the  United  States?  Resolve  it  into 
a  variety  of  particular  problems,  economic,  religious,  governmental,  and 
convivial. 

(4)  What  are  the  assumed  advantages  of  "city  life"  to:  the  individual 
man;  the  individual  woman  (discuss  according  to  several  grades  of  native 
ability,  and  from  standpoint  of  congeniality  of  surroundings,  health,  eco- 
nomic, possibilities,  etc.);  the  "family  group";  culture;  wealth;  commun- 
ity cooperation? 

(5)  Are  cities  or  city  people  more  "progressive"  than  country  dwellers? 
Examine  at  various  economic  levels,  intelligence  levels,  etc. 


22  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

(6)  What  was  distribution  of  governmental  functions  and  responsibili- 
ties, and  what  was  "sovereignty"  among  the  American  colonies  in  1785? 
What  was  situation  in  1830?  1870?  1920?  What  are  now  "debatable 
grounds"  in  the  United  States  as  between  state  and  nation?  What  are 
now  political  functions  of  states  that  many  would  prefer  to  seek  exer- 
cised by  national  government? 

(7)  What  were  some  prominent  "nationalistic"  movements  of  former 
years?  What  have  been  some  recently  developed  demands  for  "self- 
determination"?  Illustrate  from:  the  "making"  of  the  German  Empire, 
United  Italy,  the  South  African  Union;  and  from  Poland,  Jugo-Slavakia, 
Ireland,  Ukrania,  Armenia. 

References:  1:  157-91;  379-88;  2:331-53;  3:  81-96;  147-68;  4:  137- 
159;  21:  29-74;  22:  299-334;  420-23;  23:  224-335;  718-728;  25:  350-95; 
26:  243-56;  27:  451-86;  Cooke;  Howe;  Huntington  (1);  kmngott;  Lee 
(1) :  Mahan;  Meeklin;  Poole;  Powers  (3);  Roosevelt;  Ross  (3); 
Stone;   Strong;   Toynbee;  Dealey;   Oppenheimer. 

4.  Self-preservation  imposes  upon  man  the  necessity  of  protecting  him- 
self from  predatory  animals,  men,  and  weather,  and  of  working  (and 
fighting)  for  means  of  subsistence.  As  in  the  case  of  many  animals, 
these  necessities  are  early  met  by  cooperation.  Primitively,  the  horde, 
village,  and  family  are  economic  unions  no  less  than  sociability,  religious 
and  cultural — in  fact  the  economic  need  may  be  the  most  basic,  the  others 
ministering  to  it.  The  patriarchal  household  organizes  production;  the 
tribe  organizes  defensive  and  aggressive  fighting.  Advanced  stages  of 
conquest  give  elaborate  organizations  of  slave  labor;  while  the  craft, 
religious,  military,  artistic  and  trading  guilds,  incipient  in  barbarism,  de- 
velop complex  and  remarkably  enduring  forms. 

a.  The  guild  involves  less  of  cooperative  production  than  it  does 
of  standards  and  coordination  of  interests  of  allied  workers 
in  a  given  field.  At  its  best  it  has  done  wonderful  things 
through  thousands  of  years  in  advancing  and  perpetuating  stand- 
ards of  craftsmanship,  providing  vocational  education,  organ- 
izing markets,  etc.  At  its  worst  it  has  become  cruelly  monopo- 
listic, secretive,  oppressive,  parasitic  and  addicted  to  anti-social 
forms  of  consumption.  Mediaeval  medicine,  law,  commerce, 
education,  and  religion  were  promoted  under  guild  forms  hardly 
less  than  handicraft  production;  while  in  many  respects 
fundamental  units  of  military  organization  were  guild-like  in 
character. 

b.  Informal  partnerships  are  very  old,  and  their  extensive  develop- 
ments a  few  centuries  ago  sometimes  arose  from  needs  of  co- 
operative labor  in  production  and  sometimes  from  desire  to 
fool  capital. 


SOCIAL  STRUCTURES  23 

c.  The  corporation   (or  limited  joint  stock  company),  a  wonder- 

ful modern  growth,  involves  primarily  cooperative  use  of 
capital  in  production,  but  becomes  profitable  also  largely  by 
virtue  of  the  specialized  service — from  expert  leadership  down — 
which  it  makes  possible.  Its  successful  operation  requires  a 
maximum  of  documented  regulations,  legalistic  foundations,  etc. 
The  large  corporation  easily  tends  towards  monopolistic  and 
oppressive  practices. 

d.  Labor  unions,  on  a  craft  or  industrial  basis,  resemble  the  guild 
in  that  their  primary  purpose  is  not  cooperation  in  production, 
but  regulation  of  the  conditions  under  which  workers  with 
common  interests  may  organize  and  promote  these.  They  differ 
from  guilds  in  the  fact  that  their  members  usually  do  not  con- 
tribute capital  or  direction  to  production  (but  note  current  as- 
piration for  "industrial  democracy").  At  their  best  they  raise 
standards,  diminish  destructive  competition,  give  an  intense 
kind  of  social  education.  At  their  worst  they  become  intensely 
monopolistic  and  obstructive  of  real  production. 

e.  Modern  conditions  of  economic  production  evolve  many  varie- 
ties of  voluntary  association  and  federation — granges,  syndicates, 
trusts,  leagues,  cartels,  exchanges,  marketing  associations,  techni- 
cal societies,  etc.  From  time  to  time  attempts  are  also  made  by 
consumers  to  organize  buying  and  standardising  functions  on 
some  cooperative  basis,  cf.  "Rochdale  movement,"  "Consumers 
League,"  etc.).  But  these  are  still  experimental  as  large  social 
tendencies. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  STUDY 

1.  What  is  meant  by  "economic  determinism?"  What  is  the  "Mal- 
thusian  Law?"  Is  is  probable  that  the  warlike  instincts  of  mankind  have 
originated  in  struggles  for  economic  resources?  What  have  been  other 
possible  origins  of  wars? 

2.  What  have  been  contributions  to  human  welfare  from  discovery  and 
extended  use  of :  fire ;  domestication  of  animals ;  domestication  of  plants ; 
iron  working;  steam  power;  cold  storage;  money  capital? 

3.  Why  are  the  large  commercial  nations  to-day  competing  for  control 
of  tropical  lands? 

4.  Why  is  the  aim  of  much  current  legislation  to  preserve  conditions  of 
"free  competition"  in  business? 

5.  What  are  the  "aims"  of  trade  unions  as  regards  their  individual 
members?  Why  has  government  approved  the  formation  of  unions  of 
employees  in  large  industries? 

6.  What  are  possibilities  of  "cooperative  utilization"  beyond  those  now 
found? 


24  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

References:  1:191-220;  435-57;  2:97-149;  3:89-101;  4:97-137;  21:74-109; 
22:79-116;  207-42;  25:395-428;  26:293-305;  27:486-523;  Carlton;  Carver; 
Devine ;  Ely ;  Fetter ;  Ghent ;  Huntington  (2)  ;  Hunter ;  Lauch ;  Powers ; 
Price;  Rogers;  Smith;  Sumner  (1)  ;  Tead;  Toynbee;  Willis. 

5.  The  religious  instincts  (to  project  conceptions  of  invisible  person- 
alities into  the  "dark,"  the  "void,"  the  beyond;  to  impute  to  them  benefi- 
cent and  maleficent  intentions  and  powers;  and  to  fear,  love,  and  strive 
to  propitiate  and  coopt  the  beings  thus  conceived)  are  essentially  social 
as  respects  unseen  personalities;  they  also  seem  to  require  and  produce 
various  social  groupings  of  the  religious. 

a.  The  "Congregations"  are  elemental  church  bands  for  mutual 
stimulus  and  organization  of  worship.  Intense  sociability, 
"Christian  fellowship,"  cultural  association,  sumptuary  regu- 
lation, and  moral  control  seem  to  attend  naturally,  while  strong 
tion,  and  moral  control  seem  to  attend  naturally,  while  strong 
tendencies  toward  specialization  of  functions  (leadership  in 
ritual,  preaching,  administration)  tend  generally  to  appear. 
Federation  produces  sects,  denominations,  historic  "churches," 
and  often  tendency  is  towards  centralized  control,  theocracy, 
crystallization  of  ceremonials,  creeds,  and  moral  dogmas.  Be- 
liefs in  distinctive  spiritual  beings  and  in  future  life  powerful- 
ly influence  imaginations  and  can  readily  be  used  as  means  of 
shaping  and  controlling  all  kinds  of  behavior;  hence  religion 
becomes  at  certain  stages,  a  socializing  agency  no  less  potent 
than  family,  community,  or  vocation.  But  science  diminishes 
anthropomorphism  in  religion  and  relaxes  its  specific,  and  es- 
pecially its  traditional,  controls. 

b.  Differences  of  creed  and  objectives  becoming  tied  up  with  other 
differences — ethnic,  cultural,  nationalistic,  even  economic — give 
sanguinary  fierceness  to  competitions  and  wars,  especially  when 
mediaevalism  was  able  to  beget  profound  and  concrete  faiths. 
Political  organization  and  religious  organization  long  warred 
for  supremacy,  with  victory  for  the  former,  as  the  scientific 
"spirit"  and  aspirations  for  democracy  prevailed. 

c  Specialized  religious  groupings  carry  to  highly  developed  forms 
certain  qualities  and  aspirations,  often  sporadic  in  all  societies, 
celibacy,  poverty,  asceticism,  devotion,  "good  works."  At 
certain  stages  each  of  these  probably  effects  valuable  contribu- 
tions for  society  as  agencies  accepting  specialized  functions — 
monastic  orders,  religious  "knights"  (of  the  post-crusade 
period) . 

PROBLEMS  FOR  STUDY 

1.  Trace  stages  in  evolution  of  a  modern  "church"  or  faith,  e.g.,  Mor- 
monism,  Unitarianism,  Christian  Science. 


SOCIAL  STRUCTURES  25 

2.  Diagnose  difficulties  produced  when  ethnic,  political  and  religious 
differences  merge  in  opposing  groups — Armenians  vs.  Turks,  Irish  vs. 
English,  etc. 

3.  Show  how  large  and  persistent  religious  groupings  affect  social 
control. 

References  :  1 :239-71 ;  2 :353-72 ;  3 :129-41 ;  4:115-37 ;  21 :632-52 ;  22 :239- 
54;  23:482-501;  686-705;  25:196-257;  27:364-99;  Coe,  Matthews,  Tyler, 
Wallas. 

6.  A  custom-based  social  order  (barbarian  and  "mediaeval"  civilized) 
refuses  willingly  to  tolerate  far-reaching  or  organized  differences  of  as- 
piration, thought  or  action,  hence  gives  scant  place  for  parties,  sects, 
cults,  "schools,"  associations  for  propaganda,  or  "issues"  generally;  but 
widespread  movements  for  democracy  and  freedom  of  thinking  evoke  and, 
almost  necessarily,  tolerate  these  social  groupings  in  endless  variety.  Many 
are  shortlived,  some  protean.  Nearly  all  have  a  few  primary  objectives, 
aim  at  propaganda,  and  seek  purposive  groupings  of  those  originally,  or 
by  conversion,  "like  minded."  These  organizations,  more  often  fluid  than 
crystallized,  serve  as  ferments  for  new  ideas,  as  screens  for  old,  and  the 
incessant  emulations  and  minor  partisanships  they  create  perhaps  move 
toward  purposive  control  of  evolution  (telic  progress).  But  they  now 
obviously  involve  marked  dissipations  of  social  energy  and  cause  stimula- 
tion of  small  no  less  than  large,  malevolent  no  less  then  benevolent, 
spirits.  But  like  the  agitation  of  waters,  they  perhaps  serve  well  to  pre- 
vent corruption,  to  promote  various  kinds  of  wholesomeness. 

a.  Political  parties  are  the  natural  production  of  republicanism, 
political  freedom,  experiments  in  combining  democracy  and 
effective  political  organization.  Numberless  varieties  of  pur- 
posive social  groupings,  collective  (state)  control  of  partisan  ex- 
cesses ("politics"),  civic  education  (publicity,  propaganda),  in- 
dividual ascendancy,  and  social  control  can  profitably  be  studied 
in  political  parties,  which  are,  in  western  nations,  among  the 
most  dynamic  of  contemporary  groupings. 

b.  As  religious,  economic,  cultural,  and  other  groups  expand  from 
an  associate  to  a  federate  comprehensiveness,  "parties"  are 
often  formed  about  differences  of  policy  or  practice.  These 
may  produce  rifts  (sometimes  in  associate,  more  commonly 
in  federate,  groups)  from  which  come  sects,  denominations, 
etc. 

c.  Certain  factors  or  cohesives  in  the  social  order  of  a  given 
society  are  looked  upon  as  essential — patriotism,  religious  ortho- 
doxy, republicanism,  private  property,  the  monogamous  family, 
racial  purity.  Parties,  cults,  or  "isms"  formed  to  oppose  these 
become  objects  of  intense  hostility,  and  especially  from  the 
chief  beneficiaries  and  convinced  supporters  of  the  approved 
order.    Under  these  conditions  strong  tendencies  towards  per- 


26  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

secution,  intolerance,  denial  of  freedom  of  speech,  press  and 
assemblage,  are  observed  even  in  societies  strongly  cherishing 
freedom  of  conscience  and  thought  as  general  principles.  In 
these  struggles  about  fundamental  social  values  may  be  studied 
profitably  elemental  conflicts,  suppressions  and  controls. 

PROBLEMS  FOR  STUDY 

1.  What  have  been,  historically,  the  usual  aims  of  various  forms  of 
persecution?  Analyze  various  types — ethnic,  religious,  political,  economic, 
caste,  sumptuary,  sex,  age.  Distinguish  between  persecution  that  seeks  to 
eliminate  the  opposed  persons,  and  that  which  seeks  to  exploit  (or  "use") 
them. 

2.  Describe  the  essentials  of  tolerance,  fair  play,  "America  first,"  found 
in  the  American  political  party  system. 

3.  Why  do  Americans  strive  to  prevent  mixing  of  religion  and  politics 
in  party  systems? 

4.  Describe  the  varied  and  numerous  "voluntary"  groupings  found  in  a 
city  of  your  acquaintance  to  promote  "worthy  ends." 

5.  Discuss  current  social  tendencies  as  to  freedom  of  discussion  and 
party  action  and  the  reverses. 

References:  1:220-39;  283-316;  399-414;  3:101-147;  168-192;  159-175; 
21:357-431;  22:137-53;  386-400;  23:482-524;  25:325-76;  27:451-86. 

Bagehot;  Carver;  Eliot;  Hadley;  Kropotkin;  Lee;  Riis  (1)  ;  Ross  (5)  ; 
Stone;  Veblen;  Vincent. 

7.  The  pursuit  of  "social  relaxation,"  social  diversion,  amusement,  and 
conviviality  (here  comprehensively  called  "sociability")  gives  rise  to  a 
large  number  of  forms  of  social  grouping,  some  of  which  are  very  per- 
sistent. These  usually  are  not  highly  organized  from  within,  but  when 
elaborate  organization  seems  needed,  it  is  undertaken  by  specialized 
agencies  on  a  commercial  basis — cf.  the  saloon,  the  theatre,  music  hall, 
gambling  house,  the  moving  pictures  (but  note,  on  the  other  hand,  men's 
clubs).  The  quests  of  "sociability"  readily  leads  to  dissipation  of  energies 
and  wealth,  to  sex  vice  and  personal  conflict,  hence  conservative  individuals 
and  groups  wage  war  on  them.  Youth,  unemployed  women,  unstable 
elders,  persons  aesthetically  sensitive,  seem  especially  to  crave  large 
measure  of  the  various  forms  of  sociability  and  hence  draw  down  on 
themselves  the  maledictions  of  those  preoccupied  with  the  serious  con- 
structive activities  of  life.  When  wealth  becomes  plenty  and  security 
seems  assured  (or  at  the  opposite  extreme,  unattainable)  the  convivial 
assume  ascendancy  (cf.  many  periods  in  history)  and  are  fought  as 
wastrels.  Sound  social  valuations  are  here  very  obscure.  Many  degener- 
ative tendencies  in  society  unquestionably  are  accompanied  by  dispropor- 
tionate addiction  to  sociabilities  of  hurtful  kind. 


SOCIAL  STRUCTURES  27 

PROBLEMS  FOR  STUDY 

1.  Describe  agencies  of  "commercialized  amusement"  in  a  modern  city. 

2.  Describe  close  connections  of  vice  with  sociability  agencies. 

3.  What  is  "Epicurean  philosophy?"  "Stoic  philosophy?" 

4.  Review  efforts  to  provide  wholesome  diversion  in  American  canton- 
ments. 

References:    1:329-49;  3:101-117;  4:78-97;  22:113-130;  377-88;  25:257- 
325;  27:263-306. 


CHAPTER  III 

SOCIAL  FUNCTIONINGS 

A.    Social  Efficiency 

Every  adult  member  of  society,  under  the  pressures  of  felt  needs,  in- 
stincts, and  the  influences  exerted  by  his  fellows,  strives  toward  self- 
realization  and  the  conservation  and  improvement  of  the  conditions  affect- 
ing him.  Due  to  similar  pressures  he  strives  to  affect  others — to  help  or 
to  hinder,  to  repel,  or  to  coopt,  to  love  or  to  hate  them. 

Social  evolution  enlarges  group  areas  of  collective  action  (latitudinal 
social  expansion)  and  the  accumulated  social  inheritance  (longitudinal  or 
chronological  social  expansion).  Hence  individual  strivings  for  efficiency 
merge  increasingly  into  collective  strivings  on  the  part  of  social  groups. 
Aspirations,  policies,  and  programs  of  groups  for  social  efficiency  thus 
appear. 

At  first  these  are  largely  by-products  of  unreflecting  experience,  some- 
times made  luminous  and  striking  by  the  interpretative  powers  of  genius, 
and  incorporated  into  customs,  traditions,  codes.  But  increasingly  they 
are  characterized  by  collective  consciousness,  wider  purposiveness,  scien- 
tific evaluation.  Blind  progress  gives  place  to  purposive  progress  (see 
Ward's  telic  progress)  in  "spots."  ("The  twentieth  century  has  appeared  in 
only  a  few  places  as  yet.") 

Social  efficiency1  is  now  pursued  along  lines — sometimes  by  letting  in- 
dividuals or  voluntary  groups  pursue  their  own  ends,  with  society  in  some 
collective  ways  holding  them  to  the  "rules  of  the  game,"  as  in  the  case  of 
economic  production,  family  rearing,  religious  observance,  invention,  and 
the  reorganization  of  customs ;  and  sometimes  by  "public"  collective  action, 
as  in  defence,  government,  education,  and  sanitation.  To  the  promotion  of 
social  efficiency  almost  all  kinds  of  knowledge  can  be  made  to  minister. 
In  so  far  as  sociology,  the  most  inclusive  of  the  social  sciences,  and  the 
most  purposively  "social"  of  all  the  sciences,  extends  our  vision  of  what 
constitutes  true  "social  efficiency"  or  mastery  of  practicable  working 
objectives  towards  it,  then  do  the  "applicants"  of  such  sociological  knowl- 
edge become  important  in  pursuit  of  social  efficiency.  Education,  espec- 
ially of  the  young,  is  one  of  the  most  effective  means  of  making  such 
knowledge  socially  "functional." 

(1)  The  term  "social  efficiency"  will  be  here  used  to  include  all  kinds  of  desirable 
and  effective  social  activities.  An  efficient  individual,  in  any  adequate  meaning  of 
the  term,  is  effective  in  economic  pursuits,  in  conserving  and  improving  his  health,  in 
rearing  a  family,  in  enriching  his  own  personality,  in  co-operating  with  his  fellows, 
and  in  serving^  his  maker.  In  similar  broad  sense,  "social  efficiency"  results  from 
collective  pursuit  of  all  desirable  ends — economic,  religious,  civic,  educational,  cultural, 
physical,  etc.  The  term  "social  economy"  has  sometimes  been  interpreted  to  have  the 
same  scope,  but  it  has  obvious  limitations.  The  term  "applied  sociology"  has  also  been 
urged,  but  it  is  open  to  the  objection  stated  in  first  chapter  to  all  "applied"  subjects. 
"Social  well-being"  can  advantageously  be  taken  as  a  colloquial  synonym. 

28 


SOCIAL  FUNCTIONINGS  20, 

Sociology  gives  as  yet  no  adequate  analyses  of  the  components  of  "social 
efficiency."  The  "values"  that  men,  individually  or  collectively,  strive 
after  may  be  helpfully  considered  under  such  categories  as:  security, 
health,  property  (wealth),  family,  righteousness,  companionship  (includ- 
ing communion  with  beneficent  deities),  knowledge,  beauty.  A  cross 
section  of  any  dynamic  society  to-day  shows  that  among  the  activities 
ministering  to  social  efficiency,  the  following  have  obviously  important 
connections  with  education:  defence  (war),  social  control  (including 
maintenance  of  order,  and  good  citizenship),  economic  production,  exten- 
sion of  knowledge,  promotion  of  health  and  beauty,  conservation  and 
elevation  of  family  life  and  racial  heredity,  upholding  of  religion,  advance- 
ment of  democracy,    etc. 

The  problems  of  social  efficiency  (and  hence  in  large  part  of  education) 
arise  in  part  from  present  ignorance  of  how  to  realize  aspirations  sugges- 
ted by  the  above  categories;  but  in  part  they  arise  also  from  our  present 
inability  to  find  correct  balances  (optimum  resultants)  among  several 
more  or  less  conflicting  values.  Endless  limitations,  innate  and  environ- 
mental, affect  man — the  life  span,  the  physical  powers,  and  the  educability 
of  the  individual ;  as  well  as  the  habitable  surface,  the  controllable  forces, 
the  accessible  resources  of  earth.  Is  it  "best"  that  a  given  portion  of 
earth's  surface  should  be  occupied  by  many  people  with  a  low  standard 
of  living;  that  the  "individual"  should  sacrifice  happiness  heavily  for  the 
present  and  future  good  of  the  "large"  group;  that  a  man  should  amass 
wealth  for  himself  and  his  even  at  some  sacrifice  of  health ;  that  "national 
honor"  should  be  conserved  even  at  great  sacrifice  of  life;  that  much  of 
the  time  and  energy  of  the  average  individual  should  be  devoted  to  the 
pursuit  of  that  knowledge,  beauty,  and  communion  with  God  which 
yield  no  "visibly  practical"  returns?  It  is  essential  that  that  study  of 
social  efficiency  which  is  designed  to  define  objectives  for  education  should 
carry  analysis  of  these  problems  as  far  as  practicable. 

Obviously  only  partial  analyses  of  major  groups  of  factors  making  for 
social  efficiency  can  yet  be  achieved.  For  some  purposes  these  factors 
seem  to  suggest  final  ends  of  social  effort — in  the  domains  of  religion, 
security,  pure  knowledge,  pure  beauty,  health,  and  heredity;  in  other  cases, 
they  are  commonly  accepted  as  means  to  other  ends — in  the  domains  of 
economic  production,  social  control,  and  education.  But,  more  funda- 
mentally, the  sociologist  regards  even  religion,  security,  health,  knowledge, 
and  beauty  as  being  more  often  means  than  ends,  both  of  unconscious 
and  of  conscious  social  evolution.  Provisionally,  therefore,  analysis  may 
undertake  to  set  forth  (1)  certain  problems  of  remote  goals;  then  to 
treat,  in  possible  order  of  appearance  as  conscious  goals  of  collective 
action,  such  major  factors  as:  (2)  defence  (against  competing  human 
groups)  ;  (3)  social  control  (within  cooperating  groups)  ;  (4)  economic 
production  (5)  religion  (6)  pursuit  of  knowledge;  (7)  pursuit  of  beauty 
(8)  pursuit  of  health  (9)  improvements  of  stock;  and  (10)  individual 
self-realization  (democracy);  and  finally,  as  a  major  means,  (11)  edu- 
cation. 


30  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

References  :    1 :271-316 ;  349-79 ;  425-35. 

Bagehot,  Crain,  Davenport  (1),  Devine,  Gulick,  King,  Roosevelt,  Salee- 
by.  Wallace  (1),  Ward  (2). 

B.    Goals  of  Social  Efficiency 

Sociology  knows  little  as  yet  of  objectives  of  social  efficiency  beyond 
those  to  be  derived  by  projecting  forward  evolutionary  tendencies  already 
established  and  recognized.  Like  other  organic  species  man  seeks  to 
multiply,  to  possess  the  earth,  to  crowd  out  competing  forms  of  life 
(weeds,  wolves,  flies,  bacteria,  even  other  humans),  and  so  to  adapt  him- 
self to  different  environments  as  to  render  further  multiplication  possible. 
He  strives  for  security,  health,  happiness.  He  far  transcends  all  animals 
in  building,  transmitting,  and  using  his  "social  inheritance"  and  in  project- 
ing goals  towards  which  he  strives.  Hence  the  accumulation  of  knowledge, 
the  production  of  beauty,  and  preparation  for  the  immortal  life  beyond, 
have  become  engrossing  social  pursuits.  The  pursuit  of  remoter  goals 
has  in  many  cases  become  closely  incorporated  in  the  instinctive  life 
(multiplication,  conquest,  property  possession)  of  all;  or  it  results  from 
that  variability  in  human  offspring  by  which  exceptional  individuals  (in- 
ventors, pioneers,  artists,  devotees,  leaders)  appear;  or  it  may  arise  from 
social  crystallizations  about  obscure  instincts  (religious  movements,  mi- 
grations). Among  these  remoter  objectives  of  social  evolution  which  well 
repay  philosophical  analysis  are  these:  (1)  Where  does  nature,  and  where 
should  man,  find  optimum  resultant  between  quality  and  quantity  of 
human  life?  (2)  Where  does  nature  and  where  should  man  find  optimum 
resultants  as  between  the  individual  and  the  group?  (3)  What  are  prob- 
abilities that  existence  after  death  is  of  such  character  as  greatly  to  re- 
pay conscious  preparation    therefor  in  this  life? 

1.  The  natural  tendency  of  human  life  is  to  multiply  in  geometric  ratios. 
But  hunger,  disease  and  war  act  as  positive  checks.  Nearly  half  the 
human  race  now  live  "under  the  monsoon."  The  Sahara  Desert,  Labra- 
dor, Nevada,  the  Andes,  support  very  few  men.  Where  population 
grows  dense,  disease  in  the  past  has  flourished.  Nature  has  endowed  man 
with  strong  instincts  of  conquest  as  towards  other  species ;  but,  what  is  less 
common  in  the  animal  world,  with  strong  instincts  to  conquer  from  his 
fellows  also.  But  organization  and  invention  have  helped  men  to  multiply. 
Organization  eliminates  war  as  between  local  small  groups,  makes  ac- 
cumulation of  property  possible,  and  helps  the  stemming  of  disease. 
Domestication  of  rice  and  buffalo  make  the  "teeming  Orient"  possible. 
Western  European  civilization  has  grown  on  wheat,  cattle,  iron,  and  ships. 
Maize  and  the  bow  and  arrow  made  settled  life  possible  to  aboriginal 
America.  Germany,  England,  Massachusetts,  Japan  develop  dense  popu- 
lations   around   manufacture    and    export. 

Recently  have  appeared  voluntary  checks  on  population.  In  western 
nations  standards  of  living  now  war  on  population  increase — giving 
celibacy,  postponed  marriage,  infertility,  birth  control,  "race  suicide." 
Perhaps  polygamy  insures  larger  numbers,  but  monogamy  superior  quality, 


SOCIAL  FUNCTIONINGS  31 

of  offspring.  Wealth  and  its  attendant  exaltation  of  pleasure  as  an  end 
seem  to  extend  prostitution,  infertility,  subnormal  families.  Intensifica- 
tion of  parental  interest,  thrift,  and  forethoughtfulness  generally,  favor 
small  families  among  superior  stocks  or  social  levels.  Traditional  religion 
strongly  resents  voluntary  curtailment  of  family,  except  for  religious  ends. 
Quite  probably,  out  of  numberless  conflicting  and  confused  tendencies, 
are  even  now  being  evolved  foundations  of  conscious  policies  soon  to  be 
generally  accepted. 

2.  Membership  in,  and  sharing  responsibilities  of,  group  life  usually 
both  helps  and  hinders  the  individual.  The  hindering  often  seems  to 
touch  most  those  values  that  are  immediate  and  insistent  to  him ;  and  the 
helping,  the  more  remote  and,  perhaps,  less  interesting,  values.  Individual- 
istic and  "small  group"  instincts  are  always  somewhat  at  war  with  social 
(or  large  group)  requirements.  The  family,  the  community,  the  union, 
the  church,  and  the  state  (especially  when  under  pressure  for  unity  in 
defensive  action)  tend  to  restrict  the  individual  to  industry,  education, 
routine,  conformity,  sacrifice.  They  deprive  him  freedom,  play,  gang 
associations,  self-aggrandizement.  All  existing  social  adjustments  exhibit 
endless  compromises  here — these  being  often  obviously  provisional  and 
opportunist. 

The  ideals  of  liberty,  democracy,  social  efficiency,  and  Christianity  in- 
cessantly force  education  (as  well  as  government,  industry,  worship)  to 
try  to  discover  fundamental  laws  or  principles  here.  The  social  meta- 
physics of  recent  centuries  seeks  refuge  in  formulas,  panaceas,  and  vibrates 
from  pole  to  pole  of  faiths.  But  new  factors  constantly  supervene.  Other 
things  remaining  equal,  would  doubling  the  population  of  the  United 
States  increase  or  diminish  the  "large  group  control"  which  seems,  and 
often  does,  cramp  the  individual? 

Would  great  improvements  in  social  education  enable  the  individual 
gracefully  and  normally  to  accept  needed  restraints  and  to  find  satisfac- 
tions in  lines  of  "socialized"  freedom  left  open?  Is  a  large  measure  of 
individual  freedom  practicable  if  organization  for  maximum  economic 
production  (or  defensive  war)  becomes  necessary? 

Of  the  same  kind  are  problems  of  small  (and  relatively  "natural") 
groups  as  against  large  (and  relatively  artificial — "art  made")  groups. 
Enlarging  national  areas  seems  to  make  for  peace,  acculturation,  economic 
development.  It  suppresses  "small  nations,"  local  independence,  etc. 
Should  South  Carolina  be  permitted  to  become  a  "small  nation"?  South 
Ireland?  Scotland?  Hawaii?  Should  India,  Egypt,  Canada,  Korea  be- 
come completely  sovereign?  Could  they  use  such  sovereignty  advantage- 
ously to  themselves  or  others? 

3.  Peoples  and  eras  vary  greatly  as  to  their  definiteness  of  beliefs  and 
conceptions  of  "life  beyond."  Beliefs  in  personal  immortality  figured 
only  slightly  in  Old  Testament  theology,  but  very  extensively  in  Christi- 
anity. India  thinks  much  in  terms  of  continued  life;  China  apparently 
but  little.    For  long  periods  Europe  made  mundane  life  largely  apprentice- 


32  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

ship  for  the  career  after  death,  a  social  situation  which  profoundly  affected 
education.  Modern  "intellectual"  man,  enlightened  by  science,  discards 
anthropomorphic  deities  and  holds  less  to  a  strictly  personal  immortality; 
but  he  evolves  serener  beliefs  in  great  causative  agencies  and  in  the  es- 
sential wisdom,  economy  and  purposiveness  of  the  "order  of  the  universe" 
— attitudes  which  may  easily  be  made  to  mean  much  to  education  for  the 
"higher"  social  efficiency. 

References:  1:541-65;  414-25;  2:372-97;  3:268-97;  4:21-42;  21:3-29, 
22:416-23;  23:705-29;  25:417-43;  26:94-117;  27:364-99. 

(References  at  end  of  chapters  14,  15,  and  18,  Dewey  and  Tafts,  Ethics), 
Munsterberg,  Cooley  (2),  Small,  Wallace  (2). 

C.    Defence  and  Aggression  (War) 

Far  back  in  social  evolution  men  learned  to  contend  destructively  with 
others  for  territory,  wealth  and  women.  Family  and  other  groupings 
contended  in  collective  capacities  and  war  imposed  more  stringent  needs 
for  tools  and  organization  than  did  conflicts  with  animals  or  the  forces 
of  nature.  Defence  against  human  foes  becomes  the  first  essential  in 
collective  promotion  of  security,  and  easily  leads  to  organized  aggression. 
War  thus  becomes  a  potent,  if  not  the  most  potent,  agency  of  natural 
selection  (sometimes  eugenic,  sometimes  dysgenic,  by  modern  standards 
of  social  values)  and  of  that  social  selection  which  produces  effective 
tools,  organized  experience,  and  closely  cooperative  groups.  Internal 
social  control,  religion,  economic  and  health  efficiency,  aesthetic  appeal, 
science,  and  education  become  the  indispensable  means  to  survival.  His- 
tory can  vision  along  roads  of  social  evolution  an  endless  wreck  of  stocks 
and  of  social  systems  which  were  burned  up  rather  than  refined  in  cru- 
cibles of  war.    Some  important  considerations  are: 

1.  Primitively  war  seems  usually  to  result  in  total  destruction  of  op- 
ponents; next  children  and  women  are  saved  and  incorporated  into  con- 
queror's group;  then  men  also  are  saved  for  slavery;  and  finally  the 
conquered  are  left  in  secure  pursuit  of  their  own  economic  activities,  but 
under  conditions  designed  to  give  the  conquerors  direct  or  indirect  bene- 
fits. A  different  stage  is  sometimes  discernible  in  which  the  conquerors 
are  gradually  assimilated  by  the  conquered. 

Some  believe  that  many  of  the  institutions  characteristic  of  civilization 
originated  in  the  necessities  of  that  conquest  which  aimed  to  keep  the 
subjugated  highly  productive,  e.  g.,  governmental  administration  of  justice, 
property  in  land,  capital,  organized  education  (of  rulers),  systematized 
taxation,  and  corporate  promotion  of  art,  science,  the  arts,  elaborate  cere- 
monial, etc. 

2.  Nations  result  from  the  organized  consolidations  of  social  groups 
under  pressure  of  war.  Progress  seems  to  give  larger  national  units  and 
retrogression  disintegrates— but  whether  for  good  or  ill  is  still  a  problem. 

3.  Often  war  is  so  destructive  that  net  good  comes  to  none  engaged. 
Perception  of  this  fact,  together  with  experience  obtained  in  administer- 


SOCIAL  FUNCTIONINGS  33 

ing  large  nations,  sometimes  of  very  heterogeneous  social  elements,  gives 
rise  to  aspirations  for  total  cessation  of  war,  for  international  cooperation 
in  administration  of  justice,  etc.  It  is  probable,  too,  that  war  on  scales 
made  possible  by  modern  conditions  is  not  eugenic  as  to  stock  or  advan- 
tageously selective  as  to  social  inheritance.  But  to  maintain  effective  "pre- 
paredness for  war"  may  give  motives  for  internal  harmony,  economic  ef- 
ficiency, maintainance  of  physical  well-being,  and  for  genuine  education 
obtainable  for  the  present  in  no  other  way. 

References:  1:283-316;  388-93;  499-513;  3:316-23;  22:299-322;  23:183- 
213;  357-97;  25:376-411;  27:73-913. 

David,  Giddings,  Jastrow,  Keller,  Maine,  Marshall,  Oppenheimer, 
Powers  (2),  Ross,  Todd,  Wood. 

D.    Social  Control 

Social  groups  have  longer  life  than  individual  members  composing  them. 
Man  is  only  partially  fitted  for  group  life  by  his  instincts;  and  for  the 
highly  artificial  groups  produced  by  civilization,  his  instincts  are  largely 
inadequate.  Hence  social  control — the  complex  of  processes  by  which 
groups  adjust  new  members,  and  by  which  large  groups  adapt  and  hold 
small  groups  to  courses  of  action  believed  to  be  for  the  general  good. 

The  central  difficulty  in  social  control  arises  from  conflict  of  individual 
(or  small  group)  felt  interests  with  larger  social  needs.  The  individual 
feels  the  need  of  freedom  (from  constraint,  routine,  steady  work),  proper- 
ty, sex,  destruction  of  opponents.  His  small  groups  want  to  take,  but 
not  to  give,  to  be  secure,  self-centered,  aggrandizing.  Within  limits  set 
by  the  needs  of  others  these  instincts  and  easily  formed  social  valuations 
are  normal  and  socially  sound.  Their  operation  may  be  observed  in  any 
family,  village,  school  excursion  or  crew. 

Social  control  is  achieved  mainly  through  shaping  the  aspirations,  knowl- 
edge, habits,  appreciations  and  ideals  of  the  young  (during  that  "pro- 
longed infancy"  when  youth  is  plastic  to  impressions  produced  by  elders, 
imitative  of  example  and  of  approval  of  superiors)  ;  and  by  external 
restrictions  and  directions  imposed  on  imperfectly  socialized  adults — 
taboos,  conventions,  customs,  rules,  regulations,  laws,  constitutions.  The 
"small  group"  and  individualistic  virtues  can  best  be  inclusively  desig- 
nated as  "mores,"  or  morals;  the  political  small  group  virtues,  "justice"; 
the  "state  group"  virtues,  citizenship;  and  the  "deity  group"  virtues 
(i.  e.,  man's  relationship  to  deity),  piety,  holiness,  or  religiousness. 

The  specific  objectives  of  social  control  are  as  numerous  as  social 
groups,  and  the  standards  of  social  efficiency  held  on  behalf  of  them. 
The  individual  is  subject  to  conflicting  "pulls":  (a)  What  shall  he  give 
(of  submission,  service)  to  others  that  will  leave  him  an  optimum  measure 
of  development,  personality,  individuality?  (b)  How  shall  he  apportion 
his  submission  and  service  among  various  groups — family,  community, 
union,  church,  state,  etc. — so  as  best  to  serve  all?  (c)  How  shall  he  act 
when  "small  group,"  and  "large  group,"  interests  conflict?     So  arise  end- 


34 


EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 


less  problems  of  "duty,"  or  "right  and  wrong,"  of  ethical  or  social  stand- 
ards. 

The  experience  of  the  race  or  of  divisions  thereof,  has  long  given  quali- 
tative definition  to  scores  of  virtues — filial,  parental,  marital,  fraternal, 
communal,  martial,  vocational,  sumptuary,  civic,  patriotic,  religious,  altru- 
istic. (These  may  profitably  be  investigated  by  organizing  the  experience 
of  each  one  of  us  around  popularly  approved  ideals  of  virtuous  and  vicious 
conduct  for  various  kinds  of  social  membership,  e.  g.,  the  "bad  son"  is — >j 
the  "good  son"  is — .  Similarly  list  numerous  virtues  (and  their  opposites 
characteristic  of  the  "bad"  type)  of  the  good:  father,  mother,  husband, 
wife,  brother,  uncle,  fellow  workman,  friend,  employer,  employee,  soldier, 
worshipper,  voter,  ruler,  elected  official,  fellow  passenger,  scholar,  teacher, 
man  as  consumer,  man  as  reader,  man  as  citizen  of  a  municipality,  man  as 
citizen  affecting  action  towards  other  peoples,  talented  man  as  altruistic 
giver  of  gratuitous  service  to  others. 

But  the  ordinary  moral  categories  are  unsatisfactory  (for  the  study  of 
true  social  control,  and  for  education)  because:  they  are  not  concretely 
related  to  definite  social  groups ;  they  take  no  account  of  the  variabilities 
(as  to  educability,  conflicting  tendencies,  social  influence)  of  different  in- 
dividuals; and  they  are  lacking  in  quantitative  definition.  Hence  social 
(moral,  civic,  religious)  education  is  to-day  the  theater  of  endless  writing 
and  discussion  that  is  Utopian,  aspirational  (only),  unproductive.  Primi- 
tive and  mediaeval  education  for  social  control  suffered  less  from  this  be- 
cause of  the  ultimate  definiteness  of  its  taboos,  dogmas,  mandates,  as  rest- 
ing on  authority;  but  we  now  seek  ends  of  social  control  concurrently 
with  striving  for  freedom  of  thought  and  democracy.  The  task  still  re- 
mains for  sociology  (as  applied  in  social  efficiency)  to  provide  properly 
balanced  schemes  of  objectives  for  social  control. 

The  specific  methods  of  providing  for  social  control  are  many: 

a.  Instincts  of  fairly  definite  character  motivate  and  direct  certain 

forms — love  of  mother  for  child,  love  of  man  and  woman,  fra- 
ternal affection,  gang  and  clique  membership,  sociability,  pity, 
sympathy. 

b.  Instincts  of  an  inclusive  character  are  given  specific  direction 
by  elders  and  superiors,  for  sake  of  motivation ;  fear  (of  blame, 
corporal  punishment,  fire  of  Sheol,  jail,  loss  of  property,  loss 
of  friends,  etc.)  ;  love  (of  approval  of  superiors,  of  success  in 
competition,  of  acquisition  of  property,  of  noteworthy  achieve- 
ment, etc.)  ;  submissiveness  to  authority  (of  parents,  elders, 
priests,  institutions,  tradition)  which  sways  especially  apprecia- 
tions and  ideals  (and  crystallizes  into  habits,  attitudes,  fixed 
valuations;  imitativeness,  curiosity,  workmanship,  aggressive- 
ness, etc. 

c.  As  experience  defines  forms  of  approved  or  disapproved  social 
conduct,  taboos,  commandments,  laws,  conventions  are  given 
shape,  often  highly  specific.     "Thou  shall  not  steal";  the  dance 


SOCIAL  FUNCTIONINGS  35 

must  have  a  chaperon;   usury  is   unlawful;   no  law  shall   be 
passed  abridging  freedom  of  speech. 

d.  Ceremonial  is  a  valuable  means  among  the  ignorant  or  those 
easily  accessible  to  emotional  stirrings.  Ceremonial  garments, 
rituals,  pageants,  imposing  buildings  are  examples.  (Trace 
useful  and,  possibly,  useless  survivals  in  modern  life.) 

e.  Art  that  strongly  stirs  appreciations  (musical,  visual,  literary, 
and  in  vanishing  degree,  gustatory,  olfactory,  and  terpsichorean) 
is  used  as  a  means  to  exalt  or  suppress  tendencies  to  social  or 
anti-social  action  (cf.  patriotic  music,  painting,  sculpture  and 
architecture;  religious  music,  incense,  graphic  art;  music  ex- 
alting fine  love  between  sexes;  stories  of  filial  obligation;  etc.). 

/.  Enlightenment,  giving  extended  social  insight,  becomes  a  mod- 
ern means  of  transcendent  importance. 
References:     1:51-67;   349-73;  478-99;   2:51-97;  3:175-221 ;   4:244-65; 
21:581-96;  22:334-54;  23:653-86;  25:1-77;  27:171-201. 

Addams  (2),  Bradford,  Breckenridge,  Dealy,  Ely,  Fiske  (2),  Ghent, 
Kropotkin,  Lavelye,  Maine,  Poole,  Ross   (1),  Smith   (2). 

E.    Economic  Production 

Primitive  man  depended,  for  food,  shelter  and  tools,  upon  the  "bounty 
of  nature."  Modern  man  tills  the  soil,  raises  domestic  animals,  mines 
ores,  manufactures  numberless  articles  of  necessity  or  luxury  and  organ- 
izes exchange  of  commodities  and  services  at  near  and  remote  ranges. 
Especially  significant  sociologically  is  his  harnessing  of  natural  forces. 
The  "will  to  live,  to  multiply  and  replenish  the  earth,"  is  thus  made 
possible  largely  by  economic  inventions,  conservation  of  goods,  and  sub- 
division of  labor.  Modern  developments  of  economic  efficiency  now  com- 
mand attention  and  effort  so  largely  that  careless  thinkers  identify  eco- 
nomic with  social  efficiency. 

The  possession  of  economic  resources  is  basic  to  other  forms  of  well- 
being;  hence  any  increase  of  population  or  rise  in  standards  of  living 
produce  economic  pressures  which  frequently  lead  to  mass  or  collective 
movements  of  peoples.  Some  scholars  interpret  "economic  determinism" 
as  the  most  fundamental  fact  in  the  making  of  history  as  we  know  it — 
a  history  of  conquest,  of  vast  migrations,  of  exploration  and  settlement, 
of  perennial  conflicts  for  rich  valleys  and  commercially  strategic  posi- 
tions, of  centralized  governments  formed  about  rich  areas,  of  industrial 
exploitation,  of  emergence  of  the  economically  oppressed.  "All  great 
wars  are  rooted  in  economic  conflict." 

Many  modern  social  problems  originate  in  the  "industrial  revolution" — 
less  than  two  centuries  old — which  involves  substitution  of  power  driven 
machinery  for  hand  labor,  specialization  of  productive  processes  among 
workers,  widespread  regional  specialization  of  basic  production,  congre- 
gation of  workers,  corporate  ownership  and  control  of  production,  wage- 
earning  (and  therefore  regimented)   work  of  women  and  children,  gov- 


36  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

ernmental  oversight  of  trade  and  production.  Modern  problems  of  poli- 
tics, internal  as  well  as  external  to  nations,  rest  heavily  on  economic  is- 
sues. Socialism  transmutes  economic  aspirations  into  something  akin  to 
religion,  with  its  own  earthly  beneficient  and  maleficient  deities  and  heaven. 

Under  primitive  production,  producer  and  consumer  were  the  same  or  in 
intimate  juxtaposition.  Under  modern  production  they  are  commonly  far 
removed  and  unintelligible  to  each  other.  Similar  chasms  now  exist  be- 
tween employed  and  employing  workers.  Hence  endless  misunderstand- 
ings, development  of  deep-seated  convictions  as  to  the  malevolence  of  "the 
other,"  and  erection  of  militant  organization  to  secure  "justice."  Es- 
pecially is  it  felt  that  efficiency  in  production  is  not  paralleled  by  economy 
or  fairness  in  exchange.  Equally  widespread  is  conviction  that  "value  of 
product"  is  not  fairly  distributed  among  agencies  producing — capital 
owners  (rent,  interest),  enterprisers  and  risk  takers  (profits),  and  labor 
(wages).  About  these  issues  are  waged  endless  destructive  conflicts, 
threatening  to  become  wars.  Demands  for  governmental  supervision, 
direction,  control  are  incessant  and  impose  wholly  new  strains  on  political 
organization. 

Basic  principles  of  economic  efficiency  are  obscure.  Granted  govern- 
mental supervision  adequate  to  insure  "fair  play"  and  prevention  of  mo- 
nopoly, should  free  competition  of  effort  and  free  operation  of  law  of 
supply  and  demand  be  allowed  to  determine  prices,  wages  of  adult  work- 
ers, rewards  of  capital  and  enterprise,  supply  of  products?  Would  courses 
based  on  other  principles,— e.g.,  the  socialistic  ideal  of  workers  compensa- 
tion "to  each  according  to  his  needs,  from  each  according  to  his  abilities" 
— presuppose  powers  for  collective  action  now  non-existent? 

The  effects  of  modern  production  on  individual  well-being  are  in  dis- 
pute. Within  limits  it  is  desirable  that  "the  maximum  of  economic  goods, 
for  least  effort"  should  be  the  economic  goal  of  individual  and  social 
group  production.  But  this  good  may  be  purchased  at  too  heavy  a  price  in 
health,  family  life,  culture,  sociability,  interest  in  beauty,  or  religion.  It 
is  alleged  that  existing  conditions  "mechanize"  workers,  stifle  inventive- 
ness, render  life  sordid,  impoverish  interests  in  culture,  beauty,  worship. 
Does  comparison  with  past  ages  or  with  peoples  now  hardly  touched  by 
the  "industrial  revolution"  bear  out  these  contentions?  But  final  valuations 
require  that  we  should  take  numbers  as  well  as  qualities  into  account.  Only 
machinery,  trade,  corporate  production,  great  specialization  of  process 
makes  Rhode  Island,  the  "Black  Belt"  of  England,  Belgium  and  Chicago 
possible.  Legislative  control  tends  steadily  towards  reduction  of  working 
day  and  week,  higher  minimum  age  of  entrance  upon  full-time  work, 
regulation  of  hours  of  women's  labor,  improvement  of  sanitary  conditions, 
publicity  or  corporate  action.  Can  adequate  correction  of  ills  of  mecha- 
nized production  be  found  along  those  lines?  Are  more  comprehensive 
methods  practicable?  Does  "industrial  democracy"  represent  feasible 
ideals? 

Conflicting  aspirations*  for  economic  efficiency  are  commonly  implicit 
and  sometimes  explicit  in  nearly  all  contemporary  social  thinking:    (a) 


SOCIAL  FUNCTIONINGS  37 

Hopes  that  control  of  power,  applications  of  science,  and  harmonious  or- 
ganization of  agencies  of  production  will  so  go  forward  that  "the  yoke  of 
toil"  shall  be  taken  off  the  neck  of  the  race,  (b)  Desires  that  old  condi- 
tions of  production — handicraft  (the  artist's  dream),  rural,  individual,  be 
restored,     (c)  Aspirations  for  the  democratization  of  production. 

Several  facts  of  importance  to  sociologists  require  consideration:  (a) 
Standards  of  utilization  are  rising  wherever  economic  production  grows. 
Better  and  more  foodstuffs,  housing,  clothing,  means  of  amusements,  edu- 
cation and  opportunities  for  relief  from  arduous  toil  are  demanded,  (b) 
For  purposes  of  general  consumption,  and  especially  in  time  of  war  or 
other  social  need,  popular  demand  is  for  "quantity  production"  and  of 
"standardized  parts" — whether  of  wheat,  sugar,  canned  fruits,  cotton 
cloth,  steel  rails,  phonograph  records,  furniture,  shoes  or  of  houses,  pic- 
tures, cars,  or  clothing,  (c)  Social  workers — using  the  term  inclusively 
to  cover  preachers,  teachers,  reformers,  relief  workers,  writers  and  others 
in  whom  social  sentiments  bulk  large — are  quite  generally  emotionally 
hostile  to  all  those  factors  which  seem  closely  associated  with  modern 
"large  scale"  production — corporations,  machine  production,  standardiza- 
tion of  product,  subdivision  of  productive  process,  the  entrepreneur's  vo- 
cation, free  play  of  normal  competition,  and  free  operation  of  the  law  of 
supply  and  demand  in  regulating  prices,  wages,  interest,  profits,  regional 
specialization  of  production,  congregation  of  workers,  scientific  super- 
vision of  work,  etc.  (d)  Widespread  discontent  among  workers,  investors, 
and  consumers  seems  to  grow  rather  than  lessen  and  it  becomes  of  su- 
preme importance  to  discover  whether  it  is  chiefly  unjustified  discontent 
with  the  inevitable  limitations  of  nature  and  rflan,  or  discontent  with  re- 
mediable, man-made,  or  at  least  man-permitted,  conditions. 

The  possible  effects  of  modern  economic  conditions  on  education  are 
several:  (a)  Where  they  increase  individual  productivity  and  thrift,  they 
extend,  in  time  and  qualitatively,  possibilities  of  all  kinds  of  education. 

(b)  For  many,  perhaps  all,  vocations  called  for  in  specialized  and  scien- 
tific production,  school  vocational  education  (instead  of  "by-product" 
training)    becomes  highly  remunerative  to  the  individual  and  to  society. 

(c)  The  social  complexities  produced  impose  heavy  responsibilities  for 
civic  or  social  education  adequate  to  give  true  appreciations  (for  civic 
conformity  and  voting)  and  powers  of  execution  (criticism,  leadership). 

References:  1:51-67;  349-73;  478-99;  2:51-97;  3:175-221;  4:244-65; 
150;  22:334-47;  27:486-571. 

Abbott,  Bailey,  Bogart,  Clay,  Country  Life  Commission,  Devine,  Ghent, 
King,  Lauch,  Lavelye,  Price,  Rogers,  Smith  (1),  Streightoff,  Tead,  Toyn- 
bee,  Veblen,  Willis. 

F.    Religion 

In  broadest  sociological  sense  religion  embraces  man's  relations  with 
unseen  personalities  or  conscious  agencies.  Very  early  in  the  evolution 
of  intelligence  (especially  creative  imagination)  man  peopled  the  dark- 
ness, the  distant  reaches,  the  hereafter,  with  personalities,  some  benevo- 


38  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

lent,  some  malevolent,  some  neutral.  To  them  he  imputes  actual  or  po- 
tential intervention  in  human  affairs.  Naively  he  interprets  them  in  terms 
of  his  experience,  imaginatively  exaggerated  or  minimized,  thus  giving: 
deities  like  great  men,  fine  women,  lovable  children;  malevolent  beings 
like  criminals,  unlovely  women,  malicious  dwarfs;  dragons  (combining 
fearsome  attributes  of  wolves  and  serpents)  ;  heaven  as  a  fair  land ; 
sheol  as  a  fiery  and  dry  place  of  torment. 

In  this  sense  all  peoples  at  all  times  have  had  religions.  Doubtless 
there  are  instincts,  vague  but  imperative,  forcing  projection  of  conceived 
personalities  into  inaccessible  places  or  conditions  of  universe;  and  wel- 
coming the  rebound  of  their  influence  on  aspirations  and  conduct.  Perhaps 
these  instincts  are  part  of  man's  general  powers  of  projecting  ends  which 
react  on  behavior — become  goals  towards  which  he  aspires,  or  conditions 
which  he  must  avoid.  "The  fiend  that  man  harries  is  love  of  the  best." 
"Man  never  is,  but  always  to  be,  blest." 

Religious  faiths  and  beliefs — fear  or  love-inspiring,  and  interpretative  of 
true  justice,  admirable  qualities  of  character,  serene  and  wise  purposive- 
ness — -have  always  been  used  as  powerful  agencies  of  social  control,  with 
especial  effect  in  areas  of  secret  action,  invisible  purpose.  In  primitive 
stages  of  social  evolution  fear,  vengeance,  material  comfort  are  charac- 
teristic means  of  appeal;  in  later  stages,  love,  altruism,  restfulness,  im- 
personal justice. 

Widened  experience  and  increase  of  scientific  knowledge  destroy  credi- 
bility of  anthropomorphic  divinities  and  fiends — religious  beliefs  necessarily 
become  abstract,  rationalized.  But  children,  and  adults  of  low  intelligence, 
learn  through  the  concrete,  the  anthropomorphic;  and  respond,  in  fear, 
love,  and  ideal,  chiefly  to  personal,  or  "human"  conceptions  of  supernatural 
beings."  Hence  increasing  difficulties  under  modern  conditions  of  preserv- 
ing realism  of  religion  in  education,  social  control,  and  elevation  of  the 
young,  and  of  adults  not  abstractly  imaginative. 

Hence  strong  trend  in  all  current  movements  towards  religious  efficiency 
to  center  ends  in  social  efficiency — on  assumption  that  social  well-being  on 
earth  (of  the  best  sort)  most  nearly  accords  with  divine  will. 

References  :  1 :220-271 ;  457-78 ;  4:115-137 ;  21 :55l-81 ;  22 ;  137-53 ;  23  :- 
640-53;  25:126-218;  27:337-64. 

Churchill,  Coe,  Cooley  (1),  Davenport  (2),  Ellis,  Mathews,  Taylor, 
Tyler,  White. 

G.    Knowledge 

The  accumulation,  organization,  and  interpretation  (in  terms  of  rela- 
tions and  of  values)  of  the  facts  of  experience  become  early  in  social 
evolution  a  necessary  means  to  many  kinds  of  social  efficiency.  But  in 
the  individual,  feelings  (aesthetic  and  other)  and  faiths  tend  constantly 
to  color  and  distort  perception,  and  especially  interpretation,  of  facts  of 
experience.  Science  emerges  only  when  knowledge  becomes  largely  refined 
from  feeling  and  faith  elements.  Hence  for  long  periods  upholders  of 
institutions  resting  on   faith    (religion,  various   forms  of   social  control, 


SOCIAL  FUNCTIONINGS  39 

healing)  and  aesthetic  apprehension  have  resisted  scientific  inquiry — 
which,  in  initial  stages,  is  often  more  socially  destructive  than  constructive. 

But  at  intervals  in  the  past,  and  conspicuously  in  modern  times,  the  pur- 
suit of  scientific  knowledge  becomes  a  great  collective  purpose, — natu- 
rally first  in  those  areas  where  institutions  closely  interwoven  with  cher- 
ished faiths  are  least  developed,  or  where  such  institutions  first  give  way 
because  of  ineffectiveness.  Hence  war,  economic  activities,  and  health 
conservation  are  first  areas  for  application  of  scientific  knowledge;  social 
control  and  education  are  next;  while  aesthetics,  genetics,  and  religion 
will  come  late.  But  in  the  meantime  "pure  science"  develops  in  all  fields 
of  nature — physical,  biological,  psychological,  sociological;  and  from  the 
many  "pure  sciences"  are  increasingly  being  drawn  the  undisputed  facts, 
demonstrated  relationships,  and  tested  evaluations  which  give  to  society 
"scientific  efficiency." 

References  :  1 :329-49 ;  393-9 ;  2 :353-72 ;  3 :268-97 ;  4 :339-62 ;  21 :652-91 ; 
22:132-153;  23:626-53;  25:257-325;  27:306-37. 

Duncan,  Morris,  Wallace,  White,  Williams. 

H.    Aesthetic  Efficiency 

Man  inherits  a  variety  of  instinctive  preferences  called  aesthetic,  some 
of  which  are,  or  have  been,  definitely  related  to  survival  and  some  of 
which  are  alleged  to  be  "goods"  or  "values"  in  themselves,  independent 
of  racial  or  individual  survival.  The  aesthetic  preferences  are  character- 
ized by  strong  feeling  perceptions,  commonly  through  the  senses.  For 
convenience  aesthetic  experiences  may  be  grouped  as: 

a.  The  tactual,  where  the  "feel"  of  articles  touched  gives  aesthetic  sen- 
sation. 

b.  The  gustatory,  associated  with  flavors  of  foods,  drink,  and  a  few 
other  objects. 

c.  The  olfactory,  as  given  by  odors,  scents,  perfumes,  etc. 

d.  The  visual,  involving  especially  harmonies  and  associations  of  form, 
color  and  motion. 

e.  The  auditory,  involving  especially  harmonies  and  associations  of 
sound. 

/.  The  imaginary,  involving  agreeable  memories  and  obscure  harmonies 
only  remotely  affecting  or  affected  by  sense  perception. 

Few  valuations  representing  important  collective  judgment  to-day  at- 
tach to  aesthetic  appreciations  on  tactual,  gustatory  and  olfactory  planes. 
On  certain  sumptuary  planes,  "pleasures"  are  sought  in  foods,  drink,  per- 
fumes, fondling,  but  these  are  usually  regarded  as  "sensual,"  degenera- 
tive. Possibly  these  sensual  pleasures  once  had  survival  values  in  stimu- 
lating right,  and  repressing  wrong,  courses  of  action.  Certain  refined 
interests  towards  "educative"  aesthetic  sensibilities  in  these  areas  are 
to-day  associated  with  high  standards,  but  probably  in  no  vital  manner. 

Aesthetic  sensibilities  in  visual,  auditory,  and  imaginative  areas   seem 


40  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

to  make  appeal  (as  lure  or  repellent)  on  two  psychologically  distinct 
(though  often  blended)  grounds,  one  associative,  the  other  intrinsic. 
Certain  harmonies  of  sound  always  give  pleasure,  apart,  apparently,  from 
all  associations;  whilst  other  sounds,  not  always  harmonious,  give  pleas- 
urable emotions,  commonly  called  aesthetic,  by  virtues  of  the  memories, 
the  associations  they  recall.  (Note  difference  between  "good"  and 
"popular"  music.)  Pictures,  statues,  decorations  sometimes  give  lively 
satisfaction  because  of  intrinsic  "art  qualities,"  sometimes  for  the  associa- 
tions they  inspire.  The  same  seems  to  be  true  of  pure  "literary  art" — 
poems,  stories,  essays;  as  well  as  of  the  complex  fine  arts — drama,  song, 
opera,  photodrama,  dancing,  architecture,  pageant.  The  distinctions  here 
suggested  are  of  the  utmost  importance  to  all  efforts  at  discovering  and 
utilizing  the  "social  values"  of  the  arts  that  make  aesthetic  appeal.  Socio- 
logy seems  to  possess  little  light  as  yet  on  the  aesthetic  values. 

References:     1:191-206;  329-49;  21:490-508;  25:234-291. 

Haddon,  Morris,  Powers,  Tolstoi. 

I.    Social  Efficiency  Through  Stock 

1.  The  organic  foundations  of  all  qualities  in  the  individual  that  make 
for  personal  or  social  efficiency  are  found  in  the  inherited  or  original 
nature  of  man.  The  character,  possibilities  and  limitations  of  some  in- 
herited organs  and  functions  are  easily  observed  and  described — bodily 
size,  strength;  hairlessness ;  uprightness  of  stature;  flexibility  of  thumb, 
vocal  organs;  instinctive  curiosity,  acquisitiveness,  pugnacity,  fears;  edu- 
cability  in  mathematics,  music;  etc.  Others  are  yet  obscure,  even  though 
unmistakable,  in  their  effects.  We  know  that  all  persons  are  in  greater  or 
less  degree :  resistant  to  various  diseases ;  inventive ;  possessed  of  instincts 
of  workmanship,  worship,  altruism,  aesthetic  appreciation,  and  parental 
devotion ;  capable  of  being  trained  in  complex  skills ;  endowed  with  possi- 
bilities of  longevity,  etc.  Individuals  obviously  vary  greatly  as  respects 
their  inherited  possessions  of  the  organic  foundations  of  these  qualities, 
and  it  seems  very  probable  that  family  groups,  geographic  groups,  and 
racial  groups,  vary  also.  These  differences,  in  so  far  as  they  are  persistent, 
have  been  the  products,  chiefly,  of  biological  evolution — appearance  of 
mutants,  natural  selection,  survival  of  the  best  adapted  (to  the  existing 
material  and  social  environment).  If  a  proper  comparison  of  the  "Nor- 
dic" or  other  northwestern  European  stock  with  a  Congo  negro  stock 
shows  the  former  to  be  "superior"  to  the  latter  in  pugnacity,  mechanical 
inventiveness,  powers  of  forming  and  capacities  of  accepting  government, 
devotion  to  monogamous  family,  etc.;  and  "inferior"  in  resistance  to 
malaria,  in  love  of  rhythm  and  powers  of  singing  naturally  in  harmony, 
and  in  submissiveness  to  slave  labor,  then  we  must  assume  (on  the  hypo- 
thesis of  a  single  origin  of  the  human  species)  that  these  differences  of 
stock  have  been  produced  by  selective  evolution  actuated  by  environment. 

2.  Are  human  "stocks"  being  improved  by  natural  selection  at  the  pre- 
sent time?  And  is  it  practicable  artificially  to  improve  existing  stocks  as 
respects  their  biological  qualities?     These  questions  are  of  great  interest 


SOCIAL  FUNCTIONINGS  41 

and  are  probably  destined  to  receive  prolonged  study.     But  it  is  practi- 
cable here  only  to  suggest  some  of  the  specific  problems  involved: 

a.  Wherever  an  agency  of  selection  operates  freely  among  a  people 
in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  certain  kinds  of  individuals  from 
having  progeny,  then,  other  things  being  equal,  it  is  probable 
that  the  "stock"  is  being  "improved"  in  the  direction  of  the 
qualities  of  those  not  eliminated.  Diseases  of  childhood,  prosti- 
tution, possibly  alcoholism,  peripatetic  labor,  tuberculosis,  doubt- 
less tend  to  elimination  of  weaker  strands;  similarly  the  spirit 
of  adventure,  forest  dwelling,  earliest  pioneering,  social  ambi- 
tion, the  fastidiousness  of  the  over-refined,  religious  monasti- 
cism,  and  (under  some  economic  and  ethical  conditions)  venereal 
disease,  tend  to  withhold  progeny  from  stocks  or  strands  es- 
teemed as  "strong."  It  is  a  plausible  hypothesis  that  in  all 
economically  advancing  countries  during  the  last  fifty  years 
desired  "standards  of  comfort"  are  eliminating  certain  superior 
strands  through  "differential  race  suicide."  But  in  all  the  cases 
given,  variable  or  offsetting  factors  may  yet  be  defined. 

b.  Wherever  peoples  of  differing  religions,  races,  standards  of  liv- 
ing, or  interests  in  congregate  life  live  side  by  side,  selection 
favors  the  type  that  brings  to  maturity,  and  parentage  in  turn, 
the  largest  numbers.  It  is  alleged  that  among  Catholics  and 
Jews  large  families  are  favored  more  than  among  Protestants; 
that  Alpine  and  Mediterranean  stocks  have  been  more  prolific 
than  the  Nordic;  that  rural  dwellers  rear  more  and  better  off- 
spring than  urban  dwellers;  that  suburban  or  middle  class 
people  represent  the  best  stock  and  the  lowest  fecundity  now 

found.  Other  factors  are:  prevailing  age  of  marriage  (an  av- 
erage age  of  marriage  at  20  could  give  five  generations  in  a 
century,  whereas  at  25,  four)  ;  the  high  child  death  rate  in 
large  families  of  poor  (Russians,  negroes,  Chinese)  ;  the  rela- 
tive sterility  (alleged)  of  educated,  refined  and  other  women 
whose  "work"  has  been  chiefly  intellectual;  residence  in  the 
tropics  as  contrasted  with  same  in  colder  regions  in  producing 
irresponsibility  towards  thrift,  fecundity,  etc.;  the  constantly 
increasing  economic  burden  (especially  on  the  father)  of  child 
rearing,  imposed  partly  by  custom,  partly  by  law. 

c.  Where  peoples  do  not  interpenetrate  (India  and  Europe,  China 
and  America),  the  more  prolific  may  be  in  process  of  more  rapid 
evolution  than  the  less  (doubtful  at  present). 

d.  Certain  kinds  of  eugenic  selection  have  long  taken  place  in  for- 
mation of  families:  (1)  Probably  the  well-born  and  the  well- 
bred  tend  always  to  attract  each  other  towards  marriage  rather 
than  the  reverse.  (2)  Where  caste,  religious,  economic,  and 
racial  groups  mingle,  custom,  and  even  law,  strongly  favor  keep- 
ing the  higher  types  pure.     (3)    Where  parental  influence  or 


42  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

reason  and  forethoughtfulness  play  a  large  part  in  selection  for 
marriage,  usual  tendency  is  to  favor  "better"  heredity. 

To  these  should  be  added  in  primitive  life  wife  capture,  wife 
purchase,  and  polygamy,  all  of  which  probably  had  eugenic 
effects,  possibly  offset  in  defects  of  rearing. 
e.  Among  certain  kinds  of  social  groups  dysgenic  influences  are 
obvious.  (1)  Some  occupations  involve  a  migratory  life  which 
largely  prevents  formation  of  families — conspicuously  those  of 
the  sailor,  mercenary  soldier,  trapper,  casual  labor  and  (under 
present  conditions)   some  exceptionally  expert  labor. 

"Down  to  Gehenna  or  up  to  the  Throne, 
He  travels  fastest  who  travels  alone." 

(2)  Modern  wars  probably  eliminate  many  potential  fathers  of 
families.  (3)  Feminine  .refinement,  and  also  revolt  against 
"economic  dependence"  probably  now  promote  permanent 
celibacy  of  certain  superior  strains,  usually  those  of  "well-to- 
do"  ancestry.  (4)  Fin  de  siecle  weariness,  aestheticism,  re- 
ligious mysticism,  economic  pessimism,  seem  often  so  to  weaken 
the  "will  to  live,"  or  to  increase  the  selfishness  of  the  individuals 
of  substantial  groups,  as  to  destroy  effective  interest  in  family 
life. 

/.  Certain  social  valuations  are  growing  in  our  day  whose  ultimate 
consequences  on  stock  are  not  yet  wholly  calculated.  (1)  The 
very  large,  irresponsibly  produced,  "rabbit  warren"  family  is  in 
general  disfavor.  (2)  Preventable  celibacy  among  men  is  so- 
cially disapproved.  (3)  Illegitimate  motherhood  and  fatherhood 
are  increasingly  condemned,  but  the  social  condemnation  on 
"illegitimate"  childhood  is  being  mitigated.  (4)  Continence 
and  other  means  of  "birth  control"  are  increasingly  approved 
among  families  aspiring  to  better  standards  of  life. 

g.  Much  consideration,  some  of  it  scientific,  is  now  being  given  to 
social  eugenics — that  is,  to  the  purposeful  control  by  law  or 
effective  public  opinion  of  marriage  so  as  to  "improve"  the 
stock.  (1)  Negative  eugenics  looks  to  prevention  of  marriage 
(and  of  course,  pro  tanto,  of  illegitimate  procreation  of  those 
likely  to  transmit  inheritable  defects,  blindness,  deafness,  im- 
becility, alcoholism,  effects  of  venereal  disease,  etc.  (2)  Posi- 
tive eugenics  favors  the  marriage,  and  especially  reasonably 
large  families,  of  the  racially  "fit,"  partly  by  removal  of  arti- 
ficial difficulties,  and  partly  by  public  assistance — premiums 
for  large  families  (France),  part  release  from  income  taxes, 
maternity  insurance,  etc. 

h.  But  no  comprehensive  programs  for  artificial  improvement  of 
human  stocks  yet  appear,  due  partly  to  ignorance  as  to  what 
qualities,  or  combination  of  qualities,  should  be  sought  as  ends ; 


SOCIAL  FUNCTIONINGS  43 

and  partly  because  effective  means  of  control  savor  of  unde- 
mocratic invasion  of  individual  liberty. 
3.  International  problems  are   rendered  complex  largely  by  biological 
factors.    The  following  especially  require  consideration. 

a.  Where  stocks  or  races  have  long  been  isolated  from  each  other, 
physical  traits  and  social  inheritances  are  so  different  as  to 
make  "assimilation"  difficult,  if  not  impracticable.  If,  then, 
migration  takes  place  by  one  into  area  occupied  by  another  with 
higher  standard  of  life,  the  former  tends,  ultimately,  to  super- 
cede the  latter  in  the  occupations  with  largest  numbers. 

b.  It  is  believed  by  geographers  that  long  residence  in  the  tropics 

tends,  through  heredity,  and  through  customs  affecting  individu- 
als, to  disqualify  men  for  the  kinds  of  work,  cooperation,  ag- 
gression, and  invention  that  give  the  largest  and  most  effective 
groupings  in  the  more  favored  regions  of  the  temperate  zones. 
Historically  this  has  led  to  persistent  subjugation  and  exploita- 
tion of  the  climatically  less  favored  peoples.  But  where  protec- 
tion is  extended  to  these  tropical  dwellers,  they  seem  to  multiply 
(India,  South  Africa,  Mexico),  and  to  aggravate  low  standards 
of  living.  If  a  period  of  tutelage  will  elevate  them,  then  a  pos- 
sible course  of  democratic  international  policy  is  open.  But  are 
they  below  their  rulers  in  some  essentials  of  "stock"?  Then, 
perhaps  only  permanent  super-control  would  suffice.  Would 
purposive  eugenic  control  to  the  extent  of  restricting  marriage 
to  the  economically  promising  tend  to  mitigate  harmful  in- 
equalities ? 
References:     1:51-82;   271-83;  425-57;  2:149-311;   21:29-42;  209-301; 

596-611;  22:208-54;  23:404-25;  25:1-49;  27:263-86. 
Conklin,    Davenport    (1),   Deniker,    Devine,   Drysdale,    Dugdale,    Ellis, 

Ferris,  Fiske,  Goodsell,  Huntington   (2),  Johnston,  Reid,  Saleeby,  Starr, 

Thomas,  Winship. 

J.    Democracy 

1.  Nature  produces  many  great  inequalities  among  individuals  com- 
posing human  society;  and  these  are  often  intensified,  given  social  ap- 
proval, and  perpetuated  by  social  art. 

a.  The  young  usually  possess  physical,  mental  and  social  powers 
inferior  to  the  mature.  Normally,  therefore,  the  young  are 
subordinate,  and  in  need  of  protection  from  possible  abuse, 
exploitation,  suppression.  The  very  aged,  also,  become  inferior 
to  the  middle-aged  in  physical,  mental,  and  other  powers,  and 
often  require  social  protection. 

b.  Women  are  natively  inferior  to  men  of  same  ages,  during  mature 
years,  in  physical  strength,  mobility,  and  in  the  mental  qualities 
associated  with  aggression  against  animals  and  hostile  men. 
Women  probably  surpass  men  in  social  qualities  of  sympathy, 


44 


EDUCATIONAL    SOCIOLOGY 

aesthetic  response,  and  ready  subordination  to  minute  routine 
work.  Cultures  intimately  rooted  in  conditions  of  war  and  hunt- 
ing give  aggressive  men  endless  opportunities  to  subjugate,  op- 
press, overwork,  and  repress  women,  which  disabilities  are  only 
slowly  removed,  as  cultures  shake  off  war  influences. 
Only  some  portions  of  the  earth's  surface  possess  optimum  ma- 
terial environment  for  means  of  development.  Climates  can  be 
too  cold  or  too  warm,  too  dry  or  too  humid,  too  variable  or 
too  uniform  to  give  maximum  development  of  the  individual, 
even  apart  from  conditions  of  dietetic  nurture  or  shelter.  The 
frigid  zones,  the  lowlands  of  the  torrid  zone,  the  deserts  and 
the  regions  of  heavy  persistent  rainfall,  the  Siberias  where 
barometric  variability  is  slight — these  seem  to  develop  man 
poorly  as  contrasted  with  those  sections  of  the  temperate  zone 
where  cold  and  heat,  not  extreme,  rapidly  alternate,  and  where 
dry  days  and  humid  days  also  rapidly  succeed  each  other.  In 
lesser  degree,  topographical  conditions  seem  to  affect  develop- 
ment— it  has  long  been  believed  that,  under  primitive  conditions, 
mountain,  seashore,  and  desert  folk  are  more  rugged,  endur- 
ing, and  mobile  than  plainsmen.  (But  these  need  further  ex- 
amination of  occupational  concomitants.)  Of  most  importance 
to  the  modern  development  (of  large  numbers  and  of  differenti- 
ated occupations)  is  fact  that  natural  resources  for  food  and 
tools  are  distributed  variably.  Only  four  regions  seem  to  pos- 
sess the  combined  stores  of  coal  and  iron  necessary  for  modern 
war  or  industrial  development.  Only  limited  areas  can  now 
produce  on  the  gigantic  scales  required  wheat,  meat,  cotton, 
rubber,  oil,  copper,  rice,  sisal  hemp. 

Historically,  peoples  of  favored  regions  have  been  able,  by 
virtue  of  superior  powers  of  individual,  superior  numbers,  or 
superior  organization,  to  dominate  (with  resulting  extermi- 
nation, enslavement,  and  oppression — economic,  political,  relig- 
ious, cultural)  peoples  of  adverse  environment.  Some  of  the 
profounder  problems  of  democracy  to-day  involve  correction  of 
these  oppressions. 
Probably  many  generations  of  natural  and  eugenic  selection 
under  differing  environment  produce  finally  inherent  or  racial 
superiorities  and  inferiorities  which  no  cultural  agencies  can 
offset.  It  is  certain  that  Chinese  and  Japanese  are  of  less 
stature  than  Western  Europeans  and  that  the  skull  size  of 
certain  tropical  groups  is  small.  Do  Ainus,  Dravidians,  Maoris. 
Diggers,  Bushmen,  represent  inferior  stocks  contrasted  with 
Manchus,  Sikhs,  Sioux,  Kaffirs?  Do  Goth,  Teuton,  and 
Norman  represent  a  Nordic  race  superior  in  most  essentials 
to  Negro  or  American  Indian?  Here  lie  practical  problems  for 
future-world  statesmanship. 


SOCIAL  FUNCTIONINGS  45 

e.  Within  every  family  persons  of  the  same  apparent  heredity  are 
born  with  widely  varying  qualities — brothers  differ  as  respects 
physical  size,  looks,  mental  abilities,  aesthetic  appreciations, 
social  plasticities,  dominance  of  sensual  instincts,  etc.  Similarly, 
within  communities  of  substantially  similarly  stocks,  individuals 
appear  with  all  grades  of  native  superiority  and  inferiority. 
(Certify  army  and  other  "intelligence  tests.") 

/.  Within  any  given  community  group,  superior  heredity  often 
tends  to  repeat  in  the  same  family  group,  and  especially  when 
favored  by  selective  mating,  thus  giving  local  (as  against  con- 
quering) aristocracies.  The  aggrandizing  tendencies  of  these 
lead  to  need  of  social  restraints  in  the  interest  of  the  weaker. 

g.  Similarly,  even  apart  from  advantages  of  native  heredity,  varia- 
tions in  factors  of  social  heredity — stored  wealth,  possession  of 
strategic  vocations,  superior  education — tend  to  accumulate  and 
be  transmitted  in  certain  family,  caste,  or  other  local  groups, 
here  again  eventually  necessitating  collective   interference. 

h.  Especially  does  such  collective  correction  become  necessary  when 
variations  in  respect  to  native  or  social  inheritance  tend  to 
crystallize  in  institutional  forms — hereditary  rulers,  priesthoods, 
crafts,  land-owners,  traders ;  or,  in  effect,  monopolies  of  certain 
kinds  of  learning,  culture,  sumptuary  right,  economic  direc- 
tion, etc. 

2.  In  the  interests  of  certain  kinds  of  "larger  group"  efficiency  and 
social  continuity  it  becomes  necessary  to  shape,  curb,  train,  organize,  gov- 
ern, and  "work"  individuals  or  subordinated  groups  of  individuals.  These 
processes  are  considered  under  social  control. 

But,  to  the  same  ends,  it  becomes  necessary  to  assist,  liberate,  upbuild, 
encourage,  and  exalt  individuals  or  subordinated  groups  of  individuals. 
We  shall  here  use  the  term  "democracy"  as  inclusive  of  all  these  tendencies 
and  ends.  We  can  assume  that  "the  greatest  good  of  the  greatest  number" 
is  the  final  justification  of  democracy  and  determines  its  desirable  limits, 
subject  to  possible  corrections:  (a)  from  certain  Christian  tenets  that 
each  human  soul  is  infinitely  precious  and  that  earthly  inequalities  are 
wholly  negligible  as  against  heaven-destined  perfection;  and  (b)  certain 
philosophic  tenets  that  the  "individual"  is  primarily  an  "end"  in  himself 
rather  than  a  "means"  to  society  or  to  many  others. 

3.  Possibilities  of  repression  of  individuals  due  to  native  inferiorities 
are  primitively  offset  by: 

a.  Natural  sympathies  of  parents  and  other  elders  for  youngers, 
leading  to  protection,  education,  encouragement  of  individual 
development. 

b.  Filial  and  community  sympathies  with  aged,  and  otherwise  in- 
capacitated. 


46  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

c.  Women's  abilities  to  win  affection,  to  enlist  chivalry,  and  some- 

times to  inspire  fear,  of  men,  especially  in  domestic  and  voca- 
tional fields  in  which  man  does  not  habitually  operate. 

d.  Subdivision  of  labor  often  evolves  "protected  harbor"  occupa- 
tions into  which  individuals  of  inferior  gifts  fit  quite  comfort- 
ably. 

e.  Similarly,  bands,  companies,  gangs,  form  through  conjoining  of 

leadership  of  the  strong  with  followship  of  the  weak  and  thus 
insure  to  latter  maximum  of  possible  opportunity  for  self- 
realization. 

/.  The  inferior  develop  defensive  unions  in  which  numbers  and 
organization  produce  offensive  powers  sufficient  to  insure  some 
independence. 

g.  The  weak  retreat  to  environments  where  competition  with  the 
strong  is  less  pressing. 

4.  But,  in  advanced  stages  of  social  evolution,  possibilities  of  exploi- 
tation of  weak  individuals,  weak  groups,  or  weak  stocks  become  great; 
while  needs  of  "large  group"  social  efficiency,  as  well  as  altruistic  pursuit 
of  "ideals  of  justice"  progressively  increase  demands  for  removal  of  man 
imposed  repressions  of  the  weak,  as  well  as  reasonable  mitigation  of 
nature-imposed  inferiorities.  To  these  ends  are  addressed:  (a)  concert- 
ed effort  of  self -protecting  organizations  of  the  oppressed;  (b)  efforts  of 
philanthropic  bodies  (including  religious  and  voluntary  political)  on  be- 
half of  others  than  themselves  (and  perhaps  using  education,  political 
action,  and  force)  ;  and  eventually,  (c)  the  efforts  of  the  state  itself,  led 
thereto  by  its  persuaded  rulers  or  ruling  majority.  A  thousand  hard  won 
achievements,  contemporary  "movements,"  and  slowly  crystalizing  social 
ideals  of  this  character  may  all  be  generalized  as  "modern"  democracy. 
Some  examples  are: 

a.  Parental  interests  and  unorganized  social  sympathies  with  child- 
hood, have  not  sufficed  to  insure  the  "fair  start  in  life" 
which  democratic  idealism  aspires  to.  The  orphan,  the  child 
born  out  of  wedlock,  the  child  prematurely  forced  to  work  away 
from  home,  and  the  child  deprived  of  opportunities  for  educa- 
tion or  religious  communion — these  have  first  claimed  con- 
certed effort,  which  now  manifests  itself  in  scores  of  specific 
demands  and  collective  movements.  Present  problems  include : 
legitimation  of  the  "illegitimate";  proper  rearing  of  orphans; 
proper  limits  to  "child  labor"  legislation;  state  protection  of 
motherhood;  vocational  guidance  and  training;  health  super- 
vision; supervision  of  parenthood;  etc. 
b.  The  "disabilities  of  women"  incorporated  into  law,  religious 
custom,  and  subdivision  of  economic  labor  have  been  in  pro- 
cess of  gradual  removal  for  centuries,  but  the  end  is  not  yet. 
Current  movements   for   franchise;    for  vocational   "equality"; 


SOCIAL  FUNCTIONINGS  47 

for  equal  control,  within  the  family  group,  of  property,  offspring, 
place  of  habitation,  and  rights  of  worship;  and  for  other  forms 
of  "independence,"  are  of  poignant  interest,  partly  because  in 
some  cases  essential  social  foundations  may  be  in  process  of 
being  undermined  faster  than  new  supports  are  building. 
c.  Vested  inequalities  of  various  kinds  have  been  measurably  cor- 
rected by  modern  movements  for  political  democracy,  originat- 
ing in  revolts  of  "guild"  cities,  "protesting"  religious  denomina- 
tions, colonies,  and  unenfranchised  majorities.  Achievements 
can  be  traced  in :  impairment  of  hereditary  nobilities ;  spread  of 
constitutional  government;  government  through  elected  repre- 
sentatives; extension  of  suffrage;  equalization  of  taxation;  pro- 
tection of  freedom  of  speech  and  press;  development  of  public 
education ;  and  numberless  modifications  of  these  in  abolition  of 
slavery,  freedom  of  migration,  secrecy  of  voting,  etc. 

Problems  appear  as  to :  alien  citizenship ;  procuring  govern- 
mental "efficiency"  under  the  "many  bosses"  of  democratic  con- 
trol; dangers  of  "mass"  control  by  those  of  inferior  political 
experience,  knowledge,  or,  possibly,  potential  abilities — negro 
caste,  soviet  of  manual  laborers,  warrens  of  city,  a  special  reli- 
gious group;  how  to  "educate"  individuals  for  social  efficiency. 

Aspirations  for  more  political  democracy  within  modern 
nation  are  now  chiefly  confined  to  unenfranchised  adults,  repress- 
ed racial  group  (negroes,  "submerged  nationalities"),  repressed 
geographic  groups  (cities  wanting  home  rule,  Rhode  Island's 
opposition  to  Constitution),  and  victims  of  political  machinery, 
"bosses"  or  bureaucracies. 
d.  Under  "social  democracy"  we  can  include  aspirations,  programs, 
and  achievements  for  correction  or  mitigation  of  disabilities, 
due  to  nature  or  social  art,  on  consumption,  intermarriage, 
sociability,  culture,  migration,  worship,  etc. 

Formerly,  as  outcomes  of  totemic,  religious,  caste,  and  other 
restrictions  of  social  control,  many  restraints  were  imposed 
upon  consumption,  and  especially  on  decoration.  Some  food 
taboos  are  yet  imposed  by  churches,  and  dress  of  sexes  is  still 
forcibly  differentiated.  But  where  political  democracy  prevails 
other  sumptuary  restraints  on  the  individual  have  dwindled  to 
convential  forms  (coats  for  men,  decorative  uniforms  in 
army,  etc.). 

Intermarriage  of  white  and  black  castes  is  now  legally  pro- 
hibited in  many  states.  Strong  conventionalities  restrain  free- 
dom of  marriage  between  individuals  of  unlike  economic,  an- 
cestral or  religious  connections.  But  freedom  of  divorce  oper- 
ates to  give  relative  independence  to  women,  with  balance  of 
harm  probably  for  children. 


