Full text of "Discovery and adventure in the polar seas and regions"

T. NELSON AND SONS LONDON AND EDINBURGH.

DISCOVERY AND ADVENTURE

IN THE

POLAR SEAS AND REGIONS.

BY SIR JOHN LESLIE, K. H., Ok^'^

HUUH MURRAY, ESQ., F.R.S.E.

WITH A NARRATIVE OF THE RECENT EXPEDITIONS IN SEARCH

OF SIR JOHN FRANKLIN, INCLUDING THE VOYAGE OF THE " FOX," AND TUB

DISCOVERY OF THE FATE OF TJIE FRANKLIN EXPEDITION.

BY R!M> BALLANTYNE. i 3- 5T-

LONDON:

T NELSON AND SONS, PATERNOSTER ROW:

EDINBURGH ; AND NEW YORK.

3 7 3 5-f

Librai?

PREFACE.

THE present work was undertaken with the view of giving
a complete and connected description of the varied pheno-
mena of the Polar world, as well as an account of the more
important voyages and expeditions, whether for profit or
discovery, through which it has become known to Europe.
Such a subject, it is believed, combining much that is inter-
esting hi natural scenery and maritime adventure, can
hardly fail to prove attractive. In those climates nature
is marked by the most stupendous features, and, presenting
objects at once sublime and beautiful, the forms she assumes
differ from her aspects in our milder latitudes almost as
widely as though they belonged to another planet. The
tempests and darkness of those wintry realms are strikingly
varied by the brief but brilliant summer, the singular
magnificence of the celestial and meteorological appear-
ances, and the dreary grandeur of those enormous piles of
ice which stud the land or float upon the water. Along
with a characteristic range of vegetable productions, and a
remarkable profusion of animal life wonderfully adapted to
sustain existence in the extremity of cold, we are presented'
with a race of men singular alike from the circumstances to
which they have conformed themselves, the manners and
customs thence resulting, and the contrivances whereby they
brave the utmost rigours of the clime. When, moreover,*

8 PEEFACE.

it is considered that in the field of Northern Discovery,
England laid the foundation of her maritime pre-eminence,
and that the men who have earned in it the greatest glory
were chiefly British, it will be admitted that the history of
their adventures must have a peculiar charm for the Eng-
lish reader.

The narrative of these voyages, down to the close of the
ninth chapter, was carefully drawn from the most authentic
sources by Mr. Murray, whose labours in a similar depart-
ment of literature have been received by the public with no
common approbation. They include the adventures and
exploits of many of those navigators of whom their country
has the greatest reason to be proud. Such in early times
were Willoughby, Chancelor, Frobisher, Davis, Hudson ;
more recently Parry, Scoresby, Ross, the uncle and nephew,
with others of little inferior note. The wild and strange
scenes through which their career led, the peculiar perils
with which it was beset, the hairbreadth escapes and some-
times tragical events that ensued, give to their narratives
an interest similar to that of romance.

The tenth and eleventh chapters have been prepared
by an experienced writer. They trace the history of north-
western exploration through most eventful recent periods,
down to the winter of J850. The former narrates the
marvellous ice-voyage of Captain (now Sir George) Back,
and the completion of discovery round the mysterious
coasts of Boothia ; the latter gives the substance of all
that has been made known, up to 1850, in volumes, perio-
dicals, and public documents, respecting the lamented
expedition of Sir John Franklin, and the complicated
searches for it ; and the two together, it is hoped, will be
regarded by every reader as an important addition to the
value of this work.

PREFACE. 9

The events that have recently occurred in the Northern
Regions in connection with the search for Sir John Frank-
lin's ill-fated expedition, and the discovery by M'Clintock
of the document recording its fate, are so deeply interesting
and important, that it has been deemed advisable to issue
a new edition of the present work, with the addition of
all that has reached us from the dark regions of the Polar
Seas. The concluding chapters will, therefore, be found
to contain a complete outline of the proceedings of the
searching squadron under Sir Edward Belcher, the more
recent expeditions of Dr. Rae, Dr. Kane, &c., and the
voyage of the " Fox" under Captain M'Clintock, who has
brought us the melancholy intelligence of the total loss of
the Franklin expedition.

While, however, it has been the aim of the compiler to
give the outline of events as much as poss'ible in unbroken
order, he has thought that a somewhat fuller detail of
a few out of the many interesting events that have
occurred would tend to invest the narrative with an interest
which a simple outline of the whole would fail to do.
Accordingly, it will be found that considerable prominence
has been given to the narrative of the second voyage of the
Prince Albert, under Mr. Kennedy whose adventures are
replete with striking incidents characteristic of the stormy
Polar Seas to the extraordinary voyage of Commander
M'Clure, which resulted in the discovery of the far-famed
North-West Passage to the stirring and romantic voyage
of the American brig " Advance," under Dr. Kane, and to
the deeply interesting voyage of the " Fox."

Besides these narratives, several of the most distinguished
men of science in Scotland have lent their aid to illustrate
the wonderful order of nature prevailing within the Arctic
Circle. Sir John Leslie commenced the volume with a full

10 PREFACE.

examination of the climate and its phenomena, subjects
so important, that without a preliminary knowledge of them
the progress of discovery would be but imperfectly under-
stood.

The chapter on Natural History, though the subject
be treated by Mr. Murray in a popular rather than in a
scientific manner, has received the careful revision of a
distinguished naturalist.

The Whale-fishery forms a striking feature in Arctic
adventure, and is, besides, of great national as well as com-
mercial importance. Of its daring operations and its vari-
ous perils, the description here introduced may be the more
acceptable, as it is presumed to be the only one hitherto
attempted within a moderate compass.

For an account of the successive expeditions, by land or
along the coast, to define the northern boundaries of the
American and Asiatic continents, the reader is referred to
the " NORTHERN COASTS OP AMERICA, A^D THE HUDSON'S
BAY TERRITORIES." In that volume are contained inter-
esting descriptions of the wild country through which the
different travellers penetrated to the shores of the Polar
Sea, of the sufferings they endured, and of the valuable
additions made by them to geographical science.

EDINBURGH, 1860.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

THE CLIMATE OP THE POLAR REGIONS.

Page

General View of the Subject Light thrown on it by Voyages of Dis-
covery Various Opinions and Observations discussed Distribu-
tion of Heat over the Surface of the Globe Currents in the
Atmosphere Freezing of the Arctic Sea Phenomena of the
Seasons in the Polar Regions Formation of Icebergs Changes
in the Aspect of the Polar Seas Supposed Alterations in the
Climate of Europe- State of the Ice in the Polar Seas Situation
of the Ancient Colonies in Greenland.... 17

CHAPTER II.

ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE LIFE IN THE POLAR REGIONS.

Remarkable Profusion of Animal Life Means by which it is sup-
portedThe Cetacea: Whale, Nanval, Walrus, Seal The Herring
Land Animals The Polar Bear ; its Ferocity ; Anecdotes The
Rein-deer Wolf, Fox, Dog Birds Vegetable Life Peculiar
Plants Red Snow 62

CHAPTER III.
ANCIENT VOYAGES TO THE NORTH.

Voyage of Pytheas Norwegian Expeditions ; Ohthere Colonization
of Iceland -The Zeni Quirini 95

CHAPTER IV.

VOYAGES IN SEARCH OP A NORTH-EAST PASSAGE.

Rise of Maritime Enterprise in England Plan of a North-east Pas-
sage to India Expedition of Sir Hugh Willoughby ; its Issue
Chancelor reaches the White Sea ; Journey to Moscow Voyage of
Burroughs Of Pet, and Jackman Dutch Expeditions Barentz's
First, Second, and Third Voyages; His Death Hudson Wood
Litke W

12 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER V.

EARLY VOYAGES TOWARDS THE NORTH POLE.

Page

Plan of a Polar Passage to India Voyages to Cherie Island Hud-
son Poole Baffin Fotherby 144

CHAPTER VI.

EARLY VOYAGES IN SEARCH OF A NORTH-WEST PASSAGE.

The Portuguese ; The Cortereals The Spaniards; Gomez Expedi-
ditions under Henry VIII. ; their Issue Frobisher's First, Second,
and Third Voyages Davis' First, Second, and Third Voyages
Wey mouth Knight Hudson; Mutiny of his Men; Disastrous
Issue of the Expedition Voyages of Button Gibbons Bylot
Baffin Jens Munk, the Dane Fox and James Knight and
Barlow Middleton, &c 155

CHAPTER VII.

VOYAGES BY ROSS AND PARRY IN SEARCH OF A NORTH-WEST
PASSAGE.

Spirited Views of the British Government Ross's Expedition; He
sails round Baffin's Bay; Arctic Highlands; Lancaster Sound ; His
Return Parry's First Expedition ; Entrance into the Arctic Sea;
Regent's Inlet North Georgian Islands; Winters at Melville
Island; Mode of spending the Winter ; North Georgian Theatre;
Gazette; Disappearance of the Animal Tribes; Attempt to pro-
ceed Westward during the Summer; His Return to England
Parry's Second Expedition, accompanied by Captain Lyon; He
enter's Hudson's Strait; Savage Islands; Duke of York's Bay;
Frozen Strait ; Various Inlets Discovered ; Ships Frozen in for the
Winter; Polar Theatre and School; Brilliant Appearances of the
Aurora Borealis ; Intercourse with a Party of Esquimaux ; Land
Excursions; Release from the Ice; Voyage Northward ; Discovery
of a Strait named after the Fury and Hecla ; Progress Arrested ;
Second Winter-quarters at Igloolik ; The Esquimaux ; Symptoms
of Scurvy ; Return of the Expedition to England Parry's Third
Expedition ; He Winters at Port Bowen ; Shipwreck of the Fury;
Return of the Hecla - 4 213

CHAPTER VIII.

ROSS'S SECOND VOYAGE.

Motives which led to the Expedition Difficulties in Equipping
it Expense Defrayed by Sir Felix Booth Accidents on the
Coast of Scotland Passage across the Ocean Refitted at Hol-
steinborg Passage through Barrow's Strait and down Regent's
Inlet Discovery of the Fury's Stores Difficult Navigation

CONTENTS. 13

Fgo

Winter Station in Felix Harbour Means Devised for Resisting
the Cold Visit from a Party of Esquimaux Information Respect-
ing the Neighbouring Coasts Expedition to Nei-tyel-le To
Shagavoke To the Northward For Cape Turnagain Obliged to
stop at Victory Point Return Attempt to Sail next Summer
Arrested for the Winter Excursion to the Northward And across
the Country Commander Ross's Discovery of the Magnetic Pole
Another Fruitless Attempt to bring Home the Vietoiy Deter-
mination to Abandon Her Summary of Observations on the
Esquimaux Journey along the Coast to Fury Beach Fruitless
Attempt to cross Barrow's Strait Winter at SOHK et House
Successful Navigation next Summer Reach the Isabella of Hull
Reception Return Joy at their Arrival Rewards to the Adven-
turers General Results of the Voyage Return of Captain Back 271

CHAPTER IX.

MODERN VOYAGES TOWARDS THE NORTH POLE.

Expedition of Captain Phipps (Lord Mulgrave) ; Progress arrested
by the Ice ; His Return Scoresby ; Various important Observa-
tions made by him ; Voyage to the Eastern Coast of Greenland;

. Discoveries; Returns to England Clavering's Voyage and Dis-
coveries Expedition of Graah De Blosseville Dutaillis
Buchan's Expedition Parry's Fourth Expedition, in which he
attempts to reach the Pole ; Progress along the Coast of Spitz-
bergen ; The Boats arrive at the Ice ; Mode of Travelling ; Various
Obstacles Encountered ; Compelled to Return Question as to the
Practicability of Reaching the Pole 308

CHAPTER X.

EXPEDITIONS TO THE SEAS AROUND BOOTHIA.

Equipment of the Terror; Dangers in Hudson's Strait ; Besetment
in the Ice near Frozen Strait ; Series of Dreadful Perils off South-
ampton Island; Disablement and Return of the Ship Boat
Voyage of Messrs. Dease and Simpson; Labyrinth Bay; Open
Inlet from the Polar Sea to Back's Estuary; South Coasts of
Boothia and Victoria Land ; Re-entrance into the Coppermine
River Expedition of Mr. Rae ; Wintering at Repulse Bay ; Ex-
ploration of the Gulf of Akkolee to Lord Mayor's Bay and to the
Vicinity of the Fury and Hecla Strait 344

CHAPTER XI.

THE FRANKLIN EXPEDITION, AND SEARCHING SQUADRONS.

Equipment and Sailing of the Erebus and the Terror Public anxiety
about their Fate Comprehensive Plan of Operations to Search
for them Proceedings of the Herald and the Plover by way of
Bearing's Strait Proceedings of an Overland Party on the Cen-

14 CONTENTS.

l-ng*

tral Parts of the Arctic American Coasts Proceedings of the
Entci-prise and tlie Investigator by way of Lancaster Sound Sup-
plementary Measures of Search Increased Public Anxiety and
New Searching Expeditions Despatch of the Enterprise and the
Investigator to Behring's Strait Overland Exploration of the
Coasts west of Cape Walker New Government Expedition up
Baffin's Bay to the Northern Archipelago Private Expedition
under Sir John Ross Expeditions at the instance of Lady Frank-
linExpedition from America The North Star Proceedings of
the Prince Albert Last View of the Exploring Ships Traces of
Sir John Franklin .................................................................. 370

CHAPTER XII.

SEARCHING" EXPEDITIONS OP 1850-51-52.

Squadrons Liberated from Ice Sledging Parties sent out Long
Journeys on Foot Discovery of Victoria Channel The American
Expedition Sir J. Ross's Theory respecting Franklin's Fate
Captain Austin's Opinion Return of the Squadron Squadron
under Sir E. Belcher Prince Albert Refitted and sent to Prince
Regent's Inlet Details of Prince Albert's Voyage and Return to
England .......................... . .................................................... 422

CHAPTER XIII.

DISCOVERY OP THE NORTH-WEST PASSAGE, AND NEWS OP

FRANKLIN'S PARTY.

Sir Edward Belcher's Position and Prospects New Expedition-
Injustice to the Americans Return of Captain Inglefield, and
News of the Discovery of the North-West Passage Narrative of
M'Clure's Voyage Meeting between M'Clure and Kellet Sir E.
Belcher's Squadron More Traces of Franklin's Route Discovered
Melancholy Death of Lieutenant Bellot Dr. Rae's Return with
News of the Discovery of Part of the Franklin Expedition, and
Articles belonging to Sir J. Franklin and Paiiy, found in the
hands of the Esquimaux ......................................................... 464

CHAPTER XIV.

VOYAGES OP CAPTAIN COLLINSON AND DR. KANE J AND OVERLAND
JOURNEYS OP DR. RAE, AND MESSRS. ANDERSON AND STEWART.

Captain Collinson's Voyage in the Enterprise ; His Discoveries and
Return to England The Second American Expedition under Dr.
Kane; Their Adventures, Discoveries, and Sufferings during two
Winters in the Ice; Abandonment of their Ship; Their Arduous
Boat and Sledge Journey, and Final Deliverance and Return to
America Overland Search by way of the Great Fish River by
Anderson and Stewart 516

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XV.

EXPEDITION UNDER CAPTAIN M'CLINTOCK DISCOVERY OP A RECORD
OF THE LOST EXPEDITION, AND THE FATE OF SIR JOHN FRANKLIN.

Page

Voyage of Captain M'Clintock in the Fox First Winter Spent in tlie
Pack of Baffin's Bay Dangers of Disruption Deliverance and
Advance Winter in Beliefs Strait Autumn and Spring Travel-
ling Parties Discovery of Remains of the Franklin Expedition-
Lieutenant Hobson's Discovery of a Boat and a " Record," which
intimates the Death of Sir John Franklin Skeletons and numer-
ous Relics of the lost Crews found Discoveries of Captain Young
Return Home Franklin's Party the first to discover the North-
West Passage Proposed Expedition by the Americans towards
the Pole.... 552

CHAPTER XVI.

THB NORTHERN VHALE-FISHERY.

Objects of the Whale-Fishery Early practised on the Coasts of
Europe First Fishing Voyages to the Arctic Sea Disputes be-
tween the diiferent Nations Accommodation Effected Dutch
Fishery English Fisheiy; Its slow Progress and ultimate Success
Various Attempts to form Fishing Settlements on the Arctic
Shores Mode of Conducting the Fishery Equipment Voyage-
Attack and Capture of the Whale Operation of Flensing, <tc.
Situations in which the Fishery is carried on; Its Dangers
Various Shipwrecks and Accidents Recent Changes in the Fish-
ing Stations; Increased Dangers Capital Invested in the'Trade;
Its Produce; Ports whence it is carried on Disasters and Ship-
wrecks of 1830; Adventures on the Ice; Extrication of the Re-
maining Vessels; General Results Abstract of the Whale Fishings
from 1815 to 1834 inclusive Statement from 1835 to 1842 Details
for 1843 and 1844 590

POLAR SEAS AND REGIONS.

CHAPTER I.

The Climate of the Polar Regions.

General View of the Subject Light thrown on it by Voyages
of Discovery Various Opinions and Observations discussed
Distribution of Heat over the Surface of the Globe Cur-
rents in the Atmosphere Freezing of the Arctic Sea Phe-
nomena of the Seasons in the Polar Regions Formation of
Icebergs Changes in the Aspect of the Polar Seas Sup-
posed Alterations in the Climate of Europe State of the
Ice in the Polar Seas Situation of the Ancient Colonies in
Greenland.

THE climate and seasons within the Arctic circle ex- CHAP. I
hibit most peculiar and striking features, which modify Mo(li Zj^ K
in a singular manner the whole aspect of nature. An influences,
investigation of those phenomena seems therefore ne-
cessary for enabling the reader to comprehend the
narrative, and to follow through such icy regions the
paths of the daring navigator. Accordingly, in order to
elucidate the subject more fully, it will be proper to
give some explication of the principles that regulate
generally the distribution of heat over the surface of
our globe.

Many of the facts relative to the Polar climate have Oricin of
been collected in the course of the bold and arduous JpJjL^
attempts made to penetrate to India across the northern
seas. Projects of this kind, after being long suspended,

CLIMATE.

CHAP. I.

Renewal of
old projects.

North-west
passage.

Valueless-
ness of the
object.

Books and
mumoit*.

were in 1818 renewed, and embraced with excessive
ardour by the English government. For two or three
years previous to that date, the captains of ships em-
ployed in the northern whale-fishery had generally
concurred in representing the Arctic Sea as of a sudden
become almost open and accessible to the adventurous
navigator. By the more speculative relaters, it was
supposed that the vast icy barrier, which for many
ages had obstructed those dreary regions, was at last,
by some revolution of our globe, broken up and dis-
persed. The project of finding a north-west passage to
Asia, a project so often attempted and so long aban-
doned, was by consequence again revived ; and the
more daring scheme of penetrating to the Pole itself
had likewise been seriously proposed. Of the complete
success of either plan the hopes of sober thinkers were
indeed extremely slender ; yet the prospect held forth
seemed to be more inviting, on the whole, than at
any former period when such bold undertakings were
attempted. The discovery of a north-west passage,
were it ever attainable, could hardly, it is true, be
of any real benefit to our commerce ; since in such
high latitudes, where alone it could be found, it would
at all times be very precarious, and liable to interrup-
tion from the prevalence of ice. The scheme of actually
reaching that northern point on the surface of our globe
which terminates its axis of rotation, however interest-
ing in a philosophical view, can only be regarded as an
object of pure curiosity, and not likely to lead to any
useful or practical results. Yet was it befitting the
character of a great maritime nation to embrace every
chance of improving geographical knowledge, as well
as of extending the basis of natural science ; and accord-
ingly, about sixty years ago, the Board of Admiralty
resolved to fit out an expedition for the express purpose
of exploring the Arctic Ocean.

The books and memoirs which contained the latest
accounts of the state of the northern seas, either sug-
gested the enterprise then pursued, or were brought

CLIMATE. 19

forward in consequence of its adoption. The Honour- CHAP. L
able Daines Barrington, a man of learning and some Daine 7~
ingenuity, embraced with ardour the opinion of those Harrington,
who believed that it was possible to reach the Pole.
In successive papers, communicated to the Royal Society
of London, he riot only condensed the information fur-
nished by the older voyagers, but exhibited the results
of the numerous queries relating to the same object,
which he had circulated among persons engaged in the
Greenland fishery. He thence proved, that$ in certain season for
favourable seasons, the Arctic Seas are for several weeks voyaging,
so open that intrepid navigators might safely penetrate
to a very high latitude. In compliance with his san-
guine representations, the Admiralty in 1773 despatched
Captain Phipps to explore those regions ; but this com-
mander was unsuccessful in the attempt, having reached
only the latitude of 80^ degrees, when his ship got
surrounded by a body of ice near Spitzbergen, and
escaped with extreme difficulty, though many of the
whalers had in that summer advanced farther. Mr
Barrington did not, however, despair ; and, following experiments,
out his views, he induced Mr Nairne and Dr Higgins
to make experiments on the congelation of sea-water.
The various facts were collected in a small volume, to
which Colonel Beaufoy subjoined an appendix contain-
ing the^ answers made to his queries by Russian hunters
(who are accustomed to spend the whole year in Spitz-
bergen), relative to the probability of travelling from
that island to the Pole during winter, in sledges drawn
by rein-deer. The reports of these hardy men were
sufficiently discouraging. They pictured the winter
at Spitzbergen as not only severe but extremely bois-
terous, the snow falling to the depth of three or five
foot, and drifting so much along the shores by the
violence of the winds as often to block up all communi-
cation. The danger of being surprised and overwhelmed
by clouds of snow, raised in sudden gusts, was so great
that they never ventured to undertake any long journeys
over the ice. Nor did they think it at all practicable

20 CLIMATE.

CHAP. I. to have loaded sledges dragged over a surface so rough
and hilly by the force of rein- deer or dogs.

Mr. Scoresby. At a recent period, the speculations of Mr Scoresby
presented more than ordinary claims to attention, as
exhibiting the conclusions of a diligent, accurate, and
scientific observer. Trained from infancy to the navi-
gation of the frozen seas under the direction of his
father, a most enterprising and successful leader, he
conjoined experience with ingenuity and judgment.
For several years, during the intervals of his Greenland

Education vo ^ a & es > ^ e prosecuted a regular course of study at
the University of Edinburgh, which, enriching his
mind with liberal attainments, gave a new impulse to
his native genius and ardour. It was exceedingly to
be regretted, that any jealousies or official punctilios
should have prevented government from intrusting the
principal command of the Polar expedition to him who
not only proposed it originally, but whose talents and
science, joined to his activity, perseverance, and enthu-
siasm, afforded assuredly the best promise of its ultimate
success.

Hans Egede, a benevolent enthusiast, formed a plan

Hans Egede. of rec i a i m i n g the natives of Greenland from the errors
of Paganism. After various ineffectual attempts, he
at last procured by subscription, in Denmark, the sum
of 2000, with which he purchased a vessel, and carried
his family and forty settlers to Baal's River, in the

Baal's river. 64th degree of north l atitude> where he landed on the

3d of July 1721. He was afterwards appointed mis-
sionary, with a small salary, by the Danish govern-
ment, which occasionally granted some aid to the colony.
During his stay, which lasted till 1736, he laboured with
great zeal in his vocation. In 1757, the year before his
death, he printed his Description of Greenland, in the
Danish language, at Copenhagen. A translation of that
work, much improved and enlarged, with useful addi-
tions by the editor, contains valuable information, tinged
with a large portion of credulity.

It is remarkable that two centuries of extreme ac-

CLIMATE. 21

tivity should have added so little to our knowledge of CHAP L
the Arctic regions. The relations of the earlier navi- r ittl( T^ ow .
gators who sailed to those parts possess an interest which lcdu<-
has not been yet eclipsed. The voyage of Martens from
llamhurg to Spitsbergen may be cited as still the most
instructive. But the best and completest work on the
subject of the northern fisheries, is a treatise in three
volumes octavo, translated from the Dutch language
into French by Bernard de Reste, and published at
Paris in 1801, under the title Histoire des Peches, des
Decouvertes et des EtaUissemens des Hollandais dans les
Mers du Nord.

The Arctic expedition, which in 1818 attracted the Objects of
attention of the public, proposed two distinct objects,
to advance towards the Pole, and to explore a north-
west passage to China. These were no doubt splendid
schemes ; but, in order to form a right estimate of the
plan and some anticipation of its probable results, it
was necessary to proceed with caution, and to employ
the lights of science. The facts alleged, respecting the
vast islands or continents of ice recently separated and
dispersed from the Arctic regions, gave occasion to much
loose reasoning, to wild and random conjectures, and Conjectures,
visionary declamation. Glowing anticipations were con-
fidently formed of the future amelioration of climate,
which would scarcely be hazarded even in the dreams
of romance. Every person possessing a slight tincture
of physical science conceives himself qualified to spe-
culate concerning the phenomena of weather, in which
he feels a deep interest ; and hence a very flimsy and
spurious kind of philosophy, however trifling or des-
picable it may appear in the eyes of the few who
are accustomed to think more profoundly, gained cur-
rency among certain classes of men, and engendered

no small share of conceit. Meteorologv is a complex ,-

is. 11- i Meteorology,

science, depending on so many subordinate principles

that require the union of accurate theory with a range
of nice and various observations as to have advanced
very slowly towards perfection.

22 CLIMATE.

CHAP. I. With regard to the nature and real extent of the change
Exaggerated wn i cn had taken place in the condition of the icy seas,
reports. the reports were no doubt greatly exaggerated. To re-
duce them to their just amount, it would be necessary
to estimate the annual effects produced in those regions,
and likewise to compare the observations of a similar kind
made by experienced navigators at former periods. From
a critical examination of the various facts left on record,
it will perhaps appear that the Arctic Seas have been
more than once, in the course of the last half-century,
as open as they are now represented.

Periodical ^ ^^ scuss w ^ n accuracy the question of the periodical
formation of formation and destruction of the Polar ice, it becomes
necessary to explain the true principles which regulate
the distribution of heat over the globe. This I shall
attempt to perform, independently of every hypothesis,
by a direct appeal to experiment and observation.

Temperature If at an ^ P lace We di into tne g round > we sna11 nnd >
of the earth, by the insertion of a thermometer, that as we successively

descend we approach constantly to some limiting tempe-
rature, which under a certain depth continues unchanged.
The point of this equilibrium varies in different soils, but
seldom exceeds thirty or fifty feet. If the excavation be
made about the commencement of winter, the tempera-
ture will appear to increase in the lower strata ; but on
the contrary, if the pit be formed in the beginning of
summer, it will be found to grow colder in proportion
as we descend.* Hence it is manifest that the mass of
the earth transmits very slowly the impressions of heat
or of cold received at its surface. The external tempera-
ture of any given day will perhaps take nearly a month

* In the dreary climate of Hudson's Bay, it is remarked by
the residents, that, even during the summer months, in digging
through the ground for a grave, they always come at the depth
of a few feet to a stratum of frozen earth. A singular feature
of the remoter Arctic tracts is the frequent appearance of red
snow. This deception is occasioned by the interspersed multi-
tudes of minute plants, now termed ProtococcusNivalis, a species
of Alga, which penetrate to a great depth through the snow, and
vegetate in the severest weather.

CLIMATE. 23

to penetrate one foot into the ground. By digging CHAP. I.
downwards in summer we soon reach, therefore, the F 0rn ^7i m
impressions of the preceding spring and whiter ; but the pressions.
same progress into the ground brings us back to the
temperatures of the autumn and of the summer. Still
lower, all the various fluctuations of heat become inter-
mingled and confounded in one common mean.

Such observations are more easily and correctly made, Mode of ob-
by having thermometers, with long stems, sunk to 8ervation>
different depths in the ground ; and, from an extensive
register, we may conclude that the temperature of the
ground is always the mean result of the impressions
made at the surface during a series of years. The suc-
cessive strata, therefore, at great depths, may be regarded
as permanent records of the average state of the weather
in distant ages. Perhaps the superficial influence will Descent of
scarcely descend fifty feet in the lapse of a century.
Copious springs, which percolate the bowels of the earth
and rapidly convey the impressions of subterranean heat to
the surface, will consequently furnish the most accurate
reports of the natural register of climate. These, if
rightly chosen, differ not sensibly in their temperature
at all seasons ; and, whether they have their seat at a
depth of one hundred or of five hundred feet, they affect
the thermometer alike.* We are hence entitled to con-
clude, that however the weather may have varied from
year to year, or changed its character at intervals of short

* The celebrated fountain of Vaucluse, situated in the latitude
of 43 55', and 360 feet above the level of the Mediterranean
Sea, has been observed to acquire its highest temperature about
the first day of September, and to reach the lowest at the be-
ginning of April ; the former being 56 3 .3, and the latter 54.],
by Fahrenheit's scale ; which gives 55". 2 for its mean heat.
The waters are collected from the fissures of an extensive
limestone rock, and seem to receive the superficial impressions
in the space of three months. They burst forth with such a
volume as to form, only a few yards below their source, the
translucid Sorgue, a river scarcely inferior, in the quantity of
its discharge, to the Tay above the town of Perth.

CLIMATE.

CHAP. r.

Mode of ex-
plaining the
facts.

In pits.

Source of

permanent

heat.

Effect of
winds.

periods of years, it has yet undergone no material altera-
tion during the lapse of many ages.

Some philosophers attempt to explain such facts as are
now stated, from the supposed internal heat of the globe,
caused by the action of central fires ; and pretend, in
support of their favourite hypothesis, that the tempera-
ture always increases near the bottom of very deep mines.
But this observation holds only in particular situations,
where the warm exhalations from the burning of lamps
and the breathing of the workmen are collected and
confined under the roofs of the galleries. In the case of
an open pit the effect is quite reversed, the bottom being
always colder than the mean temperature. This is owing
to the tendency of the chill air to descend by its superior
density. The superficial impressions of heat and cold are
thus not sent equally downwards ; so that the warmth
of summer is dissipated at the mouth of the pit, while
the rigours of winter are collected below. A similar
modification of temperature occurs in deep lakes, in
consequence of the disposition of the colder and denser
portions of the water always to sink down.

The permanent heat of the ground is, therefore, pro-
duced by the mere accumulation of external impressions
received, either directly from the sun's rays, or circuit-
ously through the medium of atmospheric influence.
But air is better fitted for diffusing than for storing up
heat. The whole mass of the atmosphere, it may be
easily shown, does not contain more heat than a stratum
of water only ten feet thick, or one of earth measuring
fifteen feet. According to their relative temperature,
the winds, in sweeping along the ground, either abstract
or communicate warmth. But the sun is the great and
original fountain of heat, which the internal motion
excited in the atmosphere only serves to distribute more
equally over the earth's surface. The heat imparted to
the air, or to the ground, is always proportional to the
absorption of the solar beams ; and hence the results are
still the same, whether we embrace the simple theory,

CLIMATE. 25

that heat is only the subtile fluid of light in a state of CHAP. I
combination with its substratum, or prefer the opinion
that light has always conjoined with it a certain admix-
ture of the invisible matter of heat.

Owing to the spherical form of the earth, and the Form of the
obliquity of its axis, very different quantities of light or 8Br t
heat are received in the several latitudes. The same
portion of heat, which would raise the temperature of
135 pounds of water a degree on Fahrenheit's scale, is
only capable of melting one pound of ice. The measure
of ice dissolved is therefore the simplest and most correct
standard for estimating the quantity of heat expended in
that process. If we apply calculation to actual experi- ^ a p h ^ at at
ment, we shall find that the entire and unimpaired light and Pol^
of the sun would, at the Equator, at the mean latitude
of 55, and at the Pole, respectively, be sufficient to melt
a thickness of ice expressed by 38.7, 25.9, and 13.4 feet.
Of this enormous action, the greatest portion is no doubt
wasted in the vast abyss of the ocean ; and, of the
remainder, a still larger share is perhaps detained and
dissipated in the upper atmosphere, or projected again
in a soft phosphorescence. Yet the light which, after
those diminutions, finally reaches the surface of the
earth, if left to accumulate there, would create such
inequality of temperature as must prove quite insup-
portable.

The slow-conducting quality of the ground, if not Conducting
altered by extraneous influence, would fix the heat
where it was received, and thus perpetuate the effect of
the unequal action of the sun's beams. The mobility of
the atmosphere hence performs an important office in
the economy of nature, as the great regulator of the
system, dispensing moderate warmth, and attempering
the extremities of climate over the face of the globe.
As the heat accumulates within the tropics, it occasions
currents of cold air to rush from the higher latitudes.
But the activity of the winds thus raised, being propor-
tional to their exciting cause, must prevent it from ever
surpassing certain limits. A perpetual commerce of heat

of huat and

26 CLIMATE.

CHAP. I. between the Poles and the Equator is hence maintained
by the agency of opposite currents in the atmosphere.
These currents often have their direction modified ; and
they may still produce the same effects, by pursuing an
oblique or devious course. The actual phenomena of
climate only require the various winds, throughout the
year, to advance southwards or northwards at the mean
rate of about two miles an hour, or to perform in effect
three journeys of transfer annually from the Equator to
either Pole. Not that these currents carry the impres-
sions of heat or cold directly from one extremity of the
globe to the other, but by their incessant play they
contribute, in the succession of ages, to spread them
gradually over the intervening space.

The system of opposite aerial currents leads to the
same law of the gradation of temperature in different
latitudes, as the celebrated Professor Mayer of Gottingen
deduced from an empirical process.* It would appear
that the variation of the mean temperature at the level
of the sea is always proportional to the sine of twice the
latitude. Thus, for the parallels of every five degrees,
the arrangement is simple :

Aerial cur-
rents.

Latitude.

Mean Temperature.

Latitude. M

san Temperature,

53.5

83.8

49.2

82.4

45.0

80.7

41.3

77.9

38. 1

74.9

35.5

70.9

33.6

67.0

32.4

62.4

58.0

* This proposition admits of a mathematical demonstration,
but which is too intricate for the present discourse.

f Perhaps the gradation of temperature would, in the higher
latitudes, require a small modification. Instead of assuming
32 as the medium at the Pole, it might be more exact to adopt
28, or the melting-point of the ice of sea-water. But the re-

CLIMATE. 27

The arithmetical mean, or 50*, corresponds to the CHAP. I
middle latitude of 45 ; but the real mean of the tem-
perature over the whole surface of the globe is 67,
which should occur on the parallel of 35 51^'

It thus appear, that the system of currents main- System of
tained in the atmosphere contributes essentially, by its currents -
unceasing agency in transferring and dispersing heat, to
prevent the excessive inequality of seasons in the higher
latitudes. But the motions produced in such a vast
mass of fluid must evidently follow, at long intervals,
the accumulated causes which excite them. Hence
probably the origin of those violent winds which, suc-
ceeding to the sultry warmth of summer and the sharp
frosts of winter, prevail in the months of September and
March, and are therefore called by seamen the Equinoc- Equinoctial
tial Gales. In the Arctic Seas nature has made a fur- gales,
ther provision for correcting the excessive irregularity
of the action of the sun's rays. This luminary, for
several months in winter, is totally withdrawn from
that dreary waste ; but, to compensate for his long
absence, he continues during an equal period in summer
to shine without interruption. Now, from a beautiful
arrangement, the surface of the ocean itself, by its alter-
nate freezing and thawing, presents a vast substratum,

cent voyagers have registered the coldness in advancing north-
wards as much more intense. It is evident, however, that
their thermometrical observations must have been affected by
some latent and material inaccuracy. Were the mean tem-
perature of the Arctic regions really below the point of saline
congelation, the annual formation of ice in those seas would
exceed the quantity dissolved, and therefore the extension of
the frozen fields would, contrary to fact, be constantly pro-
gressive. This argument appears to be quite conclusive ;
though some attempts are made to elude its force, by alleging
that thick blocks of ice, transmitting the impressions of cold
with extreme slowness, may confine and exasperate the atmo-
spheric rigours. But ice conducts like water near the freezing-
point, when this fluid conveys the external influence of heat
and cold as a solid mass, unassisted by the translocation of its
particles, which can occur only in the case of sensible expan-
sions. The formation and dissolution of ice are therefore simi-
lar acts, that contribute equally to mitigate the vicissitudes of
the Arctic climate.

28 CLIMATE.

CHAP. L on which the excesses of heat and of cold in succession
Temperature are mutually spent. In ordinary cases, the superficial
of the ocean, water, as it cools and therefore contracts, sinks down
into the abyss hy its superior gravity ; but \vnen it
grows warmer it expands, and consequently floats in-
cumbent, communicating afterwards its surplus heat
with extreme slowness to the mass below. But the seas
within the Arctic circle being always near the verge of
congelation, at which limit water scarcely undergoes
any sensible alteration of volume even from a consider-
able change of temperature, the superficial stratum
remains constantly stagnant, and exposed to receive all
the variable impressions of the sweeping winds. The
piercing cold of winter, therefore, spends its rage in
freezing the salt water to a depth proportional to its
Heat of intensity and continuance.* The prolonged warmth of
summer. summer, again, is consumed in melting those fields of
ice, every inch of which in thickness requiring as much
absorption of heat as would raise the temperature of a
body of water 10 feet thick a whole degree. The
summer months are hence nearly gone before the sun
can dissolve the icy domes, and shoot with entire effect
his slanting rays. It may be shown, that under the
Pole the action of the solar light is, at the time of the
solstice, one- fourth part greater than at the Equator,
and sufficient in the course of a day to melt a sheet of
ice an inch and a half thick.

Equilibrium If horizontal winds serve to balance the unequal ac-
maiutained. t . Qn Qf ^ ^^ beamg over the sur f ace O f t fr e globe,

the rising and descending currents excited ,in the body
of the atmosphere still more effectually maintain the
equilibrium of day and night. After the ground has

* At Melville Island, in the latitude of 74 45', Captain Parry
observed ice to form, of a thickness from three to five inches,
around the ship's sides in the space of twenty-four hours ; and
in one instance it gained in that time the thickness of 7 5 inches,
Fahrenheit's thermometer being then 12 J below zero. Such
power of congelation, it might be computed, would require the
full refrigerating action of a stratum of air, at that tempera-
ture, rather more than a mile in height.

CLIMATE. 29

become heated by the direct illumination of the sun, it CHAP. I.
warms the lowest portion of the incumbent air, which, Reaction on
being thus dilated, begins to ascend, and therefore oc- the air.
casions the descent of an equal portion of the fluid. But
these vertical currents, being once created, will continue
their motion long after the primary cause has ceased to
impel them, and may protract, during the night, the
accumulation of chilled air on the surface of the earth.
This effect is further augmented, in general, by the fri- Anffmentar-
gorific impressions which are at all times darted down- 2J" c jf the
wards from a clear sky.* By the operation of this
combined system, therefore, the diurnal vicissitudes of
heat and cold are diminished in the temperate and torrid
zones. Another consequence results from such rapid
and continual interchange of the higher and lower
strata, that the same absolute quantity of heat must
obtain at every altitude in the atmosphere.

But this equal distribution of heat at all elevations is Modifying
modified by another principle, which causes the regular cai
gradation upwards of a decreasing temperature. In
fact, air is found to have its capacity or attraction for
heat enlarged by rarefaction ; so that any portion of the
fluid carried to the higher regions, where it by conse-
quence expands, will have its temperature proportionally
diminished. The decrease of temperature in ascending
the atmosphere, to moderate heights, is not far from
being uniform, at the rate of about one degree on Fah-
renheit's scale for every hundred yards of elevation. t

* See Supplement to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. iii.
part i. p. 177 ; or Transactions of the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh, vol. viii. part ii. p. 465.

t It should be remarked, however, that at great elevations
the law of equal decrements of heat suffers a considerable de-
viation. In the higher regions of the atmosphere the decrease
of temperature advances proportionally faster. Such is the
conclusion drawn from some nice experiments, and confirmed
by a comparison of numerous actual observations. It may be
sufficient to notice here a few distinct results. Thus, while
at the level of the sea the mean temperature of the air or the
land is, in the tropical regions, one degree colder for each
hundred yards of ascent, it suffers the same decrease at the
elevation of one mile for every 92 yards, at two miles for 85

30 CLIMATE.

CHAP. I. Hence the limit of perpetual congelation forms a curve,
LimiiTof per- which is nearly the same as the Companion of the Cycloid,
petnai con- bending gradually from the Equator, reverting its in-
flexure at the latitude of 45, and grazing the surface
at the Pole. The mean heights of eternal frost, under
the Equator, and at the latitudes of 30 and 60, are re-
spectively 15207, 11484, and 3818 feet.

Heat of It is important to remark, that the heat of large

collections of water seldom agrees precisely with the
mean temperature corresponding to the latitude. The
variable impressions received at the surface from the
atmosphere will not, as on land, penetrate slowly into
the mass, and become mingled and equalized at a mo-
derate depth. Heat is conducted through liquids chiefly
by the internal play resulting from their partial expan-
sion. In the more temperate regions of the globe, the
superficial waters of lakes or seas, as they grow warmer,
and, therefore, specifically lighter, still remain suspended
by their acquired buoyancy. But whenever they come
to be chilled they suffer contraction, and are precipitated
Precipitation by their greater density. Hence the deep water, both
lakes! 1 m f lakes and of seas, is always considerably colder than
what floats at the surface. The gradation of cold is
distinctly traced to the depth of twenty fathoms, below
which the diminished temperature continues nearly
uniform as far as the sounding-line can reach. In
shallow seas, however, the cold substratum of liquid is
brought nearer to the top. The increasing coldness of
water, drawn up from the depth of only a few fathoms,
may hence indicate to the navigator who traverses the
wide ocean his approach to banks or land.

Peculiar cir- These principles, however, do not apply to the pe-
cumstances culiar circumstances of the Arctic Seas. Water differs
Seas. 6 1C essentially, in its expansion by heat, from mercury, oil,

yards, at three miles for 78 yards, at four miles for 72 yards,
and at five miles, the highest summit perhaps of our globe, the
decrement of a degree for 66 yards. Within the Arctic circle
the gradation of cold, in ascending the atmosphere, must be
decidedly more rapid.

CLIMATE. 31

or alcohol : Far from dilating uniformly, a property CHAP. I.
which fits the latter substances for the construction of Expansion
thermometers, it swells from the point of congelation, by heat
or rather a very few degrees above it, with a rapid pro-
gression to that of boiling. Near the limit of its greatest
contraction, the volume of water is scarcely affected at
all by any alteration of heat. When the surface of the
ocean is depressed to a temperature between 28 and 44
degrees of Fahrenheit's scale, it remains almost stagnant,
and therefore exposed to the full impression of external
cold. Hence the Polar Seas are always ready, under Aptitude for
the action of any frosty wind, to suffer congelation. congelatlon '
The annual variations of the weather are in those seas
expended on the superficial waters, without disturbing
the vast abyss below. Contrary to what takes place
under milder skies, the water drawn up from a con-
siderable depth is often warmer within the Arctic circle
than what lies on the surface. The floating ice ac-
cordingly begins to melt generally on the under side,
from the slow communication of the heat sent upwards.

These deductions are confirmed by the results of the Astro-
nicest astronomical observations. Any change in the
temperature of our globe would occasion a corresponding
change of volume, and consequently an alteration in the
momentum of the revolving mass. Thus, if from the
accession of heat the earth had gained only a millionth
part of linear expansion, it would have required an in-
crease of five times proportionally more momentum
to maintain the same rotation. On this supposition,
therefore, the diurnal revolution would have been re-
tarded at the rate of three seconds in a week. But the Length of
length of the day has certainly not varied one second toy-
in a year since the age of Hipparchus ; for we cannot
imagine that the ancient observations of eclipses could
ever deviate an hour, or even 3000", from the truth.
We may hence conclude, that in the lapse of three
thousand years the mass of our globe has not acquired
the ten-millionth part of expansion, an effect which

32 CLIMATE.

CHAP. L the smallest fraction of a degree of heat would have

communicated.

Influence of The accumulation of ice on the surface of the ocean
lotion "ofTceT would likewise have occasioned a prolongation of the
length of the day. This alteration would no douht be
diminished under the Arctic circle, from the proximity
of the glacial protuberance to the axis ; but its influence
would still cause an appreciable difference.

interval ot After the continued action of the sun has at last
warmth. melted away the great body of ice, a short and dubious
interval of warmth occurs. In the space of a few
weeks, visited only by slanting and enfeebled rays, frost
again resumes its tremendous sway. Snow begins to
fall as early as August, and the whole ground is covered
to the depth of two or three feet, before the month of
October. Along the shores and bays the fresh water,
poured from rivulets or drained from the thawing of
former collections of snow, becomes quickly converted
Fogs. i n ^ s lid lce - As the cold augments the air deposits

its moisture in the form of a fog, which freezes into
a fine gossamer netting or spicular icicles, dispersed
through the atmosphere and extremely minute, that
might seem to pierce and excoriate the skin. The hoar-
frost settles profusely, in fantastic clusters, on every
prominence. The whole surface of the sea steams like
Fr a limekiln, an appearance called the frost-smoke, caused,

as in other instances of the production of vapour, by the
water's being still relatively warmer than the incumbent
air. At length the dispersion of the mist, and conse-
quent clearness of the atmosphere, announce that the
upper stratum of the sea itself has cooled to the same
standard ; a sheet of ice spreads quickly over the smooth
expanse, and often gains the thickness of an inch in a
single night. The darkness of a prolonged winter now
broods impenetrably over the frozen continent, unless
the moon chance at times to obtrude her faint rays,
which only discover the horrors and wide desolation of
the scene. The wretched settlers, covered with a load

CLIMATE. 33

of bear-skins, remain crowded and immured in their CHAP. I
hut, every chink of which they carefully stop against NatlveT
the piercing cold ; and, cowering about the stove or the
lamp, they seek to doze away the tedious night. Their
slender stock of provisions, though kept in the same
apartment, is often frozen so hard as to require to be
cut by a hatchet. The whole of the inside of their
hut becomes lined with a thick crust of ice ; and if
they happen for an instant to open a window, the mois-
ture of the confined air is immediately precipitated in
the form of a shower of snow. As the frost continues
to penetrate deeper, the rocks are heard at a distance to
split with loud explosions. The sleep of death seems
to wrap up the scene in utter and oblivious ruin.*

At length the sun reappears above the horizon ;f Reappear
but his languid beams rather betray the wide waste ince ot tLC
than brighten the prospect. By degrees, however, the '
farther progress of the frost is checked. In the month
of May the famished inmates venture to leave their hut,
in quest of fish on the margin of the sea. As the sun
acquires elevation his power is greatly increased. The
snow gradually wastes away, the ice dissolves apace,
and vast fragments of it, detached from the cliffs, and
undermined beneath, precipitate themselves on the shores
with the crash of thunder. The ocean is now unbound,

* " The sound of voices which, during the cold weather,
could be heard at a much greater distance than usual, served
now and then to break the silence which reigned around us ;
a- silence far different from that peaceable composure which
characterizes the landscape of a cultivated country ; it was the
death-like stillness of the most dreary desolation, and the total
absence of animated existence." PARRY. During the winter
at Melville Island, people were heard conversing at the distance
of a mile. This was no doubt owing partly to the density of
the frigid atmosphere, but chiefly to the absence of all obstruc-
tion in a scene of universal calm and darkness.

f In the Arctic regions, the atmosphere being highly con-
densed by the intensity of the cold, the horizontal refraction is
much augmented, which causes the sun to reappear several
days sooner than might be expected from the latitude. This
curious and cheering effect was first remarked by the unfortu-
nate Hollanders who wintered at Spitzbergen in 1596.

CLIMATE.

CHAP. I.

Breaking up
of the ice.

Dissipation
of the shoals
of ice.

Dangerous
navigation

Excessive
heat.

and its icy dome broken up with tremendous rupture.
The enormous fields of ice, thus set afloat, are, by the
violence of wind and currents, again dissevered and dis-
persed. Sometimes, impelled in opposite directions,
they approach and strike with a mutual shock, like the
crash of worlds, sufficient, if opposed, to reduce to
atoms, in a moment, the proudest monuments of human
power. It is impossible to picture a situation more
awful than that of the crew of a whaler, who see their
frail bark thus fatally enclosed, expecting immediate
and inevitable destruction.

Before the end of June, the shoals of ice in the Arctic
Seas are commonly divided, scattered, and dissipated.
But the atmosphere is then almost continually damp,
and loaded with vapour. At this season of the year,
a dense fog generally covers the surface of the sea, of a
milder temperature indeed than the frost-smoke, yet
produced by the inversion of the same cause. The
lower stratum of air, as it successively touches the
colder body of water, becomes chilled, and thence
disposed to deposit its moisture. Such thick fogs,
with mere gleams of clear weather, infesting the north-
ern seas during the greater part of the summer, render
their navigation extremely dangerous. In the course
of the month of July, the superficial water is at last
brought to an equilibrium of temperature with the air,
and the sun now shines out with a bright and dazzling
radiance. For a certain time before the close of the
summer, such excessive heat is accumulated in the bays
and sheltered spots, that the tar and pitch are sometimes
melted, and run down the ships' sides.

Notwithstanding the shortness of the summer in the
high latitudes, the air on land becomes often oppressive-
ly sultry. This excessive heat, being conjoined with
moisture, engenders clouds of mosquitoes, from the
stings of which the Laplanders are forced to seek refuge
in their huts, where they envelop themselves in dense
smoke. Humidity marks the general character of the
Arctic regions, which are covered during the greater

CLIMATE. 35

part of the year with chilling fogs. The sky seldom CHAP I
appears clear except for a few weeks in winter, when
the cold at the surface becomes most intense. Yet the wind,
rigour of that season is not felt so severely as the thermo-
meter would indicate. When the temperature is lowest
the air is commonly calm, and therefore abstracts less
heat from the body than the exposure to a strong wind
of much inferior coldness. The providence of the na-
tives serves to mitigate the hardships they have to suffer.
The Esquimaux, on the approach of winter, cut the hard ice building,
ice into tall square blocks, with which they construct
regular spacious domes, connected with other smaller
ones, for the various purposes of domestic economy.
They shape the inside with care, and give it an even
glossy surface by the affusion of water. The snowy
\vall soon becomes a solid concrete mass, which, being
a slow conductor, checks the access of cold, while it
admits a sufficient portion of light. It may also be
remarked, that the external darkness prevails only
during a part of the day. Since twilight obtains when- Twilight
ever the sun is less depressed than 18 degrees below the
horizon, the limits of entire obscuration occur in the
latitudes of 84^ and 48| ; in the former at mid-day
in the winter solstice, and in the latter at midnight in
the solstice of summer. Between these extremes the
atmosphere at the opposite seasons glows, to a greater
or a less extent, from the middle of the day or of the
night. Accordingly, Captain Parry's party, during
their detention at Melville Island, in the latitude of 74
40', found that, in clear weather about noon, they could
easily, in the depth of winter, read the smallest print
on deck. This position corresponds to the alternating
parallel of 58 20', which nearly reaches Orkney, where
the transparency of the nights in the height of summer
is well known.* The approach of twilight is, besides,

* This view of the subject deserves perhaps more elucidation.
The inhabitant of a temperate climate may hence form a better
conception of the progressive glimmer of an Arctic winter. In
a high northern latitude the dusky glow at noon in mid- winter

CHAP. I.
Refraction.

CLIMATE.

advanced in the frozen regions by the superior refractive
P ower of a very dense atmosphere. The horizontal
refraction usually raises the lower limb of the sun and
moon about the twelfth part of their diameters, and
often gives it a wavy and fantastic outline. Hence the
reappearance of those luminaries is hastened within the
Arctic circle, though the quantity of anticipation has
been much exaggerated.

The ice which obstructs the navigation of the Arctic
Seas consists of two very different kinds ; the one pro-
duced by the congelation of fresh, and the other by

Mid-winter
moon.

resembles the summer twilight in some corresponding
latitude farther south. Let L and / denote the two northern
latitudes, D and d the north or south declination of the sun ;
then will the depression of this luminary below the horizon be
expressed in winter by rf+L 90, and in summer by 90 D /.
Assuming 23r> for D and d, the depressions at the solstitial
points will be respectively L 663 and 665 I; and conse-
quently reckoning the limit of darkness when the sun is 18 3
below the horizon, L 66^= 18, and 66 /=18, and L=
84g, and /=48.3, being the latitudes where the gleam at mid-
day in winter and the twilight at midnight in summer first
appear. But in general, the latitudes of equal obscurity or
illumination are evidently included in the simple formula L+/
= 133. Hence this equivalent table :

84^

85 s

48 i<
48
47
46
45
44
43

At the Pole. ^i the Pole, therefore, it is as dark at noon in the depth of
winter as it is at midnight in the summer solstice at the lati-
tude of 43.

