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DYE'S

COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA:

COMPLETE ILLUSTRATED HISTORY

OF THK

* Coins of the World.

CONTAINING A FULL ACCOUNT OF TIIF.

EARLIEST KNOWN MEDIUMS OF EXCHANGE; DISCOVERY OK TI1K PRK.CIprr,
METALS; COINS OF THE BIBLE; ANCIENT GREEK, ROMAN. AND JF.WISII
COINAGE; EARLY AND MODERN COINS OF ASIA AND AFRICA;
ANGLO-AMERICAN, AMERICAN COLONIAL, AND CONTI-
NENTAL ISSUES; ANGLO-AMERICAN TOKENS, AND
THE PATTERN PIECES, EXPERIMENTAL ISSUES,

AND

COINS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.

TOGETHER WITH A GENERA]. HISTORY OF

MINES, MINING, MINTS, ASSAYS, ETC., ETC.

ILLUSTRATED WITH OVER FIFTEEN HUNDRED FAC-SIMILES.

BY JOHN S. DYE,

{Founder of Dye's Counterfeit JDctector. )

TO WHICH IS ADDED AN APPENDIX,
BY E. MASON, JR., (NUMISMATIST,)

PRESENTING AN AUTHENTICATED STATEMENT OF THK COINAGE OF THE LA'I

SOUTHERN CONFEDERACY, AT NEW ORLEANS, IN l86l, WITH COPIES

OF PAPERS ON FILE IN TIIF. CONFEDERATE ARCHIVES AT

WASHINGTON, AND FAC-S1MILE OF THE COINS ISSUED.

PHILADELPHIA :

IB IE^ .A- ID L IE "X" & oo-'DMc :

Xo. 66 NORTH FOURTH ST.
1883.

STACK ANNEX

PREFACE

A PARAMOUNT consideration in putting a book on the market
, is a demand. A demand, therefore, is essential to success.

Strange to say, such a demand has remained unmet in this coun-
try since its inception in the publication, or the absence of a
publication, of a universal history, accurately illustrated, of the
coins of the world, precious metal resources, mintages, etc. This
unoccupied field in the commercial and numismatic worlds, we
trust, is intelligently and comprehensively filled in the work
which this prefaces.

The author, John S. Dye, the founder and for thirty odd
years the editor and publisher of "Dye's Counterfeit Detector"
and for forty years a recognized authority on the paper and
precious metal currencies of the world, devoted the best years
of his life to compiling^ and formulating matter, corresponding
with the "money centres" of the world, expending large sums
of money in the procuration of fac similes of coins drawn from
original and in many instances almost extinct specimens all
culminating in a work of which it is its own original ; a work
which will stand for all ages, a monument of the past, and a
criterion for the present.

Shortly before the closing pages were given to the printer,
the author, then in the eventide of a long and eventful life, was
peacefully "gathered to his fathers," and the work on the book
necessarily suspended.

(3)

4 PREFACE.

When the merits of such an elaborate compilation of recon-
dite facts and figures, on a subject of such vast importance, not
only to the money-changer and antiquarian, but to the general
reader, were made known to the undersigned publishers, they
assumed the responsibility of completing the publication and
giving it to the public at the advertised price, notwithstanding
it contains some five hundred more pages than was originally
intended.

To realize the difficulties encountered in the publication
of so elaborate and comprehensive a work as the present one,
both in the matter of text and illustration, it is necessary to
state that true copies of the original coins are indispensable to the
correctness of history in the matter of illustrating a nation's
coinage; and the search among the various public and private
cabinets is often laborious and sometimes fruitless in results.
Again ; the collation of material explanatory of the fac similes
is a task of no ordinary sort, and would have discouraged many
numismatic writers possessing less energy and ambition than
the author who devoted so much of his valuable time to a
work of which fate prevented the full accomplishment. In
connection with the national and other coinages herein pre-
sented, full details are given of the various national mints,
with an exhaustive resume on mines, mining and assays of the
precious metals; thus tracing the world's coinages from their
origin to their completion as public circulating mediums of
exchange. In the combination and condensation of numismatic
matter, both in the text and illustrations, we fully believe
this work has neither compeer nor rival, it being the only com-
bined illustrated history of the world's coinage and precious
metal resources extant.

The work has undergone a strict censorship at the hands of

PREFACE. 5

the most accomplished and critical numismatists of this and
other cities. We are especially indebted to Dr. Edward Maris
and E. Mason, Jr., for laborious research and valuable addenda.
This, together with the author's well-known discerning and
analytical mind and scope of comprehension, warrant us in
assuring the reader that the accuracy of the work can be relied
upon with a maximum degree of certainty.

BRADLEY & COMPANY.

Philadelphia, 1883.

CONTENTS.

PREFACE 3

THE ORIGIN OF MONY 7

THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF MONEY 14

ANCIENT COINAGES 4M

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES 115

UNITED STATES COINAGE. THEFUGIOS 247

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD 257

COINS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES :

ABYSSYNIA 481

ARABIA 482

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC .' 484

A USTRIA 488

BELGIUM 512

BOLIVIA 525

BRAZIL 532

CENTRAL AMERICA 545

CHILI 556

CHINA 566

DENMARK AND POSSESSIONS 585

ECUADOR 60S

FRANCE 609

GERMAN EMPIRE 640

GREAT BRITAIN AND POSSESSIONS 759

GREECE 877

HOLLAND 883

ITALY 902

JAPAN 968

MEXICO 978

If ORWAY 989

PARAGUAY 993

PERU 994

POLAND 1002

PORTUGAL 1003

RUSSIA 1008

SPAIN 1018

SWEDEN 1032

SWITZERLAND 1037

TURKEY 1045

UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA 1055

URUGUAY 1061

VENEZUELA 1062

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 1065

APPENDIX COINAGE OF THE "SOUTHERN CONFEDERACY." 1150
(6)

CURRENT COINS OF THE WORLD,

AND THEIR PRESENT EXCHANGEABLE VALUES.
Tabulated for "Dye's Com Encyelopzdia " by ZIMMERMAN & FORSHAT, 19 Hall Street, Sew fork,

DEALERS IN

Bullion, Specie, and Foreign Bank Notes. Railroad Stocks, Bonds, and Mining
Stocks bought and sold strictly on commission for cash or on margin.

JANUARY, 1BB3.

UNITED STATES.

BKITISH COLONIES.

Gold. Gold.

California Quintuple Eagle $53.55 9 ne J[> ur ' * nd , ia ,,: J?' 1 ?

Double Eagle 20.00 Oi.eMohur, E. India 7.08

Eagle .... 10.00 H alf Sovereign 2.41

Half Eagle 5.00 Newfoundland,^ 1.95

$t! arte n E ? sle a ' s Silver.

Ihree Dollars 3.00

OneDollar i.oo Sierra Leone Co. Doi $0.80

California Gold . 98 One Dollar 1791 80

Georgia Gold 22 carat fine 94 j 1 hree Guilders 75

Bechtler Doll .Q5 r>ov.o^o Q,-ITT/-

Bechtler, Rutherford 2.40 I Canada Silver.

Bechder, 5, C. Rutherford 4.75 j Canada, 50 cents $0.48

Canada, 25 cents ... 24

Silver. ; Canada, 20 cents 19

Mutilated Silver, per oz $i 02 ! Canada, 10 cents 09}^

Standard Dollar 99% I Canada, scents 04^

Trade Dollar 99% In lots @ 97^0. per Doll.

HalfDollar 50

Quarter Dollar 25 BRAZIL AND PORTUGAL.

Iwenty Cents 20 Gold

S^L: 10 Crown ' fc.75

KalfDime 05 , Moidore *J

1 hree Cents 03

Silver.

ENGLAND. 640 Reis, Portugal $0.60

Gold. 96 ei - s ' R d i

_. _ . 1,000 Reis, Brazil .40

Five Sovereigns $24.25 2i000 Rei do go

OneSovere.sn 4.83 Cruzado 45

Half Sovereign 2.41

DoubleGuinea 10.25 j SPAIN.

One Guinea 5.12 i _

HalfGuinea 2-56^ ,. Gold '

Third Guinea 1.70 ! ^ OI , 1 J ) 1? O! V,- ^ 5 ' 56

j Half Doubloon ... 7.78

Silver. Four Piastres ^.89

Crown $1.17 P' s ^;--: 3-9

Crown, Anne 1.17 Half Pistole 1.90

Crown, 1662 117 Quarter Pistole 05

HalfCrown 58 25 Pesetas 4.76

Half Crown, George II .58 Silver.

Half Crown, Victoria .58 Spanish Dollar S.oo

Two Shilling, or i Florin .47 Half Spanish Dollar .40

One Shilling .23 Spanish Quarters, new .20

Sixpence .n Five Pescins .85

Four Pence .07 Twenty Reals .85

ThreePence .05 } Ten Reals .40

Two Pence .04 , Pistareen .18

Per^J 4.75 i Half Pist.- reen 09

Current Coins if the World,

FRANCE.
Gold.

4.50

CHU.I.

Gold,

Doubloon

.96

Pistole

, 8r

Ten Francs

1.91

Silver.

i Peso

3.83

7 66

Fifty Francs

J Peso

i^ Peso

Silver.

... fo.oo

1-ioPeso.,.,

HONG KONG.

Silver.
Chilian Peso

$o 81

.36

Eight Reals

Two Reals

One Real

One-halfReal

AUSTBIA.

Gold.

Quadruple Ducat
One Ducat ..

... {8.80

2.20

PERU.

Gold.
Doubloon
Pistole
Five Soles

$15.50
3.85
4.75

Sovereign
Half Sovereign
4 Florins (10 Francs)

Silver.
Specie Dollar

6.75
... 3.38
1.90

... fo.8 5

Ten Soles
Twenty Soles

Silver.
OneSole
One-half Sole

9.50
19.00

Jo- 79

One Florin..

MEXICO.
Gold.

35
. Si= s6

One-quarter Sole

.19
.o&

$4-74
2.37
1. 18
7.80

GERMANY.

Gold.
Twenty Marks
Ten Marks
Five Marks
Ten Thalers

Half Doubloon
uarter Doubloon
ighth Doubloon

7-75
... 3-87
1.93

Twenty Pesos
Ten Pesos

... 19.50

9.75

4 8?

Five Thalers
Two-and-a-half Thalers
Fred d'Or

3.90
1-95

Double Fred d'Or

7.80

Silver.

One Peso

. . . JQ.SS

4-75

Ducat...

2. 2O

Five Guilders

195

Mexican Dollar, commercial

.85
.85

Quintuple Ducat
Silver.

Five Marks
T\vo Marks
One Mark

$1.15
.46
.23

Eight Reals
Half Mexican
Quarter Mexican

.80
.40
.20

Real 10
One-half Real _ 05

CENTKAL AND SOUTH
AMERICA.
Gold.
Doubloon $i5-5<>

50 Pfennig (% Mark)
20 Pfennig... ...
10 Pfennig

.11
.04

Thaler

.69

Double Thaler (called)

1.15

.90

Rix Dollar

Double Guilder (called)
One Florin (called)

.60
33

Pistole
Half Pistole

... 3-87

Half Crown

ITALY.
Gold.

.80
. XlQ.IS

.90

1.V,

Silver.

$0 80

Fifty Lire

Four Reals : . .
Two Reals

.40

Forty Lire
Twenty Lire

7.70

3.8s

One Real.

.to

Ten Lire

i.q?

Curr-ent Coins of the World.

Five Lire . .96'

Two Doppia $6-25

96 Livres 15.00

Silver.

Five Lire $0.93

Two Lire.
One Lire
One-half Lire
Ten SoUeU
Five Solidi. ...
Twenty Grani.

Testoon

Scudo

Half Scudo

Crown

Five Paul

Ten Paul

Silver Lion....
Florin

SWITZERLAND.

34
'7
.08
.08
.04

.90
-45
.90
45
.90
.90
.37

Silver.

Five Francs $-93

Two Francs .36

One Franc .18

Crown .80

Half Crown .40

Quarter Crown .20

HalfFlorin 18

HOLLAND.

Gold.
Ten Guilders ---- . ................... $3.96

Five Guilders ........................ 1.95

Silver.

Three Guilders ..................... |i.io

2 M Guilders ......................... .93

One Guilder ........................ .37

Rix Dollar .......................... .90

SWEDEN, NORWAY, AND
DENMARK.

Gold.
Twenty Kronors .................... $5-^5

Ten Kronors ....................... 2.63

Ducat ............................. 2. 20

Silver.

Specie Dollar (called in) ............. $0-85

One Rigsdaler (called in) ............. 42

One Kroner .......................... 25

One-half Kroner ...................... 12%

One-quarter Kronor .................. 06

One-tenth Kroner .................... 02

Silver.

One Ruble #0.66

One and a half Ruble .99

One-half Ruble

25 Kopecs

20 Kopecs

15 Kopecs

10 Kopecs

Five Zlot

TwoZlot

33
.09
.07
.05

3
.50

.20

GREECE.

Gold.
Twenty Drachms $3-44

Silver.
Five Drachms $0.90

TURKEY.

Gold.
Ten Piastres $0.43

Silver.

Twenty Piastres

Two Piastres

One Piastre

go. 80
.08

BELGIUM.
(Gold, Silver and Currtncy same as France.)

INDIAN STATES.

Gold.
Mohur $7-io

Silver.

One Rupee $0-36

HalfRupee 18

Quarter Rupee .09

Quarter Pagoda .30

JAPAN.
Gold.

One Yen -95

Two Yen 1.90

Five Yen 4.75

Twenty Yen 19.50

Silver.

RUSSIA AND POLAND.

Gold.

Fix Rubles, Platina .................. $4-6o

Five Sen

Ten Sen . . .
Twenty Sen

-, Fifty Sen

Si ve Rubles, Gold 3.90 One Yne

.04
.09
.18
45
.90

FICTITIOUS AND INTRINSIC VALUES.

Fictitious values, or approximate values, of rare coins, and the intrinsic values of uncurrent
coins, will be found under national headings.

F AC-SIMILE OF THE DOLLAR OF 1804.

TRADITIONS OF THE 1804 DOLLAR,

THERE is no authentic history of the 1804 dollar. Tradition,
however, is " thousand-tongued " in its regard. The writer of this
was told by an old bank cashier in Salem, Mass., at one time the
most extensive tea importing place on this continent, that the scarc-
ity of the 1804 dollar was owing to the sinking of a China-bound
vessel having on board almost the entire mintage of 1804 dollars,
shipped in lieu of the " Spanish milled dollars," intrinsically more
valuable. He believed there were not more than eight genuine
1804 dollars extant, and certainly not more than ten.

Owing to the fiscal year ending in midsummer, it is claimed by
some that the report entered on the register of the mint in 1805
included the mintage of dollars of the months of 1804 subsequent
to the fiscal report and entry of that year. Others claim that old
dies were sometimes used in years subsequent to the date they bore.
Others, still, claim that many of the 1 804 dollars offered for sale arc
"re-strikes." This, however, is not likely, as it would imply sur-
reptitious work on the part of employes of the mint which could
not be substantiated. The rarity of the piece and the almost fabu-
lous prices offered for it are patent facts. One piece has brought
at auction seven hundred and fifty dollars, but twelve and even
fifteen hundred have been offered with no takers, and it would be
safe to offer $2,000, as all the originals are believed to be in the
hands of collectors who hold them above price. There are, how-
ever, many counterfeits and altered dates. This writer was shown
an 1801 dollar with the final figure altered into a 4, and to an eye
not familiar with the dissimilarities of the two issues the piece
looked like a veritable 1804 dollar.

The publishers make this special notice of this coin because it is
the most notable, and commands the first place and highest price
of all American silver coins.

(4)

THE ORIGIN OF MONEY.

The wants of the primitive man were few, the simple, im.
perative, constantly renewing demands of nature, supplied from
time to time by immediate personal exertion. Barbarism,
knowing no right but might, fails to conceive the idea of
property. Savages are improvident, and consider theft a vir-
tue, yet make it a point of honor to defend their own posses-
sions. The aboriginal condition of man was a state of war ;
after an equal fight for spoil and in defense of possession, when
stealing was found impossible, the fact of property was recog-
nized and an exchange of goods suggested. Eude agriculture
and rough hunting were the earliest industry, robbery the first
form of speculative enterprise, and war the prelude to com-
merce and civilization.

The original tra-e was barter; the first question then is
that of relative value. In the discussion of this, two consid-
erations at once present themselves: first, the desirability of
each commodity, its utility in the support of life, or its capacity
to afford gratification to the owner ; second, the cost of pro-
duction according to the time, labor and good fortune of the
holder of the stock in trade. In this way was decided the
quantity of any article to be given for a certain quantity of
another ; so many fish for so much game, this way or that, as
the parties concerned could agree under the circumstances.
The particulars of a bargain of this kind were well remem-
bered and the rates of exchange quoted and referred to when-
A (7)

8 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

ever another trade was attempted, and so after awhile a kind
of rough, uncertain varying market price was established.

It was found, however, that the fish varied both in size and
quality, and were much more abundant at one time than
another. The same was also true of wild fruits, while with
the game the same irregularities were found, with additional
trouble in dividing it into equal portions. As barter extended
during the first advance from barbarism an inconvenience was
felt in estimating and measuring all articles by one another,
and after a time a standard both of quantity and value was
found necessary and sought for. There was an attempt to
select as the basis of valuation certain things naturally uni-
form in character and in relation to the possibilities of pro-
duction, while of universal use, capable of preservation, and
hence acceptable and wanted at all times by everybody.

The South Sea Islanders, when discovered by white men,
used cocoanuts as a standard of value. As they could be kept
awhile, the nuts were better fitted to the purpose than fish
fruits, game and other perishable articles of food, besides as
they grew somewhat of a size there was no trouble about
separating them into equivalent parts ; yet as the nuts decayed
after a short time and were of limited use, they were a very
imperfect measure of an exceedingly small amount of property
and the poor facility of a petty trade.

The appetite for food could be readily and cheaply satisfied,
and when no one was hungry no one would labor, no one
cared to trade. But the savage had an instinct almost as
strong as hunger in a natural love of dress and personal orna-
ment, a taste which grew by exercise and constantly became
more and more expensive, refined and fastidious through grati-
fication. Every person desired ornament, every one needed
dress, at least, especially in severe climates, a covering to the
body of some kind or other. Skins or peltries, both of beasts
and birds, being used as clothing, and being portable and dura-
ble, became articles of traffic, in general uniform demand at a
fixed rate, and for these reasons were adopted iu many places

THE ORIGIN OF MONEY. 9

as a measure of value, a medium of exchange, a sort of cur-
rency or money. Some of these hides were large and heavy
and actually worn as blankets, but they were less convenient
for a general tender in trade than finer, smaller, more valuable
peltries and furs, whose use was more ornamental. As civili-
zation began to dawn, garments were made, at first rudely
from skins or leather, or in more advanced tribes of more or
less perfect fabrics of bark or even of cloth woven from threads
of natural fibre. At the same stage of human progress, in-
dustrial tools of different descriptions, and also weapons of war,
were much improved in character and degree of finish, and
such things at different places and times, were commonly used
as a unit or integer of comparative valuation, and tendered in
payment as special consideration, passing freely from hand to
hand like standard money, for value received.

All these goods and articles, made at first for personal use,
or for that of members of the manufacturer's family, were after
a time, produced expressly for sale; that is, to be disposed of
in barter for various commodities. Goods thus produced, were
kept in store until the occasion was found for their transfer ;
thus industry, providence and thrift became manifest, and
wealth accumulated ; while trade increased, property was re-
cognized and received public protection.

Articles of primitive manufacture used as ornaments, were
not of course made with the same stability as those intended
for practical use, and ornaments used merely as articles of trade
were less thoroughly done than others ; equally all kinds of
goods made use of for trading purposes alone were made infe-
rior in quality, and in time were produced the mere show, re-
semblance and representation of the thing it was assumed they
were.

As it was found that all commodities except mere spontane-
ous products of the earth were the fruit of labor, various arti-
cles, ornaments in particular, came to be valued somewhat in
proportion to the amount of labor expended upon them, almost
regardless of the practical usefulness of such things. To the

10 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

rational industry which accumulated articles of use or repre-
sentations of them for purposes of traffic, an addition was
presently made of labor employed in producing representations
of itself, articles of no use, but so rare as to cost much trouble
to discover, or so elaborately and perhaps beautifully finished,
as to show a great amount of work had been done upon them.
Thus these things became signs, symbols and evidences of labor
done, and as labor alone produced wealth, these things, though
essentially worthless, were regarded as actual value, esteemed
so much property, and extensively used as equivalents in trade.

Small kinds of rare and beautiful shells called " cowries,"
when carefully cleaned and polished, were very much esteemed
in some places and accepted at an approximate standard and
established rate, for all sorts of goods. Being imperishable,
portable and precious, these "cowries" became a popular and
convenient form of property, and in course of time acquired
by common consent the character of a customary tender " in
payment of all dues."

In the infancy of the human race, during the pastoral pe-
riod, when commerce was yet undeveloped, cattle were a most
important medium of exchange and standard of values. Salt
also was largely used among certain tribes, for the same pur-
pose. The people who lived along the coast, made a bank of
the sea, and drew upon it in various ways for more than one
form of currency. How long these primitive methods of trade
continued, cannot be determined ; but new inventions became
inevitable as mankind progressed to higher conditions of life.
The grand step in this matter was taken when men acquired
the art of working ores and extracting the metals, which were
presently cast or wrought into the form of money. When the
smelting of ores and the separation of metals first began, is
unknown, yet there have been discoveries made in Egypt,
which indicate that iron and gold must have been an article
of common manufacture there, some 3426 years before the
Christian era.

To insure accuracy and to give the warrant of responsibility

THE ORIGIN OF MONEY. 11

to coinages of precious metals, the authority to stamp money
has been placed and vested in the various governments ; but
it has been seen that emperors and other potentates were quite
as apt at fraud as private parties, and millions on millions of
coins have been circulated, bearing the stamp of a great power
indicating a certain considerable value, when in truth the
wretched piece was no better than a counterfeit, a mere worth-
less bit of brass or even cheaper composition.

A basket, a tub, a nicely made wand, a strong light chain,
or an ingot of metal, each and all have their natural value as
such, each for some use to which they are adapted ; but the
basket is very much more valuable if it hold just a bushel,
the tub if it contains just a gallon, the wand if it measures a
yard, the chain if just a rod long, and the lump of metal if it
weigh just a pound. In the same way coined pieces of money
of various denominations have a special value aside from their
intrinsic worth as bullion, on account of the facility with
which they may be reckoned and their convenience as exact
measures of value generally exchangeable for all other goods,
that is to say, their special value as money.

The act of minting and stamping confers this extra or
money value upon a coin, which to a certain extent is natural ;
but as it has been assumed that : " The king (or government)
can fix the value of a coinage," irredeemable money has at
different times been made of cloth, of leather, of paper, of iron
and other cheap metals and compositions.

Money has three values : first, the intrinsic value, that of
the material of which the piece is composed ; second, the ar
bitrary, nominal or pretended value, the denomination sought
to be given it by the government which struck or minted it ;
third, the representative or commercial value, measured by
what it will bring in other money, or its power to purchase
general merchandise.

The Chinese, who have no currency of their own but small
cast brass coins called cash, of little intrinsic value, are in the
habit of stamping ingots or bars of silver and gold with their

12 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

supposed degree of purily, when these masses of metal are
passed currently by weight. A dollar, if it contains a dollar's
worth of gold, is simply an ingot, an object of universal bar-
ter and exchange, its value is intrinsic, its coinage simply de-
noting its purity and weight, it will sell for no more as money
than as bullion. A silver dollar, nominally a hundred cents,
contains but some eighty-five cents worth of silver, its addi-
tional value and popularity being derived from the act of
coinage, its convenience as currency. At the same time a
paper dollar, issued by the United States Treasury or one of
the National Banks guaranteed by the Government, though
intrinsically quite worthless, represents the good faith and
honor of a great nation, and, such is the nature of money, the
paper dollar passes current, more popular than gold or silver,
because far more convenient.

The subject of money, of the most practical importance,
commands the most constant attention of the man of business,
is the fascinating study of the numismatologist and antiqua-
rian, while one of the profound problems which concern finan-
ciers and statesmen. In this last aspect the matter has been
the theme of immense discussion for some years, both in this
country and Europe. The interests involved are vast, and
some of the measures proposed are very radical. In the
United States, especially, much has been done to enlighten the
people upon questions of finance, and great improvements have
been made in the currency. The present system of National
Banks here commands the attention and praise of transatlantic
financiers and statesmen. Meantime, many most earnest and
thoughtful persons are sanguine of still further simplification,
and promise for the future an "American Money" more stable
than gold, as economical as paper, perfectly convenient, every-
where current and superior to anything yet developed.

As there has been monetary reform in the past, so there
will doubtless be financial progress of some kind in the time
to come. To make the inevitable advance, without shock and
danger of destructive disturbance^ there must be great intelli-

THE ORIGIN OF MONEY, 13

gence among the people ; to help that we put forward, for the
instruction of the younger class, perhaps, the items of this
prefatory writing, which, however, is but a crude statement,
a very hasty, imperfect survey of a vast field ; yet it exhibits
broad principles in a plain manner, must suggest tnought, and
will doubtless with many, induce as is most desirable, a more
thorough study of the succeeding pages.

THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF MONEY.

MONEY (from the Latin or Italian word moneta\ is practi-
cally the name of anything received by common consent, at a
stated value, in general exchange.

MONEY OF ACCOUNT is an ideal unit of value.

CURRENCY is money put to use, a medium of exchange kept
in circulation as cash.*

The first and most imperative need of man, has been de-
clared to be association with his fellows, and of this, money is
the recognized instrument, the medium of commerce,' a custo-
mary equivalent, and. when so ordained, a legal tender in pay-
ment of all debts.

The primitive forms of money were articles of barter, some
of which, by use as the means and measure of trade, in time
acquired a special " value in exchange," in excess of that " value
in use" originally belonging to them. Thus was established
an artificial standard 'of valuation, continually growing more
and more abstract, until there was conceived an ideal money

* According to the strict nomenclature of the science of political econo-
my, the use of the word money is limited to mean a metallic circulation
of a medium of exchange, conventional measures of value, whether im-
mediate like gold and silver, or substituting like Treasury notes, bank bills
and their analogies, being designated by the generic term Currency.
Nevertheless, great authors have varied in terms, and the scope and pur-
pose of the present writing it seems may be better served by the use of
words and phrases as here defined.

THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF MONEY. 15

of account, in which, the familiar name of some common arti-
cle, once made the standard of traffic (though perhaps long
superseded), became the denominational unit of arithmetical
monetary calculation.

Without a full comprehension of moneys of account, an un-
derstanding of the true nature of money, in all its forms, is
impossible. Money of account may, or may not, have a ma-
terial representative. The unit of value, however derived or
expressed, becomes fixed in" the mind, is "committed to the
memories of a whole nation," and comes to be, in relation to
valuation, that which leagues, miles, feet and inches, are to
distance ; which degrees, minutes and seconds, are to angles ;
what a scale of proportion is to a geographical map, an archi-
tectural, or other plan. Money of account, is in fact, an ideal
and "arbitrary scale of equal parts, invented for measuring the
respective value of things vendable."

The use of money of account, cannot be mechanical, but is
mental only ; a matter of arithmetic. The money of account
of the bank of Venice, which remained the same for five hun-
dred years, had no coins to correspond -with it; it was merely
an idea, and yet, the value of all coins and commodities, was
expressed in and by it. A money of account is a language, in
which, all values or prices may be expressed, and by means of
which, the relative value of commodities may be stated. It
is something every one carries in his mind, as he does his
knowledge of words or of arithmetic, and in so doing, he is
quite independent of thoughts of coinage or circulating notes.

Montesquieu noted among the natives of the coast of Africa,
in the 18th century, an ideal money, which is described as a
"sign of value without money." The unit of this money of
account, was denominated macoute, which was subdivided into
tenths, designated by a word which signified pieces. This de-
nomination of value, according to later information, had its
origin in the macoute, a piece of cloth, or fabricated stuff of
the country, which had been used as an article of .barter.
Mungo Park, who traveled in Africa from 1795 to 1797 and

16 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

perished on his journey there, begun in 1805, stated, that
when the Mandingoes, of the western coast of Africa between
lat. 10 and 14 N. and Ion. 6 and 10 West, including the
sources of the Senegal and Niger rivers, began trade with Eu-
ropeans, the article which was most valued by them, was iron,
on account of its great utility in making instruments of war
and tools for the pursuits of peace. Thus iron soon became a
standard of payment, and as the metal was supplied in bars,
there was, in the manner already described, presently estab-
lished a money of account. So any article, or any quantity of
a commodity, supposed to be worth as much as a bar of iron,
was denominated "a bar," and accounts were kept and trade
regulated accordingly.

