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DOMESTIC SCIENCE
PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATION
A TEXTBOOK
FOR
PUBLIC SCHOOLS
BY
PEARL L. BAILEY
FORMERLY SUPERVISOR OF DOMESTIC SCIENCE AND DOMESTIC ART
IN THE SAINT PAUL PUBLIC SCHOOLS
REVISED
BB PUBLISHING
ST.BOJJL.MINN.
COPYRIGHT 1914, 1918. ls21
BY
WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY
W-13
PREFACE
DOMESTIC SCIENCE in public schools, to be of
greatest value, must give the pupils a practical
knowledge of foods and the principles which un
derlie their preparation for the table, and at the same
time, train the pupils to apply the principles intelligently.
This textbook is arranged to meet the needs of schools
having a two-year course in Domestic Science, and an
effort has been made to present the fundamental principles,
together with their application, in a simple, natural sequence
that is adapted to the needs of the large majority of public
and private schools.
A text of this kind does awav witn the keeping of
elaborate notebooks on the part of the pupils, saves for
more important things the time used in dictating notes,
and makes the work more permanent and uniform through
out.
The arrangement of the subject matter by lessons does
not necessarily limit the course to 64 lessons. If the
students are old enough, additional reading may be used
to supplement the subject matter, and several recipes are
given under each application to afford plenty of practical
work for classes having more than one lesson each week.
The usual length of the class period is 1^ hours, and one
recipe is all that can be done well in that time.
The course begins with a preliminary lesson for organ
ization and for acquainting the pupils with the kitchen,
utensils, and the general instructions for working and care
of equipment. It is not intended that all the instructions
vi PREFACE
contained in this lesson be given at one time, but may be
referred to from time to time. The application exercises
under this lesson should be given.
Owing to the length of the cooking period, it is necessary
in most cases to start the cooking process before consider
ing the principles. Definite assignment of work and pro-
portionment of materials, with explanation sufficient for
beginning the work, should precede each exercise, and the
main discussion or recitation must accompany or follow the
application. Students are most interested in the per
formance of an experiment or a cooking process, and when
the practice precedes the recitation they learn to think
and do for themselves, and therefore get a better under
standing of the theory.
The food principles form the basis for the lessons, which
are arranged to deal first with the simpler food materials,
and the progression to the more complex food combinations
is gradual and practical.
The recipes included in this text have been gathered
from various sources and adapted to the course in school
cookery as here outlined, and have been found to be both
economical and reliable. Portions for an average family
are given in each recipe, and for convenience in class-room
work the basis for two girls working together is also stated.
The average cost per capita of the lessons as here given,
according to the present-day prices, approximates 2 to 3
cents a lesson.
The working out, by the pupils, of the accurate amounts
for the small rules on the basis for two affords good practice
and drill and tends to fix the table of measures more
firmly in mind. It is a great mistake for teachers to make
the computations for the class. The aim is to train pupils
to think for themselves and do for themselves. Better
PREFACE vii
spoil a dish in the making than deprive the pupils of the
experience of doing the actual work themselves. It is not
necessary for pupils to memorize recipes: only general
proportions and methods are essential.
It is well to introduce the lesson on digestion early in
the course, whenever time permits. Knowledge of the
meaning of digestion and absorption is necessary for a full
understanding of the food values given with each subject,
and should be referred to often.
No demonstration lessons are outlined, but demonstra
tion, by the teacher, of various steps involved in a lesson
is frequently necessary. When given it should immediately
precede the work by the class. This is especially true of
the omelet lesson, as well as in the lessons involving the
manipulation (kneading, shaping) of dough, rolling out of
pastry, cookies, doughnuts, etc.
Marketing trips are of great value to a class, and the
inspection of flour mills, dairies, canning factories, etc.,
arouses interest and adds greatly to the value of the work.
Several such excursions should be made, if possible.
The table service, menu building and marketing lessons
afford a splendid course to round out the work and afford
practical application of the knowledge acquired during the
entire course. By this work relative food values and the
cost of foods are established more firmly in mind, and the
school and home are brought into closer relation.
The lesson on emergencies and ''first aid" places in
formation in the hands of the student that is valuable to
both boys and girls, and can be given at any time that
opportunity affords.
Invalid cookery and diet is often made a separate course
and, combined with home nursing, makes a very practical
and interesting one. Diets and dishes suitable for all
viii PREFACE
occasions are given in this text, together with a few invalid
recipes not classified under other subjects. Girls should be
able to prepare most invalid rules after a two-year course
of training as here outlined.
It is sometimes advisable to change the order of les
sons to suit the price and season conditions, as, for example,
the egg lessons. If, however, these are placed further on
in the text, at least some demonstration work in eggs
should be given to precede quick breads, where eggs are
called for.
Girls frequently lose interest in the meat lessons where
the sequence is continuous. This result may be avoided
if the lessons on gelatine jellies, leftovers, and a review
lesson on quick breads are brought in following the beef
or lamb lessons.
This edition has been revised to include material on
the cold pack method of canning vegetables and fruits,
100 calorie portions of common foods, tables and lists of
foods with their ash constituents, together with many
changes in recipes to conform to the more thorough applica
tion of the principles involved and to the unusual economic
food conditions now prevailing, when it is advisable to
use butter and flour substitutes in all recipes as far as
possible.
The tables of food composition, food requirements, etc.,
quoted throughout this book are taken from bulletins of
the United States Department of Agriculture.
PEARL L. BAILEY.
SAINT PAUL, MINNESOTA,
DECEMBER, 1920
CONTENTS
FIRST YEAR
PAGE
PRELIMINARY LESSON. COOKING UNIFORM. HOUSEKEEPERS'
DIRECTIONS 1
Description of uniform. Housekeepers' duties. Cleansing
agents. Care of equipment.
LESSON 1. LIFE ESSENTIALS. FURTHER WORKING DIRECTIONS 15
Air. Water. Food definition, classification, and functions.
Tables of abbreviations and measures. Rules for working.
LESSON 2. HEAT. COMBUSTION. FUEL . . . .4 27
Study of fire. Fuel. Stoves and ranges and their care.
Electric appliances. Fireless cookers. Application.
LESSON 3. COOKING. CARBOHYDRATES POTATOES . . 37
Methods of cooking. Study of starch. Study of the potato.
Application cooking potatoes.
LESSON 4. CARBOHYDRATES VEGETABLES ,. . . . 44
Vegetables classes, composition, food value, rules for cook
ing. White sauces. Application cooking vegetables; medium
white sauce.
LESSON 5. CARBOHYDRATES CEREALS. RICE .... 52
Cereals kinds, composition, structure, food value, time for
cooking. Rice cultivation, food value. Application cooking
cereals: boiling, steaming.
LESSON 6. CARBOHYDRATES CEREALS. WHEAT ... 58
Wheat production, kinds, structure, composition, food value.
Macaroni. Application cooking macaroni; buttered crumbs;
tomato sauce.
DIGESTION AND ITS RELATION TO COOKERY . . . . 63
Purpose of digestion. How food is dissolved. Relation of
cookery to digestion. Outline table.
LESSON 7. CARBOHYDRATES FRUIT 67
Fruit, fresh and dried composition, food value, cooking.
Application cooking apples, cranberries, prunes; fruit cock
tails.
(ix)
x CONTENTS
PAGE
LESSON 8. SOUPS 72
Soups with and without stock general proportions and
directions, food value. White sauce. Application cream
soups; croutons.
LESSON 9. PROTEIN EGGS 75
Eggs structure, composition, food value, testing, care, pre
servation. Effect of heat on albumen. Application cooking .
eggs.
LESSON 10. PROTEIN EGGS (CONTINUED) .... 81
How to break eggs. Combining mixtures stirring, beating,
folding. Application omelets: demonstration and class work.
LESSON 11. PROTEIN MILK 86
Milk Composition, food value, purchase and care, souring,
pasteurizing. Condensed milk. Application custards, boiled
and baked.
LESSON 12. MILK PRODUCTS 92
Cream, skim milk, butter, butter substitutes, cheese kinds,
composition, food value. Application cheese dishes: souffle;
cottage cheese; Welsh rarebit.
LESSON 13. BEVERAGES 101
Tea, coffee, chocolate, cocoa sources, composition, food
value, preparation for market and table. Application tea;
coffee (demonstration); chocolate.
LESSON 14. QUICK BREADS THIN BATTERS .... 108
Batters and doughs. Leavening agents. Mixing and baking
quick breads. Application (air and steam as leavening agents)
thin batters: pop-overs; griddle cakes.
LESSON 15. QUICK BREADS BAKING POWDER . . . . 113
Baking powder composition and action, kinds, proportion
with flour. Application thick batters: muffins.
LESSON 16. QUICK BREADS THICK BATTERS . . . . 117
Corn kinds, composition, corn products, food value. Appli
cation (soda and acid as leavening agents) corn bread; corn-
meal muffins.
LESSON 17. QUICK BREADS SODA 121
Action of soda, proportions. Application gingerbread.
LESSON 18. QUICK BREADS SOFT DOUGH .... 123
Flour kinds, manufacture, composition, testing. Applica
tion baking powder biscuit.
LESSON 19. VARIETIES OF BAKING POWDER BISCUIT DOUGH . 127
Varieties for desserts. Application fruit shortcakes.
CONTENTS xl
PAOB
LESSON 20. VARIETIES OF BAKING POWDER BISCUIT DOUGH (CON.) 129
Application apple dumplings.
LESSON 21. STEAMED MIXTURES ' 131
General directions, time for steaming. Application steamed
Boston brown bread; quick individual puddings.
LESSON 22. YEAST BREAD 133
Yeast source, growth, kinds, action. Bread ingredients, meth
ods of making, baking. Suggestions. Application quick process.
LESSON 23. BREAD ROLLS 141
Objects of kneading and baking. Kinds of rolls. Sugges
tions to teachers. Application rolls; German coffeecake.
LESSON 24. PROTEIN MEAT ... ', 144
Meat structure, composition, food value, object of cooking.
Soups kinds, food value, cuts used for, proportions. Applica
tion brown soup stock; bouillon; vegetable soup.
LESSON 25. PROTEIN BEEF 151
Cuts of beef, cost, appearance, care, retaining juices, broil
ing, roasting. Application broiling (oven demonstration).
LESSON 26. PROTEIN BEEF (CONTINUED) .... 157
Food value of beef. What to serve with beef. Application
pan broiling steak.
LESSON 27. PROTEIN BEEF (CONTINUED) .... 159
Cooking tough meats and left-overs stewing. Application
beef stew; dumpli-ngs; hash.
LESSON 28. PROTEIN VEAL AND MUTTON .... 164
Veal appearance, cuts, food value, cost. Lamb. Mutton
cuts, cost, food value. What to serve with them. Applica
tion lamb chops; breaded veal.
LESSON 29. PROTEIN PORK . . . . . . . 170
Pork cuts, food value, time for cooking, cost, what to serve
with. Application cooking pork; liver and bacon.
LESSON 30. PROTEIN POULTRY 175
Chicken selection, dressing, cutting, food value, what to
serve with. Application roast chicken with stuffing.
LESSON 31. PROTEIN GELATIN 180
Gelatin source, commercial forms, effects of hot and cold
water on, food value, directions for use. Application gelatin
jellies; desserts.
LESSON 32. MEAT SUBSTITUTES . . . 184
Diversity of foods in which protein exists. Application
souffles and scalloped dishes.
xii CONTENTS
SECOND YEAR
PAGE
LESSON 1. PRESERVATION OF FOOD CANNING FRUIT . . 189
Bacteria. Reasons and methods for preserving food. Can
ning principles, jars, directions. Application canning peaches
and pears.
LESSON 2. PRESERVATION OF FOOD CANNING VEGETABLES . 198
Selection and preparation of vegetables. Methods of can
ning intermittent heating, long boiling. Application canned
tomatoes, asparagus, beans.
LESSON 3. PRESERVATION OF FOOD JELLIES, ETC. . . 202
Jelly making fruit, utensils, methods. Preserves, jams, and
marmalades. Application currant jelly; apple jelly.
LESSON 4. PRESERVATION OF FOOD PICKLING . . . 210
Condiments and spices. Materials, directions, proportions,
etc., for pickling. Application peach, green tomato, and cu
cumber pickles.
LESSON 5. DOUGHS COOKIES 215
Proportions of ingredients. Variations in cookie mixtures.
Application sugar cookies.
LESSON 6. DROP BATTERS COOKIES 218
Application drop cookies, chocolate cookies, rocks.
LESSON 7. FATS AND OILS. FRYING UNCOOKED MIXTURES . 220
Fats and oils source, food value. Trying out fat; clarify
ing; tests for frying. Application doughnuts; fritters.
LESSON 8. FRYING COOKED MIXTURES . . . . . 226
Croquettes general proportions, thick white sauce, egging,
crumbing. Application croquettes: potato, rice, meat.
LESSON 9. PASTRY 229
Essentials, proportions, methods, two-crust pies, time for bak
ing. Application two-crust pies: apple.
LESSON 10. PASTRY (CONTINUED) 235
Food value of pastry. One-crust pies. Tins. Application
lemon pie; custard pie.
LESSON 11. CARBOHYDRATES SUGAR, CANDY .... 238
Sugar sources, kinds, manufacture, forms, food value, effects
of heat on. Application candy.
LESSON 12. PROTEIN FISH 243
Fish composition, kinds, structure, food value, appearance,
cleaning, skinning, boning, cooking. Application baked fish
(demonstration) ; fish sauces.
CONTENTS xiii
PAGB
LESSON 13. PROTEIN FISH (CONTINUED) . . . . . 249
Application frying, sauteing, broiling fish.
LESSON 14. PROTEIN FISH (CONTINUED) 252
Preservation and cost of fish. Left-overs. Application
creamed codfish; fish croquettes; fish balls.
LESSON 15. PROTEIN SHELLFISH 254
Oysters source, season, growth, food value, to open, to clean,
blue points. Clams, lobsters, shrimps. Application cooking
oysters: stews, fried.
LESSON 16. SALADS 259
Essentials of a salad, points in favor, garnishing, salad dress
ings, what to serve with salads. Application salad dressings;
salads.
LESSON 17. CAKES WITHOUT BUTTER 264
Cake classes, rules for making, utensils, oven tests. Applica
tion sponge cake and angel food.
LESSON 18. CAKES WITH BUTTER . . . . . . 268
Method of mixing, oven tests, pans, frosting, proportions of
materials, variations. Application plain cake; cup cakes.
LESSON 19. LAYER CAKES 271
Points of a good cake, time for baking. Application choco
late and white cakes; frostings.
LESSON 20. LOAF CAKES . . . . , > . . . 273
Time for baking loaf cakes. Application gold, caramel, and
nut cakes.
LESSON 21. HOT DESSERTS PUDDINGS 276
Methods of cooking, preparation of materials. Application
suet and bread puddings; pudding sauces.
LESSON 22. COLD DESSERTS 280
Application floating island; chocolate cream pudding; prune
whip.
LESSON 23. SANDWICHES . . . . . . . . 282
Materials, shapes, preparation, serving. 24 suggestions for
sandwiches. Application egg and meat sandwiches.
LESSON 24. FROZEN MIXTURES ICES 286
Classes of frozen mixtures. Ices classes. The freezing mix
ture. Methods of freezing and packing. Application ices
and sherbets.
xiv CONTENTS
PMP
LESSON 25. FROZEN MIXTURES ICE CREAM .... 290
Classes of ice cream and other frozen desserts. Cream;
custards. Molding fancy shapes. Application ice cream with
custard foundation.
LESSON 26. FROZEN MIXTURES (CONTINUED) .... 295
Whipping cream. Charlottes. Application charlotte russe;
mousse.
LESSON 27. TABLE SERVICE AND ETIQUETTE .... 298
Furnishing of the dining room. Table appointments. Table
setting. Serving styles and rules. Application.
LESSON 28. DIETARIES PLANNING MENUS .... 314
Selection of food. Food requirements and nutritive ratios.
Tables of 100-calorie portions. Breakfasts, luncheons, and
dinners. Application.
LESSON 29. MENU BUILDING , . 326
Factors governing plans, rules for making, foundation menus.
LESSON 30. MARKETING 342
Rules for marketing, market chart, application.
LESSON 31. HOME MANAGEMENT. HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS . 346
The home; importance of good management. Accounts.
Application.
LESSON 32. INVALID COOKERY 350
Classification of dietaries. Rules for serving the sick. Appli
cation dishes for the sick.
APPENDIX-
EMERGENCIES AND FIRST AID 355
SCORE CARDS FOR JUDGING 360
TABLES .... ..... 361
Domestic Science: Principles and
Application
7 FIRST YEAR
PRELIMINARY LESSON
THE COOKING UNIFORM. HOUSEKEEPERS'
DIRECTIONS
EACH girl must be provided with a complete uniform.
This consists of a white apron, white cap, hand towel, bag,
and holder.
MAKING THE UNIFORM
The cooking apron is made of white India linen or lawn.
The amount for each apron depends on the size of the girl.
Measure the length of the dress and add 14 inches for the
hem and for growth ; take twice the length for the skirt and
allow one yard more for the straps and bib.
Divide one of the lengths for the skirt lengthwise through
the center. Sew a half width to each side of the whole
width with selvages together. Hem sides with J^-inch
hem, and the bottom with a 3-inch hem. Gather apron
for belt.
The bib is a square piece 8 by 8 inches or 9 by 9 length
wise of cloth, lengthwise of the apron. Turn \}/ inches of
hem along top; hemstitch.
i (i)
2 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
The straps are 4 inches wide and long enough to reach
from the belt in front across to the belt in back; set in bib
to the straps in front, and over-hand straps shut.
The belt is made of two pieces 2 inches wide and the
length of the waist measure plus V/^ inches for the lap.
Sew the belt to the bib portion first and then to the skirt.
The pocket is 5 by 4 inches and is backstitched to the
right side of the apron convenient to the hand.
The cooking cap is made of the same material as the
apron. Cut a circle of material 18 inches in diameter. Cut
a band 4 inches wide and the length of the size of the head
straight around the forehead. Allow 1 inch for shrinkage.
Gather the top in quarters, and sew band together at the
ends; quarter band, and sew band to the cap. Hem down
on the inside. The seam of the band is the center of the
back.
The hand towel is made of % yard of white huck towel
ing, or blue and white glass toweling. Turn J/^-inch hems
at both ends; hem with damask hem. Set in J^-inch tape,
4 inches long, in the hem at one end, with which to button
the towel to the belt.
The holder is made of two pieces of white cotton cloth
6 by 6 inches. For padding, use two thicknesses of white
cotton flannel 5 by 5 inches. Pin and sew pieces together,
overhand the outer cover over the lining. Inset a tape 30
inches long at one corner; make a loop at one end of tape,
to button the holder to the belt.
The bag is made of % yard of blue percale. Use full
width of the material. Make a 2-inch hem in the top, with
a 1-inch casing. Make two white tape draw-strings each
one yard. Mark each piece plainly.
DUTIES OF HOUSEKEEPERS 3
DUTIES OF HOUSEKEEPERS
Two members of the class may be assigned at the
beginning of each lesson to perform the housekeeping
duties. These girls may be called Housekeeper No. 1 and
Housekeeper No. 2, each serving a section of the class. The
students on the immediate right of the girls appointed make
double portions in cooking, for the benefit of the house
keepers.
Housekeeper No. 1, Section I, performs the following
duties :
1. Bring out the supplies for Section I.
2. Pass dish cloths and towels.
3. If ovens are to be used, get ovens for Section I.
4. Wash out half the towels that are soaked. House
keeper in afternoon classes put day's towels to
soak.
5. Straighten the shelves in the pantry.
6. Wipe off the oilcloth with a damp cloth.
7. See that each desk in Section I is supplied with soap,
flour, salt, and matches.
8. Fill the pitchers of Section I with cold water.
9. Collect garbage from utility pans at the close of
lesson.
10. Put away supplies at the close of lesson.
11. Sweep floor around Section I.
12. Clean the sink, soap dish and sink strainer at sink
No. 1 when the class is through.
13. Arrange the curtains evenly at the close of the les
son.
14. Set the garbage can out for the janitor. See that
the can is scalded each week and set in the sun
and air.
i
4 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Housekeeper No. 2, Section II, performs the following
duties :
1. Bring out the supplies.
2. Pass dish cloths and towels.
3. Place gas ovens, if a baking lesson.
4. Rinse towels washed by Housekeeper No. 1.
5. Hang towels on a clothes rack to dry.
6. Wipe off and polish the gas range.
7. Clean the ice box; empty any dishes that may need
attention. (Note. Keep milk and butter in the
lower part of the box.)
8. Clean ail ovens and tea kettles.
9. On Friday, scald out the ice box and wipe off the
shelves. See that the trap is clean.
10. See that each desk is supplied with soap, flour, salt,
and matches.
11. Pass drinking water to Section II.
12. Collect the garbage from utility pans.
13. Put away all supplies.
14. Sweep floor around Section II.
15. Clean sink, soap dish, and strainer of sink No. 2.
16. Dust the moldings of the room, all ledges, and furni
ture.
17. Afternoon class close and lock the windows.
INSTRUCTIONS TO HOUSEKEEPERS
Dust and Its Dangers. There are two kinds of dust,
living and lifeless. For the most part the dust we find in
our homes or schools is made up largely of earth or other
matter in such small particles that it can be carried by the
wind. It is present everywhere. Carried in this lifeless
dust we find a living, invisible dust, called germs or microbes*
These germs are the smallest living plants, and are so small
INSTRUCTIONS TO HOUSEKEEPERS 5
that it takes a powerful microscope, enlarging them at least
fifty times, to make them visible.
There are three classes of these little microscopic
plants; namely, molds, yeasts, and bacteria. Some of these,
as you already know, are very useful to us, such as the
yeast plant, in making bread. Others produce dangerous
poisons that cause disease.
What Hastens Germ Growth. Things necessary for the
growth of most molds and bacteria are dark, damp, unclean
places, and food and warmth. Can you name some such
places?
For this reason it is always necessary to try to keep
our houses and ourselves as clean as possible in order to
destroy or to prevent the growth of these germs.
What Stops Germ Growth. Anything that destroys
these living plants, or micro-organisms, is called a disinfect
ant. There are two kinds of disinfectants:
1. Physical, or natural, disinfectants', as, sunshine and
heat.
2. Chemical disinfectants, or those that act chemically
upon the bacteria; as, carbolic acid, formaldehyde, strong
acids and alkalies.
Some substances prevent the growth of germs, and are
called antiseptics and preservatives. Some of these are
borax, salt, peroxide, sirups, and many others. We shall
learn more about some of these later.
Dust or dirt, then, is not only objectionable to look
upon when it is about the floor, the furniture, and persons,
but one never can tell what germs it may contain that may
do us harm if they enter our bodies. Certain kinds of bac
teria in the body produce diseases, such as diphtheria,
typhoid fever, and tuberculosis.
6 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
At all times let us each observe the rules of cleanliness,
and avoid any habits that hinder the having of clean,
wholesome food, a clean house and school to live in, and a
healthy mind and body.
CLEANSING AGENTS
(a) Water is the most important cleansing agent, for it
dissolves more substances than any other liquid.
Water is hard or soft. The hardness depends upon the
amount of calcium (lime) or other salts it contains. Soft
water is best for cleansing, since neither soap nor dirt dis
solves readily in hard water.
To soften water, certain softening agents are added, such
as borax, sal soda, ammonia, potash or lye. Temporary
hard water can be softened by boiling.
(b) Cleaning powders are of two kinds, those that are
mechanical and those that are chemical in their action.
The mechanical powders contain minerals that assist in
cleaning by producing friction. Among these are :
(1) White sand, for scouring iron and wood.
(2) Bath brick, for scouring steel knives.
(3) Rotten stone, for copper, brass, and tin.
(4) Whiting, for silver, aluminum, and brass.
(5) Commercial preparations on the market, which are
very good for cleaning and come in very convenient form
ready for use.
The chemical cleaning agents are chiefly alkalies, which
are most important in the removal of grease. Any alkali
unites with grease to form a compound soluble in water,
like soap. The chemical substances used for cleaning are :
(1) Sal soda, which is very strong, but is best for
general use. It is cheap and is the basis of most washing
powders, which cost many times their value. To use sal
INSTRUCTIONS TO HOUSEKEEPERS T
soda, dissolve one pound in a quart of water over the fire;
then cook, bottle, and label. Use a little when needed.
(2) Ammonia, which is not as strong as sal soda, and is
used chiefly in laundry work, but is very good for general
cleaning.
(3) Kerosene. This is useful for cleaning polished
woods, which alkalies would injure, and may be used in
many other ways.
(c) Soap is a combination of an alkali (soda or potash)
with a fat. Describe the old-fashioned way of making soap.
There are hard and soft soaps: hard soap is made with
soda. The harder the fat used, the harder the soap. Soft
soap is made with potash instead of soda.
Action of Soap. When used with water, soap dissolves
and unites with any grease it touches, and loosens and
washes away the dust and dirt.
CARE OF EQUIPMENT
Care of Dishcloths and Towels. Have two enamel-
covered pails in which to soak the towels. Use enough
warm water to cover them well, and add two tablespoon-
fuls of cleansall or soap solution. Cover, and let stand
over night.
To Wash Towels, Use warm water, good soap, and a
wash board. Rub each towel well until all the stains are
removed. Put the towels in clean, hot suds on the stove
to scald; bring slowly to a boil and boil 10 minutes; remove
from the fire, rinse the towels in plenty of clean water,
wring well, shake out, and hang evenly on the rack to dry.
Place in the sun and air, if possible.
To Remove Stains. Iron rust is easily removed by dip
ping the spot into a solution of oxalic acid and then rinsing
at once with clear water. Dissolve one teaspoonful of
8 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
oxalic crystals in V% cup of boiling water for the acid solu
tion.
Apply lemon juice and salt to the spot in the direct rays
of the sun until rust disappears. This takes longer.
Ink. Use a solution of oxalic acid for ink, the same as
for iron rust. The crystals dissolve more quickly in boiling
water, and the stain disappears more quickly. Rinse thor
oughly in clear water after application of acid, or the
texture of the material will be injured.
Sweet or sour milk will often remove ink stains. Let
spot soak in milk several hours, apply more milk, until spot
disappears. Rinse the material.
Blood is best removed by soaking the stain in tepid or
lukewarm water; later rub with soap, and wash out.
Cocoa stains. First wash in cold water and then pour
boiling water through them.
Coffee stains are removed by placing at once over a
basin and pouring on boiling water while the stains are
fresh. The force of the water aids in loosening the stain.
Fruit stains require the same treatment as coffee stains.
Alcohol softens and dissolves fruit stains, and does not
injure the material.
Grass stains are dissolved by alcohol or camphor and
may then be washed out with clear water.
Mildew is a plant mold that grows on the fiber of mate
rials. It develops on clothes when they are damp for some
time in warm weather. If mildew stains are old, they will
not come out.
Strong lemon juice and salt put on the spot and exposed
to the sun for several days will remove light spots of mildew.
A bleaching agent, as chloride of lime, may be used, but is
very hard on the fiber of the material. Or, wet the spots
INSTRUCTIONS TO HOUSEKEEPERS
with strong soap
suds and powdered
chalk and put in the
sun for many hours.
Plumbing. Traps
All fixtures, like
sinks, wash basins,
closets, tubs, etc.,
are connected with
a system of pipes
with the house drain,
which carries off all
waste matter to the
sewer in the street.
Figure 1 shows an
approved system of
house plumbing. No
tice the size of pipes
used and their rela
tion to one another
and to the fixtures.
A trap is a bend
in a pipe sufficient
to retain enough
water to prevent the
passage of poisonous
gases back through
the pipe into the
room. Each fixture
must have a trap lo
cated in the waste
1 ,1 r Fig. 1. A plumbing system for a house, show-
pipe ClOSe tO the FIX- i ng arrangement of fixtures, traps, and pipes.
ture, and the house (M ' Ens " Elp ' sta ' BuL)
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
sewer pipe must be provided with a trap near the street
sewer.
Of the many kinds of traps the most commonly used
are the S trap and the bottle or pot trap. The S trap (See
illustrations) is perhaps the
most satisfactory for most
purposes, for it does not
contain much water, flushes
readily, and does not easily
get out of order.
A trap may become in
effective because: 1. It
may not have a deep enough
bend
to
tO
retain
sufficient
Complete
seal
the room.
2. It may be clogged by foreign matter, like lint,
hair, grease, etc. This will break the seal.
3. The water may have evaporated from the trap, if
the fixture has not been used for some time. To prevent
evaporation, pour sufficient oil in the pipe to cover the
top of the water. When houses are to be closed for a
time, this precaution is necessary.
Inspection. All plumbing should be inspected fre
quently, and should be so constructed as to make this easy.
All joints should be air-tight, and all traps should be sup
plied with means for cleaning. Faulty plumbing is too
often the cause of serious illness.
Note. Carefully inspect the plumbing in your home
and school. Notice where the traps are located.
Care of the Ice Box. Keep the ice box perfectly clean.
See that the waste from the ice is properly carried off. It
should drain into an open end of a trapped drain-pipe. See
INSTRUCTIONS TO HOUSEKEEPERS 11
that the trap is open and works correctly. Keep a brush
for cleaning out the trap. Scald out the ice box and trap
once each week with hot soda or borax water.
Wipe the ice box dry, and always wipe off the shelves as
soon as anything is spilled over them.
Do not put hot food into the ice box ; never put food with
strong odors into the ice box. Keep milk bottles covered
and keep the milk and butter in the lower part of the box,
for they absorb odors readily. Do not put unnecessary
dishes into the ice box. Set the food away in clean dishes,
and in as small dishes as possible.
Do not put anything on the top of the ice box; it clutters
up a room and makes it harder to keep things neat and clean.
Care of the Sink. Sinks with open plumbing are best;
but even the best need constant care. In selecting sinks,
avoid those with wood around them. Good porcelain sinks,
with rim and drain board of the same, are the best and the
easiest to keep clean. Iron sinks are very hard to care for.
To remove the rust from iron sinks, at night rub all over
with mutton fat and in the morning rinse well with hot suds.
Keep a sink strainer in the sink and pour all waste
liquids through it. Do not put garbage into the sink
strainer; put it into the garbage can. Sink strainers are for
liquids only. When through work, empty the strainer,
wash in hot soapsuds, wipe dry, and hang up.
Once each week pour a strong solution of sal soda (about
J/ cup soda to two quarts water) down the pipes. Flush
the sinks frequently with plenty of hot soapsuds and boiling
water. When through work always leave the sinks per
fectly clean. Wash them with hot water, using Dutch
cleanser or sapolio to remove any stains or grease. Rinse
well and wipe dry. Kerosene cuts any grease readily.
Rinse well after using.
12 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Never hang utensils or dishcloths around the sink.
Only the soap dish and sink strainer need be kept there.
Never hang anything under the sinks. Wash and rinse all
sink cloths and hang in the air to dry.
Care of the Garbage Can. Each day place a clean news
paper in the can. This is easily removed and all the con
tents burned, buried, or carried away. Put only solid
materials in the can. Liquids must first be drained off.
The can must be kept perfectly fresh. Scald and scrub out
the can thoroughly each week, and set in the sun and open
air. Keep can covered when garbage is in it.
Care of the Pantry. Closed cupboards are much better
than open shelves, but are not always available.
Cover the pantry shelves with oilcloth. Tack it down
firmly over the edges of the shelves. Oilcloth is easily
wiped off, and is durable material. Plain white paper
may be used if oilcloth is too expensive. Renew the paper
frequently.
Put like dishes together. Keep all spices and staple
things together.
Keep food supplies in covered jars properly labeled. Do
not leave supplies in sacks.
Never arrange supplies in more than two rows. This
saves time and prevents confusion.
When the last of anything is used, report the fact at
once to the instructor, or make a note of it.
Prepare bread crumbs from all dry pieces of bread ; roll
and sift and keep in covered jars ready for use.
Watch canned goods and jellies and report any that
appear to be spoiling.
Care of the Table. When the dishes are all washed,
clean the table by scrubbing with a brush dipped in hot
water and then in Dutch cleanser or in scouring soap.
INSTRUCTIONS TO HOUSEKEEPERS 13
Use little water; scrub thoroughly with the grain of the
wood. Rinse well and wipe dry as possible with a cloth
wrung out of clear water.
See that the edges of the table are kept clean and dry.
Clean under the stoves thoroughly.
Ammonia or borax will remove grease spots. Spread
on the spots and let stand for a few minutes ; then rinse with
cold water. Hot water dissolves grease and drives it into
the wood.
Care of Floors and Woodwork. Hardwood Floors. A
long-handled soft brush is best for sweeping polished floors.
A broom with a soft cover made of cotton flannel sewed into
a bag to fit the broom and tied on with tapes, is a good sub
stitute for the brush.
Use little or no water on hardwood floors. Brush dry.
Sweep from the outside of the room towards the center; be
sure corners and baseboards are well dusted.
Use short strokes of brush or broom, and keep it close
to the floor to prevent raising a dust. Gather dust into a
small spot and take up with brush and dustpan; burn, if
possible, at once. A little oil on the brush or broom bag
collects the dust together better.
Sweeping Ordinary Floors. Sweep dry in the same way
as with hardwood floors, using an ordinary broom.
Scrubbing. Use plenty of hot soapsuds and a stiff
brush. Do not wet a large surface at a time. Scrub with
the grain of the wood ; then rinse thoroughly and wipe dry
with a cloth wrung out of clear water.
Avoid wetting baseboards, furniture, and doors.
Grease spots on unfinished wood may be removed by
covering with borax, letting stand over night, and then
rinsing off with clear water.
14 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Carpets. To sweep, tear old newspapers into small
pieces, dampen them, and sprinkle over the carpet. Use a
stiff broom and sweep as in method for hardwood floors,
taking short strokes to avoid raising dust. A carpet
sweeper may be used in the center of the room after sides
are brushed.
To brighten the carpet, put a few drops of ammonia
into a little warm water, dip a cloth into it, wring out, and
rub over the carpet after it has been swept.
Woodwork. After sweeping and when the dust has
settled, wipe off the woodwork carefully, using a soft cotton
cloth. Hemmed cheesecloth dusters are preferable. Gather
the dust into the folds of the duster, not stirring the dust
up in the room, and shake duster out of doors. Dust
higher objects and woodwork first.
Chemically-prepared dust cloths are for sale and are
good for most woodwork, but must not be used on mahog
any furniture.
Care of Brooms, Brushes, and Dust Cloths. Brooms.
In using a broom alternate first one side and then the other,
so that it wears evenly. Clean broom off after sweeping,
making it ready for use again. Always hang broom up; do
not allow it to rest on the bristles. The broom should be
washed in good warm suds every week to keep it in good
condition.
Brushes. Brushes should be cleaned well after each
using. Later they may be washed in cold water, but great
care must be taken not to wet the glue which fastens the
back of the brush. Dry thoroughly.
Dust cloths. Wash dust cloths frequently in hot soap
suds, scald, rinse in clear water, and dry in the sun and air.
Explain why this precaution is always necessary.
LESSON 1
LIFE ESSENTIALS AIR, WATER, FOOD. FURTHER
WORKING DIRECTIONS
THREE things are essential to life: (1) air, (2) water,
and (3) food. In addition, most forms of life need sunlight
and a favorable temperature.
AIR
Air is the most immediate need of the body, since we
can live but a few minutes without it.
Composition of Air. Pure air is composed mainly of
two gases, oxygen and nitrogen, in the proportion of 1 part
of oxygen to about four parts of nitrogen. A certain
amount of water vapor in the air makes it easier to breathe.
Impure air may contain, in addition to nitrogen and oxygen,
harmful gases, dust, and other impurities.
In dwellings the harmful gas is usually carbon dioxide,
which is noticeable when the room is poorly ventilated.
Sources of Carbon Dioxide Gas. Carbon dioxide gas is
formed by the union of carbon and oxygen in a process
called oxidation. This takes place in
(1) All burning of carbon material.
(2) Decaying vegetable and animal life.
(3) The process of respiration.
In the latter process the oxygen in the air passes through
the thin walls of the lungs into the blood, which carries it to
all parts of the body. The union of this oxygen with the
carbon in the cell tissues forms carbon dioxide as a waste
product, which in turn is carried back by the blood to the
lungs and given off.
(15)
1 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Ventilation. How may pure air be brought into a room
and the impure air sent out? How is your home venti
lated? How is your school ventilated?
The natural means of ventilation are doors, windows,
cracks, and chimneys. Special ventilating systems, flues,
etc.," may be spoken of as the artificial means of ventilation.
WATER
Water ranks next to air as a supporter of life. Pure
water is a liquid, clear, odorless, colorless, and almost taste
less.
Composition. Chemically pure water is composed of
1 part oxygen to 2 parts of hydrogen. The flavor of drink
ing water is due to the mineral salts and carbon dioxide gas
dissolved in it.
Sources. (1) Rain. (2) m Surface water, as from rivers,
brooks, lakes, ponds. (3) Ground water, as from wells,
open and artesian, and some springs.
Uses. Water has many uses. It enters into all plant
and animal life. It constitutes about three-fourths of the
weight of the body.
(a) Uses in the body:
1. It quenches thirst.
2. It aids in regulating the body temperature.
3. It aids digestion, since it forms a part of all the
digestive secretions of the body, and acts as a solvent; that
is, dissolveshnost substances and reduces them to a condi
tion to be of use to the body.
4. It acts as a carrier. It enters into the formation
of blood, which carries food to the various parts of the body.
It also carries off waste materials.
ESSENTIALS TO LIFE 17
(b) Uses out of the body :
1. In power production. 4. In cooking.
2. In transportation. 5. For plant growth.
3. In cleaning. 6. Other uses.
Kinds. (1) Soft water, as already explained.
(2) Hard water, temporary and permanent.
(3) Mineral water, which is water containing a com
paratively large percentage of certain minerals, such as
soda, sulphur, and iron, and is valuable for medicinal
purposes.
Daily Requirement. An average person requires about
two quarts of water a day. This is supplied by vegetables,
meat, and other food, as well as by beverages.
Temperatures. Water freezes at 32 Fahrenheit (which
is zero on the Centigrade scale).
Water simmers at 185 F.
Water boils at 212 F., or 100 C.
Impure water cannot always be detected by color, taste,
or smell. One should always know the source of water
before using it. Water is contaminated in many ways,
but the most common are
1. In open wells, by surface water and foreign sub
stances.
2. By having water supply too close to outbuildings
or sewage disposals. Water is purified more or less by
filtering through the earth, but this does not necessarily
remove harmful bacteria, especially when the filtering
distance is short.
3. By carelessness in diseases.
To Purify Water. Water from springs and artesian
and bored wells is usually pure.
1. Boiling will purify most water, but this destroys
2
18 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
the flavor as well as the bacteria. Pouring boiled water
from one jar to another partially restores its flavor.
2. Filtering water through stone filters is quite effec
tive. The filters must be thoroughly cleaned frequently
or they will be worse than none. In city systems water
is often filtered through large sand beds to purify it. Small
cloth filters fastened on the faucets do not purify the water.
Cautions in the Use of Water. 1. Do not use water
left standing in open vessels.
2. Draw off the first water from pipes before using
any. Water takes up the lead of the pipes when allowed
to stand in them for any time.
3. Do not drink water in the dark.
4. Use freshly boiled water for cooking purposes,
never that from the hot-water faucet.
5. Keep all pitchers and water jars washed clean and
free from the lime deposits that accumulate on the bottom
and sides.
FOOD
Food is anything which taken into the body builds and
repairs the tissues or furnishes heat and energy.
Foods contain many elements, but the most important
are those which enter into the composition of the body;
as, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, calcium, phos
phorus, and others. Where have you found these elements
before? Some of them are more abundant in certain
foods than in others, and therefore foods perform different
functions in the body. For this reason we have foods
classified according to their composition and function.
Classification of food. (A) Organic foods, of animal
and vegetable origin, include
1 . Proteins which include
a. Albumin, as in the white of egg.
ESSENTIALS TO LIFE 19
b. Casein; as, milk curd.
c. Fibrin; as, lean meat.
d. Gelatin, as found in sinews and bones.
e. Extractives, as in the juices of meats.
/. Gluten, as contained in wheat.
g. Legumin, as contained in peas and beans.
2. Carbohydrates, which include
a. Starch, as contained in potatoes and cereals.
b. Sugar; as, cane, beet, and fruit sugars.
c. Cellulose, the fruit and vegetable fiber.
3. Fats, including
a. Animal fats; as, butter, lard, fat meat.
b. Vegetable oils; as, olive oil, cottonseed oil.
(B) Inorganic foods, or those not having animal or
vegetable origin, include
4. Mineral matter, as found in the ash of foods.
5. Water. Water is usually not thought of as a food ; it
is used in tissue building, but it does not give heat or energy.
Composition and Functions of the Food Classes.
Proteins contain nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, sul
phur, and often phosphorus.
Because they contain nitrogen, proteins build and
repair tissues, and are called nitrogenous or tissue-build
ing foods. The protein of the body, as contained in the
muscles, blood, and other tissues, can be built up only from
the protein of food. Proteins may also be used in the body
to produce heat and energy. But carbohydrates and fats,
especially the former, are much cheaper as a source of
heat and energy, and are much more easily used for this
purpose in the body. If less protein is eaten than is re
quired, the protein of the body itself will be consumed.
If more protein is eaten than is needed for tissue building,
the excess is thrown off as waste, the process forming
2
20
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Fig. 3. Food chart of comparative composition and fuel value of
food materials. (U. S. D. A. Bui.)
ESSENTIALS OF LIFE 21
harmful products in the body and enforcing greater work
on the excretory organs. Excessive consumption of prcK
tein food is harmful.
Carbohydrate is the general name for a large class of
familiar food materials that do not contain nitrogen. In
order to maintain its temperature and to do work, the
body must obtain energy, and this is supplied very largely
by the carbohydrates. Starches and sugars are produced
in plants on a very generous scale for our use. When
eaten in excess, carbohydrates are stored in the body as
fatty tissue.
Fats and oils are composed of the same elements as car
bohydrates; namely, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and
are used in the body for the same purpose. The propor
tion of carbon is much greater than in carbohydrates, for
which reason they give about twice as much heat and
energy. The fats, however, are harder to digest. They
also add to the fatty tissue.
Mineral matter, consisting of compounds of sodium,
lime, iron, potash, sulphur, phosphorus, etc., are found
principally in cereals, milk, meat, fish, and fruits. Min
eral substances enter into the composition of all tissues
of the body, especially bone and blood, and are very neces
sary to young and growing persons.
Water. (Composition and function given on page 16.)
Vitamines are disease-preventing substances found in
various articles of food but which have not yet been isolated
and whose chemical composition has not yet been deter
mined. While it is thought that phosphorus does not enter
into the molecule of the vitamine, the vitamine and the
phosphorus content of the food are closely related. If less
than 4 per cent of the pentoxide (265) of phosphorus is
present, the food does not have sufficient disease-preventing
21A DOMESTIC SCIENCE
properties. Vitamines have no direct relation to the pro
tein, fat, and carbohydrates contained in the diet.
Three vitamines are recognized: (1) fat-soluble A,
present in butter-fat, cod-liver oil, green leaves, etc. These
prevent an eye disease called xerophthalmia, and rickets,
(2) water-soluble B, found principally in plants, and pre
venting polyneuritis in birds and beriberi in human beings,
and (3) water-soluble C, an antiscorbutic vitamine which
prevents scurvy. All these vitamines are necessary for
growth as well as for health.
Fat-Soluble A. Butter-fat is the general source of this
vitamine. It is also found in the yolks of eggs, yellow
beef fat, fish oils and pure animal oleomargarines. Of the
vegetables spinach, and, generally, leafy vegetables, along
with carrots, sweet potatoes and yellow corn are the rich
est in it. The alkali of baking soda, unless counteracted
by sour milk, destroys this vitamine.
Experiments have shown that such temperatures as are
used for ordinary cooking may destroy the essential prop
erty of the vitamines. There is, therefore, greater necessity
for the employment of some of these foods at least in their
natural state.
Water-Soluble B. This vitamine is present in milk and
animal foods in a lesser degree but more widely distributed
in plants, among which are cereals, legumes, spinach, cab
bage, potatoes, carrots, onions, turnips, beets, and toma
toes. The parts of the cereals which contain the vitamine
are the germ and the outer coating, or bran, the part that
in the higher milling process is eliminated. Yeast also is
a very rich source of this vitamine.
The effect of cooking temperatures is likely to deterio
rate if not to destroy the efficacy of this vitamine.
Water-Soluble C. This vitamine is not found in yeast,
ESSENTIALS OF LIFE 21B
fats, and cereals, in only small quantities in fresh milk and
meat, and in greatest amounts in fresh fruits and vegetables.
Raw cabbage, orange juice, and tomatoes are excellent
antiscorbutics. This vitamine, like the others, is rendered
practically of no value by high temperatures. Hence boiled
or pasteurized milk would be deprived of its natural efficacy
as an antiscorbutic.
Drying and storing, generally speaking, impair the effec
tiveness of all vitamines.
Bacteria are a group of widely distributed vegetable
microorganisms of transparent protoplasm. They perform
a great variety of functions, such as converting dead organic
matter into soluble food materials for plants, fixing atmos
pheric nitrogen in legumes, and causing fermentation and
disease. Some are helpful; some are harmful. They multi
ply, and, often, very rapidly by division. Their growth de
pends on their food supply, moisture, and temperature.
The problem is to control the useful bacteria and to pre
vent the multiplication and action of the harmful ones.
Fresh air, direct sunlight, sterilization, and germicidal agents
are the principal antagonists. Cleanliness and protection
are necessary precautions in the case of foods.
A further treatment of this subject will be found on
page 189.
TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS
For the sake of convenience in cookery, a few abbre
viations are used. Those used throughout this text are:
tsp. for teaspoonful oz. for ounce
tbsp. for tablespoonful f. g. for few grains
ssp. for salt spoonful r. for rounded
c. for cupful h. p. for heaping
pt. for pint sc. for scant
qt. for quart min. for minute
Ib. for pound hr. for hour
12 DOMESTIC 8C1ENCS
TABLE OF MEASURES
3 tsp. are equivalent to 1 tbsp.
12 tbsp. are equivalent to 1 cup wet material
16 tbsp. are equivalent to 1 cup dry material
2 c. are equivalent to 1 pt.
2 pt. are equivalent to 1 qt.
4 qts. are equivalent to 1 gal.
8 qt. are equivalent to 1 peck, (dry)
4 c. (about) flour equal 1 Ib.
2 c. sugar (gran.) equal 1 Ib.
2 c. butter packed solid equal 1 Ib.
2 c. chopped meat equal 1 Ib.
2 tbsp. butter equal 1 oz.
1 tbsp. sugar equals 1 oz.
1 tbsp. liquid equals ^ oz.
9 or 10 eggs, depending on size, equal 1 Ib.
The juice of 1 lemon equals 3 tbsp.
All measurements used in this book are level. Great
care must be taken to measure accurately.
Directions for Measuring. 1. For a spoonful, dip the
spoon into the material, lift it, and level off true with a
spatula.
2. For a cupful, fill the cup with the aid of a spoon, and
level off with a spatula.
3. For a half spoonful, level off a spoonful and then
divide lengthwise through the middle. The spoon is
larger at the back than at the point, and a more accurate
measure may be obtained in this way.
4. For one-fourth spoonful, divide the half-spoonful
cross- wise, dividing a little back of the middle.
5. For one-eighth spoonful, divide a fourth-spoonful
diagonally across from center of spoon to outer rim.
6. In measuring dry material, as flour, baking powder,
soda, powdered sugar, spices, sift or shake up lightly before
measuring, and do not dip cup into the material, which
packs it, but fill with a spoon.
7. To measure butter or lard, pack solidly into cup with
a spoon.
RULE 8 FOR WORKING 23
8. A heaping teaspoon or cup means all it will hold.
9. A scant teaspoon or cup is a little less than level
measure.
Fig. 4. Measuring: H c. liquid, 1 c. dry, Yz tbsp. dry. H tsp. dry, tbsp.
butter.
24 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
RULES FOR WORKING
1. Wash your hands with soap and water and scrub
and clean your nails. If you handle anything not clean,
wash your hands again.
2. Have your hair neatly fastened back.
3. Wear no jewelry.
4. Wear a wash dress, if available.
5. Never dry dishes with a hand towel or an apron.
6. Never taste with the mixing spoon.
7. See that gas or oven will be ready for use at the
time it is needed.
8. In beginning work collect all necessary material and
utensils, also provide a utility plate on which to lay sticky
knives, etc.
9. Save dishes by measuring dry material first, then
liquid, and lastly fats.
10. Break eggs separately in a cup or saucer, to be sure
they are fresh.
1 1 . Save a little milk to rinse the bowl in which the
eggs are beaten.
12. Tin dishes and iron spoons will discolor batters;
so use earthen dishes and wooden spoons.
13. Do not let vinegar or lemon juice stand in a tin
cup or dish.
14. Clean up your work and put egg and batter dishes
to soak as soon as empty.
15. Stand egg beaters in cold water, but take care not
to wet the cogs.
16. Stir and beat with a tablespoon or mixing spoon,
never with a teaspoon.
17. Hang a piece of paper on the oven door when the
oven is in use, to remind you of the baking.
RULES FOR WORKING 25
RULES FOR WASHING DISHES AND FOR CARE OF UTENSILS
Preparations. 1. Collect all dishes to be washed;
scrape, clean, and pile like dishes together.
2. Soak dishes that have contained dough, batter, eggs,
or starch in cold water; those soiled by sugar, in hot water.
3. Prepare two pans of good hot water. Use one for
rinsing and one for washing dishes.
4. Wipe out all greasy pans with paper and put paper
in the garbage can or stove.
5. Remove the hot-plate board from the table and
place on the stove, providing a clean, dry place clear for
clean dishes.
6. Serviceable towels for drying dishes are made by
hemming flour sacks. Glass toweling or linen crash
absorbs moisture readily. A good dishcloth should not be
too large and should be sweet and clean. Have one for
china and one for kitchen dishes.
Instructions for Washing. 1. Put glasses into hot
water sidewise to prevent uneven expansion of glass, which
breaks them.
2. Glass and silver ware are brighter if wiped directly
from clean, hot suds. Do not rinse.
3. Wash cut glass in warm water and dry carefully. A
sudden change of temperature breaks cut glass.
4. Rinse all dishes, except glasses, in clean, hot water,
and wipe quickly with a clean, dry towel.
5. Do not put bone or wooden knife or fork handles in
water. Wipe with a wet cloth and then dry them.
6. Scour kitchen knives and forks with bath brick or
sapolio and then wash and rinse well.
7. Scrape rolling pin and molding board and wipe off
with a wet cloth. Do not use much water on either.
26 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
8. Do not wet the cogs of egg beaters.
9. Wash the teapot and the coffeepot clean with hot
water, wipe dry, clean spout carefully, and leave with covers
open.
10. Get clean water several times during the washing
process.
11. Wash the dish pan thoroughly, rinse, and wipe dry.
12. Rinse out the dishcloth and towels and hang in the
air and sun to dry.
APPLICATION
1. Practice measuring, both liquids and dry materials.
2. Learn to know sections on measuring cup.
3. Wash dishes.
4. Do general housekeeping work, sweeping, caring
for sink, stoves, pantry, etc.
LESSON 2
HEAT, COMBUSTION, FUEL
Carbon. All vegetable and animal matter contains
carbon. This can be easily shown by simple experiments:
1. Heat a little sugar in a test tube over a gas flame.
What does the heat do? What is left?
2. Heat a little starch in a test tube over a gas flame.
3. Heat a tiny piece of meat in a test tube over a gas
flame.
4. Hold a cold plate for a moment over the red part
of the gas flame, over a lighted lamp, or in the red flame of
a coal or wood fire.
In like manner, any organic substance ^iay be heated
to a black char, which is mostly carbon. How is charcoal
made?
Animals get the carbon of their bodies from plants,
which in turn get it from the air. Animals breathe in the
pure air and give off impure air containing carbon dioxide
gas. The plants take up this gas through their leaves and
stems, and by the aid of water and the energy from the
sun the carbon is manufactured into sugar, starch, and cellu
lose in the plant fiber. When carbon burns, it again liber
ates the sun's energy.
Heat is natural or artificial. Sunlight gives natural
heat; fire, artificial heat. The sun is the source of all
energy.
Experiments Illustrating Burning.
1. Light a short candle, place it on the table, and
watch it burn.
28 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
2. Turn a tumbler over it and see what happens.
3. Turn a chimney over the lighted candle, raising the
chimney a little from the table. Then cover the top of the
chimney and see if there is any change.
4. Light a small piece of paper, and uncovering the
top of the chimney quickly drop in the lighted paper.
What happens?
What do these experiments indicate? What element
in air is necessary to a burning candle?
5. Clean two half-pint milk bottles. Insert a lighted
paper into one of the bottles and then cover. Pour a little
clear lime water into the bottle. Is there any change in
the clearness of the lime water?
6. Breathe into fresh lime water in the second bottle,
through a straw. Is the result similar to that of Exp. 5?
Clear lime water turns milky when carbon dioxide gas
mixes with it. Is any of this gas present in Experiments
5 and 6? If so, explain where it came from.
Things Essential for a Fire. Three things are essen
tial for fire (1) air (oxygen), (2) fuel, and (3) a means of
raising* the temperature to the kindling point.
Oxidation (Combustion). Oxygen unites readily with
many other elements, and the process is called oxidation.
When this takes place so rapidly that heat and light are
produced as in fire, we call it combustion. It may also
go on very slowly, yet the results are the same. Food is
oxidized slowly in every living cell of the body, giving
heat and the energy to do work.
The Kindling Point. By the kindling point of a sub
stance we mean the lowest temperature at which it burns,
or unites with oxygen. Fuels differ as to this temperature,
some having a much lower kindling point than others.
For this reason, matches, paper, and wood burn more
HEAT, COMBUSTION, FUEL 2t
readily than coal. The phosphorus of the match is ignited
by the friction of striking, and burns. This in turn is
used to ignite larger pieces of wood which have a higher
kindling point. In the making of a coal fire, wood is used
to raise the temperature high enough to ignite the coal.
Products of Combustion. The most common products
of combustion are steam, carbon dioxide gas, smoke, soot,
and ashes. In incomplete combustion a gas is formed,
called carbon monoxide, which is very harmful to breathe.
The carbon that is not burned passes off as smoke and
soot. Soot contains some oily substances and sticks to
cooking utensils and to the chimney and should be removed
often. When allowed to accumulate in the chimney, soot
is apt to cause fires.
FUELS
The most common fuels are wood, coal, kerosene, and
gas. Being of vegetable origin, they all contain carbon.
Wood is either hard or soft. Soft wood kindles quickly
and produces a quick fire but which is of short duration.
Pine and birch are soft wood. Hard wood burns more
slowly, ,but a fire of hard wood keeps longer than one of
soft wood. Oak ( and maple are examples of hard wood.
Coal is of many kinds and is all formed from ancient
vegetation which has been buried deep in the earth fora
long time and subjected to a high degree of heat and pres
sure. Coal has a higher kindling point than wood,
burns with a strong, steady heat for a long time, and holds
fire much longer than the hardest wood.
Kerosene, or coal oil, is prepared from petroleum and
is used in stoves made especially for it. It is a cheap fuel
and is safe if a good grade is used and care taken to keep
the stove clean and in good condition.
SO DOMESTIC BCIENCS
Gas is either natural or manufactured. Both are ex
cellent for fuel. Natural gas is cheap and can best be
used only in localities where it is found. Manufactured
gas is made from coal, petroleum, oil, wood, or peat, and
is a clean fuel. In most cities where such gas is used
it is cheaper than wood or coal.
Gasoline is very inflammable and not safe to use in
homes and schools.
THE COAL RANGE
Fire is used by all people as a means of preparing food.
Many forms of cooking arrangements have been adopted,
from the primitive camp fire, the grate fire and stove, to
the coal range and the gas and electric appliances of modern
times.
Stoves differ widely in construction, yet all have the
same essential parts, and in all the same principles apply.
Study the stoves at school and at home and compare them.
Parts of coal range to be studied are :
Fire box, which contains the fuel.
Grate, or floor of the fire box. It is made in two parts,
and may be opened.
Dampers, which are (1) creative and (2) check, to con
trol the draft, (3) chimney and (4) oven, to direct the hot
air currents.
Ovens, used for baking food.
Top, with covers of various sizes for surface cooking.
Ash pan, for ashes and clinkers.
Stovepipe, to carry off smoke and other products of
combustion, and to afford a draft.
To lay a fire: 1. Have fire box free of ashes.
2. Remove lids from over the fire box.
3. Place pieces of twisted paper or shavings crosswise
ia fire box.
HEAT, COMBUSTION, FUEL
31
4. Place a few pieces of soft wood and a couple of
pieces of hard wood on top.
5. Put on a shovelful of coal.
6. Close top of stove before applying match.
To start a fire: 1. Open lower and chimney dampers.
2. Apply lighted match underneath to twisted papers.
3. When the fire has a good start, add more fuel.
4. Never fill the box more than two-thirds full.
Fig. 5. A range, showing how the oven is heated. The purpose of dampers
is to control the air currents, to direct them and to make them hotter or not
so hot. (Courtesy Kalamazoo Stove Company.)
To regulate a fire : For a hot fire, open the creative and
chimney dampers. Close oven damper. As soon as coal
burns red on top, add more coal. When coal is red under
neath and black on top, close dampers.
To heat the oven, open oven and chimney dampers and
close others. This forces the hot air current around the
oven and out the back of the range to the chimney.
12 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
If the oven bakes too hard on bottom, open the slide
in front of and below the grate.
If the oven bakes too hard on top, lift a cover slightly
from the top of the fire box.
To hold a fire, fill fire box with coal, close all dampers,
open check half way. The check is in front of and above
the fire box, and causes a current of air to pass over the fire
instead of through it, thereby checking oxidation.
General Care of the Coal Range. 1. Clean oven flue
once a month when in constant use. The accumulation
of fine ashes prevents free circulation of hot air, besides
absorbing heat.
2. Clinkers, egg shells, etc., should be avoided in the
fire box. Put shells in only when the fire is burning freely.
3. Do not allow coal to reach the top of box. It
reddens the covers and causes them to warp.
4. Empty the ash pan regularly and do not let it over
flow. An overflowing ash pan hinders the draft of air as
well as makes extra work.
5. Keep the stove clean. Brush off at once anything
that is spilled over it or in the oven.
6. A cloth with a few drops of kerosene on it rubbed
over the stove when cold will keep it from rusting and is
sufficient to keep the stove in good condition.
7. If a polish is preferred, select one of good quality,.
moisten a small quantity with water, and apply sparingly
with a brush, just as the stove is warming up.
A study of fuels, wood and coal, with varieties of each,
cost, and suitability, may be taken up in this connection.
THE GAS RANGE
Gas ranges differ in construction as widely as coal
ranges, but all are built on practically the same general plan.
Study gas ranges at home and at school and compare.
HEAT, COMBUSTION, FUEL 38
The parts of a gas range that should receive attention are:
The main pipe, which leads the gas into the range. It
has a shut off. Locate it.
The oven, for baking. This is regulated by gas stop
cocks. It is sometimes controlled by a pilot light, some
times by direct action. Explain.
The broiling oven and toaster. The gas flow for these is
controlled by gas cocks.
Top burners, for surface cooking. Each has a separate
cock. Locate the cock for each burner.
The simmering burner, a small burner on top.
The stove pipe, a connection of range to chimney to
carry off smoke and gas.
To light the gas burners: See that the main stopcock
is open. This may be left open from day to day, but should
be closed when gas is not used, as in vacations or when mak
ing repairs.
Light the match, open the cock of the burner you wish
to light, and apply match to burner. If it "fires back,"
close gas cock, and open again to permit the flow of gas
through the cock for a moment to drive out the air. Close
again and then relight as before.
Each burner has an air regulator, which should be
adjusted to the air pressure in the city where it is used.
The flame should burn blue; if the flame is yellow, adjust
air flow at once.
Caution: In discontinuing use, always see that all stop
cocks are shut off tight.
To light the gas oven: Open the oven doors. If a
pilot-light, turn on the pilot and apply lighted match
through hole for that purpose in the side of the oven. When
lighted, turn on first one gas cock in the oven and then the
other.
S4 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
See that the entire coil burns with a blue flame.
If a direct action, apply lighted match directly to the
coil as cock is turned on, always with oven doors open.
Bad explosions often occur if one fails to observe these
directions.
To regulate the fire and save gas : As soon as a kettle
boils, turn down the gas enough to just keep contents
boiling. If the gas is turned too high, the yellow flame
will blacken the kettle. A blue flame is clean. Use sim-
merer instead of a large burner, when long, slow cooking is
needed or to hold warmth.
In heating the oven, light gas a few minutes before the
dish is ready to go in, to insure heat; then reduce the flame
to hold the heat. Turn off the gas entirely a few minutes
before removing baking from oven, since the oven retains
enough heat to finish the cooking, and the extra gas would
be a waste.
Care of the Gas Range. 1. Keep air holes clean.
2. Wipe off sheet iron under top burners clean when
through cooking each day.
3. If anything is spilled on the stove, wipe off imme
diately.
4. Rub daily with cloth containing a few drops of kero
sene, to keep black and clean and free from rust.
THE ELECTRIC STOVE
Electric stoves are not very commonly used, but are
cleaner and more convenient than the gas stove. They are
more expensive to operate, however, on account of the high
rate of the electricity consumed. Electric stoves vary in
size and construction.
HEAT, COMBUSTION, FUEL 35
The parts of an electric stove are :
Electric coils, placed under the covers and around the
oven. These become red hot when the current is turned on.
The oven, for baking.
Electric attachment, where the stove is connected with
current. A switch button is used as with electric lights.
Electric Appliances. There are various appliances for
cooking food by means of electricity; as, toasters, chafing
dishes, percolators, and combination cookers. These may
be attached to any light connection in a minute's time, are
very convenient, moderate in first cost, but comparatively
expensive of use.
OIL STOVES
Kerosene is used to a large extent in country homes and
summer residences where gas is not available. Good,
vaporized blue-flame kerosene stoves give satisfaction and
are quite safe when placed where there is no draft.
The parts of oil stove to be studied are:
The tank, for oil.
Several lamps, each consisting of a chamber for oil and
wicks, which need daily care, and cylinders, which carry the
heat to the burner above.
Care of oil stoves : 1 . Clean wicks and cylinders every
day. See that the tank for oil is refilled and never allowed
to run dry.
2. Wipe off surface of stove and keep perfectly clean.
FIRELESS COOKERS
Fireless cookers are made from a variety of materials,
but all have the same underlying principle of operation.
Construction. Fireless cookers consist of a covered box
lined with tin or zinc; packing, usually felt or excelsior, or
any material that is a non-conductor of heat ; food chambers,
36 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
for cooking; and radiators, consisting of iron or stone discs,
which are heated and placed under and over the dish con
taining the food to be cooked. The efficiency of the cooker
depends largely- upon how nearly the packing is a non-con
ductor of heat.
Care of fireless cookers: 1. Keep all parts clean and dry.
2. Keep cooker tightly fastened when in use.
3. Air out frequently to keep sweet and clean.
APPLICATION
1. Practice laying a fire in the range.
2. Practice lighting gas burners, gas ovens, and the
water heater. '
3. Baked Potatoes
Method. Select smooth, medium-sized potatoes. Wash
well with a small vegetable brush kept for the purpose.
Bake in a hot oven about 45 minutes or until done. This
may be determined by testing with a fork. Break the
skins to let the steam escape, and serve at once. If baked
potatoes stand they become soggy.
4. Stuffed Potatoes
6 medium-sized potatoes, baked 4 tbsp. hot milk
2 tbsp. butter 2 egg whites
}/2 tsp. salt Pepper
Method. Cut the end from each baked potato, or cut
in half lengthwise, scrape out the inside with a fork, and
mash the center with a fork. Season it with the salt,
pepper, butter and milk. Add the beaten .white, reserving
part of it for the top. Fill the skins with the mixture,
brush over the top with the egg and return to the oven
until browned.
Grated cheese may be sprinkled on the top for a change.
Minced meat may be added to the potato. Ham or chicken
would be good.
(Basis for 2 girls, 1 potato.)
LESSON 3
COOKING. CARBOHYDRATES POTATOES
COOKING is the application of heat to food to prepare it
for eating.
Reasons for Cooking. Food is cooked for any or all
of the following reasons:
1. To make it more easily chewed and digested.
2. To improve its flavor and appearance.
3. To kill any germs and parasites it may contain.
Methods of Cooking. The method to be used in cook
ing a food depends, among other things, upon (a) the
nature of the food and (b) whether it is desired to extract,
partially extract, or retain the juices. The heat is applied
in a variety of ways: by (1) radiation, (2) hot water or
steam, (3) hot fat, (4) hot metal, and by combinations of
these.
1. Boiling is cooking in boiling water. In this case
the cooking water is usually drained off and not used.
2. Stewing is long, slow cooking in water below the
boiling point. The pot is tightly covered, and the enclosed
steam assists in the cooking. The liquids are usually
served with the dish as gravy or are made into soup.
3. Steaming is cooking by either moist steam, as in a
steamer over boiling water, or by dry steam, as in a double
boiler.
4. Roasting\ In the olden days meats, especially,
5. Broiling /were commonly cooked in the direct heat
of a glowing fire or over a bed of coals. Small pieces were
broiled and larger ones roasted, a tin reflector being used
for the latter.