But a modification may possibly be required. We should
probably come nearer the truth to assume, as the limit of
darkness, a depression of 20 for the Arctic regions (where the
horizontal refraction is so much increased by excessive cold),
and only 16 for the milder climates. The table would then
stand thus :

8Gi I 50.4

87 50 s

49
48
47

CLIMATE. 37

that of salt water. In those inhospitable tracts, the CHAP. L
snow, which annually falls on the islands or continents,
being again dissolved by the progress of the summer's ices,
heat, pours forth numerous rills and limpid streams,
which collect along the indented shores, and in the
deep bays enclosed by precipitous rocks. There this
clear and gelid water soon freezes, and every successive
year supplies an additional investing crust, till, after
the lapse perhaps of several centuries, the icy mass
rises at last to the size and aspect of a mountain, com-
mensurate with the elevation of the adjoining cliffs.
The melting of the snow, which is afterwards deposited Melting of
on such enormous blocks, likewise contributes to their snc
growth ; and by filling up the accidental holes or cre-
vices, it renders the whole structure compact and uni-
form. Meanwhile the principle of destruction has
already begun its operations. The ceaseless agitation
of the sea gradually wears and undermines the base of
the icy mountain, till at length, by the action of its
own accumulated weight, when it has perhaps attained
an altitude of a thousand or even two thousand feet,
it is torn from its frozen chains, and precipitated, with
a tremendous plunge, into the abyss below. This mighty
launch now floats like a lofty island on the ocean ;
till, driven southwards by winds and currents, it insen-
sibly wastes and dissolves away in the wide Atlantic.

Such I conceive to be the real origin of the icy Oriffin of
mountains or icebergs, entirely similar in their for- icebergs.
mation to the glaciers which occur on the flanks of
the Alps and the Pyrenees. They consist of a clear,
compact, and solid ice, having the fine green tint verg-
ing to blue, which ice or water, when very pure and
of a sufficient depth, generally assumes. From the
cavities of these icebergs, the crews of the northern
whalers are accustomed, by means of a hose or flexible
tube of canvass, to fill their casks easily with the finest
and softest water. Of the same species of ice, the frag-
ments wliich are picked up as they float on the surface

CLIMA.TE,

CHAP. L

Freezing of
sea-water.

Icebergs.

of the ocean yield the adventurous navigator the most
refreshing beverage.*

It was long disputed among the learned, whether
the waters of the ocean are capable of being congealed ;
and many frivolous and absurd arguments, of course,
were advanced to prove the impossibility ot the fact.
But the question is now completely resolved ; and the
freezing of sea- water is established both by observation
and experiment. To congeal such water of the ordi-
nary saltness, or containing nearly the thirtieth part
of its weight of saline matter, it requires not an extreme
cold : this process taking effect about the 27th degree

* The water which flows from those Arctic glaciers becomes
frozen again on the approach of winter, and forms along the
coast a thick stratum of blue solid ice, embedded in the beach,
and from six to ten feet under the surface.

CLIMATE. 39

on Fahrenheit's scale, or only five degrees below the CHAP. L
freezing-point of fresh water. The product, however, Freezing-
is an imperfect sort of ice, easily distinguishable from point of sait-
the result of a regular crystallization : it is porous, water>
incompact, and imperfectly diaphanous. It consists of
spicular shoots, or thin flakes, which detain within
their interstices the stronger brine ; and its granular
spongy texture has, in fact, the appearance of congealed
syrup, or what the confectioners call water-ice. This
saline ice can, therefore, never yield pure water ; yet,
if the strong brine imprisoned in it be first suffered
to drain off slowly, the loose mass that remains will
melt into a brackish liquid, which in some cases may be
deemed drinkable.*

While icebergs are the slow growth of ages, the fields Growth of
or shoals of saline ice are annually formed and destroyed. ice
The ice generated from melted snow is hard, pellucid,
and often swells to an enormous height and dimen-
sions. But the concretion of salt water wants solidity,
clearness, and strength, and never attains to any very
considerable thickness. It seldom floats during more
than part of the year ; though, in some cold seasons,
the scattered fragments may be surprised by the early
frost, and preserved till the following summer.

The whale-fishers enumerate several varieties of the Varieties of
salt-water ice. A very wide expanse of it they call gu -water
a field, and one of smaller dimensions a floe. When
a field is dissevered by a subaqueous or grown swell,
it breaks into numerous pieces, seldom- exceeding forty
or fifty yards in diameter, which, taken collective-
ly, are termed a pack. This pack again, when of
a broad shape, is called a patch; and, when much

* Captain Parry remarked, that the superficial water near
melting ice had scarcely any trace of saltness. In other ob-
servations made about the end of July, he discovered the water
at the surface to contain only the 5.50th part of its weight of
salt ; but under ten fathoms the proportion had increased to
the 39th, and at the depth of 300 fathoms to the 37th part.
The friable ice of sea-water was found to hold the U5th part
of salt.

CLIMATE.

CHAP. I. elongated, a stream. The packs of ice are crowded

A. stream, anc ^ heaped together by violent winds ; but they again
separate and spread asunder in calm weather. If a
ship can sail freely through the floating pieces of ice,

Drift-ice. it is called drift-ice, and is said to be loose or open.
When, again, from the effect of abrasion, the larger
blocks are crumbled down into minute fragments, this
collection is called brash-ice. A portion rising above
the common level is termed a hummock, being produced
by the squeezing of one piece over another. These
hummocks or protuberances break the uniform surface
of the ice, and give it a most diversified and fantastic
appearance. They are numerous in the heavy packs,
and along the edges of ice-fields, reaching to the height

Sittfga of thirty feet. The term sludge is applied by the sailors
to the soft and incoherent crystals which the frost forms
when it first attacks the ruffled surface of the ocean.
As these increase, they have some effect, like oil, to
still the secondary waves ; but they are prevented from
coalescing into a continuous sheet by the agitation
which still prevails ; and they form small discs, rounded
by continual attrition and scarcely three inches in dia-
meter, called pancakes. Sometimes these again unite
into circular pieces, perhaps a foot thick, and many
yards in circumference.

Ice-blink. The fields and other collections of floating ice are
often discovered at a great distance, by that singular
appearance on the verge of the horizon, which the
Dutch seamen have termed ice-blink. It is a stratum
of lucid whiteness, occasioned evidently by the glare
of light reflected obliquely from the surface of the ice
against the opposite atmosphere. This shining streak,
which looks always brightest in clear weather, indicates,
to the experienced navigator, 20 or 30 miles beyond
the limit of direct vision, not only the extent and figure,
but even the quality of the ice. The blink from packs
of ice appears of a pure white, while that which is
occasioned by snow-fields has some tinge of yellow.
The mountains of hard and perfect ice are the gradual

CLIMATE. 41

production, perhaps, of many centuries. Along the CHAP. I.

western coast of Greenland, prolonged into Davis' Strait, Mountains o/

they form an immense rampart, which presents to the ice.

mariner a sublime spectacle, resembling at a distance

whole groups of churches, mantling castles, or fleets

under full sail. Every year, but especially in hot

seasons, they are partially detached from their bases,

and whelmed into the deep sea. In Davis' Strait those

icebergs appear the most frequent ; and about Disco

Bay, where the soundings exceed 300 fathoms, masses

of such enormous dimensions are met with, that the

Dutch seamen compare them to cities, and often bestow

on them the familiar names of Amsterdam or Haerlem.

They are carried towards the Atlantic by the current

which generally flows from the north-east, and after

they reach the w r armer water of the lower latitudes

they rapidly dissolve, and finally disappear, probably in

the space of a few months.

The blocks of fresh-water ice appear black as they Co i our of {CtX
float, but show a fine emerald or beryl hue when
brought up on the deck. Though perfectly transpa-
rent like crystal, they sometimes enclose threads or
streamlets of air-bubbles, extricated in the act of con-
gelation. This pure ice, being only a fifteenth part
lighter than fresh water, must consequently project
about one-tenth as it swims on the sea. An iceberg .
of 2000 feet in height would therefore, after it floated, Sei-gi
still rise 200 feet above the surface of the water. Such,
perhaps, may be considered as nearly the extreme di-
mensions. Those mountains of ice may even acquire
more elevation at a distance from land, both from the
snow which falls on them, and from the copious vapours
which precipitate and congeal on their surface. But in
general they are earned forwards by the current which
sets from the north-east into the Atlantic, where, bathed
in a warmer fluid, they rapidly waste and dissolve. It
may be shown by experiment, that if the water in
which they float had only the temperature of 42, the
mass of ice would lose the thickness of an inch every

CLIMATE.

Dissolving oi
icebergs.

Position in
the Arctic
regions.

CHAP. I. hour, or two feet in a day. Supposing the surface of
^ ie sea ^ ^ e a ^ ^> ^ ne daily diminution of thickness
would be doubled, and would therefore amount to four
feet. An iceberg having 600 feet of total elevation
would hence, on this probable estimate, require 150
days for its dissolution. But the melting of the ice
would be greatly accelerated if the mass were impelled
through the water by the action of winds. A velocity
of only a mile in an hour would triple the ordinary
effect. Hence, though large bodies of ice are often
found near the banks of Newfoundland, they seldom
advance farther, or pass beyond the 48th degree of
latitude. Within the Arctic regions those stupendous
blocks remain, by their mere inertia, so fixed on the
water, as commonly to serve for the mooring of vessels
employed in the whale-fishery. In such cases, how-
ever, it is a necessary precaution to lengthen the cables,
and ride at some distance from the frozen cliff; because
the fragments of ice, which the seamen term calves, are
frequently detached from the under part of the mass,
and, darting upwards, acquire such a velocity in their
ascent, that they would infallibly strike holes into the
ship's bottom.

The ice produced from salt-water is whitish, porous,
and almost opaque. It is so dense, from the quantity
of strong brine enclosed in its substance, that when
floating in the sea, it projects only one-fiftieth part above
the surface. The porous saline ice has a variable thick-
ness, yet seldom exceeding six feet, and which, though
during the greater part of the year it covers the Arctic-
Seas, is annually formed and destroyed ; a small portion
only, and at certain seasons, escaping the general wreck.
The thaw commonly lasts about three months ; and
during that time the heat of the solar rays, which, though
oblique, yet act with unceasing energy, whether applied
directly or through the intervention of the air or the
water, is sufficient for the dissolution of all the ice pro-
duced in the course of the autumn, the winter, and tli3
spring. It may be proved by experiment that, under

Salt-water
ice.

CLIMATE. 43

the Pole itself, the power of the sun at the solstice could, CHAP. 1.
iii the space of a week, melt a stratum of five inches oi Pow ~^ the
ice. We may hence fairly compute the annual effect to sun.
he sufficient for thawing to the depth of forty inches.
It should likewise be observed, that, owing to the
prevailing haziness of the atmosphere in the northern
latitudes, there can scarcely exist those singular cold
emanations which always dart from an azure sky, and
in the more temperate climates diminish the calorific
action of the sun often by one-fifth part. On this account,
perhaps, the estimate of the annual destruction of Polar
ice may be raised to a thickness of four feet.

As heat is absorbed in the process of thawing, so it is Heat
again evolved in the act of congelation. The annual
formation and destruction of ice within the Arctic circle
is thus a beautiful provision of Nature for mitigating the
excessive inequality of temperature. Had only dry land
been there opposed to the sun, it would have been ab-
solutely scorched by his incessant beams in summer, yet
pinched during the darkness of winter by the most
intense and penetrating cold. None of the animal or Effect of
vegetable tribes could have at all supported such ex- water -
tremes. But in the actual arrangement the surplus heat
of summer is spent in melting away the ice ; and its
deficiency in winter is partly supplied by the influence
of the progress of congelation. As long as ice remains
to thaw, or water to freeze, the temperature of the at-
mosphere can never vary beyond certain limits. Such
is the harmony of the system ; and all experience and
observation confirm the belief that it is not subject to
any radical change. Some years may chance to form
more ice than others, or to melt more away ; but it changes,
were idle to expect any thing like a general or permanent
disruption of the glacial crust which binds the regions
of the north. Even were this ice once removed, a similar
collection would soon succeed, since it is always the
effect, and not the cause, of the disposition of the atmos-
phere, which it really serves to temper. We should be
guilty of the most vicious reasoning in a circle, if we

44 CLIMATE.

CHAP. I. maintained that ice first cooled the air, and that this cola

air next increased the fields of ice.

influence on But, whatever be the vicissitudes of the Polar ice, they
" cannot > m any sensible manner, affect the climates of the
lower latitudes. The whole circumjacent space where
frost holds his reign bears a very small proportion to the
surface of the northern hemisphere. Reckoning from
the parallel of sixty degrees, it would not exceed the
eighth part ; but, since the gelid region hardly extends
below the latitude of seventy-five degrees, it may be
stated at the thirty-second part of the hemisphere. On
the supposition, therefore, that the Arctic cold were all
transferred and infused into the atmosphere of the
south, it would yet produce no perceptible alteration of
climate.

Reduction of Even if we imagined with Mr Scoresby, that, during
ice. the years 1816 and 1817, two thousand square leagues

of ice disappeared in the Greenland Seas between the
parallels of seventy-four and eighty degrees, this extent
would still scarcely exceed half the surface of Ireland.
It may be calculated, that the loss of heat on our globe,
occasioned by a total eclipse of the sun, reckoning this
only equivalent to a complete obscuration for the space
of a single hour, is as much as would be absorbed by the
thawing of a circle of ice 500 miles in diameter and 150
feet thick. This quantity surpasses at least sixty times
the ice-fields dispersed from Greenland, allowing them
the mean thickness of thirty feet ; and yet the tempera-
ture of the air is never depressed more than a degree or
two during the continuance of any solar eclipse.

But the idea is quite chimerical, that any winds could
Chimerical , ,. i> , . a

ideas. ever transport the Jt olar influence to our shores. It may

be proved, from the results of accurate experiment, that
a current of air flowing over a warmer surface, whether
of land or water, becomes, in the space of an hour, pene-
trated with the same temperature through a stratum of
eighty feet ; though the limit of actual contact, or of
mutual attrition, is confined to a surface not exceeding
the 500th part of an inch in thickness. If we assign to

CLIMATE. 45

it the height of a mile, which is a most ample allowance, CHAP. I.

it would lose all its sharpness, and acquire the standard EffecTof cold

heat in the course of sixty-six hours. Admitting this winds.

wind to travel at the rate even of twenty miles each

hour, it would consequently spend all its frigorific action

in a tract of 1320 miles. The gales from the remotest

north must thus discharge their store of cold into the

German Sea or the Atlantic Ocean. Nor could such

impressions, though continued through a course of ages,

have the smallest power to chill the superficial water ;

for the moment any portion of this was cooled, it would,

from its increased density, sink down into the vast

abyss. The surface would not be affected till after the

cooling had, in its progress, pervaded the w r hole mass

from the bottom upwards. According to the calculations Depfli of

of Laplace, founded on a comparison of the theory of oe '

tides with actual observation, the mean depth of the

ocean exceeds ten English miles. Supposing, therefore,

a wind blowing from some northerly point, and ten

degrees colder than the water, were to sweep over the

Atlantic six months every year, at the rate of fifteen

miles an hour, it would take 220 years to abstract from

that vast body of water a single degree of heat.*

Some persons have imagined that the mountains or influence on
islands of ice, which are occasionally drifted into the our climate -
Atlantic Ocean, must be sufficient, by their frigoritic
influence, to modify the character of our climate. One
of the first who advanced that opinion was the ingenious
Richard Bradley, fellow of the Royal Society, and pro-
fessor of botany in the University of Cambridge. In " A
Survey of the Ancient Husbandry and Gardening, col-
___

* It is true that Laplace, on reviewing his intricate analysis,
reduced successively the measure he had assigned for the mean
depth of the ocean, without coming to any precise conclusion.
But even supposing it were only five miles, or equal to the
elevation of the highest mountains, the continued and absolutely
concentrated action of the northern winds during more than a
century would still be require^ though counteracting causes
were excluded, to cool down the mass of the Atlantic one
degree.

CLIMATE.

Bradley 's

opinion.

Size of
Icebergs.

CHAP. I. iected from the Greek and Roman Writers," printed in
octavo at London in 1725, he introduces the following
remarkable passage :

" I the rather mention the case of winds becoming
cold by mixing with the effluvia of snow or ice, because I
have made some remarks upon the tempestuous weather,
which often happens about the end of May, or in June,
which has in all my observations been brought in by
westerly winds ; and again, I as surely find, that at such
times large islands of ice and snow are passing to the
southward in the Western Ocean, as I have been in-
formed by several captains of ships that were then coming
from our plantations to England. Some of these islands
are so large as to measure sixty miles in length, and
yielding so great a vapour, tliat for a day's voyage on
one side of them, the weather has been so hazy that the
mariners could not discover what they were ; and this
was accompanied with so much cold, that they imagined
they had mistaken in their accounts, and got several
degrees too far towards the north; but a day or two
explained the matter, and gave them an opportunity of
surveying what they had been so much surprised at.
Now, considering the extraordinary heat of the sun at
the season these appear, the vapour must be very con-
siderable that rises from them, and it is no wonder then,
that, as it expands itself, it presses the air with violence
enough to cause tempests and carry cold along with
it."

But a little reflection will convince us that such re-
mote influence on our climate must be quite insignificant,
their effects. At a very wide estimation, the surface of ice exposed to
the winds could never exceed the thousandth part of the
whole expanse of the Atlantic Ocean ; consequently the
general temperature of the air would not be altered the
fortieth part of a degree. Nor could this minute im-
pression be wafted to our shores, being invariably spent
in the length of the voyage. The opinion which Mr
Bradley entertained more than a hundred years ago
might have been tolerated in the infancy of physical

Insignifi-
cance of

CLIMATE. 47

science ; but that the same notion should be revived, CHAP. L
and proclaimed with confidence at this day, may well
excite surprise.

These reasonings, which suggested themselves on the Confirmation
sailing of the first expedition sent by government to Uheoli(iS -
explore the Arctic Seas, have been singularly confirmed
by the results of the late daring voyages. Captain
Parry, by the most vigilant exertions indeed, succeeded,
during the brief interval of an open season, to advance
from Baffin's Bay, by Lancaster Sound, above 400 miles
westwards, through floating masses of ice, on the parallel
of 75 degrees ; but this distance is probably not the
third part of the whole space between the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans. All the subsequent attempts of
able navigator to penetrate any farther in the same di-
rection proved unsuccessful ; and his last laborious effort
to reach the Pole, by dragging boats over an expanse of
rough and broken ice, completely failed. The utmost
exertions of the crews scarcely enabled him to proceed,
in 1827, three degrees northward from Spitsbergen, and
attain the latitude of 82 45', not far beyond the usual
resort of the Greenland whalers. Captain Weddell,
without any stimulant of national reward, had, four
years previously, the resolution to penetrate to a very
great height in the opposite hemisphere, which is always
considered colder and less accessible than the northern,
having advanced to the latitude of 74 15' in an open
sea.

On the hypothesis that the quantities of ice which Hypothesis
encumber the Arctic Seas have been accumulating for a
long succession of years, it is assumed as a fact, that
throughout Europe a milder and more genial climate
had formerly prevailed. A closer inspection of the de-
tails, however, will show this supposition to be destitute
of any solid support. One hears continual complaints,
indeed, of the altered condition of the seasons, especially
from elderly persons, whose bodily frame has become
more susceptible to the impressions of cold ; but similar

48 CLIMATE.

CHAP. L lamentations have been repeated by the poets and the
FanciifuTdan- vulgar from the earliest times. If we listened implicitly
gers. to such querulous declaimers, we should believe that

Nature has spent all her fires, and is hastening fast into
decay. Immense forests, it is said, anciently clothed
the highest tracts of this island and other northern
countries, where scarcely a tree can now be made to
grow. The period of vintage was in former ages several
weeks earlier in France than at present ; vineyards
were planted during the time of the Romans in various
parts of the south of England, where at this day even
the hop-plant is raised with difficulty ; and the sides of
many hills in Scotland bear evident traces of the plough,
which have been long since abandoned irretrievably
to the dusky heath.

Answer to But, m answer to such allegations, it may be observed,
such fore- that a patch of wood w r ill not thrive in cold situations,
u ' ss * merely for want of the shelter which is afforded by ex-
tensive plantations. In Sweden and Norway, which
are mostly covered with natural forests, it has become
an object of police to prevent their indiscriminate de-
struction. The timber in those sylvan countries is cut
at stated periods of its growth, and in detached portions ;
the vacant spaces being left as nurseries, embosomed
amidst an expanse of tall trees. Some places in Sweden,
where the forests have been accidentally destroyed by
fire, present the image of sterility and of wide desolation.
It is probable that the vines grown in ancient times
vioesL were coarser and hardier plants than those which are

now cultivated. A similar observation extends to all
the products of gardening. A succession of diligent
culture softens the character of the vegetable tribes, and
renders them more delicate, while it heightens the fla-
vour of the fruit. The Roman soldiers stationed in
Britain would naturally prefer wine, their accustomed
beverage, however harsh and poor, to the cervisla, or
unpalatable ale brewed by the rude natives.

The marks of tillage left on our northern hills prove
only the wretched state of agriculture at a remote period.

CLIMATE. 49

For want of a proper system of rotation, and the due CHAP. i.
application of manure, the starving tenantry were then Ande^t"
tempted to tear up with the plough every virgin spot agriculture.
they could find, and, after extracting from it a pitiful
crop or two of oats, to abandon it to a periodical sterility.
The cattle in those days, having no sort of provender
through the winter but dry straw, were quite feeble and
exhausted in the spring. The soil, too, was very stiff,
from want of repeated and seasonable tillage. Under
such circumstances, it affords no proof of any great heat,
that the slothful peasants, oppressed with a load of
clothes, usually began their operations in the field be-
fore sunrise, while preparing the ground for the recep-
tion of the barley -seed.

It is very difficult to ascertain the precise condition Former tem-
of the weather in distant ages. The thermometer was perature -
not invented till 1590, by the celebrated Sanctorio ; nor
was that valuable instrument reduced to a correct
standard before the year 1724, by the skill of Fahren-
heit. We have hence no observations of temperature
which go further back than a century. Prior to this
period, we must glean our information from the loose
and scanty notices which are scattered through the old
chronicles relative to the state of the harvest, the quality
of the vintage, or the endurance of frost and snow in the
winter. Great allowance, however, should be made for
the spirit of exaggeration and the love of the marvellous
which infect all those rude historical monuments.

On glancing over the incidental notices of the state unchanging
of the weather, it is obvious that no material change has J
taken place for the last thousand years in the climate of
Europe ; but we may conjecture that it has gradually
acquired rather a milder character ; at least instances of
excessive severity appear on the whole to be of rarer oc-
currence. The weather seems not to affect any precise
course of succession, although two or more years of re-
markable heat or cold often follow consecutively ; yet
there can be no doubt that atmospheric changes, how-
ever complicated and perplexing, are as determinate in

CLIMATE.

Hot years.

CHAP. i. their nature as the revolutions of the celestial bodies.
Meteoroio- When the science of meteorology is more advanced, we
gical science, shall, perhaps, by discovering a glimpse of those vast
cycles which result from the varied aspects of the sun
combined with the feebler influence of the moon, be at
length enabled to predict, with some degree of proba-
Rot.ition of bility, the condition of future seasons. The intermediate
seasons. period of nine years proposed by Toaldo, or the semi-
revolution nearly of the lunar nodes and apogee, seems
not to be altogether destitute of foundation. Thus, of
the years remarkably cold, 1622 was succeeded, after an
interval of four periods or 36 years, by 1658, whose se-
verity lasted through the following season. The same
interval brings us to 1695, and five periods more reach
to 1740, a year very famous for cold ; three periods
now come down to 1767, nine years more to 1776, and
eighteen years more to 1794, the cold continuing through
1795. Of the hot years it may be observed, that four
periods of nine years extend from 1616 to 1652, and
three such again to 1679. From 1701 to 1718 there
was an interval of 17 years, or very nearly two periods,
while three periods reach to 1745, another period to
1754, and one more falls on 1763 ; and from 1779 to 1788
there are just nine years. The year 1818 would there-
fore correspond to 1701, 1719, and 1746, and conse-
quently very nearly to 1718. Again, the years 1784,
1793, 1802, and 1811, at the intervals of successive
periods, were all of them remarkably warm. The dry
season of 1819, and the hot summer of 1831, follow
nearly the same sequence. A cycle of 54 years, there-
fore, including six of these subordinate periods, has
lately been proposed with much confidence, but ap-
parently on very slender grounds.

If the climate had undergone any real change in the
more temperate parts of Europe, a corresponding alter-
ation, with very distinct features, must inevitably have
taken place in the Arctic regions. But a dispassionate
inquiry discovers no circumstances which at all clearly
point at such a conclusion. On this head we may

Relative
alteration.

CLIMATE. 51

readily satisfy ourselves by a short retrospect of the CHAP. L
principal facts which have been recorded by voyagers.

Greenland, in its position and general outline, appears Grceniaud.
to resemble the vast promontory of South America.
From Cape Farewell, the Staaten Hoek (States' Pro-
montory) of Dutch navigators, situated on a small is-
land in the latitude of 60, it stretches, in a north-west-
erly direction, to Cape Desolation, and then nearly
northwards to Gsod Hope in latitude 64 10', where it
inclines almost a point towards the east, so far as the
island of Disco, which occupies a spacious bay in Davis*
Strait, between the latitudes of 68 30' and 71. Thence
the continent extends about due north, beyond the lati-
tude of 76, till it is lost in the recesses of Baffin's Bay.
On the other side Greenland stretches north-north-east
300 miles, till nearly opposite Iceland, in the latitude
of 64, and then advances almost north-east to the lati-
tude of 75, when, suddenly bending to the north, it
holds this direction beyond Spitzbergen and the latitude
of 80. The coast is every where bold and rocky, like Bold coast
that of Norway ; and the ulterior of the country consists
of lofty mountains covered with eternal snows. But
the western side, which forms Davis' Strait, is indented
with numerous bights, creeks, and fiords or firths, which,
for the space of two or three months each year, look
verdant, and yield tolerable pasturage. The eastern
shore, again, which properly bounds the Greenland Seas,
can rarely be approached by the whalers, as the accu-
mulated stream of ice, which in summer is constantly
drifting from the north-east, creates a formidable barrier.
The position of this icy boundary, though nearly parallel
to the land, is not absolutely fixed, but varies within
certain limits in different years. The late survey by
Mr Scoresby was therefore not very satisfactory.

In Davis' Strait the whalers generally resort to Disco uisco Bay
Bay, or push farther north ; sometimes as far as the
latitude of 76, to the variable margin of the great icy
continent. On the other side of Greenland, about the
meridian of eight degrees east from Greenwich, the ice,

CLIMATE.

CHAP.

Whale-
fishers.

Season.

Period of
sailing.

Extent of
ice.

in warm seasons, retires to the latitude of 80, beyond
Hakluyt's Headland at the extremity of Spitzbergen ;
while at other times it advances as far south on the
same line as the latitude of 70, enveloping the whole
of that island, but forming below it a wide bay, called
the Whalefisher's Bight, on the parallel of Bear Island.
The former are called open and the latter close seasons.
In open seasons the ships employed in these fisheries
find a channel from 20 to 50 leagues wide, through
which they shoot forward along the shores of Spitzber-
gen, till they reach the latitude of 78 or 79, where
the whales are most abundant. The chase of these ani-
mals, in the Greenland Seas at least, seldom lasts above
two months, commencing generally at the end of April
and terminating with June, when they usually disap-
pear, and the prevalence of dense fogs renders the navi-
gation very dangerous. In Davis* Strait the fishery
continues often for two or even three months longer.
Mr Scoresby thinks it were better if our Greenland
ships, like the Dutch and other foreigners, began their
voyage somewhat later than has become the practice.
In close seasons the hardy navigator is obliged, with
imminent peril and hazard, to impel his ship by boring,
under a press of sail and assisted by ropes and saws,
through the drift-ice which borders the great barrier,
endeavouring to follow every vein of water that runs
nearly in the required direction. If he fail in this at-
tempt, he must forego the chance of a profitable voyage,
and content himself with the humbler pursuit of catch-
ing seals.

The space over which the line of ice may be supposed
to oscillate in the Greenland Seas, extends 1400 miles
from Cape Farewell to 200 miles beyond Jan Mayen's
Island, which it includes, and has a mean breadth of
about 80 miles. Such is the extent of the mere surplus
ice formed and dissolved from year to year, exceeding
the whole surface of Great Britain. Hence the quantity
melted or liberated during the years 1816 and 1817 bore
no very considerable proportion to the ordinary fluctu-

CLIMATE. 63

ating mass. It is therefore evident that, whatever may CHAP. L
be the casual variations of the frozen expanse, no mighty
alteration has yet taken place in the climate and con-
dition of the Arctic Seas.

If we compare the journals of former navigators, we Periodical
shall be convinced that all the changes of the Polar ice chan s ei
are periodical, and are again repeated at no very distant
intervals of time. We may pass over the pretensions of
some Dutch captains, who alleged that they had been
carried by winds or currents as far north as the latitude
of 88, or even that of 89 40', and consequently only
twenty miles from the Pole ; since their estimate, at all
times rude from observations with the fore-staff, was
then founded on mere dead reckoning after a continua-
tion of foggy weather. Davis, in 1587, ascended, in the Captain
strait which deservedly bears his name, to the latitude Davis.
of 72 12', where he found the variation of the compass
to be 82 west, or nearly the same as at present. In
1616, Baffin advanced, hi the same quarter as high as
the latitude of 78 degrees. Hudson, nine years before,
had penetrated in the Greenland Seas to the latitude of
81, and seen supposed land as high as that of 82 lying
to the north-east of Spitzbergen. But it is mortifying
to remark how little progress has been made in geo-
graphical discovery since those early and intrepid adven-
turers explored the Arctic regions with their humble
barks, which seldom exceeded the size of fifty tons. We
must pass over a very long interval to obtain authentic
information. In 1751 Captain M'Callam, whom Mr
Barrington calls a scientific seaman, sailed without JJlJa*!
obstruction from Hakluyt's Headland as high as the
latitude of 83^, where he found an open sea ; and the
weather being fine, nothing hindered him from proceed-
ing farther but his responsibility to its owners for the
safety of the ship. Captain Wilson, about the end of
June 1754, having traversed floating ice from the
latitude of 74 to 81, at last found the sea quite clear
as far as he could descry ; and he advanced to the
latitude of 83, till not meeting with any whales, and

64 CLIMATE.

CHAP. I. beginning to apprehend some danger, he shaped back
Captain Guy. kuj course. At this very time, Captain Guy, after four
days of foggy weather, was likewise carried to the same
point. The Polar Seas at that period must indeed have
been remarkably open ; for one of the most extraordi-
nary and best-authenticated voyages was performed 'in
1754 by Mr Stephens, a very skilful and accurate
observer, whose testimony is put beyond all manner
of doubt by the cool judgment of the late astronomer-
royal, Dr Maskelyne. This navigator informed him,
that about the end of May he was driven off Spitzbergen
by a southerly wind, which blew several days, till he
had reached the latitude of 84|, and that in the whole
of this run he met with little ice and no drift-wood,
Advnnce of an( ^ ^id not find the cold to be anywise excessive. In
Greenland different years, since that date, the Greenland whalers
lerSt have advanced to the latitude of 81 or 82 degrees. This
was accomplished even in 1766 ; although, according
to Kerguelen^ the whole space between Iceland and the
opposite coast was then frozen over. The year 1773,
or that in which Captain Phipps performed his voyage,
was still more favourable for approaching towards the
North Pole. In 1806 the elder Mr Scoresby ascended
to the latitude of 81 50' ; but in the following year lie
could not proceed farther than the parallel of 78^.
In 1811 the higher latitudes were again accessible ;
and, after a short interval, the summers of 1815, 1816,
and 1817, are represented as open seasons ; though none
of the whalers penetrated so far into the north as had
been done in many former years, and particularly in
1754.

Alteration of In this plain statement one can perceive no decided
frozen bor- symptoms of any general or progressive tendency to-
wards a dissolution of the Polar ice. The frozen border
alters its position from one year to another, and probably
returns again to the same limits after certain short periods
of time. Such fluctuations are analogous to the incessant
changes which affect the state of the weather in the
more temperate regions. The complex system of winds

CLIMATE. 55

moulds the climate, and varies the features of the seasons CHAP. I.
over the globe. It is a common remark of those who nesuitTof
frequent the Arctic Seas, that they find the least ob- severe win-
Btruction from ice when the preceding winter has been tcr '
very severe in the more southern latitudes. In the
year 1766, though the frost had proved most intense
through the rest of Europe, the whalers reached a high
latitude ; and, not to multiply instances, the three
seasons preceding 1818, reckoned very open, succeeded
to winters notoriously cold and protracted. Nor is it
difficult to discern the reason of this seeming paradox ;
for our severe winters are occasioned by the prevalence
of northerly winds, which must arrive at the Polar Seas
from the South, and consequently transport so much
warmth to them as may check the usual rigour of the
frost.

The main argument, however, brought to prove the Norse colony
deterioration of the Arctic climate, is drawn from the Sf^ 6011 '
supposed existence of a colony which had once flourished
on the eastern coast of Greenland, but has for several
centuries been extinct ; all access to its remains being
at length completely barred by the accumulation of ice.
This tale, which seems to have owed its birth to Tor-
fseus, the historian of Norway, has obtained very general
credence. Yet a sober examination of the early Sagat,
or northern chronicles, so full of wonder and fable, will
show that there is no solid reason for entertaining such
a notion, or believing that the first settlement of Green-
land was made on the east side of the continent. The
whole contexture of the original narrative indicates the
very opposite conclusion.

After the North had ceased to send forth her numer- Scandinavian
ous swarms upon the fertile provinces of the Roman nutiolis -
empire, the Scandinavian nations, prompted by their
peculiar situation, betook themselves to a life of mari-
time adventure. Those bold and hardy pirates visited
every sea, and pillaged, during a course of nearly three
hundred years, all the coasts of Europe, from the ex-
tremity of Scotland to the shores of Sicily. During

CLIMATE.

Extensi-ve
conquests.

Voyages of
discovery.

Snowland

CHAP. I the first half of the ninth century, they conquered the
Orkneys, the Shetland and Western Isles obtained
possession of Ireland plundered England and France
and extended their ravages to Italy. In 876 the
Northmen, or Normans, extorted from the weakness of
the French king the cession of the fine province of
Neustria, where they quietly settled ; while another
party of these fierce invaders had occupied the fertile
coast of Esthonia, on the south side of the Baltic.

But the visits of those intrepid navigators were not
confined to the richer countries of the South. They
carried ravens with them, for the purpose of discovering
distant land by the direction in which these powerful
and sagacious birds took their flight. In 861 Nadodd,
a roving pirate, in one of his voyages in the northern
seas, happened to be cast away on an island which he
called Snowland. Three years afterwards, Garder and
Flocke, two Swedes, visited it; and having found a
great quantity of drift-ice collected on the north side of
it, they gave it the name of Iceland, which it still bears.
But in 874 Ingolf and Leif, two famous Norwegian
adventurers, carried a colony to this inhospitable region,
the latter having enriched it with the booty which he
had ravaged from England. Other emigrants, whom
the disorders of the times drove successively from home,
resorted in crowds to the new settlement, which became
very considerable in the space of a few years.

Iceland itself was able, after the progress of about a
century, to send out likewise her colonies. Thorwald,
a proud and opulent Norwegian chief, who had been
lately banished thither from the court for some murder
committed by him, soon died in exile, leaving his wealth
and his restless spirit to his son Eric Raude, or the Red.
This youth, actuated by the same vengeful passions,
killed one of his neighbours in a fight, and was obliged
to withdraw himself from Iceland for the space of three
years. In 982 Eric sailed in quest of adventure and
discovery. Instructed by the reports of former navi-
gators, he directed his course towards the south-west.

Iceland.

CLIMATE. 67

After a quick run, he descried two lofty mountains, the CHAP. L
one covered with snow and the other cased with ice, white Shirt
which he called Huitserken and Blaaserken, or the White *JJ? Blue
Shirt and the Blue Shirt, and soon reached a headland
which he doubled ; and having entered a spacious creek,
he spent the winter on a pleasant adjacent island. In
the following season, pursuing his discoveries, he ex-
plored the continent, and was delighted with the fresh-
ness and verdure of its coast. Contrasting this new
country with the dark rocks of Iceland, he bestowed
on it the flattering appellation of Greenland; and on Greenland,
his return invited settlers to join him, by circulating
the most glowing and exaggerated descriptions. With
twenty-five vessels he sailed back again ; but of these
only fourteen reached their destination. This colony
was soon augmented by the arrival of numerous adven-
turers, not only from Iceland, but from the Orkneys
and other islands planted by the Norwegians. In the
year 999, Leif, a son of Eric Raude, having visited the
court of Norway, was induced, by the zealous and
earnest solicitation of King Olaf Tryggeson, to embrace
the Christian faith; and, carrying with him some
monks, he found, through their ministry, no great
difficulty in persuading his father and the rest of the
settlers to forsake the rites of paganism.

The first colony having extended itself along the Eastern co-
coast to a wide firth, another settlement beyond that louy<
boundary was established farther towards the west.
The former called Oestre Bygd, or the Eastern Settlement,
is said to have included, in its most flourishing state,
twelve parishes and two convents ; and the latter,
termed Vestre Bygd, or the Western Settlement, con- western co-
tained four parishes. The colonists of Greenland were tony.
compelled to lead a life of hardship and severe privation.
They dwelt in hovels surrounded by mountains ot
perpetual ice ; they never tasted bread, but subsisted
on the fish which they caught, joined to a little milk
obtained from their starving cows ; and with seal-skins
and the tusks of the walrus they purchased from the

CLIMATE.

Position of
the colony.

Esquimaux
invasion.

CHAP. L traders who occasionally visited them the wood required
for fuel and the construction of their huts.

Combining the several circumstances together, it
seems clear -that the original colony of Greenland
began about the southern promontory, near Cape
Farewell, and stretched along the coast in a north-
westerly direction. Farther north, and probably as
high as the latitude of 60, the second settlement was
formed.* For some centuries both of them maintained
a sort of commercial intercourse with Norway ; but
this trade became afterwards very much reduced, in
consequence of its being seized as an exclusive privilege
of the Danish court. About the year 1376, the natives
of the country, or Esquimaux invaders, whom the Nor-
wegian settlers had in contempt called Skrcellings or
Dwarfs, attacked the western colony, which now
claimed the assistance of its elder brother. The
scanty population, however, was enfeebled by such
repeated alarms ; and that dreadful pestilence, termed
Black Death, the Black Death, which raged throughout Europe from
the year 1402 to 1404, at last extended its ravages to
Greenland, and nearly completed the devastation. In
fertile regions the waste of the human species is always
quickly repaired ; but poor and barren countries can
seldom recover from the depression caused by such
severe calamities. The colonies which occupied Green-
land appear to have languished near one hundred years
afterwards, till they became finally extinct about the
commencement of the sixteenth century.

Destruction But a notion has very generally prevailed, that only

settlements ^ G western settlement of Greenland had perished, while

the eastern was merely secluded from communication

* A curious monument has been lately discovered, that
attests the zeal with which the early Scandinavian adventur-
ers pushed their settlements to the most northern parts of
Greenland. It is a stone carved with Runic characters, found
in 1824, planted erect in the ground on the island of Kingik-
torsoak, under the parallel of 73. The inscription has been
translated by Dr Rafn, Secretary of the Royal Antiquarian
Society of Copenhagen, as follows :

CLIMATE.

with the rest of the world by a vast barrier of ice, wliich CHAP. i.
had at length accumulated on its shores. The only

" Erling Sigvatson, and Bjarne Thordareon, and Endride Odd- Scandinavian
son, erected these memorial- stones and cleared the place, on nin .' c in-
Katurday before G agndag (the 25th of A pril), in the year 1 135." scnntion -

Those enterprising settlers must therefore have, as early as
the twelfth century, come into communication with the Esqui-
maux of North America. Allowing for the difference of stylo
at that epoch (being three days for every four centuries), the
stone was erected on the 1st of May, at which time the ground
seems to have been covered with snow.

For this curious notice the author is indebted to his very in-
genious, learned, and amiable friend, Dr T. Stewart Traill oj
Liverpool.*

* Dr Traill has, since the date of this acknowledgment by Sir Jonn
Leslie, heen appointed Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in the Univer-
sity of Edinburgh.

60 CLIMATE.

CHAP. I. question lately entertained was, whether these ill-fated
Fatelrfthe c l n i sts survived the catastrophe, or were suddenly
settlers. entombed in ice and snow, as the unhappy citizens of
Herculaneum were anciently involved in a dense shower
of volcanic ashes. Tremendous stories are told of the
east side of Greenland being now tenanted by giants
and stalking ghosts. For more than a century past the
court of Denmark has, at different times, despatched
ships to search after its lost colony, the crews of which,
evidently under the impression of superstitious awe,
found it impossible to penetrate on that enchanted coast
farther than Cape Discord, in the latitude of 61. But
in favourable seasons small boats can, without much
difficulty, creep along the shore to a much higher par-
allel. If any settlers had ever occupied the narrow
bays, they might surely have escaped either in their
canoes or in sledges.

Fabulous The supposed existence of a colony on the east side
accounts. o f Greenland is clearly a fable, originating in a misap-
prehension of the import of the designations applied
severally to the two settlements. The one first made
lay no doubt to the east, as well as to the south of the
other ; but the ships which resorted from Norway held
a westerly course for them both. Between them a

But such was the scrupulous anxiety of the publishers to
procure the most accurate information, that they stopped the
press to consult a gentleman in this country, deeply skilled
m the Runic, Mr Repp of the Advocates' Library, who has
obligingly furnished the following reading of the inscription,
with a translation somewhat different :

"Oelligr Siguathssonr ok Baaos Tortarson ok Oenrithi Os-
son : Laugardagin fyrir gagndag hldthu Varda dis ok rytu."
(The five last figures of the inscription are utterly unknown.)

That is, "Oelligr Sighwathson, and Baaos Tortarson, and
Oenrithi Osson, on the Saturday before Gagndag* erected
Thorvard's monument, and wrote this." (And then the com-
pound characters.)

* Gagndagr, in nominative, of which we have here the accusative case
Gagndag, were two holidays of the Catholic Church in Iceland. There was
a greater and a lesser. (Gagndagrin Meiri ok Minni). As to the exact
time when they occurred, see " Finni Johanna?} Historia Ecclesiastic*
Islandiae," under the word Gagndag in the Index, vol. iv.

CLIMATE. 61

mutual intercourse appears likewise to have been main- CHAP. I.
turned, which surely could not have taken place had j nte j^^
they been divided by a chain of lofty and impassable with Nor-
mountams covered with eternal snow. Besides, traces way *
of those ancient settlements are observed, even at pre-
sent, scattered along the western shores of Greenland,
as low down as the latitude of 61, though not corres-
ponding altogether with the poetical descriptions of the
Icelandic Sagas. Except the very scanty ruins of a
church, the only vestiges now remaining consist of low
naked walls, which must have served as pens for shel-
tering the cattle.

It may be safely affirmed that the settlements which, Modem
during the last hundred years, the Danes have been 8ettlements -
forming at various points on the western side of Green-
land are more numerous and thriving than those which
existed at any former period. They consist of twenty-
one colonies, stretching over an extent of 800 miles. The
first establishment is only a single family, occupying Bear
Island, a little to the east of Cape Farewell. Ten other
hamlets, composed chiefly of Moravians, are planted at
different points, from the latitude of 60 to that of 68.
Three settlements are distributed round Disco Bay, about
the latitude of 69 ; and seven more have been extended
thence as high as the ktitude of 73. So far, therefore,
from the population having been extirpated by the in-
creased severity of the climate, the truth appears to be,
that the present establishments on the coast of Greenland
extend ten degrees farther north than the ancient settle-
ments at their most flourishing period. This advance of
the colonies has been owing, no doubt, to the increased /<jvanceof
activity of the whale-fisheries, and to the circumstance the colonies
of these pursuits having been lately carried with success
into Davis' Strait. But there is nothing certainly in
their history which betrays any radical or permanent
change in the climate of the Arctic regions. The same
continent of ice still remains during the far greater part
of the year, to bar the access of the navigator to the
Pole,

62 ANIMAL LIFE.

CHAPTER II.

Animal and Vegetable Life in the Polar Regions.

Remarkable Profusion of Animal Life Means by which it is
supported The Cetacea : Whale, Narwal, Walrus, Seal
The Herring Land Animals The Polar Bear ; Its Fero-
city ; Anecdotes The Rein-deer Wolf, Fox, Dog Birds
Vegetable Life Peculiar Plants Red Snow.

CHAP. IL WHEN we contemplate the aspect of the northern world,
Aspect of the Weak, naked, dreary, beaten by the raging tempest,
northern and subject to an extremity of fold which with us is
fatal to life and to all by which life is supported, we
naturally imagine that animal nature must exist there
on a small scale, and under puny forms. It might be
expected that only a few dwarf and stunted species
would be scattered along its melancholy shores, and that
the animating principle, as it attempted to penetrate
those realms of desolation, ^would grow faint and expire.
But, on the contrary, Nature, whose ways and power far
Resource? of sur P ass human comprehension, makes a full display of
naturs. her inexhaustible resources. She has filled the naked
rocks and wintry seas with a profusion of organized
beings, such as are scarcely brought forth under the most
genial glow of tropical suns ; storing them with the
mightiest of living things, compared to which the ele-
phant and hippopotamus, which rear their immense shapes
amid the marshy plains of the tropics, seem almost
diminutive. Even the smaller species, of which the
herring may be taken for an example, are found amid
the depths of the Arctic zone, in shoals which astonish
by their immensity. The air, too, is darkened by in-

ANIMAL LIFE. 63

numerable flocks of sea-fowl, while, even upon the CHAP, n
frozen surface of the land, animals of peculiar form find
food suited to their various wants.

By what means, or by what resources, does she support, Source of
hi such circumstances, this immensity of life I Wonder-
ful as are her operations, they are always conducted
agreeably to the general laws imposed upon the universe ;
and we shall find, in the structure and condition of the
animal world, the powers by which its various members
are enabled to defy this frightful rigour of the elements.
Some of the provisions whereby their frames are adapted
to the extremes of climate, have, at first sight, the appear-
ance of direct interposition ; yet a more profound inves-
tigation always discovers the causes of them to be deeply
lodged in their physical organization.

It is on the seas and shores of the Arctic zone that ^J 8 ^ 8
we chiefly observe this boundless profusion of creative
energy ; and in conformity with that arrangement by
which Nature supports the inhabitants of the waters, by
making them the food of each other, so here also we
observe a continued gradation of animals, rising one
above another, the higher preying upon the lower, till
at last an aliment is provided for those of largest bulk
and most devouring appetite.

The basis of subsistence for the numerous tribes of the MccluKl '
Arctic world is found in the genus Medusa of Linnaeus,
which the sailors graphically describe as sea-blubber. This
is a soft, elastic, gelatinous substance, specimens of which
may often be seen lying on our own shores, exhibiting
no signs of life except that of shrinking when touched.
Beyond the Arctic circle this production increases in an
extraordinary degree, and is eagerly devoured by all the
finny tribes. By far the most numerous, however, of the
medusan races are of dimensions too small to be discerned
without the aid of the microscope, the application of
which instrument shows them to be the cause of a pe-
culiar tinge observed over a great extent of the Greenland
Sea. This colour is olive-green, and the water is dark
and opaque compared to that which bears the common

64 ANIMAL LIFE.

CHAP. ii. cerulean hue. The portion of the ocean so distingiiisiicd
Colo ~ f the amounts to not less than 20,000 square miles ; and hence
sea. the number of animalcules which that space contains la

far beyond calculation. Mr Scoresby estimates that two
square miles comprehend 23,888,000,000,000,000 ; and
as such an amount is above the range of human words
and conceptions, he illustrates it by observing that 80,000
persons would have been employed since the creation in
counting it. This green sea may be considered as the
Polar pasture-ground, where whales are always seen in
the greatest numbers. These prodigious creatures, it is
true, cannot derive any direct subsistence from particles
so very small ; but these last form the food of other
minute fishes, which in their turn support a third series,
till at length, as has been already remarked, animals are
produced of such size as to afford a morsel for the mighty
devourers. The genus Cancer, of the same writer, or
Crustacea, members of the class Crustacea, appear to rank second
in number and importance. They present themselves
under the various species of the crab, and, above all, of
the shrimp, whose multitudes rival those of the medusa,
and which in all quarters are seen either pursuing their
prey, or becoming the food of a higher class of marine
animals. So carnivorous, indeed, are the northern
shrimps, that joints of meat hung out by Captain
Parry's crew from the sides of the ship were in a few
nights picked to the very bone. Many of the zoophy-
tical and molluscous orders, too, particularly Actinia,
Sepia, and several species of marine worms, are employed
by Nature as the means of supplying food to various
inhabitants of the deep possessing a more perfect organi-
zation.

Cctacea. Among the numberless tribes of living things which

people the northern seas, one order stands highly con-
spicuous. These are the Cetacea, comprehending the
largest of existing animals, and having a structure wholly
distinct from every other species. Although their home
be entirely in the depth of the waters, they have several
features in common with quadrupeds, and, in fact, belong

ANIMAL LIFE. 67

to the Linntcan class of Mammalia, or suck -giving crca- CHAP, n

tures. They produce their young alive ; their skin is Ym iii7of the

smooth and without scales ; their blood is warm ; and whale.

the flesh tastes somewhat like coarse beef. They have

a heart with two ventricles, and lungs through which

they respire ; and being unable to separate the air from

the water, as fishes do by means of their gills, they must

come to the surface in order to breathe. It is thus by Not a flsh -

no means strictly scientific to call the whale a fish ; yet

he is entirely an inhabitant of the sea, having a tail,

though placed in a different position from that of ordinary

fishes, while his front limbs much more resemble fins

than legs, and are solely used for pawing the deep.

Hence the vulgar, following a natural and descriptive

classification, obstinately continue to give the name 01

fish to these watery monsters. But the most character- Blubber.

istic and important feature of the Cetacea, consists in a

thick layer of fatty substance, called blubber, lodged

beneath the skin and surrounding the body, which yields,

on expression, nearly its own bulk of thick, coarse, viscid

oil. It is by this covering that Providence enables them

to defy the utmost extremity of cold, and to preserve a

strong animal heat even under the eternal ice of the

Pole. Yet this substance, being subservient to the uses

of man, has roused a dreadful and deadly enemy, who

employs against them the resources of art, a power

which mere brutal force seeks in vain to oppose. He

pursues them through ice and tempest, and dyes the

seas with their blood. They themselves are meek,

peaceful, sluggish ; and man, in the contest which he

wages with them, is almost always the aggressor;

though the resistance which, he then encounters is

sometimes terrible, and his life is occasionally the

forfeit.

Among the cetaceous tribes the chief place is due to chief of the
the whale, of all animals " mightiest that swim the fH
ocean stream." Enormous as his bulk is, rumour and
the love of the marvellous have represented it as being
at one time much greater, and the existing race as only

ANIMAL LIFE.

Extreme
length.

Weight.

CHAP. II. ihe degenerate remnant of mightier ancestors. Mr
Scoresby, however, by collecting various good authori-
ties, has proved that sixty feet was always nearly the
utmost length of the mysticetus, or great Greenland
whale. Of 322 individuals in the capture of which that
gentleman was concerned, none occurred of a length
exceeding 68 feet ; and he therefore places no reliance
on the report of any specimen exceeding 70 feet. Even
60 feet implies a weight of 70 tons, being nearly that of
300 fat oxen. Of this vast mass, the oil in a rich
whale composes about thirty tuns, and when, as was the
case some years ago, that article brought 65 or 60
per tun, we may form some idea of the great value of
the prize. The bones of the head, fins, and tail, which
are also valuable, weigh eight or ten tons. The olea-
ginous substance, or blubber, forms a complete wrapper
round the whole body, from eight to twenty inches in
thickness. The head is disproportionally large, being
about a third of the entire bulk ; and the lips, nearly
twenty feet long, display, when open, a cavity capable
of receiving a ship's jolly-boat with her crew. The
whale has no external ear ; but, when the skin is re-
moved, a small aperture is discerned for the admission of
sound. This sense accordingly is very imperfect ; yet
the animal, by a quick perception of all movements
made on the water, discovers danger at a great distance.
The eyes are likewise on a small scale, though the sense
of seeing is acute ; more so, however, through clear
water than in the open air. But the most unique fea-
ture in the structure of this animal consists in the spir-
acles or blow-holes, placed nearly on the crown of the
head. These have been compared to natural jets d'eau
throwing up water to the height of 40 or 60 feet ; though
the more careful scrutiny of Mr Scoresby ascertained
that they emit only a moist vapour, and are neither
more nor less than huge nostrils. When, however, this
vehement breathing or blowing is performed under the
surface, a considerable quantity of water is thrown up
into the air. The sound thus occasioned is the only

Dispropor-
tionate size
of head.

Spiracles

ANIMAL LIFE. 69

thing like a voice emitted by the animal, and, in the CHAP. II.
wise of a violent respiration, it resembles the discharge
of a cannon.

The tail is the most active limb of this monarch of the The taJL
deep, and the chief instrument of his motion. It does
not rise vertically like that of most fishes, being flat
and horizontal, only four or five feet long, but more
than twenty feet broad. It consists of two beds of
muscles, connected with an extensive layer surrounding
the body, and enclosed by a thin covering of blubber.
Its power is tremendous. A single stroke throws a
large boat with all its crew into the air. Sometimes he
places himself in a perpendicular position with the head
downwards, and, rearing his tail on high, beats the
water with awful violence. On these occasions the sea
foams, and vapours darken the air ; the lashing is heard
several miles off, like the roar of a distant tempest. At
other times he makes an immense spring, and lifts his
whole body above the waves, to the admiration of the
experienced whaler, but to the terror of those who see
for the first time this astonishing spectacle. Other mo-
tions, equally indicative of his boundless strength, attract
the attention of the navigator at a great distance.

