DOMESTIC ANIMALS
HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION
HORSE, MULE, CATTLE, SHEEP, SWINE,
POULTRY, AND FARM DOGS.
WITH DIRECTIONS FOR
THEIR MANAGEMENT, BREEDING, CROSSING, REARING.
FEEDING, AND PREPARATION FOR A
PROFITABLE MARKET
ALSO,
^"HEIR PJSEASES, AND REMEDIES.
TOGETHER WITH
FULL DIRECTIONS FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE DAIRY.
By R. L. ALLEN,
AUTHOR OF " COMPEND OF AMERICAN AGHICULTURK," ETC.
NEW YOEK:
O. M. SAX TON & COMPANY,
Agricultural Book Publishers, 140 Fulton St.
1857.
Entered tccdftl ng to an Act of Congress in the year 1847
Bt RICHARD L. ALLEN,
Id tht Clem s Uffi ;e of the District Court of the United States for the Boathen
District of New York.
INTEODUCTION.
The object of the following work, on the History, Breeding,
Manao^ement, Diseases, &c., of Domestic Animals, is to afford
the Stock-breeder and Grazier a connected view of the entire
subject in which he has so deep an interest. The writer has
endeavored to compress within the limited space assumed as
necessary to secure a general circulation and perusal, such
principles and practice, and give to each that relative promi-
nence, which it becomes the practical man to observe, to
realize the greatest amount of value for the labor and capital
devoted to his pursuits.
Their history is essential, as it shows theh introduction into
the United States, their progress during the various stages of
their improvement, and the comparative value of the improved
and ordinary breeds. A knowledge of the best mode of
breeding and management is of still higher importance. The
first will enable the breeder to preserve the high character of
the animals in his hands, or perhaps still farther to advance
them; while proper management and feeding will prevent
that deterioration and loss from disease, which frequently
subtract so much from his profits.
A larger space has been purposely devoted to the last
topics, in preference to the subject of diseases, as prevention is
not only less troublesome than cure, but much more econom-
ical. Feeding and management, after breeding, are really the
important objects in view to the Stock-breeder and Graziei, for
if these be judiciously attended to, disease among the herda
will rarely be known.
6 INTRODUCTION.
The subject of animal diseases is complicated and little un-
derstood ; and to be properly comprehended, requires years
of close, inteUigent study, under every advantage for obtaining
the necessary information. Nearly every disorder assumes
various shades of difference, and to remove it eftectually a
corresponding change of treatment is required. How absurd
then the idea, that a compilation of formal remedies, adminis-
tered by an unskilful or inexperienced manager, will be of
material service in rescuing his herds or flocks from the rava-
ges of disease. All that can consistently be done, is to give
a few simple remedies for the most common and well-known
ailments, and leave to nature or a professional farrier, such as
are more complex or unusual.
This work (with many subsequent and important additions)
constitutes a small part of the " Compend of American Agri-
culture," the favorable reception of which, though but recently
given to the public, has induced the writer to offer this im
pcrtant division of the subject in its present detached form.
r^ew York, November. 18 i7.
INDEX.
Animals, domestio, reared in the U.
States 9
their number and value 9
their improvement 10
adaptation to various objects. . . JO
general form and characteristics 13
the lungs 11
respiration 14
etfects of 17
perspiratior» — IS
food which supplies respiration. 18
circumstances which augment
respiration 19
food 21
purposes fulfilled by food 22
nutritive qualities for various
animals-. ■ 23
profit of feeding 25
See Cattle, Sheep, &c.
Ass, the 181
varieties 181
characteristics 182
breeding in the U. States Ib2
as a beast of burden 183
Breeding— principles of 11
See Cattle, Sheep, &c.
Cattle— neat or horned 26
various domestic breeds 20
native cattle 27
Devons 29
short-horns 30
Herefords 35
Ayrshire •. . 38
management of calves 39
Dreeding 41
breaking steers 42
management of oxen 42
fattening and stall-feeding 45
Diseases 41, 50
ho veil 50
choking 52
inflammation of stomach 52
mange or scab 52
horn-ail— jaundice 53
mad-itch— bloody murrain 54
hoof-ail 55
loss of cud — scours or diarrhoea
— warbles or grubs— wounds
— puerperal or milk-fever 56
caked bags— garget— sore teats
— warts 57
Cows for dairy 60
management of 61
milking Gl
See Dairy.
Comparative value of oxen and
horses 190
Churns 69
Dairy, the 60
Dairy— selection and management of
cows ••60,61
milking 51
properties of milk 6S
variations in 63
cream — clouted ditto ti5
Making butter from sour, sweet,
and clouted cream 60, 67
sourness of cream 68
quickness in churning^ 68
over-churnirig , 69
temperature of milk and cream- 69
advantages of churn'g the whole 69
cleanliness in churning ... 70
premium butter, how made 70
Orange county do. do 71
Making cheese, how effected 72
creamed and uncreamed 73
buttermilk cheese 73
whey do 74
vegetable substances added — 74
preparation of rennet 75
diff'erent qualities of cheese 77
warming the milk 77
quality of rennet 73
quantity of rennet 78
treatment of curd 79
separation of whey 80
cheese, salting 81
addition of cream 81
size of cheese 81
mode of curing 82
ammoniacal cheese 82
inoculating do. 62
premium cheese, how made — 83
Ducks— see Poultry.
Farm dogs 207-214
Feeding defined 21
See Cattle, Sheep, &c.
Food, comparative nutritive qual-
ities of 22
how given,purposes fulfilled by it 22
changes in 24
See Animals, Products, &c.
Geese— see Poultry.
Guinea-hen — see ditto.
Hens— see Poultry.
Kinny— see Ass,
Horse— the Arabian and Barb 138
the English 139
American 141
Arabians in America 139, 140 ,.
Ranger, the Barb — Bussorah —
Narraganset pacers— Messen-
ger, imported 140
Morgan horses 142
Canadian and Spanish 143
Conestoga 143
Norman 144
Cart, Cleveland bay, Belfounder 143
INDEX.
iTAGE
florses— Eclipse, American 141
points of 146
habits 147
breeding 148
management of colts 149
breaking 150
longevity, feeding 151
Diseases 1 54
glanders 154
lampas, heaves, &c 155
catarrh or distemper, spasmod-
ic colic 156
flatulent colic 158
inflammation of bowels 159
physicking 162
v/orms 164
Lots 164
wind-galls 165
the fetlock..... 166
cutting 166
sprain of the coflln-joint— ring-
bone 167
enlargement of the hock 168
curb 168
bone-spavin — swelled legs 170
grease 171
setons 173
founder — poison from weeds ... 174
inflammation of the eyes 175
stings of hornets, &c 175
sprain 175
braises — fistula 176
wounds — galls 176
shoeing, contraction of the foot. 176
corns 177
over-reach, forging or clicking. . 178
the bearing-rein 178
the bit 179
stables 180
comparati've labor with oxen • . 190
M lie, the— breeding in the U. S. . . . 183
rearing and management 184
advantages over horse-labor ... 185
valuable qualities 185
enduringness of 186
in California 188
economy of mule-labor 189
Poultry — their value 214
Hens— constituent of eggs 214
food 215
general management 216
the poultry-house 218
varieties 220, 221
diseases 222
Turkey, the 223
breeding and management 223
Peacock, the 224
Goose, the — varieties— breeding. . 225
feeding and food 225
Ducks— feeding— varieties 226
breeding and rearing 227
iSbeep, the 84
uses of— importance of 85
varieties of wild — domesticated 87
native 89
Paob
Sheep— the Merino, history of 90
exportation from Spain 92
importation into the U. States.. 93
varieties 94
Saxon, the 96
Rambouillet, the 99
history of Merino in U. States. . 101
improvements of 102
peculiarities of 103
breeding 104
localities for rearing 106
South-Down, the, history of 106
Cheviot, the 109
Long-wools, the 110
improvement of the Bakewell-. 110
improvement of Cotswold and
Lincolnshire 112
peculiarities of the Long-wools. 113
importation into the U. States.. 113
breeding sheep 113
Winter management 116
sheep-barns fiiid sheds 116
racks, mangers, and troughs ... 117
food lis
management of ewes, yeaning. . 119
management of lambs 119
castrating and docking 120
tagging or clatting 121
Summer management and food . . 121
washing 122
shearing 124
smearing and salving 125
weaning 126
drafting 126
stall-feeding — management on
the prairies 127
Diseases 128
diarrhoea or scours 129
looseness in lambs, dysentery.. 130
hoven, braxy ." 130
costiveness, stretches, poison,
inflammation of lungs, rot ... 131
foot-rot 132
flies, maggots, gad-fly 133
swollen mouth, foul noses, weak-
ness, scab 134
ticks, pelt-rot, staggers or sturdy 135
abortion, garget, bleeding 136
wounds 137
to protect from wolves and foxes 138
Shepherd's dog 209
Swine 192
various breeds 194
breeding and rearing 198
rearing and fattening, large
weights 199
treatment of food 201
products of the carcass 202
lard oil, how made 203
stearine and oleine 203
curing pork and hams 203
Diseases 204
coughs and inflammation of the
lungs, costiveness, itch, kid-
ney-worm 205
blind staggers 206
Wild Boar 193
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS— GENERAL PRINCIPIES OF
BREEDING, NUTRITION, MANAGEMENT, &c.
The principal domestic animals reared for economical pm--
poses in the United States, are Horned or neat cattle, the
Horse, the Mule, Sheep, and Swine. A few Asses are bred,
but for no other object than to keep up the supply of jacks
for propagating mules. We have also goats, rabbits, and the
house domestics, the dog and cat ; the two former, only in
very limited numbers, but both the latter much beyond our
legitimate wants. There have been a few specimens of the
Alpaca imported, and an arrangement is now in progress for
the introduction of a flock of several hundred, which, if dis-
tributed among intelligent and wealthy agriculturists, as pro-
posed, will test their value for increasing our agricultural
resources. We shall confine ourselves to some general con-
siderations, connected with the first-mentioned and most im-
portant of our domestic animals.
Their number as shown by the agricultural statistics col-
lected in 1839, by order of our General Government, was
15,000,000 neat cattle ; 4,335,000 horses and mules, (the
number of each not being specified ;) 19,311,000 sheep ; and
26,300,000 swine. There is much reason to question the entire
accuracy of these returns, yet there is doubtless an approxima-
tion to the truth. Sheep have greatly increased since that
period, and would probably number, the present year, (1848,)
not less than 30,000,000 ; and if our own manufactures con-
tinue to thrive, and we should moreover become wool exporters,
of which there is now a reasonable prospect, an accurate re-
tarn for 1850, will undoubtedl}^ give us not ^ess than 33,000,000
for the entire Union. There has been a i eat increase in the
10 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
value of tho other animals enumerated, but not in a ratio cor-
responding with that of sheep. This is not only manifest in
their augmented numbers, but in the gradual and steady im-
provement of the species.
It may be safely predicted, that this improvement will not
only be sustained, but largely increased ; for there are some
intelligent and spirited breeders to be found in every section
of the country, whose liberal exertions and successful examples
are doing much for this object. Wherc/er intelligence and
sound judgment are to be found, it will be impossible long to
resist the effects of a comparison between animals, which, on
an equal quantity of the same food, with the same attention
and in the same time, will return 50, 20, or even 10 per cent,
more in their intrinsic value or marketable pioduct, than the
ordinary class. This improvement has been, relatively, most
conspicuous in the Western and Southern states ; not that the
present average of excellence in their animals surpasses, or
even reaches that of the North and East ; bui the latter have
long been pursuing this object, with more or less energy, and
they have for many years had large numbers of excellent
specimens of each variety ; Avhile with few exceptions, if we
exclude the blood-horse or racing nag, the former have, till
recently, paid comparatively little attention to the improvement
of their domestic animals. The spirit for improvement through
extensive sections, is now awakened, and the older settled por-
tions of the country may hereafter expect competitors, whose
success will be fully commensurate with their own. Before
going into the management of the different varieties, we will
give some general principles and remarks applicable to the
treatment of all.
The purpose for which animals are required, should be first
determined, before selecting such as may be necessary either
for breeding or use. Throughout the Northeastern states,
cows for the dairy, oxen for the yoke, and both for the butcher,
are wanted. In much of the West and South, beef alone is
the principal object ; while the dairy is neglected, and the work
of the ox is seldom relied on, except for occasional drudgery.
Sheep may be wanted almost exclusively for the fleece, or
for the fleece and heavy mutton, or in the neighborhood of
markets, for large early lambs. The pastures and winter
food, chmate, and other conditions, present additional circum-
stances, which should be well considered before determining
on the particular br'^ed, either of cattle or sheep, that Avill best
promote the intereis of the farmer.
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING. 11
The kind of work for which the horse may be wanted, whether
as a roadster, for the saddle, as a heavy team horse, or the horse
of all work, must be first decided, before selecting the form or
character of the animal.
The range of pig excellence is more circumscribed, as it is
onl}^ necessary to breed such as will yield the greatest amount
of valuable carcass, within the shortest time, and with the least
expense.
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING.
All breeding is founded on the principle, that like begets like.
This is, however, liable to some exceptions, and is much
more generally true when breeding dovjn than when breeding
up. If two animals (which can never be exactly similar in all
respects) are requisite to the perpetuation of the species, it
necessarily results, that the progeny must differ in a more or
less degree from each parent. With wild animals, and such
of the domestic as are allowed to propagate without the inter-
ference of art, and whose liabits, treatment, and food are
nearly similar to their natural condition, the change through
successive generations is scarcely perceptible. It is only
when we attempt to improve their good qualities, that it is
essential carefully to determine, and rigidly to apply, what are
adopted as the present scientific principles of breeding. We
cannot beheve that v/e have penetrated beyond the mere
threshold of this art. Unless, then, we launch into experi-
ments, which are necessarily attended with uncertainty, our
duty will be, to take for our guide the most successful prac-
tice of modern times, until further discoveries enable us to
modify or add to such as are already known and adopted.
We may assume, then, as the present rules for this art,
1st. That the animals selected for breed, should imite in
themselves all the good qualities we wish to perpetuate in the
offspring.
2d. These qualities, technically called points^ should be in-
bred in the animals as far as practicable, by a long line of
descent from parents similarly constituted. The necessity for
this rule is evident from the fact, that in mixing different spe-
cies, and especially mongrels, with a long-established breed,
the latter will most stx^^ngly stamp the issue with its own
peculiarities. This is forcibly illustrated in the case of the
Devon cattle, an ancient race, wh?se color, form, and charac-
teristics are strikingly perpetuated, sometimes to the six h or
12 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
even a later generation. So far is this principle carried by
many experienced breeders, that they will use an animal of
indifferent external appearance, but of approved descent, (blood,)
in preference to a decidedly superior one, whose pedigree is
imperfect.
3d. All the conditions of soil, situation, climate, treatment,
and food, should be favorable to the object sought.
4th. As a general rule, the female should be relatively larger
than the male. This gives ample room for the perfect devel-
opment of the foetus, easy partmition, and a large supply of
milk for the offspring, at a period in its existence, when food
has a greater influence in perfecting character and form, than
at any subsequent time.
5th. Exceptions to this rule may be made, when greater size
is required than can be obtained from the female, and espe-
cially when more vigor and hardiness of constitution are de-
sirable. For this purpose, strong masculine development in
the sire is proper, and if otherwise unattainable, something of
coarseness may be admitted, as this may be afterwards cor-
rected, and nothing will atone for want of constitution and
strength.
6th., Pairing should be with a strict reference to correcting
the imperfections of one animal, by a corresponding excellence
in the other.
7th. Breeding in-and-in, or propagating from animals nearly
allied, may be tolerated under certain circumstances, though
seldom ; and only in extreme cases between those of the same
generation, as brother and sister. When the animal possesses
much stamina and peculiar merit, which it is desired to per-
petuate in the breed, it may be done either in the ascending or
descending line, as in breeding the son to the parent, or the
parent to his own progeny. This has been practised with de-
cided advantage, and in some cases has even been continued
successively, as low as the sixth generation.
8th. It is alwaj^s better to avoid close relationship, by the
selection of equally meritorious stock-getters of the same breed,
from other sources.
9th. Wholesome, nutritious food, at all times sufficient to
keep the animals steadily advancing, should be provided, but
they must never be allowed to get fat. Of the two evils^
starving is preferable to surfeit. Careful treatment, and the
absence of disease, must be always fully considered.
10th. Animals should never be allowed to breed either too
early or too late ir hfe. These periods cannot be arbitrarily
GENERAL FORM AND CHARACTERISTICS. 13
laid down, but must depend on their time of matunty, the
longevity of the breed, and the stamina of the individual.
11th. No violent cross, or mixing of distinct breeds, should
ever be admitted for the purposes of perpetuation, as of cattle
of diverse sizes ; horses of unlike characters ; the Merino and
the lono;-wools, or even the long^, or short, and the middle-wools.
For carcass and constitution, these crosses are unexceptiona-
ble ; and it is a practice very common in this country, and
judicious enough where the whole produce is early destined
for the shambles. But when the progeny are designed for
breeders, the practice should be branded with unqualified
reprehension.
GENERAL FORM AND CHARACTERISTICS.
Within certain limits, these may be reduced to a common
standard. All animals should have a good head, well set up ;
a clean fine muzzle, and a bright, clear and full, yet per-
fectly placid eye. With the exception of the dog and cat,
whose original nature is ferocity, and whose Avhole life, un-
less diverted from their natural instincts, is plunder and
prey ; and the jockey racehorse, which is required to take
the purse, at any hazard of fife or limb to the groom ; a mild,
quiet eye is indispensable to the profitable use of the domes-
tic brute. The neck should be well formed, not too long,
tapering to its junction with the head, and gradually enlarg-
ing to a firm, well-expanded attachment to the back, shoulders,
and breast. The back or chine should be short, straight, and
broad ; the ribs springing out from the backbone netirly at
right angles, giving a rounded appearance to the carcass,
and reaching well behind to a close proximity to the hip ;
tail well set on, and full at its junction with the body, yet
gradually tapering to fineness ; thighs, fore-arms, and crops
well developed ; projecting breast or brisket ; the fore-legs
straigjit, and hind ones properly bent, strong and full where
attached to the carcass, but small and tapering below ; good
and sound joints ; dense, strong bones, but not large ; plenty
of fine muscle in the right places ; and hair or wool, fine and
soft. The chest in all animals should be full, for it will be in-
variably found, that only such will do the most work, or fat-
ten easiest on the lea^, i)od.
2
V4 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
The Lungs.
From the last-mentioned principle, founded on long ex-
perience and observation, Cline inferred, and he has laid it
down as an incontrovertible position, that the lungs should
always be large ; and Youatt expresses the same opinion.
This is undoubtedly correct as to worldng beasts, the horse
and the ox, which require full and free respiration, to enable
them to sustain great muscular efforts. But later physiolo-
gists have assumed, perhaps from closer and more accurate
observations, that the fattening propensity is in the ratio of
the smallness of the lungs. Earl Spencer has observed, that
this is fully shown in the pig, the sheep, the ox, and the
horse, whose aptitude to fatten and smallness of lungs, are in
the order enumerated.
This position is further illustrated by the different breeds of
the same classes of animals. The Leicester sheep have
smaller lungs than the South Down; and it has been found,
that a number of the former, on a given quantity of food,
and in the same time, reached 28 lbs. a quarter, while the
South Downs with a greater consumption of food, attained in
the same period, only 18 lbs. The Chinese pigs have much
smaller lungs than the Irish, and the former will fatten to a
given weight, on a much less quantity of food than the latter.
\Playfair.) The principle would seem to be corroborated by
the fact, that animals generally fatten faster in proportion to
the quantity of food they consume, as they advance towards
a certain stage of maturity ; during all Avhich time, the secre-
tion of internal fat is gradually compressing the size, by re-
ducing the ruom for the action of the lunc{s. Hence, the
advantage of carrying the fattening beast to an advanced
point, by which not only the quality of carcass is improved,
but the quantity is relatively greater for the amount of food
consumed. These views are intimately connected, and fully
correspond, with the principles of
RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS.
From careful experiments, it has been found that all ani-
mals daily consume a much larger quantity of food than the
aggregate of what may have been retained in the system,
added to what has been expelled in the foeces and urine, and
RESPIRATION IN ANIMALS. 15
vfhat has escaped by perspiration. Boussingault, who com-
bines the characteristics of an ingenious chemist, a vigilant
observer, and a practical agriculturist, made an experiment
with a '* milch-cow and a full-grown horse, which were placed
in stalls so contrived that the droppings and the urine could
be collected without loss. Before being made the subjects of
experiment, the animals were ballasted or fed for a month
with the same ration that Avas furnished to them, during the
three days and three nights which they passed in the ex-
perimental stalls. During the month, the weight of the ani-
mals did not vary sensibly, a circumstance which happily en-
ables us to assume that neither did the weight vary durnig
the seventy-two hours when they were under especial obser-
vation.
The cow was foddered with after-math, hay, and potatoes ;
the horse with the same hay and oats. The quantities of
forage were accurately weighed, and their precise degree of
moistness and their composition were determined from average
samples. The water drunk was measured, its sahne and earthy
constituents having been previously ascertained. The excre-
mentitious matters passed, were of course collected with the
greatest care ; the excrements, the urine, and the milk were
weighed, and the constitution of the whole estimated from
elementary analyses of average speclraens of each. The re-
sults of the two experiments are given in the table on the next
page.
The oxygen and hydrogen that are not accounted for in
the sum of the products have not disappeared in the precise
proportions requisite to form water ; the excess of hydrogen
amounts to as many as from 13 to 15 dwts. It is probable
that this hydrogen of the food became changed into water by
combining dur.ng respiration with the oxygen of the air."
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
FOOD CONSUMED BY THE HORSE IN 24 HOURS.
Weight in
tlie wet
Btate.
Weight in
the dry
state.
Elementar
y Matter in
the Food.
Forage.
Carbon.
Hjdrogeo.
Oxygen.
Azote.
Palts and
Earths,
ar.-. : : : : : :
Water
lbs.
20
6
43
lbs. OZ.
17 4
5 2
lbs. OZ.
7 11
2 7
lb. OZ dwt
0 10 7
0 3 18
lb. OZ. dwt.
6 8 8
1 10 14
8 7 2
lb. OZ. d-*t.
0 3 2
0 1 7
...
lb. OZ. Uwt.
I 6 14
0 2 10
0 0 8
Total
69
22 6
10 6
1 2 5
0 4 9
1 9 12
PRODUCTS VOIDED B^
THE HORSE IN
24 HOURS.
Weight in
the wet
state.
Weight m
the dry
state.
Elementary Matter in the Products.
Products.
Ca-'bon.
Hydrogen.
Oxygen.
Azote.
Salts and
Earths.
U.ine
Excrements ....
lb. cz. dwt.
3 6 15
as 2 2
n 8 17
69 0 0
lb. OZ. dwt
9 9 l-l
9 5 6
10 3 0
22 6 0
lb. OZ dwi.
0 3 10
3 7 17
3 11 7
10 6 0
lb. oz.dwt.
0 0 7
0 5 15
0 6 2
1 2 5
lb. oz.dwt.
0 1 2
3 6 14
ib. OZ. dwt.
0 1 4
0 2 10
lb. OZ. dwt.
0 3 10
1 6 10
Total
Total matter oH
the food S •
3 7 16
8 7 2
0 3 14
0 4 9
1 10 C
1 9 IS
Difference
27 3 3
12 3 0
6 6 13
0 8 3 4 11 6
0 0 15
0 0 8
WATER CONSUMED BY THE HORSE
IN 24 HOURS.
WATER VOIDED B\ THE HORSE
IN 24 HOURS.
With the hay
With the oats
.
lbs.
2
0
35
38
OZ.
3
14
3
4
With the urine
With the excrements
Total voided
Water consumed
lbs.
2
Is"
38
OZ.
6
8
Total consumed ....
IT
4
Water exhaled by pulmonary a
nd cutanoriiis
transp
ration
12
6
FOOD CONSUMED BY THE COW IN i
J4 HOURS.
Weight in
the wet
stale.
Weight in
llie dry
Elate.
Elementary Matter in the Food.
Fodder.
Carbon.
Hydrogen.
Ib. cz dwt.
0 7 15
0 U 7
Oxygen.
Azote.
Salts and
Earihs.
lb. OZ. dwt.
40 2 5
20 1 2
160 0 0
220 3 7
lb. OZ. dwt.
11 2 1
16 11 0
lb. oz.dwt.
4 11 2
7 11 11
Ib. OZ dwt.
4 10 17
5 10 17
lb. OZ. dwt.
0 1 12
0 4 17
lb. OZ. dwt.
0 6 13
After-math hay .
Water . . . .
•
1 8 6
0 1 12
Total. . . .
28 1 1
12 10 13
1 7 2
10 9 14
0 6 9
2 4 11
PRODUCTS VOIDED BY THE COW IN 24 HOURS,
Excrements
Urine , ,
Milk, . ,
Total
" matter of food
Difference
Weight in
the wet
Btate.
lb.
iz. d
wt.
76
1
9
21
11
12
22
10
10
120
) 1
11
L'20
3
7
Weight in
the dry
state.
Ib.
10
2
6 17
1 0
28
4 9
1 1
11
8 12
Elementary Matter in the Product*.
Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Azote.
lb.
4
0
7 0
8 7
8 3
6
12
11 10
10 13
lb.
0
0
0
OZ. dwt.
6 13
0 16
0
10 12
7 2
Salts and
Earths.
1 3 8
1 0 6
0 1 16
WATER CONSUMED BY THE COW
IN 24 HOURS.
With th} potatoes
With the hay . .
Taken as drnik .
Total consumed
WATER VOIDED BY THE COW
IN 24 HOURS.
With the excrements
With the urine . ,
With the milk, . .
Total voided .
Water consumed
Water pasud off by pulmonary and cutanooui tranapiratiou
lbs.
OZ
53
10
15
14
16
a
85
11
158
5
72
«
, THE EFFECTS OF RESPIRATION. 17
Wc here perceive a large loss of water, carbon, hydrogen,
&c. Nearly all this loss of carbon and hydrogen escaped by
respiration, while most of the water, oxygen, nitrogen, and
sahs, passed off in perspiration. In further illustration of the
subject of respiration, Liebig ssljs, " from the accurate deter-
mination of the quantity of carbon daily taken into the system
in .the food, as well as of that proportion of it which passes out
of the body in the fceces and urine, unhurned, that is, in some
form uncombined with oxygen, it appears that an adult taking
moderate exercise, consumes 13.9 oz. of carbon daily." The
foregoing are facts in the animal economy, capable of vast
practical bearing in the management of our domestic ani-
mals. But before following out these principles to their ap-
pHcation, let us briefly examine
The Effects of Respiration.
We have seen from the experiment of Boussingault, that
there is a loss of 6 lbs. 6 oz. of carbon, and 8 oz. 3 dwt. of
hydrogen in the food of the horse, and something less in that
of the cow, every 24 hours, which has not been left in the
system, nor has it escaped by the evacuations. What has
become of so large an amount of solid matter ? It has escaped
through the lungs and been converted into air. The carbon
and hydrogen of the food have undergone those various trans-
formations which are peculiar to the animal economy, diges-
tion, assimilation, &c., which it is not necessary, nor will our
limits permit us here to explain ; and they appear at last in
the veinous blood, which in the course of its circulation is
brought into the cells of the lungs. The air inhaled is sent
through every part of their innumerable meshes, and is there
separated from the blood, only by the dehcate tissues or mem-
branes which enclose it. A portion of the carbon and hydro-
gen escapes from the blood into the air-cells, and at the instant
of their contact with the ai]-, they affect a chemical union with
its oxygen, forming carbonic acid and the vapor of water,
which is then expired, and a fresh supply of oxygen is inhaled.
This operation is again repeated, through every successive
moment of animal existence.
Besides other purposes which it is probably designed to
subserve, but which have hitherto eluded the keenest research
of chemical physiology, one ob\dous result of respiration is,
the elevation of the temperature of the animal system. By
the ever-operating laws of nature, this chemical union of two
2^
18 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
bodies in the formation of a third, disengages latent heat,
which taking place in contact with the blood, is by it difiused
throughout the whole frame. The effect is precisely analogous
to the combustion of fuel, oils, &c., in the open air.
Perspiration
Is the counteracting agent which modifies this result, and
prevents the injurious effects, which, under exposure to great
external heat, would ensure certain destruction. And this too,
it will have been seen, is provided at the expense of the animal
food. When from excessive heat, caused by violent exercise
or otherwise, by which respiration is accelerated and the ani-
mal temperature becomes elevated, the papillae of the skin
pour the limpid fluid through their innumerable ducts, which
in its conversion into vapor, seize upon the animal heat and
remove it from the system, producing that dehcious coolness
so grateful to the laboring man and beast in a sultry summer's
day. These two opposing principles, like the antagonistic
operations of the regulator in mechanics, keep up a perfect
balance in the vital machine, and enable that entire division of
the animal creation, distinguished as warm-blooded, including
man and the brute, all the feathered tribes, the whale, the
seal, the walrus, (fee, to maintain an equilibrium of temperature,
whether under the equator or the poles ; on the peaks of
Chimborazo, the burning sands of Zahara, or plunged in the
depths of the Arctic Ocean.
The connection between the size of the kmgs, and the apti-
tude of animals to fatten, will be more apparent from the fact,
that the carbon and hydrogen which are abstracted, constitute
two of the only three elements of fat. The larger size, the
fuller play, and the greater activity of the lungs, by exhausting
more of the materials of fat, must necessaiily diminish its
formation in the animal system ; unless it can be shown, which
has never yet been done, that the removal of a portion of the
fat-forming principles accelerates the assimilation of the re-
mainder.
The Food whicli supplies Respiration.
This, in the herbiverous animals, after they are deprived of
the milk, which furnishes it in abundance, m the starch, gum,
sugar, vegetable fats, and oils that exist in the vegetables,
grain, and roots whicli they consume; and in certain cases
ClflCDMSTANCEd WHICH AUGMENT RESPIRATION. 19
^ where there is a deficiency of other food, it is sparingly fur-
nished in woody and cellular fibre. All these substances con-
stitute the principal part of dry vegetable food, and are made
up of three elements, lohich in starch, gum, cane-sugar, and
cellulur fibre, exist in precisely the sa.me proportions, viz: 44 per
cent, of carbon, 6.2 of hydrogen, and 49.8 of oxygen.
Grape sugar, woody fibre, and vegetable and animal fats
and oils are made up of the same elements, but in different
proportions, the last containing much more carbon and hydro-
gen than those above specified. In the fattening animals, it is
supposed the vegetable fats and oils are immediately trans-
ferred to the fat cells, undergoing only such shght modifica-
tion as perfectly adapts them to the animal economy, while
respiration is supplied by the other enumerated vegetable
matters. If these last are taken into the stomach beyond the
necessary demand for its object, they too are converted by the
animal functions into fat, and are stored up in the system for
future use. But if the supply of the latter is insufficient for
respiration, it first appropriates the vegetable fat contained in
the food ; if this is deficient, it draws on the accumulated
stores of animal fat already secreted in the system, and when
these too are exhausted, it seizes upon what is contained in
the tilssues and muscle. When the animal commences drawing
npon its own resources for the support of its vital functions,
deterioration begins ; and if long continued, great emaciation
succeeds, which is soon followed by starvation and death.
The carniverous animals are furnished with their respiratory
excretions, from the animal fat and fibre which exist in their
food, and which the herbivorse had previously abstracted from
the vegetable creation.
Circumstances which augment Respiration.
These are, exercise, cold, and an abundant supply of food.
Exercise, besides exhausting the materials of fat, produces a
waste of fibre and tissue, the muscular and nitrogenized parts
of the animal system ; and it is obvious from the foregoing
principles, that cold requires a corresponding demand for car-
bon and hydrogen to keep up the vital warmth. The con-
sumption of food to the fullest extent required for invigorating
the frame, creates a desire for activity, and it insensibly indu-
ces full respiration. The well-fed, active man, unconsciously
draws a full, strong breath ; while the abstemious and the
feeble, unwittingly use it daintily, as if it were a choice conj-
20 D03IESTIC ANIMALS.
modity not to be lavishly expended. If the first be observed
when sleep has effectually arrested volition, the expanded
chest will be seen, heaving with the long-drawn, sonorous
breath ; while that of the latter will exhibit the gentle repose
of the infant on its mother's breast.
The diffei-ence between the food of the inhabitants of the
polar and equatorial regions, is strikingly illustrative of the
demands both for breathing and perspiration. The latter are
almost destitute of clothing, and subsist on their light, juicy,
tropical fruits, which contain scarcely 12 per cent, of carbon,
yet furnish all the elements for abundant perspiration ; while
the former are imbedded in furs, and devour gallons of train
oil or its equivalent of fat, which contains nearly 80 per cent,
of carbon, that is burnt up in respiration to maintain a neces-
sary warmth.
The bear retires to his den in the beginning of winter, load-
ed with fat, which he has accumulated from the rich, oily
mast abounding in the woods in autumn. There he lies for
months, snugly coiled and perfectly dormant ; the thickness
of his shaggy coat, his dr}^ bed of leaves, and well-protected
den, effectually guarding him from cold, which in addition to
his want of exercise, draw slightly upon respiration to keep up
the vital heat. When the stores of carbon and hydrogen con-
tained in the fat are expended, his hunger and cold compel
him to leave his winter-quarters, again to wander in pursuit
of food.
Many of the swallow tribes, in like manner, hybernate in
large hollow trees, and for months eke out a torpid, scarcely
perceptible existence, independent of food. Activity and full
respiration, on the return of spring, demand a support, which
is furnished in the myriads of flies they daily consume. The
toad and frog have repeatedly been found in a torpid state,
imbedded in limestones, sandstones, and the breccias, where
they were probably imprisoned for thousands of years without
a morsel of food; yet when exposed to the warmth of the
vital air and the stimulus of its oxygen, they have manifested
all the activity of their species. This they are enabled to
sustain only by an enormous consumption of insects.
Dr. Playfair states, that in an experiment made by Lord
Ducie, 100 sheep were placed in a shed, and ate 20 pounds of
Swedes turnips each per day ; another 100 were placed in the
open air, and ate 25 pounds per day ; yet the former, which
had one-fifth less food, weighed, after a few weeks, three
pounds more per head than the latter. He then fed five sht>-.p
THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS. 21
in the open air, between tlie 21st November and 1st Decem-
ber. They consumed 90 pounds of food per day, the tem-
perature being at 44°, and at the end of this time, they
weighed two pounds less than when first exposed. Five sheep
were then placed imder a shed, and allowed to run about in a
temperature of 49°. At first they consumed 82 pounds per
day ; then 70 pounds, and at the end of the time they had
gained 23 pounds. Again, five sheep were placed under a
shed as before, and not allowed to take any exercise. They
ate at first, 64 pounds of food per day, then 58 pounds, and
increased in weight 30 pounds. Lastly, five sheep were kept,
quiet and covered, and in the dark. They ate 35 pounds per
day, and increased eight pounds.
Mr. Childers states, that 80 Leicester sheep in the open
field, consumed 50 baskets of cut turnips per day, besides oil-
cake. On putting them in a shed, they were immediately able
to consume only 30 baskets, and soon after but 25, being only
half the quantity required before, and yet they fattened as
rapidly as when eating the largest quantity. The minimum of
food, then, required for the support of animals, is attained
when closely confined in a warm, dark shelter ; and the maxi-
mum, when running at large, exposed to all weathers.
THE FEEDING OF ANIMALS.
This should be regulated by a variety of considerations.
The young which may be destined for matmity, should be
supplied with milk from the dam until weaning-time. No
food can be substituted for the well-filled udder of the parent,
which is so safe, healthful, and nutritious. If from any cause
there is deficiency or total privation, it must be made up by
that kind of food, meal-gruel, &c., which, in its composition,
approaches nearest in quality to the milk. At a more ad-
vanced age, or the time for weaning, grass, hay, roots, or grain,
may be substituted, in quantities sufficient to maintain a steady
but not a forced growth. Stuffing can only be tolerated in an-
imals which are speedily destined for the slaughter. Alter-
nately improving and falling back, is injurious to all stock.
An animal should never he fat hut once. Especially is high
feeding bad for breeding animals. Much as starving is to be
deprecated, the prejudicial effects of repletion are still greater.
The calf or lamb intended for the butcher, may be pushed for-
ward with all possible rapidity. Horses or colts should nevei
exceed a good working or breeding condition.
22 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Purposes fulfilled by different Rinds of Food.
The objects designed to be answered by food, are to a cer-
tain extent the same. All food is intended to meet the de-
mands of respiration and nutrition, and fattening to a greater
or less degree. But some are better suited to one object than
others, and it is for the intelligent farmer to select such as
■will most effectually accomplish his particular purposes.
The very young animal reqmres large quantities of the phos-
phate of lime foi'the formation of bone ; and this is yielded in
the milk in larger proportions than from any other food. The
growing animal wants bone, muscle, and a certain amount of
fat, and these are procured from the grasses, roots, and grain ;
from the former when fed alone, and from the two latter when
mixed with hay or grass.
Horses, cattle, and sheep need hay to qualify the too wa-
tery nature of the roots, and the too condensed nutritiveness.
of the grain. Animals that are prepaiing for the shambles,
require vegetable oils or fat, starcli, sugar, or gum. The first
is contained in great abundance in flax and cotton-seed, the
sun-flower, and many other of the mucilaginous seeds. Indian
corn is the most fattening grain. The potato contains the
greatest proportion of starch, and the sugar-beet has large
quantities of sugar, and both consequently are good for stall-
feeding. The ripe sugar-cane is perhaps the most fattening of
vegetables, if we except the oily seeds and grain. The Swedes
turnip is a good food to commence with fattening cattle and
sheep ; but where great ripeness in animals is desired, they
should be followed with beets, carrots or potatoes, and grain.
The table of the average composition of the different crops,
which we subjoin from Johnston, shows the comparative qual-
ities of various kinds of food, and it will be found a valuable
reference for their nutritive and fpttening qualities. He says,
*' In drawing up this table, I have adopted the proportions of
gluten, for the most part, from Boussingault. Some of them,
however, appear to be very doubtful. The proportions of fatty
matter are also very uncertain. With a few exceptions, those
above given have been taken from Sprengel, and they are, in
general, stated considerably too low. It is an interesting fact,
that the proportion of fatty matter in and immediately under
the husk of the grains of corn, is generally much greater than
in the substance of the corn itself. Thus I have found the
pollard of wheat to yield more than twice as much oil as the
OF DIFFERENT KINtS OF FOOD,
23
fine flour obtained from the same sample of grain. The four
portions separated by the miller from a superior sample of
wheat grown in the neighborhood of Durham, gave of oil re-
spectively : fine flour, 1'5 per cent. ; pollard, 2'4 ; boxings, 3"6 ;
and bran, 3 '3 per cent. Dumas states that the husk of oats
sometimes yields as much as five or six per cent, of oil." The
columns under starch, (fee, and fatty matter, denote the value
for respiration or sustaining life, and the fattening qualities ;
that under gluten, the capacity for yielding muscle and sup-
porting labor ; and saline matter indicates something of the
proportions which are capable of being converted into bones.
Husk or
Starch,
Gluten, al-
V/ater.
woody
gum, and
bumen, le-
Fatty
Saline
fibre;
sugar.
gumen, &.C.
matte'r.
matter
Wheat, . .
. 16
15
55
10 to 15
2 to 4 J.
2-0
Barley, . .
. 15
15
60
12?
2-5 J.
20
Oats, . . .
. 16
20
50
14-5?
5-6 J.
3-5
Rye, . . .
. 12
10
60
14-5
3-0
1-0
Indian corn.
. 14
15?
50
12 0
5to9 D
1-5
Buckwheat^
. 16?
25?
50
14-5
0-4?
1-5
Beans, .
. 16
10
40
28-0
2 +
3-0
Peas, . . .
. 13
8
50
24-0
2-8?
2-8
Potatoes,
. 75?
5?
12?
2-25
0-3
0-8 to 1
Turnips, . .
. 85
3
10
1-2
?
0-8 to 1
Carrots, . .
. 85
3
10
2-0
0-4
1-0
Meadow hay,
. 14
30
40
7-1
2 to 5 D.
5 to 10
Clover hay,
. 14
25
40
9-3
3-0
9
Pea straw, .
10 to 15
25
45
12-3
1-5
5
Oat do. .
. 12
45
35
1-3
0-8
6
Wheat do. .
12 to 15
50
30
1-3
0-5
5
Barley do. .
. do.
50
30
1-3
0-8
5
Rye do. .
. do.
45
38
1-3
0-5
3
Indian corn do. 12
25
52
3-0
1-7
4
This table, it will be perceived, is far from settling the
precise relative value of the different enumerated articles. An
absolute, unchanging value can never be assumed of any
one substance, as the quality of each must diff"er with the
particular variety, the soil upon which it is grown, the charac-
ter of the season, the manner of curing, and other circum-
stances. An approximate relative value :s all that can be ex-
pected, and this we may hope ere long to obtain, from the
spirit of analytical research, which is now developed and ir.
successful progress. More especially do we need these inves-
tigations with American products, some of which are but par-
tially cultivated in Europe, whence we derive most of oui
aualyses. And ranny which are there reared, differ widely
24 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
from those produced here, as these also difiFer from each
other. What, for instance, is the character of meadow hay ?■
We know that this varies as four to one, according to the
particular kinds grown ; and our Indian corn has certainly a
less range than from five to nine.
The Changes in the Food of Animals.
Potatoes, when fii^st ripe, are estimated to be worth, for
feeding purposes, nearly twice as much as when old ; and the
relative value of the different kinds, varies greatly at the
same age and under similar conditions of growth. Perrault
ascertained by careful experiment, that hay, clover, and lucerne
lost much of their nutritive qualities by drying, and ia lucerne
this loss amounted to about thirty-five per cent. This is
an important consideration in the feeding of green and dry
forage. Oats are among the best feed, both for young and
working animals ; but it has been found that they are greatly
improved for the latter, and perhaps for both, by allowing
the new crop to remain till the latter part of winter, before
feeding.
The improvement by steaming and cooking food, is seldom
sufficiently appreciated. Food properly managed, can never
be made worse by cooking for any stock ; although it has not
been considered so essential for working, and generally, for
ruminating animals, as for swine, and such as were stall-
feeding. But the alteration produced in cooking, by fittmg it
for a more ready assimilation, must, as a general rule, add
much to the value of the food, and the rapid improvement of
the animal.
The efi"ect of slight fermentation, or souring the food, pro-
duces the same result. Animals accustomed to this acid food,
will reject what is unprepared when they can get at the
former ; and we have no doubt, from our own experience, that
there is a saving in thus preparing it, from 20 to 40 per cent.
A mixture of food should be supplied to all animals. Like
man, they tire of any constant aliment. For such, especially,
as are fattening, and which it is desirable to mature with the
greatest rapidity, a careful indulgence of their appetite should
be studied. They should be provided with whatever they
most crave, if it be adapted to the secretion of fat. Cutting,
crushing, and grinding the food ; cooking, souring, and mix-
ihrr it, are each by themselves an improvement for feeding ;
THE PROFIT OF FEEDING.. 25
and frequently two or more of these prepaiations combined,
are of great utility in effecting the object proposed.
The Profit of Feeding.
It is evident, that this consists in a valuable return from
the animal of the food consumed. In the horse, this can
only be received in labor or breeding ; in the ox, from labor
and flesh ; in the cow, from the milk, the flesh, and her
young. In the sheep, it may be returned in its fleece, its
carcass, or its progeny ; and in the swine only by its progeny
and flesh. The manure we expect from all ; and if this be
not secured and judiciously used, few animals about the farm
will be found to yield a satisfactory profit for their food and
attention ; though it is evident, it should form but a small
part of the return looked for.
Animals are only profitable to the farmer, when they yield
a daily income, as in their milk or labor ; or annually, by their
young or fleece ; unless it be m a course- of regular improve-
ment, either in their ordinary growth or preparation for the
butcher. The animal must consume a certain amount of food
merely to keep up its stationary condition, and to supply the
materials for waste, respiration, perspiration, and the evacu-
ations. These must first be provided for in all cases, before
the farmer can expect any thing for the food.
Frequent observation has shown, that an ox will consume
about two per cent, of his weight of hay per day, to maintain
his condition. If put to moderate labor, an increase of this
quantity to three per cent., will enable him to perform his
work, and still maintain his flesh. If to be fattened, he re-
quires ateout 4-1- per cent, of his weight daily, in nutritious
food. A cow to remain stationary and give^no milk, eats two
per cent, of her weight daily ; and if in milk, she will consume
three per cent. If these statements are correct, which it is
certain they are in piinciple, though they may not be entirely
in degree, it will require the same food to keep three yoke of
cattle in idleness, as two at work ; and the food of every two
that are idle, will nearly support one under the most rapid
condition of fatting. Two cows may be kept in milk, with the
same feed that will keep three without.
No practice is more impolitic, than barely to sustain the
stock through the winter, or a part of the year, as is the case
in too many instances, and allow them to improve only when
tuTied on grass in summer. Besides subjecting them to the
3
26 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
risk of disease, consequent upon their privation )f food, nearly-
half the year is lost in their use, or in maturing them for prof-
itable disposal ; when if one-third of the stock had been sold,
the remainder would have been kept in a rapidly improving con-
dition, and at three years of age, they would probably be of
equal value, as otherwise at five or six. It is true that breed
has much to do with this rapid advancement, but breed is
useless without food to develop and mature it.
CHAPTER II.
NEAT OR HORNED CATTLE.
The value of our neat cattle exceeds that of any other of
the domestic animals in the United States. They are as widely
disseminated, and more generally useful. Like sheep and all
our domestic brutes, they have been so long and so entirely
subject to the control of man, that their original type is un-
known. They have been allowed entire freedom from all hu-
man direction or restraint for hundreds of years, on the bound-
less pampas of South 'America, California, and elsewhere ;
but when permitted to resume that natural condition, by which
both plants and animals approximate to the character of their
original head, they have scarcely deviated in any respect,
from the- domestic herds from which they are descended.
From this it may be inferred, that our present races do not
differ, in any of their essential features and characteristics,
from the original stock.
Various Domestic Breeds.
Cultivation, feed, and climate, have much to do in deter-
mining the form, size, and character of cattle. In Lithuania,
cattle attain an immense size, with but moderate pretensions
to general excellence, while the Irish Kerry and Scotch
Grampian cows but httle exceed the largest sheep ; yet the
last are compact and well-made, and yield a good return for
the food consumed. Every country, and almost every district,
has its peculiar breeds, which by long association have become
adapted to the food and circumstances of its position, and
^Ai.VE CATTLE. 27
when found profitable, they should be exchanged for others,
only after the most thorough trial of superior fitness for the
particular location, in those proposed to be introduced.
More attention has been paid to the improvement of the va-
rious breeds of cattle in England, than in an}" other country ;
and it is there they have attained the greatest perfection in
form and character for the various purposes to which they are
devoted. We have derived, directly from Great Britain, not
only the parent stock from which nearly all our cattle are de-
scended, but also most of tliose fresh importations, to which
we have looked for improvement on the present race of animals.
A few choice Dutch cattle, generally black and white, and
of large size, good forms, and good milkers, with a decided
tendency to fatten, have been occasionally mtroduced among
us, but not in numbers sufficient to keep up a distinct breed ;
and in the hands of their importers, or immediate successors,
their peculiar characteristics have soon become merged in
those herds by which they were surrounded. Some few
French and Spanish cattle, the descendants of those remote
importations, made when the colonies of those kingdoms held
possession of our northern, western, and southern frontiers,
still exist in those sections ; and although possessing no claims
to particular superiority, at least in any that have come within
our notice, yet they are so well acclimated, and adapted to
their various localities, as to render it inexpedient to attempt
supplanting them, except with such as are particularly meri-
torious.
Native Cattle.
This is a favorite term with Americans, and comprehends
every thing in the country, excepting such as are of a pure and
distinct breed. It embraces some of the best, some of the
worst, and some of almost every variety, shape, color, and
character of the bovine race. The designation has no farther
meaning, than that they are indigenous to the soil, and do not
belong to any well-defined or distinct variety.
The best native cattle of the Union are undoubtedly to be
found in the IN'ortheastern states. Most of the early emigrant
cattle in that section were from the southern part of England,
where the Devon cattle abound ; and though not at the pres-
ent time bearing a close resemblance to that breed, unless it
has been impressed upon them by more recent importations,
yet a large number have that general approximation in char-
acter, features, and color, which entitles them to claim a near
28 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
kindred witli one of the choicest cultivated breeds. They have
the same symmetry, but not in general the excessive delicacy
©f form, which characterizes the Devons ; the same intelli-
gence, activity, and vigor in the working cattle, and the same
tendency to fattening ; but they are usually better for the dairy
than their imported ancestors. Some valuable intermixtures
have occasionally been made among them. Among these,
there have been many brindled cattle widely disseminated, of
great merit as workers, and not often surpassed for the dairy
and shambles.
The Herefords have in a few instances been introduced among
the eastern cattle, and apparently with great improvement.
The importation made by Admiral Coffin, of four choice Here-
ford bulls and cows, which were presented to the State Agri-
cultural Society of Massachusetts, nearly thirty years since, is
especially to be mentioned, as resulting in decided benefit
wherever they were disseminated. Some of the old Yorkshire,
or as they are sometimes styled, the long-horned Durhams,
have been introduced, though these have been isolated indi-
\iduals and never perpetuated as a separate breed. A few
small importations have been made of the Short Horns and
Ayrshires, but neither of these have been bred in the New
England states in distinct herds, to any extent.
Their native breed has hitherto, and generally with good
reason, possessed claims on the attention of their owners,
which, with some slight exceptions, it has not been in the
power of any rivals to supplant. V/ith entire adaptedness to
the soil, chmate, and wants of the farmer, an originally good
stock has, in frequent instances, been carefully fostered, and
the breeding animals selected with a strict reference to their
fitness for perpetuating the most desirable qualities. As a
consequence of this intelligent and persevering policy, widely,
but not universally pursued, they have a race of cattle, though
possessing considerable diversity of size and color, yet coinci-
ding in a remarkable degree in the possession of those utilita-
rian featm^es, which so justly commend them to our admiration.
In proceeding southwestwardly through New York, New
Jersey, and elsewhere, we shall find in this branch qf stock, a
greater diversity and less uniform excellence ; though they
have extensive numbers of valuable animals. Here and there
will be found a choice collection of some favorite foreign breed,
which emigrants have brought from their native home, as did
the Pagan colonists their penates or household gods; the
cherished associates of early days, and the only rehcs of their
THE DEVON. 29
father-land. Sucli are an occasional small herd of polled or
hornless cattle, originally derived from Suffolk or Galloway,
excellent both for the dairy and shan^bles ; the Kyloe, or West
Hio:hland, (Scottish,) a hardy animal, mirivalled for beef; the
Welsh runt; the Irish cattle; the crumpled-horn Alderney,
and some others.
The Devon
Is among the oddest distinctly cultivated breeds in this
country, as it undoubtedly is of England, and probably it is
the most universal favorite. This popularity is well deserved,
and it is based upon several substantial considerations. They
are beautifully formed, possessing excessive fineness and sym-
metry of frame, yet with sufficient bone and muscle to render
them perfectly hardy ; and they are among the most vigorous
and active of working cattle. They have great uniformity of
appearance in every feature, size,* shape, horns, and color. The
cows and bulls appear small, but the ox is much larger ; and
both he and the dam, on cutting up, are found to weigh much
beyond the estimates which an eye accustomed only to ordi-
nary breeds, would have assigned to them. The flesh is finely
marbled or interspersed with alternate fat and lean, and is of
superior quality and flavor.