When the different South Sea islands were discovered, at
various periods from A. D. 1511 to 1770 and thereafter, the
natives accepted from the Europeans, beads or any gaudy
thing which was offered them ; but they soon discovered the
superior value of iron in various forms, and then exchanged
their products for axes, hammers, nails and similar things.
Axes were after a time 'found so useful, they would sell any-
thing they had for them, and axes became the basis of a money
of account, the value of all other things being reckoned in
"axes," that is to say, calculated by comparison with that of
these highly-prized tools. Axes were then the money of ac-
count of this people.

According to Dr. Heinrich Barth, an enterprising German
explorer, a native of the city of Hamburg, who traveled in
Northern Africa in 1845 and in Central Africa alone from 1851
to 1856, the ancient standard of the commerce of Barnoo,
Central Africa, was the pound of copper, which the people of
that country called roil. The use of the pound of copper as a
medium of exchange, was abandoned in Barnoo long ago, but
the name roll still remained, as the unit of a money of account,
in which, the cost of commodities was reckoned. Although
cotton .cloth, shirts, cowry shells, and other goods, with
Spanish and Austrian dollars in silver, were used as money,

THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF MONET. 17

the value of them all, was expressed in roth. The Chinese,
like oilier people, first conducted their trade on the basis of
barter, yet they have had a coinage of metal from almost pre-
historic eras. This coinage was used by merchants, as early
as 2853 B. C., but the husbandmen and common people, still
traded by exchange in kind. To facilitate this barter, a great
national market was established 2737 B. C. The names of
the early Chinese coins, such as "Merchandise Money," "Mer-
chandise Cloth," and the like, with their forms, in rude re-
semblance of garments, knives, or other things of most com-
mon use, show this currency was preceded by a more or less
definitely conceived money of account, originating in the same
manner as in the examples already given, of more modern
date. The history of every country, or tribe, which has in-
dependently made its progress from barbarism to even partial
civilization, could be made to furnish some illustration of this
method.

For the article of money itself, as currently passing from
hand to hand, in the course of trade^ very dissimilar things
and materials have been used. Some idea of the very earliest
forms of money, may be had from the preceding pages upon
The Origin of Money. The mere barbarian in his nakedness,
tendered fruits, or the products of the chase. lie who had
oecome a little more advanced, would offer the hide or peltry
in which he had learned to wrap himself, selling sometimes,
as may be imagined, his clothes for food, or grown more pru-
dent, be provided with a dressed hide for the particular pur-
pose of barter. To meet in any satisfactory degree, the re-
quirements of commerce, money should be of uniform value,
divisible and portable. The less the bulk of money, except
when made exceedingly small, the greater its convenience.
Cattle, which were used as money in ancient Greece, about
1384 B. C. to 1184 B. C., and afterwards, and in Rome, some
600 B. C., and for some generations after, fluctuated but little
in value, under ordinary circumstances, being always in. de-
mand for use and for food, and always costing about the same
B

18 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

amount of labor to produce. They could be readily counted,
and when fully grown, and in good condition, were of some-
thing like the same respective or average value. Though a
bulky and unwieldly consideration, flocks and herds were
readily transferred and could be driven from point to point at
the pleasure of the receiver. The poet Ilomer, between 1000
B. C. and 800 B. C., refers to cattle as a medium of exchange,
stating that the armor of Diomede, one of his heroes of pre-
ceding ages, cost only nine oxen, while that of Glaucus cost
a hundred oxen. From the Latin word pecus, signifying cat-
tle, is derived another term pecunia, or pecuniarius, and from
this, the French pecuniaire, and the English pecuniary, de-
fined to mean : 1. Eclating to money. 2. Consisting of money.
In Britain, at the time of the Norman Conquest, there were
two kinds of money in use. These were described as "living
money" and dead money. The living money, consisted of
slaves and cattle, and were generally transferred with the land
upon which they lived and labored. Dead money, consisted
of coined metals, or of metals in quantity.

Under the lioman Ccesars, land was made money, an ar-
rangement possible only in a state of high political civiliza-
tion, where the privileges of property were maintained, records
preserved, and respect for the laws enforced. The ancient
Russians, before, and under Ruric the Varangian chief, called
to the throne A. D. 862, in common with some other barbaric
or semi-barbaric people, used the skins of wild animals as
money. The same was done by the North American Indians
when in their aboriginal condition, and subsequently by the
English and Dutch colonies. Early in the settlement of the
central part of the United States, the pioneers in Illinois and
some other places, had a currency of deer skins and peltries
of the raccoon. A similar form of money, probably existed
in prehistoric times in the Chinese empire, for at the begin-
ning of the period Yum ew, there was a money of account,
represented by "valuable skins," termed P/u'-Pi\ an account
of which is given in the description of Chinese money in this

THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF MONEY. 19

work. These skins were made to represent a value of $644,00
United States money, being elaborately figured and highly or-
namented, suggesting crudely, the idea of a Treasury note or
Government bond, seeming to partake somewhat, of the na-
tu-re of each of them. Salt has been used as money in the
African nation of Abyssinia, and salted and dried codfish, were
made to serve the same purpose in Ireland and Newfoundland.
In the English- American colony of Massachusetts, about A. D.
1635, Indian corn, beans, wheat, barley, rye, peas, boards, cod-
fish, horses, sheep, swine, goats, asses, lead bullets, and a gen-
eral barter currency were used, in common with a limited
amount of copper, silver and gold coin as money, all circu-
lating together, according to law. In China, some 1400 or
more years B. C., the shell of the cowry, of the small variety
denominated Cyprse moneta, was hoarded as money by the
miserly, and no doubt passed current. In some parts of India,
and in the Indian islands and Africa, these same cowry shells
have long been used in the place of small coin. In 1851, it is
stated, more than a thousand tons of cowry shells, were
shipped from India to Liverpool, England, to be exported to
the African coast, in exchange for palm oil. In Bengal, about
a century ago, 2500 cowries were reckoned at one rupee of the
value of from forty-six to fifty cents. In 1875, 3200 cowries
were to be had for the rupee.

The author of "The Coins of the Jews," Mr. Madden, writes
that: "In the British West India Islands, pins, a slice of
bread, a pinch of snuff, a dram of whisky, and in the central
part of South America soap, chocolate, cocoa-nuts, eggs, etc.,
were current articles used as money. Adam Smith states,
that sugar was regarded as money, in some of the English
"West India colonies. At the great International fair held an-
nually at Nizhini Novgorod in Russia, the price of tea has to
be decided and made known, before the prices of other com-
modities are established and advertised. In this manner, tea
is made the standard of value, by which all exchanges of mer-
chand.se arc regulated. In A. D. 1662, the accounts of the

20 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

New Netherlands, Dutch colonies in America, were kept in
beaver skins and Indian shell beads. In Virginia, about the
beginning of the 17th century, and for some time thereafter,
tobacco was ured as money, and even when coin came more
freely into use, large transactions were generally settled by the
transfer of receipts issued for tobacco deposited in the public
warehouses. Thus these valuable documents, always redeema-
ble in tobacco, which was money, passed from hand to hand
for value received, just as a Treasury note or Bank bill now
circulates.

One of the most remarkable of the primitive forms of money
was the currency of the AlyonJcin or Aljonquin North Ameri-
can Indians, which from time immemorial to a late date in
the last century, was used by the natives of the Atlantic coast,
and by the Hodensaunee Konoshion, or Iriquois Confedera-
tion, commonly called "The Five Nations," or as later orga-
nized, "The Six Nations," and by other interior tribes, west-
ward to the Mississippi. This currency consisted of beads
made from various shells, varieties of the Buccinum and others,
and was called by the Dutch colonists in America Zewant, by
the French Porcelaine^ and generally known among the Eng-
lish settlers as Wam2)um.

The Indians themselves called their money Sewan, of which
there were two kinds. The first and most valuable, was of a
dark violet, purple color, and was made from the dark part of
shells of the common round hard-shelled clam, Venus Mer-
cenaria.

In 1628, Roger "Williams, the founder of religious liberty
in Rhode Island, a man of great truthfulness, kind hearted,
and very intimate and influential with the Indians of New
England, gave the following account of their current money:
u lt is of two kinds. white, which they make of the stem or
stock of the periwinkle after all the shell is broken off. Of
this kind, six of the small beads are current, with the English
penny. The other kind is the purple, which is made of the
shell of a fish, which is called Hens-poquakock ; and of this

THE PRIMITIVE FORM8 OF MONEY. 21

description three are equal to an English penny." The In-
dian word Hens-poquahock, being almost unpronounceable by
Englishmen, was rendered through corruption of language as
"Pequonuck" or "Poquonuck," and also by variation of dia-
lect as "Quahaug" or Quohaug."

The Indians used no salt in their cookery, and preserved
their meats and fish by drying and smoking; at the seashore,
between the Delaware and Massachusetts bays, they dug,
boiled, strung and dried clams, which were used to season
their insipid fare. The shells of the Quahaug, as the round
clam is still called in New England, after being emptied and
their contents saved for food, were broken in pieces, to secure
the black or purple "eye" of the shell. From this the dark
purple beads were made, which were called Suckauhock, or
Suckanhock, by the Indians. From around the mouth of
Delaware bay, northward, along the coast of New Jersey, Long
Island and New England, are to be found numerous heaps or
small mounds of shell, all in a fragmentary condition, and
lacking the dark portion. The completely broken state of
the shell, distinguishes the shell heaps of Indian origin, from
the numerous small piles of more or less perfect shells, created
through the bivalve consuming tendencies of the more modern
"palefaces" from Europe.

The second and much less valuable sort of the Sewan,
was white, being made in most cases from the stem of the
shell of the periwinkle Littorince, This white kind of the
Sewan was called Wampum, a word derived from an Indian,
Alyonkin or Algonquin root signifying white. This name
was varied by the Indians, according to the forms into which
the beads were wrought, but by the whites at random, indif-
ferently, appearing as wampam, wampampege, wampampeage^
or peage, in the same public colonial document. The vicinity
of Ilackensack, N. J., and the shore of Long Island, N. Y.,
was the great center for the manufacture of these shell beads.
Long Island was called by the Indians Sewan-hacky (sewan-
land), and the circulating medium there issued was very ex.-

22 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

tensively used as money among all races upon the eastern part
of the North American continent. Another famous place of
manufacture, was at Cape May Point, New Jersey, at the
mouth of Delaware bay.

In making these beads, the Indians first broke the different
shells, so as to secure the portion they desired, and then by
chipping the fragments of shell with a sharp chisel of flint,
they formed them into cylinders a little larger than the stem
of a common clay pipe, and as long as the nature of the mate-
rial would admit. Through the center of the cylinders, and
on a line with their length, a small hole was bored, about the
sixteenth of an inch in diameter. This hole was required to
run straight from end to end, and to be round and smooth in-
ternally.

The Indians knew nothing of iron and steel and therefore
made all their tools of wood and of stones such as flint, quartz,
and obsidian, a kind of natural glass, of volcanic origin. Of
these they not only made axes, spear heads, arrow tips, and
similar things, but also formed knives, so keen that they were
used to skin and dress game, or even as razors, to crop and
trim their hair. Of such material was the drill originally
used upon the shell beads. This drill was operated by means
of a bow in precisely the same way drills made of steel are
now used in certain cases by jewelers, watchmakers and other
civilized mechanics. "With such drills the Indians not only
bored beads and short cylinders from various colored shells,
but also manufactured from steatite or soap stone, thin tubes
as large as a man's finger and six or eight inches long.
Whether they had anything like the turning lathe for the
outside finish of such work is uncertain, but relics have been
found in the Southern States of what must have been a pot-
ter's wheel of the aboriginal time. The Indians were very
accurate of sight, and when exempt from the curse of rum,
exceedingly steady of nerve. The squaws, especially the old
women, were very industrious, and from their hands came the
beads, and the articles of clothing, upon which they were used

THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF MONEY. 23

as ornaments. The Indian women were not deficient in the
keen-sighted dexterity peculiar to their race, but the manu-
facture of shell beads by the means they used, must have taxed
to the utmost their skill and patience.

The drilling was the most difficult part of the operation;
when this was successfully accomplished, the cylinders were
ground into a true form by rubbing them on sharp gritted
stones, and then carved into globular or semi-cylindrical beads,
which were carefully finished and nicely polished.

Sometimes much larger pieces, of an ornamental character,
were made from large fine shells, bored in the same way as the
soap-stone tubes. These have been found as long and big as
the forefinger of a full-grown man. For such, the Indians
were willing to pay four or six good well-dressed deer skins.
They were very constant and steady in their estimate of the
value of their currency, yet at one time paid Massachusetts
two hundred fathom of the same, an amount which even if
a\\Wampum, must have been worth a thousand Massachusetts
silver shillings.

The work upon which Wampum was used as an ornament,
was often quite artistic and handsome. Aside from their
color, the Indians criticised the beads as to form and finish, the
usages of aboriginal commerce requiring that they should be
of uniform size and regular shape, smoothly bored in the cen-
ter. When a quantity of beads had been made, they were
strung upon threads or strings, made from the sinews of the
deer, or woven into various kinds of belts. To test the shell
beads, the Indians drew the strings of Sewan deftly across their
noses; if they found them smooth, uniform, and well strung,
they passed for full value. The imperfect beads, or those worn
and abraded by use, were refused or accepted at a large dis-
count.

In making payments of Sewan; small amounts were counted
in loose beads, one of the violet purple Suckauhock, being con-
sidered equal in value, to two of the white Wampum. In
making large payments the reckoning was by the fathom of

24 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

strung Wampum or Suckauhock, the same being measured by
the spread arms of an Indian. A fair fathom of Suckauhock
was worth tea shillings, and one of Wampum five shillings.
The Sewan of the North American Indian was a true money,
though of savage origin. The Suckauhock served the same
purpose for which gold coin is used, while the Wampum, less
in value, was as currency, of the nature of silver. The units
of value were the beads, which counted one by one, measured
in strings by the fathom, or tendered in quantity as wrought
into belts, effectively represented a money of account, which
was for an unknown time, the comparatively accurate measure
of value for a very considerable amount of commerce.

The Sewan was not used as money alone, but as an orna-
ment, for which it was wrought in various forms upon arti-
cles of Indian clothing, and also used for ear-rings and neck-
laces, armlets, bracelets, belts, etc. It was used in all treaties
and on all public occasions, a string or belt of the vari-colored
beads being given to bind each article of a compact, or treaty,
and a broad "treaty belt," called by the Indians Wampum-
payue or Wampumpeye, being delivered as a solemn ratifica-
tion of the whole. On these treaty belts, elaborate figures
were wrought, in beads of different colors, the form and de-
sign of which, was not arbitrary, but systematic, and arranged
so as to form a record of an event, or the terms of a contract,
in hieroglyphs and designs that could be read. The Indian
money was so convenient, that in the urgency of their cir-
cumstances, the Dutch, French, and English American colo-
nies, adopted it as a medium of exchange, and in one case as a
money of account, for in 1662, the records of the New Neth-
erlands colony "were kept in Wampum and beaver skins."

In 1637, it was ordered in Massachusetts, that Wampam-
peye should pass "six a penny," for any sum under twelvcpenc.e;
of which, and subsequent legislation upon the same subject, an
account may be found in this work, under the head of the
Colonial Silver Coinage of Massachusetts. The New Nether-
lands accepted Sewan in trade, the better sort being as current

7777? PRIMITIVE FORMS OF MONEY. 25

as silver for a long time. In 1640, Wampum was voted "to
goe six a penny" in New Haven. The Sewan was the cur-
rency of New Netherlands in 1641. At New Amsterdam,
now New York city, "four beads of good black, well strung
wampum, or eight of the white," were reckoned of the value
of one Stuyver, a Dutch coin worth about a cent. In 1650,
"there being at present no other specie," /Sewan was made law-
fully current, at the rate of three black or six white beads of
"commercial Sewau," or four black and six white "of the
base strung," for one Sluyver the rate ordered "to goe" in
New Haven. By this financial arrangement, the drain of
"specie" into New England is said to have been checked.
The Dutch Commissary Hudde, of Fort Nassau, a Dutch tra-
ding post on Delaware bay, now Gloucester, New Jersey, com-
plained in 1648, that the Indians made trade too much against
the New Netherlands Company, which he represented, as they
invariably, when paid for furs, selected very long-armed In-
dians to measure the fathoms of strung beads required.

Josslyn, an early writer of Indian history, declared that the
makers of Wampum wrought so cunningly that "neither Jew
nor Devil could counterfeit" their work. However, the
Dutch at Albany, N. Y., by use of lathes, drills and turning
tools, made and sold a great deal of a very superior kind of
Sewan in their extensive trade with the Five Nations or Iri-
quois Confederation. There were at one time, sixty or seventy
shops in Albany, where Sewan was made, and the Indians
called the town Laaphanackiny i. f., "the place of stringing
Wampum" Sewan was also made in other places by poor
people. As late as 1756, Jacob Spicer, a merchant of Cape
May, New Jersey, advertised that he was ready to buy Wam-
pum (Suckauhocli\ and offered a reward of five pounds, to the
person who should manufacture the most of this article. The
merchant secured a quantity of the Suclcauliucl', and before
sending it off' to a market, at Albany, weighed a shot bag full
of silver coin, pud counted the same shot bag full of the Indian
currency, and found the latter most valuable by ten per cent.

26 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

These imitations of the Indian currency, being made with
the superior tools of civilized men, were generally an improve-
ment upon the original. They were not as has been stated
counterfeits, in the sense in which that word is properly used
to describe base or illegal coinages which reproduce the ap-
pearance of the authorized metallic currency of a nation. Any
Indian who could find the shells of the periwinkle, or dig those
of the clam, and who had a squaw skillful enough to make
good beads, could without offence start a mint on his own re-
sponsibility, and go on making any form of Indian money
without hindrance, so long as there was no lack of material
or any refusal to labor. The making of shell beads was merely
a form of industry, and when the whites introduced machinery
in aid of the art, the Indian was very ready to accept the im-
proved product; he grew rapidly rich for a time in Se-
wan but presently, as may be surmised, found himself suf-
fering, in his peculiar way, all the evils which follow a supera-
bundant inflation of the currency of any people. Just as the
Indian had a natural right to make beads, so the spirit of the law
allows any citizen of the United States to make coins of any ma-
terial the prohibition is against trespass upon what is like a
trade mark, the form and design of legalized coin. To counter-
feit or imitate these, as a whole or in part, in any metal, is felony.

The Narragansett and Pequod tribes of Indians, inhabitants
of Connecticut, Rhode Island and Massachusetts, who, as well
as the Long Island Indians, were able to produce Scwan on
their shores, kept themselves rich and powerful by the use of
it, until long after their contact with white men. The Cape
May Indians, the Delaware, or Lenni-Lennape tribe, held simi-
lar advantages, and the accumulated refuse of their work,
shows they were not careless of their opportunities. The In-
dians of Long Island owed at last their enslavement or severe
subjugation by the Mohawks, to their facility for making
beads; being cruelly overrun, robbed, and compelled to pay
their plunderers, conquerers and taskmasters, a heavy annual
tribute of Sewan.

THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF MONEY. 27

The most primitive forms of money of which there is
any evidence on the American continent, have been exhumed
from aboriginal graves and mounds in the Ohio and Mis-
sissippi valleys; it being the custom of the pre-traditional
mound builders, as well as the red Indian proper, his suc-
cessor, to bury the treasures of the dead in the grave with
them.

The specimens of money found with the bones of the Abo-
rigines, were composed of lignite, coal, bone, shell, terra cotta,
mica, pearl, carnelian, chalcedony, agate, quartz, jasper, lily-
encrinite and native gold, silver, copper, lead and iron, all
fashioned into forms manifesting a considerable degree of skill
in the rudimentary lines of art. In 1838, a great quantity of
Lignite and Coal money, was found in a small oblong oval
mound, on the banks of the Miami river, in Ohio ; the largest
of which was about an inch in diameter, the size of the old
cent of the United States, but much thicker than that copper
coin. Some of these pieces were perforated with sixteen small
holes. The faces of others were inscribed with from five to
eight parallel lines, and on one specimen the lines were crossed,
forming diamond-shaped figures. This lignite and coal money,
when brought to the surface, soon crumbled to disintegration,
and the signs of inscriptions upon it were too indistinct to be
of value to the archeologist.

A part of the specimens of Bone money were strange indeed
in their material. They were about the same size as the pieces
of lignite and coal just described, and were wrought out of the
interior and exterior tables of the human skull; also of the
bones of the thigh, the shoulder blades and the knee-pan of
human subjects probably relics of enemies slain in battle or
of prisoners subsequently offered in sacrifice, or tortured to
death, relics of superstition, or symbols of revenge, a senti
ment which was esteemed an exalted virtue among North
American Indians, and also, probably, by the mound builders
who held the land before them. Some of this bone money
was made from the tusks and ribs of the gigantic mastadon,

28 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

the enameled portions of the teeth of the alligator, and from
the bones of the gar and the catfish.

Pieces of Shell money may be found in every aboriginal
mound; they were made of different shells, from that of the
fresh water clam, up to that of the huge Sea Conch. Their
colors were quite various, and they made beautiful samples of
aboriginal work. They were generally about the size of the
coal and bone money already noted, with eccentric lines carved
upon them, and in some cases bearing figures. Some pieces
of the shell money were found as large as two inches and a
half in diameter.

The Terra- Cotta money was formed from clay, tempered
with bone dust, and also from ferruginous matter. Some of
its varieties were of a beautiful red color. The devices upon
these pieces were numerous, and generally on one side, but
occasionally upon both. They consisted of birds, frogs,
snakes, and many other curious figures ; but, above all, of the
heart and the extended hand.

The emblem of an open hand has been used by various
races from prehistoric times in w r idely separated parts of the
earth. It was known in India, is found on the old monuments
of Egypt, may be traced to Phoenecia, and is inscribed on the
cyclopeau architecture and gigantic idols of the ancient Mexi-
cans. The Quadran, an ancient Roman coin, bore the figure
of an open hand; it was a symbol of primitive Christianity;
the mound-building Indians made use of it, as is shown by
their relics, and the wild tribes of North America still stamp
the open hand upon their tanned buffalo skins and the cover-
ings of their habitations. The open hand was adopted by the
primitive Christians as a symbol of the first person of the
Trinity, having from time immemorial, been used as an em-
blem, as an ideographic sign, or as a hieroglyph, to denote life,
power, impartation, providence and the like attributes of Di-
vine character. The open hand has in the same way been
borne upon military standards, as the ensign of an assumed
heaven-derived political authority. Among the Dacota tribe

THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF MONEY. 29

of Indians, the impress of an open hand upon the garments or
the sides of the wigwam of an Indian, is a mark of honor due
his virility and courage; when struck in red, it signifies that
he has suffered a wound from the enemy ; and when in black,
it shows that he has taken the life of an enemy. The mean-
ing of the open hand upon the pieces of money taken from
Indian graves, and from aboriginal mounds, may not be de-
fined, yet the wide-spread use of this emblem is significant and
probably indicates former intercourse and a measurable com-
munity of ideas between the ancient races and nations who em-
ployed it in Asia and Europe and the Aboriginies of America.

The hand, in one or another form and degree of exten-
sion, was very anciently a symbol and gesture of the phallic
system, the type of reproductive powers of generation derived
from the Infinite life. Either from adoption of a foreign sym-
bol, or perhaps by natural suggestion and selection of such an
image, the Indian may, in expression of a similar sense, have
used the open hand as the hieroglyph of his totem, significant
of the name of his ancestor, his supposed guardian spirit, and
that of his tribe. It would be a prolonged and complex labor
to follow the subject of this symbol through all its far-reaching
ramifications and correspondences ; its suggestions are of over-
whelming interest to the antiquarian, to the ethnologist and
the student of religion ; the topic is, however, but one of the
many of like nature which present themselves to whoever in-
telligently undertakes the researches of the numismatologist.

The Stone money occurs in great quantities in the aboriginal
mounds. The pieces were composed of carnelian, jasper, agate,
quartz and chalcedony ; also of common sandstones and slate.
The size of the stone money varied from half an inch to eight
inches in diameter, being in many instances very highly pol-
ished, and occasionally figured over with hieroglyphics and
other devices. Some of the pieces bore the ancient rock alpha-
bet of sixteen right and acute-angled single strokes used by
the Pela?gi, the supposed aboriginal inhabitants of Western
Asia, the first known people of the Greek peninsula.

30 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

The Lily Encrinite money was also found in great quanti-
ties. This animal petrifaction is formed of long-jointed stems,
composed of calcareous divisions or plates closely fitting each
other ; they are generally found separated, and it is these di-
visions of the stem which are denominated fairy stones or St.
Cuthbert's beads. In this wonderful result of nature, the
Aborigines had a money properly fashioned and beautifully
ornamented, without labor in design or workmanship, it being
a natural, round piece, bearing a star surrounded by many fine
rays. From the care with which it was preserved, they must
have valued it highly.

The Lead and Iron money was also found in large quanti-
ties in and about the small mounds in the valley of the Mis-
sissippi. The pieces were variously ornamented, some with
dots and lines, and others with an arc surmounted by a short,
stubby cross. The Egyptians used this hieroglyph to denote
life, and in the Coptic churches it was frequently substituted
for the Cross. How the Aborigines of America, the ancient
Egyptians and the Copts came to use this emblem in common,
will perhaps remain a secret forever.

Of the Copper money, the aboriginal mounds contain large
quantities in one grave at Grave Creek Mound, sixty pieces
of this copper money, beads, or sections of small copper tubes,
were exhumed. These copper beads, or money, resemble open
or unsoldered oblong tubes, half an inch to two inches in
length, with no inscription or design whatever.

The Silver money found in Perry County, Ohio, was a cir-
cle of irregular shape, and in diameter about three-fourths of
an inch. It bore a device of waving, parallel lines, about four
in number. On some pieces were rude designs of human
figures and birds, as well as snakes and other reptiles.

Specimens of Gold money were occasionally found in the
form of small lumps or balls, slightly flattened, and irregular
on their edges. Several have been found in Louisiana and
Mississippi. In 1845, a mound was opened at Old Fort Rosa-
lie, near Natchez, and one of these gold balls, slightlv flattened,

THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF MONEY. 31

weighed upwards of two pennyweights. A similar specimen
of very fine gold was found in Boss County, Ohio, lying in
the palrn of the hand of a skeleton. Another gold piece was
found in Perry County, Ohio ; the face of it bore two figures
roughly shaped a man and a bird, besides four footprints of
the latter.

The Hebrews who had no coin of their own until the time
of the Maccabees, who ruled in Judea from 166 to 63 B. C.,
had a jewel money a currency of precious stones, a very
portable form of wealth, of which the diamond is to-day the
costly example. Though almost everything of value has, as
herein described, been used as money, yet in all cases where a
proper currency has been established, men have been com-
pelled, by what seem irresistible reasons, to value money com-
posed of metals, above all other mediums of exchange or com-
modities whatever. Different metals have been used as money,
of which iron among the Mandingoes of Africa, copper among
those of Barnoo, in the center of the same continent, with lead,
iron, copper, silver, and gold, among the former inhabitants
of North America, have already been noticed. The metals
were first, used in various forms as articles of barter, but
gradually assumed the character of a general medium of ex-
change. In an age when the only wealth of importance was
cattle, the almost imperishable and ever useful products of the
mine, came to be highly esteemed on account of the facility
with which they could be accumulated and preserved. The
primitive forms of metallic money were rude bars, without
any stamp or coinage, like those from which the Mandingoes
derived their money of account, as has been herein described.

"Iron was the common instrument of commerce among the
ancient Spartans, about 830 B. C., copper among the ancient
Romans, about 753 B. C., and gold and silver among all rich
and commercial nations." Timaeus, an ancient historian, as
reported by Pliny (Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. 33, cap. 3), wrote that
till the time of Servius Tullius, about 550 B. C., the Romans
had no coined money, but instead made use of unstamped bars

32 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

of copper, to purchase whatever they had occasion for. Rude
unstamped ingots of good copper, or bronze, generally spoken
of as brass, were long current money among the ancient Ro-
mans. These ingots were somewhat of the form of a brick,
and were cast to weigh an as, a libra, or pondo, a Roman pound
each, and were denominated by either of these three Latin
words, whicn signify a pound. The as, libra, or pondo, was
the Roman money of account a pound of copper, as with the
negroes of Barnoo. The British money of account, the pound
sterling, in the time of Edward I, surnamed Longshanks, king
of England from A. D. 1271 to A. D. 1307, signified aa Eng-
lish "Tower" pound of silver, of standard (sterling) fineness
or purity. This " Tower pound " was so named, because the
money was weighed at the Tower of London. It was some-
what heaver than the Roman as, and less than the pound of
Troyes. The French money of account, the livre, in the time
of Charlemagne, A. D. 768 to A. D. 814, signified a pound
Troyes weight of silver of standard fineness. The fair held
at that epoch, at Troyes, in Champaign of France, was fre-
quented by representatives of all the nations of Europe, hence
the weights and measures of so famous an international market
were widely known and extensively used. The Troyes pound
was introduced as the standard weight of the British mint, in
A. D. 1517, the eighteenth year of Henry the VIII, and as the
"pound Troy" is now used in general for weighing the pre-
cious metals, jewels, drugs and other of the more valuable
commodities. The shilling was originally a name for a weight ;
an old English law of the time of Henry III, fixes the weiyht
of a loaf of bread, at "eleven shillings and fourpence." His-
tory fails to inform us when gold and silver were first used as
money.

