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Dutch New York. Manners and Customs of New Am-
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f,
PREFACE
NUMEROUS as are the books that have been
written about this MetropoHs of the West-
ern Hemisphere, I venture to hope that there
is room for one more, especially one that deals with
the life, hardships, struggles, manners, customs, joys,
sorrows, beliefs, superstitions, and worldly possessions
of the first white settlers in New Netherland. In the
following pages I have tried to reproduce the daily life
of the Dutch burgher in New Amsterdam, rising with
him in the morning; describing his house and garden
or farm, his furniture, and his costume ; accompanying
him through the day to his morning prayers, his break-
fast, his counting-house, his midday meal, his after-
noon recreation, his evening meal and devotions ; ac-
companying him also to church and to the tavern;
describing his family — christenings, courtships, wed-
dings, and funerals, as well as the great festivals of the
year — Saint Nicholas' Eve, New Year's Day, Twelfth
Night, Shrovetide, May Day, Whitsuntide, Saint Mar-
tin's Eve, the Kermis, and other merry-making, I
have also described his wife's activities in the house-
hold, her cleaning, marketing, and cooking. I have
also fully depicted the condition of domestic servitude
and schooling in the colony. I have not devoted much
space to identifying old landmarks, or describing the
courses of the original streets and canals, or the sites
of many of the homes mentioned in the text. This
z'
vi PREFACE
has been done more or less exhaustively by others who
are well versed in such antiquarian lore. For my pur-
pose it is sufficient that the reader should know that
during the period that I treat of Dutch life here was
concentrated in a small area on Manhattan Island be-
low Trinity Church, the principal points of interest
of which were the Fort, including the Church and
windmill, the Strand, and the City Tavern at the
Ferry.
The writer who tries to reconstitute the life of the
original Dutch settlers in New York is seriously handi-
capped by the almost ineradicable impression left in the
mind of the casual reader by the brilliant author of
Knickerbocker's History of New York, who belabored
the Dutch Governors and their charges with a bludgeon
of ridicule. The effect of that entertaining work is
that it is hard to convince anyone but a student of the
old days that the Dutchman is worthy of anything
more than derision, or a half-contemptuous and languid
interest at most. Even some of those who claim
descent from the Dutch of the Seventeenth Century
speak of the manners and customs of their forefathers
half apologetically. I hope that a perusal of the fol-
lowing pages will satisfy the candid reader that so far
from the average Dutchman in New Amsterdam being
an uncivilized boor, he compared very favorably, in all
that civilization means, with the contemporary middle
classes of England, France, or any other European
country. The Dutchman here was a transplanted
Dutchman, pure and simple. He did not come into
a foreign community like an immigrant of the present
day and have to adjust himself to alien speech and
customs; he was transplanted with his family to a
tract of land on the edge of a big waterway where he
could dig his canals and live under physical conditions
PREFACE vii
which did not differ materially from those he had left.
He spoke no language but his own, and he was ruled
in accordance with the laws of the States-General, occa-
sionally slightly modified to suit the convenience of
a monopolistic trading-company. His bodily and spir-
itual needs were ministered to by Dutch professional
men who had received their diplomas in Holland and
were authorized to practice here by the Directors of
the West India Company. He brought with him Dutch
furniture, and the Company's stores supplied him with
Dutch manufactures of clothing, implements, and uten-
sils. His houses and barns were built and his table
was supplied by Dutch masons, bricklayers, carpenters,
glaziers, millers, brewers, and bakers. Not satisfied
with mere comfort, his rooms were adorned with the
productions of the contemporary Dutch Great and
Little Masters. His gardens were as bright with tulips
and other flowers as those of his brother in Amsterdam ;
his table was more plentifully supplied with game, fish,
poultry, fruits, and vegetables ; and he very soon could
afford the porcelains and lacquers that were pouring
into Holland by way of the Spice Islands, and he soon
found a way to help himself direct to the products of
Oriental looms and lathes by piratical measures. Silver
plate adorned his sideboard, and Delft and porcelain
brightened the shelves and tops of his cabinets, brackets,
and cornices.
When fully dressed in his silks, satins, velvets, and
rich cloths, an idea of his appearance may be best
obtained from contemporary Dutch portraits by Hals,
Bol, Van der Heist, Ravesteyn, and Rembrandt. His
wife and daughters at christenings, betrothals, wed-
dings, and other festivities were resplendent in jeweled
headgear(of their native fashions), ear-rings, brooches,
necklaces, chatelaines, breast-hooks, buttons, chains,
viii PREFACE
watches, rings, laces, furs, silks, satins, fans, and fine
linen.
The burghers lived well at home and entertained one
another royally in the taverns. There is a record of at
least one dinner shared among cronies at the City
Tavern at $80 a cover. We have records of other
dinners of which the cost is not given. Fortunately
for us, the bill of this one was disputed and so the land-
lord went to court. Tavern revelry in the town called
forth many a reproving ordinance, and many a riotous
gang of night-hawks was haled into court by the
Sellout. Personal violence and bloodshed in conse-
quence of excessive indulgence was not infrequent
among the upper classes and was very common among
the lower orders. Drunkenness was scarcely a re-
proach. On one occasion it was at least a blessing in
disguise, namely, when at the Governor's instigation
a collection was taken up from half-seas-over wedding-
guests which was sufficient to start the building of the
church of the Fort. We must conclude that New Am-
sterdam was indeed a thirsty town, when in 1646 we
learn that one in every four of its inhabitants was en-
gaged in the business of selling strong liquor!
It is noticeable that a number of the fair sex in New
Amsterdam were tavern-keepers and tapsters.
Valiant as the Dutch were as toss-pots, they were
probably matched by the English rake-hells, one of
whom appears as early as 1672. Of him it is
chronicled :
Another disaster about 12 dayes since befell a young
man in this towne, by name one Mr. Wright, a one-eyed
man and a muff-maker by trade, who drinking hard upon
rum one evening, with some friends, begann a health of a
whole pint at a draught, which he had noe sooner done
but downe hee fell and never rose more, which prodigy
PREFACE ix
may teach us all to have a care how wee drink, in imita-
tion of that good old lesson, Fcelix quern faciunt, etc.
Shrovetide seems to have been a week in which the
license of the Italian Carnival was matched here. Ex-
cise privileges were largely extended during this fes-
tival, to the great scandal of the sober-minded. Thus,
in 1655:
Fiscal makes known to the Court that apparently some
of the Company's soldiers and servants will ask the Court
for permission to tap, and as they will thereby be led into
debauchery and many irregularities will occur, he requests
the Court will be pleased not to grant their application.
Shrovetide was the Saturnalia of the lower classes,
during which they indulged in such gentle and joyous
pastimes as all kinds of racing, and ball-games in the
streets. Pulling the Goose, etc., even in defiance of
stringent ordinances. The youth of the town were
sadly led astray by their turbulent elders, and some of
their choice indulgences consisted of cutting kocckies,
or stakes, out of the fences for bonfires and " halloing
after Indians in Pearl Street," which pleasures were
strictly prohibited in 1660.
The chief pleasures of the women seem to have
consisted in gossip and slander. The good wives of
the day, like their English sisters, abused one another
in the purest Billingsgate. Innumerable are the cases
that come into court in which one woman complains
of defamation of character by another. In nine cases
out of ten the affair is settled by the offender declaring
that she knows nothing of the complainant but what is
virtuous and honorable, and begging pardon of God,
the complainant, and the honorable Court.
In the following pages considerations of space have
deterred me from describing the military establishment
X PREFACE
here and its regulation ; or the civic guards, the watch,
and the poHce; or the courts and the administration
of justice. The question of crimes and punishment,
however, must not be entirely ignored.
It would seem that the most serious misdemeanor of
which a man could be guilty was speaking ill of those
in authority. The penalties inflicted for this were far
more severe than those for felonious assault; for in-
stance, in 1642, the penalty for drawing a knife and
wounding was fifty florins or three months' labor in
chains with the negroes. Five years later the penalty
was raised to three hundred guilders. This was small
in comparison with the punishment inflicted for lese-
majcstc in 1660, when Walewyn van der Veen said in
Allard Anthony's hearing that the magistrates were
only fools and simpletons. He was condemned to re-
pair the injury honorably and profitably, — honorably,
by praying with uncovered head pardon of God and
Justice ; profitably, with a fine of twelve hundred
guilders. Walewyn preferred imprisonment.
In 1638, it was ordered that court should be held
every Thursday, and that persons guilty of adultery,
perjury, calumny, theft, and other immoralities should
be punished. In 1643, the burgher guard was regu-
lated and fines were provided for taking the name of
God in vain, for traducing a comrade, for being drunk
on guard, for discharging a gun without orders after
daybreak, and for being absent without leave.
Various punishments were inflicted for various
crimes. Sometimes different punishments were in-
flicted for the same crime. For example, for drawing
a knife in 1638, Gysbert van Beyerland was sentenced
to be ducked three times from the yard-arm of the
Hope, and receive three blows from each of the crew.
The soldiers at the Fort were very frequently un-
PREFACE xi
ruly and turbulent. Desertion was common. Insubor-
dination, absence from duty, drunkenness on parade,
fighting in barracks, street brawling, and wounding
inoffensive citizens were also frequent offenses that
were severely dealt with by the authorities. " Riding
the Wooden Horse " was the usual punishment for
minor offenses. Running the Gauntlet was a punish-
ment sometimes inflicted for a serious crime. The old
lex falionis seems to have been recognized here to
some extent. For example, in 1665, Jan Smedes's
horse ran over and killed Frans van Hooghten's child.
The Schout demanded that the horse be forfeited, and
the parent be satisfied. A few days later Van Hoogh-
ten made the strange request that Jan be ordered " to
keep out of his sight, and not to resort to the Man-
hathans so as to prevent mischief." The order was
issued.
It would appear that " the terrible avengers of the
majesty of law " did not themselves always lead blame-
less lives, judging from a letter written at the Fort in
1673:
Lastly for our city news, lett this satisfy : that t' other
day wee had like to have lost our hangman, Ben Johnson,
for hee being taken in diverse thefts and robberyes con-
victed and found guilty, scap'd his neck through want of
another hangman to truss him up, soe that all the punish-
ment that hee receiv'd for his 3 yeares roguery in thieving
and stealing (which was never found out till now) was
only thirty-nine stripes at the whipping-post, loss of an
ear and banishment.
Torture was resorted to on more than one occasion
in the case of accused persons who refused to confess.
On one occasion a sailor whose crime consisted in steal-
ing a table-cloth from a tavern was put on the rack
before he confessed.
xii PREFACE
Capital crimes were variously punished. In 1638,
Jan Gysbertsen for the murder of Gerrit Jansen was
sentenced to be punished by the sword until he is dead,
his property and wages confiscated for the benefit of
the widow (one half), the Company (one quarter),
and the public prosecutor (one fourth). In 1666,
Engel Hendricx, " having turned out al motherly affec-
tion, buried [her child] with sods uppon the boddy in
a open field to the mercy of al wild beasts, by which
it evidently appeares she intended throw those means to
murther the same." She was hanged.
After a careful study of the public and private life
of the Seventeenth Century Dutchman, we must come
to the conclusion that he was by no means a character
to be dismissed with a jest or a sneer. He was a
faithful husband and an affectionate father. He was
generally devout, jovial, industrious, thrifty, but lux-
urious in his tastes. He was brave ; but in his deal-
ings with the aborigines and rival settlers he was
oppressive, treacherous, and cruel. Although the term
" honest Dutchman " has passed into a proverb, his
business rectitude must remain a debatable question.
It is not too much to say that every householder in
New Amsterdam was a merchant, or a shop-keeper.
Even the clergy, doctors, and schoolmasters engaged
in trade. It is evident from the Court Records that
sharp practices of all kinds were indulged in almost
universally in the constant barter of which the great
mass of the local trade consisted. The collection of
petty accounts and the settlement of trade disputes took
up by far the greatest amount of the time of the
lower court. The Dutchmen in Fatherland had a
bad reputation in the writings of their fellow-country-
men, particularly on account of their readiness to go
bankrupt, offering their creditors as little as three or
PREFACE xiii
four per cent, till " he lies like a broker " became a
proverb.
The drama of the day teems with biting passages
bearing on the faithlessness, covetousness, meanness,
and dishonesty of the merchant of the day. The
thunder of pulpit oratory was also directed against the
sins of the mercantile class. We must allow, however,
for the exaggerations of both church and stage, and
conclude that the average Dutchman was at least as
scrupulous in his dealings as the merchants of other
nations. That he was able to drive a close bargain,
however, and was up to all the tricks of the trade, we
gather from the following. Miller (1695) says:
As to their wealth and disposition thereto, the Dutch
are rich and sparing; the English neither very rich, nor
too great husbands ; the French are poor, and therefore
forced to be penurious. As to their way of trade and deal-
ing, they are all generally cunning and crafty, but many of
them not so just to their words as they should be.
Madam Knight (1707) writes:
They have Vendues very frequently and make their
Earnings very well by them, for they treat with good
Liquor Liberally, and the Customers Drink as Liberally
and Generally pay for't as well, by paying for that which
they Bidd up Briskly for, after the sack has gone plenti-
fully about, tho' sometimes good penny worths are got
there.
The sources from which I have drawn the material
for this work are the old wills, inventories. Court Rec-
ords, diaries, letters, and documentary colonial his-
tory. For the details of contemporary Dutch life I am
largely indebted to the works of Dr. G. D. J. Schotel,
Hct Maatschoppelijk Leven onser Vaderen in de Zc-
ventiende Ecuiv and Het Oud-Hollandsch Huisgezin
xiv PREFACE
dcr Zcvcnticndc Eeuzv. The miniature house and its
rooms and specimens of porcelain, glass, and watches
in the Rijks jMuseum, Amsterdam, were photographed
especially for this book. My best thanks are due to
Miss Anne van Cortlandt, who kindly permitted me to
have photographs taken of the Van Cortlandt house
and some of the family heirlooms; also to the New
York Historical Society for permission to reproduce
the portrait of Cornelis Steenwyck, Mayor of the city;
and to the Albany Institute and Historical and Art
Society for permission to have photographs taken of
their relics, I also have to thank Mr. Arthur Shadwell
Martin for valuable assistance.
E. S.
New York,
November, 1908.
Page
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
Settlement and Early Conditions of New Nether-
land
Early Voyagers — Block, Hudson, and Christiaensz van Cleef ;
Arrival of the New A'etherlatid ; the Sea-Mcw brings Peter
Minuit; Arrival of the Amis of Amsterdam ; Cornells Hoorn
and Willem Van Hulst; Minuit's Purchase of the Island of
Manhattan; Early Conditions; Letter of Jonas Michaelius;
Wouter Van Twiller, Willem Kieft, and Growth of Colony;
Impressions of Father Jogues ; Montanus's Description of
New Amsterdam ; Adriaen Van der Donck's Description
of the Scenery — Beautiful Woods and "Bush Burning";
Farms and Farmers ; City Lots and Bouweries ; Native Birds ;
Cattle and Pasture Lands; Goats, Dogs, and Pigs; Ordi-
nances Regarding Cleanliness in the Streets.
CHAPTER II
Orchards and Gardens, Houses and Streets of New
Amsterdam 27
The Dutch Love of Gardens and Flowers; the Tulip Mania;
Flowers in New Netherland ; the Company's Garden;
Early Gardeners; Fruit in New Netherland; Vegetables and
Orchards ; the Town and Fort ; the Tavern and Church ; the
First Houses ; Native Brick ; Stuyvesant's Whitehall and
Bouwery; Glass and Leaden Window Frames; Contract to
build an Inn ; a Typical Dwelling ; the Van Cortlandt
and Philipse Houses; Surveyors of Streets and Buildings;
the City Wall ; the Palisades ; Primitive Streets ; Danger
from Fire; the Burgher Watch and Rattle Watch; Lighting
the Street ; Descriptions of New Amsterdam by Governor
Andros, William Byrd, and Madam Knight.
I
xvi CONTENTS
CHAPTER III
Page
Costume 56
Sumptuous Apparel of the Period ; New Amsterdam Shop
Goods ; the Petticoat ; the Rain Dress ; Samars and Night-
rails ; Aprons, Sleeves, Ruffs, and Stomachers ; Headdresses ;
Chatelaines and Gold Head Ornaments ; Jewels of Steen-
wyck, Cristina Cappoens, Margarita Van Varick, Asser Levy,
Peter Marios, and Others; the Dress of Children; Costume
of Farmers' Wives and Daughters ; Coats, Waistcoats, and
Breeches; the Burgomaster's Suit; Wardrobes of Cornells
Steenwyck, Dr. Jacob de Lange, Asser Levy, and Others ;
Shirts and Neckwear ; Stockings and Shoes ; Gloves, Hats,
Wigs, and Cloaks; Swords, Belts, and Canes; a Melancholy
Wardrobe.
CHAPTER IV
Rooms and Furniture 81
Tastes of the Prosperous New Netherlander; Ebony, Ivory,
and Other Oriental Goods ; the Chimney-piece, Bed, Kas,
Cabinet, and Other Furniture; the Voorhiiis, or Fore Room;
Homes of Dr. de Lange, Steenwyck, and Marius ; Typical
English Homes ; Furniture of Rombouts and De Milt.
CHAPTER V
Pictures, Silver, China, Glass, and Curios . . . .
Dutch Painters of Interiors ; Pictures in New Amsterdam ;
Silver of the Period ; Collections of Mrs. Van Varick, Peter
Marius, and Others; Thefts of Silver; Great Use of Pewter;
Porcelain and Earthenware ; Glass ; Miniature Houses and
Curios.
CHAPTER VI
New Amsterdam Housekeeping 120
Breakfast ; Going to Market ; Fish in New Amsterdam ;
Breads, Pasties, Cakes, and Bakers; Setting the Table;
Table Furniture; the Noonday Meal; Favorite Dishes; Tea,
CONTENTS xvii
Page
Coffee, and Chocolate; Winter Evenings; Supper; House-
hold Pets; Foot-warmers and Church Seats; the Dutch
Housewife's Passion for Cleaning; Love of Fine Linen.
CHAPTER VII
Servants and Slaves 14^
Indentured Servants; Masters and Servants; Parental Rights;
Employer's Liability; Cruelty and Abuse; Parental Solici-
tude; Disposal of Children and Servants by Bequest;
Troubles of the Lone Widow and of the Fatherless Chil-
dren; Runaway Servants; Pauper Children from Amster-
dam — not all Desirable Citizens; Negro Slaves; Humane
Treatment; IVlanumission; the Chain Gang; Slave Trade;
Prices of Slaves.
CHAPTER Vni
Education 158
Education in Holland; Provision made for Luucation by the
West India Company ; Adam Roelantsen, the First School-
master of New Amsterdam; Deplorable Condition of Schools;
Early Schoolmasters; Grades of Schools; Lessons and Pun-
ishments; Penmanship; Importance of Languages; General
Illiteracy; Provision by Parents for the Education of their
Children; Latin Schools; ^gidius Luyck; Routine of School
Life; Dancing and Dancing-schools; Libraries and Books.
CHAPTER IX
Religion, Persecution, and Superstition i<
Consolers and Visitors of the Sick; Dominies Michael i us and
Bogardus; the Church in the Fort; Feud between Kieft and
Bogardus; the Company's Rules; Dominies Megapolensis
and Drisius; an Indian Convert; State of Religion in New
Amsterdam and Long Island; Persecution of the Lutherans;
the Troublesome Quakers; Church Service; Blom ministers
to Long Island; Henricus Selyns; Rudolphus Van Varick;,
Governor Andros, Governor Dongan, William Byrd, Miller
and Madam Knight on the Religions in New Amsterdam ;
Sabbath-breaking; Days of Fasting and Prayer ; Superstition
and Witchcraft; Stuyvesant's Relative held for a Witch.
xviii CONTENTS
CHAPTER X
Page
Courtship and Marriage 207
Infant Betrothal; Courtship; Lireaches of Promise; Story of
Maria Verleth; Separation and Divorce; Ceremonies of
Betrothal; Play-youths and Play-maidens; the Bride's
Basket; Publishing the Banns; Receptions and Congratula-
tions; the Bride's Costume; Jewels in New Amsterdam;
Parents' Gifts to Bridegrooms ; the Bridal Escort ; the
Nuptial Banquet; the Bride's Crown; Wedding Outfits;
Weddings in New Amsterdam.
CHAPTER XI
Physicians and Surgeons, Births and Deaths . . . 235
Dignity of the Physician ; the Quack Doctor ; Barber-
surgeons; Ships Doctors and Barbers; First Surgeons of
New Netherland ; Various Activities of the Early Physicians ;
Bill for Nursing; No Cure, No Pay; Doctors' Suits; Plenty
of Employment for Doctors ; the First Hospital on Man-
hattan Island ; Native Medicinal Plants ; Preparations for a
New Member of the Family; the Christening; the Baby's
Costume; the Christening Dinner; Christening Presents;
the Consoler of the Sick; Burial Customs; Mourning and
Funerals; Interments; Pomp and Splendor at Funerals;
Burial of Suicides; Funerals in New Amsterdam.
CHAPTER Xn
Taverns and Excise Laws 264
The Drink Evil ; Importance of the Tavern in Civic Life;
Dutch Taverns Beverages; Drinking Vessels, Dinners, and
Drinking Customs; Feasts in the New Amsterdam City
Tavern; Roistering, Revelling, and Tavern Brawls; Excise
Laws and Court Cases; Sunday Liquor Laws.
CHAPTER Xni
Sports, Festivals, and Pastimes 290
Favorite Games — Kaetzen, Golf, Bowls, Skittles, Ninepins,
and Disc-throwing, Clubbing the Cat; Pulling the Goose;
Bird-cutting; Archery; Racing; Cards, Billiards, and Back-
CONTENTS xix
Page
gammon ; the Indian Game of Senneca ; Saint Nicholas, the
Patron Saint of New Amsterdam; Saint Nicholas Eve;
Christmas, New Year's, and Twelfth Night; Masquerade of
the Three Kings ; Shrove Tuesday and its Pastimes ; May-
day and Whitsuntide ; Saint Martin's Day and Saint Martin's
Goose; Excursions and Picnics; the Game of Sea-carrying;
Kissing ; the " Kissing-bridge " ; Skating and Sleighing ;
Indoor Diversions; the Sausage-making Evening; Cattle
and Other Livestock ; the Kermis.
CHAPTER XIV
Merchants and Trade 321
The Atlantic Passage; Transport Expenses; Names of Ships ;
Ship-building in New Amsterdam; Shipping Regulations;
Bill of Lading ; Volume of Trade ; Indian Trade ; Wampum
and Sewan ; Currency Regulations ; Treatment of Indians ;
Laws against Selling Liquor and Ammunition to the Natives ;
Private Trade ; Smuggling ; Great and Small Burghers ;
Piracy ; Opposition to its Suppression ; Bellomont's Diffi-
culties ; Oriental Wares ; a Merchant's Office ; New Nether-
land Industries; Trade Profits; Shops and Shop Goods;
Confused Currency ; Barter ; Women Traders and Merchants ;
Jews ; Intolerance ; Disabilities ; Establishment.
INDEX 351
ILLUSTRATIONS
Portrait of Cornelis Steenwyck. Owned by the New York
Historical Society. (In Photogravure) . . . Frontispiece J-
Facing page
New Amsterdam (earliest known view) 8
New Amsterdam about 1670 16 ■
Old Hopper House, Second Avenue and 83d Street, New
York 24 -'
Kip House, Kip's Bay, New York 24
Old Stone House, I52d Street, Kingsbridge Road, New York 24
Gardens of the Van Cortlandt Manor House, Croton-on-
Hudson 32 '
Van Cortlandt Manor»House (1681), Croton-on-Hudson . . 40 ,_
Wall of the Van Cortlandt Manor House, showing Loopholes 48
Entrance Door of the Van Cortlandt Manor House, Croton-
on-Hudson 54
Hall and Stairway, Van Cortlandt Manor House .... 62
Old Dutch Watches. Rijks Museum, Amsterdam .... 70
Mahogany Table brought from Holland in 1668 82
Dutch China Cabinet with Porcelain. Owned by Mr. Frans
Middelkoop, New York go .
Dutch China Cabinet and Porcelain. Owned by Mr. Frans
Middelkoop, New York 98 .
Miniature Silver Articles and Silver Toys. Rijks Museum,
Amsterdam 108
Dutch Silver from the Van Cortlandt Manor House . . . 112
xxii ILLUSTRATIONS
Facing page
Silver Tankard. Owned by Sara de Rapelje ii6
A Family Meal (seventeenth century) 120
Dutch Kitchen. Jan Steen 126
Old Church Bench or Stool. Albany Institute and Historical
and Art Society 132
Napkin Press (seventeenth century). Owned by Mr. Frans
Middelkoop, New York 138
Voorhuis in the Doll's House. Rijks Museum, Amsterdam 144
Bedroom, Doll's House. Rijks Museum, Amsterdam . . 150
Show Room, Doll's House. Rijks Museum, Amsterdam . 156
Kitchen, Doll's House. Rijks Museum, Amsterdam . . . 162
Old Dutch School Scenes 166
General View of Doll's House. Rijks Museum, Amsterdam 172
Porcelain and Earthenware. Rijks Museum, Amsterdam . 178
Drinking-Glasses. Rijks Museum, Amsterdam ... .184
Porcelain, Earthenware Ornament and Glass Tumbler in the
Van Cortlandt Manor House 190
Flowers. Jan Van Huysam 196
The Parrot Cage. Jan Steen 202
Country House. Pieter de Hooch 208
Glass Drinking Vessels. Rijks Museum, Amsterdam . . 216
A Dutch Bride in State (seventeenth century) 224
Porcelain and Earthenware. Rijks Museum, Amsterdam . 232
Dutch Clock in the Van Cortlandt Manor House .... 240
Old Chest, Linen Press, and Two Warming-Pans. Owned
by Mr. Frans Middelkoop, New York 246
Dutch Cradle and Child's Chair. Albany Institute and His-
torical and Art Society 254
Silver Spoons. Rijks Museum, Amsterdam 262
Tavern Scene. Teniers 266 ^'
Clover Leaf Drinking Cup 272 -
Old Dutch Tankard , 272
ILLUSTRATIONS xxiii
Pacing fage
A Tavern Brawl. Adriaen Brouwer 288
Pulling the Goose 296
St. Nicholas Eve. Jan Steen 300
Three Kings' Evening (Twelfth Night) ....... 304
Sports on the Ice 308
Kermis. Teniers 316
Winter Scene. Ostade 330
Old Dutch House in Broad Street, New Amsterdam (1698) 344
CHAPTER I
SETTLEMENT AND EARLY CONDITIONS OF
NEW NETHERLAND
1
says
"A HE history of the early voyages and settle-
ments of the Dutch is told by a writer during
Minuit's directorship of the new colony. He
This country, or the river, Montagne, called by our's
Mauritius, was first sailed to by the worthy Hendrick
Christiaensen van Cleef. It so happened that he and the
worthy Adriaen Block chartered a ship with the skipper,
Ryser, and accomplished his voyage thither, bringing
back with him two sons of the principal sachems there.
Hudson, the famous English pilot, had been there
also, to reach the South Sea, but found no passage.
This aforesaid Hendrick Christiaensz, after he had dis-
solved partnership with Adriaen Block, made ten voyages
thither, in virtue of a grant from the Lords States who
gave him that privilege for the first establishment of the
place. On the expiration of that privilege, this country
was granted to the West India Company, to draw their
profits thence.
The West India Company being chartered to navigate
these Rivers did not neglect to do so, but equipped in the
spring [of 1623] a vessel of 130 lasts, called the New
Netherland, with thirty families, mostly Walloons, to
plant a colony there. They sailed in the beginning of
2 DUTCH NEW YORK
March, and directing their course by the Canary Islands,
steered towards the Wild Coast, and gained the westwind
which luckily [took] them in the beginning of May into
the River called, first Rio de Montagues, now the River
Mauritius, lying in 40I/2 degrees.
The ship sailed up to the Maykans, 44 miles, near which
they built and completed a Fort named Orange, with 4
bastions, on an Island by them called Castle Island. They
forthwith put the spade in the ground and began to plant,
and before the Mackerel sailed, the grain was nearly as
high as a man, so that they are bravely advanced. They
also placed a Fort named Wilhelmus on Prince's Island,
heretofore called Murderer's Island ; it is open in front,
and has a curtain in the rear and is garrisoned by sixteen
men for the defence of the River below. On leaving
there, the course lies for the west wind, and having got it,
to the Bermudas and so along the channel in a short time
towards Patria. The Yacht, the Mackerel, sailed out last
year on the i6th June and arrived yonder on the 12th of
December. . . .
The fur and other trade belongs to the West India
Company, others being forbidden to trade there. Rich
beavers, otters, martins and foxes are found there. This
cargo consists of five hundred otter skins, and fifteen
hundred beavers and a few other things, which were in
four parcels of twenty-eight thousand some hundred
guilders.^
On Jan. 9, 1626, Peter Minuit sailed in the Sea-Mezv,
Captain Adriaen Joris, and arrived at Manhattan on
May 4. The next ship sent out by the West India
Company w^as the Arms of Amsterdam, w^hich arrived
on July 2y, 1626, and started on her return voyage on
Sept. 23, 1626, with a valuable cargo of furs and wood
under charge of Peter Barentsen, the Indian trader.
She arrived in Amsterdam on November 4; and on
* The cargo of the New Netherland was sold in Amsterdam, Dec.
2c, 1624.
SETTLEMENT AND EARLY CONDITIONS 3
the following day the Secretaiy thus informed the
States-General :
There arrived here yesterday the ship called the Arms
of Amsterdam, which sailed from the river Mauritius
[the Hudson], in New Netherland, on the 23d of Septem-
ber. Report is brought that our people there are diligent
and live peaceably ; their wives have also borne them
children. They have purchased the Island of Manhattes
from the Indians for the sum of sixty guilders ; it con-
tains 11,000 morgens of land. They have sown all kinds
of grain in the middle of May, and reaped in the middle
of August. I send you some samples of the summer
grains, as wheat, rye, barley, oats, buckwheat, canary seed,
beans and flax.
The cargo of the ship consists of 7246 skins of beaver,
853 otter, 81 mink, 36 cat lynx, 34 small rat, together
with a considerable quantity of oak timber and nutwood.
Our historian continues :
The Company there administers Justice in criminal
matters as far as imposing fines (boet-straffe), but not as
far as capital punishment. Should it happen that any
one deserves that, he must be sent to Holland with his
sentence. Cornells Hoorn was, in the year 1624, the first
Director there ; Willem Van Hulst was the second in
the year 1625. He returns now. . . .
Respecting these Colonies they have already a prosper-
ous beginning; and the hope is that they will not fall
through provided they be zealously sustained, not only in
that place but in the South River. For their increase and
prosperous advancement, it is highly necessary that those
sent out be first of all well provided with means both of
support and defence, and that being Freemen, they be
settled there on a free tenure ; that all they work for and
gain be their's to dispose of and to sell according to their
pleasure ; that whoever is placed over them as Commander
act as their Father, not as their Executioner, leading them
with a gentle hand. . , .
4 DUTCH NEW YORK
In the year 1628, there ah-eady resided on the Island
of the Manhates, two hundred and seventy souls, men,
women and children, under Governor Minuit, Verhulst's
successor, living there in peace with the Natives. But as
the land, in many places being full of weeds and wild
productions, could not be properly cultivated in conse-
quence of the scantiness of the population, the said Lords
Directors of the West India Company, the better to people
their lands, and to bring the country to produce more
abundantly, resolved to grant divers Privileges, Free-
doms and Exemptions to all Patroons, Masters or Indi-
viduals who should plant any Colonies or Cattle in New
Netherland.
After Minuit purchased the island of Manhattan, no
time was lost in providing for the security of the settle-
ment. The engineer, Krijn Frederijcke, staked out a
fort on the southern point of the island to which the
name Fort Amsterdam was given. The Company's
counting-house was a stone building with a thatched
roof, btit the other houses were of wood. Director
Minuit and the Opper Koopman, De Rasieres, lived
together; and there were about thirty houses on the
east side of the river. Frances Moelmacker began to
build a horse mill with a large room above to be used
as a meeting-place for religious services ; for although
there was as yet no regular clergyman, two Comforters
of the Sick (Kranck-besoeckers), Sebastiaen Jansen
Krol and Jan Htiych, read the Bible and held meetings
on Sundays. Another officer of the colony was Jan
Lempo, the schout, or sheriff.
Each colonist had his own farm on the Company's
land, and was supplied with cows; but the milk was
for his own profit. These temporary homes were out-
side the Fort ; but as soon as that should be completed
the people intended to reside within its walls, for the
sake of greater security. Two years later, when the
SETTLEMENT AND EARLY CONDITIONS 5
Three Kings, Captain Jan Jacobsen, and the Anns of
Amsterdam, Captain Adriaen Joris, were sent by Direc-
tor Minuit to the West India Company, arriving in
Amsterdam in October, 1628, with furs and timber,
they brought the good news that Fort Amsterdam was
completed with four bastions, and faced with stone;
that the colony numbered two hundred and seventy
souls, including men, women, and children; that the
cattle throve well, and that everything seemed pros-
perous. At this period the colonists supported them-
selves chiefly by farming, and any deficiencies were
supplied by the West India Company.
During Minuit's administration Staten Island was
also purchased.
The letter of Jonas Michaelius (1628) gives a good
picture of the infant colony, and the difficulties the
early settlers had to face :
As to what concerns myself and my household : I find
myself by the loss of my good and helping partner very
much hindered and distressed, — for my two little daugh-
ters are yet small ; maidservants are not here to be had,
at least none whom they advise me to take; and the
Angola slaves are thievish, lazy and useless trash. The
young man whom I took with me, I discharged after
Whitsuntide, for the reason that I could not employ him
out of doors at any working of the land, and, in doors, he
was a burden to me instead of an assistance. He is now
elsewhere at service with the boers.
The promise which the Lords Masters of the Company
had made me to make myself a home, instead of a free
table which otherwise belonged to me, is wholly of no
avail. For their Honours well know that there are no
houses, cows nor laborers to be obtained here for money.
The country yields many good things for the support
of life, but they are all to be gathered in an uncultivated
and wild state. It is necessary that there should be better
6 DUTCH NEW YORK
regulations established, and people who have the knowl-
edge and the implements for gathering things in their
season, should collect them together, as undoubtedly will
gradually be the case. In the meanwhile I wish the Lords
Managers to be courteously inquired of, how I can have
the opportunity to possess a portion of land, and at my
own expense to support myself upon it. For as long as
there is no more accommodation to be obtained here from
the country people, I would be compelled to order every-
thing from Fatherland at great expense, and with much
risk and trouble, or else live here upon these poor and
hard rations alone, which would badly suit me and my
children. We want ten or twelve farmers with horses,
cows and labourers in proportion, to furnish us with
bread and fresh butter, milk and cheese.
Having been recalled, Minuit left in the Union in
1632, and was succeeded by Wouter Van Twiller, of
Nieuwkerke, a clerk in the employ of the West India
Company and a relative of the Patroon Van Rensselaer.
He arrived at Fort Amsterdam in the Company's ship,
Dc Zoiitbcrg (the Salt Mountain) , of two hundred and
eighty tons, manned by fifty-two men and which car-
ried twenty guns and one hundred and four soldiers, —
the first military force sent to New Netherland.
During his administration Dominie Everardus Bo-
gardus arrived, and also the first schoolmaster, Adam
Roelantsen ; a church was built on Pearl Street, and the
block-house was succeeded by a fort that was finished
in 1635. Van Twiller also bought Pagganck, or Nut
Island (now Governor's Island), and two islands in
Hell Gate.
Director Van Twiller was succeeded by Willem
Kieft, who arrived on March 28, 1638, in the Herring
(two hundred and eighty tons and twenty guns). The
new Director's administration was not at first pros-
perous, for the West India Company gave up the
SETTLEMENT AND EARLY CONDITIONS 7
privileged trade with the Indians, opening this com-
merce to all the inhabitants of the Dutch prov-
inces ; and many colonists were thus drawn to New
Netherland.
On the other hand the English came both from Virginia
and N. England, on account of the good opportunity to
plant tobacco here, first divers servants, whose time had
expired ; afterwards families, and finally, entire colo-
nies, having been forced to quit that place, in order to
enjoy freedom of conscience, and to escape from the in-
supportable government of N. England, and because
many more commodities were to be obtained here than
there, so that in place of seven bouweries and two or
three plantations which were here, thirty bouweries were
to be seen as well cultivated and stocked as in Europe
[and] one hundred plantations which in two or three
[years] would become regular bouweries, for after the
tobacco was out of the ground, corn was planted there
without ploughing, and the winter was employed prepar-
ing new lands. The English colonies had settled under
us by patent on equal terms with the others. Each of
these was in appearance not less than one hundred fam-
ilies strong, exclusive of the Cojonie of Rensselaerswyck,
which is prospering, with that of Mynders, Meyndertsz
and Cornelius Melyn, who began first. Also the village
of N. Amsterdam around the fort, one hundred families,
so that there was appearance of producing supplies in a
year for fourteen thousand souls without straitening the
country, and had there not been a want of labourers or
farm servants, twice as much could be raised.
During Kieft's administration a new stone church
was built within the Fort, building lots were granted,
citizens were allowed a vote in public affairs, and a
body of " Eight men " was selected to advise the gov-
ernor in the Indian trouble. The Indian war made
Kieft unpopular, and he was recalled. He set sail in
8 DUTCH NEW YORK
the Princess in July, 1647. The boat suffered ship-
wreck, and he and the other passengers, including
Dominie Bogardus, were drowned.
Father Jogues, 1643, says:
For the garrison of the said Fort, and of another which
they had built still further up against the incursions of
the Indians, their enemies, there were sixty soldiers.
They were beginning to face the gates and bastions with
stone. Within the fort there was a stone church, which
was quite large, the house of the Governor, whom they
call Director-General, quite neatly built of brick, the
storehouses and barracks.
On this Island of Manhate and in its environs, there
may well be four or five hundred men of different sects
and nations : the Director General told me that there were
men of eighteen kinds of languages ; they are scattered
here and there on the river, above and below, as the beauty
and convenience of the spot invited each to settle : some
mechanics, however, who ply their trade, are ranged under
the fort ; all the others being exposed to the incursions
of the Indians, who, in the year 1643, while I was there,
had actually killed some two score Hollanders, and burnt
many houses and barns full of wheat.
There is no religious exercise except the Calvinist, and
orders are to admit none but Calvinists, however this is
not observed ; there being in the Colony besides the
Calvinists, Catholics, English Puritans, Lutherans, Ana-
baptists, whom they call Mnites, etc., etc.
When any one first comes to settle in the country, they
lend him horses, cows, etc. ; they give him provisions, all
which he returns as soon as he is at ease ; and as to the
land, after ten years he pays to the West India Company
the tenth of the produce which he raises. . . .
The first comers found lands quite fit for use formerly
cleared by the savages who had fields there. Those who
came later have cleared in the woods which are mostly
oak. The soil is srood. Deer hunting is abundant in the
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SETTLEMENT AND EARLY CONDITIONS 9
fall. There are some houses built of stone: lime they
make of oyster shells, of which there are great heaps,
made formerly by the savages, who subsist in part by that
fishery. . . ,
Ascending the river to the 43d degree, you meet the
second Dutch settlement, which the tide reaches but does
not pass.
There are two things in this settlement (which is called
Renselaerswick, as if to say, settlement of Renselaers,
who is a rich Amsterdam merchant) ist, a miserable Httle
fort called Fort Orange, built of logs, with four or five
pieces of Breteuil cannon, and as many swivels. This
has been reserved, and is maintained by the West India
Company. This fort was formerly on an island which the
river makes; it is now on the main land towards the
Hiroquois, a little above the said island. Secondly, a
colony sent here by this Renselaers, who is the patroon.
This colony is composed of about a hundred persons who
reside in some twenty-five or thirty houses built along
the river, as each found convenient. In the principal
house lives the patroon's agent ; the Minister has his
apart, in which service is performed. There is also a kind
of Baliff here, whom they call the Seneschal, who admin-
isters justice. Their houses are all merely of boards and
thatched. There is as yet no mason work except in the
chimneys. The forests, furnishing many large pines, they
make boards by means of their mills, which they have for
the purpose.
Montanus (1671) thus describes what would be the
first view obtained by the settlers of their future home:
On the Manhattan's island stands New Amsterdam,
five miles from the ocean : ships run up to the harbour
there from the sea with one tide. The city hath an
earthen fort. Within the fort, and on the outermost
bastion towards the river, stand a wind mill and a very
high staff, on which a flag is hoisted whenever any vessels
are seen in Godyn's bay. The church rises with a double
lo DUTCH NEW YORK
roof between which a square tower looms aloft. On one
side is the prison, on the other side of the church the
Governor's house. Without the walls are the houses
mostly built by the Amsterdamers. On the river side
stand the gallows and whipping-post. A handsome public
tavern adorns the farthest point. Between the fort and
this tavern is a row of suitable dwelling-houses : among
which stand out the warehouses of the West India
Company.
A view of New Amsterdam at this period faces
page 1 6, and an earlier view, page 8.
The beautiful scenery and the vast natural resources
of the country, as well as its attractions for the farmer,
formed the theme of many an enthusiastic letter and
treatise by early travelers. A charming description
of the landscape, climate, physical features, produc-
tions, etc., is afforded by Adriaen Van der Donck in
1654. He says:
The whole country has a waving surface, and in some
places high hills and protruding mountains, particularly
those named the Highlands, which is a place of high,
connected mountain land, about three miles broad, extend-
ing in curved forms throughout the country ; separated
in some places and then again connected. There also
is much fine level land, intersected with brooks, affording
pasturage of great length and breadth, but mostly along
the rivers and near the salt side. Inland, most of the
country is waving, with hills which generally are not
steep, but ascend gradually. We sometimes in travelling
imperceptibly find ourselves on high elevated situations,
from which we overlook large portions of the country.
The neighbouring eminence, the surrounding valleys and
the highest trees are overlooked, and again lost in the
distant space. Here our attention is arrested in the
beautiful landscape around us, here the painter can find
rare and beautiful subjects for the employment of his
brush ; and here also the huntsman is animated when he
SETTLEMENT AND EARLY CONDITIONS ii
views the enchanting prospects presented to the eyes ; on
the hills, at the brooks and in the valleys, where the game
abounds, and where the deer are feeding or gamboling or
resting in the shades in full view. . . .
Near the rivers and watersides there are large extensive
plains containing several hundred morgens; in one place
more and in another less, which are very convenient for
plantations, villages and towns. There also are brook-
lands and fresh and salt meadows ; some so extensive
that the eye cannot oversee the same. Those are good
for pasturage and hay, although the same are overflowed
by the spring tides, particularly near the seaboard. These
meadows resemble the low and outlands of the Nether-
lands. Most of them could be dyked and cultivated. We
also find meadow grounds far inland, which are all fresh
and make good hayland. Where the meadows are boggy
and wet, such failings are easily remedied by cutting and
breaking the bogs in winter and letting off the water in
the spring. There also would be much more meadow
ground, but as the soil is natural for wood, and as the
birds and the winds carry the seeds in every direction ;
hence, those moist, low grounds are covered with timber
and underwoods which we call cripple bushes.
Montanus also writes in 1671 :
New Netherland hath, moreover, divers remarkable
waterfalls tumbling down from lofty rocks, broad creeks
and hills, fresh lakes and rivulets and pleasant springs and
fountains, which smoke in winter, are right cold in
summer, and, nevertheless, are much drank. Meanwhile
the inhabitants are at no time much incommoded by
floods, nor by the sea, inasmuch as at spring tide the water
scarcely ever rises a foot higher; nor by freshets which
cover only some low lands for a short while, and enrich
them by their alluvium. The sea-coast rises hilly out of
sand and clay wherefore it produces abundantly all sorts
of herbs and trees.
The oak usually grows sixty to seventy feet high, for
12 DUTCH NEW YORK
the most part free of knots, for which reason it is well
adapted to ship-building. The Hickory trees furnish a
hot and lasting fire and a curious appearance whenever
the bush is cut away either for the purpose of more open
hunting, or for clearing the ground for a bouwery.
Van der Donck also tells us that the country was so
thickly wooded that those who cultivated the land cut
down the trees ruthlessly, collected the wood into great
heaps and burned it to get it out of the way. The
Indians and the Dutch were also careless regarding the
chestnuts. The Indians destroyed the trees by strip-
ping off the bark for thatching their huts, and they
frequently cut off the limbs to gather the nuts, — a
practice followed by the Dutch. Pine trees grew so
large inland that they were heavy and tall enough to
be used for masts and spars of ships ; the wild ash was
plentiful, and there were also maples, linden, birch,
yew, poplar, fir, alder, willow, thorn, sassafras, per-
simmon, mulberry, wild cherry, crab, and oak trees.
The white-wood, also known as canoe-wood because
the Indians made canoes of it, was used by tlie settlers
for flooring, because it was bright and free of knots.
Amongst the other trees, the water-beeches grow very
large along the brooks, heavier and larger than most of
the trees of the country. When those trees begin to bud
then the dark becomes a beautiful white, resembling the
handsomest satin. This tree retains the leaves later than
any other tree of the woods. Trees of this kind are con-
sidered more ornamental and handsomer than the linden-
trees for the purpose of planting near dwelling-houses.
The Indians have a yearly custom (which some of our
Christians have also adopted) of burning the woods,
plains and meadows in the fall of the year, when the
leaves have fallen, and when the grass and vegetable sub-
stances are dry. Those places which are then passed over
SETTLEMENT AND EARLY CONDITIONS 13
are fired in the spring in April. This practice is named
by us and the Indians " bush burning," which is done for
several reasons ; first, to render hunting easier, as the
bush and vegetable growth renders the walking difficult
for the hunter, and the crackling of the dry substances
betrays him and frightens away the game. Secondly to
thin out and clear the woods of all dead substances and
grass, which grow better the ensuing spring. Thirdly, to
circumscribe and enclose the game within the lines of the
fire, when it is more easily taken, and also, because the
game is more easily tracked over the burned parts of the
woods.
The bush burning presents a grand and subHme appear-
ance. On seeing it from without, we would imagine that
not only the dry leaves, vegetables and limbs would be
burnt, but that the whole woods would be consumed where
the fire passes, for it frequently spreads and rages with
such violence that it is awful to behold; and when the
fire approaches houses, gardens and wooden enclosures,
then great care and vigilance are necessary for their
preservation ; for I have seen several houses which have
recently been destroyed before the owners were apprized
of their danger.
Notwithstanding the apparent danger of the entire
destruction of the woodlands by the burning, still the
green trees do not suffer. The outside bark is scorched
three or four feet high, which does them no injury for
the trees are not killed. It, however, sometimes happens
that in the thick pine woods, wherein the fallen trees lie
across each other and have become dry that the blaze
ascends and strikes the tops of the trees, setting the same
on fire, which is immediately increased by the resinous
knots and leaves which promote the blaze, and is passed
by the wind from tree to tree, by which the entire tops of
the trees are sometimes burnt off, while the bodies remain
standing. Frequently great injuries are done by such
fires, but the burning down of entire woods never happens.
I have seen many instances of wood-burning in the col-
14 DUTCH NEW YORK
ony of Rensselaerwyck, where there is much pine wood.
Those fires appear grand at night from the passing ves-
sels in the river, when the woods are burning on both
sides of the same. Then we can see a great distance by
the light of the blazing trees, the flames being driven by
the wind, and fed by the tops of the trees. But the dead
and dying trees remain burning in their standing posi-
tions, which appear sublime and beautiful when seen at
a distance.
In 1650, the Secretary of the Province, Tienhoven,
gives the following " Information relative to taking up
land in New Netherland " :
Those who have no means to build farm-houses at first
according to their wishes, dig a square pit in the ground,
cellar fashion, six or seven feet deep, as long and as
broad as they think proper, case the earth inside all round
the wall with timber, which they line with the bark of
trees or something else to prevent the caving in of the
earth ; floor this cellar with plank and wainscot it over-
head for a ceiling, raise a roof of spars clear up, and
cover the spars with bark or green sods, so that they can
live dry and warm in these houses with their entire
families for two, three and four years, it being under-
stood that partitions are run through these cellars which
are adapted to the size of the family.
After the houses are built in the above-described
manner, or otherwise according to each person's means
and fancy, gardens are made and planted in season with
all sorts of pot-herbs, principally parsnips, carrots and
cabbage, which bring great plenty into the husbandman's
dwelling. The maize can serve as bread for men and
food for cattle.
A good idea of a farm of the early period is shown
in the inventory of the effects and goods at Achtervelt,
upon Long Island, belonging to Andries Hudde and
Wolfert Gerritsen, July 9, 1638. He had five cows,
SETTLEAIENT AND EARLY CONDITIONS 15
three oxen, and a calf; five horses; a new wagon and
appurtenances; a wheelplow and appurtenances, an
iron harrow, and some farm tools ; a house twenty-six
feet long, twenty-two feet wide, and forty feet deep,
with the roof covered above and all around with planks,
two garrets, one above the other, and a small chamber
on the side with an outlet on the side. The house,
moreover, was surrounded by long round palisades.
The barn was forty feet long, eighteen wide and
twenty-four high, with the roof; a bergh (a sort
of open shed with a roof to shelter hay or grain) with
five posts, forty feet long; about six morgens of land
sown with summer and winter grain; a garden
planted with a number of fruit trees ; and a yawl with
appurtenances.
The West India Company leased land on " advan-
tageous terms," as we should say to-day, to the settlers,
and stocked the farms with cattle, horses, etc., the rent
usually being paid by a stipulated share of the crops
and the increase of the cattle. The following early
leases may be taken as examples.
Governor Kieft leased two lots near the Fort to Jan
Damen in 1638,
the larger one of which has heretofore been cultivated by
the negroes and is situate on the east side of the road, to
the north of the said Jan Damens, south of the esplanade
of the Fort and east of Philipp de Truy, and the smaller
situate to the north of the Company's garden, extending
from the road to the river. John Damen shall plant the
land for six years, also be bound to convey twice all his
manure on said land at his own cost, for which the
Director shall receive as rent half the produce . . . said
Director shall maintain and keep tight the fences now
put up around it and furnish to Jan Damen two laborers,
14 days during the harvest to be paid by the Company and
fed by Jan Damen ; likewise if the Company think proper
i6 DUTCH NEW YORK
to plant a vineyard or gardens in the low place, the lessee
shall be bound to allow it and have nothing to say.
When J. E. Bout in 1638 leased the Company's farm
at Pavonia, he was to have the use of the house and
lands for six years, keeping everything in good repair
at his own expense. He was to " deliver yearly to Mr.
Kieft or his successor one fourth part of the crop,
whether of corn or other produce, with which God
shall favor the soil, also every year two tuns of strong
beer and twelve capons, free of expense."
In 1640, a farm was let for one hundred and fifty
pounds of good, cured tobacco yearly. " The said
Smith shall clear as much land as is neccessary for
2000 pallisades."
Wouter van Twiller leased the Company's Bouwery
No. I on Manhattan Island from May, 1638, for three
years " for the sum of 250 Carolus guilders to be paid
yearly, to-gether with a sixth part of the produce with
which God shall bless the field."
In May, 1639, Bouwery No. 5 on Manhattan Island
was leased to Hendrick Harmensen for six years. He
was to " cultivate the land with all diligence and indus-
try and not attend exclusively to the increase of the
cattle, but diligently till the ground, which is the Com-
pany's principal object herein." For this he was to
receive fifty guilders per annum for servant's wages;
and the Company delivered to him five head of cattle
and two mares for his use for six years. He was to
pay thirty pounds of good butter yearly for every cow.
" At the expiration of six years the Company's agent
shall first take away the number of cattle in such con-
dition as now delivered ; and then the remaining cattle
which will be procreated shall be divided half and
half."
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SETTLEMENT AND EARLY CONDITIONS 17
Bouwery No. 6 was let by Kieft with two mares,
one stallion, three cows, one heifer, and one calf for
twenty years to Abraham Pietersen, who was to pay
yearly forty-five sc he pels of rye and ninety pounds of
butter, and the increase of cattle was to be divided
with the Company every four years.
In 1642, a tract of land was let for " the tenth part
of the produce of the fields, whether cultivated with the
plough, the hoe or otherwise (orchards and gardens
not exceeding one acre Holland measure excepted)."
On Jime 24, 1638, an order was issued granting
freemen patents for the lands they were cultivating,
on condition that at the end of ten years they pay yearly
the tenth part of all their crops, and also a couple of
capons yearly for house and garden.
A lease of a somewhat unusual character, dated
May 17, 1639, shows that Rev. Everardus Bogardus
leased to
Richard Brudenell a tobacco house and plantation with a
water dog, gun and powder at a certain rent payable in
tobacco, and one third of all the game he shall kill, as long
as the powder and ball last.
The woods were full of game. An old traveler
remarks :
There are all sorts of fowls, both in the water and in
the air. Swans, geese, ducks, bitterns abound. The
men scarcely ever labour, except to provide some game,
either fowl or other description, for cooking, and then
they have provided everything. The women must attend
to the remainder, tilling the soil, etc.
Wassenaer speaks of the innumerable waterfowl, —
cranes, swans, bitterns, geese, ducks, widgeons, — and
remarked that
i8 DUTCH NEW YORK
birds fill also the woods so that men can scarcely go
through them for the whistling, the noise and the chatter-
ing. Whoever is not lazy can catch them with little diffi-
culty. Turkey beans is a very common crop, pigeons fly
wild, they are chased by the foxes like fowl. ... 'T is
surprising that storks have not been found there if it be a
marshy country. Spoonbills, ravens, eagles, sparrow-
hawks, vultures are numerous and are actually shot or
knocked down by the natives.
John Miller, 1695, also speaks of
much wild fowl, as swans, geese, ducks, turkies, a kind
of pheasants and partridges, pigeons, etc., and no less
store of good venison, so that you may sometimes buy at
your door a quarter for nine pence or a shilling.
There were marshes on Manhattan Island in which
cattle occasionally got bogged. In November, 1643,
Claes van Elslant and Cosyn Gerritsen declare that they
saw a herd of cattle which were driven into the swamp
near Old John's plantation on the Manhattans, sink over
their backs in the marsh.
Unoccupied land was used for common pasturage;
and goats, sheep, hogs, and cattle needed protection
against their natural enemies as well as against Indians
and dishonest white men. In April, 1640, Claes Groen
and Pieter Lieresen contracted to herd daily the goats
of Philip de Truy and others in the woods on Man-
hattan Island at one guilder a year for each goat. In
1648, it was ordered that goats beyond the Fresh Water
be attended by a herdsman, or be forfeited to the Fiscal.
In 1644, it was resolved to make a clearing extending
" from the Great Bouwery to Emanuel's plantation " ;
and that all who wished to pasture their cattle within
this clearing, to save them from the Indians, should
SETTLEMENT AND EARLY CONDITIONS 19
appear on the following Monday to build a fence
around the same.
In 1660, Gabriel Carpsey demands 6.15 florins and
one pound of butter for taking care of a cow. De-
fendant's son appears and says that Carpsey let the cow
stray in the bush, and he and his brother-in-law, Dirck
Siecken, were two days in search of her. Plaintiff
says that defendant did not deliver his cow, like others,
on the blowing of the horn to be led to pasture. The
court gave judgment for the cowherd.
On March 10, 1648,
Goats beyond the Fresh Water shall not be pastured
without a Herdsman and Keeper, on pain of having the
Goats found at large on this side of the Fresh Water, or
without a Herdsman or Keeper beyond it, taken up by
the Fiscal and declared forfeit.
In 1673, on account of " the great ravages committed
by wolves on the small cattle, therefore whoever shall
produce a wolf that has been shot on this Island on this
side of Haarlem shall be promptly paid therefor. For
a wolf fl. 20 and for a she-wolf, fl. 30, seawant or the
value thereof, which Under Schout and Schepens shall
by their Messenger levy off those who keep cattle, great
or small, within their district."
Again, on Aug. i, 1685, was published a " licence to
the inhabitants of the island of Manhattan to hunt and
destroy wolves thereon, on Thursday next."
Dogs were also a danger to live-stock. In the records
we find more than one lawsuit over sheep-biting. On
April 9, 1642, Peter van der Linde, Barent Dircksen,
and Tennis Cray complain against Nicholaes Sloper's
dog, which roves the woods and kills their goats. Dogs
were highly valued, doubtless because of their fetching
and carrying qualities. For some reason not specified,
20 DUTCH NEW YORK
Dirck Cornelissen, in his hasty wrath, enables posterity
to compute the worth of a hound in 1638. He was
condemned to pay twenty-five guilders for the dog he
killed, also a fine of twenty-five guilders and costs.
How the animal met its fate we are not informed, —
not by stoning, however, in all probability, for a New
Amsterdam dog was able to dodge missiles, as is attested
by the following moving entry dated Nov. 22, 1644:
Gerrit Hendricksen, a lad, throwing a piece of an
earthen pot at a dog, accidentally struck Jacob Melyn in
the eye.
From two other entries we gather that butter was
an emollient for dog-bites ; that a dog might chew on
a stranger during the hours of darkness, but not in the
daytime; and that it was just as well to be a general's
dog in case of trouble.
In 1653, Roelof Jansen complained that Philip Ge-
raerdy's dog had bitten him " in the daytime, as may be
seen by the wound and he claims for loss of time and
surgeon's fees 12 fl. Defendant says plaintiff may kill
said dog, and that plaintiff has not lost any time or
work on that account ; he has already sent plaintiff by
his wife 4 lbs. of butter, and is still willing to give him
as a charity 4 fl. more." The case was dismissed. In
1665, Thomas Francen said that John Cocx's dog bit
his horse standing under the cart and demanded satis-
faction. Defendant replied that it was not his, but the
General's dog. The Mayor therefore undertook to
speak to the General on the subject.
Another case involving the misdemeanor of a dog
was that of Marretie Pietersen, plaintiff, versus Jacob
Eldertsen, defendant.
The plaintiff complains that defendant shot her dog:
requests indemnification for the same to the amount of
SETTLEMENT AND EARLY CONDITIONS 21
fl, 16 as it was a good water dog. Defendant acknowl-
edges having shot the dog, for the dog attempted to attack
him in the street; and in catching a stone to drive him
away, he bit him in the finger, so that he was obliged to
have it dressed by the surgeon. Maintains therefore that
he is not liable to pay a stiver for it.
The plaintiff denied that the dog bit the defendant
and the court deferred judgment.
The householders of New Amsterdam gave their
municipal authorities great trouble by neglecting prop-
erly to fence their own grounds and prevent their
cattle and other animals from straying into their neigh-
bors' fields, gardens, and orchards, — neighbors, of
course, whose fences must also have been out of repair.
Goats and pigs were the worst offenders, and were often
the cause of serious quarrels in the community. Many
actions for trespass and even cases of battery and as-
sault occasioned by stray animals appear in the Court
Records. For example, on Oct. 5, 1654:
Wolfert Webber was summoned to Court by the Wor-
shipful Magistrates on the complaint of some Neighbours
in consequence of damages he inflicted attacking with
dogs and beating certain pigs which went on his land.
Wolfert Webber demands the name of Complainant.
William Beekman states it to be on the complaint handed
to him of Mde. Verleth and Stillen's wife, because their
hogs were unwarrantably attacked and injured by Webber
and his dogs, so that he considered it proper to acquaint
the Court. Webber said he was so annoyed by the hogs
on his land, whereby all his seed was destroyed that he
divers times drove them home, but not being able to keep
them off he hunted them with dogs, but he did not injure
them in the least ; on the contrary, he was at various
times insulted and threatened with a beating by Mde.
Verleth. The Worshipful Court admonished Webber to
22 DUTCH NEW YORK
keep himself clear of complaint, and to institute his action
should he suffer wrong.
Peace, however, was not patched up, for on June 28,
i655>
Wolfert Webber plaintiff v/s Judith Verleth appeared
in Court, complaining of violence force and abuse com-
mitted against him by defendant and her sister, Sarah, last
week in his house ; striking him in his own house and
flinging stones at him ; requesting that said defendant be
ordered to let him remain in peace in his own house.
Judith Verleth denied that she
ever gave plaintiff any trouble ; complains that he berated
her for a whore and strumpet, and threatened in his own
house to strike her with the whip, as he daily does his
wife; that he assaulted her, bruising and dragging her
arm, and kicked her sister so that her hip is blue. Parties
were ordered to prove their complaints and statements on
both sides by the next Court day, and further to leave
each other unmolested. Webber was fined 12 stivers on
account of fulminating lies, etc., in presence of the
Court.
In 1647,
All inhabitants of New Netherland are commanded well
to fence their lands, that the cattle may not do any dam-
age. The cattle, be it horses or cows or especially goats
and pigs must be taken care of or otherwise disposed of,
that they can do no damage, for which purpose Fiscal van
Dyck shall build a pound and keep the animals until the
damage is repaired and the fine paid.
On Jan. 16, 1657, an ordinance was issued permitting
firewood and other timber to be cut gratis on uninclosed
lots.
SETTLEMENT AND EARLY CONDITIONS 23
Pigs were incorrigible in New Amsterdam, notwith-
standing frequent official fiilminations. They did not
even respect the sacred ground of the Fort, and seemed
to care no more for the autocratic Director Stuyvesant
than they had for his predecessors, judging from several
ordinances covering his entire administration. In 1650,
on account of the damage done to the walls of this
decayed fortress, fines were imposed on those who
allowed their pigs, goats, sheep, or cattle to stray on
the walls. On July 11, 1654, an ordinance was pub-
lished for impounding sheep and goats found injuring
the fortifications.
Pigs and goats were not the sole offenders. Boys
were as mischievous and destructive then as now, and
often a cause of trouble to their parents. A court case
of 1656 exemplifies this.
Jan Vinje exhibits the decision of the arbitrators, com-
missioned by the Court, on the damage committed by the
defendant's son and schoolmates among his peas, request-
ing that defendant be condemned to pay the same accord-
ing to valuation ; and since his hens and pigs still daily
run among his corn that he be ordered to keep the same
out, or that the plaintiff be authorized to kill them. De-
fendant maintains that he is not bound to make good any
of the damage claimed by plaintiff, since the children have
not taken or injured anything to the value of a pea's-pod,
and his son has already been beaten therefor by plaintiff,
so that he came home black and blue, and has been pun-
ished, saying that many other children when they came
out of school were in there. Plaintiff being heard there-
upon acknowledges to have struck defendant's son at the
time : he could not catch any other but him. Both being
heard, the Court decides, since defendant acknowledges
to have beaten and punished defendant's son, that he has
destroyed his right. Therefore, his demand is dismissed
in this instance; and the Court further orders that de-
24 DUTCH NEW YORK
fendant shall keep his hens and pigs out of the corn, or
otherwise disposition shall be made therein.
New Amsterdam was laid out in streets and lots, and
the Company made great efforts to induce the colonists
to take up the land and build good houses. Great dif-
ficulty was met, however, in fostering agriculture, and
even dairy-farming was neglected for trade, — partic-
ularly illicit trade with the Indians, and smuggling.
The authorities were greatly disturbed over the neglect
in improving the city; and, when Stuyvesant took
charge, he found he had a hard task in enforcing the old
laws and that new measures were necessary. Conse-
quently, in 1647 th^ following ordinance was issued:
Whereas we see and remark by experience the irregu-
larity heretofore and still daily observed in building and
erecting of Houses ; in extending of Lots far beyond
the survey line ; in setting up Hog pens and Privies on
the highways and streets ; in neglecting and omitting duly
to build on granted and conceded lots ; we have resolved
to appoint three Street Surveyors (Roymeesters) to con-
demn and stop all irregular and unsightly buildings,
fences, palisades, posts, Rails, etc. Therefore we Order
and warn all and every of our Subjects, who from now
henceforth are inclined to build on, or inclose any Gardens
or Lots within or near the City New Amsterdam, not to
proceed in the erection or construction thereof without the
previous knowledge of speaking to and survey by the
aforesaid appointed Street Surveyors, under a fine of
25 Carolus guilders and the abatement of what they have
built or set up. In like manner, we will have all and
every who have heretofore received any lots, warned and
notified to build within Nine months from this date, regu-
lar, good and decent houses on their lots, according to law,
or in default thereof, such unimproved Lots shall be for-
feit to the Patroon or Lord Proprietor, or shall be con-
veyed to whomsoever he pleases.
j^^f-.'^onlilf^-
.,,«^w<.
f-^^ffif-.-fV
yk-^'-;
m
i»i 14!! -"iiTTj-, - 13 ', 'vh i'S
k H^,MI.##J>^'-^
From old prints
UK*/: . 4
OLD HOFFER HOUSE
Second Avenue and 83d Street, New York
KIF HOUSE
Kip's Bay, New York
OLD STONE HOUSE
152d Street, Kingsbridge Road, New York
SETTLEMENT AND EARLY CONDITIONS 25
The Dutch have always been famed for extreme
cleanhness, but this appHed only to the interior of their
dwellings. More than one ordinance proves that the
streets were quagmires of filth, and worse. As an
example, we may quote from that of 1657:
Many burghers and inhabitants throw their rubbish,
filth, dead animals and such like things into the public
streets to the great inconvenience of the community and
dangers arising from it. Therefore the Burgomasters and
Schepens ordain and direct that henceforth no one shall
be allowed to throw into the streets or into the graft any
rubbish, filth, ashes, oyster-shells, dead animal or any-
thing like it, but they shall bring all such things to the to
them most convenient of the following places, to wit the
Strand, near the City Hall, near the gallows near Hen-
drick the baker, near Daniel Litscoj where tokens to that
effect shall be displayed, but not on public streets under
a penalty of 3 fl. for the first offence, 6 fl. for the second
and arbitrary punishment for the third.
It was also ordered that every one should keep his
house or lot cleaned.
Sometimes people maliciously annoyed their neigh-
bors by breaking these laws. In 1671,
Martin Simson and Richard Watts having been acces-
sory to the disturbance of the peace in throwing of dirt
before the doors of several of the inhabitants of this
city came this day before the Court, acknowledged their
fault and that they were sorry for it, whereupon the court
did pardon them the said fault.
On Aug. 19, 1658, it was enacted:
As the roads and streets of this City are by the constant
rooting of the hogs made unfit for driving over in wagons
and carts, the Burgomasters and Schepens direct and
order, that every owner of hogs in or about the City
26 DUTCH NEW YORK
shall put a ring through the noses of their hogs to pre-
vent them from rooting within 8 days under a penalty of
2 fl. for each time.
In 1644, Officer Peter Tonneman wishes to
know, whereas some dead hogs lie here and there on the
street, where he shall have them conveyed and by whom,
to prevent the stench, which proceeds therefrom.
He was notified to send the City's negroes, whom he
shall order to collect and bury the same.
CHAPTER II
ORCHARDS AND GARDENS — HOUSES AND STREETS
Ik T the time that the West India Company was
Ljk sending- its first ships across the Atlantic, the
JL JL Dutch had ah^eady attained distinction in the
cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and flowers. Not only
did they produce splendid examples of familiar favor-
ites, but their ships constantly brought home exotics
of all kinds. The Orient supplied many rare seeds,
roots, bulbs, and spices ; and from the Western Hemi-
sphere also came such novelties as the pineapple, sweet
potato, maize, and many plants useful for the table or
for medicine.
The Dutch loved the open air. As soon as business
was over people sat outside on the stoop, in the street,
in the gardens, or in the courtyard. Rich families spent
the entire summer in their country-places on the rivers
and seashore. The meanest dwelling had a little back
garden, if only a few yards square, with a couple of
flower-beds and a bench. At the beginning of the Sev-
enteenth Century the gardens were not yet adorned with
statuary, nor were they inclosed with hedges ; but they
had summer-houses and arbors, furnished with benches
and tables where a light meal could be served. The
majority of the town gardens consisted of four regular
square beds planted with flowers, fruit trees, and
kitchen stuff, and contained a wooden summer-house
with a thatched roof. The garden was enjoyed espe-
27
28 DUTCH NEW YORK
cially in the afternoon. Gardens, however, were costly
things to keep. The Dutch flowers had a world-wide
reputation, and were, for the most part, all grown
around Haarlem and sent from there through Europe
and to New Netherland. The tulips between 1634 and
1637 made many a man poor and rich — tulips that
were considered more costly than gold, pearls, and dia-
monds. In the second half of the Seventeenth Century
the courts and gardens underwent a great change,
especially after Europe was filled with pupils of Le
Notre, the famous architect and landscape gardener of
Versailles, which cost two hundred million francs.
Under their supervision new gardens and courts were
laid out, and a new style was introduced. The square
fences disappeared and were replaced by evergreen
hedges cut in various shapes and fabulous forms and
ornaments. The various plots and flower-beds were
made alike with symmetrical precision. Long straight
paths or lanes separated them, and sometimes they
looked like a chess or checker board. In short, every-
thing about the country-houses was choice, neat, and
costly.
The taste for flowers began to show itself in Holland
at the end of the Sixteenth Century. Beautiful flowers
were introduced from Persia and Constantinople, the
East and West Indies. In his flower garden Hondius
had lilies of all kinds, tulips and hyacinths " all pure
of smell and clear of colour," many kinds of lark-
spur, narcissus, wild saffron, and tea roses. Also
the apocinum canadense, wind-flowers, pinks, gilly-
flowers, sweet peas, violets, anemones, and feather-
grass. D'Outrein adorned his flower-plots at Rozen-
daal with palms and flowers arranged sb beautifully
that they resembled embroidery on a costly robe.
Here he had lilies, red, white, and damask roses, gilly-
GARDENS, HOUSES, AND STREETS 29
flowers, the fragrant lupin, and innumerable flowers
like stars in the Milky Way. Westerbaen was proud
of his fine roses, crocuses, anemones, and summer sots.
At Sorgvliet " a pointed emperor's crown " was in
bloom, although Cats was not a flower fiend. Huy-
gens was fonder of his pine forest than of his flowers ;
but Beverninck should be mentioned next to Clusius
and Paludanus. At Lockhorst he had one of the finest
collections of foreign plants, which had been sent to
him from all parts of the world ; indeed, few ships
entered the Dutch ports without bringing him seeds,
roots, bulbs, or twigs. In addition to rare exotics, he
had lilies, tuberoses, emperor's crowns, hyacinths, tu-
lips, auriculas, fritillaries, and ranunculus. The sweet-
smelling auricula was something of a novelty. It is
unknown who brought it from Switzerland, its native
home; but it was sold largely in Brussels and much
improved in color and fragrance in Holland. The
amaryllis was another favorite flower of the period;
but nothing compared with the tulip in popularity.
The tulip mania began in France in 1635, ^^^^ soon
spread to the Low Countries.
It was only natural that the Dutch colonists should
bring to the New World a love for and knowledge of
flowers. Seeds and bulbs and scions for grafting came
over in many a ship, and soon the gardens of New
Amsterdam were bright and fragrant with blossoms.
Adrian Van der Donck tells us :
The flowers in general which the Netherlanders have
introduced there are the white and red roses of different
kinds, the cornelian roses and stock roses ; and those of
which there were none before in the country, such as
eglantine, several kinds of gillyflowers, jenoffelins, differ-
ent varieties of fine tulips, crown imperials, white lilies,
the lily frutularia, anemones, baredames, violets, mari-
30 DUTCH NEW YORK
golds, summer sots, etc. The clove tree has also been
introduced ; and there are various indigenous trees that
bear handsome flowers, which are unknown in the Nether-
lands. We also find there some flowers of native growth,
as for instance sun flowers, red and yellow lilies, mountain
lilies, morning stars, red, white and yellow maritoffles (a
very sweet flower), several species of bell-flowers, etc.;
to which I have not given particular attention, but ama-
teurs would hold them in high estimation and make them
widely known.
The Company had a garden outside, but not far
from the Fort, on Broadway, which was cultivated by
the Company's negroes for the benefit of the Director
and the other servants of the Company. Its situation
is explained in Jan Damen's lease (see page 15) . From
time to time the Bowery, of which this formed a part,
was leased to various tenants. Many of the settlers
who took up the Company's land used it solely for their
own profit and pleasure, notwithstanding reiterated
orders to the contrary. An ordinance of 1658 calls
attention to this abuse, reciting that
many spacious and large Lots, even in the best and most
convenient part of this City, lie and remain without Build-
ings, and are kept by the owners either for greater profit,
or for pleasure, and others are thereby prevented to build
for the promotion of population and increase of Trade
and consumption, as well as for the embellishment of this
city, whereunto many newcomers would be encouraged in
case they could procure a Lot at a reasonable price on a
suitable location, which neglect, if not contempt, thereof,
is owing principally to the fact that no penalty fine or
amende is imposed by the forementioned Edicts.
A surveyor was therefore appointed, who found
" some hundreds of lots inside the walls of the city
vacant and not built on." Lots were therefore ap-
GARDENS, HOUSES, AND STREETS 31
praised and taxed, the proceeds applied to the forti-
fication of the city and repairs thereof, and
The Director General and Council ordain and command
that, from this time forward, no dwelling-houses shall
be built near or under the Walls or Gates of this City
before or until the Lots herein mentioned are properly
built on.
Gardens were so important in New Netherland that
they were cultivated not merely by the owners, but
sometimes by men whose exclusive occupation was
that of gardening. We hear of a gardener as early as
1639, when P. de Truy, P. van der Linde, and Jan
Hendricksen declare that Edward Wilson had kicked
the wife of Truy's gardener. In 1665 William the
Gardener (de Tenier) lived in the Prince Graft.
In Holland the fruit and vegetable sellers displayed
their wares in baskets in their shops, and also carried
these around from door to door, even on a Sunday.