The cows invariably yield milk of great richness, and when
appropriately bred, none surpass them for the quantity of
butter and cheese it yields. Mr. Bloomfield, the manager of
the late Lord Leicester's estate at Holkham, has, by careful
attention, somewhat increased the size, without impairing the
beauty of their form, and so successful has he been in de-
veloping their milldng properties, that his average product of
butter from each cow, is 4 lbs. per week for the whole year.
He has challenged England to milk an equal number of cows
of any breed, against 40 pure Devons, to be selected oat ot
his own herd, without as yet having found a competitor. Al-
though this is not a test of their merits, and by no means
decides their superiority, yet it shows the great confidence
reposed in them by their owner. The Devon ox, under six
years old, has come up to a nett dead weight of 1,5 y 3 lbs. ;
and at three years and seven months, to 1,316 lbs., with 160
lbs. of rough tallow.
Descri2:)tion. The Devon is of medium size, and so sym-
metrical, as to appear small. The color is invariably a deep
mahogany red, with usually a white udder and strip under the
3*
30 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
belly • and the tuft at tlie end of the tail is red while they
are calves, but white in the olde-r animal. The head is small,
broad in the forehead, and somewhat indented. The muzzle
is delicate, and both the nose and the rings around the eye, in
the pure breed, are invariably of a bright, clear orange. The
cheeks and face are thin and tleshless ; the horns clear, smooth,
and of a yellowish white, handsomely curved upward. The
neck is small and delicate at its juncton with the head, but is
well expanded in its attachment to the breast and shoulders.
The last has the true slant for activity and strength, in which
it excels all other breeds of equal weight. The barrel is round
and deep, with a projecting brisket. The back is broad and
level ; the flank full ; hips wide ; the rumps long ; the quar-
ters well developed, and capable of holding a great quantity
of the most valuable meat. The tail is on a level with the
back, and gracefully tapers like a drum-stick, to the tuft on
the end. The legs are of pecuhar delicacy and fineness, yet
possess great strength. The skin is of medium thickness, of a
rich orange hue, pliable to the touch, and covered with a thick
coating of fine, soft, curly hair. The Devon is intelligent,
gentle, and tractable ; is good for milk, and unsurpassed for
the yoke and for fattening, No animal is better suited to our
scanty or luxuriant hill pastures than the Devon, and none
make a better return for the attention and food received.
They ensure a rapid improvement when mixed with other
cattle, imparting their color and characteristics in an eminent
degree. Several importations have been made into this country
within the last 30 years, of the choicest animals, and though
not yet numerous in the United States, we possess some of
the best specimens that exist.
The Short Horns, or Durhams.
Are decidi'dly the most showy among the cattle species.
They are of all colors between a full, deep red, and a pure
creamy white ; but generally have both intermixed in larger or
smaller patches, or intimately blended in a beautiful roan.
Black, brown, or brindled, are colors not recognised among
pure-bred Short Horns. Their form is well-spread, symmetri-
cal, and imposing, and capable of sustaining a large weight of
valuable carcass. The horn was originally branching and
turned upward, but now frequently has a downward tendency,
•with the tips pointing towards each other. They are fight,
and comparatively short ; clear, highly polished, and waxy.
THE SHORT HORNS, OR DURHAMS.
31
The head is finely, formed, with a longer face but not so fine a
muzzle as the Devon. The neck is delicately formed without
dewlap, the brisket projectina:; and the great depth and width
■ m^
A Short-Horn Bull.
of the chest giving short, well-spread fore-legs. The crops
are good; back and loin broad and flac • ribs projecting;
32 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
deep flank and twist ; tail well set up, strong at the roots and
tapering. They have a thick covering of soft hair, and are
mellow to the touch, technically termed, handling well. They
mature early and rapidly for the quantity of food consumed,
yielding largely of good beef with little oflPal. As a breed,
they are excellent milkers ; though some famihes of the Shoi-t
Horns surpass others in this quality. They are inferior to the
Devons, in their value as working oxen, and in the richness of
their milk.
The Short Horns are assigned a high antiquity, by the
oldest breeders in the counties of Durham and Yorkshire,
England, the place of their origin, and for a long time, of
their almost exclusive breeding. Fron\ the marked and de-
cided improvement which they stamp upon other animals,
they are evidently an ancient breed, though much the juniors
of the Devon and Hereford. Their highly artificial style,
form, and character, are unquestionably the work of deeply
studied and long-continued art ; and to the same degree that
they have been moulded in unresisting compliance with the
dictation of their intelligent breeders, have they departed
from that light and more agile form of the Devon, which con-
clusively and beyond the possibility of contradiction, marks
the more primitive race.
THE IMPORTATION OF SHORT HORNS INTO THIS
COUNTRY.
This is claimed to have been previous to 1783. They are the
reputed ancestors of many choice animals existing in Vir-
ginia, in the latter part of the last century, and Avhich were
known as the milk breed ; and some of these, with others
termed the heef breed, were taken into Kentucky by Mr. Pat-
ton, as early as 17 97, and their descendants, a valuable race
of animals, were much disseminated in the West, and known
as the Patton stock.
The first authentic importations we have recorded, are
those of Mr. Heaton, into Westchester, IST. Y., in 1791 and
'96, from the valuable herds of Messrs. Culley and Colling,
which consisted of several choice bulls and cows. These
were for many years bred pure, and their progeny was widely
scattered. [American Herd Book.) They were also imparted
into New York, by Mr. Cox, in 1816; by Mr. Bullock, in
1822 ; by the late Hon. S. Van Rensselaer in 1823 ; and im-
THE IMPORTATION OF SHOUT IIOKNS.
S3
mediately after, by Mr. Charles Henry Hall, of Harlem.
Some small importations were made into Massachusetts be-
tween 1817 and '25, by several enterprising agriculturists,
Messrs. Coolidge, Williams, and others ; into Connecticut by
Fig 2.
f%f5-^#
r f.
rf^^^^"^^;,
Short-Horned Cow.
Mr. Hall and others ; into Pennsylvania by Mr. Powell ; and
into Ohio and some other states, by various individuals early
in the present century.
84 DOMESTIC ANIMAIS.
Since tlie firsi importations, larger accessions from the best
English herds have been frequently made ; and with the nice
regard for pedigrees which the introduction of the herd book,
and careful purity in breeding has produced, the Short Horns
have become the most extensive pure-bred family of cattle in
the United States.
During the speculative times of 1835 to 1840, they brought
high prices, frequently from $500 to llOOO, and sometimes
more. The following years of financial embarrassment, re-
duced their market price below their intrinsic value ; but the
tide is again turning, and the}' are now in demand, but still at
prices far below their utility and merits. They have from the
first, been favorites in the rich, corn valleys of the West, their
early maturity and great weight giving them a preference
over any other breed. The only drawback to this partiality,
is their inability, from their form and weight, to reach remote
eastern markets in good condition ; an objection now in a
great measure remedied, by the recent remission of duties on
foreio'n beef in the En owlish market, which makes them of
nearly equal value where fed, to pack for exportation. On
light lands and scanty pastures, they will probably never be
largely introduced. All heavy animals require full forage
within a limited compass, so as to fill their stomachs at once,
and quietly compose themselves to tlieir digestion.
The weights reached by the Short Horns in England, as
given by Mr. Berry, have been enormous. Two oxen, six
years old, v/eighed nett, 1820 lbs. each. A heifer of three
years, and fed on grass and hay alone, weighed 1260 lbs. A
four-year-old steer, fed on hay and turnips only, dressed 1890
lbs. A cow reached the prodigious weight of 1778 lbs. A
heifer, running with her dam, and on pasture alone, weighed
at seven months, 4*76 lbs. An ox, seven years old, vreighed
2362 lbs. From their comparatively small numbers in this
country, most of them have been retained for breeders ; few,
as yet, have been fattened, and such only as were decidedly
inferior. Such animals as have been extensively produced hj
crossing this breed upon our former stocks, have given evi-
dence of great and decided improvement ; and the Short
Horn^, and their grade descendants are destined, at no dis-
tant day, to occupy a large portion of the richest feeding
grounds in the United States.
HEREFORDS.
35
Herefords.
This is tlic only remaining pure breed, which has hitherto
occupied the attention of graziers in this country. Like the
Devons, they ire supposed to be one of the most ancient races
of British caUle. Marshall gives the following description.
*' Tho countenance pleasant, cheerful, open ; the forehead
broad ; eye full and lively ; horns bright, taper, and spread-
ing ; head small ; chap lean ; neck long and tapering ; chest
deep ; bosom broad, and projecting forward ; shoulder-bone
thin, flat, no way protuberani m bone (?) but full and mellow
in flesh ; chest full ; loin broaa ; hips standing wide, and level
with the chine ; quarters long, and wide at the neck ; rump
even with the level of the back, and not drooping, nor stand-
ing high and sharp above the quarters ; tail slender and neatly
hau'ed ; barrel round and roomy ; the carcass throughout
Fig. 3.
Hereford Covv'
deep and Avell spread ; ribs broad, standing flat and close on
the outer surface, forming a sm^ooth, even barrel, the hind-
most large and full of length ; round-bone small, snug, and
not prominent ; thigh clean, and regularly tapering ; legs up-
right and short ; bone below the knee and hock small ; feet
36
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Fig. 4.
HEREFOEDS. 37
of middle size ; flank large ; flesh everywhere mellow, soft,
and yielding pleasantly to the touch, especially on the
chine, the shoulder, and the ribs ; hide mellow, supple, of
a middle thickness, and loose on the neck and huckle ; coat
neatly haired, bright and silky ; color, a middle red, with a
bald face characteristic of the true Herefordshire breed."
Youatt further describes them as follows : " They are usu-
ally of a darker red ; some of them are brown, and even yel-
low, and a few are brindled ; but they are principally distin-
guished by their white faces, throats, and bellies. In a few
the white extends to the shoulders. The old Herefords were
brown or red-brown, vnth not a spot of white about tl.t^ra. It
is only within the' last fifty or sixty years that it has been the
fashion to breed for white faces. Whatever may be thought
of the change of color, the present breed is certainly far supe-
rior to the old one. The hide is considerably thicker than that
of the Devon, and the beasts are more hardy. Compared with
the Devons, they are shorter in the leg, and also in the carcass ;
nigher, and broader, and heavier in the chine ; rounder and
wider across the hips, and better covered with fat ; the thigk
fuller and more muscular, and the shoulders larger and coarser.
They are not now much used for husbandry, although theii
form adapts them for the heavier work ; and they have all the
honesty and docility of the Devon ox, and greater strength, if
not Ills activity. The Herefordshire ox fattens speedily at a
very early age,, and it is therefore more advantageous to the
farmer, and perhaps to the country, that he should go to mar-
ket at three years old, than be kept longer as a beast of
draught.
They are not as good milkers as the Devons. This is so
generally acknowledged, that vdiile there are many dairies of
Devon cows in various parts of the country, a dairy of Here-
fords is rarely to be found. To compensate for this, they are
even more kindly feeders than the Devons. Their beef may
be objected to by some as being occasionally a little too large
in the bone, and the fore-quarters being coarse and heavy ;
but the meat of the best pieces is often very fine-grained and
beautifully marbled. There are few cattle more prized in the
market than the genuine Herefords."
There have been several importations of the Herefords into
the United States, which by crossing with our native cattle,
have done great good ; but with the exception of a few fine
animals at the South, we are not aware of their being kept in
a state of purity, till the importation of the splendid herd^
4
38 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
within the last six years, by Messrs. Corning and Sotham of
Albany, N. Y. These Hereford s are among the very best
which England can produce, and come up fully to the descrip-
tion of the choicest of the breed. Mr. Sotham, after an expe-
rience of several years, is satisfied with the cows for the dairy ;
and he has given very favorable published statements of the
results of their milking qualities, from which it may be properly
inferred, that Youatt drew his estimates from some herds
which were quite indifferent in this property. They are pecu-
liarly the grazier's animal, as they improve rapidly and matm^e
early on medium feed. They are excelled for the yoke, if at
all, only by the Devons, which, in some features, they strongly
resemble. Both are probably divergent branches of the same
original stock.
The Ayrshire
Is a breed that has been much sought after of late years,
from their reputation for fine dairy qualities. The milk is good
both in quantity and quahty, yielding, according to a recent
statement of Mr. Tennant, of Scotland, who owns a large herd,
fifteen quarts per day during the best of the season, twelve of
w^iich made a pound of butter. The product of the latter
averages about 170 pounds per annum to each cow. Another
authority says, on the best low-land pasture, a good cow yields
nearly 4000 quarts per year. This is a large quantity, and
implies good cows and extra feed.
Mr. Gushing, of Massachusetts, who imported several select
-animals, wdthout regard to their cost, informed us, after three
or four years' trial, that he did not perceive any superiority in
them, over the good native cows of that state, for dairy pur-
poses. A large number have been imported in detached par-
cels, and scattered through the country. They are good ani-
mals, but seem to combine no valuable properties in a higher
degree than are to be found in our own good cattle, and espe-
cially such as are produced from a cross of the Short Horn
bull of a good milking family, on our native cows. They are
evidently a recent breed, and do not therefore possess that
uniformity of appearance and quality, which attaches to one of
long cultivation,
Mr, Alton, of Scotland, gives the follow^ing account of them:
"The dairy breed of Scotland have been formed chiefly by
skilful management, within the last 50 years ; and they ar^
still improving and extending t) other countries. Till after
MANAGE3IENT OF CALVES. 39
1770, the cows in Cunningliam were small, ill-fed, ill-sliaped,
and ga*^e but little milk. Some cows of a larger breed and of
a brown and white color, were about that time brought to
Ayrshire from Teeswater, and from Holland, by some of the
patriotic noblemen of Ayrshire ; and these being put on good
pasture, yielded more milk than the native breed, and their
calves were much sought after by the farmers."
We may fairly infer from the foregoing, Avhich is deemed
indisputable authority ; from the locality of their origin, in
the neighborhood of the Short Horns ; arid from their general
resemblance, both externally and in their general characteris-
tics to the grade animals, that they owe their principal excel-
lence to tliis long-estabhshed breed.
MANAGEMENT OF CALVES.
The safest and least troublesome manner of raising calves,
is at the udder of the dam ; and whenever the milk is con-
verted into butter and cheese, we beheve this to be the most
economical. The milk of one good cow is sufficient, with a
run of fresh, sweet pasture, to the feeding of two calves at the
same time ; and if we allow the calves to arrive at three or
four months of age before weaning, we may safely estimate,
that one good cow will yield a quantity of milk in one season,
fully equivalent to bringing up four calves to a weaning age.
By keeping the calf on the fresh milk, whether he take it
directly from the udder, or warm from the pail, all risk of dis-
ordered bowels is avoided. The milk is precisely adapted to
the perfect health and thrift of the young, and whenever we
substitute for it any other food, we must watch carefully that
not the slightest mismanagement produces disorder, lest more
is lost by disease or v^ant of improvement, than is gained by
the milk of which they are robbed.
The first milk of the cow after calving, is slightly purgative,
which is essential to cleanse the stomach of the calf. It is,
moreover, perfectly wortliless for two or three days, for any
other purpose except for swdne. The calf will seldom take
all the milk at first, and whatever is left in the bag should be
thoroughly removed by the hand. If the calf is destined for
the butcher, he must have all the milk he wants for at least
six weeks, and eight or ten is better ; and if the cow does not
furnish enough, he ought to be fed gruel or linseed tea. He
must be closely confined in a snug, but clean and airy stable.
40 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
and the darker this is, and the more quiet he .6 kept, the more
readily he will fatten.
If designed to be reared, the safest and least troublesome
method, is to keep the calf on new milk. If saving the milk
be an object, it is still doubtful whether it is not better that
he should have a part of it fresh from the cow, and depend
for his remaining food on a good grass or clover pasture,
meal, or roots.
Some farmers never allow the calf to approach the dam,
but take it when first dropped, and put a handful of salt in its
mouth, which is daily repeated till he is put to grass. This
has a purgative effect, similar to the first milk. Flaxseed is
then prepared, by boiling a pint in four to six quarts of water,
and diluted with hay tea till it is rather thicker than milk,
and fed at blo'><^ heat.
Hay tea is made, by boiling a pound of sweet, well-cured
clover, in one and a half gallons of clean water.
As the calf becomes older, oat, barley, rye, or Indian meal
may be scalded and added to the flaxseed.
When the skim -milk is of little consequence, a better way
is to ^ithdrav/ him from the cow after three or four days,
then scald the milk, adding a little oat meal, and cool to the
natural temperature of the milk, and feed it. Oats, either
crushed or ground, is the best and safest grain for all young
stock. The milk should not stand more than half a day be-
fore feeding to young calves. As they advance in age, it may
be fed rather older, but should never be allowed to become
sour ; nor should it ever be fed cold. Connected with this
feed, should be a good range of short, sweet pasture, and
shelter against both sun and storms. If expedient, at about
10 weeks old, he may be safely weaned, but four months'
nursing is better for the calf.
If allowed too much milk for several months, it is injurious
to the future development of the young. It does not distend
the stomach properly, nor call into use its ruminating habits.
Calves thus brought up, have often proved light-bellied, in-
different feeders, and decidedly inferior animals. When the
calf is removed from the cow, they should be effectually sep-
arated from sight and hearing, as recognition creates uneasi-
ness, and is an impediment to thrift in both.
If there be any deficiency of suitable pasture for the calf, a
small rack and trough should be placed under the shed in his
range, and fine hay put in the former, and wheat bran or oat
DQcal with a little salt in the latter.
BREEDING. 41
Diseases and Remedies.
For disordered bowels, mix 2 dr. rhubarb, 2 oz. castor oil,
and ^ dr. ginger, with a httle warm milk or gruel ; or give 2
oz. castor oil alone ; or 3 oz. of Epsom salts.
For scours and diarrhoea, a homely remedy is, to administer
half a pint of cider, with an equal quantity of blood drawn
from the caK's neck.
Or, add a httle rennet to its food.
A good remedy is, 1 oz. powdered canella bark ; 1 oz. laud-
anum ; 4 oz. prepared chalk ; and one pint water. Mix to-
gether, and give a wine-glass full or more, according to the
size of the calf, three times a day.
Costiveness is removed by giving pork broth.
Or, give 3 to 4 oz. Epsom salts, dissolved in 3 pints of wa-
ter, injected into the stomach; and repeat part of this dose
every 3 or 4 hours, till the desired effect is produced.
Calves, hke all young stock, should be allowed to change
their feed gradually, from new milk to skimmed, or from the
latter to other food. Their stomachs are dehcate, and need
gentle, moderate changes, when necessary to make them at
all. Much depends on the care and attention they receive. It
is well to have a httle resin within its reach.
A comfortable shelter, with a dry, warm bed, suitable food,
regularly given three times a day, at blood heat, and keeping
the stomach in proper order, will do much to bring them for-
ward rapidly, and with a small expenditure of food.
The calf requires to be supplied through the winter with an
abundance of fine, sweet hay and roots, the latter either chop-
ped or mashed by a roller, with the addition of a trifle of meal
or oats, and a full supply of salt and pure water.
When there are larger animals on tbe premises, the calves
ought to be kept by themselves. They should be sustained
on their winter feed through the following spring, until the
grass furnishes a good bite on a well-compacted sod. The
change from hay to grass must be gradual, unless the latter is
considerably matured. The extreme relaxation of the bowels
from the sudden change, frequentlj^ produces excessive purg-
ing. A slight and temporary relax from the early spring grass,
is not objectionable.
Breeding.
The young animals should never be put to breeding under
15 months old, so as to bring their first calf at two years old *
4*
4:2 D03IESTIC ANIMALS.
nor then, unless they have large size and good feed. Much
depends on the progress towards maturity, and the supply of
food in selecting the proper time for breeding. Some are as
ready for this at a year and a half as others are at three.
Early breeding gives delicacy and symmetry to the form of the
heifer, but it checks its growth ; and Avhen it is found to put
her back too much, she may be allowed to rest for a few
months, or even a year, to bring her up to the desired stand-
ard. These remarks apply principally to choice breeders, or
as they are sometimes termed, fancy stock. For ordinary milch
cows which have been moderately fed, three years is a proper
age to come in, after which they must be milked as regularly,
and as late before drying as possible.
Breaking Steers
Should be commenced when two or three years old. Some
begin with the calf, accustoming him to a light yoke and occa-
sional training. This practice will do as a pastime for trust-
worthy boys, as it makes them gentle and manageable after-
wards, but is hardly worth a man's time. If always carefully
handled when young, the}^ will be found tractable.
They should at first be placed behind a pair of well-broke
cattle, nor should they be put to hard labor until quite grown,
strong, and perfectly accustomed to the yoke. If properly
managed, cattle may be trained with all the docility, intelli-
gence, and much of the activity of the horse. That they are
not, is more frequently the fault of their masters.
3ianagemeiit of Oxen.
To procure perfect working cattle, it is necessary to begin
with the proper breed. Many parts of the country furnish
such as are well suited to this purpose. A strong dash of
Devon or Hereford blood is desirable, when it needs to be im-
proved. A well-formed, compact, muscular body ; clean,
sinewy limbs ; strong, dense bones ; large, well-formed joints,
with a mild expressive eye, are essential for good working oxen.
After breaking, they must be led along gently, and taught
before they are required to perform their task ; and never put
to a load which they cannot readily move, nor dulled by pro-
longing exertion beyond that period when it becomes irksome.
A generous diet is necessary, to keep up the spirit and abihty
of cattle, when there is hard work to be done. The horse and
mule are fed with their daily rations of grain when at hard
MANAGEMENT OF OXEN, 43
service, and if the spirit of the ox is to be maintained, he
should be equally well fed, when as fully employed. Great
and permanent injury is the result of niggardly feeding and
severe toil, exacted from the uncomplaining animal. His
strimgth declines, his spirit flags, and if this treatment be con-
tinued, he rapidly becomes the stupid, moping brute, which
is shown off in degrading contrast with the more spirited
horse, that performs, it may be, one half the labor, on twice
his rations.
The ox should be as little abused by threats and whipping,
as by stinted feed and overtasked labor. Loud and repeated
hallooing, or the severe use of the lash, is as impolitic as it is
cruel and disgraceful. We never witness this barbarity with-
out wishing the brutes could change places, long enough at
least to teach the biped that humanity by his own sufferings
which his reason and sensibility have failed to inspire. Clear
and intelligible, yet low and gentle words are all that are ne-
cessary to guide the well-trained, spirited ox. The stick, or
whip, is needed rather to indicate the precise movement de-
sired, than as a stimulant or means of punishment. The ox
understands a moderate tone more perfectly than a boisterous
one, for all sounds become indistinct as they increase.
It is of great advantage to have oxen well trained to. baching.
They may soon be taught, by beginning with an empty cart
on a descent ; then on a level ; then with an increasing load,
or uphill, till the cattle will back nearly the same load they
will draw.
Some oxen have a bad trick of hauling or croivding. Chang-
ing to opposite sides, longer or shorter yokes, and more than
all, gentle treatment, are the only remedies, and those not
unfrequently fail. Cattle will seldom contract this habit, in
the hands of a judicious, careful driver. The yokes should be
carefully made, and set easy, and the bows fitted to the
necks and properly attached to the yoke. Cattle are liable
to sore necks if used in a storm ; and when subject to this
exposure, they must be well rubbed with grease, where the
yoke chafes them, and respite from work should be allowed
till the necks heal.
44
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Management of Bulls or Vicious Animals.
Fig. 5. If inclined to be \dcious, the bulls slioula
have rings thrust through the cartilage of
their nose when young. They are to be
found at the agricultural warehouses; and
are made of round iron, three-eighths of an
inch diameter, with a joint- in one side to
open, and when thrust through the nose, are
fastened in a moment, by a rivet previously
p^'epared.
Fig. 5 is a cattle-handler, consisting of a
bar of iron A, eight inches long, with a ring
for a man's hand, which turns on a swivel at
B, and at the other end is a pair of calhper-
shaped legs, one stationary, and the otlicr
opening on a joint. The fixed leg is inserted
against one side of the nostril, and the other
is pressed upon the opposite side, and there
fastened by a slide, C, when the animal is firmly
held for administering medicine or performing
Cattle-Handler, any operation.
For taming savage Animals.
Figs. 6 and Y, for tamijig a hull ; b, in Fig. 6, is a cap
screwed on to the tip of the horn ; a c, an iron rod hanging
on a pivot in the cap, with a chain reaching to the ring in
FATTENING CATTLE. 45
the nose. The effect of liis attempting to hook, k illustrated
by the \'arious positions of the chain in Fig- 8.
Fig. 1. If the rod at a, is pushed in
either direction, it jerks up the nose in a
manner that cures him of his inclination.
Fig. 8, shows a cattle- tie. — This is
a much more convenient and comfort-'
able mode of fastening cattle in the
stable, than the common stanchions. Cattle^Tie.
The proper time for turning off Cattle.
This must depend on their previous feeding and manage-
ment, the breed, and the purposes required. The improved
breeds and many of their crosses, will mature for the butcher
as fully at three or four, as inferior cattle at five to seven
years old. If pushed rapidly with proper food, they will of
course be r^pe much sooner than if stinted. When cattle
have to be purchased for work, or cows for the dairy, it be-
comes an object to keep them as long as they can be made
profitable, and yet be turned off for fattening at a fair price.
We have seen active and spirited oxen in the yoke at 16 or
17; but they seldom do as well after 12 or even 10 years.
Old cattle are liable to more diseases than young ; are less
hardy ; and they recover more sloAvly when exposed to scanty
feed or hard usage. They also fatten with more difficulty,
and their meat is inferior. When they can be sold ad-
vantageously to the feeder, and replaced without incon-
venience, it is found to be most profitable to turn them off
at seven or eight years. They will by that time have at-
tained full maturity; they will feed rapidly, and make the
largest amount of good beef. If there are extraordinary
milkers among the cows, or superior workers among the oxen,
it is better to keep them as long as they maintain ^heir full
vigor.
Fattening Cattle./
Such as are designed for the shambles the ensuing fall or
winter, may be allowed to do th^r spring's labor ; or if cows,
they may be milked into summer after calving, or go farrow
during the previous year. They should early be put on the
best summer feed, and it is better to be occasionally changed,
to give variety and freshness, and keep the animal in good
46
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
appetite. Let the fattening animals have the best, and after
they have cropped it a while, give them a fresh field ; and
the other animals or sheep can follow and clear ofif the re-
maining herbage, preparatory to shutting it up for a new
growth. Some prefer an extensive range of rich feed, which
is unchanged throughout the season ; and when it is not neces-
sary to divide the pasture with the other animals, this is ?■
good practice.
Fig. 9. Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.
Three cuts of improved forms, Nos. 9, 10, and 11. The
above cuts illustrate the forms which the most improved beef-
cattle should possess.
The selection of Animals for Stall Fattening.
This is a nice point, and none without a practised eye and
touch, can choose such as will make the best return for the
food consumed. The characteristics of choice animals, here-
tofore enumerated, are particularly essential in those intendec
for profitable fattening. Sut the most important of all, is
that firm mellowness, and quick elasticity of touch, which un-
erringly mark the kindly feeder and profitable bullock.
When other means for ascertaining fail, it is a safe rule to
select the best- conditioned animals, out of a herd of grass-
STALL-FEEDING.
47
fed ; for if all were of equal flesh and Health, when turned
out, those which have thriven most on tlieir summer pasture,
will generally fatten quickest on their fall and winter keep.
Only the best should be selected. The remainder, after con-
suming the coarser forage, may be at once disposed of for
early use. From repeated trials, it is found that the carcass
of stall-fed animals will barely return the value of the ma-
terials consumed, and their manure is generally the only com-
pensation for the time and attention bestowed. None but
choice, thrifty beasts will pay for their food and attention,
and all others will make their best returns, by an immediate
disposal, after the surplus fodder is gone.
Fig. 12.
Points of Cattle Illustrated. ;*
Explanation.— A, forehead ; B, face ; C, cheek ; D, muzzle ; E, neck ; F, neck
vein; G. shoulder point ; H, arm; I, shank; J, gambril, or hock; K, elbow;
L, brisket, bosom, or breast ; M, shoulder ; N, crops ; O, loin ; P, hip, bucks,
hocks, or buckles ; Q, crupper bone, or sacrum ; R, rump, or pin-bone ; S,
round bone, thurl, or whirl; T, buttock; U, thigh, or gaskit; V, flank; W,
plates ; X, back, or chine ; Y, throat ; Z, chest.
Stall-Feediiig.
This ought to be commenced early in the season. An ox
may be fed in a box-stall, or if accustomed to a mate, they do
better by tying together with sufficient room, yet not so near
as to allow of injuring each other. The building should be
warm, but not hot ; well ventilated, yet having no current of
48
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
cold air passing through ; and as dark as possible. The stall
ought to be kept clean and dry, and a deep bed of clean straw
is of decided advantage.
The ox should be first fed the inferior and most perishable
roots with his grain and dry forage, and his food should be
gradually increased in lichness, as he advances towards ma-
turity. The food and water should be given three times a day,
from thoroughly cleaned mangers or troughs. The animal
likes a change of food, in which he should be indulged as often
as may be necessary. If he refuses his food, a temporary
privation, or variety is essential. When the food is changed,
he should be moderately fed at first, till he becomes accustomed
to it, as there is otherwise danger of cloying, which is always
injurious. The moment the animal has done feeding, the
remainder of the food ought to be at once removed. He then
hes down, and if undisturbed, rests quietly till the proper hour
mduces him again to look for his accustomed rations. Regu-
jarity in the time of feeding, is of the utmost consequence.
An animal soon becomes habituated to a certain hour, and if
It be delayed beyond this, he is restless and impatient, which
are serious obstacles to speedy fattening.
Ox cut up.
Fig. 13— Shows the London method of cutting up the carcass— Fig. 1, is the lorn ;
8, rump ; 3, aitch or adz-bone ; 4, buttock ; 5, hock ; 6, thick flank ; 7, thin flank ;
8. fore-rib ; 9, middle rib ; 10, cuck-rib ; 11, brisuct; 12, leg of mutton piece ; 13,
clod or neck ; 14, brisket.
SKELETON OF AN OX.
49
Fig. 14.
Skeleton of an Ox.
1. Temporal bone.— 2. Frontal bone, or bone of the forehead.— 3. Orbit of the
eye. — 4. Lachrymal bone.— 5. Malar, or cheek bone.— 6. Upper jawbone.— 7. Nasal
bone, or bone of the nose.— 8. Nippers, found on the lower jaw alone.— 9. Eight
true ribs.— 10. Humerus, or lower bone of the shoulder. — 11. Sternum.— 12. Ulna,
its upper part forming the elbow.— 13. Ulna. — 14. Radius, or principal bone of
the arm.— 15. Small bones of the knee.— 16. Large metacarpal, or shank bone.
— 17. Bifurcation at the pasterns, and the two larger pasterns to each foot. — 18.
Sessamoid bones.— 19. Bifurcation of the pasterns.— 20. Lower jav.- and the grinders.
— 21. Vertebrae, or bones of the neck.— 22. Navicular bones.— 23. Two-coffin bones
to each foot. — 24. Two smaller pasterns to each foot. — 25. Smaller or splint-bone.
— 26. False ribs, with their cartilages.— 27. Patella, or bone of the knee. — 28.
Small bones of the hock. — 29. Metatarsals, or larger bones of the hind leg. — 30.
Pasterns and feet.— 31. Small bones of the hock.— 32. Pointof thehock.— 33. Tibia,
or proper leg-bone.— 34. Thigh-bone.— 35. Bones of the tail.— 36, 37. Haunch and
pelvis. — 38. Sacrum. — 39. Bones of the loins. — 40. Bones of the back — 41. Liga
ment of the neck and its attachments. — 42. Scapula, or shoulder-blade. — 43. Bones
of the back. — 44. Ligament of the neck. — 45. Dentata. — 46. Atlas. — 47. Occipital
bone, deeply depressed below the crest or ridge of the head. — 48. Parietal bone,
low in the temporal fossa. — 49. Horns, being processes or continuations of the
frontal bone.
50 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
DISEASES IN CAITLE.
Hoven, or Swelling of the Paunch,
Is a temporary ailment, caused by eating too freely of fresh
and generally wet clover, or other succulent food. The animal
gorges the first stomach with so much food, that its contents
cannot be expelled. Inflammation of the membrane takes
place, and decomposition of the food soon follows. This is
known by the distension of the paunch, and difficulty of
breathing, and unless speedily relieved, suffocation and death
will ensue. Both sheep and cattle are subject to it.
Remedies.'^ — In its early stages, when not too severe, it has
^.n removed by administering some one of the following
aedies.
A pint of gin poured down the throat.
From one to two pints of lamp or other oil.
Strong brine.
New milk with one-fifth its bulk of tar mixed.
An egg-shell full of tar forced down the throat, followed by
a second, if the first fails.
A tablespoonful of volatile spirit of ammonia, diluted with
water.
A wine-glass full of powder, mixed with cold lard and forcea
in balls into the stomach.
A teaspoonful of unslaked lime dissolved in a pint of warn*
water, shaken and given immediately.
A pint of tolerably strong lye.
The Proper Mode of giving the aboie Remedies
Is for a person to hold the horn and cartilage of the nose,
while another seizes and draws out the tongue as far as possi-
ble, when the medicine is thrust below the root of the tongue.
If liquid, it must be inserted by the use of a bottle.
The prohang is used when the former remedies are ineffectual.
This consists of a tarred rope, or a flexible whip-stalk, three-
fourths of an inch in diameter, with a swab or bulbous end.
Two persons hold the head of the animal, so as to keep the
mouth in a line with the throat, while a third forces it into the
stomach, when the gas finds a passage out. A stiff leather
tube with a lead nozzle pierced with holes, is best for insertion,
through which the gas will readily escape.
* Besides his own experience, the writer has drawn from the N. E. Farmer,
•the Albany Cultivator, the American Agriculturist, and other reliable America*
anc English works, some of the remedies for diseases herein mentioned.
MODE OF GIVING THE ABOVE REMEDIES.
51
Some one of the above purgatives should be given after the
bloat has subsided, and careful feeding for some days must
be observed.
Light gruels are best for allaying inflammation, and restoring
the tone of the stomach.
When no other means are available, the paunch may be
tapped with a sharp penknife, plunging it 1^ inches forward
of the hip bone, towards the last rib in the left side. If the
hole fills up, put in a large goose-quill tube, which to prevent
sHpping into the wound, may remain attached to the feather,
and the air can escape through a large hole in the upper end.
Prevention is vastly better than cure, and may be always
secured, by not allowing hungry cattle to fill themselves with
clover, roots, apples, &c. When first put upon such feed, it
should be whea the dew and rain are olf, and their stomachs
are already partially filled ; and they should then be with-
drawn before they have gorged themselves.
Fig. 15.
The Stomach Pump.
This is a convenient instrument for extracting poisonous sub
stances from the stomach. It is also highly useful for ad-
ministering medicines and injections, and if fitted with several
tubes, one may suffice for animals of any size. It consists of
a syringe, a, with a side opening at b, and another at the bot-
tom d, as shown in Fig. 1 6. .For injections, Fig. 15 is used, and
62 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
the end of the syringe is placed in a vessel containing the fluid,
when a probang or injection-tube is screwed on to the side
opening at b, through which the fluid is forced into the
stomach or rectum, as may be required. The probang should
be a tube of thick but elastic leather, and it may be passed
into the mouth, through an aperture in a block, placed on
edge between the teeth, which is easily done while a person
holds the head of the animal firmly.
Choking
Is frequently relieved by some of the following expedients.
The use of the probang or whip -stock, mentioned under the
head of remedies for Hoven, by which the root is forced into
the stomach.
A soft root may be crushed so as to allow of swallowing,
by holding a smooth block against it, and striking with a mal-
let on the opposite side.
If within arms-length, the root may be removed by hand.
It is said this can be done, by tying up the fore-leg with a
small cord, close to the body, and giving the animal a sudden
start with a whip ; or by jerking the fore-leg out forward.
Or pour down the throat a pint bottle full of soft soap,
mixed with sufficient hot water to make it run freely.
Prevention consists in cutting the roots ; not feeding them
when the animals are very hungry, and not disturbing them
while eating.
Inflammation of the Stomach.
This is frequently produced by a sudden change from dry
to green food, and some other causes.
Epsom salts, castor oil, sulphur, and carbonate of soda, in
sufficient quantity to purge freely, are good remedies.
It may be prevented by changing the food gradually.
Mange, or Scab.
This is denoted by the animal rubbing the hah* oft* about
ihe eyes and other parts. The skin is scaly or scabby, some-
times appearing like a large seed-Avart.
Bemedies. — Rub the spots Avith sulphur and lard, after scra-
ping and washing with soap.
When the skin is cracked, take sulphur, 1 lb. ; turpentine,
\ lb. ; unguentum, (or mercurial ointment,) 2 ounces ; linseed
oil, 1 pint. Melt the turpentine and warm the oil, and when
HOLLOW HORN JAUNDICE. 53
partly cooled, stir in the sulphur ; when cold, add the unguen-
tum, mixing all well. Rub this thoroughly with the hand on
the parts atfected.
We have no doubt this, like scab in sheep and itch in the
human species, will be found, on close investigation, to be
caused by minute insects located in the skin. Salt and water
ought, in that case, to be a good remedy.
Hollow Horn, or Horn Ail.
This is not unfrequently holloiv stomach, and very often
follows stinted fare, hard usage, and exposure to cold. We
have noticed this as most prevalent among oxen that have
done a severe winter's work.
Syin2otoms. — Bloody urine ; swollen udder ; shaking the
head ; eyes and head swollen ; standing with the head against
a fence or barn ; eyes dull and sunken, and horns cold.
Remedies. — Bleed and physic, shelter and feed properly.
Take a half pint of good vinegar, two tablespoonfuls of
salt, one teaspoonful of pepper, and mix and pour into each
ear, holding the head on one side for two minutes.
Bore with a large gimlet on the under side of the horn,
three or four inches from the head ; and if hollow, bore nearer
the head and let out all the matter, and syringe two or three
times a day with salt and water, or soap-suds, or salt and
Ainegar.
Spirits of turpentine rubbed in around the base of the horns,
will arrest the djsease in its incipient stages.
Pour a spoonful of boiling hot brimstone into the cavity be-
tween the horns.
Pour a teakettle of boiling water on the horns, holding so
as to prevent injury to the other parts.
Soot and pepper given internally are good.
Jaundice, or Yellows.
This is owing to gall-stones or calculi, which occasionally
accumulate in large numbers, and is sometimes owing to in-
creased or altered quality of the bile. It is manifested by the
yellowness of the eye and skin, and high color of the urine,
and poor appetite.
Remedies. — Bleed, and purge with Epsom salts.
If taken in season, 2 ounces of ground mustard may ' o
mixed with a liquid, and given twice a day.
Green food is a good preventive.
5*
54 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Mad Itch.
• This disease exists in some of the Western states, and shows
itself by jerking of the head, and itching around the nose and
base of tlie horns. They will hck their sides and backs, and
jerk and hiccup till they fill themselves with wind ; afterwards
they froth at the mouth, and in 24 hours die ra\ing mad.
Remedy. — Give as much soot and salt as the animal will
eat ; soon after, give f or 1 lb. of brimstone or sulphur ; and
8 hours after, as many salts.
Bloody Murrain, or Red Water.
This disease first shows itself in a cough, then heaving of
the flanks, with bloody, black, and foetid eracuations, tender-
ness over the loins, and coldness of the horns. Tumors and
biles sometimes appear. The animal holds down the head,
moans, is restless, and staggers when walking.
Causes. — We have lost several animals by this fatal disease,
and are not aware of ha\dng cured any when severely attacked.
In repeated instances, we have seen large flukes taken out of
the fiver, strongly resembling the common leech, which abounds
in many of our swampy lands. It is certain that on new, low
swamps and clay lands, cattle are most liable to it ; and when
they have been subject to repeated attacks in such locafities,
clearing; and drainino; have checked it.
Youatt attributes it to certain kinds of forage, which are pe-
culiar to the above situations. We are rather inclined to as-
cribe it to exposure, to excessive dampness, and especially to
miasma ; for although the brute creation are perhaps less sen-
sitive to these influences than man, yet, as they are governed
by the same unvarying laws of nature, when subjected to
■conditions totally unsuited to their economy, they must suff'er
equally in kind, though probably not in degree, with the more
refined human frame. But it is e\-ident the disease, its causes,
and remedies, are as yet imperfectly understood.
Remedies. — However intelligent men may difl^er as to its
causes, all agree that the animal should first be bled, and then
thoroughly purged. In obstinate cases, this last is a difficult
matter. We have given rejDeated doses of powerful cathartics
without producing any effect ; and whenever the medicine is
inoperative, death speedily follows.
■ Large doses of common salt, or Epsom salts dissolved in
water, are good purgatives, and if the animal neglects drink-
HOOF AIL. 55
ing after takkig them, he should be drenched with copious
draughts of water. These should be repeated every few
hours, if ineffectual.
Injections are sometimes useful, when medicine fails to act.
These may be made of soap and water ; or take 2 or 3 gills of
oats boiled, 3 drachms saltpetre, 1^ oz. linseed oil, mix and
use tliem when warm.
The opening of the bowels may be followed with a pint of
linseed oil, as an additional and gentle laxative.
When the animal begins to recover, gentle astringents and
tonics may be given.
Preventives. — We have more confidence in preventives than
in remedies. Good keep, shelter, dryness, and clean pastures,
will generally prevent attack. The cattle should at all times
be supplied with two or three troughs under cover, on the sides
and bottoms of which tar should be plentifully spread. Let
equal portions of salt and slaked lime be in one ; salt and
wood ashes in another ; and salt and brimstone in a third.
Many farmers have entirely avoided this disease while using
one or more of these, when they annually lost many by it pre-
viously.
Hoof Ail
Is indicated by lameness, fever, and a soft swelling just above
the hoof.
Remedies. — Carefully wash the foot in warm soap-suds, and
while still damp, apply between the claws on the afifected part
from one to three grains of corrosive sublimate. If it does not
fully adhere, it must be mixed with hog's lard, but it should
be so applied as to be out of the reach of the animal's tongue,
as it is a powerful poison, and the extreme irritability of the
feet will induce him to lick them.
The clav\^ is efficiently cleansed, by drawing a cord briskly
through it, when either of the above applications, or blue vitriol
put on two or three times a day, or spirits of turpentine, will
effect a cure.
It is sometimes cured by putting the animals in the stan-
chions, and applying a sharp chisel three-fourths of an inch from
the toe, and striking it with a mallet till it is cut off. If it does
not bleed freely, cut off shavmgs till it does. If the animal is
refractory, let a person hold up the opposite foot. Keep them
in the stable two or three days, and out of the mud for a
week.
56 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Loss of Gnd
Is loss of appetite, prostration, and general ill-health.
Remedies. — Give a warm bran mash, with good hay, and
warm water with salt.
An aloe tincture, made with brandy and ginger, is good.
Afterwards give good, dry, nourishing food ; and bitter in-
fusions, chamomile flowers, hoarhound, oak bark, &c., in beer.
Scours, or Diarrhoea.
A common remedy, is to boil the bark of white oak, white
pine, and beech, and give a strong infusion in bran. If they
refuse to eat it, pour it down. The oak is astringent, and the
pine and beech soothing and healing.
Warbles
Are grubs, the egg of which is deposited in the back of cattle
by the gad-fly, {CEstrus hovis.) They are discernible by a pro-
tuberance or swelling on the back. They may be pressed out
by the th\mib and finger ; or burnt out by plunging a hot wire
in them ; or a few apphcations of strong brine will remove
them.
Wounds
In cattle are readily healed, when the animal's blood is in good
order, by applying a salve made of 1 oz. green copperas ; 2
oz. white vitriol ; 2 oz. salt ; 2 oz. linseed oil ; 8 oz. molasses.
Boil over a slow fire 15 minutes in a pint of urine, and when
almost cold, add 1 oz. oil of vitriol, and 4 oz. spirits turpentine.
Apply it with a feather to the wound, and cure soon follows.
Milk, or Puerperal Fever,
Is a common disease with cows in high condition, at the time
of calving. It may, in almost every case, be avoided, by keep-
ing them in moderate feed and flesh.
Remedies. — Bleed freely, say 6 to 10 quarts, according to
the circulation of the blood; then give 1 to li lbs. of Epsom
salts, according to the size of the beast, to be repeated in half
lb. doses every six hours, till she purges freely.
Injections should always be given when purgatives are tardy
in their operation.
GARGET SORE TEATS WARPS. 67
Caked Bag
May be removed by simmering the bark of the root of bit-
ter-sweet in lard, till it becomes very yellow. When cool,
apply it to the swollen udder once in 8 or 10 hom-s ; or wash
it several times a day in cold water.
A pint of horseradish, fed once a day, cut up with potatoes
or meal, is useful for the same purpose.
This is also a tonic, helps the appetite, and is good for oxen
subject to heat.
Garget
Is a more intense degree of inflammation than exists in caked
bag and sore, swollen teats, and shows itself in hard bunches
on the udder.
The cow should be bled, and take a large dose of physic ;
then wash the udder as in caked bag.
Repeated doses of sulphur is a good remedy.
Garget, or scoke root, given of the size of a large finger,
grated and fed in their food, is a general application with farm-
ers. The garget plant grows from three to six feet high, with
a purple stalk, and strings of berries hanging down between
the branches.
Sore Teats
May be healed hy rubbing with goose oil, cream, new milk ;
or make the same applications for it as for caked bag. The
bag and teats should be well cleansed with warm soft water, if
to be followed b}^ any ointment.
The following application is recommended by Youatt : One
ounce of yellow wax and three of lard ; melt together, and
when cooling, rub in one quarter ounce of sugar of lead, and a
drachm of alum finely powdered.
Warts
Are of two kinds ; the first, on the outer skin, may be re-
moved by rubbing with camphorated olive oil. The others
penetrate into the flesh, and may be removed by a ligature of
fine twine, or silk, or india-rubber drawn into a string, and tied
tightly around the wart, which falls off in a few days.
Remedies. — Nitrate of silver, (lunar caustic,) apphed to the
wart, will remove it, but it produces a sore.
Apply a strong wash of alum.
58 DOMESTIC \NIMALS.
Rub ■with the juice of milk-weed.
Poultice with grated carrot.
Cut off the wart with sharp scissors, when the cow is dry. It
will bleed little, and soon heal.
Sore Necks on Working Oxen.
These occur when worked in wet weather, or with bad yokes.
The remedy is, rub with a heahng apphcation. The preventive
is, good yokes ; the apphcation of grease ; or a decoction of
white or yellow oak bark applied to the affected parts. Or,
a better preventive is a canvass or leather cap to protect the
neck entirely from the storm.
The Bite of Poisonous Snakes
May be cured by shaking together equal parts of olive oil
and hartshoni, and rubbing the wound and adjacent parts
three or four times a day. For a full-grown animal, one quart
of ohve oil and an ounce of hartshorn should be administered
internallv, in addition to the above.
For Stings of Bees, Hornets, &c.
Apply warm vinegar and salt, rubbing the parts thoroughly.
For a Forming Tumor.
Rub thoroughly with strong brine, or a solution of sal ammo-
niac dissolved in eight times its weight of water. If the tumor
comes to a head, open it near the bottom with a lancet ; or
place a seton in it so as to admit the escape of purulent matter.
lice and Vermin
Sometimes abound on cattle during the latter part of winter
and spring. These are generally the result of mange, which
is itself the effect of ill-feeding and ill-condition. They are
removed with the cause. We doubt if they can be perma-
nently kept off, where the animal is losing flesh and health.
Remedies. — Restore the health and condition, and sprinkle
sand, ashes, or dirt plentifully around the roots of the horns,
and along the ridge of the neck and back.
A hberal application of train or other oil has nearly a simi-
lar effect.
• Never apply an ointment containing corrosive sublimate or
THE TREMBLES. 59
other poison, as it may be licked by the animal or its fellows,
who may thus become seriously poisoned.
The Trembles,
Producing milk sickness (a most fatal disease) in the human
family, from eating the milk or flesh of animals affected by it.
This disease, which exists principally in the region of the Wa-
bash River, is supposed by Dr. Drake to be owing to the poi-
son oak, (Rhus Toxicodendron,) or poison vine, (Radicans,)
which the animals eat.
Symptoms. — The animal mopes, is feverish and costive, but
apparently preserves its appetite. The next stage of the dis-
ease is faintness and vertigo, which is shown when the animal
is put upon exertion, being followed by excessive tremhling and
entire prostration.
Remedy. — Almost ever}^ cathartic has been tried in vain.
Indian corn, both dry and green, has been fed to all animals
accustomed to eating it, and when they can be induced to feed
upon it freely, purging is generally secured. Rest of the ani-
mal is absolutely essential while the disease continues, and is
itself an effectual remedy in mild cases.
Besides the diseases enumerated, there are occasional epi-
demics, such as black tongue, black foot, or foot root, &c., which
carry off great numbers of animals. Remedies for these are
frequently not discovered, and the epidemic is allowed to run
its course unchecked. The only preventives are such care,
food, and management as the experienced herdsman knows t(i
be best suited to the maintenance of the health and thrift of
his stock.
Note. — Some ailments wUl be found under the head of dis-
eases of the other animals mentioned in this work, the general
resemblance of which to each other will justify nearly a similar
treatment.
If intelligent farriers are at hand, they may sometimes be
called in with advantage ; though we acknowledge our a^^trust
of the quackery of most of those passing under this tiMe.
There is little science or intelligent study in the composition of
this class, the world over ; and much of their practice is the
merest empiricis*m. The owner should see to it, if he employs
one of whose attainm.^r.ts he is doubtful, that neither medicines
nor operations be used, unnecessarily severe or hazardous to the
animal. Especially, should the diabohcal practice be interdict-
60 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
ed, of the abundant and indiscriminate use of poisons, boiling
oils, turpentine, and tar, and the hot iron apphed to the sensi-
tive wound or naked flesh. If certain or effectual remedies
for the removal of disease cannot he appAed, such as aug-
ment the suffering or endanger the life of the poor dumb
things, may at least be avoided.
CHAPTER III.
THE DAIRY.
Cows for the Dairy.
From what has been said on the various characteristics of
the diff"erent breeds of cattle, it must be evident, that no very
definite criteria of excellence can be given for all good dairy
cows. But there are certain points in a good milker, that can
hardly be mistaken.
She should be descended from the best milking stock ; her
head should be small or of medium size, muzzle fine, and nos-
trils flexible and expanded ; face long, slender, and dishing ;
cheeks thin ; eyes full, mild, and prominent ; horns delicate
and waxy, and they may be ' either branching, lopped, crum-
pled, or hornless ; long, thin, lively ear, and the inside of an
orange color ; neck thin and small at its junction with the
head ; deep chest, but not too heavy before ; back level and
broad ; well ribbed ; belly large ; low flank ; Tv4de thighs,
but thin ; short legs, and standing well apart ; large milking
veins ; loose, capacious udder, coming well out behind ; good
teats ; loose, mellow skin, of a deep yellow ; and a fine, thick
Goat of glossy hair ; and she must be of a good disposition,
and free from tricks.