The fins, called by the French nageoires, and by Dr The fiiis.
Fleming "swimming-paws," are placed immediately
behind the eyes. They are nine feet long, enclosed by
very elastic membranes, and provided with bones similar
in form and number to those of the human hand. Such
is the spring and vitality of the parts, that, if we may
believe De Reste, they continue to move for some time
after being separated from the body. According to Mr
Scoresby, however, while the whale swims these organs
lie flat on the surface of the water, and are not at all
instrumental in producing his motion, which arises en-
tirely from the tail. The fins merely direct and steady
the movement, and serve rather as a helm than as oars.

The period of gestation in the whale is nine or ten
months, and the female brings forth in February or Gcstatl011 '
March. She is viviparous ; that is, the young come forth

70 ANIMAL LIFE.

CHAP. IL alive, not enclosed in an egg ; and usually, there is not
The suckers. m <>re than one at a time. These nurslings, about four-
teen feet long and weighing somewhat more than a ton,
are watched over by the female parent with the most
tender care. The whalers strike the suckers, as they
are called, not for their own value, but knowing that
the mothers will start forth in their defence. Then
ensues a contest hard and perilous, but commonly at-
tended with a prosperous issue, for she never seeks
safety in flight. She rushes upon the boat, drags the
Maternal line with extraordinary force, tosses to and fro in ex-
foadness. treme agony, and suffers herself to be struck by repeated
harpoons without attempting to escape ; while the hu-
mane captain has his triumphant feelings damped by
the consideration, that his prize has fallen the victim of
maternal tenderness. According to indications afforded
by notches in the bone, which seem not, however, very
distinctly ascertained, the whale does not attain his
full growth under twenty- five years, and is said to reach
a very great age.

Varieties of There is a considerable variety of these animals,
the whale. The Bakena physalis (Balcenoptera gibbar of La Cepede),
called by the sailors razorback is considerably longer
than the mysticetus ; and, though his circumference be
smaller, he is on the whole larger and much more
powerful. He is also swifter, swimming at the rate of
twelve miles an hour ; and Mr Scoresby has seen one,
when struck with a harpoon, run off 480 fathoms of
line in a minute. An individual of this species, found
dead in Davis' Strait, measured 105 feet in length. It
is, as might be apprehended, extremely dangerous to
attack him ; for, by the extreme rapidity of his motion,
he often breaks the line, or obliges the sailors to cut it
in order to escape destruction. Martens mentions an
instance of one which dragged a boat with its crew
among loose ice where they all perished. Besides, as
this fish contains only ten or twelve tuns of oil, of an
inferior quality, the whalers generally shun the encoun-
ter, unless when they are disposed for a daring adven-

ANIMAL LIFE. 71

lure, or mistake him, as they frequently do, for a CHAP. I
mysticetus. Besides the two pectoral fins, he has a BaisemT
horny protuberance or fin at the extremity of the back, muscuiua.
which part of the body, instead of being round as in the
other variety, rises into a narrow ridge. The Bakena
musculus or broad-nosed whale, the Balcena rostrata or
beaked whale, and the Bakena boops or finner, may be
considered as razorbacks on a smaller scale, with certain
specific distinctions. It is usually individuals of the
kinds now described that frequent the coasts of Norway
and Shetland, and sometimes make their appearance in
the British firths ; but neither they nor the physalis
ever attract the attention of an experienced fisher.

The only species, besides the mysticetus, regularly cachalot
sought after, i$ the cachalot (Physeter microps) or sper-
maceti whale. This variety occurs occasionally in the
northern seas, especially on the American coast, but
abounds chiefly in the waters bordering on the Antarctic
zone, and is the main object of pursuit in the southern
fishery. The cachalot does not seem to have met Mr
Scoresby's observation, although a male was thrown
ashore at Limekilns on the Forth, as described by Sir
Robert Sibbald ; but, according to the description of
De Reste and others, this species is distinguished by a
long row of teeth on the lower and none on the upper
jaw ; the back has a peculiar form, with a small bunch
behind ; and the tail is of extraordinary breadth. They Fomid ln
appear in large herds ; while the mysticetus, called by Herds,
our fishers the right whale, is generally found single.
These bands very often amount to two hundred, which
are said to be for the most part female, and usually
under the guidance of a male of very large dimensions.
To attack them is a formidable undertaking ; but suc-
cess is very advantageous, since ten or twelve sometimes
fall in one encounter. The perils of this fishery are
described as almost exceeding belief ; for which reason,
it is to be regretted that Captain Day's modesty makes
him decline recounting any of those which he witnessed.
The quantity of oil is much smaller than in the mys-

ANIMAL LIFE.

Value of
spermaceti.

Narwal.

CHAP. II ticetus, usually not exceeding three tuns ; but, from its
being mixed with the substance called spermaceti, is far
superior in value. When warm it is fluid ; but on
being poured into water it congeals into large flakes.
This whale yields also the peculiar aromatic substance
called ambergris, formed under certain circumstances in
the rectum, and voided as faeces.

Another species, called the narwal, about sixteen feet
long and eight in circumference, appears to differ little
from a small whale, except in a tusk projecting from
his upper jaw three to ten feet in length, which, sug-
gesting to the sailors the idea of a horn, has procured
for him the appellation of the sea-unicorn. He is swift,
yet is taken without much difficulty, and yields two or
three tuns of very fine oil. The dolphin, another ceta-
ceous animal of poetic fame, occasionally occurs ; and
the grampus often appears in numerous herds, guided
by some of larger size. The beluga, or white whale, is
also a separate species, distinguished chiefly by its pecu-
liar colour.

All the shores and borders of the Arctic zone are
crowded with amphibious species, which appear to form
an intermediate link between whales and quadrupeds,
the Mammalia of the sea and those of the land. Among
these is to be distinguished the morse or walrus (Tri-
checus rosmarus\ which bears such a resemblance to
our domestic quadrupeds that sailors, according to their
various impressions, have given it the title of sea-horse
or sea-cow. It is a large, shapeless, unwieldy creature,
12 to 15 feet in length and from 8 to 10 in circum-
ference ; the head small, the limbs short, of an inter-
mediate character between fins and legs. As a defence
against the extreme cold, these animals not only have
skins an inch thick, covered with close hair, but enjoy,
like the other Cetacea y a coating of oily fat, with which
their bodies are completely enveloped. Thus cased,
they lie stretched on the ice in the depth of winter,
without suffering any inconvenience. The most re-
markable feature of the walrus, however, consists in

Amphibious
species.

Walrus.

ANIMAL LIFE. 73

two teeth or tusks, which project in a curved line from CHAP a
the upper jaw, and are nearly two feet in length, yvalrus"
They are of beautiful white bone, almost equal to ivory, ivory.
and much used in the fabrication of artificial teeth.
The front face, when seen at a little distance, bears a
striking resemblance to the human ; and its appearance
is suspected to have sometimes given rise to the fanciful
reports of mermaids in the northern seas. Like all the
cetaceous tribes, to which the walrus is allied, he is dis-
posed to be peaceful and harmless. Captain Parry
describes the supine security with which a number ol
them lay on the ice, piled over each other, without
discomposing themselves at the approach of a party
armed for their destruction. In Spitzbergen, however, OutlooU
where they have been long the object of chase to the
Russian hunters, they are reported to keep very strict
watch ; it being said that one stands guard while the
others sleep. Even when sensible of danger, they are
not forward to face it, but rather shun the attack by
rushing beneath the ice, while those behind, with their
tusks, urge forward their companions. Yet, when they Courage.
are compelled to combat, they give battle with the ut-
most coolness and courage ; they then stand firm by
each other, nish in one united body against the boats,
and, striking with their tusks, endeavour to overset
them. When repulsed, too, they repeatedly rally, and
in the end yield only to the fire-arms of Europeans, or
to the stratagems of the Esquimaux. Maternal tender-
ness, and the determination with which the female
defends her young, are equally conspicuous in them as
in the whale species.

The seal, an animal well known on all the shores Theeeai.
of Europe, requires not to be particularly described.
The Arctic species are very numerous, and are applied
by the Esquimaux for a great variety of purposes.
They furnish food for his table, oil for his lamp, cloth-
ing for his person ; even their bones and skins supply
materials for his light portable boats and his summer
tents.

ANIMAL LIFE.

Herring
ehoals.

CHAP. II. Before quitting the Polar Ocean we must notice
another fish, whose periodical appearance renders it
familiar to all the European coasts. Those waters,
as already observed, apparently so chill and ungenial,
contain not only an ample store of animal life, but a
vast superabundance, with which they have been sup-
posed to supply the seas of the more temperate climates.
From them, in particular, if we may believe some na-
turalists, are derived the valuable tribes of the herring ;
the immense shoals of which, according to Bloch, Pen-
nant, and others, issue from the frozen depths about
January, and in March appear on the coasts of Iceland.
Their colmnn at this time, confined between Green-
land and the North Cape, is of comparatively small
breadth, but so dense that the water is darkened by
them ; any wooden vessel let down brings up several':
they may even be taken by the stroke of a lance.
They follow certain of their number larger than the
rest, called kings. These leaders are held in much
respect by the Dutch, who studiously spare their ma-
jesties, and even liberate them when found in the net,
lest, deprived of this royal guidance, the nation should
not find the way to their accustomed haunts. After
emerging from the Greenland Sea, this great army
divides into two wings, the right and largest bearing
down directly upon Scotland ; at the north-eastern ex-
tremity of which it forms that immense field wherein
the Dutch for many years carried on their great na-
tional fishery. A detachment smaller in number, but
some of which attain to superior excellence, fills the
western bays of Scotland, and, passing along Ireland,
reaches the neighbouring coast of France. Meantime
the left, or smaller wing, after ranging the Norwegian
shore, enters the Baltic. In July all these divisions
halt, and by an unknown impulse begin to retrace their
course towards their northern home. De Reste con-
siders it certain that the herrings, in returning, have a
general point of rendezvous which still remains un-
known ; but it should seem that nothing less than the

Scottish

fisheries.

Return
northward.

ANIMAL LIFE. 77

actual discovery of this place of meeting can ascertain CHAR n.
its existence. However, about the end of September Nort f^
they reach their destination beneath the ice of the rendezvous.
Polar regions, where they remain three months, all
the rest of the year being spent in wandering over the
face of the ocean.

Such is the theory of the annual appearance of the jjuor obser-
herring, which has been adopted without sufficient in- Cations,
vestigation by many popular writers. Later observa-
tion, accordingly, has thrown doubts upon the principle
of Arctic migration, and referred this periodical ap-
pearance upon the coasts of Europe to that instinctive
impulse which guides the finny tribes, at the season
of reproduction, to places where the spawn may be
deposited and the young find food. When this is ac-
complished, they retire from the shores to their habita-
tion in deeper waters. The female, when taken in our Pl . (Kli unls
seas, is commonly found to contain a roe ; and as this fecundity.
comprises the embryo of ten thousand future herrings,
such a prodigious fecundity easily repairs all the havock
committed upon the species, not only by their brethren
of the deep, but also by the ingenuity of man, constantly
exerted for their capture and destruction.

The other animals which frequent the Polar regions
belong cliiefly or wholly to the land.

In caves, or in the hollows of the ice, dwells the Greenl!in4
most formidable of Arctic quadrupeds, the Greenland bear.
bear. This tyrant ol the cliffs and snows unites the
strength of the lion with the untameable fierceness
of the hyena. A long shaggy covering of white soft
hair and a copious supply of fat enable him to defy
the winter of this rigorous climate. Hence, when ex- End OT
posed even to the moderate heat of Britain, he appears of cold,
to labour under great uneasiness. Pennant saw one,
over whom it was necessary from time to time to pour
large pailfuls of water. Another, kept for some years
by Professor Jameson, evidently suffered severely from
the comparative warmth of an Edinburgh su mm er. The
haunt of this voracious inhabitant of the Polar regions

ANIMAL LIFE.

CHAP. II.

Mode of
crossing the
sea.

His prey.

Prt-carious
supplies.

Conflict,!
with the
polar bear

is on the frozen shore, or on mountains of ice, some-
times two hundred miles from land; yet he is not,
strictly speaking, amphibious. He cannot remain under
water above a few moments, and he makes his way to
sea only by swimming from one icy fragment to an-
other. Mr Scoresby limits his powers in this respect
to three or four miles; yet Parry found one in the
centre of Barrow's Strait, where it was forty miles
across. His prey consists chiefly of the smaller cetacea
and of seals, which, unable to contend with him, shun
their fate by keeping strict watch, and plunging into
the deep waters. With the walrus he wages a fierce
and doubtful war ; and that powerful animal, with his
enormous tusks, frequently beats him off with great
damage. The whale he dares not attack, but watches
anxiously for the huge carcass in a dead state, which
affords him a prolonged and delicious feast : he scents
it at the distance of miles. All these sources of supply
being precarious, he is sometimes left for weeks without
food, and the fury of his hunger then becomes tremen-
dous. At such periods man, viewed by him always as
his prey, is attacked with peculiar fierceness.

The annals of northern navigation are filled with
accounts of the most perilous and fatal conflicts with
the Polar bear. The first, and one of the most tragical,
was sustained by Barentz and Heemskerke, in 1596,
during their voyage for the discovery of the north-east
passage. Having anchored at an island near the Strait
of Waygatz, two of the men landed, and were walking
on shore, when one of them felt himself closely hugged
from behind. Thinking this a frolic of one of his com-
panions, he called out, in a jocular tone, " Who's there ?
pray stand off." His comrade looked and screamed out,
" A bear ! a bear !" then running to the ship alarmed
the crew with loud cries. The sailors ran to the spot,
armed with pikes and muskets. On their approach
the animal very coolly quitted the mangled corpse,
sprang upon one of the assailants, carried him off, and
plunging his teeth into his body, bggan drinking his

ANIMAL LIFE. 79

blood at long draughts. Hereupon the whole party, CHAP. ll.
struck with terror, turned their backs, and fled pre- Com ^~ wl h
cipitately to their vessel. On arriving there they began a bean
to look at each other, ashamed in some measure of their
pusillanimous conduct. Three of them immediately re-
solved to avenge the fate of their countrymen, and to
secure for their remains the rites of burial. They
advanced, but fired at first from so great a distance
that all of them missed. The purser then courage-
ously proceeded in front of his companions, and, taking
a close aim, pierced the monster's skull, immediately
below the eye. The bear, however, merely lifted his
head, and ran towards them, holding still in his mouth
the victim whom he was devouring ; but seeing him
stagger, the three rushed on with sabre and bayonet,
and soon despatched him. They collected and be-
stowed decent sepulture on the mangled limbs of their
comrades ; while the skin of the animal, thirteen feet long,
became the prize of him who fired the successful shot.

The history of whale-fishing records a number of
remarkable escapes from the Polar bear. In 1668,
Jonge Kees, the master of a Dutch ship, undertook
with two canoes to attack one, and with a lance
gave him so dreadful a wound in the belly that his
immediate death seemed inevitable. Anxious, there-
fore, not to injure the skin, Kees merely followed the
animal till he should drop down dead. The quad-
ruped, however, having climbed a little rock, made
a spring from the distance of twenty-four feet upon
the skipper, who, taken completely by surprise, lost Perilous
hold of the lance, and fell beneath his assailant, which, p01
placing both paws on his breast, opened two rows of
tremendous teeth, and paused for a moment, as if to
show him all the horrors of his situation. At this
critical instant a sailor, rushing forward with only a
scoop, succeeded in alarming the monster, which made
off, leaving the captain without the slightest injury.

In 1788, Captain Cook of the Archangel, when near
the coast of Spitsbergen, found himself suddenly at-

ANIMAL LIFE.

CHAP. II. tacked by a bear. He instantly called on the surgeon
Remarkable wno accom P an i e d him to fire ; which the latter did
escape. with such admirable promptitude and precision, that
he shot the beast through the head, and delivered his
commander. Mr Hawkins of the Everthorpe, in July
1818, having pursued and twice struck a large one,
had raised his lance for a third blow, when it sprang
forward, seized him by the thigh, and threw Mm
over its head into the water. Fortunately it used
this advantage only to effect its own escape. Captain
Scoresby mentions a boat's crew which attacked a
bear in the Greenland Sea ; but the animal having
succeeded in climbing the sides of the boat, all the
men dropped themselves for safety into the waves,
where they hung by the gunwale. The victor entered
triumphantly, and took possession of the barge, where
it sat quietly till it was shot by another party. The
same writer mentions the ingenious contrivance of a
sailor, who, being chased by one of these creatures,
threw down successively his hat, jacket, handkerchief,
and every other article in his possession, when the
pursuer pausing at each, gave the seaman always a
certain advantage, and enabled him finally to regain the

Mode of
(vi tack.

ircrn-J Though the voracity of this savage creature is such
tenderness, that he has been known to feed on his own species,
yet maternal tenderness is as conspicuous in the female
as in other inhabitants of the frozen regions. There
is no exertion which she will not make for the supply
of her progeny. A she-bear, with her two cubs, being
hunted by some sailors across a field of ice, and finding
that, neither by example nor by a peculiar voice and
action, she could urge them to the requisite speed,
applied her paws and pitched them alternately forward.
The little creatures, as she came up, threw themselves
before her to receive the impulse, and thus both she
and they escaped from danger.

None of the varieties, indeed, are devoid of intel-
ligence ; while their schemes for entrapping seals and

ANIMAL LIFE. 81

other animals on which they feed often display con- CHAP. H.
siderable ingenuity. The manner hi which the Polar
bear surprises his victim is thus described by Captain
Lyon : On seeing his intended prey he gets quietly
into the water, and swims to a leeward position, from
whence, by frequent short dives, he silently makes
his approaches, and so arranges his distance, that at
the last dive he comes to the spot where the seal is
lying. If the poor animal attempts to escape by roll- catching
ing into the water, he falls into the paws of his enemy ; seals -
if, on the contrary, he lies still, his destroyer makes a
powerful spring, kills him on the ice, and devours him
at leisure. Some sailors, endeavouring to catch a bear,
placed the noose of a rope under the snow, baited with
a piece of whale's flesh. He, however, contrived, three
successive tunes, to push the noose aside, and unhurt
to carry off the bait. Captain Scoresby had half-
tamed two cubs, which used even to walk the deck ;
but they showed themselves always restless under this
confinement, and finally sought relief in their native
element.

According to Pennant and other writers, the bear Hibernation,
forms chambers hi the great ice-mountains, where he
sleeps during the long Arctic night, undisturbed by
the roar of the tempest ; but this regular hibernation
is doubted by many recent observers. The fact seems
to be, that the males roam about all whiter hi search
of prey, not being under the same necessity of sub-
mitting to the torpid state as the black bear of America,
which feeds chiefly on vegetables ; but the females,
who are usually pregnant in the more rigorous season,
seclude themselves nearly the whole time in their
dens.

The animals which belong entirely to the land, nerbivennis
and feed on herbage, are, in a climate covered with amuiala -
snow nine months in the year, necessarily few both
in number and species. The rein-deer, a most patient
and useful creature, an inhabitant of the Polar regions,
may be said to subsist as far north as animal life can

ANIMAL LIFE.

Its uses.

CHAP. II. he maintained. To the Laplander he is all in all ; and
Rein deer. m that dreary portion of the globe he can always dig
from under the snow the moss or lichen, his favourite
food. Even in the severer climates he carries his
summer-excursions as far as men have yet penetrated ;
but at the end of October the intense frost no longer
allows him to reach even the simple pasture in which
he delights. It is then that large herds are observed
to assemble and migrate to the southward. From
Melville Island they were seen crossing the frozen
surface of the sea, to gam a milder climate on the
American shore. The people within the Arctic zone
do not tame the rein-deer, nor yoke it hi the sledge ;
it is not even for them the staff of life ; but it affords
a favourite object of summer-hunting, gives an agree-
able variety to their meals, and yields their warmest
and most valuable winter-robes. The fur- skin becomes
always richer and more copious in proportion to the
intensity of the cold, against which it forms the only
defence. In the chase the deer fall easy victims, even
to the rude archery of the Esquimaux, being so simple
and curious, that if a man merely walks away from
them, they follow. Some of these animals, which
joined Captain Parry's crews on Melville Island, played
round them like lapdogs, and at setting out in the
morning used to gambol by rearing on their hind-legs.
The musk-ox, the only member of the bovine species
which penetrates the Arctic zone, though in smaller
numbers, constitutes also a wholesome food. Its un-
wieldly form is protected from the cold by an immense
profusion of hair, which envelops its whole limbs and
figure, and also by an interior layer of wool, that ap-
peared to Pennant the finest he had ever seen, and
made, he was told, stockings superior to the richest
silk. This last, we suspect, is a temporary clothing.

The canine race presents several species which brave
the most extreme severity of cold, and remain after
every other land-quadruped, except the bear, has taken
its flight to the southward. Wolves, in considerable

Easy cap
ture.

Musk-ox.

ANIMAL LIFE. 83

numbers, continue to seek their prey in the utmost CHAP. IL
depths of the Polar winter. It seems difficult to dis- W olvesT
cover what food they find at that season ; but a re-
gular pack attended the English discovery-ships, watch-
ing for whatever offal might be found exposed, and
serenading them with nightly bowlings. As if by a
sort of tacit convention, they did not presume to attack
the sailors; but they advanced in the most daring
manner to the sides of the vessels, and sometimes even
entered the huts of the Esquimaux, whose dogs they
esteemed a regular prize, and very speedily devoured
them. The natives catch them by traps formed of little r cap "
sheds of ice, at the entrance of which is a portcullis of
the same material, connected in such a manner with
the bait within, that when the latter is seized by the
animal the suspended portion drops, and the wolf is
taken. Their tenacity of life is such, that after ap-
y.arent death they often revive and occasion danger.
The Arctic fox, a small beautiful white animal, with Fox *
woolly hair like a little shock-dog, occurs in still greater
numbers. About a hundred were caught in Captain
Parry's second voyage, some of which were half tamed
and made pets of ; while others, by a harder fate, were
dressed for table ; and their flesh, somewhat resembling
kid, afforded an agreeable relief from the constant use
of salted meat.

The dog, however, is the most important quadruped Dog.
of the Arctic world, and the most valuable possession
of its people, who have succeeded in taming and render-
ing it equally useful for draught and for hunting.
Those of the Greenlander, the Esquimaux, and the
Kamtschadale, are large, and of a some-what wild aspect.
Captain Lyon describes them as resembling in form
the shepherd's dog, rising to the height of the New-
foundland, but broad like the mastiff; having short
pricked ears, a furry coat, and a bushy tail. In general
they are observed to bear a strong resemblance to the
wolf, and the opinion is even prevalent that the former
exhibit onlv the latter in a tame state. Parrv and

ANIMAL LIFE.

Pops and
wolves.

Esquimaux
dogs.

CHAP. II Richardson both mention instances in which domestic
dogs were seduced away by the attractions of female
wolves ; yet the avidity with which the wolf devours
his supposed brethren does not seem quite consistent
with so close an affinity. Nature, with provident care,
defends them against the cold, not only by a profusion
of long hair, but by a soft downy covering, formed
beneath it at the commencement of winter, and shed
at the approach of the milder season. The Esquimaux
are much reproached for their harsh treatment of these
valuable servants ; yet, when young, they are used
with tenderness, the women often taking them into
bed, and feeding them from their own mouths. As
soon as they can walk they are yoked to a small
sledge ; in endeavouring to shake off which encum-
brance they learn to draw it. Severe and frequent
beatings, however, are necessary to train them for act-
ing as a regular team. But their greatest sufferings
respect the want of food ; of which, during the season
of scarcity, they obtain a portion barely sufficient to
maintain life, and not at all to prevent them from falling
into a state the most meagre and debilitated. Their
hunger is manifested by the nature of the substances
with which they sometimes seek to assuage it. Cap tarn
Parry saw one which ate a large piece of canvass, a
cotton handkerchief laid out to dry, and a piece of a
linen shirt. The Esquimaux, we must recollect, are
subject to painful scarcities, and the food of the dogs
being the same with their own, the animals, on such
emergencies, can scarcely expect to be placed on a
footing of equality. But this rough usage does not
seem incompatible with a certain degree of attach.
Fondness for men ^ an( * commiseration. For example, they refused
them. " to sell them to the English, till assured that they
would not be killed. They rejoiced greatly to see
a house built for them ; and at every visit a friendly
recognition took place between each dog and his old
master. When these animals are yoked in the sledge,
a whip of twenty feet long enforces obedience ; while

Imperfeoi
l.rovisions.

ANIMAL LIFE. 85

peculiar cries indicate the right or left, to turn or to CHAP. 11.
stop. Three dogs can draw a sledge weighing 100 Ibs. gled -
at the rate of a mile in six minutes, and one leader is ing. ge
said to have transported 196 Ibs. the same distance in
eight minutes. A full team, however, comprises eight
or ten ; though seven have been known to draw a
loaded sledge at the rate of a mile in four minutes and
a half ; while nine, employed in conveying stores from
the Hecla to the Fury, drew 1611 Ibs. in nine minutes.
Captain Lyon reports most favourably of the team
that he himself formed, which used to carry him from
ship to ship, a mile distant, in the deepest darkness
and amid clouds of snow-drift, with the most perfect
precision, when he could not have found his own way
a hundred steps. Their services in hunting are also
of great value ; they can snuff the seal in his hole,
or the deer on the mountains, from a surprising dis-
tance. Assembled in packs, they face even the Polar
bear, keeping him at bay till their masters come up
with spears to the attack.

The air in those dreary regions is, almost as much as Birda
the waters, peopled with its appropriate inhabitants,
which fill it continually with sound and life. Here,
too, the species are nearly all different from those that
wing their flight through the temperate skies. They
do not shine with the bright hues of the humming-bird,
nor breathe the soft notes of the nightingale, nor do they
charm the ear with the rich melody of our woodland
choirs ; but the auk, the petrel, and the gull, clustering
in myriads, cause all the rocks and shores of the Nortli Auk, petrol
to echo with their wild clang. They are almost all an
rapacious and carnivorous ; the vast collections of shell-
fish and marine insects with which those seas abound,
and the carcasses of the huge animals that are killed,
either in conflicts with each other or with man, affording
them an inexhaustible supply of nutriment.

The fulmar, or petrel (Procellaria glacialis), is the p e t rC L
close attendant of the whale-ships in every stage of
their progress. Termed emphatically the bird of storm,

ANIMAL LIFE.

Flocks of
I'etrels.

Amusing

scenes.

CHAP. IL it faces the northern tempest when raving with its
utmost fury, and seats itself on the agitated crest of the
mountain-wave as calmly as if resting on the surface of
an untroubled lake. It follows with one uniform object,
that of snatching and feasting on portions of blubber.
As soon as a whale is fastened to the side of the ship,
and begins to be cut up, an immense muster takes place,
sometimes exceeding a thousand, all stationed in the
rear, watching for the fragments which are wafted to
leeward. The peculiar chuckling noise by which they
express their eager expectation, the voracity with which
they seize on the fat, and the huge morsels which they
swallow, the envy shown toward those that have
obtained the largest of these delicate morsels, and often
the violent measures taken to wrest it from them,
afford to the sailors a variety of amusing scenes. The
surface of the sea is occasionally so completely covered
with them, that a stone cannot be thrown without one
being struck. When an alarm is given, innumerable
wings are instantly in movement, and the birds, striking
their feet against the water to aid their flight, cause a
loud and thundering plash.

The petrel, however, does not enjoy alone this delici-
ous ocean-festival. It is sought with equal avidity by
the various species of the Larus or gull, the Arctic
gull, the kittiwake, and the snow-bird (Larus eburneus\
which last excites admiration by the pure and beautiful
white of its plumage ; but the elegance of its taste does
not correspond to that of its appearance, fat blubber
being its choicest luxury, while it utters a loud and
disagreeable scream. All these ravening tribes of the
northern sky, however, have a terrible rival hi the blue
gull (Larus glaucus), which, while it equals them in
rapacity, surpasses them all in strength. In considera-
tion of this, the Dutch have invested him with the title
of burgomaster ; but that sage magistrate uses, we trust,
his power in a very different manner from his winged
representative, who employs it solely in wresting from
the weaker species whatever he sees them possess, and

Arctic gull

Blue gull

ANIMAL LIFE. 87

esteems desirable. He is usually hovering high in the CHAP. IL
air, or seated on the loftiest icy pinnacles, whence, p ~
having fixed his eye on a dainty morsel, he darts down weaker birda
on the possessor, which, whether fulmar, snow-bird, or
kittiwake, must instantly resign the coveted prize.
Happily for these races the burgomaster class is very
small in number, compared to the multitudes over
whom he tyrannizes.

The genus Anas, comprehending the swan, the goose, Swan, goose.
and the duck, large, useful, and often beautiful fowls,
traverse in vast flights all the northern seas and inlets.
Like the rest of the An seres, they have all webbed feet,
consisting of branching toes connected by a membrane,
which enable them to move with equal facility on the
water as on land. The swan, with its stately plumage,
frequents chiefly the inland seas and lakes, of which it
lias been called the peaceful monarch. The goose, a Migrations
less elegant but more valuable bird, migrates in vast geese-
numbers every spring to breed on the Arctic shores and
islands, and affords a valuable supply of food to all the
northern settlements. The Hudson's Bay Company salt
three or four thousand annually for winter. The Indians
celebrate the month of their arrival under the title of
the goose-moon. Migration during the rigorous season,
resorted to even by quadrupeds, becomes the still more
natural resource of the feathered creation. In Septem-
ber the flocks of geese, winging their way to the south-
ward, supplied a warning to Captain Franklin of the
winter that was closing in upon him.

The duck reaches a still higher latitude than the Duck,
goose, and endures still severer cold. Great flocks
of that species called the eider arrive in spring on the
most northern shores of Greenland. All the birds that
fly over the frozen seas are provided by nature with a
rich and ample plumage, and a lining of soft down
beneath ; and the people of those countries find their
skins, with the feathers inside, to be one of their most
comfortable articles of clothing. But the down of all
the other species is surpassed in fineness by that of the

ANIMAL LIFE.

CHAP. II. duck now named, the delicious softness of which fits it
Duckdown. ^ or ^e couch of kings. A pound of eider-down, accord-
ing to Sir Charles Giesecke, is usually sold for a pound
sterling. The best is that which the hirds pluck from
their breast to furnish the interior of their nest. The
Greenlander, watching his time, removes this precious
lining as soon as it is completed, whereupon the poor
animals form a second, destined to share the same fate.
Terns. Among Arctic birds are included the terns, which on

the American coast are so very numerous, that an island
has been named from the immense flocks with which
it is annually filled. They produce the most delicate
eggs of any water-fowl. We may add the Colymbus
(guillemot), whose skin affords a peculiarly comfortable
clothing, the Tringa (sandpiper), the Charadrius
(plover), the Tetrao (grouse and ptarmigan), of which
a species, much valued on account of the delicacy of its
Ptarmigans flesh, occupies the interior of Greenland. All ptarmi-
gans change their colour, from mottled gray or brown
in summer to pure white during the winter months.
According to De Reste, the dark summer-covering is
shed at the end of autumn, and a new plumage shoots
out, which is white, till darkened by the warmth of
the following spring, or, to speak more accurately, a
partial moult takes place towards the close of the year,
during which all the coloured feathers are thrown out,
and their places supplied by white ones ; while in spring
most of these last are again shed, to make room for
others adorned by the richer and more varied hues of
summer. Captain Parry saw this change go on so
rapidly among the grouse on Melville Island as to be
perceptible from day to day.

vegetable world does not, in this dark and outer
boundary of the earth, possess such an important char-
acter as the animal. Nature, without departing wholly
from her ordinary laws, could not clothe with verdure
a soil which during nine months of the year is frozen
as hard as rock, and covered with snow many feet deep.

VEGETABLE LIFE. 89

The plants of more genial climates, indeed, when inserted CHAP. IL
at the commencement of the short bright summer, spring ExotuT"
up and wear for some time a promising appearance ; but pianta.
they are all nipt by the surly winter. Still, in the
northern regions, especially when approaching the Arc-
tic zone, she does employ resources similar to those by
which animal life is preserved. The fir, the pine, and Fir and pine
other trees peculiar to the climate, on being pierced, trees,
distil, not the balmy and fragrant gums of Arabia and
India, but rich, thick, coarse juices, whereby their
internal heat is maintained, and which, in the shape of
pitch, tar, and turpentine, serve many valuable purposes.
Through the cherishing influences of these juices, the
lakes of North America are bordered with tall dark
forests, which afford to the agricultural countries an
inexhaustible supply of useful timber. Even their Folla a
gloomy foliage, while the forests of the south are every
autumn strewing the ground with their faded leaves,
braves through the winter all the fury of the northern
tempest. Before reaching, however, the inclement sky
of the Arctic regions, this magnificent growth decays.
Trees gradually dwindle into meagre and stunted shrubs.
Beyond the Polar circle, these monarchs of the wood,
if they appear at all, rise only to the height of a few
feet, throwing out lateral branches. On Melville Pen-
insula, dwarf- willow and the Andromeda tetragona JJjJ* rf Wll ~
afford to the Esquimaux their only material for arms
and utensils. Considerable quantities of drift-timber
are, no doubt, frequently found on those remote shores,
supposed to have floated originally from the mouths of
rivers, on the Asiatic as well as the American continent.
The species which abound most in those dreary
climates belong to the tribes of mosses and lichens,
the Cryptogamia of Linnaeus, the Acotyledones of Jussieu.
The meagre vegetation with which the surface of the
earth is covered, thus appears rather as if it were an
exudation from the rocks than the produce of the soil ;
yet the plants now specified are not only produced in
abundance, but possess a nutritious and salutary quality

VEGETABLE LIFE.

Lichenood.

Mushroom.

Marine
botany.

CHAP. IL not displayed in more fortunate regions. One species
^ ^ cnen (& rangiferinus) forms, as it were, the main
staff of life to the Laplander ; it supports the rein-deer,
and the rein-deer supports him. The lichen of Iceland,
again, whether boiled in soup or converted into bread,
is to the natives a principal part of their subsistence.
Farther north, where the depth of the snow and the
continuance of frost drive the inhabitants to the shore
and to the use of animal food, these vegetables still
afford nourishment to the various quadrupeds which
they set apart for this purpose. It is also with a pecu-
liar species of moss that they trim their, lamps. The
/ungus or mushroom, that is seen to vegetate without
the aid of a proper root, and the filices or ferns, which
consist only of one spreading leaf, the middle rib of
which forms all their stalk, find the means of existence
even in Greenland.

The order Algce, and especially the tribe of Futi,
comprehending nearly all the variety of marine botany,
grow in vast abundance on the northern shores. These
rude plants, which have little or no distinction of stem,
root, or leaves, and whose fructification is often included
within the substance of the frond, cover the Greenland
coast with meadows under the level of the sea. The
ConfervcBy too, another division of the same order, with
their numerous filaments, spring up in great abundance.

A few plants, not belonging to this imperfect order of
vegetation, embellish, during the short summer, those
northern fields. Indeed, at this season, under the bright
influence of the sun, some of the most beautiful among
the floral tribes expand their petals. The ranunculus
and anemone display their rich and varied tints ; several
species of saxifrage put forth their flowers; and the
yellow poppy has even a gaudy appearance, so that the
genus Papaver, which enriches the plains of Hindostan,
is among the last to expire under the snows of the Pole.
The nobler fruits do not ripen under this ungenial sky ;
yet shrubs producing delicious berries appear on the
borders at least of the Arctic zone in matchless profu-

Summer
flowers.

VEGETABLE LIFE. 01

sion. The northern Indians consider the fruit of a bush CHAP. IL
called the Aronia ovalis as the most agreeable food ;
besides which they have the strawberry, raspberry, red
whortleberry, and various others. Several of these are
covered beneath the first snows of winter, which are
supposed to mellow them, and, when disclosed by the
return of spring, the berries are seen still hanging on the
branches, while the buds of the others are bursting,
the whole producing a delightful impression, unknown
to those who have not witnessed the desolation that
immediately preceded.

Those climates enjoy, besides, a precious boon in the Antiscorbn,
plants which act as an antidote to scurvy, and which tlc plants -
defy the severest cold of the Arctic zone. The Cochlearia,
a thick-tufted juicy plant of extreme fecundity, is em-
phatically called scurvy-grass ; and the different species
of sorrel, especially the Rumex digynits, were found by
Captain Parry flourishing under the snow at the very
farthest limit of vegetation.

The extraordinary phenomenon of red-snow, observed Red-snow,
by Captain Ross and other Arctic voyagers, naturally
excited the greatest interest both at home and abroad.
This singular tint in a substance, with which we never
fail to associate an idea of the purest and most radiant
whiteness, has been ascertained to result from an assem-
blage of very minute bodies, belonging to the class of
cryptogamic plants and the natural order called Algce.
They form the species named Protococcus Nivalis by origin and
Agardh, which is synonymous with the Uredo Nivalis of nature.
Mr Bauer. This production seems by no means peculiar
to the Arctic mountains, but occurs on limestone rocks
in the island of Lismore in Scotland, as well as among
the Alps and other countries of Europe. Saussure ob-
served it so long ago as the year 1760 on Mount Breven
in Switzerland, and so frequently after that period, that
he expresses his surprise at its having escaped the notice
of Scheuchzer and other learned travellers. Rarnond,
whose observations so beautifully combine the precision
of science with the perception of the picturesque, found

92 VEGETABLE LIFE.

CHAP. II red snow in the Pyrenees, as did Sommerfeldt, the bo-

Red snow in on ^ e hJlk f Norwa. In the ear 1818 vast

masses of the same substance overspread both the Apen-
nines and the Italian Alps ; and it is recorded, that ten
years prior to that period the vicinity of Belluno and
Feltri was covered to the depth of twenty centimetres
with rose-coloured snow.

Observations According to Captain Ross, the ridges on which he
K^s&. aP observed this phenomenon are about 600 feet high, and
extend eight miles in length. The depth to which the
colour penetrates has been variously stated by different
observers. Some found that it descended many feet
beneath the surface, while others never saw it spread
beyond one or two inches. There is no reason to suppose
that the colouring matter itself, as well as the snow, is
a meteorological product, although Humboldt certainly
mentions a shower of red hail which fell at Paramo de
Guanacos, in South America. Moisture is no doubt
essential to the production of this plant, as it is to that
of all the other Alga; but, when once formed, it seems
to possess the power of continued vegetation, even on
rocks and stones, with only an occasional supply of fluid.
Rapid propa- ^ <ne propagation of minute vegetable forms, like that of
gutiou. animalcules, is effected, under favourable circumstances,
with a rapidity of development truly astonishing ; and
the most probable conjecture seems to be, that snow is
not the natural situation of the Protococcus A? ca/i, but
merely that, from its great tenacity of life, it can preserve
its vitality on so chilly and ungenial a surface. If such
be the case, it is easy to suppose how a wide expanse
may be covered with this red suffusion, during the occa-
sional flowing of the snowy waters. When once esta-
blished, its particles become more numerous than the
sands of the ocean ; and, increasing in density frorr.
to year, it presents at last to the astonished navigator a
sight more surprising hi its reality than any of the fabled
wonders of an Arabian tale.

j A singular coincidence has been observed by botanists

to exist between a white ground and a red flower. Thus

VEGETABLE LIFE. 93

the rich and brilliant variety of Anthyllis vulnaria is only CHAP. IL
found on a chalky surface ; and many of the higher Colo ~ f thc
orders of flowering plants show a decided tendency to snow plant
produce red-coloured petals when they happen to spring
up on white limestone. " How much more forcibly,
then," says Agardh, " must this law operate upon plants
like the Alga, in which colour is an essential part."
That excess of light produces the peculiar or at least
prevailing colour of the snow-plant, may be said to be
demonstrated by this -singular fact, that the red colour
gradually changes to green as it occurs more or less
secluded from the action of light among the fissures of
rocks, or beneath the hollows or under-surfaces of stones.
This being the case, it will appear the less incomprehen-
sible that the same plant which is produced amid the
snows of the Arctic regions or the highly elevated Alps
of more southern countries, should be occasionally de-
tected, even during the heat of summer, covering the
brilliant white limestone of the plains. In the last-
named locality it was discovered by the Baron Wrangel
in the province of Nerike, and named by him Lepraria
kermesina ; and the two supposed species have been since
ascertained to be one and the same.

In concluding our notice of this singular substance, we Effects of re
may observe, that when the warmth of the returning sun
has partially dissolved the surface of the snow, and thus
contributed to the formation and development of these
microscopical plants, the vivifying power of the solar
light, aided by some peculiar and as yet unknown pro-
perty belonging to the natural whiteness of the snow
itself, is highly influential in the production of the
beautiful colour by which they are distinguished.*

* Mr Scoresby conjectured that the red colour of the Arctic
enow derived its origin from innumerable multitudes of very
minute creatures belonging to the order Radiata. He had
frequently observed the ice to be tinged with an orange colour,
obviously resulting from an assemblage of small transparent
animals of about the size of a pin's head, resembling the Beroe
globulosa of Lamarck. Other observers have thought them-
selves authorized to trace the red colour to the dung of the

VEGETABLE LIFE.

CHAP II. little auk ( Uria alle), which abounds on many of the barren

shores of the North. But neither of these supposed causes

could produce the phenomenon alluded to, as observed among
the central Alps of Europe, where marine radiata and littlo
auks are alike unknown

ANCIENT VOYAGES. 95

CHAPTER III.
Ancient Voyages to the North.

Voyage of Pytheas Norwegian Expeditions ; Ohthere Colo-
nization of Iceland The Zeni-Quirini.

THE voyages to the North, undertaken prior to the CHAP. Til
great era of maritime enterprise and the invention of Ancieiir
the compass, were few in number, and scarcely extended voyages.
into those circumpolar regions which form the special
subject of the present volume. It will be enough,
therefore, to take a rapid sketch of the steps by which
discovery proceeded towards those remote and almost
inaccessible quarters.

The Mediterranean, the shores of which constituted Ear ii e sf
the first civilized portion of the West, was the quarter maritime
where European navigation originated. As Tyre, situ- 8
ated in the depth of that sea, was the earliest seat of
commerce, Carthage, the daughter of Tyre, was doubtless
the first state which undertook any extensive discoveries
upon the ocean. These, however, were shrouded in
deep mystery, prompted by the jealous and monopolizing
temper of this people, once so powerful and opulent.
The classic writers give only some slight and detached
notices of the voyage of Himilco, who appears to have
sailed along the exterior coasts of Spain and France,
and to have reached the southern extremity of Britain.
This, it is probable, was only the first of a series of
voyages carried on with the view of procuring tin,
a metal rare and highly valued in those days. The Cas-
siterides, or Tin-islands, which appear to be Cornwall

ANCIENT VOYAGES.

Pytheas.

Strabo.

CHAP. in. and the Scilly Isles combined together, were celebrated
among the primitive authors of Europe.

The most distinguished of the Greek navigators who
penetrated into the North was Pytheas, a citizen of
Marseilles, a Greek colony, which, favoured by its situ-
ation, had become the chief emporium of the commerce
of Britain, already esteemed of some importance. He
seems to have been the first who, inspired by motives
of intelligent curiosity, endeavoured to reach the British
coast, and the remotest extremities of the sea by which
it is washed. Our knowledge of this voyage is indeed
imperfect, being almost entirely due to Strabo, who,
while he relates it, derides the whole as a palpable for-
gery ; yet the very particulars on which he founds this
charge go far to establish the fact he questions. Pytheas
appears to have passed the Straits, and sailed along the
western coasts of France and Spain, which, from pre-
vious misconception, he confounds together. Thence
he seems to have directed his course through the English
Channel, and along the eastern coasts of Britain, till he
reached the northern parts of the island. Not content
with this achievement, he continued to sail onwards
into the depths of ocean, till in six days he arrived at
Thule, an island where it appeared to him that perpetual
light reigned at midsummer throughout the night as
well as the day. Immediately beyond, his progress was
arrested by a barrier of a peculiar nature by something
which was neither earth, air, nor sky, but a compound
of all the three ; forming a thick viscid substance,
through which it was impossible to penetrate. These
statements have afforded much advantage to sceptical
readers ; yet the summer days of Shetland are really
very long, and the thick and gloomy mists, with which
the Northern Sea is often loaded, might make a pe-
culiar impression on the mind of a man who had ven-
tured into this unknown ocean so far beyond the limit
of former navigation : they might make him prone to
believe that he had arrived at the farthest boundaries of

Thule.

Northern
mists.

PYTHEAS. 97

nature. It seems difficult, however, to suppose, with CHAP. IIL
Bougainville, that he proceeded as far as Iceland ; though Balti( 7
there is little doubt that he entered the Baltic, and also
brought home a correct account of its shores, then
known to the people on the Mediterranean almost solely
by the qualities of the amber which was thence imported.

The enterprise of Py theas, though apparently quite Results of
authentic, did not lead to any change in the course of the voyage,
the Massylian trade. It was probably found both
cheaper and more convenient to transport the produc-
tions of Britain through Gaul, than to convey them by
means of such a lengthened and perilous voyage. The
only other additions to ancient knowledge respecting
the northern seas were made by the Romans, who, in
order to conquer, were obliged to explore the earth.
Agricola, before undertaking the campaign which was
to reduce Scotland into a province, sent fleets to explore Agricola.
its most northern shores and bays. His countrymen,
however, do not appear to have sent in that direction,
nor perhaps in any other, naval expeditions having dis-
covery alone for their object. Their delineation of
Caledonia itself is excessively rude ; and though they
had traced the shores of Europe eastward as far as
Russia, the great peninsula of Scandinavia appeared to
them only as a cluster of islands.

In the decline of the Roman empire, that country, Scandinavia,
formerly so little regarded, became the seat of a most for-
midable maritime power. Norway, under the terrible
dominion of Harold the Fairhaired, Denmark, under
Gorm and Canute, sent forth fleets which pillaged all the
coasts of Europe, and reduced many of them to subjec-
tion. Their movements, however, were from the North,
not to the North ; and their objects were not science, but
ravage and conquest. The Runic tribes, indeed, were
not without some tincture of letters and poetry ; though
their sagas or poetical chronicles celebrated only the
exploits of their mighty sea-kings and rovers, not any
undertaking connected with commerce and the arts of
peace. Yet a communication with these adventurers

ANCIENT VOYAGES.

CHAP. in.

Alfred.

Ohthcro.

Voyage to
the North

Voyages of
the North
men.

enabled Alfred, that illustrious monarch, to collect in-
formation respecting those extremities of the earth
which had remained unknown to the Greeks and Ro-
mans. Ohthere, a chief who had come from the upper
tracts of Norway, afforded some intelligence respecting
a voyage performed by himself along the Arctic shores
of Europe.

This traveller was considered a rich man in his own
country, being owner of twenty oxen, twenty sheep, and
six hundred tame rein-deer. Fired by a spirit of liberal
research, he put to sea in order to discover the regions
that lay northward of the high latitude in which his
domain was situated. He sailed six days in that direc-
tion, at the end of which he appears to have reached
the North Cape, the farthest point of Europe ; he then
turned three days towards the east, and afterwards five
days to the south. All this while the land on his right
was desolate, traversed only by a few wandering shep-
herds and hunters of Finnish race. Then, however, he
reached a large river, the opposite side of which was
somewhat densely inhabited by the Biarmians, or people
of Northern Russia, who showed such a hostile disposi-
tion as obliged him to return. The fishery of the
horse- whale (walrus) was found to be carried on here
with so great advantage, that many individuals were
afterwards induced to repair thither. Forster delineates
the course of Ohthere as extending to the interior of
the White Sea : but we do not think the period of
eight days from the North Cape could have carried
him farther than the river Kola, which agrees also with
the supposition of his having been arrested on the fron-
tier of Russian Lapland.

In pursuing their favourite objects of conquest and
plunder, the Northmen always bent their sails towards
the south. To quit their bleak regions in search of
others still more bleak, would have been wholly foreign
to their views ; yet, as the sea was covered with their
ships, chance and tempest sometimes drove them in an
opposite direction. In 861, Nadodd, during a piratical

NORWEGIAN EXPEDITIONS. 99

excursion, unexpectedly discovered Iceland ; and though CHAP, in,
this country had little to tempt a nation of freebooters, Discovery
it so chanced that there existed materials for its colo- of Iceland,
nization. Harold, in making himself master of all
Norway, had deprived of their rights and domains nu-
merous petty chieftains, and thereby created a large
body of malecontents. But he was willing to grant,
and they to accept, a permanent refuge in this frozen
clime ; and, accordingly, successive bands of emigrants colonization
proceeded thither, where they were organized into a
free and independent community. They even crossed
to the opposite coast of Greenland, and formed settle-
ments, which for some time were tolerably flourishing,
though they have since either perished or lost all com-
munication with the parent state. During the eleventh
century, however, chance or enterprise led them south-
ward to another coast, which they called Vinland, and ,
which has been very generally believed to be America,
though, after a careful examination of the authorities on
which this opinion rests, we are satisfied that the new
country was merely a more southern point of Greenland.
The limits of the present work, however, will not
admit any detailed account of these settlements.

The republican cities of Italy, during the middle ages, Medieval
revived the fainting spirit of commerce and navigation, voyagers.
which they raised to a degree of prosperity, equal, pro-
bably, to that attained by Tyre and Carthage during
the height of their ancient glory. Their trade, however,
lay chiefly within the Mediterranean, especially its
eastern border, whither were brought overland, or by
the Red Sea, the commodities of India. Few were dis-
posed to quit this bright and golden track to face the
tempests of the northern ocean ; yet were there not
wanting some adventurous spirits who incurred all the
hazards of penetrating into its remote and dangerous
waters.

Nicolo Zeno, a noble merchant of Venice, undertook, Nicolo Zeno.
in 1380, a voyage to Flanders, during which a tempest
drove him upon a coast that he calls Friesland. The

100

ANCIENT VOYAGES.

Fiiesland.

Prince.
Zichmni.

Voyage to
Greenland.

CHAP. in. position of this unknown shore has been a subject of
controversy ; and some have even had recourse to the
hypothesis of its having been since swallowed up by the
ocean. When, however, we find that Friesland was in
fact a cluster of islands, to which are applied the names,
Talas, Broas, Bres, Iscant, easily converted into Zeal,
Brassa, Unst, we may conclude with Forster that it was
probably one of the Shetland Isles. Being cast ashore
in a state completely destitute, he was received with
great kindness by the Prince Zichmni ; who, finding
him eminently skilled in naval affairs, reposed in him
the highest confidence, and placed under his command
various expeditions. So pleased was the Venetian with
the favour of this northern potentate, that he invited
his brother Antonio to join him. The only voyage,
however, which seems to have carried him far to the
north, was one to Greenland, and he gives a somewhat
romantic account of a religious establishment already
formed in that country. The convent was built on the
side of a hill, whence burst a copious spring, whose
boiling waters enabled the monks to vanquish all the
evils of the climate. When spread on the frozen soil,
it contributed to the production of the most useful herbs
and culinary plants ; and when introduced into the
houses, it served for warming the apartments and
cooking the victuals. They were likewise supplied
from the country with abundance of fish, rein-deer, and
wild-fowl ; and vessels from Norway brought to them
the luxuries of life. Zeno performed other voyages in
a different direction, which have even been supposed to
reach as far as America : but we incline to think that
the notices which have suggested this conclusion are
partly misunderstood and partly interpolated.*

Quirini, another Italian nobleman, in 1431, engaged
in a similar enterprise, and was likewise driven by a
tempest on the coast of Norway. The crew arrived in

* A recent writer views the whole narrative as a complete
forgery, a conclusion to which we are not willing to accede.

Supposed
voyage to
America.

QUIRINI. 101

the most miserable plight, having lost the ship, and been CHAP. HI.
obliged to take to their boats, after the greater part of
them had perished by hunger, cold, and thirst. They
were thrown first on a small uninhabited island, where,
having erected two tents, and found a large fish, they
contrived to support life. After some days, a fisherman
and two boys coming in a boat to the island, were at fishermen.
first terrified at the sight of the strangers ; but, by
soothing language and importunity, were at length pre-
vailed upon to take with them two of the sailors,
Gerard of Lyons and Cola of Otranto. They rowed to
a village on the neighbouring island of Rost, where they
met the kindest reception ; and, as it chanced to be
Sunday, the priests exhorted the congregation to afford
all the assistance in their power to these unfortunate
strangers. Six boats were fitted out, the appearance of Hog }tal .
which filled Quirini with joy ; and his satisfaction was
still farther increased by receiving a supply of bread
and beer, as well as a cordial invitation to proceed with
his deliverers to Rost. He and his people were treated
with uninterrupted kindness during a stay of three
months, in which time they completely recovered from
all their distress and fatigue. The natives of this little
island, about 120 in number, subsisted on salt fish, Native pro.
which they carried to the market of Bergen, where
purchasers arrived from Germany and other countries ;
also on sea-fowl, which in vast flocks covered all the
surrounding rocks, and even built on the sides of the
houses. Many of these birds were so tame that, when
the natives walked up to their nests, they were wont to
step off, allow two or three eggs to be taken, and then
resume their seat. The people were most strict in their
attention to religious duties, and carried their resignation
to the will of Providence so very far that they rejoiced,
and sometimes even held a festival, at the death of near
relations. The Italians, accustomed to the feelings of
southern jealousy, were extremely surprised to see all
the members of a family sleeping together in one apart- ~~
ment, which they themselves were permitted to share

102 ANCIENT VOYAGES.

CHAP. III. without the remotest feeling of impropriety. In sum-
Simplicity of mer kth sexes walked naked to the nearest pool, and
manners. bathed promiscuously, all in perfect innocence, and
without awakening any suspicion, a practice, indeed,
which pretty generally prevails in the northern coun-
tries of Europe at the present day.