(37)
38 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
V
6. Pan broiling is cooking in a hot frying pan. It is
used when it is not convenient to broil directly over the fire.
7. Baking is cooking in an oven. It is quite the same
as roasting and broiling, which it has superseded. Batters,
doughs, and vegetables are usually spoken of as baked in
an oven, and meats as roasted.
8. Pan baking is cooking on a hot griddle, as pancakes
are cooked.
9. Frying is cooking by dipping or immersing in hot fat.
Fat, unlike water, will heat to a temperature of 500 or
greater. Doughnuts, fish, and potatoes are foods com
monly fried.
10. Sauteing is cooking in a small amount of hot fat.
Omelets and hashed browned potatoes are sauted.
11. Braising is cooking in a small amount of water
or stock in a covered dish in an oven. It is a combination
of stewing and baking.
12. Fricasseeing combines sauteing and stewing.
STARCH
Starch, in prepared form, is a fine white powder, con
sisting of tiny starch grains. It is a carbohydrate.
Source. It is found in the vegetable world and is
most abundant in the cereals, tapioca, potatoes, and other
vegetable products. Starch is not formed in the animal
body.
Food Value. Starch gives heat and energy to the body
but does not build or repair tissues, and when used alone
it cannot sustain life; it must be used with tissue-forming
foods. Starch must be changed to sugar by digestion
before it can be used in the body.
Test for Starch. Iodine turns starch a deep blue.
(Demonstrate.)
CARBOHYDRA TE8PO TA TOES
39
Use. Starch in the prepared form is used to thicken
liquids and sauces.
Starch Experiments.
1. Put a tsp. of starch in a glass containing J4 c. of
water. Watch it. What happens?
2. Mix 1 tsp. of starch with 34 c - c ld water to form
a paste. Add J^ c. boiling water. See what happens.
3. Pour % c. boiling water over 1 tsp. of starch, with
out first mixing cold water. What happens? Break one
of the lumps.
4. Mix starch grains with melted butter; add boiling
water.
5. Mix starch with granulated sugar ; add boiling water.
Compare results of experiments and draw conclusions.
Fig. 6. Effect of cooking on starch: a, cells of a raw potato, showing starch
grains and framework; b, cells of a partially cooked potato; c, cells of a thor
oughly boiled potato. (Hutchison.)
The Cooking of Starch. Heat and moisture are needed
to soften starch.
Starch grains must be separated in some way before
boiling water is added.
Starch needs long, thorough cooking and a high tem
perature to make it easier to digest.
40 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
POTATOES (Irish, or White)
A potato is an enlargement of an underground stem.
It is a storehouse of starch, which furnishes food for the
young plants.
Composition. Potatoes contain
Water, about % their weight. For this reason they
may be baked, since they contain enough water to soften
the starch.
Starch, about 1/5 their weight.
Protein, aoout 2.5 per cent.
Cellulose, which forms the walls of the cells.
Mineral matter, which is mainly potash salts.
What food principle is wholly lacking? Which is defi
cient in amount?
Structure. The potato is made up of cells with thin
walls of fiber, and these cells contain starch grains and water.
Surrounding the mass of starch cells and just beneath the
skin is a layer of nutritious mineral matter and protein
material. This is wasted if the potato is peeled too thickly.
Manner of Growth. Potatoes are grown from cuttings,
each cutting planted producing several tubers beneath the
soil. They are best when fully matured; those immature
are soggy when cooked. Large potatoes are likely to be
hollow at the center.
Care in Storage. Potatoes should be kept in a cool,
dark, dry place. Do not let potatoes sprout. The sprouts
use moisture and starch from the potato, and thus decrease
its value for the table.
Food Value. Owing to their large content of starch,
potatoes are excellent as heat and energy producers. Pota
toes are healthful and are easily and thoroughly digested.
They furnish 12.5 per cent of the average American diet.
CARBOHYDRATES POTATOES 41
/
Rules for Paring Potatoes. 1. Always pare potatoes
thinly.
2. Remove sprouts and eyes with the point of a knife.
3. Drop potatoes in cold water as soon as they are
peeled, but allow them to soak as little as possible. Explain
why.
4. Soak old potatoes in cold water an hour before
cooking, to restore part of their freshness.
Points on Cooking Potatoes. 1. Drop potatoes into
boiling water to cook, not into cold water. Why?
2. Too vigorous boiling tears the outside of the pota
toes before the inside is cooked.
3. Pour off all the water when the potatoes are tender
and let them stand uncovered. Why?
4. Baking potatoes and boiling them with the skins on
are the most economical methods of cooking them. There
is less loss of nutrients and flavor than with any other
method.
The Sweet Potato. The sweet potato, which is an
enlarged root, is a warm-climate plant and is grown in the
United States as far north as New Jersey. It is about as
common an article of food in the South as the white potato
is in the North.
While the sweet potato is somewhat higher in food value
than the white, it may be regarded and treated similarly.
It contains about 26 per cent of starch and sugar, of which
10 per cent is sugar. It also has about 69 per cent water
and 1.3 per cent cellulose, requiring a longer time for cook
ing.
Yams are the tropical substitute for the potato. These
roots are larger, similar in structure, but coarser and less
palatable, than either the white or the sweet potato.
42 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
APPLICATION
1. Test the potato for starch with iodine.
2. Test for simmering point and boiling point of water.
Is the temperature increased by more rapid boiling?
3. Boiled Potatoes
MetJtod. Select potatoes that are smooth and of uni
form size. Wash and pare them. Cook them in boiling
salted water until soft. Test with a fork; if it withdraws
easily, the potatoes are done. Allow one tablespoonful of
salt to every seven potatoes and enough water to cover.
Drain off the water and let stand uncovered in a warm place
until served. Serve hot. Potatoes may also be scrubbed
well and boiled with the skins on.
(Basis for 2 girls, 1 potato.)
4. Riced Potatoes
Method. Put boiled potatoes through a hot potato
ricer and serve at once. Do not pack or mash in putting
into the serving dish.
5. Mashed Potatoes
2 tbsp. butter 4 tbsp. hot milk
6 boiled potatoes % tsp. salt
, Pepper
Method. Mash the boiled potatoes with a potato
masher or a fork until soft, add the butter, salt, pepper, and
the milk, and beat all until light and foamy. Serve piled
lightly in a hot serving-dish.
6. Sweet Potatoes
Method. Cook sweet potatoes with the skins on. They
may also be mashed, riced, or baked.
7. Potato Cakes
Method. Press cold mashed potatoes into small round
cakes about % inch thick. Brush over with milk, and
saute them in butter until a rich brown on both sides.
CARBOHYDRATES POTATOES 43
8. Creamed Potatoes
1 c. cooked potatoes % c. medium white sauce
1 tbsp. finely chopped parsley
Method. Cut the boiled potatoes in half-inch cubes.
Make a medium white sauce according to first method in
Lesson 4, and combine with the potatoes while hot. Add
the finely cut parsley and serve.
9. Au Gratin Potatoes
1 c. boiled potatoes % c. buttered crumbs
}/2 c. medium white sauce
Method. Cut the boiled potatoes in half-inch cubes;
put a layer of potatoes in a buttered baking dish, and cover
with half of the white sauce ; then add the rest of the pota
toes, the rest of the white sauce, and lastly the buttered
crumbs. Allow 1 tbsp. of butter to each J4 c - of crumbs.
Bake in the oven until the top is nicely browned.
10. Delmonico Potatoes
Add a layer of grated cheese to the top of Au Gratin
Potatoes before adding the crumbs, and bake the same as
Au Gratin.
11. Glazed Sweet Potatoes
Method. Wash and pare 6 medium-sized sweet potatoes.
Cook in boiling salted water 10 minutes. Drain, cut in
halves, lengthwise, and put into a buttered baking dish.
Make a sirup by boiling J/2 c - sugar with 4 tbsp. of water 3
min., then add 1 tbsp. of butter. Brush the potatoes with
the sirup, and bake 10 to 15 minutes until tender. Baste
the potatoes with the sirup once or twice while baking.
12. Baked Sweet Potatoes
Prepare and bake the same as white potatoes.
LESSON 4
CARBOHYDRATES VEGETABLES
VEGETABLES include most of the plants used for food
with the exception of grains and fruits.
Classes of Vegetables. Different parts of vegetable
plants are used for food, and these may be arranged in
classes as follows:
Tubers, or the enlargements of underground stems; ex
amples, white potato, artichoke.
Roots; examples, sweet potato, beet, carrot, radish,
parsnip, turnip, oyster plant.
Bulbs; examples, onion, garlic.
Stems; examples, asparagus, celery, chives.
Leaves; examples, lettuce, spinach, water cress, cab
bage, and greens.
Flowers; example, cauliflower.
Fruits; examples, corn,* pea, bean, tomato, squash,
cucumber, and eggplant.
Composition. The edible portion of most vegetables
is a storehouse of nutriment that the plant has laid up
either for its own later use or for the benefit of the seedling,
or young plant. Thus the radish uses the food in the
enlarged root to produce a seed stalk, and the young bean
and grain plants use the nutriment in the seed to get a
growing start in the soil.
Legumes are a class of plants that have the power to
take nitrogen from the air and make it into a form that is
available to man. They include peas, beans, lentils, and
*The term "fruit" here includes seeds.
(44)
CARBOHYDRA TE 8 VEGETABLES
45
peanuts. Legumes contain from 18 to 25 per cent protein,
mostly in the form of legumin. In European countries,
they are used to a great extent in place of meat, which is
there very expensive.
THE COMPOSITION OF VEGETABLES
Food material (as pur
chased)
Refuse
Water
Pro
tein
Fats
Car
bohy
drates
Ash.
Fuel
value
per Ib.
Vegetables:
Beans, dried
%
%
12.6
68.5
83.0
70.0
77.7
75.6
75.4
81.1
80.5
88.1
78.9
66.4
9.5
74.6
13.0
62.6
56.6
55.2
92.3
44.2
94.3
62.7
68.9
85.3
76.1
75.9
94.0
%
22.5
7.1
2.1
1.3
1.4
.9
3.1
.7
1.0
3.5
1.4
1.3
24.6
7.0
21.4
1.8
.4
1.4
2.1
.7
.9
.9
6.9
3.6
2.8
3.6
1.2
%
1.8
.7
.3
.1
.2
.1
1.1
.2
.2
.4
.3
.4
1.0
0.5
1.4
.1
.4
.6
.3
.2
.4
.1
2.5
.2
1.2
1.0
.2
%
59.6
22.0
6.9
7.7
4.8
2.6
19.7
2.6
2.5
6.8
8.9
10.8
62.0
16.9
60.8
14.7
2.2
21.9
3.2
4.5
3.9
5.7
19.6
9.8
19.0
18.6
4.0
%
3.5
1.7
.7
.9
.9
.8
.7
.4
.8
1.2
.5
1.1
2.9
1.0
3.4
.8
.4
.9
2.1
.4
.5
.6
2.1
1.1
.9
.9
.6
calories
1,520
540
170
160
115
65
440
65
65
185
190
230
1,565
440
1,505
295
60
440
95
100
100
120
555
235
430
425
95
Beans, Lima, shelled ....
Beans, string
7.0
20.0
15.0
20.0
Beets
Cabbage
Celery
Corn, green (sweet), edi
ble portion
Cucumbers
15.0
15.0
Lettuce . . .
Mushrooms
Onions
10.0
20.0
Parsnips
Peas, dried
Peas, shelled
Cowpeas, dried
Potatoes
20.0
40.0
20.0
Rhubarb
Sweet potatoes
Spinach ...
Squash
50.0
Tomatoes
Turnips
30.0
Vegetables, canned
Baked beans
Peas, green
Corn, green.
Succotash
Tomatoes
The leaves of plants are the means by which the plant
breathes in carbon dioxide and gives out oxygen, and they
contain very little nourishment. It is here that sugar and
46 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
starch are largely manufactured, to be then carried to other
parts of the plant for growth or for storage. Greens, which
are chiefly the leaves and stems of plants, consist largely of
water, with much cellulose, considerable mineral salts, and
comparatively small amounts of protein, starch and sugar.
Food Value. All vegetables are of value in the diet for
their mineral salts , some furnish considerable carbohydrates,
and a few furnish, in addition, protein. All contain a
large amount of water and indigestible material. For this
reason they are suitable to eat with concentrated foods,
such as meat and eggs. The cellulose, a fibrous, woody,
indigestible substance, is important because it gives bulk
to our food. This bulk is necessary to stimulate the flow of
digestive juices and to promote the movement of food along
the digestive tract.
Many greens should be eaten raw, since mineral salts
are lost in the water in cooking, and the cellulose is best
eaten crisp.
The legumes have a high food value and are classed
with meat and cheese as a tissue-building food, since they
contain such a large percentage of protein. The digesti
bility of food is an important factor in determining food
value, for unless a food is available to the body it cannot
serve the full purpose of food. Vegetables with hard
cellulose fiber require long, slow cooking to soften the cellu
lose walls and to cook sufficiently the starch and protein.
Some, like cabbage, are more digestible eaten raw.
Vegetable protein, being surrounded by cellulose walls,
is not so completely digested as animal protein, and can not
be counted on to build as much tissue as the same amount
of animal protein. Dried beans and peas are usually sold
at a comparatively low price, and are among the most eco
nomical sources of both protein and energy.
CARBOHYDRATES VEGETABLES 47
Selection of Vegetables. Select vegetables in season
they are less expensive then, and of better quality.
Select medium-sized vegetables, for large ones are likely
to be old and tough, requiring longer cooking.
See that they are fresh ; green vegetables are crisp.
Care of Vegetables. Keep winter vegetables in a cool,
dark, dry place, and exclude air if possible. Why is this
necessary?
Keep green vegetables on ice until ready to use.
Cook summer vegetables as soon after they are gath
ered as possible, in order to preserve the flavor.
Rules for Preparing Vegetables. 1. Wash all vege
tables in cold water. It is a good plan to keep a small
brush for this purpose.
2. Let wilted vegetables soak in cold water to freshen
them.
3. Soak dried vegetables in cold water.
4. Empty all canned vegetables from the can as soon-
as opened. Drain off the liquor and rinse peas and beans.
Rules for Cooking Vegetables. 1. Cook vegetables
whole when practical, using enough water to cover.
2. Use vegetable water for flavoring purposes, since it
contains some nutritive substances.
3. Keep the water boiling.
4. Cook green vegetables uncovered , to retain their color.
5. Cook vegetables with strong odors, such as cabbage,
onions, and turnips, uncovered.
6. Change the water several times during the cooking.
7. Allow 2 tbsp. of salt to 1 qt. of water.
8. The time for cooking vegetables depends on the
kind, size, and age of the vegetables, and one must use judg-,
ment rather than depend on a time-table to tell when the I
vegetables are done.
48 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
9. Vegetables are served with butter, salt and pepper,
or with a medium white sauce.
TIME TABLE GUIDE FOR COOKING
Asparagus. 30 to 45 min.
Beans, (string) 1 to 2 hr.
Beans, (lima) 1 to \Y^ hr.
Beets 1 hr.
Cabbage ^ hr.
Cauliflower ^ hr.
Carrots 30 to 40 min.
Corn (green) 15 to 20 min.
Onions 40 to 60 min.
Parsnips 1 to 2 hr.
Potatoes 20 to 40 min.
Peas 30 to 40 min.
Spinach 20 to 30 min.
Squash (summer) 30 to 45 min.
Turnips- 40 to 60 min.
WHITE SAUCES
1. Thin White Sauce
2 tbsp. butter 1 tbsp. flour to 1 c. milk
24 tsp. salt Dash pepper
This is used for cream soups and scalloped dishes.
2. Medium White Sauce
2 tbsp. butter 2 tbsp. flour to 1 c. milk
J4 tsp. salt, dash of pepper
This is used for creamed vegetables, fish, meat, and
cream toast.
3. Thick White Sauce
2 tbsp. butter 4 tbsp. flour to 1 c. milk
J4 tsp. salt; dash of pepper
This is used for binding materials in croquettes.
Three Methods of Making White Sauce. 1. Melt
the butter but do not brown, add the flour and seasoning,
and stir until smooth. Add the milk slowly, stirring con
stantly until all is added and is perfectly smooth. Let it
boil up once to thoroughly cook the starch in the flour.
2. Mix the flour with an equal quantity of cold water
or milk until smooth, and then add enough more milk to*
CARBOHYDRATES VEGETABLES 49
make it pour easily. Heat the remainder of the milk in a
double boiler, and when hot add the flour mixture gradually,
stirring all the time until the mixture thickens. Add the
butter and seasoning. This method takes longer (15 min.).
3. Cream the butter, add the flour and seasonings and
stir until all is well mixed. Scald the milk and pour slowly
over the butter and flour, stirring all the time.
APPLICATION
1. Boiled Carrots
Method. Wash, scrape, and cut carrots in half-inch
cubes or slices. Cook in boiling water until soft. Drain
and season with salt and pepper. Serve with a medium
white sauce, Method No. 1.
(Basis for two, % c. white sauce.)
2. Boiled and creamed turnips, onions, or potatoes are
prepared in the same manner as boiled carrots.
3. Boiled Beets
Method. Select small young beets. Wash, and cook
them in boiling salted water without peeling, until tender,
about one hour. When done, put in cold water and rub
off the skins. Slice them and serve with salt, pepper, but
ter, and vinegar.
4. Corn on the Cob
Method. Remove the husks and silk from the ears.
Cook the corn in salted boiling water for 10 minutes. Drain
well. Serve hot.
6. Cauliflower and Tomatoes
Method. Soak the cauliflower in cold water, head down,
for % hour. Cook in boiling salted water for }/ hour.
Drain, and place the head on a hot serving dish. Serve
with Tomato Sauce.
50 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Tomato Sauce
2 tbsp. butter % tsp. salt
2 tbsp. flour 1 c. strained tomato
Pepper
Method. Make according to white sauce using the
strained tomato in place of milk. Or use half tomato and
half milk, and add a speck of soda to keep it from curdling.
6. Creole Green Corn
6 ears corn 2 ripe tomatoes
1 tbsp. olive oil % tsp. salt
1 small onion Dash red pepper
2 sweet peppers 1 tsp. of sugar
Method. Cut corn from the cob, and put into a frying
pan with olive oil. Cook for 10 or 12 minutes, add the
chopped sweet pepper and the onion, then the chopped ripe
tomatoes, salt, sugar, and dash of red pepper. Cook a few
minutes and then serve.
7. Corn and Pimentos
1 can corn 2 tsp. butter
3 chopped pimentos Salt and pepper
Method. Put corn and chopped pimentos in frying
pan with butter and cook a long time until very thick.
Green peppers can also be used.
8. Baked Beans
1 qt. beans 1 tsp. soda
1 hp. tsp. salt 1 tsp. mustard
1 tsp. ginger 2 tbsp. N. O. molasses
Yz lb. sliced bacon
Method. Soak beans over night. In morning scald in
hot soda water, drain, add fresh water, and cook 15 minutes.
Pour off the water, add the other ingredients, cover with
fresh water, and bake in covered jar 4 or 5 hours. Remove
the cover the last half hour.
9. Stuffed Tomatoes
6 medium-sized tomatoes 2 tbsp. melted butter
1 c. soft bread crumbs 1 tsp. salt
1-16 tsp. pepper
CARBOHYDRATES VEGETABLES 51
Method. Wash tomatoes. Cut a thin slice from the
stem end of each. Take out seeds and pulp and drain off
most of the liquid. Mix the crumbs, butter, and seasoning
and add to the tomato pulp. Sprinkle the inside of the
tomato with salt and pepper. Refill the tomatoes with the
mixture ; replace the tops. Place in a buttered pan. Sprin
kle with buttered crumbs, bake 20 minutes in a hot oven.
Chopped meat, oysters, green peppers, sweet corn,,
mushrooms, or celery may be added to the stuffing.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
10. Fresh Peas
Method. Shell peas just before using, look them over
carefully and put in a kettle containing enough boiling water
to cover. Boil slowly until tender. Add butter, salt and
pepper, and serve hot.
11. Canned Peas
Method. Canned peas should be opened at least one
hour before using. The air helps to restore to them their
natural flavor. Turn out of the can as soon as opened >
drain off the liquid, and add fresh water. Cook in a sauce
pan, with 1 tbsp. of butter and salt and pepper to taste, for
5 minutes, when, if of good quality, they will be done.
Peas and carrots make a nice combination.
12. Eggplant
Method. Two hours before time for cooking, peel and
slice the eggplant quite thin, sprinkle each slice with salt,
lay slices together and place a plate on top. The salt draws
out the disagreeable flavor. Before cooking wipe each
piece dry, dip in beaten egg, then in finely sifted cracker or
bread crumbs, and fry in plenty of hot fat. Drain on a
piece of brown wrapping paper to absorb the fat, and keep
in a warm place until ready to serve. , Serve on a hot plat
ter, the slices overlapping one another.
LESSON 5
CARBOHYDRATES CEREALS. RICE
CEREALS, or grains, are grasses the seeds of which are
used for food. They are the most important of vegetable
foods.
Kinds. There are many kinds, but the most com
monly used are wheat, rice, rye, oats, Indian corn, and
barley. From these are prepared the various breakfast
foods found on the market. Name some.
Composition. Cereals for the most part contain all
the food principles, but not in the right proportions. All
contain much starch, considerable protein, and some woody
fiber, with very little water; so they require long cooking.
COMPOSITION OF CEREALS
Protein
Fat
Starch
Mineral
matter
Water
Oatmeal
15.6
7.3
68.0
1.9
7.2
Corn meal
8.9
2.2
75.1
0.9
12.9
Wheat flour (spring)
11 8
1 l
75.0
0.5
11.6
Wheat flour (winter) . .
10.4
1
75.6
0.5
12.5
Entire wheat flour.
14.2
1.9
70.6
1.2
12.1
Graham flour
13.7
2.2
70.3
2.0
11.8
Pearl barley
9.3
1.0
77.6
1.3
10.8
Rye meal
7.1
0.9
78.5
0.8
12.7
Rice
7 8
04
79.4
0.4
12.4
Buckwheat flour
6.1
1.0
77.2
1.4
14.3
Macaroni
11.7
1.6
72.9
3.0
10.8
Structure. Most grains are covered with an outer husk
of hard, indigestible fiber. This is removed either in the
threshing process or in milling. Underneath this coat are
(52)
CARBOHYDRATES CEREALS. RICE 53
the bran coats, which are rich in mineral matter and are
sometimes removed with the husk. The rest of the kernel
consists of the germ, which is the vital or living part of the
grain, surrounded by a large food supply of starch and pro
tein. The germ is rich in fat and other nutrients.
Food Value. Cereals, containing much starch, are val
uable as heat and energy producers, and at the same time
most cereals build and repair tissues, since they contain
nitrogen. The great amount of carbohydrates in all cereals
indicates that they should not be eaten alone, but along
with other foods richer in fat and protein. On the whole,
cereals are well absorbed in the body, ranking in that
respect next to, and in some cases even above, the animal
foods. This fact, combined with their compactness and
richness in nutrients and their abundance and cheapness,
places them in the front rank of human food.
Wheat breakfast foods are quite similar to graham and
whole-wheat flours in composition, and are about equal to
them in nutritive value.
Oats are sold principally as oatmeal or rolled oats. Oat
meal is richer in food material than some other cereal foods,
but, on account of its fiber, is not completely digested. It
should be very thoroughly cooked. It is best adapted to
strong, hard-working persons.
Of all cereal foods cornmeal furnishes the largest amount
of energy for a given cost. It is less digestible than wheat
flour, owing to its coarse nature. Breakfast foods prepared
from corn are, at reasonable prices, economical materials.
Rice is almost pure starch and, being notably deficient
in protein and fat, as compared with wheat and oats, needs
to be eaten with cream or butter.
Buckwheat and rye are similar to cornmeal as sources
of protein and energy, but are more expensive.
54
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
TABLE FOR COOKING OF CEREALS
Kind
Amount
Water
Salt
Method
Time
Oatmeal
Rice
1 c.
1 c.
Twice as much
4 or 5 times as
1 tsp.
Steam
4 to 5 hrs.
Rice
1 c.
much
4 or 5 times as
2 or 3 tsp.
Steam
2 to 3 hrs.
Hominy
1 c.
much
4 times as
2 or 3 tsp.
Boil
Ihr.
Wheat mixtures
Ic.
much
4 times as
much
1 tsp.
1 tsp.
Steam
Steam
4 to 5 hrs.
1 to 3 hrs.
The prepared breakfast foods give directions and time
for cooking on the package, but in most cases longer cook
ing is necessary.
How to Cook Cereals. Cereals are either boiled or
steamed. To boil cereals, allow about one tsp. of salt to
each cup of cereal, and plenty of water to properly swell
the starch grains. Put the water in a saucepan, and
when it is boiling stir in the cereal gradually. Keep the
water boiling and stir the cereal frequently to prevent the
grains from sticking to the bottom. Cereals must be
thoroughly cooked ; it takes a long time to soften cellulose.
Steaming cereals in a double boiler is a better method
than boiling, for it insures a more even cooking and re
quires long slow heat.
A double boiler consists of two parts: (1) Lower part,
which is for the water, and must be about half full, and the
water kept boiling. Never let the boiler boil dry. (2)
Upper part, in which the food is cooked.
Put the cereal, with water and salt, into the upper part,
and place in the lower part. Cover all and place over a
fire. Steam until properly cooked, adding more water
below, also more to the cereal when needed.
CARBOHYDRATES CEREALS. RICE 55
RICE
Rice is a cereal, a native of southeastern Asia, and now
grown in large quantities in China, Japan, Central America,
and our Southern states.
Cultivation. Marshy places are necessary for rice cul
tivation, and a system of irrigation or flooding is used.
The water is drawn off when the planting is done. When
the rice has a good start the water is allowed to flood the
field to a depth sufficient to keep the top of the rice above
the water. The water is drawn off to harvest the rice.
Rice is prepared for market much the same as wheat.
It is shocked, stacked, thrashed, and then sent to a hulling
mill. Here the coat is separated from the white grain,
which is polished. This polishing removes a coat rich in
mineral matter; so the finished product is not as rich
in minerals or protein. Rice is best when six months old.
In China they prefer it three years old.
Food Value. Rice is the lowest in food value of all
cereals, for it is almost pure starch. It must therefore be
eaten with other forms of food rich in protein and fat in
order to supply all the needs of the body. Starch grains
are easily digested.
Rice is the principal food of one-third of the people of the
world. The people in the countries where it grows use it
to supply their starchy food as we use the Irish potato.
It is in. season the year round.
Ways of Cooking.
1. Boiling like any cereal.
2. Steaming in milk or water.
3. Boiled rice may be combined with tomatoes or
cheese and baked.
4. Rice is used in soups.
5. Rice with eggs makes a good pudding.
56 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Fruit with rice or other cereal adds sugar and flavoring
to the dish, and is a pleasant change. Use dates or raisins.
To Wash Rice Put in a strainer and place in cold water.
Rub thoroughly, changing the water several times until
the rice is clean.
APPLICATION
1. Boiled Rice
1 c. rice 2 tsp. salt 2 qt. water
Method. Pick over and wash the rice. When the
water boils rapidly drop in the rice slowly, so as not to
stop the boiling. Stir occasionally to keep the grains from
settling to the bottom. Boil rapidly, uncovered, 20 to 30
min., or until the grains crush easily between the fingers.
Add the salt when nearly done. Pour into a strainer to
drain, rinse with hot water to remove the loose starch. Set
the strainer in the oven or put the rice in the serving dish
and set in the hot oven a few minutes to dry the rice. Good
boiled rice is white and soft and each grain is separate.
(Basis for 2 girls, 2 tbsp. rice.}
2. Steamed Rice
Method. Prepare rice as for boiling, and cook with
water or milk and salt, in the double boiler. Cover and
cook one hour, or until tender and all the liquid is absorbed.
Milk is best to use for steamed rice. Raisins may be used
and the rice served with milk or cream as a pudding or
dessert.
3. Cream of Wheat
1 c. cream of wheat 4 c. boiling water
y% tsp. salt
Method. Mix the cream of wheat and salt, add slowly
to the boiling water in the upper part of the double boiler,
stirring constantly. Cover and steam until done, about
45 to 50 minutes. Serve with sugar and cream.
CARBOHYDRATES CEREALS. RICE 57
4. Oatmeal Mush
1 c. oatmeal 4^ c. boiling water
13^ tsp. salt
Method. Put the boiling water in the upper part of the
double boiler and gradually add the oatmeal and the salt.
Cook over the fire without the lower part for 5 or 10 min
utes; then set in the lower part of the boiler and steam for
5 or 6 hours. Stir it once in a while. Oatmeal is best
cooked one day and served the next morning, to insure its
being well cooked.
NOTE. Berries, sliced peaches, bananas, apple sauce,
and dates or figs cut in pieces are good additions to cereals.
6. Cornmeal Mush
1 c. cornmeal 1 c. cold milk
1 tbsp. flour 2 c. boiling water
\Y^ tsp.salt
Method. Mix the meal, flour, and salt together thor
oughly. Put in the upper part of a double boiler, add the
cold milk and stir until smooth. Add the boiling water
slowly and cook all directly over the fire for 10 minutes,
stirring constantly. Put in double boiler over boiling water ;
cover and cook 5 hours. Serve hot with cream and sugar.
6. Fried Cornmeal Mush
Method. Use cornmeal mush prepared as above, and
pack in a wet mold or bread pan. Set away to cool for
several hours. When cold cut in thin slices and saut6 in
hot butter or drippings in a hot frying pan, until well
browned on both sides. Serve plain or with butter or
maple sirup.
7. Left-overs of Cereals
Method. The cold cooked cereals may be cut in slices
J4 inch thick and sauted until a nice brown and served as
Rule 6. Or, grated cheese may be added and the cereal
made into croquettes and fried in deep fat.
LESSON 6
CARBOHYDRATES CEREALS. WHEAT
WHEAT has been called the king of cereals, since it is
the best for bread making and is cultivated in a greater
variety of soils and climates than any other cereal.
Source. Wheat is grown chiefly in Europe, the United
States, (in Kansas, Minnesota, the Dakotas, Nebraska,
Ohio) and Canada, India, The Argentine, and Australia.
Russia and the United States produce about one-third of
the wheat used.
History. Wheat was first used in the eastern countries,
in the earliest times. Mummies of old Egypt have
been found with wheat wrapped in them. It was carried
across to the western continents by the earliest explorers.
Kinds. Wheat is known as (1) spring wheat and (2)
winter wheat.
Spring wheat is sown in the spring and matures the
same season. This is a hard wheat rich in gluten and is
the wheat from which most bread, flour is made.
Winter wheat is sown in the fall and harvested the
following summer. It is softer and contains less gluten
than spring wheat. Pastry flour is made from winter wheat.
Structure. 1. Bran coats, there are three coats, or
layers, of bran, which contain most of the mineral matter,
and all ar,e removed in white bread flour. Graham flour
includes the entire kernel; whole-wheat flour, all but the
coarser bran.
2. The body of the grain, or endosperm, composed of
cells filled with the starch and protein. This nearly sur
rounds the vital part of the grain, or the germ.
(58)
CARBOHYDRATES CEREALS. WHEAT
59
3. Germ, the tiny plant that holds the life of the seed.
This is removed more or Jess, in the process of milling,
because it makes the flour yellow and injures its keeping
qualities.
Composition of Wheat. Wheat contains all the food
principles, and is rich in protein and
starch. See page 52 and compare with
other cereals.
Food Value. Wheat is high in food
value. It builds and repairs tissues and
gives heat and energy. It is so nutri
tious, so widely and cheaply grown, and
its cooking and baking qualities are so
favorable, that it has become the basic
food of the people of the civilized world.
Wheat bread is in reality the "staff of life."
Macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli, and
Italian pastes are made from a hard-
wheat flour that contains a large amount
of gluten. The Italians place macaroni in the same position
in their diet as we Americans do our bread.
Manufacture of Macaroni. The flour is mixed with hot
water to form a stiff paste. This is placed in a steam-
heated iron cylinder, the bottom of which is filled with
holes. The paste is forced through these holes by a press,
and comes out in the form of rods or threads, according to
the shape of the opening. These rods are then cut into
lengths suitable to handle and are hung up to dry for
four or five days. In Italy, macaroni is hung in the open
air on racks and is not as clean as that manufactured in our
own country, where it is dried on racks in large, clean drying
rooms for the purpose.
Spaghetti is in the form of rods and is solid and smaller.
Fig. 7. Diagram
matic section of a
wheat kernel: a, bran
coats; b, aleurone
layer; c, germ; d, body.
(U. S. D. A. Bui.)
60 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Vermicelli is solid, thread-like, and smaller still than
spaghetti.
Appearance. Good macaroni is rough, yellowish in
color, and breaks clean without splitting. When cooked it
swells and is elastic and firm.
Food Value. Macaroni is rich in gluten and starch,
and is both a tissue-building and an energy-giving food.
Combined with protein foods, like milk, eggs, or cheese, it
makes an inexpensive dish that is a good substitute for
meat.
Cooking Macaroni. Owing to the starch, macaroni
absorbs about three times its weight of water and must
therefore be cooked in plenty of water.
Wash macaroni thoroughly when tender to remove out
side starch, preventing it from sticking together.
To Butter Crumbs. Sift crumbs in a strainer first to
make them fine. Add }/% c. melted butter to 1 c. of dry
breadcrumbs, mix thoroughly before using.
To Grate Cheese. Use a dry cheese that will grate, but
do not pack in measuring it. Grate on a common grater.
APPLICATION
1. Boiled Macaroni
Method. Break the macaroni into inch pieces. Drop
into boiling salted water, allowing 1 tbsp. of salt to 1 qt. of
water. Cook until tender, 20 to 25 minutes, or until it can
be easily pierced with a fork. Keep plenty of water on to
cover while cooking. When tender, pour into a colander
and wash thoroughly in cold water to remove the starch
that causes the pieces to stick together. Season, and serve
with thin white sauce or with Tomato Sauce.
2. Baked Macaroni with Cheese
1 H c. macaroni 1 c. thin white sauce
H c. grated cheese 1^ c. buttered crumbs
CARBOHYDRATES CEREAL 8. WHEAT 61
Method. Prepare the macaroni as for boiled macaroni.
Butter a baking dish, put in a layer of boiled macaroni ; then
cover with one-half of the white sauce, half of the grated
cheese and one-half the buttered crumbs. Then add the
remainder of the macaroni, sauce, cheese, and crumbs.
Bake in a moderate oven until the crumbs are nicely
browned and the sauce boils up around the sides.
(Each two use 4 sticks macaroni, 2 tsp. cheese, and % c. white sauce.)
3. Baked Macaroni and Tomato
Method. Use 1J^ c. of stewed tomatoes in place of the
white sauce, and arrange the macaroni in layers with the
tomato and crumbs in place of the white sauce and the
cheese.
4. Tomato Sauce
2 tbsp. butter 1 c. strained tomato
2 tbsp. flour y% tsp. salt
Pepper
Method. Make according to White Sauce, using the
strained tomato in place of milk. Or use half tomato and
half milk, and add a speck of soda to keep it from curdling.
6. Macaroni and Dried Beef
2 c. cooked macaroni ^ Ib. dried beef
2 c. medium white sauce, without salt
Method. Alternate layers of macaroni and finely cut
dried beef in a buttered baking dish. Cover each layer
with white sauce and buttered crumbs. Bake in the oven
until brown on the top.
DIGESTION AND ITS RELATION TO COOKERY
Purpose of Digestion. The food that we eat, as we
have learned, nourishes the body. Every living cell that
composes the tissues must have food particles brought to
it by the blood in order to grow or produce energy. This
means that the food as eaten must be reduced to a very
fine state to enable it to pass into the blood and be used in
the body. This process of dissolving the usable portions
of food is called digestion. The parts of the body that have
this work to do are called the digestive organs, and the
organs that form the path through which the food passes
form the alimentary canal.
How Food Is Dissolved. The greatest changes that
food undergoes in digestion are brought about by sub
stances called enzymes, or ferments, which are contained in
the different digestive juices. These ferments have the
power to reduce foods to simpler substances that dissolve
in liquids and pass readily into the blood. In some way
they bring about great changes and are not themselves
affected. There are many of these ferments, each acting
on a different class of food.
In the Mouth. In order to make it easy for the digestive
juices to act, the food is first ground fine in the mouth by
the teeth. The saliva softens the food and makes it easy
to swallow. At the same time the ptyalin in it begins to
act on % starch, changing it to sugar.
In the Stomach. In the stomach the food is mixed with
the gastric juice secreted from the walls of the stomach.
This juice contains the ferment rennin, which curdles milk.
and pepsin, which partially dissolves proteins. The stom-
(62)
DIGESTION AND ITS RELATION TO COOKERY 63
ach by muscular movement churns the food and makes it
like moderately thick soup, and gradually passes it into
the small intestine.
In the Intestines. In the small intestine digestion goes
on most extensively. Here the bile from the liver, the
pancreatic juice from the pancreas, and the intestinal juice
from the walls of the intestine pour in and are mixed with
the food. Starch is changed to simple sugars, proteins are
changed to simpler substances, and fats are emulsified.
Here also by far the largest part of the food is absorbed
into the blood and lymphatics.
In the large intestine the processes of digestion and
absorption continue at a slower rate, until all digestible
food substances are absorbed. The indigestible matter is
finally eliminated from the body.
Relation of Cookery to Digestion. In the proper diges
tion and nutrition of the body, one thing depends upon
another. Food cannot be digested without the aid of gen
erous quantities of the digestive juice; and when there is
no flow of the digestive juices, there is no appetite. Some
things which influence appetite and digestion are:
1. Foods vary greatly in ease of digestion, due to dif
ferences in composition and structure. It is important to
know these differences.
2. Foods differ also in their effects on the body. Some
kinds are needed for their tonic effects, some for their laxa
tive properties, and so on. It is essential to have variety
and balance in the diet.
3. The method of cooking may be favorable or un
favorable to digestion. Some foods should not be cooked;
others, only in certain ways. It is important to know the
effects of cooking on food.
64
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
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DIGESTION AND ITS RELATION TO COOKERY 66
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(66 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
4. Pleasing flavors stimulate the flow of gastric juice
and create appetite. Knowledge of the use of soups,
extractives, and seasonings, and how to retain natural
flavors is useful.
5. Even the sight of food may influence the appetite
for it. It is of value to know how to serve food properly.
6. Thorough mastication and mixing of the food with
saliva in eating is a very helpful aid to digestion.
7. Moderation, not over-eating or eating at all hours,
is necessary in order not to exhaust the stomach or cause
indigestion or other disorders of the body.
8. A pleasant frame of mind when eating, induced by
pleasing surroundings, agreeable company and conversa
tion, and absence of worry, all favor good appetite and
:good digestion. To have all things contribute to cheer
fulness at mealtime, is a supreme test of good housekeeping.
It will be seen that those who control the selection and
preparation of food have far-reaching influence on the health
and, therefore, on the happiness of those whom they serve.
It is the purpose of domestic science studies to teach the
principles of foods and their preparation and use, and the
application of those principles.
LESSON 7
CARBOHYDRATES FRUIT
Definition. Fruits, in the popular sense, are the seed
vessels of plants.
COMPOSITION OF FRUIT
Fruit
Protein
per cent
Carbohy
drate
per cent
Fat
per cent
Cellulose
(crude
fiber)
per cent
Mineral
matter
per cent
Water
per cent
Apples . .
.4
13.
.5
12
.3
84.6
Apricots
1.1
13 4
5
85
Bananas
Blackberries
Cherries
1.3
1.3
1.
21.
8.4
16.5
.6
1.
.8
1.
25
.2
.8
,5
6
75.3
863
80.9
Cranberries
.4
8.4
.6
1.4
1 5
88.9
Currants
1.5
12.8
.7
85.
Grapes
1.3
14.9
1.6
4.3
.5
77 4
Oranges
.8
11.6
.2
.5
86.9
Peaches
.7
5.8
.1
3 6
4
894
Pears
1.
15.7
.5
1.5
4
809
Pineapples
.4
9.3
.3
.4
.3
89.3
Plums
1.
20.1
5
78.3
Black raspberries. .
Red raspberries ....
Strawberries
1.7
1.
1.
12.6
9.7
6.
1.
.6
2.9*
1.4
.6
.6
.6
84.1
85.8
90.4
DRIED FRUITS
Apples . . ,
1.6
62.
2.2
6.1
2.0
26.1
Apricots
4.7
62.5
1.
2.4
29.4
Currants
2.4
71.2
1.7
3
45
17 2
Dates
2.1
74.6
2.8
3.8
1 3
154
Fies .
4.3
68.
.3
6.2
2.4
18.8
Pears
2.8
66.
5.4
6.9
2.4
16.6
Prunes
2.1
71.2
2.1
2.3
22.3
Raisins
2.6
73.6
3.3
2.5
3.4
14.6
Composition. Fresh fruits contain water (75 to 90 per
cent), sugar, cellulose, acids, and salts, with very little,
if any, protein or fat. When ripe, fruits contain no starch,
(67)
68 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
for the ripening process changes the starch to sugar and
gums. One of the gum-like substances is pectin, a sub
stance in plants similar to gelatin in meat.
Kinds. There are many kinds of fruit. The most com
mon fresh fruits are apples, peaches, pears, cherries, plums,
grapes, bananas, pineapples, and berries.
Food Value. Most fresh fruits are low in food value;
but they refresh and cool the system and furnish us with
mineral salts, of sodium, calcium, phosphorus, etc., which
purify the blood. The large amount of cellulose aids
digestion, as it supplies bulk to the food and excites the
flow of the digestive juices. The acids which fruits contain
stimulate the appetite for other food. Dried fruits have
for their chief food value a high percentage of sugar.
The common dried fruits are prunes (dried plums),
raisins (dried grapes), figs, dates, apricots, and apples.
Rules for Eating Fruit. 1. Use only sound, ripe fruit.
Unripe fruit is not digestible, unless cooked, and overripe
fruit is of inferior flavor and is apt to interfere with diges
tion.
2. Fruit from street venders should not be used, as it
is nearly always too ripe and unclean.
3. Do not eat acid foods with milk or cream. Why?
4. Cook overripe fruit to make it safe for use.
5. Use sweet fruits, as dates and figs, with cereals, since
they supply the necessary sugar.
6. Do not swallow the tough skins of fruits or the
seeds of such fruit as the grape and apple.
7. Serve fruits cold.
8. Serve fruits in season. They are more economical.
Care of Fruit. 1. Fruit should be kept covered and
cool.
CARBOHYDRATES FRUITS 69
2. Wash or wipe off all fruit when it comes from the
market. Rinse off berries quickly and drain.
3. Do not soak fruit, as it loses its flavor.
4. Cook fruit in dishes other than tin, as the acid acts
on tin and forms a poison dangerous to the body.
5. Pare peaches just before serving, for they discolor
quickly.
Cooking Fruit. Fruit is usually either baked or stewed.
Baking is used with large, watery, whole fruit; as, peach
es, apples, or pears.
Stewing. Cut large fruit in pieces. Leave small fruit
and berries whole. Put into a saucepan with one-half as
much water as fruit, and allow Y to J^ c. of sugar to each
pint of fruit. The juice must cover the fruit. If it does
not, add more water. Cook fruit until soft, but not mushy.
If more sugar is needed, add it when nearly done. If the
sirup is too thin, remove the fruit and boil down the sirup;
then pour it back over the fruit. Hard fruits, like quince,
should be cooked until tender before adding the sugar.
Cook cranberries and strawberries without sugar; add it
just at the last. The berries are a brighter red and the
jelly clearer than when cooked with the sugar, besides
less sugar will be required. Why?
Dried fruit. Wash fruit well in several waters. Soak
the fruit in fresh water several hours or over night. Cook
until tender ; then sweeten to taste and cook a few minutes
longer. /.
APPLICATION
1. Baked Apples
Method. Pare and core good, uniform apples. Put
into a baking pan, fill the center of each apple with sugar,
and add a bit of butter on the top. Add enough water to
cover the bottom of the pan. Cinnamon or nutmeg may
70 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
be sprinkled on top if desired. Bake in a hot oven
until soft; baste with the juice in the pan.
2. Apple Sauce
6 tart apples Small piece of lemon rind
^ c. water 6 whole cloves (if desired)
Yz c. sugar
Method. Wipe, core, peel, and quarter the apples.
Some apples may be cooked with the peel. Put the water,
sugar, and lemon rind into a saucepan and cook 4 or 5
minutes; then add the apples. Cook until tender, being
careful not to mash the apples much ; remove the lemon peel
and cloves and serve cold. If apples are quite soft and
cook up much, mash them or put through a vegetable press.
(Each two use 1 apple.)
3. Cranberry Sauce
1 pt. cranberries 1 c. sugar
2 c. water
Method. Pick over and wash the cranberries. Put
into the saucepan with the water and cook about 10 minutes;
then add the sugar che last few minutes of cooking. Cran
berries cooked without the sugar, and uncovered, retain
their color and make a clearer sauce.
(Each two use % rule.)
4. Stewed Prunes
1 Ib. prunes J^j c. sugar
1 qt. water 2 or 3 slices of lemon
Method. Wash the prunes thoroughly; put in clean
water and let soak over night. Next morning put the
prunes on to cook in the same water they soaked in ; cook
slowly, covered, till the skins are soft. Add the sugar and
the lemon juice when nearly done. Apricots are cooked
in the same way.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
CARBOHYDRA TES FRUITS
71
6. Fruit Cocktails
These are served as an appetizer at the beginning of
a dinner, and may be made from a variety of fruits. Serve
them in dainty tall glasses, or in baskets made from half
oranges or grapefruits.
Orange and Grapefruit. Mix equal parts of diced
orange and grapefruit pulp. Sprinkle with sugar and a
little lemon juice. Place on ice until chilled. Fill the
chilled glasses just before
serving, garnish with
wedges of fresh or pre
served pineapple and a
candied or Maraschino
cherry.
Strawberry and pine
apple make a nice com
bination, as do also grape
fruit and strawberries.
Watermelon. Cut
with a vegetable cutter
into little one-inch balls.
Chill and serve in a tall
glass with chipped ice.
Garnish with mint. Fig. s. A fruit cocktail.
LESSON 8
SOUPS
Kinds. There are two kinds of soup: (1) soups with
stock and (2) soups without stock.
Soups with stock have as a basis the juices of meats,
and are divided into several classes, which we shall study
in connection with the meat lessons.
Soups without stock have as a basis milk or cream,
together with the pulp of vegetables. There are three
divisions of soups without stock:
(a) Cream soup, made of vegetables or fish together
with milk, cream, and seasoning or with a thin white sauce.
(b) Purees are made of boiled vegetables or fish put
through a strainer, together with a thin white sauce. These
contain more vegetables than the cream soups and are
therefore thicker.
(c) Bisques are made of shellfish or vegetables with
thin white sauce, and are served with fish dice.
Soups without stock, when allowed to stand, separate;
that is, the vegetables separate from the milk or cream,
unless bound together. Materials that bind or keep the
solid part from settling to the bottom are called binding
materials, examples of which are flour and cornstarch.
The best way of binding materials is by using a thin
white sauce.
Left-over vegetables or those too old to serve whole are
good for use in cream soups. They make an economical
dish, as well as a very nourishing one. Removing the
hard cellulose fiber by forcing the pulp through a strainer
makes cream soups very easily digested.
(72)
SOUPS 73
General proportions for cream soups or soups without
stock are: About one half as much vegetable pulp as
white sauce, plus the seasoning salt and pepper.
Proportions for white sauce:
2 tbsp. butter Salt and pepper
1 tbsp. flour to 1 c. of milk
If the vegetables contain a large amount of starch, use
less flour. If lacking in starch, use from 1 to 3 tbsp.of flour.
Name an example where less flour is necessary.
Name an example where more flour is necessary.
General Directions for Soups without Stock.
1. Cook the vegetables in water until very soft; then
press them through a vegetable press or strainer. Add
the water in which the vegetables were cooked.
2. Make the white sauce in a double boiler, using
Method 2, Lesson 4.
3. To make the soup richer, use part cream instead of
all milk, or add beaten egg or a couple of spoonfuls of
whipped cream to the soup just before serving.
4. Combine vegetable pulp and white sauce and serve.
Do not let soup stand long, as it is likely to become too thick.
5. Serve soups very hot.
6. Serve crisp crackers or toasted bread in sticks or
cubes with soup.
Vegetables best suited for soups are: potatoes, peas,
beans, celery, tomatoes, asparagus, carrots, and turnips.
Onionsare used for additional flavoring in any soup, if desired.
Food Value. Soups without stock have a higher food
value than soups with stock. The milk or cream of the
white sauce furnishes the protein to build and repair tissue
and the vegetables contain starch and mineral substances.
Soups are easily digested, are nourishing, and are appetizers
for the courses that follow.
74 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
APPLICATION
1. Cream of Pea Soup
1 pt. can of peas 1 tsp. sugar
1 pt. cold water 1 qt. thin white sauce
Method. Boil the peas in the water until soft. Rub
them through a coarse strainer or vegetable press, and to
the pulp add the water the peas were cooked in. Make a
thin white sauce and combine with the peas.
(Each 2 use % c. white sauce and % c. peas.}
2. Cream of Corn Soup
1 pt. can of corn 1 slice onion
1 pt. cold water 1 qt. thin white sauce
Method. The method is the same as in Cream of Pea
Soup.
3. Cream of Potato and Cream of Celery Soup
Method. These are both made with the same propor
tions and in the same way as Cream of Corn Soup.
(Each 2 use same basis as in 1.)
4. Cream of Tomato Soup
1 c. tomatoes 1 pt. milk
J4 tsp. soda 2 tbsp. butter
2 tbsp. flour 1 tsp. salt
Pepper
Method. Cook the tomatoes for 10 minutes. Remove
from the fire, strain, and add the soda. Return to the fire
and keep hot until ready to serve. Make a thin white
sauce of the rest of the ingredients, using Method 1 , Lesson 4.
Keep sauce hot until ready to serve. Immediately before
serving pour the tomato into the white sauce. This soup
will curdle if combined too long.
(Basis for 2 girls, % c. white sauce, % c. tomatoes.}
5. Croutons
Method. Cut slices of bread ^ inch thick; then cut
into cubes. Put in the oven and toast to a delicate brown.
Serve with soup.
(Housekeepers prepare croutons for class.}'
LESSON 9
PROTEIN EGGS
THE eggs most commonly used in cooking are hens' eggs,
although eggs from other domestic fowls and wild birds are
used where available.
Structure. A hen's egg consists of the following parts :
1. The shell.
2. Two tough membranes just inside the shell.
3. The white, a clear, jelly-like substance.
4. The yolk, which is surrounded by a thin membrane
and held in place by
5. Two twisted cords.
6. The embryo, in the yolk. This embryo is the living
part of the egg, from which the chick grows, much as the
wheat grows from the germ in the grain. The contents of
the egg furnish the embryo food, just as the starch does the
germ of the grain.
7. Air space, found at the large end of the egg. between
the two membranes.
Composition. The shell is composed of mineral matter,
chiefly lime.
The white, or albumen, is nearly pure albumin and water.
Albumin is a sticky substance, and is a protein.
The yolk contains much fat or oil, some albumin, mineral
matter, and water. The mineral matter consists of phos
phorus, calcium, iron, lime, and sulphur.
What food principle is lacking in eggs?
COMPOSITION OF EGGS
Protein Fat Mineral matter Water
14.9% 10.6% 1% 73.5%
(75)
76 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Food Value. Owing to the large amount of protein in
eggs, they are valuable as a tissue-building food, and may
be used as a meat substitute. One pound of eggs, usually
about nine, contains as much nutriment as one pound of
meat.
Raw eggs and those properly cooked are very easily
digested and assimilated in the body.
Trace protein through the process of digestion.
Tests for Fresh Eggs. 1. Fresh eggs have slightly
rough shells.
2. Fresh eggs sink to the bottom in a pan of cold water.
Stale eggs float. What is the reason for this?
3. Fresh eggs are clear when placed between the eye
and a bright light in a dark room. Stale eggs are cloudy.
This method of testing is used extensively in egg markets
and is called "candling."
Care of Eggs. 1. As soon as eggs come from the mar
ket wipe any soiled ones with a damp cloth, and put only
clean, fresh eggs in the ice box.
2. Keep eggs in a cool, dry place.
3. Do not keep in a place containing food with strong
odovs, which eggs readily absorb.
4. Egg yolks will keep fresh for some time if covered
with clean, cold water and kept in a cool place.
Uses for Eggs. Eggs are used very extensively in the
dietary and m cooking. Name as many uses as you can
and state why they are so used.
Preservation of Eggs. Preserve only fresh, clean eggs
in the spring and early summer, when they are plentiful and
cheap. Any method which excludes the air helps to keep
eggs fresh. The packing or preserving material for eggs
must be absolutely clean, since eggs are easily tainted in
flavor. Eggs may be preserved in the following ways:
PROTEIN EGGS 77
1. Pack dry in sawdust, salt, bran, oats, or sand, with
the small end down.
2. Put in jars containing salt brine, limewater, or
water glass enough to cover the eggs.
3. Coat with paraffin, lard, or oil.
4. Put in cold storage.
What is the object of preserving eggs? What causes
eggs to spoil?
The Water-glass Method. The water-glass method is
the most satisfactory home means of preserving eggs, and is
very easily applied. For every quart of water glass (silicate
of soda) solution use 9 quarts of boiled water that has been
cooled. Mix the ingredients thoroughly and put into a
clean stone jar. Place the eggs in the solution and see that
all are covered by several inches of the liquid. Keep the
jars in a cool place and well covered to prevent evaporation.
Eggs preserved in this manner are as good as fresh eggs
for all cooking purposes.
The Cold Storage Method. Eggs are produced in great
est abundance in the spring and summer months. For
merly they were very plentiful and very cheap during those
months, and very scarce and expensive in the winter. Now,
the cold storage system and refrigerator cars have changed
this. Both the time of marketing and the market area of
eggs have been extended, and as a result egg prices have
become more uniform throughout the year.
When properly handled and kept at a temperature just
above freezing, 32 to 40F., cold storage eggs are whole
some. They are usually kept not over eight or nine
months.
EFFECT OF HEAT ON ALBUMEN
Experiments. 1. Put some egg white into a tumbler
of cold water and shake or beat well. Notice any results.
Tf DOMESTIC SCIENCE
2. Put some egg white in boiling water. What hap
pens?
3. Put an egg into boiling water, remove from the fire
and let stand ten minutes. Notice the consistency of the
white.
4. Put an egg into boiling water and boil ten minutes;
remove from the fire and compare with the result of Experi
ment 3.
5. Put an egg into cold water and bring to the boiling
point. Remove from the fire and compare with Experi
ments 3 and 4.
From the experiments what do you find is the correct
temperature for cooking albumen? Why? Compare with
the temperature for cooking starch.
Cooking of Eggs. Eggs and egg mixtures must be cooked
at a moderate temperature, of from 160 to 185 Fahrenheit.
How to Break an Egg. 1 . Hold the egg in the left hand
and strike it with a knife blade. Press the thumbs into
the crack and pull the shell apart.
2. Or strike the egg against the side of a mixing bowl
and then open with the thumbs.
To Separate White from Yolk. Crack egg, hold yolk
in one half of the shell and let the white run on a plate.
Then slip the yolk to the other half of the shell, holding the
edges of the shell together, and drain off all the white. Put
yolk into a bowl.
NOTE. Always break eggs separately into a dish to
make sure they are fresh before adding to other eggs or to
a mixture.
APPLICATION
1. Soft-Cooked Eggs
Method. (a) Allow about one pint of water, or enough to
cover two eggs. Place eggs in cold water in a saucepan.
PROTEIN EGOS Tf
Bring water to boiling point slowly. Remove eggs and
serve in hot cups.
(&) Place eggs in a saucepan containing enough boiling
water to cover. Let stand on back of the stove from 8 to
10 minutes.
2. Hard-Cooked Eggs
Method. Place eggs in a saucepan containing enough
boiling water to cover. Let stand where water will keep
hot, but not boil, for 40 or 45 minutes; or boil slowly for 8
minutes.
3. Poached Eggs
Method. Prepare a slice of buttered toast for each egg.
Cut with a round cutter or muffin ring. Keep warm.
Have ready a shallow pan containing enough salted water
to cover the eggs (let the water boil and then remove pan
to back of stove). Break each egg separately into a saucer
and slip it gently into the water, being careful that water
does not reach the boiling point. Cook until the white is
firm and a film forms over the top of the yolk. Remove the
egg from the water with a skimmer or a griddle-cake turner.
Drain, and place the eggs on toast. Garnish with parsley,
if you like. An egg poacher may be used.
(Basis for 2 girls, 1 egg.)
4. Eggs a la Suisse
4 eggs Salt
}4 c. cream White pepper
1 tbsp. butter Cayenne
2 tbsp. grated cheese
Method. Melt butter in a small omelet pan ; add cream.
Break eggs separately into a saucer and slip gently into the
pan, one at a time; sprinkle with salt, pepper, and a few
grains of cayenne. When whites are nearly firm, sprinkle
with cheese. Finish cooking, and serve on buttered toast.
Strain cream over the toast.
80 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
5. Baked Eggs
Method. Butter a ramekin or muffin tin. Line with
fine cracker crumbs. Break egg into a cup and slip into
ramekin; season, and cover with buttered crumbs. Bake
in a moderate oven until crumbs are brown.
6. Baked Egg in Potato
Method. Remove inside of each baked potato, mash
and season. Refill shell, leaving room for an egg. Break
the egg into the potato, bake until firm.
Eggs may also be baked in small tomatoes. Cut a
slice from stem end of tomato. Scoop out pulp and
slip in an egg. Season, cover with buttered crumbs, and
bake.
7. Stuffed Eggs
1 tsp. vinegar 1 tbsp. melted butter
J^ tsp. mustard Salt and pepper
Hard-boiled eggs
Method. Put eggs into cold water, bring slowly to boil
ing point, and boil 3 to 5 minutes. Drop into cold water.
Remove shell, cut egg in half lengthwise, take out the yolk,
mash, mix with mixture, and refill whites.
8. French Toast
2 eggs 1 c. milk
% tsp. salt 6 slices of bread
Method. Beat the eggs slightly, add salt and milk.
Strain and dip the bread in the mixture, cook on a hot
well greased griddle until brown, turn and brown the other
side.
The center of each piece of bread may be cut out
with a small biscuit cutter and after it is placed on the
griddle an egg slipped into the center of each piece. Saute
as plain French Toast.
LESSON 10
PROTEIN EGGS (Continued)
Beating Eggs. Eggs are beaten in order to introduce
air into a mixture. The elasticity of the albumen of the
egg makes it possible to enfold air into the egg. Is it pos
sible to introduce air into materials like sirup, flour, paste,
etc.? Why not?
Ways of Beating. 1. Beat yolks in a bowl with a
Dover beater.
2. Beat whites on a platter or in a large bowl with a
wire whisk or a fork.
Consistency when Beaten. Yolks when well beaten
are thick and lighter colored than before beating.
Whites are beaten stiff when the whisk comes out clean.
Whites are beaten dry when the gloss is gone and the
beaten mixture comes off the beater easily.
Methods of Combining Mixtures. (1) Stirring, (2)
beating, (3) folding, and (4) cutting.
Stirring is used in combining when air is not neces
sary to the ingredients. Use circular motion, round and
round until all is mixed.
Beating is used to introduce air into a mixture, and
is done by lifting the mixture up and over on a spoon with
a rapid movement. Continue until the mixture is full of
bubbles.
Folding is used (a) to add a beaten mixture to another;
as, in adding beaten whites to a batter; or (b) to add ingre
dients, as baking powder, for example, to a batter having
beaten eggs in it, without breaking the air bubbles already
contained in the mixture.
6 (81)
82 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Folding is done by carefully turning the mixture over
and over and drawing it constantly f-om the bottom of
the bowl to the surface.
Cutting is mixing by means of kni /es, as is done with
shortening.
APPLICATION
. 1. Puffy Omelet
3 eggs 1 A tsp. salt
3 tbsp. water White pepper
1 tbsp. butter
Method. Separate yolks from whites of eggs. Beat
yolks until thick; add water and salt. Fold in beaten
whites of egg. Melt butter in an omelet-pan , turn in egg
mixture, spread evenly, cook slowly, occasionally turning
the pan so that the omelet may brown evenly. Then
when it is well puffed up and delicately browned underneath
place pan in not oven to finish cooking the top. The
omelet is cooked if it is firm to the touch when pressed with
the finger. Fold, and turn on a hot platter. Serve at once.
(Basis for 2 girls, 1 egg.)
To Fold an Omelet. Hold the omelet pan by the handle
with the left hand. Crease the omelet slightly across the
center at right angles to the handle of the pan. Slip the
spatula under the edge of the omelet farthest from the
handle of the pan and, tipping the pan up, fold the omelet
over half way towards the handle. With the right hand
invert a hot plate over the pan, and with a quick movement
turn the omelet out of the pan upon the plate. Garnish
with parsley and serve immediately. The success of an
omelet of this kind depends upon the amount of air en
closed in the egg and the expansion of the air in cooking.
2. Fancy Omelets
A fancy omelet may be made by the addition of grated
cheese, minced ham, or other meat sprinkled over the top
PROTEIN EGGS
Folding an omelet.
84 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
just before folding. Parsley, oysters, or vegetables finely
cut may also be used.
A sweet omelet is made by spreading soft jelly or pre
serves and powdered sugar over the top.
3. French Omelet
3 eggs 1^ tsp. salt
1 tbsp. hot water or milk 1 tbsp. butter
Pepper
Method. Beat eggs slightly, add water and seasoning.
Heat the omelet pan, melt the butter and let it run over the
bottom and sides of the pan. Turn in the mixture, and cook
slowly. When thick at one side, roll the mixture over to
the other side, like a jelly roll. When all is evenly cooked,
roll out upon a hot plate. Garnish and serve.
One egg is allowed to each person for any omelet.
4. Scrambled Eggs
5 eggs y% tsp. salt
Yz c. milk % tsp. pepper
2 tbsp. butter
Method. Beat eggs slightly, add salt, pepper and milk.
Melt butter in an omelet pan, turn in egg mixture and cook
slowly, scraping from the bottom and sides of the pan
when the mixture first sets. Cook until creamy. Turn
it upon a hot dish and serve at once.
5. Scrambled Eggs with Tomato Sauce
6 eggs 2 tsp. sugar
1% c. tomato sauce 1' slice onion
4 tbsp. butter > tsp. salt
Pepper
Method. Simmer tomatoes and sugar. Fry onion in
butter 3 minutes, and add eggs which have been slightly
beaten and added to tomato sauce. Add a speck of soda
to the tomato sauce. Stir slowly until eggs are cooked
and jelly-like.
PROTEIN EGGS 85
6. Eggs a la Goldenrod
3 hard-boiled eggs % tsp. salt
2 tbsp. butter }/% tsp. pepper
2 tbsp. flour 5 slices toast
1 c. milk Parsley
Method. Mix flour and butter together until smooth;
add the milk slowly, stirring constantly; cook until smooth.
Add salt and pepper. Separate yolks from whites of eggs.
Chop whites fine and add them to the sauce. Cut 4 slices
of toast in halves lengthwise, arrange on platter, and pour
the sauce over them. Force the yolks through a strainer
and sprinkle over the top. Garnish with parsley.
7. Creamy Omelet
1 c. white sauce No. 11 3^ tsp. salt
3 eggs 1 tbsp. fat
Method. Follow the rule for puffy omelet, using ^ c.
of white sauce in place of the water. When the omelet is
done, turn into a hot platter and pour the remainder of the
white sauce around it. Peas, cheese, or meat cubes may be
added to the white sauce before pouring around the omelet.
LESSON 11
PROTEIN MILK
Milk is such a common and important food and is so
closely connected with the public health that it deserves
careful study. Good milk is a yellowish-white liquid with
a faint odor and a sweet taste. When allowed to stand, a
thick cream rises to the top, and there is no sediment.
Rich milk clings to the sides of the glass; poor milk has a
bluish-white color and forms little cream.
Composition. Different samples of milk may vary
greatly in composition, especially in the amount of fat. An
average composition is as follows:
Water Protein Carbohydrates Fat Mineral matter
87% 3.3% 5% 4% .7%
The protein in milk is casein and albumin, in the pro
portion of about six to one. The casein is precipitated by
the presence of acid, as when lactic acid is formed in the
souring of milk. The ferment rennin, found in the stomach
of milk-drinking animals, also causes coagulation of the
casein. The albumin is coagulated by heat.
The carbohydrates of milk are in solution in the form
of lactose, or milk sugar. A part of this is changed to lactic
acid by the action of the bacteria that cause milk to sour.
The fat in milk is held in suspension in the form oi
minute globules, so finely divided that as many as ten billion
may be contained in a single drop. These gradually rise to
the surface, forming cream.
The mineral salts include all those found in the animal
body, such as lime, phosphates, potash, and others.
(86)
PROTEIN MILK 8?
Food Value. Milk is a complete food, since it contains
all the food principles, and therefore builds and repairs
tissues and gives heat and energy. It serves much the same
purpose to the young of animals as the egg serves the
unhatched chick. The large amount of water in milk is
useful for the young in building and filling out the tissues.
For an older person, however, milk contains too much
water and not enough carbohydrates; about five quarts a
day would have to be consumed to supply the body needs.