In the Hebrew Scriptures, Gen. XIII, 2, we read that Abra-
ham returned from Egypt, some 2000 years B. C., " very rich
in cattle, in silver, and in gold." In Gen. XVII, 12, we find
the expression : "He that is born in the house or bought with
money of any stranger." In Gen. XXIII it is recorded that

THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF MONEY. 33

Sarah, the wife of Abraham, being dead, he bought from Eph-
ron a field in Machpelah as a burial place for her, and that he
" weighed to Ephron the silver which he had named in the
audience of the sons of Heth, four hundred shekels of silver,
current money with the merchant." It is to be observed, this
current money was weighed, not counted, being pieces of sil-
ver supposed to be cut to certain weights, such as shekels and
talents, but unstamped, as was the practice in that age.

Before the introduction of coin into Greece, about 800 B. C.,
there was a money current there which consisted of "spits"
or "skewers," of which six formed a drachm, or drachma,
which word signified a handful. This money is supposed to
have been a kind of nails of iron. The drachma was the unit
of the Grecian money of account, and it, and the divisions and
subdivisions of the same, were subsequently represented by
silver coins. In certain parts of Africa, purchases are made
from the negroes for strings of beads of various kinds, or coils
of brass wire, which they use as money and for ornaments.
One color of beads, or one kind of wire, will pass freely and
others be refused, much according to the fancy or conceit of
the natives. At Bonny, in the gulf of Guinea, the British
traders paid out copper in the form of open rings some three
inches or more across, made of round copper rods, some half
an inch in diameter. These rings were so forged that when
the open ends were brought in contact, they fitted end to end
by a chamfer, forming an armlet, or anklet, in complete circu-
lar form. They were shipped from England in casks, but
among the negroes clasped for security on wooden poles, or
linked into chains, when not worn upon the person of the
owner. This copper ring money is of comparatively recent
use at Bonny, and has proved a great convenience in the com-
merce of the blacks of the coast with the sable nations of the
interior. Adam Smith states, that about A. D. 1776, in a
certain town of Scotland, Great Britain, it was customary for
workmen to carry nails as money to the bake-shop and the
ale-house,
c

34 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

One of the most entirely primitive forms of record is the
tally, to make which unlettered men mark numbers, quantities
and events, by cutting notches or "scores" on a convenient
stick. Hence, an account is sometimes spoken of as a score.
From prehistoric times the accounts of the Saxon kings of
England were kept upon such notched sticks, which under the
name of "Exchequer tallies" were kept in use by the English
Exchequer until A. D. 1783, and are remarkable in connection
with the subjects of money and finance. For many years be-
fore the disuse of the tallies noted, the English Exchequer
checked its accounts by them in the following manner : A
store of hazel, ash, or willow wands was kept for the use of
the Treasury ; when thoroughly seasoned and prepared, they
were inscribed on the one side with notches, and on the other
with Koman numerals, both the notches and the numerals
being made to record and signify exactly the same sum of
money, in any amount which the business of the Treasury re-
quired it to make a promise of payment.

Tlie date of the deposit or credit, and that when payment
would fall due, and the name of the person having the claim
upon the Treasury, was also inscribed upon the tally. The
Deputy Chancellor of the Exchequer then split the tally stick,
by use of a knife and a mallet, through its middle in such a
way as to divide the checks, so that each piece bore a half of
the Roman numerals, and a half of each one of the notches.
One part of the wand was then given to the creditor of the
Exchequer, and the other half stored in the vaults of the
Treasury. The notches on the tally differed in breadth and
manner of cutting ; one stood for a penny, another for a shil-
ling, a pound, twenty pounds, one hundred pounds, a thousand
pounds, and so on, according to their dimensions, the notches
I)eing read as easily and accurately as the Roman or any other
kind of numerals which could have been used for the same
purpose.

When the obligation of the Treasury, of which the tally
was an acknowledgment, became payable, he who held the

THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF MONET. 35

tally in possession, presented it at the office of the Exchequer
and demanded his money, as figured thereon. Then the piece
of the tally presented was matched with the corresponding
part in the Treasury, and being found to fit and form the com-
plete record, the money was paid and the reunited halves of
the tally stored away together, for ready reference in proof of
settlement.

In 169V, while the old metallic currency of England and the
realm, was being wholly recoined and brought up to standard
weight, the scarcity of currency caused extreme embarrasment
to both the government and the Bank of England. The credit
of the government and that of the bank sunk very low, and
in the crisis, the king's Exchequer made an issue of Exchequer
tallies, for various sums to the amount of hundreds of thou-
sands of pounds sterling. These public securities, evidences
of indebtedness on the part of the government, circulated as
money, of which they were certainly an unique variety. Un-
fortunately the currency of Exchequer tallies soon depreciated
to some forty per cent, of their nominal value ; meantime the
bank's bills were at 20 per centum discount. A bold expedi-
ent was used. The bank advertised new capital to the amount
of 1,000,000, offering to take 80 per centum of flde same in
the discredited Exchequer tallies, and in Treasury orders of
no more value. The consequence was, the government was
relieved of 800,000 outstanding promises to pay, which be-
came due the bank, which was an easy creditor of the king ;
and those who bought stock in the bank were made responsible
for its business.

At the union of England and Scotland, a store of hazel rods
for Exchequer tallies was sent to Edinburgh, but were never
made use of there. The use of these tallies being abolished
by act of Parliament (Geo. JII, C. 82, 1783), the great quan-
sity of them which had accumulated in the Treasury, stored
there generation after generation, were ordered to be de-
stroyed (4 and 5 "Will. IV. C. 15). The destruction of the
Houses of Parliament by fire, in 1834, is supposed to have

36 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

been caused by the overheating of the flues of the furnaces in
which the old Exchequer tallies were being burned. Such
was the end of that form of money. Troublesome and cum-
brous as it was, the wooden Exchequer tally, for all its sim-
plicity, seems to have been a more reliable check upon forgery
and fraud, than any of the more elaborate and convenient de-
vices since made use of in England.

Ancient and extensive as the use of money has been, in all
its numerous forms and varied materials, it for the most part
merely represented a value, property which had been created
by human industry and preserved by the organic action of
society. In fact, however convenient money has been found,
and however primitive the forms of the same, there is some-
thing still more essential, in a formless consideration, the true
original value, expressed only by the free tender of equivalent
service. Commodities of any and all kinds, derive their value
solely from the fact, that they can be made directly or indi-
rectly to sustain, improve,, or comfort human existence.

Human Life is the one priceless incomparable possession ;
life is sustained and made better by industry. Labor helps to
live ; service in any form, is the single absolute primitive con-
sideration^ universal tender, perpetual equivalent and sole
creator of wealth. This rule is fundamental, and all forms of
society, each plan of government, every scheme of finance at-
tempted in ignorance or defiance of the natural law involved,
must first become an engine for the enslavement and oppression
of the people, and finally be reorganized with more intelligence
and justice, or perish by righteous rebellion in the convulsions
of bloody revolution.

It has been found possible, and even tolerably convenient,
to supply the wants of a vast and dense population, to develop
a high degree of social order, to support an elaborately magni-
ficent System of religion, and thoroughly conduct, over im-
mense territories, in peace or war, a comprehensive and pains-
taking imperial government, all without any but the rudest
currency, the most primitive method of exchange.

THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF MONEY. 37

Ancient Egypt, "the land of monuments," contained a popu-
lation of from five to eight millions, a people who founded
most enduring institutions, with imperial dynasties, continuing
one after another for thousands of years in succession ; a most
industrious and skillful nation, supreme in architecture, grand
in sculpture, remarkable . in painting, and practised in vocal
and instrumental music, scientific, philosophical and profound-
ly religious. The early Egyptians carried on an extensive
commerce with neighboring nations, having a most advan-
tageous position for the great traffic which enriched their
country with slaves, cattle, gerns, valuable metals and rare ob-
jects of curiosity. The rich products of India and Arabia,
age after age, passed through Egypt on the road to Europe.
Under the earlier dynasties, the chief occupation of the nation
was the rearing of cattle, the cultivation of various kinds of
grain, and the development of architecture.

The Egyptians became a wealthy and luxurious people, in-
dulging in banquets, fishing, fowling, and hunting for pleasure,
and exercising themselves at a variety of games of mingled
chance and dexterity. The nobility lived in splendor and
power, each one of their establishments containing all the
officials, artificers -and facilities necessary, completely organ-
ized for its regular maintenance. Art was cultivated in such
places, science and philosophy developed, there they gathered
the wonders and wealth of many strange lands, and arranging
them in museums, collected rare animals of foreign nativity,
which were also kept for ostentatious exhibition.

How all this was done, without money, is not evident, but
such seems to have been the case, unless perhaps certain rings
of gold of given weight, may possibly have formed a sort of
currency; the precious metals were mentioned by pounds
mna, and by ounces kat. "Money, in the form of coin, was
first introduced into Egypt by the Persians," when that nation
made the conquest of the land of the Nile, under the lead of
their most bloody and ferocious tyrant Cambyses, some 529
to 522 B. C. The Persians held the country of Egypt till the

38 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

fell of their king Darius III, 336 to 329 B. C., by which time
the use of coin had been made common in many nations.

The Toltecs and Aztecs, cotemporaneous tribes of the Nahualtec
or ancient Mexican nation, the earliest known people of this
continent, and their successors, supposed to have been settled
in Mexico from A.D. 1200 or earlier, the ruins of whose
architecture and monuments are evidence of immense popula-
tions, endless industry, complete organization and high civili-
zation, almost of enlightenment, seem to have left no relic
which could be considered the proof of any varied and exten-
sive coinage.

In their traffic, this race used the bean of the cacao nut
(Theolroma cacao), a bag of which of certain size, was sup-
posed to represent eight thousand units of their money of ac-
count. They also used feathers, the quills of which were
filled with a quantity of gold dust, which represented four
hundred units of value. Besides, there was an Aztec copper
coin, of a form somewhat like a crucifix, or like the letter T.
By such exceedingly simple means, the whole business of the
ancient Mexicans and their descendants or successors seems to
have been very successfully managed.

The Aymaras, the earliest known inhabitants of the Andine
valleys of south-eastern Peru and north-western Bolivia (a
race who claimed descent from the Collayuas, who at a very
remote period were said to have emigrated from the north),
constituted the sacred island in the great lake Titicaca, the
center of their government, the site of wonderful -temples
dedicated to their religion. Though distinct in language from
the more modern Quichuas, the race of Indians governed by
the Peruvian Incas, the Aymaras resembled them in physical
form and features. To the Aymaras, the people of the Incas
were indebted for a part of their religious rites and the
knowledge of the arts. The Aymaras were successful tillers
of the soil ; they built vast temples of Cyclopean masonry,
and other edifices ; they wrought with skill in gold and sil-
ver ; they were proficient in sculpture and painting, and some-

THE PRIMITIVE FORMS OF MONET. 39

what versed in the science of astronomy. Their poetry and
religion were spiritualistic ; their priests were bound to celi-
bacy, and the dead were held in religious veneration. Of the
Pre-Incarial era of Peruvian history, the age of the Aymaras,
comparatively little is to be known, yet the abiding remnants
of their civilization attest the superiority of the race. Their
Cyclopean architecture was copied by the Incas, and the senti-
ments of their philosophy were reverenced by the generations
which followed them.

The religion of the Aymaras was a pure Theism. The
name of God with them was Pachacamac ; that is to say,
"The Creator of the world" an invisible and mysterious
Deity. The vast ruins of Tia Huanacu, 12,930 feet above the
level of the sea, situated in a region which is generally a frozen
desert, at an altitude where the air is so rare as to be hurtful
to the human constitution, are the remains of the capital of
the Aymara government the sacred city of their religion.
The Aymaras were succeeded by the Quichuas, who made
themselves the dominant race in Peru under the government
of the Incas. The origin of the name of Peru is unknown ;
Manco Capac, the first Incn, is reputed to have come into the
government about A.D. 1062. The Quichiuts were a gay,
cheerful and energetic people. They were a nation of indus-
trious workers, labor being enforced upon all, that each might
be provided for and the commonwealth preserved. The pub-
lic industry was divided for three objects. The people worked
the first part of their time, upon lands, the produce of which
was set apart and devoted to the support of their religion, the
worship of the Infinite Creative Life, which they coasidered
symbolized in the form and functions of the Sun. The second
part of the time, the people tilled their own fields, or were
otherwise employed for their own support, and the rest of the
days were spent in labor for the Incas or upon public works.

The Quichuas were assiduous cultivators of the land; In
dian corn and other grains raised in the vicinity of the tem-
ples at Titicaca, were sent as sacred presents to all parts of the

,40 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

great empire. The Inca, though regarded as an embodiment
of divinity himself, a "child of the sun," tilled the ground,
giving an example of labor, in honor of agriculture. "When
the time came for the service of the Inca, the people labored
all together and in great style, with gladness. They dressed
themselves upon such occasions in their best clothes and went
to the temples and sang hymns, at the rising of the sun. They
received rations when in the public service, and the season
was made a patriotic feast and festival. Under the wise sway
of the Incas, the Quichuas rose rapidly in civilization and be
came skilled in many of the arts. They spun and wove the
fleeces of the llama, vicuna, and alpaca, they worked the mines
of gold and silver and created a wonderful system of public
improvements.

The immense stores of gold and silver found in Peru by the
Spanish invaders, were taken from the mines by Indian in-
dustry and skill, and represented the accumulations of centu-
ries among a people who used the precious metals only for
purposes of ornament and decoration. The cotmtry of Peru
still contains vast mineral and other natural wealth, but the
energy and cheerful patience of the Quichua miners is un-
common among the present population of the country. The
amount of silver bullion produced by the Peruvians from 1630
to 1303, has been carefully estimated at $1,232,000,000. After
the independence of Peru from Spain, the production of the
precious metals decreased. In 1859, Peru is said to have ex-
ported but $1,000,000 worth of gold and silver, including the
value of all plate, jewelry, and other similar articles sent
abroad. Subsequently, the amount of precious metals mined
in Peru increased to an average of $5,300,000 a year, and in
1873, the quantity of silver bullion raised was valued at
$-5,000,000. Owing to the introduction of modern machinery
and the construction of railroads by Englishmen and citizens
of the United States, the yield of silver may still be much en-
larged and perhaps even rival tne treasure which excited the
cruel cupidity of Pizarro and his avaricious associates.

The houses of the Quichuas were built of adobes or sun-
dried brick, and were planned with gables, niches, arches and
similar features. Their temples were of these brick, or of
stone. If stone was used, the blocks were cut and finished
with an accuracy and smoothness that cannot be surpassed.
Peru, which to-day has an actual population of about two and
a half millions, under the Incas was the happy home of thirty
millions. To provide for these multitudes, vast tracts of arid,
desert lands were redeemed and made productive by irriga-
tion, the water for this purpose being obtained by a wise and
extended system of azequias and aqueducts, and also by exca-
vating until water was found. Some of the canals and aque-
ducts connected with this system of public water works were
between four and five hundred miles long. In the grand days
of the great Inca Capac Huyana, a national road twenty feet
wide and between fifteen hundred and two thousand miles
long crossed his territories. To complete this work, which
was for foot passengers and pack llamas only, the people
having no hordes, galleries were cut for leagues in the solid
rock, rivers were crossed by suspension bridges formed of
plaited osiers, which it was death to destroy ; precipices were
ascended by massive stairways cut in the stone, and the val-
leys were crossed at a level on causeways of solid masonry.
The road bed was of broad flags of freestone, many of which
still remain where they were laid, to attest the thoroughness
of the work of which they formed a part. Over this road,
from station to station built beside the way, the runners of the
government passed to and fro, at an average speed of about
one hundred and fifty miles each day.

The Quichuas invented no alphabet, had no books, but kept
memoranda or even full historical records by means of the
quipu, a twisted woolen cord, upon which strings of different
colors were tied, and in which knots were formed. These
quipu could be read by educated persons, and thus the history
of the nation was preserved. The people of the Incas failed
to gain a knowledge of astronomy as complete and accurate as

42 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

that of the Nahualiecat or ancient Mexicans, jet they culti-
vated poetry, had dramas, and were singers of many sweet
and touching songs, which won the admiration of the Spanish
conquerors of the country. After the invasion of Peru by
the Spanish, A. D. 1516, and the enslavement of the nation,
the art of reading the quipu was concealed and eventually lost,
hence we have no knowledge of previous events, except from
tradition and a study of relics and various architectural re-
mains and monuments.

Neither the Quichuax, nor the Aymaras who preceded them,
had current coin. What system of exchange they used is un-
certain, but one thing is obvious, they solved the problem
understood only by the most advanced statesmen and philoso-
phers of Europe and America. They discovered that an in-
dustrious life was the honorable condition of existence ; they
made labor the corner-stone of the State, and accepted it as a
legal tender iu payment of all dues to the temple and the gov-
ernment. The revenues of the ancient Saxon kings of Eng-
land, were paid, not in money, but in kind; thajt is, provisions
of all kinds. William the Conqueror introduced the rule of
paying taxes in money. This was, however, for a long time
received at the Royal Exchequer only by weight, and not at
all by count of the pieces. While English taxes were still
payable in kind, and not of necessity in money, military or
other personal service was accepted by the crown in satisfac-
tion of aU claims, for any kind of tax whatever. Money, in
the form of a sound currency, is the representative of labor.
Capital is the work of the past, manifest in accumulation.

Labora Omnia VinciL

ANCIENT COINAGES.

Metallic money, in the form of bars, ingots, rings, and pieces
of various shapes, and different kinds, was, in very ancient
times, found a more convenient medium of exchange than any
other article of barter. Still, great as the improvement was,
the use of metals in bulk, as common currency, was an an-
noying and unsatisfactory method of commerce. The two
things necessary to determine regarding every piece of metal
offered in payment of any due, were, firstly the weight or
quantity, and next the fineness or purity of the same.

The process of weighing, even when applied to base and
cheap ores, must be conducted by the careful use of proper
scales, with precise notes of the results. In the precious
metals gold, silver and their high grade alloys, a very small
variation in the weight, makes a great difference in the value.
As to weighing small amounts, of copper for instance, the
probable deviation would subject no one to serious loss, at any
one time ; yet to measure out the value of cents, pennies and
the like in this manner, one at a time, would make their reck-
oning and disbursement, cost as much, or more, than the metal
itself was worth ; moreover, this expense would have to be
met in full by time and trouble, every time such payments
were made.

The process of assay, by which alone, the degree of fineness
or purity of metals can be determined, is exceedingly difficult
and very tedious, and, unless the metal to be tested be fairly

(43)

44 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

melted in the crucible, with proper dissolvents, and the whole
operation skillfully conducted, any result obtained is incon-
clusive, and all inferences therefrom, quite uncertain. Before
the invention and use of coined money, every one who ac-
cepted metals without assay, even when they were carefully
weighed, was subject to the grossest frauds and most arrant
imposition. Instead of pure or standard metal, gold, silver or
copper, the merchant might receive, in exchange for valuable
goods, a base composition, an adulterated compound of the
coarsest and cheapest materials, a mere imitation and counter-
feit of the genuine currency.

In a primitive state of society, where flocks, herds, crops
of grain and other personal property were almost the only
forms of wealth, the natural tendency and disposition of men
to accumulate riches, led them, as stated on a previous page,
to fix a special value upon the rnetals as a durable and always
available kind of estate. When the value of metals came in
this way to be generally recognized, the revenues of kings and
other potentates, were collected in part, or wholly, in that
form of money. Then the government, to facilitate public
business, stamped the various pieces of metal, with their
weight and quality, as they were received at the Treasury ;
and according to these stamps and marks, the same pieces
were paid out of the Treasury, and so circulated among the
people at an authorized fixed value. The next step was, to
reduce current pieces of metal, to a uniform size, shape, quali-
ty, value and denomination, and make them by special enact-
ment, a legal tender for the payment of all taxes or public
dues. Thus a legalized currency of coined money was created,
and the exchangeable value of the various metals used for the
purpose, fully established, to the great convenience of the
world at large.

Coinage created a new demand for the metals ; it made them
indispensable in a department of political and commercial rela-
tion, for an office which up to that time, had been filled by
agricultural and other/ produce, constituting "payments in

ANCIENT COINAGES. 45

kind. So it came to pass, that every year, each citizen,
needed a certain amount of coin, to pay the king's dues, or the
government taxes, and would sell his surplus cattle, grain, or
other commodities, for a quantity of coins he could preserve
forever which were accepted in payment of taxes, and with
which, he could buy either the goods, or the labor of his fel-
low citizens. The invention of coin did not, however, put an
end to trade by barter, it merely supplemented that form of
commerce, even the taxes of the most advanced nations, were
still collected, partly in provisions or paid in personal se vice;
and men of the highest civilization, when settled as colonists
in new countries, have, until very recent dates, been compelled
for want of money in measure of their property and produc-
tion, to revert to a currency of goods, and the most primitive
forms of traffic.

Coinage having been originally established by kings, or by
national authority, monarchs and governments have ever
since, claimed .as one of the highest prerogatives of the su-
preme power of the State, the right of absolute control over
"the current money of the realm." Hence it has been as-
sumed that: "The king can fix the value of a coinage," and
parliaments and republics have acted upon a similar supposed
principle; unfortunately, not always to the benefit of the
people. The establishment of mints, and the issue of current
coin, has, quite generally, been the work of governments
themselves ; all imitation of the money thus created, being
severely punished as a felony. In modern times, the metallic
currency, has in commercial nations, been complemented by
an equal, or larger, nominal amount, of paper money, in the
form of Treasury notes, or the bills of banks. The control of
paper money, as of coin, is retained by the government of the
country where it is made use of, but, within more or less defi-
nite limits, the privilege of issuing, in common with the gov-
ernment, redeemable notes or bills, for circulation as money,
has, by enlightened and commercial nations, been extensively
conceded to banks and private corporations.

46 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

While the manner in which the coinage of money origi-
nates, has been made manifest in history, again and again,
there is no knowledge of the aboriginal invention of coin.
In the absence of any record, or even any respectable tradi-
tion, the people of classical antiquity, attributed the art of
coinage to a revelation from the gods, making their mythical
and poetic fancy, a graceful confession of their ignorance.
The Chinese claim to have had coins, or at least pieces of cast
metai, silver, copper or iron, used as money, over four thou-
sand years ago, their supposed primitive coin having been
called Merchandise Money, which was coined (cast), of silver
some 2853 B. C., as is described in the chapter on China, in
its proper place in this Encyclopaedia.

The poems of Homer make no mention of coin, but of com-
merce by barter, the objects of trade including the precious
metals. Not to discuss antique fables r of an assumed religious
character, the classic Greeks, who used coin some 800 B. C.,
attributed its invention to the Lydians, who as related by the
ancient historians Herodotus and Xenophanes, were the first
of mankind who coined and used gold and silver money
(Herod. I, 94, Xenoph. ap. Poll. 1. c.). The other and more
popular tradition was, that Pheidon king of Argos, first coined
both copper and silver money, at Aeginia, and was the first to
establish a system of weights and measures. The date of
Pheidon, as recorded by the Parian marble, is 895 B. C., but
the ablest writers place him 783 or 770 and 744 or 730 B.C.

The invention of coinage, has been accredited to the wife of
Midas, a legendary king of Phrygia, he of whom it was said,
that his touch turned everything into gold. Phrygia was a
division of Asia Minor, now embraced for the greater part, in
the Turkish villayet of Khodavendighiar. Lydia was a
country in Western Asia Minor, now comprised in the Turk-
ish villayet of Aidin. Asia Minor and Greece had rich mines
of the precious metals. The river Pactolus in Lydia, an afflu-
ent of the Hermus, carried an abundance of gold in the sands
it washed toward the sea, and the ledges of the Timolus and

ANCIENT COINAGES. 47

Sypylus mountains, contained rich veins of gold-bearing
rock.

The earliest gold coins of Asia Minor, were of electrum, a
compound of native gold and silver, smelted together as they
came from the mine, or the sands. The oldest specimens are
declared by some well-informed writers, to indicate a greater
antiquity than any pieces of the whole Greek coinage, which
was, at first, of silver. The Chinese assert that their most
recent coin, the brass or native bronze casting, called tsien or
cash, which bears the inscription of tung pan, which signifies
" current money," had its origin about 1120 B. C., at the com-
mencement of the Chan dynasty. The Romans, for nearly
five hundred years, from the foundation of their city, had no
coin of their own, the first being struck for them, as stated,
by Servius Tullius, who reigned in Rome 578-534 B. C. The
Romans ascribed the invention of coins to the gods Janus and
Saturn ; the mint was at the temple of Juno, and the treasury
in the temple of Saturn. There is, however, historical evidence,
that the Romans not only procured coin, but learned the art
of coinage itself, from the Etruscans, a peculiar, ancient, yet
artistic and considerably civilized people, natives of the coun-
try, known as Etruria, or Tuscia, a division of ancient Italy,
embracing modern Tuscany and some adjoining territories.
These Etruscans were called Etrusci, or Tusci, by the Romans,
and, and Tyrrheni, or Tyrseni, by the Greeks ; their origin is
supposed to have been Asiatic, and they may have brought
the skill to work metals and to make coin, as well as their ex-
cellence in pottery, from the country of their ancestors.

It may well be supposed, that the art of coinage is older
than Roman or Greek history the various pretended in-
ventors whose names have been given, were doubtless but
persons of enterprise, who simply introduced coined money
among their own countrymen. The history of mankind even
in recent generations, is made dubious by misstatement and
perversion ; a few centuries back, the record was made up of
fact, fable, and myth, in varied and confusing measure; still

48 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

more ancient, are the great poems, like those of Homer and
the Sanscrit literature, of remarkable beauty, replete with
suggestion, but in their pretended chronicle of human events,
full of romance concerning imaginary places, ideal heroes,
demigods and deities ; behind these, stand the monuments and
repose the relics ; the order of events is lost amid the rem-
nants of the distant past; the course of time is wrapped in
oblivion, and only the geologic strata and the rolling stars in
dicate to us what must have been, when men were not, as yet,
on earth.

While other noble arts have been lost, that of coinage ha^
been preserved. All conclusions as to original invention and
first use of weights, measures, and coin, are of necessity, no
more than speculative inferences. Asia was "the cradle of
the nations," India "the mother of the gods" ; from Asia, and
from India, has come the advance of the human race ; an emi-
gration has encircled and populated the earth. Men first ap-
pear in history, hard at work, building civilization, urging
progress, using the arts and appliances inherited from their
ancestors, whom they knew as heroes and worshiped as gods.
Somewhere in Asia, sometime in unchronicled antiquity, these
ancestral gods invented coin, and made use of money. The
really primitive coinage of the world, was perhaps made be-
fore the foundation of the Chinese empire, and the Merchan-
dise Money of the Yii dynasty, or the tsien, struck when the
Chan family began imperial rule, may neither of them have
been at all the oldest or most perfect antique specimens of a
truly exceeding ancient art.

A coin derives its name from the French word com, which
signifies a die, or stamp, and is properly and strictly a piece of
metal, generally gold, silver or copper, impressed with certain
devices or marks, indicating the origin of the coinage, the
quality of the metal used in the same, and its value as money,
for which it is intended to be kept in circulation. The mate-
rials used for money must have an intrinsic, or at least gener-
ally conceded value, the more uniform the more desirable ;

ANCIENT COINAGES. 49

they must be durable to resist friction and abrasion, and non-
corrosive under ordinary agents ; they must be easy to divide,
portable and admitting of ready operation, both in smelting
'and combining with alloys, and in the mintage by which they
are divided into uniform sizes and marked with the devices,
designs, and inscriptions, they are required to bear. Gold,
silver, and copper, in various degrees of fineness, have been
found to best serve the purpose of .practical coinage, and in
consequence these metals, together, or separately, have formed
the body of nearly all successful coin currencies. There have,
however, been exceptions to this rule, so important as to de-
mand notice, and the composition of some issues of the mints,
has been so peculiar, as to be worth remark as a curiosity.