The summer having arrived, Quirini took occasion
to go with the annual ship to Drontheim, and, travel-
ling thence by land to Sweden, he found a vessel bound
for Rostock, in which he finally returned to Italy by
\vay of England.

NORTH-EAST VOYAGES. 103

CHAPTER IV.

Voyages in Search of a North-east Passage.

Rise of Maritime Enterprise in England Plan of a North-east
Passage to India Expedition of Sir Hugh Willoughby ; its
Issue Chancelor reaches the White Sea ; Journey to Mos-
cowVoyage of Burroughs Of Pet and Jackman Dutch
Expeditions Barentz's First, Second, and Third Voyages ;
His Death Hudson Wood Litke.

THE latter part of the fifteenth century may be fixed CHAP. IV
upon as that period in the history of the world when GreaTmari-
maritime discovery was prosecuted on the greatest scale, time under-
and with the most splendid results. Travellers and ta
navigators of the present day have displayed an enter-
prise which cannot be exceeded ; but there remained
for their efforts only the distant boundaries of ocean, or
the mterior of barbarous continents. On the contrary,
vast kingdoms, new worlds, regions teeming with un-
bounded wealth, rewarded the daring career of Gama
and Columbus. A new direction was given to human
ambition and industry ; and the discovery of distant
regions became not only a commercial speculation with
individuals, but one of the grandest objects of national
policy.

England had always shown herself ready to embark English ad-
in every scheme of adventure and utility ; yet she was venturea -
not altogether prepared for these extensive undertakings.
The nations of southern Europe were then nearly a
century in advance of those ruder states which lay
behind the Alps and the Pyrenees. Venice, Genoa,
Seville, Lisbon, and not London or Amsterdam, were

104 NORTH-EAST VOYAGES.

CHAP. IV. the great schools of commerce and navigation. The

Eariyschoois habits and ideas of the feudal system, its proud indolence

of naviga- and contempt of mechanical pursuits, were only in the

course of being superseded ; and the mercantile interest

possessed as yet only a small share of that importance

to which it has since attained.

Henry VII. Henry VII., amid these unfavourable circumstances,
and with nothing of the heroic or adventurous in his
composition, possessed qualities which enabled him to
appreciate the advantages of maritime discovery. Every
thing which promised to fill his coffers was congenial to
his taste ; and for this reason he showed himself ready
to meet the views of Columbus with greater zeal than
any other monarch of the age. That great navigator,
after vain solicitation at the courts of Spain and Portu-
gal, sent his brother Bartholomew to make propositions
to the English sovereign, which were very favourably
listened to ; but before his messenger returned to
Castile, the Genoese captain, under the auspices of
Isabella, was already crossing the Atlantic. It was
afterwards with the countenance of Henry, though
r not at his expense, that John Cabot, in 1497, made that
important voyage in which he discovered Newfound-
land, an island which, though not fitted for culture,
has become the seat of one of the greatest fisheries in
the world. He was also the first European who came
into contact with any part of the American continent.
The same prince, in 1498, furnished to him the means
of fitting out another expedition, which appears to have
been conducted by his son Sebastian. He subsequently
granted to Richard Warde, Thomas Ashehurst, and
paly 01 C m " John Thomas, merchants of Bristol, in conjunction with
three natives of Portugal, letters-patent, to undertake
the discovery of lands and regions unknown ; but the
result of their expedition is not recorded.

Notwithstanding these proceedings, England had not
yet thoroughly imbibed the true spirit of maritime
enterprise. Kindled at a foreign shrine, the flame,
when deprived of external support, gradually Ian-

RISE OF MARITIME ENTERPRISE IN ENGLAND. 105

giiished ; and it became nearly extinct during the long CHAP IV.
reign of Henry VIII. Considering the character of this Hcm l^i n
despot, full of bustle, needy of money, and not devoid
of intelligence, he might have been supposed rather
prompt to embark in such undertakings ; but, involved
in numerous disputes, domestic and theological, and
studying, though with little skill, to hold the balance
between the two great continental rivals, Charles and
Francis, he was insensible to the glory and advantages
to be derived from naval expeditions.* Sebastian Cabot,
in order to obtain employment, was obliged to quit
England and repair to Spain, where he was received
with much favour, and spent the greater part of his
life, either in attempts at discovery, or in a quiet resi-
dence at Seville, where he was consulted and revered
as a nautical oracle.

After a long slumber the maritime genius of England

* This passage has drawn forth the indignation of a late Expeditions
author (Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, Lond. 1831), who repre- "der Henry
sents the writer of this department of the work, in conjunction N in -
with his illustrious predecessors, Robertson and Forster, as
wholly disregarding " the evidence which strikingly evinces the
earnest and continued exertions of Henry VIII. in reference
to this project" (p. 281). Yet his utmost research has only
proved that this prince, in the course of a reign of thirty-eight
years, while all Europe was filled with the enthusiasm of
maritime discovery, fitted out two expeditions, both seemingly
in compliance with very urgent representations. Mr Thorne,
the chief English promoter of naval discovery, entirely concurs
with us when he says to Henry, in a letter written during the
eighteenth year of his reign, " Perceiving that your Grace mav
at your pleasure, to your greater glory, by a godly meane, with
little cost, perill, or labour to your Grace or any of your sub-
jects, amplifie and inrich this your sayd realme, I know it is
my bounden duety to manifest this secret unto your Gra,ce,which
hitherto, as I suppose, hath beene hid." Hakluyt, i. 213. The
single expedition fitted out in the course of the succeeding
twenty years could not materially alter the character of Henry
as a promoter of discovery. A consideration of the simple
fact, that Sebastian Cabot, during nearly the whole reign of
this monarch, was obliged to seek patronage in a foreign
country, is surely decisive as to his pretended zeal in the cause
of discovery. There does not therefore appear the slightest
ground for any alteration in the passage as it stands in the
text.

106

NOKTH-EAST VOYAGES

Edward VI

Cabot

Uoyal
interest

CHAP. IV. was suddenly roused ; bursting forth under a young
prince of high hope and promise. In 1553, the sixth
year of the reign of Edward VI., the merchants of
London, among whom are said to have been " men of
great wisdom and gravity," felt an unwonted and ex-
treme ardour in the cause of discovery. There chanced
at that critical moment to be in their city no less a
person than Sebastian Cabot, with whom they entered
into deep consultation, and with his assistance formed
the general plan of a voyage, having in view to reach,
by way of the north and north-east, the celebrated
regions of India and Cathay. The obstacles to such
an undertaking could not yet be fully appreciated ; no
just idea having been formed of the immense breadth
of Asia, its extension towards the north, and the en-
ormous masses of ice with which its shores are encum-
bered.

The youthful monarch, whether he had any influence
in inspiring this general ardour, or whether he caught
the flame from his people, showed the most eager in-
terest in the cause. He had already named Sebastian
grand pilot of England, with a salary, considerable in
that age, of 166. It was not by royal munificence,
however, that the funds were supplied for prosecuting
this arduous enterprise. An association, or senate as it
is called, was formed, who judged it most advisable to
divide the concern into shares of 25, by which means
the sum of six thousand pounds was easily raised, and
employed in the construction and equipment of three
vessels fitted for northern navigation. The preparations,
with a due regard to the formidable character and length
of the voyage, were made on a scale of which there had

Scale of prc- been no previous example. Cabot says, " The like was

ffv.trutfrm A / '

never in any realm seen, used, or known." The timbers
were made of extraordinary strength, by the best ship-
wrights ; the keel was covered with thin sheets of lead,
a contrivance then practised for the first time, and
provisions for eighteen months were put on board. The
grand pilot, though unable, probably from his age, to

Association
formed.

puration.

IN THE REIGN OF EDWARD VI. 107

accompany the expedition, drew out a series of instruc- CHAP. IV.
tions, in which the whole conduct to be observed by the code of in-
officers and crew is minutely laid down. He enjoins structions.
strict attention to morals ; that morning and evening
prayers be read on board each ship, either by the chap-
lain or master ; and that there be no " ribaldry or
ungodly talk, dicing, carding, tabling, nor other devilish
games." He prohibits all acts tending to the breach of
discipline, " conspiracies, part-takings, factions, false
tales, which be the very seeds and fruits of contention."
Naval subordination being in that age only imperfectly
established, and the tendency to mutiny very strong,
these exhortations were most seasonable. All questions Conndl of
respecting the steering of the ship were to be decided twelve.
by a council of twelve, the captain having only a double
vote. Persons skilled in writing were, in each vessel,
to keep a daily record of the course of navigation, the
celestial observations, the aspect of the lands along which
they sailed, with every other interesting occurrence.
The different masters were to meet weekly, compare
these records, and enter the result in a common ledger.
Directions were even given for adjusting weekly ac-
counts, keeping the cook-room and other parts of the
ship clean, and preventing any liquor from being spilled
upon them. The natives of the countries which they
visited were "to be considered advisedly, and treated
with gentleness and courtesy, without any disdain, foreigners
laughing, or contempt." Particular endeavours were
to be made by fair means to allure some one on board,
where he was to be well clothed and treated, so as to
attract others; but we cannot so much apulaud the
hint, that " if he be made drunk with 'your wine or
beer, you shall know the secrets of his heart." The
mariners are exhorted, however, to use the utmost
circumspection in their dealings with these strangers,
and, if invited to dine with any lord or ruler, to go
well armed, and in a posture of defence. The liveries
furnished to the sailors were to be carefully kept by the
mercantile agents, and to be worn only when their

108

NORTH-EAST VOYAGES.

Naval
liveries.

CHAP. iv. captain considered it an object to show them " in good
array for the advancement and honour of the voyage."
He warns the mariners not to be too much alarmed
when they saw the natives dressed in lions' and bears'
skins, with long bows and arrows, as this formidable
appearance was often assumed merely to inspire terror.
However, he seems to suggest a still more chimerical
fear, when he tells them that there are persons armed
with bows, who swim naked, in various seas, havens,
and rivers, " desirous of the bodies of men, which they
covet for meat," and against whom diligent watch must
be kept night and day. We know not whether some
confused rumour of the shark and alligator had an in-
fluence in suggesting this strange precaution.

It now became necessary to elect a suitable com-

vviiioughby. man ^er, and many offers were made both by persons
qualified and unqualified. The choice for the supreme
direction fell on Sir Hugh Willoughby. His recom-
mendations, as mentioned by Adams, were high birth,
tall and handsome person, valiant conduct and skill in
war, merits probably enhanced by admiration of the
heroism which impelled him to engage in this new and
daring career. No mention being made of nautical
experience, it may be suspected that, amid so many
brilliant qualities, this most essential requisite was not
duly taken into account. The charge of the next vessel
was confided to Ricliard Chancelor, an eleve of Henry
Sidney, father of Sir Philip, and who first gave lustre
to that great name. Sidney stood high in the favour
of the king, and was animated with the most ardent
zeal for the promotion of the voyage. Chancelor is
specially commended for " the many good parts of wit
in him," tending to inspire the most sanguine hopes of
his success.

The preparations being completed, Edward drew up

Royal letter, a letter addressed to all " kings, princes, rulers, judges,
and governors of the earth ;" which, if composed by
himself, certainly reflects very considerable credit upon
his spirit and judgment. He observes to these unknown

Tnexperi-

Richard
Chancelor.

SIR HUGH WILLOUGHBY. 109

potentates, that "the great and Almighty God hath CHAP. IV

given unto mankind, above all other living creatures, objectsof

such a heart and desire that every man desireth to join the voyaga

friendship with other, to love and to be loved, also to

give and receive mutual benefits." He represents,

therefore, the duty of showing kindness to strangers,

and especially to " merchants, who wander about the

world, search both the land and the sea, to carry such

good and profitable things as are found in their countries

to remote regions and kingdoms." With this view, it

is stated that a valiant knight, Sir Hugh Willoughby,

and other trusty and faithful servants, had departed

from England. "We therefore desire you, kings and

princes, and all other to whom there is any power on

earth, to permit unto these our servants free passage

by your regions and dominions, for they shall not touch

any thing of yours unwilling unto you." If such

kindness were shown, he concludes, " We promise, by

the God of all things that are contained in heaven, earth,

and the sea, and by the life and tranquillity of our

kingdoms, that we will with like humanity accept

your servants, if at any time they shall come to our

kingdoms."

It was judged inexpedient to delay the sailing of the Time of ^
vessels beyond the 10th of May, lest they should be ing.
overtaken by winter in the northern latitudes. All the
members of the expedition took a solemn and tender
leave of their relations, kindred, and "friends dearer
than kindred," and were at their station on the ap-
pointed day. Early in the morning they dropped down
from Ratcliffe to Greenwich, where the court, and, as
it were, the nation, were assembled to witness their
departure. The king himself was confined by illness, Departure.
but the principal courtiers stood at the palace-windows,
the rest of the household mounted the towers, while
the people in crowds lined the shore. The ships fired
their guns, causing the hills and valleys to resound;
and "the mariners shouted in such sort that the sky
rung with the noise thereof. In short, it was a very

110

NORTH-EAST VOYAGES.

Number of
vessels.

Contrary
winds.

CHAP. IV. triumph." The thought of the distant and unknown
seas, into which they were so perilously plunging, was
either forgotten in this moment of exultation, or served
only to heighten its enthusiasm.

The expedition, which consisted of three vessels,
after stopping a few days at Blackwall, sailed down
to Gravesend, and thence to the coast of Essex, where
contrary winds unfortunately detained them till the
23d. Then, with a favouring gale, they quitted Eng-
land and shaped their course into the open expanse
of the German Sea ; the sailors fixing their eyes on
their native land as it gradually receded, and many,
unaccustomed to these distant voyages, dropped a few
natural tears at the thought that they were seeing it
perhaps for the last time.

Sir Hugh was desirous of touching at the coast of
Scotland ; but this was rendered impossible by con-
trary winds, which obliged him also to make frequent
changes of course, " traversing and tracing the seas."
On the 14th July he found himself involved in that
labyrinth of isles which stud the coast of Norway
between the 66th and 68th degrees of latitude. The
ships then altered their course and proceeded till they
came to the larger range of the Lofoot (Loffoden)
Isles. The people, subject to Denmark, were gentle
and courteous ; but the English, evidently ignorant
of this coast, sought in vain to learn how these islands
were situated with regard to the Norwegian shore.
They proceeded onward to the large island of Seynam
or Senjan, where they endeavoured without success
to procure a pilot. They were now approaching the
North Cape, and saw before them the abyss of the
Arctic Ocean stretching onwards to the Pole, and soon
to be filled with snows and tempests. In this critical
conjuncture Sir Hugh assembled the commanders, and
exhorted them to keep close together ; but, in case of
separation, appointed their rendezvous at Wardhuys,
understood to be the principal port of Finmark. The
wisdom of this precaution soon appeared ; for, before

Course of
voyage.

SIE HUGH WILLOUGHBY. Ill

they could enter a harbour, there arose such " flaws CHAP. IV.
of wind and terrible whirlwinds," that they were obliged separation of
to stand out to the open sea, and allow the vessels the ship;.,
to drift at the mercy of the waves. Amid the thick
mists of the next stormy night the two principal ships
separated, and never again met. Clement Adams, who
was with Chancelor, says, that as they were driving
before the gale, the admiral loudly and earnestly called
upon them to keep close to him ; but that he himself
carried so much sail, and his vessel was so superior,
that the other could not possibly obey this order.
Willoughby's pinnace was dashed to pieces amid the
tempest ; and next morning, when light dawned, he Tempest,
could see neither of his companions ; but, discovering
at length the smaller vessel called the Confidence, he
continued his voyage. He now sailed nearly two hun-
dred miles north-east and by north, but was astonished
and bewildered at not discovering any appearance of
a shore ; whence it was manifest that " the land lay
not as the globe made mention." The imperfect maps
of those days appear not to have shown that rapid
bend towards the south which the coast takes near
the great opening of the Waranger Fiord, on which
Wardhuys is situated. Instead, therefore, of approach-
ing the borders of Norway, he was plunging deeper
and deeper into the abysses of the Northern Ocean.
At length the soundings, indicating a depth of 1GO
fathoms, proved that, as the navigators were out at
sea, they must have fallen into some great and perilous
error. They then for some time steered to the south- uncertainty
east, yet after\vards again turned to the north, and and fear -
continued shifting their courses amid doubt and un-
certainty. As they groped their way in this manner
through those vast and stormy seas, land at length
appeared, but high, desolate, and covered with snow,
while no sound could be wafted over the waves except
the crash of its falling ice, and the hungry roar of its
monsters. This coast was evidently that of Nova
Zembla ; but there was no point at which a landing could

112

NORTH-EAST VOYAGES.

land.

Rigour of
the season.

CHAP. iv. be made. After another attempt to push to the north-
ward, the mariners became sensible that Norway must

Russian Lap- be sought in an opposite direction. They turned to
the south-west, and having followed that course for
a number of days, saw the coast of Russian Lapland.
At this point they must have been very near the
opening of the White Sea, into which had fortune
guided their sails, they would have reached Archangel,
have had a joyful meeting with their comrades, and
spent the winter in comfort and security. An evil
destiny led them westward, in the hope, probably,
of reaching Wardhuys, the only point in those im-
mense seas of which they had any distinct knowledge.
The coast was naked, uninhabited, and destitute of
shelter, except at one point, where they found it bold
and rocky, but with some good harbours. Here, though
it was only the middle of September, they felt already
all the rigours of a northern season ; intense frost, snow,
and ice, driving through the air as though it had been
the depth of winter. For these reasons, the officers
conceived it inexpedient to search any longer along
those desolate shores, but to take up their quarters
in this haven till the ensuing spring. They were sur-
prised by the appearances of rein-deer, foxes, Polar
bears, and " divers beasts to them unknown, and there-
fore wonderful."

The narrative here closes, and the darkest gloom
involves the fate of this first English expedition, for
neither the commander nor any of his brave com-
panions ever returned to their native land. After long
suspense and anxiety, tidings reached home that some
Russian sailors, as they wandered along those dreary
tracts, had been astonished by the view of two large
ships, which they entered, and found the gallant crews
all lifeless. There was only the journal of the voyage,
with a note written in January, showing that at that date
they were still alive. What was the immediate cause
of a catastrophe so dismal and so complete, whether it
was the extremity of cold, famine, or disease, or whether

Loss of the
expedition.

CHANCELOR. 113

all these ills united at once to assail them, can now CHAP. IV.
only be a matter of sad conjecture. Thomson thus pathe- p oeti ~
tically laments their fate : lament

Miserable they,

Who, here entangled in the gathering ice,
Take their last look of the descending sun ;
While full of death, and fierce with tenfold frost,
The long long night, incumbent o'er their heads,
Falls horrible. Such was the Briton's fate,
As with first prow (what have not Britons dared !)
He for the passage sought, attempted since
So much in vain.

We must now advert to the fortunes of Chancelor, chanceior.
with whom we parted amid the tempests which over-
took the ships on the farthest shores of Norway. This
commander pressed on, and, by keeping close to the
land, or by obtaining better information, succeeded
without any difficulty in reaching Wardhuys. There
he waited for his companions seven days ; after which,
disregarding the alarming representations of the natives
as to the dangers of the wild ocean which beats on
their coast, he again set sail. " He held on his course
towards that unknown part of the world, and sailed so
far that he came at last to the place where he found
no night at all, but a continual light and brightness
of the sun, shining clearly upon the great and mighty
sea." As it was now the month of August, it seems
difficult to comprehend how the perpetual light of the
northern midsummer should not have been perceived
sooner, and that it should now be ascribed to the pro-
gress eastward. Probably a course of gloomy weather
had preceded, so that, at this period, it became for
the first tune sensible. By this means, however, the
adventurers were guided to the entrance of an im-
mense bay, which was no other than the White Sea, White
as yet unknown to Western Europe. They espied a
little fishing-boat, the crew of which, having never
seen a vessel of similar magnitude, w r ere as much
astonished as the native Americans had been at the
Spaniards, and taking the alarm, fled at full speed.

114

NORTH-EAST VOYAGES.

Muscovy.

Journey to
Moscow.

CHAP. IV. Chancelor, with his party, pursued and overtook them ;
Terror of tiie whereupon they fell flat on the ground, half-dead, cry-
natives. j n g f or me rcy. He endeavoured in the most soothing
manner to relieve their apprehensions, and by looks,
gestures, and gifts, expressed the kindest intentions.
Upon being allowed to depart, they spread every where
the report of the arrival " of a strange nation, of sin-
gular gentleness and courtesy." The natives came in
crowds, and the sailors were plentifully supplied with
provisions and every thing they wanted.

Chancelor now, inquiring on what part of the world
he had been thrown, learned that he was at the ex-
tremity of a vast country, then obscurely known in
Britain by the title of Russia or Muscovy, and which
was under the absolute rule of a sovereign named Ivan
Vasilovitch. Although the court at Moscow was im-
mensely distant, and could only be reached by sledges
over the snow, he sought and at length obtained per-
mission to visit the capital of this great potentate. His
journey to that city carrying him out of the sphere of
Arctic discovery, it will suffice to say, that he was received
in the most satisfactory manner, and returned with a
letter from the czar, expressing a cordial desire to open
an intercourse with England, and to grant to the
Merchant-adventurers every privilege necessary to en-
able them to carry on traffic in his kingdom. Those
traders now assumed the title of the Muscovy Com-
pany ; and the same officer was again sent out with
credentials from Philip and Mary, who, in conse-
quence of the premature death of Edward, then filled
the throne. The original object of finding an eastern
passage was not lost sight of; the captain being in-
structed to make every possible inquiry on the subject.
The spirit of discovery at home was too ardent, how-
ever, to wait his return ; and a small vessel, called the
Searchthrift, being fitted out in 155G, was placed under
the command of Stephen Burroughs, who on the first
voyage had acted as master of Chancelor's vessel. En-
thusiasm and hope seem to have risen as high as at the

The Mus-
covy.
Company.

STEPHEN BURROUGHS. 115

departure of the former expedition. Sebastian Cabot CHAP. IV.
went down to Gravesend with a large party of ladies s'e
and gentlemen, and, having partaken of such cheer as dition
the ship afforded, invited the navigator and his company
to a splendid banquet ashore. After dinner, a dance
being proposed, the venerable pilot started up and
tripped it along with the most youthful of the party.

Under these cheerful auspices, the Searchthrift, on The Search
the 29th April, sailed from the Thames ; but various UlvifL
circumstances delayed, till the middle of July, her arrival
at the islands and straits of Waygatz between Nova
Zembla and the continent. On the 21st the crew saw
what they imagined to be land, but it proved to be a
" monstrous heap of ice, which was a fearful sight to
see." They were soon entangled in it, and for six hours
could with difficulty avoid one mass without striking
upon another. Soon afterwards an immense whale came A whale>
so close that they might have thrust a sword into him ;
but, alarmed lest he should overset the vessel, Bur-
roughs called together his men, and caused them to shout
with all their might ; upon which this mighty animal,
which is neither fierce nor very courageous, plunged
into the depths with a terrible noise.

Among the islands of Waygatz they descried a Rus- Russian
sian sail. The master, named Loshak, seemed willing ves3eL
to avoid them, under the pretext that he was in extreme
haste ; but, on receiving a glass, two pewter spoons, and
two knives, he presented seventeen wild geese, and gave
much information. He told them that they were on the
coast of the wild Samoiedes, who owned no subjection to
the czar, but " will shoot at all men to the uttermost of
their power that cannot speak their speech ;" it was even
said that they ate the Russians. He then conducted
Burroughs to a place left by these people, where there
were still three hundred of their idols, the rudest work- Native idoia
manship he ever saw. They consisted of figures of men,
women, and children, " very grossly wrought ; the eyes,
mouths, and other parts, stained with blood." We may
here mention that Johnson, one of the party, when at

116

NORTH-EAST VOYAGES.

Native
magic.

Magical
tricks.

CHAP. IV. the Pechora, had been present at a mighty scene of
magical incantation, performed by one of the great
northern wizards. This personage first took a great
sieve, somewhat resembling a drum, then he began to
sing " as we use in England to halloo, whoop, and shout
at hounds," to which the company responded with
igha, igha, igha ! At length the magician fell into con-
vulsions, and dropped down as if dead, though he could
still be heard breathing. The visiter having asked the
meaning of all this, was told " Now doth our God tell
him what we shall do !" Having thus allowed him to
remain for a short time, the people began to cry aghao,
aghao ! whereupon he rose and again began to sing. He
next took a sword and thrust it through his body, causing
it to enter at the breast and issue at the back. Johnson
saw it go into the shirt before and come out at the shirt
behind, but does not seem to have scrutinized with any
diligence its actual passage through the person. The
magician then sat down with a vessel of hot water before
him, and a line or rope of deer-skin passed round his
body, over all which, as well as himself, a spacious
mantle was spread. The ends of the line being left
outside the robe, were drawn tight by two men, till
something was heard falling into the dish. The English-
man, asking what this was, learned with horror that it
was the magician's head, shoulder, and left arm, severed
from the body by the violent pulling of the rope. He
entreated that he might be allowed to lift the cloak and
view this awful spectacle, but was assured that no one
could do so and live. After the multitude had sung and
hallooed for some time, the covering was removed, when
the wizard came forth perfectly entire, all the parts cut
asunder having it seems been miraculously replaced.
This imposture, however gross and obvious, appears to
have completely succeeded with the ignorant natives.

Burroughs had passed fifteen leagues beyond the mouth
of the Pechora, and the soundings indicated an approach
to Nova Zembla, when he came to the conclusion that
all attempts to penetrate farther this year would be

Ridiculous
credulity.

STEPHEN BURROUGHS. 117

abortive. Among other causes, he mentions the un- CHAP. IV.
toward north and north-easterly winds, which were Obst ^ s en .
more powerful than in any other place he ever knew ; countered.
the great and terrible abundance of ice, of which he had
reason always to expect greater store ; the nights waxing
dark, and Winter with his storms beginning to draw on.
Under these considerations he determined to return and
pass the gloomy season at Colmogro, stating his intention
to resume next summer the attempt to penetrate east-
ward ; but this, in consequence of other employment,
was never carried into effect.

There occurred now a tragical incident connected with Tragical in-
northern discovery. The czar, Ivan Vasilovitch, sent Cldeut<
with Chancelor an ambassador and orator, as he is termed,
Osep Nepea Gregoro witch, in charge of four ships heavily
laden with furs, wax, train-oil, and other Russian com-
modities, to the value of upwards of 20,000, which
belonged partly to the merchants and partly to the im-
perial envoy himself. On this homeward voyage, two Wreck of
of the vessels were wrecked on the coast of Norway, a ^JJJJ 1
third reached the Thames, but the Edward Bonaventure,
in which the chiefs of the expedition had embarked, was
driven by the tempest into the Bay of Pitsligo, in the
north of Scotland, where it went entirely to pieces. The
English captain attempted, in a very dark night, to con-
vey himself and the ambassador ashore in a boat ; but the
skiff was overwhelmed by the waves, and the former
drowned, while the latter with great difficulty succeeded
in reaching the land. He thence proceeded to London,
where Philip and Mary gave him a splendid reception.

From these events, an apprehension of disaster and Ncw
feeling of dismay were associated with all such voyages projects.
along the northern boundary of Europe and Asia. This
would not probably have damped the high spirit of
enterprise by which the British were then animated ;
but the Muscovy Company, at the same period, had
their attention diverted by the project of opening a
communication with Persia and India across the Caspian,
and by ascending the Oxus to Bokhara. This object

118

NORTH-EAST VOYAGES.

CHAP. iv. they prosecuted at great expense, and by a series of bold
Asiaticre- adventures, in the course of which Jenkinson, Johnson,
searches. Alcocke, and others, penetrated deeply into the interior
of Asia. An unusual degree of courage was indeed ne-
cessary to undertake this expedition, which was to be
begun by passing round the North Cape to the White
Sea; then, by a land journey and voyage down the
Volga, across the whole breadth of the Russian empire
to Astracan, before they could even embark on the

Caspian. The truth is, such a scheme was marked by
holaness and , 1 . ,, -IJ-IIIT e

ignorance, the ignorance not less than by the boldness 01 early

mercantile enterprise. It was soon ascertained that no
goods could bear the cost of so long a carriage by sea and
land ; that the products of India could be brought, and
those of Europe returned, much cheaper and more com-
modiously, by the way of Aleppo and the Mediterranean,
than by this vast circuit round the stormy North. If
the former conveyance, therefore, could not stand a
competition with the water-carriage by the Cape of
Good Hope, how could the latter I It was abandoned,
and no attempt for a long time was made to revive it.

This channel of intercourse with India having failed,
the attention of commercial and nautical adventurers
was again attracted to the possibility of effecting a pas-
sage by the north and east of Asia. Intelligence had
just been received respecting the river Oby, which was
reported to enter the ocean by seventy mouths, and
therefore seemed likely to communicate with the most
important countries in the interior. John Balak, who
j ia ^ taken up his residence at Duisburg, on the Osella,
wrote to Gerard Mercator, the famous cosmographer, a
particular account of this river, and of the efforts made
by Assenius, a native of the Netherlands, to penetrate
eastward along the Asiatic coast. He mentions in par-
ticular another river, described as a tributary of the Oby,
but which, from the details, appears rather to have been
the Yenisei, down which came " great vessels laden with
rich and precious merchandise, brought by black or swart
people." In ascending this river, men came to the large

Renewed
northern
projects.

John Balak.

PET AND JACKMAN. 119

lake of Kittay (Baikal ?), on whose banks were the CHAP. IV.
Kara Kalmucks, who, he asserts, were the very people
of Cathay. It was added, that on the shores of this lake
had been heard sweet harmony of bells, and that stately
and large buildings had been seen therein. Hence Mer-
cator, in a letter to Hakluyt, infers that a very small
progress beyond the limit already reached by navigators
would carry them to the spacious realms of Japan and
China. He maintained that the cape bounding the Gulf
of Oby was no other than the great promontory of
Tabis, which, according to Pliny, formed the north-
eastern boundary of Asia ; which being turned, the
fortunate mariner would bear down direct upon Serica,
Cathay, Cambalu, those regions with which ancient and
modern rumour had identified the position of the Chinese
empire. This was underrating the breadth of Asia by
a hundred degrees of longitude, or more than a fourth of
the circumference of the globe ; yet so imperfect were
the sources of knowledge in those days, that the error,
however immense, cannot be considered as fatal to the
reputation of this great geographer.

To realize these views, Arthur Pet and Charles Jack- The George
man were supplied in 1580 with two vessels, the George aild wuliam -
and the William. On the 23d June they arrived at
Wardhuys; from which they sailed on the 1st July.
Approaching Nova Zembla they found themselves en-
closed in a bay of ice, whence they were obliged to come
out as they entered, and had much trouble before they
were able to round the large field to which it belonged.
On the 19th of the same month they saw Waygatz, and Waygat*.
endeavoured to steer along its southern coast ; but found
the water so shallow that they were compelled to turn
and make a circuit by the north. Proceeding onwards
they came to a fair low island, and found a passage
between the ice and the shore, which, however, at length
closed, and they could advance no farther. At the same
time the ships were separated by large fields of ice, and
could communicate only by beating drums and firing
muskets, till they were able to imt about and rejoin

120

NORTH-EAST VOYAGES.

CHAP. IV.

Impeding
ice.

Great dan-
ger.

each other. They enjoyed now the most favourable
breeze ; but all was rendered vain by the state of the ice.
" Winds we have had at will, but ice and fogs too much
against our wills, if it had pleased the Lord God other-
wise." The captains therefore determined to return to
Waygatz, where they might confer together, and endea-
vour to find a more open passage. They were now obliged
to warp from one piece of ice to another, some of them
so large that they could not see beyond them from the
topmast. They were repeatedly enclosed by these masses,
enveloped with dark fogs, and obliged to make fast to
icebergs, where, " abiding the Lord's leisure, they con-
tinued with patience." On the 13th August they were
involved among loose ice, a fragment of which broke the
stock of their anchor, " and many other great blows we
had against the same, that it was marvellous the ship
was able to abide them." The boat, being between the
floe and the brig, was struck, its side driven in, and the
vessel itself was made to recoil backward. Pet and Jack-
Fatal error, man did not reach Waygatz till the 16th August ; by
which time, it being found impracticable to penetrate
again to the eastward, they sought only to repass the
North Cape. They appear to have been zealous, well-
intentioned men; but, not duly acquainted with the
phenomena of ice, they adhered too closely to the land,
whence large masses are continually detached or carried
down by the rivers, while the open sea might have
afforded better hopes of a prosperous navigation.

The United Provinces, when roused to resistance by
the ferocious bigotry of Philip and by the cruelties of
the remorseless Alva, after a long, hard, and glorious
struggle, succeeded in establishing their little territory
as an independent republic. Thenceforth they began to
look to the sea as the source of their greatness and pro-
sperity. This element surrounded their country on all
sides, it towered, as it were, above them ; and they had
employed its inundations to defend their small domain
against immensely superior forces. Commerce, a com-
merce embracing the globe, was necessary to compensate

The United
Provinces.

DUTCH EXPEDITIONS. 121

for the narrow limits within which they were hemmed, CHAP. TV.
and to raise them to the first rank among European Nec ~^ y for
states. The East was the most promising quarter ; but commerce.
its approaches were strictly guarded, and they had not
yet a fleet which could cope with the mighty armadas
of Spain in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The North
alone was open to their enterprise ; and, by passing ita
frozen boundaries, they hoped to arrive at the rich and
celebrated empires whence so ample a tide of wealth had
flowed into Europe.

The first expedition was undertaken by a private Private
society of merchants, upon asking permission only of the associatlon -
States and their high admiral, Prince Maurice. Three
vessels, with a small yacht, were equipped at Amsterdam,
Enchuysen, and Zealand. The pilot of the ship belonging
to the capital, and to whose guidance the expedition was
generally intrusted, was William Barentz, one of the
most expert nautical men of the age.

The squadron sailed from the Texel on the 5th June First expedt
1594, and on the 23d arrived at the island of Kilduin tl
in Muscovy. Approaching Nova Zembla it was formed
into two divisions, one of which attempted to pass by
the old route of the Strait of Waygatz ; but Barentz
himself, taking a bolder course, endeavoured to pass
round to the northward of Nova Zembla, that great
insular mass which opposed, like a barrier, his eastward
progress. Here he coasted the Bay of Loms, so called Bay O f Lo m a
from the numerous flocks of the bird of that name,
probably the penguin, with wings so small, compared
to its ample body, that it seemed astonishing how they
could support the creature's motion in the air. Passing
the Black Cape and William's Isle, his people saw
various features characteristic of the Arctic world ; among
others the walrus in large herds, of which they give a
very good description. Subsequently, at the Orange
Isles, they came upon two or three hundred lying in
heaps upon the sand, and basking in the sun. Having
formed the erroneous idea that these animals are help-
less on shore, the sailors marched against them as to an

122 NORTH-EAST VOYAGES.

CHAP. IV. assured victory, congratulating themselves on the mul-
AttaTiTof titude of valuable teeth which would become an easy
the Walrus, prize. But so completely were they mistaken, that
these gallant amphibia beat them off with loss and dis-
honour, breaking in pieces the pikes, hatchets, and
sabres, employed in this fruitless assault. The crews
sustained also the fierce encounter of the Polar bear.
Having seen one on the shore, they entered their shal-
lop and discharged several balls at him, but without
inflicting any deadly wound. They were then happy
when they succeeded in throwing a noose about his
neck, hoping to lead him like a lapdog, and carry him
Unexpected as a trophy into Holland. They were not a little
aca alarmed by his mighty and tremendous struggles ; but
what was their consternation, when he fastened his paws
on the stern and entered the boat ! The whole crew
hastily clung to the poop, expecting instant death,
either from the sea or from his jaws. Providentially
at this moment the noose got entangled with the iron
work of the rudder, and the creature struggled in vain
to extricate himself. Seeing him thus fixed, they at
length summoned courage to advance, and despatched
him with their spears.

Northern Barentz, by the 1st August, reached the northern ex-

point tremity of Nova Zembla, in lat. 77 ; but the wind blew

so strong, separating the ice into large flakes, that he
and his crew, rather early it should seem, gave up hope
and resolved to return.

The com- The two other vessels meantime pushed on along the

pnnion coast, and in due time arrived at Waygatz. This island
had a very agreeable aspect, being covered with verdure
and abundance of flowers, herbs, plants, and particularly
a great store of leeks. Large trees were lying piled in
heaps over each other, which appeared very surprising,
when neither on this nor the opposite coast was there a
single one growing; but it was rightly judged that
they were brought down the rivers of Tartary, and
drifted hither by winds and currents. On turning a
point the Dutch observed one of those great collections

DUTCH EXPEDITIONS. 123

of rudely cawed images which had been formerly re- CHAP. IV.
marked by Burroughs. These figures represented men, Ima ~
women, and children, some of them having from four
to eight heads, all with their faces turned eastward, and
many horns of rein-deer lying at their feet : it was
therefore called the Cape of Idols. Forster alleges that
the Samoiedes, on this ground, have been falsely charged
with idolatry, and that it were more charitable to con-
clude these to have been images of departed friends
whom they cherished with pious veneration ; but it
does not very exactly appear how they should have had
friends with six or eight faces.

The expedition had some difficulty in working their Strait of
way through the Strait of Waygatz, after passing Wa ^atz.
which, and sailing for some space along the coast of
Nova Zembla, they were repelled by the icy barriers.
Having by perseverance rounded these, they arrived at
a wide, blue, open sea, with the coast trending rapidly
southward ; and, though this was only the shore of the
Gulf of Oby, they doubted not that it was the eastern
boundary of Asia, and would afford an easy passage
down upon China. Instead, however, of prosecuting
this voyage, they determined to hasten back and com-
municate to their countrymen the joyful intelligence.
The two divisions met on the coast of Russian Lapland,
and arrived in the Texel on the 16th September.

The information conveyed in regard to the supposed sanguine
success of this expedition kindled the most sanguine hopes.
hopes in the government and people of Holland. Prince
Maurice and the States-general no longer confined them-
selves to empty praise, but supplied funds to aid in a
fresh voyage. Six vessels were fitted out, not as for
adventure and discovery, but as it were to carry on an
extensive traffic in the golden regions of the East.
They were laden with merchandise, and well supplied
with money ; while a seventh, a light yacht, was in-
structed to follow them till they had passed the pro-
montory of Tabis ; when, having finally extricated
themselves from the Polar ices, and directed their

124 NORTH-EAST VOYAGES.

CHAP. IV. course to China, it was to return to Holland with the
New expcdi- joyful tidings. Peter Plancius, the most celebrated
tion. cosmographer of that age, drew up a map for their

guidance, doubtless in our eyes a very crude perform-
ance, but which combined all the geographical lights of
that ignorant period.

Abortive re- The armaments which at that early epoch were set
suits. forth with the greatest pomp and expense, usually

issued in the most abortive results. Those large and
heavily laden vessels were peculiarly ill-fitted for wind-
ing their way through narrow seas and channels encum-
bered with ice. Of all the northern expeditions, accord-
ingly, none answered less than the one now described
the cost and magnificent expectations with which it had
been equipped.

Tardy depar- The adventurers left the Texel on the 2d of June
(1595), a period of the season decidedly too late.
Nothing particular occurred till the 4th August, when
they reached the pass between Waygatz and the conti-
nent, to which they had given the appellation of the
Strait of Nassau. They soon afterwards came to the
Cape of Idols ; but, though the figures were still drawn
up in full array, no trace was found of the habitations
which they might have seemed to indicate. A Russian
vessel, however, constructed of pieces of bark sewed
together, was met on its way from the Pechora to the
Oby in search of sea-horse teeth, whale-oil, and geese.
The sailors accosted the Dutch in a very friendly
manner, presented eight fat birds, and, on going on
board one of the ships, were struck with astonishment
at its magnitude, its equipments, and the high order
with which every thing was arranged. This being a
fast-day, they refused meat, butter, and cheese ; but on
being offered a raw herring, eagerly swallowed it entire,
head and tail inclusive.

Satnoiedes. The navigators, after considerable search, discovered
a party of Samoiedes, who are described as a people of
small stature, broad and flat face, little eyes, short legs,
and wrapt entirely hi rein-deer skins, except a few who

DUTCH EXPEDITIONS. 125

wore coloured cloth lined with fur. They manifested CHAP. IV
considerable jealousy of the strangers, and on the ap- Jea] ^^ of
proach of the interpreter drew their arrows to shoot the natives,
him ; but he called aloud, " We are friends !" Upon
which they laid down their weapons, and saluted him
in the Russian style, by bending their heads to the
ground. The intercourse which followed was conducted
on their part with considerable courtesy, though mingled
with a feeling of precaution and even of alarm. On
hearing a gun fired, they leapt about like madmen, till
assured that no harm was intended ; and they were then
amused by seeing a little stone placed on an eminence
shattered to pieces by a musket-ball. A sailor went
boldly up to the chief, dignified in the narrative with
the title of king, and presented Itim with some biscuit,
which the monarch graciously accepted and ate, though
looking around somewhat suspiciously. At length
parties took a friendly leave ; but a native ran after the
foreigners with signs of great anger, on account of one
of the rude statues which a seaman had carried off. It
was now concluded that these figures were local divini-
ties, and that the bones found lying before them were
the remains of sacrifices. The Dutch seem to have
formed a still lower estimate than Burroughs of Sam-
oiede sculpture. The images are described as little better
than logs, somewhat rounded at the top to represent a
head, with a slight projection for the nose, two little
holes for eyes, and one larger aperture to represent the
mouth.

The discoverers, in answer to repeated inquiries, had Renewed
been informed, that beyond a point which might be attempt>
reached in about five days, there extended a large open
sea to the south-east. They made several attempts to
reach this point ; but, after emerging from the passage
of Waygatz, were always driven back by large bodies of
floating ice. They persevered till the end of September,
when these masses entered the strait in such force, that
they were obliged with all speed to quit it by the west-
ern opening, and bend their sails towards Holland,

126 NORTH-EAST VOYAGES.

CHAP iv. without having accomplished any one of the brilliant

objects for which they had been sent out.

General dis- A very considerable disappointment was experienced
appointment. a ^ fa Q f a il ure of an expedition concerning which such
sanguine hopes had been cherished. The States-general
declined to supply funds for a fresh armament ; but they
proclaimed a reward to any individual or body of men
by whom the end hi view should be successfully accom-
plished. The town-council of Amsterdam, with great
spirit, determined to fit out another squadron on a
smaller scale, and equipped only for discovery. They
prepared two vessels, which were respectively intrusted,
one to Barentz, and the other to John Corneliz Ryp,
seemingly with equal power. Suspecting, perhaps, a
prevalence of nostalgia, they admitted on board none
but unmarried persons, who, it was hoped, would be
animated with a more resolute spirit, and less inclined
to long for home.

Third ex e- ^ ie vesse ^ s > st ^ rather too late, set sail on the 10th
ditioo. eX of May 1596. Their object seems to have been to avoid
the coast of Russia and the Straits, to shun even Nova
Zembla, and to direct their course through the wide
expanse of the Northern Ocean. They stood, however,
too much towards the west, and on the 22d came in
view of the Shetland Islands. Barentz urged that they
should now turn due east in order to compensate this
deviation ; but Corneliz represented that this would
carry them at once into the Strait of Waygatz, the
scene of so many abortive efforts, and insisted upon
steering towards the north-north-east. After changing
their course, they saw the most brilliant celestial pheno-
menon they had ever witnessed. The sun was attended
by two parhelia or mock suns, while a bright rainbow
traversed all the three, and two other bows crossed the
heavens in different quarters. On the 5th June some
sailors called out that a multitude of white swans were
to* swimming in the water ; but the more experienced gave

warning that these swans would prove pieces of ice, and
accordingly they soon found themselves in the midst of

DUTCH EXPEDITIONS. 127

these moving masses. For some days they proceeded CHAP. IV.
between two currents of them as between two lands ; strangiT
while the colour of the water, which was as green as ceun tint
grass, gave them the idea of being near the country
called Greenland : but Scoresby has shown, as is else-
where noticed, that this tint is produced by the contents
of the sea itself. On the 9th they observed a long isl-
and rising abruptly into steep and lofty cliffs, the high-
est of which has borne the appropriate name of Mount
Misery. Pennant, who erroneously supposes that Ben-
net, in 1603, had the merit of originally making it
known, remarks, " The horror of this isle to the first Horrors of
discoverers must have been unspeakable ; the prospect the ice.
dreary ; black where not hid with snow, and broken
into a thousand precipices. No sounds but of the
dashing of the waves, the crashing collision of floating
ice, the discordant notes of myriads of sea-fowl, the
yelping of Arctic foxes, the snorting of the walruses, or
the roaring of the Polar bears." The hills were so ex-
cessively steep, that though a party contrived to clamber
up they durst not look down, and the descent threatened
the adventurers with no small danger. At length, ap-
plying their backs to the precipice, they slid down with
safety ; which Barentz, who looked up, could never
have thought possible. From a bear, which they at-
tacked, and vainly attempted to secure by a noose, they
gave to it the name of Bear Island, which the English
afterwards attempted to supplant by that of Alderman
Cherie. Proceeding onward, still by too northerly a
course, they reached the parallel of 80, and discovered
a coast, which soon proved to belong to a country of
great extent. This was Spitzbergen, which, from the
latitude they had attained, they probably approached s P ltzber cn
near its northern point, called Hakluyt's Headland.
The name of Greenland, which has in some degree ad-
hered to this island, was given under the erroneous im-
pression of its being a part of that extensive coast, so
culled by the Icelanders ; to distinguish it from which,
the epithet East has usually been applied to it.

128

NORTH-EAST VOYAGES.

Retracing
the course.

Nova
Zeinbla.

CHAP. IV. The Dutch, finding their progress stopped by this
unexpected shore, now retraced their steps along its
deep bays, still steering southward, till they found
themselves again at Bear Island. Here Corneliz and
Barentz differed once more ; the former still maintaining
his original views, and recommending that they should
instantly push northwards, and endeavour to find their
way along the eastern coast of the newly discovered
land ; but Barentz insisted, more rationally, that they
ought to steer east-south-east, and endeavour to round
the northern point of Nova Zembla. Being unable to
agree, and the latter having resolved for this time not
to yield, they determined to separate, and each to make
trial of his respective course. Barentz, whom we
follow, proceeded according to his plan, till at mid-day,
on the 17th July, he found himself off the coast of
Nova Zembla ; but, as he had gone too far south, he was
obliged to turn northwards once more. He pushed on
as vigorously as possible ; yet it was not till the 6th
August that he doubled Cape Nassau ; when, finding
the ice drifting along in large masses, and being involved
in deep fogs, he judged it expedient to moor his vessel
to a large iceberg. As the master was walking on deck,
he saw a large bear endeavouring to scale the sides of
the ship. He immediately called out, " All hands up !"
and the crew having mustered, raised loud cries, which
induced the monster to retreat ; but he soon returned
to the charge. They had now a sail raised along the
deck, and four guns loaded, which were fired with such
effect that the savage animal finally withdrew.

separation of On the 10th of August the ice began to separate, and
the seamen remarked that the berg to which they were
moored was fixed to the bottom, and that all the others
struck against it. Afraid that these loose pieces would
collect and enclose them, they quitted their position,
and sailed on. The ice was already forming on the
surface, and the ship in sailing through made it crack
on all sides. Notwithstanding, they worked on their
way, fastening themselves to successive fragments, one

DUTCH EXPEDITIONS. 129

of which rose like a steeple, being twenty fathoms ahove CHAP. IV.
and twelve below the water. At one time they saw p^J
round them more than four hundred large icebergs, the bergs.
fear of which made them keep close to the shore, not
aware of that being the quarter where these dangerous
bodies were formed, and along which they chiefly ranged.
However, they still proceeded, and having passed what
they called Little Icy Cape came to Orange Island,
which constitutes the northern extremity of Nova Zein-
bla. Here ten men swam on shore, and having mounted
certain piles of ice, which rose as it were into a little
mountain, they had the satisfaction of seeing the coast
trending southward, and a wide open sea to the south-
east. They hastened back to Barentz with these joyful
tidings, and the success of the voyage was now considered
almost secure.

But these hopes were delusive ; for, after doubling Doubling
what was called Cape Desire (Zelania), the icebergs Cap3 J
mustered in such force that the crews gave up all idea
of doing more than reach the Strait of Waygatz on their
return home. They were driven, however, so rapidly
before the floating masses, that three men, who had
mounted one of them to reconnoitre, would have been
left behind, but for extraordinary exertions of agility.
They were now drawn into what they called Icy Port, j cy p or t
and the vessel was thrown into a position almost per-
pendicular, with one end nearly touching the bottom.
From this critical attitude they were relieved next day ;
but fresh masses of ice continually poured in, augmenting
the terrible ramparts with which they were enclosed.
One side of her was raised by successive pieces jammed Critical lyosi
beneath it, but the other was similarly elevated ; so that tiou.
she was lifted to the top of the ice as by machinery.
All this time the cracking, both around them and within
the ship itself, was so dreadful that they were in con-
tinual fear of its parting into fragments ; but the internal
noise, arising merely from the freezing of the juices of the
timber, was much less dangerous than they imagined.

They now felt that they must bid adieu for this year

130

NORTH-EAST VOYAGES.

Imprisoned
in the ice.

Floating
wood.

CHAP. IV. to all hopes of escape from their icy prison. As the
vessel was cracking continually, and opening in different
quarters, they made no doubt of its going to pieces, and
could only hope to survive the winter by constructing a
hut, which might shelter them from the approaching
rigour of the season. Parties sent into the country re-
ported that they had seen footsteps of rein-deer, also a
river of fresh water, and, what was still more important,
a great quantity of fine trees, with the roots attached to
them, strewed upon the shore. Not one of these could
have grown on the frozen soil of Nova Zembla ; but, as
already noticed, they were all brought down the rivers
of Muscovy and Tartary, and wafted over the ocean by
winds and currents. This circumstance gave a pecu-
liarly cheerful colour to the hopes of the mariners.
They trusted that Providence, which had in this sur-
prising manner furnished materials to build a house,
and fuel to warm it, would supply also whatever was
necessary for their passing through the approaching
winter, and for returning at length to their native
country. A sledge was instantly formed, and three
men cut wood, while ten drew it to the spot marked
out for the hut. They were desirous to raise a rampart
of earth for shelter and security, and with this view
kindled a fire in the hope of softening the ground, but
in vain. The carpenter having died, it was found im-
possible to dig a grave for him, and they lodged his body
in a cleft of the rock.

The building was carried on with ardour, as affording
the only hope of life ; yet the cold endured in this
operation was intense, and almost insupportable. When
a nail was put into the mouth, it froze to the lip, and
brought the skin away, drawing blood. The snow some-
times fell so thick, for days successively, that the seamen

Polar Bear, could not stir from under cover. They had at the same
time perpetual combats with the Polar bear. On one
occasion the master saw from the ship three of these
furious animals making their way towards the working-
party, to whom he gave warning by uttering loud cries.

Cutting
wood.

Building.

DUTCH EXPEDITIONS. 131

They immediately ran towards the vessel ; when one of CHAP. IV.
them, in his haste, fell into a cleft in the ice, and was
given up for lost ; but the bears overlooking him, con-
tinued their chase of the main body. The sailors having Escape from
at length reached the ship, made the circuit of it, and bears.
mounted from behind ; but their pursuers entered in
front, and advanced furiously to the attack. A man,
sent down to the kitchen to light a match, was in too
great haste and agitation to accomplish that simple pro-
cess, and the muskets were thus useless. The crew
could now only parry the assault by throwing at their
assailants whatever came first to hand, by which the
attention of the animals was always for a moment at-
tracted, though they returned to the charge with fresh
vigour. At length, when matters seemed approaching
to extremity, a halberd was darted at the largest, which
struck him on the mouth with such force that he
retreated from the vessel, and the others followed.

Notwithstanding this intense rigour, winter had not Temporary
yet thoroughly set in. Several days of south-west wind thaw<
dissolved a vast quantity of ice, and the mariners saw a
wide open sea without, while the vessel was enclosed
within, as it were, by a solid wall. By October they
completed their hut, and prepared to convey thither
their provisions and stores. Some painful discoveries
were now made. Several tuns of fine Dantzic beer, of
an agreeable and medicinal quality, and from which
they had anticipated much comfort, had frozen so hard Destruction
as to break the casks, bursting even the iron hoops by of beer.
which they were bound. The contents, indeed, existed
in the form of ice ; but this, when thawed, had merely
the taste of bad water ; and though in the middle they
found a liquor concentrating in itself the whole strength
of the beer, it had not the true flavour of that beverage.
They made trial of mixing the two together, but without
being able to restore its proper relish and virtue.