Yet milk is really a concentrated food, since fully a third of
the solid portion is protein and an ther third is fat. These
nutrients are in such finely divided form as to be very
easily digested. This is especially true when milk is taken
along with other foods. Milk should be sipped slowly, and
the greatest benefit is derived when taken at regular inter
vals or at night before retiring.
Souring of Milk. As has been explained, milk is soured
by lactic acid produced by bacteria. When milk is warm
the bacteria increase very rapidly, thus hastening souring.
The acid separates the protein (casein) from the water and
forms the curd (the thick part), leaving the whey (the liquid
part). The whey contains, besides water, nearly all of the
milk sugar, which gives to it its chief food value. Clean
fresh milk carefully handled to exclude dirt should keep
sweet for several days.
Adulteration of Milk. The fat is so valuable for cream
or butter that sometimes much of it is removed before the
milk is sold. The commonest method of adulteration is to
add water, which, unless much is added, is hard to detect.
What is worse, chemical preservatives are sometimes
added to kill bacteria or retard their growth, in order to
keep the milk sweet and carry it great distances. The
chemicals used are boric acid, formalin, and salicylic acid.
88 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
These are very harmful, especially to infants, and conceal
unclean methods of handling milk. Such milk can be
detected when it does not sour easily or becomes thick and
develops a bitter taste. State and national pure-food laws
and city ordinances are gradually doing away with these
abuses.
Purchase and Care of Milk. No other food so quickly
absorbs odors and impurities and requires more careful
handling than milk. It is often a common way of spread
ing certain diseases, such as diphtheria, typhoid, and scarlet
fever. The secret of clean milk is, production under clean
surroundings, prompt cooling, and keeping it cool and pro
tected from dust and dirt until it is used in the home. Some
rules to follow are:
1 . Buy milk from sources you know to be clean and pure.
2. Buy milk in covered bottles rather than in bulk.
3. Keep milk in scalded glass or earthen dishes, or in
the original bottles.
4. Keep milk cold, for then germs develop much less
rapidly.
5. Keep milk from flies, dust, and odors by keeping
covered.
Pasteurization. In times of disease epidemics or when
there is a suspicion that the milk is not pure, it is pasteur
ized to kill dangerous germs. Pasteurization consists in
heating the milk to a temperature of from 150 to 180 F.
for 20 minutes or more and then rapidly cooling it to 50 F.
or lower. Pasteurized milk is not necessarily clean milk,
in fact sometimes farmers and dealers rely too much on this
system and are not so careful to maintain a pure product.
Pasteurization can easily be done in the home.
Sterilization consists in heating milk to the boiling
point for 15 or 20 minutes. The process may be repeated
PROTEIN MILK 89
after an interval to make the result doubly certain. This
destroys practically all bacteria in it, but it has the disad
vantage that the taste is spoiled for many persons and also
that the mifk is probably made less digestible.
Scalding Milk. Heat milk in a double boiler until
bubbles appear around the edge of the milk. This occurs
at about 160 F. and this heating makes milk safer for use,
as it kills many forms of germs. Boiling milk or scalding
it too long makes it less digestible. What substance in
milk should be cooked below the boiling point?
Condensed Milk. This is milk that is evaporated in
vacuum pans to one-third or one-fourth its original bulk
and then sealed in air-tight cans, in which it will keep indef
initely. Sometimes cane sugar is added to increase its keeping
qualities. Condensed milk enables milk to be carried and
kept in many places, such as on board ship and in the
tropics, where fresh milk is not obtainable. When it is
to be used, increase its volume two or three times by adding
water. It may then be used the same as fresh milk.
APPLICATION
1. Baked Custard
4 sc. c. scalded milk % c. sugar
4 to 6 eggs 1 tsp. vanilla
Few gratings of nutmeg Pinch of salt
Method. Beat the egg slightly, add the sugar, and
then the scalded milk slowly. Add the flavoring and stir
until the sugar is dissolved. Pour into cups or into one
large baking dish, grate a little nutmeg on top, set the cups
in a pan of hot water and bake in a moderate oven until a
knife piercing it will come out clean. Do not allow the wa
ter in the pan to boil. Serve cold. This serves 7 persons.
(Basis for 2 girls. */$ rule,.\
90 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
2. Soft Custard
Method. Same recipe as for Baked Custard. Combine
ingredients by same method, but cook in a double boiler.
Stir constantly until the mixture forms a coating on the
spoon. Remove instantly from the hot water; flavor, and
cool.
(Basis for 2 girls, Y% rule.)
3. Caramel Custard
4 c. scalded milk 1 tsp. vanilla
4 eggs or 6 yolks 1 c. sugar
Method. Melt the sugar to a light brown sirup in a
saucepan over a hot fire. Add the scalded milk very
gradually and cook until free from lumps. Pour this
gradually into the slightly-beaten eggs. Add the flavor
ing and bake as in Baked Custard.
(Basis for 2 girls, 24 rule.)
4. Chocolate Custard
2 c. milk }/$, sq. Baker's chocolate
3 eggs 2 tbsp. water
3^ c. sugar ]/2 tsp. vanilla
Pinch of salt
Method. Scald the milk. Melt the chocolate, add half
the sugar and the water, and cook until smooth. Pour
the scalded milk into the chocolate mixture and stir until
it is smooth. Add the eggs slightly beaten, the remainder
of the sugar, and the salt. Strain into buttered molds
and bake the same as Baked Custard. Whipped cream
or -a meringue is nice added to the top.
6. Custard Souffle
2 tbsp. butter 1 c. milk
2 tbsp. flour 4 eggs
2 tbsp. sugar Fresh or preserved fruit
(Peaches or apricots are best)
Method. Scald the milk in a double boiler. Stir the
flour and the butter together, add the scalded milk grad-
PROTEIN MILK 91
ually, and cook 5 minutes, stirring constantly. Beat the
egg yolks and add the sugar; then add to the milk. Set the
mixture away to cool. When cool add the stiffly beaten
whites of eggs, pour into a buttered baking dish, and bake
30 minutes. Serve at once. Fresh or preserved fruit is
very good with this, and is added in a layer at the bottom
of the dish and the custard souffle poured over it.
Tapioca may be used in place of the flour to make a
pleasing change in the rule.
LESSON 12
MILK PRODUCTS
THE chief products derived from milk are cream, butter,
and cheese.
CREAM
Separation of Cream. Formerly milk was allowed to
stand in pans or cans and the cream skimmed off by hand.
Now the cream separator is used everywhere to separate
cream from milk. In this machine the fresh milk is made to
revolve very rapidly, causing the heavier parts to be thrown
outward and the cream to be crowded to the center. The
skim milk passes off through one spout and the cream
through another.
Standard Cream. Cream is required by law to contain
at least 18 per cent butter fat. The amount of fat may
vary from 10 to 40 per cent or more. The value of cream, of
course, is directly in proportion to the amount of fat it
contains, other factors, like cleanliness, being the same.
Whipping cream is best when it contains 25 per cent
or more of fat and is from 12 to 24 hours old. Pasteurized
cream and separator cream will whip readily if it is at first
kept cold, down 'to about 30 F., for about two hours.
Skim Milk. After the cream is removed from milk,
what remains is skim milk. It contains about 4 per cent of
protein and nearly 5 per cent milk sugar, which makes it
a cheap, nutritious food. It should sell for about half the
price of whole milk.
Where whole milk is purchased, the cream may be
removed for separate use and the skim milk used in cooking,
since fat in some other form is usually added to a cooked
(931
MILK PRODUCTS 08
dish. This decreases the cost of milk and does not affect
the flavor of the dish; and cream is quite an expensive
food.
Skim milk may be used for cream soups, white sauces,
cakes, etc., in place of whole milk.
BUTTER
Manufacture of Butter. Butter is made from the fat
of milk by the process of churning, which causes the fat
globules to collect into granular masses. It is then washed
to remove protein matter, which decomposes easily, and
is salted to preserve it and give it flavor. It is then made
into prints or packed into tubs for the market.
Butter may be made from either sweet or sour (ripened)
cream. Sweet-cream butter has a very delicate flavor and
does not possess good keeping qualities because it is not
usually salted. The ripening of the cream and the added
salt give to butter a stronger flavor which is preferred by
most persons and makes it better suited for marketing
purposes. Nearly all the butter made in the United
States is produced in well-regulated creameries.
Composition of Butter. The law requires that standard
butter should contain not less than 82.5 per cent of milk
fat, for the butter-maker can make butter with little or
much water as he chooses. One authority gives the fol
lowing as an average composition : A
Fat Casein Salt Water
85% 1% 3% 11%
The quality of butter depends on the breed of cow, the
kind of feed given, but principally on the care with which
the milk and cream are handled. Butter has the best
color and flavor in the spring and summer when the cows
are on fresh grass. The flavor is influenced greatly by
14 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
the kind of bacteria that develops in the milk and cream.
The cattle of the Guernsey breed produce butter of a natural
ly rich, yellow color.
Food Value. Butter is one of the most easily digested
fats, and is very appetizing and healthful. With what
foods should it be eaten, and why?
Buttermilk is the part of the milk or cream that remains
when the butter has been removed. It has very much
the same composition and food value as skim milk, being
a cheap and wholesome tissue-building food. The nutri
ents are very easily digested, and the acid is believed to
exert a healthful influence in the body and is especially
recommended to those suffering from stomach disturbances.
Butter Substitutes. Nutmargarines, oleomargarines
and vegetable oils are the chief butter substitutes. Oleo
margarine has for its basis beef fat, lard, vegetable oil and
milk. Nutmargarine is made from the extracted oil of
nuts. When properly prepared they are clean and nutri
tious, and are much better than the butter from small
dairies where the standards and sanitary conditions are
not of the best. They may be substituted for butter in
cooking, and are more economical. The odors from old
and rancid butter are often removed by melting the butter
and blowing air through it, after which the material is
churned in milk and then resold as renovated butter.
To distinguish butter substitutes from butter, dis
solve a small quantity in a saucepan and bring to a boil.
Beef fats boil noisily and make little foam; butter makes
very little noise and much foam.
CHEESE
Cheese is the casein and fat of milk, drained, salted,
and pressed. It is an important means of putting milk,
a bulky and perishable food, into concentrated form, ena-
MILK PRODUCTS If
bling it to be stored for future use and transported to dis
tant markets.
Manufacture of Cheese. Sweet cow's milk is most
used in cheese making, but milk from the goat and ewe are
are also used to some extent. Most of the cheese produced
in this country is made from whole milk, but cream, par
tially-skimmed milk, and skim milk are also used, depend
ing on the kind of cheese and the desires of the manufac
turers.
The main steps in the making of cheese are nearly the
same in all varieties. The casein and fat are precipitated
by means of rennet. The curd is then finely divided and
the whole mass is heated to a temperature from 96 to
108 F., resulting in the complete separation of the curd
from the whey, which is drawn off. The curd is then salted
and pressed and set away to cure, or ripen, for the market,
The curing process, which may last from a few days to a
year or longer, depending on the kind, results largely in
the development of flavors in cheese. This is brought
about by the action of various kinds of bacteria and molds.
By varying the fat content and the manner of handling
the milk and curd, and by regulating the kind of bacteria
or mold in the ripening process, many varieties of cheese
are made.
Kinds of Cheese. It is hard to classify the hundreds
of kinds of cheeses being manufactured. In general, they
may be divided as hard and soft cheeses, depending largely
on the amount of water they contain. They are also sold
as cream, whole-milk, and skim milk cheeses, depending
upon whether fat has been added to or taken from the
milk.
More than 300 million pounds of cheese are made yearly
in the United States, and three-fourths of it is known as
96 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
factory or American cheese, which is a variety of the kind
known as cheddar. "Full cream" American cheese is made
from whole milk; "cream" cheese, from cream; and "skim
milk" cheese, from milk with all or much of the fat removed.
Many of the foreign varieties are made and used in America
and much foreign cheese is imported.
Hard Cheese. Among the more common varieties of
hard cheese are the following:
Cheddar. This is a mild-flavored cheese most common
in this country. The American variety usually contains
more water; whereas that made for export is firmer, contains
less water, and is of better flavor. We need to learn to
appreciate and demand the better make. When fresh it
is rather soft, but when well matured is hard and grates
readily. It is made in various forms, much in large cakes
15 or more inches in diameter and 5 or 6 inches thick.
Pineapple is in smaller and more convenient form, being
pressed firm and solid in the shape of a pineapple. Sage
cheese is made with the addition of sage for flavor.
Swiss cheese is readily distinguished by its sweetish,
mild flavor and by its large holes or eyes. Much of it is
made in this country.
Edam cheese is made in Holland, and is round in form
and stained red.
Parmesan is a very hard Italian, skim-milk cheese,
often sold grated. It keeps well in any climate, but is
rather high in price.
Soft Cheese. Soft cheese is made for immediate use.
Most varieties are relished for their high flavor; others,
such as cream and cottage cheese, are not cured but are
ready for use almost as soon as made. Some varieties are:
Neufchdtcl is made from whole or skim milk, is pressed
into small rolls or blocks, and then set away for about four
MILK PRODUCTS
97
weeks to be cured by a special mold which penetrates
through every part. It comes wrapped in tinfoil.
Camembert has a pasty consistency, with a decided odor
and flavor, which is produced by a reddish-brown mold.
It is marketed in small, round, wooden boxes.
Limburger is made from either whole or skim milk, and
has a reddish-yellow rind. Its odor is distasteful to most
persons.
Roquefort is a soft or semi-soft cheese and contains a
blue mold. It is made in France from sheep's milk and
is cured in caves that have just the right, uniforrrt tem
perature.
Cream cheese, true to name, is made from sweet cream,
and is sold under various brands.
Dutch, or cottage, cheese is made from sour skim milk.
Composition of Cheese. The composition of cheeses
varies. In general, they may be regarded as composed of
about one-third protein, one-third fat, and one-third water.
The following table gives the composition of a number of
common varieties, as reported by various authorities:
THE COMPOSITION OF CHEESE
Kind
Water
Protein
Fat
Sugar ^
Mineral
matter
Cheddar (green)
Swiss
Per cent
36.80
36.10
Per cent
23.75
28.00
Per cent
33.75
29 50
Per cent
0.00
3 30
Per cent
5.70
3 10
Cream
Full cream
Skim milk
36.33
38.00
46.00
18.84
25.35
34.06
40.71
30.25
11.65
1.02
1.43
3.42
3.10
4.97
4.87
Limburger . . . .
35.70
34.20
24.20
3.00
2.90
Food Value. Cheese has a high food value. Nearly
all of the protein and fat of a gallon of milk is contained in
98 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
the pound of cheese made from it; it is therefore a very
concentrated food. In general, it may be said that a
pound of ordinary cheese is equal in food value to about
two pounds of ordinary meat, a dozen or more eggs, and a
pint of dried peas or beans. It may therefore be used as a
substitute for meat, and is so used in many European
countries.
The latest experimental evidence goes to show that
while cheese may remain in the stomach a little longer than
some other foods, due to the fact that the fat is so closely
bound up with the protein, yet it is completely and easily
digested in quantity without harmful results. In selecting
cheese, it must be remembered that the stronger flavored
varieties are much higher in price and are to be regarded as
luxuries. The mild varieties have an equally high food
value, are comparatively cheap, and could well be used
more extensively in place of meat in American homes.
Cheese should be eaten along with bread, rice, macaroni,
or similar food, to balance the carbohydrates and to furnish
more bulk. When used at the close of a full meal, instead of
as a part of it, cheese is likely to overtax the system with
much protein and fat, unless proper care is taken in plan
ning the meal.
Coofeng Cheese. Cheese may be served in a great
variety of ways. It is used with eggs and milk to make
fondu, souffles, or rarebit; and is added to macaroni, pota
toes, omelet, or creamed vegetables to form a substitute for
meat. It is served with salads or on toasted crackers and
in cheese straws. Cheese does not require long cooking,
which toughens it, but is sufficiently cooked when melted.
There is nothing to show that properly cooked cheese is any
harder to digest than that uncooked.
MILK PRODUCTS 99
APPLICATION
1. Cheese Souffle
2 tbsp. butter Y^ c. grated cheese
2 tbsp. flour 3 egg yolks
}/2 c. scalded milk 3 egg whites
y% tsp. salt Cayenne
Method. Melt the butter, add the flour, and, when well
mixed, add the scalded milk gradually. Cook until it
thickens, and then remove from the fire. Add the salt,
cayenne, cheese, and the well-beaten yolks. Cool the mix
ture and add the well-beaten whites by cutting and folding.
Pour into a buttered baking dish and bake 20 minutes
in a slow oven. Serve at once. This serves 6 or 8 persons.
(Basis for two, % rule.}
2. Cottage Cheese
Method. Place thick, freshly-soured milk or butter
milk over a pan of hot water, not boiling. When the milk
is warm and the curd separates from the whey, drain in a
cheesecloth and dry. Put the curd into a bowl and add
salt, pepper, and cream to taste.
3. Cheese Straws (a) *
Method. Roll pastry J^ inch thick, and sprinkle one-
half with grated cheese. Fold, press edges firmly together,
fold again, pat and roll out J^ i ncn thick. Sprinkle with
cheese and fold and roll out a second time. Cut into strips
5 inches long and }4 i ncn wide. Bake 8 minutes in a hot
oven. Serve with salad. Cheese straws are good made
out of left-over pie dough, and may be kept and freshened
in the oven.
4. Cheese Straws (&)
% Ib. grated cheese H$ Ib. butter
YL Ib. flour
Method. Cream the butter and stir into the flour, add
the cheese and mix it in well. Add enough milk to soften
100 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
it for kneading. Knead it, and roll thin about J/g
thick. Cut in even sticks, as in rule (a) and bake until a
light brown. Serve with salads. This rule makes 75 to
100.
5. Cheese Balls*
2 eggs 1 c. grated cheese
A few fine bread crumbs
Method. Beat the whites of eggs to a stiff froth, add
the cheese and the bread crumbs, and roll into small balls
about 1 inch in diameter. Roll the balls in the yolks of the
eggs, then in the fine crumbs, and fry in deep fat until a
light brown color. Serve with salads.
6. Welsh Rarebit
1 Ib. American cheese, grated 2 eggs
1 tsp. butter A few grains cayenne
1 c. cream or milk 1 tsp. mustard
1 tsp. salt M tsp. soda
Squares of toast or crackers
Method. Break the cheese in small pieces, or if hard
grate it. Put it in a double boiler or chafing dish over a
pan of hot water. Have the toast prepared and hot. Beat
the egg well and add the seasoning, milk and soda to the
egg. When the cheese is melted, stir in the egg mixture
and the butter and cook 2 minutes or until it thickens a
little. Serve on the hot toast or crisp crackers. If the
cooking is not quite long enough the cheese is tough and
stringy, and if cooked too long there is danger of curdling.
Many use ale instead of cream. This serves 6 or 8 persons.
7. Welsh Rarebit (without eggs)
An inexpensive rarebit may be made without eggs
by making a medium white sauce and adding grated
cheese, seasoning of salt, cayenne and mustard.
* Recipes 3 and 5 may not be applied until later.
LESSON 13
BEVERAGES
A beverage is anything that we drink, either to quench
thirst or for its refreshing and stimulating effects. Water
is the best and most commonly used beverage. Other com-
.mon ones for the table are tea, coffee, cocoa, chocolate, and
the juices of fruits.
TEA
Source. Tea is made from the leaves of a shrub grown
extensively in Japan, China, India, and Ceylon. Different
qualities of strength and flavor in tea are due chiefly to the
age of the leaves when picked and
to the method of curing them.
The young and tender leaves and
buds yield teas of the highest
quality.
Kinds and Manufacture.
There are two kinds of tea, green
and black, with many varieties or
brands of each.
Black tea is made by first
allowing the leaves to wilt rather
slowly, after which they are rolled,
allowed to ferment and turn black,
and then dried in an oven. Ex
amples of black tea are Pekoe,
Oolong and English Breakfast.
Green tea is made in a similar
way to black tea, except that the curing process is done
more rapidly and the leaves are first wilted at a tempera-
(101)
Fig. 10. Tea plant, showing
parts to be plucked for the better
grades of tea. (U. S. D. A. Bui.)
102
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
ture high enough to kill the fermenting agents, thus pre
serving the green color. Hyson and Gunpowder are two
common commercial varieties of green tea.
Composition. The most important substances in tea
are theine, a stimulant; tannin, a harmful astringent; and
a small amount of volatile oils, which give flavor and aroma.
Black tea is milder than green tea. The theine is what we
desire to extract from the leaves, and just a few minutes'
steeping in water that has been brought to the boiling point
is sufficient to dissolve out nearly all of it. Boiling or too
long steeping draws out
much of the tannin, which
is undesirable.
Food Value. Tea itself
has no food value. It is
used for its mild stimulat
ing effect upon the ner
vous system and because
it removes the sense of
fatigue. Poor tea or tea
taken in excess produces a
hindering effect on diges-
Fig. 11. A serviceable teakettle, with alcohol tion and, wi til many per-
sons, causes irritation and
sleeplessness. Children require no stimulants, and their
health is best promoted without tea.
Adulterations. Cheap grades of tea are likely to be
adulterated with tea dust, etc., and injurious substances
are sometimes used to imitate the color of green tea.
COFFEE
Source. Coffee is made from the berries of a tropical
evergreen grown principally in Brazil, Arabia, Java, Ceylon,
BEVERAGES , 108
and East India. About three-fourths of the world's coffee
comes from Brazil. Each berry has two seeds.
Kinds. Coffee grown in Arabia (Mocha coffee) is of
fine quality, and is a small, dark-yellow, round berry. Java
and East India coffees are pale yellow before roasting. Cey
lon and Brazilian coffees are a green gray. A combination
of Mocha and Java makes an excellent coffee.
Adulteration. Coffee is frequently adulterated with
roasted chicory, acorns, and parsnip roots. Good coffee
does not sink in cold water, and does not quickly discolor
cold water.
Composition. Coffee contains a stimulating substance
called caffeine, which is the same thing as theine in tea. It
also contains some essential oils and tannin. So much more
of the injurious tannin in coffee is extracted by long boiling,
and so little more of the good element, that coffee should
not be allowed to boil longer than a few minutes.
Food Value. Coffee itself has no food value. It stimu
lates the nerves, brain, and heart, and the tannin has a
hindering effect on digestion. Because it is usually made
stronger, it has a greater stimulating effect than tea. For
most persons, good coffee taken moderately at the close of
a meal has a beneficial effect. Children should avoid coffee,
as well as tea; they need no stimulants.
Care of Coffee. 1. Buy good, freshly roasted coffee,
unground, and grind it as it is needed.
2. Keep it in an air-tight jar.
3. Never let coffee stand in the coffeepot between
meals.
4. Use a clean, enamel coffeepot, and scald out after
using.
5. Do not use soap in washing out the coffeepot.
104 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
COCOA AND CHOCOLATE
Source. Cocoa and chocolate are products from the
seeds of the cacao plant, which is grown chiefly in the trop
ical countries of America.
Manufacture. The cacao bean-pod is from 7 to 10
inches long and 3 or 4 inches in diameter. Each pod con
tains twenty to forty seeds. They are fermented in heaps
on the ground for several days, to develop their flavor; then
the beans are dried and roasted, the covering is removed,
and they are sold as "cocoa nibs." Some of the fat is
extracted from the cocoa nibs, and the rest of the bean is
pulverized and mixed with sugar and a little starch. This
is sold as cocoa.
Chocolate has not as much of the fat removed. Some is
sweetened and flavored, and some is sold as bitter chocolate.
The fat obtained .from the cocoa bean is sold as cocoa butter,
and is used for medicinal and other purposes.
Composition. The cocoa bean contains nearly 50 per
cent fat and 10 to 15 per cent starch, with a little protein.
It contains a substance called theobromine, which is similar
to caffeine, but is much milder.
Food Value. The fat and protein in cocoa and choco
late combined with the milk used in the preparations make
them both nutritious foods. Chocolate is richer in fat and is
harder to digest than cocoa. Cocoa makes a nourishing
drink for children and invalids. Both have a slightly stim
ulating effect on the body.
APPLICATION
1. Tea
3 tsp. tea 2 c. water
Method. Put the tea into a scalded earthen or china
teapot and pour the freshly boiled water over it. Moder-
BEVERAGES 105
ately hard water is best. Cover and allow to steep 3 to 5
minutes. Serve with sugar and cream if desired, or with
sugar, a clove, and a thin slice of lemon. Avoid all second
brews, which contain more of the harmful tannin. Tea
should always be freshly made and should never be boiled.
For iced tea, make tea, strain, and set on ice 3 or 4 hours.
Serve with broken ice and a slice of lemon in each glass.
2. Coffee (a)
YZ c. ground coffee ^ c. cold water
2 eggshells (crumbled) or Y^ 3% c. boiling water
egg white
Method. Mix coffee, egg white or shells, and % cup of
cold water thoroughly. Add boiling water. Boil coffee 3
minutes and move coffeepot to back of the stove. Pour a
little of the coffee into a cup to free spout from grounds.;
pour it back into the coffeepot and add % cup cold water.
Let it stand for 10 minutes where it will keep hot but not
boil. Serve with sugar and cream, if preferred, which are
put into the hot cup before the coffee is poured in.
Coffee (6)
]/2 c. ground coffee 4 c. cold water
2 eggshells (crumbled) or y% egg
Method. Mix coffee, egg, and cold water. Allow it to
come to a boil and boil for 1 minute. Pour a little cold
water into the spout to settle coffee. Allow it to stand in a
Warm place for 10 minutes. Strain and serve in usual way.
3. Filtered Coffee
^ c. coffee 4 c. boiling water
Method. Put finely ground coffee into upper part or
strainer in the top of a coffeepot, and pour the boiling
water slowly upon it. Allow the water to filter slowly
through, then pour it out, and let filter through again. The
coffeepot must be kept hot while coffee is being made, but
106 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
filtered coffee must never be boiled. This produces a clear,
bright coffee and requires about 5 minutes for making.
Serve at once, or the bright flavor will be lost. (Makes 4
cups of coffee.)
4. Percolated Coffee
Method. Use same proportion of coffee as for Filtered
Coffee. Place the coffee in the strainer in the upper part of
the pot and let the water boil up through the tube, percolat
ing through the coffee into the lower part, where it is sent
boiling to the tube again. The glass top renders it easy to
see when the coffee is strong enough. The flame can be
turned low so as to keep the coffee hot but not boiling.
6. After-Dinner Coffee
Method. Allow 2 tablespoonfuls finely ground coffee to
each large coffee cup of freshly boiled water. Filter accord
ing to directions given.
6. Chocolate
1 sq. Baker's chocolate Pinch of salt
2 tbsp. sugar 1 qt. hot milk
2 tbsp. hot water
Method. Put chocolate, sugar, salt, and 2 tablespoon
fuls of hot water in a pan. Cook until smooth, stirring
constantly, add gradually the hot milk. Boil for several
minutes. Serve with whipped cream or a marshmallow on
the top of each cup.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
7. Cocoa
1 pt. scalded milk 2 tbsp. cocoa
1 pt. boiling water 2 to 4 tbsp. sugar
Method. Mix cocoa and sugar in a saucepan, stir in the
water gradually, and boil 5 minutes. Add the milk, and
cook 5 minutes longer or until smooth.
NOTE. If this is to stand, beat well to prevent the albu
minous skip from forming.
BEVERAGES 107
8. Lemonade
1 lemon (juice) V c. sugar
1 pt. water 2 thin slices of lemon
Method. Wash the lemon,, cut thin slices from the
center, and remove the seeds. Squeeze the juice into a
bowl, add the sugar, water, and cracked ice. Serve very
cold with a slice of lemon for each glass.
Note. Variations o! this lemonade may be made by
adding fruit juices or mineral water.
LESSON 14
QUICK BREADS THIN BATTERS
QUICK BREADS are mixtures of flour and liquid, together
with some sugar, salt, shortening, and a leavening agent.
They are so named to distinguish them from the yeast
breads, which require a longer time in making.
Quick-bread mixtures are either batters or doughs,
depending upon the amount of liquid used.
Batters are mixtures that are beaten. There are two
kinds :
1. Pour batters, which are in the proportion of 1 meas
ure of liquid to 1 of flour.
2. Drop batters, which are in the proportion of 1
measure of liquid to 2 of flour.
Dough is a mixture that is kneaded. There are two
kinds :
1. Soft dough, in the proportion of 1 measure of liquid
to 3 of flour.
2. Stiff dough, in the proportion of 1 measure of liquid
to 4 or more of flour.
The proportions vary to some extent according to the
flour used.
Materials for Quick Breads. The liquids used are milk,
water, or molasses. Eggs are regarded as so much liquid.
The fats used are butter, lard, suet, or beef drippings. This
fat is spoken of as shortening, as it makes the mixtures
more tender. The flour used is wheat flour or meal (corn,
rye, or graham).
Leavening Agents. Flour mixtures when baked would
be very hard and indigestible if no leavening agent were
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QUICK BREADS THIN BATTERS 109
used. Air, steam, and carbon dioxide gas are the agents
used for this purpose.
Air is introduced into flour mixtures (1) by adding eggs
and then beating the mixture, or (2) by beating the
eggs first and adding to the mixture. Can you name a case
where air was used to make a mixture light? .
Steam. The liquid in a heated mixture is converted
into steam and is expanded many times. This puffs up the
mixture. The heat of the oven hardens the mixture and
holds the steam in. Mixtures without flour fall when cool,
as steam changes back to water when cold.
Carbon dioxide gas is produced in mixtures to lighten
them, by the addition of
1. Soda and an acid (cream of tartar, sour milk, or
molasses). Soda and cream of tartar riake baking powder.
2. Yeast, as in bread making.
Directions for Mixing Quick Breads.
1. Sift and mix the dry materials.
2. Add the wet materials to the dry.
3. Beat eggs separately and add to the mixture, and
beat thoroughly.
4. Rub or cut shortening in cold ; or melt and add to
the mixture.
5. Use a large mixing spoon.
6. Mix quickly and put into the oven to bake quickly.
Baking. Quick breads should be baked as soon as
mixed, in order to hold all the leavening material (air,
steam, and gas) in the mixture. This is especially neces
sary with thin batters, also those raised by air or those
raised by soda and liquid acids (sour milk and molasses).
The gas in the latter case is produced more readily in the
presence of moisture.
110 DOMESTIC SCIENCE .
Temperature of Oven. Different mixtures require differ-
er t temperatures, and most recipes designate the tempera-
ti re of the oven. In order to ascertain the temperature,
some simple tests similar to the following are used:
1. A moderate oven turns a piece of white paper golden
I irown in 5 minutes.
2. A hot oven turns a piece of white paper dark brown
in 5 minutes.
Pans. Grease pans thoroughly. Use a small brush
or a piece of paper for greasing.
The time for baking is divided into quarters, as follows:
1. Mixture rises.
2. Mixture continues to rise, and browns slightly.
3. Mixture finishes rising and browns all over.
4. Mixture finishes baking and shrinks from the pan.
Time Guide for Baking Quick Breads (with gas).
Pop-overs 30 min.
Biscuits (baking powder) 10 to 20 min.
Corn bread (thin) 15 to 20 min.
Corn bread (thick) . 30 to 40 min.
Muffins (baking powder) 20 to 25 min.
Gingerbread 30 to 45 min.
APPLICATION
1. Pop-overs (thin batter)
1 c. flour l /i tsp. salt
1 c. milk 2 eggs
Method. Put the flour in a bowl, make a well in the
center, and drop in' the salt. Add the milk gradually, and
stir well. When smooth add the unbeaten eggs and beat
hard until light. Bake in hissing hot muffin pans in a hot
oven 45 minutes. Serve hot. (Makes 8 pop-overs.)
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
QUICK BREADS THIN BATTERS 111
2. Sour Milk Griddle Cakes
2 c. flour 1 egg
1 tsp. soda ^ tsp. salt
2 c. sour milk
Method. Mix and sift the dry ingredients; add the
sour milk and egg well beaten. Bake by spoonfuls on a
hot, greased griddle. (Beat the batter well before pouring
a fresh batch of cakes on the griddle.) When puffed full
of bubbles and cooked on the edges, turn and cook on the
other side. Grease pan, and repeat. If large bubbles
form at once on the top of the cakes, the griddle is too hot.
If the top of the cake stiffens before the under side is
cooked, the griddle is not hot enough.
(Basis for 2 girls, l / rule.)
3." Griddle Cakes (baking powder, sweet milk)
3 c. flour % c. sugar
1 l /z tbsp. baking powder 2 c. milk
1 tsp. salt 1 egg
2 tbsp. melted butter
Method. Mix and sift the dry ingredients; beat egg,
add milk, and then add the wet mixture to the dry. Beat
thoroughly and add the butter. Cook the same as Sour
Milk Griddle Cakes. Begin cooking cakes at once or
more baking powder will be required.
(Basis for 2 girls, ^ rule.)
4. Bread Griddle Cakes
1 ^ c. fine stale bread crumbs 2 tbsp. butter
1 1/2 c. scalded milk 4 tsp. baking powder
2 eggs YL c. flour
Y 2 tsp. salt
Method. Add the milk and butter to the crumbs, and
soak until crumbs are soft; add eggs well beaten, then the
flour, salt, and baking powder mixed and sifted Cook the
same as other griddle cakes.
(Basis Jo* 2 girls. l rule.)
11* DOMESTIC SCIENCE
6. Waffles
1 c. milk K c. melted butter
2 eggs 2 sc. tsp. baking powder
Pinch of salt Flour to make soft batter (about
iMc.)
Method. Beat flour and milk, add butter, and beat.
Add the well-beaten yolks and beat again; then add baking
powder and a little salt and beat very hard for a few minutes.
Fold in the well-beaten whites lightly. Have iron very hot;
bake, and serve at once.
6. Brown Sugar Syrup
FOR WAFFLES AND CAKES
1 c. brown sugar 1 tbsp. butter
*4 c. water % tsp. vanilla
Method. Boil the sugar and water 5 minutes, then add
the butter and vanilla and serve hot or cold.
LESSON 15
QUICK BREADS BAKING POWDER
Composition. Baking powder is made up of substances
that react and form carbon dioxide gas in the presence of
heat and moisture. It contains one part of baking soda
(saleratus) and two parts of an acid (cream of tartar, phos
phate, or alum) with a little starch to keep it dry. Cream
of tartar is an acid substance obtained from the argols or
crystals formed on the inside of wine casks. Soda is an
alkaline product made from common salt and contains a
carbonate.
Experiments to show the action of soda and an acid :
1. Mix J4 tsp. of soda and J^ tsp. of cream of tartar.
What happens?
2. Add J4 CU P of c ld water to the mixture. What
happens?
3. Add J cup of boiling water to a similar mixture of
soda and cream of tartar. Compare the results with
Experiments 1 and 2.
Action of Baking Powder. Carbon dioxide gas is pro
duced rapidly by the action of baking powder in the pres
ence of a liquid and heat. As the bubbles of gas are
formed and expand they lift up the mixture and make it
light. Baking must be accomplished while the bubbles
are forming if best results are to be obtained. If too hot
an oven is used, a crust is formed before all the gas is liber
ated and as a result the bread is heavy. Quick breads
baked in too hot an oven often crack open on the top.
If too cool an oven is used the gas forms and passes
off before enough heat is present to produce a crust.
8 (113)
114 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Mixtures containing eggs do not require as hot an oven
since albumin is coagulated at a moderate temperature.
Kinds of Baking Powder. Baking powders are classed
according to the acid used; as (1) cream of tartar, (2)
tartaric acid, (3) phosphate, and (4) alum, baking powders.
Fig. 12. Muffins
The first three named are regarded as more healthful thar
alum powders, since they leave in the bread no harmfu 1
residues which are the objection to baking powders contain
ing alum.
The proportion of baking powder to use with flour i:
2 teaspoonfuls of baking powder to 1 cup of flour. If egg
are used in a mixture, use less baking powder. Why
APPLICATION
1. Muffins (plain egg)
2 c. flour Vi tsp. salt
3 tsp. baking powder 1 egg
4 tbsp. sugar 4 tbsp. melted buttfc?
1 c. milk
QUICK BREADS BAKING POWDER 115
Method. Mix and sift the dry ingredients, separate
the egg, beat the yolk slightly and the white to a stiff
froth. Add the milk, beaten yolk, and melted butter to
the dry ingredients. Fold in the stiffly-beaten whites.
Bake in buttered muffin pans 25 minutes.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.}
2. Blueberry Muffins
Add to the preceding plain-egg recipe :
1 c. blueberries 3/ c. sugar
Method. Mix the same as the plain-egg muffins. For
blueberry muffins use a little less milk.
(Basis for 2 girls, }/ rule.}
3. Rice Muffins
2^ c. flour 1 c. milk
% c. hot cooked rice 1 egg
5 tsp. baking powder 2 tbsp. melted butter
3 tbsp. sugar % tsp. salt
Method. Mix and sift the dry ingredients; add J^ the
milk and the well-beaten egg. Mix the remainder of the
milk with the rice and add to the first mixture, beating
thoroughly. Then add the melted butter and bake in
buttered muffin tins.
(Basis for 2 girls , 34 rule.)
4. Invalid Muffins
1 c. flour 1^ c. milk
1 tsp. baking powder 2 eggs (whites)
y% tsp. salt 2 tbsp. melted butter
Method. Mix and sift the dry ingredients, add the
milk gradually, the eggs well beaten, and lastly the melted
butter. Bake in a moderate oven in buttered gem pans.
After baking, let stand in the oven, with door open, until
the crust is dry and crisp. Serve hot or cold.
116 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
5. Date Muffins
\i c. butter % c. milk
^ c. sugar 2 c. flour
% tsp. salt % Ib. dates
1 egg 4 tsp. baking powder
Method. Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually
and the dates chopped fine. Cream all together, add the
beaten egg, then half of the milk, and half of the flour.
Beat thoroughly. Add the remainder of the milk and the
flour, beating hard. Sift the baking powder over the top
and carefully fold it into the mixture. Bake in hot greased
muffin pans for 20 minutes.
6. Oatmeal Muffins
(Conservation Recipe)
\ l Ac. milk 2 c. rolled oats
1 tbsp. syrup 1 c. wheat flour
1 egg 1 tbsp. oil
% tsp. salt 4 tsp. baking powder
Method. Pour the hot milk over the rolled oats, let
stand half an hour. Add the well-beaten egg, syrup, and
oil. Then add the dry materials sifted together. Beat
hard, turn into well-greased muffin pans and bake in a
moderate oven for ^ hour.
7. Potato Muffins
(Conservation Recipe)
1 c. mashed potatoes 1 c. milk
1 c. cornmeal 2 tbsp. oil
Y^ tsp. salt 1 egg
4 tsp. baking powder 1 tbsp. sugar
Method. Mix the dry material together. Beat the egg
well, add the milk and add the wet mixture to the dry.
Then add the oil and beat hard. Turn into well-greased
muffin pans and bake in a moderate oven twenty-five to
thirty minutes.
LESSON 16
QUICK BREADS CORN, THICK BATTERS
REVIEW leavening agents (Lesson 14).
CORN
Source. Corn is a native of America, and ranks first
in importance of all crops raised in this country.
Kinds. There are three kinds of corn of interest in cook
ery: (1) dent (field) corn, (2) sweet corn, and (3) pop corn.
Dent corn is large and coarse and is used for making
cornmeal, cornstarch, corn sirup, and hominy. Name
other uses.
Sweet corn is finer grained and contains sugar. It is
used as a table vegetable and is served both on the ear and
off the ear.
The Golden Bantam variety of sweet corn has very
yellow ears, and is sweeter and. more tender than any other
variety.
Pop corn has small, sharp, hard kernels. This corn
when exposed to the heat bursts open, and the inside of
the kernel, which is composed mainly of starch, swells into
a mass of fluffy white. It is served hot and fresh with salt
and butter, or with a sirup and made in the form of balls.
It may also be used as a garnish around red apples filled
with apple salad.
Composition. Corn is similar in structure and com
position to wheat, with the exception of the protein. Corn
contains more fat than wheat and the protein has not the
tenacious, elastic properties that gluten of wheat has.
It cannot be baked into a light, porous loaf. Cornmeal is
very heavy when used alone, and most recipes call for
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118
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
the addition of white flour, as the gluten in the flour helps
to hold the air in the mixture. Corn contains a small
quantity of cellulose compared with 'other grains.
COMPOSITION OF CORN FOODS
Protein
Fat
Carbohy
drates
Minerals
Water
Corn (whole)
10.5
5.4
71.7
1.5
109
Hulled corn
2.3
.9
22.2
.5
74.1
Hominy . .
8.6
.6
79.6
.3
10.9
Pop corn
10.7
5.0
78.7
1.3
4.3
Cornmeal
8.9
2.2
75.1
.9
12.9
CORN PRODUCTS
Hominy is the corn kernel with the skin removed and
may be either whole or cracked into coarse pieces. The
skin was formerly removed by soaking in strong lye, but
this is now done by machinery.
Cornmeal is made in two grades. A rather coarse meal
is made by grinding the whole kernel and removing only
the coarsest bran. This meal is darker in color than the fine
grade and does not keep well in summer, owing to the
large amount of fat in the germ. A fancy grade is made by
removing both the skin and the germ from the kernel and
grinding the remainder quite fine.
Cornstarch is the pure starch of the corn grain, made by
washing the flour. Potatoes are now coming to be used
more for this purpose.
Glucose, or corn sirup, is made by boiling corn starch
with dilute acid. It is about three-fifths as sweet as cane
sugar, and is wholesome for table use and for candies.
Corn Oil, a more recent product, is the pure vegetable
oil from the heart of the corn. It is purified and is an
excellent fat substitute for animal fat in all kinds of cook
ing.
QUICK BREADS THICK BATTERS 119
Food Value of Corn. Corn, being rich in fat and starch,
furnishes much heat and energy to the body. It is deficient
in protein and salts, which necessitates its being used with
foods containing tissue-building materials.
Corn meal cooked in the form of mush, hoe-cake, johnny-
cake, and brown bread is a very popular dish in the South
and in some European countries. Such food is easily
masticated and digested, may be quickly prepared, is cheap,
nutritious, and may well be used more extensively.
APPLICATION
1. Cornmeal Muffins
Yi c. cornmeal 1 tbsp. melted butter
1 c. flour ^ i/ tsp. salt
3 tsp. baking powder % c. milk
1 tbsp. sugar 1 egg
Method. 'Mix and sift dry ingredients, add the milk
gradually, then the egg well beaten, and the melted butter.
Bake in a hot oven in buttered gem pans for 25 minutes.
(Basis for 2 girls, Yi rule.}
2. Graham Muffins
1 c. graham flour 1 c. milk
% c. flour 1 egg
l /i c. sugar 1 tbsp. melted butter
1 tsp. salt 4 tsp. baking powder
Method. Same as for Cornrneal Muffins.
3. Corn Bread
1 c. cornmeal % tsp. salt
1 c. flour 1 c. milk
Y c. sugar 2 eggs
4 tsp. baking powder 4 tbsp. melted butter
Method. Mix and sift the dry ingredients, add the milk,
then the well-beaten egg, and lastly the melted butter.
Beat thoroughly. Bake for 25 minutes in a shallow but
tered pan in a moderate oven.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
120 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
4. Muffins (without eggs)
1 c. buttermilk 1 tbsp. sour cream
Yz tsp. soda 2 c. flour
Method. Mix and sift the dry ingredients together.
Then gradually add the wet mixture to the dry. Beat
hard and bake in hot muffin pans in a moderate oven for
20 minutes.
6. Southern Spoon Bread
2 c. milk Y 2 tsp. salt
1 c. corn meal 4 eggs
Method. Scald the milk, and slowly stir in the corn-
meal, add the salt and let boil 2 or. 3 minutes. Remove
from the fire, add the beaten egg yolks, beat well, then care
fully fold in the stiffly beaten whites of eggs. Pour into
a buttered baking dish and bake in a moderate oven Y^
hour. Serve hot from the baking dish at the table with
a large spoon.
6. Cereal Muffins
(Conservation Recipe)
1 c. barley flour 1 % c. milk
1 c. cornmeal 1 egg
1 c. wheat flour 1 tbsp. corn oil
4 tsp. baking powder 1 tbsp. corn syrup or molasses
1 tsp. salt
Method. Sift the dry ingredients together, add the wet,
beat hard and bake in a moderate oven % hour in well-
greased muffin pans.
LESSON 17
QUICK BREADS SODA
QUICK breads are often made light by the use of soda
with material containing acid, like sour milk or molasses.
The acid and soda form carbon dioxide gas throughout the
mixture, which causes it to rise. The acid material being
liquid, the action is quicker than when baking powder is
used, and mixtures raised in this way must be prepared
quickly and put in a hot oven at once.
Experiments to produce carbon dioxide gas with soda
and a liquid acid:
1. Put 34 tsp. of soda in J^ c. of sour milk.
2. Heat the mixture. Watch it.
The action in the case of soda gives the same results as
baking powder, and makes mixtures light.
Proportion of soda with acid material:
To 1 c. thick sour milk use J/ tsp. of soda.
To 1 c. of molasses use 1 tsp. of soda.
APPLICATION
1. Soft Molasses Gingerbread
1 c. molasses 2 hp. c. flour
% c. melted butter 2 tsp. ginger
\Y 2 tsp. soda ^ tsp. salt
1 c. sour milk Few drops of vanilla
Method. Put the soda into the sour milk, then add to
the molasses. Sift dry materials together and add the wet
to the dry; beat vigorously. Bake 25 minutes in buttered
muffin pans, having pans % filled with the mixture.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
NOTE. A few floured raisins might be added to this
recipe.
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122 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
2. Hot Water Gingerbread
1 c. molasses 1 Yz tsp. ginger
^ c. boiling water 1 tsp. soda
iy c. flour Yv, tsp. salt
4 tbsp. melted butter
Method. Add the boiling water to the molasses. Mix
and sift the dry ingredients and add the wet mixture to the
dry; then add the melted butter; beat hard. Pour in
buttered pan or muffin tins, and bake in a moderate oven
for 25 minutes.
J4 cup of floured raisins may be added to make a
variety.
3. Brown Nut Bread
2 c. graham flour Yz c. molasses
1 c. white flour ^ c. sugar
2 c. sour milk YL c. raisins
2 tsp. soda YL c. nuts
1 tsp. salt
Method. Mix the dry materials together; cut and flour
the raisins and the nuts or add them to the dry materials.
Add the sour milk to the molasses, and then add the wet
materials to the dry. Grease one-pound baking powder
cans thoroughly and pour in the mixture, cover, and let
stand an hour; then bake 45 minutes in a hot oven. This
makes 3 loaves. Fill cans only % full, for the mixture
rises before baking.
LESSON 18
QUICK BREADS FLOUR, SOFT DOUGH
FLOUR
Flour is made from cereals wheat, oats, barley, rye,
corn, buckwheat and rice.
Kinds of Wheat Flour. (1) Graham flour, (2) whole
wheat flour, (3) bread flour, (4) pastry flour. Turn to les
son 6, on wheat. Notice the structure of wheat, also note
the difference between spring and winter wheats.
Graham flour is made by grinding the entire grain of
spring wheat, including the outer bran coverings.
Whole-wheat flour is made by grinding the whole grains
of spring wheat, with the exception of the two outer and
coarser bran coats.
Bread flour is made by grinding the remainder of the
grain of spring wheat after the bran coats and much of the
germ are removed.
Pastry flour is made from the starchy part of the grain
of winter wheat. The outer bran coats and the germ are
not used.
; Manufacture of Flour. Wheat is taken into the mill
and carefully washed to remove all dust. It is soaked to
soften it some, then passed between either millstones or
rollers, which grind the grain. There are two chief methods
of breaking or grinding the grain, but that used in the best
mills for high-grade flour is called roller milling. The wheat
may pass through as many as eight different sets of rollers,
each crushing or grinding finer than the preceding. After
each grinding, the fine flour is sifted, or bolted, through silk
cloth of different degrees of fineness. Many by-products*
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124 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
as, bran, middlings, shorts, etc., are produced. Graham and
whole-wheat flour are usually ground between millstones,
in one operation. The flour is finally packed into barrels
and sacks, ready for the market. A barrel of flour weighs
196 pounds, and sacks may be had containing 24J^, 49,
and 98 pounds.
Grades of Flour. There are many grades of flour made
in every mill. The grade depends upon the quality of the
wheat and upon the sorting in the milling process. Inferior
flour is sometimes sold as best flour, and we pay the price of
the best. We must be able to detect poor flour and to
demand a grade of flour worth the price we pay.
Composition of a bread flour is as follows:
Protein Carbohydrates Fat Mineral matter Water
11.3% 74.6% 1.1% .5% 12.5%
How to Tell Good Flour.
1. In color it is white with a yellowish tinge.
2. It has a gritty feeling, not being too smooth and
powdery.
3. It absorbs water readily.
4. It falls loosely apart after being squeezed in the
hand, indicating that it does not contain too much moisture.
5. Good bread flour makes an elastic dough.
Experiments to determine the presence of starch and
gluten:
1. Test flour with iodine for starch.
2. Make a cup of flour into a stiff dough with a little
cold water. Knead in a strainer set in a bowl of water for
a few minutes. What washes away? What is the nature
of the substance that is left?
3. Compare bread flour and pastry flour.
QUICK BREADS SOFT DOUGH
APPLICATION
Demonstrate Baking Powder Biscuit: (a) Method of
cutting in shortening, (b) Method of handling dough on
a board.
1. Baking Powder Biscuit
2 c. flour 4 tsp. baking powder
2 tbsp. shortening 1 tsp. salt
% c. milk
'Method. Mix and sift the flour, baking powder, and salt.
Cut in the shortening, using two knives, or rub in with the
Fig. 13. Baking powder biscuits.
tips of the fingers. Add the milk gradually, mixing with a
knife, to make a soft dough. Transfer to a well-floured
board, and pat or roll out to one inch thickness. Handle as
lightly and quickly as possible. Cut with a biscuit cutter,
first dipped in flour. Place close together on a greased
pan, and bake in a hot oven 10 to 15 minutes.
(Basis for 2 girls, }/% rule.)
2. Emergency Biscuit
2 c. flour 4 tbsp. butter
% c. milk 4 tsp. baking powder
Yi tsp. salt
126 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Method. Mix and sift dry ingredients; chop in butter
with knives; then add the milk, and do not stir more than
necessary. Bake in buttered gem pans.
(Basis Jor 2 girls, }/ rule, with ^ c. milk.}
3. Nut Bread
4 c. flour 1 c. chopped nuts
1 tsp. salt 2 c. milk
4 hp. tsp. baking powder l /2 c. sugar
1 egg
Method. Sift dry ingredients and add nuts. Beat the
egg, add the milk, and stir wet mixture into dry. Put
in well-greased bread tins. Let stand about 20 minutes to
rise. Bake }/ hour in a moderate oven. This makes 2
loaves.
' 4. Fruit Roll
Baking Powder Biscuit Rule J^ c. chopped raisins and nuts
Method. Prepare the biscuit dough and pat or roll out
on a slightly floured board to the thickness of Y^ inch.
Sprinkle with finely cut raisins and nuts and a little sugar.
Begin at one end and roll up. Cut into pieces one inch
thick and bake on pans in a hot oven about 20 minutes.
Serve hot for luncheon or tea.
6. Barley Biscuit
(Conservation Recipe)
3 c. barley flour 6 tbsp. baking powder
4 tbsp. fat 1 tsp. salt
1 c. milk
Method. Same as for any baking powder biscuit.
LESSON 19
VARIETIES OF BAKING POWDER BISCUIT DOUGH
BAKING powder biscuit dough is made richer and sweeter
when used for desserts shortcakes and dumplings but
the method of preparation is very much the same as for
biscuits.
APPLICATION
1. Shortcake, Peach
2 c. flour 4 tsp. baking powder
4 tbsp. shortening (butter or l /i tsp. salt
lard) % c. milk
1 tsp. sugar
Method. Mix and sift the dry ingredients, cut in the
shortening as for baking powder biscuit. Add enough milk
Fig. 14. Individual peach shortcakes.
gradually until the mass adheres together. Turn out on a
Slightly floured board and pat out to }/% inch in thickness.
Cut in size to fit tins and put one piece on top of the otner,
with butter between. (Individual shortcakes may be made
by cutting with a cutter and placing one piece on top of the
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MB DOMESTIC SCIENCE
other.) Bake in a hot oven for 20 minutes; then split open
ready for fruit.
To prepare peaches, peel them, cut in small slices, and
sprinkle with sugar. Have the fruit warm, place some on
the lower half, put other half of cake on top, and put fruit
over the whole. Serve with cream or whipped cream.
(Basis for 2 girls, Y rule.}
2. Berry Shortcake
Method. Make shortcake same as for peach shortcake.
Sweeten berries to taste, and warm. Crush slightly and
put between and on top of the shortcake.
LESSON 20
VARIETIES OF BAKING POWDER BISCUIT DOUGH
(Continued)
REVIEW batters and doughs. Review baking powder.
APPLICATION
1. Apple Dumplings
1 c. flour 2 tbsp. shortening
2 tsp. baking powder ^ c. water or milk
Y tsp. salt 4 apples
% c. sugar
Method. Mix and sift flour, baking powder, and salt.
Cut in the shortening with knives, add the liquid, mixing
to a soft dough. Roll on a well-floured board to % inch
thickness. Wipe, pare, and cut apples in halves. Cut
dough in 4- or 5-inch squares. Place half an apple in
center of square, and sprinkle with sugar and cinnamon.
Moisten edge of dough; bring the four corners together
around the apple. Pierce with a fork to allow steam to
escape. Bake on a greased tin in a moderate oven until
soft, about 25 minutes. Serve warm with cream or any
pudding sauce.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
2. Dutch Apple Cake
2 c. flour 1 egg
Yt tsp. salt % c. milk
3 tsp. baking powder 2 sour apples
M c. butter 2 tbsp. sugar
% tsp. cinnamon
Method. Mix and sift the dry ingredients except sugar
and cinnamon, cut or rub in the butter, add the milk
and beaten egg. Spread J^ inch thick on a shallow pan.
9 (129)
130 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Pare and cut the apples in sections lengthwise and set in
rows on the dough with the sharp edges pressed lightly into
the dough. Sprinkle the top with sugar and cinnamon.
Bake in a hot oven 25 or 30 minutes. Serve hot with lemon
or hard sauce.
3. Vanilla Sauce
^2 sc. c. of sugar 1 c. boiling water
1 tbsp. corn starch or 2 of flour 1 tsp. vanilla
1 tsp. butter
Method. Mix sugar and corn starch in a sauce pan.
Pour on the boiling water, stirring rapidly. Boil and stir
until clear, add butter and vanilla. Serve hot or cold.
4. Lemon Sauce
Yi c. sugar 2 tbsp. butter
1 c. boiling water \Y^ tbsp. lemon juice
1 tbsp. corn starch Few gratings nutmeg
Pinch of salt
Method,. Mix the sugar and corn starch, add the water
gradually, stir constantly. Boil 5 minutes, remove from
fire, add the butter, lemon juice, and nutmeg. Serve hot.
(Housekeepers make full rule.}
5. Hard Sauce
% c. butter Y tsp. lemon juice
1 c. powdered sugar % tsp. vanilla
Method. Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually
and the flavoring. Set away to get cold. Serve cold.
LESSON 21
STEAMED MIXTURES
General Directions for Steaming Mixtures. 1. Use a
tin mold or can with a tight-fitting cover.
2. Grease the inside of the mold and the cover thor
oughly.
3. Fill cans only % full.
4. Tie covers on securely.
5. Set mold on a rack in a kettle containing enough
boiling water to come half way up on the mold. Why is a
rack necessary? Or set mold in a steamer over boiling
water.
6. Cover the kettle or steamer tightly.
7. Keep water boiling all the time, and add more water
as needed.
8. Set the mold in the oven for a few minutes to dry off
after steaming is done.
Time for steaming mixtures :
The time for steaming depends on the nature of the
mixture to be steamed and the kind of a mold used.
Mixtures which contain much fruit and suet require
longer time for steaming than plain mixtures. Tin con
ducts the heat more readily than granite or porcelain and
mixtures require less time for steaming in tin molds than in
heavy molds.
STEAMED MIXTURES
Molds Mixtures Time for Steaming
Individual, tin Plain ^-l houi
Pound, tin Plain 2-3 hours
Pound, tin Fruit 3-4 hours
Larger than 1 pound Plain 3-4 hours
Larger than 1 pound Fruit 4-5 hours
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132 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
APPLICATION
1. Steamed Boston Brown Bread
1 c. rye flour % tbsp. soda
1 c. cornmeal 1 tsp. salt
1 c. whole wheat . % c. molasses
2 c. sour milk or 1% c. water
Method. Mix and sift dry ingredients; add molasses
and liquid ; stir until well mixed ; turn into a well-buttered
mold and steam 3^ hours. Butter the cover before placing
it on the mold. Fill mold % full. Baking-powder tins
may be used for molds. Steam according to directions.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
2. Quick Individual Puddings
1 c. flour ^ tsp. salt
2 tsp. baking powder ' 1 tsp. sugar
}/2 c. milk Fruit
Method,. Mix and sift the dry ingredients, and add the
milk gradually to the dry materials. Grease each indivi
dual mold or cup thoroughly. Put J/g c. of fruit in the bot
tom of each cup and add batter to fill the cup. Set cup in
a steamer over a kettle of boiling water. Cover the steamer
tightly and steam for 30 minutes. Turn the pudding out
of the cup and serve hot with cream and sugar. Any cooked
fruit, jam, jelly, or fresh berries may be used.
LESSON 22
YEAST BREAD
YEAST
YEAST is a mass of very tiny plants, each plant consisting
of a single cell.
Source. Wild yeast is present in the air and on the
skins of grapes. Desirable varieties are cultivated.
Growth. Yeast plants grow by budding, each bud
breaks away from the parent cell and in turn forms new
buds. Under favorable conditions the growth is so rapid
that 1 of ten many buds are formed on one cell at one time,
and these in turn are budded before they separate from the
parent cell. Under certain conditions yeast forms spores,
which grow when they lodge in a favorable place.
Conditions favorable to growth are: (1) Warmth (77 to
95 F. is best). (2) Moisture. (3) Food (starch and
sugar).
Freezing (32 F.) checks the growth. Hot water, or a
temperature above 130 F., kills yeast.
Forms. (1) Liquid, (2) dry, (3) compressed.
Liquid yeast is not as much used now as in earlier times.
It is made from potatoes, hops, sugar, and water. A few
yeast plants are added, which feed upon the mixture and
multiply very rapidly until the mixture is alive with them.
A small amount of this mixture added to dough produces
the necessary leaven.
Dry yeast is a market form of yeast. The yeast plants
are skimmed from vats of wort, a dilute sugar solution, and
are washed, dried, and mixed with starch to keep dry.
Then the mass is pressed into sheets which are cut into
small squares and put in packages for the market. Dry
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134
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
yeast will keep for a long time and will start to grow only
when proper food, heat, and moisture are present again.
This form of yeast is convenient for any one living a long
distance from market.
Compressed yeast is prepared in the same manner as dry
yeast, with the exception that not enough starch is used to
keep the yeast dry. The
life of the yeast in this
case is not entirely sus
pended , and so compress
ed yeast cakes must be
strictly fresh. If dark
spots appear, it means
that some of the little
yeast plants have died,
and the yeast cake will
not do its work as well.
Compressed yeast is
wrapped in tinfoil to
keep it moist and free
from dust.
Action of Yeast. When the yeast plant is put into the
bread mixture it feeds upon the starch (which it first
changes to sugar), and as it feeds, alcohol and carbon diox
ide gas are formed. This change of the sugar is called fer
mentation. The substance causing the change is a ferment.
In this case .the yeast is a ferment. If fermentation con
tinues too long, the mixture becomes sour. Dough sours
when allowed to rise too long or at too high a temperature.
When the dough is light enough, the bread is baked. Bak
ing kills the yeast plants quickly, and causes the alcohol to
pass out of the bread as vapor.
Experiments to show effect of temperature on yeast:
Fig. IS.
Yeast plants (greatly enlarged).
(U. S. D. A. Bui.)
YEAST BREAD 135
1. Mix a yeast cake with J/ c. lukewarm water and 2
tsp. of sugar. How can you tell when water is lukewarm?
2. Put a third of the above mixture in a glass. Keep
at a freezing temperature for an hour.
3. Put a third of the mixture in a glass and keep at the
boiling point for an hour.
4. Put one third of the mixture in a glass and keep at a
lukewarm temperature for an hour.
5. Set No. 2 in a warm place for an hour. Notice the
change. Examine each one at the end of the hour and
write conclusions. Why, in order to have the best results
in bread making, should an even temperature be maintained
while the dough is "rising?"
BREAD
Bread is one of man's earliest and most-used foods.
Ingredients necessary for white bread are: Wheat
flour, liquid (water or milk,) and yeast. Sugar, shortening,
and salt are used to flavor it.
Methods of Making Bread, There are many ways of
making bread, but all come under either of two main heads:
(1) slow process or (2) quick process.
In the slow process, mix the ingredients into a batter or
a sponge and set to rise until it is full of air bubbles, usually
over night. Then add enough flour to make a stiff dough.
Knead on a floured board until smooth and elastic. Let
rise again until double its bulk. Shape into loaves on the
board; let stand in greased tins until double their size.
Bake in a moderate oven 40 or 45 minutes.
In the quick process, use more yeast. Mix ingredients
into a sponge, and beat the sponge hard until it is full of
air bubbles. This beating takes the place of one rising.
Add enough flour to make stiff enough to knead; turn on
136 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
a floured board and knead as in slow process. Let it rise
once to double its bulk, shape into loaves, double bulk
again, and bake. This process takes 5 hours.
Setting the Sponge. 1. Put yeast to soak in a little
lukewarm water. This dissolves the starch with the yeast
and frees the yeast plants so that they can act more quickly.
2. Use half milk and water or all water, tfalf and
half makes a richer loaf. All-milk bread dries out rapidly.
3. Scald the milk in the upper part of a double boiler.
4. Put shortening (lard or butter), sugar, and salt in
a large, earthen bowl.
5. Pour the scalded milk into the bowl and stir all
until the sugar and butter are dissolved.
6. Add the water to the ingredients in the bowl.
7. When all is lukewarm, add the dissolved yeast
mixture. Stir thoroughly.
8. Add as much flour as liquid, slowly, and beat contin
ually until smooth.
9. Add enough flour to make a drop batter. Beat
this until full of bubbles. This drop batter in bread is
called a "sponge.'"
Making the Dough. 10. Add enough more flour to
make the batter stiff enough to handle on a board.
11. Take mixture upon a board, leaving bowl per
fectly clean.
12. Knead until it is smooth all through and springs
back into place when pressed with the finger. Well-
kneaded dough does not stick to the hands or board and
can be kneaded without using flour on the board.
13. Set in an earthen bowl in a warm place, and
cover with a dry cloth. Wet the top of the dough slightly
to keep it from getting so dry that it can not rise.
YEAST BREAD
137
First Rising. 14. When the dough has doubled its
bulk, remove from the bowl and knead just enough to
shape into loaves. Cut in the right size for loaves.
15. Prepare the pans by greasing thoroughly on
bottom and sides. Be sure corners are well greased.
16. Shape the loaves well; make them the length of
the pans and the same width.
1 7. Set the pans with bread in a warm place to rise and
double bulk again.
Baking Bread. When bread is nearly ready for the
oven, test the oven, which should be hot enough to turn
big. 16. Bread and jplls, with utensils tor making.
a piece of white paper dark brown in 6 minutes. Place pans
on lower part of the oven and as near the center as possible.
Time. Small loaves require about 35 minutes; larger
loaves (about 4 inches thick), 50 or 60 minutes.
Divide time into quarters as follows:
1st quarter, bread should rise and begin to brown.
2nd n ** bread continues to rise and brown.
138 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
3rd quarter, it finishes browning and rising.
4th quarter, baking is finished and the loaf draws away
slightly from the sides of the pan.
Turn the loaves so that they will brown evenly.
Tests when Done. Bread draws away from the sides
of the pans when done, and sounds hollow when tapped
with the finger.
Care after Baking. Remove loaves from pans, and
turn on the side. If crisp crust is desired, let stand un
covered so the air can circulate around the loaf. If tender
crust is desired, rub well with butter or milk.
Good bread "has a fine even grain, with no large holes
in it. It has an even, golden brown crust.
Uses for Stale Bread. Stale bread may be used for
crumbs, for toast (buttered and French), and for scallop
dishes. Save and use all left-over pieces of bread. The
large pieces are good for toast. Dry the smaller pieces or
remnants of bread in a pan in the warming oven until
they are crisp, but not brown. Crush the dry pieces with
a rolling pin, and sift through a strainer. Put in a glass
jar and keep covered until ready for use for croquettes,
scalloped dishes or crumbing. Stale bread not dried may
be used in puddings and griddle cakes. To freshen stale
bread, put in a steamer over a kettle of boiling water, and
steam 10 or 15 minutes until the bread is light and fresh.
Suggestions on the method of conducting bread lessons
in 2 Y 2 to 3 hours
Each girl makes one loaf and works alone.
Preliminary Preparations. Have double boiler ready, flour meas
ured, and the required amount of yeast at each desk, also pitchers
filled with cold water when lesson begins. Scald the milk for the
entire class.
Class Management. Mix the soft batter in the double boilers
over lukewarm water. (Allow about 15 minutes.)