48  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

In  family,  and  in  club  sociability,  a  maximum  of  democracy 
tends  to  prevail  within  groups  "elected"  to  be  homogeneous; 
accompanied  by  markedly  exclusive,  "undemocratic"  attitudes 
towards  the  "non-elect."  Note  examples  in  cliques,  gangs, 
"sets,"  social  clubs,  fraternities,  "secret  societies,"  grades  of 
hotels,  Pullman  cars,  residence  districts,  occupational  levels, 
cultural  levels.  But  commercialization  of  amusements  (photo- 
drama,  restaurant,  dance  hall,  excursion,  resorts,  etc.)  and 
transportation  (street  cars,  local  trains  and  local  ships  having 
no  "classes")  as  well  as  public  provision  of  social  facilities — 
streets,  parks,  public  lectures,  public  libraries,  museums, — all 
weaken  or  remove  barriers  to  "democratic"  association. 

But  free  association  or  sociability  is  now  governed  largely 
by  sumptuary  and  other  caste-like  cleavages.  "Sets"  or  "classes" 
restrict  to  those  able  to  dress,  entertain,  recreate,  and  educate 
on  similar  planes.  Manners,  conventions,  mutual  interests, 
thus  become  stratified  in  society,  each  plane  relatively  insulated 
from  those  above  and  below.  Of  only  somewhat  less  vitality 
in  preventing  'sociability"  democracy  are  racial,  religious,  and 
occupational  distinctions. 

Formerly  "culture  classes"  held  apart,  especially  the  "erudite" 
and  the  unlettered.  Latin  and  Greek  were  once  prized  because 
they  denoted  "gentle  rearing."  Now  these  distinctions  tend  to 
disappear  as  moderate  education  becomes  general,  but  similar 
distinctions  attach  to  "club"  groupings  for  sociability  purposes. 

Formerly  collective  action  greatly  impeded  freedom  of  migra- 
tion and  residence.  Surviving  restrictions  rest  largely  on 
grounds  of  political  expediency,  and  are  directed  chiefly  against 
immigration,  property  holding  and  trade  (cf.  immigration  of 
Hindoos  to  Canada,  Australia,  South  Africa;  of  Chinese, 
Japanese,  polygamists  and  avowed  anarchists  to  the  United 
States ;  of  low  class  English  labor  to  Canada,  etc.) . 

Formerly,  religions  were  variously  exclusive.  Some  held  no 
salvation  for  women,  low  castes,  peoples  not  chosen  by  God. 
But  the  world  faiths  have  been  strongly  propagandist^  in- 
clusive, and  even  destructive  of  undemocratic  barriers  resting 
on  other  grounds  (primitive  Christianity,  Quakerism,  Unitari- 
ianism,  Roman  Catholicism).  Caste  (blacks  vs.  whites)  affects 
some  churches  in  America;  while  economic  differences  are 
alleged  to  debar  the  "poor"  from  others. 

Except  in  case  of  color  barriers  to  free  intermarriage,  exist- 
ing limitations  on  "social  democracy"  seem  to  inhere  more 
fundamentally  in  economic  differentiations  (productive  powers, 
possessions,  consuming  powers,  standards  of  living)  than  in 
race,  religion,  or  ancestral  family,  since  economic  equalization, 
after  a  period  for  adjustment,  seems  to  remove  barriers  more 


SOCIAL  FUNCTION  I NGS  49 

certainly  than  other  changes.  Probably  this  affects  contempo- 
rary interest  in  "industrial  democracy." 
e.  Under  the  term  "industrial  democracy"  should  be  considered 
many  of  the  most  vital  aspirations  of  the  present  age.  These 
are  probably  inevitable  effects  of  recent  rapid  economic  develop- 
ments, transformations  of  productive  processes,  multiplications 
of  populations,  rising  standards  of  living,  curtailment  of  natural 
resources,  etc. 

Native  inequalities  of  productive  ability — due  to  age,  sex 
physical  strength  and  dexterity,  endurance,  mental  powers,  self- 
control,  avid  appetites,  combine  everywhere  with  socially  pro- 
duced inequalities — birth  in  poor  regions  and  of  poor  parents  or 
in  poor  times,  acquired  ill-health,  deprivation  of  suitable  edu- 
cation, accidental  entrance  upon  a  badly  developed  or  declining 
economic  "lead,"  to  give  numberless  and  very  wide  economic 
inequalities  between  regional  classes,  classes  derived  from  dif- 
ferent economic  levels,  and  classes  affected  by  different  stages 
or  types  of  economic  evolution;  and  still  wider  inequalities 
among  individuals.  Political  democracy,  general  education,  and 
freedom  of  migration  tend  to  mitigate  these  inequalities,  but 
probably  not  to  the  same  extent  that  these  influences  generally 
raise  standards  of  living,  which  are  always  the  torturing  pro- 
vocatives of  economic  demand. 

Communism  (of  ownership  and  for  consumption)  becomes 
one  end  of  economic  democracy  (an  end  realized  in  the  family, 
the  pioneering  company  or  industrial  crew,  and  many  primitive 
religious  communities,  but  with  no  enduring  examples  among 
complex,  advanced  peoples).  Co-partnership,  profit-and-loss 
sharing,  guild  control,  state  operation  (with  no  "profits"),  and 
cooperative  exchange,  are  current  experiments  towards  other 
kinds  of  economic  democracy. 

5.  Efforts  to  realize  ideals  of  democracy  as  factors  in  social  efficiency 
give  rise  to  many  problems  of  conflicting  social  forces.  Where  life  is 
primitive,  scattered,  unorganized,  there  are  few  problems  of  democracy 
since  (a)  man  collectively  has  little  means  of  removing  nature-imposed 
disabilities  on  the  individual,  and  (b)  collectively  he  has  had  reason  to 
impose  only  a  few  of  his  own  that  are  not  essential  to  small  group 
survival. 

But  as  men  multiply,  organize  and  expand  the  social  inheritance,  their 
powers  of  helping  various  kinds  and  classes  of  individuals  to  fuller  lives, 
in  spite  of  natural  limitations,  increase;  and  the  possibilities  of  more  care- 
fully adjusting  the  yokes  of  social  control,  economic  control,  and  of  in- 
creasing justice  so  as  to  preserve  the  social  effectiveness  of  the  individual 
and  at  the  same  time  give  him  the  maximum  of  individual  freedom 
always  exist.  For  Great  Britain,  France  and  America,  the  most  pressing 
current  problems  seem  to  be  those  of  democratizing  all  those  social  agencies 


50  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

in  which  elaborateness  of  mechanism  oppresses,  or  seems  to  oppress,  the 
individual  or  sub-group. 

Everywhere  the  radicals  strive  for  more  democracy  of  some  variety 
(sometimes  organizing  their  strivings  in  very  undemocratic  ways)  and  in 
propaganda  they  ignore  or  depreciate  social  achievements  under  methods 
they  would  correct  or  supplant.  Everywhere  the  conservatives  strive 
against  hasty  or  far-reaching  action,  fearing  to  lose  in  revolution,  present 
gains — fearing  especially,  of  course,  on  behalf  of  themselves  and  those 
nearest  them.  The  mills  of  the  gods  meantime  grind  on  and  nature 
ultimately  gives  the  final  verdict.    Note  some  of  the  problems : 

a.  Political  democracy,  having  achieved  general  suffrage  and  re- 
moved disability  to  office  holding,  finds  endless  difficulties  in  the 
complexities  of  the  problems  it  faces.  Officials  will  not  act  as 
majority  superficially  think  they  should,  hence  correctives  sought 
in  recall,  initiative  and  referendum,  soviet  (economic  class) 
representation,  simplification  of  constitutional  amendment,  the 
short  ballot,  etc.  Hence  popular  opposition  to  appointment  of 
officials  to  indefinite  tenure,  and  other  conditions  provocative 
of  bureaucracy. 

b.  Freedom  of  access  of  women  to  all  wage  earning  employments 
has  been  won,  but  ultimate  effects  of  this  on  normal  family  life 
constitute  problems. 

c.  Production  organized  on  corporation  basis  creates  extensive  regi- 
mentation of  workers.  Initiative  lies  chiefly  with  those  factors 
who  own,  or  can  command  capital  wherewith  to  procure  means 
of  production — land,  mines,  patents,  machines,  raw  materials, 
franchises,  technical  knowledge.  In  corporation  production — 
best  exemplified  in  railroads,  factories,  banks,  steamships, 
mines,  some  tropical  farming — areas  of  individual  initiative  are 
lessened  (possibly  with  local  intensification,  however)  as  is 
military  initiative  for  the  soldier  in  the  large  army.  Hence 
eventually  collective  dissatisfaction  unionization  for  self-pro- 
tection, and  emergence  of  vague  but  insistent  demands  for  "in- 
dustrial democracy."  Can  a  large  army  be  democratic  and  ef- 
ficient? Can  the  crew  effectively  dictate  or  share  in  determin- 
ing the  course  of  a  steamer?  To  what  extent  can  workers 
determine  policies  of  a  large  factory?  Who  shall  take  the  initia- 
tive in  development,  e.  g.,  in  planning  new  railways  or  opening 
new  mines?  (Note  discussion  later  of  distinctions  between 
powers  to  discover  courses  of  action,  and  capacities  to 
discriminate  among  courses  devised  by  specialists,  as  basis  for 
domestic  control.) 

References:  1:157-91;  399-414;  541-52;  3:101-47;  4:159-75;  21:431-49; 
632-52;  22:394-400;  23:678-97;  25:428-43;  27:451-86;  26:94-118. 

Addams  (1),  Antin,  Bogart,  Carlton,  Cooley  (2),  Coolidge,  Dean, 
Dewey,  Eliot,  George,  Ghent,  Hadley,  Hill,  Hollister,  Jenks,  Lee  (1), 
Mecklin,  Putnam,  Riis,  Roosevelt,  Ross  (4),  Ward  (1). 


CHAPTER  IV 

SOCIAL  STANDARDS  DETERMINING  EDUCATIONAL 

OBJECTIVES 

1.  Societies  are  made  up  of  individuals,  each  of  whom  must  be  prepared 
to  "fit  in,"  to  "play  his  part."  In  a  purely  practical  sense  there  can  be 
no  society  apart  from  individuals  composing  it. 

a.  Tools,  buildings,  ideas,  languages,  laws,  institutions  become 
vital  only  as  used  by  individuals.  The  social  inheritance, 
though  in  part  transmitted  in  concrete  and  objective  form,  is 
at  last  made  available  for  each  new  generation  only  by  and 
through  individuals.  One  function  of  social  economy  is  to  help 
establish  good  (socially  approved)  conditions  for  individuals; 
but  another  equally  important  is  to  help  shape  individuals  in 
whom  and  through  whom  the  social  inheritance  can  profitably 
be  invested  and  increased. 

b.  It  is  not  intended  here  to  raise  the  historic  issue,  society  vs.  the 

individual.  For  practical  purposes  it  is  clear  that  in  any  social 
group  it  is  possible  for  the  individual  (at  least  temporarily,  and 
also  on  the  basis  of  felt  or  assumed  values, — perhaps  only  ap- 
parent values)  to  foster  his  own  interests  at  the  expense  of  the 
group  (cf.  self-centered  member  of  family,  grasping  partner, 
corrupt  citizen,  cowardly  soldier,  monopolist,  idler)  ;  while  it 
is  no  less  possible  for  a  social  group  in  pursuit  of  its  real  or 
imagined  aims  (imagined  by  its  more  influential  members  often) 
excessively  to  cramp,  suppress,  or  overwork  the  individual 
(cf.  Ancestor  worship,  political  restraint  of  thought  and  action, 
excessive  or  hurtful  service  exacted  by  economic  organizations, 
"judicial  cruelty,"  slavery,  suppression  of  women,  military  domi- 
nation, parasitism  of  certain  professions).  Practically,  it  is 
clear  that  existence  for  civilized  man  is  possible  only  in  and 
through  societies  to  which  he  has  been  shaped,  and  equally, 
that  social  life  is  practicable  only  by  virtue  of  the  presence 
of  sufficient  personalities  suitably  shaped  for  it.  Note  JCant's 
insistence  that  man,  however  lowly,  must  be  regarded  as  a 
means,  but  always  as  an  end.  Christianity  involves  the  same 
ideal.  Democracy  involves  as  its  central  ideal,  the  worth 
of  the  individual,  "man  as  an  end." 

2.  Educational  objectives  then,  must  be  products  of  at  least  two  vari- 
able factors :  (a)  what  kinds  and  amounts  of  education  are,  in  the  case  of 
given  individuals  (or,  practically,  groups  or  classes  considered  as  to 
native    abilities,    sex,    probable    opportunities),  to    be    regarded    as    of 

51 


52  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

"optimum"  possibilities  for  individual  well-being — growth,  self-realiza- 
tion, satisfaction  of  instincts  for  creation,  freedom,  expression,  etc.;  (b) 
What  kinds  and  amounts  of  education  are,  in  the  case  of  individuals, 
classified  as  to  native  powers,  probable  opportunities,  etc.,  to  be  regarded 
as  of  optimum  possibilities  from  the  standpoint  of  permanent  "group" 
well-being — the  nation,  the  family,  the  church,  the  "stock,"  "American- 
ism," democratic  peoples,  etc. 

a.  No  complete  separation  of  these  two  classes  of  objectives  is 
practicable :  but  only  the  believer  in  Utopias  will  hold  that  they 
are  not  more  or  less  in  conflict — the  same  who  believes  the  in- 
terests of  labor  and  capital  are  "identical."  Practically,  it  is  a 
matter  of  relative  stressing — now  objectives  of  individual  reali- 
zation, now  "small  group"  ends,  now  those  of  the  comprehen- 
sive church,  the  nation,  or  even  "humanity."  (Read  Chap.  3  of 
H.  G.  Well's  The  New  Machiavelli.) 

b.  The  limits  of  practicable  education  are,  of  course,  always  found 
at  some  point  of  "diminishing  returns,"  first  in  the  educability 
of  the  given  individual  and  second  in  the  available  social  re- 
sources to  support  such  education.  It  is  certain  that  individu- 
als by  virtue  of  native  inheritance,  vary  greatly  in  their  capa- 
cities to  learn  to  run,  climb,  follow  game,  solva  mathematical 
problems,  lead  others,  appreciate  music,  speak  other  languages, 
be  guided  by  moral  ideals,  resist  specific  temptations  and  ac- 
quire specific  vocational  skills.  Furthermore  societies  of  given 
times  and  places  vary  greatly  in  possession  of  resources  (not 
merely  salaries  for  teachers,  buildings,  and  equipment,  but  also 
available  teaching  personnel,  tested  methods  of  instruction  and 
training)  whereby  education  can  be  carried  on.  Most  forms  of 
by-education  are  relatively  inexpensive,  and  sometimes  very  ef- 
fective; most  forms  of  direct  education  are  expensive,  and 
sometimes  very  ineffective.  (See  Chap.  13  in  L.  F.  Ward's 
Applied  Sociology  for  elaboration  of  this  that  if  proper  methods 
of  instruction  were  once  worked  out  people  of  even  low  ability 
could  assimilate  "difficult"  knowledge, — e.g.,  mathematics,  po- 
litical science.  In  other  words,  that  there  are  such  things  as 
"royal  roads  to  learning"  and  it  is  as  much  an  obligation  of 
society  collectively  to  grade  and  pave  such  roads  for  all  people 
as  it  is  to  grade  and  pave  roadways  for  material  commerce.) 

3.  Except  under  conditions  of  extraordinary  social  change  (in  some 
particular  function — e.g.,  economic,  civic,  migration,  invention,  war)  it  is 
reasonably  safe  to  assume  that  the  first  standards  or  social  criteria  for 
practical  social  efficiency  and  therefore  for  educational  objectives  can  be 
found  in  selected  groups  or  grades  of  adult  individuals  now  composing 
society.  In  any  event,  provisional  standards,  subject  to  subsequent 
specific  modification,  can  thus  be  derived. 


SOCIAL  STANDARDS  53 

a.  As  a  convenient  means  of  deriving  such  a  group,  let  us 
grade  adults  25-35  years  of  age  into  four  classes,  on  the  basis 
of  their  possession  of  one  or  more  measurable  (or  at  least  rank- 
able)  qualities.  If  no  criteria  of  objective  character  are  used 
already  in  social  science,  we  can  arbitrarily  place  the  twenty 
per  cent  of  our  cases  having  quality  in  the  highest  or  most  ap- 
proved form  in  the  A  class,  the  next  30  per  cent  in  the  B  class, 
the  next  30  per  cent  in  the  C  class,  and  the  lowest  20  per  cent 
in  the  D  class.  (If  we  were  using  criteria  already  established, 
we  should  often  be  obliged  to  employ  different  proportions; 
e.g.,  if  men  30-40  were  divided  into  grades  A,  rich;  B,  fairly 
prosperous;  C,  poor  (but  self-supporting)  ;  and  D  (dependent), 
ratios  would  hardly  fall  as  above.) 

Individuals  composing  society  could  for  practical  purposes  be 
graded  as  above  as  respects :  health ;  industriousness ;  thrift ; 
observance  of  laws;  temperance;  interest  or  success  in  family- 
building;  political  intelligence;  moral  character;  practical  ac- 
tivity in  community  politics;  sociability;  religious  life;  interest 
in  art;  inteiest  in  (specified  type  of)  literature;  attitude  to- 
wards jury  duty;  etc.  (In  every  case,  of  course,  accurate  defi- 
nitions or  at  least  description — with  illustrative  examples — is 
presupposed.) 

Again,  individuals  could  be  graded  on  the  basis  of  algebraic 
sums  of  certain  qualities:  e.g.,  a  man  ranked  A  in  thrift,  D  in 
moral   character,   B  in  devotion  to   family,  and  C  as  a  voter 
might  be  given  a  composite  grade  of  B  or  C  according  to  the 
weight  and  importance  attached  to  these  various  qualities. 
4.  For  many  practical   purposes,   analysis   of   the  qualities   of   the   "B 
grade"  man  of  25-35  (or  other  age  period)  will  give  the  most  satisfactory 
points  of  departure  in  defining  objectives  in  education.     (Of  course,  once 
having  defined  the  qualities  of  B  grade  men  to-day  we  may  determine 
that  the  B  grade  man  of  the  next  decade  or  two  shall  in  specific  re- 
spects and  degrees  be  better;  here  we  would  consciously  provide  for  pro- 
gress.) 

a.  In  planning  for  the  vocational  education  of  prospective  car- 
penters we  would  take  and  grade  (on  basis  of  weekly  wage, — 
better,  yearly  income)  all  carpenters.  We  would  then  ascertain 
common  qualities  of  the  B  grade  carpenters.  Then  classify 
these  qualities  according  as  they  are  producible  by  direct  edu- 
cation or  controlled  by-education,  after  which  detailed  program 
of  industrial  education  in  carpentry  could  be  elaborated. 

b.  To  obtain  basis  for  constructive  program  of  homemaking 
education,  let  us  take  100  homemakers,  ages  30  to  40,  of  normal 
type,  e.g.,  having  no  servant  help,  having  three  to  five  children, 
living  in  detached  houses — much  the  most  common  type  of 
homemaker  in  America.    Thirty  of  our  hundred  we  rank  as  of 


54  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

B  grade.  These  now  keep  fairly  good  homes.  What  powers, 
qualities,  technical  knowledges,  skills  do  they  now  possess? 
How  did  they  reach  this  point  ?  Could  their  present  attainments 
have  been  achieved  (under  a  better  system  of  education)  more 
expeditiously,  more  economically,  more  surely? 

c.  Similarly  could  we  ascertain  in  some  degree  what  secondary 
school  science  and  mathematics  should  be  taught  to  prospective 
engineers  by  analysis  of  needs  of  B  grade  engineers  now? 
Could  we  in  the  same  manner  derive  standards  of  practical  (if 
not  cultural)   objectives  for  teaching  of  modern  languages? 

d.  In  providing  programs  of  civic  education  for  specified  social 
groups  where  conditions  from  generation  to  generation  are 
fairly  static  we  could  analyze  in  detail  civic  virtues  and  vices 
now  common  to  adults  30  to  50  (for  example,  small  farmers  in 
upper  Mississippi  Valley  states).  Presumably  the  "B  grade" 
among  these  (by  civic  standards)  show  a  large  preponderance 
of  civic  virtues  (in  terms  of  degree,  usually,  rather  than  of  kind) 
over  vices.  Hence  first  purposive  aim  of  school  might  be  to  in- 
crease number  who  in  next  generation  would  be  of  this  quality ; 
next,  to  add  some  specific  new  degree  or  kind  of  civic  virtue 
to  all. 

5.  Determination  of  social  policies  whence  specific  educational  objectives 
must  be  derived  is  not  usually  the  responsibility  of  educators — some- 
thing they  often  forget.  Partly  as  slow  social  precipitates,  partly  as  in- 
ventions (or  at  least  formulations)  of  leaders,  social  policies  (towards 
realizing  new  or  more  ample  measures  of  such  "values"  as  security, 
wealth,  freedom,  health,  righteousness,  stock,  knowledge,  beauty,  socia- 
bility, etc.)  come  to  educators  as  social  demands  for  specific  educational 
procedures. 

a.  The  history  of  education  abounds  in  examples.  Note  how  mod- 
ern demands  for  better  health,  better  vocational  competency,  a 
more  "protected"  childhood,  readiness  for  (military)  defence, 
and  the  like  produce  constantly  new  educational  demands. 


CHAPTER  V 
SPECIFIC  OBJECTIVES  OF  EDUCATION 

The  possible  specific  objectives  of  education  are  almost  numberless.  For 
practical  purposes  it  is  important  that  these  be  grouped  into  classes,  gener- 
al divisions,  or  other  workable  groupings,  to  the  end  that  in  each  group 
will  be  found  common  elements  of  purpose  or  of  method. 

a.  A  concrete  or  specific  objective  determines  a  detailed  course  of 
procedure  adapted  only  to  the  achievement  of  that  objective. 
Naturally,  these  objectives  will  differ  greatly  in  magnitude  (as 
measured  in  terms  of  time,  energy,  or  attention  required  for 
their  mastery).  For  example:  to  acquire  a  speaking  knowledge 
of  Spanish,  a  working  knowledge  of  trigonometry,  or  a  speci- 
fied degree  of  mastery  of  carpentry,  or  stenography,  could  be 
described  as  large  objectives;  but  within  these,  detailed  ob- 
jectives— mastery  of  certain  verb  irregularities  in  Spanish,  use 
of  logarithms  in  trigonometry,  skill  in  use  of  slide  rule,  or 
special  spelling  for  stenographers. 

In  educational  practice,  the  most  specific  objectives  for 
practical  purposes  are  indicated  by  the  teaching  units  employed 
— the  question  and  answer  of  the  catechetical  method,  the 
lesson,  the  topic,  the  project,  the  exercise,  etc.  Each  one  of 
these  is  assumed  to  give  a  stone  to  the  total  structure  of  knowl- 
edge, skill  or  other  habituation,  ideal  complex,  or  appreciation 
complex,  which  it  is  designed  to  build.  (When  once  the  value 
and  general  character  of  large  objectives  have  been  determined, 
it  becomes  the  urgent  business  of  educators  to  define  detailed 
objectives;  otherwise  serious  loss  of  effort  becomes  inevitable.) 

1.  Earliest  groupings  of  conscious  objectives  of  by-education  and  direct 
education  were  naturally  along  sex  lines,  (a)  In  clan  and  tribal  life,  after 
the  "infant"  period  spent  by  all  children  with  women,  boys  were  isolated 
and  prepared  for  initiation — usually  taking  place  about  16.  For  each  sex, 
education  (largely  on  the  basis  of  imitation)  was,  during  adolescence, 
directed  towards  well-established  traditional  ends.  (Goodsell,  Tarde, 
Dewey  and  Tufts,  Sutherland.) 

2.  The  city-state,  the  kingdom,  and  the  empire  along  with  many  other 
social  features  of  post-barbaric  society  seems  to  have  rested  on  conquest 
of  one  population  by  another. 

o.  Hence  appear  forms  of  education  adapted  to  various  social 
classes  or  castes:  for  warrior  caste  (Sparta,  Athens,  Persia, 
Samurai,  knighthood)  ;  for  "leisure"  class   (often  a  courtship, 

55 


56  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

civic  or  property  holding  class  derived  from  the  warrior  caste — 
cf.  Athens,  aristocracy  of  period  of  Louis  XIV,  modern  Eng- 
lish aristocracy)  ;  for  governing  class  (cf.  Rome,  education  of 
princes  at  all  stages,  English  public  schools)  ;  for  various  oc- 
cupational classes — priesthoods,  trade  guilds,  entertainers, 
scholars  (cf.  almost  any  period  in  history).  (Here  appear  be- 
ginnings of  socially  purposive  ^cational  education.)  (Add 
examples  from  history  of  education.) 

3.  With  development  of  attempts  at  universal  education,  classification 
of  objectives  on  basis  of  age,  maturity,  or  intellectual  development  of 
learners,  appears. 

a.  Examples,  infant  schools,  kindergartens,  day  nurseries,  dames' 
schools,  primary  schools,  elementary  schools,  graded  grammar 
schools,  academies,  colleges,  universities.     (Add  examples.) 

4.  Similarly  specific  objectives,  singly  or  grouped,  give  types  of  schools: 
Bible  classes,  spelling  schools,  singing  schools,  dancing  classes,  schools 
for  deportment,  finishing  schools,  (Latin)  grammar  schools,  fitting 
schools  (for  college),  correspondence  schools  (for  specified  subjects), 
language  schools,  vocational  schools,  etc.  (cf.  endless  examples  in  any 
large  commercial  city). 

5.  Early  reflections  about  educational  psychology  produced  numerous 
attempts  to  classify  educational  objectives  according  to  particular  "general 
powers"  of  mind  and  spirit  to  be  educated,  e.g.,  physical  education,  edu- 
cation of  will,  spiritual  (or  religious)  education. 

a.  Some  of  these  categories,  e.g.,  physical  education  and  moral 
education,  are  still  extensively  used.  But:  "education  of  the 
will"  is  now  used  only  in  the  literature  of  educational  mysti- 
cism; no  satisfactory  boundaries  have  been  set  respectively  to 
(or  relationships  indicated  between)  moral  education,  ethical 
education,  spiritual  education  (or  education  of  the  spiritual 
nature)  and  religious  education.  For  practical  purposes,  these 
are  also  largely  "mystical"  generalizations.  (Analyze  practical 
objections  to:  "intellectual  education,"  "education  of  the 
emotions,"  and  even  to  "moral  education,"  as  descriptive  heads.) 

6.  With  modern  recognition  of  the  value  of  play  have  arisen  vague 
categories  of  "education  through  play"  and  (presumably)  education 
through  work. 

a.  This  differentiation  is  capable  of  extension:  education  through 
pupil's  self- direct  ion  (in  propitious  environment)  of  his  natural 
or  spontaneous  learning  instincts  and  impulses;  and  education 
through  external  (social)  direction  of  his  activities  towards 
predetermined  ends.  ("Natural"  vs.  artificial,  informal  vs. 
formal,  spontaneous  vs.  direct,  etc.)  (Corresponds  in  part  to 
alpha-beta  classification  below.)  (111.  from  Boy  Scout  and 
other  "club"  education.) 


SPECIAL  OBJECTIVES  OF  EDUCATION  57 

7.  With  modern  recognition  of  educative  significance  of  agencies  other 
than  school  comes  vague  classification  of  objectives  on  the  basis  of  agen- 
cies offering  direct  or  by-education. 

a.  Most  conspicuous  of  these  are:  home;  school;  church;  shop 
(generic  for  all  forms  of  participation  in  productive  activity  in- 
cluding farm,  office,  shipboard,  house)  ;  playground  (including 

street    association);    club;    press;   stage     (including    moving 
picture);  library;  museum;  police. 

b.  Note  that  of  the  foregoing:  school,  library,  museum  and  police 
only  are  (in  America)  under  public  direction  or  complete  con- 
trol; stage  and  press  are  necessarily  commercialized;  home, 
church,  shop,  clubs  and  the  usual  playground  have  other  than 
educative  as  primary  functions,  hence  their  (secondary,  inci- 
dental) educative  functions  must  be  variable,  accidental,  badly 
directed  (in  fact  education  is  a  by-product). 

8.  The  most  serviceable  classification,  for  the  present,  is  based,  first 
upon  grouping  of  all  results  of  education  and  by-education  (superimposed 
upon  the  products  of  heredity  and  material  environment)  as  seen  in  quali- 
ties and  powers  of  individuals,  under  four  main  heads:  (a)  physical 
(those  primarily  associated  with  health,  strength,  longevity,  endurance, 
etc.)  ;  (b)  vocational  (those  associated  with  capacity  for  productive  work, 
service,  including  the  minors  of  health,  social  ideal,  personal  culture  that 
are  specifically  significant  in  particular  vocations) ;  (c)  social  (those 
associated  primarily  with  successful  group  living,  including  moral  habits, 
moral  conformity,  civic  initiative,  possession  and  use  of  ethical  ideals  and 
standards,  etc.)  ;  and  (d)  cultural  (including  stimulation  and  develop- 
ment of  intellectual  and  aesthetic  interests, — in  music,  literature,  science, 
plastic  art,  dancing,  travel,  history,  general  knowledge,  sociability, — 
establishment  of  hobbies  or  avocational  interests,  refinements  of  social  be- 
havior beyond  the  point  required  for  group  participation,  etc.). 

a.  Define:     "cultural  education";   "liberal   education";   erudition; 

scholarship;  "the  well-informed  man." 

b.  What  is   "the  education  of   a   gentleman"?     What   is   educa- 

tion "for  living"?  for  ^leisure"? 

c.  The   above   groups    overlap,    but   it   is   contended   each    ha*   a 

focal  area,  overlapping  exists  only  at  margins. 

9.  In  second  place,  a  cross-sectional  division  of  all  of  these  products 
(under  8  above)  into  two  divisions,  according  as  they  are  or  should  be: 
(a)  the  results  of  "natural"  (i.e.,  spontaneous,  untrammelled  develop- 
mental, appreciative  learning)  ;  or  (b)  the  results  of  systematically  di- 
rected learning  towards  foreseen  goals  in  adult  participation  in  civilized 
life.  These  classes  are  named  hereafter  respectively  beta  and  alpha  ob- 
jectives. 

a.  Make  two  classes  of  objectives  of  an  ordinary  life's  activities 
on  lines  here  suggested. 


5» 


EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 


b.  Examples  of  beta  objectives:  all  the  varied  products  of  play; 
of  reading  for  general  interest;  of  travel,  exploration,  social 
commingling;  of  group  life  for  play  purposes  (gangs,  cliques, 
fraternities)  ;  of  Boy  Scout  activities ;  of  volunteer  activities  in 
response  to  ideals  of  teachers;  the  learning  of  the  vernacular 
and  numberless  other  arts  under  stimulus  of  social  environment 
(by-education)  or  the  school. 

c.  Examples  of  alpha  objectives:  the  formal  subjects  of  the  schools, 
— -usually;  the  recognized  vocations, — usually;  many  cultural 
lines  when  pursued  for  distinct  motives  of  achievement  (art, 
music,  literature,  history,  dancing)  or  distinction. 

10.  Tabular  form   for  classification  of  objectives,   then,   would  be   as 
follows : 


Forms  of  Development 
and  Education 

I.  Physical 


II.  Vocational 


Alpha  Obectives 


Beta  Objectives 


o.  Corrective    training  a.  Play  —  varied    forms 

b.  Organized   knowledge   of  fr.  Readings     in     sanitation 
special  fields  of  hygiene  and  hygiene 

c.  etc  c.  etc. 

a.  Practice    in    occupation  0.  Readings,    excursions, 

b.  Study    of    related    tech-  etc.,   in   vocational   soci- 
nical  knowledge,  occupa-           ology  of  occupation 
tion 


III.  Social 


IV.  Cultural 


a.  Approved  school  be- 

havior 

b.  Organized    knowledge, 

state   government 

c.  Essential  facts  of  Amer- 
ican  history 

a.  El  em.   school  arts 

b.  Foreign  language 

c.  Execution   of   music 

d.  etc. 


a.  Scho/ol    self-government 

b.  Boy  Scout  work 

c.  Readings,   etc,   in   social 
science 

d.  etc 


a.  General  reading 

b.  General  science 

c.  Musical  appreciation 

d.  etc. 


11.  Other  classification  of  objectives  based  as  above  on  results  to  be 
realized  in  the  individual,  in  part  for  himself  and  in  part  for  society, 
follows  somewhat  different  lines.    The  following  are  proposals: 

o.  It  is  proposed  not  to  give  a  separate  head  to  physical  education 
— requiring  that  health,  physical  well-being,  shall  be  inclusive 
of  all  others  and  as  a  basal  condition  to  them.  Similar  proposals 
are  to  make  (a)  cultural,  and  (b)  social  (moral,  civic)  rela- 
tively more  inclusive. 

(1)  But  for  practical  purposes  at  least,  discrimination  is  indis- 
pensable— and  at  least  some  of  the  objectives  under  each 
head  are  of  equivalent  importance. 
b.  Several  provide  a  special  head  for  "family  education" — all  that 
is  designed  to  promote  man's  efficiency  in  organizing  and  main- 
taining the  family. 

(1)  This  is  a  vague  and  unduly  inclusive  objective. 


SPECIAL  OBJECTIVES  OF  EDUCATION  59 

c.  One  would  provide  special  subdivision  for  the  ethical. 

(1)  But  this  fails  to  recognize  that  the  final  essence  of  the 
"ethical"  is  found  in  "behavior,"  "conduct." 

12.  The  above  grouping  does  not  provide  in  a  very  satisfactory  way  for 
placing  of  those  studies  that  are  fundamentally  "instrumental" — to  purely 
cultural  as  well  as  to  vocational  studies,  e.g.,  reading,  writing,  spelling, 
mathematics,  foreign  language. 

13.  The  classification  gives  no  special  place  to  studies  designed  chiefly 
for  mental  training,  e.g.,  mathematics,  Latin,  mental  arithmetic,  science 
(for  scientific  method).  Assumed  that  best  doctrine  favors  provision 
for  mental  training  as  a  by-product  of  all  forms  of  learning,  and  that 
no  studies  have  an  exceptional  or  unique  value  for  "mental  training," 
"mind  discipline,"  etc. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  EVOLUTION  OF  EDUCATION 

1.  It  is  sociologically  justifiable  to  speak  of  the  "evolution"  of  a  social 
institution  or  mechanism,  e.g.,  government,  nationality,  marriage,  agri- 
culture, philosophy,  the  Methodist  Church,  slavery.  Origins  of  the  insti- 
tution are  to  be  found  in  human  needs.  Primitive  beginnings  are  invented 
or  "grow"  from  "accidental  variations."  Competition  is  encountered, 
weak  forms  are  destroyed,  well  supported  forms  thrive,  and  protective 
mechanisms  are  developed.  The  institution  becomes  part  of  the  "social 
inheritance,"  being  transmitted  as  generations  of  individuals  come  and 
go.     In  general  it  may  be  assumed: 

a.  That  any  institution  that  becomes  well  established  and  deeply 
rooted,  serves  valuable  ends  for  the  group  cherishing  it  during 
its  earlier  and  vital  period  (although  group  may  represent  only 
a  section,  caste,  or  class  of  the  total  genetic  society  of  the  area 
affected)  ;  but  that 

b.  Often  an  institution  acquires  momentum  (especially  in  eras  of 
custom  control  as  against  scientific  control)  which  causes  it  to 
survive  long  after  its  usefulness  has  diminished  or  ended,  thus 
necessitating  destructive  conflict  against  it.  (Illustrate  from 
slavery,  "divine  right"  of  kings,  polygamy,  primogeniture,  trial 
by  ordeal,  corporal  punishment  in  schools,  Gothic  architecture, 
Chinese  cues,  "cupping  and  bleeding,"  dogma,  caste,  Whig 
party,  "paganism,"  transportation  by  sailing  vessels,  quill  pens, 
mental  arithmetic,  Greek,  ornate  handwriting.  What  are  prob- 
lematical elements  in  future  of:  capital  punishment,  the  "wage 
system,"  mental  training  through  "simples,"  appointment  of 
judges,  display  advertising,  burial  of  dead,  "nationalism,"  full 
economic  responsibilities  of  widows,  metaphysics?) 

2.  The  survival,  and  no  less  the  advancement,  of  any  considerable 
genetic  group  (advancement  in  numbers,  powers,  prestige,  economy)  is  of 
course  conditioned  by  the  degree  of  its  attainment  of  certain  fundamental 
aocial  values  such  as  security,  conquest  of  the  means  of  livelihood,  per- 
petuation of  stocks,  "large  group"  cohesiveness,  etc.  The  conscious  or 
unconscious  pursuit  of  these  ends  gives  rise  to  arts,  customs,  conquest, 
worship,  institutions  to  insure  justice,  property,  acculturation,  and  the 
rest  as  means  to  the  ends  of  survival  and  "life  more  abundantly."  The 
circumstances,  as  well  as  certain  obscure  internal  or  subjective  resultants 
of  preceding  evolution,  of  any  given  people  may  cause  preponderant  im- 
portance to  be  attached  for  a  period  to  one  or  a  few  of  these  means. 

60 


EVOLUTION    OF    EDUCATION  6l 

a.  Biologists  assert  that  among  animal  forms,  evolution  along  one 
line — horns  of  the  Irish  elk,  tusks  of  mastodon,  size  of  whale — 
may  proceed  to  lengths  of  becoming  destructive  of  the  species. 
Probably  social  analogies  exist  where  excessive  pursuit  of  con- 
quest, worship,  wealth,  beauty  or  progeny  becomes  destructive. 

3.  It  is  natural  that  a  people  or  a  group,  a  class  or  party  of  a  people, 
should  incorporate  into  the  purposes  of  its  education  and  its  by-education, 
the  pursuit  of  those  ends  it  then  deems  valuable.  Some  noteworthy  ex- 
amples are : 

a.  The  use  by  primitive  groups  much  given  to  fighting,  of  "ordeal 
initiations." 

b.  The  use  of  prolonged  religious  training  by  religious  guilds. 

c.  The  use  of  military  education  by  conquerors  subsisting  as 
rulers,  land  owners,  specialized  defenders,  and  decorative  or 
leisure   castes. 

d.  Systematic  vocational  education  by  economic  guilds. 

e.  Systematic  acculturation  where  a  virile  people  fall  heir  to,  or  can 
import,  the  culture  of  a  more  advanced  people.  (Rome  from 
Greece,  Japan  from  Occident,  modern  European  nations  from 
Rome,  Constantinople  from  Athens,  United  States  from 
Europe.) 

/.  Systematic  education  in  literacy  for  Protestant  worship. 

g.  Systematic  education  towards  literacy  and  other  ends  for  citi- 
zenship under  general  suffrage. 

h.  Systematic  education  of  the  disinherited  (orphans,  offenders, 
subnormals,  occupationless). 

t.  The  conservation,  advancement  and  transmission  of  culture  by 
"cultured"  group — literati,  intelligenzia,  gentlemen,  scholars, 
naturalists,  scientists,  the  "erudite,"  and,  at  times,  by  priest- 
hoods, teaching  guilds,  officialdom,  aristocracies,  professions — 
become  often  a  self-imposed  function  of  selected  individuals. 

4.  Processes  and  stages  in  the  evolution  of  educational  aims,  means, 
methods  and  administrative  mechanisms  are  to  be  found  in  the  "histories" 
of  education.  (See  chapter  bibliographies  in  Monroe,  Textbook  in  the 
History  of  Education.)  There  needs  yet  to  be  written  a  sociological  work 
describing  and  interpreting  the  general  features  of  the  evolution  of  edu- 
cation,  as   found,   for  example: 

a.  When  peoples  in  savage  stages  develop  initiations,  legends,  pen- 
alties, taboos,  mechanisms  of  suggestion,  ceremonials  and  the 
like  as  means  of  limiting,  stimulating,  directing  and  crystal- 
lizing into  habits,  ideals,  and  valuations  (appreciations)  the  in- 
stincts of  youth  or  subordinate  elders  towards  approved  forms 
of  conformity,  skill,  enterprise,  culture,  (Letourneau's  L' Evo- 
lution de  V Education  is  suggestive  here.) 


62  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

b.  When  castes  or  caste-like  groups,  created  by  conquest,  racial 
intermingling,  religious  differentiation,  vocational  specialization, 
each  develop  elaborate  educational  mechanisms  under  competi- 
tive pressure  to  conserve  and  increase  their  peculiar  social  in- 
heritance, and  when,  especially  in  pre-scientific  stages  of  social 
evolution,  these  take  hard  shape  in  customs,  rituals,  faiths, 
dogmas,  laws,  "red  tape,"  and  creeds.  (From  this  point  of 
vantage  should  be  interpreted  very  much  of :  Persian,  Athenian, 
Spartan,  and  Roman  education — physical  and  military,  civic, 
artistic,  cultural — that  has  record  in  history ;  the  "guild"  educa- 
tion of  the  Middle  Ages — in  the  broad  sense  that  chivalry,  the 
church,  the  crafts,  and  traders  each  had  their  own  types  of 
guilds,  which  occasionally  blended,  as  in  the  composite  groups 
originating  in  the  crusades;  the  modern  survivals  of  "private," 
parochial,  "military,"  and  "finishing  schools" ;  and  probably 
some  of  the  more  monopolized  and  crystallized  products  of 
eras  of  rapid  acculturation — e.g.,  the  Renaissance.) 

c.  When  social  evolution  gives  the  state  (or  nation)  such  promi- 
nence and  responsibilities  as  to  necessitate  public  control  (in- 
cluding, usually,  support)  of  education  and  enforcement  of 
universal  minimum  standards,  during  which  caste  and  other1 
group  qualities  yield  to  suffrage,  universal  literacy,  spread  of 
scientific  thinking,  democratic  aspirations.  (Herefrom  interpret 
educational  accompaniments  of  nationalistic  democratic  and 
economic  evolution  in  19th  century  United  States,  France,  Ger- 
many, Great  Britain,  and  Japan,  together  with  struggles  of 
contemporary  Russia,  China,  Italy,  Peru  and  the  like.) 

d.  When  mechanisms  of  guild  or  state  education  tend  by  pre- 
mature or  excessive  functioning  to  over-contract,  over-modify, 
or  over-work  the  native  powers  and  "small  group"  potentialities 
of  children,  resulting  in  "reform"  movements  launched  to  protect 
the  "rights"  of  children  to  "childhood."  (Thus  vogue  is  given 
to  Port  Royalists,  Comenius,  Rousseau,  Pestalozzi,  Herbart, 
Froebel,  Dickens,  Spencer,  Parker,  Hall,  Dewey.  Note  re- 
actions against  over-developed  and  premature  military,  church, 
and  apprenticeship  training,  indenture  of  orphans,  early  commit- 
ment to  boarding  school,  imprisonment  of  juvenile  offenders, 
dominance  of  "external"  examinations,  competitions,  "payment 
by  results,"  drudgery  of  the  "formal  subjects."  There  appear 
school  play,  "doctrine  of  interests,"  the  kindergarten,  scouting, 
hand  work,  etc.) 

e.  When  "new  systems"  of  education  reach  sufficient  development 
to  produce  far-reaching  conflicts  over  aims,  means,  methods  and 
administrative  agencies.  Here  include  conflicts  about:  human- 
ism, Jesuitism,  realism,  classicism,  science,  vocational  education. 

/.  Finally  when  a  nation  seeks  forcibly  the  acculturation  of  a  sepa- 


EVOLUTION    OF   EDUCATION  63 

rate  and  subject  people  by  direct  or  indirect  methods  (always 
aspired  to,  and  often  practiced,  under  imperialism)  through 
substitution  of  language,  education  of  leaders,  control  of  stand- 
ards of  schooling,  etc.  (Rome  in  subject  nations,  Great  Britain 
in  India,  United  States  in  Philippines,  Germany  in  Poland, 
etc.) 
References:  See  chapter  bibliographies  in  Monroe's  History  of  Edu- 
cation. 


CHAPTER  VII 

PHYSICAL  EDUCATION:     SOCIOLOGICAL  PRESUPPOSITIONS 

AND  CONDITIONS 

1.  Physical  well-being  in  the  individual  commonly  connotes:  develop- 
ment in  size  and  functioning  of  bodily  organs  appropriate  to  age,  sex, 
race,  habitat,  etc.;  and  possession  of  powers  of  conserving  health  and 
strength  towards  normal  requirements  of  vocation,  advancing  years, 
family  life  and  general  happiness. 

Heredity  in  man  as  in  animal  and  plant  life  provides  self -functioning 
mechanisms  for  fairly  complete  physical  development  (except  occasional 
abnormalities),  which  is  achieved  if  nurture  is  right  and  sufficient.  (Include 
under  nurture  not  only  food,  rest,  shelter,  and  weather  stimuli,  but  also 
play,  companionship,  incentives  to  varied  instinctive  functioning,  etc.) 
Hence  if  man  through  long  ages  preserved  same  environment  and  had 
imposed  upon  him  same  necessities  for  work,  etc,  he  should  possess  the 
same  normal  health  as  plants  and  animals  in  their  wild  state. 

But  man  has,  much  more  than  other  life,  (a)  shifted  from  one  environ- 
ment to  another;  and  (b)  imposed  upon  himself  artificial  conditions  of 
numberless  kinds.  Hence  in  development  and  in  conservation  of  health 
he  has  to  seek  special  correctives  or  suffer  consequences  of  mal-develop- 
ment  and  mal-adjustment.  Problems  of  "good  and  evil"  in  matters  of 
physical  (no  less  than  of  moral)  soundness  result  from  inability  of  the 
hereditary  mechanism  to  keep  pace  in  evolution  with  the  new  requirements 
imposed  upon  it.  The  individual  adaptiveness  of  the  bodily  mechanism  to 
new  conditions  (of  habitat,  climate,  food,  work,  etc.)  is  not  yet  clearly 
known,  but  is  obviously  greatly  affected  by  age  at  which  new  conditions 
are  imposed.  (See  Huntington,  E.,  Civilisation  and  Climate;  and  Crile, 
G.  W.,  Man — An  Adaptive  Mechanism.)  Nor  is  it  known  how  rapidly 
evolutionary  adaptation  takes  place  through  elimination  of  unfit  types 
under  new  conditions  (negroes  in  cold  climates,  Europeans  in  America, 
landsman  at  sea,  etc.). 

2.  Under  physical  education  therefore  are  to  be  included  all  those  forms 
of  control  of  environment,  direction  of  activities,  instruction,  and  training, 
whether  half -conscious  in  customs  of  by-education  or  wholly  purposive 
in  direct  education,  the  expected  outcomes  of  which  are  chiefly,  first,  good 
physical  development,  health  and  working  powers,  and,  second,  the 
knowledge,  ideals  and  habits  for  the  future  conservation  of  these.  Spe- 
cific objectives  are  now  found  in:  supervision  and  control  of  nurture; 
provision  of  facilities  for  play;  prevention  of  infection  or  other  condi- 
tions of  disease;  instruction  in  hygiene;  physical  training,  etc 

64 


PHYSICAL   EDUCATION  65 

The  fundamental  problems  of  current  physical  education  include: 
what  are  the  deviations  from  the  normal  hereditary  standards  of  physical 
development  which  civilized  life  entails;  how  far  and  in  what  respects 
can  training  or  habituation  provide  compensation  for  these  imposed 
deviations  ? 

3.  Examination  of  the  conditions  imposed  by  civilization  shows  that  man 
has  largely  artificialized  his  habitat,  as  well  as  living  and  working  con- 
ditions, especially  along  these  lines : 

a.  Primate   ancestors   of   man   were  probably  vegetarian.    There 

followed  a  long  period  when  he  was  omnivorous,  with  sections 
heavily  dependent  on  fish  and  flesh  diet.  Hence,  extensive 
development  of  teeth,  jaws,  alimentary  canal.  Then  came  the 
era  of  cooked  foods,  concentrated  foods,  partly  predigested 
foods.  Effects  in  under  use  of  teeth,  alimentary  canal.  Prob- 
lem: to  what  extent  should  children  repeat  ancestral  use  of 
coarse  foods? 

b.  Hereditary  mechanism  of  body  in  several  respects  still  adapted 
to  quadrupedal  (or  quadrumanal)  life.  Man's  erect  posture 
needed  to  free  the  hands,  to  hold  infants,  and,  perhaps,  to 
carry  brain.  Resulting  complications  in  difficulties  of  child- 
hearing,  liability  to  rupture,  foot  and  spine  troubles,  etc. 
Possible  that  use  of  chairs  for  sitting  adds  to  the  difficulties. 
Problem  of  fixed  postures  for  children, 

c.  Ancestral  man  probably  hairy,  then  hairless  (possible  effects  of 
selections,  sexual;  vermin-born  disease,  etc.),  then  clothed. 
Qothing  seems  to  "increase  tax  on  lungs  and  kidneys."  Prob- 
lem of  minimum  clothing,  open-air  sleeping,  etc.,  for  children. 
"Natural"  aspects  of  bathing,  work  to  the  point  of  perspira- 
tion, stimulation  of  body  through  varying  temperatures  (ventila- 
tion), effects  of  extreme  variations  in  climate,  of  indoor  work- 
ing, etc. 

4.  Primitive  man  had  localized  habitat,  hence  "picked  up"  rela- 
tively few  pathogenic  bacterial  species.  Selection  in  many  cases 
doubtless  brought  immunity  or  lessened  virulence,  or  species 
disappeared  except  in  limited  areas  where  it  remained  endemic. 
But  exploration,  conquest  and  commerce  distribute  widely  bac- 
terial species  heretofore  local  and  among  peoples  heretofore 
immune,  (cf.  Cholera,  plague,  measles  and  smallpox  (among 
Indians),  parasitic  hookworm.)  Man  in  temperate  zones  must 
fight  scores  and  in  tropics  even  more  bacterial  diseases.  Pos- 
sibilities of  prevention:  (1)  by  extirpating  (or  closely  limiting) 
pathogenic  species  (possibilities  in  plague,  yellow  fever,  cholera, 
malaria,  typhus,  typhoid,  syphilis,  tuberculosis)  ;  (2)  by  making 
body  resistant  through  natural  development  (possibilities  in 
tuberculosis,  pneumonia,  colds,  measles)  ;  (3)  by  artificial  im- 
munization   (small-pox,  typhoid)  ;    (4)   early  use  of  antiseptic 


66  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

or  curative  measures   (hookworm,  diphtheria,  infant  blindness, 
wound  infection,  etc.)  ;  and   (5)   prevention  of  communication 
by    intelligent    individual    action    (personal    contacts,    use    of 
common  vessels,  laundry,  food  inspection,  home  antisepsis), 
(a)  Systematic  education  towards   successful  combat  of   bac- 
terial   disease   offers   possibilities   of   large    social    returns 
(cf.  Irving  Fisher,  Hutchinson.)     Part  of  this  instruction 
under  physical  education,  part  under  social  education  (civic 
action    in    sanitation).       Problem    here    very    like   earlier 
problems   of   extirpating  wolves,  poisonous    serpents,  rats, 
vermin, — knowledge,  individual  effort,  social  effort.     Prob- 
lem  of   "natural   immunization"   to   chicken-pox,    measles, 
whooping  cough,  etc. 
e.  Primitive   man  probably  evolved  eye  suited   to  most   frequent 
use   at    fairly   long   ranges.    Heavy   strain  put   on   hereditary 
mechanism  by  primitive  handicrafts;  and  still  greater  by  mod- 
ern use  of  printing.     Problems:  mechanically  aiding  eyes  of 
children;  of  increasing  visibility  of  short  range  work;  and  of 
increasing,  in  early  years,  extent  of  easy  long  range  use  (Boy 
Scout  activities,  etc.). 
/.  Civilized  man  uses  artificial  heat  extensively.    Effect  of  this  in 
preventing  full  development  of  bodily  capacity  in  children  not 
known.    Primitive  man  in  temperate  and  colder  zones  doubt- 
less developed  bodily  mechanism  that  thrived   (within  limits) 
on  exposure  to  extremes  and  even  suffering  therefrom.    (Prob- 
lem of  the  physical  mollycoddles,  the  softened  girl  or  coop- 
woman.) 
g.  Primitive  man  doubtless  lived  much  in  open  air,  with  abun- 
dance   of    oxygen,    breezes,    little    organic    emanation    in    air. 
Character,  extent  and  duration  of  cave-dwelling  period  not  well 
known,  but   probably   much   adaptation   to   sleeping    (but   not 
working)  in  crowded,  unventilated  cells  at  this  time  produced. 
Civilization  produces  necessity  of  working  in  rooms   (not  re- 
quired even  of  caveman).    Recent  hypotheses  as  to  need  of 
ventilation  chiefly  to  provide   for  escape  of  heat  and  varied 
stimulus  rather  than  to  prevent  breathing  air  with  high  con- 
tent of  COa  and  organic  matter.     Problems  of  open  air  for 
sleeping  and  school  work. 
h.  Prolongation   of   infancy    (Fiske)    of   man  had  effected  post- 
ponement of  maturity  of  mating  impulse  until  about  age  six- 
teen; except  that  warmth,  abundance  of  stimulating  food  and 
deficient   physical   activity   may   cause  prematurity,   also,   evca 
under  normal  conditions,  the  young  experience  foreshadowing 
of  sex  impulses,  "hauntings,"  even  possible  neuroses   (Freud). 
But  conditions  of  civilized  life  tend  to  impose  long  postpone- 
ment of  approved  mating  (marriage) — in  occidental  countries, 


PHYSICAL   EDUCATION  6j 

for  "working"  classes,  20-24,  for  "middle"  classes,  24-30.  Hence 
period  15 — to  marriage  is  especially  characterized  by  problems 
of  conservation  of  health  as  affected  by  sex  life  (and  conti- 
nence), prevention  of  pathological  manifestations  (individual 
and  social),  and  conservation  of  aesthetic  and  social  ideals 
capable  of  being  interwoven  with  finer  manifestations  and 
irradiations  of  sex  instinct  in  love,  appreciation  of  beauty, 
family  ideals  and  religion.     (Bigelow,  Havelock,  Ellis.) 

(1)  Problems  involved  classify  in  part  under  hygiene  (physi- 
cal education)  and  in  part  under  morality  (especially 
moral   ideals — social   education.) 

(2)  While  early  mating  (in  socially  approved,  or  in  tabooed 
forms)  has  been  common  among  primitive  peoples,  it  is 
also  certain  that  for  long  periods  and  for  considerable 
classes  of  men  continence  even  to  advanced  years  has 
been  assured  through  dominance  of  ideals  of  physical  ex- 
cellence for  demands  of  war;  also  through  prevalence  of 
religious  ideals.  Note  also  very  general  social  insistence 
on  continence  as  pre-condition  and  concurrent  condition 
for  approved  marriage,  especially  for  women. 

(3)  Problems  of  sex  education  involve  at  least  (a)  knowl- 
edge towards  prudential  ends;  (&)  knowledge  and  ideals 
towards  influential  motives  for  continence  and  idealism; 
and  (c)  abundant  physical  activity,  disregard  of  physical 
ease  (or  softness),  and  unstimulating  foods,  to  counter 
development  of  sex  impulses.  Probably  early  development 
in  the  mind  of  youth  of  convictions  as  to  harmful  pos- 
sibilities of  broodings,  day-dreams,  etc.,  will  prove  helpful. 
On  the  other  hand,  unsound  valuations  of  certain  semi- 
normal  manifestations  to  be  guarded  against.    (Bigelow.) 

(4)  Assuming  co-education  to  be  so  conducted  as  to  pre- 
clude anti-social  developments  (thoughts,  speech,  co- 
quetries), its  probable  values  as  a  means  of  normalizing 
extra-marital  relations  of  the  sexes  should  be  examined. 
Probabilities  that  potencies  of  co-education  in  this  direc- 
tion should  ibe  further  developed. 

(5)  Development  of  social  education  designed  correctly  to 
evaluate  family  life,  each  individual's  potential  contribu- 
tion to  same,  and  elucidating  conditions  of  soundness  in, 
ought  to  make  valuable  contributions. 

i.  Primitive  man  worked  spasmodically,  intensely  at  times,  and 
with  frequent  and  irregular  intermissions.  Perhaps  women 
first  developed  routine  work.  Later  slaves  were  held  to  long 
routine  work;  then,  as  condition  of  economic  survival,  almost 
all   workers   except   soldiers   and   "leisure  class."    All   routine 


68  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

work  therefore  imposes  heavy  strain  on  physical  powers,     (cf. 
Condemnation  of  Adam,  dreams  of  freedom  from  toil,  etc.) 

(1)  Probability  that  hereditary  mechanism  has  become  so 
adapted  that  a  substantial  amount  of  routine  work  is 
necessary  to  full  physical  development. 

(2)  Conditions  of  maximum  productivity  in  physical  work 
not  clearly  understood  (cf.  controversies  as  to  eight- 
hour  day;  motion  studies — Gilbreth;  reports  of  indus- 
trial accidents ;  effects  of  routine  labor  on  the  young) . 

(3)  Effects  of  routine  labor,  long  prolonged,  on  plastic  youth. 

Series  of  special  problems. 

(4)  Note  problems  of  "borrowed"  or  "derived"  motive  for 

endurance  of  distasteful  routine   (or  drudgery) — from 
fear  of  direct  penalty,  fear  of  want  or  remote  disap- 
proval, desire  for  reward  or  wage,  ambition,  etc. 
fi   Under  modern  conditions,  physical  organism  of  man  subject 
to  peculiar   strains   of  the  kind  called   "nervous"   in  contrast 
with  more  manual  or  muscular  activities  of  primitive  life. 

(1)  Note  whole  classes  of   "brain  workers"  and  of  others 
(clerks,  technical  workers,  readers)  who  are  taxed  men- 
tally or  nervously  by  their  work.  Probability  that  this 
involves  exceptional  kinds  of  strain  to  be  prepared  for 
by  previous  adequate  physical  development  of  primitive 
order. 
k.  Woman,  under  primitive  social  conditions,  is  obliged  to  work 
no  less  hard, — often  harder  in  terms  of  drudgery— than  man. 
But   with   the   appearance   of   a    conquering   class,   governing 
aristocracy,   then   hereditary   leisure   class,    finally  holders   of 
capital    or   large    producers    capable  of    "conspicuous    waste" 
(Veblen),  arises  a  demand  for  women  to  grace,  decorate,  or 
embellish  life   for  commanding  men.    To  preserve  decorative 
qualities  such  women  are  freed  from  toil  and  natural  growth 
restricted  in  many  respects  (small  feet — of  Chinese  women, — 
hands,  waists,  soft  skins,  long  hair,  rounded  contours, — often 
to  be  had  only  from  half -arrested  muscular  development,  coop- 
women)  ;   while   "elegant"  or   "refined"  occupations,   not  vul- 
garly useful,  are  prized   (embroidery,  dilettante  art).     Hence, 
from  early  age  "hard  play"  and  then  "work"  is  taboo.     Result 
is    the   production   of    powers   and   qualities   characteristic   of 
parasitic    forms. 

Actual  leisure  class  never  very  large,  but  its  example  in 
evolving  a  class  of  decorative  women  (and  thereby  intensify- 
ing and  giving  persistent  predominance  to  feminine  qualities 
making  aesthetic  appeal  at  age  of  mating)  spreads  into  all 
classes  where,  under  conditions  of  production  with  the  aid  o<f 


PHYSICAL   EDUCATION  69 

capital  and  results  of  invention,  men  capable  of  producing  con- 
siderable surplus  to  raise  a  family  are  found.  Hence,  wide- 
spread ideal  favoring  general  development  of  decorative  wo- 
men. Results  in  America  seen  in  vast  numbers  of  women, 
ages  12  to  60,  competing  in  decorating  the  person  with  cloth- 
ing and  jewels,  in  painting  the  skin,  favoring  arts  of  mani- 
cure and  hairdresser,  in  cultivating  as  primary  ends  grace  of 
person  and  arts  of  expression  and  display  given  by  "finishing 
school"  or  prized  in  society.  Physical  organism  doubtless  de- 
teriorates in  the  process,  becoming  incapacitated  in  large  part 
for  productive  work,  resistance  to  disease  or  weakness,  child 
bearing  and  child  nurture. 

(1)  With  rising  standards  of  living  in  America  and  demo- 
cratic society,  almost  all  women  aspire  to  be  like  the 
leisure  class,  decorative  women.  But  note  counteracting 
ideals  of  household  arts  teaching,  of  suffrage  movement, 
of  women  educated  in  co-educational  schools. 

(2)  If  girls  were  reared  exactly  as  boys,  to  what  extent 
would  they  show  a  different  or  weaker  physique?  Ques- 
tion not  easily  answered  but  suggestions  obtainable  from 
facts  as  to  physique  of  European  peasant  women,  women 
of  Sparta,  Amazon  revolt,  etc. 

(3)  Extent  to  which  excessive  specialization  of  women  for 
decorative  purposes  results  in  sterility,  non-functioning 
of  nursing  organs,  great  pain  in  childbirth,  pervasive 
aversion  to  children  in  general, — and  hence  in  destruc- 
tively low  birth  rate  and  poor  mothering,  not  known,  but 
doubtless  critical  in  occidental  societies  (cf.  studies  of 
diminishing  birthrate,  especially  in  "middle  class"  society) . 

(4)  A  difficult  problem  involved  in  combining  results  of 
ideals  of  aesthetically  attractive  womanhood  with  results 
of  requirements  for  adequate  physical  development. 
Some  signs  that  aesthetic  valuations  are  even  now  chang- 
ing (ridicule  of  the  mid- Victorian  woman,  premium  on 
the  athletic,  outdoor  girl). 

4.  Contemporary  achievements  in  physical  education   (or  rather  in  po- 
tentialities), therefore,  have  been  due  to  several  "social  forces." 

o.  The  necessities  of  war  (and  the  related  "chase")  have  always 
forced  to  the  attention  of  peoples,  even  the  very  primitive,  the 
desirability  of  physical  "fitness"  for  combat,  endurance,  with- 
standing of  pain.  Here  play  motives  combine  with  training  and 
give  sports,  athletics,  gymnastics,  horseback  riding  and  even 
mountain  climbing  and  swimming,  historically  cherished  by  the 
governing  class  or  their  "gentleman"  descendants.  Mili- 
tary training  even  yet  involves  arduous  physical  training  of 


JO  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

novices  selected  for  physical  fitness  (paralleled  in  no  other 
calling,  and  only  remotely  imitated  in  priesthoods,  locomo- 
tive driving,  policing,  and  marine  service). 

b.  The  healing  of  the  sick,  evolving  from  beginnings  in  magic, 
has  eventually  led  to  modern  medicine,  with  its  numerous 
achieved  results  in  cure,  and  especially  prevention  of  disease, 
and  its  mastery  of  ideals  and  methods  for  further  advance. 

c.  Outgrowth  of  medicine  has  been  sanitation  (including  quaran- 

tine against  speed  of  disease)  and  hygiene,  in  both  of  which 
recent  evolution  has  been  rapid. 

d.  Numberless  sporadic  attempts  consciously  to  conserve  or  pro- 
mote physical  fitness  (apart  from  urgency  of  war  pressure), 
characterize  modern  life,  but  few  appear  yet  to  have  substan- 
tial foundations.  These  include:  (1)  Systematic  "muscular 
training"  in  schools — calesthenics,  gymnastics,  posture  drill, 
breathing  drill,  hardening  exercises,  etc.  (2)  Furtherance  of 
the  cooperative  and  competitive  play  instincts  of  adolescent 
youth  into  "directed"  sports,  athletics,  etc.  (3)  Promotion  of 
physical  "exercise"  for  adults  in  sedentary  vocations,  as  well 
as  related  avocations — golf,  boating,  riding,  hunting,  gardening. 
(4)  Physical  culture  especially  for  those  influenced  by  aes- 
thetic appreciations  of  bodily  grace  of  motion,  beauty  of  form 
and  color,  etc.  (5)  Numberless  faiths  as  to  specific  dietary  and 
environmental  regulations — vegetarianism,  barefootedness,  open 
air  sleeping,  sexual  abstention,  breathing,  mental  relaxation,  etc. 

e.  The  public  is  becoming  rapidly  informed  as  to  costs  of  disease, 
possibilities  of  prevention,  the  bearing  of  health  on  general 
happiness,  and  the  possibilities  of  "socialized"  medicine.  Hence 
widespread  interest  in  municipal  and  national  hygiene  and 
sanitation,  development  of  physical  education  in  schools,  etc. 
Probably  financial  aid  can  be  extensively  forthcoming  if  valid 
programs  can  be  devised. 

5.  But,  in  most  departments  of  physical  education,  knowledge  (beyond 
beliefs  and  fads)  is  yet  very  incomplete  and  obscure.  The  orientation, 
if  not  the  objectives,  of  these  phases  now  fairly  acceptable;  (a)  instruc- 
tion of  hygiene;  (b)  health  inspection;  (c)  provision  of  facilities  for 
play;  (d)  conservation  of  physical  well-being  under  artificial  conditions 
imposed  by  education.  But  the  following  represent  problems  as  to 
which  faiths  now  held  are  clearly  of  doubtful  validity: 

a.  What  are  optimum  standards  which  should,  for  given  ages, 
either  sex,  and  ascertained  hereditary  bases,  control  conscious 
procedure  towards  permitting,  encouraging  or  (by  training) 
forcing  developing  of;  particular  muscles  or  coordination  of 
muscles;  resistance  to  cold,  wet,  heat;  specific  forms  of  bodily 
agility;   specific  forms  of  endurance;   abilities  to  "deal  with" 


PHYSICAL   EDUCATION  71 

difficult  foods;  resistance  to  communicable  diseases;  resist- 
ance to  fatigue;  specific  postures  and  other  forms  of  graceful 
carriage?  As  variants,  what  should  be  standards  in  training 
persons  of  given  age,  sex,  probable  future  vocation,  and  as- 
certained hereditary  basis  to  run,  jump,  swim,  wrestle,  box, 
creep,  climb,  endure  pains,  stand  erect,  etc.?  It  is  submitted 
that  nearly  all  prevailing  faiths  here  are  obscurely  derived  from 
military  ideals  and  have  no  necessary  relationship  to  contempo- 
rary vocations  or  living  conditions.  Confusion  here  is  furthered 
by  fact  that,  as  now  organized,  gymnastics,  athletics,  and  sports 
apply  the  principle  "to  them  that  hath,  shall  be  given ;  and  from 
them  that  hath  not  shall  be  taken  away  even  that  which  they 
have." 

b.  The  functions  of  physical  training  as  now  given  in  schools 
appear  to  be  of  two  types — recreative  and  developmental.  (By 
"developmental"  is  here  meant  attainment  of  new  powers,  in- 
creased size,  more  complex  coordinations;  by  "recreative," 
providing  for  any  organ  enough  functioning  to  prevent  de- 
terioration or  harm  from  disuse,  when  work  or  living  condi- 
tions normally  leaves  it  passive.)  But  the  two  ends  seem  con- 
fused, and  each  without  standards  of  objective.  For  sedentary 
workers,  should  physical  recreation  be  concentrated,  intensive? 
If  so,  why  not  out-of-doors  activities  instead  of  gymnasium 
and  calesthenics ?  Why  not  maximum  exposure  to  weather? 
Should  not  customs,  likings,  and  mechanics  of  recreation  for 
youth  be  such  as  will  probably  carry  forward  into  adult  life? 
To  what  extent  is  that  the  case  now — tennis,  basketball,  row- 
ing, football,  etc.?  Are  gymnastics,  calesthenics,  etc.,  really 
"developmental"  or  "corrective"?    What  is  evidence? 

c.  What  is  the  fundamental  place  of  physical  work  in  basic  physi- 
cal development  (various  forms  of  endurance,  disease  resistance, 
and  pain  bearing,  as  well  as  strengths,  and  agilities).  Is  "work" 
older  or  younger,  in  racial  evolution,  than  play?  Is  it  not  proba- 
ble that  the  human  body  is  so  endowed  as  to  require  substantial 
amounts  of  physical  work  at  age  levels — 8  to  12,  12  to  15,  15  to 
18,  18  to  21,  and  the  like  to  develop  adequately  against  the 
needs  of  adult  life?  Do  home  and  school  conditions  require 
or  permit  genuine  physical  work  up  to  18  years  of  age  now 
for  middle  class  girls?  What  is  the  probable  health  future 
of  a  person  who  from  age  six  to  eighteen  really  works  hard 
mentally,  but  only  plays  physically?  Does  available  evidence 
seem  to  point  to  probability  that  in  highly  specialized  (factory, 
commercial),  sedentary  and  other  types  of  work  supposedly 
imposing  heavy  "nervous"  strains,  the  person  who  has  laid 
preliminary  foundations  in  "hard"  physical  work  is  at  a  decided 
advantage  as  to  health,  longevity?    What,  on  the  other  hand, 


72  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

is  probable  health  future  of  persons  accustomed  to  heavy  work, 
who  at  age  thirty,  for  example,  enter  upon  nervous  or  seden- 
tary work— typing,  bookkeeping,  etc. — and  find  few  opportuni- 
ties to  continue  "work"  use  of  larger  muscles?  (Of  course 
study  of  problems  here  suggested  requires  genuine  distinctions 
between  work  and  play — distinctions  sentimentalists  find  it  re- 
pugnant to  make.) 

d.  What  is  the  place  of  the  "gymnasium"  in  sound  scheme  of 
physical  education?  It  is  now  largely  a  "traditional"  agency 
— since  its  highly  artificial  apparatus  is  less  valued  than  form- 
erly, even  by  old  fashioned  "physical  trainers."  Examination 
is  needed  of  situations  like  following: 

One  hundred  boys,  ages  14  to  18,  taking  regular  courses  in 
high  school.  Programs  require  and  permit  two  hours  daily, 
physical  training  in  costume.  Adjacent  to  school  are  compara- 
tively free  streets,  and  three-acre  play-ground.  Assume  direc- 
tor of  training  and  moderate  outdoor  equipment,  and  dressing 
and  locker  space  indoors.  Is  it  (a)  necessary  or  (b)  desirable 
that  covered  space  or  heated  space  be  provided  for  activities? 
Why?  To  what  specific  ends?  For  sake  of  hardening,  de- 
velopment, concentrated  recreation,  why  should  not  all  the 
hardy  boys  of  this  lot  spend  their  free  time  in  open  air  in 
varied  and  strenuous  activities  in  all  weathers,  keeping  warm 
by  exertion?  After  this  period,  dry  rubdown,  change  into 
warm  dry  clothes  and  return  to  sedentary  work.  Could  ac- 
tivities be  devised  for  rainy,  for  snowy,  and  for  sleeting 
weather  ? 

Would  this  regimen  be  too  severe  for  boys  not  vigorous?  For 
boys  10  to  14  years  of  age?  For  girls,  hair  protected  by  bathing 
caps?  Is  not  the  gymnasium,  often  warmed,  and  rarely  well 
ventilated,  not  a  refuge  of  physical  mollycoddles? 

e.  What    are    the    functions    of    the    swimming    pool?      Assume 

people  competent  to  keep  clean  at  home.  It  is  desirable  to 
teach  swimming.  Why  the  expensive  pool,  the  expensive 
warming  and  changing  of  water?  Why  not  an  open  pool  or 
pond  or  river  (except  in  largest  cities)  to  which  learners  run 
in  'bathing  costumes  in  appropriate  weather — any  time  in 
northern  states  from  April  15  to  November  1?  Is  it  necessary 
or  desirable  to  teach  swimming  from  November  1  to  April  15? 
If  swimming  is  to  be  generally  taught,  has  any  one  computed 
capital  outlay  and  maintenance  for  covered  pools,  changed  and 
warmed  water,  showers?  Are  not  such  delicately  prepared 
swimming  conditions  ultimately  disastrous  to  appreciations  of 
rugged  physical  development  outdoor  life,  "roughing  it"?  Does 
the  pool  make  for  "mollycoddling"? 


CHAPTER  VIII 
VOCATIONAL    EDUCATION:    SOCIOLOGICAL    PRE- 
SUPPOSITION  AND   CONDITIONS 

1.  All  adult  human  beings  (except  rare  parasites)  must  work  to  live. 
Man  has  far  less  precise  instinctive  equipment  towards  obtaining  a  liveli- 
hood than  have  bees,  hawks,  beavers,  or  other  animals.  Hence  he  must 
learn  to  work.  But  his  species  builds  a  social  inheritance  of  useful  arts 
and  science  which  each  individual  must  learn.  He  is  also  expected  to 
learn  slowly  evolved  customs  of  organizing  work — division  of  labor, 
cooperation,  token  wages,  all  that  we  call  thrift  and  industriousness. 
(Defensive  and  predatory  fighting  against  animals  and  other  men  will 
here  be  included  as  productive  work.) 

Elders  instinctively  first  lure,  then  compel  youngers  to  make  beginnings 
of  work,  and  youngers  instinctively  imitate  and  otherwise  try  to  learn 
working  arts.  Hence  primitive  domiciliary  and  field  groups  are  first 
agencies  of  vocational  education — and  are  so  still  for  nearly  ninety  per 
cent  of   all   workers. 

All  that  conscious  or  half -conscious  suggestion,  instruction,  and  train- 
ing which  is  primarily  directed  towards  producing  competency  in  vo- 
cation will  be  here  called  vocational  education.  Any  agency  whose 
primary  function  is  to  give  such  education  will  be  called  a  vocational 
school,  e.g.,  professional  colleges,  schools  of  army  leadership,  stenog- 
raphy, trades  and  farming.  Apprenticeship  and  the  still  less  organized 
types  of  vocational  training  where  production  is  a  primary,  and  educa- 
tion a  secondary  function  will  be  called  by-education,  e.g.,  as  on  farm, 
shipboard,  camp,  home,  store,  shop,  army.  Apprenticeship  (organized) 
is  to  be  distinguished  from  "pick  up"  vocational  education. 

2.  Through  vocational  arts  man  produces  goods  for  support  of  self 
and  dependents.  But  his  total  productivity  at  any  time  and  place  de- 
pends upon  many  factors  besides  personal  skill  and  technical  knowledge. 
These  include:  (a)  presence  of  natural  resources— game,  nut  trees,  wild 
grains,  domesticated  animals,  pastures,  tillable  land,  navigable  waters, 
forests,  mines  of  clay  and  metals,  coal,  water  power,  fertilizers;  (b) 
accumulated  knowledge  of  arts,  science,  discoveries,  customs  of  work — 
fire,  domestication,  tillage,  sails,  pottery  making,  iron  working,  printing, 
and  the  numberless  acquisitions  of  last  three  centuries;  (c)  capital  or 
stored  wealth  for  provision  of  tools,  means  of  work,  support  of  workers 
— tools,  ships,  roadways,  ports,  shops,  money,  credit;  (d)  protection  or 
social  security  in  enjoyment  of  product — rights  to  use  property  for  self 
or  chosen  associates,  to  devise  bequests,  to  rent  it  for  gain  (interest  on 

73 


74  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

capital,  etc — hence  protective  government  and  helpful  customs  towards 
stored  wealth)  :  (e)  availability  of  means  of  division  of  labor,  exchange 
of  commodities,  and  increase  and  application  of  capital — trained  leader- 
ship, transportation,  banks,  agencies  of  trade,  international  measures 
and  exchange;  (/)  the  general  health,  strength,  intelligence,  and  social 
nature  of  the  individual  worker.  Given  the  foregoing  factors,  the  de- 
gree and  kind  of  vocational  education  of  the  individual  in  relation  to 
his  native  powers  determine  his  productivity. 

Social  evolution  changes  above  factors  greatly.  It  adds  knowledge 
and  thereby  multiplies  productivity;  it  multiplies  populations  beyond 
point  of  diminishing  returns;  it  raises  standards  of  living;  it  enhances 
governmental  security,  but  increases  taxation  therefor.  Man  ceaselessly 
struggles  to  produce  more  with  less  labor — and  at  same  time  he  in- 
creases in  numbers  and  in  standards  of  living. 

3.  Primitive  man  works  hard  but  sporadically.  Conquest,  in  advanced 
stages,  developed  slavery  and  feudal  or  serf  tenure  and  thereby  en- 
forced routine  labor,  the  conquerors  themselves  being  obliged  to  main- 
tain persistent  guidance,  military  control,  and  ceremonial  prestige.  Or- 
ganization of  production — mines,  shipboard,  factories,  tropical  farming — 
uses  wage  system  as  means  of  regimentation  and  persistent  application. 

Division  of  labor  is  first  between  sexes,  then  between  old  and  young, 
then  proliferates  into  numberless  trades.  Men  have  naturally  superior 
physical  mobility  and  aggressive  impulses.  Primitive  women  led  in  rou- 
tine industries,  tillage  and  domiciliary  occupations.  To-day  young  men 
seek  the  roving,  outdoor  vocations,  women  the  indoor,  sessile  vocations. 
Old  men  give  up  roving  and  share  in  home  arts. 

Power  driven  machinery  gives  enormous  advantages  to  "quantity  pro- 
duction" which  is  best  achieved  through  "standardized  processes"  and 
output  of  "standardized  parts."  Hence  evolve  endless  specializations  of 
labor — from  primitive  Nile  tillage,  brickmaking,  wall  building  and  boat 
rowing  to  modern  mining,  sugar  growing,  rail  transportation,  and  factory 
production  of  locomotives,  canned  fruits  and  house  doors. 

Vocational  education  must  largely  follow  economic  evolution.  Primi- 
tive production — still  exemplified  in  home,  small  farm,  seacoast  fishing, 
small  store,  repair  shop — can  make  good  use  of  "pick  up"  vocational 
education.  Highly  evolved  practical  arts  bring  to  great  efficiency  appren- 
ticeship— which  appears  at  best  only  where  "pairs"  of  workers  engage 
in  handicraft  pursuits  or  the  real  "trades"  (best  modern  example  is 
locomotive  engineer  and  fireman).  Highly  specialized  production  lessens 
effectiveness  of  "pick  up"  vocational  training,  and  destroys  apprentice- 
ship. But  it  differentiates  many  stages  so  simple  that  they  can  be 
learned  in  a  few  hours— the  semi-skilled  occupations  of  the  census- 
maker. 

4.  Social  efficiency  now  demands  general  substitution  of  direct  voca- 
tional education  for  wasteful  "pick  up"  processes  and  obsolescent  ap- 
prenticeship.   Partly  to  prevent  frightful  wastefulness  of  pick-up  methods 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  75 

in  the  "hire  and  fire"  industries;  partly  to  give  needed  science  in  fanning, 
homemaking,  repair  trades;  and  partly  to  increase  or  maintain  produc- 
tion where  increasing  populations,  rising  standards  of  living  and  dimin- 
ishing natural  resources  threaten  economic  harm,  school  vocational  ed- 
cation  has  prevailed  in  professions  for  years;  but  its  methods  for  the 
specialized  vocations  still  perplex  the  educator. 

But  without  doubt  next  generation  will  witness:  (a)  social  provision 
of  opportunities  for  vocational  education  for  all  persons;  (b)  compul- 
sory attendance  on  specified  vocational  schools  of  those  who  will  not  or 
cannot  elect  for  themselves  (on  the  same  principle  as  compulsory  work 
for  vagrants  now)  ;  and  (c)  scientific  guidance  of  each  person  towards  the 
work  he  can  do  best.  The  following  will  be  among  essential  conditions 
however:  (a)  Because  of  specialization  of  vocations,  vocational  schools 
will  have  often  to  be  located  far  from  homes  of  students,  necessitating 
perhaps  subsidizing  of  travel  and  boarding  (now  exemplified  in  voca- 
tional schools  of  medicine,  military  leadership,  and  teaching).  Excep- 
tions will  be  found  in:  large  cities;  areas  of  localized  single  types  of 
production — homemaking,  farming,  meat  canning,  cotton  cloth  manu- 
facture, (b)  Only  a  portion  of  the  vocational  education  needed  by  the 
individual  can  be  given  at  outset — especially  where  he  enters  the  juvenile 
vocations.  Much  of  it  will  come  at  ages  18,  22,  26,  30,  even  40  as  up- 
grading full  time,  or  extension  part  time  training — perhaps  even  for 
homemaking  (at  22-25)  and  for  various  forms  of  real  leadership  (at 
25-35).  (c)  The  major  part  of  direct  general  education  for  the  rank 
and  file  of  workers  will  have  to  be  given  before  commencement  of 
vocational  training  (age  6  to  16)  with  requirement  that  when  vocational 
education  is  begun  full  working  time  (eight  hours  daily)  shall  be  given 
exclusively  to  it.  (d)  Where  plant  or  equipment  requirements  for  train- 
ing in  practice  of  vocation  are  elaborate  and  expensive,  vocational  schools 
will  have  to  be  located  partly  or  wholly  in  commercial  establishments 
rather  than  in  plants  created  primarily  for  school  purposes  (instances  in : 
hospitals  for  physicians  and  nurses ;  railroads ;  banks ;  department  stores ; 
schools  (for  teacher  training);  shoe  factories;  coal  mines;  mercantile 
ship;  meat  packing  establishments). 

5.  Recency  of  the  "industrial  revolution"  (due  to  inventions,  harness- 
ing of  natural  powers,  use  of  capital,  subdivision  of  occupation,  regional 
specialization  of  production,  free  migration  of  workers,  etc.)  gives  rise  to 
many  social  conditions  involving  problems  of  social  pathology,  the  solu- 
tion of  which  must  profoundly  affect  future  evolution  of  vocational 
education. 

a.  Does  specialized  production  unduly  cramp  or  deteriorate  men 
as  to  health,  "creativeness,"  "joy  in  work"?  All  men,  or  some 
kinds?  All  forms  of  specialized  work,  or  some  particular 
kinds?  For  specified  classes,  do  bad  results  accrue  chiefly  in 
youth,  or  in  middle  life?  Can  ill  results  be  offset  by  shortening 


j6  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

day's  work  and  filling  "leisure  time"  with  amateur  creative  and 
pleasure  giving  "avocations"? 

b.  Single  women — in  premarriage  years  by  millions,  and  perma- 
nent celibates  by  hundreds  of  thousands — now  work  for  wages 
"away  from  the  home."  In  certain  occupations  they  first 
"compete"  with  men,  then,  because  of  lesser  demands,  "capture" 
the  vocations — elementary  school  teaching,  indoor  salesmanship, 
clerical  work,  "light"  factory  work,  elevator  operation.  Shall  we 
expect  permanent  "sex-differentiation"  of  vocations  when  dust 
of  transition  settles?  Will  girls  find  chief  vocations  in  highly 
subdivided  vocations?  Is  it  feasible  for  the  mature  celibate 
woman  worker  in  general  to  "compete"  with  the  man  of  same 
age — in  the  trades,  outdoor  farming,  railway  work,  the  pro- 
fessions, "leadership?"  How  can  his  necessities  of  supporting 
a  "real"  family — two  or  three  adults,  four  to  six  children — 
be  safeguarded? 

c.  Regimentation  of  production  throws  direction  into  hands  of 
those  who  organize  processes  and  own  or  represent  owners  of 
tools — cleared  land,  discovered  mines,  erected  and  equipped 
factories,  established  "good  will,"  etc.  (control  by  "capital"  or 
capitalists).  This  condition  results  from:  relative  perishability 
of  capital  tools  (investments)  ;  mobility  of  labor;  and  superior 
initiative  found  among  owners  of  capital).  But  aspirations  for 
"industrial  democracy"  now  gather  force.  These  aspirations 
reflect  wage  workers'  desires  to  share  in  "control,"  in  policies. 
These  are  very  natural — but  are  feasible  programs  to  be  de- 
rived from  them — programs  that  would  not  involve  loss  of 
slowly  accrued  gains — always  for  dense  populations  with  rising 
standards  of  living,  be  it  understood? 

6.  A  great  variety  of  problems  of  specific  aim  in  vocational  education 
still  await  investigation. 

o.  Vocational  education  is  best  defined  as  any  form  of  direct  or 
by-education  the  distinctive  purpose  or  effect  of  which  is  to 
produce  the  skills,  knowledges,  ideals,  or  general  experiences 
that  function  in  a  designated  calling.  The  bookkeeper,  by  virtue 
of  certain  special  knowledge,  skill  and  integrity,  is  a  producer 
of  valuable  service  in  ways  that  another  man  of  equal  qualities, 
due  to  heredity,  environment,  and  general  education,  would 
find  impossible.  The  specialized  training  that  gave  him  this 
power  constituted  his  vocational  qualities  of  B  class  tailor, 
cook,  preacher,  kindergarten  teacher,  sailor,  frontier  farmer, 
electrical  engineer,  newsboy,  mill-weaver,  chauffeur,  home- 
maker  (in  servantless,  four-child  home),  plumber,  proofreader, 
colonel,  tea-taster,  gambler,  congressman. 


VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  J7 

b.  In  peculiar  degree,  constructive  proposals  for  vocational  edu- 
cation require  foundations  of  sound  economic  principles, 
scientifically  tested  where  practicable,  careful  hypotheses  where 
necessary.  Problems  showing,  e.g.,  this  need:  To  what  extent 
in  any  field  of  work  do  supply  and  demand  regulate  compen- 
sation? Under  what  conditions  is  exploitation  chronic?  If  the 
productivity  of  the  individual  is  increased,  how  far  can  he  retain 
for  his  own  use  increased  product?  Do  such  things  as  "over- 
crowded" occupations  really  exist  ?  What  is  the  economic  status 
of  the  wife  and  mother  in  none-wage-earning  homemaking? 
Are  the  fields  for  "unskilled"  labor  proportionately  increased 
by  the  use  of  capital  and  applied  science  (invention)  ? 

c.  Consult  census,  directories,  etc.,  for  examples  of  vocations. 

7.  Primitive  productive  occupations  (including  fighting)  were  simple 
and  learned  naturally  (by  imitation,  suggestion,  working  with  "achieving" 
instincts  of  youths).  Chief  differentiation  was  between  sexes — women 
are  said  to  have  carried  on  most  arts  of  tillage  and  craft.  But  each 
individual  had  to  be  capable  of  turning  his  hand  to  many  things — as  do 
farmers,  small  shopkeepers,  homemakers,  fishermen,  to-day.  What  are 
now  the  distinctive  vocational  requirements  of  surviving  "composite" 
vocations  ? 

a.  But  very  early  certain  arts,  including  priestcraft  and  healing, 
became  hereditary  or  were  pursued  by  cults  or  guilds.  Here 
begins  recognized  apprenticeship  education usually  by-edu- 
cation, because  the  use  of  the  learner  for  productive  work  was 
the  primary  object. 

8.  Conquest  at  first  incorporated  only  children  and  women  of  the  cap- 
tured. In  higher  forms  of  conquest  men  are  enslaved  or  left  on  the  land 
as  serfs.  This  introduces  a  long  era — sometimes  thought  to  be  the  real 
source  of  institutions  making  "civilization"  (Oppenheimer,  Gumplowicz, 
Small),  of  control  of  conquered  by  conquerors,  accompanied  by  forced 
labor,  forced  tribute,  etc.  Occupational  differentiation  and  formation  of 
castes  proceed  apace.  .Endless  beginnings  of  systematic  vocational  train- 
ing arise   (cf.  training  of  slaves,  U.  S.,  1700-1863). 

a.  How  far  will  people  become  good  producers,  left  to  ambition 
of  self  and  families?  How  far  may  compulsion  for  vocational 
education  be  necessary? 

9.  In  civilized  democratic  societies  ideals  of  productive  work  are  held 
for  all.     Problems  arise  as  to  training  for  this  work. 

a.  Decline   of   apprenticeship   system   of   vocational   by-education. 

What    were    the    merits    of    apprenticeship    for:    professions? 
trades?  agriculture?  office  callings? 

b.  Why  does  "factory"  system  impair  efficiency  of  shop  by-edu- 
cation ? 


78  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

c.  Does  perfection  of  machinery  in  general  diminish  need  for  full 
vocational  education?  (Note:  automobile,  locomotive,  type- 
writer, loom,  mowing  machine,  shoe-making  machine,  sewing 
machine,  power  saw,  steamship,  telegraph,  printing  press,  power 
forge  hammer,  rifle,  power  drill,  explosives — for  mining,  Bes- 
semer process,  safety  razor,  gas  stove,  photo-engraving). 

10.  Problems  of  women  in  industry — the  modern  problem  of  women 
following  productive  work  away  from  home.     (Schreiner.) 

a.  Census   statistics   show   rapidly   increasing  number   of   women 

in   commercial    and    industrial   pursuits.     What   are   age   dis- 
tributions and  how  related  to  marriage  age? 

b.  Physiological  effects  of  highly  specialized  vocations  into  which 
women  go — what  are  the  problems? 

c.  Problems  of  the  vocational  education  of  girls  and  young  women 

for  specialized,  pre-marriage  wage-€arning. 

d.  Problem  of  wage-earning  for  home-making  women. 

11.  Problems  of  vocational  education  for  home-making  women. 

o.  When    is    it    desired    (motivation)?      When    is    it    necessary? 

When   can   it   most   economically   be   offered    (or  acquired)  ? 

Of  what  shall  it  consist? 
b.  What   are   essential    features   of    B    class   home    (non-servant, 

3-6  children,  $900-$1500  standard)   to-day? 

12.  Problems  of  vocational  education  for  specialized  industrial  workers 
(men). 

a.  Transitions:  early  juvenile  occupations;  late  juvenile;  early 
adult;  late  adult;  directorship. 

b.  Direct,  full-time  education;  direct  part-time  education  (pre- 
paratory, extension).     Analysis  of  by-education  of  occupation. 

13.  Problems  of  vocational  education  for  trades.  Trades  in  the  older 
sense  of  the  word  are  disappearing.  Do  dynamic  industries  involve 
trades? 

14.  Problems  of  agricultural  education;  professional  education  (men); 
professional  education  (women)  ;  commercial  education ;  nautical  educa- 
tion. 

15.  Vocational  guidance — its  place  and  possibilities.  (Bibliography: 
Brewer  and  Kelley,  A  Selected  Critical  Bibliography  of  Vocational  Guid- 
ance, Harvard  University,  1917). 

16.  Organization  problems  of  vocational  education — full-time,  part-time, 
continuation,  preparatory,  extension. 

17.  Pedagogical  problems  of  vocational  education — practice,  productive 
work,  technical  studies,  sociological  phases. 


CHAPTER  IX 

SOCIAL    EDUCATION:      SOCIOLOGICAL     PRESUPPOSITIONS 

AND  CONDITIONS 

1.  Man  has  large  equipment  of  social  and  of  individualistic  instincts, 
but  in  most  cases  these  are  not  so  definite  in  operation  as  corresponding 
instincts  among  animals,  hence  are  plastic  to  agencies  of  direct  and  of 
by-education.  In  small  children  we  readily  recognize:  (a)  "other  regard- 
ing" instinctive  manifestations  which  are  species  of  affection,  helpfulness, 
cooperation,  sympathy,  pity,  etc.,  and  (b)  "self-regarding"  reactions,  such 
as  species  of  greed,  selfishness,  envy,  anger,  avoidance  of  companionship, 
vindictiveness,  etc.  In  later  life  other  social  instincts  become  active;  but 
effects  of  social  environment  obscure  the  characteristics  due  primarily  to 
"original  nature."  These  include  species  of  sex  and  parental  reactions, 
gang  cooperation,  honor,  conscience,  religiousness,  racial  antagonism, 
mutual  aid,  competition,  individual  aggrandizement,  altruistic  sympathy, 
etc. 

Social  evolution  early  imposed  upon  man  necessities  for  cooperative 
defence,  family  rearing,  work,  and  conservation  of  social  inheritance. 
Effective  cooperation  (pragmatically  speaking)  becomes  one  important  con- 
dition of  survival  of  any  strand.  Hence  evolved  societies,  social  institu- 
tions, endless  forms  of  social  organization  towards  group  solidarity. 
Perhaps  for  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years  these  groups  were  small — 
families,  hordes,  clans,  tribes ;  but  evolution  of  "large  groups"  during  last 
ten  thousand  years  has  been  most  rapid — giving  cities,  nations,  churches, 
unions,  federations,  etc.,  with  extensive  possessions,  spiritual  and  material, 
to  cherish  and  transmit. 

Hence  greatest  problem  of  "social  education"  in  this  era  of  "large 
group"  evolution  is  that  of  so  expanding  (or  even  replacing)  "small 
group"  virtues  to  serve  the  larger  social  order  where  most  of  one's  "fel- 
lows" are  no  longer  visible  "associates"  but  invisible  "federates."  Social 
leaders  work  ceaselessly  to  transform  the  intensely  cooperative  "brother- 
hood" of  the  family  or  clan  group  into  the  "brotherhood"  of  man. 

2.  The  term  "social  education"  will  be  here  used  to  include  all  forms  of 
direct  and  incidental  education  primarily  designed  to  conserve  and  promote 
approved  designed  group  solidarity.  It  includes :  (a)  all  forms  of  "moral'* 
education — these  words  chiefly  connoting  efforts  to  improve  "small  group" 
or  "associate"  group  relationships;  (I)  all  forms  of  civic  education — 
centering  chiefly  in  efficient  membership  in  town,  state,  and  nation;  and 
(c)  all  forms  of  religious  education— these  being  interpreted  as  designed  to 
bring  man  into  right  social   relationships  with  invisible    (and  especially 

79 


80  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

ascendant)    personalities.     The  term  "ethics"  can  be  understood  as  de- 
noting the  "principles  of  social  conduct." 

3.  Various  varieties  of  social  education  are  very  ancient.  Discipline 
within  the  family  group  of  youngers  iby  elders  is  incessant.  Street  as- 
sociation of  children  involves  constant  and  forceful  reshaping  of  individu- 
alistic or  "other  group"  dispositions  towards  locally  dominant  standards. 
The  school,  church,  workshop  and  club  find  constant  need  of  enforcing 
"order,"  especially  as  part  of  "breaking  in"  the  young.  Mother  Grundy 
is  more  watchful  than  police  in  sustaining  village  morality.  Priests  are 
among  chief  educators  as  to  many  social  virtues.  In  time  of  general  need 
or  inspiration  seers,  prophets,  poets,  messiahs  arise  to  orient  socializing 
aspirations  and  programs.  Modern  nations  endeavor  to  use  their  school 
systems  as  means  of  "socializing"  the  young.  We  desire  to  "Americanize" 
the  recent  immigrant 

4.  Using  the  terms  "virtues"  and  "vices"  inclusively  to  designate 
approved  and  disapproved  forms  of  social  behavior,  social  analysis  shows 
existence  of  virtues  of  "conformity"  and  virtues  of  "initiative."  Standards 
of  social  conformity  are  found  in  customs  and  conventions,  laws  and 
commandments,  rules  and  regulations,  precepts  and  dogmas,  as  developed 
by  various  types  of  social  groups,  nations,  tribes,  corporations,  armies, 
schools,  unions,  families,  congregations.  Conformity  is  enforced  through 
numberless  forms  of  penalties — appeals  to  fear — and  through  equally  num- 
berless forms  of  approval — appeals  to  love,  ambition,  etc.  Religion  at 
times  has  great  freightage  of  terrors  and  joys  as  incentives;  similarly 
political  organizations,  communities,  vocational  organizations. 

Standards  for  the  social  virtues  of  initiative  are  less  capable  of  defini- 
tion. The  group  views  with  suspicion  the  innovator,  rebel,  heretic,  free 
thinker,  inventor,  bohemian,  radical,  because  by  experience  it  knows  that 
these  are  usually  self-centered  or  at  least  visionary  individualists  or  "small 
group"  devotees,  capable  of  "tearing  down  the  old  house  before  they  have 
any  real  command  of  materials  for  the  building  up  of  a  new  house." 
But,  once  having  proved  (usually  by  "success")  their  constructiveness,  the 
daring  and  foresight  of  prophets,  revolutionaries,  inventors,  reformers, 
sect  founders,  and  liberals  is  approved  at  least  by  newly  developed  groups. 
In  a  normally  evolving  social  order,  of  course,  "cakes  of  custom"  should 
not  be  allowed  to  form  so  hard  that  only  revolutionary  dynamite  can  break 
them;  hence  the  desirability  of  having  many  members  in  each  group 
competent  and  disposed  to  practice  virtues  of  initiative — leadership, 
originality,  vision,  liberalism,  progressiveness. 

In  static  eras  of  group  evolution  forces  of  social  education  are  naturally 
chiefly  directed  towards  producing  virtues  of  conformity.  "Authority" 
(of  God,  church,  ancestors,  kings,  constitutions,  laws,  conventions)  domi- 
nates. Elaborate  mechanisms,  of  social  control  are  produced — revelations, 
creeds,  codes,  regulations,  red  tape,  ceremonials,  taboos,  traditions.  These 
constitute  so  much  a  social  environment  for  the  young  that  habituation 
is  largely  unconscious.    Nevertheless  elaborate  procedures  of  direct  social 


SOCIAL  EDUCATION  8 1 

education  are  also  found.  Rituals  are  drilled,  catechisms  memorized,  spe- 
cific emotions  repeatedly  kindled  and  hero  (exemplar)  tales  endlessly 
retold. 

In  dynamic  eras  sway  of  authority  weakens,  at  least  in  some  groupings. 
Independents  follow  new  leaders,  flout  old  customs,  cheer  new  enter- 
prises. But  to  conserve  gains  heretofore  the  new  groupings  have  had 
to  establish  new  conformities.  So  we  say  that  only  recently  has  there 
developed  a  "tradition"  of  progress,  a  prevailing  belief  in,  and  acceptance 
of  the  consequences  of,  social  evolution.  Shall  we  yet  learn  to  prize  always 
the  sincere,  able  nonconformist?  Perhaps  social  science  will  yet  enable  us 
to  distinguish  wholesome  from  poisonous  qualities  of  initiative,  to  cultivate 
the  right  kind  and  early  to  root  up  the  wrong.  "Good  citizenship"  now  in 
America  vaguely  idealizes  at  least  some  virtues  of  independence,  non- 
conformity, liberalism,  progressiveness.  But  in  complex  societies,  and 
having  in  mind  the  inexperience  of  the  young  and  the  shortsightedness  of 
rank  and  file,  "liberalism"  may  be  like  fire  and  water — a  good  servant  but 
a  disastrous  master. 

5.  The  final  tests  imposed  by  nature  on  group  evolution  are,  of  course, 
survival — not  in  the  immediate,  but  in  the  ultimate,  sense.  War  has  always 
been  the  most  visible  and  dramatic  test  of  group  solidarity.  Other  tests 
may  foe  equally  crucial,  but  less  intelligible — to  diffuse  intelligence,  to  pro- 
mote justice,  to  conserve  and  improve  stock,  to  store  capital,  to  utilize 
natural  resources,  even  to  hold  sound  religiousness.  But  history  writes 
mostly  of  war— because  the  storm  in  a  moment  tests  years  of  patient  work 
of  builders. 

In  one  sense  "might"  or  "social  efficiency"  makes  "right" — that  is,  the 
might  of  individual  healthfulness,  of  sound  family  life,  of  even-handed 
justice,  of  democratic  government,  of  genuine  individual  freedom  and  of 
effective  education-^because  these  give  the  stone  and  cement  to  structure 
capable  of  weathering  social  storms. 

History  clearly  shows  rapid  increase  in  size  and  complexity  of  most 
social  groupings  (especially  the  political  and  economic)  during  last  few 
centuries.  Survival  here,  as  in  case  of  ancient  empires,  may  be  threatened 
more  by  agencies  of  internal  dissolution  than  by  agencies  of  external 
aggression.     Hence  needs  of  new  types  of  social  education. 

Efficacy  of  all  forms  of  "authoritarian"  social  education  is  clearly  de- 
clining, due  to  spread  of  habits  of  scientific  thinking  and  aspirations  for 
democracy.  Note  diminishing  place  of  creeds,  taboos,  dogmas,  ceremonials, 
ancestor  worship,  anthropomorphism  of  deities,  conscription  of  under- 
standing, appeals  to  emotion,  vested  rights  of  rank,  etc.  Note  also  in- 
creasingly critical  attitude  towards  laws,  constitutions,  private  property, 
traditional  leadership,  classic  standards,  and  non-interference  with  opera- 
tion of  natural  laws  of  "supply  and  demand"  as  regulative  of  standards 
of  exchange.  But  methods  of  "rational"  or  "scientific'  social  education 
for  "large  group"  participations  are  still  largely  wanting. 


82  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

6.  Endless  experimentation — usually  poorly  directed — now  proceeds  in 
social  education. 

a.  The  discipline  of  home,  school,  church  and  courts  becomes 
more  rational,  less  directly  coercive,  and  somewhat  more  scien- 
tific in  objectives. 

b.  For  spontaneous  social  activities  are  being  increasingly  substi- 
tuted purposeful  ones — scouting,  clubs,  co-education,  part-time 
production,  practical  arts,  military  training. 

c.  Community  civics,  government,  "other  nations  study,"  economics, 
social  science,  "socializing"  literature,  are  all  being  developed  as 
"beta  class"  means  of  social  education. 

d.  Social  control  of  the  photodrama,  reconstruction  of  the  juvenile 
court  and  juvenile  prisons,  and  scores  of  other  means  of  im- 
proving the  by-education  of  environment  are  being  experi- 
mented with. 

e.  The  teaching  of  history  can  obviously  be  made  a  means  of 
social  education — either  "colored,"  partisan  history  or  "scien- 
tific" history.  But  outside  of  use  as  means  of  patriotic  parti- 
sanship, it  is  doubtful  if  objectives  are  yet  satisfactorily  defined. 

7.  Describe  large  'basis  for  social  education  in  individualistic,  small- 
group,  and  large-group  instincts.    Note  especially: 

a.  Theory  that  primate  ancestor  of  man  was  not  gregarious — pos- 
sibly solitary,  gorilla-like.  (Compare  man  with  gregarious  ani- 
mals.) 

b.  Early  appearance  in  children  of  individualistic  instincts — prop- 
erty, self -protection  (lying,  fighting),  "selfishness,"  self-center- 
edness  of  adolescent. 

c.  Also  early  appearance  of  "small-group"  instincts — family,  clique, 
playmates,  gang,  etc. 

d.  Tendency  of  primitive  men  to  intensify  "small-group"  develop- 
ment, and  antagonize  "large-group"  interests — clan,  brother- 
hood, union,  feud,  Greek  vs.  barbarian  aliens,  pagans,  nationals, 
conflicts  between  small  and  large  groups  as  regards  antagonisms, 
virtues,  etc. 

e.  That  the  problem  of  social  education  is  found  in  transforming 

of  "virtues"  and  modification  of  attitudes  developed  from 
simple  instincts — sympathy,  pugnacity,  property,  cooperation, 
toleration,  etc. 

8.  Primitive  societies  had  ever-present  problems  of  social  education. 
Peace  and  cooperation  were  essential  within  group  if  it  was  to  sustain 
and  defend  itself. 

a.  War  has  always  been  the  most  visible  and  dramatic  test  of 
group  solidarity.  Other  tests  (to  reproduce  well,  to  migrate, 
to   develop   capital,   to   diffuse   intelligence,   to   control   natural 


SOCIAL  EDUCATION  83 

forces,  to  resist  sloth  and  licentiousness,  to  administer  justice) 
are  doubtless  equally  crucial,  but  not  so  evident,  visible.  Hence 
much  of  history  is  that  of  war. 

b.  Religion  has  its  largest  function  in  promoting  the  fears,  aspir- 
ations, taboos  and  rewards  making  for  social  coherence  (when 
pure,  genuinely  functional;  it,  too,  is  subject  to  degeneration  at 
times). 

c.  Note  the  use  of  art  in  primitive  "social  control"  and  "social 
welding." 

9.  Societies  seem  to  pass  through  a  mediaeval  (early  civilization)  stage 
vhen  "custom  control"  (dogma  authority,  belief,  tradition,  "divinely  sanc- 
ioned"  laws)   plays  a  very  large  part. 

o.  Institutions  now  develop  (creeds,  theologies,  constitutions,  courts 
of  justice,  courts  of  ruling  classes,  castes,  ceremonials,  impos- 
ing art — literature,  architecture,  drama). 
b.  We — too  near  breaking  of  periods  of  this  era — are  prone  to 
evaluate  its  results  in  terms  of  its  declining,  "old-age"  manifes- 
tations. In  its  early  stages,  doubtless  a  much  needed  and 
splendid  advance  beyond  barbarism.  (Note  symptoms  of 
breakdown  of  custom  control — in  religion,  politics,  economic  in- 
stitutions,  domestic  institutions.) 

10.  Modern  societies  strive  to  emerge  on  the  plane  of  rational  social 
control. 

a.  Democracy  strives  to  make  the  individual  a  person — an  end, 
not  a  means. 

b.  Modern  man  aspires  to  free  thought,  free  speech,  free  worship, 
free  migration,  free  business,  free  domesticity,  free  govern- 
ment, within  limits  of  group  safety,  (cf.  Reformations,  revo- 
lutions, higher  criticisms,  etc.) 

c.  Free  man,  leading  in  these  matters,  is  distressed  to  find  serfs, 
bondmen,  slaves,  women,  even  children,  following,  imitating, 
asserting  rights.  He  resents  the  inevitable  spread  of  democra- 
cy and  free  thinking  outward  and  downward.  Hence  peren- 
nial present  conflict  between  authority  (custom  rule)  and 
strivings  of  democracy. 

11.  Problems  of  social   education  to-day,  then,  must  take  account  of 
and  use  manifestations  of  democracy. 

a.  Note  the   diminishing  place  of   creeds,   dogmas,   taboos,   unin- 

telligible prohibitions,  ceremonials,  emotional  appeals,  respect 
for  authority  (as  such  alone),  conscription  (of  will  and  intelli- 
gence), sacredness  of  private  property,  obedience  to  scholars, 
etc.    Note  general  indifference  to  laws,  as  such. 

b.  Note  demand  for  scientific  justification,  approval  of  intelligible 

ideals,  respect  for  personalities,  regard  for  visible  social  service. 


84  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

c.  A  period  of  transition  is  always  one  of  disintegration,  danger 
of  revolution,  decline  of  many  valuable  customs,  standards, 
etc.    But  "the  clock  does  not  turn  back." 

12.  Objectives  of  profitable  social  education  of  two  kinds:  (a)  pro- 
vision of  right  conditions  for  social  development;  (b)  provision  of  definite 
objectives  for  social  training  and  education. 

a.  Social  control,  in  interests  of  right  social  education,  of  home, 
street,  clubs,  "movies,"  literature,  police  power,  occupational 
life,  all  now  practicable.  Social  provision  of  broader  group 
activities  (Boy-Scout,  school  government,  public  service,  mili- 
tary training,  co-education,  economic  part-time  production)  also 
possible. 

b.  Community   civics,    specialized   literature    of   idealism,   govern- 

ment, study  of  nations,  economics,  ethics,  probably  all  good 
means,  at  appropriate  stage  of  development,  of  'direct  social 
education. 


CHAPTER  X 

CULTURAL  EDUCATION:  SOCIOLOGICAL  PRESUPPOSITIONS 

AND  CONDITIONS 

1.  Participation  in  usual  forms  of  group  life,  apart  from  vocational  and 
political  relationships,  requires  that  each  individual  shall  be  possessed 
of  certain  essentials  of  the  social  inheritance — comprehensible  speech, 
common  knowledge,  manners,  tastes,  etc.  Beyond  this,  individuals  and 
certain  cultural  groups  are  greatly  advantaged  in  happiness  and  general 
usefulness,  through  extensive  development  of  one  or  more  out  of  a  vast 
potential  variety  of  non-vocational  interests,  appreciations  and  powers. 
The  term  "culture"  as  here  used  is  restricted  to  its  more  common  usage, 
as  inclusive  of  a  wide  range  of  intellectual  and  aesthetic  interests,  appreci- 
ations, powers  (or  otherwise  tastes,  ideals,  manners,  standards),  largely 
individual  or  personal  in  character,  and  having  relatively  little  direct 
bearing  on  vocational  proficiency  or  effective  participation  in  groups  func- 
tioning for  moral  or  civic  ends. 

a.  The  division  "Cultural  Education"  is  designed  to  include,  first, 
those  objectives  of  education — direct  education  and  by-educa- 
tion— embodying  that  common  knowledge  and  appreciation 
which  do  not  clearly  function  in  vocations,  useful  group-activi- 
ties, or  personal  physical  well-being,  and  which  in  a  civilized 
state  are  sought  on  behalf  of  all  persons.  Some  of  these  ob- 
jectives— e.g.,  vernacular  in  spoken  and  written  forms,  elemen- 
tary arithmetic,  local  geography,  manners,  and  everyday  read- 
ing— have  functional  values  in  all  kinds  of  education;  but  it  is 
clear  that  their  largest  value  is  in  establishing  a  common  cul- 
ture. The  beginnings  of  literature,  art,  science,  history,  and 
world  geography  also  enter  as  elements  of  this  common  culture. 

b.  There  is  included,  in  the  second  place,  all  those  objectives  that 
are  sought  on  behalf  of  individuals  for  the  sake  of  enriching 
the  personal  life,  especially  as  regards  intellectual  and  aesthetic 
interests,  when  these  are  not  specialized  for  vocational,  social, 
or  physical  ends.  Include  various  "interests"  in  ancient  history, 
current  events,  genealogy,  numismatics,  archaeology,  ethnology, 
poetry,  essays,  fiction,  biography,  wit  and  humor,  English  gram- 
mar, Russian  literature,  Greek  drama,  Shakespearean  drama,  con- 
temporary drama,  "ice  age"  geology,  neighborhood  flora,  moun- 
tain exploration,  foreign  travel,  violin  music,  ancient  art,  modern 
architecture,  eclipses,  dress,  dancing,  entertainment,  decoration 
of  home,  hobbies,  avocations,  etc. 

85 


86  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

2.  Cultural  play,  analogous  to  physical  play,  is  doubtless  an  essential 
means  to  cultural  growth.  Its  incentives  are  intellectual  and  aesthetic 
curiosity,  interest,  etc.  Because  the  actual  final  functionings  of  these 
play  interests  are  obscure  (as  indeed  they  also  are  in  physical  play)  par- 
ents, educators  and  others  responsible  for  provision  of  means,  are  apt 
to  neglect  them  in  preoccupations  with  more  tangible  ends.  Educational 
innovations,  urged  by  Froebel,  Herbart,  Parker,  Elliot,  and  Dewey  rested 
partly  upon  recognition  of  these  considerations.  Complete  education  re- 
quires, first,  full  provision  for  cultural  growth  (of  natural,  unartificial 
kinds — beta  objectives)  and  then  of  cultural  training  (of  purposive  kinds — 
alpha  objectives).  For  example  in  promoting  linguistic  culture:  it  is  de- 
sirable, first,  that  the  young  child  grow  in  an  environment  of  correct  and 
abundant  speech — vernacular,  and  if  facilities  are  available,  one  or  more 
alien  tongues;  then,  in  relative  maturity,  that  he  enter  upon  systematic 
training  towards  more  refined  or  difficult  powers  and  appreciations — in 
vernacular  and  other. 

3.  "Education  for  leisure"  is  an  approved  ideal  of  "cultural  education." 
In  a  sound  economic  order  all  have  some  leisure  or  time  apart  from  voca- 
tional, civic,  and  physical  necessities  (work,  politics,  sleep,  exercise)  ;  this 
leisure  will  be  filled  with  sociability,  amusement,  recreation,  and  attempts 
to  satisfy  aesthetic,  intellectual,  and  physical  desires.  These  may  be  of  a 
low  order  and  deleterious — physical  indulgence,  degrading  sports,  hurtful 
amusements.  With  right  education,  more  enduring  tastes  and  interests 
can  presumably  be  established  towards  the  enrichment  of  individual,  and, 
indirectly,  of  social  life. 

a.  In  social  evolution  a  conquering  predatory  class  has  often  pro- 
duced a  minority  of  adults  who  have  had  a  disproportionate 
amount  of  leisure.  In  periods  of  high  social  idealism,  these, 
competing  in  higher  forms  of  utilization,  have  promoted  refine- 
ment of  manners,  ceremonials,  literature,  fine  arts,  decorative 
arts,  building,  sports,  and  even  science,  research,  etc.  Under 
other  circumstances,  they  compete  in  ornamenting  the  person, 
fostering  elegant  parasitism,  and  in  "conspicuous  waste."  (See 
Veblen's  Theory  of  the  Leisure  Class.) 

b.  In  industrial  society  or  one  having  land-owning  aristocracy, 
accumulators  of  capital,  and  especially  their  descendants,  con- 
stitute successors  of  leisure  class,  and  these  also  compete  in 
special  cultural  developments,  sometimes  beautiful,  sometimes 
sordid. 

c.  Few  men  in  America  now  willing  to  admit  membership  in,  or 

exhibit  characteristics  of,  leisure  class.  That  prerogative  is 
sometimes  left  to  their  decorative  women — usually  wives  and 
daughters,  but  sometimes  specialized  entertainers. 

4.  The  transmission  of  the  "social  inheritance"  of  culture  becomes  a 
large  purpose  in  societies,  even  when  practical  consequences  of  such  trans- 


CULTURAL  EDUCATION  87 

mission  are  not  obvious.     Schools  are  created  to  this  end  in  cases  where 

by-education  of  other  agencies  would  not  suffice. 

o.  During  most  historic  periods  premiums  were  placed  upon  tellers 
of  tales,  singers,  readers,  sages,  ritualists,  teachers,  historians, 
etc.,  who  could  thus  transmit.  Equal  importance  attaches  to 
monuments,  inscriptions,  runes,  museums,  libraries,  galleries, 
place  names,  word  spellings,  commemorative  feast  and  name 
days,  etc. 

b.  A  crude,  strong  people  conquering  a  relatively  refined,  cultur- 
ally advanced  people  gives  rise  to  curious  new  interests,  (cf. 
Heroic  Ages  in  Greece,  Servia,  Scandinavia,  England.) 

c.  The  "mining  out"  of  the  cultural  riches  of  a  past  that  has  be- 

come overlain  creates  a  peculiarly  intense  "backward  looking" 
set  of  cultural  interests.  The  memorable  example  of  the  Ren- 
aissance, "discovering"  Roman  literature,  then  Greek  and  He- 
brew, (cf.  Literature  of  the  Renaissance.)  The  impetus  given 
the  study  of  classic  languages  (and  to  lesser  extent,  literatures) 
persists  to  this  day,  especially  outside  of  Latin  countries. 

5.  The  "humanities"  or  "humanism"  signify  those  cultural  studies  prized 
especially  on  behalf  of  the  more  influential  men  of  society,  the  "leaders," 
by  which  they  are  enabled  to  see  the  social  or  human  side  of  the  world  in 
its  larger  aspects.  It  is  expected  that  "social,"  i.e.,  civic  and  moral, 
results  will  derive,  hence  these  studies,  if  shown  so  to  function,  might  be 
classed  as  social.  (Note  that  some  observers  rank  the  "social  science" 
studies — now  so  popular  in  American  colleges, — as  the  "New  Humanities.") 

a.  The  problem  as  to  how  far  it  is  expedient  or  wholesome  for  the 
highest  approved  culture  of  a  people  to  be  made  thus  dependent 
on  the  past  is  still  important.  Too  much  dependence  on  the 
past  may  paralyze  initiative  (cf.  Nietzsche,  The  Study  of  His- 
tory). For  purposes  of  conservation,  reliance  on  static  order, 
doubtless  use  of  the  "past"  for  "followers"  is  desirable.  But 
probably  only  very  exceptional  "leaders"  who  give  social  varia- 
bility can  profitably  utilize  the  past,  except  as  a  means  of  ex- 
plaining or  confirming  or  negating  hypotheses  already  formed. 

b.  Note  thesis  developed  later  that  probably  the  "past"  in  history 
and  literature  should  be  studied  only  in  the  light  of  good  ground- 
ing in  the  present. 

6.  Culture,  for  purposes  of  education,  should  be  distinguished  into  (a) 
common  culture — which  it  is  expected  all  in  a  democracy  shall  possess, 
and  (b)  individual  culture,  the  possession  of  the  interested  individual  and 
his  congenial  fellows. 

a.  We  assume  certain  degrees  of  proficiency  in  the  oral  and  writ- 
ten language  arts — speech,  writing,  reading, — interest  in  general 
reading,  and  some  knowledge  of  the  best  literature,  comprehen- 
sion of  simple  arithmetic  (arithmetic  of  utilization),  acquaint- 


88  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

ance  with  common  facts  and  principles  of  history  and  geog- 
raphy, and  appreciation  of  simple  music  and  plastic  art,  as  con- 
stituting the  basis  of  common  culture. 
b.  Beyond  this,  education — in  direct  and  indirect  forms — makes 
provision  on  a  public,  endowed  or  commercial  basis,  for  endless 
special  forms  of  special  cultural  development  along  lines  of 
literature,  art,  music,  history,  science,  crafts,  sociability,  travel, 
etc.  Within  limits,  it  is  usually  agreed  that  society  can  well 
afford  at  public  expense  to  foster  these  forms.  (Note :  classical 
studies  in  secondary  schools;  varied  "liberal"  courses  in  col- 
lege ;  endowed  and  state  galleries,  museums,  theatres,  expositions, 
public  art,  etc.) 

7.  "Liberal  education" — here  used  to  include  both  cultural  and  social 
education — can  be  interpreted  profitably  as  "education  for  utilization" — 
thus  placing  it  in  contradistinction  to  "education  for  production"   (voca- 
tional education).    Utilization  not  necessarily  a  final  end  itself,  but  in  such 
fields  as  literature,  science,  art,  crafts,  sports,  travel,  ends  beyond  utiliza- 
tion  (health,  sanity,  "progress,"  "rich  personality,"  character,  salvation) 
are  difficult  of  analysis.    Hence,  as  in  the  case  of  play,  we  say  gratifica- 
tion of  aesthetic  and  intellectual  interests  on  highgrade  play  basis  is  a 
justifiable  end  in  itself  (not  to  be  confused  with  "art  for  art's  sake,"  etc.). 
o.  Man  is  a  potential  utilizer  of  the  literature,  art  and  music  of  all 
ages  and  climes;  the  scientific  knowledge — mathematics,  astron- 
omy, chemistry,  mechanics,  sociology,  geology,  ethnology,  etc., — 
that  the  experience  of  the  world  has  rolled  up ;  the  institutional 
life  that  has  become  organized;  the  endless  forms  of  association 
with  unseen  personalities  which  we  call  religion;   the  varied 
forms  of  association  which  make  family,  community,  and  other 
forms   of   group   life;   the   services   of   unnumbered   specialist 
workers  in  medicine,  law,  accounting,  tillage,  etc. 
b.  Man's  political  relationships    (the  ends  of  "good  citizenship") 
can  be  assembled  in  two  chief  categories :  (a)  Good  citizenship 
consists,  first,  in  conforming,  in  fitting  to  the  established  order, 
in  obedience  to  laws  and  serviceable  conventions — all  expressed 
in  the  passive  virtues  of  obedience,  patience,  industry,  submis- 
sion, temperance,  thrift,  etc.    (b)    For  many,  good  citizenship 
consists  also  in  taking  the  initiative,  being  aggressive,  breaking 
with  routine  and  established  order,  criticising  laws  and  their 
executors, — all   expressed  as  active  virtues,   such  as   non-con- 
formity, independence,  radicalism,  free  thinking,  organizing  of 
new  movements,  etc. 

But  as  regards  many  civic  functions,  man  is  chiefly  a  coopera- 
tive employer  of  specialist  service — a  joint  utilizer  of  that  ser- 
vice. Hence  social  education  may  be  interpreted  partly  in 
terms  of  making  man  a  good  chooser,  discriminating  buyer, 
generous  rewarder  of  specialist  service — a  socialized  consumer. 


CHAPTER  XI 

MISCELLANEOUS   OBJECTIVES 

A.    Mental  Training 

1.  The  "trained  mind" — like  the  "trained  hand,"  the  "efficient  body," 
"good  character,"  and  "good  citizenship" — has  long  been  a  "faith  objec- 
tive" in  education.  The  aspiration  takes  specific  forms — training  persons 
"to  think,"  "to  concentrate,"  "to  observe,"  "to  be  guided  by  scientific 
method,"  "to  be  thorough."  We  say  that  under  certain  systems  of  teach- 
ing men  learned  "to  work,"  "to  have  common  sense,"  "to  be  exact,"  "to  be 
self-reliant."  Uncritical  thinkers  easily  develop  beliefs  in  educational 
"simples"  or  "panaceas,"  for  example:  that  where  study  or  work  or  the 
necessities  of  life  impose  close  observation  (or  attention,  or  reasoning  or 
self-reliance)  of  one  species  or  variety,  substantial  increments  of  power  are 
gained  for  all  varieties  of  the  general  activity.  Hence  the  superstitious 
vogue  of  Latin,  grammar,  mental  arithmetic,  algebra,  sloyd,  calesthenics, 
dead  language  classics,  and  fine  needle  work  as  "disciplinary"  pursuits. 
Hence  also,  vogue  at  times  of  verbal  memorization,  formal  logic,  certain 
kinds  of  army  drill,  political  and  religious  rituals,  and,  possibly,  ceremonial 
observances. 

2.  Critical  analysis  of  visible  mental  phenomena,  quite  apart  from  study 
of  psychology,  can  dispel  some  superstition  as  to  "mental  training"  (and 
equally,  "moral  training,"  "physical  training,"  and  "cultural  education"). 

a.  Every  savage  (and  animal)  has  in  highly  developed  form  cer- 
tain species  of  observation,  attention,  verbal  memory,  common 
sense,  patience,  industry,  loyalty,  manual  skill,  etc.  But  he  is 
deficient  in  many  other  varieties  that  count  much  in  civilized 
life.  Every  farmer,  hunter,  fisherman,  factory  hand,  street 
gamin,  jail  bird,  and  traveller  has  not  only  a  variety  of  well- 
developed  specific  powers  of  kinds  noted  above,  but  also  more 
composite  forms  of  "reasoning,"  "judgment,"  "imagination," 
"aesthetic  appreciations"  and  the  like;  but  along  with  these 
manifest  deficiencies  in  other  species. 

b.  It  is  manifestly  practicable  to  give  "specific"  training  in  endless 
varieties.  Given  time,  direction,  motive,  etc.,  every  normal  in- 
dividual can  be  trained:  to  be  "observant"  of  stars  or  of 
game  signs,  or  of  customers'  faces  or  of  disease  symptoms  or  of 
enemy  forces;  to  "attend"  closely  to  military  directions,  typo- 
graphical errors,  concert  disharmonies,  or  the  "form"  of  base- 
ball players;  to  be  "exact"  in  pronunciation  of  French,  lace- 
making,  shooting  a  rifle,  typing,  or  playing  the  violin ;  to  "think 

89 


90  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

out"  the  difficulties  of  burglarizing  a  house,  beating  an  opponent 
at  chess,  erecting  a  new  bridge,  or  providing  a  dinner. 

c.  Also  it  is  clear  that  men  inherit  different  potentialities  for  some* 

if  not  all,  kinds  of  possible  training.  Just  as  some  are  endowed 
with  bodies  that  easily  permit  of  learning  many  varieties  of 
skills,  so  others  seem  to  have  nervous  matter  or  mechanisms, 
easily  permitting  great  advances  in  mathematics  or  verbal  mem- 
orization or  science  or  business  organization. 

d.  But  popular  opinion  and  educational  theory  have  probably 
greatly  exaggerated  possibilities  of  "spread"  of  training  of  one 
variety  to  another  or  of  a  basis  of  "general"  powers,  deceived 
partly  by  mystic  or  magic  of  "general  terms."  Reactions  es- 
sentially superstitious  can  be  evoked  by  such  magic  terms  as 
"common  sense,"  "ability  to  think,"  powers  to  read  "the  printed 
page,"  the  "scientific  imagination,"  sense  of  the  "beautiful," 
loyalty,  culture,  etc.  Patriotism  "is  the  last  refuge  of  the 
scoundrel."  So  the  magic  of  mental  training  is  the  last  refuge 
of  traditional  objectives  of  education  in  process  of  being  de- 
feated by  increase  of  knowledge — Latin,  Chinese  classics,  sloyd, 
gymnastics,  military  drill,  verbal  memorization,  mechanical 
drawing,  needlework. 

B.    Education  for  Family  Membership 

Importance  of  the  family  as  a  social  group  suggests  to  some  contem- 
porary writers  desirability  of  "effective  family  membership"  as  a  composite 
objective  of  education.    But  this  probably  unserviceable  objective  because: 

a.  "Family  membership"  includes  various  quite  unlike  relationships 
— filial,  fraternal  and  parental.  First  and  second  involve  chiefly 
certain  virtues  of  conformity,  third  of  initiative. 

b.  But,  fundamentally,  the  family  is  only  one  type  of  the  various 
social  groups  in  which  each  individual  has  membership.  Educa- 
tion successively  in  the  filial,  the  fraternal,  and  the  parental 
virtues  constitutes  therefore  simply  part  of  social  education 
for  group  life.  (See  social  education  for  differentiation  of 
numerous  social  groups  in  which  normal  individuals  have  mem- 
bership, and  differentiation  of  the  specific  virtues  required  for 
each.) 

C.    Education  for  Leisure 

In  current  discussion  this  is  frequently  urged  as  an  important  composite 
objective.  Apparently  the  ideal  is  based  upon  facts  that :  (a)  Under  mod- 
ern economic  conditions  the  amount  of  time  each  adult  has  free  from 
vocational  obligations  and  necessities  of  rests  tends  to  increase;  and  (b) 
that  in  absence  of  proper  habituation,  leisure  time  is  spent  in  profitless  if 
not  degrading  pursuits.    (It  can  be  assumed  that  each  individual  will,  with- 


MISCELLANEOUS  OBJECTIVES  91 

in  his  opportunities,  spend  his  leisure  upon  such  diversion,  recreation,  and 
culture  as  then  appeals  to  him.) 

1.  Studies  are  needed  as  to  prevailing  facts  of  disposition  of  leisure  now. 
Until  recently  some  men  spent  much  leisure  in  saloons.  Now  men  of 
means  resort  to  clubs.  Where  facilities  are  available,  adolescents  spend 
time  on  sports.  Social  activities  incident  to  courtship  claim  many.  Mov- 
ing pictures  now  provide  diversion  for  millions  while  use  of  fiction  and 
other  easy  reading  claims  many  others.  Before  extensive  proposals  for  "edu- 
cation for  leisure"  are  made,  we  should  know:  (a)  Since  all  persons  now 
spend  their  leisure  in  somewise,  what  are  the  types  of  diversion  (and  what 
the  social  groups  among  whom  they  prevail)  that  are  deleterious  or  at  least 
of  relatively  low  value?  (Note  ease  here  with  which  moralists  and  pedants 
can  impute  artificially  low  or  high  valuations.)  (b)  What  are,  for  persons 
of  given  ages,  occupations,  native  interests,  and  the  like  optimum  types  of 
diversion,  recreation,  avocation,  social  intercourse,  worship,  and  self- 
culture  that  should  be  held  as  specific  objectives  of  educational  programs 
in  elementary  schools,  high  schools,  colleges,  vocational  schools,  extension 
courses,  etc. 

2.  Probability  suggested  that  "education  for  leisure"  will  not  prove  a 
workable  composite  objective.  Its  component  specific  objectives  properly 
belong  in  other  categories,  e.g.,  physical  recreation  and  diversion;  social 
(sociability)  recreation,  diversion;  cultural  recreation,  diversion;  avoca- 
tions for  incidental  gain,  recreation,  diversion.  Study  of  the  valid  objec- 
tives of  literature,  practical  arts,  travel,  fine  arts,  social  games,  sports,  etc., 
should  establish  their  values  for  profitable  leisure  time  occupations.  On 
negative  side  certain  wasteful  forms  of  use  of  leisure — dissipation, 
vagrancy,  gang  association — must  be  combatted  through  education  in 
hygiene  and  moral  behavior. 


CHAPTER  XII 
AGENCIES   OF  EDUCATION 

1.  The  objectives  of  sound,  constructive  social  action  are  to  be  realized 
largely  through  control  of  the  conditions  which  make  of  children  men  and 
women  capable,  as  far  as  practicable,  of  realizing  the  known  and  approved 
standards  of  a  wholesome  and  progressive  society. 

a.  These  conditions  may,  for  practical  purposes,  be  considered  in 

four  classes— namely,  those  due  to:  (a)  biological  heredity;  (b) 
nurturing  environment  (or  material  environment)  ;  (c)  by- 
education  of  social  environment  (family,  church,  street,  shop, 
clique)  ;  and  (d)  direct  education  of  school  and  other  agencies 
of  primarily  educational  purpose. 

b.  The  biological  fact  of  the  long  infancy  (plastic  period  in  the 
human  species — product  of  evolution  change)  constitutes  in 
part  the  basis  for  control,  especially  of  by-education  and  direct 
education. 

c.  Other  bases  are  found  in   (a)    exceptional  adaptability  of  the 

human  individual  as  regards  food,  shelter,  work,  general  edu- 
cability,  mobility;  (b)  accumulation  of  "social  inheritance"  of 
knowledge,  ideals,  institutions,  inventions;  and  (c)  capacity  for 
joint  or  cooperative  effort. 

2.  Biological  heredity,  for  social  economy,  constitutes  largely  a  fixed 
"given  quantity,"  but  under  general  designation,  "eugenics,"  some  proposals 
now  advanced  for  social  control  of  marriage  towards  favoring  increase  of 
stocks  or  strains  of  most  promise  (cf.  Galton,  Davenport,  Conklin). 

o.  Doubtless  eugenic  results  have  been  achieved  in  the  past — but 
only  in  part  purposefully — as  where  upper  castes  clung  to  "pure 
mating" :  (a)  Weak  stocks  and  strains  have  been  first  eliminated 
in  war,  famine,  settlement,  etc.  Perhaps  modern  war  reverses 
natural  selection;  (b)  strong  men  claimed  ablest  women  and  in 
largest  numbers  (wife  seizure,  wife  purchase,  polygamy). 
Perhaps  natural  selection  is  also  reversed  in  modern  middle- 
class  society, — cf.  studies  of  diminishing  birthrate  among  classes 
with  high  standards  of  living;  (c)  upper  castes  have  sought  to 
prevent  caste  mixture  or  mongrelizing ;  (d)  possibly  the  usual 
processes  of  courtship  selection  have  favored  the  strong,  intelli- 
gent, beautiful ;  and,  (e)  possibly,  except  where  competition  for 
higher  standards  of  living  is  fierce,  the  strong,  intelligent,  moral 
and  persistent  have,  as  parents,  favored  preponderant  increase 
of  adults  from  their  families. 
92 


AGENCIES  OF  EDUCATION  93 

(1)  Give   illustrations   of   eugenic   selections   now  operative; 
also  of  dysgenic  selection. 

b.  Negative  eugenics  proposes  social  action  to  prevent  unions  of 
those  who  would  probably  bequeath  hereditary  defects  to  pro- 
gency.     (Proposals?) 

c.  Positive  eugenics  looks  to  favoring  social  action  designed  to  in- 

crease those  of  good  heredity.     (Proposals?) 

d.  The  whole  subject  of  eugenics  is  still  in  the  stage  of  discussion 
and  examination  of  fundamental  facts  upon  which  tentative 
proposals  may  be  based,  (e.g.,  "Standards  of  selection";  inter- 
ference with  rights  of  individuality" ;  problems  for  democracy — 
"ethics  of  the  barnyard.") 

3.  Nurturing  material  environment  here  includes  those  factors  of  food, 
shelter,  security,  rest,  play  activity,  work  activity,  that  affect  the  growth 
of  the  child  from  birth  to  maturity.  To  the  social  economist,  many  of 
the  elements  of  these  factors  are  also  "fixed  given  quantities";  while 
others  are  increasingly  within  man's  control. 

o.  Primitive  man  had  little  besides  natural  protection  against 
climate,  limitations  of  food  supply,  danger  from  enemies.  Civi- 
lized society  devises  endless  means  of  procuring  protection  from 
natural  climate  (housing),  of  insuring  permanent  and  adequate 
food  supply  (agriculture,  cooking,  storage),  and  of  fencing  off 
enemies  (animal,  bacterial).  In  his  zeal,  he  sometimes  cuts  off 
play  activities  (physical,  intellectual,  emotional)  and  over- 
emphasizes work  activities,  especially  for  the  young. 

b.  Nurturing  environment,  if  too  favorable,  may  produce  "hot 
house"  social  conditions,  precocious  development,  specialized 
development,  "softening,"  and  so  result  in  termination  of  stock 
or  strain,  (cf.  Sterility  of  thoroughbred  animals,  historical 
ascendency  of  peoples  coming  from  "hard  conditions,"  alleged 
degeneracy  of  "city  dwellers."  Illustrate  from:  luxurious  soci- 
ety; "women  of  ease";  "soft  children";  excess  of  nurture,  etc.) 

c.  Hence  probability  that  heredity  sets  definte  limits  beyond  which 

the  material  environment  cannot  safely  be  rendered  more  favor- 
able. 

d.  Nevertheless,  the  rational  control  of  material  environment  to- 
wards providing  a  reasonably  "protected  childhood"  for  every 
child  received  by  society  constitutes  a  large  field  of  positive 
action  for  social  economy.  Direct  education  of  children  towards 
competent  parenthood  constitutes  one  essential  means.  Im- 
portant additional  fields  for  investigation  are:  (a)  Control  of 
size  of  family;  (b)  state  aid  towards  meeting  of  parental  re- 
sponsibilities; (c)  development  of  sanitation;  (d)  increasing 
social  control  of  economic  forces.  (What  are  some  current  pro- 
posals?   What  are  public  health  authorities  doing?) 


94  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

4.  The  child's  participation  in  social  life  (his  groups)  results  incessantly 
in  developments  and  changes  essentially  educational  in  character.  Where 
this  education  results  as  a  by-product  of  activities  not  primarily  educa- 
tional in  character  or  purpose,  it  is  here  called  by-education  (in  contrast 
with  direct,  purposeful  or  formal  education  in  school,  etc.). 

a.  The  child  is  instinctively  a  learner,  and,  within  limits,  his  elders — 
parents,  and  other  adults,  older  brothers,  sisters,  and  play- 
fellows,— are  instinctively  teachers.  Note  the  extent  to  which 
the  child  thus  acquires  speech,  conformities  in  behavior  (morals, 
manners),  knowledge,  orientations  of  feeling  (values,  preju- 
dices, sentiments,  ideals),  working  skills,  forms  of  play,  etc. 

b.  Note  that  primary  (i.e.,  determining)  functions  of  family  (or 
home),  shop,  (farm,  office,  road,  boat),  church,  playground, 
street,  club,  press,  stage,  police  power  are  not  education.  As 
they  become  better  adjusted  to  the  discharge  of  their  functions, 
these  agencies  may  become  less  valuable  as  a  means  of  right 
by-education  (cf.  contemporary  examples). 

c.  On  the  other  hand,  sometimes,  moderate  conscious  social  ad- 
justment may  greatly  enhance  right  educative  possibilities  of 
these  agencies  without  material  impairment  of  primary  functions 
(cf.  contemporary  achievements  in  housing,  homemaking  and 
other  forms  of  vocational  cooperative  education,  juvenile  court, 
educational  "movies,"  supervised  playgrounds,  Sunday  schools, 
boys'  clubs,  etc.). 

d.  By-education  is  the  inevitable  result  of  social  participation  on 
the  part  of  the  child.  Such  by-education  must  be  evaluated  as 
good,  or  bad;  expansive  or  restrictive  (of  social  personality); 
social  or  anti-social.  A  part  of  the  functions  of  direct  educa- 
tion may  be  offset  by  bad  results  of  by-education  (e.g.,  speech, 
morals,  narrow  group  loyalties,  combative  tendencies,  etc.). 

e.  For  social  economy,  important  fields  of  action  are  found  in  (a) 

fostering  right  educative  possibilities  of  social  agencies  without 
impairing  primary  functions;  (b)  providing  for  detachment  of 
child  when  adverse  influences  dominate;  (c)  fostering  agencies 
of  direct  education  to  meet  deficiencies  in  by-education  of  special 
classes. 

5.  Agencies  of  direct  education  are  created  by  society  to  meet  special 
needs  in  development  of  young  or  plastic  individuals,  not  met  in  satis- 
factory degree  by  existing  agencies  of  by-education.  Hence,  all  working 
or  practicable  definitions  of  required  functions  of  agencies  of  direct 
education,  while  conforming  to  the  general  standards  of  sound  social 
economy,  must,  in  general,  be  stated  in  terms  of  special  and  distinctive 
ends  to  be  achieved. 

a.  Purposive  education  towards  discharge  of  military  functions 
is  one  of  the  most  ancient  forms.    At  times,  specific  portions  of 


AGENCIES  OF  EDUCATION  95 

vocational  education  have  been  isolated  from  by-education 
(apprenticeship)  of  productive  activities,  as  direct  education. 
Direct  education  in  credal  forms  and  ritualistic  activities  was 
long  organized  apart  from  by-education  of  worship.  Direct  edu- 
cation for  prospective  rulers  (princes,  statesmen,  and  for  culture 
of  leisure  class)  resulted  in  schools  in  early  societies  where  con- 
querors and  conquered  produced  castes.  High  valuation  of 
literacy  for  Bible  reading,  voting,  vocational  capacity,  etc.,  gives 
schools  for  reading  and  writing  vernacular. 
b.  Note  at  present  scores  of  specific  aims  suggested  for  direct 
education,  resulting  in  general  from  increased  comprehension  of 
valuable  results  to  be  achieved  by  direct  education,  (cf.  Special 
forms  of  cultural,  physical,  social  and  vocational  education 
urged  for  inclusion  in  public  schools.) 

6.  Effective  coordination  of  the  various  developmental  and  educative 
agencies  usually  operative  becomes  increasingly  necessary  as  one  purpose 
in  sound  social  economy.  "Modern  social  economy"  exhibits  numberless 
attempts  largely  sporadic  and  half  effective  as  yet  at  such  coordination. 

a.  The  "school"  (for  direct  education)  is  the  most  purposive  and, 
consequently,  the  most  expensive  of  educational  agencies.  Its 
functions  are  properly  "residual" — that  is,  it  is  designed  to  pro- 
duce those  necessary  or  desirable  results  which  other  agencies, 
less  expensive,  cannot  adequately  perform.  Note  as  examples: 
(1)  vernacular  speech  is  learned  at  home;  but  advanced  speech, 
and  written  languages  largely  at  school;  (2)  most  vocations 
have  been  inexpensively  learned  through  "pick-up"  methods  of 
experience;  but  difficult  ones,  medicine,  military  leadership, 
stenography,  elementary  teaching,  have  long  been  learned  in 
schools;  (3)  until  very  recently  no  English  schools  attempted 
to  "teach"  literature  (that  being  held  as  a  proper  function  of 
the  home)  ;  but  American  schools  have  long  attempted  that  func- 
tion— fruitlessly?  (4)  until  recently  it  had  not  been  assumed 
that,  except  for  certain  vocations — usually  military  or  for 
"beauty  culture,"  schools  should  be  provided  to  aid  physical 
development;  now  we  think  certain  ends  of  physical  training  or 
development  can  only  be  met  by  schools;  (5)  technical  schools 
(engineering  are  best  examples)  systematically  teach  certain 
forms  of  technical  knowledge,  as  well  as  give  practice  in  some 
arts  (drawing,  laboratory  technique;,  but  "practical  phases"  of 
vocation  must  be  learned  in  field  as  belated  apprenticeship  (note 
that  medicine  and  teaching  were  once  in  similar  basis). 

b.  "Public  Schools"  controlled  by  society  at  large  have  peculiar 
residual  responsibilities,  at  least  where  the  collective  well-being 
is  involved,  as  to:  (1)  providing  "compensatory"  education  to 
offset  special  deficiencies  of  agencies  of  by-education — family 
neglect,  residential  slums,  deprivation  of  vocational  opportuni- 


g6  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

ties,  etc.;  (2)  provision  of  educational  aid  in  emergency  situa- 
tions— physical  defectiveness  (blind,  deaf,  crippled),  moral  delin- 
quency, mental  subnormality ;  (3)  provision  of  special  facilities 
for  the  unadjusted — immigrants,  dislocated;  (4)  provision  of 
vocational  education  where  historic  agencies  of  by-education 
break  down;  and  (5)  general,  (but  only  partially  responsible) 
oversight  of  educational  results  of  all  agencies. 
c.  Like  all  other  relatively  specialized  and  self-centered  institu- 
tions, schools  tend,  unless  counteractive  force  is  exerted;  (1) 
to  aggrandize  functions,  and  (2)  to  develop  disharmonies  with 
other  agencies.  Public  schools  especially  manifest  these  failings. 
For  example:  in  fields  of  vernacular  speech,  moral  standards, 
physical  development,  household  arts,  physical  development, 
"sense"  training  and  "manual"  training,  it  is  difficult  if  not  im- 
possible to  get  teachers  to  "appreciate,"  much  less  to  "evaluate" 
and  utilize,  effects  of  home,  street  and  vocation  education. 
Hence  arise  a  variety  of  problems  of  coordination. 

7.  The  effectiveness  of  family  and  home  education  lacks  as  yet  scien- 
tific examination.  This  is  the  oldest  agency;  and  its  contributions  are  still 
vital  in  nurture,  vernacular,  morals,  physical  habits,  elementary  general 
skills,  cultural  appreciations,  and  social  evaluations.  Educators  lightly 
assume  that  educational  efficacy  of  home  is  declining.  Manifest  failures 
of  coordination  exist.  Tentative  sociological  analysis  suggests  following 
as  examples  of  problems  needing  careful  examination : 

o.  The  classification  and  grading  of  homes  according  to  their  actual 
present  performance  of  functions  now  valued  educationally. 
For  example:  (1)  What  kinds  and  how  many  homes  now  so 
provide  conditions  for  children  of  4  to  6  as  to  render  kinder- 
garten attendance  largely  superfluous?  (2)  What  kinds  and  how 
many  homes  now  so  nourish  literary  interests  of  adolescents  as 
to  render  school  efforts  largely  superfluous?  (3)  Is  not  school 
teaching  of  "agriculture"  to  many  farm  boys  largely  carrying 
coals  to  Newcastle?  (4)  What  kinds  and  how  many  homes  now 
train  in  household  arts,  as  to  justify  specialized  school  programs 
for  girls  from  such  homes?  (5)  What  are  the  kinds  and  number 
of  homes  where  English  speech  is  so  bad  that  extensive  school 
efforts  toward  correct  standards  should  be  made  from  age  4  on- 
ward ?  (6)  What  are  kinds  and  numbers  of  homes  where  super- 
visory conditions  are  such  that  boys  (at  least)  from  9  to  15 
should  be  in  school  not  less  than  12  hours  daily,  and  for  300 
days  yearly  (English  day  parental  school)  ? 
b.  Can  schools,  by  moderate  stimulation,  standard  setting,  and 
slight  cooperation  greatly  improve  certain  varieties  of  home 
education?  (1)  The  home  is  the  natural  workshop  in  home- 
making;  why  should  not  schools  of  household  arts  and  vo- 
cational homemaking  use  it  to  the  full  ?  (2)  Adolescent  girls  com- 


AGENCIES   OF   EDUCATION  97 

pete  in  decoration  and  in  premature  development  of  character- 
istics, prized  by  the  "smart  set";  mothers  individually,  helpless 
against  combined  efforts  of  daughters ;  teachers  could  cooperate 
with  mothers  against  prematurity  and  extravagance, 
c.  Many  similar  problems  can  be  found  as  to:  (1)  use  of  vacations 
for  "beta"  types  of  education;  (2)  promotion  of  home  culture — 
reading,  music,  practical  arts;  (3)  cooperative  use  of  special 
offerings  in  moving  pictures  houses — for  example  on  Friday 
nights  and  Saturday  afternoons;  (4)  development  of  hygienic 
"practices." 

8.  The  effectiveness  of  shop  "pick  up"  vocational  education  offers  many 
openings  for  constructive  effort,  greatly  facilitated,  of  course,  by  com- 
pulsory continuation  school  attendance.  "Part-time"  schools — for  "initial" 
as  well  as  for  "up  grading"  vocational  education — offer  large  opportuni- 
ties. 

9.  Correctional  education  (of  offenders)  already  shows  many  attempts 
at  coordination  between  juvenile  prisons,  schools,  courts,  police,  and  proba- 
tion service.  But  ineffectiveness  still  generally  prevails,  partly  as  result  of 
obscure  objectives,  educational  as  well  as  criminological. 

10.  Play  facilities  primarily  for  physical  education  are  often  deficient 
in  cities.  Many  experiments  at  social  provision  of  these  are  under  way; 
but  here,  too,  satisfactory  specific  objectives  are  largely  wanting. 

11.  Religious  denominations  of  several  kinds  still  insist  that  religious  and 
secular  education  must  be  coordinated  in  one  school  if  results  are  to  be 
effective.    The  entire  subject  needs  examination. 

12.  Many  other  problems  of  coordination  of  education  and  specific 
determination  of  desirable  functions  of  schools  await  examination:  (a) 
Can  scouting  grow  on  present  basis,  or  is  closer  affiliation  with  schools 
desirable?  (b)  In  what  ways  shall  the  potentialities  of  the  photodrama  be 
utilized  towards  more  approved  objectives?  (c)  Should  not  every  school 
room  in  poor  quarters  and  in  rural  districts  be  a  "branch"  of  the  public 
library     (d)   (readers  add  others). 


CHAPTER  XIII 

MECHANISMS   OF  EDUCATION 
A.    Institutional 

1.  Agencies  of  nurture,  by-education,  and  direct  education  tend  always 
to  develop  mechanisms  of  means,  method  and  administration.  These  tend 
towards  regimentation  or  institutionalization,  their  upholding  and  further- 
ering  coming  to  be  held  as  ends  rather  than  as  means  to  realization  of 
more  real  values. 

o.  Since  education  is  a  minor  rather  than  a  major  function  of  non- 
school  agencies,  their  educational  mechanisms  are  less  fixed  than 
those  of  schools.  Note  how  methods  of  "shop"  education  have 
changed  from  elaborate  apprenticeship  of  the  crafts  with  advent 
of  power  driven  machinery.  Urbanization  of  population,  rational- 
izing of  religion,  commercializing  of  diversions,  scientific  organi- 
zation of  defence  (war)  and  democratization  of  courts  and 
police  power  have  greatly  modified  historic  educative  mechanisms 
ancillary  to  these  agencies. 

2.  Schools,  like  churches,  rest  largely  on  foundations  of  custom  long 
after  science  has  invaded  and  given  flexibility  to  mechanical  production, 
medicine,  war,  agriculture,  transportation  and  distance  communication. 
This  is  natural  since  basic  sciences  of  psychology  and  sociology  are  so 
much  less  developed  than  physics  (for  mechanical  production  and  trans- 
portation), chemistry,  (medicine,  agriculture),  biology  (medicine,  agri- 
culture), etc.  Apparently  scientific  procedure  will  affect  study  of  objectives 
of  education  later  than  administration  and  methods.  Hence  still  persist 
many  problems : 

a.  Schools  develop  routine  and  customary  standards  which  sub- 
sequent generations  accept  unintelligently — methods  of  recitation, 
size  of  classes,  subjects  of  study,  length  of  school  day,  week 
and  year,  disciplines,  etc.  But  these  routines  are  often  ill-adapted 
to  individuals  or  special  groups. 

b.  Supporters  of  established  routines  oppose  with  the  pertinacity 
of  all  the  faithful  (in  the  sociological  sense)  rival  types  of 
learning.  (Note  battles  of  vernaculars  with  literary  classics, 
of  science  with  the  classics,  of  vocational  education  with  aca- 
demic education,  and  of  modern  with  antique  methods  in  almost 
every  particular  field.) 

c.  But  education  as    a    guild    or    commercial    function     (private 

schools,  guild  schools,  church  schools,  etc.)   has  usually  been 
more  variable  than  it  is  likely  to  be  under  state  control  until 

98 


MECHANISMS  OF  EDUCATION  99 

governmental  agencies  develop  appreciations  and  methods  of 
scientific  evaluation. 
d.  Note  development  during  last  century  of  uniformitarianism 
(France,  Russia,  Japan,  New  York  state),  compulsory  attend- 
ance, "standard"  sizes  of  classes  and  rooms,  state  or  municipal 
courses  of  study,  centralized  text  book  production,  fixed  (and 
sometimes  mechanical)  grading,  mechanical  supervision,  etc. 
But  note  present  reactions  due  to  public  interest  in  "the  indi- 
vidual" and  in  more  "socialized"  schools.  Concrete  manifesta- 
tions found  in  "elective  courses"  and  "subjects,"  and  local  ex- 
perimentation as  well  as  in  devotion  paid  to  such  catch  phases 
as  "independence  of  the  text  book,"  "adapting  education  to 
local  needs,"  "relating  education  to  life  of  the  child,"  etc. 

3.  Enlargement  of  administrative  units  (from  district  to  town  and  city, 
from  town  to  county,  from  county  to  state,  and  now  perhaps  from  state 
to  nation)  or  "centralization"  is  inevitably  accomplished  by  mechanizing 
tendencies,  the  injurious  effects  of  which  can  only  be  counteracted  by 
vigilance  and  work.  Bureaucracies  and  bureaucratic  methods  flourish  in 
centralized  governmental  procedures  of  every  sort  (except  when  the  "new 
broom"  temporarily  sweeps  clean).  Civil  service,  permanent  tenure,  pro- 
motion by  seniority,  administration  by  "document,"  division  of  responsi- 
bility, decision  by  boards,  all  contribute  to  inflexibility,  lack  of  adaptation, 
extension  of  influences  of  "personality." 

Nevertheless  increasing  centralization  in  all  forms  of  public  education 
is  probably  inevitable — for  sake  of  expert  service,  economy  of  large 
operations,  comprehensive  planning.  Hence  evil  effects  of  "dead"  mechani- 
zation must  be  anticipated  or  sought  out  and  corrected — perhaps  by  other 
mechanisms. 

B,  Adjustments  of  Individuals  to  Groups 

1.  Adjustments  of  the  individual  to  the  group  relationship  are  instinc- 
tive in  only  some  cases,  e.g.,  pairing  of  sexes,  submission  of  infant  to 
parents,  formation  of  children's  sociability  groups  (including  more  dur- 
able "gang"),  etc.  In  most  cases,  adjustment  involves  conflict  of  de- 
sires and  felt  interests— individualistic  with  social,  near  with  remote, 
concrete  with  abstract.  Processes  by  which  the  group  absorbs  and  shapes 
the  individual  are  described  as  "social  control." 

a.  Formulate    statements     descriptive    of    current    controversies, 

"state   vs.   individual,"   "individualistic   vs.  collectivistic,"   ends 
of  social  organization. 

b.  Most  social  groups  are  longer  lived  than  the  individual  mem- 
bers. Again,  they  have  a  solid  corporate  character,  while  in- 
dividual members  come  and  go.  They  evolve  customs,  creeds, 
formularies,  codes,  initiations,  penalties, — and  extensive  me- 
chanism to  lure  and  hold  the  individual.  (Illustration  from  ex- 
perience.) 


100  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

c.  Devices  of   social   control   utilize,   amongst   other  means:    (a) 

the  social  and  cooperating  instincts  of  the  individual  (and  his 
dislike  for  exclusion,  non-recognition)  ;  (b)  his  tendency  to 
imitate  or  from  suggestion  to  form  attitudes,  sentiments, 
valuations;  (c)  his  devotion  to  his  own  interests,  success  of 
life,  personal  aggrandizement,  dislike  of  the  strange  and  of 
the  foreigner;  (d)  his  uncritical  attitude  in  face  of  mass  sug- 
gestion.    (Illustrate  from  socialization  of  small  children.) 

d.  The  educational  forces  employed  by  the  group  in  adopting  new 
members  are  in  the  nature  of  by-education;  but,  on  occasion, 
direct  education  is  provided.  Illustrate  from  initiations  (Hut- 
ton  Webster,  Sutherland),  ceremonial  routines,  education  for 
communion,  schools  for  citizenship. 

e.  Certain  characteristics  of  the  individual,  more  or  less  beyond 

his  personal  control,  are  often  held  as  prerequisite  for  specific 
group  membership;  e.g.,  birth,  rank,  race,  art  talent,  courage 
in  combat,  wealth,  craft,  skill.  (Illustrate.) 
/.  Means  of  control  exerted  on  behalf  of  certain  types  of  groups 
may  be  anti-social,  that  is,  divisive  of  the  larger  society,  e.g., 
birth  standards,  sumptuary  standards,  fostering  of  inter-group 
antagonisms,  etc.     (Give  concrete  examples.) 

2.  The  individual  who  fits  most  readily  into  a  variety  of  the  groups 
approved  at  any  time,  possesses  as  products  of  heredity,  environmental 
surroundings,  and  education  a  variety  of  recognizable  qualities  (habits, 
attitudes,  valuations,  appreciations,  insights)  which,  when  developed  to 
socially  approved  degrees,  are  called  virtues.  We  say  of  the  approved 
individual  that  he  is  sincere,  obedient,  industrious,  adaptable,  conscien- 
tious, honest,  truthful,  etc.  (List  100  "virtues"  and  their  "disapproved" 
opposites.)  (Define  characteristics  of  the  "superior"  farmer;  minister; 
unskilled  laborer;  single  woman — age  30-50 — of  wealth  and  culture.) 
(Illustrate  different  grades  or  kinds  of:  "loyalties";  "honesties";  "tolera- 
tions"; "altruisms.")  (Show  how  doctrine  of  "formal  discipline"  vitiates 
most  current  discussion  of  moral  education  or  character  formation.) 

o.  Groups  formed  for  one  function  often  exercise  others.  Or 
membership  of  one  group  may  be  completely  decomposed  for 
exercise  of  other  function,  (cf.  Giddings,  constituent  and 
component  societies.)     (Illustrate  in  current  life.) 

b.  Interlacings  of  groups  and  extension  of  areas  within  which 
mutuality  of  interest  and  possibilities  of  cooperation  are  per- 
ceived give  us  enlarged  societies,  (cf.  Large  nations,  "Chris- 
tianity," "Catholicism,"  "banking  interests,"  "Wagnerites," 
"golf  players,"  "international  socialism,"  "pan-slavism,"  "anti- 
saloon  forces.")     (Add  examples   from  experience.) 

c.  Usually,  the  individual  holds  a  dual  position  towards  each 
group  of   which  he  is  a  member:      his   interests,  at  least  in 


MECHANISMS   OF   EDUCAt.TON^      ,  ,  I0I; 

a  degree  and  for  the  time,  are  apparently  impeded  by  it — 
his  freedom  is  restricted,  his  services  are  chained,  assessments 
are  levied,  exercise  of  likings  is  limited;  and,  per  contra,  his 
interests  are  promoted  through  the  reinforcement  given  by  the 
group.     (Give  concrete  illustrations.) 

d.  Similarly,  different  kinds  of  groups  tend  to  claim  exclusive 
interest  and  energy  of  individual.  Note  contemporary  examples 
of  competition  for  interests  and  energy  of  individual;  vocation 
vs.  home,  church,  political  party,  sociability,  culture,  etc.  (Give 
concrete  illustrations.) 

e.  Again,  small  groups  tend  usually  to  strengthen  at  expense  of 
larger  groups  exercising  same  function,  unless  artificially  re- 
strained, (cf.  Gang  vs.  community;  city  vs.  state;  province 
vs.  nation;  family  vs.  community;  clique,  party,  cult,  sect  Vs. 
large  cognate  groups.)  But  external  pressure,  as  well  as 
growing  internal  sense  of  need,  tends  to  cement  small  groups 
into  larger  groups  (cf.  examples  of  nation-making,  coalescing 
of  economic  groups,  federation  of  worshipping  groups,  co- 
operation of  cultural  and  sociability  groups). 

/.  Examine  the  thesis  that,  in  the  region  of  civilized  and  semi- 
civilized  human  life,  "Darwinian  selection"  and  "survival  of 
the  fittest"  may  be  much  more  a  struggle  between  forms  of 
group  organization  (their  effectiveness  in  promoting  capacity  to 
survive)  than  among  individuals  composing  the  groups.  (111. 
from  the  well  ordered  state  of  weak  individuals  against  the 
poorly  ordered  one  of  strong  individualists;  regulars  vs.  mob, 
etc.  Explain  evolution  of  monogamous  family,  public  adminis- 
tration of  defence  and  law,  business  corporations,  trade  unions, 
hierarchical  religious  organizations,  political  party  machinery, 
etc  What  are  contemporary  examples  of  societies  and  social 
forms   of   organization  being  "pushed  to  the   wall"?) 

g.  Man's  "group  life"  was  doubtless  once  very  simple.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  evolved  from  an  "animal"  (perhaps  gre- 
garious) ancestor  having  no  "social  inheritance."  The  numer- 
ous changes  he  has  undergone  (e.g.,  upright  position,  enlarge- 
ment of  brain,  hand  of  development,  loss  of  hair,  acquisition  of 
speech,  invention  of  tools,  objective  conservation  of  experience, 
monogamy,  prolongation  of  infancy,  specialization  of  occupa- 
tions, religious  life)  have  all  imposed  severe  strains  upon  his 
biological  inheritance  which  is  readjusted  slowly. 

h.  The  "institutions"  of  the  group  life  of  man — those  composites 
of  customs,  laws,  and  knowledge,  with  objective  creations 
(buildings,  art  products,  improvements  of  land,  boundaries, 
languages)  which  survive  while  individuals  come  and  go — 
serve  in  large  part  as  the  means  of  studying  sociology. 


102  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

i.   History  is  a  kind  of  social  science,  occupied  chiefly  with  the 
scientific  description  of  the  "singular"  event,  the  extensive  or 
detailed   fact.    It   is,   therefore,   a   reservoir  of  the  materials 
of  sociology  which  is  occupied  chiefly  with  the  "general,"  with 
"causal  relationships,"  and,  ultimately,  with  prediction  and  con- 
trol.    (Compare  "descriptive  geography"  with  physiography,— 
in  its  interpretative  aspects ;  surveys  of  production,  mining  areas, 
weather,  population — census,  migration,  etc,  respectively,  with 
economics,    geology,    meteorology  and  the   sociology  of  pop- 
ulation distribution,  mobility  etc.)     (Johnson,  H.,  The  Teaching 
of  History,  1-28.) 
3.  Of  especial  importance  to  education  (as  a  field  of  applied  science) 
are  those  contributions  of  sociology  which  explain  (a)  the  character  and 
functioning  of  the  social  and  of  the  (apparently)  individualistic  instincts 
in  man;  (fc)  the  varieties  of  means  and  methods  effective  in  "social  con- 
trol";   (c)   the  character  of  the  normal   "hierarchical"   organization   in 
any  form  of  group  life — economic,  sociability,  religious,  political  (includ- 
ing defensive),  cultural — which  gives  optimum  results  (to  the  individual 
and  to  his  fellows — his  society)  ;  (d)  the  actual  significance  of  the  values 
implicit  in  the  words  "democracy,"  "culture,"  "freedom,"  "righteousness," 
etc.;   (e)  the  survivals  of  primitive  life  (in  biological  inheritance  and  in 
social  inheritance)  which  necessarily  limit  and  predetermine,  in  a  degree, 
education;  and  (/)  the  character  and  scope  of  those  "improvements"  in 
society  which  are  to  be  achieved  chiefly  through  specified  forms  of  edu- 
cation. 

o.  We  must  look  chiefly  to  psychology,  of  course,  for  explanation 
of  the  possibilities  of,  and  limitations  to,  the  educability  of  the 
individual.  But,  as  regards  the  qualities  of  chief  significance 
to  the  group  life  (the  expansion,  modification  or  repression  of 
the  social  instincts — sociability,  religiosity,  conscience,  coopera- 
tion, honor,  anger,  sex,  conformity,  leadership,  worship  of  un- 
seen, etc. ;  the  promotion  of  acquisitiveness — wealth  getting  and 
conserving;  development  of  vocational  productiveness;  pro- 
motion of  civic  attitudes;  etc.)  we  probably  need  a  special 
"social  psychology." 
b.  But  "educational  sociology"  must  look  chiefly  to  the  front.  It 
is  primarily  concerned  with  the  definition  and  comparative 
evaluation  of  a  long  series  of  educational  goals  which  are  so 
concrete  and  practicable  that  each  can  be  made  the  conscious 
objective  of  educational  effort,  and  which,  at  the  same  time, 
are  so  closely  and  integrally  related  to  the  various  highest 
"goods"  that  we  can  now  conceive  (in  relation  to  realities,^  not 
"castles  in  Spain"),  that  there  shall  not  be  excessive  misdi- 
rection or  waste  of  effort  in  realizing  them. 


MECHANISMS   OF   EDUCATION  IO3 

C.    Problems  for  Study 

1.  Supply  from  experience  realistic  "case"  materials  to  illustrate  each 
of  the  following: 

a.  The  processes  by  which,  at  twenty  years  of  age,  a  youth  has 
been  assimilated  to  his  family's  standards  of  language,  man- 
ners, religious  views,  social  standards. 

b.  The  conditions  under  which  man  at  maturity  has  "grown  away 
from"  his  family's  desires  and  standards  of  morals,  religion, 
politics. 

e.  The  processes  by  which  a  man  who  at  thirty  is  a  devout  Metho- 
dist has  probably  reached  that  stage. 

d.  H.  B.  at  fifty-five  is  a  rich,  powerful  and  aggressive  railway 
president.  He  has  a  style-loving  family,  is  a  member  of  an 
aristocratic  city  church,  and  an  active  member  of  several 
clubs.  His  boyhood  was  spent  on  a  small  farm  where  the 
economic  struggles  of  his  parents  were  severe.  What  have 
been  probably  strongest  "socializing"  influences  in  his  life  to 
date? 

e.  The  processes  which  make  a  Vermont  boy  probably  a  "good" 

Republican,  and  a  similar  South  Carolina  boy  a  "good"  Demo- 
crat. 

/.  The  processes  by  which  the  daughter  of  a  prosperous,  urban 
dwelling  New  England  family  of  "old  stock"  becomes  at  forty 
a  "lady"  of  characteristic  physique,  ideals,  and  habits. 

g.  The  process  by  which  young  immigrant  finally  becomes  a 
"good"  American. 

2.  Give  instances  where  groupings  formed  for  vocational,  political  re- 
form, or  other  purposes,  have  gradually  substituted  sociability  and  other 
functions,  e.g.,  Masons,  the  "Ancient  and  Honorable  Artillery,"  clubs, 
cultural  associations. 

3.  Describe  the  mechanisms  now  necessary  to  the  operation  of:  the 
Republican  party,  the  Red  Cross,  the  Catholic  church,  the  American  Fed- 
eration of  Labor,  The  Rochdate  Cooperative  Societies,  and  the  Daughters 
of  the  Revolution. 

4.  Give  from  experience  realistic  "case"  materials  to  illustrate: 

a.  Difficulties  encountered  by  a  man  in  giving  expected  time  and 
energy  respectively  to  his  family,  vocation,  church,  political 
party,  clubs,  community  associates  (sociability),  cultural  asso- 
ciations, and  to  himself  for  health,  meditation,  rest. 

b.  Conflict  of  demands  on  prosperous  and  intelligent  woman  of 

family,  church,  civic  associates,  cultural  associates,  etc. 

c.  Tendency  of  individuals  to  give  of  themselves  excessively  to 

one  type  of  group  activity. 


104  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

d.  Difficulties  of  separating  young  people  from  primitive  groupings 
and  of  allying  them  to  more  important  adult  groupings. 

5.  Two  large  nations  confront  each  other  with  such  opposed  interests 
that  war  always  threatens.  Discuss  probable  effects  in  each  nation  on: 
centralization  of  government;  subordination  of  religious  strife;  adminis- 
tration of  justice;  expenditures  for  education;  promotion  of  public  sani- 
tation; development  of  individual  initiative;  appearance  and  activity  of 
radical  political  parties. 

6.  Is  it  probable  that  in  the  North  Temperate  Zone  the  following  have 
had  survival  values  of  importance;  and  if  so,  in  what  probable  forms 
of  success  in  war,  economic  production,  eugenic  fertility,  sustaining  of 
general  health,  increase  of  useful  knowledge,  maintenance  of  justice, 
etc;  monogamy,  monotheistic  worship,  subjection  of  women,  hereditary 
aristocracy  and  rulership,  democracy,  slavery,  separation  of  church  and 
state,  public  support  of  education,  fine  art,  private  property,  written  con- 
stitutions, public  promotion  of  scientific  research. 

7.  Discuss  the  "scope"  of  publicly  supported  education,  as  found,  e.g., 
in  a  Western  State  in  the  United  States,  in  promoting  such  "social 
values"  as  health,  morals,  justice,  wealth,  security,  beauty  in  life,  knowl- 
edge,  sociability,   etc. 

8.  Hence  deduce  for  preliminary  consideration,  schemes  of  "aims  of 
education"  desirable  on  behalf  of: 

a.  The  "scientifically  talented"   (in  several  species). 

b.  The  artistically  talented  (in  several  species). 

c.  The  very  strong  of  body  and  average  of  mind. 

d.  The  very  sociable. 

e.  The  innately  or  early  biassed  criminal  or  vicious. 
/.  The  moron. 

g.  The  intelligent  of  feeble  bodies. 

References:  Bagehot,  Boaz,  Breckenridge,  Cannon,  Carver,  Churchill, 
Wells  (1),  Cooley  (2),  Coolidge,  Davenport  (2),  Devine,  Dugdale,  Gid- 
dings,  Huntington  (1),  Keller,  King,  Kropotkin,  McDougall,  Mercier, 
Morris,  Oppenheimer,  Parmelee,  Nietzsche,  Putnam,  Reid,  Riis  (1), 
Ross  (1),  Smith  (2),  Wells  (1). 


CHAPTER  XIV 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  CURRICULA 

A.  Sociological  Applications 

Among  other  purposes,  the  methods  and  results  of  educational  sociology 
may  be  applied  to: 

1.  The  determination,  in  any  particular  case,  of  the  respective  actual 
or  possible  contributions  towards  approved  ends  of  development  and 
education  of:  heredity;  material  environment;  social  environment 
(agencies  of  by-education)  ;  and  direct  education. 

a.  For  example,  oral  communication.  By  inheritance,  the  child 
derives  vocal  organs,  aural  organs,  nervous  mechanisms  re- 
quired. (Note  cases  of  defective  heredity.)  Material  en- 
vironment gives  few  special  effects.  By-education  gives  defi- 
nite forms  of  speech — English  or  French,  grammatical  or  the 
reverse,  dialect  or  pure  pronunciation.  By-education  exerted 
by  many  agencies  besides  home.  School  functions  in:  (a) 
correcting  defects  due  to  bad  by-education  in  vernacular;  (b) 
giving  pupils  new  levels  of  attainment  (voice  culture,  oratory, 
sentence  structure,  business  voice,  etc.)  ;  and  in  teaching  foreign 
language. 

b.  Provide  parallel  illustrations  for:   (a)  written  communication; 

(b)  religious  creeds;  (c)  vocational  competency  (e.g.,  dentist, 
sailor,  bank  president,  piano  playing)  ;  (d)  love  of  poetry;  (e) 
mathematical  powers;   (/)  scientific  inquiry. 

2.  The  evaluation  of  the  contributions  of  natural  inheritance  towards 
individual  powers,  as  a  basis  of  determining  actual  and  possible  contribu- 
tions of  direct  education. 

a.  What  is  desirable  scope  and  character  of  direct  education  for 
persons  born:  (a)  blind?  (b)  measurably  below  the  average  in 
general  mental  ability  (moron)  ?  (c)  with  a  clear  genius  for 
singing?  (d)  with  exceptional  capacity  for  abstract  mathe- 
matics ? 
1.  What  are  possible  vocational  guidance  tests?  Educational 
guidance  tests? 

c.  What  bearings  on  educational  programs  should  result  from 
knowledge  that  certain  individuals  are  by  heredity:  (a)  pre- 
disposed to  tuberculosis?      (&)    of  ancestry  with  long  record 

105 


106  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

for  viciousness  and  immorality?  (c)  predisposed  to  expression 
in  plastic  arts? 

3.  The  evaluation  of  contributions  towards  optimum  development  and 
education  of  results  of  agencies  of  by-education. 

a.  What  are  normal  contributions  of  specified  types  of  homes  to 

(a)  general  knowledge?  (b)  body  postures?  (c)  dietetic  habits 
and  tastes?  (d)  appreciation  of  plastci  arts?  (e)  vocabularies, 
ages  12  to  14?  (/)  ideals  of  honesty?  (g)  habits  of  honest 
practice?  (h)  vocational  homemaking  competency  for  girls? 
(*)   vocational  competency  for  farm  boys? 

b.  What  are  contributions   of  normal  play  in  hilly  rural  region 

for  boys  12-14  (or  other  specified  age  or  sex)  to:  (a)  general 
muscular  development?  (&)  various  habits  of  initiative,  self- 
reliance,  etc.?  (c)  sex  continence?  (d)  nature  knowledge? 

c.  What  are  contributions  as  by-education  of  wage-earning  em- 
ployment of:  (a)  girls,  16-20,  in  well-managed  department 
store,  as  regards:  morals?  health?  experience  capable  of  func- 
tioning later  in  homemaking?  useful  general  intelligence?  (b) 
boys,  in  telegraph  messenger  service?  (c)  girls,  as  helpers  or 
workers  in  textile  factory? 

d.  What  are  valuable  contributions  (or  reverse)  towards  (specified 
classes)  of  church  worship?  Shakespearean  plays?  modern 
dramas?  moving  pictures?  free  public  library  reading?  the 
afternoon  newspapers? 