The sun, which had hitherto been their only pleasure JJ^JJ^ 116 of
and consolation, now began to pay only short visits, and
to give signs of his approaching departure. He rose in

132 NORTH-EAST VOYAGES.

CHAP. rv. the south-south-east, and sot in the south-south-west,
The moon while the moon was scarcely dimmed by his presence.
On the 1st November his full orb was still seen for a
short interval ; on the 2d it rested on the horizon, from
which it did not detach itself; and on the 4th the sky
was calm and clear, but no sun rose or set.

Night oi The dreary winter night of three months, which had

winter. now se ^ m> was no t ? however, without some alleviations.
The moon, which happened to be at the full, wheeled
her pale circle round the whole horizon. With the sun
disappeared also the bear, and in his room came the
Arctic fox, a beautiful little creature, whose flesh re-
sembled kid, and furnished a variety to their meals.
They found great difficulty in the measurement of time,
and on the 6th, as they did not rise till it was late, a
controversy ensued whether it was really day or night.
The cold had stopped all the clocks ; but they afterwards
formed a sand-glass of twelve hours, by which they
contrived tolerably well to estimate the duration of their
dreary solitude.

Breaking of On the 3d December, as the sailors lay in bed, they
the ice. heard from without a noise so tremendous, as if all the
mountains of ice by which they were surrounded had
fallen in pieces over each other. In fact, the first light
which they afterwards obtained showed a considerable
extent of open sea ; yet this disruption must have been
produced by some internal movement of the ice, and not
by any tendency towards thaw.

Intense cold. As the season advanced the cold became more and
more intense. Early in December a heavy fall of snow
stopped up all the passages by which the smoke could
escape ; so that a fire, at all fitted for the dreadful in-
clemency of the season, led to the danger of suffocation.
The men were thus obliged to keep the room at a
miserably low temperature, for which they used the
imperfect remedy of heated stones, passed from one bed
to another. An unwonted difficulty accompanied every
Washing. attempt to wash their clothes : whenever they took those
up from the boiling water, and began to wring them,

DUTCH EXPEDITIONS. 133

the linen froze in their hands ; and when they hung CH AP. IV.
them up to dry, the side farthest from the fire was hard Grea 7"^ ffer .
frozen. The cold becoming always more rigorous, ice ings,
two inches thick was formed on the walls. At length
their sufferings came to such an extremity, that, casting
at each other languishing and sorrowful looks, they an-
ticipated that this must end in the extinction of life.
They now resolved that, cost what it might, they should
for once be thoroughly warmed. They repaired, there-
fore, to the ship, whence they carried an ample supply
of coal ; and having kindled an immense fire, and care- Means re-
fully stopped up the windows and every aperture by 5J t(
which the cold could penetrate, they brought themselves
into a most comfortable temperature. In this delicious
state, to which they had so long been strangers, they
wont to rest, and talked gaily for some time before
falling asleep. Suddenly, in the middle of the night,
several wakened in a state of the most painful vertigo ;
their cries roused the rest, and all found themselves more
or less in the same alarming predicament. On attempting
to rise they became dizzy, and could neither stand nor
walk. At length two or three contrived to stagger to-
wards the door ; but the first who opened it fell down
insensible among the snow. De Veer, who stood behind,
revived him by pouring vinegar on his face ; and the
wintry air, which had been their greatest dread, now
restored life to the whole party.

These unhappy mariners being thus compelled to insupport-
afford a certain access to the blast, its effects became able cold -
more insupportable than before. It seemed as if the fire
had lost all power of conveying heat ; their clothes were
white with snow and hoar-frost ; their stockings were
burned before the feet felt any warmth ; and this result
was made known by smell rather than by feeling. Yet,
in the very midst of these sufferings, remembering that
the 6th January was the Feast of the Kings, they be- Feast of
sought the master that they might be allowed to cele- kin s *
brate the festival. They had saved a little wine and
two pounds of flour, with which they fried pancakes in

134

NOKTH-EAST VOYAGES.

CHAP. IV.

King of

Nova

Zambia.

Abatement
of darkness.

First appear-
ance ot the

Great joy.

Returning

cheerfulness.

oil ; the tickets were drawn, the gunner was crowned
King of Nova Zembla, and the evening passed as merrily
as if they had been at home round their own firesides.
Nothing can more strikingly illustrate the salutary
effects produced even in the most depressing circum-
stances by mental occupation and amusement, an ex-
pedient of which Captain Parry afterwards made so
happy a use.

About the middle of January the crews began to ex-
perience some abatement of that deep darkness in which
they had been so long involved, and which prevented
the exercise and amusement so necessary to their health.
Soon after, about mid-day, a faint flush was seen to tinge
the horizon ; and this first dawn of the annual morning
revived in their hearts the hope which was almost ex-
tinguished. On the 24th, De Veer and two others ran
in to say that they had seen a portion of the sun's disc.
Barentz demonstrated, on astronomical principles, that
this could not take place for fifteen days to come.
Many, however, trusted more to the eyes of their com-
panions than to scientific deductions ; and bets were
taken, that could not be decided in the two following
days, in consequence of a heavy fog with which the air
was oppressed. The 27th, however, being clear, they
went out in a body, and saw ascending above the horizon
the full orb of that great luminary. Joy took possession
of their hearts, and Barentz in vain continued to prove
that this appearance was contrary to every principle of
science. He was not aware of the extensive power of
refraction in that northern atmosphere, which, in Cap-
tain Parry's expedition, produced a similar abridgment
in the duration of the Polar winter.

Affairs now assumed a more cheerful aspect. Instead
of constantly moping in the hut, the men went out
daily, employed themselves in walking, running, and
athletic games, which wanned their bodies and preserved
their health. With the sun, however, appeared their
old enemy the bear. One attacked them amid so thick
a mist that they could not see to point their pieces, and

DUTCH EXPEDITIONS. 135

sought shelter in the hut. The animal came to the CHAP. IV.
door, and made the most desperate attempts to burst it
open ; but the master keeping his back firmly set ? tr
against it, the unwelcome visiter withdrew. Soon after-
wards, however, he mounted the roof, where, having in
vain attempted to enter by the chimney, he made
furious efforts to pull it down, tearing the sail in which
it was wrapped ; all the while his frightful roarings
spread dismay through the mansion below : at length
he finally retreated. Another came so close to the man
on guard, who was looking another way, that on re-
ceiving the alarm from those within and looking about,
he saw himself almost in the jaws of the bear ; however,
he had the presence of mind instantly to fire ; when the
brute, being struck in the head, attempted to escape,
but was pursued and despatched.

The first reappearance of the sun had inspired hopes Return of
that the weather would become continually more mild snow *
and agreeable. It was, therefore, a severe disappoint-
ment, when, in February, a heavy gale from the north-
east brought a cold more intense than ever, and again
buried the hut under snow. This was the more pain-
fully felt, as the men's strength, and supply of generous
food to recruit it, were alike on the decline. They no
longer attempted daily to clear a road, but those who
were able went out and in by the chimney. A dreadful Failure of
calamity then overtook them in the failure of their fueL
stock of wood for fuel. They began to gather all the
fragments which had been thrown away, or lay scattered
about; but these being soon exhausted, it behoved
them to carry out their sledge in search of more. To
dig the trees, however, out of the deep snow, and drag
them to the hut, was a task which, in their present
weak state, would have appeared impossible, had they
not felt that they must do it or perish.

In the course of March and April the weather became \nider
milder, and the attention of all the crew was drawn to weather
plans and prospects of return. Southward, on the side
of Tartary, the icy masses were still floating, but to the

136

NORTH-EAST VOYAGES.

CHAP. IV.

increasing
obstructions

boats.

Extrication

Embarkation
fa the boats.

north-east there was an open sea. Yet the barriers
which enclosed the ship not only continued, but, to
their inexpressible grief, rapidly increased, probably
from the fragments which drifted into the harbour upon
the breaking up of the great exterior field. In the
middle of March these obstructions were only 75 paces
broad ; in the beginning of May they were 500. The
piles of ice resembled the houses of a great city, inter-
spersed with apparent towers, steeples, and chimneys.
The sai 101 * 8 * viewing with despair the predicament in
which they were placed, earnestly entreated permission
to fit out the two boats, and in them to undertake the
voyage homeward. The master at length agreed, pro-
vided there was no better prospect by the end of May.
From the 20th to the 26th, a north wind came on, and
blew upon them a still greater quantity of ice ; so that
they no longer hesitated to begin their work, and to
bring from the sliip sails and cordage. The extrication
o f fae boats from under the snow was a most laborious
task, and the equipment of them would have been next
to impossible, but for the enthusiasm with which it was
undertaken. By the llth June they had the vessels
fitted out, their clothes packed, and the provisions em-
barked. Then, however, they had to cut a way through
the steeps and walls of ice which intervened between
them and the open sea ; while amid the extreme fatigue
of digging, breaking, and cutting, they were kept in
play by a huge bear, which had come over the frozen
sea from Tartary.

At length, having embarked all their clothes and pro-
visionSj they get g^ on the 14th with a Wes terly breeze.

In the three following days, having passed the Cape of
Isles and Cape Desire, they came to Orange Isle, always
working their way through much encumbering ice.
When they were off Icy Cape, Barentz, long struggling
with severe illness, and now feeling his end approach,
desired that he might be lifted up to take a last view of
that fatal promontory, on which he gazed for a con-
siderable time.

DUTCH EXPEDITIONS. 137

On the following day the vessels were again involved CHAP. IV.
in masses of drift-ice, and were so forcibly struck, as i nvo j^~j in
well as squeezed between opposite fields, that the men masses of
bade a final adieu to each other. Seeing, however, a dnft ' lcc *
body of fixed ice at a little distance, De Veer took a
rope and leaped from fragment to fragment, till he ar-
rived on the firm surface. A communication thus
formed, they landed first the sick, then the stores and
provisions, and, finally, they drew up the boats them-
selves. During this detention, Barentz, being informed
of the severe illness of one of the men named Adrianson,
said that he himself was not far from his end. As he Dentil of De
continued, however, conversing and looking on a chart
of the voyage made by De Veer, it was thought that his
disease could not be so serious, till he pushed aside the
paper, asked for a draught of water, and immediately
expired. This event deeply afflicted the crews, both
from their personal attachment to him, and the loss of
his skill in piloting the vessels.

The sailors with some drift-wood, repaired the boats ; Boats ro-
yet the ice was still close around, and they were struck P*"' 6 * 1 -
with the fear that it was not possible for them to escape
from this bank. On the 22d, however, open sea ap-
peared at a little distance ; and having dragged the boats
over successive pieces of ice, they were again afloat.
After three days they reached Cape Nassau, the ice fre-
quently stopping them, but separating again like the
gates of a sluice, and allowing a passage ; though on the
26th they were obliged once more to disembark and ,
pitch their tents on the frozen surface. On the opposite
coast they saw immense herds of the walrus, and the
air was darkened with numberless birds. While they Attack of
were fast asleep in the tent, the sentinel called out, beava.
"Three bears! three bears!" The whole crew were
instantly out; but their muskets were charged only
with small shot. However, " these sweetmeats," though
they could not inflict any serious wound, induced the
monsters to turn, when one of them was pursued and
killed. The survivors carried off their dead companion

138

NORTH-EAST VOYAGES.

New dan-
gers.

CHAP, iv to the most rugged parts of the ice, where they devoured
a large portion of his carcass.

The year was now advanced ; the bright light of the
sun and the occasional south-westerly breezes dissolved
the ice, and gradually opened a way before them.
But dangers of a new class soon succeeded. The dis-
tinction between fixed and floating ice had now almost
ceased, the former continually melting away. When
they thought themselves lying secure on a large field,
a body of icebergs came in from the sea, struck and
dashed it to pieces. The packages were separated from
the boats, and several dropped into the water. With
much labour and peril they scrambled over the detached
fragments to a place of safety, while the weighty articles
sank into the softened ice, not without the greatest risk
of falling to the bottom. For twelve hours the sailors
floundered through this loose and broken surface before
they could establish themselves on the field which was
attached to the land.

The 2d of July was the finest day yet seen in Nova
Zembla ; and the weather continuing favourable, pro-
duced on the 7th an open sea, to which, with great
labour, the men succeeded in dragging the boats. From
this time their progress, though often obstructed, was
never entirely stopped. In several of the rocky
bays they caught an immense number of birds, which,
not having yet learned to fear man, allowed themselves
to be taken by the hand. Near Admiralty Bay they
saw two hundred walruses lying on a bank of ice, and
attacked them ; but these powerful animals advanced to
the combat, snorting and blowing in so tremendous a
manner that, had not a fresh wind sprung up, the mar-
iners might have had to bewail a serious loss ; and they
regretted, amid so many inevitable evils, to have brought
on themselves one so very unnecessary.

On the 28th, after passing the bay of St Lawrence,
when they came near the southern extremity of Nova
Zembla, they discovered with surprise and joy two
Russian vessels at anchor. They approached and were

Open sea.

Capture of
birds.

St Lawrence
Bay.

HENRY HUDSON. 139

well received by the crews, several of whom recollected CHAP. IV.
having met them in the former voyage, and were truly Rece ^ n by
astonished, instead of the large and handsome vessels Russian
whose equipment they had so much admired, to see sai
them in miserable open boats, with pale and meagre
countenances. After mutual presents, the parties agreed Use cf coch-
to sail together to Waygatz, but were separated by a leana *
heavy gale. On a small isle the Dutch found abundance
of cochlearia, or scurvy-grass, by the use of which the
sick recovered in a manner almost miraculous. On the
3d August they steered their course to the south-south-
west, and though somewhat obstructed by ice, came
next day in view of the Russian coast. They had a
tedious but safe voyage to Kola, where, to their joyful
surprise, they found John Corneliz, who displayed the
greatest kindness, and afforded them a comfortable
passage to Amsterdam. As no account was ever given
of this commander's own proceedings, it may be pre-
sumed that they did not lead to any important discovery.

The question as to a north-eastern passage was not Henry
yet considered as finally determined. The London Hudsou -
merchants next took it up, and in 1608 sent out
Henry Hudson, who had already distinguished himself
by a voyage to Spitzbergen, and proved one of the
greatest of the early navigators. The design of this
able seaman appears to have been, not to entangle him-
self in the straits and islands on the Russian coast, but
to strike at once into the channel between Nova Zembla
and Spitzbergen. He dropped down to Blackwall on
the 22d April, and on the 3d June saw the North Cape, Entangled iu
bearing south-west. He still pushed on to the north thl
and east, till he reached the latitude of 75, when he
found himself entangled among ice. He at first en-
deavoured to push through, but, failing in this attempt,
turned and extricated himself with only " a few rubs."
On the 12th June lie experienced a thick fog, and had
his shrouds frozen ; but the sky then cleared, and af-
forded bright sunshine for the whole day and night.
On the 15th, Thomas Hilles and Robert Rayner so-

140 NORTH-EAST VOYAGES.

CHAP. iv. lemnly averred, that, while standing on deck, they saw

Supposed a mermaid. This inhabitant of the deep is described as

mermaid, having a back and breast like a woman, a very white

skin, and long black hair flowing behind ; but on her

turning round they descried a tail as of a porpoise, and

speckled like a mackerel. It seems uncertain which of

the cetaceous tribe suggested this resemblance to the

human form.

Coast of Hudson continued to push on eastward, vary ing aocord-

Zembia. m g to the wind, between the latitudes of 74 and 75.
On the 25th, however, heavy north and north-easterly
gales, accompanied with fog and snow, obliged him to
steer south-easterly ; and this course, on the 26th,
brought him to the coast of Nova Zembla, in lat. 72
25'. Here, with premature resignation, as June was
not yet closed, he concluded that it were fruitless to
hold this year a more northerly course ; in place of
which he resolved to try the old route of the Waygatz.
From this he was diverted by the view of a large sound,
which appeared to afford an equally promising opening.
On its shores also were numerous herds of the sea-horse,
from the capture of which he hoped to defray the ex-
Piensant pense of the voyage. Nova Zembla, on the whole, seen
* er at midsummer, presented to him somewhat of a gay
aspect. He says, it is " to man's eye a pleasant land ;
much mayne land, with no snow on it, looking in some
places green, and deer feeding thereon." The sound,
however, as might have been conjectured from the
strong current which flowed down, terminated in a large
river, and the boats soon came to anchorage in one
fathom. The morses also, though seen in great num-
bers, could never be brought to close quarters. The
ice now came in great masses from the south, " very
fearful to look on ;" and though, " by the mercy of God
and his mighty help," he escaped the danger, yet by
Retnrn to ^ ne ^th of July he was " void of hope of a north-east
England. passage ;" and, determining to put his employers to no
farther expense, hastened home to England.
We know not whether the Muscovy merchants were

HENRY HUDSON. 141

fully satisfied with the zeal displayed by Hudson in this CHAP. IV.
expedition ; for we find him in 1609 setting sail from Emp ^ ent
the Texel under the auspices of the Dutch East India of Hudson
Company, whose hopes of a northern passage had again JjJSU
revived. On the 5th May he passed the North Cape,
and on the 19t,h came in view of Wardhuys. It may be
remarked, however, that our countryman, though so
excellent a navigator, is a most unsatisfactory writer.
His narrative, amid vague complaints of fog and ice, Hu(lson , g
chows nothing distinctly but that he determined to narrative,
repass the North Cape, whence he steered across the
Atlantic to America. Forster says that he reached
Nova Zembla, an assertion directly contrary to the
captain's own narrative, and inconsistent with the time
spent in this part of the voyage. According to Constan-
tin, the crew, consisting chiefly of seamen accustomed
to sail to India by the Cape of Good Hope, were soon
alarmed by the tempests and floating ice of the North.
The truth is, the commander's own mind seems to _.

Fis own

have been fixed on north-western discovery. This ap- views of
pears from several hints in his second narrative ; and he success -
\vas probably inclined to content himself with a mere
show of proceeding eastward, that, apparently baffled,
he might follow his favourite direction. He seems to
have been impressed with the expectation of finding an
open sea between Virginia and Newfoundland ; and in
fact he discovered the important bay which receives the
river, called after him the Hudson, and on which New S
York was afterwards built ; but this lies out of our Hudson,
present sphere.

The Russia Company, at a subs quent period, made
some attempts to establish a factory on the Pechora ;
but after persevering for two or three seasons, they
relinquished the undertaking.

In 1676, Captain John Wood, on his own sanguine Captain
representations as to the great probability of a north- Jwlm Wooi
eastern passage, was sent out by the Admiralty in the
Speedwell. On the farther coast of Nova Zembla, how-
ever, his vessel went to pieces, and the crew, cast on

142 NORTH-EAST VOYAGES.

CHAP. IV. shore, with difficulty reached their consort, the Pros-
Shipwreck of perous Pink, which afforded them a passage home.
Wood. Wood, though he had done nothing to throw light on

the subject, brought back an impression respecting it so
very gloomy, that the plan of penetrating to India in
this direction was thenceforward given up, and has not
been revived even hi the eras of the most enthusiastic
enterprise.

HieTSan ** ma y be P r P er ' m this P lace * n tice the attempts
government, recently made by the Russian government to complete
the survey and exploration of Nova Zembla, to our
knowledge of which little addition had been made since
the time of Barentz. To effect this object an expedi-
tion was despatched in 1819 under Lieutenant Lazaref ;
but it encountered such formidable masses of ice, that
he was obliged to return without in any degree effecting
Captain his object. Captain Litke was employed in the same
itke. undertaking in 1821, but the issue was almost equally

unfavourable. In the following year, however, the same
officer was again sent to sea ; and, after an extensive
survey of the coast of Lapland, came, on the 8th August,
in view of Nova Zembla. During his progress along the
western shore, he found it in general to correspond with
the delineation given by Barentz, recognising m par-
ticular Admiralty Isle ; after which he reached a head-
land supposed to be the Cape Desire of that navigator,
but differing by about 15 degrees from the longitude
which he had assigned to it.

Third voy- Litke was intrusted with a similar command a third
a e time in 1823, when he ascertained that the promontory

which he had imagined to be Barentz's Cape Desire, was
in fact his Cape Nassau, and that the description of it
given by this celebrated discoverer was quite correct.
In the same voyage he had an opportunity of examining
the great strait, called Matotchkin Schar, which divides
the island into two parts, and found its length to be
about 52 English miles.

His general conclusions are, that the southern section
of the coast is low and flat ; but that about lat. 73 there

CAPTAIN LITRE.

143

commences a chain of somewhat lofty mountains, the CHAP. IV.
summits of which are covered with snow. The appear- conclusions
ance of the country is dreary and miserable hi the ex- arrived at
treme ; notwithstanding which, the idea entertained by
those who consider it as a mere mass of ice, partially
sprinked with soil, was found quite erroneous. Captain
Litke brought home with him specimens of the different
rocks and earths of which it is composed.

The same navigator was appointed once more in 1824. Voyajre to

.,, , . ,, i ' examine the

with instructions to examine the eastern coast ; but eastern
in endeavouring to penetrate between Spitzbergen and coast.
Nova Zembla he w r as completely repulsed by the masses
of ice with which the sea was encumbered ; while his
attempt to make a passage by the Strait of Waygatz
was equally defeated by contrary winds and calms.
Hence, notwithstanding these spirited efforts on the
part of the Russian government, no great accession has
been made to our knowledge of that insular territory.

144 EARLY POLAE VOYAGES,

CHAPTER V.

Early Voyages towards the North Pole.

Plan of a Polar Passage to India Voyages to Cherie Island-
Hudson Poole Baffin Fotherby.

CHAP. v. THE attention of the public, it has appeared, was early
SchenieTof a drawn towards a Polar passage, which, by striking di-
.Poiar pas- re ctly across the Arctic ocean, might bring the navigator
by a shorter route than any other to the golden realms
of the East. Mr Robert Thorne, a zealous promoter of
discovery, in his memorials to Henry VIII. and other
great men, always placed foremost the scheme of reaching
India by this improved course. It is not wonderful,
however, that such a voyage should not have been among
the first which were attempted. A century had elapsed
from the discovery of the passage by the Cape of Good
Hope, and half that period since the commencement of
the naval career of Britain, before her seamen, despairing
of success by the more circuitous tracks hitherto followed,
put forth all their strength to cross the icy waters which
surround the northern pole of the earth.

Discovery of Barentz, as already noticed, had in his third voyage
Spitzbergen. discovered Spitzbergen ; but it was in pursuit of the
fishery that the English were first attracted into the
high latitudes of the Greenland or Polar Sea. In 1603,
Alderman Sir Francis Cherie of London fitted out the
Godspeed, under the command of Stephen Bonnet, ap-
parently with the vague idea of exploring the Arctic
shores, and ascertaining their sources of commercial
wealth. The captain at first followed the beaten track

HENRY HUDSON. 145

of the North Cape, Wardhuys, and Kola ; after which, CHAP. V,
reversing his direction, he pushed north and north-west captain"
into the ocean. On the 16th August, at two o'clock, he
descried two hills which seemed to rise above the clouds.
In four hours he reached the Bear Island of Barentry
and not having heard, it should seem, of its previous
discovery by that navigator, gave to it, in honour of his
own employer, the name of Cherie. Here the sailors
caught only two foxes and a few fishes ; for though caught
they saw the teeth of a morse, proving that those ani-
mals did " use there," the season was considered too far
advanced to commence operations against them. He
directed his course homeward by Kola and the North
Cape, and reached the Thames on the 15th October.

Sir Francis, on the return of the ship, though it came Secon &
empty, was so far satisfied as to send it out next year
under the same commander. Bennet, accordingly, not
only went out a second time, but made several successive
voyages, in which the capture of the morse was carried
on with considerable success.

While these things were going on, Henry Hudson, Hudson dis-
in 1607, was despatched by the Muscovy Company to j^f^X
penetrate, if possible, directly across the Pole. This Company.
bold enterprise had not been before attempted, and it
constitutes the first recorded voyage of the eminent
navigator to whose skill it was confided. Having sailed
on the 1st May, he passed the latitude of Iceland, and
took a direction westward, being desirous to survey the
northern boundaries of Greenland, thinking there might
be an open sea in that direction as likely as in any other.
On the 13th June the ships were involved in thick fog,
their shrouds and sails being frozen ; but, when it cleared
next morning, the sailors descried a high and bold head-
land mostly covered with snow, behind which rose a
castellated mountain, named the Mount of God's Mercy.
Rain now fell, and the air felt temperate and agreeable.
They steered eastward to clear this coast ; but, after being
for some time enveloped in mists, again saw land, very
high and bold, and without snow even on the loftiest

146 EARLY POLAR VOYAGES.

CHAP. V. mountains. To this cape, situated in 73, they gave the

name of Hold-with-Hope.

Passing H G now to k a north-eastward direction, and on the

Spitsbergen. 27th faintly perceived the coast of Spitzhergen. He
still pushed northward, till he passed the 79th degree of
latitude, where, though the sun at this season did not
descend lower than ten degrees above the horizon, the
weather was piercingly cold, and the shrouds and sails
often frozen. The ice obliged him to steer in various
directions ; but, embracing every opportunity, he pushed
on, as appeared to him, to 81^, and saw land stretching
without interruption as far as 82. But as the extremity
of Spitzbergen does not lie beyond 81, he must have
committed some mistake, either in his latitudes or hi
mistaking for land extensive fields of ice. It has been
supposed that he had again reached the opposite coast of
Greenland. Greenland ; but this seems inconsistent with his bear-
ings, which are always more or less to the eastward.
The sea, in the latitudes of 81 and 82, he considers to
be so completely barred with ice as certainly to defeat
all attempts at a passage to the Pole in this direction ;
though, in his opinion, it might be frequented with great
advantage on account of the immense multitude of seals
with which it abounds. He returned, coasting along
Spitzbergen, some parts of which appeared very agree-
able ; and on the 15th September arrived in the Thames.
Enterprise of The Muscovy Company, still the most enterprising
thcjtfuscovy body in England, determined to fit out another expedi-
pany> tion for Polar discovery. They intrusted it to Jonas
Poole, who had distinguished himself in the Cherio
Island voyages ; and it was hinted to him, that though
discovery was to be his main object, yet he might catch
at intervals some morses, and even one or two whales,
to make the voyage defray its own expenses. He took
his departure in due season, sailing from Blackwall on
the 1st March 1610. By the 16th he had reached the
coast of Norway, in lat. 65, but the wind then blew
from the north so " extreme fierce, with great store of
snow and frost," and the vessel was so laden with ice,

JONAS POOLE. 147

that it could not maintain a "fore course," and was CHARY.
driven back as far as Scotland. Here he remained till Ca ^-
the 12th April, when, favoured by a southerly breeze, Jonasi'oole
he again set sail, and after many storms, snows, and ex-
treme frosts, came in view, on the 2d May, of the North
Cape. He then steered for Cherie Island, near which
he judged himself to be on the 6th ; but the fog was
such that he could not see a cable's length, and " the
ship had many a knock ; but, thanks be to God, no
harm was done !" Continuing to beat about in this ob-
scurity, he entirely missed his object, and the first land
seen by him was in 76 50', being the shores of an inlet
on the coast of Spitzbergen, which, from the deer's horns
found there, he named Horn Sound. He pushed on to IIorn S ""' 1
77 25', where he found the air more temperate than he
had formerly felt it at the North Cape at the same sea-
son. Soon, however, there was a complete reverse ; the
ship was involved in thick fogs, and wind, frost, snow,
and cold, seemed to strive for the mastery. After many
a sore stroke he got the vessel through ; but the main-
sail was still " frozen as hard as ever he found any cloth,"
and could with great difficulty be set. He discovered
an island, which he called Blackpoint, and the nearest
promontory he named Cape Cold ; but next day the
weather changed so entirely that he gave to a similar
projection the milder appellation of Fair Foreland. His Fair foro-
views continued to brighten, when he found that the land *
sun, as the season advanced, gave a most powerful heat ;
that the ice was melted on the ponds and lakes ; while
that which still floated on the sea was not nearly so
huge as he had seen it in 73 degrees. He conceived
favourable hopes, therefore, even after so sharp a be-
ginning, and judged that a passage by the Pole was as
likely to be found in this as in any other meridian. He
might therefore have been expected to apply himself in Pnrsnit of
the most zealous and determined manner to make the morses.
discovery. A large herd of morses, however, having
come in sight, he despatched his crew in pursuit of them ;
and from this time there is not another word of prose-

148 EAELY POLAR VOYAGES.

CHAP. V. cuting the research. The taking of the walrus and the

~~7~ deer, and now and then an attack on the whale, absorbed

ness of the his whole attention. He met with some dangers. One

chase. fay ne attacked a herd of morses lying on. ice, which

proved hollow, and suddenly broke, whereon ice and

beasts slid into the sea together, and the crew had great

difficulty in not going along with them, especially one

man ; for, besides being crushed by the weight of the

carcasses, the animals that were alive struck at him in

the water, and severely bruised him. Upon the whole

Spitzbergun ne j ua< ged Spitzbergen to be milder than Cherie Island,

and was not less surprised at the great number of deer,

than at the care of Providence, which enabled them to

subsist on so little pasturage, with only the rocks for a

house, the starry canopy for a covering, and not a bush

or a tree to shelter them from the nipping cold of

winter.

Satisfaction Although Poole returned from this voyage without
voyage 18 having done or almost attempted any thing, yet, as he
brought a considerable store of oil and teeth, his em-
ployers were not ill satisfied. They fitted him out next
year in the Elizabeth of fifty tons, and in their instruc-
tions distinctly informed him that discovery was to be
his main object; yet intimated, as before, that as he
proceeded with the Mary Margaret, destined for the
New expedi- whale-fishery, he might begin by joining her in taking
tion planned. a ew wna i es> ^d j n n i s CO urse along the coast kill as
many morses as might chance to present themselves.
Having extracted the oil, he was to floor the hold with
their skins, which a tanner had agreed to purchase of
the Company ; but all this was only to lighten the cost
of discovery, and not to be in any degree a primary
pursuit.

Wreck of the ^ ne vesse l s se t sail early in April 1611, but were
Mary Mar- soon separated by fogs and storms ; and when Poole
reached the coast of Spitzbergen, he found only three
boats escaped from the wreck of the Mary Margaret.
In the rest of his proceedings we never hear a single
word of discovery ; but applying himself most diligently

WILLIAM BAFFIN. 149

to the secondary object, by the 3d of August he had CHAP. v.
accumulated oil, morse-skins, and teeth, to the extent gncc^jj
of 29 tons, a good lading, he observes, for a ship of 50. fishery.
Accordingly it proved her ruin. As the last package
was brought in, she went entirely to one side, and all
the skins, which lay loose in the hold, slipping in the
same direction, carried her altogether under water
Poole, who sat in the cabin, considered himself as Fatal conse-
having only the choice of being drowned by remaining,
or, in attempting to escape, of being killed by the casks,
staves, and divers other things which were traversing
the ship in every direction. He chose the latter alter-
native as the least certain, and, though twice beaten
down, was plucked from the jaws of death, being en-
abled to crawl out with his skull laid open, and his
ears, back, and ribs severely bruised. The crew, who
all escaped, were taken on board a Hull ship commanded Escape of the
by Thomas Marmaduke, of whom Poole makes many "
complaints ; which Purchas, thinking too diffuse, has
omitted. As to Greenland, he observes, in general,
that when he first went, the mountains and plains were
almost entirely white with snow ; afterwards they ap-
peared green with grass and a little moss ; but, lastly,
the sun with his powerful heat dissolved the ice, and
exhaled such a profusion of vapours, that the day
differed little from the darkest night elsewhere.

He was, nevertheless, sent out a third voyage in 1612, Third voy-
with two vessels, the Whale and the Sea-horse ; but he age *
seems on this occasion also to have busied himself solely
in the capture of whales, which he killed to the amount
of thirteen. No mention is made of anything being
either attempted or projected in relation to discovery ;
though he states that Marmaduke penetrated to the
latitude of 82. No detail, however, is given, nor have
we any narrative from that captain himself ; which is
to be regretted, as he seems to have been more deeply
imbued with the spirit of research than any other ma-
riner of that time.

The next expedition took place in 1G13, under

150 EARLY POLAE, VOYAGES.

CHAP. v. William Baffin, the most learned navigator of the age,
William an ^ one ^ the greatest names in northern adventure.
Baffin. It was not, however, by this voyage that he obtained
his reputation, though he was provided with six good
and well-armed ships; the object of it appearing to
have been little else than to chase from the Greenland
seas all other vessels that might attempt to use them
for fishery. Their practice was, whenever they fell in
with a foreigner, to summon the master on board, show
the king's commission granted to the worshipful Com-
pany, and desire him to depart, on pain of having a
inSrference cannona( ^ e immediately opened upon him. The strength
' ' of the English being in general decidedly superior to
that of any other squadron in those seas, these terms
were usually acceded to without opposition. At one
time, indeed, five vessels, Dutch and French, including
a large one of 700 tons from Biscay, mustered, and
showed signs of offering battle ; but the Spaniard having
lost courage and yielded, the rest were obliged to follow
his example. On another occasion a Dutchman having
refused, and endeavoured to make off, so brisk a fire
was opened upon him, that he had nearly run on
Unreason- shore, and was fain to submit. A considerable number
, a ngt proceed ~of English sailors seem to have been on board these
foreign ships, who were all forcibly taken out. It
seems difficult to discover on what ground the subjects
of King James attempted to establish their right to
these coasts, since they had neither been the first dis-
coverers, nor held them in any sort of occupation. In
fact, they were not able ultimately to make good the
pretensions which they urged in so violent a manner.
Neglect of There is no mention of any effort on the part of
discovery. jjgffin f or ^ e p ur p se of discovery. On the contrary,
Marmaduke, who had again endeavoured to penetrate
to the north of Spitzbergen, was chidden for having
thereby hindered the voyage, and was prohibited from
any farther attempts of the kind during the season.
The former, however, made some curious observations
on the effects of refraction in high northern latitudes.

CAPTAIN FOTHERBY. 151

The Company still did not consider the question of a CHAP. V.
northern passage decided, as, indeed, since the time of Ca t ^"
Hudson, it could not be said to have been seriously at- iiobert
tempted. In 1614 they appointed Robert Fotherby, in lierby.
the Thomasine, to accompany their Greenland fleet of
ten ships and two pinnaces, with instructions, while the
rest were fishing, to devote himself mainly to discovery.
Baffin accompanied him as pilot. After considerable
obstructions, eleven vessels being at one time fast among
the ice, the captain, by the 6th of June, pushed on to
Hakluyt's Headland. He endeavoured to penetrate
through Magdalena Bay, which he calls Maudlen Sound ;
but the weather was foul, and the ice lay unbroken
from shore to shore. On the 10th he stood farther out, Course pur-
and succeeded in passing to the north of the headland,
when he again encountered an impenetrable barrier.
He then steered westward, in hopes of discovering a
more favourable opening ; but the ice trending south-
west, he sailed twenty-eight leagues without success,
and then returned to the Foreland. About the middle
of July, the air becoming clear and favourable, he and
Baffin ascended a high hill, to see what prospect there
was of getting forward ; but as far as they could dis-
cern, ice lay upon the sea, which indeed seemed wholly Whale fisb-
" bound with ice," though in the extreme distance there ing "
was an appearance of open water, that inspired some
hope. After amusing themselves for some days killing
whales, they again mounted a very lofty eminence, from
which they saw an extensive channel, but much im-
peded with ice. This was Sir Thomas Smith's Sound,
which they afterwards ascended to its head, and found
a good harbour, very advantageously situated for the
whale-fishery.

It was now the 9th of August, and Fotherby saw two Persever-
Dutch ships, which had been sent out for northern dis- auc&
covery, making their way homeward, after relinquishing
the undertaking in despair ; but he was determined not
to be baffled in his attempt without some farther
struggle. He pushed towards the north from Cape

152

EARLY POLAR VOYAGES.

Interruption
from ice.

Singular
grievance.

CHAP. V. Barren, and had made twenty-four leagues, when he
again met the ice. He coasted along it two days, hoping
to find an opening among its shattered fragments ; but
a north wind sprang up, with heavy snow, and every
thing heing cold, thick, and winter-like, he was forced
once more into harbour. The shore and hill being now
covered with snow, the crew were seized with the desire
of returning to England ; but the captain was still un-
willing to depart without some farther satisfaction. He
went in a boat up Redcliffe Sound, and though ice was
newly formed upon it, of about the thickness of a half-
crown piece, he pierced through, and got into open
water. The snow, however, continued to fall thick, and
the east wind blew in the ice so forcibly, that he was
glad to return to the ship. Passing a point, it was ob-
served that a cross which our countrymen had erected,
with the king's arms and a sixpence nailed upon it, had
been taken down, " sixpence and all," by the Dutch,
and Prince Maurice's arms substituted ; this grievance,
however, was speedily redressed.

About the end of August a gale sprang up from the
south-west, and brought milder weather than at any
former period of the season ; and the strength of the
thaw was proved by huge masses falling from the snowy
banks into the sea with a sound like that of thunder.
Conceiving better hopes, the navigator pushed out again,
in a north-west direction, till he came nearly to the
latitude of 80, when he heard a mighty noise of the
waves, as it were, breaking on an extensive shore. It
proved, however, that he was now on the margin of the
great northern ice. He coasted for some time along
that grand barrier ; but was soon embayed, whence it
was not without difficulty that he extricated himself.
The season advancing, he took the benefit of a fair wind
to steer homewards, and on the 4th October arrived at
Wapping, with his whole crew of twenty-six men in
perfect health.

Fotherby, having recommended himself on this voy-
age by spirit and diligence, was sent out next year

South-west
gale.

Return.

CAPTAIN FOTHERBY. 153

(1G15) by the worshipful Company, in the Richard, a
pinnace of only twenty tons. After many conflicts with second voy-
ice and fog, he reached Hakluyt's Headland about the J* h f rb
beginning of July. He forthwith began his career of
discovery ; but a strong southerly gale driving him
upon the ice, shattered his bark considerably, and
obliged him to return. As soon as his vessel was refitted,
he endeavoured, by a westerly course, to find an opening
among the ice, which projected in various points and
capes, but remained still fixed, and he found himself
pushed by it southwards to the latitude of 76. How-
ever, he sailed still farther west, towards what he
thought should have been the southern part of Hud-
son's Greenland ; and seafowls in vast flocks seemed to
indicate land, but the fog lay so thick, " that he might
easier hear land than see it." When about lat. 71 J,
the air cleared, and he descried a snowy hill very high
amid the clouds, while the fog lying on each side made
it appear like a great continent. It proved, however, Jan Mayon
to be only an island, probably Jan Mayen ; and as the island,
shores presented nothing but drift-wood, and appeared
as if fortified with castles and bulwarks of rock, no
shelter was afforded from a heavy gale which began to
blow. This induced him to stand out to sea, when he
regained the northern point of Spitzbergen, and began
to beat for a Polar passage. The wind, however, blew
so strong from the north-north-east, that he gave up
the attempt, only resolving, on his way home, to take a
survey of Hudson's Hold-with-Hope. He came to the
place where it ought to have been, but finding no land,
he insisted that his predecessor must have been mistaken England.
in the position assigned to it, a suspicion which has
been recently confirmed by Mr Scoresby. Availing
himself then of a brisk northerly breeze, he shaped his
course for England.

Fotherby, on being asked his opinion as to the pro-
bability of a passage through the Arctic Ocean, replied,
that though he had not attained in this respect his de-
sire, nothing yet appeared to exclude hope. There was,

154 EARLY POLAR VOYAGES.

CHAP. V. he remarked, a spacious sea between Greenland and
Continued Spitzbergen, though much pestered with ice ; and there-
hopes of sue- fore he would not dissuade the worshipful Company
ecss ' from a yearly adventure of 150, or 200 at the most.

The little pinnace, with ten men, in which he had sailed
two thousand leagues, appeared to him more convenient
for that purpose than vessels of larger dimensions. A
very long period, however, elapsed before any attempt
of this nature was resumed.

EAKLY NORTH -WEST VOYAGES. 155

CHAPTER VI.

Early Voyages in Search of a North-west Passage.

The Portuguese ; The Cortereales The Spaniards ; Gomez-
Expeditions under Henry VIII. ; their Issue Frobisher'a
First, Second, and Third Voyages Davis' First, Second,
and Third Voyages Weymouth Knight Hudson ; Mu-
tiny of his Men ; Disastrous Issue of the Expedition Voy-
ages of Button Gibbons Bylot Baffin Jens Munk, the
Dane Fox and James Knight and Barlow Middletou,
&c.

NOTWITHSTANDING the repeated efforts to find a passage CHAP. VL
by the east and north-east, the west finally became the p av0 ur~for
scene of the grandest naval enterprises, and flattered the the North-
nation longest with the hope of this signal disco very. westpassage
The maritime world were not yet aware of the immense
breadth of America at its northern limit. That conti-
nent was imagined to terminate in a cape, after rounding
which, and passing through the Strait of Anian, an
imaginary channel, supposed by the early geographers
to separate America from Asia, an entrance would be
opened at once into the Pacific, in which the navigator
might proceed full sail to Japan, China, the Spice Is-
lands, and all the other regions abounding in Oriental
wealth.

Of the European nations, Portugal was the first to Portuguese
embark in the career of ocean-discovery. Her monarchs enter priae.
and nobles employed their utmost exertions to double
the southern point of Africa, and thereby to overcome
the obstacles opposed by that continent to a direct com-
merce with India. Their efforts were crowned with

156

EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. vi.

Cortereai's
enthusiasm

Claims of
John Vaz.

Gaspar
CortereaL

Reaching
coast of
Labrador.

success ; and the passage by the Cape would have been
tne most brilliant exploit ever performed, had it not
been rivalled by the contemporaneous discovery of
America. Enough might seem to have been done, both
for the benefit and the glory of the nation, without di-
recting their efforts into any other channel ; yet one of
the most illustrious houses of that kingdom, with much
enthusiasm and no small loss, devoted itself to western
navigation. We allude to that of Cortereal ; for a
member of which, named John Vaz, claims, though
somewhat doubtful, have been advanced for the honour
of having reached the shores of Newfoundland some
time before the celebrated voyages of Columbus or Ca-
bot. In 1500, his son Gaspar, immediately upon hearing
of the successful labours of the former of these com-
manders, resolved to follow his steps. Having obtained
from the king two vessels, he touched at Terceira, one
of the Azores, and proceeded in a north-west direction,
endeavouring to find his way to India by some of the
higher latitudes. Respecting the details of this voyage
there remain only detached notices, which Mr Barrow
has collected with his usual learning and diligence. He
reached the coast of America about the parallel of 50,
probably on the northern shore of Newfoundland, where
he found a bay containing numerous islands which he
calls the Golfo Quadrado, conjectured to be the Straits
of Belleisle. He then steered northwards, and passed
a coast which Europeans have since commonly
called Labrador, but which in the early maps bears
from him the name of Corterealis. In some of the nar-
ratives it is designated Terra Verde (Greenland), but it
has nothing in common with the country to which Eu-
ropeans have still more improperly affixed that appella-
tion. The territory is represented as amply stocked
with timber, a description which applies to the spa-
cious forests of fir and pine that clothe the region con-
tiguous to Canada on the north. The natives are
correctly described as a mild and laborious race ; and
no less than fifty-seven being allured or carried on

CORTEKEAL. 157

board, were conveyed to Portugal. After a run along CHAP. VL
this shore, estimated at about 700 miles, Cortcreal came Highest
to a point which seemed to preclude all farther progress, latitude
Ramusio, indeed, states that the highest latitude he at- at
tained was only 60, which would coincide nearly with
the entrances into Hudson's Bay. But the season was
now somewhat advanced ; and the approach of the Polar
winter, the floating mountains of ice, the thick snows
which filled the air, the gloomy characteristics of an
Arctic climate, must, to a crew accustomed to warm Terr ibie
and temperate seas, have appeared peculiarly terrible, aspect of the
It was therefore judged absolutely necessary to return winter!"
home, and Cortereal arrived at Lisbon on the 8th Octo-
ber 1501.* That this necessity, however, was con-

* The view here taken of Cortereal's voyage, as extending
along the coast of Labrador, has been lately contested, and even
treated as an " absurd hypothesis," by the anonymous author
of a A Memoir of Sebastian Cabot." He maintains that the
most northern point reached by that navigator was in the Gulf
of St Lawrence, or at farthest the southern extremity of La-
brador. This question, relating to one of the most illustrious
martyrs in the cause of early discovery, seems to merit some
attention. It may be premised, that this hypothesis can with
no propriety be called ours, since it is the general belief of mo-
dern geographers, expressed by the very names of Corterealis
and Labrador, always applied to this coast. Doubtless it was
perfectly open for the author, if he could, to disprove this opi-
nion and establish his own ; but it is conceived that a very few
observations, founded in a great measure on documents pro-
duced by himself, will prove it to be palpably erroneous.

First, The voyage is allowed on all hands to have been di-
rected towards the north, and with a view to northern disco-
very. But as the objects lay westward, the direction would of
course be modified accordingly, and we may accept the state-
ment of the Italian ambassador, that it was tra maestro e pon-
ente (between north-west and west). But such a course, either
from Lisbon or Terceira, could scarcely be compatible with his
reaching any point south of the St Lawrence, certainly not one
which would admit of 600 or 700 miles of northerly navigation
before reaching that river. By supposing one degree of north-
ern for every four of western sailing, we should make him
reach America in about the latitude of 50 degrees, which
would place him on the northern coast of Newfoundland.

Second, The mild and laborious character ascribed to the
natives (molto mansuetiexcellentia da fatiga), presents the
most striking contrast to the fierce and proud indolence of the

158 EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. VL sidered to arise from the season only, and that no panic

was struck into the mind of this intrepid navigator, was

Undaunted _

courage. North American Indians ; it applies exclusively to the Esqui-
maux tribes. The habit of subsisting almost wholly on fish,
the clothing formed almost entirely of seal-skin, the roofing of
the huts with skins of fishes, are features which, occurring to
such an extent, become strikingly characteristic of shores in-
habited by Esquimaux.

These two first observations concur to render our conclusion
highly probable ; the third seems to remove every shadow of
doubt. After sailing along this coast six or seven hundred
miles, the navigator was arrested by a frozen sea and prodi-
gious falls of snow (mare agliazato e infinita copia de neve) ;
he then sailed homewards, and arrived at Lisbon on the 8th of
October. Hence the above phenomena, marking the setting in
of the utmost severity of an Arctic winter, must have presented
themselves not later than the middle of September. Surely no
one at all acquainted with the phenomena of climate can con-
cur with the author of the Memoir in the supposition that at
that season the expedition could be arrested, in the mannei
above described, in the Gulf of St Lawrence.

Respecting the latitude reached by Cortereal, there occur
two different statements. Some make it 50, others 60. The
author zealously adopts the former, considering it as the ulti-
mate point reached oy that navigator. So anxious is he to
accumulate authorities upon this head, that he quotes first
Gomara and then Fumee, as if they had been separate authors,
although he knows the one to be only the translator of the
other. The truth is, there is not the slightest discrepancy be-
tween the statements. There are two positions to be con-
sidered ; that at which Cortereal first touched the American
coast ; and the one where, after sailing 600 or 700 miles, he
terminated his coasting-voyage. The latitude of 50 seems
evidently to correspond to the first point, where he found the
Golfo Quadrado, the extensive pine-forests, and the country
wearing a smiling aspect. The very expression of Galvano,
that " he sailed into that climate which standeth under the
north in 50 degrees," clearly implies this as the latitude at
which America was reached ; and this, as already observed,
agrees exactly with the direction in which Cortereal sailed
from Portugal. The latitude of 60 again appears as clearly
to be the most northern point, where his progress was arrested
by the frozen sea, and the air filled with wintry tempests ; and
it is remarkable, that ten degrees, the difference between these
two latitudes, corresponds exactly with the space of 600 or
700 miles, which he is represented to have sailed along the
American coast.

The only feature that seems at all to support our author's
hypothesis, and on which indeed he seems to place his sole re-
liance, ivS the verdant and smiling aspect whicn the navigators

COKTEREAL. 159

sufficiently testified by his appearing on the sea next CHAP. vr.
season with two vessels, which he steered directly to Freg j^
the most northerly point attained in the former voyage, attempt
Here he is described as entering a strait, Hudson's per-
haps, or more probably Frobisher's ; but at this critical

moment the two ships were separated by a tempest. T

^ . , ' Loss of one

amid the floating ice with which these narrows are in- of the ships
fested. One of them succeeded in extricating itself, and
searched for some tune in vain for its consort ; but this
last, which had on board the gallant leader of the expe-
dition, was seen no more, and no intelligence could ever
be obtained of its fate.*

ascribed to this region. This does not exactly correspond
with our ideas on the subject ; but the truth is, that certain
tracts wholly uncultivated, even in the neighbourhood of the
Arctic circle, exhibit, when arrayed in their summer robe, an
appearance peculiarly pleasing. The varied vegetation, the
profusion of wild flowers, and the bushes loaded with delicious
berries, compose a gayer scene than is displayed on more
southern shores that are covered with the dark luxuriance of
tropical foliage.

* We consider it a somewhat hasty conclusion formed by
the author of the Memoir of Cabot, that it " cannot be doubted
that the objects of CortereaPs second voyage were timber and
slaves." This seems to harmonize very ill with the character
of the navigator, and the lofty spirit of Emanuel, by whom he
was employed. These objects appear, indeed, from the letter
of a Venetian ambassador, to have been mentioned, but chiefly,
we suspect, to satisfy that class of persons who considered
mercantile profit as the only legitimate object of maritime dis-
covery. Osorio, a very eminent Portuguese historian, who
wrote the history of Emanuel's reign under the sanction of
one of his sons, gives a very opposite view of the motives of
Cortereal. He says, in regard to the first voyage, " Glorias
cupiditate vehementer inceusus, ad sui nominis memoriam pos-
teris aliquo facto memorabili prodendam pertinere arbitratus
est." (Powerfully inflamed by the desire of glory, he thought
it concerned him to transmit his name to posterity by some
memorable exploit.) With regard to the second voyage, the
observation is : " Cum ad spem multo plura cognoscendi ra-
peretur ut latius littora illius omnia pervagaretur, et gentis
mores et instituta perdisceret." (Being urged by the hope of
obtaining more extensive knowledge that ha might traverse
more widely all the shores of that country, and might learn
thoroughly the manners and customs of the people.) De Rebut
Emanuelis, &c., 63.

160 EAELY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. vi. When these gloomy tidings were conveyed to For-

Miguel"" tugal, Miguel Cortereal, a younger brother, animated

CortereaL with the most tender affection for Gaspar, and with

a congenial spirit of enterprise, determined to put to

sea in search of him. Having equipped three vessels,

he sailed on the 10th May 1502 from the port of

Lisbon. On arriving at the numerous openings into

Arrival at Hudson's Bay. the captains adopted the plan of explor-

tne mouth of . , . , mi t

Hudson's ing separately the various inlets. Ihis, however pro-

Ba y- inising in some respects, was an imprudent step ; for

nothing could have conduced more to their mutual
safety than to keep close together, and be ready to
aid each other in those dreadful exigencies to which
this navigation is liable. It proved a fatal measure ;
two of them, indeed, met and returned ; but Miguel
and his crew shared the fate of those whom they
had gone to seek ; and it was never known where or
how they perished. The survivors reported at Lisbon
this heavy aggravation of the former distress. Fra-
ternal affection and daring courage seem to have char-
acterized the whole of this noble race. There was
still a third brother, Vasco Eanes, who besought of the

Vasco Eanes king permission to search for his lost kindred amid the
abysses of the northern ocean ; but on this project a
royal veto was absolutely imposed ; his majesty de-
claring that it was more than enough to have lost in
this cause two of his best and most faithful servants.
After a commencement so gloomy, and such gallant
efforts made in vain, it does not appear that the project
of effecting a passage in the Arctic sea was ever re-
vived in Portugal.

inertness of Spain, which had made the discovery of America,
and from that success derived so much glory and
wealth, might have been expected to take a deep in-
terest in every thing connected with its farther explora-
tion. The fact, however, appears to be, that revel-
ling amidst the rich plains and glittering treasures of
Mexico and Peru, she felt little attraction towards
the bleak confines of the Northern Pole. Only one

GOMEZ. 161

voyage is mentioned, that, namely, which was under- CHAP. VL
taken in 1524 by Gomez, with the view of seeking a Voya ~ of
shorter passage to the Moluccas. He is understood Gomez.
to have touched at Newfoundland, sailed along the
roast of New England as far as the 40th degree of
latitude, and returned, after a voyage of ten months,
bringing with him a few of the natives, but without
making any material addition to the information col-
lected by Cabot.