The Tao or knife coins of China, made current 2453 B.C.,
were made of cast iron. The Pu coinage of the same country
2085 B. C., was of the same metal. Iron being abundant in
Laconia, and in the countries along the shores of the Euxine
sea, the ancient Spartans or Lacedemonians, about 800 B. C.,
and the Megarians or Byzantines, some 650 B. C., coined
money of it, and Aristotle reports (CEcon. II, 2) that the same
metal was used for a like purpose by the people of Clazomeme.
There is also reason to believe that iron was coined and used
as money in Rome, daring the early ages. Lycurgus the
Spartan ruler and great lawgiver, about 825 B. C., banished
gold and silver from Sparta, and made a Lacedaemonian cur-
rency of iron, of which an amount equal in value to one hun-
dred modern dollars, is said to have been a load for a cart and
two oxen. When the Roman conquerer Cassar landed in Bri-
tain (55 B. C.), coins of brass and iron were found in use
among the natives. There are no specimens of ancient iron
coins known to be extant ; the material of which they were
composed being very liable to rust, they must have totally
disappeared. ,

Coins of Lead are frequently mentioned by the classical
poets, and a number of pieces struck from that metal, are pre-
served ; a leaden slater, is one of the curiosities of the British
D

50 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

Museum. Leaden coins were current, a short time since, in
the Burman empire, but good authorities consider the ancient
coins of lead, not likely to have been a true money, but rather,
proof pieces, medallets, or mere tokens, like the leaden coin-
age, which for many years, previous to A. D. 1700, some of
the tradesmen of London, England, were in the habit of is-
suing, and which circulated as money, instead of the copper
currency.

The tyrant of Syracuse, Dionysius I, who ruled from 405
to 367 B. C., coined money of tin, but beyond the record of
this fact (Aristot, (Econ. II, 2, Pollux, IX, 79), there is no
notice of this tin money of Syracuse, except that a law in the
Digest makes reference to spurious coin of that metal. Tin
has been used for coinage at various dates in modern history,
as mny be noted in the introduction to this volume, but of the
ancient tin coin none remain extant.

The primitive coins of Rome (578 to 534 B. C.), were of
copper or bronze, the first coinage of Greece, supposed to be
about 800 B. C., was of silver, and the earliest historic money
of Asia Minor was in pieces struck from native gold or
eleclrum, as has already been stated.

The Carthagenians had a kind of leather coin or money
currency at least, and Numa Pompilius the second king of
Rome, who, according to traditional legends, began his reign
791 B. C., made use, it is said, of both wood and leather for
coinage. Leather money, or currency, was also stamped and
used by the Spartans, and shells were an extremely ancient
.substitute for coin. Leather, wood and paper have been coined
in modern times, and, in certain countries, have had an exten-
sive circulation, yet the true character of (he ancient pieces of
like material remains undecided, very respectable authorities
assuming that they were not legitimate coin, but rather a sort
of counters, mere tokens of value. However this should be
settled, pieces of base metal, wood, or leather, when coined or
stamped in significance of the fiatt or authoritative regulation
of imperial, or other power, seem to have been current at va-

ANCIENT COINAGES. 51

rious places and times from the earliest historical dates, and
whether, strictly speaking, coin and money, or not, they filled
more or less completely, the office of a medium of exchange
possibly somewhat as irredeemable paper money has been used
in modern times.

In States where, as in Rome, a coinage has been developed
and perfected within the historical period, the progress of the
art of the mint, has been progressive from a mere figure
struck upon a mass of metal, to designate its weight, what-
ever that weight might chance to be, onward to forming
pieces o money of certain definite sizes and shapes, of a pre-
determined weight. The next step in improvements upon
coin, has been the decoration of the piece, by expressive orna-
ments, symbols and natural figures, such as animals, men,
birds, plants and flowers, or other and artificial objects. The
first coins were but ingots of metal, stamped in but one place,
with a single die. After these ingots had been reduced to a
uniform size and form, and had for some time been in use,
marked only with their weight, and with some figure as an
ornament, it was found necessary to add to the inscription and
device, some other mark, to indicate the fineness of the metal
bearing the impression. On such pieces, the device or symbol
was a mint-mark, proving the character of the authorized
coin.

The primitive coins were oblong, irregular masses, stamped
only upon one side, as has been described. These were suc-
ceeded by pieces formed as oblate spheres, balls of metal, like
bullets, but more or less flattened at the poles, thus forming
plane surfaces opposite each other, constituting the obverse
and the reverse of the coin. Later still, these balls were ham-
mered or cast into thin disks or plates, of an irregular, erratic
circular outline or circumference. Afterwards, the body of
the coin was made more perfect and the edge reduced to a
true circle. With the introduction of the ball-like pieces, be-
gan the practice of stamping coin on both of its opposite
sides. The die bearing the figures denoting the weight of

52 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

the coin, the fineness of the metal, the locality of the mint ex-
ecuting the work, and the authority for the coinage, such as
had formerly been used alone, on the oblong ingots, was im-
pressed upon the obverse. The simple devices first stamped
upon coin, were subsequently improved in form and. CXQCU-
tion, and to them were presently added many others, figures
of gods, genii, river and wood sprites, nymphs, and similar
mythological representations. Portraits of men and women,
so universal upon the coinage of modern times, were not used
upon the money of former ages. The first reported instance
of portraiture upon coin, was the use of a likeness of Arche-
laus of Macedon, from 413 to 399 B. C. ; there are, however,
doubts that the face upon the coins of Archelaus is a portrait,
and some insist, that no human head was ever stamped upon
a coin, until after the death of Alexander the Great, when, he
being regarded as somewhat of a divinity, his effigy was, upon
that pretense, impressed upon money like that of other gods.

The impression appearing upon the reverse of the very
ancient coins, was for sometime, nothing more than a rude
punch mark or indent. The process of coinage in the first
place was as follows: The die for the obverse of the piece,
having been engraved, so as to properly present the religious
Or national symbol used for a device, and whatever else was
to be impressed upon the coin, was fixed immovably in an an-
vil or pedestal, face upwards. The lumps or balls of metal
having been made of a fixed and uniform weight, and nearly
an oblate sphere in form, were seized in a strong and peculiar
pair of tongs and laid as fairly as might be, upon the upturned
die. A second operative, then placed a punch or wedge,
squarely and steadily upon the ball of metal. This punch
was then driven down, with blows from a hammer, until the
metal beneath it, had been forced into every part of the die,
and thus a good and perfect impress secured therefrom. By
this time, the punch would be deeply imbedded in the back
of the lump of metal, and being withdrawn, the reverse of the
coin, would show a rough depression, corresponding to the

ANCIENT COINAGES. 53

shape given the end of the punch. The use of the punch
enabled the workman to strike the coin without driving it
about on the face of the die. The most noticeable improve-
ment in the early stages of the art of coinage, is that made
from time to time in the character of the impression by the
punch upon the reverse of the coin. Beginning as a mere
dent, cleft, or rough irregular hole disfiguring the piece,
punch marks have developed into geometrical forms, these
forms have been combined with figures, and the whole wrought
into artistic design, until by degrees, the punch itself became
a die, making the reverse of each piece upon which it was
used, equal in every respect to the obverse, of which it was
the opposite. This perfection of the reverse, was however,
secured at the expense of the effectiveness of the punch for
its original purpose. The striking of coin between two dies,
which were required to accurately oppose each other, was an
operation requiring great dexterity, and not at all certain.
The artisans at this stage of the work hit upon the expedient
of using both the obverse and reverse die, in a ring, of such a
size and depth, as to be a guide to each of them. Moreover,
the balls or disks of metal, being heavily struck inside the
ring, between the dies, were forced to assume an even thick-
ness, and a circular form, corresponding with the inside of the
ring. When the ring had been used in this way for some
time, it was engraved upon the inside, and the coins produced*
were not only completely circular, but stamped upon their
edges. Thus was produced the perfect coin, and though the
introduction of machinery has secured uniformity in the re-
sult, and saved an immense amount of labor in striking vast
sums, the artistic beauty of some of the antique specimens has
not been surpassed.

The names or denominations of Coins, have generally been
derived from terms which signified weight or measure, and
the primitive coinage was of the full weight the denomination
implied. The word Slater, derived from the Greek, means a
standard of weight, and in the first Greek coinages, which

54 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

were of silver, was applied in particular to the principal coin,
tjie didrachm. When Greece began to coin gold, the prin-
cipal gold coin received the name of a Stater. The word Sta-
ter may in general be understood to mean a gold piece twice the
weight of an Attic silver drachma, twenty drachmas in value.
One of the very oldest coins in existence is the Gold Double
Stater of Miletus in Ionia.

GOLD DOUBLE STATER OF MILETUS.

The representation of this coin shows as its type on the ob-
verse the figure of a lion's head, derived from the symbols of
the Bacchanalian worship of Cybele or Rhea, the wife of
Chronos or Saturn, the mother of the highest of the gods and
goddesses. The reverse of the Stater is impressed with the
rude punch mark peculiar to a primitive coinage.

GOLD STATER OF SARDIS.

The Gold Stater of Sardis is thought by some to be even
older than the Stater of Miletus. The illustration here pre-
sented bears upon the obverse, the type of the lion and the
Dull, two objects prominent in ancient symbolism, here sup-
posed to represent the triumph of the king over all opposi-
tion. The reverse shows the ancient punch mark.

PERSIAN GOLD DARIC. ACTUAL SIZE.

ANCIENT COINAGES. 55

The Persian Gold Daric was a coin of very ancient date, re-
sembling the Staters, and sometimes classed with them ; it
was called by the Greeks the Stater of Dareius. The figure
of the kneeling archer upon the obverse was the royal ern-
blem of the kings of Persia. The reverse shows the ancient
punch mark, which is struck deeply upon these pieces. It is
supposed by some that the daric was coined before Dareius,
son of Hystaspes, but the weight of authority seems opposed
to the conclusion. The Persian Gold Daric had a great circu-
lation, not only in Persia, but in other countries, especially in
Greece, before the coinage of gold was begun there. Speci-
mens of this coinage are, however, rare, as the Persian gold
coin was melted down in great quantities, to make the coins
struck in the name of Alexander the Great of Macedonia.

MACEDONIAN STATER.

The Macedonian Stater was of the coinage of Philip II and
of Alexander the Great. It was made of very fine gold ; the
standard of the coinage was the Attic didrachm. Specimens
of this coin are very numerous, it having been in circulation
in Greece during modern times, where it was valued at about
twenty-five shillings sterling. Its actual value is estimated
by good English writers at 1, 3s, 6d, .0672 farthings.

The advance in the art of coinage is illustrated in the silver
pieces, first struck by the Greeks at ^Egina, an island about
nine miles long and about seven miles wide, some twelve
miles S. S. W. of the Piraeus, in what was the Saronic gulf,
now the gulf of ^Egina. The oldest silver coins now in ex-
istence were coined on ^Egiua. The type of this coinage is a
tortoise, and the pieces are of three distinct periods. In the
first period rude coins were made, the figure of the tortoise
on the obverse being but a rude suggestion of the type, and

56 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

the punch mark nothing but four irregular clefts. During
the second period, the punch mark became more symmetrical
and regular. On the coins of the third period, the type of the
obverse is elaborated and the punch mark upon the reverse as-
sumes the nature of a device.

SILVER COIN OF JSGINA. THIRD PERIOD.

The next improvement in coinage was to give the end of
the punch a finish showing a higher degree of design, though
still but a rude conception wrought into an imperfect geome-
trical figure, an instance of which occurs in the coins struck
by the Corinthian and Dorian colony which, emigrating to
Sicily under Archias of Corinth, founded the city of Syracuse
734 B. C.

COIN OF SYRACUSE.

The next step was a bold innovation ; it consisted in making
the punch a fac simile of the die yet in reverse. In this
way a coin was made bearing the design in relief on one side,
with an incused concave, or sunken impression of the same
in the other. Some of the coins produced in this way, are
good specimens of art. An excellent example is afforded in
the coins of Tarentum, an important city of Magna Graecia,
founded by Greek colonists in southern Italy, the greatness
of which dates from about 708 B. C. The incused coins of
Tarentum were first produced as early as 600 B. C. In some

ANCIENT COINAGES. 57

pieces of money of this description, the incused reverse va-
ries in design from the obverse. Coins having both obverse
and reverse struck in relief, were made in Magna Graecia some
510 B.C., and this form of coinage came into common use in
about a century, or before 400 B. C.

INCUSED COIN OF TARENTUM.

Another form of improvement of the reverse, was to sur-
round the punch mark with a band, upon which was inscribed
some name or legend. Again, the punch was made to strike
a very broad and shallow regular depression of four adjoining
squares, something like a device, in the center of which was
a circular space bearing a head.

IMPROVED REVERSE.

In this manner, step by step, the perfect reverse was de-
veloped, and the complete coin fully invented. One of the
earliest specimens of the use of the perfect reverse, is a very
beautiful medal struck at the city of Syracuse, already men-
tioned.

The obverse of this medal, bears the head of the deity called
by the Romans Proserpina, the wife of Hades, the infernal
goddess of death, yet the all-pervading goddess of nature, who
produces and destroys everything. The head is accompanied

58 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOP.&T L4.

by symbolic dolphins and inscriptions. The reverse repre*
sents a charioteer reigning in his four horses abreast, while
the flying goddess of Victory stoops to crown him with a
wreath of laurel for his triumph in the races of the Olympian
games. This artistic design of the reverse appears also upon
the Staters of Philip of Macedon, and was imitated in a num-
ber of coinaes.

MEDAL OF SYRACUSE.

The historian Herodotus, who ascribes the origin of coin to
Asia, says the Lydians were the first to coin gold, and as far
as he knew, the first to coin any kind of metal. These gold
coins of the Lydian kings were of electrum and are of exceed-
ingly antique appearance, as is shown in the illustrations
already presented. The date of this coinage is unknown,
but it preceded that made in copper and silver by the Grecians
some 800 B. C. Greek writers attribute the invention of
coinage (as well as weights and measures), to Phidon, king of
Argos, and suppose that ^Egina was the birthplace of the art,
Phidon having first coined both copper and silver on that
island. The date of the earliest Grecian gold coinage is un-
known. The old States of Etruria and Central Italy, peopled
as is supposed from Asia, had a coinage of copper and bronze
from the earliest times of which we can gain any information.
The Romans coined copper or bronze under Servius Tullius
578 to 534 B. C. The historian Pliny fixes the date of the
first Roman coinage of silver at 269 B. C., but other authori-
ties assume silver was first coined in Rome about 281 B. C.

ANCIENT COINAGES. 59

The coinage of the Persian darics, which were struck in
both gold and silver, is supposed to have been begun by Da-
rius, the son of Hystaspes, from 521 B. C. to 485 B. C. It is
understood there is historical evidence of the use of coin as
soon as the eighth century before Christ ; within twelve hun-
dred years, or by the fourth century after Christ, the use of
coined money was common throughout the civilized nations
of the world, every State having created a proper coinage of
its own. To the Greeks must be given the credit of perfect-
ing the art of coinage at least as far as the development of
the obverse and reverse are to be considered, the application
of the circular-matrix, or ring, by which, as has been stated,
the edge of the Coin was made true and circular, did not occur
until sometime in the seventh or eighth century of the Chris-
tian era. The coins of the Macedonian empire, the work of
Greek artists, were especially remarkable for boldness and
beauty of design.

The art of coinage spread very rapidly ; within a few cen-
turies every independent nation had its own coinage, and
almost every colony of Greece struck money of its own.
There are more than a thousand series of the coins of self-
governing cities of Greece still extant. The Grecian coinage
was in general very artistic, and Grecian die-sinkers and coin-
ers were employed in different countries. Beside the Greek,
there were two other classes of coinage, the Roman and the
Gracco Oriental or Byzantine. Greek coins are found in the
European countries of ancient Spain, Gaul, Great Britain, Italy,
Sicily, Thrace, Macedonia, Thessilia, Attica, BoaBtia, and the
Peloponnesus, also in Asia, in Ionia, Phrygia, Lydia, Caria,
Cilicia, Phoenicia, Egypt, and many others elsewhere. The
series are exceedingly numerous, each comprehending full va-
rieties extending over many years, in some instances through
centuries, each and all separate from the issues of the Roman
empire, and its subordinate governments and colonies. The
Athenian series of Greek coins was the most important and
extensive, but while much of the coinage of the Greek colo-

60 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

nies was magnificent and artistic, the coins of Athens having
become widely and well known from the great purity of the gold
and silver used there, were, for commercial reasons, allowed
to retain the originel rude forms in which they had gained so
desirable a reputation. The inscriptions on the earliest of
Greek coins were merely single letters, the initial of the name
of the city where the coinage was made. The other letters of
the name, or a part of them, were added in later coinages.
When inscribed in full, the name was in the genitive case.
Some of the coins also bore monograms.

The letradrachm of Alexander I of Maccdon, "the Great"
(500 to 454 B. C.), was the first coin bearing the name of a
king. Coins struck by the Edoneans are inscribed with the
name of Getas, their king, and in addition, his royal title and
the name of the people over whom he ruled. The coinages
under Alexander the Great were abundant, those struck in the
Greek towns of Asia, after his conquests, being very numer-
ous. Each series of the Alexandrian coins of this time, has
its own mint-mark. Those of Ehodes are marked with the
figure of a rose. Those of Ephesus bear a bee, and so forth.
These are minor types, the coins generally showing as princi-
pal devices, the head of Hercules on the obverse, and a figure
of Zeus on the reverse. This head of Hercules, has been con-
sidered the head of Alexander himself, but authorities differ,
and critics consider it more probable that his immediate suc-
cessors were the first to place their portraits upon coin, which
they are said to have done under a pretended descent from the
gods Bacchus and Apollo. The silver coins of Seleucidoc, in
Asia, and the Lagidae or Ptolemies of Egypt, in gold, are two
most beautiful and important series of Greek coins.

The Grecian coinage was, first and last, executed under three
standards: the Euoboic, the Aeginctan, and the Attic or So-
Ionian. The Euoboic system and the Aeginetan, were de-
rived from the Orient, and were identical with Babylonian
standards. The Attic standard was introduced by Solon about
594 B. C. By it seventy-three drachmas of the old coinage,

ANCIENT COINAGES. 61

were represented in one hundred drachmae of the new issue.
This, Solon was said to have done for the relief of debtors, in
a time of general distress. The principal denomination of
weight and money among the Greeks, and among the Romans
as well, was the talent, which consisted of sixty mines, each
mina being of one hundred drachmae, and each drachma six
obit. Thus the Obol was one-sixth of the drachma, the drach-
ma one-hundreth of the mina, and the mina one-sixtieth of
the talent. The talent and the mina were merely denomina-
tional moneys of account not represented by any coinage.

GREEK COINS.

NAME OF COIN. WT IN GRAINS. VALUE.

Lepton, $0 00.0466

Chalcus, or Chalchus, 00.3260

Dichalcus, or Obol, in Silver, 2.7706| 000.6520

Hemiobolum, or I Obol, " 5.541J 001.3050

Obelus, or Obol, " - 11.0833 j- 02.6100

Diobolum, or Diobolus, " - 22.1660 05.2200

Triobolum, or Triobolus, " - 33.2500 07.8300

Tetrobolum, - " 44.333J 10.4400

Drachma, or Drachm, " - 66.5000 15.6600

Didrachma, or Didrachm, " - 133.0000 31.3200

Tetradrachma, - " - 266.0000 62.6400

Pentadrachma, " - 332.0000 78.3000

Stater Aureus, in Gold. - 133.0000 3 91.5000

The above calculations are based upon the Attic Solonian
Standard, and the value of the Stater, counted as 25 Attic
drachmae, reckoned according to the relative value of gold and
silver in the age when it was coined. Reckoned by the rela-
tive value of gold and silver at the present date, this Athenian
Stater Aureus, or Chrysus, as it is sometimes called, would be
worth $5,03. There were Double Staters, Staters, Half Sta-
ters, Quarter Staters, One-Third Staters, One-Sixth Staters,
and One-Twelfth Staters, all coined of gold, and of propor-

62 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

donate weight and value. No gold coinage is supposed to
have been made in Athens or Greece Proper, until the epoch
of Alexander the Great, 356 to 323 B. C., or sometime after
his death. The mines of Greece were rich in silver, but com-
paratively barren of gold, and though an abundant gold coin-
age was made, but ten or twelve Attic Staters are extant.

The large amount of gold coin which circulated in and
about Athens from very early times, was imported from
abroad, as was the gold subsequently coined there. The pieces
of foreign gold coin were also called Staters, some of which were
coined in adjacent Hellenic districts, and others derived from
distant countries. The Stater of Croesus, the immensely rich
king of Lydia, about 568 to 554 B. C., seems to have been the
earliest gold coin known to the Greeks. The Stater of Croesus
was of about the same weight as the Attic Aureus of 133
grains, being coined of pale native gold or electrum, bearing
some silver, but worth about twenty- five Attic drachmae of
silver, or according to the old ratio of metals, $3,91 5. An
antique coin in the British Museum of 248 grains, bearing
the figure of a kneeling man holding a fish and a knife, is sup-
posed to be a double Stater of Croesus. Value, $7,83.

One of the common gold coins of Greece, which was quite
abundant at Athens, was the Cyzicene Stater, or Stater Cyzi-
cus, coined at the city of Cyzicus, one of the oldest and most
important of the Grecian free cities in Asia. The Cyzicene
Stater, appears to have been coined of the Euboic standard, at
a weight of some 180 grains. Some specimens of this coin,
however, weigh but 160 grains, others but 120 grains. About
335 B. C., the Stater Cyzicus passed in exchange for 28 Attic
drachmae of silver ; calculated thus, its value would be $4,38.5.
The Stater Daricus, of Persia, of which an illustration and
description is given on pages 54 and 55, had, as there stated,
a very extensive circulation, and was much used in Greece and
Athens. It is agreed by ancient writers, that its weight was
exactly equal to two Attic drachmae that of the Attic Stater.
Some of the few specimens in existence, however, weigh but

ANCIENT COINAGES. 63

128-4 to 128-6 grains, being somewhat worn. If of full
weight, the value would be, for 133 grains, $3,91.5. Jose-
phus refers to this Stater darie as worth 50 Attic drachmae
it must have been a double Stater he had in view.

Beside the above very important pieces of money, a number
of other gold coins were circulated in Greece and at Athens,
as follows. The Stater of Lampsacus, coined in Lampsacus,
the ancient Pityusa, an Ionian colony from Phocaea and Mile-
tus later, an important Greek port of Mysia, in Asia Minor.
The Lampsaceiie Staters were of very unequal weight, and
may have been coined of the Euboic and the Attic standards
simultaneously. Specimens extant, weigh 129 grains, but the
average may have been, when struck, of the Attic standard,
intended to represent 133 grains, and in value, by the ancient
ratio of metals, $3,91.5. The type of this coin is a sea-horse.
The Stater of Phocaea, coined by the Phocaeans, citizens of an
ancient town named Phocaea, on the shores of the JSgean gulf,
in Asia Minor, originally emigrants from Athens. They re-
moved to Corsica, thence to Rhegium, in Italy, and finally to
Lucania of Magna Grsecla, in southern Italy. The Phocaeans
were described by Herodotus, as the first Greeks to make ex-
tensive sea voyages. The type of their coin was the phoca or
seal, said to have been taken from the circnmstance that seals
followed their ships during one of their early voyages of emi-
gration. The Stater of Phocaea is said to have followed
the standard of the Stater daricus, and must, therefore, be
reckoned of the weight of the Attic didrachma of silver, 133
grains. Value, $3,91.5.

The Stater Philipicus and the Stater Alexandrinus, were
coined in Macedon by Philip II, 359-336 B. C., and by Alex-
ander III (the Great), 336 to 323 B. C., after the standard of
the Attic didrachm of 133 grains. The gold of this Macedo-
nian coinage was very fine. One of the Staters of Alexander,
upon assay, gave 133 grains pure gold and 18 grains of silver,
the combination being supposed natural and the metal elec-
trum the pale native gold already described. This Stater, at

64 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

the ancient ratio of the metals, was intrinsically worth XI, 3s,
6d, 0.672 farthing British, or $5,71.8-. Staters of Philip and
Alexander are numerous, and not long since the Stater Philip-
pious was current in Greece for about 25 shillings sterling, or
$6,08-. For an illustration and description of the Macedonian
Stater, see page 55, preceding. The later Macedonian kings,
and the States of Epirus, JEtolia, Acarmania, Syracuse and
others, coined gold after the manner of the Macedonians. The
Macedonian Stater, though sometimes rated higher, is said to
have been generally valued in exchange at twenty Attic
drachmae of silver, which would make it worth at the present
value of silver, about 16s, 3d, British currency, or $3,96-.
Others rate the Attic, and hence the Macedonian Staters as ex-
changeable for twenty-eight Attic drachmae, worth, at the
ancient ratio of metals, $1,38.5. A Corinthian Stater, or gold
piece, worth, according to Pollux, ten Aeginetan. or twelve
Euboic Obols, was used in Sicily.

The Oldest System of weights, measures and coinage, used
at Athens, was the EUBOIC STANDARD, so called because de-
rived from the island of Eubcoa, in the Aegian Sea, where it
was used, being an adaptation of the Babylonian system,
having been imported from Chaldea by the way of Phoenicia,
after the time of Homer. The Euboic, like every other Greek
system of weights, measures and coinage, was based upon four
denominational units, which always bore the same relation of
proportion to each other, whatever the actual value. These
were the Talent, the Mina, the Drachma, and the Obol. Six
Obols made one Drachma; one hundred Drachma made one
Mina ; sixty Mina made one Talent. The Euboic and so called
"Old Attic" standards were identical.

The AEGINETAX STANDARD was the one most extensively
used in the greater part of Greece at a very early date ; it was
the system said to have been invented by Phidon, or Pheidon,
king of Lydia, but which, like the Euboic standard, was really
derived from Babylon of Chaldea, and merely introduced into
L dia by Phidon, who as is supposed, struck coins under it

ANCIENT COINAGES. 65

about 1200 B. C., but not of necessity on the island of Aegina.

THE NEW ATTIC, or SOLONIAN STANDARD, was used in
Athens after the establishment of the laws of Solon, about
594 B. C. By the Solonian standard, 73 of the old Attic or
Euboic drachmae, made 100 drachmae of the new coinage. The
Aeginetan, and even the Euboic didrachmae, are said to have
passed as Solonian tetradrachmae at times, but by the actual
provision of the law, debtors saved somewhat more than a
fourth of every payment, as was intended by the great Athe-
nian lawgiver for relief of the public distress. The reason for
the precise and peculiar ratio adopted by Solon, seems to have
been a desire to bring Athenian exchange into a definite
mathematical relation to the popular Aeginetan standard,
which was approximately accomplished, the proportion of
value expressed in a numerical ratio being as follows : Aegin-
etan, 1200 ; Euboic, or Old Attic, 1000 ; New Attic, or Solo-
nian, 730, or in practice even less.

The Talent (money of account only), was computed vari-
ously at from about $1186,21 to some $1216,62.5. The Mina
(also money of account only), was computed at from about
19,77 to some $20,81.4. It is to be understood that from
the intrinsic difficulties of the subject, all computations of the
current value of ancient coinages in their time must be some-
what indefinite, and hence held subject to revision, being re-
garded at the best, but as an approximation to a correct gen-
eral statement. These difficulties arise, firstly, from the length
of time during which, from (as supposed), 1200 B. C., or less
to about 476 B. C., the technically so called "ancient" coinages
were issued; secondly, from the numerous kinds of coin
struck under different standards, and the many wide-spread
and distant localities where mints were established; thirdly-
from the debasement of legalized coin and the multiplicity of
counterfeits. However, the statement made gives a clear
conception of their relative worth. Their intrinsic value,
at the present ratio of metals, can be determined by actual as-
say of specimens, but even so the ancient coin varied exceed-
E

66 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

ingly and was sometimes excessively debased and degraded.
As to the fineness of Athenian silver, the coins of the early
ages contained one-twentieth part, or five per cent, of alloy
or, as we now state the matter, were 950 fine i. e., nine hun-
dred and fifty parts in a thousand of pure silver. The silver
money struck at Athens at a later date, was celebrated for
purity, containing but one-sixtieth part, or 16.666 per cent, of
alloy, being 983J fine. The latest of the ancient Athenian
coinage of silver has twelve per cent, of alloy, and therefore
was 916.667 fine, the early silver coinage of the United States
having been struck of silver, 916| fine, a very slight differ-
ence. Athenian gold coin was of almost perfect purity at
least was so considered. The Lepton and Chalcus were coined
of copper bronze or brass. The dichalcus or quarter obol,
the hemiobolum or half obol, the obolus or obol, the diobolurn
and tetrobolum, were coined variously, first of silver, but at a
later date, also of copper, bronze and brass. The drachma,
didrachma, tetradrachma and pentadrachma, were coined of
silver only.