Beat the batter and add the rest of the flour. (Allow 10 minutes.)
Demonstrate the kneading. (Allow 5 minutes.)
YEAST BREAD 139
Class knead the dough (Allow about 15 minutes.)
First rising in double boiler. (Allow 3^ hour.)
Wash dishes and grease tins while bread is rising.
Demonstrate the shaping of the loaves. (About 5 minutes.)
Class shape loaves and grease tops. (Allow about 10 minutes.)
Second rising takes l /2 hour. Baking J^ hour.
General Suggestions. Use double period for bread lesson.
Aim to have uniform work. One girl can delay the whole class.
Increase the standard proportion of yeast to hurry the lesson.
Hurry the measuring as much as possible.
Hurry the first rising by the use of double boilers.
Hurry the second rising by placing the loaves in the gas range
slightly warmed; both the oven and broiling oven may be used.
Guard against over-heating of dough.
Small loaves require only y% hour for baking.
APPLICATION
1 Slow-Process Bread
1 c. scalded milk 1 tbsp. lard
1 c. cold water 1 tsp. salt
1 tbsp. sugar % cake compressed yeast
About 6 or 6% c. flour % c. lukewarm water
Method. Soak the yeast in lukewarm water. Scald
the milk and pour over the salt, sugar, and lard in a bowl.
When dissolved, add the cold water. When lukewarm,
add the dissolved yeast and enough flour to make a drop
batter. Beat hard until smooth. This sponge must stand
several hours or over night to rise until very light. Pro
ceed as for kneading and baking. (Makes 2 loaves.)
2 Quick-Process Bread
1 c. scalded milk 1 tbsp. butter or lard
1 c. cold water 1 tsp. salt
1 tbsp. sugar 1 cake compressed yeast
About 6 or 6^4 c. flour % c - lukewarm water
(Basis for 1 girl, ^ rule, with double the amount of yeast for 2^/2-hour
method.)
Method. Soak yeast in lukewarm water. Scald the
milk and pour over the salt, sugar, and butter in a bowl.
Then add the cold water, dissolved yeast, and flour to make
a batter. Beat this batter until it is full of bubbles; then
add enough more flour to knead on a board. Take upon a
140 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
floured board and proceed as directed for kneading. This
method requires only 5 hours and two risings, one being in
loaf. The thorough beating of the sponge takes the place
of one rising. (Makes 2 loaves.)
3 Whole-wheat Bread
1 cake compressed yeast 2 tsp. salt
24 c. lukewarm water ^ c. sugar
1 sc. qt. whole-wheat flour 1 pt. warm milk
Method. Soak yeast cake in the warm water. Sift the
flour, salt, and sugar; add the warm milk; beat the batter
well until smooth; then add the yeast, and beat hard.
Gradually add the sifted flour until the dough is stiff
-enough to be handled on a board. Handle lightly, place in
a greased bowl, cover with a clean cloth, and let stand in a
warm place. When double its bulk, shape into two small
loaves, and let rise a few minutes. Brush with soft butter,
and bake in a moderate oven for 45 minutes.
For nut loaves, add lJ/ cups chopped pecans or walnuts
with the flour.
One cup of chopped floured raisins may be added before
the last rising.
4 Graham Bread
1 c. hot water 24 c. warm water
1 Yi c. hot milk % cake yeast
% c. molasses 3 c. Graham flour
1^2 tsp. salt 3 c. white flour
Method. Add the hot liquid to the salt and molasses
in a bowl, let cool, and when lukewarm, add yeast dis
solved in the lukewarm water. Sift the Graham flour and
use only the sifted part. Mix with the white flour and grad
ually add to the yeast mixture. Beat well, cover and let
double its bulk. Beat down again, put into greased pans
and let nearly double bulk again before baking.
YEAST BREAD 141
6. Yeast Cornmeal Bread
(Conservation Recipe)
\Y c. liquid (milk or water) 1 ^ cake compressed yeast sof-
2 tbsp. sugar tened in Y c. of liquid
1 tbsp. fat 1 c. cornmeal
2 tsp. salt 2 c. flour
This amount makes one loaf of bread.
Method. Add sugar, fat and salt to liquid and bring
to boiling point. Add the cornmeal slowly, stirring con
stantly. Bring to the boiling point. Remove from the
fire and cool. These proportions of cornmeal and water
result in so thick a mixture that to add the given amounts
of flour looks impossible. It can be done, however. Add
compressed yeast softened in 1 cup of water. Add flour
and knead. Let rise till about double its bulk, knead again
and put into pans. When light, bake in a moderate oven
for at least an hour. If dried yeast is used, a sponge should
be made from about J/2 cupful of liquid taken from the
amount given in the proportions and some of the flour.
Allow to rise before adding the cornmeal mixture and the
remainder of the flour.
6. Yeast Oatmeal Bread
(Conservation Recipe)
1 c. liquid (milk or water) % cake compressed yeast sof-
2 tbsp. sugar tened in l /i c. liquid
1 tbsp. fat 1 c. rolled oats
1 tsp. salt 1}/2 c. wheat flour
This proportion makes one loaf of bread.
Method. Scald liquid and pour over rolled oats, sugar,
salt and fat. Let stand until lukewarm. Add yeast soft
ened in warm water. Add flour and knead. Let rise until
double its bulk. Knead again and place in pans. When
light, bake 45 minutes to 1 hour in a moderate oven.
Substitute flours may be used in any recipe for breads
if the sponge is made with wheat flour and the substitutes
added after the first rising.
LESSON 23
BREAD ROLLS
REVIEW setting sponge for bread. Review temperature
for yeast.
The objects of kneading bread and rolls are:
1. To make the gluten in the dough elastic.
2. To break the large air bubbles, and distribute the
carbon dioxide evenly through the dough.
The objects of baking bread are:
1. To make a more digestible and palatable food.
2. To cook the starch. To expand the gas.
3. To form a crust to hold in the gas.
4. To kill the yeast plants.
5. To drive off the alcohol formed by the yeast plant.
Rolls. Rolls differ from bread in that they are richer
and sweeter. This is done by using all milk for the liquid
and adding more butter and sugar to make them shorter or
more tender.
Kinds of Rolls. A variety of rolls is made from the
same sponge, but may vary in size, in shape, and by the
addition of fruit (currants, raisins) or spices (cinnamon).
Suggestions to teachers on conducting a lesson on rolls in \Y^
hours.
Use twice the amount of yeast. Prepare the sponge before class-
time, and let it rise ready for first mixing.
At the beginning of the lesson measure out the light sponge for
each desk. (Allow 10 minutes.)
Mix flour into the sponge. (Allow 10 minutes.)
Two girls should work together. Knead dough. (15 minutes.)
Demonstrate shaping of rolls. (Allow about 10 minutes.)
Class shape rolls. (Allow about 15 minutes.) Omit the second
rising for class work. Let rolls rise in slightly warmed ovens ^ hour.
Class wash dishes. Bake rolls 15 to 20 minutes.
(142)
BREAD ROLLS 143
APPLICATION
1. Parker House Rolls (3 hr.)
2 c. milk % c. butter
1 tsp. salt 1 cake compressed yeast
2 tbsp. sugar }/ c.Jukewarm water
6^2 c. flour (more or less)
Method. Mix yeast with the lukewarm water. Scald
the milk and add the butter, sugar, and salt ; when lukewarm
add the dissolved yeast. Add enough flour to make a drop
batter. Beat well and let rise until double in bulk. Add
enough more flour to make a stiff dough. Knead and let
rise until double in bulk. Roll out to about J^ inch in
thickness. Cut with a cooky cutter, spread. with melted
butter, and crease the middle with a knife handle. Fold
double, put close together in the pan, let rise until double
their size. When ready to bake, brush with milk or
slightly beaten egg. Bake in a hot oven 12 or 15 minutes.
(Basis for 2, % cup sponge.}
2. Clover Leaf Rolls
Method. Use the same rule as for Parker House Rolls.
For one roll, shape three small balls of dough about an
inch in diameter. Place the balls together in a greased
muffin tin. Let rise, and bake as other rolls.
3. Cinnamon Rolls
Method. Use the same sponge and method as for
Parker House Rolls. Roll out sponge to % mcn thickness,
brush with melted butter, sprinkle with sugar and cinna
mon. Roll up the dough and cut off rolls an inch thick.
Place in buttered pans, let rise, and bake as other rolls.
LESSON 24
PROTEIN MEAT
Stock Soups
MEAT includes the flesh of all animals used for food ; as,
beef, veal, mutton, pork, poultry, and game.
Beef is from the ox, steer, or cow.
Veal is from the 6 to 8 weeks' old calf.
Mutton is from the sheep over 1 year old.
Lamb is from the young sheep, 6 to 8 weeks to 1 year old.
Pork is from the pig.
Poultry includes chickens, turkeys, ducks, and geese.
Game includes wild animals and fowl; as, deer, quail,
partridges.
Structure of Meat. Meat consists of muscles, bone, and
fat.
The muscles are made up of bundles of fibers or cells
bound together by connective tissue. The muscle fibers
contain protein, extractives, and water. The connective
tissue is very tough. Those of much-used muscles, as in
the neck or legs, are much stronger than those of muscles
not greatly used, as in the back.
The bones consist of about half solid matter and half
water. The solid part is composed of two-thirds mineral
matter and one-third animal matter, chiefly fat and ossein.
Some bones are hollow, and contain a fatty substance called
marrow.
At the ends of bones and connecting bones at the
joints are bands of cartilage or gristle, which is like soft
bone. In young animals the bones are soft, becoming
harder with age.
(144)
PROTEIN MEAT
145
The fat occurs under the skin, between the bundles of
fibers, and around the internal organs.
Composition of Meat. Meats are similar in composi
tion, but different cuts of thesame animal
will differ in the proportion of food prin
ciples, as will also the same cuts from
different animals. This is due to the
nature and condition of the animal and
the manner of feeding. Meat contains
large percentages of protein, fat, and
water.
Protein. The amount of protein is
about the same 13 to 20 per cent in
all meat. The principal meat proteins
are:
Fibrin, which is the substance in the
blood that makes it coagulate when shed.
Gelatin, extracted from the connec
tive tissue, tendons, and cartilage and
bone, by long, slow cooking in water.
Gelatin is dissolved in hot water, but
thickens when cold.
Albumin, which is similar to that
found in eggs, and is the main form of protein in meat.
Extractives or juices of meat, which give the meat its
flavor. Young animals have more albumin, while old
ones have more nitrogenous extractives.
Fat in meat varies in amount very widely. Much is
lost in the preparation for market, in cooking, and at the
table, so that only about one-half the amount of fat is
available to the body. Older animals well fed have more
fat than young animals. The fat takes the place of some
of the water, and does not affect the protein.
10
Fig. 17. Diagram
illustrating structure of
meat: a, muscle fibers;
b, fat cells; c, connec
tive tissue. (Hutchi
son.)
146 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Water makes up about three-fourths of the weight of
meat, but varies greatly from 50 to 75 per cent. It is
much more abundant in the young animal than in the old.
Veal and lamb contain more water than beef and mutton.
Mineral matter in meat is less than one per cent. This
is found in larger proportions in the older animals and is
abundant in the extractives. There is no carbohydrate
in meat.
APPROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF MEAT
Prote r Water Fat Ash
20% 70 to 75% 2 to 5% 1%
Food Value. Meat is the most important of the protein
foods It is Hike the human body in structure and com
position and tully supplies the necessary protein and fat to
build and repair body tissues and give heat and energy.
It is easily and thoroughly digested when used in proper
amounts. Fat meats are harder to digest than lean meats,
because the fat interferes with the digestion of the protein
in the stomach. Meats with loose fibers are easier to
digest than those with close fibers, for the digestive juices
can act more readily upon them. The extractives stimu
late the body activity, and people who use animal food in
their diet .seem to have a greater vitality than those who
live entirely on vegetables.
The objects of cooking meat are:
1. To extract the juices, as in soups, beef tea; or
2. To retain the juices, as in broiling and roasting.
3. To develop the flavor.
4. To soften the connective tissues and make it more
digestible.
5. To kill any bacteria and parasites that may be
present.
PRO TEINMEA T 147
Experiments to show the effect of heat on meat:
1. Put a small piece of meat into cold water. Let
stand.
2. Put a small piece of meat into boiling water. Let
stand.
3. Put a small piece of meat into a hot frying pan,
turn several times.
Note the changes that occur in each instance, and com
pare.
What substance in meat coagulates with high temper
ature to cause the result in Experiment 2 ?
How should meat be cooked to extract juices, as in
soups? To retain juices, as in steaks and roasts?
Meat Soups. Soups that have meat as their basis are
called stock soups. The stock is the essential element
which gives it flavor and nutritive value. Stock is also
used in meat gravies to make them richer.
Kinds of stock soups are:
1. Bouillon is made from beef stock, delicately sea
soned.
2. Brown soup stock is made from beef and is highly
seasoned with vegetables and sweet herbs.
3. White soup stock is made of chicken or veal, deli
cately seasoned.
4. Consomme is made of several kinds of meat (beef,
veal, and fowl), highly seasoned with vegetables, and
cleared.
Food Value. Meat soups contain very little nutriment,
but have a strong meat flavor, due to the extractives.
They stimulate the flow of the digestive juices, warm the
stomach, and prepare it for solid food.
148 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Proportions of ingredients for soup stock are: Use
% lean meat to J bone and fat, and 1 quart of water to
each pound of meat and bone.
Meats for Soups. The much-used muscles of meat
contain more juice; the hard connective tissue is softened
by long, moderate cooking. Select meat from the legs
or neck. Use left-overs from roasts and steaks to add to
the flavor, and utilize all other scraps.
Any of the following may be used as seasoning for
soups: vegetables, cereals, herbs, spices, and noodles.
Directions for Soup Making. Use all trimmings from
roasts and steaks with soup meat.
Cut up meat in small pieces. Break the bones, so that
the juice may escape easily.
To give color and flavor to the soup, sear a small amount
of the meat in a frying pan until brown.
Put meat, bone, and fat in cold water. Soak for half
an hour until the water is red. The cold water draws out
the juices.
Simmer 5 to 6 hours, never allowing temperature to
reach the boiling point. Boiling toughens the albumin and
does not permit the flow of juices. Clean and cut up vege
tables and add at the last hour of cooking.
When done, strain out the meat and vegetables. Put
into several small jars, so that the entire amount is not
disturbed each time some is used.
i
Cool quickly, and keep in cold place. Keep a layer of
fat on top of stock to exclude air. Why? Remove the
fat from the soup stock before making soup.
Use soups often, and vary by different additions.
. PROTEIN MEAT 1JV
APPLICATION (Extracting juices)
1. Brown Soup Stock
4 Ibs. beef shin 6 cloves
2 qts. cold water ^ bay leaf
}/2 tsp. pepper 2 sprigs parsley
Carrot 1
Onion P f one - half c - each cut in dice
Celery J
1 tsp. salt
NOTE. A few tablespoonfuls of German dried vege
tables for soups may be successfully substituted for fresh
vegetables to give flavor.
Method. Wipe beef, and cut the lean meat in small
pieces. Brown a third of it in a hot frying pan in marrow
from a marrow bone. Put remaining two-thirds with bone
and fat in soup kettle, add cold water, and let stand for
% hour. Place on back of range, add browned meat, and
heat gradually to boiling point. As the scum rises, it
should be removed. Cover and cook slowly 6 hours at a
temperature below the boiling point. Add vegetables and
seasonings, cook 1J^ hours longer, strain, and cool as
quickly as possible.
2. Bouillon
Method. Bouillon is made from Brown Soup Stock by
removing the cake of fat, and clearing. It is served clear
in bouillon cups.
To Clear Soups. Put stock over fire, and add a slightly
beaten egg white with the shell. Stir, let boil 2 or 3 min
utes, and then simmer 10 to 15 minutes. The albumen of
the egg coagulates and entangles the particles of meat and
vegetables as in a net. Remove the scum, and strain the
soup through a cloth or fine strainer. Serve clear.
150 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
3. Vegetable Soup
Method. To 1 quart of stock, add 3 tablespoonfuls
each of celery and turnip, either chopped or cut with
vegetable cutter; 1 tablespoonful of carrot; and 1 cup of
cooked and strained tomato, and a little fried onion; or
omit the tomato and onion and add small green peas,
cauliflower, asparagus tips, or all three.
4.' Noodle Soup
Method. To 1 quart of stock add % cupful of noodles.
Macaroni, vermicelli, rice, or barley may be added to the
stock for variation.
Serve with soup: croutons, toasted crackers, or cheese
balls.
LESSON 25
PROTEIN BEEF
Broiling and Roasting
BEEF is obtained from the steer, ox, or cow. It is the most
used and the most sustaining meat. It should hang about
three weeks to ripen and develop flavor.
Appearance. Good beef is bright red, fine grained, and
well marked with fat. The fat is fine and light yellow in
color; the fat around the vital organs is white and crumbly
and is called suet. Flabby, dark, coarse beef with yellow
fat indicates a poor quality. Beef from an old or underfed
animal has very little fat.
Cuts of Beef. The beef animal is cut into halves
lengthwise along the back. Each half or side weighs about
450 pounds and is divided into the fore and hind quarters
by cutting between the 12th and 13th ribs, leaving one rib
on the hind quarter.
THE CUTS OF BEEF
Fore Quarter Cuts
CUTS USB COST
1. Neck Hamburg steak, soup
2. Chuck Stew, pot roast, boil
3. Ribs Roast, stew
4. Shoulder ckx 1 Boil, stew
5. Shin or f jreshank. . .Soup stock
6. Brisket Corned, stew
7. Plate Boiled, corned, stew
Hind Quarter Cuts
1. Rump Pot roast, stew, mince meat... .
2. Round Pot roast, steak, stew, beef tea.
3. Loin Fine roast, steak
(a) Porterhouse Steak
(b)Sirloin Steak, roast
(c)Tenderloin Steak
4. Hind shank Cheap stew, soup
4. Flank Corned, stuff, stew, roll
C151)
152
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Fig.18. The wholesale cuts of beef: 1,
round; 2, rump; ?. shank; 4, loin; 5, flank;
6, rib; 7, chuck; 8. clod; 9, neck; 10, plate,
which includes //. brisket: 12. shank.
PROTEIN BEEF 151
Other Parts. COST
1. Heart Braise
2. Tail Soup
3. Tongue Boil
4. Kidneys Stew
5. Brains Scallop, cream
6. Tripe (lining of the
stomach) Stew, fry
7. Suet Try out, use as fat
8. Thymus gland and pancreas (calf), or sweetbreads . .
Care of Meat. 1. Remove meat from paper as soon
as delivered.
2. Keep meat in a cool place, but not directly on ice.
3. Before cooking always wipe meat off well with a
damp cloth wrung out of cold water. Why? Never wash
meat in water. Why?
Retaining Juices. Juices may be retained in the cooked
meat by broiling, roasting, frying, or sauteing, which sears
over at once the outside of the meat and seals up the little
tubes that contain the juices. Only the tender cuts of meat
can be used in this way, since tough meats require a long,
slow heat.
Broiling. Cuts best for broiling use are (1) porterhouse,
(2) sirloin, (3) tenderloin, and (4) round.
Roasting. Best cuts for roasting are the top or middle
of sirloin, back of rump, or the first three ribs.
TIME GUIDE FOR BROILING
Beef (rare), per pound 8 to 10 minutes
Beef (well done), per pound. . .12 to 15 minutes
APPLICATION
1. Broiled Steak Oven
Sirloin steak 1 to 2 inches thick
Butter, salt, pepper
Parsley and lemon for garnishing
Method. Wipe the meat with a damp cloth and trim
off the extra fat. Have the broiler smoking hot ; rub with a
154
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
little fat. Place the meat in the broiler and broil, turning
every 10 seconds for the first minute. (Use two large spoons
for turning, as a fork would pierce the meat.) After the first
minute turn occasionally until well cooked on both sides.
Remove to hot platter, spread with butter, and sprinkle with
salt and pepper. Garnish with slices of lemon and parsley.
Serve with Maitre d' Hotel Butter or Mushroom Sauce.
2. Roast Beef
Method. Wipe, put on a rack in a dripping pan, skin
side down, and rub over with salt and dredge with flour.
Fig. 19. Beef: cuts from rump and ribs.
Place in a hot oven, that the surface may be quickly seared,
thus preventing the escape of inner juices. After the flour
in the pan is browned, reduce heat, and baste with the fat
that has melted; if meat is quite lean, it may be necessary
to put trimmings of fat in the pan. Baste every 10 minutes.
If this rule is followed meat will be found more juicy. When
meat is about half done, turn it over and dredge with flour,
that skin side may be uppermost for final browning. If
PROTEIN BEEF 155
there is danger that the flour in the pan may burn, add a
small quantity of water.
Allow 15 to 20 minutes to each pound of beef in roasting.
Beef, to be well roasted, should be started in a hot oven
and the heat later decreased, so that when carved the slices
will be red throughout, with a crisp layer of golden brown
fat on top. Beef roasted at a temperature so high that the
surface is hardened before heat can penetrate to the center
is most unsatisfactory.
Sirloin of rib roast may have the bones removed, and
be rolled, skewered, and tied in shape.
Roast Beef Gravy
Method. Remove some of the fat from the pan, leaving
4 tbsp. Place on the front of the range, add 4 tbsp.flour and
stir until well browned, the flour browned in the pan giving
additional color to the gravy. Add gradually lJ/ cups
boiling water, cook 5 minutes, season with salt and pepper,
and strain. If the flour should burn in the pan, the gravy
will be full of black carbon particles.
3. Yorkshire Pudding
1 c. milk 2 eggs
1 c. flour % tsp. salt
Method. Mix salt and flour, gradually add the milk,
stir until smooth, add eggs, and beat hard. Spread on the
bottom of baking pan after removing the roast, until mix
ture is one-half inch thick. Bake 20 minutes in hot oven.
Baste, after the mixture is well risen, with some fat from
the roast. Cut in squares and serve on platter surrounding
the roast.
4. Maitre d'Hdtel Butter
% c. butter 1 tbsp. chopped parsley
^ tsp. salt 1 tbsp. lemon juice
% ssp. pepper
Method. Rub the butter to a cream, add the salt, pep
per, parsley, and the lemon juice. Spread on hot steak.
156 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
6. Dried Beef, White Sauce
% lb. dried beef sliced thin 1 tbsp. flour
1 c. milk }4 tsp. salt
2 tbsp. butter Speck of pepper
Method. Remove the skin and separate dried beef in
pieces, cover with hot water, let stand 10 minutes, and
drain. Make a medium white sauce. Add beef to white
sauce and heat. Serve on squares of hot toast.
(Basis for 2 girls, Y rule.)
6. Dried Beef and Macaroni
See page 61.
LESSON 26
PROTEIN BEEF (Continued)
Pan Broiling
Food Value of Beef. Beef has the greatest food value
of all meat and is in season the year round.
Lean meat is chiefly protein, of a kind that the body can
use easily and quite completely. Because meat is high in
protein, it is easy to eat more than the body needs, which
is harmful. Only very active persons doing much phys
ical work need meat more often than twice a day. For
most persons a meat dish once a day is enough. Meat
must be accompanied with dishes of the carbohydrate class.
Name some.
What to Serve with Beef. With steak, serve fried onions,
French fried potatoes, au gratin potatoes, combination
salad, or mushrooms.
With roasts, serve either mashed, creamed, or roast
brown potatoes, sweet potatoes, peas, corn, currant jelly,'
or Yorkshire pudding.
Pan broiling is the application of heat to food by means
of hot metal. The same results may be obtained as in
the oven broil, but it is especially good for the coarser
cuts of steaks. Name some.
APPLICATION
1. Panbroiled Steak
Round steak, ^-1 inch thick Salt, pepper, butter
Method. Wipe meat with a damp cloth and remove
the extra fat. Heat the frying pan very hot. Rub a
piece of fat in pan. Put the meat in and as soon as one
158 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
side is seared turn to sear the other side. Turn frequently
for the first minute. Cook 6 or 8 minutes, turning occa
sionally. Spread with a little butter and sprinkle with
salt and pepper. Remove to a hot platter and garnish
with parsley for serving.
(Basis for 2 girls, 1 piece 2% inches square.}
2. Hamburg Steak
Method. Chop fine some raw lean beef, season with
salt and pepper, shape in small flat cakes, panbroil in a
hot frying pan. A few drops of onion juice or onion cut
fine may be added, and also one egg slightly beaten. In
forming the cakes, handle as little as possible. Cakes
that are pressed too compact will be hard and solid.
(Basis for 2 girls, % c. chopped meat.}
3. Mushroom Sauce
1 can mushrooms 24 c. flour
J^ c. butter 2 c. brown soup stock
% tbsp. lemon juice or mushroom liquor
Salt and pepper
Method. Drain and rinse the mushrooms and chop
fine one half of them. Cook 5 minutes with butter and
lemon juice; drain. Make brown sauce of butter, flour, and
soup stock or mushroom liquor according to Method 1
for white sauce. Cook 10 or 15 minutes, add remaining
mushrooms, cut in quarters or slices, and cook 2 minutes.
Use fresh mushrooms in preference to canned ones.
Mushrooms become tough easily if handled much ; they
require only a few minutes to cook.
(Basis for 2 girls, H rule.)
LESSON 27
PROTEIN
Cooking Tough Meats and Left-overs
IN order that there be no waste to the beef animal, all
parts are used. The tough meats require a long, moderate
heat to soften the connective tissue and hard muscles.
This is accomplished by using them for stews, hash or
meat loaf.
Stewing is a combination of extracting part of the meat
juice and retaining part by cooking a long time in a limited
quantity of water.
APPLICATION
1. Beef Stew
2 Ibs. beef (cut into inch cubes) Salt and pepper
1 Sp * in inch dice
4 potatoes (sliced) 2 small onions (sliced)
Method. Wipe the meat and cut best portions into
inch cubes. Put the bone and poorer portions of meat,
cut fine, into cold water and cook them slowly. Try out
some pieces of beef fat in a frying pan and remove scraps
Roll the best portions of meat in flour; cook in a frying
pan until brown, stirring with a knife so that all surfaces
may be browned. Brown the onions also. Put the meat
and onions into the kettle in which the stew is to be cooked.
Rinse out frying pan with hot water and turn the water
into the stew. Cover meat with boiling water and cook
slowly at least 2 hours or until the meat is tender. Remove
the bone and poorer portions of meat, strain the liquid
(150)
DOMESTIC
PROTEIN BEEF 161
into the stew, add the vegetables (excepting potatoes), and
cook stew about 45 minutes longer. Parboil the potatoes
for 5 minutes and add them to the stew and cook 15 minutes.
Add seasoning. If the stew is not thick enough, add a
little thickening of flour and water and boil it 5 minutes
longer. (Class work as a unit.)
2. Lamb Stew with Dumplings
2 Ib. lamb (shoulder) 1 c. tomato
3 c. boiling water 2 small potatoes
1 small onion 2 tbsp. rice
Salt and pepper to taste
Method. Wipe meat and cut best portions into 2-inch
pieces. Put the bone and poorer portions of meat into
cold water, let them stand 1 hour, and then cook them
slowly. Brown the onions a golden brown in hot fat in a
frying pan. Then add the best portions of the meat and
brown them also. Put the onions and meat into a
saucepan, cover them with boiling water and let simmer
2 hours. Add the washed rice when meat has cooked 1
hour. Parboil the potatoes, add them to the stew and
cook 20 minutes longer. Add the strained tomato 10
minutes after the potatoes are put in. Add the season
ing. The tomato may be omitted and boiling water used
in its place.
3. Dumplings for Lamb Stew
2 c. flour % tsp. salt
4 tsp. baking powder % c. milk
Method. Mix and sift the dry ingredients, add the
milk slowly until a smooth drop-batter is formed. Drop
by the spoonful into the boiling stew on top of the pota
toes and meat. Cover closely to keep in the steam, and
cook 10 minutes without lifting the cover. Take out the
dumplings, which should be light and fluffy, put the meat
and vegetables in the center of a hot platter, and the dump-
11
162 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
lings around the edge. Dumplings may be dropped into
a steamer and steamed over the hot stew or over a kettle
of boiling water.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.}
4. Boiled Dinner
4 Ib. corned beef 2 small carrots
2 beets 1 turnip
1 small cabbage 6 potatoes
Method. Wash meat with damp cloth and put it to
soak for J^ hour. Put it in a kettle with boiling water to
nearly cover and cook until tender (about 3 hours) . Wash
the vegetables, scrape carrots and turnip, and cut in small
pieces. Cut the cabbage into quarters. Pare potatoes
and cut into halves. Two hours before dinner time skim
all the fat off the liquid and add more boiling water. Re
move meat when tender; then put in the carrots, after
ward the cabbage and turnip, and % hour before dinner
add the potatoes. Cook beets separately. When tender
take the vegetables up carefully, drain the water from
the cabbage by pressing in a colander, slice the carrots
and beets, and cover the beets with vinegar. Put the
meat in the center of a large dish, and serve the carrots,
turnips, and potatoes around the edge.
5. Browned Hash
2 c. chopped cold roast beef 2 c. chopped cold corned beef
2 c. cold boiled potatoes 2 tbsp. hot milk
Few drops of onion juice Salt and pepper to taste
Method. Mix all ingredients thoroughly. Put into a
frying pan 2 tablespoonfuls of beef fat or butter. Spread
the meat mixture in the frying pan and cook, without
stirring, over a moderate fbe for about 30 minutes. When
it is browned underneath, fold it over like an omelet and
place on a hot platter.
PROTEIN BEEF 163
6. Meat Loaf
2 Ib. beef (cut from the round) 1 tsp. onion juice
1 tsp. salt Y tsp. pepper
1 beaten egg Y^ c. milk
1 tbsp. chopped parsley 2-inch cube salt pork fat
1 c. bread crumbs
Method. Wipe the meat with a damp cloth and put
through a meat chopper with the pork. Add seasoning,
mix well, add the crumbs, well-beaten egg, and the milk
gradually. Place in a well-greased pan. Put small
pieces of butter or strips of bacon on top. Bake 40 minutes
in a moderate oven. Baste every 10 minutes with 1 table-
spoonful of butter melted in 1 cupful of boiling water.
Strips of pimento and a couple of hard-boiled eggs
placed in the center of the loaf add a pleasing garnish to
the loaf when sliced.
7. Chartreuse of Rice and Meat or Fish
1 c. rice 1 pt. cold meat or fish
2 qts. boiling water 1 c. tomato sauce
1 c. stock 1 egg
Method. Cook the rice in the boiling water until
tender. Drain and line a mold about a half inch deep.
Beat the egg slightly and mix with the finely cut meat or
fish, then add the stock. Fill the center of the mold with
the meat mixture, cover the top with rice and steam 30
minutes. Turn from the mold and serve with tomato
sauce.
Boiled htfminy or mashed potato may be used in place
of the rice.
LESSON 28
PROTEIN VEAL, LAMB, MUTTON
VEAL
Appearance. Veal is pale pink and the fat is clear
white. The best comes from a calf two months old.
CUTS OF VEAL
CUT USE COST
1. Leg Cutlets.
2. Loin Chops and roast
3. Ribs Roast
Saddle [(1) and (2),
or two hind quarters)] Roast
Rack [ (3), (4), (5),
or two fore quarters)] Chops
4. Breast Roast
5. Shoulder Stuffed whole for roast
6. Neck.. ..Stew..
LAMB
Appearance. The meat of lamb is red and the fat is
white. The bones are red and turn white with age.
Kinds. Spring lamb is from 6 to 8 weeks old. Year
lings are about one year old. The best lamb comes from
animals 6 weeks to 3 months old. Lamb may be used as
soon as killed.
MUTTON
Appearance. The meat of mutton is bright red, the
fat is yellowish, and the bones are white. The layer of fat
next to the skin in mutton has a very strong flavor of oil
and wool, which makes it very distasteful to most persons.
This should be removed before cooking. Mutton must
hang to ripen.
(164)
PROTEIN VEAL, LAMB, MUTTON
165
Fig. 21. Cuts of veal: /, leg; 2,
loin; 3, ribs; 4, breast; 5, shoulder; 6
neck. (111. Bui. 147)
Fig. 22. Cuts of mutton: 1, leg 1
2, loin; 3, ribs; 4, breast; 5, shoulder
166 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
CUTS OF LAMB AND MUTTON
CUT UBE COST
1. Leg Roast and chops.
2. Loin Chops, saddle roast
3. Ribs Chops and roast . . .
4. Breast Stew and soup ....
5. Shoulders Roasts
Back[(2), (3)]
Food Value. Mutton comes next to beef in food value.
The red meat of beef and mutton is more stimulating than
the white meat of veal and poultry. Veal and lamb are
less nutritious than the flesh of the full-grown animals.
What to Serve with Veal. With cutlets or chops serve
peas, rice croquettes.
With stewed veal serve dumplings, baked potatoes.
With veal loaf or roast serve peas, asparagus, spinach,
cauliflower, rice, white or sweet potatoes.
What to Serve with Mutton. With broiled chops serve
creamed potatoes, peas.
With leg of mutton serve caper sauce, rice, mint sauce,
cabbage, or creamed turnips.
With saddle of mutton serve baked macaroni without
cheese, peas, or asparagus tips.
With cold mutton serve sliced tomatoes with French
dressing.
What to Serve with Lamb. With roast lamb serve mint
sauce, boiled rice, cucumbers, white or sweet potatoes,
squash, parsnips, eggplant, new peas, or asparagus tips.
With cold lamb serve lettuce, mint salad with French
dressing.
APPLICATION
1. Lamb Chops Broiled
Method. Wipe chops and put in red-hot frying pan.
As soon as the under surface is seared, turn and sear the
other side. Turn often, using spoon, so as not to pierce
PROTEIN VEAL, LAMB, MUTTON
167
surface. If liked rare, cook 6 minutes. Let chops stand
on edge in the frying pan to brown the outside fat. When
nearly cooked, sprinkle with salt. Drain on brown paper,
spread with butter, and serve with Tomato Sauce.
Rib chops which have the bone cut short and scraped
clean nearly to the lean meat are called French chops.
Chops for pan broiling should have the flank and most of the
fat removed.
2. Breaded Veal Chops
Method. Wipe, trim off superfluous fat, sprinkle with
salt and pepper, dip in crumbs, in egg, and then again in
crumbs, and fry until well browned on each side. Care
Fig. 23. Veal: cuts from leg and loin.
should be taken in turning not to shake off the crumbs.
Cover closely, and continue cooking over a low fire until
thoroughly cooked and tender (15 to 20 minutes). Veal
cutlets may be cooked in the same way. These may be
cooked in deep fat.
(Basis for 2, 1 chop or cutlet,}
3. Roast Lamb
Method. Wipe meat (leg of lamb), sprinkle with salt
and pepper, place on a rack in dripping pan, and dredge
meat and bottom of pan with flour. Place in hot oven, and
168
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
baste as soon as the flour in the pan is brown and every 15
minutes afterward. Cook about 1% hours. If the flour in
the pan burns, add a small quantity of water while the meat
is cooking. Serve with Mint Sauce.
4. Mint Sauce
YZ c. mint leaves chopped fine 2 tbsp. powdered sugar
1 c. hot vinegar
Method. Dissolve the sugar in the vinegar and pour
over the chopped mint leaves. Let stand 30 minutes to
infuse. If the vinegar is very strong, dilute with water.
Serve hot.
6. Veal Birds
Method. Select slices of veal from the leg, cut as thinly
as possible, remove bone, skin, and fat. Cut in pieces 2^
inches long by 1^ inches wide, each piece making a bird.
Fig. 24. Lamb: cuts from ribs and loin.
Chop trimmings of veal and a small piece of fat salt
pork, and add one-half their measure of finely crushed
crackers. Season with pepper, cayenne, poultry seasoning,
lemon juice, and onion juice. Moisten with beaten egg
and water. Spread each piece with a thin layer of stuffing,
PROTEIN VEAL, LAMB, MUTTON 169
taking care not to have the mixture come too close to the
edge. Roll, and fasten with skewers or toothpicks.
Sprinkle with salt and pepper, dredge with flour, and saute
in hot butter until a golden brown. Put in a stew pan,
add rich milk to half cover meat, and cook slowly 25 min
utes or until tender. Serve on small pieces of toast and
garnish with parsley.
6. Veal Loaf
2^2 Ibs. veal % c. catsup
% Ib. salt pork 1 c. cracker crumbs
4 eggs Cayenne, salt, pepper
Juice of small lemon Bit of butter
Method. Mix ingredients thoroughly and shape into a
loaf, placing butter on top. Bake 2 hours in covered pan.
May be served with border of peas.
7. Crown Roast
Method. Use lamb rather than mutton. Select parts
from two loins containing the ribs; scrape flesh from the
bone between ribs, as far as lean meat, and trim off back
bone. Roll meat displaced into a semicircle, having ribs
outside, and sew ends together to form a crown. Put a
cup in the middle to hold the roast in place. Trim ends of
bones even and bind each bone with a thin strip of fat salt
pork. For a small roast allow about 50 minutes for roast
ing. Remove the pork from the bones before serving. Fill
the center of roast with mashed potatoes or peas. Be sure
the ribs are separated at the joints before roasting, so that
they may be easily served.
LESSON 29
PROTEIN PORK
Appearance. Fresh pork is pale red in color and firm
in texture; the fat is white. Pork is more liable to be
diseased than any other meat. Diseased pork appears
speckled or lumpy. The specks are little worms, called
trichinae, which get into the muscle of the hog. When
taken into our bodies, these are very harmful. They
become active and produce a disease called trichinosis,
which is nearly always fatal.
For this reason pork should be cooked very thoroughly
to kill the trichinae. Pork requires 20 to 30 minutes per
pound for cooking. Smoking does not kill trichinae. The
frequent use of smoked ham without further cooking is
liable to be very injurious.
CUTS OF PORK
CUT USB COST
1. Loin and ribs Chops, roast, broil
2. Ham, whole or in
halves Cured, salted, smoked, boiled
sauted, or baked
3. Back Spareribs
4. Shoulder Cooked as ham, but not as good.
5. Belly bacon Cured, salted, smoked, boiled,
or sauted
6. Head Headcheese, sausage
7. Kidney fat Tried out to make "leaf-lard."
Food Value. Pork is usually so fat that it is difficult to
digest. This is due to the large amount of fat between the
fibers. It furnishes so much heat and energy to the body
that, together with other foods in the diet, it may furnish
an excess of heat, and for most persons must not be used as
(170)
PROTEIN PORK
171
Fig. 25. Cuts of pork: /, ham; 2. loin;
3, belly;. 4, 5, 7, 9, shoulder, 6, jowl; 8, 9, fat
back. (111. Bui. 147)
172
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
regularly as beef. Bacon is not difficult to digest and can
be eaten by persons to whom other fats are intolerable.
What to Serve with Ham or Pork. White or sweet
potatoes, squash, beets, greens, cauliflower, cabbage, apple
sauce, fried apples, fritters or croquettes, all go well with
pork dishes.
APPLICATION
1. Broiled Ham
Method. Soak thin slices of ham one hour in lukewarm
water or milk. (Milk makes the ham more tender and
Fig. 26. Pork: cuts of loin and bacon.
juicy.) Drain and wipe dry and broil in a hot frying pan
for 5 minutes. If cooked too long, ham is hard and dry.
Boiled ham sliced about % inch thick and broiled is very
good, but more expensive.
2. Liver and Bacon
Method. Cover slices of liver cut J^ inch thick with
boiling water and let stand 5 minutes to draw out the blood ;
drain, and remove the thin outside skin and veins. Cut
in pieces for serving, sprinkle with salt and pepper, dredge
PROTEINPORK
173
with flour and cook in bacon fat. Use thin slices of bacon.
Put in a hot frying pan and cook until bacon is crisp and
brown, occasionally pouring off the fat from the pan.
When crisp and an even brown, drain on paper and serve.
Fried sliced apples are very good served with crisp bacon:
(Basis, each a piece of liver and bacon.}
3. Mustard (to serve with ham)
2 hp. tsp. dry mustard Vinegar enough to thin
1 hp. tsp. flour 1 hp. tsp. sugar
YZ hp. tsp. salt
Method. Mix thoroughly and pour boiling water on
to it to make a paste; cover until cold, and then thin with
vinegar.
4. Pork Chops
Method. Wipe chops, sprinkle with salt and pepper,
place in a hot frying pan, and cook slowly until tender
Fig. 27. Pork: cuts from loin and ribs.
and well browned on each side. Pork chops require about
20 minutes for thorough cooking.
A little freshly ground sage adds a nice flavor to pork,
174 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
6. Baked Ham
Method. Select a piece of ham about 4 or 5 pounds in
weight. Soak several hours in cold water to draw out the
salt. Place in baking pan and cover with a thick layer of
brown sugar, with fine bread crumbs on top. Stick a few
cloves in the ham and fill the pan with milk or cream to
come two-thirds as high as the ham. Raisins may be put
on the ham (stuck on with toothpicks), giving a very
pleasing flavor. Bake, allowing J/ hour for each pound.
6. Pigs in Blanket
Method. Select long, thin slices of bacon. Place 2 or
3 oysters in these, sprinkle with salt and pepper, close, and
tie \ r ith string or fasten together with toothpicks. Saute
in a laying pan until nicely browned.
7. Fried Pork (salt)
Method. Cut fat salt pork in thin slices. Put enough
hot watei over the slices to cover. Let stand a few min
utes, dram and saute in a pan until crisp. It may fre
rolled in cru nbs, egg, and crumbs again, and fried in deep
fat. Serve \\ 'th salt fish, fried mush, or baked potatoes.
LESSON 30
POULTRY
Selecting Poultry. Spring chickens are those about
five months old. A chicken over a year old is called a
fowl. Poultry has a better flavor when full-grown than
when too young.
The bird should be short and plump in proportion to
its weight.
The skin should be clear and smooth, but not the smooth
ness due to scalding.
The legs should be smooth; toes pliable.
The end of the breast bone should bend readily; it
should not be broken. There should be a large amount
of meat on the breast.
Pin feathers indicate a young bird ; long hairs and long
sharp spurs, an old one.
Old fowls usually have a large amount of fat, and the
flesh has a purplish tinge.
Dressing a Fowl. All poultry should be dressed as
soon as killed. The feathers come out easily when the
fowl is warm and when stripped off towards the head.
Remove the pin feathers with a knife, and singe the hairs
by holding the bird over a gas burner or a lighted paper.
Cut off the head and the feet.
Turn down the skin of the neck and cut off the neck close
to the body; remove the crop and the windpipe from the
end of the neck rather than by a cut in the skin, which,
if made, must be sewed up.
Remove the tendons in the legs by pulling out carefully
one at a time, taking pains not to tear the flesh. The leg
of the fowl is more tender if the tendons are removed.
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176 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Remove the oil bag in the tail.
Make an incision near the vent, and loosen the fat
from the body of the fowl. Loosen everything before
drawing out, so as to avoid rupturing any part. Insert the
hand carefully between the walls of the body and the
entrails and draw the entrails out, using care not to break
the gall bladder on the liver. Be sure the lungs and kidneys
are all removed from the hollows of the backbone. Wash
thoroughly, holding under a faucet to rinse the inside well.
Fig. 28. Roast chicken, dressed for serving.
To clean the giblets: Detach the heart, liver, and the
gizzard. Cut through the thick muscle of the gizzard and
peel it off slowly without breaking through the lining
inside. Cut the heart open. Remove the gall bladder very
carefully from the liver. Wash all thoroughly and let
soak in salted water before cooking.
To Stuff a Fowl. Place the fowl in a bowl and stuff the
neck until the breast is plump ; then draw the skin over the
POULTRY 177
neck and sew it firmly. Fill the inside of the fowl with
the stuffing, and sew up with a coarse threao!, taking large
stitches.
To Truss a Fowl. Draw the thighs close to the body,
cover the legs over the tail, and tie firmly with twine.
Fasten the wings to the body with skewers.
To Cut up a Fowl. Separate the legs from the body by
cutting through the loose skin between the leg and the body,
bend the leg over and cut through the joint. Pull out the
tendons from the lower leg, or ''drum stick."
Cut off the tip of each wing.
Separate the collar bone and the wishbone from the
breast, and break the backbone just below the ribs.
Separate the side bones from the back and also the breast.
Always divide a fowl at the joints smoothly; never
break the bones.
Food Value. The light meat of poultry is tender, but
poorer in flavor than the leg, a difference similar to the loin
and the round of beef. The muscle fibers in the breast
are short, more open, and less used, which make the breast
tender and more easily digested than the dark meat. Poul
try is not as rich in food value as beef, but is easily digested,
very palatable, and especially suitable for the sick.
What to Serve with Poultry. White or sweet pota
toes, rice croquettes, celery, cucumbers, mushrooms, apple
croquettes, cranberry jelly in molds, and either oysters or
chestnut dressings are good to serve with poultry. With tur
key, chestnuts, oysters, or sausage are excellent for dressing.
APPLICATION
1. Roast Chicken
Method. Put dressed bird on a rack in the roaster,
rub its entire surface with salt, and spread breast and legs
12
178 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
with 3 tbsp. butter creamed with 2 tbsp. of flour. Dredge
bottom of rJan with flour. Roast in a hot oven, basting
every 10 minutes until done. Use % CU P melted butter
in % cup boiling water for basting at first; later the fat
in the pan may be used. Turn the bird frequently to
brown evenly. If a thick crust is desired, dredge with
flour a couple of times. When the breast meat is tender,
the bird is done. A four-pound bird requires about 1J^
hours for roasting.
2. Stuffing
1 c. cracker crumbs. % c. boiling water
^ c. butter Salt and pepper
Powdered sage
Method. Melt the butter, pour over the crumbs, add
seasonings.
3. Oyster Dressing
3 c. stale bread crumbs Salt and pepper
]/2 c. butter, melted 1 pt. oysters
Method. Mix in the order given, adding the oysters
cleaned and drained from their liquor.
4. Fried Chicken
Method. Wipe each piece of chicken with a clean, dry
cloth; dredge with salt, pepper, and flour. Put plenty of
salt pork fat or lard and butter in the pan, and saute the
chicken in the hot fat until brown and tender (about 30
minutes). Only spring chicken ought to be fried, as old
birds require longer cooking.
6. Broiled Chicken
Method. Split a young chicken down the back. Break
the joints, remove the breast bone, clean, and wipe with a
dry cloth. Season with salt and pepper and rub well with
soft butter. Put into a broiler or toaster and broil over
a clear fire about 20 minutes. Spread with butter and serve
hot. Garnish with parsley and lemon.
POULTRY 179
6. Fricasseed Chicken
Method. Cut and prepare the chicken as for frying.
Cover with boiling water, and add 1 tbsp. of salt and a little
pepper. Simmer 2 or 3 hours, or until tender. Reduce the
water until about a pint remains. Remove all the large
bones, dredge with flour, salt, and brown in hot fat. Strain
the liquor from the chicken, remove the fat, add 1 cup of
milk or cream to the liquor, and reheat. Thicken with 2
tablespoonfuls of flour, moistened with J^ cup milk; add
to the liquor. When the gravy or sauce is cooked and
thickened, add to the chicken. Serve with or without hot
biscuits.
7. Chicken Pie
Method. Chicken fricassee put in a baking dish and
covered with a crust of pastry and baked, makes a chicken
pie.
8. Jellied Chickn
Method. Remove the skin and. bones from a cooked
chicken. Pick the meat apart and mix the light and dark
meat. Remove the fat from the chicken liquor; season the
liquor highly with salt and pepper and a little lemon juice.
Cook down to about one cupful. Butter a mold and dec
orate the bottom and sides with slices of hard-boiled eggs.
Pack the meat in solid and set away to cool for several hours.
When ready to serve, dip the mold in warm water, turn out
carefully. Garnish with celery tips and lemon.
LESSON 31
PROTEIN GELATIN
Source and Manufacture. When the bones, connective
tissue, hoofs, skin, etc., of animals are cooked a long time,
much of the material becomes a jelly, and is called gelatin.
Scraps of hide, horns, etc., are used in the same way to make
glue, which is a crude form of gelatin. The purest and
best gelatin is made from the air bladders of fish, especially
sturgeon, and is called isinglass.
Appearance. Gelatin is transparent and tasteless.
Commercial gelatin is in three forms, (1) granulated, (2)
shredded, and (3) sheet. There are many kinds of each on
the market.
Food Value. Although gelatin contains nitrogen and is
classed as a protein, it is not a tissue-builder. The body
uses it to produce energy, and as such is a great protein-
sparer. By this we mean that it saves protein for tissue-
building that might otherwise be consumed for heat and
energy. It is one of the most easily digested of foods, and
for this reason is very suitable to serve to the sick and con
valescent.
Effects of Water on Gelatin. 1. Gelatin does not
dissolve in cold water; it only softens and swells.
2. Gelatin dissolves in boiling water.
3. Dissolved gelatin gets thick when cool. A solution
as weak as 1 per cent will set.
4. Gelatin will not thicken if boiled before cooling.
Directions for Use. 1. The ordinary proportion is 1
oz. of gelatin to about 1 quart of liquid. In hot or cold
weather, more is required. As served, then, the jelly does
PRO TEINOELA TIN 181
not usually contain over 3 per cent of gelatin. Granulated
gelatin is more easily measured than either the shredded or
the sheet form. A 2-oz. box holds 5 tablespoonfuls. Too
much gelatin makes the jelly taste of it.
2. When gelatin is well soaked, dissolve with boiling
water, but do not boil or stir much.
3. If fruit is used, more gelatin is needed.
4. Add sugar to gelatin while the water is hot, to dis
solve the sugar.
5. Add flavoring and fruit juice after gelatin is dissolved.
6. Strain through a wet cloth or a fine strainer into a
wet mold.
7. Put on ice or in a pan of ice water to stiffen. This
takes from 3 to 5 hours.
8. To vary the flavor and color, use different flavors;
as, cinnamon, fruit, meat; or a good coloring, sparingly.
9. To make jelly and fruit in layers, put a part of the
gelatin with fruit into the mold, let stiffen, keeping remain
der warm in a pitcher set in warm water. Then make a
second layer, and repeat until all the gelatin is used.
10. To remove jelly from the mold, dip mold into, and
immediately out of, hot water. Turn upon a serving dish.
APPLICATION
1. Lemon Jelly
1^2 tbsp. granulated gelatin Spk. salt
24 c. cold water % c. sugar
1% c. boiling water y% c. lemon juice
Method,. Soak gelatin in cold water to soften (about
5 minutes). Add the boiling water and the sugar and stir
until dissolved. Add the flavoring or fruit juice. Strain
through a wet cheesecloth or fine strainer into a cold, wet
mold. Let stand in a pan of ice water to stiffen.
(Basis for 2 girls, \i rule.)
182 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
2. Orange Jelly
2 tbsp. granulated gelatin % c. sugar
% c. cold water Spk. salt
\Y^ c. boiling water % c. orange juice
2 tbsp. lemon juice
Method. Same as Lemon Jelly.
3. Snow Pudding
Use the Lemon Jelly rule.
Method. Beat white of 3 eggs until stiff and dry, and
when the jelly begins to thicken add the beaten whites.
Beat until the jelly is stiff and nearly firm; then pour it into
a cold, wet mold or into custard cups. Serve with soft
custard made from
2 c. scalded milk 4 tbsp. sugar
2 eggs (yolks) Spk. salt
^2 tsp. vanilla
Method. Beat yolks slightly, beating in the sugar and
salt; add the hot milk, slowly stirring the mixture all the
while. Pour into a double boiler and cook, stirring con
stantly, until the custard coats the spoon (about 5 minutes).
Strain at once and add the vanilla.
4. Tomato Jelly Salad
1 can stewed and strained tomatoes
1 tsp. salt 1 tsp. powdered sugar
3 tbsp. gelatin
Method. Soak the gelatin 15 minutes in % cup of cold
water; add the tomato, sugar, and salt. Pour into small
cups and chill. Turn the jelly out of the mold, place on
lettuce leaves and garnish top of each with mayonnaise
dressing.
6. Pistachio Salad
Yz box gelatin Juice of 2 oranges and 1 lemon
% c. cold water % c. sugar
2 c. boiling water }/ Ib. walnuts
4 c. celery
Method. Soak the gelatin in cold water; add boiling
water and fruit juice, and color green with very little color-
PROTEIN GELATIN 183
ing; add the sugar and, when entirely dissolved, strain. Pour
into molds, and when it begins to thicken add the nuts and
celery. Serve as a garnish with meats or as a salad with
cooked dressing.
6. Meat Jellies
Method. Jellied veal or chicken is made by cooking the
meat a long time, reducing the meat stock, removing the
meat from the bone, and packing in a mold with the meat
liquor. Enough gelatin is extracted to mold the meat with
out adding commercial gelatin.
7. Junket
% c. milk % junket tablet
1 tbsp. sugar 1 tsp. cold water
Y tsp. vanilla Pinch of salt
Method. Dissolve the junket tablet in the cold water.
Heat the milk until lukewarm, add the salt, sugar, vanilla
and the junket-mixture. Pour quickly into small molds,
let stand in a warm place until firm, then chill before
serving. Remove from the molds, serve with cream.
8. Caramel Junket
Method. Caramelize 2 tbsp. of sugar and add 2 tbsp.
of boiling water. Boil together until reduced to 1 tbsp.
Use in place of vanilla for flavoring in the above rule.
LESSON 32.
PROTEIN MEAT SUBSTITUTES
Food authorities agree that as a race the American
people eat too much meat.
To reduce the amount of meat in the diet and frequently
substitute dishes consisting of vegetable protein or meat
equivalents would give greater powers of endurance and
prevent many ills.
Protein is essential in the diet, but there are many
different forms in which it may be served. Meat is the
chief protein food on account of its high protein content
together with its valuable mineral salts which give it rich
flavor. Eggs and milk are also valuable protein foods,
but are lacking in flavor. Meat substitute dishes, include
any protein food which furnishes an equivalent amount of
nourishment in the diet. Such foods include: milk, eggs,
cheese, nuts, peas, beans, lentils, alone or in combination.
Cheese and nuts are very concentrated foods, expensive,
and are better served in combination with bread crumbs
or rice, to avoid digestion disturbances and keep the food
cost at a minimum.
Form of Dishes. Most meat substitute dishes consist
of two or more foods in combination. They are usually
served in the form of a loaf and steamed or baked and
served with a white or tomato sauce, or prepared in a cas
serole, as a scalloped dish or souffle, or served together in
a salad or cream soup. Left-over vegetables from dinner
may form the basis for a meat substitute dish for the next
day's lunch or dinner and not only serve to utilize econom
ically all bits of food, but go to make an attractive dish
rich in food value. Dry bread, rolled fine and sifted may
(184)
PRO TEINMEA T S UBSTITUTES 185
be used on the top of many of the casserole dishes with bits
of butter giving the dish a rich brown color when baked.
1. Pea Souffle
1 c. split dried peas or 1 tsp. salt
1 c. canned peas 4 tbsp. milk
4 egg whites
Look over and wash the peas in cold water. Put in
a kettle with cold water to cover and bring to a boil. Drain,
cover with fresh boiling water and boil 1 hour. Press
through a sieve, add the salt, pepper, and milk. Beat
the egg whites stiff and fold into the pea mixture. Butter
a baking dish, turn in the mixture and bake in a moderate
oven 20 minutes. Serve as soon as removed from the oven.
2. Peanut Butter Loaf
1 c. peanut butter 2 tsp. salt
1 c. mashed potatoes 2 tsp. grated onion
1 egg Yz tsp. grated nutmeg
2 tbsp. finely chopped parsley 3^ tsp. paprika
To the hot mashed potatoes add the peanut butter,
1 well beaten egg, parsley, onion, nutmeg, salt and paprika.
Mix well. Put in -a baking pan which has been brushed
with butter and bake in a hot oven from 35 to 40 minutes.
3. Lima-Bean Loaf with Bacon
% Ib. thinly sliced bacon 1 tbsp. grated onion
3 c. lima beans 1 tbsp. parsley
1 tsp. salt 1 egg
3^ tsp. pepper 2 tbsp. egg crumbs
1 c. cream sauce
Wash and soak the beans over night; drain; cover with
boiling water; cook until tender; drain, and mash through
a coarse strainer; add seasonings, egg well beaten and cream
sauce. Keep 1 teaspoon of beaten egg for top of loaf.
Mix all together. Brush a baking pan with drippings, fill
with the mixture, brush top with beaten egg and sprinkle
with bread crumbs. Bake in a moderate oven 40 minutes.
Turn out on a platter and garnish with bacon curls and
parsley.
186 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
4. Scalloped Corn
1 can corn Spk. pepper
1 c. milk 2 tsp. sugar
2 tbsp. flour 1 c. bread crumbs (stale)
2 tbsp. butter M c. melted butter
1 tsp. salt
Method. Make a white sauce of the milk, flour, butter,
salt, and pepper, and add the corn and sugar. Cover the
bottom of a buttered baking dish with a layer of corn and
sprinkle heavily with buttered crumbs. Repeat until the
dish is full. Add buttered crumbs and grated cheese to
top, and bake until nicely browned (about 20 or 30
minutes).
(Basis for 2, Y^rule.)
5. Salmon Souffle
2 tbsp. butter 2 tbsp. flour
1 c. milk 1 c. salmon
4 eggs y% tsp. salt
Method. Make a white sauce of the butter, flour,
milk, and salt. Add the salmon (minced) , with bones and
skin removed. Remove from the fire and add the well-
beaten egg yolks. Cool, and fold in the stiffly beaten
whites. Pour into a buttered baking dish or into custard
cups ; set in a pan of hot water. Bake in a moderate oven
for 20 minutes a little longer when baked in a large dish.
(Basis for 2 girls, Y rule.)
6. Cheese Souffle
(Recipe and method are given under Lesson 12.)
Domestic Science Principles and
Application
SECOND YEAR
SECOND YEAR
LESSON 1
PRESERVATION OF FOOD CANNING FRUITS
PRESERVATION as applied to food is the process of pre
venting decomposition, which is caused by the presence of
bacteria.
Bacteria are single-celled forms of plant life so small as
to be seen only by the aid of a powerful microscope. Al
though they are so tiny, they increase in number so rapidly
where they have plenty of food,
moisture, and warmth, that
they are able to cause extensive ff^.
changes, especially in foods.
It is believed that there are
9
as many kinds of bacteria as 9m
there are kinds of other plants,
and they are found everywhere, 9 c
in the dust Of the air, in soil, Fig . 29. Bacteria (greatly en-
water and food larged): a, rod-shaped, showing
Water, ailU IOOU. spores; 6, spherical; c, typical lac-
riiit-inrr +kek oKoon^d r\f t-kt-^r^ot- tic-acid bacteria; d, bacteria with
JJUrmg trie absence OI proper hairlike appendages, with which
conditions for their growth they they swim about in water OI
are inactive and often remain so for several months or
years, but spring into life when brought again into the right
conditions.
All bacteria, however, are not harmful, and some are of
great use to us. Common products that owe their flavor
largely to the work of bacteria are butter, cheese, and
vinegar. The action of bacteria is very useful in the pro
duction of linen, hemp, liquors, and many other products.
naa
190 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
If there were no such thing as decay, the surface of the
earth would soon become loaded with useless vegetable
and animal matter. Bacteria feed upon this material and
reduce it finally to substances available to plants as food,
and it again becomes living matter.
Reasons for Preserving Food. People of no other age
lived so well as the average live today. One great reason is
the abundance and variety of food, made possible largely
by methods of preservation. Advantages of food preserva
tion are:
1. To insure clean, wholesome food, free from bacteria.
2. To enable us to have food out of season.
3. To afford us economy by making it possible to
purchase food when it is best and cheapest, rather than
when it is scarce, expensive, and inferior in quality.
4. To permit of transportation from one part of the
country to another or from one country to another. Thus
we have the use of foods not grown at home.
METHODS OF PRESERVING FOOD
Food is preserved by producing conditions unfavorable
to the growth of bacteria in it and which destroy their
effects. This is accomplished (1) by applying either a
high or low temperature, (2) by drying, (3) by adding
preservatives.
Refrigeration is preservation by holding food at a low
temperature. Freezing and cold storage are means of
keeping food for long periods; cellars and ice boxes, for
short periods.
Freezing or packing in dry snow or ice checks the growth
of bacteria as long as the food is in a frozen condition.
Food deteriorates quickly after thawing out, and should be
used immediately. Meat and fish are most commonly frozen.
CANNINO FRUIT in
Cold storage, or keeping food in cold, dry storerooms
artificially cooled to just above the freezing point, preserves
food. Eggs, fruit, vegetables, butter, and meat are kept
very extensively and for considerable periods in cold-
storage plants. Cellars and ice boxes are cold-storage
devices for homes.
Canning, or sealing sterilized food in air-tight sterilized
jars, is a common household method of food preservation.
Boiling for 20 minutes will generally kill most forms of
bacteria. Fruits, vegetables, and meats are preserved by
canning.
Removal of Moisture. Bacteria require considerable
moisture in a material in order to grow in it. Drying a
food, therefore, preserves it from decay. Flour, crack
ers, cereals, and many other foods do not spoil because
they are dry. Fish, fruits, berries, and beef are other
familiar examples of this preserving principle. Dried
foods must be kept in a dry place so as to prevent the ab
sorption of sufficient moisture to give the germs of decay
on or in them a chance to grow.
The excluding of air also aids in preserving some food
products. This is accomplished in the case of eggs by
coating with paraffin or vaseline or putting them in water
glass; likewise grapes are packed in cork.
Preservatives. Antiseptics are materials that do not
kill bacteria but which retard or prevent their growth.
Those used to preserve food should be harmless to the body.
Common examples of these are:
Sugar. Bacteria cannot grow in a food containing a
large proportion of sugar. Jelly, marmalade, and preserves
keep well for this reason. Raisins, dates, figs, and candied
fruits are other examples. Condensed milk is preserved
by the addition of 30 or 40 per cent of sugar.
Iff DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Salt. Salt prevents bacterial growth in much the same
way as sugar, and it also takes up moisture. Common
foods salted are fat pork, beef, fish, hams, and bacon. Salt
in butter and cheese makes them keep better.
Acids. Acids protect food from bacteria and give new
flavors. Vinegar (acetic acid) is used in making pickles,
and lactic and acetic acids that develop in sauerkraut act
as preservatives.
Spices are antiseptic and are another common means of
preventing the action of bacteria on food. Spices are
used in mincemeat for flavor and at the same time they
help to preserve it. Sage and spice used in sausage and
spice in fruit cake perform the same functions.
Smoke. Meats and fish are often preserved and flavored
by smoking, combined with the salting and drying that
accompany the process. It must be remembered, however,
that the smoke does not penetrate deeply into the flesh,
but is merely a protective covering, so that any bacteria
or parasites within are not killed. Smoked meat is unsafe
to eat without thorough cooking.
Harmful Preservatives. Other substances often used
as preservatives are borax, boracic acid, salicylic acid and
formalin. In small quantities these preservatives have
been found to be quite harmless; yet their use in manu
factured foods has been made illegal in many states, in
asmuch as the amount a person may eat cannot be con
trolled.
Sterilization of anything is the process of destroying
all germs and molds in or on it, and anything that has
undergone this process and is free from life is sterilized.
CANNING
The Primary Principle in Canning. The central point
in canning is to sterilize by heat the food and everything
CANNING FRUIT
193
that comes in contact with it, and then to keep it sterile.
Bacteria increase in number so amazingly fast that if a
single germ withstands the heat or gets into the food after
it has cooled, the contents of the jar will spoil in a few days.
The jars must be sealed while hot, to insure that all enclosed
air will be sterilized and to insure a perfect seal on cooling.
Most failures in canning are due to insufficient heat
applied or to neglect in using utensils not freed from germs.
Avoid the raising of dust in the room while canning is
being done.
Jars for Canning. There are many kinds of fruit jars
on the market. The best jar is that which is strong and
Fig. 30. Jars for canning: a, spring top; o, jar with metal lacquered top; c,
improved Mason; d. Mason. (U. S. D. A. Bui.)
simple in construction, which has a wide mouth, and which
protects the contained food against contact with metal.
The type that seems to give the most general satisfaction
has a glass cover clamped on with a spring device, as in
Fig. 30. Use glass jars, never tin. Jars having a wide
mouth are the best for large fruits, for it is easier to arrange
the contents to better advantage.
Be sure the cans and tops are perfect and fit closely, to
insure an air-tight seal. By fitting jars and tops together
before putting in the fruit no time is lost in sealing.
13
194 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
To Sterilize Jars. Wash the jars and tops and submerge
them in a pan of cold water, jars full of water; bring
slowly to a boil and boil 10 minutes. Do this just before
filling.
Rubbers should not be boiled but should be dipped into
boiling water just before putting them on the jars. Tops
with the rubbers on them must be treated in the same way.
These tops and all rubbers can safely be used but once.
Selection of Fruit. Buy only fresh, firm fruit of good
quality and not too ripe. Overripe fruit may contain
some bacteria that will not be killed by boiling, causing
fermentation after the fruit is set away. Buy fruit in
season when prices are best.
Proportion of Sugar and Water for Sirup. Use 3 quarts
of sugar to 2 quarts of water. The various densities are
gained by shorter or longer boiling.
Thin sirup is sugar and water boiled so that all the
sugar is dissolved, but the sirup is not sticky.
Medium thin sirup is that which has begun to thicken
and is sticky when cooled on the finger or spoon.
Medium thick sirup will pile up on the edge of the spoon
when poured out.