4.  The  evaluation  of  actual  or  possible  contributions  of  specialized 
forms  of  agencies  of  direct  education. 

a.  Describe  twenty  different  types  of  schools  and  alleged  aims  of 
each. 

B.  Definitions 

1.  General  definitions.  The  offerings  of  subjects,  courses,  supervised 
activities,  etc.,  made  by  a  school  on  behalf  of  a  designated  group  of 
learners  will  be  called  a  curriculum.  A  strand  or  element  of  the  curricu- 
lum consisting  of  organized  materials  of  instruction,  etc.,  here  called 
subject.  A  stated  portion  of  a  subject  is  called  a  course.  The  subjects 
(or  for  a  stated  period,  courses)  taken  by  an  individual  student  is 
designated  student's  program. 

a.  Examples  of  curricula:  kindergarten;  elementary  school  (first 
six  grades);  junior  high  school  industrial  arts;  junior  high 
school  modern  language;  high  school  college  preparatory;  high 
school  general;  high  school  general  for  first  two  years;  high 
school  technical ;  high  school  commercial ;  blind  children  12-16 ; 
morons  12-25;  illiterate  negroes  18-25;  day  industrial  school, 
machinists;  day  industrial  school,  printers;  day  industrial 
school,  weavers;  day  commercial  school,  stenographers;  day 
commercial  school,  salesgirls;  agricultural  school,  gardeners; 
agricultural  school,  poultrymen ;  homemaking  day  school,  girls 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   CURRICULA  107 

14-17;  homemaking  day  school,  girls  20-24;  evening  extension 
vocational  school,  stenographers;  short-course  day  extension 
agricultural  school,  gardeners;  elementary  school  teaching; 
high  school  teaching,  modern  language;  agricultural  school 
teaching;  school  nursing;  medical;  (blind  school  teaching;  uni- 
versity extension  (cultural),  etc. 

b.  Examples   of   subjects;   kindergarten   stories,   primary   reading 

(mechanics)  ;  elementary  school  playground;  junior  high  school 
French;  junior  high  school  scouting;  senior  high  school  gen- 
eral science;  stenographers'  English  language;  carpenters' 
drawing;  gardeners'   soils;   college   (liberal)    government;   etc. 

c.  Examples  of  courses:   first  grade  nature  study;   eighth  grade 

oral  reading ;  eleventh  grade  physics ;  first  year  college  algebra ; 
adult  illiterates,  beginners'  reading;  etc. 

d.  A  curriculum  ordinarily  consists  of  the  offerings  (with  alter- 
natives) designed  for  a  group  of  students  exhibiting  modal 
capacities,  interests,  prospective  needs.  If  curriculum  is  pre- 
scriptive in  detail  for  all,  then  curriculum  and  students'  pro- 
gram are  identical.  But  ordinarily  individual  students  over 
twelve  years  of  age  will  be  given  alternative  subjects  (and 
courses)  within  one  curriculum;  and,  where  school  offers  two 
or  more  curricula,  students  may  be  permitted  to  make  pro- 
gram (of  studies  or  courses)  from  several  curricula. 

e.  Note  abandonment  of:  classical  course,  commercial  course,  etc. 

2.  "Teaching  unit"  will  be  employed  to  designate  portion  of  offering 
whereby  particular  objective  is  to  be  accomplished.  This  objective  may 
be  simply  one  step  or  stage  towards  larger  objective.  Ordinarily,  a  "cur- 
riculum" is  largest  unit ;  a  "course"  is  a  "long  unit" ;  while  a  course  may 
be  broken  into  "short  units,"  such  as  lessons,  exercises,  experiments, 
problems,  projects,  topics,  cases,  readings,  conferences,  recitations,  re- 
ports, quizzes,  inquiries,  essays,  activities,  etc 

a.  The  need  of  sound  pedagogical  organization  of  long  as  well 

as  short  units  as  a  condition  of  effective  school  work  should 
be  apparent.  Much  confusion  exists  here  now.  Ordinarily,  for 
younger  learners:  (a)  the  ultimate  objectives  of  curricula  and 
courses  must  be  taken  on  faith;  but  (b)  the  proximate  ob- 
jectives of  short  units  should  be  clearly  felt  and  comprehended. 

b.  In  alpha  courses  (work,  instructing  and  training  towards  pre- 
established  goals)  definite  organization  of  pedagogical  units 
necessary.  In  beta  (play,  developmental)  activities  organiza- 
tion units  should  not  be  artificial,  to  interfere  with  desirable 
spontaneity;  but  here  also,  definite  organization  of  units  and 
equally  definite  organization  of  means  of  flexibility,  desirable, 
(cf.  Handbook  of  Scouting,  Children's  Book   of  Knowledge, 


108  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

Popular  Science,  Popular  Mechanics,  Young  People's  Guides 
to  Reading,  etc.,  for  good  examples.) 

c.  What  are  probabilities  that  most  teaching  units  are  now  un- 

sound? Query  as  to:  length;  integration  with  best  learning 
capacities;  integral  character  as  regards  approaches,  concen- 
tration, proliferation,  application;  objectivity  of  resulting 
achievement. 

d.  Probability  that  "correlation"  can  be  achieved  only  within  short 
teaching  unit.  Correlation  of  subjects  (or  courses)  not  prac- 
ticable (except  by  creating  new  subject  out  of  two  or  more 
previously  independent).  But  within  short  unit  possible  to 
have  major  specific  objective,  and  minors  from  other  fields 
(e.g.,  learning  to  use  camera,  application  of  knowledge  of 
optics;  writing  essay,  use  of  spelling,  etc.). 

c.  Lessons,  exercises,  experiments,  recitations,  well  understood 
units.  "Problem"  understood  in  mathematics;  imperfectly  else- 
where; a  valuable  unit  for  "thinking"  activities.  "Project" 
designates  activity  chiefly  concerned  with  visible  concrete 
achievement  (and  may  be  classified  as  "school  execution"; 
"home  execution";  "observation  and  report";  etc.).  "Case" 
designates  larger  unit  of  individual  investigation,  report,  etc. 
"Reading"  self-explanatory. 

/.  Determine,  hypothetically,  suitable  units  for  boys,  12-16,  in 
physical  development;  rifle  shooting;  towards  useful  adult 
forms  of  honesty,  truthfulness,  initiative;  correction  of  defects 
of  speech ;  towards  good  writing  (composition)  ;  right  ideals 
of  citizenship  in  local  affairs;  utilization  of  good  in  con- 
temporary literature;  humane  treatment  of  animals;  develop- 
ment of  "mechanical"  interests;  development  of  musical  ap- 
preciation; development  of  power  of  sustained  oral  presen- 
tation of  ideas  to  audience ;  mastery  of  reading  French ;  mastery 
of  important  stages  of  machinist's  trade. 

3.  Distinction  between  vocational  and  "liberal"  objectives. 

a.  Note  that  popular  usage  always  clearly  recognizes  vocational 
competency  in  men  and  women  20-50,  but  without  discriminat- 
ing or  evaluating  sources — heredity,  environment,  by-education, 
direct  education. 

b.  Popular  usage  also  recognizes  results  of  "liberal"  education. 
"Cultivated,"  "well  informed,"  "urbane,"  "possessed  of  broad 
vision,"  "tolerant,"  are  some  approved  characterizations. 

c.  First  positive  measure  of  vocational  power  is  ability  to  produce 

exchangeable  goods  or  service — goods  or  service  for  which 
other  producers  are  willing  to  exchange  their  goods  and 
service. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  CURRICULA  IOO, 

d.  Second  positive  measure :  to  continue  as  effective  producer  over 
long  series  of  years. 

e.  Third  positive  measure:   ability  to  adjust— advance,  shift,  re- 

gress— in  productive  ability  as  circumstances  warrant — youth 
to  prime,  prime  to  old  age,  follower  to  leader,  routine  to  ex- 
ecutive, "generalist"  to  specialist. 

/.  [Fourth  positive  measure :  ability  to  render  in  and  through  voca- 
tion, civic  service — service  not  compensated  for  in  command 
over  exchangeable  goods.  (Certain  forms  of  professional 
service,  superior  and  conscientious  grades  of  workmanship, 
fidelities  and  other  qualities  in  work  beyond  those  "nominated 
in  the  bond.")  (Note  that  military  service — except  full-time 
specialist — civic  service,  family  service — except  specialist — and 
general  contributions  to  social  order  and  progress  are  not  here 
linked  with  vocation;  these  are  "civic  service.") 

g.  First  negative  measure  of  vocational  power;  ability  to  main- 
tain health  and  strength  against  (and  sometimes  through) 
pressures  and  specializations  of  vocation. 

h.  Second  negative  measure:  ability  so  to  adjust  and  control  pro- 
ductive efforts  as  to  insure  development  and  conservation  of 
optimum  cultured  personality. 

f.  Third  negative  measure:  ability  so  to  adjust  and  control  pro- 

ductive work  as  to  insure  optimum  discharge  of  civic  and 
family  social   obligations. 

4.  "Power"  will  be  used  to  designate  in  general  abilities  to  perform 
useful  work,  profitable  execution.  "Power"  in  penmanship,  spelling, 
reading  French,  using  trigonometry  in  engineering,  setting  type,  draughts- 
manship, teaching  primary  school,  etc.,  denotes  abilities  to  execute  results, 
in  accordance  with  certain  standards  accepted  by  society. 

5.  "Capacities"  will  be  used  to  denote  ability  to  "receive,"  to  appre- 
ciate, to  assimilate.  Capacity  in  literature,  art,  play,  hygiene,  history, 
etc,  thus  designates  in  each  case  appreciation  of  some  estimated  or 
evaluated  degree. 

6.  Ultimate  values  of  "liberal"  or  "general"  education  are  conceived  as : 

(a)  development  of  natural  powers  and  capacities  in  approved  direc- 
tions by  simple  provision  of  suitable  environment  and  stimulation;  and 

(b)  artificially  controlled  promotion  of  capacities  for  appreciation,  and 
execution  along  non-vocational  lines.  (Illustrate  from  specific  food 
habits,  play,  competitions,  tastes,  interests,  moral  standards,  sentiments, 
attitudes,  capacities.) 

a.  Indicate  popular  tests  of  liberal  education. 


110  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 


C.   Individual   Programs  of   Study 


1.  Offerings  of  all  schools  tend  to  increase,  thus  giving  problems  of 
election  of  subjects  and  courses  in  framing  individual  programs — for 
year  or  longer  period. 

a.  Note  tendency  of  older  colleges  and  secondary  schools  to 
permit  election  among  curricula  (often  called  "courses")  each 
relatively  rigid.  Analyse  theory  of  "compulsory  concentration 
and  dispersion"  of  studies. 

b.  Review  arguments  for  fixed  curricula.  "Elements  of  know- 
ledge," "five  windows  of  the  soul,"  "fundamentals  of  the  social 
inheritance,"  "culture  of  the  educated  man." 

c.  Review  history  of  "the  elective  system"  in  school  and  college. 

Supposed  advantages  and  disadvantages.  "Of  less  importance 
what  one  studies  than  how  one  studies." 

d.  Contrast  possibilities  of  election  in  vocational  and  in  liberal 
education. 

2.  Principles  to  be  employed  in  guidance  of  election  among  educational 
offerings  not  yet  established.     Following  proposals  are  hypothetical: 

o.  During  period  of  compulsory  attendance  school  should  define 
and  require  in  substantial  measure  those  forms  of  instruction 
and  training  (especially  of  alpha  types)  that,  in  some  cases 
neutralizing  differences,  and  in  some  cases  compensating  for 
deficiencies,  of  by-education,  will  promote  group  homogeneity. 
(Illustrate  from  speech,  written  language,  general  science,  his- 
tory, social  science,  hygiene,  geography,  inter-racial  and  inter- 
national knowledge,  art  appreciation,  utilities  appreciation, 
etc.) 

b.  During  voluntary  school  attendance   (post-compulsory  period) 

it  is  to  be  assumed  that  all  working  time  of  learner  is  profit- 
ably employed;  hence  that  residue  for  school  (full-time  or 
part-time  by  approved  arrangement)  is  profitably  employed ;  but 
where  choice  of  offerings  is  sought  by  learner,  burden  of  proof 
rests  on  school  to  establish  reasons  for  refusing  learner  choice 
in  any  case,   where  administrative  conditions  permit. 

c.  Where  certificate  or  diploma  attesting  completion  of  require- 
ments for  attainment  of  goal  of  pre-established  significance  and 
worth — "elements  of  first  six  grades,"  "mastery  of  modern 
language,"  "pre-vocational  subject,"  "two-year  general  high 
school,"  "stenographers'  vocational,"  etc,  then  the  necessary 
elements   should  foe  prescribed. 

d.  The  right  of  the  state  to  good  citizenship,  vocational  powers, 
powers  of  national  defence,  etc.,  paramount.  Hence  when  for 
specified  groups,  probable  attainments  in  these  directions  are 
matters  of  demonstration,  right  of  prescription  acknowledged. 
But,  except  for  compulsory  attendance,  compulsory  minimum 


CONSTRUCTION  OF   CURRICULA  III 

standards  of  scholarship,  and  military  training,  no  standards 
of  worth  now  demonstrated  in  proposed  prescription — in  sec- 
ondary education — of,  e.g.,  English  language,  mathematics,  for- 
eign language,  etc. 
e.  A  minimum  knowledge  of  English  language,  English  literature, 
history,  geography,  etc.,  having  been  approved  as  desirable  for 
normal  citizenship,  deficiencies  therein  might  well  be  made  a 
basis  for  prescribed  studies  as  condition  of  continuance  in 
higher  schools — equivalent  to  familiar  practice  of  "working  off 
conditions." 

3.  Problems  of  framing  curricula  and  programs. 

a.  As  basis  for  initial  discussion,  assume:  (a)  large,  rich,  pros- 
perous schools  open  to  pupils  14  to  18  years  of  age;  (b) 
school  offerings  measured  on  basis  of  total  number  of  clock 
hours  ordinarily  required  by  normal  pupils;  (c)  school  year 
of  200  days  of  eight  clock  hours  each  (8  to  12  and  1  to  5) 
to  embrace  all  assigned  study,  sufficient  physical  play,  or  work 
for  health  purposes,  etc.;  (d)  that,  unless  otherwise  specified, 
all  studies  and  activities  are  non-vocational  and  are  chosen  for 
contributions  to  personal  culture,  physical  development,  and 
enlightened  citizenship. 

b.  List  all  possible  offerings  for  a  given  age  group  (4  to  6;  6  to 

12;  12  to  14;  14  to  16;  16  to  18,  etc.)  with  assumed  desirable 
quantitative  allowances  for  each.  Then  make  curricula  for 
(designated)  types  of  schools,  e.g.,  rural  school  of  eight  grades 
(ages  6-14)  ;  rural  school  of  four  grades  (ages  6-10)  ;  poorly 
equipped  urban  school,  with  teacher  for  each  grade;  richly 
equipped  urban  school,  teacher  having  all  work  one  grade 
(except  industrial  and  household  arts,  age  12-14) ;  richly 
equipped  kindergarten  in  city;  small  junior  high  school  (100 
pupils,  ages  12-14) ;  rich  junior  high  school  on  6-3-3  basis ;  rich 
and  large  high  school  offering  liberal  education,  ages  14-16; 
and  various  types  of  vocational  schools. 

c.  Formulate  principles  and  conditions  to  govern  in  the  making 

of  individual  programs. 


CHAPTER  XV 

OBJECTIVES  IN  DEVELOPMENTAL  CONTROL  OF  CHILDREN, 

AGES  ONE  TO  FOUR 

1.  Children  under  four  develop  in  powers  and  acquire  social  inheritance 
in  large  measure  if  only  means  of  nurture  and  by-education  are  suitable. 
For  children  normally  environed,  no  direct  schooling  is  deemed  necessary. 

a.  Note  increasing  insistence  on  child's  receiving  a  "fair  start"  in 
heredity  and  in  prenatal  care  of  mother.  Examples  of  eugenic 
proposals  and  of  mother  care.  Problem  of  the  illegitimate;  of 
wage-earning  mother. 

b.  Problems  of  determining  normal  nurtural  environment  as  to: 
food  nurture;  shelter;  clothing;  ventilation;  cleanliness;  sleep; 
physical  exercise;  facilities  for  play;  facilities  for  association. 

c.  What  are  normal  standards  of  by-education  for:  speech;  body 

movement;  moral  behavior;  sociability  (with  mother;  father; 
older  sisters  and  brothers;  babies;  neighbors  of  equal  age); 
manners;  habits  of  inhibition;  general  knowledge;  games, 
plays;  intellectual  nurture  (stories,  information)  ;  work. 
d.  Possibilities  of  "hot-house"  forcing.  Probable  reasons  for; 
against.     Fields  for  experimentation. 

e.  Possibilities  of  using  "play"  activities  without  strain  to  achieve 
useful  ends  in  civilized  society.  Typewriting  machines  as  use- 
ful plaything.  Early  training  to  read.  Mastery  of  a  foreign 
language.  Acquisition  of  useful  knowledge  instead  of  fables. 
Correct  vernacular.  Simple  useful  arts  (gardening,  cooking) 
as  part  of  play. 

/.   Review  of  proposals  of  Montessori. 

g.  Problems  of  day  nurseries  to  offset  deficiencies  in  nurture  and 
by-education  caused  by  wage-earning  of  mothers.  Review  of 
practices.  Ideals  for  public  action?  Provision  of  widows' 
pensions. 

h.  Theories  as  to  community  cooperation  in  care  of  children 
under  four. 

i.   Park  kindergartens. 

/.   Problems  of  providing  for  orphaned  children. 

k.  Problem  of  state  or  other  socially  corporate  assistance,  correc- 
tion, or  direction  of  nurture  and  by-education.  Examples  of 
present  control  of  health,  economic  conditions,  housing,  milk 
supply,  cruelty  and  neglect. 

112 


CHAPTER  XVI 

OBJECTIVES  OF  EDUCATION  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF 

CHILDREN,  AGES  FOUR  TO  SIX 

1.  Public  school  system  historically  made  few  attempts  at  education  of 
children  under  six  to  eight  years  of  age.  Kindergarten  and  other  analo- 
gous agencies   recent  developments. 

a.  Apparently   two   unlike    ideals   operative: 

(a)  Protection  and  furtherance  of  development  of  children 
of  poor  environment  and  provision  of  facilities  for  by- 
education;  and 

(b)  Provision  of  special  forms  of  positive  education  for  chil- 
dren normally  circumstanced. 

b.  Compare  creche  (France),  day  nursery,  infant  school  (Eng- 
land), and  certain  stages  of  dame  school. 

2.  Problems  of  social  need  of  schools  or  other  public  agencies  in  educa- 
tion and  development  of  children  4  to  6  still  important.  What  functions 
here  does  society  need?  Does  kindergarten  organization  and  program 
meet  them? 

a.  What  evidence  that  substantial  good  can  be  accomplished  for 
children  in  approximately  normal  environment  by  supplemental 
efforts  of  a  school? 

b.  Answer  depends   upon  social  value  of  stimulated  or  directed 

(deviated    from,  or   intensified   "natural")    development. 

c.  Probable  need  of  assistance  in  development  for  children  im- 

perfectly environed.  Agency  meeting  this  need  should  (a) 
possess  standards  of  normal  environment;  and  (&)  in  case 
of   particular  groups   determine  existing  deficiencies. 

d.  For  example,  basing  deductions  in  part  upon  ancestral  conditions 

to  which  young  have  for  ages  conformed  and  in  which  they 
developed;  and  in  part  upon  observations  of  children's  present 
development,   we  can   assume  the   following  elements,   in  de- 
grees to  be  determined,  essential  to  growth: 
(1)  Food;    (2)    rest    and   sleep;    (3)    shelter — housing   and 
clothing  for  rest  and  play;  (4)  facilities  for  physical  play 
— ground    space,    sunshine,    steeps,    sand,    grass,    running 
water,  trees,  hiding  places,  portable  objects,  toys,  domestic 
animals,  older  companions,  younger  companions,  equal  age 

ii3 


114  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

companions;     (5)     facilities     for    intellectual    play    and 
growth,  tellers  of   stories,  singers  of  songs,  satisfiers  of 
curiosity;   (6)   facilities  for  social  play  and  growth,  com- 
forters,    lullaby-singers,     protectors,     leaders,     playmates, 
chums;    (7)    teachers — in  by-education  of  manners,  etc.; 
(8)    agencies   for  protection   of  health,  insurance  of  hy- 
gienic surroundings,  etc. 
e.  To  what  extent  does  kindergarten  now  compensate  for  deficien- 
cies in  particular  elements  indicated  above?     How  far  should 
it?     How  could  it? 
/.   What   changes    of   organization    would   be   necessary   to   make 
kindergarten  an  agency  of  compensatory  function?    Allocation 
to :    rich  communities  ?  poor  city  communities  ?  poor  rural  com- 
munities? special  type  of  families? 
g.  Review  above  in  light  of  contemporary  demands  of  society  for 
guarantees  of  "a  more  protected  childhood  and  a  better  start  in 
life." 
h.  Analyze  other  possible  approaches,  e.g.,  improvement  of  home 
and   (by  some  social  effort)    freeing  mother  to  be  more  truly 
caretaker  and  educator  of  children. 
i.    Special  problem  of  wage-earning  mother. 

/.  Special  problem  of  immigrant  mother  unassimilated  to  Ameri- 
can speech  and  standards  of  living. 
k.  Special  problems  of  defective  and  dependents:   (a)  blind;   (b) 

deaf;  (c)  morons;  (d)  cripples;  (e)  orphaned. 
/.   Possible  functions  of  school  or  community  nurse;  of  extension 
classes  for  mothers. 

A.    Certain  Fundamental  Sociological  Facts 

1.  Society  has  made  few  attempts  to  establish  schools  to  teach  children 
of  4  to  6  the  subjects — reading,  writing,  numbers,  catechism — for  which 
primary  schools  exist. 

2.  Children  from  4  to  6,  as  in  the  case  of  children  still  younger,  depend 
on  the  home  for  the  chief  conditions  of  nurture,  physical,  moral,  cultural. 
(Give  instances  in:  language,  bodily  growth,  physical  habits,  dressing 
habits,  moral  behavior  and  manners,  towards  equal  age  companions,  to-1 
wards  elders,  towards  animals — play  activities,  likings  for  music,  story  j 
interests.)  Environment  adjacent  to  home  contributes  something  (bad 
or  good)  and  much  in  case  of  neglected  children. 

3.  Aims  of  kindergarten  have  been  variously  stated.  Sometimes  it] 
seems  designed  to  offer  forms  or  extensions  of  education  that  no  home 
could  normally  give;  at  others  to  compensate  for  manifest  deficiencies 
in  home  environment.  Philanthropists  establish  kindergartens  first  in 
slums ;  but  the  state  often  provides  them  for  prosperous  communities 
first. 


EDUCATION  OF  CHILDREN,  FOUR  TO  SIX  115 

4.  School  authorities  seem  uncertain  as  yet  relative  to  aims  of  kinder- 
gartens, hence  support  is  irregular.  More  definite  information  is  needed 
as  to  desirable  aim,  optimum  school  hours,  years,  school  equipment,  train- 
ing of  teachers,  probable  cost,  etc. 

B.    Working  Cases  for  Study 

Case  A.  In  a  certain  suburban  community  are  200  children,  ages  4-6, 
living  in  homes  where  family  standards  of  living  range  from  $3000 
|5000.  Homes  are  spacious,  healthful;  grounds  abundant,  very  well 
euited  to  physical  play;  streets  are  quiet,  attractive,  safe.  These  children 
visit  and  play  together  freely,  normally.  Mothers  cooperate  sensibly 
in  play  supervision.  Children  are  well  nourished  and  well  looked  after 
in  physical  matters  generally.  Parents  use  good  English,  read,  play 
music,  sing,  and  tell  stories  to  children  generously.  Children's  parties 
are  frequent.  Three  to  five  children  ranging  from  one  to  fifteen  years 
are  found  in  each  family.  Families  go  to  pleasant  country  environment 
for  three  months  each  summer. 

Case  B.  In  a  certain  crowded  tenement  district  are  200  children  aged 
4-6.  Homes  very  small,  2-5  rooms  with  no  central  heat,  for  average  fam- 
ily of  4-6  children.  No  playgrounds  except  traffic  crowded  streets,  occa- 
sionally a  vacant  lot  (generally  preempted  by  large  boys)  and  tenement 
halls  and  stairways.  Mothers  do  not  "work  out,"  but  are  very  busy 
and  can  give  little  "cultural"  attention  to  children.  Fathers  away  from 
home  long  hours,  wage  earners  on  fair  wages,  supply  sufficient  food,  but 
many  of  the  children  have  unsatisfactory  eating  habits.  Children  subject 
to  cummunicable  diseases  and  are  ill  taught  or  supervised  at  home  as  re- 
gards wet  feet,  sleep,  rest  hours,  regular  eating,  etc.  Children  play  vigor- 
ously in  their  somewhat  dangerous  environment.  Many  form  bad  moral 
habits,  profanity,  obscene  language  and  conduct,  petty  theft,  bullying, 
ostracism  of  the  timid,  quarreling.  Mothers  have  no  systematized  coopera- 
tion.   Families  do  not  "go  away"  in  summer. 

Case  C.  In  a  certain  rural  community  are  twenty  children  ages  4-6, 
living  within  easy  walking  or  transportation  distance  of  each  other.  Each 
home  is  built  on  a  small  farm  generously  supplied  with  yard  space,  trees, 
outbuildings,  (barns,  domestic  animals,  running  water  in  brooks,  steep 
slopes,  and  other  natural  facilities  for  safe  play.  Each  child  can  easily 
get  one  or  two  playmates.  Children  are  well  nourished.  Mothers  know 
little  about  hygiene,  are  hard  worked,  and  slightly  capable  of  stimulating 
intellectual  and  aesthetic  play.  Fathers  take  only  slight  part  in  home  life. 
No  change  of  environment  in  summer.  Children  freely  associate  with  older 
brothers  and  sisters  and  "hired  men."  Each  home  has  talking  machine 
and  good  selection  of  records. 

Case  D.  Children  of  city  dwelling  (widowed  "outworking"  mother). 
(Students  will  supply  details  for  typical  cases.) 

Case  E.  "Only  child"  in  rich  urban  home  ($5000  standard,  up)  work 
done  by  servants,  etc.     (Students  will  supply  details  of  typical  cases.) 


1 1 6  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

Cases  F  to  M.     (To  be  supplied  by  students.) 

C    Problems  for  Study 

1.  Assuming  that  in  all  these  cases  the  children  will  be  required  to 
attend  school  until  at  least  14  years  of  age,  is  it  desirable,  that  public  funds 
be  provided  to  maintain  schools  for  groups  under  Case  A?    Why? 

2.  Similar  questions  for  one  of  Cases  B  to  M. 

3.  Is  it  to  be  assumed  that  a  school  for  groups  under  Case  A  will  prim- 
arily aim  to  compensate  for  deficiencies  in  development  and  by-education 
of  environment?  Or,  primarily  to  give  direct  education  that  the  homes 
cannot  give?    Specify  particular  objectives  for  each  answer. 

4.  Similiar  questions  for  one  of  Cases  P  to  M. 

5.  What  are  possible,  practicable,  and  desirable  objectives  of  physical 
education  in  schools  for  groups  under  Case  A?  Specify  as  to:  health 
oversight,  instruction  in  hygiene,  training  in  physical  training,  hygienic 
practices,  enlargement  of  play  interests  and  opportunities,  reaction  on  home 
oversights  and  practice,  etc.  To  realize  these  objectives  how  much  school 
time — how  many  hours  daily,  for  how  many  days  in  week,  for  how  many 
weeks  in  year  (including  summer)  should  be  required?  Indicate  principal 
devices  of  administration  and  method.  Estimated  annual  cost  per  indi- 
vidual ? 

6.  Similiar  questions  for  one  of  Cases  B  to  M. 

7.  What  are  possible,  practicable  and  desirable  objectives  of  cultural 
education  (intellectual  and  aesthetic)  in  schools  under  Case  A.  Specify 
as  to  stories,  music,  nature  study,  plastic  art,  dancing,  pictures,  craft  or 
hand  construction,  "mental  training,"  dressing,  standards  of  utilization, 
better  English,  etc.  What  time  should  be  required  to  realize  these  ob- 
jectives? Indicate  principal  devices  of  administration  and  method. 
Estimated  annual  cost  per  individual. 

8.  Similiar  questions  for  one  of  Cases  B  to  M. 

9.  What  are  possible,  practicable  and  desirable  objectives  of  social 
(moral  and  civic)  education  in  schools  for  groups  under  Case  A? 
Specify  as  to:  provision  of  special  facilities  for  social  play,  cooperative 
enterprise,  formation  of  moral  habits,  establishment  of  moral  ideals,  im- 
parting of  civic  knowledge,  etc  Indicate  principal  devices  of  method  and 
administration.    Time  required  to  realize  these  objectives.    Estimated  cost 

10.  Similar  questions  for  one  of  Cases  B  to  M. 

11.  Analyze  pros  and  cons  of  contention  that:  "No  public  or  private 
school  is  needed  for  children  under  Case  A ;  they  will  get  the  best  possible 
start  in  life  from  their  present  environment."  They  would  certainly  lose 
rather  than  gain  from  the  cramping  conditions  of  an  English  infant  school, 
or  old-fashioned  kindergarten,  and  they  have  no  need  for  the  modern 
kindergarten. 

12.  Analyze  pros  and  cons  for  contention  that:   "For  children  under 


EDUCATION  OF  CHILDREN,  FOUR  TO  SIX  117 

Case  B  it  is  best  that  an  open  air  school  be  provided  in  park  not  too  re- 
mote to  which  children  shall  be  taken  in  company  assembled  by  custodians 
(or  "teachers")  at  their  homes  and  conveyed  through  streets;  that  hours 
should  be  from  8  to  11:30  and  2  to  5  daily  except  Sundays  and  when 
weather  is  prohibitive  (under  what  conditions  would  weather  be  called 
prohibitive?)  and  including  summer  montihs ;  that  chief  attention  would 
be  given  to  providing  conditions  for  physical  play  and  training  in  hygiene ; 
and  that  the  whole  should  be  under  public  support." 

13.  "In  crowded  cities  it  is  more  important  that  kindergartens  should  be 
in  session  during  July  and  August  than  during  April  and  May."  Com- 
ment. 

14.  "It  is  more  important  that  children  from  2  to  5  should  be  in  kinder- 
garten than  children  from  4  to  6  (in  crowded  poor  areas)."     Comment. 

15.  Could  we  defend  the  systematic  teaching  of  reading  or  number  in 
kindergartens  ? 

16.  Students   formulate  other  theses   for  consideration. 

D.    Further  Problems 

1.  A  given  tenement  area  of  city  is  inhabited  by  one  thousand  families  of 
working  men  of  many  nationalities;  none  of  the  mothers  work  for  wages. 
The  conditions  of  the  children  (let  us  confine  ourselves  to  those  between 
four  and  six  years  of  age)  as  to  food,  clothing  and  shelter  are  not  bad. 
But  the  children  have  only  streets  and  hallways  for  play  grounds,  where 
conditions  are  rough  and  dangerous.  The  city  authorities  ask  a  social 
economist  for  recommendations  in  providing  for  the  one  hundred  children 
between  four  and  six  in  this  area.  He  realizes  that  the  regular  kinder- 
garten requires  a  building  equipment  and  land  investment  of  about  $300 
per  unit  of  accommodation  and  at  least  $40  per  year  per  unit  for  mainten- 
ance while  it  can  give  at  the  outside  only  eight  hundred  hours  of  super- 
vision or  "contact"  or  immediate  influence  to  its  children  out  of  a  waking 
time  for  them  about  at  least  4,000  hours. 

The  social  economist  (we  will  assume  that  no  educator  would  conceive 
so  radical  a  program)  submits  the  following  proposals.  There  is  a  park 
about  half  a  mile  away  from  the  remotest  part  of  the  district.  Four 
acres  of  this  shall  be  set  apart  for  the  exclusive  use  of  these  120  children 
between  the  hours  of  8 :30  A.  M.  and  5 :30  P.  M.  This  park  area  is  fitted 
with  a  few  large  sand  piles,  a  few  grass  plots,  a  few  teetering  logs,  and 
some  simple  blocks  and  other  toys.  It  has  200  feet  of  smooth  pavement  for 
scooters  and  velocipedes  and  a  bit  of  steep  slope.  There  are  no  roofed 
in  spaces,  except  a  small  cabin  for  storage  of  portable  toys,  rubbers,  etc. 

Two  "custodians"  (we  can  hardly  call  them  teachers)  are  to  be  em- 
ployed for  the  120  children.  These  custodians  are  over  twenty  years  of 
age,  physically  strong,  sympathetic  with  children,  possessed  of  "poise," 
and  have  had  special  training  in  "reading  of  stories."  They  are  expected 
to  work  eight  hours  a  day  six  days  in  a  week,  forty-eight  weeks  per  year. 


1 18  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

At  eight  o'clock  each  morning  these  "custodians"  go  through  their 
neighborhood  with  bell  or  whistle  and  gather  up  their  charges,  and,  like 
Pied  Pipers,  lead  them  to  the  park.  Here  toys  are  taken  from  the  cabin 
and  the  flocks  turned  loose.  The  custodians  seat  themselves  where  they 
can  observe  proceedings,  perhaps  taking  their  knitting,  but  holding  them- 
selves in  readiness  to  check  quarrels  before  they  have  proceeded  too  far. 
As  the  spontaneous  games  fall,  perhaps  some  of  the  children  will  want  to 
be  "read  to."  Groups  can  be  formed  for  this  purpose.  Conceivably  a 
portable  talking  machine  could  be  provided,  but  equipment  must  be  kept 
simple  and  easily  cared  for. 

At  eleven-thirty  the  procession  would  return  to  their  homes  for  lunch 
and  one  hour  of  prescribed  "lying  down"  during  which  the  custodians  are 
free.  At  one-thirty  or  two  the  above  program  is  repeated,  children  re- 
maining in  the  park  until  five  or  later. 

In  stormy  weather  the  same  program  would  be  carried  out  with  these 
exceptions.  All  parents  who  habitually  kept  their  children  indoors  in 
stormy  weather  would  do  so  now.  All  those  who  permitted  their  children 
to  play  in  wet  or  cold  streets  would  give  their  children  over  to  the  cus- 
todians. Periods  at  the  park  would  be  shortened,  naturally,  and  it  would 
be  required  that  children  should  be  properly  attired  for  wet  or  cold 
weather. 

Such  a  "kindergarten"  would  probably  cost,  apart  from  park  land  in- 
vestment, about  $20  per  year  per  pupil.  Would  it  be  worth  it?  What  does 
the  ordinary  kindergarten  offer  that  is  worth  more?  What  are  the  defi- 
ciencies in  the  environments  of  these  children  which  such  a  "school"  would 
not  meet?  Apart  from  considerations  of  environment,  should  these  child- 
ren have  sound  direct  or  positive  education?  What?  Why?  (It  is,  of 
course,  assumed  that  these  children  will  all  give  full  time  to  school  attend- 
ance between  the  ages  of  six  and  fourteen.) 

2.  Miles  away  from  the  above  section  is  an  area  occupied  by  families 
all  having  incomes  of  from  three  thousand  to  five  thousand  dollars  per 
year.  These  families  live  in  separate  houses  with  pleasant  yards.  The 
streets  are  clean  and  safe.  Families  are  small,  and  children  have  plenty  of 
room  for  play  within  doors.  Mothers  cooperate  in  letting  children 
"exchange"  play  times  in  each  other's  houses.  Is  the  kindergarten  much 
needed  here?  What  should  be  its  specific  aims?  These  children  all  play- 
endlessly,  almost  tirelessly.  They  form  their  own  groups,  have  their  own 
little  ostracisms,  imitate  mildly  (only  sometimes)  the  snobberies  of  their 
elders,  have  fierce  individual  quarrels,  and  sometimes  vendettas  (all  of 
which  are  surely  more  or  less  educative  for  "real  life,"  are  they  not,  if 
terminated  in  due  season?).  These  children  have  music  and  form  and 
color  harmonies  in  their  surroundings  in  reasonable  degree. 

3.  Down  in  a  slum  area  of  the  city  we  find  a  large  proportion  of  wage- 
earning  mothers — handicapped  by  husbands  of  low  competency  or  dissipat- 
ed habits,  or  perhaps  the  husband  is  dead  or  "gone."  When  these  mothers 
are  away  from  home— in  some  cases  while  the  children  are  sleeping,  but 


EDUCATION  OF  CHILDREN,  FOUR  TO  SIX  1 19 

most  often  during  the  usual  play  hours — neighbors  sometimes  exercise 
a  rough  oversight  over  the  four-to-six-year-old  children.  These  children 
are  poorly  nourished,  poorly  protected  from  weather,  and  even  their  sleep- 
ing times  are  irregular  and  broken. 

They  are  seldom  clean  and  poorly  learned  in  manners  and  deportment. 
Of  the  better  intellectual  and  moral  influences  of  either  father  or  mother 
(sometimes  both)  they  are  usually  deprived. 

Forgetting  for  a  moment  the  limitations  in  the  traditions  of  both  kind- 
ergarten and  day  nursery,  and  remembering  that  the  day  of  eugenic 
control  and  mother's  pension  is  still  far  off,  what  program  can  the  social 
economist  provide,  at  reasonable  expense,  to  "compensate  for  the  deficien- 
cies" of  the  above  environment?  Will  the  kindergarten  as  we  now  have 
it  be  more  than  a  sop,  as  are  summer  outings,  Christmas  dinners,  provided 
by  charity,  and  the  visiting  nurse?  Would  the  park  kindergarten  as  pro- 
posed above  suffice?  What  should  be  the  hours,  equipment,  specific 
activities  of  the  "school"  required?  What  hours  and  days  and  weeks 
sihould  it  be  open?  Who  should  or  could  teach  in  it?  What  will  it 
cost? 


CHAPTER  XVII 

OBJECTIVES  OF  SCHOOL  EDUCATION,  AGES  SIX  TO  NINE 

A.     Fundamental  Sociological  Principles 

1.  That  one  set  of  objectives  (A  class,  or  alpha)  are  determined 
chiefly  by  determinate  or  specifically  ascertained  requirements  of  adult 
life  (needs  for  utilization  being  primary,  needs  for  vocation,  incidental  at 
this  stage)  ; 

2.  That  a  second  set  of  objectives  (B  class  or  beta)  are  determined  by 
requirements  for  present  development,  outcomes  in  adult  life  being  real 
but  indeterminable — including  physical,  social  (moral  and  civic),  cultural 
(intellectual,  aesthetic,  mental  training)  ; 

3.  That  where  the  non-school  environment  of  the  child  is  reasonably 
normal,  wholesome,  and  provided  with  means  and  incentives  for  physical 
play,  same  age  companionship,  rest,  right  hygienic  practice,  and  orderly 
behavior,  the  school  should  only  moderately  seek  to  provide  for  these 
needs,  on  grounds  that  home  and  natural  surroundings  minister  better 
than  school  can  to  these  beta  objectives; 

4.  That  where  the  non-school  environment  of  the  child  is  demonstrably 
deficient  in  normal  means  and  incentives  for  physical,  social  and  cultural 
growth  which  school-controlled  agencies  can  supply  without  unduly  lessen- 
ing responsibilities  of  home,  then  the  school  should  provide  these; 

5.  That  all  normal  children  will  be  required  to  attend  school  until  14 
years  of  age,  and  until  such  time  beyond  that  as  may  be  required  to  attain 
the  minimum  powers  (measured  in  alpha  objectives)  and  general  develop- 
ment normally  capable  of  being  achieved  at  14; 

6.  That  it  is  impracticable  to  secure,  and  undesirable  to  attempt  to 
secure,  any  of  what  is  properly  called  vocational  education  under  the  age 
of  14  (it  being  clearly  recognized  that  vocational  guidance  is  not  voca- 
tional education)  ; 

7.  That  it  is  competent  for  the  state  (or  society)  to  prescribe  the 
amount  and  character  of  school  attendance  required  in  the  case  of  any 
individual  or  group  of  individuals  to  reach  standards  of  physical,  moral, 
cultural  and  vocational  competency  known  to  be  desirable  or  necessary 
to  the  individual  or  the  community. 

B.  Working  Cases 

Case  A.  Children  of  crowded,  unsanitary  tenement  environment;  non- 
English  speaking  foreign  parentage.     Mothers  do  not  work  away  from 

120 


SCHOOL  EDUCATION,   SIX   TO   NINE  121 

home.  Compulsory  school  attendance  is  enforced  until  14.  School  has 
generous  playground,  only  one  accessible.  Parents  do  not  leave  homes  in 
summer. 

Case  B.  Children  6-9,  rural  community,  of  small  mixed  prosperous 
farms,  fairly  well  educated  parents.  School  accessible  by  walking.  Chil- 
dren have  numberless  facilities  for  play  at  home,  and  groups  of  three  to 
eight  can  easily  form.  They  participate  in  farm  chores.  Reading  matter 
in  homes  scarce.  No  vacation  trip;  but  Sunday  trips  "to  town"  are 
frequent. 

Case  C.  Children  6-9,  sanitary  suburban  environment;  well  educated 
prosperous  parents;  will  go  through  high  school.  Homes  possess  ample 
play  area.  Children  find  abundant  reading  matter  in  homes.  They  are 
assured  of  two  months  seaside  vacation. 
Cases  D-I.  (Students  supply  other  typical  cases,  ages  6-9.) 
Assume  in  each  case  sufficient  competent  teaching  force  and  facilities 
properly  to  secure  reasonable  results  aimed  at;  children  of  average  ability 
and  sharp  distinctions  preserved  between  alpha  and  beta  purposes  and 
methods. 

C.  Problems  for  Study 

1.  Determine  in  detail  desirable  aims  of  physical  education  in  each  case, 
indicating  responsibilities  respectively  of  regular  teacher,  school  nurse, 
medical  inspector,  specialist  medical  service,  playground  custodian  (where 
provided).  Specify  aims  in  physical  training,  formation  of  health  habits. 
Probable  time  required.    Probable  per  capita  cost  of  service. 

2.  Determine  in  detail  for  each  case  desirable  aims  of  cultural  and 
social  education,  distinguishing  sharply  between  alpha  and  beta  types 
Place,  scope,  and  specific  aims  of  expected  reading  (mechanics  of  oral 
and  silent),  spelling,  handwriting,  arithmetic.  Aims  and  character  of  in- 
struction and  training  proposed  in  literature  (all  general  reading  and  orally 
told  story),  natural  science,  history,  and  other  social  sciences,  music,  crafts. 
Probable  time  required.  Estimated  kinds  and  amounts  of  service  needed. 
Estimated  cost. 

3.  For  each  case  determine  optimum  length  of  school  day,  school  week, 
school  year,  and  estimate  per  capita  cost  of  alternative  proposals,  where 
made.  Make  assumptions  relative  to  probable  disposition  in  each  case  of 
child's  non-school  time  and  positive  or  negative  educative  value,  of  such 
use. 

4.  In  each  case  analyze  arguments  for  and  against  teaching  reading 
(mechanics)  in  first  and  second  grades. 

5.  It  is  not  desirable  that  either  handwriting  or  the  reading  of  a  script 
should  be  formally  attempted  in  the  first  grade.    Criticise. 

6.  "No  formal  arithmetic  should  be  taught  in  first  and  second  grade." 
Criticise. 


122  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

7.  Present  schemes  of  "activities"  designed  to  realize  some  specific  alpha 
aims  for  the  year. 

8.  'The  school  day  for  Case  B  should  be  four  hours,  either  forenoons 
or  afternoons,  not  to  exceed  200  days  yearly."    Criticise. 

9.  "The  school  day  for  Case  A  children.  Not  to  exceed  eight  hours. 
Hours :  7:30-11 :30  and  1 :30  to  5 :30  and  for  300  days  in  the  year."  Criti- 
cise. 

10.  "The  school  day  for  Case  C,  should  be  four  hours,  either  forenoons 
or  afternoons,  and  should  extend  to  160  days  yearly."    Criticise. 

11.  "From  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the  school  day  for  Case  A  children 
should  be  given  to  vigorous  physical  play  on  school  playgrounds."  Criti- 
cise. 

12.  "No  'physical  play  education'  is  necessary  for  children  under  Cases 
B  and  C."    Criticise  and  show  in  detail  what  this  would  involve. 

13.  "The  school  should  make  itself  a  branch  library  center  for  children 
of  Cases  A  and  B.*'    Criticise  and  show  in  detail  what  this  would  involve. 

14.  "Schools  should  be  in  regular  full-time  session  for  Case  A  children 
during  July  and  August  but  alpha  work  should  be  discontinued."  Criti- 
cise. 

D.    Assumptions  for  Curricula 

As  a  means  of  scientific  analysis  of  desirable  objectives  and  curriculums 
for  means  and  methods,  homegeneous  social  requirements  are  assumed  for 
each  type  of  case  below,  and  also  optimum  conditions  and  means  of 
meeting  these  case  requirements.  When  acceptable  curriculums  shall  have 
been  devised  for  these,  adjustments  and  accommodations  can  be  worked 
out  for  variant  cases,  and  limited  facilities.    Assume  therefore : 

1.  City  amply  able  and  disposed  to  provide  good  working  facilities,  by 
present  standards,  as  regards  quality  of  teachers,  departmental  teachers 
for  playgrounds,  manual  construction,  etc.,  school  buildings,  playgrounds, 
general  equipment,  include  provision,  where  needed,  for  vacation  schools ; 

2.  All  pupils  in  cases  given  below  are  physically  and  intellectually  nor- 
mal; 

3.  All  pupils  at  age  6  have  had  no  previous  schooling; 

4.  That  time  schedules — time  of  coming  to  school,  leaving  school,  re- 
cesses, play  day — for  any  grade  are  quite  independent  of  those  for  any 
other  grade; 

5.  All  time  allotments  and  other  specifications  below  to  be  hypothetical 
and  tentative,  given  primarily  to  exemplify  concreteness  of  principles ; 

6.  That  amount  or  degree  of  achievement  in  alpha  subjects  is  assumed 
to  be  that  which  experience  shows  can  be  accomplished  by  model  groups 
in  time  given ; 

7.  That  time  given  to   alpha  subjects  includes  whatever  time  may  be 


SCHOOL  EDUCATION,   SIX   TO   NINE  123 

required   to  give   activity  basis  or  concrete  apperceptive  experience   for 
such  learning. 

8.  Case  A.  Five  hundred  children  ages  6  to  9  from  fairly  prosperous 
homes  (family  incomes  $2500-5000);  living  in  separate  houses;  ample 
yards;  quite  safe  streets;  mothers  intelligent  in  securing  rest,  nurture, 
play  and  ample  culture  for  children;  families  go  to  seashore  for  summer, 
(two  or  three  months)  ;  children  always  find  it  easy  to  form  groups  of 
two  to  ten  of  nearly  their  own  age  for  social  play  and  other  purposes; 
no  dearth  of  winter  or  summer  play  facilities;  good  park  nearby. 

9.  Case  B.  Five  hundred  children,  ages  6-9,  from  crowded  city  tene- 
ment environment;  families  poor  ($600-1000  annual  income);  no  play- 
grounds, except  crowded  and  unsafe  streets,  hallways,  etc;  mothers  do 
not  "work  out,"  but  are  very  busy  and  poorly  informed  as  to  hygienic 

habits. 

E.  Proposed  Curricula,  Case  A 

1.  A  class  (alpha)  objectives,  (maximum  amount  that  can  be  effectively 
realized  by  average  children  in  time  given — by  whatever  experiment 
proves  most  effective). 

Grade  I.  Mechanics    of    Oral    Reading 

Mechanics  of  Silent  Reading __ 

Grade  II.  Mechanics   of    Oral   Reading 

Mechanics   of    Silent  Reading 

Writing    _ 


Script    Reading 


Spelling,    Capitals,    Periods,   etc 

Grade  III.  Mechanics  of  Oral  Reading.. 

Mechanics  of   Silent  Reading. 

Writing    — 


Spelling  and    Composition.. 
Number   


2.  B  class   (beta)   objectives,  required. 
Grade  I.  Physical    Play 


Hygiene  and  Training  and  Instruction- 
Manual    Construction 


Class  Cultural  and   Civic  Activities 

Grade  II.  Physical    Play 

Hygiene  

Manual    Construction 

Music,  Story,  Current  Events,  Memorial  days,  etc.. 

Grade  III.  Physical  Play. - — 

Hygiene,    etc 

Manual    Construction — 


Cooperative  Culture,  Music,   Stories,  etc. 


120  hours 

60 

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90 

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30 

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60 

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60 

M 

30 

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180 

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60 

II 

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124  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

3.  B  class  objectives,  optional. 

Grades  I,  II,  III.    Physical  Play...„ „ 180      * 

Construction _._ __ 180      " 

Cultural  and  Social  Activities . 180      " 

4.  Special  conditions  for  Case  A. 

a.  School  year,  180  days,  no  summer  school. 

b.  School  day: 

Grade   I.    Required  2  hours   daily,   9:30-11:30,   optional  three 

hours,  1 :30-4:30  or  part  thereof. 
Grade   II.     Required  2J/2   hours   daily,  9-11:30;   optional  three 

hours,  1 :30-4 :30  or  part. 
Grade  III.    Required  3  hours  daily,  8:45-11 :45;  optional  3  hours 

daily,  1:30-4:30  or  part, 
■c.  B  class  required  activities  shall  be  designed  primarily  and  pur- 
posefully to  supplement  and  reinforce  non-school  environmental 
activities — to  give  ideals  and  knowledges  of  hygiene  that  homes 
do  not  give,  to  .start  good  games  not  found  locally,  to  acquaint 
with  simple  tools  not  found  in  homes,  to  start  readings,  etc. 
d.  Optional  B  class  activities  in  playground  and  manual  construc- 
tion to  be  under  special  teachers. 

F.    Proposed  Curricula,  Case  B 

1.  Alpha  objectives. 

Grade  I.    Mechanics  of  Oral  Reading 120  hours 

Mechanics   of    Silent   Reading. _ 60      " 

Voice  Culture,  Pronunciation,  Accent _ 30      " 

Hygiene   — -....- — 30 

Grade  II.    Mechanics  of  Oral  Reading 30      " 

Mechanics  of   Silent   Reading 60 

Writing   _. . 90      " 

Script  Reading. - - 30 

Voice,    Speech ~ 30 

Spelling  and   Composition 60 

Hygiene   — 60 

Grade   III.     Mechanics  of  Oral  Reading „ -  30      " 

Mechanics   of    Silent   Reading 60 

Writing    _ ...._ _.. 60      " 

Spelling  and  Composition 30 

Numbers    - - - - 180 

Voice,    Speech . 60 

Hygiene   ~ - - 30 

Morals    - - - - 30 

2.  Beta  objectives  required. 

Grades  I,  II,  III.     Physical  Play  and  Nature  Study- 480      " 


SCHOOL  EDUCATION,   SIX   TO   NINE  125 

Manual    Construction 240  hours 

Civics  and  Hygiene 120      " 

Cultural  (Stories,  Music,  Counting,  Pictures) 
Dramatization       120      " 

3.  Special  conditions  for  Case  B. 

a.  School  year:  240  days. 

b.  School  day:  Grade  I,  5  hours,  8-11  and  2-4;  Grade  II,  5^  hours, 
8-11  and  1:30-4;  Grade  III,  6  hours,  8-11,  and  1:30-4:30. 

c.  B  class  activities  designated  primarily  to  compensate  for  defici- 
encies in  extra  school  environment. 

d.  Time  allotted   to  A  class  work  to   fall  most  heavily  in  cool 
weather. 

e.  Playground    and    construction    activities    to    be    under    special 
teachers. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

OBJECTIVES  OF  SCHOOL  EDUCATION,  NORMALS,  AGES  NINE 

TO  TWELVE 

A.    Working  Assumptions 

The  curriculum  problems  given  below  presuppose  that  with  a  moderate 
amount  of  research  and  a  willingness  to  abandon  traditions  crystallized 
in  text  books  and  customs  of  teachers,  we  can  now : 

1.  Greatly  reduce  (possibly  by  fifty  or  seventy-five  per  cent  of  present 
offerings)  the  amounts  or  extent  of  "alpha"  arithmetic  taught.  Confining 
it  strictly  to  adult  consumers  (utilization)  needs,  and  teaching  thoroughly 
what  we  undertake. 

2.  Discover,  define  and,  in  a  given  environment  (and  even  for  given 
individual)  assign  relative  weightings  to  such  alpha  English  language 
objectives  as  pronunciation,  correct  oral  structure  usage,  correct  written 
structure  usage,  spelling,  punctuation,  penmanship,  oral  reading,  silent 
reading,  scope  and  flexibility  of  speaking  vocabulary,  alphabet  usage,  oral 
composition  (sustained,  to  audience),  written  composition,  and  thereby 
enable  ourselves  to  devise  effective  methods  of  teaching  and  of  testing 
immediate  and  remote  functionings  of  our  training  and  instructions. 

3.  Discover,  define  and  adapt  for  purposes  of  effective  instruction  and 
training  minimum  alpha  essentials  in  social  geography  as  well  as  in  world 
and  American  history  and  thereupon  experimentally  devise  methods  of 
teaching  and  of  testing  immediate  and  remote  functionings  of  such  train- 
ing as  will  give  us  genuinely  effective  education  in  these  fields. 

4.  Discover,  define  and  adapt  for  purposes  of  effective  instruction  and 
training  towards  known  ends  of  appreciation,  habit,  knowledge,  and  ideal, 
and  adapted  to  individual  needs,  specific  minimum  alpha  objectives  in 
hygiene  and  physical  training;  and,  as  a  result,  devise  effective  means 
of  teaching  and  of  testing  proximate  and  remote  results. 

5.  Discover  and  make  available  a  wide  range  of  materials  to  serve  very 
flexible  courses  for  beta  objectives  in  nature  geography  and  science,  social 
geography,  history  and  science,  current  events,  music,  literature,  plastic  art, 
constructive  or  practical  arts,  physical  play,  physical  development,  thrift, 
oral  reading,  debating,  written  composition,  and  other  lines  of  development 
along  the  social  and  individually  wholesome  lines  of  the  nature  of  groups 
of  children  or  individual  children. 

B.    Problems  Needing   Investigation 

It  is  recognized  in  framing  the  curriculums  below,  that  our  knowledge 
is  very  limited  and  uncertain  as  to: 

126 


SCHOOL  EDUCATION,  NINE  TO  TWELVE  1 27 

1.  Whether  physical  work  in  substantial  quantities  is  essential,  in  ad- 
dition to  whatever  amount  of  play  may  be  made  practicable,  to  the  sound 
physical  development  of  normal  children  from  9  to  12  years  of  age;  and 
if  such  physical  work  is  essential,  how  it  can  be  provided  by  schools  in 
urban  environments. 

2.  What  can  or  should  be  the  specific  objectives  of  moral  education  in 
schools  for  the  ages  of  9-12,  beyond  the  objectives  now  realized  in  keep- 
ing the  school  community  wholesome  and  self-active;  and  how  these 
further  objectives,  if  they  could  be  concretely  defined,  either  as  alpha  or 
beta  objectives,  could  be  realized. 

3.  What  can  or  should  be  the  actual  objectives  in  art  appreciation 
— music,  literature,  plastic  arts — to  be  realized  for  these  ages;  and  the 
means  of  realizing  them. 

4.  What,  beyond  the  specific  objectives  implied  in  the  subjects  given, 
are  remoter  or  more  general  objectives  in  mental,  physical,  or  moral 
training  or  development,  practicable  to  be  realized;  or  the  methods  of 
realizing  them  if  they  were  known  and  defined. 

5.  What  are  the  means  of  preventing  teachers  of  little  inventiveness 
and  powers  of  adaptation  from  falling  into  ancient  ruts  of  barren  or 
dwarfing  formalism  in  striving  after  alpha  objectives  as  defined. 

C.  Cases  and  Problems 

1.  Village  or  urban  school  conditions ;  one  trained  teacher  to  one-grade 
class  of  thirty-five;  no  departmental  teachers  (except  playground  super- 
vision) or  departmental  rooms;  ample  equipment  and  resources;  attend- 
ance obligatory  to   14. 

2.  Sharp  distinctions  possible  between  alpha  objectives  and  beta  ob- 
jectives; and  that  promotion  to  7th  grade  demands  definite  mastery  of 
alpha  standards  in  essentials  (although  retarded  at  12  also  go  to  junior 
schools,  where  special  classes  in  alpha  subjects  are  available). 

3.  Typical  case  groups  assumed  as  follows : 

A.  Boys  and  girls  from  economically  low  environment  (mill  work- 
ers, many  recent  immigrants)  ;  play  facilities,  street,  small 
school   grounds,   few  vacant   lots;   local   hygiene   and  sanitary 

conditions  poor,  and  moral  conditions  vulgar  and  coarse ; 
parents  religious  but  of  very  ordinary  culture;  physical  con- 
ditions of  pupils  mixed,  in  general  poor ;  only  exceptionally 
"intellectual"  children  will  probably  remain  in  school  beyond 
15;  most  of  the  boys  will  become  manual  wage  earners,  girls 
factory  hands  and  20-24,  housewives. 

B.  Boys  and  girls  of  suburban  area,  prosperous  homes,  exception- 
ally high  standards  of  home  surroundings,  health,  morals,  fam- 
ily culture;  pupils  will  probably  go  through  high  school;  ma- 
jority of  boys  will  enter  commercial  callings  or  professions, 
girls  becoming  clerical  workers,  teachers  and  later  housewives. 


128  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

C-M.    (Students  supply  other  realistic  but  as   far   as  practicable 
homogeneous  cases). 

4.  Conditions.  What  length  of  school  day;  and  what  number  of  school 
days  per  year  would  you  consider  "optimum"  for  Class  A?  Class  B? 
Other  classes? 

5.  What  "subjects^  should  be  taught  in  4th  (or  5th  or  6th)  grade  to 
Class  A?    Class  B? 

6.  Arrange  for  Class  A  an  estimated  optimum  time  distribution  sched- 
ule for  three  grades  3  (years)  x  180  (days)  x  5  (hours)— or  of  2700 
hours  divided  among  the  14  subjects  (or  more,  if  provided)  given  below. 

7.  Same  for  Class  B. 

8.  Same  for  other  classes. 

9.  Divide  subjects  below  into  alpha  and  beta  elements,  ior  each  grade, 
showing  relative  weights  by  time  allotments ;  as  you  would  have  them  for 
Class  A.    Same  for  Class  B.    For  other  classes. 

10.  Define  some  objectives  of  elementary  education  not  explicitly  re- 
vealed in  these  "subjects";  what  are  their  known  worths  for  different 
classes  of  pupils;  and  by  what  means  to  be  realized.  Include:  mainte- 
nance of  health;  moral  improvement;  learning  physical  properties  of 
"things";  learning  cooperation,  mutual  helpfulness,  fair  play,  truthful- 
ness, thrift;  learning  self-reliance  and  responsibility. 

11.  Provide  analysis  of  a  detailed  series  of  social  games,  constructive 
projects  or  other  activities;  show  in  each  what  expected  valuable  results 
might  accrue  towards  (a)  objectives  not  explicit  in  the  above  list  of 
subjects;  (b)  objectives  analyzed  from  the  beta  phases  of  these  sub- 
jects; and  (c)  objectives  explicitly  derived  as  alpha  phases  of  these  sub- 
jects. 

12.  What  are  some  powers  (of  execution)  and  capacities  (for  appreci- 
ation) that  can  be  tested  at  ends  of  4th,  5th,  6th  grades  respectively? 
Is  it  desirable  that  alpha  or  beta  ends  here  be  standardized — e.g.,  con- 
sumers arithmetic,  preferences  for  songs,  practice  of  good  hygiene,  pro- 
nunciation, basic  (alpha)  geography? 

13.  Propose  and  locate  curriculum  modifications  to  utilize  school  year 
of  12  months  x  20  days  x  8  hours  for  A  class  pupils. 

D.  Curriculum  Proposals  for  Case  B  (tentative) 
(Assume  240  days  x  8  hours;  allotment  below  in  hours  to  study,  recita- 
tion, etc;  students  will  supply  for  Grades  V  and  VI.) 


SCHOOL  EDUCATION,  NINE  TO  TWELVE  120, 

Grade  IV  Grade  V        Grade  VI 

Alpha  Beta    Alpha  Beta 


Alpha 

Beta 

Physical  training ~ „ 

80 



English  language  oral 

_  120 

— 

English   language   written.... 

._...  120 

— 

English  literature 

—    — 

120 

History  and  social  science- 

..„„    60 

60 

Geography    ,. 

_    60 

60 

Arithmetic    

160 

— 

Plastic  arts 



240 

Music  

— 

60 

Practical  arts 



240 

Nature    study 

„ — 

60 

Hygiene - 

.......    60 

60 

Phys  ical  play 



480 

Moral  and  civic  training....- 

60 

CHAPTER  XIX 

OBJECTIVES  OF  SCHOOL  EDUCATION,  NORMALS,  AGES 
TWELVE  TO  FOURTEEN 

A.    Assumptions  of  Ofhmum   Working  Conditions 

1.  Assume:  central  school  well  equipped  with  playgrounds,  shoprooms, 
library  reading  rooms ;  space  for  teachers'  demonstration  garden  and  five- 
room  demonstration  home;  sufficient  properly  qualified  teachers  to  re- 
alize reasonable  aims;  1,000  pupils  "up  to  grade"  and  400  retarded  (over 

12,  but  able  to  do  only  lower  grade  alpha  subjects)  ;  children  from  varied 
environments  and  with  varied  economic  prospects;  180  days  yearly  at- 
tendance, compulsory  to  14;  opportunities  for  miscellaneous  wage-earning 
work  for  boys  14-18  abundant;  and  for  girls  15-18. 

2.  Assume:  certain  subjects  "prescribed"  for  all  up  to  specific  standards 
of  attainment  (unless  standard  has  been  met  outside)  ;  all  other  subjects 
"elective,"  with  reservation  that  pupil  may  be  excluded  from  an  alpha 
subject  if  lacking  in  "good"  ability  or  from  a  beta,  if  not  interested  and 
cooperative;  but  each  pupil  must  give  specified  minimum  of  time  to 
school,  also  specified  minimums  to  alpha  and  to  beta  offerings ;  election  is 
aided  by  careful  consultation  with  parents  on  basis  of  pamphlet  describing 
offerings. 

3.  Assume:  school  year,  four  sixty-day  quarters,  8  hours  each  day  (3 
quarters  attendance  compulsory  to  14)  ;  all  subjects  offered  on  basis  of 
hour  units  (to  include  study,  preparation,  recitation;  hence,  8  units  daily, 
or  480  per  quarter)  ;  not  less  than  210  hours  per  quarter  required  for 
alpha  and  same  for  beta  subjects. 

4.  Assume:  school  offerings  as  below,  adapted  to  grades  7  and  8,  pro- 
gressive from  6th  grade  where  suitable,  (special  provision  for  retarded 
children)  (figures  on  right,  hours  of  study  and  recitation  per  year,  on 
quarter  basis). 

B.  Junior  School  Offerings  for  Normals 

7th  Grade  *th  Grade 

Alpha  Beta  Alpha  Beta 

100  English  language  ~ 

101  Oral   reading „ „ « „„ „ _    60  —  60  — 

102  Silent  reading _ „. 60  —  60  — 

103  Voice  training 60  —  60  — 

104  Pronunciation,  etc.  30  —  30  — 

105  Spoken  vocabulary  building  _ 30  —  30  — 

106  Oral    composition 60  —  60  — 

130 


SCHOOL    EDUCATION,    TWELVE    TO    FOURTEEN  I3I 

7th  Grade  8th  Grade 

Alpha       Beta  Alpha       Beta 

107  Correct  structure,  oral  .._ ... 60  —  60  — 

108  Spelling   60  —  —  — 

109  Handwriting   _ 60  —  60  — 

110  Written  composition _.. 120  —  120  — 

111  Correct    structure    (applied    gram- 

mar written)   60        —  60        — 

112  Alphabet  for  ready  use  30       —  30       — 

200  Foreign  language  

201  Oral  French  „...- 180  —  180  — 

202  French  elementary  reading  180  —  180  — 

203  French  grammar  and  composition —  180  —  180  — 

204  Oral  Spanish  „... 180  —  180  — 

205  Spanish  elementary  reading  180  —  180  — 

206  Latin  ™ 180  —  180  — 

301  'English  literature 

301     Miscellaneous,  current _    —        90  —       90 

302    Miscellaneous,  special  field  (poetry, 

biography,  home  reading,  etc.)-- —        90  —       90 

303    Selected   classics  - 60       —  60       — 

400  Social  science  — 

401  Community  civics  —        90  —        — 

402  State  and  national  government  —    —        —  —       90 

403  World      history,      readings      (beta 

phases)  —       90  —       90 

406    American  history,  basic  facts  —        —  60       — 

500  Geography  

501  Geography,  basic  facts   (alpha 

phases)  90       —  60       — 

502  Geography,  general  readings  (beta 

phases)   —       90 

503  Geography    (commercial),  readings    —        — 

504  Geography,  methods  of  finding —       — 

600  Mathematics   - - 

601  Consumers  mathematics   (units  be- 

yond first  6  grades)  — 60       — 

602  Algebra  (college  preparation  180        80 

603  Plane   geometry    (college    prepara- 

tion)     - -    —       —  180       — 

604  Household  arithmetic  (prevocational 

for  girls)  - — — 

605  Commercial   mathematics  

606  Industrial  mathematics  

607  Agricultural  mathematics  

608  "Appreciation"  readings —        90 


— 

60 

— 

60 

— 

60 

60 

60 

— 

90   — 

90 

90   — 

90 

90   — 

90 

90   — 

90 

I32  .  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 


700  Natural  science 

701  Experimental  and  observational 

general  science  -- 

702  General  science  readings  

800    Mental  science  


7th  Grade 
Alpha   Beta 

8th  Grade 
Alpha   Beta 

...  —   60 

—    60 

...  -    60 

—    60 

120 

— 

120 

60 

— 

60 

30 

— 

30 

801  Mental  science  readings  . —        60  —        60 

802  "How  to  study"  specific  subjects. 30       —  30       — 

900  Art,  plastic  and  graphic  

901  Applied  art  appreciation  — 

902  Elements  of  drawing  and  painting... 

903  Moving  pictures,   appreciation  

904  Applied  drawing  r 120  120 

1000  Music    . 

1001  Musical   appreciation  „    —       60  —        60 

1002  Vocal  training „ 

1003  Instrumental  training  

1004  Chorus    _ 

1005  Band   : 

1100  Practical  arts  

1101  Industrial  arts,  miscellaneous  ~ 

1102  Household  arts,  miscellaneous  .... 

1103  Commercial  arts,  miscellaneous 

1104  Agricultural  arts,  miscellaneous  _ 
1200  Vocational  guidance 


90 

— 

90 

— 

90 

— 

90 

— 

— 

60 

— 

30 

— 

30 

— 

60 

__ 

180 

j 

180 

— 

180 

— 

180 

— 

180 

— 

180 

— 

180 

— 

180 

180 

— 

480 

60 

— 

60 

— 

60 

— 

— 

60 

— 

1201  Vocational   guidance,   readings   and 

lectures  —       30  —       60 

1202  Individual   diagnosis   10       —  10       — 

1300  Physical  development  and  education 

1301  Physical  play  - 

1302  Hygiene  reading  and  lectures - 

1303  Hygiene,  training  60 

1304  Corrective  physical  training 60       — 

C.  Junior  School  Cases 

Case  A.  Thirty  7th  grade  boys,  average  intellectual  abilities  and  in- 
terests, strong  physical  play  and  social  interest,  and  good  industrial  arts 
interests.  Are  ready  for  scouting,  band,  current  reading,  etc.  Fathers 
wage  earners,  economic  burdens  heavy.  Have  no  foreign  affiliations. 
Prognosis :  Boys  will  not  remain  in  school  beyond  fifteen,  but  could  then 
be  induced  by  prospects  of  position  to  go  to  short  course,  all-day  voca- 
tional specialty  school  (for  juvenile  workers)  for  30-90  days.  Will  be 
wage  workers  in  miscellaneous  factories  until  25,  when  a  few  will  become 
foremen  or  high  grade  specialists. 


SCHOOL    EDUCATION,-  TWELVE    TO    FOURTEEN  1 33 

Class  B.  Thirty  7th  grade  girls,  keen  minds,  prosperous  families,  little 
interest  in  physical  play,  intellectually  and  socially  ambitious.  Will 
probably  go  through  high  school  and  college,  then  miscellaneous  social  or 
teaching  work  until  marriage  at  26.  May  be  expected  to  be  prominent  in 
social  and  political  life.  Will  find  difficulty  in  keeping  up  physical 
strength  in  mature  years. 

Case  C.  Thirty  7th  grade  boys  from  prosperous,  cultured  homes, 
fairly  good  in  studies,  keen  for  sports,  scouting,  etc.;  are  naturally  good 
speakers  and  writers.  Easily  interested  in  readings,  civics,  natural 
sciences,  industrial  arts.  Will  probably  go  through  college  and  into  pro- 
fession or  high  stage  business.    Will  be  influential  in  politics. 

Case  D.  Thirty  girls  of  poor  homes  and  moderate  personal  cultivation. 
Intellectually  keen  and  very  ambitious.  Families  can  keep  them  in  school 
to  18  or  even  20,  but  at  much  sacrifice.  Not  well  equipped  with  health 
and  physical  strength.  Can  probably  not  expect  to  teach  because  of  alien 
ancestry.    Will  probably  marry  at  26.    No  household  arts  interest  now. 

Cases  E  to  M.    (To  be  supplied  by  students  out  of  personal  experience.) 

D.    Problems  of  Pupils 

1.  Of  the  above  program  of  school  offerings,  is  it  probable  that  some 
would  be  in  no  demand?    Which?    Why? 

2.  Which  of  these  are  valueless  or  for  other  reasons  ought  not  to  be 
offered  at  public  expense?    Why? 

3.  Which  of  these  offerings  ought  to  be  specifically  prescribed  for  all 
Case  A  to  D  pupils  alike,  irrespective  of  previous  attainments  from  home 
surroundings,  etc?    Why? 

4.  Which  of  these  offerings  ought  to  be  specifically  prescribed  for 
pupils  deficient  in  the  attainments  usually  found  at  the  end  of  the  6th 
grade?    Why? 

5.  Which  of  these  offerings  would  you  most  strongly  advise  Case  A 
pupils   to   elect?    Why? 

6.  Same  for  Case  B  pupils. 

7.  Same  for  Case  C  pupils. 

8.  Same  for  Case  D  pupils. 

9.  Same  for  other  hypothetical  cases. 

10.  Which  of  these  would  you  most  strongly  advise  Case  A  pupils  not 
to  take?    Why? 

11.  Same  for  other  selected  cases. 

12.  What  special  offerings  supplemental  to  the  above  should  be  offered 
pupils  of  12-14  from  two  to  five  grades  retarded? 

13.  In  a  junior  school  (manufacturing  village)  of  only  200  pupils,  only 
one-fourth  of  the  above  program  of  studies  can  be  offered,  (a)  Which 
units  would  you  retain  intact?  (b)  Which  eliminate?  (c)  Which  con- 
solidate ? 


134  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

E.  Problems  of  Courses 

1.  Having  assumed  and  described  a  probable  group  of  learners,  specify 
in  detail  controlling  aims,  organization  and  methods  for  courses:  102; 
103;  109;  112;  205;  301;  404;  406;  501;  502;  601;  606;  608;  701;  702;  802; 
1001;  1102;  2102;  1301. 

2.  To  what  extent  is  it  desirable  for  the  sake  of  the  individual  or 
necessary  as  a  means  of  class  administration  that  all  pupils  should  do 
the  same  work  in:  104;  302;  403;  503;  701;  1101;  1301? 

3.  For  what  classes,  under  what  conditions,  to  what  extent  and  by 
what  standards  of  social  worth  are  the  following  expected  to  have  value  to 
adults:  101;  102;  107;  201;  405;  501;  602;  1002;  1303? 

4.  What  character  of  offering  would  you  expect  under  103;  204;  608; 
802;  1003;  1103;  1202? 

5.  What  specific  methods  would  you  propose  for :  102 ;  301 ;  504 ;  607 ; 
1004;  1301? 


CHAPTER  XX 

OBJECTIVES    OF   GENERAL    SCHOOL    EDUCATION,    NORMAL 

YOUTHS,  AGES  TWELVE  TO  EIGHTEEN 

1.  For  this  period  we  assume:  compulsory  full-time  school  attendance 
12  to  14;  optional  full-,  part-,  or  no-time  attendance  14-18  (with  probable 
right  to  enforce  part-time  or  continuation  school  attendance) ;  provision, 
where  practicable,  of  central  schools  (maximum  walking  distance  two 
miles,  riding,  one  hour  each  way) ;  departmental  teaching,  flexible  curri- 
cula, permitting  considerable  freedom  in  formation  of  student  programs; 
and  long  school  day  permits  reasonable  inclusion  of  "beta"  activities. 

a.  "Normal"  means  here  inclusion  in  large  modal  group — at  least 
40%  on  each  side  of  median — of  those  graded  as  to  mental 
ability,  home  influences,  fundamental  interests,  future  prospects, 
etc.  Note  that  "exceptionals"  are  found  "above"  as  well  a? 
"below"  normals. 

b.  But  as  regards  particular  qualities,  powers,  interests,  and  pros- 
pects, variabilities,  always  existent,  here  probably  become  acute 
and  of  real  significance  in  making  curricula  for  schools  and, 
from  these,  programs  for  individuals.  (Illustrate  variations, 
individual  and  groupal,  as  to  powers — mathematical,  musical, 
manual  dexterities ;  interests — in  abstract  studies,  in  constructive 
work;  prospects — for  prolonged  schooling,  for  civic  leadership, 
for  entry  on  professional  calling,  for  advancing  cultural  appre- 
ciations.) 

2.  Chief  contemporary  problem  of  high  school  curricula  is  to  distinguish 
between  required  and  elective  elements  in  programs  of  learners.  Range 
and  variety  of  offerings  possible  to  large,  rich  schools  very  great.  Fol- 
lowing suggested  principles  applicable  to  school  with  ideal  equipment 
(size,  facilities,  teaching  forces)  : 

a.  Every  pupil  shall  occupy  his  entire  school  time  profitably. 

b.  Each  normal  pupil  shall  give  at  least  800  hours  in  13th  year 
and  900  hours  in  14th  year  to  "alpha"  studies  and  activities; 
and  1,000  hours  thereafter  for  full-time  students. 

c.  Every  pupil  electing  an  alpha  study  in  which  failure  to  complete 

advanced  stages  (after  suitable  "trial"  period)  invalidates  whole 
(e.g.,  foreign  language,  music,  English  language,  special  mathe- 
matics, plastic  art,  rifle  shooting,  a  vocation)  shall  be  penalized 
therefor. 

135 


I36  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

d.  Certain  standards  of  common  (universal)  competency  (powers) 
having  been  defined  as  desirable  and  feasible  for  normal  12- 
year-olds,  pupils  therein  deficient  shall  be  required  to  make  up 
deficiencies  (e.g.,  spelling,  penmanship,  arithmetic,  silent  read- 
ing, geography  power,  correct  speech,  right  use  of  voice).  Note 
that  scientific  (i.e.,  objectively  measurable,  tangibly  evaluated) 
standards  here  are  not  yet  available,  but  can  be  produced  with 
due  effort. 

e.  Similarly,  if  it  can  1>e  shown  that  specified  forms  of  power 
suitable  for  attainment  at  ages  12-14  (normal  subjects)  through 
school  education  should  be  expected  of  all  (common  stand- 
ards), then  studies  to  this  end  should  be  prescribed.  Note 
that  it  is  doubtful  if  one  cap  define  these  now;  our  preconcep- 
tions (faiths,  beliefs)  too  vague,  our  evaluation  of  results  of 
extra-school  education  and  development  too  incomplete.  Even  in 
such  fields  as  English  speech,  writing,  hygiene,  arithmetic, 
drawing,  music,  geography,  history,  government,  science,  our 
standards  now  factitious,  pedantic,  unrelated  to  life.  (In  any 
one  of  these  fields,  ascertain:  what  all-round  B  class  citizen 
to-day  shows;  what  are  his  obvious  deficiencies — in  functioning 
powers,  that  is;  and  what  universal  prescription  can  do  to 
help  next  generation.) 

/.  Guidance  (for  school  education,  by-education,  and  towards  voca- 
tion) should  be  fully  developed  and  perhaps  some  participation 
therein  made  obligatory.  But  criteria  for  guidance  now  lack- 
ing. E.g.,  we  do  not  know  when  pupils  should  be  advised  to 
take  studies  to  compensate  for  inherited  deficiencies  of  power 
or  capacity — music,  plastic  art,  mathematics,  practical  arts, 
poetry — and  how  far  culture  should  be  realized  along  lines 
of  least  resistance — i.e.,  greatest  native  capacity. 

g.  For  purposes  of  effective  teaching  and  administration,  it  is  de- 
sirable that  courses  in  alpha  fields  or  subjects  be  broken  pro- 
gressively into   short  and  concrete  units,  each  with  a  clearly 
indicated   objective,   expressed   in  terms  of   skill,  appreciation, 
knowledge,  ideal,  etc. 
3.  Curricula    for  any   given   class   should   rank   offerings   on  basis   of 
probable  educational  values,  placing  first  those  studies  that  are  prescriptive 
under  stated  conditions.    But  note: 

o.  There  may  be  specific  prescription  in  general  (as  spelling,  pen- 
manship, in  lower  grades). 

b.  There  may  be  specific  prescription  for  those  electing  particular 
goal — algebra  for  engineers,  advanced  spelling  for  stenogra- 
pher*, Latin  for  A.B.  degree. 

c.  There  may  be  prescription  of  attendance  but  not  of  mastery, 
e.g.,  compelling  presence  at  prayers,  lectures,  concerts,  etc.,  but 
no  testing  of  attainment. 


SCHOOL  EDUCATION,  TWELVE  TO  EIGHTEEN  1 37 

d.  Quantitative  prescription  (time,  quantity  of  matter)  need  not 
involve  specific  prescription  of  matter  (literature,  songs,  field 
games,  science  projects — social,  natural,  mental). 

e.  Minimum  standards  should  be  defined  for  alpha  subjects  of 
universal  import — then  pupils  deficient  should  be  required  to 
make  up  deficiencies. 

/.    Many  offerings  will  be  purely  elective. 

g.  School  and  society  have  right  and  obligation  to  require  profitable 
employment  of  available  time. 

4.  Curricula  should  make  formal  recognition  of  ends  or  objectives  and 
indicate  or  refer  to  means  and  methods.    Note : 

a.  Texts,  manuals,  guides,  syllabi  are  all  detailed  instruments 
(plans  and  specifications)   of  curricula. 

b.  Large  number  and  variety  of  specifications  and  suggestions  can 
be  made  without  prescription — the  implication  being  that  the 
teacher  will  follow  these  unless  he  has  equally  well  defined 
and  evaluated  substitutes. 

(a)  Discuss :  Curriculum  specifications  as  a  means  of  super- 
vision; text  as  teacher's  guide;  text  as  pupil's  tool;  de- 
sirability of  writing  all  texts  exclusively  for  learners  and 
supplementing  with  teacher's  guide  (manual). 

5.  Problem  of  standards  of  purpose  in  alpha  subjects  and  application 
of  tests  of  proficiency.  (Illustration:  spelling,  penmanship,  arithmetic, 
drawing,  modern  language,  vocation.) 


CHAPTER  XXI 

OBJECTIVES  OF  LIBERAL  SCHOOLS  FOR  PERSONS, 

AGES  EIGHTEEN  TO  TWENTY-TWO 

1.  For  this  period  we  assume  (a)  full-time  general  or  liberal  education 
for  limited  groups;  (b)  two  years  to  general  education  followed  by  begin- 
nings of  professional  education  for  limited  groups;  (c)  need  of  oppor- 
tunities for  extension  work  for  persons  employed;  (d)  possible  require- 
ments of  education  for  military  service;  (e)  special  training  toward 
leadership. 

2.  Note  also  idealistic  proposals  that  within  these  years  a  period  should 
be  devoted  to  state  service  in  lieu  of  compulsory  military  service  as  found 
in  other  countries. 

3.  During  these  years,  for  a  substantial  minority,  beginnings  should  be 
provided  in  training  for  leadership.  Note  confusion  in  ordinary  use  of 
term,  "leader,"  (a)  sometimes  used  to  denote  a  person  holding  a  well-paid 
vocation  or  one  that  requires  much  training, — for  example,  theology,  law, 
medicine,  engineering;  (b)  also  used  to  denote  man  occupying  position 
in  which  he  has  large  and  obvious  following,  for  example,  official  in 
army,  captain  of  vessel,  leader  of  labor  union,  business  manager,  superin- 
tendent of  schools,  etc. 

a.  Note  historical  fact  that  professional  men  have  also  naturally 
been  looked  upon  as  leaders,  a  fact  less  true  than  formerly 
for  many  professions. 

4.  Problems  of  training  for  leadership  of  second  class,  those  largely  of 
finding  persons  of  superior  ability  already  grounded  in  lower  fields  of 
work  or  contact  and  giving  the  supplemental  training.  Examples :  fore- 
man, overseer,  political  group  leader,  social  leader,  etc 

5.  Problems  of  professional  training  to-day  found  more  in  field  of 
method  and  aim.  Note  contemporary  movements  to  make  professional 
training  more  practical,  to  measure  power  of  practical  achievement  as 
element  in  granting  diplomas. 

6.  Problems  of  new  professions. 


138 


CHAPTER  XXII 

ADAPTATIONS  OF  EDUCATION  TO  SPECIAL  SOCIAL  CLASSES 

Societies,  general  or  special,  utilize  education  as  a  means  of  producing 
desired  results  of  conformity,  initiations,  etc.,  in  individuals  or  social 
groups.    Note  historical  examples. 

1.  The  state,  (or  philanthropy  anticipating),  uses  school  education  for 
a  wide  range  of  classes:  (a)  cultural  (bright,  average,  retarded,  illiterate 
youths,  illiterate  adults)  ;  (b)  vocational  (leaders,  public  servants,  talented, 
orphaned,    socially   needy,     crippled,    speech    defective) ;    (c)    anti-social 

(recidivists,  young  felons,  misdemeanants,  youthful  delinquents,  incorri- 
gible from  standpoint  of  home  and  school,  disciplinary  cases,  female 
offenders)  ;  racial  (colored,  conquered  territories,  immigrants) ;  standard 
of  living  (homes,  utilization,  art),  health;  thrift;  temperance;  defend- 
ers; immigrant  citizens;  religious  devotees,  etc 

a.  The  fundamental  problem  here  concerns  desirable  and  feasible 
limits  of  social  custody — direct  control  under  direction  of  gov- 
ernment. How  far  expedient  for  state  permanently  to  enter  on 
productive  work  with  blind,  recidivists,  subnormals,  etc.  Diffi- 
culties involved  as  regards:  economic  competition  with  private 
enterprise;  state  as  "business  man";  restraints  on  the  freedom 
of  individual,  etc. 

b.  Note  that  custodial  care  and  education  have  been  provided  his- 
torically for  poorer  or  neglected  groups  before  provision  for 
normal — on  assumption  of  competency  of  agencies  of  by-educa- 
tion. 

2.  Problems  of  objectives  in  education  of  defectives—at  present  grow 
out  of  failure  to  consider  that  education  in  terms  of  its  ultimate  outcomes 
For  example. 

a.  Schools  for  blind  and  deaf  endeavor  to  give  kinds  and  scope 

of  education  similar  to  that  for  normal  children. 

b.  They  neglect  supremely  important  ends  of  genuine  (as  against 
make-believe  or  sentiment-colored)    vocational  education. 

c.  Schools  for  mental  subnormals  and  cripples  do  not  base  their 

programs  upon  clear  cut  differentiation  between  cases  that  must 
remain  custodial  and  those  that  can  be  prepared  for  independ- 
ent existence. 

(a)  Investigations :  current  programs  of  these  schools  studied 
to  ascertain  actual  objectives. 
139 


140  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

(b)  Problems  of  the  social  education  of  defectives,  especially 
mingling  with  normals. 