Yet, with all the skill of a well-practised taste in the selec-
tion of animals, the dairyman will frequently find his theories
and results at sad variance. One may sometimes select a fine
animal, with every appearance of good milking qualities, which
is but a medium cow at the pail ; and another, that hardly
seems worthy of notice, and which sets at defiance many es-
tablished milking points, and all preconceived notions of sym-
metry, may yet prove a good milker. A cow that runs to
flesh while in milk, is generally an indiff'erent animal for the
MILKING. 61
dairy. Perfection in a cow, consists in converting all slie eats
into milk while yielding it, and when dry, in turning all she
consumes into valuable meat.
Management of Dairy Cows.
A cow may have her first calf when between two and three
years of age, according to her size and development. After
calving, she should be stinted in her food for two or three
days, and not fed freely for a week. Avoid fat in a breeding
cow. Too high feeding is the cause of milk-fever, caked bag,
garget, and a host of evils ; and very poor feed is almost
equally objectionable.
The average time of a cow with young, is from 40 to 41
weeks ; but they sometimes go only 34, and occasionally over-
run 44.
A dry, unoccupied stall or yard is best for her to calve in ;
and if there is any serious delay or difficulty in the operation,
she may be assisted by placing the foetus in the right position,
and gently pulling it, with every throe of the dam. After the
calf has drawn all he wants at morning and evening, the bag
should be thoroughly and quickly emptied of all the milk. If
strong and vigorous, the calf is the best doctor for garget or
caked bag. He may be allowed to suck the cow or not, at
the option of the owner ; there are reasons for and against the
practice, as will be seen under the head of rearing calves, and
each person must determine in his own case on which side the
balance lies.
Milking.
This is an important operation, and on its proper perform-
ance depends much of the success of the dairyman. A cow
regularly, gently, yet quickly and thoroughly milked, will give
much more than if neglected. If a herd of cows be separated
into two divisions, each yielding the same quantity of milk, and
one is given to a good milker, and the other to a shiftless or
lazy one, the latter will speedily reduce his milk much below
the quantity obtained by the former ; and if the milkers then
exchange cows, they will be found to change quantity too,
those before affording the least, soon giving the most An in-
different milker ought never to be tolerated in a herd, good
ones are cheaper at double the price. It is best to milk at in-
tervals of about 1 2 hours ; which may be done when DastureR
G
63 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
are convenient, or cows are soiled or fed in the yard. But as
this is not often the case in the season of green food, they
should be milked early in the morning and turned into pasture,
to fill themselves before the sun is oppressive ; and if they are
to be kept up at night, let them browse in the pasture as long
as possible, before they are brought to the yard.
MILK
Is produced from the females of all the warm-blooded am-
mals, which are enumerated among the mammalia?. The milk
of several animals is employed for domestic purposes, among
different nations. That of the camel is used by the Arabs ;
the milk of the ass by the Spaniards, the Maltese, and the in-
habitants of the Levant ; that of the mare by the Cossacks,
the Kirgheez, and other Tartars ; and that of the goat, the ewe,
and the cow, by most of the ancient, and with few exceptions,
by every modern European nation. Within the last century,
however, the use of all excepting cow's milk has been almost
entirely discarded, among the most highly civilized people.
If Ave except some few Welsh and Swiss, or other emigrants,
who resort to the goat and ewe for their dairy materials, for
the first few years of their residence here, the cow is the only
animal which is employed in America for producing milk.
For this, she is pre-eminently fitted, and the modern improve-
ment of this invaluable animal has carried her product of milk
almost as far as can be reasonably looked for from a given
amount of food ; and although this is of about the average
richness of the goat and ewe, and before that of the ass, the
quantity she yields is frequently as 60 to 1, in favor of the
cow, over the first two competitors. As a milk-gi\-ing animal,
the cow is the best fitted for the purposes of civihzed man ;
and she is made to contribute, not only to his health, his com-
fort, and his economy, but to many of his choicest luxuries.
Milk contains every element of nutrition necessary to animal
existence ; and man can subsist, with unimpaired health and
strength, if hmited to this food alone.
The Constituents of Milk
Are butter, which varies from 2 to 6 per cent. ; casein oi
cheese, usually 4 to 5, but sometimes varying from 3 to 15
per cent. ; (the last excessive quantity, yielded only by the first
aUANriTY AND CHARACTER OF MILK. 63
milk after calving ;) milk-sugar, 4 to 6 ; salts or saline matter,
0.2 to 0.6 ; and water, 80 to 89.
There is muck diversity in the product and quality of milk
from cows of the same breed, the same food, and other cir-
cumstances and conditions, apparently equal. Thus, of a herd
of 22, chiefly Ayrshire, one gave 84 quarts in one week, which
afforded 3^ lbs. of butter ; two others in the same time gave
86, yielding 5^ lbs. ; and a fourth gave 88 quarts, making 7 lbs.
The amount of butter, however, which a given quantity of
milk will produce, is not the only criterion of the value of the
milk, except for this purpose alone. Some cows will yield
more butter, others will produce more cheese ; while for con-
sumption, another may partially compensate, in the increased
quantity of milk-sugar, and the saline matters, for a deficiency
of both the other ingredients. But for dairy purposes, butter
and cheese are the only measure of the value of milk ; and a
cow is eiiteemed good or indifterent, as she gives one or the
other in the greatest abundance.
Circoimstances which modify the Quantity and Character of
Milk.
Besides the accidental variation in the quantity and quality
of milk in different animals, before adverted to, there are
many reliable causes which influence both. Of these, parent-
age has a most decided and uniform influence, frequently
modified, however, in the particular individual, by some per-
sonal and controlling causes. But a cow, whose maternal an-
cestry on both sides are choice milkers, is almost certain to
resemble them.
Food influences the quantity, rather than the quality.
Boussingault tried numerous experiments, with cows fed on
various kinds of food, and found the difference hardly ap-
preciable in the quality of milk. Its true benefit is to be
looked for in the increased quantity, through which, the
valuable ingredients are distributed in nearly the same pro-
portion, as when the product is materially lessened. By
quality we mean to be understood, the amount of the in-
gredients, valuable for nutrition only ; for it is certain, that
there is a rich aromatic flavor, not only in milk, but in butter
and cheese, which is afforded in various articles of food, and
especially by the fresh green herbage which abounds in the
pastures from spring to autumn.
Activity or rest has a great effect on both quantity and
64 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
quality. Tlie less action, and the more quiet and rest, the
greater the amount of milk and butter. But exercise is ab-
solutely essential to the production of cheese. Butter may
be made from cows confined in a stable, but cheese can only
be profitably made from animals at pasture. It is supposed
by physiologists, that the exercise in gathering their food,
rather than any pecuharity in its character, is necessary to
convert the nitrogenized tissues into the nitrogenized principle
of caseum or cheese.
The time from calving, has also its effect. The first milk
drawn from a cow after calving, has been found to yield over
15 per cent, of casein, while in its ordinary state it gives
only three to five and a half. As the quantity of milk dimin-
ishes in a farrow cow, the quality improves within certain
limits. Pregnancy affects the quality injuriously, and espe-
cially towards its latter stages ; and a cow that is predisposed
to giving milk, should be dried off a few weeks before its ex-
piration, as it is then unfit for use.
Fat cows give poorer milk than such as are moderately
lean ; and young animals do not come up to the maximum of
their quality, till after their third or fourth calving.
The milk fiust drawn from the udder, will yield only an
eighth, and somt-times even a much less proportion of cream,
than the strippings ; and the milk which is drawn three times
a day, is greatly inferior to such as is taken but once, though
the latter is less abundant.
Excitement, or fretfulness ; change of locality, or to a dif-
ferent herd, with new companions ; separation from her calf ;
periodical heat ; annc vance from flies, or worry from dogs ;
exposure to storms, severe cold, or an oppressive sun, and
many similar causes, diminish the quantity of milk and butter ;
but some of these may reasonably be expected to increase
the proportion of its casein.
Dr. Playfair found that the quantity of butter in the evening
milk, after the cow had been at pasture all day, was 3.7 per
cent., while the casein was 5.4; after lying quietly all night,
the milk from the same cow, on the following morning, con-
tained 5.6 per cent, of butter, and only 3.9 of casein. In
stabling the cow, the butter was invariably in greater propor-
tion than when allowed to ramble in the pasture ; and the
casein, with a single exception, was equally diminished.
CREAM.
65
Lactometer, or Cream Guage.
Fig. 1*7, is a
number of glass
tubes of equal
size, set in a
frame called a lac-
tometer or cream
guage. If milk
from different
cows be set in
these, the depth
of the cream
will indicate their
comparative rich-
ness.
Cream.
If milk be immediately set away in shallow vessels, after
being taken from the cow, the cream rises to the surface, car-
rying with it most of the butter contained in the milk, and
much of its casein also. Hence, the great nutritive properties
of buttermilk, which retains the casein in very large pro-
portions, much of it being rejected by the butter in its sepa-
ration from the cream.
A temperature below 34°, will prevent the cream from
rising in any considerable quantity, and preserve the milk un-
altered for some weeks. Coagulating the milk from any
cause, will equally prevent the separation of the cream. The
elevation of temperature within certain hmits, hastens the
separation. Thus, at 50°, the cream will mostly have risen
in 36 hours ; at 55°, m 24 ; at 68°, in 18 or 20; and at 77°,
in 10 or 12 hours.
Heating the milk near the boihng point, and then setting it
away and allowing it to remain undisturbed, will soon cause
the cream to rise. In the celebrated Orange dairy, near
Baltimore, Md., this system was practised, by which, not
only most of the cream was secured for butter, but in con-
sequence of its rapid separation, the skimmed milk was sent
to market vfithin a few hours after being drawn ; and the
scalding imparted to it an agreeable flavor and apparent
richness, which it did not really possess.
The celebrated clouted cream of Devonshire, England, and
the butter made from it, contains an unusual quantity of
6*
66 :?oMEsric animals.
casein, the consequence of heating the milk. " It is prepared
by straining the warm milk into large shallow pans into which
a little water has previously been put, allowing these to stand
from six to twelve hours, and then carefully heating them
over a slow fire, or on a hot plate, till the milk approaches
the boiling point. The milk, however, must not actually
boil, nor must the skin of the cream be broken. The dishes
are now removed into the dairy, and allowed to cool. In
summer the cream should be churned on the following
day ; in winter it may stand over two days. The quantity
of cream obtained is said to be one-fourth greater by this
method, and the milk which is left is proportionably poor." —
[Jolmston.l
BUTTER.
Electricity
Has much to do with the changes in milk, as in all other
substances. Glass milk-pans might, therefore, be supposed
to be the best vessels for keeping the milk unchanged and
sweet.
It may possibly not afford any practical result, yet intelli-
gent experiments for introducing a stream of electricity might
well be justified, to aid in the separation of the butteraceous
particles in the operation of churning.
Sour Cream.
Cream, for the purpose of churning, is usually allowed to
become sour. It ought to be at least one day old, but may
with advantage be kept several days in cool weather, if it be
previously well freed from milk, and be frequently stirred
to keep it from curdling. This sour cream is put into the
churn, and worked in the usual way until the butter separates.
This is collected into lumps, well beat and squeezed free from
the milk, and in some dairies is washed Avith pure cold water
as long as the water is rendered milky. In other localities
the butter is not Avashed, but after being well beat, is care-
fully freed from the remaining milk by repeated squeezings
and dryings with a clean cloth. Both methods, no doubt,
have their advantages. In the same circumstances, the wash-
ed butter may be more easily preserA^ed in the fresh state,
while the unwashed butter Avill probably possess a higher
flavor.
CHURNING THE WHOLE MILK. 67
Sweet Cream
May be put into the churn and the butter be obtained, but
in most cases it requires more labor and longer time, "without,
in the opinion of good judges, affording in general a finer
quahty of butter. In all cases the cream becomes sour during
the agitation, and before the butter begins distinctly to form.
Clouted Cream
The churning of the clouted cream of this and other coun-
tries, forms an exception to the general rule just stated, that
more time is required in the churning of sweet creams. Clout-
ed cream may be churned in the morning after it is made, that
is, within twenty-four hours of the time when the milk was
taken from the cow ; and from such cream it is well known
that the butter separates with very great ease. But in this
case, the heating of the cream has already disposed the oily
matter to cohere, an incipient running together of the globules
has probably taken place before the cream is removed from
the milk, and hence the comparative ease with which the
churning is effected. There is something peculiar in butter
prepared in this way, as it is known in other countries by the
name of Bohemian butter. It is said to be very agreeable in
flavor, but it must contain more cheesy matter than the butter
from ordinary cream.
Churning the whole Milk
Is a much more laborious method, from the difficulty of
keeping in motion such large quantities of fluid. It has the
advantage, however, of giving a larger quantity of butter.
At Rennes, in Brittany, the milk of the previous evening is
poured into the churn along with the warm morning's milk,
and the mixture is allowed to stand for some hours, when the
whole is churned. In this way it is said that a larger quanti-
ty of butter is obtained, and of a more delicate flavor.
In the neighborhood of Glasgow, according to Mr. Alton,
the milk is allowed to stand six, twelve, or twenty-four hours
in the dairy, till the whole has cooled, and the cream has risen
to the surface. Two or three milkings, still sweet, are then
poured together with their cream, into a large vessel, and are
left undisturbed till the whole has become quite sour, and is
completely coagulated. The proper sourness is indicated by
the formation of a stiff hrat upon the surface which has become
68
DOMESTIC A?nMALS.
uneven. Great :tire must be taken to keep tlie brat and curd
unbroken until the milk is about to be churned, for if any of
the whey be separated, the air gains admission to it and to the
curd, and fermentation is induced. By this fermentation, the
quahty of the butter may or may not be affected, but that of
the butteiTuilk is almost sure to be injured.
In Holland the practice is a little different. The cream is
not allowed to rise to the surface at all, but the milk is stirred
two or three times a day, till it gets sour, and so thick that a
wooden spoon will stand in it. It is then put into the churn,
and the working, or the separation of the butter is assisted by
the addition of a quantity of cold water. By churning the
sour milk in one or other of these ways, the butter is said to
be "rich, sound, and well-flavored." If it be greater in quan-
tity, it is, according to Sprengel, because the fatty matter car-
ries with it from the milk a larger quantity of casein than it
does in most cases from the cream alone.
Sourness of tlie Cream.
For the production of the best butter, it is necessary that
the cream should be sufficiently sour before it is put into the
churn. Butter made from sweet cream (not clouted) is neither
Fig. 13.
good in quality, nor large in
quantity, and longer time is
required in churning. It is an
unprofitable method.
Fig. 18 is a Cylindrical
Thermometer Churn, of any
required size, with false metal
bottom to hold cold or hot
water for brinoinor the cream
to the proper temperature.
A thermometer, permanently
set in the side, indicates the
heat.
Quickness in Cliurning.
The more quickly milk or cream is churned, the paler, the
softer, and the less rich the butter. Cream, according to Mr.
Alton, may be safely churned in an hour and a half, while
milk ought to obtain from two to three hours. The churning
ought always to be regular, slower in warm weather, that the
ADVANTAGES OF CHURNING THE ENTIRE MILK. 69
butter may not be soft and white, and quicker in winter, that
the proper temperature may be kept up.
A barrel-churn, lately introduced into this country, being
placed in a trough of water of the proper temperature, readily
imparts the degree of heat required by the milk or cream
without the necessity of adding warm water to the milk, and
churns the whole in ten or twelve minutes. It is said also to
give a larger weight of butter from the same quantity of milk.
If the quahty be really as good by this quick churning, the
alleged inferiority in the quality of butter churned quickly in
the common churn cannot be due to the mere rapidity of
churning alone.
OYcr^chnrning.
When the process of churning is continued after the full
separation of the butter, it loses its fine yellowish, waxy ap-
pearance, and becomes soft and light-colored. The weight of
the butter, however, is considerably increased ; and hence, m
Lancashire, over-churning is frequently practised in the manu-
facture of fresh butter for immediate sale.
Temperature of tlie Milk or Cream,
Much also depends upon the temperature of the milk or
cream when the churning is commenced. Cream when pnt
into the churn should never be warmer than 55° Fahrenheit
It rises during the churning from 4° to 10° F. above its origi-
nal temperature. When the whole milk is churned, the tem-
perature should be raised to' 65° F., which is best done by
pouring in hot water into the churn luhile tJie milk is kept in
motion. In winter, either of these temperatures may be easily
attained. In cold weather it is often necessary to add hot
water to the cream to raise it even to 55°. But in summer,
and especially in hot weather, it is difficult, even in cool and
well-ordered dairies, (without the use of ice,) to keep the cream
down to this comparatively low temperatm^e. Hence, if the
cream be then churned, a second-rate butter, at best, is all
that can be obtained.
The alleged advantages of Churning the entire Milk.
The proper temperature can be readily obtained both in
winter and summer. A hundred gallons of entire milk, will
give, m summer, five per cent, more butter than the cream
70 DOMESTIC AXIMALS.
from the same quantity of milk. Butter of the best quality
can be obtained without difficulty, both in winter and summer.
No special attention to circumstances, or change of method, is
at any time required. The churning in winter and summer is
alike simple and easy. The butter is not only of the best
quality while fresh, but is also best for long-keeping, when
properly cured or salted.
Cleanliness in all the operations of the Dairy.
This is peculiarly necessary to the manufacture of good
butter. Cream is remarkable for the rapidity with which it
absorbs and becomes tainted by any unpleasant odors. It is
very necessary that the air of the dairy should be sweet, that
it should be often renewed, and that it should be open in no
direction from which bad odors can come. {Johnston and
other authorities?)
The statement of J. T. Lansing, who received the first pre-
mium for butter from the New York State Agiicultural Socie-
ty, is as follows : —
Keep the cows stabled through the inclement season ; feed them
from three to four times per day with good hay or green stalks ;
when near coming in, add some oats, barley, or corn cracked.
In summer, good pasture, with hving water accessible at all
times, and plenty of salt.
Treatment of milk and cream before churning. — Strain the
milk in tin pans ; place them in a cool cellar for the cream to
rise. When sufficiently risen, separate the cream from the
milk ; put in stone jars, well prepared before churning.
The mode of churning in summer. — Rinse the churn with
cold water ; then turn in the cream, and add to each jar of
cream put in the churn, full one-fourth of the same quantity
of cold water. The churn used is a patent one, moved by
hand with a crank, ha^dng paddles attached, and so construct-
ed as to warm the milk (if loo cold) with hot water, without
mixing them together. The milk and cream receive the same
treatment in winter as in summer ; and in churning, use hot
instead of cold water, if necessary.
The method of freeing the butter from the milk, is to wash
the butter with cold water, till it shows no color of the milk,
by the use of a ladle.
Salting the butter. — Use the best kind of Liverpool sack-
salt ; the quantity varies according to the state in whioh the
butter is taken from the churn ; if soft, more : if hard, less ;
f
CLEANLINESS IN THE DAIRY. 71
always taking the taste for the surest guide. Add no saltpetre,
nor other substances.
The best time for churning is the morning, in hot weatlier,
and to keep the butter cool till put down.
The best mode of preserving butter, in and through the sum-
mer and winter, is as follows : — The vessel is a stone jar, clean
and sweet. The mode of putting it down is to put in a churn-
ing of butter, and put on strong brine ; let it remain on until
the next churning is ready to put down, and so on till the jar
is filled ; tlien cover it with fine salt the same to remain on
till used.
Mr. McWilliams, of Orange county, the celebrity of whose
butter is unsurpassed, thus details his method of butter-
making :
** Our practice is not to churn the milk until it becomes
thick or loppered, the milk and cream is then churned toge-
ther. The temperature of the milk is abovit fifty degrees. In
warm weather about a quart of cold water is put in each pan
before the milk is strained, so as to keep it sweet as long as
possible. The cellar-floor is brick. This in warm weather is
daily cleansed with cold water. A drain from the cellar car-
ries oflF the water thus applied. The churn is filled about half
full with milk, with the addition of two pails of cold water be-
fore starting the churn. In cold weather the same quantity
of warm water is applied. When the churning is finished,
which usually occupies about two hours of time, there are
then two more pails of cold water applied to raise the butter
and cool it.
The butter is then taken out of the churn and put in a large
tray ; this is immediately filled with cold water, and the butter
carefully washed ; after which the water is thrown off. The
butter now undergoes the process of salting ; it is then placed
in a cool situation, where it stands about an hour, and is work-
ed carefully over. This finished, it is placed in the same situ-
ation as before, where it stands three or four hours, and is
again worked over ; again replaced for five or six hours, when
it is worked over for the third time. It is now replaced, where
it stands till the next morning, and worked over for the fourth
time. A small quantity of nitre is then put in the butter.
Thus finished, it is placed in firkins holding about eighty-five
pounds.
Previous to packing, the firkin is scalded with hot water,
rinsed and cooled ^vith cold water, then rubbed all around
with fine salt ; this prevents the butter from adhering to the
72 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
sides of tlie firkin. When the firkin is full, a linen cloth is
placed over the top of the butter ; on this cloth a covering of
salt is put one inch deep, and cold water enough added to it
to form a brine. It then stands till it is to be sent to market,
when the cloth and salt are removed, the firkin turned down,
the top of the butter in the keg washed with cold water, and
the pickle drained off. The firkin is now neatly headed up
and sent to market."
The salt added to the butter should be from l-24th to l-28th
of its weight, or about two-thirds of an ounce to a pound, and
this must be of the best quality. All the buttermilk must be
thoroughly extracted by repeated washings ; and when com-
pleted, the butter should be immediately packed, and not a
particle of air allowed to come in contact with it till opened
for the table.
CHEESE.
The Circumstances affecting the Quality of Cheese.
" All cheese consists essentially of the curd, mixed with a
certain portion of the fatty matter, and of the sugar of milk.
But differences in the quality of the milk, in the proportion in
which the several constituents of milk are mixed together, or
in the general mode of dairy management, give rise to varieties
of cheese almost without number. J^early every dairy district
produces one or more qualities of cheese peculiar to itself.
Natural Differences in the Milk.
It is obvious that whatever gives rise to natural differences
in the quality of the milk, must affect also that of the cheese
prepared from it. If the milk be poor in butter, so must the
cheese be. If the pasture be such as to give a milk rich in
cream, the cheese will partake of the same quality. If the
herbage or other food affect the taste of the milk or cream, it
will also modify the flavor of the cheese.
Milk of Different Animals,
So the milk of different animals will give cheese of unlike
qualities. The ewe-milk cheeses of Tuscany, Naples, and
Lano-uedoc, and those of goats' milk made on Mont Dor and
elsewhere, are celebrated for quahties which are not possessed
by cheeses prepared from cows' milk in a similar way. Buf-
falo milk also gives a cheese of peculiar qualities, which is
■ manufactured in some parts of the Neapolitan territory."
BUTTERMILK CH&ESE. 73
Other kinds of cheese are made from mixtures of tht, milk
of different animals. Thus the strong-tasted cheese of Lecca
and the celebrated Roquefort cheese are prepared from mix-
tures of goat with ewe milk, and the cheese of Mont Cenis
from both of these mixed with the milk of the cow.
Creamed or Uncreamed Milk.
Still further differences are produced, according to the pro-
portion of cream which is left in or is added to the milk.
Thus, if cream only be employed, we have the rich cream-
cheese which must be eaten in a comparatively recent state.
Or, if the cream of the previous night's milking be added to
the new milk of the morning, we may have such cheese as the
Stilton of England, or the small, soft, and rich Brie cheeses,
so much esteemed in France.
If the entire milk only be used, we have such cheeses as the
Cheshire, the Double Gloucester, the Cheddar, the Wiltshire,
and the Dunlop cheeses of Britain, the Kinnegad cheese of
Ireland, and the Gouda and Edam cheeses of Holland. Even
here, however, it makes a difference, whether the warm milk
from the cow is curdled alone, as at Gouda and Edam, or
whether it is mixed with the milk of the evening before, as is
generally done in Cheshire and Ayrshire. Many persons are
of opinion that cream, which has once been separated, can
never be so well mixed again with the milk, that a portion of
the fatty matter shall not flow out with the whey and render
the cheese less rich.
If the cream of the evening's milk be removed, and the
skimmed milk added to the new milk of the next morning,
such cheeses as the Single Gloucester are obtained. If the
cream be taken once from all the milk, the better kinds of
skimmed-milk cheese, such as the Dutch cheese of Leyden,
are prepared ; while if the milk be twice skimmed, we have
the poorer cheeses of Friesland and Groningen. If skimmed
for three or four days in succession, we get the hard and horny
cheeses of Essex and Sussex, which often require the axe to
break them up.
Buttermilk Cheese.
But poor or butterless cheese will also differ in quality ac-
cording to the state of the milk from which it is extracted. If
the new milk be allowed to stand to throw up its cream, and
this be then removed in the usual way, the ordinary skimmed -
74 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
milk ''lieese will be obtained by adding rennet to the milk.
But if, instead of skimming, we allow the milk to stand till it
begins to sour, and then remove the butter by churning the
whole, we obtain the milk in a sour state, (buttermilk.) From
this milk the curd separates naturally by gentle heating. But
being thus prepared from sour milk, and -without the use of
rennet, buttermilk cheese differs more or less in quahty from
that which is made from sweet skimmed-milk. The acid in
the buttermilk, especially after it has stood a day or two, is
capable of coagulating new milk also ; and thus, by mixing more
or less sweet milk with the buttermilk before it is warmed,
several other qualities of mixed butter and sweet-milk cheese
may readily be manufactured.
Whey Cheese.
The whey which separates from the curd, and especially the
white whey, which is pressed out towards the last, contains a
portion of curd, and not unfrequently a considerable quantity
of butter also. When the whey is heated, the curd and but-
ter rise to the surface, and are readily skimmed off. This curd
alone will often yield a cheese of excellent quality, and so rich
in butter, that a very good imitation of Stilton cheese may
sometimes be made with alternate layers of new-milk cm*d and
this curd of whey.
Mixtures of Vegetable Substances with the Milk.
Kew varieties of cheese are formed by mixing vegetable sub-
stances with the curd, A green decoction of two parts of sage
leaves, one of marigold, and a little parsley, gives its color to
the green cheese of Wiltshire ; some even mix up the entire
leaves with the curd. The celebrated Schabzieger cheese of
Switzerland, is made by crushing the skim-milk cheese after it
is several months old to fine powder in a mill, mixing it then
with one-tenth of its weight of fine salt, and one-twentieth of
the powdered leaves of the mellilot trefoil, {trifolium melilotus
cerulea,) and afterwards with oil or butter, working the whole
into a paste, which is pressed and carefully dried.
Potato Cheeses,
As they ar« called, are made in various ways. One pound
of sour milk is mixed with five poimds of boiled potatoes and
a little salt, and the whole is bea/. into a pulp, which, ^tftCT
PREPAKATION OF RENNET SALTING THE STOMACH. 75
standing five or six days, is worked up again, and then dried
in the usual way. Others mix three parts of dried boiled po-
tatoes with two of fresh curd, or equal weights, or more curd
than potato, according to the quality required. Such cheeses
are made in Thuringia, in Saxony, and in other parts of Ger-
many. In Savoy, an excellent cheese is made by mixing one
of the pulp of potatoes with three of ewe-milk curd ; and in
Westphaha, a potato cheese is made with skimmed milk.
Preparation of Rennet.
Rennet is prepared from the salted stomach or intestines of
the sucking calf, the unweaned lamb, the young Idd, or even
the young pig. In genera! however, the stomach of the calf
is preferred, and there are \ xrious ways of curing and presei'v-
ing it.
The stomach of the newly killed animal contains a quantity
of curd derived from the milk on which it has been fed. In
most districts, it is usual to remove by a gentle washing the
curd and shmy matters which are present in the stomach, as
they are supposed to impart a strong taste to the cheese. In
Cheshire, the curd is frequently salted separately for immediate
use. In Ayrshire and Limburg, on the other hand, the curd
is always left in the stomach and salted along with it. Some
even give the calf a copious draught of milk shortly before it
is killed, in order that the stomach may contain a larger quan-
tity of the valuable curd.
Salting the Stomach.
In the mode of salting the stomach, similar differences pre-
vail. Some merely put a few handfuls of salt into and around
it, then roll it together, and hang it near the chimney to dry.
Others salt it in a pickle for a few days, and then hang it up
to drj ; while others pack several of them in layers, with much
salt both within and vithout, and preserve them in a cool
place, till the cheese- making season of the following year.
They are then taken out, drained from the brine, spread upon
a table, sprinkled with salt which is rolled in with a wooden
roller, and then hung up to dry. In some foreign countries,
the recent stomach is minced very fine, mixed with salt and
bread into a paste, put into a bladder, and then dried. In
Lombardy, the stomach, after being salted and dried, is minced
and mixed up with salt, pepper, and a httle whey or watei
into a paste, which is preserved for use.
76 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
In whatever way the stomach or intestine of the calf is
prepared and preserved, the almost universal opinion seems to
be, that it should be kept for 10 or 12 months, before it is
capable of yielding the best and strongest rennet. If newer
than 12 months, the rennet is thought to make the cheese
heave or swell, and become fuL of eyes or holes.
Making the Rennet.
In making the rennet, different customs also prevail. In
some districts, a bit of the dried stomach is put into half a
pint of lukewarm water, with as much salt as will he upon a
shilling, is allowed to stand over night, and in the morning the
infusion is poured into the milk. For a cheese of 60 lbs.
weight, a piece of the size of a dollar will often be sufficient,
though of some skins as much as 1 0 square inches are required
to produce the same effect. It is, however, more common to
take the entire stomach, and to pour upon them from one to
three quarts of water for each stomach, and to allow them to
mfuse for seveial days. If only one has been infused, and the
rennet is intended for immediate use, the infusion requires only
to be skimmed and strained. But if several be infused, or as
many as have been provided for the whole season, about two
quarts of water are taken for each, and, after standing not
more than two days, the infusion is poured off", and is com-
pletely saturated with salt. During the summer it is constantly
skimmed, and fresh salt added from time to time. Or a strong
brine may at once be poured upon ihe skins, and the infusion,
when the skins are taken out, may be kept for a length of
time. Some even recommend, that the liquid rennet should
not be used until it is at least two months old. When thus
kept, however, it is indispensable that the water should be
fully saturated with salt.
In Ayrshire, and in some other countries, it is customary to
cut the dried stomach into small pieces, and to put it, with a
handful or two of salt and one or two quarts of water, into 8
jar, to allow it to stand for two or three days, afterwards to
pour upon it another pint for a couple of days, to mix the two
decoctions, and when strained, to bottle the whole for future
use. In this state it may be kept for many months.
In making rennet, some use pure water only, others prefer
clear whey, others a decoction of leaves, such as those of the
sweetbriei , the dog-rose, and the bramble, or of aromatic herbs
^nd flowers ; while others a^ain, put in lemons, cloves, mace.
MODE IN WHICH THE MILK IS WARMED. 77
or brandy. These various practices are adopted for the pur-
pose of making the rennet keep better, of lessening its unpleas-
ant smell, of preventing any unpleasant taste it might give to
the curd, or finally of directly improving the flavor of the
cheese. The acidity of the lemon will, no doubt, increase also
the coagulating power of any rennet to which it may be added.
The rennet thus prepared is poured into the milk previously
raised to the temperature of 90° or 95° F., and is intimately
mixed with it. The quantity which it is necessary to add
varies with the quality of the rennet, from a tablespoonful to
half a pint for 30 or 40 gallons of milk. The time necessary
for the complete fixing of the curd varies also from 1 5 minutes
to an hour or even an hour and a half. The chief causes of
this variation, are the temperature of the milk, and the quality
and quantity of the rennet employed.
Different Qualities of Cheese.
The temperature of new or entire milk, when the rennet is
added, should be raised to about 95° F. ; tbat of skimmed
milk need not be quite so high. If the milk be warmer the
curd is hard and tough, if colder, it is soft and difficult to ob-
tain free from th€ whey. When the former happens to be
the case, a portion of the first whey that separates may be
taken out into another vessel, allowed to cool, and then poured
in again. If it prove to have been too cold, hot milk or water
may be added to it ; or a vessel containing hot water may be
put into it before the curdhng commences ; or the first portion
of whey that separates may be heated and poured again upon
the curd. The quality of the cheese, however, will always be
more or less affected, when it happens to be necessary to adopt
any of these remedies. To make the best cheese, the ^^-ue
temperature should always be attained as nearly as possibL,
before the rennet is added.
Mode in which the Milk is warmed.
If, as is the case in some dairies, the milk be warmed in an
iron pot upon the naked fire, great care must be taken that it is
not singed or fire-fanged. A very slight inattention may cause
this to be the case, and the taste of the cheese is sure to be
more or less affected by it. In Cheshire, the milk is put into
a large tin pail, which is plunged into a boiler of hot water,
and frequently stirred till it is raised to the proper tempera-
ture. In large dairy establishments, however, the safest
1*
78 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
method is to lave a pot with a double bottom, consisting of
one pot within another, after the manner of a glue-pot ; the
space between the two being filled with water. The fire ap-
plied beneath, thus acts only upon the water, and can never,
by any ordinary neglect, do injury to the milk. It is desirable
in this heating, not to raise the temperature higher than is ne-
cessary, as a great heat is apt to give an oiliness to the fatty
matter of the milk.
The time during which the Curd stands.
This is also of importance. It should be broken up as soon
as the milk is fully coagulated. The longer it stands after this,
the harder and tougher it will become.
The quality of the Kennet.
This is of much importance, not only in regard to the cer-
tainty of the coagulation, but also to the flavor of the cheese.
In some parts of Cheshire, it is usual to take a piece of the
dried membrane and steep it overnight with a little salt for
the ensuing morning's milk. It is thus sure to be fresh and
sweet, if the dried maiu be in good preservation. But Avhere
it is customary to steep several skins at a time, and to bottle
the rennet for after-use, it is very necessary to saturate the
solution completely with salt, and to season it with spices, in
order that it may be preserved in a sweet and wholesome^
state.
The quantity of Rennet added.
This ought to be regulated as carefully as the temperature
of the milk. Too much renders the curd tough ; too little
causes the loss of much time, and may permit a larger portion
of the butter to separate itself from the curd. It is to be ex-
pected also, that when rennet is used in great excess, a portion
of it will remain in the curd, and will naturally aflFect the kind
and rapidity of the changes it afterwards undergoes. Thus,
it is said to cause the cheese to heave or swell out from fer-
mentation. It is probable, also, that it will affect the flavor
whif^h the cheese acquires by keeping. Thus it may be, that
the agreeable or unpleasant taste of the cheeses of certain dis-
tricts or dairies may be less due to the quality of the pastures
or of the milk itself, than to the quantity of rennet with which
it has there been customary to coagulate the milk.
THE WAY IN WHJCH THE CURD IS TREATED. 79
The way in which the Rennet is made.
This, no less than its state of preservation and the quantity
employed, may also influence the flavor or other qualities of
the cheese. For instance, in the manufacture of a celebrated
French cheese, that of Epoisse, the rennet is prepared as fol-
lows : — Four fresh calf-skins, with the curd they contain, are
well washed in water, chopped into small pieces, and digested
in a mixture of 5 quarts of brandy with 15 of water, adding
at the same time 2 J lbs. of salt, half an ounce of black pepper,
and a quarter of an ounce each of cloves and fennel seeds. At
the end of six weeks, the Hquor is filtered and preserved in
well-corked bottles, while the membrane is put into salt-water
to form a new portion of rennet. For making rich cheeses,
the rennet should always be filtered clear.
On Mont d'Or, the rennet is made with white wine and vin-
egar. An ounce of common salt is dissolved in a mixture of
half a pint of vinegar with 2^ pints of white wine, and in this
solution a prepared goat's stomach or a piece of dried ing's
bladder is steeped for a length of time. A single spoonful
of this rennet is said to be sufficient for 45 or 50 quarts of
milk. No doubt the acid of the vinegar and of the wine aid
the coagulating power derived from the membrane.
The way in which the Curd is treated.
It is usual in our best cheese districts, carefully and slowly
to separate the curd from the whey, not to hasten the separa-
tion, lest a larger portion of the fatty matter should be squeezed
out of the curd, and the cheese should thus be rendered poorer
than usual. But in some places, the practice prevails of wash-
ing the curd with hot water, after the whey has been partially
separated from it. Thus at Gouda in Holland, after the
greater part of the whey has been gradually removed, a quan-
tity of hot water is added, and allowed to remain upon it for
at least a quarter of an hour. The heat makes the cheese more
solid and causes it to keep better.
In Italy, the pear-shaped caccio-cavallo cheeses and the
round 2^ciUoni cheeses of Gravina, in the Neapolitan territory,
are made from curd, which after being scalded with boiling
whey, is cut into slices, kneaded in boiling water, worked with
the hand till it is perfectly tenacious and elastic, and then
made into shapes. The water in which the curd is washed,
after standing twenty -four hours, throws up much oily matter,
which is skimmed off and made into butter.
80 riOMESTIC ANIMALS.
The Separation of the Whey
Is a part of the process, upon wliicli the quahty of the
cheese in a considerable degree depends. In Cheshire, more
time and attention is devoted to the perfect extraction of the
whey than in almost any other district. Indeed, when it is
considered that the whey contains sugar and lactic acid, which
may undergo decomposition, and a quantity of rennet which
may bring on fermentation, by both of which processes the
flavor of the cheeses must be considerably affected, it will ap-
pear of great importance that the whey should be as com-
pletely removed from the curd as it can possibly be. To aid
in effecting this, a curd-mill, for chopping it fine after the
whey is strained off, is in use in many of the large English
dairies, and a very ingenious and effectual pneumatic cheese-
press for sucking out the whey, was lately invented.
But the way in which the whey is separated is not a matter
of indifference, and has much influence upon the quality of
the cheese. Thus, in Norfolk, according to Marshall, when
the curd is fairly set, the dairy-maid bares her arm, plunges
it into the curd, and with the help of her wooden ladle, breaks
up minutely, and intimately mixes the curd with the whey.
This she does for ten or fifteen minutes, after which the curd
is allowed to subside, and the whey is drawn off. By this
agitation, the whey must carry off more of the butter and the
cheese must be poorer.
In Cheshire and Ayrshire, the curd is cut with a knife, but
is gently used and slowly pressed till it is dry enough to be
chopped fine, and thus more of the oily matter is retained.
On the same principle, in making the Stilton cheese, the curd
is not cut or broken at all, but is pressed gently and with care
till the whey gradually drains out. Thus the butter and the
curd remain intermixed, and the rich cheese of Stilton is the
result. Thus, while it is of importance that all the whey
should be extracted from the curd, yet the quickest way may
not be the best. More time and care must be bestowed in
order to effect this object, the richer the cheese we wish to
obtain.
The quality of the milk or of the pastures, may often be
blamed for the deficiencies in the richness or other qualities of
cheese, which are in reahty due to slight but material differ-
ences in the mode of manufacturing it.
The Mnd of salt used, is considered by many to have some
effect upon the taste of the cheese. Thus the cheese of Ge«
SrZE OF THE CHEESE. 81
rome, in the Yosges, is supposed to derive a peculiar taste
from the Lorena salt with which it is cured. In Holland, the
efficacy of one kind of salt over another for the curing oi
cheese is generally acknowledged.
The Mode 'in which the Salt is applied.
In making the large Cheshire cheeses, the dried curd, for a
single cheese of sixty pounds, is broken down fine and divided
into three equal portions. One of these is mingled with double
the quantity of salt added to the others, and this is so put into
the cheese-vat as to form the central part of the cheese. By
this precaution, the after-salting on the surface is sure to pene-
trate deep enough to cure effectually the less salted parts.
In the counties of Gloucester and Somerset the curd is
pressed without salt, and the cheese, when formed, is made to
absorb the whole of the salt afterwards through its surface.
This is found to answer well with the small and thin cheeses
made in those counties, but were it adopted for the large
cheeses of Cheshire and Dunlop, or even for the pine-apple
cheeses of Wiltshire, there can be no doubt that their quality
would frequently be injured. It may not be impossible to
cause salt to penetrate into the very heart of a large cheese,
but it cannot be easy in this way to salt the whole cheese
equally, while the care and attention required must be greatly
increased.
Addition of Cream or Butter to the Curd.
Another mode of impro\dng the quahty of cheese, is by the
addition of cream or butter to the dried and crumbled curd.
Much diligence, however, is required fully to incorporate these,
so that the cheese may be uniform throughout. Still this
practice gives a peculiar character to the cheeses of certain
districts. In Italy, they make a cheese after the manner of the
E^iglish, into which a considerable quantity of butter is work-
ed ; and the Reckem cheese of Belgium is made by adding
half an ounce of butter and the yolk of an Qgg, to every pound
of pressed curd.
Size <jf the Cheese.
From the same milk, it is obvious that cheeses of different
sizes, if treated in the same way, will, at the end of a given
number of months, possess qualities in a considerable degree
different. Hence, without supposing any inferiority, either in
82 DOMESTIC \XiMALS.
the milk or in the general mode of treatment, the size usually
adopted for the cheeses of a particular district or dairy, may
be the cause of a recognised inferiority in some quality, which
it is desirable that they should possess in a high degree.
The Method of Curing.
This has very much influence upon the quality of the
cheese. The care with which they are salted, the warmth of
the place in which they are kept during the first two or three
weeks, the temperature and closeness of the cheese-room in
which they are afterwards preserved, the frequency of turn-
mg, of cleaning from mould, and rubbing with butter ; all
these circumstances exercise a remarkable influence upon the
after-quahties of the cheese. Indeed, in very many instances,
the high reputation of a particular dairy district or dairy
farm, is derived from some special attention to some or to all
of these apparently minor points.
In Tuscany, the cheeses, after being hung up for some time
at a proper distance from the fire, are put to ripen in an un-
derground, cool, and damp cellar ; and the celebrated French
cheeses of Roquefort, are supposed to ov»^e much of the
peculiar estimation in which they are held, to the cool and
uniform temperature of the subterranean caverns in which
the inhabitants of ^he village have long been accustomed to
preserve them.
Hmmoniacal Cheese.
The influence of the mode of curing, is shown very stri-
kingly in the small ammoniacal cheeses of Brie, which are
very much esteemed in Paris. They are soft unpressed
cheeses, which are allowed to ripen in a room, the tempera-
ture of which is kept between 60° and 70° Fahrenheit, till
they begin to undergo the putrefactive fermentation, and emit
an ammoniacal odor. " They are generally unctuous, and some-
times so small as not to wei^h more than an ounce.
Inoculating Cheese.
It is said that a cheese, possessed of no very striking taste
of its own, may be inoculated with any flavor we approve,
by putting into it wfth a scoop a small portion of the cheese
INOCULATING CREESE.
should be made to resemble.
Fi^. 19.
which we are desirous that
Of course, this can ap-
ply only to cheeses
otherwise of equal
richness, for we could
scarcely expect to give
a Gloucester the flavor^
of a Stilton, by mere-
ly putting into it a
small portion of a lich
and esteemed Stilton
cheese. [Johnston and
various other authori-
ties^
Fig. 19 is a self-act-
ing cheese-press, light
yet strong. The cheese
itself gives a pressure
of twelve times its
own weight; and if
this is insufficient, ad-
ditional weight may
be added as required.
The following statements were made by those receiving
premiums from the New York State Agricultural Society :
" Number of cows kept, eleven. Cheese made from two
milkinQ:s, in the Ens^lish manner ; no addition made of cream.
For a cheese of twenty pounds, a piece of rennet about two
inches square is soaked about twelve hours in one pint of
water. As rennets differ much in quality, enough should be
used to coagulate the milk sufficiently in about forty minutes.
No salt is put into the cheese, nor any on the outside during
the first six or eight hours it is pressed ; but a thin coat of
fine Liverpool salt is kept on the outside during the remainder
of the time it remains in press. The cheeses are pressed
forty-eight hours, under a weight of seven or eight cwt.
Nothing more is required but to turn the cheeses once a day
on the shelves."
" The milk is strained ^n large tubs over night ; the creana
stirred in milk, and in the morning strained in same tub ; milk
heated to natural heat ; add color and rennet ; curd broke
fine and whey off, and broke fine in hoop with fast bottom,
and put in strainer ; pressed twelve hours ; then taken from
Cheese-Press.
84 DOiMESTlC INIMALS.
hoop, and salt rubbed on the surface ; then put m hoop,
without strainer, and pressed forty-eight hours ; then put on
tables, and salt rubbed on surface, and remain in salt six
days, for cheese weighing thirty pounds. The hoops to have
holes in the bottom ; the crushings are saved, and set, and
churned, to grease the cheese. The above method is for
making one cheese per day. As in butter-making, the utmost
cleanliness is required in every part of the cheese-making
premises."
CHAPTER IV,
SHEEP
With the exception of the dog, there is no one of the brute
creation which exhibits the diversity of size, color, form, cov-
ering, and general appearance, which characterizes the sheep,
and none Avhich occupies a wider range of climate, or subsists
on a greater variety of foodj In every latitude between the
equator and the arctic, he ranges over the sterile mountains,
and through the fertile valleys. He feeds on almost every
species of edible forage, the cultivated grasses, clovers, cereals
and roots ; he browses on aromatic and bitter herbs ; he crops
the leaves and bark from the stunted forest shrubs, and the
pungent, resinous evergreens. In some parts of iSTorway and
Sweden, when other resources fail, he subsists on fish or flesh
during their long and rigorous mnters, and if reduced to
necessity, he eats his own wool.
He is diminutive like the Orkney, or massive like the Tees-
water. He is policerate or many horned ; he has two large oi
small spiral horns like the Merino, or is polled or hornless hke
the mutton sheep. He has a long tail like our own breeds ; a
broad tail, like many of the eastern ; or a mere button of a tail,
like the fat-rumps, discernible only by the touch. His coat is
sometimes long and coarse, like the Lincolnshire ; short and
hairy, like those of Madagascar; soft and furry, like the
Angola ; or fine and spiral, like the silken Saxon. His color,
either pure or fancifully mixed, varies from the white or black
of our own country, to every shade of brown, dun, buff, blue,
and gray, Hke the spotted flocks of the Cape of Good Hope
SHEEP. 85
and other parts of Africa and Asia. This wide di\ ersity is the
result of long domestication, imder almost every conceivable
variety of condition.
Uses.
Among the antediluvians, sheep were immolated for sacri-
ficial offerings, and their fleeces probably furnished them with
clothing. Since the deluge, their flesh has with all nations
been used as a favorite food for man. By many of the
rude, rowing nations of the East, they are employed in carry-
mg bui'dens.
Their milk is generally used by the uncivilized, and to some
extent by the refined nations of Europe, not only as a bev-
erage, but for making into cheese, butter, and curds. Job re-
fers to its use, as do Isaiah and other of the Old Testament
writers. Most of the Greek and Roman authors describe its
general use and manufacture. The ewe's milk scarcely differs
in appearance from that of the cow, but is generally thicker,
and yields a pale, yellowish butter, that is always soft and
soon becomes rancid. Culley remarks, " the cheese from their
milk is exceedingly pungent, and for that reason is preferred by
many to that from the cow." In Wales, the milk is mixed
with that of the dairy, and makes a tart, palatable cheese.
We have never seen it appropriated for dairy purposes in the
United States, except by a few Welsh and Highland emigrants.
The sheep is frequently employed in the dairy regions of this
country, at the tread-mill or horizontal wheel, to pump the
water, churn the milk, or perform other light domestic work.
The dignity and importance of the shepherd's vocation
have ever been conspicuous. Abel, the supposed twin-brother
of the first-born of the human race, was a " keeper of sheep ;"
and from this, it may be fairly inferred, that there is no ani-
mal which has so long been under the immediate control of
man. Abraham and his descendants, as well as most of the
ancient patriarchs, were shepherds. Job had 14,000 sheep.
It is said of Rachel, the favored mother of the Jewish race,
" she came with her father's sheep, for she kept them," The
seven daughters of the priest of Midian, " came and drew
water for their father's flocks." Moses,' the statesman and law-
giver, who "was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians,
kept the flocks of Jethro, his father-in-law ;" and Da-vid, the
future monarch of Israel, the hero, poet, and divine, was a
keeper of sheep. It was to shepherds, while " abiding in the
field, keeping watch over their flocks by night," that th«
8
86 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
birth of the Saviour was announced. The root of the Hebrew
name for sheep, signifies fruitfulness, abundance, plenty; as
indicating the blessings they were destined to confer on the
human race. With the sacred writers, they were the chosen
symbol of purity and the gentler virtues ; they were the
victims of propitiatory sacrifices ; and finally, they became the
type of redemption to fallen man. These may not be considered
accidental allusions in a book, whose every feature is full of
design.
Nor has the sheep been less the subject of eulogy and at-
tention with profane writers. Among these. Homer and
Hesiod, Virgil and Theocritus, introduced them with evident
delight in their pastoral themes ; while their heroes and demi-
gods, Hercules and Ulysses, ^neas and Numa, carefully per-
petuated them throughout their regal domains.
In modern times, they have commanded the attention of the
most enlightened nations ; and their prosperity has in no in-
stance been independent of tliose useful animals, wherever wool
and its manufactures have been regarded as essential staples.
Spain and Portugal, for more than two centuries, were the
most enterprising nations of Europe, and during that period,
they excelled in the production and manufacture of wool.
Flanders, for a time, was before England in the perfection of
the arts and the enjoyments of life, and England then sent tlie
little wool she raised to that country to he manufacttmd. Her
politic sovereigns soon found this a losing game, and ofiered
large bounties for the importation of artists and machinery.
By a systematic and thorough course of legislation, which
looked to the utmost protection and augmentation of wool and
woollens, she has carried their production beyond any thing
the world has ever se^n. The small islands of Great Britain
and Ireland, in addition to the support of their 26,000,000 of
people, 15,000,000 of cattle, 2,250,000 horses, 18,000,000
swine, and innumerable smaller domestic animals, maintain
over 40,000,000 sheep, Avorth $250,000,000 ; and besides
manufacturing nearly all their fleeces, annually import nearly
an equal amount from abroad. The sumptuary law for bury-
ing the dead in woollen, still occupies its place in their statute
book. And beyond all question, England is the leading power
of the nineteenth century, in the combination of all those qual-
ities which constitute national greatness, civilization, and
strength
THE DOMEST :;ATED SHEEP. 87
VARIETIES,
Naturalists have divided the wild sheep into four varieties.
The Musimon, (Ovis Musimon,) inhabiting Corsica, Sardinia,
and other islands of the Mediterranean, the mountainous parts
of Spain and Greece, and some other regions bordering upon
that inland sea, have been frequently domesticated and mixed
with the long-cultivated breeds.
The Argali, [0. Ammon,) ranges over the steppes, or ele-
vated plains of Central Asia, northward and eastward to the
ocean. They are larger, more hardy, and more untameable
than the Musimon.
The Rocky Mountain Shee]), ( 0. Montana,) frequently called
the Big-horn by our western hunters, is found on the prairies
west of the Mississippi, and throughout the wild mountainous
regions, extending through California and Oregon to the Pa-
cific. They are larger, but in other respects resemble the Ar-
gali, of which they are probably descendants, as they could
easily cross upon the ice at Be^hring's Straits, from the north-
eastern coast of Asia. Like the Argali, when caught young
they are easily tamed ; but Ave are not aware that they have
ever been bred with the domestic sheep. Before the country
was overrun by the white man, they probably inhabited the
region bordeiing on the Mississippi. Father Hennepin, a
French Jesuit, who w^rote nearly two hundred years ago, often
speaks of meeting with goats in his travels through what is
now the territory embraced by Illinois and Wisconsin. The
wild, clambering propensities of these animals, occupying the
giddy heights far beyond the reach of the traveller, and the
outer coating of hair (supplied underneath, however, with a
thick coating of soft wool) gives to them much of the ap-
pearance of that animal. In summer they are generally found
single ; but when they descend from their isolated, rocky
heights in mnter, they are gregarious, marching in flocks un-
der the guidance of leaders.