Britain at last assumed the task of discovery, and
made it almost exclusively her own. Her efforts,
indeed, were long in vain ; the barriers of nature
were too mighty ; and America, stretching her shores
into regions that lie beneath the perpetual sweep of
the northern tempest, renders navigation precarious
and doubtful. More recently, however, she has earned
high glory in this career; she has formed in it some
of her greatest naval commanders; has opened new
channels for the whale-fishery ; fixed the limits of the
western continent ; and explored the wide seas and
large islands which range along its remotest shores.

But even in this country there was a long inter- indifference
ruption in maritime discovery. Henry VIII., as we
formerly observed, showed from his accession almost
an entire absence of the zeal manifested by his pre-
decessor ; and Sebastian Cabot, who had earned per-
haps the highest name in Europe for naval skill and
enterprise, finding no encouragement, resolved to transfer
his services to the court of Spain. Amid this neglect,
however, he seems to have preserved the strongest Sebastian
attachment to his native country. He repaired thither CaboL
hi 1517, and prevailed upon the king to fit out an
expedition with the usual object of discovering a new
route to the East. Unfortunately the command was
intrusted, not to Cabot himself, the early and able
leader of such expeditions, but to Sir Thomas Pert, Sir Thomas
who though he held the high rank of vice-admiral 1>eru
of England, seems to have been destitute of the quali-
ties requisite for this arduous field of enterprise. The

162

EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. VL

Course ex-
plored.

Remon-
strance of
Mr. Thorno
of Bristol.

Mr. Hore of
London

other was allowed to act only as his pilot ; yet in this
capacity he guided the vessel, according to his own
statement in a letter to Ramusio, to the latitude of 67^
N. ; and the researches of the author of " A Memoir
of Sebastian Cabot" have even given reason to con-
clude that he actually entered Hudson's Bay, and was
ascending what has since been called the Fox Channel.
He considered the voyage so far as having been quite
prosperous, and declares that he both could and would
have gone to Cataia (China) ; but the courage of the
commander, as well as of the crew, appears to have
failed, and they refused to proceed any farther. By
the unsuccessful issue of this voyage, the monarch
seems to have been confirmed in his previous indiffer-
ence to discovery. Cabot was again obliged to have
recourse to Spain, and was soon after created grand
pilot of that, kingdom ; nor did he return to England
till the period of Henry's death.

Ten years after this failure, his majesty, urged by
a strong representation on the part of Mr Thome of
Bristol, who seems to hint that on account of his
apathy on this subject he was unworthy to reign,
was induced to fit out another expedition for the same
object. The records of it are most imperfect ; though
the author of the " Memoir " has found that the names
of the vessels were the Mary and the Sampson, and
that they reached the latitude of 63 N. ; but, having
probably set out too early in the season, they were
arrested there by ice and snow, and turned to the
southward. One of them appears afterwards to have
touched at Porto Rico.

This undertaking was followed, at the distance of
nine years, by another, which was set on foot by
Mr Hore of London, a wealthy individual, who easily
induced thirty young gentlemen of family and fortune,
some of whom were from the Inns of Court, to embark
along with him. In this case also Hakluyt had to
lament the absence of written records ; but he found
out Mr Oliver Dawbeny, who sailed in one of the

ME. HORE. 163

vessels ; and having learned that a son of Sir William CHAP. VI
Buts of Norfolk had been of the party, and was still sonr^f
alive, he rode two hundred miles for the purpose ol information,
conversing with that gentleman. From these sources
he was informed that the band of volunteers mustered
in military array at Gravesend, and, having taken the
sacrament, went on board. They had a long and
tedious voyage, during which their buoyant spirits con-
siderably flagged. At the end of two months they
reached Cape Breton, then held as part of the West cape Breton.
Indies ; whence, in fulfilment of their views, they
endeavoured to shape a more northerly course. They
reached Penguin Island, the same probably since called
Birds' Island, abounding in fowls as large as a goose,
and even in bears, which made such tolerable food
that all their wants were supplied. Having proceeded
to Newfoundland, Dawbeny one day called on his
comrades to come and view a boat with the " natural Newfound.
people of the country," whom they had earnestly land -
desired to see. A barge was fitted out to treat with
them ; but the savages, alarmed, fled precipitately,
relinquishing the side of a bear which they had been
roasting; and all attempts to overtake them were
fruitless. The country, indeed, appears to have been

singularly barren and desolate. Food, it was said,

, , , J , , . . 'P ' Dreadful

could be procured only by purloining from the nest scarcity of

of an ospray the fish collected for her young. It seems food -
strange that they should have remained on this shore,
where famine soon rose to such a pitch as to drive
them to a most frightful extremity. Several of them
waylaid a companion, killed him, and deposited his
flesh in a secret place, to which they repaired, and
having roasted it in successive portions, eagerly fed
upon it. An accident betrayed this dreadful secret.
One of the crew, walking with a comrade who had
shared in the cannibal feast, smelt the savour of broiled
meat, and reproached him with keeping a private
hoard, while others were in such fearful want. They
came to high words, when the guilty person said,

164 EAELY NOKTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CIURVI " Well, if you will have it, it is a piece of 's

Remon- flesh." This being reported to the captain, he called
captain fthe to g e ^ ler tne ship's company; and solemnly represent-
ing to them the dreadful crime they had committed,
obtained a promise that it should be carried no farther.
The famine, however, becoming always more pressing,
they were at length driven to the necessity of pursuing
this horrible expedient systematically, and had ar-
ranged the casting of lots to decide whose life should
be sacrificed to save the rest, when a French ship
French 6 Ol * appeared in view. Finding it to be well stored with
vessel provisions, they scrupled not to attack and seize it,

recommending the ejected crew to the ill-provided
bark which they themselves had left. They made
their way in all haste home, which they reached in
the most squalid and miserable state. So changed was
young Buts that neither Sir William nor his mother
could recognise him, till he displayed a secret mark

t?eTrench- f wllich P roved him to be tlleir son - Meantime the
men. Frenchmen arrived in their own country, and raised

loud complaints against the cruel and unwarrantable
manner in which they had been treated. Henry, un-
able to deny the extreme hardship of their case, yet
moved with pity towards his own subjects, whom he
was unwilling to punish, liberally paid from his private
purse the full extent of the loss.

Want of ddll From so slight a narrative it were rash to form any
very positive conclusion ; yet we cannot help observing,
that there is little appearance of the adventurers having
gone out duly prepared for their arduous undertaking,
and little display of nautical skill, prudence, or good
conduct, in the whole of the expedition.

Abandon- After so disastrous an issue, the spirit of western

western ex- discovery slumbered. The great zeal kindled in the

pioration. succeeding reign of Edward VI. turned wholly to the

eastward, producing the voyages of Sir Hugh Willough-

by and others, which have been recorded in a former

chapter. It was otherwise during the government of

Q,ueen Elizabeth ; though that princess, however much

MA.RTIN FROBISHER. 165

inclined to favour whatever might contribute to the glory CHAP, vr
and interests of her kingdom, did not originate any of Treatises of
these schemes. Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Mr Richard Gilbert and
Willis wrote treatises, where learned observations were W
combined with fanciful reasonings and erroneous reports ;
but all calculated to influence the public mind in sup-
port of such undertakings. The first voyage was planned
and conducted by Martin Frobisher, an officer who M^U,
afterwards distinguished himself by naval exploits in Frobisher.
every quarter of the globe, but who earned his early
fame by contending with the snows and tempests of the
northern deep. Regarding the western passage as the
only great thing in the world still left undone, he
solicited during fifteen years, in city and court, the
means of equipping a small flotilla capable of accom-
plishing this important object. The mercantile bodies
manifested a coldness very unlike the ardour displayed
on former occasions ; but some influential persons proved
at length more favourable, and, through the interest of Interest of
the Earl of Warwick, he was enabled, in the year 1576, $m5ck. f
to fit out three vessels, respectively of 35, 30, and 10
tons. These little barks, or rather boats, seemed ill
fitted for navigating the Arctic deep ; yet Mr Scoresby
has observed, that such vessels are better calculated for
threading their way through channels obstructed by ice,
and even for withstanding somewhat rude shocks from
it, than larger and more unwieldy fabrics.

Frobisher, on the 8th June, dropped down from Departure of
Deptford to Greenwich, where the court then resided, Frobisher '
and, hi passing the palace, fired a round in his best
style. The queen looked from the windows, cheering
and waving her hand, and Secretary Walsingham went
on board, wished the captain success, and exhorted the
crews to good order and obedience. Having on the 19th
reached Yarmouth, he thence stood out to sea, and on
the 26th saw before him Sumburgh Head, a bold pro-
montory in Shetland, while he had Fair Isle to the
north-west. In the remainder of his course, he only
gives his distances, latitudes, and directions. On the

166

EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

Greenland.

Stopped by
the ice.

CHAP. VL 11th July he saw a range of precipitous summits which,
First sight of even in the height of summer, were all white with snow.
He concluded this coast to be the Friesland of Zeno, but
in fact it was the southern point of Greenland, near
Cape Farewell. A boat put out towards the coast, but
found it so barred with ice and obscured by fog that it
was impossible to land. The navigators now steered
westward, suffering severely from northerly gales.
On the 14th the wind shattered their fore-yard, and
bore the mizzenmast overboard ; and on the 16th the
topmast with its sail broke off, and fell into the sea.
They continued, however, to press on ; and upon the
22d a thick mist dispersing, showed a long line of coast,
conjectured to be Labrador. Ice, however, formed an
impassable barrier between them and the land, while
the lead went down 100 fathoms without touching the
ground. The current was very strong, but from the im-
possibility of coming to anchor, could not be measured ;
yet it seemed not less than a league and a half an hour.
On the 1st August the discoverers approached to make
observations on a large island of ice, which, as they were
viewing it, went to pieces, and fell into the sea with a
tremendous crash.

Having on the 18th reached a more accessible coast,
they were desirous to ascertain if it was inhabited.
Seeing seven boats plying along the beach, they sent
out one of their own, the crew of which, by holding up
a white cloth, induced a canoe to approach ; but on
seeing the ship the natives immediately turned back.
Frobisher then went on shore, and, by the distribution
of several little presents, enticed one of them to come on
board. This person being well treated with meat and
drink, made when he landed so favourable a report that
Appearance, nineteen followed his example. The sailors had then
a full opportunity of observing this Esquimaux race.
They are described as " like to Tartars, with long black
hair, broad faces, and flat noses, having boats of seal-skin,
with a keel of wood within the skin." Next day they
appeared more shy, and with some difficulty one of them,

Interview
with the
natives.

MARTIN FROBISHER. 107

by the allurement of a bell, was drawn on board. The CHAP. vi.
captain, having no intention to detain him, sent a boat Losgof flve
with five men to put him on shore at the angle of a men.
rock ; but these, urged by curiosity and blinded by false
confidence, went on to join the main body of the natives
a fatal step ; they were never allowed to return
Frobisher spent two clays firing guns, and making
inquiries at every point, but without success.

On the 26th August, without any very particular Rcturr
reason assigned, the navigator turned his face towards home *
home, and reached Harwich in the beginning of October.
He had made little progress towards a western passage ;
yet, having with such slender means penetrated thus far
and discovered a new country, dignified with the title
of Meta Incognita, his voyage was considered highly
creditable, and as affording good promise for the future.
The public interest was excited by another circumstance
of a very illusory nature. All his friends importuned
him to give them something or other which had come Meta Incog-
from Meta Incognita. At a loss to satisfy this desire, he mta "
cast his eyes on a large stone which, from its glittering
appearance, he had been induced to take on board. He
broke it into pieces, and distributed them among the
circle of his acquaintances. One portion was received
by a lady, who happened to drop it into the fire, where,
after burning for some time, it appeared to glitter like
gold. Being thereupon submitted to the goldsmiths,
they were so ignorant, or so misled by the enthusiasm
of the moment, as to pronounce it a valuable ore of the
most precious of metals. This false decision threw all False hopes.
England into a ferment of joy. There was no difficulty
now in equipping an expedition. The queen contributed
the ship Ayde of 180 tons, besides means for enabling
Frobisher to fit out two other vessels, the Michael and
Gabriel, of 30 tons each. Being invited to visit the
queen at Lord Warwick's seat hi Essex, he was allowed
to kiss her majesty's hand, and heard from her lips
many gracious expressions.

He sailed again on the 26th May 1577, with such a

168

EAULY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

Second
voyage.

Continuous
light.

CHAP. VL " merrie wind" that on the 8th June he touched at the
Orkneys for fresh water, allowing his gentlemen and
soldiers to go on shore for recreation. The poor inhabi-
tants, having, it is probable, suffered from the inroads of
pirates, fled from their houses with cries and shrieks ;
but were soon, by courteous treatment, induced to
return. Their accommodations were found truly mi-
serable ; they had no chimneys in their houses, the fire
being placed in the middle of the floor, the one side of
which was occupied by the family, and the other by the
cattle, while oat-cakes and ewe-milk were their only
food. The discoverers now entered on their perilous
voyage through the Northern Ocean, during which they
were much cheered with the perpetual light, as it
allowed them at all hours to read or otherwise amuse
themselves ; which, it is observed, is peculiarly agreeable
to such as " wander in unknown seas and long naviga-
tions, where both the winds and raging surges do pass
their common course." They were surprised to see large
fir-trees, torn up by the roots, floating in the midst of
Friesiand. the waves. On the 4th July, Friesland presented its
awful front, a range of inaccessible mountains entirely
covered with snow, unless where, from the extreme steep-
ness of the cliffs, it had broken off and fallen into the sea.
During four days' sail they saw, whenever the thick
fogs dispersed, a coast equally dreary, without any
landing-place, and without a sign of human habitation
or even of life ; yet little birds, apparently bewildered
in the mist, came and alighted on board, and gave the
impression that there might be a milder region in the
interior. But the inexperienced part of the crew were
especially struck by the islands of ice, rising thirty or
forty fathoms above the water, and rooted at the bottom,
which the line could not reach.

Frobisher now sailed across to Labrador, and touched
at a sound which received his name. The coast, how-
ever, was found guarded by a mighty wall of ice, which
the ships could not penetrate ; though the captain, with
two of his boats, succeeded in working his way into the

Labrador.

MARTIN FROBISIIER. 169

strait, and began to survey the country. So crude were CHAP. VI.

then the ideas of seamen respecting the geography of crude~

these regions, that they imagined the shore on their notions of Me

left to be America, and that on their right to be Asia.

Landing on the former they scrambled to the top of a

hill, and erected a column, which, after the great patron

of the expedition, was called Mount Warwick. On Mount

their return cries were heard like the lowing of bulls, vVarwicl -

and a large body of natives ran up to them with an air

of cordiality and confidence. They entered eagerly into

traffic for the trifling ornaments displayed by their

visiters, yet declined every invitation to go on board ;

while the English, on the other hand, did not choose

to accede to their proposal of going into the country.

Frobisher and one of his people meeting two of the

natives apart, rashly attempted to drag them to the

boats, hoping there to gain their friendship by presents

and good usage. On the slippery ground, however,

their feet gave way, the Esquimaux broke loose, and Attack of the

found behind a rock their bows and arrows, which they na

began to discharge with great fury. The captain and

his companion, seized with a panic scarcely justified by

two such miserable assailants, fled full speed, and the

former reached the barge with an arrow sticking in his

leg. The crew, imagining that something serious must

have happened to their commander, gave the alarm,

and ran to the rescue. The two barbarians instantly

retreated ; but Nicholas Conger, a stout fellow, servant

to Lord Warwick, seized one of them and dragged him

into the boat.

Meantime the ships outside were involved in a dread- Tempest
ful tempest, being tossed amid those tremendous ice-
islands, the smallest of which would have been sufficient
to have crushed them into a thousand pieces. To avoid
dangers which so closely beset them, they were obliged
to tack fourteen times in four hours ; but with the
benefit of constant light, the skill of their steersman,
and the aid of Providence, they weathered the storm
without being compelled to drive out to sea and abandon

EAKLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. VI.

Mistaken
discovery.

Effects of a
north-west
gale.

Suspicions
entertained.

Attack on
the native*

their friends ashore. On the 19th Frobisher went aboard,
carrying with him a large store of glittering stone ; upon
which, says Dionise Little, " we were all rapt with joy,
forgetting both where we were and what we had suf-
fered. Behold," says he, " the glory of man, to-night
looking for death, to-morrow devising how to satisfy his
greedy appetite with gold."

A north-west gale soon sprung up ; before which,
like magic, the mighty barriers of ice by which they
had been shut out from the land melted away. They
had now a broad and open passage, whereby they en-
tered the Sound, which, in their imagination, was still
identified with a strait leading into the Pacific Ocean,
In a run of more than thirty leagues they landed at
different points, and, mounting to the tops of hills, took
possession of the country, with solemn ceremonies, in
name of her majesty. Having found hi one place a
bridle of singular construction, they examined their
captive upon it, who thereupon seized a dog, attached
the bridle, yoked the animal in a sledge, and exhibited
the Esquimaux mode of driving. This person admitted
that he was not entirely ignorant respecting the five
m.en captured the preceding year, but repelled most
strenuously the insinuation that they had been killed
and eaten. However, a dark source of suspicion was
soon opened ; for in some of their boats were found,
along with bones of dogs, flesh of unknown animals, and
other strange things, an English canvass doublet, a shirt,
a girdle, three shoes for contrary feet, apparel which,
beyond all doubt, belonged to their lost countrymen.
Anxiously hoping to recover them, they left a letter in
the boat, and pen, ink, and paper, with which to return
an answer. With the same view, still more vigorous
measures were adopted. Forty men, under Charles
Jackman, marched inland to take the natives in the
rear, and drive them upon the coast, where Frobisher
with a party waited to intercept them. The savages,
meanwhile, had removed their tents into the interior ;
but the invaders, after proceeding over several moun-

MARTIN FROBISHER. 171

tains, descried another cluster of huts, supposed at first CHAP. VI
to belong to a different horde. The agitation and alarm, Alar ^~~
however, which were visible the instant our country-
men were observed, showed that this was the guilty
band ; and, accordingly, hastening to their canoes, and
pushing out full speed to sea, they rowed with a rapidity
which would have baffled all pursuit, had not the captain
with his boats held the entrance of the sound. As soon
as they saw themselves thus beset, they landed among
the rocks, abandoning their skiffs, which they hoped to
render useless by breaking the oars. The English
immediately rushed to the assault ; while the natives Asgault of
stationed on the rocks resisted the landing, and stood the natives
their ground with the most desperate valour. Over-
whelmed with clouds of arrows, they picked them up,
plucking them even out of their bodies, and returnee 1
them with fury. On feeling themselves mortally
wounded, they plunged into the sea, lest they should
fall into the hands of the conquerors. At length,
completely worsted, and having lost five or six of their
number, they sprang up among the cliffs and eluded
pursuit. There fell into the hands of the assailants
only two females, who caused some speculation. One Native
tvas stricken in years, and presented a visage so sin-
gularly frightful as to suggest to some of the crew the
uncomfortable suspicion that the great enemy of man-
kind stood before them in person. This impression
gaining ground, it was resolved to ascertain whether or
not she possessed the cloven foot. Her buskins were
plucked off, to satisfy ^he credulous sailors as to the
fact whether she did not present that peculiar structure
of the lower extremities supposed to characterize the
dread foe of the human race. As this essential mark
was found wanting, it was instantly determined, by
liberating her, to deliver their eyes from so hideous a
spectacle. The other female was young, with a child Young
in her arms ; and being, from her peculiar costume, feiualQ
mistaken for a man, had been fired at and the infant
wounded. It was in vain to apply remedies ; she licked

172

EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. VI

Attachment
of natives.

Interview
with the
natives.

Negotiation
entered into.

Native
attack.

off with her tongue the dressings and salves, and curee
it in her own way. She and the male captive formerly
taken looked strange at first ; but on becoming intimate,
found much comfort in each other's society, and showed
a strong mutual attachment.

Frobisher still cherished hopes of discovering his men.
A large party appearing on the top of a hill, signs were
made of a desire for mutual accommodation. A few of
them advanced, and were introduced to the captives.
The parties were deeply affected, and spent some time
without uttering a word ; tears then flowed ; and when
they at last found speech, it was in tones of tenderness
and regret, which prepossessed the English much in their
favour. The captain now assured them that, on con-
dition of their restoring his five men, they should receive
back their own friends, with the addition of sundry
of those little articles on which they set the highest
value. This they promised, and also to convey a letter
to the prisoners. Doubtless by this time these unfortu-
nate individuals no longer lived, and the natives conse-
quently had no means of redeeming their pledge ; but
they determined, by force or stratagem, to effect their
purpose. Three men appeared holding up flags of
bladder, inviting the Europeans to approach ; but the
latter, who saw the heads of others peeping from behind
the rocks, resolved to proceed with the utmost caution.
The savages began by placing in view large pieces of
excellent meat ; and when their enemy could not be
caught by that bait, one of them advanced very close,
feigning lameness, and seeming to offer himself an easy
prey. Frobisher allowed a shot to be fired, by which
this person was cured at once, and took to his heels.
Seeing all their artifices fail, the barbarians determined
upon main force, and pouring down to the number of a
hundred, discharged their arrows with the greatest fury.
They even followed a considerable way along the coast,
regardless of the shot directed against them by the
sailors ; these last, in the mean time, being too distant
from the shore to suffer the slightest annoyance.

MARTIN FROBISHER. 173

Several of his men, indeed, asked permission from their CHAP. VI.
leader to land and attack the barbarians ; but this he
refused, as only calculated to defeat their main object,
and to cause useless bloodshed.

The 21st of August had now arrived, the ice was be- Formation of
ginning to form around the ships, and though little lce *
progress had been made towards China, the crews had
put on board two hundred tons of the precious mineral.
They therefore mounted the highest hill, fired a volley
in honour of the Countess of Warwick, and made their
way home.

Notwithstanding the vicissitudes which had marked this Retnm to
voyage, the arrival of the ships was hailed with the utmost ng *"
exultation. Enthusiasm and hope, both with the queen
and the nation, rose higher than ever. The delusion
of the golden ore continued in full force, and caused
those desolate shores to be regarded as another Peru.
Special commissioners, men of judgment, art, and skill,
were named by her majesty to ascertain both the quality
of the shining substance and the probability of effecting
a voyage to India. After due inquiry, a most favourable
report was made on both subjects, recommending not
only that a new expedition on a great scale should be
fitted out, but a colony established on that remote coast,
who might at once be placed in full possession of its
treasures, and be on the watch for every opportunity of
farther discovery. To brave the winter of the Polar proposed
regions was a novel and daring enterprise ; yet such P? lar colo-
was then the national spirit, that the appointed number
of a hundred was quickly filled up. There were forty
mariners, thirty miners, and thirty soldiers, in which
last number were oddly included not only gentlemen,
but gold-finers, bakers, and carpenters. Materials were
sent on board the vessels fit for being converted into a
fort or house. The squadron was the largest that had
yet ventured to plough the northern deep. It consisted
of fifteen vessels, furnished by various ports, especially
by those of the west ; and the rendezvous took place
at Harwich on the 27th May 1 578, whence they sailed

174

EARLY NOETH-WEST VOYAGES.

New expedi

tion.

Perilous
situation.

CHAP. VI on the 31st. The captains waited on the queen at
Greenwich, and were personally addressed by her in the
most gracious manner, Frobisher receiving a chain of
gold, and the honour of kissing her majesty's hand.

It has been already observed, that expeditions got up
on the greatest scale, and with the most ample means,
have usually proved the most unfortunate. A numer-
ous fleet is ill calculated to steer through the ice-en-
tangled straits, and amid the huge masses which are
found floating in all parts of the Arctic ocean. On reach-
ing the Queen's Foreland, at the opening of Frobisher's
Strait, the navigators found it frozen over from side to
side, and barred as it were with successive walls and
bulwarks. A strong easterly wind had driven many
icebergs upon the coast, and hence the situation of the
mariners soon became very perilous. The Dennis, a
large vessel, on board of which was part of the projected
house, received such a tremendous blow from a mountain
of ice, that it went down almost instantly, the men being
with difficulty saved by another ship which hastened
to their aid. This spectacle alarmed the other crews,
who felt that the same fate might next moment be their
own. The danger was much augmented when the gale
increased to a tempest, and the icy masses, tossing in
every direction, struck furiously against the sides of the
vessels. Invention was now variously at work to find
means of safety. Some moored themselves to these
floating islands, and being carried about along with
them, escaped the tremendous concussions which they
must otherwise have encountered. Others held, sus-
pended by the sides of the ship, oars, planks, pikes,

avert danger. p i es> every thing by which the violence of the shocks
might be broken ; yet the ice, " aided by the surging of
the sea and billow," was seen to break in pieces planks
three inches thick. The commander considers it as
redounding highly to the glory of his poor miners and
landsmen, wholly unused to such a scene, that they
faced with heroism the assembled dangers that besieged
them round. " At length it pleased God with his eyes

Futile
attempts to

MARTIN FROBISHER. 175

of mercy to look down from heaven," a brisk south- CHAP. vi.
west wind dispersed the ice, and gave them an open sea
through which to navigate.

Having spent a few days in repairing his squadron, course pur
Frobisher again used all his efforts to penetrate to the sued *
spot where he was to found his colony. After consider-
able exertion he made his way into the strait, when he
discovered that he was sailing between two coasts ; but
owing to the mists and thick snow which darkened this
northern midsummer, nothing could be distinctly seen.
As, however, clear intervals occasionally occurred, af-
fording partial glimpses of the land, the surmise arose,
that this was not the shore along which they had for-
merly sailed. Being little inclined to listen to a doubt
which would have convicted him of having thrown
away much of his time and labour, he still pressed
onwards. Once the mariners imagined they saw Mount
Warwick, but were soon undeceived. At length Chris- change of
topher Hall, chief pilot, stood up and declared, in the route.
hearing of all the crew, that he never saw this coast
before. The commodore still persevered, sailing along
a country more populous, more verdant, and better
stocked with birds, than the one formerly visited. In
fact this was probably the main entrance into Hudson's
Bay, by continuing hi which he would have made the
most important discoveries. But all his ideas of mineral
wealth and a successful passage to India were associated
with the old channel ; and, on being obliged to own that
this was a different one, he resolved to turn back. In
this retreat the fleet was so involved in fogs and violent
currents, and so beset with rocks and islands, that the
sailors attributed to a special interposition of Providence
the fact of their getting out in safety. When they had Peturn to the
reached the open sea, and arrived at the mouth of the open sed "
desired strait, it was almost as difficult to find an en-
trance. However, the resolute navigator was constantly
on the watch, and wherever there appeared any opening,
it is said, " he got in at one gap and out at another,"
till at length he reached his purposed haven in the

176

EAKLY NORTH- WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. VI.

Tardy arrival
at the desired
locality

Obstacles to
colonization.

Failure of
the expedi-
tion

Meta Incog-
nittu

depths of the North. But, before the crews were com-
pletely landed, the 9th of August had come, thick snows
were falling, and it behoved them to hold a solemn
consultation as to the expediency of persevering in the
establishment of the projected colony. There remained
of the house only the materials of the south and east
sides ; the rest had either gone down in the Dennis, or
been shattered into fragments while suspended from the
ships to meet the strokes of the ice. Great part of the
bread was spoiled, and the liquors had sustained a woful
leakage ; in short, there was no longer an adequate
provision for a hundred men during a whole year. In
these circumstances Captain Fenton of the Judith sug-
gested, that what remained of the house might be formed
into a hut for sixty men, with whom he undertook to
pass the winter; but the carpenters being consulted,
declared that such a structure could not be erected in
less than two months, while their stay could not possibly
be protracted beyond twenty-six days. Renouncing the
idea of settlement, Frobisher still asked his officers
whether they might not, during the remaining interval,
attempt some discovery to throw a redeeming lustre on
their unfortunate enterprise ; but in reply, they urged
the advanced season, the symptoms of winter already
approaching, and the danger of being enclosed in these
narrow inlets, where they would be in the most immi-
nent danger of perishing ; in short, that nothing was
now to be thought of but a speedy return homewards.
This was at length effected, not without the dispersion
of the fleet, and considerable damage to some of the
vessels.

The record of these voyages contains notices of the
country and people, which strikingly agree with those
collected by recent navigators. This Meta Incognita,
which includes only the countries near the entrances of
Hudson's Bay, is considered as a cluster of large islands,
separated by narrow inlets, an idea perhaps not so un-
founded as was for some time supposed, and consisting
of high lands, covered with snow even in the midst of

MARTIN FROBISHER, 177

summer. The navigators were surprised to find in lati- CHAP. VL
tude 60 and 61 a cold much more intense than at the A
North Cape and Wardhuys in latitude 72. The people
are described as of a ripe olive complexion, with long
black hair, broad faces, and flat noses, much resembling
Tartars, or, more strictly, Samoiedes, to whom, accord-
ing to the best information Frobisher could obtain, they
were also similar in their habits of life. The land could
scarcely yield either grain or fruit, and the inhabitants
made -no attempt to cultivate them, eating merely shrubs
and grass, " even as our kine do ;" or, as Settle ex-
presses it, " such grass as the country produceth they
pluck up and eat, not daintily or saladwise, but like
brute beasts devouring the same." In other respects, Food
he observes, they seek " by their hunting, fishing, and
fowling, to satisfy their greedy paunches, which is their
only glory." They use neither seat, table, nor cloth ;
but, " when they are imbrued with blood knuckle deep,
they use their tongues as apt instruments to lick them
clean." From the disgusting manner in which they
devoured their meat, very often in a putrid state, with-
out any attempt at cookery, an inference is somewhat
rashly drawn, that they would not make the least hesi-
tation to partake of human flesh. Frobisher saw only
their summer-houses, which are described as poor caves,
like ovens, having for doors holes resembling those of a Summer-
fox or cony burrow. They are said to be formed of pieces
of whalebone meeting at top, and covered with seal-skin,
and to have in the inside a layer of moss, which serves
for beds to sleep on. At the same time they were found
to be sharp-witted, and showed by signs great readiness,
both in their understanding and replies. If they could
give no information on any subject, they shut their
eyes; if they did not comprehend what was said to
them, they stopped their ears. They took the greatest
delight in music ; repeating and keeping time to any tune Lore of
with voice, head, hand, and foot. Their darts, arrows, mU8k
and other weapons, were skilfully contrived, and used
with a courage amounting even to desperation, of which

178 EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. VI

Skin boatSt

Native cap-
tives.

Results of
fialure.

Kayak, or Greenlandcr's Canoe.

repeated instances have been given. Their little boats
of skin (kayak) were moved by one oar, with a swift-
ness which no English sailor could match. The as-
tonishment of one of them was very great when he saw
himself in a mirror. " He was upon the sudden much
amazed thereat, and beholding advisedly the same with
silence a good while, at length began to question with
him as with his companion ; and finding him dumb,
seemed to suspect him as one disdainful, and would
have grown into choler, until at last, by feeling and
handling, he found the deceit, and then, with great
noise and cries, ceased not wondering, thinking that we
could make men live and die at our pleasure." Great
signs of mutual attachment appeared between the male
and female captives who were brought home on the
second voyage. She killed and dressed the dogs for
him, and tended him carefully when sick, while he, on
the other hand, picked out the sweetest and fattest mor-
sels, and laid them before her ; yet they lived entirely
as brother aud sister, without the slightest impropriety.
Our naval records do not inform us of the feelings
excited in the nation by the return from this perilous
and unsuccessful voyage. The failure of repeated at-
tempts, and especially of one got up with so much cost,
probably produced the usual effect of indifference and
despondency. The glittering stone, which was to have
converted this northern Meta into another Peru, was
never more heard of; a few careful assays having
doubtless established its utter insignificance. Frobisher
recommended strongly a trial of the first inlet which he

JOHN DAVIS. 179

Imd entered, as being, in comparison of the other, CHAP. VI.
broader, and every way more promising ; but the public
could by no means be roused to any farther efforts, and plans,
he was obliged to seek in other climaieo employment
for his daring and active spirit. He accompanied Sir
Francis Drake to the West Indies ; he commanded one
of the largest ships in the fleet which opposed the
Spanish Armada ; and fought with such bravery that
he was decorated with the honours of knighthood.
Being afterwards sent to assist Henry IV. against tin.
League, he was employed in the attack of a small fort
on the coast of France, where he received a wound from
a ball, which, through unskilful treatment, proved fatal
in November 1694.

Seven years after Frobisher's last voyage, the spirit ^ ew expedi-
of the nation was again roused. Divers opulent mer- on *
chants of London and of the west determined to " cast
in their adventure ;" and, leaving wholly out of view
the delusive hopes of gold which had misled the captain
now named, directed theirs entirely to the discovery of
a passage to India. They fitted out two vessels, the
Sunshine and Moonshine, of 50 and 35 tons respectively,
which were placed under the command of John Davis, captain John
a steady and determined seaman. He was endowed also
with a large portion of good humour, by which he was
likely to render himself acceptable to the rude natives
of those inhospitable shores ; and to promote still farther
this important object, he was provided, not only with
an ample supply of the gifts most suited to their taste,
but with a band of music to cheer and recreate their
spirits. On the 7th June 1585 he set sail from Dart-
mouth ; and on the 19th July, as he approached the
Arctic boundary, the seamen heard, amid a calm sea
covered with thick mist, a mighty roaring, as of waves
dashing on a rocky shore. Though the soundings gave
300 fathoms, the captain and master pushed off in the
boat to examine this supposed beach, and were much
surprised to find themselves involved amid numerous
icebergs, and that all this noise had been caused by the

180

EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

Coast of
Greenland.

Land of
desolation.

CHAP. VJ. rolling and beating of these masses against each other.
He landed on several of these floating islands, and
broke off pieces of ice, which, being carried to the ship,
were converted into good water. Next day he came in
view of the south-western coast of Greenland, which
appeared the most dreary and desolate ever seen ; " de-
formed, rocky, and mountainous, like a sugar-loaf,
standing to our sight above the clouds. It towered
through the fog like a white list in the sky, the tops
altogether covered with snow, the shore beset with ice,
making such irksome noise that it was called the Land
of Desolation" The water on this coast was black and
thick, like a standing pool, and though they saw many
seals floating, and birds beating upon the surface, none
could be caught.

After sailing several days along this dreary shore,
without being able to approach on account of the ice,
Davis pushed out north-westward into the open sea,
hoping in " God's mercy to find our desired passage."
On the 29th he came in sight of a land in 64 north
latitude, which was still a part of Greenland ; but as
the wind was unfavourable for proceeding in the proper
direction, while the air was temperate, and the coast
free from ice, he resolved to go on shore and take a view
of the country and people. Accompanied by only two
individuals, he landed on an island, leaving directions
for the rest to follow as soon as they should hear a sig-
nal. The party mounted the top of a rock, whence

Discovery of they were espied by the natives, who raised a lamentable
noise, with loud outcries like the howling of wolves.
Davis and his comrades hereupon struck up a high note,
so modulated, that it might at once amuse the savages
and put his own crew on the alert. Burton, the
master, and others hastened, well armed, yet with the
band playing, and dancing to it with the most inviting
signs of friendship. In accordance with this gay sum-
mons, ten canoes hastened from the other islands, and
the people crowded round the strangers, uttering in a
hollow voice unintelligible sounds. The English con-

natives.

JOHN DAVIS. 181

tinned their friendly salutations, while the Esquimaux CHAP. VI.
still showed signs of jealousy and alarm, when at length F riendiy
one of them began to point towards the sun and beat interview.
his breast. These signs being returned by John Ellis,
master of the Moonshine, they were induced to approach ;
when, on being presented with caps, stockings, gloves, and
other articles, their fears gave place to the most cordial
amity. Next day there appeared thirty-seven canoes,
the crews of which kindly invited the strangers on
shore, expressing the utmost impatience at their delay.
Davis manned his boats and went to them ; upon which
one of their number, after shaking his hand, kissed it,
and all resigned themselves to confidence and affection.
The barbarians parted with every thing, the clothes Liberality of
from off their backs, consisting of seal-skins, and birds' ti
skins with the feathers on them, their buskins of well-
dressed leather, their darts, oars, and five canoes, accept-
ing cheerfully in return whatever their new visiters
chose to give, and kindly aiding each other under the
privations thus occasioned. They offered to return next
day with an ample store of furs and skins, which *
they saw the foreigners value so highly ; but a favour-
able breeze springing up, the captain very properly
determined to allow nothing to interfere with his
schemes of discovery. He steered directly across the
strait, or rather sea, which still bears his own name. Davis'
On the 6th August he discovered high land, which straite -
he named Mount Raleigh, being part of Cumberland
Island. Here, anchoring in a fine road, the seamen saw
three white animals, which seemed to be goats. De-
sirous of fresh victuals and sport, they pursued them,
when they soon perceived that they were in chase of
three monstrous bears. The animals rushed on with
great fury, till, being received with several balls, they
retreated, apparently not much hurt, but were followed
and at last killed. There were no symptoms of their
having fed on any thing except grass ; but it was ne-
cessary to clear away a very large quantity of fat before
the flesh could be eaten.

182 EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. VL Davis, after coasting about for some days, again found
CaneofGofl's himself at the cape which he had at first reached on his
Mercy. crossing from the opposite shore of Greenland. This
promontory, which he called God's Mercy, he now
turned, when he entered a sound stretching north-west-
ward, twenty or thirty leagues broad, free from ice, and
its waters having the colour and quality of the main
ocean. After proceeding sixty leagues, he observed an
island in the mid-channel, which still, however, afforded
an open passage ; so that his hopes daily increased, till
about the end of August, when being involved in fogs
and contrary winds, he determined to suspend operations
for the season and return to England.

Native dogs. On one of the islands in this sound the seamen heard
dogs howling, and at length saw twenty of them approach,
having the appearance of wolves. Impressed, however,
with the idea that only animals of prey could be found
on these shores, they fired and killed two, round one of
whose necks they found a collar, and soon afterwards
discovered the sledge to which he had been yoked.
* Davis observed abundance of the black and glittering
stone of Frobisher, and many of the rocks appeared
" orient like gold ;" but little attention was now excited
by these delusive appearances.

Effects of the Although nothing was actually done by this expedi-
expedition. ^^ y fi j. tne v i ews w hich it had opened up inspired
sanguine hopes, and facilitated the equipment of a fresh
expedition. To the slender armament of the Sunshine
and Moonshine was now added the Mermaid of 120 tons,
with a boat or pinnace. Davis sailed again from Dart-
mouth on the 7th May, and on the 15th June came in
view of the southern extremity of Greenland ; but,
owing to severe storms, it was the 29th before he
reached the land formerly visited in lat. 64. As he
approached, the natives came out in their canoes at first
with shouts and cries ; but, recognising their companions
of the preceding year, they hastened forward, and hung
round the vessel with every expression of joy and wel-
come. Seeing them in such favourable dispositions, the

JOHN DAVIS. 183

captain went ashore and distributed in presents twenty CHAP. VL
knives, refusing the offer of skins in return. The most MeetJngwith
intimate acquaintance was now resumed ; yet they never the natives.
met the strangers anew without crying " Iliaout /" beat-
ing their breasts and lifting their hands to the sun, by
which a fresh treaty was ratified. The two parties
amused themselves by contests in bodily exercises. The
Esquimaux could not match their opponents in leaping ;
but in wrestling they showed themselves strong and skil-
ful, and threw some of the best among the sailors. By de-
grees they began to manifest less laudable qualities. They
exercised many and solemn incantations, though, Davis
thanks God, without any effect. They kindled a fire by
rubbing two sticks against each other, and invited him
to pass through it ; but he, in contempt of their sorcery,
caused the fire to be trodden out and the embers thrown
into the sea. They also showed the very inconvenient Thefts,
propensity of appropriating every article, especially iron,
which came under their notice. Perhaps it was impru-
dent ever to have made presents, thus suggesting the
idea, which does not seem to have before entered their
minds, that any thing might be obtained without an
equivalent. Be this as it may, they soon reached the
highest pitch of audacity ; they stole a spear, a gun, a
sword, cut the cables, and even the Moonshine's boat
from her stern. The principal officers remonstrated
with the captain, and reminded him, that for their
security he must " dissolve this new friendship, and
leave the company of those thievish miscreants." He
fired two pieces over their heads, which " did sore amaze Alarm of the
them," and they fled precipitately. But in ten hours natlves -
they again appeared, with many promises and presents
of skins ; when, on seeimg iron, " they could in nowise
forbear stealing." The commander was again besieged
with the complaints of his crew ; however, " it only
ministered to him an occasion of laughter," and he bid
his men look vigilantly to the safety of their own goods,
and not deal hardly with the natives, who could scarcely
be expected in so short a time " to know their evils."

184

EAULY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

Exepdition
to the in-
terior.

Moderation
in dealing
with the
natives.

CHAP. vi. Davis now undertook an expedition to observe some-
what of the interior. He sailed up what appeared a
broad river, but which proved only a strait or creek. A
violent gust of wind having obliged him to seek the
shelter of land, he attempted to ascend a very lofty
peak ; but " the mountains were so many and so mighty,
that his purpose prevailed not." While the men were
gathering muscles for supper, he was amused by viewing,
for the first time in his life, a waterspout, which he de-
scribes as a powerful whirlwind, taking up the water and
whisking it round for three hours without intermission.
Next day he re-embarked, and penetrated higher up
the channel ; but was surprised to find, instead of the
huge unbroken continent which he had supposed, only
waste and desert isles, with deep sounds and inlets passing
between sea and sea.

During the captain's absence matters had become
worse with the Esquimaux, and on his return the sailors
opened a fearful budget ; stating that the natives had
stolen an anchor, cut the cable, and even thrown stones
of half a pound weight against the Moonshine ; and he
was asked if he would still endure these injuries. Davis,
who probably suspected that their own dealings had not
been very gentle, bid them have patience, and all should
be well. He invited a party of the savages on board,
made them various little presents, taught them to run
to the topmast, and dismissed them apparently quite
pleased. Yet no sooner bad the sun set than they began
to " practise their devilish nature," and threw stones
into the Moonshine, one of which knocked down the
boatswain. His meek spirit was at length kindled to
wrath, and he issued orders for two boats to chase the
Capture of a culprits; but they rowed so swiftly that the pursuers
native. soon returned with " small content." Two days after,
five of them presented themselves with overtures for a
fresh truce ; upon which the master came to Davis, de-
claring that one of them was " the chief ringleader, a
master of mischief," and urged vehemently not to let
him go. He was made captive, and a fair wind suddenly

JOHN DAVIS. 185

springing up, the discoverers set sail, and carried him CHAP. VI
away, many doleful signs being exchanged between him ct, ee 7f^ineM
and one of his countrymen ; however, on being well of the cap-
treated, and supplied with a new suit of frieze, his spirits tn
revived, he became a pleasant companion, and used
occasionally to assist the sailors.

Davis, finding the wind favourable, pushed across the Voyage pur-
bay, in hopes of attaining the object of his voyage. On 8ue(L
the 17th July the ship's company descried a land diver-
sified with hills, bays, and capes, and extending farther
than the eye could reach ; but what was their disap-
pointment on approaching, to find that it was only " a
most mighty and strange quantity of ice !" It was, in
fact, that immense barrier which often, for a great part
of the season, fills the middle of Baffin's Bay. As they
coasted along this wide field a fog came on, by which the
ropes, shrouds, and sails, were all fast frozen, a pheno-
menon which, on the 24th July, appeared more than
strange. Dismayed by these appearances, the seamen
considered the passage hopeless, and, in a respectful yet
firm tone, warned Davis, that by " his over-boldness he
might cause their widows and fatherless children to give
him bitter curses." He was not unwilling to consider
their case ; yet, anxious not to abandon so great an Perseverance
enterprise, he determined to leave behind him the Mer-
maid, as a vessel less convenient and nimble, and to
push on in the Moonshine with the boldest part of his
crew. Having found a favourable breeze, he at last, on
the 1st August, turned the ice, and in lat. 66 33'
reached land ; along which he now coasted southwards
for about ten degrees, entangled among a number of
islands, and missing in his progress the different inlets
which afforded an entrance into Hudson's Bay. The
shores were crowded with incredible flocks of gulls and
seamews, and the water so abounded in fish that, though
their tackle was very indifferent, in the running of an
hour-glass 'the crew caught a hundred cod. On reaching
Labrador, the coast was seen covered with ample forests
of pine, yew, and birch ; but five men who landed were

186 EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

I. b eset j^ tne na ti veSj an( j a u killed or wounded except

Return. one. The ship, too, being exposed to a violent tempest,
and September now approaching, the captain judged it
wisest to return to England.

Newexpedi- The public mind was considerably damped by the
issue of this expedition ; so that Davis found no small
difficulty in obtaining the means for equipping another.
He was obliged to hold out the inducement that, by
proper arrangements, the outlay might be defrayed by
fishing, and no additional expense incurred on account
of discovery. By these arguments, and by the exertions
of his zealous friend, Mr Sanderson, he succeeded in
fitting out the Sunshine, the Elizabeth, and a pinnace.
This last, to which he mainly trusted for discovery, an-
swered very ill the character which had been given of
it, and was found to move through the water like a cart
drawn by oxen. On the 16th June 1587 the adven-
turers arrived at their old coast, and were received by
the natives as before with the cry of iliaout and the
exhibition of skins. These savages, however, lost no
time in renewing their former system of thieving ; for
which great opportunities were afforded during the
putting together of a boat consisting of materials brought
from England. They carried off the deals, and when
fired at placed them before their bodies as shields, thus
securing both their planks and persons. It was now

Plan ofdis- arranged that the two large vessels should remain to
fish, while Davis in the pinnace stretched out into a
higher latitude with a view to discovery. In pursuance
of this plan he took his departure ; and, continuing to
range the coast to the northward, on the 28th he reached
a point, which he named Sanderson's Hope, in upwards
of 72 degrees, still finding a wide open sea to the west
and north. Here, the wind having shifted, he resolved
to hold on a western tack across this sea, and proceeded
forty leagues without sight of land or any other obstruc-
tion, when he was arrested by the usual barrier of ice.
He first endeavoured to round it by the north, but, seeing
no passage on that side, turned to the south, beating

JOHN DAVIS. 187

about several days without success. Tempted by an CHAP VI
apparent opening, he involved himself in a bay of ice, Dangers
from which he was not extricated without much diffi- fr m ice.
culty and some danger ; being obliged to wait till the
sea beating and the sun shining on this mighty mass
should effect its dissolution or removal. At length, on
the 19th July, he came in view of Mount Raleigh, and
at midnight found himself at the mouth of the inlet
discovered in the first voyage, and which has since been
called Cumberland Strait. On the morrow he sailed
across its entrance, and in the two following days as- Cumberland
cended its northern shore, till he was again involved Strait
among numerous islands. He seems now to have con-
cluded that this strait must be an enclosed gulf, and
shaped his course to reach the sea; but, being becalmed
in the bottom of the bay, he could not till the 29th, by
coasting along the southern shore, effect his retreat.
Frobisher's Strait was now passed, seemingly without
being recognised as such, but was called Lumley's Inlet.
He next crossed the mouth of an extensive gulf, in one
part of which his vessel was carried along by a violent
current, while in another the water was whirling and
roaring as is usual at the meeting of tides. This recess,
being terminated by Cape Chidley, was evidently the r a pe ChiJ-
grand entrance afterwards penetrated by Hudson. Hav- ej *
ing now, however, only half a hogshead of water left, he
hastened to the point of rendezvous fixed with the two
other vessels ; when, to his deep disappointment and
just indignation, he found that they had departed. It
was not without hesitation that, with the slender store
remaining in his little bark, he ventured to sail for
England ; but having scarcely any alternative, he under-
took the voyage, and happily accomplished it.

Davis wrote once more to Mr Sanderson in sanguine High expeo
and almost exulting terms. He had reached a much tationSl
higher latitude than any former navigator, and with
the exception of the barrier of ice on one side, had
found the sea open, blue, of vast extent and unfathom-
able depth. He considered, therefore, that the success

188 EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHARVI. of a spirited attempt was almost infallible. But the
Public"" interest taken by the public in such enterprises "seems
interest ex- only capable of being sustained for a certain period.
Three failures had exhausted that interest, and made
men indisposed to listen or inquire further into the
subject. It became the cry, as he informs us, " This
Davis hath been three times employed ; why hath he
not found the passage!" The death of Secretary
vvu!sln iwm Walsingham, occurring at this period, was a severe
' blow to the cause ; while the invasion by the Spanish
Armada soon followed, and engrossed for a space all
the thoughts and energies of the nation. Mr Sander-
son still continued the steady friend of the navigator ;
but, unable to obtain resources for a new attempt,
he could only employ Molyneux, the best artist of
his tune, to construct a globe which comprised all
his friend's discoveries, and is still preserved in the
library of the Middle Temple.

In 1602 tlle spirit of enter P rise revived. To the
Muscovy Company, who had taken the lead in all
the early schemes of discovery, was now added the
Levant Company ; and these two great bodies, finding
the course to India by the Cape still beset with many
dangers, determined upon a joint effort to penetrate
thither by the north-west. They sent out Captain
George Wey mouth with two vessels, the Discovery
New expedi- and God-speed, which they called fly-boats, though
they were respectively of 70 and 60 tons. He left
London on the 2d May, and on the 18th June came
in view of the coast of Greenland, which appeared
to him "a main bank of ice." The water was in
many places as thick as puddle, making him imagine
himself among shallows, till the sounding-line gave
120 fathoms without any ground. This, which was
formerly observed by Davis, is probably the green
cloudy sea of Scoresby, thickened by the infusion of
numberless animalcules.

Weymouth having made sail westward with a fa-
vourable breeze, came on the 28th in sight of the

JOHN DAVIS. 189

coast of America. There appeared a promontory covered CHAP. VI.
with snow, which he concluded to he Warwick's Fore- captain"
land ; but the vessels were tossed to and fro by violent Weymoutu
currents, or overfalls, as he calls them, and involved
in fogs so thick, that they were once quite close to
a bank of ice before it was perceived. However
being in want of water, the party landed, loaded theii
boat with ice, and found it to make very palatable
drink. The attention of the crews was arrested by
a loud sound like the dashing of waves on the shore ;
and on approaching the place they were dismayed to
find it "the noise of a great quantity of ice, which
was very loathsome to be heard." The mist became Thick foga
so thick that they could not see two ships* length, and
determined to take down the sails ; but were petrified
to find them so fast frozen to the rigging, that, in
" this chiefest tune of summer, they could not be
moved." Next morning they renewed the attempt ;
but it was only by cutting away the ice from the ropes
that they could be made to pass through the blocks.
The following day the fog lay so thick, and froze so
fast, that ropes, sails, and rigging, remained immovable.
These phenomena produced an unfavourable effect
on the minds of the sailors, who began to hold secret Mutiny,
conferences, ending in a conspiracy " to bear up the
helm for England." It was proposed to seize Wey-
mouth, and confine him in his cabin till he gave his
consent ; but he, receiving notice of this nefarious
design, summoned the seamen before him, and. in pre-
sence of Mr Cartwright the preacher and Mr Cobreth
the master, called upon them to answer for thus at-
tempting to defeat a voyage fitted out at such ample
cost by the honourable merchants. The men stood Defence of
firm, producing a paper signed by their own hands,
in which they justified the proposed step as founded
on solid reason, without any tincture of fear or cowardice.
They represented that if they should suffer themselves
to be enclosed in an unknown sea, by this dreadful
and premature winter, they would not only be in

190 EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. VI. imminent danger of perishing, but could not hope to
Apprehended commence their career of discovery next year sooner
dangers. than May ; while by setting sail in due time from
England they might easily reach this coast in that
month. He retired to his cabin to deliberate, when
he was soon informed that the helm was actually
borne up. Hastening on deck, and asking who had
Course done this, he was answered, " One and all !" and he
dmnged. f oun( J the combination such as it was impossible to
resist, though he took occasion afterwards to chastise
the ringleaders. The men, however, declared them-
selves ready to hazard their lives in any discovery
which might be attempted to the southward.
New land. Accordingly, on descending to lat. 61 N., the cap-
tain perceived the entrance of an inlet, into which
he sailed, in a south-west direction, a hundred leagues
by reckoning ; but, encountering fogs and heavy gales,
and finding the season far spent, he deemed it neces-
sary to regain the open sea. This inlet, however,
was thought to present more favourable hopes of a
passage than any other that had yet been discovered.
It appears in fact to have been the grand approach
to Hudson's Bay ; so that Fox justly ascribes some
merit to Weymouth for directing his distinguished
successor into this spacious expanse. Still, as his
course of west by south must have led him from
the main channel of this large strait, and thrown him
Ungava Bay. on the western shore of what is now called Ungava
Bay, his estimated reckoning of a hundred leagues
is evidently overrated. In 55 he found a fair land,
consisting of islands and " goodly sounds," apparently
the place where the Moravian settlement of Nain was
subsequently formed. Soon afterwards a dreadful hur-
ricane from the west seemed to take up the sea into the
air, and drove the ships before it with the utmost
impetuosity. Had it been from any other quarter
they must have been dashed to pieces on rocks ; how-
ever, they ranged through the open waters, and in
the greatest extremity "the Lord delivered us his

JOHN KNIGHT. 191

unworthy servants." They had now an easy navigation CHAP. VL
to England.