The false coinage of the numerous ancient Greek counter-
feiters was extensive and of good artistic workmanship many
of the pieces made by them, in imitation of genuine money,
are still extant and in as perfect a state as the specimens of the
original. The earliest coins of Athens have the figure of an
owl upon the obverse, that bird being regarded as the symbol
of the goddess Athene. Subsequently there was a change of
type, the head of Athene herself being presented upon the ob-
verse, and the owl appearing upon the reverse of the piece.
For an illustration of this, see representation of the Athenian
Drachma.

With thi's comparatively brief survey of the ancient coinage
of Greece, a vast and most interesting field of study and re-
search, must be left for those who have leisure, means ftnd the
disposition to make prolonged investigations. An outline
statement of the matter has, however, been presented, and a
good general idea of the subject may be had from the few

ANCIENT COINAGES. 67

pages devoted to the same. Whatever speculations may be
indulged as to prehistoric events, our actual knowledge of coin
begins with Grecian specimens and records since the un-
certain date of Homer. Behind the Greeks is the region of
conjecture and of inference from ruins; they stand in the
dawn of historical time, and the glory of their courage, their
civilization, culture and art, fills with splendor all the succeed-
ing ages.

The system of money most intimately connected with that
of Greece was the coinage of Rome, some account of which
will now be given.

The conception of the idea of weight, must have been one
of the primitive experiences of the human mind. The art of
mensuration began, when the first man took his first stride.
The science of mathematics started with a count of the fin-
gers ; to sum up the number of all the fingers and toes a per-
son had, was once a mighty problem to the ablest is so still
to whole tribes of men.

To weigh to measure to count, this was the probable or-
der of progress; coinage was a brilliant invention, made long f ~
long after weighing, measuring, and counting, had not only
been in use for ages, but reduced to a combined system, and
through the art of letters and figures made a matter of
record.

As has already been stated, the first coins were mere rude
masses of metal, upon which was impressed or inscribed some
word, sign or figure, in token of the weight of the piece. The
first coinage was indicative of weight only, regardless of the
quality of the metal, but as the art of alloying began to be
practised, and processes upon metals multiplied, the stamp was
made to signify both weight and quality, at once, and in some
cases by a single figure or device.

The early types upon coins, figures of gods, or patriotic em-
blems, were considered sacred, arid by their appeal to the de-
votional sentiments or national feelings of the people, inspired
confidence in the money made legally current among them.

68 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

The .Romans, emerging from semi-barbarism, used copper in-
gots as money. They are supposed to have acquired the art
of coinage from the Etrurians, which people have already been
referred to as occupying a territory adjacent to Rome, being,
perhaps, emigrants from Asia and descendants of the Pelasgi-
ans, a somewhat mythical race, cotemporaneous with the
Phoenicians, and the supposed original (?) population of west-
ern Asia. The Pelasgians were regarded by the Greeks as
very early inhabitants of the Greek peninsula, and Homer
sang of them as the aborigines of that country.

The first type used in Roman coinage, was the figure of an
ox or bull ; the same type was used upon the most antique
money of Greece, and was first struck on Grecian coin in the
island of Euboea, from whence, as related on a preceding page,
the Euboic standard, derived from Babylon, took its Grecian
name. The Euboeans are imagined to have chosen the type
of an ox or bull for their coin, in reference to the name of the
island.

Considering that the Euboic standard was derived from
Babylon, and that weights, measures, and coinage, were proba-
bly imported thence together, it may well be assumed that
the typical ox of Rome, Etruria, ancient Athens, and Euboea,
were derived from each other, and originally were but the
symbol of the Babylonian and Assyrian deity Bel, or Belus,
identical with Baal, the principal god of the Chaldeans, Car-
thagenians and Phoenecians. Baal was the representative of
the sun, as Astarte was of the moon, and by the mystical
fructifying relation of these two, nature was revivified and re-
production maintained, to the continuance of life. In the
'symbolism of the oldest and universal systems of religion and
phallic worship, the bull, as the embodiment of power and
vitality among animals, was a prominent type of deep sexual
significance, and hence the form of the bull, variously modi-
fied, was extensively used in architecture, upon coins, and in
other conspicuous ways of presentation. The image of Bel,
or Baal, was in the figure of a man, but with the head of

ANCIENT COINAGES. 69

a bull. This image held in its arms the form of a young
child.

COIN OF EUBOEA.

The Romans had a currency of copper which passed by
weight, from the time of the foundation of their government.
Some attribute the first coinage to Numa Pompilius, the suc-
cessor of Romulus, while others ascribe it to Servius Tullius
(578-534 B. C.). As copper circulated in Rome by weight,
the original unit was the Pondo, Pondus or Libra, the pound
of that metal. The full Roman pound is calculated to have
been 4989 grains, or otherwise estimated as 5040 to 5053.635,
or 5053.28 grains. One of the most reliable estimates of
the Roman pondo is based upon the contents of a metallic ves-
sel known to have once held a certain measured weight of
water, but the calculation is made uncertain by the fact that
the vessel has become enlarged upon the inside by oxydation.

The Roman measure of quantity, the Amphora, was made
to hold eighty pounds of wine or oil. The Congiarium held
a Conyius, or ten pounds of fluid, spoken of as water, but
which may have been either wine or oil. The metallic vesr
sel, upon which calculations have been based, is the Congia-
rium of Vespasian, A. D. 75. Being one-eighth of the capa-
city of the Amphora, this Congiarium shows the Congius to
be about six pints liquid measure. This vessel was measured
by AiLzout in 1630, and as the result of his calculations, he
concludes the Roman pound must have been 5146.32 grains.
It was also mensured by Dr. Ilase, in 1721, and he states as a
result, that the Roman pound was 5203.79. The variation
may be due in some measure to the continued enlargement of
the interior of the vessel by corrosion during over eighty years.

The second method of estimating the Roman pound, has been

70 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

an examination of the numerous ancient weights which have
been preserved in the various museums. These weights, with
their parts and multiples, upon inspection and comparison, are
found to vary exceedingly as much as two ounces or more
in the pound. This is what might have been expected, from
the well known carelessness of the Romans regarding con-
formity to their standards of weight; measure and money.
Hence, the estimate of the exact value of the pound derived
trom these irregular weights, is nearly valuelesSi
. The third method by which an attempt has been made to
-accurately determine the value of the Roman pound, is by es-
timates based upon calculations from existing Roman coins.
.In this, the authorities are Hussey, who fixes upon 5040
grains to the pound, and Wurm and Bcckh, who allow 5053,
or more, grains to the pound. The Romans began to make
light coins at an early date, hence the result of 5040 grains is
supposed too small, being made from the actual weight of the
ancient pieces, and 5204, or 5053.635, or 5053.28 grains, is
considered by experts and antiquarians, the nearest approach
to a statement of the actual weight of the Roman pound.

The old English pound was derived from the weight of 7680
grains of sound wheat, from the middle of the ear, and well
dried. The pound sterling, was originally a pound weight of
silver, divided into 240 pence. In 1532, the French avoirdu-
pois pound was introduced by king Henry VIII. In 1588, a
pound weight was made by order of queen Elizabeth and de-
posited in the Treasury for safe keeping. Upon examination
m 1758, this pound was found to be 1| grains too light, and
was discarded, the pound Troy, of 5760, being substituted, as
the standard, in its place, and is now used by the British mint.
The pound Troy was one-sixteenth heavier than the old Eng-
lish pound. In 1834, this pound weight was burned, but the
English standard in commerce is still the avoirdupois pound
of 7000 grains. The relation of the avoirdupois pound to the
pound Troy is nearly as that of 17 to 14. The ounce avoirdu-
pois contains 437| grains, and Dr. Arbuthnot estimates the

ANCIENT COINAGES. 71

Roman Uncia, or twelfth of the Pondus, to have been of the
same weight ; this would make the Roman pound 5250 grains,
which is more than is generally conceded.

The estimate from the Congius, or some six pints of liquid
weighing ten Roman pounds, contained in the Congiarium, is
made uncertain, because we do not know .the exact size of the
vessel before it was corroded, and are ignorant of the specific
gravity of whatever liquid, "wine" or "oil" or "water," itori-
ginally was intended to measure; neither are we informed as
to the temperature of the liquid when weighed and measured,
or of the altitude and barometrical pressure at the place where,
such weighing was accomplished. All of these are elements
of variation of the most important character, yet by a general
comparison of evidence we may, perhaps, come very near the
truth. On the whole, the Congius may be supposed to have
been of say 5,200 grains within 50 grains of the estimate of
Dr. Arbuthnot, which enables us to state the weight of the
Roman pound as from 11^ to llf ounces, or somewhat roughly,
as | of the pound avoirdupois of 7000 grains, that now used for
commercial purposes in weighing coarse goods, in England,
the United' States and elsewhere.

The Roman name for copper was Aes ; the rude ingots, of
brick-like form, first coined for money, were called As, or As-
sarius, Asse, Aeries, Aenei, or Acrii in the plural. After the
reduction of the standard of Roman coinage, the full pound of
copper was designated as Aes grave, or as As hlrales. Subse-
quently, the term Aes (/rave, was used to signify a full pound
of copper, coin or otherwise. Copper being an obdurate and
intractable metal, either to cast or forge, the ancients very
early sought to modify its character by admixture of other
and more tractable materials. The result of these experiments
was the production of a composition which was called aes by
the Romans, as copper had been named before. This aes has
been described as "brass," but was really a bronze. No ancient
coin contains zinc, which is one of the principal components
of brass, nor is zinc to be found in any ancient work of art,

72 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

except in such email percentage as makes it entirely probable
that its presence is due to accident, or the existence of the ma-
terial in native ores.

Tradition refers the discovery of copper to the island of
Euboea, and the town of Chalcis was said to have been named
from a mine of copper. In the beginning of history, copper
is said to have been imported exclusively from the island of
Cyprus, and is supposed to have derived its name from the
source of the world's supply. The original invention and the
working of bronze (aes), was ascribed by the ancients to the
Idaen Dactyli, who were mythological personages, said to have
inhabited Mount Ida in Phrygia, or another mountain of the
same name in Crete. In the first place, there were three of
the Dactyli, viz: Celmis the smelter, Dammemeueus the ham-
mer, and Acmon the anvil. The name Dactyli signifies fin-
gers, and subsequently their number is said to have been in-
creased to ten, five males and five females, and after this there
were fifty-two males and one hundred females. The Dactyli
were also the original discoverers and workers of iron the
primitive miners, metallurgists and smiths. The fable may
be understood to teach, for those who could understand, that
after the invention of the furnace, the hammer, and the anvil,
the human fingers were inspired to execute the work of the
founder and smith.

The Phoenicians were the first men known to have executed
works in bronze; from them the art was doubtless imparted
to the Greekf, and by the Greeks made known to the Romans.
The date of the first bronze work of the Phoenicians, is uncer-
tain and really prehistoric, as was that of the development of
the same art among the Greeks. The process for smelting
ores was, however, certainly well known in Greece at the time
of the poet Homer. The original composition of the aes was
very carefully studied, the proportions being found much the
same in all the various really ancient specimens examined,
whether they were from Greece, Rome, or elsewhere. The
composition of the aes was originally as follows: in 100 parts

ANCIENT COINAGES. 73

87.46 parts of copper and 12.54 parts of tin ; or, by a separate
assay, 88 parts of copper and 12 parts of tin. After this com-
bination of metals had been extensively used for some time, a
change was made in the composition, new forms being intro-
duced for special purposes. All of these bronzes were called
aes, though an affix was sometimes made to the word, ex-
pressive of supposed qualities or places of manufacture. Thus
the Aes Corinthiacum was said to be made of silver, tin and
copper, in various proportions, or with the metals combined
in equal parts. This composition has been written of as
"Corinthian brass," but it was probably nothing but an im-
proved and more refined aes or bronze. Another celebrated
fine bronze was called Orichalcum, or Aurichalcum, and some
of the more valuable coins were struck of the same.

The improvements made in the manufacture of bronze, were
in consequence of great progress in the arts in which it was
used. An immense amount of bronze was cast into statuary
and ornamental work. The wealth and importance of famous
cities was estimated by the number of such works it con-
tained. Athens once had over three thousand bronze statues
standing wilhin its walls at once. Bronze was considered a
sacred metal, and supposed to have the power of driving away
evil spirits. It was upon bronze coins only, that the Romans
inscribed the legend moneta sacra meaning sacred money.
An assay of various samples of ancient bronze coins gives the
following results:

Coin of Alexander the Great, 335 B. C., Copper, 86.72 ; Tin,
13.14. Coin of Ptolemy IX, 70 B.C., Copper, 84.25; Tin,
15.64; Iron a trace. Old Attic Coin, Copper, 86.46; Tin,
10.0 i; Lead, 1.05. Roman Coin, 500 B.C., Copper, 62.04;
Tin, 7.66 ; Lead, 29.32.

The Assarium, or As, was, strictly speaking, a denomina-
tion of weight, signifying about three quarters of a pound
avoirdupois, nominally divided into twelve parts. The term

74 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

for coined money was original!}' Assarius Nummus. Various
words used in connection with money were derived from as,
or aes, thus aes aUntum was the phrase for debt, and aera
meant the pay of soldiers, etc., etc. The standard of the Ro-
man weights and measure?, and hence of coinage, was the con-
tents of a vase called the amj)horia quadranlal or cubic am-
phora. The word amphoria was the common name of certain
vases, or urns, having handles on each side of the neck, the
bottom of the vase forming a sharp point, which was intended
to be stuck into the ground to keep the vessel upright when
in use. The name amphora was also applied to various ves-
sels of earthenware and metal, or in some cases of basket-work
of wood. The amphora quadranlal, was properly the contents
of the square vase, the Amphora Gapitolina, which was kept
for safety in the temple of Jupiter at Rome. This standard
vase held five gallons and six pints of wine, English measure.
The As was divided as follows :

As, 12 ounces.

Deunx, 11 "

Dextans, 10 "

Dodrans, 9 "

Bes, 8 "

Septunx, 7 "

Semis, Semissis, Semi- As, 6 "

Quincunx, 5 "

Triens, one-third As, 4 "

Quadrans or Teruncius, 3 "

Sextans, one-sixth As, 2 "

Sescunx or Sescuncia, 1| "

Uncia, 1 ounce.

As has already been noted, the Roman uncia was very
nearly the same as the ounce avoirdupois.

Besides the above divisions and subdivisions of the As,

ANCIENT COINAGES. 75

there were multiples of the same, of which the names were,

the

Dussis, or Dupondius, Two Ases.

Tressis, Three Ases.

Quadrussis, Four Ases.

Decussis, Ten Ases.

Centussis, One hundred Ases,

and others after the same manner of derivation.

Of the denominations of the as named in the two preceding
tables, there have been coined, the Uncia, Sescunx, Sextans,
Quadrans, Triens, Quincunx, Semis, Dodrans, As, Dussis, Du-
pondius, Tressis, Quadrussis, Decussis, Centussis, etc., all in
aes, as will be related. For coined money the Romans used
the term As Nummus, or As Numus. The As Nummus
libralis, or ingot of good copper, of full weight, was soon made
lighter, and as seen from the result of an assay of an old Ro-
man coin, as already given, was presently grossly alloyed and
debased. About the time the weight of the as had become
reduced to that of nine ounces, the form of the coin was
changed from that of an ingot or brick, to a round disk.
Neither the original as', or the round coins which succeeded
the same, were stamped, but w r ere cast in moulds called Forma.
These forma were made of a kind of stone capable of resisting
the effects of heat. They were in two parts, one for the ob-
verse and one for the reverse of the coin. The forma was
constructed to cast some seven of the circular coins at once, in
moulds connected by channels, so that when the work was
done, all the pieces came out together. In the British Museum
there are four ases joined together as they were taken from the
forma.

The historian Pliny (II. N. XXXIII, 3. s. 13), states that in
the time of the first Punic war, (B.C. 264-241) to meet the
expenses of the government, the full measure of the pound
was diminished, and ases were struck of the same weight as
the sextans of the former coinage, which is to say, two ounces,

76 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

or one-sixth of the first weight of the as. There were other
reductions in the weight of the as, and whether the change
was made under pressure of military or financial necessity, or
because of the increase in the value of copper or aes, the coins
continually became lighter and lighter, until the as weighed
no more than an unica of the original standard. There are
ases in existence of almost any weight, from the as libralis
of twelve full ounces, down to but a single ounce. Moreover,
there are copper coins of the Tarentian family, which show
that the as was finally reduced to one forty eighth and even
one-sixtieth of the ancient weight. Though the weight of the
as was thus reduced, it remained the monetary unit of account,
was made to retain its nominal division by ounces or twelfths,
until it actually weighed no more than a quarter of an ounce,
or about 108.5 grains.

THE ROMAX As.

The first circular copper coin cast in Rome is illustrated in
this cut, which is but half the diameter of the piece, it repre-
sents. The two-faced type upon the obverse, was called Janus
lifrons by the Romans, that god being famous for taking a
double view of circumstances. The figures upon the reverse
are intended for the prow of a galley, and above that the nu-
meral one. The rudeness of the reverse, in comparison with
the two-faced Janus, is striking, and suggests a stage of the
art of coin making when the reverse of the piece was consid-
ered of minor importance. The devices here presented are
the prominent types in the coinage of the as, though others

ANCIENT COINAGES. 77

were made use of at different times. The size of the first cir-
cular ases, was 40, according to the American standard of
measurement of coins, that is, forty-sixteenths of an inch, or
two inches and a half in diameter, and it was thick enough to
make its weight 4000 grains, or 9 unica and 62^ grains.

The coins in representation of the multiples of the as, such
as the dussis, dupondius, tressis, quadrussis secussis centussis,
etc., were coined after the values of the as had been greatly re-
duced. Some of these coins are not extant and others are
very rare. The dodrans was coined only in one series by the
Cassian family, they being authoiized so to do.

In most cases the specimens of the as show upon the edge
where the sprue was cut off, and the pieces severed from each
other after being cast and taken from the forma. Under the
Roman empire, after Julius Caesar, the right to coin copper
was retained by the Aerarium or common Treasury of the
State, and was under the jurisdiction of the Senate and could
be exercised only Senatus consultant, which is to say, under
authority of the Senate. The right of coining silver and gold
was at the same time entrusted to the emperor. While the
old States of Etruria, Central Italy and Rome possessed a cop-
per coinage from very early times, the coinage of the govern-
ments, free cities and other authorities of Southern Italy, and
the coast as far as Campania, made use of silver money. The
northern nations who finally established themselves on the
ruins of the Roman empire, are supposed to have had silver
money from the commencement of their settlements, and not
to have known the use of either gold or copper coins, for a
number of generations. In Rome, one who was very much
in debt, was always said to have a great deal of other people's
copper.

There were three different series of Roman coins, which
were called the Republican, the Family, and the Imperial
Coinages. The Republican coinage began, as has been stated,
at an early period of Roman history, and was continued until
about 80 B. C. The standard metal of this series was aes.

78 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

The Family coinage began about 170 B. C. In the first place,
certain families which held through successive generations
offices connected with the public mints, acquired through leg-
islation in their favor, the right to inscribe their names upon
the coin of the commonwealth, and afterwards had permission
to use symbols of events in their own families, as devices upon
the same. The Family coinage is sometimes called Consular
money, since the Roman Consuls were in course of time con-"
ceded the right of coinage in the same manner. The same
privilege was also extended to many families, both noble and
plebian, and was exercised at numerous places quite outside
the boundaries of Italy, in various parts of the vast Roman
dominions. The Roman Family coins bear many distin-
guished names, and commemorate numerous remarkable
events, thus forming a valuable adjunct to history, which
they verify. About 80 B.C., the family coins had entirely
superseded the national mintage ; the early types of the series
were gradually changed for portraits of ancestors, and with
these the series was merged into the coinage of the empire.
The Family coinage was of gold, silver and copper.

The Imperial coinage of Rome began with Julius Caesar, B.
C. 45, and lasted over five hundred years, or until A. D. 476.
The coins of the empire were of gold, silver and copper, the
latter, as already noted, being coined under control of the
Senate. After the time of Augustus, the copper coins bore
the record of their origin, in the letters "S. C." or Ex S. C. for
EX Senatus consullo inscribed upon them. The obverse of the
imperial coins, bears the portrait of the successive emperors
as its type, or sometimes that of the empress, or some member
of the imperial family. The reverse commemorates social or
military events of importance during the emperor's reign, oc-
casionally representing the same in an allegorical manner.
The obverse also bears the name of the emperor, and his title,
which is in some cases continued over and concluded on the
reverse. Near the close of the third century of the Christian
era, the exergue of the reverse of the coins of that period, was

ANCIENT COINAGES. 79

occupied by the name of the town where the coin was
minted.

The coinage executed under the emperor Augustus and that
of Livia, Antouia and Agrippina the Elder, is of much artistic
merit. The workmanship of the sestertii, coined under Nero,
is very beautiful. The conquest of Judea is recorded by va-
rious types and devices upon the coins of Vespasian and of
Titus. The type of the sestertius of Vespasian, is the Colos-
seum of Rome. The coins of Trajan are noted for types of an
architectural character. The journeys of the emperor Ha-
il rian are commemorated by the devices upon his coinage.
The coins and medals struck under Autonine, Marcus Aure-
lius the philosopher, and the two Faustinae, with those of
Commodius, are well executed. There is a remarkable me-
dallion of the period of Commodius, the impress and device
of which is derived from events in the conquest of Britain.
From the time of Commodius, the character of the Roman
coinage as to design rapidly degenerated. Base silver was ex-
tensively used for coinage in the reign of Caracalla, and Gal-
lienus coined money of copper, washed or plated with silver.
The imperial coinage was a superb series, the work in general
of Greek artists.

The colonial and provincial coinages under the empire were
much interior to those of the city of Rome. In the coinage
of the provinces formed out of the territories of the Greek
empire subjected to Rome, which is called the Imperial Greek,
the type of the obverse is the emperor's head, while the re-
verse generally presents a view of the chief temple of the gods
in the city where the coinage was made. The obverse also
bears the name and title of the Roman emperor, but the in-
scription is in Greek characters. The imperial Greek coins
of Alexandria, bear such devices as the heads of Jupiter Am-
mon, Lsis and Canopus, the sphinx, the serpent and the wheat
ear. The Roman colonial coins, most of which were made in
Spain, where silver was abundant, form a distinct class, upon
which may generally be found the abbreviation of "Col." for

80 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

colonia. The Roman colonial coinage was at first distinguished
by the type of a team of oxen ; afterwards, those coins bore
as a device a number of banners, by count of which could be
ascertained the number of the Legion from which the colo-

nists had been drawn for the occupation of the country where
the money was coined and circulated. After the time of Gallien-
us, the imperial Greek and the Roman colonial coinage came
to an end, except at Alexandria. Diocletian introduced a new*
coin called the folds, which was made the most important coin
of the lower empire. The Roman money before the reign of
Augustus, which began 44 B. C., when the denarius was one-
seventh of an ounce or about sixty grains was of the following
denominations :

ROMAN "COPPER" COINS BEFORE AUGUSTUS.

NAME OF COIN. WT IN GRAINS. VALUE.

Cts. Decimals.

Sextans, 70.138883 00 .29535

Quadrans or Teruncius, 105.208325 00 .44303

Triens, 140.277777 00 .59070

Semissis, 210.41665 00 .88606

As, 420.833333 01 .77212

Dupondius, 841.666666 02 .15442

Sestertius, 1683.533332 04 .30385

ROMAN SILVER COINS BEFORE AUGUSTUS.
NAME OF COIN. WT IN GRAINS. VALUE.

Cts. Decimals.

Teruncius, .9375 00 .26930

Sembella, 1.875 00 .53860

Libella, 3.75 01 1.07722

Sestertius, 15. 04 4.30885

Quinarius, 30. 08 8.61776

Denarius, 60. 17 17.23552

ANCIENT COINAGES. 81

ROMAN GOLD COINS BEFORE AUGUSTUS.
NAME OF COIN. WT IN GRAINS. VALUE.

$ Cts. Decimals.

Aureus Nummus, 130.1 4 29 .87416

Valueof the AureusNumrausiuU.S. Cur'cy, 5 14 .02405

Scrupulum, 18.06 86 .177

Sestertium or Mille Nummi (of Account), 43 31 1845

In the preceding calculation of the weight of Roman cop-
per coin, the as is estimated to have been reduced to the weight
of the original uncia, about three-fourths of an ounce avoirdu-
pois. There were originally ten silver denarii to the pound,
but when the as was reduced to the weight just noted, the de-
narii was made sixteen to the pound. The as was afterwards
made no more than half an uncia was at first, but the denarii
were still made sixteen to the pound. Finally, after Augus-
tus, when the sestertius became the unit of account, the as was
made smaller and smaller, even as low as one-fourth or one-
fifth of an ounce.

ROMAN UNCIA.

Though not mentioned in the table of Roman copper coins
of the period before Augustus, the uncia or twelfth of the
pound was one of the early Republican copper coins, and was
probably issued with the other fractional coins of the as soon
after the coinage of copper began in Rome. At first its weight
should have been over 420.833 grains, exactly that given the
as in the table, but its value decreased with the reduction of
the standard, until, if coined at all, it would have been but
F

82 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

some seven or ten grains. The uncia generally bore upon the
obverse, the head of Minerva, the virgin goddess of reason,
art and skill, and a small knob, indicating one uncia, the weight
or value of the piece. The reverse of the uncia bore the same
design shown upon the reverse of the as, with the addition of
one small knob, indicative of the value of the coin, as one-
twelfth of the as. The uncia also sometimes bore heads of
Pallas, Eoma, Diana, and representations of frogs, ears of
barley, etc.

The uncia was a unit applied by the Romans to all kinds of
magnitude. It was subdivided into 2 semi-uncise, 3 duellse,
4 sicilici, 6 sextulae, 24 scrupula and 144 siliqute. The sextu-
la was the smallest denomination of Roman money.

ROMAN SEXTANS.

The Sextans at first weighed about 841.66 grains. The
.specimen from which the above cut was taken weighs 779
gra : ns. As the standard weight of Roman coin was reduced,
some of the minor subdivisions of the as became very small
indeed, and must at last have been too minute for practical
coinage and circulation. Meanwhile, when the weight of the
as fell to four ounces, circular pieces of five, ten, and twelve
ases came into circulation.

The Sextans bears upon the obverse the head of a caduceus,
a staff' borne by ambassadors and heralds in time of war, as
modern combatants display a flag of truce. Beside this sign
of peace, the coin bore on the obverse the figure of a strigil,
an instrument used by the Romans to rub or scrape their
bodies with when at the bath. On the same side there were
also two round knobs, indicating two uncia, as the value of
the sextans, it being one-sixth of the as. The device upon the
reverse of the sextans was the figure of a cockleshell.

ANCIENT COINAGES. 83

The Quadrans or Teruncius was originally of three full
ounces, and bears three knobs, indicating its value as three*
twelfths or one-quarter of the as. The quadrans was first
coined of about 1262 5 grains. The devices upon this coin
were variously, an open hand, a dolphin, a strigil, a star, grains
of wheat, heads of Hercules, Ceres and the like. It is stated
by Pliny that the quadrans, and the next larger coin, the
triens, bore the figure of a ship ; it may have been somewhat
as described upon the reverse of the as and the uncia.

TRIENS.

The Triens bears upon the obverse, a dolphin, a strigil, and
four knobs, indicative of the value of the coin, four-twelfths,
or one third of the as. On the reverse, there appears a thun-
derbolt and four knobs. The original weight of the triens
should have been about 1683.3 grains; the specimen from
which the illustration was taken weighs 1571 grains.

An exceedingly rare Roman copper coin, not in the pre-
ceding table, is the quincunx, a piece of five ounces, bearing
five small knobs, indicative of its value, five-twelfths of the as.
The Semissis, semis, or semi-as, the piece of six uncia, bears
the head of Jupiter, Juno, or Pallas and the figures of strigils ;
The semissis is always marked with the letter S, the initial of
the name of the coin, indicative of its value. The dodrans,
coined only by the Oassian family bore an S, and three balls
to indicate its value as nine uncia or nine-twelfths of the asi.
The dupondius was one of the coins issued after the reduction
of the as, and was two ases in value.