Fruit was also exhibited by the venders in trays or
porcelain dishes under the broad verandas of the shops,
while on the sidewalk baskets of apples and pears were
also temptingly set out. The favorite apples of the day
were the red and white " calvillen," the gray and white
" renetten," and golden pippins. The best-liked pears
were the " little muscat," " poire Madame," the large
and small banquets, the robin, russet, rousselettes,
beurres, bergamot, long-green, muscat fleury, am-
brette, Saint Germain, Saint Augustin, and Martin-
sec. Smaller baskets and trays were filled with red,
black, and yellow plums; sweet and sour cherries;
black and red morellos; green, white, and black ber-
ries; raspberries " full of juice and flavour " ; medlars,
figs, peaches, and apricots. The melon was rare, al-
though Hondius had some in his garden. Still rarer
32 DUTCH NEW YORK
was the pineapple, said to have been first brought from
America in 15 14, and presented to King Ferdinand,
who ate it and considered it the finest fruit on earth.
The attractive specimens of pears, peaches, grapes,
melons, plums, nectarines, cherries, strawberries, rasp-
berries, etc., as shown in the pictures by De Heem,
Mignon, W. van Aelst, Rachel Ruysch, and other
artists of the Seventeenth Century, prove what the
Dutch horticulturists were able to produce. Therefore,
when the early travelers speak with enthusiasm of the
fruits of the New World, we know that they have a
high standard for criticism. Van der Donck says:
The indigenous fruits consist principally of acorns, some
of which are very sweet ; nuts of different kinds, — chest-
nuts, beechnuts, mulberries, plums, but not many medlars,
wild cherries, black currants, gooseberries, hazel nuts in
great quantities, small apples, very large strawberries
throughout the country, with many other fruits and roots
which the Indians use. There is also plenty of bill-berries
or blue-berries, together with ground-nuts and artichokes,
which grow under ground. Almost the whole land is full
of vines, as well in the wild woods as the mowing lands
and flats ; but they grow principally near to and upon the
banks of the brooks, streams and rivers. . . . The grapes
comprise many varieties, some white, some blue, some
very fleshy and only fit to make raisins of, others, on the
contrary, juicy ; some are very large and others small. . . .
In regard to other fruits all those which grow in Nether-
land, also grow very well in New Netherland, without re-
quiring as much care as is necessary there. Garden fruits
succeed very well, and are drier, sweeter, and more pleas-
ant than in Netherland ; for proof of which we may in-
stance particularly muskmelons, citrons or watermelons,
which in New Netherland grow readily in the open fields
if the briars and weeds are kept from them.
The garden products in the New Netherlands are very
GARDENS, HOUSES, AND STREETS 33
numerous ; some of them have been known to the natives
from the earhest times, and others introduced from dif-
ferent parts of the world, but chiefly from the Nether-
lands. . . . They consist of various kinds of salads, cab-
bages, parsnips, carrots, beets, endive, succory, finckel,
sorrel, dill, spinage, radishes, Spanish radishes, parsley,
chevril (or sweet cicely), cresses, onions, leeks, and be-
sides whatever is commonly found in a kitchen garden.
The herb garden is also tolerably well supplied with rose-
mary, lavender, hyssop, thyme, sage, marjoram, balm,
holy onions (ajuin heylig), wormwood, belury^ chives
and clary ; also pimpernel, dragon's blood, five finger,
tarragon (or dragon's wort), etc., together with laurel,
artichokes and asparagus, and various other things on
which I have bestowed no attention.
The pumpkin grows with little or no cultivation, and
is so sweet and dry that it is used, with the addition of
vinegar and water, for stewing in the same manner as
apples ; and notwithstanding that it is here generally
despised as a mean and unsubstantial article of food, it
is there of so good a quality that our countrymen hold it
in high estimation. I have heard it said, too, that when
properly prepared as apples are with us, it is not inferior
to them, and when baked in ovens it is considered better
than apples. The English, who in general think much of
what gratifies the palate, use it also in pastry, and under-
stand making a beverage from it.
The natives have another species of this vegetable pe-
culiar to themselves, called by our people quaasiens.^ It
is a delightful fruit, as well to the eye on account of its
fine variety of colours, as to the mouth for its agreeable
taste. The ease with which it is cooked renders it a
favourite too with the young women. It is gathered
early in summer, and when it is planted in the middle
• Roger Williams, founder of the colony of Rhode Island, describes
the plant as " Askntasquash, their vine apples, which the English from
them call squashes; about the bigness of apples, of several colours, a
sweet, light, wholesome refreshing." Key into the Languages of the
Indians (London, 1643).
3
34 DUTCH NEW YORK
of April, the fruit is fit for eating by the first of June.
They do not wait for it to ripen before making use of
the fruit, but only until it has attained a certain size.
Cucumbers are abundant. Calabashes or gourds also
grow there; they are half as long as the pumpkin, but
have within very little pulp, and are sought chiefly on
account of the shell, which is hard and durable, and is
used to hold seeds, spices, etc. It is the common water-
pail of the natives, and I have seen one so large that it
would contain more than a bushel.^ Turnips also are as
good and firm as any sand-rapes that are raised in the
Netherlands. There are likewise peas and various sorts
of beans.
The Dutch also had the Indian maize, or corn, and
soon learned to appreciate the famous succotash made
of corn and broad beans.
The Dutch, unaccustomed to the management of vine-
yards, did not succeed very well with the cultivation of
the grape and making of wine. However, they intro-
duced foreign stock and sent to Heidelberg for vine-
dressers ; and in some instances they were rewarded with
success. The Swedes on the South river had succeeded
in making several kinds of excellent wine and had white,
red and blue grapes.
The citrull or water citron {citcriillen ofte zmtcr limo-
enen) also grows there, a fruit that we have not in the
Netherlands, and is only known from its being occasion-
ally brought from Portugal, except to those who have
travelled in warm climates. . . . They grow ordinarily to
the size of a man's head. I have seen them as large as
the biggest Leyden cabbages, but in general they are some-
what oblong. Within they are white or red ; the red have
white and the white black seeds. . . . Women and chil-
dren are very fond of this fruit. It is also quite refresh-
ing from its coolness and is used as a beverage in many
' A Dutch bushel {schepd) is about three pecks.
GARDENS, HOUSES, AND STREETS 35
places. I have heard the English say that they obtain a
hquor from it resembling Spanish wine, but not so strong.
Melons, likewise, grow in the New Netherlands very
luxuriantly, without requiring the land to be prepared
or manured ; there is no necessity for lopping the vines,
or carefully dressing them under glass as is done in this
country ; indeed scarcely any attention is paid to them,
no more than is bestowed here in the raising of cucum-
bers. . . . Melons will thrive, too, in newly cleared wood-
land, when it is freed from weeds ; and in this situation the
fruit which they call Spanish pork grows large and very
abundant. I had the curiosity to weigh one of these
melons, and found its weight to be seventeen pounds.
The mulberries are better and sweeter than ours, and
ripen earlier. Several kinds of plums, wild or small
cherries, juniper, small kinds of apples, many hazel-nuts,
black currants, gooseberries, blue India figs and straw-
berries in abundance all over the country, some of which
ripen at half May and we have them until July ; blue-
berries, raspberries, black-caps, etc., with artichokes,
ground-acorns, ground beans, wild onions and leeks like
ours, with several other kinds of roots and fruits known
to the Indians, who use the same which are disregarded
by the Netherlanders, because they have introduced every
kind of garden vegetables which thrive and yield well.
The country also produces an abundance of fruits like the
Spanish capers, which could be preserved in like manner.
On observing that the climate was suitable to the
production of fruit trees, the Dutch imported both
seeds and apple and pear trees. The English intro-
duced quinces. Orchard cherries also throve well and
produced large fruit.
Spanish cherries, forerunners, morellses, of every kind
we have, as in the Netherlands and the trees bear better
because the blossoms are not injured by the frosts. The
peaches, which are sought after in the Netherlands, grow
36 DUTCH NEW YORK
wonderfully well here. If a stone is put into the earth,
it will spring in the same season, and grow so rapidly as
to bear fruit in the fourth year, and the limbs are fre-
quently broken by the weight of the peaches, which usu-
ally are very fine. We have also introduced morecotoons
(a kind of peach), apricots, several sorts of the best
plums, almonds, persimmons, cornelian cherries, figs, sev-
eral sorts of currants, calissiens and thorn apples; and
we do not aoubt but that the olive would thrive and be
profitable, but we have them not. Although the land is
full of many kinds of grapes, we still want settings of the
best kinds from Germany, for the purpose of enabling
our vine-planters here to select the best kinds and to
propagate the same.
Orchards, as we have seen, had become not only
numerous but valuable possessions of the Dutch col-
onists, who cultivated the native and foreign stock.
When the Labadist Fathers visited the country in 1679-
1680, they were perfectly amazed at the fine specimens
of pears, apples, and peaches offered to them, and the
abundance. This fruit they describe as " exceedingly
fair and good and pleasant to the taste; much better
than that in Holland or elsewhere." They saw many
gardens on the island of Manhattan and on Long Island
so laden with apples, peaches, and other fruit that " one
might doubt whether there were more leaves or fruit
on them." They confessed they had never seen in Eu-
rope, even in the best of seasons, anything to equal it ;
for though " quantities had fallen off, the trees were
still as full as they could bear." Again they were aston-
ished to find peach trees " all laden with fruit to break-
ing down, and many of them actually broken down " ;
while hogs and other animals were enjoying their fill.
On both sides of the Hudson near Spuyten Duyvel
they also found delicious peaches, and in such quanti-
GARDENS, HOUSES, AND STREETS 37
ties that the road was lined with them, and they were
told that the hogs were so satiated with them that they
would not eat any more. Here they also found blue
grapes " as sweet and good as any in Fatherland."
They also remarked a fine orchard belonging to the
tavern near the church in the Fort on Manhattan
Island. " Among other trees," they say, " we observed
a mulberry tree, the leaves of which were as large as
a plate. The wife showed us pears larger than the
fist, picked from a three years graft, which had borne
forty of them."
A typical orchard was that found by Tienhoven,
Secretary, who in 1639 " went and behind the house
which Anthony Jansen from Salee sold to Barent
Dircksen, found 12 apple trees, 40 peach trees and y^
cherry trees, 26 sage plants and 15 vines."
Montanus, 1671, says that some plants imported
from Holland thrive better than at home, especially
the apple, pear, quince, cherry, plum, currant, apricot,
buckthorn, medlar, peach, and onion.
Vines grow wild everywhere and bear in abundance blue
and white muscatels and pork-grapes (spek-druiven).
Some time since, the wine press was successfully intro-
duced. The wine was equal to any Rhenish or French
wine. Every vegetable known to the Dutch is cultivated
in the gardens. Water melons as savory as they are whole-
some, are, when ripe, as large as cabbage. The English
extract a liquor from them which would be no wise in-
ferior to Spanish wine did it not turn sour too soon.
Gourds when cleaned out serve as water vessels. Tobacco
produces leaves five quarters long. Pumpkins grow
luxuriant and agreeable. Corn, sowed in hills six feet
apart, sprouts up readily and prosperously if properly
weeded. Turkish beans, planted beside the corn, wind
themselves around the stalk. Grey peas prosper here so
38 DUTCH NEW YORK
well that two crops are gathered in the year from one
field. Medicinal plants and indigo grow wild in abun-
dance. The barley can be tied above the head. Further-
more, all sorts of flowers have a pleasant odour and
appearance.
The products of orchards and gardens were fully
appreciated by others as well as their rightful owners.
Robbing orchards was a pleasant, popular, and pre-
sumably profitable pursuit, until the authorities stepped
in and discouraged the pastime with heavy penalties.
We read under date Nov. 25, 1638 :
Whereas complaints are made that the gardens of many
persons have been robbed and their poultry taken away,
if there be any one who can give information of the
thieves, he shall be paid 25 guilders as a reward [if an
accomplice, pardoned and name concealed].
Again, July i, 1647:
Everyone is warned against doing any damage to
Farms, Orchards and Gardens, either to the fences or
fruits. [Penalty, "100 guilders besides an arbitrary
correction."]
Four-footed intruders were even more destructive
than human marauders, as we gather from the ordi-
nance of 1648 forbidding goats or hogs to be pastured
between the fortifications and the Fresh Water.
Mr. Woolley, in his Tzvo Years Journal in New
York (1678-1680), gives us a description of a bear
hunt in an orchard :
I was with others that have had very good diversion
and sport with them [Bears] in an orchard of Mr. John
Robinson's of New York, where we followed a Bear from
GARDENS, HOUSES, AND STREETS 39
Tree to Tree, upon which he could swarm like a Cat ;
and when he was got to his resting-place, perch'd upon
a high branch, we dispatc"d a youth after him with a
Club to an opposite bough, who knocking his Paws he
comes grumbling down backwards with a thump upon
the ground, so we after him again. His descending back-
wards is a thing particularly remarkable.
The first care of the West India Company was natu-
rally for the safety of its servants and storehouse, and
therefore a fort was built of sufficient size to inclose
barracks, a church, a windmill, a may-pole, the Com-
pany's buildings, and a gibbet. Into this the settlers
could retire in case of Indian attack. Beyond it a
small town was laid out, and further protected by a
strong palisade with gates that were shut at night.
Michaelius wrote in 1628:
They fell much wood here to carry to Fatherland, but
the vessels are too few to take much of it. They are
making a windmill to saw the wood : and we also have
a gristmill. They bake brick here, but it is very poor.
There is good material for burning lime, namely oyster
shells in large quantities. The burning of potash has not
succeeded ; the master and his labourers are all greatly
disappointed. We are busy now in building a fort of
good quarry stone, which is to be found not far from
here in abundance. May the Lord only build and watch
over our walls.
The houses gradually increased and were planted
along the lines of the Fort and shores of the river.
The river front in these days came up to Pearl Street,
and from Whitehall to Broad, the border of the river
was called the Strand.
In 1642, two very important buildings were erected,
— the city tavern, constructed of stone or brick, two or
40 DUTCH NEW YORK
three stories high, with sloping roof and dormer win-
dows (which at a later date became the Stadt Huys, or
City Hall, for both Dutch and English) ; and the
church in the Fort. There was also a road to the Ferry
from the Fort, and a line of pickets where Wall Street
is now situated. We learn that on March 31, 1644,
" a good solid fence was ordered to be erected from
the great Bouwery across to the plantation of Eman-
uel." All persons who wished their cattle pastured
in security were called to assist in erecting the fence
with proper tools, and those who failed were excluded
from the privileges of the inclosed meadow (see
page 18).
The forests supplied magnificent timber for building
purposes, and so the first houses were usually built
of wood with thatched roofs. Some houses, however,
were built of brick and stone with tiled roofs, and
some wooden houses had brick chimneys. The Com-
pany at first supplied the bricks and tiles from Amster-
dam, but very soon there were brick kilns on Manhattan
Island, at Fort Orange, and in the Dutch settlement on
the Delaware. Jan A. de Graaf owned a brick kiln
in New Amsterdam in 1658; and ten years later 1250
hard bricks cost twenty-four florins in Fort Orange.
Not only brick but stone was used in the construction
of the more important edifices. The price of brick and
the extent to which it entered into the building of the
early houses of New Amsterdam may be gathered from
the records. When the West India Company leased
the Bouwery at Hoboken to H. C. van Vorst in 1639,
4000 bricks were delivered to him to build the chim-
ney ; all other necessaries were at his own expense. On
May 29, 1643, Laurens Cornelissen delivered with his
house " stone enough to build an oven capable of bak-
ing a schepel and a half of wheat." On Nov. 2, 1643,
GARDENS, HOUSES, AND STREETS 41
Dirck Cornelissen received a note for twenty-five guil-
ders for building a chimney.
Tienhoven's requisitions to the West India Company
in 1650 include " three or four house carpenters who
can lay brick " ; and in 1659 the " list of materials,
particularly required " contained the following items :
12,000 tiles @ 18 g fl. 216.00
100,000 hard brick @ 4 400.00
20 hogsheads lime @ ^j4 65.00
10 chaldron smith's coals 174.00
The records contain several lawsuits regarding
bricks. On May 29, 1657, Peter Bosboom was fined
for breach of contract in refusing to manufacture
brick for Peter Bent.
In 1642, John and Richard Ogden, of Stamford,
contracted to build a stone church in New Amster-
dam, seventy-two feet long by fifty-two feet broad,
and sixteen feet high above the ground, for 2500
guilders.
La Montague, in 1661, reports to Stuyvesant that
he has bought at Fort Orange 3000 bricks at ten guil-
ders in beaver the thousand and 3000 for twenty-two
guilders in wampum.
In 1660, " Cornells Barensen, baker, requests to be
appointed Teller of the Bricks and Tiles coming from
Fatherland and other places, as he cannot support his
family as measurer of grain and lime and siinilar
things." His petition was granted, and " for fee shall
draw four stivers per thousand."
In 1653, a very good brickmaker came out in the
Graft, with the Directors' recommendation to Stuyve-
sant ** to allot for him so suitable a place as his circum-
stances and the fitness of it for a brickyard require."
In April, 1658, we find an order extending the time
42 DUTCH NEW YORK
for covering W. P. de Groot's house in New Amster-
dam with tiles until he received them from Holland or
Fort Orange.
Stuyvesant himself, not liking the governor's house
in the Fort, built a fine stone house about where State
and Whitehall Streets now are. He had a pretty gar-
den here with ornamental shrubs and flowers, had his
grounds neatly inclosed by a wall and strengthened by
wooden sidings as a protection from the river, and had
a private dock for his barge of state. The house re-
ceived the name Whitehall. He also had a country
home, the Bouwery.
There is ample evidence that glass was used in the
windows of all but the humblest houses. Much of
it, but by no means all, was imported from Holland.
The pane in general use measured twelve inches high
by eight inches wide. The glazier's craft was well
worth following, and was not confined to imported
labor. In the court records we read, for example, "Oct.
6th, 1648, Cornells Jansen was indentured to Evert
Duyckkink to learn the trade of a glazier."
On Jan. 12, 1654, Hendrick Hendricksen complains
that Claes Croon " sometime back took with him six
panes of glass out of his house to make them somewhat
smaller so as to fit, which up to the present date he has
not returned, whereby he suffers great inconvenience
at this wintry season." Defendant was ordered to set
in the panes within three days, but was contumacious,
and the shivering Hendricksen had to go to court
again. On March 23, 1655, Mr. Croon was sum-
moned by another customer, Poulus Heymans, for not
delivering ten panes of common glass for which he
had been paid seventy guldens and was fined twenty-
five guldens.
In 1657, the Directors notify Stuyvesant that they
GARDENS, HOUSES, AND STREETS 43
are sending out a consignment of leaden window
frames.
In numerous pictures by the Little Masters we see
coats-of-arms in colored glass in the windows of the
prosperous class. This taste was undoubtedly indulged
also in New Netherland. One of the earliest workers
in this art was the above Evert Duyckinck. On Oct. 9,
1656,
Evert Duycking requests by petition to be informed
from whom he is to receive payment for the glass which
he put in the Church for Schout, Burgomasters and
Schepens, demanding 2^ beavers for each. The Court
decides that petitioner shall go to each one for whom the
glass was for his payment either in trade, or as he can
agree for the same.
Evert had two sons, one of whom was the mate of
the ship that brought over the Labadist Fathers, and
the other, Gerrit, who followed his father's business.
When the Fathers visited Esopus, they had the com-
panionship of Gerrit, who was going there with colored
glass for the church windows. In 1658,
De Sille and Van der Vin, Churchwardens, report that
they have agreed with Claas Marschalk to repair the
glass in the church which he undertook for a reasonable
price ; but he rendered unto them an unreasonable a/c
therefor, producing the same, with a request that the
magistrates examine the same. Claas Marschalk says he
calculated according to the Church work, and has had
great trouble to set the lozenges in the arms in their
proper places. Burgomasters and Schepens refer the
matter in question to Cornells Steenwyck, old Schepen
and now Orphan Master of this City, and to Adolf Pieter-
sen, to take up the a/c, to discuss and decide the same;
to reconcile parties if possible; if not, to report their con-
clusion to the Court.
44 DUTCH NEW YORK
The following contract to build an inn is descriptive
of house-building here in 1655 :
We, Carpenters, Jan Cornelisen, Abram Jacobsen and
Jan Hendricksen, have contracted to construct a house
over the ferry of Egbert Van Borsum, ferry-man, thirty
feet long and eighteen inches wide, with an outlet of
four feet, to place in it seven girders, with three tran-
some windows and one door in the front, the front to be
planed and grooved, and the rear front to have boards
overlapped in order to be tight, with door and windows
therein ; and a floor and garret grooved and planed be-
neath (on the under side) ; to saw the roof thereon, and
moreover to set a window-frame with a glass light in
the front side ; to make a chimney mantel and to wain-
scot the foreroom below, and divide it in the centre across
with a door in the partition ; to set a window frame with
two glass lights therein ; further to wainscot the east side
the whole length of the house, and in the recess two bed-
steads, one in the front room and one in the inside room,
with a pantry at the end of the bedstead (betse) ; a wind-
ing staircase in the fore-room. Furthermore we, the car-
penters are bound to deliver all the square timber — to
wit, beams, posts and frame timber, with the pillar for
the winding staircase, spars and worm and girders, and
foundation timbers required for the work ; also the spikes
and nails for the interior work ; also rails for the wainscot
are to be delivered by us.
For which work Egbert van Borsum is to pay five
hundred and fifty guilders, one-third in beavers, one-
third in good merchantable wampum, one-third in good
silver coin, and free passage over the ferry so long as
the work continues, and small beer to be drunk during
work.
We have subsequently contracted with said Egbert Van
Borsum to build a cellar-kitchen under said house, and
to furnish the wood for it — to wit, beams and frame
timber. There must be made two door frames and two
GARDENS, HOUSES, AND STREETS 45
circular frames with windows therein, with a stairway
to enter it, and to line the stairs in the cellar round about
with boards, with a chimney mantel in the kitchen, and
to groove and plane the ceiling. Egbert must excavate
the cellar at his own expense. The carpenters must fur-
nish the nails. For this work one hundred guilders
are promised, together with one whole good otter skin.
Moreover, Egbert must deliver all the flat woodwork re-
quired for the house — to wit, boards and wainscotting.
A typical dwelling of the middle of the century is
also seen in the
Conditions and terms on which Jacob Kip proposes to sell
publicly, to the highest bidder his house kitchen hen or
hog yard and lot lying in the City of [New] Amsterdam
over against the house of Heer Olofif Stevense [Van
Cortland], as the same is occupied by him. The house
two and thirty feet long and twenty feet broad inclosed
with thick planks and a glazed pantile roof, has a garret
and floor, cellar walled up three four or five feet with
stone, and has a brick chimney in the front room, also
a shop, the partition walls of bricks, the inner room built
up with brick all around {rondtom) bedstead, counting-
house and larder therein ; besides the aforesaid house,
there is a kitchen eight or nine feet wide and seventeen
or eighteen feet long, on the side of the house, with a
brick chimney, in use by him, together with a hen or hog
yard in the rear, and the place paved with bricks and an
apple tree therein, also a common gangway on the west
side of the house six feet wide and a common well, and
what more is thereon and fast in earth and nailed except
the andirons (handicer) and hearth stone.
In John Josselyn's Account of Tzvo Voyages to
New England, 1674, we read:
New York is built with Dutch brick alla-moderna, the
meanest house therein being valued at one hundred
46 DUTCH NEW YORK
pounds ; to the landward it is compassed with a wall of
good thickness.
The house (facing page 40) which stands on Cro-
ton Point, has suffered little change since it was built
in 1 68 1. It was originally a block house built by
Governor Dongan as a rendezvous for his fishing-
parties and conferences with the Indians. It was
bought from the Indians by Stephanus van Cortlandt,
son of Olaff Stevenson, who came to Manhattan, a
soldier from Courland, with Kieft, The estate, which
consisted of 85,000 acres, extending into Connecticut,
was erected into a manor and lordship in 1697. The
walls are of reddish freestone, are three feet thick, and
pierced with loopholes, which are seen in the illustra-
tion facing page 48.
A famous farm and dwelling was that of Frederick
Philipse (of Flypsen, as it was originally written), who,
born in Friesland in 1626 and a carpenter by trade,
sought fortune and found it in New Amsterdam. In
1662, he married the energetic Margaret Harden-
brook, widow of Peter Rudolphus De Vries, a mer-
chant-trader of New Amsterdam, who left her a large
fortune. Margaret Philipse went repeatedly to Holland
in her own ships and bought and traded in her own
name. Philipse soon became the richest man in New
Amsterdam; and soon after Margaret's death remar-
ried, in 1692, another heiress, Catharine van Cortlandt,
widow of John Derval, and daughter of Olaff Stevensz
van Cortlandt. His house, built in 1682, altered and
enlarged by his grandson, is still standing ; and is now
used as the Town Hall of Yonkers. The original
staircase was brought from Holland. The house was
surounded by fine trees and gardens in its early days.
Philipse also had two hundred and forty square miles.
GARDENS, HOUSES, AND STREETS 47
— Fredericksborough (Sleepy Hollow), where he
built, in 1683, Castle Philipse, a stone fortification for
protection against the Indians; and in 1699 he and his
wife, Catharine van Cortlandt, built the church at
Sleepy Hollow. Other houses of the period face
page 24.
Stuyvesant appointed surveyors of streets and build-
ings; and in 1655 Allard Anthony, burgomaster, and
Dr. La Montagne, councilor, were a committee to re-
port on the work of the surveyors. A dock was con-
structed on the East River side, and the streets were
regularly laid out and named. New Amsterdam now
began to assume the appearance of a town.
At this period was also constructed the Schoeyinge,
a sort of sea wall, or siding of boards, that reached
from the City Hall at Coenties Slip to the Water Gate
at Wall Street. The boards were placed in endwise
and then elevated. The Schoeyinge was begun in 1655,
and in the next year, it being determined that the
whole Strand should be thus protected, tlie burgomas-
ters and schepens ordered all dwellers or owners of
yards on the East River between the gate and the City
Hall to build up and line their property with boards.
H they failed, a fine of twenty-five guilders was ex-
acted. On the northern side of Wall Street from the
East to the Hudson River a line of defense was erected,
called the Palisades.
In 1653, the Committee decided that the Palisades
must be twelve feet long, eighteen inches in circum-
ference, sharpened at the upper end, and be set in line.
At each rod a post twenty-one inches in circumference
was to be set, to which rails, split for the purpose,
were to be nailed one foot below the top. The breast-
work was to be four feet high, four feet at the bottom,
and three feet at the top, covered with sods, with a
48 DUTCH NEW YORK
ditch three feet wide and two feet deep, two feet and
a half within the breastwork; the length of the ground
to be lined with palisades i8o rods, " the end of the
rods being the last of the money." Thomas Baxter
undertook to deliver all posts and rails for twenty
stivers for each post and rail together.
On Jan. 4, 1655, a petition was presented for en-
larging the city gate at the East River so as to permit
the passage of a cart and for repairing the road.
We have already seen (page 25) that the average
burgher was not careful in keeping the streets clean,
nor did he hesitate to cumber the way with building
material or any other bulky goods if convenient for
his own business. In the inventory of the effects of
Cornelis Steenwyck, for example, we notice consider-
able lumber in the street, consisting of fir planks,
iron anchor, boards, Holland pan tiles, etc. In 1656,
Stuyvesant made a formal and personal complaint,
among other things, of " crowding of the streets with
stone and timber, so that no carts or wagons can pass."
The first street, or dirt road, in the city to be paved
by the authorities was paid for grudgingly by those
even who had petitioned for the improvement. In
1658, Schepen Isaack de Forest appears in court com-
plaining that the " Inhabitants of the Brewer's street
(now Stone Street) who imposed on themselves the
tax for the benefit of the street in order to its being
paved, are unwilling to pay, requesting that the Magis-
trates be pleased to order payment."
In 1660, when the account for making and sheeting
the Heere Graght (the Canal) was rendered in court,
it was ordered that each resident or occupant of a lot
on both banks should pay " in discharge of said ex-
penses on so much as he possesses, the sum of Forty
guilders in Zewant per rod, and the foot in proportion."
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GARDENS, HOUSES, AND STREETS 49
There was great trouble in collecting this tax. Nearly
all the dwellers along the canal refused to pay, and,
when summoned, obstinately said they would neither
pay the assessment nor the fine, — they would rather
go to prison. The authorities were fain to treat the
offenders with considerable leniency. It would seem
that the work was not done, after all, for twelve years
later (1672) we read:
Whereas his honn^ the Gouvern'" hath severall times
Recommended to this Court the Makeing up of y^ Mote
or Graft of this Citty, the Worshipp" Court have there-
fore thought fit and do hereby Strictly Order that y® s<^
Mote or graft schall be made up by y® Owners of y®
houses or Lotts that do live about uppon y^ s^ mote or
otherwise by y^ tennants of y^ houses for y^ Owners
accounts in manner and forme following, viz.
Imprimus from y^ Waterside upwards to the bridge over
against y® Stone Street to be Repaired and made and
finished in y® same forme and manner as M^ Johannis
de Peyster hat already begunn to be made and finished the
s^ owners of y^ Houses and Lotts or y^ Tennants for
y^ Owners accounts w'^'^ in y^ space of two months next
Ensuing y^ date hereof.
A paved street in New Amsterdam was like many
a one still to be seen in old towns in Europe, where the
gutter is a broad gully in the middle of the street,
which must be crossed by stepping-stones when rain
turns the thoroughfare into a brawling stream. We
may gain a clear idea of a model street of the day
(1670) from the "Orders and Instructions for Mr
Johannes de Peister, Isaacq Greveraet, Coeuraet ten
Eyck and Hendrick Willemsen Backer, Overseers
appointed for the Laying out and Paveing of the
Streets " :
4
50 DUTCH NEW YORK
Imprimis: The sd. Overzeers are hereby required to
order that the Streetes w'^'^ are to be paved be laid out as
level and even as possible may be, according to the Con-
venience of the Streets.
2ndly. That the Passage be Raised about one foot
higher then the Middle of the Streete to the end the
Water may take its Course from the passages towards the
Middle of the Streets aforesaid.
3rdly And in Case the Neighbours are Inclined to
wards the paveing of the Whole Streetes, they have lib-
erty soo to doe, provided that all the Neighbours do
Jointly agree about the same.
Flimsy construction led to the appointment of fire-
wardens in 1648:
The Hon^i^ Director General and Council having seen
and observed that some careless people neglect to keep
their Chimneys clean by sweeping, and do not pay atten-
tion to their fires, whereby recently two Houses were
burned and greater damage is to be expected in future
from fire, the rather as the houses here in New Amster-
dam are for the most part built of Wood and thatched
with Reed, besides which the Chimneys of some of the
houses are of wood, which also is most dangerous ; There-
fore the Hon'^'^ General and Council Ordain, enact and
command as they hereby do, that from now henceforward
no Chimneys shall be built of wood or [lath and] plaister
in any houses between the Fort and the Fresh Water, but
those already enacted may remain until further order and
pleasure of the Firewardens ; and in order that the fore-
going shall be well observed, to that end are appointed
Fire-wardens — from the Hon'^'^ Council, Commissary
Adriaen d' Keyser ; from the Commonality, Thomas Hall,
Marten Crigier and George Wolsey, with power at their
pleasure to see if the Chimneys in all houses situate and
standing within this city every where around, between
this Fort and the Fresh Water, are kept well cleaned by
sweeping, and if any one be found negligent he shall,
GARDENS, HOUSES, AND STREETS 51
every time the Firewardens aforesaid examine and find
the Chimneys foul, pay them forthwith, without any con-
tradiction, a fine of three Guilders for every flue found
on examination to be dirty, to be expended for Fire
ladders. Hooks and Buckets which shall be procured and
provided at the earliest and most convenient opportunity,
and if any one's house be burned, or be the cause of fire,
either through negligence or by his own fire, he shall
forfeit 25 florins to be applied as above.
Jan Vinje complains (Aug. 28, 1656) that " Kint
in 't Water's wife goes carelessly night and day with
fire through her own and her neighbours lots, whereby
they are in great danger of fire; and that he has not
repaired his house nor erected chimneys. Kint in 't
Water says he brought the plank ; the stone and nails
he cannot yet obtain ; he promises to do all in his power
to prevent any disaster." The court ordered him to
inclose his house and make chimneys according to the
order of the Street Inspectors, allowing him fourteen
days' time at the farthest, provided that meanwhile
he take good care that no misfortune occurs.
It will be noticed that the dweller in New Amster-
dam was not particularly docile under his paternal rule,
nor did he take kindly to the various ordinances that
interfered with his doing what seemed to him good
in his own eyes regarding his own house and grounds.
The fact that municipal ordinances on the same sub-
ject were repeated with little apparent effect, more in
sorrow than in anger sometimes, shows this. It would
appear that the officers who were appointed to see that
the rules and regulations were observed were not al-
ways treated with the respect that was their due. For
instance, in 1658 Solomon La Chair was called up for
correction. On being visited by the Fire Inspector he
had called him a chimney-sweeper, and in his patois
52 DUTCH NEW YORK
had exclaimed, "Is it to have a little cock booted and
spurred ! " Their Worships decided :
As it is not seemly that men should mock and scoff at
those persons who are appointed by the Magistracy to
any office — yea a necessary office, they therefore condemn
Solomon La Chair in a fine of twelve guilders.
No Dutch town, however small, could exist without
its schuttcry; and consequently we find at quite an
early period the Burgher Wacht (Citizen's Watch or
Guard), consisting of two companies, one of which
carried a blue and the other an orange ensign. As
they had trouble to get fire-arms, Stuyvesant supplied
them from the Company's chest. At a later period
the Rattle Watch was instituted, consisting of six men
whose duty was to patrol the streets at night, to arrest
thieves, to give alarm in case of fire, and all other
warnings. They carried a large rattle. In 1658, on
going the rounds the watch was required to call out
" how late it is at all the corners of the streets from
nine o'clock in the evening until the reveille beat in the
morning." Each man received eighteen guilders a
month. In January, 1674:
From now henceforward the Burgher Watch of this
City shall be set and commence at drumbeat about half
an hour before sun down when the train bands of this
City then on guard shall parade before the City Hall of
this City.
The City gate shall be closed at sun down by the Mayor
of this City and his attendant trainbands and in like man-
ner opened at sun rise.
The Burghery and inhabitants of this City and all others
of what quality soever they may be, the watch alone ex-
cepted, are strictly interdicted and forbid to attempt com-
ing from sunset to sunrise on the bulwarks, bastions or
batteries of this City on pain of bodily correction.
GARDENS, HOUSES, AND STREETS t,^
It is strictly forbidden and prohibited, that any person,
be he who he may, presume to land within this City or
quit the same in any other manner, way or means than
through the ordinary City gate on pain of Death.
In 1697, the streets were first lighted. At every
seventh house a pole was projected on which hung a
lantern. When there was a " light moon," the candle
was not lighted in the lanterns. A night watch of four
men with the old rattle patrolled the streets.
In February, 1670, all the city carmen were sum-
moned to court because of a complaint that several of
them neglected their duty " in taking good care for
the goods which they do cart for the burghers and
strangers, as also, that some of them do many times
use ill and bad language to the burghers." They
were warned to mend their ways on pain of
dismissal.
On Dec. 16, 1659, Romein Servein was fined twelve
guilders because he *' was found one Sunday riding
with his cart on the strand ; also whilst driving his
cart was sitting on his cart." The court also granted
the Schout's request " for himself and the Under
Schout that they may seize the cart whenever they find
any carters sitting riding on their carts along the
streets." Thomas Verdon, another delinquent, pleaded
" he sat on the cart while riding through the mud, and
until he should have time to drive up to the hill." The
court fined him six guilders, " because driving on the
street he remained seated on the cart."
In 1678, Governor Andros says: "Our principal
places of trade are New York and South'ton except
Albany for the Indians, our buildings most wood,
some lately stone and brick, good country houses and
strong of their several kinds." Governor Dongan,
nine years later, reports :
54 DUTCH NEW YORK
The principal towns are New York, Albany and King-
ston. All the rest are country villages. The buildings in
New York and Albany are generally of brick and stone.
In the country the houses are mostly new built, having
two or three rooms on a floor. The Dutch are great im-
provers of land.
In 1685, William Byrd v^^rites:
To Bro. Dan'l per Ruds.
I was a great part of last Summer at N. Yorke, about
100 Leagues to the Northward of this place, and found a
very Honorable reception there from the noble Governor
(Col Thomas Dongan) and all the Gent, of that place. It
is a prety pleasant towne consisting of about 700 Houses,
and a very handsome strong forte, wherein is the Gov-
ernor's House, a great Church, Secretary's office and con-
venient Lodgings for the officers and Soldiers of the
Garrison, with other conveniences. The Inhabitants are
about six eighths Dutch, the remainder French and
English.
When Madam Knight visited New York in 1707,
the city was still characteristically Dutch. She writes :
The Cittie of New York is a pleasant, well compacted
place, situated on a commodious River w^^ is a fine har-
bour for shipping. The Buildings, Brick generally, very
stately and high, though not altogether like ours in Boston.
The Bricks in some of the Houses are of divers Coullers
and laid in Checkers, being glazed look very agreeable.
The inside of them are neat to admiration, the wooden
work, for only the walls are plastered and the Sumers*
and Gist are plained and kept very white scowr'd, as so is
all the partitions if made of Bords. The fireplaces have
no Jambs (as ours have). But the Backs run flush with
the walls, and the Hearth is of Tyles, and is as farr out
* Sumers is "the central beam supporting the joist," sometimes
called the " bearing-beam."
N IRANCE DOOR OF THE VAN CORTLANDT MANOR HOUSE
CROTON-ON-HUDSON
GARDENS, HOUSES, AND STREETS 55
into the Room at the Ends as before the fire, w^^ is gener-
ally Five foot in the Low'r rooms, and the peice over
where the Mantle tree should be is made as ours with
Joyners work, and I suppose is fastened to iron rodds in-
side. The house where the Vendue was had Chimney
Corners like ours, and they and the hearths were laid with
the finest tile that I ever see and the stair cases laid all
with white tile, which is ever clean, and so are the walls
of the Kitchen w*^^ had a Brie' floor.
Two years later, also, John Lawson says:
The buildings are generally of a smaller sort of Flemish
brick, and of the Dutch fashion (excepting some few
houses). They are all very firm and good work, and con-
veniently placed, as is likewise the town, which gives a
very pleasing prospect of the neighbouring islands and
rivers. A good part of the inhabitants are Dutch.
CHAPTER III
COSTUME
THOUGH the wives of the rich merchants
of New Amsterdam did not pay $80 a yard for
cloth of gold for a dress, as did some ladies
of the period in Holland, there is evidence that they
dressed in the rich style of their relatives at home. The
Dutch government tried in vain to check what it con-
sidered the waste of money in over-dressing, and even
prohibited gold and silver fringe. Poets, too, deplored
the increasing lavishness in dress, and the splendor
was ridiculed on the stage, as it was denounced from
the pulpit. Robes of silk, sarcenet, velvet, satin, and
serge in all the fashionable hues of the day, — scarlet,
purple, amaranth, fire color, rose color, dead leaf color,
ash gray, and fawn and mauve, — trimmed with bows
and knots of ribbons, braids, gold, silver, or silk
fringes, pendants, bugles, and lace; petticoats lined
with taffeta and bright with golden flowers embroi-
dered by skillful fingers; black velvet lined with cloth
of gold or silver; filmy ruffs and crisp, sheer caps;
innumerable chains of gold and strands of pearls;
gold bodkins for the hair; scented gloves and high-
heeled shoes; muffs, fans, masks, and fine handker-
chiefs, and a chatelaine upon the various chains of
which hung scent-bottles, pomanders, writing-tablets,
pencils, seals, charms, and other trinkets — formed a
costume that was full of beauty, elegance, and charm.
The rich petticoat and the overdress, the sets of extra
56
COSTUME 57
sleeves embellished with lace ruffles, and the flowered
calicoes that came from the East, the night-rails, the
love hoods, the flowing robes, the fine furs, the laces,
and the jewels that we see in the portraits of the day,
were sent across the ocean, or made here by native
seamstresses and tailors.
Among his shop goods Dr. De Lange had an East
India waxed (lacquered) cabinet with brass bands and
hinges, worth £4; and within it were the delightful
small trinkets that so delight the heart of woman.
Gloves, ribbons, laces, fourteen fans, and seven purses
were contained in the first partition ; laces, buckles, and
ribbons in the second; cloth in the third; caps in the
fourth ; garters, scarfs, bands, fans, and girdles in
the fifth ; fringe, calico, and silk in the sixth ; silk and
materials for purses in the seventh ; and spectacles,
etc., in the eighth. In another small " waxed East
India trunk " he kept " hat bands, chains," etc.
Five women's fans are also mentioned in Cornelis
Steenwyck's inventory; and three tortoiseshell combs
appear in Matthew Taylor's. Mrs. De Lange had a
mask, and Mrs. Asser Levy, a muff. The fan was
rarely absent from a lady's hand; and from the East
the folding fan arrived, with its sweet-scented sandal-
wood or carved ivory sticks and its beautifully painted
gauze or paper mounts. Fans were also made of
rounded cardboard upon which feathers of various
colors were artistically fastened.
Towards the end of the century tlie following arti-
cles could be purchased in a New Amsterdam shop : five
Holland sleeves with lace ruffles ; six pairs of sleeves
with Holland ruffles ; thirteen pairs of sleeves with Hol-
land ruffles ; six cravats ; twenty-five cravats with neck-
bands ; twenty-seven with neckbands ; two white hand-
kerchiefs; two hats with cases ; one pair of boots ; one
58 DUTCH NEW YORK
cane; two pairs of shoes; one bottle of Hungary
water ; one pair of red slippers ; one girdle, four pairs
of woolen mittens; five white woolen nightcaps; one
pair of leather stockings ; four pairs of silk stockings ;
one pair of yarn stockings ; three pairs of woolen un-
der stockings; two pairs of thread stockings; three
pairs of leather gloves ; two calico stomachers ; twenty-
nine shirts; six calico nightcaps; fifteen linen wo-
men's petticoats; three pairs of linen petticoats; one
blue cloak; one calico waistcoat with white fringe;
two white flannel shirts; one white lined ditto with
ivory buttons ; one silk waistcoat ; one cloth waistcoat ;
two pairs of cloth breeches ; two pairs of striped linen
breeches; one pair of leather breeches; six pairs of
coarse linen ditto; two nightgowns; nine red silk
handkerchiefs ; sixteen white and twelve blue handker-
chiefs ; six gray neckcloths with gold ; nineteen white
neckcloths with gold ; fifteen dozen without gold ; one
piece of white handkerchief; twelve pieces of gray
handkerchief, half silk; nineteen ditto, red; three
ditto gray, half red silk.
In another shop, in 1692, there are fourteen chil-
dren's coats, six pairs of boys' woolen stockings, six
pairs of men's scarlet worsted stockings, one pair white
stockings, nineteen yards black gauze, three pairs of silk
stockings, 1865^ yards black crape, two dozen ivory
combs, four dozen ditto, five dozen ditto, 4000 pins
for lace.
One of the chief articles of a lady's dress was the
petticoat. This petit cotte was originally what is now
termed the skirt, over which was worn a silk, velvet, or
cloth jacket, often trimmed with fur; or a kind of
polonaise, the skirt of which was looped up or turned
back to show the handsome petticoat.
When Washington Irving accused the Dutchwomen
COSTUME 59
of New Amsterdam of wearing half a dozen petti-
coats, he seems to have thought, in the first place, that
a petticoat was an undergarment in those days, as it
now is; and, in the second place, that a Dutchwoman
wore all the petticoats she possessed at the same time.
The petticoat was of silk, satin, velvet, cloth, or linen,
and was, moreover, sometimes trimmed around the
bottom with gold or silver braid, embroidery, or lace.
Wealthy ladies in Holland wore scarlet cloth petticoats,
but less rich burghers' wives contented themselves with
purple or blue serge, or linen. The fashionable scarlet
occurs in many New Amsterdam wardrobes. The
" widdow Elizabeth Partridge" in 1669 has six petti-
coats ; a red cloth one is valued at £2 and one of red
camlet at £10. She also has a black gros grain petti-
coat; a "blew silk petticoat," worth £6; and a hand-
some embroidered white petticoat, worth £2 los. od.
Mrs, Asser Levy, 1682, had six petticoats. One is
described as blue, another scarlet, and a third silk, and
she " also has one woman's suite with a red petticoat."
Mrs. De Lange had a handsome red cloth petticoat
with black lace, a black " pottosoo " petticoat with
black silk lining, a black pottosoo petticoat with black
" taffety " lining, a black silk petticoat with ash gray
silk lining, two petticoats with gray lining, two petti-
coats with white lining, one with printed lace and one
without lace, one colored drugget petticoat with a red
lining, one striped stuff petticoat, one scarlet petti-
coat, and one under petticoat with a body red bay.
Fifteen linen women's petticoats are mentioned in
John Coesart's inventory. The petticoat was worn
over a large circular hoop that rested on the hips, giv-
ing " a pleasant round appearance to the figure." A
heavy linen underskirt was worn beneath the petticoat.
Mrs. Matthew Clarkson had two white petticoats, three
6o DUTCH NEW YORK
black petticoats, and one " curland petticoat with
fringe."
The petticoat occasionally figures in court. The fol-
lowing gives a good description of the garment. On
Dec. 7, 1647, Lysbet Tyssin sued Goodman Karriman
for the purchase of a red petticoat with blue lining and
trimmed with cord. The matter was referred to Mr.
Ochden and Lieutenant Baxter for arbitration. Again
we read: Oct. 19, 1638, Declaration of Cornelis Peter-
sen that Annetje Jans, wife of Rev. Everardus Bo-
gardus, had sold him a hog and purchased in return of
him purple cloth sufficient for a petticoat. Oct 13,
1638, Declaration by Jacob van Curler that Rev.
Everardus Bogardus's wife had, when passing the
blacksmith shop in New Amsterdam, placed her hand
on her side and drawn up her petticoat a little, in order
not to soil it, as the road was muddy.
Every Dutch lady of the Seventeenth Century owned
a "rain dress," to save her skirts from getting wet;
and when the streets were dry and the rain had ceased
to fall, this was tucked up in a special way to show the
costly petticoat underneath. This " rain dress " ori-
ginated in France, and was worn in all countries by
the rich middle classes as well as by the nobility. In-
stead of this garment another garment was sometimes
worn, called a huik, which was a long cloak made of
serge or cloth, to cover the whole dress, and which
was furnished with a hood to protect the head from
the rain. In other words, it was a kind of pelisse.
Mrs. De Lange also owned " a black silk rain cloak,"
which, of course, is nothing more nor less than the
fashionable luiik.
Of handsome long robes Mrs. De Lange had six,
known as samars: " one black silk potoso-a-samare,
with lace; one black silk crape samare with a tucker;
COSTUME 6i
one black tartanel samare with a tucker; and three
flowered caHco samare." The night-gown, which was
so fashionable at this period, was the name given
to an evening dress. " Three calico nightgowns —
two flowered and one red " — are evidently made of
some Eastern material. We also read of one silk waist-
coat, one red calico waistcoat, one bodice, and five
pairs of white cotton stockings, besides lace, sleeves,
caps, hoods, aprons, and a " black plush mask."
" One embroidered purse with a silver bugle and
chain to the girdle, a silver hook and eye," must have
been very handsome, because it cost as much as the
" black silk crape samare with a tucker " and the " two
pair of sleeves with great lace." Little trinkets were
probably kept in " five small East India boxes," unless
the lady preserved in them the next article on her in-
ventory, " five hair curlings," which were valued at
seven shillings!
The apron at this period was not a mere protection
for the skirt, but was considered as a decoration. The
apron frequently appears in the inventories. Mrs. Part-
ridge has several : a blue linen apron and three woolen
aprons are of less value than some others in her ward-
robe. Mrs. De Lange has six calico aprons; Mrs.
Asser Levy, a black silk apron ; and Ann Watkins has
four aprons. Lawrence Deldyke had for sale in 1692
six dozen silk aprons with gold, four dozen black
aprons with silver, and six dozen blue aprons with
gold.
Mrs. Partridge had a black silk gown worth £5 ; a
black cloth waistcoat, a handsome lace handkerchief,
and a red coat and a loose gown. Among other items
four silver clasps, a gold ring, and a silver button are
mentioned. Mrs. Clarkson owned one stuff gown lined,
one pair of " stayes," one calico gown, " one silk waist-
62 DUTCH NEW YORK
coat for a woman," one " pair of gloves and topknotts,"
and one black crape gown.
Among Asser Levy's belongings we find " sixteen
women's smocks, one bodice, one colored cassock, one
velvet cassock, one hood, one muff, one black silk
apron, three pair red women's stockings, two pair silk
stockings, six white aprons, and twelve women's caps
with lace."
The sleeve was of great importance, and was made
separate from the bodice. The great slashed and puffed
sleeve was worn over a lace or fine cambric or silk
undersleeve, clasped here and there with gold or silver
ornaments or jewels, and embellished with a lace or
cambric cuff or ruffle at the wrist. Ann Watkins had,
for example, in 1688, "thirty-seven pair of old false
sleeves " ; Mrs. Clarkson owned three pairs of sleeves
and one pair of ruffles; Mrs. Partridge, 1669, a parcel
of lace and laced bands, and Mrs. De Lange had " two
pairs of sleeves with great lace "(£i 3s. 6d.), two pairs
of woman's sleeves without lace, five pairs with inner
lace, thirteen women's sleeves with lace, and " twenty-
five small and great cushion sleeves." She also pos-
sessed a tucker and a black silk scarf with lace.
The ruffs, or collars, were of equal importance, hav-
ing reached such tremendous proportions that they
extended far over the shoulders and stood up above
the back of the head. In order to keep them in shape
after they were starched and ironed, they were fastened
on gold or silver wires. The material was the finest
cambric edged with lace or point de Vcnisc or point
d'Alengon. When all the plaits of these were smoothed
out, they sometimes measured sixty yards ! These ruffs
were extremely expensive (some of them cost as much
as $4000), and were worn only by the rich; but the
burghers' wives followed the styles as well as they
<
h
CO
C
z
<:
1-3
COSTUME 63
could, as the portraits of the period show. The laid
or turned down or flat collar was also worn ; and also
the crossed pleated and rounded pleated, ribbed collars.
The making, undoing, washing, starching, and ironing,
and remaking was no common work ; and many Dutch
ladies attended to the making and the doing up of
their ruffs themselves.
One of the most costly articles of a lady's toilette
was the stomacher, or " breast-piece," which was made
of silk, satin, or velvet, and ornamented with pearls and
jewels. Some of them were valued at £10,000, being
beautifully embroidered or sprinkled with gems or gar-
nished with lace. W. D. Hooft gives a bride four, —
of velvet, satin, figured silk, and " lord's serge."
Headdresses were of various kinds. Caps of lace
made into various shapes and styles, such as the com-
mode, in which a series of ruffles shaped something like
battlements stood erect and high above the forehead,
pinners or lappets, " head cloths " wrapped around the
head like hoods, '* cornet caps," " drawing-caps," and
hoods of silk appear in many inventories. Mrs. De
Lange, for example, has sixteen cornet caps with lace,
thirty-nine drawing caps with lace, eleven headbands
with lace, and eleven headbands without lace. She also
has twelve white hoods of love, another white love
hood, three black love hoods, one yellow love hood, and
five of dowlas (coarse linen).
Ann Watkins, 1688, had "twelve capps for a
woman," three " calico heads," two pinners, or lappets,
for headdress, and ten headcloths. She also had an
" alamode hood," which was, of course, silk. She also
owned a silk lute-string scarf measuring two yards and
a half. The " Widdow Elizabeth Partridge" in 1669
had a parcel of head cloths worth £2, and a " taffety
hood." Mrs. Matthew Clarkson had seven plain head-
64 DUTCH NEW YORK
dresses, three laced headdresses, four *' pinners," and
three scarves, one of which was of velvet and lined.
The Dutch ladies were fond of perfumes; highly
scented powder and the essence known as Hungary
water were to be found on the dressing-table, where
the various cosmetics, pins, hairpins, etc., were con-
veniently at hand in dainty boxes of porcelain, silver,
or tortoiseshell. "A small box with some paint," found
in the inventory of Mrs. Elizabeth Graveraet, widow of
Dr. Samuel Drisius, looks suspiciously like a cosmetic.
Gloves were of leather, silk, cotton (calico), and
white openwork thread. A lady always had a good
number of " shoe-work." Her out-of-door shoes were
of brown or black Spanish leather, with high red heels,
called by Huygens " shell-heels." Indoors she wore
red slippers, or shoes of gold or silver, leather, satin,
or silk, and yellow, green, blue, scarlet, or white stock-
ings with " clocks " at the side.
The jewels of the day were hair ornaments, earrings,
brooches, pins, bracelets, chains, miniatures set with
gems or pearls, clasps for the sleeves, finger-rings,
necklaces, and, last but not least, the chatelaine of gold
or silver, from which on its several chains and hooks
hung the various trinkets, sewing and toilet articles, —
little round mirrors, scent-boxes or pomanders contain-
ing sweet powder or paste, a patch-box containing the
black court-plaster cut in various shapes, all ready to
replace a fallen beauty spot, bodkins, an ehii case, tiny
silver-bound pincushion, thimble, scissors, etc. The
chatelaine was often given as a wedding-present by
the father-in-law.
In some inventories we find the characteristic head
ornaments that the Dutch and particularly Frisian
women have worn from time immemorial, and of
which Madam Knight speaks in 1707. These gold or
COSTUME 6s
silver head-wearings, ear-wearings, earrings, ear-wyers,
as they appear variously, were often studded w^ith
jewels, and, if not, were adorned with pendants of
delicate filigree work. These peculiar decorations are
familiar to all travelers in Holland, and were far from
uncommon in the New World. Let us take a few
examples : Mrs. Van Varick left to her daughter Cor-
nelia " two gold pieces to wear above their ears." Cris-
tina Cappoens had " a gold ear pendant with ye ear
jewels," the weight of which was two ounces and the
value £io. This was also described as " one great ear
spangle with ear jewels." Among Peter Jacob Marius's
belongings we find " one gold earwyer," and " two
pair gold pendants." Mrs. Jacob De Lange had a pair
of gold stricks, or pendants, in each ten diamonds,
worth £25 ; a pair of black pendants with gold hooks,
and two small white pendants. Mrs. Elizabeth Grave-
raet, the widow of Dr. Samuel Drisius, had " one silver
head-wearing, or ear-iron," which, with a pint cup, a
pint tumbler, and four spoons was valued at £5. Isaac
Van Vlecq, 1688, left to his daughters two pairs of
gold pendants with crystals, a gold chain, "five double,"
a gold bodkin, and other jewelry; and Mary Jansen,
1679, left to her daughter Elsie Leisler " a golden
ear-ring."
A very handsome headdress forms a bone of conten-
tion in court in 1665. The story is as follows : Pieterje
Jans said she sold to Hendrickje Duyckingh's daughter,
in presence of her husband, an ornamented headdress
for fifty-five guilders in seawant, and that the defend-
ant sent it back. She demanded that the bargain should
stand good. Hendrickje said her daughter had no
authority to buy such without the knowledge of her
parents, as she is still under them. Hendrickje's hus-
band. Evert Duyckingh, appeared and " would have
5
66 DUTCH NEW YORK
nothing to do with it." He said " it is now no time to
buy head dresses ; also, that it is not worth so much."
Parties on both sides being heard, Burgomasters and
Schepens decided that the sale of the headdress should
stand good, and consequently ordered defendant to pay
the sum of fifty-five guilders promised therefor, to re-
ceive the headdress and keep it.
Gold ornaments are very numerous, though not
always described in detail. John Spratt, 1697, had
gold ornaments weighing 2^ ounces, which were ap-
praised at £13 15s. od.
A curious case came up in court on Dec. 7, 1669,
when Jan Hendricx van Gunst said that Jannetie Jacobs
had a pair of gold ornaments which were heretofore
stolen from him, and demanded restitution. She
claimed she bought them from a Frenchwoman, whose
name she did not know, and paid forty-eight florins
seawant for them. Thereupon the court ordered her
to prove from whom she had bought them. On Jan.
II, 1670, Jan Hendricx van Gunst and Jannetie Jacobs
again appeared in court, when one Elsie Barentsen de-
clared that the ornaments in question formerly belonged
to Aeltie Marishalls, from whom the plaintiff bought
them. Barentie Moulenaers declared on oath that she
heard the plaintiff say that he had not lost the orna-
ments, but believed he let them fall, and that his sister
found them and had seemingly sold them. Sara Peters
declared she heard the plaintiff say he believed the
ornaments in question were not stolen, but fallen,
and were found by his sister and sold by her. On
February 8. Jannetie Jacobs produced the following
declarations. Harmen Hendricx van Weyen testified
and declared " to have seen one fytie Dirx residing at
Breukelen on Long Island wear the ornaments in ques-
tion now about a year ago." Anna Dirx, wife of
COSTUME 67
Dirck Claessen Pottebacker, declared the same in writ-
ing. On March i, 1670, the " Court found that the
ornaments in question are not stolen by the defendant.
However, since she cannot sufficiently prove that she
bought them, but only that they were seen on Fytie
Dircx, from whom defendant in the first instance de-
clared she bought them, therefore the W : Court decide
and order that the ornaments in question shall be de-
livered to the plaintiff and retained by him, on condition
of paying to defendant twenty guilders zewant and the
costs incurred herein."
Diamonds seem to have been the favorite jewels of
the Dutch; they sparkle in rings, lockets, earrings,
chains, and pendants of various descriptions. The wife
of Dr. De Lange had a jewel box described as a " sil-
ver thread wrought small box, wherein : a gold boat
wherein thirteen diamonds to one white coral chain
(worth £16); two red stones; two diamond rings
(worth £24) ; a gold ring with a clapbeck, and a gold
ring or hoop bound with diamonds (worth £2 los. od.)."
Peter Jacob Marius, 1702, has two gold diamond rings
and six other rings ; Dr. De Lange had two very valu-
able diamond rings and a handsome gold ring, or hoop,
bound round with diamonds ; Mrs. Van Varick had
no less than seven diamond rings ; John Coesart, " a
gold diamond ring and a gold hoop." Mary Jansen
in 1679 ^^^t to her son Jacob a diamond rose ring;
Anne Richbell, " Gentlewoman, of Mamaroneck," to
her daughter, Elizabeth, in 1700, " my gold ring with
an emerald stone in it " ; and Cristina Cappoens has one
gold rose diamond ring, worth £5. Matthew Taylor
in 1687 has an enameled stone ring.
Among many instances of those whose jewel boxes
were by no means empty Mrs. Margareta Van Varick
is conspicuous. She has a pearl necklace, a gold chain
68 DUTCH NEW YORK
with a locket with seven diamonds, a gold ring with
seven diamonds, a gold ring with a table diamond, a
gold ring with three small diamonds, two gold rings
each with a diamond, two small gold rings with dia-
monds, three more gold rings, one pair diamond pen-
dants, two gold drops for the ear, two gold chains, two
gold buttons, one comb tipped with gold, one pair crys-
tal pendants edged with gold, two gold pins headed
with pearls, one gold bodkin, one chain with gold
bell, another gold bell and chain. Cristina Cappoens,
1693, owns a gold rose diamond ring worth £5 and
a large hoop ring, a " chain of great beads," and
"■ gold hooks and eyes for a night rail." Anna Vande-
water, 1684, left her daughter her gold " Stricke, or
pendant."
Asser Levy in 1682 had " fourteen gold rings, one
gold bodkin, two silver bodkins, two pairs gold pen-
dants, one silver watch, one silver hatband, two pair of
silver buckles, one silver earring, one pair silver buttons,
one ducat oon with a ring, one silver knife, and silver
to a belt for a sword." Peter Jacob Marius had in
1702 two diamond rings, one amber necklace, four pair
gold buttons, three gold chains, one bodkin, and three
buckles.
Cornells Steenwyck owned a great deal of valuable
jewelry, including several gold chains. Jacob De Lange
kept much of his valuable jewelry in a very costly
" silver thread wrought small trunk," and, moreover,
owned a watch of great value. " a testament with
gilt hooks and gold hangers and a gold chain." Law-
rence Deldyke owned silver shoe buckles and silver
shirt buckles and a silver seal in 1692, and in 1700
John Coesart had a silver snuff-box, a silver powder-
box, a silver watch, and twenty-three ounces of amber
beads. Among her treasures Mrs. Van Varick owned
COSTUME 69
" one small gold box as big as a pea," one gold
medal, one small mother of pearl box, and four small
boxes with beads and shells, one gold Arabian ducat,
and one gold piece the shape of a diamond.
Some pearl pins figure in a lawsuit in 1656 between
two women who are evidently relatives, Helletie Jan-
sen, plaintiff, versus Pietertie Jansen, defendant. The
latter requested, " as defendant has bought from In-
dians here within this City some goods belonging to her
and her sister, that she be condemned to return the
same to her on receiving what she has given therefor;
being one small box with divers linens, as a pair of
linen sheets, two shirts, some frills, coifs, children's
caps, pocket handkerchiefs, three pearl pins and other
things, that she does not know precisely." Specimens
of watches from the Rijks Museum face page 70.
Children were dressed like miniature grown people.
The little daughters of the wealthy wore long dresses,
ruffs, lace cuffs, caps, and often a good deal of jewelry.
Boys were dressed in the style of their fathers, even
to the large felt hat with plumes. It is not often that
children's clothes are specially listed in the New Am-
sterdam inventories ; but occasionally we find such an
item as " two children's stript caps," as in that of Mrs.
Elizabeth Graveraet, and in the inventories of shop
goods. Cornells Steenwyck's is rather unusual in this
respect, for we find " one red silk fringe belt and one
children's ditto; two children's waistcoats, one coate
and one pair breeches for children, one dozen children's
caps, a parcel of linen for children, four dozen children
linen caps, one dozen children's shirts, four children
best linen shirts, three laced cuffs for children, two
boyes' bonnets, three whisks for children, two pair
children's sleeves of silk, six children tufted holland
waistcoats, old, one dozen small linen children's hoods,
70 DUTCH NEW YORK
one dozen children linen cuffes and one gold child's
whistle." " One silk child's cloak and five child's
aprons " appear in Matthew Clarkson's inventory.
The peasant-women, or farming-class, were more
varied in costume than the wealthy burghers' wives
and daughters who followed the fashions of Paris and
Amsterdam. Generally speaking, the dress consisted
of a woolen skirt, a jacket reaching nearly to the
knees, with puffed sleeves, a standing collar, and a
large woolen cloak. There were slight variations ac-
cording to the country from which the women came.
The Purmer women wore a tight-fitting jacket with
narrow sleeves fastened around the wrists with silver
buttons, a " breast cover," or stomacher, trimmed
with small rosettes or bows, a standing collar, a
short skirt, and a silver chatelaine with keys, a
purse, knives, knitting-needle holders, and other
trinkets. The Edam women might be distinguished
by their flat linen collars turned back over their
jackets. The wives of the South Holland farmers
wore a laced jacket, with a flowered or velvet " breast
cloth " pinned over it, which sometimes was adorned
with a collar and fastened in front with buttons or
loops. The North Holland women wore a white
starched bonnet, with a high bodice laced up to the
chin ; while the very large and gaudy colored necker-
chief was not worn round the neck but pinned on
the bodice. Their skirts were longer than those of the
South Holland women, which were so short that the
poets poked fun at them. These last did not wear col-
lars, but velvet neckerchiefs, or neckpieces, with thick
golden clasps. The aprons were of blue linen with
green binding; the skirts generally of brown material
or black linen.
Stockings were red, blue, yellow, brown, and other
f-H W
5 s
J — ,
O 2
COSTUME 71
colors, and slippers were generally worn as well as the
wooden shoes.
The hair was combed back smoothly over and
braided at the back of the head, after which this braid
was twisted around the head. Over this was some-
times worn a velvet hat, not unlike a man's hat, with
a rim, straight in front and turned upwards in the
back. These hats were generally worn to market,
but the richer women often wore " embroidered bon-
nets " and " cornet-caps," of which Mrs. De Lange had
several (see page 63). The Alkmaar girls went bare-
headed, but they had a knack of braiding their golden
hair in a captivating way.
The suit of clothes for men consisted then, as now,
of breeches, coat, and waistcoat. Baggy breeches were
characteristic of the Dutchmen. They were usually
of the same color as the waistcoat, and were extremely
wide and reached to the knee. These were made in a
great variety of shapes and colors, except in the case
of the city magistrates, who rarely wore anything
but black. There was no article of clothing on which
more work and care were bestowed and which was
made in so many different styles and called by so many
different names, most of which were foreign. " Do
you wish your breeches in the French or the German
style? a flesh-colored pair woven in the German style,
or one of the French fashion ? " the tailor would ask.
The breeches were elaborately trimmed with buttons.
Cloth buttons were sometimes used ; but if the gentle-
man could afford it the decorative buttons were of
silver. Wrought silver buttons were often given as
christening presents for future use. Innumerable but-
tons of silver, metal, thread, silk, and other materials
are found in the shops of New Amsterdam. Mrs. Van
Varick had seventeen dozen colored buttons, twelve
72 DUTCH NEW YORK
dozen black, ten gross white, twelve and a half light
thread, twenty-six dozen silk breast buttons, one gross
silver breast buttons, seventeen dozen gimp coat but-
tons, eight dozen thread coat buttons, four dozen and
ten pewter, twenty-two dozen hollow buttons, five pairs
shirt buttons, four gross bell metal buttons, and four
gross bell metal hollow buttons.
Coats were of bright colors and often lined with silk.
Tail coats came into vogue towards the last of the
century and were made of fancy materials. The coats
were also ornamented profusely with buttons. The
waistcoat was bright and gay. Young noblemen, who
set the fashion, selected very costly materials, such as
gold and silver cloth, silver damask, white satin with
golden stripes and embroidered with flowers, and fast-
ened with three or four rows of handsome buttons.
The burgomaster usually wore a simple black cloth
suit on week days; on Sundays and on holidays, a
velvet one. In summer he wore a black satin waist-
coat, which fitted tight around the chest and waist and
was fastened in front with small golden buttons. This
black costume was frequently worn at christenings and
other ceremonial occasions. One or more black suits of
velvet, satin, or broadcloth are conspicuous in the inven-
tories of the prosperous citizens of New Amsterdam.
Cornelis Steenwyck has a long list of rich and ex-
pensive clothes. He is beautifully dressed in his por-
trait (see Frontispiece) painted by Jan Van Goosen
about 1667, and now owned by the New York His-
torical Society. For instance, one cloth coat with
silver plate buttons is worth £4 15s. od. ; another
" stuff coat with silver plate buttons " is appraised at
£4, and a black cloth coat and breeches at £2. Then
he has a pair of cloth breeches, a cloth coat with gimp
buttons (£2 IDS. od.), a black cloth coat (£2 los. od.),
COSTUME 73
a black velvet coat, old (£3), "a coloured stuff coat,"
a silk coat, and one pair of silk breeches, black, and
one old silk doublet (£1 5s. od.), a silver cloth doublet,
an old velvet waistcoat with silver lace, a pair of
" stockins " and linen breeches, a buff coat and silk
sleeves (£1 los. od.), a yellow scarf silk with silver
fringes (£1 5s. od.), two cloth coats and breeches, a
pair of breeches, and four fustian waistcoats.
Dr. Jacob De Lange could make a fine appearance.
He had a black broadcloth suit (£1 5s. od.), a " cull'd
serge, ye new suit with silver buttons " (£5), " a cul-
lered cloth west coat with silver buttons " (£1 4s. od.),
one " Japons coat lining with red say" (£1 15s. od.),
two old " coates " (£1 ids. od.), and one black gros
grain suit (£1 17s. od.). Asser Levy, 1682, had a
black velvet jacket, a pair of black gros grain breeches
and coat, one gray ditto, one dark broadcloth suit and
coat, breeches ; two linen breeches. Francoys Rom-
bouts, 1 69 1, owned two black coats, one colored coat,
one waistcoat with silver buttons, three fustian waist-
coats, and one pair of plush breeches and a linen coat.
Lawrence Deldyke, 1692, had six coats, five waistcoats,
two pairs of breeches, two pairs of plush breeches, and
one morning gown. In his inventory we also find one
pair of drawers. Francoys Rombouts had ten pairs
of drawers and also a pair of crape drawers; Asser
Levy had six linen drawers; Dr. De Lange has three
silk drawers, two calico " mixt checkard " ditto, and
three white calico drawers.
Mr. Joseph Farral, 1702, was also elegant in mat-
ters of dress. His wardrobe included one light colored
cloth suit (£3 los. od.), one pair plush breeches with
cloth buttons, one pair woolen and three pairs striped
linen breeches, one " French druged coat " and red
striped waistcoat (£4 9s. lod.), one " Capitation coat,"
74 DUTCH NEW YORK
one silk " wasecoat," one fustian " wasecoat," and six
pair Holland breeches. Tymen Vanborsen, 1703, owned
two coats and a pair of " britches " and another pair
with silver buttons valued at £8. Thomas Davids,
1688, had three waistcoats and seventy-six silver
buttons worth £48. Colonel William Smith, of St.
George's Manor, Long Island, had in 1704 one hun-
dred and four silver buttons worth £5 los. od. ; and a
silver watch and silver buttons, £10.
Sleeves were often separate from the coat and were
very handsome. Cornells Steenwyck has three pairs of
sleeves; Dr. De Lange's inventory mentions "nine
and a half pair men's sleeves " ; Francoys Rombouts,
1 69 1, had six, and Lawrence Deldyke, 1692, three pairs
of sleeves.
Turning now to shirts, we find Captain Cresar Carter
with seven plain shirts (£4 i8s. od.), three new laced
shirts (£4 I OS. od.), and three laced shirts worn
(£4 I OS. od.) ; Dr. De Lange, thirteen linen men's
shirts worth £2 15s. od. and three worth £1; Tymen
Vanborsen, 1703, with twelve men's shirts (£4 los.od.) ;
Matthew Clarkson, 1702, with no less than twenty-five;
Asser Levy, " twelve new shirts and twelve worn
shirts " ; Francoys Rombouts, fourteen shirts ; Law-
rence Deldyke, " eight white and blue shirts " ; and
Joseph Farral, a " callico " shirt and three Holland
shirts, worth £13, and five coarse linen and one flannel
shirt (£1 los. od.).
The men of the period, as we know from the many
portraits showing ruffs, collars, and cuffs of various
styles and beautiful materials, were particularly ele-
gant in the matter of neckwear. Whether of Brussels
or cambric, lace or needlework, embroidered or plain,
they were very costly. One of the oldest styles was
the simple rimmed collar with either large or small
COSTUME 75
plaits. Then there was a collar shaped like a horse-
shoe, flat in front and round at the back; also a stiff
standing upright collar. About 1638 the Spanish col-
lars were displaced by the not less costly French ones.
These reached with long embroidered points down the
back, and were fastened in front with cords, terminat-
ing with small acorn-shaped balls. They were first
worn by Prince Frederick Henry and his Court and
later by all the patrician families. Later, when the
long wigs, which hung over shoulders and back, be-
came fashionable, these collars went out of fashion, and
the band took their place, which also was finely em-
broidered and likewise fastened with a cord with acorn-
shaped balls.
A beautiful set of collar and cuffs was one of the
presents a bride gave to her husband on the wedding-
day, preferably made by her own hands.
The New Amsterdam inventories contain many ex-
amples of neckcloths and cravats. Dr. De Lange was
very elegant in this accessory of dress. He had two
neckcloths with great lace, two pairs of gorgets with
lace, six long neckcloths with lace, six short neckcloths
with lace, two long neckcloths without lace, eight
striped neckcloths, twenty-nine pairs of gorgets, and
seventeen bands. Cornells Steenwyck had " six men's
linen neckcloths (12 shillings), twenty bands (£1),
seven neckcloths (12 shillings), and three laced cuffs
for men (3 shillings). Asser Levy's wardrobe in-
cluded twenty neckcloths with lace and without, three
hals (neck) cloths, eight ditto, and eight ditto of another
sort. Captain Csesar Carter had two laced neckcloths
(£2 4s. od.), one laced neckcloth, worn (£0 7s. 6d.),
and six neckcloths (18 shillings). Lawrence Deldyke,
twelve muslin cravats and two lace cravats; and F.
Rombouts, twelve neckcloths.
76 DUTCH NEW YORK
In the old inventories the word " handkerchief "
sometimes is used for the neckcloth ; but in some of
the New Amsterdam inventories the two articles are
distinct. Captain Carter, for example, had five plain
handkerchiefs and three laced handkerchiefs; Mr.
Joseph Farrel, three handkerchiefs and three neck-
cloths; Matthew Clarkson, ten handkerchiefs; Fran-
coys Rombouts, twelve handkerchiefs; Lawrence
Deldyke, four handkerchiefs ; and Steenwyck has only
one.
Stockings were of great importance, and were gen-
erally of the same material as the trousers. Sometimes
they were elaborately embroidered or trimmed. We
read of silk, cotton, woolen, satin, flannel, and roll
stockings ; stockings with clocks and ribbed stockings ;
stockings of white, black, blue, and, above all, scarlet.
The stockings were held in place by garters, and gar-
ters contrasted with or matched the stockings. There
were garters of satin, silk, or cloth. A pair of ribbon
garters occurs in Steenwyck's inventory, and are worth
eight shillings. Steenwyck had three pairs of stockings,
two pairs of thread and one of woolen stockings (8
shillings) ; Dr. De Lange had " five pairs white calico
stockings, one pair of black, and one of gray worsted
stockings " ; F. Rombouts, six pairs of stockings; and
Lawrence Deldyke, five pairs of stockings. Captain
Carter had a large assortment : " two pair thread stock-
ings (6 shillings), one pair scarlet stockings (i8 shill-
ings), one pair blue worsted stockings (lo shillings),
one pair white worsted and one pair coarse blue stock-
ings (8 shillings), one pair old black silk (3 shillings),
and one pair white cotton stockings (5 shillings)."
Stockings were sufficiently valued to be often be-
queathed to friends and relatives. For example, in the
will of Thomas Exton, gentleman, 1668, we read:
COSTUME 77
I give unto Captain Sylvester Salisbury a new pair of
silk stockings and a new pair of gloves that lye in the till
of my black trunk. I give unto Mrs. Abigail Nicholls,
my silver boat, a silver meat fork and a silver spoon.