No farther proceedings occurred till 1606, when Captain John
the Muscovy and East India merchants fitted out a Kni 8 ht -
vessel of 40 tons under John Knight, who, having
been employed in the Danish voyages to Greenland,
was considered a stout and enterprising sailor. He
sailed from Gravesend on the 18th April, hut was
detained a fortnight in the Pentland Frith ; how-
ever, "two lustie fellows, well acquainted with these
north parts of Scotland," took him into a good har-
bour called St Margaret's Hope, where he remained
till the 12th May. He directed his course almost due
west, towards America, and had reached the latitude
of 58, when winds and currents bore him to the
southward. On the 19th June he was in 66 48',
when he saw the continent rising like eight islands.
The vessel, meantime, had been so distressed with
tempests and heavy fogs, and so bruised between float-
ing icebergs, that it was necessary to put her into
a little cove to refit. Here the wind blew with such
violence, bringing great masses of ice against the bark,
that the rudder was torn from the stern ; and hence
it became necessary to hale it on shore at the bottom of
the bay, that it might undergo a thorough repair.

On the 26th, Knight, with some of his men well Departure
armed, went across to the opposite coast, in search of
a better harbour, and to take a survey of the adjacent
country. With this view, accompanied by his mate
and another, he went over a hill, leaving three persons
in charge of the boat. These last waited the whole
day in anxious expectation of the return of the party ;
they then sounded trumpets, fired muskets, and made
every imaginable signal, but without effect. After re-
maining till eleven at night, they gave up hopes, and
returned to the ship with these doleful tidings. The
crew were struck with the deepest dismay, at having
thus lost their captain and best officers, and being
themselves left in such deplorable circumstances. The

192

EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

Courage of
the crew.

CHAP. VI. boat was fitted out next morning for search, but could
AttaciTof the no ^ cross the channel on account of the ice. After
natives. two distressful days, on the night of Saturday the
28th June, as the boatswain was keeping watch in
advance of the tents, he suddenly saw, rushing through
the darkness, a great body of men, who, on descrying
him, let fly their arrows. He instantly fired and
gave the alarm ; but before his comrades could start
from bed and be mustered, the sloop was filled with
savages, who, to the number of fifty, with loud cries
and menacing gestures, showed themselves prepared
for immediate attack. The English mustered only
eight men and a large dog, and though the rain fell
in torrents, they determined rather to perish bravely
in assailing the enemy, than to await their onset. They
advanced, therefore, placing the dog in front. This
bold measure appalled the barbarians, who leaped into
their skiffs, and made off with all speed ; but being
entangled in the ice, they were detained a considerable
time, during which the pursuers continued firing, and
the savages were heard "crying to each other very
sore." They are represented, so far as could be judged,
as a people of very small stature, tawny-coloured,
with thin beards, flat-nosed, and man-eaters ; but this
last particular was doubtless a matter of mere inference.
The mariners, placed in this alarming situation, made
all the haste they could to fit their shattered bark for
again taking the sea. They had first to cut a way
for her through the ice ; but they had nothing which
could be called a rudder, and the leaks were so large
that they could scarcely enjoy half an hour's relief
from the pump. At length they found means to stop
up in some degree the principal fissure, and, after
hard rowing for three weeks, succeeded in reaching
the coast of Newfoundland. Among the fishing- vessels
on that station they met most kind and loving friends,
who supplied all their wants ; and, after twenty days
spent in repairing their ship and refreshing their bodies,
they enjoyed a good passage to Dartmouth, whence

Disastrous
close of the
expedition.

HENRY HUDSON. 193

they transmitted to London an account of the unfor- CHAP. VL
tunate issue of their voyage.

Hudson again assumed the most prominent place in Hudson,
the career of northern discovery, and earned a fame
which has ranked him among the greatest of British
navigators. We have traced his progress in former
chapters, first in the daring attempt to cross the Pole
itself; then in his second voyage towards the north-
east ; and also in his third excursion, which ended in
the discovery of the river now associated with his name.
But the most eventful of his enterprises was the one
which closed his labours, undertaken with the view to
a western passage. The narrative of the commander
himself is only a meagre journal, brought down to a
particular date ; but a full relation is given by a certain
personage, naming himself Abacuk Pricket, against
whose testimony, however, for reasons that will appear
in due time, there rest some heavy objections.

This expedition was fitted out by Sir John Wolsten- New expedi-
holme, Sir Dudley Digges, and other persons of dis- tlon<
tinction, who did not, however, project it on a very
magnificent scale. It consisted only of one vessel of 55
tons, provisioned for six months, which left the Thames
on the 17th April 1610. Hudson touched at the north
of Scotland, the Orkney and Faroe Islands, all which
he considered as lying in a lower latitude than the maps
represented. On the llth May he descried the eastern
part of Iceland, and was enveloped in a thick fog,
hearing the sea dashing against the coast without seeing
it. He was thus obliged to come to anchor; but, as
soon as the weather cleared, he proceeded westward
along the coast till he reached Snow Hill (Snaefell),
which rears its awful head into the inclement sky. On
their way the navigators saw Hecla, the volcano of Heciadis-
which was then in activity, vomiting torrents of fire c
down its snowy sides, with smoke ascending to the
clouds, an object not only fearful in itself, but which
struck them with alarm, as an indication of unfavour-
able -weather.

194 EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. VI.

Greenland.

Icebergs.

Lnn<J ills-
covered.

Mount Hecla.

Leaving this coast they now sailed westward, and,
after being deceived by several illusory appearances, at
length saw the white cliffs of Greenland towering be-
hind a mighty wall of ice. Without attempting to
approach the beach, the captain steered towards the
south-west, and passed what he imagined to be Frobi-
sher's Straits, which in fact long continued to be errone-
ously laid down on this shore, though they belong to
that of America. He now turned Cape Farewell, and
"raised the Desolations," making careful observation
of those points of land which he found not well
delineated in the charts. The mariners soon began to
descry, floating along, the mighty islands of ice, a
sight which appalled all but the stoutest hearts. Onward
they advanced, however, sometimes enjoying a clear and
open sea, but often encompassed by icebergs or by small
and drifting heaps ; and at length they had to steer as
it were between two lands of ice. On occasions of peril,
they not unfrequently moored themselves to the larger
masses ; but seeing one of them split, and fall with a
tremendous crash into the waves, they no longer trusted
to such a protection. On the 25th June land appeared
to the north, was again lost sight of, and afterwards
discovered to the south ; so that they found themselves

HENRY HUDSON. 195

at the broad entrance of the channel which has since CRAP. VL
obtained the name of Hudson's Strait. They were now Hud ^T g
still more annoyed with ice in various forms, particularly strait,
that of large islands standing deep in the water, which
were very difficult to avoid from the violent ripples and
currents. Thus they were often obliged, especially
amid thick fogs, to fasten their vessel to the firmest ol
these masses ; and they even used to land upon them
from time to time, collecting the water melted hi the
hollows, which proved to be sweet and good. Amid
these vicissitudes many of the sailors fell sick ; and Arpre , 1Pn _
though Pricket does not choose to assert that their sole sions <>f the
malady was fear, yet in several he saw no signs of any seftmen -
other. The crews of this period, indeed, display few
tokens of that hardihood with which the followers of
Willoughby and Frobisher were wont to brave the
northern tempests. Hudson seeing his men in this
depressed state of mind, bethought himself of an ex-
pedient by which he hoped to animate them. He
called them together, showed them his chart, from Unavailing
which it appeared that they had penetrated farther
into the Straits by a hundred leagues than any former
expedition, and put it to themselves whether they would
advance, yea or nay 2 This was a bold experiment,
but did not succeed. Some, it is true, expressed them-
selves " honestly respecting the good of the action ;"
but others declared they would give nine-tenths of all
they were worth, so that they were safe at home ; while
a third party said they did not care where they went,
so they were out of the ice. Vexed and disappointed,
he broke up the conference, and followed his own
determination. This, we think, is evidently the real
state of the case, though Pricket represents that the
captain himself was in a state of alarm and doubt. He
accuses him also of having remembered too long some
of the speeches made on this occasion, to the disadvantage
of those by whom they had been uttered.

Notwithstanding this failure, Hudson, buoyed up by
his o\vn courage and resolution, seeing land alternately

196

EAELY NOETH-WEST VOYAGES.

Mansflcia
Island

CHAP. VI. on one side and the other, having sometimes a wide and
Perseverance c ^ ear sea > an ^ being occasionally involved amid moun-
of Hudson, tains of ice, made his way onward. Certain savage
islands in which, when severely pressed by the wind
and floe, he found a tolerable retreat, were called " Isles
of God's Mercy ;" but even this harbour was rendered
dangerous by hidden reefs ; and the land adjoining to
it contained, according to Pricket, only "plashes of
water and riven rocks," and had the appearance of being
subject to earthquakes. At length they arrived at a
broad opening, having a cape on each side, to which the
commander gave the names of the two chief patrons of
the voyage ; to the one on the continent, that of Wol-
stenholme ; to the other on the large island of Mansfield,
that of Sir Dudley Digges. Landing at the latter, and
mounting a hill, the men descried some level spots
abounding in sorrel and scurvy-grass, plants most salu-
tary in this desert region ; while herds of deer were
feeding, and the rocks were covered with an unexampled
profusion of fowls. Seeing such abundant materials,
both for sport and food, the crew, who had ever shown
the most anxious concern for their own comfort,
earnestly besought their captain to allow them to
remain and enjoy themselves for a few days on this
agreeable spot ; but he, perceiving that the season for
his chief enterprise was rapidly passing away, refused
to comply. He had not proceeded long in this channel
when the coast on each side was observed to separate,
and he beheld before him a wide ocean, to which the
eye could discover no termination. It seemed to him,
doubtless, a portion of the mighty Pacific. Here, how-
ever, his narrative closes, without expressing those
feelings of pride and exultation which must have filled
his mind at this promised fulfilment of his highest hopes.
The relation of Pricket, on which we must now depend,
shows too clearly that many of his followers would have
had no sympathy with such elevated feelings.

The expanse thus discovered by the navigator was
the great inland sea, called from him Hudson's Bay ;

Expanse of

Hudson's

Buy

HENRY HUDSON*. 197

and it was a grand discovery, though not exactly what CHAP. VI.
lie imagined. The 3d of August was now arrived, a commencc-
seuson at which the boldest of northern adventurers had m . ent of
been accustomed to think of returning. But, little in-
clined to such a resolution, he continued to sail along
the coast on the left, which must have appeared to him
the western boundary of America, hoping probably
before the close of autumn to reach some cultivated
land, in a temperate climate, where he might take up
his winter quarters. The shores along this bay, however,
though not in a very high latitude, are subject to the
rigours of a most inclement sky. Entangled amid the
gulfs and capes of an unknown coast, struggling with 8 difiicui-
mist and storm, and ill seconded by a discontented crew,
he spent three months without reaching any comfortable
haven. It was now the first of November : the ice was
closing in on all sides; and nothing remained but to
meet the cheerless winter which had actually begun.
The sailors were too late of attempting to erect a wooden
house ; yet the cold, though severe, does not seem to
have reached any perilous height. Their chief alarm
respected provisions, of which they had brought only a
six months' supply, and consequently had now but a Failing pro-
small remnant left. Hudson took active measures to visions
relieve this want. He carefully husbanded the original
stock, and promised a reward to every one who should
kill beast, fish, or bird ; and " Providence dealt merci-
fully," in sending such a number of white partridges,
that in three months they secured a hundred dozen.
In spring these visiters disappeared, but were succeeded
by flocks of geese, swans, ducks, and teal, not natives of
that region, but on their flight from south to north.
When these were passed, the air no longer yielded food,
but the sea began to open, and having on the first day
taken five hundred fishes of tolerable size, they conceived
good hopes. This success did not continue ; and being
reduced to great extremity, they searched the woods
for moss, which they compare, however, to pounded
timber : they ate even frogs. The commander under-

198 EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. vi. took an excursion with a view to establish an intercourse

tne inhabitants ; but they fled, setting fire to the
woods behind them. An interview was obtained with
one, whom they loaded with gifts ; yet he never re-
turned. Discontents arose as to the distribution of the
small remaining portion of bread and cheese ; to allay
which the captain made a general and equal partition of
the whole. This was a bad measure as applied to such
a description of persons, many of whom knew not how
"to govern their share," but greedily devoured it as
long as it lasted. One man even ate the whole in a
day, and brought on a dangerous surfeit; and their
distress, now greater than ever, soon arrived at a most
fatal crisis.

Unprincipled Hudson, as may be observed, had from the first to
struggle with an unprincipled, ill-tempered crew, void
of all concern for the ultimate success of the voyage.
He had probably hoped, as the season should advance,
to push on southwards, and reach next summer the
wealthy regions for which he was commissioned to
search. The sailors, on the contrary, had fixed their
desires on " the cape where fowls do breed," the only
place where they expected to obtain both present supply

Insubordina- and the means of returning to England. Ringleaders

tiuu. were not wan ting to head this growing party of male-

contents. At the entrance of the bay the captain had
displaced I vet the mate for insubordination, and ap-
pointed in his room Bylot, a man of merit, who had
always shown zeal in the general cause. He had also
changed the boatswain. But the most deadly blow was

Baseness of struck by Green, a wretch whom, after being cast off
j^y a \[ n j s friends, the captain from humanity had taken
on board, and endeavoured to reclaim and restore to
society. He was possessed of talents which made him
useful, and had even rendered him a favourite with his
superior ; and among other discontents it was reckoned
one, that a veil was thrown over several flagrant dis-
orders of which he was accounted guilty. Yet some
hot expressions of Hudson, caused, it is said, by a

HENRY HUDSON. 199

misunderstanding about the purchase of a gray coat, so CHAP. VL
acted on the fierce spirit of this ruffian, that, renouncing Cons ~j^ cv ,
every tie of gratitude, and all that is sacred among
mankind, he became the chief in a conspiracy to seize
the vessel and expose the commander to perish.

After some days' consultation, the time was fixed for Pricket
the perpetration of this horrible atrocity. On the 21st
June, 1611, Green, and Wilson the boatswain, came into
Pricket's cabin, and announced their cruel resolution,
adding, that they bore him so much good- will as to wish
that he should remain on board. The narrator avers
most solemnly, that he exhausted every argument to
induce them to desist from their horrid purpose, be-
seeching them not to do a thing so foul in the sight
of God and man, and which would for ever banish
them from their native country, their wives, and their
children. Green wildly answered, that they had made Resolution cf
up their minds to go through with it or die, and that neer Uti
they would rather be hanged at home than starve here.
An attempt was then made by him to negotiate a delay
of three, two, or even one day, but all without effect.
Ivet came next, of whom, as being a person of mature
age, there seemed more hope ; but he was worse than
Green, declaring that he would justify in England the
deed on which they had resolved. John Thomas and
Michael Perse now came in, proving themselves " birds
of a feather," and Moter and Bennet having followed,
an oath was administered to the following tenor :
" You shall swear truth to God, your prince, and oath admin-
country ; you shall do nothing but to the glory of i8tered -
God and the good of the action in hand, and harm to
no man." Pricket complains of the reproach thrown
upon him for having taken this oath, the bare terms of
which are certainly unexceptionable ; but the dark
proceedings by which they were illustrated marks
them as containing an implied obligation to remain
at least passive on this dreadful occasion. All was
now ready, but the conscientious historian of the
voyage succeeded in persuading them to postpone till

200

EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

Seizure of
Hudson.

the muti-
neers.

CHAP. VL daylight the accomplishment of their crime. They,
however, kept strict watch through the night, and held
themselves ready to act at the first appearance of dawn.
Daybreak approaching, the captain came out of his
cabin, when he was instantly assaulted by Thomas,
Bennet, and Wilson, who seized him and bound his
hands behind his back ; and on his eagerly asking
what they meant, told him he should know when he
was in the boat. Ivet then attacked King the carpen-
ter, known as the commander's most devoted adherent.
That brave fellow, having a sword, made a formidable
resistance, and would have killed his assailant, had not
the latter been speedily reinforced. The mutineers
then offered to him the choice of continuing in the
ship ; but he absolutely refused to be detained other-
wise than by force, and immediately followed his master,
whom the conspirators were already letting down the

Barbarity of sides of the vessel into the shallop. Then, with a
barbarity beyond all example, they called from their
beds and drove into it, not simply the friends of Hudson,
but the sick and infirm sailors who could afford no aid,
and whose maintenance would have been burdensome.
They threw after them the carpenter's box, with some
powder and shot; and scarcely was this transaction
completed, when they cut the boat from the stern, " out
with their topsail," and set off, flying as from an enemy.
The great navigator, thus abandoned, was never heard
of more ; and he undoubtedly perished on those desolate
shores, though the form or duration of the distress to
which he fell a victim must be for ever unknown.

The sailors, as soon as the guilty deed was accom-
plished, regarding the ship as a captured vessel, broke
open every chest, and seized on every remnant of food
which could be discovered. Green, however, who now
assumed the command, used some vigour in restoring
cfrder. He placed the cabin and provisions under the
charge of Pricket, who was afterwards accused of a
matter no less than treason, that of secreting some cakes
of bread. As soon as the mutineers had time to think,

Insubordina-
tion in the
ship.

HENRY HUDSON. 201

painful reflections began to arise. Even Green admitted CHAP. VL
that England at- this time was no place for them, nor Fear ^ the
could he contrive any better scheme than to keep the mutineers,
high sea till, by some means or other, they might pro-
cure a pardon under his majesty's hand and seal. The
vessel was now embayed, and detained for a fortnight
amid fields of ice, which extended for miles around it
and, but for some cockle -grass found on an island, they
must have perished by famine. Considerable disputes
with respect to the steerage arose between I vet and Disputes as to
By lot, who alone had any pretensions to skill ; but the fte P Uotage -
latter, being justly regarded with the greatest confidence,
at length guided them to Cape Digges, the longed-for
spot, the breeding-place of fowls, clouds of which ac-
cordingly continued still to darken the air. The party
immediately landed, spread themselves among the rocks,
and began to shoot. While the boat was on shore, they
saw seven canoes rowing towards them, whereupon
" they prepared themselves for all assayes." However,
the savages came forward, beating their breasts, dancing,
leaping, and displaying every token of friendship. Tho Friendly ad-
utmost intimacy commenced, the parties went back and vances of the
forward, showed each other their mode of catching fowls, na
and made mutual presents. In short, the natives ap-
peared the most kind and simple people in the world,
and "God so blinded Henry Green" that he trusted
them with implicit confidence. One day, when at the
height of this affectionate harmony, Pricket, sitting in
the boat, suddenly saw a man's leg close to him. Rais-
ing up his head, he perceived a savage with a knife
uplifted and ready to strike. In attempting to arrest Assault,
the blow, his hand was cut, and he could not escape
two wounds, one in the breast, and one in the right
thigh ; by which time he got hold of the knife and
wrenched it from the assassin, whom he then pierced
with his dagger in the left side. At the same time a
general attack was made on the crew, dispersed in dif-
ferent quarters. Green and Perse came tumbling down
wounded into the boat, which pushed off; while Moter,

202

EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. VI

Death of

Green.

Perplexity
the crew

Sufferings
during the
voyage.

Failure of
provisions.

"seeing this medley," leaped into the sea, swam out,
and, getting hold of the stern, was pulled in by Perse.
Green now cried coragio, and he and Perse brandished
their weapons with such vigour that the savages ceased
attempting to enter the boat ; but they poured in clouds
of arrows, one of which struck the former with so sure
an aim that he died on the spot, and his body was
thrown into the sea. At length the party reached the
vessel ; but Moter and Wilson died that day, and Perse
two days after. Thus perished the chief perpetrators
of the late dreadful tragedy, visited by Providence with
a fate not less terrible than that which they had inflicted
on their illustrious and unfortunate leader.

The crew, thus deprived, of their best hands, were in
extreme perplexity, obliged to ply to and fro across the
straits, and unable, without the utmost fear and peril,
to venture on shore ; which yet was absolutely neces-
sary for obtaining provisions to carry them to England.
They contrived, at the expense of much toil and hazard,
to collect three hundred birds, which they salted and
preserved as the only stock whereupon to attempt the
voyage. They suffered, during the passage, the most
dreadful extremities of famine, allowing only half a
fowl a-day to each man, and considering it a luxury to
have them fried with candles, of which a weekly distri-
bution was made for that purpose. Ivet, now the sole
survivor of the ringleaders in the atrocious conspiracy,
sunk under these privations. The last fowl was in the
steep-tub, and the men were become nearly desperate,
when suddenly it pleased God to give them sight of
land, which proved to be the north of Ireland. They
complain that, on going ashore at Berehaven, they did
not receive the sympathy and kindness which they so
much needed ; nor was it until they had mortgaged
their vessel that they obtained the means of proceeding
to Plymouth.

Purchas closes the narrative by saying, " Well, Mr
Pricket, I am in much doubt of thy fidelity ;" and he
is not singular in this suspicion. It seems clear, at Jill

CAPTAIN BUTTON. 203

events, that he did not avail himself of the means by CHAP. VT
which he might have attempted to check the horrible
mutiny. But, on the other hand, it is probable that, Pricket,
had he been an active agent in the crime, some of his
accomplices would have betrayed him, or, had their
mutual guilt bound them to each other, some story
would have been invented to palliate or conceal the
offence ; whereas it is set forth by his narrative in all
its atrocity.

Notwithstanding the calamitous issue of this voyage, Hopes ex-
the discovery thereby made of a great sea in the west cite(L
seemed to justify the most flattering hopes of accom-
plishing a passage. To follow out this object, Captain,
afterwards Sir Thomas Button, was despatched next
year (1612), having Bylot and Pricket as guides. This
officer, who seems to have been active as well as resolute, Captain
soon made his way through the Straits, and pushing Buttou -
directly across the sea that opened to the westward, came
in view of an insular cape, called by him Carey's Swan's
Nest, and which afterwards proved to be the most
southern point of Southampton Island. Nothing else
broke the apparent continuity of the ocean, and there-
fore he cherished sanguine hopes that the first shore he
should see would be that of Japan. Suddenly an an-
nouncement was made that land was in sight, when
there appeared before him an immense range of coast,
stretching north and south, and barring all farther pro-
gress. Button, deeply disappointed, gave to it the name
of Hope Checked. Before he had time to look for an
opening, the gloom of the northern winter began to R eturn ^
gather, when it behoved him to seek quarters for the winter,
season ; and these he found in the same creek, which
afterwards became the principal settlement of the Hud-
son's Bay Company. In spite of his best precautions,
he lost several men through the severity of the cold,
and was unable to extricate himself from the ice till the
middle of June. He then steered northward, seeking
aii outlet through the broad bay between the continent
and Southampton Island, since called Roe's Welcome.

2C6 EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CIIAP^VI. longer to attempt the passage by Hudson's Bay, but to
New^ourse enter Davis' Strait, and push due north till they reached
proposed. ] a t. 80, if an open sea should allow them to proceed so
far ; then, turning to the westward, to round, if practi-
cable, the extreme point of America, and to bear down
upon Japan. Respecting this voyage, which, perhaps,
of all those to the North, produced the most memorable
discoveries, Baffin has favoured us with only a very
meagre narrative. Following the course pointed out,
he reached, on the 30th May, Hope Sanderson, the
farthest point attained by Davis. Soon afterwards the
Native expedition came to a number of small islands, on which

they found only females, some of very great age. These
at first ran and hid themselves among the rocks ; but
the sailors having reached two dames, one of whom was
estimated at fourscore, and having presented bits of iron
and the usual toys, induced them to carry a favourable
report to their youthful countrywomen. The whole
party soon came down to the shore, and four even went
on board the boat. The charms of these ladies were
heightened or disfigured by long black streaks made on
their faces in early life with a sharp instrument, and so
Mode of deep that they could not now be effaced. It was ob-
um served, too, that the dead were buried merely by piling
stones over them, through which the body appeared,
secured, however, from putrefaction by the extreme
cold of the climate. The navigators sailed onwards in
lat. 74, when they were arrested by a large body of ice,
and obliged to turn into a neighbouring inlet to await
its melting. Here they received repeated visits from
about forty of the natives, the only account of whom is,
that they brought an extraordinaiy quantity of the
bones of sea-unicorns, or narwals, great numbers of which
animals were seen in the water. Hence this was called
Horn Sound. The mass of ice now dissolved before the
powerful influence of the sun, and the discoverers sailed
northwards among its fragments; but still snow fell
every day, and the shrouds and sails were often so hard
frozen as to make it impossible to handle them. In 76

BYLOT AND BAFFIN. 207

they came to a fair cape, and then to a goodly sound, to CHAP. VI
which they gave the respective names of Digges and p rog ^ f
Wolstenholme, the two main promoters of this under- Bylot.
taking, and whose zeal was already associated with
localities in the interior of Hudson's Straits. After
having sustained a severe storm, they discovered another
inlet, which would have supplied them with a multitude
of whales, had they been duly provided with the means
of capture : this they called Whale Sound. Next, in
78, appeared a third, the widest and greatest in all this
sea, and which was named for Sir Thomas Smith, one
of the chief patrons of discovery. This opening, which
Baffin seems to have examined very superficially,
abounded almost equally in whales, and caused particu-
lar astonishment by the extraordinary aberration of the
needle, to which nothing similar had been ever witnessed.
Between these two sounds was an island which was de-
nominated Hakluyt, after the venerable recorder of
early English discoveries. Proceeding now along the Numerous
south-western boundary of this great sea, the next SwermL
" fair sound" received the name of Alderman Jones,
another encourager of these laudable pursuits. It may
be remarked that Baffin notices all these inlets, of
which he was the first discoverer, in the most cursory
manner, without mention of any attempt to trace, in
their interior depths, an opening into any sea beyond.
In lat. 74 there appeared another broad opening, which
was called Sir James Lancaster's Sound ; but while he
calls it great, he seems scarcely to have noticed this
future entrance into the Polar Sea ; on the contrary, he
observes, at the very same moment, that the hope of a Lancaster
passage became every day less and less. He sailed on ; 8oun
but a barrier of ice prevented him from approaching the
shore till he came within the " indraft" of Cumberland's
Isles, " where hope of passage could be none." Finding
the health of his crew rather declining, he sailed across
to Greenland, where an abundance of scurvy-grass
boiled in beer quickly restored them ; and " the Lord
then sent a speedy and good passage homeward."

208

EARLY NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. VI.

Baffin's Bay.

Danish expe
dition.

On returning, he expressed the most decided conviction
that the great sea which he had traversed was enclosed
on all sides, and afforded no opening into any ocean to
the westward ; and his judgment was received by the
public, who named it from him Baffin's Bay. He for-
cibly, however, represented the great encouragement it
held out to the whale-fishery, as those huge animals
were seen sleeping in vast numbers on the surface of the
water, without fear of the ship " or of any thing else."
Davis* Strait, accordingly, has ever since been a favourite
resort of the fishers, who did not, however, till lately
venture into those high latitudes, where whales are de-
scribed as more peculiarly abundant.

There was now a pause in English discovery ; every
quarter had been tried, and none seemed to afford any
farther promise ; nor was it till 1619 that Denmark,
which has always felt an interest in northern navigation,
made an attempt to follow up the success of Hudson and
Baffin. At the period just named, Christian IV. sent
Jens Munk. out two well-appointed vessels under Jens Munk, who
had the reputation of a good seaman. He succeeded
in penetrating through Hudson's Straits into the bay,
whereupon he took upon himself to change the whole
nomenclature of that region, imposing the names of
Christian's Straits and Christian's Sea, and calling the
western coast New Denmark. But this innovation,
which was contrary to every principle recognised in
such cases, has not been confirmed by posterity. When
September arrived, and the ice closed in, he thought it
prudent to seek winter-quarters, and accordingly esta-
blished himself in the mouth of an opening which, it is
highly probable, was that channel which has since been
called Chesterfield Inlet. The season seemed to open
with the best promise, commodious huts were constructed,
and there were both abundance and variety of game.
His people witnessed some of those brilliant phenomena
that are peculiar to high latitudes ; at one time were
two and at another three suns in the sky ; and the moon
was once environed by a transparent circle, within

Winter
quarters

DANISH EXPEDITIONS. 209

*vhich was a cross cutting through its centre. But, CHAP. VI
instead of amusing their minds and improving science Rem 7 r ^ hle
by noting these beautiful appearances, they were de- phenome .KI.
pressed by viewing them as a mysterious presage of
future evils. Frost now set in with all its intensity ;
their beer, wine, and other liquors, were converted into
ice ; the scurvy began its ravages ; while they, ignorant
of the mode of treating it, employed no remedy .except
a large quantity of spirits, which has always been found
to aggravate that frightful disorder. Unfit for the ex-
ertion necessary to secure the game with which the Dj stre6g O f
country abounded, they soon had famine added to their the crew.
other distresses ; and their miseries seem to have been
almost without a parallel, even in the dark annals of
northern navigation. Munk himself was left four days
in his hut without food ; at length, having crawled out,
he found that of the original crew of fifty-two no more
than two survived. He and they were overjoyed to
meet, and determined to make an effort to preserve life.
Gathering strength from despair, they dug into the snow, Effortg of
under which they found herbs and grass, which, being survivors.
of an antiscorbutic quality, soon produced a degree of
amendment. Being then able to fish and shoot, they
gradually regained their natural vigour. They equipped
anew the smaller of the two vessels, in which they
reached home on the 25th September 1620, after a
stormy and perilous voyage. The commander declared
his readiness to sail again ; and there are various reports
as to the cause why he did not. Some say, that having
in a conference with the king been stung by some ex-
pressions which seemed to impute the disasters of the
late enterprise to his mismanagement, he died of a
broken heart. But Forster relates that, during several
successive years, he was employed by his majesty on the
North Sea and in the Elbe, and that he died in 1628,
when engaged in a naval expedition.

The English, after Baffin's attempt, appearing to re-
linquish every prospect of discovery in the more northern
seas, confined for a long time all their efforts in the

210

EARLY NORTH- WEST VOYAGES.

English ex
peditions.

aau James.

settlement,

direction of Hudson's Bay. But as these did not lead
to any important results, and are chiefly connected with
^ ne remo t er settlements of America, we shall introduce
here only a very slight sketch of them.

Captains Fox Captains 1 ox and James were fitted out in 1631 . The
f ormer examined two passages leading to the northward,
one on the western side of Southampton Island, called
Sir Thomas Roe's Welcome ; the other on the eastern
side, called from himself Fox's Channel ; but he did not
trace either to any great height. James, entangled in
the southern extremity of Hudson's Bay, spent a winter
under the most extreme suffering from cold, and returned
next summer to England.

About 1668 a settlement was formed in the bay just
specified, and an extensive company established for the
traffic in furs ; but this association, though bound by
their charter to make the most strenuous exertions for
the discovery of a western passage, concerned themselves
very little with the subject till 1719, when they were
in a manner compelled to fit out an expedition under
Knight and Barlow. These officers, however, never re-
turned, and a vessel sent next season under Captain
Scroggs could learn no tidings of them ; nor was it till
nearly fifty years afterwards that the wrecks of their
armament were found on Marble Island, where they
appear to have been cast ashore and lost.

I n 1741, after a long interval, Captain Middleton, sup-
ported by a gentleman of the name of Dobbs, obtained
the command of two vessels, with which he sailed up
the Welcome. He came to a long inlet called the Wager,
but it appeared quite enclosed by a shore, with a river
falling into it. Proceeding to its northern extremity,
he found a spacious opening, that afforded at first the
greatest hopes ; but being disappointed by the appear-
ance of land, he named it Repulse Bay. The coast then
taking an easterly direction, he followed it till he came
to a channel which, from the accumulation of ice at its
entrance, he called the Frozen Strait. A current ran
through it, which, however, appeared to him to be

Middk-w*s

CAPTAIN MIDDLETON. 211

merely the one that had entered hy Hudson's Strait, and CHAP. VL
proceeded circuitously round Southampton Island. He
returned home, expressing a decided conviction that no
practicable passage existed in that direction.

Mr Dohbs, the mover of the expedition, was deeply unsuccessful
disappointed by this result ; and from his own reflections, resnlta '
and the statement of several of the inferior officers, became
convinced that Middleton had given a very incorrect
statement of the facts. Of this he so fully convinced
both the Parliament and the nation, that 10,000 was
subscribed for a new expedition, and a reward of 20,000 pub]k zea] lfl
promised to the discoverers of the projected passage, the object.
Captains Moor and Smith, in 1746, commanded this
annament, which, like most of those equipped with great
pomp and circumstance, entirely failed. They merely
ascertained, what was pretty well known before, that
the Wager afforded no outlet ; and, after spending a CoTnp i ete
severe winter there, returned next season to England, laiiure.

It appears, by notices which Mr Barrow has drawn
from the Admiralty records, that the armed brig Lion
was sent in 1776, under Lieutenant Pickersgill, and in
1777, under Lieutenant Young, with the view of acting
in concert with Captain Cook, who in his third voyage
might, it was hoped, make his way round from Behring's
Strait into the Atlantic. These officers reached respec-
tively the latitudes of 68 and 72, without effecting or
almost attempting any thing farther.

212 MODEKN NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAPTER VII.

Voyages by Ross and Parry in Search of a North-west
Passage.

Spirited Views of the British Government Ross's Expedition ;
He sails round Baffin's Bay ; Arctic Highlands ; Lancaster
Sound ; His Return Parry's First Expedition ; Entrance
into the Artie Sea ; Regent's Inlet ; North Georgian Islands ;
Winters at Melville Island ; Mode of spending the Winter ;
North Georgian Theatre ; Gazette ; Disappearance of the
Animal Tribes ; Attempt to proceed Westward during the
Summer ; His Return to England Parry's Second Expedi-
tion, accompanied' by Captain Lyon ; He enters Hudson's
Strait ; Savage Islands ; Duke of York's Bay ; Frozen
Strait ; Various Inlets discovered ; Ships frozen in for the
Winter ; Polar Theatre and School ; Brilliant Appearances
of the Aurora Borealis ; Intercourse with a Party of Esqui-
maux ; Land Excursions ; Release from the Ice ; Voyage
Northward ; Discovery of a Strait named after the Fury
and Hecla ; Progress arrested ; Second Winter-quarters, at
Igloolik ; The Esquimaux ; Symptoms of Scurvy ; Return
of the Expedition to England Parry's Third Expedition ;
He winters at Port Bowen ; Shipwreck of the Fury ; Return
of the Hecla.

CHAFYH BRITAIN had seen other nations carry off all the great
i prizes in naval discovery. She had scarcely a vessel on
^ e ocean > wnen tne nations of the Iberian peninsula
laid open new worlds, and appropriated the golden trea-
sures of the East and of the West. But her energies
being once roused, her efforts were from the beginning
bold and adventurous, though sometimes made with
inadequate means, on a small scale, and often with a

NAVAL ZEAL OF BRITAIN. 213

disastrous issue. Advancing, however, with regular CHAP. VIZ.
steps, she first rivalled and finally surpassed all other Energies
modern states. The reigns of George III. and of his roused,
eldest son formed the era which decided both her mari-
time supremacy and her special eminence in the depart-
ment of discovery. She achieved almost entirely the
exploration of the vast expanse of the South Sea,
with its great and numerous islands, leaving to the
exertions of France only a scanty gleaning. The re-
volutionary war, indeed, for some time employed the
attention and resources of the nation ; but as soon as her
signal triumphs had left Britain without an enemy in
the seas of Europe, she looked again to this theatre of
her former glory. Even amid the din of arms, the nie Afrlca
African Association pursued their enlightened and phi- association.
lanthropic course ; and the important results to which
they attained finally induced the government to take an
interest in their undertaking, and to aid them with
means which no private body could command. Mr
Barrow, who by his personal exertions had illustrated
some of the most interesting portions of the globe, took
the chief direction, prompting and guiding every step
with an energetic perseverance and practical judgment
never before extended in an equal degree to similar
objects. The measures pursued with respect to Africa
do not come within the compass of the present work ;
but when the spirit was once roused, it did not confine
itself to a single point. The northern seas, as a theatre
of adventure, had been unoccupied for half a century.
There prevailed, indeed, a general impression that so
many fruitless expeditions had set the question at rest ; Barrow!^
but when Mr Barrow applied to it the powers of his
vigorous and penetrating judgment, he became sensible
that this conclusion was quite groundless. Baffin had
once sailed round that great sea, which by him was called
a bay, and still bears his name ; but his examination had
been quite superficial, and insufficient to establish that
continuity of land with which the maps had so thoroughly
enclosed it. There were even striking facts indicating

214 MODERN NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. VII that there must he a communication with the Greenland
Supposed Sea on the one side, and the Pacific Ocean on the other,
commnnica- Even in regard to Hudson's Bay, no progress was made
Padfic ith he since Parliament had offered a reward of 20,000, and
Ocean. se nt out the large expedition under Captains Moor and
Smith. Thus the grand problem in which the country
had long taken so deep an interest was still unsolved ;
and to decide it nothing more seemed necessary than
the application of that skill and undaunted courage, of
which British seamen have shown themselves so emi-
nently possessed.

Admiralty In 1818 the Admiralty fitted out two expeditions;
expeditions. one destined for the discovery of the north-west passage,
the other to attempt a voyage across the Pole. The
first, which is the one we are at present to follow, con-
sisted of the Isabella of 385 tons, commanded by Captain
John Ross, an officer of reputation and experience, who
Ross and had twice wintered in the Baltic, had been employed in
Parry. surveying the White Sea, and been as far north as Bear

or Cherie Island. Another vessel, the Alexander of 252
tons, was intrusted to Lieutenant Parry, a young officer
of rising merit, who has since amply justified the choice
made by his employers.

Course of the ^ n *^ e ^th April the navigators sailed down the
navigators. Thames, and by the end of the month were off the
Shetland Islands. On the 27th May they came in view
of Cape Farewell ; round which, as usual, were floating
numerous and lofty icebergs of the most varied forms
and tints. On the 14th June they reached the Whale
Islands, where they were informed by the governor of
the Danish settlement that the past winter had been
uncommonly severe ; that the neighbouring bays and
straits had been all frozen two months earlier than
usual ; and that some of the channels northward of his
_ , station were still inaccessible, owing to the ice. A

Cnnons . .. , ' _ at " i

phenomenon, curious assertion was here made by the .Esquimaux,

that they could see across the whole breadth of the bay,
though not less than two hundred miles, which, indeed,
would be an extraordinary instance of the power of re-

ROSS AND PARRY. 215

fraction ; but it ought to be observed, that the frozen CHAP. VIL
surface of the sea often presents deceptive appearances WayKat
of land. On the 17th June, in the neighbourhood of island.
Waygat Island, an impenetrable barrier obliged the dis-
coverers to stop their course, making themselves fast to
an iceberg, and having forty-five whale- ships in com-
pany. Observations made ashore proved this island to
be misplaced on the maps by no less than five degrees
of longitude. At length the ice attached to the eastern
side of the strait broke up, though still forming a con-
tinuous and impenetrable rampart at some distance to
the westward, in which direction it had drifted ; but in
the intermediate space they were enabled to move for-
ward slowly along the coast, labouring through narrow
and intricate channels. They steered their course, how-
ever, to the higher parts of the bay, and hi about lat. 75
came to a coast which had not been visited by former
navigators. They were struck, as Baffin had been, by
the great number of whales which were slumbering se-
curely in these deep recesses, never having been alarmed
by the harpoon. On the 7th August, in the same lati-
tude, a heavy gale sprung up, which, driving the ice Gale -
against the vessels, made a display of its terrible power.
Providentially, when instant destruction was expected,
the mass receded, and the ships, owing to the extraordi-
nary strength of their construction, escaped without
material injury.

Proceeding along a high mountainous coast, the ex- Native
pedition came to a tribe of Esquimaux, who, of all 8C
human beings, seem to exist in a state of the deepest
seclusion. They had never before seen men belonging
to the civilized world, or to a race different from their
own. The first party whom the navigators approached
showed every sign of alarm, dreading, as was after-
wards understood, a fatal influence from the mere touch
of beings whom they regarded as members of an un-
known species. Yet they seem to have felt a secret
attraction towards the strangers, and advanced, holding
fast the long knives lodged in their boots, and looking

216

MODEEN NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

Interview
with the
natives.

CHAP. Vll. significantly at each other. Having come to a chasm
which separated them from the strangers, they made
earnest signs that only Saccheous, the interpreter,* who
bore a certain resemblance to themselves, should come
across. He went forward and offered his hand; but
they shrunk back for some time in alarm. At length
the boldest touched it, and -finding it flesh and blood, set
up a loud shout, in which three others joined. The
rest of the party then came up, to the number of eight,
with fifty dogs, which joined their masters in raising a
tremendous clamour. Ross and Parry now thought it
time to advance. This movement excited alarm and a
tendency to retreat ; but Saccheous having taught these
officers to pull their noses, this sign of amity was gra-
ciously accepted. A mirror was now held up to them,
and on seeing their faces in it they showed the most
extreme astonishment, looking round on each other a
few moments in silence, then setting up a general shout,
succeeded by a loud laugh of delight and surprise. The
ship was the next object of their speculation ; the nature
of which they endeavoured to ascertain by interrogating
itself; for they conceived it to be a huge bird spreading
its vast wings, and endowed with reason. One of them,
pulling his nose with the utmost solemnity, began thus
to address it : " Who are you ? Whence come you 2

Sipn of
amity.

Curiosity of
the natives.

* This young man was a native of Greenland, who had ac-
companied the Thomas and Anne, Captain Newton, one of the
Leith whalers, on her homeward voyage in 1816; and the
following year he went out to the fishery, returning a second
time to Europe. During this period, being intelligent and do-
cile, he made considerable proficiency in a course of elementary
study, in the prosecution or which he received every assistance
from his friends in Leith. On the equipment of the Arctic
expedition, his wishes to accompany the discovery-ships having
been communicated to government through the medium of
Captain Basil Hall, he was immediately engaged as interpreter.
His services in that capacity, as the narrative shows, were of
eminent utility ; and, on his return, the Admiralty, desirous to
have him properly instructed, in the event of a future expedi-
tion, sent him to Edinburgh for that purpose. Here, however,
in the ensuing spring, he was unfortunately attacked with an
inflammatory fever, which carried him off in a few days.

& '

ESQUIMAUX SLEDGE.
The Esquimaux nave sledges drawn by large and powerful teams of dogs. Page SlfiL

ROSS AND PARRY. 217

Is it from the sun or the moon 2" The ship remaining CHAP, vit
silent, they at length applied to the interpreter, who i nqulr j^
assured them that it was a frame of timber, the work of respecting
human art. To them, however, who had never seen tlie shil)l
any wood but slight twigs and stunted heath, its im-
mense planks and masts were objects of amazement.
What animal, they also asked, could furnish those enor-
mous skins which were spread for the sails. Their ad-
miration was soon followed by a desire to possess some
of the objects which met their eyes, and with little
ceremony or discrimination as to the means of effecting
their end. They attempted first a spare topmast, then
an anchor ; and these proving too ponderous, one of
them tried the smith's anvil ; but, finding it fixed,
made off at last with the large hammer. It was not
less wonderful in their eyes to see the sailors mounting
the rigging ; nor was it without much hesitation that
they ventured their own feet in the shrouds. A little
terrier- dog appeared to them a contemptible creature,
wholly unfit for drawing burdens or being yoked in a
sledge, while the grunt of a hog filled them with alarm.

This tribe, in features, form, and even language, be- Esquimaux.
long evidently to the Esquimaux, a race widely dif-
fused over all the shores of the Arctic Ocean. They
appear to have little or no communication with the rest,
and amid the general resemblance have some distin-
guishing characters. The boat, large or small, which
we almost instinctively associate with our idea of the
Greenlander, is here wholly unknown. Much of their
food is found in the deep, and procured at various parts
of the icy surface which incrusts it during the greater
part of the year. Yet they have one important advan- Possession of
tage, not only over other Esquimaux, but over the most lron -
civilized of the native Americans. Their country affords
iron, which, being flattened by sharp stones, and inserted
in a handle made of the horn of the sea-unicorn, forms
knives much more efficient than those framed of bone
by the neighbouring hordes. Again, unlike the other
tribes, they have a king, who rules seemingly with

218 MODERN NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. VII. gentle sway ; for they described him as strong, very
Formof &^> an( ^ ver y m uch beloved. The discoverers did not
government, visit the court of this Arctic potentate ; but they under-
stood that he draws a tribute, consisting of train-oil,
seal-skins, and the bone of the sea-unicorn. Following
the general usage, they have sledges drawn by large and
Dog sledges, powerful teams of dogs ; their chase is chiefly confined
to hares, foxes of various colours, the seal, and the nar-
wal. They rejected with horror the proffered luxuries
of biscuit, sweetmeats, or spirits ; train-oil, as it streamed
from various species of fish, alone gratified their palate.
Captain Ross, swayed by national impressions, gave to
this district the name of the Arctic Highlands.
Red snow. j n t j ie nor them part of this coast the navigators ob-
served a remarkable phenomenon, a range of cliffs, the
snowy covering of which had exchanged its native white
for a tint of deep crimson. This red snow was not only
examined on the spot, but a portion of it was brought
to England, and analyzed by the most learned men both
at home and abroad, who have entertained various opin-
ions as to the origin of the colour. The latest observa-
tions, as elsewhere observed, have established its vege-
table origin.*

Cape Dudley Having now passed Cape Dudley Digges, the commo-

Digges. ( j ore f oun( j himself among those spacious sounds which

Baffin had named, but so imperfectly described. They all

appeared to him, however, to be either bays enclosed by

land or obstructed by impenetrable barriers of ice. He

sailed past Wolstenholme and Whale Sounds very

quickly, without approaching even their entrance ;

concluding them to be blocked up with ice, and to

afford no hope of a passage. As these openings stretched

towards the north, it must be admitted that they could

Smith's not in this high latitude be considered very favourable

Sound. as to the object he had in view. He came next to Sir

Thomas Smith's Sound, which, we may recollect, Baffin

described as the most spacious in the whole circuit of

* See chap, i p. 22, note ; chap ii. p. 91-94.

ROSS AND PARRY. 219

these coasts. This was regarded with greater attention ; CHAP. VIL
but Captain Ross satisfied himself that he had distinctly

.,,, j. , f . i , i 1.1 Conclusion of

seen it, at the distance of eighteen leagues, completely Captain Ross
enclosed by land. He soon arrived at an extensive bay,
which had hitherto been unobserved, afterwards to
that which Baffin called Alderman Jones' Sound ; but
in respect to both, the ice at their entrance, and the ap-
parent boundary of high land in the interior, led, as in
the other instances, to an unfavourable conclusion.

The season was now somewhat advanced ; the end of Close of the
August approached ; the sun set after an uninterrupted ' easou -
day of two months and a half ; and a thick fog rendered
the lengthening nights more gloomy. The land, seen at
some distance, consisted of very high and steep hills,
presenting, however, some spots fit for human habita-
tion. An opening forty-five miles wide, to the south-
ward of a promontory which was named Cape Charlotte,
was decided against on the usual grounds. On the 30th
August, the expedition came to a most magnificent in-
let, bordered by lofty mountains of peculiar grandeur,
while the water, being clear and free from ice, presented
so tempting an appearance, that it was impossible to re-
frain from entering. This channel, which soon proved
to be Lancaster Sound, was ascended for thirty miles ;
during which run officers and men crowded the topmast, Sound,
filled with enthusiastic hope, and judging that it afforded
a much fairer prospect of success than any of those so
hastily passed. Captain Ross, however, soon thought
that he discovered a high ridge stretching directly across
the inlet ; and, though a great part of it was deeply in-
volved in mist, a passage in this direction was by him
judged to be hopeless. The sea being open, however,
the commander proceeded ; but about twelve o'clock
Mr Beverley, the assistant-surgeon, came down from la
the crow's nest, and stated, that he had seen the land
extending very nearly across the entire bay. Hereupon,
it is said, all hopes were renounced, even by the most
sanguine, and Captain Ross sailed onward merely for
the purpose of making some magnctical observations.

220

MODERN NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

Change of
course.

Sail south
ward.

Return to
England.

CHAP. vii. At three o'clock, the sky having cleared, the com-
mander himself went on deck, when he states that he
distinctly saw across the bottom of the bay a chain of
mountains, continuous and connected with those which
formed its opposite shores. The weather then becoming
unsettled, he made the signal to steer the vessels out of
Lancaster Sound.

On regaining the entrance of this great channel, Cap-
tain Ross continued to steer southward along the western
shore, without seeing any entrance which afforded equal
promise. Cumberland Strait alone was similar in mag-
nitude ; but as it could lead only into the higher lati-
tudes of Hudson's Bay, it afforded little chance of a
passage into the Arctic Sea. After surveying, there-
fore, some of these shores, he returned home early in
October.

The captain arrived in England under the most
decided conviction that Baffin's observations had been
perfectly correct, and that Lancaster Sound was a bay,
affording no entrance into any western sea. If even
any strait existed between the mountains, it must, he
conceived, be for ever innavigable, on account of the ice
with which it is filled. The intelligent individuals,
however, who had fitted out the ships with such zeal
and on so great a scale, felt dissatisfaction at this con-
clusion, as connected at least with the premises from
which it was drawn. The grounds, in particular, on
which Lancaster Sound, an opening so spacious, and in
a position so favourable in respect to western discovery,
had been so abruptly quitted, appeared inadmissible.
The same opinion was very decidedly espoused by se-
veral of the officers, and especially by Lieutenant Parry,
the second in command. It was determined, in short,
that a fresh expedition should be equipped and intrusted
to him, that he might fulfil, if possible, his own sanguine
hopes and those of the government. He was furnished
with the Hecla of 375 tons, and a crew of fifty-eight
men ; and with the Griper gun-brig of 180 tons, and
thirty-six men, commanded by Lieutenant Liddon

Opinion of
Parry.

PARRY. 221

These ships were made as strong as possible for the CHAP, vil
navigation of the Arctic Seas ; and were stored with FresiTexpe-
ample provisions for two years, a copious supply ofdition.
antiscorbutics, and every thing which could enable the
crews to endure the most extreme rigours of a Polar
winter.

Lieutenant Parry, destined to outstrip all his pre- Departure of
decessors in the career of northern discovery, weighed Pan 'y-
anchor at the Nore on the llth May 1819, and on the
20th rounded the remotest point of the Orkneys. He
endeavoured to cross the Atlantic about the parallel of
58, and though impeded during the first fortnight of
June by a series of unfavourable weather, obtained on
the 15th, from the distance apparently of not less than
forty leagues, a view of the lofty cliffs composing Cape
Farewell. On the 18th the ships first fell in with ice-
bergs, the air being also filled with petrels, kittiwakes,
terns, and other winged inhabitants of the northern sky. closing of
He now made an effort to push north and west, through tlj e ice.
the icy masses, in the direction of Lancaster Sound ;
but these suddenly closed upon him ; and on the 25th
both vessels were so immovably beset that no power
could turn their heads a single point of the compass.
They remained thus fixed, but safe, when, on the
morning of the second day, a heavy roll of the sea
loosened the ice, and drove it against them with such
violence, that only their very strong construction saved
them from severe injury. The discoverers therefore
were fain to extricate themselves as soon as possible ;
and, resigning the idea of reaching Lancaster Sound by
the most direct course, resolved to steer northward
along the border of this great icy field till they should
find open water. In this progress they verified the
observation of Davis, that in the narrowest part of the
great sea, misnamed his Strait, the shores on each side
could be seen at the same moment. Thus they pro-
ceeded till they reached the Women's Islands and Hope
Sanderson, in about latitude 73. As every step was
now likely to carry them farther from their destination.

222 MODERN NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. VII. Parry determined upon a desperate push to the west-
DarinjTpas- wal 'd Favoured with a moderate breeze, the ships were

the k& 10Ugh run mt the detacned P ieces and floes of ice > througli
which they were heaved with hawsers; but the ob-
stacles becoming always more insuperable, they were
at length completely beset, and a heavy fog coming on
made them little able to take advantage of any favour-
able change. Yet in the course of a week, though re-
peatedly and sometimes dangerously surrounded, they
warped their way from lane to lane of open water, till
only one lengthened floe separated them from an open
sea. By laboriously sawing through this obstruction,
they finally penetrated the great barrier, and saw the
shore, clear of ice, extending before them.

Lancaster The navigators now bore directly for Lancaster
rea'ifd. Sound, and on the 30th July found themselves at
its entrance. They felt an extraordinary emotion
as they recognised this magnificent channel, with
the lofty cliffs by which it was guarded, aware that
a very short time would decide the fate of their grand
undertaking. They were tantalized, however, by a
fresh breeze coming directly down the Sound, which
did not suffer them to make more than a very slow
progress. Still there was no appearance of obstruction,
either from ice or land, and even the heavy swell which
they had to encounter, driving the water repeatedly in
at the stern-windows, was hailed as an indication of
open sea to the westward. The Hecla left the Griper
behind, but still without making any great way herself,
till the 3d August, when an easterly breeze sprung up,
carrying both vessels rapidly forward. A crowd of sail
was set, and they proceeded triumphantly in their
course. The minds of all were filled with anxious hope
and suspense. The mast-heads were crowded with
officers and men, and the successive reports brought
down from the highest pinnacle, called the crow's nest,
were eagerly listened to on deck. Their path was still
unobstructed. They passed various headlands, with
several wide openings towards the north and south, to

PARRY. 223

which they hastily gave the names of Croker Bay, CHAP. VII
Navy Board Inlet, and similar designations ; but those openings
it was not their present object to explore. The wind, passed.
fresh ening more and more, carried them happily for-
ward, till at midnight they found themselves in longi-
tude 83 12', nearly a hundred and fifty miles from the
mouth of the sound, which still retained a breadth of
fifty miles. The success of the expedition, they fondly
hoped, was now to a great extent decided.