General Methods of Canning Fruit. There are two
methods of canning fruit: (1) Cooking fruit in a sirup in a
saucepan and then sealing in jars; (2) cooking by baking
or steaming in the jars with a sirup. The latter method
keeps the fruit whole and is especially suitable for berries.
Method 1. Cooking Fruit in a Sirup. 1 . Boil the sugar
and water together 5 or 10 minutes, making a thin sirup.
Put in the fruit and cook until tender. Cooking a small
amount at a time preserves the shape of the fruit.
2. When fruit is tender, set the empty jar from the
boiling water into a pan containing a little hot water, or
CANNING FRUIT 195
on a wet, hot cloth. This keeps the jar hot and avoids the
danger of its breaking.
3. Put a new sterilized rubber on the jar. Pack the
fruit in carefully, arranging it to look well, and fill the jar
to overflowing with the hot sirup. Put on the sterilized
top and screw down tight.
4. See that no fruit around the edge prevents an air
tight seal. Set each jar upside down on a board away
from any draft and let stand over night.
Fig. 31. Canned fruit, labeled and ready for storing.
5. On the following day wipe off the jars, see that each
is perfectly sealed, and label. Store them in a dark closet.
If any jar is not perfectly sealed, open it, boil the fruit, and
recan as before.
Method 2. Cooking Fruit Whole in Jars. Clean fruit
and pack neatly and closely into the sterilized jars. Fill
jars to the top with sirup made as in Method 1. Adjust
tops and partially seal.
Baking. Set the jars in a pan containing an inch or
two of hot water. Set the pan with the jars in a hot oven
and bake 20 or 30 minutes, or until hot all through and
bubbles rise in the jars.
Cold-packing, or Steaming. Set the filled jars on a rack
in a boiler containing hot water to cover the jars. Cover
196 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
the boiler and when the water in the boiler begins to boil
count the time and cook, or process, according to the time
given in the table under application. At the end of the
time remove the jars carefully, tighten the covers to make
a perfect seal, and invert the jars for several hours to cool,
Examine and seal before storing fruit away.
APPLICATION
1. Canned Peaches
Method. Wipe peaches and put in boiling water,
allowing them to stand just long enough to loosen the
skins. Remove the skins and either cook fruit at once,
that it may not discolor, or drop into cold water. Make a
sirup in the proportion of 1 pint of sugar to 1 pint of water
and bring to a boil in a preserving kettle. Put fruit in and
cook 10 or 15 minutes or until tender. Bring to a full boil
and then fill jars according to previous directions. The
fruit may be cut in halves and a few of the stones put into
the sirup for flavor.
One section of the class may can according to Method
1 and the other section may follow Method 2.
(Basis for 2 girls, 1 can.)
2. Canned Pears
Method. Wash and pare the fruit. Cook whole with or
without stems; or, remove stems, cut in quarters or halves,
and core. Put at once into cold water. Make a sirup of
1 pint of sugar to 2 pints of water, bring to a boil, drain the
pears and place in the sirup. Boil until tender. Place
each piece separately in the jar with a fork; then cover
brim full with the boiling sirup, and seal. Bartlett pears
are best for canning.
(Basis for 2 girls, 1 can.)
CANNING FRUIT
197
3. Canned Plums
Method. Wash the plums and prick them to prevent
bursting. Add the plums to the sirup (1 cupful sugar to
2 cupfuls water), cook until tender, and can according to
Method 1.
4. Canned Strawberries
Method. Select highly-colored, clean berries. To 10
pounds of berries add 3 to 5 pounds of sugar. Place berries
in a preserving kettle and mix in the sugar thoroughly.
Allow them to stand 5 to 10 hours, until the juice begins
to run into the sugar. Place the kettle and contents on
the stove and bring to a boil. Simmer 15 minutes, keeping
the berries beneath the sirup with a spoon and removing
scum that rises. Place in jar and seal.
NOTE. Blackberries and raspberries may be canned
the same as strawberries. Use 2/^ pounds of sugar for
10 pounds of berries. Berries may also be canned accord
ing to the baking or steaming method.
Time-Table for Canning Fruit by Cold-Pack, or Steaming, Method.
Fruit
Preparation
Time of
Blanch
ing
Minutes
Kind of
birup
Time of Cooking
Water-
bath
Outfit
Minutes
Pressure
Cooker
Min. Lbs.
Apples
Apricots
Peel, core, cut up. . .
Peel, core, cut up. . .
Pick over, wash ....
Wash, stem, pit. . . .
Wash, stem
Clean
Blanch, peel, stone..
Blanch, peel, core.. .
Peel, slice
12
12
Medium
Medium
Medium
Med. thick
2030
16
16
16
20
16
16
16
20
60
60
16
16
105
1C 5
65
105
105
105
85
105
105
405
405
88
105
Blackberries
Cherries
Fruit juices
Grapes, plums. . .
Huckleberries. . . .
Peaches
12
12
12
Med. thick
Med. thick
Thin
Thin
Thin
Thin
Thin
Pears
Pineapples
Quinces
Peel, core, cut up. . .
Pick over
Pick over
Raspberries
Strawberries
LESSON 2
PRESERVATION OF FOOD CANNING VEGETABLES
VEGETABLES, except tomatoes, are more difficult than
fruit to can successfully, because they are harder to steri
lize. They contain much hard cellulose fiber, requiring
longer cooking, and the spores (seeds) of certain bacteria,
which resist ordinary boiling, are also usually present.
Nevertheless peas, beans, asparagus, and corn may be
easily canned in the school and the home if the correct
method is followed.
Sterilizing by Intermittent Cooking. As we have
learned, some bacteria are able to form spores, which are
like seeds, that are not killed by ordinary boiling. Soon
after the food has cooled, these spores germinate, when
they may be killed easily by heating. A second cooling
and a third heating will render the vegetable or fruit
absolutely sterile.
Selection and Preparation of Vegetables. Select only
sound, fresh, young and tender vegetables. If possible
can vegetables on the day they are picked.
Pare, peel, or scrape, as the kind of vegetable requires.
Remove all bruised or decayed parts.
If the vegetable is likely to discolor after being pared ,
cover with cold water until ready to use; if very large, cut
into convenient size to can.
General Method of Canning Vegetables. 1. Pack the
vegetables firmly into the jars to within half an inch of the
top. Arrange in a manner to utilize the space well and to-
present a good appearance.
C1M)
CANNING VEGETABLES 199
2. Add salt to the vegetables, allowing J^ to 1 tea-
spoonful to each quart. If sugar is desired, as in beets and
peas, add 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls to each quart. Then fill
jars to overflowing with clean, cold water.
3. Place the tops on the jars lightly, but do not seal.
Place the jars on a wooden rack or other support in the
bottom of a boiler.
4. Pour water into the boiler to a depth of 3 or more
inches. Put on the cover and boil for 15 or 20 minutes.
5. Remove the boiler cover, seal the jars, cover again
and boil for about 45 minutes; then set aside out of a draft
in a warm room.
6. On the second day, return the jars to the boiler
prepared as before and, without loosening the seals of the
jars, bring the water to the boiling point and boil again
about 60 minutes. Remove the jars and let stand as before.
7. On the third day, cook as on the previous day, 60
minutes. Then remove jars from the boiler, allow to cool,
wipe off, label, and set away.
The Cold Pack, single period method of canning is now
used largely by home and school canning clubs. The
steps involved in the cold pack method are, (1) blanching,
(2) cold dipping, (3) peeling, (4) packing and (5) process
ing. The blanching and cold dipping of the product takes
the place of intermittent cooking.
Blanching is the process of plunging the food product
into boiling water. This eliminates objectionable acids and
reduces the large bulk of the food. Vegetables are more
easily handled in a wire basket or cheese cloth square.
Plunge the whole into the boiling water and allow to re
main from one to three minutes or until the skins begin to
loosen.
200 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Cold dipping consists in putting the basket containing
the vegetables directly from the boiling water into cold
water. This hardens the pulp under the skin, makes the
removal of the skins easier and brings the coloring matter
to the surface.
Peeling the vegetables should then follow. This
should be done with a sharp knife quickly and carefully
and they should be packed immediately into sterilized
jars. Fill the jars full of vegetables; add hot water to
make the jar brim full; add salt in the proportion of
one teaspoonful to a quart jar, and partially seal the jar.
Processing consists in sterilizing the jars of vegetables
in a hot water bath outfit according to the time given in
the table for each kind of vegetable. At the end of the
time given for processing, remove the jars, complete the
seal and cool quickly. Examine carefully before putting
jars away to make sure the seal is tight and that the ma
terial canned is in perfect condition.
Hot water bath outfits can be made from any wash
boiler, galvanized vat, large kettle or other vessel with
an air tight cover by adding a false bottom with handles
for removal of the jars.
Commercial outfits for the sterilization of food products
consist of several kinds: (1) The hot water bath outfits,
made for out-of-door use on a large scale; (2) water seal
outfits, having an inner seal and jacket which maintains
a higher temperature than the water bath ; (3) steam pres
sure outfits made of steel, iron, or heavy tin. These carry
from 5 to 30 pounds steam pressure and can be regulated
to maintain different temperatures. (4) Aluminum pres
sure cookers made entirely of aluminum. These transmit
heat quickly and carry 30 pounds of steam pressure. They
are the most expensive, but are especially good for canning
CANNING VEGETABLES
201
smaller quantities at one time. Fruits, vegetables, meats,
soups and stews can all be successfully preserved with
little work with this cooker.
APPLICATION
Canning vegetables by both the intermittent and the
cold pack methods according to the following tables.
CANNING VEGETABLES
INTERMITTENT METHOD
Vegetable
Preparation
Cook out
of jars
Cook in
jars with
out cover
Cov
First
day
er and C
Second
day
ook
Third
day
Asparagus
Beans string. .
Beans Lima
Wash* grade to size
15 min.
20 min.
15 min.
15 min.
15 min.
45 min.
15 min.
15 min.
45 min.
60 min.
60 min.
45 min.
45 min.
50 min.
45 min.
45 min.
60 min.
60 min.
60 min.
60 min.
60 min.
60 min.
60 min.
60 min.
60 min.
60 min.
60 min.
60 min.
60 min.
60 min.
60 min.
60 min.
String: wash thoroly.
Wash .
15 min.
15 min.
15 min.
15 min.
20 min.
15 min.
15 min.
Beets
Carrots
Wash
Wash: scrape . . .
Corn
Peas
Tomatoes
Cut grains off cob . . .
Select young: sort to
size
Scald and peel
COLD PACK METHOD
Vegetable
Preparation
Blanch
Min.
Time
Water-
bath
outfit
Min.
for Co<
Water
seal
Min.
>king
Steam
pres
sure
Min.
Lbs.
Alumi
num
cooker
Min.
Lbs.
Asparagus
Beans string. .
Beans Lima . .
Beets
Carrots
Corn off cob . . .
Corn on cob . . .
Okra
Clean: sort
String: grade
Clean: grade
3- 4
3- 5
3- 5
3- 4
Cook
M done
5-15
5-15
2- 5
2- 5
10
Pack in
90
120
120
90
90
180
180
120
120
90
jars.
120
22
90
60
90
90
75
75
90
90
90
90
75
Fill wi
75
18
75
50 5
60 5
60 5
60 5
60 5
60 5
60 5
60 5
60 5
60 5
th cold
60 5
15 5
60 5
25 15
40 20
40 20
35 20
35 20
35 20
35 20
40 20
40 20
40 20
water.
40 20
10 20
40 20
Grade: size: wash
Scrape . .
Husk: cot off cob
Husk grade
Can on day picked
Shell: sort to size
Peas
Potatoes
Rhubarb
Soup mixtures .
Tomatoes
Turnips
Wash well
Cut in 1 inch pieces
Fill cans
Grade: use no water
Pack cans full
Peel : cut in pieces
1- 3
30
LESSON 3
PRESERVATION OF FOOD MAKING JELLIES, MAR
MALADES, and CONSERVES
JELLIES, preserves, marmalades, and conserves are made
by cooking fruit juice or entire fruit with an abundance of
sugar, which acts as a preservative.
JELLIES
The ideal jelly is well colored, well flavored, transparent,
tender, holds its shape when turned from the glass, and
is not gummy or sticky.
Composition of Fruit Juice. Fruit juice consists largely
of water in which are dissolved small amounts of sugar,
flavoring material, vegetable acids, and pectin.
Pectin is the essential substance for jelly-making. If
this is not present in a fruit juice it is impossible to make
jelly from it. Pectin is a carbohydrate similar to starch
in its nature and, like starch, is dissolved in boiling water.
It exists in small quantities in raw fruits, the amounts vary
ing with different varieties. Cooking causes the pectin
to take on water, which increases it in amount and gives it
the jelly-making properties. Overripe fruits do not con
tain enough pectin to jell, for the ripening process changes
it to a form of sugar. Fruit not quite ripe is usually best.
Test for Pectin. Add two tablespoonfuls of alcohol to
the same amount of hot fruit juice. If the mixture becomes
thick, like gelatin, pectin is present.
Fruits rich in pectin are currant, grape, apple, plum,
raspberry, blackberry, cranberry, quince, pear, and peach.
The white skin of the orange and grapefruit also contain it.
(202)
JELLIES, MARMALADES, AND PRESERVES 203
Vegetable acids are also necessary in fruit juices for jelly-
making, and give flavor to the jelly. Many fruits are
deficient in acid ; for example, quince, peaches, sweet apples,
and pears. In order to make good jelly from these juices, sour
apple juice or some fruit juice rich in acid should be used
as a basis. Combining fruit juices in this way supplies
both pectin and acid where 'they are deficient, and many
pleasing flavors and combinations may be made with a
little care and practice.
Utensils for Jelly-Making. Use a granite or porcelain
kettle; a large wooden or enamel spoon for stirring; a
pointed bag made of Canton flannel, cheesecloth, or old
damask through which to strain the jelly; an enamel pitcher
or cup for filling glasses; sterilized jelly glasses; and a
silver spoon for testing the jelly.
Extracting Fruit Juices. 1. Select sound fruit that is-
not overripe. Pick over, wash until thoroughly clean and
free from sand and dirt. Cut up large fruits.
2. Put in the preserving kettle and if the fruit is very
juicy add just enough water to prevent burning, about
1 cup to every 4 quarts of fruit. If the fruit is not juicy r
add water to nearly cover the fruit.
3. Cover the kettle and cook slowly, stirring occasion
ally. When it simmers, crush the fruit with a potato
masher; cook until the fruit is thoroughly cooked and the
juices run freely.
4. Dip the jelly bag into boiling water to sterilize it
and wring out quite dry. Suspend the jelly bag on a pole
over a bowl or jar, pour in the hot fruit, and let drain until
all the juice is well extracted. This usually takes from 12
to 20 hours. Do not squeeze the bag, for this will force
out pulp and make the jelly cloudy.
204 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
5. When well drained, return the pulp to the preserving
kettle, cover with water, stir until well mixed, cover and
bring slowly to a boil as before; then drain again into
another jar. By testing the juice with alcohol the amount
of pectin present may be ascertained.
6. Sometimes a third extraction of juice is possible.
Do not mix the juice from the 'first cooking with that of the
second or third.
Proportion of Fruit Juice and Sugar. A correct propor
tion of sugar to juice is necessary; not enough sugar makes
a tough jelly, and too much produces a soft jelly and may
form crystals. For most juices rich in pectin and acid, 1
cup of sugar to 1 cup of juice is used; currants and grapes
demand this proportion.
Some fruits; as, crab apple, sour apples, cranberries, and
raspberries, require less sugar, and the proportion of % cup
of sugar to 1 cup of juice is usually correct.
If fruits contain a large amount of water and the pectin
test shows a small amount of pectin, use less sugar. For
the second and third extractions, which contain more water
than the first, the juice should be boiled down quickly until
the pectin test shows up clear, when the usual proportion of
sugar may be used. This jelly should be as clear as that
from the first extraction.
Making the Jelly. Measure out the sugar into a granite
pan and put into the oven to heat. Leave the oven door
open and stir the sugar occasionally to prevent burning.
Pour the fruit juice into the preserving kettle and bring
to a boil. Too long boiling destroys the gelatinizing power
of the pectin and may also cause crystals of sugar to form
in the jelly after it stands. The time necessary for boiling
varies with the proportionate amounts of sugar and pectin
JELLIES, MARMALADES, AND PRESERVES
205
in the juice. Where much sugar is used, less time is taken,
and thin juice deficient in pectin requires longer cooking.
Remove carefully all the scum that rises to the top of
the boiling juice and from around the edges of the kettle.
After the juice has boiled 10 to 12 minutes add the
hot sugar slowly, stir occasionally to prevent burning, and
continue the boiling until the test shows sufficient cooking
to "jell" the mixture.
Test for Jelly Take up a small amount of the hot
mixture in a cold, silver tablespoon and drop it from the
spoon. If the mixture "jells" and breaks from the spoon,
it has been cooked enough. Remove from the fire at once.
Filling Glasses. Sterilize jelly glasses in the same
manner as fruit jars, and when the jelly is ready set the
glasses in a pan containing a little hot water, to keep them
from breaking when the
hot jelly is poured in.
With a cup or pitcher fill
each glass to within a half
inch of the top.
Let the jelly stand in
a sunny place several
hours to set. Then, to
exclude molds, cover with
hot paraffin, with circles
of white paper cut to fit the glasses and dipped in slightly
beaten egg white and water or alcohol, or with hot tin
covers. Wipe off the glasses with a damp cloth, label each,
indicating the kind of jelly and the date, and set away in a
cool, dry place.
Causes of Poor Jelly. Failure may be due to one or
more of a number of causes, which must be discovered by
tests.
Fig. 32. Jelly, properly sealed and labeled.
206 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
The following are the important causes:
1. Fruit juice contained too little pectin or not enough
acid.
2. Too much or too little sugar may have been used.
The error is usually on the side of too much.
3. The jelly may have been boiled too long or not
enough.
PRESERVES, JAMS, AND MARMALADE
Preserves, jam, and marmalade are made from the fruit
pulp and juice cooked thick with from % to its whole weight
of sugar.
Fruits most used are strawberries, raspberries, black
berries, rhubarb, grapes, oranges, peaches, and quince or
big plums.
A conserve is a preserve made from a mixture of fruits
with or without the addition of some other material, such
as nuts.
General Method. 1. Pick over the fruit, wash and
weigh. Cut large fruit into quarters or smaller pieces and
crush the berries and grapes. Put in a preserving kettle
with enough water to keep from burning, about J^ cup
to each quart of fruit. Cook slowly until the fruit is soft
and the juices run.
2. Remove the seeds from grapes and some berries by
rubbing the mixture through a sieve; then return to the
fire and add an equal weight of hot sugar slowly. Stir the
mixture constantly to prevent burning, and cook until it
"jells" on the spoon or becomes thick.
3. Turn out into hot sterilized glasses, let stand a day or
two. and then seal and put away the same as jelly.
. JELLIES, MARMALADES, AND PRESERVES 207
APPLICATION
1. Currant Jelly
Method. Pick over the currants, but do not remove
the stems; wash and drain. Mash a few in the bottom of a
preserving kettle, using a potato-masher. Add more cur
rants and mash and continue adding currants until all are
used. Bring to a boil slowly and let simmer until the cur
rants appear white. Strain through a coarse strainer and
allow the juice to drain through a jelly bag. Measure the
juice, bring to the boiling point and boil 5 minutes. Add
an equal measure of heated sugar and boil until a good jelly
test is obtained; then pour into glasses.
(Basis for 4 girls, % cupful juice.}
2. Apple Jelly
Method. Wash the apples and remove the stems and
the dark spots. Cut into fourths, but do not core or pare.
Add just enough water to cover the apples and cook until
the fruit is soft and crushed. Drain through a jelly bag.
The pulp that remains may be put through a colander with
more fruit for flavoring and used for jams. For the jelly,
measure the juice and add an equal amount of sugar.
Boil the juice for 20 minutes (for a large amount), remove
the scum, and add the heated sugar. Boil about 5 minutes
or until the jelly test shows the mixture will jelly. Pour into
hot sterilized glasses and seal when cold.
(Basis for 4 girls, % cupful juice.)
3. Orange Marmalade
9 oranges 4 qts. water
6 lemons Same weight of sugar as fruit
Method. Slice as thin as possible the oranges and the
lemons crosswise with a sharp knife; remove the seeds and
put fruit into a preserving kettle with the water. Cover
and let stand for 36 hours and then boil for 2 hours. Meas-
208 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
ure the cooked fruit and add an equal amount of sugar.
Cook until the mixture jellies. Jar, and seal when cold.
4. Big Plum Conserve
1 basket big plums 3 oranges, rind of one
Sugar, %J weight of plums % lb. shredded almonds
Method. Cut the plums into halves and remove the
stones. Cook the plums, oranges, and the sugar for 45
minutes. Blanch the almonds and cut them several
times lengthwise. Add the almonds to the fruit mixture
and cook 10 minutes longer. Put into sterile glasses and
seal when cold like jelly. This amount makes 13 glasses.
5. Spiced Grapes
7 Ibs. fruit 3^4 Ibs. sugar
1 c. strong vinegar 2 oz. cinnamon
1 c. grape juice 1 oz. cloves
Method. Press pulp out of grapes. Boil the pulp
until tender and then pass it through a colander to remove
the seeds. Mix the skins with the pulp. Boil all until
thick like marmalade. When done turn into glasses and
seal. Good to serve with meats.
6. Raspberry Jam
3 qts. raspberries 1 qt. currant juice
3 Ibs. sugar
Method. Cook berries with the juice and half of the
sugar 20 minutes. Add the rest of the sugar and cook about
25 minutes longer. Stir constantly to keep from burning.
Put in jelly glasses and seal when cold. Adding the sugar
slowly prevents the fruit from getting hard.
7. Plum and Apple Jelly
Method. Use equal parts of plum and apple juice.
8. Quince and Apple
Method. Use J4 as much quince as apple juice.
JELLIES, MARMALADES, AND PRESERVES 209
9. Apple and Raspberry
Method. Flavor apple jelly with raspberry by using
Y% as much raspberry as apple juice.
10. Grape Fudge
7 Ibs. grapes 7 Ibs. sugar
1 Ib. walnuts 1 Ib. raisins
Method. Wash the grapes and remove the pulp. Cook
the pulp and remove the seeds by putting through a sieve.
Chop skins and nuts, mix pulp and sugar, add the chopped
portions and whole raisins. Cook until thick and seal in
sterilized glasses. This amount makes 22 glasses.
LESSON 4
PRESERVATION OF FOOD PICKLING.
CONDIMENTS AND SPICES
PICKLES are eaten largely for their pleasing flavor, and
are to be classed as condiments rather than as true food.
Condiments and Spices. Whatever is eaten to whet
the appetite and stimulate the flow of digestive juices is
known as a condiment. Horseradish and mustard are good
examples. Condiments are for the most part aromatic
fruits, seeds, or leaves that have a high flavor due to vola
tile oils. These oils lose their strength during cooking.
Besides the two named, pepper (black, white, cayenne),
mint, thyme, sage, dill, capers, chives, garlic and parsley
are those usually added to meats and soups.
Spices are condimental in nature and are used to season
foods, especially those containing sugar. Common spices
are ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, cloves, allspice,
caraway, pepper, peppermint, and angelica. They are
used whole, ground, or in the extract.
It is much better for young persons, as well as for older
ones, if they eat sparingly of highly-seasoned food. The
continued use of condiments creates a habit for them and
leaves no relish for natural flavors, which are more delicate
and more satisfying.
Salt is a food, since a certain amount is needed in the
formation of gastric juice. In the amounts in which it is
commonly eaten, however, it is a condiment. In concen
trated solutions it becomes a preservative.
Vinegar is . a condiment in the diet and is a familiar
preservative. It is dilute acetic acid, made by fermenting
(210)
PICKLING 211
weak alcoholic solutions like hard cider, wine, and malt.
Cider vinegar has an agreeable flavor and is the best for
pickling.
Pickling is preserving in acid and brine. Vinegar and
salt are used with spices and herbs which give flavor and
at the same time are preservative.
Kinds of Pickles. There are many varieties of pickles,
but in the main they may be classed as sweet, sour, dill, or
a combination of sweet and sour. Pickles have little food
value and are rather hard of digestion, but used in modera
tion as a relish with a dinner are appetizing and help stimu
late the digestion.
Materials for Pickles. Cucumbers, green tomatoes,
watermelon rind, apples, crab apples, peaches, and pears
make the best pickles. Use only the purest spices and the
best cider vinegar. Whole spices are better to use than
ground spices. If ground spices are used, tie them in a
tiny muslin bag.
General Rules for Pickling. 1. Never use brass, cop
per, or tin utensils in making pickles.
2. Clean the pickles thoroughly by washing in several
waters, remove all stem ends and sort according to size.
3. A small portion of alum improves cucumber pickles,
but too much is injurious.
4. Do not boil the vinegar too long,- -not over 10 to
15 minutes, for it loses its strength.
5. Keep the pickles covered with vinegar in good,
clean glass or stone jars. A few pieces of horseradish
added prevent scum from forming on the surface of the
vinegar.
6. If cucumbers are soaked in a brine overnight before
pickling they will be firmer, have more of the salt taste,
212 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
and will keep better. A brine made of about ^ cupful
of salt to a quart of water is the proportion most commonly
used.
Sweet Pickle for Fruits
2% c. brown sugar 1 tsp. whole cloves
1 c. vinegar (medium sour) % oz. cinnamon
Method. Cook the sugar, vinegar, and spices together
for about 15 to 20 minutes. Put in the fruit and cook until
it begins to get tender. Remove from the fire and put
into a large jar. The next day pour off the vinegar, reheat
it, and pour again over the fruit. Do this several successive
days until the fruit is tender. Weight down a plate on top
of the pickles to hold them under the vinegar.
Sweet Pickle for Vegetables
2 Ibs. sugar to 2 qts. of vinegar (medium sour)
2 tbsp. of cinnamon or stick cinnamon
2 tbsp. of cloves % lt>. mustard seed
2 tbsp. ginger or allspice H tbsp. red pepper
Method. Cook pickle ingredients together until some
what boiled down, and pour over the vegetables. Reheat
the pickle 3 or 4 successive mornings and return to the
vegetables.
APPLICATION
1. Pickled Green Tomato
Method. Wash and stem small green tomatoes and
slice in J^-inch slices. Cook in slightly salted water,
(allow 1 teaspoonful of salt to a quart of water). Cook
until tender, being careful not to mash the slices. Drain
and put immediately into cold water to make crisp. Let
stand an hour. Make a hot pickle as for vegetables and
pour over the tomatoes on 3 successive days. If one desires
a few slices of onion may be added to the tomatoes.
PICKLING 213
2. Sweet Pickles Peach
% peck peaches 2 Ibs. brown sugar
1 pt. vinegar 1 oz. stick cinnamon
Method. Make a pickle of sugar, vinegar, and cinna
mon. Scald the peaches or remove the wool by rubbing
with a towel. Do not stick cloves into them. If very
ripe, pour the hot sirup over them on 3 successive mornings.
If hard, cook a few minutes in the hot pickle; then pour on
the hot pickle on 2 successive days.
2. Sweet Pickled Pears
Method. Select sound fruit not too ripe, and pare and
leave whole with stems on. Cook until tender and pour
the hot pickle over them several successive mornings. Use
same pickle as for peaches.
3. Watermelon Pickles
Method. Cut the pared rind in thick slices. Boil 1
ounce of alum in 1 gallon of water and pour it on the rinds;
let stand several hours. Remove rinds into cold water
and when cold boil half an hour in a sweet pickle. Reheat
the pickle vinegar and pour over pickles on 2 successive
mornings. Keep in stone jars.
4. Cucumber Pickles
1 gal. vinegar 1 c. salt
1 c. sugar 1 c. mustard
4 qts. small cucumbers
Method. Mix salt, sugar, and mustard together; then
add the vinegar slowly, stirring well. Wash and look over
the cucumbers, and put into a stone jar. Pour on the pickle
brine, let stand weighed down with a plate to keep pickles
under the brine. These pickles are ready for use in a
week's time. The brine is not heated.
214 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
5. OU Pickles
50 medium-sized cucumbers 1 tbsp. celery salt
1 c. onions (sliced) lj^ c. olive oil
1 c. salt 2 qts. vinegar
1 c. white mustard send 1 tbsp. alum
y^ c. black mustard seed
Method. Wash cucumbers, cut off both ends, and slice
thin without peeling. Peel the onions and slice them thin.
Put cucumbers and onions in a crock in layers covered with
salt and let stand over night. In the morning, drain, mix
the powdered alum in 1 quart of vinegar and pour over the
pickles and let stand 4 hours; drain again. Mix seeds
through pickles; then pack all in a jar and cover with oil
mixed well with 1 quart of fresh vinegar. Place a weight
on top and let stand 3 weeks before using.
6. Bordeaux Sauce
1 qt. chopped green tomatoes 1 qt. vinegar
2 qts. sliced cabbage Y^ tsp. allspice
3 onions % tbsp. mustard seed
1 red pepper 1 c. brown sugar
2 tbsp. salt
Method, Mix all the ingredients together and boil for 25
minutes. Seal in small jars and use with meats as a relish.
7. Tomato Catsup
1/2 bushel ripe tomatoes 1 tsp. white pepper
3 bay leaves 3 onions
1 lemon 1 tsp. red pepper
1 tsp. black pepper 1 sr. c. salt
2 tsp. mustard i % pt. vinegar
Method. Wash the tomatoes thoroughly and cut in
pieces; cook with the bay leaves, lemon, white pepper, and
onions about 2 hours. Strain through a colander to
remove the skins. Mix the remainder of the spices and
stir into the strained portion, add the salt and the vinegar,
stir until well mixed, return to the large kettle, and cook
slowly till the mixture thickens and is cooked down about
one-half. Put in small sterilized bottles, seal, and keep in
a cool, dark place.
LESSON 5
DOUGHS COOKIES
REVIEW proportions for doughs.
Review recipes for baking powder biscuit and muffin
mixtures. Notice the proportion of ingredients. Com
pare with a plain cookie or a cake recipe. What ingredi
ents are found in much larger amounts in cookies and cakes?
General proportions of ingredients for cookie mixtures:
J/ to % as much butter as sugar
About J/ as much liquid as flour. (Regard eggs as so
much liquid.)
To combine sugar and butter in cookies or cakes, work
the butter with a wooden spoon or silver fork until soft and
creamy. This is called ' 'creaming" the butter. The par
ticles are separated and air is introduced, which helps to
make the mixture light. Add the sugar, and work until
sugar is moist and creamy.
Variations in Cookie Mixtures. A plain cookie mixture
may be varied greatly by the use of different flavors, flour
(bread, graham, or oatmeal), or spices; by varying the
quantity of eggs, butter or lard, nuts or cocoanut; by cut
ting in fancy shapes; and by icing or cooling.
Cookies are crisp or soft, depending on the amount of
liquid used. More liquid makes softer cookies; less liquid
and rolling thin make crisp cookies.
APPLICATION
Demonstrate rolling and cutting cookies.
1. Sugar Cookies
1 c. sugar 2 c. flour
^ c. butter ^ tsp. salt
1 egg 3 tsp. baking powder v ,
% c. milk 1 tsp. vanilla
(215)
216 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Method. Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually,
and cream well with a wooden spoon. Sift the salt and
baking powder with the flour. Add the milk gradually to
the sugar mixture, then the well beaten egg, then the vanilla,
then the flour gradually to make a soft dough. Turn out
on a floured board and roll a small portion at a time to J4
inch thickness. Cut with a floured cookie cutter, place on
buttered pan and bake in a hot oven until slightly brown
(about 10 minutes). Makes 4 dozen cookies.
(Basis for 2 girls, y rule.}
2. Sour Milk Cookies
1 c. sugar % tsp. soda
2/6 c. butter % tsp. salt
2 eggs 2 tsp. nutmeg
Yz c. sour milk or cream About 2 c. flour, or as little as possible
Method. Cream the butter, add the sugar, and cream
again. Add the well-beaten egg and then the sour milk.
Mix and thoroughly sift the soda, nutmeg, salt and flour,
and add gradually to the mixture. Use as little flour as
possible, the softer the dough the better. Roll out, cut, and
bake as other cookies. Makes 4 dozen cookies.
(Basis for 2 girls, Y rule.}
3. Norwegian Cookies
2% c. flour }4 c - sweet m ilk
Yi c. shortening (half butter, 2 tsp. baking powder
half lard)
1 c. sugar 1 tsp. vanilla
1 egg 1 A tsp. salt
Method. Beat the egg thoroughly, add the sugar, and
beat hard. Add milk to the egg mixture; beat hard. Sift
the baking powder with the flour and rub the cold short
ening into the flour with the hands until it is fine like meal ;
then add the flour, a cupful at a time, to the wet mixture.
Make a soft dough and set it in the ice box until quite cold.
Roll out a small portion at a time, very thin, J/g inch thick;
DOUQHS COOKIES 217
cut and bake in a quick oven 4 or 5 minutes. Makes 6
dozen cookies.
4. Ginger Snaps
Yz c. shortening 1 tsp. salt
1 c. molasses Y^ tsp. soda
334 c. flour 1 tbsp. ginger
Y<L c. sugar
Method. Heat the molasses to boiling point; then add
the shortening, which may be butter or half butter and half
lard. Mix and sift the dry ingredients and add to the wet.
Mix well and chill. Divide the mixture, turn upon a
floured board, part at a time, and roll very thin. Use little
or no flour in rolling. Cut and bake on buttered baking
sheets in a quick oven. Reserve a part of the flour, for
all may not be needed. Makes 5 dozen cookies.
(Basis for 2 girls, Y rule.}
6. Filled Cookies
2 c. oatmeal ground fine 1 c. shortening
2 c. flour. % c. thick sour milk
1 c. sugar y<i tsp. soda
y 2 tsp. salt
Sweet milk may be used instead of sour. Omit the
soda and add 3 tsp. of baking powder.
Filling
1 c. sugar 1 c. water
1 pkg. dates
Method. Mix and roll out thinly on a floured board.
Cut with a cookie cutter and bake 10 to 12 minutes. Stone
the dates and put them through a food chopper. Cook
with water and sugar for filling until it thickens. Place a
spoonful between two cookies and press firmly together.
6. Chocolate Cookies
Method. Add 3 tablespoonfuls melted chocolate to rule
for Sugar Cookies.
LESSON 6
DROP BATTERS COOKIES
REVIEW proportions for doughs and batters. Review
oven tests for temperature.
Time for baking cookies is 10 to 15 minutes.
APPLICATION
1. Chocolate Cookies
1 c. sugar ^ c. melted butter
2 eggs 1 even tsp. soda
l /2 c. milk 2 c. flour
1 c. raisins and nuts 3 square chocolate
1 tsp. vanilla
Method. Mix the melted butter with the sugar. Add
the beaten yolks and melted chocolate to this. Add soda
to the milk and then add the milk and % the flour to the
sugar and eggs. Mix well. Add the raisins with the re
mainder of the flour. Add beaten whites and vanilla
and beat well. Drop from the spoon to bake on buttered
baking sheets. May be frosted with fudge frosting.
(Basi* for 2 girls, }4 rule.)
2. Rocks
1% c. brown sugar 1 c. butter
3 eggs ^ Y tsp. cloves
1 tsp. cinnamon 3 c. flour
2 c. raisins \% c. English walnuts
1 tsp. soda
Method. Cream butter and sugar well. Add the beaten
yolks to this; mix spices and soda with the flour and add to
the sugar mixture. Flour fruit and nuts and add to mix
ture. Add the beaten whites and mix well. Drop from
spoon and bake 10 minutes. Makes 3 dozen.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.}
(218)
DROP BATTERS COOKIES 219
3. Peanut Cookies
^ c. sugar 3 tbsp. butter
1 egg 1 c. flour
1 tsp. baking powder ^ c. chopped nuts
% tsp. salt H tsp. lemon juice
Method. Cream butter well with sugar. Add salt
and baking powder to the flour. Add the beaten yolk to
the butter and sugar. Then add the flour and nuts. Fold
in white of egg, add the lemon juice, and mix stiff enough
to drop on greased paper. Bake in a hot oven. Makes
2 dozen cookies.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.')
4. Brownies
^ c. butter ^ c. powdered sugar
}/$ c. molasses 1 egg
% c. flour 1 c. pecan meats
Method. Cream butter with sugar, add molasses, add
the beaten yolk of egg, and beat well; mix nuts with the
flour and then add to the rest. Add beaten white of egg.
Bake in fancy cake pans. Put. nut meats on top of each.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.}
5. Oatmeal Cookies
Yz c. butter 4 tbsp. milk
1 c. sugar 1 tsp. soda
2 eggs 1 tsp. cinnamon
2 c. flour }/% tsp. cloves
2 c. oatmeal 1 c. chopped raisins
Method. Cream the butter, add the sugar, and cream
together well. Put the soda into the milk, put the eggs
into the sugar mixture one at a time, beat hard; add the
milk, then the flour, oatmeal, cinnamon, cloves, and floured
raisins. Drop by spoonfuls on a greased pan and bake
15 or 20 minutes.
LESSON 7
FATS AND OILS. FRYING UNCOOKED MIXTURES
Definition. An oil is a fat that is liquid at ordinary
temperatures. Fats that are ordinarily solid become
liquid in the presence of heat. Oils become solid at low
temperatures
Sources. Fat and oils used in cooking are obtained
from animals and vegetables. Examples of animal fats are
cream and butter, meat fat (suet, marrow, and drippings),
lard, tallow, and fish oil.
Examples of vegetable oils are olive oil, cottonseed oil,
cocoanut oil and oils from other nuts.
Food Value. Fats and oils are one of the main food
principles, and serve the body in the following ways: (1)
By supplying heat and energy, (2) by building up the fatty
tissue, (3) by acting as a lubricant.
To Try Out Fat. Beef drippings, leaf lard, etc., must
be tried out, or freed from the connective tissue, before
they can be used for frying. To do this, cut up the fat
fine, put into a pan with enough water to cover, and set
it in the oven. Let it simmer several hours. When the
fat is melted and free from water, strain through cheese
cloth and cool. Try out leaf lard in a double boiler; strain,
and cool.
To Clarify Fat. Fat used in frying takes up water,
solid substances, and flavors that should be removed before
the fat is used again. To clarify fat, melt it and add a
few slices of raw potato. Heat gradually and allow to simmer,
which evaporates the water. When it ceases to bubble and
(220)
FRYING UNCOOKED MIXTURES
221
the potato is well browned, strain through a cloth over a
strainer into a lard-pail or jar. The potato takes up odors,
and the solid substances are strained out.
New fat should be used for batter and dough mixtures,
potatoes, and fish balls. After these, fry fish, meat, and
croquettes.
Frying is cooking in deep fat. Fats used for frying are
olive oil (very expensive), cottolene, beef or bacon drippings,
or a combination of two-thirds lard and one-third beef suet.
The combination gives better results than all lard.
L
Fig. 33. Doughnuts.
Tests for Frying Temperature. To prevent absorption
of fat by foods when fried, the fat must be hot enough to
form a crust over the food as soon as put in. The fat is
never hot enough until it ceases to bubble. Then test
by dropping in an inch cube of bread cut from the middle
of a slice.
For cooked mixtures, like croquettes or fish and oysters,
the bread should turn a golden brown in 40 seconds.
222 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
For uncooked mixtures, like fritters and doughnuts, the
bread should turn a golden brown in 60 seconds.
Cautions in Frying. 1. Do not let fat get so hot as to
smoke badly.
2. Do not fry too large a quantity at one time, for
it lowers the temperature of the fat.
3. Drain all fried foods on soft paper to absorb the
fat.
4. Use egg and crumbs to cover mixtures that are
likely to absorb too much fat. Why eggs?
APPLICATION
1. Doughnuts (sour milk)
2 eggs 1 qt. flour
1 c. sugar 1 c. sour milk*
1 tsp. soda 1 tsp. salt
1 tbsp. melted butter 2 tsps. baking powder
Yz tsp. cinnamon Season with vanilla or nutmeg
Method. Put the flour, cinnamon, baking powder*, and
sugar into a bowl. Dissolve the soda in 1 tablespoonful
of hot water. Add to the sour milk and then add the
melted lard. Beat the eggs until light and add to the milk.
Add the wet ingredients to the dry. Roll out to J4 inch
thickness, cut, and fry in deep fat. Do not put in more
than five doughnuts at a time or the fat will be cooled too
greatly. Let the fat reheat between fryings. Turn the
doughnuts while frying; drain on plain paper. Makes 3
dozen doughnuts.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
2. Chocolate Doughnuts
Method. Chocolate doughnuts are made byadding4tea-
spoonfuls of chocolate to the preceding rule.
*If sweet milk ia used, use 4 teaspoonf uls of baking powder and omit sooa.
FRYING UNCOOKED MIXTURES Mi
3. Potato Doughnuts
1 c. mashed potatoes ^ c. sweet milk
1 J/6 c. sugar 2 eggs
2 tbsp. melted butter 3 c. flour
3 tsp. baking powder Nutmeg grating
l /2 tsp. salt H tsp. cinnamon
Method. Beat the eggs and add the sugar. Mash the
potatoes and put them through a strainer; add the butter
and milk and put through the strainer again. Add eggs
and sugar, and then the flour to which has been added the
baking powder and a pinch of salt. Roll out to J4 mcn
thick, cut, and fry as other doughnuts. Makes 3 dozen.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.}
4. Corn Fritters
1 can corn ^ c. flour
1 tsp. baking powder 2 tsp. salt
J4 tsp. paprika 2 eggs
Method. Chop the corn; add dry ingredients mixed
and sifted well. Then add the beaten yolks of eggs and
fold in beaten whites. Fry by spoonfuls in fresh hot lard;
drain on a paper.
(Basis for 2 girls, ^ rule.}
5. Corn Oysters
1 c. corn 1 egg
24 c. flour Salt and pepper
Method. Cut raw corn from cobs to which add the
egg well beaten. Mix flour and seasoning with this; drop
by the spoonful in deep fat, or cook on a hot, well-greased
griddle. They should be made about the size of, large
oysters. Makes 2 dozen oysters.
6. Fritter Batter
2 eggs 2 tbsp. of melted butter
1 c. flour % c. cold water
1 ssp. salt 1 tsp. sugar, if for sweet fritters
Method. Stir salt in egg yolk, add butter slowly, then
sugar, and when well mixed stir in the flour slowly. Then
224
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
add the water a little at a time. Beat well, set aside for 2
hours, then stir in beaten whites of eggs. Batter must be
thick. If not soft enough, add white of another egg.
(.Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
NOTE. Oranges, bananas, prunes, apples, and clams or
oysters may be used with this batter.
Fruit. Cut fruit in quarters, roll in powdered sugar,
and dip in batter before sugar has time to dissolve. Fry like
doughnuts. Roll in powdered sugar just before serving.
Serve hot.
For Clams or Oysters. Use 1 tablespoonful of lemon
juice or vinegar and use liquor of clam or oyster instead of
water in the batter.
7. Swedish Timbales
% c. flour (about) 3/2 c. milk
l /2 tsp. salt 1 egg
1 tsp. sugar 1 tbsp. olive oil
Method. Beat the egg thoroughly and add the milk and
olive oil. Sift the dry ingredients together, add the wet to
the dry; beat until smooth.
Paying. Heat the fat as for doughnuts; use a deep
dish and hold the iron in the hot fat until thoroughly
heated through. Dip the hot iron into the batter to within
a fourth of an inch of the top. Place immediately into the
Fig. 34. Timbai* cases and irons, and rosette iron.
FRYING UNCOOKED MIXTURES 225
hot fat deep enough to cover the iron. If the iron is too
hot, the batter will slip off into the lard. If too cool, the
batter will stick to the iron. Fry to a delicate brown, and
drain on plain paper. Use for creamed peas, mushrooms,
and finely cut salmon or chicken. Makes 3 dozen timbales.
(Basis for 2 girls, ^ rw/c.)
8. Swedish Rosettes
1 c. milk 4 eggs
2 tsp. sugar 1 tsp. vanilla
Pinch of salt lJ4c. flour
Powdered sugar
Method. Make a well in the flour in a bowl and add the
milk gradually. Beat well, drop in the whole eggs one at a
time, and beat hard with a Dover beater. When full of
bubbles add the vanilla. Fry in deep fat on a rosette iron
until a light brown. Move the iron up and down in the fat
carefully to loosen the rosette from the iron and finish the
frying off the iron. Turn the rosettes like doughnuts while
frying. Several may be fried in the kettle at the same
time. Serve with powdered sugar or with fresh berries and
whipped cream. Makes about 4 dozen rosettes.
LESSON 8
FRYING COOKED MIXTURES
CROQUETTES are mixtures of meat, fish, or vegetables
with a thick white sauce for a binding. The whole is
rolled in egg and crumbs and fried in deep fat. Left-overs
of meat, vegetables, or fish are easily and daintily used in
this way.
General Proportions. Use about /^ as much thick
white sauce as meat or vegetables.
General Method. Break up meat, fish, or vegetables
to be used and mix with the thick white sauce. Cool the
mixture and then form into shape. Croquettes may be in
the form of balls, nests, cones, or cylinders. About 2 table-
spoonfuls of the mixture make the right size. Use nne
bread crumbs, rolled and sifted. Roll the croquettes in
FRYING COOKED MIXTURES 227
the crumbs; then in a slightly beaten egg, to which has
been added about 2 tablespoonfuls of water; then roll
again in the crumbs. Fry in hot fat until a nice brown,
drain on soft paper, and garnish with parsley or jelly.
APPLICATION
1. Potato Croquettes
?, c. hot riced potatoes 1 tsp. parsley chopped fine
2 tbsp. butter J/6 tsp. salt
Y% tsp. pepper M tsp. celery salt
Yolk of 1 egg A few grains of cayenne
Few drops onion juice
Method. Mix ingredients in order given and beat
thoroughly; shape, dip into crumbs, into egg, and then in
crumbs again. Fry 1 minute in deep fat and drain on
brown paper.
(Basis for 2 girls, ^ rule.)
2. Meat Croquettes
2 c. chopped meat % tsp. salt
Y% tsp. pepper A few grains cayenne
A few drops onion juice Yolk of 1 egg
i c. thick white sauce made of white soup stock instead of milk
Method. Mix ingredients in order given, cool, shape,
dip into crumbs, into egg, roll again in crumbs, and fry the
same as other croquettes.
(Basis for 2 girls, Y rule.)
3. Chicken Croquettes
1 % c. chopped cold fowl % c. thick white sauce
Y tsp. celery salt Yi tsp. salt
1 tsp. lemon juice A few grains pepper
1 tsp. parsley chopped fine A few drops onion juice
Method. Mix ingredients in ordef given; cool, shape,
crumb, and fry. Garnish with a sprig of parsley on top.
(Basis for 2 girls, ^ rule.)
4. Salmon Croquettes
1% c. salmon (flaked) }/ c. thick white sauce
A few grains pepper 1 tsp. lemon juice
Salt
228 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Method. Add sauce to salmon, add seasonings, spread
on a plate to cool, shape, dip into crumbs, into eggs, and
then into crumbs, and fry in deep fat.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
5. Rice Croquettes
l /2 c. rice ^ c. boiling water
1 c. scalded milk Yt tsp. salt
Yolk of 1 egg 1 tbsp. butter
Method. Wash the rice, add to water with salt, and
steam until rice has absorbed water. Then add the milk,
stir lightly with a fork, cover and steam until rice is soft.
Remove from the fire. Add the egg and butter. Spread
on a plate to cool. Shape, roll in crumbs, roll in the form
of nests, dip into egg, then into crumbs, fry in deep fat, and
drain. Put a cube of jelly in the hollow of each croquette.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
6. Lobster Cutlets
2 can lobsters % tsp. salt
3 egg whites 1 tsp. dropped celery
Nutmeg % c. white sauce
24 c. bread crumbs Cayenne pepper
Method. Mix ingredients and cool. Shape in the form
of cutlets; crumb, egg, and crumb again. Fry in deep fat.
Insert lobster claw in small end of the cutlet.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
7. French Fried Potatoes
Method. Wash and pare the potatoes and cut inta
eighths lengthwise. Let soak in cold water 1 hour. Drain
and dry between towels. Fry in deep fat until an even
brown. Drain on plain paper and sprinkle with salt. If
the fat is too hot the potatoes will brown before they are
thoroughly cooked.
8. Julienne Potatoes
Method. Prepare and fry in the same way as French
Fried Potatoes, with the exception that the potatoes are cut
into shreds or strings instead of into eighths.
LESSON 9
PASTRY
Pastry is mostly flour and fat. It is hard to digest even
at its best, and whenever served should be light, flaky, and
tender. The lightness of pastry depends on the air enclosed
in it; its flakiness, upon the kind and amount of shortening
and the method of mixing.
Essentials of Good Pastry. Good shortening. Lard,
butter, vegetable fats and oils, or a combination of butter
and beef drippings are suitable.
Ice water. It is important that the ingredients be
mixed cold.
Pastry flour, which has more starch and makes a drier
and more tender crust than bread flour.
Salt, to flavor.
Baking powder, to make the pastry lighter. .
Proportions of Ingredients. Use ^ to ^ as much short
ening as flour. Use enough ice water to make a stiff dough.
Pies are made with either one or two crusts. Two
crusts are used for fruit and berry pies.
General Methods of Making Pastry. Method 1. Put
the salt and baking powder into the flour and cut the short
ening in with two knives or rub it in with the tips of the
fingers if the hands are not too warm. Heat softens the
fat and makes a tough crust. Pastry must be handled
as little as possible.
When the mixture is fine and creamy and looks like
meal, add enough water to form a dough. Use the knife
to combine the ingredients. Be careful not to make the
dough wet.
(229)
230 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Turn the dough out upon a floured board, and pat and
roll with the knife into a ball. With a slightly floured roll
ing pin roll the dough lightly until about J/s inch thick and
a little larger than the pie tin.
Method 2. Another method of adding the shortening
is as follows: Work in half of the shortening as described
above, and roll out the dough to the thickness of half an
inch ; then put in the rest of the shortening, in small pieces,
around on top of the dough. Fold up each side of the dough
to the center, with the shortening inside, and roll out to fit
the tin. This method makes a more flaky crust than the
first method.
To Put Crust in the Tins. Lift the crust on the rolling-
pin and lower over the pie tin. Be sure the dough is large
enough all around. Fit the dough to the pan gently, so that
no air bubbles form underneath the crust next to the pan.
If a single crust is used, have the edge of the dough about
1 inch larger than the pan, and double under, to form an
edge to the pie.
If a double crust is used, cut off the crust to fit the pan.
To do this, hold the pie in the left hand and a knife in the
right. Slant the knife with the point away from the body,
and cut along the edge of the tin. (See Fig. 36.)
To Put Crusts Together. Put the filling in the lower
crust. When ready for the upper crust dip the fingers in
cold water and wet the edge of the lower crust.
Make slight openings in the upper crust to let the steam
out of the pie when baking. Lift the crust on the rolling
pin and lower upon the pie; fit down, and cut off even.
Press the edges of the two crusts together to hold in the
juice of the pie. This may be done with a fork or with the
fingers. Do not press so hard that the crust will bake to
the pan.
PASTRY
231
Fig. 36. Fitting pastry to a pie tin, and method of baking crust on inverted tin.
232 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Time for Baking Pies. Two-crust, fruit and berry pies
require 40 to 45 minutes in a hot oven.
For the bottom crust bake a crust first on the inverted
tin to allow for the shrinking of the dough. Bake 5 or 6
minutes in a hot oven. Slip the baked crust to the inside
of the tin, put in the filling, and return to the oven to com
plete the baking.
APPLICATION (Two-crust pies)
Demonstrate cutting in the shortening and rolling out
pastry according to Method 1.
1. Plain Pastry
% c. shortening (lard or half butter and lard)
1 c. pastry flour ^ tsp. salt
34 tsp. baking powder
Ice water % to J4 c., or enough to moisten dough
Method. Have all materials cold, mix and sift the flour,
salt, and baking powder, cut in the shortening with knives
until fine like meal. Add enough ice water to make a stiff
dough. Be careful not to make the dough sticky. Take
on a slightly floured board and roll lightly to ^ inch thick
ness. If pastry stands on ice before rolling out it improves
it. Bake in a very hot oven. Makes 2 crusts for large pie.
(Basis for 2, one small pie, }/% rule.}
2. A Richer Pastry (Method 2)
1H c. flour % to ]/2 c- shortening (butter)
% tsp. salt % tsp. baking powder
Ice water to make a stiff dough
Method. Mix and sift dry ingredients; rub in half the
shortening, as in Method 2 ; add the ice water, and roll out
the dough on a floured board. Put remaining butter on
top in small pieces. Fold pastry or roll up and divide in
two parts if two crusts are needed. Roll out each crust
separately. Makes 2 crusts.
PASTRY 233
3. Apple Pie
4 or 5 sour apples J^ tsp. cinnamon or nutmeg
% c. sugar 1 tsp. butter
1 tsp. lemon juice 2 tbsp. water
H tsp. salt
Method. Wash, pare, and slice the apples. Line the
pie plate with pastry and fill with sliced apples. Mix the
sugar, salt, and spices and sprinkle over the apples. Add
the lemon juice, butter, and water. Use more or less water
according to the kind of apples used. Place on the upper
crust. Bake in a hot oven 40 or 45 minutes or until the
apples are well cooked.
(Basis for 2, % rule.')
4. Berry Pie
\^/2 c. berries (blackberries or blueberries)
1 A c. sugar y% tsp. salt
1 tbsp. flour
Method. Line a deep pie tin with plain paste, fill with
berries, which have been washed and picked over. Cover
with sugar, add salt, and dredge with flour. Berries ma^
be cooked before adding to the pie crust, if preferred. Place
on upper crust, and bake 40 to 45 minutes in a hot oven.
6. Mock Cherry Pie
1^2 c. cranberries % c. seeded raisins
1 tsp. butter 1 c. sugar
Y% c. water 1 tbsp. flour
1 tsp. almond extract
Method. Line the pie tin with plain paste, put in the
cranberries, which have been thoroughly washed and cut
in halves. Add the washed raisins and then the sugar,
water, and almond extract. Dredge with flour, place bits
of butter on top, and put on the upper crust. Bake 40 to 45
minutes in a hot oven.
6. Rhubarb Pie
1J^ c. rhubarb 3/6 c. brown sugar
y^ c. raisins 2 tbsp. flour
1 tsp. butter
234 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Method. Wash and cut up the stalks of young rhubarb,
but do not peel. Line a pie tin with plain paste, fill with
the rhubarb. Wash the raisins and add to the pie, cover
with brown sugar, dredge with flour, add bits of butter on
top, and put on the upper crust. Bake 40 to 45 minutes in
a hot oven.
7. Mince Meat
4 Ibs. lean beef % Ib. citron cut fine
2 Ibs. beef suet 2 c. molasses
6 c. chopped apples 2^ qts. cider
3 quinces 1 tbsp. cinnamon
3 Ibs. sugar 2 tsp. nutmeg
3 Ibs. currants 1 tsp. pepper
4 Ibs. raisins (seeded) Salt to taste
Juice 2 oranges Rind of ^ orange
Method. Cook the meat and suet until tender, let
cool in the kettle, and the suet will form on the top in a
cake of fat, which may be removed. Cut or chop the meat
quite fine, and add the apples, which should be twice the
amount of the meat when chopped. Chop the quinces
and add to the meat; then add the sugar, molasses, cider,
raisins, currants, and citron. Add the suet cut fine, also
the meat stock in which the meat was cooked, reduced to
about 1J4 cups. Heat all gradually, stir slowly, being
careful not to mash ingredients. Cook slowly about 2
hours; then add the spices. Sweet pickle vinegar gives a
pleasant flavor to the mince meat, and may be utilized in
this way. Keep in stone jars or seal in glass jars until ready
to use.
8. Mince Pies
Method. Fill lower crust with the mince meat and
cover with bits of butter, dredge with flour, and place top
crust. Bake 40 to 45 minutes in a hot oven. Individual
pies may be baked in little tins or in muffin tins.
LESSON 10
PASTRY (Continued)
One-Crust Pies. For cooked mixtures a one-crust pie
is used. The crust is much more crisp if baked first. To
avoid the shrinking of the paste, bake the crust on the
bottom of the inverted tin. Place on carefully, allowing
the paste to come well down over the edge of the tin ; trim
off evenly, and fold pastry under to make a rim. Prick
the crust in several places before baking. When the crust
is baked, which requires 5 or 6 minutes, slip it off the bottom
of the plate to the inside, and fill. One-crust pies do not
require as long a time for baking as two-crust pies.
Tins for Pies. Perforated tin plates are best for baking
pies. These may be had shallow or deep, as preferred.
The under crust of pies is more thoroughly cooked and
browned in these tins than when baked in earthen or granite
pans. Never grease a pie tin, for pastry contains enough
shortening to prevent the crust from adhering to the tin-
Pies can be slipped to earthen plates when cool.
Food Value of Pastry. Pastry is very hard to digest.
The fat in pastry completely envelops the starch grains
in the flour, preventing contact with water and with the
digestive juices. Only tender, flaky pastry should be
eaten, and that only by persons who are well and possessed
of good digestion.
(235)
236 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
APPLICATION (One-crust pies)
1. Lemon Pie
1 c. sugar 4 tbsp. lemon juice
2 eggs (yolks) Grated rind 1 lemon
3 tbsp. cornstarch 1 tsp. butter
1 c. boiling water
Method. Mix the sugar and cornstarch. Put in a
double boiler, add boiling water, and stir constantly. Cook
2 minutes, and add the butter, beaten egg yolks, rind, and
lemon juice. Bake a crust on the bottom of the pan, slip
into the inside of the pan, fill with lemon mixture slightly
cooled, and cover with meringue. Return to top grate
of hot oven and brown meringue quickly.
Meringue
2 egg whites l /% tsp. lemon juice
2 tbsp. powdered sugar J^ tsp. vanilla
Method. Beat the whites until stiff, add the sugar
gradually, and then the flavoring.
(Basis for 2 girls, J/ rule.)
2. Custard Pie
2 eggs % tsp. salt
% c. sugar Nutmeg (grated)
2 c. milk 1 tsp. vanilla
Method. Line a pie tin with pastry, make a good
rim on the crust. Scald the milk and pour over the slightly
beaten eggs; add the sugar and salt. Strain the mixture
into the lower crust, and grate a little nutmeg over the top.
Bake in a hot oven to cook the rim well; then reduce the
heat and cook more slowly until custard is firm. Test
with knife as with cup custard. Egg mixtures require a
moderate oven.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.}
PASTRY 237
3. Pumpkin Pie
1 HJ c. cooked and strained pumpkin % c. brown sugar
y<t tsp. ginger or nutmeg 1 tsp. salt
2 eggs 1 tsp. cinnamon
l%c. milk 1 tsp. orange juice
Method. Mix pumpkin, sugar, salt, and spices, add
slightly beaten egg, and milk. Beat well; then add tue
orange juice. Fill the crust and bake. When a silver
knife inserted in the pie will come from it clean, the pie is
done.
4. Banana Pie
^ doz. bananas % tsp. salt
^ c. powdered sugar \]/2 c. whipped cream
. Method. Bake single crust of pastry, fill with sliced
bananas, add salt and powdered sugar. Cover with whip
ped cream just before serving. Red raspberries may be
used in place of bananas.
6. Cream Pie
Method. Make same as Custard Pie, substituting cream
for milk and omitting the nutmeg.
6. Chocolate Pie
Method. Add J^ square of Baker's chocolate, after it
is melted, to the rule for Cream Pie before baking.
7. Cocoanut Pie
Method. Add J^ cup of freshly grated cocoanut to
Cream Pie, before baking.
LESSON 11
CARBOHYDRATES SUGAR, CANDY
SUGAR is a sweet crystalline substance belonging to the
Carbohydrate class of foods. It is soluble in cold water.
How does it differ from starch?
Sources. Sugar is obtained commercially from the
sugar cane, sugar beets, and the sugar maple tree.
Kinds. The principal kinds of sugar are: 1. Cane
sugar, or sucrose, obtained from sugar cane, beets, and the
sugar maple tree.
2. Grape sugar, or glucose, found in grapes, in dried
fruits, like raisins and dates, and in honey. Commercial
glucose is made from corn starch by boiling with an acid.
Glucose is not as sweet as cane sugar.
Honey is a natural sirup made up chiefly of a mixture
of sugars and water.
3. Milk sugar, or lactose, obtained from milk.
Sugar Cane. Sugar cane is a tropical plant similar
to corn and grows to a height of from 8 to 15 feet. The
stalk is spongy like corn and is filled with sweet sap.
When ripe the cane is stripped of leaves and tops and is
cut and taken to the mill.
Sugar Beets. Sugar beets are profitably grown in many
states. About half of the world's supply of sugar is made
from beets. There is no difference between beet and cane
sugars.
Manufacture of Sugar. The sweet juice is extracted
by crushing the cane or beets between rollers. The juice
is purified and then evaporated down to a sirup by heating
in vacuum pans. The sugar crystallizes out from the
(238)
SUGAR, CANDY 23*
sirup and is removed by centrifugal means. What does
not crystallize remains as molasses. Molasses from sugar
beets is not used for the table; no way has been found to
purify it. Brown sugar is raw, unrefined sugar. In certain
methods of manufacture, it is redissolved, passed through
filters of lamp black to remove the color, and then recrys-
tallized.
Forms of Sugar. The crystals of sugar as separated
from the sirup and dried form granulated sugar. When
the thick sirup is run into molds, it hardens and forms
loaf sugar, which may be sawed into cubes. The broken
pieces ground fine become powdered sugar.
Food Value of Sugar. Sugar in moderate amounts has
the same food value that starch has, but is in an easier
form for digestion. For this reason it is of value to persons
who have difficulty in digesting starch. It is very good in
times of great exertion or labor, when the body demands
an immediate supply of energy. If taken in excess or
between meals it is very apt to cause indigestion or to spoil
the appetite for nutritious foods that are needed.
Candy. Candy is a useful food when eaten at the
proper time, at the close of a meal. Homemade candy is
cheaper and purer than that bought in many stores.
Impure sugar and unwholesome coloring matter are too
often used in the manufacture of candies.
Effects of Heat on Sugar. Sugar undergoes several
changes during the process of cooking. The terms "soft
ball," "hard ball," "thread," "the crack" or "brittle" and
"caramel" are used in making candy to distinguish the dif
ferent temperatures and changes.
1. Soft ball is the stage of heating sugar when a little
dropped into cold water and then rolled in the fingers forms
a soft ball.
240 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
2. Hard ball is the stage when sugar similarly tested
makes a hard ball in the fingers.
3. Thread is a higher temperature stage when the sugar
spins a thread when dropped from a spoon.
4. The crack or brittle stage is reached when the sugar
immediately hardens and crackles when dropped into cold
water.
5. Caramel is the stage at which the heat causes the
sugar to turn brown.
Utensils for candy-making are: 1. A large agate or
iron kettle, as sugar burns very easily. 2. A wooden spoon
or paddle for mixing. 3. Buttered tins or a marble slab
for cooling.
APPLICATION
1. Peanut Brittle
2 c. sugar 1 c. chopped peanuts
Pinch of salt
Method. Melt the sugar without water in a frying pan.
Stir with a wooden spoon constantly, until clear and a
light brown; then pour over the peanuts spread on a
buttered pan. While still warm cut into squares.
(Basis for 2 girls, Y rule.}
2. Chocolate Fudge
2 c. sugar 1 tbsp. butter
1 c. milk or cream Y<z tsp. vanilla
2 squares chocolate
Method. Cook the sugar, milk, and chocolate in a pan,
stirring constantly, until a little forms a soft ball when tried
in cold water. Add the butter, and remove from the fire.
Let stand until nearly cold; then add the vanilla and beat
hard until it begins to thicken and to wrinkle at the edge
of the pan. Spread quickly 1 inch thick on a buttered pan;
cool and cut in 1J^ inch squares.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
SUGAR, CAND7 241
3. Chocolate Nut Fudge
Method. Chocolate nut fudge is made by adding Yi
cup of walnuts or pecans, cut in small pieces, to Chocolate
Fudge just before beating it.
4. Pinoche
2 c. brown sugar H c. pecans
^ c. milk ^ tcp. vanilla
2 tbsp. butter , Pinch of salt
Method. Boil the sugar, milk, and butter until a soft
ball is formed in cold water, stirring constantly. Remove
from the fire, cool, and then add the nuts and vanilla and
beat until thick and creamy. Spread 1 inch thick on but
tered tins. Cut in !J/ inch squares.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
5. Sea Foam
2 c. sugar ^ c. chopped walnuts
% c. orn sirup 3 egg whites
% c. boiling water y% tsp. vanilla
Method. Boil sugar, sirup, and water until a hard ball
is formed in cold water, or it spins a thread. Beat the eggs
stiff and dry; then pour on the sirup very gradually, add
the nuts cut fine and beat until very creamy. Spread
\y% inches thick on a buttered pan and cut in squares.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
6. Butter Scotch
1 c. sugar 1 tbsp. vinegar
% c. molasses 2 tbsp. boiling water
^2 c. butter
Method. Boil the ingredients until the crack or brittle
stage. Pour in buttered pan, about J^ inch thick, and
mark in squares while still warm.