3.  Problems  of  education  of  delinquents,  especially  acute  on  side  of 
socialization.  Uncertainties  as  to  how  far  anti-social  manifestations  are 
the  result  of  heredity,  or  of  bad  by -education.  Schools  now  weak  in 
follow-up  oversight. 

a.  Segregation  for  education — a  desirable  means — how  far  opposed 
to  final  socialization? 

b.  Difficulty  of  preventing  institutionalizing,  of  promoting  capacity 
for  self-direction,  saving,  resisting  powers,  industry. 

c.  Partial  vs.  entire  custodial  oversight — a  problem  at  all  stages. 

(a)    Examine   institutional  reports  to  determine  actual   ob- 
jectives. 

4.  Problems  of  providing  nurturing  environment  and  by-education  for 
parentless  children. 

o.  Adoption,    "hired   homes,"    institutional    custody    required,   ac- 
cording to  circumstances. 
b.  Problem  of  transition  to  independence. 

(a)  Review  history  of  education  of  orphans.  What  has 
been  the  special  contribution  of   Christianity? 

5.  Problems  of  the  social  adjustment  of  immigrants. 

a.  Desirability   of   a   national   policy.    Limitation   on  private  and 
local  effort. 

b.  Possibilities  of  ceremonial  adoption  into  citizenship. 

c.  Aims  of  education:     individual  efficiency;  citizenship;  standard 

of  living;  personal  culture. 

(a)  Formulate  detailed  problems  of  education  of  immigrants 
for  New  York. 

6.  Problems  of  special  education  of  subject  peoples  or  classes. 

a.  Central  oversight,  and  support  from  local  sources. 

b.  Special  efforts  to  procure  leaders  from  peoples  concerned. 

c.  The  vocational  basis,  misunderstood,  because  of  effective  by- 

education  in  controlling  peoples. 

d.  Conflict  of  social  ideals  in  education. 

(a)  What  problems  remain  as  regards  education  of:  Negroes; 
(Filipinos;  Porto  Ricans;  Indians;  East  Indians  (for  Great 
Britain)  ? 

7.  Extension  and  differentiation  of  social  needs  gives  many  demands 
for  new  types  of  schools.  (Efficiency  requires  that  each  of  these  be  organ- 
ized on  the  basis  of  clearly  defined  objectives  expressed  in  curricula  and 
courses. 

Vocational  education  must  exist  in  as  many  varieties  as  there  are  at 
any  given  time  differentiated  vocations— probably  over  2,000  now  in  the 
United  States.  Where  such  education  is  transferred  from  "pick  up"  and 
apprenticeship  methods  to  schools,  these  must  derive  specific  objectives 
from  systematic  needs  of  the  vocation — for  numbers,  talents,  skills,  tech- 
nical knowledge,  vocational  perspective. 


SPECIAL  SOCIAL  CLASSES 


I4I 


a.  Schools  may  be  designed  to  offer  either  "basic"  (whole,  com- 
plete, integral)  or  only  "extension"  (part,  fractional)  voca- 
tional education,  according  as  practical  participation  or  appren- 
ticeship can  or  cannot  give  part.  Curricula  for  "extension" 
training  or  instruction  can  be  effective  only  when  formulated 
in  clearly  understood  relationship  to  the  possibilities  of  contri- 
butions from  other  sources. 
8.  Special  education  for  employed  classes  may  be  cultural,  physical, 
vocational,  or  civic. 

a.  The  "Americanization"  of  mature  immigrants  may  involve  sev- 
eral distinct  objectives:  (a)  training  in  (English;  (b)  instruc- 
tion   and    perhaps    training    in    citizenship    including    history; 

(c)  instruction  and  training  in  American  sanitary  and  sump- 
tuary standards — possibly  fundamentals  of  manners  also. 

b.  The  continuation  school  with  compulsory  attendance  attempts 
to  preserve  and  increase  culture,  physical  competency,  civic  qual- 
ities and  vocational  powers  of  young  persons — under  16  or  1&— 
already  vocationally  employed.  At  present  curricula  for  these 
schools  are  largely  experimental. 

c.  Many  men  and  women  develop  special  cultural  or  other  interests 

late  in  life.  Philanthropy  and  volunteer  efforts  have  sporadically 
sought  to  provide  special  facilities  for  these — through  extension 
courses,  admission  of  workingmen  to  special  college  courses, 
etc.  Note  attempts  at  Oxford,  in  New  York  City,  the  agri- 
cultural colleges,  the  American  Society  for  University  Exten- 
sion, social  settlements,  etc. 

Military  Training 

1.  Conditions  of  competition  among  nations  leading  to  conflict  drastic- 
ally test  capacity  for  coordinated  efforts  to  special  ends  of  military 
efficiency. 

fl.  Note  historical  enlargement  of  national  areas  with  probability 
of  federation  such  as  will  lessen  war. 

b.  Note  also  steady  introduction  of  science  and  organization  in 
international  conflict  with  resulting  draft  upon  all  forces  at 
sundry  periods  in  past  time. 

c.  Analyze  significance  of  James'  proposals  for  moral  equivalents 
of  war. 

2.  Problem  of  the  citizen  army  vs.  specialized  soldiery  from  standpoint 
of  international  efficiency  and  from  standpoint  of  prolonged  intervals  of 
peace  between  possible  conflicts. 

o.  Subsidiary  problem  of  a  training  officer  staff  with  citizen  army. 
Contrast  examples  of  Switzerland  and  America. 

3.  Analysis  of  proposals  for  universal  service  in  defence,  including  all 
forms  of  special  service — for  example,  food  production,  transportation, 
medical,  scientific*— as  well  as  actual  sharing  in  immediate  conflict. 


142  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

a.  The   problem   of   coordinating   miHtary   training  with   training 
for  vocation. 

b.  The  problem  of  keeping  alive  military  competency  by  use  of 
vocation  or  other  periods  for  military  training. 

4.  The  problem  of  physical  training  of  youths  from  14-18  as  founda- 
tions for  military  training. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

OBJECTIVES  OF  SPECIAL  EDUCATION  FOR  PHYSICAL 

DEFECTIVES 

1.  Physical  defectives  here  include  all  variants  (by  heredity  or  early 
environment)  for  whom  ordinary  educational  processes  are  inadequate — 
deaf,  dumb,  Wind,  cripples,  mentally  subnormal  (of  all  grades),  etc 

a.  Note  that,  at  first,  classifications  here  are  rough  and  inclusive 

of  only  extreme  cases.  As  diagnosis  improves,  additional 
classes  are  formed,  e.g.,  completely  blind,  partly  blind ;  morons, 
imbeciles,  etc     (Ex.,  vocal,  aural,  skeletal  defectives.) 

b.  Fundamental  classification  ultimately  required:  (a)  those 
probably  requiring  permanent  public  assistance,  release  from 
conditions  of  individual  competitive  existence;  and  (&)  those 
able,  after  proper  start,  to  "go  alone,"  without  state  support. 

2.  Philanthropic  effort  has  pioneered  education  of  defectives.  Probable 
over-development  of  attempts  to  make  defectives  like  normals.  Under- 
valuation of  vocational  education.  Absence  of  evaluation  of  results  in 
terms  of  adult  life — 20-6X)  years. 

a.  Philanthropic  effort  often  reflects  Ibcst  spirit  of  Christian  indi- 

vidualism— the  valuation  of  worth  of  human  soul.  But  like 
elemental  Christian  charity,  it  is  often  emotional,  temporary, 
unscientific — hence  in  long  run,  sometimes  even  unsocial. 

b.  Rare  cases  where  physical  defectives — more  commonly  Wind, 
occasionlly  crippled — have  become  marked  social  assets.  One 
Helen  Keller  leads  to  extended  efforts  to  give  fullest  possible 
development  to  culture  capacities  of  blind. 

3.  Complications  involved  in  providing  normal  family  life  for  defec- 
tives probably  incapable  of  meeting  conditions  of  competitive  self-support. 
Public  assistance  agencies,  designed  to  make  them  at  least  self -supporting, 
needed 

a.  For  these  classes  is  extended  cultural  education  required — e.g., 
general   reading,  art  appreciation,  etc.? 

b.  Add  specialized  vocational  education  at  successive  stages — 14, 
18,  22— designed  to  make  them  fully  productive  in  state  directed 
service. 

4.  For  classes  for  whom  independent  existence  is  contemplated,  very 
specialized  forms  of  liberal  and  vocational  education  required. 

a.  Liberal  education  should  consist  of   (a)   special  forms  of  cul- 

143 


144  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

tural  interest  and  capacity  so  developed  as  to  give  them  relief 
from  loneliness  and  privations  which  their  condition  entails; 
and  (b)  special  forms  of  social  education  (including  vocational 
guidance)  adapting  them  to  particular  social  conditions  which 
they  must  meet. 
b.  Obviously,  vocational  education  of  a  definitely  adjusted  and 
specialized  character  required.  Need  of  survey  of  possible  oc- 
cupations, for  blind,  deaf,  subnormal,  crippled.  Lessons  from 
European  countries,  as  consequence  of  war,  now  available. 

5.  Special  problems  of  blind. 

o.  Blindness  impairs  mental  powers  less  than  deafness.  Hence, 
given  sources  of  mental  stimulation — music,  reading,  conver- 
sation— blind  grow  readily  in  cultural  appreciations. 

b.  But  extreme  difficulties  in  teaching  studies  like  geography, 
science,  art,  etc.  Hence,  absurdity  of  many  current  attempts  at 
general  education. 

c.  Difficulties  of  employing  deaf  in  cooperative  work. 

d.  Probabilities  that  majortiy  of  blind  can  be  assisted  to  higher 
productiveness  by  state  action  than  otherwise.  Analyze  possible 
openings,  cooperative  and  other. 

6.  Special  problems  of  the  deaf. 

o.  Serious  effects  of  deafness  on  development  of  appreciations, 
especially  abstract  thinking. 

b.  Conflict  of  methods  of  communication. 

c.  Difficulties  of  employing  deaf  in  cooperative  work. 

d.  Vocations  for  the  deaf. 

7.  Special  problems  of  the  crippled. 

a.  Vocations. 

8.  Special  problems   of  the  mentally  subnormal    (those  not  ordinarily 
anti-social). 

a.  Classification. 

b.  Obstacles  to  freedom — especially  of  women  under  50  year  of 
age. 

c.  Vocations.     Note  frequently  excellent  working  powers  of  sub- 

normals,  and  bearing  of  work  on  physical  and  moral  whole- 
someness. 

9.  Speech  defectives. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

OBJECTIVES  OF  SPECIAL  EDUCATION  FOR  THE  BLIND 

A.     Fundamental  Sociological  Facts 

1.  Birth  and  accident  give  society  a  substantial  (but  probably  diminish- 
ing) number  of  blind.  Unless  distinctly  subnormal  mentally,  these  are 
expected  to  be  self-supporting  in  adult  life. 

2.  Methods  have  been  devised  whereby  the  blind  can  learn  reading  and 
writing  through  use  of  touch. 

3.  Philanthropy  has  first  developed  the  special  education  required  by  the 
blind ;  but  public  agencies  now  supercede  private  effort. 

4.  Since  special  teachers  and  equipment  are  required  to  teach  the  blind, 
central  boarding  schools  are  needed — except  in  a  few  large  cities  where 
day  school  attendance  is  practicable;  hence  detachment  from  home  en- 
vironment is  almost  necessary  during  school  period. 

5.  The  blind  are  at  least  as  culturally  sensitive  and  responsive  as  the 
seeing;  but  in  most  respects  they  are  average  people. 

6.  The  outstanding  needs  of  the  blind  are:  special  methods  of  reading 
and  writing;  special  vocational  guidance  and  preparation  (in  their  cases 
pick  up  methods  are  signally  fruitless)  ;  and,  probably,  special  cultural 
equipment  as  resource  in  leisure;  possibly  a  fourth  need  is  specially  ad- 
justed means  of  physical  recreation. 

7.  Some  social  economists  believe  that  in  a  well  organized  society  all 
the  blind  so  desiring  (and,  under  compulsion,  all  blind  likely  to  become 
dependent)  should  be  the  "wards  of  the  state,"  being  brought  together  for 
residence  and  work,  under  favorable  conditions  of  productive  service. 

B.    Working  Cases 

Case  A.  Twenty  girls,  blind  from  birth,  entered  at  eight  years  of  age 
in  free  residence  school.  Of  average  mentality,  from  working  class 
families,  and  for  sake  of  families,  should  be  self-supporting  at  close  of 
school — age  18.  States  provides  home,  tuition,  etc.,  and  exacts,  except 
from  poorest  parents,  fees  about  equal  to  support  of  child  at  home. 
School  in  session  ten  months,  and  can  use  full  day  and  full  week  for 
educative  purposes. 

Case  B.  Ten  men,  20  to  35  years  of  age,  blinded  by  accident.  State 
will  give  two  years  schooling  in  residence  school.     Families  poor,  small 

145 


I46  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

cultural  background,  equivalent  of  sixth  grade  education  completed  at 
fourteen.    All  of  mechanical  bent. 

Cases  C  to  D.  Supplied  by  students. 

C.     Problems 

1.  In  Case  A,  assuming  that  reading  for  simple  purpose  can  be  taught 
during  first  three  years,  and  that  then  history,  language,  mathematics  and 
other  academic  subjects,  except  geography,  sight  music,  drawing,  and 
practical  arts,  can  be  taught  as  well  as  to  seeing  children,  what  should  be 
objectives  from  eight  to  eighteen  in  these  subjects?  Assuming  that  geog- 
raphy, drawing,  practical  arts,  and  sight  music  present  extraordinary 
difficulties,  what  would  be  proposed  objectives  in  these? 

2.  In  view  of  opportunities  given  by  residence  school,  propose  novel  or 
living  under  ordinary  conditions? 

7.  Assume  state  ready  to  give  life  custody  and  work  to  Case  A  mem- 
bers, with  partial  self-support  starting  at  16  but  some  extension  education 
continuing  to  25 ;  what  would  be  educational  program  proposed ;  8  to  16 ; 
16  to  25? 

8.  What  vocations  would  be  proposed  for  Case  B  group?  How  could 
training  be  provided?  What  special  forms  of  cultural  and  physical  edu- 
cation would  be  suggested? 

Summarize  experience  with  blinded  soldiers? 

9.  What  generally  valid  conclusions  can  probably  be  inferred  from 
exceptional  cases  where  blind  have  become  successful  teachers,  farmers, 
secretaries,   etc. 

specially  adapted  set  of  objectives  in  respectively:  physical  development; 
and  education  towards  (a)  corrective  training,  (b)  adult  recreation; 
cultural  education  for  leisure,  civic  education. 

3.  What  will  be  vocations  open  to  these  girls?  What  vocations  are 
probably  most  desirable  for  them?  Should  we  assume  that  in  these 
vocations  they  can  compete  on  equal  terms  with  the  seeing,  or  that  they 
should  expect  to  work  for  less  wages,  or  that  they  should  bring  superior 
training?  What  seem  to  you  the  respective  possibilities  of:  teaching; 
typing  from  dictaphone;  needle  trades;  machine  assembly;  homemaking 
(employed)  ;  homemaking  (married)  ;  gardening. 

For  one  of  these  vocations  indicate  programs  of  training  (in  residence 
school)  with  possibilities  for  part-time  work. 

4.  Under  what  circumstances  should  marriage  of  blind  woman  and  see- 
ing man  be  encouraged?     Of  blind  man  and  woman? 

5.  It  is  said  to  be  very  difficult  to  teach  geography  to  the  blind;  what 
do  you  conceive  to  be  necessary  objectives  in  that  subject? 

6.  What  are  forms  of  physical  recreation  most  suited  to  blind  adults 


CHAPTER  XXV 

OBJECTIVES   OF  SPECIAL  EDUCATION  FOR  SOCIAL 
OFFENDERS 

1.  For  present  purposes,  the  category  "anti-social"  will  be  used  to  cover 
not  only  persons  convicted  of  felonies  and  misdemeanors,  but  also  poten- 
tial delinquents,  habitual  truants  and  vagrants  and  part  or  wholly  con- 
firmed victims  of  various  vices. 

2.  Social  control  in  large  group  forms  at  all  stages  of  social  evolution 
has  aimed  very  consciously  at  the  extirpation,  repression,  correction  and 
prevention  of  anti-social  individuals  and  of  "small  group"  organizations 
of  them.  Death,  expulsion,  and  drastic  punishments  have  been  immemori- 
ally  employed.  Few  religions  but  have  ingeniously  used  spiritual  terrors 
to  curb  or  prevent  anti-social  manifestations.  Systems  of  law  with  com- 
plicated machinery  of  police,  courts,  prisons  and  other  corrective  agencies 
have  been  evolved.  Criminology  and  relief  have  an  extensive  literature 
showing  many  extensive  applications  of  sociological  knowledge.  The 
increasing  complexity  of  society  creates  endless  new  opportunities  fot 
development  of  parasitic,  predatory  and  generally  vicious  types,  necessi^ 
tates  corresponding  provision  of  means  of  combatting  them. 

3.  Social  economists  have  perennial  interest  in  sources  of  anti-social 
dispositions,  as  have  physicians  in  sources  of  many  kinds  of  disease, 
because  if  these  are  essentially  effects  of  environment  rather  than  he- 
redity, then  prevention  seems  much  more  feasible  and  even  correction  al- 
ways hopeful.  Evidence  here  is  still  very  obscure  and  not  yet  safe  guide 
for  individual  prognosis,  but  the  following  conclusions  seem  now  justifi- 
able. 

a.  Great  variability  exists  among  individuals  as  regards  the  in- 
stincts that  affect  social  action.  In  some,  individualistic  ten- 
dencies towards  angry  combat,  sex  lust,  property  acquisitiveness, 
vagrancy,  idleness,  destructiveness  and  the  like  are  relatively 
strong  as  against  the  instincts  that  make  for  restraint  and 
group  conformity,  such  as  fears  (of  future  pain,  social  dis- 
approval, etc.),  submissiveness,  domesticity,  love,  as  well  as 
their  more  complex  resultants  in  forms  of  conscience,  loyalty, 
religiousness,  industriousness,  etc. 

b.  A  sufficiently  adverse  social  environment  (neglect,  absence  of 
good  example  and   control,   ignorance,   small  group  contagion, 

147 


I48  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

etc.),  given  sufficient  time  in  youthful  plasticity  can  probably 
corrupt  even  the  inherently  best,  and  can  certainly  spoil  persons 
of  only  average  or  inferior  right  social  equipment. 

c.  But,  no  less  certainly,  a  sufficiently  propitious  social  environ- 
ment, operative  over  years  of  plasticity,  can  at  least  insure  good 
present  virtues  of  conformity,  and  often  of  adult  conformity 
even  in  the  case  of  those  inherently  predisposed  to  anti-social 
courses.  (It  should  be  recognized,  however,  that  the  provision 
of  such  environment  may  easily  be  too  costly  for  a  given  social 
group  to  provide — hence  reluctance  of  couples  to  adopt  infants 
of  doubtful  origin,  tendencies  of  primitive  peoples  and  of 
advanced  societies  summarily  to  execute  or  exile  unpromising  in- 
dividuals, etc.) 

d.  The  primary  socializing  agency  is  parental  control  and  it  is 
socially  expedient  at  all  times  to  conserve  and  even  enhance 
the  responsibility  of  the  family,  but  as  a  consequence,  inferior 
families  are  thus  permitted  to  expose  children  of  average  or 
inferior  dispositions  to  prolonged  anti-social  habituation,  before 
other  agencies  can  act  loco  parentis.  Similarly,  for  the  sake 
of  conserving  liberty  and  growth  opportunities  for  the  majority, 
extensive  freedom  and  scope  is  given,  especially  under  demo- 
cratic conditions,  to  play  of  such  agencies  as  street  association, 
press,  stage,  photo  drama,  school  discipline,  which  thus  give 
endless  opportunities  for  the  anti-socially  inclined  to  become 
deeply  habituated  before  influences  of  special  controlling 
agencies  (police  power,  public  opinion,  etc.)  can  become  oper- 
ative. Hence  extreme  difficulties,  both  of  early  diagnosis  of 
potential  offenders,  and  of  segregation  for  special  treatment  of 
incipient  offenders. 

e.  The  "reformability,"  that  is  for  restoration  to  a  responsible 
place  in  free  society,  of  social  offenders  diminishes  rapidly  with 
age,  with  extent  of  anti-social  habituation,  and  with  lowness  of 
general  intelligence.  A  thief,  vagrant,  prostitute,  bully,  drunk- 
ard, or  slacker  of  more  than  twenty-five  seems  usually  ir- 
redeemable except  by  extraordinary  means.  Even  a  youthful 
offender  at  seventeen  to  twenty  may  be  hopeless  if  adverse 
social  environment  has  long  been  influential.  Where  "freedom" 
offers  many  temptations  to  the  person  of  low  intelligence  and 
normal  or  strong  appetites  (easy  living  conditions  for  vagrants, 
laxity  towards  prostitution  and  drunkenness,  tolerance  of 
physical  brutality,  absence  of  compulsory  school  attendance, 
slight  disapproval  of  petty  thievery  and  begging,  etc.)  a  large 
proportion    of    mental    subnormals,    especially    from    families 


EDUCATION    FOR    SOCIAL    OFFENDERS  149 

where  parental  control  stops  early,  may  be  expected  to  embrace 
paritism  and  other  anti-social  practices. 

4.  Social  economy  has  made  great  strides  in  recent  years  in  directing 
public  and  official  opinion  towards  prevention  and  early  correction  as 
means  of  lessening  number  of  offenders. 

5.  Fundamental  classification  in  all  early  education  based  upon  char- 
acter of  environment  and  available  by-education,  (a)  Is  the  home  ade- 
quate or  capable  of  being  made  adequate?  or  (&)  must  public  (or  philan- 
thropic) agencies  supply  substitutes? 

a.  Early  diagnosis  on  this  basis  necessary  to  determine  functions 
of  school  education — which  is  supplemental,  if  home  environ- 
ment is  right,  and  which  must  develop  new  means  if  it  is  not. 

6.  Provisions  of  substitutes  for  home  influence: — in  case  of  broken 
homes  or  homes  unequal  to  task — always  most  difficult  problem.  Note 
classification  cottages,  probation,  out-placing,  rewards,  self-support.  Im- 
portance of  special  kinds  of  personality,  and  means  of  making  it  effective 
in  public  provision  of  means  for  by-education. 

a.  Devices    used   in   American   school    for   delinquents;    so-called 

Parental    school;    English    "day"    truant    school;    George   Jr. 
Republic;  etc. 

b.  Problems  of  avoiding:  contamination;  mechanization  of  rou- 
tine; "institutional  dependence";  gang  labor;  uncompensated 
labor. 

c.  Problem  of  "harbor?  for  youths  placed  out. 

7.  Constructive  proposals  for: 

a.  Disciplinary  classes  in  cooperation  with  normal  home. 

b.  Truant   classes   in   connection  with:    (a)    normal   home;   and 

(b)   defective,  but  still  useful  home. 

c.  Residence  schools  for  neglected  and  anti-social  children,  10-14. 

d.  Residence  schools  for  hardened  cases,  14  upward,  boys. 

e.  Same,  girls. 

8.  Problems  of  prison  education  for  adults,  (a)  reformable  and  (&) 
irreclaimable  recidivists. 

9.  Problems  of  vocational  education  of  delinquents. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 

1.  Three  (possibly  four)  types  of  objectives  in  English  language 
studies:  (a)  speaking;  (b)  reading;  (c)  writing;  and,  possibly  (d) 
hearing.  'Each  has  its  peculiar  techniques.  Common  elements  in  speaking 
and  writing,  oral  reading,  etc. 

a.  Clear-cut  differentiation  of  objectives  (now  wanting  in  English 
language  teaching  in  all  but  lowest  grades)  will  always :  (a)  take 
account  of  learner's  previous  attainments;  (b)  give  place  to 
concomitant  factors  of  thought  or  idea  power  as  related  to 
language  appreciation  and  expression;  and  (c)  then  develop 
special  and  often  highly  specialized  techniques  adding  new 
powers  or  improving  existing  powers. 

b.  In  certain  language  phases,  functions  of  school  peculiarly  re- 
sidual, e.g.,  speech  (including  pronunciation,  structure  usage. 
vocal  powers — all  ages;  and  silent  reading — older  pupils). 

c.  Sharp  differentiation  here  made  between  teaching  of  English 

language  and  teaching  of  English  literature.  Fundamental 
objectives  surely  very  wide  apart  (although  actual  objectives 
of  literature  study  not  yet  determined).  Language  courses 
may  employ  selections  and  extracts  from  literature  for  ana- 
tomical and  other  exercise  purposes — but  that  is  not  the  study 
of  literature. 

d.  English  language  studies  largely  of  alpha  character.  Outcomes 
are  or  should  be  definite  and  measurable  powers  to  be  used 
throughout  life  in  definite  and  instrumental  ways.  Some  appreci- 
ation (beta)  offerings  may  prove  desirable — appreciations  of 
good  usage  in  those  having  extraordinary  powers  of  speaking, 
reading  and   writing. 

2.  Speech  or  oral  expression  a  division  in  which  by-education  is  pecul- 
iarly potent,  leaving  school  residual  functions  of,  as  yet,  very  imperfectly 
defined  character. 

o.  What  are  desirable  social  objectives?     Doubtless:   (a)   for  the 
individual — ease,    economy   and   effectiveness   of   complete    ex- 
pression of  ideas  in  varying  situations  (with  equals,  inferiors, 
superiors)  ;  (b\  for  the  community — fullness  of  mutual  under- 
go 


ENGLISH    LANGUAGE  151 

standing,  disappearance  of  caste  or  class  distinctions;  and  (c) 
for  the  nation — homogeneity  of  forms  (pronunciations,  dialects, 
"accents")  and  maximum  of  expressiveness.  Probably  also 
interaction  of  language  and  thought  as  objectives,  but  psychol- 
ogy in  this  very  obscure. 

b.  Oral  intercourse  is  of  two  fundamentally  unlike  kinds:  Xa) 
conversation,  chat,  "give  and  take";  and  (b)  sustained  presen- 
tation— reading  or  speaking  to  audience.  Note  that  for  all 
ordinary  "conversation"  between  "peers"  (equals  in  intellectual 
and  social  ways)  results  of  by-education  seem  ample.  "Edu- 
cation" in  speech  is  chiefly  to  prepare  for  communication 
between  those  not  peers,  and  for  sustained  presentation — the 
last  being  a  difficult  goal. 

c.  Language  structure — "speaking  grammatically" — a  specific  goal 

at  all  stages.  Probable  uselessness  of  "grammer"  study  as  a 
basis,  at  least  until  age  15.  Surveys  are  needed  in  each  individ- 
ual case  and  something  like  a  language  "map"  prepared  for 
(and  perhaps  by)  each  learner  showing  strong  and  weak  points. 
Present  teaching  performances  in  most  schools  are  frightfully 
clumsy  and  ineffective. 

d.  Voice  training — including  pronunciation,  enunciation,  etc. — also  a 
possible  objective  at  all  stages.  Poverty  of  present  "alpha"  mech- 
anisms. Need  of  series  of  specific  objectives.  Probably 
harmful  effects  of  present  methods  of  school  reading  and 
recitation.  State  problems  as  to  whether  singing  provides  val- 
uable exercises  towards  voice  training.  Do  children  of  non- 
English  speaking  parents  present  special  needs  ?    How  definable  ? 

e.  Oral  reading — in  true  sense  of  communication  of  new  matter 
to  listening  audience — probably  important  objective  at  stages 
from  age  ten  to  twenty  as  elective  for  advanced  or  special 
cultured  purposes.  But  note  that  but  few  vocations  impose 
special  demands  for  oral  reading.  Probably  archaic  character 
of  present  "oral  reading."  Note  that  "reciting,"  "elocution," 
"speaking,"  "oratory"  and  drama — all  involving  oral  delivery 
of  memorized  text — may  be  regarded  as  pedagogical  sub- 
species or  variants  of  oral  reading.  Should  "class"  oral  read- 
ing be  discontinued  as  general  requirement  after  third  grade? 

/.  Oral  composition — sustained  oral  delivery  of  ideas  for  which 
language  structure  is  improvised  as  delivery  proceeds — a  val- 
uable objective  for  all  or  at  least  many  of  the  talented  in 
modern  life.  Class  recitations  are  examples,  and  in  them  ap- 
proved standards  should  be  maintained.  Debating  as  a  valuable 
means.  Need  of  defining  series  of  specific  objectives  in  teach- 
ing oral  composition. 


152  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

g.  Vocabulary  building,  including  readiness  of  recall,  an  undefined 
problem  as  yet  in  oral  expression. 

h.  Grammar,  rhetoric,  "elocution" — all  have  possible  "units"  to 
offer  in  "language  study"  applied  to  speech,  but  these  not  yet 
well  defined. 

i.  Discuss  special  problems  of  oral  language  training  for:  (a) 
teachers;  (6)  publicists;  (c)  preachers;  (d)  telephone  opera- 
tors, etc 

3.  Reading,  as  used  here,  means  only  "silent"  reading.  Conditions  of 
civilized  society  make  this  an  objective  of  education  second  in  importance 
only  to  speech;  and  because  of  ineffectiveness  of  by-education  in  early 
years,  the  first  objective  of  all  lower  schools. 

a.  Note  desirability  of  devising  means  of  teaching  silent  reading 
without  the  boring  and  probably  harmful  means  of  "oral  read- 
ing" as  now  found  in  grades  one  to  seven. 

b.  Note  probably  harmful  effects  of  trying  to  "correlate"  study  of 

"silent  reading"  with  other  studies,  including  literature;  but 
also  desirability  of  special  drills  on  each  new  field  of  printed 
subject  matter — e.g.,  algebra. 

c.  But  note  potency  of  by-education  as  result  of  newspaper  and 
general  reading  (including  "movie"  legends)  from  10th  year  on. 

d.  State  current  problems  of  teaching  (printed)  word  recognition; 
phrase  recognition;  and  expression.    What  is  "eye  span." 

e.  Probability  that  reading  of  script  should  not  be  taught  for  at 
least  one  year  after  reading  of  "print"  has  been  begun. 

/.  Define  problems  of  teaching  silent  reading  as  approach  to  each 
new  stage  or  type  of  subject  matter — geography,  arithmetic, 
history,  chemistry,  "heavy"  magazine,"  etc. 

g.  Define  problems  of  interaction  of  silent  reading  (as  text  re- 
cognition) and  assimilation  or  apperception  of  thought  conveyed. 

4.  English  writing  (including  penmanship,  spelling,  composition,  gram- 
matical structure,  rhetoric,  etc.)  one  of  first  objectives,  historically,  of 
school  education.    Note  inadequacy  of  by-education  at  all  stages. 

a.  Penmanship  to  be  regarded  as  a  difficult  manual  art.  Proba- 
bility that  it  should  not  be  commenced  until  second  or  third 
year  in  school  life,  on  pedagogical  as  well  as  physiological 
grounds.  Possibilities  of  substituting  "printing"  machines 
(typewriters)  at  early  stages.  Physiological  and  psychological 
problems  of  "methods"  of  teaching  penmanship.  Qualitative 
standards  and  possibilities  of  defining  optimum  standards  of 
rate  (quantitative  standards).  Possibilities  of  successive  learn- 
ing stages,  e.g.,  ages  7,  12,  16.  State  problems  of  "special" 
penmanship  for  vocations. 


ENGLISH    LANGUAGE  1 53 

b.  Spelling  as  a  specific  objective.  Discuss  problems  of  scope  for 
successive  stages  of  general  education;  special  spelling,  for 
vocations ;  and  possible  effects  of  by-education  through  reading. 

c.  Composition — need  of  further  specific  objectives.  Only  a  few 
— capitalization,  special  forms  for  letters,  punctuation,  etc.— 
now  clearly  defined.  Need  of  definition  of  problems  of  structure 
beyond  those  found  in  oral  composition.  State  problems:  of 
source  material;  interaction  of  thought  and  expression  in  com- 
position; of  applying  results  of  studies  of  grammar,  word 
analysis,  "vocabularies,"  etc.,  grammar,  rhetoric,  etc 

Problems 

1.  What  kinds  of  English  language — cultural,  civic,  vocation— -should 
be  taught  in  vocational  schools?  Distinguish  sharply  elective  from  pre- 
scribed offerings.    Assume  as  cases: 

o.  A  medical  college  admitting  only  approved  candidates  with  at 
least  two  years  of  general  college  education. 

b.  A  "six  months  intensive"  school  for  barbers,  admitting  none 
younger  than  sixteen,  an<J  without  reference  to  grades  passed. 
(Students   chiefly   children   of   non-English   speaking  parents.) 

c.  A  two  years  course  school  for  stenographers,  open  only  to  per- 
sons finishing  two  years  general  high  school  course,  and  having 
"good"  records  in  spelling,  composition  and  grammar. 

d.  A  normal  school  preparing  teachers  of  first  six  grades,  open 
only  to  approved  high  school  graduates. 

e.  A  two  year  part-time  school  of  carpentry,  requiring  completion 

of  fifth  grade,  age  of  fifteen,  and  exceptional  bodily  develop- 
ment for  admission.  (Applicants  usually  crude  in  oral,  and 
deficient  in  written,  English,  and  without  interest  or  conscious- 
ness of  need  of  further  studies.) 
/.  A  "six  months"  intensive  school  of  homemaking  designed  for 
women,  heretofore  wage-earners,  on  eve  of  marriage,  ages  20-25* 
from  varied  wage-earning  vocations — factory,  clerical,  selling — 
and  of  variable  schooling — fifth  grade  to  high  school  graduation. 

2.  The  belief  prevails  widely  that  a  "second  language"  contributes  sub- 
stantially to  mastery  of  English.  Analyze  probabilities,  and  also  indicate 
specific  problems  for  experimental  investigation,  in  following  cases: 

a.  Journalists,  statesmen,  preachers  have  vocational  needs  of  wide 
range  of  vocabulary,  keen  discriminations  of  verbal  meanings, 
correctness  of  language  structure,  and  "fine  expressiveness 
(rhetoric)  in  writing."  What  would  study  of  education  of  the 
following  persons  suggest  as  to  respective  contributions  of: 
native  talent,  second  childhood  vernacular,  classic  language 
study,  systematic  study  of  vernacular  and  systematic  study  in 


154  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

youth  of  second  modern  language ;  Demosthenes,  Euripides, 
Cicero,  Francis  Bacon,  Burke,  Alexander  Hamilton,  Browning, 
Whitman,  Poe,  Hawthorne,  Webster,  Lincoln,  Tolstoi,  Kipling, 
Shaw,  Roosevelt?  What  could  be  shown  by  study  of  less 
gifted,  "B  grade"  persons  known  to  you?  In  comparative 
studies  of,  e.g.,  successful  Americans  or  Englishmen,  how  can 
we  evaluate  "socially  selective"  effects  of  traditional  schools  for 
"cultured"  classes?  Even  if  "classical  learning  contributed  noth- 
ing to  proficiency  in  English,  should  we  not  expect  to  find  that 
nearly  all  leading  English  writers  and  speakers  since  1650  had 
studied  the  classics? 

b.  Large  numbers  of  French-Canadians  are  "bi-lingual."     Can  evi- 

dence be  found  as  to  whether  such  conditions  improve  or  handi- 
cap the  most  needed  tongue? 

c.  What  specific  powers  of  correct  usage  (grammatical)  in  Eng- 
lish can  be  traced  to  the  enlightenment  or  training  obtainable 
from  grammar  and  composition  study  of:  Greek,  Latin,  Span- 
ish, French,  Japanese? 

d.  What  specific  rhetorical  powers  can  similarly  be  traced? 

e.  What  specific  powers  over  rich  and  sensitive  vocabularies? 
/.   What  specific  vocal  powers? 

3.  Back  of  good  English  expression  are  two  general  factors:  (a)  con- 
tent (ideas,  feelings,  concrete  experiences,  etc.)  ;  and  (b)  motives  for 
communication  that  shall  produce  desired  results  for  auditors  or  readers. 
Analyze  some  possibilities  of  establishing  specific  school  objectives  in 
these  fields  precedent  to  conscious  work  on  language  objectives.  Sug- 
gestive examples  among  others  are: 

a.  The  "experience  producing"  effects  of  travel,  new  companions, 

wage-earning  work,  scouting,  self-initiated  reading,  practical 
arts  projects,  etc. 

b.  Motivation  resulting  from  requirements  of  vocation  newly  en- 
tered, debating,  new  associates,  changed  social  station,  etc. 

Is  it  likely  that  school  studies  of  the  prescribed  order,  taken  in  per- 
functory spirit,  contribute  to  these  general  means  ?  Observe  such  factors  as : 

c.  Intensities    of    desires    for    communications    to    teachers,    com- 

panions, parents,  other  superiors,  accounts  of  experiences  or 
ready  made  ideas  from  school  studies  of  history,  literature, 
science,  geography,  vocational  learners ;  all,  ages  4-6 ;  the  "gang 
followers,"  ages  10-14;  intellectually  elite  girls,  ages  14-18; 
students  in  vocational  school  of  law,  elementary  teaching,  in- 
door salesmanship  (girls). 

d.  Discrepancies  between  "classroom"  and  playground  English  as 
regards  precision,  forcefulness,  correctness. 

4.  The  chief  sources  of  "by-education"  English  are,  for  ages  1-5, 
parents ;  and  thereafter,  associates  of  equal  or  slightly  superior  age.    Latter 


ENGLISH    LANGUAGE  1 55 

source  tends  towards  narrowness  of  range  and  speed  and  precision  of 
actions.  Is  it  not  true  that,  for  the  purposes  needed,  such  language 
—especially  in  oral  phases  where  intensity  of  habituation  is  assured — is 
adequate  and  fully  satisfying?  From  sociological  viewpoint  it  represents 
only  "small  group"  needs  and  powers.  The  school's  function,  then,  is  to 
correct  and  extend  so  far  as  known  "large  group"  needs  require.  Can- 
not this  approach  be  better  employed  than  at  present  as  source  of  motives  ? 
Under  this  head  consider  slang,  localisms,  approved  clique,  gang,  set,  and 
shop  standards.  Give  instances  where  shame  of  individual  deficiencies 
and  at  "small  group"  standards  has  been  established;  and  of  ambitions 
for  "better"  things. 

5.  Criticism  of  lower  by  higher  schools  often  takes  form  "this  learner 
cannot  read  the  printed  page."  How  far  is  ability  "to  read  the  printed 
page"  dependent  upon  acquaintance  with  ideas  being  conveyed?  How- 
many  elementary  school  graduates  can  read  a  page  of :  Browning,  Burke, 
Gibbon?  How  many  college  graduates  can  read  a  printed  page  of  Kant, 
Amy  Lowell,  Newton,  Loeb? 

6.  In  schools  with  departmental  teaching,  "who  shall  teach  English"? 
This  is  obviously  an  unsettled  problem  and  a  source  of  acrimonious  dis- 
cussion.    The  following  theses  are  suggested  for  study. 

a.  One  set  of  school  objectives — often  of  written,  and  sometimes 
of  read  and  spoken  English — is  peculiar  to  certain  studies — 
pronunciation  of  names  in  ancient  history,  punctuation  in  mathe- 
matical tabulations,  spelling  in  medicine,  English  structure 
in  Latin  translation,  spelling  in  geography,  pronunciation  in 
singing,  handwriting  in  bookkeeping.  Responsibilities  for  train- 
ing in  these  techniques  belong  to  the  department  concerned, 
not  to  the  English  language  department. 

b.  Another  set  of  objectives  involves  instruction  and  preliminary 
training  in  new  principles  and  practices  of  more  or  less  general 
application.  Responsibility  here  belongs  to  the  English  lan- 
guage department. 

c.  But  a  third  group  of  objectives  involves  holding  learners  up  to 

standards  already  understood,  but  only  partially  established  as 
habits.  Here  all  teachers — and  outsiders,  too,  if  that  is  practi- 
cable^— should  cooperate  to  prevent  deterioration  of  pronun- 
ciation, handwriting,  spelling,  structural  usage,  vocabularies, 
etc.  But  such  maintenance  of  incipiently  established  standards 
must  not  become  "fussy"  and  "nagging,"  otherwise,  self-con- 
sciousness supervenes,  and,  in  non-English  studies,  expression 
rather  than  content  becomes  the  end  of  effort. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
FOREIGN  LANGUAGES  AND  LITERATURE— ANCIENT 

These  here  taken  to  include  Latin  and  Greek,  but  principles  apply  equally 
to  Hebrew,  Old  English,  Arabic,  etc.,  which,  as  languages,  persist  to-day 
only  in  limited  areas  and  in  decidedly  modified  forms,  and  the  literatures 
of  which  reflect  very  alien  cultures  and  inspirational  forces. 

1.  For  Western  World  studies  of  ancient  languages  and  literatures  of 
much  importance  in  periods  of  renaissance  when  they  were  large  and 
vital  sources  of  knowledge,  ideals.  Note  also  long  period  during  which 
Latin  was  only  medium  of  scholarly  intercourse. 

a.  Traditions  of  these  values  persist  even  after  (a)  extensive 
literatures  have  been  created  in  vernaculars,  (b)  vernaculars  be- 
come more  available  for  scholarly  intercommunication,  and  (c) 
vernacular  literatures  in  large  measure  have  assimilated  and 
express  (except  as  to  niceties  of  art  factors)  significant  con- 
tent of  classical  literatures — because:  (1)  other  materials  of 
study  not  well  organized;  (2)  social  demand  for  an  "aristo- 
cratic, exclusive  and  somewhat  mystic  culture";  (3)  domi- 
nance of  public,  and  even  more  of  endowed  education  by  the 
"successful"  products  of  classical  education;  (4)  sheer  tradi- 
tionalism of  successful  educators  and  theologians — and,  to  lesser 
extent,  lawyers  and  magistrates — whose  influence  has  been 
strong  in  determining  educational  standards;  (5)  vogue  of 
theories  of  psychological  "faculties,"  leading  easily  to  beliefs  in 
virtues  of  educational  "simples"  or  specifics  for  general  mental 
training;  and  (6)  beliefs  that  study  of  classical  languages  en- 
hances powers  to  use  vernacular  or  to  master  modern  languages. 

b.  Classical  languages  and  literatures  once  central  means  in  pur- 
suit of  "humanities,"  "appreciations  of  the  higher  (or  highest, 
some  think)  of  things  human."  Note  vagueness  of  definition 
of  humanities  and  probability  of  close  connection  with  studies 
suited  to  a  "leisure"  (gentlefolk)  class.  Per  contra,  note  con- 
nections with  Protestant  reformers,  educators,  magistrates  and 
theologians  in  revival  of  learning  which  leads  down  to  yester- 
day in  modern  England,  Germany,  America. 

c.  Note  persistence  as  requirement  for  admission  to  college  and 

for  A.B.   degree. 

2.  Waning  influence  of  Latin  and  Greek  languages  and  literatures  in 
liberal  education  conspicuous  in  recent  years.    Note  decline  first  in  Latin 

156 


FOREIGN    LANGUAGE — ANCIENT  1 57 

countries,  longest  persistence  in  England,  America,  Germany.     Factors  in 
diminishing  influence: 

a.  Widening  range  of  secondary  education,  necessitating  non- 
classical  curricula  to  meet  democratic  needs. 

b.  Diminishing  fruitfulness  of  classical  studies  in  new  ideas  and 
ideals,  and,  on  other  hand,  increasing  efficacy  of  non-classical 
studies  for  same  purposes. 

c.  In  very  recent  years,  diminishing  confidence  in  these  studies 
as  of  exceptional  value  for:  (a)  mental  training;  (b)  basal 
contributions  to  study  of  English  and  modern  foreign  lan- 
guages; and    (c)   culture  attributable  to  "humanities." 

3.  Contemporary  problems: 

a.  On  part  of  individual,  what  degree  of  mastery  of  a  classic 
language  and  its  best  literature  is  requisite  to  produce  in  sig- 
nificant measure:  (a)  a  functioning  culture?  (&)  function- 
ing appreciations  that  are  of  "the  humanities"?  (c)  rein- 
forcement of  English? 

b.  On  part  of  society,  what  proportion  of  individuals  learned 
in  the  Latin  and  Greek  classics  would  suffice  in  optimum 
measure  to  keep  alive  social  interest  in  them  and  to  translate 
anew  their  values?  (cf.  Hebrew,  Arabic,  Irish,  Norse,  San- 
scrit, Chinese,  Inca.) 

c.  To  what  extent  for  youths  of  scholarly  capacities,  can  more 

modern    sources   furnish   equivalent  values? 

d.  To  what  extent  can  society  derive  equivalent  values  from 
more  modern  sources? 

e.  In  what  ways  and  to  what  extent  does  study  of  classics    (as, 

e.g.,  possible  in  modern  secondary  school  and  when  taught  by 

methods    now    approved)    reinforce    powers    to    use   'English? 

Capacities  to  appreciate  English  products? 
/.   What  are  specific  possible  contributions   from  study  of  Latin 

to  study  of:      Spanish?  French?  German?  Russian? 
g.  What  are,  specifically,  alleged  possible  contributions  of  study 

of  Latin  to  mental  discipline? 
h.  What  are  possible  contributions  of  some  knowledge  of  Latin 

to  study  of:  medicine?  law?  biological  science?  music? 

4.  Proposals   for  consideration: 

a.  Large,  prosperous  schools  might  open  classes  in  Latin  and 
Greek  for  pupils  12  years  of  age  or  over  who,  fully  advised, 
give  promise  of  lasting  interest,  and  whose  language  studies 
thus  far  give  promise  of  ready  mastery.  (But  secondary 
school  pupils  should  not  be  permitted  to  take  both  Latin  and 
Greek;  the  second  might  be  taken  in  college.) 


I58  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

b.  For  students  already  successful  in  English  and  a  modern  lan- 
guage, a  short  course  in  Latin  open  at  beginning  of  11th 
grade,  and  designed  to  reinforce  English  and  the  modern 
language. 

c.  An   elective    short   course   in    "Word   Analysis,"    dealing   with 

various    sources    of   English   vernacular,   open   in   8th   or  9th 
grade. 

d.  Cultural  short  courses  on  Roman  and  Greek  literature  ap- 
proached  through  translations — 10th  to   12th  grades. 

e.  Final   abandonment  of   prescriptions   of   Latin — for  graduation 

from   any   school,    for    admission    to    any   school,   or   for   any 
standard  degree. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
FOREIGN  LANGUAGES  AND  LITERATURE— MODERN 

1.  Modern  Languages  here  taken  to  include  French,  Spanish,  Portu- 
guese, German,  Russian,  Japanese,  Chinese  (or  form  thereof)  and  the 
literatures  in  these  tongues  approved  by  contemporaries. 

a.  Note  that  French  or  German  or  both  are  frequently  pre- 
scribed and  almost  always  desired  among  college  entrance 
qualifications;  that  gradually  one  of  these  has  been  accepted 
as  alternative  to  Latin ;  that  probably  one-third  of  all  high  school 
students  give  some  time  to  French  or  German;  and  that  cost 
of  these  offerings  now  in  American  high  schools  is  probably  up- 
ward of  seven  million  dollars  yearly. 

b.  Offerings  of  Spanish  increase  very  rapidly  in  high  schools, 
especially  commercial  departments. 

c.  German — rarely  other  languages — taught  in  some  school  sys- 
tems in  grades,  usually  to  children  of  German-speaking  parents. 

2.  Objectives  of  modern  language  instruction  most  ill-defined  at  present 
in  secondary  schools. 

a.  Among  possible  objectives  no  clear-cut  differentiation  is  made 

between  reading  and  speaking  powers,  though  the  first  might, 
within  moderate  limits,  be  accomplished  in  four  or  six  years  of 
well    directed   work. 

b.  Written  composition  is  frequently  required,  but  purpose  not 
clear. 

c.  Surveys  are   needed  to   determine:    (a)    kinds   and  degrees  of 

mastery  desired;  and  (&)  proportion  of  cases  in  which  at- 
tempted goals  are  realized.  Specifications  under  (a)  should 
distinguish:  (1)  preliminary  superficial  "bowing  acquaintance" 
with  language  as  printed;  (2)  partial  reading  knowledge 
of  current  prose  (as  found  in  newspapers)  ;  (3)  substantial 
reading  knowledge  of  "approved"  literature,  including  poetry; 
(4)  comprehensions  of  colloquial  vernacular  as  spoken;  (5) 
ability  to  speak  intelligibly;  (6)  ability  to  write  (e.g.,  business 
correspondence)  plain  prose;  (7)  (add  other  standards). 
Specifications  under  (b)  should  discriminate  and  evaluate  usual 
results  for  (1)  secondary  school  pupils  terminating  study  after 
"two-years'  course";  (2)  secondary  students  meeting  usual 
two-  and  three- point  college  entrance  standards  and  no  longer 

159 


l60  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

continuing  study;  (3)  probable  results  of  four  years  in 
secondary  school  and  four  years  in  college  given  to  one  lan- 
guage; (4)  results  of  "four  years"  divided  between  two 
modern  languages;  (5)  results  of  intensive  short  courses  for 
scientific   reading;    (6)    other   practices. 

3.  Survey  needed  of  qualifications  now  usually  possessed  by  teachers 
of  French,  German,  and  Spanish.  In  most  cases,  probably  meagre. 
Could  they  sustain  easy  conversations  with  natives  of  foreign  country? 
Could  they  write?  Note  frequency  with  which  high  school  teachers 
attempt  to  teach  two  modern  languages. 

4.  Proposals  for  discussion: 

a.  Small  high  schools  (combined  with  junior  high  schools) 
should  offer  only  one  modern  language;  this  should  be  de- 
signed primarily  to  establish  reading  knowledge,  and 
methods  should  be  devised  to  that  end;  only  pupils  above 
average  in  English,  and  probably  alble  to  continue  study  for 
several  years,  should  be  admitted;  if  possible,  study  should  be 
begun  at  12,  perhaps  using  no  reading  at  first;  and  every 
reasonable  effort  should  ibe  made  to  have  student  continue 
language  four  or  preferably  six  or  eight  years  to  point  of 
working  mastery   of    prose    reading. 

b.  Schools  with  large  resources,  after  making  provision  of 
reading  knowledge  on  part  of  promising  students,  may  open 
limited  classes  designed  to  impart  speaking  and  writing 
powers.  Objectives  here  to  produce  interpreters,  translators, 
and  others  capable  of  use  of  foreign  language,  including 
interpretation  of  culture  materials.  Japanese,  Russian,  etc., 
included.  Every  effort  made  to  retain  pupils  until  effective 
mastery  reached.     Endowments   for  foreign  travel  desirable. 

5.  Given  large  commercial  department — 400  girls,  100  boys — in  high 
school  of  prominent  Indiana  city.  School  authorities  find  strong  demand 
for  Spanish,  as  much  among  girls  as  boys.  They  desire  department  to 
be  effective  since  its  maintenance  costs  nearly  $50,000  per  year.  They 
ask  (a)  your  administrative  recommendations  in  light  of  present  knowl- 
edge, and  (b)  your  recommendations  as  to  surveys  and  other  means 
of  scientifically  determining  best  course  of  action,  as  to : 

a.  Whether  Spanish  should  be  (1)  prescribed  or  (2)  offered  elec- 
tively  as  a  vocational  subject  in  their  commercial  department. 

b.  What  kinds  (including  lengths)  of  courses  should  be  provided. 

c.  What  should  be  the  vocational  objectives  and  what  reasonable 

expectations  from  these  courses? 

d.  Should  election  of  these  courses  be  restricted  on  basis  of  (1) 
sex,  (2)  probable  commercial  vocation,  (3)  native  ability,  or 
for  other  reason? 


FOREIGN  LANGUAGE — MODERN  l6l 

e.  What  will  probably  be  a  reasonable  per  capita  cost  of  such 
courses  for  satisfactory  attainment? 

/.  It  is  planned  to  reorganize  courses  so  that  stenographers' 
courses  for  girls,  and  all  courses  for  boys  (except  office  service, 
short  course)  shall  presuppose  completion  of  two  years  gen- 
eral high  school  work.  Girls'  salesmanship  and  "office  aid" 
courses  may  be  taken  by  those  of  only  elementary  school  edu- 
cation. Should  the  election  of  Spanish  now  be  permitted  in 
first  year  of  general  high  school? 

6.  Take  similar  problems  for  following  cities;  Baltimore,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Minneapolis,  San  Antonio. 

7.  A  rich  Pacific  Coast  state,  recognizing  the  social  need  of  readers 
and  speakers  of  Japanese  in  its  midst,  and  being  aware  of  the  difficulties 
of  providing  proper  instruction  and  training  therein,  provides  two 
"encouragement  funds,"  annual  appropriations  of  $100,000  to  be  used  in 
secondary  (junior  and  senior)  schools,  and  $50,000  to  be  used  in  state 
university,  (a)  Devise  on  basis  of  present,  a  plan  for  the  work,  in- 
cluding (1)  analysis  of  desirable  objectives  (and  social  ends  to  be 
served),  (2)  plans  for  selecting  schools,  (3)  plans  for  selecting  pupils, 
(4)  plans  for  securing  teachers,  (5)  travelling  aid,  funds,  etc.  (b) 
Suggest  certain  investigations  that  should  be  made  by  experts  before 
final  plans  are  adopted. 

a.  Would  you  recommend  action  similar  to  foregoing  for  New 
York,  Missouri,  Nevada? 

b.  Could  you  urge  pupils  to  elect  work  offered  on  grounds  of 
probable  personal  advantage  (1)  culturally,  or  (2)  vocation- 
ally. 

8.  Formulate  similiar  case  problems  with  regard  to:  Chinese;  Russian; 
Portuguese;  Danish. 

9.  What  are  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  having  one  or  more 
modern  languages  taught  by  specialists  (governess,  nurse)  in  homes  at 
ages  2-7  (as  frequently  done  in  the  past  in  Europe,  especially  Russia)  ? 
Would  you  advise  educational  leaders  to  urge  parents  who  can  afford  it, 
to  have  languages  so  taught?  Would  you  advise  the  use  of  public 
funds  for  this  purpose?  Would  you  recommend  use  of  public  funds  to 
teach  a  modern  language  in  schools  for  children  ages  6-10?  10-12?  12 
upward  ? 

10.  If  "easy  reading  of  current  non-literary"  products  is  the  specific 
goal  of  (a)  Spanish,  (5)  French,  (c)  German,  or  (d)  Japanese,  to  what 
extent  is  "grammatical  knowledge"  needed,  and  what  phases  of  gram- 
mar? 

11.  On  basis  of  concrete  analysis  of  needs,  and  having  in  mind  probable 
social  conditions  of  the  next  ten  years,  indicate  difficulties  and  advan- 
tages, respectively,  of  securing  results  from   (a)   English  vernacular  and 


l62  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

(b)  foreign  vernacular  teachers  for  (1)  reading  knowledge  of  French, 
(2)  speaking  and  writing  knowledge  of  French,  (3)  preparation  for  Ar- 
gentine business,  and  (4)   speaking  knowledge  of  Japanese. 

12.  Outline  plan  for  training  teachers  of  Spanish,  including  provision 
for  one  year's  residence  among  Spanish  speaking  peoples.  Estimate 
total  probable  cost. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

MATHEMATICS 

The  term  "mathematices"  is  here  used  to  include  arithmetic,  as  well  as 
studies  usually  found  in  secondary  schools. 

1.  A  confusion  of  objectives  has  long  prevailed  in  all  mathematics 
teaching. 

a.  Vocational    needs    (farmers,    builders,   navigators,    lumbermen, 

engineers,  small  merchants,  investors)  of  special  classes  of 
workers  have  been  taken  up  for  general  application  in  schools. 
Hence  the  importance  attached  to:  various  forms  of  denom- 
inate number  tables;  applied  percentage;  mensuration;  solid 
geometry;  trigonometry,  etc. 

b.  Mathematical  exercises  readily  fitted  to  illusory  schemes  of 
"mental  discipline"  as  "panacea,"  "simples,"  gymnastics.  Note 
ease  with  which  teachers  can  assign  and  supervise  difficult 
work;  also  complexity  and  endless  quantity  of  unapplied  (and 
unapplicable)  mathematics  readily  available  for  school  use. 
Note,  e.g.,  persistence  of  mathematics  in  women's  schools  and 
colleges  and  in  other  institutions  adhering  to  the  traditional. 

c.  It  is  easy  to  produce  plausible  defences  of  "culture"  values  of 
mathematics — as  giving  abiding  interests,  expanded  concepts 
for  interpretation  of  environment,  valuable  logical  "forms"  of 
thought,  appreciations  of  "control"  of  nature  through  mathe- 
matics, etc.  Ideally,  and  for  a  few  special  types  of  minds, 
functioning  of  this  kind  feasible;  is  it  so  for  many?  Doubt- 
ful.   Would  test  of  "interest"  apply? 

d.  Educators  foster  belief  that  secondary  school  mathematics  is 
required  for  studies  (presumably  in  science,  economics)  sub- 
sequently to  be  pursued.    Mythical  character  of  this  belief. 

2.  Proposals  for  reconstruction :  distinguish  sharply  general  needs  (users, 
consumers,  or  common  to  many  vocations)  from  specialized  vocational 
needs;  develop  new  means  of  attaining  "appreciation"  (cultural  insight) 
ends  in  mathematics;  and  make  mental  training  a  necessary  accompani- 
ment of  all  teaching  designed  for  permanent  "functioning." 

o.  Certain  amounts  of  mathematical  knowledge  and  skill  are 
necessary  for  men  and  women  in  their  common  activities  as 
buyers,  users,  travellers,  general  readers,  citizens.  Effective 
mastery  of  these  doubtless  requires:  definite  drill  on  funda- 

163 


164  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

mentals;  much  experience  and  training  in  applying  to  concrete 
usual  life  situations;  and  omission  of  all  complexities. 

Beyond  that  called  for  here,  is  any  mathematics  needed  as 
common  element  in  many  vocations?    Doubtful. 

b.  Vocational  mathematics  should  be  provided  after  vocational 
choice  has  been  made  (continuation  school  for  young  persons 
already  employed,  evening  school  for  apprentices  over  17, 
vocational  school,  prevocational  trigonometry  in  high  school 
ipr  prospective  engineering  students,  short  courses  for  persons 
seeking  foremanship  or  higher  stages,  etc.)  Probably,  best 
results  can  be  secured  here  (a)  by  clearly  defining  ends  in 
terms  of  actual  requirements  of  particular  vocation;  (b)  by 
teaching  in  part  through  definite  application,  etc. ;  and  (c)  by 
using  to  full  economic  motives. 

Mathematics  required  for  prosecution  of  subsequent  studies 
(after  period  of  compulsory  school  attendance  has  been 
passed)  should  be  offered  in  same  way  as  vocational  mathe- 
matics. 

c.  Among  beta  studies  designed  at  various  stages  in  growth  to  give 

appreciation  of,  and  insight  into,  material  and  social  environ- 
ment, should  foe  offered  appreciation  courses  of  mathematics, 
of  which  no  present  types  exist.  Such  courses  no  more  require 
technical  knowledge  of  mathematics  than  do  appreciation 
courses  in  music,  painting,  poetry,  science,  home  decoration  or 
travel  require  technical  knowledge  and  skill  in  composing, 
painting,  verse-making,  research,  calcimining,  or  navigation. 
Such  courses  would  include:  stocks,  exchange,  compound 
interest,  commission,  insurance,  solid  geometry,  much  of  men- 
suration, triangulation,  calculus,  statistics,  etc.,  all  so  presented 
as  to  produce  appreciation,  vivid  and  interpretative,  of  man's 
use  of  mathematics  as  aid  to  short  expression,  accurate  de- 
scription, instrument  of  precision,  revealer  of  laws,  means  of 
control  in  war,  building,  mining,  harnessing  natural  forces. 
Effective  means  (readings,  pictures,  models,  etc.)  all  yet  to 
be  devised. 

d.  Beliefs  in  superiority  of  mental  arithmetic,  cube-root,  partial 
payments,  algebra,  geometry,  etc.,  as  instruments  of  mental 
discipline  (mental  gymnastics)  now  questioned.  (Illusions  of 
faulty  psychology  here  persist,  as  well  as  Puritan  distrust  of 
"easy  gains.")  Functioning  of  any  exacting  mental  activity 
(geometry,  verbal  memorization,  chess,  Scout  observation 
of  nature,  puzzles)  doubtless  much  dependent  on  interest, 
self -activity.  Present  tentative  solution:  do  not  seek  mental 
discipline  as  a  primary  and  determining  end  of  any  extensive 
subject  or  series  of  educational  activities.  Let  other  and  more 
demonstrably  realizable  ends    (cultural,  civic,  pkysical  growth, 


MATHEMATICS  165 

vocational)  determine  choice  of  subject  matter,  activities;  then 
so  realize  these  ends  that  right  and  effective  mental  training 
results  as  an  accompanying  process. 

3.  Miscellaneous   proposals. 

a.  Desirable  that  experiments  be  made  as  to  desirability  of 
abandoning  all  alpha  arithmetic  until  ninth  age  year  or  third 
grade. 

b.  In  junior  high  school,  differentiation  of  general  or  consumers' 
arithmetic  along  main  lines  to  correlate  roughly  with  prac- 
tical arts  or  prospective  interests,  industrial,  commercial, 
agricultural,   household.     Avoid   illusion   of   "prevocational." 

c.  No  prescription  of  mathematics  for  entrance  to,  or  gradu- 
ation from,  high  schools  or  colleges  of  general  education. 
Specific  and  demonstrably  needed  special  prescriptions  to  apply 
to  all  vocational  schools. 

Problems 

Because  of  many  prevalent  faith  assumptions  and  even  superstitions 
relative  to  mathematics,  these  problems  need  investigation.  In  each  case 
(a)  give  your  present  carefully  analyzed  opinions  and  (b)  suggest  means 
of  scientific  inquiry. 

4.  What  are  the  prevailing  needs  of  (a)  higher  arithmetic,  (b)  algebra 
and  geometry,  and  (c)  trigonometry  in  the  following  vocations:  dentistry, 
artillery  officer,  drygoods  salesman,  stock  farmer,  real  estate  agent,  bank 
cashier,  architect,  expert  accountant,  homemaker,  stenographer  (girl) 
teacher  of  modern  language,  electrical  engineer,  oculist,  hotel  cook,  car- 
penter. 

5.  What  are  the  prevailing  needs  of  mathematics  for  the  following 
college  studies  as  ordinarily  found  in  "liberal  arts"  courses :  English  litera- 
ture, Spanish,  chemistry,  home  economics,  economics,  ancient  history, 
English  history,  physics. 

6.  What  are  the  prevailing  "consumer's"  needs  of  each  of  the  following: 
(a)  a  man  of  college  education,  family  expenditures,  $5,000  per  year, 
actively  participating  as  a  citizen  (not  office  holder)  in  politics,  reading 
the  "best"  magazines  and  newspapers,  and  participating  generously  in  cur- 
rent culture,  (b)  A  skilled  artisan  of  average  interests  in  politics,  (c) 
A  woman  of  thirty,  spending  for  living  $1,200  per  year*  and  only  slightly 
interested  in  current  politics  and  culture. 


CHAPTER  XXX 
NATURAL  SCIENCE 

1.  For  purposes  of  this  syllabus,  all  science  is  treated  in  three  main 
divisions:  natural,  mental,  social. 

a.  Fundamentally,  all  phenomena  considered  by  "science"  are 
"natural."  But  convenient  custom  makes  "natural  science"  ex- 
clude phenomena  of  society,  and  of  mental  action,  although  in- 
cluding phenomena  of  human  physiology,  hygiene,  etc. 

b.  "Natural  science"  as  here  used  includes  data  and  phenomena 
usually  embraced  under  physics  (mechanics,  hydrostatics  and 
hydraulics,  electricity,  optics,  etc.),  chemistry,  biology  (zoology, 
botany,  bacteriology,  physiology,  etc.),  astronomy,  geology,  earth 
geography  (human  geography  is  placed  with  social  sciences), 
etc.  There  are  included  also  "applied"  natural  science — agricul- 
ture, hygiene,  engineering,  navigation,  etc.  Anthropology, 
ethnology,  history,  economics,  etc.,  are  placed  with  social 
sciences.     Mathematics  is  given  a  place  apart. 

2.  What  does  or  should  "science"  mean  in  education?  Interpretations 
must  be  broad.  All  the  objective  facts  of  nature  belong  here  when  viewed 
by  the  learner  as  non-mystical,  as  explainable  in  terms  of  "natural"  law 
or  causation,  as  capable  of  organization  in  sequences  and  structures.  The 
attitude  of  the  viewer  is  largely  determinative — does  he  see  in  sensational, 
curious,  uninterpreted  phenomena  ultimate  play  of  "natural  causes"  (as 
opposed  to  the  animistic  causation  imputed  by  primitive  minds)  ?  Has  he 
general  conviction  that,  given  time  and  means,  rational  explanations  are  ob- 
tainable— of  tides,  earthquakes,  images,  magnets,  bird  migrations,  disease, 
souring  of  milk,  vaccination,  flowing  sap,  wireless  telegraphy,  man's 
skeletal  resemblance  to  chimpanzee,  air-borne  contagions,  nurture  of  in- 
fant eels,  oil  in  sandstones,  vermiform  appendix,  fear  of  the  dark?  If 
so,  he  has  the  beginnings  of  scientific  insight  and  attitude. 

o.  For  the  purposes  of  the  scientist,  disposed  to  disregard  infant 
stages,  higher  standards  may  be  necessary  to  define  the  "classi- 
fied and  tested"  knowledge  to  be  included  under  any  science.  But 
standards  of  adults  of  specialized  capacity  are  hurtful  in  educa- 
tion of  youth  in  all  fields — art  appreciation,  practical  capacity, 
language  power,  no  less  than  science.    Older  sciences,  astronomy, 

166 


NATURAL  SCIENCE  1 67 

mechanics,  chemistry — have  advanced  far  interpretation  of  com- 
prehensive relationships  and  unvarying  sequences — laws,  prin- 
ciples, generalizations,  explanations.  Clear  demarcations  are 
here  established  between  ascertained  specific  and  general  facts 
and  hypotheses  or  theories.  But  the  child  must  scale  these 
heights  gradually.  Scaling  foothills,  if  peaks  are  kept  in  view, 
will  constitute  sound  introductory  pedagogy — child-leading. 

b.  Hence  science  study  adapted  to  any  stage  of  mental  development 
will  not  seek  to  go  far  beyond  limits  of  accessible  (i.e.,  instinc- 
tive or  environment-stimulated)  interests,  and  found  capa- 
cities for  genuine  assimilation.  But  however  far  it  goes,  it 
should  observe  phenomena  as  real  things,  as  naturally  (including 
humanly)  caused,  as,  in  greater  or  less  degree,  explainable  on 
basis  of  law,  principle,  generalization. 

c.  Wrong  pedagogy  of  science  teaching  attaches  excessive  impor- 
tance to  fundamental  explanations  early  reached — forgetting 
that  even  in  oldest  science  we  have  yet  few  final  explanations. 
In  astronomy,  learning  that  sun  does  not  move  about  earth  was 
a  great  advance;  that  earth  moves  about  sun  was  another; 
that  planets  and  sun  constituted  a  "system"  was  another;  but 
back  of  these  known  fields  are  many  yet  to  be  explored.  Even 
young  child  can  very  readily  be  led  a  little  way  in  observation 
and  interpretation  of  scientific  phenomena;  older  ones  will  go 
some  farther ;  and  the  exceptional  few  very  far. 

3.  What  purposes  should  control  in  the  use  of  natural  science  in  edu- 
cation ? 

o.  In  various  fields  of  vocational  education  special  forms  of  in- 
struction in  science,  and  training  in  use  of  scientific  media 
are  required,  (a)  "Some  knowledge  of  chemistry"  (as  we  say, 
vaguely)  is  required  on  the  part  of  the  youth  preparing  for 
the  callings  of  assayer,  physician,  pharmacist,  chemical  engi- 
neer, metallurgist,  etc.  (b)  Is  "  some  knowledge  of  chemistry" 
also  required  of  the  prospective  farmer,  cook,  plumber,  electri- 
cian, chauffeur,  dyer,  toolmaker,  dentist,  school  nurse,  primary 
school  teacher?  If  so,  what?  Chemistry  as  a  separate  study,  or 
simply  some  detached  units  from  chemistry?  Distinguish 
among  educational  knowledges,  beliefs  and  superstitions  in  this 
matter. 
b.  Repeat  above  analysis  for:  (a)  Relation  of  physics  to  mechan- 
ical engineering,  medicine,  machine  shop  practice  (foreman), 
machine  shop  practice  (machinist),  machine  shop  practice 
(specialty  worker),  gardening,  poultry  raising,  captaincy  (ship- 
board), captaincy  (army),  dentistry,  homemaking,  textile  fac- 
tory working,  plumber,  chauffeur,  etc.  (b)  Relation  of  astron- 
omy to  navigation    (captain),   navigation    (third  mate),   navi- 


l68  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

gation  (sailor),  farming  clairvoyance,  aerial  navigation,  etc. 
(c)  Relation  of  bacteriology  to  fruit  raising,  lumbering,  war 
leadership,  homemaking,  dentistry,  nursing  (child),  nursing 
(bedside),  etc. 

c.  From  the  standpoint  of  man  as  a  neffective  "user*  (consumer, 
utilizer)  some  kinds  of  "appreciation"  of  science  seem  desir- 
able, (a)  What  kinds  of  scientific  knowledge  will  make  men 
in  certain  threatening  situations  as  regards  health  consult  best 
available  "technical" — i.e.,  scientifically  equipped — service  in- 
stead of  purveyors  of  advertised  drugs,  "faith  healers," 
"voodoo  doctors,"  unqualified  midwives,  etc.?  (b)  What  kinds 
and  degrees  of  scientific  instruction  and  training  will  give  us 
individual  buyers  capable  of  distinguishing  (or  of  obtaining 
advice)  as  between  the  true  and  false,  the  genuine  and  the 
imitation,  the  pure  and  the  adulterated  in  foods,  clothes,  furni- 
ture, fertilizers,  decorations,  vehicles,  medicines,  tools,  etc.? 
Or  collective  buyers  (voting  citizens)  of  street  paving,  building 
materials,  gas,  water  supplies,  drainage,  civic  buildings,  etc.? 

d.  From  standpoint  of  common  "likemindedness,"  "citizenship," 
mutual  understanding  of  each  other,  vital  appreciation  of  world 
in  which  we  find  ourselves,  fairly  comprehensive  (but  not  deep) 
appreciation  of  scientific  explanations  of  natural  and  artificial 
phenomena  probably  desirable  for  all.  Include  appreciative 
understanding  (with  some  idealization  when  definable)  of: 
electric  traction,  rain,  moon's  phases,  rotting  of  fruit,  photog- 
raphy, volcanoes,  deep  sea  life,  interstellar  ether,  mountain 
sculpture,  moving  pictures,  color  printing,  soil  fertilizing,  yel- 
low fever  prevention,  animal  eugenics,  earth's  age,  pottery  glaz- 
ing, seed  transportation,  sun  spots,  placer  gold  mining,  concrete 
building,  balanced  rations,  detonation,  telephony,  and  thousand 
other  phenomena  studied  under  "pure"  and  "applied"  science. 

Problems 

4.  The  chief  problem  of  natural  science  teaching  at  present  is  determin- 
ation, first  of  desirable  beta  objectives,  and,  second,  of  finding  curriculum 
organization  and  method  for  them. 

a.  Real  "out-of-doors"  nature  study  suggests  one  type  of  method; 
"self-teaching"  readings  another;  "home  experimental  science" 
a  third;  and  the  moving  pictures  a  fourth. 

b.  Is  the  single  text  in  "general  science"  a  practicable  means  for 
pupils?  Doubtful.  It  necessitates  too  much  condensation,  sys- 
tematization,  formalization  for  beta  objectives.  It  assumes  un- 
obtainable resourcefulness  on  part  of  teacher.  Good  gener- 
al science  should  be  so  organized  as  to  become  no  less  "self- 
teaching"  than  good  literature,  practical  arts,  and  physical  sports. 
Scouting  and  home  gardening  also  suggest  valuable  methods. 


NATURAL  SCIENCE  169 

c.  Each  pupil,  under  advice  of  teacher,  should  be  expected  to  fill 
time  elected  or  prescribed  profitably,  provision  being  made  for 
cooperating  groups  and  conferences  for  report.  Obviously — 
great  flexibility  is  necessary  and  much  reading  matter. 

d.  For  the  present,  the  junior  high  school  is  the  most  feasible 
place  for  experimentation  with  beta  objectives.  Intellectual 
curiosity  is  strong,  and  spirit  for  project  work  at  its  best. 

5.  Science  subjects  as  "prevocational"  or  "related  technical  knowledge" 
in  vocational  education,  belong  clearly  in  the  alpha  class  of  objectives. 
The  present  need  is  for  greater  definition  of  these  objectives  as  related 
to  named  vocations.  Even  in  professional  this  area  abounds  with  school- 
men's superstitions. 

a.  Two  methods  are  here  opposed.  Under  the  first,  an  entire 
"pure"  subject  is  first  taught — as  in  the  case  of  trigonometry 
for  prospective  engineers.  Then  problems  involving  appli- 
cations are  taken  up.  Under  the  second,  practical  projects  are 
taught  from  the  outset,  as  in  the  case  of  farming  for  boys 
of  less  than  high  school  education;  and  as  science  topics  are 
suggested  naturally  by  project — from  fields  of  mathematics, 
chemistry,  physics,  meteorology,  bacteriology,  economics — these 
are  studied  as  "related  knowledge."  The  latter  method 
is  probably  the  only  one  practicable  for  many  vocations  and 
possibly  best  for  nearly  all;  but  it  lacks  pedagogic  analysis, 
definition,  and  documented  examples  as  yet,  hence  it  frightens 
progressive  teachers,  whilst  the  unprogressive  deny  its  practi- 
cability at  any  time. 

6.  Where  and  when  shall  "science  for  consumer's  needs"  be  taught? 
This  problem  may  have  to  wait  clearer  definition  of  educational  objec- 
tives for  utilization;  but  following  suggest  possibilities: 

a.  Hygiene,  when  properly  taught  as  now  conceived,  involves  so 
much  of  scientific  enlightenment  as  may  be  necessary  to  as- 
sure right  selection  and  utilization  of:  foods;  clothing;  shelter; 
developmental  activities;  recreative  activities;  precautions  for 
safety  against  accident;  precautions  for  safety  against  voca- 
tional   strains;    sex  activities,   etc. 

b.  Similarly  sanitation  uses  scientific  means  to  produce  needed  un- 
derstandings. 

c.  Vocational  schools— including  those  of  homemaking— rightly  de- 

sign to  teach  all  needed  science  of  vocational  utilization. 

d.  Probably  all  schools,  but  especially  those  for  ages  12-18,  should 
develop  utilization  (i.e.,  liberalizing)  courses  having  as  objec- 
tives right  standards  and  practices  of  utilization  in  such  areas 
as:  general  current  reading;  travel;  recreation  for  adult  work- 
ers; and  others,  in  connection  with  each  of  which  the  needed 
science  and  art  would  be  taught— as  "appreciation"  subjects. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 
MENTAL   SCIENCE 

1.  The  term  "mental  science"  here  used  (as  analogous  to  "natural 
science"  and  "social  science")  to  include  studies  and  practices  designed 
to  give  comprehension  of  operation  of  mental  powers,  to  develop  apprecia- 
tions and  ideals  as  to  their  control,  use  and  development  and  to  give  some 
mastery  of  processes  of  such  control,  use  and  development.  (Compare 
with  certain  objectives  of  physical  education — ideals  of  physical  develop- 
ment; insight;  practice,  etc.) 

a.  As  in  case  of  natural  and  social  science,  environment  and  daily 
experience  provide  super-abundance  of  the  materials  (data, 
facts,  experiences,  observations)  of  mental  science  study  for 
all  grades  from  first  to  twelfth.  But  present  means  of  mak- 
ing such  materials  pedagogically  available  are  utterly  inade- 
quate. 

b.  "How  to  Study"  now  a  promising  approach  in  grades.  But  we 
need  extensive  analysis  of  specific  objectives  of  learning — e.g., 
how  best  to  memorize  poetry,  build  French  vocabulary,  learn 
touch  typewriting,  keep  mind  from  objectionable  brooding  or 
woolgathering,  solve  mathematical  problems,  etc.  Doubtful  if 
young  people  can  derive  advantages  from  abstract  studies  of 
learning  processes. 

c.  For  high  school,  need  of  some  systematic  approach  to  units 
of  study  important  for  adolescents,  presented  objectively,  and 
concretely.  Pathological  aspects  and  introspective  methods 
doubtless  should  be  greatly  subordinated.  Practical  applica- 
tions (even  working  projects)  to  be  found  in  control  of  form- 
ation (or  breaking)  of  specific  habits,  acquiring  certain  speci- 
fied forms  of  knowledge,  evoking  and  giving  active  effect  to 
certain  sentiments  and  ideals.  Doubtless  self -consciousness  al- 
ways to  be  avoided,  personal  privacy  respected,  as  in  teaching 
physiology  and  hygiene.  "Present  company  excepted"  a  good 
motto  in  conference. 

d.  Here  should  be  developed  also  means  and  methods  of  realiz- 
ing some  large  objectives  of  mental  training,  (a)  The  ideal  of 
"a  good  memory."  May  be  generalized  from  experiences  with 
many  special   "powers"  of  memory — for  words,   dates,   names, 

170 


MENTAL   SCIENCE  171 

faces,  logical  chains  of  associated  ideas,  "visual  memories," 
"auditory,  olfactory,  tactile  memories."  If  "formal  discipline" 
(general  mental  discipline  or  training  through  educational 
"simples" — geometry,  Latin,  bench  work,  manual-of-arms  drill, 
etc.)  is  possible,  its  realization  must  start  here  in  conscious  ef- 
fort, (b)  "Scientific  attitude"  towards  nature's  presentments — 
facts,  data,  phenomena,  principles,  laws,  (c)  Scientific  attitude 
towards  man's  presentments — legend,  tradition,  gossip,  rumor, 
verbal  report,  written  report,  record,  document,  monument,  and 
other  human  products  used  in  transmission  and  increase  of 
knowledge. 

2.  What  shall  educators  hold  as  practical  doctrine  regarding  "mental 
training"?  General  ideals  here  as  real  as  those  of  physical  training,  moral 
character  training,  etc.  For  many  years  to  come  public  will  think  certain 
studies  peculiarly  potent  to  give  training  in  memory,  reasoning,  observa- 
tion, thinking,  concentration,  system,  neatness,  taste,  industriousness,  en- 
thusiasm for  work,  common  sense,  loyalty  and  other  generalized  good 
qualities.  Teachers  must  see  that  this  attitude  is  due  to  easy  mistake 
of  assuming  one  "species"  as  identical  with  the  "genus."  The  close  and 
persistent  "observation"  required  in  proof  reading,  or  Latin  composition, 
or  drawing  obviously  will  if  long  practiced  result  in  highly  developed 
specific  powers ;  but  easy  inference  that  generalized  and  analogous  powers 
are  thereby  produced  probably  fallacious  in  most  cases. 

a.  Note,  however,  that  certain  by-products  may  "transfer"  or 
"spread"  to  related  fields — e.g.,  ideals  of  successful  accomplish- 
ment, of  orderly  procedure,  of  "being  scientific,"  of  thus  at- 
taining social  approval.  Some  think  "methods  of  work"  as 
habits  or  knowledge  also  "spread."  Obviously  this  becomes 
a  fertile  field  for  educational  magic,  superstition,  quackery. 

b.  Trace  historic  beliefs  to  present  as  to:  "mental  training  values" 
of  verbal  memorizations,  Latin,  geometry,  mental  arithmetic, 
clay  modeling,  drawing,  introductory  science,  grammar;  "man- 
ual training  values"  of  sloyd,  drawing  "sense  training"  through 
gifts  (of  kindergarten),  art  studies;  "physical  training"  through 
Indian  clubs,  gymnastics;  "moral  training"  through  punishment, 
precept. 

c.  Note  almost  preternatural  specific  powers  of  attention,  verbal 
memory,  observation,  sensitiveness  to  sound,  and  industriousness 
developed  among  primitive  men.  Have  these  meaning  for  ed- 
ucation? What  of  sensitiveness  to  harmonies  of  form  (and 
perhaps  color)  of  stone  age  men  in  south-western  Europe,  and  of 
Greek  craftsmen? 

3.  Practical  suggestions  for  educators.  Until  psychology  gives  further 
enlightenment,  include  the  following: 

a.  Prescribe    no    subject    primarily    for    mental    training    values. 


172  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

(What   will   be   effects   on   Latin,   algebra,    mental   arithmetic, 
sloyd?) 

b.  Where  approved  alpha  objectives  are  denned,  give  intensive 
specific  training  of  the  kinds  necessary  to  their  fullest  realiza- 
tion— e.g.,  exactness  in  needle-work,  thoroughness  in  verbal 
memorizing  (where  necessary),  careful  reasoning  in  prevoca- 
tional  mathematics,  attention  in  written  composition,  etc. 

c.  Hold  firmly  the  belief  that  from  sociological  study  of  needs  of 
adult  life  can  be  derived  many  new  specific  objectives  capable 
of  being  realized  (in  part  at  least)  in  school  life,  and  espe- 
cially in  that  of  the  transition  years  from  12  to  18.  For  example, 
"a  scientific  (or  wholesomely  critical)  attitude  toward  printed 
matter  of  a  political  nature"  is  surely  needed  on  behalf  of  the 
good  citizenship  of  all  voters.  But  it  is  practicable  to  begin 
developing  this  attitude  at  ten  to  fifteen  years  of  age  by  use 
of  the  media  (newspapers,  weeklies,  commission  reports)  used 
by  adult  citizens.  (Note  needlessness,  in  presence  of  wealth  of 
current  material,  of  using  the  "source  method"  of  history  for 
this  purpose.) 

d.  Where  experiences  in  or  out  of  school  tend  to  produce  well  de- 
veloped specific  appreciations,  ideals,  habits,  or  knowledge,  these 
can  be  used  as  interpretative,  at  least,  of  new  similar  qualities 
in  which  it  is  desired  to  enlist  interest  and  effort.  Thus  may, 
perhaps,  be  "spread":  the  "cooperations"  of  sports,  the  loyal- 
ties of  gangmembers,  the  industriousness  of  scouting,  the  con- 
centration of  fishing,  the  manual  exactness  of  baseball  pitch- 
ing, the  scientific  interests  of  homeshop  work,  the  reading  in- 
terests of  pennydreadfuls,  the  observation  interests  of  movie 
legends. 

e.  As  pu/blic  service  towards  popular  education,  form  practice  when 

confronted  by  sentimental  reflections  on  mental  powers  such 
as:  "algebra  teaches  one  to  work  hard,"  physics  "teaches  one  to 
think,"  "all  I  want  (as  a  business  man)  in  my  young  employees 
is  "common  sense,"  of  asking:  "Of  what  variety  or  species  are 
you  thinking?" 

4.  For  many  young  people,  wage-earning  employment  is  first  drastic 
test  of  qualities;  and  employers  naturally  charge  schools  with  deficiencies 
revealed.  But  if  current  theories  are  correct,  such  criticism  could  be 
fairly  and  profitably  directed  only  against  vocational  schools  (and  vo- 
cational guidance  as  regards  native  qualities). 

a.  One  high  school  principal  reports  that  employers  wanting  help 
only  ask,  of  a  boy,  "Has  he  pep?"  and  of  a  girl,  "Is  she 
quiet?"     Can  these  be  taught? 

b.  Many  teachers  as  well  as  employers  complain  that  young  people 
"have  not  learned  to  think."     Have  you.  learned  "to  think" — 


MENTAL   SCIENCE  173 

about  some  things  only,  or  all  things?  How  about  men  and 
women  you  admire? 

c.  Their  greatest  lack  is  "common  sense" — said  of  boys,   college 

graduates,  city  dwellers,  intelligenzia.  Do  we  or  can  we  "teach 
common  sense"?  What  varieties  have  you?  frontiersman? 
sailors?  street  gamins?  alley  cats?  astronomers?  successful 
politicians  ? 

d.  Young  engineers  are  often  charged  with  lacking  "enthusiasm." 
Have  they  no  enthusiasms?  Are  they  only  lacking  in  strange 
new  varieties  that  employers  seek? 

e.  What  are  the  specific  varieties  of  the  following  "powers"  that 
schools  of  dentistry,  elementary  school  teaching,  stenography, 
music,  indoor  salesmanship,  and  farming,  respectively,  should 
resolutely  seek  to  produce  up  to  defined  standards:  neatness, 
exactness,  thoroughness,  concentration,  aesthetic  taste,  verbal 
memory,  logical  thinking,  alertness,  observation,  common  sense? 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

SOCIAL  SCIENCE  (INCLUDING  HISTORY) 

A.    General 

Social  Science,  a  division  of  elementary  and  secondary  education,  here 
includes  all  those  studies,  practices,  readings  and  other  stimuli  which  are 
chiefly  designed  to  promote  more  effective  social  attitudes  and  action  as 
a  result  of  sound  knowledge  and  right  appreciation. 

a.  The  term  "social  education"  is  useful  to  include  all  by-education 
and  direct  education  making  for  better  group  life.  In  schools 
we  can  organize:  studies  of  community  civics,  civil  government, 
social  geography,  contemporary  nations,  American  history,  world 
history,  biographies,  thrift,  morals,  character,  social  psychology, 
elementary  economics,  beginners'  sociology,  ethics;  practices  of 
school  self-government,  cooperative  "clean  town"  enterprises, 
relief  activities,  scouting,  camping;  constructive  use  of  libraries, 
home-reading,  moving  pictures,  newspapers,  drama,  election 
campaigns,  home  gardening,  police  power;  wage  earning;  and 
social   (including  vocation)   guidance. 