The Hecla at this time slackened her course to allow Junction of
her companion to come up, which she did in longitude and Gripe)
85. They proceeded together to longitude 86 30',
and found two other inlets, which they named Burnet
and Stratton ; then a bold cape named Fellfoot, form-
ing, apparently, the termination of this long line of
coast. The lengthened swell which still rolled in from
the north and west, with the oceanic colour of the
waters, inspired the flattering persuasion that they had
already passed the region of straits and inlets, and were
now wafted along the wide expanse of the Polar Basin.
Nothing, in short, it was hoped, would henceforth ob-
struct their progress to Icy Cape, the western boundary
of America. An alarm of land was given, but it proved
to arise only from an island of no great extent. How- Appearance
ever, more land was soon discovered beyond Cape Fell- ot land,
foot, which was ascertained to be the entrance to a
noble recess, extending on their right, which they
named Maxwell Bay. An uninterrupted range of
sea still stretched out before them, though they were
somewhat discomposed by seeing on the south a line of
continuous ice ; but it left an open passage, and they
hoped to find it merely a detached stream. A little
space onwards, however, they discovered, with deep Channel ol>
dismay, that this ice was joined to a compact and im- utmcted
penetrable body of floes, which completely crossed the
channel, and joined the western point of Maxwell Bay.
It behoved them, therefore, immediately to draw back,
to avoid being embayed in the ice, along the edges of
which a violent surf was then beating. The officers

224 MODERN NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. VII began to amuse themselves with fruitless attempts to

NewTcourse. catcn white whales, when the weather cleared, and they
saw to the south an open sea with a dark water-sky.
Parry, hoping that this might lead to an unencumbered
passage in a lower latitude, steered in this direction, and
found himself at the mouth of a great inlet, ten leagues
broad, with no visible termination ; and to the two
capes at its entrance he gave the names of Clarence and
Seppings.

Desolate The mariners, finding the western shore of this inlet

scene. greatly obstructed with ice, moved across to the eastern,

where they entered a broad and open channel. The
coast was the most dreary and desolate they had ever
beheld even in the Arctic world, presenting scarcely a
semblance either of animal or vegetable life. Naviga-
tion was rendered more arduous from the entire
irregularity of the compass, now evidently approaching
to the magnetic pole, and showing an excess of variation
which they vainly attempted to measure, so that the
binnacles were laid aside as useless lumber. They
sailed a hundred and twenty miles up this inlet, and its

hopes. augmenting width inspired them with corresponding

hopes ; when, with extreme consternation, they sudden-
ly perceived the ice to diverge from its parallel course,
running close in with a point of land which appeared to
form the southern extremity of the eastern shore. To
this foreland they gave the name of Cape Kater. The
western horizon also appeared covered with heavy and
extensive floes, a bright and dazzling iceblink extending
from right to left. The name of the Prince Regent was
given to this spacious inlet, which Parry strongly sus-

RcKent's pected must have a communication with Hudson's Bay.

Inlet. He now determined to return to the old station, and

watch the opportunity when the relenting ice would
allow the ships to proceed westward. That point was
reached, not without some difficulty, amid ice and fog.
At Prince Leopold's Islands, on the 15th, the barrier
was as impenetrable as ever, with a bright blink ; and
from the top of a high hill there was no water to b?

PARRY. 22/5

seen; luckily also there was no land. On the 18th, CHAP. VII
on getting once more close to the northern shore, the sudden"
navigators began to make a little way, and some showers change.
of rain and snow, accompanied with heavy wind, pro-
duced such an eftl-ct, that on the 21st the whole ice had
disappeared, and they could scarcely believe it to be the
same sea which had just before been covered with floes
upon floes as far as the eye could reach.

Mr Parry now crowded all sail to the westward, and, Voyage
though detained by want of wind, he passed Radstock westward -
Bay, Capes Hurd and Hotham, and Beechey Island ;
after which he discovered a fine and broad inlet leading
to the north, which he called Wellington, the greatest
name of the age. The sea at the mouth being perfectly
open, he would not have hesitated to ascend it, had
there not been before him, along the southern side of
an island named Cornwallis, an open channel leading
due west. Wellington Inlet was now considered by the
officers, so high were their hopes, as forming the west-
ern boundary of the land stretching from Baffin's Bay
to the Polar Sea, into which they had little doubt they
were entering. For this reason Lieutenant Parry did
not hesitate to give to the great channel, which was un- i5 arrow - s
derstood to effect so desirable a junction, the merited ap- Strait
pellation of Barrow's Strait, after the much-esteemed
promoter of the expedition. A favourable breeze now
sprung up, and the adventurers passed gaily and tri-
umphantly along the extensive shore of Cornwallis
Island, then coasted a larger island named Bathurst,
and next a smaller one called Byam Martin. At this
last place they judged by some experiments that they
had passed the magnetic meridian, situated probably
in about 100 degrees west longitude, and where the netic meri-
compass would have pointed due south instead of due flian
north. The navigation now became extremely difficult,
hi consequence of thick fogs, which not only froze on
the shrouds, but, as the compass was also useless, took
away all means of knowing the direction in which they
sailed. They were obliged to trust that the land and

226

MODEEN NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

culties.

Success of
the expedi

tiou.

CHAP. VII ice would preserve the same line, and sometimes em-
Novei diffl- ployed the oddest expedients for ascertaining the precise
point. They encountered also a compact floe, through
which they were obliged to bore their way by main
force. Notwithstanding all these obstacles they reached
the coast of an island larger than any before discovered,
to which they gave the name of Melville. The wind
now failed, and they moved slowly forward by towing
and warping, till on the 4th September the lieutenant
could announce to his joyful crew, that, having reached
the longitude of 110 W., they were become entitled
to the reward of 5000, promised by Parliament to the
first ship's company who should attain that meridian.
They still pushed forward with redoubled ardour, but
soon found their course arrested by an impenetrable
barrier of ice. They waited nearly a fortnight in hopes
of overcoming it ; till, about the 20th, their situation
became alarming. The young ice began rapidly to
form on the surface of the waters, retarded only by
winds and swells ; so that the commanding officer was
convinced that, in the event of a single hour's calm, he
would be frozen up in the midst of the sea. No option
return. was therefore left but to return, and to choose between
two apparently good harbours, which had been recently
passed on Melville Island. Not without difficulty he
reached this place on the 24th, and decided in favour
of the more western haven, as affording the fullest
security ; but it was necessary to cut his way two
miles through a large floe with which it was encum-
bered. To effect this arduous operation, the seamen
marked with boarding-pikes two parallel lines, at the
distance of somewhat more than the breadth of the
larger ship. They sawed, in the first place, along
the path tracked out, and then by cross-sawings de-
tached large pieces, which were separated diagonally in
order to be floated out ; and sometimes boat-sails were
fastened to them to take the advantage of a favourable
breeze. On the 26th the ships were established in five
fathoms water, at about a cable's length from the beach.

Difficulties
overcome.

PARRY. 227

For some time the ice was daily cleared round them ; CHAP. vn.
but this was soon found an endless and useless labour, Froz ^~j" n for
and they were allowed to be regularly frozen in for the the winter,
winter.

Mr Parry then applied himself to name the varied Names of the
group of islands along which he had passed. He called
them at first New Georgia ; but, recollecting that this
appellation was pre-occupied by one in the Pacific, he
gave the title of "the North Georgian Islands," in
honour of his Majesty George III., whose reign had
been so eminently distinguished by the extension of
nautical and geographical knowledge.

The commander, finding himself and his ships shut Judicious
in for a long and dreary winter, devoted his attention, tJ[ e T "o < m!. of
with a mixture of firmness and kindness, to mitigate nmnder.
those evils which, even in lower latitudes, had often
rendered an abode in the Arctic regions so fatal. His
provisions being very ample, he substituted for a pound
of salt beef weekly a pound of Donkin's preserved meat,
and a pint of concentrated soup ; beer and wine were
regularly served instead of spirits ; and a certain allow-
ance was made of sour-krout, pickles, and vinegar. The
sailors were also called together daily, and required to
swallow a quantity of lime-juice and sugar in presence
of the officers, their improvidence being such as to afford
no other security for their imbibing this salutary draught.
Their gums and shins were also carefully examined, in
order to detect scurvy in its earliest symptoms. It was p rev entive
necessary to be very economical of fuel, the small precautions,
quantity of moss and turf which could be collected
being too wet to be of any use. By placing the ap-
paratus for baking in a central position, and by several
other arrangements, the cabin was maintained in a very
comfortable temperature ; but still, around its extremi-
ties and in the bed-places, steam, vapour, and even the
breath, settled, first as moisture and then as ice. To
remove these annoyances became accordingly a part of
tiieir daily employment.

From the first, Mr Parry was aware that nothing acted

228

MODERN NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

North

Georgian

Theatre.

CHAP. VII. more strongly as an antiscorbutic, than to keep the men's
Dramatic mm ds in a lively and cheerful state. His plans for this
recreations, purpose were very original, and proved not less effectual.
Arrangements were made for the occasional performance
of a play, in circumstances certainly very remote from
any to which the drama appeared congenial. Lieutenant
Beechey was nominated stage-manager, and the other
gentlemen came forward as amateur performers. The
very expectation thus raised among the sailors, and
the bustle of preparing a room for the purpose, were
extremely beneficial ; and when the North Georgian
Theatre opened with " Miss in her Teens," these hardy
tars were convulsed with laughter ; not a little excited,
perhaps, by viewing their officers in so singular and novel
a position ; at all events, the Arctic management was
extremely popular. As the small stock contained in one
or two chance volumes was exhausted, original composi-
tions were produced, and afterwards formed into a little
collection. The officers had another source of amusement
in the North Georgian Gazette, of which Captain Sabine
became editor, and all were invited to contribute to this
chronicle of the frozen regions. Even those who hesi-
tated to appear as writers, enlivened the circle by severe
but good-humoured criticisms :

Thus pass'd the time

Till, through the lucid chambers of the south,
Look'd out the joyous Sun.

It was on the 4th November that this great orb ought
to have taken his leave ; but a deep haze prevented them
from bidding a formal farewell, and from ascertaining the
period down to which refraction would have rendered
him visible ; yet he was reported to be seen from the
mast-head on the llth. Amid various occupations and
amusements, the shortest day came on almost unex-
pected, and the seamen then watched with pleasure the
twilight gradually strengthening at noon. On the 28th
January none of the fixed stars could be seen at that
hour by the naked eye ; and on the 1st and 2d of Feb-
ruary the sun was looked for, but the sky was wrapped

North

Georgian

Gazette.

Disappear-
ance ol tlie
bun.

PAREY. 229

in mist ; however, on the 3d he was perceived from CHAP.VTL
the maintop of the Hecla. Throughout the winter, the Re a ^ r-
officers, at the period of twilight, had taken a regular ance oi the
walk of two or three hours ; not proceeding, however, sun "
farther than a mile, lest they should be overtaken by
snow-drift. There was a want of objects to diversify
this promenade. A monotonous surface of dazzling
white covered land and sea ; the view of the ships, the Dreary
smoke ascending from them, the sound of human voices, sccue -
which through the calm and cold air was carried to an
extraordinary distance, alone gave any animation to this
wintry scene. The officers, however, persevered in their
daily excursion, and exercise was also enforced upon
the men, who, even when prevented by the weather
from leaving the vessel, were made to run round the
deck, keeping time to the tune of an organ. This move-
ment they did not at first entirely relish ; but, no plea
against it being admitted, they converted it at last into
matter of frolic.

By the above means health was maintained on board Threat of
the ships to a surprising degree. Early in January, dlscase -
however, Mr Scallon, the gunner, felt symptoms, first in
the legs and then in the gums, that decidedly indicated
the presence of scurvy, of which the immediate cause
appeared to be the great collection of damp that had
formed around his bed- place. At this alarm, all the
antiscorbutics on board, lemon- juice, pickles, and spruce-
beer, were put into requisition; a small quantity of
mustard and cress was also raised from mould placed
over the stove-pipe ; and such was the success of these
remedies, that in nine days the patient could walk
without pain. Farther on in the season a number of
slighter cases occurred, which were somewhat aggravated Danger tron
by an accident. As the men were taking their musical Gr&
perambulation round the deck, a house erected on shore,
and containing some of the most valuable instruments,
was seen to be on fire. The crew instantly ran, pulled
off the roof with ropes, knocked down a part of the
sides, and being thus enabled to throw in large quantities

230

MODERN NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. VII

Effect of
trust.

DKippear-
ance of
animals.

Wolves.

Ptarmigan

allot.

Snow blind-
ness.

of snow, succeeded in subduing the flames. Now, how-
ever, their faces presented a curious spectacle, every nose
and cheek being white with frost-bites, while the medi-
cal gentlemen, with their assistants, were obliged to run
from one to the other, and rub them with snow in order
to restore animation. With one man the amputation of
several fingers became necessary, and no less than sixteen
were added to the sick-list.

The animal tribes disappeared early in the winter from
this frozen region. The officers, on the 15th October,
made a shooting-excursion, enjoying a very fine day,
though with the thermometer 47 below the freezing-
point ; but they did not find a deer, a grouse, nor any
creature that could be ranked as game. All of them,
deserting this wintry realm, had crossed the seas to
America. There remained only a pack of wolves, which
serenaded the crews nightly, not venturing to attack,
but contriving to avoid being captured. A beautiful
white fox was caught and made a pet of. On the 12th
May one of the men gave notice that he had seen a
ptarmigan ; and attention being thus excited, Mr Be-
verley next morning shot one, and on the 15th three
coveys presented themselves. The footsteps of deer were
also seen, which, from the impression made on the snow,
seemed to be moving northwards. From this time ptar-
migans were supplied in considerable numbers ; but
they were made strictly a common good, being divided
equally among the crew, with only a preference in favour
of the sick. There was found, also, mixed with moss
under the snow, an abundance of the herb sorrel, a most
potent antidote against scurvy. By these supplies, and
under the influence of the more genial weather, the
health of the crew, which at the end of March had been
in a somewhat alarming state, was completely restored
before the beginning of June. In extending their ex-
cursions, however, they were considerably incommoded
by that distressing inflammation of the eyes, which,
proceeding from the glare of snow, is called snow-blind-
ness. It was cured in a few days by cold applications,

PARRY. 231

while, for the future, it was prevented by covering the CHAP. ViU
eyes, or by wearing spectacles, ill which crape was used
instead of glass.

On the 16th March the North Georgian Theatre was Active work
closed with an appropriate address, and the general resumed,
attention was now turned to the means of extrication
from the ice. By the 17th May the seamen had so far
cut it from around the ships as to allow them to float ;
but in the sea it was still immovable. This interval of
painful inaction was employed by Mr Parry in an ex-
cursion across Melville Island. The ground was still
mostly covered with softened snow, and even the cleared
tracts were extremely desolate, though chequered by
patches of fine verdure. Deer were seen traversing the Appearance
plains in considerable numbers. Towards the north of deers.
appeared another island, to which was given the name
of Sabine. By the middle of June pools were every
where formed ; the water flowed in streams, and even
in torrents, which rendered hunting and travelling un-
safe. There were also channels in which boats could
pass ; yet throughout this month and the following the
great covering of ice in the surrounding sea remained
entire, and kept the ships in harbour. On the 2d of
August, however, the whole mass, by one of those sudden
movements to which it is liable, broke up and floated Breaking up
out ; and the explorers had now open water in which to
prosecute their great object. It was consolatory to think
that this was the very season at which they had last
year entered Lancaster Sound ; and if they could make
as brilliant a voyage this summer, the following one
would see them not far from Behring's Straits. But it
was not without some obstructions that on the 4th they
reached the same spot where their progress had been
formerly arrested. On the 15th they were enabled to
make a certain advance ; after which the frozen surface
of the ocean assumed a more compact and impenetrable
aspect than had ever before been witnessed. The officers
ascended some of the lofty heights which bordered the
coast ; but, in a long reach of sea to the westward, no

232

MODERN NOETH-WEST VOYAGES.

procedure.

Return to
Britain.

CHAP. Vll boundary was seen to these icy barriers. There appeared
impediments on ^y ^ e western extremity of Melville Island, named
to further Cape Dundas ; and in the distance a bold coast, which
they named Banks' Land. As even a brisk gale from
the east did not produce the slightest movement on the
glassy face of the deep, they were led to believe that on
the other side there must be a large body of land, by
which it was held in a fixed state. On considering all
circumstances, there appeared no alternative but to make
their way homeward while yet the season permitted.
Some additional observations were made, as they re-
turned, on the two coasts extending along Barrow's
Strait.

Mr PaiTy's arrival in Britain was hailed with the
warmest exultation. To have sailed upwards of thirty
degrees of longitude beyond the point reached by any
former navigator, to have discovered so many new
lands, islands, and bays, to have established the much-
contested existence of a Polar Sea north of America,
finally, after a wintering of eleven months, to have
brought back his crew in a sound and vigorous state,*
were enough to raise his name above that of any other
Arctic voyager.

No hesitation was felt as to sending out another ex-
pedition ; but, considering the insuperable nature of tho
obstacles which had twice arrested the progress of the
last, it became important to consider whether there was
not any other passage by which the Polar Sea, now as-
certained to exist, might be reached with greater facility.
In Hudson's Bay neither of the great northern sounds
called the Welcome and Fox's Channel had been traced
to a termination. Middleton, in the former inlet, had
ascended higher than any previous discoverer ; but a
thick cloud had been raised around his reputation, and
his Frozen Strait, after all, might very likely prove to

* Only one man died in the course of their long and perilous
voyage, and his disease was no way referable to the toils or
privations of the expedition, the origin of his malady having
been of a date anterior to the sailing of the ships.

Fresh

expedition

PARRY AND LYON. 233

be only a temporary barrier. If from either of these CHAP. VH
sounds an opening should be effected into the Arctic Sea, Anti ^~ tlons
it could be navigated in a much lower latitude than that of a western
in which Parry had wintered, and might perhaps be also P assa se.
free from those large islands among which he had been
entangled. There was accordingly fitted out a new ex-
pedition, in which the Fury, of 327 tons, was conjoined Fury and
with the Hecla ; the commander conceiving that two
vessels of nearly equal dimensions were best calculated
for co-operating with each other, while the examination
of coasts and inlets could be carried on by boats. This
active officer, now promoted to the rank of captain,
hoisted his flag on board the Fury ; while Captain
Lyon, already distinguished by his services in Africa,
received the command of the Hecla, and proved himself
fully competent to the arduous duties of this new service.
The equipment, the victualling, and the heating of the
vessels, were all accomplished with the greatest care, and
with various improvements suggested by experience.

The adventurers were ready to sail on the 8th May
1821, and having then quitted the Nore, passed through
the Pentland Frith and by Cape Farewell, though not tion
without suffering repeated detention ; but we shall not
pause till we find them, on the 2d July, at the mouth
of Hudson's Strait. Captain Parry, accustomed as he
was to views of Polar desolation, was struck with the
exceedingly dreary aspect which these shores presented.
The naked rocks, the snow still covering the valleys, and
the thick fogs that hung over them, rendered the scene
indescribably gloomy. The ships were soon surrounded
by icebergs, amounting to the number of fifty-four,
one of which rose at least 258 feet above the sea. They Icet)er & 3 -
were attended by large floes, and rendered very formid-
able by their rotatory motion. The peculiar danger of
these straits, often remarked by former navigators,
arises from the strong tides and currents that rush in
from the ocean, and cause violent movements among
the huge masses of ice with which they are usually filled,
Captain Lyon had an alarming proof of their strength ;

234

MODERN NORTH- WEST VOYAGES.

the ice.

CHAP. VII for two of his hawsers were carried away, and the best
strength of bower anchor, weighing more than a ton, was wrenched
from the bows, and broken off as if it had been crockery-
ware. During these disasters the sailors were amused by
the sight of three companion-ships, two belonging to the
Hudson's Bay Company, and one bringing out settlers for
Lord Selkirk's colony. The emigrants on board the last,
who were chiefly Dutch and Germans, were seen waltzing
on deck often for hours together, and were only driven
into their cabins by a severe fall of snow.

Amid these obstructions the ships spent nineteen days
in making seventy miles ; which course, however,
brought them, on the 21st, within two leagues of what
are called the Savage Islands. On the following after-
noon a loud shouting was heard over the ice, and soon
after there appeared a numerous band of natives, paddling
their canoes through the lanes of open water, or, where
these failed, drawing them over the pieces of ice. Among
a great number of kayaks, or boats rowed by a single
man (see plate p. 178), were five oomidks, or women's

Slow pro-
gress.

Women's
boats.

Oomink, or Woman's Boat.

boats, constructed of a framework of wood and whale-
bone covered with deer-skins, having flat sides and bot-
tom, and of considerable size. One of them, 25 feet by
8, contained women, boys, and young children, to the
number of twenty-one. Presently began a merry,
noisy scene of frolic and traffic. The natives carried it
on with eagerness and even fury, stripping themselves
of the very skins which formed their only covering, till

PARRY AND LYON. 235

they were in a state of absolute nudity, except the ladies, CHAP. vil.
who always made a laudable reservation of their breeches. B rt ~. .
They drove what they meant should be an excessively the natives.
hard bargain ; yet, being wholly ignorant of the value
of the rich skins with which nature has invested the
animals of this climate, they raised shouts of triumph
when they obtained in exchange a nail, a saw, or a razor.
Their aspect was wilder and more dishevelled than that
of any other tribe even among this rude race ; their
character also seems fiercer and more savage ; and in-
deed it is in this quarter that most of the tragical
encounters with Esquimaux have occurred. Some of
the old women were pronounced to be the most hideous women
objects that mortal man ever beheld ; inflamed eyes,
wrinkled skin, black teeth, and deformed features, ren-
dered them scarcely human ; hence much apology was
found for the dark suspicions cherished by Frobisher's
crew respecting one of these dames, and the odd investi-
gation to which it had prompted. The children were
rather pretty ; though, from being thrown carelessly
into the bottom of the boats, they had much the appear-
ance of the young of wild animals. Besides traffic, the
barbarians indulged in a great deal of rather rude frolic,
like that of ill-regulated schoolboys. One of them got
behind a sailor, shouted loudly in one ear, and gave him
a hearty box on the other, which was hailed with a
loud and general laugh. They also displayed their
merriment in a dance, consisting chiefly of violent leap-
ing and stamping, though in tolerable time.

In spite of every obstruction, Captain Parry, early in
August, reached the entrance of Fox's Channel, and
came in view of Southampton Island. It was now the
question, whether to sail directly up this inlet, and
reach, by a comparatively short route, Repulse Bay and
the higher latitudes, or to make the south-western cir-
cuit of Southampton Island, and ascend the beaten track
of the Welcome. The captain judiciously preferred the
former, notwithstanding its uncertainties, on account of
the great time which would be saved should the course

236 MODERN NOKTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP, vii be found practicable. On the L5th he came to an open-
Course" m e stretching westward, and apparently separating the
adopted. island from other land on the north. Hoping to find
this the Frozen Strait of Middleton, he entered it ; but
it soon proved a spacious and beautiful basin, enclosed
by land on every side. He named it the Duke of York's
Bay, and considered it one of the finest harbours in the
world ; but, after admiring a large floe covered entirely
with minerals, shells, and plants, he moved out of it,
and pursued the voyage. On the 21st the navigators
found themselves in another strait, not much encumbered
with ice, but darkened by thick fogs ; and, before they
knew distinctly where they were, a heavy swell from
the southward showed that they had already passed
through the Frozen Strait, and were in the broad chan-
Repuise Ba y nel of the Welcome. They speedily entered Repulse
Bay, in which modern speculation had cherished the
hope of a passage ; but a short investigation made by
boats in every direction proved that it was really, as
Middleton had described it, completely enclosed. A
good deal of time had thus been lost through the scep-
ticism so unjustly attached to the narrative of that
eminent seaman.

Crane of Captain Parry, having come with all speed out of
discovery. Repulse Bay, began the career of discovery along a
coast hitherto unknown. An inlet was soon observed,
and called by the name of Gore ; but was not found to
extend far into the interior. At the mouth of this
opening the valleys were richly clad with grass and
moss, the birds singing, butterflies and other insects
displaying the most gaudy tints, so that the sailors
might have fancied themselves in some happier climate,
had not the mighty piles of ice in the Frozen Strait told
a different tale. Hunting-parties traversed the country
in various directions, and the game-laws of the preceding
year were strictly enforced, by which every beast or
bird was to be relinquished for the general good, allow-
ing only the head and legs as a douceur to the captor.
The latter, however, adopted and made good a theory,

PARRY AND LYON. 237

agreeably to which the description head was greatly CHAP. VIL

extended, so as to include even several joints of the back-

bone.

Having passed Gore Inlet, the discoverers found Perils of tl . e
themselves among those numerous isles described by voyage.
Middleton, which formed a complete labyrinth of various
shapes and sizes, while strong currents setting between
them in various directions, amid fogs and drifting ice,
rendered the navigation truly perilous. The Fury was
assailed by successive masses ; her anchor was dragged
along the rocks with a grinding noise, and on being
drawn up, the two flukes were discovered to be broken
off. The same vessel was afterwards carried forward
by a violent stream, amid thick mist, the people on
board finding it impossible either to guide or alter her
direction ; so that Captain Parry considers it altogether
providential that she was not dashed to pieces against
the surrounding rocks. However, one channel, and
one only, was observed, by which the mariners at last
made their way through this perilous maze. No sooner
had they reached the open sea, than, being obliged to
run before a strong northerly breeze, they were much
disheartened to find themselves, on the 3d of September,
at the very point which they had left on the 6th of
August. All the interval had been employed in the
merely negative discovery, that there was nothing to
discover.

The commander soon reached the northern coast, and Causes of
resumed his task, which was rendered very tedious by delay>
the necessity of examining every opening and channel,
in the hope that each might prove the desired passage
into the Polar Ocean. He first explored a large inlet,
the name of which he gave to Captain Lyon, then a
smaller one, which was named from Lieutenant Hopp-
ner ; and by connecting these with Gore Inlet, he com-
pleted his delineation of the coast. The seamen had
again the pleasure of opening a traffic with a party of
Esquimaux, whose first timidity was soon overcome by
the hope of being supplied with some iron tools. In

238

MODERN NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. Vli the course of this transaction, the surprise of the crew
Trafflc"with was rouse(i by tne conduct of a lady, who had sold one

Native
thefts

Winter set
la

the natives boot, but obstinately retained the other, in disregard of
the strongest remonstrances as to the ridiculous figure
she in consequence made. At length suspicion rose to
such a pitch, that, all courtesy being set aside, her per-
son was seized, and the buskin pulled off. Then indeed
it proved a complete depository of stolen treasure, there
being no less than two spoons and a pewter-plate se-
creted within its capacious cavity.

The end of September now approached, and Captain
Parry found himself suddenly in the depth of winter.
Snow had been falling during the whole of the short
summer ; but the united warmth of the air and earth
had melted it as it fell, and left the ground still open to
the sun's rays. In one moment, as it were, it made
good its lodgement, spreading its white and dazzling
mantle over land and sea ; and the solar beams being
then no longer able to reach the soil, the whole became
subject to permanent and impenetrable frost. Some
parts of the snow were indeed dissolved, and then refro.^en
hi varied and beautiful forms of crystallization ; whereas
at Melville Island the covering once spread over nature
had never changed its aspect. A more alarming symp-
Formatlon of torn appeared in the rapid formation of the soft or pan-
ite - cake ice on the surface of the deep. The obstacle

thereby occasioned was at first so slight as to be scarcely
felt by a ship before a brisk gale ; but it continually
increased, till at length the vessel, rolling from side to
side, became like Gulliver bound by the feeble hands
of Lilliputians. At the same time the various pieces of
drift-ice, which were tossing in the sea without, had
been cemented into one great field called " the ice," that
threatened every moment to bear down upon the brigs,
and dash them in pieces. Under this combination of
circumstances, the navigators could no longer even at-
tempt to reach the land, but determined to saw into the
heart of an adjoining floe, and there take up their win-
ter-quarters. There was about half a mile to penetrate,

PARRY AND LYON. 239

which, in the soft state of the pancake-ice, was not very CHAP, vn
laborious. It was, however, far from pleasant, as it VV mter~
bended like leather beneath their feet, and caused them quarters.
sometimes to sink into the water, whence it was impos-
sible they could escape without a very cold bath.

Captain Parry was now frozen up for another winter Winter
in the midst of the Northern Sea, and he forthwith ap- a lusemeD ^
plied himself to make the necessary arrangements with
that judicious foresight which had been already so con-
spicuous in the same trying circumstances. As the
result of experience, not less than of several ingenious
contrivances, the ships were much more thoroughly
heated than in the former voyage ; the provisioning,
too, was more ample, and antidotes against scurvy still
more copiously supplied. The Polar Theatre opened
on the 9th November with "The Rivals." The two
captains appeared as Sir Anthony and Captain Absolute;
while those who personated the ladies had very gener-
ously removed an ample growth of beard, disregarding
the comfortable warmth which it afforded in an Arctic
climate. The company were well received, and went
through their performances with unabated spirit ; yet
this season does not seem to have gone off quite with
the same eclat as the preceding. Novelty, from the first
the chief attraction, had worn off, and the discomfort of
a stage, the exhibitions of which were attended with a
cold thirty degrees under the freezing-point, became
rather severe. The sailors found for themselves a more
sober and useful, as well as efficacious remedy against
ennui. They established a school, in which the better- , egu
instructed undertook to revive the knowledge of letters wished,
among those who had almost entirely lost the slight
tincture that they had once imbibed. These hardy tars
applied themselves to their book with ardent and laud-
able zeal, and showed a pride in their new attainments
like that of little boys hi their first class. At Christmas
sixteen well- written copies were produced by those who,
two months before, could scarcely form a letter. Amid
these varied and pleasing occupations, the shortest day

240

MODEKN NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

Hares anl
foxes.

CHAT. vii. passed over their heads almost unobserved, especially as
Celebration ^ ie sun ^^ no ^ en ti rc ly leave them. Captain Lyon
of Christmas, never saw a merrier festival than was celebrated on
board. The sailors, being amply regaled with fresh
beef, cranberry-pies, and grog, became so extremely ele-
vated, that they insisted on drinking, with three hearty
cheers, the health of each officer in succession.

The animal creation in this less rigorous climate, even
though the ground was completely frozen over, did not
disappear so entirely as on Melville Island. A few so-
litary hares were caught ; but they were in a miserable
state of leanness, weighing only five or six pounds, and
had a purely white covering, which resembled swan's
down rather than hair. About a hundred white foxes
were snared in the nets during the winter. These
beautiful creatures, when first taken, were perfectly
wild and ungovernable ; but in a short time the young
ones at least threw off this timidity. A delicate little
quadruped entrapped one day proved to be an ermine ;
but it was excessively frightened, and to the general
regret died soon afterwards.

The winter months were also enlivened by various
phenomena, striking appearances which the sky at that season pre-
sented. The northern world, when the sun departs, is
by no means involved in that monotonous gloom which
such a privation might seem to indicate. After the
solar beams have finally quitted the earth, and the long
winter has closed in, the heavens become a gay scene,
through which the most brilliant meteors are perpetu-
ally playing. Those singular streams of light, called
commonly the Aurora Borealis, keep up an almost in-
cessant illumination, and were frequently witnessed in
full splendour by Captains Parry and Lyon during their
Arctic residence. The light had a tendency to form an
irregular arch, which, in calm weather, was often very
distinct, though its upper boundary was seldom well
defined; but, whenever the air became agitated, showers
of rays spread in every direction, with the rapidity of
lightning. Sometimes long streaks of light were spread

Northern

Aurora
liorealis.

PARRY AND LYON. 241

out with inconceivable swiftness, but always appearing CHAP.V1L
to move to and from a fixed point, somewhat like a TI^",^.
riband held in the hand and shaken with an undulatory dancers,
motion. No rule, however, could be traced in the
movement of those lighter parcels called " the merry
dancers," which flew about perpetually towards every
quarter ; becoming in stormy weather more rapid in
their motions, and sharing all the wildness of the blast.
They gave an indescribable air of magic to the whole
scene, and made it not wonderful that, by the untaught
Indian, they should be viewed as "the spirits of his
fathers roaming through the land of souls."

Several questions have been agitated with respect to VT
, -r i -i i a ,! Noise maac

the Aurora. It has been said to be accompanied with by the
a hissing and cracking noise ; and indeed Captain Lyon Aurora -
observes, that the sudden glare and rapid bursts of those
wondrous showers of fire make it difficult to fancy their
movements wholly without sound ; yet nothing was
ever really heard. Captain Parry complains that he
could not expose his ears to the cold long enough com-
pletely to ascertain the point ; but his colleague de-
dares that he stood for hours on the ice listening, and
at a distance from every sounding body, till he became
thoroughly satisfied that none proceeded from the Au-
rora. It has also been questioned whether this meteor
ever completely hid the stars; and it was generally
decided, on this occasion, that it dimmed the lustre of
those heavenly bodies, as if a thin gauze veil had been
drawn over them, an effect which was augmented
when several luminous portions were spread over each
other. In a clear atmosphere these lights shone with a
brightness which gave the impression that they were
nearer than the clouds ; but whenever these last over-
spread the sky the Aurora was hid by them, and must
therefore have been more distant. To Captain Parry it
appeared to assume tints of yellow and lilac ; but to lts colour.
Captain Lyon its colour always resembled that of the
Milky-Way, or of very vivid sheet-lightning. The
present writer saw this phenomenon once, and only

242

MODERN NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

Luminous
meteors.

Mock suns.

CHAP. vii. once, in its utmost brilliancy, and exhibiting all the
appearances described by these northern observers. His
impressions agree perfectly with those of Captain Lyon.
Other luminous meteors, arising apparently from the
refraction caused by the minute and highly crystallized
spiculae of ice, appear in succession to embellish the
northern sky. The sun and moon are often surrounded
with halos, concentric circles of vapour, tinted with
the brightest hues of the rainbow. Parhelia, or mock
suns, frequently adorned with these accompaniments,
snme at nce m different quarters of the firmament.
Ellis, who was with Moor and Smith in Hudson's Bay,
has seen six at the same moment. They are most
brilliant at daybreak, diminish in lustre as the sun
ascends, but again brighten at his setting. The solar
orb itself, for some time before it finally departs for the
winter, and also after its reappearance in spring, tinges
the sky with hues of matchless splendour. The edges
of the clouds near that luminary often present a fiery
or burnished appearance, while the opposite horizon
glows with a deep purple, gradually softening as it
ascends into a delicate rose-colour of inconceivable
beauty. As at these periods he never rises more than
a few degrees above the horizon, he is, as it were, in a
state of permanent rising and setting, and seems to
exhibit longer and more variously the beautiful appear-
ances produced by that position. At this time the
naked eye can view him without being dazzled ; and
Captain Lyon considers the softened blush-colour that
his rays exhibit through frost as possessing a charm
which surpasses even that of an Italian sky.

Notwithstanding all these resources, the monotony
of the scene was beginning to be oppressive, when it
was relieved by an unexpected incident, which at-
tracted universal attention. On the morning of the
1st February, a number of distant figures were seen
moving over the ice, and, when they were viewed
through glasses, the cry was raised, " Esquimaux !
Esquimaux!" As it was of great importance to deal

Appearance
of natives.

PARRY AND LYON. 243

kindly and discreetly with these strangers, the two CHAP.VIL
commanders, attended by a small party, proceeded to- Fr j e ~j^
wards them, walking in files behind each other, that greetings
they might cause no alarm. The natives then formed
themselves into a line of twenty-one, advanced slowly,
and at length making a full stop, saluted the strangers
by the usual movement of beating their breasts. They
were substantially clothed in rich deer-skins, and ap-
peared a much quieter and more orderly race than their
rude countrymen of the Savage Islands. As soon as
the seamen produced their precious commodities, knives,
nails, and needles, an active traffic was set on foot ; and Traffla
the females, on seeing that much importance was at-
tached to the skins which constituted their clothing,
began immediately to strip them off. The captains
were alarmed for the consequences in a temperature
more than fifty degrees below the freezing point ; but
were soon consoled by observing that the ladies had
another comfortable suit under the furs. The strangers
were now cordially invited to enter their habitations,
to which they agreed most readily, although there ap-
peared no habitations to enter. However, they were
led to a hole in the snow, and instructed to place them-
selves on their hands and knees, in which position, dwellings,
having crept through a long winding passage, they
arrived at a little hall with a dome-shaped roof, whence
doors opened into three apartments, each occupied by a
separate family. These proved to be five distinct man-
sions, tenanted by sixty-four men, women, and children.
The materials and structure of these abodes were still
more singular than their position. Snow, the insepar-
able accompaniment of the northern tempests, became
here a protection against its own cold. It was formed
into curved slabs of about two feet long and half a foot
thick, put together by a most judicious masonry, so as
to present a species of structures resembling cupolas,'
rising about seven feet above the ground, and from
fourteen to sixteen in diameter. The mode of inserting
the key-slab, which bound the whole together, would,

244 MODERN NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. VII. it is said, have been satisfactory to the eye of a regularly
IcegiasI k rec * artist. A plate of ice in the roof served as a window,
and admitted the light as if through ground glass ; which,
when it shone on the interior of the mansions, in their
first state of pure transparency, produced soft tints of
green and blue. But, alas ! ere long, accumulated dirt,
smoke, and offal, converted these apartments into a scene
of blackness and stench. This little village appeared at
NaHve first like a cluster of hillocks amid the snow ; but suc-
viiiage. cessive falls filled up the vacuities, and converted it
almost into a smooth surface, so that even boys and dogs
were seen walking and sporting over the roofs ; though
'as summer and thaw advanced, a leg sometimes pene-
trated, and presented itself to the inmates below. Then,
too, the ceiling begins to drip ; and the tenants, after
repeatedly endeavouring to patch it with fresh slabs,
and catching, of course, some severe colds, are obliged
to betake themselves to a more durable covering. In
each room, suspended from the roof, burns a lamp,
with a long wick formed of a particular species of moss,
fed with the oil of the seal or the walrus, and serving
at once for light, heat, and cookery. The family sit
round the apartment on a bench formed of snow,
strewed with slender twigs, and covered with skins ;
but this part of the dwelling must be carefully kept a
good deal below the freezing-point, since a higher tem-
perature would speedily dissolve the walls of the frail
tenement.

After this friendly visit, an invitation was given to
the Esquimaux to repair to the ships, when fifty accepted
it with alacrity. Partly walking, and partly skipping,
they speedily reached the vessels, where a striking con-
geniality of spirit was soon found to exist between them
and the sailors ; boisterous fun forming to each the chief
source of enjoyment. A fiddle and drum being produced,
the natives struck up a dance, or rather a succession
of vehement leaps, accompanied with loud shouts and
yells. Seeing the Kabloonas, or Whites, as they called
our countrymen, engaged in the game of leap-frog, they

PARRY AND LYON. 247

attempted to join ; but not duly understanding how to CHAT. VII.
measure their movements, they made such over-leaps j^p f ro<? .
as sometimes to pitch on the erown of their heads :
however they sprang up quite unconcerned. Their
attention was specially attracted to the effects of a
which, by which one sailor drew towards him a party
of ten or twelve of their number, though grinning and
straining every nerve in resistance ; but finding all in
vain, they joined in the burst of good-humoured laugh-
ter till tears streamed from their eyes. One intelligent
old man followed Captain Lyon to the cabin, and surprise,
viewed with rational surprise various objects which
were presented. The performance of a hand-organ and
a musical snuff-box struck him with breathless ad-
miration ; and on seeing drawings of the Esquimaux
in Hudson's Strait, he soon understood them, and
pointed out the difference between their dress and
appearance and that of his own tribe. On viewing the
sketch of a bear, he raised a loud cry, drew up his Drawing of a
sleeves, and showed the scars of three deep wounds bear.
received in encounters with that terrible animal. The
crews were desirous to treat their visiters to such de-
licacies as the ship afforded, but were for some time at
a loss to discover how their palate might be best grati-
fied. Grog, the seaman's choicest luxury, only one old
woman could be induced to taste. Sugar, sweetmeats,
gingerbread, were accepted merely out of complaisance,
and eaten with manifest disgust ; but train oil, entrails of
animals, and any thing consisting of pure fat or grease,
were swallowed in immense quantities, and with symp-
toms of exquisite delight. This taste was first evinced
by an elderly female, who, having sold her oil-pot, took Esquimaux
care previously to empty the contents into her stomach, delicacies.
and lick it clean with her tongue, regardless though her
face was thereby rendered as black as soot. Captain
Lyon being disposed to ingratiate himself with rather a
handsome young damsel, presented her with a good
moulded candle, six in the pound. She immediately
began to eat off the tallow with every appearance oi

248

MODERN NORTH- WEST VOYAGES.

Water.

Wolves.

CHAP. Vli the greatest enjoyment, after which she thrust the wick
into her mouth ; hut the captain, concerned for the
consequences to this delicate virgin, insisted on pulling
it out. In preference to strong liquors they drank
water in the most enormous quantities, by gallons at a
time, and two quarts at a draught ; a supply of liquid
which is perhaps necessary to dissolve their gross food,
and which, being obtained only from snow artificially
melted, is a scarce article in winter.

The Esquimaux were attended by a large pack of
wolves, which seemed to follow them with the view
of picking up whatever might be found straggling or
defenceless about their habitation. These animals con-
tinued through the whole season intensely pressed with
hunger, and in eager watch for any victim which might
come within their reach. For this purpose they took
a station between the huts and the ships, ready to act
against either as circumstances might dictate. They did
not indeed attack the sailors, even when unarmed,
though they were often seen hovering through the
gloom in search of food ; but every stray dog was seized,
and in a few minutes devoured. Two broke into a snow-
house close to the vessels, and carried off each a dog
larger than himself ; but, being closely pursued, one of
them was obliged to drop his booty. In the extremity
of their hunger, in fact, they hesitated not to devour
the cables and canvass. A deadly war was therefore
waged against these fierce animals, of which thirteen
were killed in the course of the season, and sent to be
eaten by the Esquimaux, a present which was received
with much satisfaction.

As spring advanced, the attention of the officers was
almost wholly engrossed by the prospects of discovery
during the approaching summer. Their neighbours, by
no means destitute of intelligence, and accustomed to
shift continually from place to place, were found to
have acquired a very extensive knowledge of the seas
and coasts of this part of America. One female, in
particular, named Iligliuk, who bore even among her

seized.

Topo-
graphical
knowledge.

PARRY AND LYON. 249

countrymen the character of "a wise woman," was, CHAP. VTF.
after a little instruction, enabled to convey to the Esquir ^ ux
strangers 'the outlines of her geographical knowledge map.
in the form of a rude map. A pencil being put into
her hand, she traced the shore from Repulse Bay with
such a degree of accuracy as inspired great confidence
in what she might farther delineate. She then began
to exhibit a coast reaching far to the north, being, in
fact, the eastern limits of Melville Peninsula. Next
her pencil took a western direction, when her farther
progress was watched with the deepest interest ; in the
course of which she represented a strait between two
opposite lands, that extended westward till it opened
on each side, and spread into an ocean apparently un-
bounded. This sketch, which promised to fulfil their
most sanguine hopes, gratified the officers beyond
measure, and they loaded Iligliuk with attentions
which unluckily soon turned her head, and made her
so conceited and disdainful, that they were obliged to
discontinue their notice of her.

Captain Lyon, in the middle of March, undertook
a journey across a piece of land, lying between the
station of the ships and the continent, which had been
named Winter Island. The party were scarcely gone winter
when they encountered a heavy gale, bringing with it Islaad -
clouds of drift, and a cold so intense that they could
not stop for a moment without having their faces
covered with frost-bites. After some vain struggles
they determined to pitch their tent ; but as the tem-
perature within was at zero, and continually lowering,
they felt that they could not live through the night
under such shelter. They therefore dug a cave in the
earth, and by huddling together round a fire, immersed
in smoke, to which no vent was allowed, contrived to
keep up some portion of warmth, though still ten or
fifteen degrees below the freezing-point. In the morn-
ing their sledge was too deeply buried beneath the drift
to leave any hope of digging it out, and they could not
reach the ships, now six miles distant, except by pro-

250 MODERN NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

CHAP. VII. ceeding on foot through a tempest of snow falling so

Danjjersof thick that tney could not see a y ard Defore them,
the exploring Finding sometimes no track, sometimes several leading
party. m different directions, they were soon bewildered, and

wandered they knew not whither among heavy hum-
mocks of ice. The frost-bites were so numerous that
they could not muster hands enough to rub the parts
affected, and some began to sink into that dreadful in-
sensibility which is the prelude to death by cold, and
to reel about like drunken men. In fact, they had
resigned almost every hope of escape, when providenti-
ally there appeared a newly beaten track, which they
determined to follow, and in ten minutes it led them to
the ships. Their arrival there caused indescribable joy,
as they had been nearly given up for lost ; while no
one could be sent in search of them without imminent
risk of sharing their fate.

Snow Mind- ^ n ^ le 8tn ^- a y> * n a more favourable season, Cap-
ness, tain Lyon undertook another journey. In a few hours
he crossed Winter Island, and reached the strait se-
parating it from the continent, covered with heavy
grounded ice very difficult to walk upon. The sun,
now powerful, produced such a glare on the snow as
affected several of his attendants with severe blindness ;
while the only means of procuring water was by hold-
ing up plates of ice in the solar rays, by which they
were gradually melted. The party, having reached the
mainland, proceeded a considerable way along the coast,
crossing several bays ; but at last they came in view of
a bold cape, which they fondly hoped was the extreme
point of America. Here they were overtaken by a
storm of snow, but not accompanied like the other with
Snow storm. p er ii ous co \& . ft melted as it fell, and formed a pulp
which penetrated into their tents, yet did not dissolve
so completely as to be fit for drinking. This storm
kept them imprisoned sixty-eight hours ; which dreary
interval they enlivened by reading in turn from three
books they chanced to have with them, and as soon as the
sun began to gleam they hastened to return to the shipa

PARRY AND LYON. 251

The end of May presented a gloomy aspect, the CHAP. VIL
season being still more backward than in the more
northerly and rigorous climate of Melville Island. The May.
snow was melted only on some spots, and hardly any
symptoms of vegetation were yet visible ; but, as there
was an extent of open water in the sea without, Captain
Parry determined upon sawing his way to it. This
was a most laborious process, the ice being much thicker
and stronger than at the commencement of the season ;
and after the men had continued at it more than two
weeks, and were within forty-eight hours of completing
a canal, the body of the ice made a movement which
closed it entirely up. As they were looking on in
despair at this disaster, another passage opened, which
they attempted to render available ; but it, too, was
closed hi the same manner. Yet these agitations had
at last the effect of causing the whole mass to float out
into the open sea, and thus leaving to them an unob-
structed outlet.

On the 2d July they resumed their voyage of discovery. Voyage
They had a favourable run through this entrance, which resumed -
formed a continuation of Fox's Channel ; but a strong
current from the north was still bringing down the ice
with great force. The Hecla underwent some severe
pressures, and, within five or six hundred yards of the
Fury, two large floes dashed against each other with such
a tremendous concussion that numberless huge masses
were thrown fifty or sixty feet into the air. The vessel, Escape of the
had she come for a second within the sphere of these Fur y-
movements, must have been crushed to pieces, happily
she escaped. This current, however, was highly pro-
mising, since it could not be traced to the mouth of
Hudson's Strait, and must therefore, they concluded,
have come from the Western Ocean, which they were
so anxious to reach.

The ice passed by, and the ships proceeded with a
favouring wind and tide. The shores began now to put
on their summer aspect ; the snow had nearly disap-
peared ; and the ground was covered with the richest

252

MODERN NORTH- WEST VOYAGES.

Barrow
River.

Walruses.

Coast dis-
covered.

CRAP. vii. bloom of Arctic vegetation. The navigators came to a
fine river named Barrow, which formed a most pictur-
esque fall down rocks richly fringed with very brilliant
plants. Here the rein- deer sporting, the eider-duck, the
golden-plover, and the snow-bunting, spreading their
wings, produced a gay and delightful scene. On the
1 4th they reached the island of Amitioke, which had
been described as situated near the strait they were then
endeavouring to attain. They saw about two hundred
walruses lying piled, as usual, over each other on the
loose drift-ice. A boat's crew from each ship proceeded
to the attack ; but these gallant amphibia, some with
their cubs mounted on their backs, made the most des-
perate resistance, and one of them tore the planks of a
boat in two or three places. Three only were killed,
the flesh of which was found tolerable, affording a
variety amid the ordinary sea-diet.

The discoverers now proceeded northwards, and saw
before them a bold and high range of coast, apparently
separated from that along which they were sailing. This
feature, agreeing with the indications of Iligliuk, flattered
them that they were approaching the strait exhibited by
her as forming the entrance into the Polar Basin. They
pushed on full of hope and animation, and were farther
cheered by reaching the small island of Igloolik, which
she had described as situated at the very commencement
of the passage. Accordingly, they soon saw the strait
stretching westward before them in long perspective ;
but, alas ! they discovered at the same moment an un-
broken sheet of ice from shore to shore, crossing and
blocking up the passage ; and this not a loose accidental
floe, but the field of the preceding winter, on which the
midsummer sun had not produced the slightest change.
Unable to advance a single step, they amused themselves
with land-excursions in different directions ; and Captain
Parry at length determined, on the 14th August, with a
party of six, to undertake an expedition along the frozen
surface of the strait. The journey was very laborious,
the ice being sometimes thrown up in rugged hummocks,

Impediment
of ice

PARRY AND LYON. 253

and occasionally leaving large spaces of open water, which CHAP. VTL
it was necessary to cross on a plank, or on pieces of ice, Q ver f^
instead of boats. In four days they came in view of a expeditioa
peninsula terminated by a bold cape, the approach to
which was guarded by successive ranges of strata, resem-
bling the tiers or galleries of a commanding fortification.
The party, however, scrambled to the summit, whence
they enjoyed a most gratifying spectacle. They were
at the narrowest part of the strait, here about two miles
across, with a tide or current running through it at the
rate of two miles an hour. Westward the shores on Fo]ar Se ^
each side receded till, for three points of the compass and
amid a clear horizon, no land was visible. The captain
doubted not that from this position he beheld the Polar
Sea ; into which, notwithstanding the formidable bar-
riers of ice which intervened, he cherished the most
sanguine hopes of forcing his way. He named this the
Strait of the Fury and Hecla, and gave the sailors an
extra can of grog, to drink a safe and speedy passage
through its channel.

He now lost no time in returning to the ships, where
his arrival was very seasonable ; for the opposing barrier, ^'ce PPear
which had been gradually softening and Breaking into f tlie ic e
various rents and fissures, at once almost entirely dis-
appeared, and the vessels next morning were in open
water. On the 21st they got under weigh ; and, though
retarded by fogs and other obstructions, had arrived on
the 26th at that central and narrowest channel which
the commander had formerly reached. A brisk breeze
now sprang up, the sky cleared, they dashed across a
current of three or four knots an hour, and sanguinely
hoped for an entire success, which would compensate so
many delays and disappointments. Suddenly it was
announced from the crow's nest, that ice, in a continuous
field, unmoved from its winter station, occupied the
whole breadth of the channel. In an hour they reached
this barrier, which they found soft, porous, and what is
termed rotten. Spreading all their canvass, they bore
down upon it, and actually forced their way through a

254

MODERN NORTH-WEST VOYAGES.

Western
land expe-
dition.

CHAP. vii. space of three or four hundred yards ; but there they
Voyageln- stuck > and found their progress arrested by an impene-
termpted. trable mass. From this point, during the whole season,
the ships were unable to advance a single yard ; nor had
the crews any means of exerting their activity except
in land-journeys. Captain Lyon undertook an expedi-
tion southward, to ascertain if any inlet or passage from
sea to sea, in this direction, had escaped notice. The
country, however, was so filled with rugged and rocky
hills, some a thousand feet high, and with chains of lakes
in which much ice was floating, that he could not pro-
ceed above seven miles. Though it was the beginning of
September, the season was only that of early spring ; and
the buds of the poppy and saxifrage were just unfold-
ing, to be prematurely nipped by the fast-approaching
winter.

More satisfactory information was derived from an-
other excursion made by Messrs Reid and Bushman,
who penetrated sixty miles westward along the southern
coast of Cockburn Island, till they reached a pinnacle,
whence they saw, beyond all doubt, the Polar Ocean
spreading its vast expanse before them ; but tremendous
barriers of ice filled the strait, and precluded all approach
towards that great and desired object.

It was now the middle of September, and the usual
symptoms, of deer trooping in herds southward, floating
pieces of ice consolidating into masses, and the thin pan-
cake-crust forming on the surface of the waters, reminded
the mariners, not only that they could hope for no farther
removal of