7. Pulled Taffy
2 c. sugar 1 c. water
% c - vinegar 1 tsp. vanilla
3 tbsp. butter % tsp. lemon extract
16
242 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Method. Boil sugar, butter, water, and vinegar until
a little forms a soft ball in cold water. Do not stir. Flavor,
pour on buttered platter, and pull as soon as possible.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
8. Pop Corn Balls
1 c. corn syrup 1 tbsp. Vinegar
H c. sugar % tsp. soda
1 tsp. cream tartar 4 qts. popped corn
2 tbsp. butter
Method. Boil the syrup, sugar and cream of tartar to
the soft ball stage. Then add the butter and soda. Pour
over the freshly popped corn, cool and shape into 15 balls.
9. Cheap Butter Scotch
1 c. light brown sugar . M c. vinegar
1 tbsp. butter
Method. Boil the sugar and the vinegar to the crack
stage. Add the butter and pour into buttered pans to
cool. Mark in squares before it is cold.
LESSON 12
PROTEIN FISH
FISH is next to meat in importance as an animal food.
Fish contains albumin, gelatin, fat, mineral matter, and
water.
COMPOSITION OF FISH (DRESSED FOR MARKET)
Kinds
Refuse
Protein
Fat
Carbohy
drate
Mineral
matter
Water
%
f\ 7
%
10 3
%
r
%
%
%
4.1
Cod, salt, boneless.
Halibut
17.7
22.2
15.1
.3
4.4
'-
23.1
.9
54.4
61.9
Mackerel
Perch
34.6
62.5
13.7
7.2
6.2
1.5
1.0
.4
44.5
28.4
Pickerel
35.9
11.9
.2
.9
51.1
Pike
30 5
13
4
.7
554
39 2
12 4
8 1
9
37 4
Shad
50 1
9 2
4 g
7
35 2
Smelts
41 9
100
1.0
.
1.0
46.1
Trout brook
37.9
11.7
1.3
.7
48.4
Trout lake
35.2
12.4
6.6
:
.8
45.0
Whitefish
Clams
53.2
10.3
10.6
3.0
1.1
5.2
.7
2.3
32.5
80.8
Lobsters
61.7
5.9
.7
.8
.2
30.7
Oysters
6.1
1.4
.9
3.3
88.3
Shrimps
25.4
1.0
.2
2.6
70.8
Kinds. Fish are classified as vertebrates, or fish proper,
those having a backbone; and shellfish. Those having a
backbone are divided into two classes: white fish and oily
fish.
In the white-fleshed fish, the fat is found only in the
liver; in oily fish, the fat is found distributed throughout
the entire body.
244 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
White-fleshed fish include whitefish, cod, perch, pickerel,
sunfish, smelts, croppies, soles, brook trout, and black bass.
Oily fish include salmon, lake trout, shad, herring, mackerel,
halibut, and eels.
Structure of Fish. The flesh of fish is made up of
bundles of fibers similar to those of meat, but there is so
little connective tissue that the bundles of fibers are not
held together as firmly as in meat. Notice how easily
we can pull the flesh of fish apart. Examine and compare
with the structure of meat.
Food Value. Fish is like meat in nutritive value, and
may be substituted for it in the diet. It is not, however, so
satisfying and stimulating as meat, largely because it
contains less extractives. Fish belongs to the proteins; it
contains a varying amount of fat and practically no car
bohydrates. In general, the fuel value of 1 pound of fish
is about equal to j/3 pound of meat.
Digestibility. In general, fish is easily digested, vary
ing with the amount of fat and coarse fiber present. White
fleshed fish, excepting the cod, is more easily digested, but
less stimulating, than oily fish. Cod has coarser fiber
than other white-fleshed kinds.
Freshness is the all-important quality in fish. Fish
decomposes quickly and there is greater danger from
ptomaine poisoning than in other foods. This is especially
true of shellfish, which are preferably shipped and sold
alive.
To Tell if a Fish Is Fresh. 1. The gills are bright red
and clear.
2. The eyes are bright and full.
3. The flesh is firm, the tail not drooping.
4. The scales do not come off easily and there is no
disagreeable odor.
FISH 245
To Clean Scaly Fish. Fish are cleaned at the market,
if ordered. Remove the scales by working a knife over the
fish, beginning at the tail and drawing the knife towards
the head. If the fish is to be used at once, dip it into boil
ing water and remove immediately. This aids in loosening
the sc'ales. Wash the fish thoroughly inside and out
with a wet cloth, then dry on a clean cloth. Leave the
head and the tail on for baking whole. Keep on ice, but
not in the ice box, since the odor may taint the other foods.
To Skin a Fish. With a sharp knife slit the skin along
the entire length of the backbone. Remove the fins.
Loosen the skin by working carefully with a small knife,
beginning at the center of the back and working along one
side around the fish. Then turn the fish over and loosen
the skin on the other side.
To Bone a Fish. After the fish is skinned begin at
the tail with the boning knife and separate the flesh from
the backbone on each side. Follow the ribs and work
carefully towards the head. The entire backbone and
the ribs will all come out together. See that all the lit
tle bones are rerhoved.
Methods of Cooking Fish. Broiling and baking are the
best methods of cooking fish. They may also be fried,
sauted, or boiled. White fish may be fried, but oily fish
rarely. Sii ce fish contains albumin, cold water and boiling
water have the same effect on it as on meat and egg white.
Review this point. What temperature is best for the
cooking of albumin?
Large fish are suitable for baking whole, the stuffing
and the sauce usually served with it supplying food ele
ments that the fish lacks.
Oily fish and those that are of small size are usually
broiled. Boiling is a rather wasteful way of cooking fish.
246
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Why? Large pieces of cod, and salmon, sometimes trout,
may be boiled.
APPLICATION (Baked Fish Demonstration)
1. Baked Fish
Method. Remove the scales carefully, clean, wipe, and
dry the fish. Leave the head and tail on. Rub the fish
well with salt. Stuff with dressing and sew up, using a
coarse needle and thread. Be careful not to fill the fish
too full, for the dressing expands during the baking. Put
Fig. 37. Baked white fish.
fish on a fish sheet or on strips of cotton or bacon in the pan,
which aids in removing the fish when done. Make three
gashes on each side of the fish, alternating, and set in 2-inch
strips of bacon. This is done to add fat to fish that are
lacking it, as white fish. Skewer the fish into the form of
the letter S. Sprinkle with salt and pepper and dredge
with flour. Bake in the oven 30 to 45 minutes, basting
every 10 minutes from 1 cup of hot water to which has been
added % cup of butter. When well browned, remove from
FISH 247
the pan carefully to a hot platter; take out the skewers and
strings. Garnish with parsley and lemon, and serve hot
with a fish sauce.
2. Dressing for Fish
1 c. stale bread crumbs 1 tbsp. melted butter
YZ tsp. salt Pepper, a few grains
1 tbsp. minced parsley Onion juice, a few drops
Water, enough to moisten
Method. Mix the ingredients in the order given; use
enough water to moisten slightly.
3. Hollandaise Sauce
Yz c. butter Yolk of 2 eggs
Yz tbsp. vinegar or J^ tsp. salt
1 tbsp. lemon juice Cayenne, a few grains
Method. Wash the butter, separate it into three parts,
and put one piece in the double boiler with the vinegar or
lemon juice and egg yolks; stir constantly with a wire
whisk. Add second piece of butter, and, as the material
thickens, the third piece. Remove from the fire and add
the salt and cayenne. If left over the fire a few seconds
longer it will separate. If a richer sauce is desired, add J^
tablespoon heavy cream and J/ teaspoon hot water.
(Housekeepers make full rule.}
4. Drawn Butter Sauce
^i c. butter 3 tbsp. flour
\Y^ c. hot water 3/ tsp. salt
Ji tsp. pepper
Method. Put half the butter in a pan; when bubbling,
but not brown, add the salt, pepper, and flour and stir until
smooth. Add the water and stir while it thickens. Add
the remainder of the butter and stir until it is absorbed.
6. Caper Sauce
2 c. boiling water 4 tbsp. flour
y<i c. butter y% tsp. pepper
^ tsp. salt ^ c. capers
248 DOMESTIC! SCIENCE
Method. Melt half the butter, add the flour. Stir
while gradually adding the boiling water. Boil five min
utes, add salt, pepper, remaining butter, and drained capers.
6. Tartar Sauce
^ c. mayonnaise dressing 1 tsp. parsley, washed and chopped
1 tsp. chopped pickle 1 tsp. chopped olives
Method. Mix the parsley, pickle, and olives, and add
them to the mayonnaise dressing.
LESSON 13
PROTEIN FISH (Continued)
REVIEW Lesson 12.
APPLICATION
1. Fried Fish
Method. Clean fish and wipe as dry as possible. Sprin
kle with salt and pepper, dip into flour or crumbs, into egg,
and again into crumbs. Fry in deep hot fat ; drain on soft
paper. Serve on a hot dish, garnishing with parsley and
slices of lemon. Cornmeal may be used in place of the flour.
2. Broiled Fish
Method. Bluefish, cod, haddock, and mackerel are split
down the back and broiled whole, removing head and tail if
desired. Salmon, halibut, and swordfish are cut in inch
slices for broiling. Smelt and other small fish are broiled
whole without splitting, but the entrails are squeezed out
carefully so as not to bruise the fish. Clean and wipe the
fish, sprinkle with salt and pepper, and place in a well-
greased wire broiler, cooking the flesh side first. Turn it
and cook the skin until crisp. Sliced fish should be turned
often while broiling, slip upon a hot platter, or place platter
over fish and invert platter and broiler together.
Small fish require 10 to 15 minutes for broiling.
Large fish require 15 to 20 minutes for broiling.
3. Sauted Fish
Method. Prepare the fish as for frying, and cook in a
frying pan with a small amount of fat. The fish may be
dipped into cornmeal in place of flour. Smelts are best
cooked in this way.
(249)
250 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
4. Boiled Fish
Method. Large fish are cut in thick pieces for boiling.
Clean and wipe the fish; tie in a piece of cheesecloth to
prevent the deposit of scum on the fish and to hold the
fish together. Place the fish on a rack or frying basket
to preserve its shape and to make it easier to remove. Cook
gently in enough boiling salted water to cover the fish, using
2 teaspoonfuls of salt and 2 tablespoonfuls of vinegar to
each quart of water. The salt gives flavor; vinegar or
lemon juice keeps the flesh white. Allow about 10 minutes
to the pound. The fish is cooked when the flesh is firm
and separates easily from the bone. Remove from the
water, take off the cheesecloth, put on a hot platter and
serve with Hollandaise Sauce.
5. Salmon Mousse
1 Ib. salmon, either chopped or pounded fine
4 eggs 2 tbsp. butter
2 tbsp. flour 1 c. stock, or milk or cream
Method. Chop the salmon in small pieces, the finer the
salmon the creamier the mousse; add the yolks of eggs,
melted butter, flour, and stock; put all through a strainer.
Add 2 teaspoonfuls of salt and ^ teaspoonful of pepper;
fold in the beaten whites of eggs. Turn into a well-buttered
mold. Set the mold in a pan of hot water and bake in a
moderate oven J/ hour. The mousse is done when it is
light to the touch. Serve with or without sauce. Potato
balls are appropriate with it. This rule serves <) persons.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
6. Fried Frogs' Legs
6 pairs frogs' legs Fine bread crumbs
1 egg Salt and pepper
Method. Skin and wash the legs in cold water and dry
them on a clean towel. Season with salt and pepper and a
little lemon juice. Beat up the egg slightly, and dip the
FISH 251
legs into the beaten egg, then into the fine crumbs, and fry in
hot fat for about 5 minutes. Drain on plain paper. A
wire frying basket is best to fry them in. Serve hot with
Tartar Sauce.
7. Salmon Loaf
1 can salmon 1 c. stale bread crumbs
2 eggs % c. milk
1 tsp. lemon juice 1 tsp. salt
Method. Mince the salmon and remove the bones.
Add the bread crumbs, beaten eggs and the milk. Season
with salt and lemon juice. Put into well greased molds
and steam or bake 30 minutes. Turn from the mold, serve
hot or cold with white sauce, sour sauce or lemon.
8. Codfish Puff
y<L c. shredded codfish 2 eggs
1 c. potatoes diced Dash of pepper
1 tbsp. butter
Method. Soak the codfish in cold water for 15 minutes.
Shred it into bits. Pare and dice the potatoes, and cook
with the codfish in boiling water until tender. Mash, add
the butter and pepper. Beat well with a fork until the
codfish is in fine threads. Beat the eggs very light and
fold into the fish mixture. The mixture should be soft
and creamy. Have an omelet pan hot. Grease the bot
tom, add the fish mixture, spread evenly about J/ inch
thick and cook slowly until a brown crust is formed.
Loosen the edges and roll one side over half way and turn
out on a hot plate like an omelet.
LESSON 14
PROTEIN FISH (Continued)
Preservation of Fish. Fish are preserved by salting,
smoking, drying, or a combination of these, and by canning.
Many fish are preserved in oil. Name some examples of each.
Cost. Fish are never plentiful except in seaport towns
or near lakes and rivers where they abound. Fish are very
perishable and must be transported in refrigerator cars or
else frozen or preserved by one of the above mentioned
methods. For this reason the price of fish is never very low,
where fish is not easily available.
Using Left-overs. Cooked fish left-overs may be
broken up into small pieces and used with cream sauce, or
scalloped, or made into hash, croquettes, or fish balls.
APPLICATION
1. Creamed Codfish
% c. salt codfish 4 tbsp. flour
2 c. milk 2 tbsp. butter
Spk. of pepper
Method. Wash, pick the codfish into small pieces, and
soak it a. few hours in lukewarm water until soft. Drain
and add to a white sauce made from butter, flour, pepper,
and milk. The beaten yolk of an egg may be added just
before serving. Serve on or with hot buttered toast.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule).
2. Fish Balls
1 c. salt codfish 1 egg
2 c. potatoes ^ tbsp. butter
Pepper
Method. Pick the codfish into small pieces and soak in
lukewarm water until soft. Boil and mash the potatoes,
(232)
FISH 253
season with butter and pepper, and add beaten egg. Drain
the fish, add to the potato mixture, and beat well. Take up
by heaping tablespoonfuls and shape into balls; fry about
six at a time in deep fat. Drain on brown paper. Garnish
with parsley and serve.
(Basis for 2 girls, % c. codfish.')
3. Fish Croquettes
1 1 /2 c. flaked salmon 1 tbsp. flour
Me. halibut 2 tsp. butter
It and pepper M c. milk
Method. Put the butter and flour together, add the hot
milk slowly, and press out all lumps. Stir the mixture and
cook it until it is smooth and thick; add the salt, pepper,
and flaked fish. Spread the mixture on a plate to cool.
When cool, shape, roll in crumbs, in egg, and then in
crumbs. Fry in deep fat and drain on brown paper. Serve
on a hot dish and garnish with parsley.
4. Fish and Macaroni
Method. Pieces of left-over fish may be combined with
boiled macaroni and white sauce and served as a luncheon
dish.
5. Finnan Haddie
Method. Soak the fish in cold water for % hour; then
lay them in boiling water for 5 minutes. Wipe very dry,
rub butter and lemon juice into the fish, and broil for 15
minutes. Serve with a hot butter sauce.
6. Creamed Finnan Haddie
Method. Put the fish in cold water, cover and let soak
20 minutes. Gradually bring the water to a boil and simmer
Yi hour. Drain, rinse, and separate the fish into flakes,
using a fork. To each cup of fish use }/ cup of medium white
sauce, heat together, season with salt, pepper, and plenty
of paprika, and serve.
LESSON 15
PROTEIN SHELLFISH
SHELLFISH used for food include oysters, clams, scallops,
lobsters, shrimps, crabs, and mussels.
OYSTERS
Source. Oysters are found in shallow salt water, the
supply for this country coming mostly from the Atlantic
and Gulf coasts. They are cultivated in large quantities
in the Chesapeake Bay.
Season for Oysters. Oysters are in season from Sep
tember to April, or in any month containing an r. Avoid
them in hot weather, when they are flabby and poor.
Growth. An oyster shell has two parts, connected by a
hinge. The part on which the oyster grows is deeper and
rounder than the part covering it. There are two strong
muscles that open and close the shell. The oyster has
neither head nor tail, but has a mouth near the hinge end of
the shell. Oysters spawn during the summer. One oyster
la^s millions of eggs in a season. Small oysters are planted
along the coast, much as young fish are put into streams.
Food Value. The nutrient of the oyster is mainly pro
tein, which is very delicate and requires a moderate tem
perature and not long cooking. Oysters are more easily
digested when raw, and are nutritious. Bulk for bulk they
compare favorably with milk in food value. Oysters live on
plant and animal life brought to them in the water. If the
water in which they grow is impure, they are likely to
become carriers of disease.
(364)
SHELLFISH
255
To Open Oysters.-
back opening and cut
which holds the shell
remove the oyster.
To Clean Oysters.-
the oysters. Put the
-Run a thin knife blade under the
forward through the strong muscle
together. Then open the shell and
Drain off and save the liquid from
oysters in a strainer and pour cold
Fig. 38. Blue points, as served.
water over them to rinse them. Pick over the oysters
separately to remove any pieces of shell. Use the oyster
liquid in stews.
Blue points are small oysters so named because the first
came from Blue Point, Long Island. They are regarded to
be of extra quality.
OTHER SHELLFISH
Clams are similar to oysters. The hard-shell varieties
are known as little neck clams, and are served in the half
shell, in coast towns. The soft-shelled clams are used
more in New England.
Lobsters are abundant from June to September, but are
used all the year. A lobster weighs about 2 pounds, and is
256 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
12 to 15 inches long. Lobsters are more difficult to digest
than other shellfish. They are broiled or boiled.
Shrimps are in season from May to October, and are
found more abundant in Southern waters, the best coming
from Lake Pontchartrain. Canned shrimps are much used
for salads.
APPLICATION
1. Oyster Stew
2 c. milk (scalded) 1 tbsp. butter
2 c. oysters % tsp. white pepper
1 c. oyster liquor Salt to taste
Method. Pick over the oysters, wash in a strainer set in
a bowl of water, removing any adhering pieces of shell.
Heat the oyster liquor; then add the oysters and cook until
the edges curl, which requires only a few minutes. Add the
hot milk, butter, and seasoning, and serve at once. Oysters
become tough if not served immediately or if over-cooked.
2. Fried Oysters
1 doz. select oysters ^ c. cracker crumbs
1 tsp. salt 2 eggs
^8 tsp. pepper 4 tbsp. water
Method. Clean oysters, and dry them thoroughly
between two towels; season with salt and pepper. Roll in
fine crumbs and then in beaten eggs to which has been
added the water; then roll in fine crumbs again, and fry in
a wire basket in deep, hot fat until nicely browned. Drain
on a piece of plain paper. Serve hot, garnished with pars
ley or cabbage slaw and lemon.
3. Creamed Oysters
1 pt. oysters 1 ^ c. medium white sauce
Y% tsp. celery salt
Method. Clean and cook the oysters in their liquor until
the edges curl; drain, and add to hot medium white sauce;
add the celery salt. Serve on squares of toast, in timbale
SHELLFISH 257
caaes, or in toasted buns. Cut off top of bun, scoop out the
center, leaving shell whole. Spread with butter, toast in
oven. Fill with creamed oysters. Garnish with parsley
and lemon.
4. Oysters on the Half Shell
Method. Allow 6 oysters on half shell for each plate.
Arrange the shells on crushed ice on deep plates, with the
shells radiating out from the center. Place a quarter of a
lemon and a piece of parsley in the center of each plate.
Serve with salt, pepper, horseradish, cocktail sauce, or
Worcestershire sauce.
6. Scalloped Oysters
1 pi. oysters 1 c. cracker crumbs
4 tbsp. oyster liquor % c. melted butter
2 tbsp. milk 1 tsp. salt
}/2 c. stale bread crumbs Pepper
Method. Mix the bread and the cracker crumbs and
the butter. Put a thin layer in the bottom of a buttered
baking-dish, cover with oysters, sprinkle with salt and
pepper; add half of the oyster liquor and half of the cream
or milk.
Cover with another layer of oysters, add the remainder
of the liquor and milk and cover with crumbs. Never
make more than two layers of oysters, for oysters should
be evenly cooked through. Bake 30 minutes in a hot oven.
A sprinkling of nutmeg to each layer adds a good flavor.
8. Lobster a la Newburg
1 Ib. lobster ^ c. cream
\i c. butter 2 egg yolks
% tsp. salt Grating of nutmeg
Cayenne, a few grains % tsp. lemon juice
Method. Cut or break up the lobster meat into cubes.
Melt the butter in a pan, add the lobster, and cook until
thoroughly heated. Season with salt, cayenne, and nutmeg
ir
258 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
and add the lemon juice. Cook 1 minute; then add the
thin cream and yolks of eggs well beaten, and stir until
the sauce thickens. Serve on squares of hot toast, gar
nished with parsley and lemon.
7. Shrimp Wiggle
4 tbsp. butter IK c. milk
3 tbsp. flour 1 c. shrimps
K tsp. salt 1 c. canned peat
Paprika
Method. Make a white sauce of the butter, flour, milk r
and seasoning. Wash the shrimps, remove the dark vein,
and break the shrimps into pieces. When the sauce
thickens add the shrimps to it, also the canned peas drained
from their liquor and thoroughly rinsed. Cook all 4 or
5 minutes and serve on squares of toasted bread. Garnish
with parsley, and a stuffed olive.
8. Cabbage Slaw
%j c. vinegar 1 small head cabbage
3 tbsp. sugar 2 tsp. salt
1 c. sweet cream White pepper
Method. Shave the cabbage very fine, place in a dish,
season with salt and pepper. Stir the sugar into the vinegar
until all is dissolved; then add the sweet cream gradually
and stir thoroughly until the mixture thickens. Pour over
the cabbage and serve in place of a salad or as a garnish
to accompany fried oysters.
LESSON 16
SALADS
SALADS originally consisted of crisp, green vegetables
dressed with oil, vinegar, salt, and pepper. Today salads
are made of raw 01 cooked vegetables, fruit, meat, or eggs,
separately or in combination, with a salad dressing.
The essentials in salad making are:
1. Salads must be cold. All greens used must be
crisp.
2. The ingredients in the dressing must be carefully
blended and not be too strong of either acid or oil.
3. The whole must be well mixed just before serving.
4. Materials must be nicely cut and arranged.
Points in favor of salads as a frequent dish in the diet :
1. Salads have considerable food value, since the greens
used furnish the body with needful mineral salts and fur
nish bulk to food. The dressing contains oil and acid.
2. Vegetable and fruit salads are refreshing and
appetizing.
3. Meat salads contain much food value and may be
substituted for the meat dish.
4. Salads may be made an economical dish, as much
left-over food may be used.
Greens used for garnishing salads are lettuce, water
cress, parsley, nasturtiums, or chickory.
Wash greens thoroughly in cold water. If wilted let
lie in cold water an hour, dry in a towel, roll up carefully
in a damp cloth, and put on ice until ready to use. Greens
wilt readily, and the dressing must not be added until just
before serving.
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260
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Classes of salad dressing are:
French dresssing, used with crisp greens and vegetable
salads.
Cooked dressing, used with any kind of salad.
Mayonnaise dressing, used with almost any kind of
salad, but especially with egg, meat, and fish. It is not
good with fruit salads.
Oils for Salad Dressings. Use only the best olive oil
for salad dressings. Much of the oil sold as olive oil and
under foreign labels is nothing more than a cotton-seed
Fig. 39. Tomato and green pepper salad.
oil made in this country. This is pure and good for many
purposes, but not for salads, and is easily detected by its
strong flavor. In most cases foreign labeled goods bring
higher prices than home brands. Home products are
usually more economical and of better quality than foreign
goods, contrary to the opinion of some American women.
Be sure to read all labels carefully.
Preparation of Materials for Salads. 1. Clean the
greens and vegetables.
SALADS 261
2. Remove all bones, skin, and fat from fish and meat.
3. Cut up materials into uniform size, not too large.
4. Chill all materials before combining.
What to Serve with Salads. Serve crisp crackers,
cheese straws, small sandwiches, nutbread, or small slices
of angel food spread with preserved figs and rolled as a
jelly roll.
APPLICATION
1. . French Dressing
% tsp. salt 2 tbsp. vinegar
M tsp. pepper 4 tbsp. vegetable oil
Method. Mix ingredients and stir until well blended
and it thickens slightly. A few drops of onion juice may
be added. French dressing is more easily prepared than
any other, and is almost always prepared at the table, as
greens soon wilt if allowed to stand in the dressing.
2. Boiled Dressing
2 tbsp. sugar Dash paprika
2 tsp. mustard 2 eggs
2 tbsp. flour 1 c. weak vinegar
2 tsp. salt 1 tbsp. butter
Method. Mix dry ingredients well. Beat eggs well.
Add the vinegar. Combine wet and dry materials slowly.
Put all in double boiler and beat with dover beater while
thickening. When thick and fluffy add the butter and re
move from fire. Serve cold. Whipped cream may be added
just before serving.
3. Boiled Dressing
1 c. weak vinegar ^ tbsp. salt
Yolk 6 eggs Yt tbsp. mustard
2^ c. sugar Red pepper, a pinch
1 tbsp. butter 1 c. whipped cream
Method. Heat the vinegar and butter in a double
boiler. Beat yolks in a bowl slightly. Mix mustard,
sugar, salt, and pepper together, and add to yolks; beat
262 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
well. When vinegar is hot, pour it slowly over the beaten
yolks in the bowl, stirring constantly to prevent cooking
of eggs, making a smooth mixture. Return all to double
boiler and cook until thick, stirring while it thickens. This
dressing may be kept several days or a week if placed in
glass jars and kept in a cool place. Just before using add
whipped cream.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
4. Mayonnaise Dressing*
1 tsp. mustard 1 egg (yolk)
1 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. lemon juice
1 tsp. powdered sugar 2 tbsp. vinegar
A few grains cayenne l/^ c. vegetable oil
Method. Mix the dry ingredients, add the egg yolk,
and when well beaten add J/ teaspoonful of vinegar. Add
a drop or two of olive oil, stir constantly. Continue add
ing oil a few drops at a time as the mixture thickens and
becomes of uniform consistency. When the mixture be
comes quite thick, add lemon juice or vinegar alternately
with the oil, until all is used, always beating the mixture.
(Basis for 2 girls, Y rule.}
5. Thousand Island Dressing
1 c. mayonnaise 1 tbsp. chopped pimentos
Yi c. olive oil 1 tbsp. chopped green peppers
1 tbsp. tarragon vinegar 1 cooked egg yolk sifted
24 tsp. paprika 1 tbsp. walnut catsup
1 tbsp. chopped chives % c. chili sauce
Method. Make the mayonnaise and keep in a cold
place until ready to use. Chop the ingredients fine, blend
with the oil and seasoning and keep cold. When ready to
use, add the chopped mixture to the mayonnaise quickly
and carefully and serve on quarters of clean crisp heads of
lettuce.
*To prevent mayonnaise dressing from separating, mix 3 tbsp. of cornstarch
and 1 tsp. of salt with ^ c. of cold water. Add M c. boiling water. Cook till
smooth and thick. Cool, and fold into the finished mayonnaise.
SALADS 263
SALAD SUGGESTIONS
Mayonnaise, or cooked, dressing may be used with the
following combinations :
1. 1 c. apples, 1 c. celery, ^ c. walnuts (Waldorf salad).
2. 1 c. pineapple, 1 c. bananas, % c. cherries.
J. Bananas rolled in chopped nuts.
4. Prunes stuffed with pecans, whipped cream.
5. 1 c. celery, 1 c. apples, green peppers.
6. 1 c. grapefruit, 1 c. marshmallows, 1 c. white grapes, % c.
nuts.
7. 1 c. pineapple, 1 c. marshmallows, 1 c. white grapes, % c.
nuts.
8. 1 c. oranges, 1 c. Bermuda onions.
9. 1 c. peas, 1 c. cheese, cut in small cubes.
10. 1 c. lobster, 1 c. celery.
11. y% pt. oysters, 3 grapefruits.
12. 1 chicken, an equal amount of celery (about 1> c.), K c.
olives, ^ c. nuts.
13. 1 c. cooked chicken, 1 cucumber, 1 c. walnuts, 1 c. peas.
14. Sweetbreads, 1 pt., equal amount of cucumbers.
15. 1 c. olives cut lengthwise, 1 c. almonds cut the same.
16. Canned pears cut in halves, shredded almonds. Place
almonds in the pears like quills in a porcupine. Serve on
lettuce, one for each guest.
17. 2 c. salmon, 1 c. celery, cut fine, % doz. sour pickles. ,
18. Head lettuce and Roquefort cheese.
IP. Cooked asparagus, rings of green peppers, slices of pimentos.
20. Sliced hard-boiled eggs, cucumbers, celery, and lettuce.
21. 2 c. cold string beans, 1 tsp. chives cut fine, ^ doz. radishes
sliced thin.
22. 1 can strained tomatoes, %J box gelatine, 1 tsp. salt, 1 tsp.
powdered sugar. Make a jelly, put into molds, serve on
lettuce.
23. Dressing for head lettuce: 1 tsp. parsley chopped fine, 1
tsp. beets, chopped fine, 1 egg hard-boiled cut fine, added to
mayonnaise, also a little vinegar, paprika, and chili sauce.
24. 1 pt. beets, 1 pt. cabbage, ^ c. horseradish.
LESSON 17
CAKES WITHOUT BUTTER
CAKES are divided into two classes: (1) Cakes without
butter; examples, . sponge cake, angel food, sunshine cake.
(2) Cakes with butter; examples, cup and pound cakes.
Things Essential in Cake-Making. 1. Use only the
best ingredients, fresh eggs, fine granulated sugar, best
butter, and the best pastry flour.
2. Use accurate measures.
3. Never grease pans for cakes without butter. Grease
pans for cakes with butter.
4. Have a uniform heat for cake-baking.
5. Watch the cake during the baking.
Utensils for Mixing. Use a deep, earthen mixing-bowl
and a slotted wooden spoon.
General Method for Cakes without Butter. Separate
the yolks and whites of eggs. Beat the yolks until lemon-
Colored and thick; add the sifted sugar slowly while beating.
Add the flavoring; then fold in the whites beaten stiff and
dry. Sift the flour several times, cut and fold it into the
mixture, until all is well blended. Pour into a pan wet
with water and kept for cakes of this class.
Sponge cakes and others of the class are raised mainly
by air and steam and, containing many eggs, need a mod
erate oven.
Baking. Oven test for sponge cake: Turns white
paper light yellow in 5 minutes.
Put the cake in the center of the lower rack in the oven
at first. Later move above if the oven does not brown
(264)
CAKES 'WITHOUT BUTTER 266
enough. Do not open the oven door too much, and avoid
any jar or the cake may fall.
The Baking of Cakes. Divide baking time into quar
ters :
1st quarter, the mixture rises.
2nd quarter, it continues rising, begins to brown.
3rd quarter it continues to brown.
4th quarter, it finishes baking, settles and shrinks from
the pan.
If oven is too hot, cover cake with tent made of paper,
turn gas down or check fire, or place a pan of cold water
in oven. Cake should not be moved in oven before it has
risen to full height.
Tests for Cake. 1. Cake is done when it shrinks from
the sides of the pan.
2. Press the top of the cake with the finger ; if it springs
back into place it is done.
3. Insert a small straw in the center of the cake; if
it comes out clean and dry, the cake is done.
Care after Baking. Remove cake from the pan as
soon as it is baked. Run a knife around the edge and
invert the pan on a wire cooler or board covered with a
cloth.
NOTE. If cake sticks to the pan, cover the bottom of
the pan with a cold damp cloth for a few minutes.
APPLICATION
1. Sponge Cake
Yolks 6 eggs Whites 6 eggs
1 c. sugar Grated rind ^ lemon
1 tbsp. lemon juice 1 c. flour
J4 tsp. salt 2 tbsp. water
Method. Beat the yolks until lemon-colored and thick;
add the sugar gradually, continue beating; add water,
266 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
lemon juice, and rind. Fold in the whites of the eggs
beaten to a stiff froth. Cut and fold in the flour mixed
and sifted with the salt. Bake in a slow oven 1 hour in a
deep, narrow pan.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.}
2. Cheap Sponge Cake
1 c. sugar 1 tbsp. lemon juice
5 tbsp. cold water 1 3^ c. flour
2 eggs 2 tsp. baking powder
Method. Beat the yolks thick, add the sugar and con
tinue beating, and then gradually add the water and lemon
juice. Mix and sift the baking powder with the flour
and add to the yolks. Beat the egg whites until stiff, and
carefully fold into the cake mixture. Bake in an unbut-
tered tin in a moderate oven.
The baking powder takes the place of some eggs as a
leaven.
3. Angel Food
Whites 1 doz. eggs J^ tsp. salt
1^2 c. sugar 1 c. flour
1 tsp. cream of tartar 1 tsp. vanilla
Method. Beat the whites of the eggs until frothy, add
the cream of tartar, and continue beating until eggs are
stiff. Sift the sugar several times and then add gradually
to the beaten eggs. Sift the flour and salt four or six
times; then fold into the mixture, and lastly add the vanilla.
Bake in an unbuttered pan in a moderate oven for 45 to
50 minutes.
4. Sunshine Cake
Whites 10 eggs 1 tsp. lemon juice
1 2^ c. powdered sugar 1 c. flour
Yolks of 6 eggs 1 tsp. cream of tartar
Method. Beat whites of eggs until stiff and dry, add
sugar gradually and continue beating; then add the yolks
beaten until thick and lemon-colored, add the extract.
CAKES WITHOUT BUTTER 267
Cut in the flour sifted with the cream of tartar. Bake
50 minutes in a moderate oven in an angel cake pan.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
5. Jelly Roll
3 eggs 1 tsp. baking powder
1 c. sugar % tsp. salt
1 tsp. milk 1 c. flour
Jelly 1 tbsp. melted butter
Method. Beat eggs until light, add the sugar gradually,
and then milk, flour, salt, baking powder, and melted
butter. Line a dripping pan with buttered or oil paper,
turn in the mixture, spread evenly, bake 12 minutes in a
moderate oven. When baked turn on a cloth covered with
powdered sugar. Cut a thin strip off of sides and ends
of cake, spread with jelly while still hot, and roll up cake
by means of the cloth. Keep roll in shape until cake cools.
Rolling must be done quickly while cake is hot, to prevent
cracking.
6. Uncooked Frosting
2 egg whites 1 tsp. vanilla
1 tbsp. water 2 c. powdered sugar
Method. Put water and egg whites in a deep dish and
gradually add the sugar and vanilla; beat constantly until
the frosting is of the consistency to spread without running.
More or less than 2 cups of sugar may be required, depend
ing on the size of the eggs.
Chocolate uncooked frosting is made by adding 2
squares of melted chocolate to the above rule when about
half of the sugar is in.
LESSON 18
CAKES WITH BUTTER
Method of Mixing Cakes with Butter. Measure ingre
dients, dry first and then the liquids and butter. Cream
the butter; then add the sugar and cream together until
the sugar is dissolved and the mixture is creamy. Beat
egg yolks with a Dover beater. Beat the whites, with an
egg whip. Add beaten yolks to creamed mixture ; then add
liquid alternately with sifted flour, to keep the mixture
about the same consistency. If spices are used, sift in
with the flour. If fruit or nuts are used, cover them with
flour to prevent them from sticking together and settling
to the bottom. Add the whites beaten stiff at the last, by
cutting and folding in very carefully ; add the flavoring and
baking powder at the same time. Do not stir the mixture
after the egg whites are in. Why?
Pans for Butter Cakes. Grease pans thoroughly for
butter cakes, sift a little flour in the pan after it is greased.
See that the corners of the pan are well greased. Fill the
pans only two-thirds full of the cake mixture.
Oven Test for Butter Cakes. White paper turns light
brown in 5 minutes. Butter cakes require a hotter oven
than those without butter. If the oven gets too hot,
place a cover of paper over the cake or set a pan of cold
water in the oven.
Frosting a Cake. Cake may be frosted as soon as
baked, if desired. Either cooked or uncooked frostings
may be used for either class of cakes; but for cakes without
butter, uncooked frosting is very good and keeps the cake
more moist.
(268)
CAKES WITH BUTTER 269
General Proportions of Ingredients. For butter cakes
use
J^ to J^ as much butter as sugar.
J/ as much liquid as flour.
Regard butter or shortening as so much liquid. Sour
milk or molasses does not thin a mixture as much as sweet
milk or water. Mixtures for fruit must be a little stiffer
than those without. The proportion of baking powder and
flour is the same as in quick breads, but the more eggs in a
cake the less baking powder is needed.
Variations for Plain Butter Cakes. Many kinds of
butter cakes may be made from a plain-cake recipe. The
following are examples:
1. White cake, use 3 egg whites.
2. Yellow cake, use 4 egg yolks.
3. Chocolate cake, add one ounce melted chocolate (use less
flour).
4. Spice cake, add ^ tsp. cinnamon, % tsp. mixed allspice,
nutmeg, and cloves.
5. Fruit cake, add ^ c. raisins, ^ c. currants, J^ c. cut citron.
6. Nut cake, add ^ c. cut walnuts or almonds.
Make in layers and use different fillings and frostings. If bread
flour is used, use a little less than when pastry flour is used.
APPLICATION
1. Plain Cake
\i c. butter Y 2 c. milk
Y^ c. sugar 1 y?, c. flour
% tsp. salt 3 tsp. baking powder
1 egg 1 tsp. vanilla
Method. Cream the butter, add sugar gradually, and
egg well beaten. Sift the flour and add alternately with the
milk. Then add the vanilla, and lastly fold in the baking
powder, sifted <over the top. Bake 30 to 40 minutes in a
shallow pan. This rule may be varied in many ways, as
stated above.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
270 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
2. Cup Cakes
% c. butter 1 c. milk
2 c. sugar 3 c. flour
4 eggs 4 tsp. baking powder
1 tsp. vanilla or lemon
Method. Cream the butter and sugar, add yolks of
eggs, beat hard, add the milk, and then the flour mixed and
sifted with the baking powder. Fold in the beaten whites,
add flavoring, and bake in individual tins. Cover with
uncooked frosting. Makes 3 dozen cakes.
(Basis for 2 girls, \ rule.)
3. Lemon Queens
^ c. butter 1 c. flour
1 c. sugar 2 tsp. baking powder
4 eggs 1 tbsp. lemon juice
Grated rind of 1 lemon
Method. Cream the butter, add the sugar, add eggs
one at a time without beating. Beat mixture hard after
adding each egg. Add flour, baking powder, and lemon
juice. Bake 25 minutes in small muffin pans. Frost with
uncooked frosting or orange frosting. Makes 16 cakes.
(Bash jot 2 girls, % rule.)
4. Orange Frosting
2 egg yolks 1 tsp. lemon juice
5 tbsp. orange juice 2 c. powdered sugar
1 tbsp. grated orange rind
Method. Mix orange and lemon juice with rind and
let stand 10 minutes; then strain it. Add to egg yolks,
slowly add powdered sugar, and beat until all is added and
of the right consistency to spread.
LESSON 19
LAYER CAKES
Time. Bake layer cakes 15 to 30 minutes.
Points of a Good Cake. 1. A good cake is smooth on
top and baked to an even brown.
2. Cake rounds slightly toward the center, but does
not rise abruptly in the center, crack on top, or sink at the
edges. If any of these difficulties occurs, either the cake
has been baked too rapidly or too much flour was used.
3. The inside of a good cake is fine, even grained,
moist but not sticky, and of the same texture throughout.
Coarse-grained cake is caused either by a lack of beating
or by too slow an oven.
APPLICATION
1. Spanish Chocolate Cake
% c. butter 1 tsp. vanilla
\ l Ac. sugar 2 sq. choc, melted
4 eggs 5 tbsp. boiling water
^ c. milk or water 1% sc. c. flour
4 tsp. baking powder
Method. Melt the chocolate, add the boiling water.
Cream the butter, add sugar, and cream all thoroughly.
Add yolks, and beat hard; then add the milk, melted
chocolate, and gradually the flour. Beat vigorously.
Fold in the stiffly beaten whites of eggs, vanilla, and baking
powder. Mix quickly and bake in two layers in a moderate
oven. Frost with chocolate or caramel frosting.
(Basis for 2 girls, l /i rule.}
(271)
272 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
2. White Layer Cake
H c. butter 3 c. flour
2 c. sugar 4 egg whites or
1 c. water or milk 2 whole eggs
1 tsp. vanilla 6 tsp. baking powder
Method. Same as for Chocolate Cake. Makes 3 layers.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
3. Cooked Frosting
1 c. sugar 1 egg white
YL c. water 1 tsp. vanilla
Method. Boil sugar and water together without stir
ring until it spins a thread when tested. Pour slowly over
stiffly beaten egg white. Beat until it holds its shape when
dropped from the spoon. Add flavoring, and spread on
the cake.
4. Chocolate Frosting
Method. Add 2 squares melted chocolate to Cooked
Frosting.
6. Caramel Filling
2 c. dark brown sugar J^ c. cream
1 c. white sugar y% c. butter
1 c. hot water
Method. Boil sugar and water together until it ropes;
then add the cream and butter and cook 4 or 5 minutes
longer. Spread between layers and on top. Good with
Spanish Chocolate Cake.
6. Cocoanut Filling
Method. Use uncooked frosting rule, add freshly
grated cocoanut, and spread thick between layers and on top.
7. Fig Filling
^ Ib. figs chopped fine % c. boiling water
% c. sugar 1 tbsp. lemon juice
Method. Mix ingredients in the order given, and cook
in a double boiler until thick enough to spread. Spread
flrhile hot. Figs can be put through a meat chopper.
LESSON 20
LOAF CAKES
REVIEW proportions for cakes.
Review methods of making cakes with and without
butter.
Review oven tests.
Time for baking loaf cakes: 40 to 60 minutes.
APPLICATION
1. Gold Cake
% c. butter 5 egg yolks
^ c. sugar 1 sc. c. flour
% c. milk l l /2 tsp. baking powder
1 tsp. orange extract
Method. Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually,
then the yolks of eggs beaten until thick and lemon-colored.
Mix and sift the baking powder with the flour, add alter
nately with the milk to the butter mixture. Bake 40 to
45 minutes in a deep loaf pan.
(Basis for 2 girls, ^ rule.}
2. Caramel Cake
1 c. sugar 1 tsp. vanilla
y<t c. butter 2 c. flour
^ c. milk 5 egg whites
1 3^ tsp. baking powder
Method. Same as any butter cake, folding beaten
whites in last. Bake in a shallow loaf cake pan 40 to 45
minutes in a moderate oven. Frost with Caramel Frost
ing (Lesson 19).
(Basis for 2, % rule.)
18 (273^
274 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
3. Nut Cake
1^ c. sugar 1 c. walnuts
% c. butter 4 egg whites
% c. cold water 4 tsp. baking powder
2 c. flour 1 tsp. vanilla
Method. Cream butter and sugar, add the cold water,
the flour, half of the beaten egg whites, then the nuts cut
and floured, the rest of the beaten egg, and lastly the baking
powder and the flavoring. Bake in an oblong loaf cake
pan for 50 minutes. Frost with white uncooked frosting,
(Basis for 2, % rule.)
4. Spiced Loaf Cake
\i c. butter 2 c. flour
1 c. brown sugar 1 tsp. soda
^ c. molasses 1 tsp. cinnamon
2 eggs ^ ^ tsp. salt
K c. raisins 3^ tsp. cloves
Yz c. strong coffee H c currants
Method. Cream butter and sugar, add the molasses
and well beaten eggs. Sift the flour, soda, and spices
together, add 3^ the flour to the batter, and then the fruit,
which has been cut and floured. Add the coffee, finally
the balance of the flour. Bake in a loaf cake pan in a
moderate oven for 1 hour.
5. Potato Cake
1 c. butter 2 c. sugar
1 c. almonds Y^ c. milk or cream
1 tsp. cinnamon % tsp. cloves
^ tsp. nutmeg 1% c. flour
2 tsp. baking powder % cake melted chocolate
1 c. mashed potatoes 4 eggs
Method. Cream butter and sugar, add the fineiv
mashed potatoes while warm, then the yolks of eggs well
beaten, then the milk or cream, melted chocolate, and
spices. Mix and sift the flour and baking powder, cut
nuts fine and dredge with flour. Add flour and nuts to the
batter, and lastly the whites of the eggs beaten stiff. Bake
LOAF CAKES 275
in square loaf cake pan 50 to 60 minutes in a moderate
oven. This is a very large cake. Frost with Chocolate
Frosting.
6. Fig or Date Cake
1 c. raisins % c. butter
1 c. figs or dates 1 c. sugar
1 c. walnuts 2 egg yolks
1 c. boiling water 3 egg whites
1 tsp. soda 1 tsp. cinnamon
1 tsp. vanilla 2 c. flour
% tsp. allspice and cloves
Method. Look over and chop the raisins, figs, or dates,
and pour boiling water (in which has been dissolved the
soda) over them. Cream the butter and sugar, add the
beaten egg yolks, then the spices and fruit with the water,
then the flour, fold in the beaten whites, and add vanilla.
Bake 1 hour in a loaf cake pan in a moderate oven. Frost
with White Frosting.
7. Eggless Cake
2 c. sugar 1 c. currants
2 c. water 1 tsp. cloves
% c. lard 1 tsp. allspice
1 c. raisins 1 tsp. nutmeg
1 tsp. soda 1 tsp. cinnamon
3^4 c. flour 2 tsp. baking powder
1 c. walnuts % tsp. salt
Method. Put the sugar, water, lard, fruit, and spices
together in a saucepan and cook for 5 minutes. Let cool
a little and then add 1 tsp. soda dissolved in a little hot
(vater. Add the baking powder and salt to the flour and
sift the flour into the cooled mixture; add the walnuts;
beat well, and bake in a slow oven 45 to 50 minutes. This
is a large cake and keeps a long time.
LESSON 21
HOT DESSERTS PUDDINGS
RICH desserts are too heavy to use with a hearty dinner
and should be used only to form a part of the meal or lunch.
For the most part, fruit is best for dessert with a dinner.
Methods of Cooking. Hot desserts are either steamed
or baked. Steaming is done in a steamer over boiling
water (moist steaming), or in a double boiler (dry steaming).
Moist steaming is required for heavy puddings, and for
those that contain citron or fruit. Dry steaming is neces
sary for custard, and insures a more even cooking. Steaming
is a slow process and requires several hours.
Preparation of Materials. Suet. Break into small
pieces, remove the membranes, and chop on a board.
Dredge with flour to prevent suet from being sticky.
To Clean Raisins. Look over and pick out any imper
fect ones and stems. Wash in a strainer set in a bowl of
water. Drain, and cut into small pieces. Always dredge
with flour before adding to a batter; this prevents the raisins
from sticking together. If raisins are not seeded when pur
chased, pour boiling water over a few at a time, drain, and
press out seeds clean before cutting up the raisins.
To Clean Currants. Wash currants thoroughly in a
strainer in a bowl of warm water. Rub them well and
change the water several times until it remains clean and
all the grit and fine stems are removed. Drain, and dry
between towels. Dredge with flour.
Citron. Cut up citron into small pieces; dredge slightly
with flour before adding to a mixture.
(276)
PUDDIN&S an
APPLICATION
1. Suet Pudding
\ c. suet cut fine . 1 ^ tsp. salt
1 c, molasses % tsp. ginger
1 c. milk Y<L tsp. cloves
3 c. flour Yi tsp. nutmeg
1 tsp. soda 1 tsp. cinnamon
^ c. raisins 3^ c. currants
Method. Mix and sift the dry materials, add the
raisins and currants cut fine and floured. Add the molas
ses and milk to the suet. Add wet mixture to dry. Pour
in buttered mold, cover, and steam 3 hours. Serve hot
with a pudding sauce.
(Basis for 2, K rule.)
2. Bread Pudding
2 c. stale bread crumbs 2 eggs
1 qt. scalded milk % tsp. salt
Yz c. sugar 1 tsp. vanilla or
% c. melted butter j| tsp. spice
% c. raisins 1 M c. currants
Method. Soak bread crumbs in milk, let cool, add the
sugar, butter, eggs slightly beaten, salt and flavoring, and
the raisins and currants. Bake 1 hour in a buttered dish
in a slow oven as for custards. Do not us^ outside crusts.
(Basis for 2, J^ rule.)
3. Queen's Pudding
Method. Spread plain Bread Pudding with currant or
plum jelly and then add a meringue, as for Lemon Pie. Set
in oven to brown.
4. Apple Tapioca
1 c. Pearl or Minute tapioca % tsp. salt
2 c. cold water 8 sour apples
2J^ c. boiling water ^ c. sugar
Method. Soak the tapioca in cold water an hour or
more, drain, and add the boiling water and salt. Cook in
double boiler until transparent. Core, pare, and slice the
278 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
apples, put in buttered baking-dish, cover with sugar, then
with tapioca. Cake in a moderate oven until the apples
are done. Serve with sugar and cream. Minute tapioca
does not require soaking.
(Basis for 2, }/% rule.}
6. Date Pudding
2 eggs 1 tsp. baking powder
% c. sugar 1 Ib. dates
3 hp. tsp. flour 1 c. walnuts
1 c. whipped cream
Method. Beat eggs separately until very light; add
sugar to the beaten yolks; cut the dates and walnuts up
fine, flour thoroughly, and add to the egg mixture. Fold
in lightly the remainder of the flour, the stiffly beaten
whites of the eggs, and the baking powder. Bake in a
moderate oven J^ hour, and as soon as taken from the oven
pour over it the whipped cream. Serve while hot.
6. Snow Ball Pudding
^ c. butter Y^ c. cornstarch
}/2 c. sugar 3 tsp. baking powder
1 c. flour ^ c. milk
4 eggs (whites)
Method. Cream the butter, add the sugar. Sift the
dry ingredients three times, add to the butter mixture
alternately with the milk to keep an even consistency.
Fold in the beaten whites, put all in greased molds, steam
1 hour. Roll in powdered sugar and serve hot with Berry
Sauce. Makes 12 cups.
7. Plain Steamed Pudding
1 c. molasses 1 egg
1 c. warm water 2% c. flour
1 c. chopped raisins 1 tsp. soda
Method. Sift the soda with the flour, clean and chop
the raisins, and add the flour. Beat the egg, add the
warm water and molasses. Combine wet mixture with
HOT DESSERTS 279
dry. Put in buttered molds and steam 2 % hours. This
is less expensive than suet pudding.
8. Plain Sauce
1 c. brown sugar 1 tbsp. flour
3 tbsp. butter 1 c. water
Method. Boil all together until thick, like sirup. Add
juice of 1 lemon for a sour sauce.
(Basis for 2 girls, M le.}
9. Berry Sauce
^ c. butter 1 egg yolk
\Y^ c. powdered sugar 1 c. mashed berries
Method. Cream the butter, add sugar and cream, then
the beaten egg yolk, and berries.
10. Hard Sauce
% c. butter % tsp. vanilla
1 c. powdered sugar l /2 tsp. lemon extract
Method. Cream the butter, add the sugar gradually,
add the vanilla, and work to keep sauce creamy. Beat
until light and creamy. Set in ice box to harden. Serve
cold.
11. Foamy Sauce
Y c. hot milk 2 egg whites
1 c. powdered sugar 1 tsp. vanilla
Method. Beat whites stiff and dry, add sugar gradually,
beat hard, add the hot milk and vanilla, beat with Dover
beater 2 minutes. Serve at once.
12. Chocolate Sauce
\ l Ac. water 1 tbsp. cornstarch
^ c. sugar 1 A c- cold water
6 tbsp. grated chocolate Pinch of salt
Yi tsp. vanilla
Method. Boil sugar and water 4 to 5 minutes to make
a sirup. Mix chocolate, starch, and ^ cup cold water; add
the salt, then the hot sirup, and cook 3 minutes. Flavor,
and serve hot.
LESSON 22
COLD DESSERTS
GENERAL review.
APPLICATION
1. Floating Island
l%c. scalding milk Y% tsp. salt
3 eggs (yolks) 3 egg whites
J c. sugar % tsp. vanilla
Method. Scald the milk, beat the whites until stiff and
dry. Fold in 2 tbsp. sugar, and carefully cook whites in the
hot milk 2 or 3 minutes. Remove them with a large spoon
to a serving dish. Make a custard of the other ingredients,
the same as boiled custard. Cook until it coats the spoon.
Remove at once, add the flavoring, and pour around the
cooked whites. Serve cold.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
2. Chocolate Cream Pudding
2 c. scalded milk % c. cold milk
5 tbsp. cornstarch lj^ sq. Baker's chocolate
% c. sugar 3 tbsp. hot water
% tsp. salt Whites 3 eggs
1 tsp. vanilla
Method. Mix the cornstarch, sugar, and salt, add the
cold milk, stir thoroughly, and then add to the scalded
milk. Cook in a double boiler 8 to 10 minutes, stirring
constantly until custard thickens. Melt the chocolate in
the hot water, stir until smooth, and then add to the mix
ture. Add the stiffly beaten whites and vanilla. Mold,
chill, and serve.
(Basis for 2, Y^ruU.)
COLD DESSERTS 281
3. Prune Whip
2 c. prunes J^ c. sugar
2 egg whites 1 tsp. lemon juice
Method. Pick over and wash the prunes well, and let
soak several hours in cold water to cover them. Cook in
the same water until soft, remove the stones and rub the
prunes through a strainer. Add the sugar, and cook 5
minutes to the consistency of marmalade. Beat the whites
until stiff, add the prune mixture when cold, together with
the lemon juice. Pile lightly in a buttered pudding dish
and bake in a slow oven about 15 or 20 minutes. Serve
cold with a boiled custard.
(Basis j&r 2 gi^ls, Y% rule.)
4. Cornstarch Pudding
2 tbsp. cornstarch 2 eggs
1 qt. milk 1 tsp. butter
4 tbsp. sugar Pinch salt
Method. Mix the cornstarch with a small amount of
milk and stir until a smooth paste. Heat the remainder of
the milk in a double boiler. When scalded, add the hot
milk to the paste mixture. Add the sugar and salt. Stir
till the sugar is dissolved. Then pour slowly into the well
beaten eggs. Return to the boiler and cook a fevr minutes
until the mixture thickens, stirring constantly. Cool and
add the flavoring, turn into molds, and serve cold with
boiled custard, cream, or chocolate sauce.
LESSON 23
SANDWICHES
SANDWICHES form the basis of most lunches, whether it
is the simple lunch put up for the school girl or the more
elaborate picnic basket.
Materials for Sandwiches. Bread to cut well must be
at least a day old, when it makes the best sandwiches.
Some delicious sandwiches, however, may be made with
new bread. The kinds of bread used are white, brown,
rye, whole wheat, corn or nut bread, or a combination of two
or more.
The butter, to spread more easily and evenly, must be
creamed, as in cake-making.
The fillings used determine the kind of sandwich, and a
great variety is made from cooked (warm or cold) meat,
fish, fresh greens, eggs, nuts, cheese, fruits, pickles, and
jellies. Mayonnaise and cooked salad dressings are used
to combine many of the materials used for fillings.
Shapes. Sandwiches are made in a variety of shapes
and cut very thin. Those made for picnics or a child's
lunch are best made of bread cut about J^ inch thick and
cut in squares, triangles, oblongs, or circles, with substantial
fillings.
For afternoon teas, slices of bread are cut not over y%
inch thick with a sharp knife, and the slices are then cut
into different shapes with fancy cutters. The sweet fillings,
like jellies and marmalades, are best adapted to serve at
small teas.
Methods of Making. Cut the bread for sandwiches
with a sharp knife and make all slices of uniform thinness.
(282)
SANDWICHES 2S3
Remove the crust of the bread and spread each slice with
the creamed butter before cutting. If the sandwiches are
to be cut with fancy cutters, it is best to shape before
Fig. 40. Sandwiches, showing various shapes.
spreading, in order not to waste any butter. Spread half of
the number of slices with the filling to be used, and fit the
remaining slices on top.
To keep sandwiches moist when they are prepared
several hours before they are served, wrap them in a damp
napkin until ready to use, or wrap them in paraffin paper.
Keep in a cool place.
Serving. Serve sandwiches piled neatly on a doily
on a plate or basket, garnished with parsley, lemon, celery
tips or nasturtium leaves or blossoms.
Suggestions for Sandwiches. Many dainty and deli
cious combinations are possible in sandwiches. The
following are suggested :
284 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
1. Equal parts of finely cut nuts and grated cheese with salad
dressing.
2. Equal parts of grated cheese and olives cut fine mixed with
mayonnaise.
3. Equal parts of cream cheese and pimento.
4. Ham, veal, or sweet breads sliced thin or minced fine with
boiled egg cut fine.
5. Beef or tongue chopped fine with Worcestershire or horseradish
sauce.
6. Raisins and nuts chopped fine and moistened with grape juice.
7. Nasturtium blossoms and stems and bread and butter packed
in a box over night to perfume the bread. Garnish with fresh
blossoms.
8. Crushed maple sugar with thick cream with whole-wheat bread,
or nut bread.
9. Marmalade and chopped nuts on white bread or sponge drops.
10. Sardines (split and boned), lemon juice and paprika.
11. Peanuts chopped and salted with salad dressing, with white or
wholewheat nut bread.
12. Rye bread, chives, and Swiss cheese.
13. Cut fresh bread while warm, spread with a sweet mixture, roll
up and tie with ribbon.
14. Chopped green peppers with mayonnaise dressing.
15. Fresh crisp lettuce with mayonnaise dressing.
16. Cold chicken or lobster, chopped, seasoned, and moistened
with lemon juice or salad dressing.
17. Preserved canton ginger in thin slices with plain bread and
butter.
18. White bread, cold chicken, lettuce, slice ripe tomato.
19. Alternate about 6 layers of white and graham bread. Use nut
or fruit filling and slice across.
20. J^ cup. chopped dates, %j chopped apple, salad dressing; cut in
different shapes.
Hot Sandwiches
21. Chicken liver with brown sauce and toast.
22. Brown bread, hot fried oysters, and Tartar sauce,
23. Clubhouse, freshly made toast, lettuce, chicken, and hot
bacon with mayonnaise.
24. Caviar, onion juice, lemon juice, with rounds of toast.
25. Combination, freshly-made toast, chicken, tongue, bacon,
fresh tomato and lettuce, with mayonnaise dressing.
APPLICATION
Demonstrate cutting bread thin and in fancy shapes.
SANDWICHES 235
1. Egg Sandwich
12 slices of bread 1 tsp. salt
6 egg yolks, hard-boiled 2 tbsp. melted butter
Method. Mash the hard-boiled yolks through a strainer,
season with salt, and moisten with the melted butter to
right consistency to spread. Cut and trim the bread to
the shape desired, spread half pieces with mixture, cover
with the other half of bread. Boiled dressing may be
used with the mixture.
(Basis for 2 girls, % rule.)
2. Chopped Meat Sandwich
Method. Chop remnants of cold veal, beef, pork, or
fowl; put through a meat cutter, moisten with rich meat
stock; season with salt, pepper, celery salt and salad dress
ing. Spread on bread.
3. Raw Beef Sandwich
Method. Scrape beef, cut from the round, using a
silver fork. Scrape first on one side and then on the other
to remove the soft part . of the meat. Season with salt
and a very small amount of pepper. Spread between thin
slices of bread. This may be toasted to a delicate brown
on both sides.
(Basis for 2 girls, 2 slices of bread.)
LESSON 24
FROZEN MIXTURES ICES
Classes of Frozen Mixtures. There are two general
classes of frozen mixtures made in a freezer; namely, ices
and ice creams. By varying the ingredients many different
varieties may be produced in each class.
Ices are frozen mixtures of fruit juice, water, and sugar,
with or without eggs. They are named from the kind of
fruit juice used for flavoring. Ices include the following
frozen mixtures:
1. Water ice, which is made from fruit juice diluted
with water, sweetened, and frozen quite firm. Water ice
is served principally with the meat course at dinners.
2. Frappe is a water ice, half frozen and of granular
consistency obtained by using an equal quantity of salt
and ice in freezing.
3. Punch is a frappe with the addition of wines, fruit,
or charged water.
4. Sherbet is made by adding either a little gelatin or
the beaten whites of eggs to water ice. When eggs arc
used, they are added when the mixture is nearly frozen,
and the freezing is continued until the mixture is firm ana
will hold its shape when served.
5. Milk sherbet is made by substituting milk for water
in water ice ; Care must be taken to thoroughly dissolve
the sugar in the fruit juice before adding the milk, to pre
vent the mixture from curdling.
Sherbets are richer than water ices, and are served for
desserts, like ice cream.
(286)
1C tiki 2S7
The Freezing Mixture. Ice and salt form a freezing
mixture. The salt thaws the ice, consuming heat, and
makes a brine several degrees below the freezing point.
This draws the heat from the contents of the metal can
and causes the freezing. The smaller the pieces of ice and
the more salt used, the more rapidly the mixture freezes.
If too much salt is used, the frozen mixture has a coarse,
granular consistency, as in frappe. One part of salt to
three parts of ice freezes a smooth, fine-grained cream mix
ture. Equal parts of salt and ice freeze sherbets and water
ice to the right consistency.
Preparing the Ice. Pound the ice in a burlap bag with
a wooden mallet or an ax until it is in small pieces of about
uniform size. Large pieces may interfere with the smooth
turning of the freezer. Prepare enough ice to more than
fill the freezer, and have plenty to pack the can in until
time to serve.
The Freezer. A satisfactory freezer is one that is
strongly built, that turns easily, and that is free from rust.
If a freezer is not accessible, one may be made from a tin
can or pail together with a wooden bucket or tub for the
cracked ice. The can must be turned constantly during
the freezing process the same as with a freezer. Owing to
the absence of a dasher the mixture freezes to the sides of
the pail quickly and must be scraped down frequently to
insure a more even consistency to the frozen mixture.
General Directions for Freezing. Adjustment. Scald
the can, cover, and dasher of the freezer thoroughly and
then chill. Set the can in the tub part of the freezer and
adjust the dasher. Pour the mixture into the can, filling it
not over three-fourths full, as a mixture expands in freez
ing. Cover the can and adjust the crank. Be sure that
the can revolves with, the crank.
288 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Packing. Fill the space around the can with alternate
layers of ice and rock salt until the ice comes up nearly to
the top of the can. Turn the crank occasionally to make
sure the can turns and to pack the ice and salt closely.
Freezing. Turn the crank of the freezer steadily and
slowly, so as to expose as much surface to the cold as possi
ble. If the ice melts rapidly, add more ice and salt to
keep the bucket well filled above the height of the frozen
mixture. The icy brine aids in the freezing and may be
left in the freezer, unless it comes up so high that there is
danger of its getting into the can. When the freezer turns
very hard the mixture is sufficiently frozen,
Packing after Freezing. After the mixture is frozen,
draw off the water through a little hole in the side of the
bucket. Wipe off the cover of the can to avoid getting
any salt inside, and carefully and quickly remove the dasher.
Scrape the cream down from the sides of the can and pack
down well with a spoon. Put the cover on the can and fit a
cork into the hole on top. Pack ice and salt around the
can and on the top and throw a heavy piece of carpet or a
blanket over it all to keep in the cold and exclude the heat.
Frozen mixtures improve by standing at least an hour.
Use of Frozen Dishes. Frozen dishes are for the most
part highly nutritious, cooling, refreshing, and attractive
desserts that may be used for luncheons, dinners and after
noon or evening entertainments any time of the year. They
ape especially suitable during hot weather, and are of in
estimable value for invalids. Ices and sherbets are quite
often served during a dinner with the heavy meat course.
APPLICATION
1. Lemon Ice
4 c. water 2 c. sugar % c. lemon juice
Mtthod. Boil sugar and water to a sirup (about 20
minutes), add lemon juice, cool, strain, and freeze.
ICES 289
2. Orange Ice
4 c. water % c. lemon juice
2 c. sugar Grated rind of 2 oranges
2 c. orange juice
Method. Same as Lemon Ice; add fruit juice to sirup,
cool, strain, and freeze.
3. Orange Milk Sherbet
4 oranges 4J4 c. sugar
4 lemons 4 pts. milk
Method. Beat orange and lemon juice and sugar to
gether until sugar is dissolved. Add the milk quickly and
freeze at once.
(Basis for class, full rule.)
4. Three-of-a-Kind Sherbet
3 oranges 3 c. sugar
3 lemons 3 c. water
3 bananas 3 egg whites
Method. Prepare juice from oranges and lemons, mash
bananas, put all through a strainer, add the water and
sugar, and stir constantly until dissolved. Put into freezer
and freeze until the consistency of mush, then open the
top carefully and quickly and stir in the egg whites beaten
stiff. Repack and finish freezing.
(Basis for class, full rule.)
6. Sherbets (with gelatin)
1 tbsp. gelatin Y^ c. boiling water
% c. cold water 1 c. sugar
Fruit juice 1 c. cold water
The fruit juice for this recipe may be any of the follow
ing:
Juice 6 oranges 1 pt. fresh pineapple
Juice 6 lemons 1 pt. raspberry or strawberry
Method. Soak the gelatin in J/ cup cold water 20 min
utes. Add the boiling water, stirring until dissolved. Add
the sugar and the rest of the cold water, together with the
fruit juice to be used. Freeze as any other ice.
10
LESSON 25
FROZEN MIXTURES ICE CREAMS
Ice creams are mixtures of cream, sugar, and flavoring,
and frozen to a firm consistency in a freezer. Being com
posed mainly of cream, they are richer in nutrients than
the ices. Ice creams are used extensively for desserts.