The Bearded Sheep of Africa (0. Tragelaphus) inhabit the
mountains of Barbary and Egypt. They are covered with a
soft, reddish hair, and have a mane hanging below the neck,
and large locks of hair at the ankle.
The Domesticated Sheep {0. Aries)
Embraces all the varieties of the subjugated species. Wheth-
er they have dtjscended from any one of the wild races, is a
88 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
question yet undetermined among naturalists ; but however
this may be, many of the varieties apparently differ less from
their ^dld namesakes than from each other.
The fat-rumped and the broad-tailed shee^) are much more
extensively diffused than any other. They occupy nearly all
the southeastern part of Europe, Western and Central Asia,
and Northern Africa. They are supposed to be the varieties
which were propagated by the patriarchs and their descend-
ants, the Jewish race. This is inferred from various passages
in the Pentateuch, Exodus xxix. 22 ; Leviticus iii. 9 ; viii. 25 ;
ix. 19, and some others, where "the fat and the rump" are
spoken of in connection with offerings, in which the fat was
always an acceptable ingredient. Dr. Boothroyd renders one
of the foregoing passages, "the large, fat tail entire, taken
clear to the rump." It is certain this variety gives indisputa-
ble evidence of remote and continued subjugation. Their
long, pendent, drowsy ears, and the highly artificial posterior
developments, are characteristic of no wild or recently-domes-
ticated race.
This breed consists of numerous sub -varieties, differing in
all their characteristics of size, fleece, color, &c., with quite as
many and marked shades of distinction as the modern Euro-
pean varieties. In Madagascar, they are covered with hair ;
in the south of Africa, with coarse wool ; in the Levant, and
along the Mediterranean, the wool is comparatively fine ; and
from that of the fat-rumped sheep of Thibet the exquisite
Cashmere shawls are manufactured. Both rams and ewes are
sometimes bred Avith horns, and sometimes without, and they
exhibit a great diversity of color. Some yield a carcass of
scarcely 30 lbs., while others have weighed 200 lbs. dressed.
The tail or rump varies greatly, according to the purity and
style of breeding ; some are less than one-eighth, while others
exceed one-third the entire dressed weight. The fat of the
rump or tail is considered a great delicacy, and in hot climates
resembles oil, and in colder, suet.
The broad-tailed sheep were bi ought into this country,
about 50 years since, by Commodore Barron and Judge Pe-
ters, and bred with the native flocks. They were called the
Tunisian mountain sheep. Some of them were subsequently
distributed by Col. Pickering, of Massachusetts, among the
farmers of Pennsylvania ; and their mixed descendants were
highly prized as prohfic and good nurses, coming early to
maturity, attaining large weights, of a superior quality of car-
cass, and yielding a heavy fleece of excellent wool. The prin-
NATIVE OR COMMON SHEEP OF THE U. STATES. 89
cipal objection brought against them, was the difficulty of
propagation, which always required the assistance of the shep-
herd. The lambs were dropped white, red, tawny, bluish, or
black ; but all excepting the black, grew white as they ap-
proached maturity, retaining some spots of the original color
on the cheeks and legs, and sometimes having the entire head
tawny or black. The few which descended from those origin-
ally imported into this country, have become blended with
American flocks, and are now scarcely distinguishable from
them.
Native or Common Slieep of the United States.
Strictly speaking, there are no sheep indigenous to North
America, excepting the Ovis Montana, or Rocky Mountain
sheep. Before the introduction of the improved European
breeds, during the present century, om- sheep were generally a
hardy, long-legged, coarse, open-fleeced animal, which yielded,
according to attention and feed, from 1 ^ to 4 lbs. of indiff'er-
ent wool. We have seen numerous flocks within the last 20
years, of the pure-bred native, whose bellies were entirely
destitute of wool, and sometimes the whole carcass was bare,
excepting a mere strip or ridge like a mane, reaching from the
head to the tail. The wool which was retained on the neck,
back, and sides, was frequently Hiatted almost as firmly as a
leather apron ; and that on the thighs, and sometimes on the
sides, was often composed almost wholly of long hair.
Although indifferently formed in comparison with the best
breeds of the present day, being thin in the breast and back,
light quartered, and slow in coming to maturity, they yet pos-
sessed some good qualities. They were prolific, excellent
nurses, tallowed well, and yielded good mutton. There were,
occasionally, some smutty-nosed or brockle-faced sheep among
them, distinguished by their additional size, superior merits,
and courage. These were usually the leaders of the flock, in
their marauding expeditions on their neighbor's domains ; and
in common with the others, they were eminently adapted to
purvey for themselves on the frontier settlements. There
were, besides, some black or dark chocolate-brown members
in every flock, which were much valued by the thrifty house-
wife for their wool, which afforded an economical mixture for
jackets, hose, and trousers, known as sheep's gray.
Our original stock were principally derived from England,
where their counterparts may be seen at the present day, in
the refuse breeds of that country When these sheep were
90 D0MEST\C3 ANIMALS.
vrell selected and properly bred, there was rapid and satisfac-
ory improvement, and from such flocks, mixed with some of
ihe more recently improved varieties, have sprung many valu-
able animals.
There was but one exception to this general character of
the native flocks, so far as our observation extended, which
was a considerably numerous, and, probably, accidental varie-
ty, known as the Otter hreecly or Creepers. These were an ex-
cessi^'ely duck-legged animal, with well-formed bodies, full
chest, broad backs, yielding a close heavy fleece of medium
quahty of wool. They were deserved favoritei^' where indifter-
ent stone or wood fences existed, as their power of locomo-
tion was absolutely limited to their enclosures, if protected by
a fence not less than two feet high. The quality of their
mutton was equal, while their aptitude to fatten was decidedly
superior to their longer-legged contemporaries. They are
probably now nearly or quite extinct.
An excellent variety was produced by General Washington,
from a cross of a Persian ram, upon the Bakewell, which bore
wool 14 inches in length, soft and silky, and admirably suited
to combing. They were called the Arlington sheep, but they
have long since become incorporated with the other flocks of
the country.
The Merino.
This is undoubtedly one of the most ancient race of sheep
extant. The loose descriptions and indefinite generalities of
the ancient writers, leave much to conjecture on this point ;
yet we have a few passages from Pliny, Columella, and some
other Roman authors, which leave little doubt that the Merino
was bred in their age, and had even been introduced into
Italy from Greece. It is a matter of history, that the Greeks
had choice breeds of sheep at an early day, which they
might have derived from Egypt, Tyre, -and Asia Minor, as
they were intimately connected in commerce with those coun-
tries, where the woollen manufacture early reached great per-
fection. It is supposed that the celebrated Argonautic ex-
pedition, in quest of the golden fleece, undertaken by the
Greeks nearly 1300 years before Christ, resulted in procuring
a valuable race of sheep from Colchis, in the Euxine.
However this may be, it is certain that when Augustus ex-
tended his peaceful sceptre over half the known world, the
Romans were in pos«^assinn of som3 flocks, bearing fleeces of
THE MERINO. 91
exceeding fineness and beauty. They had been reared in the
province of Apuha, on the southeast coast of Italy, and
were called Tarentine, from Tarentum, the capital of the
province. Here, then, may have been one branch of the
Merino family.
Another is undoubtedly described by Pliny, who says, " the
red fleece of Bcetica was of still superior quality, and had no
fellow.''^ All the Spanish coast on the Mediterranean, of
which Baetica formed a considerable part, comprising the
modern Spanish provinces of Jaen, Cordova, Seville, An-
dalusia, and Granada, was early colonized by the enterprising
Greeks ; and this red fleece that had no fellow, was probably
introduced by them at an early day, and by their descend-
ants had been carried to a still higher degree of perfection
than that of Apulia. Columella, the uncle of the writer on
agriculture, ^a wealthy emigrant to Spain from Italy, a. d. 30,
carried with him some of the Tarentine sheep, and thus added
to the fine-woolled sheep of Spain. These two ancient streams,
united perhaps with a third from the more ancient stock of
the Euxine, (for Strabo asserts that some of the finest-woolled
sheep were brought from that region in his time, and sold for
the enormous sum of $750,) flowed on in an uninterrupted
current over that broad country, and brought down to
modern times the unrivalled race of the Merino. The limited
region of Italy, overrun as it repeatedly was by hordes of
barbarians during and after the times of the late emperors,
soon lost her pampered flocks ; while the extended regions of
Spain, intersected in every direction by almost impassable
mountains, could maintain their more hardy race, in defiance
of revolution or change.
Whatever distrust may be attached to these scraps of history,
which apparently establish the remote antiquity of the Merino,
this much is absolutely certain, that they are a race whose quali-
ties are inbred, to an extent surpassed by no others. They
have been improved in the general weight and evenness of their
fleece, as in the celebrated flock of Rambouillet ; in the uni-
formity and excessive fineness of fibre, as in the Saxons ; and in
their form and feeding qualities, in various countries; but
there has never yet been deterioration either in quantity or
quality of fleece or carcass, wherever transported, if supplied
with suitable food and attention. Most sheep annually shed
their wool if undipped ; while the Merino retains its fleece,
sometimes for five years, when allowed to remain unshorn.
This we conceive affords conclusive evidence of long-coD-
92 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
tinued breeding among themselves, by which the very con-
stitution of the wool-producing organs beneath the skin have
become permanently established ; and this property is trans-
mitted to a great extent even among the crosses, thus marking
them as an ancient and peculiar race.
The conquest by the Moors of a part of those fine prov-
inces in the south of Spain, so far from checking, served
rather to encourage the production of fine wool. They were
nort only enterprising, but highly skilled in the useful arts,
and carried on extensive manufactories of fine woollen goods,
which they exported to different countries. After their ex-
pulsion in the 15th century, by Ferdinand and Isabella, the
Spaniards preserved these manufactures in part, and sedu-
.k)usly cherished their fine flocks ; and knowing the incompar-
ible advantage they had in them, their sovereigns, except in
few isolated instances, strictly prohibited their exportation.
Exportation of Merinoes from Spain.
History asserts that Henry VIII. of England, by permission
of Charles V., imported 3,000 Spanish sheep ; but of what
kind is not mentioned, they having numerous varieties in
Spain. If of the true Merino, it will explain the superior
quahty of the English middle-wools, the Ryeland, South
Downs, and some others.
The first well-authenticated exportation of the Spanish
Merino, was made to Sweden in 1723, by Alstroemer, which
solved the problem of their capacity for sustaining their
character, on rough fare and in a high northern latitude.
Lasteyrie, who wrote fifty years after the experiment had
been tried, speaks of their improvement, both in carcass and
the quality and quantity of fleece.
The next exportation was made to Saxony, in 1765, and
consisted of 105 rams and 114 ewes, but from what flocks
they were taken, history nowhere mentions. A second ex-
portation to that country was made in 1778, of 110 that
were variously selected, from the best flocks in Spain. From
these have descended the high-bred, silken-fleeced Saxons,
whose wool stands confessedly without a rival.
In 1775, the Empress Maria Theresa imported 300 Merinoes
into Germany, and placed them on the imperial farm in Hun-
gary. In 1786, an importation was made into Denmark and
her provinces ; and again, in 1797, another flock of 300 was
brought into tlj^. kingdom, and placed at Esserum, about eight
IMPORTATION OF MERINOES. 93
leagues from Copenhagen. In 1786, 100 rams and 200 ewes
were imported into Prussia, most of which were allowed to
perish from neglect and disease ; but their places were fully
made up by later importations. The same year, 400 ewes
and rams were selected from the choicest Spanish flocks, and
placed on the royal farm of Rambouillet, in France, which
laid the foundation of the celebrated flock which bears that
name.
A small flock of inferior animals was clandestinely procured
by George III., of England, in 1*788, which attracted little
attention. In 1791, a small but choice flock was presented
to that monarch by the Cortes of Spain, which soon acquired
high favor among many intelligent breeders. A part of these
were kept pure, and their descendants fiuiiished the superb
flock of 700 Nigrettis, which procured for their owner, Mr.
Trimmer, in 1829, the gold medal from the London Society
of Arts. Others were mixed with different flocks in the king-
dom, to the evident improvement of their fleeces.
The first importation of Merinoes into the United States,
Which resulted in the propagation of a pure breed,* was
made by Chancellor Livingston, then minister at the court of
Versailles, who sent two choice rams and ewes from the Ram-
bouillet flock, in 1802, to Claremont, his country seat on the
Hudson. In the latter part of the same year, Col. Humphreys,
our minister in Spain, sent out nearly one hundred Merinoes,
which were followed by more numerous flocks from the same
and other sources. The largest importations of the Merino,
however, were made through Mr, Jarvis of Vermont, in 1809,
then U. S. Consul in Spain, and immediately thereafter. He
first shipped, as he states, " 200 Escurial, afterwards 1400
Paulars, 1700 Aqueirres, 100 Nigrettis, and about 200 Mon-
tarcos. 2700 Montarcos were sent out by a Spaniard and a
Portuguese, and about 300 Guadaloupes by others ; also 200
to 300 Paulars, by Gen. Downie, to Boston. Of the Montarco
flock shipped by others, about 2500 came to Boston, Provi-
dence, New York, and other ports. All were imported in the
latter part of 1809 and '10, and early in 1811, and were the
only Leonese Transhumantes, if we include Humphreys' and
Li^dngston's, (which I have no doubt were of the same stock,)
that were ever shipped to the United States."
* One or more pure Merinoes were imported into Massachusetts, in the latter
part of tho last century, by a citizen of that state, but they were soon mixed witb
o'her flocks, and resuited"in the perpetuai'i an e^no distinct breed.
94
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Fig. 20 is a SDirited cut of a variety of the Merino without
dewlap, and with a long and somewhat open rieece.
Fi<r. 20.
Merino Buck.
Varieties of the Spanish Sheep.
Besides several other breeds of sheep in Spain, consisting of
long, coarse wool, and that of a medium staple, embraced
tinder the different names of Ckorinoes, Choaroes or Chunahs,
the Merino is distinguished by two general di^^sions ; the
Transhmnantes or travelling, and the Estantes or stationary
flocks. The former are subdivided, according to the Provinces
they occupy, into Leonese, Segovian, and Sorian. Many of
the Estantes were of the best quality in respect to carcass,
constitution, and fleece ; and such as were highly bred and in
the hands of inteUigent breeders, w^ere not surpassed by any
of the Spanish flocks. There were also many choice sheep
among the Segovian and Sorian Transhumantes, but m gen-
eral they were decidedly mferior to those of Leon. These
last were universall}^ regarded as the prime flocks of Spain.
•They comprised the Escurial, the Paular, the Nigretti, the
VARIETIES TF THE SPANISH SHEEP. 95
Aqueirres or Muros, tlie Montarco, the Guadaloupe, Infantado,
and some others.
There is much contradictory testimony as to the comparative
merits of the las -mentioned flocks, as they were found in Spain ;
which is owing in part, doubtless, to the difference in the
specimens subjected to examination. We subjoin some of the
most reliable authorities on this subject.
M. Lasteyrie, who investigated this matter closely, says,
" The Guadaloupe have the most perfect form, and are likewise
celebrated for the quantity and quality of their wool. The
Paular bear much wool of a fine quality, but they have a more
evident enlargement behind the ears, and a greater degree of
throatiness, and the lambs have a coarse hairy appearance,
which is succeeded by excellent wool. The lambs of the In-
fantado have the same hairy coat when young. The Nigretti
are the largest and strongest of all the traveling sheep in
Spain."
Mr. Livingston says, *' The Escurial is the most perfect of all
the travelling flocks in Spain ; the Guadaloupe for form, fine-
ness and abundance of the fleece ; the Paular with similar
fleeces are larger bodied. Those of Castile and Leon have the
largest, with the finest coat. Those of Soria are small, with
very fine wool ; and those also of Valencia, which do not
travel, and like the last have fine wool, but of a very short
staple."
Mr. Jarvis, who spent many years in Spain, under every
advantage for studying them closely, and who also imported,
and has since bred large numbers of them on his estate in Ver-
mont, gives their characteristics with more particularity, and
at much greater length : " The Paulars were undoubtedly one
of the handsomest flocks in Spain. They were of middling
height, round-bodied, well spread, straight on the back, the
neck of the bucks rising in a moderate curve from the withers
to the setting on of the head, their head handsome, with aqui-
line curve of the nose, with short, fine, glossy hair on the face,
and genei-ally hair on the legs, the skin pretty smooth, that is,
not rolling up or doubling about the neck and body, as in
some other flocks ; the crimp in the wool was not so short as
in many other flocks, the wool was somewhat longer, but it
was close and compact, and was soft and silky to the touch,
and the surface was not so much covered with gum. This
flock was originally owned by the Carthusian friars of Paular,
who were the best agriculturists in Spain, and was sold by
that order to the Prince of Peace when he came into power.
96 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
The Nigretti flock were the tallest Mermoes in Spain, but
were not handsomely formed, being rather flat-sided, roach-
back, and the neck inclining to sink down from the withers ;
the wool was somewhat shorter than the Paular, and more
crimped ; th*^ skin was more loose and inclined to double, and
many of them were woolled on their faces and legs down to
their hoofs. All the loose-skinned sheep had large dewlaps.
The Aqueirres were short-legged, round, broad-bodied, with
loose skins, and were more woolled about their faces and legs
than any other flock I ever saw ; the wool was more crimped
than the Paular, and less than the Nigretti, but was thick and
soft. This flock formerly belonged to the Moors of Spain,
and at their expulsion was bought by the family of Aqueirres.
The wool in England was known as the Muros flock, and was
highly esteemed. All the bucks of these three flocks had
large horns.
The Escurials were about as tall as the Paulars, but not
quite so round and broad, being in general rather more slight
in their make ; their wool was crimped, but not quite so thick
as the Paular or Nigretti, nor were their skins so loose as the
Nigretti and Aqueirres, nor had they so much wool on the
face and legs.
The Montarco bore a considerable resemblance to the Escu-
rials. The Escurial flock had formerly belonged to the crown,
but when Philip II. built the Escurial palace, he gave them
to the friars, whom he placed in a convent that was attached
to the palace, as a source of revenue. These four flocks were
moderately gummed,
The Guadaloupe flock was rather larger in the bone than
the two preceding, about the same height, but not quite so
handsomely formed ; their wool was thick and crimped, their
skins loose and doubling, their faces and legs not materially
difierent from the two latter flocks, but in general they were
more gummed than either of the other flocks. In point of
fineness, there was very little diflerence between these six
flocks ; and as I have been told by well-informed persons, there
is very little diflerence in this respect among the Leonese Tran-
shumantes in general. The Escurials, the Montarcos, and the
Guadaloupes, were not, in general, so heavy-horned as the
other three flocks, and about one in six of the bucks were
without horns."
The Saxon,
We have before seen, is one of the varieties of the pure-bred
THE SAXOX.
97
Merino, the foundation of wliich was laid by an importation of
some of the choicest animals into Saxony, in IV 65. The great
care and attention bestowed upon these sheep by the Elector,
the nobility, and the most intelligent farmers, soon carried them
to a point of uniformity and excellence of fleece, never exceed-
Fig. 21.
Saxon Ram.
ed by the best of the original flocks. The breeders were se-
lected with almost exclusive reference to the quality of the
fleece. Great care was taken to prevent exposure throughout
the year, and they were housed on every slight emergency.
The consequence of this course of breeding and treatment has
been to reduce the size and weight of fleece, and partially to
impair that hardiness and vigor of constitution, which univer-
sally characterized the original Transhumantes. In numerous
instances, this management resulted in permanent injury to the
character of their flocks, which America has severely felt in
several importations of worthless animals, and which a too great
eagerness for improvement induced her flockmasters to use with
the Spanish Merinoes and their descendants, as a means for
9
98 DOMESTIC ANIMAZ.S.
this object, but wbich has resulted in the introduction of fatal
diseases and serious deterioration in their flocks.
The first Importation of Saxons into this Country
Was made in 1823, of four good rams, two of which went
to Boston and the others to Philadelphia. The next was made
the following year, and consisted of 75 rams and ewes, which
were brought to Boston, and sold at public auction, and were
afterwards scattered over the country. Another lot of 180
followed the next year, to the same place, and was sold in the
same manner, but at an increased price, some selling as high
as $450 each.
These prices excited the spirit of speculation, and the fol-
lowing year witnessed the importation of near 3,000, many of
which were decidedly inferior. These were all thrown upon
the market for the most they would command ; and in many
instances, the sales not half covering the cost of im])ortation,
the enterprise was abandoned as a speculation, or commercial
operation.
The late Henry D. Grove, of Hoosic, New York, a native of
Germany, and a highly intelligent and thoroughly bred shep-
herd, accompanied some of the best early importations to this
country. He selected 105 choice animals for his own breed-
ing, w^hich he imported in 1827, and 70 more equally good, in
1828, and with these he formed the flock from which he bred
to the time of his decease, in 1844.
The average weight of fleece from the entire flock of Mr
Grove, nearly all of Avhich were ewes and lambs, as stated by
him to the writer, in 1842, was 2 lbs. 14 ounces, thoroughly
washed on the sheep's back. This was realized after a short
summer and winter's keep, when the quantity of hay or its
equivalent fed to the sheep did not exceed by actual weight
1-J- lbs. per day, except to the ewes, which received an addi-
tional quantity just before and after lambing. This treatment
was attended with no disease or loss by death, and with an
increase of lambs, equalling one for every ewe.
In a flock of pure Saxony sheep owned by Mr. Smith of
Connecticut, as stated in a letter from the owner, published in
the American Shepherd, 104 ewes raised 101 lambs, and
yielded 341 lbs. of wool, Avhich sold at 70 cents per lb. For
the 18 months preceding, he lost but three animals out of 300,
from ordinary casualties. But some flocks of pure Saxony do
not, in good condition, average 2 lbs. per head.
THE RAMBC UILI ET FLO K.
m
A recent importation, (May, 1846,) made by Mr. Taintor
of Connecticut, consisting of four bucks and four ewes, from
the celebrated Saxon flock of Baron de Spreck, show a size
and apparent vigor of constitution, equalHng any of their Me-
rino progenitors.
Fig. 22.
Rambouillet Buck.
TI16 Rambouillet Flock.
This flock was founded in 1186, by Louis XVI., from a se-
lection of 400 of the best Spanish sheep, which were placed
on the royal farm at Rambouillet. These, like the Saxon, re-
ceived all the attention which intelligence and wealth could
bestow, and the consequence was soon manifest in their larger
size, and the increased weight and uniformity in the fineness
of their fleece ; the last improvement being particularly evi-
dent, from the absence of the coarse wool, which in many
cases infested the quarters ; and the jarr or hair, which fre-
quently abounds on the flanks, legs, and thighs of the original
Merino.
Besides the crown flocks at Rambouillet, they are found in
equal perfection on several other of the royal farms, especially
those of Malmaison, Perpignan, Aries, Clermont, and some
100 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
others. These flocks have been bred for hp.rdy constitution,
large carcass, and heavy fleece, and of as much fineness as is
consistent with large weights, and as uniform in quality through-
out, as possible. Mr. Gilbert, who was particularly familial
with them, says, " almost all the fleeces of the rams, from two
years old and upwards, weigh (unwashed) from 12 to 13 lbs.;
but the mean weight, taking the rams and the ewes together,
has not quite attained to 8 lbs., after deducting the tags and
the wool of the belly." The French pound is about one-twelfth
heavier than the Enghsh ; but from the general custom of
folding the sheep in France, feeding them in fallows, and w^in-
tering them in houses, the fleece becomes very dirty. The
loss in washing (fit for manufacturing) is about 60 per cent.,
so that the clean fleece of the ram will average about 6 lbs.,
and that of the whole flock something under 4 lbs.
The first Importation of the Rambouillets to this Country.
This was in 1801, by M. Dellesert, of Paris, for M. Dupont,
then in New York, and consisted of four choice rams, only one
of which, Don Pedro, reached this country. He was used
«mong the native ewes near Kingston, N. Y., for three years,
and then transferred to Delaware, where he efi"ected great im-
provement among the native flocks. The second was that
made by the late Chancellor Livingston, before alluded to.
There was another in 1840, by Mr. Collins, of Connecticut,
comprising 30 select ewes and 2 rams. All these sheep pos-
sessed the characteristics peculiar to the variety as described.
A still more recent importation has been made by Mr. Tain-
tor, at the same time with that of the Saxons previously men-
tioned, consisting of 23 ewes and 3 bucks, variously selected
from the choicest flocks of the descendants of the Spanish
Merino. The rams, though young, are the most promising
animals of their breed, and when full grown, will weigh from
225 to 250 lbs. each. The sire of one was sold the past season
for $500. He sheared 23 lbs. of unwashed wool. The ewes
measu '^. after they were shorn, from 25|- to 29 inches in
height ovv. the withers. The height of the under side of
their bodies from the groimd, was from 9 J to 12 inches, which
is in the proportion of good American Meiino sheep. Their
weights varied, after shearing, from 124 to 153 lbs. Some of
them were quite thin in flesh, the largest especially, which, if
in fine condition with her fleece on, would weigh at least 200
Ibfe. The following is the weight of their fleeces unwashed.
PROGRESS OF THE MERINO IN THE J STATES. 101
The scales used did not mark less than one-quarter of a
pound, which will account for the absence of odd ounces.
No. 17 13 lbs. No. 100 12\ lbs.
27 15 " " 109 17 «
64 16| « " 110 17 «
71 14i " « 117 16| «
84 16i « " 118 15| «
87 16| " « 133 14| "
94 17 " « 195 13| «
It was the unbiased opinion of several wool-dealers present,
that the shearing above would yield at least 35 lbs. of
cleansed wool, fitted for manufacturing without further loss,
out of every 100 lbs. shorn. The fourteen ewes yielded 21G
lbs. unwashed, which would be equivalent to 15 lbs. 10
oz. thoroughly cleansed, or an average of 5 lbs. 6 oz. per
head. One-third may be safely added to bring this up to
clean washed. This would make the average, as wool-growers
usually dispose of their fleeces, 7 lbs. 3 oz. per head, a
yield totally unprecedented in this country.
The Progress of the Merino in the United States.
Thoup'h reaching^ back but half a century, the Merino flocks
of this country have been very fluctuatmg as to their value,
increase, and improvement. When first introduced, they
were viewed with distrust by the majority of our farmers;
and it was not till after several years' experience of their para-
mount merits, that they were generally disseminated. But
the confidence of x...r flock-masters having once been se-
cured, it has never been \^•ithdrawn, and they have ever since
been cherished favorites. The prices for choice Merinoes
rapidly increased after their character was fully established,
and Livingston states the average price for rams, in 1811, at
$1,000, and some were sold at a much higher rate.
This was the period of the embargo, when our infant
manufactures were just starting into, life ; and being follow-
ed by war with the greatest commercial nation of the world,
we were . thrown entirely on our own resources for the sup-
ply of our woollen and other fabrics, and wool and sheep
maintained their full value till after the return of peace, in 1816.
The flooding of our country with foreign goods, under low
duties, which succeeded this event, either broke down or
effectually paralyzed our woollen manufactures; and wool, of
course, felt the full weiglit of this crusliing influence. The
9*
102 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Merino rapidly declined in value, till its price nearly ap-
proximated to that of the native sheep. Their merits had,
however, become so conspicuous, that the low prices pro-
duced a more general diffusion, and they and their crosses
were thus sown broadcast over the country.
The injtroduction of the Saxons, in great numbers, in 1826,
many of which were excessively diminutive and diseased, and
their indiscriminate use with our pure-bred Merinoes, was a
serious interraption to the career of improvement in many of
our flocks. Their mixture with the best Saxons was no
further detrimental, than to reduce the quantity of fleece, and,
to a certain extent, lessen the peculiar hardiness of the
original Transhumantes, which had been fully preserved by
their descendants in this co^mtry. The use of well-selected
Saxon rams with ]\Ierino flocks, was extensively practised, and
it is still persisted in by many intelligent flock-masters, after
twenty years' experience, who are satisfied that they find
it for their hiterest to continue this style of breeding. The
animals being smaller, consume less ; and they probably pro-
duce a quantity of wool in proportion to their food, which,
from its improved and uniform quality, commands a higher
price in the market. Wherever they are not sufficiently
hardy, they can be bred back towards the Spanish Merino
standard, by the use of some of the stouter rams. Their
natures are intrinsically the same. They are only divergent
streams from the same oriorinal fountain, and when ao^ain
united, they readily coalesce and flow onwards, without vio-
lence or disorder.
The Merino, as might reasonably have been anticipated,
when properly managed, has improved from a variety of
causes. Though kept scrupulously pure in Spain, they were
seldom bred with that refinement of taste or nice judgment,
which distinguishes the accomplished modern breeder. Their
management Avas too entirely intrusted to ignorant shepherds
or careless agents, to secure that close attention which is es-
sential to improvement. The sheep had to perform a journey
of several hundred miles twice in a year, to and from their
distant Sierras ; and it was absolutely essential that strong
animals should be selected for breeding ; and to secure this
object, those were frequently used which were deficient in
the most profitable qualities. They were also closely bred
in-and-in, seldom or never departing from a particular flock
to. procure a fresh cross. Their wild, nomadic life, approach-
ing nrarly to that of their natural state, and their peculiarly
PECULIARITIES OF THE MERINO. 103
healthful pasturage, alone prevented a serious deterioration
from this cause.
When brought into the United States, the flocks were soon
mingled with each other, and for many years past, probably,
not an unmixed descendant of any distinct original flock could
be traced. Abundance of appiopriate food has been given
them, without the labor of long and fatiguing journeys ; and
lastly, there has been much care used in the selection of the
most profitable animals for breed. The spirit of improve-
ment has been recently awakened to this important branch of
American husbandr}", and as we already have all the elements
within ourselves for its attainment, if not arrested by any un-
toward national policy, it will soon result in giving us numeroi's
flocks of as choice sheej) as the world affords.
Peculiarities of the Merino.
The prominent pecuharities of the Merino, are the abunc' mce
and fineness of its fleece ; the tenacity with which it is leld ;
its crimped or spiral form ; its felting properties ; and t' .e ex-
cessive quantity of yolk, giving to it that softness whi h dis-
tinguishes it fi-om all others. Their large horns are c )mmon
to several other vaiieties. Their hoofs are sometimes si gularly
long, reaching 8 or 10 inches when allowed to gvo v. The
horns, hoofs, and avooI scarcely differ in their cheff .cal con-
stituents ; and the peculiar development of the two former, is
justly considered as an additional evidence of their wf al-bearing
properties.
The yolk, in most of the sheep, forms, with the dust which
adheres to it, a firm crust on the exterior, and t. gether with
the compactness of the fleece, it offers considerable resistance
to the open hand on being pressed, giving the impression of
rigidity. This outer coveiing repels the rain, the snow, and
the wind like a coat of mail, thus fitting the Merino to endure
exposure beyond any other sheep. On opening the crust,
the wool is found of a brilliant, golden hue, sparkling with
yolk, and firmly held together in masses, hardly distinguish-
able from the cocoon of the silk-worm. The wool closely
covers every part of the body, and frequently the entire legs
and head, excepting a part of the face. Still another pecu-
liarity of the Merino is its longevity. They attain a great age
when properly managed, and, in healthy localities, sometim^es
breed till 20 years of age.
The Merino may be described, generally, as a small-boned,
104 D03IESTIC ANIMALS.
closely made, medium-sized sheep, varying from 80 lbs. of
live weight, for a small ewe, to 160 lbs, for good-sized wethers
and rams, in ordinary condition. They are light in the shoulders
and chest, and altogether are more deficient in form than the
best mutton sheep. This apparent difference is materially
lessened when both are denuded of their fleece ; as the longer
pile of the latter covers defects, which would manifest them-
selves under the closer covering of the Merino. Yet, with
this seeming deficiency. Young found, in feeding the Merino
and Bakewell, that the latter ate the most, and gained the
least, in the ratio of two to three. We give the statement as
we find it, though it apparently contravenes a fundamental
principle, which a knowledge of all the circumstances of the
trial, the pecuharities of the particular animals, &c., might
probably explain satisfactoril}^
The mutton is excellent, and it is probably not surpassed by
that of any other sheep. Lord Somer^dlle claims it as a rule,
that the quality of the flesh in each class of sheep follows
that of the v/ool, and that the flesh of the short and fine-
^ ooUed sheep is closer in the grain and more highly flavored
thin the long-woolled. Sir Joseph Banks says, the London
bu ' chers, after having some of the Merinoes, eagerly sought for
mo;e, from its popularity with their best customers ; and it is
certain that the flavor of our mountain-fed Merino does not
suffer in comparison with the choicest breeds.
Breeding Merinoes.
The general principles of breeding cattle and sheep, as laid
down by the most approved authorities, must be taken with
some exceptions, when applied to the Merino. Good form
and feeding quahties aie desirable in this breed, but they are
not as essential as with the others. Wool is the great object,
and if this be sufficiently fine, even, and abundant, something
may be abated in the perfection of form. Early maturity, so
much sought after in the mutton sheep, cannot be reconciled
with the great longevity, and the prolonged productive powers
of the Merino. We must content ourselves, therefore, with
slowly engrafting such improvements on the breed, as can be
effected without prejudice to his other good quahties, and look
to his crosses with others for such quahties as are in^econcilable
with his nature.
It is considered indispensable to the improvement of the
Merino, that it be not bred too young. A vigorous ewe may
BREEDING MERINOES. 105
Dring her fir&t lamb at two years old, but it is better that it be
deferred till three. The ram should never be used till his
second year, and then but sparingly. From 2i to 6 years
old is deemed the most vigorous age, though many may be
safely used till 8 or 10, and occasionally later. Both ewes
and rams have been known to breed till 20 years old.
The ram should be large, stout, and well made, carrying
his weight as compactly as possible. The nose should be
convex ; the face covered with a soft velvety hair ; the eye
lively and prominent ; the veins near the lachrymal glands, of a
clear red ; the horns rough ; short neck ; pendent dewlap not
objectionable ; full chest ; broad shoulders ; broad, level back ;
large quarters ; tail large and well set up ; good legs, and
sound hoofs ; with a firm, easy, regular gait ; the head
carried high, with a look of boldness and decision, without in
any degree approaching to wildness or ferocity.
The ewe should possess these characteristics generally, with
such modifications as are suited to the sex. Great care should
be taken to breed from such as are most perfect vo all the
essential points of constitution, form, and size ; and weight,
imiformity, and fineness of fleece. The closest observation is
requisite, to select the best in all respects.
In-and-in breeding should be avoided where practicable,
which can be done where there is a careful registry of the
sheep through successive generations. Excessive use ef rams
can never be permitted without decided injury to them and
their progeny. In Spain, four rams are supplied to every
hundred ewes. This limited number is proper enough, where
they undergo so much fatigue in travelling, and kept too, as
they are, entirely on grass. But if moderately grained before
and during their use, and especially if kept up, and allowed to
serve the ewes once only, as they come in heat, this numbet
may be largely increased. A vigorous ram will suffice for 35
to 40 ewes, when running with the flock ; yet his powers vrould
not be more taxed by double or even treble this number, if
admitted to each but once. Bread is a convenient food for
the ram while running with the sheep. If he is gentle, which
he should always be, he will come up readily and eat from the
hand, without exciting the attention of the other sheep, which
crowd, and not unfrequently injure each other when grain is
placed before him ; or he may be stabled at night and fed
with grain.
If young ewes have stolen lambs, they should be taken
away immediately after yeaning, and the nourishment supplied
106
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
to the lamb from tlie milk of a cow. The tax of nursing is
nearly equal to that of gestation, and farther injury to the dam
may be avoided by this practice. Merino ewes have had the
reputation of being indifferent nurses in Spain. This is owing
to their fatigue in travelling, and scanty pasturage, rather than
to any constitutional deficiency. It is a frequent practice
there, to kill a part of the lambs, and put one on to two ewes.
This has never been found necessary im the countries where
they have been transplanted, as generous feed for the dams
has invariably been found entirely adequate to their support
of the young.
Tlie localities in which Merino Sheep can be profitably kept in
the United Slates,
Are wherever the pastures are sweet and dry ; the climate
not excessively hot ; and the land not too valuable for other
purposes. Wool is generally the great object in the sheep
husbandry of this country, and when sheep farms are remote
from the large markets, the Merino will make much the most
profitable returns. In the neighborhood of cities, where large
and fat sheep and early lambs bear a high price, the mutton
sheep may be substituted.
The South Down.
This valuable sheep has been known and bred for a long
time on the chalky downs of England, where it has always
maintained the character of a hardy animal, yielding a medium
quality of wool, and furnishing mutton of a superior flavor.
It was not, however, till within the last 70 years, that any
considerable attention was devoted to its improvement. Since
that period, its fine points have been remarkably developed,
which is shewn in iis improved lize and form, and its early
maturity and productiveness. The late Mr. John Ellman, of
England, was the first who took them thoroughly in hand ; and
so eminent was his success, that he founded a flock which has
been the source whence all the best blood has been since
derived.
The form and characteristics of the South Downs.
His criteria of a good South Down, are as follows : — '"' The
head small and hornless ; the face speckled or gray, and nei-
ther too long nor too short. The lips thin, and the space
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SOUTH DOWNS.
107
between the nose and the eyes narrow. The under jaw, or
chap, fine and thin ; the ears tolerably wide, and well covered
with wool, and the forehead also, and tlie whole space between
the ears well protected by it, as a defence against the fly.
The eye full and bright, but not prominent. The orbits of the
South Down Buck.
eye — the eye-cap, or bone, — not too projecting, that it may
not form a fatal obstacle in lambing. The neck of a medium
length, thin towards the head, but enlarging towards the
shoulders, where it should be broad and high, and straight in
its whole course above and below. The breast should be wide,
deep, and projecting forwards between the fore-legs, indicating
a good constitution, and a disposition to thrive. Correspond-
ing with this, the shoulders should be on a level with the back,
and not too wide above ; they should bow outward from the
top to the breast, indicating a springing rib beneath, and
leaving room for it. The ribs coming out horizontally from
the spine, and extending far backward, and the last rib pro-
108
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
jecting more than the others ; the back flat from the shouldera
to the setting on of the tail ; the loin broad and flat ; the mmp
Fig. 24.
vT-Ai^v u>=^o-^/ ^-•>r.-" ■^^^is?^^
■$^^:t-^:
South Down Evv^e.
long and broad, and the tail set on high and nearly on a level
with the spine. The hips wide ; the space between them and
the last rib on either side as narrov/ as possible, and the ribs,
generally, presenting a circular form like a barrel. The belly
as straight as the back. The legs neither too long nor too
short. The fore-legs straight from the breast to the foot ; not
bending inward at the knee, and standing far apart botli before
and behind ; the hocks having a direction rather outward, and
the tTv^sl, or the meeting of the thighs behind, being particu-
larly full ; the bones fine, yet ha\ing no appearance of weak-
THE CHEVIOT. 100
ness, and of a speckled or dark color. The belly well defended
with wool, and the wool coming down before and behind to
the knee, and to the hock ; the wool short, close, curled, and
fine, and free from spiry projecting fibres."
Other breeders have commenced where Ellman left off, and
have apparently pushed their improvement to its utmost capa-
city ; and especially has this been done by Messrs. Grantham
and Webb, the latter of whom, while preserving all the es-
sential merits of the sheep, has carried the live weight of
breeding rams to 250 lbs., and well-fattened wethers to 200
lbs. dressed weight. Many of the choicest animals have been
imported into this country, and they are now to be found, in
limited numbers, in almost every state of the Union.
The wool was formerly short, and used only for cloths, flan-
nels, cfec. It has been considerably lengthened in many of the
late flocks, and with the improvements in the combing ma-
chinery, is now much used in England as a combing wool.
The quantity produced is nearly equal to that of the Merino
flocks when well kept, varying, according to the size and style
of breeding, from 3 to 4 lbs. of clean washed wool, which in
quahty does not difler materially from half-blood Merino, and
sometimes rather exceeds it. The larger animals, of course,
produce fleeces of much greater weight, sometimes reaching
to 8 or 9 lbs. The South Down will subsist on short pasture,
but well repays full feeding. It attains early maturity, is hardy
and prolific, frequently producing two at a birth. Like all
highly-improved Enghsh breeds, it is not a long-lived sheep.
It may be considered in its prime at three. The wethers may
be fattened at 18 to 30 months, and the ewes at 3 to 5 years,
when first required as breeders. The last are sometimes al-
lowed to come in with a lamb at a year, but they cannot be
sustained in vigor if put to breeding before two.
The Cheviot
Is thus described by Blacklock : " They have a bare head,
with a long jaw and white face, but no horns. Sometimes
they have a shade of gray upon the nose, approaching to dark
at the tip ; at others, a tinge of lemon color on the face, but
these mai-kings scarcely aftect their value. The legs are clean,
long, and small-boned, and covered with wool to the hough ;
but there is a sad want of depth at the breast, and of breadth
both there and on tlie chine. A fat carcass weighs from 12
lbs. to 18 lbs. per quarter, and a medium fleece about 3 lbs
10
110 DOMESXrC ANIMALS.
The purest specimens of this breed are to be found on the
Scotch side of the Cheviot hills, and on the high and stony
mountain farms which lie between that range and the sources
of the Teviot. These sheep are a capital mountain stock, pro-
vided the pasture resembles the Cheviot hills, in containing a
good proportion of rich herbage."
They are eminently adapted to high lands and a severe cli-
mate, though less so than the Black-faced or Heath sheep of
Scotland. They have become an American sheep, by their
repeated introduction into this country. A late importation
of several choice sheep was made by Mr. Carmichael of New
York. The wool on these is from 5 to 7 inches long, coarse,
but well suited to combing. Like the Downs, it has heretofore
been classed among the middle-wools, but these specimens
would seem to indicate that they are verging towards the long-
wools.
Tlie Bakewell or Leicester, tlic Cotswold and Lincolnshire,
Possess several qualities in common, and it is only a prac-
ticed eye that can readily detect the difference. This resem-
blance arises from a recent, common oiigin. They are all
large and hornless ; of a pure white ; with long, coarse, and
heavy fleeces ; excellent mutton sheep ; coming early to ma-
turit}^ and capable of carrying enormous quantities of fat.
Theie have been from time immemorial numerous flocks of
these large, coarse-woolled sheep, existing in certain parts of
England, under a variety of names, and partaldng of some
slight peculiarity of features, according to the district in which
they are bred. Thus, besides those above-mentioned, there
were the Teeswater, the Romney-Marsh, the Kentish, the
Bampton, the Exmoor, &c., all of which were deficient in form,
slow-feeders, and late in coming to maturity.
Improvemeut of the Long-Wools.
The late Robert Bakewell first commenced a decided im-
provement with the Leicesters, nearly a century since. He
began by selecting the choicest sheep in England, which pos-
sessed the essential qualities ; and by judicious feeding and
manager^ent throughout, he soon brought them up to a char-
acter widely diftering from the original with which he started.
So eminent was his success, that in 1*787 he let three rams,
for a single season, for 1250 pounds, (about $6,200,) and was
offered 1050 pounds (about $5,200) fcr 20 ewes. Soon after
IMPROVEMENT OF THE LONG-WOOLS.
Ill
this, he reseived the enormous price of 800 guineas, or |4,000,
for the use of two-thirds of a ram for one season, reserving the
other third for himself.
Fig. 25.
Long-wool Buck.
He reduced the bone and offal or worthless parts of the car-
cass, and increased the weight of the valuable parts, and es-
112 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
pecially their tendency to fatten and early maturity. Thi
was effected mainly by a nice discrimination, which has prob
ably never been surpassed, if it has ever been equalled. He
selected medium sizes for the breed, with as much evenness
and perfection of form as possible, for he found that excellence
and profitable feeding qualities were seldom connected with
extra size, large bones, or imperfect form. He also observed
the disposition to fatten in individuals, and used only such as
were conspicuous in this respect. He rehed more than all
upon their quahty of handling well, depending even more upon
the elastic, mellow touch, than upon the most symmetrical
figure. He used only the choicest rams, a little under size,
while the ewes were of full medium weight. The progeny
were pushed with a full supply of nutritious food, and system-
atically brought to early maturity.
Connected with this, was his practice of in-and-in hreedingy
or breeding the parent upon the progeny, for several succes-
sive generations, which had the tendency still fm'ther to refine
the bone and offal, and impress most effectually the desirable
characteristics of the race. It is even credibly asserted, that
he produced rot in such of his fattening sheep as he wished
to mature early for the shambles, as in the first stages of that
loathsome disease the fat-secreting organs accomplish their
office more rapidly than in a state of perfect health ; and it at
least secured them against breeding when they left his own
hands. It is certain, that Bakewell carried his refining sys-
tem to such an extent, as partially to destroy the procreative
powers ; and he was subsequently obliged to introduce new
animals, to reinvigorate and continue his flock.
The general system of Bakewell, how.ever, was attended
with complete success. He produced a- race of animals, not
only far beyond what England had ever before seen, but
which, in all the qualities he endeavored to establish, have not
been smce exceeded ; and his imiwoved Leicesters ha^e come
down to the present day as perfect as he left them, showing
conclusively, that he not only formed, but stamped the pe-
culiarities of the breed, with a permanence which yet bears
witness to his genius. One of these attained the enoimous
live weight of 368 lbs., and dressed 248 lbs.
The Cotswold and Lincolnshire.
Other breeders were not slow in following in Bakewell a
footsteps with different breeds, and the Cotswold and Lincoln-
BREEDING OF LONG-WOOLS. 113
shire especially, have become the subjects of an equally decided
improvement, while the errors of Bakewell were entirely
avoided. They possess a rather more desirable robustness,
approaching, in some few specimens, almost to coarseness, as
compared with the finest Leicesters ; but they are more hardy
and less liable to disease. They attain as large a size, and
yield as great an amount of wool, of about the same value.
These breeds scarcely differ more from each other, than do
flocks of a similar variety, which have been separately bred
for several generations. They are prolific, and when well fed,
the ewes will frequently produce two lambs at a birth, for
which they provide hberally from their udder till tbe time for
weaning. The weight of the fleece varies from 4 to 8 lbs. per
head.
Peculiarity of long Wool and its Uses.
The striking peculiarity of the long-wools, is in the produc-
tion of a fleece, which is perfectly adapted, by its length and
the absence of the felting property, to the manufacture of
worsted stuffs, bombazines, moussehne de laines, &c. This is
a branch of manufactures, for which we had little material
that was suitable, till the introduction of the long-wools ; and
its rapid extension in the United States, within the past few
years, clearly shows that a large and increasing demand for
this kind of wool will continue at remunerating prices. Be-
sides its uses for combing, it is extensively manufactured into
blankets, carpeting, and many other fabrics.
Importation of Long-Wools.
Several of the Bakewells were imported during the last cen-
tury ; and many flocks, containing some of the best specimens,
have been introduced and scattered over every section of the
country. The largest of any single importation of the long-
wools, was made by Messrs. Corning & Sotham, in 1842, and
immediately preceding, and consisted of 10 or 80 choice Cots-
wolds. __
Breeding the Long-Wools.
Some information on this subject will be found under the
head of breeding Merinoes, and improvement of the Long- Wools,
The ram and ewe should be selected from the best specimens
of the breed which is to be perpetuated. There are peculiar-
ities of form or appearance in each, which should be carefully
10*
114 DOMESl'C ANIMALS.
observed. A violent cross should never be permitted for the
purpose of perpetuation, as suggested under the head of prin-
ciples of breeding, in a previous chapter ; such as between those
possessing totally opposite properties, as the Merino and long-
wools ; and there is no conceivable advantage in mixing the
middle- wools. South Downs, &c., with either.
Lord Western has long experimented on the blending of
the Merino and long- wools, through several generations, with-
out any well-defined results, nor is it believed to be attainable.
There is no evenness or integrity of character, either in the
animal or fleece, from such mixtures ; nor is it possible to
forelel the cliaracler of progeny from these bastard crosses.
The general rule, that like begets like, will not hold true here,
for the animal comes large or small, with a long or short
fleece, fine or coarse, or intermixed ; and this, too. is repeated
through numerous generations, when the immediate parents
exhibit properties altogether unhke the oftspring, and which
they derive from some remote ancestr)^ This practice will do
to produce lambs for the butcher, as the consequence of a
fi'esh cross is greater stamina and thrift ; and it is found that
lambs thus bred attain an earl}^ and fiill development. Thou-
sands of such are annually bi ed on the banks of the Hudson,
Long Island, and around our large cities, and in the worst
possible way, as the large, coarse ram is used on the delicate
Saxon ewe ; yet the lambs thrive and command a good pvice
in the market, and the owner is satisfied to pocket the result.
But nothing could be more absurd than to propagate from
such progen}'' for any other purpose than to make early and
profitable mutton.
The mixture of breeds of similar chaiacter, is attended with
the best consequences. Such was the intermingling of the
improved Leicesters Avith the Cotswold and Lincolnshire, by
which their former coarseness was removed ; and such was the
use of the latter with the Leicesters, when they became impo-
tent and almost worthless, from over-refinement in breeding.
Good results have followed the mixture of the South and
Hampshire Downs. A marked improvement in the Merino in
this country, has been claimed by Mr. Jarvis and several
others, from the mixture of the various flocks, which for ages
had been kept distinct in Spain ; and the same result is known
to have followed a similar course with the Rambouillet and
Saxon flocks.
BREEDING SHEEP. 115
The ewe goes with young
About five months, varying from 145 to 162 days. Each
flock-master will of course determine what is the proper lamb-
ing time. For early market, or when there are few sheep,
and those well looked after, the lambs may come while the
ewes are in the yards, and provision can be made for them,
by placing such as are heavy in warm stalls. Both the dam
and young thus receive a closer attention than they would in
the field ; and after a week's housing, in severe weather, the
lamb may be turned out into the dry yard, where he will
suffer no more, apparently, than the full-grown sheep.
But with large flocks, early lambing is attended with much
trouble, and it is generally avoided, by deferring it till the
weather has become more settled, and a full bite of grass will
afford the dam a plentiful supply of milk. Yet in this case,
the young sheep must daily be under the eye of the shepherd,
who should see that they are well supplied with food, and es-
pecially that they are brought imder cover, in severe or stormy
weather.
A ram. will serve from 20 to 100 ewes in a season, according
to his age, health, feed, and management. A South Down or
long-woolled lamb, of 7 or 8 months, is sometimes used ; and
when this is done, he should be well fed, and allowed to run
only with a very few ewes. If full-grown rams are turned
into a lean pasture to remain with the ewes, not less than four
should be put in for every hundred. But if a well-fed ram,
in full health and vigor, is kept up, and led out to the ewe as
she comes into heat, and allowed to serve her once only, he
will suffice for one hundred, without injury to himself or pro-
geny. For this purpose, the ram should be prepared, not by
being fat, for this, neither he nor the ewe should ever be ; but
by being fed with grain for a short time before, and during
the continuance of the season. The ewes are more likely to
come quickly into heat, and prove prolific, if lightly fed with
stimulating food at the time.
It is reasonably enough conjectured, that if procreation, and
the first period of gestation, takes place in cold weather, the
foetus will subsequently be fitted for the climate, Avhich rules
during the early stages of its existence. If this be so, and it
is certainly in accordance Avith the laws of nature, fine-woolled
sheep are most likely to maintain their excellence, by defei-ring
the connection of the male till the commencement of cold
weather ; and in the Northern states, this is done about the
116 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
first of December, whicli brings the yeaning time in the last
of Apiil or first of. May, when the early grass will afford a
large supply and good quality of feed.
Winter Management and Food.