The Sestertius was a coin which properly belonged to the
silver coinage of Rome ; it was originally one-fourth of the

84 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

denarius, or two and a half ases in value. When the as was
reduced so that sixteen of them went to the denarii, instead
of ten (except in the payment of soldiers, taxes, etc.), the ses-
tertius was made of four ases and coined of silver and of orichal-
cum. This orichalcum was a composition finer than the com-
mon aes, and being really a sort of brass, was much esteemed
on account of its golden color and lustre. Orichalcum was
said to have contained gold, silver and copper, and such a
costly bronze may have been made, but the sestertii were
coined of a compound metal containing zinc, a most uncom-
mon part of Koman bronze. The zinc was not obtained as a
separate metal, the Romans being ignorant of the same, but
zinc ore was added to copper, and the two fused and smelted
together.

ROMAN DENARIUS ACTUAL SIZE.

The Denarius being the principal among the silver coins of
Rome, became, after the reduction of the as, the only reliable
standard of money. Estimating the weight of the denarius of
sixty grains, which was the average for sometime before Au-
gustus, we find that the teruncius, being but one-fortieth of the
denarius, was so light as to make it almost incredible that so
small a piece was ever coined. It is known, however, that
the teruncius, otherwise the quadrans, was coined in copper,
as has been described, and it has been mentioned among silver
coins by respectable authorities. It is very improbable the
teruncius was coined in silver after the as was made a six-
teenth of the denarius. The Sembella was one-twentieth of the
denarius.

During the last century B. C., thelibella, one-tenth of the de-
narius, seems, according to Cicero, to have been the smallest
coin in Rome. Any small sum of money was, however, called

ANCIENT COINAGES. 86

libella, and it is argued that the term was used only to indi-
cate the tenth of a sestertius. There are no specimens of the
libella extant.

Tlie name of the sestertius, one-quarter of the denarius, is
an abbreviation or contraction of the phrase semis tertius^ sig-
nifying two and a half. The symbol of the sestertius was H.
S. or I. I. S., indicating two pounds and a half i. e., two ases
and a half.

The quinarius, one-half of the denarius, was called victoria-
tus as well, on account of a figure of victory which was in-
scribed upon it as a device. These coins were first imported
from Illvria, but the coinage of them began in Rome about
B.C. 177.

The denarius, which, as it name implies, was at first equal
in value to ten ases, was coined as the beginning of the Ro-
man silver coinage, five years before the first Punic war, or
B. C. 269. Originally a Roman pound of silver was coined
into 8-i denarii, but subsequently, the change being supposed
to have been made in the reign of Nero, A.D. 54 to 68, no
less than 96 denarii were made out of that quantity of silver.
The denarius was the type of the Roman silver coinage, and
originally about 966J fine. Silver, which was at first the
universal currency of Greece, had been imported into Rome
in drachma?, and circulated there, long before the Romans un-
dertook to coin it. The Greeks, from first to last, coined but
little copper, the country and its islands having rich silver
mines. There were silver mines in Greece, in Siphnos, Thes-
saly, Attica and elsewhere ; besides the exceeding rich mines
of Laurion, belonging to Athen?, which were worked as late
as A.D. 200- Rome coined a great quantity of copper, but
as their conquests extended, the Romans imported silver from
the colonies. Mosl^of the silver used in Rome was taken from
the old mines in Spain, which, before the Romans, were
worked by the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, and though sub-
sequently abandoned for the rich placers of Mexico and Peru,
are not yet exhausted.

S6 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

The denarius was coined upon the standard of the Greek
drachma.

ATHENIAN DRACHMA ACTUAL SIZE.

The type of the Athenian drachma was, in the earliest
times, an owl, symbol of Minerva, known also as Athene.
Afterwards the head of Athene, was placed upon the obverse
and the owl upon the reverse of the piece. The .Romans, who
laid violent hands upon the institutions and property of their
neighbors, also adopted their gods. Roma, Athene and Min-
erva were the same divinity. By comparison of the two pre-
ceding illustrations, it will be seen the only special difference
in the type of the obverse, is in the wings which appear in
the Roman coin upon the head of Roma. The denarius and
the drachma were moreover supposed to be of an equal value,
but aside from the fact that the Athenians were more careful
than the Romans to preserve the purity of their coinage,
ancient specimens of the drachma and denarius show the
drachma to be one- ninth most valuable ; the subsequent falling
off of the drachma made these Roman and Greek coins so
nearly equal, that they were probably interchangeable and
current together.

The early types of the denarii, generally bear upon the ob-
verse the head of Roma, wearing a helmet; otherwise, the
Dioscuri, or a head of Jupiter. On the reverse appear chari-
ots drawn by two or by four horses. Chariots with two
horses were liyae and the coin bearing t such device liyati.
Four horses were quadriyae and the coin bearing that device
quadriyati. Some of the denarii had their edges notched like
a saw, to show the quality of the coin, or as a guard against
mutilation. Such coins were called serrati. Many denarii, as

ANCIENT COINAGES. 87

in the preceding cut, bear upon the obverse a cross or letter
X, indicating their nominal value of ten ases.

ROMAN GOLD COIN BEFORE AUGUSTUS.

The standard Roman gold coin before Augustus, was called
aureus nummus, or denarius aureus, being named from the
Latin words aurum, which signifies gold, and nummus, which
means money ; or from denarius, ten ases, and aureus, gold.

The aureus nummus, according to Pliny, was coined 40 to
the pound, until under Nero they were made 45 to the pound.
At 40 to the pound, the aureus nummus should be as much
as 130,1 grains, while those made 45 to the pound should
weigh 115.64 grains. The heaviest aureus nummus known
is one coined under Pompey, which weighs 128.2 grains.
The aureus was reckoned double the weight of the denarius,
and may have averaged a little heavier. As the denarius is
stated to have been of 60 grains, this would make the aureus
to consist of 120 grains. The aurei in the British Museum
are specimens of the earlier and heavier coinages ; they average
121.26 grains. It is argued that as the later aurei were made
lighter than the older mintages, the assumed 120 grains aver-
age weight is probably a very close calculation.

Almost the only method of purifying gold known to the
ancients was the grinding of the ore, or of the metal, and then
carefully roasting the dust. While this process could not be
relied upon for chemical perfection, it gave a very good pro-
duct. The art of mixing metals was not thoroughly under-
stood by the Romans, and their purpose seems to have been
to make gold coin of perfect purity. From the nature of the
ores however, and from the character of the process, as de-
scribed, a certain percentage of silver was contained in all the
aurum coined into Roman gold coin. The average fineness
of the Roman gold coin before Augustus is 966.66, or one
part in 300 of alloy, that is 299 parts pure gold, and one part,
native silver.

The aureus nummus was reckoned equal in value to 25 de-

88 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

narii of silver, or about $4,31, according to the ratio of ten or
twelve of gold, to one of silver, which was common in Rome
before Augustus. According to the modern ratio, of about
fifteen of gold, to one of silver, the value of the aurcus num-
mus would be nearly $5,13.75. Dr. Arbuthnot reckons the
value of the aureus nummus, according to the proportion of
gold to silver mentioned by Pliny, and finds it to be $5,89.6.
According to the proportion which now obtains among us, he
makes the value of the aurcus $5,03. According to the decu-
ple proportion of one to ten, mentioned by Livy and Julius
Pollux, he finds the value of the aureus nummus would be
$3,13.2. According to the proportion mentioned by Tacitus,
making the aureus nummus exchangeable for 25 denarii, he
calculates the aureus worth $3,91.5. As has already been
stated regarding the calculations of the value of ancient coins,
the changes in the respective values of metals, and the fluctua-
tions in the standards of coinage, make the problem difficult
and results uncertain. Still the figures given may be relied
upon as tolerably accurate approximations to the facts.

Pliny states that the coinage of silver began in Home 269
B. C , and the coinage of gold into the aureus nummus com-
menced 62 years later, or 207 B.C. Other authorities place
the date of the earliest Roman coinage of silver at about 281
B. C., and state that the first gold coinage issued from the
mint of Rome was made about 90 B. C., and consisted of the
scrupulum, equivalent to 20 sestertii, and of double and treble
scrupula, respectively equivalent to 40 or 60 sestertii. With-
out entering upon the criticism requisite to warrant a decided
expression upon the subject of these several dates for the same
event, it may be stated that the scrupulum, or more properly
the scripulum or scriplum, was the smallest denomination of
weight among the Romans, representing the twenty-fourth
part of the uncia, or the 288th part of the as, poudus, or libra.
It was about 17.5 or 18 grains avoirdupois.

In the same way that the word as, was used to signify a
uuit of any kind divisible into twelve parts, so the word

ANCIENT COINAGES. 89

scrupulum, was made to denote the 288th part of any whole.
From scrupulum \vc derive the term scruple, the third part of
a dram. Though the scrupulum was the smallest actual Ro-
man weight, there were such divisions of the same mentioned
as the obolus or half scruple, the scmi-obolus or quarter
scruple, and the siliqua or one-sixth of a scruple, originally
like the old Kngli; h pound, the average weight of a certain
number and kind of seeds.

The British Museum contains Roman gold coins of one
scrupulum, weighing 17.2 grains; two scrupula, 34.5 grains;
three pcrupula, 51.3; and four scrupula, 68.9 grains. The
value of these pieces, according to the Roman standa;d and ra-
tio of metals, was : one scrupulum, of 20 sestertii from $0.78.
20 to $0,80.6177; t\vo scrupula, of 40 sestertii from $1,56.
40 to $1,73.235-1 ; three scrupula, of 60 sestertii from $2,34.
60 to $2,59.8531 ; four scrupula, of 80 sestertii from $3,12.
4 to $3,46.4703. These pieces are marked respectively XX,
for 20 sestertii, XXXX, for 40 sestertii, as in the engraving
here presented, for 60 sestertii ; and the largest piece, as in
the engraving, but with an additional X, for 80 sestertii.

TRIPLE SCRUPULUM.

The Scrupulum and the double, treble, and quadruple
scrupula, were of the same design, except the inscription de-
noting their value. They all bear the head of Mars upon the
obverse, and on the reverse an eagle standing defiant, wield-
ing a thunderbolt in midhcavcn. On the illustration given, a
star may be seen abreast of the eagle. .The meaning of the
allegory expressed by the type and device of this coin is ob-
vious: "Mars, the god of war, protects the commonwealth of
Rome, whose eagle wields the thunderbolt of power, supreme
amid the stars of fate and destiny !"

90 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

ROMAN MONEY OF ACCOUNT BEFORE AUGUSTUS.

The nature of a money of account has been described in this
volume in the Chapter on the THE ORIGIN OF MONEY.
Money of account is a denominational unit of value not ne-
cessarily represented by a coin or any correspondence of
money. The Roman unit of value before Augustus was the
as, originally a pound of copper, subsequently of acs or bronze.
The grand or principal money of account in the Roman com-
monwealth or republic was the sestertium, which signified
money to the value of a small fraction over $43,10. The ses-
tertium was derived from the sestertius, of which it was the
multiple, 1000 sestertii being accounted a sestertium, and con-
sidered by some authorities to have originally represented 2%
pounds of silver (sestertum pondus anjenti).

The sestertium was never more than a mere money of ac-
count, having no coin to represent its denomination. After
Augustus, the sestertius was the denomination of Roman
money almost always used in reckoning any considerable sum.
The denarius was the coin in which large payments were
made. The term sestertius was used not only to express 2^
as, 2| pounds of silver or the thousandth part of a sestertium
of money whatever the value of silver, but was also applied
to any measurement always meaning two and a half of any
given unit.

ROMAN" COINS AFTER AUGUSTUS.

During the reign of Augustus, from B.C. 44 to A.D. 14,
the as, which, since prehistoric times, had been the monetary
unit of Rome, was diminished to an half ounce and less in
weight, and becoming of quite uncertain value, was virtually
superseded in circulation by the copper sestertius, the piece
called by numismatists the first bronze. The first bronze was
about the size of an English penny, and the as still remained
a constant unit of value, and all minor accounts were kept in
ases, as larger amounts were reckoned in sestertii or the ses-
tertium. The sestertius, as has been stated, derived its ratio

ANCIENT COINAGES.

from the silver denarius, being at first of 2 and afterwards 4
ases' value. The dupondius, half of the sestertius, is called by
numismatists the second bronze. The half of the dupondius
was called the assarium, an old name of the as. The assarium
is known to numismatists as the third bronze.

AUREUS OF AUGUSTUS.

After the reign of Augustus, when ^he denarius had been
reduced to one-eighth of an ounce or 52.5 grains, the standard
Roman coins were of the following denominations :

NAME OF- COIN.

METAL. WT IN GRAINS,

VALUE.

Cts. Decimals.

Sextans,

Bronze, 35 or less.

00 .159713540

Quadrans,

" 52.5 "

00 .238046875

Triens,

" 70

00 .319427083

Semissis,

103

00 .479140625

Assarium (As),

" 210

00 .95828125

Dupondius,

u 420 "

01 .9165625

Sestertius, Orichalcum. 840

03 .833125

Sestertius,

Silver, 13.125 "

03 .833125

Quinarius,

" 26.25 "

07 .66625

Denarius,

" 52.5 "

15 .3325

Aureus Nummus,

Gold, 120.0 " $4

,13 .36525

u u

Present ratio of metals, 5

,14 .024062495

Sestertium. or Mille

Nummi (of Account), 38

,01 .99312499

In the table of Roman Coins After Augustus, the assarium
as the unit of the copper coinage, is estimated at one-half an
uncia, or one twenty-fourth of the as, or pondusof 5040 grains
Troy. Of the copper sestertius, there is in existence a mag-
nificent series, from Augustus B. C. 44 to Gallieuus, A. D. 268.

92 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

After Gallienus, the first bronze, or the sestertius, disappeared
from the coinage of Rome. The second bronze, or the du-
pondius, was not issued after the reign of Diocletian, A. D.
284-305, and about this time the third bronze, or the assari-
um, was reduced to one-twentieth of an uncia, or about 21
grains Troy. From the time of Commodius, A. D. 180-192,
there was a rapid falling off in the general character of the
Roman coinage, and in the reign of Caracalla, from A. D. 211
to 217, base silver was extensively used in the Roman mints.
Gallienus, during his wretched rule, coined copper coins and
washed or plated them with silver, aficr the manner of other
counterfeiters of the present day. The colonial coinage be-
came even worse than that of Rome, though there was great
variety. With the establishment of Christianity as the Ro-
man religion, A. D. 312, a few Christian types were placed
upon the coin. The assarium, or third bronze of Constantiue,
bears the labarum, the military standard of Constantme,
adopted by him in remembrance of the vision of the cross in
the sky, which he pretended to have seen Octobei 12, A. D.
312, during his march against Maxentius. The labarum rep-
resented the cross and the "monogram of Christ," I. U.S. ;
also, in later times, the Greek letters Alpha and Omega. In
the time of Constantino, large medallions called conlorniali
were minted. They were encircled by a deep groove, and
seem to have been intended as prizes to be awarded the victors
in the public games. Upon the accession of Julian the Apos-
tate to the imperial throne of Rome, A. T. 361-303, the
ancient pagan types were reproduced in the coinage; after his
time, the assarium, or third bronze, disappears, and the ancient
coinage of Rome is at an end.

There were many counterfeit ancient coins, both Greek and
Roman. The Greek counterfeiters were very skillful, and
many specimens of their work exist in first-class condition.
The Roman counterfeit money was mostly cast. In modern
times, the counterfeiting of ancient coins, has been a regular
art, some of the genuine specimens of the old series being of

ANCIENT COINAGES. 93

great value. At this business have been employed such ex-
perts as Giovanni Cavino and Alessandro Bassiano of Padua,
Beiiventito Cellini, Devricux and Weber of Florence; Carte-
ron of Holland ; Congornicr of Lyons ; Laroche of Grenoble ;
Caprare of Smyrnia and others, their productions commanding
high prices, even when known to be imitations. Almost all
kinds of rare coins are counterfeited successfully, and nothing
is more common in this way, than the alteration of the dates
of common pieces, to resemble such as are scarce, and, there-
fore, at a premium.

On the death of Theodosius the Great, A.D. 395, the
great Roman empire was permanently divided. The eastern
part, with its capital at Constantinople, was bequeathed to the
elder son of Arcadius, of the same name, who was the first of
the Byzantine emperors. The territories governed by the
young Arcadius and his successors, was called the Byzantine
empire; the Roman empire of the East; the Eastern empire;
the Greek empire, and the Lower empire. The line between
the Byzantine empire, and the Roman empire of the West,
commenced a short distance above Pcsth, a central city of
Hungary, 135 miles E. S. E. from Vienna, capital of the empire
of Austria, and followed the rivers Danube, Save and Drina,
and was continued on a line from Scutari, running near the
Adriatic sea toward the Greater Syrtis off the coast of Cyrena-
cia in Africa.

Under the empress Pulcheria, the first woman who was
raised to that dignity, the Byzantines, though ably governed,
were compelled to pay Attila, the king of the Huns, a tribute,
which at first was 700 pounds of gold a year, but was after-
wards raised to 2,100 pounds of gold a year, although a prov-
ince south of the Danube was at the same time ceded to him.
It was Marcian, the husband of Pulcheria. who persuaded At-
tila to push his warlike enterprise to the regions of Italy and
the west, rather than desolate the Byzantine countries. The
Byzantine empire attained the summit of its glory, under Jus-

94 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

tinian I, A. D. 527-565. During this long reign, industry
flourished, the culture of silk was introduced into Europe,
civilization advanced, while scholarship and thought were pro-
tected and developed. The code of law drawn up at this time
has ever since been the leading authority among jurists of all
civilized nations.

Afterwards, the Byzantine empire was weakened, and fell
into disorder through theological and religious controversies,
about "the personal will of Christ," and other abstract ques-
tions, out of which grew persecutions and bloodshed by assasi-
nation and otherwise. After a varied and warlike history, the
Byzantine empire ended with the conquests of the Turks, from
A. D. 1453 to 1461, and with its fall, perished a power which,
through the dark ages, had preserved civilization and fostered
art and literature, when all western Europe was trampled un-
der the feet of barbarian hordes.

The money coined by the Byzantine empire, for about a
thousand years, forms the connecting link between ancient
and modern coins. The chief piece among Byzantine coins,
was the gold sulidus, or nomisma, which was long famed for
its great purity, and had an extensive circulation all over Eu-
rope. The general type of Byzantine coins, is the head of the
emperor or empress on the obverse, which, after the tenth cen-
tury, is supported by some supposed protecting saint. The
reverse, at early dates, bore the representation of victory, and
a cross ; afterwards, entirely Christian designs were presented,
among them Christ, or the virgin Mary, the last being some-
times represented as upholding the walls of Constantinople.
The inscriptions upon the first Byzantine coins were made in
Latin ; those of a later date were in either Greek or Latin :
afterwards, the Greek language alone was used upon -th is coin-
age. The term solidus is a Latin word, meaning solid. The
Eoman emperor Alexander Severus, A. D. 222-235, coined
pieces of one-half the gold aureus, which were called semissis;
also pieces of one-third the aureus, which were called tremissis.
From this time the aureus was called the solidus. Constantino

ANCIENT COINAGES. 95

the Great, up to A. D. 332, coined aurei of 72 to the
pound, or 70 grains each, at which standard the solidus was
nominally coined until the partition of the empire and the
establishment of the Byzantine government in the east of
Europe.

COIN OF CONSTANTINE.

Originally worth about five dollars, the aureus, whether
coined by that name, or as the solidus, like all other ancient
coins, was of variable weight, fineness and value, even when
the attempt was made to coin it of a certain standard. More-
over, the standard was changed from time to time, the weight
was diminished, the aurum or gold was more and more alloyed
with cuprum or copper, and thus by double means the value
of the coin was decreased. The soldi formerly in use in Italy,
were lineal historic representatives of the once famous and
noble Bzyantine solidus, and finally the same coin appears in
modern times, in the degenerate form of the French copper
coin the sol or sow, worth less than a cent of the currency of
the United States. During the period called the Middle Ages,
from the fall of the Roman western empire, AD. 476, to the
discovery of America, A. D. 1492, the most important coin of
Europe was the silver denier or penny, derived from the Ro-
man denarius. The half of the denier was called the obole,
which was at first coined of silver, but afterwards of billion or
soft white composition, a kind of spelter. This kind of coin
was set in. circulation in the German empire, in France and in
England; it was also coined by the Scandinavian states, and
often in various places by ecclesiastical princes and feudal
lords, who thus assumed the prerogative of sovereigns, with-

96 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

out due authority. The workmanship of much of this de-
based and irregular coinage, indeed that of the states them-
selves, was little if any superior to that which has been illus-
trated on a former page, bearing the tortoise emblem of Aph-
rodite, and struck by the earliest mint-masters of primitive
Greece, centuries before the (Jhristian era.

The regal coin of the early middle ages, has in general as
the type, upon the obverse, the bust of the sovereign, the re-
verse bearing the figure of a Greek cross, and the name or
title of the king, with the place of mintage, or the name or
mark of the master of the mint. The practice of stamping
the arms of the country upon a coin, with the Greek cross, be-
gan in the 12th century, but was superceded for a time after-
wards. During the 13th and 14th centuries, coins were first
issued by free imperial cities, or municipal corporations. The
most notable piece of money of this period, was a thin piece
called a bracteate, struck in relief on one side, while hollow or
incused on the other, after the manner of the coins of Taren-
tum, which have been described on page 57.

The bracteate were a very inferior coinage, some of them
bearing no inscription, many but a letter or two, or an abbre-
viation of a legend, and very few having the same inscribed
in full. The mediaeval coins down to the 14 th century, are
struck with but a slight impress of the die, making the de-
sign very light in relief; the pieces are quite thin and the art
degraded.

It is to be understood, that the present writing makes no
pretense of anything like even a glance, over the whole field
of ancient coinages. Those who desire full information, must
devote much study to many authors in various languages.
The only effort here made, is to give in a popular manner, a
general idea of the most remarkable series of old coins, as re-
presentations of the most common standards of money in bye-
gone ages ; the work intended, is mainly with the commer-
cially circulating coins of the present era of the world, to

ANCIENT COINAGES. 97

which this sketch is part of an introduction. To the merely
curious and critical, an interesting subject of study is presented
in the Hindoo or Indian coinage of a very early origin. The
ancient Hindoo coins are of copper, and square in form, bear-
ing a legend in the Pali language. It is conjectured that they
were struck about 300 B. C., but the date is quite uncertain
the antiquity of India is old indeed !

Though Abraham was one of the first of men mentioned in
history, as making use of money, and the most famous finan-
ciers of the present age are among his descendants, yet there
is no absolute proof, that the Hebrews had a coinage of their
own, until the time of the Maccabees, or, more properly, the
Asmonaeans, when, about the year 139 B. C., Antiochus VII,
Sidetes, the son of Demetrius I, king of Syria, among other
privileges, granted the Jews, then subject to his power, con-
ceded "to Simon the High Priest and prince of his nation,"
the right of coining money. This was in the hundred and
seventy-fourth year of the Seleucidan era.

As extensive concessions had already been made the Jews
by Demetrius, it is more than probable that Simon the As-
monaean aforesaid, had begun a coinage before the formal per-
mission so to do had been given by Antiochus. The reign of
Simon Maccabaeus, was but eight years, from B. C. 143 to B.
C. 135, when he and his two sons, Judas and Mattathias, being
on a journey, with his wife, were treacherously murdered at
the fortress of Doch, in the middle of a feast, by his son-in-law
Ptolemy, governor of Jericho.

The coins, made under the government of Simon, were
struck during three years and the commencement of a fourth.
These coins are dated as of the first, second, third, or fourth
year, but whether the "first year," was the first of Simon's
reign, or the first year, of the coinage, is unknown; they are
of four different years, but whether coined during the first
or the last years, during which Simon led and protected the
Hebrews, is uncertain. Thus the first Hebrew coinage, and the
only one made by them of silver, may be considered to have

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

taken place, either from B. C. 143 to B.C. 139, or, from B. C.
139 to B. C. 135. The denominations were, the shekel, half
shekel, quarter shekel, and the sixth of the shekel.

HEBREW SHEKEL FIRST YEAR.

Obverse: A cup or chalice ("Pot of Manna"), above which
is inscribed a Hebrew letter, signifying one ; meaning either
the first year of Simon's reign, or the first year of the Hebrew
coinage. Legend: Shekel Israel, "Shekel of Israel."

Reverse: A trefoil, triple lily, or hyacinth ("Aaron's rod").
Legend : Jerushalem kedoshah, "Jerusalem the Holy." Silver.

HEBREW HALF SHEKEL FIRST YEAR.

Obverse: A cup or chalice ("Pot of Manna"), above which
is inscribed the Hebrew letter, signifying one. Legend : Chatzi
ha-Shekel, "Half-Shekel."

.Reverse: A triple lily or hyacinth ("Aaron's rod"). Le-
gend: Jerushalem kedoshah, "Jerusalem the Holy. Silver.

HEBREW SHEKEL SECOND YEAR.
Obverse: A cup or chalice, above which two Hebrew letters

ANCIENT COINAGES.

are inscribed, in an abbreviation for Shenath tihethaim ; mean-
ing the "year two." Legend: Shekel Israel, "Shekel of
Israel."

Reverse: A triple lily or hyacinth. Legend- Je~ushalaim
ha-kedoshah, "Jerusalem the Holy." Silver.

HEBREW HALF SHEKEL SECOND YEAR.

Obverse: A cup or chalice, above which is inscribed, in an
abbreviation, Shenath Shethaim] meaning the "year two."
Legend: Chatzi ha-Shekel, Half Shekel."

Reverse: A triple lily or hyacinth. Legend: Jerushalaim
ha-kedoshah, "Jerusalem the Holy." Silver.

HEBREW SHEKEL THIRD YEAR.

Obverse: A cup or chalice, above which is inscribed, in au
abbreviation, Shenath Shelosh; meaning the "year three,*'
Legend: Shekel Israd, "Shekel of Israel.' 1

Reverse: A triple lily or hyacinth. Legend: Jerushalaim
ha-kedosha t "Jerusalem the Holy." Silver.

HEBREW HALF SHEKEL THIRD YEAR.
Obverse : A cup or chalice, above which is inscribed, in al>-

100 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

breviation, Shenath Shelosh ; meaning the "year three." Le-
gend: Chatzi ha-Shekel, "Half Shekel."

Keverse : A triple lily or hyacinth. Legend : Jerushalaim
ha-kedoshah, "Jerusalem the Holy." Silver.

HEBREW SHEKEL FOURTH YEAR.

Obverse : A cup or chalice, above which is inscribed/ an
abbreviation for Shenath arba ; meaning the "year four."
Legend: Shekel Israel, "Shekel of Israel."

Ee verse: A triple lily or hyacinth. Legend: Jerusltalaim
ha-kedoshah, "Jerusalem the Holy." Silver.

There are both silver and copper coins extant, which bear
the types and legends of the Hebrew shekels of the fourth
year, but of these, the copper pieces, are by some considered
counterfeits. It is supposed, as history gives no information
upon the subject, that the Jews, who were at that time, under
very heavy war expenses, may have been compelled to strike!
copper money to meet financial emergencies ; but it is regarded
as quite unlikely, that they should strike both silver and cop-
per shekels during the same year. The silver shekel of the
fourth year is the last coin of that metal struck by the He-
brews until the first and second revolts, A. D. 60 and A. D. 115.

As to the legend "Jerusalem the Holy," upon the coins
already described, it refers to a title given Jerusalem at a very
early time. Demetrius Soter (Demetrius the Savior), king of
Syria, B.C. 162, decreed the city should be "holy and free."
It was common for many Greek cities, in particular those
along the Mediterranean, exempt from taxes, to be described
as holy and inviolable. In the gospel of Mathew, Jerusalem
is called "the holy city," and the Arabs still call it by the
name El-Kuds, "the holy." The Greek cities inscribed the
title of -Holy, upon their coinage, and in the same way "Jeru-

* ANCIENT COINAGES.

101

slialaim ha-lcedoshah" upon the coins of Simon Maccabaeus,
was not a case of pretentious self-righteousness, on the part of
the Hebrews, but an assertion of the guaranteed freedom and
independence of their capital. However, as the Hebrew gov-
ernment was ideally Theocratic, the political affairs of the peo-
ple acquired a certain religious importance and significance.
The types of Hebrew coins are taken, either from the utensils
of the temple, or from the plants, fruits and flowers of their
country, emblems of religious faith or of material prosperity
and happiness. In later times, Eoman and other types were
blended on a coinage not purely Hebraic.

The copper half shekels, quarter shekels and sixths of she-
kels, coined in the fourth year only, are of different types and
varieties from the preceding silver coinage of the same series,
and may be described as follows :

HEBREW HALF SHEKEL FOURTH YEAR.

Obverse : Two boquets of branches and leaves (Lulab] ; be-
tween them a citron (Ethrog\ Legend ; Shenath arba ChatzL
"In the fourth year one- half."

Reverse : A palm tree, on each side of which there stands
a basket full of dates and fruits of other kinds. Legend: Li-
yullath Zion, "The redemption of Zion." Aes or copper.