Classes. Many variations of ice cream may be. made
from the same founda
tion, by simply varying
the flavoring and by the
addition of fruits or nuts.
The foundations of all ice
creams, however, are of
two classes, as follows:
1. Those made with
all cream, sweetened and
flavored.
2. Those made with
a custard (milk, eggs)
and cream, sweetened and
flavored.
Ice creams made with
custards are not as ex
pensive or as rich in food
cream, and are commonly
Fig. 41. Ice cream.
value as those made of all
spoken of as "plain ice cream."
Fruit ice cream is made by adding crushed and sweetened
fruit to the foundation rule for ice cream. The amount of
sugar to be used depends upon the acidity of the fruit.
(290)
ICE CREAMS 291
Fruits best adapted to ice creams are pineapple, peach,
apricot, strawberry, raspberry, cranberry, cherry, currant,
and all candied fruits.
Nut ice creams are made by adding chopped nuts to an
ice cream rule, and any of the following nuts may be used :
walnuts, pecans, almonds, filberts, chestnuts, peanuts, and
pistachio.
Frozen puddings are made with any ice cream rule by
adding plenty of fruit, nuts, preserved or candied fruits, or
macaroons, etc., together with flavoring, such as maras
chino, and freezing the mixture the same as ice cream.
Frozen puddings are sometimes packed in ice and salt
for several hours, and are frozen without stirring.
Frozen Mixtures Not Stirred. Some mixtures frozen
-without stirring are:
Mousse is made of the whip of heavy cream, sweetened,
flavored, and packed in a mold in ice and salt (1 part salt,
:2 parts ice) for 3 or 4 hours.
Par fait is made of cream, sugar, egg yolks, flavoring,
with or without the addition of fruit or nuts. The mixture
is packed in a mold and set in ice and salt for 2 or 3 hours.
Owing to the presence of egg yolks, it does not require as
long a time for freezing as mousse.
Cream. The quality of cream depends to some extent
upon the animal from which it is derived and the manner
of feeding, but largely upon the care given the milk and
cream. The fat globules in the milk rise to the top when
the milk stands several hours, or they are separated out by
putting the fresh milk through a separator. Separator
cream may be kept longer, since it is taken from fresh milk,
while cream formed by allowing the milk to stand is usually
tfrom 12 to 24 hours old.
292 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Cream may be separated thick or thin, and for com
mercial purposes is designated as "thin" and "double"
cream, according to its thickness. Thin cream, containing
from 18 to 25 per cent fat, may be used for ice cream, with
or without a custard foundation. Double cream, usually
containing about 40 per cent fat, is very thick, and is best
for whipping. This sells for 60 cents a quart, and if used
for ice cream must be greatly reduced by milk or the action
of the freezer is likely to produce butter. Condensed milk
is sometimes used for ice cream, but it must be reduced with
water.
Custards are mixtures of milk, sugar, flavoring, and
eggs. Flour or cornstarch may be substituted as thicken
ing in place of eggs, but requires thorough cooking and does
not make as rich a custard. An ice cream with a custard
foundation does not require as much cream as one without
custard. Custards or any mixture that is frozen requires
about twice as much sugar to sweeten as those not frozen.
To make fancy shapes or bricks of ice cream, put the
molds where they will get ice cold ; then put in the ice cream
by spoonfuls. Pack the mixture in solidly and fill the
molds so full that when the cover is put on every part of
the mold is filled. Two or more kinds of ice cream may be
combined in one mold by packing them in layers. This
makes what is called Neapolitan ice cream. A water ice
may also be combined with ice cream in the same way.
Cover the mold with oiled paper or wrap with cloth. Pack
in salt and ice, using 1 part of salt to 4 parts of ice, and let
stand an hour or two.
To remove ice cream from the mold, remove the mold
from the packing, take off the cover, and let stand a minute
or two. Run a knife around the inside of the mold, if it is
regular in shape, invert over a serving dish or platter, and
ICE CREAMS 293
the cream will slip out. If it does not come out easily,
dip the mold into warm water and out at once, or wipe it
with a cloth wrung out of hot water.
APPLICATION
1. Vanilla Ice Cream (custard foundation^
2 c. scalded milk 1 egg
1 tsp. flour Y% tsp. salt
1 c. sugar 1 qt. thin cream
2 tsp. vanilla
Method. Mix flour, sugar, and salt, add the egg slightly
beaten, and then the scalded milk gradually. Cook over
hot water in a double boiler for 15 to 20 minutes, stirring
constantly at first. Remove from the fire, cool, add the
cream and flavoring, strain, and freeze. If custard has a
curdled appearance it will disappear in the freezing. Serve
with Chocolate Sauce. (See Lesson 21, page 279.)
(Basis for class, whole rule.)
2. Vanilla Ice Cream
1 qt. thin cream 1 pinch of salt
1 c. sugar 1 Yi tsp. vanilla
Method. Add the sugar, salt, and vanilla to the cream,
and freeze.
3. Chocolate Ice Cream
Vanilla Ice Cream rule plus
4 oz. bitter chocolate 1 c. water
Method. Boil chocolate and water 5 minutes, and add
to vanilla ice cream just before freezing.
4. Caramel Ice Cream
Method. Same as Vanilla Ice Cream, adding 1 J^ cup-
fuls of caramelized sugar. Then freeze.
To caramelize sugar, melt sugar in an omelet pan slowly,
stirring constantly until melted and heated to a rich brown
color. Then add slowly to hot custard.
294 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
6. Strawberry Ice Cream
3 pts. thin cream 2 c. sugar
2 boxes berries Pinch of salt
Method. Wash and hull the berries, cover with sugar,
and let stand 2 hours. Mash, and press through a fine
strainer, add the salt and cream, and freeze. Red rasp
berries may be substituted for strawberries.
6. Peppermint Cream
9 sticks red and white peppermint candy
1 quart thin cream.
Method. Heat the cream in a double boiler, put candy
in, and let dissolve. This takes some time; when thorough
ly dissolved, freeze. The candy colors, sweetens, and
flavors the cream.
LESSON 26
FROZEN DESSERTS (Continued)
To Whip Cream. Thoroughly chill the cream before
whipping. Put cream into a deep bowl and set bowl in a
pan of cracked ice. Add a little water to the ice, it chills
the cream more thoroughly. Dilute heavy, double cream
about one-third its bulk with milk; undiluted heavy cream
will turn to butter if beaten a minute too long.
Use a Dover beater or egg whisk to beat with. Cover
the top of the bowl with a paper to keep cream from spatter
ing, making a hole in the center for the beater and weighting
the corners of the paper under the bowl. A cream whip or
churn is suitable for beating thin cream, and is also used in a
bowl set in cracked ice.
The first whip of cream which appears on the top is
filled with large air bubbles, which break easily. This is
not good to use. Stir it into the cream and continue Deat-
ing. When the cream beats up thick, remove the top whip
by spoonfuls as fast as it forms and put into a strainer over
a bowl. The thin cream drains off and may be put back into
the bowl to be whipped. The thick whip is ready for use.
Continue until all the cream possible is thick. Cream about
trebles its bulk in whipping.
A charlotte is a combination of cream and gelatin.
APPLICATION
1. Charlotte Russe
1 tbsp. granulated gelatin % c. powdered sugar ^
% c. cold water 3|^ c. thin cream whip
J^ c. scalded cream 1 ^ tsp. vanilla
6 or 8 lady fingers
Method. Soak gelatin in cold water, add scalded cream,
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296 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
stir until it dissolves, strain into a bowl, add the sugar and
flavoring. Set the bowl in ice water, stir constantly until
it begins to thicken; then fold in whip from cream, adding
about one-third at a time. Line a mold with lady fingers,
placing on end side by side J/ inch apart with the crust side
out. Pack the mold with the mixture, and chill. May
be made in individual molds.
(Basis for 2, ]4 rule.)
2. Pineapple or Strawberry Charlottes
Method. Pineapple and strawberry charlottes are made
by adding 1 cup pineapple pulp and juice and grated rind of
half a lemon, or 2 cups mashed strawberries and more sugar.
3. Bavarian Cream
1 pt. cream (whipped) ^ 1 tsp. vanilla
1 pt. of thin cream or milk Pinch of salt
3^ c. sugar 2 tbsp. granulated gelatin
Yolks of 4 eggs Y^ c. water
Method. Whip the pint of cream and set aside to drain.
Scald the thin cream or milk, add slowly to beaten egg yolks,
add the sugar and salt. Return to fire a moment to set egg,
remove as soon as it begins to thicken, add the soaked gela
tin and flavoring. Stir until the gelatin has dissolved and
then pour through a sieve. When cold fold in the whip of
the cream, turn into a wet mold, and chill.
Pineapple or strawberries may be used to vary the flavor
and to garnish. Line the mold with large fresh strawber
ries cut in halves, or use the grated pineapple and juice in
place of the thin cream.
4. Neapolitan Mousse
1 qt. cream 2 tbsp. granulated gelatin
J^ c. maraschino sirup 4 tbsp. milk
% c. candied fruit, cut fine 1 sc. c. powdered sugar
Method. Whip the cream, drain in a strainer. Use
only whip. Soften the gelatin in the milk, dissolve by set-
COLD DESSERTS 297
ting bowl in boiling water, strain into a bowl, add powdered
sugar and flavoring. Fold in the whip from the cream care
fully, and the candied fruit, cut fine and softened in the
maraschino sirup. Pack closely in a wet mold, cover tight,
bind with buttered cloth. Pack in ice 3 or 4 hours.
6. Maple Parfait
4 eggs 1 pt. cream
1 c. map.e syrup Pinch of salt
Method. Cook egg yolks and syrup together and add
salt. Cool the mixture. Beat the cream and add to the
egg mixture. Add the stiffly beaten egg whites and pack
in salt and ice for three hours.
6. Bavarian Cream (without custard foundation)
*4 c. fruit juice 1 tsp. gelatine
3^ c. lemon juice 1 tbsp. cold water
}/$ c. sugar 2 eggs
Method. Mix the fruit juice, lemon juice, and sugar
with the egg yolks. Put in a saucepan and cook over a
slow fire, stirring constantly until the mixture thickens.
Remove from fire, add the soaked gelatine, and pour the
mixture over the whites of eggs beaten stiff. Set in a pan of
ice and beat until the mixture holds its shape. Turn into
one large mold and chill. Any fruit juice may be used.
LESSON 27
TABLE SERVICE AND ETIQUETTE
The dining room should be a pleasant room located
near the kitchen, with a butler's or china pantry adjoining.
The butler's pantry is used for serving and for the prepara
tion of salads, bread and butter, cakes, etc.
The decorations in the dining room should be pleasing,
harmonious, and quiet in tone, as well as simple, and the
pictures suitable. The light must be good, yet not too
strong, and the temperature about 70 F.
The furniture of the dining room includes a china
closet, chairs, table, buffets or sideboards, and a serving table.
The buffet or sideboard contains the silver and linen,
and should always be covered with a white linen cover.
The serving table is also covered, and is used for dishes
containing food.
The table may be round, oblong, or square, according to
the shape of the room and the size of the family. It occu
pies the center of the room. The place for the hostess is
opposite the pantry door, through which the waitress enters.
In this way the hostess can direct the movements of the
waitress in case of emergency without attracting the
attention of the guests.
The chairs are arranged around the table with the front
edge of the seat just touching the cloth. Place only one
chair at each end of the table, for host and hostess, opposite
each other, and space the chairs evenly for the guests.
Table Appointments. The table is nearly always cov
ered with a tablecloth, but doilies are pretty used on a well-
polished table in place of a cloth.
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TABLE SERVICE 299
A pad or service cloth must be used under a tablecloth
next to the table. It deadens the sound and gives the
linen a firmer and better appearance, as well as keeps the
table from becoming marred. Asbestos pads can be pur
chased to fit the top of the table, or use heavy table felt or
Canton flannel.
Linens must be absolutely spotless, carefully laundered,
and plainly folded. Use pure linen or damask cloths and
napkins of as good quality as can be afforded. A coarse
linen is better than a mixture of cotton and linen. The
best time to buy linens is in January, for the latest patterns
and summer bleached linen are imported in December and
there is a better selection at that time. Good standard
patterns are the best to buy, but most patterns can be du
plicated within two years. The Shamrock, Irish linen,
denotes the best qualities obtainable. These are hand
woven, and the strict British laws compel the manufactur
ers to state if hand woven on the margin of all linen, and to
produce the same measurements for their goods. As a
result Irish linens are dependable. Avoid linen that is stiff
and that crackles when bent, as it has been starched to give
it a better appearance.
Good damask has an elastic texture. German linens
are very desirable and come in good patterns, but are not
as pure white as the Irish linens. Table cloths that come
in patterns are more satisfactory than those that come by
the yard, and there is but a slight difference in the prices
of the two.
Napkins to match should be bought with each table
cloth. Avoid extreme sizes. The standard sizes for
dinner napkins run from 22 to 27 inches.
To Launder Table Linen. Heavy damask requires no
stiffening, and must be ironed while wet. Thin tablecloths
300 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
remain fresh longer if slightly stiffened with a very thin
starch and ironed quite wet.
Avoid many folds in ironing a tablecloth; make one
lengthwise through the center and roll the cloth on a roller,
or fold carefully without creasing.
Napkins are folded perfectly true at the corners and
are ironed quite damp. Fold over half way, then over
again the same way, then fold end to end, and again to
form a square, leaving the corners of the napkin folded
out.
To spread the tablecloth, put the single crease of the
cloth directly in the center of the table, lengthwise, with
the fold straight with the table. Crease the cloth slightly
around the edge of the table that it may drape smoothly.
The cloth should be wide enough to hang over the edges
of the table a quarter of a yard.
A centerpiece of white linen either embroidered or
trimmed with lace, is used in the center of the table.
A table reflector, or mirror, may be used as a basis for
table decoration. On this place a basket or vase contain
ing flowers or ferns. If flowers or ferns are not accessible,
a candelabra or a plant may be used. Avoid too high a
basket or vase of flowers. Select flowers free from heavy
odors, and those that harmonize with the coloring of the
dining room.
Dishes and Silver. Use the best china that can be
afforded. White china or china having a delicate design
is the best. Never use two kinds for the same course, but
different patterns may be used for different courses. Select
good styles, and if only a limited number of dishes can
be had, buy from open stock and get dishes that
may be used for the greatest number of purposes. Knives
and forks should be of medium size and of a simple pattern
TABLE SERVICE
301
that cleans easily. Plain silver is harder to take care of
than that having a simple pattern.
Setting the Table. A "cover" marks the individual
place and includes all the silver for one person. From 20
to 25 inches of length and 15 or 16 inches of depth are
allowed for each cover. Plates, silver, and napkins are
placed one inch from the edge of the table in the order of
service, the silver for the first course being farthest from
Fig. 42. The proper arrangement for a cover.
the plate. A service plate marks the center of each cover,
and is placed on the table at the beginning of a meal.
Place the knives to the right of the service plate with the
cutting edge turned towards the plate; then place the
spoons beside them, in the order of service. The number
of pieces depends upon the meal to be served. Place the
forks to the left of the service plate, tines up, and the napkin
302 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
to the left of the forks, with the corners of the napkin towards
the edge of the plate and the lower edge in a straight line
with the row of silver and plate.
The bread and butter plates are placed at the left, at
the top of the forks. Put the butter spreaders on the
plates with the handle convenient to the right hand. The
tumbler for water place at the right-hand side, at the end
of the knives, and the individual salts at the top of the
cover in the center.
The uniform of a waitress includes a neat, simple wash
dress, either black or white, and a plain white apron. A
small cap may or may not be worn. A waitress must be
neat, quick, careful, quiet, clean, and observing in her work.
The duties of a waitress include the care of the dining
room and room from which the food is served, also the care
of the silver, cut glass, fine china, and linens. She must
prepare the salads, butter balls, beverages, and cut the
bread. She must keep hot things hot and cold things cold.
Styles of Serving. There are two ways of serving
meals: (1) a la russe or Russian style, where only flowers and
perhaps dessert are placed on the table at the beginning
of the meal. The several courses are served from the side,
each person helping himself when the dishes are passed ; or
the plates are served in the kitchen and placed before each
guest. This style is best adapted to serving large numbers.
(2) The English style of serving is used at small dinner
parties and in the home. The host carves and serves
the meat and vegetables and the hostess serves the soup,
salad, dessert, and coffee. Only one course appears on
the table at a time. Bread, butter, pickles, and relishes
are placed on the tables and passed by the waitress. The
waitress also passes the plates and dishes served by the
host and hostess.
TABLE SERVICE 303
Service without a Maid. The average home can not
afford a maid and many homemakers that can afford one
prefer to do their own work. It is quite necessary that
every girl should learn to do for herself and be able to
assume the duties of cook, hostess and maid, easily and
gracefully, whenever she chooses to do so.
Entertaining without a maid is more informal and nec
essarily more simple than when a maid is employed, but
the charm of any home dinner lies in its being properly
planned and served.
Successful entertaining in the home depends largely
upon the hostess. She should be natural and appear at
ease. When her work is well planned, so that she has no
anxiety as to the outcome, she can be at ease. She should
attempt only simple things at first until she gains con
fidence. Then practice will help her.
Rules for serving remain the same for all meals and
at both the formal and informal occasions. Where there
is no maid to attend to the wants of the guests at the
table, much of the table service is performed at the
table by the host and hostess and may be done very suc
cessfully and with added hospitality.
Rules for Serving without a Maid.
1. Warm all dishes used for hot foods, and chill all
dishes used for cold foods.
2. Fill water tumblers % full, just before guests sit
down. Keep the glasses filled.
3. Place butter on butter plates just before guests are
seated, replenishing when necessary.
4. Use a round tray covered with a doily for serving
and removing dishes.
5. Cut the bread just before serving, so that it will
not dry out. Hot breads should be covered with a clean
304 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
folded napkin or linen square to keep them hot.
6. Be sure that all the silver is in place at each cover
and at the host's and hostess' places for serving.
7. Have all dishes for each course ready for serving.
8. The hostess should put on a small white serving
apron before announcing the meal if she must serve.
9. The hostess assigns each guest to his or her chair
at table. Guests should take their places quietly.
10. Keep all hot dishes hot by keeping them in the
oven with heat reduced
11. Leave nothing cooking which requires the atten
tion of the hostess to make her uneasy.
12. Creamer and sugar with cups and saucers should
be arranged on a large tray on the side table ready for the
coffee pot. The tray should be set before the hostess at
the time to serve the coffee.
13. Some other member of the family may have such
duties as filling water glasses and serving vegetables.
14. Remove dishes containing food, one at a time
first, in each course, then the soiled plates and silver of
each cover in turn.
15. Remove everything pertaining to one course be
fore serving the next.
16. Use a folded napkin and small tray to crumb the
table with, if crumbing is desired.
17. Fill finger bowls y% full of warm water. 'These
should be ready on the serving table before announcing
the meal
18. Make the conversation cheerful and interesting
at table and one in which all may join.
19. The host and hostess sit at opposite ends of the
table. The honor guest, if a woman, sits at the right
of the host; if a man, at the right of the hostess.
TABLE SERVICE 305
Serving Breakfast without a Maid. Before breakfast
is announced the fruit and cereal courses should be on
the table. Fruit may be in one large dish or basket,
ready to be passed, or on small plates on the service plate
at each cover. The tureen with cereal with individual
dishes for serving should be at the hostess* place. Where
fruit is handled with the fingers, a finger bowl is necessary.
Individual ones may be set at the top of each cover before
breakfast is announced, if fruit is on the plates, or on the
plates and removed by each guest to the top of cover
when fruit is passed and ready for the plate.
When the fruit course is finished, the cereal dish may
be set on the service plate and the small fruit plate set
above the cover to simplify the service. If preferred,
the fruit plates may be passed to the hostess, who puts
them on the serving cart or side table by her.
When the cereal is finished, dishes from both courses
are removed to the kitchen. Bring in dishes of food to
be served first and place at the top and side of the host's
place. Then plates, in a pile, should be set in front of the
host. The coffee service on the tray is moved to the host
ess* place, the bread is brought in, and glasses refilled.
The host serves the plates, which are passed down the
side of the table never across. The hostess receives hers
first, the guests next in turn.
Coffee cups are passed in the same manner. The host
ess may use the cream and sugar for each one, if she knows
their particular wants.
Serving the Dinner without a Maid. Dinner without
help must be simple and more informal than when help
is available. Three courses are usually as much as can
be managed successfully and are sufficient for the average
dinner. These consist of soup, meat course, and dessert.
306 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
If a fourth course is desired for special occasions, either
a fruit or fish cocktail may be served preceding the soup
course; or a salad course may be served after the meat
course. When a salad is served with the three-course
dinner, it is a simple one served with the meat course.
Before dinner is announced the first course should be
en the table at each cover. Soup is served in individual
dishes set on the service plate and should be very hot
when served so that it will not be too cool. Wafers may
be served on the side of each soup dish or placed on one
plate to be passed. Celery, olives, radishes and any ac
companiment to the course must also be on the table.
The service plate is a large, plate at each cover upon
which the cocktail or soup dishes stand. It remains on
the table until the meat course is served, being removed
before the dinner plate is placed. For the home dinner
it may be removed at the same time the soup plate is
removed.
The meat platter is brought in first, followed by the
vegetable dishes for the main course. The meat is set direct
ly in front of the host at the top of the cover within easy
reach. The plates, in a pile, are set in front of him.
The platter for the meat must always be large enough
to make serving easy. For a large fowl an extra platter
or plate may be of assistance in serving. Dressings and
carved portions may be laid on it to make more room.
If a vegetable is served in small dishes, the hostess
or some member of the family may serve it. The vegetable
dish and small dishes are placed before the one whose duty
it is to serve them.
If the salad is served with the meat course, the most
attractive way is for the hostess to serve and dress each
TABLE SERVICE 307
plate. A large bowl with all the salad materials prettily
arranged in separate groups, ready to be assembled on
each salad plate, is placed before the hostess, together
with the salad plates and dressing materials. The art of
arranging the salad at table is soon mastered and adds a
bit of charm to the home dinner which any hostess will
welcome. The dressing may be served from an attractive
bowl or a French dressing may be prepared at the table
by the hostess. French dressing bottles are convenient
and attractive.
Water glasses should be refilled between courses.
A second helping'may be offered guests at the informal
home dinner never at a formal dinner. Do not insist
on guests' taking a second helping, if they decline the first
invitation.
When the course is finished by everyone the hostess
rises and removes the dishes according to rules 14 and 15.
Soiled dishes left in the dining room detract from the
dessert course. It is always best to remove all dishes of
preceding courses from the dining room before serving
the dessert. Piling on a side table is not a time saver.
One moving of dishes is best.
Crumbing is seldom necessary at informal dinners.
Desserts are best served at table by the hostess. The
large bowl or plate with the dessert and individual dishes
are set at the hostess* place at the right side. The
coffee tray service is set in front at the top.
The hostess then pours the coffee or tea, as the case
may be, and the cream and sugar may be added by her or
passed. The dessert is then served.
Finger bowls are seldom used for the informal dinner.
Serving the Luncheon or Supper without a Maid.
Luncheon or supper depends upon the time of day it is
308 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
served. If at noon, it is a luncheon; if at evening, a sup
per. It consists mainly of two courses, a hot dish with
bread, beverage, and a simple dessert. If a hearty meal
is desired, a cream soup or additional hot dish may be
added.
The table setting is more simple than for dinner. A
small cloth or doilies take the place of the dinner cloth.
The hostess serves, if the host is absent.
The hot dish usually consists of a left-over, casserole
dish of two or more materials. Many attractive combi
nations may be developed. The service may be as dainty
and attractive as the hostess desires.-
Serve omelets or creamed dishes over toast on an at
tractive platter or chop plate.
Serve two hot foods on serving platter, one in the center,
the other as a border, to economize dishes and lend at
tractiveness, as omelet with white sauce border, or border
of peas, bean loaf with tomato sauce. Serve salads at
table from attractive salad bowls and arrange individual
plates attractively.
Serve the hot beverage with the main course. Some
member of the family may pour it, if the hostess is busy
serving the plates.
Have all dishes, food to be served, with beverage tray
service on table when meal is announced.
Remove dishes of this course before serving dessert
course. Desserts are always served at table for informal
luncheons or suppers.
If a more elaborate meal is desired, a fruit cup or cream
soup preceding the main course makes a pleasant addi
tion. This is served in the same manner as at dinner.
Service with a Maid. All rules for serving are prac
tically the same, the main difference being that the host-
TABLE SERVICE 309
ess does not leave her place at table during a meal and
the waitress attends to the service of dishes in and out of
the dining room and passing dishes to the guests in place
of having dishes passed along at table.
The maid remains in the dining room while the guests
are seated, and until each course is served completely.
Dishes which admit of choice as rolls, jelly and olives,
are passed by the waitress to the left of each guest in turn.
The dish is held low and near the guest. Dishes to be
placed on the table, as vegetables, coffee cup, are placed
at the right of each guest.
Dishes are removed from the right, unless doing so
necessitates reaching in front of a guest.
The hostess is always served first, the honor guest next.
A folded napkin or small tray is used under all dishes
carried by the waitress.
Fruit courses should be on table as in service without
a maid, when the meal is announced.
In the main course the waitress stands at the left side
of the host when he is serving the plates. As one plate
is served the waitress takes it and passes to the right of the
hostess. She removes the service plates with the left hand
and places the dinner plate with her right. The waitress
then returns to the left of the host in time to receive the
next plate served.
The order of serving guests is always the same, hostess,
honor guest, and so on.
Bread and rolls are passed by waitress.
Salads may be served as a separate course from the
pantry. If served at table the waitress places the plates
for hostess at each cover. Desserts may be served at
table or from the pantry, but the coffee is best served at
table.
310 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
The formal dinner with a waitress consists of many
courses, and is served between the hours of 6 and 8 P. M.
The courses consist of (1) Fruit or oyster cocktail, (2)
Clear stock soups and relishes, (3) Fish fillet, (4) Entree,
(5) Meat course with one or two vegetables and an ice,
(6) Salad, wafers, (7) Dessert sherbet, mousse, cake,
(8) Coffee, cheese, nuts or bonbons. Coffee is served
clear at the last in small after-dinner cups.
If the Russian style of serving prevails, most dishes
are served from the pantry and placed in front of each guest
by the waitress. The meat course may also be served
from the pantry, if many guests are present.
Formal luncheons are also served from the pantry by
the waitress.
Table Etiquette and Hostess Courtesies.-
Invitations to dinner or luncheon should be made
several days prior to the day of the engagement. An
invitation should be accepted or declined as soon after the
invitation as possible so that the hostess will know definitely
and may plan accordingly.
If an invitation is accepted, only cases of illness or
very urgent business should prevent keeping the engage
ment. Guests should be prompt in arriving about five
to ten minutes before the hour named. To be late for a
dinner or luncheon is a very grave offense for which there
is seldom an excuse.
Courtesy. It shows culture to speak deliberately and
quietly and avoid monopolizing the conversation. Try
to be interested in the conversation of others.
After the dinner or luncheon is over guests should not
be too hasty with their departure. To leave too abruptly
is discourteous to the hostess. Remain at least half an
hour, if necessity demands an early departure.
TABLE SERVICE 311
In taking leave of your host and hostess express your
pleasure and appreciation of their invitation in a simple
but sincere manner. Make all dinner calls within two
weeks after the dinner engagement.
At the Table. When invited into the dining room
take your place at the back of the chair indicated by the
hostess until she gives the sign to be seated. The gentle
men should assist in placing the chairs for the ladies at
their right hand. The chairs, if properly placed, need
not be pulled out before sitting down. Always sit down,
and rise at the left side of your chair.
If uncertain what to do at any time during the meal,
observe the hostess and do as she does.
In opening the napkin, do not lift it above the table,
simply draw it off carefully and unfold half way and draw
across the lap. If a bread stick or roll is folded in the nap
kin, place it on the service plate, in case there is no bread
and butter plate. When the meal is ended simply lay
the napkin up at the side of the plate, after the hostess
disposes of hers. If a guest for more than one meal, fold
the napkin neatly.
Sit erect at the table without leaning against the table,
and keep the arms off the table.
Use of Silver. Do not handle or play with the
silver during the meal, or gesticulate with the knife or
fork in speaking.
The silver is placed in order of serving with that to be
used first at the outer edge of the cover. Remove and
use them in this order.
In cutting, grasp the handles of the knife and fork
firmly with the palm of the hands over each handle.
The knife is used only to cut with and to spread the
bread. A small knife is often used for spreading butter.
312 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
The fork 1S used to hold food in place while cutting
with the knife, to carry food to the mouth, and to cut any
soft food which does not require a knife.
The spoon is used to convey soft food to the mouth;
to stir the sugar into a beverage and to test the flavor
and temperature. After testing, it should be removed
from the cup and placed at the side on the saucer. Never
let it remain in the cup. Also drink a beverage from the
cup.
Usages. To use the soup spoon, dip it away from you
in filling the bowl and take all food from the side of
the spoon, never from the tip.
Never put crackers or bread into the soup.
Avoid talking when any food is in the mouth. Keep
lips closed while masticating food.
Eat quietly and chew all food thoroughly.
Do not raise food on the fork or spoon while talking.
Never scrape dishes or tip soup or dessert dishes to
remove the last of the food.
Celery, wafers, olives, radishes and salted nuts are
eaten from the fingers.
In eating green corn from the cob, break the cob
into short lengths and convey to the mouth with one
hand only.
Oranges and grape fruit are nearly always prepared
in the kitchen to make serving easy. Large fruits, as
apples, peaches and pears may be pared and cut in sections
at the table and small fruits, as cherries, plums, grapes
and berries on stems are conveyed to the mouth with the
fingers.
In passing dishes take care not to let the fingers get
over the edge of the dish. Use the handles when passing
creamer and sugar bowL
TABLE SERVICE 313
If you do not care for any food served, simply leave it
on the plate untouched without any comment to draw
attention to it.
Be careful about taking too hot food in the mouth.
Wait until it cools.
Drink slowly and raise the glass with the right hand.
To use the finger bowl, dip the tips of the fingers of
first one hand then the other lightly in the water and dry
them on the napkin.
A second helping of food may be taken at the informal
dinner if the host offers it but at the formal dinner the
second helping is not offered.
In offering to serve any one or pass anything simply
say, "May I help you?" or "Let me give you."
The personal appearance of hair, hands and dress must
always be neat and clean before appearing at table. A
man should never appear at table in his shirt sleeves.
True politeness should be the real guide for table
etiquette and an unselfish thought for others means good
manners at all times.
APPLICATION
1. Demonstrate kinds of linen and methods of fold
ing.
2. Demonstrate placing a cover, setting a table for first
course for breakfast and first course for dinner.
3. Practice serving, students taking part of waitress,
of hostess and of host.
4. Give examples of table etiquette.
LESSON 28
DIETARIES PLANNING MENUS
Some Points to Consider in Selecting Food. In the
planning of the meals, it is necessary to consider many things
besides just the dishes that are to be served. The kinds,
cost, and amount of nutrients contained in each dish must
be carefully considered, together with the number, sex,
age, and occupation of the persons for whom the food is
provided.
All persons must have protein for the building and
repair of body tissue, and fuel material for warmth
and work. Individuals differ in the amounts and propor
tions they require, and even among those who are in good
health there are many who are obliged to avoid certain
kinds of food.
For guidance in the selection of food, nature provides
us with instinct and taste, but we are apt to be influenced
too much by taste and to overlook instinct and experience.
We need also to acquire the knowledge of foods that science
has made possible through the laboratory. When more
food is eaten than is needed, the digestive organs are over
taxed or injured and much energy is wasted which might
have been used to better account.
Food Requirements for Different Conditions. Propor
tions vary greatly in the amount of nutrients required by
persons of various age, sex, and activity. A young child
needs less food than an older one, a man more than a woman,
and all require more when at work than when at rest. The
following table shows the comparative food requirements
(314)
PLANNING MENUS 315
of persons of different ages and occupations as compared
with the needs of a man in full vigor at moderate work.
PROPORTIONATE FOOD REQUIREMENTS FOR DIFFERENT
CONDITIONS
Man, full vigor, at moderate work 100
Man, full vigor, at hard work 120
Man, full vigor, at sedentary work 80
Woman, full vigor, at moderate work 80
Woman, full vigor, at hard labor 100
Woman, full vigor, at sedentary labor 70
Man or woman, old age 90
Man or woman, extreme old age 70 to 80
Boy, 15-16 years old 90
Boy, 13-14 years old 80
Boy, 12-13 years old 70
Boy, 10-11 years old 60
Girl, 15-16 years old 80
Girl, 13-14 years old 70
Girl, 10-12 years old 60
Child, 6- 9 years old 50
Child, 2- 5 years old 40
Child, under 2 years old 30
These figures illustrate the fact that there is an increase
in food consumption from infancy until full vigor and that
there is a decrease in old age. They also show that the
amount of muscular work performed greatly affects the
food requirement. Climate and season are other factors
to be considered. In winter the energy requirement per
day is greater by about 800 calories than in summer.
Heat Value of Food. A calorie* is the unit of measure
in determining quantity of heat. It is used in designating
the fuel value of a food, or the amount of heat that a
given quantity of the food will produce in the body.
1 pound of protein yields 1820 calories.
1 pound of carbohydrates yields 1820 calories.
1 pound of fat yields 4084 calories, or 2J4 times as
many calories as carbohydrates.
*The heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water 4F. equals
1 calorie.
20
316
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
The standard requirement per day has been estimated
as follows:
Man at light work 2450 to 2800 calories
Man at moderate muscular work 2800 to 3150 calories
Man at hard muscular work 3150 to 4200 calories
Man at rest 2100 to 2450 calories
A woman, .8 as much as a man
Since protein foods are indispensable in the building
of muscular tissue, fats and carbohydrates should be sup
plied in the right proportion and quantity, so that the
proteins will not be utilized as fuel. Fats and carbohy
drates are more abundant and cheaper foods for fuel, and
when oxidized leave waste substances that are easily elim
inated from the body. Protein consumed for energy
leaves a nitrogenous waste which necessitates additional
work on the part of the excretory organs.
The approximate energy requirement of an average
size man:
When sleeping, is .4 calorie per pound per hour.
When sitting, .6 calorie per pound per hour.
At moderate exercise 1.0 calorie per pound per hour.
At active exercise 2.0 calories per pound per hour.
At severe exercise 3.0 per pound per hour.
The Approximate Energy Requirement of a Child During Growth.
Age
Calories per pound
per day
Total calories per day
First year
45
900
1-2 years
45-40
1200- 900
3-5 years
40-36
1500-1200
6-9 years
36-30
2000-1400
10-13 years . .
30-27
2200-1800
14-17 years
27-20
3000-2200
PLANNING MENUS 317
A diet, moderate in the amount of protein but consisting
of plenty of fuel foods, is much the best for growth. Ten
to fifteen calories in every hundred is sufficient to be de
rived from protein. A family requiring 12,000 calories per
day should have 1,200 as the protein calories. The kind of
protein food to be selected is also of great importance.
The protein material should be varied in order to secure
the different kinds needed for maintenance, growth and
activity. Less meat should be used and the protein sup
plied by such foods as" eggs, cheese, legumes, and whole
wheat breads and cereals. Milk, being rich in calcium, is
very essential to the growing child and should be used freely
in the diet.
The nutritive ratio of foods is the proper ratio in which
digestible protein should be taken in relation to the diges
tible fats and carbohydrates, so as to secure a diet which
will produce the greatest efficiency at the least cost and
waste. The nutritive ratio has been estimated by Atwater
to be 1:6J^, or 1 part protein to 6J/ parts carbohydrates.
The best proportion of fat to carbohydrates is 1:2J^; that
is, 2J^ times as much carbohydrates as fat.'
Ash Constituents. In addition to the consideration of
the number of calories supplied the body by the proteins,
carbohydrates and fats, the ash requirement is important
in planning the dietary.
The ash which exists in the body consists mainly of
phosphorus, iron, calcium, potassium, sodium, sulphur,
magnesium and chlorine. All these mineral substances are
necessary for the proper growth of the body, although no
definite proportion of ash in the diet is required; but ash
supplying foods must be freely used.
The following list of foods rich in ash material is given
as an aid in menu planning.
318 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
PRINCIPAL ASH CONSTITUENTS OF FOODS
In the approximate order of their proportions
Iron
Calcium
Phosphorus
Fruits
Fruits
Fruits
Strawberries
Strawberries
Raspberries
Grapes
Lemons
Strawberries
Lemons
Oranges
Grapes
Dates
Raspberries
Peaches
Raisins
Figs
Figs
Figs
Currants
Prunes
Cherries
Vegetables
Vegetables
Vegetables
Spinach
Cauliflower
Spinach
Lettuce
Celery
Celery
Asparagus ^
Spinach
Lettuce
Beans string
Lettuce
Cauliflower
Cabbage
Rhubarb
Cucumbers
Celery
Turnips
Asparagus
Radishes
Cabbage
Rhubarb
Peas
Beans string
Radishes
Carrots
Potatoes
Asparagus
Radishes
Turnips
Parsnips
Nuts
Nuts
Nuts
Peanuts
Almonds
Peanuts
Chestnuts
Almonds
Walnuts
Cereals
Cereals
Cereals
Wheat flour, Graham
Oatmeal
Wheat flour, Grah'm
Oatmeal
Bread, Graham
Rye flour
Bread-Whole wheat
Bread-Whole wheat
Oatmeal
Wheat flour-white
Bread white
Bread whole wheat
Barley, pearled
Barley, pearled
Meats
Meats
Meats
Beef, lean
Frog's flesh
Frog's flesh
Ham
Veal, lean
Beef, lean
Beef, lean
Veal, lean
Chicken
Chicken
Ham
Fish
Fish
Fish
Salmon
Pike
Cod
Cod
Herring
Pike
Halibut
Haddock
Haddock
PLANNING MENUS 319
Dairy Products Dairy Products Dairy Products
Milk Buttermilk Buttermilk
Cheese Cheese
Milk Milk
Eggs Eggs Eggs
Yolk Yolk Yolk
Whole Whole Whole
From these tables various diets may also be arranged
depending upon the particular case or the patient. For
example, the anaemic patient would have a diet selected
mainly from the foods containing iron and blood forming
properties such as the following type of meal :
Menu
Spinach Soup Crackers
Beefsteak
Creamed Carrots Graham Bread and Butter
Lettuce Salad
Prune Whip Oatmeal Cookies
In order to obtain a working basis for the comparison
of foods in menu making, a common unit of foods is neces
sary. For this purpose the Standard Portion, which is the
amount of each food which yields 100 calories of energy
in the body has been established.
For the proper working out of dietaries it is best to
know what the standard portions or 100 calorie portions
of many of the common foods are. Balanced meals come
logically and easily when one thinks in 100 calorie portions,
as, for example, 100 calories as one banana, or % glass of
milk, etc., instead of 100 calories of banana as 5 ounces.
Dietaries are made for an entire day or week, since
it is not practical or necessary to have each meal balance.
In some cases several days may not average up, but at
least every week should meet the standard requirement.
320
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
TABLE OF APPROXIMATE 100 CALORIE PORTIONS
Foods
100 Calories
Approx. Meas.
Approx. Cost to be
Wt. in No. of Cal. worked out
oz. from Pro- by Stu-
Berries
Blackberries ^ c.
Blueberries /^ c.
Cranberries % c.
Currants ^ c.
Strawberries % c.
Beverages
Cocoa 2^ tbsp.
Chocolate ^i sq.
Breads
Biscuits
Boston brown . . .
Graham bread . . .
Graham crackers
Rolls..
1
1 slice
2 slices
2
3
Rye bread 1 large slice
Soda crackers 2
Toast, white 2 small or 1 large
6
4
7.5
6
9
.7
.5
2
1.5
1.5
.75
1.5
1.5
.75
.8
White bread 2 slices Y 2 " thick 1.5
Whole wheat 2 slices 1.4
Cake
Chocolate layer 1 medium slice 1
Cookies 2 medium .75
Doughnuts ^ .8
Fruit Cake 1 small slice 1
Gingerbread 1 serving 1
Macaroons 2 .8
Sponge 2 pieces 1
Cereals
Cornmeal, uncooked.. 3 tbsp. 1
Cornflakes Y 2 c.
Cream of wheat % c.
Hominy 3 tbsp. 1
Macaroni, uncooked.. 4 sticks 1
Rice, uncooked 2 tbsp. 1
Rolled oats, uncooked 1 tbsp. 1
Shredded wheat 1 biscuit 1
Cheese
American 1^ in. cubes .75
Cheddar 1^ in. cubes .75
Cottage Y 2 c. 3.25
Swiss 1^ in. cubes .8
tern
9
i
10
10
17
8
14
9
14
10
14
14
10
10
14
15.9
7
6
6
6
6
6.1
6
10
10
10
9.2
15
9.2
16
12
25
24
76
25.5
dents
PLANNING MENUS
321
Approx. Cost to be
Foods
Desserts
Apple Pie . . .
100 Calories
Approx. Meas.
1/12 of pie
Wt. in
oz.
.25
No.ofCal. worked out
from by Stu-
Protein dents
4.8
Cornstarch pudding
y> c
.5
11
Chocolate cornstarch
Custard pie . ...
. 1 serving
. 1/12 of pie
15
10
Gelatine jelly
4 tbsp.
98.3
Lemon pie
Mince pie
Plain ice cream
. 1/12 of pie
.1/16 of pie
1 serving
.5
.2
.75
5.8
8
10
Pumpkin pie
Eggs
. 1/12 of pie
.2 small
.2
2.3
8
36
Fats
Butter
1 tbsp.
.5
Cottonseed
. 1 tbsp.
.5
Lard
. 1 tbsp.
.5
Oleomargerine
. 1 tbsp.
.5
Olive oil
1 tbsp.
.5
Fish
Bass
1 serving
4
80
Codfish -. .
7
90
Halibut steak
. 1 serving
3
61.2
Herring, smoked ....
. 1 whole
1.25
54
Lobster
. 1 serving
4.25
86
Oysters
. 5 medium size
4.9
48.5
Salmon
. 1 serving
1.5
38
White fish
. \ serving
2.3
58
Flour
Cornmeal
.3 tbsp.
1
10
Buckwheat
3 tbsp.
1
7.5
Graham
3 tbsp.
1
15
Rye
3 tbsp.
1
8
Wheat...
3 tbsp.
1
12
Whole wheat
3 tbsp.
1
15
Fruits
Apples
2 medium
6
2.7
Apples, dried ....
4
1.25
3
Apricots, dried ... .
2
6.2
7.8
Bananas
.1
3.5
5.1
Berries, (see list)
Dates
.4
1.25
3
Figs, dried
1
1 l
5 2
Lemons . .
3
4
5
Oranges
1 large
8
9
Olives . .
1.4
2
322
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Foods
100 Calories
Approx. Meas.
FRUITS (Continued)
Peaches, fresh 2 medium size
Peaches, canned 1 serving
Pears 3
Pineapple, fresh 5 slices
Pineapple, canned 1 serving
Prunes 4
Raisins 2 tbsp.
Rhubarb, cooked. . . .33^ c.
Meats
Bacon slice
Beef, corned serving
Beef, dried slices
Beef, round, lean .... serving
Beef roast serving
Beef sirloin serving
Beef porterhouse small steak
Beef rump roast serving
Chicken, young serving
Ham, fresh serving
Ham, smoked serving
Lamb, chops small
Lamb roast, leg serving
Pork, chops small
Pork, tenderloin serving
Pork sausage small
Turkey serving
Veal, chops chop
Veal, roast 1 serving
(All servings are of
Milk
Buttermilk !*/ c.
Condensed 1 c.
Cream, 20% % c,
Skimmed milk 1 c.
Whole milk % c.
Nuts
Almonds 1 doz.
Brazil nuts M c -
Chestnuts 1 doz.
Cocoanut, grated .... 2 tbsp.
Peanuts, shelled 1 tbsp.
Pecans 1 tbsp.
Walnuts Y<L doz.
Approx. Cost to be
Wt. in No.ofCal. worked out
oz. from by
Protein Students
8 6
7 6
6.2 6
8.1 3
2.25 4
1.25 3
1 3
15 3
.5 .7
1.5 21
2 67
2.25 60
2 43
.5 31
.3 33
.5 40
.3 7.9
.1 19
.3 30
24
.5 38
.4 21
.75 39
.75 12
1.2 27
2.3 52
2.3 50
average size)
9.8
2
1.75
9.5
5
.5
.5
1.4
.5
.7
.5
.5
32
12
5
36
19
12.8
13
9
4
19
10
10
PLANNING MENUS
323
Foods
100 Calories
Wt. ii
Approx. Meas.
oz.
Soups
Celery
1 serving
6.4
Corn
1 serving
3.2
Pea
, 1 serving
7
Cream of tomato . . .
. 2 servings
9
Vegetable
. 2 large servings
25.8
Sugars, Syrups
Loaf sugar
3 lumps
.9
Granulated sugar . . .
. 2 tbsp.
.9
Powdered sugar ....
6 tsp.
.9
Maple syrup
^/A C
1
Molasses
2 tbsp.
1.25
Honey..
, 2 tbsp.
1
Vegetables
Asparagus, fresh . . .
. 1 doz. stalks
7.5
Beans, baked
H c.
2.75
Beans, dried
^2 c
1
Beans, string
4 large servings
11.2
Beans, lima
, 1 serving
4.5
Cabbage
. 2 large servings
11.25
Carrots
2
7.75
Celery '
. 1 bunch
19
Corn, canned
1 serving
3.5
Corn, green
1 ear
3.5
Cucumbers
.2
20.3
Lettuce
2 large servings
18.5
Onions
3 small
7.25
Parsnips
1
5.25
Peas, canned
2 servings
6.5
Peas, fresh
. 1 large serving
3.5
Peas, dried
. 2 tbsp.
1
Potatoes, white
. 1 medium size
4.25
Potatoes, sweet
. 1 small
2.5
Pumpkin, cooked . . .
.lc.
13
Radishes
. 1 doz.
12
Spinach
.3 servings
14.75
Succotash
1 serving
3.5
Tomatoes, canned. . .
1 ^/A. C.
15.6
Tomatoes, fresh ....
. 1 large
15.5
Turnips . .
. 2 after cooking
9
Approx. Cost to be
Wt. in No. of Cal. worked out
from by
Protein Students
15.3
12
27
15
85
3
.2
18
21.2
25.5
21.3
21
20
9.8
24
12
12
18
24
13
10
26
28
27
11
5.5
15.5
17.9
35
14.5
21
15.8
13
Finished dietaries should always be tested for the balanced ra
tion. The test to apply being
1. Does it contain the fuel value?
2. Is there a good distribution of protein, fat and carbohydrates?
324 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
3. Is the distribution of concentrated with dilute foods good?
4. Is the approximate cost moderate or low?
5. Is there a good supply of ash materials?
6. Is there a balance of acid and base forming material?
TYPICAL BALANCED MENU
For a laboring man for one day
Food Amount Calories Cost
Breakfast
Oatmeal 1 c. 250 $.01
Sugar 2 tbsp. 50 .002
Milk %c. 100 .02
Banana 1 100 .015
Bacon 4 slices 150 .03
Milk 1 glass 150 .025
Graham gem 2 200 .02
Oleo 1 tbsp. 100 .005
1,100 $.127
Dinner
Beef stew
Beef H 200 .05
Carrot 1 100 .005
Onion 1 100 .005
Potato \Y 2 150 .01
Flour 2 tbsp. 100 .002
Fat 2 tbsp. 200 .003
Bread 3 slices 150 .01
Apple pie 1 piece 200 .02
Coffee 1 c. .008
Milk 2 tbsp. 25 .005
1,225 $.118
Supper
Baked beans 1 c. 250 $.015
Rye bread 2 large slices 200 .01
Oleo 1 tbsp. 100 .005
Prunes M c. 200 .02
Doughnut 1 200 .02
950 $.07
1,100 $.127
1,225 .118
950 .07
Total for day 3,275 $.315
PLANNING MENUS 325
Standard dietaries can be worked out from any table
of food materials (as given in Farmers' Bulletin 142, of
the U. S. Department of Agriculture) showing the percen
tage of nutrients and calorie equivalents, by keeping in
mind the relation of protein to carbohydrates plus the fat
reduced to carbohydrate values.
Substitution of one food for another will be necessary
to keep the nutritive ratio correct, and with a little practice
and experience in working out a few dietaries, one obtains
a better knowledge of food compositions than in any other
way. Dietaries are made for an entire day or week, since
it is not practical or necessary to have each meal balance.
In some cases several days may not average up, but at
least every week should meet the standard requirement.
APPLICATION
1. Work out dietaries for school girl, at 15c, 25c and
35c a day.
2. Girls work out and demonstrate with materials 100
calorie portion of different foods.
3. Plan dietary for family of five at $1.50 per day,
where the wage earner gets $4.50 to $6.00 per day.
4. Calculate your own energy requirement, -also your
father's.
5. Plan a day's dietary for yourself, and one for your
father.
LESSON 29.
MENU BUILDING
To plan a daily menu which will provide the kind
and amount of food required by each member of the fam
ily is the most important part of the housewife's duties,
and requires much time, thought and a knowledge of foods.
To plan for the day's meals as a unit or even a week at a
time is much better than to plan for each separate meal.
The menu builder must have a general idea of the classes
of food and the specific functions of food in the body, to
gether with a knowledge of the food and energy require
ments of each member of her family.
All five of the food classes should be represented in the
diet in at least two meals each day and, if there is not the
proper balance of food in a day's menu, it should be righted
the second day.
Menus should contain, in addition to the proper bal
ance of the food classes, foods supplying the mineral sub
stances; iron, phosphate and calcium, which play an
important role in the body, together with those which
furnish bulk, as coarse breads and the cellulose of green
vegetables.
Factors Governing Meal Plans. The first things to
determine are the types of menu plans which fit the require
ments of the family. Age and occupation are the chief
factors governing the type of menu, although season,
nationality and condition of health also must have con
sideration.
If several children of varying ages need to be provided
for, milk and eggs must have a generous place in their
diet, on account of the mineral and protein material which
is present in very desirable form for growth. Old persons
require much the same food materials as children.
(326)
MENU B UILDING 327
Adults leading an active life must have more hearty
foods and meals than those of sedentary occupation and
a man more than a woman.
Climate and season require a change in food plans.
In cold weather more energy-giving foods and those which
necessitate greater digestive activity may be used. Such
foods as. pork, baked beans, rich pastry, sausage, hot breads,
and plum puddings may be served to adults in cold cli
mates and during the winter months with no apparent
difficulty in digestion or ill results, while it would be almost
criminal to serve them during hot weather. Foods easy
of digestion, as fresh fruit and green crisp vegetables,
that serve to cool the body, lean meat, and meat substi
tutes should prevail during the hot summer days.
Too frequent and rapid drinking of ice-cold beverages,
as well as eating ices and all frozen dishes rapidly, is harm
ful, since they chill the digestive organs and retard the
digestive action.
It would be impossible to plan set diets for every one of
the same age and occupation, since nationality and food
habits of the family must be considered. A very pleasing
food combination or dish for one family may not please an
other one in the same block.
Food habits of children are easily formed and right
habits are just as easy to establish as wrong ones, if the
menu builder will plan wisely and never let exceptions
occur. Where poor health and disease require special
diets these must be planned separately in severe cases.
In mild cases, simply providing some foods in the menu
which are easy of digestion and especially suited to the
needs of the patient in the case of adults would be all that
would be necessary and the patient may omit such foods
as would be harmful.
328 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Digestion must always be considered as a part of any
meal plan. Foods of varying nature, such as liquid and
solid, easy or difficult of digestion, should make up the
menu, in order to gain the best results, and not place too
much work upon any of the digestive organs.
It is a poorly planned menu which offers two foods
difficult of digestion in one day. One is a sufficient tax
on the digestive organs. Such foods may be distributed
along in a week's plan and not be harmful. These foods
comprise the fatty foods, fried foods and concentrated
food, -such as cheese.
The flavor, color, texture and manner of serving a food
have much to do with the interest and appetite. Never
serve a meal lacking in color, flavoring, or variety no mat
ter how well balanced it may be, but avoid serving two
dishes of the same flavor in the same meal, as pea soup,
creamed peas, or tomato salad and tomato soup. Courses
should contrast in flavor, a mild course being followed by
one more pronounced. Strong seasonings which destroy
natural food flavors are harmful.
Bread, butter and milk may be served in the same
form each day. The bread may be changed easily, but
no other food should be served in the same form twice
the same day.
Several foods which do not harmonize in color may easi
ly spoil the whole appearance of the meal, such as carrots,
and tomatoes. Only natural colorings, such as green pep
per, parsley, tomatoes, pimentos, grated egg yolks, and
orange rind should be used to form a color scheme. The
artificial colors are seldom necessary. Center pieces of
simple flowers in a pretty vase or basket, or fruit, may be
used for a color effect. Garnishes should be simple and
edible. Too lavish a garnish is worse than none.
MENU B UILDING 329
The texture of dishes should vary, that is, do not serve
two creamed dishes in one course. Courses should vary
in texture also. A liquid course like soup should be fol
lowed by a solid food. Many combinations of food are
quite generally used, which bring out a pleasing contrast
in flavor and texture. Chief among those commonly
used are crackers with soup, cranberry sauce with fowl,
wafers with cheese, apple sauce with pork.
The manner of serving a food should always be simple,
dainty, attractive, varied. To always serve a food in the
same dish becomes monotonous. Keen interest may be
maintained in simple common foods with a little change
in service. Perfectly fresh linen and dishes are great
assets in proper table service.
Where seasons are short of fruit and vegetables, it is
necessary to make frequent use of them in the diet. Var
iety may be obtained by preparing them in different ways.
Use of seasonable food is a great aid in reducing the cost
of meals. Dried fruits are high in food values and also
aid in reducing cost, but often fail to appeal to the appetite
in preparation. Many attractive methods of serving
them should be used instead of always stewing.
Variety is very desirable in meals, but too much at one
time makes it more difficult to plan for the future. Dishes
which are especial favorites with the family may be re
peated more often than others but they should not be
served too often; for few dishes will withstand such a test.
Never repeat a week's menus, or have regular days for a
dish. It is much more interesting for the family to wonder
"what we will have for dinner," than to know "this is the
day for pork or meat substitute."
An entirely new dish or combination of dishes occa
sionally is welcome.
330 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Rules for Building Menus.
Serve some food from each class of food each meal.
Serve whole milk, eggs, and fresh vegetables every day
of the year if possible. Include in each meal the foods
which are needed by each member of the family.
Serve easily digested foods for children and old people.
Serve the hearty energy food for active adults.
Simple, well cooked foods are better than elaborate
dishes.
Serve a few dishes at one meal and see that no one food
class predominates at a meal. For example, potatoes and
rice are both starchy foods and nearly equivalent. One
is sufficient at a meal. Macaroni and cheese and meat
are protein and should not be served at the same time, or
fried foods with rich whipped cream desserts or oil salads,
which all represent the fatty class.
Carbohydrate foods should have both starches and
sugar well represented with more starch than sugar.
Remember that many foods contain more than one
class of foods and are valuable in several ways. For ex
ample, milk furnishes fat and sugar in addition to protein.
Eggs furnish fat and minerals in convenient form as well
as protein.
There is no connection between nutritive value and
price of food. One must learn to think of nutritive value
when planning menus. Some of the foods richest in nu
trients are low in price, but a low price does not always
signify food value. The best way to reduce cost of menus
is by substitute foods of equal value but of less cost.
Foods which stimulate digestive organs should come
first in a meal, as fruit for breakfast and soup for dinner
There should be at least one hot dish in each meal.
Arrange preparation of meals to save time and fuel.
MENU BUILDING 331
Use the oven for several things at one time. Never
plan a roast without using the oven for the preparation of
vegetables, dessert for next day's lunch or supper all at
the same time.
Cold desserts should be made in the early morning
before washing breakfast dishes. Much of the dinner
arrangements may be made ready early in the day, vege
tables made ready and desserts and soup prepared.
Plan ahead for left-overs from one day to provide lunch
material the day or two days after.
Use a fireless cooker for long slow cooking processes,
as for cooking cereals.
Foundation Menus. Foundation menus suggesting
types of menus for breakfast, lunch and dinner suitable
for persons with varying muscular activity have been
found to be of great assistance to the menu builder.
The first is suited to persons of sedentary habits and
gradually increases for those of greater muscular activity.
Breakfast:
I II III IV
Fruit Fruit Fruit Fruit
Bread Cereal Cereal Cereal
Beverage Bread Eggs Meat
Beverage Bread Another hot
Beverage dish
Bread
Beverage
Lunch or Supper:
I II III IV
Hot dish of Hot dish or Soup Soup
soup or salad Hot dish or Two hot dishes
meat sub- Bread salad Bread
stitute. Simple des- Bread Dessert
sert Dessert Beverage
Beveage Beverage Beverage
Dinner:
I
II
III
Meat
Soup
Soup
Vegetable
Meat
Meat
Bread
Vegetable
Two vege
Dessert
Bread
tables
Beverage
Dessert
Bread
Beverage
Dessert
Beverage
332 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
IV
Soup
Meat
Two vegetables
Salad
Bread
Dessert
Beverage
Dinner. Dinner is the heartiest meal of the day and
iusually contains food in some form representing each of
the five food classes. In planning the menus for a day the
dinner plan should be considered first. This then is fol
lowed by the breakfast the next day and the lunch. This
provides a working plan from one morning to another,
and, if help is employed, sufficient directions may be given
one morning to suffice until the next.
When unexpected guests arrive but little adjusting of
the plan is required except perhaps an addition of a vege
table or a simple salad or entree.
The meat dish is the basis of the dinner plan and must
be decided first. This decided, the vegetables which ac
company the meat selected may be planned for, followed
by the soup and dessert.
The menu charts on pages 338-341 are aids in selecting
the accompaniments to the meat dish.
Choice cuts of meat are expensive and should be used
in moderation. Cheap cuts which supply more nutriment
for less cost may be prepared in many ways and serve the
same purpose as expensive cuts. On account of the
longer time required it is best to cook such meats in water
or steam.
Some persons find they are better when meat is served
only three or four times a week; others require it at least
MENU BUILDING 333
once every day, but only active workers should have it
more than once a day.
In the light dinner menus for sedentary individuals,
light meats, as beef, lamb, poultry, are better than too
much fat meat and pork. Active workers can use more of
the heavy meat dishes in cold weather, but too much pork
is never good.
Most any of the cuts of meat are adapted to the dinner
menu and there are endless ways of preparation. Beef
is the standard meat and furnishes more food value, along
with mutton, than any other meat. Fowl and fish are
easier of digestion and make pleasing additions to the diet.
Meat substitute dishes take the place of meat in any
menu and should never be served at the same time with
meat.
The vegetable which is commonly used is white po
tato in the North and rice or sweet potato in the South.
Rice, hominy and macaroni used occasionally in place of
white potato make a good variety, but should not be used
at the same time with white potatoes. Plenty of fresh
fruit and vegetable should be served also to make up for
the lack of mineral salts furnished by potatoes. When two
vegetables are served, never serve sweet potatoes with
white potatoes. Select one fresh succulent vegetable, if
possible. There is no better way of introducing mineral
salts, vitamines and bulk in our food than with fresh
vegetables every day.
Where season and market prohibits the use of fresh
ones, canned or dried may be used. Two of the same class
and nature, as peas and beans, should never be served at
the same time. Neither should two creamed vegetables
appears at one meal. One creamed, one baked is better.
In the foundation menus Dinner I contains only potato
334 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
with meat. Dinners III and IV have additional vegetables.
The selection of these depends mainly upon the meat
selected. If a heavy meat is served, a light vegetable ac
companies it and vice versa. Compare beef-pork charts,
page 340.
The soup at dinner serves to stimulate the digestive
organs rather than to furnish any food value. This should
be well seasoned and hot, and free from fat. Many soup
accessories are served, such as crackers, croutons, bread
sticks, etc
Stock soups, as consomme, bouillon, vegetable, with
meat as their basis, are best for dinner. These may be
made of many combinations of beef, fowl, and vegetable.
A vegetable soup without meat is also good. The cream
soups, as pea, bean, lentil, are not suitable for dinner, as
their food value is very high. These make excellent lunch
eon soups, when protein material is lacking and the other
dishes of the meal are lighter.
Salads for dinner should consist of only fresh vegetables
or fruits with crisp salad greens (lettuce, endive) served
with a good dressing. Heavy salads of meat, fish and egg
should furnish a main dish at luncheon or supper.
Desserts for dinner should be light puddings, fruit or
ices, depending on the nature of the meat and vegetable
courses. If these are heavy, then a very light dessert,
simple fruit or ice is better. If the meat dish is a substi
tute dish, then one of the egg puddings, as custard,
or a heavier dessert may be chosen. Desserts which
require little preparation, as fresh or canned fruit, aid in
lessening the work where other household cares are nec
essarily heavy, and are better than rich pastries.
Breakfast. This meal contains more of the bread and
cereal foods with a little fat and sugar, increased in protein
MENU BUILDING 335
by the addition of eggs, milk and meat as the activity
increases.
The fruit may be fresh, canned or stewed dried fruit.
Fresh fruit in season may be replaced in winter by canned or
dried. Serving dried fruit too often becomes tiresome.
Alternate with fresh and canned fruit. Fruit canned with
little sugar is better than with too heavy a syrup, which
frequently interferes with digestion.
Cereals may be either cooked or the prepared varieties.
The cooked cereals, requiring long slow cooking, such as
rolled oats, Cream of Wheat, and hominy, are preferable
in the heavy diets and furnish heat and energy food for
cold weather, and are the only cereal foods for children.
Very little sugar should be used on the cereal, as it is a
carbohydrate food requiring sugar only to give it a sweet
flavor. Too much sugar on food puts added work on the
organs of elimination and causes ill results in many chil
dren.
Meat substitutes for breakfast consist chiefly of eggs
served in various ways, but, preferably poached, soft-cooked,
shirred or in an omelet. See chapter on eggs.
Breakfast meats consist of bacon, sausage, creamed
fish and liver. Meat and meat substitutes are not used
in a light breakfast for persons of sedentary habits, but
are necessary in the diet of the active worker where a
hearty breakfast should always be eaten.
Breakfast breads are more varied than the bread at any
other meal. For the light diet simple toast is better.
The hot breads are more difficult of digestion and pan
cakes and doughnuts should be avoided.
The active worker, however, may use them quite
often without ill results.
Children should never be allowed hot breads, and toast
336 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
is best made from bread two days old. Corn breads are
the most difficult hot bread to digest, and, unless some
wheat flour is used, are very rich in fat.
Breads made from the whole grains are especially rec
ommended as the most healthful and economical.
Beverages for breakfast include milk, cocoa and coffee.
Milk and cocoa are especially valuable. Tea and coffee
should be served only to adults. They have no value as
food except what the cream and sugar may contain.
For luncheon or supper, the hot dish consists mainly
in a meat substitute dish, or a hot cream soup or puree
or the hot dish may be replaced by a salad in the diet of
an adult, when preferred. Many women prefer the salad
to a meat substitute dish and, if the weather is hot or
their work is light, it fits in admirably well.
The hot dish is best for children and tired workers.
The beverage at luncheon or supper may be the only
hot thing in summer. Cocoa or chocolate is better than
tea or coffee.
Using left-overs to make the luncheon dish is economy.
The character of the left-over may be entirely changed
from its original serving at dinner a day or two before,
and it will not be recognized in its new form.
Luncheon plans depend largely on the breakfast plans.
If a very light breakfast is used, a warm substantial lunch
should follow, and vice versa. The luncheon should be the
one meal to balance up the food values of the day. If
any one food class has been short in the dinner or break
fast, the lunch is the place to remedy the deficit.
Heavy desserts or fruits are one of the best means of
balancing the food value. The very light lunch may have
for the hot dish a cream soup with some bread, or often
a good dessert with bread is ample for many persons.
MENU BUILDING 337
On the days when a meat substitute is served for din
ner the lunch or supper will need to be more hearty as in
III.
Ill and IV may also be used as a basis for the company
luncheon. A fruit cup or cocktail is better than a soup,
if a hot dish follows. The soup is best when a salad fol
lows.
The beverage is served with the warm course at a
luncheon.
See chart for luncheon dishes.
The charts which follow are given to serve as aids in
building menus. Several dishes of like nature are grouped
together, anyone of which may be selected and the things
which are suitable to serve with it are suggested. Only
one dish from each column should be selected in one menu.
That is, one meat, one vegetable or one salad and so on,
depending on the choice of meats in the dinner menu. The
type of breakfast or lunch menu will determine the choice
of dishes and what to serve with them.
Suggested dishes are taken from text.
Finished menus should be tested to see if they meet all
the requirements. A simple test to apply being:
1. Is it suited to the needs of each member of the
family?
2. Is it suited to season and market conditions?
3. Is it within the income and allowance?
4. Is there a good distribution of soft and solid food?
5. Does it contain more than two decidedly flavored
or colored foods?
6. Does the week's menu offer variety from day to
day?
7. Does it call for simple table service and preparation
of dishes?
338
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
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340
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
MENU CHARTS (In Lesson 29)
DINNER AIDS IN MENU BUILDING
Meats
Vegetables
Starchy
Succulent
I. Beef roast (ribs, flank,
rump).
II. Beef pot roast, loaf,
III. Steaks, porterhouse,
tenderloin, hamburg, swiss,
round.