In 1689, Lawrence Deldyke, the London merchant,
writing his will on board the Beaver, leaves a pair of
scarlet stockings to Lieutenant Matthew Shanks (a
very appropriate name for such a bequest!), and
another pair to Lancaster Symes.
Shoes were of brown or black Spanish leather.
Some were cut open at the top and adorned with
rosettes, or a bow of ribbon on the toe, and, as a
rule, the heels were high. Indoors, slippers ("quiet
walkers ") were worn and also sandals.
There were many shoemakers in New Amsterdam,
and for expensive boots and shoes the leather was often
imported. On Sept. 27, 1656, we read:
On the complaint of the Fiscal, William Brouwer, shoe-
maker, was ordered to pay duty on Russia leather, etc.
imported by him and to make a pair of shoes for the
Fiscal.
Among the shoes and slippers 'we may note that
Asser Levy, 1682, had two pairs of shoes and one pair
of " pantoffles " ; Captain Carter, two pairs of shoes
and one pair of slippers; F, Rombouts, two pairs of
shoes ; Lawrence Deldyke, two pairs of shoes, one pair
of boots, and one pair of shoe buckles; and Joseph
Farrel, one pair of new shoes and one pair a little worn.
Gloves also occur frequently. Cornells Steenwyck
had two pairs of gloves ; Dr. De Lange, a pair of " yel-
low tand gloves with black silk fringe," worth fourteen
shillings ; Francoys Rombouts, three pairs of gloves ;
Lawrence Deldyke, one pair of gloves ; and " one pair
white leather men's gloves " are found in Mrs. Eliza-
beth Graveraet's inventory.
78 DUTCH NEW YORK
The hat was of fine felt, round, low of crown and
wide of rim, but not as low and flat as those of the
Quakers; and very often it was trimmed with one
large feather or several plumes, or it was ornamented
with a chain of gold or row of pearls.
The tall hats (called sugar-loaves) were worn by
the staid burghers, and the hats trimmed with laces,
pearls and diamonds, feathers and plumes, were worn
by the fashionables. In the inventory of a rich mer-
chant of Develshem appear some " armosyn-colored,
silver gray, and Sabin hats, hats with feathers and birds
natural and imitations, allonges, cavalieres, carrees;
wigs a la Mousquetaire, wigs of goat, buck's and camel
hair, etc." Towards the end of the century the long
wigs became fashionable, the curls of which sometimes
reached down to the waist, while the " toupet " or
" coif " often rose a foot above the forehead. It was
blond, weighed sometimes more than five pounds, and
frequently cost from two to three thousand guilders.
Hats and wigs occur in the wardrobes of the
burghers of New Amsterdam. A few examples will
give an idea of the headgear worn here : Captain
Caesar Carter had one campaign wig (£i 5s. od.), one
short bob wig (£1 5s. od.), and one old bob wig (10
shillings). He also had one lacker hat (£1), and one
old hat (10 shillings), and one fur cap. Mr. Joseph
Farral, 1702, had "three bob wiggs " (9 shillings);
Matthew Clarkson, 1703, had a " hat with a mourning
hat band " ; Cornelis Steenwyck had four old hatts (12
shillings) ; Dr Jacob De Lange, one black fine hat,
one old gray hat, one black ditto, all worth £1 is. od.
Francoys Rombouts, 1691, had two hats and two peri-
wigs; Lawrence Deldyke, 1692, two hats and one cap.
Asser Levy, 1682, one hat, four coarse hats, two
" capps," three man's " capps " with lace, a belt and a
COSTUME 79
hat, and a gray and black hat. Two pearl cords men-
tioned in the inventory may have been trimming for
one of these hats.
To wear a cloak with elegance was the mark of a
gentleman; and it was not an easy thing to throw it
over the shoulders in the proper folds and to keep its
graceful lines. The burgomaster wore it to church and
to the meetings of the Council and kept it on with his
hat when paying a call. On arriving home it was re-
moved with the shoes, for which slippers were substi-
tuted. Some of the cloaks of the day were richly
trimmed with gold or silver lace, or embroidered, but,
as a rule, they were handsome cloth lined with silk,
and sometimes ornamented with buttons.
A number of cloaks appear in the New Amsterdam
inventories, some of which are rich and costly. For
instance, Dr. De Lange had a handsome heavy silk
gros grain cloak lined with silk; Cornells Steenwyck,
a " light coloured gros grain cloak," a dark cloak with
lining, a cloth cloak with lining of bay and wrought
silver buttons ; Francoys Rombouts had a " new black
cloak" in 1691 ; and Lawrence Deldyke left a camlet
cloak to Major Richard Ingoldsby.
Swords and belts and walking-sticks and canes oc-
cur among the possessions of the wealthy citizens. Dr.
De Lange had a sword with a silver handle and one
with an iron handle, and two canes, one with a " silver
knot or head " and one with an ivory head. Colonel
William Smith, of St. George's Manor, Long Island,
had a silver-headed cane, three handsome swords, and
eleven embroidered belts worth the extraordinary sum
of £110. Asser Levy, 1682, a silver-hilted sword, one
sword with a belt. Captain C?esar Carter, 1692, an old
embroidered belt with silver buckles (£1 ids. od.), a
white silk waist belt (8 shillings), a pair of pistols
8o DUTCH NEW YORK
(£4), and a silver-hilted sword (£3 12s. od.) ; Mat-
thew Clarkson, 1703, two walking-canes, two silver-
handled swords, and a mourning-sword.
A melancholy wardrobe now confronts us. This
belongs to Jaques Cosseau, once a prosperous merchant
of New Amsterdam, but reduced to sad days at his
death in 1682. Everything is " old " but one item, —
"a nezv pair of stockings." The inventory reads:
" one old serge coat, one old kersey coat, one old pair
kersey breeches, one old black hat, one pair old black
breeches, one pair old red breeches, and three old shirts."
One red waistcoat without that opprobrious adjective
was perhaps more presentable than the other articles.
He also owned one neckcloth and " thirteen skeins of
silk." Perhaps the latter were used for darning!
The dress of the farmers consisted of a waistcoat
with sleeves, or a shirt-coat and an over-frock of black
linen called " paltrok." The " hemd-rok " was cut
short or long, and was made of serge, wool, cloth, or
other materials. In some cases it was cut so low^
that it hung in lapels over the hips. The breeches
were wide and short ; but sometimes they were long
and hung down to the shoes. Some people wore fringes
at the bottom of the short breeches, with large silver
buttons, shields, or silver ducats as clasps. The collars
were low and flat. The hats had a flat crown, rather
high, with a short fringed rim in the shape of a sugar-
loaf, such as the Quakers wore. Some people wore
what is called a " skipper's cap," and others wore hats
with wide rims. Some were made of flowered velvet,
with a bow at the side or ornamented with a peacock's
feather. The hair was cut very short. Leather shoes
were worn only on Sundays, and wooden shoes on
week days.
CHAPTER IV
ROOMS AND FURNITURE
NOTHING was too good for the prosperous
New Netherlander. He emulated to the best
of his ability his brothers, the merchant princes
of the Spice Islands, whose luxury aroused the appre-
hension of the home authorities and induced sumptu-
ary laws. In furniture and upholstery he demanded
the latest fashion. The looms of the East supplied
him with silken fabrics for his hangings and fine rai-
ment, and painted calico and other fine cotton goods
for the comfort and elegance of his apartments.
Venice and Bohemia provided him with exquisite glass ;
and China, Japan, and Delft with ceramics that to-day
would be priceless. With lacquer (or varnish) ware
he was quite familiar, and his wrought silver was rich
and plentiful. Most of his fine furniture was imported,
but there were many able turners, joiners, and cabinet-
makers here who were capable of making artistic use
of the exotic woods and ivory brought into this port
from the East and West Indies, from the Gold Coast
and Madagascar. From the middle of the century,
when the chairs, tables, cabinet-stands, and other arti-
cles of furniture became light and graceful with side
posts, rails, and supports made of turned work, beaded
or spiral, we find many evidences of the new style in
the inventories. Ebony was used here, as in Holland,
for the expensive furniture, and ivory for inlaying. As
early as 1644 we find brought into the port of New
6 81
82 DUTCH NEW YORK
Amsterdam a prize laden with sugar, tobacco, and
ebony. In 1663, the Gideon was chartered for a voy-
age from Holland to Africa to procure slaves, copper,
and elephants' teeth for New Netherland.
In the Albany County Records for 1654 we read:
Jan Gouw and Harmen Janse wish to sell a certain
casket inlaid with ebony and other woods, on the follow-
ing conditions, to wit : That the payment shall be made in
good whole beavers ; which payment shall be made within
twenty four hours, without one hour longer delay.
Jacob Janse Plodder remained the buyer for thirty
beavers and nineteen guilders.
As a beaver skin was worth eight to ten guilders
in 1654 ($3.50 to $4), this was a rather good sum,
$120; and the casket must have been a very hand-
some article to command such a price.
In 1 68 1, the Royal African Company of England
complained of Robert Allison for infringement of their
charter by importing negroes, elephants' teeth, etc., into
New York from Africa. Again, in 1702, Henry Jour-
daine, mariner, owned sixty-one elephants' teeth marked
"H.J."
Mahogany was undoubtedly known and used here
as a cabinet wood towards the end of the century.
A handsome table of this wood was brought from
Holland in 1668 by Olaf Stevenson Van Cortlandt
(see facing this page). The great hasten were usually
made of oak, " French nutwood," or other kinds of
walnut. In 1687, Mary Mathews has " one great wal-
nut cupboard."
The native walnut was greatly praised by all early
writers, as we have seen, but it was probably not so
good for cabinet purposes as the Dutch. Be that as it
may, we find that in 1658 a duty was imposed on wal-
nut imported from Holland.
ROOMS AND FURNITURE 83
The presence of Oriental goods is very noticeable in
the houses of New Amsterdam : ebony chairs and mir-
ror frames, picture frames, chests and boxes. East
India cabinets, caskets and boxes, waxed and lacquered
trunks, beautiful articles of silver work, fine porcelains,
carved ivory, and many exotic articles occur.
A great many of these doubtless were obtained from
the Madagascar pirates. Governor Fletcher himself
did not disdain to accept presents from the daring
sea-rovers. The pirate, Giles Shelly, had, naturally
enough, a fine collection of Eastern treasures; and
we may particularly note Dr. De Lange and Mrs. Van
Varick. The latter's house was full of such things.
She had thirteen ebony chairs, one East India cabinet
with ebony feet, two East India cabinets with brass
handles, one small black cabinet with silver hinges,
ten India looking-glasses, two East India cane bas-
kets with covers, one fine East India dressing-basket,
one East India square gilt basket, one round East
India dressing-basket, two wooden East India trays
lacquered, one " round thing " lacquered, one small
black cabinet with silver hinges, one " carved wooden
thing," one East India wrought box, three silver
wrought East India " cupps," one silver wrought East
India dish, one small ebony trunk with silver handles,
one East India wrought trunk, one East India wrought
box, and " eleven Indian babyes."
The most striking objects in the Dutch room are the
chimney-piece, the bed, and the kast. If the bed was
a separate piece of furniture, it was domed or tent-
shaped or box-shaped, and tastefully draped or inclosed
with curtains of simple or rich materials. Some-
times, however, the bed formed part of the woodwork
of the room and was closed in with folding doors or
sliding panels (see page 44). The movable bed often
84 DUTCH NEW YORK
had its feet and posts artistically carved or turned.
Many of these were imported, but some were made
here. Thus, in 1656, Jan Picolet sued Jan Schagger
for payment for a field-bed. Schagger admitted hav-
ing ordered it, but said that Picolet made it larger than
desired, and consequently demanded more money.
The court ordered that if they could not come to an
agreement it should be valued.
In the wills we constantly find beds being be-
queathed to relatives and friends. Thomas Halsey,
of Southampton, 1677, leaves among other things to
his son Thomas " the bedsted and curtains in the porch
chamber." Eliza Burroughs, of Newtown, Long
Island, gives to her son, John, " one feather bed which
I now ly on, with all the furniture thereto belonging."
Beds of the latest style were often imported. We
learn, in 1653, that Lucas Elderson sues for " forty
florins for bedsteads received by Captain G. Tysen."
Very handsome beds were owned by Colonel Lewis
Morris in 1691. One in the " Great Room " was val-
ued at £25, one in the " Dining-Room " at £18, one in
the " Lodging-Room " at £15, four others at £36, and
five " without furniture," £20.
Typical beds of the period are seen in Jan Steen's
Parrot Cage and St. Nicholas Eve (see facing pages
202 and 300), and a cradle faces page 254.
The most elaborate piece of furniture in the Dutch
house was the great cupboard, or kas, or kast. It was
a feature of the " show " room and a necessity in the
living-rooms. Wealthy persons had a number of cup-
boards; and it is hard to draw a distinction in the
inventories between the innumerable cubberts, cup-
boards, clothes-presses, etc. The Dutch word kast
(cupboard or cabinet) included a number of pieces of
furniture ; for the word hasten makker means cabinet-
ROOMS AND FURNITURE 85
maker or joiner. Kast, of course, is the old word for
case, box.
In the great hasten the most valuable silver was
kept, — the spoons, forks, platters, dishes, mugs,
beakers, silver-mounted horns, bridal and christening
gifts, and handsome pieces of glass. On the broad flat
top were displayed the choice porcelains or the products
of the Delft factories.
The great cupboard was made in a variety of styles :
it was heavy, massive, and four-square, and equipped
with drawers and doors, and sometimes shelves. It
was carved, inlaid with mother-of-pearl, ivory, or
porcelain ; ornamented with pearwood stained to rep-
resent ebony or innumerable knobs and spindles of
ivory. It was made of oak, plum, cherry, or nut-
wood, and stood on great round balls for feet. These
were sometimes called " knots," and were often re-
peated on the four corners of the top. Van Nespen
termed them ".guardians of the porcelain ornaments
which decorated the top."
The kast was always a prized heirloom ; and we
often find it left to a favorite child or grandchild. In
1678, Judith Stuyvesant, widow of the Director-
General, left to her son, Nicholas William Stuyvesant,
" my great and best casse or cobbert empty, exclusive
of what might be found therein." He also received all
his mother's china except " the three great potts." Mrs.
Stuyvesant left to her cousin Nicholas Bayard " my
black cabbinett of ebben wood with y^ foot or frame
belonging to it, together with the three greate China
pots before reserved." Mrs. Van Varick's " great
Dutch kas " was so large that it could not be removed
from Flatbush and was sold for £25. The name was
well known in England. Many an inventory of the
Seventeenth Century lists a kos. It lasted all through
86 DUTCH NEW YORK
the Queen Anne period. In 17 14, Jan Hendrickse
Prevoost left to his daughter, Janettie, wife of Thomas
Sickelsen of the outward of New York, " my new cup-
board commonly called a kass."
We find the great cupboard in evidence in many
homes in New Amsterdam. Andries Bresteed as late
as 1723 had six large presses or cupboards of the fa-
miliar type with the great round ball feet: an oaken
chest without a lock; an oaken chest with two balls
under without a lock; a chest of cedar with two balls
and brass handles ; a chest-of-drawers ; one Dutch
press; and a small painted cupboard. Humphry Hall
had " a chest-of-drawers with balls at the feet " in
1696, valued at £1 i6s. od. ; and another that had
lost one of these feet, worth £1 los. od.
In Holland, during the Seventeenth Century, the cup-
board made of " nutwood " was particularly cherished.
When a certain pastor was asked what he w^ould take
for his translation of Cicero's Epistolcu ad familiares,
he replied : " Sir, not being in a position to charge any-
thing for my labour, I will listen to the advice of the
wife that the Lord has given me for a helpmate. She
wishes to possess a nutwood cabinet with a set of por-
celain to go with it, and ornaments for the top, if the
consistory will grant."
We find the " nutwood " cupboard or cabinet highly
appreciated in New Amsterdam. Cornells Steenwyck
had " a nutwood cupboard " that was valued at £20.
" Nutwood " was usually hickory, which was so valued
by the first colonists, and exported to Holland; but
sometimes it was walnut.
The cabinet, as a rule, was intended for the exhi-
bition and guardianship of treasured articles. Pro-
vided with a glass door, the collection of porcelains,
ivories, curios, and silver toys could be seen to great
ROOMS AND FURNITURE 87
advantage. Sometimes it was of the plainest and
cheapest wood painted green, red, or yellow, and some-
times handsomely inlaid or carved. Examples of Dutch
cupboards and cabinets face pages 90 and 98.
Next in value was the small casket or coffer, — the
tiny trunk, made of ebony, ivory, " silver wrought,"
sandalwood, painted, gilded, " waxed," or lacquered,
and mounted with beautifully chiselled brass, silver,
or gold locks, handles, and feet.
The plain chest, or coffer, was made of lignum-
vitse, sacredaan (Java mahogany), cherry, plum, oak,
walnut, or pine. It was also covered with leather, in
which case it was really nothing more nor less than a
trunk. It was frequently lined with linen or cloth, and
sometimes was furnished with handsome metal mounts
and stood on ball or square feet. Chests and trunks
occur, naturally enough, in the old inventories ; and
many of these were undoubtedly sea-chests.
The long oak " drawing-table " was a species of ex-
tension table, the leaves of which fell in the center
when the two ends were pulled apart. This had heavy
black bulbs, or massive and heavily carved acorn-
shaped ornaments on the legs. The form popularly
known to-day as " the thousand-legged " with its
twisted legs connected by twisted stretchers and drop
leaves, was also coming into favor, and was made of
the Java mahogany, walnut, oak, and pine painted to
suit the owner's taste (see facing page 82). It may
be noted that the drop-leaf, or " hang ear," table became
common about the middle of the Seventeenth Century.
Tables were oval, round, and square, and were ,
covered, as a rule, with a Turkey rug, known as the
" table carpet." These rich and handsome rugs are
frequently represented as table coverings in the pictures
of the Little Masters. The chairs of the period were
88 DUTCH NEW YORK
the high and low leather, the first with high backs and
the second with low square backs.
The legs of the chairs were connected by stretchers
and the seats were rounded or square. The X-shaped
chair was also in use during this period. In old
inventories we read of Russia leather and Prussia
leather chairs, table chairs, ebony carved chairs, chairs
of sacredaan, and chairs covered with Turkey-work
red or green cloth. There were also the simple three,
and four, and five-backed chairs with rush, or mat
seats. These were painted in any color that the owner
wished. A loose feather or down-filled pillow or
cushion was always placed on the seat; so high was
it, in fact, that a child standing on tiptoe could not
see over it. A type of chair that was coming into
fashion is seen in the hall of the Van Cortlandt house,
facing page 62 ; and ordinary low-backed chairs and a
form appear in the old print facing page 120.
The great number of window-curtains, valances, and
cushions of bright colors and rich materials must have
given an air of warmth and luxury to the homes. Dr.
De Lange's hangings and cushions are noticeable ; and
still more so are Mrs. Van Varick's. She has six satin
cushions with gold flowers (£4 ids. od.), one suit
serge curtains and valance with silk fringe (£6), six
scarlet serge ditto (£4 los. od.), two chimney cloths
of flowered crimson gauze and six window curtains of
the same (£6 los. od. ), one green serge chimney
cloth with fringe (£2 14s. od.), one painted chimney-
cloth, one calico carpet, one chintz carpet (fine), one
calico curtain.
Mirrors were framed with crystal borders beautifully
cut or inlaid with variously colored glass. Lustres for
candles not unfrequently branched from either side of
the frame. Occasionally, too, the mirror was placed in
ROOMS AND FURNITURE 89
the large space over the chimney-piece. The looking-
glass was universal in New Amsterdam ; and, as a
rule, several were found in the house, with " black
lists " or " gilded lists." Abraham De Lanoy must
have had a very handsome one, for in 1702 his " great-
looking-glass " is worth £5.
The ordinary Dutch house in New Amsterdam con-
tained a Cellar and sometimes a Cellar Kitchen. The
ground floor consisted of a Shop, a " Fore Room "
(Voorhuis) , a Back Room, a Kitchen, and sometimes
an Office. Sometimes also there was an extra Kitchen,
and other offices in the yard as well. The floor above
was occupied by chambers, a combination of sitting-
rooms and bedrooms. The larger houses also had
cock lofts and garrets above these in which various
stores were kept.
The Voorhuis in New Amsterdam corresponded
with the hall in New England and the Southern
States. Till comparatively late in the Seventeenth
Century, the hall of even the wealthy settlers con-
tained a bed as well as dining-room and sitting-room
furniture, and in the Dutch house this general sitting-
room also contained a bed, as is to be seen in the
innumerable pictures of that day. In the houses of
the richer merchants there were more than one sitting-
room or parlor, in which case the bed naturally was
banished from the apartment in which visitors were
received.
The rooms on the ground floor of a prosperous mer-
chant of New Amsterdam consisted of a Voorhuis,
a Shop, or a Counting-House (Cornptoir) , sometimes
both, a small Back Room behind the Voorhuis, a big
Kitchen behind the Shop, and a smaller Kitchen ad-
joining in the yard.
The Fore Room was always comfortably and fre-
90 DUTCH NEW YORK
quently sumptuously furnished. Let us take a few
examples. The inventory of Dr. Jacob De Lange,
1685, shows that the doctor's Fore Room was quite
an elaborate apartment. Here we find two of those
great wardrobes known variously as the press, the kas,
the armoire, and the cupboard. One is a hat-press, and
the other a clothes-press. There is also a large black
walnut chest that stands on large black balls. A large
looking-glass with black frame hangs on the wall,
with nine pictures, and the family coat-of-arms all in
black frames. A square table, a round table, a small
table, and an oak " drawing table " — the first form of
the extension table — and a small square cabinet,
twelve chairs with seats of red plush and six with seats
of green plush, and a cupboard with a glass, make a
dignified and comfortable room. An additional touch
of luxury is contributed by a " waxed " (lacquered)
East India small trunk, a " silver thread wrought
small trunk," and an " ivory small trunk tipped with
silver," which are, of course, small coffers for the pres-
ervation of jewels and other small articles of value.
Red striped silk curtains and green striped silk cur-
tains drape the windows and match the seats of the
chairs.
Cornelis Steenwyck's Voorhuis, or Fore Room,
was furnished with seven Russia leather chairs and
one mat chair, a marble table in a wooden frame,
a wooden table with " carpet," or cloth, a " foot
banke," eleven pictures, a clock, and a " children's
ship." The latter in all probability hung from the
beams.
It will be noticed that neither Dr. De Lange nor Mr.
Steenwyck had a bed in the Fore Room; but Mr.
Cornelis Van Dyck, of Albany, 1676, had in his Fore
Room a painted chest of drawers (worth 26 beavers),
^rz
■•V " j
DUTCH CHINA CABINET WITH PORCELAIN
OWNED BY MR. FRANS MIDDKLKOOP, NKW YORK
ROOMS AND FURNITURE 91
a bed and suit of green say hangings {^^2 beavers), a
looking-glass (8 beavers), an oak bedstead, a wooden
table, a desk, a " painted eight-cornered table," two
chests and a " blue cotton chest," ten matted chairs,
" four racks that the pewter stands on and earthen-
ware," an '* old Spanish leather stool," and much
pewter, silver, and earthenware.
Another room is even more characteristically Dutch.
It contained a bedstead of " south walnut, with a dark
say hangings and silk fringe" (42 beavers), "a feather
bed with a checkered-work covering about it, and a
dark rug and white blanket " (69 beavers), a " painted
chest-of-drawers " (48 beavers), a " chest-of -drawers
of southwalnut with a press for napkins atop of it " (22
beavers), an oak chest-of-drawers (12 beavers), an
" oak table with a carpet " (6 beavers), a capstock of
South walnut " (to hang clothes upon) and " eight
Spanish stools" (26 beavers), an old case without
bottles, a "red table that folds up" (9 beavers), a
" southwalnut chest " (18 beavers), " a serge suit bed
hangings " (16 beavers), " a flannel sheet, a small bed
and a hanging about a chimney " (16 beavers), table-
cloths, napkins, etc. (16 beavers), and brass, pewter,
earthenware, and glass {^i^ beavers). Mr. Van Dyke's
possessions were valued at 1428 beavers. The last item
reads: " Before the door a wooden slee."
Dr. De Lange's house shows that a man of wealth
was able to indulge his tastes not only for fine furni-
ture, but for silver, pictures, porcelain, etc. Besides
the Fore Room, his principal apartments were a Side
Chamber, Shop, Chamber, Kitchen, and Cellar. The
Shop was stocked with a varied assortment of porce-
lain and East India goods.
The Side Chamber was almost a picture and porce-
lain gallery. Eleven paintings of great value hung on
92 DUTCH NEW YORK
the walls, and a handsome " East India Cupboard "
was filled with fine porcelain and earthenware. On
the chimney-piece covered with a blue valance stood a
number of basins, flagons, pots, bowls, a small china
dog, a duck, two swans and six white figures of men.
The windows were hung with blue curtains, and a hand-
some looking-glass in a gold frame also brightened the
room with its reflections. In this room Dr. De Lange
kept his library of ninety books and from the presence
of his " chest with medicines," a " chest containing dry
herbs and salves," sundry instruments and a white
alabaster mortar, we may assume this was the barber-
surgeon's ofiice.
Dr. De Lange's Chamber was evidently a very large
room and very luxuriously furnished. " Sixteen cur-
tains of linen before the glass windows " show that
there were eight windows. The Chamber, therefore,
in all probability occupied the greater part of the sec-
ond floor. It would also seem, from the enumeration
of the other curtains, that the outer curtains were in
pairs and made of different materials, for we read of
two striped calico curtains, " two small calico valions
before the glass windows," two calico curtains with
silk fringe, and two green silk curtains ; and there was
a ninth of calico with red lining and woolen fringe.
The room also contained a very handsome bedstead with
white calico hangings and a number of pillows and
cushions, etc., and several spreads and counterpanes ; for
example, one calico spread laid with calico, one calico
spread laid with red crape, one ditto without lining, one
flowered calico upper spread laid with red calico, one
spread with white and calico squares and eight East
India filled spreads. There were no less than fourteen
cushions in the Chamber, three gray striped chair
cushions, two great blue striped and three " for the
ROOMS AND FURNITURE 93
loynes," etc. Four pieces of tapestry for chests show
that the chests were draped attractively. A flowered
tablecloth covers the table.
The number of valances and chimney-cloths would
indicate that the room was draped differently on oc-
casions. There is " one white valion before a chimney,
one redd chimney-cloth, two ozenbrig chimney valance,
one blue calico mixed checkard valance, one redd ditto,
one ditto white with red pointed lace, one ditto red
flowered calico valance, one ditto flowered with red
lining one blue say fringed valance and two valance
carpet work."
The most important article of furniture in this room
was a large wardrobe or kast, described in the inven-
tory as " one great cloth case covered with French nut
wood and two black knots under it " (£13). This was
probably of French walnut, carved in the Renaissance
style, and as there were " six cloths to put upon the
boards in the case," we may conclude that there were
six shelves within the case ; a seventh " cloth with lace "
would seem to indicate that a cover ornamented the top.
This fine kast was used as the receptacle for caps,
aprons, handkerchiefs, and neckcloths.
Cornells Steenwyck's house consisted of a Fore
Room, Withdrawing Room, Great Chamber, Kitchen
Chamber, Chamber above the Kitchen, After Loft,
Cellar Kitchen, Garret, and Cellar.
As the Fore Room has already been described, we
will pass to the Withdrawing Room. This contained
a cabinet worth £4, a chest, a trunk, a close stool,
two chairs, a " capstick," a cushion, a shop ladder,
eight pictures, " five earthen china dishes," and dry-
goods.
The Great Chamber contained an enormous case, or
cupboard (Kasten) of French nutwood, valued at £20;
94 DUTCH NEW YORK
twelve Russia leather chairs and " two velvet chairs
with fine silver lace"; a cabinet worth £6; a "great
looking-glass," £6; a very handsome square table, since
it was worth £io; a round table (£2) ; a bedstead and
furniture (£25); a dressing-box; a carpet (£2); a
flowered tabby chimney cloth ; a pair of flowered tabby
curtains for the glass windows ; five alabaster images ;
fourteen pictures; a " harthe iron with brass handles " ;
two earthen flowered pots ; a " piece of tapestry to
make twelve cushions " ; sixty-four yards of " striped
linen to cover the beds " ; " nineteen china, or porcelain,
dishes " ; seven hundred and twenty-three ounces of
silver plate (£216 i8s. od.) and seven ditto (£2 2s. od.) ;
and much jewelry, money, and household linen.
In the Kitchen Chamber he had a case for clothes, a
lantern with glass, a looking-glass, five Russia leather
chairs, " four old stripe chairs," three " old matt-
chairs," three " wooden racks for dishes," one " cann-
board with hooks of brass," two small children's trunks,
a bed, bedstead, and furniture (worth £25), iron rod
and two curtains, a pair of andirons and hearth iron,
an oval table, two linen cloths, two woolen cloths, a
chimney cloth, two " cussions," a tobacco pot, and much
valuable earthenware.
In the Chamber above the Kitchen we find a cup-
board, or case-of-drawers (£9) ; one small children's
case ; a bed, bedstead, bolster, six blankets, and a silk
quilt (£12 los. od.) ; ten " chyers " (£2 5s. od.) ; six
"chyer" cushions (£1 los. od.) ; a carpet, green
flowered (£1 5s. od.) ; a small piece of tapestry; a
chimney-cloth ; a wooden table ; six pictures ; three
fine wicker baskets ; seven earthen dishes, and a great
deal of household linen.
In the After Loft were kept glasses, earthenware,
and pewter ; a piece of " carpett or tapyt, old," which
ROOMS AND FURNITURE 95
must have been good, for the value (£1 5s. od.) is
extraordinary for a banished article; twenty- four
pounds of Spanish soap, and forty-six scrubbing
and rubbing brushes. Here were also two tin water-
spouts and " an old basket with tin ware to bake sugar
cakes."
The Cellar Kitchen contained a great deal of pewter,
brass, iron, and tin ware; a mustard querne, a paper-
mill, wooden utensils, a wooden press, a table, ten
chairs, and two cushions. In the Garret, brass, iron,
powder, locks, leather, paint and such articles, and
fourteen French nutboards, valued at £3 3s. od., were
stored. The Cellar was well stocked with wines and
liquors.
There was also an upper chamber for merchandise,
where were dry-goods, pewter, iron, etc., guns, saddles,
and books, a tick-tack board, two tables, two benches,
and two painted screens (the latter worth £3).
Mr. Peter Jacobs Marius, who died in 1702, was
very wealthy. His house consisted of a Shop and Fore-
room; a " Writing Closet," or ojffice; a " Lower Back
Room," a " Great Kitchen," an Upper Chamber above
the Great Kitchen, a " Little Chamber on ye left," a
Loft and " Cock Loft." There was also a " Kitchen
in the Yard," a small Store House in the Yard, a
Great Store House, and a Cellar.
In the Lower Back Room there were " Three blew
curtains for the windows " which tell us that there were
three windows; "one screen covered with ozenbrigg,"
two feather beds, one bolster, six pillows, two blankets,
two "blew curtains and valance," one white, one "blew,"
and " four speckled valance for the chimney," " two
pare of Rollows," six glass bottles, " one large Dutch
Bible tipt with brass," one " small Dutch Byble tipt
with silver and a chain," five earthen cups on the cup-
96 DUTCH NEW YORK
board, one black framed looking-glass, sixteen small
pictures, one black walnut table and carpet, six Turkey
leather chairs, one " blew " elbow chair, one matted
ditto, thirteen old matted chairs, one red cedar chest,
one old-fashioned clock, one dressing-basket, one brass
warming-pan, eight " stoole " cushions, old and new,
nineteen earthen dishes great and small " on ye mantle
tree," two earthen painted bottles, one small hair
trunk, four cases with square bottles, and a money scale
and weight. In this room the household linen was kept,
also the silver.
" In the Upper Chamber above the Great Kitchen "
we find eight black walnut chairs covered with blue, a
black walnut table and carpet, a large cedar chest, a
red cedar cupboard, an old-fashioned linen press, a bed-
stead with iron rods, six blue curtains, valances, tester,
and head cloth, feather bed, bolster, and pillow, *' a
callico valance for the chimney, a blew chest cloth,
a green and flowered table cloth," two green curtains,
two ditto valances, a " white calico hammake " ; eight
pictures, two blew curtains, two ditto valances.
In the " Little Chamber on ye Left " are one small
bedstead with iron rod and two blue curtains and val-
ance, one green rug, one white blanket, one white and
two calico curtains for the windows.
In the Loft are stored a small oak cupboard and
calico cloth, a small red cedar chest, without hinge and
lock, a Dutch hamper, a bedstead with sacking-bottom,
two large and two small pillows, a blanket, two rugs,
and a woolen cover for a rug, a close stool and basin.
In the Cock Loft are an iron fender and five iron cur-
tain rods.
The Kitchen contains a goodly number of fine uten-
sils, among which we may note five brass kettles (44^
pounds), three copper kettles (313^ pounds), three
ROOMS AND FURNITURE 97
brass new pans and covers (31 pounds), two tart pans,
two brass scales, one small metal pot and cover, tive
iron pots with covers (54 pounds), two iron chains,
two spits, a brass mortar and pestle, a rolling-pin,
two ladles, a kneading-trough, a tin apple roaster, a
tin grater, twenty- four pewter dishes, two porringers,
two chafing-dishes, a copper pail, a skillet, a saucepan,
two brass skimmers, three brass frying-pans, two " old
tin pye pans," a cullender, an iron dripping-pan, a flesh
fork and ladle, and " one gridding iron," a brass bowl
and ladle, and 152 1^4 pounds of pewter.
In going over the inventories of the citizens of New
Amsterdam of the Seventeenth Century, the student
would not need to look at the heading to determine
which was English and which Dutch. The early
Jacobean and even Elizabethan flavor persists in the
furnishings of the Englishman's chief living-room,
whether the appraiser calls it " Fore Room," Voor-
huis, or " Hall." Just as the bed was a familiar ob-
ject in the living-room of the Dutch well-to-do classes
all through the century, so was it also in that of the
English merchant. Thus, in 1692, we find a bed in the
hall of Thomas Crundall, a rich merchant, whose hall
must have been a large one to have accommodated a
large " cupboard," a large oval table, a small square
table, a black walnut chest-of -drawers, a black walnut
glass case, a bed with all appurtenances, a chamber
screen, a small black walnut box, seven leather chairs,
six Turkey work chairs, two calico window curtains,
a fringed calico chimney cloth, two large landscapes,
three small landscapes, two andirons, two earthen
bowls, two earthen dishes, a large silver tankard, a
silver cup, two large spoons, a small spoon, four glasses,
and a great deal of household linen.
Another rich Englishman, John Winder, who died
7
98 DUTCH NEW YORK
twenty years before Mr. Crundall, had, on the other
hand, no bed in his hall, which contained four Spanish
tables, twelve Turkey chairs, a leather chair, one King's
arms, two Turkey-work carpets, two brass screens, two
leather Bristol carpets, two looking-glasses, a screen,
two stands, a pair of andirons with brass heads, a pair
of bellows, a framed table, two trunks, and two earthen
pots.
Mr. William Cox owned about £2000 in 1689. His
house was completely furnished. He had two bed-
steads, twenty-four Russia leather chairs, a black wal-
nut chest, a desk and box, three looking-glasses (one
large), three cedar tables (two with a "carpet"), a
" dansick table," another table and carpet, a Turkey
carpet, a " pendula clock," an " old screene," a chest-
of-drawers and frame, a side-table and drawer, a silver
frame looking-glass, a glass case, rugs, etc., six rock-
ing-chairs, a chimney clock, a fine hammock, a great
copper (65 pounds). Tall clocks as well as chimney
and wall clocks were also used. One brought from
Holland in the Seventeenth Century by the Van Cort-
landts appears in this book.
In the Widow Cox's Chamber were stored one hun-
dred and fourteen ounces of silver plate, including a
silver tankard, cup, plate, sugar box, and spoon, salt-
cellar, two porringers, tumbler, and twelve spoons.
This room was luxuriously furnished, for it contained
a bed with bedding and appurtenances, serge curtains
and valance with silk fringe, a chest-of-drawers and
frame, side table and drawers, a large looking-glass, a
silver looking-glass, a dressing-box, a glass case, and
twelve Turkey-work chairs.
Some of these articles doubtless appeared again in
the inventory of Mr. Cox's widow Sarah, who married
John Ort, and took for her third husband Captain Kidd,
DUTCH CHINA CABINPVr AND PORCELAIN
OWNED BV MR. FRANS MIDDKLKOOP, NEW YORK
ROOMS AND FURNITURE 99
the noted pirate. In 1692 her plate and furniture were
valued at £255 14s. od. Her possessions consisted
of furniture, linen, pewter, glass, and earthenware.
She had no less than fifty-four chairs, eighteen of
which were " Turkey- work," and owned a Turkey-
work carpet, four looking-glasses, four bedsteads, four
tables, four other carpets, dressing-boxes, screens,
stands, desks, linen, a coat-of-arms, three chafing-
dishes, pewter, tin, four handsome brass candlesticks,
hearth-furniture, rugs, and a fine clock. She also had
five leather fire buckets.
In Nathaniel Tompson Barrow's Best Chamber,
1688, he had a bedstead with " sacking bottom," bolster,
feather bed, pillows, blankets, and curtains and valance
(£10). A round table, a chest-of-drawers, a close
table, a small dressing-glass, and six chairs come to
£2 13s. od. In the " Next Chamber" we find a bed-
stead, two feather beds, bolsters, pillows, rugs, quilts,
etc., a small chest-of-drawers, two trunks, a looking-
glass, and four chairs (£7 15s. od.), household linen
(£13 8s. 6d.), and a suit of white curtains.
Nathaniel Sylvester, 1680, worth £322 i6s. od., is an-
other good type. He has a " Turkey-wrought couch "
and twelve chairs, six green chairs, ten leather chairs,
a " Turkey-work carpet," a clock, four tables, two
great chests, two great trunks, two cupboards with
drawers, a clock, ten feather beds and furniture, and
four handsome looking-glasses, besides beds, table-
linen, etc.
The handsomest piece of furniture Mr. Francoys
Rombouts owned was a " Holland Cubbert furnished
with earthenware and porcelain " (£15). He also had
a " cubbert and earthenv^^are pots and cups," two other
" cubberts," and a kitchen " cubbert." The beds in his
house were: one bedstead and furniture (£12); an-
loo DUTCH NEW YORK
other bedstead (£io), which was draped with white
curtain and valance; another (£7), hung with blue
curtains; and a little bedstead, a pair of curtains for
a close bedstead, a rug and blanket (£3). Of looking-
glasses he owned four; of tables he had five, including
a little table and cloth, and one oval ; and he also pos-
sessed a press, a dressing-basket, a desk, a cradle, a
chest-of-drawers, a wooden press, several trunks and
chests, a house screen, a fire screen, a hat-press, two
clocks, one a " chimney clock," clothes in a linen case
and an old chest and trunk (f 16 i6s. od.) ; two chim-
ney cloths with fringe and lace; seven white calico
curtains and two mats; one large chair (£6 2s, od.),
seven matted chairs, fourteen chairs, and eight cush-
ions (£5 IDS. od.), four chairs and cushions, four
leather chairs (£1 5s. od.), two chairs and cush-
ions, eight other chairs, four chair cushions, fifteen
pictures, a " perriwig-head," a " hat pin," " earthen
jugs and hanging-board" (£2), a lantern, and two
leather pails, iron backs for the hearths, five baskets,
three hampers, one " capstick," one Dutch Bible, one
psalm book, one " history book," and a " parcel of
books." He owned silver plate worth £20 17s. od., and
a great deal of pewter, brass, iron, hearth-furniture,
cutlery, and earthenware; innumerable brushes, and
much fine household linen.
Some of his cooking and cleaning utensils were ex-
pensive ; for instance, a wooden dish, a brush, a still
and churn, are valued at £5 los. od. Among the
kitchen articles we find two gridirons, one dripping-
pan, one candle-box, " two whetting boards for knives,"
three brooms, one brush, four tubs, one butter firkin,
two rolling boards for linen, one glass spout, thirteen
" wooden Pools for lining [linen] and one board." He
also had two nets and about one hundred old bags and
ROOMS AND FURNITURE loi
odd things. Mr. Rombouts's two dwellings were ap-
praised at £600.
Anthony De Milt, who died in 1693, worth £176
7s. 103/2 d., and who was Schout in 1672, had, at the
time of his death, two great chairs, fourteen chairs,
ten pictures (£2 los. od.), one looking-glass, silver
plate, linen, earthenware, one desk, two tables, one oak
case, six stoves, one trunk, two chests, two bankes
(benches), a wooden box, two pails, two great wooden
boxes, one small ditto, one spit-box (worth 3 pence),
and three Bermuda baskets.
CHAPTER V
PICTURES, SILVER, CHINA, GLASS, AND CURIOS
l^NY one who studies the Little Masters cannot
/ \ fail to be impressed with the great number of
X JL paintings of interiors of the ordinary homes
of the period ; and many works of Jan Steen, Gerard
Dou, Teniers, Pieter de Hooch, Van Mieris, Metsu,
Ter Borch, S. van Hoogstraaten, and others give us
an exact impression of the rooms and houses of the
Seventeenth Century. From Hoogstraaten and Pieter
de Hooch particularly we learn the interior construc-
tion, — how the stairs led to the floors above ; how
the rooms led from one to another ; how the beds were
built in the panels and wainscoting ; how the windows
and doors opened upon courtyards, streets, and back
gardens ; how the halls were arranged, and how the
chimney-pieces were built ; — while other masters show
us how the furniture was disposed, and how rich were
the carvings and the porcelains, and how thick and
brightly hued the " table carpets " and hangings. In-
numerable would be the hints given to us by De Heem,
Van Huysam, Mignon, Van Aelst, Rachel Ruysch,
Snyders, and others of the rich vases of china and
glass owned by the Dutch of three centuries past, even
if the museums and private collections were not full
of splendid examples of the potter's and glass-maker's
arts. Priceless silver beakers, loving-cups, and great
tankards, too, appear in many convivial scenes and re-
unions of gay arquebusiers, and show us what the
PICTURES 103
silversmith could do. The Dutch painters, as every
one knovv'S, excelled in representing all the familiar
objects of daily life; but they painted such things not
merely for their own pleasure, — there was a great
demand for exact representation of persons amid
familiar scenes. The Guilds of Surgeons and mem-
bers of Saint Andrew's, Saint George's, and other
shooting-societies liked to be represented at their ban-
quets, glasses in hand, attacking game pasties, munch-
ing pork chops, and toasting each other in slim-necked
beakers half full of liquid amber or topaz wine, while
jokes and laughter went the rounds. Celebrated and
mediocre masters and brilliant painters, who had at
that time little reputation, were called upon — in a day
when photography was unknown — to paint the homes
of the well-to-do, in exactly the same spirit that the
latter had dolls' houses made in miniature.
The stranger who visited the Dutch cities was per-
fectly amazed at the " many interiors and landscapes
which were exhibited in the booths at the fairs and
under the verandahs in front of the houses of the
painters, and often bought them for a small sum to
sell them in his own country at a considerable price."
Many of the Dutch artists so highly esteemed to-day
were, when living, unappreciated and poor. The great
Ruisdael died in an almshouse; his pupil, the now
famous Hobbema, discouraged, ceased to work, and
was buried at the expense of the parish. Aert van der
Neer, painter of landscapes by moonlight and winter
scenes of charm, died in a garret; the wife of
Adriaen van de Velde had to carry on a hosier's busi-
ness in order to support him and her family ; and Jan
Steen probably made more money out of his tavern
than he did from his painting.
It would, then, not be extraordinary if many pic-
I04 DUTCH NEW YORK
tures of a high order of merit were brought across the
Atlantic by the Dutch sea-captains and if New Am-
sterdam were quite in touch with the art productions
of the day. When we critically examine Dr. De
Lange's, Mrs. Van Varick's, and Mrs. Cappoens's col-
lections with their Evenings, Countreys, Zea, Banquet,
Bimch of Grapes zvith a Pomegranate, Break of Day,
Apricots, Winter, Flower Pot, Country People Frolic
(Kermess), Plucked Cock Torn, Abraham and Hagar,
Picture of Roots, Fruit, Burd Cage and Purse, a Rum-
mer, Shippes, Landskip ye City of Amsterdam, and
Rosen, it is certainly not fanciful to attribute them to
the now famous landscape, genre, and still-life masters
of the day. If so many pictures passed from Holland
to England, why should not a certain number cross
from the parent Amsterdam to the child New Amster-
dam? Some were purchased and some were sent as
presents; but, undoubtedly, many came. Not only
pictures but tapestries, coats-of-arms, and maps adorned
the homes of this city. Many of the merchants and
officials of New Amsterdam crossed the water more
than once, and while in their old home had their pic-
tures painted by artists of the day. Fortunately, one
of the most important portraits of a civic notability
is still in existence (see Frontispiece). The tremen-
dous supply kept down the prices, and it is no wonder
that the strangers were astonished at the pictures that
they saw with other ornaments in the homes of the
Netherlands. Brickman says:
Their interior decorations are far more costly than our
own (English) not only in hangings and ornaments, but
in pictures which are found even in the poorer houses.
No farmer or even common laborer is found, that has
not some kind of interior ornaments of all kinds, so that
if all were put together it often would fill a booth at the
fair.
PICTURES 10$
De Parival remarked:
The furniture of the principal burghers, besides the
gold and silver ware, are tapestries, costly paintings of
the best and most celebrated masters of the country, for
which no money is saved, but rather eked out in econo-
mizing in living, beautifully carved woodwork, such as
tables, treasure-chests, pewter, brass and earthenware,
porcelains, etc.
The finest collection in New Amsterdam appears to
have been that of Dr. De Lange. He had no less than
sixty-one pictures, many of which are described as
" large." The inventory distinctly mentions the rooms
in which they were hung. Entering the Side Chamber,
we find one picture, an Evening; a small Zea; four
pictures, Countries; and five East India pictures with
red lists (frames). We may note that a large looking-
glass with gold frame also took up some of the wall
space. In the Fore Room he had " A great Picture,
being a Banquet with a black list ; one ditto, something
smaller; one Bunch of Grapes with a Pomegranate;
one Picture zvith Apricokes; one Picture, a small Coiin-
trey; one Break of Day; one small Picture, Winter;
one small Picture, a C abler; one Portraturing of my
Lord Speelman; and one board with a black list
wherein the coat-of-arms of Mr. De Lange." This
was appraised at nearly twice the value of a great
Banquet. The Great Chamber contained one great
picture, Banquetts; one ditto; one small ditto; one
Picture Abraham and Hagar; four small Countreys;
two small Countreys; one Flower Pot; one smaller
ditto; one Country People Frolic; one Sea-Strand;
one Portraiture; one Plucked Cock Torn; two small
Countreys; one Flozver Pot, small, without a list; one
" small print broken," and " thirteen East India prints
io6 DUTCH NEW YORK
past upon paper." In the Cellar were a portrait of Mr.
De Lange, portraits of two men, and four Countreys
without lists, unframed.
Mrs. Margarita Van Varick had one large picture
of I mages J Sheep and Ship pes; one Picture of the
Apostle; one Picture of Fruit; one Picture of Battell;
one Picture of Landskip; one Picture of large Flowr
Pot; one Picture with a Rummer; one Burd Cage
and Purse, etc. ; one large Horse Battell; one Picture
of Roots. She also had two Pictures of Shippes in
black ebony frames, and two similar ones in black
frames also, two small painted pictures in black frames,
and two maps in black frames. Moreover, there were
eight prints in black frames and four in " guilded
frames " ; and no less than fourteen " East India
Pictures," large and small, framed, some of which
were framed in black and some in gilt frames.
Cornelis Steenwyck had fourteen in the Great Cham-
ber, six in the Chamber above the Kitchen, eleven in
the Fore Room, and eight in the Withdrawing Room.
Cristina Cappoens, 1687, also had two small pic-
tures, one great one with " a broken list," four small
pictures, two small pictures, three small gilded pictures,
and four that are described sufficiently to suggest per-
haps a De Heem or Rachel Ruysch, a Van de Velde,
and a Berck-Heyde or a Bakhuysen. These are *' two
Rosen pictures," one " a ship," and one " of ye city
of Amsterdam."
Two years later, in 1689, John Van Zee had four
pictures : one was Scipio Africanus, and another Julius
Cccsar. These were probably a pair painted by the
same artist. The names of the other two are not men-
tioned. Dirck Benson had " four pictures of four
quarters of the World."
Other instances are : Dominie Nicholas Van Rensse-
SILVER 107
laer, of Albany, had thirteen pictures — The King's
Arms, five small printed pictures, and an " almanach "
worth eighty beavers ; Cornells Jacobson had one pic-
ture in 1680; Cornells Dericksen, seven pictures (£2) in
1681 ; Asser Levy had nine pictures in 1682; Cornells
Van Dyck, three pictures in his Fore Room in 1686;
and Jacob Abraham San ford, four pictures in 1688, and
Thomas Davids, ten. The widow of Nicholas Bur-
dene had two pictures in 1690; Philip Smith, a chart
and a picture in 1692, in which year Francoys Rom-
bouts had fifteen pictures. Anthony de Milt had ten
in 1693; and Annitie Van Bommel, two in 1694.
One constantly comes across the mention of maps,
prints, and almanacs, which probably hung upon the
walls also ; and " thirty pictures of King William and
Mary," in Lawrence Deldyke's shop in 1692, show that
the Dutch rulers of England were popular in New
Amsterdam. Dr. De Lange's East India prints pasted
on paper were undoubtedly valuable Eastern pictures.
A flower-piece of the period, by Jan van Huysum,
such as was owned by the rich New Amsterdam
collectors, faces page 196. The tulip is noticeably
important.
The silver of the period was massive and heavy.
Great tankards and beakers with lids, such as face page
272, great porringers, caudle-cups, bowls, dram-cups,
tumblers, and cups were marked with the family coat-
of-arms, or the name, initials, or monogram of the
owner, and bequeathed from generation to generation.
Apostle-spoons, too, were much in favor and highly
valued, and special spoons for the sugar-box, pap-bowl,
mustard-pot, etc., were also known (see facing page
262). Forks were gradually coming into general use,
and so were the pepper-box, saltcellars, spice-boxes, and
other delicate articles for table use. Special presents
io8 DUTCH NEW YORK
were given to brides, and the christening gifts were
also numerous, including spoons, bowls, cups, and
rattles with silver bells. Spoons were sometimes pre-
sented for souvenirs at funerals. Silver toys of all
kinds were also highly valued, and at this period the
silversmith was able to reproduce in miniature every
known article, from a coach and six horses to a
chair of the period (see opposite). The cabinets
of the rich were filled with these little articles. Mrs.
Van Varick, who had a great many of these beauti-
ful and costly miniature toys (see page 119), owned
a very remarkable collection of silver. Much of it
was evidently of beautiful workmanship and from the
East. Her treasures included one silver spice-box, one
silver egg-dish, one small silver knife and fork, one sil-
ver knife, three silver wrought East India boxes, one
silver tumbler, one silver knife, " one silver fork,
studded handle," one silver wrought East India trunk,
one silver saltcellar, one silver wrought East India box,
two silver-headed canes, one china cup bound with
silver, two scissors tipped with silver, one hundred and
eighty-five ounces silver (£69 7s. 6d.). She also had
three silver wrought East India " cupps," one silver
wrought East India dish, one small ebony trunk with
silver handles, a silver thimble, silver medals, and a
great variety of current coins of foreign mintage and
Oriental curios.
Asser Levy also had an unusual collection of silver
in 1682. Among his fine articles we may note twenty-
two silver spoons, one silver fork, three silver goblets,
one silver tankard, one silver mustard-pot, one silver
cup with two ears, four small silver cups, one small
silver goblet, two silver saltcellars, two silver cups,
two silver saucers, one silver spice-box, one silver
tumbler, one silver bell, and " one Cornelia tree cup
MINIATURE SIl.VER ARTICLKS AND SJLVER TOYS
RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTKRDAM
SILVER 109
and two dishes with silver." WilHam Pleay had, in
1690, a silver " jocolato pot."
Another fine collection was that of Peter Jacob
Marius, who died in 1702. Among other things he
had one silver tankard, two large and one small silver
saltcellar, one large and one small silver beaker, two
large and one small mustard " pott " and spoons,
twenty-five large and two small sweetmeat spoons,
four silver tumblers, seven large and small cups with
two ears, one silver old-fashioned server, one silver
mug and cover, one " babyes silver chaffendish " and
cradle, one silver fork and cup, with a parcel of but-
tons and other broken silver (218 ounces). He also
owned two silver-handled knives and a pair of silver-
handled " sizers."
Charles Morgan, of Gravesend, Long Island, had
one " sylver dram cup " in 1668; and in the same year
Thomas Exton left to Mrs. Abigail Nicholls " my
silver boat and a silver meat fork and a silver spoon."
John Winder owned four hundred and forty-seven
ounces of plate in 1675 (£11 1 15s. od.) ; George Cooke
had £40 of silver plate, including an inkhorn and fork;
in 1680 Cornells Jacobson had " a silver cup and two
hooks for a cloth"; and in 1681 Cornells Derickson,
fourteen spoons, the handle of a spoon, the handle of
a fork, two little spoons, a dram cup and a " currell "
(26 ounces), all amounting to £7 i6s. od. The same
year, Cornells Steenwyck had seven hundred and
twenty-three ounces of silver plate worth £216 i8s. od.
and seven ounces worth £2 2s. od. In 1689 William
Cox had one hundred and fourteen ounces of silver
plate and a " case of silver hafted knives " ; John Van
Zee possessed plate valued at £9 lis. od. ; Anthony
de Milt also possessed a little silver. Madame Blanche
Sauzeau, widow of Jaques Dubois, had six silver
no DUTCH NEW YORK
spoons, six forks, and six small spoons in 1690; and
two years later Philip Smith had one hundred and
fourteen ounces of silver plate, worth £12 2s. 3d.
Francoys Rombouts had £20 17s. od. ; and Sarah Ort,
soon to be Mrs. Kidd, one hundred and four ounces
of silver, worth £101 9s. od., including a tankard, cup,
plate, sugar-box and spoon, saltcellar, two porringers,
a tumbler, and twelve spoons. Margaret Duncan,
1702, owned £98 worth of silver, including a porringer
worth £10 19s. 9d. and six silver spoons; Francis
Hulin in the same year had a dozen silver spoons and
a dozen silver forks, valued at £14 8s. od. ; Abraham
Delanoy, 1702, nine silver spoons, worth £5 6s. od.
John Haines, 1689, had sixteen silver spoons worth
£9 I2S. od. Colonel William Smith, of the manor of
St. George, Suffolk County, 1704, owned silver plate
to the value of £150; and Cristina Cappoens, 1693,
had three silver beakers, two silver cups, one having a
silver cover, a silver pepper-box, a silver mustard-pot,
a silver saltcellar, and nine silver spoons. In 1700,
Cornells Van Dyck had four silver " tummelers."
Tankards and beakers were highly valued and fre-
quently bequeathed to the eldest or favorite son and
grandson. Thus we find Philip Udall, of Flushing,
in 171 1 bequeathing a silver " Beeker," about a pound
weight, to his son, Joseph, " for the use of my grand-
son Philip Udall, after the death of my son, Joseph."
Derick Clausen, 1686, had a silver beaker (worth £3)
and a silver cup (18 shillings). Margaret Duncan,
1702, owned a tankard; Cristina Cappoens, 1693,
owned two old family beakers : one, weighing twelve
ounces, w^as worth £4 4s. od., and the other, weighing
sixteen ounces and marked with the name Christina
Rasselaers, was valued at £5 12s. od. John Haines,
merchant, 1689, had a silver tankard worth £10.
SILVER III
Four handsome pieces that belonged to Olaf Steven-
son Van Cortlandt face page 112; a silver tankard
that belonged to Sara de Rapelje, the first child born
of Dutch parents in the colony, faces page 116, on
which is also a curious drinking-cup known as the
" clover-leaf."
Silver frequently excited the cupidity of servant,
guest, and relative, if we may judge from the many
thefts that occur in the court records. A very peculiar
case appears in 1656, when the Honorable N. de Sille
appears with a charge against two ladies of position,
— Neeltie van Couwenhoven and her sister Mrs.
Nicholaes Boot. " For that N. Boot's wife cunningly
took, with the said Neeltie, a silver goblet from their
father's house and refuse to restore it; whereupon
they being complained of, plaintiff caused the goblet
to be brought and laid before the Court, maintaining
that it is a species of theft or violence." The court
ordered that the goblet be delivered to Couwenhoven,
which was done in court.
Silver was always a great temptation to the thief.
Many instances came into the court, among which was
the case of Marten Van Weert, who was a notorious
thief who had visited the homes of some of the most
important burghers of New Amsterdam. In some way
he made off with half a dozen spoons at a wedding at
the house of Cristina Cappoens. Marten van Weert
was accused by the officer Pieter Tonneman " for his
grave and shameful act of theft committed at various
times and divers places according to his own voluntary
confession and acknowledgment without torture or
force; first having stolen seven or eight years ago a
quantity of zeewan from the house of Pieter Kock
dec'd ; having stolen from Cornelis Steenwyck's house
at divers times a quantity of otters and beavers to-
112 DUTCH NEW YORK
gether with some pieces of manufactured or Haarlem
stuffs and a piece of fine napped cloth, also a piece of
fine linen; having lately stolen from Cristyntje Cap-
poens's house at the feast or celebration of the marriage
of Lauwerens Van der Spygel and Sara Webbers, to
which wedding he was invited, half a dozen silver
spoons." It was considered important to make him
an example to others; and Marten van Waart was
condemned to be " severely scourged with rods in a
closed chamber, banished ten years out of this
jurisdiction and further in the costs and miscs of
justice." Owing to his youth, the first punishment
was later remitted.
In rich houses in Holland pewter was generally
used in the place of silver tableware. The silver,
when families were so fortunate as to own it, was kept
for ornament and for occasions of ceremony. The
pewter, of good design and often engraved with the
family coat-of-arms, shone as brightly as the silver
itself, and was kept in a special pewter cupboard (or
tinkasten) in the dresser, or in rows in the wooden
racks on the wall.
Pewter was universally possessed in the New
Netherlands. Annitie van Bommel, 1694, had a great
amount, including sixteen pewter platters, seven plates,
sixteen porringers, ten pew^ter spoons ; Cristina Cap-
poens, 1687, four pewter dishes, eight pewter plates, six
pewter cans, and seven funnels, ten pewter dishes, two
small pewter dishes, one pewter beaker, three pewter
cans, and one " pewter cop " ; Cornells Jacobson, 1680,
eight pewter dishes (35 pounds), twenty- four pewter
trenchers, two small dishes, a pepper-box, and many
other dishes and spoons; George Masters, 1686, a
pewter tankard and five old porringers, eleven pewter
plates, three small and three larger deep pewter dishes,
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CHINA 113
three large pewter platters, a small " pye plate," and a
pint pot. Dominie Nicholas Van Rensselaer, of Albany,
had seventeen small and great pewter platters, two
dozen plates, a saltcellar, a mustard-pot, two pewter
candlesticks, four dozen cans or tankards, and four
dozen small cups. John Haines, who had £26 of sil-
ver, also had '' yj lbs. pewter lo*^ lb." (£3 4s. 2d.),
four porringers, and two dozen pewter plates. He
owned, moreover, seventy-seven pounds of brass.
George Underbill, 1691, possessed twenty pounds of
pewter and eight porringers. Charles Morgan, of
Gravesend, Long Island, 1668, was particularly well
stocked. We read of three pewter platters, two basons,
four plates, one pewter flagon, one pewter bottle, three
beakers, four small pewter dishes, a mug, and two
porringers. He also had three brass candlesticks, two
lamps, two brass kettles, and " a great copper kettle,"
which he valued very highly, because it was the subject
of special bequest. In his will of 1668 he says: "I
do give and bequeath one great copper kettle for and
to the use of all my children during the tyme that they
or the greatest part of them shall reside or live to-
gether and upon the said land aforementioned in this
town." The " great brass kettle " and " the great cop-
per kettle " appear in many an inventory, and they are
always appraised at high figures. Judging from the
prevalence and the amount of pewter, brass, and cop-
per listed in the old documents, the homes of the
Dutch residents must have been filled with brightly
shining metal articles for domestic use.
During this century the Delft potteries reached the
height of their activities and imitated with the greatest
skill the blue and white, the black, the red and varie-
gated porcelains and earthenware that the ships brought
almost daily from the East. The collecting of por-
8
114 DUTCH NEW YORK
celain became a craze with the Dutch burgher at home
and abroad.
The inventories of New Amsterdam prove that the
colonists shared this luxurious taste. Dr. Jacob De
Lange had articles both for use and ornament. In his
Side Chamber the *' Purcelaine in the chamber before
the Chimney " consisted of seven half basons, two
belly flagons, three white men, one sugar-pot, three
small pots, six small " porrengers," and one small gob-
let, one great goblet, two great basons, two pots,
two flasks, four drinking-glasses, five dishes, six
double butter-dishes, thirty-three butter-dishes, seven
red small teapots, two white teapots, one hundred and
twenty-seven teapots, three small men, one can with a
silver joint, one can with a joint, two flaskets, one
barber's bason, five small basons, sixty-seven saucers,
four saltcellars, three small mustard-pots, five oil-pots,
one small pot, two tobacco boxes, one small spoon, four
small cans, six small flasks, two small oilcans, one
small chalice, two fruit-dishes, one earthenware bason,
two small cups, one small oilcan, one small spice-pot,
five saucers, four small men, one small dog, two small
swans, one small duck, and two small men. One small
East India rush case contained nineteen wine and beer
glasses. This china-ware was probably arranged upon
innumerable wall-brackets in the Marot style.
In the Shop we find tlie following earthenware : ten
white dishes, seven white and blue dishes, two flat white
basons, one white cup, one saltcellar, one mustard-pot,
twenty-one trenchers of red earthenware, five small
saucepans, three stewpans, four pots, one strainer, two
small dishes, and two jars.
Cristina Cappoens owned a good deal of porcelain
in 1687. She had eleven " great cheenie dishes,"
worth £1 15s. od., " four cheenie cups," two marble
CHINA 115
images, seven painted dishes, one small can and two
cups, five white plates and two cups, two bottles and
glass, two painted cups and five earthen white and
painted cups.
Another fine collection was that of Frangoys Rom-
bouts, who had a " Holland cubbert furnished with
earthenware and porcelain" (worth £15), eighteen
pieces of earthenware and porcelain, one case of bot-
tles, twenty-six earthenware dishes and other earthen-
ware, a " cubbert " with earthen and porcelain pots
and cups, six porcelain cups, seven earthen dishes, six
earthen jugs, and a hanging-board, eight earthen dishes,
fourteen porcelain cups, four earthen jugs, and two
great glass bottles.
Mrs. Van Varick had " ten china dishes ; three large
china dishes, crackt and broke; four china dishes,
crackt; six bassons (three crackt) ; two fine cups, one
fine jug, four saucers, six smaller tea-saucers, six
painted tea-dishes, four tea-dishes, eight teacups, four
teacups painted brown, six ditto smaller, three teacups
painted red and blue; eight East India flower-pots,
white (one crackt) ; one china ink-box and two sand-
boxes ; eight white earthen plates ; a tea-dish and two
cups ; one china image and one lyon ; three teapots ;
one cistern and bason, and three china basons."
In 1668, Charles Morgan, of Gravesend, Long
Island, owned three earthen dishes, two saltcellars,
and one glass bottle; in 1674, Arent Everts had eight
earthen platters; in 1675, John Winder, six earthen
platters; in 1679, Nicholas Van Rensselaer, "five
chany " plates, six cups, nineteen fine earthen platters,
twelve butter-dishes, two earthen saltcellars, eight fine
little earthen dishes, two ditto flower-pots, one ditto
can and one ditto mustard-pot, — all together worth
eighteen beavers.
ii6 DUTCH NEW YORK
In 1680, Nathaniel Sylvester had a case with bottles;
and in the same year Cornelis Jacobson owned an
earthen pot, one case of bottles, forty earthen dishes,
thirteen earthen pots, five earthen dishes, one stewpan,
and seventeen pots. Cornelis Derickson had four
earthen cups and seven cans in 1681. Dr. De Lange
had two fruit-dishes, fifty-three glass bottles, and two
glass bottles tipped with silver, John Budd had earth-
enware, four glass bottles, and a case with bottles in
1684; Derick Clausen, a white pot with cover and
five blue dishes in 1686; Cornelis Steenwyck had, in
the same year, five earthen china dishes, five alabaster
images, seven earthen dishes, two cases with bottles,
and nineteen china or porcelain dishes worth £4, be-
sides some earthenware worth £3 7s. od. In 1687,
Glaunde Germonpre van Gitts had three white earthen-
ware cans and five gray ones; in 1688 Thomas
Phillips had glass and earthenware worth £6 5s. od. ;
and Frances Richardson, earthenware and a glass case
and glasses. In 1689 William Cox had a dozen " phar-
nish plates," worth £1 4s. od., six new saucers and
six old saucers. Simeon Cooper had two cases with
bottles in 1691, and in the same year Dirck Theunissen
possessed seven earthen dishes and basons, six earthen
platters, one " boter dish," two earthen cans, seven
earthen pots, and two glass bottles. Sarah Ort, the
wife of Captain Kidd, had in 1692 twelve drinking-
glasses. In 1694, Annitie van Bommel had four
earthen pots, five dishes, and one great earthen jug.
In 1700, John Coesart had for sale in his shop " 20 red
figured pots, 135 red mugs, one case with wine glasses,
two earthen water pots, one earthen pot and one
spitting-pot."
Examples from the Rijks Museum face pages 178
and 232, and a group in which appears one of the
SILV'ER TANKARD
OWNKD BV SARA DK RAPKIJE
GLASS 117
grotesque ornaments brought from China and called
by the French collectors inagots faces page 190. Other
fine specimens are contained in the cabinets facing
pages 90 and 98.
Any one who visits the Rijks Museum in Amster-
dam will see a wonderful collection of glass of this
period, — of all shapes and sizes, white, green, ruby,
amber, and opalescent tints, — loving-cups, tumblers,
wineglasses, chalices, beakers, cordial glasses, jelly and
syllabub glasses, beautifully cut in innumerable fa-
cets, or engraved with a delicacy that rivals the touch
of the frost fairies on the wintry panes; hunting-
scenes, biblical scenes, mythological scenes, landscapes,
proverbs, coats-of-arms, and mottoes are etched upon
them with marvelous skill. Here we see the shapes
and forms that so often appear in the pictures of
Metsu, Van Mieris, Ostade, Jan Steen, Van der Heist,
and others. What pleasure the Dutch artists took in
painting the Bohemian glass and the transparent wine
or beer that fills them! Particularly with Metsu do
we meet with tall oblong glasses of elegant form in
which the wine sparkles or the beer froths, — glasses
cut and shaped in twenty different ways — octagon
glasses each facet of which ends with a curve and
which cut the light with their sharp edges, or glasses
the calyx of which forms a reversed cone on a her-
on's claw, or elongates into a swan's neck, and fin-
ishes like a trumpet; lastly glasses, sometimes of an
imperishable thickness and solidity, sometimes as deli-
cate, light, and thin as an onion skin. Specimens of
glass of the period face pages 184 and 216.
The old Dutch were great stay-at-homes, and al-
though economical with regard to the expenditure of
money on travel or pleasures, considerable sums were
spent on beautifying and decorating the home. Gode-
ii8 DUTCH NEW YORK
wyck said, somewhat gloomily, that " the home is like
a grave wherein we always dwell." A great part of
the Dutchman's pleasure in life lay in the acquisition
and care of choice possessions. When his home was
furnished to his taste, he liked to have it perpetuated
on canvas, and he even had it reproduced in miniature
with all its furniture and belongings in tiny articles of
gold or silver.
Realism was carried to such a pitch that the doll's
house had its kitchen, lying-in room, and gloomily
draped death-chamber with the tiny coffin containing
its wax corpse. The little garden of " coral work "
with its hedges, trees, flowerbeds, shell walks, paths,
and statuettes was added.
One of the most attractive houses of this character
is in the Antiquarian Museum in Utrecht. It consists
of several rooms, furnished in the period of 1680, and
contains real paintings in miniature by Moucheron.
First comes the Voorhuis, or Vestibule ; then a Gang,
or passage-way with staircase leading to the next
floor; third, the Little Back Room; fourth, an Office,
Comptoir; fifth, the Salctkamer, or Drawing-room;
and, sixth, the Art Gallery. The other rooms are the
Bedroom or Chamber ; the Lying-in Room, the Nur-
sery, the Kitchen, the Cellar, the Scullery, the Store-
room, the Maidservant's Room, the Garret, the Laundry
in the Garret.
A doll's house, also of the Seventeenth Century, said
to have been made for Peter the Great, is preserved in
the Rijks Museum, It is encased in tortoiseshell. The
general view is shown in the illustration facing page
172, and other rooms appear facing pages 144, 150,
156, and 162.
Hundreds of miniature trinkets are to be seen in
the Rijks Museum in silver and gold filigree work,
CURIOS 119
ivory, ebony, brass, porcelain, earthenware, and Delft ;
for to the doll everything was given that human beings
need for use or pleasure. The illustration facing
page 108 will suffice to give an idea of the variety of
these silver toys. These charming curios were known
in New Amsterdam. Mrs. Margarita Van Varick left
eighteen pieces of silver children's toys to Johanna;
twenty to Marinus ; seventeen to Rudolphus ; " twenty
eight silver playthings, or toys, to Cornelia " ; and
besides there was a chest full of " childrens babyes
playthings and toys " to be divided equally among
them ; and also for Johanna and Cornelia there were
" two glaasen cases with thirty-nine pieces of small
chinaware and eleven Indian babyes " ; also " six
small and six larger china dishes." Some of these may
have been playthings; but they were evidently much
prized treasures.
CHAPTER VI
NEW AMSTERDAM HOUSEKEEPING
ALL through the night the watch had been cry-
ing the hours and describing the condition of
L the weather. Soon after daybreak the family
arose, sometimes even before the bell of the city rang,
for early rising was the custom. The first to get up,
as a rule, was the head of the house, who would go
downstairs in his dressing-gown and slippers, with
nightcap on, open the door and the shutters, look
at the weather, bid his neighbor good morning, and
call the servant. While she lit the fire and got things
ready for breakfast, the rest of the family would get
up. The maid set the table, shook up the pillows in
the chairs, heated the foot-warmer for the mistress, and
placed the Bible before the master's chair. The family
now came downstairs, — parents, children large and
small, — washed, combed, and dressed, and took their
places at the table. The servant also took hers at the
end of the board. Then the father stood up, uncov-
ered his head, and all followed his example and with
folded hands joined in the prayer which he led. All
repeated the " Amen," covered their heads, and sat
down to breakfast, during which the father at the table,
or one of the sons at the reading-desk, read a chapter
from the Scripture, After the meal and at the end of
the reading all stood up, sang the hymn, and the father
said grace.
Bread, butter, and cheese always appeared upon the
' StiSanna UuuJlik^s.^
From an old print
A FAMILY MEAL
SEVENTKENTH CENTURY
NEW AMSTERDAM HOUSEKEEPING 121
table, but breakfast did not consist of these staples
alone, by any means. In many families there were
pasties of venison and meat. Fried fish was a favorite
dish at breakfast, and smelts were called the " break-
fast fish " by preference. The bread was different in
size, quality, and shape from that of the present day.
Rye, wheat, or white bread was used, and also bread
made of oats, barley, and beans. Fancy bread was
baked on festive occasions. At Christmas, presents
were given of Christmas " Wights," in the shape of a
child in swaddling-clothes; and at Easter, round
Easter " Egg " loaves. At Twelfth Night a cake was
given called didve-kater, derived from the French
deux fois quatre, consisting of two four-cornered
currant-loaves, baked together; and on Saint Nicholas
Eve, the " St. Nicolaas brood."
Burghers seldom ate two relishes at once. Butter
and cheese on a " piece " of bread was considered a
wicked extravagance. With the bread milk was drunk,
and sometimes small beer. It was not until the end of
the Seventeenth Century that the coffee-pot made its
appearance on the table. Many people used to make a
milk-sop with white bread soaked in milk. The
farmer himself was satisfied with buttermilk, while his
wife was clever in adulterating the milk. Beer was
the most general beverage. The common people
drank schenkel (pouring), "sharp," or sharp beer
(scharrc-bicr) , leakings, and "thin beer." The citi-
zens had stoops, of four or eight quarts, and pewter
cups on the table; the richer class used silver and
English pewter and poured the beer out of jugs with
covers.
After breakfast everybody went her or his way, — the
husband to his office or his business, the boys to their
offices, shops, or schools; but the girls usually helped
122 DUTCH NEW YORK
their mother and the servant in the housework. The
husband and wife attended to their special duties and
hardly met, except at meals and at night. Before go-
ing to market the mistress saw that the kitchen was
put in order. This was first thoroughly cleaned and all
the cooking utensils scoured. The mistress would help
the servant, working as hard as she did, and talking to
her on equal terms, just as the husband was on a fa-
miliar footing with his clerks. The hearth also required
great attention to keep it and its utensils bright and
free of dust and ashes. Andirons or firedogs were of
brass and copper, as were also the tongs and shovel.
Steenwyck had a " hearth iron with brass handles "
which may have been a species of grate or perhaps a
fender. Mrs. Van Varick had two hearth hair brushes
with wooden handles, one with a brass handle, and
a chamber hair brush. The brass and copper chande-
liers also required constant polishing. The rooms in
well-to-do homes were lighted from chandeliers that
hung from the centre of the room, sconce arms that
were placed on either side of the mantelpiece, and
standing candlesticks. Mrs. Van Varick had five brass
hanging and handle candlesticks worth eighteen shil-
lings, a double brass ditto, which with snuffers and
extinguisher was worth £i 4s. od. ; a pair of brass
standing candlesticks, worth sixteen shillings, and a
standing candlestick with two brass candlesticks to it,
worth twelve shillings.