1.  Problems  of  general  aims  or  objectives  for  social  science  not  difficult 
to  formulate.  Custom  gives  fairly  clear  views  of  the  desirable  group 
member,  (cf.  Analysis  in  Ross:  Social  Control)  A  hundred  general 
terms  express  social  virtues  of  man,  as:  defender  (courage,  self-sacrifice, 
patriotism,  heroism — opposites  in  cowardice,  poltroonry,  peace-at-any 
price,  desertion,  sneak) ;  respecter  of  property  (honesty,  fair-dealing, 
square  dealing,  uprightness;  opposites — greediness,  fraud,  cheating, 
thievery,  grafting,  covetousness,  stealing,  predatoriness,  filching,  roguery)  ; 
controller  of  personal  passions  (chastity,  continence,  temperance,  absten- 
tion, frugality;  opposites — licentiousness,  drunkenness,  gluttony,  gam- 
bling); worker  (industrious)  provident,  thrifty,  frugal;  opposites — lazi- 
ness, loafing,  vagrancy,  spendthriftness' ;  truth-sayer  and  keeper  of 
promises  (trustworthiness,  truthfulness,  reliability;  opposites — lying, 
deceiving,  double-dealing,  welshing,  perjuring)  ;  conformer  to  law  and 
custom  (law-abiding,  self -restrained,  peaceful;  opposites — law-breaking, 
disorderly,  quarrelsome,  peace-disturbing,  malicious)  ;  supporter  of  weak 
(charity,  sympathy,  pity,  magnanimity,  mercifulness,  kindliness,  benevo- 
lence, altruism,  philanthropy,  generosity;  opposites— malignity,  unchari- 
tableness,  unforgivingness,  pitilessness,  mercilessness,  spoiling)  ;  giver 
of    justice    (just,    fair;    opposites— unjust,    jealous,    envious);    progres- 

174 


SOCIAL   SCIENCE  1 75 

sive  (liberal,  broad,  tolerant;  opposites— narrow,  Philistine,  intolerant,  pull- 
back;  social  initiator   (leader,  pioneer;  opposites — boss,  monopolist). 

a.  These  "social  virtues"  in  the  individual  have  foundations  in 
social  instincts  (analyze)  and  in  tensions  between  individualistic 
instincts  (analyze,  e.g.,  virtuous  conduct  resulting  from  in- 
dividual desire  for  property  of  others  and  for  approval  of 
others). 

b.  Conditions  of  material  environment  (including  food  supply, 
etc.)  constrain  or  give  openings  to  these  instincts  (cf.  effects 
of  limited  food  supply  on  "property-sense,"  selfishness,  owner- 
ship of  women;  effects  of  climate  on  sociability,  gregariousness, 
sex  relations,  parental  control;  effects  of  sea  and  mountain  on 
industry,  providence;  effects  of  desert  on  conservation  of 
property). 

c.  Social   environment    (including  persisting   institutions)    greatly 

serves  to  give  specific  direction  to,  to  intensify  or  to  suppress, 
these  instincts,  (cf.  Effects :  of  family  on  early  stages  of  many 
virtues;  of  gang  or  clique  life  on  personal  qualities;  of  police 
power  on  attitude  towards  law ;  of  church  on  altruistic  qualities ; 
of  press,  stage,  library,  on  extension  of  ideals ;  of  vocation  on 
self-aggrandizing  and  conforming  qualities;  of  war.) 

2.  But  problems  of  defining  specific  aims  for  the  direct  education   (of 
either  alpha  or  beta  type)  of  school  are  largely  unsolved  as  yet. 

o.  In  case  of  forming  attitudes  or  habits,  function  of  school 
necessarily  residual  in  many  cases.  School  does  not  need  to 
"teach"  courage,  loyalty,  honesty,  sex  continence,  truthfulness, 
frugality,  industry,  toleration,  reverence,  inventiveness,  leader- 
ship, respect  for  authority;  it  finds  foundations  of  these  in  all 
its  members.  School's  function  is  to  "teach"  certain  new  kinds 
or  varieties  or  shades;  to  qualify  existing  standards  by  new 
valuations.  But  problems  of  commanding  means  of  idealization 
(including  valuations)  and  practice  (training)  very  difficult. 

b.  School  can  readily  do  much  towards  interpretation — bringing 
unseen  and  unfelt  relationship  into  view,  subjecting  old  situ- 
ations to  play  of  new  lights  of  appreciations,  ideals,  e.g.  The 
boy  aspires  to  manhood,  then  to  approved  manhood;  what  are 
conditions  of  lasting  approval  as  to  courage,  loyalty,  temperance, 
industry,  etc.  ?  Here  will  be  found  large  field  for  social  science, 
probably  to  be  handled  by  "case"  and  (perhaps)  project  system. 

c.  All  teaching  of  social  science  designed  to  react  on  personal  ideals 

and  behavior  fraught  with  difficulties  of  invasion  of  personal- 
ity— violation  of  moral  "privacy."  Large  possibilities  of  dis- 
covery of  indirect  or  "third  person  objective"  methods  of  ap- 
proach and  attack  here. 


176  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

d.  Community  civics,  civil  government,  study  of  nations  (con- 
temporary), and  history  lend  themselves  readily  to  impersonal 
and  objective  methods;  but  teaching  is  often  "non-function"  on 
that  account. 

3.  Place  of  history  study  in  social  education.  Here  several  important 
problems.  Under  what  circumstances  does  history  study  "function"  in 
important  social  habits,  appreciations,  ideals,  insights,  knowledges,  etc.? 
(Use  of  some  history  might  also  be  promoted  for  cultural  purposes;  and, 
in  some  cases,  for  other  ends.) 

a.  Human  knowledge  of  history  was  early  organized  (like  Latin 
grammar,  geometry,  algebra,  logic,  Latin  classics,  geography). 
Hence  easily  became  traditional  element  in  curriculum  of  second- 
ary and  higher  schools.  Men  of  keen  minds,  seeking  exten- 
sion of  knowledge,  turn  naturally  to  history.  Inference  that  it 
is  valuable  educational  agency  easily  arises.  Vague  notion  that 
past  can  guide  to  future  (it  certainly  can  explain  the  present). 
Democratic  citizenship  requires  general  study  of  history — a 
popular  belief.  Are  facts  of  history  important?  generalisations? 
ideals?  and  for  what  ages  and  classes? 

b.  History  organizes  naturally  on  (1)  territorial  (or  national)  and 
on  (2)  chronological  basis.  Compare  relative  importance  of  re- 
mote and  recent  history  as  regards  (a)  illuminating  problems  of 
citizenship,  (b)  fostering  approved  social  ideals,  and  (c)  giving 
appreciation  of  scientific  attitude  towards  historical  data  and  re- 
cords. How  much  of  chronological  history  (e.g.,  American, 
world)  is  desirable  for  conception  of  unity  of  history? 

c.  How  can  appreciations  of  social  evolutions,  development,  pro- 
gress  be   developed? 

d.  Make  distinction  between  "history"  and  "materials  of  history." 
Objectives  of  incorporating  latter  as  found  useful,  in  social 
science  study  of  contemporary  problems.  Provide  for  students 
(a)  11  to  14,  (b)  15-18,  (c)  19-22,  series  of  topics,  projects, 
cases  in  social  study  for  citizenship;  in  each  case  what 
"materials  of  history"  can  usefully  be  employed  ? 

e.  Outline  course  of  "units"  in  social  science  designed  to  give  his- 

torical perspective  or  conception  of  chronological  order,  to  take 
two  per  cent  of  school  time  each  year,  ages  6  to  18. 

/.  Outline  course  in  current  material  designed  to  produce  "scientific 
attitude"  as  regards  reports  and  records  for  youths  12-18. 

g.  In  social  science  for  junior  high  school,  what  shall  be  criteria  of 
selection  of  cases,  projects,  topics  and  other  teaching  units? 
Conditions  of  flexibility  of  choice  for  learners?  How  use  his- 
tory? 


SOCIAL   SCIENCE  177 

4.  Problems  of  differentiating  alpha  and  beta  phases  of  learning  in 
social  study  are  many. 

o.  What  are  varieties  (and  scope  and  character  of  each)  of  social 
by-education  achieved  by  home,  0-6?  6-12?  12-16?  16-18?  What 
are  corrrections  or  reinforcements  required  by  schools  ? 

b.  Same  for  church?  playground?  press?  stage?  police  power? 
library?  club?  vocation  (12-18)? 

c.  What   species   or  grades  of  instinctive  social   qualities  are  re- 

cognized  by   schools,    for    different   age,    economic,    migration, 
racial,  sex  groups? 

d.  What  are  beta  types  of  school  activity  in  social  education  for 
ages  4-6?  6-12?  Differentiate:  social  play,  mutual  aid,  standards 
of  behavior  (including  school  order),  socialized  work,  "auditor- 
ium" cooperation  (Gary),  sports,  altruistic  pursuits,  (Boy 
Scout),  stories  of  achievement,  current  literature  of  youthful 
ideals,  vocation  guidance,  patriotic  songs,  stories  of  peoples, 
stories  of  individuals. 

e.  Are  alpha  types  of  social  education  needed,  6  to  12?     What? 

/.  What  are  suitable  types  of  beta  school  activity  in  social  educa- 
tion, 12-14?  14-16?  16-18?  18-22?  Analyze  problems  of  organiza- 
tion; flexibility;  adaptation  to  local  environment. 

g.  Analyze  problems  of  social  education  in  vocational  schools, 
e.g.,  printing,  farming,  homemaking  (hereafter  called  sociolog- 
ical phase  of  vocational  education).  To  what  extent  of  beta 
type? 

5.  Analyze  Boy  Scout  movement  as  means  of  social  education. 

a.  Note  its  utilization  of  the  "natural  growth"  qualities,  its  flexi- 
bility of  means,  its  freedom  from  illusion  of  formal  discipline, 
cumulative  character  of  its  devices,  its  creation  of  atmosphere 
of  idealism. 

B.  The  Case  Group"  Approach  to  Programs  of  Civic  Education 

1.  Most  adult  Americans  are  now  fairly  good  citizens;  but  they  are 
not  good  enough  to  meet  our  more  complex  needs  and  our  more  exacting 
standards.  Hence  America  wants  more  and  better  education  for  citizen- 
ship; and  it  seems  probable  that  much  of  this  additional  education  must 
be  expected  from  schools,  rather  than  from  home,  churches,  community 
contacts,  political  parties,  and  the  other  agencies  that  have,  and  supple- 
menting the  schools  (literacy,  discipline,  American  history,  geography), 
given  us  as  good  citizenship  as  we  now  have. 

2.  The  citizenship  of  our  men  and  women  now  varies  greatly.  Some 
are  very  good,  some  very  bad,  and  many  are  average  in  composite  good 
citizenship.  But  also  the  citizenship  of  different  social  groups  and  classes 
obviously  varies  greatly.  The  species  "illiterate  negro  men  in  the  South 
of  from  thirty  to  forty  years  of  age"  contains  some  very  good  and  some 
very  bad  citizens;   but  the  majority   exhibit  certain  prevailing   qualities 


I78  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

(civic  virtues  and  civic  vices)  that  are  characteristic.  Similarly  the  species 
"men  high  school  teachers,  ages  thirty  to  fifty"  contains  some  very 
good  and  a  few  very  bad  citizens;  but  the  majority  exhibit  certain  dis- 
tinguishable prevailing  civic  virtues  and  vices,  which  are  sometimes  un- 
like in  kind,  and  often  in  degree,  those  exhibited  by  the  species  "illiterate 
negro  men." 

3.  Much  of  current  theory  and  practice  of  civic  education,  following 
the  easy  ways  of  deductive  reasoning  from  a  priori  premises  (themselves 
often  of  doubtful  sociological  validity)  so  tends  towards  assumptions  of 
uniformity  as  to  become  unserviceably  vague,  general,  Utopian.  These 
"lumping"  characterizations  include :  (a)  educands — "the  boy,"  "the  pupil," 
the  high  school  pupil,  the  negro,  the  immigrant,  the  drafted  soldier,  the 
new  woman  voter;  (b)  objectives — "good  citizenship,"  Americanization, 
patriotism,  knowledge  of  history,  obedience  to  law;  and  (c)  means  and 
methods — civil  government,  American  history,  the  "project  method,"  etc. 
Many  of  these  unanalyzed  and  undiscriminating  characterizations  are  as 
primitive  and  unhelpful  as  the  sweeping  formulae  of  old-time  medicine 
and  of  Bolshevist  political  science.  They  tend  to  rule  out  of  court  social 
diagnosis  and  prognosis.  They  prescribe  uniform  treatment  for  well  and 
sick,  for  those  of  good  as  well  as  for  those  of  bad,  civic  prospects.  They 
ignore  the  implications  of  "job  analysis"  as  this  might  be  applied  to  the 
"job"  of  citizenship;  and  their  effect  is  a  constant  disregarding  of  the 
contributions  towards  approved  citizenship  of  homes,  community  associ- 
ations, labor  unions,  the  police  power,  etc. 

4.  The  situation  would  not  be  so  confused  if  the  "materials,"  the  "or- 
ganized knowledge,"  the  available  subject-matter  of  civic  education,  were 
not  so  superabundant.  World  history,  American  history,  industrial  history, 
political  science,  "civil  government,"  matter  descriptive  of  local  govern- 
mental agencies,  economics,  social  science,  and  now  sociology  are  as  ex- 
tensive and  inexhaustible  as  the  oceans  of  air  above  us.  Like  that  air 
they  contain  valuable  stories  of  how  fertilizing  and  dynamic  nitrogen  is  if 
economical  processes  of  fixation  can  be  discovered.  Anyone  can  tap  these 
reservoirs ;  and  any  speculative  thinker  can  give  opinions  as  to  how  profit- 
able fixation — i.e.,  civic  education — ought  to  be  effected.  But  most  pro- 
posals seem  to  break  down  in  commercial  practice  (if  the  analogy  be 
pressed). 

5.  It  is  the  writer's  present  opinion  that  the  most  promising  method 
for  the  discovery  of  valid  and  practicable  objectives  of  civic  education 
in  schools  for  various  age,  environment  and  (if  it  should  yet  seem  de- 
sirable) ability  groups,  as  well  as  for  devising  best  methods  of  realizing 
those  objectives,  is  what  may  be  called  the  "case  group"  method.  The 
chief  value  of  this  method  is,  of  course,  to  force  us  to  consider  real  human 
beings  instead  of  abstractions,  to  think  in  terms  of  civic  qualities  as  ends, 
and  of  subject  matter  as  means,  instead  of  as  now,  thinking  of  subject 
matter  practically  as  ends  in  themselves.  But  other  values  will  also 
appear  as  we  proceed.  Let  us  place  ourselves  in  the  position  of  a  com- 


SOCIAL   SCIENCE  1 79 

petent  committee  of  three  enjoined  to  study  the  entire  matter  of  civic 
education,  to  point  the  way  to  experimentation,  and  to  derive  as  rapidly  as 
practicable,  working  programs. 

6.  First,  the  committee  must  agree  provisionally  upon  analytical  or  de- 
scriptive definitions  of  what  it  intends  to  convey  by  the  terms  "citizen- 
ship," "good  citizenship"  and  "education  for  citizenship."  Needless  to  say, 
much  confusion  exists  here,  and  at  certain  points  arbitrary  decisions  may 
well  be  made.  But  the  definitions  will  not  be  serviceable  (a)  unless  they 
indicate  analytically  which  virtues  and  vices — moral,  civic,  religious  and 
the  like — are  excluded  as  well  as  which  are  included  (e.g.  "Is  good  citi- 
zenship" the  same  as  "good  manhood") — (Is  education  for  health  or  for 
vocation  also  education  for  citizenship?);  and  (b)  unless  they  indicate, 
at  least  provisionally,  ratings,  for  given  social  groups,  of  the  comparative 
importance  of  the  various  virtues  and  vices  detailed. 

7.  Next  the  committee  will  take  for  careful  study  two  or  more  fairly 
well  defined  social  groups,  for  example:  Case  M  men,  college  graduates 
of  American  birth,  ages  35-55,  in  business;  and  Case  P,  "owning"  farm- 
ers of  American  birth,  ages  35-55  in  Kansas  and  Nebraska.  It  may  prove 
desirable  still  further  to  delimit  and  define  these  groups — only  experience 
can  show. 

A  thousand  individual  cases,  selected  at  random  from  each  group,  will 
doubtless  show  some  very  "good"  and  some  very  "bad"  citizens  by  the 
standards  of  the  definitions.  Apart  from  these  extremes  large  or  "type" 
proportions  will  be  "prevailingly"  good  in  certain  respects  and  prevailing- 
ly "not  what  they  should  be"  in  others. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  assume  (nor  would  it  be  practicable  now  to  pro- 
cure) exhaustive  social  analysis  here.  Surely  competent  sociological  or 
political  observers  should,  even  on  the  basis  of  general  experience,  now 
give  fairly  reliable  answers  to  questions  like  these. 

a.  Is  the  proportion  of  criminals  large  in  either  case  group? 

b.  How  do  the  two  groups  compare  as  regards  the  civic  virtues  of 
conformity — respect  for  laws,  conservatism,  party  fidelity, 
payment  of  debts,  general  morality,  etc.? 

c.  How  do  they  compare  as  respects  virtues  of  initiative — independ- 
ence of  political  action,  reforming  spirit,  party  leadership,  social 
aggression,  pioneering  of  revolutions,  etc.? 

d.  How  do  they  compare  as  respects  specified  vices  of  conformity — 
excessive  conservatism,  clannishness,  opposition  to  innovations, 
etc.? 

e.  How  do  they  compare  as  respects  specified  vices  of  initiative 

(individual  or  "small  group") — such  as  anarchism,  disloyalty, 
disregard  of  parties,  political  freebooting? 
/.  What,  in  each  group,  are  the  most  conspicuous  civic  shortcom- 
ings which  we  should  like  to  see  corrected  in  the  next  genera- 
tion? 


l80  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

8.  Among  the  boys  of  to-day  are  many  who  will  succeed  to  the  work, 
opportunities  and  responsibilities  of  the  adults  in  the  above  groups.  Let 
the  committee  temporarily  waive  the  problem  of  whether  we  can  now 
predict  which  boys  of  given  age  levels  will  probably  do  so.  Let  it  as- 
sume for  purposes  of  scientific  analysis  of  objectives,  that  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  boys  now  in  certain  suburbs  (Case  Ma  boys)  will  succeed 
Case  M  men  and  that  a  large  proportion  of  those  in  the  rural  schools  of 
Kansas  and  Nebraska  will  succeed  the  Case  P  men  (Case  Pa  boys). 

Having  these  respective  groups  of  boys  under  consideration  the  com- 
mittee will  now  proceed  to  make  various  prognoses.  This  word  has  a 
formidable  sound;  but,  of  course,  all  education  procedure  to-day  rests 
on  more  or  less  blind  prognostications  of  what  adults  would  be  without  it, 
and  what  they  are  expected  to  be  with  it. 

a.  Given  substantial  continuance  of  social  forces  now  operative — 
home,  school,  community  environment,  rising  standards  of  liv- 
ing, etc. — what  will  Case  Pa  boys  of  ten  to  sixteen  to-day  in 
Kansas  rural  environment  probably  become  in  from  fifteen  to 
thirty  years,  as  respects  citizenship?  How  will  they  probably 
compare,  in  prevailing  numbers,  with  their  fathers?  As  re- 
spects what  civic  virtues  will  they  probably  be  superior  to  their 
fathers?  Inferior?  To  what  conditions  of  environment  will 
such  new  civic  deficiencies  as  they  may  be  expected  to  show 
be  probably  due? 

b.  The  social  situations  into  which  these  boys  mature  (those  who 
remain  to  become  owning  farmers)  will  probably  be  markedly 
different  from  those  to  which  their  fathers  had  to  adapt  them- 
selves. We  might  prognosticate  weakening  of  historic  party 
lines;  multiplication  of  public  or  government  functions;  in- 
creased necessity  of  collective  buying,  selling,  utilization  of 
large  machines,  etc.  In  what  respects  will  these  expected  new 
social  needs  impose  requirements  for  civic  qualities  that  the 
fathers  of  these  boys  do  not  adequately  possess? 

c.  Where  specific  programs  of  civic  education  in  schools  are  de- 
vised to  prevent  or  correct  expected  civic  deficiencies,  what  may 
we  reasonably  predict  as  to  good  citizenship  effects  some  years 
hence,  from  citizens  who  as  Case  Pa  boys  now  are  found  to 
grade  respectively  low,  inferior,  superior,  and  high,  in  intelli- 
gence ? 

9.  In  the  expectation  of  probable  civic  deficiencies,  programs  of  pre- 
ventive or  corrective  civic  education  would  be  made.  The  satisfactory  de- 
finition of  specific  objectives  and  the  determination  of  means  and  methods 
would  probably  necessitate  observance  of  certain  principles  as,  for  ex- 
ample : 

a.  They  should  be  made  on  the  basis  of  prognosis  of  administra- 
tive limitations — usual  ages  of  compulsory  or  voluntary  scho®l 


SOCIAL  SCIENCE  l8l 

attendance,  funds  to  be  had,  kinds  of  teachers  and  departmental- 
izing of  teaching  available,  methods  devised,  etc.  Some  kinds 
of  work,  for  example,  could  be  done  if  consolidated  schools 
and  specialized  teaching  were  presupposed.  During  the  next 
few  years  many  of  these  boys  will  leave  school  at  16,  with  only 
elementary  education;  what  is  provided  must  fit  within  this 
available  time. 
b.  Experiment  may  show  the  superior  availability  of  certain  types 
of  means  and  methods  at  specified  age  levels:  "developmental" 
(i.e.,  story,  biography)  American  history,  grades  3-6;  "pro- 
jective" American  history  (formal,  purposive),  grades  7  and  8 
for  facts  and  ready-made  interpretations,  grade  12  for  critical 
and  evaluative  (problem)  interpretations;  "participation  pro- 
jects" grades  6  to  8;  "dramatized  projects"  grades  4  to  7;  com- 
munity "concrete  contact"  civics  (of  associates  groups)  grades  5 
to  7;  community  civics,  didactic  and  slightly  observational  (fed- 
erate groups),  grades  7  to  9;  civil  government  (formal  didactic) 
(federate  group  membership)  grades  8  to  10;  "self-teaching," 
"thick"  books  of  description,  etc.,  grades  7  to  12;  didactic  eco- 
nomics or  social  science,  grades  9  to  11;  "contemporary  social 
problem  method,"  grades  11  to  12. 
From   (a)   and   (b)   should,  of  course,  be  devised  adjustments  needed 

for  Pa  boys.     Is  the   "self-teaching"   "thick"  book  the  most  promising 

available  means  for  Pa  boys? 

10.  Similar  approaches  could  be  made  for  Case  Ma  boys.  The  eventuat- 
ing programs  will  probably  be  unlike  in  many  respects.  Should  that  not 
be  expected?  Different  kinds  of  boys  are  being  dealt  with;  the  educa- 
tive effects  of  their  environments  are  very  different;  their  school  oppor- 
tunities are  far  from  being  the  same;  the  expectations  of  good  citizenship 
that  society  has  a  right  to  expect  should  probably  be  very  dissimilar. 

11.  This  method  becomes,  of  course,  more  difficult  where  we  presup- 
pose extremely  dynamic  environments.  It  would  be  difficult  to  prognosti- 
cate the  adult  citizenship  of  New  York  boys  of  Russian  Jewish  immedi- 
ate ancestry,  if  schools  gave  no  purposive  civic  education.  The  only  thing 
certain  is  that  they  will  be  very  different  from  their  parents. 

Similar  difficulties  would  be  encountered  in  trying  to  devise  programs 
of  civic  education  for:  (a)  negro  children  in  northern  cities;  (b)  children 
of  Pennsylvania  soft  coal  miners;  (c)  bright  children  in  poor  rural  areas 
(most  of  whom  will  migrate)  ;  and  (d)  children  of  the  "slums." 

12.  Several  interesting  problems  appear  as  results  of  the  general  method 
here  suggested.  In  the  field  of  social  education  (here  taken  to  include 
all  objectives  primarily  of  moral,  civic,  and  religious  education  and  ex- 
cluding all  objectives  primarily  physical,  vocational,  and  cultural),  edu- 
cational writers  have  long  preferred  to  float  in  cloudlands  of  speculation, 
playing  hide-and-seek  among  the  billowing  fogbanks  of  "fundamental 
principles."     They    have    usually    avoided    concrete    contacts    with    such 


l82  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

social  realities  as  mental  and  moral  variabilities  of  native  powers,  positive 
and  negative  effects  of  material  and  social  environments,  and  the  limita- 
tions (modern  at  least)   of  what  is  here  called  the  "didactic"  method  of 
presentation  (formal  instruction  or  training,  especially  for  knowledge). 
To  the  present  writer  it  appears: 

a.  That  as  yet  we  have  no  acceptable  agreed  upon  formulations  of 
what  educators  mean  by  citizenship,  civism,  civic  efficiency, 
good  citizenship,  education  for  citizenship,  and  the  like.  The 
ex  parte  pleader,  and  departmental  specialist,  tend  to  include 
all  virtues,  desirable  traits,  approved  qualities,  under  good 
citizenship.  But  makers  of  programs  for  upper  grades  obvious- 
ly have  in  mind  chiefly  political  or  "large  group"  qualities. 
Practical  difficulties  arise,  therefore.  Is  training  in  handwriting 
one  contribution  towards  good  citizenship?  Should  we  desig- 
nate as  "civic  education"  the  learning  of  a  trade?  When  we 
"instill"  love  of  good  music,  are  we  still  in  the  region  of  civic 
objectives?  We  greatly  need  here  extensive  concrete  analysis 
of  the  qualities — of  all  kinds — which  should  constitute  objec- 
tives of  education;  and  agreement  upon  elementary  classifica- 
tions and  terminology. 

b.  That  in  all  programs  of  civic  education  (in  the  limited  sense) 
that  we  now  use,  mechanistic  aspects  of  social,  including  poli- 
tical, economic  and  governmental,  action  are  overstressed ; 
while  function  aspects,  especially  those  comprehensible  to  the 
learner,  receive  insufficient  attention.  The  analogy  to  methods 
of  teaching  of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  former  years  will 
occur. 

c.  That  our  pedagogic  ideals  of  method  give  prominent  place  to 

"activities"  in  civics  teaching;  but  these  are  still  chiefly  "pole- 
star"  ideals,  the  "lighthouse"  ideals  being  largely  non-existent 
as  yet.  Hence  our  actual  objectives  take  the  form  chiefly  of 
the  more  or  less  forceful  impartation  of  knowledge — facts, 
generalizations,  dogmas,  logically  arranged.  But  it  is  question- 
able whether  even  very  skillful  teachers  can  make  these  "di- 
dactic" methods  more  than  partially  effective  towards  function- 
ing standards  and  habits  of  later  civic  behavior. 

d.  That  we  seriously  underestimate  the  inventiveness,  amounting 
often  to  great  talent,  required  to  make  "activity"  methods — 
projects,  self-government,  cooperative  undertakings,  public  ser- 
vice supervision, — give  persistent  results. 

e.  That  we  have  seriously  disregarded  and  undervalued  the  sug- 

gestive possibilities  for  method,  of  numerous  procedures  that, 
outside  the  school,  are  now  actively  functional  in  producing 
some  kinds  of  civic  virtues,  often  without  the  intervention  of 
any  conscious  educational  intent.     At  one  extreme  of  this  type 


SOCIAL   SCIENCE  1 83 

is  scouting ;  at  the  other  the  stories,  movies,  and  gang  operations 
craved  and  sought  by  youth. 

/.  That  it  is  especially  important  for  us  to  examine  the  possibil- 
ities, as  means  of  certain  forms  of  civic  education,  for  speci- 
fied groups  and  towards  specified  ends,  of  various  history 
studies,  especially  in  the  two  types  of  situations  when:  (1)  the 
teacher  is  of  average  interpreting  and  inspirational  power  (for 
that  field)  and  the  objective  history  content  is  regarded  as  im- 
portant; and  (2)  the  teacher  is  expected  to  be  of  exceptional 
power  and  the  history  content  a  relative  minor  means.  It  is  sug- 
gested that  probably  all  current  thinking  greatly  overvalues  his- 
tory as  a  means  of  social  education,  except  for  the  rare  spirits 
who  early  develop  exceptional  constructive  social  imagination. 

g.  And  finally,  that  when  we  get  to  the  stage  of  experimental  pro- 
cedure in  all  these  fields  we  shall  find  ourselves  forced  to  pro- 
ceed through  detailed  consideration  of  clearly  delimited  case 
groups  and  by  means  of  provisional  objectives  of  the  most  con- 
crete character. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 
GEOGRAPHY 

1.  The  aims  or  objectives  of  geography  have  in  recent  writings  been 
stated  chiefly  by  geographers — hence  over-idealized,  sometimes  Utopian, 
and  nearly  always  in  disproportionate  relation  to  other  aims.  Confusion 
also  results  from  ease  with  which  it  can  be  made  to  appear  that  geography 
should  or  could  be  made  correlation  core  of  natural  science,  social  science, 
history,  vocational  guidance.  Existing  text-books  as  measures  or  guides 
to  purpose  are  probably  overloaded,  over  detailed,  lacking  in  differentiation 
of  objectives.  Materials  offered  in  them  are  rich,  varied,  alluring — 
but  purposes  of  prescribed  learning  nowhere  so  defined  as  to  assist  pupil 
or  teacher  in  selecting  individual  programs  or  even  in  discovering  what 
ends  to  pursue  with  definiteness  and  expectation  of  acquisitions  of  knowl- 
edge, skills,  appreciations,  that  will  persist. 

2.  The  vocational  objectives  of  geography  are  highly  specialized;  there- 
fore no  attempt  should  probably  be  made  to  realize  them  in  elementary 
and  junior  schools.  Pre-vocational  units  could  perhaps  be  defined  as 
electives  in  high  schools  and  colleges;  but  in  the  main  offerings  should  be 
confined  to  vocational  schools.  Schools  of  navigation  obviously  require  a 
highly  developed  technique  of  map  use  as  well  as  command  of  general 
knowledge.  Schools  of  farming  require  meteorology,  often  included  as  a 
topic  in  geography  (instead  of  physics  where  it  more  logically  belongs)  ;  a 
few  selections  from  physiography  (erosion,  denudation,  sub-surface  water 
movements,  etc.)  ;  and  probably  appreciations  of  regional  specialization  in 
farm  production,  transportation  and  consumption.  It  is  vaguely  held  that 
all  or  some  types  of  commercial  schools  should  teach  commercial  geog- 
raphy; but  the  actual  objectives  of  this,  or  rather  the  validity  of  objec- 
tives now  held,  are  very  doubtful. 

3.  Possible  objectives  of  geography  for  social  education  are  few  but 
probably  important,  (a)  For  purposes  of  liberalizing  and  rendering  socially 
constructive  appreciations  of  our  own  variegated  racial  membership,  social 
geographic  backgrounds  of  England,  Italy,  Russia,  Japan,  Ireland,  Ger- 
many, American  Indians,  negroes,  etc.,  can  be  studied  to  advantage.  (&) To- 
wards promotion  of  international  harmonies,  appreciation  studies  of  eco- 
nomic, governmental  cultural  qualities  of  rivaling  and  other  peoples  are 
readily  practicable,  (c)  Certain  larger  international  problems  of  citizen- 
ship— territorial  specialization  of  production,  migration  of  peoples,  tariffs, 
international  payments  in  gold,  acculturation,  sanitation,  etc. — require  back- 
ground or  basic  knowledge  that  is  essentially  geographic,  (d)  Similarly 
certain  large  problems  of  national  and  state  citizenship — localization  of 

184 


GEOGRAPHY  185 

production,  urbanization  of  populations,  development  of  means  of  trans- 
portation, racial  or  caste  segregation,  conservation  of  natural  resources, 
large  scale  sanitation,  etc. — have  their  strongly  geographic  aspects 
which  in  some  cases  might  be  reached  through  studies  of  civic  problems, 
in  other  cases  prepared  for  by  topical  selection  and  emphasis  (if  pur- 
posive) in  geography. 

4.  But  principal  objectives  of  geography  doubtless  belong  under  cultural 
education.  Include  hereunder  satisfaction  of  natural  curiosities,  general 
knowledge  for  adult  use.  Certain  facts  of  geography  should  be  learned 
for  travel,  etc. 

Problem  of  first  importance  here  is  to  distinguish  alpha  and  beta  objec- 
tives. Reading  a  good  book  of  travel  is  cultural,  but  may  leave  no  exact 
knowledge  for  adult  use.  Certain  facts  of  geography  should  be  learned  so 
as  to  be  as  readily  employed  in  adult  life  as  the  multiplication  table.  "Mov- 
ing picture"  geography  is  illuminating  and  for  the  moment  informative — 
but  its  results  do  not  usually  abide.  Within  limits  yet  to  be  defined  each 
person  supposed  to  have  an  eighth  grade  education  should  be  able  to  read 
maps,  "run  down"  facts  in  gazetteer,  make  geographical  inferences.  How 
shall  we  give  qualitative  or  quantitative  definition  to  these  objectives? 
Some  of  the  specific  problems  are  indicated  when  we  try  to  determine :  (o) 
What  types  and  degrees  of  beta  geography  we  should  provide  children 
under  fourteen,  normally  completing  eighth  grade  at  that  age — in  expecta- 
tion that  only  vaguest  results  will  be  visible  at  age  thirty;  or  (b)  what 
systematic  instruction  and  training  we  should  give  in  first  eight  grades  in 
expectation  of  definite  results  in  memorized  knowledge,  ready  skills  (e.g., 
map  reading,  inference)  or  well  established  generalizations  at  age  thirty. 
More  specifically,  for  example,  having  always  in  mind  product  of  eight 
grades  schooling  only: 

a.  What  should  be  expected  definite  knowledge    (at  age  30)    of 

South  America  as  to :  names  and  salient  facts  of  principal  coun- 
tries; capital  cities;  seaports;  mountain  ranges;  exports;  local 
economic  developments;  causes  of  climatic  peculiarities  of  upper 
Amazon,  Terra  del  Fuego,  Peruvian  seacoast,  historical  reasons 
for  population  peculiarities  of  Uruguay,  Paraguay,  Chile, 
Argentine;  social  effects  of  specialized  export  production  of 
Brazil,  Venezuela,  Chile. 

b.  As  fairly  definite  residual  knowledge  products  of  geographical 

studies  what  should  men  of  average  (eighth  grade)  schooling  at 
age  thirty  possess  as  to:  significant  social  characteristics  of 
Kaffirs,  Turks,  people  now  of  Hawaii,  Scotch ;  significant  natural 
resources  of  Siberia,  Italy,  New  Zealand,  South  Africa,  Michi- 
gan; significant  commodity  exchanges  between  England  and 
Ireland,  Argentine  and  United  States,  Japan  and  South  America, 
Egypt  and  France;  probable  economic  and  military  significance 
in  future  of  Niger,  Panama  Canal,  Mexican  oil  fields,  Cuban 
sugar,  Chinese  coal,  Magdalena  Bay;  essential  climate  factors 


1 86  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

in  Sahara,  Nile,  Amazon,  Steppes,  Palestine,  Utah,  British 
Columbia,  Upper  Zambesi. 

c.  For   same   standards  of   culture,   what  expectations   of   definite 

knowledge  should  be  expected  of  a  Lowell,  Massachusetts,  man 
as  to :  rivers  of  Arizona,  products  of  Idaho ;  social  groupings  of 
Georgia;  climatic  features  of  Washington;  economic  specializa- 
tions of  Wisconsin;  cultural  attainments  of  California? 

d.  How  shall  we  define  kinds  and  degrees  of  "beta"  influences  to 
which  we  should  try  to  "expose"  average  learners  within  first 
eight  grades  as  to :  China ;  Switzerland ;  The  Bermudas ;  Alaska. 
Differentiate  for:  books  of  travel;  books  of  general  or  special- 
ized (export,  social,  travel,  historic)  description;  moving  pic- 
tures ;  novels  with  local  "atmosphere" ;  photographs ;  oral  ac- 
counts from  visitors  or  native  born?  What  should  be  standards 
of  flexibility,  of  election  within  such  fields? 

5.  The  following  provisional  theses  are  submitted  for  examination: 

a.  Objectives  in  geography  for  the  first  four  grades  should  be  of 
beta  types  only,  with  emphasis  on  local  geography,  wonder 
stories,  "human  interest"  stories  (e.g.,  Jane  Andrews'  Ten  Boys), 
pictures  (moving  where  practicable),  simple  map  construction 
from  local  data  of  experience,  map  reading,  etc. 

b.  For  grades  five  to  eight  inclusive  one  hundred  hours  per  year 
should  be  given  to  beta  geography,  with  very  considerable 
latitude  allowed  to  learners  as  to  choice  of  readings,  excursions, 
map-making  and  map  reading  exercises,  attendance  on  moving 
pictures,  etc.  Portions  of  this  "work"  can  be  had  outside  of 
school  hours. 

c.  From  fifty  to  one  hundred  hours  yearly  should  be  given  in  same 

grades  to  alpha  geography,  based  on  clearly  defined  objectives 
partly  of  memorized  knowledge,  partly  of  skills  of  map  interpre- 
tation and  location  finding,  and  partly  on  powers  of  generali- 
zation. (These  objectives  cannot  be  defined  by  geographers 
alone — their  specialized  interests  inevitably  prevent  correct  per- 
spective. A  committee  representing  different  points  of  view,  and 
especially  that  of  the  total  curriculum  for  the  grade  considered, 
is  essential.) 

d.  The  present  type  of  text  book  is  unservicable.  Ideally  there 
should  be  available:  (1)  a  teacher's  manual  or  guide  for  the 
subject;  (2)  a  "five  foot  shelf"  (at  least)  of  beta  class  mater- 
ials for  pupils'  use;  (3)  a  compact  little  text  (possibly  two, 
one  for  grades  five  and  six,  another  for  grades  seven  or  eight) 
defining  and  exhibiting  alpha  objectives  for  pupils. 

e.  Any  complete  correlation  in  methods  of  attaining  objectives  of 

geography  with  those  of  history,  natural  science,  etc.,  is  imprac- 
ticable. But  where  alpha  or  even  beta  objectives  are  defined, 
methods  of  attaining  them  may  include  incorporation  of  mater- 


GEOGRAPHY  1 87 

ials  from  other  fields  as  method  of  enrichment,  vitalization  (but 
note  that  this  rarely  values  attainment  of  objectives  of  the  sub- 
jects correlated  to  geography). 

High  school  and  liberal  arts  college  curriculums  where  con- 
siderable flexibility  is  practicable  can  well  offer  elective  advanced 
courses  in  geography  of  various  types.  For  pupils  of  geo- 
graphic interests  these  would  prove  of  almost  unsurpassed  cul- 
tural  and,   occasionally,   social   and  prevocational   possibilities. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 
THE  FINE  ARTS 
1.  The  term  "fine  arts"  is  here  used  in  contradistinction  to  useful  arts 


practical  arts — and,  in  broadest  sense,  includes:  painting,  sculpture, 
decorative  architecture,  material  decoration,  photography,  (graphic  and 
plastic  arts,  using  harmonies  of  form  and  color  and  appealing  directly  to 
the  eye)  ;  song,  instrumental  music  (musical  arts,  using  harmonies  of 
sound  appealing  directly  to  the  ear)  ;  epic,  lyric,  essay,  novel  (literature 
appealing  to  imagination)  ;  and  dance,  drama,  opera,  cinema,  oration,  and 
other  "art  composites." 

o.  The  primary  appeal  of  the  fine  arts  is  to  the  "aesthetic  sensi- 
bilities." Man's  equipment  of  instincts  includes  many  readinesses 
or  predispositions  to  respond  to  particular  forms  of  aesthetic 
appeal  (to  "feeling,"  emotional  nature,"  "sentiments,"  etc.) 
Note  varieties  of  appeal  made  by  music;  contrast  with  "appeals 
to  understanding"  (intelligence,  scientific  imagination,  knowl- 
edge) made  by  various  forms  of  science,  record  of  facts,  etc. 
Also  note  that  man's  "sense  of  the  useful" — in  dwellings,  high- 
ways, implements,  clothing,  printed  record,  speech,  body  move- 
ment and  carriage  (and  also  foods,  odorous  objects,  sex  re- 
lations, etc.)  is  often  at  war  with  his  sense  of  the  "beautiful," 
"tasteful,"  "aesthetic."  Note  efforts  of  most  socialized  artists 
to  reconcile  (or  rather  find  optimum  resultants)  in  archi- 
tecture, furniture,  fabrics,  dress  as  body  decoration,  food  service, 
sex  relations,  public  speaking,  printed  matter,  etc.  (Remark 
attitudes  towards  the  "ornate,"  "flowery,"  "perfumed";  also 
"ginger-bread  architecture,"  "florid  oratory,"  "sentimentality.") 

b.  Probably  appeals  made  by  fine  arts  have  had  "survival"  values 
in  past  for  individual  and  for  society — in  favoring  sexual  se- 
lection (still  in  evidence  among  animals),  mutual  aid  (in  work, 
war,  maintenance  of  order),  social  sympathy  (family,  worship, 
amalgamation),  transmission  of  social  inheritance  (tradition, 
legend,  social  ideal),  making  acceptable  knowledge  ideals.  Thus 
resulted  reciprocal  development  of  "capacities  for  response"  (in- 
stincts of  taste,  appreciation,  "emotion")  and  means  of  arousing 
or  awakening  such  states  (harmonies  of  form  and  color,  odors, 
tastes,  in  plants;  same,  to  which  add  harmonies  of  sound  and 
motion,  in  animals ;  add,  for  humans,  numerous  appeals  to  mem- 
ory, imagination,  intelligence). 

c.  Note  that  aesthetic  appeals  to  sight,  hearing,  imagination  and 

188 


FINE  ARTS  189 

understanding  represent  only  so-called  "higher"  aesthetic  re- 
sponses. Of  no  less  sociological  importance  are  aesthetic  re- 
sponses to  taste  (gustatory  senses),  odor  (olfactory  senses),  and 
touch  (tactile  senses).  Even  yet  large  range  of  keen  aesthetic 
responses  may  easily  be  evoked  along  these  lines  by  foods  and 
drinks,  perfumes  and  other  odoriferous  articles,  objects  smooth 
or  otherwise  to  touch.  Now  generally  esteemed  vulgar  to  use 
more  than  slightly  and  delicately  these  appeals  to  "appetites" — 
food,  drink,  bodily  comfort,  sex. 

d.  Probability  that  in  all  fundamental  activities  of  social  life, 
utilization  of  aesthetic  appeals  (as  historically  known)  steadi- 
ly gives  way  to  "intelligence"  appeals — calculation,  tested  form- 
ula, reasoned  action,  unemotional  deliberation  (in  a  word, 
"science,"  as  against  "art").  This  clearly  true  in  fields  of  ol- 
factory and  gustatory  appeals ;  probably  true  in  tactile  appeals, 
and  those  evoked  by  terpsichorean  arts ;  apparently  true  in 
cruder  appeals  to  auditory,  visual  and  imaginative  capacities. 
Trace  diminishing  place  of  art  in  work,  worship,  mating,  war; 
in  making  fundamental  appeals  for  order,  self -development,  co- 
operation, adequate  parenthood,  thrift. 

e.  But  equipment  of  instincts  of  aesthetic  response  still  persists. 

In    some    cases,    substantial    atrophy    without    injury    possible 
(smell,    taste,    tactile    sense)    although    morbid    manifestations 
frequent.     In  other  cases,  use  of  these  appeals  to  "spice"  life, 
to  supplement  prosaic  "drab"  activities  possible.     Note  use  of 
music,  light  literature,  bodily  decoration,  dancing,  drama,  cer- 
tain  forms  of  painting,   architecture   and   sculpture   for  these 
"diversion,"  "recreation,"  "pleasure-giving"  functions — and  cant 
about  "art  for  art's  sake,"  "pleasure  (or  happiness)  as  an  im- 
portant end  in  life,"  etc.     Note  also  strong  tendency  of   de- 
votees (producers  and  utilizers  of  these  vestigial  art  functions) 
to  become   (or,  by  selection,  to  be)    freakish,  immoral,  degen- 
erate   (aesthetes,    feminine   men,   masculine   women,    sex   per- 
verts,   epicures,    mystics,    impracticals,    dreamers,    visionaries, 
charlatans).     Note  also  large  intermingling  of  decadent  forms 
of  art  sensibility  in  socially  pathologic  areas —  Bohemias,  red- 
light  districts,  "conspicuous  consumption"    (rich  or  near  rich), 
hotels  and  restaurants  catering  to  epicurean  tastes  in  food,  drink, 
dancing  and  sex,  theatres,  "beauty  parlors,"  places  of  religious 
revival  or  esoteric  worship,  etc. 
2.  Functioning  applications  of  fine  arts  in  modern  social  life  meeting 
tests  of  being  dynamic  and  democratic,  are  at  least  three:    (a)    art  for 
diversion,  recreation  after  specialized  toil,  soothing  of  tired  nerves,  etc., — 
popular  music,  moving  pictures,  dancing    (in  a  degree),  long  and  short 
stories,  light  drama,  illustration;   (b)   art  applied  to  objects  of  utility  to 
enhance  agreeable  associations — "good"  speech,  "artistic"  writing  (of  facts 


190  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

or  imaginings),  "graceful"  carriage,  "well-designed"  (aesthetic,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  utilitarian,  design)  tools,  implements,  books,  cars,  build- 
ings, roadways,  table-ware,  clothes,  etc. ;  and  (c)  art  applied  in  display 
advertising  publicity,  where  attention  must  be  "taken  captive" — even 
through  the  emotions. 

a.  Actual  social  values  of  these  still  doubtful.  First  easily  leads 
to  excessive,  degenerative,  morbid  forms,  second  tendency  often 
leads  to  subordination  of  utility  to  beauty — bodily  decoration, 
architecture.  Display  advertising  probably  now  source  of 
enormous  social  waste. 

b.  Problems  as  to  other  social  uses  of  art  for  contemporary  so- 
ciety. Can  it  be  used  to  elevate  moral  and  social  ideals — 
through  song,  drama,  novel,  moving  picture?  to  "enrich"  life — 
whatever  that  may  mean  ?  to  promote  general  social  understand- 
ing? to  perfect  the  family?  to  increase  diffusion  of  serviceable 
knowledge?  To  answer  questions  of  this  sort  we  need  more 
knowledge  than  is  yet  available  both  of  psychology  and  of 
sociology. 

c.  It  is  possible  that,  apart  from  all  general  social  considerations, 

certain  stimulation  and  development  of  art-appreciation  capa- 
cities essential  to  wholesomeness.  (Theory  that  vestigial  or 
suppressed  instincts  become  centers  of  "decay" — cf.  Freud, 
Jung.)  Question  as  to  how  far  systematic  art  education  may 
be  necessary  to  preserve  wholesomeness. 

d.  Are  the  following  fine  arts  obsolescent:  sculpture,  poetry,  seri- 
ous drama,  oratory,  dancing,  music  of  worship,  painting,  archi- 
tecture (as  a  primary  rather  than  subordinate  decorative  ele- 
ment) ?  Answer  in  terms  of :  appeal  to  democratic  majorities ; 
appeal  to  few  who  ultimately  influence  and  direct  many,  etc. 

3.  Probably  important  functions  of  school  education  in  art  fields  where 
utilization  is  dynamic  and  popular  are: 

a.  So  to  direct  such  utilization  as  to  lessen  anti-social  consequences 
— immoral  fiction,  sensual  music,  demoralizing  moving  pictures, 
lascivious  dancing,  etc. 

b.  To  insure  as  far  as  practicable  that  "applied  art"  shall  not  dis- 
place or  distort  basal  utilities  in  dress,  furniture,  books,  com- 
munication, etc. 

c.  To  keep  within  reasonable  social  bounds  competitive  outlay  on 

display  advertising. 

d.  Where  practicable,  to  use  art  to  elevate  ideals  and  social  senti- 
ments  (perhaps  literature  only). 

4.  Is  it  desirable  to  use  school  education  to  revive  extended  appreci- 
ation of  obsolescent  forms  of  art — folk-song,  folk-dancing,  painting, 
"art"  or  "expression"  dancing,  monumental  architecture,  epic,  lyric,  etc.? 


FINE  ARTS  191 

At  suitable  times,  these  inhistoric  products,  may  well  be  stud- 
ied as  "history" — but  that  has  no  substantial  connection  with 
art  appreciation. 

5.  Objectives  of  school  education  in  art  appreciation  suggested  above 
should  all  fall  within  "beta"  class — hence  freedom  of  election,  methods 
designed  to  give  appreciation,  amateur  execution,  etc. 

6.  Persons  showing  talent  as  potential  producers  of  socially  valuable 
art  (not  yet  clear  what  that  is)  should  be  given  early  encouragement  and 
support  to  specialize  as  high  grade  producers.  Specialized  vocational 
schools  desirable  for  these. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

1.  English  literature  is  now  generally  regarded  as  the  most  important 
"cultural"  subject  in  public  schools;  but  its  actual  objectives  are  not  es- 
tablished.   The  following  facts  are  important  for  perspective : 

a.  Literary  selections  have  always  been  used  in  elementary  schools 
in  connection  with  teaching  of  "reading."  In  days  when  read- 
ing matter  was  scarce  the  ablest  and  most  imaginative  pupils 
often  developed  genuine  literary  appreciations  for  this  frag- 
mentary but  choice  material. 

b.  Until  recently  American  secondary  schools  did  not  seek  to  teach 

"literature."  But  for  many  years  they  aimed  to  teach  (a)  the 
history  of  literature  and  (b)  the  mechanics  of  literature. 
(Even  yet  many  English  schoolmen  insist  that  "literature  can- 
not be  taught")  The  history  of  English  literature  has  usually 
followed  the  chronological  order  and  has  included  (a)  bio- 
graphical data  of  writers,  (b)  extracts  from  best  known  works 
and,  sometimes,  (c)  contemporary  influences.  "From  Mil- 
ton to  Tennyson"  is  a  type.  Recent  tendencies  have  been  to- 
wards diminishing  numbers  of  writers  "to  be  learned"  and 
lengthening  representative  selections.  The  mechanics  of  litera- 
ture has  been  taught  as  rhetoric,  sometimes  as  advanced  com- 
position. 

c.  During  last  twenty-five  years  signal  advances  have  been  made 

in  extending  supplementary  reading,  library  reading,  magazine 
reading,  etc,  in  upper  grades.  Libraries  and  schools  have 
evolved  extensive  lists  of  "suitable"  books,  some  classic,  some  re- 
cent, suited  to  various  ages.  Results  certainly  suggest  success- 
ful "teaching  of  literature"  of  one  kind — the  formation  of  read- 
ing interests  and,  perhaps,  tastes. 

d.  During  same  period  joint  committees  on  college  entrance  stand- 
ards have  programmed  courses  in  literature  for  high  schools, 
first  apparently  as  common  basis  for  tests  in  composition  and 
rhetoric  but  latterly,  apparently,  for  something  more  ambitious. 
Selections  recommended  still  reflect  preoccupations  with  the 
"historic  survey,"  and  "knowing  something"  of  leading  authors. 
But  vague  realization  of  needs  of  new  objectives  is  apparent, 
especially  in  books  and  articles  for  teachers. 

192 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE  193 

2.  Why  should  time  and  money  of  public  schools  be  used  in  "teaching 
literature"?  Sociologically  valid  replies  to  this  query  are  still  wanting. 
These  considerations  are  important: 

a.  Strong  instinctive  desires  exist  in  all  for  stories,  legends,  fables, 
songs,  speeches.  Orally  communicated  literature  has  doubtless 
existed  for  many  hundreds  of  centuries  and  interests  in  it  have 
been  communicated  universally  by  usual  channels  of  social  imi- 
tation. 

b.  When  once  mechanics  of  reading  have  been  fairly  well  mastered 
strong  interests  in  certain  types  of  fiction  and  some  other 
reading  developed  without  further  aid  of  schools.  Note  vogue 
of  novel,  short  story,  fiction-filled  magazine,  newspaper  reports 
of  court  proceedings.  Recall  efforts  of  librarians  to  keep 
"boys"  in  France  supplied  with  reading  matter.  Interpret  facts 
as  to  "best  sellers,"  Saturday  Evening  Post,  Robinson  Crusoe, 
the  "five  foot  shelf,"  Dickens,  Scott,  Longfellow,  popular  after- 
noon newspapers.    Study  the  sales  counter  of  a  railway  station. 

c.  Example,  suggestive  and  purposive  teaching,  skillfully  applied, 
can  shift,  develop,  and  "elevate"  reading  interests.  Certain 
agencies  of  by-education — home  companionship,  library,  news- 
paper, stage — do  this  constantly  now.  Teachers  can  aid,  especi- 
ally towards  types  or  examples  not  made  familiar  by  social 
suggestion. 

d.  Is  the  function  of  the  school,  then,  chiefly  to  "lead  on"  the  reader 
with  tastes  already  partly  evolved,  to  new  and  "higher"  ap- 
preciations, interests,  insights?  Many  of  us  now  approve  these 
purposes  "on  faith."  But  we  need  something  more  than  "faith 
objectives."  These  have  not  guided  us  well  as  to  standards  and 
real  values.  They  cause  us  to  impose  our  pedantic,  "high  brow" 
standards,  or  to  spend  time  chiefly  in  anatomical  study  of  clas- 
sics. 

3.  Quest  for  valid  objectives  in  teaching  literature  in  schools  and  to- 
wards influencing  writers,  press,  stage,  home  and  libraries  at  once  en- 
counters problems   of  definition.     What  is  literature? 

a.  For  practical  purposes  we  might  include  substantially  all  read- 
ing matter  that  is  not  informative  reports  (news,  technical  history, 
science)  and  vocational  information.  We  should  therefore  in- 
clude orally  told  stories ;  all  of  current  fiction,  popular  descrip- 
tion, and  even  popular  (non-technical)  science  and  history.  St. 
Nicholas,  the  Sunday  supplements,  Mother  Goose,  the  Rollo,  Al- 
cott,  and  Coffin  Series,  as  well  as  the  photodrama  would  thus 
have  a  place  in  programs  of  teaching  literature — if  only  in  place 
of  departure. 

b.  In  school  education,  certainly,  no  useful  purpose  could  be  served 
by  restricting  the  term  as  "artists  desire."    This  would  mean 


194  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

imposition  of  "high  brow"  adult  standards,  perpetuation  of 
mediaeval  aristocratic  ideals  as  to  "exclusive"  learning.  It 
tends  to  undue  worship  of  the  past,  of  the  pursuit  of  "art  for 
its  own  sake"  (always  a  false  sociological  lead,  and  only  helpful 
to  sustain  immature  aspirants  through  a  period  of  uncontami- 
nated  and  apparently  disinterested  effort). 
c.  Ultimate  definitions  should  be  based  upon  "social  functionings," 
not  on  principles  of  structure.  "Literature  is  what  literature 
does."  Instinct  and  experience  give  rise  to  cravings  for  con- 
tent— information,  interpretations,  emotions,  sensations.  When 
the  materials  suitable  to  produce  these  are  presented  with  some 
regard  to  form  we  have  the  "functioning"  effects  of  literature. 
But  genuine  interests  vary  greatly — often  because  of  "original 
nature,"  apparently,  and  often  because  of  effects  of  environ- 
ment. Only  a  few  can  be  genuinely  interested  in  the  litera- 
ture that  is  old  and  hence  must  use  imagery  alien  to  contemporary 
life.  A  few  situations  of  course — courtship,  individual  combat, 
contests  with  nature,  personal  religious  experiences — exhibit  a 
kind,  of  unchangeableness ;  while  the  uncritical  mind  of  child- 
hood seldom  seeks  realistic  elements  in  fable  and  fairly  tale. 
But  in  the  main  popular  requirements  call  for  certain  types  of 
realism  in  content.  In  a  sense  not  always  understood  by  ped- 
ants popular  demand  is  for  literature  that  "interprets  life" — 
especially  the  life  that  is  a  bit  more  significant,  fruitful,  free,  at- 
tractive than  our  own.  This  the  content:  and  the  setting  gives 
the  form.  We  could  advantageously  press  analogy  with  food. 
We  need  and  demand  nourishment — this  is  the  content ;  and  we 
desire  attractive  service — this  is  the  form. 

4.  Problems  of  "social  purposes"  or  "functioning"  of  literature  in  so- 
ciety generally  require  solution  before  possible  uses  in  education  can  be 
defined.  Some  of  these  problems  are  the  same  as  those  of  "fine  arts"  in 
general.  Others  are  peculiar  to  literature  because  of  its  accessibility  (in 
recent  centuries  especially)  and  its  relatively  small  employment  of  the 
senses  (compared  with  other  "fine  arts"). 

a.  From  standpoint  of  producer,  literature  is  often  included  in 
concept,  "art  for  art's  sake."  Were  Homer,  Euripides,  Juvenal, 
the  writers  of  Jdb  and  E'cclesiastes,  Plutarch,  Dante,  Milton, 
Bunyan,  Pope,  Tennyson,  Dickens,  Whittier,  Lowell,  Whitman, 
Kipling,  Wells,  Oliver  Schreiner,  Tolstoi,  Shaw,  Zane  Grey, 
H.  B.  Wright,  Serviss,  Masters,  animated  by  "social  purposes"? 
What  of  Sappho,  Virgil,  Horace,  Tasso,  Chaucer,  Shakespeare, 
Addison,  Byron,  Keats,  Swinburne,  Poe,  Wilde,  Henry  James, 
Amy  Lowell? 

b.  What  do  "the  people"  get  from  "great"  literature?  pleasure? 
ideals?  vision?  common  standards  and  sentiments?  substitutes 
for  experience?    Analyze  some  customary  hypotheses. 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE  195 

c.  What  do  "the  people"  get  from  popular   (and  often  fugitive) 

literature — fiction,  short  story,  ephemeral  poetry,  magazine  ar- 
ticle? low  standards?  democratic  ideals?  pleasure?  widened 
comprehension?  satisfaction  of  emotional  longings?  Why  do 
we  sometimes  say  such  literature  is  demoralizing"?  Under 
what  conditions  is  it  elevating?  How  effective  is  (or  could  be) 
censorship  in  "improving"  this  literature? 

d.  What  are  essential  characteristics  of  "literature"  to  which  large 
numbers  of  children  2  to  5  (to  whom  orally  presented)  "take 
naturally"  (even  "eagerly  and  hungrily")  ?  Children  from  6  to 
10?  from  11  to  14  (boys)?  from  11  to  14  (girls)?  15  to  18 
(boys  of  superior  economic  rank)  ?  Do.  (of  low  economic 
rank)  ?  15  to  18  (girls  of  superior  home  environment)  ?  Do. 
(of  poor  environment)  ? 

e.  How  successful  have  schools  and  colleges  been  in  developing 

enduring  interests   in  classic  literature?     Were  these  classics 
written  for  younger  readers?  iExamples?  Did  educated  youths 
"take"  to  them  when  they  were  fresh?  What  "classic"  literature 
still  has  natural  fascination  for  childhood?  adolescent  youth? 
/.  For  the  effective  "functioning"  of  literature   (in  any  specified 
way)  is  a  degree  of  contemporaneity  essential?     Is  it  easy  or 
even  practicable  for  us  to-day  to  apperceive  or  apprehend  the 
"milieu"  of  Sophocles?  Caesar?  Tasso?  Dryden?  Wordsworth? 
Cooper?  Consider  separately  as  regards:  (a)  mating  love;  (&) 
war;    (c)   man's  knowledge  of  the  world  and  universe;    (d) 
man's  belief  in,  and  attempted  intercourse  with  unseen  person- 
alities   (religion) ;    (e)    prevailing   ideals   of    democracy;    (/) 
control  of  natural  forces;  (g)  fatalistic  convictions;  (/»)  other 
large  social  and  personal  elements. 
g.  Is  human  nature  "always  the  same"?     To  what  extent  have 
abolition  of  slavery,  spread  of  scientific  knowledge,  development 
of  complex  mechanisms  in  war,  development  of  trade  unions, 
employment  of  capital,  science  and  invention  in  production,  ris- 
ing standards  of  living,  mobility  of  labor,  rational  control  of 
sex  morals,  and  "placing  the  gods  far  beyond  Olympus,"  made 
it  difficult  to  respond  to  old  literature  (except  on  part  of  cults 
devoted  to   the  antique,   or   followers   of  the   illusion  of  the 
"Golden  Age  behind")  ?     To  what  extent  do  these  entail  re- 
quirement of  contemporaneity  as  a  condition  for  many  kinds 
of  "functioning"  of  literature? 
5.  Problems   of   elevating   native   interests   in   literature   as   a   "mental 
play,"  or  "intellectual  nurture"  agency  appear  when  we  recognise  natural- 
ness, universality,  and  developmental  character  of  these  spontaneous  in- 
terests. 

a.  All  children  manifest  intellectual  hunger  for  stories,  orally  pre- 
sented.   Almost  all  will  continue  this  interest  in  printed  pre- 


I96  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

sentations,  if  mechanics  of  silent  reading  are  mastered  sufficient- 
ly well  and  early  (cf.  popularity  of  cheap  fiction,  popular  journ- 
als, etc.)-  Standards  of  production  will  rise  with  improvement 
of  demand.  Note  economical  character  of  this  form  of  "beta" 
education.  Means  found  in  schoolroom  reading,  school  libraries 
for  home  reading,  circulating  libraries,  public  libraries.  Harm- 
ful effects  of  adult  "goody"  standards,  and  of  artificial  "art" 
standards.  "Reading  aloud"  by  teachers  as  important  prelude 
to  self-motivated  silent  reading  even  in  case  of  older  pupils 
being  initiated  on  higher  levels.  (Can  teachers  generally  read 
aloud  well?) 

6.  Literature  obviously  very  potent  in  producing  ideals,  attitudes,  appreci- 
ations, valuations,  standards,  sentiments,  aspirations.  Hence,  very  potent 
in  character  formation,  and  in  impelling  to  action  involving  feeling  ele- 
ments. Problems  of  purpose:  to  what  specific  ends  can  it  be  used?  Prob- 
lems of  means:  what  literature  can  be  used?  Problems  of  method:  how 
must  it  be  used? 

a.  For  pragmatic  purposes  in  social  education  (formation  of  so- 
cial character,  inspiring  to  social  action)  literature  must  be  of 
vital,  holding  interest.  "Forcible  feeding"  of  little  avail.  Liter- 
ary analysis,  searching  for  moral,  anatomical  study  of  literary 
cadavers  (as  apperceived  by  learners)  doubtless  bad — the  in- 
trusion of  adult  and  pedantic  standards. 

b.  But   for  realization   of   definite  objectives  in   social   education 

(e.g.,  humane  treatment  of  animals,  the  "square  deal"  in  busi- 
ness relations,  sexual  continence,  subjection  of  crude  combative 
instincts,  patriotism  (a  very  vague  end),  keeping  "physically  fit," 
respecting  the  aged,  honest  voting,  efficient  use  of  time,  playing 
a  "fair  game,"  keeping  one's  word,  the  "successful  life,"  (not 
"quitting,"  etc.)  doubtless  useful  literature  can  be  found.  But 
probably  it  must  be  used  impersonally,  individual  learner  must 
not  be  made  self-conscious,  certain  privacies  must  be  re- 
spected. "Goody"  good  teachers  cannot  promote  this  cultiva- 
tion— they  are  too  prone  to  violate  privacies,  to  pull  up  sprout- 
ing plants  for  open  air  inspection.  Art  of  attaining  these  ends 
probably  one  of  most  difficult  in  education. 

7.  Problems  of  relating  literature  to  venacular  language  very  con- 
fusing. Use  of  term  "English"  without  qualification,  bad.  Doubtful  if 
any  close  connection  ought  to  exist  between  vernacular  language  and 
vernacular  literature  studies — purposes  not  merely  unlike,  but  very  remote 
from  each  other. 

a.  Literature  will  doubtless  be  used  in  language  study— mechanics 
of  reading,  spelling,  composition,  vocabulary  building,  voice 
training,  silent  reading,  grammar,  rhetoric,  etc. — but  not  to  real 
ends  of  education  through  literature;  in  fact,  literature  so  used 
is  spoiled  for  those  purposes.  Literature  is  an  appreciation  study 


ENGLISH    LITERATURE  197 

— language  mostly  a  series  of  specified  power  objectives  (ca- 
pacities to  do  work). 
b.  Probable  that  language  studies,  aiming  towards  specific  powers 
(of  execution)  should  be  carried  on  through  vital,  vigorously 
held  thought  (ideas,  feelings)  content  of  learners,  rather  than 
through  weakly  apprehended,  second-hand  content  of  literature, 
(cf.  Bad  effects  of  imitating  styles,  of  communicating  second- 
hand ideas — affected  culture,  etc.)  Capacities  to  appreciate  far 
outrun  powers  of  expression,  communication.  Literature  suit- 
able to  third  grade  might  be  used  for  sixth  grade  language; 
literature  apprehended  at  14  might  be  used  as  language  "cada- 
vers" at  18. 

8.  Study  of  "history  of  literature,"  "evolution  of  literature,"  etc.,  be- 
lgs  under  social  science  studies  (which  see). 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 
PRACTICAL  ARTS 

1.  "Practical  Arts"  here  include  all  activities  derived  from  productive 
activities  of  adults  and  adapted  to  schools  for  purposes  of  general  edu- 
cation. 

o.  Possible  objectives  in  general  education  include:  satisfaction  of 
instincts  for  construction,  manipulative  execution,  use  of  tools, 
fabrication  of  objects  of  play,  etc.  (forms  of  growth  through 
play,  amateur  participation)  ;  instruction  and  training  in  stand- 
ards of  utilization  (man  as  consumer,  taste,  appreciation,  in- 
sight, socialized  utilization)  ;  vocation  guidance  (through  sampl- 
ing of  materials,  standards,  and  processes  of  calling)  ;  sociali- 
zation through  development  of  appreciation  of  activities  of 
other  social  classes — city  boys'  gardening,  farm  boys'  weaving 
of  consumers  equipment — house  repair  (plumbing  painting, 
electric  work,  concrete,  lock  repair,  etc.),  personal  clothing, 
amateur  cooking,  nursing,  etc. 

b.  Activities  based  upon  adult  productive  work  introduced  into 
schools  to  train  future  workers  are  vocational.  Practical  arts 
education  rarely  has  discernible  vocational  outcome. 

c.  Attempts  to  combine  vocational  education  and  liberal  education 
through  practical  arts  probably  defeat  ends  of  both.  Desirable 
pedagogical  methods  fundamentally  unlike. 

d.  Should  "practical  arts"  be  always  a  beta  subject? — vocational 
education  always  an  alpha  subject? 

2.  For  convenience  we  may  classify  practical  arts  subjects  as  follows: 
o.  Agricultural  arts:  home  gardening;  treeplanting  and  nursing; 
poultry  raising;  food  packing;  "corn  club"  work;  pig  clubs; 
milking,  butter  and  cheese  making;  fruit  drying;  farm  products 
marketing ;  farm  mechanics ;  etc. 
b.  Industrial  arts;  cloth  weaving;  house  repair  and  building;  house 
painting;  installation  of  screens,  drainage,  water  supply,  electric 
bells,  electric  lighting,  central  heating;  machine  dissection  and 
reassembly  (sewing  machines,  guns,  lawn  mowers,  stoves, 
pumps,  bicycles,  motors,  optical  instruments,  vacuum  cleaners, 
washing  machines,  lathes,  etc.);  bookbinding;  printing;  photo- 
graphy;  wall   papering   and   decoration;    fabrication    of   play- 

i98f 


PRACTICAL  ARTS  199 

ground  apparatus;  furniture  making;  tool  sharpening;  wall 
building;  road  construction;  boat  building;  photomounting ; 
engraving;  mechanical  draughting;  pottery  and  glass  making; 
shoe  repairing;  tailoring  and  clothing  repair;  and  scores  of 
others. 

c.  Commercial  arts;  typewriting;  business  penmanship,  arithmetic, 
documents,  English;  display  advertising;  selling;  bookeeping; 
package  making;  comptometer;  filing;  banking;  telegraphy; 
dictaphone;  etc. 

d.  Household  arts :  kitchen  cooking ;  camp  cooking,  food  cooking, 
food  buying ;  food  serving ;  house  planning ;  toy  house  construc- 
tion; home  (or  room)  decoration;  furniture  choosing,  distribut- 
ing, upkeep;  bed-making;  repair  (or  upkeep)  of  apparatus  for 
plumbing,  heating,  lighting,  cleaning,  ventilating,  screening,  cook- 
ing, sewing,  infant  nursing  (feeding  cleaning,  dressing,  exercis- 
ing) ;  sick  nursing ;  decorative  window  and  yard  gardening ; 
clothing  buying,  making,  repairing;  accounting;  entertaining; 
festivals ;  and  many  others. 

e.  Nautical  arts:  fishing;  fish  planting;  boat  making;  boat  sailing; 

etc. 

3.  Fundamental  principles  affecting  objectives : 

a.  The  amateur  spirit  must  dominate.  Rarely  should  there  be 
prescription.  Exclusion  from  participation  should  attend  fail- 
ure to  show  and  sustain  true  amateur  and  progressive  spirit. 
Flexibility  of  offerings  should  be  as  great  as  administrative 
facilities  will  permit.  Much  reading,  illustration,  etc.,  should 
illumine  work.  Natural  interests  should  control  selection  of  en- 
terprises. 

b.  Offerings  (so  named  when  presented  or  suggested  by  school; 
may  be  called  "enterprises"  from  standpoint  of  learners)  should 
take  form  of  concrete,  objective  units,  each  fully  described  by 
printed  matter,  pictures,  models,  etc.  These  units  (enterprises) 
should  approximate  ascertained  scope,  length,  for  preservation 
of  interest,  suggestion  of  accomplishment.  Minimum  time,  for 
learners  12-14  perhaps  one  hour ;  maximum,  sixty  hours. 

c.  Enterprises  will  be  of  several  kinds:  school  execution  projects; 

home  execution  projects;  reading  and  report  projects;  cases  (for 
investigation  and  oral  report)  ;  topics  (for  reading  and  study)  ; 
problems  (for  solution). 

d.  Some  enterprises  may  be  cooperative;  others,  individual. 

e.  Does  the  subject  "belong"  to  schools  after  16  years  of  age? 

4.  Of  the  "subjects"  named  under  (2)  which  would  probably  somewhat 
"function  (A)  for  the  boys  of  a  high  grade  suburban  environment  and 
(B)   for  the  boys  of  an  inferior  manual  working  class  environment  in 


200  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

these  directions:  (a)  vocational  guidance;  (b)  "handy  man"  and  useful 
vocations;  (c)  education  in  utilization  (consumers)  including  "cultural 
appreciations"; (d)  correlation  centers  for  other  subject  matter:  and  (e) 
enriching  experience   (development)  ? 

5.  Given  junior  high  school  in  prosperous  commercial  city  with  few  poor 
or  immigrant  families.  Five  hundred  girls,  400  up  to  grade  and  100  re- 
tarded. "Home  making"  economics  is  offered  in  high  school,  and  also 
to  wage-earning  young  women  and  to  housewives.  Girls  live  at  home; 
share  lightly  in  home  work  in  school  time,  and  considerably  during  va- 
cations. Most  of  them  will  become  wage-earners  at  16-18,  except  twenty 
per  cent  who  will  go  to  college.  Present  interests  in  home  and  household 
work  low. 

Assume  means  available  to  provide  practical  arts  work  (except  com- 
mercial) analogous  to  that  proposed  above  for  boys.  Assume  expectations 
that  vocational  aims  will  be  met  later  and  that  chief  purpose  here  will  be 
"liberalizing."  Assume  freedom  of  girls  to  elect  from  offerings  above  for 
boys,  and  also  from  generous  program  of  household  arts  offerings.  Give, 
on  lines  suggested  below  (A)  your  present  carefully  analyzed  opinions  and 
(B)  your  suggestions  for  needed  investigations. 

a.  What  do  you  assume  to  be  available  "instincts"  or  interests  that 
could  be  discovered  for  practical  arts  work? 

b.  Would  lines  suggested  for  boys  be  freely  elected?    Would  results 
and  effects  be  similar  to  those  accruing  to  boys? 

c.  What  would  you  set  up  as  a  series  of  specified  "liberaling"  ob- 
jectives in  household  arts?  Cover  wide  range  including:  his- 
torical readings  about  homes  and  household  processes ;  readings, 
pictures  and  visits  to  such  "variant"  homes  or  functions  as  hotels, 
asylums,  barracks,  bakeries,  creameries,  furniture  factories,  hospi- 
tals, power  laundries ;  sampling  projects  of  the  ways  "other  people 
do";  amateur  analysis  of  soap,  water,  foods,  fabrics;  "coopera- 
tive projects"  (between  home  and  school)  as  to  meal  prepara- 
tion, room  care,  child  care,  adult  sociability,  clothing  repair, 
accounting,  home  management,  sick  nursing;  cooperative  ama- 
teur projects  in  school  and  community — visiting  poor,  providing 
entertainment,  school  cafeteria  service,  school  entertainments, 
dances,  etc.;  technical  studies  of  home  economics  science. 

d.  Following  suggestion  from  (4)  above  what  would  you  plan  as 
needed  equipment,  programs,   teaching  service,   budget  provis- 
ion, etc.? 
6.  Work  out  detailed  scheme  for  "commercial  practical  arts,"  on  basis 
of  grades  seven  and  eight  in  junior  high  school,  some  vocational  courses 
to  begin  at  end  of  grade  eight,  and  more  advanced  at  end  of  grade  ten. 


PRACTICAL  ARTS  201 

Problems 

7.  Given  large  junior  high  school  (7th  and  8th  grades,  and  all  retarded 
pupils  over  12  years  of  age)  with  600  boys.  School  session  eight  hours 
daily,  of  which  three  hours  may  normally  be  devoted  to  physical  sports 
and  practical  arts.  Previous  experience  suggests  that,  given  good  program 
and  facilities,  400  of  these  boys,  including  all  retarded,  will  elect  from  one 
to  two  hours  daily  of  gardening  and  shop  practical  arts.  Rest  prefer 
either  "commercial  arts"  or  sports  exclusively. 

Facilities  available  are  as  follows:  (a)  For  gardening  (usually  about 
150  boys)  home  yards  in  100  cases,  and  rented  five  acres  (fenced)  suitable 
for  individual  gardens  for  50.  School  has  reading  room  and  small  labora- 
tory and  tool  house  (2X25).  (b)  For  shop  work.  About  100  boys  live 
in  owned  houses  with  yards,  rest  in  rented  houses  or  flats  (chiefly  latter). 
School  provides  one  large  "factory  type"  room,  50X80  with  partitional 
alcoves  for  tool  storage,  photography,  gluing  room,  etc.,  besides  mezzanine 
space  160X10  for  exhibits,  museum  species,  book  shelves,  etc.  Electric 
power  is  provided  for  individual  driven  machines,  and  at  present  there  are 
available  the  following  power  driven  machines:  two  small  wood  turning 
lathes,  one  hand  saw,  one  plane,  one  circular  saw,  one  emery  grinder,  one 
large  grind  stone,  one  medium  metal  turning  lathe,  one  power  press.  An 
inadequate  supply  of  tools  and  materials  for  the  following  are  available; 
wood-working,  beaten  brass  working,  forging,  semi-precious  metal  work- 
ing, job  printing,  photography,  electric  wiring,  automobile  repair,  vulcaniz- 
ing, shoe  repairing,  rug  weaving,  tool  sharpening.  No  satisfactory  "course 
of  study"  exists.  You  are  asked  (A)  to  express  detailed  opinions  as  to 
following  and  (B)  to  indicate  needed  investigations  to  provide  further 
knowledge. 

a.  Should  a  minimum  of  practical  arts  be  "prescribed"  for  all  boys 
in  this  school?  Why?  What  kinds?  What  amounts? 

b.  If  left  elective,  what  should  be  primary  objective  (one  in  each 
case)  and  what  secondary  objectives  (several  possibly)  that 
should  control  character  of  offering? 

c.  Would  you  try  to  preserve  "class"  organization,  or  leave  work 
to  "individual"  takings,  (as  now  in  home  garden)  ? 

d.  Would  you  enforce  any  "order"  in  which  "subjects" — e.g.,  wood- 
working, printing,  gardening,  semi-precious  metal  working,  etc., 
should  be  taken  up?  Why?  Would  you  require  all  boys  to 
take  all  subjects?  (Compare  with  games  on  playgrounds,  badge 
activities  in  scouting,  etc). 

e.  Give  examples  of  suitable  teaching  units  (topics,  exercises,  prob- 
lems, projects,  models,  as  you  see  fit)  under  these  heads:  print- 
ing, woodworking,  photography,  wireless,  housewiring,  shoe  re- 
pair, forging,  painting,  steel  turning,  home  gardening. 

/.  Give  suitable  units  that  might  respectively  "function"  as :    exer- 
cises; individual  productive  work  for  home  or  gift;  same  for 


202  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

self;  same  for  schools;  same  for  town;  group  productive  work 
for  school;  same  for  one  home;  same  for  town. 

g.  Back  of  certain  selected  types  of  work  indicate  kinds  of  ex- 
amples, pictures,  printed  descriptions  you  would  desire  to  have 
for  suggestiveness  if  you  could. 

h.  Back  of  certain  selected  types  of  work  indicate  the  kinds  of 
equipment  you  would  desire  if  it  could  be  had. 

i.  Selecting  one  type  of  work — woodworking,  for  example — indicate 
how  far  you  would  desire  that:  (1)  there  be  available  for  each 
pupil  electing  it,  printed  lists  of  suitable  projects,  printed  book- 
lets, illustrated  by  drawings,  or  details  for  each  project,  and 
exhibits  of  commercial  and  amateur  work,  from  which  pupil 
would  be  expected  to  procure  nearly  all  necessary  guidance,  the 
teacher  serving  chiefly  in  consultative  capacity ;  (2)  the  work  of 
each  pupil  could  be  individual;  and  (3)  each  pupil  obtain  as 
much  suggestion  as  practicable  from  others. 

/.  Having  in  mind  the  types  and  amounts  of  work  you  would  re- 
commend for  this  school,  estimate  probable  annual  cost  per 
pupil  (400)  for ;  ten  per  cent  on  capacity  outlay ;  maintenance 
of  fixed  equipment ;  supplies ;  teaching  service ;  quota  of  over- 
head administration;  miscellaneous.    Is  it  worth  it? 

k.  Throughout  above  analysis  would  you  give  "retarded"  boys  same 
opportunities  as  those  up  to  grade?  Why? 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 
AGRICULTURAL  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 
1.  The  statistics  of  the  agricultural  vocations  in  1910  were  as  follows : 

Table  showing  number  of  persons  over  10  years  of  age  in  all  occupations,  and 
in  agricultural  occupations.      (£/.   S.   Census  1910.) 

...    ,     .    ,  ,.  .  Male  Female 

All    (gainful)    occupations 30,091,000       8,075,000 

Homemakers   (estimated) 20,000,000 

Agriculture,   forestry  and   animal   husbandry .. .   10,851,702       1,807,501 

Dairy   farmers    59,000  2,500 

Dairy  farm  laborers 32,000  2,500 

Farmers 5,600,000  250,000 

Farm   laborers    4,500,000  1,500,000 

Fishermen   and   oystermen    ; 68,000  500 

Gardeners,  florists,  fruit  growers,  and  nurserymen  130,000  8,000 

Garden,  greenhouse,  orchard  and  nursery  laborers  125,000  7,000 

Lumbermen,    raftsmen,    and    woodchoppers 150,000  77 

Stock   herders,    drovers   and   feeders 60,000  885 

Stock   raisers    51,000  2,000 

All  others  in  this  division 90,000  11,500 

2.  For  farmers  (owners,  tenants)  commonly  and  for  farm  laborers 
frequently  the  agricultural  vocations  are  relatively  composite,  specialized. 
Types  can  be  distinguished  by  "major  lines  of  production"  (usually  for 
market)  and  minors  often  for  home  consumption  and  sometimes  for 
market. 

a.  Give  brief  "job  analysis"  of  the  majors  and  two  minors  of  the 
following  types  of  owning  farmers:  (1)  dairy  farmers,  cen- 
tral New  York  state;  (2)  potato  grower;  (3)  general  farmer, 
Iowa  type;  (4)  Texas  cotton  grower ;  (5)  Montana  wheat  grow- 
er; (6)  general  farmer,  central  New  Jersey  type  (7)  Connecticut 
valley  tobacco  grower;  (8)  California  orange  grower;  (9) 
general  farmer,  Williamette  Valley  type;  (10)  Long  Island 
market  gardener;  (11)  New  Mexico  range  cattle  grower;  (12) 
other  types,  from  experience  of  students. 

b.  Describe  three  types  of  "tenant  farming"  of  the  "permanent" 
type  (not  moving  towards  landownership)  in  cotton  growing, 
market  gardening,  and  wheat  growing. 

c.  Describe  three  types  of  "transitional"  tenantry  (young  man 
moving  towards  ownership)  in  North  Mississippi  Valley  general 
farming.  Virginia  tobacco  growing,  and  Pacific  slope  fruit 
growing. 

d.  Analyze  reasons  why  following  types  of  farming  tend  towards 
"corporation"   basis:   cane   sugar    (Louisiana,   Hawaii,   Cuba), 

203 


204  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

bananas   (Costa  Rica),  beet  sugar  (note  modified  forms  with 
partial    tenantry    or    even    ownership),    California,    Colorado, 
Montana,  apples,  (Oregon,  Washington),  sheep  (Montana),  green 
house  gardening  (near  large  cities),  garden  seeds,  paper  pulp 
wood,  winter  vegetables  (Texas,  South  Carolina,  etc.)-     (Add 
others.) 
e.  Analyze  reasons  why  following  stages  in  agricultural  produc- 
tion or  marketing  tend  towards  corporation  basis ;  sugar  refining, 
fruit  drying,  fruit  canning,  butter  and  cheese  making,  lumber 
making,  oyster  packing,  beet  seed  growing,  cattle  slaughtering, 
(add  others). 
/.  Suggest  methods  for  "job  analysis"  in  terms  respectively  of  (l) 
manual   skills,    (2)    related  technical   knowledge,    (3)    general 
vocational  appreciations,  and  (4)  managerial  powers  in  reason- 
able optimum  measure,  of  the  following  vocations :  owning  general 
farmer,  investment  $40,000,  in  Northern  Illinois;  negress  farm 
hand,  Georgia  cotton  growing  district ;  "general  manager,"  salary 
$4,800,  green  house  florist  company  near  Boston ;  live  stock  own- 
ing   farmer,    Nevada;    general    utility   hired    man,    Nebraska; 
Hawaiian    sugar    plantation    hand    (Japanese) ;    tenant    wheat 
grower   (large  scale),  Montana.     (Apply  others.) 
3.  Agricultural  education  has  two  fundamental  types :  (A)  for  purposes 
of  general  education  and  (B)  for  purposes  of  vocational  proficiency.  Latter 
may  be  (a)  basic  (presupposing  no  previous  utilizalble  experience)  or  (b) 
extensions   (experience  or  knowledge  on  which  extension  can  be  based. 
Furthermore,  both  types  could  primarily  aim  to  give:  (a)  manual  skills; 
(fe)  manual  skills  and  immediately  related  technical  knowledge;  (c)  tech- 
nical knowledge  chiefly;  or  (d)  manual  skills,  related  technical  knowledge 
and  managerial  skills  in  known  proportions. 

a.  Agricultural  arts  (home  gardening,  readings,  laboratory  experi- 
ments, window  and  school  gardening)  can  be  made  attractive 
and  illuminating  beta  study,  especially  for  city  and  village  boys 
not  being  reared  on  farms.  Especially  suited  to  ages  10-16.  The 
subject  suffers  now  like  household  arts,  from  misguided  efforts 
to  make  it  "vocational,"  especially  for  country  boys. 

b.  Basic  agricultural  education  tends  towards  several  types;  (1) 
for  farm  or  village  boys,  ages  14  to  18,  on  home  project  basis; 

(2)  for  farm  reared  young  men,   18-30   (in  short  courses  or 
winter  schools,  looking  especially  to  managerial  powers;  and 

(3)  collegiate,  for  agricultural  specialists,  technical  managers. 

c.  Extension  agricultural  education  takes  many  forms;   (1)   short 

course,  chiefly  lectures  and  laboratory,  for  experienced  farmers ; 
(2)  correspondence  and  home  lecture  courses. 
rf..Note  almost  complete  absence  of  systematized  apprenticeship, 


AGRICULTURAL    VOCATIONAL    EDUCATION  205 

historically,  in  agricultural  vocations;  but  also  efficacy  of  "pick 
up"  methods  where  children  share  work  with  parents,  in  pre- 
scientific  stages  (examples,  Belgian,  French,  Chinese,  Japanese, 
intensive  gardening). 