Sheep should be brought into winter-quarters soon after the
severe frosts occur, as these diminish the feed, and materially
impah* its nutritious qualities. They ought also to be removed
from the grass-lands, before they become permanently soften-
ed by the rains, as they will injuriously affect the-ir comfort
and health ; and allowing them to remain is equally objection-
able, from their poaching the sod. If the number be large
when brought to the yards, they must be divided into flocks
of 50 to 100, according to the size of the yards and sheds.
The young and feeble ought to be separated from the others,
and the ailing ones placed by themselves ; and that no one
may suffer from the others, all should be classed as uniformly
as possible as to strength. The yards must be dry, well sup-
phed with a trough of fresh water, and with comfortable
sheds, to which they can retire when they choose.
Shelters.
These, in northern climates, are indispensable to profitable
sheep-raising, and in every latitude north of the Gulf of
Mexico they would be advantageous. There is policy as
well as humanity in the practice. An animal eats much less
when thus protected ; he is more thrifty, less liable to disease,
and his manure is richer and more abundant. The feeding
may be done in the open yard in clear weather, and under
cover in severe storms. The shelters for sheep are variously
constructed, to suit the taste or circumstances of the flock-
master. A sheep-barn, built upon a side hill, will afford two
floors ; one underneath, surrounded by tliree sides of wall,
should open to the south, with sliding or swinging doors to
guard against storms ; and another may be provided above,
if the floors are perfectly tight, with proper gutters to carry
off the ui ine ; and sufficient storage for the fodder can be
furnished by scaffolds overhead. Or they may be constructed
with twelve or fifteen feet posts on level ground, allowing
the sheep to occupy the lower part, with the fodder stored
above.
In all cases, however, thorough ventilation should he pro
vided, for of the two evils of exposure to cold or too great
RACKS OR MANGERS, AND TROUGHS. 117
pnvation of air, the former is to be preferred. Slieep cannot
long endure close confinement without injury. In all ordinary
weather, a shed closely boarded on three sides, vnth a tight
roof, is sufficient protection ; especially, if the open side is
shielded from bleak winds, or leads into a well-enclosed yard.
If the floors above are used for storage, they should be made
tight, that no hay, chaff, or dust can fall upon the fleece.
Racks or Mangers.
These are indispensable to economical feeding. If the hay
is fed on the ground, the leaves and seeds, the most valuable
part of the fodder, are almost wholly lost ; and when wet, the
sheep, in their restlessness while feeding, will tread much of
it into the mud. To make an economical box or rack, take
six light pieces of scantling, say three inches square, one for
each corner, and one for the centre of each side. Boards of
pine or hemlock, 12 or 15 feet long and 12 or 14 inches
wide, may then be nailed on to the bottom of the posts for
the sides, which are separated by similar boards at the ends,
2^ feet long. Boards 12 inches v/ide, raised above the lower
ones by a space of 9 to 12 inches, are nailed on the sides
and ends, which completes the rack. The edges of the
opening should be made perfectly smooth, to prevent chafing
or tearing out the wool. The largest dimensions above given,
are suitable for the large breeds, and the smallest for the
Saxon, and still smaller are proper for their lambs. These
should be set on dry ground, or under the sheds, and they
can easily be removed wherever necessary.
Some prefer the racks made with slats, or smooth, upright
sticks, in the form of the usual horse-rack. There is no ob-
jection to this, but it should always be accompanied by a
board trough affixed to the bottom, to catch the fine hay
which falls in feeding. These may be attached to the side of
a building, or used double. A small lamb requires fifteen
inches of space, and a large sheep two feet, for quiet, com-
fortable feeding ; and at least this amount of room should be
provided around the racks for every sheep.
Troughs.
They may be variously constructed. The most economica.
are made with two boards of any convenient length, ten to
twelve inches wide. Nail the lower side of one upon the
edge of the other, fastening both into a two or three inch
118 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
plank, fifteen in-clies long and a foot wide, notched in ts upper
edge in the fonn required.
Food.
There is no better food for sheep, than well-ripened, sound,
timothy hay : thouo-h the clovers, and nearly all the cultivated
grasses, may be advantageously fed. Bean and pea straw
are valuable, and especially the former, which, if properly
cured, they prefer to the best hay ; and it is well adapted to
the production of wool. All the other straws furnish a good
food, and sheep will thrive on them without hay, when fed
with roots or grain.
Roots ought to be given them occasionally for a change,
and especially to the ewes after lambing, if this occurs before
putting them on to fresh pasture. They keep the stomach
properly distended, the appetite and general health good ; and
they render their winter forage neariy equal to then- summer
feed.
Much grain is not suited to store-sheep. It is too rich, and
should be given sparingly except to the lambs, the old ewes, or
feeble sheep, or to restore the rams after hard service. For the
above purposes, oats are tlie best ; and if any other grain,
beans or peas are given, it should be in small quantities.
When there is a deficiency of hay and roots, grain mnj be
used with straw.
The flock ought to be so fed as to receive the same amount
of nourishment throughout every part of the year. The even-
ness and value of the fleece depends much upon this. When
the amount of nutrition is great, the wool-secreting organs are
distended, and the fibre becomes enlarged ; when limited, they
necessarily contract, and the fibre is small. This produces a
want of trueness, v/hich the experienced stapler readily detects,
and which he does not fail to estimate against the value of the
fleece.
Sheep ought to have a full supply of salt, and if accessible,
sulphur, ashes, tar, and clay would frequently be nibbled by
them when their stomach required either. Pine or hemlock
boughs are a good substitute for tar, and afford a most health-
ful change in the winter-food of sheep. Entire cleanliness
and dryness are also essential to the health of the flock. The
smaller sizes of the Saxon may be well sustained on two
pounds of hay, but larger sheep Avill consume from three and
a half to four, or even five pounds per day. Sheep, like al]
RIANAGEMENT OF LAMBS. 119
other animals when exposed to cold, will consume much more
than if well protected, or than during a Avarmer season.
The Care of the Ewes with Young
Is an important consideration, as the lamb is sometimes the
only profit yielded by the flock ; for when fodder is high, or
wool low, the fleece will barely pay for the food and attention.
Pregnant ewes require the same food as at all other times ;
but caution is necessary to prevent injury or abortion, which is
often the result of excessive fat, feebleness, or disease. The
first may be remedied by blood-letting and spare diet ; and
both the last by restored health and generous food. Sudden
fright, as from dogs or strange objects ; long or severe journeys ;
great exertions ; unwholesome food ; blows in the region of the
foetus, and some other causes, produce abortion.
Yeaning.
Most flocks are turned into the pasture before yeaning time,
and the ewe is then left to nature, which is a good practice, if
she is healthy and the weather good. But a larger number of
lambs will be reared by a careful oversight of the ewes, and
the use of proper precautions. As their time approaches,
which may be known by the springing of the udder and the
enlargement of the natural parts, they should be put by them-
selves at night, in a warm stable or with others in the same
condition, and well looked after, late and early in the day.
They seldom need any assistance, nor should any be render-
ed, except in case of wrong presentation, or feebleness in ex-
pelling the foetus. In the former case, the shepherd may
apply his thumb and finger, after oihng, to push back the
young, and assist in gently turning it till the nose and fore-feet
appear ; and for the latter, only the slightest aid should be
rendered, and that to help the throes of the dam.
Management of Lambs.
When lambing in the field, only a few should be together,
as the young sometimes get changed, and the dams refuse to
own them. This difficulty is generally obviated, by holding
the ewe till the lamb has sucked two or three times ; or they
may be shut up together, and the lamb rubbed with a Uttle
fine salt. The lamb does not require nourishment for some hours
120 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
after its birtli ; but if the dam refuse to lick it as soon as it
appears, it must be carefully wiped dry. If the weather be
cold and the lamb is dropped in the field, the shepherd should
be furnished with large pockets or a well-lined basket, in
which it must be placed till the ewe is brought to the shed.
After the first day or two, the udders ought to be com-
pletely drained of their milk by the hand, so as to prevent
swollen or caked bag. In case of deficiency of milk, the lamb
may be supplied from a new milch cow, by means of a suck-
ing-bottle with an air vent, or it may draw a part of its nourish-
ment from another ewe, which can be held while the lamb is
sucking.
It is sometimes necessary to substitute a foster-mother, in
which case, the ewe may be made to own the lamb, by milk-
ing from her udder over the lamb and under his tail, rubbing
it on well ; or rub the adopted lamb with the entrails and con-
tents of the stomach of the dead lamb, or cover it with the
skin. If the ewe proves a bad nurse, or it is desirable to
bring the lambs forward rapidly, they may be early taught to
eat boiled oats or other grain, cabbage, roots, and tender
hay. Lambs should be well fed, as this is important to produce
size, constitution, and perfection of form.
The ewes and their young ought to be divided into small
flocks, and have a frequent change of pasture. Some careful
shepherds adopt the plan of confining their lambs, and allow
them to suck two or three times a day ; by which they suffer
qo fatigue, and thrive much faster. But this is troublesome
ind injurious, as the exercise is essential to the health and
•.onstitution of the lamb intended for rearing. It is admissible
mly when they are wanted for an early market, and by those
«^ho rear them for this purpose, it is a common practice.
Caslratiiig and Docking Lambs.
After selecting enough of the choicest rams for stock-get-
■^rs, the castrating may be performed at any time between
"'WO and six weeks old, when the lamb is in good health. A
"^ool day should be chosen ; or if v/arm, it must be done early
n the morning. The best method is for one person to hold
idle lamb firmly between his legs, on an inclined plank upon
which he rests, while another with a sharp knife cuts oflf about
Uvo-thirds of the lower part of the scrotum. The testicles are
then drawn out till the spermatic cord is reached, which is
divided by the thumb nail ; or it is pulled out and cut with a
SUMMER MANAGEIMENT. 121
sharp knife. It is sometimes done by simply opening the scro-
tum, when the testicles and spermatic cold are jerked out.
The wound should then be rinsed with cold water, after which
apply lard.
The operation of docking is by many deferred till a late pe-
riod, from apprehension of too much loss of blood ; but if the
weather be favorable, and the lamb in good condition, it may
be performed at this time with the least trouble and without
injury. The tail should be laid upon the plank, the person
holding him in the same position as before. With one hand
he draws the skin towards the body, while the other person,
with a two-inch chisel and mallet, strikes it off at a blow, be-
tween the bone joints, leaving it one and a half to two inches
long. The skin immediately slips back over the wound and is
soon healed. Ewe lambs should be docked closer than the
rams. To prevent flies and maggots, and assist in healing, it
is well to apply an ointment composed of lard and tar, in the
proportions of four pounds of the former to one quart of the
latter. This is also a good application for the scrotum. The
lambs should be carefully protected from cold and wet till they
are perfectly well.
Tagging, or Clatting,
Is the removal of such wool as is hable to get fouled, when
the sheep are turned on to the fresh pastures, and of course
it should be done just before leaving their winter quarters. It
is most easily accomplished by placing the animal on a low
table, and then holding it as in shearing, till the operation is
performed. All the wool near the extremity of the sheath,
and the scrotum of the males ; from the udder of the ewes ;
and from below the dock, the inside of the thighs, and the legs
of the sheep, should be removed.
Summer Management.
As soon as the warm weather approaches, and the grass
appears, sheep become restive and impatient for the pasture.
This instinct should be repressed till the ground has become
thoroughly dry, and the grass has acquired substance. They
ought, moreover, to be provided for the change of food, by
the daily use of roots for a few days before turning out. It
would also check the tendency to excessive purging, which is
induced by the first spring feed, if they were housed at night,
and fed for the first few days with a little sound, sweet hay.
n
122 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
They must be provided with pure water, salt, &c., as in win-
ter, for though they may sometimes do tolerably well without
either, yet thrift and freedom from disease are cheaply secured
by this slight attention.
Dry, sweet pastures, and such as abound in aromatic and
bitter plants, are best suited for sheep-walks. No animal,
with the exception of the goat, crops so great a variety of
plants. They eat many which are rejected by the horse and
the ox, and which are even essential to their own wants. In
this respect, they are valuable assistants to the husbandman,
as they feed greedily on wild mustard, burdocks, thistles,
marsh-mallows, milkweed, and various other offending plants ;
and the Merino exceeds the more recent breeds in the variety
of his selections.
Many prepare artificial pastures for their flocks. This may
be done with a number of plants. Winter rye, or wheat sown
early in the season, may be fed off in the fall, without injury
to the crop ; and in the follovv'ing spring, the rye may be pas-
tured till the stalks shoot up and begin to form a head. This
affords an early and nutritious food. Corn may be sown
broadcast, or thickly in drills, and either fed off in the fields,
or cut and carried to the sheep in their folds. White mustard
is a valuable crop for this purpose.
To give sheep sufficient variety, it would be better to divide
their range into smaller ones, and change them as often at
least as once a week. They seek a favorite resting-place, on a
dry, elevated part of the field, which soon becomes soiled. By
removing them from this for a few days, rains will cleanse,
or the sun dry it, so as again to make it suitable for them.
More sheep may be kept, and in better condition, where this
practice is adopted, than where they are confined to the same
pasture.
Washing Sheep.
In most of that portion of the Union north of 40°, the
washing is performed from the middle of May till the first of
June, according to the season and climate. When the streams
are Imrd, which is frequently the case in limestone regions, it
is better to do this immediately after an abundant rain, by
which the lime derived from the springs is proportionally
lessened. The practice of a large majority of our farmers, is
to drive their sheep to the washing-ground early in the morn-
ing on a warm day, leaving ti^e lambs behind. The sheep are
confined on the bank of the stream by a temporary enclosure ;
WASHING SHEEP. 123
from wliicli they are taken, and if not too heavy, are cairied
into water sufficiently deep to prevent their touching bottom.
They are then washed, by gently squeezing the fleece with the
hands, after which they are led ashore, and as much of the
water pressed out as possible before letting them go, as the
great weight retained in the wool frequently staggers and
throws them down.
A good practice is to lead the sheep into the water and sat-
urate the fleece, after which they are taken ashore. When
they commence steaming, they are again led into the water,
and washed clean. This insures thorough cleansing, where
the water is pure. Others make use of a boat, one end of
which rests on a bold shore, and ihe other is in deep water.
The operator stands in the boat and plunges the animal over
the side, when the washing is performed. It is sometimes
done by sinking a tight hogshead or large box in the water,
with heavy weights, in which a man stands, and the sheep are
brought or led to him by another person, v.^ho walks on a plat-
form reaching from the bank to the hogshead. Either of the
last methods obviates the necessity of standing for a long
time in water, by which colds, rheumatism, &c. are frequently
contracted. In parts of Germany, and sometimes in this
country, sheep are forced to swim across a narrow stream
several times, by which the fleece is tolerably cleaned, if all
the water be pressed out when they get to the land. The yolk
being a saponaceous compound, and not an oil)^ matter as is
generally supposed, it readily combines with the water and
passes out of the wool.
An excellent practice, when streams are not convenient, is
to lead a small ripple of soft water into a tub. To this, a little
soap is added, after wliich the sheep are immersed and thor-
oughly cleansed. Perfect whiteness and purity of the fleece
is readily secured afterwards, by throwing over the sheep a
jet of water. This practice has a good eff'ect, in preventing
or removing cutaneous disorders, and destroying ticks or other
vermin.
Many judicious farmers object to washing sheep, from its
tendency to produce colds and catarrhal aftections, to which
sheep are particularly subject ; but it cannot well be dispensed
with, as the wool is always more saleable, and if carefully
done, need not be attended with injury. Warm settled weath-
er, however, is indispensable to washing with safety to ths
general health of the sheep.
124
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Fig. 26 shows a ewe, witli lines indicating the usual method
of sorting wool ; number 1 indicating the refina or picklock ;
2 and 3, the second and third qualities.
Fig. 26.
Wool Sorting
SlieariBg,
The manner of shearing varies with almost every district ;
but as this is an art to be acquired under a skilful master, we
shall omit particular details on the subject. First clip all the
tags and filth, if any remains or has been accumulated after
the tagging in the spring ; then take off the fleece and spread
it with the outside uppermost on a smooth bench or table, and
push the wool carefully together, to render it more compact ;
double the sides over to the centre ; throw the clean loose
locks into tht. middle, and roll together from each end. This
makes a smooth, dense package, which is secured by passing
a stout twine one or more times around the sides and ends.
AH the wool from the extremities, should be closely sheared
SMEARING OR SALVING SHEEP. 125
and saved by itself, before dismissing the slieep, but not put
up with choice fleeces.
If wounds are made, which is sometimes the case with un-
skilful operators, a mixture of tar and grease ought to be ap-
plied. After shearing, such horns and hoofs as are likely to
be troublesome, should be sawed and pared.
The hranding, or marking, is essential to distinguish them
from other flocks, and this is done on the shoulder, side, or
buttock, A brush or marking-iron 'is used for this purpose,
with paint made of lampblack, to which a little spirits of
turpentine is first added, and then diluted with linseed or
lard oil.
If the weather be cool, and especially, if severe storms oc-
cur after washino^ or shearino-, the flock should be housed. If
sultry, they should have a cool, shady retreat, where they will
be shielded from the flies and the heat. Blisters and perma-
nent injury to the skin and fleece, are frequently the result of
such exposure. Shade trees in their pastures, contribute much
to the comfort of sheep, when exposed to a blazing sun. A
close examination of the skin should be made at shearing, for
the detection of disease or vermin.
For remedies, see article diseases.
Smearing or Salving Sheep
Is a custom Httle practised in this country. For cold, ele-
vated, and bleak exposures, it may be necessary, and it is, there-
fore, generally adopted in Scotland. The object is, to prevent
cutaneous diseases and vermin, and furnish additional warmth
and protection to the fleeces of such breeds as are deficient in
yolk. It is usually performed in the latter part of October,
but is sometimes done immediately after shearing.
The mixture or salve consists of tar and butter or grease, in
diff"erent proportions ; 1 gallon of the former to 12, or some-
times 20 lbs. of the latter; the greater proportion of tar being
required for the younger sheep, or for more exposed situations.
The grease is melted over the fire, and the tar stirred in, and
when sufficiently cool, it is applied to the whole body of the
sheep, b}'- carefully parting the wool and rubbing it on the
skin with the fingers. The above quantity is sufficient for 30
or 50 sheep, according to their size and the character of the
wool.
This appHcation is not required for fine-woolled sheep,
whose fleeces are more appropriately protected bj a natural
11*
126 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
secretion of yolk ; and it is better to omit it in all cases, where
the health and comfort of the animal do not render it abso-
lutely essential. Mr. Stewart, an experienced Scotch shepherd,
uses only tallow and train oil, mixed in equal proportions. He
asserts, that the improvement in the growth and quality of the
wool is at least one-third, and it materially benefits the con-
dition of the sheep.
Weaning.
The lambs may be weaned from 3 J to 4 months old. They
should be put upon rich, sweet feed, but not too luxuriant ;
while the dams are turned upon the poorest, and so remote
from their young, as to be out of sight and hearing. The
ewes ought to be carefully examined after a day or two, and
if necessary, the milk removed vvith the hand. If it continues
to accumulate, the ewe ma}^ be fed on hay for a few days.
When thoroughly dried off, they should have the best fare,
to enable them to recover condition for subsequent breeding
and wintering. The fall is a critical period to lose flesh, either
for sheep or lambs ; and if any are found deficient, they should
be at once provided with extra feed and attention. If cold
weather overtakes them poor or in ill-health, they will scarcely
outlive it ; or if by chance they survive, their emaciated car-
cass, impaired constitution, and scant fleece, will ill repay the
food and attention they Avill have cost.
The time for taking Slieep from the Pastures.
This must depend on the state of the weather and food
Severe frosts destroy much of the nutriment in the grasses, ana
they soon after cease to afford adequate nourishment. Long
exposure to cold storms, with such food to sustain them, will
rapidly reduce their condition. The only safe rule is to trans-
fer them to their winter-quarters the first day they cease to
thrive abroad.
Drafting the Flock,
For the purpose of ridding it of the supernumeraries,
should be done at an earlier day. Such of the wethers as
have attained their prime, and those ewes that have passed it,
ought to be withdrawn soon after shearing, provided with the
best feed, and rapidly fitted for the shambles. If they have
been properly pushed on grass, the}^ will be in good flesh by
the time they are taken from it ; and if not intended for stall-
fcBding, the sooner they are then disposed of the better.
MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP FOR THE PRAIRIES 127
Stall-Feeding.
This will be lost on an ill-shaped, unthrifty beast. The
perfection of form and health, and the uniform good condition,
which characterize the thrifty one, indicate too plainly to be
misunderstood, those which will best repay the care of their
owner. The selection of any indifferent animal for stall-fat-
tening, whether cattle or sheep, will inevitably be attended
with loss. Such ought to be got rid of when first brought
from the pasture, for the most they will bring.
Management of Slieep for the Prairies.
When destined for the prairies, sheep ought to commence
their journey as early after shearing as possible. They are
then disencumbered of their fleece, and do not catch and re-
tain as much dust, as when driven late:-'. Feed is also gener-
ally better, and the roads are dry and hard. Young and
healthy sheep should be selected, with early lambs; rr if the
latter are too young, and the distance great, they should be
left and the ewes dried off. A large wagon ought to accom-
pany the flock, to carry such as occasionally give out ; or they
may be disposed of whenever they become enfeebled. With
good care, a hardy flock may be diiven at the rate of 12 or
14 miles a day. Constant watchfulness is requisite, to keep
them healthy and in good plight. One-half the expense of
driving, may be saved by the use of well-trained shepherd-
dogs.
When arrived at their destination, they must be thoroughly
washed, to free them from all dirt, and closely examined as to
any diseases they may have contracted, which, if discovered,
should be promptly removed. A variety of suitable food and
good shelter must be provided, for the autumn, winter, and
spring ensuing, and every necessary attention given them.
This would be necessary if indigenous to the country ; how
much more so, when they have just undergone a campaign,
to which neither they nor their race have been accustomed !
Sheep cannot be kept on the prairies without much care,
artificial food, and proper attention ; and from a false system
of economy, hitherto attempted by many, losses have occurred
from disease and mortality in the flocks, sufficient to have
made ample provision foi" the comfort and security of twice
the number lost. More especially do they require proper
food and attention, after the first severe frosts set in, which
wither and kill the natural grasses. By nibbling at the fog^
128 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
(the frostbitten, dead grass,) they are inevitably subject to
constipation, whicli a bountiful supply of roots, sulphur, &c.,
is alone sufficient to remove.
Roots, grain, and good hay ; straw, or corn-stalks, pea or
bean vines, are essential to the preservation of their health and
thrift during the winter, everywhere north of 39°. In sum-
mer, the natural herbage is sufficient to sustain them in fine
condition, till they shall have acquu-ed a denser population of
animals, when it will be found necessary to stock their meadows
with the best varieties of artificial grasses.
The prairies seem adapted to the usual varieties of sheep
introduced into the United States ; and of such are the flocks
made up, according to the taste or judgment of the owners.
Shepherd-dogs are invaluable to the owners of flocks, in those
nnfenced, illimitable ranges, both as a defence against the
small prairie-wolf, which prowls around the sheep, but which
are rapidly thinning off" by the settlers ; and also as assistants
to the s>epherds in driving and herding their flocks on the
open ground.
DISEASES OF SHEEP.
The dry and healthful climate, the rolling surface, and the
sweet and varied herbage, which generally prevail in the
United States, insure perfect health to an originally sound and
well-selected flock, unless peculiarly exposed to disease. No
country is better suited to sheep, than most of the northei'n
and some of the southern parts of our own. In Europe, and
especially in England, where the system of management is
necessarily in the highest degree artificial, consisting fre-
quently in early and continued forcing the system, folding on
wet, plowed grounds, and the excessive use of that watery
food, the Swedes turnip, there are numerous and fatal dis-
eases. Hence the long list which lumbers the pages of for-
eign writers on sheep.
The most destructive of these are the rot, and epidemics
which are scarcely known in America, except by report. The
diseases incident to our flocks may generally be considered as
casualties, rather than as inbred, or necessarily arising from
the quality of food, or from local causes. It may be safely
asserted, that with a dry pasture, well stocked with varied
and nutritious grasses ; a clear, running stream ; sufficient shade
and prote^ion against severe storms ; a constant supply of
dalt, tar, and sulphur in su^amer; good hay, and sometimes
DIARRHCEA OR SCOURS. 129
roots, with ample shelters in wiirter ; young sheep, originally
sound and healtliy, will seldom or never get diseased on
American soil.
The few diseases which it may be necessary here to mention,
will be treated in the simplest manner. Remedies of general
application, to be administered often by the unskilful and
ignorant, must neither be elaborate nor comphcated ; and, if
expensive, the lives of most sheep would be dearly purchased
by their application.
A sheep which the owner has reared or purchased at the
ordinary price, is the only domestic animal which can die
without material loss to its owner. The wool and pelt will,
in most instances, repay its cost, while the carcasses of other
animals will be worthless except for manure. The loss of
sheep from occasional disease, will leave the farmer's pocket
in a very different condition from the loss of an equal value
in horses or cattle. Yet humanity, equally with interest, dic-
tates the use of such simple remedies for the removal of suffer-
ing and disease, as may be within reach.
BiarrlicBa or Scours,
When light and not long continued, calls for no remedy.
It is a healthful provision of nature for the more rapid expul-
sion of some offending matter in the system, which, if retained,
might lead to disease. It is generally owing to improper food,
as bad hay or noxious weeds ; to a sudden change, as from
dry food to fresh grass ; or to an excess, as from overloading
the stomach ; and sometimes, from cold and wet.
The remedies are obvious.
Change to suitable food in the first two cases ; enforce ab-
stinence after repletion ; and provide warm, dry shelter, with
light diet, if owing to the latter causes.
When severe or long continued, a dose of castor oil may be
given, and after its operation, give four grains of opium and
one ounce chalk, and put them on dry food. Wheat-bran or
shorts, and oat-meal or flaxseed g~'"c', are both good for
ailing lambs and sheep ; as are also ripe oats or wheat, fed in
the sheaf, with well cured, sweet hay, and plenty of salt.
Fresh boughs of the juniper, or pine and hemlock, help to
che-ck the disorder.
Locseness in the larger lamhs is prevented by ha\ing chalk
within their reach ; or if they refuse it, administer it in their
food. When it happens soon after birth, place it with the
130 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
ewe in a warm place, and feed the latter with plenty of oats,
or other sound grain. If the milk be deficient, give the lamb
cow's milk scalded, or let it suck the cow. The tail is some-
times glued on to the buttocks, Avhile the scours continue.
Separate it immediately by the use of warm water, and rub
the parts with dry loam or clay.
Dysentery.
This is a different and frequently a fatal disease, but re-
sembles the former in its general symptoms. It is owing to
prolonged diarrhoea, unwholesome or meager food, and other
causes. Bleeding and physic should be resorted to, after
which give warm, nourishing gruel.
Hoven.
For description and remedies, see hoven in cattle.
Braxy.
This is manifested by uneasiness, loathing of food, frequent
drinking, carrying the head down, drawing the back up,
swollen belly, feveiish symptoms, and avoidance of the flock.
It appears mostly in late autumn and spring, and may be in-
duced by exposure to severe storms, plunging in water when
hot, and especially by constipation brought on by feeding on
frostbitten, putrid, or indigestible herbage.
Remedies o^re not often successful, unless promptly applied.
Bleed freely, and to effect this, in consequence of the stagnant
state of the blood, immersion in a tub of hot water may be
necessary. Then give two ounces Epsom salts, dissolved in
warm water, with a handful of common salt.
If this is unsuccessful, give a clyster made with a pipe-full
of tobacco, boiled for a few minutes in a pint of water.
Administer half, and if this is not effectual, follow with the
remainder. Then bev^ vl^o animal in dry straw and cover
with blankets, and assist the purgatives with warm gruels,
followed by laxative provender till well. — [Blacklock.) Thou-
sands of sheep have died on the prairies from braxy, in-
duced by exposure and miserable forage. Entire preven-
tion is secured by warm, dry shelters, and nutritious, digesti-
ble food.
DISEASES IN SHEEP. 131
Costiveness.
This is removed by giving two tablespoonfuls of castor
oil every twelve hours, till the difficulty is removed ; or give one
ounce Epsom salts. This may be assisted by an injection of
warm, weak suds and molasses.
Stretches.
Sheep sometimes stretch out their noses on the ground, and
around their sides, as if in severe pain. This may be caused
by an involution of one part of the intestine within another.
When owing to this cause, the difficulty is frequently re-
moved by jerking the animal by the hind-legs several times,
when the pain disappears.
But it is generally occasioned by costiveness, which see
above. This may be prevented by using green food, roots,
&c., once a week, or by allowing them to browse on the ever-
greens, pines, hemlock, and firs.
Poison,
From laurel and other plants, is cured by pouring a gill of
melted lard down the tliroat, or boil for an hour the twigs of
the white ash, and give half to one gill of the strong liquor
immediately ; to be repeated if not successful.
Inflammation of the Lungs.
This is produced by improper exposure to cold and wet.
The remedy for slight affections, is warm, dry shelter, and
light food. "When severe, resort must be had to bleeding and
purging freely, then to light bran or linseed mashes.
Rot.
This sometimes causes the death of a million of sheep in a
single year in England, yet it is a disease almost unknown
in this country. Foreign authorities ascribe it entirely to
excessive humidity of climate, wet pastm-es, or too watery
food.
The preventives are therefore obvious. After the use of
dry food and dry bedding, one of the best is the abundant
use of pure salt. In violent attacks, early bleeding, followed
by a dose of two ounces Epsom salts, to be repeated if neces-
sary, with a change of diet and location, is all that can be done.
132 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Foot-Rot.
This is frequently a prevalent disease among American
sheep. It is sometimes spontaneous, but more often pro-
duced by contagion. In the former case, it is caused by soft,
rich, or moist pastures. A dry gravelly or rocky range,
will of course be an effectual preventive when owing to this
cause.
The disorder is communicated by the absorbents of the
foot coming in contact with the suppuration which has been
left on the ground from the diseased part. Absolute safety
against this contagion is secured only by a total avoidance of
the walks of the infected animals, till repeated rains, or what
is better, frosts, have disarmed the virus of its malignity.
Remedies are variously compounded, of blue vitriol, verdigris,
tar, spirits of turpentine, alum, saltpetre, salt, lime, copperas,
white-lead, antimony, alcohol, mine, vinegar, &c., all of which
have proved effectual.
The hoof should first be pared and thoroughly scraped.
Then apply a wash made of tliree parts of blue vitriol, one of
verdigris pulverized finely, with scalding (not boiling) vinegar;
stirring briskly till it is of the consistenee ol thin cream, and
put it upon the affected part with a paint brush. It is a
good preventive, to apply this to the sound feet of the affected
animal.
Another remedy is to use spirits of turpentine after scra-
ping ; and if the disease is of long standing, add to the tur-
pentine a strong decoction of blue vitriol dissolved in water.
The foot should be examined every week, and the remedy re-
peated till perfect soundness is restored.
A feather dipped in muriatic or nitric acid, and applied to
the parts after scraping and cleansing, is a good remedy.
When put upon the soles of foot-sore sheep, it hardens the
hoofs, and enables them to travel better.
Sheep are sometimes cured by keeping them on a dry sur-
face, and driving over a barn-floor dail}'-, which is well covered
with quicklime. It may also be cured by dryness, and re-
peated washing with soap-suds.
The above ailment should not be confounded with a tempo-
rary soreness, or inflammation of the hoof, occasioned by the
irritation from the long, rough grasses which abound in low
situations, which is removed v/ith the cause ; or if it continues,
apply white paint or tar, after thorough washing.
PROTECTION FROM THE GAD-FLY. 133
Corrosion of tlie Fiesh by Flies or Maggots,
Maybe cmed by first removing the vermin ; then wash with
Castile soap and warm soft water, after which apply white-lead
with linseed oil. Tar put on the festering wound corrodes it ;
but this, or spirits of turpentine placed on the sound parts near
it, kee^> off the flies by their strong effluvia.
If tlie wound be slight, and the weather moderate, apply a
little sj irits of turpentine with a strong decoction of elder bark.
Flies on Sheep
May be prevented by smeariufx with a composition made of
two pounds lard or soft grease, one pound sulphur, half pint
oil of amber, or oil of tar, or tar alone. A small spoonful is
sufficient for a sheep.- — Genesee Farmer.
Protection froji the Gad-Fly.
In July, August, and September, in the Northern states, the
gad-jiy {CEstus ovis) attacks the nostrils of the sheep, and there
deposites its eggs, which, on being hatched, immediately crawl
up and make a lodgment in tht- 1 ead. They are frequently
repelled by laying a thick coat oi lar on the bott-om of the
troughs, and sprinkling it with salt. The smell of the tar ad-
hering to the nose will drive off the fly. A more effectual
remedy is to apply it thoroughly with a brush to the external
part of the nose.
If a few furrows of loose earth are turned up in their pas-
tures, the sheep will hold their noses to them, and thus keep
ol0F the fly.
The symptoms of grubs in the head, are drooping of the
head and ears, discharge of bloody and v^-atery matter from the
nostrils, and loss of strength in the limbs.
If worms have made a lodgment, take half a pound of good
Scotch snuff, and two quarts boiling water : stir, and let it stand
till cold. Inject about a tablespoonful of this liquid and sed-
iment up each nostiil, with a syringe. Repeat this three or
four times at intervals, from the middle of October till Janua-
ry : the grubs are then small, and will not have injured the
sheep. The efficacy of the snufi will be increased, by adding
half an ounce assafoetida, pounded in a little water. The ef-
fect on the sheep is immediate prostration and apparent death,
but they will soon recover. A decoction of tobacco will aftbrd
a substitute for snuff".— iV. Eng. Far.
12
134 DOMESTIC ANlxMALS.
Blacklock's remedy is, to half fill the bowl of a pipe with
tobacco, light it, and then hold the sheep, while a person in-
serts the stem some distance into the nostril, and blows a few
whiffs into the nose. The operation is then repeated with the
other nostril.
Swollen Mouth
Is sometimes fatal. It is said to be cured by daubing the
lips and mouth plentifully with tar. — Albany Cultivator.
Foul Noses.
Dip a small swab into tar, then roll in salt. Put some on
the nose, and compel the sheep to swallow a small quantity. —
American Far.
A disease indicated by drooping, running at the eyes, weak-
ness in the back and loins, inability to use the hind legs, was
removed by turning the sheep into a pasture containing lobe-
lia, {^Indian tobacco.) Dried lobelia was also given, and pro-
duced the same effect. — Cultivator.
Scab.
This loathsome disease, to which fine-woolled sheep are par-
ticularly liable, is caused, like itch in the human subject, by a
small insect, a species of the acari. It is first manifest by the
rubbing of the sheep, and soon after by one or more tufts of
wool, which is loosened at the roots. On feeling the skin, a
hard, dry lumor is perceptible. To prevent contagion, re-
move the infected sheep to a separate pasture or yard as soon
as discovered.
Remedies. — The Spanish shepherds dissolve a Uttle salt in
their mouth, and drop it upon the infected part.
When the tumor has become enlarged, the wool should be
removed closely to the skin, the scab scraped with a curry-
comb, then wash with strong soap-suds or ley, and afterwards
rub thoroughly with sulphur or brimstone, mixed with lard or
grease.
An effectual remedy is prepared by taking one pound of to-
bacco, which add to 12 quarts ley from wood ashes of suffi-
cient strength for Avashing, and four quarts urine ; to this add
another mixture of a gill high-wines ; ^ oz. camphor ; \ oz.
Spanish brown, and ^ gill spirits of turpentine. A small quan-
tity of this apphed to the sore will never fail,
Imraediately after shearing, scab may readily be cured by
TICKS AND LICE PELT-ROT. 135
immersing tlie sheep, (excepting the head,) in a strong decoc-
tion of tobacco liquor, adding a gill of spirits of turpentine for
the first, and making a slight addition of fresh liquid for each
sheep, enough to keep up the strength of the tobacco and tur-
pentine, and taking care to rub the affected part thoroughly.
For lambs, this liquor should be diluted, but yet left strong
enough to kill ticks in one or two minutes, which may be
ascertained by experiment.
Scab is also removed by using a composition of one pound
plug tobacco to three gallons of water, with lime-water and
oil of vitriol added ; or a decoction of hellebore with vinegar,
sulphur, and spirits of turpentine. — [H. B. Grove.)
Scab is propagated more by using the same rubbing posts,
than by contact with each other. Sheep in low condition are
more subject to it than others.
Ticks and Lice
Sometimes infest sheep. Good feeding ana shelter is a
partial preventive, but when they have made their lodgment,
they must be dipped in a decoction of tobacco water. The
most effectual time for their destruction, is a few days after
shearing, when they will have left the naked bodies of the old
ewes, to hide in the fleeces of the lambs. The dipping in
tobacco water, with the addition of a small quantity of tur-
pentine, is an effectual remedy.
After dipping the sheep or lambs, the liquor should be
pressed out from the wool, upon an inclined plane, so arranged
as again to run into the vessel.
Pelt-rot
Will be recognised as one of the staple diseases of our
native sheejo, described on page 89. The wool in this case
falls off, leaving the sheep partially or almost wholly naked ;
but this is not accompanied with soreness or apparent disease.
The animal must be provided with a warm stall and generous
feed, and the naked skin should be anointed with tar and
grease. The preventive is good keeping and shelter.
Staggers or Sturdy, and Water in the Head,
Som' jtimes affect sheep, but more especially lambs under a
year old. The first is caused by the hydatid. It is considered
136 DOMESTIC \NIMALS.
as an almost incurable disorder, but is sometimes removed Dy
trepanning.
Chancellor Livingston carefully supplied two thus attacked,
with food for three months, when nature effected a cure. Re-
moval to dry lands and purging, is a good precaution when
they are first taken.
An English lad lately cured one which had beea given
up, by boring with a gimlet into the soft place on the head,
when the water rushed out, and the sheep immediately followed
the others to the pasture. A correspondent of the Albany
Cultivator asserts, that ^ a pir.t of melted lard poured down
the throat, will cure bhnd staggers in ten minutes.
Abortion
Occurs sometimes, and is usually caused by excessive fright
or exertion, and sometimes by severe exposure and poor feed.
It is seldom fatal, except to the lamb.
The Uterus
Is occasionally protruded after lambing. It should be im-
mediately returned, first washing it in warm milk and water, if
any dirt adheres to it. For this, the hand only should be
used. After rubbing it with lard or oil, hold up the hind legs,
and gently replace the protruded parts, then keep the ewe
quiet till fully recovered.
For Garget, or Caked Bag.
Keep the bag thoroughly drained of milk, for which purpose
the lamb is the most efficient. If it is lost, another may be
temporarily substituted. Purge freely with Epsom salts, and
wash the udder repeatedly with very warm water. If matter
forms, it should be opened with the lancet.
Bleeding.
"Nothing tends so much to the reco\v..y of an animal from
a disease in which bleeding is required, as the rapid flow of
the blood from a large orifice. Little im^^ressioii can be made
on an acute disease by the slow removal of even a large
quantity of blood, as the organs have time to accommodate
themselves to the loss, which might, for any good it will do,
as well be dispensed Avith. Either bleed rapidly, or not at all.
The nearer the commeii'^ement of an ailment, in which you em-
BLEEDING. 137
ploy bleeding, the operation is resorted to, the gi eater the
chance of its doing good.
Bleeding by nicking the under surface of the tail, does veiy
well, where no great deal of blood is required, but it is not to
be thought of if the veins of the face or neck can possibly be
opened. These are to be taken in preference to a vein on the
leg, as they are much more readily got at. The facial vein
commences by small branches on the side of the face, and runs
downwards and backwards to the base of the jaw, where it
may be felt within two inches of the angle, or opposite the
middle grinding tooth. It is here that the orifice must be
made : the thumb of the left hand being held against the vein,
so as to prevent the flow of blood towards the heart, will make
it rise.
Some prefer opening the jugular vein, which commences
behind the eye and runs down the side of the neck. T^his
vessel is, however, more difficult to open than the former, be-
ing better covered with wool, and not so easily exposed or
made to swell. Stringing is the mode commonly resorted to
for this end ; that is to say, a cord is drawn tightly round the
neck close to the shoulder, so as to stop the circulation through
the vein, and render it perceptible to the finger.
A lancet is the instrument generally used in bleeding, though
a well-pointed penknife will do at a pinch. The opening must
always be made obliquely; 1but before attempting this, the
animal must be secured, by placing it between the operator's
legs, with its croup against a wall. The selected vein is then
fixed by the fingers of the operator's left hand, so as to pre-
vent its rolling or shpping before the lancet. Ha\dng fairly
entered the vein, the point of the instrument must be elevated
at the same time that it is pushed a little forward, by which
motion it will be lifted from or cut its way out of the vein.
A 2^Tescrihed quantity of blood should never he drawn, for the
simple reason that this can never be precisely stated. If the
symptoms'are urgent, as in all hkelihood they will be, your best
plan is not to stop the flow of blood till the animal fall or is
about to fall. When this occurs, rim a pin through the edges
of the orifice, and finish by twisting round it a lock of wool." —
{Blacklock?)
Large cuts are healed
By first sewing and then covering with salve. Smaller
ones may be secured with an adhes* ve plaster or bandage.
1 2*
138 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
To protect lambs from wolves and foxes,
Smeai tlie neck plentifully with a mixture of tar and sul-
phur. Bells are also said to guard the flock, as both are ex-
cessively wary, and have a great dislike to any thing artificial.
Large dogs will keep fhem at bay. A better remedy is to
kill the marauders, which may be done by inserting strychnine
in fresh meat and leaving it in their haunts.
CHAPTER V
THE HORSE.
In nearly all ages and countries, the horse has been the
devoted servant, and the object of the pride and affection of
man. Among the semi-civilized Tartars of Middle and North-
ern Asia ; the aborigines of our remote Western prairies,
reaching even beyond the Rocky Mountains, and many other
rude nations, his flesh is used for food. Most of the tribes
among the former use the milk for domestic purposes, and
especially when fermented and changed to an unpleasantly
sour and intoxicating beverage. ' But throughout the civilized
world, with some slight exceptions, the horse is useful only
for his labor. For this purpose he is pre-eminently fitted by
his compact, closely-knit frame ; liis sinewy, muscular limbs ;
his easy, rapid stride ; his general form, and entire structure
and habits.
He is found in his wild condition in Central Asia, Siberia,
and the interior of Africa ; and for 300 years he has been
turned loose to follow his native instincts on the illimitable
pampas of South America, and the wide-spread prairies of
Mexico and Cahfornia, In all these regions he closely resem-
bles the medium varieties of the domesticated horse ; but as
the natural result of his freedom, he possesses more fire and
spirit than any other, except the blood-horse.
Arabia is generally claimed as the original native locality of
the horse, and as the only source frcm which he is to be de-
rived in the requisite perfection for the highest improvement
of the race. But Strabo, who wrote more than 1,800 years
ago, asserts that the horse did not then flourish in Arabia, and
ii was not till some centuries later that h3 attained any de-
THE HORSE. 139
cided superiority there. Great attention, however, has been
paid in that country, since the era of Mahomet, to breeding a
hght, agile, and enduring frame; intelhgence and tractability
of character ; and the perpetuation of these quahties by the
most scrupulous regard for the purity of blood.
This is equally true of the Barb or pure-bred horse of Mo-
rocco, and those of the northern coast of Africa, in Egypt,
among the Turks, and indeed wherever the followers of the
Prophet are to be found. It is unquestionable, that the influ-
ence of the Eastern blood among the choicest animals of mod-
ern Europe, has been followed by great improvements in racing
stock. Yet it is equally certain, that the race-horse, both of
England and the United States, has accomplished what has
never been demonstrated as within the ability of their progen-
itors ; and on repeated trials with the Eastern horses, he has
■ shown himself confessedly their superior in speed, strength,
and endurance.
In 1825, two English horses ran against the two fleetest
Cossacks which could be found throughout the entire region
of their best blood, and in a continued race of 47 miles, the
European took the stakes ; Sharper, the most successful, per-
forming the distance in 2 hours and 48 minutes. About the
same time, Recruit, an English horse of moderate reputation,
easily beat Pyramus, the best Arabian on the Bengal side of
India.
The Leeds, the Darley, and the Godolphin Arabian ; the
Lister and D'Arcey's White Turk, and other noted Eastern
horses, would not compare in performance with many of their
descendants. But these, with some other choice Arabians, on
the best mares, and with every advantage for obtaining celeb-
rity, have succeeded in establishing a fame as just as it has
been enduring. Yet it must at the same time be remembered,
that of the innumerable other pure-bred horses which have
been tried in Europe, a few only have rescued their names
from oblivion.
The experience of Eastern blood in this country, in compar-
ison with the best English, is decidedly in favor of the latter.
We have had one horse of unsurpassed excellence, which a
fortunate accident threw upon our shores a short time previous
to 1770. This was the white Barb Ranger, which was pre-
sented by the Emperor of Morocco, as the choice of his stud,
to an EngUsh naval officer for some distinguished service. On
his route homeward, the animal was set on shore for exercise
at an intermec'iate port, where in his gambols lie broke three
140 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
of his legs, and thinking him worthless, his owner gave him to
the commander of a New England merchantman, then present.
He was readily accepted, and placed in slings on board of his
vessel, and recovered.
Tliis animal stood for many years, in the eastern part of
Connecticut ; and on their good mares, produced a numerous
progeny of unrivalled cavalry horses, which rendered invalu-
able services in the troop commanded by that consummate
partisan, Captain (afterwards General) Lee, of the Revolution.
It is said the favorite white field-horse of General Washington
was of the same stock. He was afterwards sold to Captain
Lindsey, as a special favor, and taken to Virginia, where he
produced some good racers.
Bussorah, a small sorrel horse, brought into this country in
1819, from the head of the Persian Gulf, got many choice
roadsters, though no racers of celebrity.
The Narraganset pacers, a race belonging to our Northerp
states, but for many years almost extinct, possessed for a long
time an unrivalled reputation for spirit, endurance, and easy
rapid motion under the saddle. They are said to have origi-
nated from a Spanish horse, man}^ of which are pure descend-
ants of the Barb.
As an offset to these isolated examples of success in this
country, we have numerous instances of the importation of the
best Orientals, which have been extensively used on some of
our superior mares, without any marked effect. We shall refer
to three prominent importations only.
The first consisted of two clioice Arabians, or Barbs, selected
m Tunis by General Eaton, and sent to his estate in Massachu-
setts. The second was a present of four choice Barbs, from
the Emperor of Morocco to our government, in 1830-; and the
third consisted of two Arabians, sent by the Imaum of Mus-
cat, near the Persian Gulf, to our government in 1840. These
were all claimed to be, and no doubt were, of the pure Koch-
lani, the unadulterated fine royal ; yet none have earned any
distinguished reputation, either by their own performances or
those of their descendants.
It is to England we are mainly indebted for the great im-
provement in our blood, road, and farm horses. A numerous
race of fine horses was reared on that island, long previous to
its authentic history ; for, in his first invasion Julius Caesar
took many of them to Rome, where they immediately became
great favorites, although she had already plundered every
I'agion of some of their best breeds.
THE HORSE. 141
What might have b(3en the particular merit of .he Enghsh
horse at the time of the Norman invasion, is no knc»wn, but
it is certain that tlie Saxon cavahy under Harold were speed-
ily overpowered by William, at the battle of Hastings, which
at once secured the throni to the Conqueror. History first
informs us of the improvement of British horses, by importa-
tions from abroad during this reign, which consisted of a num-
ber of Spanish stalhons. These were supposed to be strongly
imbued with the Arabian blood, which had been brought over
to that country by the Moors, who had founded the Saracenic
empire in the Peninsula, three centuries before. More than a
century later, John made some importations from Flanders, to
give weight and substance to their draught and cavalry horses.
The improvement of their various breeds was afterwards pur-
sued, with more or less judgment and zeal, by other British
monarchs, till they reached their highest excellence during the
middle of the last century.
Flying Childers, Eclipse, Highflyer, and others on the course,
have probably exceeded in speed any thing ever before accom-
plished ; while the draught-horse, the roadster, the hackney,
the cavalry-horse, and the hunter, attained a merit at that time
which some judicious authorities claim has not been since in-
creased. It is even asserted, that some of the more serviceable
breeds have been seriously injured by too great an infusion of
the blood ; while the almost universal absence of long heats
on the turf has tended to the improvement ^f speed rather
than bottom in the race-horse.
The improvement of the horse in this country has not been
a matter of record or history, till within a comparatively recent
period. But it has silently, and with no little rapidity, been
going forward for more than a century, till we have obtained
a race of animals, throughout the Eastern and Middle states at
least, which probably equal those of any other country for
adaptedness to draught, the road, and the saddle. This im-
provement has been nfainly brought about by the importation
of some of the hest and stoutest of the English blood. In breed-
ing from these for purposes of utihty, particular ri^ference has
been paid to strength, enduringn^ss, and speed. No horses
surpass our best four-mile bloods ; none equal our trotters ;
and though much inequality exists in those bred for \ arious
other uses, yet for profitable service, it is believed, no equal
number of animals elsewhere can exceed those in the region
above indicated.
It would be a superfluous task to attempt enumerating all
142 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
the imported horses that have contributed to this .mproA-^ement,
Each good animal has done something. But among the ear-
lier horses Avhich may he named with distinction, as ha-ving
effected much for our useful beasts, are Lath, Wild air. Slender,
Sourkrout, Tallyho, Figure, Bay Richmond, Expedition, Baro-
net, and a host of others.
Pre-eminent among these, was imported Messenger. He
was foaled in 1780, imported in 1788, and died in 1808. He
stood in different places in New Jersey, and in Dutchess,
Westchester, and Queens counties in New York ; and upon
the marcs derived f lom the foregoing and other good horses,
he got a numerous progeny of illustrious descendants. Of
these we may name those capital stallions, Potomac, Hamlin-
tonian, Bay Figure, Engineer, Mambiino, Tippoo Saib, Colum-
bus, Gunn's, and Bushe's Messenger, and many others, which
were extensively disseminated over the Northern and Middle
states ; and he has the credit of imparting a large share of his
merits to that nonpareil of horses, his grandson, American
Echpse. His posterity were so numerous and widely spread,
that it may be safely asserted, that of the best horses bred in
the above states, scarcely one can now be found w^hich does
not trace one or more crosses to this distinguished sire. His
success in producing roadsters, besides his blood qualities of
speed and endurance, consisted in his great strength, and the
peculiar formation of his lim^bs, large forehand and deep quar-
ters, in which he excelled any other of the imported bloods.
As an illustration of what may be accomplished by judi-
cious breeding with the present materials in our hands, we
mention one family of the American roadster, which is strong-
ly tinctured with blood, and which has attained an enviable
notoriety among the choicest of the Northern horses. They
are derived from the Morgan horse of Vermont, that was
foaled in Springfield, Mass., in 1793. He was got by True
Britton, supposed to have been bred by Gen. Delancey of
New York, and got by imported Wildair, (or one of his sons,)
a horse of such distinguished excellence, as to have been re-
exported to England, for the benefit of his stock.
The Morgan horse stood in Vermont from 1795 till his
deatl , at an advanced age. From him and the choice mares
of Vjrmont, descended many excellent colts; and his merits
w^ere inherited in an eminent degree by three of his sons,
which stood in the same state and continued the career of im-
provement commenced by the sire. The result has been the
production of a family of roadsters, of much similarity of ap-
THE HORSE. 143
pearance* and iinifonnily of character, unsurpassed by any
others for serviceable quahties.