Another pleasurable duty was the care and arrange-
ment of the flowers. Potted plants stood on window-
sills and tables, and there were handsome vases and
jars in which to place cut flowers. Cornells Steen-
wyck had two earthen flowerpots, and Mrs. Van
Varick six East India flowerpots, white, three large
and three small and two round ones.
NEW AMSTERDAM HOUSEKEEPING 123
After having put the house in order, the mistress,
in a simple dress and with a headcloth folded over her
head, would go to market, accompanied by the servant
with the basket. In the middle of the century the
market day was Saturday, and the commodities were
offered for sale in the Strand, which, as we have seen,
extended along the river shore from the Battery to the
Ferry on the east side of the island. On Sept. 12,
1656, the following was issued:
" Whereas now and again divers wares such as meat,
pork, butter, cheese, turnips, carrots and cabbage and
other country produce, are brought to this City for sale
by the outside people ; with which being come to the
Strand here, they are obliged frequently to remain a long
time with their wares to their great damage, because the
Commonalty, or at least the greater part thereof, who
reside at a distance from the waterside, do not know,
that such articles are brought for sale, which tends not
only to the inconvenience of the Burgher — but to the
serious damage of the industrious countryman, who fre-
quently loses more than he Has expended on his wares;
Therefore being desirous to remedy this evil, the Director-
General and Council hereby ordain that from now hence-
forward the Saturdays shall be Market days here within
this City on the beach, near or in the neighbourhood of
Master Hans Kierstede's house,^ whereby every one who
has anything to sell or to buy shall regulate himself.
The importance of the servant as a marketer is
shown in the following lawsuit in 1654, when Marretie
Trompetters (the Bugler's), plaintiff, versus Maria
de Truwe, defendant, demands payment of 3. 11 florins
for fish sold to defendant. Maria insisted that she sent
the money by the servant, and that it fell into the ditch.
She had no more at present, but promised payment at
' South side of Pearl Street.
124 DUTCH NEW YORK
the earliest opportunity, wherewith, the plaintiff being
satisfied, they were reconciled.
In meats and vegetables, fruits, poultry, and dairy
products New Amsterdam compared very favorably
with the Old Country with regard to supplies for the
table. Game was far more abundant, however, and
the delicacies of the sea were within reach of all.
Early travelers spoke of the waters here as being
" very fish rich." They greatly prized the salmon and
the striped bass, which were found in large quantities.
Having found shad, which in Dutch is called Elf, they
next discovered the " streaked bass " which they called
Tivaalf (twelfth), and when they found the drum next
they called it the Dertien (thirteenth). Wissenaer,
1625, wrote:
Very large oysters, sea-fish and river fish are in such
great abundance there that they cannot be sold; and in
rivers so deep as to be navigated upwards with large
ships.
The sheepshead also attracted great wonder and
praise. Van der Donck wrote:
The kinds of fish which they principally take at this
time are shad, but smaller than those in this country
ordinarily are, and are quite as fat and very bony; the
largest fish is a sort of white salmon, which is of very
good flavour, and quite as large ; it has white scales ; the
heads are so full of fat that in some there are two or
three, spoonsful, so that there is good eating for one who
is fond of picking heads.
It was strictly forbidden to sell fish on Sunday dur-
ing church hours. In 1660, the following case came
up in court:
Schout Pieter Tonneman, plaintiff, demanded from
Wessel Everzen, defendant, the fine for having sold fish
NEW AMSTERDAM HOUSEKEEPING 125
on last Sunday forenoon. Defendant's wife appearing
said, that it happened before the ringing of the bell. The
Court dismissed the Officer's suit.
Again :
Schout Pieter Tonneman, plaintiff versus Albert Trom-
petter, defendant. Plaintiff says that defendant sold fish
on Sunday morning and that Resolveert Waldron has
subjected him to the fine. Resolveert appearing in Court
declares he fined him because he sold fish on Sunday
morning. Defendant's wife appears in Court, says it
occurred before the ringing of the bell. The Court dis-
miss the Officer's suit, as the occurrence took place before
the preaching.
The cheeses were known by the names of the towns
where they were made and were in demand in nearly
every country in Europe. The farmers of New Am-
sterdam made their cheeses according to methods of
their own provinces. Occasionally, too, cheeses were
imported.
Regarding prices, it is interesting to learn that in
1692 James Latey's Turkey hen was worth one shil-
ling ; twenty common hens, ten shillings ; and fourteen
geese and ganders, fourteen shillings.
Although the Dutch housewife was a very clever
cook and superintendent of the kitchen, for great
occasions she called in the help of the baker, who was
also a confectioner. For every festival or ceremonial
occasion there was a special cake. The Saint Nich-
olas, the Twelfth Night, the gilt New Year's, the
wedding and the christening cake were made according
to special recipes and beautifully decorated. The
Dutch bakers were also expert in the making of pan-
cakes, waffles, oil-cakes, wafers, biscuits of various
kinds, marscpcin, and many kinds of sweets. The cakes
126 DUTCH NEW YORK
and pasties were as different in shape as in composi-
tion. They were filled with fish, meat, cheese, ram's
kidneys, and even cocks' combs. One of the favorite
pasties was thus prepared : a piece of pork the size
of a loaf of bread was chopped fine and stewed until
done. Then a piece of salted fat pork the size of an
egg, and butter the size of an egg, and four salted
apples, and four raw eggs and ginger and a little mace
and saffron, and with that some powdered sugar, were
added.
There were also tarts of apples flavored with wine
and spices and tarts of niarsepcin. The pastry-cooks
also prepared the jellies. There was a green jelly made
out of milk, parsley, eggs, sugar, and cinnamon-
powder; apple-jelly; and orange jelly, or marmalade.
Spice and sugar were bought at the apothecary's, who
sometimes mixed flour in his sugar, as the baker would
put bean meal in his flour. On well-provided tables
were also found macaroons and " oblies " (wafers)
made of thin egg pancakes rolled and hardened in the
oven. White-bread sop, waffle cakes, salted almonds,
egg-cheese, almond bread, clotted cream, chestnuts,
roasted, served with butter, sugar, and cinnamon, after
which came blanc-mange, apples, pears, cheese, and
aniseed sugar comfits, with which the meal ended.
Innumerable are the pictures of kitchens by the
Dutch painters of the period. A very interesting one
by Jan Steen faces this page, where the cook is spitting
a bird while laughing with the errand boy who brings
to her an unplucked bird and a basket of eggs.
All cake-bakers had a sign with the picture of Saint
Nicholas, a bishop. Saint Obertus, an oven with the
inscription '' Delicious and sweet," some biscuits, cakes,
and pastry for sale, or various emblems of the trade.
Here and there one would find a molasses barrel or
z
w
X
h
X
u
b
NEW AMSTERDAM HOUSEKEEPING 127
a beehive with inscriptions underneath, " what is
sweeter than honey," and " Here we sell honey by
the jug, while the Holy Land was overflowing with
it," and various others. Under the veranda all kinds
and sizes of cakes were exhibited, while the shop
was filled with boxes of various kinds. In an old
print we see the baker descending the staircase, sleeves
tucked up, with a skull cap on, while a boy stands on
the stoop with an ox's horn and the inscription " Nice
and warm." The wife is superintending things, and
threatens the cat with uplifted finger because she is
licking the honey barrel. On the boxes we read " pas-
teys, letters, roundels, sugar's, marmelades, spice-cake,
viarscpan, pea-sweets, edge-cake," etc. Among the
delicacies we find quartered tarts, tarts with cream
and eggs, gin, chevreuil, quinces, pears, jelly tarts, and
various others.
The New Amsterdam bakers were subject to the
strictest rules and regulations. Their wares were regu-
larly inspected, and baking-hours were strictly enforced.
Bakers were not allowed to peddle their bread and
cakes in the street, nor to sell to the Indians. They
also had to take certain precautions against fire. It
was sometimes difficult to become a baker, especially
for Jews; for we read in the court records in April,
1657, that " Jacob Cohin Hendricus, a Jew, appeared
and requested permission to bake and sell bread within
this City as other bakers, but with closed doors." Af-
ter much deliberation the request was refused.
Let us return, however, to the daily routine. To-
wards noon the tablecloth was spread on the table,
and the dzvaclcn (finger-wipers) put on the plates.
The cloth and napkins were woven out of one piece.
In rich families a bowl of water and a napkin were
first handed to each guest. In the first half of the
128 DUTCH NEW YORK
Seventeenth Century we find table-sets of flowered
damask; damask table-linen, with flowers, borders,
scenes, fables, verses, proverbs, portraits, and arms
woven in them. The Brussels and Courtray damasks
were famous. A set was generally one tablecloth to
one hundred and twenty- four serviettes; some had as
many as twenty-four such sets in the " linen-kast,"
which rarely came out of it except to be sent to be
washed. During the greater part of the century the
wealthiest people still eat with their fingers and helped
themselves with the knife.
When setting the table, the servant placed salt, pep-
per, and sometimes dried ginger on the board, and a
knife, spoon, and bread at each plate. The slice of
bread was the original trencher, on which the diner
cut his meat; but during the Seventeenth Century the
trencher was a wooden platter, which is still used in
many parts of Holland and Germany. In accordance
with the wealth of the householder the plates were now
of wood, pewter, earthenware, porcelain, or silver.
These are all to be found in New Netherland
inventories. The table-ware was decorated variously
with scenes from Scripture or history, the parable of
the Prodigal Son, the Ten Commandments, the articles
of the Creed, the battles of Admiral Tromp, rhymes,
dates, and coats-of-arms.
As late as 1680 William Sharpe had seventy-two
wooden trenchers and six pewter plates; Madame
Sauzeau in 1690 has twenty-four pewter plates; and
Elizabeth Partridge, 1669, six pewter platters. Cor-
nells Steenwyck had forty-three earthenware dishes,
great and small, worth £2 3s. od. ; other earthenware
worth £3 7s. od. ; glasses, earthenware, and porcelain,
£16 OS. od. ; seven earthen dishes, nineteen china
dishes, two cases of knives, fifty-eight napkins, and
NEW AMSTERDAM HOUSEKEEPING 129
eleven tablecloths. Madame Sauzeau had in 1690 fifty
pounds of pewter in dishes; William Sharpe in 1680,
four pewter saucers; Elizabeth Partridge, 1669, a
saltcellar, five pewter dishes, three pewter dishes, a
bason, a pewter plate, a saucer, and two fruiterers;
Mrs. Van Varick had three large china dishes, ten
china dishes, four china dishes, three large and three
small china basons, six wooden tumblers, a silver spice-
box, a silver egg-dish, a silver knife, and a silver salt-
cellar. Fine silver was also owned by Cristina Cap-
poens and Peter Marius.
Silver drinking-cups of all kinds were found in all
homes of wealth, and silver bowls, jugs, and spoons
were also comparatively common. Mrs. Van Varick,
who had a large amount of silver, also had " a thing
to put spoons in," and Glaunde Germonpre van Gitts,
1687, had " a spoon rack."
Forks were rarities, even in wealthy houses abroad.
They are mentioned towards the end of the Seven-
teenth Century. They were brought from Venice,
and used for the first time at the Court of Queen
Elizabeth. Though Asser Levy had twenty-two silver
spoons in 1682, he had but one silver fork; Madame
Blanche Sauzeau had in 1690 six silver spoons, three
small spoons, and six forks worth £10. George Cooke
had a silver fork as early as 1679. The mention of
hand bells in the inventories shows that these articles
were used to call servants. In cases where the servant
took her meals with the family, the bell, of course, was
unnecessary.
When not in use, the porcelain, earthenware, and
china were displayed on the tops of the hasten, in the
glass cases and cabinets, on the mantel shelves, on the
tops of doors, brackets, cornices and racks, and hung
from hooks on boards. For instance, Cornelis Stecn-
I30 DUTCH NEW YORK
wyck had in his kitchen a " can board with brass
hooks," and three " wooden racks for dishes " ; and
Mrs. Van Varick had a " painted wooden rack to set
china on."
After bringing the large pewter dish with boiled
food, the servant took her place at the foot of the table,
as she did at breakfast. All stood up and uncovered
their heads while the father said grace. Everybody
repeated " Amen," and the company said to one an-
other, "God bless you," or "Bon proufaes," after which
the heads were again covered. The father now served
bread, meat, and the boiled dish. As nothing was
spoken by the children and very little by the grown
people, the noonday meal was soon finished. A typical
family gathering at the table faces page 120. Seldom
were more than two or three dishes served at the
noonday meal. The first cooked dish was generally
" potage," made of brown and green peas, mashed,
with butter, ginger, and celery; or white beans with
prunes and syrup; green or shelled Turkish or broad
beans ; lentels with meat gravy or butter, vinegar, and
parsley. Wheat bread-sop stewed in milk, mutton
broth, stewed sweet turnips with fish, medlars with
butter, " double bake " or stewed barley, and cold
stewed mixed vegetables were the usual dishes. There
was also a hutsepot (mixed pot) of finely chopped
or cut mutton, beef, or veal, boiled in summer with
greens and onions, in winter with beans and carrots.
Cauliflower and Savoy cabbage were less general and
were only found, on the table of the rich. Both were
first cleaned and then boiled, and afterwards stewed
with mutton broth, hot pepper, and nutmeg, sometimes
with fine Dutch butter. Sometimes a hard-boiled Qgg,
rubbed to powder, was mixed or spread over it. Arti-
chokes were stewed in vinegar and clear water, butter,
NEW AMSTERDAM HOUSEKEEPING 131
and ground pepper, butter and salt. The peas were
never eaten green or young. The second course was
fish ; if no fresh fish was to be had, dried codfish, ling, or
pickled herring was served. According to reports fried
sturgeon was also used, and fried perch, and the pike
was roasted at the spit. The carp was stuffed, or pre-
pared in the French way; that is, it was put, after
having been washed in water and vinegar, in a thick
sauce of butter, Rhine wine, vinegar, mace, pepper, and
ginger. With fish turnips were eaten as a vegetable,
sometimes carrots, and milk or water was drunk. In
case the second course was fish, the third consisted of
banquets (pasties) of mussels, oysters, lobsters, crabs,
generally eaten with sweet sauces. Oysters and mus-
sels were also stewed or fried in the pan ; lobsters and
crabs were stewed with parsley, pepper, walnuts, mace,
butter, and lemon juice. If no fish was to be had, meat
was eaten, fresh in summer but salted in winter, — the
pork with greens, sometimes with prunes and currants ;
the beef, veal, and mutton, with prunes, caraway seed,
and mint. Chopped beef was eaten with prunes, cur-
rants, and syrup. On fete days a beef-stew was made
with " olipodrigo " (a mixture of various vegetables).
The capon was also one of the choicest dishes. Eggs
plainly cooked were used in large quantities, as well
as in the cakes that were named after them. " An
tgg was an evening meal," and very cheap. The
tgg was the daily food of the poor, who liked it best
when well fried in oil ; it was seldom fried in butter.
But the poor man could not always feed so gener-
ously. Sometimes he had to be satisfied with some
fried turnips or onions, a dry crust of sometimes
mouldy bread, or a bowl of boiled whole barley, with
a drink of water or " scharre-bier," a thin kind of
beer. No wonder he became as lean as Saint Jero-
132 DUTCH NEW YORK
nime! Generally, however, the rich ate as simply as
the poor.
After the meal the heads were uncovered, the father
said grace after meat, and all returned to their work.
In many families a chapter from the Holy Scriptures
was read after the noonday meal, and a psalm sung.
A couple of hours after the noonday meal, the family
gathered again to eat the " piece of bread " (stuk), cut
by the father of the house, with either cold or warm
beer or water. Sometimes friends were invited to share
this informal meal of cold meat, fried fish, and some
sweetmeats. Rich burghers often went into the sum-
mer-house in the garden to take the afternoon " piece ''
of bread, and ate fruit with it, and, after the importa-
tion of tea, the family would gather there at a little
later hour.
The use of tea was well established in Holland by
the middle of the century, and the custom of afternoon
tea-drinking crossed the Atlantic. There were many
varieties of tea in use, and the hostess as a rule made
several kinds in different teapots to please the taste of
her guests. Saffron was made, and always in a red pot,
to serve with the tea. In the summer peach leaves were
sometimes substituted for a flavor. Neither cream nor
milk was ever used until the end of the century, and
this was a French innovation. The tea-board, tea-
table, teapot, sugar-bowl, and silver spoons and
strainer were the pride of the Dutch housewife. From
the inventories it is evident that tea was in vogue in
New Amsterdam. Dr. De Lange had a number of tea-
cups and no less than one hundred and thirty-six tea-
pots; Lawrence Deldyke had a tea-board among his
articles, and Mrs. Van Varick, a small oval table painted,
a wooden tray with feet, a sugar-pot, three fine china
teacups, one jug, four saucers, six smaller tea-saucers,
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NEW AMSTERDAM HOUSEKEEPING 133
six painted tea-dishes, four tea-dishes, five teacups,
three other teacups, four teacups painted brown, six
smaller ditto, three teacups painted red and blue, one
tea-dish, and two cups finest porcelain.
Tea was known and liked long before coffee, the use
of which did not become general until about 1668, when
it was drunk with sugar and cinnamon. Coffee was
boiled in a copper pot lined with tin, and drunk as hot
as possible with sugar or honey. Sometimes a pint
of fresh milk was brought to the boiling-point, and
then as much " drawn tincture " of coffee was added,
or the coffee was put in cold water with the milk, and
both were boiled together and drunk. Rich people
mixed cloves, cinnamon, or sugar with ambergris in
the coffee. At first many conservative families could
not accustom themselves to the growing habit of re-
placing the "must" or beer at breakfast with coffee;
but by the end of the Seventeenth Century coffee had
taken its place at the breakfast-table once for all.
Many families also served coffee regularly at eleven
o'clock in the morning. Some doctors considered it a
cure for many diseases. Dr. Blankaerd preferred it
to wine, drank twelve cups a day, and prescribed it for
his patients.
Chocolate was more of a luxury than tea or coffee.
It wa^ used at Court towards the end of the Seventeenth
Century, but was very expensive and was seldom found
on the ordinary table. Chocolate-pots very rarely ap-
pear in European inventories in the Seventeenth Cen-
tury, and therefore the item of " one jocolato pot " in
William Pleay's inventory shows that chocolate was
known in New Amsterdam as early as it was in Europe.
The winter evenings were passed sociably at the
hearth. All sat around the table, — the housewife,
daughters, and servant busy spinning, sewing, or knit-
134 DUTCH NEW YORK
ting, and the boys carving in wood or knitting fishing-
nets; while the father read aloud from the Scriptures,
Flavins, Josephus, Beverwyck, Cats, the voyages of
Schouten, or some other instructive work. Some-
times a scriptural verse would be sung, or some music
played. Sometimes a friend, accompanied by his
servant carrying a lantern, would make a call. If
it was not a clergyman's house and people were not
very strict, they would play lansquenet, or the owl or
goose board would be brought forward, or lotto or lot-
tery played. At the stroke of nine the maid came to
spread the table. The supper was very simple, and
consisted in most houses of bread, butter, and cheese;
but some people had a gekookte pot (a cooked meal),
consisting of three courses. The first course was
barley with prunes and cinnamon, white-bread sop,
rice boiled in milk, or sometimes a salad of different
greens and beet roots. The second course was the fish
or meat, left over from dinner, fried up or heated
anew ; and some light dishes, apple-sauce, raisins, and
almonds for the third. As at breakfast and dinner,
grace was said before and after. At ten o'clock the
night bell rang, the " clearing clock " ; taverns and
gates were closed, and the ordinary burgher would ex-
tinguish the fires and lights and retire. Before
going to bed, the children received their father's and
mother's blessings and a hearty kiss ; brothers and
sisters also kissed each other good night, and retired
after saying prayers at their bedside.
The New Amsterdam home was not devoid of pets.
The dog was a favorite member of the household,
and, as we have seen, not infrequently appeared in
court. In Mrs. Van Varick's inventory there is men-
tion of a *' collar for a dog." Steenwyck had a parrot
stick, and in 1658 Vice-Director Beck brought to Direc-
NEW AMSTERDAM HOUSEKEEPING 135
tor Stuyvesant a beautiful parrot from the Spanish
Main for Mrs. Stuyvesant. In the same year there is
the following memoranda of sundries sent from Cura-
sao to New Netherland, namely, " salt, preserved
lemons, paroquets and parrots, some of which were
for Johannis van Brugh, recently married to Miss
Rodenborgh."
In all the pictures of Dutch interiors the well-dressed
ladies, whether playing musical instruments, making
lace on cushions, sewing, or merely engaged in con-
versation, have one or both feet resting upon the " foot-
warmer," or " foot-rest." This little square box cov-
ered with perforated sheets of copper or brass, was
filled with hot coals, and was no doubt very much
needed in the cold houses of the period. It was used so
generally that Roemer Visscher, a writer of the period,
calls it the " darling of the ladies." " A stove with
fire in it," he writes, " is the beloved jewel of our
Dutch wives, especially when the snow falls and the
hail clatters."
Sometimes the cat is dozing comfortably upon the
foot-warmer in the pictures of the Little Masters. In
the nursery things were conveniently kept warm upon
it, and it was used in the kermis booth and tents on the
ice to keep the cakes and drinks warm. The foot-warmer
was also carried to church by the servant, who also
took along the church seat, Mrs. Van Varick had a
church chair and cushion; Cornells Dericksen also
had a " church seat." This may have been similar to
the one shown facing page 132, now in the Albany
Institute and Historical and Art Society. It is painted
black with a picture of the Last Judgment in colors,
where the angel is separating the sheep from the goats.
It is dated 1702, and the inscription reads:
136 DUTCH NEW YORK
Het oordeel Gotsir nu bereijt
Het is nogtijt Laet onsincingt
De vroome van de Boose Scheyt
Godt beddenom des Heemals ovengt.
(God's judgment is now ready
There is still time to leave folly
The Good Sheep will be separated from the Bad Goats,
God's wisdom encircles the universe.)
The Dutch vrouw spent the greater part of her life
in keeping clean the house that had been so beautifully
furnished and ornamented. Many of the rooms she
preferred to scrub and brush and dust and scour with
her own hands, for she would not trust her treasures
to the clumsy touch of a servant. Some people were
so careful of their " show rooms " that they only ex-
hibited them on occasions, and they were only opened
every few days, or once a week for the purposes of
cleaning. This passion for cleaning was universal;
it extended to high circles. In one of his plays Gode-
wyck makes the daughter of an alderman say :
My brush is my sword, my besom is my weapon.
I know no rest ; I never go to sleep.
I think of my drawing-room ; I never think of my throat.
No labour is too heavy ; no trouble too great
To make everything spotless and bright.
I do not want the maid to touch my pretty things
I myself rub and polish; I scrub and splash;
I hunt the speck of dust; I do not fear the pail
Like the showlady.
Many travelers of the Seventeenth Century have
noted this national trait. We will see how the French
De Parival and the English Brickman were both im-
pressed; the first says:
NEW AMSTERDAM HOUSEKEEPING 137
The wives and daughters scour and rub benches, chests,
cupboards, dressers, tables, plate racks, even the stairs
until they shine like mirrors. Some are so clean that
they would not enter any of the rooms without taking off
their shoes, and putting on their slippers. The women
put all their energy and pleasure in keeping the house and
the furniture clean. The floors are washed nearly every
day and scoured with sand, and are so neat that a stranger
is afraid to expectorate on them. If the city woman keep
their houses clean, the farmer's wives do this no less.
The cleanliness is even carried out, into the stables. They
scour everything, even the iron chains and mounts until
they shine like silver.
Brickman writes:
Now, if you have entered into their houses, the first
that will strike your eyes is a large mirror, the other the
pewter and brasswork, standing on a ledge along the
walls like soldiers in their files — and everything is so
neat and snug and clean, that it appears unto you like a
golden and silver mountain, for nothing of all Gods good
things looses anything of its original beauty. The rooms
in their houses are various : some only a few steps, others
cornered rooms, others like a ladie's powder box, in which
you are afraid to breathe. You have also to remove your
shoes or you are not allowed to enter the ladies salon, or
best decorated room, but it will be opened and you will
be allowed to look in from the threshold. However
limited their means, the linen must be fine and clean.
Therefore the smith's workshops have been banished from
Amsterdam, so that the smoke and soot should not be-
grime their fine roofs and gables. For some of these are
excellent, and show the art and subtleness of the architects.
They keep their houses cleaner than their bodies, and
their bodies cleaner than their souls. In the one house
you will see the fire irons standing in the corner of the
chimney, covered with fine netting in another house, the
warming pans covered with Italian open work designs
138 DUTCH NEW YORK
and the handles carved, in the third the brass strainer,
wrapped in cambric.
This excessive neatness was also found in New Am-
sterdam, not only among the wealthy, but among the
poorer classes, and great numbers of brushes, brooms,
and pails are noticeable in the inventories of various
grades of households in New Amsterdam. Mevrouw
De Lange evidently *' hunted the speck of dust " ; for
in her house we find " one rake brush, one hearth
broom, one cloth brush, two Bermudian brooms with
sticks, one hay broom without a stick," and in the shop
three whiting brushes, a " brush to clean ye floor,"
three rubbers, two small painted brushes, two hair
brushes, two dust brushes, a chamber broom, and a
hearth broom. Nor was this all; for in the kitchen
were " two dust brushes called hoggs," two whiting
brushes, two rubbers, and some other brushes. Cor-
nelis Steenwyck had four brooms and nine brushes in
his house, thirteen scrubbing and thirty-one rubbing
brushes, and no less than twenty-four pounds of
Spanish soap in his garret.
Another passion of the Dutch housewife was for
fine household linen, and her great cupboards and
chests were not only full of sheets, pillowbeers, towels,
tablecloths, and napkins, but of great stores of uncut
material to be made into such articles. This taste was
shared alike by high and low ; every Dutchwoman had
the ambition to own a vast amount of such treasure,
" saved from grandmother's time with economy," or
" inherited from great aunt and kept as precious
goods," to be again bestov/ed as a wedding-gift to some
member of the family, or bequeathed to the children
of the household. A rich store was greatly prized,
therefore, and every penny saved from the household
expenses, received as a present, or won at play was
NAPKIN PRESS, SKVENTEENTH CENTURY
OWNED BY MR. KRANS MIDDELKOOP, NEW YORK
NEW AMSTERDAM HOUSEKEEPING 139
used by the housewife to increase that treasure. It
was, moreover, her custom to sit every afternoon with
her daughters and maids in the kitchen before the
spinning-wheel, sewing-cushion, or work-table, or to
stand before the ironing-board smoothing and gopher-
ing the shirts, neckerchiefs, caps, and ruffs. She was
proud to have a rich linen cupboard filled with " moun-
tains of her own make and foreign produced stuff."
One rich lady who dwelt in Dordrecht had no less than
twenty-four dozen sheets in her cupboard and forty
dozen tablecloths, as well as coffers full of uncut linen,
while her wearing apparel filled many other receptacles.
The rich Mrs. Margarita Van Varick left to her sister,
Engeltie, " a spinning-wheel," her clothes, and " a
piece of linen, which is at Lucas Renhoven's to make,"
evidently spun in her own house. Peter Stuyvesant's
widow made a special bequest of her linen, dividing it
equally between her son, his daughter, Judith, and her
eldest son's two children.
The washing of the household linen was also an
undertaking. Great hampers and wicker baskets full
of articles to be washed were carried away at stated
intervals, washed in the canals and rivers, dried on the
pasture-land, or special places known as " bleaching-
grounds." These existed early in the annals of New
Amsterdam, for the first schoolmaster added to his
meagre income by keeping a bleaching-ground. It
seems that such places afforded a good opportunity for
those whose envy was excited by choice damask from
Holland. Among the cases of 1653 the following
ladies' battle is waged:
Annetie, wife of Age Bruynsen, plaintiff, versus Mrs.
Abraham Genes, defendant, complains that on Tuesday
last, when four napkins, bought by her of her master
Croon from Holland were lying out to bleach, defendant
140 DUTCH NEW YORK
picked them up and carried them away. Defendant says,
she has been robbed and plaintiff demands proof that they
had been stolen from defendant, or else return of the
napkins and suitable satisfaction. Defendant admits hav-
ing taken up and away from the bleaching-ground 4
napkins in the presence of Martin Loockermans and
Engeltie Maus, because they belonged to her, and she
says, that she misses other napkins and linen, which she
has not yet seen or found ; also that neighbours have
compared the said napkins with others daily used by
her and have found them to be of the sam^ pattern and
linen, while upon one of them there is the same mark as
shown by affidavit ; she has left it with Anneke Loocker-
mans and Tryntie Kips for safekeeping. The latter called
into Court with it, state, that it is the same napkin, as left
at their house, but is not like the one shown by plaintiff.
Having been examined by plaintiff she says that two of
the napkins taken by defendant are changed and that the
one with the mark may have been mixed with hers by
Engeltie Maus at her wedding. The Court examines and
compares the four napkins with those of defendant and
finds them to be alike.
A few days later :
Madame Genes being summoned into Court by the
Schout (concerning the 4 napkins in dispute between her
and Annetie, the wife of Hage Bruynsen), is asked (since
Madame Genes intends to remove to Fatherland, and
Annetie aforesaid intends to go to Fort Orange), whether
she can produce any further proof. She gives for answer :
No other proof than before; that they are found in all
respects like her napkins, and she is willing, if she can
retain her napkins and will remain unmolested on that
account, to forgive the said Annetie her fault, and never
to trouble her on that account.
On being brought home, the various articles of
clothing and household linen were passed through the
NEW AMSTERDAM HOUSEKEEPING 141
mangle; then, neatly folded, they were put away in
the great cupboards and chests. Sometimes they were
placed in the napkin-press, a fine example of which
faces page 138, which stands on a frame with four
bulbous legs. The greater number of New Amsterdam
inventories mention linen to the amount of a fairly
large, if not a great, sum. A large proportion of
one's wealth was sometimes spent in this article; for
example, in 1688 Nathaniel Pompson Barrow owned
household linen worth £13 i8s. 6d., when his whole
estate amounted to only £84 los. od. In the same
year Mathew Taylor had one hundred and twenty-
six napkins and towels (£4 14s. 3d.), seventeen
sheets (£8), eleven tablecloths (£4 7s. od.), twelve
pillowcases, and a cupboard cloth. The linen in Cornells
Steenwyck's kitchen amounted to more than £5 4s. od.
In the chamber above the kitchen were twenty-eight
sheets, fifty-eight napkins, nine tablecloths, twelve
towels, and thirty-two pillowbeers. Peter Marius,
1702, owned twenty-three linen sheets, eight calico
sheets, thirty-two great and small pillowbeers, two
linen tablecloths, seven diaper ditto, sixty-one diaper
napkins, three ozenbriggs ditto, and sixteen small
linen cupboard cloths. Matthew Clarkson, 1703, had
eight fringed napkins. Mrs. Elizabeth Partridge in
1669 owned one dozen diaper napkins, £3 5s. od. ; one
dozen and a half blue strak'd, £3 os. od. ; one dozen
plain napkins, £2 os. od. ; one diaper tablecloth,
£2 OS. od. ; two pair of sheets, £5 los. od. ; one round
diaper tablecloth, £1 ; one pair Holland pillowbeers,
£0 1 6s. od. ; one pair diaper pillowbeers. £0 8s. od. ;
and a parcel of old linen, £0 5s. od. This linen must
have been very fine, as it was worth altogether
£18 14s. od., while her house and land was valued
at only £45.
142 DUTCH NEW YORK
Turning now to a weaver named Glaunde Germon-
pre van Gitts, 1687, we find that the weaver's loom is
worth £2 IDS. od. ; and in the modest house there are
nine Hnen sheets (£1 7s. od.) and five pillowbeers
(£0 3s. 6d.). Six napkins, eight sheets, and fifteen
pillowbeers were owned by Derick Clausen in 1686;
Dirck Theunissen had nine sheets, nine pillowbeers,
and eight napkins in 1691 ; and twelve tablecloths
(£3 15s. od.) and nine dozen napkins (£5 8s. od.)
were owned by Nathaniel Sylvester in 1680. In 1679
Dominie Nicholas Van Rensselaer, of Albany, owned
twelve pair of sheets, sixteen pillowbeers, and four
large ones, and a cloth to hang before a chimney, all
worth together twelve beavers.
CHAPTER VII
SERVANTS AND SLAVES
SERVITUDE in New Netherland was not re-
garded as demeaning. The mistress and ser-
vant were really on a social equality, since the
servant was very frequently the daughter of somebody
whose station in the community was equal to that of
the mistress. In a new country every extra pair of
hands was valuable, and when a householder had more
children than were required to do the work afforded
by his own occupation and his home, he hired them out
to others. When the indentures were signed, the chief
parental rights passed to the employer. Sometimes the
son or daughter took service for a short time only, but
more often for a term of years. If the children were
not properly treated, the parents or guardians would
apply to the court, which seems to have been quick to
remedy any real case of abuse, neglect, or cruelty. If
the child absented himself or herself from the master,
even if only to visit parents, without permission from
the master, it constituted a breach of the engagement.
Thus, in 1638, when Jan Damen sued Lenaert Arent-
sen for breach of his son's indentures, Arentsen was
ordered to send his son back whenever he ran away.
Again, in 1660, Hendrickje Swartwout sued Pieter-
nelle La Montague for seven months' wages for her
daughter, hired by defendant at fifty florins the year.
The court decided that the girl should recover only a
143
144 DUTCH NEW YORK
quarter's wages, because she was at home two days
with her parents without the knowledge of her master
or mistress.
That a master could not discharge a servant without
good and sufficient cause was shown in a case in which
the ill-fated Jacob Leisler was defendant; Agnytie
Hendricks sued him for a year's wages, amounting to
one hundred guilders in seawant and four beavers,
because he had discharged her. Mr. Leisler pleaded
that inasmuch as Agnytie had consumed almost a whole
bottle of preserved strawberries, also biscuit of his;
moreover, as it came to his ears that she had two
fellows climb over the wall to her whilst he was at
church with his wife, and received no good service
from her, he would have nothing to do with her.
Agnytie denied having Sunday visitors over the gar-
den wall, and declared that the children had eaten the
preserves. She was consoled for the loss of her place
by a quarter's wages, according to agreement. Having
blamed the children for the disappearance of the pre-
serves, it is a wonder that Agnytie did not lay the loss
of the biscuit at the door of the cat. She was not as
fertile in excuse as a contemporary of the male sex
named Elias Jansen, who, when discharged by Jan de
Witt, miller, sued his employer for breach of contract.
The miller declared Elias had stolen a pound of candles,
whereupon " he gave him for answer that it was not
true, and that perhaps a dog had been in the mill and
eaten them."
Teunis Cray's wife, 1662, sues Jan Jacobzen for a
balance of wages for her son, forty-five guilders in
corn and four guilders in seawant ; also by balance,
one breeches and two pair of stockings sold to him for
twenty-four guilders. Defendant has nothing against
it but deduction of wages for three weeks when the
VOORHUIS IN THE DOLL'S HOUSE
RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM
SERVANTS AND SLAVES 145
plaintiff's son left before the expiration of his time.
It was proved, however, that he had discharged the boy,
and so judgment was given against him.
Masters were responsible for the good behavior of
their servants; employer's liability was fully recog-
nized by the court. On Nov. 12, 1643, Teunis Nysson
sued Peter Colet for injury done to a young animal by
Colet's boy; and the master was fined fifteen guilders,
payable when the lad should have served him two
months. If the boy should die before that time, dam-
ages were to be proportionable.
The servants here were undoubtedly subject to rough
treatment on the part of their employers; and it does
not appear that an occasional beating was regarded by
the court as a valid excuse for breaking the contract.
In 1657, when Jochem Wesselsen, a baker, was sued
by Jan van Hoesum because the baker's wife, Gertrude
Jeronimus, had violently kicked Miss van Hoesum,
Wesselsen pleaded that his wife had a perfect right
to chastise any girl who was in his service. The court,
however, agreed with the father, and fined the irritable
Gertrude thirty guilders and costs.
In 1659, " Andries Clazen says that Jan Everzen
Bout cut two holes with the tongs in his little daugh-
ter's head, in service with him about three weeks ago.
Jan answers that it is a stiffnecked thing and will not
listen to what is said to her, and through hastiness he
flung the tongs after her, but not with a view to in-
jure her, — it occurred unintentionally. Clazen says
his daughter lay abed some days." Finally Jan had to
pay the surgeon's bill, twenty florins damages and
ten florins fine.
Caspar Stynmets, 1657, said that his wife's brother
served Jan Hendrick nine months, and as the boy was
treated harshly and dismissed, he requested that de-
146 DUTCH NEW YORK
fendant be condemned to fit the boy out decently in
clothes as he received him, so that he might engage with
other persons ; demanding a coat, breeches, two shirts,
one pair of stockings, and one pair of shoes, and rep-
aration for having treated the boy so harshly. Hen-
drick said that the boy earned only whippings, but
denied having abused him, treating him only as his
own child. He also said that he offered the boy a
shirt and leather breeches, and could not give him any
more. The defendant was condemned to pay thirty-
six florins instead of the clothes demanded. The boy
was, further, released from service.
Teunis Tomassen sued Barent Gerrisen for 28.15 fi.,
according to verbal agreement, because his son had
worked with defendant. Being sick himself, his wife
pressed the case. Gerrisen admitted having taken the
boy at eleven florins per month, and pocket money
every week, but said the boy was still bound to him
for another half year; also he had not done what he
was bound to do, for which he was to receive spending
money ; therefore no spending money was due. " Plain-
tiff replies and says that her husband will have the
money for the boy every week, and that he the defend-
ant said he will not see the boy at the table. Defendant
rejoins and says, that he stated if the plaintiff will have
his money every week for the boy, he does not require
the boy. Requests that the boy serve out his time,
promising to pay him. The Court order the plaintiff
to let her boy serve out his time according to agree-
ment, on condition that he be paid according to
agreement."
Wolfert Webber, 1657, said he hired his son to
Claes Pietersen Kos to dwell with and serve him here
in this city ; " and whereas the defendant employs his
son, not here but mostly over at Pavonia and in jour-
SERVANTS AND SLAVES 147
neying to and from that place, where much danger is
to be expected both by water as from Indians, etc., of
which he has had a sample," demanded that his son
should either be employed in the city or sent home;
and in case he refuse he declares before God and the
" Judge that he, in the capacity of a father, protests
that if any misfortune happen his son, either in passing
over, or from the Indians or otherwise, he has done his
duty and shall avenge himself on him." In reply, Kos
said he hired the boy to reside with and serve him " un-
conditionally as to his going over, or remaining."
In 1662, the Directors write to Stuyvesant about a
child being retained in New Netherland by a creditor
as security for a debt due by the mother. They order
it to be released and sent to Holland.
In the wills we frequently find fathers disposing of
the future of their children till they come of age.
Thus, in 1680, Cornells van Bursum leaves "the
proper portion of a child to my daughter, Anna ; and
my wife Sarah is to maintain my daughter Anna de-
cently and cause her being taught reading and writing
and a trade by which she may live." Balthazar de
Hart, 1672, bequeaths "unto his natural son Matthias
2000 guilders . . . and he is to have maintenance with
reasonable vittles and clothes, and likewise to be teached
to read and write and in a trade also that thereby he
may help himself." John Leggatt, 1679, desires his
son to be bred up to the sea for his livelihood. Daniel
Pearsall, 1702, devises "concerning my three little
daughters, my wife disposed of two of them to their
two sisters before she died, and the third, Margery, I
do likewise dispose of to my two eldest daughters,
desiring that as soon as it is convenient, she may learn
the trade of a tailor."
In at least one case we find that a parent would
148 DUTCH NEW YORK
rather entrust his children to the tender mercies of
total strangers than of his own or his wife's relatives.
For example, Francis Yates, 1682, wills " to Mr Wm.
Richardson my five children, Mary, John, Dinah, Jona-
than, and Dorothy, for him to keep so many of them
as he sees fit. The rest to be put out to whom he thinks
fit, but not to any of my own kindred, or kindred of
my wife."
From two or three of the wills both in New Amster-
dam and Fort Orange we gather that parents were
prejudiced against the officially appointed Orphan
Masters. For example, Stoeffel Abeel and his wife
Heeltie in their joint will, 1678, exclude the Lords Or-
phan Masters from all management and do not desire
them to meddle with the government of the children.
Judging from some of the wills, fathers were not
always entirely satisfied that their widows would treat
the children with the kindness naturally to be ex-
pected from a parent, or, on the other hand, that sons
would be invariably dutiful and affectionate to their
mothers. In some cases, at least, the father provided
special inducements for mother and children to dwell
together in unity. For example, Nathaniel Sylvester,
1698, desires his wafe to take care of the children, and
they are to be dutiful to her. Richard Terry, 1696,
leaves all his children at his wife's command to be
educated and brought up " both for the good of their
souls and bodies 'till of age." Abraham Jossling,
1669, desires his son Henry to be kind to his brothers,
and take one of them to himself to learn his trade,
as he had promised. " And Good Wife I would not
have you remain where you are with any of my chil-
dren, but my desire is that my children may be put out
to trades where they are."
Captain Sylvester Salisbury, 1679, leaves all to his
SERVANTS AND SLAVES 149
wife " with this proviso and restriction, viz. to bring
up the children in good education and learning, and
further to do what is fitting for good and religious
parents to do for their children." Cornells Van
Hoorn's children, 1692, are to be instructed in an art or
trade by which they may live. Henry Crevenraedt,
1699, hopes that his wife " will be kind to the children
and not rong them, but doe by them as she will an-
swer to God Almighty.'' On the other hand, Jasper
Smith, 1695, wills that " my son John be careful and
diligent to seeke to please his mother and goe forth in
her business and not grieve her." In that case he is to
have £10 more than the others; but if " he bee care-
less and disobedient " he is to have £10 less.
As the passenger lists of the ships show, many of
the settlers brought servants with them who were un-
der contract to work for their masters for a certain
number of years for stated wages, and until they had
earned their passage money. When their time was
up, the Company would allot them a city lot for build-
ing a house, and land for farming, on various terms,
as we have already seen.
It was a serious offense to lure a servant away from
his master; but so many servants did break their
agreements and seek other service that stringent legis-
lation was required. The Company promised not to
take from the service of the Patroons any man or
woman, son or daughter, manservant or maidservant,
and though they desired the same they would not be
received, much less allowed to leave their Patroons and
go into the service of another.
In 1640, it was declared that so many servants
daily ran away that the corn and tobacco were rotting in
the fields, and the harvest was at a standstill. Both
farm and house servants therefore were ordered faith-
I50 DUTCH NEW YORK
fully to serve out their time on pain of making good
all losses sustained by their masters, and serving
double the time they might lose. The penalty for har-
boring runaways was fifty guilders, to be equally
divided between the Fiscal, the New Church, and the
Informer. In 1658, also, it was ordered not to de-
bauch or incite any person's servants, or to harbor
them, or fugitives, or strangers, longer than twenty-
four hours.
In 1648, the authorities having daily observed that
some of the inhabitants harbor in their homes and
dwellings the Company's servants and other domestics,
when they run away from their lords and masters, also
of those who come hither from abroad, whereby many
servants when they are dissatisfied with their employ-
ment are afforded a means and opportunity to run
away, therefore anybody who lodges or boards such
runaways for more than twenty- four hours at the most
is to be fined one hundred and fifty florins, to be paid
to whomsoever will make the complaint. In 1662, a
runaway servant, " a Turk," was hanged and after-
wards beheaded, and his head was set on a stake at
New Amstel, for resisting arrest.
In 1654, the West India Company considerately
thought of a scheme for " taking a burden from the
Almshouse of this city and helping to increase the
population of New Netherland." They therefore wrote
to Stuyvesant : " We recommend you most seriously
to take good care of the boys and girls sent from the
Orphan Asylum and place them with good masters."
On examining the ages of the children who arrived
in 1655 we must confess that the Amsterdam Alms-
house of the day could not be accused of turning the
inmates out into the world before they were of an age
to shift for themselves, the girls especially.
C/3
o
O
Q
SERVANTS AND SLAVES 151
Girls Age Boys Age
Tryntje Peters
23
Guillaume Roelant
17
Tryntje Jans
22
Francis Leigh
17
Jannitje Dircx
19
;Mathys Coenratsen
16
Lysbet Jans
18
Hendrik Thomasen
14
Dieuwer Volcherts
16
Peter Stoffelsen
13
Annitje Pieters
17
Otto Jansen
13'
Lysbet Gerrits
16
Jan Hendricksen
12
Debora Jans
15
Marritje Hendrik
16
Catalyntje Jans
13
If we follow the career of these waifs who were
sent away to relieve the congestion of home charity,
we shall find that a fair proportion of them followed
the example of the early pastors and schoolmasters in
developing into undesirable citizens. The first to be
presented at court was Trintje Pieters, the eldest of all,
who had scarcely landed before being sued (Aug. 2^,
1655) by Heyltie 't Havens for insult. The winter
had hardly set in before the sixteen-year-old maiden,
Marretie Hendrick, asked legal aid to settle a dispute
between herself and her master, Captain Francis Fyn,
to whom she had been indentured, " regarding a dif-
ference about service rendered and agreement made
thereon." The court appointed Sieurs Paulus Leen-
dert van Grift and Govert Loockermans to reconcile the
parties. Eight years later the young lady was sued for
slander by Pietertje Jans. Tryntje Jans seems to have
been comparatively quiescent for six years. At the
age of twenty-eight, however, she said disagreeable
things about Teuntje Jurriaans, who haled her into
court, where she was ordered to prove or eat her v^ords.
In the same year, 1661, we learn from a lawsuit that
Lysbet Jansen, now twenty-four years of age, was the
widow of Dancker Cornelissen.
The youngest of the consignment, Catalyntje Jans,
had to wait fifteen years before she found a husband.
152 DUTCH NEW YORK
On June 28, 1670, her banns of marriage with Claes
Cornelissen, of Schoonhoven, are recorded. Her senior
by three years, Marritje Hendrik, had to be content
with a widower, in 1671, when her banns were pub-
lished. Barent Gerritsen von Swol, widower of Grietie
Dirx, was the happy bridegroom.
Of the boys, Hendrick Thomassen and Francis
Leigh (1674) make countercharges of theft and vio-
lence. On Oct. 30, 1666, Otto Jansen was prosecuted
for stealing and selling at Albany a horse. He declared
that " Jan Hendricksen had sett him uppon it wch
beinge alledged to the said Jan Hendrickx he denyed
the same." Otto " confessed in open court that he hath
stollen this Summer in New England, twoe horses."
Later he became a soldier. In 1664, he petitions to have
surgeon Van Imburg's bill paid, for services during
illness contracted during the Esopus Campaign.
The lot of the indentured servant was hard enough,
but that of the negro slave was harder still. After a
certain number of years the white servant became his
own master, and, as we have seen, had land allotted for
cultivation and animals to stock it, part of thi produce
and increase of which paid the annual rent. The negro
slave, however, had no assurance that he would ever
be free, although for good conduct and faithful ser-
vice manumission was not an uncommon occurrence,
even during the owner's lifetime; and the wills show
that the masters frequently followed the ancient cus-
tom of freeing slaves at their own demise. The
terms in which the slaves are referred to often show
that there was real attachment between master or
mistress and slave. Among many examples the fol-
lowing may be mentioned. Roger Rugg bequeaths to
his friend, Mr. Rider, " My negro boy, Mixon. Be
kind to him for my sake." William Leath leaves " to
SERVANTS AND SLAVES 153
my servant, Wan, the Spanish Indian boy, now Hving
with me, his freedom, provided he serves my wife
seven years." Anna Medford frees her negro man,
Frans, on account of his true services and leaves him
a small parcel of ground. Daniel Sayre desires that
his negro woman may have liberty to choose her master
when she is sold. Jan Francisco was freed at the re-
quest of Dominie Megapolensis ( 1646) " on account of
his long and faithful services." In return for the boon,
however, he was to pay the Company ten schcpcls of
wheat a year. Nathaniel Pearsall provides: "If my
negro, Francis, shall grow unruly, my son, Thomas,
may sell him. ... If he is sold, the produce of him
shall go to my five daughters." John Ramsden wills
that his negro man, John, is to be freed after four
years and " he is to have one good suit of clothes, one
cow, one horse, and whatsoever else my wife shall
see fit."
Negroes did not always earn the approbation of their
owners. In 1658, the Fiscal is ordered to sell a man
and woman, " the one being lazy and the other a
thief."
Negro labor was very important in developing New
Amsterdam. Many of the rich merchants and settlers
owned small colonies of them. Frederick Philipse, for
instance, owned forty. In 1700, more than one fourth
of the population of New York consisted of negroes.
The Thirtieth Article of the " Freedoms and Exemp-
tions " ( 1629) stated that the Company would use their
endeavors to supply the colonists with as many blacks
as they conveniently could.
The West India Company obtained its own negroes
from the Spanish Main ; but till the middle of the
century there was no direct traffic in the slaves by the
individual settlers. The need of cheap labor was,
154 DUTCH NEW YORK
however, greatly felt; and on Jan. 20, 1648, the
Council resolved to import negroes from Angola. On
April II, the Directors wrote to Stuyvesant approv-
ing: " Such as have completed their trade in Angola
may carry negroes to your place to be employed in the
cultivation of the soil."
It would seem that the Company's negroes had to
endure the hardest kind of servitude: many of the
more serious crimes committed by the whites were
punishable by working in chains with the negroes. For
example, on June 6, 1644, Michel Christoffelsen
pleaded guilty of stabbing some of the Company's
negroes and was sentenced to twelve months' hard
labor in chains with the Company's negroes.
The Company's negroes were apparently a savage
lot in the early days. On Jan. 17, 1841, Manuel de
Gerrit, the Giant, and eight of the Company's other
negroes pleaded guilty to having killed Jan Premero,
another negro. It would have been too expensive to
execute the whole batch, — negroes were too valua-
ble in the little settlement, — so the prisoners were
sentenced to draw lots to determine who should suffer
death ; whereupon, " by God's Providence the lot fell
on * the Giant,' " who was condemned to be hanged, as
an example to all such malefactors. It would appear
that Manuel was too valuable to be sacrificed, for the
proceedings at the gallows look decidedly suspicious.
The court minute sets forth that the hangman turned
off the ladder the above negro, having two strong
halters about his neck, both of which broke, whereupon
all the bystanders called out "Mercy!" which was
accordingly granted. Two years later Manuel the
Giant and ten other negroes were set free on condition
of paying the Company annually thirty schcpcls of
maize, wheat, peas, or beans, and one fat hog valued
SERVANTS AND SLAVES 155
at twenty guilders ; but their children, born and unborn,
were to be slaves.
In 1649, the authors of the " Remonstrance " com-
plain of the authorities here having exploited the ne-
groes for their own profit. They say :
Even the [Company's] Negroes, which were obtained
with Tamandere were sold for pork and peas ; something
wonderful was to be performed with this, but they just
dripped through the fingers. There are yet sundry other
negroes in this country, some of whom have been manu-
mitted on account of their long service ; but their chil-
dren continued slaves, contrary to all public law that
anyone born of a free Christian mother should notwith-
standing be a slave and obliged so to remain. To this
Tienhoven replies that the Company's negroes were set
free in return for their long services on condition that
the children remain slaves, and the latter are treated the
same as Christians. At present (1650) only three of
these children are in service ; one at the House of the
Hope, one at the Company's Bouwerie, and one with
Martin Crigier, who, as everybody knows, brought up
the girl.
The negroes who were set free received land and
stock, like other servants when out of their inden-
tures. Thus, in 1643, Domingo Antony, negro, re-
ceived a patent of five morgens, and five hundred and
five rods on Bouwery No. 5, near the Fresh Water;
and Catelina, widow of Jochim Antony, negro, re-
ceived another of four morgens and ninety-one rods,
next the above, a double wagon road between both.
The above apparently formed the nucleus of the negro
quarter, not far from Stuyvesant's farm.
In 1650, it was recommended to the States General
that the inhabitants of New Netherland shall be at
liberty to purchase negroes wheresoever they may think
156 DUTCH NEW YORK
necessary, except on the coast of Guinea, and bring
them to work on their bouweries on payment of a duty.
In April, 1652, the necessary consent was written to
Stuyvesant for the colonists to import negroes direct
from Africa, excluding, however, the Gold Coast, Cape
Verde, Sierra Leone, the Pepper Coast, and Qua Qua
Coast. They were also forbidden to go farther west
than Popo Sonde. The duty of fifteen guilders a head,
however, was too heavy to encourage the colonists to
charter their own ships for the trade, which was there-
fore carried on by Amsterdam merchants chartered
by the West India Company. The first direct impor-
tation of slaves from Africa into New Amsterdam
(1650) was in the ship Wittepaert, which the home
Directors authorized to be chartered in Amsterdam, to
go to Africa for ivory and for slaves or New Nether-
land " to the increase of population and the advance-
ment of said place." In 1653, the Directors informed
Stuyvesant that they have allowed two or three
ships to go to Africa for slaves for the West Indies;
if they come to New Netherland, he must " assist them
in every proper way to clear away all obstacles." In
August, 1664, the Gideon landed at New Amsterdam
two hundred and ninety slaves (one hundred and
fifty-three men and one hundred and thirty-seven
women) on account of the West India Company.
There was no feeling in the community that slavery
was anything but an eminently proper institution.
Cornells Steenwyck bought negroes from William
Penn; and in 1691 Colonel Lewis Morris leaves "to
my honored friend Wm. Penn my negro man Yofif,
provided he come to dwell in America. I leave to Wm.
Bickly one negro man and to Samuel Palmer a negro
girl. ... I leave to John Bowne of Flushing one
negro girl that is at old Thomas Hunts."
D
o
X
o
o
o
X
SERVANTS AND SLAVES 157
The prices of slaves varied in accordance with the
natural gifts or acquired knowledge and skill of the
individual. In 1655, a negro woman and her little son
cost 525 guilders. Colonel Lewis Morris ( 169 1) owned
twenty-two negro men, £440; eleven negro women,
£165 ; six boys, £90; two girls, £24; twenty-five chil-
dren, £125.
CHAPTER VIII
EDUCATION
EDUCATION in Holland, as in other countries
of Western Europe, had been taken care of
by the Church until the Reformation, when
it was transferred to the magistracy of the towns,
by whom it was supported and regulated. In the
schools which thus supplanted .the parochial schools,
the elements of Greek, Latin, and German, reading,
writing, and arithmetic, were taught. These schools
were only for those who wanted to study, education
not being compulsory; and pay schools of all grades
for boys or girls, or both, were also licensed by the
various school boards. It must be remembered that
education during the Seventeenth Century was at a
very low ebb. The farming-classes of all countries
cared nothing for it, and even the lower class of
citizens could often neither read nor write. A trading
community, however, in a seaport, such as Amster-
dam, Rotterdam, or New Amsterdam, found reading,
writing, and arithmetic obligatory accomplishments in
their business, as well as at least a smattering of the
languages of their foreign customers and commercial
rivals.
The West India Company recognized the importance
of primary education, but, as it would appear, only
along the lines of the old church schooling, that is, to
teach children their duty towards God and their duty
158
EDUCATION 159
towards their neighbor, and not for the sake of any
material benefits to be derived from mundane knowl-
edge. Thus, in 1629, it was provided:
The Patroons and Colonists shall in particular and in
the speediest manner, endeavour to find out ways and
means whereby they may support a Minister and School-
master, that thus the service of God and zeal for religion
may not grow cool and be neglected among them, and
they shall, for the first, procure a Comforter of the sick
there.
The first schoolmaster sent out by the Company was
Adam Roelantsen, who arrived with Director Van
Twiller and Dominie Bogardus in 1633. As a char-
acter to set a moral standard for the edification of
youth, the schoolmaster was on the same plane with
the minister and the Director-General. All three seem
to have been early and successful apostles of graft on
Manhattan Island, and habitual drunkenness was by
no means the most serious offense of which they were
accused. Roelantsen married Lyntje Martens, who
certainly was not a penniless bride, for the first occa-
sion of her husband's appearance in court was in June,
1638, when his brother-in-law, Cors Pietersen, got
judgment against him for Pietersen's wife's share of
her deceased mother's estate.
He was soon dissatisfied with the rewards of learn-
ing, and found it more profitable to establish a laundry,
or bleachery, as it was then called, but had trouble in
making a success of his new venture.
Adam was manifestly gifted with a malicious and
slanderous tongue, and seems to have been a match for
any lady in the community. He was also apparently
always in hot water with his male neighbors, the offi-
cials and others. On Sept. 20, 1640, he sued Gillis de
i6o DUTCH NEW YORK
Voocht for a washing account. It is evident that the
" bleachers " contracted to do the washing by the year,
for GiHis claimed the year was not yet expired. Adam
was therefore ordered to make up the full time and
then collect. A year later his garden was damaged
by the cattle of his neighbors Jan Damen and Jan
Forbus, and he sued them for trespass. His wife's
property and his own energies would appear to have
resulted in a certain amount of prosperity, for in Feb-
ruary, 1642, Jan Teunissen contracted to build a house
for him. In August, 1638, he sued Jan Kant for
slandering him. Kant had reported to the Council
that Adam had declared he did not care for any one
in the country. On August 26, he himself was sued
for slander by Jan Jansen, gunner, and had to pay
fifty-five stivers to the poor. In January, 1639,
" Blanch Ael and Adam Roelantsen are ordered to
discontinue their slanders against one another on pain
of fine." In August, 1640, he was fined for slander-
ing Jochem Heller's wife.
In August in the same year he deeded to Elderich
Klein a house occupied by the Company's negroes. A
year later he received a patent for a lot next to Philip
Gerardy's property. This was adjoining the marsh
near the Sheep's Pasture, and was very favorably
situated for the drying-ground, or bleachery, of that
day, where, after being washed, the linen was laid out
on the grass in the open air to whiten.
About this time his activities as a teacher came to
an end, for his successor arrived in 1643. He had
amply justified the opinion of the home authorities
regarding the deteriorating influence of the New
Netherland climate on the morals of the Company's
servants. It is evident that the court here had no
confidence in the treatment his motherless children
EDUCATION i6i
were receiving, for in March, 1646, " Philip Geraerdy
Hans Kierstede (surgeon), Jan Stevensen (school-
master) and Oloff Stevensen van Cortland (brewer)
were appointed curators of the estate and children
of Lyntje Martens, late wife of Adam Roelant-
sen." In July, 1646, the Fiscal prosecuted him for
slander.
On Dec. 17, 1646, for attempted rape, he was sen-
tenced to be publicly flogged and then banished; but
in consideration of his being burthened with four
motherless children, and on account of the approach-
ing cold weather, he was reprieved to a future date,
when he was to leave the country.
Apparently he had not yet found the wherewithal
for a young man to mend his ways ; for in March,
1647. he was sued for debt and pleaded for time to
pay. Three months later it is reported that Claes Calff
and Adriaen Jansen declared that the unregenerate
Adam had been thrown out of the tavern by order of
the Fiscal Van Dyck, — doubtless on account of bibu-
lous and riotous excess. Notwithstanding all this, in
1647 he was appointed provost!
Roelantsen's successor was Jan Stevensen, who ar-
rived in 1643 ^^d resigned his position with the Com-
pany in 1648.
The first settlers were apparently too busy with the
pioneer work of the young colony to care very much
about either religion or education; for, five months
after his arrival, we find Stuyvesant writing to the
Directors (Nov. 11, 1647) to know what provision is
to be made for a school, " as there is none in New
Amsterdam and the youth are running wild." We
also learn that " for want of a proper place, no school
has been kept in these three months." Stuyvesant's
complaint about the deplorable conditions is fortified
i62 DUTCH NEW YORK
by his enemies in their celebrated " Remonstrance " of
1649, wherein they say :
There ought to be a pubHc school provided with at least
two good teachers, so that the youth in so wild a country
where there are so many dissolute people may first of
all be well instructed and indoctrinated not only in read-
ing and writing, but also in the knowledge and fear of
the Lord. Now, the school is kept very irregularly, by
this one or that, according to his fancy, as long as he
thinks proper.
To this Van Tienhoven retorts that a place has been
selected for a school of which Jan Cornelissen is the
master. The other teachers keep school in hired houses,
so that the youth are in no want of schools that fit the
needs of the country. " Tis true that there is no Latin
school, nor academy."
Stevensen was succeeded, Oct. 26, 1648, by Peter
Van de Linde. In the following year we fi.nd Jan
Cornelissen, Adriaen Van Ilpendam, and Joost Carelse
all teaching here; and in 1650 another schoolmaster
was sent out from Holland. In April, 1652, the Com-
pany Directors write to Stuyvesant that a schoolmaster
from Hoorn named Frederick Alkes is coming on
the Romcyn; they do not know much about him,
but he has been well recommended by a person of
quality.
If his habits are as good as his penmanship and a
schoolmaster is wanted, you might consider him, but let
him first be thoroughly tested, for we have noticed that
the climate over there does not improve people's characters,
especially when the heads of the administration do not set
a good example to the community. We hear a number
of complaints from people against the Fiscal and about
his drunkenness and other things.
KITCHEN, DOLL'S HOUSE
RIJKS MUSKUM, AMSTERDAM
EDUCATION 163
In 1652, Johannes Momie de la Montagne and Hans
Steyn were licensed to keep school. Stuyvesant's
representations had borne fruit, for on April 4, 1652,
the Directors wrote :
We also agree with your proposition to establish there
a public school and believe a beginning might be made
with our schoolmaster (hypodidasciilum) , who could be
engaged at a yearly salary of 200 to 250 guilders. We
recommend for this position Jan de la Montagnie, whom
we have provisionally appointed to it, and you may use
the building of the City Tavern, if you find it suitable.
The next to petition for leave to keep school was
Andries Hudde, whose request was referred to the
ministers of the church on Dec. 8, 1654. The official
schoolmaster at that time seems to have been William
Verstius, for on March 23, 1655, he requested and re-
ceived his discharge and Harman van Hoboocken was
appointed in his stead as schoolmaster and clerk of the
church of New Amsterdam. The latter evidently had
miserable accommodations for his pupils and his
family, for on Nov. 4, 1656, he respectfully requested
the authorities to grant him the hall and the side room
of the City Hall for the use of the school and as a
dwelling, inasmuch as he did not know how to man-
age for the proper accommodation of the children
during winter, for they greatly needed a place adapted
for fire and to be warmed, for which their existing
quarters were wholly unfit ; moreover, being burthened
with a wife and children, he was greatly in need of a
dwelling for them. The City Fathers refused, on the
ground that the rooms requested were not in repair,
and were, moreover, required for other purposes ;
" but in order that the youth, who are here quite
numerous, may have the means of instruction as far
i64 DUTCH NEW YORK
as possible and as the circumstances of the City per-
mit, the petitioner, for want of other lodgings, is
allowed to rent the said house for a school, for which
one hundred guilders shall be paid him yearly on ac-
count of the City for the present and until further
order."
In January, 1658, Jacobus Van Corlaer was ordered
to discontinue teaching until he had obtained the proper
authority to do so; and in August Jan Lubberts was
licensed to teach reading, writing, and ciphering. In
1660, Jan Juriaense Becker and Frans Claessen re-
ceived similar permission ; the latter died within two
years.
In the middle of the century, the schoolmasters of
the small settlements had various duties to perform:
they not only taught the children reading, writing, and
arithmetic and the articles of the Christian faith, but
on Sunday officiated as Voorlcscr and precentor, read
the Creed and Lesson, led the singing and kept the
church records of christenings, marriages, and deaths.
This was in accordance with the customs of Father-
land.
In May, 1661, Evert Pietersen was commissioned
to be comforter of the sick, schoolmaster, and pre-
centor at New Amsterdam; and, Jan. 18, 1661, the
inhabitants of Middelburgh (Newtown), Long Island,
petitioned that Richard Mills, their schoolmaster and
" soul's help on the Lord's Day," be allowed the
use of the minister's house and glebe. (Granted.)
July 4, 1 661, the magistrates of Breuckelen petitioned
for aid to pay their court messenger, " who acts also
as chorister, schoolmaster, sexton and bell-ringer."
(Granted.) Oct. 2y, 1661, Harman van Hoboocken
was appointed to be cadet and schoolmaster at Stuy-
vesant's Bouwery. On September 21, also, Johannis
EDUCATION 165
van Gelder was licensed to teach school in New Amster-
dam. On December 28, Boudewyn Maenhout was
appointed schoolmaster and reader {voorlcser) at
Bushwick. In July, 1661, also, Carel de Beauvois was
appointed court messenger, precentor, bell-ringer,
grave-digger, and schoolmaster in Breuckelen. Other
schoolmasters appointed to the various settlements of
New Netherland were Johannes La Montagne, Haar-
lem, 1664; Andries Jansen, Fort Orange, 1650;
Andries Van der Sluys, Esopus, 1658; Adriaen Hage-
man, Midwout, 1659, and Renier , Midwout, 1660;
Richard Mills, Middelburgh, 1660; Englebert Steen-
huysen, Bergen, 1662; and Evert Pietersen and Arent
Evertsen Molenaar, New Amstel, 1657 ^"<^ 1661.
Several petitions are made to the Burgomasters in
1662. In February they are requested for a lot in
Brewers Street for a schoolhouse, and a lot without
the City Gate for a burying-ground. In September
Johannis van Gelder petitions for a license to teach
school in New Amsterdam; and this is granted.
Finally, in December, the Schout and magistrates pray
" that Engelbert Steenhuysen shall perform his con-
tract as schoolmaster. This is ordered by the Court."
In March, 1664, the Director-General and Council
declare that it is highly necessary for the youth to be
instructed from childhood in reading, writing, and
arithmetic, but more especially in the principles and
fundamentals of the Reformed Religion. In order,
therefore, to promote so useful and God-acceptable a
work, the schoolmasters are commanded to appear in
church with the children in their charge on Wednes-
days before the commencement of the sermon in order
after the conclusion of Divine Service to catechize
them in the presence of the ministers and elders as to
what they have committed to memory of the Chris-
i66 DUTCH NEW YORK
tian commandments and Catechism. Afterwards the
children are to have a hohday.
It is very easy for us to form a clear idea of the
schools and the manner in which they were conducted,
from the descriptions of travelers, and more particu-
larly from the pictures which the Little Masters so
frequently painted of school interiors. At the school-
master's door hung a card, describing in his own
handwriting the subjects which he was permitted to
teach. This was to provide against misrepresenta-
tion ; and the omission to hang out such a sign was
punishable by a fine of two guilders. In front of
some schools was also hung a sign on which ap-
peared in large letters, " School, Here Children are
Taught."
The schools were mostly low-ceilinged, small rooms
on the second floor of the house, looking on a dirty
little street or back yard. Sometimes they were damp
mouldy basements of some old public building. In sum-
mer school was frequently held under an awning out-
side the house. The children of the prosperous and
poor were separately taught in the front and back part
of the same room. In one of the corners stood the
pidtrum (reading-desk) with the Bible, and in the
center a catheder with a desk, at which the master
sat, and on which were placed the plak and a willow
rod, its companion, besides the books of writing texts,
an inkhorn, sandboxes, and a sharp penknife, a tile
with a smooth pebble on which to mix inks of all
colors, shells and horns large and small to hold the
different kinds of ink, a vase full of black ink, goose-
quills, parchment, a seal, green wax, slates and copy-
books, the book in which the names of the scholars
were written, a horn-book, h3aTin-book, New Testament,
and other school requisites. Inside the catheder also
From old prints
OLD DUTCH SCHOOL SCENES
EDUCATION 167
stood a chair, on the right side of which hung the
ABC board, and beside it an iron comb with a wooden
handle, the mere sight of which is enough to make us
shiver when we remember that it was used to curry
unclean scalps. A single stroke was enough to make
the blood trickle down the face. On the left hung the
dunce's or ass's board, which was hung over the chest
of the scholar who was too stupid or too lazy. Behind
the raised desk hung calculating-boards, and specimens
of fine penmanship that had gained prizes for the
scholars, the Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer,
and other samples of the schoolmaster's calligraphy,
the school ordinance regarding the pupils' behavior
on the street, at home, and in church ; how they had
to sit down, stand up, bow, nod, not to shuffle their
feet, scratch themselves, blow their noses too loud,
quarrel, fight, strike, kick, hurt, or abuse others. Ac-
cording to some ordinances, the children had to pay
homage to the master, bowing subserviently and say-
ing "Your Health!" when he sneezed. For the
smaller children very small benches which were called
A B benches were used.
Doors and windows were left open for ventilation.
When it grew dark, tallow candles on wooden blocks
or in iron candlesticks were lighted. In these low, dark,
and damp rooms, and in an atmosphere reeking with
the flicker of the tallow candles, children were kept
sometimes from seven in the morning until seven at
night. School was opened in summer at six and. in win-
ter at seven in the morning. The children kept their
hats and caps on, removing them only at prayers and
when they said their lessons.
Not only was the master's rule over his pupils des-
potic, but he also took precedence over the parents at
public dinners. At the appointed hour he arose from
i68 DUTCH NEW YORK
his seat, said the prayer, or made one of the scholars
say it, read a chapter from the Bible, and sang a hymn,
after which the school work began. At eleven in the
morning school was closed with prayer. Most of the
children left; but some of them stayed and ate their
lunch which they had brought with them. From one
until four and from five until seven were the afternoon
sessions, both opening and closing with prayer, Bible
reading, and singing. On Wednesday afternoon
school closed an hour earlier, and on Saturday after-
noon there was no school. Five days a week the
children were instructed in singing and in the Cate-
chism. Sundays and holidays, the dog-days, the after-
noons after the writing for the prize and the paying
of the quarterly dues, and market days, were holidays.
Pupils tried to coax the teacher for extra days off.
The schoolmasters were often easily persuaded, but
any bad behavior was punished severely.
Punishment consisted in striking the palm of the
hand with the plak (a flat piece of wood on a handle)
and flogging with the rod or switch. Neither the one
nor the other was lacking in any school of proper
" discipline," and they hardly ever were out of the
schoolmaster's hands. The plak was often an instru-
ment of horrible torture, of different makes and sizes.
Some plaks were finely made with a twisted handle;
some coarse and unfinished, — a round piece of board
with a handle. There were round and oval plaks,
thick and thin of blade, some with a smooth surface
and some cai-ved in diamonds; plaks with twisted
copper wire, and with sharp points or with pin points,
which tore the flesh of the palm. He who had misbe-
haved at school or was guilty of only a minor offense
was punished with the plain plak and light strokes;
but the thief, or the fighter, or the incorrigible, got the
EDUCATION 169
hard plak and heavy strokes. The punishment with
the rod was even more severe. According to the
gravity of the offense this was administered on the
naked body, or with the clothes on. In some schools
boys were strapped with leathern belts. In the yards
of some others, principally the poor and orphan schools,
there were whipping-posts where boys and girls were
whipped ; and in the school of the poorhouse in Amster-
dam a bench whereon the small malefactor was put
with his head through a board, fastened down, and
smartly punished. In another school a block was
fastened to the leg of the culprit and had to be dragged
home through the streets and to church on Sundays.
Nobody blamed the master if he beat or kicked the
boys, or if he made them stand on a table and hold two
or three heavy school boards above their heads during
the lesson. We also read of leather cushions with tacks
pointed upwards on which unruly girls were placed;
and of girls being beaten, kicked, and bruised. In
some cases the schoolmasters were veritable tyrants,
but fortunately they were the exceptions.
The schools in most of the cities were under the
supervision of the curators of the Latin or principal
school. These appointed the teachers, who after hav-
ing signed the canons and articles of uniformity and
taken the oath at the City Hall, were considered
sufficiently licensed. Little attention was paid to them
afterwards and the schools were never inspected, al-
though they always had to be kept with unlocked doors,
so that the curators could visit them when they desired.
They were summoned by the beadle to appear before
the curators only in case the parents complained of
lack of discipline, or insubordination of the children,
or too severe punishment, or the neglect of the school
on account of the master's drunkenness ; and from the
I/O
DUTCH NEW YORK
curators' sentence there was no appeal. There certainly
was no lack of capable teachers, ornaments to their
profession, but in general the condition of the schools
was deplorable.
The girls' schools were just as bad. In the better
class of schools the mistress sat before a little pul-
trum on which were a book, a willow rod, and a
wooden plak. She had also a long stick with which
she could reach the rear benches. The children sat
with their caps and bonnets on; in a corner of the room
was the common toilet. The mistress also dealt in
sweatmeats, for which the children spent their school
pennies. The schoolroom generally served the mistress
as bedroom, living-room, and kitchen. If the mistress
was able to read (which was not always the case), a
chapter and a Sunday lesson were droned into the chil-
dren's ears; if not, the instruction was limited to re-
peating the alphabet, the Lord's Prayer, the Ten
Commandments, and the Articles of the Faith, till the
children knew all that by heart, without being able to
read or write. Some mistresses held these lessons
in the forenoon, and taught sewing, knitting, and
needlework in the afternoon, in summer, on the
stoop.
These dame's schools were common in New Nether-
land, especially in the outlying small communities. We
have a record of one in 1685, when John Rodes leaves
to his son John some land " and ye little house Goodey
Davis keeps schoole in," which he is to remove for
a shop.
The teaching was dull, aimless, and monotonous.