4.  Probability  that  effective  agricultural  education  of  lower  than  profes- 
sional grade  can  be  conducted  only  on  basis  of  initial  high  differentiation 
with  progress  towards  composite  occupations. 

o.  For  example:  at  outset  boy  learns  effectively  to  raise  chickens, 
or  a  mixed  garden ;  or  to  care  for  half  dozen  cows  and  their  pro- 
duct; or  to  raise  potatoes;  or  mastery  of  some  other  commer- 
cial specialty. 

b.  At  outset  all  agricultural  science,  economics,  accounting  and  art 
should  center  primarily  in  project  specialty  as  alpha  field.  Sup- 
plemental general  reading  (general,  agriculture,  etc.)  as  socio- 
logical phase  (on  beta  basis)  should  occupy  clearly  secondary 
place. 

c.  If  general  education  is  continued,  it  should  be  on  beta  basis 
and  lie  outside  of  working  day  (as  music,  literature,  current 
reading)    for  practicing   farmers. 

5.  Organization  of  agricultural  department  ought  to  be  practicable  in 
every  agricultural  area  of  400  families.  Department  can  be  effective  with 
one  teacher  and  14-20  pupils. 

6.  Problems. 

o.  Shall  immediate  objectives  of  training  be  the  agricultural  em- 
ploye, the  renter,  or  the  independent  farmer?  Probabilities  that 
farming  will  entail  larger  use  of  capital,  available  only  to  in- 
heritors or  to  responsible  borrowers.  Possible  tendencies  to- 
wards intensive  small  area  farming,  and  opportunities  for  renter. 

b.  Probable  increase  in  demand  for  well  qualified  laborers — cor- 
responding to  specialists  in  industries  and  commerce.  Difficul- 
ties of  seasonal  work. 

C.  Need  of  survey  of  needs  and  opportunities  of  agricultural  pro- 
ducers as  preliminary  to  vocational  training. 

7.  Because  objectives  of  agricultural  education  are  now  excessively  gen- 
eralized, questionable  efforts  are  made  to  have  "credit  for  college  admis- 
sion" given,  and  offerings  are  often  warped  to  this  end. 

a.  Assume  practical  agricultural  school  taking  boy  of  15,  graduate 
of  eighth  grade,  and  in  two  years  giving  him  practical  skills  and 
technical  knowledge  fitting  him  to  be  a  "skilled  employee"  in 
poultry  farming,  and,  when  sufficiently  mature,  an  independent 
manager;  what  credit  for  these  two  years  would  desire  to  have 
him  given  towards  admission  to:  a  college  of  liberal  arts;  a 
college  of  medicine;  a  college  of  agriculture? 


206  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

8.  Problems: 

a.  Analyze  from  experience  five  successive  days  work  in  one  of  the 

following  vocations:  (1)  Milk  producer  for  city,  northern  New 
York  State,  January;  (2)  "general  farmer,"  Iowa,  May;  (3) 
raisin  vineyard  owner,  California,  August;  (5)  market  gardener, 
Long  Island,  September.  Give  separate  consideration  to  factors 
of  manual  skill,  technical  knowledge,  and  managerial  function. 

b.  An  agricultural  school,  admitting  only  boys  from  farms  (ages 
15-17,  of  at  least  elementary  school  education)  trains  for  "home 
project"  method.  Boy  A  (entering)  elects  a  poultry  project. 
Boy  B  (after  one  year  in  potato  project)  elects  dairy  project, 
renting  cows  from  father.  Estimate  optimum  requirements  and 
expectations  in  each  case  as  to : 

(1)  Number  of  hours  per  year  to  be  given  to:  practical 
productive  work;  related  technical  study;  "general  voca- 
tional studies," 

(2)  Financial  magnitude  of  project — capital  utilized,  total  re- 
ceipts, net  receipts,  wages,  profits,  average  earnings  per  day. 

(3)  Magnitude  of  project  in  terms   of  number  of  animals, 
land  to  be  used,  tools  to  be  rented,  etc. 

(4)  Variety  of   "side"  or  minor  projects — farm  mechanics, 
marketing,  etc. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 
COMMERCIAL  VOCATIONAL   EDUCATION 

1.  The  statistics  of  the  commercial  vocations  in  1910  were  as  follows: 

Table  showing  number  of  persons  over  10  years  of  age  in  all  occupations,  and 
%n  commercial  occupations.      (C7.  S.  Census  1910.) 

ah     /     •    r  ,v  Maie  Female 

hLIS"?     °    °<*uPatTS 30,091,000       8,075,000 

Homemakers     (estimated)     '  20000000 

Trade     ' i...     3,1461,582  468,088 

Bankers,   brokers,  and  money  lenders 103,000  2  500 

Clerks    m    stores. 275,000  111,500 

Commercial    travelers    161,000  2,500 

Deliverymen    - , 1.J....1 229,500  150 

Insurance   agents  and   officials 95,000  2,500 

Laborers  in  coal  and  lumber  yards,  w'house,  etc.  80,500  673 

Real   estate   agents   and   officials 123,000  3,000 

Retail    dealers    1,128,000  67,000 

Salesmen   and   saleswomen 663,500  258,000 

Wholesale   dealers,   importers,   and  exporters 50,000  925 

All    others    in    this    division 139,000  15,000 

Clerical     occupation , 1,143,829  593,224 

Agents,    canvassers,    and   collectors 96,000  9,000 

Bookkeepers,    cashiers,    and    accountants 299,500  187,000 

Clerks    (except   clerks   in    stores) 598,000  123,000 

Messenger,    bundle,   and   offce  boys 97,000  11,000 

Stenographers    and    typewriters. 53,000  263,000 

2.  But  in  practice  commercial  vocations  are  far  more  specialized  than 
appears  above.  "Clerks  in  stores"  become  more  specialized  in  large  cities. 
Drug  clerks  and  sellers  of  silk  hosiery  have  no  "powers  of  execution"  in 
common  except  derivative  abstract  "psychology  of  selling,"  knowledge  of 
customers,  etc.,  as  generalized  by  educational  mystics.  The  same  is  true 
of  deliverymen,  retail  dealers,  salesmen,  agents,  clerks  and  others. 

a.  When  actual  requirements  of  a  given  vocation  are  studied — by 
job  analysis — and  the  qualities  of  the  present  B  grade  workers 
are  studied,  difficulties  of  proving  programs  diminish.  For 
example:  assume  discovered  annual  demand  in  large  city  for 
100  counter  saleswomen  of  leather  goods — purses,  pocket-books, 
etc. — each  year.  Study  of  present  occupants  of  vocation  gives 
sex,  age  of  usual  entry,  and  usual  wages:  job  analysis  shows 
kinds  of  personality,  native  abilities,  general  education,  voca- 
tional knowledge  and  skills  of  the  more  successful.  A  voca- 
tional school  can  then  readily  set  up  standards  of  admission, 
courses  of  initial  full-time  schooling  (vocational)  and  courses 
of  part-time  schooling  plus  part-time  "practice"  under  super- 
vision. 

207 


208  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

Similar  procedures  would  give  courses  for :  sellers  of  life  in- 
surance, drug  store  clerks  (not  pharmacists),  sellers  of  kitchen 
utensils,  travelling  salesmen  for  fire  arms,  etc. 

b.  For  many  commercial  callings  direct  vocational  education  for  up- 
grading— at  ages  18,  22,  26,  30 — probably  very  desirable.  This 
field  offers  large  number  of  "juvenile  vocation  openings";  but 
in  many  cases  experience  on  one  level  does  not  prepare  for 
advancement  to  higher  levels,  owing  to  specialization  (note 
"help  wanted"  advertisements  in  papers,  especially  for  girls). 

c.  "Indoor"  clerical  work  and  salesmanship  are  rapidly  becoming 

"women's"  (or,  more  properly,  girls')  vocations.  A  small  pro- 
portion of  women  workers  remain  celibate  and  for  them  ad- 
vanced "upgrading"  is  especially  necessary. 

3.  Historically,  there  has  existed  little  organized  apprenticeship  for  com- 
mercial callings — which  are  largely  modern  evolutions.  But  now  many  of 
these  vocations  attract  no  less  than  the  professions;  hence  a  constant 
striving  upward  from  agricultural  and  industrial  pursuits  to  commercial 
work,  often  less  well  paid  (except  for  winners  of  great  prizes)  but  more 
clean  and  "respectable."    Note  apparent  suitability  for  young  women. 

4.  "Commercial  education"  has  long  been  in  the  United  States  the  most 
widely  available  form  of  supposedly  vocational  education  supported  at 
public  expense.  Public  departments  have  tried  to  combine  offerings  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  private  "business"  schools  with  non-classical  "general" 
secondary  education.  The  actual  resulting  vocational  education  has  prob- 
ably been  weak,  diluted,  misleading;  while  even  in  best  schools  genuine 
vocational  standards  are  as  yet  rarely  defined. 

a.  Nevertheless,  since  large  numbers  of  young  people  strive  to- 
wards commercial  vocations,  ineffective,  even  fraudulent, 
schools  draw  well,  and  "every  little"  of  training  helps.  But 
the  need  is  great  for  honest  vocational  commercial  education. 

b.  Tendencies  now  strong  to  "generalize"  types  of  commercial  ed- 
ucation. Prospective  stenographers  are  forced  or  urged  to  take 
bookkeeping,  commercial  geography,  and  a  foreign  language  on 
educator's  assumption  that  she  "might  need  these."  Note  also 
curious  array  of  studies  provided  because  employers  prize  "gen- 
eral intelligence."  Many  commercial  departments  still  aanere  to 
superstition  that  algebra  is  important.  Many  have  also  fallen 
victims  to  delusion  that  vocational  studies  should  be  accepted 
towards  college  admission. 

c.  Also  anti-social  tendency  exists  to  establish  uniform  require- 
ments of  age,  general  education  and  length  of  vocational  cours- 
es for  all  commercial  vocations.  There  are  many  juvenile  com- 
mercial vocations,  ought  not  "short  unit"  vocational  courses  be 
provided  for  these  at  14  or  15?  Is  stenography  normally  a 
juvenile  vocation?     Are  there  any  grounds  for  assuming  that 


COMMERCIAL  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  209 

persons  should  try  to  sell  insurance  or  automobiles  before  25  ? 
d.  Note,  too,  absurdity  of  prevalent  ideas  as  to  "general  vocation- 
al" subject  matter.    What  is  "business  English"?    What  things 
in  English  should  be  especially  well  learned  by:  the  stenogra- 
pher; the  telephone  switchboard  operator;  the  floorwalker;  the 
stockbroker;  the  restaurant  cashier?    Similarly  examine :   "busi- 
ness arithmetic";  commercial  law;  commercial  geography. 
5.  There  is  a  place,  especially  in  junior  high  school   (ages  12-14),  for 
"commercial  arts"  for  general  education  (see  that  chapter).    Many  pupils 
taking  this  will  enter  commercial  schools  or  vocations,  and  parents  will 
try  to  derive  advantages  of  vocational  education  from  early  courses;  but 
"liberal"  aims  should  be  adhered  to. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 
HOMEMAKING  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 

1.  The  following  figures  give  workable  estimates  of  scope  of  vocational 

home-making  in  the  United  States. 

Table  showing  number  of  persons  over  10|  years  of  age  in  all  occupations  and 
in  homemaking  occupations.      (U.  S.   Census   1910.) 

Male  Female 

All    (gainful)    occupations 30,091,000       8,075,000 

Homemakers   (estimated) 20,000,000 

Homemakers  and  Homemakers'  Assistants 

Homemakers     (estimated) 20,000,000(1) 

Female   servants    (really  homemakers'   assistants) 1,309,500(2) 

(1)     U.    S.    Census,    1910,    gives: 

Women   over    15   years  of  age   (single) 8,933,170 

Women    over    15    years    of    age    (married,    widowed    or 

divorced) 21,045,983 

(2  )      From  census  division   "Domestic  and   Personal   Service." 

2.  In  spite  of  frequent  extra-home  specialization  of  many  lines  of  pro- 
duction, once  centered  in  all  homes — spinning,  weaving,  gardening,  skin  tan- 
ning, brewing,  fruit  drying,  shoemaking  and  repair,  clothing  making, 
butchering,  bread  making,  fruit  preserving,  teaching,  nursing,  water  pro- 
viding, heat  providing,  light  providing,  laundry  work,  etc. — homemak- 
ing still  remains  normally  a  composite  vocation— the  major  duties  of  which 
include : 

a.  Buying,  preparation,  and  serving  of  food  (to  adults,  children, 
infants,  the  sick). 

b.  Buying,    repair,    reconstruction    and    construction    of    clothing 

(much  for  children,   some   for  adult  women,   little   for  adult 
men). 

c.  House  care — cleaning,  bedmaking,  etc. 

d.  Laundry. 

e.  Child  care — infants,  school  children,  children  at  work  and  in 
college — including  physical  care,  moral  oversight,  provision  for 
sociability,  adjustment  of  work,  etc. 

To  the  foregoing  should  be  added  minors  such  as:  (a)  house- 
hold accounting;  (b)  adult  sociability;  (c)  housing  and 
furnishing  (selecting,  buying,  adapting)  ;  (d)  nursing  of  adult 
sick;  and   (e)  care  of  garden  and  yard. 

3.  The  relative  importance  (indicated  by  "weightings"  of  time,  energy, 
etc.,  in  operation  or  in  training)  of  the  foregoing  will  vary  according  to 
location,  standard  of  living,  income,  etc. 

a.  In  the  modern  city  home  "making"  of  clothing  declines  in  im- 

portance while  child  care  standards  rise. 

b.  Among  southern  negroes  and  recent  immigrants  many  mothers 

2IO 


HOMEMAKING  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION  211 

work  "outside"  the  home  (for  wages)  ;  hence  standards  of  home 
care  necessarily  low. 

f.  In  rich  homes  the  homemaker  is  chiefly  a  "manager"  of  workers 
at  subdivided  tasks. 

4.  The  most  difficult  problem  in  determining  objectives  of  vocational 
homemaking  are  these: 

a.  What  are  the  standards  of  proficiency  to  be  sought  for  the  dif- 
ferent grades  of  homemaking,  along  the  different  lines  given  in 
(2)  above? 

All  homemakers  now  cook,  sew,  care  for  children,  etc. ;  but 
many  do  not  do  it  with  as  much  skill,  technical  knowledge,  or 
social  insight  as  we  desire  on  behalf  of  the  next  generation. 
But  it  is  futile  to  expect  in  followers  of  composite  vocations 
(and  from  people  of  average  rather  than  exceptional  native 
ability)  the  skills  and  technical  knowledge  of  specialized  cooks, 
dressmakers,  nurses,  laundresses,  chambermaids,  kindergartners, 
etc.    We  need  here  accurate  job  analysis. 

b.  When  are  the  motives  of  girls  probably  most  "ripe"  for  voca- 
tional homemaking?  Normally  a  girl  not  working  in  domestic 
service  is  only  incidentally  concerned  with  homemaking  until  mar- 
riage. Do  girls  in  general  possess  a  genuine  vocational  interest 
in  homemaking  at  14-16  or  16-18,  if  they  are  to  work  in  non- 
homemaking  callings  from  close  of  school  to  age  22-26?  And 
can  vocational  training  "keep"  well  in  "cold  storage"  for  the 
person  doing  full  time  work  as  stenographer,  salesgirl,  or  teach- 
er? May  not  future  possibilities  lie  chiefly  with  schools  minis- 
tering to  women  just  before  or  just  after  marriage? 

c.  What  are  the  actual  values  for  vocational  purposes,  of  the  var- 

ied appreciations  and  minor  skills  in  the  homemaking  arts  ac- 
quired from  birth,  to  e.g.,  fifteen  by  a  girl  living  and  more  or 
less  helping  in  a  non-servant  keeping  home?  Present  practice 
seriously  undervalues  these.  Take  this  problem:  Most  of  the 
present  homemakers  of  a  given  community  (nearly  20,000,000  in 
the  United  States)  did  not  have  school  vocational  training.  Us- 
ing reasonable  standards  of  rating  proficiencies  of  those  from  30 
to  60  years  of  age  in  community  known  to  you,  what  propor- 
tions would  you  grade  A  (excellent),  B  (superior),  C  (infer- 
ior), D  (poor),  respectively?  How  did  upper  two  grades  ac- 
quire their  present  proficiencies?  Through  many  mistakes? 
Too  slowly?  What  are  the  weakest  phases  of  powers  of  lower 
two  grades?  If  only  100  hours  of  training  could  have  been 
given  them  between  age  19-25  on  what  should  it  have  best 
focussed? 


212  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

Problems 

1.  Make  "job  analysis"  of  five  days  work  of  homemaker  (aged  33)  with 
normal  family  (four  children)  located:  (a)  on  small,  poor  farm  remote 
from  village  and  railway  station  in  Michigan;  (b)  in  New  York  City 
apartment,  rent  $1200;  (c)  in  suburban  "separate  house"  home,  family 
income  $4500,  Illinois  City. 

2.  Given  a  suburban  home  of  two  adults  and  four  children,  ages  3 
to  15.  Place  in  parallel  columns  articles  of  wearing  apparel  (and  usual 
year's  cost)  (a)  commonly  made  in  the  family  and  (b)  commonly  bought 
ready  made.  (Include  hats,  shoes,  umbrellas,  gloves,  etc.) 

3.  Case  O.  Daughter  of  Irish  born  parents,  artisan  father,  average  intelli- 
gence, graduates  at  15  from  elementary  school,  becomes  clerk  in  depart- 
ment store  (cotton  dress  goods),  living  at  home.  Wages  increase  from 
$7  at  sixteen  to  $16  at  22  (1914  standards),  of  which  she  pays  half  at 
home.  Expecting  to  marry  at  23,  she  enters  three  months,  full-time  vo- 
cational school  of  homemaking  (to  give  56  hours  weekly),  with  facilities 
for  part-time  practice  work  in  own  home  or  wage-paying  home  in  the 
"West  End."    Problems : 

a.  What  should  the  school  expect,  and  what  test  her  for  as  to 

(a)  appreciations,  (b)  skills  of  performance,  and  (c)  technical 
knowledge  ? 

b.  What  should  the  school  provide  as  central  features  in  her  pro- 
gram? 


CHAPTER  XL 

INDUSTRIAL  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION 
1.  Scope  of  field  for  industrial  education. 

Table  showing  number  of  persons  over  10  years  of  age  in  all  occupations  and 
in   industrial   occupations  —  Group  A.    (U.   S.   Census   1910.) 

Male  Female 

All    (gainful)    occupations 30,091,000  8,075,000 

Homemakers    (estimated)     20,000,000 

Extraction   of   minerals 963,730  1,094 

Coal    mine    operatives 600,500  45 

Gold   and    silver   mine   operatives 55,400  39 

Other     mine     operatives 136,000  141 

Quarry  operatives    81,000  45 

All  others  in   this   division 78,000  464 

Manufacturing    and    mechanical    industries 8,837,901  1,820,980 

Apprentices     100,000  15,500 

Bakers     85,000  5,000 

Blacksmiths,    forgemen,    and    hammermen 240,500  31 

Brick  and  stone  masons 170,000  15 

Builders    and    building    contractors 173,500  849 

Carpenters     81 7,000  38 

Compositors,    linotypers,    and    typesetters 113,500  14,000 

Dressmakers  and  seamstresses   (not  in   factory) . .  1,500  448,000 

Electricians    and    electrical    engineers 135,500  92 

Engineers    (stationary)     231,000  10 

Firemen    (except   locomotive  and  fire   department)  111,000 

Foremen    and  overseers   (manufacturing) 155,000  20,000 

Laborers   (not  otherwise  specified) : 

Clay,    glass,    and    stone    industries 152,500  2,500 

Food    industries     75,500  6,000 

General  and  not   specified   laborers 853,500  16,000 

Helpers  in  building  and  hand  trades. 65,000  79 

Lumber    and    furniture    industries 313,000  4,000 

Metal     industries     .' 519,000  9,090 

Textile     industries     71,000  16,000 

All    other    industries 351,000  35,000 

Machinists,  millwrights,  and  toolmakers 488,000  93 

Managers  and   superintendents    (manufacturing)..  103,000  1,500 

Manufacturers    and    officials 252,000  5,000 

Milliners    and    millinery    dealers 5,500  122,500 

Molders,    founders,    and    casters    (metal) 121,000  117 

Painters,    glaziers,   varnishers,   enamelers,    etc 335,000  2,500 

Plumbers    and    gas   and    steam    fitters 148,000 

Semiskilled  operatives    (not   otherwise  specified) : 

Cigar    and    tobacco    factories 80,000  71,500 

Clay,    glass,    and    stone    industries 79,000  9,500 

Clothing    industries     96,000  49,000 

Food    industries 52,000  36,500 

Lumber  and  furniture  industries 154,000  13,000 

Metal     industries     394,000  44,000 

Printing    and   publishing 33,000  34,000 

Shoe   factories    122,000  59,000 

Textile     industries     298,000  352,000 

All   other   indtusries 318,000  145,000 

Sewers  and  sewing  machine  operators   (factory)..  60,000  213,000 

Shoemakers  and   cobblers    (not   in    factory) 69,000  782 

Tailors    and    tailoresses 164,000  41,000 

Tinsmiths    and    coppersmiths 60,000  24 

All    others    in    this    division 669,000  10,500 

213 


214  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 


Transportation     2,531,075  106,596 


Brakemen     92,500 

Conductors     (steam    railroad) 65,500 

Conductors     (street     railroad) 57,000 

Draymen,   teamsters,  and  expressmen     408,000                   73 

Foremen    and    overseers    (railroad) 70,000                 240 

Hostlers    and    stable    hands 63,000                     6 

Laborers  (railroad,  steam  and  street) 567,500              3,500 

Laborers  (road  and  street  building  and  repairing)  180,000 

Locomotive    engineers     96,000 

Locomotive    firemen 76,000 

Longshoremen    and    stevedores 63,000                   44 

Mail    carriers     80,000              1,000 

Motormen    59,000 

Switchmen,    flagmen,    and   yardmen 85,000                   52 

Telegraph    operators 62,000              8,000 

Telephone    operators    9,500            88,000 

All   others    in   this    division 496,000              5,000 

Table  showing  number  of  persons  over   10  years  of  age  in  all  occupations  and 
in  industrial   occupations  —  Group   B.    (U.  S.   Census   1910.) 

Male  Female 

All    (gainful)    occupations 30,091,000       8,075,000 

Homemakers    (estimated)     20,000,000 

Domestic  and  personal   service   (except  female  servants)      1,241,328       1,221,346 

Barbers,    hairdressers,    and   manicurists 173,000  22,000 

Bartenders   101,000  250 

Boarding    and    lodging    house    keepers 23,000  142,500 

Charwomen   and   cleaners 7,000  27,000 

Hotel    keepers   and    managers 50,000  14,000 

Housekeepers    and    stewards 16,000  173,500 

Janitors    and    sextons 91,500  21,500 

Laborers    (domestic  and    professional    service) ....  50,000  3,000 

Launderers  and  laundresses   (not  in  laundry) 13,500  520,000 

Laundry   operatives    36,000  76,000 

Midwives   and    nurses    (not   trained) 16,000  117,000 

Porters    (except    in    stores) 84,000  73 

Restaurant,    cafe,    and   lunch-room   keepers 50,000  10,500 

Saloon     keepers     67,000  1,500 

Servants     263,000     1,309,500* 

Waiters    102,500  86,000 

All   others   in   this   division... 97,000  6,000 

Public   service    (not    elsewhere  classified) 445,733  13,558 

Guards,    watchmen,    and    doorkeepers 78,000                 103 

Laborers     (public    service) 66,500                 729 

Officials  and  inspectors   (city  and  county) 50,000              2,500 

Policemen     62,000 

Soldiers,    sailors,    and    marines 77,000 

All    others    in    this    division 69,000                   603 

*Here  omitted  —  included   under   homemaking. 

2.  Sharp  distinctions  essential  between  vocational  education  for  specific 
industries  and  manual  training  or  industrial  arts  for  general  education. 

a.  From  certain  industries,  particularly  those  retaining  primitive 
characters  (employing  handicraft  largely)  have  been  taken  ex- 
ercises and  elemental  practices  (together  with  related  technical 
studies)  for  "manual,"  or  "technical"  education,  for  experience 
giving,  etc.  (cf.  Weaving,  clayworking,  basketry,  mounting, 
stenciling,  in  lower  grades;  metal  work,  woodworking,  printing, 
intermediate  grades;  metal  work,  turning,  pattern  making, 
foundry,  electrical  work  in  highest  (ninth  to  twelfth)   grades. 


INDUSTRIAL  VOCATIONAL   EDUCATION  215 

As  recent  occasional  developments,  add:  work  with  jewel- 
ry, pottery,  house  repair,  concrete,  painting,  machine  (bicycle, 
motor,  sewing  machine)  repair,  shoe  repair,  bricklaying,  car- 
pentry, power  engine  operation. 
b.  A  percentage  of  pupils  will  find  vocational  leads  here.  Read- 
justed industrial  arts  may  yet  serve  in  vocational  guidance. 
Propose  plans  for  such,  assuming  need  of  guidance,  among 
twenty  typical  industries. 

3.  Problems  of  establishing  as  basis  of  programs  of  industrial  educa- 
tion "age  of  efficient  entrance"  to  each  of  above. 

a.  Many  specialized  factory  callings  are  able  to  use  "full  respon- 
sibility" workers  at  ages  younger  than  14.  (Note  history  of  tex- 
tile, mining,  small  metal  working,  and  food  packing  industries.) 
Examples. 

b.  On  the  other  hand,  many  others  are  open  only  to  men  and 
women  of  maturity,  substantial  physical  development,  and  ex- 
perience.    Examples. 

4.  Problems  of  establishing  character  and  extent  of  effective  by-edu- 
cation for  respective  callings. 

a.  Note  that  in  productive  fields  not  composed  of  severely  com- 
peting units,  tendency  to  elaborate  means  of  vocational  educa- 
tion in  school  is  marked,  (cf.  Telephone,  printing,  certain  spec- 
ialty manufacturers.) 

b.  Analyze  causes  for  decline  of  apprenticeship  in  factory  or  other 
subdivided  fields  of  production. 

5.  Problems  of  defining  vocational  efficiency — in  any  industrial  calling  in 
terms  of:  (a)  skill  and  other  specific  habits  that  may  well  be  "taught" 
by  specialized  school  processes:  (b)  skill  and  other  results  in  habit  that 
can  ordinarily  come  as  by-products  of  long  experience;  (c)  technical 
knowledge  (intelligence,  insight)  that  can  best  be  taught  either  (1)  in 
advance  of,  (2)  concurrently  with,  or  (3)  subsequent  to,  "school"  prac- 
tice, through  specialized  school  education;  (d)  technical  knowledge  avail- 
able through  school  education  in  (1)  advance  of,  (2)  concurrently  with, 
or  (3)  subsequent  to,  "life"  (commercial)  practice;  (e)  technical  knowl- 
edge obtainable  only  from  practical  experience;  (/)  vocational  sociology 
obtainable  from  school  education;  and  (g)  vocational  sociology  obtain- 
able only  from  experience. 

6.  Above  vocations  require  differentiation  into  "handicraft"  trades  and 
specialized  operative  pursuits — factories,  mines,  transportation,  distance 
communication,  specialized  domestic  service. 

a.  Note  that  handicraft  trades  tend  steadily  to  decline  as  men  con- 
trol natural  power — steam,  gas,  electricity — and  delegate  work  to 
machines.  Handicraft  work  increasingly  confined  to  "dispers- 
ed" vocations — building,  personal  service,  and  repair  work. 


21 6  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

b.  Note  that  peace  no  less  than  war  (because  of  multiplying  popu~ 
lation,  rising  standards  of  consumption — quantitative  no  less 
qualitative — and  unwillingness  to  do  hard  maunal  labor)  inces- 
santly demands  "quantity  production"  of  "standardized"  goods 
(or  parts) — bricks,  lumber,  shoes,  cotton  fabrics,  canned  fruits, 
loaves,  chairs,  novels,  newspapers,  automobiles,  coal,  railway 
coaches,  lead  pencils,  men's  hats,  childrens'  dresses,  windows, 
underwear,  candies,  buttons,  leather  bags,  hams,  cereals,  talking 
machines,  furnaces,  and,  now,  houses,  ships,  and  streets.  Farm- 
ing and  housekeeping  demand  standard  processes  and  more 
power  driven  machines. 

c.  One  grade  of  producers  become  "tenders  of  machines,"  while 
other  Ibecome  repairers:  (a)  locomotive  engineers,  chauffeurs, 
automatic  stop  loom  operatives,  street  car  motormen,  coal 
miners,  shoemakers,  factory  machinists,  saw  mill  workers ;  (b) 
shoe  repairers,  plumbers,  house  carpenters,  electricians,  "all 
round  mechanics." 

d.  Much  of  machine  production  can  be  done  by  girls  or  men  of  low 
native  ability — textile-making,  clock-making,  typesetting  (by 
machine),  bookbinding,  fruit  canning,  cigarette  making. 

e.  But  also  other  varieties  require  careful  training  and  maturity — 
tractor  driving,  machine  shop  work,  engine  firing. 

/.  Highly  specialized  production  inevitably  tends  towards  regimen- 
tation of  workers,  i.e.,  specialization  of  inventive,  financing, 
managing,  supervising  productive  (in  narrow  sense),  marketing 
functions — with  places  for  all  grades  of  ability  and  training, 
and,  if  morale  is  preserved,  opportunities  for  each  to  reach  place 
of  maximum  productiveness.  "Man  is  tool  using  animal" — and 
the  locomotive,  steamship,  building  elevator,  automatic  stop  loom, 
farm  tractor,  cannon,  coal  cutter,  sawmill,  printing  press,  auto- 
mobile, telephone,  sewage  pipe  system,  dynamo  and  dynamite 
are  his  latest  and  best  tools — notwithstanding  the  doubts  of  the 
intelligenzia  of  whom  academic  schoolmasters  are  unfortunately 
often  a  part. 

7.  Regimented  production  provides  numberless  opportunities  for  ad- 
vancement— up-grading — of  workers  as  maturity,  training  and  morale  de- 
velop. But,  unlike  handicraft  trades,  the  ascent  is  not  on  inclined  plane, 
but  a  series  of  often  high  and  difficult  "steps."  Hence  vocational  educa- 
tion for  higher  stages  can  only  seldom  be  given  in  adolescence — perhaps 
vocational  guidance  must  be  postponed  also.  Need  of  upgrade  schools  for 
-nost  workers  at  ages  18-22,  26,  30,  etc.  Transition  from  wage-earning  for 
girls  to  homemaking  presents  same  conditions.  Sometimes  wage-earning 
experience  is  an  asset — from  domestic  service,  teaching,  nursing;  or 
perhaps  not,  or  even  a  hindrance — factory,  store,  office.  But  "upgrading" 
work  cannot  well  be  done  in  evening  extension  schools. 


INDUSTRIAL   VOCATIONAL   EDUCATION  217 

8.  Methods  of  industrial  education  determined  by  manipulative  and 
specialized  character  of  most  industrial  vocations.  Specific  objectives  can 
be  ascertained  only  by  job  analysis — first  of  the  B  grade  workers  now 
found.  Basic  industrial  education  almost  necessarily  involves  large  parti- 
cipation in  productive  work — which  had  best  be  on  wage-earning  basis. 
Hence  need  of  "part-time"  arrangements,  especially  for  subdivided  produc- 
tion involving  expensive  equipment.  Plumbing  and  repair  trades  can  be 
taught  in  school  plant ;  but  no  successful  examples  exist  of  effective  school 
plant  (with  genuine  productive  work)  for  coal  mining,  shoe  manufacture, 
cotton  cloth  weaving,  meatpacking,  watch  making,  newspaper  manufacture 
furniture  making,  etc. 

9.  Extension  industrial  education  now  found  in  many  varieties  in  even- 
ing and  correspondence  schools.     It  succeeds   largely  in  proportion  as: 

a.  It  is  correlated  with  clearly  defined  arxl  differentiated  vocations 
as  now  practiced,  and  does  not  involve  undifferentiated  subjects 
such  as  "mechanical  drawing,"  "shop  mathematics,"  "principles 
of  electricity,"  etc. 

b.  It   is    restricted   and   related   to   parallel   practical   work   being 

followed  outside  of  school  hours. 

c.  It  is  organized  on  a  "short  course,"  "amply  documented" 
basis  (booklet  form  preferred)  for  workers  of  average  powers 
of  foresight  and  imagination. 

Problems 

1.  Make  job  analysis  of  optimum  combinations  of  qualities  now  found 
in  B  grade  workers  of  three  following  vocations,  as  respects  respectively, 
manipulative  skills,  related  technical  knowledge,  and  special  vocational 
appreciations  (health,  civic,  cultural)  :  baker,  coal  mine  operator,  locomo- 
tive engineer,  spinner  (girl  15-20),  wood  working  mill  specialists  operative, 
streetsweeper,  shoe  factory  foreman,  saw  mill  manager,  brick  layer,  shoe 
cobbler,  drayman,  mail  carrier,  telegraph  operator  (supply  others). 

2.  From  your  knowledge  of  conditions  now  in  America  what  are  pre- 
vailing shortages — skills,  technical  knowledge,  social  appreciations,  health 
appreciations — in  above  vocations  (or  others  selected)  ?  Of  these  which 
could  vocational  schools  probably  correct  ?  Which  could  they  probably  not 
reach  ? 

3.  What  industrial  vocations  are  now  prevailingly  "women's  work?" 
Men's  work?    In  what  fields  are  transitions  taking  place?   Why? 

4.  What  are  estimated  proportions  of  men  and  women  in  all  industries 
at  ages  16-20;  20-24;  24-32;  32-48?  Why  are  women  not  found  in  coal 
mining,  railroading,  brick  masonry? 

5.  Do  women  wage-earners  prevailingly  command  as  much  wages  as  men 
at  ages  15-18;  18-24;  24-36;  36-60?    Why? 


CHAPTER  XLI 
PROFESSIONAL  EDUCATION 

1.  The  following  are  the  professional  callings  as  given  in  the  census  of 
1910. 

Table  showing  number  of  persons  over  10  years  of  age  in  all  occupations,  and 
in  professional  occupations.      (U.   S.   Census   1910.) 

Male  Female 

All     (gainful)     occupations 30,091,000       8,075,000 

Homemakers     (estimated)     20,000,000 

Professional    service 929,684  733,885 

Actors     16,305  11,992 

Artists,  sculptors,  and  teachers  of  art 18,500  15,500 

Civil  and  mining  engineers  and  surveyors 59,000  5 

Clergymen     117,000  685 

Lawyers,    judges,    and    justices 114,000  558 

Musicians   and    teachers  of   music 55,000  84,500 

Physicians    and    surgeons 142,000  9,000 

Teachers     121,000  478,000 

Trained   nurses    6,000  76,500 

All   others   in  the  division 280,000  57,000 

2.  Distinctions  between  "professions"  and  other  callings  are  not  well  es- 
tablished. "Is  teaching  a  profession?"  a  question  debatable  according  to 
standards.    But 

a.  Direct  school  vocational  education  first  developed  for  certain 
professions — medicine,  law,  theology,  engineering,  elementary 
school  teaching. 

b.  They   attract  and   reward,   usually,   superior   grades   of  ability. 

c.  Old   conception   of    close   connection   between   professions   and 

leadership  probably  of  diminishing  importance. 

d.  Also  old  conception  of  large  "unpaid  service"  rendered  by  pro- 
fessional men. 

3.  Note  general  insistence  on  extensive  "general  education"  as  preliminary 
to  professional  school  study— but  whether  such  general  education  actually 
Junctions  or  should  function  chiefly  as  (a)  culture  desirable  in  a  profes- 
sional man,  (b)  preparation  for  professional  studies  (in  knowledge  and  in 
mental  training),  or  (c)  selection  of  the  natively  superior,  is  not  yet  clear, 
at  least  to  educators. 

4.  New  callings  appear  in  modern  life  which  are  essentially  professions- 
business  administration,  military  leadership,  journalism,  public  service  ad- 
ministration. But  it  is  difficult  to  define  definite  preparation  for  these 
callings,  hence  selection  and  self-training  plays  largest  part  in  preparation. 

2l8 


PROFESSIONAL  EDUCATION  219 

5.  For  certain  professions,  vocational  schools  have  hardly  as  yet  been 
developed— acting,  high  school  teaching;  whilst  for  others  schools  are  just 
e  vol  ving— j  ournalism. 

Problems 

1.  The  largest  current  problem  of  objectives  in  professional  education 
grows  out  of  tendency  towards  specialization.  Medicine  differentiates  to- 
wards surgery,  dentistry,  optometry,  osteopathy,  and  also  towards  special 
service  for  nerves,  stomach,  nose  and  throat,  etc.  Law  has  several  special- 
ties and  teaching  many  more.  But  upholders  of  historic  order  desire 
"general"  preparation  in  the  profession  before  specialization  begins. 
Engineering  education  now  proliferates.  Shall  we  expect  in  medicine 
future  specialists  to  be  trained  as  are  now  dentists  and  optometrists— with- 
out general  basis? 

2.  Many  institutions  give,  not  basic  vocational  education  for  profes- 
sions— especially  law,  engineering,  high  school  teaching — but  only  technical 
studies  of  importance  in  such  preparation;  but  summer  practice  work  is 
beginning  of  reform. 

Hence  still  survive  problems  of  degrees;  shall  teachers  be  content  with 
A.B.,  B.S.,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  or  should  they  obtain  degrees  indicative  of  their 
professional  competency  in  performance?  Some  agricultural  and  engineer- 
ing colleges  still  give  the  B.S.  for  professional  courses. 

Prediction:  that  eventually  every  distinctive  type  of  each  profession 
will  have  its  appropriate  degree  indicative  of  the  tested  ability  of  the 
holder  to  perform,  to  do,  and  not  merely  of  knowledge  possessed.  Teacher 
training  institutions  might  well  give  a  score  or  more  of  such  degrees — for 
the  kindergarten  teacher,  the  primary  supervisor,  the  physical  education 
director  of  elementary  schools,  the  secondary  school  teacher  of  mathe- 
matics, etc 


CHAPTER  XLII 

PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

1.  The  functions  of  school-controlled  and  school  supervised  education 
in  promotion  and  conservation  of  physical  well-being  will  include : 

a.  Such  instruction  of  one  generation  as  may  secure  better  heredity 
in  the  next.  (An  obscure  field  as  yet — see  discussions  of 
eugenics). 

b.  Such  development,  instruction,  and  training  as  will  enable 
parents  of  next  generation  to  provide  better  material  environ- 
ment and  by-education  for  young. 

c.  Use  of  school  as  center  of  suggestion  and  possible  direction  to- 

wards home  and  other  responsible  agencies  to  secure  better 
material  conditions  for  development  of  present  generation. 
(Applicable  chiefly  to  distinctly  subnormal  homes,  and  to  be 
exerted  chiefly  through  specialized  agencies,  e.g.,  school  nurse, 
school  physician,  day  nursery,  care-taker,  home  and  school 
visitor,  etc.). 

d.  Provision  through  school  of  means  of  nurture.  (Except  in  case 
of  children  deprived  of  parents,  probably  of  little  application. 
School  meals  clearly  a  palliative.  If  public  agencies  must  enter, 
then  more  comprehensive  policy  needed.) 

e.  Enlistment  of  home  in  improving  by-education  of  individual  to 
prevent  illness,  promote  self-development,  etc.  (a  large  field,  re- 
quiring extension  of  functions  of  "health  department — beyond 
scope  now  planned  for  school  physician,  school  nurse,  etc.). 
(Only  a  slightly  practicable  field  for  "regular"  teachers — possibil- 
ities in  day  nursery,  kindergarten,  country  school.) 

/.  Enlistment  of  home  and  other  agencies  in  improvement  of 
collective  means  of  physical  well-being — playgrounds,  school 
health  supervision,  sanitation,  (flies,  water,  communicable  dis- 
ease, etc.). 

g.  Improvement  of  conditions  under  which  school  activities  are 
carried  on,  as  these  affect  physical  well-being.  (A  large  field, 
requiring  development  of  scientific  technique  and  special  agen- 
cies.) 

h.  Provision  of  means,  incentives  and  requirements  for  physical 
play.    (A  field  with  little  specialized  knowledge  or  service  as  yet; 

220 


PHYSICAL    EDUCATION  221 

control  of  athletics,  however  imperfect  now,  perhaps  a  begin- 
ning.) 

i.  Provision  of  means  and  requirements  for  physical  work.  (A  field 
now  ignored,  but  probably  of  signal  importance.) 

;.  Positive  physical  training.  (Various  attempts  made  hereto  fore- 
gymnastics,  calisthenics,  etc. — probably  of  little  significance. 
Dancing  has  possibilities,  but  belongs  to  play — beta — group. 
Corrective  gymnastics,  technically  individualized,  probably  im- 
portant for  a  small  minority.) 

k.  Boy  Scout  and  other  similar  large  activities  probably  of  much 
promise.  Fundamentals  of  military  power — special  powers, 
walking,  creeping,  climbing,  running,  wading,  swimming,  sleep- 
ing out,  burden  carrying,  rifle  shooting,  grenade  throwing,  trench 
digging — possible  of  accomplishment  on  beta  basis,  using  volun- 
teer squads,  leaders  assigned  for  "short  units"  responsibility. 
Specific  military  exercises  probably  must  be  carried  on  by  extra- 
school  agencies — if  under  18,  at  summer  camps,  etc. 

/.  Extensive  development  of  intellectual  appreciation  of  ideals,  prin- 
ciples, facts  of  physical  development,  sanitation,  individual 
hygiene,  possible  through  use  of  "beta  learning"  devices,  as  yet 
but  imperfectly  developed.  Lectures  (specialists  in  sex  hygiene, 
etc.),  moving  pictures,  (community  sanitation),  attractively  pre- 
sented readings  (all  phases)  and  many  other  means  available. 

m.  Possible  fields  for  "alpha"  types  of  instruction  not  yet  clearly 
defined. 

Problems 

1.  The  specific  objectives  of  physical  education  are  as  yet  very  poorly  de- 
fined. The  following  include  some  important  problems  now  requiring  in- 
vestigation : 

a.  To  what  extent  is  it  desirable  or  expedient  that  physical  func- 

tions probably  not  to  find  employment  in  civilized  adult  life 
should  be  left  systematically  underdeveloped  in  youth? 

b.  To  what  extent  is  physical  work  probably  a  necessity  to  physical 
development?  (Note  especial  application  to  middle  economic 
class  girls — receiving  chiefly  intellectual  education,  and  sharing 
largely  in  social  play  life.) 

2.  Given  case  of  boys  in  hilly  region  where  dairy  farming  is  prevailing 
occupation.  Streams  and  groves  abundant.  Residences  average  one-half 
mile  apart.  Three-fourths  of  boys  will  follow  fathers'  occupations,  one- 
fourth  "will  work  in  town."  Snow  falls  deeply  in  winter,  and  boys  do 
moderate  amounts  of  fishing  and  hunting.  Rural  elementary  schools 
average  160  days  attendance  per  year,  town  high  schools— to  which  about 
40  per  cent  ablest  pupils  go  for  1-2  years,  and  20  per  cent,  3-4  years,  180 


222  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

days.    From  age  of  five  onwards  have  chores  and  by  ten  are  doing  regular 
work  with  cows,  home    wood  supply,  etc. 

Assume  yourself  asked  to  prepare  scheme  of  physical  education— county- 
wide  and  county  supervised — for  this  region  with  possibilities  of  ample 
funds — possible  maximum  $10  per  year  for  maintenance,  and  $3  for 
capital  outlay  per  school  pupil — what  would  be  (A)  your  first  judgment 
and  (B)  your  plans  for  research  into  following  questions : 

o.  In  former  years  have  large  proportions  of  boys  of  this  region 
reached  adult  years  in  "bad"  physical  condition?  What  were 
probable  chief  causes  of  the  "bad"  physical  condition?  Pre- 
mature physical  work  or  overwork?  Underwork?  Insufficient 
play?  Insufficient  nurture?  Insufficient  medical  care?  Bad 
hygienic  conditions  in  homes — what  ?  Bad  hygienic  conditions  in 
schools — what?     Absence  of  physical  training? 

What  proportions  reached  adult  years  in  probably  "good" 
physical  condition — by  standards  of  your  expectancy  as  to  longe- 
vity and  health,  or  other  reasonable  basis  ?  In  what  respects  as 
to  play,  work,  medical  care,  nurture,  etc.  did  these  differ  from 
those  rank   was   "bad"? 

b.  In  what  respcets  are  the  boys  of  to-day  coming  up  under  condi- 
tions more  favorable  than  their  forbears?  Under  conditions 
less  favorable?  As  far  as  practicable  develop  here  (1)  physical 
diagnosis  and  (2)  physical  prognosis  for  boys  of  this  region 
at  ages  6-9,  9-12,  12-15,  15-18,  having  in  mind  different  type 
groups  if  you  think  these  can  be  distinguished. 

c.  Select  one  or  more  age  levels,  and  propose  programs  of  physical 

education,  giving  separate  recognition  (including  estimates  of 
cost)  to  following  factors  (add  others  as  desired,  and  designate 
types  of  general  or  special  service; — resident  or  peripatetic — ex- 
pected to  be  employed)  ;  (1)  health  inspection  by  physican  (in- 
cluding dentist,  oculist,  etc.)  ;  (2)  health  supervision  by  nurse — 
school  or  district;  (3)  instruction  in  hygiene  and  sanitation; 
(4)  general  physical  training — calesthenics,  gymnastics,  directed 
sports,  etc.;  (5)  special  (i.e.,  individually  corrective),  physical 
training;  (6)  supervision  of  physical  work;  (7)  supervision  of 
mental  work  (hygiene  of  school  life,  etc.)  ;  (8)  provision  of 
facilities  for  play,  sports;  (9)  influence  of  nurtural  conditions. 

3.  Make  corresponding  study  for  girls  in  same  environment. 

4.  Prepare  corresponding  studies  for  boys  or  girls  ot  following  case 
groups : 

5.  Boys  of  prairie  agricultural  region  with  minimum  of  live  stock  farm- 
ing, of  opportunities  for  hunting,  fishing,  sledding,  etc.;  poor  local  water 
supplies,  and  a  prevailing  scarcity  of  hired  help  for  heavy  farm  work. 

6.  Girls  of  a  crowded  tenement  district;  mostly  immigrant  parents, 
seriously  "dislocated"  as  to  ancestral  custom;  home  hygienic  conditions 


PHYSICAL    EDUCATION  223 

low;  community  sanitary  conditions  good  as  to  water  and  sewage,  bad  as 
to  garbage,  parks,  and  sunshine,  fair  as  to  control  of  contagious  diseases ; 
little  physical  work  until  wage-earning  at  fifteen  begins,  then  work  of 
artificial  kinds — factory  for  average,  office  or  store  for  keenest;  school 
attendance  180  days,  much  "formal"  drill  and  long  "home  lessons" ;  school 
has  medical  supervision  only  to  control  contagious  diseases,  no  physical 
training,  and  only  weak  instruction  in  hygiene. 

7.  Girls  of  a  prosperous  suburban  environment;  good  home  medical 
attendance ;  100  days  each  summer  in  camp  or  country  home ;  much  social 
life;  parents  ambitious  for  social  and  intellectual  success  of  girls;  sports 
and  even  athletics  popular,  but  real  physical  work  taboo;  school  has  suffi- 
cient medical  inspection,  favors  formal  calesthenics  and  at  all  stages  gives 
good  instruction  in  hygiene. 

8.  Colored  boys  in  manual  working  class  neighborhood  (supply  social 
diagnosis). 

9.  Administrative  proposals. 

a.  The  long  school  day,  covering  both  alpha  and  beta  intellectual 
and  physical  activities — seven  hours  per  day  for  pupils  6-12, 
eight  hours  for  those  12-18. 

b.  Discontinuance  of  all  "home  work"  or  home  study  of  alpha  type. 

c.  Development    throughout  system    of    agencies    responsible    for 

school's  share  in  promotion  and  conservation  of  physical  well- 
being — such  agencies  to  include  expert  medical  service,  but  to 
be  under  pedagogic  direction  superior  to  that  now  by-produced 
from  medical  service. 


CHAPTER  XLIII 

GUIDANCE 
A.  General 

1.  Guidance  as  a  function  of  educational  agencies  may  be  (a)  educa- 
tional guidance,  (b)  vocational  guidance,  and  (c)  civic  guidance. 

a.  Guidance  for  some  or  all  activities  and  responsibilities  of  life  is 
normally  one  product  of  by-education  in  home,  shop,  and  mis- 
cellaneous association  of  club  and  street.  It  is  also  a  by-product 
(often  unconscious)  of  school  education,  as  this  gives  insight, 
arouses  ambitions,  shapes  ideals. 

b.  Contemporary  demand  is  for  guidance  on  scientific  and  purpos- 
ive basis  as  far  as  practicable,  (a)  After  period  of  elemen- 
tary education,  students  confronted  by  variety  of  educational 
possibilities.  Choice  of  curricula,  election  of  courses,  necessary. 
At  present  either  blind  tradition,  caprice,  or  suggestion  of  as- 
sociates largely  controls.  Intelligent  direction  is  wanting,  (b) 
Between  14  and  20  almost  all  youths  make  momentous  voca- 
tional choices.  Under  primitive  conditions  where  son  follows 
father  in  career,  or  under  rural  conditions,  where  few  varieties 
of  openings  exist,  situation  not  so  serious.  But  under  modern 
conditions  (specialized  work,  mobility  of  labor,  varying  needs 
of  technical  preparation)  existing  situation  of  laissez  faire  very 
wasteful  of  energy,  health,  happiness,  (c)  Young  citizen  in 
allying  self  with  party,  in  starting  family,  in  considering  place 
location,  making  investments,  etc.,  often  in  need  of  assistance 
not  obtainable  from  ordinary  agencies  of  by-education. 

2.  Great  desirability  that  in  schools  should  be  developed  facilities  for 
guidance  for  youths  over  12  years  of  age,  whether  in  full-time  attendance 
or  not.    Guidance  can  make  use  of  following  means: 

a.  Publicity  as  to  educational,  vocational  and  civic  possibilities. 
Involve  (a)  development  of  reading  in  great  variety  and  of 
much  concreteness  and  suggestiveness ;  and  (b)  lectures,  illus- 
trated and  others  serving  similar  purposes.  Should  include 
agencies  of  idealization. 

b.  Facilities  for  individual  consultation  with  specialists  informed 
as  to  possibilities  and  capable  of  interpreting  needs  and  powers 
of  prospectors  (those  seeking  to  make  wise  choices). 

224 


GUIDANCE  225 

c.  Tests,  examinations,  and  other  scientific  means  of  diagnosing 
qualities  of  prospectors  and  of  prognosticating  probable  direc- 
tions of  successful  application. 

d.  Finding  agencies  (for  schools,  employment  openings,  facilities 
for  further  investigation,  .etc.)  to  intermediate  between  pros- 
pector and  appropriate  lines  of  future  activities. 

3.  Economy  and  effectiveness  to  be  achieved  for  persons  under  twenty 
or  twenty-five  only  by  keeping  within  school  organization  guiding  agencies 
(libraries,  tests,  expert  advice,  permits,  etc.),  training  agencies  (voca- 
tional schools),  and  placement  agencies,  all  under  specialized  and  compe- 
tent direction. 

a.  Note  tendency  to  have  vocational  education  provided  paralleling 
vocational  pursuit — and  in  dull  seasons  as  self-chosen,  "short 
sessions."  Vocational  school  best  special  means  of  vocational 
guidance. 

b.  Note  probably  large  use  to  be  made  of  specific  guidance  litera- 
ture— 'reading,  etc. 

4.  Necessity  of  basing  guidance  on  accepted  optimum  standards  of: 
(a)  economic  differentiation,  productiveness,  and  shifting;  (b)  cultural 
attainment;  and  (c)  civic  participation. 

a.  Note  need  of  revision  of  prevailing  of  conceptions  of  "social 
service." 

b.  What  are  cultural  contributions  of  vocation? 

c.  Note  specializing  of  employing  functions  in  large  commercial 
agencies. 

d.  Problems  of  "over-crowded"  fields  of  work. 

5.  Desirable  that  vocational  training  and  vocational  participation,  volun- 
tary as  to  field,  shall  ultimately  be  prescribed  for  all.  But  prescription  of 
special  forms  only  for  minority  of  "slackers"  who  will  not  make  choice 
for  selves. 

a.  Where  shall  training  for  national  defence  enter? 

b.  Idealistic  proposals  for  "moral  equivalents  of  war." 

B.  Economic  and  Social  Aspects  of  Vocational  Guidance 

1.  Vocational  Guidance  can  now  mean  two  things  or  be  of  two  forms 
(hereafter  called  Informative  and  Diagnostic). 

a.  Imparting  of  information  about:  varieties  of  work  now  avail- 
able in  the  world;  native  and  acquired  qualities  most  suited  to 
its  performance;  idealization  of  right  work  attitudes,  vocational 
advancement,  etc.  (Compare  with  school  and  class  instruction 
in  hygiene,  idealization  of  health  and  the  like.)  For  these  ends 
can  be  used:  lectures,  guided  readings,  various  emotional 
appeals.  Courses  (not  in  too  formal  a  sense)  can  be  offered  as 
electives  to  classes  prevailingly  from  13-14  years  of  age,  15  to 


226  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

16  years  of  age,  etc.  This  work  properly  a  part  of  general 
education. 

b.  Expert  examination  of  an  individual  towards  definite  recom- 
mendations, possibly  prescriptions,  as  to:  kinds  of  work  he  is 
now  unfitted  for ;  kinds  of  work  he  could  not  well  prepare 
for;  kinds  of  work  to  which,  by  virtue  of  native  powers,  ac- 
quired powers,  economic  resources,  etc.,  he  is  now  fitted;  kinds 
of  work  to  which,  with  proper  education,  he  might  become  fitted. 
(Compare  expert  diagnosis  of  oculist,  physician,  psychiatrist, 
with  consequent  prescriptions  against  or  for  certain  kinds  of 
action.)  Obviously  this  form  of  guidance  must  be  individual, 
and  should  be  available  as  far  as  practicable :  (a)  when  the  in- 
dividual is  ready  to  take  further  education  of  vocation  or  pre- 
vocational  nature  (define  prevocational  educational)  ;  (6)  when 
he  is  ready  to  seek  employment;  and  (c)  when  he  seeks  to  pass 
from  juvenile  or  other  earlier  to  later  and  higher  stages  of  em- 
ployment. 

c.  Assuming  the  presence  of  an  abundance  of  easily  read  books 

about  vocations  in  the  library  of  the  junior  high  school,  could 
best  services  be  rendered  under  (a)  by  having  a  departmental 
teacher  give  two  hours  a  week  to  lectures  and  conferences 
centering  around  reading?  What  part  could  be  played  by  visits 
to  farms,  factories,  stores,  etc?  Would  it  be  advisable  to  have 
recitations?  If  the  school  is  large  would  it  be  advantageous  to 
have  a  woman  teacher  of  the  subject  for  girls,  and  a  man  for 
boys?  Could  classes  for  this  purpose  well  be  as  large  as  100? 
Should  pupils  study  anything  here?    What? 

d.  Under  what  conditions  could  a  pupil  be  required  to  undergo 
examination  under  (b)  ?  Where  not  required,  what  motives  for 
electing  such  examination  could  be  expected  (specify  probable 
circumstances  in:  a  college;  high  school  upper  classes;  with 
retarded  pupils  in  grades)  ? 

2.  The  need  of  vocational  guidance  (to  individuals)  of  a  systematized 
kind  under  specialist  school  or  employment  auspices  (informal  vocational 
guidance  under  home  and  other  agencies  has  always  been  available)  in- 
creases greatly,  if  social  efficiency  (social  economy)  is  to  be  realized,  in 
proportion  as : 

(1)  The  variety  of  occupations  open  to  an  individual  increases. 

(2)  The  requirements  of  many  of  these  vocations  become  technical 
and  difficult. 

(3)  Vocations  are  carried  on  in  places  invisible  and  inaccessible 
to  growing  youths. 

(4)  Apprenticeship,  with  its  formal  arrangements,  selections,  and 
responsibilities  declines. 

o.  What  are  the  occupations  normally  open  and  desirable  in  central 
North  Dakota  respectively  to:  a  fifteen  year  old  boy  of  good 


GUIDANCE  227 

strength  and  manual  ability  and  no  strong  intellectual  interest; 
the  same  youth  at  twenty-one,  assuming  him  to  have  worked 
meanwhile  as  a  hired  man  at  general  farming;  a  girl  at  fifteen, 
of  musical  promise,  poor  parents,  but  girl  and  parents  very 
ambitious  for  her;  a  farmer's  daughter  of  good  general  scho- 
lastic ability,  but  poor  health  and  greatly  disliking  farm  life;  a 
boy  of  fifteen,  of  prosperous  parents  with  excellent  health  and 
mathematical  abilities,  very  ambitious?  Given  a  high  school  of 
100  pupils  in  Streeter,  N.  D.,  would  you  advise  inclusion  of 
vocational  guidance  in  courses?  What  kinds?  To  what  ex- 
pected ends? 

b.  What  are  the  occupations  normally  open  and  desirable  in  New 
York  City  to :  the  son  of  prosperous  American  parents  who  has 
excellent  ability  in  athletics,  mathematics,  and  "society,"  is  very 
ambitious,  and  promises  to  be  of  the  "executive"  type;  the 
daughter  of  rich  Jewish  (recent  immigrant)  parents,  artistic 
(plastic  and  graphic)  interests  and  some  ability,  poor  scholar- 
ship in  formal  subjects,  not  good  English  speech,  excellent 
health;  the  daughter  of  poor  parents,  strong  in  body,  but  low 
and  backward  in  school  work,  and  looking  upon  all  work  as  a 
curse;  the  son  of  poor  artisan  parents,  very  keen  mentally, 
eager  for  business  success,  but  in  poor  health,  and  of  irritable 
disposition?  Given  junior  and  senior  high  schools  and  evening 
schools  in  New  York  City,  what  would  you  recommend  as  to 
time  and  place  of  informative  vocational  guidance  courses? 
Kinds  of  courses?  Kinds  and  places  of  diagnostic  work?  For 
what  purposes? 

c.  Examine  relative  needs  of  vocational  guidance  in :    rural  sections 

of  central  Texas;  rural  areas  of  Georgia  (for  colored  popula- 
tion) ;  Worcester,  Mass. ;  Stockton,  Cal. — giving  separate  con- 
sideration to :  girls  of  low  or  average  abilities  in  poor  families ; 
boys  of  exceptional  specific  abilities  in  poor  families;  and  other 
realistic  case  situations. 
3.  The  need  of  systematized  vocational  guidance  to  society  (for  the  sake 

of  leadership,  avoidance  of  discontent,  general  health,  avoidance  of  useless 

sacrifices,  etc.)  becomes  great  in  proportion  as: 

(1)  Society  develops  great  need  for  talented  leadership  or  expert 
service.  (Note  means  by  which  candidates  in  America  are 
selected  for  West  Point,  for  medical  colleges,  for  scholarships, 
for  specialized  work  under  national,  state  and  municipal  civil 
service,  for  promotion  in  business,  for  certification  as  teachers.) 

(2)  Occupations  develop  to  the  point  where  very  purposive  training 
is  requisite,  and  where  ill-prepared  individuals  suffer  greatly. 
(Note  conditions  now  to  be  met  by  one  who  would  "succeed"  as 
farmer,  stenographer,  mine  manager,  hotel  cook,  public  singer, 
travelling  salesman,  promoter  of  oil  well  drilling  operations.) 


228  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

(3)  Economic  evolution  creates  conditions  inimical  to  the  health  of 
all  but  specially  fit  or  specially  prepared  individuals  (note  writ- 
ings on  "industrial  diseases"  and  the  pathological  accompani- 
ments of  stone-cutting,  elementary  school  teaching,  mattress 
making,  rag  sorting,  pottery  manufacture,  navigation,  nursing, 
farming,  steel  working).  (Consider  separately  for  these 
workers:  girls;  mature  women;  boys;  mature  men.) 

(4)  Economic  evolution  creates  conditions  of  work  so  complex  that 
the  worker  believes  himself  exploited  and  prevented  from  shift- 
ing or  advancing  as  he  desires.  (Note  that  under  primitive  con- 
ditions man  worked  against  nature,  whereas  in  advance  economic 
organization  he  seems  to  be  working  chiefly  against,  or  in  com- 
petition with,  other  humans;  that  he  needs  for  his  contentment 
knowledge  as  to  whether  he  is  in  right  work,  etc.) 

a.  Is  it  probable  that  the  proportion  of  persons  naturally  endowed 
as  geniuses  (of  various  species),  leaders,  altruists  (of  excep- 
tional influence),  vagrants,  subnormals,  etc.,  is  substantially  the 
same  everywhere — country  and  city,  Massachusetts  and  N.  Caro- 
lina, peoples  of  Huguenot  and  of  Italian  ancestry?  Under 
similar  social  stimulus  should  we  expect  as  many  inventors  from 
Georgia  as  Connecticut,  as  many  feminists  from  the  farms  as 
from  the  suburbs,  as  many  morons  from  Denver  as  from  Fall 
River?  Should  and  could  society  do  more  than  it  now  does  to 
try  to  discover  potentialities  in  youth  of  promising  poets,  opera 
singers,  military  leaders,  inventors,  business  executives,  pugi- 
lists, baseball  players,  moving  picture  artists,  physicians,  teachers, 
statesmen  ? 

b.  Historically  has  it  been  true  that  "anyone"  could  be  farmer, 
country  school  teacher,  homemaker,  Congressman,  salesman, 
storekeeper?  Enumerate  vocations  now  demanding  (e.g.,  in 
morning  World,  New  York)  workers  who  need  only  be  "bright 
girls,"  16  years  or  more  old.  What  are  the  vocations  now  open 
to  more  or  less  "broken"  elderly  women  of  no  education?  What 
are  vocations  now  open  to  impoverished  "gentlewomen"? 
Middle-aged  farmhands?  City-raised  boys  of  15?  Steel  factory 
workers  of  ten  years  operative  specialization? 

Could  one  of  these  classes  easily  become  a  sailor,  general  ma- 
chinist, watch  repairer,  dressmaker,  vaquero,  chauffeur,  steno- 
grapher, dentist,  actor?  What  qualities  do  bright  girls,  18-25, 
bring  to  rural  school  teaching  that  men  25-40  who  will  work 
for  the  same  money  do  not?  A  high  school  principal  declares 
that  employers  only  want  in  a  boy  that  he  has  "pep"  and  in  a 
girl  that  she  is  "quiet."    Interpret? 

At  what  age  do  men  or  women  normally  become :  school 
principals ;    mine    foremen ;    policemen ;    locomotive    engineers ; 


GUIDANCE  229 

college  teachers;  Congressmen;  travelling  salesmen;  sailors; 
"full  responsibility"  homemakers  (through  marriage)  ;  sea- 
captains  ;  business  "managers"  ?  What  minimum  general  school- 
ing is  expected  (by  employing  authorities)  to  precede  in  each 
case?  Vocational  schooling?  Experience  in  related  voca- 
tions?   What  unrelated  vocations  may  precede? 

c.  In  a  certain  area  granite  stone  cutting  is  the  most  accessible  em- 
ployment for  muscular  men  of  mechanical  leanings.  The  tuber- 
culosis rate  is  high  in  this  industry.  What  problems  arise  for 
vocational  diagnosticians  ? 

What  evidence  have  you  that  the  following  are  relatively  un- 
healthful  occupations;  cotton  textile  work  for  girls,  15-20;  busi- 
ness leadership  for  men,  40-60;  farm  life  for  homemakers; 
bookkeeping  for  men,  30-60;  elementary  teaching  for  women, 
30-40;  medicine  for  women;  hotel  waitress  service  for  women, 
25-35;  stoker  and  firing  service  on  steamers;  general  work  in 
dynamite  factories;  coal-mining;  railway  switching.  What  are 
your  present  prepossessions  as  to  these  and  twenty  other  voca- 
tions to  be  named  by  you?  Do  you  consider  facts  as  to  the 
vocational  healthf unless  of  these  callings  important  in  guidance? 
How  can  sound  generalizations  be  procured? 

d.  Why  do  so  few  of  the  following  leave  their  adverse  home  sur- 
roundings: Labrador  fishermen,  Bedouin  Arabs,  French 
peasantry,  Central  African  negroes?  Why  do  the  following 
migrate:  Irish  peasantry,  Russian  Jews,  mountain  whites  of 
Appalachians,  Japanese,  gipsies?  Do  the  same  peoples  work 
generation  after  generation  in  American  coal  mines?  cotton 
mills?  farms?  teaching  professions?  Why?  In  which  of  the  fol- 
lowing vocations  do  your  preposessions  suggest  that  workers  are 
most  exploited  or  disadvantaged  by  "man'  contrivance":  coal 
mines,  ten-cent  stores,  hospital  nursing,  pioneer  farming,  elemen- 
tary school  teaching,  college  teaching,  laundry  work,  waiting 
service  in  large  hotels,  navy,  tropical  fruit  growing,  matrimony 
and  homemaking  (among  the  poor),  market  gardening?  Com- 
pare the  following  vocations  as  to  opportunities  for  intimate 
relations  between  employers  and  employees:  law-offices;  men's 
hat  factories;  cartridge  factories;  small  grocery  stores.  What 
relative  scope  do  each  of  these  vocations  give  for  exercise  of  the 
"creative  impulse"  (which  first  define)  :  small  pioneer  farming; 
watch  factory  operative;  department  store  clerk;  coal  miner, 
locomotive  fireman ;  farm  homemaker  (Nebraska)  ;  orange 
grower?  Which  of  the  following  vocations  possess  for  you  (or 
young  persons  known  to  you)  the  deepest  halo  of  general  at- 
tractiveness :  candy  store  clerk ;  sea  captain ;  bedside  nurse ;  high 
school  teacher ;  diamond  cutter ;  gold  miner    (on  small  scale)  ; 

raisin  grower  (California)  ;  fur  trapper?     Does  distance  (and 
what  else)  lend  enchantment  to  the  view? 


23O  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

Give  examples  where  real  apparent  vocational  "misfitting"  is 
now  readily  possible,  giving  sources  of  your  impressions. 

4.  Vocational  opportunities  are  at  any  given  time  limited  by: 

(1)  Social  demands  for  particular  service; 

(2)  Accessibility  of  openings  to  potential  workers ; 

(3)  Possession  of  capital  and  tools; 

(4)  And  by  numerous  minor  factors. 

a.  Estimate  on  basis  of  census  figures  probably  annual  replace- 
ments needed  in  the  United  States  in  the  following  fields  of 
service:  physicians;  high  school  teachers,  farmers;  opera 
singers;  elementary  school  teachers;  building  carpenters; 
diamond  cutters;  novelists;  stenographers;  automobile  factory 
operatives;  coal  miners;  domestic  servants. 

b.  What  will  be  probable  openings  (a)  within  California  and  (b) 
outside  that  state,  caused  by  annual  replacements  of:  lawyers, 
dentists,  textile  mill  operatives,  locomotive  engineers,  oil-well 
drillers,  bank  clerks,  homemakers,  firearm  mechanics,  teachers 
of  music? 

c.  Out  of  100,000  girls  in  the  fifth  grades  of  certain  village  schools 

in  Iowa  what  proportion  will  or  can  normally  find  vocational 
openings  as:  physicians,  30-50;  homemakers,  20-60;  elementary 
school  teachers,  18-24;  same,  25-60;  domestic  servants,  16-22; 
same,  23-60;  opera  singers;  civil  service  research  specialists; 
farm  operators;  newspaper  editors;  dentists;  store  (indoor) 
clerks  or  saleswomen;  barbers,  saleswomen  at  salaries  upward 
of  $3,000  ? 

d.  Out  of  1,000  girls  graduating  from  general  courses  in  high 
schools  in  suburbs  of  Chicago,  what  numbers  could  and  should 
find  vocations  as :  trained  nurses ;  counter  saleswomen ;  "ladies 
of  leisure";  lawyers;  homemakers,  25-60;  professional  actresses; 
domestic  servants;   farm  laborers;   railway  operatives? 

e.  Of  1,000  boys  finishing  first  year  of  four  year  high  school  what 
proportion,  in  a  city  like  New  Orleans,  is  likely  to  become: 
agricultural  field  hands ;  physicians ;  high  school  teachers ;  skill- 
ed well  workers;  farm  owners;  trained  nurses;  hotel  cooks, 
stenographers,  30-60?  What  changes  of  proportions  would  you 
predict  for  1,000  high  school  graduates,  same  environment? 

/.  In  a  certain  reform  school  in  a  New  England  manufacturing 
state  are  400  boys  age  13-17.  Nearly  all  are  retarded  and  more 
or  less  corrupted.  Some  are  keen  and  lawless,  many  plodding 
and  dull.  Assuming  possibilities  of  1,200  hours  of  good  voca- 
tional training  in  schools  or  corresponding  part-time  and  ap- 
prenticeship, what  vocations  would  seem  most  promising  for 
them? 


GUIDANCE  23I 

g.  In  a  certain  North  Mississippi  Valley  State  is  a  school  for  the 
persons  blind  from  early  childhood.  The  school  is  endowed  to 
give  1,200  to  2,400  hours  specific  vocational  training  from  ages 
16-20.  Take  its  problems  as  your  own ;  are  there  vocations  that 
prefer  a  blind  to  a  seeing  person  of  equal  native  and  acquire 
qualities?  What  are  vocations  which  would  probably  prefer  a 
blind  to  a  seeing  person  otherwise  equal  at  20  per  cent,  less 
wages?  Is  it  expedient  to  train  blind  boys  of  good  ability  to 
be:  dentists,  high  school  teachers  of  mathematics,  piano  tuners, 
chauffeurs,  cooks,  farm  operators?  Should  the  girls  try  to  be- 
come: nurses,  primary  school  teachers,  typists  (without  stenog- 
raphy), homemakers?  What  is  now  known  about  vocations  for 
the  blind  of  each  sex,  where  competition  with  seeing  of  equal 
ability  and  perhaps  less  training  is  practicable  ? 

h.  To  what  extent  should  possible  mobility  of  workers  figure  in 
vocational  guidance?  Compare  the  relative  mobility  (ability 
to  leave  home  and  travel  to  distant  places)  of  following  work- 
ers; girls,  15-20,  of  poor  parents,  living  in  city,  and  of  average 
"manual  worker"  abilities;  girls,  20-25,  college  graduates;  boys, 
farm  reared,  suited  to  general  "manual  work",  poor  parents; 
boys,  excellent  ability,  fairly  prosperous  families,  trained  for  pro- 
fessions; skilled  machinist  with  family  of  five  children,  active 
member  of  a  church  of  small  denomination;  woman  secretary 
age  45,  with  life-long  associations  in  home  place. 

i.  Under  what  conditions  as  to  local  openings,  native  abilities,  sex, 
age,  and  possibilities  of  vocational  training  would  good  guidance 
advise  girls  from  prosperous  Minnesota  farms  to  seek  musical 
or  acting  vocations  in  New  York;  farm  boys  of  mechanical 
bent  to  become  city  mechanics;  boys  of  large  eastern  cities  to 
become  farmers;  girls  of  village  environment  of  excellent  abil- 
ities and  general  college  education  and  genuine  interest  in  hav- 
ing families  of  their  own  to  become  lawyers  or  doctors ;  stenog- 
raphers from  Montana  to  seek  Washington  Civil  Service  post; 
native  American  southern  negroes  to  seek  barbering  in  New 
York? 

/.  What  are  now  the  various  roads  by  which  boys  become  "owning 
farmers"  with  land  and  equipment  worth  from  $10,000  to  $30,- 
000?  A  city  boy  of  18,  physically  hardy  and  mentally  able  but 
owning  no  capital  and  with  no  prospects  of  inheritance,  is  keen- 
ly desirous  of  becoming  an  orchardist;  what  would  you  tell  him? 
A  country  boy  of  16,  excellent  ability,  but  no  actual  or  prospec- 
tive capital,  greatly  desires  to  become  a  merchant  in  a  large 
city;  advise  him.  A  city  girl  of  much  enterprise,  good  educa- 
tion, and  prosperous  parents,  but  no  capital  of  her  own,  is 
zealous  to  become  a  farmer ;  advise  her. 

What  capital  is  now  normally  required,  after  completion  of 


232  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

vocational  education,  to  equip  necessary  offices  and  to  tide  over 
"acquaintanceship"  period  for  one  who  would  be  an  independent 
dentist ;  plumber ;  shoe  repairer ;  doctor ;  lawyer ;  grocer ;  pharm- 
acist? 
k.  Under  what  circumstances  would  you  advise  a  college  girl  of  ex- 
cellent ability,  in  her  third  year  college,  to  study  architecture ;  a 
high  school  boy  of  bookish  interests  and  moderate  ability  to  be- 
come a  country  school  teacher;  a  high  school  girl  to  seek  a 
vocation  that  would  not  interfere  with  her  matrimonial  chances  ? 

Would  you  advise  a  Massachusetts  negro  to  enter  a  normal 
school  in  that  state?  A  bright  negress  in  a  Rochester  high 
school  to  prepare  in  stenography?  A  girl  of  native  American 
stock  seek  a  career  in  domestic  service?  A  boy  to  follow  stenog- 
raphy as  a  life  career?  A  Russian  Jewess  of  exceptional  abil- 
ity, but  pronounced  racial  characteristics,  to  seek  a  high  school 
position  in  Georgia,  or  Texas,  or  northern  New  York?  A  bright 
hunch-backed  girl  to  become  a  primary  school  teacher,  a  train- 
ed nurse,  a  salesgirl,  or  a  proof  reader. 

Certain  vocations  are  good  for  juveniles  but  poor  for  adults. 
What  would  you  advise  workers  as  to  "upgrading"  or  advance- 
ment? Discuss  in  this  connection:  textile  operative  work,  grade 
teaching,  "ten  cent  store"  salesmanship,  switch  board  operating, 
cigarette  making,  telegraph  messenger  service. 
5.  Problems  of  vocational  guidance  arise  largely  from  defective  soci- 
ological and  psychological  knowledge.    Among  current  problems  are  these : 

(1)  Are  certain  vocations  more  "overcrowded"  than  others?  By  what 
standards?    For  what  reasons? 

(2)  What  is  the  full  social  significance  of  highly  specialized  produc- 
tion, and  what  should  be  expected  to  be  the  normal  progress  and  stay  of 
workers  in  them? 

(3)  Under  what  circumstances  and  to  what  extent  can  or  should  voca- 
tional guidance  "blacklist"  undesirable  or  anti-social  vocations? 

(4)  What  are  the  possibilities  of  "dual"  or  "alternate"  or  "major"  and 
"minor"  or  "dull  season"  vocations? 

a.  At  the  present  time  do  you  think  that  stenography  is  more  "over- 
crowded" than  domestic  service?  Medicine  than  electrical  en- 
gineering? General  factory  work  for  girls  than  farming?  Ele- 
mentary school  teaching  than  travelling  salesmanship?  What, 
as  you  see  it,  are  the  least,  and  what  the  most  overcrowded  fields 
now  for:  "unskilled"  men  workers,  strong  and  mature?  Aver- 
age young  girls  of  16  in  New  York,  with  one  year  of  high 
school  education  ?  For  strong  high  school  boy  graduates  able  to 
give  five  or  six  years  to  professional  education?  What  is  the 
real  meaning  of :  "There  is  always  room  at  the  top"  ? 
In  what  vocations  does  alleged  overcrowding  seem  the  result 


GUIDANCE  233 

of  indeterminate  standards,  or  greatly  variable  standards  under 
the  same  vocational  name?  Illustrate  from  farming  (in  days 
of  public  land  settlement),  public  office  holding,  stenography, 
domestic  service,  brokerage,  indoor  salesmanship.  When  an  em- 
ployer asks:  "What  can  you  do"?  and  the  younger  applicant 
replies,   "Anything,"   what   does   he   mean   usually? 

What  are  some  vocations  now  imperfectly  developed  which 
you  think  likely  to  develop  greatly  during  the  next  few  years?. 
Would  you  advise  persons  of  apparently  suitable  talent  to  try  to 
become  moving  picture  actors,  brewers,  orange  growers,  adver- 
tising illustrators,  bond  salesmen,  high  school  teachers? 

What  are  now  the  most  "popular"  vocations  with  college 
women;  men  graduates  of  Harvard  and  Yale;  boys  of  excep- 
tional mechanical  ability? 

b.  Analyze  processes  of  subdivision  of  labor  found  in  producing: 

shoes;  cotton  cloth;  knitted  goods;  watches;  cartridges;  auto- 
mobiles ;  packed  fruits ;  pamphlets ;  newspapers ;  telephony ;  rail- 
way transportation;  ready-made  clothing;  fountain  pens;  table 
pottery;  coal;  steel  rails;  staple  furniture;  sugar  (beet)  ;  sugar 
(cane)  ;  raw  rubber ;  men's  hats. 

Within  any  one  of  these  fields,  give  varieties  of  workers,  pro- 
ducers, supervisors,  etc.,  grades  (as  expressed  in  compensation), 
and  number  in  each.  What  facts  can  you  discover  as  to  rel- 
ative maturity  of  workers  in  each  grade?  Under  what  kinds  of 
vocational  education  could  workers  of  sufficient  maturity  be  ad- 
vanced to  higher  grades? 

What  are  your  chief  prepossessions  against  specialized  work 
on  the  score  of  physical  healthf ulness  ?  psychological  healthf  ul- 
ness?  social  healthf  ulness  ?  Contrast  (in  order  to  show  effects  of 
specialization)  workers  from  farming,  homemaking,  retail  shoe 
clerking,  janitor  service,  peddling,  sheep  herding  with  workers 
of  similar  age,  sex,  and  income  from  furniture  factories,  steam- 
er navigation,  locomotive  manufacture,  book  manufacture, 
street  car  driving. 

Define  forms  of  leadership  and  highly  paid  special  service  now 
found  in :  street  car  operation ;  department  stores ;  telegraphy ; 
cloak  manufacture;  and  explosives  manufacture.  To  what  ex- 
tent and  under  what  circumstances  are  these  "advanced  from 
the  ranks"?  Is  it  presumably  economical  for  a  street  railway 
system  to  pay  its  president  $65,000  a  year? 

c.  What  are  some  anti-social  vocations  besides  burglary  and  other 

felonious  pursuits  ?  What  place  do  you  give  to :  cigarette  mak- 
ing, tobacco  farming,  fire  arms  manufacture,  "patent  medicine" 
manufacture,  military  training,  oil  mining,  stock  brokerage, 
advertising  illustration,  opera  singing,  diamond  cutting?  Which 
of  these  vocations  do  you  regard  as  of  greatest  relative  service 


234  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

to  society:  rural  school  teaching,  fruit  farming,  jewelry  making, 
commission  merchant  service,  novel  writing,  dentistry,  moving 
picture  operating,  naval  service?  How  would  or  should  recom- 
mendations or  vocational  guide  be  affected  by  valuations  here? 
Should  vocational  guidance  urge :  Boys  to  "stay  on  the  farm"  ? 
Girls  to  strive  decently  towards  matrimony?  Young  workers  to 
get  into  work  "without  bosses"?  All  person  to  get  "civil  ser- 
vice" government  places?  Girls  and  women  to  get  into  fields 
now  largely  occupied  by  men?  Men  to  take  indoor  salesman- 
ship? Men  to  take  elementary  school  teaching? 
d.  Some  vocations  and  especially  those  of  a  primitive  type  are  com- 
posite— e.g.,  general  farming,  homemaking,  small  retailing,  gen- 
eral handiwork,  domestic  service,  machine  repairing.  Many 
other  tend  toward  simplification.  The  following  special  prob- 
lems arise: 

(a)  Is  is  desirable  and  expedient  that  a  specialized  operative,  work- 
ing with  one  type  of  machine,  should  be  able  to  transfer  to 
others,  in  case  inventions  or  shifts  diminish  important  of  his 
specialty? 

(b)  Is  it  desirable  and  expedient  that  workers  in  "seasonal''  indus- 
tries qualify  to  carry  on  others  in  "off"  seasons  (elementary 
school  teachers  often  wait  on  table  in  summers ;  harvest  hands 
take  up  railroad  or  lumbering  work  in  winter,  etc.)  ? 

(c)  Where  factory  operatives  have  eight  hour  day  (and,  in  growing 
season,  forty-four  hour  week)  are  gardening,  poultry  raising, 
etc.,   desirable  and  practicable  minor  vocations? 

(d)  Married  women,  under  some  circumstances,  claim  to  find  home- 
making  duties  insufficient  to  fill  all  time.  Can  and  should  they 
seek  opportunities  for  wage  earning  in  teaching,  farm  labor,  hotel 
service,  factory  wark,  writing,  music?  Discuss  for  poor  eco- 
nomic levels  (negress  field  workers),  higher  economic  levels, 
and  others. 

6.  The  case  method  of  study  is  now  profitable  means  of  opening  up  the 
actual  problems  in  this  largely  unexplored  field.  As  fast  as  practicable 
persons  with  professional  aims  here  should  assemble  realistic  cases.  The 
following  hypothetical  types  of  cases  are  submitted  as  illustrative: 

Case  A:  (individual).  A  boy  in  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  has  reached  16 
years  of  age  and  just  graduated  from  the  elementary  school.  His  father 
is  a  janitor,  American  born,  his  mother  Irish  born  and  of  meagre  educa- 
tion. Neither  desires  to  support  the  boy  longer  in  school  (there  are  four 
smaller  children  in  family).  The  boy  has  lost  interest  in  general  schooling 
(has  been  two  years  retarded)  and  is  eager  to  earn  money.  Wants  to  be 
an  electrical  engineer,  editor,  or  leading  business  man.  Was  low  grade  in 
school  studies  except  vocal  music  in  which  he  has  moderate  talent.  Bridge- 
port is  chiefly  a  machine  shop  city,  with  usual  commercial  openings.     It 


GUIDANCE  235 

has  good  day  trade  school   (2  years  course)   besides  evening  classes  for 
persons  employed  in  the  shops. 

a.  What  do  you  know  of  opportunities  in  Bridgeport  and  vicinity? 

b.  This  boy  desires  advice  as  to  next  10  years.  What  further  facts 
do  you  need  to  know  regarding  him  ?  What  would  you  now  ad- 
vise him  to  do? 

c.  Assume  that  he  enters  a  gun  factory  as  machine  operative,  and 
at  19  is  earning  $30  per  week,  but  is  restless  and  wants  promo- 
tion or  a  new  type  of  work.  What  facts  would  you  need  to 
know  and  what  advice  could  you  now  give? 