They are of medium size, from j.3i to 15 hands high;
with a Avell-formed head and neck ; high v/ithers ; deep chest;
round body ; short back ; long quarters ; broad flat legs ;
moderately small feet ; long wavy mane and tail ; presenting
altogether the beau ideal of the road horse. They are spirit-
ed, docile, hardy, and easily kept. They have an easy, rapid
trot, and glide along with a good load, without clatter or
apparent effort, at the rate of ten or twelve miles an hour.
This family of horses has not of course been bred long
enough within themselves, to have attained to the eminence
of a distinct breed. The j are mentioned, merely as a type of
what the serviceable roadster ought to be, and what he may
become by the use of the proper instruments for breeding.
And if the materials already in our hands are intelligently
and perseveringly used, we can produce all we require of
horse-flesh.
Besides our imsurpassed blood-horses, we have others de-
rived from various sources, and especially from the diff'erent
Enghsh breeds, all of which are variously compounded, with
the first and with each other. On our northeastern frontier,
the Canadian prevails, a bastard but not degenerate race,
made up of the French Norman and the English or American,
At the extreme South and West, we have the horse of Spanish
origin, obtained in his domestic state in Florida and Louisiana ;
and from another branch of the Spanish, are descended the
wild horses of Mexico and the more northern prairies. These
are diversified in character, and generally possess medium
size and merit.
The Conestoga, a heavy roadster, is principally reared in
Pennsylvania, and is used for the team and truck. He is
rin amalgamation of several breeds, but probably owes a
share of his character to the Flemish horse, for which there
was a decided partiality among the numerous German emi-
grants of that state.
Several varieties of ponies are to be found in diff'erent sec-
tions, but principally among the French, the half-breed, and
the Indians upon the frontiers, who have bred a stunted race
from the Canadian or wild-horse, and such others as could
* Many of the Morgan horses have the steep rump and heavy breast and neck,
which indicate a Norman cross on the side of their dams. These have been
largely imparted through the French horse in the adjoining Canadian settle-
aient-s ; but none of these are said to have characterized the founder of the rac3.
144
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
survive the hard usage and scanty winter food aflforded by
nature and their rude husbandry. Many of these have con-
siderable beauty and symmetry, and are fleet, hardy, and
spirited.
Fig. 27.
Normau Horse.
The modern jSforman, or mixture of the old French Normrin
draught-horse, (heavy-framed, big-hmbed, but stout and
hardy,) and the Andalusian, a descendant of the Moorish
barbs, has been introduced vvithin a few years, and will un-
ques-tionably become a ver}^ popular horse for many purposes.
He exhibits the qualities of both ancestry in the proper pro-
portions for farm service. He has a thick head ; lively, prici
THE HORSE. 145
Bars ; short, heavy neck ; large breast and shoulders ; strong
limbs ; well-knit back ; large quarters, with much wavy mane,
tail, and fetlock. Like his French progenitor, he frequently
stands low in the withers, which enables him to throw great
weight into the collar ; and the diminished, flattened leg, the
wind and game derived from his Moorish blood, give him
much of the capacity and endurance of the thorough-bred.
The English cart-horse has for a long time made up some of
the best, heavy dray-horses in the country, and late importa-
tions have refreshed the breed with additional choice speci-
mens. The Cleveland hay has been introduced of late, and
promises good carriage-horses from our well-spread, sizeable
mares. The Norfolk trotter Belfounder was imported many
years since, and with our high-bred mares, has produced many
choice roadsters and trotters.
The remainder of our horse-flesh deserving of any notice, is
chiefly composed of such as are superior in point of blood.
The improvement in the Am.erican horse, from this source, is
conspicuous and decided. Judicious breeders still look for
qualities in the descendants, which they sought for in their
imported sires, and the infusion of some of the stoutest of the
blood is rapidly gaining an ascendency in the general stock.
Our intelligent agriculturists should look to this subject closely,
and not permit this system to proceed to an extent that may
be prejudicial to their value as draught-horses, as has be-en
done in some portions of England and our Southern states.
There is no danger from excess of blood, if it be of the right
kind ; but it is seldom found combining that fulness and stout-
ness, and that docility and tractableness of disposition, which
are essential to the gig-horse or the horse of all work. Yorke
says truly, that "the road -horse may possess different degrees
of blood, according to the nature of the country and the work
required of him. [He might have added with propriety, and
according to the character of the hlood^ His legs will be too
slender ; his feet too small ; his stride too long, and he will
rarely be able to trot. Three parts, or half, and for the horse
of all work, even less than that, will make a good and useful
animal." For the saddle only, the high-bred, if not disposed
to be vicious, is never objectionable to an enterprising and
accomplished rider. His long elastic pasterns, giving easy,
flexible motions ; his quick and almost electrical obedience
when under thorough discipline ; his habitual canter and high
spirit, always commend him for this purpose.
13
146
DOMESTIC \NIMALS.
Fig. 28.
Points of a Horse.
1. Muzzle —2. Race— 3. Forehead.— 4. Poll.— 5. Crest.— 6. Withers.— 7. Back.—
8. Loins.— 9. Hip.— 10. Croup.— 11. Dock.— 12. Quarter.— 13. Thigh, or Gaskin.—
14. Ham-string.— 15. Point of the Hock.— 16. Cannon.— 17. Fetlock.— 18. Large
Pastern.— 19. Small Pastern —20. Hoof.— 21. Coronet.— 22. Ham, or Hock.— 23.
Sheath.— 24. Flank.— 25. Girth.— 25. Elbow.- 27. Heel.— 28. Hoof.— 29. Small Pas-
tern.—30. Large Pastern.— 31. Fetlock.— 32. Cannon.— 33. Knee.— 34. Arm.- 35.
Breast, or Bosom.— 36. Point of the Shoulder.— 37. Wmdpipe.- 38. Gullet.— 39.
JowL
Some of the prominent external points of a fine Saddle or Gig
Horse,
Are, a moderately small head, free from fleshiness ; fine
muzzle and expansive nostrils ; broad at the throat and wide
between the eyes, which denotes intelligC'nce and courage ; a
dished face indicates high breeding, and sometimes viciousness ;
a convex or Roman nose frequently betokens the reverse ; the
ears rather long, yet so finely formed as to appear small, and
playing quickly like those of a deer ; the eyes clear, full, and
confident, with a steady forward look. Glancing them back-
ward or askance with a sinister expression, and with none or
only a slight movement of the head, is indicative of a mis-
chievous temper.
The neck should be handsomely arched, and fine at the
junction with the head, while the lower extremity must be
full and muscular, and well expanded at the breast and shoul-
ders. The latter ought to be high and run well buck ; the
withers strong, firmly knit, and smooth ; t!ie breast neither too
THE HORSE. H?
prominent nor retreating, too wide nor too nai row, and supported
by a pair of straight fore-legs, standing well apart. The chest
should be deep, and the girth large ; the body full, and not
drawn up too much in the flank ; the back short, and the hips
gathered well towards the withers ; the loins wide and rising
above the spine ; the ribs spi inging nearly at right angles from
the back, givmg roundness to the body. The hips ought to
be long to the root of the tail, and the latter may approach to
near the line of the back, which is a mark of good breeding.
Both the thigh and hock should be large and muscular ;
and between the hock or knee and pastern, the legs should bo
broad, flat, and short ; the hind legs properly bent, and all
well placed under the body ; the pasterns of moderate length,
and standing slightly oblique ; the hoof hard, smooth, round
before, and wide at the heel ; the frog large and sound ; and
the sole firm and concave. A v/hite hoof is generally tender,
easy to fracture and to lame, and difficult to hold a shoe.
The draught-horse ought to differ from the foregoing, in pos-
sessing a heavier and shorter neck ; a wider and stouter breast,
and low withers, so as to throw the utmost weight into the
collar ; a heavier body and quarters ; larger legs and feet ;
and more upright shoulders and pasterns.
Considerations which affect the Value of the Horse.
The color is not material, provided it be not pied or mealy.
Ko better color for horses can be found than the dark bay or
brown, with black mane, tail, and legs. But most of the other
colors are frequently found with the best horses.
Hard-mouthed horses, when accompanied v^^ith great spirit,
are objectionable, as they require peculiar bitting and the
utmost vigilance.
The paces and action of a horse are important, for if good,
they give a much greater capacity for performance. Some
of these depend on form and structure, and are unchangeable ;
others are the result of breaking. All horses should be
taught to walk fast, as it is their easiest and most economical
pace, and it will help them over a great deal of ground in a
day, even with a heavy load, and with comparatively little
efi:ort. A horse that steps short and digs his toes into the
ground, is worthless as a traveller, and suited only to a ferry-
boat or bark-mill.
It is important that a horse be good-tempered. If inclined
to viciousness, he should be gently yet firmly managed when it
i48 DOMESTI; ANIMALS.
is first apparent. A resort to great severity will be justified,
if necessary to conquer him ; for if once allowed to become a
habit, it will be diflBcult to cure him. Grooms and mischievous
stable-boys, frequently do much injury by their idle tricks
with horses ; and when detected, they should be discharged
at once.
Some horses are nervous, easily excited, and start at every
unusual noise or object. Others are restive and fretful, and
ever anxious to be on the move. Kindness, and firm, yet mild
treatment, by which their motions and will are at all tiines
controlled, and their confidence secured, are the only reme-
dies.
Others are inclined to sluggishness. These should have
stimulating food, and never be overloaded or overworked, and
then kept well to their paces. Whatever they are capable of
performing, can be got from them in this wa}^ only. Habit has
great influence with animals, as with man ; and when within
the compass of his ability, he may be habituated to any rea-
sonable physical exertion.
Breeding.
Agreeably to the general principles before enumerated, such
animals should be selected, as most eminently possess those
points which it is desired to propagate, and these, they should
not only exhibit in themselves, but should inherit as far as
possible, from a long line of ancestry. For the perpetuation
of particular points in progeny, it would be safer to rely on
the latter quality than the former.
The selection of a mare, relatively larger than the horse, is
an important rule in breeding, and it is believed that much of
the success of Arabian and other Eastern horses as stock-
getters, has resulted from the application of this principle.
They possess valuable traits, but condensed within too small a
compass. When sueh an animal is put to a well-bred, larger
mare, the foetus has abundance of room and nourishment to
develop and perfect the circumscribed outlines of the male
parent, and acquire for itself increased volume and character.
The horse ought not to be less than four or five, and the
mare one year older, before being put to breeding. It would
be still better to defer it for two or three years, or till the
frame is fully matm-ed.
MANAGEMENT OF THE COLT — ^CASTRATING. 149
The Gestation of the Marc
Sometimes varies from 44 to 56 weeks, but she usually
goes with young from 47 to 50 ; and it is advisable she should
take the horse at a time which will ensure the foahng when
the weather is settled, and there is a fresh growth of grass.
She will be the better for light working till near the time of
foahng, if well, but not too abundantly fed. In a few days
after this, she may resume moderate labor ; and if not in ^e
way or troublesome, the foal may run with her ; but if she is
exposed to heating, it should be confined till she cools, as
suckling then is decidedly injurious to it.
The mare is in danger of slinking her foal from blows and
over-exertion, the use of smutty grain, foul hay, or offensive
objects or smell ; and when this has once occurred, which
happens usually in the fourth or fifth month, she should after-
wards be generously fed at that period, and only moderately
worked, to prevent a recurrence of the casualty. When liable
to slinking, the mare should be removed from others in foal,
lest a peculiar sympathy should excite an epidemic.
The Elare comes in Heat
From nine to eleven days after foaling, when she should be
put to the horse, if it be desirable to have a colt the following
season. She comes round at intervals of about nine days.
Management of the Colt.
The colt may be weaned when five to seven months old ;
and preparatory to this, Avhile with the mare, may be taught
to feed on fine hay, meal, or oats. When taken away, he
should be confined beyond a hearing distance of the dam, and
plentifully supplied with rowen or aftermath hay, crushed oats,
or wheat shorts. It is economy to provide a warm shelter
through the inclement season for \11 animals, and especially for
colts, which, with all other young, should have an abundance
of nutritious food. They will thus grow evenly and rapidly,
and attain a size and stamina at two years Did, they would not
otherwise have acquired at three.
Castrating.
The colt should be altered at about one year, but if thin in
the neck and light before, the operation may be deferred to
such time as the requisite development is secured. Few of
13*
150 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
the Frencli diligence and farm horses, and scarcely any of the
Oriental, are ever castrated. They are thought to be more
hardy and enduring ; but the slight advantage they may
possibly possess in this respect, would hardly compensate for
the trouble and inconvenience too frequently arising from their
management.
The operation should be performed late in the spring or
early in autumn, while the weather is mild. If in high cou-
»Ixi,ion, the animal must first be bled and physicked. If large
and fractious, he must be cast. Some back him into the an-
gle of a worm fence, where he is firmly held by the liead with
a bridle, and the operator accomplishes the object without
any trouble or material restiveness from the animal while
standing. The sci-otum should be opened on both sides, and
the testicles cut, or rather the cord scraped off, which prevents
much bleeding. The wound may be dressed with a little
lard ; then turn him loose in a pasture which has a shelter
from sun, wind, or rain. Another method of castrating is by
torsion, or twisting.
Docking
Is practised by many, but merely to gratify an absurd and
cruel caprice, without a single advantage, and the animal is
better in every respect with the tail unmutilated. If done at
all, it should be when young, and with a single stroke of the
knife, or chisel and mallet ; and if the weather be favorable,
no further attention is necessarj^
NickiBg.
This inhuman custom is now getting unfashionable, and we
omit any description of it.
Breaking.
Wliile feeding in the stable, the colt should be gently treat-
ed, and accustomed to the halter and bit, which prepares him
for breaking. If permitted to ran with the others while at
work, he becomes familiarized to it, and when harnessed by
the side of some of his well-trained mates, he seems to consider
his discipline rather a privilege than a task. The colt may be
taken in hand for breaking at three years of age, and thor-
oughly broken to light work at four, but should not be put to
hard service till six or eight. A due regard to humanity and
Bound judgment, in thus limiting the burden in his early years,
LONGEVITY OF THE UORSE FEEDING. 151
would save much disease and suffering to the animal, and
pi'ofit to the owner, by his unimpaired strength and prolonged
life. The annual loss from neglecting this precaution is enor-
mous, which might be entirely avoided by less eagerness to
grasp the -substance, while as yet the shadow only is within
reach. ISIany animals are thus broken down at twelve, and
are in their dotage at fifteen, Avhile others of good constitution,,
if well treated, perform hard service till thirty.
Longevity of the Horse.
Mr. Percival mentions one that died at 62. Mr. Mauran, of
New York, has a fine gig and saddle horse, now in his 45th
year, sound, spirited, and plaj^ful as a kitten. He is of a dark
brown, with a tanned nose. We never yet saw a horse with
a buff" or bear muzzle, that had not great endurance.
American Eclipse was successfully covering mares in Ken-
tucky at the age of 32, the result of late and light service till
his sinews became fully matured. We have fi'equently seen a
large, compact, flea-bitten horse at work, dragging a heavy
load in a single cart, which was formerly used as one of Gov-
'srnor Maitland's coach-horses, and though upwards of 30, he
was apparently as sound and vigorous as an overtasked colt
■of seven or eight.
Feeding.
The vigor and duration of the horse depend much on proper
feeding. Like the cow and sheep, he may be made to subsist
on animal food, Ssh, and almost every species of nutritious
vegetable. But his natural and proper aliment is the grasses,
grain, and roots. In the middle and northern sections of this
country, his dry forage is almost invariably good meadow -hay,
generally timothy, which is the richest of the cultivated grasses.
At the South, this is often supplied by the blades of Indian
corn. But in all the states, a great variety of the grasses and
clover are used.
When put to hai'd labor, grain ought always to accompany
hay in some form. Of the diflferent kinds of grain, oats are
peculiarly the horse's food, and they are always safe, digesti-
ble, and nutritive. Barley is the best substitute for it. Wheat
and Indian corn are sometimes given, but both are unsuitable ;
the first is too concentrated, and. the last too heating. They
ought to be sparingly used, and only when ground and mixed
with chaff. The offal of wheat is never objectionable.
152 DOMESTIC AN AIA" 3.
Grain is always more advantageously fed "when ground or
crushed, and wet some time previous to eating ; and it is still
better when cooked. On both sides of the MediteiTanean, in
the Barbary States, in Spain, France, and Italy, much of the
food is given in small baked cakes, and the saving in this way
is much greater than the expense of preparing it.
When confined to dry food, roots or apples fed once a day are
always beneficial. They keep the bowels open, the appetite
and general health good, and contribute largely to the nutri-
ment of the animal. Carrots are the best of the roots, as besides
giving muscle and working power, they, more than any other,
improve the wind and prevent all tendency to heaves. They
have even been found effectual in removing an obstinate cough.
By many of the keepers of Hvery stables, they are always
used, for which purpose they command the same price as oats.
Potatoes, parsnips, beets, and Swedes turnips, in the order
mentioned, are next to be preferred. Potatoes are improved
by cooking.
Mixtures of food are best, as of cut hay, meal, and roots.
Old horses, or such as are put to hard labor, will do much
better if their food be given in the form easiest of digestion.
No inconsiderable part of the vital power is exhausted by the
digestion of dry, raw food.
Horses ought to be fed, and if possible, exercised or worked
regularly, but never on a full stomach. This is a frequent
cause of disease, and especially of broken wind. If their food
is given at the proper time, and the horse be allowed to finish
it at once, without expecting more, he will he down quietly
and digest it. This will be much more refreshing to him,
than to stand at the rack or trough, nibbling continually at his
hay or oats. What remains after he has done feeding, should
be at once withdrawn.
They should have water in summer three times, and in win-
ter twice a day. Soft or running water is much the best.
While working, and they are not too warm, they may have it
as often as they desire. Neither should they be fed when
heated, as the stomach is then fatigued and sHghtly inflamed,
and is not prepared for digestion till the animal is again cool.
Salt should always be within reach, and we have found an
occasional handful of clean wood-ashes, a preventive of disease
and an assistance to the bowels and appetite.
SKELETON OF A HORSE
Fiff.29.
153
Skeleton of a Horse.
A The Head.— a The posterior maxillarj' or under jaw.— & The superior max-
illary or upper jaw. A little lower down than the letter is a foramen, through
which pass the nerves and blood-vessels which chiefly supply the lower part ol
the face.— c The orbit, or cavity containing the eye.— d The nasal bones, or bones
of the nose. — e The suture dividing the parietal bones below from the occipital
bones above.—/ The inferior maxillary bone, containing the upper incisor teeth. —
B The Seven Cervical Vertebrae, or bones of the neck.— C The Eighteen Dorsal
Vertebrse, or bones of the back. — D The Six Lumbar Vertebrae, or bones of the
loins. — E The P'ive Sacral Vertebrae, or bones of tlie haunch. — F The Caudal
Vertebrae, or bones of the tail, generally about fifteen. — G The Scapula, or shoul-
der-blade.— H The Sternum, or fore-part of the chest. — I The Costaeorribs, seven
or eight articulating with the sternum, and called the true ribs; and ten or eleven
united together by cartilage, called the/a/5e ribs. — J The Humerus, or upper bone
of the arm. — K The Radius, or upper bone of the arm. — L The Ulna, or elbow.
The point of the elbow is called the Olecranon. — M The Carpus, or knee, con-
sisting of seven bones.— N The metacarpal bones. The larger metacarpal or can
non or shank in front, and the smaller metacarpal or splint bone behind.—^ The
fore pastern and foot, consisting of the Os Suffraginis, or the upper and larger
pastern bone, with the sesamoid bones behii t, articulating with the cannon and
154 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
greater pastern, the Os Corona?, or lesser pastern; the Os Pecis, or cofBn-
bone ; and the Os Naviculare, or navicular, or shuttle-bone, not seen, and artic-
ulating with the smaller pastern and colnn-bones.— /i The corresponding bones ot
the hind-feet. — O The Haunch, consisting of three portions : the Ilium, the
Ischium, and the Pubis.— P The Femur, or thigh.— Q The stifle joint with the
Patella.— R The Tibia, or proper leg bone ; behind is a small bone called the
fibula.— S The Tarsus, or hock, composed of six bones. The j-rominent part is
the Os Calcis, or point of the Hock.— T The Metatarsals of the hind leg.
DISEASES.
The list is long and fearful, and even the brief one subjoined,
will be found sufficiently great to inculcate the utmost caution
in their management. The horse in his natural condition is
subject to few ailments. It is only in his intensely artificial
state, and when made the slave of man, that he becomes a
prey to disease in almost every shape. A careful and judi-
cious attention to his diet, water, exercise, stable, and general
management, will prevent many of those to which he is sub-
ject.
Glanders.
This is one of the most alarming. The first and most
marked symptom is a discharge from the nostrils of a peculiar
character. The disease produces inflammation there and in the
windpipe, and in aggravated cases passes down to the lungs,
which are soon destroyed.
It is pro2oagated by contagion, by exposure in humid stables,
and is induced by hereditary indisposition and great exhaus-
tion. Youatt says, there is not a disease which may not lay
the foundation for glanders. Tlie poison resides in the nasal
discharge, not in the breath. When exposed to it, the man-
gers should be thoroughly scraped, washed with soap and
water, and afterwards with chloride of lime. All the clothing
and harness, which may have received any of the contagious
matter, must be thoroughly cleansed and baked.
lite best ^3?*t've72^fi'cs are dr}^ clean, and well-ventilated
stables, proper exercise, green food in summer, and roots in
winter.
The disease may he arrested in its early stages, by turning
the animal on a dry pasture, but it is liable to return on sub-
sequent confinement. Iodine has lately been announced as a
remedy, but of the certainty of its effects, we are not aware.
It is generally considered incurable, and when thoroughly
seated, it may be deemed an act both of humanity and econo-
my to terminate the existence of its victim at once. This
course becomes a duty, from the fact that man}^ grooms, by
FARCY LAMPA3 POLL-EVIL HEAVES. 155 .
their attendance on glandered horses, have been aflPected, and
though the disease is, in their case, more manageable, yet it is
frequently fatal.
Farcy,
This is intimately connected with glanders, and the diseases
frequently run into each other.
Lampas.
This consists in the swelling of the bars of the mouth to a
level or even above the teeth. It may occur from inflamma-
tion of the gums ; shedding of the teeth ; a febrile tendency,
and from over-feeding or want of exercise. It will generally
subside by low dieting and proper exercise ; or it may be at
once reheved by lancing the bais with a sharp penknife.
PolkYil,
This arises from some contusion or injury to the head,
which produces a swelling that eventually suppurates. The
inflammation may be abated, in its earliest stages, by a bhster ;
and in its later, by bleeding, physic, and cold lotions applied
to the part. If these are inefteclual, and the sAvelling con-
tinues, it should be hastened by poultices, and warm, stimula-
ting lotions ; and when fully formed, the tumor must be open-
ed, so as to permit all the matter to run out. Repeated ap-
plications of salt will sometimes cure it.
lleaves.
All those affections, distinguished in the English veterinary
works as pneumonia or inflammation of the lungs, chronic coughy
thick and broken wind, consumption, t&c, are popularly desig-
nated as heaves. To some or all of these the horse may have
an hereditary or constitutional tendency. Their incipient
stages are also induced by a sudden transition from heat to
cold, and sometimes from cold to close and hot stables ; and
by a chilly wind or damp stables, especially after severe ex-
ercise. Feeding on musty, dry hay, or on straw, will produce
an irritation which may lead to heaves,
Inf.ammation of the lungs is frequently dangerous, and re-
quires the immediate and full use of the lancet. After the
mflammation is decidedly allayed, by copious bleeding, smaL
doses of aloes may be gi^sn, and frequent injections of
156 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
warm soap and water, whicli should be omitted the moment
the feces become soft and approachmg to the fluid state.
Bhstermg the sides and brisket, to be often repeated if other-
wise ineffectual, must be resorted to. Convalescence should
be followed witli sedative medicines, and during all the severe
stages of the disease, withhold all food, except light gruels
after protracted abstinence. As health returns, put the ani-
mal out to grass.
Inflammation of the lungs is sometimes succeeded by a
chronic cough, and the other maladies enumerated. When
firmly seated, it is incapable of removal. Its effects can be
alleviated, and with suitable food and treatment, the horse
may be made to do much moderate labor for many years, but
he can never become sound or sustain great exertion. Equal
and proper temperature, moist, stimulating food, and espe-
cially carrots or potatoes, and moderate exercise, (but never
on a full stomach,) and dry, clean stables, are all the remedie.i
that can be prescribed.
Catarrh or Horse Distemper.
This sometimes attacks the horse in the spring or fall, and
is shown by soreness and swelling in the glands of the throat ,
a cough ; difficulty of swallowing ; discharging at the nose ;
and general prostration. It is seldom fatal, if properly
managed. Give light bran-mashes, purge thoroughly, and
keep warm. If he is \dolently attacked, he may be bled
while fever exists ; and blisters or setons may be apphed, to
reduce the swelling, if extreme. The disease is contagious,
and the animal should be at once placed where he cannot
communicate it.
Spasmodic Colic.
Symptoms. — The attack of colic is usually very sudden.
There is often not the slio'htest warnino'. The horse beoins
to shift his posture, look round at his flanks, paw violently,
strike his belly with his feet, and crouch in a peculiar man-
ner, advancing his hind limbs under him ; he will then sud-
denly he, or rather fall down, and balance himself upon his
back, with his feet resting on his belly. The pain now seems
to cease for a httle while, and he gets up and shakes himself,
and begins to feed''; the respite, however, is but short — ^the
spasm returns more violently — every indication of pam is in-
creased— he heaves at the fl^rks, breaks out into a profuse
SPASMODIC COLIC. 167
perspiration, and throws himself more recklessly about. In
the space of an hour or two, either the spasms begin to relax,
and the remissions are of longer duration, or the torture is
augmented at every paroxysm ; the intervals of ease are
fewer and less marked, and' inflammation and death super-
vene. The pulse is but little affected at the commencement,
but it soon becomes frequent and contracted, and at length is
scarcely tangible.
Among the causes of colic are, the drinking of cold water
when the horse is heated. There is not a surer origin of vio-
lent spasm than this. Hard water is very apt to produce this
effect. Cohc will sometimes follow the exposure of a horse
to the cold air or a cold wind after strong exercise. Green
food, although, generally speaking, most beneficial to the horse,
yet, given in too large a quantity, or when he is hot, will
frequently produce gripes. Doses of aloes, both large and
small, are not imfrequent causes of colic.
In some horses there seems to be a constitutional predis-
position to colic. They cannot be hardly worked, or exposed
tc unusual cold, without a fit of it. In many cases, when these
horses have died, calculi have been found in some part of the
alimentary canal. Habitual costiveness and the presence of
calcuh, are frequent causes of spasmodic colic. The seat of
colic is occasionally the duodenum, but oftener the ileum or
the jejunum ; sometimes, however, both the caecum and colon
are affected. Fortunately, we are acquainted with several
medicines that allay these spasms ; and the disease often
ceases as suddenly as it appeared.
Remedies. — Turpentine is one of the most powerful remedies,
especially in union with opium, and in good warm ale. A so-
lution of aloes will be advantageously added to the turpen-
tine and opium. If relief is not obtained in half an hour, it
will be prudent to bleed, for the continuance of violent spasm
may produce inflammation. Some practitioners bleed at first,
and it is far from bad practice ; for although the majority of
cases will yield to turpentine, opium, and aloes, an early
bleeding may occasionally prevent the recurrence of inflam-
mation, or at least mitigate it. If it is clearly a case of colic,
lialf of the first dose may be repeated, with aloes dissolved in
warm water. The stimulus produced on the inner surface of
the bowels by the purgative, may counteract the irritation
that caused the spasm.
The belly should be well rubbed with a brush or warm cloth,
but not bruised and injured by the broom-handle rubbed over
14
158 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
it, with Jill then strength, by two great fellows. The horse
should be walked about or trotted moderately. The motion
thus produced in the bowels, and the friction of one intestine
over the other, may relax the spasm, but the hasty gallop might
speedily cause inflammation to succeed to colic.
Clysters of warm water, or containing a solution of aloes,
should be injected. The patent syringe will here be exceedingly
useful. A clyster of tobacco-smoke may be thrown up as a
last resort.
When relief has been obtained, the clothing of the horse,
saturated with perspiration, should be removed, and fresh and
dry clothes substituted. He should be well littered down in a
warm stable or box, and have bran mashes and lukewarm wa-
ter for the two or three next days. Some persons give gin, or
gin and pepper, or even spirit of pimento, in cases of gripes.
This course of proceeding is, however, exceedingly objection-
able. It may be useful, or even sufficient, in ordinary cases
of colic ; but if there should be any inflammation, or tendency
to inflammati-on, it cannot fail to be highly injurious.
Flatulent Colic.
This is altogether a different disease from the former. It is
not spasm of the bowels, but inflation of them, from the pres-
ence of gas emitted by undigested food. Whether collected
in the stomach, or small or large intestines, all kinds of vege-
table matter are liable to ferment. In consequence of this
fermentation gas is evolved to a greater or less extent-— per-
haps to twenty or thirty times the bulk of the food. This
may take place in the stomach ; and if so, the life of the horse
is in immediate danger, for the animal has no power to expel
this dangerous flatus by eructation.
The symptoms, according to Professor Stewart, are, " The
horse suddenly slackening his pace, preparing to lie down, or
falling down, as if he were shot. In the stable he paws the
ground Avith his fore-feet, lies down, rolls, starts up all at once,
and throws himself down again with great violence, looking
wistfully at his flanks, and making many fruitless attempts to
void his urine."
The treatment is considerably different from that of spas-
modic colic. The spirit of pimento would be here allowed, or
the turpentine and opium diink; but if the pain, and espe-
cially the sv/ellmg, do not abate, the gas, which is the cause
of it, must be got rid of, or the animal is inevitably lost. This
INFLAMMATION OF TIIE BOWELS. 159
is usually, or almost invariably, a combination of hydrogen
with some other gas. It has a strong affinity for chlorine.
Then if some compound of chlorine — the chloride of lime —
dissolved in water, is administered in the form of a drink, the
chlorine separates from the lime as soon as it comes in contact
with the hydrogen, and muriatic gas is formed. This gas,
having a strong affinity for water, is absorbed by any fluid that
may be present, and, quitting its gaseous form, either disap-
pears, or does not retain a thousandth part of its former bulk.
All this may be very rapidly accomplished, for the fluid is
quickly conveyed from the mouth to every part of the intes-
tinal canal.
Where these two medicines are not at hand, and the danger
is imminent, the trochar may be used, in order to open a way
for the escape of the gas. The trochar should be small, but
longer than that which is used for the cow, and the puncture
should be made in the middle of the right flank, for there the
large intestines are most easily reached. It is only when the
practitioner despairs of otherwise saving the life of the animal,
that this operation should be at „empted. Much of the danger
w^ould be avoided by using a very small trochar, and by with-
drawing it as soon as the gas has escaped. The wound in
the intestines will then probably close, from the innate elas-
ticity of the parts.
Inflamniatioii of the Bowe^ls.
There are two varieties ;>f this malady. The first is inflam-
mation of the external coats of the intestines, accompanied by
considerable fever, and usually costiveness. The second is that
of the internal or mucous coat, and almost invariably connect-
ed with purging. The muscular coat is that which is oftenest
aff'ected. Inflammation of the external coats of the stomach,
whether the peritoneal or muscular, or both, is a very fre-
quent and fatal disease. It speedily runs its course, and it is
of great consequence that its early symptoms should be known.
Sym'ptoms. — If the horse has been carefully observed, rest-
lessness and fever will have been seen to precede the attack.
In many cases a direct shivering fit will occur ; the mouth
will be hot, and the nose red. The animal will soon express
the most dreadful pain by pawing, striking at his belly, look-
ing wildly at his flanks, groaning, and rolling. The pulse
will be quickened and small ; the ears and legs cold ; the
bell} tender, and sometimes hot ; the breathing quickened ;
160 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
the bowels costive ; and the animal becoming rapidly and fear*
fully weak.
The causes of this disease are, first of all and most fre-
quen'tly, sudden exposure to cold. If a horse that has been
highly fed, carefully groomed, and kept in a warm stable, is
hea ted with exercise, and has been during some hours without
food, and in this state of exhaustion is suffered to drink freely
of cold water, or is drenched with rain, or have his legs and
belly washed with cold water, an attack of inflammation of
the bowels will often follow. An overfed horse, subjected to
severe and long-continued exertion, if his lungs were previ-
ously weak, will probably be attacked by inflammation of
them ; but if the lungs were sound, the bowels will on the
following day be the seat of disease. Stones in the intestines
are an occasional cause of inflammation, and colic neglected
or wrongly treated will terminate in it.
Remedies. — The treatment of inflammation of the bowels,
like that of the lungs, should be prompt and energetic. The
first and most powerful mean ? of cure will be bleeding. From
six to eight or ten quarts of blood, in fact as much as the
horse can bear, should be abstracted as soon as possible ; and
the bleeding repeated to the extent of four or five quarts more,
if the pain is not relieved and the pulse has not become rounder
and fuller. The speedy weakness that accompanies this dis-
ease, should not deior from bleeding largely. That weakness
is the consequence of violent inflammation of these parts ; and
if that inflammation is subdued by the loss of blood, the weak-
ness will disappear. The bleeding should be effected on the
first appearance of the disease, for there is no malady that
more quickly runs its course.
A strong solution of aloes should immediately follow the
bleeding, but, considering the irritable state of the intestines at
this period, guarded by opium. This should be quickly fol-
lowed by back-raking, and injections consisting of warm water,
or very thin gruel, in v/hich Epsom salts or aloes have been
dissolved ; and too much fluid can scarcely be thrown up.
The horse should likewise be encouraged to drink plentifully
of warm water or thin gruel ; and draughts, each containing a
couple of drachms of dissolved aloes, with a little opium,
should be given every six hours, imtil the bowels are ireely
opened. It will now be prudent to endeavor to excite con-
siderable external inflammation, as near as possible to the seat
of internal disease, and therefore the whole of the belly should
be blistered.
INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 16l
In a well-marked case of this disease, no time should be
lost in applying fomentations, but the blister at once resorted
to. The tincture of Spanish flies, whether made with spirits
of wine or turpentine, should be thoroughly rubbed in. The
legs should be well bandaged, in order to restore the circula-
tion in them, and thus lessen the flow of blood to the inflamed
part ; and, for the same reason, the horse should be warmly
clothed, but the air of the stable or box should be cool.
No grain or hay should be allowed during the disease, but
bran mashes, and green food if it can be procured. The latter
will be the best, and may be given withou. the slightest ap-
prehension of danger. When the horse begins to recover, a
handful of grain may be given two or three times in the day ;
and, if the weather is warm, he may be turned into a paddock
for a few hours in the middle* of the day. Clysters of gruel
should be continued for three or four days after the inflamma-
tion is begiiming to subside, and good hand-rubbing applied
to the legs.
The second variety of Inflammation of the Bowels
Afifects the internal or mucous coat, and is generally the
consequence of physic in too great quantity, or of an improper
kind. The purging is more violent and continues longer than
was intended ; the animal shows that he is suff'ering great pain;
he frequently looks round at his flanks ; his breathing is la-
borious, and the pulse is quick and small, and the mouth is
hot and the legs and ears are warm.
Remedies. — Unless the purging is excessive, and the pain
and distress great, the surgeon should hesitate at giving any
astringent medicine at first ; but he should plentifully adminis-
ter gruel or thin starch, or arrow-root, by the mouth and by
clyste:-, removing all hay and grain, and particularly green
food. He should thus endeavor to soothe the irritated surface
of the bowels, while he permits all remains of the purgative to
be carried ofl*. If, however, twelve hours have passed, and
the purging and the pain remain undiminished, he shoidd con-
tinue the gruel, adding to it chalk, catechu, and opium, re
peated every six hours. As soon as the purging begins to
subside, the astringent medicine should be lessened in quantity,
and gradually discontinued.
Bleeding will rarely be necessary, unless the inflammation
is very great, and attended by symptoms of general fever.
The horse should be warmly clothed, and placed in a cotp*
14*
162 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
fortable stable, and his legs should be hand-rubbed and
bandaged.
Violent purging, and attended with much inflammation and
fever, will occur from other causes. Green food will fre-
quently purge ; and a horse worked hard upon it will sometimes
scour.
The remedy is change of diet, or less labor. Young horses
will often be strongly purged, without any apparent cause.
Astringents should be used Avith much caution here. It is
probably an effort of nature to get rid of something that offends
A few doses of gruel will assist in effecting this purpose, and
the purging will cease without astringent medicine.
Many horses that are not well ribbed home (having too great
space between the last rib and the hip-bone) are subject to
purging, if more than usual e:fertion is required from them.
They are recognised by the term of washy horses. They are
often free and fleet, but destitute of continuance. They should
have rather more than the usual allowance of grain, with beans,
when at work. A cordial ball, with catechu and opium, will
often be serviceable either before or after a journey.
Physicking.
When a horse comes from grass to dry food, or from the
cool, open air to a heated stable, a dose, or even two doses,
of physic may be useful to prevent the tendency to inflamma-
tion, which is the necessary consequence of so sudden and
great a change. To a horse that is becoming too fat, or has
surfeit, grease, or mange, or that is out of condition from inac-
tivity of the digestive organs, a dose of physic is often most
serviceable. A horse should be carefully prepared for the
action of physic. Two or three bran mashes given on that or
the preceding day, are far from sufficient when a horse is about
to be physicked, whether to promote his condition, or in obe-
dience to custom. Mashes should be given until the dimg
becomes softened. A less quantity of physic will then suffice,
and it will more quickly pass through the intestines, and be
more readily diffused over them.
Five drachms of aloes, given when the dung has thus been
softened, will act more effectually and much more safely than
seven drachms, when the lower intestines are obstructed by
hardened feces. On the day on which the physic is given,
the horse should have walking exercise, or may be gently trot-
ted for a quarter of an hour twice in the day ; but after the
PHYSICK !NG. 163
physic begins to work, he should not be moved from l^is stall.
Exercise would then produce gripes, irritation, and, possibly
dangerous inflammation. A little hay may be put into the
rack. As much mash should be given as the horse will eat,
and as much water, with the coldness of it taken off, as he-
will drink. If, however, he obstinately refuses to irink warm
water, it is better that he should have it cold, than to continue
without taking any fluid ; but in such case he should not be
suff"ered to take more than a quart at a time, with an interval
of at least an hour between each draught.
When the purging has ceased, or the 'physic is set, a mash
should be given once or twice every day until the next dose
is taken, between which and the setting of the first, there should
be an interval of a week. The horse should recover from the
languor and debility occasioned by the first dose, before he is
harassed by a second. Eight or ten tolerably copious mo-
tions, will be perfectly sufficient to answer every good purpose,
although the groom may not be satisfied unless double the
quantity are procured. The consequence of too strong purga-
tion will be, that weakness will hang about the animal for sev-
eral days or weeks, ana inflammation will often ensue from
the over-irritation of the intestinal canal.
Long-continued custom has made aloes the almost invaria-
ble purgative of the horse, and very properly so ; for there is
no other at once so sure and so safe. The Barbadoes aloes,
although sometimes very dear, should alone be used. The
dose, with a horse properly prepared, will vary from four to
seven drachms. Custom has assigned the form of a ball to
physic, but good sense will in due time introduce the solution
of aloes, as acting more speedily, eff'ectually, and safely.
The only other purgative on which dependence can be placed
is the CROTON. The farina or meal of the nut is generally
used ; but from its acrimony it should be given in the form of
ball, with linseed meal. The dose varies from a scruple to
half a drachm. It acts more speedily than the aloes, and
without the nausea which they produce ; but it causes more
watery stools, and, consequently, more debihty.
Linseed oil is an uncertain but safe purgative, in doses
from a pound to a pound and a half. Olive oil is more im-
certain, but safe ; but castor oil, that mild aperient in the
human being, is both uncertain and unsafii. Epsom salts are
inefficacious, except in the immense dose of a pound and a
half, and then they are not always safe.
164 D(;MEST1C ANIMALS,
» Worms.
The long white "vorm {lumhricus te=:^s) much resembles the
common earth-worm, and beino^ from six to ten inches in lenarth,
inhabits the small intestines. It is a formidable looking ani-
mal ; and if there are many of them, they may consume more
than can be spared of the nutritive part of the food, or tlie
muc^s of the bowels. A tight skin, and rough coat, and
tucked-up belly, are sometimes connected with their presence,
r^hey are then, however, voided in large quantities.
Jxehiedies. — A dose of physic will sometimes bring away
almost incredible quantities of them. Calomel is frequently
given as a vei'mifuge. The seldomer this drug is adminis-
tered to the horse, the better. When the horse can be spared,
a strong dose of physic is an excellent vermifuge, so far
as the long round worm is concerned. But a better medicine,
and not interfering with either the feeding or work of the
horse, is emetic tartar, with ginger, made into a ball with hn-
seed meal and treacle, and given every morning, half an hour
before the horse is fed.
A smaller, darker colored worm, called the needle-worm,
ur ascaris, inhabits the larger intestines. Hundreds of them
sometimes descend into the rectum, and immense quantities
have been found in the coecum. These are a more serious
nuisance than the former, for they cause a very troublesome
irritation about the fundament, which sometimes sadly annoys
the horse. Their existence can generally be discovered by a
small portion of mucus, which, hardening, is found adhering
to the anus.
Remedies. — Physic will sometimes bring away great numbers
of these worms ; but when there is much irritation about the
tail, and much of this mucus, indicating that they have de-
scended into the rectum, an injection of linseed oil, or of aloes
dissolved in warm water, will be a more effectual remedy.
The tape-worm is seldom found in the horse.
While they inhabit the stomacJi of the horse, cannot give
the animal any pain, for they have fastened on the cuticular
and insensible coat. They cannot stimulate the stomach
and increase its digestive, power, for they are not on the di-
gestive jwrtion of the stomach. They cannot, by tlieir rough-
ness, assist the trituration or rubbing down of the food, for
no such office is pei formed in that part of the stomach — the
WIND-GALLS. 165
food is softened, not rubbed do^\^l. They cannot be injurious
to the horse, for he enjoys the most perfect health when
the cuticular part of his stomach is filled with them, and
their presence is riot even suspected until they appear at the
anus.
They cannot be removed by medicine, because they are not
in that part of the stomach in which medicine is usually con-
veyed ; and if they were, their mouths are too deeply buried
in the mucus for any medicine, that can be safely adminis-
tered, to affect them ; and, last of all, in due course of time
they detach themselves, and come away. Therefore, the
wise man will leave them to themselves, or content himself
with picking them off when they collect imder the tail and
annoy the animal.
Wind-galls.
In the neighborhood of the fetlock, there are occasionally
found considerable enlargements, oftener on the hind-leg than
the fore one, which are denominated luind-galls. Between the
tendons and other parts, and wherever the tendons are exposed
to pressure or friction, and particularly about their extremities,
little bags or sacs are placed, containing and suffering to ooze
slowly from them, a mucous fluid to lubricate the parts.
From undue pressure, and that most frequently caused by
violent action and straining of the tendons, or often from some
predisposition about the horse, these little sacs are injured.
They take on inflammation, and sometimes become large and
indurated. There are few horses perfectly free from them.
When they first appear, and until the inflammation subsides,
they may be accompanied by some degree of lameness ; but
otherwise, except when they attain a great size, they do not
interfere with the action of the animal, or cause any consider-
able unsoundness. The farriers used to suppose that they
contained wind — hence their name, mnd-galls ; and hence the
practice of opening them, by which dreadful inflammation
was often produced, and many a valuable horse destroyed.
Remedies. — A slight \\and-gall will scarcely be subjected to
treatment ; but if these tumors are numerous and large, and
seem to impede the motion of the hmb, they may be attacked
first by bandage. The roller should be of flannel, and soft pads
should be placed on each of the enlargements, and bound
down tightly upon them. The bandage should also be wetted
with warm water, two or three times a day, for half an hour
each time. The wind-gall wi?i often diminish or disappear
166 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
by this treatment, but will too frequently return, wliin .he
horse is again hardly worked.
A blister is a more effectual, but too often temporary remedy.
Firing is still more certain, if the tumors are sufficiently large
and annoying to justify our having recourse to measures so
severe ; for it will not only effect the immediate absorption of
the fluid, and the reduction of the swelling, but, by contract-
ing the skin, will act as a permanent bandage, and therefore
prevent the reappearance of the tumor. The iodine and
mercurial ointments have occasionally been used with advantage,
in the proportion of three parts of the former to two of the
latter.
{nflammatioii of tlie Fetlock.
The fetlock-joint is a yqvj complicated one, and from the
stress which is laid on it, and its being the principal seat of
motion below the knee, it is particularly subject to injury.
There are not many cases of sprain of the back-sinew, that are
not accompanied by inflammation of the ligaments of this
joint ; and numerous supposed cases of sprain higher up, are
simple affections of- the fetlock. It requires a great deal of
care, and some experience, to distinguish the one from the
other. The heat about the part, and the point at which the
horse least endures the pressure of the finger, will be the prin-
cipal guides.
Remedy. — Occasionally, by the application of cooling lotions,
the inflammation may be subdued, but at other times, the
horse suffers dreadfully, and is unable to stand. A serious
affection of the fetlock-joint demands prompt treatment.
Cutting.
The inside of the fetlock is often bruised by the shoe or
the hoof of the opposite foot. Many expedients used to be
tried to remove this ; the inside heel has been raised and low-
ered, and the outside raised and lowered ; and sometimes one
operation has succeeded, and sometimes the contrary ; and
there was no point so involved in obscurity or so destitute of
principles to guide the practitioner.
Remedy. — ^The most successful remedy and that which in
the great majority of cases supersedes all others, is Mr. Tur-
ner's shoe, of equal thickness from heel to toe, and having
but one nail, and that near the toe, on the inside of the shoe ;
care bein^ taken that the shoe shall not extend beyond fhe
SFKAIN OF THE COFFIN-JOINT --RINGBOTVE. 167
edge of the crust, and that the crust shall be rasped a little
at the quarters.
Sprain of the Comn-Joint.
The proof of this is when the lameness is sudden, and the
heat and tenderness are principally felt round the coronet.
Remedy. — Bleeding at the toe, physic, fomentation, and blis-
ters, are the usual means adopted. This lameness is not easily
removed, even by a bhster ; and if removed, like sprains of
the fetlock and of the back-sinews, it is apt to return, and
finally produce a great deal of disorganization and mischief in
the foot. Sprain of the coffin-joint sometimes becomes a very
serious affair. Not being always attended by any external
swelling, and being detected only by heat round the coronet
the seat of the lameness is often overlooked by the groom ana
the farrier ; and the disease is suffered to become confirmed
before its nature is discovered.
Ringbone.
This is a deposite of bony matter in one of the pasterns,
and usually near the joint. It rapidly spreads, and involves
not only the pastern-bones, but the cartilages of the foot, and
spreading around the pasterns and cartilages, thus derives its
name. When the first deposite is on the lower pastern, and
on both sides of it, and produced by violent inflammation of
the ligaments of the joints, it is recognised by a "HgHt en-
largement, or bony tumor on each side of the foot, and just
above the coronet.
Horses with short upright joints, and with small feet and
high action, are oftenest, as may be supposed, the subjects of
this disease, which is the consequence either of concussion or
sprain of the pastern-joints. It is also more frequent in the
hind foot than the fore, because, from the violent action of the
hind legs in propelling the horse forward, the pasterns are
more subject to ligamentary injury behind than before ; yet
the lameness is not so great there, because the disease is con-
fined principally to the ligaments, and the bones have not beei
injured by concussion ; vvhile, from the position of the fore
limbs, there vrill generally be in them injury of the bones to
be added to that of the ligaments.
Remedy. — In its early stage, and when recognised only by
a bony enlargement on both sides of the pastern -joint, or in
WHue few cases on one side only, tke lamen-ess is not very con-
168 DCMESTIC ANIMALS.
siderable, and it is not impossible to remove the disease by
active blistering, or by the application of the cautery ; but
there is so much wear and tear in this part of the animal, that
the inflammation and the disposition to the formation of bone
rapidly spread. The pasterns first become connected together
by bone instead of hgament, and thence results what is called
an anchylosed or fixed joint. From this joint the disease pro-
ceeds to the cartilages of the foot, and to the union between
the lower pastern, and the coffin and navicular bones. The
motion of these parts likewise is impeded or lost, and the
whole of the foot becomes, one mass of spongy bone.
Enlargement of tlie Hock.
First, there is inflammation, or sprain of the hocJc-johit gener-_
ally, arising from sudden violent concussion, by some check at
speed, or over-weight, and attended with enlargement of the
whole joint, and great tenderness and lameness.
Remedy. — This, however, like all other diff"used inflamma-
tions, is not so untractable as an intense one of a more circum-
scribed nature, and by rest and fomentation, or, perchance,
firing, the limb recovers its action, and the horse becomes fit
for ordinary work. Tiie swelling, however, does not always
subside. Enlai-gement, spread over the whole of the hock-
joint, remains.
A horse with an enlarged hock must always be regarded
with su^iDicion. In truth, he is unsound. The parts, altered
in structure, must be to a certain degree weakened. The ani-
mal may discharge his usual work during a long peri®d, with-
out return of lameness ; but if one of those emergencies should
occur when all his energies require to be exerted, the disor-
ganized and weakened part will fail. He may be ridden or
driven moderately for many a year without inconvenience, yet
one extra hard day's work may lame him forever.
Curb.
There ai-e often injuries of particular parts of the hock-
joint. Curh is an aftection of this kind. It is an enlargement
at the back of the hock, three or four inches below its point.
It is either a strain of the ring-like ligament which binds the
tendons in their place, or of the sheath of the tendons ;
oftener, however, of the ligament than of the sheath. Any
sudden action of the limb of more than usual violence may
produce it, and therefore horses are found to throw out curbs
CURBS. 169
after a hardly-contested race, an extraordinary leap, a severe
gallop over heavy ground, or a sudden check in the gallop.
Young horses are particularly liable to it, and horses that
are cow-hocked, whose hocks and legs resemble those of the
cow, the hocks being turned inwards, and legs forming a con-
siderable angle outwards. This is intelligible enough ; for in
hocks so formed, the annular ligament must be continually on
the stretch, in order to confine the tendon. Curbs are gen-
erally accompanied by considerable lameness at their first ap-
pearance, but the swelling is not always great. They are best
detected by observing the leg sidewise.
Remedies. — The first object in attempting the cure, is to
abate inflammation, and this will be most readily accomplished
by cold evaporating lotions, frequently applied to the part.
Equal portions of spirit of wine, water, and vinegar, will af-
ford an excellent application. It will be almost impossible to
keep a bandage on. If the heat and lameness are considera-
ble, it will be prudent to give a dose of physic, and to bleed
from the subcutaneous vein, whose course is near it; and
whether the injury is of the annular ligament, or the sheath
of the tendon, more active means will be necessary to perfect
a cure.
Either a liquid blister should be rubbed on the part, con-
sisting of a vinus or turpentine tincture of cantharides, and
this daily applied until some considerable swelling takes
place ; or, what is the preferable plan, the hair should be cut
off, and the part blistered as soon as the heat has been sub-
dued. The blister should be repeated, until the swelling has
disappeared, and the horse goes sound.
In severe cases it may be necessary to fire ; but a fair trial,
however, should be given to milder measures. If the iron is
used, it should be applied in straight lines.
There are few lamenesses in which absolute and long-con-
tinued rest is more requisite. It leaves the parts materially
weakened, and, if the horse is soon put to work again, the
lameness will frequently return. No horse that has had curbs,
should be put even to ordinary work in less than a month
after the apparent cure ; and, even then he should very gradu-
ally resume his former habits.