The alphabet was taught without any attention being
paid to the form, shape, difference, or proper sound
of the letters. Words were spelled without significance
or sense in a droning tone, and were often mispro-
EDUCATION 171
nounced. The sound produced by twenty children
reading or spelhng at the same time was so nerve-
racking that the neighbors complained, and would
rather live next to a smithy than a school. The
schoolmasters excelled in penmanship ; samples exist
that are hard to distinguish from copperplate. The
texts they set in running and Roman hands were gener-
ally short proverbs, such as " To know God is the
highest good," " He that lives well dies well," " We are
all mortal," " Always do that which has to be done
well," " Obedience is pleasing to the Deity," " Reason
has to govern everywhere," etc. There was a quarterly
writing competition for prizes, and the winner was
rewarded variously with a silver pen, a Breda etui,
a writing-desk, a penknife, a hymn-book, or a New Tes-
tament. The winning handwriting was exhibited on the
wall of the schoolhouse. Many teachers were as good
at arithmetic as in penmanship, and some were employed
to make up the accounts of the city treasurer and
keep the ledgers for some of the mercantile houses.
Ciphering was taught first on the arithmetic board,
where the children began by adding penny to penny,
advancing with the aid of the books of the various
authorities on the subject. Later in the century, other
books were used for the education of the scholars, such
as " The Destruction of Jerusalem," " The Four
Heem's Children," " The Beautiful Story of Fortu.-
natus' Purse," etc. There were also introduced the
Epistles and the Acts of the Apostles, the History of
David and Joseph, the Proverbs of Solomon after the
version of Carel de Gelliers, schoolmaster of Leeu-
warden. Picture books with stories arranged for chil-
dren were not yet known.
Schoolmasters complained not only of the wildness
and insubordination of youth, but that their doting
172 DUTCH NEW YORK
mothers encouraged them in their mischief, as they
were always more or less elated over their sons' pranks ;
and also that they were taken from school too soon to
learn a craft or to be trained for the office or the shop.
The curators of Dordrecht asked the city government
to prohibit boys leaving school too soon, as the custom
deprived the schools of their incomes.
The material benefits of linguistic knowledge being
so apparent, the original settlers were anxious that
their children should have the advantages of which
they evidently had been denied. Anneke Jans' s own
daughter, Sara Roelofs, the wife of Hans Kierstede,
for example, was probably more learned in the native
Indian tongues than any one in the province, and re-
ceived a grant of land for services rendered to the
province in acting as interpreter with the Indians.
The early settlers in New Netherland, as a rule, were
exceedingly illiterate, the women particularly. It is
astonishing to see how many wills, deeds, etc., were
signed merely " her mark." As shining examples we
may cite Anneke Jans and Sarah Ooort (Kidd, Cox).
Cornelis Beeckman and his wife, in their joint will,
1669, both sign with a mark; so also do many others
who were in prosperous circumstances.
In the early days of the Dutch Republic the United
Provinces were overrun with refugees of the Reformed
Religion who were expelled from Brabant and Flan-
ders. Many of these were people of good character
and education, and well fitted for the instruction of
youth; and consequently they opened French schools
as a means of livelihood, and were highly esteemed.
Towards the middle of the Seventeenth Century the
number of these had greatly diminished ; but after the
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes the numbers in-
creased greatly with the Huguenot immigration, and
CO
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o
Q
Pi-,
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1^ c/:
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EDUCATION 173
the resulting competition reduced the livelihood almost
to the starvation point. The masters and mistresses of
these French schools were subject to the same rules and
regulations as the native Dutch teachers. They had to
submit their textbooks to the approval of the local
church board, and satisfy the latter that their teaching
had no taint of Roman Catholicism. These schools
were frequented by the children of the well-to-do
burghers, who afterwards finished their education with
travel, visiting foreign capitals and making a particu-
larly long stay in Paris.
Strange to say, there seem to have been no schools
in which High German was taught; nor were there
any English schools, although a knowledge of English
was very desirable for the merchants. English, how-
ever, seems to have been little known here, for on Feb.
25, 1656, Jan Peecq was appointed to be broker to the
merchants of New Amsterdam, " as he speaks Dutch
and English."
As we approach the end of the century numerous
wills testify to parental provision for their children's
education. For example. Evert Wessels's children,
1683, are to be sent to school to learn to write and read.
Daniel Veenvos, 1695, and Gerritt Roos, 1697, make
similar stipulations. Henry Coyler, 1690, wills that
his wife " shall be obliged to cause the under-aged
children to learn reading and writing decently." Hen-
dricks Boelen's son, 1691, *' is to be instructed to read
and write and afterwards to learn a trade by which he
shall live in the future." Thomas Foster, 1663, wills:
" My children aj-e to be taught to read English well,
and my son to write, when they do come of age, and if
my wife should marry and not teach ye children as
aforesayd, then my will is that two cows more be layed
out for yt end, to give ye children learning." Sylvandt
174 DUTCH NEW YORK
van Schaick's children, 1683, are to be "exercised in
the fear of the Lord and instructed in reading writ-
ing and arithmetic, and such art or trade that they
in time may decently live in the world." Christian
Teller, 1696, orders that his executors shall put his
daughter to board with " Mr. Geestie Dethys or at
my brother De Reimer's, and she is to be instructed in
such arts, sciences or tongues convenient for her, as
can be learned in this province."
Latin was the diplomatic language of the Middle
Ages, and was a common accomplishment with every
Dutchman whose studies extended beyond reading,
writing, and arithmetic. The student of the history of
New Netherland cannot help being struck with the Latin
forms of the Christian names and even surnames of
many of the Dutch here. It is evident that the average
prosperous burgher here was not satisfied with the Three
R's, but wanted his children to have the advantages
of a Latin school, as in Fatherland. In September,
1658, the Burgomasters lay before the Lords Directors
the increase of the youth of the province, now very
numerous, and " though many of them can read and
write, the burghers are nevertheless anxious to have
their children instructed in the most useful languages,
the chief of which is Latin." They humbly request
that a suitable person for master of a Latin school may
be sent, " hoping that, increasing yearly, it may finally
attain to an Academy."
The home authorities promptly responded ; but they
had a great deal of trouble to find a Latin schoolmaster.
Finally Alexander Carolus Curtius, late Professor in
Lithuania, w^as engaged at a yearly salary of five hun-
dred florins, '* board money included, and also a pres-
ent of 100 florins in merchandise to be used by him
upon his arrival there." One of the two ships, the
EDUCATION 175
Bever or the Moesman, carried the schoolmaster, but
we learn that " The books required by the school-
master now coming over for the instruction of the
young people in Latin, could not be procured in the
short time before the sailing of these ships; they will
be sent by the next opportunity."
The Director-General was instructed to give Mr.
Curtius " a piece of land convenient for a garden or
orchard," and he was to be " allowed to give private
instructions, as far as this can be done without preju-
dice to the duties for which he is engaged." In 1660, he
resigned and returned to Holland. His successors were
Jan Juriaense Becker, Frans Claessen, and on May 2,
1 66 1, Evert Pietersen. The next to come, on July 30,
1663, was ^gidius Luyck, rector of the Greek and
Latin school,^ who petitioned for a salary and was en-
gaged at one thousand guilders ($400) a year in wam-
pum. He returned to Holland in 1664 to study theol-
ogy, and after his ordination to the ministry he came
back to Manhattan to assist Van Nieuwenhuysen. In
^^7?)^ ^^^ became a schepen. His school attained such
fame that pupils came to him from Albany, Delaware,
and Virginia. The next name on the list is Johannes
van Gelder.
On Feb. 2, 1662, we learn that part of the old
Burying Ground is granted to the Burgomasters for
the purpose of erecting a public schoolhouse.
At the head of the Latin schools were curators,
nominated partly by the government and partly by the
College of Preachers. The curators met once a fort-
night or once a month, and with the sanction of the
rectors appointed or discharged teachers, looked after
the welfare of the school, and determined the promo-
' This school still survives as the Collegiate Reformed School of
New York.
176 DUTCH NEW YORK
tion of pupils to higher classes, the fines and dues
that had to be paid, and the prizes to be distributed.
They also settled the differences between teachers, or,
in case their good offices were unsuccessful, they were
called in finally to decide. At first each school had its
individual laws, but in 1625 the States General passed a
school law, which by their order was drawn up by the
Leyden professors in consultation with the principal
rectors and was put in effect in all the schools through-
out the land. The schoolrooms were mostly somber,
damp, cellar-like chambers, with high windows and
stone floors, heated in winter and furnished almost as
barely as the schools already described. They were
generally parts of the old convents, the other parts of
which were used as living-rooms for the teachers and
boarding-pupils. The courtyard of the building served
as a playground, while the garden proper was reserved
for the rector. In summer the porch bell tolled at eight
A. M. for morning school and in winter at nine, and at
one or two p. m. for afternoon school. After the
teacher had called the " horn," or roll, the pupils went
to their classes, where the lessons began with prayers
in Latin and Greek, and closed with thanksgiving after
lessons. In some places, parts of the Holy Scriptures
were read in these languages, and psalms were sung.
After this the regular work began in the various classes.
Some schools had four classes, others six, which were
divided again into grades. The two highest classes were
taught by the rector and co-rector ; the lower ones were
directed by preceptors. In the lowest reading and writ-
ing were taught, and arithmetic in the next. The third
class translated Caesar and Cicero's Orations and were
taught to speak pure Latin and Greek. The second
class were taught to expound those works and to com-
pose essays on the classics. The first class had to
EDUCATION 177
translate the New Testament and the Tragedies of
Euripedes or Sophocles, and translate Sallust, Livy,
Tacitus, or Curtius from Greek into Latin, explain the
Odes of Horace, and make Latin verses. If the Latin
school was an " Illustrious " school, the pupils had also
to take part in the professors' classes. In some schools
Hebrew was also taught. Each pupil of both the high-
est classes had to keep a " liber carminum " in which he
wrote Latin poems. He composed these for every
special occasion and for every family festival. After
the annual examination there was a solemn distribution
of prizes to those promoted. In the vacations the
pupils presented a school play in Latin, the cost of
production being defrayed by the city government.
These were generally representations of scenes from the
Old and the New Testament, legends of the saints, etc.,
on platforms in front of the town halls, or sometimes
on bridges or in open squares.
When the splendor of the French court, under the
young King Louis XIV, outshone all the other capitals
of Europe, French became the language of fashion
and diplomacy and supplanted Latin, and everything in
the education of the upper classes of Holland became
a la francaise. The French schools attracted all the
youth who did not study for the liberal professions.
Those who could afford it employed French private
tutors for their children, and these accompanied their
pupils when of age to make the European tour.
One of the accomplishments necessitated by the
French taste was dancing, which had been a bone of
contention in the community ever since the Reforma-
tion. The church authorities generally disapproved of
it. Those who indulged in it were severely censured.
When a wedding was to take place, the members of
the church council went to bridegroom and bride with
178 DUTCH NEW YORK
the request to abstain from having dances. This was
even done at the wedding of WilHam I. with Charlotte
of Bourbon. After a time they asked the municipali-
ties to close the dancing-schools. The preachers warned
the congregation against the " abominable and God
teasing sin of dancing, dancing was against the Word
of God, dancing was not an act of wisdom or care-
fulness, but of carelessness and folly, the cause of much
lightheadedness, frivolity, sinful love, unseemly acts
and shame. They were foolish parents that allowed
their children to learn how to dance." Dancing-schools
were put in the same class as disorderly houses; but
in spite of all this opposition, the young people of the
period learned how to dance the " courante," the
" sarabande," the " pazzamezzo," the " galliard," and
the " round " dance. When the followers of Voet be-
came powerful, the dancing-schools were closed. The
French dancing-master then put his kit under his arm
and went to private residences to teach the young.
Though objections were made to dancing, singing-
schools and dramatic art were strongly encouraged ;
and if the authorities tried to prevent the use of organs
at the public gospel services, they did not forbid the
lessons in music. Singing was taught in all the schools ;
even in the Latin schools translated psalms were sung,
and hours were set apart for lessons. In several of the
larger cities were singing-schools under direction of
clever composers.
Dancing does not seem to have been taught in New
Amsterdam. When it became New York, however,
the dancing-master soon made his appearance concur-
rently with the fencing-master, presumably under the
patronage of the pleasure-loving English officers of the
Fort. The dancing-master, however, was regarded on
much the same plane as " play-actors, and other vaga-
PORCELAIN AND KARTHKNWARE
RIJKS MUSEUM, AMSTERDAM
EDUCATION 179
bonds." For instance, on Jan. 3, 1687, an order in
council required Francis Stepney, dancing-master, to
give security that he would not become a public charge.
On Dec. 18, 1675, Thomas Smith, fencing-master, was
licensed to open a school to teach the use and exercise
of arms.
The Dutch were essentially a God-fearing nation.
Religious observances formed an important feature of
home life. No bread was broken without the head of
the house first invoking a blessing from above, and the
meal was also ended with grace. The father also be-
gan and ended the day with prayer, reading the Scrip-
tures, and singing a psalm. In some homes an after-
noon was devoted to religious meditation and reading
— usually the works of prominent preachers. Even the
baby in its mother's arms was present, and the first
thing the mother taught it was how to pray. As soon
as the baby could walk, it toddled to church at its
father's and mother's side.
There was no period when the religious education
of a child was of more importance than during the
Seventeenth Century. Church and State took the mat-
ter greatly to heart. Rectors, masters, mistresses, and
teachers were ordered to give the children their in-
struction in the Gospel. Not only the Wednesday and
Saturday afternoons were devoted to this, but at every
fete or holiday some Bible texts had to be learned by
heart, and recited at the head of the class. On Sundays
children were required to go to school dressed in their
best, mornings and afternoons, and from there to
church, escorted by their teachers, who after the ser-
vice would ask them about it, to see that they had paid
proper attention. In many families, while the various
members occupied themselves in the evening with some
kind of hand or fancy work, the father would read from
i8o DUTCH NEW YORK
the Bible or some religious book, varied occasionally with
selections from the voyages of the early navigators.
Slates and pencils are frequently found among the
shop goods. Peter Marius, 1702, has eighty-eight
English primers. John Spratt, 1697, has among his
shop goods school books valued at three pounds ten
shillings.
The libraries at this period contained no light liter-
ature. They consisted chiefly of Bibles, Testaments,
hymn and psalm books, travels, historical works, and
occasionally a few Dutch poets. Somewhat unusual
is the collection of Dominie Nicholas Van Rensselaer in
Albany in 1679, consisting of " about two hundred
bookes, quarto and octavo, the most of them in strange
languages," which, with " a brass pocket-watch out of
order," are worth two hundred guilders. Mrs. Van
Varick had " a parcel of printed books, most of them
in High German and foreign languages, and so little
value here, wherefore they are packed up to be kept
for the use of the children when of age."
In many houses the great Bible, mounted with silver
or brass corners and heavy clasps, rested on a reading-
desk to which it was attached by a chain. This was
the family record for births, marriages, and deaths,
as well as the book from which the head of the family
read morning and evening.
The inventories contain innumerable examples of
such Bibles, among which we may note that Derick
Clausen had a turtleshell-covered Bible plated with
silver and silver clasps and a Psalm-book with silver
clasps (£3) ; Cornells Dericksen had a Dutch Bible
(£1 1 6s. od.) ; Mrs. Van Varick, a Testament with
gold clasps and a Bible, clasps tipped with gold ; and
among Dr. De Lange's shop goods we find :
EDUCATION i8i
£ s d
One Bible bound in carret and tipt with silver i 6 o
One Testament with gilt hooks and gold hangers
and a gold chain i4 o o
One Testament with silver hooks 070
One Testament bound in printed gold leather 060
One small Bible bound in printed gold leather 090
One Psalm-book bound in printed leather o 4 o
One small Testament bound in black cloth o 4 o
One Book tractating of the Lord's Supper bound
in printed leather 020
Mr. Van Exween, who died in 1690, had " a great Bible
with brass clasps and a Bible, silver." Abraham De
Lanoy, 1702, had six books of Evangelists, £2 3s. od. ;
nine Historical school books, £3 4s. od. ; ten books of
Cortimus, 3s. Qd. ; fourteen Catechism books, £3 6s. od. ;
thirty-two song books, £4 6s. od. ; thirteen books of
Golden Trumpets, £2 6s. od. Judah Samuel, 1702, had
a Hebrew Bible and five Hebrew books; and Henry
Pierson, 1681, books, £6 19s. od.
Rich women wore their Testaments or Psalm-books
on a chain at their side when they went to church.
Some of these were very handsome. For instance,
Cristina Cappoens had " a church book with silver
clasps and chain," which was valued at £1 i6s. od.
CHAPTER IX
RELIGION, PERSECUTION, AND SUPERSTITION
T
f g~~^HE West India Company, recognizing the
authority of the Established Church of Hol-
land, intrusted the care of the colonies to the
Classis of Amsterdam, by which body all the colonial
clergy were approved and commissioned. The Direc-
tors immediately sent out two Krank-besoeckers (con-
solers and visitors of the sick), Sebastian Jansen
Crol and Jan Huyck, or Huyghen, brother-in-law of
Peter Minuit. Their duties were to visit the sick
and conduct religious services. At first religious
meetings were held on Sundays in the upper floor
of the horse-mill, and consisted of reading the Com-
mandments, creed, and, occasionally, a printed ser-
mon, and the singing of hymns. Two years later,
the Directors sent out a regular minister, the Rev.
Jonas Michiels, or Michaelius, a graduate of the Ley-
den University, who had ministered to the Dutch in
San Salvador, Brazil, and had served as chaplain of
the West India Company's Fort in Guinea. He sailed
from Amsterdam on Jan. 24, 1628, with his wife and
three children. The Dominie was received with " love
and respect " by the Dutch and Walloons, and was able
to organize a church of fifty communicants. To aid
him and to form a consistory, two elders were chosen.
Director Minuit and Huygen. The other " Consoler
of the Sick," Crol, was sent to Fort Orange, The
182
RELIGION 183
Dominie's knowledge of French made him popular with
the Walloons; and in order to qualify himself for
missionary work among the Indians, he began to study
their language. It is thought that he returned to Hol-
land with Peter Minuit in 1633,
The next minister was the Rev. Everardus Bogardus,
who arrived with Director Van Twiller. Bogardus
was a widower; but in 1638 he married the rich
Anneke Jans, widow of Roelof Jans, to whom had
been granted in 1636 the Company's Farm No. i, a
tract of sixty-two acres on Broadway.
It was at this juncture that the question of a church
was agitated. But where was the money to come from ?
It happened about this time that Everardus Bogardus
gave in marriage to Hans Kierstede, the surgeon, a
daughter of Anneke Jans. The director thought this
a good time for his purpose, and set to work after the
fifth or sixth drink; and he himself setting a liberal
example, let the wedding guests sign whatever they
were disposed to give towards the church. Each then
with a light head subscribed at a handsome rate, one
competing with the other ; and although some heartily
repented it when they recovered their senses, they were
obliged to pay. The subscription list amounted to
eighteen hundred florins.
De Vries, writing in 1642, claims credit for the
idea, and tells the story as follows :
As I was every day with Commander Kieft, dining
generally at his house, when I happened to be at the Fort,
he told me one day that he had now built a fine tavern
of stone for the English who, passing continually there
with their vessels, in going from New England to Vir-
ginia, occasioned him much inconvenience and could now
take lodgings there. I told him this was excellent for
travellers, but that we wanted very sadly a church for
i84 DUTCH NEW YORK
our people. It was a shame when the English passed
there, and saw only a mean barn in which we performed
our worship. In New England, on the contrary, the first
thing that they did when they had built some dwellings,
was to erect a fine church. We ought to do the same.
Kief asked me then who would like to superintend this
building? I replied, the friends of the reformed religion.
He told me that he supposed that I myself was one of
them as I made the proposition, and he supposed I would
contribute a hundred guilders? I replied that I agreed
to do so ; and that as he was Governor he should be the
first.
We then elected Jochem Peterzen Knyter, who having
a good set of hands, and being also a devout Calvinist,
would soon procure good timber. We also elected Damen,
because he lived near the Fort ; and thus we four formed
the first consistory to superintend the building of the
church. The Governor should furnish a few thousand
guilders of the Company's money, and we would try to
raise the remainder by subscription.
In 1649, th^ Director's enemies complained that Kieft
" insisted that the Church should be located in the
Fort, the location being as suitable as a fifth wheel to
a coach. The Church, which ought to belong to the
people who paid for it, intercepts the south-east wind
from the grist-mill, and this is why there is frequently
a scarcity of bread in summer for want of grinding."
In 1642, the new church was built. This was of stone,
with a roof of oak shingles, a tower and a weather-
cock, and a peaked roof. It was seventy feet long,
fifty-two feet wide, and sixteen feet high, and on the
front was a stone tablet with the words:
An. Dom. MDCXLII.
W. Kieft Die. Gen. Heeft de Gemeente dese Tempel
Doen Bouwen
[A. D. 1642. W. Kieft being Director General, has
caused the Congregation to build this Temple.]
CO w
RELIGION 185
The bell bore the legend :
Dulcior E. nostris tinnitibus resonat aer. P. Hemony
me fecit 1674.
[The air resounds sweeter for our ringing. P. Hem-
ony made me.]
Bogardus was not an ideal pastor ; he quarreled with
Van Twiller, and his successor, Kieft, denouncing the
latter from the pulpit as a tyrant, and trying to stir up
the people against him. When summoned to answer
for his conduct before the authorities here, he defied
them. Kieft charged him with habitual drunkenness,
even at the communion table, and absented himself from
public worship conducted by the turbulent priest. For
this the Director's enemies bitterly denounced him as
follows :
What religion could men expect to find in a person
[Kieft] who from the 3d of January, 1644, to the nth
of May, 1647, would never hear God's word, nor partake
of the Christian sacraments, doing all he could to estrange
from the Church all those who depended upon him. His
ungodly example was followed, in like manner, by bis
fiscal Cornelis van der Hoyckens ; his counselor, Jan de
la Montaigne, who was formerly an elder ; the ensign,
Gysbert de Leeuw ; his secretary, Cornelis van Tien-
hoven ; Olofif Stevenson (Van Cortlandt) ^ deacon; and
Gysbrecht van Dyck ; besides various inferior officers and
servants of the company, to the soldiers inclusive. Dur-
ing the sermon he allowed the officers and soldiers to
practice all kinds of noisy amusements near and about
the church, such as nine-pins, bowls, dancing, singing,
leaping, and all other profane exercises ; yea, even to
such extent that the communicants, who came into the
fort to celebrate the Lord's Supper, were scoffed at by
these blackguards. . . . During the prefatory service
1 The Breedcn Raedt (1649).
i86 DUTCH NEW YORK
(proef-pedicatie), the Director Kieft several times al-
lowed the drums to be beat. The cannon was discharged
several times during the service, as if he had ordered it
out a-Maying; so that for the purpose of interrupting
the audience, a wretched villany happened against God's
church.
Kieft, however irreligious he may have been, was
tolerant in some respects. He afforded protection to
the Jesuit missionaries, Father Jogues and Father
Bressani, rescued them from the Indians, and gave
them a free passage to Holland. He also welcomed
many Anabaptists, who, being persecuted in New
England, sought the more tolerant rule of the Dutch.
Among these were two ladies, Mrs. Anne Hutchin-
son and Lady Deborah Moody. The former settled
at Pelham Neck, the latter at Gravesend, Long
Island. In 1643, John Throgmorton and thirty-five
Anabaptist families received permission to settle at
a spot in the Bronx subsequently called Throgg's
Neck.
In 1647, Bogardus sailed for Holland in the Princess
to defend his conduct before his ecclesiastical superiors.
It was a strange fate that led the ex-Director, Kieft,
to take passage on the same boat, for these two bitter
enemies both suffered death by shipwreck in the Bristol
Channel.
In 1654, the Company being evidently troubled by
the dissensions, made the following wise regulations :
No person shall take the name of the Lord in vain,
whether by cursing, swearing, or blaspheming, in jest
or otherwise, upon the penalty of ten stivers, and arbi-
trary correction, according to the degree of profanity and
blasphemy which shall be uttered and expressed.
Also shall no man presume to rebuke, to contemptu-
ously treat, disturb, or in any wise obstruct the Minister
RELIGION 187
or exhorter of God's Holy Word, in the performance
of his office or calling.
Further, whenever, early in the morning or after supper
in the evening, prayers shall be said, or God's word read,
by any one thereto commissioned, every person, of what
quality soever he may be, shall repair to hear it with be-
coming reverence.
No man shall raise or bring forward any question or
argument on the subject of religion, on pain of being
placed on bread and water three days in the ship's galley.
And if any difficulties should arise out of the said dis-
putes, the author thereof shall be arbitrarily punished.
Stuyvesant was accompanied from Curagao by the
Rev. Johannes Backerus, who remained only a year
in New Amsterdam. On his departure the Rev.
Johannes Megapolensis was transferred from Fort
Orange to New Amsterdam, where he remained until
his death in 1669, In 1652, the Rev. Samuel Drisius,
a bachelor of forty, was sent out, " a fit assistant to the
old gentleman, Do. Megapolensis." They worked to-
gether in amity, but the results of their work among
the Indians was not altogether satisfactory. In 1659,
they wrote to Amsterdam a report of the religious con-
ditions of the colony, from which we learn :
We have had one Indian here with us full two years,
so that he could read and write good Dutch ; we in-
structed him in the grounds of Religion ; he also an-
swered publicly in the church and repeated the prayers.
We likewise presented him with a Bible in order to work
through him some good among the Indians. But it all
resulted in nothing. He has taken to drinking of Brandy ;
he pawned the Bible and became a real beast who is
doing more harm than good among the Indians.
About eighteen miles up the North River lies Esopus.
It is an exceedingly beautiful Land. There some Dutch
Inhabitants have settled themselves, and prosper especially
i88 DUTCH NEW YORK
well. They hold Sunday meetings, and then one among
them reads something out for a postille.
The Dutch on Long Island were without a church or
minister of their own until the middle of the century,
and in order to attend public worship were obliged
to visit New Amsterdam. Occasionally, however, the
Dominie visited the outlying towns and held services
in private houses. In December, 1654, the Director
and Council having endeavored to remedy this want,
sanctioned the erection of a small church at Midwout
(Flatbush), by the joint effort of three towns; and
the Rev. Johannes Theodorus Polhemus from Brazil
was installed as pastor. Here services were held on
Sunday mornings and at Breuckelen and Amersfoort
on alternate Sunday afternoons. Drisius reports :
It took three hours for these devout people to get to
the church in the Fort, so when De Polhemus arrived
from Brasils, they requested that he might be appointed
their preacher which was granted. The four other vil-
lages on Long Island, viz., Gravesend Middelburgh, Vlis-
singen and Heemstede were established by the English.
At Gravesend there were Mennonists ; at Flushing, Pres-
byterians, who after a time absented themselves from
church and refused to pay the preacher, who fled to Vir-
ginia. . . . Last year a fomentor of error came there.
He was a cobbler from Rhode Island and stated that he
was commissioned by Christ. He began to preach at
Flushing and then went with the people into the river
and dipped them. This becoming known here, he was
banished the province.
At Middelburgh (Newtown) there were mostly Inde-
pendents, led by one Johannes Moor, and at Heemstede
some Independents Presbyterians under the charge of
Richard Denton, an honest, pious and learned man.
On the west side of the East River about one mile
through Hellgate another English village has been begun
RELIGION 189
over two years. It was named Oostdorp. The inhabit-
ants are also Puritains alias Independents. They have
no preacher. They hold Sunday meetings reading from
an English book, a sermon and making a prayer.
Lutherans, Quakers, and Anabaptists gave the Di-
rectors and Dominies much trouble. A few examples
will suffice to show how difficult it was for alien sects
to flourish while Dominie Megapolensis was Father of
the Flock. In 1652, he requested that Anna Smits, an
Anabaptist, should be restrained from using slanderous
and calumniating expressions against God's Word and
his servants; and the Director-General and Council
ordered
that Anna Smits shall appear on the following Wednes-
day at the school of David Provoost, where the Nine
Men usually meet and that the Director and Council to-
gether with the complainant and the consistory shall
assemble there also, to hear what the said Anna Smits
has to say against the teachings of the complainant.
Also, on Nov. 8, 1656, William Hallet, Sheriff of
Flushing, for allowing Baptist conventicles in his
house, was sentenced to pay a fine of £50 Flemish,
to be banished, with costs, and to remain in prison
till the fine w^as paid. William Wickendam was fined
£100 and other penalties as above for officiating as a
gospel minister ; but three days later the fine was
graciously remitted " as nothing can be got from him."
No sect, however, alarmed the good Dominies more
than the Lutherans, who showed at an early period
symptoms of growth. On Oct. 24, 1656, they peti-
tioned that they might not be prevented continuing their
religious exercises, as they " expect a regular clergy-
man next Spring." It was ordered that the petition be
forwarded to the West India Company ; " meanwhile
I90 DUTCH NEW YORK
the laws will be enforced against Conventicles and pub-
lic meetings of any but those belonging to the Re-
formed Dutch church."
The Directors were not pleased at this persecution.
They wrote (1656) :
We would also have been better pleased if you had not
published the placat against the Lutherans, a copy of
which you sent us, and committed them to prison, for it
has always been our intention to treat them quietly and
leniently. Hereafter you will therefore not publish such
or similar placats without our knowledge, but you must
pass it over quietly and let them have free religious ex-
ercises in their houses.
Stuyvesant (1656), however, supported Drisius and
Megapolensis with the following proclamation:
Whereas the Director General and Council are credibly
informed that not only Conventicles and Meetings are
held within this Province, but also that in such gatherings
some unqualified persons have assumed unto themselves
the office of teaching ; announcing and declaring God's
Holy Word, without being called or appointed thereto
by authority either of Church or State, which is in direct
contradiction and opposition to the General policy and
Church government of our Fatherland, because from such
manner of gatherings divers mischiefs, heresies and
schisms are to be expected, which to prevent, the Director
General and aforesaid Council do hereby, therefore, abso-
lutely and expressly forbid all such Conventicles or Gath-
erings, whether publick or private, except the usual and
lawful ones in which God's reformed word and the or-
dained assemblies of God's Reformed worship are ob-
served and conducted conformably to those of the Synod
of Dordrecht, here, in our Fatherland and in other
Reformed Churches of Europe, under the penalty of One
Hundred Pounds Flemish, to be forfeited by all who
assume any unqualified office whether of preaching read-
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RELIGION 191
ing or singing, whether on Sunday or any other day in
such Gatherings whether private or pubUck. Without
intending, hereby, however, any violence to Conscience
to the prejudice of the Patents formerly granted, or to
prohibit the reading of God's Holy Word, family prayers
and Worship, each in his own house.
Attendants at any unlawful meeting were also to be
fined £25 each.
It is astonishing to find how very soon after Fox
began to preach his followers became active on this
side of the Atlantic. Naturally, Quakers first made
their appearance among the English settlers on Long
Islan'd. It w^as not likely that Stuyvesant and his
Dominies would be indulgent to this new heresy. On
Jan. 10, 1658, John Tilton was fined £12 Flemish and
costs for harboring some of " the abominable sect of
Quakers." Henry Towsen (Jan. 15) was fined three
hundred guilders for the same offense.
In January, 1661, Stuyvesant was again troubled
with the pestilential Quakers. One Henry Townsend
was reported to have entertained members of the sect
at Jamaica, Long Island. The Director wrote to the
magistrates and sent the Rev. Samuel Drisius to offici-
ate there, and a deputy sheriff to inquire into the hold-
ing of conventicles. A search for Quakers followed
on Long Island, and the arrest of a Quaker's cloak and
of Sam Spicer; names were also given of those who
attended the preaching of George Wilson. Henry
Townsend was fined £25, and Slicer £12. John Tow^n-
send and John Tilton were banished from the province.
On January 24, Stuyvesant notified Jamaica of the ap-
pointment of new magistrates, and the quartering of
soldiers on the inhabitants on account of their heresy.
On Aug. 24, 1662, the Flushing magistrates lodged in-
formation against John Bowiie for holding meetings
192 DUTCH NEW YORK
every Sunday of " that abominable sect called Quakers,
of which the majority of the inhabitants are followers."
John Bowne was fined £25 and costs, and finally
banished.
On Sept, 14, 1662, Stuyvesant issued a proclamation
declaring that the public exercise of any religion but
the Reformed " in houses, barns, ships, woods or fields,
would be punished by a fine of fifty guilders ; double,
for a second offense ; and quadruple, for the third with
arbitrary correction." In April, 1663. however, the
Lords Directors censure Stuyvesant " for banishing
John Bowne, the Quaker."
It is hard to understand the hatred aroused by the
proverbially harmless Quakers. It appears, however,
that in the early days their enthusiasm in proselytizing
sometimes led them into aggressive missionary methods.
For example, in 1677, the town of Huntington, Long
Island, petitioned Governor Andros that the Quakers
" be not permitted to come into the meeting-house (as
they frequently do) in time of worship, to disturb the
congregation." " Samuel Forman of Oyster bay, came
to the City, where he lodged at the house of Anthony
Jansen from Salee, and, by inspiration from Christ
Jesus intended to repair to the church during divine
service and exclaim : ' O cry what shall I cry, all flesh
is grass, grass is the flower of the field, the flower falls
and the grass withers, but the word of God obeids
forever.' " Two days later, he was sentenced to be
publicly whipped and then banished, for having dis-
turbed public worship in the church at New Orange.
The Dutch church service was simple. The fore-
singer, or clerk, standing at a desk beneath the pulpit,
or in the deacons' pew, began the service by the com-
mand : " Hear with reverence the Word of the Lord " ;
then he read the Ten Commandments and announced
RELIGION 193
the Psalm. While this was being sung, the Minister
entered, stood for a few minutes at the foot of the pul-
pit stairs ; and, after a silent prayer, ascended the pul-
pit. He preached with an hour-glass before him. At
the end of the sermon the clerk inserted in the end of
his staff the public notices to be read and handed them
to the Minister. This duty ended, the Minister deliv-
ered a short homily on charity, and the deacons walked
through the church to take up a collection, each having
a long pole, at the end of which was a black velvet bag
for the offerings.
There was great difference of sentiment regarding
the Quakers. Sometimes we find special bequests to
them, as in the case of Colonel Lewis Morris, who, in
1 69 1, gives '* to the meetings of Friends called
Quakers £5 per annum." In quite another mood,,
William Hollyoake, of Southold, Long Island, makes
his will in which he emphatically orders :
If my sons Thomas, Peter or William, or any of their
succeeding heirs, whether sons or daughters, whom I doe
constitute my heirs, shall Apostate from the Protestant
Doctrine of faith of the Church of England as it is now
by law established, and if they or any of them shall at
any time hereafter, take upon him or them, any profes-
sion of such Doctrines or faith whereby they shall be
drawn away from attendance upon the Publick Worship
of God, practiced in this place, and warranted by the Holy
Scriptures ; and if they shall neglect or contemn the said
publick Worship ; and if the said Thomas or any of them
shall at any time espouse and contract marriage with
any Quaker, or to the son or daughter of any Quaker
as they are now called ; It is my positive Will that they
shall be utterly disinherited and disowned. And I be-
queath the lands so forfeited by such wicked practices
to the next lawful heir. ... I leave to my son John
who as an obstinate Apostate I doe reject and deprive of
13
194 DUTCH NEW YORK
all other parts of my estate, yet I doe hereby give him
my Second lot at the Wading Creek.
In 1658, Megapolensis and Drisius petitioned the
Classis to send out " good Dutch clergymen " ; and a
young candidate for the ministry, Hendricus Blom,
was induced to come out. He soon received a call to
Esopus (Kingston) and went home to be ordained.
On Dec. 22, 1659, the Directors of the West India
Company wrote to Stuyvesant a letter disapproving
of the narrow views of himself (for he was a good deal
of a bigot) and his subordinates. They regarded them-
selves as a trading corporation, not a body of sectarian
propagandists, and therefore discouraged intolerance.
We intend to send over two or three young preachers
on the same conditions as Domine Blom, and have been
looking about for them ; it is not sufficient that they lead
a good moral life, they must be of a peaceable and mod-
erate temperament, which depends a good deal on the
place of their studies, and not be infected with scruples
about unnecessary forms, which cause more divisions than
edification. The preachers there, Des. Megapolensis and
Drisius, do not seem to be free from this kind of leaven,
for they make difficulties in regard to the use of the old
formula of baptism without order from the Classis here,
pretending that they might be accused of innovations, al-
though the name of innovators could be better applied
to those who have made changes in it without the order
of the Church generally, or of a Classis. The most mod-
erate preachers here understand this and consider it an
insignificant ceremony, which may be performed or
omitted according to circumstances and without hurting
one's conscience. We had expected that the above-men-
tioned preachers and brothers would hold the same opinion
after our too friendly letter to them. We are told, it is
true, that the Lutherans come to church now and that
every thing goes on quietly and peaceably, but care must
RELIGION 195
be taken that this state of affairs continue ; that is un-
certain, as long as such precise forms and offensive ex-
pressions are not avoided. It is absolutely necessary that
they be avoided in a church, which is so weak and only
beginning to grow, especially when we consider the diffi-
culties liable to arise, which might result in the permis-
sion to conduct a separate divine service there, for the
Lutherans would very easily obtain the consent of the
authorities here upon a complaint, and we would have no
means of preventing it. We find it therefore highly
necessary to direct herewith, that you communicate all
this to the aforesaid preachers there and seriously ad-
monish them to adopt our advice and use the old formula
of baptism without waiting for further orders from here.
That will allay the dissensions in the state and of the
church there.
On Blom's return, he was accompanied by the
Rev. Henricus Selyns, to become pastor of the
Breuckelen congregation, Mr. Selyns was installed on
Sept, 7, 1660. As the people were unable to pay his
salary, the Council was petitioned for aid, Stuyvesant
agreed to contribute personally two hundred and fifty
guilders if Mr, Selyns would preach every Sunday
afternoon at his Bowery. Writing to the Classis, Oct,
4, 1660, Mr, Selyns says:
When we arrived, we repaired forthwith to the Man-
hattans ; but the negotiations for peace at the Esopus
necessarily retarded our progress thus long. We preached
meanwhile, here, and at the Esopus and Fort Orange ;
during our stay were provided with board and Lodging.
Esopus needs more people ; but Breucklen more wealth ;
wherefore I officiate Sunday afternoons at the General's
Bouwerye at the Noble General's private expense. I was
suitably received (in Brooklyn) by the Magistrate and
consistory and De Polhemus was forthwith discharged.
We do not preach in any church, but in a barn (Koren-
196 DUTCH NEW YORK
schuiir), and shall, God willing, erect a church in the
winter by the co-operation of the people. The congrega-
tion is passable. The attendance is augmented from
Middelwout, New Amersfoort and frequently Grave-
sande, but most from the Manhattans. To Breuckelen
appertains also the Ferry, the Walebocht and Gujanus.
There can be no Catechising before the winter, but this
shall be introduced either on week days or when there is
no preaching at the Bowery. Christmas, Easter, Whit-
suntide and September will be most suitable, as Thanks-
giving is observed on these festivals. . . .
There is preaching in the morning at Breuckelen but,
towards the conclusion of the Catechismal exercises of
New Amsterdam, at the Bowery which is a continuation
and the place of recreation of the Manhattans, where peo-
ple also come from the city to Evening Service. In addi-
tion to the household there are over forty negroes whose
location is the Negro quarter. There is no consistory here,
but the deacons of New Amsterdam provisionally receive
the alms offerings, and there are to be neither elders nor
deacons there. Besides me there are in New Nether-
lands DD Johannes Megapolensis and Samuel Drisius
in New Amsterdam ; D. Gideon Schaets at Fort Orange ;
D. Joannes Polemius at Middelwout and N. Amersfort
and Hermanus Blom at the Esopus.
In 1664, he returned to Holland in the Beaver to
visit his aged father ; and, after his departure, Charles
Debevoise, schoolmaster and sexton, conducted the
services. During his ministry Selyns married in New
Amsterdam, in 1662, Machtelt Specht, daughter of
Herman Specht, of Utrecht, " a young lady of rare
personal beauty and worth," to whom he wrote a poem
that has been much admired. Soon after he left. Dom-
inie Drisius wrote of him to Amsterdam in warm
terms of admiration of his preaching and pastoral
work :
FLOWERS
JAN VAN HUYSAM
RELIGION 197
He has attached very many unto him, among them a
number of the negroes, who are greatly grieved by his
departure. But considering the fact that he owes filial
obedience to his parents it is the will of God that he
should leave us.
He thinks it probable that the recently arrived son of
Dom. Megapolensis will take charge of Brooklyn and
the Bouwerie; and adds that the French on Staten
Island v/ould gladly have a preacher, but cannot afford
to support one. Governor Stuyvesant allows Drisius
to go there and preach every two months and admin-
ister the Lord's Supper, but " in the wanter season it is
troublesome on account of the great water of bay,
which must be crossed, and the showers and storms,
which occur."
The English conquest put an end to the exclusive
sway of the Dutch Reformed Church. Freedom of
worship was allowed to all congregations who cared
to pay their own ministers.
In 1669, Megapolensis wrote to the Classis of Am-
sterdam complaining that the West India Company
had " unrighteously withheld about 2000 guilders sal-
ary " from him, having falsely accused him of having
had a hand in delivering the town to the English.
Though the people took a great interest in the preach-
ing, and the church was filled on Sundays, still they
showed " little interest in contributing to the support
of the Gospel and in paying our salary." When the
Governor was appealed to for aid, his reply was : " As
the Dutch enjoy their freedom of worship, they should
provide for the support of their minister."
Samuel Megapolensis, who had been his father's as-
sistant since 1664, resigned and went to Holland; and
the old Dominie, who had now spent twenty-seven years
in the New World, was full of grief to think that when
198 DUTCH NEW YORK
he and Dominie Drisius should pass away their con-
gregation would probably scatter. Nothing seems to
have given him more distress than the fact that the
Lutherans had recently received a minister from
Amsterdam.
In 1669, Megapolensis the Elder died; and as Sam-
uel Drisius was growing old and unable to shoulder
all the duties of his charge, a new minister was needed.
As no one seemed willing to come, Governor Lovelace
in 1670 sent word to the Classis of Amsterdam that
he would give any " scholarly and godly minister a
hundred guilders a year, a dwelling rent free and fire-
wood." The Rev. William Nieuwenhuys accepted the
terms, and in 1671 became sole pastor of the Dutch
church on the death of Drisius.
On his death, in 1681, Selyns returned and was re-
ceived with open arms by his old friends. Doubtless
he was well acquainted with the widow of Cornells
Steenwyck, whom he very promptly married, she con-
veniently inheriting tlie taste of her mother, Vrouw
Drisius, for divines. Selyns wrote enthusiastic letters
home, informing the authorities that the people were
building a parsonage of brick (or stone), three stories
high, and that he had four hundred families on his
list ; but he complained that there was too much work
for one man.
Selyns was minister during the usurpation of Jacob
Leisler, and at one time was the only Dutch minister
in the province ; for Delius escaped to Boston ; Van
Varick, minister of the four Dutch towns of Kings
County, was convicted of treason and imprisoned ; Tes-
schenmaker was massacred at Schenectady in 1690;
and Van der Bosch deposed at Kingston. Selyns him-
self was accused of harboring Bayard, and his house
was searched by public officers.
RELIGION 199
Dominie Rudolphus Van Varick was dragged from
his home in Flatbush, imprisoned and heavily fined.
He had arrived from Holland in 1685, and succeeded
the Rev. Casparus Van Zuren as minister of the Long
Island churches. He became deeply involved in the
Leisler troubles. His wife, Margarita Visboom, had
many valuable and beautiful possessions.
Governor Andros wrote in 1678:
There are religions of all sorts, one Church of Eng-
land, several Presbyterians and Independents, Quakers
and Anabaptists of several sects, some Jews, but Presby-
terians and Independents most numerous and substantial.
Governor Dongan, who was a Roman Catholic, and
who brought over with him a Jesuit priest who cele-
brated Mass in the Governor's private apartments in
the Fort on Sundays, to which the Roman Catholics of
the town were admitted, wrote home the following :
New York has a chaplain belonging to the Fort of the
Church of England ; secondly a Dutch Calvinist ; third,
a French Calvinist ; and fourth, a Dutch Lutheran. There
be not many of England ; a few Roman Catholics ;
abundance of Quaker preachers, men and women ; sing-
ing Quakers, ranting Quakers, Sabbatarians, anti Sab-
batarians some Anabaptists, some Independents, some
Jews ; in short, of all sorts of opinions there are some,
and the most part of none at all.
In 1865, William Byrd, of Westover, Virginia, noted
on his trip to Albany:
They have as many Sects of religion there as att Am-
sterdam, all being tolerated, yet the people seem not con-
cerned what religion their Neighbour is of, or whether
hee hath any or none.
Miller, also in 1695, remarked upon the condition of
religion in not very complimentary terms. He said :
200 DUTCH NEW YORK
The number of the inhabitants in this province are
about 3000 famihes, whereof almost one-half are natur-
ally Dutch, a great part English and the rest French. As
to their religion, they are very much divided ; few of
them intelligent and sincere, but the most part ignorant
and conceited, fickle and regardless.
Finally, Madam Knight observed in 1702:
They are generally of the Church of England and have
a New England Gentleman for their minister and a very
fine church set out with all Customary requisites. There
are also a Dutch and Divers Conventicles as they call
them, viz., Baptist, Quakers, etc. They are not strict in
keeping the Sabbath as in Boston and other places where
I had bin. But seem to deal with great exactness as farr
as I see or Deall with. They are sociable to one another
and fare well in their houses.
Under Stuyvesant and Drisius, people were com-
pelled to observe the Sabbath in the strict Mosaic
fashion. The Director and Council issued several
ordinances for the better observance of the Sabbath.
The first of these, dated April 29, 1648, runs as
follows :
On the Lord's day of rest, usually called Sunday, no
person shall be allowed to do the ordinary and customary
labors of his calling, such as Sowing, Mowing, Building,
Sawing Wood, Smithing, Bleeching, Hunting, Fishing,
or any works allowable on other days, under the penalty
of One Pound Flemish, for each person so offending;
much less any idle or unallowed exercises and sports,
such as Drinking to excess, frequenting Inns or Tap-
houses, Dancing, Card-playing, Tick-tacking, Playing at
ball, Playing at bowls, Playing at nine-pins, taking jaunts
in Boats, Wagons, or Carriages, before, between, or dur-
ing Divine Service, under the penalty of a double fine
(Two Pounds, Flemish) ; and in order to prevent all
RELIGION 20I
such accidents and injuries, there shall be a fine of Twelve
Guilders for the first offence; Twenty-four Guilders for
the second offence ; and arbitrary correction for the third
offence ; the One-third for the Officers ; One-third for the
Poor; and the remaining One-third for the Prosecutor.
Many were the cases brought into court for breaking
the Sunday laws, and many were the excuses of the
defendants. Sometimes they plead ignorance of the
law, and sometimes they break the law and pay the
fines with callous indifference. Let us glance at the
wickedness of a few of the sinners. Hendrick de
Backer, of Fort Orange, 1660, was fined twelve
guilders for bringing in a load of hay on Sunday,
about the third tolling of the bell. In 1664, Manuel
Sanderson, a negro, was fined six guilders and costs
because his son had been found shooting pigeons in
the w^oods on Manhattan Island on Sunday. Tiebout
Wessels was fined for the same misdemeanor, and a
certain Jan de Noper was complained of for resisting
an officer who wanted to arrest him at the same time.
Jan Bockholt, a herdsman, prayed for forgiveness,
pleading ignorance of the law, but was fined twelve
guilders and costs. The Fiscal also complained against
Dame Gerritse, " who is famous for being a scold,"
for abusing the officer who had seized her son's gun
while shooting pigeons on Sunday; and she was fined
twelve guilders and costs. On the same court day an
ordinance was issued " for the better and more careful
instruction of youth in the principles of the Christian
religion."
In 1667, the Schout says that Claes Dietlofs and Jan,
the cake-baker, " rolled a barrel with maize along the
street on last Sunday." He demands the fine accord-
ing to Placard. " Defendants answer that they first
came in the morning with a canoe, and that they durst
202 DUTCH NEW YORK
not trust it the whole day in a canoe." In 1663, Jacob
Stoffels, Ide van Vorst, and other farmers were fined
six guilders each for working on Sunday.
Judging by the ordinance of 1667, Sabbath breaking
was deplorably common :
Whereas we experience to our grief, that the previously
enacted and frequently renewed Placards and Ordinances
against the desecration of the Sabbath of the Lord, the
unlawful and unseasonable tapping on the same and
after setting of the watch or drum beat, are not observed,
but that many of the inhabitants almost make it a cus-
tom, in place of observing the Sabbath, as it ought to be
observed, to frequent the taverns more than on other days
and to take their delight in illegal exercises, to prevent
and obviate which hereafter as much as possible for the
future, the Schout, Burgomasters and Schepens renew
the aforesaid Placards, enacted on that subject and hereby
interdict and forbid within this City of N : Orange and
the jurisdiction thereof from sunrise to sundown on Sun-
day all sorts of handicraft, trade and traffick, gaming,
boat-racing or running with carts or wagons, fishing, fowl-
ing, running and picking nuts, strawberries, etc., all riot-
ous racing, calling and shouting of children in the streets,
together with all unlawful exercises and games, drunken-
ness, frequenting taverns or taphouses, dancing, card-
playing, ball playing, rolling nine pins or bowls, etc.,
which is more in vogue on this than on any other day;
to prohibit and prevent which, all tavern keepers and
tapsters are strictly enjoined to entertain no clubs on this
day from sunrise to sunset, nor permit nor suffer any
games in their houses or places, on pain for the tavern
keeper, who shall be found to suffer such in his house, of
forfeiting for the first offence 25 gl. for the second
offence 50 gl. and for the 3** offence he shall no longer
be allowed to tap and moreover forfeit a fine of one hun-
dred guilders zeawant; and each person found on Sun-
day in a club or gaming house shall forfeit three guilders
THE PARROT CAGE
JAN STEEN
RELIGION 203
zeawant; and if any children be caught on the street
playing, racing and shouting, previous to the termina-
tion of the last preaching, the officers of the law may
take their hat or upper garment, which shall not be
restored to the parents, until they have paid a fine of two
guilders.
The intention of the above prohibition is not, that a
stranger or citizen shall not buy a drink of wine or beer
for the assuaging of his thirst, but only to prevent the
sitting of clubs on the Sabb'ath, whereby many are hin-
dered resorting to Divine Worship.
Further no tapsters, nor tavernkeepers shall tap, pre-
sent or sell any wines, brandies, beer, etc., nor set any
clubs on Sunday, nor on the night of any other day after
setting of the watch or ringing of the bell, under the
penalty and fine as above.
Special days of fasting and thanksgiving were fre-
quently set apart. The first seems to have occurred
during Director Kieft's rule, when a Fast Day was
appointed, March 4, 1643, i" consequence of the In-
dian troubles, and a Thanksgiving Day on Sept. 6,
1645. His proclamation of Aug. 31, 1645, reads:
Whereas God Almighty has been pleased, by his grace
and mercy, and in addition to the numerous blessings
that we have enjoyed, to bestow on this country that long
desired peace with the savages — so it has been deemed
becoming to proclaim this good tidings throughout the
New Netherlands, with the intention that in all places
where there are any English or Dutch churches, God
Almighty shall be thanked and praised, on the sixth day
of September next in the forenoon. The words of the
text must be applicable to the occasion and the sermon
likewise.
Another day of special sanctity was the New Year,
especially during Stuyvesant's administration, and on
204 DUTCH NEW YORK
March 24, 1653, the first Wednesday of each month
was appointed a fast and prayer day.
Superstition was general in all creeds and classes.
People believed in omens, signs, and prognostications,
and in such antidotes as charms, amulets, and scapu-
laries. Comets and eclipses of the sun and moon filled
every one with fear, for they predicted w^ar and other
calamities, while earthquakes and thunderclaps were
thought to be utterances of God's wrath. In every
house was found The Wheel of Adventure, or the
Spiritual Truth Sayer, Planet books, and the works
of Ludeman. There were also fortune-tellers, who
predicted the future by means of cards, reading the
palm, coffee and tea grounds, etc. A very favorite
method of divination was by turning the Bible. On
April 6, 1662, George Hewel, Dr. Clarke, John Too,
and Daniel East of Mespath, Long Island, were prose-
cuted for having had recourse to turning the Bible
in order to discover who had stolen tobacco from Wil-
liam Britton. It would seem that they were led astray
by a false prophet, for the individual accused by their
investigations later brought an action for slander
against them.
People believed in ghosts, in haunted places, in
changelings, and, above all, in witches. No old women
with wrinkled faces and no women of fascinating
charms were safe from the accusation of witchcraft.
Storms, barrenness of the land, disease of people and
cattle, — in short, every disaster, great and small, was
attributed to witchcraft. If anybody wanted to know
whether a sick person was ill or bewitched, the only
thing to do was to cut open the pillow from under
the head. If the feathers were changed into flowers
or ferns, there was no doubt that he was touched by
the evil hand. If one wanted to find out who had
RELIGION 205
done the evil act, all that was necessary was to put a
live black hen or cock in a pot of boiling water, and the
person who passed the door while the bird was crying
was the witch. In early youth the children were already
taught to believe in witchcraft, as appears from the
following Dutch catechism :
Q. What is the second capital-sin? A. Witchcraft.
Q. Does Witchcraft appear in God's Word? A. Yes.
Q. Prove it. A. Exodus xii, vers. 22, and xxii. v. 18.
Deuteronomy xviii. v. 10. Acts viii. v. 9. Q. Are there
any people who say that there is no witchcraft ? A. Yes.
Q. Who are they ? A. The " Sadducees " of this day and
the Libertines amongst the so-called Christians, who be-
lieve that all that is said of Satan and his work are fables
and that everything that takes place is perfectly natural.
Witches were, of course, in league wjth Satan,
changed themselves into cats, rode on broomsticks, and
cast evil spells on man and beast; it was unsafe to
take an apple or any other dainty from the hands of a
witch, for, just as likely as not, it would turn into a
toad.
It seems somewhat strange that from the middle
of the Seventeenth Century and during the Long
Parliament (1640-1660), when the terrible "witch-
finders " sent three thousand witches to death, and
while the English settlements on South Hampton and
East Hampton were sending their supposed witches to
Connecticut for trial, no witches were persecuted in
New Amsterdam. The Dutch and French churches of
New Amsterdam protested, asserting that " the ap-
parition of a person afflicting another is very insuffi-
cient proof of a witch, and that a good name, obtained
by a good life, should not be lost by mere ' spectral
accusation.' " The only witchcraft trial ever held on
2o6 DUTCH NEW YORK
the island was that of Ralph Hall and his wife of
Seatalcott, Long Island, under Governor Nichols in
October, 1665. It took place at the City Hall, and
both parties were discharged.
The authorities of New England, however, did not
respect their more enlightened neighbors. No less a
personage than Governor Stuyvesant's sister-in-law,
the attractive Judith Varleth, was tried and held as a
witch in Connecticut in 1662. This circumstance
brought forth the following letter from Stuyvesant
to the Deputy-Governor of the Court of Magistrates at
Hartford in 1662 :
Honoured and worthy sirs: By this occasion of my
brother-in-law being necessitated to make a second voy-
age to ayd a distressed sister, Judith Varlet, imprisoned,
as we are informed upon pretended accusation of witch-
ery, we really believe, and out of her well-known educa-
tion, life, conversation and profession of faith, we dare
assure, that she is innocent of such a horrible crimen, and,
wherefore, I doubt not he will now, as formerly, finde
your honour's favour and ayde for the innocent.
CHAPTER X
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE
TWO festivals were particularly honored among
the Dutch, — the christening and the wed-
ding. Parents began to provide for the future
from the very birth of the child, and betrothals some-
times took place while the babies were lying in the
cradle ; sometimes even alliances were determined be-
fore birth. Gold coins and medals were accumulated
for dowry, silver and jewels were collected, and coffers
and chests filled with linen ; and, as she grew up, the
maiden spun and collected her linen, and made the lace
collar and cuffs, her bridal gift to her future husband.
This custom of infant betrothal was naturally most
prevalent in the upper classes, where wealthy alliances
were of importance for political or business reasons;
but in the family of the average burgher considerable
latitude of choice was allowed, and, as long as the pro-
spective bride, or groom, was not absolutely objection-
able to the parents on either side, the course of true
love ran fairly smoothly. The custom known in this
country as " bundling " prevailed in Holland as well
as in England and Wales. As a rule, the more humble
the class, the greater was the freedom of intercourse
between the Dutch youth. Female virtue was a ques-
tion of the highest solicitude with the Church, and the
average morality of the Dutch housewife was very high.
The mother set a good example and reposed almost
207
2o8 DUTCH NEW YORK
entire confidence in the daughter. This was the case
in North Holland especially. Not only did the parents
absent themselves when the lover visited their daughter,
but they even allowed the lovers a separate room for
courtship. These visits sometimes lasted five or six
hours, and sometimes even until daybreak, without at-
tracting the slightest attention. Not only did the
parents allow this, but they even encouraged it. No
girl was respected that did not have an honest
qtieestcr (night visitor), and even widows received
these visits. The laws of propriety were seldom trans-
gressed, and assistance was always at hand at need.
Sometimes the visitor was received in the parents'
bedroom.
In South Holland, the daughters were strictly
watched, and the church or a visit was the only means
of forming an acquaintance. Lovers often had to
resort to ruse to meet one another. The first meeting
was generally effected by bribing the maidservant, or
if there was no servant the girl's attention was at-
tracted by fastening a flower, bouquet, or wreath on
the front door. If this lay in the street the next
morning, the lover was not disheartened, but replaced
the flower by another with a ribbon tied round it, and
sometimes he added a verse or motto. Later he would
place on one of the window-sills of his sweetheart's
room a prettily decorated basket filled with candy, or
he would fasten this to a branch of a May-tree near
the window. These baskets were followed by others
with choice fruit and flowers, and rhymes and son-
nets in which the lover expressed his feelings, and
these were followed again by serenades. If upon a
first visit the girl stood up, arranged her bonnet, and
smoothed out her dress so as to make herself attractive,
the lover knew he was welcome, but if she went to
COUNIRY HOUSE
PIKTKR DV. HOOCH
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE 209
the fireplace and gripped the tongs, he had to try his
luck elsewhere.
To effect an introduction matchmakers were often
hired. These were often the wet-nurses or the mid-
wives. They had, according to the popular saying, to
put "the door on the latch," and effect the first meeting,
generally on Sundays at six o'clock. Each young man
then chose his girl, at whose door he knocked at nine
o'clock. If he came before nine, the door was not
opened to him; if later, then it was thought that he
had been disappointed at another girl's house ; but the
door was opened and the regular conversation fol-
lowed, as is described in hundreds of Dutch books on
love. On entering, the meeting at the church was
discussed, and shortly after the lover left to tell the
news to his comrades. Custom demanded that the young
man should propose to the girl on three successive
Sundays. In case he did not please, he received his
refusal on the third Sunday, otherwise his visits were
encouraged, and he then called earlier. The accepted
lover was also allowed to call on Wednesdays, to take
his sweetheart to Whitsuntide fetes and to the kermis.
On examining the court records of New Amsterdam,
we must conclude that many of the inhabitants were
extremely lax in their compliance with and observa-
tion of the laws of Fatherland. Several of those who
described the customs of the province notice the loose
ties among a large class of the inhabitants. The evil
was evidently a serious one, because the following law
was passed on Jan. 15, 1658:
Persons whose banns have been published must marry
within one month, or show cause to the contrary, under a
penalty of 10 guilders for the first week and 20 guilders
for each succeeding week.
No man or woman shall be at liberty to keep house as
14
2IO DUTCH NEW YORK
married persons, before they are legally married, on pain
of forfeiting loo guilders, more or less, as their quality
shall be found to warrant, and all such persons may be
amerced anew therefor every month, according to the
order and custom of our Fatherland.
The binding nature of the betrothal in the eye of the
law is evident from many entries in the records. A
promise of marriage, given in the presence of others
with the exchange of a pledge, generally in the form
of a ring or a coin, was regarded as being as sacred as
the marriage ceremony itself; and many suits for
breach of promise of marriage were tried in the courts
here. Thus, on May 17, 1644, Elsje Jans, widow of
Jan Petersen, sued William Harlo for breach of prom-
ise, producing a shilling which she had received from
the fickle William, as a pledge of his troth. After
hearing what he had to say, the court ordered him to
bring proof that the lady had acted unbecomingly since
the betrothal.
The offense in the eyes of the law was a very serious
one in the case of the breaking of the engagement
after the publication of the banns. For example, on
April 5, 1658, Nicholas Albertsen, for deserting his
ship and betrothed bride after publication of the banns,
was sentenced to have his head shaved, then to be
flogged, and have his ears bored, and to work two years
with the negroes. Even when there would seem to be
good cause for the non-fulfilment of the contract, the
authorities were extremely unwilling to consent to its
abrogation. Thus, in 1654, we read:
A suit has been instituted before the Court of the City
of New Amsterdam by Pieter Kock, bachelor, against
Anna van Vorst, spinster living at Ahasimus,^ respecting
' In New Jersey.
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE 211
a marriage contract, or an oral promise of marriage,
mutually entered into between said Pieter Kock and Anna
van Vorst, and in confirmation thereof certain gifts and
presents were made by plaintiff to the aforesaid defend-
ant ; however, it appears by the documents exhibited by
parties, that defendant, in consequence of certain misbe-
haviour, is in no wise disposed to marry said Pieter Kock,
and also proves by two witnesses that Pieter Cock had
released her, with promise to give her a written acquittal
to that effect, therefore Burgomasters and Schepens of
this City, adjudge, that the promise of marriage having
been made and given before the Eyes of God, shall re-
main in force, so that neither plaintiff nor defendant shall
be at liberty without the knowledge and approbation of
the Worshipful Magistrates and the other one of the
interested parties to enter into matrimony with any other
person, whether single man or single woman. Also that
all the presents made in confirmation of the promise of
marriage shall remain in the possession of defendant,
until parties with the pleasure, good will, contentment
and inclination of both, shall marry together, or with the
knowledge of the Magistracy shall release and set each
other free.
Still more serious is a case in 1662:
Maria Besems made a written demand on the prop-
erty of Boudewyn van Nieulant, absconded from here.
" Whereas the said Boudewyn has acknowledged before
this court to have given the aforesaid Maria Besems a
written promise of marriage, the Burgomasters decree
that she shall enter on all that the aforesaid Boudewyn
has in this country, nothing excepted, for the payment of
childbed expenses and the support of the child.
Parental consent was necessary for the publication
of the banns and to render the marriage legal. This is
evident from a case which occurred in 1648; when
William Harck, Sheriff of Flushing, having married
212 DUTCH NEW YORK'
Joan Smith, without her parents' consent, to Thomas
Nuton, widower, was fined six hundred guilders and
dismissed from ofiice; the marriage was annulled.
Nuton was fined three hundred guilders, and the mar-
riage had to be again solemnized after three procla-
mations. The second ceremony was performed thirteen
days later.
Quite a romantic story is that of Maria Verleth and
Johannes Van Beeck. It seems that there was great
opposition on the part of the young man's father, and
consequently they went into Connecticut and published
their banns in Gravesend. This occasioned great ex-
citement, for on Jan. 26, 1654, the " Schout appeared
in Court and made a complaint of the illegal proceed-
ings of the Court of Gravesend in setting up and
affixing the bans of matrimony between Johan Van
Beeck and Maria Verleth both of whom lived in New
Amsterdam. This if allowed to pass might establish
a precedent and prepare a way, whereby hereafter
some sons and daughters unwilling to obey their par-
ents and guardians, will, contrary to their wishes,
secretly go and get married in such villages or else-
where." A fortnight later, the Gravesend magistrates
received a letter informing them that Johannes Van
Beeck had presented a petition to the New Amsterdam
Court to enter and properly proclaim his banns with
Maria Verleth, who had previously made proclamation
through the court at Gravesend, which was contrary
to the style and laws of the Fatherland. In order to
prevent future improprieties therefore they were in-
formed that, " according to the custom of our Father-
land every one shall have three publications at the place
where his domicile is, and then he may go and be
married wherever he pleases." On February 16,
Casper Verleth, the bride's father, and Johannes van
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE 213
Beeck appeared in court and prayed most earnestly
that disposal should be made of the petitions and re-
monstrance concerning the marriage. Three days
later, the court decided :
Regarding the bans of matrimony between Joh. van
Beeck and Maria Verleth, therefore it being noted
First, Who in the beginning instituted marriage; also
what the Apostle of the Gentiles teaches therein.
Secondly, The proper and attained ages of Johannes
van Beeck and Marya Verleth.
Thirdly, The consent of the father and mother on the
daughter's side.
Fourthly, the distance and remoteness of places between
this and our Fatherland together with the difficulty be-
tween Holland and England.
Fifthly, The danger that in such circumstances matters
by long delay might come to be disclosed between these
aforesaid young people, which would bring disgrace on
both families, as well on one side as on the other
T is true that our Theologians say, and that correctly,
that we must not tolerate or permit lesser sins, in order
thereby to avoid greater ones. Therefore we think (with
due submission) that by a proper solemnization of mar-
riage (for the Apostle to the Hebrews calls the marriage
bed honorable) the lesser and greater sins are prevented.
Therefore the Burgomasters and Schepens of this City
are of opinion that the proper ecclesiastical proclama-
tions of these aforesaid young people ought to be made
at the earliest opportunity to be followed afterwards by
their marriage.
Evidently the course of true love did not run smooth
even yet; and so, after waiting weary months, the
young couple took matters into their own hands and
we hear that on Sept. 14, 1654, Maria Verleth ran away
with Johannes van Beeck and was married at Green-
wich, Connecticut by an unauthorized farmer, Goodman
214 DUTCH NEW YORK
Crab, Immediately the marriage was declared unlaw-
ful, and the couple ordered to live apart. Maria
Verleth came of a race of ladies who were strong of
mind and strong of fist as well. Her mother, Judith
Verleth (Mrs. Nicholas Bayard), was held for a witch
in Connecticut after her husband's death. Maria had
to fight her father-in-law in various lawsuits. In 1658,
she was again married to P. Schrick, and for her
third husband took William Teller, in 1664.
Even after divorce, the unoffending party could not
marry again without permission from the authorities.
In 1655, for example, John Hicks, of Flushing, re-
ceived permission to remarry.
Judging from the numerous cases m the records, we
must conclude that the marriage state in New Amster-
dam was by no means a uniformly happy one, even
among those in authority. Thus, in 1659, the Schout,
Nicasius de Sille, petitioned for divorce and separation
of marriage from Catharina Croegers on account of
" her unbecoming and careless life, both by her wast-
ing of property without his knowledge, as by her
public habitual drunkenness."
The court's sympathy did not always go out towards
the plaintiff. When, in 1652, Jacob Claessen demanded
of his wife, Aeltje Dirrick, why she remained away
from and would not live with him, " To prevent all
trouble it was ordered that plaintiff remain imprisoned
until the ships sail for Fatherland."
When a separation was granted for good cause,
punishment was frequently inflicted on the offending
party, as was the case in 1658:
Whereas Geertje Jans, wife of Jan Hendrickzen, glazier,
has, in consequence of her committed offences and faults
been banished by the Court, from this City's jurisdiction;
but having for a time absented herself therefrom, and
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE 215
coming in acknowledgement and sorrow for her perpe-
trated offences and through much intercession made by
worthy Burghers and inhabitants to the Burgomasters of
this City, therefore is it that the Heeren abovenamed,
partly from especial consideration and moreover in cen-
sequence of the continual importunity and intercession,
hereby pardon the above-named Geertje Jans and consent
and allow her to live again with her husband within this
City's jurisdiction, under her promise of amendment and
a return from her previous faults and misdemeanors, and
to behave herself as an honest and virtuous woman ought
to do, so that no worse may happen to her.
Once being married, it was impossible for husband
or vi^ife to have the bonds of matrimony broken except
on the ground of unfaithfulness. Even a separation
was difficult to obtain except for persistent cruelty.
An occasional wife-beating, and even an assault on the
husband by his spouse, was common enough; and, if
brought into court, the judges would turn the case
over to the good offices of the Ministers of the Gospel
with instructions to do all they could to reconcile the
parties. Thus, in 1673, when Arent Lantsman's wife,
Beletie Jacobson, asked for a divorce on the ground of
cruelty, their Worships authorized some honorable and
fitting person to reconcile, if possible, the parties to
love and friendship, and report to the court. The
ministers appointed could not reconcile the parties,
and the court agreed with the husband's contention
that it was a case of too much father and mother-in-
law, and ordered the parents not to harbor their
daughter beyond fourteen days, at the same time warn-
ing Arent to treat his wife kindly. Shortly afterwards
Beletie's father, Lodowyk Pot, again complains that
Arent has beaten her, and asks to be allowed to take his
daughter under his protection. Arent was bound over
2i6 DUTCH NEW YORK
to good behavior, and ordered to pay four guilders
weekly to his wife for the maintenance of the chil-
dren. Later, he pleaded to have his wife back, promis-
ing to give no discontent to the Worshipful Court.
Two years later, however, by order of the Mayor, the
following order was sent to Lantsman :
Whereas complaint has been made of the unbecoming
and improper treatment of your wife, yea, so that the
neighbourhood suffers great disturbance by the noise and
uproar, caused principally by you, all which is in direct
opposition to the orders and warnings given from time
to time by this W. Court, you are therefore hereby again
strictly charged to comport yourself towards your wife
in such wise that no further complaint come to us.
Arent, two years later, *' aggravated his evil behaviour
by blasphemy," and received a final warning on pain
of banishment.
New Amsterdam, being essentially a trading-port,
it was only natural that some of the scum of the sea
should float ashore. There is plenty of evidence that
bigamists were not uncommon here. Mr. Tienhoven,
the Schout, himself was accused of bigamist practices.
In 1664, one Anneke Adriaen prays for divorce from
A. P. Tack, " who has married another woman in
Holland." In November, 1658, Laurens Duyts, who
had sold his wife, Ytie Jansen, to John Parcell, an
Englishman, was sentenced to have a rope tied around
his neck, then to be severely flogged, to have his right
ear cut off, and to be banished for fifty years. Ytie
was whipped and banished. Her successor in her hus-
band's affections was Geesze Jansen, who was publicly
stripped naked, conducted outside the city gates, and
banished for fifty years. On December 12, on the
petition of John Parcel and Ytie, " two sorrowful
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COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE 217
sinners," for pardon and leave to rnarry, it was or-
dered that they might remain three months to settle
their affairs, but must separate from each other at once.
It was the custom among the wealthier classes, after
consent had been given, to invite all relations and
friends, to the betrothal. As soon as the contract was
signed in presence of a notary, the young people re-
ceived congratulations; and then the betrothal took
place, that is, the rings were exchanged. Sometimes
these rings w-ere made to order and consisted of two
hoops that fitted together. In addition to the rings,
the betrothed gave each other the halves of a coin
broken in two. Like the Indians, they confirmed
their marriage sometimes by drinking the blood from a
wound made in their arms. Sometimes the betrothed
would sign the wedding contract with their blood, and
sometimes it was entirely written in blood. Such
contracts, " pact-pence," and rings w^ere often taken
to the church council when one of the betrothed had
broken faith, on which the unfaithful one was sum-
moned before that tribunal, and exhorted to repair the
breach. Where no contracts were made or rings ex-
changed, the love letters were shown. The father-in-
law of the bride gave her a chatelaine of silver, leather,
or filigree, with various articles hanging from silver
chains, among which were a pair of scissors, a small
knife in leather sheath, finely mounted, a needle-case,
a silver-bound pincushion, a scent-ball, and sometimes
a small mirror. These chatelaines, sometimes made
of gold and of exquisite workmanship, w^ere a sign
that the young lady was engaged or betrothed, and
it was considered an honor to wear them. They
often appear in the New Amsterdam wills and inven-
tories; for example, in 1679, Mary Jansen left to
Margaret Van der Veen " a silver chain with keys,"
2i8 DUTCH NEW YORK
and to Susannah Leisler, " a silver chain with a case
and cushion." " A silver girdle with hanging keys,"
and " a silver girdle with three chains with hooks " are
found among Asser Levy's belongings in 16S2; and in
1694, Annetie van Brommell had " a set of silver
chains about the middle." William Richardson ( 1692)
leaves to Mary Cock " a pair of silver hilted knives
and a pair of scissors with a silver chain to them."
It was customary for a lover to present his sweet-
heart with a muffler of the finest cambric, embroidered
in red silk with the name and date, and with acorns
in the corners; a pledge of love, and the "wedding
pence, or God's pence, sometimes made up of one
hundred new shillings ($12 of our money), with a
rhyme, " if you will, there is the muffler and the pence;
if you won't, you can return it." Instead of a muffler
a silver wedding casket, filled with " pot pieces," was
sometimes presented. The betrothal was always cele-
brated by a dinner to which the immediate families
and intimate friends were invited. The wedding-day
was settled and the bridesmaids ("play-mates")
selected, also two speeljonkers (play-youths) and two
spcllmcisjcs (play-girls) appointed. Their duty was
to decorate the house, to regulate the various entertain-
ments, and to serve the bride and bridegroom. They
had a bride's servant under them, who remained near
the bride during these " brides-days " and on the
wedding-day. She could always depend on a good
present from the bride. The duties of the brides-
maids were numerous. Some of them introduced the
guests, while others arranged the seating of the guests
at the table and showed them their places. It was
their duty to be merry and entertaining, and make
everybody else gay and light-hearted. The playmates
also decorated the bridegroom's pipe with garlands
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE 219
and ribbons. This was so highly prized that it was
kept in the china or curio cabinet after the wedding,
and very often reappeared at the silver-wedding.
Another duty was to arrange the bride's basket,
filling it with green garlands and flowers with the
initials, or monogram, or names of the happy couple
picked out in pretty blossoms. In another basket,
not less richly decorated, were laid the lace collar
and cuffs, the bride's presents to the bridegroom.
Both baskets were exhibited beside the, bride's throne
until the wedding-day. From the flower basket the
bride's attendants, both men and maidens, scattered
flowers and palms upon the path of the couple on their
walk to the registry and the church.