HEBREW QUARTER SHEKEL FOURTH YEAR.
Obverse: Two boquets of branches and leaves. Legend:

100 DYB*S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

&&a*x& aria Ife&ia; meaning, in indication of the date and
vzlne, "in the fourth year one-quarter.

Reverse: A citron or ctiumg. Legend: LiyuUath Zion.
"The redemption of Son." Aes cr copper.

Obtciac: A cap or chalice. Legend: LiyuUaih Zion.
"Tlie ledemption of Zion."

Beverse: A boquet of branches between two dtrons or eth-
my*. Legend: Skruath oariq. "In the fourth year." Aesor
copper.

Under John Hyreanus, B. C. 135 to B. C. 106; the Hebrews
track a large number of coins, which were aes or copper only.
The obverse bears an inscription, Jehaehaaun Hakkohen Hay-
gadol "weduAcr JJajekmdim, ** Johanan High Priest and the Con-
federation of the Je wsf enclosed bj a wreath of laurel or olive.
Hie rererse displajs two eorn*u-->piae, with a poppy head
between them. The inscription on the obverse varies upon
Ale coins of this series at different issues, but the general pur-
port is the same. The type of the double comna-copue ori-
ginated in Egypt, and was probably adopted by the Hebrews
in imitation of the coinage of Syria, and may have been in-
tended as an emblem of the prosperity of Judea under the rule
of John Hyrcanns.

Judas Aristobolns succeeded John Hyrcaniw, taking the
title of king ; he reigned from B. C. 106 to B. C. 105, only one
year ; his coinage is of the precedent type, except the neces-
sary change of name on the obverse.

An anchor; an eight-rayed star; an urn : covered vessels;
(of the temple?) on stands; tripods; common five-pointed
tars; helmets; the Tow, or crux aatala the Assyrian sign

ANCIENT COINAGES. 103

of fife; Macedonian shields; the winged cadniceus; pome-
granates with leaves; the prow of a galley with a trident;
galleys with oars, and others with oars and sails : bunches of
grapes, and grape leaves, are successive types of the Hebrew
coinage under Alexander Jamueus, B. C. 105 to B. C. 78 ; his
wife Alexandra, B.C. 78 to B. C. 69 ; Hyrcanus II, B.C. 69
to B.C. 65; Aristobolas II and Alexander 11, B. C. 65 to B.
C. 49; Hyrcanus II (the restoration), B.C. 47 to B.C. 40;
Antigonus, B. C. 40 to B.C. 37 ; Herod (the Greaa *, B. C. 37
to B. C. 4, and b v their gradually increasingly Rnman or
foreign character, indicate the encroachments of Roman con-
quest and the growing subserviency of the kings of Judea.

A small copper coin exists supposed to be Hebraic, and to
have teen struck upder A%* ai **^ ftr Jannaeus, or Al^.TaBwI^r U^
which bears upon the obverse a human head, and on the re-
verse an eight-rayed star. No legend is visible. If this coin
is really Hebraic, it is the earliest violation, in the making of
Jewish money, of the Mosaic commandment : ""Thou shall not
make unto thyself any graven image or any likeness of any-
thing, etc," though another instance may be noted hereafter-
Under Alexander Jannaeus, the coins at first bore inscriptions
in modernized Hebrew; afterwards Hebrew and Greek in-
scriptions were struck together, after which Greek inscrip-
tions became general and were used exe". as: rely.

Undar the Herod Philip II, B. C. 4 10 B. C. 34, ;he coinage
for the Hebrews bore the head of Tiberius, the Roman em-
peror, on the obverse, and a view of a tesjastyle temple on the
reverse. The coins bear various inscriptions in Greek, and
the date. The name of the emperor is inscribed upon one
specimen. As has been already staieJ, the placing of the
figure of any human being, or even an animal, upon the He-
brew coin, was a violation of the Mosaic law, which most
have been exceedingly obnoxious to the Jews of ** Jerusalem
the Holy." But the mintage was not always done at Jerusa-
lem, and as in the case of all the better Raman coins, the ar-
tists were Greek, while Herod doubtkss much preferred to

104 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

flatter the head of Rome, and thus secure his own position,
rather than observe any law whatever. In keeping with this,
the tetrastyle temple on the reverse of his coinage, was sup-
posed to be a representation of one built by Herod J, and dedi-
cated to Caesar.

A fringed umbrella ; threefold heads of wheat ; the figure
of Fortune ; quadrigae or four-horse chariots ; victory flying ;
clasped hands ; scenes of sacrifice, and an eagle, are the types
used for the reverse of Hebrew coins, with the heads of the
emperors of Rome upon the obverse, until Agrippa II as-
cended the throne as king of the Jews, to reign under Roman
protection, from A. D. 48 to A. D. 100. Ihis Agrippa, was
the last prince of the Herodian line, the one before whom Paul
had his trial, and to whom he made his great speech in de-
fense of Christianity. Agrippa II placed his own likeness
upon the Hebrew coin, A. D. 58, but was doubtless promptly
forbidden so to do by the Romans, as in A. D. 59, and after-
wards, up to A. E. 95, his coins either bear the emblem of the
town where they were minted, a female head, or the head of
the Roman emperor, with other types and inscriptions charac-
teristic of a Roman colonial coinage.

The copper coins struck in Judea by the Roman Procura-
tors, from A. D. 6 to A. D. 65, were designed, according to the
orders of the Roman Senate, with respect for ;he Hebraic na-
tional law and popular sentiment, and hence bore as types,
only such objects as ears of corn ; palm trees ; bunches of
dates ; an altar ; vases ; urns ; the lituus (a short, crooked staff
used by Boman augurs and astrologers in divining) ; the corn-
ua-copiee and poppy head, and shields.

The Jews revolted against the Romans A. D. 66, but were
again subjugated, and Jerusalem destroyed by the Romans un-
der Titus, A. D. 70. The Eleazars, High Priests, with Simon
son of Gioras and other leaders of faction, as well as the Syn-
hedrium or Supreme Authority at Jerusalem, during the re-
volt coined both silver and copper coins, to which they re-
stored the Lulal (bunch of branches and leaves), and the Elk-

ANCIENT COINAGES. 105

rog (citron), which had been the prominent types of the glo-
rious reign of Simon Maccabaeus. Palm trees ; lyres ; bunches
of grapes ; grape leaves ; urns ; pitchers ; cups ; chalices and
temples were also stamped upon this coinage of the revolt, all
suggestive to the Jews of the ancient glories of their religion,
and calculated to inspire them to most desperate efforts for
the independence of their country. Some of these coins bear
such legends, in Hebrew or Samaritan, as: Elezar HaJckohen,
"Elezar the High Priest"; Shenath Achath Liyullalh Israel,
"First year of the redemption of Israel" ; LacherutJi Jerusalem,
"The deliverence of Jerusalem" ; Schin Beth Lacheruth Israel,
"Second year of the deliverance of Israel," etc., etc., according
to the authority by whose orders they were coined and the
date of their issue.

The Roman coins struck during the reign of Yespasian, to
commemorate the capture of Jerusalem by Titus, were minted
in Judea and in Rome ; those struck in Judea had for an ob-
verse, a laureated head, and on the reverse was a palm tree,
supporting a shield, whereon victory was making an appro-
priate inscription. These pieces were of aes or copper. The
coins of this series struck at Rome, were of gold, silver, aes or
brass. The obverse bore the emperor's head and titles ; the
reverse a Roman trophy, and Judea, represented as a captive
female, sitting on the ground. Underneath the device is in-
scribed IVDAEA, "Judea."

On the reverse of some of these coins, the captive sits at the
foot of a palm tree, her hands bound behind her back. Some
have the captive standing, the hands being tied before her, and
the legend IVDAEA DEVICTA. On some pieces, she sits be-
neath the palm, her hands being free, while a Roman soldier
stands guard over her. On others, a Jew and Jewess are near
the palm, his hands tied behind him as he stands, while she
sits weeping, the legend being, IVDAEA CAPTA, "Judea
Captive."

Similar coins were struck under the Roman emperor Domi-
tan, until A. D. 85 or somewhat later. There are coins com-

106 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

memoratlve of the conquest of Jerusalem, whereon Juclea is
seated at the foot of the palm, the legend being, IVDAEA
NAVAL1S, though the Jews never were a naval power.
Also, one of Titus, his foot on the prow of a vessel, victory
in one hand, a spear ia the other, and Jews suppliant before
him.

In the year A. D. 115, began the second revolt of the Jews,
while Trajan was engaged in a Parthian expedition. The re-
volt was suppressed A. I). 135. During its continuance, Si-
mon Bar-cochab, the leader of the Jews, recoincd silver and
copper money, striking over Grecian and Roman designs, the
types, symbols and legends of the coinage during the first re-
volt and that anciently done under Simon Maccabeus, with
the additional device, in some cases, of trumpets, such as were
used in the armies of Israel.

The imperial colonial coins struck in Judca during the time
of Hadrian, from A. D. 136, and those issued under his suc-
cessors down to A. D. 251, are of Roman types, though a few
under Iladrian refer to the suppression of the second Jewish
revolt.

The series of ancient Jewish coins, closes with the copper
money struck at Jerusalem by the conquering Arabs.

ARABIC COPPER COIN STRUCK AT JERUSALEM.

Obverse: The standing figure of a Caliph, lacing front.
Supposed to be the effigy of Abd-el-mclik, circ. A. I). G95, or
Muawiyeh. Legend: In Cufic characters : "Mahommed apos-
tle of God."

Reverse: The crescent upturned above the letter M. Le-
gend: In Cufic characters: "Palestine" and u ^Elia."

The type of the crescent above the letter M, much resembles

ANCIENT COINAGES. 107

tho device used upon the contemporaneous coins of the By-
zantine empire.

ARABIC COPPER COIN STRUCK AT JERUSALEM.

Obverse: The standing figure of a Caliph, facing front.
Legend: Wanting in part on the specimen, and in the illus-
tration, but was doubtlers the same as on the preceding piece,
as described, viz : "Mahommcd apostle of God."

Reverse : The crescent upturned above the letter M. Le-
gend : "Palestine." Inscribed in Cufic characters on each side
of the device.

ARABIC COPPER COIN STRUCK AT JERUSALEM.

Obverse: Inscription in Cufic characters: "Mahommea
apostle of God."

Reverse: A five-branched candelabrum.

The legend upon the obverse of this and the two coins
already described, should be read : " Mahommed is the apostle of
God"; a most orthodox Moslem statement. The candelabrum
of five or more branches was, however, pa^t of the furniture
of the Ilcbrcw temple: it was inscribed on monuments of the
Roman time, as well as upon these coins, where k may have
been placed as in some manner an allusion to, or recognition
of, the religion and institutions of the children of Abraham,
between whom and the sons of Islam, there was not only,
through Ilagar, an affinity of blood, but, as both were icono-
clasts, Thcists and Unitarians, a correspondence, in degree, of
religious sentiment also. In a corresponding manner the Mo-

108 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

hammedans acknowledged the prophetic character of the Old
Testament, and speak and write of Jesus as a brother of the
divinely inspired founder of their own religion.

ARABIC COPPER COIN STRUCK AT JERUSALEM.

Obverse: Four trees equidistant from each other, across
the field.

Reverse: A seven- branched candelabrum. Legend: Most-
ly obliterated, and quite undecipherable on the only known
specimen.

The coinage of Judea, as has been noted on preceding pages,
was mostly of copper; the current silver was principally de-
rived from the cities of Phoenicia and Syria. The Grecian
drachma was in use at Jerusalem, and is mentioned in the
original Greek New Testament, Luke xv, 8: "Either what
woman having ten (drachmae), pieces of silver, if she lose one
piece, doth not light a candle and sweep the house, and seek
diligently till she find it." Every male among the Hebrews
paid, according to the ancient law, Exodus xxx, 13-15, a half-
shekel of silver yearly to the Lord as a ransom for his eoul.
This offering to the Temple was quite distinct from the tribute
exacted for the Roman emperor, which was a denarius or one
Attic drachma. The half shekel of silver, ransom for the
soul, had, by the first years of the Christian era, been con-
verted into the payment of two Attic drachmae ; four of which,
according to Josephus, made the equivalent of a shekel of
Israel, which was the Jewish stater, or standard of money.
The shekel of Israel, described by Josephus as four Attic
drachmae, as a coin, is estimated lo have weighed on an aver-
age some 220 grains. The Jews, when dispersed throughout
the world, still continued to pay the half shekel, or two
drachmae, for the use of the Temple, or the support of their

ANCfENT COINAGES. 109

religion, and while under the Roman yoke, were ordered by
Vespasian, wherever they might be, to pay the like amount
to the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, which last tax was
sternly exacted under Domitan afterwards, and continued to
be paid as late as Alexander Severus, A.D. 226.

In the account <)f the miracle given, Matt, xvii, 24-27, we read:

"24 ^[ And when they were come to Capernaum, they that
received tribute- money, came to Peter, and said, Doth not
your master pay tribute?

" 25 He saith, Yes. And when he was come into the house,
Jesus prevented him saying, What thinkest thou Simon ? of
whom do the kings of the earth take custom or tribute? of
their own children, or of strangers ?

"26 Peter saith unto him, Of strangers. Jesus saith unto
him, then are the children free.

"27 Notwithstanding, lest we should offend them, go thou to
the sea, and cast a hook, and take up the fish that first cometh
up : and when thou hast opened his mouth, thou shalt find a
piece of money : that take and give unto them for me and thee."

According to the Greek text, the coin referred to was a slater.
Thedidrachma, having fallen into disuse, the silver currency of
Palestine at this time, consisted of Greek Imperial tetradrach-
mse, or staters, of the same weight as the Jewish stater or she-
kel; and the Roman denarius of one-fourth the value. Conse-
quently, the best authorities conclude that, doubtless, the piece
of money said to have been taken by Peter from the fish, was a
tetradrachma of the cities of Syria, such as is here illustrated :

SYRIAN CITY TETRADRACHMA.
The tax to the Temple could, it is true, be paid only in

110 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Jewish money, a half shekel of Israel for every male, but as
there were many kinds of coin brought by the Jews from
foreign countries, there were persons who, as "money
changers," Matt, xxi, 12; Mark xi, 15; John ii, 15, sat in
the porches of the Temple, and for an obolus or so of com-
mission on each piece, sold half shekels of Jsrael for foreign
coin. To those money changers, Peter must, according to
every probability of the narrative, have had recourse, and it
would seem that their business thus far, could have been man-
aged without offense to the august dignity of the place where
it was conducted. One would hardly suppose Jesus would
have availed himself of their services and afterwards have
driven them forth from their places with blows and indignity,
as lie is said to have done. (Mark xi, 15). It may have been
that the money changers abused the privilege granted them
for the accommodation of the pilgrims, and made the porches
of the Temple a place of general exchange, brokerage and bar-
ter, usury and fraud "a den of thieves," trebly infamous on
account of the place they disgraced, and well deserving the
castigation and expulsion described.

The "Mite," two of which the widow is said to have cast into
the treasury, Mark xii, 42 ; John ii, 14, 15, was derived from
the Greek Lepton, one-seventh of the Chalchus, according to
the Attic standard, and originally the smallest Greek copper
coin. The Lepton, supposed to have formed part of the Greek
Imperial coinage, was represented in the Jewish currency
by a series of small copper coins, presumably of Alexander
Jannaeus, though the exact date of their issue is uncertain.
There were other small copper coins of semi-barbarous work-
manship, considered as belonging to a later time, which may
have passed as of the same denomination. The weight of
these lepla, or mites, was from 15 to 20 grains, according to
specimens, 18 grains being the most common amount of cop-
per in a piece. These coins were common in Judea B. G. 69
to B. C. 40, but at the time of the Evangelists are said to have
nearly gone out of circulation.

ANCIENT COINAGES. Ill

The Greek Imperial, or Grseco-Roman coins, and the money
struck at Rome, circulated together in Palestine, In the time
of Augustus and that of Tiberius, emperor of Rome, A. P. 14
to A. D. 37. The lepton and the quadrans are both mentioned
in the Greek version of the New Testament, Mark xii, 42, but
commentators and Critics disagree as to the proper translation
of the text. The term "farthing" is merely a transcription
of the Latin quadrans, and some have it that Mark thus made
the quadrans equal to two lepta. Enthymius Zigabenus, an
ancient commentator, concluded the lepta equaled the quad-
rans, in which theory the numismatist, Cavedoni, concurs;
but Frederic "W. Madden, M. R. G. L. of the British Museum,
said to be the best authority on Hebrew coins, while waiving
the question of translation in favor of Biblical critics, accepts
the conclusion that "two lepta went to the quadrans" and that
"two distinct coins are meant."

After the reign of Augustus, the denarius being one-
eighth of an ounce, or less, the quadrans may be estimated as
worth one-quarter of a cent, United States currency, or making
the calculation according to the ancient ratio of metals, .2376-
220 of a cent. Then, if two lepta went to the quadrans, the
value of the "widow's mite" would have been about the eighth
of a cent, or, .1188110 of the same a very small donation in-
deed, in comparison with the rich offerings of the proud, and,
after all, graceless and, spiritually considered, illiberal Pharisees.

The "penny" mentioned in the New Testament (king James'
version), was the Roman denarius. Under the empire, the
type of the denarius on the obverse, was the head and title of
the reigning Caesar. It is written, Matt, xxii, 19-21, that
when the Pharisees sent a penny unto Jesus to tempt him,
they were met by the question: "Whose is this image and
superscription ?" and they say unto him, Caesar's. Then saith
he unto them, "Render unto Ctesar the things which are Cae-
sars, and unto God the things which are God's." The Caesar
Augustus of the time this is recorded as having taken place,
was Tiberius, and the denarius of Tiberius here illustrated, is

112 EYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

supposed by Biblical critics to have been the coin and type ac-
tually presented to Jesus.

Bo MAN DENARIUS OF TIBERIUS.

The denarius was the poll tax demanded of each man of the
Jews, aside from the two Attic drachmae they were compelled
to pay to the Temple of Jupiter at Rome, just as they volun-
tarily paid the half shekel, of the same value, to their own
Temple at Jerusalem. The object of the Pharisees is repre-
sented to have been to induce Jesus to commit himself, in op-
position to the payment of taxes to the Komans, for thus they
could have secured his death for inciting to insurrection. The
answer said to have been given, could have given them no
ground for such a complaint against him, yet it is recorded
that before Pilate, Luke xxiii, 2, "forbidding to give tribute
to Caesar," was one of the grave offenses charged against Jesus.

The Romans introduced their money into Britain when
they made the conquest of that country, a work which com-
menced under Caesar Augustus, B. C. 55, was not completed
even in England and "Wales, until more than a century after,
or at about A. D. 33. Constantino, emperor ol Rome from
B.C. 306, or B. C. 308 to B. C. 337, is supposed to have had
a mint in London. The Romans, who had never been able to
subjugate and hold that part of Britain north of a line from
the frith of Clyde to. the frith of Forth, abandoned the country
before the middle of the fifth century of the Christian era,
when the Britons became independent and made a bold stand,
through the help of the Saxons, against the invasions of the
Scots, the country meantime reverting to heathenism for a
period.

The Roman currency continued to circulate for a time after

ANCIENT COINAGES. 113

the country had been abandoned to the Britons. The first
independent English coinage, was not derived from Koman
types ; it consisted of two small coins, the skeatta of silver,
and the styca of copper, both belonging, as is supposed, only
and entirely to the Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. The art
of these Saxon coins, is of the most primitive kind ; the types
are birds, rude profiles and several unintelligible symbols.
They bear no inscriptions or anything of the nature of a
legend.

The earliest coins of the other six kingdoms of the English
heptarchy, were silver pennies, which were at first struck 240
to the pound, or were intended so to be made. Afterwards,
half-pennies were occasionally issued, and as the skeatUe and
stycae in time passed out of circulation, the penny and half-
penny, became the sole currency of England, and so remained
down to the time of the reign of Edward III, A. D. 1*327-1377.
These pennies of the heptarchy, bore the name of the king or
of the mint-master, on the earliest types ; after the introduc-
tion of Christianity, the cross was sometimes used as a type;
in later times, the obverse bore the rudely executed device of
the head of the king or queen. The pennies of the Saxon
and Danish kings of all England, from Egbert I, about A. D.
827, are somewhat similar in character. The earlier coins of
king Alfred, A. D. 871-901, bear as the device of the obverse
a grotesque portrait.

PENNY OF KING ALFRED OF ENGLAND.

Obverse: Grotesque portrait, very rudely executed. Le-
gend : Alfrd Rex, " Alfred king."

Reverse : Monogram of the city of London.
In the later coinage of Alfred, a cross and circle occupies
H

114 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

the place of the head upon the obverse. Edward III, A. D.
1327-1377, issued silver pennies, half-pennies, and farthings,
groats and half-groats, the coinage showing a great advance
upon the work done under his predecessors. The reign of
this king belongs to the middle ages, and some account of his
coin, and that of other potentates of his time, will be given on
succeeding pages, in connection with the description of the
commercially circulating coins of the several countries once
included in their respective dominions.

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES.

BERMUDA OR SUMMER ISLANDS.

It is to the Bermuda islands, we are indebted for the earliest
coinage intended for America. History gives but one notice
of this coinage, that in a history of Virginia, New England
and the "Summer Isles," by Capt. John Smith, of Virginia,
published in London in 1624. Smith considers the islands to
have been named from a Spanish ship, the Bermudas, which
was wrecked upon them. This ship was carrying, as is re-
ported, a quantity of hogs to the Spanish West Indian colonies.
What became of the Spaniards is uncertain, but the "black
hogges" swam ashore, and running wild, became, by breeding,
very numerous. The first Englishman in Bermuda, whose
name is mentioned, was Henry May, wrecked there December
17th, 1592.

In the summer of 1609, Sir Thomas Gates and a company
of one hundred and fifty persons, part of an expedition to Vir-
ginia, were wrecked on the Bumudas, where they subsisted
for nine months on the wrecked stores of their ship, wild
fruits, and the over-abundant flesh of some five hundred black
wild hogs. Two cedar vessels were constructed, and Sir Thom-
as Gates and his company, reached Virginia in May, 1610;
thence, Sir George Summers returned to Burmuda for pro-
visions, where Sir George died, as is reported, from an ex-
cessive eating of fresh pork. In 1612} during the early days

(115)

116 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

of July, Master Bichard More and sixty colonists of the Vir-
ginia Company, landed on the Bermudas, where they settled
on "Smith's Island."

In May, 1616, Captain John Smith appointed Master Daniel
Tucker Governor of Bermuda. This Governor enforced labor,
and tinder him, Smith states, the colonists had "beside meat,
drink and clothes, a certaine kinde of brasse money, with a
hogge on one side, in memory of the abundance of hogges was
found at their first landing." Gov. Tucker ruled about two
years, and in 1624, Smith published an account of the "brasse"
(copper) "money" as something which had been, in the
past.

Though coined in Europe for Virginia, or the Bermudas,
somewhere about 1615, the exact time, place and circumstances
of the production of the "Hogge money" are impossible to
discover. It had, it would seem, a limited circulation, both
as to time and quantity, and the pieces which now represent
the issue, are almost unique.

But two denominations are known the shilling and six-
pence.

BERMUDA SHILLING (" HOGGE-PENNY ").

Obverse: Device A hog, standing, facing left, above which
are displayed the Roman numerals "XII," the whole surround-
ed by a beaded circle. Legend: SOMMER * ISLANDS *
around which is a beaded circle like that enclosing the
device.

Reverse : Device A full-rigged ship under sail to the left,

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 117

a flag flying from each, of her four masts enclosed in a beaded
circle, the beads larger than on the obverse. Copper ; size, 19 ;
weight, 177 grains.

But two of these pieces are known, and in 1875, belonged
respectively to William H. Appleton and Sylvester S. Crosby,
of Boston.

BERMUDA SIXPENCE.. %

The design of this piece is similar to that of the shillings,
but has the numerals "VI" above the hog. Legend: SOM
MER *%* ILA NDS ^

The only known specimen of this sixpence, was dug up in
a garden in Bermuda, twenty-five years ago, and in 1875, was
owned by Benjamin Betts, of Brooklyn, N. Y.

As the first coin struck for American circulation, these
pieces are remarkable and excite peculiar interest.

VIRGINIA COMPANY.

Although in possession, by virtue of royal grant, of the
right of coinage, and much inconvenienced for the want of a
medium of exchange, the Virginia Company, aside from the
Bermuda shillings and sixpences, made no attempt to create
money for nearly forty years. The people of the colony made
their bargains with tobacco as a financial basis, a pound of
that article being regarded as the unit of valuation. By rea-
son of variation in the value of the tobacco, and finally of
overproduction of that article, great fluctuations in property
took place, and much trouble was caused in many directions.
At one time Orders were issued for the destruction of a large

118 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

amount of tobacco, "all of the bad and part of the good," with
a view to enhance the value of the currency.

With these troubles and disorders in view, the Governor,
Council and Burgesses of the Grand Assembly of Virginia, at
a session begun at James City, November 20th, 1645, passed
an act to provide a more convenient medium of exchange.
The first paragraph of this "Act XX," recites the state of af-
fairs inducing the enactment, "to prevent the further miseries,"
fixes the value of foreign coins, declares for a local copper
coinage, and prohibits, under penalty of confiscation of goods,
the "trading for tob'o," the property confiscated to be divided
between the informer and the state.

The paragraph in relation to the coinage reads as follows :
"The quoine to be erected after this manner, lOOOOlb. of
copper to be bought by the publique at the rate of 18d per
Ib. which amounts to .750 sterl. which to be paid in tob'o. at
the rate of Id. 1-2 per Ib. 120000 of tob'o. which being col-
lected per pole accounting 5000 persons in this collony it
comes to 24 Ib. of tob'o per pole evry pound of copper to make
20s. and to allow for the mintage 12d. per pound soe there will
remaine 9.500 sterl. The mintage allowed and deducted.
The stocke to be Equallie divided amongst the adventurers to
be quoined in two pences, three pences, sixe pences and nine
pences. . And if it shall happen at any time hereafter that the
aforesaid quoine be called in and become not currant, Yet the
republique shall make good the quantity of so much (vizt.)
10000 to be levied per pole, And that it may be provided
that this quoine may not be counterfeited and brought in, Be-
sides the inflicting of capitall punishment vpon these who
shall be found delinquents therein, That vppon every pcece of
coyne there be two rings, The one for the motto, The other
to receive a new impression which shall be stampted yearly
with some new ffigure, by one appointed for that purpose in
each county, And that the hon'ble Sir William Berkeley, Knt.
Gov'r, shall have the disposall and placing of such and soe
manie officers as shall be necessarilye required for performing

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 119

and finishing the aforesaid service, Onely Capt. John Upton
is hereby confirmed Mint Master Generall : we reposing much
confidence in his care, ability and trust for the performance of
the said office."

There is nothing to prove tha't the part of the above law
which provides for a coinage, was ever carried into effect.
No specimens of the coin described are mentioned in history ;
none exist in the cabinets of the numismatists, or are known
by them. Virginian legislations for a full generation after
1645, are directed to the relief of just such "miseries" as the
want of a local currency had entailed, the whole being aggra-
vated by the reduction of tobacco to a mere commodity in
law and finally, Thomas Jefferson, writing in 1782, declared
(works, vol. I, p. 136), that, "In Virginia coppers have never
been in use." As to the coins commonly designated " Vir-
ginia Half Pennies," they are of uncertain origin, and though
showing a considerable number of dies, are doubtless an unau-
thorized issue mere tokens, and could never have been in
any extensive circulation in the territory from which their
name has been given them.

COLONIAL SILVER COINAGE OF MASSACHUSETTS.

The want of a proper and sufficient currency, was an evil
which afflicted all the American colonies during the early pe-
riod of their existence. Massachusetts, one of the oldest and
most enterprising of these incipient states, most sharply re-
alized the want of a supply of money, and was the first to
make an effective movement in establishing a local and ori-
ginal currency.

The primitive legislation of Massachusetts in this direction,
was in the form of orders emanating from the General Court
of the Colony, fixing the value* of commodities made current
by custom or by law. In 1627, the Dutch settlers at "Man-
hadoes," now the city of New York, introduced in Massachu-
setts the use of the Indian "Sewan," of Suckauhock, Wam-
pum or Wampumpeage, as a current article, which was

120 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

adopted and subsequently recognized by legislation. But the
first enactment upon the subject of small currency was made
March 4th, 1634-35, as follows, in part: "It is ordered that
hereafter farthings shall not passe for currant pay."

"It is likewise ordered, that muskett bulletts of a full boare
shall passe currantly for a farthing apeece, provided that noe
man be compelled to take above Xlld att a tyme in them."