A horse with a curb, is manifestly unsound, or generally
condemned as unsound. Curb is also an hereditary complaint ;
and therefore a horse that has once suffered from it, should
always be regarded with suspicion, especially if either of llie
parents have exliibited it.
15
170 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Bone SpaYin.
This is an afiection of the bones of the hock -joint. Spav-
ined horses are generally capable of slow work. They are
equal to the greater part of the work of the farm, and there-
fore they should not always be rejected by the small farmer,
as they may generally be procured at a small price. These
horses are not only capable of agricultural work, but they
generally improve under it. The lameness in some degree
abates, and even the bony tumor to a certain degree lessens.
There is sufficient moderate motion and friction of the limb to
rouse the absorbents to action, and cause them to take up a
portion of the bony matter thrown out, but not enough to re-
new or prolong inflammation. It cannot be said that the
plow affords a ciire for spavin, but the spavined horse often
materially improves while working at it. For fast work, and
for work that must be regularly performed, spavined horses
are not well calculated ; for this lameness behind produces
great difficulty in rising, and the consciousness that he will
not be able to rise without painful effort, occasionally prevents
the horse from lying down at all ; and the animal that cannot
rest well, cannot long travel far or fast.
Remedies. — The treatment of spavin is simple enough, but
far from being always effectual. The owner of the horse will
neither consult his own interest, nor the dictates of humanity,
if he suffers the chisel and mallet, or the gimlet, or the point-
ed iron, or arsenic to be used ; yet measures of considerable
severity must be resorted to. Repeated blisters will usually
cause either the absorption of the bony deposite, or the abate-
ment or removal of the inflammation of the ligaments, or, as
a last resource, the heated iron may be apphed.
Swelled Legs.
The fore-legs, but oftener the hind ones, and especially in
coarse horses, are sometimes subject to considerable enlarge-
ment. Occasionally, when the horse does not seem to labor
under any other disease, and sometimes from an apparent
shifting of disease from other parts, the hind legs suddenly
swell to an enormous degree from the hock, and almost from
the stifle to the fetlock, attended by a greater or less degree
of heat, and tenderness of the skin, and sometimes excessive
and very pecuhar lameness. The pulse likewise becomes quick
ftod hara, and the horse evidently labors under considerable
GREASE. 171
fever. It is acute inflammation of the cellular substance of
the legs, and that most sudden in its attack, and most violent
in its degree, and therefore attended by the effusion of a con-
sidemble quantity of fluid into the cellular membrane. It oc-
curs in young horses, and in those ivhich are over-fed and
little exercised.
Remedies. — Fomentation, diuretics, or purgatives, or, if
there is much fever, a moderate bleeding, will often relieve the
distention almost as suddenly as it appeared. Mild cases will
generally yield to their influence ; but, if the animal has been
neglected, the treatment must be decisive. If the horse is in
high condition, these should be preceded or accompanied by
bleeding ; but if there are any symptoms of debility, bleeding
i^ould only increase the want of tone in the vessels.
Horses taken from grass and brought into close stables,
very speedily have swelled legs, because the difference of food
and increase of nutriment rapidly increase the quantity of
the circulating fluid, while the want of exercise takes away
the means by which it might be got rid of. The remedy here
is sufficiently plain.
Swelled legs, however, may proceed from general debility.
They may be the consequence of starvation, or disease that
has considerably weakened the animal ; and these parts, being
farthest from the centre of circulation, are the first to show
the loss of power by the accumulation of fluid in them. Here
the means of cure vfould be to increase the general strength,
with which the extremities would sympathize. Mild diuretics
and tonics would therefore be evidently indicated.
Horses in the spi'ing and fall are subject to swelled legs.
The powers of the constitution c.re piincipally employed in
providing a new coat for the animal, and the extremities have
not their share of vital mfluence. Mingled cordials and diu-
retics are indicated here ; the diuretic to lessen the quantity
of the circulating fluid, and the cordial to invigorate thf,
frame.
Grease-
Swelled legs, although distinct from grease, is a disease that
is apt to degenerate into it. Grease is a specific inflammation
of the skin of the heels, sometimes of the fore-feet, but oftener
of the hinder ones. Bad stable management is the true cause
of it. Grease is a local complaint. The heel should be well
but gently washed with soap and water, and as much of the
172 DOMESTIC ANIM/ LS.
scurf detaclied as is easily removable. An ointment should
be applied, to supple, cool, and heal the part.
When cracks appear, the mode of treatment will depend on
their extent and depth. If the cracks are deep, with an
ichorous discharge and considerable lameness, it will be neces-
sary to poultice the heel. A poultice of linseed meal will be
generally effective, unless the discharge is thin and offensive,
when an ounce of finely-powdered charcoal should be mixed
with the linseed meal ; or a poultice of carrots, boiled soft
find mashed. After the chaps or cracks have healed, the legs
will sometimes continue gorged and swelled. A flannel band-
age, evenly applied over the whole of the swelled part, will
be very serviceable ; or should the season admit of it, a run
at grass, particularly spring grass, should be allowed.
The feeding should likewise vary with the case, but with
these rules, which admit of no exception; that green food
should be given, and more especially carrots, when they are
not too expensive ; and mashes, if the horse will eat them ;
and never the full allowance of grain.
Walking exercise should be resorted to as soon as the horse
is able to bear it, and this by degrees may be increased to a
gentle trot.
From bad stable-management at first, and neglect during
the disease, a yet worse kind of grease occasionally appears.
The ulceration extends over the skin of the heel and the fet-
lock, and a fungus springs from the surface of both, highly
sensible, bleeding at the slightest touch, and interspersed with
scabs. By degrees portions of the fungus begin to be covCi-ed
with a horn}^ substance, protruding in the form of knobs, and
collected together in bunches. These are known by the name
of grcioes. A foetid and very peculiar exudation, proceeds
from nearly the whole of the unnatural substance. The
horse evidently suffers much, and is gradually worn down by
the discharge. The assistance of a veterinary surgeon is here
indispensable.
Some horses are more subject to grease than others, par-
ticularly draught-horses, both heavy and light, but particularly
the former, and if they have no degree of hlood in them. It
was the experience of this, which partly contributed to the
gradual change of coach and other draught-horses to those of
a hghter breed. In the great majority of cases, grease arises
from mismanagement and neglect.
Every thing that has a tendency to excite inflammation in
the. skin of the heel is a cause of grease. Therefore want
(JUTTING TPIE HAIR FROM THE HEELS SETONS. 173
of exercise is a frequent source of this disease. When high
feeding is added to irregular or deficient exercise, the disease
is evidently still more likely to be produced. Want of clean-
liness in the stable is a fruitful source of grease. When the
heels are imbedded in filth, they are weakened by the con-
stant moisture surrounding them. The absurd practice of
washing the feet and legs of horses when they come from
their work, and either carelessly sponging them do\Yn after-
wards, or leaving them to dry as they may, is, however, the
most common origin of grease.
When the horse is warmed by his work, and the heels share
in the warmth, the momentary cold of washing may not be
injurious, if the animal is immediately rubbed dry ; yet even
this would be better avoided ; but to wash out the heels, and
then leave them partially dry or perfectly wet, and suffering
from the extreme cold that is produced by evaporation from a
moist and wet surface, is the most absurd, dangerous, and in-
jurious practice that can be imagined. It is worse, when the
post-horse or the plow-horse is plunged up to his belly in the
river or pond immediately after his work.
Cutting the Hair from the Heels.
Custom has very properly retained the hair on our farm-
horses. Nature would not have given it had it not been use-
ful. It guards the heel from being injured by the inequahties
of the plowed field, and prevents the dirt, in which the
heels are constantly enveloped, from reaching, and caking on,
and irritating the skin. When the horse is carefully tended
after his work is over, and his legs quickly and completely
dried, the less hair he has about them the better, for then both
the skin and the hair can be made perfectly dry before evapo-
ration begins, or proceeds so far as to deprive the legs of their
heat. Grease is the child of negligence and mismanagement.
Setons
Are pieces of tape or cord, passed, by means of an instru-
ment resembling a large needle, either through abscesses, or
the base of ulcers with deep sinuses, or between the skin and
the muscular or other substances beneath. They are re-
tained there by the ends being tied together, or by a knot at
each end. The tape is moved in the wound twice or thrice in
the day, and occasionally wetted with spirits of turpentine, or
some acrid fluid, in order to increase the inflammation which
15*
174 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
it produces, or the discharge which is intended to be estab-
lished.
In abscesses, such as occur in the withers or the poll, and
when passed from the summit to the very bottom of the swell-
ing, I etons are highly useful by discharging the purulent fluid,
and suffering any fresh quantity of it that may be secreted to
flow out ; and, by the degree of inflammation which they ex-
cite on the interior of the tumor, stimulating it to throw out
healthy granulations, which graduall}^ occupy and fill the hol-
low. In deep fistulous wounds they are indispensable, for ex-
cept some channel is made through which the matter may flow
from the bottom of the wound, it will continue to penetrate
deeper into the part, and the healing process will never be ac-
complished. On these accounts, a seton passing through the base
of the ulcer in poll-evil and fistulous withers is so beneficial.
Setons are sometimes useful by promoting a discharge in the
neighborhood of an inflamed part, and thus diverting and car-
rying away a portion of the fluids which distend or overload
the vessels of that part ; thus, a seton is placed with consid-
erable advantage in the cheek, when the eyes are much in-
flamed."— ( Youatt.)
Founder,
Or inflammation of the foot, arises from various causes ; ex
cessive exertion, great heat, and particularly when followed by
drinking cold water, or overloading the stomach in any way,
sudden transition from great cold to excessive heat, and change
of inflammation from some other part.
Remedies. — When the attack is severe and confined to the
fore-feet, Youatt recommends removing the shoe and paring
the hoof as much as possible, taking four quarts of blood from
each toe, placing the feet in warm water, and afterwards ap-
plying soft poultices of linseed meal to the whole foot and
pastern. If this is inefl"ectual, take three quarts of blood from
each foot the succeeding day. It may then be necessary to
blister the foot and coronet. The animal should be kept on
green food or light mashes, and allowed to run on grass with-
out labor. An eff"ectual cure has followed from taking off
the shoe, and applying lard, raised to the boiling point, to
every part of the foot.
Poison
From weeds, sometimes gives to horses ulcerated tongues
and Ups, and swollen legs and sheath. If there be much in-
EPIDEMICS AMONG HORSES, ETC 176
flammation, bleeding should be resorted to, then give daily-
bran mashes, with Glauber salts in doses of ^ to 1^ pounds,
according to the size of the horse, with half a teaspoonful of
saltpetre. ^\^ashing the ulcerated parts with warm soap-
suds, copperas, and sugar-of-lead may follow.
Epidemics among Horses,
Sometimes occur, producing great mortality. One of these
was prevalent in the neighborhood of New York, in 1846,
termed a malarious congestive fever, staggers, or apoplexy,
which destroyed many valuable animals. Tt occurred during
the heat of summer, and was principally confined to such as
were at pasture. By many it was attributed to excessive heat
and exposure at night. The animals that were opened, ap-
peared sound in all respects excepting the brain, which exhib-
ited one mass of clotted blood.
The remedy found to be the most effectual, consisted in ta-
king about one quart of blood from the head, swathing it with
cloths saturated with cold water, and giving two drachms daily
of calomel. The horse should be kept in a cool stable.
A similar disease in Spain is cured by copious bleeding, and
swathing the head in blankets constantly wet with hot water.
Inflammation of the Eyes.
Shut up in a dark stable, and feed on fresh-cut grass and
bran mashes. Bleed freely from the mouth, and give Ij lbs.
Glauber salts, 2 drachms nitre, and 15 grains tartarized antimo-
ny, dissolved in a bucket of water, which the animal will drink
when thirsty. This to be repeated daily till purging is effect-
ed. If it fails, bleed from the large veins just below the eye,
taking 15 to 20 ounces of blood. — {^Dr. Comphell.)
The Sting of Hornets,
Bees, or snakes, may be relieved by immediate external ap-
plication of strong spirits of hartshorn : salt and vinegar are
also good.
For Sprains,
Take a mixture of one ounce sweet oil, four ounces spirits
of hartshorn, half an ounce oil of thyme, and rub with it fre-
quently. The remedies mentioned below are also effectual
for sprains.
176 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
For a Bruise or Blow.
Apply hot water a long time with wet cloths. Beef brine
is an excellent lotion for both sprains and bruises. A veteran
among horses, claims, that it will almost set a joint or heal a
fracture. Wormwood or tansy lotions are also good.
Fistula.
This is frequently cured by repeated applications of salt.
Wounds
Should be washed twice a day with clean, soft water, or
with a httle Castile soap added, and then rub with whale-oil.
This answers for all seasons, keeps off flies, restores the hair,
and of the original color.
Galls,
Or wounds on the back from the saddle, are most effectually
healed by white-lead, moistened with sweet-oil or milk. The
saddle ought always to fit easily and be well padded, and it
should be taken off and the animal's back washed at every
baiting.
Shoeing.
This is an important operation, and should never be at-
tempted but imder the supervision of an experienced person ;
nor ought the shoes to remain so long as to produce contrac-
tion of the hoof, which is followed by lameness and corns.
They should be reset as often as every five or six weeks.
Contraction of tlie Foot.
This is also caused by standing on the dry stable for some
days. In this case, the hoof should be stopped with fresh
cow-manm-e and clay, or with a thick felt, soaked in water,
and cut to suit the foot. This is also a good apphcation over
night, for horses that have accomphshed a hard day's work
on a dry road.
Litter.
This is not objectionable to the feet, if clean anc* jot too
damp. Some suppose this the cause of contraction, but it is
the reverse. It is besides of great benefit when shook out for
CORNS. 177
A bed, by inducmg the horse to rest himself. He is thus en-
abled to do more work, and Avith a less expenditure of food.
Corns.
In the angle between the bars and the quarters, the horn
of the sole has sometimes a red appearance, and is more
spongy and softer than at any other part. The horse flinches
when this portion of the horn is pressed upon, and occasional
or permanent lameness is produced. This disease of the foot
is termed coims ; bearing this resemblance to the corn of the
human being, that it is produced by pressure, and is a cause
of lameness. When corns are neglected, so much inflamma-
tion is produced in that part of the sensible sole, that suppu-
ration follows, and to that, quittor succeeds, and the matter
either undermines the horny sole, or is discharged at the
coronet.
Remedies. — The cure of old corns is difficult ; for as all
shoeing has some tendency to produce pressure here, the
habit of throwing out this diseased horn is difficult to get rid
of when once contracted ; recent corns, however, will yield to
good shoeing. The flrit thing to be done is well to pare out
the angle between the crust and the bars. Two objects are
answered by this ; the extent of the disease wall be ascertained,
and one cause of it removed. A very small drawing-knife
must be used for this purpose. The corn must be pared out
to the very bottom, taking care not to wound the sole. It
may then be discovered whether there is any eff'usion of blood
or matter underneath. If this is suspected, an opening must
be made through the horn, the matter evacuated, the separated
horn taken away, the com^se and extent of the sinuses explored,
and introduce into them a saturated solution of sulphate of zinc,
by means of a small syringe. Place over this dressing the
common cataplasm, or the turpentine ointment, and renew the
apphcation every twenty-four hours. Three or four such ap-
plications complete a cure.
Should there be no collection of fluid, the butyr of antimony
should be applied over the whole extent of the corn, after the
horn has been thinned as closely as possible. The object of
this is to stimulate the sole to throw out more healthy horn.
In bad cases, a bar-shoe may be put on, so chambered that
there shall be no pressure on the diseased part. This may be
worn for one or two shoeings, but not constantly, for there are
few frogs that would bear the constant pressure of the bar-
178 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
slioe ; and the want of pressure on the heel, generally occa-
sioned by their use, would produce a softened and bulbous
state of the heels, that Avould of itself be an inevitable source
of lameness. Turning out to grass, after the horn is a little
grown, first with a bar-shoe, and afterwards with the shoe
fettered on one side, or with tips, will often be serviceable. A
horse that has once had corns to any considerable extent
should, at every shoeing, have the seat of corn well pared out,
and the butyr of antimony applied.
An Over-reach
Is a tread upon the heel of the corone-t of the fore foot, by
the shoe of the corresponding hind foot, and either inflicted by
the toe, or by the inner edge of the inside of the shoe.
The preventive treatment is the bevelling, or rounding ofiF of
the inside edge or rim of the hind shoes.
The cure is the cutting away of the loose parts, the applica-
tion of Friar's balsam, and protection from the dirt.
Forging, or Clicking,
" Is a singular species of over-reaching. The horse, in the
act of trotting, strikes the toes of the hind shoes against the
fore Oiae. This noise of the clicking is unpleasant, and the
trick or habit is not altogether free from danger. It is most
frequent in young horses, and is attributable to too great ac-
tivity, or length of stride in the hind legs.
Remedies. — The rider may do something by keeping the
head of the horse well up ; but the smith may eflfect more by
making the hind shoes of clicking horses short in the toe, and
having the web broad. When they are too long, they are apt
to be torn off; when too narrow, the hind foot may bruise
the sole of the fore one, or may be locked fast between the
branches of the fore shoe." — Youatt.
The Bearing Rein
Is a matter oi much controversy ; some claiming that it
should be entirely abolished, while others as strenuously con-
tend for its almost universal use. Nimrod, who is deemed
perfectly competent authority, insists on its use with fast road-
ster and coach-horses. With team-horses, it may generally
be dispensed with, and always should be in ascending hills,
as' it materially diminishes the ^ capacity for exertion. The
THE BEARING REIN.
179
Cault in its use is its excessive tightness, and when standing,
tb.e Iio;se ought nevei to be tormented with it.
Saf-ty Rein illustrated.
Directions for use of Safety Rein. — In putting on the rein
for a gig, keep the buckle to the left hand, or near side ; that
will place the loop, which is on the middle of the rein, below
the hook or head of the bridle, which prevents it from being
thrown out by the motion of the horse's head. For a pair of
horses, keep the two short chapes outmost, and the loops on the
middle downward. For saddle, keep the buckle to the left hand.
When the rein is used either for running, rearing, kicking,
or going backward, it should be applied suddenly with a strong
arm, keeping up the pressure until the horse is still ; it should
then be relieved suddenly, at the same time motioning the horse
to go on. If he is only a runaway he will obey it at once,
such horses being generally of a willing, good temper. After
the horse has been a few times firmly gripped with it, use it
occasionally, instead of the bit-rein, to stop him on ordinary
occasions ; this will remind the horse of his subjection, and will
accustom the rider or driver to the ready and accurate use of
it in case of an emergency.
The Bit
Is a frequent cause of injury to the mouth of the hors^
180
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
fretting and teasing him, and in many cases inducing perma-
nent injury and viciousness. It should never be made annoy-
ing to the horse beyond the absolute necessity for his proper
restraint.
An Unruly Stnd may be controlled
By passing the rein from the ring on the ojff-side over the
head and through the left ring. This gives a purchase to the
groom which the horse cannot resist.
Blinds
Have for a long time been fashionable, but in few cases
are necessary, while in nearly all they are decidedly injurious.
Fig.Sl
The Crib Biter.
This small instrument is
made entirely of iron, and
riveted firmly to the head-stall.
It answers the threefold pur-
pose, to prevent biting, crib-
biting, and wind-sucking. All
of the foreofoina: are bad hab-
its for horses, for which there
is no effectual cure, but in
adopting the use of the above
implement.
The Crib Biter.
The Stable
Is an important matter connected with the proper manage-
ment of horses. This should be as much as possible of a
uniform temperature, cool in summer, warm in Avinter, and al-
ways clean, dry, and well-v^entilated. But no air must be
allowed to blow directly upon the animal. The horse is a na-
tive of a warm climate, and ought to be well protected against
cold. The stable should be neither too hght nor too dark, nor
must the light ever be admitted before the eye of the horse.
For judicious and extended arrangement of stables, and man-
agement of horses, the inquhing reader is referred to Stewart' i
Stable JEconomy.
THE ASS. 181
CHAPTER VI.
THE ASS, THE MULE, AND THE COMPARATIVE LABOR
OF WORKING ANIMALS.
THE ASS
Is a native of Arabia, Persia, and the central parts of Asia
and Africa. Like the horse, he goes in troops and displays
great natural sagacity, activity, and courage. Job says, " He
scorneth the multitude of the city, neither regardeth the cry-
ing of the driver." Like the horse, too, he has from time im-
memorial been tamed, and become the faithful servant of man ;
but unlike him, he is subject to few maladies, is hardy and
enduring, and subsists and even thrives on coarse and scanty
forage. Thus Job says of his natural haunts, " Whose house
T have made the wilderness, and the harren land his dvv^ellings ;
^he range of the mountains is his pasture, and he searcheth
after every green tiling^ Xenophon, in his Anabasis, a thou-
sand years later, says of one of the Asiatic deserts through
which he passed Aviih the army of Cyrus, " that it was full of
wormwood; if any other kinds of shrubs or reeds grew there,
they had all an aromatic smell ; but no trees appeared. Of
wild creatures, the most numerous are wild asses, which our
horses sometimes chased ; but the wild asses exceeded them
much in speed,"
Varieties.
The different breeds of asses are supposed to be quite
as numerous as those of the horse. Four distinct races are
mentioned in the earliest scriptures. In modern times we find
a similar diversity. There are two kinds in Persia, the largest
a slow, heavy brute, used only for burdens ; the other smaller
and more spirited, and used for the saddle. In Egypt, a con-
siderable though less marked difference exists, those near the
Delta being inferior to those which are bred in Upper Egypt
and Nubia. In Spain, a difference in size and spirit prevailsg
greater even tha?i in Persia.
16
182 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
The Zebra is nearly allied in size, shape, and character to
the wild ass, but his untameable ferocity has hitherto effectually
bid defiance, alike to the scourges and caresses, the frowns and
the favors of man.
Arabia produces some of the most spirited and hardy asses,
but their size, hke that of their horses, is too small for pur-
poses of the greatest utility. The Maltese Jack is by American
breeders deemed the choicest animal from which to propagate.
He is evidently of Arabian descent, and possesses all the good
qualities of his ancestry, with considerable additional size.
We have several vaiieties, all of which are imported, as
there are no natives of the Western Continent. The early im-
portations were principally made from the Azores, and Cape
de Verd Islands, and were mostly of an inferior character. A
superior Maltese Jack was presented to Gen. Washington, in
1787, by La Fayette, and is believed to be the first ever sent
to this country. Mr. Custis describes him as of moderate
size, clean-limbed, possessing great activitj^, the fire and
ferocity of a tiger, of a dark brown and nearly black, with white
belly and muzzle, and manageable only by one groom, nor
then safely. He lived to a great age. His mules were all
active, spirited, and serviceable, and when from stout mares,
attained considerable size.
A Spanish Jack and Jennet were also presented to Washing-
ton about the same time, by the King of Spain. The first is
characterized by the same authority, as a huge, ill-shapen
animal, nearly 16 hands high, very large head, clumsy limbs,
and to all appearance little calculated for active service ; he
was of a gray color, and not much valued for his mules,
which were unwieldy and dull. From the Maltese Jack
and Spanish Jennet, which approach the size of the large
Spanish Jack, was bred a valuable animal, Compound, which
partook of all the good qualities of the sire, Avith the weight
of the dam. From him descended many of the best mules of
Mount Vernon.
Many other valuable importations followed these animals,
and it is beheved we have for many years had as fine speci-
mens of the ass as the world affords.
Jennets, or she-asses, are used among us principally for
breeding Jacks, and of course are not numerous. They are
sometimes, though seldom, bred to the horse. It is difficult
to induce the horse to notice them, and the produce, which is
called a hinni/, is less hardy and useful tlian the mule. The
milk of the she-ass is lighter and more digestible than that
THE MULE. 183
of any other animal, and in former times was in great request
for invalids.
The ass is occasionally used in the cart, or as a beast of
burden. Such as are employed for these purposes are
generally of an inferior kind, and are only used for the lightest
work. They may sometimes be seen among the fishmongers
and small vegetable dealers about our city markets, but little
larger than a Newfoundland dog or Shetland pony, trundling
along a light cart with a wheelbarrow load. In ancient times
they have been, and in foreign countries — even at the present
time, they are extensively used. But the most enlightened of
the moderns have adopted the mule as the proper and almost
exclusive substitute for the ass; and it would show a still
greater intelligence and economy, if it much more extensively
took the place of the horse.
THE MULE
Is the hybrid produced by the ass with the mare. How
early this animal was bred, is uncertain, but we know he was
irvhigh repute in the reign of David, near 3,000 years ago, for
he Avas rode by Absalom, the favorite prince of Israel, on the
field of battle. They have from time immemorial been bred
in various parts of the East, on the borders of the Mediterra-
nean, and throughout Spain, Portugal, and other countries,
many of them being of splendid appearance and of fine quali-
ties. In these countries, they are frequently used by the
grandees and nobles, and indeed by royalty itself; and how-
ever much they may be undervalued elsewhere, when they
are finely bred and trained, and richly caparisoned, they ex-
hibit a stateliness and bearing, that few of the highest bred
horses can match.
Breeding Mules in the United States,
Was commenced with much spirit in some of the Kew
England states, soon after the American revolution. The
object was not to breed them for their own use, but only as
an article of commerce. They were at first shipped exclusively
to the West Indies ; and aftv^rwards to the South and West,
for employment in the various work of the plantation. In-
different animals, both as sires and dams, were used at first,
as a»Y thing which bose the name of mule, then commanded a
184 D031ESTIC ANIMALS.
ready sale. The progeny were necessarily inferior brutes, and
viewed with almost universal derision ; and being considered
the type of their race, a prejudice was excited against them,
which more than half a century has not been sufficient to
dispel.
Among a few thinking men at the I^Torth, they have been
adopted and made hig-hly useful in the various duties of the
farm. They have been largely introduced at the South and
West, but principally in the slave states, where the manage-
ment of the team devolves upon the ignorant and heedless.
It is there, and in other and hotter climates, that the superior
merits of the mule over the horse as a laboring animal, are
peculiarly manifest. In many instances they are indiflferently
fed, hardly worked, and greatly neglected by their drivers ;
yet they sustain themselves for years, in defiance of usage that
would annihilate two generations of horses. Their powers
have been largely increased and their merits improved, by the
introduction of some of the best Maltese and Spanish Jacks,
and the use of large, blood mares. The propriety of this
course is seen in the value of the product ; for while some of
the inferior' are unsaleable at $50, others of the same age, and
reared under the same circumstances of keep and condition,
could not be purchased for $150.
The Breeding, Rearing, and Management of Ulules
Is similar to that of colts. They will be found, equally with
horses, to repay generous keep and attention, by their in-
creased and rapid growth. But they should not be pampered
by high feed, as it not only has a tendency to produce disease,
but to form habits of fastidiousness, which materially lessens
their economical feeding in after life. The diseases to which
mules are subjected, (which are always few, and if properly
managed will seldom or ever occur,) require a treatment like
that of horses.
The hreeding from mules has sometimes been questioned,
but it has been demonstrated in several instances. Neither
the sexual development nor propensities are vfanting, but they
are seldom indulged with effect. Mr. Kilby, of Virginia, states
in the Farmer's Register, that a mare mule brought two colts
from a young horse, which they closely resembled. The first
was a male, and died, apparently with staggers, which no
treatment could arrest, at six months old. The second was a
fenaale, 16 months vounger than the first, marked like the
ADVANTAGES OF MULE OVER HORSE L VBOR. 185
sire, being jet-black, excepting a white foot and star in tbe
forehead, and died at a year old, after two days' illness, not-
withstanding the utmost care was bestowed upon it. Suc-
cessful propagation of this hybrid, however, beyond the first
cross, seems to be incompatible with the fixed laws of nature.
With a view of encouraging the substitution of mules for
a part of the horses now employed in American husbandry,
we give the following testimony from experienced individuals,
of great intelhgence and careful observation.
ADVANTAGES OF MULE OVER HORSE LABOR.
The official report of an agricultural committee in South
Carohna, in 1824, says : — " The annual expense of keeping a
horse is equal to his value. A horse at four years old would
not often bring more than his cost. Two mules can be raised
at less expense than one horse. The mule is fit for service
earlier, and if of sufficient size, will perform as much labor as
the horse ; and if attended to when first put to work, his gait
and habits may be formed to suit the owner."
Mr. Pomeroy, who used them near Boston for 30 years,
and to such an extent as to have had more labor performed
by them probably than any person in 'New England, says : —
" I am convinced the small breed of mules will consume less
in proportion to the labor they are capable of performing than
the larger race, but I shall confine myself to the latter in my
comparison, such as stand 14^ to 16 hands, and are capable
of performing any work a horse is usually put to. From re-
peated experiments, I have found that three mules of this
description, which were constantly at work, consumed about
the same quantity of hay, and only one-fourth the provender,
which was given to two middling-size coach-horses, only
moderately worked. I am satisfied a large-sized mule will not
consume more than three-fifths to two-thirds the fo^d to keep
him in good order, that will be necessary for a horse perform-
ing the same labor. The expense of shoeing a mule the year
round, does not exceed one-tliird that of the horse, his hoofs
being harder, more horny, and so slow in their growth, that
shoes require no removal, and hold on till worn out ; and the
wear from the lightness of the animal is much less.
Mules have been lost by feeding on cut straw and corn
meal ; in no other instance have I known disease in them, ex-
cept by inflammation of the intestines, caused bv the grossest
16*
186 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
exposure to cold and wet, and excessive drinking cold water,
after severe labor, and while in a high state of perspira-
tion. It is not improbable a farmer may work the same team
of mules for twenty years, without having a farrier's bill pre-
sented to him.
In my experience of thirty years, I have never found but
one mule inclined to be vicious, and he might have been easily
subdued while young. I have always found them truer pullers
and quicker travellers, with a load, than horses. Their vision
and hearing are much more accurate. I have used them in
my family carriage, in a gig, and under the saddle ; and have
never known one to start or run from any object or noise, a
fault in the horse, that continually causes the maiming and
death of numerous human beings.
The mule is more steady in his draught, and less likely to
waste his strength than the horse, hence more suitable to
work with oxen ; and as he walks faster, he will habituate them
to a faster gait. In plowing among crops, his feet being small
and following each other so much more in a line, he seldom
treads down the ridges or crops. The facilit}^ of instructing
him to obey imphcitly the voice of the driver is astonishing.
The best plowed tillage land I ever saw, I have had perform-
ed by two mules tandem, without lines or driver. The mule
is capable of enduring labor in a temperature of heat that
would be destructive to a horse.
Although a large mule will consume something over one-
half the food of a horse, yet the saving in shoeing, farrying,
and insurance against diseases and accidents, will amount to at
least one-half. In addition, the owner may rely with tolerable
certainty on the continuance of his mule capital for thirty
years ; whereas the horse owner must, at the end of' fifteen
years, look to his crops, his acres, or a bank for the renewal
of his. The longevity of a mule is so proverbial, that a pur-
cha»ser seldom inquires his age. Pliny mentions one 80 years
old ; and Dr. Rees, two in England, that reached the age of
10. I saw one performing his labor in a cane-mill in the
West Indies, which the owner assured me was 40 years old.
I have now a mare-mule 25 years old, that I have had in con-
stant work for 21 years. She has often within a year taken a
ton weight in a wagon to Boston, five miles, and manifests no
diminution of her powers. A neighbor has one 28 years old,
which he would not exchange for any horse in the country.
One iu Maryland, 35 years old, is now as capable of labor as
at any f )rmer period."
ADVANTAGES OF MULE OVER IIORSE LABOR. 187
Mr. Hood of Maryland, in the American Farmer, estimates
the annual expense of a horse for 12 months, at $44, and
that of a mule at $22, just half price, and his working age at
more than twice that of the horse, and that too after 30 yeais'
experience in keeping both.
A correspondent of the Baltimore Patriot, asserts that
** Col. John E. Howard had a pair of mules that worked 30
years, after which they were sold to a carter in the city, and
performed hard service for several years longer. Many mules
25 years old, and now in this country, perform well. Many
have been at hard work for 12 or 15 years, and would now
sell for $100 each. They are not subject to the colt's ail-
ments, the glanders, heaves, yellow-water, and colic, like
horses ; and seldom are afflicted with spavin, ringbones, or
bots ; and they will not founder."
General Shelby says, "he has known mules to travel 12
miles within the hour in light harness, and has himself driven
a pair 45 miles in six hours, stopping an hour by the way."
Four match mules have been sold in this country for $1,000.
They were of course superior animals, and made elegant
coach-horses. These animals were driven 80 miles in a day
without injury; and they proved a first-rate team for many
years.
Mr. Ellicott, of the Patuxent Furnaces, asserts that, " out
of about 100 mules at the works, we have not lost on an
average one in two years. Bleeding at the mouth will cure
them of nearly every disease, and by being turned out on
pasture, they will recover from almost every accident. I do
not recollect we have ever had a wind-broken one. They
are scarcely ever defective in the hoof, and though kept
shod, it is not as important as with the horse. Their skin is
tougher than that of the horse, consequently they are not as
much worried by flies, nor do they suffer so much with the
heat of summer."
To the foregoing testimony may be added that of the late
Judge Hinckley of Massachusetts ; a shrewd and close ob-
server through a long life of 84 years. He bred mules at an
early day, and always kept a team of them for his farm work,
much preferring them to horses for this purpose, after an ex-
perience of 50 years. He had a pair nearly 30 years old,
which, with light pasturage in summer, and with a moderate
supply of hay with little grain in winter, and no grooming,
performed all the drudgery, though he kept his stable fuU of
horses besides. They outlived successive generations of
188 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
horses, and though the latter were often sick and out of con-
dition, the mules never were. One frorn his stock, 4 5 years
old, was sold for the same price paid for a lot of young
mules, being at that mature age perfectly able to perform his
full share of labor.
For the caravans that pass over the almost inaccessible
ranges which form the continuation of the Rocky Mountains,
and the extensive arid plains that lie between and west of
them, on the route from Santa Fe to California, mules are the
only beasts of burden used in these exhausting and perilous
adventures. Their value may be estimated from the compar-
ative prices of mules and horses ; for while a good horse may
be bought for $10 to $20, a good mule is worth $50 to $75.
Dr. Lyman, who recently passed through those regions, in-
brms us that their caravan left Santa Fe with about 150 mules,
15 or 20 horses, all beasts of burden, and two choice blood-
norses, which were led and treated with peculiar care. On
the route, all the working-horses died from exhaustion and suf-
fering ; the two bloods that had been so carefully attended,
but just survived ; yet of the whole number of mules but 8
or 10 gave out. A mule 36 years of age was as stronp;, en-
during, and performed as hard labor, as any one in the Dara-
van. When thirst compelled them to resort for successive
days to the saline waters, which are the only ones fmiiished
by those sterile plains, the horses were at once severely, and
not unfrequently fatally affected ; while the mules, though suf-
fering greatly from the change, yet seldom were so much in-
jured as to require any remission of their labor.
The mules sent to the Mexican possessions from our west-
ern states, Missouri, Tennessee, and Kentucky, are considered
of much more value than such as are bred from the native
(usually wild) mares. The difference probably arises, in part,
from the ]\Iexicans using jacks so inferior to most of the stock
animals used by the citizens of those states.
Mare mules are estimated in those regions at one -third more
than horse mules. The reason assigned for this is, that after
a day's journey of excessive fatigue, there is a larger quantity
of blood secreted in the bladder, which the female, owing to
her larger passage, voids at once, and without much apparent
suffering, while the male does not get rid of it, frequently, till
after an hour of considerable pain. The effect of this diflfer-
ence is seen in the loss of flesh and strength m the male to aa
extent far beyond that of the female.
■ The method of reducing refractory imdes in the northern Hex-
THE MULE. I 89
ican possessions, is for the person to grasp theni firmly by the
ears, while another whips them severely on the fore-legs and
belly.
Estimated annual saving to Hie United States from the em-
'ployment of mules in the 'place of horses. — To sum up the ad-
vantages of working mules over horses, we shall have as
advantages: 1. They are m'ore easily, surely, and cheaply
raised. 2. They are maintained, after commencing work, for
much less than the cost of keeping horses. 3. They are not
subject to many of the diseases of the horse, and to others
only in a mitigated degree, and even these are easily cured in
the mule. 4. They attain a greater age, and their average
working years are probably twice that of the horse.
In 1840, there were reported to' be 4,335,669 horses and
mules in the Union, no discrimination having been made be-
tween them. Suppose the total number at tlie present time is
4,650,000, and that of these 650,000 are mules. If we de-
duct one-fourth, supposed to be required for the purposes of
breed, fancy-horses, &c., we shall have 3,000,000 horses,
whose places may be equally well supplied by the same num-
ber of mules. We have seen tliat Mr. Hood, of Maryland,
estimates the expense of a working horse at $44 per annum,
(not an over estimate for the Atlantic states,) while that of the
mule is |22. The difference is $22, which it is proper to re-
duce to meet the much lower rate of keeping at the West. If
we put the difference at $10, we shall find the saving in the
keep, shoeing, farriery, &c., by substituting mules for the
3,000,000 horses that can be dispensed with, will be $30,000,000
per annum. But this is not all.
The working age of the horse will not exceed an average of
eight years, while that of the mule is probably over sixteen.
To the difference of keep, then, must be added the annual
waste of the capital invested in the animal. A mule is more
cheaply raised to working age than a horse, but allowing them
to cost equally, we shall have the horse exhausting one- eighth
of his capital annually for his decay, when the mule is using
up but one-sixteenth ; and if we allow $48 as the first cost of
both animals, we shall find the horse wasting $6 annually for
this item, while the mule deteriorates but $3, making an addi-
tional item of $9,000,000. This will give an aggregate of
^39,000,000, as the annual saving to the United States by
substituting good mules for three-fourths of the horses now
used in this country. When will our farmers have the good
sense to make this change ? It may be fairly answered, when
190 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
they shall prefer utility, interest, and a just taste, to a dis-
eased fancy ; for though we admit the superiority in apjiear-
ance of the race of horses over mules, we deny that a bad
horse looks better or even as well as a good mule ; and with
the same keep and attention, a good mule will outwork and
outlook most horses of any breed.
The comparative Economy of Horse and Ox Labor.
This is a question which has been often discussed, and when
with candor, the conclusion has generally been in favor of ox-
labor. The different employments, the variety of situation,
the season, and the kind of stock reared on the farm, are all
questions which should be fully considered in arriving at their
true comparative advantages. Most farmers would find it for
their interest to keep teams of each, where there is employ-
ment for more than one ; or if this be not the case, the pref-
erence should be given to that which is best suited in all re-
spects to their particular position.
If work upon the road is required, a horse team will gener>
ally be best. Their superiority will consist principally in their
greater speed ; for even vv^ith a heavy load, they will be able to
trot occasionally, and when driven without it, they may in-
crease their pace to nearly double the natural gait of the ox.
This will amount to a large annual saving in the time of the
driver when steadily employed. The same is true when re-
moving manures or crops on the farm to remote distances,
over a smooth surface, which admits of trotting with the empty
wagon. Harrowing ought always to be done with a quick
team, as a violent stroke of the teeth breaks the clods and
pulverizes the earth much better than when slowly dragged.
But we should assume in this comparison, that oxen shall
not only be well adapted to their work by their natural for-
mation, like the Hereford, the Devon, and otliers equally good,
but also that they be Avell trained, well managed, accustomed
to quick movements, and as well fed and looked after as
horses. We shall then find their Ava!k equal to a quick horse
team, and that in this case the horse will have no advantage
over the ox in harrowing,. For plowing, the teams are on a
par, as a good ox team will do as much in a day in cool
weather as horses.
The situation of the farm may materially affect this estimate.
In a warm climate, horses, and more especially mules, would
be more serviceable than oxen, as they are capable of enduring
COMPARATIVE EC JNOMY OF HORSE AND OX LABOR. 191
much greater heat with impunity. If the farm be small and
convenient to market, the labor may, in general, be best ac-
complished by oxen, as little travelling will be required. So,
too, if the land be stony or rough, the plowing and harrow-
ing will be more kindly and patiently done by oxen than by
spirited horses. Other considerations will suggest themselves
as affecting the comparative economy of this labor.
The time ofivorl: is to be fully considered. If much and heavy
work be required in summer, as is often the case in plowing
extensive wheat farms, horses are to be preferred ; yet if the
ox-team be started at early dawn, and worked briskly four or
j5ve hours, and then turned out to rest with a supply of suit-
able food, they may again commence when the extreme heat
has abated, and accomplish a day's work that few horses will
exceed. During the season of muddy roads, the horse, with
his broad, compact foot, and longer leg, has a decided advan-
tage over the ox. If the ox drav/s by the yoke, (which on the
whole is the best mode,) he is hable to a sore neck when work-
ing in wet or snowy weather, and at such times he is over-
matched by his competitor.
The kind of stock raised on the farm has an important bear-
ing on this question. Some farms are devoted to rearing
horses, and some exclusively to rearing cattle. These occa-
sionally remain on hand after the^/ are fit for market, from the
want of a profitable demand. They can then be employed
not only without injury, but in consequence of the thorough
training thus secured, with positive benefit to their future value.
Even if intended for the shambles, the well- developed ox
may advantageously be put to light work at three, after which
it may be gradually increased till he is six or eight, and during
all this time he will be improving. After doing an early
spring's work, he n ly then be turned on to good pasture, and
if followed with proper stall-feeding, he will in tlie latter part
of the winter or spring yield a tender, better-flavored, and
more profitable carcass, than can be procured by any other
mode of fattening.
The first cost of oxen is less than that of horses, and they
are at all times cheaply reared on the coarser herbage of the
farm. The expense of working-gear, tackle, and shoeing, is
much less than with horses. They are subject to fewer dis-
eases, and these are more Avithin the reach of ordinary medi-
cines. The cost of food is also less, and while the horse is
depreciating, the ox is increasing in value till eight or nin«
years oM.
192 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Accidents are less frequent with oxen, from their slower
movements ; and when they occur, the ox may be turned out
to fatten, and still be worth as much for this purpose as for
the yoke. A permanent injury to the horse is perhaps a total
loss of the beast, with a large farrier's bill in addition, for
which there is nothing to liquidate it but the hide.
The small farmer can make out a most ser^•iceable team, by
putting a single horse before a yoke of cattle. If well trained,
they will soon accommodate themselves to each other's pace,
and work as advantageously together as an entire team of either
class would do alone.
Bulls are frequently put to the draught, and when they
have not other services that fully test their powers, they can-
not be better employed. Heifers and cows are sometimes
worked, but hitherto they have not been used to any extent in
this country. In the absence of other animals, they might
perform light work to advantage, but severe labor would stint
their growth or impair their milk beyond the benefit derived
from it. The simyed heifer is an exception to the foregoing
remark, and by many is esteemed even more useful than an
ox of equal weight.
We have no definite statements of the comparative money
value of the labor of oxen and horses. But in England re-
peated trials have been made, and while some have discovered
no advantage in the employment of oxen over horses, others
have proved them decidedly superior. One Anglesey farmer
found in an experience of three years, with 12 horses and 20
oxen, which accomplished an equal amount of work, that he
had saved by the latter, $1150.
The foregoing facts prove the subject to be one of sufficient
importance, to justify the closest investigation of every farmer
to determine for himself the comparative value of ox, horse, or
mule labor.
CHAPTER VII.
SWINE.
The hog is a cosmopolite of almost every zone, though his
natural haunts, like those of the hippopotamus, the elephant,
the rhinoceros, and most of the thick-skinned animals, are
SWINE.
103
in warm climates. They are most abundant in China, the
East Indies, and the immense range of islands which extends
over the whole Southern and Pacific Oceans; but they are
also numerous throughout Europe, from its southern coast to
the Russian dominions within the Arctic.
Fig. 32.
The Wild Boar.
In the United States, swine have been an object of attention
since its earliest settlement, and whenever a profitable market
could be found for pork abroad, it has been exported to the
full extent of the demand. For near twenty years following
the commencement of the general European wars, soon after the
organization of our national government, it was a comparatively
large article of commerce ; but from that time, exports have
not been justified to any extent, till within the last two years,
since which, a material reduction in the British import duty on
pork, lard, and hams, has again brought it up as a prominent
article of trade with that country. The recent use which has
been' made of the carcass in converting it into lard-oil, has
still further increased its consumption.
S .'.ne are reared in every part of the Union, and when
17
194 DOMESTIC ANI-MALS.
properly managed, always at a fair profit. At the extreme
North ; in the neighborhood of large markets ; and on such
of the Southern plantations as are particularly suited to sugar
or rice, they should not be raised beyond the number required
for the consumption of the coarse or refuse food produced.
Swine are advantageously kept in connection with a dairy or
orchard, as with little additional food besides what is thus
afforded, they can be put into good condition for the butcher.
But it is on the rich bottoms and other lands of the West,
where Indian corn is raised in profusion, and at small expense,
that they can be reared in the greatest numbers and yield the
largest profit. The Sciota, Miami, Wabash, Illinois, and other
valleys, and extensive tracts in Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri,
and some adjoining states, have for many years taken the lead
in the production of swine ; and it is probable the climate and
soil, which are peculiarly suited to their rapid growth, as well
as that of their appropriate food, will enable them forever to
remain the leading pork-producers of the North American
continent.
Breeds of Swine.
The breeds cultivated in this country are numerous, and like
our native cattle, they embrace many of tlie best, and a few
of the worst to be found among the species. Great attention
has for many years been paid to their improvement in the
Eastern states, and nowhere are there better specimens than in
many of their yards. This spirit has rapidly extended West
and South ; and among most of the intelligent farmers who
make them a leading object of attention, on their rich corn
grounds, swine have attained a high degree of excellence.
This does not consist in .he introduction and perpetuity of
any distinct races, so much as in the breeding up to a desirable
size and aptitude for fattening, from such meritorious individu-
als of any breed, or their crosses, as come within their reach.
Fig. 33, represents an English breed of hogs, a century or
more ago : though coarse and slouch-eared, it is yet the por-
trait of a tolerable hog, and far before many of the swine that
still maintain their ascendency in various parts of the European
continent. This breed is nearly extinct, having been crossed
successively by the Chinese and other good breeds, thus di-
minishing the size and materially improving its thrift and ten-
dency to fattening. We hav3 few such animals in the United
States, though we have man; that are worse.
BREEDS QF SWINE.
195
Fi>. 33.
— — £^ oris srf-ciHOM. ^
Old Enalish Hoff.
The Byefield, some 30 yeai's ago, was a valuable hog in tlie
Eastern states, and did much good among the species gen-
erally. They are white, ^vith fine cuily hair, well made and
compact, moderate in size and length, with broad backs, and
at 15 months attaining some 300 to 350 lbs. net.
The Bedford or Wobuni is a breed originating with the
Duke of Bedford, on his estate at Woburn, and brought to
their perfection, probably, by judicious crosses of the China
hog, on some of the best English swine. A pair was sent by
the duke to this country, as a present to Gen. Washington,
but they were dishonestly sold by the messenger in Maryland,
in which state and Pennsylvania they were productive of much
good at an early day, by their extensive distribution through
different states. Several other importations of this breed have
been made at various times, and especially by the spirited
masters of the Liverpool packet ships, in the neighborhood of
New York. They are a large, spotted animal, well made, and
inclining to early maturity and fattening. They are an ex*
196
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
ceedingly valuable hog, but are nearly extinct both in England
?nd this country, as a breed.
The Leicesters are a large, white hog, generally coarse in the
bone and hair, great eaters, and slow in maturing. Some
varieties of this breed differ essentially in these particulars,
and mature early on a moderate amount of food. The crosses
with smaller compact breeds, are generally thrifty, desirable
animals. Other large breeds deserving commendation in this
country, are the large Miami white, the Yorkshire white, and
the Kenilworth, each frequently attaining, when dressed, a
weight of 600 to 800 lbs.
Fig. 34.
China Hog.
The Chinese is among the smaller varieties, and without
doubt is the parent stock of the best Emopean aiid American
swine. They necessarily vary in appearance, size, shape, and
color, from the diversity in the style of breeding, and the
various regions from which they are derived.
The Fig. represents the pure China pig, and is a striking
likeness of many of the imported and their immediate descend-
ants that we have seen in this country. They are too small
»n animal for general use, and require to be mixed with larger
BREEDS OF SWINE.
197
breeds to produce the most profitable carcass for the market.
For the purpose of refinmg the coarse breeds, no animal has
ever been so successful as this. They are fine-boned, short,
and very compact, with bellies almost touching the ground,
light head and ears, fine muzzle, of great docility and quiet-
ness, small feeders, and producing much meat for the quantity
of food consumed.
From the rapidity with which generations of this animal are
multiphed, the variety of other bieeds on which they are
crossed, and the treatment to which they are subjected, it is
not surprising that their descendants should rapidly assume
distinct features. They furnish not only a strong dash of
blood in the best class of large breeds, but in such of the
smaller as have any pretensions to merit, they constitute the
greater part of the improvement. Such are the Neapolitan,
the Essex half -blade, the Grass breed, and some others.
Fig. 35.
Berkshire Hog.
The Berkshires are an ancient English breed, formerly of
large size, slow feeders, and late in maturing. Their color
was a buff or sandy ground, with large black spots, an* 'the
feet, 'ower part of the legs, and tuft on the tad, buff. The
198 DOMESTIC ANIMALS^
latter color lias giveji place, in most of the modem ace, to
white in the same }>arts. This variation, with the more im-
portant ones of early maturity and good feeding-properties,
are by Professor Low ascribed to a Chinese cross, which
has added the only characteristic in which they were before
deficient.
They were first introduced and reared as a distinct breed in
this country by Mr. Brentnall, of Orange Co., and Mr. Hawes,
of Albany, N. York. In their hands, and those of other skil-
ful breeders, their merits were widely promulgated. No other
breeds have been so extensively diffused in the United States,
within comparatively so brief a period, as the Berkshires, since
1832, and they have produced a marked improvement in many
of our former races.
They' weigh variously, from 250 to 400 lbs. net, at 16
months, according to their food and style of breeding ; and
some full-grown have dressed to more than 800 lbs. They
particularly excel in their hams, which are round, full, and
heavy, and contain a large proportion of lean, tender, and
juicy meat, of tlie best flavor.
None of our improved breeds afford long, coarse hair or
bristles ; and it is a gratifying evidence of our decided im-
provement in this department of domestic animals, that our
brush-makers are under the necessity of importing most of
what they use from Russia and northern Europe. This im-
provement is manifest not only in the hair, but in the skin,
which is soft and mellow to the touch ; in the finer bones,
shorter head, upright ears, dishing face, delicate muzzle, and
mild eye ; and in the short legs, low flanks, deep and wide
chest, broad back, and early matmity.
Breeding.
Swine should not be allowed to breed before 12 or 15
months old, unless the animals are large and coarse, when
they may be put to it somewhat younger. Not only choice
individuals, but such as are well descended, should be selected
for the purpose of breeding. The sow should be in good con-
dition, but not fat, nor approaching to it ; and a proper degree
of exercise is essential to the development of the foetus and the
health of the parent ; for v/hich reason, she should have an
extended range connected with her pen.
The sow goes with young about 114' days. A week before
he" time comes r>und, a comfortable, quiet place should be
MANAGEMENT AND FATTENING. 199
prepared for her under cover, and well-protected from cold,
if the weather be severe ; or if warm, a range in a pasture
with an open shed to r\ tire to, is sufficient. Too much litter
for bedding must be avoided, and no change or disturbance of
the sow permitted, till two or three weeks after pigging, as
the restlessness thereby produced may result in the loss of
the pigs. The sow should be fed only with a small quantity
of the lightest food or thin gruel, for two or three days, nor
put on full feed for a week. If inclined to eat her pigs, she
should be fed two or three times with raw pork or fresh meat.