On their return from the Court House, the couple,
preceded by the playmates, all dressed in their best,
the men wearing the colors of the bride and the girls
the colors of the groom, were received in state at the
house of the bridegroom, and the bride was introduced
to his family. In a shower of flowers, maiden-palm,
and garlands, the young couple was led into the "state"
room, where, after the presentation of the guests by
the playmates, they were presented with a silver bowl
and spoon containing the " Bride's Tears " and the
" Show " pipe. The " Bride's Tears " was the well-
known Hippocras, and also called " spiced " or " su-
gared " wine. Later, Hippocras was replaced by other
wines, or by red wine and sugar, or brandy and sugar
and raisins ; sometimes, indeed, gin and syrup was
decanted, called klongel-eul, or girls' beer. Besides
the " Bride's Tears," sugared peas or sugared almonds
called " bride's sugar " were served, which, like the
Hippocras, was made by the apothecary. With the
poorer classes, beinste, hcgiime, Dcvenier cake and
other sweetmeats were served, and while the silver plat-
220 DUTCH NEW YORK
ter passed amongst the playmates, the finely decorated
green-painted " Sleigh coach," filled with small botiles
of wine in straw covers, and boxes filled with candy tied
with silver and gold ribbons, passed through the streets
drawn by a gayly decked horse, and the Hippocras and
sweets were sent to the houses of the friends and
acquaintances. In the evening the invited guests met
at a more or less elaborate meal called the " com-
missary's " meal; but this was more solemn than gay.
It often ended without music or dance, and sometimes
one of the guests would read aloud from De Trou-
mring {The Wcdding-rhig) of Jacob Cats.
It was not considered good form to go to church
when the banns were published.
The days preceding the wedding were spent in
festivity and general merrymaking. The bride and
bridegroom were both busy making arrangements for
the banquet and in the preparation of their costumes,
especially with people of moderate means, who, as a
rule, superintended everything themselves. The play-
mates in this case came only " to make the green."
The bride and bridegroom also wrote the announce-
ments of the wedding themselves on perfumed gilt-
edged paper, and these were sent out after the reading
of the first banns. De Vry gives a lively picture of the
bustle and preparations :
The bride's dress has to be made, and the materials,
laces, linings, trimmings, gimps and cords, to be pur-
chased. Who knows the end of all this business. One
material is too light another too dark, the third too dull,
without gloss, and the worst is that while they are delib-
erating, examining and ordering, you are constantly in-
terrupted by trade solicitors who are eternally knocking at
the door, this one to ask to supply the banquet ; a second,
the decorations; a third, to do the cooking; the next to
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE 221
make the pastry, who all want to ask the bride for her
custom, and do not give her any time to attend to her
other work. " Oh," she says, " the time is so terribly
short. And the seamstresses, the lace-mounter, and the
ironer have to be ordered, for Jeanie has promised to send
the linen brought home, and Antoinette, the laces, and
neither has come. Now run, boys and girls, remember
that a brave bride's gift will pay you for your work."
Meanwhile the bridegroom is running all over town to
engage humorists to entertain the wedding guests. He
is also ordering Rhine, French and Spanish wines, to treat
those who come to congratulate bride and bridegroom.
The homes of both bride and groom were beautifully
decorated during the period between the betrothal and
the wedding ceremonies, and nearly every day a dinner
was given' in honor of the couple by relatives or friends.
These " bann dinners " were returned by the bride and
groom's " ante-nuptial dinner." The bride also re-
ceived in state during these days. (See illustration
facing page 224.) The walls were draped with tapes-
try or other hangings, and hung with garlands. Among
the flowers, palms, and wreaths, two seats were placed
underneath a large crown of flowers, trimmed with
colored ribbons and gold and silver braid. In the
centre of the crown were two silver hands clasped,
and two silver hearts pierced by an arrow. Some-
times the initials of the couple were also formed of
flow^ers. Under this dais, on a kind of throne, bride
and groom, surrounded by the playmates, awaited
the arrival of the relations and friends who came with
congratulations and wedding-gifts. In front of the
throne in a circle were placed rows of chairs, and in
the centre was a table covered with rich and well-
filled dishes of silver and crystal, beakers and flagons,
drinking horns and cups, decorated with leaves and
222 DUTCH NEW YORK
ribbons, festoons and garlands. The playmates some-
times handed round small cakes with comfits.
The bride had not worn her crown as yet, but her
hair was finely braided and scented. On her neck
sparkled a diamond brooch, and diamond or pearl
earrings in her ears. On her costly stomacher glittered
a " pendant," and around her neck hung necklaces of
gold or pearls. The bride was not dressed in her
" wedding," .but in her " bride's," dress. The very
wealthy had more than one. Some in the bride's days
changed their dress two or three times a day. Some-
times these bride's dresses were not less costly than
that worn on the wedding-day. On her finger the
bride wore the " hoop," and on her wrists gold brace-
lets set with pearls, or silver bracelets with jewels.
The groom was no less richly dressed.
Presents were universally given. Nobody congrat-
ulated the couple without an offering; and those who
could not present a piece of furniture, jewelry, china,
or handsome gift, left a kitchen utensil or small piece
of money. The lovers exchanged jewels or gold, or,
if they could afford nothing better, a small article of
trifling value. • However poor the bride and groom
might be, crowns and green were never lacking, even
if the neighbors had to defray the cost.
At Fort Orange, in 1658, Abraham Vosborch's wife
sued Annetie Li evens, wife of Goosen Gerritsen, for
payment of some " coronets," which she loaned de-
fendant. Annetie pleaded that she and Maria Wessel-
sen being bridesmaids had borrowed the articles in
common. They were ordered to pay the bill between
them, Annetie Lievens also figured in court again
soon after her wedding, for, on July 19, 1657, her
husband, Goosen, sued Jurriaen Jansen for having
circulated a report that he was betrothed to Annetie
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE 223
Lievens. Jansen acknowledged having circulated the
false report, but pleaded that he had been instigated
to it by Cornells Teunissen. On confessing the false-
hood of his statement, and asking pardon of bride-
groom, God, and the court, Jurriaen was pardoned.
Seated before her large mirror and toilet-table, on
which stood one of those small cabinets of costly
wood, inlaid with ivory, with numerous small drawers
for powder, perfume, patches, hairpins, tweezers,
small scissors, brushes, and everything belonging to
the toilette of a lady of the period, sat the bride. On
the table were also the standing mirror and the gilded
leather comb and brush case. The costly wedding-
basket had been unpacked, and the rich garments were
lying about. Near the bride stood the bridesmaids,
superintending the dressing of her hair. Notwithstand-
ing the sermons against curling hair and powdered
and false wigs, lion's manes, loose braids and ribbons,
hanging locks, corals and pearls, much attention was
paid to the coiffure. The head-dressing finished, the
magnificent dress, of the French style, was put on.
The bride's dress was as costly as her parents could
afford. In Holland, the richest brides wore bodices
and skirts of heavy Lyons silk, white or violet velvet,
or cloth of silver or of gold, sometimes costing from
$40 to $80 a yard, trimmed with gold or silver fringe
and glittering with pearl or diamond buttons. Her
stomacher was covered with magnificent lace, and her
cuffs and ruff were also of lace. The latter sometimes
contained as much as sixty or eighty yards of deftly
plaited cambric edged with lace. Instead of a ruff the
bride sometimes wore a turned down French collar
cut in points and which fell halfway down her back.
A pearl necklace with jeweled clasp was placed over
this. Her shoes were of velvet or satin ; her stockings
224 DUTCH NEW YORK
blue, yellow, or cardinal; her gloves perfumed; and
her fan of mother-of-pearl handle was painted with
exotic flowers and birds. When her hair was dressed
and perfumed, the veil was arranged and fastened
with jeweled or golden pins.
A bride of less wealth and fashion wore a Lyons
silk ; but although she preferred white as a rule, black
was sometimes chosen, and this was put away after
the wedding, and used for mourning when occasion
demanded. Brides of humbler station in life dispensed
with the fan and perfumed gloves, but never with the
veil, unless they were of the very poorest. With the
ordinary citizens this was of cambric, embroidered with
acorns in the corners, and plaited around the face. The
rich bride always wore a lace veil fixed to the head-
dress above the forehead, and descending in wide folds
to her feet. Sometimes she was hidden in a cloud of
lace. The veil was generally worn only when the wed-
ding was " consecrated " ; but sometimes the bride wore
it all day; this was called, "standing in the white."
" They rig themselves up nicely," writes J. Buck-
man, an Englishman; "they load their fingers with
such heavy gold and silver rings that they crack. They
rather go hungry, so that they be able to cover them-
selves with silver ornaments on both sides of their
bodies, until they wabble like a fatted goose. The
clothes they wear, are that wide, that their fat stomachs
can hardly be noticed. And their particular pride is
in their hands that they are whiter than they ought to
be."
The women of New Netherland were in no wise
behind their sisters in Fatherland of the same station
in life in their love of jewelry and rich clothes; and
the wills and inventories of the period show that the
mothers were able to start their daughters in life some-
From an old print
A DUTCH BRIDE IN STATE
SKXKNTEENTH CENTURY
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE 225
times with considerable luxury in this respect. Gold
jewelry, enamels, pearls, emeralds, and diamonds were
by no means rare in New Amsterdam. The patroons,
too, were opulent and elegant in their tastes. William
Van Rensselaer was a pearl merchant, and it was to
him that the Earl of Bellomont applied when he wanted
to satisfy his youthful bride's craving for a pearl neck-
lace. If any independent evidence were necessary to
prove the existence here of the display of wealth and
taste in the latest style of the day, we have only to turn
to Madam Knight, who tells us :
The English go very fashionable in their dress. But
the Dutch, especially the middling sort, differ from our
women, in their habitt go loose, were French muches w^'^
are like a Capp and a head band in one, leaving their ears
bare, which are set out with Jewells of a large size and
many in number. And their fingers hoop't with Rings,
some with large stones in them of many Coullers as were
their pendants in their ears, which you should see very old
women wear as well as young.
While the bride was being dressed at her home, the
groom's best man was busy helping him dress at the
home of one of his bosom friends. The groom's
clothes were also costly and in keeping with his social
position. Men of modest means wore waistcoat and
trousers of cloth, wool, or serge, and the favorite
costume was a heavy durable " Leyden cloth." Some-
times the wedding costume was handed down from
generation to generation, and worn by children and
grandchildren, the cut being altered to suit the fashion.
A handsome black suit is found in the wardrobe of
nearly every Dutch gentleman in New Amsterdam.
What the average bridegroom received from his
parents, we learn from a will dated 1698, in which
15
226 DUTCH NEW YORK
Catharine Blanck, widow of Jurian Blanck, left to her
son, Symon Barentsen, 30 shilHngs in full for all pretence
he may have to my estate, real and personal ; he having
been sufficiently provided for during the life of my hus-
band Jurian Blanck ; having received one half of a sloop,
a wedding dinner, two wedding suits, a cloak, a fine red
broadcloth waistcoat with silver thread buttons, one half
dozen fine holland shirts, one half-dozen striped Calico
neck cloths, an ozenbrig feather bed, two new blankets
and had his diett for two years after he was married.
The toilets of both bride and groom being completed,
the bride, preceded by her playmates, enters the recep-
tion-room, where nothing has been changed since the
day of the formal betrothal. She takes her place on
the throne, and is soon joined by the bridegroom.
Now the doors are opened to admit the guests, who
enter to see the bouquet given to the bride and the
crown put on her head. The bouquet was of real or
artificial flowers ornamented with a Cupid; the cipher
of the betrothed ; or two pierced hearts or clasped hands
made of silver or gold. It was pinned by the groom
on the bride's bosom. The little crowns in the bouquet
differed according to the rank of the groom. Citizens
made crowns of palm, majoram, and flowers, while
more important people wrapped a ribbon with jewels
and pearls around it or placed a velvet band studded
with diamonds around the stem. After this ceremony
the guests attacked the pyramids of food on the table
and drank " the Bride's Tears " with many blessings.
A couple of boys then took up the bride's costly train,
and threw the veil over her face; and now upon a
path strewn with roses and through a decorated arch
the couple went to the church. There everything had
been prepared beforehand ; a handsome carpet w^as
laid in the nave, where two armchairs wreathed in
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE 227
green and two footstools were placed for the bride and
groom. Behind these were placed the chairs for the
family and playmates. Sometimes the choir arch was
also wreathed in green, or an arch of honor was built.
Marrying with closed doors was not known then.
The ceremony was performed in public, and began by
the reading of parts of the epistles of Saint Paul, with
psalm-singing between the lessons. While this was
going on, the bridal party entered the church, the
bride and bridegroom being solemnly escorted by their
parents. Then the pastor entered the pulpit, read the
formulas of marriage, took the oath, and ordered the
singing of a psalm, and also a collection to be taken up
for the poor, after which the company, preceded by
the bride and groom, left the church, their pathway
being strewn with palms and flowers, and proceeded to
the bride's home.
The wedding-procession here was not always devoid
of excitement. On one occasion at least, a bride was
insulted as she passed on her way leaning on the arm
of her newly made husband, who promptly sued the
offender. We learn, in June, 1658, that Philip Schoof
brought a case against Anneke Sibouts, who insulted
his bride, Jannetje Tennis Kray, as they were coming
out of church from the wedding. She said the bride
did not deserve to have palms strewed before her.
Very rarely, indeed, was a wedding performed at the
City Hall or Court House. On the return of the
wedding-party to the bride's home, a collation was
served in the reception-room. This consisted of
sugared cake, marchpane, sugared almonds, chapter-
sticks, sugared beans, Hippocras, and many kinds of
sweet cordials. Sometimes, immediately after the
ceremony, the guests would all view the sleeping-room
of the young couple. From there they went to the
2 28 DUTCH NEW YORK
wedding-dinner. Unless this was given in the recep-
tion-room, an adjoining room was also decorated with
green, with garlands of maiden-palm and flowers.
The fine porcelains on the mantel were filled with
flowers, and everything, even the buffet, was wreathed
in green and decorated with ribbons. The buffet was
resplendent with fine porcelain, family silver, and some-
times a gold table service, beakers, glasses, etc., which
were beautifully engraved and many of which had
belonged to grandparents and great-grandparents.
Generally the crown descended from the ceiling over
the heads of the young couple, in the centre of which
emblems of love were hung. Around the table were
placed chairs, with embroidered cushions for the guests,
the number of which was decided by permit, and in
Amsterdam was not allowed to exceed fifty; but this
was not always respected, for a rich entertainer would
rather pay the heavy fines than that anybody should
be absent — heedless of pulpit denunciations. The
tables were horseshoe shaped. At the head sat the
bride and groom, and the other guests according to
their relationship, rank, and age. This placing of
guests was of supreme importance and those who felt
themselves not sufficiently honored often left the table;
thus serious family quarrels often had their origin
from the breach of etiquette. The playmates served
the happy couple. According to some rules, the dinner
had to consist of two courses : a " fore " and " dinner "
course. The first consisted of fifty or more different
dishes served on large round or oval dishes of pewter,
porcelain, and earthenware for meats, and deep large
plates for soup; and these dishes and plates stood be-
tween garlands, flowers, and palms, which so com-
pletely covered the table that the costly damask table-
cloth could hardly be seen. Even the plates were
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE 229
surrounded by green, and flowers and tulips filled the
many flower-vases on the table. The food was piled
in pyramids on the dishes, — the beef and mutton in
large pieces ; the wild boar and venison in quarters ;
the partridges, capons, and ducks in numbers from
twelve to twenty-four. At rich weddings whole sheep,
young goats, sucking lambs, and pigs were served,
roasted on the spit, and stuffed, while poultry and
N^nison, hares and rabbits were served by the dozen on
one platter. The centre-piece or principal dish was
always a beautifully dressed peacock with spread
plumage or a turkey. Between the plates and platters
were pyramids of fruit. According to an ordinance in
1655, it was forbidden to put fine candy on the table
under a fine of $40, but no notice was taken of this.
At many wedding-dinners there were piles of patties
of hares, chicken, salmon, cheese, and fruit ; flat apple,
brown, and wine tarts. The centre of this course
was marchpane. The smaller candies were made in
mythological figures, hunts, or allegorical subjects,
sometimes emblematic of the trade or position of the
groom, or the arms of the couple. The larger pieces
of sugar work represented scenes of Leda, Dan?e,
Noah's Ark, etc. At some weddings all kinds of com-
fits were seen, for the most part French, such as
candied peel of oranges, ginger, comfits of sugar,
Spanish comfits of cherries, sweet and delicate melons,
pears, pomegranates, etc. The wines were Ay-Fron-
tenac, Chablis, Portuguese, Italian, and Spanish, and
Malmsey that cost two hundred ducats a barrel. Delft,
Breda, Dordt, and Limburg beer were also drunk.
Both wine and beer were poured out of cans with lids
or spouts, some of great antiquity and strange inscrip-
tions, which stood on the buffet or side tables, and from
which the liquid was poured into the various drinking-
230 DUTCH NEW YORK
vessels on the table and presented to the company.
After the grace was said by a clergyman or, in his
absence, by the father of the groom, the table-laws
were read by the table-master. They were mostly in
rhyme, and ended to the effect that anybody trans-
gressing them would have to empty a large glass (pipe
or whistle) as a fine.
The Dutch were generally considered as wasteful
and lavish at fetes and holidays as they were economical
and staid in daily life. At the beginning of the feast
everything was conducted with ceremony, but hardly
were the official healths propounded when the drinking-
vessels were brought on the table, and the merriment
knew no bounds ; people began with the smaller and
ended with the larger bumpers {Unit en). Then were
drunk the "clover-leaf" (see page 272), or rather
the " clover leaf with the tail," the " friendship's
beaker," and " the Arminian drink," the " drink on the
country's prosperity," the " triple-drink," the " little
mill," the " ship's sails," the " great and small fish-
eries," " Hans in the cellar," " the abbot and his
monks," "Alva was tolled out " (a reminiscence of the
Spanish War), or " St. Gertrude's health," all with the
accompaniment of the songs belonging to the various
drinks. At important weddings it was the custom to
present the guest with silver or golden wedding medals,
struck for the occasion, all on the subject of love and
increase of family. These medals later were replaced
by silver shields, on which the nam.es of the couple
were engraved, with the usual emblems.
The wedding generally wound up with a dance for
which a band of music was hired by the families. The
farmers were satisfied with a fiddler and a bag-piper
{doedel-::ak) .
There the bride was danced to bed, that is, she was
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE 231
brought to the bedroom where the mother and brides-
maids were awaiting her.
Before going away the green was torn off the
walls and mirrors and a dance round the bride's
crown was held. This crown, under which the bride
had been seated was placed on a chair or on the floor,
and the guests danced around it, after which it was
declared forfeited, torn to pieces, and all who could
get any flower or ribbon from it would pin it to his or
her dress as a trophy of the wedding, and wear it home.
Sometimes the bride was blindfolded, and the little
crown that she wore was taken from her head before
she retired. Tlie lucky one who had grabbed the crown
was supposed to be the first to get married. The bride
did not only part with her little crown, but she also gave
away her garters. These were sometimes very costly,
and were given away by her in her bedroom ; for it
was the custom for her escort to remain until she had
loosened her garters or had one of her friends loosen
them for her. The young man who had the good
fortune to get them fastened them as a trophy to his
waistcoat.
The groom's nightdress was generally kept hidden
until he had promised to give a pleasure-party, which
was held shortly after the wedding. Sometimes, to
escape the annoyance of the friends and guests, the
bedroom was prepared in the house of a relative or
friend. If the guests discovered this, they would
march thither in state, carrying a torch of burning
candles. Then followed the couples with clanging
shovels and tongs. When near the house the torch was
laid on the ground and a dance was held around it
until the couple appeared.
The morning after the wedding, the young wife
received from her husband the "morning gift," gen-
232 DUTCH NEW YORK
erally a jeweled ring, a costly fur, or an ornament for
the home. The parents on both sides also gave them
" morning gifts." The remnants of the wedding-feast
were given to the playmates unless they did not want
them ; in that case they were given to the poor or
to the orphan-house. The "after-fun" {Napret),
consisting of excursions and parties, was kept up for
three weeks after the wedding.
Poorer people were often married in numbers on
the appointed days, and went on foot, sometimes pre-
ceded by the strewers, who continually strewed flowers
and green from a basket. So accompanied by a crowd
of people they would walk to the church and back
again.
With even a greater abundance of fish, flesh, and
fowl in New Amsterdam, the colonists lavishly enter-
tained on such occasions as weddings and ceremonial
dinners. Oysters, crabs, lobsters, and game of all
kinds were plentiful, fruit was abundant, and bakers
and pastry-cooks numerous and efficient. In 1654,
Jacob Stoffelsen went to court with Ide Van Vorst
because she laid claim to " half a negro whom he re-
ceived from Captain Geurt Tysen and his company in
return for a feast given to him at which' two sheep
were eaten, and Ide van Vorst had also two sheep at
her wedding." Ide insisted that the cost of the sheep
was to be shared by both sides.
The same ostentation and extravagant expenditure,
often far beyond the means of the hosts, prevailed here
as in the Fatherland. The bride received from her
parents a generous trousseau, and it was customary
for the bridegroom's parents also to dress him hand-
somely; for instance, Mrs Anna Cuyler (1702) leaves
to her daughter Mary £200 and to Eve £120, " it being
my custom to give so much to each of my daughters
w <
z ^
o
Oh
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE 233
at their marriage for their wedding, which they have
had." Also, in 1684, Jacob Delany leaves to his
daughter, Cornelia, " 200 guilders Holland money for
her outsetting, before any division."
On the wedding-day, open house was kept, and in the
small city of New Amsterdam practically everybody
was welcomed. The amount of liquor consumed at
the wedding of an ordinary burgher's daughter was
considerable. This we gather from more ttjan one
entry in the records, which show that the parents were
not over-particular in paying the excise when making
provision for the entertainment. Thus, on Jan. 2,
1660, Peter Pia was sued for excise on beer laid in for
his daughter's wedding; and on Jan. 4, 1661, Marten
de Werft laid in three barrels of beer for his wedding
and paid excise on only five half-barrels.
It will be remembered that it was at the wedding-
breakfast of Sara Roeloffse, daughter of Anneke
Jans to Hans Kiersted, the surgeon, that Director-
General Kief t, taking advantage of the general merri-
ment after the first four or five drinks, induced the
guests to subscribe liberally towards the funds for
building the new church in the Fort.
It was by no means unusual for the merry-making
to end in a drunken orgy, as was frequently the case
at funer.als, christenings, and the fairs and festivals.
For example, on July 5, 1655, Borger Jorisen, being
lately at the wedding of Nicolaes de Meyer, insulted
Burgomaster AUart Anthony in presence of several
friends. Jorisen acknowledged the fault, but pleaded
that the words were spoken in drunkenness.
Sometimes practical jokes were played, and if for
any reason the bride and groom were unpopular they
were insulted. For instance, on Feb. 6, 1663, Johannes
La Montagne, sheriff of New Haerlem, complains of
234 DUTCH NEW YORK
divers persons for riot, in planting a May-pole deco-
rated with rags before the door of a newly married
couple and assembling around the house, horning, etc.
The couple were Pieter Jansen Slot, son of the ex-
schepen, and Marritie van Winckel of Ahasimus. The
banns were published on February 2, and the villagers
indulged in horse-play to the great annoyance of the
young couple. Also, on Apr. 23, 1678, we learn that
William Loveridge writes to Captain Brockholls, com-
plaining of a fine imposed on him for setting up a
tree in Albany before Mr. Thompson's door when he
was married, the same being the manner and custom
of the place. Loveridge was sent to jail for the offense,
but was released on giving bonds for good behavior.
CHAPTER XI
PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS — BIRTHS
AND DEATHS
WHILE the Dutch clergy in general belonged
to the poorer classes, the doctors, on the
contrary, belonged to the higher burgher
class and sometimes even to the nobility. They were
educated first in the Greek and Latin schools of their
native towns, and then proceeded to one of the uni-
versities. Later they went abroad to become acquainted
with the celebrities of their profession in the principal
cities of Europe and to complete their education under
their tuition and to attain the dignity of Doctor of
Medicine. Some settled abroad, others were called to
a professorship or were appointed personal physicians
to royalties or other dignitaries, and returned laden
with honors and fame to their Fatherland, where they
were appointed to positions of honor. Sometimes they
even became burgomasters. Like the clergy, many doc-
tors were learned in a variety of sciences. There were
astronomers, lawyers, and able writers among them.
The doctors were ranked among the notables of the
cities, and were generally held in high esteem. On
great occasions they were honored with presents from
the cities, and the municipal doctors were presented with
" tabbard cloth " (cloth to make a cloak) every year.
At the civic dinner they yielded precedence to the
clergy; but the dinners they themselves gave were
235
236 DUTCH NEW YORK
sometimes so splendid that the Burgomasters became
jealous and they were consequently fined by the
" Schouts."
The salaries of the city doctors varied from four
hundred to twelve hundred florins; and besides this
they charged the burghers a fee of twelve cents and
poor patients eight cents (four stivers). Those who
were unable to pay were treated free of charge. The
preachers, city lawyers, and apothecaries were also
treated at the city's expense. Like the apothecaries,
the doctors had the name of the place from where they
had their diploma mentioned on their name-plate on
the door. Doctors of the Seventeenth Century fol-
lowed their own theories and disputed as ardently
among themselves as did the clergy. Like the preacher,
the doctor always had his " study." This was gen-
erally arranged with an eye to effect. Contemporary
prints and paintings usually show him in a sort of
cavernous room, seated at a table surrounded by quar-
tos and folios. He wears a fur-lined coat, has a skull-
cap on his head, and is writing a prescription, although
this was generally done at the counter in the apothe-
cary's shop. Before him stand a pewter inkstand, an
hour-glass and a skull, and at his feet sit two cats.
In the back are a bookcase and a table with all kinds of
surgical instruments. Patients are crowding in at the
door.
The physician of the period is a well-known figure
in the pictures of the Little Dutch Masters, particularly
Jan Steen, who represents him in all the gravity and
sometimes pretentious pose he so often assumed. He
always appears in a black costume with pointed hat like
that worn by Sganarelle in Moliere's Medecin malgre
lui.
There were many quack doctors in this age, who had
PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS 237
various elixirs and could even remove " stones from the
head," and who professed to be able to make gold and
to lengthen life. Other " wonder doctors " could
" read off " fevers and drive out devils. Many also
sold blessed images, pennies, and scapularies.
In the Seventeenth Century the barber was not yet
separated from the surgeon. Phlebotomy was still re-
garded as a cure for fever and many other diseases,
and the barber did the necessary cupping and bleeding.
His calling was far more dignified than at present, both
in Holland and England. In the latter country the
barbers and surgeons did not part company to form
separate corporations till 1742. In 1627, we find that
one of the officers of a London charitable foundation
was " One chirurgeon barber who shall cut and pole
the hair of all the scholars of the hospital ; and also
look to the cure of all those within the hospital who
anyway shall stand in need of his art." Similarly, in
New Netherland, in 1664, Sybrandt Cornelissen from
Flensburgh was appointed assistant surgeon, to be em-
ployed in shaving, bleeding, and administering medi-
cines to the soldiers. Dr. Jacob De Lange was one of
these barber surgeons, who had attained to wealth at
the end of the century. His inventory contains an
" iron stick to put out to hang the barber's bason."
As in so many other fields, the practice of medicine
was almost identical in England and Holland; charla-
tanism was rampant, and the barber was the surgeon.
The first doctors sent to New Netherland were those
who ministered to the ills of the crews and passengers
in the West India Company's ships, and those who were
hired to stay here and heal the sick among the Com-
pany's servants. The resident doctors appointed by
the Company charged the independent settlers for their
services. Sometimes they charged a lump sum for an
238 DUTCH NEW YORK
accident case or an illness, but it was more usual to
contract with a family or an individual for an annual
payment. The duties of the ship's surgeon are plainly
set forth in the regulations of 1656:
The barbers, whether on board a ship or ships or on
land, shall be bound to give their services cheerfully, and
to use all diligence to restore the patients to health, without
receiving therefor any compensation except their monthly
pay, and, in case any of them receive any money or prom-
ise of payment, they shall be obHged to restore what they
received, and the promise shall be null and void.
The Company moreover gave an express promise
that
the wounded shall be properly taken care of by means of
good Surgeons; and if any persons in the employment
of the City, and in the execution of their command, office,
or service, happen to be maimed, lamed, or otherwise be
deprived of their health, they shall be remunerated as
follows. To wit:
For the loss of the right arm fl. 333
" left arm 266
a leg 240
both legs 533
one eye 240
both eyes 1066
the left hand 240
the right hand 266
both hands 933
For the loss of all other members and lameness, whereof
any person being fully cured and healed, yet may not be
restored to his former health, or may be maimed or thereby
disabled from the use which he previously had of his
Hmbs, he shall therefor be proportionally indemnified at
the discretion of the Commissioners or Directors, according
to previous inspection of the Doctors, Surgeons, or other
competent judges. Provided, always, that he show and
PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS 239
produce a certificate from his superior officer, who, at
the time of his being wounded and maimed had the com-
mand, and of the entire Ship's Council, that he had re-
ceived the wound in the execution of his office and em-
ployment in the service of the City.
In 1652, the surgeons petitioned that nobody but they
shall be allowed to shave others. To this the director
and Council replied that shaving was properly not in
the province of the surgeons, but only an appendix to
their calling; that nobody could be prevented from
pleasing himself in that matter, or serving anybody else
for friendship's sake or out of courtesy, without receiv-
ing payment for it or keeping a shop to do it in, which
was expressly forbidden. The authorities added :
Whereas we are informed that last summer two or
three grave mistakes have been made by the inexperience
of some ships' barbers, therefore the Director and Council
order herewith that such ships' barbers shall not dress
any wounds or prescribe for any one on land, without
the knowledge and special request of the above petitioners
or at least Doctor La Montagne.
The names of the petitioning surgeons were
Jan Croon, Hans Kierstede,
Van der Bogaert, Jacob Hendricksen,
Aldart Swartout, Varre Vanger,
Jacob Hughes.
The following is a list of doctors appointed by the
West India Company to practice in New Netherland :
1630. Herman Mynderts van den Bogaert.
1637. Johannes La Montagne : Member of the Supreme
Council and Vice Director of Fort Orange.
1638. Hans Kierstede (died in 1671).
Peter van der Linde.
240 DUTCH NEW YORK
Gerrit Schut.
Jan Pietersen van Essendelft (died in 1640).
1644. Paulus van der Beeck from Bremen.
(He had served in Curac^ao and on board the Com-
pany's ships: settled in Breuckelen.)
1647. WilHam Hays of Barry's Court, Ireland (served
since 1641 as chief surgeon in Curagao).
Peter Vreucht.
1649. Jacob Hendricksen Varrevanger( entered the Com-
pany's service in 1646, discharged June, 1662).
Isaac Jansen (ship).
Jacob Mollenaer (ship).
Jan Pauw (ship).
1652. Jan Herwy (Hervey).
William Noble (ship).
Gysbert van Imbroch.
Jacobus Hugues.
Johannes Megapolensis, jr (returned to Holland
about 1656).
M. Cornells Clock.
Nov. 18, 1658. Peter Jansen van den Bergh.
Jacob L'Oragne.
1659. Alexander Carolus Curtius.
1660. Harmen Wessels.
1662. Jan du Parck (military).
Samuel Megapolensis.
Cornelis van Dyck (died 1687).
1673. Henry Taylor.
Fort Orange
1642. Abraham Staets.
1655. Jacob d'Hinse.
Esopus
1660. Gysbert van Imbroch.
1664. Sybrandt Cornelissen van Flensburgh.
1662. James Clark.
Folcks Mespath.
1663. William Leverich.
DUTCH CLOCK IN THE VAN CORTLANDT
MANOR HOUSE
PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS 241
Dr. Hans Kierstede arrived with Governor Kieft
in 1638, and married, in 1642, Sara Roelofs, the
daughter of Roelof Jansen and Anneke Jans.
When Mr. Kierstede sued the estate of Solomon La
Chair for services, an important precedent was estab-
lished, for the court held : " Mr. Hans is to be pre-
ferred before the other creditors as the same is for
surgeon's service." Again, on Sept. 29, 1670, the court
ordered the curators of the estate of Jan Steelman " to
pay 388 gl. 4 St. in zeewan for burial and to Mr. Hans
Kierstede for medicines 27 gl. in zeewan as preferred
funeral expenses before all others from the first effects."
The surgeons did not limit their activities to prac-
tising medicine, but engaged in trade and various kinds
of business like the other burghers. Thus, in 1656, we
find a report on the repairs done to the Company's
house by Surgeon Varrevanger. In June, 1654, we
read:
Jacob Hendricksen Varrevanger showed by his petition
that the term of his engagement had expired and that for
some years he had imported at his own expense from
Holland all his medicines. He requested that some com-
pensation should be given to him for the use of his
medicaments.
The Commissary ordered " to credit to the said Mr.
Jacob 12 fl. per month from i July, 1652 in his account
for use of his medicines and to increase his salary."
The clergy were sometimes curers of bodies as well
as of souls. A supply of drugs was sent from Holland
in the spring of 1663 for "an English clergyman
versed in the art of Physick and willing to serve in the
capacity of Physician." It is supposed that this was
the Rev. William Leverich, who sailed in October,
1660, in The Spotted Cow from Amsterdam, and who
16
242 DUTCH NEW YORK
returned in 1662. In 1661, the Rector, Alexander
Carolus Curtius, appeared in court setting forth that
the Farmer had spoken to him about payment of the
excise; "and whereas Professors, Preachers and Rec-
tors are exempt from excise in Holland, he maintains
he also is exempt, the rather as the Director General
has granted him free excise." The court, however,
decided against him.
The expenses of a serious illness are shown in the
following itemized bill :
Robert Hammon Esq. Dr. 1689
To his chamber 4 months 150
To firewood in time of his sickness night and day 140
To candles 9 o
To cash lent and paid for him 5 3
To diet when he retired himself from town 15 o
To his attendance and extraordinary trouble
during his sickness 2 10 o
To washing his bedding and linen several times
a week during his sickness i 10 o
To strong drink and rum at several times to
the watchers 7 6
To John Jewett for watching several times 6 o
To a woman to clean the house 3 o
To paid for him at old Mr. Davenport 10 6
Katharin Coleman ^9 5 3
The surgeons frequently took payment in shop goods.
Thus, on Oct. 31, 1656, Aldart Swartwout demands
delivery of a kettle promised for curing Jacob Schel-
tinger's leg. The latter acknowledges the promise but
not the cure. Both parties acknowledge to have
agreed to a perfect cure or no pay, so the matter is
referred to Mr. Hans Kierstede and Mr. Jacob Varre-
vanger, " both old and experienced surgeons," to in-
vestigate and report. On Feb. 11, 1662, the curators
of the bankrupt estate of Dirck Houthuyzen sued Mr.
Jacob Huges for 6 gl. 11 st. The doctor said he
attended Dirck one year ; and the court set the one off
PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS 243
against the other. In 1674, Jan de Forest sued Jan-
nettie Cregier for medical attendance after an accident:
he had overcharged and had to pay back twelve pounds
of butter. Gerrit Huygen married Herman Wesselsen's
widow. In August, 1673, he sued Manuel Sanders,
a negro, for 26^ schepels of wheat, being the yearly
salary of his deceased predecessor.
The Court Records supply ample evidence that the
doctors of the day supplied their professional services
to private families or individuals by the year, and often
had trouble to collect their annual stipend. In October,
1661, for example, Mr. Jacob Huges sued five patients
for unpaid fees. First came Jan Janzen van de Lange
Straat, who was ordered to pay the doctor " six guilders
for labour." Then Ludowyck Post was ordered to
deposit " twenty guilders for services " with the
Secretary of this City. Pelgrum Clock, who owed
" nine guilders yearly salary," received a similar judg-
ment. Martin Clazen denied owing eight guilders for
service rendered, saying that his wife lay with a severe
accident and agreed with the surgeon for a year, but
that Mr. Jacob did not once come to see after his
wife, and therefore he had been obliged to call in Mr.
Hans Kierstede to whom he must pay three times as
much.
From Josentje Virhage the doctor demanded ten
guilders yearly money for account of her husband,
Josentje says she is married only two years to her hus-
band and cannot know what that is for, and he is long
since gone to dwell at Fort Orange, and has sent the
doctor a beaver. The latter acknowledges having re-
ceived the beaver, but the bill is more. Josentje says
she has not the money now, but promises to send it
at the next hunt; with which the doctor is content.
In 1660, Gysbert van Imburch, surgeon at Fort Orange,
244 DUTCH NEW YORK
treated a soldier who had eighteen wounds, sued the
Company for payment, and got judgment for fifty
guilders in beavers. On Sept. 9, 1659, Jacob Huges
had to sue Hendrick the Spaniard for half a beaver in
payment for some medicaments. Hendrick pleaded
that the doctor did not tell him how often he should
take them!
On June 22, 1660, Harmen Wessels sued William
Bredenbent for thirty florins in zeewan or twenty
florins in beaver, or fifteen florins in silver money,
for curing a sore in Mrs. Bredebent's shoulder, and
says that defendant allows him only six guilders in
zeewan. William pleads that it is quite enough, as
he can hire the doctor a whole year for twelve guilders.
The case was referred to Messrs. Kierstede and Varre-
vanger for arbitration. On March 18, 1664, Harmen
Wessels sued Hendrick Arenzen for seven beavers or
one hundred and forty guilders in seawant for sur-
geon's fees. June 18, 1667, he got judgment against
Mme. van Leeuwen for two hundred and twenty-nine
orins zeawant, refusing to wait for payment till her
husband's arrival. Dr. Henry Tailor (1672) recovered
one hundred and fourteen florins wampum from Egbert
Mynders, on Dr. Jacob Varrevanger's award.
In New Amsterdam the doctors found plenty to do,
not only in curing disease, but in healing wounds
gained in tavern brawls, stabbing and slashing affrays,
and the frequent fights and quarrels. Sometimes the
doctors themselves were violent characters and supplied
work for fellow members of their profession. The
above Dr. Henry Taylor was irascible, to say the least.
In 1673, Else Manning complained that her master,
Dr. Henry Taylor, " hath assaulted en battered hur in
the fease " and claimed eighty florins for wages due.
The Schout prosecuted the doctor, and wanted him
PHYSICIANS AND SURGEONS 245
fined " 100 fl. above the smart and surgeon's fee, with
costs, for he had struck his late maid on the head so
that the blood ran out her nose and she lay blind the
whole 24 hours." The doctor admitted having struck
one blow in haste and had to pay the eighty florins as
well as twenty-five florins and costs. Two weeks later.
Dr. Harmen Wessels recovered twenty-five florins and
costs from his brother surgeon " for curing his maid
and for her board and drink."
At the request of Surgeon Hendricksen Varrevanger,
a hospital for sick soldiers who had been billeted on
private families, and the Company's negroes, was
established on Dec. 23, 1638. The first town midwives
were (163-) Hilletje Wilburgh, and Tyron Jansen or
Jonas, mother of Anneke Jans.
Regarding medicinal plants, Van der Donck says :
No reasonable person will doubt that there are not many
medicinal and healing plants in the New Netherlands.
A certain chirurgeon, who was also a botanist, had a
beautiful garden there, wherein a great variety of medici-
nal wild plants were collected, but the owner has removed
and the garden lies neglected. Because sickness does not
prevail much, I suppose the subject has received less
attention. The plants which are known to us are the
following: Capilli veneris, scholopendria, angelica, poly-
podium, verbascum album, calteus sacerdotis, atriplex
hortensis and marina, chortium, turrites, calamus aroma-
ticus, sassafras, rois Virginianum, ranunculus, plantago,
bursa pastoris, malva, origsenum, geranicum, althea,
cinoroton pseudo, daphine, viola, ireas, indigo silvestris,
sigillum salaraonis, sanguis, draconum, consolidse, mille-
folium, noli me tangere, cardo benedictus, agrimonium,
serpentarise, coriander, leeks, wild leeks, Spanish figs,
elatine, camperfolie, petum male and female, and many
other plants. The land is full of diifercnt kinds of herbs
and trees besides those enumerated, among which there
246 DUTCH NEW YORK
undoubtedly are good simplicia, with which discreet per-
sons would do much good ; for we know that the Indians
with roots, bulbs, leaves, etc., cure dangerous wounds and
old sores, of which we have seen many instances.
And again, in the Representation of New Netherland
(1650), we read:
The medicinal plants found in New Netherland in a
day, by a little search, as far as they have come to our
knowledge, consist principally of Venus's hair, hart's
tongue, lingwort, polypody, white mullein, priest's shoe,
garden and sea beach orach, water germander, tower-
mustard, sweet flag, sassafras, crowfoot, plantain, shep-
herd's purse, mallows, wild majoram, crane's bill, marsh-
mallows, false eglantine, laurel, violet, blue flag, wild
indigo, Solomon's seal, dragon's blood, comfrey, milfoil,
many sorts of fern, wild lilies of different kinds, agrimony,
wild leek, blessed thistle, snake-root, Spanish figs, which
grow out of the leaves, tarragon and numerous other
plants and flowers. ... It is certain that the Indigo
Silvcstris grows here spontaneously without human aid.
It could be easily cultivated if there were people who
would undertake it.
Van der Donck says that Kilian van Rensselaer sent
seeds of the Indigo Silvestris to his colony and that
it was sown on Bear Island ; and that Augustin Heer-
man, " a curious man and lover of the country, made
an experiment near New Amsterdam, where he planted
indigo seed, which grew well and yielded much. Sam-
ples of this indigo were sent over to the Netherlands,
which were found to be better than common." Minuit
sowed canary seed, which grew and yielded well, but
he thought that the " time of the cultivators should
not be spent on such experiments but to the raising of
the necessaries of life."
Writing to the West India Company on Sept. 17,
""fk^^^"'
OLD CHEST, LINEN PRESS, AND TWO WARMING-PANS
OWNED BY MR. FRANS MIDDELKOOF, NEW YORK
BIRTHS AND DEATHS 247
1659, Governor Stuyvesant requests that " medicinal
seeds " be sent, and instructs his correspondents to have
each package of seeds placed in a separate linen bag
and these small bags in a great linen bag to be hung
up during the voyage so as to receive light and air.
On Dec. 22, 1659, the Directors inform him that the
seeds requested have been sent, and also that they have
sent some silkworm seeds as well.
The arrival of a new member of the family was an
event of great delight to the Dutch household. Great
preparations were made for the comfort of the new-
comer, and in rich homes presents poured in. Many of
these were silver, such as the cup, the pap-bowl, the
cinnamon-bowl, spoons, etc. A handsome basket lined
with silk, preferably yellow, and draped with lace, was
filled with toilet articles, and was generally the gift
of the husband's mother, or aunt, to the young mother.
Another and larger basket contained the linen. The
cradle was also tastefully and comfortably draped, and
stood near the fire^ from which it was protected by a
screen. Special drinks and sweet cakes, or biscuits,
were offered to visitors. In 1662, a case comes into the
New Amsterdam Court regarding these special breads,
for we read:
Pursuant to the order of this, W. court, the defendant
produces a declaration of Hieletje Jans, wife of Yde Cor-
nelis, passed before the Notary Salomon La Chair, 23
August, 1662, to the effect that she had agreed with de-
fendant in the presence of her husband's sister and
Trijntje Walings, to bake a quantity of biscuit for her
lying-in. Burgomasters and Schepens, having read and
considered the declaration, find that defendant has not
baked the rolls with a design to sell them ; but for biscuit ;
therefore dismiss the Officer's entered demand and de-
duced conclusion.
248 DUTCH NEW YORK
It was usual for the mother to be churched six weeks
after the birth of the child. It would have been con-
sidered bad manners if she had gone out of doors, or
appeared in society, or in the street before this cere-
mony, and it would have been against all customs if
at her return no " churchtrip meal " {kerk gangs maal)
had been prepared. According to the old Dutch custom
at those dinners, there was " hearty fare and plenty of
good cheer." As this was being carried to excess, an
ordinance from the church was published that at a
christening-dinner, no more than a specified number
of neighbors were allowed to be present. This number
differed in the various towns. Although, according to
the resolutions of the church, the child had to be
baptized, as soon as possible after birth, it became
customary among the richer classes to put off the
baptism until after the mother had made her first visit
to the church. The baptism took place in the church,
sometimes before, and sometimes after the sermon,
but generally during the afternoon service, rarely at the
morning or evening service. The compulsory baptism,
performed in case of illness by the nurse was not con-
sidered legal. Sick children were sometimes baptized
before the service. Natural children, the birth of whom
had to be sworn to by the nurse before the church
council, were christened in some places in the forenoon.
The father had to be present at the baptism, and it was
left to him to bring brothers or sisters or friends as
witnesses, provided these were members of the Re-
formed Church and did not stand under " censure " or
excommunication. Prominent burghers wore on such
an occasion a special suit of clothes, called the " Lord's
Supper Suit " {avondinaalpak) , or he appeared in a sol-
emn black suit and white collar. Many, however, wore
their wedding-suit or had one made for the occasion.
BIRTHS AND DEATHS 249
The laws of New Amsterdam were very strict re-
garding any irregular baptisms. In 1674, Schout De
Mill, against Jannettie de Kleuse, said that she baptized
a child of Reformed parents on the i8th of April,
" when the father was from home, which is a thing
which can never be tolerated by those of the Reformed
religion ; he concludes therefore that the defendant
shall be imprisoned and moreover be condemned in a
fine of one hundred guilders zeawant, with costs.
Defendant admits she baptized the child through igno-
rance; and requests forgiveness if she did wrong. The
W. Court having considered the matter and likewise
weighed the evil consequences and other inconveniences,
which might result and arise therefrom, condemn the
defendant for her profanation and disrespect of the
Holy Sacrament of Baptism that she shall be im-
prisoned and remain there until further order." At
Heemstede there was, in 1657, a Presbyterian colony
and preacher named Richard Denton, who was liked
by the Dutch because he conformed in all things to the
Dutch Church. We learn from Megapolensis and
Drisius that the Independents of the place listened
attentively to his preaching, " but when he began to
baptise the children of such parents as are not mem-
bers of the church, they sometimes burst out of the
church."
As in the case of the bride's dress, the christening
robe was as costly as the parents' means would allow.
Rich families wrapped the baby in a handsome lace
shawl. The little bonnet showed the sex of the child,
— six plaits were made for a boy and three for a girl.
The bows of ribbon also gave evidence of the sex,
both regarding color and the way they were tied. In
case the mother had died or the parents happened to be
in mourning, the baby was dressed in white with black
250 DUTCH NEW YORK
bows. After the baby was swaddled and dressed,
neighbors and friends were invited to come and have a
look at it, and light refreshments were offered. Then
the christening-party started for the church. On this
day the best pincushion, on which the child's name was
picked out in pins, was uncovered. The baby was laid
on a pillow and wrapped in a " christening-cloth " of
white silk, satin, or Marseilles embroidery, and the
long skirt of the child's robe was arranged in folds
over the nurse's shoulder to be held by one of the
witnesses. If there was no font in the church, an urn
of gold or silver gilt was used, and this was filled with
lukewarm water. In some places the elder children of
seven, eight, or nine would carry the baby.
When the christening-party returned from church,
the child was blessed by the father, and then undressed
and dressed afresh by the nurse in a presentation robe
to be presented to the friends and relatives who were
invited to the christening-dinner. In the meantime
the bcrkemeyer, or large glass goblet with a cover,
filled with sugared Rhine wine, or the silver brandy
bowl, was passed around merrily.
The christening-dinner was a very costly and elabor-
ate affair and differed little from the wedding-feast.
During the progress of the dinner the child was again
presented to the guests, when songs were sung and
speeches and toasts were made. All the family silver
and porcelain was set upon the table, which was also
decorated with fruits and flowers, fine pastries and
cakes. To these delicacies belonged the suikerdclbol
gaan, or sugared roll, kraamvetjes, cakes made hollow
and filled with sugar. Aniseeds covered with a coating
of white sugar, rough for boys and smooth for girls,
were also served. The handed pot (caudle cup or
cinnamon cup) was never missing. This was a tall
BIRTHS AND DEATHS 251
drinking-cup filled with Rhine wine sweetened with
sugar. In it was placed a stick of cinnamon, — a long
one if the child were a boy and a short one if a girl.
When this was handed, the sugar was stirred in the
cup by the cinnamon stick by the person who pre-
sented it.
The fact of having been present at a christening was
long remembered, and in after years people often re-
marked to a young man or woman, " Old friend, I had
a sugar piece with you " (" Oude Kennis, ik heb bij je
nog een stik met suiker gehad").
On the return from the baptismal font of the peter
or meter (godfather or godmother), the christening-
gifts were presented or promised. As a rule, these
were of gold or silver, such as porringers, pap-bowls
with spoons, a silver whistle, a silver mounted bag,
if the godfathers and godmothers were of the rich
burgher class ; but the farmers presented the child with
silver shoe buckles or coat buttons or some trifle. It
was also the custom to give a luyer korf (napkin
basket) completely furnished, or a gold or silver rattle.
The latter had an ebony or a silver handle and a
ring on which hung a number of silver bells or coins.
The top was surmounted by a baby's head or a fool's
head, and in the bottom of the handle was a whistle.
These were hung round the baby's neck by a silver
chain.
Sometimes the christening-presents were made on
the day of the birth, or a few days afterwards, on which
occasion a dinner or kinderhier (baby beer) was given.
Uninvited guests sometimes entered the house on the
sly on such occasions, for the more merriment and
drinking the more honor for the baby. These festivi-
ties sometimes lasted six weeks, one christening-feast
following another. The husband in the meantime
252 DUTCH NEW YORK
neglected his business or his work, and an empty purse
and debts often resulted. The presents were kept in
the " show-cabinet," where also the bride's gifts and the
bridegroom's pipe (see page 218) were on exhibition.
The silver was taken to the mint only in dire need ;
and then it was sometimes discovered that the " gold "
presents were often of gilded brass.
When a member of the household became seriously
ill, the " Consoler of the Sick " was called in; also the
nearest relations, who did not leave the house until the
patient had died or was out of danger. The reader
and comforter of the sick was very necessary in the
new colony, and the West India Company took good
care to provide emigrants with his services even on
shipboard. Thus, on Aug. 13, 1655, the Company
allowed William Brouwer with his wife and three chil-
dren a free passage on the Waegh, on condition of act-
ing as reader and comforter of the sick on board.
The Consoler called frequently to talk to the patient,
pray with him, or read to him from the " Consolation
of the Sick." Meantime at the church service was held
and prayers offered for the invalid's recovery. The
members of the household also engaged in religious
commune, reading from the Bible or some religious
work, and recording the last words and wishes of the
dying. If the latter was a prominent personage, his
edifying words were sometimes published; and if he
was a pastor, then they were repeated at the funeral
sermon to the congregation. When the end approached,
the family called in the neighbors, who, under penalty
of a heavy fine, were obliged to answer the call. Then
all kneeled down in the sick-room, while the pastor read
the prayers for the dying and spoke some consoling
words. When the last breath had left the body, the
nearest blood-relation approached the corpse, closed its
BIRTHS AND DEATHS 253
eyes, and gave it the parting kiss. Sometimes the
pastor did this. After this, a mirror was held before
the mouth of the deceased, or smoke was blown into
the nostrils. When assured that life was extinct, the
wedding-ring was taken off the finger and handed over
to the widow, a sheet was spread over the body, the
curtains of the bedstead drawn, or the doors of the
bedstead closed, and all left the death-room to the
" wade " (shroud) neighbors who came to " lay out "
the body. They undressed the corpse and put on the
" death wade." This was a long shirt with wide pleats
and black trimmings and bows of fine homespun linen.
This " wade " in some places was made by the bride
in the " bridal days " or during the first weeks of mar-
riage; sometimes even it was worn on the wedding-
night, and then put away in a special corner of the
linen-closet. Generally people were satisfied with
merely dressing the body in this burial gown, and cov-
ering the head with a linen nightcap with a black plume ;
but the wealthy dressed the bodies of the dead in rich
clothes, and late in the century put the large powdered
wigs on the head. The corpse being " wade," that is,
washed, shaved, combed, or the hair braided and
dressed, was placed on straw or a rolling mat, — the
male with the arms extended along the body, the female
with the arms crossed or with folded hands, as seen
on old monuments. According to law, the corpse had
to remain as it was for from twenty-four to forty-eight
hours before being placed in the coffin. After the
mirrors and pictures had been turned face to the wall,
all went into another room to partake of a very liberal
but cold collation. Sometimes unseemly scenes fol-
lowed, but heavy penalties were provided for excesses.
Meanwhile all the relations assembled in another room
to make the arrangements required by the city authori-
254 DUTCH NEW YORK
ties on such occasions. These differed not only in the
various provinces, but in the various towns and even
villages. First, the curtains were taken from the
windows, the shutters were closed, and a servant an-
nounced the death in the neighborhood and hung a
larger or smaller lantern, according to the age of the
deceased, with an extinguished candle end, at the front
door. In other places, a bunch of straw, or large or
small black ribbons, or some blocks of wood with a
skull on the top, were placed in front of the door. The
wealthy had also their top windows draped with black,
and hung their coats-of-arms covered with black over
the front door, with the date of death painted under-
neath; they had the death room draped all in black
splashed with silver tears, and lighted with black painted
wax candles. The sexton of the church where the body
was to be buried or placed in a vault next arrived, fol-
lowed by the mourners to make out the invitations.
The customs of the poorer classes were naturally
simpler; they were helped by their neighbors, who in
some instances tolled the parting knell, buried the
corpse, and even dug the grave. The wealthy employed
" notifiers," who formed a guild, governed by a deacon
and officers; women belonged to this also. In some
places it was not allowed to bury the dead on Sundays.
The dress of these mutes consisted of a long black
cloak and white tie, with long mourning streamers of
crape from their wide-brimmed hats, and white gloves,
which they received at the " death house " ; but later
they dressed like the pastors and tried to assume equal
importance and demand equal respect. They took the
upper hand at once, gave their orders, and easily im-
posed upon the poorer classes, who obeyed them as
absolute masters. By the wealthier classes their pre-
tensions were not recognized. They had to notify
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BIRTHS AND DEATHS 255
relations and friends appearing on the list that had
been made out, and afterwards invite them to the
funeral. The relations were asked to close their
window-shutters, but in the case of a sister or cousin
one half of the shutter was considered sufficient. The
invitation was in printed form.
As soon as the coffin was brought to the house, the
■"■ corpse dressers " returned to place the corpse in the
coffin. In some places this was required to be done
in the presence of two witnesses, strangers to the de-
ceased. The coffin was placed in the front room, on
two black trestles, with the feet always towards the
door. In some places in North Holland the front room
of the houses was never used except for weddings and
funerals. In some instances the death robe was not
put on till the corpse was placed in the coffin. In some
places there were women who made a living by making
the " wade " dresses, which sometimes were very elab-
orate, and in cases of young men or spinsters were
tucked and decorated with twigs of green and flowers,
with a laurel twig or rosemary in the hand.
When a woman died in childbirth, the infant was
placed in her arms. In that case the " playmates " (see
218) made the wreaths of flowers and placed them
on the head of the departed. This was done when, on
the invitation of the parents, they went to the house to
take a last look at their friend. Even those who carried
the child to the grave had a laurel, myrtle, or rosemary
branch in their hand. When the playmates had viewed
the body, they were treated to rice-pudding with sugar
and cinnamon. In some places the neighbors were
called in to see the " dressed corpse," and treated to
rolls with wine or beer.
White was the color of innocence and purity ; black
that of darkness. Black was generally adopted in Hoi-
256 DUTCH NEW YORK
land, except by the Friesland women, who wore the
" Hindelopen " dress with blue for mourning, darker
or hghter in color acording to close or more distant re-
lationship. In the upper classes mourning was very
costly. In the inventories we note fine black cloth
" tabbards," black velvet coats, black cloth and satin
bodices with black lace, and black velvet trimmed with
jet, cambric handkerchiefs and collars with heavy black
borders. A bride in mourning wore a black velvet
dress, trimmed with pearls, and a long train. Neither
gold nor silver was worn, but only white pearls and
diamonds. The mourning cloak hung in loose wide
folds down to the ground. It was often so long that
it trailed on the ground. The bows and rosettes were
made of black crape. The collars of men and women
had wide pleats, and the hat was surrounded with crape,
while the cloaks and sleeves, vests, trousers, stockings,
and shoes were all made of black cloth or woolen stuff.
People dressed in full, half, and quarter mpurning, ac-
cording to their blood relationship to the deceased. A
widow was not permitted to marry during her time of
mourning, which lasted one year and six weeks; but
in 1656 it was decided that a widow might marry six
months after her husband's death. The poorer classes
wore black cloth and serge. In some places the women
during the first three weeks of their deep mourning
were required to pull their black overskirt over their
heads ; they also wore long black veils. In some places
mourning consisted in wearing a cloak with a hood,
and putting the hood over the head when following the
departed to the grave. Black mourning-hoods were in
general use in the Seventeenth Century,
It was the custom to entomb the corpses in family
vaults in the church where people worshiped, or to
bury in the churchyard when the people were too poor.
BIRTHS AND DEATHS 257
Everything pertaining to funerals was regulated by law.
The wealthy who were fond of great pomp at funerals
gladly paid the heavy fines imposed by the sumptuary
laws, and buried their dead according to the rank of the
deceased. The burghers held their funerals in the day-
time, therefore the wealthy generally chose the night,
and followed the corpse to the grave escorted by a large
following of mourners, torch or lantern bearers, to the
tolling of the church bells. This was forbidden in
Amsterdam in 1661, unless a permit had been obtained
from the court, but was allowed again two years later,
upon payment of a fine of twenty-five florins, for a
woman who died in childbirth, fifty florins for a child
under ten years old, one hundred florins for the burial
of a corpse under and one hundred and fifty florins for
one above twenty-five years old. Mourning-coaches
also came into use at the end of the Seventeenth Cen-
tury. The churches were paid for the tolling of the
bells, the lighting of the church, the cleaning of the
vault, and the rent of the litter. In some places this
litter was taken to the house of mourning and placed
before the door an hour before the funeral ; then the
undertakers stationed themselves at the door to receive
the invited guests. In burgher's homes, the mirrors
were taken down or covered with black, but in the
wealthier houses the whole room was draped with black
cloth and lighted with wax candles. In both instances
the relatives stood in rank according to their relation-
ship. In the centre was the coffin, on a pair of black
covered trestles. Care was also taken to turn the face
eastward in the grave, as it was believed that Christ
would come to judgment from the east.
In some towns the women would follow the funeral,
in others they did not ; but in all places the immediate
relatives came first, followed by the others according
17
258 DUTCH NEW YORK
to consanguinity, and friends next. The body of a
preacher was borne by the members of the consistory
of the church; of a magistrate, by the members of the
court ; that of a guild member, by the surviving mem-
bers of the same ; that of a student, by his fellow col-
legians, followed by the professors and teachers.
The superstition in the Seventeenth Century main-
tained that the first corpse to be buried in a cemetery
could not rest, or was carried away by Satan, and many
families took their dead to other cities and villages
rather than have them buried in a new churchyard.
The Dutch in New Netherland seem to have soon
outgrown this superstition, and in some cases even were
not particular about being buried in consecrated ground,
but started family cemeteries of their own on their own
lands. Thus John Lecount in his will (1697) desires
that his body may be buried in the garden of his own
house by his sister-in-law. Frederick Philipse also
(1700) directs "my body to be interred at my burial
place at the upper mill " (near Tarrytown).
The customs observed at the funeral processions dif-
fered in nearly every town, village, and hamlet. In
one the preachers would precede, in others follow im-
mediately after the coffin ; here it was preceded by the
orphans and inmates of the poorhouse, at another place
it would be followed by them. Sometimes the relatives
or friends would carry the coffin, then again the poor.
The pomp and splendor displayed at funerals, not-
withstanding the heavy fines imposed by the govern-
ment, increased so much towards the end of the Seven-
teenth Century that the consistories of the churches
begged the government to take stronger measures. It
was all in vain, for the rulers themselves were some of
the worst offenders. At many of the funerals of mem-
bers of that body, not only were the councils and
BIRTHS AND DEATHS 259
church-members of the places where they had been
employed represented, but the very horses were made
to go lame, and all the undertakers of the city were
present. No funeral (except a State funeral) was
more solemn and costly than that of an acting burgo-
master. The dinners served at funerals were as bril-
liant and plentiful as the wedding and christening
dinners. Prohibitions and fines were powerless to stop
the extravagance. In the middle of the Seventeenth
Century, however, these dinners began to be discon-
tinued in the cities, and people were satisfied with serv-
ing wine and cakes only on returning from the funeral.
The body buried, the company returned home. He
who has presided thanks those present for attending
and invites them to come into the house. Then re-
freshments are served. Each drinks what he likes and
departs at will. The rich are buried in the churches,
and Rhine wine is served; the middle class serve
French wine ; and the poorer classes, beer. In Gronin-
gen this was called "consolation beer," elsewhere "dead
beer." Often this wine or beer was taken in excess.
The dinners at funerals remained in vogue in the
northern provinces for a long time, and although the
serving of hot dishes was forbidden, the amount spent
on the cold collations often left the relatives in debt for
a long time. In burgher families the Bible was placed
on the coffin, from which a preacher, a " consoler," or
a member of the " church board " read a chapter and
afterwards said a prayer. In some places in Friesland
a light lunch was also partaken of then. At the ap-
pointed hour, — for every hour later, an additional fine
had to be paid, — the bells began to toll from the
church in which the entombment was to take place, and
sometimes also from the churches that were passed on
the way. After the undertaker had asked if anybody
26o DUTCH NEW YORK
present wished to take a last look at the dead, the
coffin was closed and placed on the bier, feet foremost.
This was important, for bodies of those who had com-
mitted suicide or w^ho had fallen by the hands of the
executioner were carried head first to the grave. In-
deed, it was only by special favor that a suicide was
buried in consecrated ground, either in Holland or
here. Thus, Hendrick Jansen, in 1664, hanged himself
and destroyed his life on the branch of a tree on this
side of the Fresh Water. The prosecutor therefore
demanded " that his goods be forfeit, the corpse drawn
on a hurdle as an example and terror to others, and
brought to the place where it was found hanging and
there shoved under the earth ; further that a stake,
pole or post shall be set there in token of an accursed
deed." However, it w^as decided that as Jansen had
always been an exemplary burgher, and his next neigh-
bors, eight in number, had requested a decent burial,
the body should be interred in a corner of the church-
yard, after the ringing of the nine o'clock bell.
Dutch and English were alike, both at home and in
their colonies, in serving generous quantities of funeral
baked meats and entertaining the friends and relatives
of the deceased on a scale far beyond their means.
Generous provision is frequently made in the wills for
their funerals by people of high and low degree. Ouzel
Van Swieton (1693) is somewhat exceptional in direct-
ing his body " to be buried in a moderate Christian
burial." On the other hand, Edward Mann (1702)
gives " all his wages now due on board H. M. S. Jersey
to be employed for the defraying of my funeral ex-
penses." It is evident that even a common soldier's
wake was expensive, for we read in 1653 that
Jan Peeck demanded 48 fi. 18 stivers from Jan Gerrit-
sen, for victuals consumed at the funeral of Jan Bronck,
BIRTHS AND DEATHS 261
a soldier, who had been shot dead, for which defendant
had given security. " Defendant says it is true, he has
been at the party, consuming the victuals, but as he is no
heir nor has received any benefits from deceased, he main-
tains, he is not bound to pay." It was decided that plain-
tiff must look for payment to the estate of deceased, or
his pay from the Company.
Gloves, rings, scarves, and hatbands were given to
the mourners here, as they were in Holland. Many
wills contain bequests of this nature. Henry Clark
(1679) appoints five friends to carry him to his grave
and " to have scarves and gloves according as the cus-
tom is." Captain Thos. Exton (1668) leaves seven
beavers " to buy wine for the officers and gentlemen
who accompany my corpse to the grave." Thomas Pell
( 1669) gives his body " to a comely burial that it may
be decently buried in such a comely manner that God
may not be dishonored." Henry Clarke (1679) ap-
points five friends to carry him to his grave " and to
have scarves and gloves according as the usual custom
is." Christopher Dean ( 1689) leaves " to each of those
who shall bear up my pall at my funeral, a ring value
15 shillings, and a mourning hat band." Lucas Santen
(1692) leaves " to my landlord Capt. John Clopps £10
to buy him a mourning ring, in consideration of the
trotible I have given him."
Lawrence Deldyke (1690) leaves £10 "to expend
at New York among my friends and acquaintances to
be disbursed by Mr. James Mills, my attorney."
The expenses of a funeral at the end of our period
are clearly shown in the following examples. Lock-
erman : Charges for them that carried the body of
Maria Lockerman to the grave, 200 guilders ; Clerk
of the yard, 49 guilders ; Mr. Thos. Lovell, for trans-
lating the last will of Maria L., 18 guilders; Albert
262 DUTCH NEW YORK
Bosch, for shrines for the coffin, i6 g. lo s. ; Dr. Lock-
hart, for medicines, 34 g. ; Edward Griffith for two
beavers, 48 g. ; a carpenter for 2^/2 days' work, 20 g.
William Helcker: " Coffins, £1 os. 3d.; Angeltie Moll,
for undress ye dead, lis. gd.; William Portuguese
wife for ditto, 5s. loY^d.; candles and rum, 3s.; ^^
gross pipes, 2s. /d. ; a place in the church, 9s."
The funeral expenses of John Oort amounted to
£30 IS. 6d. " To Johans Von Ekelyn (1697) for beer
at his funeral, £1 ; to the charges of his funeral,
£2- 19-9." Justice White for funeral charges, £5;
to Daniel Weeks for a coffin, 6 shillings; to John
Rogers, for digging the grave, 6 shillings. James
Dewsbury : " Paid to nurse, £2 - 8 - o ; for funeral
charges, £3-15 - o."
Peter Jacob Marius; funeral:
£ s. d.
To 29 gallons of wyne at 6s. Qd. per gallon 9 15 9
To 19 pairs of gloves at 2s. 3d. 2 4 3
For bottles and glass broke, paid 037
Paid 2 women each 2 days attendance o 15 o
Paid a suit of mourning for ye negro woman freed by
ye testator and making 3 4 7i
Paid for 800 Cokies and 1 2 gross of Pipes at 3s. 3d. 6 7 7^
Paid for speys [spice] for ye burnte wyne and sugar o i i
Paid to the Sexton and Bell ringer, for making ye
grave and ringing ye bell 2 20
Paid for ye Coffin 400
Paid for gold and making 14 mourning rings 2 16 o
Paid for 3 yards beaver stuff at 7s. 6d., buttons and
making it for a suit of mourning i 14 6
Paid for ^ vat of single Beer 076
Whole amount of Funeral Charge is 31 6 8J
Samuel Bayard.
As at weddings silver medals were sometimes pre-
sented either before or after a funeral. If presented
before, they were worn at the funeral. They were in
all shapes, round, octagonal, oval, square, etc., some-
times cast, sometimes engraved with the portrait of
SILVER SPOONS
RIJKS Ml'SEUM. AMSTERDAM
BIRTHS AND DEATHS 263
the deceased, or with mythological figures, inscrip-
tions in prose or verse, or sometimes only inscribed
with the date of birth and death of the deceased, with
or without a verse from the Holy Scriptures. Some-
times the design was a skull and crossbones surrounded
by a wreath of laurels, and the dates were added when
the medal was required. The memory of the deceased
was perpetuated by these medals and by the legacies
of the rich to the church and the poor. There were
few rich burghers who did not leave generously to both.
An enormous amount of money was also spent on
the carved tombstones.
CHAPTER XII
TAVERNS AND EXCISE LAWS
IN Holland, during the Seventeenth Century, as
well as in England, France, and Germany, the two
fashionable as well as low vices were drinking
and gambling. The government made stringent laws
regulating the opening and closing of taverns, and
heavy penalties were imposed for infractions of the
liquor laws; but no barriers seemed strong enough
to stem the flood of drunkenness. Youth drank as
heavily as middle age. The reason for tavern excesses
may probably be found in the lack of simple pleasures
and sociability in the home circles. When the office
hours were over, the shop closed, and the school dis-
missed, the youth had as a choice for spending his
evening the somewhat cold and severe paternal dwell-
ing, the open street with its mischievous and boisterous
play, and the tavern. At home there were no enter-
taining books for youthful perusal, and the atmos-
phere was lacking in sympathy and companionableness.
The tavern, therefore, with its drinking, dicing, card-
playing, and many other games that lent themselves
to gambling, offered irresistible attractions. The young
men of the day, therefore, in all classes were sadly
dissipated.
In New Amsterdam, there was, if possible, even more
license than in Fatherland. There are many evidences
that, so far from being a crime or a sin, drunkenness
264
TAVERNS AND EXCISE LAWS 265
was not even a reproach. Weddings and funerals
and all occasions of feasts and merry-making were
opportunities for hard drinking, of which the guests
took full advantage. Drunkenness among women
was by no means rare, and the clergy, as a rule, did
not set an example of strict sobriety. In fact, habitual
drunkenness was charged against more than one of
them. It is indeed astonishing to find that drunken-
ness was frequently treated in the court proceedings
as an excuse for having committed serious offenses,
such as assault, as we have seen. There are many
cases in which men repudiated leases, deeds, contracts,
etc., pleading that they were drunk when they entered
into the engagements. It is evident that the law
allowed a man twenty-four hours to get sober in, be-
cause the court would not hold him to his agreement
if he could prove that he denounced the transaction
on the following day. An instance of a man's readi-
ness to acknowledge drunkenness occurs in 1655, in
a case of abuse, in which a certain Christiaen Anthony
was called as a witness. He declared that " on the
evening the Burghery marched, he came from the
Fort sorely fuddled, and does not properly know what
passed between Jan van Leyden and Webber's wife."
In Holland the tavern was one of the most impor-
tant institutions of burgher life. It was the citizen's
club, and the most respectable members of the commun-
ity did not hesitate to spend much of their leisure
time there in friendly intercourse and jovial company.
The civic governments, which had held their meetings
in the large hall of a neighboring abbey or monastery
in earlier days, after the Reformation met in the tav-
erns or inns, and were served by the host at the city's
expense. If a prince, an ambassador, or any other
person of high rank, visited the city, he took up his
266 DUTCH NEW YORK
quarters at the Peacock, the Angel, the Pig, the Gold
Cup, or at any of the city's inns, where the munici-
paHty offered him the " wine of honor," and the
city paid his expenses, or some of the highest officials
of the city government paid the expenses amongst
themselves.
The literary societies also and the various guilds
met at the taverns, and entertained there. The notable
burghers of Leyden and the professors visited the
inns daily and drank their pint of ale or wine. Of
Simon Abbes Gobbema it is said that he divided his
time between his study and the Marksmen's Home
in the morning as well as in the afternoon. There were
also inns for the " thin beer folks," — people that
imbibed all day, characters who were held up to ridi-
cule in all the plays of the period. These inns were
often kept by landlords of questionable honesty, who
more than once were put in the stocks ; but their inns
were always scrupulously clean. The hostess saw to
it that everything shone brightly, from the cuspidor
to the grill, and the tiles on the floor were as clean
as the plate that was used at table; even the dice were
brightly polished.
In the country, however, inns were not quite so well
kept. One of these is described in Van Sauten's
Light Shozver. He says that it was ten times colder
inside than outside; that one man had to sit on a
pail and another on a turf basket, and that a lump of
clay was used as a candle-holder. He adds that a
blind horse could not do any damage inside. There is
hardly one amongst the hundreds of comedies and
farces of the Seventeenth Century in which the most dis-
gusting scenes of drunkenness and vice are not depicted.
Usually, when our staid burghers took wine, they drank
three glasses. Such was the advice of Bernagin in his
w
>
<
TAVERNS AND EXCISE LAWS 267
W edding-C ontractor (1685). The first glass, he said,
was for health, the second for taste, and the third for
sleep ; any more after that might serve as recreation.
There were innumerable kinds of wine, beer, and
" hot drinks " that were used in Holland in the Seven-
teenth Century. In Godewyck's White Bread's Chil-
dren, a young blade says :
Then I came to the Lion; the hostess said " hello Reel !
run and give the gentleman a chair with a cushion. What
will the gentleman drink? We have some good wines
clear in the glass and fine in colour. Do you like Vin
d'Anjou, good Bacherach, Neuren, or Vin du Court ; or
do you like Manebach ? " Then when I go to the Horse
— it is " Sir ! go into the room, we have Dele wine ;
there 's none nicer. Or do you like Vin d'Ay, or beauti-
ful Muscadel wine? I will go into the cellar and open
a barrel. We have Mentser wine, Elsasger and Rin-
chouwers ; they are silvery fine, much better than Pictou
wine. Do you like Bordeaux wine, or good wine of
Orleans ? " So do I pass the time from sunrise to sunset.
Dordrecht was then the chief wine-market and nearly
monopolized the trade. In the Seventeenth Century
ice was used to cool the wine, which was kept in barrels,
stone jugs, and leather bottles. The wine was drawn
from the barrels in jugs which held from a pint to
half a gallon, and the customers drank from steins
and horns. The beer was drawn in jugs from one
quart to one gallon in capacity, and was drunk out
of pewter mugs and steins with lids, — in village
inns out of wooden bowls. In the smaller inns the
host or hostess sold " spare beer," small thin beer,
and common beer. In the better class inns the beers
used were Dordrecht, Delft, London, English White,
Groninger Cluyn, Hamburger, Mentzel, Ipswich, Lu-
beck brew, and other heavy beers. Much care was
268 DUTCH NEW YORK
given to the beer, and no wonder, for it was the only
drink of the ordinary burgher. " Beer is the drink
of every man. All that can, drink beer." Caudles,
possets, and other hot drinks were common. Gin,
called " drinkable fire " by Professor van Genns, was
only drunk by the poorer classes, and was called gin-
water until 1667. When we first hear of this drink,
it is called " clear " and " genever." In the first half
of the Seventeenth Century the gin-distilleries were
unimportant. In 1672, it was still comparatively un-
known, but was used by the army before Alphen. A
student who valued his name would not openly call
for a glass of genever. A glass of Spanish wine with
brandy in winter, and a glass of white wine with spirit
of lemon in summer was the strongest drink used.