Case  B.  (individual)  In  Albany,  N.  Y.,  a  girl  (Ellen)  of  17  has  just 
graduated  from  the  classical  high  school.  Her  parents  are  poor  Irish 
people  with  six  children,  all  slow  but  Ellen,  whom  they  have  favored 
at  much  sacrifice  because  of  her  intellectual  brilliancy.  Earlier  she  was 
eager  to  teach,  but  her  schoolmates  have  persuaded  her  that  teaching  is 
cheap  and  poor  work  and  gives  no  chance  to  meet  men.  Ellen  is  especially 
strong  in  English,  but  poor  in  mathematics  and  music.  Her  parents  can- 
not afford  to  send  her  to  college ;  her  mother  is  convinced  that  Ellen  will 
marry  by  the  time  she  is  twenty.  There  is  a  large  commercial  department 
in  the  local  high  school,  but  no  other  opportunities  for  vocational  training. 
The  girl  is  in  fair  health,  but  inclined  to  nervousness.  She  may  have  to 
help  towards  the  education  her  younger  brothers  and  sisters. 

a.  What  are  the  principal  accessible  vocations  of  Albany? 

b.  Would  you  care  to  give  this  girl  vocational  tests? 

c.  Make  recommendations  looking  to  the  (a)  next  two  years;  and 

(b)  the  next  five  years,  on  assumption  she  will  not  marry. 

Case  C  (school).  The  junior  high  school  of  N.  in  Mass.  has  1,200,  7th 
and  8th  grade  pupils,  besides  200  retarded  boys  and  girls  over  12  and  under 
16.  The  community  is  mostly  suburban.  About  400  of  the  pupils  come 
from  homes  that  will  not  oppose  their  leaving  school  as  soon  as  the  law 
allows ;  and  about  800  from  families  very  ambitious  to  have  their  children 
finish  high  school.  The  school  offers  generous  and  flexible  programs  of 
manual  training  and  household  arts,  a  slight  amount  of  gardening  and  no 
commercial  work.  All  pupils  leaving  school  after  14  must  get  working 
papers,  involving  a  physical  examination  and  capable  of  involving  such 
other  examinations  as  may  be  desired. 

The  school  authorities  have  been  convinced  that  vocational  guidance  is 
desirable  and  have  appropriated  $2600  annually  for  this  purpose  (but 
with  stipulation  that  not  more  than  $2000  shall  be  spent  on  salaries).  But 
they  have  as  yet  no  program  and  have  asked  superintendent  to  make  rec- 
ommendations. He  asks  you  to  submit  yours.  Especially  does  he  want 
to  know:  (a)  Should  one  full-time  guidance  teacher  be  employed,  or  a 
man  for  the  boys  and  a  woman  for  the  girls?  (b)  Should  proposed  work 
be  chiefly  informative  and  inspirational,  or  diagnostic  and  placement?  (c) 
Should  any  ef  it  be  obligatory  on   (1)   all  pupils  or  (2)  pupils  applying 


236  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

for  working  papers,  or  should  it  be  elective?  (d)  Should  time  be  given  it  in 
the  regular  schedules  of  studies?  Where?  How  much?  For  whom?  (e) 
Is  it  desirable  that  the  guidance  teacher  or  teachers  should  influence  aims 
or  other  studies?  (/)What  should  be  specific  character  of  offerings  (con- 
sider regular  instruction,  guided  readings,  individual  advising,  class  visits 
to  mills,  lectures  by  teacher,  etc.)  ? 

Case  D  (school).  In  a  prosperous  farming  (and  related  commercial) 
area  in  eastern  Kansas  is  a  high  school  of  200  pupils.  The  principal  has 
given  $600  yearly  to  provide  for  vocational  guidance.  Nearly  half  the  pu- 
pils will  graduate,  and  half  of  these  will  go  to  normal  schools  and  agri- 
cultural colleges.  Many  of  the  boys  want  to  follow  farming,  but  the  girls 
aspire  to  urban  work  and  permanent  residence.  Give  this  principal  advice 
as  to  how  to  proceed. 


CHAPTER  XLIV 
CURRICULUM  PROBLEMS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

1.  A  curriculum  is  a  collection  of  subjects  of  study  suited  to  the  educational 
needs  of  a  denned  group  of  learners.  The  objectives  of  education  for  the 
group  should  be  implicit  at  least  in  the  documented  curriculum ;  and  scien- 
tific clearness  will  be  greatly  furthered  if,  following  diagnoses  of  present 
adult  and  learning  groups,  the  objectives  sought  are  themselves  formulated 
as  the  basis  of  curriculum  and  program  proposals.  In  a  detailed  cur- 
riculum, means  (texts,  readings,  experiments,  projects,  problems)  and 
methods  (of  organization,  teaching,  testing)  may  be  indicated;  while  a 
collection  of  textbooks  or  manuals  constitutes  the  most  detailed  supple- 
mental guidance  for  work. 

2.  The  objectives  of  a  curriculum  (and  hence  the  curriculum  itself)  can 
best  be  studied  in  connection  with  "case  groups"  of  fairly  homogeneous 
character.  The  following  pages  give  preliminary  descriptions  of  over  one 
hundred  case  groups,  to  which  students  are  invited  to  add  others.  For  ef- 
fective work: 

a.  Amplify  in  detail  the  essential  present  prevailing  characteristics 

of  the  case  group. 

b.  Diagnose  as  far  as  practicable  the  prevailing  characteristics  of 
present-day  adults  who  ten  to  thirty  years  ago  were  learners  of 
qualities  corresponding  to  those  of  the  case  group  being  con- 
sidered. 

c.  Prognosticate  as  far  as  practicable  future  prospects  of  case 
group  if  the  proposed  curriculum  were  not  available  for  them. 

d.  For  the  time  being  ignore  temporary  administrative  limitations  in 
carrying  into  effect  proposed  curriculum,  including  scarcity  of 
competent  teachers,  lack  of  equipment,  heterogeneous  rather 
than  homogeneous  character  of  school  attendance,  especially  in 
small  places,  etc. 

e.  When  optimum  curriculum  has  been  formulated,  indicate  changes 

necessary  for  schools  exhibiting  specified  limitations  of  means, 
teaching  personnel,  or  attendance. 

3.  Before  proposing  school  objectives,  estimate  (eventually  we  must  find 
ways  of  determining  scientifically)  (a)  contributions  of  previous  by-edu- 
cation, (b)  contributions  of  parallel  by-education,  and  (c)  results  of  pre- 
vious schooling. 

237 


238  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

4.  You  may  within  a  given  environment  group  differentiate  those  of 
very  high  and  of  very  low  intelligence  from  the  modal  group  for  pur- 
poses of  proposing  objectives  for  each  grade. 

5.  In  studies,  subjects  or  other  curriculum  elements  sharply  differenti- 
ate  developmental    from   projective    objectives    (alpha   beta   objectives). 

6.  Differentiate  vocational  from  "general"  or  liberal  objectives;  and  pre- 
ferably, where  practicable,  differentiate  physical,  social  and  cultural  objec- 
tives. 

7.  Distinguish  sharply  between  prescriptions  (of  several  varieties)  and 
elective  offerings. 

8.  As  basis  for  time  differentiations  take  total  numbers  of  hours  assumed 
as  available  for  (a)  year  or  (b)  whole  curriculum  (perhaps  two  years — 
junior  school  or  four  years — liberal  arts  college)  including  study,  recita- 
tion, and  other  related  activities.  Time  for  play  (as  part  of  physical  edu- 
cation), excursions  ,  general  readings,  etc.,  should  all  be  included. 

B.  Problems  of  Curricula  for  Designated  Groups  Under  Specific 

Conditions 
Take  two  of  groups  below  of  same  age  level,  and  prepare  curriculums, 
using  some  method  of  parallel  column  presentation,  giving  especial  atten- 
tion to  justification  of  unlike  features.     (As  far  as  practicable  use  subject 
analyses  of  Chap.  XLVI. 

In  each  case: 

a.  Define  (or  estimate)  possibilities  and  limitations  due  to  heredity. 

b.  Define  (or  estimate)    conditions  imposed  by  environment. 

c.  Define  (or  estimate)  positive  and  negative  contributions  of  by- 

education  (a)  prior  to  employment  of  curriculum  activities,  and 
(b)  concurrently  with  it. 

d.  Define  general  and  specific  objectives  (aims,  expected  results, 
goals,  purposes)  of  curriculum  on  behalf  of  individual  at  close 
of  curriculum  period. 

e.  Same,  during  adult  prime  (age  25-40  or  30-35). 

/.  Define  general  and  specific  estimated  objectives  of  curriculum 
on  behalf  of  specified  society  (family,  corporation,  municipality, 
state,  nation,  religious  organization,  political  party  organization, 
international  group,  society  in  general,  etc.)  during  three  de- 
cades following  close  of  curriculum  period. 

g.  Distinguish  as  sharply  as  practicable  between  objectives  that  are 
to  be  realized  through  developmental  (beta — spontaneous,  natu- 
ral," amateur  play)  activities,  and  those  to  be  realized  through 
systematized  instruction  and  training  ("artificial,"  "forced," 
work-a-day,  disciplined,  alpha  activities). 

h.  Distinguish  between  objectives  expected  to  be  realized: 

(1)  through    activities    almost    wholly   under    control   of 
school. 


CURRICULUM   PROBLEMS  239 

(2)  those  ordinarily  due  to  agencies  of  by-education,  and 

(3)  those  due  to  other  sources. 

t.  Distinguish  sharply  between  vocational  and  general  (or  liberal) 
educational  objectives. 

;'.  Where  practicable,  distinguish  among  objectives  of  liberal  edu- 
cation the  cultural,  social  (moral,  civic)  and  physical. 

k.  Distinguish  sharply  between  schemes  of  offerings  (with  specified 
conditions  of  election)  and  prescriptions. 

1.  Normals,  ages  3-6,  low  economic  level,  congested  urban  environment, 
home-staying  mother  (no  summer  vacation  removal). 

2.  Normals,  3-6,  high  economic  condition,  city  environment  (summer 
vacation  removal). 

3.  Normals,  3-6,  rural  environment. 

4.  Normals,  3-6,  day-wage-working  mothers,  congested  city  environment. 

5.  Normals,  3-7,  day-wage-working  mothers,  village  environment. 

6.  Subnormals,  3-6,  note  due  to  hereditary  causes  but  to  deficient  en- 
vironment and  by-education  (mal-nutrition,  disease,  uncleanness,  bad 
habits)   in  congested  urban  environment. 

7.  Normals,  3-6,  of  alien  home  language,  low  economic  environment. 

8.  Normals,  6-12,  strictly  rural  environment  (no  consolidation  of  schools 
practicable) . 

9.  Normals,  6-12,  rural  environment,  consolidated  schools  of  100  or  more 
practicable. 

10.  Normals,  6-12,  village  or  open  urban  environment. 

11.  Normals,  6-12,  low  economic  environment,  crowded  urban  housing. 

12.  Normals,  6-12,  prosperous  urban  or  suburban  environment. 

13.  Subnormals,  6-12,  mental,  as  shown  in  school  work,  due  chiefly  to 
hereditary  causes. 

14.  Subnormals,  6-12  (as  shown  in  school  work)  due  to  environmental 
causes  and  deficient  by-education  (including  migratory  family  life). 

15.  Variants — not  subnormal,  6-12  (including  brilliant,  truant,  undis- 
ciplined,   etc.). 

16.  Normals,  12-14,  last  of  compulsory  full-time  attendance,  rural  en- 
vironment. 

17.  Normals,  12-14,  village  and  open  city  environment. 

18.  Normals,  12-14,  low  economic  conditions,  city  dwellers,  probably 
wage-earners,  12-14  on,  after  period  of  compulsory  attendance. 

19.  Normals,  12-14,  high  economic  conditions. 

20.  Normals,  12-14,  city  and  village  environment,  boys  and  girls  with 
commercial  interests. 

21.  Normals,  12-14,  city  and  village  environment,  boys  and  girls  with 
mechanical  interests. 

22.  Normals,  12-14,  city  and  village  environment,  girls  with  household 
arts  interests. 

23.  Normals,  12-14,  city  and  village  environment,  boys  and  girls  with 
strong  interests  in  abstract  studies. 


24O  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

24.  Normals,  12-14,  country  environment,  boys  and  girls  with  strong 
agricultural  interests. 

25.  Subnormals,  12-14,  city  and  village  environment  (no  hereditary  de- 
fects but  two  or  more  grades  retarded,  owing  to  poor  environment,  by-edu- 
cation, etc.). 

26.  Normals,  14-16,  with  voluntary  interest  in  abstract  studies  but  likely 
to  leave  the  general  school  at  16. 

27.  Normals,  14-16,  with  strong  mechanical  interests,  not  yet  seeking 
special  vocational  education  but  likely  to  leave  the  general  school  at  16. 

28.  Normals,  14-16,  with  strong  commercial  interests  but  not  seeking 
vocational  training  and  likely  to  leave  general  school  at  16. 

29.  Normals,  14-18,  likely  to  remain  four  years  in  general  school  before 
seeking  vocational  specialization. 

30.  Normals,  14-16,  under  economic  pressure  and  desirous  of  early  self- 
support;  in  community  offering  openings  chiefly  in  specialized  industry 
and  commerce  (differentiate  for  sex). 

31.  Normals,  14-16,  disposed  to  give  two  years  to  foundations  of  indus- 
trial training  for  entry  upon  wage-earning  at  16. 

32.  Normals,  14-16,  disposed  to  give  two  years  to  commercial  training 
for  entry  upon  wage-earning  at  16. 

33.  Normals,  terminating  general  education  at  16,  disposed  to  seek  em- 
ployment in  wage-earning  specialties. 

34.  Normals,  terminating  general  education  at  16,  willing  to  give  two 
years  to  foundations  of  trade  training. 

35.  Normals,  terminating  general  education  at  16,  disposed  to  give  two 
years  to  vocational  school  preparation  for  commercial  callings. 

36.  Normals,  terminating  general  education  at  14  or  16,  disposed  to  give 
one  or  more  years  to  vocational  training  for  agriculture. 

37.  Normals,  terminating  general  education  at  14  or  16,  disposed  to  give 
give  four  hours  per  week  of  school  attendance. 

38.  Normals,  14-16,  in  wage-earning  employment,  required  by  law  to 
give  four  hours  per  week  of  school  attendance. 

39.  Normals,  14-16,  employed  not  more  than  5  hours  per  day  or  30  hours 
per  week,  required  by  law  to  give  15  hours  per  week  school  attendance. 

40.  Normals,  16-18,  employed,  not  more  than  30  hours  per  week,  re- 
quired to  attend  school  15  hours  per  week. 

41.  Normals,  17-25,  voluntary  attending  evening  trade  extension  schools. 

42.  Normals,  17-25,  voluntary  attending  evening  trade  preparatory 
schools. 

43.  Normals,  17-25,  voluntary  attending  evening  schools  for  general  edu- 
cation. 

44.  Normals,   17-25,  voluntary  attending  evening  social  center  schools. 

45.  Normals,   17-25,  voluntary  attending  evening  homemaking  schools. 

46.  Normals,  14-25,  voluntary  discontinuing  wage-earning  employment 
for  short  course  industrial  preparatory  instruction. 

47.  Normals,  14-25,  voluntarily  discontinuing  work  for  short  course  voca- 
tional commercial  education. 


CURRICULUM   PROBLEMS  24I 

48.  Normals,  14-25,  voluntarily  discontinuing  wage-earning  employment 
for  short  course  homemaking  training. 

49.  Normals,  voluntarily  attending  full-time  agricultural  preparatory  or 
extension  vocational  school. 

50.  Vocational  education  for  teachers,  of  first  6  grades. 

51.  Vocational  education  for  teachers,  junior  high  school  specialties. 

52.  Vocational  education  for  teachers,  secondary  school  specialties. 

53.  Vocational  education  for  teachers,  industrial  school  specialties. 

54.  Vocational  education  for  teachers,  homemaking  specialties. 

55.  Vocational  education  for  teachers,  agricultural  vocational  schools. 

56.  Vocational  education  for  teachers,  commercial  vocational  school. 

57.  Vocational  education  for  school  nurses. 

58.  Vocational  education  for  hospital  and  bedside  nurses. 

59.  Vocational  education  for  public  health  nurses. 

60.  Vocational  education   for    (designated)    professions. 

61.  Blind,  4-12. 

62.  Blind,  general  education,  4-16  or  18. 

63.  Blind,  14-25,  for  vocations  under  direction  of  state. 

64.  Blind,  14-25,  for  independent  vocations. 

65.  Deaf,  4-12. 

66.  Deaf,  general  education,  12-16  or  18. 

67.  Deaf,  14-25,  vocational  education  for  vocations  under  direction  of 
state. 

68.  Deaf,  14-25,  for  independent  vocations. 

69.  Mental  subnormals,  highest  grade,  6-12. 

70.  Mental  subnormals,  highest  grade,  12-16  or  18. 

71.  Mental  subnormals,  highest  grade,  14-25,  vocational  education  for 
vocations  under  charge  of  state. 

72.  Mental  subnormals,  highest  grade,   14-25,  vocational  education  for 
independent  vocations. 

73.  Mental  subnormals,  intermediate  grade,  6-12. 

74.  Mental  subnormals,  intermediate  grade,    12-16  or  1&. 

75.  Mental  subnormals,  14-25,  vocational  education  for  vocations  under 
direction  of  state. 

76.  Mental  subnormals,  low  grade,  custodial,  6-18. 

77.  Mental  subnormals,  low  grade,  for  vocations. 

78.  Cripple  children,  4-12. 

79.  Cripple  children,  12-18. 

80.  Crippled  children,  14-25,  for  state  controlled  vocations. 

81.  Crippled  children,  14-25,  for  independent  vocations. 

82.  Delinquent  boys  under  commitment  or  parole,  10-14. 

83.  Delinquent  girls  under  commitment  or  parole,  10-14. 

84.  Delinquent  boys,  14-18,  under  commitment  or  parole,  general  edu- 
cation. 

86.  Delinquent  boys  and  young  men,  14-25,  under  commitment  or  parole, 
vocational. 


242  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

87.  Delinquent  girls  and  young  women,  14-25,  under  commitment  or 
parole,  vocational. 

88.  Male  prisoners,  long  term  and  recidivist,  over  25,  for  institutional 
vocations. 

89.  Female  prisoners,  long  term  and  recidivist,  over  25,  for  institutional 
vocations. 

90.  Unemployed  and  vocationless  adults. 

91.  Immigrants,  non-English  speaking,  12-16. 

92.  Immigrants,   illiterate,  16-25. 

93.  Illiterate  adults,  native  born,  of  English  speech. 

94.  Special  programs  for  talented  individuals  or  leaders,  12-25. 

95.  Vocational  education  for  men  enlisted  in  navy. 

96.  Vocational  education  for  men  enlisted  in  army. 

97.  Education  of  boys,  14-17,  for  national  defense. 

98.  Education  of  men,  18-25,  for  national  defense. 

99.  Vocational  education  for  prospective  bricklayers. 

100.  Do.  for  garden  farmers  in  (specified  locality). 

101.  Do.  for  homemakers,  urban  dwellers,  family  income  $900  to  $1350. 

102.  Do.  for  stenographers  in  large  commercial  houses. 

103.  Do.  for  mates  on  lake  vessels. 

104.  Do.  for  specialized  shoe  operators  in  factories. 

105-110.  Vocational  education  for  other  specific  fields  to  be  selected. 

C.  Curricula  for  Case  Groups 

Each  study  should  involve  a  running  comparison  of  proposals,  etc.,  for 
two  groups  having  the  same  arabic  number : 

la.  Children,  aged  4-6,  of  crowded  manual  working  class  environment, 
large  families,  mothers  not  working  for  wages,  parks  twenty  minute 
distant,  streets  dangerous,  sanitary  conditions  poor,  parentage  largely 
foreign. 

lb.  Children,  4-6,  of  prosperous  suburban  environment,  good  cultured 
homes,  safe  streets,  abundant  play  places,  fair  sanitation,  three  months 
seashore  or  mountain  vacation  residence,  etc. 

lc.  Children,  4-6,  of  backward  rural  area,  small  homes,,  mother  not 
strong  in  hygiene  or  homemaking,  homes  average  one  quarter  mile  apart, 
half  the  families  tenants  of  foreign  ancestry,  residence  continuous, 
through  year. 

Id.  Student  may  supply. 

2a.  Children,  normals,  of  prosperous  suburban  environment,  good  cul- 
tured homes,  ample  sanitary  play  spaces  in  and  out  of  homes,  all  may 
be  expected  to  finish  high  school.  About  three  months  can  annually  be 
spent  in  mountain  and  seashore  vacation,  families  small,  mothers  anxious 
that  schools  take  large  responsibilities  if  health  of  children  is  not  im- 
paired. 

2b.  Normal  children,  6-9,  of  crowded  factory  environment,  largely  for- 
eign parentage,  mothers  not  working  for  wages,  fathers  earn  ample  for 


CURRICULUM   PROBLEMS  243 

nurture  and  clothes,  but  home  standards  of  food  preparation,  hygiene, 
culture  and  morals  low.  Large  majority  of  children  will  leave  full-time 
schools  at  15  or  16  and  enter  manual  occupations.  No  vacation  period 
away  from  home,  environment  offers  only  traffic  crowded  streets  and 
few  vacant  lots  nearby,  parks  distant,  photo  drama  theatres  abundant, 
only  evening  newspapers  generally  read. 

Students  may  analyze  still  further  essential  general  characteristics  of  these  groups. 

2c.  Normal  children,  6-9,  prosperous  farming  environment,  homes  aver- 
age 600  yards  apart,  region  broken  by  hills  and  streams,  farming  of  "gen- 
eral" type  including  live  stock.  Parents  interested  in  better  homes  and 
extension  courses,  will  try  to  send  children  to  high  school,  agricultural 
college,  normal  school.  Consolidated  school  accessible,  transportation 
averaging  two  hours  daily. 

2d.  Student  may  supply. 

3a.  Children,  normal  physically  and  up  to  grade,  aged  9  to  12;  fathers 
skilled,  well-paid  workers;  American  ancestry;  mothers  average  elemen- 
tary school  education ;  fair  home  makers.  Homes,  separate  or  semidetach- 
ed houses,  not  crowded;  adjacent  parks,  and  streets  fairly  safe;  general 
civic  conditions  of  city  bad.  Few  of  the  children  will  become  wage  earners 
until  sixteen,  and  half  will  go  through  general,  commercial,  or  industrial 
schools,  and  will  strive  towards  other  than  manual  vocations.  Cultural 
opportunities  of  homes  are  meagre,  but  commercialized  amusements,  in- 
cluding Reaches  abundant;  good  public  library,  poorly  used;  year-round 
residence  in  homes. 

3b.  Children  slightly  subnormal  physically,  but  up  to  grade,  aged  9-12, 
in  crowded,  poor  apartment  house  neighborhood;  fathers  mostly  of 
foreign  birth,  in  unskilled  or  factory  operative  work,  earning  wages  which 
enable  families  to  live  without  wage  earning  of  mother,  if  children  (4-8 
per  family)  begin  wage  earning  at  14;  little  interest  in  high  school  or 
higher  education  and  eighty  per  cent  of  children  will  leave  school  when 
law  allows  (14  for  those  past  5th  grade).  No  good  vocational  schools 
accessible;  local  hygienic,  moral,  and  civic  conditions  bad;  no  parks,  no 
vacation  trips. 

3c.  Children,  9-12,  of  prosperous  suburb,  expected  to  go  through  high 
school  and  towards  professions  or  high  business  callings ;  spacious  homes, 
three  months  summer  vacation  away  from  home  possible,  if  school  closes 
long  enough ;  mother  cultured,  but  busy  with  social  obligations,  some  use- 
ful, some  diverting,  some  harmful.  Children  read  magazines  and  library 
books  freely;  and  are  allowed  freely  to  patronize  movies;  girls  are  re- 
strained from  rougher  sports  and  have  insufficient  outdoor  life. 

3d.  Children,  9-12,  irregular  in  health,  culture,  and  school  grades;  in 
backward  hilly  farming  district,  parents  dissatisfied,  but  thriftless ;  sanitary 
conditions  bad;  farms  originally  good  (markets  are  near)  but  deterio- 
rated; little  encouragement  yet  for  farm  extension  workers  and  abler 
farmers  tend  to  move  out  for  better  land,  schools  and  surroundings;  no 
opportunity  for  consolidated  school,  but  situation  permits  trained  and  ex- 


244  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

perienced  teacher  to  be  employed,  with  good  schoolhouse;  boys  help  much 
on  farm,  but  prevailing  attitude  is  to  go  to  nearby  factory  work  when  old 
enough;  only  negligible  proportion  of  boys  and  girls  will  go  to  distant 
high  school;  no  agricultural  school  accessible. 
3e.  Student  may  supply. 

4  Assume  for  cases  4a  to  4d  inclusive,  existence  of  large  (1200  seat) 
well  equipped  high  school  (abundant  shops  and  playgrounds  and  some 
garden  space)  with  all  needed  departmental  teachers  and  pupils  coming 
from  all  kinds  of  urban  environments.  Two  hundred  pupils  are  over  12 
and  under  16,  but  below  7th  grade  in  formal  (alpha)  subjects.  Separate 
curricula  are  provided  for  each  of  four  potential  groups  distinctive  by 
virtue  of  abilities  and  probable  prospects,  but  with  no  distinction  as  to 
class  membership  in  common  subjects  and  understanding  that  while 
teachers  can  advise  any  individual  as  to  curriculum  best  suited,  parents 
finally  decide;  and  no  pupil  can  be  excluded  from  a  subject  or  curriculum 
except  on  established  evidence  of  inability  to  meet  its  standards. 

4a.  Three  hundred  boys,  12-14,  normal  in  health  and  grade,  of  only  aver- 
age or  poor  intellectual  interests,  of  strong  athletic  interests  and  some 
disposition  towards  skilled  manual  employment;  because  of  home  con- 
ditions will  probably  go  to  work  before  16;  environment  is  not  conducive 
to  very  good  citizenship,  or  refinement  of  manners ;  half -developed  "trade 
school"  (carpentry,  machine  shop,  printing,  electricity)  available  after  14. 
Recommend  details  of  curricula  of  prescribed,  alternative,  and  optional 
subjects. 

4b.  Two  hundred  girls,  12-14,  of  poor  families;  girls  intellectually  keen 
and  parents  ambitious  for  them,  but  burden  of  keeping  them  at  school 
after  14  will  be  onerous,  as  families  are  large ;  poorly  developed  physically, 
and  prospects  of  ill-health;  marriage  usually  takes  place  at  21-24;  oppor- 
tunities available  for  commercial  and  factory  work  (last  is  unpopular)  ;  pre- 
vailing manners  coarse,  English  imperfect — and  tastes  for  amusements  low. 

4c.  Boys,  12-14,  of  keen  minds  and  very  favorable  home  environment; 
travel  and  camp  each  summer;  good  manners,  strong  tendencies  towards 
athletics;  speech  mostly  slang;  will  be  expected  to  go  to  college  to  enter 
professions  or  business  at  from  20  to  25. 

4d.  Student  may  supply. 

4e.  Fifty  boys  and  girls,  one  fourth  of  them  retarded;  in  consolidated 
rural  schools;  all  parents  farmers  of  variable  prosperity;  children  work  at 
chores  the  year  round  and  eight  hours  daily  in  vacation,  few  amusements ; 
tradition  is  to  seek  towns  for  work  after  17;  a  few  bright  ones  will  be 
sent  to  high  school  and  college. 

5.  Assume  for  cases  5a  to  5d  large  urban  non-vocational  high  school 
with  all  subjects  elective.  Half  of  the  subjects  are  organized  on  the  as- 
sumption that  students  electing  them  will  leave  to  enter  vocational  schools 
or  vocational  employment  at  16.  Teachers  advise  individuals  and  their 
parents  in  light  of  probable  approximation  to  case  group  as  given.     You 


CURRICULUM   PROBLEMS  245 

are  to  work  out  curricula  to  be  recommended  in  accordance  with  your  con- 
ceptions of  desirable  and  practicable  offerings  for  case  groups.  Assume 
existence  of  good  commercial,  and  weak  trade,  schools  paralleling  high 
schools. 

5a.  One  hundred  normal  boys,  14-16,  from  poor  homes  and  large  fami- 
lies ;  slight  interest  in  abstract  alpha  studies ;  strong  interests  in  sports  and 
acquiescent  to  prospects  of  wage-earning  work  in  mechanical  industries; 
may  be  expected  to  spend  one  or  two  years  only  in  high  school,  and  would 
probably  stay  two  full  years  if  some  diploma  recognition  could  come  at 
end  of  the  tenth  grade;  have  poor  civic  interests,  low  ideals  of  English 
expression,  and  only  meagre  interests  in  general  reading;  health  prospects 
good. 

5b.  One  hundred  girls  from  rich  families,  large  homes,  expect  to  go  to 
college,  but  only  for  social  reasons  as  now  felt;  average  to  excellent 
mentally,  nervous  physically  and  often  overwrought  by  social  excitement; 
are  extravagant,  luxurious  and  unconsciously  selfish;  have  never  worked 
physically  and  do  not  seriously  expect  ever  to  do  "hard"  work  of  any 
kind,  but  the  least  selfish  talk  vaguely  about  "social  work"  and  the  "new 
professions  for  women";  their  civic  ideals  are  half  "parlor  socialistic," 
half  reactionary,  strongly  feminist,  and  anti-domestic;  have  given  much 
time  to  music,  but  with  no  deep  interest;  are  inveterate  readers  of  light 
fiction ;  ideals  of  English  speech  are  low,  and  of  manners  "up-to-date." 
Sixty  per  cent  will  marry,  25-30;  remainder  will  remain  celibate  with 
moderate  inherited  income.  Plan  curricula  for  grades  9  and  10  on  assump- 
tion that  bulk  of  strictly  "college  preparation"  can  be  completed  in  grades 
11  and  12. 

5c.  One  hundred  girls  of  exceptional  ability,  but  whose  families  will  re- 
quire them  to  go  to  work  not  later  than  18,  and  some  of  whom  will  have 
to  spend  years  17  and  18  in  vocational  schools  (stenography,  salesmanship, 
grades).  Are  below  par  physically,  excellent  in  civic  interests  and  normal 
character,  and  not  interested  in  serious  homemaking,  but  can  easily  offer 
amateur  household  arts  interests.  Are  from  crude,  environments,  effects 
of  which  on  manners  and  speech  lower  schools  have  not  completely  over- 
come. Marriage  age  for  the  most  of  them  will  be  23-26.  Plan  for  grades 
9  and  10  only. 
5d.  Students  may  supply. 

6a.  Fifty  girls,  15-17,  tired  of  general  high  school,  anxious  to  get  to 
work,  but  willing  to  give  one  or  even  two  years  to  vocational  training  if 
they  can  see  definite  outcomes  in  wage-earning,  job  commanding  power. 
Are  from  poor  families,  manual  workers  in  large  cities,  and  of  only  aver- 
age ability  and  presentableness.  They  despise  domestic  service,  will  take 
"dirty"  factory  work  only  under  compulsion,  and  aspire  to  "clean"  work, 
especially  where  surroundings  are  socially  stimulating.  Have  no  aspira- 
tions for  permanent  careers  or  to  save  money,  and  in  fact  may  be  expected 
to  marry  at  22-24.    Give  vocational  guidance  and  plan  vocational  training. 

6b.  One  hundred  boys,  15-17,  strong  and  capable,  in  city  of  machine  shop 


246  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

industries  and  large  business,  and  railway  facilities.  For  economic  reasons 
all  must  soon  be  earning  money.  They  aspire  to  be  skilled  mechanics  or 
even  more,  but  vaguely,  "business  men."  Superintendent  asks  you  to  plan 
vocational  schools  and  courses  in  light  of  formulated  (by  you)  assump- 
tions as  to  requirements  of  industry  (or  vocational  openings  for  workers). 

6c-6f.  Group  vocational  cases,  ages  14-18,  to  be  supplied  by  student. 

7a.  Fifty  men,  19-30,  operatives  in  textile  mills,  apply  for  evening  work. 
Elaborate  case  details  and  proposed  offerings. 

7b-7d.  Other  analogous  cases. 

8a.  One  hundred  pupils,  15-17,  working  in  factories,  obliged  by  new  law 
to  attend  continuation  school  4  hours  weekly.  Elaborate  details,  and  pro- 
pose curricula  and  administrative  conditions. 

8b-8d.  Other  continuation  school  cases. 

9a.  Fifty  blind  youths — boys  and  girls,  aged  14-17,  obliged  to  leave  in- 
stitution and  become  self-supporting  at  18,  with  possible  extension  of  time 
to  twenty  for  very  bright  in  vocational  training.  Have  at  14  had  almost 
equivalent  of  elementary  school,  education  with  adjustments  needed  by 
blind.     Propose  curricula,  14-17. 

9b-9e.  Similar  problem  for  other  types  of  defectives  or  subnormals. 

D.  Factors  to  be  Considered  as  far  as  Practicable  in  Making 
Curriculum  Proposals 

Do  not  lose  sight  of  fact  that  requirements  of  two  unlike  groups  of  same 
ages  must  be  basis  of  study,  and  that  factors  of  any  specific  kind  should 
be  considered  in  immediate  contrast  or  similarity,  with  especial  emphasis 
on  reasons  for  differences. 

1.  Previous  school  and  by-education  presupposed   (brief). 

2.  Parallel  or  accompanying  by-education  presupposed  and  evaluated 
(brief). 

3.  Practicable  pupil-year  financial  resources  assumed  to  be  available 
(1920  expenditure  standards). 

4.  Pupil  time  per  day,  per  week,  and  per  year  assumed  to  be  (a)  de- 
sirable and  (b)  practicably  available  for  proposed  program  (but  assume 
available  eight  hours  daily  in  city  schools  if  educators  agree). 

5.  Proposed  alpha  objectives  primarily  for  good  of  individual. 

6.  Proposed  objectives  primarily  for  society  or  the  state. 

7.  Proposed  objectives  functioning  apparently  first  for  good  of  a  in- 
dividual but  ultimately  for  collective  good. 

8.  Definite  consideration  (even  if  for  rejection)  of  all  objectives  sug- 
gested for  age  group,  under  consideration  in  Chap.  XLVI. 

9.  Time  allotment  for  study,  recitation,  development,  and  recreation  for 
each  subject  or  specific  objective,  separately  considered  as  alpha  or  beta 
class  objectives.    . 


CURRICULUM   PROBLEMS  247 

10.  Sociological  justification  of: 

a.  General  prescription  of  subject  (all  learners). 

b.  Prescription  for  diagnosed  group. 

c.  Optional  offering. 

d.  Recommendation  against  taking. 

e.  Prohibition  against  taking,  individual  or  group. 

E.  Suggestions  for  Study  of  "Objectives"  to  be  Realized  Through  Use 

of  Subjects  Now  Defined  and  More  or  Less  Traditional 

(Possible  reading  references,   see  Bibliography.) 

1.  What  are  objectives  now  commonly  held  partisans  on  behalf  of  this 
subject? 

2.  What  results  now  believed  to  accrue  from  subject  as  commonly  or- 
ganized and  presented? 

3.  Critical  comparison  of  aspirations  and  results  of  subject  as  now 
usually  offered. 

4.  Objectives  that  you  deem  valid  and  important  for  the  subject  for  cer- 
tain specified  groups  of  learners,  and  comparison  of  relative  importance 
with  other  subjects  that  might  have  the  time  and  energy  proposed  to  be 
given  to  this. 

5.  Proposed  organization  of  subject  to  realize  specified  objectives. 

6.  Methods  proposed  for  the  achievement  of  objectives  through  reor- 
ganized subject. 

F.  Suggestions  for  Study  of  Objectives  and  Proposed  Subject  Mattes 
in  a  Field  Now  Possessing  no  Traditionally  Organized  Subject 

1.  Definition  of  proposed  objectives,  and  their  social  evaluation  for  speci- 
fied groups. 

2.  Evidence  that  these  objectives  are  not  now  realized  by  other  means. 

3.  Proposed  organization  of  subject  matter  and  method. 


CHAPTER  XLV 

PROBLEMS  OF  OBJECTIVES  OF  SUBJECTS  FOR 
INVESTIGATION 

1.  Below  are  given  tentative  analyses  of  school  subjects  already  well 
known  and  of  some  proposed  new  subjects.  In  most  cases  the  actual 
"objectives" — that  is,  the  useful  purposes  for  individuals  or  for  society — 
have  not  been  well  established.  Numberless  problems  of  scientific  inquiry 
can  easily  be  devised  here.  Following  questions  indicate  methods  of 
attack : 

a.  Should  the  subject  be  required  of  all  pupils  of  given  grades, 
ages,  or  attainments?  Why?  What  useful  ends — to  the  indi- 
vidual, to  the  state,  to  society  at  large — can  be  served  by  such 
requirements  (always  remembering  that  specific  educational 
values  are  relative  to  other  values,  educational  or  other,  that 
could  be  achieved  with  available  time  and  energy)  ? 

b.  Should  the  subject  be  required  of  some?  Why? 

c.  Should  it  be  permitted  or  open  to  election  by  some?  Whom? 
Why? 

d.  Should  it  be  denied  to  some?    Whom?     Why? 

2.  An  esssential  sociological  means  to  such  study  is  "case  analysis" — 
of  individuals  or  groups — of  adults,  e.g.,  from  age  30  to  50 — as  to  their 
possessions  and  deficiencies  of  the  qualities  expected  to  accrue  from  the 
proposed  study,  followed  by  evaluation  of  the  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages— individual  and  social — resulting  from  such  possessions  and 
deficiencies. 

a.  It  is  a  schoolmaster's  weakness  to  hold  that  "all  boys"  (perhaps) 
should  be  taught  "pronunciation"  (different  from  that  learned 
at  home),  Latin,  civics,  gymnastics  or  cube  root  without  ex- 
amination of  the  conditions  now  found  among  adults  growiag 
out  of  former  presence  (or  absence  of  such  studies). 

b.  To  what  extent  do  adults  now  use  or  feel  the  need  of  using: 
French,  trigonometry,  knowledge  of  the  causes  of  tides,  re- 
membered knowledge  of  the  river  systems  of  Asia,  skill  with 
saw  and  chisel? 

3.  The  "developmental"  and  "projective"  objectives  should  be  distin- 
guished as  clearly  as  practicable,  and  social  justification  found  for  each. 

4.  To  prosecute  the  study: 

o.  Clearly  define  what  is  meant  by  subject  (with  concrete  instances) 

248 


OBJECTIVES  249 

b.  Clearly  designate  the  age,  ability  and  environments  with  refer- 
ences to  whose  needs  or  interests  it  is  to  be  studied. 

c.  Indicate  for  these  groups:   (1)  expected  previous  schooling  and 

by-education  related  to  the  objectives  being  studied;  (2)  expec- 
ted subsequent  educational  opportunities,  school  and  non-school ; 
(3)  expected  available  time  and  energy  for  all  school  work;  ex- 
pected time  and  energy  available  for  subject  being  studied. 

d.  Diagnose  adults  or  adult  groups  as  to  qualities  corresponding 
to  those  sought  on  behalf  of  next  generation  of  adults. 

e.  Define  expectations  of  results  in  adult  life — of  alpha  objectives; 

at  least — to  accrue  from  proposed  studies. 
5.  Only  after  the  foregoing  topics  have  had  careful  consideration,  the 
resulting  problems  been  defined,  and  tentative  assumptions  made,  should 
questions  of  method  of  organization  or  presentation  receive  more  than 
brief  consideration. 

Subjects 

1.  English  speech  for  normal  children,  ages  4  to  6. 

la.  English  speech   for  those  4-6  with  other  vernaculars  or  home  languages. 

lb.  English  pronunciation. 

lc.  Special   English  speech   for  oral   defectives. 

Id.  Correct   usage   and   vocabulary. 

2.  English  speech   for  normal  pupils,  6-12    (give  especial  attention  to 
effects  of  by-education). 

2a.  Voice  training,  enunciation    (as  special  objective). 

2b.  Oral    reading    (as   special   objective)    (special   problem   of   oral   reading   as 

basis  for  silent  reading). 

2c.  Spoken  vocabulary  building. 

2d.  Correct  usage  in  spoken  English. 

2e.  Oral    composition    to    audience. 

2f.  Recitation   (oral  delivery  to  audience  of  memorized  text). 

2g.  Pronunciation.  •    . 

2h.  Special   classes — voice   defectives,   alien  home  vocabularies. 

3.  English  speech  for  normals,  12-18. 

3a.  Oral   composition   (defined  as  sustained  presentation  to  audience). 

3b.  Voice   training,  enunciation. 

3c  Spoken   vocabulary   building. 

3d.  Oral  reading  and  recitation  to  audience   (elocution,  oratory). 

3e.  Correct  usage  in  spoken  forms. 

3f.  Pronunciation. 

3g.  Special  classes? — speech  defectives. 

3h.  Special  classes — of   alien   vernacular. 

4.  English  speech— liberal  arts  college. 

5.  English  speech— teachers'  training  classes. 

6.  English  speech— deaf  pupils,  4-20. 

7.  English  speech  (class  and  objectives  to  be  supplied  by  student). 

8.  English  writing  for  normal  children,  6-12. 

8a.     Penmanship,  reading,  legibility  and  speed  of  execution,  as  objectives. 

Tvnewriting  as  minor  problem.  . 

8b      Spelling— quality   and   scope    (simplified   spelling,   as  minor  problem) 
lc      Composition,    written    (special    attention    to    specific   or   sub-objectives). 
Id.     Smar    and    correct   usage,    supplemental   to   that  realized   under   oral 
English. 


250  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

9.  English  writing  for  normal  youths,  12-18. 

9a.  Spelling. 

9b.  Penmanship  and  typewriting  for  general  use. 

9c.  Grammar   and   correct   usage. 

9d.  Rhetoric  and  fine  usage. 

9e.  Written    composition. 

9f.  Word   analysis. 

9g.  English   writing   for  stenographers. 

10.  English  writing  in  liberal  arts  college. 

11.  English  writing  for  blind,  4-20. 

12.  English  writing  (special  subject). 

13.  English  silent  reading,  normal  pupils,  6-12. 

13a.     English  oral  reading  as  basis  of  silent  reading. 
13b.     Special   techniques  of  silent  reading. 

13c  Special  drills  in  silent  reading  of  arithmetic,  geography,  history,  news- 
paper. 

14.  English  silent  reading,  normal  pupils,  12-18. 

14a.     Grammar  and  rhetoric  in  silent  reading. 

14b.     Special  drills  on  subject  matter  of  other  courses. 

15.  English  silent  reading  for  special  needs  (subject  to  be  supplied). 

16.  Silent  reading  for  the  blind. 

17.  Social  education  and  development   (including  moral  training,   civic 
and  ethical  instruction,  religious  education,  etc.)   for  normal  children,  1-6. 

17a.     Moral  habituation,  by- education. 
17b.     Moral  habituation,  kindergarten. 

18.  Social  education,  normal  children,  6-12. 

18a.  Moral  habituation,  by-education. 

18b.  Moral   habituation,    school    groups. 

18c.  Civic  instruction. 

18d.  History,  instruction  in. 

I8e.  Religious   education. 

18£.  Current  events,  historical. 

19.  Social  education  (social  science,  social  development),  ages  12-18. 

19a.     Community  civics. 

19b.     Principles  and  practice  of  government. 

19c.     Elementary  sociology. 

19d.     Elementary  economics. 

19e.     Study  of  nations — promotion   of  international   co-operation. 

19f.  Ethical  instruction  (indicate  Fairchild's  proposals  for  "character  forma- 
tion")- 

19g.     Boy    Scout  program  of  moral   education. 

19h.     Religious   education. 

1'   .     Self-government  in  schools. 

19j.      American    history. 

19k.     World  history  or  special  division  of  history  as  means  of  social  education. 

191.      Literature  as  means  of  social  education. 

19m,    Other  "fine  arts"  as  means  of  social  education. 

19n.     Vocational  participation  as  means  of  social  education. 

l9o.  Special  problems  of  habituation  (habits,  attitudes)  in  moral  or  social 
education. 

I9p.     Special  problems  of  "moral  or  social  intelligence"  in  social  education. 

19q      Special  problems  of  formation  of  ideals  in  social  education. 

19r.     Special  problems  of  heredity  ("original  nature")  in  social  education. 

198.  Special  problems  of  schools'  influence  on  agencies  of  by-education  i« 
social    education. 

19t  Education  for  participation  in  national  defense  as  phase  of  social  educa- 
tion. 

19u.     Social   education   as  a  by-product  of  military  education. 

19v.  Problems  of  group  activities  in  schools  as  means  of  realizing  some  ends 
of  social    education. 

19w.    Problems  of  "formal   discipline"   in  moral  education. 

19x.     Geography  as  social  science  study. 

I9y.     Current  history— history  in  the  making. 


OBJECTIVES  251 

20.  Natural  science  for  normal  children,  ages  6-12.  (Adaptations  of  all 
physical  and  biological  sciences— except  portions  of  physiology  reserved 
for  physical  education— to  education  of  young  people;  and  so  defined  as 
to  include  all  approaches  to  correct— or  non-mystical— appreciations  of 
facts  and  interpretations  of  relationships,  however  partial  or  incomplete.) 

20a.     Nature    study. 

21.  Natural  science,  12-18  (defined  as  above). 

2la.  General  science,  as  beta  subject. 

21b.  Biology,   as   alpha   subject. 

21c.  Physics,  two  phases,  general. 

21d.  Chemistry,   two   phases,   general. 

21c.  Astronomy. 

21  f.  Earth  science  or  physical  geography. 

21g.  Physics,  as  prevocational. 

21h.  Chemistry,  ad  prevocational. 

2li.  Problems  of  teaching  "scientific  method"   in   fields  of  natural  science. 

21j.  Current  information  as  to  progress  of  science — a  proposed  beta  subject. 

21k.  Agricultural  science  as  element  in  liberal  education. 

22.  Science  in  liberal  arts  college. 

23.  Agricultural  science  in  vocational  schools  of  agriculture. 

24.  Physical  science  in  industrial  schools. 

25.  Mental  science  for  normal  children,  6-12. 

25a.     "How  to  study,"  in  general,  or  in  particular  field  of  attainment. 

26.  Mental  science  and  development,  12-18. 

26a.     "How    to    study,"    in    particular    fields. 

26b.     Appreciation  of  scientific  method,  natural  science. 

26c.     Appreciation   of  scientific  method,   social   science. 

26d.     Specific  exercises  in  training  of  designated  mental  powers. 

26e.     Appreciations,  ideals,  understandings,  and  controlled  habituations,  towards 

the  "trained  mind." 
26f.      Hygiene  of  mental  work  and  play. 
26g.     Objective  study    (case,  project  and  topic;  methods)   of  animal  and  human 

psychology. 

27.  Mathematics,  6-12. 

27a.     Fundamental   arithmetic,    written. 
27b.     Fundamental  arithmetic,  oral. 

28.  Mathematics,  12-18. 

28a.  Arithmetic,   general. 

28b,  Industrial   arts  arithmetic  or  mathematics. 

28c.  Household   arts   arithmetic  or   mathematics. 

28d.  Agricultural   arts  arithmetic  or  mathematics. 

28e.  Commercial  arts  arithmetic  or  mathematics. 

28f.  Junior  high  school  general  mathematics,  alpha  grade. 

28g.  Junior  high   school   mathematics,  appreciative,  beta  grade. 

28h.  Prevocational  mathematics,  junior  high  school. 

28L  Algebra. 

28 j.  Plane  geometry. 

28k.  Trigonometry,  pre -engineering. 

281.  General   mathematics,   appreciation,   beta  course. 

28m.  History  of  mathematics. 

28n.  Mathematics,   problems  of  correlation. 

29.  Vocational  mathematics. 

29a.  Specialized  industrial  mathematics   (vocation  specified). 

29b.  Specialized  homemaking    mathematics. 

29c.  Specialized  agricultural    mathematics.  # 

29d-  Specialized  commercial    mathematics    (vocation    specified). 

30.  Geography,  6-12. 

31.  Geography,  12-18. 

32.  Commercial  arts  geography. 


252  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

33.  Classical  languages  and  literatures,  12-18. 

33a.  Greek  language,  and  literature  in  Greek. 

33b.  Latin,    language    and    literature. 

33c.  Classical  literature  in  translation. 

33d.  Latin  as  medium  or  reinforcement  of  English  language. 

33e.  General    course    in    classics,    appreciation. 

34.  Modern  foreign  languages  and  literatures,  12-18. 

34a.  French  reading. 

34b.  French,    speech    and   writing. 

34c.  German  reading. 

34d.  German,  speech   and  writing. 

34e.  Spanish,    commercial   reading. 

34f.  Spanish,  general     reading. 

34g.  Spanish,  commercial   writing. 

34h.  Spanish,  speech   and   general    writing. 

34i.  Russian. 

34j.  Italian. 

34k,  Portuguese. 

341.  Japanese. 

34m.  Chinese. 

34n.  Contemporary  review  of  modern  languages  and  literature   (appreciative). 

35.  English  literature,  2-6  (including  story  as  used  in  kindergarten  and 
before) . 

36.  English  literature,  6-12  (including  oral  story  and  all  reading  mater- 
ials not  specifically  technical  to  another  subject). 

36a.     Tales,  stories,  fiction,  biography. 

36b.     Poetry. 

36c.     Drama  and   dramatization. 

36d.  Literature  "masses,"  selected  to  affect  special  field  of  sentiment  and 
action — humane  treatment  of  animals,  patriotism,  religious  attitude, 
ambition  for  success  in  life,  appreciation  of  unlike  peoples,  apprecia- 
tion  of  democratic  ideals,   etc. 

36e.     Literature  selections  as  basis  of  special  English!  language  studies. 

37.  English  literature,  ages  12-18. 

37a      Classical  prose — including   19th  century. 

37b.     Classical  poetry  and  reading  drama. 

37c.     American  prose. 

37d.     American  poetry. 

37e.     Nineteenth  century  poetry. 

37f.      Drama  and  dramatization. 

37g.     Contemporary  drama. 

37h.     Contemporary  prose — including  short  and  long  story. 

37i.      Contemporary  poetry. 

37j.      History  of   English  literature. 

37k.     Classical  and  modern  foreign  literature  in  translation. 

371.      Intensive  analysis  of  selections. 

37m.  Literature — selected  materials — for  achievement  of  special  objectives, 
aesthetic,  historical,  or  social  (moral),  e.g.,  understanding  of  place 
of  mythology,  appreciation  of  the  courtship  motive,  stimulation  of 
ethical  ideals  in  relations  of  employees  and  employers,  inspiring  rev- 
erence, idealization  of  moral  excellence  in  designated  fields  of  conduct. 
(Note  difficult  pedagogical   problems   involved.) 

38.  Graphic  and  plastic  art,  6-12. 

38a.  Elementary  drawing  and  artistic  construction  (representation,  design, 
decoration,   fiat   and   round)     (amateur   execution). 

38b.  Elementary  graphic  and  plastic  art  appreciation  (pictures,  sculpture, 
decorations,  "pure,"  "applied"  in  architecture,  dress,  landscape,  other 
utilities). 

39.  Graphic  and  plastic  art,  12-18. 

39a.     Freehand   drawing   (representation). 
39b.     Mechanical   drawing,   general  education. 
39c.     Painting,  general   education. 

39d.     Decoration   and   artistic   craftsmanship,   general   education    (amateur   exe- 
cution) . 
39e.     Drawing   (mechanical   or  other,  prevocational). 
39f.      Appreciation   of   applied   art   in    environment. 

39g.      Appreciation  and  interpretation,   of  "pure"  art — painting,   sculpture,   etc. 
39h.     Graphic  and  plastic  art,  vocational  for  teachers. 


OBJECTIVES  253 

40.  Music,  1-6  (in  home  and  school). 

41.  Music,  6-12. 

41a.  Rote  singing  and  appreciation— in  concert  and  individual. 

^ id.  Appreciation   of  mechanically  rendered  music. 

41c.  Music    reading    for    voice. 

4 Id.  Individual   playing,   instrumental. 

41e.  Collective  playing,  instrumental. 

42.  Music,  ages  12-18. 

42a.  Chorus    singing,    without    reading. 

42b.  Chorus  singing,   with   reading. 

42c  Music  reading  and   singing,   individual. 

42d.  Reading  for  instrument  and  playing,  concert  or  band. 

42  e.  Reading  for  instrument  and  playing,  individual. 

42f.  Musical  appreciation,  based  on  expert  rendition  supplied. 

42g.  Musical   appreciation,   based  on  mechanical  rendition   supplied. 

42h.  Selected  music  as  means  of  realizing  stated  ends. 

43.  Musical  training  for  designated  vocations. 

44.  Practical  arts,  6-12  (defined  as  manipulative  work  based  on  modifi- 
cations or  extractions  from  adult  productive  activities,  taken  in  good 
amateur  spirit,  etc.). 

44a.     Gardening,   home   and   school. 

44b.     Co-operation   with  home   in  household  arts. 

44c.      Field,  home  and  playground  industrial  arts. 

45.  Practical  arts,  12-18. 

45a.  Industrial  arts,  junior  high  school. 

45b.  Agricultural  arts,  junior  high  school. 

45c.  Commercial  arts,  junior  high  school. 

45d.  Household  arts,  junior  high  school. 

45e.  Co-operation  in   home   maintenance,   industrial   arts. 

45 f.  Co-operation  in  home  maintenance,   household   arts. 

45g.  School   and  public  buildings   repair   and  upkeep,   industrial   arts. 

45h.  Market  service,  industrial  arts  craftsmanship. 

45L  Prevocational    practical   arts    training    for    (specified)    vocation    or    voca- 
tional training. 

46.  Physical  development  and  education,  1-3  (defined  as  conservation 
and  development  of  physical  well-being). 

46a.     Community   oversight  and  co-operation  in   conservation  of  physical   well- 
being  of  children  under  3   (prenatal,  infancy,  etc.). 
46b.     Play    and    play    facilities,    ages    1    to    3. 

47.  Physical  development  and  education,  3-6. 

47a.  Kindergarten  as  means. 

47b.  Play  and  play  facilities. 

47c  Special   oversight   for  children  of  wage- earning  mothers. 

47d.  Problems   of  parentless  children   under  6. 

48.  Physical  development  and  education  of  children,  6-12. 

48a.  Play   and   play   facilities. 

48b.  Intellectual    and   other    school   work   as   related   to   physical    development. 

48c  Physical   work   vs.   physical  play. 

48d.  Instruction   in   hygiene. 

48e.  Readings   and  other  beta  activities   in   hygiene. 

48f.  School  meals,   free  and  purchased. 

48g.  Problems  of  alternation  of  work  and  play,  length  of  school  day,  recess, 
forced    play,    etc 

49.  Physical  development  and  education,  12-18. 

49a.  Instruction   in   hygiene. 

49b.  Provision    of    facilities    for    play. 

49c  Organized  games  and  sports. 

49d.  Competitive    athletics. 

49e.  Gymnasium    training. 

49f.  Military   drill   as  physical    education. 

49g.  Extra-school  physical  work. 

49h.  Extra- school   activities — Boy    Scout,    dancing,   etc. 

49i.  Special   hygiene — sex. 


254  EDUCATIONAL  SOCIOLOGY 

ill'     f^i*1  hy»iene— nervous  work. 

iof*     «PCu,       hy«lene— narcotics    and    stimulants. 

SL  SS^0L1^«o{^^V,ld  Iife  on  permanent  healtk- 

50.  Physical  training  for  (specified)  vocation. 

51.  Vocational  agricultural  education,  14-25. 

fjf-  farming,    practical    phase,     for     (specified)     area, 

ci  *armmS»    technical    phase,    for    (specified)    area. 

cJj  £arnilnS>   sociaI  Phase,   for    (specified)    area. 

51d.  Poultry-raising,   practical    phase,    for    (specified)    area. 

51e.  Poultry -raising,  technical  phase,   for   (specified)   area. 

5  If.  Poultry -raising,   social  phase,   for    (specified)    area. 

51g.  Repeat  for  other  specified  agricultural  vocations. 

51h.  Extension  teaching  for  established  specialists. 

5li.  Professional  agriculture   for  agricultural  college. 

52.  Vocational  industrial  education,  14-25. 

52a.  Plumbing,   practical  phase   for    (specified)    area. 

52b.  Plumbing,  technical  phase  for   (specified)   area. 

52c  Plumbing,   social   phase   for   (specified)    area. 

52d.  Textile  mill   doffer   hands,   practical   phase. 

52e.  Textile  mill  doffer  hands,  technical  phase. 

52f.  Textile   mill    doffer   hands{   social   phase. 

52g.  Garment   makers,    mechanical   operating   specialists,    practical   phase. 

52h.  Garment   makers,   mechanical   operating  specialists,  technical   phase. 

52i.  Garment  makers,  mechanical  operating  specialists,   social  phase- 

52j.  (Repeat    for    other    selected    industrial    vocations.) 

53.  (Organize  topics  for  commercial  vocational  education.) 

54.  (Organize  topics  for  professional  education.) 

55.  (Organize  topics  for  homemaking  education.) 

56.  (Organize  topics  for  nautical  education.) 

57.  Military  training,  boys  12-16. 

58.  Military  training,  boys  16-18. 

59.  Universal  service  training,  men  18-22. 

60.  Part-time  military  training,  18-45. 

61.  Military  (or  defence)   training,  girls,  12-18. 

62.  Part-time  defence  training,  women,  18-45. 


CHAPTER  XLVI 

MISCELLANEOUS   PROBLEMS   OF  EDUCATIONAL  AIMS   FOR 
INVESTIGATION 

In  each  case,  analyze  and  define  descriptive  terms  and  expressions  com- 
monly used.  Show  relation  of  educational  objectives  comprehended  to 
other  objectives  necessary  to  make  unified  and  comprehensive  scheme  for 
age  and  social  groups  specified.  Determine  whether  a  definitely  bounded 
field  of  desirable  objectives  can  best  be  comprehended  and  described  by 
the  terms  used.  Specify  ages  and  social  status  groups  for  whom  positive 
proposals  are  made. 

1.  Liberal  education,  as  distinct  from  vocational  education. 

2.  Cultural  education. 

3.  Recreational  education. 

4.  Education  for  leisure. 

5.  Education  for  character  formation. 

6.  Education  of  taste. 

7.  Education  for  family  life. 

8.  Education  for  national  defence  (not  as  a  vocation). 

9.  Education  for  leadership. 

10.  Education  for  an  industrial  society. 

11.  Education  of  the  emotions  (or  feelings). 

12.  Education  of  the  will. 

13.  Education  of  the  imagination. 

14.  Mental    discipline    through    educational    "simples"    (mental   arithme- 
tic, grammar,  Latin,  geometry). 


255 


CHAPTER  XLVII 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  REFERENCES 

A.    Required  Readings,  Two  Point   Courses 
1.  Blackmar  and 


Gillen 

2.  Kelsey,  C. 

3.  Tufts,  S.  H. 

4.  Smith,  W.  R. 


To  be  supplied  by  students. 


Outlines  of  Sociology. 

The  Physical  Basis  of  Society. 

Our  Democracy:  Its  Origin  and  Its  Tasks. 

An  Introduction  to  Educational  Sociology. 


B.    Required  Readings,  Three  Point  Courses 
21.  Hayes,  E.  C.        Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology. 
The   Principles  of   Sociology. 
General  Sociology. 
Pure  Sociology. 
Social  Control. 
Democracy  and   Education. 


22.  Giddings,  F.  H 

23.  Small,  A.  W. 

24.  Ward,  L.  F. 

25.  Ross,  E.  A. 

26.  Dewey,  John 

27.  Dewey  and 

Tufts  Ethics. 

28 —    To  be  supplied  by  students. 

The  titles  under  A  and  B  are  referred  to  by  number  in  the  text. 


Abbott,  Edith 
Abbott,  Grace 
Addams,  J.  (i) 
Addams,  J.  (2) 
Anderson,  S. 
Angell,  F.  D. 
Antin,  Mary 
Bagehot,  W. 
Bagley,  W.  C 
Bailey,  L.  H. 
Bernheim,    C.   S. 
and 

Cohen,  J.   M. 
Boaz,  F. 
Bogart,  E.  L. 
Bradford,  G. 
Breckenfidge,  S.  P. 
and 

Abbott,  Edith 
Butterfield,  K.  L. 
Calhoun,  A.  W. 


C    General  References 
Women  in  Industry. 
The  Immigrant  and  the  Community. 
Democracy  and  Social  Ethics. 
The  Spirit  of  Youth  and  the  City  Streets. 
Winesburg,   Ohio — Small-town  Life. 
Play. 

The  Promised  Land. 
Physics  and  Politics. 
School  Discipline. 
The  Country  Life  Movement. 

Boys'  Clubs. 

The  Mind  of  the  Primitive  Man. 
Economic  History  of  the  U.   S. 
Thp  Lessons  of  Popular  Government. 

The  Delinquent  and  His  Home. 

Chapters  on  Rural  Progress. 

A  Social  History  of  the  American  Family. 

256 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  REFERENCES 


257 


Cannon,  W.  B. 
Carlton,  F.  T. 
Carver,  T.  V. 
Chamberlain,  A.  H. 
Chapin,  F.  S. 
Churchill,  W. 
Clay,  Henry 
Coe,  G.  A. 
Commons,  J.  R. 
Conklin,  E.  G. 
Cooke,   M.   L. 
Cooley,  C  H.    (1) 
Cooley,  C.  H.  (2) 
coolidge,  m.  b. 
Country  Life 
Commission 
Cram,  R.  A. 
Cronson,  B. 

CUBBERLEY,     E.     P. 

Curtis,  C.  H. 
Davenport,  E.   (i) 
Davenport,  E.   (2) 
Davenport,  E.   (3) 
Davis,  W.  S. 
Dealey,   J.    (1) 
Dealey,  J.    (2) 
Dean,  A.  D. 
Deniker,  J. 
Denison,  Elsa 
Devine,  E.  T. 
Dewey,  J. 
Dooley.  W.  H. 
Drysdale,  E.  V. 

DUGDALE,    F.    L. 

Duncan,  R.  K. 
Eliot,  C.  W. 
Elliott,  G.  F.  S. 
Ellis,  H. 
Ellwood,  C.  A. 
Ely,  R.  T. 
Ferris,  W.  H. 
Fetter,   F.   A. 
Fiske,  G.  W.  (1) 

FlSKE,   J.    (2) 

Forbush,  W.  B. 
George,  W.  R.  (i) 
George,  W.  R.  (2) 


Bodily  Changes  in  Pain,  Hunger,  etc. 

Education  and  Industrial  Evolution. 

Essays  in  Social  Justice. 

Standards  in  Education. 

Historical  Introduction  to  Social  Economics. 

The  Inside  of  the  Cup. 

Economics  for  the  General  Reader. 

Education  in  Religion  and  Morals. 

Races  and  Immigrants  in  America. 

Heredity  and  Environment  in  the  Development  of  Man. 

Our  Cities  Awake. 

Social  Organization. 

Human  Nature  and  the  Social  Order. 

Why  Women  Are  So. 

Report. 

The  Nemesis  of  Mediocrity. 

Pupil  Self -Government. 

Public  Education  in  the  United  States. 

Education  Through  Play. 

Education  for  Efficiency. 

Primitive  Traits  in  Religious  Revivals. 

Heredity  and  Eugenics. 

The  Roots  of  the  War. 

The  Development  of   the   State. 

The  Family  in  Its  Social  Aspects. 

The  Worker  and  the  State. 

The  Races  of  Man. 

Helping  School  Children. 

Misery  and  Its  Causes. 

Democracy  and  Education. 

The  Education  of  the  Ne'er-do-Well. 

The  Small  Family  System. 

The  Jukes. 

The  New  Knowledge. 

Individualism   and   Collectivism   in  a   Democracy. 

Prehistoric  Man  and  His  Story. 

The  Task  of  Social  Hygiene. 

The  Sociological  Basis  of  the  Science  of  Education. 

Property  and  Contract,  etc. 

The  African  Abroad. 

Modern  Economic  Problems. 

Boy  Life  and   Self-Government. 

The  Meaning  of  Infancy. 

The   Coming   Generation. 

Citizens  Made  and  Remade. 

The  Junior  Republic. 


258 


EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 


Ghent,  W.  J. 
Giddings,  F. 
Gillette,  J.  M. 
Goodsell,  W. 
Griggs,  E.  H. 
Gulick,  L.  H. 
Haddon,  A.  C 
Hadley,  A.  T. 
Hanus,  P.  H. 
Hart,  F.  K. 

Hayes,  E.  C 
Healey,  W. 
Hill,  H.  W. 

HOLLINGWORTH,  H.  L. 
HOLLISTER,    H.    A. 

Hopkins,  A.  A. 
Howe,  F.  C. 
Hunter,  R. 
Huntington,  E.  (i) 
Huntington,  E.  (2) 
Jastrow,  J. 
Jenks,  J.  W. 
Johnson,  H.  H. 
Judd,  C  H. 
Keller,  A.  G. 
Kenngott,   G.   F. 
Kerschensteiner,  F. 
Kidd,  B. 
King,  Irving 
King,  W.  I. 
Kropotkin,  P. 
Lauch,  W.  J. 
Laveleye,  F. 
Lee,  G.  S.  (i) 
Lee,  Joseph,  (2) 
Lichtenberger,  J.  P 
McDougall,  W. 
McKeever,  W.  A. 
McKeever,  W.  A. 
Mahan,   A.   T. 
Maine,  H.  S. 
Mabie,  H.  W. 

Marshall,  H.  R. 
Mathews,  S. 
Mecklin,  J.  M. 


Mass  and  Class. 

Democracy  and  Empire. 

Constructive  Rural  Sociology. 

The  Family. 

Moral  Education. 

The  Efficient  Life. 

Evolution  in  Art. 

Freedom  and  Responsibility. 

Educational  Aims  and  Educational  Values. 

Educational  Resources  of  Village  and  Rural  Com- 
munities. 

Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology. 

The  Individual  Delinquent. 

The  New  Republic. 

Vocational  Psychology. 

The  Administration  of  Education  in  a  Democracy. 

The  Book  of  Progress. 

The  Modern  City  and  Its  Problems. 

Violence  and  the  Labor  Movement. 

World  Power  and  Evolution. 

Civilization  and  Climate. 

The  Qualities  of  Men. 

Citizenship  and  the  Schools. 

The  Negro  in  the  New  World. 

The  Psychology  of  the  High  School  Subjects. 

Societal  Evolution. 

The  Record  of  a  City   (Lowell). 

The  Schools  and  the  Nation. 

The  Science  of  Power. 

Education   for   Social  Efficiency. 

Wealth  and  Income  of  the  People  of  the  U.   S. 

Mutual  Aid,  a  Factor  in  Evolution. 

Conditions  of  Labor  in  Modern  Industries. 

Primitive  Property. 

Crowds. 

Play  in  Education. 

Divorce,  a  Study  in  Social  Causation. 

Social  Psychology. 

Training  the  Boy. 

Training  the  Girl. 

The  Interest  of  America  in  Sea  Power. 

Ancient  Law. 

Essays  on  Nature  and  Culture.  (Chap.  XXVI,  Play 
vs.  Work). 

War  and  the  Ideal  of  Peace. 

Patriotism  and  Religion. 

Democracy  and  Race  Friction. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  REFERENCES 


259 


Mercier,   C.   A. 

Conduct   and    Its   Disorders. 

Morris,  R.  T. 

Microbes  and  Men. 

MuNSTERBERG,    H. 

The  Eternal  Values. 

Nietzsche,   F. 

Genealogy  of  Morals. 

Oppenheimer,   F. 

The  State. 

Osborn,  H.  F. 

Men  of  the  Old  Stone  Age. 

Parmelee,  M. 

Criminology. 

Poole,  Ernest 

The  Village,  Russian  Impressions. 

Poponoe  and 

Johnson 

Eugenics. 

Powers,  H.  H.  (i) 

The  Message  of  Greek  Art. 

Powers,  H.  H.  (2) 

The  Things  Men  Fight  For. 

Powers,  H.  H.  (3) 

America  Among  the  Nations. 

Price,  G.  M. 

The  Modern  Factory. 

Putnam,   E.   J. 

The  Lady. 

R  A  PEER,    L.    W. 

The   Consolidated  Rural   School. 

Reid,  C.  A. 

The  Laws  of  Heredity. 

Riis,  Jacob   (i) 

How  the  Other  Half  Lives. 

Riis,  Jacob  (2) 

The  Making  of  an  American. 

Rogers,  F.   E.  T. 

Six  Centuries  of  Work  and  Wages. 

Rose,  J.  H. 

Nationality  in  Modern  History. 

Roosevelt,  T. 

The  New  Nationalism. 

Ross,  E.  A.  (1) 

Sin  and   Society. 

Ross,  E.  A.   (2) 

South  of  Panama. 

Ross,  E.  A.  (3) 

The  Changing  Chinese. 

Ross.   E.   A.    (4) 

The  Old  World  in  the  New. 

Ross,  E.  A.  (5) 

What's  America. 

Saleeby.  C.  W. 

Methods  of  Race  Regeneration. 

Semple.  E.  C. 

Influences  of  Geographic  Environment. 

Sharp,  F.   C. 

Education  for  Character. 

Small,  A. 

The  Meaning  of  Social  Science. 

Smith.  T.  R.    0) 

Commerce   and    Industry. 

Smith,  R.  H.  (2) 

Justice  and  the  Poor. 

Starr,  F, 

Some  First  Steps  in  Human  Progress. 

Steiner,   E.    A. 

From  Alien  to  Citizen. 

Stone,  A.  H. 

Studies  in  the  American  Race  Problem. 

Streightoff.  F.  H. 

The  Distribution  of  Incomes  in  the  U.  S. 

Strong,   Josiah 

The  Challenge  of  the  City. 

Summer,  W.  G.  (i)  Earth  Hunger,  etc. 

Sumner.  W.  G.   (2)  Folkways. 

Taylor.  G. 

Religion  in  Social  Action. 

Tead,  Ordway 

The  Instincts  of  Industry. 

Terman.  L.  M. 

The  Measurement  of  Intelligence. 

Thomas,  W.  J. 

Sex  and  Society. 

Todd,  A.  J. 

Theories  of  Social  Progress. 

Tolstoi,  Leo 

What  is  Art? 

Toynbee.  A. 

The  Industrial  Revolution  in  the  18th  Century. 

200  EDUCATIONAL    SOCIOLOGY 

Tufts,  J.  H.  The  Business  of  Living. 

Tyler,  J.  M.    (i)  The  Place  of  the  Church  in  Evolution. 

Tyler,  J.  M.   (2)  Growth   and   Education. 

Usher,  R.'  G.  Pan-Americanism. 

Veblen,  T.  Theory  of  the  Leisure  Gass. 

Vincent,  G.  E.  The  Rivalry  of  Social  Groups. 

Wallace,  A.  R.  (i)  Our  Wonderful  Century. 

Wallace,  A.  R.  (2)  Social    Environment    and    Moral    Propress. 

Wallas.   L.  The  Sociology  of  the  Bible. 

Ward,  E.  J.  (1)  The  Social  Center. 

Ward,  L.  F.    (2)  Psychic  Factors  in  Civilization. 

Ward,  L.  F.  (3)  Dynamic  Sociology.     Vols.  I  and  II. 

Wells,  H.  G.   (i)  The  New  Machiavelli. 

Wells,  H.  G.  (2)  Joan  and  Peter. 

White,  A.  D.  A  History  of  the  Warfare  of  Science  with  Theology. 

Williams,   H.    S.  The  Miracles  of  Science. 

Willis,  J.  C.  Agriculture  in  the  Tropics. 

Winship,  E.  A.  Jukes— Edwards. 

Wood  and  Blatzley  Is  War  Diminishing? 

D.    Reference  List  of  Bibliographies,  Chapters  XXVI-XLVI 

Many  references  to  articles  and  books  may  be  found  by  consulting  the 
titles  given  below,  or  related  titles  suggested  by  them,  in: 

Monroe's  Encyclopedia  of  Education. 

Poole's  Index. 

Readers'  Guide. 

Bibliography  of  Books  on  Education  in  Columbia   University  Library 
(1901). 

Burnham,   W.   H.     Bibliographies   of  Books   on   Educational  Subjects 
(Worcester,  1912). 

Johnston,  C.  H.    High  School  Education. 

Johnston,  C  H.    The  Modern  High  School, 

Monroe,  P.    Principles  of  Secondary  Education, 

Consult  also  Indexes  and  Index  Volumes  of:  Proceedings  of  National 
Education  Association;  Educational  Review;  School  Reviezv;  Elementary 
Journal;  School  and  Society;  Education;  Report  of  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion (Washington);  Bulletins  of  Bureau  of  Education;  Proceedings  of 
Religious  Education  Association ;  Pedaaogical  Seminary ;  Journal  of 
Educational  Psychology;  Psychological  Review;  Educational  Adminis- 
tration and  Supervision. 

Explanations :  B  before  a  title  indicates  series  of  card  references  to 
that  subiect  in  card  catalogue  of  Bryson  Library.  Teachers  Colleere. 
Thus:  "B  French  study"  indicates  that  under  the  title,  "French  study." 
will  be  found  card  references  to  books  on  that  subject. 

Ch.  ref.  means  reference  lists  at  ends  of  chapters. 

Passim  means  references  throughout  text  and  in  footnotes. 
Agricultural  Arts — See  also  Gardening,   School. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  REFERENCES  26l 

B     Agriculture  Study;   School  Gardening. 
Agricultural  Education. 

B    Agriculture  Study;  School  Gardening. 

U.   S.   Dept.   of   Agriculture — Publications   of   interest   to   teachers   of 
agriculture. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  Bull.  No.  10,  1912 :  Bibliography  of  Agricul- 
ture and  Home  Economics. 
Agricultural    High    Schools— See    High    Schools;    Agricultural    Schools; 

Agricultural  Education. 
Algebra — See  Mathematics. 
Arithmetic — B      Arithmetic  Study. 

Art  Education— B  Art;  Art  Study;  Art,  History;  Art,  Industrial;  Deco- 
ration. 

O'Shea,  M.  V. :  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education. 
Art,  Graphic  and  Plastic — See  Art  Education;  Drawing. 
Athletics — See  Physical  Education. 

Biology — B     Biology  Study;  Botany  Study;  Zoology  Study. 
Blind — B     Blind,  Education  of. 

Illingworth,  W.  H. :  History  of  the  Education  of  the  Blind  (139-142). 

Tewksbury,  E.  B. :  Sociological  Factors. 
Botany — See  Biology. 

Boy  Scout  Education — See  also  Physical  Education.    B    Boy  Scout. 
Business  Education — See  Commercial  Education. 
Chemistry — B    Chemistry  Study. 
Citizenship — See  Social  Education. 
Civics — See  Social  Education. 
Civil  Government — See  Social  Education. 
Classics  or  Classical  Languages — See  Latin. 
Colleges — B     College;   College  Entrance  Requirements;   Coeducation. 

Walkley,  R.  S. :  Bibliography  of  Relation  of  Secondary  and  Higher  Edu- 
cation— U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bull.  No.  32,  1914. 
Commercial  Arts — See  Commercial  Education. 
Commercial  Education — B    Education,  Commercial. 
Commercial  High  Schools — See  High  Schools. 
Composition — See  English  Language. 
Current  Events — See  History. 
Dancing — See  Physical  Education. 
Day  Nurseries — See  Nurseries. 
Deaf— B    Deaf  and  Dumb. 

Fay,  E.  A.:  Manual  of  the  Deaf  (contains  sp.  bibliography). 

Best,  H.:  The  Deaf  (footnotes). 
Defectives— See  Blind;  Deaf;  Defectives,  Mental. 
Defectives,  Mental— B     Children,  Defective. 

Dresslar,  F.  B.:  School  Hygiene  (ch.  ref.). 

Wallin,  J.  E.  W.:  Experimental  Studies  of  Mental  Defectives  (passim). 
Delinquents— B     Crime,   Juvenile;    Children,   Defective. 
MacDonald,  A.:  Abnormal  Man   (352-410). 


262  EDUCATIONAL   SOCIOLOGY 

Drawing — See  also  Art  Education.    B    Drawing. 

Hall,  G.  S. :  Educational  Problems  (Bib.,  footnotes,  Chap.  XX). 
Education,  Rural — See  Rural  Education. 
Elementary  Schools — B    Education,  Elementary. 
English  Language — B     Composition,  English;  Reading;  Rhetoric. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A.:  Teaching  the  Language  Arts  (203-205). 

Klapper,  P.:  Teaching  Children  to  Read  (204-205). 

Baker,  E.  A. :  A  Descriptive  Guide  to  the  Best  Fiction. 

Barnes,  W. :  English  in  the  Country  School  (275). 

Cook,  W.  A.  and  O'Shea,  M.  V.:  The  Child  and  His  Spelling  (267-262). 
English  Literature — B  Literature. 

Fairchild,  A.  H.  B.:  The  Teaching  of  Poetry  in  the  High  School  (177- 
181). 
Ethics — See  Social  Education. 
French — B    French  Study. 
Gardening — B    School  Gardens. 
Geography — B     Geography  Study. 

Hall,  G.  S. :  Educational  Problems  (Bib.  footnotes,  Chap.  XXI). 
Geometry — See  Mathematics. 
German — B    German  Study. 
Government,   Civil — See  Social  Education. 
Grammar — See  English  Language. 
Greek — See  Latin. 

Gymnasium — See  Physical  Education.     B    Physical  Training. 
High  Schools — 

Brown,  J.  F.:  The  American  High  School  (398-407). 

Hall,  G.  S. :  Educational  Problems  (Bib.  footnotes,  chap.  XXIII). 
History — 

Hall,  G.  S. :  Educational  Problems  (Bib.  footnotes,  chap.  XVI). 

Johnson,  H. :  Teaching  of  History   (Bib.  appendices). 

Wyer,  J. I.:  Bibliography — American  History  Association  Report  of  1899: 
(561-612). 
Homemaking  Education — See  Household  Arts. 
Home  Economics — See  Household  Arts. 

Household  Arts— B    Household  Arts;  Home;  Home  Economics;  Home 
Economics   Study;   Home  Education. 

U.    S.    Bureau    of    Education    Bulletin    No.    10,    1912.      {Bibliography 
of  Agriculture  and  Home  Economics). 
Hygiene — See  Physical  Education. 
Imbeciles — See  Defectives,  Mental. 
Immigrants — B    Immigrants. 
Industrial  Arts — B    Manual  Training. 

Leland,  C.  G.:  Practical  Education,  etc.  (272-280). 
Industrial   Education    (vocational) — See   also   Vocational   Education.     B 
Education,  Technical;  Education,  Industrial. 
Hall,  G.  S.:  Educational  Problems  (Bib.  footnotes,  chap.  VIII). 
Junior  High  School — B    Junior  High  Schools. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  REFERENCES  263 

""Nat.  Soc.  for  the  Study  of  Education,  15th  Yearbook,  Pt.  Ill  (146-157). 
Juvenile  Court— See  Delinquents. 
Kindergartens— B    Kindergarten. 

Hall,  G.  S. :  Educational  Problems  (Bib.  footnotes,  chap.  I). 

Guggenheimer,  A.:  Froebel  and  the  Kindergarten    (Bibliography). 
Languages — See  Latin;  Modern  Languages. 
Latin— B    Latin. 

Liberal  Arts  College— See  Colleges. 
Literature,  English— See  English  Literature. 
Manual  Training — See  Industrial  Arts. 
Mathematics — B    Mathematics  Study;  Algebra. 

Hall,  G.  S.:  Educational  Problems  (Bib.  footnotes,  chap.  XVIII). 

Smith,  D.  E.  and  Goldziher,  C. :  Bibliography  of  the  Teaching  of  Mathe- 
matics.   Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin  No.  29,  1912. 
Mechanical  Drawing — See  Drawing. 
Mental  Science — 

Heck,  W.  H.:  Mental  Discipline  and  Educational  Values  (199-208). 

O'Shea,  M.  V. :  Dynamic  Factors  in  Education. 

Rowe,  S.  H. :  Habit  Formation  and  the  Science  of  Teaching  (287-301 ) . 

Sisson,  E.  O. :  The  Essentials  of  Character. 
Modern  Languages — See  also  French;  German.    B    Language  Study. 

Hall,  G.  S. :  Educational  Problems  (Bib.  footnotes,  chap.  XV). 
Moral  Education — See  Social  Education. 
Music — B    Music. 

Hall,  G.  S.    Educational  Problems  (Bib.  footnotes,  chap.  I). 
Nature  Study — See  also  Science,  General.    B     Nature. 
Normal  Schools — B    Teacher  Training. 
Nurses,  Training  of — B    Nurses,  Training  of. 
Penmanship — See  also  English  Language. 

Freeman,  F.  N. :  The  Teaching  of  Handwriting  (Bib.,  footnotes). 
Physical  Defectives — See  Blind;  Cripples;  Deaf. 
Physical  Education — B    Hygiene;  Physical  Training;  School,  Open  Air. 

Hall,  G.  S.:  Educational  Problems  (dancing)  (Bib.,  footnotes,  chap.  II). 

Dresslar,  F.  B.:  School  Hygiene  (chap.  ref.  and  203-211). 

O'Shea,  M.  V.:  Dynamic^ Factors  in  Education  (301-312  and  footnotes). 

Rapeer,  L.  W.:  School  Health  Administration  (Bib.  notes  and  ch.  ref.). 

Wood,  T.  D.  and  Reesor,  M.  F. :  Bibliography  of  Educational  Hygiene 
and  Physical  Education  (Teachers  College). 
Physics — B     Physics  Study. 
Play — See  also  Physical  Education ;  Playgrounds. 

Groos,  Karl.:  The  Play  of  Man  (Bib.,  footnotes). 
Practical    Arts — B     Arts;    Arts    and    Crafts;    Gardening;    Handicrafts; 

Household  Arts;  Industrial  Arts. 
Prevocational  Education — See  Practical  Arts. 
Professional  Schools  or  Colleges — See  Colleges. 
Psychology — See  Mental  Science. 
Reading — See  also  English  Language. 


264  EDUCATIONAL    SOCIOLOGY 

Hall,  G.  S. :  Educational  Problems  (Bib.,  footnotes,  chap.  XIX). 

Jenkins,  F. :  Reading  in  the  Primary  Grades  (Bib.,  footnotes). 
Religious  Education — See  also  Social  Education. 

Hall.  G.  S. :  Educational  Problems  (Bib.,  footnotes,  chap.  IV). 
Rural  Education — B     School,  Rural. 

Betts,  G.  H.  and  Hall,  O.  E.:  Better  Rural  Schools  (Bib.  append.  I). 

Cubberley,  E.  P.:  Rural  Life  and  Education  (349-363). 

Foght,  H.  W. :  Rural  Denmark  (Bib.  append.). 
Science,  Elementary — See  Science,  General;  Nature  Study. 
Science,  General — B     Science ;  Science  Essays ;  Science,  General ;  Science 
Study. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bull.  No.  1,  1911  (Bib.  of  Science  Teaching). 
Science,  Natural — See  Biology;  Chemistry;  Physics. 
Self-Government — See  also  Social  Education.     B     School  State. 
Sex  Hygiene — See  also  Physical  Education. 

Hall,  G.  S. :  Educational  Problems  (Bib.  footnotes,  chap.  VII). 
Social  Education — See  also  Religious  Education.     B     Citizenship;  Civics, 
Community;  Democracy. 

Brooks,  R.  C. :  Bibliography  of  Municipal  Problems. 

Brown,  J.  F. :  The  American  High  School. 

Cabot,  E.  L. :  Ethics  for  Children  (passim). 

Hall,  G.  S. :  Educational  Problems  (Bib.  footnotes,  chaps.  V  and  XXIV). 

Meyer,  H.  H.  B.:  Selected  List  of  References  on  Commission  Govern-* 
ment  of  Cities. 

Rowe,  S.  H. :  Habit  Formation  and  the  Science  of  Teaching. 

Sisson,  E.  O. :  The  Essentials  of  Character. 
Social  Science — See  Social  Education. 
Sociology — 

Wright,  C.  D.:  Outline  of  Practical  Sociology  (Bib.  chap.  XI-XVII  and 
ch.  ref.). 
Spanish — See  Modern  Languages. 
Spelling— See  English  Language. 
Teacher   Training — See   Normal   Schools. 
Technical  High  Schools— See  High  Schools. 
Technological  Schools — See  Colleges. 

Trade  Education — See  Industrial  Education;  Vocational  Education. 
Truants — See  also  Deliquents.     B    School  Attendance. 
Vocational    Education — See    also    Industrial    Education.      B     Education, 
Vocational;  Vocational  Education. 

Brown,  J.  F. :  The  American  High  School. 

Hall,  G.  S.:  Educational  Problems  (Bib.  footnotes,  chap  VIII). 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bull.  No.  22,  1913. 
Vocational  Guidance — 

Brewer,    J.    M.    and    Kelly,    R.    W. :     Harvard  Bulletin  on    Education 
(Selected  Bibliography). 

Gowin  and  Wheatley:  Occupations  (chap.  ref.  and  appendix). 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Bull.  No.  24,  1918. 
Zoology — See  Biology. 


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