IV. Sweetbreads, liver,
tripe, tongue, chatreuse.
V. Lamb, mutton, roast
chops, stew.
VI. Veal, roast, chops, cut
lets, birds, loaf.
VII. Pork, roast, chops,
tenderloins, spare ribs.
VIII. Ham, baked, fried, loaf,
casserole.
IX. Chicken, fried, roasted,
fricassee, or pot pie.
X. Fish, baked, fried, scal
loped, finnan haddie.
XL Oysters, lobsters, clams.
XII. Turkey, duck, goose,
venisoo ,
XIII. Meat substitutes,
cheese or nut loaf, baked
beans, macaroni and cheese.
Browned or mashed potatoes,
hominy, parsnips, Yorkshire
pudding, rice.
Mashed potatoes, rice,
macaroni.
Baked potatoes or au gratin
potatoes, corn, parsnips,
artichokes, potato borders.
Rice, white potatoes, peas
lima beans, string beans.
Baked potatoes, rice, hominy
peas.
Sweet potatoes, glaced, egg
plant, corn, peas, mashed
potatoes.
White potatoes, parsnips, rice
with tomatoes, bread dress
ing.
Baked potatoes, scalloped po-
totoes, hominy, string beans.
Sweet potatoes, peas, wax
beans.
Cabbage, tomatoes, onions,
spinach.
Carrots, turnips, onions,
squash, peas.
Asparagus, tomatoes, cauli
flower, green peppers, mush
rooms.
Spinach, beets, celery, onions,
Beet greens, spinach, onions,
Brussel sprouts, squash.
Asparagus, cauliflower, onions.
Onions, stewed apples, apple
sauce, sauer kraut.
Spinach, dandelion greens
stuffed onions, cauliflower in
cream.
Brussel sprouts, cauliflower,
peppers.
French fried potatoes, corn,
rice, macaroni, potato balls.
Same as X
Mashed potatoes, corn, hom
iny, bread dressing, peas.
White potatoes, rice, spaghetti.
Tomatoes, beets, stuffed pep
pers.
Same as X
Tomatoes, squash.
Cabbage, tomatoes, onions,
squash.
TABLES
341
DINNER AIDS IN MENU BUILDING Cont.
Soups
Bread
Salad and
Accompaniments
Dessert
Beverage
Clear tomato, Celery,
spinach, vegetables.
Bread or rolls
Lettuce, cucumber,
fruit, olives, as
paragus.
Fruit ice, canned
fruit, apple tap
ioca.
Coffee or tea
Noodle, vegetable, cel
ery, chicken.
Bread or rolls.
Lettuce, romaine,
watercress, cu
cumbers, toma
toes, cabbage
slaw.
Rice pudding, berry
short cake, fruit.
Coffee or tea
Asparagus, clear tomato,
chicken with rice.
Hot bread, bis
cuit.
Same as I and II.
Tapioca puddings,
short cakes, gela
tin desserts, sher
bets.
Coffee or tea
Noodle, clam broth, ox
tail, clear tomato.
Biscuit or muf
fins.
Apple and celery,
head lettuce,
thousand island
dressing.
Cup custards, choc,
cream, pastry.
Coffee or tea
Vermicelli, vegetable con
somme.
Rolls or bis
cuit.
Cold slaw, mint
jelly, fruit salad.
Apri cot or peach
ice.
Coffee or tea
Bouillon, consomme,
vegetable.
Bread, rolls.
Head lettuce, toma
to, cucumbers.
2uick steamed pud
ding.
Coffee or tea
Consomme, Julienne
Bread.
Apple, celery, let
tuce, French
dressing.
Fresh fruit ices.
Coffee or tea
Consomme.
Bread.
Same as VII.
Baked apple, fruit
jelly, date pud
ding.
Coffee or tea
Clear tomato, bouillon,
celery.
Biscuits, rolls.
Cranberry jelly,
fruit, egg.
Short cakes, fruit
souffles, ice
cream, cake.
Coffee or tea
Bouillon, celery, tomato.
Bread.
Green peppers, let
tuce, cucumbers,
French dressing.
Prune whip, snow
ball, pudding,
apple sauce.
Coffee or tea
Rolls.
Waldorf, lettuce,
French dressing,
cabbage slaw.
Cornstarch pud
ding, sherbets.
Coffee or tea
Oyster, cream asparagus.
Rolls, biscuit.
Apple salad, apple
sauce, currant
jelly, fruit salad,
grape jelly.
Sherbets, parfaits,
pastry, short
cakes.
Coffee or tea
Cream tomato, cream
pea. vermicelli.
Biscuit or cin
namon rolls.
Same as X.
Custard pie, steam
ed puddings.
Coffee or tea
LESSON 30.
MARKETING
Rules for Marketing.
1. The woman, to manage her home successfully,
should have a definite income or allowance and know how
much of that should be spent for food.
2. Order lists should be made at home before going to
market.
3. What supplies are needed should be known and
ordered before one is entirely out of any article. A market
ing list should be kept in the kitchen, on which should be
noted the items that are getting low.
4 Marketing should be done as early in the day as
possible, to allow time for delivery.
5. One should go to market and make one's own selec
tions instead of ordering by telephone.
6. One should patronize only reliable merchants who
give first-class service. Weigh and inspect goods purchased
and read labels to see that proper value is obtained for the
money spent.
7. Only markets that are perfectly sanitary and where
the dress and habits of the clerks are neat should be patron
ized.
8. Staples should be bought in quantity, if possible,
and ordered therefore less frequently. Perishable foods
should be purchased in small quantities every day or two.
9. It shows a lack of planning to expect or ask more
than one delivery a day. Emergency supplies on hand will
take care of unexpected company demands.
10. Clerks and delivery boys should not be asked for
too much special service.
11. Goods should be bought in season when prices are
(342)
MARKETING 843
right and low. Goods out of season are always high, due
to transportation and hothouse conditions. High prices
do not signify quality.
12. Cheap food below prevailing market prices is
either damaged or of inferior grade. Everything should be
examined before buying.
13. The price of goods should be known before buying.
14. The housekeeper should learn to substitute one
food for another of like composition and character, in order
to secure equal results in the menu for least money.
15. Canned goods should be bought by size number of
can and by trade name, never by price of can. Every whole
saler has special brand names. Test and compare grades
as to weight, quality and price, then order in dozen or case
lots, if possible, the brands found to be the best.
16. Fancy and extra fancy brands all command fancy
prices without giving any higher food value. They should
not be ordered unless one can afford to buy them and
only then for especial occasions.
17. Package goods command higher prices than bulk
foods. Labels and containers add to cost. Where large
amounts are used, purchasing in bulk is best, if quantity
will be used before food deteriorates by long storing. If
small quantity is used, package goods often times are best;
they are cleaner, and sanitary methods of handling make
them worth an extra price.
18. Buying in quantity more food of any kind than
will be used during a season is extravagant. Foods lose
considerable value in long storing and a fresh stock of food
is always safer.
19. Pay cash for goods when possible. If a credit
system is used, bills should be paid promptly every week
or month at most. Never allow a bill to go over.
344
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
20. Never buy anything it will be impossible to pay
for. Live within your income, no matter what it may be.
21. Check bills and get a receipt when bills are paid.
Keep all receipts.
MARKET CHART
Amount Material
Cost Amount Material
Cost
pound butter
pound sugar, granulated . .
pound powdered sugar
4 pounds flour
qt. milk
qt. cream
qt. molasses
doz. eggs
cake yeast, compressed . . .
pt. vanilla.
box soda
pound baking powder. . . .
box spice
pound coffee
pt. olive oil
pound tea
pound pkg. gelatin
pound lard
1 pound cheese
1 doz. lemons
1 doz. oranges
1 doz. apples
1 doz. bananas
1 doz. peaches
1 pound raisins
1 pound prunes
1 pound walnuts
1 pound peanuts
1 pound pecans
1 pound almonds
1 pound bacon
1 pound buckwheat : ,
16 oz. rolled oats
16 oz. cream of wheat
10 pounds cornmeal
5 pounds whole wheat flour.
1 pound figs...
1 pound dates
1 pound suet
1 pound cheese
1 pound tapioca
1 pound rice
1 pound macaroni
1 pound citron
1 pound peanut butter . .
1 pound crackers ,
pound corn starch
pound sweet potatoes. . .
pound tea
pound coffee
pound chocolate
pound grated cocoanut .
pound can tomatoes. . .
pound can salmon
pound can lobster
pound can corn
pound can peas
pound can sardines
pound can shrimp
1 onion
1 carrot
1 turnip
1 bunch celery
1 bunch parsley
1 head lettuce
1 glass jelly
1 box berries
1 pound tomato
1 pound dried beans
1 pound dried peas
10 pounds suet
1 qt. vinegar
1 bar soap . .
MARKETING 345
APPLICATION
1. Market trips, observing conditions in markets.
2. Budget allowances for food under different conditions.
3. Study of trade brands of canned goods at local stores.
Comparison of brands.
4. Personal marketing for meals, with cash. Each girl te have
a definite assignment.
5. Make complete market charts with prices, sizes, weights,
trade names.
LESSON 31
HOME MANAGEMENT. HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS
The home as we know it has grown out of a need of
shelter for the family. The home-makers have always
been women; the care of the home and the management
of all household duties have always been in their hands.
Knowledge comes from study and practice, or In the
actual doing. Every man spends several months or years
in preparation for the business or trade he intends to enter.
So every girl should spend time and study in fitting herself
for her life work.
It has been estimated that 95 per cent of the girls
eventually take their places in the home. So it seems
necessary to include in the education of every girl some
study and practice in home management, if her home is
to be conducted in a business-like manner.
Good home management includes the selection and
care of all materials used in the continuance of the home
the food, its preparation and service; the care of children;
the management of servants; and the keeping of accurate
household accounts.
One of the most important features of good home
management is system. With a system each day and week
has its special duties to be performed, and each member of
the household knows what he or she is responsible for.
The home-maker must be thoughtful, have a good
sense of values, and exercise good judgement in expendi
tures. She must be interested in her home and willing
to help others.
346
HOME MANAGEMENT 347
Servants. Servants need wise supervision and are
only too quick to recognize* the worth of an employer.
The woman who is able to retain good help exercises good
judgement in the manner in which she treats her servants.
Commending servants for things well done and refrain
ing from nagging or reprimanding them before others will
result in better work and greater effort to please.
A wage scale for help by which the wages increase
at stated times or on the merit system will effect an im
provement in retaining efficient help. Servants are as
ambitious as any other class of workers and move from
one place to another in the hope of bettering themselves.
Household Accounts. The standards of living differs
with individuals and families according to education,
tastes, occupation, and country.
The home system of accounts should be simple and
easy to keep. A good plan is to divide the yearly income
according to months and weeks and to keep all expenses
well within the limits. Set aside a percentage of the
salary for each class of expenditures shelter, clothing,
food, etc. As the income increases, the percentages of
expenditures for some of the items usually increase in
proportion up to a certain point.
When the division of the income has been decided upon
a system of book keeping will greatly aid in keeping track
of each expenditure. A sample page of a simple system
is here given.
All stores send duplicate slips with each purchase.
These should be kept together and used to check up with
the monthly statement. In case of error these are of
great value in correcting the account.
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Month of.
HOUSEHOLD ACCOUNTS
. . (summary)
Items of Expenditures
Amounts
Totals
Food
Meat .
..Total Food
Milk and cream
Groceries
Shelter
Rent 4 .
Total Shel+r
Insurance
Taxes
Repairs
Clothing
Total Clothing
Operating Expenses
Fuel
Total Operating
Light
Gas
Ice
Telephone
Help... . .
Education and Amusement
School
Total Ed. & Amus.
Papers, Books, etc
Traveling
Benevolence
Church
Total Benevolence
Club due^s
Charity
Personal Accounts
Total Pers. Accts.
Emergencies
Doctor
Total Emergencies
Dentist . .
Incidentals
Total Incidentals
Total Expenses
Income Balance (loss or
savings)
HOME MANAGEMENT 349
The monthly statements may be carried forward each
month, showing the balance; or a yearly summary may be
drawn on a separate page, showing the expenditure totals
and the complete credits or debits at the end of the year.
Whatever the system employed in keeping the house
hold accounts, it should show: (1) The total income or
cash received, (2) the total expenditures, (3) how the money
was spent, and (4) the balance savings or losses.
Children should be taught to keep their own person
al accounts for each week or month, and be made respon
sible for an allowance, howeve'r small.
APPLICATION
1. Work out a suggestive outline of household duties
and plan for a week's work in your home.
2. Assign the duties of one maid.
3. Assign the duties of two maids.
4. Make out a household account record page for one
month, using a typical family of four, including two chil
dren.
5. Make out your own home expense account for the
past month.
6. Make out your own personal account for the past
month.
LESSON 32
INVALID COOKERY
FOOD for the sick is an important subject, and much
time can be given to this one branch of cookery. The
quantity and kind of food for patients must be varied
according to the nature of the disease. A housekeeper
with a knowledge of foods and food values suitable to
different diets is of great assistance to the physician attend
ing the case, and is able to carry out his orders satisfac
torily and often can do without the services of a trained
nurse in simple cases.
Dietaries are classified, to assist nurses in caring for
their patients, as liquid, soft, light, and full diets.
A liquid diet includes milk, beef tea, broths, beef juice,
strained gruels, egg nogs, cream soups, cocoa, and all
other liquid foods. Tea and coffee must be avoided.
A soft diet includes dishes in the liquid diet and also
milk toast, soft-cooked eggs, jellies, boiled custards, junkets,
ice cream, apple sauce, and cereals.
A light diet includes soft-cooked eggs, baked custard,
creamed toast, sweet breads, asparagus, scalloped oysters,
gelatin jellies, baked apples, stewed prunes.
A full diet, includes soups, meat, fish, eggs, cereals,
vegetables, fruits, and desserts that are easily digested.
Never give to any patient even the smallest amount of
food difficult of digestion.
Special diets are those ordered by a physician for special
cases.
(350)
INVALID COOKERY 351
Rules for Serving Invalids.
1. Cook all food carefully and thoroughly.
2. Serve hot food hot and cold food cold.
3. Serve food daintly and attractively.
4. Use the prettiest dishes and the best linen.
5. Put a flower or a small plant on the tray to make it
attractive.
6. Plan to have surprises for the patient in the kinds
Fig. 44. An invalid's tray.
of food as well as in the ways it is served. This helps
to create an appetite, which often is lacking.
7. Always remove all bottles and signs of medicine
from the sight of the patient, and remove the tray as soon
as the patient has finished eating.
APPLICATION
These recipes are for individual portions suitable for one patient and
for two girls working together in practice work in the kitchen.
1. Dry Toast
Method. Slice stale bread in J/ inch slices, remove
the crusts, place in a toaster and dry thoroughly, turning
352 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
occasionally. Toast a golden brown on both sides. The
starch is dextrinized and made more easy of digestion by
toasting.
2. Milk Toast
2 slices dry toast % c. scalded milk
% tbsp. butter M tsp. salt
Method. Butter the toast, arrange on a hot dish, pour
the hot milk over it, and sprinkle with salt.
3. Water Toast
2 slices dry toast % tbsp. butter
1 c. boiling water % tsp. salt
Method. Drop the slices of toast separately into the
boiling water, remove to a hot dish, spread with butter,
and serve at once.
4. Oatmeal Jelly
^ c. rolled oats 1^ c. boiling water
Pinch of salt
Method. Add the oats gradually to the boiling water,
add the salt, boil 2 minutes, and then steam in a double
boiler 45 minutes to 1 hour. Force through a fine strainer,
mold, chill, and serve with sugar and cream.
6. Barley Gruel
1 tbsp. barley flour 1 c. water or milk
2 tbsp. cold water % tsp. salt
Method. Add the 2 tablespoonfuls of cold water to the
flour to make a thin paste ; then add gradually to the scalded
milk or boiling water while stirring constantly. Cook in a
double boiler 20 minutes. Season and strain.
6. Cracker Gruel
1 tbsp. cracker crumbs % c. milk
Pinch of salt
Method. Scald the milk, add the cracker crumbs, and
cook over boiling water 10 minutes; season to taste.
INVALID COOKERY 353
7. Pasteurized Milk
Method. Put milk in sterilized, small-mouth glass
bottles, stop with cotton batting or absorbent cotton, place
bottles in a wire basket, and immerse the basket in a kettle
of cold water. Heat water gradually to a temperature of
from 160 to 170 F. Keep at this temperature 30 minutes;
remove and cool bottles quickly and keep in cold water.
8. Egg Nog
1 egg \]/2 tbsp. sherry or
% tbsp. sugar 1 tbsp. brandy or rum
A few grains salt 26 c. cold milk
Method. Beat the egg slightly, add the sugar, salt, and
the liquor, and then the milk gradually. Strain, and serve.
9. Eggs in a Nest
1 egg 1 tsp. butter
1 slice of toast Pinch of salt
Method. Separate the yolk from the white of the egg,
beat the whites until stiff, sprinkle with salt, and heap
on a slice of toast. Make a depression or nest in the
center, drop into this the whole yolk, place in a pan in
the oven for 2 minutes. Place a tiny piece of butter in
the center of the nest and serve at once.
10. Beef Juice
Method. Broil a small piece of round steak, cut it into
small pieces, squeeze the juice from it into a cup, season
with salt, and serve.
11. Beef Extract
Method. Cut round steak into small pieces. Put into
a sterile canning jar, cover and place the jar into a kettle
of cold water. Heat the water gradually and keep at a
temperature of 130 F. for 2 hours. Turn meat from the
jar and press until the juice is extracted. Season the
juice with salt, and serve.
354 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
12. Beef Tea
1 pound of beefsteak cut from the round 2 c. cold water
Salt to season
Method. Prepare the beef as for beef extract, put in a
sterile jar or double boiler, add cold water, and heat grad
ually, keeping the temperature at 130 F. for 2 hours.
Increase the temperature at the end of that time until
the liquid becomes a chocolate color and the albuminous
juices are slightly coagulated. This removes the raw
taste of the tea. Season with salt.
13. Mutton Broth
2 pounds of mutton from the neck
2 c. cold water
Method. Cut the meat in small pieces, soak in water
1 hour. Simmer for 3 hours, strain, and remove the fat.
3 tablespoonfuls of rice may be boiled and served with
the strained broth.
APPENDIX
EMERGENCIES AND FIRST AID
IN all cases of emergencies, the thing to remember is
self-control, and then to render first aid as quickly as
possible. If the accident is serious, send for a physician
at once, but many cases can be cared for by any one who
understands first-aid treatments.
Fainting is caused by mental impression, exhaustion,
pain, heat, bleeding, overcrowded rooms, etc. The symp
toms are sudden unsconciousness, pale face, cool, moist
skin, weak pulse, shallow breathing, and dilated pupils.
Treatment. If face is pale, get more blood to the brain.
Lay the patient flat on his back with the head low and
the legs raised; sprinkle cold water on his face, and gently
apply ammonia or smelling salts to the nostrils to make
him breathe. Get him out into the fresh air, and loosen
the clothing about the neck and waist. An attack of
fainting can often be prevented by sitting in a chair and
thrusting the head down between the knees and holding
it there until the face becomes flushed. If unconscious
ness is accompanied by a flushed face, elevate the head.
Heat Stroke. Heat stroke is the same as fainting.
Treatment. Apply cold water to the body and ice to
the head.
Bleeding from the Nose. This is caused by excess
blood pressure or from a foreign substance in the nose,
and is often hard to check.
Treatment. Hold arms vertically above the head; put
ice or cold water on back of the neck, between the shoulders,
and over the root of the nose at the forehead ; very cold or
(355)
356 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
very hot water or hydrogen peroxide should be snuffed
up the nose. Pressure by placing a roll of cotton or cloth
under the upper lip next to the gum may be a benefit. Should
the bleeding still continue, plug the nostrils with absorbent
cotton; if the blood then runs in the throat from the back
of the nose, the assistance of a surgeon will be required.
Bleeding from a Cut. If the blood is bright red and
conies in spurts it is from an artery, and needs prompt
attention. If the blood is bright red but flows slowly, it
comes from a capillary. If blood is dark red or blue and
flows steadily, it comes from a vein.
Treatment. Apply pressure above and below the cut.
Raise the portion of the body that is cut. Bind the cut
with antiseptic gauze bandage directly on the wound
tight enough to stop the flow of blood. In severe bleeding
use a tourniquet to tighten the bandage. This is made
by putting a stick under the bandage and twisting it to
tighten it. Ice, salt, and alum cause the blood to coagu
late and are used on wounds in cases of emergency
Infection is caused by the presence of bacteria.
Treatment. Clean thoroughly a wound that has not
bled freely, by washing with a salt solution or alcohol, or
a weak solution of carbolic acid, not more than 3 per cent;
then bind with antiseptic gauze.
Burns are caused by contact with dry heat, as from
hot metal; scalds are caused by moist heat, as from liquids,
including acids.
Treatment. Cover with a wet cloth sprinkled with
baking soda or dipped in boric acid, or apply vaseline or
olive oil. Usually a cloth saturated with olive oil will
relieve the pain. Where the skin is destroyed, watch the
burn carefully to prevent infection. In case the clothing
catches on fire, wrap the patient in a heavy rug, blanket,
EMERGENCIES AND FIRST AID 35T
or coat at once to smother the flames. Send for a physician
in severe cases.
Frost bite is caused by prolonged exposure of the body
to a very low temperature. It produces a loss of vitality
and the affected part becomes stiff and white.
Treatment. Never take a frozen person into a warm
room or apply heat to a frozen part. The temperature
must be raised gradually. Remove the clothing, if any,
on the affected part, and rub with snow or cold water;
later rub with the hand carefully to restore the circulation
but do not injure the skin. Stimulants, like brandy, may
be given in severe cases, or allow the patient to inhale the
fumes of ammonia from a handkerchief to restore con
sciousness.
Asphyxia. This is a condition of unconsciousness due
to a great diminution of oxygen in the blood, caused by an
obstruction in the air passages of the throat or lungs, or
to the presence of poisonous gases, such as coal gas from
stoves or illuminating and sewer gas.
Treatment. Remove the cause, in order that the lungs
may be supplied with the proper amount of pure air.
Re-establish respiration by artificial means. This is
produced by moving the arms upward above the head,
to elevate the ribs and expand the chest; then slowly low
ering the elbows and pressing them against the sides of
the body. Repeat this movement fifteen times a minute
until the patient is recovered. Stimulate the heart and
the circulation by the use of stimulants, warm applications,
and friction. Send for a physician and the pulmotor.
Earache. Apply hot applications. See a physician as
soon as possible.
Foreign Substance in the Eye. Particles of dust or
cinders may lodge under the lids or in the eyeball.
3oS DOMESTIC SCIENCE
Treatment. In the latter situation a physician should
always be consulted. To examine the lower lid, draw
down with the fingers and at the same time tell the patient
to look up; if the particle is not there, evert the upper
lid by standing behind the patient, with his head upon
your chest; and tell him to look down at his feet. At
the same time press a match or the end of a finger firmly
about a quarter of an inch behind the margin of the lid r
draw the lid down by the lashes and turn it upward and
outward over the match or fingertip. If the particle is
not visible, search the ball of the eye carefully for it, and
if found lift it gently by a quick movement with the point
of a burnt match or toothpick.
Poisons are caused by the presence in our bodies of
substances which act upon the body tissues and life itself,
and must be treated at once. Poisons are of several kinds:
(1) Corrosive poisons, which act instantly; (2) irritant
poisons, which produce inflamation of the tissues; and (3)
narcotic poisons, which produce unconsciousness.
Treatment. Send for a physician at once; in the mean
time try to produce vomiting to expell the poison, and give
an antidote for the poison. To produce vomiting, run
the finger down the throat or give an emetic. A good
emetic is a mixture of J^ pint warm water and a table-
spoonful of mustard or salt, or plenty of warm water is
often effective.
An acid and an alkaline substance neutralize each other
when put together; so in case of acid poisoning give an
alkali (baking soda); and in the case of alkali poisoning,
give an acid (dilute vinegar) for an antidote.
Antidotes injure the inside of the stomach and must be
followed by some substance like milk, white of egg, or
EMERGENCIES AND FIRST AID 359
oil. Stir the whites of four eggs in a quart of water and
make the patient drink as much as he can.
POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES
Corrosive poisons
Acids Carbolic Give an emetic, an alkali; as,
Nitric lime water or a solution of
Sulphuric soda and water. Follow
Hydrochloric later with white of eggs.
Oxalic
Alkalis
Ammonia Give vinegar and water, or
Lye lemon juice. Large dose
Potash of oil or milk to form an
emulsion.
Irritant poisons
Rat poison Give an emetic, warm water
Arsenic and mustard. Follow with
Paris green milk or white of eggs.
Iodine
Phosphorus matches
Bichloride of mercury Same, also Epsom salts.
Narcotic poisons
Alcohol
Chloroform Give an emetic. Keep the
Opium patient awake. Give
Morphine strong black coffee. Use
Laudanum artificial respiration and
Aconite stimulation.
Strychnine
Camphor balls
SCORE CARDS FOR JUDGING COOKERY*
BREAD Points
General appearance: Loaf well rounded, not cracked at sides, evenly
baked 5
Baking: Crust even chestnut-brown in color, and about %-'mc\i thick;
center of loaf well done, not soggy 10
Odor: Sweet and nutty 10
Flavor: Sweet and nutty, suggesting taste of wheat . ... 30
Grain and Texture: Cut surface should have silky appearance, and be
evenly honey-combed with rather small holes 20
Lightness: A well-risen loaf is about twice the size of the dough when
placed in pan; cut surface elastic to touch . 10
Crumb: Glossy and moist, not gummy when pressed, or dry and crumbly 10
Color: Inside of loaf creamy white, not snowy white 5
Total 100
BAKING POWDER BISCUIT
General appearance: Shape evenly risen to about twice original height,
not conical or sunken; surface not too rough or too smooth and shiny,
no large cracks or holes; color a nice, uniform brown, not speckled or
floury 20
Baking: Crust golden brown, not too thick or thin; inside light ... 25
Lightness: Inside light and white, well baked 25
Texture: Inside moist but not waxy, crumbly, or doughy .... 15
Flavor: That of well-cooked wheat cereal .' 15
Total 100
PASTRY
Baking: Brown top and bottom 35
Texture: Brittle, flaky 40
Flavor: Not greasy; pleasant taste 25
Total 100
DOUGHNUTS
General appearance: Well rounded; baked a good brown; comparatively
smooth 15
Lightness: Light; elastic to the touch 25
Texture: Holes of aeration fine and numerous 25
Flavor: Not too spicy, or oily, or sweet 35
Total 100
WHITE COOKIES
General appearance: Slightly rounded over top and sides; no flour on
surface; edges smooth and unbroken 50
Texture: Holes of aeration small and uniform in size; delicate, seeming to
melt in the mouth; thinner and more brittle than butter cake, but not
as brittle as a wafer 50
Total 100
CAKE
Chocolate
Sponge Cake (loaf, Fruit
Cake unfrosted) Cake
General appearance ..... 10 ... 10 . 10
Lightness 30 ... 30
Texture 25 ... 25
Tenderness 15 ... 10
Baking 20 ... 20
Moisture . .... 5
Flavor ....... 10
Totals 100 ... 100 . , 100
*Arranged from Minnesota Extension Bui. No. 19.
(360)
TABLES
SHOWING NUTRIENTS AND ENERGY OF DIGESTIBLE PORTIONS OF
SOME COMMON FOODS
Kind of food materials
r
1
*
Total indigestible
nutrients
Digestible nutrients
1
!i
fa
Protein
1
Carbohydrates
1
ANIMAL FOOD
Beef, fresh:
Chuck, ribs
Per
cent.
16.3
13.3
20.8
7.2
16.4
4.7
3.4
14.2
18.4
16
19.7
10.7
7.7
13.6
25.9
22.7
29.9
44.7
24.9
Per
cent.
52.6
52.5
43.8
60.7
56.8
53.7
68.3
60.1
51.2
42
41.8
48
17.4
34.8
7.9
47.1
42.4
58.5
40.4
88.3
40.2
63.6
65.5
87.0
90.5
74
11
Per
cent.
1.4
1.6
1.8
1.4
1.2
4.5
1.2
1.1
1.4
2
1.8
1.9
4.4
3.1
5.4
1.2
1.6
.5
.7
.6
5.1
1.9
1.1
.5
.3
1.1
4.9
Per
cent.
15
15.6
13.5
18.4
15.9
25.6
19.5
15
14.6
13.1
13
13.1
8.8
13.8
1.8
13.3
15.6
10.8
9.9
5.8
15.5
21.1
12.7
3.2
3.3
2.4
1
Per
cent.
14.3
16.6
20
12.2
9.3
6.6
7.1
7.5
14
26.9
23
24.6
59.1
31.7
81.9
11.7
17.5
.2
4
1.2
.4
11.5
8.8
3.8
.3
17.6
80.8
Per
cent.
Per
cent.
0.6
.7
.5
.8
.7
5.5
.8
.7
.6
.5
.6
.6
3.1
3.2
2.9
.5
.6
.6
.5
.8
13.9
2
.7
.5
.fi
2.3
Calo
ries.
910
1,025
1,135
890
715
790
695
625
890
1,415
1,245
1,320
2,720
1,635
3,555
765
1,060
220
370
225
325
915
635
310
165
865
3,410
Loin, medium
Ribs .
Round, medium
Shoulder and clod
Beef, dried and smoked
Veal:
Cutlets, round
Leg
Mutton:
Lee
Loin
Pork, fresh:
Loin, chops
Ham
Pork, salted and smoked:
Bacon
Ham
Salt, fat
Poultry:
Fowl
Turkey . .
Fish, fresh:
Cod, dressed
Mackerel
Shellfish:
Oysters, solids
Fish, preserved and canned:
Cod, salt
3.3
5
5.1
4.5
Salmon, canned
Eggs, uncooked
11.2
Dairy products:
Whole milk . . ...
Skim milk
Cream
Butter
(361
362
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
SHOWING NUTRIENTS AND ENERGY OF DIGESTIBLE PORTIONS OP
SOME COMMON FOODS (continued)
Kind of food materials
!
I
Total indigestible
nutrients
Digestible nutrients
s
c>
!l
i a
fi
Calo
ries
1,640
1,800
1,620
1,625
1,635
1,680
1,200
1,925
1,520
160
115
295
100
440
95
190
260
295
150
150
i
I
1
s
rt
1
i
u
1
VEGETABLE FOOD
Cereals, etc.:
Cornrr>fal
Per
cent.
Per
cent.
12.5
7.8
12.9
12.3
12
9.6
35.3
6.8
12.6
70
77.7
62.6
44.2
55.2
94.3
63.3
48.9
58
63.4
85.9
Per
cent.
3.3
5.1
2.9
2.9
3.4
3.8
2.9
4.5
7.9
.8
.6
1.2
.4
1.6
.5
.2
.6
.7
Per
cent.
7.8
14.2
5.8
6.8
9.7
10.3
7.8
8.2
17.5
1.1
1.2
1.5
.6
1.2
.7
.3
.7
.9
.5
.8
Per
cent.
1.7
6.6
.8
.3
.9
1.6
1.2
10.9
1.6
.1
.2
.1
.2
.5
.4
.3
.4
1.1
.1
.5
Per
cent.
73.9
64.9
77.1
77.4
73.6
73.7
52
68.3
57.8
7.3
4.6
14
4.3
20.8
3.7
9.7
12.9
13
7.7
6.3
Per
cent.
.8
1.4
.5
.3
.4
1
.8
1.3
2.6
.7
.7
.6
.3
.7
.4
.2
.5
.3
.3
.5
Oat breakfast food
Rye flour. . ,
Rice
Wheat flour, patent pro
cess
Wheat breakfast food
Bread, etc.:
Bread, white wheat ....
Crackers, cream
Vegetables:
Beans, white, dried
Beets, fresh
20
15
20
50
20
Cabbage
Potatoes
Squash
Sweet potatoes, fresh . . .
Tomatoes
Fruits:
Apples
25
35
25
27
5
Bananas ... ....
Grapes
Oranges
Strawberries.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FOODS
Proteins
Fats
Carbohydrates
Ash
Water
Carbon
Carbon
Carbon
Sulphur
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Phosphorus
Chlorine
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Sulphur
Phosphorus
The two latter
in the pro
portion found
in water.
Sodium
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium
TABLES
FOODS RICH IN VARIOUS NUTRIENTS
363
Protein
Fat
Carbohydrate
Ash
Beans
Bacon
Beets
Eggs
Cheese
Beef suet
Bread
Fruits
Corn
Butter
Candies
Green Vegetables
Eggs
Cheese
Cereals
Milk
Fish
Chocolate
Cornmeal
Lean meat
Cornmeal
Crackers
Lentils
Cream
Dried beans
Nuts
Fat meat
Dried fruits
Oats
Lard
Hominy
Oysters
Peas
Nuts
Oatmeal
Honey
Macaroni
Poultry
Olives
Oatmeal
Protein
Salt pork
Potatoes
Skim milk
Rice
Wheat
Sago
Sugar
Syrups
Tapioca
BOOKS AND BULLETINS FOR REFERENCE AND
SUPPLEMENTARY READING.
(Whit-
GENERAL REFERENCE BOOKS
Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home. Conn. (Ginn.)
Bacteriology, Household. Buchanan. (Macmillan.)
Chemistry of Cooking and Cleaning. Richards and Elliot
comb and Barrows.)
Cookery, Elements of the Theory and Practice of. Williams and
Fisher. (Macmillan.)
Cost of Living. Richards. (Wiley.)
Dietetics, Practical. Thompson. (Appleton.)
Dust and Its Dangers. T. M. Prudden. (Putnams.)
Elementary Household Chemistry. J. F. Snell. (Macmillan.)
Food. Church. (Chapman and Hall, London.)
Foods, Cost of. Richards. (Wiley.)
Food and Dietetics. Hutchison. (McClurg.)
Food and Dietetics. Norton. (American School of Home Economics. >
Home Economics. Parloa. (Century.)
Feeding the Family. Rose. (Macmillan.)
Food Products. Sherman. (Macmillan.)
Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. Sherman. (Macmillan.)
Source Chemistry. Bailey. (Blakiston.)
Laboratory Hand Book for Dietetics. Rose. (Macmillan.)
364 DOMESTIC SCIENCE
COOK BOOKS
Boston Cooking School Cook Book. Farmer. (Little.)
Boston Cook Book. Lincoln. (Little.)
Century Cook Book. Arnold. (Century.)
Food and Cookery for the Sick and Convalescent. Farmer. (Little.)
Home Science Cook Book. Lincoln and Barrows. (Whitcomb.)
New Cook Book and Marketing Guide. Parloa. (Estes.)
Practical Cooking and Serving. Hill. (Doubleday.)
BULLETINS
The following is a list of desirable bulletins relating to Domestic
Science, which may be obtained free by addressing the U. S. Depart
ment of Agriculture or, in some cases, the state experiment station.
Beans, Peas, and Other Legumes as Food Farmers' Bulletin 121
Bread and Bread Making F. B. 389
Butter Making on the Farm F. B. 541
Canned Fruits, Preserves and Jellies F. B. 203
Care of Food in the Home F. B. 375
Cereal Breakfast Foods. F. B. 249
Cheese and Its Economical Use in the Diet F. B. 487
Eggs and Their Uses as Food F. B. 128
Fish as Food F. B. 8S
Food, Care of in the Home F. B. 249
Food Customs and Diet in American Homes
Bui., Office of Experiment Stations.
Food, Functions and Use Bui., Office of Experiment Stations.
Home Canning by One Period Cold-Pack Method F. B. 839
Home Canning Manual for Vegetables and Fruits Natural Emer
gency Food Garden Commission 210-220 Maryland Bldg., Wash
ington, D. C.
Food, Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of F. B. 142
Fruit, Uses of as Food F. B. 293
Habit-Forming Agents. F. B. 393
Jelly and Jelly Making '. . . .F. B. 388
Jelly Making, Principles of Bui., Univ. of 111.
Meat, Economic Use of in the Home F. B. 391
Meat, Market Classes and Grades of 111. Bui. 147
Meat Relative Economy, Composition and Nutritive Value
of the Various Cuts of Beef 111. Bui. 158
Milk, Care and Use of in the Home F. B. 413
Milk, Use of as Food F. B. 363
Mutton and Its Value in the Diet F. B. 526
Nuts and Their Uses as Food F. B. 332
Potatoes and Other Root Crops as Food F. B. 295
Poultry as Food F. B. 182
Sugar as Food F. B. 93
Tea, Cultivation and Manufacture in U. S F. B. 234
Use of Wheat Flour Substitutes in Baking F. B. 955
Vegetables, Canning of F. B. 259
Vegetables, Preparation of for the Table F. B. 256
INDEX
Abbreviations, 21.
Accounts, household, 347.
Acids, as preservatives, 192.
Vegetables, 203.
Air, 15.
As leavening agent, 109.
Albumen, 75, 77.
Albumin, 18, 145.
Ammonia, 7.
Antiseptics, 5.
Apples
Baked, 69.
Dumpling, 129.
Dutch apple cake, 129.
Jelly, 207, 208, 209
Pie, 233.
Sauce, 70.
Tapioca, 277.
Ash constituents of food, 318.
Asparagus, canned, 201.
Asphyxia, 357.
Bacon and liver, 172.
Bacteria, 5, 189.
Bag, for uniform, 2.
Baking
Apples, 69.
Beans, 50.
Bread, 137, 139.
Cake, 264.
Custard, 89.
Denned, 38.
Eggs, 80.
Fish, 246.
Fruits, 69.
Ham, 174.
Macaroni, 60. '
Objects of, 141.
Quick breads, 109.
Baking powdt
Action of, 113.
Composition, 113.
Experiments with, 113.
Kinds, 114.
Baking powder biscuits, 125, 127.
Apple dumplings, 129.
Dutch apple cake, 129.
Peach short cake, 127.
Balanced menu, 324.
Bananas
Banana pie, 237.
Bavarian cream, 296.
Beans, baked, 50.
Ash constituents, 318.
String beans, canned, 201.
Batters, 108.
Drop batters, 218
Thin batters, 108.
Beating, 81.
Beef-
Appearance, 151.
Broiled steak, 153.
Cuts, 151.
Dried, 156.
Extract, 353.
Juice, 353.
Meat loaf, 163.
Panbroiled steak, 157.
Raw beef sandwich, 285.
Roast, 154.
Roast beef gravy, 155.
Stew, 159.
Tea, 354.
What to serve with, 157.
Beets, boiled, 49.
Canned, 201.
Berry pie, 233.
Berry sauce, 279.
Beverages, 101.
Cocoa, 106.
Chocolate, 106.
Coffee, 105.
Lemonade, 107.
Tea, 104.
Biscuit, baking powder, 125, 127
Emergency, 125.
Bleeding from the nose, 355.
From cut, 356.
Blood stains, removing, 8
Blue points, 255.
Bciled dinner, 162.
Boiled dressing, 261
Boiling
Cereals, 54.
Denned, 37.
Macaroni, 60.
Potatoes, 42.
Rice, 55, 56.
Vegetables, 49
(305)
366
INDEX
Bordeaux sauce, 214.
Bouillon, 147.
Braising, denned, 38.
Bread
Baking, 137.
Flour, 123.
Graham, 140.
Making, 135.
Nut bread, 122, 126.
Quick-process, 139.
Slow-process, 139.
Stale, uses, 138.
Steamed Boston brown, 132.
Whole- wheat ,140.
Bread-making, 135.
Suggestions to teachers, 138.
Breaded veal chops, 167.
Bread pudding, 277.
Breakfast, planning, 334, 338.
Breakfast foods, 52.
Broiling, 37.
Broiled fish, 249.
Meat, 153.
Pan broiling, 157, 172.
Brooms, care of, 14.
Broth, mutton, 354.
Brushes, care of, 14.
Buckwheat flour, composition, 52,
53.
Burns, 356.
Butter
Composition, 93.
Manufacture, 93.
Quality of, 93.
Substitutes for, 94.
To cream, 215.
Butterine, 94.
Buttermilk, 94.
Butterscotch, 241
Cabbage
Ash constituents, 318.
Cabbage slaw, 258.
Cake-
Angel food, 266.
Caramel, 273.
Classes, 264.
Cup, 270.
Eggless, 275.
Fig or date, 275.
Gold, 273.
Jelly roll. 267.
Layer, 271.
Lemon queens, 270.
Loaf, 273.
Nut, 274
Plain butter, variations for, 269.
Cake, (continued)
Plain, 269.
Potato, 274.
Spanish chocolate, 27 1.
Spiced loaf, 274.
Sponge, 265.
Sunshine, 266.
White layer, 272.
With butter, 268.
Without butter, 264.
Cake-making
Baking, 265.
Filling for, 272.
Frosting, 268.
Method with butter, 268.
Method without butter, 264.
Things essential, 264.
Calorie portions, 316, 320.
Candy, 239.
Butterscotch, 241.
Chocolate fudge, 240.
Peanut brittle, 240.
Pinoche, 241.
Pulled taffy, 241.
Sea foam, 241.
Canning, 192.
Asparagus, 201.
Beets, 201.
Corn, 201.
Fruit, 189.
Jars for, 193.
Methods, 194.
Peaches, 196.
Pears, 196.
Peas, 201 .
Plums, 197.
Strawberries, 197.
String beans, 201.
Tomatoes, 201.
Vegetables, 198.
Caper sauce. 247.
Carbohydrates
Cereals, 52, 58.
Described, 19, 21.
Fruits, 67.
Heat value of, 315.
Potatoes, 37.
Starch, 38.
Sugar, 238.
Vegetables, 44.
Carbon, 27.
Carbon dioxide, 15.
As leavening agent, 109,
Carpets, care of, 14.
Carrots, boiled, 49.
Catsup, tomato, 214.
Cauliflower and tomatoes, 49.
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
367
Cereals
Composition, 52.
Cooking, 54.
Food value, 53.
Left-overs of, 57.
Charlottes
Charlotte Russe, 295.
Pineapple or strawberry, 296.
Chartreuse of rice, 163.
Cheese, 94.
Baked with macaroni, 60.
Cheese balls, 100.
Composition, 97.
Cooking, 98.
Cottage cheese, 99.
Food value, 97.
Grating, 60.
Kinds, 95.
Manufacture, 95.
Souffle, 99, 186.
Cheese straws, 99.
Welsh rarebit, 100.
Chicken-
Broiled, 178.
Croquettes, 227.
Cutting up, 177.
Dressing, 175.
Food value, 177.
Fricasseed, 179.
Fried, 178.
Jellied, 179.
Pie. 179.
Roast, 177.
Selection, 175.
Stuffing, 176.
Chocolate, 104.
Cake, 271.
Cream pudding, 2
Frosting, 272.
Ice Cream, 293.
Pie, 237.
Sauce, 279.
Cinnamon rolls, 142.
Citron, 276.
Clams, 255.
Cleansing agents, 6.
Clover leaf rolls, 142
Coal as fuel, 29.
Cocktails, fruit, 71.
Cocoa, 104.
Stains, 8.
Codfish puff, 251.
Condiments, 210.
Coffee-
Adulteration, 103.
After-dinner, 106.
Care of, 103.
Coffee, (continued)
Composition, 103.
Filtered, 105.
Food value, 103.
Kinds, 103.
Percolated, 106.
Coffee stains, removing, 8,
Coffee cake, 142.
Cold storage, 77, 191.
Combining mixtures, 81.
Combustion, 27.
Conserve, 206.
Big plum, 208.
Consomme, 147
Cookies-
Brownies, 219.
Chocolate, 217, 218.
Norwegian, 216.
Oatmeal, 219.
Peanut, 219.
Proportions, 215.
Rocks, 218.
Sour-milk, 216.
Sugar, 215.
Variation, 215.
Cooking
Cereals, 54
Defined, 37.
Methods, 37, 153
Objects of, 37, 39, 141, 146.
Puddings, 276.
Rice, 55.
Starch, 39.
Uniform for, 1.
Vegetables, 47.
Corn
And pimentos, 50
Bread, 119.
Canning, 201.
Composition, 45, 52, 117.
Cream of corn soup, 74.
Creole green corn, 50.
Food value, 118.
Fritters, 223.
Kinds, 117.
On cob, 49.
Oysters, 223.
Pop corn balls, 242.
Scalloped corn, 186.
Corn products, 118.
Cornmeal, 118.
Mush, 57.
Muffins, 119.
Cornstarch, 118.
Cottage cheese, 99.
Cranberry sauce, 70.
368
INDEX
Cream, 92, 291.
Bavarian, 296.
Composition, 92.
Cream pie, 237.
Standard, 92.
Whipping, 92, 295.
Creaming
Codfish, 252.
Creamed potatoes, 43.
Finnan haddie, 253.
Oysters, 256.
Cream of wheat, 56.
Croquettes
Chicken, 227.
Fish, 253.
Meat, 227.
Methods of making, 226.
Potato, 227.
Rice, 228.
Salmon, 227.
Crumbs, to butter, 60.
Croutons, 74.
Crown roast, 169.
Cucumber pickles, 213.
Currants, to clean, 276.
Currant jelly, 207.
Custards, 292.
Baked, 89.
Caramel, 90.
Chocolate, 90.
Custard pie, 236.
Soft custard, 90.
Souffle, 90.
Cutlets, lobster, 228.
Cutting, 82.
Date muffins, 116.
Desserts, 334.
Cold, 280.
Frozen, 288, 295.
Frozen puddings, 291.
Hot, 276.
Ices, 286.
Ice creams, 290.
Dietaries, 314.
For the sick, 350.
Standard, 317, 325.
Digestion, 62.
Outline of, 64.
Process of, 62.
Purpose of, 62.
Relation to cookery, 63.
Dining room, 298.
Dinner, 305, 332, 340.
Aids for menus, 340.
Boiled, 162.
Formal, 310.
Dinner, (continued)
Informal, 303.
Dishes, 300.
Washing, rules, 25.
Disinfecting, 5.
Double boiler, 54.
Dough
Baking powder biscuit, 127, 129.
Bread, 136.
Cookie, 215.
Defined, 108.
Kinds, 108.
Soft, 123.
Doughnuts,
Chocolate, 222.
Potato, 223.
Sour-milk, 222.
Drawn butter sauce, 247.
Dressings, for fish, 247.
For oysters, 178.
For salads, 261.
Dried beef, 156.
Dried fruits, 67, 69.
Dumplings, 161.
Apple dumplings, 129.
Dust, 4.
Dust cloths, care of, 14.
Dutch apple cake, 129.
Earache, 357.
Eggs
A la goldenrod, 85.
A la Suisse, 79.
Baked, 80.
Beating, 81.
Care of, 76.
Composition, 75.
Cooking, 78.
Eggnog, 353.
Eggs in a nest, 353.
Food value, 76.
Hard-cooked, 79.
Omelets, 82.
Poached, 79.
Preserving, 76.
Scrambled, 84.
Soft-cooked, 78.
Structure, 75.
Stuffed, 80.
Testing, 76.
Eggplant, 51.
Egg sandwich, 285.
Eggless cake, 275.
Electric appliances, 35.
Electric stove, 34.
Emergencies and first aid, 355.
English style of serving, 302.
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
369
Extract, beef, 353.
Eye trouble, 357.
Factors of meal plans, 326.
Climate, 327.
Harmony, 328.
Occupation, 327
Variety, 329
Fainting, 355.
Fats-
Butter fat, 93.
Cream, 92.
Clarifying, 220.
Defined, 21.
Food value, 220.
Heat value, 315.
Meat, 145.
Trying out, 220.
Filling, for cakes, 272.
For sandwiches, 282.
Fire, 28, 30.
Fireless cooker, 35.
First aid, 333.
Fish
And macaroni, 253.
Baked, 246.
Balls, 252.
Boiled, 250.
Broiled, 249.
Composition, 243.
Cooking, 245.
Creamed codfish, 252.
Creamed Finnan haddie, 253.
Croquettes, 253.
Dressing for, 247.
Finnan haddie, 253.
Food value, 244.
Fried, 249.
Kinds of, 243.
Preparing, 245.
Sauted, 249.
Salmon mousse, 250.
To tell fresh, 244.
Using left-overs, 252.
Floating Island, 280.
Floors, 13.
Flour-
Composition, 124.
Kinds and grades, 123, 124.
Manufacture, 123.
To tell good flour, 124.
Folding, 81.
Foods
Calorie portions, 320.
Classes, 18.
Composition, 19.
Defined, 18.
Foods, (continued)
Functions, 19.
How digested, 62.
Heat value, of 315.
Nutritive ratio, 317.
Requirements for the body, 314.
Selection, 314.
Frappe, 286.
Freezer, ice cream, 287.
Freezing, 287.
Directions for, 287.
Preserving by, 190.
French dressing, 261.
Fricasseeing, chicken, 179.
Defined, 38.
Fritter batter, 223.
Fritters, corn, 223.
French toast, 80.
Frogs' legs, fried, 250.
Frost bites, 357.
Frosting, 268.
Chocolate, 272
Cooked, 272.
Orange, 270.
Uncooked, 26*7.
Frozen mixtures, 286, 295.
Fruits
Canning, 192.
Composition, 67.
Cocktails, 71.
Cooking, 69.
Food value, 68.
Rules for eating, 68.
Selection for canning, 194.
Fruit ice cream, 290.
Fruit roll, 126.
Fruit stains, removing, 8.
Frying
Cautions in, 222.
Chicken, 178.
Cooked mixtures, 226.
Defined, 38.
Fish, 249.
Oysters, 256.
Tests for temperature, 221.
Uncooked mixtures, 220.
Fudge, 240, 241.
Fuels, 29.
Garbage can, care of, 12.
Gas as fuel, 30.
Gasoline, 30.
Gas range, 32.
Gelatin
Directions for use, 180.
Effects of water on, 180.
Food value, 180.
370
INDEX
Gelatin, (continued'}
Lemon jelly, 181.
Meat jellies, 183.
Orange jelly, 182.
Pistachio salad. 182.
Snow pudding, 182.
Source and manufacture, 180.
Tomato jelly salad, 182.
Germs (see Bacteria).
Gingerbread, soft molasses, 121.
Hot water, 122.
Ginger snaps, 217.
Glucose, 118.
Graham flour, 123.
Graham muffins, 119.
Grape, fudge, 209.
Grapes, spiced, 208.
Grass stains, removing, 8.
Gravy, roast beef, 155.
Greens, 259.
Griddle cakes, 111.
Gruel, barley, 352.
Cracker, 352.
Ham, baked, 174:
Broiled, 172.
What to serve with, 172.
Hamburg steak, 158.
Hard sauce, 130.
Hash, browned, 162.
Heat, 27.
Effect of on albumen, 77.
Heat value of food, 315.
Heat stroke, 355.
Himmels futter, 278.
Hollandaise sauce, 247.
Home management, 346.
Hominy, 118.
Household accounts, 347.
Housekeepers' directions, 3, 24.
Ice box, care of, 10.
Ice for freezing, 287.
Ices 286.
Lemon, 288.
Orange, 289.
Orange milk sherbet, 289.
Three-of-a-kind sherbet, 289.
Ice creams, 290.
Caramel, 293.
Chocolate, 293.
Classes, 290.
Peppermint, 294.
Shaping, 292.
Strawberry, 294.
Vanilla, 293.
Infection, 356.
Ink stains, removing, 8.
Intermittent cooking, 198.
Invalid cooking, 350.
Dietaries, 350.
Rules for serving, 35 1.
Jam, 206.
Raspberry, 208.
Jars for canning, 193.
Jelly (fruit), 202.
Apple, 207.
Apple and raspberry, 209.
Causes of poor, 205.
Currant, 207.
Plum and apple, 208.
Quince and apple, 208.
Jelly (gelatin), 180.
Lemon, 181.
Orange, 182.
Jelly making, 202.
Extracting fruit juice, 203.
Proportions for, 204.
Utensils for, 203.
Jelly, oatmeal, 352.
Jelly roll, 267.
Junket, 183.
Kerosene, 7, 29, 35.
Lamb, 164.
Chops, 166.
Stew, 161.
Roast, 167.
What to serve with, 166.
Layer cakes, 271.
Leavening agents, 108.
Left-overs
Cereal, 57.
For luncheon, 336.
Meat, 159.
Lemon
Ice, 288.
Jelly, 181.
Lemonade, 107.
Pie, 236.
Sauce, 130.
Linens, 299.
Liver and bacon, 172.
Lobsters, 255.
Lobster a la Newburg, 257.
Lobster cutlets, 228.
Luncheons, 307, 336.
Planning, 336.
Service at, 307.
Without and with maid, 307,
308.
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
371
Macaroni, 59.
Composition, 52, 60.
Cooking, 60.
Manufacturing, 59.
Macaroni and dried beef, 61.
Maitre d' hotel butter, 155.
Marketing, 342.
Marmalade, 206.
Mayonnaise dressing, 262.
Measures, table of, 22.
Measuring, directions, 22.
Meats-
Beef, 151.
Care of, 153.
Composition, 145.
Croquettes, 227.
Food value, 146.
Lamb, 164.
Loaf, 163.
Sandwich, 285.
Mutton, 164.
Objects of cooking, 146.
Structure, 144.
Substitutes, 184.
Veal, 164.
Meat jellies, 183.
Meat soups, 147.
Menus, 326.
Balanced, 324.
Foundation, 331.
Rules for building, 330.
Meringue, 236.
Mildew, 8.
Milk-
Adulteration of, 87.
Composition, 86.
Condensed, 89.
Food value, 87.
Pasteurization, 88, 353.
Purchase and care, 88.
Souring, 87.
Mince meat, 234.
Mineral matter, 21, 146.
Milk products, 92.
Composition, 93, 97.
Mint sauce, 168.
Moisture in food, 191.
Molds, 5.
Mousse, 291.
Neapolitan, 296.
Salmon, 250.
Muffins, 114.
Blueberry, 115.
Cornmeal, 119.
Date, 116.
Eggless, 119.
Graham, 119.
Muffins, (continued)
Invalid, 115.
Plain egg, 114.
Rice, 115.
Mushroom sauce, 158.
Mustard, 173.
Mutton, 164.
Broth, 354'
Cuts, 165, 166.
What to serve with, 166.
Neapolitan mousse, 296.
Noodle soup, 150.
Nut bread, 126, 140.
Brown nut bread, 122.
Nut Cake, 274.
Nut ice cream, 291.
Nutritive ratio, 317.
Oatmeal
Ash constituents, 318.
Food value, 52, 53.
Oatmeal cookies, 219.
Oatmeal mush, 57.
Oatmeal jelly, 352.
Oils, denned, 21.
For salads, 260.
Source, 220.
Oil stove, 35.
Oleomargarine, 94
Omelets, 82.
Fancy, 82.
French, 84.
Puffy, 82.
Orange
Ash constituents, 318.
Orange ice, 289.
Orange jelly, 182.
Oven temperature for
Quick breads, 110.
Oxidation, 15, 28.
Oysters
Creamed, 256.
Fried, 256.
Food value, 254.
Oyster dressing, 178.
Oyster stew, 256.
Oysters in the half shell, 257.
Preparing, 255.
Source, 254.
Scalloped, 257.
Packing a freezer, 288.
Pan broiling, 38, 157.
Panbroiled steak, 157.
Parfait, 291.
Pantry, care of, 12.
372
INDEX
Parker house rolls, 142,
Pasteurizing, 88, 353.
Pastry
Essentials, 229.
Food value, 235.
Pastry flour, 123.
Plain pastry, 232.
Peaches, canned, 196.
Peach pickles, 213.
Peanut cookies, 219.
Peanut brittle, 240.
Pears, canned, 196.
Pickled, 213.
Peas, canned, 51, 201.
Cream of pea soup, 74.
Fresh, 51.
Pectin, 202.
Peppermint cream, 294.
Pickle, sweet, for fruit, 212.
Sweet, for vegetables, 212.
Pickles-
Cucumber, 213.
Kinds, 211.
Materials for, 211.
Oil, 214.
Pickled green tomatoes, 212.
Sweet peach, 213.
Sweet pickled pears, 213.
Watermelon, 213.
Pickling, 210.
Directions for, 212.
Pies-
Apple, 233.
Banana, 237.
Berry, 233.
Chocolate, 237.
Cocoanut, 237.
Cream, 237.
Custard, 236.
Lemon, 236.
Making the pastry, 229.
Mince, 234.
Mock cherry, 233.
One-crust, 232.
Pumpkin, 237.
Rhubarb, 233.
Pigs in blanket, 174.
Pinoche, 241.
Plums, canned, 197.
Plum and apple jelly, 208.
Plumbing, 9.
Poisons, 358.
Pop corn, 117.
Pop corn balls, 242.
Pop-overs, 110.
Pork-
Appearance, 170.
Baked ham, 174.
Broiled ham, 172.
Cuts, 170.
Food value, 170, 307.
Fried pork, 174.
Liver and bacon, 172.
Pigs in blanket, 174.
Pork chops, 173.
What to serve with, 172.
Potatoes
Ash constituents, 318.
Au gratin, 43.
Baked, 36.
Boiled, 42.
Creamed, 43.
Cream of potato soup, 74.
Croquettes, 227.
Delmonico, 43.
French fried, 228.
Glaced sweet, 43.
Julienne, 228.
Mashed, 42.
Potato cakes, 42, 274.
Riced, 42.
Scalloped, 185.
Stuffed, 36.
Sweet, potatoes, 42, 43.
Poultry
Broiled chicken, 178.
Chicken pie, 179.
Cutting, 177.
Dressing, 175.
Food value, 177.
Fricasseed, 179.
Fried, 178.
Selection, 175.
Stuffing, 176.
Trussing, 177.
What to serve with, 177,
Preserving
Eggs, 76.
Fruit, 189.
Methods, 190.
Reasons, 190.
Preservatives, 5, 191.
Protein
Beef, 151, 157, 159.
Classes, 18, 145.
Eggs, 75.
Fish, 243.
Gelatin, 180.
Heat value of 315,
Lamb, 164.
Meat, 144.
Milk, 86.
D'OMESTIC SCIENCE
373
Protein, (continued)
Mutton, 164.
Pork, 170.
Shellfish, 254.
Veal, 164.
Prunes, stewed, 70.
Prune whip, 281.
Puddings
Apple tapioca, 277.
Bread, 277.
Chocolate cr.eam, 280.
Cooking of, 276.
Frozen, 291.
Himmels f utter, 278.
Plain steamed, 278.
Preparing materials for, 276.
Queen's pudding, 277.
Snow ball, 278.
Snow, 182.
Suet, 134, 277.
Yorkshire, 155.
Punch, 286.
Quick breads, 108, 113, 117, 121,
123.
Baking of, 109.
Batters and doughs, defined,
108.
Corn bread, 119.
Gingerbread, 121.
Griddle cakes, 111.
Materials for, 108.
Mixing, 109.
Muffins, 114, 119.
Pop-overs, 110.
Waffles, 112.
Quince and apple jelly, 208,
Raisins, to clean, 276.
Ranges, coal, 30.
Gas, 32.
Raspberry jam, 208.
Refrigeration, 190.
Rhubarb pie, 233.
Rice
Boiled, 56.
Composition, 52, S3.
Croquettes, 228.
Food value, 55.
Muffins, 115.
Steamed, 56.
Roasts
Beef, 154.
Chicken, 177.
Crown, 169.
Lamb, 167.
What to serve with, 157.
Roasting, defined, 37.
Meat, 153.
Rocks, 218.
Rolls-
Cinnamon, 142.
Clover leaf, 142.
German coffee cake, 142.
Parker House, 142.
Roll lesson, suggestions to teachers
141.
Rosettes, Swedish, 225.
Russian style of serving, 302.
Rust, iron, removing, 7.
Rye flour, food value, 52, 318.
Salads-
Classes of, 260.
Essentials for, 259
Greens for, 259.
Oils for, 260.
Pistachio, 182.
Points in favor of, 259.
Salad combinations, 263.
Tomato jelly, 182.
What to serve with, 261.
Salmon, croquettes, 227=
Loaf, 251.
Mousse, 250.
Souffle, 186.
Sal soda, 6.
Salt, as a condiment, 210.
As a preservative, 192.
Sandwiches
Chopped meat, 285.
Combinations for, 283.
Egg, 285.
Materials for, 282.
Method of making, 282.
Raw beef, 285.
Serving, 283.
Shapes of, 282.
Sauces
Apple, 70.
Berry, 279.
Bordeaux, 214.
Caper, 247.
Chocolate, 279.
Cranberry, 70.
Drawn butter, 247.
Foaming, 279.
For fish, 247.
For puddings, 279.
Hard, 130, 279.
Hollandaise, 247.
Lemon, 130.
Mint, 168.
Mushroom, 158.
374
INDEX
Sauces, (continued)
Plain, 279.
Tartar, 248.
Tomato, 50, 61, 84.
Vanilla, 130.
White, 48.
Sauteing, defined, 38.
Scalloped dishes, 184.
Corn, 186.
In menu, 340.
Oysters, 257.
Tomatoes, 185.
Sea foam, 241.
Seasoning, for soups, 148.
Serving, rules for, 303.
Serving the sick, 351.
Styles of 303.
With a maid, 308.
Without a maid, 303.
Servants, 347.
Setting the table, 301.
Shellfish-
Clams, 255.
Composition, 243,
Lobsters, 255, 257.
Oysters, 254, 256.
Shrimps, 256, 258.
Sherbets, 286.
Orange milk, 289.
Sherbets, 289.
Three-of-a-kind, 289.
Shortcakes
Berry, 128.
Peach, 127.
Shrimps, 256.
Shrimp wiggle, 258.
Sick, food for, 328.
Silverware, 300.
Use of, 311.
Sink, care of, 11.
Skimmilk, 92.
Smoke, as a preservative, 192.
Soap, 7.
Soda, 121.
Souffle, 185.
Cheese, 99, 186.
Custard, 90.
Salmon, 186.
Soups
Bouillon, 149.
Brown soup stock, 149.
Clearing, 149.
Cream of corn, 74.
Cream of pea, 74.
Cream of tomato, 74.
Food value of, 73, 147.
Soups, (continued)
For dinner, 334.
Kinds of, 72, 147.
Proportions, for, 73, 148.
Stock soups, 147.
Vegetable soups, 150.
Without stock, 73.
Southern spoon bread, 120.
Spaghetti, 59.
Spices, 210.
As preservatives, 192.
Spiced grapes, 208..
Sponge, 136.
Stains, removal of, 7.
Starch, 38.
Cornstarch, 118.
Steak-
Broiled, 153.
Hamburg, 158.
Panbr oiled, 157.
Steam, as leavening agent, 109.
Steamed Boston brown bread, 132.
Steaming
Cereals, 54.
Defined, 37.
Mixtures, 131.
Puddings, 276.
Sterilization, 88, 192, 198.
Stewing
Beef stew, 159.
Defined, 37, 159.
Fruits, 69.
Lamb stew, 161.
Prunes, 70.
Rice, 56.
Stirring, 81.
Storing canned goods, 199.
Strawberry
Ash constituents, 318.
Canned, 197.
Ice cream, 294.
Stuffing, 178.
Suet pudding, 277.
Sugar
As a preservative, 191.
Effect of heat on, 239.
Food value, 239.
Kinds, 238.
Manufacture, 238.
Sugar beets, 238.
Sugar cane, 238.
Sweet corn, 117.
Sweet potatoes, 41, 42.
Baked, 43.
DOMESTIC SCIENCE
375
Table-
Appointments, 298.
Care, 12.
Etiquette, 310.
Selection, 339.
Setting, 301.
tablecloth, 300.
Tapioca, apple, 277.
Tea-
Adulterations, 102.
Beef tea 354.
Food value, 102.
Kinds, 101.
Sources, 101.
Teachers, bread-making suggestions,
138.
Roll lesson suggestions, 142.
Timbales, Swedish, 224.
Timetables for cooking
Bread, 137.
Cereals, 54.
Meat, 153.
Quick breads, 110.
Vegetables, 48.
Toast-
Dry, 351.
Milk, 352.
Water, 352.
Traps, 9.
Trichinosis, 170.
Uniform, cooking, 1.
For a waitress, 302.
Vanilla sauce, 130.
Veal, 164.
Birds, 168.
Breaded veal chops, 167.
Cuts, 164.
Loaf, 169.
What to serve with, 166.
Vegetables, 44.
Ash constituents, 318.
Canning, 198.
Classes, 44.
Vegetables, (continued)
Composition, 44.
Cooking, 47.
Food value, 46.
Selection, 47, 198.
Vegetable soup, 150.
Ventilation, 16.
Vermicelli, 60.
Vinegar, 210.
Waffies, 112.
Waitress work, 302.
Duties, of waitress, 308.
Water, 16, 146.
As a cleansing agent, 6.
Composition, 16.
Water ices, 286.
Water glass, 77.
Watermelon cocktail, 71.
Watermelon pickles, 213.
Welsh rarebit, 100.
Wheat, 58.
Breakfast food, 53.
Cream of wheat, 56.
Flour, 123.
Food value, 53, 59.
Structure, 58.
White sauces, 48.
Medium white, 48.
Proportion with scalloped dish
es, 184.
Thick white, 48.
Thin white, 48.
Whole- wheat bread, 140.
Wood, as fuel, 29.
Woodwork, care of, 13, 14.
Yams, 41.
Yeast, 5, 133.
Action of, 134.
Experiments with, 134.
Forms of, 133.
Yorkshire pudding, 155.
Zweiback, 143.
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