During the Thirty Years' War brandy came into gen-
eral use in Germany. In the taverns they used Arak,
besides Orange, Prince, and Ouinjaets essences. Ra-
tafia was also known. After drinking generously of
Saint Laurent and Burgundy, people took a mouthful
of ratafia to warm the stomach.
The favorite drinks in New Netherland were ale,
beer, Rhenish, French, and Spanish wines, wormwood
wine, distilled waters, brandy, gin, rum, bitters, cider,
and perry. In 1656, a pipe of sack and the excise came
to 443.17 florins. In 1659, twenty-four ankers of Annis
waters and 7 ankers of bitters {Borstzvater) cost 350
florins. New drinks occasionally make their appear-
ance, however. In 1653, on a petition of Peter le
Feber for leave to sell liquors or waters of a peculiar
virtue, he was allowed to sell them in large or small
bottles at his own house. In March, 1656, Solomon
Lachair was called on to say where he got a flask of
Rosa Solis he lately drank with some friends.
It was not customary in the Seventeenth Century
TAVERNS AND EXCISE LAWS 269
for frequenters of alehouses or inns to empty only their
one little pint, jug, or mutchkin. They loved com-
pany, and oftentimes the host also " joined " in the
treat. Then there were dice, cards, or other games;
and they drank a round or a " clover leaf." The clover
leaf, or the drink round, consisted of three drinks
in succession, as the saying was that all good things
are three, — three graces, three cardinal virtues, three
friend's kisses, three conundrums, three times hurrah,
three times to church, three sounds of the bugle, and
numberless other three times, but, above all, the thrice
clinking of the filled glasses, which, according to tradi-
tion, was a custom of the Greeks and Romans.
In the more respectable taverns, where everything
was so arranged that the municipality, the guilds, the
county judges, and the commissioners of dykes could
hold a banquet or large dinner, the china closets were
well provided with all kinds of silver mugs and pewter
tankards, glass bottles and beakers, cups and saucers
and platters in all shapes and sizes, some simply and
others artistically cut and engraved, and all made
specially for the various beverages. Among them may
be mentioned the " handholders," or Frankfort " full
holder," the large Rhine wine glasses, then so generally
known, always of green glass, blown round, wide, and
rather flat, which sometimes held a quart of wine,
and which were so heavy that it took both hands
to lift them to the lips. According to Van Man-
der, the painter Frans Floris would drain this glass
sixty times against anybody who undertook to drink
thirty.
As clubs or missiles, when effectively used, these
glasses would often convincingly close an argument
about local politics, Quaker baiting, or the relative
merits of favorite champions at hockey, bowls, nine-
270 DUTCH NEW YORK
pins, or tric-trac. Thus, in 1654, Johannes Withart
V. Francois Tyn, plaintiff, demands two hundred guil-
ders for the surgeon's bill, pain and smart, as well as
loss of time on account of the wound which defendant
wilfully inflicted on his face with a glass; demands
costs also. Withart finally had to pay the Schout
"50 gl. — half for the poor and half for himself —
and 10 guilders to be expended for a treat, and more-
over pay the sum of 10 guilders to be laid out at Abram
La Nooy's, and a fee of Notary Schelluyne amounting
to 24 gl." Johannes Withart seems to have been a
truculent character, for about the same time the Schout
stated that he had drawn a sword, therewith went to
the house of Captain Krigier and elsewhere, and had
been guilty of street riot. He was condemned to
pay a fine of fifty guilders, ten more for a treat, and
ten to be laid out at Abram La Nooy's.
Another familiar drinking-vessel was the birch-
beaker, cut from the birch tree, hollowed out, and
instead of being carved, left with the original bark,
varnished inside with the rosin of the pine tree, and
various spices, such as nutmeg, mace, cinnamon, and
cloves, leaving these stuck on the inner surface. Then
there were bocals in the shape of vessels or boats, or
of the various emblems belonging to navigation, com-
merce, and fisheries, engraved on them. In almost
every prominent household and in all the large taverns
these glasses were to be found, because at every dinner
given on special occasions they were used.
The most celebrated drinking-vessel of the day was
the " Clover Leaf with the Stem," which is so often
referred to in the old Dutch plays (see facing page
272). It was found in every tavern of any importance.
A contemporary writer gives the following description
of this famous vessel :
TAVERNS AND EXCISE LAWS 271
On top we see three small round chalices in the shape
of a three-leafed clover leaf. Each chalice has its stem,
which are joined together, and rest on a globe. Each
stem is hollow, and when the chalices are filled, the wine
can be seen running down the stems into the ball-shaped
bowl underneath, so that when the drinker drinks out of
one of the three chalices, or rather sips, the two others
empty into the bowl underneath, otherwise it would be
impossible to drink without spilling the wine. As the
drinkers sip, now from the first, then from the second,
and the third, of the chalices, the wine in the bowl would
be the last; and this accordingly represents the stem of
the clover-leaf. On each of the small chalices hangs a
small plate with a coat-of-arms, which is exchanged for
the arms of the nobleman giving the banquet or in whose
honour it is given. The three chalices, with their bowl
underneath, rested on a large trellis-work globe, all hol-
low, in which a die was to be seen, and according to the
number on the die, which came on top when the cup was
shaken, the drinks were taken. The whole cup rested on
a foot of finely decorated earthenware, with gilt borders.
When drinking out of one of the chalices, the drinker
said, " Three glasses are three drinks, three makes a
' clover leaf.' " The company would answer, " Hey, he is
a man who without spilling can empty a clover leaf and
still be thirsty ! " Then the cup was passed along to the
next.
Hard drinking was the fashion at all family and
public entertainments, as we have already seen. In
1605, at the wedding of the preacher Johannes Serva-
tius, a forty-gallon barrel of wine was drunk. For
burgomasters' and guild dinners the wine was ordered
by the barrel.
In Holland the principal inns were always situated
near the city-gates. The principal city-gate of New
Amsterdam was the ferry-landing, and there was situ-
ated the principal inn of the town. It was originally
272 DUTCH NEW YORK
built by the Company, and was leased to various ferry-
men who managed it as a tavern. It also served the
purposes of a town hall for the City Fathers, and a
room in it was also used as a school. It is a conspicu-
ous landmark on all the old maps of the Dutch towns.
The first ferryman mentioned is Cornelis Dircksen,
In 1642, he deeded a house, garden, and sixteen to
seventeen morgens of land together with the Ferry on
Long Island.
The dinners given in the taverns by order of the
burgomasters, guilds, or other corporate bodies were
usually very elaborate, and consisted principally of
roasts, pasties, and sugared fruit. At the installation
of the new burgomaster of Dordrecht in 1668, there
were brought on the table ten dishes (platters) with
mutton, roast beef, and veal, two dishes with boar's
heads, ten dishes with rabbits, fowls, and pigeons, eight
dishes with pasties of hare, pork, and capons, further
soups, salads, horseradish, crackers, cake, waffles, jel-
lies, and marchpane.
In New Amsterdam many a social and civic dinner
was given in the City Tavern. These were frequently
marred by uninvited revelers, who in their cups invaded
the privacy of inoffensive guests. An early instance
of this occurs in March, 1644, when declaration was
made by Nicholas Coorn, Hans Kierstede, Jan Jacob-
sen, and Gysbert Opdyck, who with the minister and
their wives had been invited to sup with Philip Gerrit-
sen at the City Tavern, conceniing an outrageous attack
on the party made by Captain John Underhill, Lieu-
tenant George Baxter, and other Englishmen. Captain
Underhill was an important personage. Gerritsen peti-
tioned against his unpunished behavior again in May,
and the Fiscal was ordered to obtain satisfaction for
him on the Captain's return.
Frjm old prints
CLOVER LEAF DRINKING CUP OLD DUTCH TANKARD
TAVERNS AND EXCISE LAWS 273
In 1654, a complimentary dinner was given to Stuy-
vesant. Unfortunately the menu is not on record.
At a meeting in the City Hall, Dec. 12, 1654,
where were assembled the Worshipful Heeren Martin
Krigier, Allard Anthony, P. L. Vander Grift, Will.
Beekman, P. v. Couwenhoven, Oloff Stevensen, Johan
Nefius, and Cornells van Tienhoven, it was unani-
mously resolved :
Whereas the Rt. Honble Director General intends to
depart, the Burgomasters and Schepens shall compliment
him before he take his gallant voyage, and for this pur-
pose shall provide a gay repast on next Wednesday noon,
at the City Hall in the Council Chamber. Whereupon the
list of what was required was made out and what was
considered necessary was ordered.
The authorities used the City Tavern for their busi-
ness meetings and subsequent dinners. On Feb. 26,
1658, Egbert van Borssum was credited with the
amount of his bill for wine and liquor furnished the
Director and Council and other public officers.
In September of the same year, some of the most
important men in the community had a splendid din-
ner at this hostelry, and some misunderstanding and
dispute led the host and his wife to go to court for
payment. They exhibited an account demanding a
balance of 310.4 florins from Captain Augustyn Beau-
lieu for entertainment given by him. The Captain
wanted to pay only half the amount, because the others
shared in the other half. Jacob Huges and Simon
Felle declared that they were invited by the Captain,
but that they would pay their part. Egbert said that
Captain Beaulieu ordered the dishes and agreed for the
repast. Captain Beaulieu said there were fourteen
of them; half of which he individually was to pay
18
274 DUTCH NEW YORK
for, and the others the other half. He also offered
to pay for the absent. Captain Roselyn declared he
assisted in agreeing for the repast. Annetie van Bors-
sum said that Captain Beaulieu alone agreed for the
meals, and therefore looks to him. Captain Beaulieu
was asked if he had any objection to the account, and
answered, " No, except to the fl. 30 for trouble and
waiting and fl. 3 for cleaning the things." The court
decreed that Captain Beaulieu should have to pay
Egbert van Borssum 250 gl. 4 stiv. 8 pence, deducting
20 fl. charged too much for trouble, and that the land-
lord should collect the remaining money from Adriaan
Vincent, Simon Felle, Nicolaas Boot, Mr. Jacob Huges,
and Jan Perier, and if the aforesaid persons could
prove Captain Beaulieu had invited them, he was
then ordered to pay for them. This must have been
a very fine dinner to cost fifty dollars a plate, present
value !
There were evidently various grades of tap-houses,
from the bare cellar where a discharged soldier or old
good wife drew beer for the common laborers to the
well-appointed inn. Thus, in 1654, Adriaen Jansen
from Leyden received the patent of a lot of land in
Albany " north of the highway, on condition that the
house to be erected thereon be not an ordinary tippling
house, but an inn for travellers." In the same year,
Symon Joosten received permission to keep a tavern
over the Ferry, in place of Cornells Dircksen Hooch-
lant, for the convenience of travelers and there to retail
beer and wines. For this he paid one hundred guilders
net the first year.
There must have been taverns as well as mere tap-
rooms long before this, however, because in an action
for slander in March, 1639, " Cornells Cool declared
that Grietje Reyniers was discharged for improper
TAVERNS AND EXCISE LAWS 275
conduct when a waiting-girl at Pieter de Winter's tav-
ern in New Amsterdam."
The government was fully alive to the evils of ex-
cessive drinking, and early tried to stop it. Thus, in
1638, Kieft and the Council have observed that " much
mischief and perversity is daily occasioned by immod-
erate drinking ; therefore, they forbid all persons from
now henceforth selling any wine on pain of forfeiting
25 guilders and the wines found in their houses, except-
ing only the Store, where wine can be procured at
a fair price and where it will be issued in moderate
quantity."
This did not have the desired effect of stopping the
illicit traffic; for, four years later, the Council fol-
lowed the example of the States General in punishing
tavern brawling. The preamble of the law paints a
dark picture of prevailing conditions :
We hear daily, God help us, of many accidents, caused
for the most part by quarrels, drawing of knives and
fighting, and the multitude of taverns and low groggeries,
ill conducted, together with the favorable opportunities
which all turbulent persons, murderers and other lawless
people have for running away and consequently escaping
condign punishment ; therefore we enact, agreeably to
the law passed last year in Holland by the High and
Mighty Lords States General that no one shall draw a
knife, much less wound any person under penalty of
fl. 50, or to work three months with the negroes in chains.
On July 23, 1648, Abraham Pietersen's tavern was
closed in consequence of a man, Gerrit Clomp, having
been killed there. In 1641, Kieft and his advisers,
having received complaints that some of the inhabi-
tants here were " in the habit of tapping beer during
Divine Service, and of making use of small foreign
276 DUTCH NEW YORK
Measures, which tends to the dishonour of ReHgion
and the ruin of this State," forbid the use of any meas-
ure but that of Amsterdam, Holland. Tapping was
also prohibited after ten p. m.; the vaeji (four pints)
was to cost not exceeding eight stivers. The penalty
was twenty-five guilders and forfeiture of the beer,
besides three months' exclusion from the privilege of
tapping. The officer who was appointed to look after
the matter was Adriaen Swits. On Dec. 20, 1642, he
declared in court that the beer he got at Jan Snedeker's
was short of measure.
There was no excise law in New Netherland till
the year 1644. Beer and spirits were imported by the
Company and sold at their warehouses, and private
individuals received from the Directors the right to
brew. On Feb. 16, 1642, Director Kieft leased to
Philip Gerritsen the Company's tavern at a rent of
three hundred guilders, with the right to retail the
Company's wines and brandy, on which he was to be
allowed a profit of six stivers the can. A well and
a brewhouse were to be constructed in the rear. By
this date the bulk of the beer consumed was brewed
here; there were already several breweries. Thus, on
Aug. 26, 1641, Hendrick Jansen deeded to Maryn
Adriaensen a house, barn, and arable land, except the
brewhouse and kettles therein.
One of those who evidently sold liquors without the
necessary privilege was Jan Schepmoes; for, on June
10, 1638, he was orderd to " entertain no more sailors
nor tap wine, hereafter on pain of banishment." Di-
rector Kieft would seem to have encroached on the
Company's privileges for his own profit for a time;
for on Feb. 5, 1650, " William Hendricks swore that
Kieft in 1640 engaged him at 25 guilders a month
on Staten Island to distil brandy, but after six or seven
TAVERNS AND EXCISE LAWS 277
months Kieft found it expedient to let the Brandy
be."
Director Kieft, in the eyes of the majority of the
New Amsterdam burghers, was directly responsible
for the calamitous Indian war, which brought the prov-
ince to the verge of ruin. The necessity for raising
money to meet the public expenses was the immediate
cause of the first excise laws here. In June, 1644,
the Council had already raised
as much money as we could obtain on bills of exchange
drawn on the Honble. Directors ; and Whereas, we are
now devoid of all means, and despair of immediately re-
ceiving any assistance from Holland, in this our necessity ;
therefore we are constrained to find out some plan to pay
the soldiers, or else must dismiss them, which according
to all appearances, will lead to the utter ruin of the coun-
try, especially as the harvest is at hand whereby people
must live and fodder be procured for the remaining cattle ;
for neither grain nor hay can be cut without soldiers.
These matters being maturely considered, and all things
being duly weighed with the advice of the Eight men
chosen by the Commonalty, no better nor more suitable
means can be found in the premises, than to impose some
duties on those articles from which the good inhabitants
will experience least inconvenience, as the scarcity of
money is sufficiently general.
We have therefore enacted and ordained, and do hereby
enact and ordain, that there shall be paid on each half
barrel of beer tapt by the tavern keepers, two guilders,
one-half payable by the brewer and one-half by the
tapster ; the burgher who does not retail it, to pay half
as much ; on each quart of Spanish wine and brandy, four
stivers ; French wine, two stivers to be paid by the
tapsters. On each merchantable beaver purchased within
our limits and brought here to the fort, one guilder ; the
three-quarters and halves in proportion. All on pain of
forfeiture of the goods, to be prosecuted by the officer or
278 DUTCH NEW YORK
the collector, to be thereunto appointed; one-third for
the informer, one-third for the officer, and the remainder
for the Hon^'^ Company. All this provisionally, until the
good God grant us peace or we receive succor from
Holland.
It will be noticed that it was with some trepidation
and in an apologetic tone that such an unpopular law
was published ; and it is intimated that it is only a war
tax, and therefore only temporary in character. Once
being imposed, however, the source of revenue was too
fruitful for the law ever to be repealed. Thencefor-
ward also, for many years, the authorities did not have
to worry about illegal tapping, since it was distinctly
to the advantage of the officer of the law to be vigilant
in hunting for infractions of it, to say nothing of the
activities of his casual assistant, the informer. The
Fiscal was keen on the scent of the smugglers, as they
were called, that is, those who tapped without having
paid the excise. He was doubtless soon able to stock
quite a respectable cellar of his own with the fines
collected. Thus, we read on July i6, 1644:
The Fiscal prosecuted Laurens Cornelissen for smug-
gling, and the latter was condemned to pay 10 gallons of
wine to the Fiscal and his friends.
The law caused great discontent. In 1649, the
authors of the " Remonstrance " complained that when
Director Kieft forced the eight men to impose a beer
excise he promised it should last only till the arrival of
a Company's ship, a new Director, or till the end of
the war, " The beer belonging to the brewers who
would not consent to an excise was distributed among
the soldiers as a prize, and so it has continued." To
this, Tienhoven replied that the burghers had no cause
to complain about the excise, because the trader,
burgher, farmer, and all others except the vintners, laid
TAVERNS AND EXCISE LAWS 279
in as much wine and beer as they pleased, free of
excise. They were merely obliged to enter it so that
the quantity might be ascertained. The vintners paid
three guilders per tun on beer, and one stiver per can
on wine; this they received back from their daily cus-
tomers, and from the traveler from New England,
Virginia, and elsewhere.
The authorities next attempted to enforce some de-
gree of decency in the taverns by closing them at nine
p. M., and during church hours on Sunday. The
immediate cause of this was a serious drunken brawl
during the interregnum between Director Kieft's retire-
ment from office and Peter Stuyvesant's arrival. This
is fully explained in the ordinance of May i, 1647:
Whereas we have experienced the insolence of some of
our inhabitants when drunk their quarrelling, fighting and
hitting each other even on the Lords day of rest of which
we have ourselves witnessed the painful example last
Sunday in contravention of law, to the contempt and dis-
grace of our person and office, to the annoyance of our
neighbours and to the disregard, nay contempt of Gods
holy laws and ordinances, which command us to keep
holy in His honor His day of rest, the Sabbath, and
forbid all bodily injury and murder, as well as the means
and inducements, leading thereto, —
Therefore, by the advice of the late Director-General
and of our Council and to the end, that instead of God's
curse falling upon us we may receive his blessing, we
order all brewers, tapsters and innkeepers, that none of
them shall upon the Lord's day of rest by us called Sun-
day, entertain people, tap or draw any wine, beer or strong
waters of any kind and under any pretext before 2 of the
clock, in case there is no preaching or else before 4, ex-
cept only to a traveller and those who are daily customers,
fetching the drinks to their own homes, — tfiis under the
penalty of being deprived of their occupation and besides
a fine of 6 Carolus gilders for each person, who shall be
28o DUTCH NEW YORK
found drinking wine or beer within the stated time. We
also forbid all innkeepers, landlords and tapsters to keep
their houses open on this day or any other day of the
week in the evening after the ringing of the bell, which
will be rung about 9 o. c., or to give wine, beer or strong
waters to any, except to their family, travellers and table
boarders under the like penalty.
The difference between the directorship of Stuyvesant
and that of Kieft resembled that between the rule of
Solomon and that of Rehoboam over the Children of
Israel. Where Kieft chastised them with rods, Stuyve-
sant chastised them with scorpions. There was a good
deal of bigotry and Puritan persecution in the nature
of old " Silver Leg " ; and on his arrival, among other
reforms, he immediately proceeded to carry the regu-
lation of the liquor traffic still further. The new laws
of 1648 contained the following provisions: (i) No
new taproom, or tavern, should be opened without
the consent of the Director and Council. (2) Tav-
erns, taprooms, and inns already established might
continue for four consecutive years, but the owners
should be obliged to engage in some other honest
business with a convenient and decent burgher's dwell-
ing to the ornament of the city, each acording to his
condition, social position, and means. (3) The tavern-
keepers and tapsters were allowed to continue their
business for four years on condition that they should
not transfer their business nor let their houses and
dwellings without the consent of the Director and
Council. (4) The tavern-keepers and tapsters were
not allowed to sell beer, wine, brandy or strong waters
to Indians, or provide them with it by intermediaries.
(5) To prevent all fighting and mishaps they should
daily report to the officer whether anybody had been
wounded or hurt at their houses. (6) Unseasonable
TAVERNS AND EXCISE LAWS 281
night tippling and intemperate drinking on Sunday
was forbidden, and tavern-keepers and tapsters were
prohibited from selHng anything by the small measure
in the evening after the ringing of the bell, nor should
they sell beer or liquor to anybody, travelers and table
boarders excepted, on Sunday before three o'clock p.m.,
when divine service was over. (7) It was necessary
to report to the Receiver and obtain a certificate be-
fore they could receive beer, wine, or distilled waters
into their houses or cellars. (8) All tavern-keepers
and tapsters desiring to continue in their business should
present themselves to the Director-General and Coun-
cil eight days after the publication of these rules and
promise solemnly to observe them.
The evil of unreasonable and intemperate drinking
"to the shame and derision of ourselves and our nation"
was fully recognized by the authorities. In the pre-
amble to the above law, the Director and Council
speak in an almost despairing tone of the constant and
general infraction of their " good orders and well-
meant laws." They frankly recognize the reasons,
which were
that this way of earning a living and the easily made
profits therefrom please many and divert them from their
first calling, trade, and occupation, so that they become
tapsters, and that one full fourth of the City of New
Amsterdam has been turned into taverns for the sale of
brandy, tobacco and beer. This causes not only the neglect
of honest handicraft and business, but also the debauch-
ing of the common man and the Company's servants, and,
what is still worse, of the young people from childhood
up, who seeing the improper proceedings of their parents
and imitating them, leave the path of virtue and become
disorderly. Add to this the frauds, smuggling, cheating,
the underhand sale of beer and brandy to the Indians, as
shown by daily experience, may God better it, which may
282 DUTCH NEW YORK
only lead to new troubles between us and them. If be-
sides these some honest tavernkeepers are licensed and
open their places for the service and benefit of the trav-
eller, the stranger and the inhabitant, honestly paying their
charges and excise dues and living in convenient houses,
either their own, or as tenants, which increases their ex-
penses, they are noticeably injured in their licensed and
approved business by such fraudulent innkeepers : this we
wish to prevent.
With one house out of every four in the town a
beer-shop, we cannot wonder that the authorities should
try to devise means to curtail the trade and the dis-
orders arising therefrom.
The burghers of New Amsterdam did not take
kindly to any laws that interfered with their pleasures
or personal liberties; and therefore the Director-
General was forced to issue one year later a new ordi-
nance calling attention to the injury done to the excise
farmer and tapsters, who made it their only business :
We hereby order, that no inhabitant, who makes it a
business to brew, shall be allowed to tap, sell, or give
away beer, wine, or strong water by the small measure
excepting at meal times, not even to table boarders, whom
they may pretend to board, under which pretext we have
seen many frauds perpetrated, we also order that hence-
forth no beer or wine shall be removed from any brewery,
cellar or warehouse nor moved in the houses of the tap-
sters nor brought into them, unless it is previously re-
ported to the Secretary and his carriers or porters have
obtained a certificate of the report, signed by the Secre-
tary's first clerk.
Six years later ( 1655 ) , the laws were made even more
stringent : " Every tavern-keeper had to take out quar-
terly a license and pay therefor six guilders." The
hours of Sunday closing were extended; landlords
TAVERNS AND EXCISE LAWS 283
were forbidden even to give away liquor or to treat
their friends then or after nine o'clock at night on
every day of the week; and, in case of a tavern being
found open, not only the landlord but the guests were
fined. The license was raised the following year by
an ordinance dated Oct. 26, 1656:
Considering that, as well in tapping as in baking, frauds
can be introduced, since there is as yet no guild or certain
body known, . . . from now henceforth no person shall
follow the business unless he first receive a license to trade,
which all tavernkeepers and bakers shall renew every
quarter, paying each time one pound Flemish, on pain of
being suspended from business.
Moreover, the authorities prohibited on Sunday
any ordinary work, such as plowing, sowing, mow-
ing, building, wood-cutting, working in iron or tin,
hunting, fishing, or any business permitted on other
days under a penalty of one pound Flemish ; much
less any lower or unlawful games or exercises, drunk-
enness, frequenting taverns or grogshops, dancing,
card-playing, backgammon, tennis, ball playing, bowl-
ing, ninepins, racing with boats, cars, or wagons,
before, during, or between service, under double the
fine. More especially no tavern-keepers or tapsters
were to allow any clubs to sit during, before, or be-
tween the sermons, nor tap, present, give, or sell,
directly or indirectly, any brandy, wine, beer, or dis-
tilled liquors under the penalty of six guilders, and for
each person found drinking, three guilders ; on Sun-
days or other days after setting of the night watch
or ringing of the bell under like penalty; the inmates
of the family, those attending by order and with con-
sent of magistrates to public business alone excepted.
The city now determined to farm out the excise and
284 DUTCH NEW YORK
therefore published (Nov. i, 1656) "Conditions and
terms whereon [the City] proposes, according to the
laudable custom and order of our Fatherland, to farm
to the highest bidder the Burgher Excise of Wine
and beer: For one anker of brandy, Spanish wine,
distilled waters, or other of such value, 30 stivers.
For an anker of French wine, Rhenish wine, Worm-
wood wine, or other of such value, 15 stivers. For a
tun of good beer, one guilder. For a tun of small
beer, 6 stivers. Larger and small vessels in propor-
tion." Paulus van der Beeck became Farmer for one
year for the sum of 4220 Carolus guilders.
Exceptions were granted in excise payment in cer-
tain cases. Thus, in 1673, the Schout, Burgomasters,
and Schepens resolved that the tapsters outside the
city be allowed to lay in a barrel of strong beer at
burgher excise, at harvest, or the Merry Making, and
at burials both within and without this city, but all
officers belonging to the Fort Willem Hendrick must
pay the full excise, as well as the tapsters themselves,
if they lay in and consume any wines or beer in tap-
sters' houses.
In the eye of the law the most serious offense of
which a tavern-keeper could be guilty was directly or
indirectly selling liquor to the Indians. In 1656, San-
der Toursen and wife were convicted of selling brandy
to the Indians and sentenced to banishment. In 1658,
Paulus Jansen was fined five hundred guilders, and
banished for six years for a similar offense.
Even if we had not the official Jeremiads composed
over that stiff-necked generation, the Court Records
would be sufficiently eloquent of the desecration of the
Sabbath by sinners who were sometimes guilty of
grave offenses. The breaches of the liquor law were
by no means generally so harmless as that of a land-
TAVERNS AND EXCISE LAWS 285
lord refreshing a few Sunday afternoon callers with
a hospitable draught of beer. Card-playing and games
of dice, backgammon, ninepins, etc., were frequently
indulged in out of hours on licensed premises; and
to any one who has ever perused the police court
proceedings in the Monday papers, the excuses given
by the tavern-keepers have a curiously familiar
flavor. Let us take a few specimens of the charges
and the defense offered between the years 1654 and
1664.
On Oct, 19, 1654, the Schout represents that he has
found drinking-clubs on various nights at the house of
Jan Peck, with dancing and entertainment of disorderly
people; " also tapping during Preaching, and that there
was great noise made by drunkards, especially on Sun-
day, at this house, so that he was obliged to remove
one to jail in a cart, which was a most scandalous
affair." Jan did not appear; so the court decided
" on account of his disorderly house-keeping and evil
life tippling, dancing, gaming and other irregularities,
together with tapping at night and on Sunday during
preaching to annul his license." Justice, however, was
very tender-hearted at that day in such cases, for when
Jan wrote that " he is burthened with a houseful of
children and more besides," the court, considering that
he was an old burgher, granted permission to resume
on condition of future good behavior.
The Schout accused Hans Styn of having tapped on
Sunday during divine service, and said that people
had been fighting in his house, and wounded each
other as appears by the blood which was found there.
He requested that Styn's business shall be stopped and
he be fined. Defendant acknowledged to have tapped
on Sunday, but for none except strangers, who came
to eat their usual Sunday meal without having been
286 DUTCH NEW YORK
drunk, or having, to his knowledge, been fighting, or
wounded each other.
In 1658, Andrew Vrydach, mason, for being
intoxicated and fighting during divine service, was
sentenced to lose six months' wages, and to stand
sentinel for a like period ; Ralph Turner for a similar
offense had to stand sentry for six hours a day on six
consecutive days with two muskets on his shoulders.
Hendrick Assueros was fined for selling liquor to
sundry persons, and permitting them to play nine-
pins during divine service. Paulus Turck was fined
one rix-dollar for playing ninepins on Sunday.
Nicasius de Silla prosecutes Dirck Braeck " for
that the defendant on last Sunday afternoon during
the sennon tapped for and gave drink to 3 or 4
different persons. Defendant denies the same; says
he only treated Nicolaes Vareth, Cornells Aersen and
Ide van Vorst and their wives to a drink of beer,
through friendship and good neighbourhood without
taking a penny therefor, as they did him many favours
heretofore when after his cattle." This being a first
offense, the defendant v^^as warned and discharged.
It seems that while the masters were being enter-
tained to a drink of beer by Mr. Braeck, their servants
were taking advantage of their absence to enjoy them-
selves also. De Silla sues Cornells Aersen and Ide van
Vorst " For that their servantmen raced on last Sunday
evening after the Sermon, within the City with horses
and wagons and much noise and singing, from which
great damage and disaster might have arisen. Con-
cludes, therefore, that defendants, or their servants
be condemned each in the fine of £4 Flemish." The
defendants acknowledged that their servants did race
on the previous Sunday within the city, but contended
that they had no knowledge that any damage was
TAVERNS AND EXCISE LAWS 287
caused thereby, or that the same was forbidden by
ordinance. The court, considering the accidents that
might have occurred, and the serious consequences of
the same unless provision be made against it, lined the
defendants, Cornelis Aersen and Ide van Vorst, for the
fault committed by their servants, three guilders each ;
and ordered, further, " that they shall hereafter watch
themselves and their people, so that all dangers and
irregularities be prevented ; else other disposition shall
be made therein."
Andrees Rees's wife was accused of having ninepins
at her house on Sunday during preaching, and the can
and the glass stood on the table. Andrees says he was
not at home, but on the watch, and that there were no
ninepins at his house, nor can the plaintiff say that he
saw drinking at his house during the preaching. Mrs.
Rees " denies that there was any nine pins or drinking
at her house, saying that some came to her house, who
said that Church was out, and that one had a pin and the
other a bowl in the hand, but they did not play. The
Schout states that defendant's wife said she did not
know but Church was out, and offered to compound
with the Schout." Perhaps the good-wife did not
offer the officer enough. Be that as it may, she was
fined six guilders.
Jan Schryver was accused of having tapped half an
hour after evening bell ring; he pleaded that it was
impossible to drive the people out of the house so pre-
cisely, and half an hour passed easily by, before each
one had paid his money. Nevertheless, he was fined
twelve guilders. When Maria Peck was summoned
for having tapped after nine o'clock, she denied it,
saying that two sat in her house, who counted their
money which she owed them, and she did not tap a
drop. Peter Pia was accused of tapping on Sunday
288 DUTCH NEW YORK
after the watch was set and six persons were at his
house; the Schout demanded twenty-five florins' fine
and six guilders for each person. Peter explained that
there were three at his house who were standing up to
leave. He was let off.
On June 2^, 1661, Hendrik Assueros was fined for
selling liquor and permitting ninepins playing during
divine service. In 1662, " Andries Joghimsen denies
having tapped on Sunday during preaching to negroes ;
and swears that he gave no drink directly or indirectly,
himself or by his wife, at the time when Steenwyck's
negro played the Jewsharp at Covert Loockerman's."
He was excused.
In many of the low taverns, especially those fre-
quented by the soldiers and sailors, drinking-bouts often
terminated in drunken brawls and fighting with fists,
knives, cutlasses, and pikes, sometimes with fatal re-
sults. Thus, in July, 1648, Abraham Pietersen's tav-
ern was closed by the authorities on account of a
man named Gerrit Clomp having been killed there.
When closing-time arrived, and the tap-rooms dis-
gorged their drunken patrons, the streets were often
the scenes of riotous conduct, such as breaking windows
and lamps, breaking into inoffensive citizens' houses to
demand drink, and assaulting anybody who objected
to their violence. Proceedings against night-brawlers
frequently occur in the Court Records.
Even in the better class of taverns quarrels, assaults,
and stabbing affrays were not uncommon among the
class of citizens who patronized them, — sea-captains,
the Company's officers and servants, and burghers who,
except when under the influence of liquor, were usually
peacefully inclined. The best tavern in the city was
not exempt from such scenes, as we have seen. In
1647, ^ customer named Symon Root, who lost his
<
Z
a:
TAVERNS AND EXCISE LAWS 289
right ear "in a broil at the great Tavern," appHed to
the Council, and received a certificate reciting the fact.
This was necessary when he traveled abroad, where the
loss might have been attributed to a crime, committed
here or elsewhere, the punishment of which was ear
cropping or boring.
Many examples might be given of the excesses com-
mitted by the frequenters of taverns; but the follow-
ing will suffice. On Aug. 8, 1644, Peter Wolphersen
sued three soldiers for cutting his wainscot with their
cutlasses. On pleading guilty, two of them were sen-
tenced to ride the Wooden Horse for three hours ;
and the third, it being his second offense, had to stand
three hours under the gallows, with a cutlass in his
hand. In 1660, Frans Janzen and Abel Hardenbroeck
were fined twenty guilders each because they " at night
and at unseasonable hours in company with some sol-
diers created an uproar and great insolence in the street
by breaking windows."
Typical tavern interiors of the period face pages
266 and 288.
19
CHAPTER XIII
SPORTS, FESTIVALS, AND PASTIMES
IN the Seventeenth Century, the majority of people
were fond of games that required violent exer-
cise, such as disc-throwing and all varieties of ball
games. Noblemen, burghers, and peasants shared this
taste. Games of " short ball," " long ball," balls driven
through gates or wickets, Balls thrown against a stake,
balls struck by the gloved or ungloved hand, racket,
stick, club, or mallet, subject to various rules and known
under various names, such as tennis, golf, paille-maille,
bowls, skittles, ninepins, hockey, etc., were favorite
pastimes with the New Netherlanders.
The game of Kactccn was played by striking the ball
against a post for the adversary to drive it back after
its rebound. Sometimes the ball was solid, filled with
horsehair, and struck with a club or racket, and some-
times a soft hollow ball struck by the hand or fist was
used. In the early days it was a nobleman's game.
The ball court for this game occupied a pretty large
square, the larger the space the better. Before the
game began, a tree, wall, or post was selected for the
goal. The citizens and farmers also enjoyed themselves
at these games, but they were so noisy that they were
not allowed in churchyards or convent grounds. In
Dordrecht there was a city golf-link. In the Seven-
teenth Century, when golf became a national game,
the links were made outside of the cities, in the neigh-
ago
SPORTS, FESTIVALS, AND PASTIMES 291
borhood of which gradually taverns were erected, which
bought or rented the courts or links. The ball was
struck with the bare palm ; but those who had tender
hands wore thick double gloves, while some persons, in
order to strike a still stronger blow, strengthened the
inside of the gloves with cord. The women used a
kind of racket made of netting with a handle at the
end ; and a lighter kind of ball was made for their use.
The Klos, or Klootbaan, was a game of princes in the
Middle Ages, but during the Seventeenth Century it
was a burgher's game, and finally descended to the
farmer class. At the end of a long alley two iron
staves or pieces of wood were fastened in the ground
and made to join at the top so as to form a sort of
gate, and through this gate, from the end of the alley
and at a set distance, the player had to throw a round
disc. If he missed, he h,ad to take up the disc where
it landed and throw until he hit one of the posts, which
counted one. Throwing through the gate counted two ;
and this continued until one of the players had reached
the number of twelve, or any other number agreed upon.
Not less primitive, but certainly not less liked, was
the kingi^in or skittle game, or pin bowling, — called
jcu dc quille in French, and derived, according to Du
Cange, from the old Dutch word " bell " or " clock,"
as the pins were wide at the bottom and more or less
in the shape of a bell. In the earliest accounts of the
Counts of Holland this game is mentioned, and a num-
ber of early authors show how popular it was with
knights and nobles. In the Seventeenth Century, there
was hardly a tavern without a wooden or stone plat-
form where the game of skittles could be played.
Sometimes there were covered alleys with the nine
pyramid-shaped pins, one of which was provided with
a knob or even a crown which was called the kingpin.
292 DUTCH NEW YORK
These were often very heavy, and to knock them down
with the disc required a strong arm. Children had toy
games then as now. The single disc game was also
a favorite pastime. This was the rolling of a disc on
its rim over a certain space of ground. Cleverly thrown,
it would roll a long distance. When it fell, it was
thrown again. He who covered the most ground, in
a certain number of throws, while the disc rolled upright
won the game. This game was generally played in
winter on the ice, and also by the fishermen on the
sands, where the smooth surface afforded a fine playing-
ground.
Ni Prizes were offered for " Clubbing the Cat." This
game generally took place on the square in front of
the inn, or on the bowling-green, where from two heavy
spiles driven into the ground a strong rope was
stretched. In the centre of the rope hung a lightly
cooped barrel in which was a live cat. At the appointed
hour all who wished to throw the club gave their names,
and paid an entrance fee. It was also agreed that the
winner should pay for three or four bottles of wine,
and the landlord gave each of the players a bottle.
When a sufficient number of players had entered, the
name and number of each was written on a board with
chalk, and drawing took place. Then a line was drawn
on the ground or a long pole was laid down to show
the distance from which the " throwing " was allowed.
Now number one stepped forward with his club, which
he threw with great force at the barrel. The winner
was he who broke the cask and let the cat escape.
Sometimes the cat, too dazed or frightened to jump
out of the barrel when it was split open, only fell out.
In every case the winner was always he whose throw
made the cat leave the barrel ; and as soon as the cat
was out, it was chased, and he who caught it got a bottle
SPORTS, FESTIVALS, AND PASTIMES 293
of wine as a prize. Sometimes a peacock or goose was
used; and sometimes, instead of a barrel, the bird
was simply tied to a rope and killed.
Another favorite game was " Pulling the Goose." (/
A goose with its head well greased was fastened to
a rope that was stretched across a road, and the sport
was for a man to try to catch the bird by the head and
carry it off as he rode on horseback at a gallop or drove
beneath the bird in a cart going at full speed. This
was also called " Riding the Goose." A variation of
the game was made by stretching the rope across a ditch
or canal or stream, under which a boat was swiftly
rowed, and the man, standing on a plank, tried to carry
off the bird in the same way, as shown in the illustra-
tion facing page 296. If he missed, the plank tipped
and he fell into the water; and then he had to swim
back to the boat and repeat the attempt. There were
always several contestants, and the game was extremely
popular. It belonged especially to the Shrove Tuesday
pastimes, and was frequently prohibited in New Am-
sterdam and Albany. Stuyvesant called it " an un-
profitable, heathenish and Popish festival and a perni-
cious custom," and prohibited it, but some people per-
sisted in Pulling the Goose and were fined and impris-
oned in consequence, " in order to prevent more sins,
debaucheries and calamities." On Feb. 19, 1654, Har-
men Smeman and divers farm servants were examined
on a charge of " Plucking the Goose," and fines were
imposed. Two others were condemned to imprison-
ment for the same offense and for threatening the
Director-General. At the request of the Burgomasters
and Schepens, the two prisoners were released from
confinement two days later.
The prosecution of these men for Pulling the Goose
caused friction between the upper and lower court.
294 DUTCH NEW YORK
Tiie story is told in the following extract from the
records, Feb. i6, 1654:
The Hon. Director General has reported to the Council
that both the Burgomasters and the majority of the Sche-
pens appeared before his Honor on the 25th Instant, rep-
resenting themselves aggrieved by the Director General
and Council having without their knowledge interdicted
and forbidden certain farmers' servants to ride the goose
on the feast of Bacchus at Shrove-tide for reasons the
Director General and Council thereunto moving. Besides
its never having been practised here in their time, it is
moreover altogether unprofitable, unnecessary and censur-
able for subjects and neighbours to celebrate such pagan
and popish feasts and to practise such evil customs in this
Country, even though they may be tolerated and looked
at through the fingers in some places in Fatherland.
Which interdict and prohibition was by the Court Mes-
senger Claes van Elsland served on the farmers' servants
the day before the act, who, notwithstanding such ser-
vice, nevertheless in contempt of the supreme authority,
violated the same. Whereupon, some delinquents were
legally cited and summoned before the Director General
and Council by their Fiscal to be examined and mulcted
for their contempt as may be proper. Two or three of
them behaving in an insolent and contumacious manner,
threatening, cursing, deriding and laughing at the chief
magistracy were therefore, as is customary committed to
prison, by which the Burgomasters and Schepens esteem
themselves particularly aggrieved in their quality, because
the Director General and Council have done so without
their consent and knowledge ; as if we can issue no order
or forbid no rabble to celebrate the feast of Bacchus with-
out the knowledge, advice and consent of Burgomasters
and Schepens, much less have power to correct such per-
sons as transgress the Christian and Holy Commandment,
without the cognizance and consent of an Inferior Court
of Justice.
The Director General and Council appreciating their
SPORTS, FESTIVALS, AND PASTIMES 295
office, authority and commission better than others, hereby
notify the Burgomasters and Schepens that the estabhsh-
ing of an Inferior Court of Justice under the name and
title of Schout, Burgomasters and Schepens or Commis-
saries, does in no wise infringe on or diminish the power
and authority of the Director General and Council to
enact any Ordinances or issue particular interdicts, espe-
cially those which tend to the glory of God, the best in-
terests of the inhabitants, or will prevent more sins, scan-
dals, debaucheries and crimes, and properly correct, fine
and punish obstinate transgressors. What is solely the
qualification of Schout, Burgomasters and Schepens, and
for what purpose they are appointed, appear sufficiently
from the Instructions given to them, by which they have
to abide and conform themselves, without henceforth
troubling and tormenting the Inspector General individu-
ally about any enacted ordinance, law or order, penalty
or punishment issued and executed against and concerning
the contraveners thereof by previous resolution of the
Director General and Council.
The common people were not inclined tamely to sub-
mit to interference with their pleasures, for, on Feb.
8, 1655:
Corn^ van Tienhoven informed the Court that he had
been informed that the country people intended Riding the
Goose again as they did last year, and enquired therefore
if their worships would do anything to oppose it ; that it.
was forbidden by resolution of the Supreme Councillors
and prevented. Therefore it was decided that the Fiscal
Tienhoven shall, ex officio, seasonably declare the same
to be illegal.
On Feb. 26, 1658, an order was issued refusing per-
mission to the farmers and their men in the vicinity
of New Amsterdam to " pull the goose."
Cats and hares were also used for this cruel sport,
296 DUTCH NEW YORK
as we learn from a proclamation at Albany in 1677,
" prohibiting all misdemeanors which have occurred
here on Shrove Tuesday, viz., Riding at a goose, cat,
hare, etc., etc., on a penalty of £25 seawan."
Not less popular was the game called " bird cutting."
A cock, a duck, or any other bird, was hung head down-
wards from a rope, and the contestants were blind-
folded and placed at a certain distance from the bird.
The game was to cut off the bird's head ; and whoever
was lucky enough to do so, received the bird as a
prize.
The fondness of the Dutch for archery and shoot-
ing with the crossbow is too well known for detailed
description of their shooting-matches and galleries.
The sport was a favorite one in New Amsterdam. We
learn that on June 16, 1644, Henry Hewit sued Gerrit
Jacobson for destroying his eye with an arrow. Jacob-
son pleaded that more persons than he were shooting
arrows at the time; and. the next court day he pro-
duced two witnesses who were discharging arrows, but
they denied having hit the plaintiff.
The vast amount of game afforded the sportsman
great opportunity for pleasure. The woods were full
of birds and deer, and the marshes of water-fowl. It
would seem that birds were plentiful in the city itself,
for it is ordered, on Oct. 9, 1652, that guns are not
to be fired at partridges or other game within the limits
of the city.
The following prohibition on June 12, 1657, shows
how fond the New Amsterdam carters were of racing :
No person shall gallop or race within the gates and
walls of this city with any wagon, cart, or sleigh, and
no driver shall sit on such, whether drawn by oxen or
horses, but walk alongside the same; and if he shall be
found sitting or standing thereon, he shall pay a fine of
O
o
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D
Oh
SPORTS, FESTIVALS, AND PASTIMES 297
one pound Flemish, and be interdicted six weeks from
using such vehicle and the draught cattle thereof.
Cards, chess, backgammon, dice-throwing, were
among the pleasures of the age; billiards, too, were
not unknown. Francis Hulin has one " old billiard
table" (£3) in 1702. Cards appear in m .ny of the
inventories and lists of shop-goods. Lawrence Deldyke
had three gross and two dozen cards in 1692, and John
Coesart one hundred and eighty-seven packs of cards
of various qualities in 1700.
Not only were games indulged in at home and at
taverns, but there were special gaming-houses. In
1 68 1, for instance, John Tudor was fined by the
Mayor's Court for keeping a gaming-house. A picture
by Jan Steen and variously known as The Parrot Cage
and the Backgammon Players faces page 202.
A game that was doubtless indulged in, especially
in the early days, was one spoken of by De Rasieres
in 1626, which he saw the Indians play:
They are very fond of a game they call senneca, played
with some round rushes, similar to the Spanish feather-
grass which they understand how to shuffle and deal as
though they were playing with cards ; and they win from
each other all that they possess.
Saint Nicholas was the patron saint of New Am-
sterdam. The choice was most appropriate, for he
was the patron of sailors and all Dutch trading-towns.
He was the patron of Amsterdam and other emporiums
of Dutch trade. The church in the Fort bore his name,
and his festival was celebrated here with as much fervor
as at home. Saint Nicholas Eve (December 5) was
particularly a children's holiday, and was anticipated
by them with feelings of delight and curiosity, for the
298 DUTCH NEW YORK
good children were always rewarded with presents in
their shoes, cakes and sweetmeats, while the naughty
ones received a rod or switch. Great preparations were
made for the festival. Nothing was more important
than the Saint Nichola-s cake, or bread, sometimes called
"Saint Claes baking." Young people assembled at vari-
ous houses to paste gold and silver leaf on these Saint
Nicholas cakes, — an amusement called cake-pasting
(koek-plakken), after which usually followed a sup-
per, dancing, and a frolic. Many songs were sung on
these occasions, among which was the following:
Sancte Claus goed heijlig Man !
Trek uw beste tabacrt an,
Reis daer me'e na Amsterdam,
Van Amsterdam na Spanje,
Daer appelen van Oranje,
Daer appelen van Granaten,
Die rollen door de straten.
Sancte Claus, mijn goeden vriend,
Ik heb u alien tijd gediend !
Wilt u my nu wat geven,
Dan dien ik u al mijn leven.
Santa Claus, good holy man !
Put on your tabard, the best you can,
Go clad in it to Amsterdam.
From Amsterdam then go to Spain.
There golden apples
And also pomegranates
Roll through the streets.
Santa Claus, my dear good friend,
I have always served you;
If you will now give me something,
I will serve you all my life long.
This verse is still sung by the children of Holland.
Another ran :
Saint Nicholas, Bishop, put your tall hat on, give the good
children something sweet, and give the bad ones a spanking.
SPORTS, FESTIVALS, AND PASTIMES 299
Another was :
SINTER KLAAS, BISSCHOP
Zet je hooge muts op;
Trek je langen tabbaard aan,
Rydt er mee naar Amsterdam ;
Amsterdam en Spanje,
Appeltjes van Oranje;
Appeltjes van de boomen.
Ryke, ryke Oome;
Ryke, ryke juffertjes
Dragen lange mouwen;
Hansje willen wy trouwen,
Hansje die sprong over de sloot;
Onze Hans die brak Zijn poot,
Tien pond suiker !
Leg de iepel
Ob de ketel ;
Brandewyn met suiker!
SANTA CLAUS, BISHOP
Put your high cap on;
Put your long tabard on,
Ride with it to Amsterdam;
Amsterdam and Spain,
Apples of Orange;
Apples from the trees,
Rich, rich uncle;
Rich, rich damsels
Wearing long sleeves;
Little Hans v^ill you marry me?
Little Hans he jumped over the ditch;
Our Hans he broke his leg.
Ten pounds of sugar!
Lay the spoon
Upon the kettle;
Brandywine with sugar.
Returning to their homes, or when their guests had
gone, from the cake-pasting, the children placed their
wooden shoes (klompen) outside of the bedroom door
or by the side of the chimney. Saint Nicholas was
supposed to fill these with presents.
300 DUTCH NEW YORK
Saint Nicholas Eve has always been a favorite sub-
ject with the Little Dutch Masters. Jan Steen painted
two graphic pictures, one of which faces this page.
The painter himself and his family are represented.
The interest centres in the little girl, who has a pail
full of toys on her left arm while she holds in her
hands a doll dressed in the garb of the saint with
halo on its head, and her older brother, who is crying
because his shoe contains a switch, which his sister is
handing to him. His grandmother is beckoning to him
in the distance; she may have something hidden be-
hind the curtains of the bed. A younger brother, who
is about to ride on his father's stick, points to the un-
happy child with heartless derision. Another son is
explaining to a baby and a younger brother how Saint
Nicholas came down the chimney. By the side of
Vrouw Steen is a table filled with sweets and cakes,
and a basket of cakes. Saint Nicholas bread, and wafers
is standing on the floor. Leaning against the table is
a large cake which has been decorated by the cake-
pasters with figures of cocks.
Among the special sweets belonging to the Saint
Nicholas festival, marsepein (marchpane) or almond-
paste held a conspicuous place.
A great many confections were undoubtedly im-
ported, but the bakers and cooks in New Amsterdam
were skilful, and ceremonial cakes and breads were
made here for every festival. That such delicacies
were made in rich houses we know from the kitchen
utensils mentioned in the inventories ; for instance,
Cornelis Steenwyck had " tin ware to bake sugar
cakes " and a " marsepyn pan " worth £2. Books of
gold leaf and boxes of gold leaf are often found in the
New Amsterdam inventories, doubtless for the decora-
tion of holiday cakes, Twelfth Night beans, and sugar
ST. NICHOLAS EVK
JAN STEKN
SPORTS, FESTIVALS, AND PASTIMES 301
plums. Mrs. Drisius and Mrs. Van Varick, for in-
stance, each had a parcel of leaf gold. Presents were
exchanged on Saint Nicholas Eve by the children of the
rich ; and all the poor of the city — widows, orphans,
and helpless old people — were generously remembered
by a good meal.
The next festivals to come were Christmas, New
Year's Day, and Twelfth Night or Three Kings' Even-
ing. Little business was transacted during the holiday
season. From a proclamation issued in December,
1655, we read:
Whereas Christmas is at hand, the Court resolve and
order that, according to the custom of our Fatherland, no
ordinary Court day, or meeting shall be held for eight
days after Christmas.
New Year's Day partook somewhat of the character
of Sunday and days of special Thanksgiving. Al-
though visits were exchanged, the day was strictly
observed, and the same ordinances were issued in Stuy-
vesant's time for New Year's and May Day. For in-
stance, that issued in December, 1655, reads:
Whereas experience has manifested and shown us, that
on New Year's and May days much drunkenness and
other irregularities are committed besides other sorrowful
accidents such as woundings frequently arising therefrom,
by Firing, May planting, and Carousing, in addition to
the unnecessary waste of powder, to prevent which for
the future, the Director General and Council expressly
forbid that from now henceforward there shall be, within
this Province of New Netherland on New Years or May
Days, any Firing of Guns, or any Planting of May Poles,
or any beating of Drums, or any treating with Brandy,
wine or Beer ; and all such and greater dangers and
mischiefs to prevent, a fine of twelve guilders shall be
302 DUTCH NEW YORK
imposed for the first offence ; double for the second, and
an arbitrary Correction for the third — to wit one third
for the poor, and one third for the Officer and one third
for the Informer,
On Jan. 27, 1656, Governor Stuyvesant proclaimed
a day of fasting and prayer for God's blessing protec-
tion and prosperity in trade and agriculture but princi-
pally for a righteous and thankful use of his blessings
and benefits. The which the better to observe and prac-
tise with greater unanimity, We interdict and forbid, on
the aforesaid day of Fasting and Prayer during Divine
Service, all labour. Tennis-playing Ball-playing, Hunting,
Fishing, Travelling, Ploughing, Sowing, Mowing and
other unlawful games as Gambling and Drunkenness, on
pain of arbitrary correction and punishment already en-
acted against the same.
On Dec. 28, 1656, the former prohibition against
any person shooting or drumming, etc., on New Year's
Day, or planting May-poles on May day, was renewed.
The next festival on the calendar was Twelfth Night,
or Three Kings' Night (January 6). On this day young
people and children were fond of dancing around three
candles placed in the ground, one of which was black,
called the " Moor," or " Melkert," from Melchior, ac-
cording to tradition King of Kranganor. This candle-
jumping often occasioned fire and other accidents, and
was finally forbidden; but, like all other prohibited
games, it was frequently indulged in. While the chil-
dren were amusing themselves in the streets in this way,
the housewives were busy preparing the great Twelfth
Night Cake, which neighbors and friends had been in-
vited to share, and in which a gilded bean was placed.
He who got the bean in his slice was king of the
revels. There were other means employed to elect
SPORTS, FESTIVALS, AND PASTIMES 303
the king: sometimes three pieces of money were baked
in the cake, and he who got the one with a cross on
it was the king for the evening. The bean-king was
called Beltsasar (Balthazar) and held a mock court,
receiving the homage of all present. The evening al-
ways ended in merry-making, with plenty of good
cheer.
The youths enjoyed a different kind of amusement.
They chose three kings, dressed two of them in white
and one in black, rubbed the face of the latter with
soot, and gave each of them a paper star in their hands
with a lighted candle behind it (see facing page 304).
Then they accompanied the trio, singing songs to lit the
occasion, to the taverns, where they treated each other
to beer with sugar and oil-fritters.
Although the Dutch Reformed Church effaced every-
thing that savored of Roman Catholicism, it was hard
to suppress festivals that having had their origin in
pagan celebrations were seasons beloved of the people.
Among these was Shrove Tuesday, which supplanted
the heathen Lupercalia, known later under the name
of Spurcalia in Februario. Known in Holland and her
colonies by the name Fasten avond (evening before
fasting). Shrove Tuesday was celebrated, not as a re-
ligious feast, but as an evening of wild extravagance.
It was the merriest evening in the year. In Holland
on this day men of wealth and rank received their
rents from their tenants, their suite appeared in new
clothes, and the burgomasters made their appearance
dressed in the full regalia of their dignity. More or
less costly presents were exchanged, and the cities gave
dinners to their magistrates and nobles ; while the
burghers entertained their friends and blood relations.
The evening passed in revelry.
One of the Shrove Tuesday customs was a children's
304 DUTCH NEW YORK
masquerade. They walked through the streets with
the rommel-pot, a pot covered with a tightly stretched
bladder, in the centre of which was a hole in which a
stick was tightly jammed. When this stick was moved
up and down, it made a dull, rumbling noise. The
children went from door to door rattling the pot and
singing the following verse :
'k Heb zoo lang met de foekepot geloopen,
Nog geen geld om brood te koopen,
Haringpakkerij, haringpakkerij !
Geef me een oortje, dan ga ik voorbij !
I 've run so long with the rumbling-pot
And have as yet got no money to buy bread,
Herring-packery, herring-packery,
Give me a penny and I '11 go by !
They wore masks and false faces and sometimes " a
devil's suit of clothes." This masking, dressing up,
and begging for pennies still survives in New York
at Thanksgiving Day. Another favorite Shrove Tues-
day amusement was "Riding the Goose" (see page
296).
A petition to restrict the Shrovetide festivities from
the Consistory of Wildwyck on Feb. 12, 1664, reads as
follows :
The Consistory here, moved by their consciences and
their duty as officers, petition the Magistrates of this place
with all proper humility, that the public, sinful and scan-
dalous Baccanalian days of Shrovetide (descended from
the Heathen from their idol Bacchus, the God of wine
and drunkenness : being also a leaven of Papacy, which
the Apostel, i Cor. 5, has warned us to cast off), which
are near at hand, may be prohibited in this place by
proper Placards from you, that we, by its publication
and reproof may eradicate this abomination, and thereby
through the Grace and Blessings of God, we, each of us.
From an old print
THREE KINGS' EVENING
(TWELFTH NIGHT)
SPORTS, FESTIVALS, AND PASTIMES 305
may do the good which will come of it to this place, and
the souls and bodies of its inhabitants, the more as we
live in such sorrowful days of God's wrath upon us in
this place for our sins. If people will still indulge in the
pleasures of such scandalous sins as those of Shrovetide,
they will more and more provoke God and bring his wrath
on us again, for His rod is yet over us, and his punish-
ment of war yet afflicts us ; yea, and will thus yet further
oppress this land and its inhabitants. Shall they then
rolick in their sins while the whole land weeps and make
merry when we are every month called to sorrow, wailing
and lamentation?
Waffles, rice-pudding, and pancakes were the special
dishes enjoyed on this day.
The ancient celebration of the awakening of spring
was held on May Day. This was the time when lovers'
vows were made and floral festivals were held. Early
in the morning, young people went otit to gather boughs
and blossoms with which they decorated their houses
and the tall May-pole, which was also wreathed with
ribbons. Around this they danced on the green and
drank the spiced May-wine. The May-pole was in some
towns in Holland and England felled by the youths and
brought to the village green drawn by oxen ; in others
a permanent May-pole stood on the village green.
There was a permanent May-pole on the Merry Mount
in the Fort, as we learn from the following record of
June 10, 1645, when " William Gerritson pleaded guilty
to singing a defamatory song against the Rev. Francis
Douty and his daughter." He was sentenced " to stand
bound to the Maypole in the Fort with two rods around
his neck, and the libel over his head until conclusion of
the sermon ; and should he ever sing the song again to
be flogged and banished." May-poles, however, were
planted for every season, and were the occasion of so
3o6 DUTCH NEW YORK
much hilarity that in December, 1655, ^he following
ordinance was passed :
Whereas experience has shown and taught us that on
New Year's Days and on May-days, from the firing of
guns and planting May-poles and drunken drinking, there
have resulted unnecessary waste of powder, much drunk-
enness, and other insolent practices, together with other
lamentable accidents and bruises that generally arise there-
from. Therefore, in order to prevent these, it is hereby
expressly ordered by the Director-General and the Coun-
cillors, that, from this time forth, within this Province
of New Netherland, on the New-Year and May-days,
there shall be no firing, nor May-poles planted ; nor shall
there be any beating of the drum ; nor shall there be
on the occasion, any Wines, Brandywines, or Beer dealt
out.
May-Day jollity continued, however; and the May-
pole continued to be a gathering point for the merry-
makers, for, five years later, on Dec. 31, 1660, we read:
This date is renewed the Placard against firing on New
Year's Day, or planting Maypoles on May day, or mak-
ing a present of any drink to any person for that purpose.
One of the customs was to send little cards decorated
with green sprays to friends, and gifts of flowers and
knick-knacks were also exchanged. Dances often took
place in the evening, and there was much drinking in the
taverns. Those in New Amsterdam who came from
some parts of Holland rose early on May Day, and,
climbing the roofs of houses in which young girls dwelt,
would place green boughs or dead twigs there, and
sometimes, as a joke, a straw man. Not un frequently
they would go into the fields and procure all the scare-
crows they could find and put them on the roofs of
the old maids' homes. A May-pole decorated with rags
SPORTS, FESTIVALS, AND PASTIMES 307
was sometimes used to insult a bride and groom (see
page 234). Some people planted a May-tree, and took
great care of it and hung it with garlands, flowers, and
other devices and ribbons, and also fastened verses on
the tree for particular persons.
Pinkster, or Whitsuntide, was also a time of pleasure.
During the period before the Reformation, on Whitsun-
tide, white pigeons, emblems of the Holy Spirit, were
let loose in the church. The next day was given up to
revelry. White and gilt pigeons were the aim of the
archers, and priests and scholars gave scriptural plays
in the market-places and churchyards, in which the
" white dove " always had a prominent part. Later
these religious plays were followed by a farce. The
Reformation prohibited a great many of these abuses ;
but these holidays had become so entirely a part of the
life of the people that neither Luther nor Calvin, neither
church nor civic threatenings, could put a stop to them.
It is true that no consecrated doves nor pigeons were
brought to the church in New Amsterdam, but proces-
sions, bird-shooting, and the Whitsuntide dances, sing-
ing and general merry-making were in vogue. One of
the processions was that of the " Whitsuntide Flower."
With wreaths of green and flowers woven in their
flowing hair, dressed in white and each carrying in her
hand a May-branch twined with leaves and flowers
and decorated with gold or silver bows, the young
maidens walked through the streets, escorting the
Whitsuntide bride or " Flower bride," the queen of
the feast, dressed and ornamented at the public ex-
pense. One of the group went around the various
doors and collected the gifts which were spent in ex-
cesses in the evening. These excesses were so great,
and the songs were of so light a character, that even-
tually government was compelled to stop the proces-
3o8 DUTCH NEW YORK
sions of the Whitsuntide bride, at a fine of a golden
florin for every child that carried the May-branch on
that day.
The great autumn festival was Saint Martin's Eve.
Saint Martin enjoyed great popularity. Numerous
churches, chapels, altars, and villages bore his name in
Holland, and an oath taken on his name was as sacred
as " by God's Faith," " by my father's soul," " by the
Emperor's head," etc. His day, November ii, became
a day of peculiar veneration, extravagance, and excess.
No one could be induced to stay near a crossroad on
Saint Martin's Eve. Terrible things were heard and
seen there, for it was as if Hell had let loose its oc-
cupants. Evil spirits roamed around in company of
those who had sold their souls to Satan for money
or other gifts, on condition of wearing a werewolf
shirt on Saint John's or Saint Martin's Eve. Then
sounded the horn blasts of wild hunters. No cloister
was so strict, no hovel so poor, but had its feast. One
Dutch dish on this festival was pancakes; another,
served for a second course, was a dish of medlars;
but the principal dish was the world-renowned " Saint
Martin's goose," which was found on every table.
He who had not eaten goose had not celebrated the
day, and the goose graced the board of the aristocrat
and was found on the dimly lighted table of the
laborer. Surrounded with burning candles, it was
the centre of attraction in the middle of the table,
and after partaking of the toothsome roast, then —
the old superstitions were observed with a heathenish
custom — the breastbone was examined to see whether
the softness or hardness of it gave signs of a mild or
severe winter, and if much snow could be expected.
Much has been written about the origin of the Saint
Martin's goose ; but the most acceptable explanation is
u
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h
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SPORTS, FESTIVALS, AND PASTIMES 309
that Saint Martin, as the probable representative of the
God Ullr, to whom a goose was sacrificed, was remem-
bered by slaughtering one in his memory, and from this
the prophetic qualities of the bird may be derived. The
goose was accompanied by the "must" (new wine),
which was drunk on the evening of the nth of No-
vember to the singing of the verse
Saint Martin, Saint Martin;
To-day the Must, To-morrow Wine.
Verses were prepared by the schoolmasters, and trans-
lated from the Latin to be sung by their pupils.
In the evening Saint Martin's fires were burned.
The day on which this happened was also called " Saint-
Martin-shake-the-basket-day." This comes from the
custom of shaking a basket of chestnuts and other nuts
slowly in the bonfire, and grabbing them at the risk of
burning the hands.
In addition to the merry-making and ceremonies be-
longing to stated festivals, the Dutch burghers and their
families, particularly the youths and maidens, had many
simple pleasures.
The Dutch, like the English, were great lovers of
out-of-door life and games; and many excuses were
made for trips to the country and for excursions and
picnics of all kinds by both boat and wagon. In a
sailboat, rowboat, or wagon the merry party would
travel in the bright days of spring and summer to some
pleasure resort on the Hudson or the East River, Har-
lem, Long Island, or Staten Island. Sunday was the
favorite day for these excursions in New Amsterdam,
as it was in Holland, but many persons disapproved
of spending the Lord's Day in holiday-making.
As a rule the merry-makers started early in the morn-
ing and took breakfast at some wayside tavern or
3IO DUTCH NEW YORK
country-seat. This consisted of delicious bread and
butter, crisp biscuits, luscious strawberries or cherries,
sweet and sour cream, old and new cheese, and wine.
After breakfast the company again entered the wagon
or boat, and drove or sailed farther. Sometimes they
would stop in the fields or woods and make wreaths of
the long grasses and flowers they plucked, or gather
wild-flowers to carry home. They sang, they danced,
they played games, and they ate heartily. If the noon-
day meal was not eaten in a tavern, baskets of pro-
visions were carried along for an al fresco lunch. If
the merry-makers went to the shore, they amused
themselves with the game of sea-carrying {zee-dragen).
There was no more dangerous game than this " Carry-
ing into the Sea." The young man took a girl in his
arms and walked with her into the sea until the water
came over his high boots, and then he carried her back
again into the dunes, where he rolled her over and
" salted her with sand." This, according to some
writers, was done with the idea of the young man
finding out what kind of a temper his sweetheart had ;
and if she did not lose it or become angry, he was
sure of having a good and patient wife. How much
truth there is in this can be guessed when many times
the girls would walk along the sands of the seashore
and ask of their escorts " if there was no water in the
sea." Many a tear was shed on account of this aee-
dragen, and many a sad accident resulted from it.
Sometimes, particularly when the party went by boat,
a fish dinner or supper was ordered at a tavern some
distance from town. In this case a large fish sur-
rounded with parsley and accompanied by a fine Dutch
sauce of melted butter and vinegar occupied the center
of the table. After this, fruit, tastefully decorated with
vine leaves, was served.
SPORTS, FESTIVALS, AND PASTIMES 311
No matter where they went or what they did, kissing
formed no small part of the day's pleasure and enter-
tainment. The Dutch were as fond of love-making as
any other nation ; and historians admit that the Dutch-
man deserves his nickname of the " kissing Dutchman."
Kissing is constantly referred to in the poems of the
period, and the song-books are full of allusions to it.
Kissing shepherds and shepherdesses appear in all the
Arcadias, and even the most serious poets liked to write
about it. When rising in the morning, retiring at night,
leaving the house to go to work and returning from it,
people used to salute with a kiss. A family or state
visit began and ended with kissing. If a young man
took his girl from her home to go out, he greeted her
with a kiss ; did he take her home after the outing, a
kiss was given at parting. A kiss was the greeting of
honest friendship; a kiss with honor would harm no-
body; a little kiss was no sin!
There were few games in which kissing did not have
a part, and many were the excuses invented during the
country excursions. When the pleasure-wagon crossed
a bridge and the horse walked slowly, not needing the
attention of the driver, a kiss was quickly given and
never resented. This custom was greatly in vogue in
New Amsterdam, and very often parties drove towards
Hellgate, because in this neighborhood and over a little
stream called the Tamkill, emptying into the East River
nearly opposite Blackwell's Island, was the famous
" Kissing Bridge," in driving over which every one
was at liberty to salute the lady.
In the winter sleighs took the place of wagons, and
many were the excursions both by night and day.
Winter pleasures were greatly enjoyed in New Amster-
dam. The Dutch brought with them their love of skat-
ing and sleighing and games that were played upon
312 DUTCH NEW YORK
the ice, such as hockey and golf. Not only were the
Hudson and the East Rivers often alive with skaters,
who went from shore to shore or from settlement to
settlement on business errands, but the ponds and
canals of New Amsterdam were filled with busy or
merry people. The Collect was a favorite spot for the
joyous crowds of young and old. When the ice was
thick enough, everybody put on skates — men, women,
and children, young and old — and were soon skimming
over the shiping surface like birds, or flying like the
sails of a windmill. The best skates came from Volen-
dam, but there were many varieties. Generally speak-
ing, they were made of iron and wood, some longer than
the foot and some exactly its length. Some people
screwed their skates to their boots; others fastened
them with leather straps (see facing page 308).
When once these were on. the heavy and somewhat
clumsy Dutch were swift, light, agile, and graceful.
Many were the ways, however, of skating. Those from
South Holland skated " leg over," and could make in-
numerable curls and figures on the ice, performing all
kinds of antics and fancy skating as they pleased, skat-
ing backwards and making the alphabet as they whirled
about gracefully; those from Friesland traveled like
the wind, and generally won the silver or pewter cups,
plates, and spoons that were offered for prizes. Women
also took part in the skating-matches, and at such times
the ice was as gay as a kermis. From far and near
people came to the gathering-place, and everything was
prepared for their reception. Booths were erected on
the ice, and also the Kraampje, or tent, in which there
were wooden stools and a wooden table on which stood
two large bottles of Brandewyn, sugar, and tumblers,
while a kettle filled with a decoction of aniseseed and
milk simmered on top of a fire.
SPORTS, FESTIVALS, AND PASTIMES 313
Many young couples were introduced on the ice, and
many were the engagements that followed a long win-
ter. Woolley noted in his " Journal " :
The diversion especially in the winter season used by
the Dutch is aurigation, i. e. riding about in wagons,
which is allowed by physicians to be a very healthful ex-
ercise by land. And upon the ice it 's admirable to see
men and women as it were flying upon their skates from
place to place with markets upon their Heads and Backs.
Skaters also pushed along the sleighs that contributed
no little to the brightness of the scene. Here an old
lady bundled up in furs sped by in a swan, here a young
girl with rosy cheeks flashed by in a blue and gilded
dolphin, and here some merry children were flying over
the ice in a bright boat, for the sleighs of this period
were often made into fantastic shapes, such as animals,
ships, fabulous monsters, or shells, carved, gilded, and
brightly painted. Sometimes the sleighs were also
drawn by horses. We are indebted to Madam Knight
for a little glimpse of this Dutch pastime. She says :
Their Diversions in the Winter is Riding Sleys about
three or four miles out of Town where they have Houses
of entertainment at a place called the Bouwery, and some
go to friend's houses who handsomely treat them. Mr.
Burroughs carry'd his Spouse and Daughter and myself
out to one Madame Dowes, a Gentlewoman that lived
at a farm House, who gave us a handsome Entertain-
ment of five or six Dishes and Choice Beer and Metheglin,
Ceyder, etc., all which she said was the produce of her
farm. I believe we mett 50 or 60 slays that day — they fly
with great swiftness and some are so furious that they'le
turn out of the path for none except a Loaden Cart. Nor
do they spare for any diversion the place affords, and
sociable to a degree, theyr Tables being as free to their
Naybours as to themselves.
314 DUTCH NEW YORK
In the long winter evenings the young people of
New Amsterdam frequently met and played simple
games or amused themselves with music and dancing.
Another pleasure was that of writing verses and paint-
ing pictures in the albums, or juffer-hockjes (literally,
girl-books). Sometimes these were printed and illus-
trated, the contents being a collection of verses from
famous poets, and were bound in leather or velvet with
silver mounts. As a general rule, they were the gifts
of young men to their sweethearts.
We know by the dancing that there must have been
musical instruments, but, strange to say, they do not
appear in the inventories. It would be very singular
if the various forms of the lute and guitar, clavichord
and spinet, violin and violoncello, that so constantly
appear in the Dutch pictures of the period, did not
cross the water. " Thirty knots of fiddle strings " in
Lawrence Deldyke's shop, however, show that the
fiddle certainly was known.
Merry-makers danced around the May-pole to the
sound of the drum and horn, and without doubt the
wandering fiddler played at all village festivals and be-
fore taverns, as he does in the pictures of Teniers and
Ostade.
What astonishes a student is the great number of
Jew's-harps found in the shops of many merchants.
For instance. Dr. Jacob De Lange had seventy-two
Jew's-harps, while Mr. Coesart had forty-eight dozen
iron Jew's-harps and twenty-four dozen copper Jew's-
harps. In 1705, Joseph Nunes had forty-two dozen
at twelve pence a dozen. They were probably chiefly
used by negroes.
--^ Another indoor pleasure was the " sausage-making
evening." Every citizen who could possibly afford it
bought a cow and a pig in the autumn, or, if his family
SPORTS, FESTIVALS, AND PASTIMES 315
were too small, he shared one with a neighbor. A few
days later, the animals were slaughtered — sometimes
in the backyard — and hung. Guests were then bidden
to come and help make the sausages, head cheese, and
rolpens (tripe cut small and made into bags and then
filled with chopped beef). While the servants were
doing the roughest part of the work, the housewife and
her friends stuffed and flavored the sausages and force-
meat. There was no thought of dinner that day, a
slice of bread and cheese and a glass of beer were
quickly taken ; but in the evening, when the work
was done, the table was spread with sausages and
blood-puddings, and the bottle and glass circulated
freely.
These animals were purchased at the market, and
on market days there was always more or less excite-
ment in the town. As soon as the gates were opened,
the farmers drove their cattle to the market place, where
tables with refreshments had been prepared, and in fact
a miniature kermis was held. Some hours later the
citizens came, both rich and poor, — the first accom-
panied by a licensed butcher to examine the cattle. He
generally brought a fat bullock and a fat pig. The
animals were then brought to the dwelling of the pur-
chaser, fastened to a post in front of his house, and
praised by the neighbors. A few days later the beast
was slaughtered in the backyard and hung up. Guests
flocked to the house and partook freely of the good
cheer offered by the host.
The great event of the year was the annual cattle
fair, or kermis, instituted, in 1641, by Director Kieft
as follows :
Be it known hereby to all persons that the Director and
Council of New Netherland have ordained that hence-
forth there shall be held annually at Fort Amsterdam a
3i6 DUTCH NEW YORK
Cattle Fair on the 15th of October and a fair for Hogs
on the 1st of November. Whosoever hath anything to
sell, or to buy, can regulate himself accordingly.