The pigs may be taught to crack oats or soaked corn after
three weeks, and if provided with a trough inaccessible to the
dam, they will soon learn to feed on milk and other food, pre-
paratory to weaning. This may take place when they are 8
or 10 weeks old ; and to prevent injury to the sow, let one or
two remain with her a few days longer, and when finally re-
moved, if her bag appears to be full, they may be allowed to
drain the milk after 20 or 30 hours. The sow should be re-
stricted to a light, dry diet for a few days at this ^^eriod.
Management and Fattening.
There are but two objects in keeping swine, for breeding
and for slaughter, and their management is consequently sim-
ple. Those designed for breeding, should be kept in growing
condition, on light food, and have every advantage for exer-
cise. Such as are destined exclusively for fattening, ought to
be steadily kept to the object.
It is the usual, though a bad practice in this country, to let
spring pigs run at large for the first 15 months, with such food
as is convenient ; and if fed at all, it is only to keep them in
moderate growth till the second autumn. They are then put
up to fatten, and in the course of 60 or 90 days are fed off
and slaughtered. Duiing this brief period, they gain from 50
to 100 per cent, more of dressed weight, than in the 15 or 18
months preceding : nor even then do they yield a greater
average weight than is often attained by choice, thrifty pigs,
whicli have been well-fed from weaning' to the age of 8 or 9
months.
Three pigs of the Bedford breed, when precisely 7 J months
old, dressed 230, 235, and 238i lbs. Two of the Berkshire
and Leicestoi breeds, at 9 months, dressed 304 and 310 lbs.
Three others )f the Berkshire and Grass breeds, 7 months and
27 days old weighed 240, 250, and 251 lbs. net. Innuine-
200 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
rable instances could be adduced of similar freights, gained
within the same time, with a good breed of animals under ju-
dicious treatment. We have no one accurate account of the
food consumed, so as to determine the relative profit of short
or long feeding. But that an animal must consume much
more in 18 or 20 months to produce the same quantity of
dressed meat, which is made by others of 8 or 9 months, does
not admit of a doubt.
We have seen that an ox requires but little more than double
the quantity of food to fatten, that is necessary for supporting
existence. If we apply this principle to swine, and state the
quantity of food which will fatten the pig rapidly, to be three
times as great as for the support of life, we shall find that the
pig will fatten in 7 months, on the same food he would con-
sume to kerp him alive for 21. This is based on the supposi-
tion that joth animals are of equal size. But the pig that
matures and is slaughtered at T months, has only a moderate
capacity for eating. During the early stages of his growth,
his size and the consequent incapacity of the digestive organs,
prevent thr consumption of the same quantity which the larger
animal requires ; and his accumulating fat, his limited respira-
tion, consequent upon the compression of his lungs, and his
indisposition to exercise, all conspire to keep the consumption
of food Avithin the smallest possible limit. This result, in the
absence of any experiment, must be conjectural entirely ; but
we believe that experiments wall show, that of two thrifty
pigs from the same litter, one of which is properly fed to his
utra ost capacity for 7 months, and the other fed with precisely
double the quantity of similar food for 21 months, the first
Avill yield more carcass and of a better and more profitable
quality than the latter, which has consumed 100 per cent, the
most.
The food is only one item in this calculation. The oldest re-
quires the most attention, is liable to more accidents and dis-
ease, besides the loss of interest. We are necessarily forced to
the conclusion, that by far the cheapest mode of wintering pigs
is in the pork-barrel. We can readily anticipate one objection
to this practice, which is the want of food at the requisite
season of the year to fatten them. This can be obviated, by
reserving enough of the previous year's grain, to keep the
animal in a rapidly thriving state, till the next crop matures
sufficiently to feed.
In the rich corn regions, on its beginning to ripen, as it
does in August, the fields are fenced ofi" into suitable lots, and
MANAGEMENT AND FATTENING. 201
large herds are successively turned into tliem, to consume tlie
grain at their leisure. Tliey waste nothing except the stalks,
which in that region of plenty are considered of little value,
and they are still useful as manure for succeeding crops ; and
whatever grain is left by them, leaner droves which follow,
will readily glean. Peas, early buckwheat, and apples, may
be fed on the ground in the same way.
There is an improvement in the character of the grain from
a few months' keeping, which is fully equivalent to the interest
of the money and cost of storage. If fattened early in the
season, they will consume less food to make an equal amount
of flesh than in colder weather ; they will require less atten-
tion ; and generally, early pork vfill command the highest pric e
in market.
It is most economical, to provide the swine with a fine
clover pasture to run in during the spring and summer ; and
they ought also to have access to the orchard, to pick up all
the unripe and superfluous fruit that falls. They should also
have the wash of the house and the dairy, to which add meal,
and sour in large tubs or barrels. Not less than one-third,
and perhaps more, of the whole grain fed to swine, is saved
by grinding and cooking or souring. Yet care must be ob-
served that the souring be not carried so far as to injure
the food by putrefaction. A mixture of meal and water,
with the addition of yeast or such remains of a former
fermentation as adhere to the side or bottom of the vessel,
and exposure to a temperature between 68° and 77° will
produce immediate fermentation.
In this process there are five stages. The saccharine, by
which the starch and gum of the vegetables, in their natural
condition, are converted into sugar ; the vinous, which changes
the sugar into alcohol ; the mucilaginous, sometimes taking
the place of the vinous, and occurring when the sugar solution,
or fermenting principle is weak, producing a slimy, glutinous
product ; the acetic, forming vinegar, from the vinous or alco-
holic stage ; and the ])utrefa.ctive, which destroys aU the
nutritive principles and converts them into a poison. The
precise point in fermentation when the food becomes most
profitable for feeding, has not yet been satisfactorily deter-
mined ; but that it should stop short of the putrefactive, and
probably the full maturity of the acetic, is certain.
The roots for fattening animals ought to be washed, and
steamed or boiled; and when not intended to be fermented,
the meal may be scalded with the roots. A small quantity of
202 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
salt sliould be added. Potatoes are the best roots for swine ;
then parsnips ; orange or red carrots, white or Belgian ;
sugar beets ; mangel-wurzel ; ruta-bagas ; and the white tur-
nips, in the order mentioned. The nutritive properties of tur-
nips are diffused through so large a bulk, that we doubt
if the J can ever be fed to fattening swine with advantage;
and they will barely sustain lif( when fed to them uncooked.
There is a great loss in feeding roots to fattening swine,
without cooking. When unprepared grain is fed, it should be
on a full stomach, to prevent imperfect mastication, and con-
sequent loss of the food. It is better indeed to have it always
before them. The animal machine is an expensive one to keep
in motion, and it should be the object of the farmer to put his
food in the most available condition for its immediate conver-
sion into fat and muscle.
Swine ought to be kept perfectly dry and clean, and pro-
\aded with a warm shelter, to which they can retire at pleas-
ure. This will greatly hasten the fattening and economize
the food. They thrive better and are generally less subject
to disease, v/hen long confined in yards, by having a clear run-
ning stream always accessible, to wallow in. This is one of
the best preventives of vermin and cutaneous diseases. A hog
ought to have three apartments, one each for sleeping, eating,
and evacuations, of which the last ma}^ occupy the lowest, and
the first the highest level, so that nothing shall be drained, and
as little carried into the first two as possible. They must be
regularly fed three times a day, and if there is a surplus, it
should be removed at once. If they are closely confined in
pens, give them as much charcoal twice a week as they will
eat. This corrects any tendency to disorders of the stomach.
Rotten wood is an imperfect substitute for charcoal.
Grav-es, scraps, or cracklings, as they are variously called,
the residuum of rough lard or tallow, after expressmg the fat,
are a good change and an economical food. Some animal
food, although not essential, is always acceptable to swine.
When about to finish them off, many feed for a few weeks on
hard corn. This is proper when slops or indifferent food has
been given, and rfieal cannot be conveniently procured ; but
when fattened on sound roots and meal, it is a wasteful prac-
tice, as the animal thus falls behind his accustomed growth.
It is better to give him an occasional feed of the raw gram, for
a change, and to sharpen his appetite.
The products furnished by the carcass of swine ara numerous.
Every part ^i the anima^- is used for food, and it admits of a
CURING HAMS AND PORK. 203
far greater variety of preparation for tlie table, tian any other
flesh. From the remotest antiquity to the present time, and
in every grade of barbarous and civihzed hfe, it has been es-
teemed as one of the choicest dehcacies of the epicure.
Lard-oil {oleine) has, within a few years, given to pork a
new and profitable use, by which the value of the carcass is
greatly increased. At some of the large pork-packing depots
of the West, one-third of the whole quantity has been thus dis-
posed of. This has withdrawn a large amount of pork from
the market, and prevented the depression which must other-
wise have occurred.
Where the oil is required, the whole carcass, after taking
out the hams and shoulders, is placed in a tub having two bot-
toms, the upper one perforated with holes, on which the pork
is laid, and then tightly covered. Steam, at a high tempera-
ture, is then admitted into the tub, and in a short time all the
fat is extracted and falls upon the lower bottom. The remain-
ing mass is bones and scraps. The kst is fed to pigs, poultry,
or dogs, or affords the best kind of manure. The bones are
either used for manure, or are converted into animal charcoal,
worth about three cents per pound, which is valuable for va-
rious purposes in the arts. When the object is to obtain lard
of a fine quality, the animal is first skinned, and the adhering
fat carefully scraped off. The oily, viscid matter of the skin
is thus avoided. When tanned, the skin makes a valuable
leather. An aggregate vreight of 1790 lbs. from four well-
fattened animals, after taking out the hams and shoulders, say
about 400 lbs., gave within a fraction of 1200 lbs. of the best
lard.
Stearine and Oleine. — Lard and all fatty matters consist of
three principles, of which stearine contains the stearic and
margaric acids, both of which, when separated, are solid, and
used as inferior substitutes for wax or spermaceti candles.
The other, oleine, is fluid at a low temperature, and in Ameri-
can commerce, is knov/n as lard-oil. It is very pure, and ex-
tensively used for machinery, lamps, and most of the purposes
for which olive or spermaceti oils are used.
Curing Hams and Pork.
After dressing, the carcass should be allowed to hang till
perfectly drained and cool, when it may be cut up and salted.
The usual way is to pack the pork in clean salt, adding brine
to the barrel when filled. Bu': it may be dry salted, by rub*
204 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
bing it in thoroughly on every side of each piece, with a strong
leather rubber firmly secured to the palm of the right hand.
The pieces are then thrown into heaps and sprinkled with salt,
and occasionally turned till cured ; or it may at once be pack-
ed in dry casks, which are occasionally rolled to bring the salt
into contact with every part.
Hams and Shoulders
May be cured in the same manner, either dry or in pickle,
but with diflPerently arranged materials. The following is a
good pickle for 200 lbs. Take 14 lbs. of Turk Island salt ;
^ lb. of saltpetre ; 2 qts. of molasses, or 4 lbs. of brown sugar,
with water enough to dissolve them. Bring the liquor to the
scalding point, and skim off all the impurities which rise to
the top. When cold, pour it upon the ham, which should be
perfectly cool but not frozen, and closely packed ; and if not
sufficient to cover it, add enough pure water for this purpose.
Some extensive packers in Cincinnati and elsewhere, who send
choice hams to market, add pepper, allspice, cinnamon, nut-
megs, or mace and cloves.
The hams may remain six or eight weeks in this pickle, then
hung up in the smoke-house, with the small end down, and
smoked from 10 to 20 days, according to the quantity of
smoke. The fire should not be near enough to heat the hams.
In Holland and Westphalia, the fire is made in the cellar, and
the smoke carried by a flue into a cool, dry chamber. This
is undoubtedly the best method of smoking. The hams should
at all times be dry and cool, or their flavor will sufter. Green
sugar-maple chips are best for smoke ; next to them are hick-
ory, sweet-birch, corn-cobs, white-ash, or beech.
The smoke-house is the best place to keep hams till wanted.
If removed, they should be kept cool, dry, and free from flies.
A canvass-cover for each, saturated with hme, which may be
put on ^vith a whitewash brush, is a perfect protection against
flies. When not to be kept long, they may be packed in dry
salt, or even in sweet brine, without injury. A common meth-
od is to pack in dry oats, baked sawdust, &c.
DISEASES OF SWIJSE.
Mortifying as the fact may be to human pride, it is never-
theless certain, that the mternal arrangements, the viscera,
digestive organs, omnivorous propensities, and the general
PULMONARY AFFECTIONS, ETC.
205
physiological structure of the hog and the bear, more nearly
resemble man, than any other animal. Many of their diseases
may therefore be expected to be a modification of those of the
human species, and require a similar treatment
Skeleton, of a Pig
A MaxUla inferior, vel posterior; lower jaw.— B Dentes; the teeth.— C Ossa
nasi; the nasal bones. — D Maxilla sufjerior, vel anterior; upper jaw. — E Os
frontis ; the frontal bone.— F Orbiculus ; the orbit or socket of the eye.— G Os
occipitis ; the occipital bone.— H Atlas ; the first vertebra of the neck.— I Verte-
brae colli, vel cervicales ; the vertebrte of the neck.— J Vertebrai dorsi, vel dorsa-
les ; the vertebrae of the back. — K Vertebra? luinboriim, vel lunibales ; the verte-
brae of the loins.— L Ossa coccygis ; the bones of the tail.— a Scapula; the
shoulder-blade. — b Humerus ; the round shoulder-bone. — c Sternum ; the breast-
bone.— d Ulna; the elbow. — c Radius; the bone of the fore-arm.—/ Osnavicu-
lare ; the navicular bone.— ^ Phalanges, vel ossa pedis ; the first and second bones
of the foot. — h Phalanges, vel ossa pedis ; the bones of the hoof. — i Pelvis, (ossa
Innorninata ;) the haunch bones.— j Os femoris ; the thigh-bone. — k Patella; the
stifie-bone.— Z Tibia ; the upprer bone of the leg.— ot. Tarsus, (one of which is the
(N) OS calcls ;) the hock-bones. — n Os naviculare ; the navicular bone. — o Digiti,
vel phalanges, (ossa pedis ;) the first digits of the foot. — p Digiti, vel phalanges,
(ossd pedis ;) the second digits of the foot.
Pulmonary Affections, Colds, Couglis, and Measles.
To each of these, swine are peculiarly liable, and, as with
most other evils, prevention of disease in swine is more easy
and economical than cure. A dry warm bed, free from winds
or storms, and suitable food, will most effectually prevent any
injuries, or fatal attacks. The hog has little external covering
to protect him against cold. Nature has provided this imme-
diately within the skin, in the deep layer of fat which sur-
rounds the full, plump hog. Fat is one of the best non-con-
18
206 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
ductors of lieat, and the pig which is well-fed bids defiance
to the intense cold, which would produce great suffering, and
consequent disease, in the ill-conditioned animal. By the ob-
servance of a proper medium between too much fat or lean,
for the store or breeding swine, and providing them with
comfortable beds and proper feed, nearly all diseases will be
avoided.
For Coughs and Inflammation of the Lungs, bleeding should
immediately be resorted to, after which give gentle purges of
castor oil, or Epsom salts ; and this should be followed with a
dose of antimonial powders — 2 grains, mixed with half a
drachm of nitre. '^
For Costiveness or loss of appetite, sulphur is an excellent
remedy, given in a light mess.
Itch may be cured by anointing with equal parts of lard
and brimstone. Rubbing-posts, and a running stream to wal-
low in are preventives.
The Kidney Worm is frequentl}^ fatal ; and always produces
vf eakness of the loins and hind legs, usually followed by entire
prostration. A pig thus fur gone, is hardly worth the trouble
of recovering, even where practicable.
Preventives, are general thrift, a range in a good pasture,
and a dose of half a pint of wood-ashes every week or fort-
night in their food. A small quantity of saltpetre, spirits of
turpentine, or tar, will effect the sarae object. When attacked,
apply spirits of turpenUne to the loins, and administer calomel
carefully ; or give half a tablespoonful of copperas daily for
one or tvfo weeks.
Blind Staggers.
This is generally confined to pigs, and manifests itself in
foaming at the mouth, rearing on their 'hind legs, champing
and grinding their teeth, and apparent blindness. The proper
remedies are bleeding and purging freely, and these frequently
fail. Many nostrums have been suggested, but few are of any
utility. It is important to '?.eep the issues on the inside of the
fore-legs, just below the knee, thoroughly cleansed.
The tails of young pigs frequently drop or rot off, which is
attended with no further disadvantage to the animal than the
loss of the member. The remedies are, to give a little brim-
stone or sulphur in the food of the dam ; or rub oil or grease
daily on the affected parts. It may be detected by a rough-
ness or scabbiness at the point where separa'jon is likely to
oceui
FARM-DOGS. 207
^ — The most convenient mode, is from an artery-
just above the knee, on the inside of the fore- arm. It may be
drawn more copiously from the roof of the mouth. The flow
of blood may usually be stopped, by applying a sponge or
cloth with cold water.
The diseases of swine, though not numerous, are formidable,
and many of them soon become fatal. They have not been
the subject of particular scientific study, and most of the rem-
edies applied, are rather the result of casual or hap-hazard
suggestion, than of well-digested inference, from long- continued
and accurate observation.
CHAPTER VIII,
FARM-DOGS.
No grazing farm is complete w^ithout one or more intelligent,
w ell-trained dogs, adapted to the various wants of their owners ;
and the general taste has made their presence almost universal
in every rural household. The dog is peculiarly the friend
of man. Many other animals have a temporary though feeble
attachment to him, which seems the result rather of constant
companionship, or the selfishness of dependence, than any
well-settled affection towards a master.
The dog alone, of all the brute creation, seems capable of a
disinterested, self-sacrificing affection ; and this, united with
his usefulness and adaptedness to all chmes and countries, has
made him a favorite in every quarter of the globe. Since this
animal is the habitual tenant of the farm, and, when suited to
his peculiar duties, can be made of great utility by the assist-
ance he is capable of affording in its management, we deem it
entirely appropriate to our subject to indicate such of the spe-
cies as are deserving the farmer's attention. Discarding all
ideas of fancy or sportsmanship, and looking to utility alone,
we may safely affirm that the farmer needs only such as may
be found in the four breeds of the Newfoundland, the Shep-
herd's and Drover's dog, ant the Terrier.
208 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Fig 37.
Newfoundland Dog.
The Newfoniialaad Cos
This dog, of which we give a poi trait, is always above me-
dium height, and frequently is of the largest size. He is long-
haired and shagg}^, and has a thick coat of fine, soft fur, be-
neath the outer covering, Avhich is almost impenetrable by
water. His color is most frequently black ; ofi. en spotted and
partially flecked or grayish ; and occasionally buff. The
Newfoundland is of the Spaniel family, but derives its name
from the island where it has been bred for centuries, to the
great advantage of its inhabitants. There are two varieties :
the large, used in the north, called the Labrador ; and the
smaller, more docile and intelligent, of the south, called the St.
John's. They are employed by the islanders, and the people
of the neighboiing coast, in drawing their sleds and carts load-
ed with fish, wood, &c. They aid them in various ways in
their fishing operations ; they are strong, courageous, and
watchful ; and with slight training, they are scarcely inferior
to the best hunting-dogs in pursuing the wild game that
abounds in those high northern latitudes. These estimable
qualities, coupled with their uniform good-nature, have always
made them favorites with the farmer.
The Newfoundland is an excellent watch-dog ; sagacious ia
discriminating between a friend and a foe, and with courage
209
and strength to follow out his prompt and judicious conclu-
sions. He is easily trained for the drover, to whom he is fre-
quently a great assistant ; and with a scent sufficiently acute
to pursue game, he is readily broken in as a useful companion
to the sportsman. He can also be made serviceable in the
various duties of the farm : destroying noxious vermin, taking
the cattle and horses to the field or water, drawing a light
load, churning the butter, &c. It is true, he has not all the
sagacity of the Poodle, whose intelligence approaches nearer
to human reason than any other of the brute creation. But if
he has not that quick apprehension, which too often leads, as
in the case of forward children, to the attainment of every
worthless accomplishment and the indulgence of every loafer-
ish habit, he seems to have a sedate, well-formed judgment,
which makes all his wit available for some useful purpose. He
is unsurpassed as a water-dog; and his courageous efforts,
wherever an opportunity has been afforded, in rescuing number-
less human beings from a watery grave, together with his un-
swerving fidelity and devotion, commend him as the prince of
the canine family.
The Shepherd's Dog.
This animal, of which we give a beautiful portrait on the next
page, of the long-haired Scottish breed, belongs to the same
family as the Newfoundland and Poodle, which embraces the
most intelligent and useful of the canine specie^. There are
two classes of these dogs, which differ widely in their size
and characteristics.
The larger is of great size and courage, and when protected
by a stout leather collar studded with spikes, is a full match
for the Avolf. These are used by the Spanish and Mexican
shepherds, on their wild sierras, as effective guards against the
attacks of all marauders, and are essentially the same race as
the far-famed dogs of Moimt St. Bernard. They are not suf-
ficiently gentle for guides, and the shepherds who employ
them rely on some well-trained wethers or goats to lead the
flock at their call. Some have been imported into this country,
but on account of their headstrong and ferocious character,
and occasional depredations upon the flocks, they have been
found unsuited to our wants, except on the borders of the
wilderness.
The CoUey or Scottish sheep-dog, the English, and those
extensively used upon the continent, differ much in their form
and appearance, but agree in their intelligence, docility, and
18*
210
DOMESTIC AN MAL8.
Fig. 38
Shepherd's Dog
usefulness. They are of medium size, with a sharp nose,
broad forehead, and small upright ear ; they are both shaggy
and smooth-haired, with a bushy tail, and much hair about
the neck ; variously colored, though more frequently inclined
tc black or darkly spotted and gray ; and one branch of the
family is entirely destitute of a tail. They possess an instinc-
tive sagacity for the management of sheep ; and in company
with a well-trained dog, under the direction of the shepherd,
they soon become entirely competent to the control of the
flock. They perceive his wishes by a word or sign, and with
almost the speed of the greyhound, dart off to execute them.
Accounts of their performances have been frequently related,
which seem almost incredible to those unacquainted with their
peculiar character. The following anecdote, often told by the
gifted poet, Mr. James Hogg, more generally known by the
soubriquet of the Ettrick Shepherd^ wili sho\r their capacity
mpre fully than any description.
211
*•■ On one nigbt, a large flock of lambs that were under the
Ettrick Shepherd's care, frightened by something, scampered
away in three different directions across the hills, in spite of
all that he could do to keep them together. ' Sirrah,' said the
shepherd, ' they're a' awa !' It was too dark for the dog and
his master to see each other at any considerable distance, but
Sirrah understood him, and set off after the fugitives. The
night passed on, and Hogg and his assistant traversed every
neighboring hill in anxious but fruitless search for the lambs ;
but he could hear nothing of them nor of the dog, and he was
returning to his master with the doleful intelligence that he
had lost all his lambs, * On our way home, however,' says
he, * we discovered a lot of lambs at the bottom of a deep ra-
vine called the Flesh Cleuch, and the indefatigable Sirrah
standing in front of them, looking round for some relief, but
still true to his charge. We concluded that it was one of the
divisions which Sirrah had been unable to manage, until he
came to that commanding situation. But what was our as-
tonishment when we discovered that not one lamb of the flock
was missing ! How he had got all the divisions collected in
the dark, is bej^'ond my comprehension. The charge was left
entirely to himself from midnight until the rising sun ; and, if
all the shepherds in the forest had been there to have assisted
him, they could not have effected it with greater promptitude.
All that I can say is, that I never felt so grateful to any
creature under the sun as I did to my honest Sirrah that
morning.' "
They are quiet and good-natured, never inchned to roam or
neglect their duties, and as little disposed to injure the animals
intrusted to their keeping. They have almost the intelligence
of the shepherd in discerning the vagaries of the flock, and ten
times his efficiency in driving it. No extensive sheep-walks,
unless closely hemmed in by impassable fences, should be
without one or more of these useful animals.
The Drover's Dog.
This animal is shown in the annexed figure. He is closely
allied to the sheep-dog, from which he derives all his intelK-
gence and capacity, differing only in being somewhat larger
and heavier, which is essential to his c-jntrolhng the sturdier
bullocks under his charge. His additioial size is acquired by
crossing with some of the stouter races, such as the Newfound-
land or the pointer ; and even the bull-dog and large shaggy
212
D0ME>^T1C ANIMALS.
F\s. 39.
terrier have sometimes been resorted to for a strain of that in-
domitable courage and game, which is frequently requisite to
the proper discharge of his duties. He requires more training
than the sheep-dog, as his peculiar instincts are rather to the
management of the flock than the herd ; but when fairly bro-
ken in, he is equally expert in its management. The drover's
dog may also be useful for watching, if crossed with a refer-
ence to this object, v/hich the sheep-dog seldom is.
Tlie Terrier.
This, in addition to the foregoing, is the only dog necessary
to the farm. He is needed principally for his great sagacity
and indefatigable perseverance in exterminating rats and other
vermin, that frequently congregate in swarms around the
farmer's premises, producing such an aggregate of annoyance
and devastation. Other dogs may occasionally be good rat-
ters, but the terrier takes to them from 'nstinct, as the New-
THE TERRIER. 213
foundland does to the water, or the sheep-dog to his flock.
He has great ingenuity and activity in ferreting out and cap-
turing his prey, and whenever a fair opportunity is afforded,
he seldom fails of success. The famous Enghsh temer, BUly,
on two occasions, killed 100 rats in a ring at each time, in an
average of less than six and a half minutes.
The terrier is usually below the medium size, but sometimes
fully comes up to or even exceeds it. He is smooth-haired
or rough according to the breed, of which there are several,
each claiming to be equally pure. Besides his capacity for
the destruction of small game, his innate love for the sport
renders him a valuable assistant in keeping off vagrant cattle
from the premises ; and his quick ear, habitual watchfulness,
and prompt courage, fully qualify him, to the extent of his
size, for an excellent watch-dog.
The fancy of country residents may incline them to keep a
variety of other dogs than are herein enumerated, some of
which, with good training, can be made partial assistants to
their masters. But it is unnecessary to specify the various
breeds that may possibly be of some use on the farm, as the
slight crossing they will be likely to have, equally with their
opportunities and the attention bestowed upon them, will serve
materially to develop or obscure their peculiar instincts. The
Spaniel family and its crosses will be found to combine the
greatest intelligence, fidelity, and aptitude to learn ; the hound
has the keenest scent and greatest endurance in the pursuit of
game ; while the bull- dog has the most courage, sullen fero-
city, and strength. Each may occasionally be wanted for a
strain of blood for some particular objects ; and this is espe-
cially necessary from the bull-dog in the management of re-
fractory cattle, or to give the terrier greater stoutness and
courage.
The absurd custom of keeping from one to a dozen dogs,
untrained for any valuable purpose, or supernumeraries even if
capable of rendering occasional service, ought to be abandoned
by every rational man. Besides the great annual cost, the
danger of communicating rabies or madness is sufficient to
justify a legal restraint on their numbers. The sad havoc
they commit on the flocks, demands the extermination b,y law
of every dog that is guilty, Avhether
Mongrel, puppy, whelp, or hound,
Or cur of low degree.
And even if it includes the fides A ^ates, or parlor companions,
214 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
Tray, Blanche, and Sweetheart,
the work of extirpation should proceed, to the extent of ciiF-
taihng this branch, of farm-stock to its wholesome and legiti-
mate proportions.
CHAPTER IX.
POULTRY.
Choice varieties of fowls add a pleasrcint feature to the
farai premises. They engage the attention and sympathy of
the juvenile farmers, and the time bestoAved in the poultry
yard keeps them from mischief : it is an agreeable and salutary
relief from toil and study, and elicits the taste, the judgment,
and the kindlier feelings of humanity, vv^hich are to be matured
in the future accomphslied breeder. When properly managed,
poultry are a source of considerable profit, yielding more for
the food they consume, than any other stock, although their
value is not often considered. The agricultural statistics of
the United States, for 1839, give us over $12,000,000 in
poultry, and it probably exceeds 115,000,000 at the present
time. It is estimated by McQueen, that the poultry of Eng-
land exceeds $40,000,000, and yet McCulloch says she im-
ports 60,000,000 eggs annually from France, (McQueen states
it at near 70,000,000 ;) and from other parts of the continent,
25,000,000 ; besides 80,000,000 imported from Ireland. Poul-
try, then, ceases to be an unimportant object of agricultural
■attention, and assumes its appropriate place among the other
staples of the farmer.
Hens
Are the most numerous and profitable, and the most gen-
erally useful of the feathered tribe. The hen is peculiarly an
egg-producing bird. She has the same predisposition for lay-
ing, that the cow has for secreting milk. Some breeds are
better adapted for this object than others ; but in all that have
ever come within our notice, the proper food and circum-
stances are alone wanting, to produce a reasonable quantity of
eggs.
■ The egg consists of three distinit parts ; the shell, the whiter
HENS THEIR FOOD. 215
and the yolk. A good-sized egg will weigh 1,000 grains, of
which about 107 are shell, 604 are white, and 289 are yolk.
Of the shell, 97 per cent, is carbonate of Ume, 1 per cent,
phosphate of hme and magnesia, and 2 per cent, albumen.
The white consists of 12 per cent, of albumen, 2.7 of mucus,
0.3 of salts, and 85 of water. The yolk has about 17.4 per
cent, of albumen, 28.6 of yellow oil, 54 of water, with a trace
of sulphur and phosphorus.
The foregoing are tlie constituents of eggs, which have been
forriSed when the bird has free access to the various articles
which constitute her natural food. But they vary with cir-
cumstances. When-full fed and denied all access to lime, she
will form an egg without the shell, and dehver it enclosed in
the membrane or sack which always surrounds the white,
when covered by the shell. When scantily fed, they will
frequently lay ; but from a deficiency of nutriment, the egg
will be meager and Avatery, and possess but a small portion of
the nutritious qualities peculiar to them.
To produce the largest number of good eggs, several con-
ditions are important ; and they must especially have an abun-
dance of the right kind of food. This is the most readily ob-
tained in part from animal food. In warm weather, when they
have a free range, they can generally supply their wants in
the abundance of insects, earth-worms, and other animal mat-
t^.rs within their reach. The large proportion of albumen
contained in their eggs, requires that much of their food should
be highly nitrogenized, and when they cannot procure this in
animal matter, it must be given in grains containing it.
If to the usual qualities of hens, a breed of peculiar elegance,
of graceful form, and beautiful plumage, be added, together
with entire adaptation to the economical purposes required,
good layers and good carcass, we have a combination of utility,
luxury, and taste in this bird, v/hich should commend them as
general favorites. They can everywhere be kept with advan-
tage, except in dense cities. A hen "that costs a shilling or
two, if provided with a suitable range, will consume 30 or 40
cents worth of food, and produce from 80 to 150 eggs per
annum, worth three or four times the cost of feed and attention.
The Food
Of hens may consist of different kinds of grain, either broken,
ground, or cooked ; roots, and especially boiled potatoes, are
nutritious and economical ; green herbage, as clover and most
216
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
of the grasses, chickweed, lettuce, cabbage, &c., will supply
them with much of their food, if fresh and tender.
Fig. 40, is a Food fountain. The grain is placed in the hopper,
which is closely covered, and the grain falls into the bottom
below. It is accessible on four sides by spring doors, which
are thrown open by the weight of the fowl on the connecting
spring. One is shown as opened by the fowl in stepping up
to feed. This is a protection against dirt and vermin. *
Fig. 40. ^
Food Fountain.
Though not absolutely essential to them, yet nothing contrib-
utes so much to their laying, as unsalted, animal food. This is a
natural aliment, as is shown by the avidity with which they
pounce on every fly, insect, or earth-worm which comes
within their reach. It would not of course pay to supply
them with valuable flesh, but the blood and off"al of the
slaughter-houses, refuse meat of all kinds, and especially the
scraps or cracklings to be had at the melters' shops, after
soaking for a few hours in warm ^'rviter, is one of the best and
most economical kinds of food. Such with boiled meal is a
very fattening food. Grain is at all times best for them
when cooked, as they will lay more, fatten quicker, and eat
much less when fed to them in this state ; and it may be thus
used unground, with the same advantage to the fowls as if
first crushed, as their digestive organs are certain to extract
the whole nutrimen t. All grain is good for them, including
millet, rice, the ( leaginous seeds, as the sun-flower, flax,
hemp, &c. It i? always better to afford them a variety of
HENS THEIR FOOD.
217
grains where they can procure them at their option, and select
as their appetite craves.
They are also fond of milk, and especially when it has be-
come curdled ; and indeed scarcely any edible escapes their
notice. They carefully pick up most of the waste garbage
around the premises, and glean much of their subsistence
from what would otherwise become offensive ; and by their
destruction of innumerable insects and woi-ms, they render
great assistance to the gardener. Of course their ever-busy
propensity for scratching, is indiscriminately indulged just
after the seeds have been sown and while the plants are
young, which renders it necessary that they be confined in
some close yard for a time ; yet this should be as capacious
as possible.
Fig. 41.
Water Fountain.
Water is placed in the cask as represented in the Fig., and it
is then closely stopped, except an opening through a tube
leading into a vessel below. As the water is exhausted from
this, it descends from the cask above, and a supply is thus at
all times within reach of the poultry.
Their food is better when given to them warm, not hot ;
and there should always be a supply before them to prevent
gorging. It is better to be placed on shelves or suspended
boxes or hoppers, which are variously and cheaply constructed,
to keep it clean and out of the reach of rats. Besides their
food, hens ought to be at all times abundantly supplied with
clean water, egg or pounded oyster shells, old mortar or
slacked lime. If not allowed to run at large, where they can
19
218
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
help themselves, they must also be furnished with gravel to
a.ssist their digestion ; and a box or bed of ashes, sand, and
dust, is equally essential to roll in for the purpose of ridding
themselves of vermin.
Ficr. 42.
Poultry House
The Rcn-house
May be constructed in various ways to suit the wishes of
the owner, and when tastefully built it is an ornament to the
premises. It should be perfectly dry throughout, properly
lighted, and capable of being made light and warm in winter,
yet afford all the ventilation desirable at any season. In this,
arrange the nests in boxes on the sides, in such a manner as to
humor the instinct of the hen for concealment when she resorts
to them. When desirable to set the hen, these nests may be
so placed as to shut out the others, yet open into another
yard or beyond the enclosure, so tha-t they can take an oc-
casional stroll and help themselves to food, &c. This prevents
other hens laying in their nests, (vhile setting ; and it may be
easily managed, by having their boxes placed on the walJ of
THE EGG-HATCHER. 219
the building, with a moveable door made tD open on either
side at pleasure. Hens will lay equally well without a nest-
egg, but when broken up, they ramble off and form new nests,
if they are not confined. They will lay if kept from the cock,
Out it is doubtful if they will thus yield as many eggs. Hens
disposed to set at improper times, should be dismissed from
the common yard, so as to be out of reach of the nests, and
plentifully fed till weaned from this inclination.
Fig. 43.
Egg-Halcher, or Eccalobeon.
Fig. 43 represents an egg-hatcher or Eccalobeon, made of
different sizes, with shelves so arranged as to hold from 200 to
800 eggs without touching each other. The outer box is a
non-conductor, so as to retain the heat conveyed to every
part by water tubes, connected by a reservoir below, tht?
bottom of which is heated by the flame from a spirit-lamp.
The temperature is indicated by a thermometer on the door in-
side, which should be made equal to that of the hen, say about
106° Fahrenheit. Her natural temperature is somewhat ele-
vated by the feverish condition of the bird at the period of in-
cubation.
Chickens require to be kept warm and dry, for a few days
after hatching, and they may be fed with hard-boiled eggs,
crumbs of bread or pudding, and milk or water, and allowed
to scratch in :he gravel in front of the hen, which should be
confined in a coop for the first three or four weeks. After
220
DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
this, they may be turned loose, when they will thrive on any
thing the older ones eat. Many use them for the table when
they are but a few weeks old ; but they are unfit for this pur-
pose, till they have attained full maturity.
The white-legs are preferred by some, from the whiteness
and apparent delicacy of the meat ; but the yellow-legged are
the richest and most highly-flavored. The color of the feathers
does not seem to affect the quality of the flesh or their char-
acter for laying. If we consider the chemical principles of the
absorption and retention of heat, we should assume the white
coat to be best, as it i? coolest in summer when exposed to
the sun, and warmest in winter. Yet some of the white
breeds are delicate, and do not bear rough usage or exposure.
Fig. 44.
The Dorking
Varieties.
These differ materially in their sizes, shapes, and colors.
The Dorking is esteemed one of the best, being large, well
formed and hardy, good layers and nurses, and yielding an
excellent carcass. They are both white and speckled, and
generally have five toes.
The Poland is both white and black, with a large tufl^
VAR ETIES C F FOWLS.
221
generally of white feathers, on the head. They are of good
size, and excellent layers, but are seldom inclined to set,
which makes them pecuferly desnable for such as wish eggs
only.
The Dominique is a speckled fowl, of barely medium size,
compact, hardy, good layers, and valuable for the table. The
Bucks county fowls, heretofore principally reared near Phila-
delphia, possess but moderate pretensions to notice, except in
their immense size, a brace of capons having been fattened to
19j lbs. when dressed.
Fig. 45.
i^0i&^ T.K.V-
The Bantam.
The Bantam is but little larger than a pigeon, and is usually
of a pure white, but is sometimes speckled. It is generally
feathered to the toes, but may be bred with clean legs. It is
very domestic, and a pleasant httle bird around the premises,
and is not unprofitable. The Game cock is of medium weight,
and yields good flesh, but is a poor layer, and an undesirable
tenant for the farm-yard. Besides these, there are many fan-
ciful varieties, as the Creeper, with excessively short legs ; the
Rumpless, without a tail ; the Frizzled, with irregular feathers
turned towards the head ; the Silky or Merino fowl, with
brown or buff down, instead of feathers ; the Negro, with its
black crest, wattles, skin, legs, and feathers ; the Java and
Cochin China, of great size ; several varieties of the Top-knot,
aad others.
19*
222 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
The Diseases of Hens.
These are not numerous or complicated, and may be mostly
avoided by proper treatment and food, which are indicated
with sufficient minuteness in the foregoing observations.
Gapes or Pip is generally owing to drinking unwholesome
or dirty water. Remove the white blister on the tip of the
tongue, and wash with sharp vinegar, diluted with warm
water ; or compel the bird to swallow a large lump of fresh
butter, mixed with Scotch snuff. It has been cured by open-
ing the mouth and forcing a pigeon feather, with a tuft of the
feathers left on the end, (the others having been stripped oflf,)
down the windpipe, and gently turning it as withdrawn, to
be repeated the following day if necessary. This detaches
large numbers of a slender red worm, collected in the larynx
of the throat, which impedes respiration and swallowing. A
Uttle spirits of turpentine mixed with the food is a preventive ;
as are also clean, whitewashed premises, and good food.
After these attacks, feed for a few days with light food, soaked
bran and cabbage, or lettuce chopped fine.
Roup, Catarrh, or swelled head, is shown by feverish symp-
toms, swollen eyelids, frequently terminating in blindness,
rattling in the throat, and temporary strangulation. These
are accompanied with a highly offensive watery discharge,
from the mouth and nostrils, loss of appetite, and much thirst.
They should be placed near the fire ; their head bathed in
warm Castile soap-suds, or milk and water. Stimulating food,
as flour or barley-meal, mustard and grated ginger, mixed
and forced do-^vn the throat, Boswell says, has been effectual
in their speedy restoration. This, like many other diseases, is
contagious, and when it appears, the bird should be at once
separated from the flock.
Flux is cured by the yolk of an egg boiled hard; and
boiled barley soaked in wine.
Costiveness is removed by giving bran and water with a little
honey ; or give a small dose of castor oil.
Vermin are destroyed by giving them clean sand and ashes
to roll in, adding a little quickhme if necessary.
Entire cleanliness is necessary for the avoidance of this and
other diseases. A perfectly dry range is also essential, nor
should there be too many together, as this is a fruitful source
of disea&3.
THE TURKEY BREEDING. 223
THE TURKEY.
This bird was iinkno-wn to the ci'vahzed world till the dis-
covery of this Continent. It was found here both in its wild
and domesticated state ; and still occupies the whole range
of the western hemisphere, though the wild turkey disappears
as the country becomes settled. The Avild is larger than the
domesticated bird, sometimes weighing over 30 lbs. dressed.
The color of the male is generally a greenish brown, approach-
ing to black, and of a rich, changeable, metallic lustre. The
hen is marked somewhat like the cock, but with duller hues.
Domestication through successive generations dims the bril-
liancy of their plumage, and lessens their size and hardiness.
It also produces a variety of colois, though they are mostly
of a black, buff, pure white, or speckled.
They give evidence of the comparative recency of their do-
mestication, in the instinct which frequently impels the cock
to brood and take care of the young. Nothing is more com-
mon than for the male bird to supply the place of the hen,
when any accident befalls her, and to bring up a family of
young chicks with an equally instinctive regard for their help-
lessness and safety.
The flesh of this bird, both wild and tame, is exceedingly
delicate and palatable ; and though not possessing the high
game flavor of some of the smaller wild-fowl, and especially
of the aquatic, as the canvass-back duck, &c., it exceeds them
in its digestibility and healthfulness. The turkey is useful
principally for its flesh, as it seldom lays over a nest-full of
eggs in one season, when they brood on these and bring up
their young. If full-fed, and their first eggs are withdrawn
from them, they frequently lay a second time.
Breeding.
Those intended for breeders should be compact, vigorous,
and large, -without being long-legged. They should be daily,
yet lightly fed through the winter, on grain and roots, and
some animal food is always acceptable and beneficial to them.
They are small eaters, and without caution will soon get too
fat. One vigorous male will suffice for a flock of 10 or 12
hens, and a single connection is sufficient for each. They
begin to lay on the approach of warm weather, laying once a
day, or every other day, till they havr) completed their litter ;
which in the young or indifferently fed, may be 10 or 12, and
224 DOMESTIC ANIM4LS.
in the older ones, sometimes reaches 20. The hen is sly in
secreting her nest, but usually selects a dry, well-protected
place. She is an inveterate setter, and carefully hatches most
of "her eggs.
The young may be allowed to remain for 24 hours without
eating, then fed with hard-boiled eggs made fine, or crumbs
of wheat bread. Boiled milk, curds, and buttermilk afford an
excellent food. As they get stronger, oat or barley-meal is
suitable, but Indian-meal, uncooked, is hurtful to them when
quite young. They are very tender, and will bear neither cold
nor wet, and it is of course necessary to confine the old one for
the first few weeks. When able to shift for themselves, they
may wander over the fields at pleasure ; and from theh great
fondness for insects, they will rid the meadows of innumerable
grasshoppers, bugs, and beetles, which often do incalculable
damage to the farmer. Early chickens are suflSciently grown
to fatten the latter part of autumn or the beginning of winter,
which is easily done on any of the grains or boiled roots.
Both are better for being cooked. They require a higher
roos ting-place than hens, and are impatient of too close con-
finement, preferring the ridge of a barn, or a lofty tree, to the
circumscribed limits of the ordinary poultry-house. . When
rightly managed and fed, turkeys are subject to few maladies ;
and even these, careful attention will soon remove.
THE PEACOCK AND GUINEA-HEN.
The Peacock is undoubtedly the most showy of the feathered
race. It is a native of the southern part of Asia, and is siill
found wild in the islands of Java and Ceylon, and some parts
of the interior of Africa. They are an ornament to the farm
premises, and are useful in destroying reptiles, insects, and
garbage ; but they are quarrelsome in the poultry-yard, and
destructive in the garden. Their flesh is coarse and dark, and
they are worthless as layers. The brilliant silvery green and
their ever-varying colors give place to an entire white, in one
of the varieties.
The Guinea-hen is a native of Africa and the southern part
of Asia, where it abounds in its wild state. Most of them are
beautifully and uniformly speckled ; but occasionally they are
white on the breast, like the Pintados of the West India
Islands, and some are entirely white. They are unceasingly
gaiTulous ; and their excessively pugnacious character renders
THE GOOSE BREEDING. 225
them uncGmfortable inmates with the other poultry. Their
flesh, thouf'h high-colored, is delicate and palatable, but, like
the peacock, they are indifferent layers. Both are natives of
a warm climate, and the young are tender and rather difficult
to rear. Neither of these birds is a general favorite, and we
omit further notice of them.
THE GOOSE.
There are many varieties of the goose. Main enumerates
twenty-two, most of which are wild ; and the tame are again
variously subdivided. The common white and grai/ are the
most numerous and profitable. The white Bremen is much
larger, often weighing over 20 lbs. net. It is of a beautiful
snowy plumage, is domestic and reared without difficulty,
though not as prolific and hardy as the former. The China
Goose is smaller than the gray, and one of the most beautiful
of the family, possessing much of the gracefulness and gen-
eral appearance of the swan. It .» prolific and tolerably hardy,
but has not thus far been a successful rival with the first.
The Guinea or African goose is the largest of the species, and
equals the size of the swan, often dressing over 25 lbs. It is
a majestic and graceful bird, and very ornamental to water
scenery. Several other varieties are domesticated in the United
States.
Breeding.
Geese pair frequently at one year old, and rear their young ;
bu4 with some kinds, especially of the wild, this is deferred
till two and sometimes three. They require a warm, dry
place for their nests, and when undisturbed, they will sit
steadily ; and if the eggs have not been previously chilled or
addled, they will generally hatch them a]^ if kept on the nest.
To insure this, it is sometimes necessary to withdraw the first
hatched, to prevent the old ones wandering before all are out.
The young should be kept in a warm sheltered place till two
or three weeks old, if the weather be cold, or unsettled. The
best food for the goslings, is barley or oat, or boiled Indian
meal and bread. Milk is also good for them. They require
green food, and are fond of lettuce, young clover, and fresh
tender grass ; and after a few weeks, if they have a free range
on this, they will forage for themselves.
.Geese are not a profitable bird to raise, unless in places
where they can procure their own subsistence, or at least
226 DOMESTIC ANIMALS.
during the greater part of the year. This they are enabled U
do, wherever there are extensive commons of unpastured lands,
or where there are streams or ponds, lakes or marshes with
shoal sedgy banks. In these, they will hve and fatten through-
out the year, if unobstructed by ice. They may be fed on all
kinds of grain and edible roots, but it is more economical to
give them their food cooked. The well-fattened goshng affords
one of the most savory dishes for the table.
Geese hve to a great age. They have been known to ex-
ceed 100 years. If allowed a free range on good food and
clean water, they will seldom get diseased. When well fed,
they yield nearly a pound of good feathers in a season, at
three or four pluckings ; and the largest varieties even exceed
this quantity.
DUCKS
Are more hardy and independent of attention than the
goose, and they are generally the most profitable. They are
omnivorous, and greedily eat every thing which will afford
them nourishment, though they seldom forage en the grasses
like the goose, when they can procure other food. They are
peculiarly carnivorous, and devour all kinds of meat, putrid or
fresh ; and are especially fond of fish, and such insects, worms,
and other creeping things, as they can find imbedded in the
mud or elsewhere. They will often distend their crop with
young frogs, almost to the ordinar}'- size of their bodies. Their
indiscriminate appetite often renders them unfit for the table,
unless fattened out of the reach of garbage and offensive
matters. An English admiral used to resort to well-fattened
rats fo.r his fresh meat when at sea, and justified his taste by
saying, they were more cleanly feeders than ducks, which were
general favorites. «
The most profitable for domestic use, is undoubtedly the com-
mon black duck. They lay profusely in the spring, when well
fed, often producing 40 or 50 eggs, and sometimes a greater
number, if kept from setting. They are much larger than
those of the hen, and equally rich and nourishing, but far less
delicate. They are careless in their habits, and generally drop
their eggs wherever they happen to be through the night,
whether in the water, the road, or farm-yard ; and as might
be expected from such prodigality of character, they are in-
different setters and nurses. •
Tlie dvrklings are better reared by setting the eggs under
DUCKS BREEDING. 227
a sedate, experienced hen, as the longer time necessary for
hatching, requires patience in the foster-mother to develop the
young chick. They should be confined for a few days, and
away from the water. At first they may be fed with bread,
or pudding made from boiled oat, barley, or Indian meal ; and
they soon acquire strength and enterprise enough to shift for
themselves, if afterwards supplied with pond or river water.
They are fit for the table when fully grown, and well fattened
on clean grain. This is more economically accomplished by
feeding it cooked.
Tlie varieties of ducks are almost innumerable. Main de-
scribes 31, and some naturalists number over 100. Besides
the black duck above described, several others, as the liffht
gray, the ^vhite duck, and some of the tufted, are prohfic, hardy,
and profitable.
We omit further notice of other varieties ; and of the swan,
brant, pigeons, &c., as not profitable for general rearing, and
only suited to ornamental grounds.
TBI END
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a complete list of Fruits worthy of cultivation. By F. E. Elliott, Pomologist.
Pardee (R. G.) on Strawberry Culture .... 60
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American Agriculturist.
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Eastwood (B.) on the Cultivation of the Cranberry . . 50
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Johnson's (Geo. W.) Dictionary of Modern Gardening . 1 50
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Allen (J. Fisk) on the Culture of the Grape . . • 1 00
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VoQ Thaer was educated for a physician ; and, after reaching the summit of his pro-
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age and vegetables, the whole country was astonished at his science in the art of cul-
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6 Books PuhlisJied hy C. M. Saxton & Co.
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The Shepherd's Own Book : 2 00
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Allen's (L. F.) Enral Architecture ; .... 1 25
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United States ; with the best methods of planting, cultivating, and preparation for
market. Illustrated by more than 100 engravings. By R. L. Allen.
Eeemelin's (Chas.) Vine-dresser's Manual .... 50
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containing full instructions as to location and soil ; preparation of ground ; selection
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the vines ; manures ; and the making of wine.
Eement's (C. N.) Eabbit Fancier; 50
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added full directions for the construction of Hutches, Rabbitries, &c., together with
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The Horse's Foot, and how to keep it Sound; • 50
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Hundred and Fifty Illustrations ; to which are added Explanatory Notes, Remarks,
&C., by J. 8. SxiKNEE, Eeally one of the best books for a farmer to possess.
Allen's (E,. L.) Diseases of Domestic Aiuimals ; • 75
Beixg a History and Description of the Horse, Mule, Cat-
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Breeding, Crossing, Rearing, Feeding, and Preparation for a profitable Market ; also,
their Diseases and Remedies, together with full Directions for the Management of the
Dairy, and the Comparative Economy and Advantages of Working Animals, tho
Horse, Mule, Oxen, &c. By E. L. Allen.
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The Hoese, The Pests of the Fae^,
The Hog, Domestic Fowls, and
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EvEET Lady Her Own Floweb Gaedeneb, Essay on Mantiees.
Elements OF AGEicuLTtrEE, American Kitchen Gabdeneb.
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Elements of Agriculture.
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Persoz' Culture of the Vine.
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Sichardson on Dogs; their Origin and Varieties.
Directions as to their General Management. With numerous
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trated with numerous wood engravings.
This is not only a cheap, but one of the best works ever published on the Dog.
Liebig's (Justus) Familiar Letters on Chemistry.
And its Relation to Commerce, Physiology, and Agriculture
Edited by John Gaedeitee, M.D.
The Dog and Gun.
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letters from Sportsmen. By A Bad Shot.
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