This, however, became of more importance under
Stuyvesant's rule, for in 1648 the stranger and inhab-
itant were
given and granted a Weekly Market-day, to wit Monday,
and annually a Free Market for ten consecutive days,
which shall begin on the first Monday after Bartholo-
mew's day, New style, corresponding to the legal Amster-
dam Fair, on which weekly and annual days the Neigh-
bour and Stranger, as well as the Inhabitant, are allowed
and permitted to supply the purchaser from a Booth, by
the ell, weight and measure, wholesale and retail, accord-
ing to the demand and circumstances of each, in con-
formity to the weight, ell and measure as aforesaid, and
no other.
Eleven years later (1659), special privileges were
granted in order to attract a large attendance.
The Schout Burgomasters and Schepens make known
that they establish for the accommodation of the public,
a market for store and fat cattle, sheep, goats, hogs,
bucks and such like, and to that end they mean to erect
stalls and other conveniences for those who bring such
animals to market. This market will be opened the 20th
day of October and close the last day of November pre-
cisely in each year; during such time it shall remain a
free cattle-market and no stranger shall during that time
be liable to arrest or citation, but shall be permitted to
attend to his business without molestation or hindrance.
It will be observed that the New Amsterdam Fair
was modeled on the Fair or Kermis of Amsterdam.
Whenever the red cross — the sign of liberty and law-
o5
SPORTS, FESTIVALS, AND PASTIMES 317
lessness — was set up outside the towns of the Low
Countries, every one knew that the kermis had begun
and that he might " keep kcnnis." The decorated
town-gates opened earlier than usual, and crowds
passed through to give themselves up to the general
Whence comes the word kermisf Some say it is
derived from the German word messen, to measure,
because the merchandise bought at these yearly mar-
kets was to a very great extent measured by length
or sold by measure. Others declare that the word must
not be read kermis, but market mis, consisting of two
Latin words of the Middle Ages, mercada, merchandise,
and missahicum, a part of the country where a poten-
tiary was sent to have it under his domain or super-
vision; so that the word markt, or merkt mis, would
mean nothing else than a solemn yearly trading. A
third, and perhaps the right, explanation is that kermis,
also called kermesse and year mcsse, means yearly, free,
or simple Mass, — in othe^ words, the church Mass.
The deity, however, some writers object, was not God,
but one's stomach. It was remembered with great
pleasure that while milk pap was eaten, wine was drunk
like water. The kermis dish, a cake or pasty cased with
mustard and sugar, surrounded with large piles of bis-
cuits, capers, and raisins, was eaten in nearly every
family. In some villages the kermis ox was led around,
decorated with wreaths of flowers. Every villager
would buy his part when the ox passed his door. After
all the parts had been sold, the animal was slaughtered
and divided. There also were many booths where
cakes were baked, and where the young people regaled
themselves with hot cakes smeared with treacle or
molasses, and with spiced cakes, speculation (a small
batter cake in various designs), tea-cakes, and saffron
3i8 DUTCH NEW YORK
cakes. The waffle booth was also a special feature, and
at every kermis there was an old woman with oil-
fritters. In the inns the favorite tipple was wine with
sugar or white brandy with sugar, which was ladled out
of a cup with a spoon, and passed around in the
company. A typical kermis scene faces page 316.
Both church and government complained :
" The taverns, inns streets roads were witnesses of
lawlessness and the committing of punishable illdeeds.
There is no class in society which is not under the evil
influences of the Kermis. It looks as if the Kermis
causes a general change in everybody. Before and after
it people are entirely different from what they appear to
be while it lasts. Curiosity is the general motive power.
Everybody goes about. All houses are open. Every-
body is welcome. It is as if the olden time hospitality
is reviving. The days are short, and the nights are for
amusements. The highest classes lower themselves,
severity unbinds itself, modesty blushes less, and the
tenderest ears, without being hurt, listen to the grossest
equivocal expressions.
Another wrote:
In the evening there are play houses open for the lowest
class of people. Sometimes quite a respectable class of
people will go to these houses to see how the lower classes
behave, and sit and watch them, dance, with an even face,
pipe in mouth, and a look of general respectability, that
one would rather think they were sitting in a church
instead of running after the lowest pleasures.
Under the Puritanical rule of Stuyvesant, when the
kermis reached its height as a yearly market and fes-
tival, there was naturally not quite the same lawless-
ness. The mountebanks, the quack doctors, and the
A'agabonds were doubtless absent ; but nevertheless the
SPORTS, FESTIVALS, AND PASTIMES 319
little town was gay enough. The kermis took place
during the most delightful season of the year, when
Manhattan Island enjoyed, as now, its most golden
days of sunshine and its invigorating sea-breezes.
Market-boats and boats of all kinds were riding at an-
chor and sailing or being rowed from shore to shore,
while the Strand from Whitehall to Broad Street was
filled with booths and tents gayly decorated with
flowers, greenery, and flags. The clatter of the rom-
mel-pot, the beat of the drum, the sound of the trumpet,
and the cry of the vender were heard on every side.
The prize cattle were greatly in evidence; but the
stalls offered many other attractions to the citizens
and visitors from both shores of the Hudson, from
Staten Island, Long Island, New Jersey, and Con-
necticut. Some of them displayed clothing, cloth, linen,
silk, velvets, braids, buttons, furs, laces, ribbons, gloves,
neckcloths, and caps ; others, watches, necklaces, and
other trinkets ; others, razors, scents, pomatums, and
all toilet articles. There were also toy booths to at-
tract the children ; gingerbread booths, cake and pastry
booths, booths for waffles and oil-fritters ; booths where
all the native and imported cheeses were displayed.
Here too could be seen capons, quails, pigeons, ducks,
chickens, wild and tame, turkeys, oysters, lobsters,
crabs, and fresh and dried fish. Then there wbre all
the vegetables in season, and dried grains for man and
beast.
Puppet shows, peep shows, masqueraders, fools, and
jesters were not lacking to contribute to the general
merriment. The strong man, the juggler, and the con-
jurer gave exhibitions of their skill, and the trained
bear and his leader were also in evidence. In two
respects the New Amsterdam kermis differed from
that of the old country, — the presence of the negro
320 DUTCH NEW YORK
and the Indian. The one gave exhibitions of his pro-
ficiency in song and dance; the other brought his na-
tive wares — beads, birch-bark, baskets, blankets, and
other wares — and showed his skill as acrobat, juggler,
or fortune-teller.
CHAPTER XIV
MERCHANTS AND TRADE
THE Atlantic voyage of that day was an ardu-
ous undertaking. The early colonists had to
endure many and often unnecessary hard-
ships. The author of Wassenaer's Historie van Eiiropa
(1621-1632) says that New Netherlands is usually
reached in seven or eight weeks from Amsterdam.
The course lies towards the Canary Islands, thence to
the Indian Islands, then towards the mainland of Vir-
ginia, steering right across, leaving in fourteen days
the Bahamas on the left, and the Bermudas on the
right hand.
The livestock received better treatment than the
human cattle, as we learn from a description (1625)
of Pieter Hulst's transport of one hundred and three
head of cattle, horses, hogs, and sheep
in two ships of one hundred and forty lasts, in such a
manner that they should be well foddered and attended
to. Each animal had its own stall with a floor of three
feet of sand ; fixed as comfortably as any stall here.
Each animal had its respective servant who attended to
it and knew its wants so as to preserve its health, together
with all suitable forage, such as oats, hay and straw, etc.
What is most remarkable is, that nobody in the two ships
can discover where the water is stowed for these cattle.
As it was necessary to have another [ship] on that ac-
count, the above parties caused a deck to be constructed
on board. Beneath this were stowed in each ship three
21 321
322 DUTCH NEW YORK
hundred tons of fresh water which was pumped up and
thus distributed among the cattle. On this deck lay the
ballast and thereupon stood the horses and steers, and thus
there was no waste. He added the third ship, so that,
should the voyage continue longer, nothing may be want-
ing to the success of the expedition.
People might take passage in the Company's ships
by swearing to the Articles and paying six stivers per
diem for provisions and passage; and such as desired
to eat in the cabin, twelve stivers, and had to give as-
sistance like others in cases offensive and defensive.
The price of the passage naturally varied in accord-
ance with the character of the accommodation. In
1638, we find the following account:
Michiel Jansfen, wife and two children
Tonis Dirksen, wife, child and two servants
Jan Michiels and little boy
Many disputes over passage money had to be settled
by the court. In 1656, Captain Jansen of the St. Jacob
sued to recover board and passage money from Martin
Arentsen, but the latter proved that he worked as a
carpenter and seaman for his passage. The captain
also sued Adam Roelantsen for payment for passage
of himself and son ; but lost again, as it was proved
that the father was promised his passage on condition
of working as a seaman ; and the son was allowed his
board because he said prayers. On May 16, 1668,
Johannes Luyck sued Gabriel Thomsen for the balance
of the passage money of himself and sister from Hol-
land. The defendant replied that he paid for freight
of himself and sister one hundred and twenty florins
in silver, and agreed to pay forty guilders more in case
they should be entertained in the cabin, which he had
not enjoyed, and therefore the said one hundred and
140
16
141
14
50
MERCHANTS AND TRADE 323
twenty was full payment. It was finally mutually
agreed that Thomsen should pay one hundred and sixty
florins in beavers, and receive the one hundred and
twenty florins in silver coin back.
The names given by the Dutch to their trading-
vessels are significant of their tastes, reverences, be-
liefs, occupations, and trades. The farm, garden, and
forest are remembered in the Milkmaid, Oak Tree,
Cedar, Rose Bush, Blossom, Brindled Cow, Spotted
Coiv, Sparrow Hazuk, Black Eagle, Falconer, Hunts-
man, White Raven, Otter, Water Dog, Cat, Bear,
White Horse, Blue Cock, Sunflower, Pear Tree, Rose
of Guclderland, Sieve, Woodyard, and Mill. The sea
and its denizens and dangers prompt the Golden Shark,
Mermaid, Neptune, Whale, Sea Meiv, Sea Bear, Mack-
erel, Herritig, Sea Horse, Brown Fish, Shark, Sea
Flower, Gilded Shell, Pearl, Fortune, Supply, Expe-
dition, Farewell, Hope, Providence, Glad Tidings,
Broken Heart, Welcome, Happy Return, Morning
Star, Seven Stars, and Watchful Buoy. The Bible and
religion are manifest in Peace, Love, Contentment,
Amity, Concord, Justice, Faith, Hope of a Better Life,
Abraham's Sacrifice, Gideon, Angel Gabriel, Flying
Angel, King David, King Solomon, Star of Bethle-
hem, Three Kings, Virgin, St. Peter, St. James, St.
Martin, Purmerland Church, and Quaker. Trade and
civic pride are honored with the Bourse of Amsterdam,
Nevis Factor, Nctherland Indian, Balance, Good Beer,
New Netherland Fortune, Arms of Norway, Arms of
New Netherland, Arms of Amsterdam, Arms of Rcns-
selaerswyck and Real. Home affections give us the
Bride and Bachelor's Delight. Rulers and national
heroes and politics appear in the Princess, Prince Mau-
rice, Lady Maria, Prince William, Young Prince of
Denmark, Ruyter, Society, and Union.
324 DUTCH NEW YORK
Then we have the Flying Deer, Blind Ass, Golden
Hind, Ostrich, Gilded Fox, Diamond, Cat and Parrot,
Canary, Unicorn, Fire of Troy, White Horseman, Har-
lequin, Orange Tree, Sphera Mundi, and many other
quaint names.
The Dutch had scarcely got rid of their sea legs here
before beginning to build vessels for the coast trade.
Seventeen ships had already been built in New Nether-
land by 1639.
After escaping the dangers of the seas, including
tempests, famine caused by calms and contrary winds,
and capture by Barbary corsairs or pirates, fervent in-
deed v^'ere the thanksgivings offered up on arrival in
Godyn's Bay (Sandy Hook). The Labadists give us
a lively impression of the scenes on arrival. After
anchoring inside Sandy Hook, they tell us that in the
morning the anchor was raised and they sailed between
Staten Island and Long Island through the Hoof den
(Narrows). The woods, hills, dales, green fields and
plantations, houses and dwellings struck them as cheer-
ful and sweet. " As soon as you pass through the
Hoofdcn the city presents a pretty sight. The fort
lies on a point between the two rivers ; and, as soon as
they see a ship coming, they raise a flag on the high
flag-staff." It was about three o'clock when they
arrived ; and people came from shore in all sorts of
craft, " each inquiring and searching after his own and
his own profit."
Various ordinances were passed regulating shipping.
In 1638, it was ordered that no sailors should remain
on shore at night without permission, and there was
to be no intercourse between shore and ship between
sunset and sunrise. The anchorage ground was the
roadstead between Capske Point (South Ferry and the
guideboard near the City Tavern (head of Coenties
MERCHANTS AND TRADE 325
Slip) ; ships anchoring elsewhere were to be fined fifty-
guilders. They were not allowed to be discharged
between sunset and sunrise, and had to give twelve
hours' notice of sailing (1647). They were not al-
lowed to be boarded before they had anchored or had
been entered. Goods might be sold on board by whole-
sale or retail (1648). They had to be inspected on
arrival and departure. Goods were to be discharged
on shore and received on board during sunshine ( 1656).
In 1653, the Farmer of the Customs was empowered
to visit departing ships. The following typical bill of
lading was
Recorded from Capt. William Morris y^ iq*'^ day of
February, 1696:
shipped by the Peace of God in good order and well
conditioned by Mr. William Morris in and upon y^ good
ship called the Beaver, wherof is Master under God for
this Present Voyage Robert Sinclair and now riding att
anchor in the River of New Yorke and by God's Peace
bound for London
to say two hogsheads of sugar, one bundle of whale bone
containing one hundred pounds on the Draper account &
Resque of William Morris being marked and Numbered.
God send the good ship to her desired Porte in safety.
Amen.
At first the Company had a monopoly of all trade.
In 1626, we read:
People work there as in Holland, one trades, another
builds houses, a third farms. Each farmer has his farm
and the cows on the land purchased by the Company ;
but the milk remains to the profit of the Boor ; he sells it
to those of the people who receive their wages for work
every week.
326 DUTCH NEW YORK
The volume of the trade of the West India Com-
pany from 1624 to 1635 appears in the following " list
of returns from the New Netherlands " :
Date Beavers Otters Guilders
1624
4,000
700
27,125
1625
5,29s
463
35,825
1626
7,258
857
45,050
1627
7,529
370
56,420
1628
6,951
734
61,075
1629
5,913
681
62,185
1630
6,041
1,085
68,012
1632
8,569
546
94,925
. . . .
4,944
1,115
48,200
1633
8,800
1,383
91,375
^^25
14,891
1,413
134,925
725,117
In 1670, Denton says the inhabitants have a con-
siderable trade with the Indians, for beavers, otter,
raccoon skins, with other furs; and also for deer and
elk skins ; and are supplied with venison and fowl in
the winter, and fish in the summer by the Indians,
which they buy at an " easie " rate.
The most profitable trade being with the Indians,
the Dutch had to adopt the Indian currency. In 1626,
De Rasieres says :
As an employment in winter they make sewan, which
is an oblong bead that they make from cockle shells,
which they find on the seashore, and they consider it as
valuable as we do money here, so much so that one can
buy everything they have for it ; they string it and wear
it round the neck and hands ; they also make bands of it
which the women wear on the head in front of the hair,
and the men about the body ; and they are as particular
about the stringing and sorting as we can be about pearls.
MERCHANTS AND TRADE 327
John Josselyn says :
Their beads are their money ; of these there are two
sorts, blue and white ; the first is their gold, the last
their silver. These they work out of shells so cunningly,
that neither Jew nor devil can counterfeit them,
Sewan, seawanf, or zewant, was the name of the
native currency ; it was also known as wampum. The
white beads were made from the stem of the peri-
winkle, and Suckanhock, or black beads, of the heart
of the clam shell. The black was double the value
of the white. Three black, or six white, beads were
equivalent to an English penny. Wampum was some-
times measured by the fathom. A string one fathom
long varied from five shillings among the New Eng-
landers to four guilders of Dutch money ($1.66).
Sewan was jewelry as well as money, and distin-
guished the rich Indians from the poor ones. Of great
importance was the belt of sezvan. This was a sort of
wide sash upon which the white, purple, and black
beads were arranged in rows and tied with little leather
strings. The length, width, and color were regulated
by the importance of the matter to be negotiated. Or-
dinary belts consisted of twelve rows, each containing
one hundred and eighty beads. If a message was sent
without the belt, it was considered unworthy of serious
consideration: if the belt was returned, the offer was
rejected; if kept, it was a token that the offer was
accepted, or the offense forgiven.
These shells, indeed, had more virtue among the Indians
than pearls, gold and silver had among Europeans. Sea-
want was the seal of a contract, the oath of fidelity. It
satisfied murders, and all other injuries, purchased peace
and entered into the religious as well as civil ceremonies.
A string of seawant was delivered by the orator in public
328 DUTCH NEW YORK
council, at the close of every distinct proposition made to
others, as a ratification of the truth and sincerity of what
he said, and the white and black strings of seawant were
tied by the pagan priest around the neck of the white dog
suspended to a pole and offered as a sacrifice to Thal-
oughyawaagon, the upholder of the skies, the god of the
Five Nations.
Sewan was chiefly made on Long Island, which was
called by the Indians sezvan-Jiacky (the place where
sewan was made), and this Indian mint at their doors
gave the Dutch an immense advantage over the other
colonists.
The Dutch naturally wanted to keep control of the
Vi^ampum traffic in the Narragansett country. " The
seeking after sewan by the Puritans," said De Rasieres,
is prejudicial to us, inasmuch as they would, by so do-
ing, discover the trade in furs, which, if they were to
find out, it would be a great trouble for us to maintain ;
for they already dare to threaten that, if we will not
leave ofif dealing with that people, they will be obliged
to use other means. De Rasieres sold a large amount
of it to the Puritans. Hubbard said :
Whatever were the honey in the mouth of that beast
of trade there was a deadly sting in the tail. For it is
said they [the Dutch] first brought our people to the
knowledge of ivampum-peag; and the acquaintance there-
with occasioned the Indians of these parts to learn the
skill to make it, by which, as by the exchange of money,
they purchased store of artillery, both from the English,
Dutch and French, which proved a fatal business to those
that were concerned in it.
In Kieft's time (1641) four beads of "good splen-
did sewan, usually called Manhattan's sewan," were
reckoned equal to one stiver. Gradually inferior wam-
pum, rough, loose, and unstrung, began to threaten
MERCHANTS AND TRADE 329
" the ruin of the country " ; an order was soon made
regulating that six loose beads should pass for a stiver,
because " there was no coin in circulation and the
labourers, boors and other common people having no
other money, would be great losers."
In Stuyvesant's time ( 1650),, the currency was again
regulated. Wampum was ma(ie lawfully current, six
white and three black beads of commercial sewan or
eight white and four black of the " base strung " for
one stiver.
The Governor and Council in the city of New York
in 1673 m^cle an order declaring that on account of the
scarcity of wampum what had passed at the rate of
eight white and four black pairs for a stiver or a penny
should pass at the rate of six white and three black
pairs for a stiver, and three times so much the value of
silver. There was very little " certain coin " in the
colony at this period.
There is no doubt that the Indians were originally
peaceably disposed towards the Dutch, and that the In-
dian wars and massacres were reprisals for outrage and
oppression. Many laws were made regulating the trade
with the Indians, restricting barter to the trading-posts.
In 1647, people were forbidden to go into the interior
to trade with the Indians. Woolley tells us the Indians
have
swift canoes in which they bring oysters and other fish
for the market ; they are so light and portable that a man
and his squaw will take them upon their shoulders and
carry them by land from one river to another with a
wonderful expedition ; they will venture with them in
a dangerous current, even through Hell gate itself, which
lies in an arm of the sea, about ten miles from New York
eastward to New England, as dangerous and as accounta-
ble as the Norway whirlpool, or maelstrom.
330 DUTCH NEW YORK
In September, 1648, it was complained that some
people put the natives to work and employ them in their
service and then dismiss them without pay. The In-
dians threatening to pay themselves or revenge them-
selves, the authorities order all employers to pay the
Indians " without contradiction " under penalty of a
fine.
In 1654, it was forbidden to sell liquor to Indians
under a penalty of five hundred guilders. Drunken
Indians were to be imprisoned until they told who sold
them the liquor. The authorities complain that many
Indians are daily seen intoxicated, and being drunk and
fuddled, commit many grave acts of violence. Two
years later, the penalty was increased by corporal pun-
ishment and banishment.
In 1645, ^^ '^^.s prohibited to supply Indians with
munitions of war on pain of death.
In 1656, it was ordered that nobody was to harbour
an Indian overnight below the Fresh Water under a
penalty of twenty-five guilders. In 1666, Abram
Carpyn lodged nine Indians. It was notorious that he
resided in Paulus vander Grift's rear building only for
the purpose of selling brandy to the Indians ; so he
was ordered to leave " or the said little house shall be
pulled down."
In 1663, drunken Indians are to be imprisoned until
they have paid a fine of £1 Flemish.
The constant complaint of the West India Company
was that its own officials as well as the colonists seemed
to care nothing for the Company's interests, but assidu-
ously devoted their energies to lining their own pockets ;
and many efforts were made to stop illicit trade. The
laws, however, were shamelessly broken and defied. In
1638, it is complained that indentured servants as well
MERCHANTS AND TRADE 331
as freemen are pursuing a private trade in furs and
other irregular courses.
In November, 1640, the price of goods in the Com-
pany's store was fixed at fifty per cent advance, and
people were notified to report if overcharged. In the
following February, Commissary Lupoid acknowledged
having charged too much for the goods sold in the pub-
lic store, and was fined, dismissed, and declared unfit to
hold any public office. In 1651, an ordinance was is-
sued to prevent smuggling.
The Company's proclamation of free competition in
trade in 1638 resulted in a rapid increase of coloniza-
tion and prosperity. Internal trade and commerce be-
ing made free for all, colonists were immediately at-
tracted from New England and Virginia. In 1640,
the commercial privileges, which the first charter had
restricted to the Patroons, were extended to all free
colonists, but the Company maintained onerous imposts
for its own benefit. The prohibition of manufactures
within the province was abolished. In 1645, the Com-
pany " resolved to open to private persons the trade
which it has exclusively carried on with New Nether-
land," and to permit all the inhabitants of the United
Provinces to sail with their own ships to New Nether-
land, the Virginias, the Swedish, English, and French
colonies, but all colonial trade was concentrated in the
custom house of Fort Amsterdam.
Although the colonists welcomed permanent settlers,
they had a great antipathy for itinerant traders; and
a law had been made to the effect that whoever wished
to engage in trade in New Netherland must keep " fire
and light," — in other words, he must have a dwelling.
By charter, Manhattan was made the emporium and
had been invested with " staple right." The residents
were, however, greatly annoyed by the constantly in-
332 DUTCH NEW YORK
creasing " Scotchmen," or peddlers, who on arrival
hastened to the interior and procured their furs and
other commodities and returned home. The burgo-
masters and schepens, therefore, in 1657, petitioned
the Director that no persons but city burghers should
be allowed to trade in the capital, and none but " settled
residents to trade in any quarter hereabout, without
this place."
The provincial government, considering the petition
a just one, established the Great and Small Burgher
right " in conformity to the laudable custom of the city
of Amsterdam in Europe." Those who wished to be-
long to the Great Burgher class had to pay fifty guil-
ders, and " all such and such only shall hereafter be
qualified to fill all the city offices and dignities." They
were also exempt for one year and six weeks from
watches and expeditions and were " free in their proper
persons from arrest by any subaltern court or judicial
benches of this province." This class included the pres-
ent and future burgomasters and schepens and the Di-
rector, councilors, clergymen, and military officers with
their male descendants. The class of Small Burghers
included all natives and all who had lived in this city
a year and six weeks, all who had married or should
marry the daughters of burghers, all who kept stores
and shops, or did business within the city, and all sala-
ried officers of the Company. " Arriving traders "
were ordered before selling their goods " to set up and
keep an open store within the gates and walls of New
Amsterdam," for which they had to obtain from the
burgomasters and schepens the Small Burgher right,
for the sum of twenty guilders, which went to the sup-
port of the city.
In March, 1648, the nine elected Selectmen verify
MERCHANTS AND TRADE S33
the daily decline and violation of Trade and Navigation,
proceeding for the most part from the underselling,
frauds, smuggling, perpetrated by the one against the
other, principally by such as take little or no interest in
this new growing Province and feel little concern and
care for its prosperity and welfare, and, therefore, do not
benefit it either by Bouweries or Buildings, but solely
applying themselves with small capital and cargoes (for
which they hire for a brief period only one large room
or house) to the Beaver and Fur Trade, and having
traded and trucked said peltries from the good Inhabi-
tants, or the Natives sufficiently high beyond their value,
have recourse to all sorts of means, by night and at un-
seasonable hours, to convey them secretly out of the
Country, or to the North, without paying the proper duty
thereon ; and having enriched themselves by these and
other ilHcit practices and means, they take their departure
and go back home without conferring or bestowing any
benefit on this Province or the Inhabitants thereof. By
this underselling and fraudulent trade, the Wares and
Merchandizes of others who, by means of Bouweries or
with handsome Buildings in regard to this place, interest
themselves in the Country, are depreciated and remain
unsold to their great loss and damage.
In 1657, it was found more every day that great
frauds and smuggling were committed by the impor-
tation of merchandise under the name and cloak of
sailors' freight, and measures were taken to stop it.
Smuggling and piracy were popular and profitable
activities of the honest burghers. In 1654, an ordinance
was passed against harboring robbers and pirates, but
the most pious were not above illicit traffic. In July,
1659, Stuyvesant writes to the Directors in Holland:
All possible care shall be continually taken to prevent
smuggling, in pursuance of the placats, heretofore passed
and now sent us by you in print. In the meantime, we
334 DUTCH NEW YORK
await anxiously the further and stricter orders, to be
issued at your request by their High : Might : ; after hav-
ing received these, we shall vigorously carry them out
to the best of our ability. Your recommendations to the
Fischal on this subject have been communicated to him
by reading your Honors' letter, which we further im-
pressed upon his mind by some earnest words. The order,
to place some faithful soldiers on board while the freight
is discharged and the Fiscal makes his search, is and
always has been observed. In order to prevent corruption,
they are often relieved every day and we have promised
and paid not only to these soldiers, but also to everybody
else, whatever position he may have, free man and Com-
pany's servant, who discovers and reports an attempt at
smuggling one full third share, as shown by our Resolu-
tion and the placat publishing the same of the 23d of
April, 1658.
In 1659, the Company consented to the
experiment of a foreign commerce with France, Spain,
Italy, the Carribean Islands, and elsewhere, upon con-
dition that the vessels should return with their cargoes
either to New Netherland, or to Amsterdam, and that
furs should- be exported to Holland alone.
Elizabethan ethics, of the school of Drake, Hawkins,
Cumberland, Raleigh, and Frobisher, still prevailed. If
the Spaniard was shy and prizes were scarce, a vessel
belonging to a brother trader of your own port was
regarded as fair quarry. Thus, in September, 1644,
John Wilcox charged Mr. Clercq with fitting out a pri-
vateer to capture and make prize of plaintiff's ship,
asking that the defendant's vessel might be detained in
port. In July, 1648, Jacob Reynsen and Jacob Scher-
merhorn for smuggling were banished for five years and
their property confiscated. This sentence was too severe
for the popular taste, and was recalled three weeks later.
MERCHANTS AND TRADE 335
In May, 1648, Hans Hansen, for fourteen years a re-
spectable resident of New Amsterdam, was pardoned
for smuggling on condition that he beg pardon of God
and of the court.
In 1654, the Director-General and Council are in-
formed that " pirates and vagabonds are countenanced,
favoured, harboured, entertained, and supported by
subjects and inhabitants having fixed domicile, and are
so encouraged and incited that some have dared to
spy into even this city under the colour and guise of
travellers." Therefore a fine of twenty-four guilders
was ordered for neglect to report strangers.
Pirates infested the shores of the East River and
committed ravages around New Amsterdam and on
Long Island. They were chiefly English, and many of
the English settlers were accused of communication
with them. Sir Henry Moody at Gravesend joined in
accusing Captain John Manning of carrying on an
unlawful trade. The Governor raised troops and com-
missioned several yachts to act against the pirates.
Manning was arrested and tried in New Haven in April,
1654; his vessel was condemned and sold " by inch of
candle " as a lawful prize. In 1653, Thomas Baxter, a
resident of New Amsterdam, turned pirate and com-
mitted outrages on Long Island. He seized in Heem-
stede harbor a vessel belonging to New Plymouth and
captured a Dutch boat. Stuyvesant sent out two boats
with a hundred men to blockade Baxter in Fairfield
Roads. Baxter was finally arrested by the authorities
of New Haven and Hartford. He was surrendered by
Stuyvesant's requisition, but escaped from jail. His
house and ship at New Amsterdam were sold.
The " constant and profitable correspondence with
foreigners and pirates " had been " diligently ob-
structed " by Andros, by order of James II, "* which
336 DUTCH NEW YORK
was very disagreeable to many persons who had even
grown old in that way of trade."
Piratical trade had attained vast proportions under
the Dutch rule, but under the early English governors
of New York the evil grew to an almost incredible ex-
tent. The chief task allotted to the Earl of Bellomont,
who arrived in 1698, was the suppression of piracy. By
his efforts William Kidd, highly respected in this com-
munity, was brought to justice; and his letters to the
Lords of Trade reveal conditions of shameless corrup-
tion and open defiance rf the law. He encountered
bitter opposition from the merchants here. In an early
report he says:
This city hath been a nest of Pirates, and I already find
that several of their ships have their owners and were
fitted from this Port, and have Commissions to act as
privateers, from the late Governor here. There is a
great trade between this port and Madagascar, from
whence great quantities of East India goods are brought,
which are certainly purchased from Pirates. I find that
this practice is set up in order that the spoils taken by
the Pirates (set out from this Citty) may be brought in
hither in merchant ships, whose owners are likewise
owners and interested in the Pirate ships, and I particu-
larly find that one Captain Moston, Commander of the
ship Fortune (now under seizure) altho' an unfree bottom
had a Commission from Coll. Fletcher to be a privateer,
and as if protected by that did publickly load here for
Madagascar and came back laden with East India goods
supposed to be partly the produce of the cargo and partly
the Pirates goods, which were landed and concealed, all
but the last boat and it was so contrived that this ship
was sent from hence to Madagascar at the same time that
Hore and Glover's ship (two most notorious pirates) were
there, both of which had Commissions from Coll : Fletcher
at New Yorke. Piracy does and will prevail in the
MERCHANTS AND TRADE 337
Province of New Yorke in spite of all my endeavours
unless three things be done out of hand, viz: good
Judges and an honest and able Attorney-General from
England, a man of war commanded by an honest stout
Captain, and pay and recruits for the four companies.
Captain Giles Shelly, who came lately from Madagascar
with 50 or 60 Pirates has so flushed them at New Yorke
with Arabian Gold and East India goods, that they set
the government at defiance. . . . Your Lordships orders
to me to trouble and prosecute Pirates and suppress un-
lawful Trade can never be complied with, if you will not
afford me the means. Had there been a man of war at
Yorke, Shelly and his Pirates in all probability had been
taken and £50,000 in money belonging to them : and for
want of a Man-of-War I could not attempt anything
against a great ship that hovered off this coast 5 or 6 days
together about the time I secured Captain Kidd, supposed
to be one Maze, a pirate, who is said to have brought
£300,000 from the Red Sea, and who 't is believed here
would have come into this place could he have hoped to
make his terms ; but hearing how it fared with Kidd, he
bore away and 't is said he is gone to Providence.
The Governors of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and
Maryland also seized a number of pirates, all of whom
were brought by Shelly from Madagascar, and a good
many of them had forsaken Kidd. One of Kidd's de-
serters was Edward Buckmaster, who was taken pris-
oner by Bellomont, and another was Otto van Toyle.
In another letter Bellomont says :
When any seizure is made here the merchants are
ready to rise in rebellion, and so little have they been used
to that in Colonel Fletcher's government that they look on
it as a violence done them when we seize unlawful goods
in their warehouses and shops. 'Tis almost incredible
what a vast quantity of East India goods would have been
brought into this port had there not been a change in the
338 DUTCH NEW YORK
Government. Two men in this town had for their share
ii2000 each, which were brought from Madagascar and
got there with the barter with pirates. Besides there
came home to the mouth of this port 8 or 9 pirate ships
since my coming to this government, which would have
brought in a vast quantity of those goods, and by the
confession of the merchants in the town they would have
brought in a £100,000 in gold and silver, and this inrages
them to the last degree that they have missed of all this
treasure and rich pennyworths of East India goods and
now they drink Colonel Fletcher's health with the greatest
devotion imaginable, upon the remembrance of his kind
concessions to them and the dispensing power he gave
himself and them against the laws of trade and piracy.
I formerly acquainted your Lordships that Nassaw
Island alias Long Island was become a great Receptacle
for Pirates; I am since more confirmed that 'tis so.
Gillam, a notorious pirate, was suffered to escape thither
from Rhode Island, and 'tis believed he is still there,
notwithstanding the Lieutenant-Governor of New Yorke
published by my direction a reward of £30 for his appre-
hension, and at the same time £10 a piece for two of
Kidd's men that escaped from this town to Nassaw Island.
I take that Island, especially the East End of it, to exceed
Rhode Island. The people there have been many of them
pirates themselves, and to be sure are well affected to the
trade ; but besides that they are so lawlesse and desperate
a people that I can get no honest man that will venture to
goe and collect the Excise among them and watch their
Trade. There are four towns that make it their daily
practice to receive ships and sloops with all sorts of
Merchandize, tho' they be not allowed ports.
The most prominent and opulent merchants in the
city — De Lancey and Philipse among them — accu-
mulated much of their wealth by piracy.
Shelly is one of the Masters of Ships that I formerly
informed your Lordships went last Summer from New
MERCHANTS AND TRADE 339
York to Madagascar ; he is a dweller at New Yorke, and
Mr. Hackshaw one of the Merchants in London that
petitioned your Lordships against me is one of his owners,
and Mr de Lancey a Frenchman at New Yorke is another.
I hear too that Captain Kidd dropped some pirates in
that Island. They write from New Yorke that Arabian
Gold is in great plenty there. When Frederick Phil-
lipp's ship and the other two come from Madagascar
(which are expected every day) New York will abound
with gold. Tis the most beneficiall trade that to Mada-
gascar with the pirates that was ever heard of, and I
believe there's more got that way than by turning pirates
and robbing. I am told this Shelly sold rum which cost
but 2 shillings per gallon at New Yorke for 50 shillings
and £3 per gallon at Madagascar, and a pipe of Madera
Wine which cost him £19 he sold there for £300. Strong
liquors and gun powder and ball are the commodities
that go off there, to the best advantage, and those four
ships last summer carried thither great quantities of those
things.
The carelessness and corruption of the officers of the
revenue and customes have been so great for some years
past that althogh the Trade of this place hath been four
times as much as formerly and the City greatly enlarged,
and inriched, yet His Majesty's revenue arising from the
Customes, hath decreased the one half from what it was
ten years since ; and the Merchants here have been so
used to unlawful trade that they were almost ready to
mutiny on some seizures I caused to be made (a few
days after I landed) on Goods imported in an unfree
bottom in the ship Fortune, commanded by Captain
Moston, and it was with the greatest unwillingness and
backwardness that his Majesty's Collector, Mr. Chidley
Brooks did make the seizure, who told me it was none
of his business, but belonged to a Man of Warr ; that he
had no boat, and other excuses ; and when I gave him
positive commands to do it, which he could not avoid, yet
his delay of four days time gave opportunity to the ship
340 DUTCH NEW YORK
wholly to unlade a rich cargo of East India goods, believed
to be worth twenty thousand pounds ; and only the last
boats laden from her were seized to the value of about
one thousand pounds, and I am informed that several
other ships have since my landing here, transgressed the
acts of trade which I could not prevent.
Continuing his investigations, the Earl found that
the pirates that had caused the greatest havoc in the
East Indies and the Red Sea had been either fitted out
in New York or Rhode Island, and manned from New
York. The ships commanded by Mason, Tew, Glover,
and Hore had their commissions from the Governor of
New York, the last three from Fletcher, and although
these commissions appeared to be given only against
the King's enemies, yet it was known to all the inhabit-
ants of this city that they were bound to the Indies
and the Red Sea, it being openly declared by the said
commanders, whereby they raised men and were quickly
able to proceed so notoriously publicly that it was gen-
erally believed that they had assurance from Colonel
Fletcher that they might return and be protected. Bel-
lomont says further :
Capt. Tew, that had been before a most notorious Pirate
(complained of by the East India Company) on his re-
turn from the Indies with great riches made a visit to New
York, where (although a man of most mean and in-
famous character) he was received and caressed by Coll:
Fletcher, dined and supped often with him, and appeared
publickly in his coach with him, and they exchanged
presents, as gold watches, etc. with one another, all this
is known to most of the City.
Fletcher also received private presents for his wife
and daughter. Mason's ship returned under the com-
mand of one Coats about 1693, and was protected by
Fletcher.
MERCHANTS AND TRADE 341
Bellomont found the officers of the Customs at New
York most corrupt and neghgent, and his removal of
Mr. Wilham Nicolls (chief broker in tlie matter of
protection of pirates) from the Council made an enemy
of him; and he and the merchants formed a cabal
against the Earl. He also removed Brooks. His ene-
mies charged that he had ruined the town by discour-
aging " privateering," as they euphemistically termed
piracy, and preventing goods to the value of £100,000
from being landed.
The obstacles thrown in the Governor's path were
many, and the opposition was exceedingly bold.
Having intelligence where some uncustomed goods
were, I sent Mr. Monsey and Mr. Evats, a Searcher, to
seize them, who went, found and seized them at Mr. Van
Sweeten's house, but before they could convey them again
to the Custome house, called together a number of the
Merchants and by their advice locked up all the windows
and doors, and made the said officers prisoners in a Close
Garret, where they made the seizure and put them in
danger of being stifled. News of this was brought to me
about three hours after being nine of the clock at night
with notice that the Officers were in danger of being
murthered. I was therefore forced immediately to send
my Lieutenant-Governor with three files of Soldiers and
my own Servants from the Fort, who went and forth-
with broke open the doors of Van Sweethen's house
(which were denied to be opened to them) and rescued
the King's Officers, and assisted in carrying the Goods
seized to the Custom House. The Merchants of the Town
were in such an uproar at this seizure (not being used to
such things) that they exclaimed against me, as if all
the English Laws and Rights were violated, and had the
insolence to present to me, a most reproachful scandalous
Petition.
342 DUTCH NEW YORK
There is thus no mystery about the origin of the
lacquer, porcelain, silks, brocades, embroideries, and
other rich Oriental wares and fabrics found in such
quantities in the New York inventories.
Let us now follow from the breakfast-table the
" master " of the house to his business.
The model Seventeenth Century house in the Utrecht
Museum contains a small office, or counting-house, cor-
rectly furnished. On the right are two bookshelves full
of books (also on the left wall), below which are a
wooden bench and five rolls of tobacco. Against the
wall, beneath the shelves, hang two shears, one saw, one
chopper, and two strings of bills. Farther back in the
room stands a bookcase in which are five packets of
white paper tied with red tape and thirty-six bound
books of white paper. Above the desk hangs a wooden
shelf on which are twenty packs of paper tied with red
tape. Under the bookshelf at the back stands a money-
chest on carved legs, in which are packets of blue and
of white paper tied with red tape and files of bills and
receipted bills. In the front part of the room is a desk
on which are a silver inkstand and an ivory seal with
a monogram, a black etui case of silver work and a
knife, three quill pens, a sand-shaker for drying the ink,
a wooden paper-cutter, a wooden ruler, and a pile of
letters.
In front of the desk stands a high stool, on which a
doll, representing the merchant, is seated. He wears
an indoor jacket of brown silk with an orange silk
scarf, white silk breeches, and red slippers. On the
floor stands a basket containing long Gouda pipes and
two bootjacks, and also a wooden cellaret with nine
green glass bottles.
The office usually contained also a clock, or an hour-
glass, especially if clerks were employed. It was cus-
MERCHANTS AND TRADE 343
tomary for both master and clerks to keep their caps
or hats on while at work.
The counting-house was entered either directly from
the street or side passage, or else through the shop,
for on no account would the strict housewife allow cus-
tomers or business callers to walk through the hallways
of their homes and soil the clean tiling. An Amster-
dam Xantippe of the Seventeenth Century is heard to
say:
As soon as my husband's feet reach the threshold off
come his boots, and either leather or felt slippers which
always stand near the entrance are put on. Then the
servant hands him his dressing-gown and cap, while he
takes off his street clothes ; and, quiet as a lamb, he steps
into his office, and is buried in his books. If anybody
ever comes to visit him, he never comes farther than the
office. The rest of the house is mine, from front to rear,
from top to bottom. Sometimes but very rarely, and when
it is a special friend, he is allowed to bring him into the
small front room to take a glass, but that is on special
occasions only, and not a regular habit. Everything
referring to his trade he knows ; and his room is full
of bills of lading, insurance policies, ledgers, day-
books, etc.
The industries of New Netherland were very trifling.
The temptations and profits of trade and barter, legiti-
mate and illicit, were too strong to induce the cobbler to
stick to his last. Very little merchandise was manu-
factured, — some furniture, brick, beer, fur garments,
homespun linen, and woollen stuffs, shoes, and, of
course, cereal and dairy products were made, but for
their wealth the inhabitants of the colony depended on
domestic and foreign exchange of commodities. Miller
(1695) writes:
344 DUTCH NEW YORK
The industry that now is used is but Httle; the few
inhabitants, having a large country before them, care
not for more than from hand to mouth, and therefore
they take but httle pains, and yet that little produces very
good beer, bread, cider, wine of peaches, cloth stuffs and
beaver hats, a certain and sufficient sign how plentiful and
beneficial a country it would be did but industrious art
second nature's bounty, and were but the inhabitants more
in number than at present they are.
Merchandizing in this country is a good employment,
English goods yielding in New York generally lOO per
cent, advance above the first cost, and some of them 200,
300, yea, sometimes 400: this makes so many in the
city follow it, that whosoever looks on their shops would
wonder, where there are so many to sell, there should be
any to buy.
This, joined to the health fulness, pleasantness, and
fruit fulness thereof, are great encouragements to people
rather to seek the bettering of their fortunes here than
elsewhere; so that it may be hoped that a little time will
render the inhabitants more numerous than at present
they are.
In 1670, Denton says:
they sow store of flax which they make every one cloth
of for their own weaving, as also woollen cloth and linsey-
woolsey, and had they more tradesmen amongst them,
they would in a little time live without the help of any
other country for their clothing. Here you need not
trouble the shambles for meat, nor bakers and brewers
for beer and bread, nor run to a linen-draper for a supply,
every one making their own linen and a great part of
their woollen cloth.
With regard to the trades, the only ones that cor-
responded to some degree with the Dutch guilds were
those of the butcher, baker, and brewer. The houses
with the verandas under which goods were displayed in
From ail olil print
OLD DUTCH HOUSE IN BROAD STREET
NEW AMSTERDAM, 1698
MERCHANTS AND TRADE 345
Holland existed here; but, as a rule, the shop-goods
consisted of a heterogeneous conglomeration in which
the purchaser might find anything from a prayer-book
to a pack of cards, a Jew's-harp to an anchor. The
bakers, of course, confined their wares to tne favorite
Dutch confectioneries. Thus, in 1661, Hendrick Jan-
sen was sued for exhibiting gingerbread in his window
without offering large bread for sale.
It may be noticed, in passing, that authorities whose
duties corresponded to a modern board of health de-
prived the owner of perishable goods when they became
sufficiently malodorous to create a nuisance and sold
them for the benefit of unnamed parties — perhaps for
negro or Indian consumption. Thus, in May, 1660,
some Dutch imported cheeses were seized and sold by
auction because they created a great stench both in Van
der Vin's cellar as thereabout.
Very few merchants made a specialty of any com-
modity; the average inventory gives only the jumble
of a country store. To take only one (and a very small
one) of the innumerable shops as an example, we find
among the goods of Peter Marius: 140 small Dutch
books of several sorts; 25 pieces blue tape; 173^ ells
of calico painted ; 29 white washes and one hand-brush ;
6 scrubbing-brushes and 5 hand-brushes ; 5 pieces and
3 remnants of blue linen ; two small pictures, one church
chair, a small Dutch hamper, a cask of sugar, a white
wood chest, 4 small pewter salts, 50 Indian stools, 41
" dustails," one dozen small butter ladles, one sugar
loaf, 15 " old-fashioned Dutch childrens bodyes," 22^4
lbs. of " suggar candy in a tin box " ; 31^4 pounds of
fine hooks and eyes ; one large nickers and 60 dozen
of other ties," i ^ lb. long Indian beads, one Dutch sea-
card or draft, and " 19 lbs. of swan shott."
We have seen that the ordinary currency was wam-
346 DUTCH NEW YORK
pum and beaver, Carolus guilders and other florins and
dollars. In a port resorted to by pirates and all the
traders of the earth, however, it is only natural that the
merchant's money-box should contain coins of every
ancient and modern mint. Arabian gold, which seems
to have been the principal currency among the Mada-
gascan pirates, frequently appears (see page 337).
Lewis Morris (1691) had one hundred and eighty
guineas, one double guinea, six half guineas, four
quarter guineas, one pistole, and two double doubloons.
For the relative value of Dutch, New York, and Eng-
lish money at the end of the century, we may quote the
following from the inventory of John Coesart (1700) :
1 1 181 guilders 10 stivers at Y\ prime cost Dutch money
the prime cost in Dutch money amounts in the whole
11189-10-4 15095-10-11 to which at ^0"^° advance
amounts to £2830-8-9 New York money.
The differences in Holland and New Amsterdam
values frequently gave rise to disputes which had to be
settled by the courts here.
The arithmetical troubles, however, that required ex-
pert accounting in consequence of the multitudinous
coins, tokens, and values were fewer than might be
supposed. The reason for this is that the bulk of the
domestic trade was transacted in kind. One man would
supply another with dairy produce or build a house
for him or give professional, or other, services, and be
credited in return with shop-goods or labor. Countless
instances of this practice appear in the records. For
example, in May, 1654, when Matewis de Vos sues
Beeltie Jacobsen for 9.4 florins for stockings, shoes,
and a clothes-line, Beeltie says she has paid him 3.10
florins in peaches and washing.
One striking point in New Netherland trade is the
MERCHANTS AND TRADE 347
extent to which women were independent participants,
thus rendering them very desirable widows. It is also
noticeable that many of the opulent matrons had two or
three husbands. Among the rich widows may be men-
tioned Anneke Jans; Mrs. Drisius, the latter's daugh-
ter ; Mrs. Cornelis Steenwyck ; Margaret Philipse, who
traded directly with Fatherland, travelling in her own
ships ; and many others. Lysbet Greveraet, first mar-
ried to Mr. De Reimer, a young merchant of New
Amsterdam, became the wife of Dominie Samuel Dri-
sius. She owned m.uch real estate and the mercantile
effects of her late husband. Her shop was in Pearl
Street between Whitehall and Broad Streets. When
she died, she owned, among other property, four houses
in New York worth £371, £300, £300, and £275, re-
spectively. Many of the wealthy wives and widows
made their money in tavern-keeping.
A short survey of the conditions of commerce in
New Amsterdam would not be complete without an
inquiry as to the standings of the Jews here. When
Portugal monopolized the trade of the Eastern seas,
the bulk of the trade was in the hands of the Portu-
guese Jews, and to the Dutch who then transshipped
Oriental goods from the Tagus to the Texel the name
Portuguese was synonymous with Jews. When Philip
II, the oppressor of the Low Countries, took posses-
sion of Portugal and the Jews were subjected to the
tortures of the Inquisition, they found a welcome asy-
lum in Amsterdam, where they were allowed the free
exercise of their religion and where they still have
many synagogues. They were not only tolerated, but
they stood high in the councils of the nation and in
art, and, particularly, in commerce. The ultra-secta-
rians of the Protestant religion, like Stuyvesant, hated
the Jew, and, like Cromwell in England, would gladly
348 DUTCH NEW YORK
have excluded and banished him; but to the level-
headed Directors of a trading-company such a policy,
was naturally distasteful. However, for a long time
the West India Company refrained from granting Jews
Patroon rights, and frowned upon all attempts of mem-
bers of that race to found colonies. In 1651, however,
as a result of " continual coming," the Jews had evi-
dently wearied the Directors, for they informed Stuy-
vesant that they had licensed Jan de Illau to settle with
some of his co-religionists at Curagao as an experiment,
although the Company shrewdly suspected that the real
project of the " colony " was to trade thence to the
West Indies and the Main. Three years later, a com-
pany of Jews headed by Asser Levy arrived in New
Amsterdam from the West Indies, and the popular
prejudice against them, which was fully shared by
Stuyvesant, immediately showed itself in published
disabilities.
They were forbidden to train and mount guard with
the trainbands for two reasons : — first, the disgust and
unwillingness of these trainbands to be fellow-soldiers
with the aforesaid nation and to be on guard with them
in the same guardhouse and on the other side, that the
said nation was not admitted or counted among the citi-
zens, as regards trainbands, or common citizens' guards
neither in the illustrious City of Amsterdam nor (to our
knowledge) in any City in Netherland.
On Nov. 5, 1655, Jacob Barsimon and Asser Levy's
petition to stand guard like other burghers of New
Amsterdam, or to be relieved of the tax paid by other
Jews, was refused, and the petitioners were told they
might go elsewhere if they liked. On Dec. 2;^, 1655,
Salvador Dandradi, a Jewish merchant, prayed for a
deed of a house he had purchased at public auction,
MERCHANTS AND TRADE 349
being ready to pay the money. His petition was
refused.
Instead of going elsewhere, they stayed; but, in
view of their problematical ultimate destination, they
asked to have a place allotted to them where they might
bury their dead out of their sight. This request was
refused on the ground that it was not yet necessary;
but one of their members, having obligingly removed
the objection, on Feb. 22, 1656, the Jews were granted
a burying-place outside the city.
The ostracizing of the Jews by Stuyvesant and his
subordinates naturally aroused the indignation of the
Directors in Holland, who, on June 14, 1656, wrote
to Stuyvesant :
We have seen and heard with displeasure that against
our orders of the 15th of February, 1655, issued at the
request of the Jewish or Portuguese nation, you have
forbidden them to trade to Fort Orange and the South
River, also the purchase of real estate, which is granted to
them without difficulty here in this country, and we wish
it had not been done and that you had obeyed our orders
which you must always execute punctually and with more
respect : Jews or Portuguese people, however, shall not
be employed in any public service (to which they are
neither admitted in this city), nor allowed to have open
retail shops, but they may quietly and peacefully carry
on their business as before said and exercise in all quiet-
ness their religion within their houses, for which end they
must without doubt endeavour to build their houses close
together in a convenient place on one or the other side of
New Amsterdam — at their own choice — as they have
done here.
They add:
The permission given to the Jews to go to New Nether-
land and enjoy there the same privileges, as they have
350 DUTCH NEW YORK
here, has been granted only as far as civil and political
rights are concerned, without giving the said Jews a claim
to the privilege of exercising their religion in a syna-
gogue or at a gathering; as long therefore, as you re-
ceive no request for granting them this liberty of religious
exercise, your considerations and anxiety about this
matter are premature and when later something shall be
said about it, you can do no better than to refer them to
us and await the necessary order.
On March 14, 1656, Abraham de Lucena, Jacob
Cohen Henricque, Salvador Dandrada, Joseph Dacosta,
and David Frera, petition that as they are taxed as
other citizens they should have same rights in trading
and acquiring real estate according to grant, Feb. 15,
1655.
On April 11, 1657, Asser Levy, a Jew, appears in Court
requests to be admitted a Burgher; claims that such
ought not be refused him as he keeps watch and ward
(tocht en wacht) like other Burghers, shewing a Burgher
certificate from the city of Amsterdam, that the Jew is
burgher there. Which being deliberated on, 'tis decreed
as before that it cannot be allowed and he shall apply to
the Director-General and Council.
In the end, the local authorities had to give way, and
the Jews were admitted to the right of citizenship in
1657-
INDEX
INDEX
Aelst, W. van, 32, 102
Albums, 314
Anabaptists, 186, 189, 199
Anchorage ground, 324-325
Andros, Gov., 53, 192, 199
Apron, 61
Arabian gold, 337, 346
Arak, 268
Archery, 296
Arms of Amsterdam, The, 2, 3, 5
Assault with a glass, 270
Backerus, Johannes, 187
Backgammon, 297
Bakers, 126-127
Ball, 200
Bann dinners, 221
Banns, laws regarding marriage,
209-210
Banns, marriage, 209-213
Baptism, 248
Baptisms, irregular, 249
Baptists, 189, 199, 200
Barber surgeons, 237-239
Barbers, ships', 238-239
Barentsen, Peter, 2
Barter, 346
Baxter, T. (pirate), 335
Beaker, no
Beaver, The, 196
Beds, 83
Beeck, Johannes van, 212-214
Beer, 121, 229
Beers drunk in Holland, 267
Bellomont, Earl of, 225
Bells, hand, 129
Betrothal, 210, 217-220
Betrothal gifts, 217-218
Betrothal, infant, 207
Beverninck, 29
Bibles, 181
Bigamy, punishment for, 216
Bill of lading, 325
Billiards, 297
Birch-beaker, 270
Bird cutting, 296
Biscuit, lying-in, 247
Bitters, 268
Bleachery, 160
Block, Adriaen, i
Blom, Hendricus, 194-195
Bogardus, Dominie, 6, 17, 60, 159,
183, 185, 186
Books, 180-181
Borsum (or Borssum), Egbert van,
44-45
Bouwerys, the Company's, 16-17
Bowery, Stuyvesant's, 42, 195-196
Bowne, John, 156, 191, 192
Boys, mischievous, 23
Brandy, 268
Brandy distillery, Kieft's, 276
Breach of promise, suits regarding,
210-211
Bread, 121
Breads, festival, 300
Breakfast, 121
Bressani, Father, 186
Breweries, early, in New Amster-
dam, 276
Brewer's street, 48, 165
Brickman, quoted, 104, 136-137
Bricks, 39, 40, 41, 45, 54
Bride, 218, 220, 223-232
23
353
354
INDEX
Bride and groom, insult to, 227,
233-234
Bride's bouquet, 226
Bride's crown, 222, 226
Bride's dress, 220-221, 222, 223-
224
Bridesmaids, 218-219, 223
Bride's reception, 221-222
"Bride's Tears," 219, 226
Bride's veil, 224, 226
Bridegroom, 220
Bridegroom, dress of, 225
Bridegroom, gifts to, 226
Broad Street, 30, 319
Bundling, 207-208
Burgomasters, suit of, 72
Burial customs, 256-262
Burial of suicides, 260
Bush-burning, 12-14
Buttons, 71-72
Byrd, William, quoted, 54, 199
Cake-pasting, 298
Cakes, 125-126
Cakes festival, 301, 302
Cappoens, Cristina, 65. 67, 68, 104,
106, no, 112, 114-115, 129, 181
Caps, 63
Cards, 297
Carrying into the Sea, 310
Carter, Capt. C, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79
Carters, 53, 296
Carts, 53, 296
Casket, 87
Castle Philipse, 47
Cattle, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 22, 23, 40,
160
Cattle fair, 315-316
Cattle, slaughter of, 315
Chairs, 87-88
Chatelaines, 56, 64, 217-218
Cheese, 125
Chess, 297
Children, clothes of, 69-70
Children, wills concerning, 147-149
Chocolate, 133
Chocolate-pot, 133
Christening-customs, 248-251
Christening-dinner, 250
Christening-gifts, 251
Christening- robes, 249-250
Christmas, 301
Church, 7, 41, 183-185
Church seat, 135-136
Churching feast, 248
Churching of women, 248
City improvements, 24
City Taverns, 271-272
Clarkson, Matthew, 74, 78, 80, 141
Clarkson, Mrs. M., 59, 61, 62, 63
Classis of Amsterdam, 182, 194, 198
Cleaning, 122, 136-138
Cleef, Hendrick Christiaensen van, i.
Clergy, Dutch, 235
Cloaks, 79
Clothes, men's, 71-80
Clover leaf, 230, 269-271
Clubbing the Cat, 292-293
Coffee, 121, 133
Collect, The, 312
Comforters of the Sick, 4, 164
Company's counting-house, 4
Confections, 125-126, 229
Confections, festival, 300
Consolers of the Sick, 182, 252
Conventicles, 189-190, 200
Coronets, bridal, 222-223
Corpse dressers, 255
Corrupt revenue officers, 339, 341
Cortlandt, Catharine van, 46, 47
Cortlandt, Olaff Stevensz van, 45,
46, 82, III
Cortlandt, Stephanus van, 46
Cortlandt, van, house, 46
Counting-house, 342
Courtship, 208-209
Cox, Sarah, 98-99
Cox, William, 98
Crundall, Thomas, house of, 97
Cupboard. See Kast
Currency, 327, 346
Curtains, 88
Curtius, Alexander Carolus, 174-175
Cushions, 88
INDEX
355
Damen, Jan, lots of, 15-16
Dancing, 177-179, 230-231
Death customs, 252-255
Death robes, 253
Death "wade," 253
Deldyke, L., 61, 68, 73, 74, 75, 76,
77. 78, 79» 132, 297, 314
Delft ware, 113
De Vry, quoted, 220-221
Diamonds, 67-68
Dice-throwing, 297
Dinners at City Tavern, 273
Dinners, civic, 272
Dinners, complimentary, 273
Directors, the first, 3
Disc-throwing, 292
Divorce, 214-216
Doctors, Dutch, 235-237
Doctor's fees, 241-245
Dogs, 19-21, 134
Dolls' houses, 118
Donck, A. van der, quoted, lo-ii,
12-14, 29, 32-34, 124
Dongan, Gov., 46, 54, 199
Dress, rich, of Dutch women, 56
Drink measures regulated, 276
Drinking, immoderate, laws against,
275_
Drinking-vessels, 269
Drinks, Dutch, 219, 267, 312, 318
Drinks, favorite, in New Nether-
land, 268
Drisius, Samuel, 187, 188, 190, 194,
196, 197, 198, 200
Drunkenness an excuse for forget-
fulness, 265
Drunkenness, Dutch, 326
Drunkenness no crime, 265
Dutch service, 192-193
Dyck, Cornelis van, 90, no
East India goods, 83, 336, 337,
340, 342
East India pictures, 107
Ebony, 81-82
English colonists, 7
Entombment, 256, 258
Excise cases in court, 285, 286
Excise laws, 276-284
Excursions, 309
Fans, 57
Farm, the Company's, 16
Farmers, clothes of, 80
Farm-houses, 14
Farms, 4, 14-15
Farral, Joseph, 73-74, 77, 78
Fast Days, 203, 204
Fences, 19, 21-22, 40
Fencing, 178
Fiddlers, 314
Fire, danger from, 50-51
Fire-wardens, 50
Fish, 124-125
Fish suppers, 310
Fletcher Gov., 83, 336, 338, 340
Flowers, 27-30, 122
Food, 130
Foot- warmer, 135
Forks, 107, 108, 109, no, 129
Fort, 6
Fort Amsterdam, 4, 5
Fort Orange, 2, 9, 40, 41
Fort Wilhelmus, 2
Fortune-telling, 204
Frederijcke, Krijn, 4
Free trade, 331
French, 177
Fresh Water, the, 18, 19, 38
Fruits, 27-38
Funeral expenses, 261-263
Funeral feasts, 259, 260
Funeral pomp, 258
Furniture, 81-101
Fur trade, 2, 3
Gallows, 10
Game, 17-18, 124
Games, 290-297
Games, winter, 311-314
Gaming-houses, 297
Garden, the Company's, 15, 30
Gardens, 14, 27-34
Gate City, 52, 53
356
INDEX
Gate, East River, 47
Gate, the Water, 47
Gideon, The, 156
Gin, 268
Glass, 117
Glass, window, 42-43
Glaziers, 42-43
Glover (pirate), 340
Gloves, 64, 77
Goats, 18, 19, 23, 26
Gold, Arabian, 337, 346
Gold headdress, case regarding, 65,
66-67
Golf, 290-291, 312
Governor's Island, 6
Graveraet, Mrs. E., 64, 65, 69, 77
Great Burgher right, 332
Hard drinking, 233, 271
Hardenbrook, Margaret, 46
Hats, 78-79
Head ornaments, 64-65
Heem, De, 32, 102
Heere Graght, 48
Hell Gate, 6, 311
Herb garden, 33
Herring, The, 6
Hobbema, 103
Hockey, 312
Hogs, 18, 25-26
Hondius, 28, 31
Hoods, 63
Hoorn, Cornelis, 3
Hore (pirate), 340
Horses, 15, 17
Houses, 40-41, 42, 46, 47, 89-101
Houses, furnishing of, 97
Hudson, I
Huges, Dr. J., 240, 243
Hulst, Willem van, 3
Hutchinson, Anne, 186
Huych, Jan, 4
Ice, games on the, 292, 311-313
Illiteracy, 172
Independents, 199
Indian convert, 187
Indian labor, 330
Indians, drunken, 330
Indians, harboring, 330
Indians, illicit trade with, 330
Industries of New Netherland, 343-
344
Injury, compensation for, 238
Inn, 44
Interiors, paintings of, 102-103
Irving, W., 58
Jans, Annetje, 60, 183
Jew burghers, 350
Jewels, 64-69, 222, 224-225
Jews, 127, 199, 347
Jews, disabilities of, 348-350
Jews, Stuyvesant's intolerance of,
reproved, 349
Jew's-harps, 314
Jogues, Father, quoted, 8-9, 186
Jokes, practical, 233-234
Josselyn, John, quoted, 45
Justice, administration of, 3
Kaetzen, 290
Kas, kast, hasten, 83, 84-87, 93, 99
Kermis, 209, 315, 320
Kermis, Amsterdam, 316-317
Kidd, Capt., 98, 337, 338, 339
Kieft, Willem, 6, 7-8, 15, 16, 46,
184-186, 203, 315
Kierstede, surgeon, 183, 239, 241, 242
Kint in 't Water, 51-52
Kip, Jacob, house of, 45
Kissing, 311
Kissing Bridge, 311
Klootbaan, 291
KIos, 291
Knight, Madam, quoted, 54-55,
200, 313
Krol, S. J., 4
Labardist Fathers, 36, 43
Lange, Dr. De, 57, 67, 68, 73, 74,
75. 76, 77, 78, 79, 83, 88, 90-93,
104, 105-106, 107, 114, 116, 132,
180-1S1, 314
INDEX
357
Lange, Mrs. De, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63,
65, 67, 138
Latin, 174
Laws of trade, violation of, 332
Lawson, John, quoted, 56
Laying out the corpse, 253
Leisler, Jacob, 198
Le Notre, 28
Levy, Asser, 62, 68, 73, 74, 77, 78,
79, 108, 129
Levy, Mrs. Asser, 57, 59, 61
Libraries, 180
Life, daily, 120
Linen, household, 138-142
Linen, table, 127-128
Liqueurs, 26S
Live-stock, care in transporting, 321
Long Island (pirate resort), 337
Long Island, religious services on,
188, 196
Lutherans, 199
Luyck, /Egidius, 175
Lying-in, 247
Mackerel, The, 2
Madagascar, a pirate clearing-
house, 336, 337, 338, 339
Mahogany, 82
Maize, 14, 34
Manhattan Island, population of, 4
Manhattes, Island of, purchased, 3
Marchpane, 125, 126, 227, 300
Marius, Peter J., 65, 67, 68, 109,
129, 141, 262
Marius, Peter J., house of, 93-95
Market days, 316
Marketing, 123-125
Marriage, ceremony of, 21, 226-227
Marriage of poor people, 232
Marsepein. See Marchpane
Marshes, 18
Mason (pirate), 340
Masquerading, 304
Mauritius River, i, 2, 3
May Day, 301-302, 305-306
May-pole decorated with rags, 234
May-poles, 301, 302, 305, 306
May-tree, 307
Meal, noonday, 130
Medals, funeral, 263
Medals, wedding, 230
Medicinal plants, 245-246
Megapolensis, 187, i8g, 194, 197, 198
Megapolensis, Samuel, 197-198
Melons, 32
Merchant, subservient to wife, 343
Merry Mount in the Fort, 305
Michaelius, 182
Mignon, 32, 102
Miller, John, quoted, 18, 200
Milt, A. De, loi
Minister, regulations regarding,
186-187
Minuit, Peter, 2, 4, 5, 6, 182, 183
Mirrors, 88-89
Montagne River, i, 2
Montanus, quoted, 9-10, 11-12, 37
Moody, Lady Deborah, 186
Morris, Lewis, 156, 157, 193
Mourning, 235-236
Mourning-gloves, 261
Mourning-hatbands, 261
Mourning-rings, 261
Mourning-scarfs, 261
Muff, 57
Murderer's Island, 2
Neckwear, men's, 74-75
Neer, Aert van der, 103
Negro Quarter, 155
Negroes, 26, 82, 153-157, 196
Negroes, the Company's, 156-157,
160
New Amsterdam, city, 24
New Amsterdam, streets of, 47-53
New Amsterdam, view of, from bay,
324
New Netherland, The, i, 2
New Year's Day, 203, 301-302, 306
Nicholas, Saint. See Saint
Nicholas.
Nieuwenhuys, William, 198
Nut Island, 6
Nutwood, 3, 82, 86
358
INDEX
Orchards, 36-38
Oriental goods, 83, 107, 108
Orphans, 136-152
Ort, Sarah, no, 116
Palisades, the, 47, 48
Palms, wedding, 227
Parival, De, quoted, 105, 136-137
Parrot, 134-135
Partridge, Elizabeth, 59, 61, 62, 63,
128, 129, 141
Passage money, 322
Patroons, 4
Peaches, 36-37
Pearl necklace, 225
Pearl pins, case regarding, 69
Pearl Street, 6, 39
Peasants, costume of, 70-71
Penn, Wm., 156
Perfumes, 64
Petticoat, 58-60
Pets, 134
Pewter, 112-113
Philipse, Frederick, 46
Pictures, 103-107
Pigs, 23, 24
Pinkster, 307
Pipe, bridegroom's, 218-219
Piracy, 333-341
Pirates, harboring, 335
Piratical New York merchants,
336-341
Plak, the, 166, 168-169
Playmates, 218, 219, 226, 22S,
235
Play-youths, 218, 219
Plucking the Goose. See Pulling
the Goose
Polhemus, J. T., 188
Porcelain, 113-117
Presbyterians, 199
Prince's Island, 2
Princess, The, 8, 186
Privateering, 341
Pulling the Goose, 293-296
Pumpkin, 33
Punishments, 108-109
Quakers, 189, 191, 192, 193-194,
199, 200
Queester, 208
Racing with carts, 296
Rain dress, the, 60
Rapelje, Sara de, in
Rasieres, De, 4
Religion, 8, 179-180, 199-200
" Remonstrance," quotations from,
155. 162
Rensselaer, Dominie N. van, 106,
115, 142, 180
Rensselaer, Patroon van, 6, 9, 225
Rensselaerswyck, Colony of, 7, 9
Riding the Goose, 304. See Pulling
the Goose
Rijks Museum, 117
Rings, finger, 222, 224, 225
Roelantsen, Adam, 6, 159-161
Roelofs, Sara, 172
Roman Catholics, 199
Rombouts, F., 73, 74, 76, 77, 78, 79,
99-100, no, 115
Romeyn, The, 162
Rommel-pot, 304
Rosa Solis, 268
RutTs, 62-63
Ruisdael, 103
Ruysch, Rachel, 32, 102
Sabbath-breaking, 2S5-288
Sacredaan, 87, 88
Sailors' freight, 2io3
Saint Martin's Eve, 308-309
Saint Martin's fires, 309
Saint Martin's goose 308-309
Saint-Martin-shake-the-basket-day,
309
Saint Nicholas, 125, 126, 297-299
Saint Nicholas bread, 298, 300
Saint Nicholas cake, 298, 300
Saint Nicholas Church, 297
Saint Nicholas Eve, 297, 300
Saint Nicholas rhymes, 298, 299
Salisbury, Capt. Sylvester, 77, 148
Samare, 60-61
INDEX
359
Sausage-making evening, 314-315
Sauzeau, Mme., 129
Schoeyinge, the, 47
Schoolmaster, the, 167-168
Schoolmaster, the first, 6
Schoolmasters, 159-165
Schools, 158, 159, 166, 169, 172-173
Schools, girls', 170
Schools, Latin, 174-177
Scotchmen, 332
Sea Mew, The, 2
Seawan, 327-329
Selyns, Henricus, 195-196, 198
Senneca, 297
Servants, 143-157
Sheep, 18, 23
Shelly, G. (pirate), 83, 338
Shipbuilding in New? Netherland,
324
Shipping regulations, 324-325
Ships, names of, 323-324
Shoes, 64, 77
Shoes, Saint Nicholas supposed to
fill, 299
Shop goods, 57-58, 345, 346
Shops, 344
Shrove-tide, 294, 304-305
Shrove Tuesday, 293, 296, 303-304
Sick, Comforters of the, 4. See
Consolers of the Sick
Silver, 107-112
Skates, 312
Skating, 31 1-3 13
Skittles, 291-292
Sleepy Hollow Church, 47
Sleeve, 62
Sleighing, 31 1-3 13
Small Burgher right, 332
Smith, Col. William, 74, 79, no
Smuggling, 24, 278, 333-334
Soldiers, first, 6
Spoons, 107, 108, 109, no
Sport, 296
Squash, ^^
Stadt Huys, 40
Staple right, 331
Staten Island, 5
States-General, 3
Steen, Jan, Parrot Cage, 102, 103,
126, 300
Steenwyck, C, 48, 57, 68, 69, 72-
73; 74. 76) 79> S6, 106, 109, 122,
128, 130, 134, 138, 141, 156
Steenwyck, C, house of, 93-95
Stockings, 70, 76-77
Stomacher, the, 63
Storehouse, the Company's, 331
Strand, the, 39, 47, 319
Streets, 47-53
Streets, filth in the, 25-26
Streets, lighting of, 53
Stuyvesant, 24, 47, 135, 147, 150,
161, 162, 187, 190, 191, 192, 194,
195, 197, 200, 206, 293, 302, 318
Stuyvesant Bouwery, 164
Stuyvesant, dinner to, 273
Stuyvesant, garden of, 42
Stuyvesant, house of, 42
Succotash, 34
Suicides, 260
Sunday closing, 275, 279, 283
Sunday, holiday making on, 309
Sunday, keeping of, 200-203
Sunday, laws regarding, 200-203
Sunday, profanation of, 185-186
Superstition, 204-206
Supper, 134
Surgeons in New Netherland, 23^
241
Swords, 79-80
Sylvester, N., 99, 116, 142
Tables, 87
Table-ware, 128
Tankards, no, in
Tap-houses, grades of, 274
Tavern, 10
Tavern brawling, 272, 288
Tavern dinners, 272
Tavern games, 291, 297
Tavern keepers, women, 347
Tavern life in Holland, 265
Taverns, civic importance of, 265—
266
360
INDEX
Taverns, Dutch, good and bad, 266
Taylor, Dr. H., 244
Taylor, Matthew, 57
Tea, 132-133
Tea, afternoon, 132
Teaching, 170
Tew (pirate), 340
Thanksgiving Day, 203
Three Kings, The, 5
Three Kings' Night, 302-303
Tienhoven, quoted, 14
Tiles, 42, 54-55
Tobacco, 37
Tobacco house, 17
Toys, 119
Toys, silver, 108
Trade, 346
Trade commodities, 325-326
Trade, Indian, 327-329
Trade, volume of (1624-35) 3-^
Traders, women, 347
Treating, 269
Trees, 12
Trousseau, 232-233
Twelfth Night, 302-303
Twelfth Night Cake, 302
Twiller, Wouter van, 6, 16, 159, 1S3
Tulip mania, 28, 30
Union, The, 6
Utrecht Museum, miniature house
in, 118
Varick, Mrs. Margarita Visboom
van, 65, 67-68, 72, 83, 88,
104, 106, 108, 119, 122, 129, 130,
132. 134, 135. 139, 180, 199, 301
Varick, Rudolphus van, 198, 199
Varleth, Judith. See Verleth
Vasten avond, 303
Vegetables, 14, 27, t,^
Velde, Adriaen van de, 103
Verleth, Casper, 212-214
Verleth, Judith, 21-22, 206, 214
Verleth, Maria, 212-214
Voorhuis, 89-91
Voyage, Atlantic, 321
Vries, De, quoted, 183-184
Vries, P. R. de, 46
Wade, 253
Walking-sticks, 79-80
Wall Street, 47
Walloons, i, 182
Wampum, 327-329
Wassenaer, quoted, 17-18
Watch, Burgher, 52
Watch, Citizen's, 52
Watch, Rattle, 52
Watkins, Ann, 61, 62, 63
Wedding, 221
Wedding-dinner, 228-230
Wedding-entertainments, 233
Wedding-gifts, 222, 231-232
Wessels, Dr. H., 240, 244, 245
West India Company, i, 2, 5, 6, 15,
40, 150, 153, 158, 182, 186, 194, 197
Westerbaen, 29
Whipping-post, 10
Whitehall, 39, 42, 319
Whitsuntide, 307-308
Whitsuntide bride, 307-30S
Wigs, 78
Williams, Roger, ^t,
Winder, John, house of, 98
Windmill, 4, 39
Wine, 37
Wines drunk in Holland, 229, 267
Wines, wedding, 229
Witchcraft, 204-206
Witchcraft, trials for, 206
Witches, 204-205
Witch-finders, 205
Wittepaert, The, 15O
Wolves, 19
Woods, 12, 81-83
Woolley, quoted, 313
Wounded, care of, 238
Zee-dragen. See Carrying into the
Sea
Zoutberg, De, 6
,-9\2'3