In a community exposed to war at any moment's notice,
this order may be considered to have been as much a military
precaution, as a financial provision more of an arrangement
for the distribution of ammunition, than a discrimination
against the little "brass" or copper English coin, of itself a
far better currency than heavy balls of lead.

The value of the Sewan, Suckauhock, or "Wampum, was
first fixed by order of the General Court, November 15th,
1637; according to the record, "It was ordered that Wam-
pampege should pass at 6 a penny for any sume vnder 12d:"

In 1639, there was a failure of the crops, and in consequence
the currency of "Corn," as the cereals in general were called,
became very scarce, and hence both it and the Indian currency,
were enhanced in value. Therefore, on October Vth, 1640, it
was ordered " that white Wampampege shall passe at 4 a pen-
ny and blewe at 2 a penny, and not above 12d. at a time ex-
cept the receiver desire more.

On June 2nd, 1641, "It is ordered that Wampampege shall
pass currant at 6 a penny for any sume under 101. for debts
hereafter to be made." On September 27th, 1642, "It was
ordered for the payment of the rate," that farm produce should
be received at certain fixed prices, and "in these at these
prices, or in beaver money, or Wampam pay is to bee made."
On October 17th, 1643, an order was passed, continuing the
legal-tender quality of the "*Wampam,'^ but modifying the
former act as to amount. The record is mutilated at this
point.

In 1648, the crops were plentiful, and the Indian currency
depreciated. On October 27th, 1648, "It is voted for tryall,

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 121

until the next Co'te, that all pasable or payable peage hence-
forth shalbe intire wthout breaches both the white, & black,
wthout deforming spots sutably strung, in eight knoune peels
the penny 3d. 12d 5s in white the 2d 6d 2|s & 10s in black."
May 4th, 1649, it was "Voted that peage shall still Kemayne
passable from man to man according to the lawe in force," yet
on May 16th, 1649, it was "Ordered that it shall not be in the
liberty of any Toune or pson to pay peage to the Country
rate, nor shall the Treasurer accept thereof from time to time."

On October 26th, 1650, it was "Ordered that Wampam
peage ffiffteene dajes after this present sessions of Courte shall
passe Currant in pajment of debts to the vallew of forty shil-
lings the white, at eight a penny ; and the black at fower so
as they be entire without breaches or deforming spotts except
in pajmentof countrje rates to the Treasurer which no Towne
nor person may doe nor he accept thereof from time to time."

On May 22nd, 1661, the law authorizing the use of Wam-
pum as a legal tender was repealed. It however continued to
circulate until the American Revolution and is still an article
of Indian manufacture and use for ornament, as was long ago
the aboriginal custom. A pound of the best black Indian
beads (Suckauhock) was worth at the best rates ten per cent,
more than the same weight of silver coin.

The fisheries of Massachusetts were extensive and profitable
from a very early date ; the colony also had a considerable
trade to trie West Indies and elsewhere. In the West Indies
and the Spanish Main the buccaneers and pirates were at this
time numerous, and large amounts of bullion and coin cap-
tured by them from the Spaniards found its way, through the
channels of trade, into the ports of Massachusetts. Thus the
wealth of the people increased and enterprise was encouraged ;
considerable sums of various foreign coinages were put in cir-
culation, but the variety of coins, some worn, clipped, or other-
wise made light, some degraded, and very many counterfeit,
was a source of boundless annoyance, and exceeding loss and
hinderance to business.

122 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

On September 27th, 1642, the General Court passed an order
fixing the value of certain foreign coins, and subsequently,
probably late in 1651, or in 1652, a circular was issued, order-
ing that foreign pieces should have stamped upon them the
value fixed by an Inspector of Currency. This law was not
well received by the public, and remained inoperative. Under
the circumstances, other measures of relief became an impera-
tive necessity, and the magistrates and delegates, with other in-
terested and competent persons, were compelled to takeinto prac-
tical consideration the project of establishing a Colonial Mint.

On the 26th or 27th of May, 1652, the General Court passed
an act, establishing at Boston, in Massachusetts, the first mint
ever put in operation on the territory now the United States.
John Hull, of Boston, was made "master of the sajd mint" by
this act. The standard of coinage was to be "the just alloy
of new sterling English money." The pieces were to be "for
forme & flatt & square," of the denominations of " 12d : 6d :
& 3d peeces," on one side of which was to be stamped " N. E."
and on the other "the figure Xlld, VI, & III" according to
the value of the piece, together with "a privy marke" to be
appointed every three months, and known only to the gov-
ernor and the sworn officers of the mint. The coinage was
ordered to be made by weight, of three pence in a shilling
"lesser vallew" than the English coin then in circulation,
"viz: euery shilling weighing the three penny troj weight
& lesser peeces proportionably." As the British shilling of
that time weighed 93 grains, the terms of the law indicate a
miscalculation. By the original draft of the law the mint-
master was allowed " to take one shilling and sixpence out of
evry twenty shillings which he shall stampe as aforesaid."
This allowance the deputies reduced to one shilling from the
same amount.

The mint was ordered to accept for assay refining and coin-
age "bulljon plate or Spanish Cojne " and the depositor of the
same, was allowed to be present " to see the same melted Re-
fined & Allajed and to receive a receipt for the weight of good

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 123

silver allayed as afforesaid." A resposible Committee of four
rnen was appointed to carry this law into effect, who, on June
20th, 1652, issued an order for the construction of a "house"
for the mint "sixteene ffoote square, tenn foote high." The
allowance for coinage payable to John Hull, which had been
reduced to one shilling in twenty, was raised to fifteen pence
for the same amount of coinage, and an allowance of a penny
in every ounce made for waste in melting metals. This prac-
tically restored the allowance made Hull to the original terms
of one shilling and sixpence in twenty.

The Mint-house was ordered to be erected on Hull's land,
his residence having been just south of the entrance to the
present Pembroke Square in Boston. On June 11, 1652, the
Committee prepared a form of oath, binding John Hull and
Eobert Saunderson, as equal officers of the mint, to the faithful
performance of their general duties as such, and in particular,
that they should, by the help of God, coin every shilling "of
three penny troj weight, and all other peeces proportionably,
according to the order of Courte so neere as yow Canu." Un-
der date of June llth, 1652, the Committee also took upon
themselves to modify the order of the Court that the coin
should be "flatt and square," directing that the pieces should
be made of a "Round forme" ; they also authorized, as far as
they could, the issue of Silver Two penny pieces. The doings
of this Committee were approved by the General Court, on Octo-
ber 28th, 1652, and the operations of the mint were continued.

NEW ENGLAND SHILLING.
The N. E. shilling is a plain, thin planchet of silver, ham-

124 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

mered or rolled to the requisite thickness, an inch or more in
diameter, clipped to an irregular "Round forme" and trimmed
to size and weight. Obverse : A depressed field, bounded at
the top by the curved border of the piece; the other sides are
straight lines, about half an inch long, forming right-angled
corners. Legend : N E in relief; the diagonal line of N curves
under and beyond E, while the top of the right limb of N bends
forward, connects with E and forms the upper part of that let-
ter. Reverse : A depressed field, as on the obverse, but half-
size and square, though struck near the border of the planchet.
Legend : The Roman numerals XII, in relief. Having been
made simply with a punch, the impressions described were
not struck opposite each other, but at the top and bottom of
each other, upon their respective sides, though frequently
struck out of line in relation to each other and the center of
the piece. Size, 16 to 19 ; weight, 72 grains ; fineness, 925 ;
value, 18^ cents.

NEW ENGLAND SIXPENCE.

The N. E. Sixpence and Threepence resembled the Shilling
of the same coinage. Obverse : A small depressed field of
irregular outline, conforming to the shape of the letters of the
device. Legend: N E as on the shilling. Reverse: Field as
on the shilling, but according to size of the planciiet. Legend :
The Roman numerals YII or III, according to the value. Size :
sixpence, 12 to 14; threepence, about the same diameter.
Weight, sixpence 36 grains; threepence, 43 grains; fine-
ness, 925 ; value, 9| cents .and 4 9-16 cents respectively.

All the N. E. coinage above described is extremely scarce;
the general character is as stated, but owing to the simple na-
ture of the dies or punches used, and the entirely primitive

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 125

methods of mintage employed, as well as the rarity of speci-
mens, no perfect account of the types and varieties can be
given. The dies were not numerous, and but six or eight va-
rieties are noted. But two genuine N. E. Threepence are
known, one of which belongs to Yale College.

The plain and simple character of the N. E. currency, made
it liable to mutilation, and immediately after the issue of the
same, much of it was made light by dishonest practices. For
the prevention of such frauds, the General Court, under date
of October 19th, 1652, passed an order that, "henceforth all
peices of mony Cojned as afore sajd shall have a double Ring
on either side, with this inscription Massachusetts, and a tree
in the Center on the one side, according to this draught heere
in the margent." A rude sketch of the proposed coin was
given and the general directions of the act were carried into
effect, but none of the coins subsequently struck under it, bear
any inscription of the word Massachusetts spelt as provided in
this law. The law designates "a tree" as the device of this
coinage, and Willow, Oak, and Pine Tree coins, were minted
in the order in which they are here mentioned.

THE WILLOW- TREE COINS.

MASSACHUSETTS WILLOW TREE SHILLING.

Shillings : Three Types. Seven Varieties.

Obverse : An exceedingly rude representation of a willow
tree a mere mass of irregular curves and lines on some types ;
this device is encircled by a grained ring. Legend : "MASSA-
CHUSETTS" or "MASSACHUSETTS IN," in varied orthography
and abbreviation. Border : Another grained ring. Reverse :

126

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

1652 XII in two lines, in the field encircled by a grained ring.
Legend : NEW ENGLAND, EXERGUE, AN DOM, in varied or-
thography. Size, 16 J to 17; weight, 72 grains; fineness,
916 ; value 18^ cents. Edge plain trimmed to an irregular
circele and to size and weight.

MASSACHUSETTS WILLOW TREE SIXPENCE.

Sixpence : One Type and One Variety.

Similar in general to the Shilling of the same coinage ex-
cept VI instead of XII on the field of the reverse. Size, 7 to
7J; weight, 36 grains; fineness, 916f ; value, 9& cents.

Owing to the bungling manner in which the Willow Tree
coins were struck, the inscriptions of " MASSACHUSETTS " or
" NEW ENGLAND," which were attempted upon them often,
appear as a mere jumble of letters. This coinage was con-
tinued but a short time and was followed by an improved
mintage.

THE OAK TREE COINS.

MASSACHUSETTS OAK TREE SHILLING.

Shillings: Nine Types. Also, two slight variations of
Type. Nine Varieties, and one minor Variety.

Obverse: A rude representation of an oak tree. Other-
wise, as Willow Tree Shillings.

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 127

Keverse : Similar to Willow Tree Shilling. Size, 16 to 18 ;
weight, 72 grains ; fineness, 916$ ; value, 18 cents.

Sixpence : Six Types. Six Varieties.

Obverse : Similar in general to the Shilling.

Reverse : Similar to the Shilling except VI in the field in-
stead of XII. Size, 12 to 14; weight, 86 grains; fineness,
9 16 ; value, 9 cents.

MASSACHUSETTS OAK TREE THREEPENCE.

Threepence : Six Types. Six Varieties.

Obverse : Similar in general to the Shilling.

Reverse : Similar in general to the Shilling except III in
the field instead of XII. Size, 9 to 11 ; weight, 18 grains
fineness, 916f ; value, 4 9-16 cents.

Twopence: One Type. One Variety. Three minor Va-
rieties.

Obverse : Similar in general to the Shilling.

Reverse : Similar in general to the Shilling except 1662 in
the field instead of 1652. Size, 4| to 5J ; weight, 12 grains;
fineness, 916f ; value, 3 1-24 cents.

The Oak Tree Coinage was minted for about ten years, and
in volume formed about one-third of all the silver currency
emitted by Massachusetts colony. The whole of the Massa-
chusetts colonial currency except the Oak Tree Twopence,
was stamped with the figures 1652, the date of the establish-
ment of the mint. This Twopence is supposed to have been
struck near the last of the Oak Tree Coinage and dated with
the year of its issue.

Charles II having been restored to the throne of Great
Britain, became very much displeased with the people of New
England. The agents of the English Court inflamed the mind
of the king by their invidious reports of the disloyalty of the

128 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

colonists. Among other things, the spies accused the magis-
trates of Massachusetts, of having practically asserted the in-
dependence of the colony, and encroached upon the royal pre-
rogative, by setting up a mint and creating a coinage of their
own, not having the royal permission to make money, which
had been conceded by charter to Virginia. The king was in-
formed, moreover, that all this coinage bore but one date, that
of 1652, stamped upon it in honor of the sovereignty of Mas-
sachusetts, assumed to have been established the year in which
the mint was founded. These reports to the king were for-
warded by one Edward Randolph, and were published in Bos-
ton, Massachusetts, in 1769, in a work entitled "A Collection
of Original Papers relative to the history of the Colony of
Massachusetts Bay." The reports of Randolph, gave occasion
for an incident the following narrative of which, though once
declared "a ridiculous story," proves to be historical.

In 1662, Sir Thomas Temple, who, during Cromwell's ad-
ministration, resided several years in New England, was in
England, to which he returned after the restoration of mon-
archy. The king sent for Sir Thomas, and conversed with
him regarding affairs in the colonies. During the interview,
his Majesty manifested great displeasure with his New Eng-
land subjects, accusing them, among other things, of having
invaded the royal prerogative by an unauthorized coinage.
Sir Thomas, who was a good friend of the colonists, sought
to excuse them, on account of their ignorance of law, as they
had only made a little money they considered they had a right
to create, for their own necessary use. lie took a number of
Oak Tree Shillings from his pocket, and exhibited them to
the king, who inquired the meaning of the device. Sir
Thomas stated the authorities of Massachusetts, not pre-
suming to use the royal name or effigy upon their coins, had
adopted the oak as an emblem of their loyalty, inasmuch as a
tree of that kind had providentially saved the life of their
king. This put his Majesty in great good humor ; he called
the Massachusetts people "a parcel of honest dogs," and after-

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 129

wards listened more patiently to what their apologist had to
say in their favor.

THE PINE TEEE COINAGE.

MASSACHUSETTS PINE TREE SHILLING.

In 1662, or thereabouts, a new variety of Massachusetts
Colonial Silver Coin was produced, consisting of Shillings
Sixpences, Threepences and Twopences, bearing the device of
a Pine tree and the common date 1652. The law authorizing
the Coinage of this whole currency designated "a tree," as
the device, and ordered a privy mark to be struck upon the
coin, to be changed every three months. The kind of tree to
be used for a device, being left to the option of the Mint-
master, the varieties, noted, as well as many of 1he changes
made in the orthography and punctuation of the legends and
inscriptions, or the other features of the coin, are due perhaps
to the attempts made to conform to the requirement of a privy
mark, to be effected by alteration, arrangement and rearrange-
ment of details, or the addition of minor points. Thus the
Pine Tree Coinage, originally called also the Boston or Bay
Shilling, Sixpence, Threepence or Twopence, may have been
introduced, and thus the numerous types and varieties therein
may in part have been rendered necessary.

The Pine Tree Coinage, which was more elaborate in de-
sign than either of those which had preceded it, and an im-
provement upon them both, was minted to a very large
amount for about twenty-two years. Had its issue been con-
tinuous and the law in relation to the privy mark strictly
I

130 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

complied with, there would have been three and a half times
the variation in the types and varieties of the coinage now
noted. Doubtless this provision of the law was often disre-
garded, in view of convenience and economy in the practical
working of the mint. A like regard for the saving of labor
and expense, is manifest in the manner the dies of the Massa-
chusetts Colonial Mint were used. Primarily mere punches,
used upon the rude Willow Tree Coinage, these dies gradually
improved in the Oak Tree Coinage, and were made still better
in the later years. However, they all were quite thoroughly
used, and whatever the defect, seem never to have been thrown
aside so long as alteration or repair could anyway keep them
in service. This and some other peculiarities about the mint
and its issues, may have been due the fact that from 1G52 to
1682, or 1684, the mint, instead of being conducted directly
at the cost of the state, was carried on upon the basis of a
percentage, of about one in twenty, allowed the Mint-masters,
John Hull and Eobert Saunderson. Of course, the interest of
these officers was to do the largest possible amount of coinage,
at the least possible expense, and hence they must have been
opposed to all costly innovations and troublesome improve-
ments, and they resisted with great firmness and pertinacity,
the frequent attempts of the Committees of the General Court
to secure some modification of the contract to the advantage
of the commonwealth. Tenacious of their price, these men
were true to their oath, and even the officers of the British
Mint testified to the uniform standard purity of the Massa-
chusetts Colonial Coinage.

The Colonial Coins which were ordered by the General
Court to be twopence in a shilling, or one-sixth less value by
weight than the British Shilling, were found at the British
Mint to be twopence three farthings in the shilling, or 22 J per
cent, light, a not excessive variation perhaps, considering the
circumstances. This coinage was, however, rated in general
at twenty- five per cent, less value, according to its denomina-
tion, than the British standard money. To prevent the ex-

BRITISH COLONIAL COIN ABES. 131

portation of coin, and augment the volume of the currency,
provision was made by law for stamping all foreign coin, of
Spain, Mexico, etc., not the product of the British Mint, with
the letters NE and the true weight and fineness of the piece,
to pass current for its proportionate value, with the Colonial
money. The General Court took action upon this matter at
different times, and yet, though attempted in different ways,
there is nothing to show foreign coin was stamped in the
manner proposed.

MASSACHUSETTS PINE TREE SHILLING.

John Hull and Eobert Saunderson were equal officers in the
"gainful business" of the mint. How much they coined in
all for the colony, or the exact amount of their profits under
the contract they carried out, cannot be determined. The
coinage was certainly large in amount, and they, as was well
understood, became men of wealth and substance. When the
daughter of John Hull was married to Judge Samuel Sewall,
the founder of the town of Newbury, Mass., the prosperous
Mint-master gave the bride a dowery of her weight in silver:
At the concluion of the wedding ceremony, a large steel-yard
was brought into the room, and the blushing bride placed upon
one of the platforms of the same, while into a tub upon the
other side, were poured the Pine Tree Shillings, until the
steel-yard balanced.

John Hull died October 1st, 1683, about which time the
operations of the mint were discontinued. After varied un-
successful efforts to further establish a currency, and a free coin-
age of their own, the authorities of Massachusetts turned their
attention to the prevention of counterfeiting, debasing, and

132 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

mutilating coin, and the regulation of the current value of
various moneys. On June 18th, 1704, queen Anne, of Eng-
land, issued a royal proclamation, reducing to one uniform
rate of valuation the coins circulating in the British Colonies
in America.

MASSACHUSETTS PJXE TREE SIXPENCE.

The general description of the Pine Tree Coinage of various
denominations, corresponds with that of the Willow and Oak
Tree Coinages, except that the mintage is improved, and a pine
tree substituted on the obverse as the device.

Shilling: Twenty-five Types. Twenty-five Varieties, and
other pieces with minor differences.

Sixpences : Two Types. One Variety.

Threepences : Two Types. Two varieties, and other pieces
with minor differences.

These coins were struck for twenty years or more, and con-
stituted about two-thirds of the Silver Coinage issued from the
Mint of Massachusetts Colony. They all bore the date 1652.
The earlier Pine Tree Shillings, were of size 18, or one inch
and a quarter in diameter, from which they decreased to a
diameter of one inch, size 16, keeping the original weight,
however, and of course increasing in thickness ; this, it has
been been concluded, was to secure the safety and economy of
smaller dies, which are more durable and less liable to break-
age. The weight, fineness, and value, of the Pine Tree Coin-
age, was in general similar to that which preceded it. Sam-
ples of the Pine Tree Coinage may easily be secured, but some
of the types and varieties are rare, very rare, exceedingly rare,
or even unique, as the case may be. They have long been out
of circulation as money, and are found only in the cabinets of

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES 133

the numismatologists. As part of the original Silver Coinage
by English-speaking people upon the -American continent, they
are worthy of all the attention given them.

Massachusetts Shillings have been discovered, bearing the
date of 1650, but for manifest reasons, these pieces are con-
sidered modern counterfeits. There are also pieces called
Good Samaritan Shillings, of the same general type and va-
riety as the Pine Tree Shilling, but bearing upon the obverse
a well-executed device, illustrating the parable of the Good
Samaritan ; but two or three specimens of this coin h;ive been
known, two of which are in existence and of unique varieties;
they are supposed to have been pattern pieces, struck at the
origin of the Mint of Massachusetts Colony, when, as appears
by one of the pieces, the die of one variety was broken. This
last-named piece was sometime since in the possession of the
careful collector and author, Sylvester S. Crosby, of Boston,
Mass. There are two old pieces in existence denominated
pennies, and assumed to be of the Oak or Pine Tree Coinage.
From their size and appearance, they are supposed to have
been struck as Twopences of the Oak Tree Coinage, which
have already been described.

There can be no authority found among the Colonial enact-
ments of Massachusetts for the issue of a silver penny, yet
such a piece was described and illustrated by Folkes, in 1763.

MASSACHUSETTS PINE TREE PENNY. (?)
The device of the obverse of this supposed coin somewhat
resembles the "pine tree" of Massachusetts coins, and the date
of the reverse, 1652, coincides, but if such pieces were struck,
none have been preserved until the present generation.

In 1690, the colony of Massachusetts first issued paper
money, for the purpose of paying off the troops employed in
an expedition against Canada, fitted out with hope of a booty
they had failed to obtain.

134 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

SILVER COINAGE FOR MARYLAND.

On March 27th, 1634, the settlement of Maryland began at
the Indian town of Yoacomoco, twelve miles from the Poto-
mac, on the river now called St. Marys. The Colonial Char-
ter which had been granted to Lord Baltimore, June 20th,
1632, by Charles I of England, was exceedingly liberal, se-
curing popular liberty, and in Yoacomoco, or the town of St.
Marys, religious freedom "for all Christian sects" first became
.historical. From their first settlement the colonists endeav-
ored to remedy the distress caused by the scarcity of money,
by using tobacco and furs at a fixed valuation as a medium of
exchange, as had been the custom in Virginia. The same evils
which had afflicted Virginia, followed in due time, as the pro-
duction of tobacco increased, or the cost of furs fluctuated.
Soldiers were at one time paid in his Lordship's cattle, the
taxes were paid in corn, powder and shot were current as cash,
and were the only tender accepted for ship duties. At the
suggestion of some of the principal citizens of the colony, Lord
Baltimore took into consideration the furnishing of Maryland
with a proper currency.

Although the right of coinage was not expressly conceded
by the charter of Maryland, the terms of that concession were
generally very broad, and the Proprietor, considering the al-
lowance made to Virginia, concluded that the powers conveyed
to him justified the creation of a currency, and as Cecil was
ever active in all that could promote the good of his colonists,
he had dies prepared in London and sample coins struck there,
from which, on October 12th, 1659, were forwarded to the au-
thorities of Maryland, with letters of advice to them, and to
his brother Philip Calvert, Esq., then the Colonial Secretary
of State in Maryland. Though approving the use of the
coinage ho thus created, the second Lord Baltimore was par-
ticular to direct, "Yet it must not be imposed upon the people
but by a Lawe there made by their consents in a Generall As-
sembly." The adoption of this currency was postponed by
the disorders in Maryland which followed the death of Crom-

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 135

well, when Governor Fendall and his party, attempted to revo-
lutionize the government of the colony.

Philip Calvert became Governor of Maryland, November,
1660, and the following April, a "Generall Assembly" was
convened at St. Johns. The governor favored the wishes and
designs of his brother, Lord Baltimore, the Proprietary, and
the Assembly, on May 1st, 1661, passed an act for setting up
a mint in the Province of Maryland. This act was in part a
petition to Lord Baltimore, that he would "take order for ye
setting up of a mint," and the further provisions of the law
were made, as stated, under the authority of the Proprietor,
with the consent of the General Assembly. It was ordered
that the coin should "be of as good silver as the currant coyn
of English sterling money," every shilling to be above nine-
pence in value, by weight, of such silver, with other pieces in
proportion. The penalty of death and the confiscation of all
estate in the colony to Lord Baltimore, was provided for any
one who should clip, scale, counterfeit, wash, or in any way
diminish the coinage*; and further, the Lord Proprietary of
the province, was to accept said money, in payment of all dues
accruing to him as such.

The record of these proceedings was forwarded to Lord
Baltimore, and he prepared to send a sufficient amount of coin
to supply the wants of the colonists. To set this currency in
circulation at once, an act was passed by the General Assem-
bly, on April 12th, 1662, which provided that "every House-
holder and Freeman in the Province, should take up Ten
Shillings per. Poll of the Said Money, for evry Taxable under
their Charge and Custody, and Pay for the same in good
Casked Tobacco, at 2d. per Pound, to be paid upon Tender of
the Said Sums of Money, proportionably for evry such re-
spective Family." There were about five thousand taxable
persons in the colony, and according to this law, each of these
was to exchange sixty pounds of tobacco, for ten shillings of
the new currency, which, if all conformed to the law, would
have relieved the colony of 300,000 pounds of tobacco, and

136 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

"have set in circulation 2500 Maryland currency of the actual
value of 1875 sterling. The new issue was a great convenience
and doubtless quite popular, but many of the public dues were
still payable in tobacco, which continued to be an article of ex-
change, especially current in large transactions. The amount of
the new coinage in circulation at any time after its first intro-
duction, or when that kind of money fell into disuse, is unknown.

There are reports that a mint was actually established in
Maryland, but whether they were based upon anything more
than an inference from the enactment authorizing the mint,
and the subsequent coinage, is doubtful. The coinage was
originally done in England, under the supervision of Lord
Baltimore, whose apprehension for having "made and trans-
ported large sums of money," was ordered October 4th, 1659.
As the Shilling contained but seventy-five per cent, of its
nominal value in silver, and as there is no record of any other
proceedings against him, or injunction upon his work, it may
be supposed the Proprietary continued to make and transport
large sums of money to Maryland, and to*import large amounts
of colonial tobacco in return. If the Maryland Mint had an
actual existence in the colony, and was subsequently used, it
is certain "it was never made much use of."

The Coinage of Lord Baltimore for his colony of Maryland,
.consisted of Shillings, Sixpences, Groats and Pennies, to be
described as follows :

MARYLAND SHILLING.

Maryland Shilling. One Type. One Variety.

Obverse: A profile bust tif Lord Baltimore, facing left

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. . 137

slightly draped. Legend: "C^ECILVS: DNS: TERRJE-
MARI^E : &CT. *J*" Mint-mark: A Cross patee or formee,
as in the legend.

Reverse: An Escutcheon with the Baltimore arms a loz-
enged shield, surmounted by a crown. To the left of this,
the Roman numeral "X"; to the right "II," the shield divi-
ding thus the figures denoting the value of the coin. Legend :
"CRESCITE : ET : M VLTIPLICAMINI.". Border, milled ;
Edge, plain. Silver ; size, 17 ; weight, 66 grains ; fineness,
925 ; value, 16.73 cents.

The Maryland Sixpence. One Type. One Variety.

Obverse: A profile bust of Lord Baltimore, facing left,
slightly draped, as on the Shilling. Legend: "(LECILYS:
DNS : TERRE-MARIyE : &C. ^ "

Reverse : Similar in general to that of the Shilling, except
in size. Legend : " CRESCITE : ET : M VLTIPLIC AMINI "
the period being omitted. The numerals VI are substituted in-
stead of XII. Border, milled ; Edge, plain. Silver; size,
weight, 34 grains ; fineness, 925 ; value, 8.618 cents.

MARYLAND GROAT.

The Maryland Groat. Two Types. Two Varieties.

No. 1. Obverse : Same in general as the Sixpence, except in
size large head.

No. 1. Reverse: Same in general as the Shilling, except in
size large shield. The numerals IV are substituted instead
of XII.

No. 2. Obverse: Same in general as the Sixpence, except in
size small head.

No. 2. Reverse: Same in general as the Shilling, except in

138 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

size small shield. The numerals IV are substituted instead
of XII.

The Groat Obverse No. 2 and Reverse No. 2 is extremely
rare. Border, milled ; Edge, plain. Silver ; size, 11 ; weight,
25 grains ; fineness, 925 ; value, 6.3368 cents.

MARYLAND PENNY.

The Maryland Penny. One Type. One Variety. Unique.

Obverse : Similar to that of the Sixpence.

Reverse: A Ducal Coronet, upon which are erected two
masts, each bearing a flying pennant. Legend : DENARIVM :
TERRE-MASLE Hf* Copper; size, 13.

The only specimen of this piece extant, was imported into
America from England, at a cost of 75, and was sold for
$370 with the collection of J. J. Mickley, Esq., of Philadel-
phia.

The British Museum has impressions in copper of dies for
the Maryland Shilling and Sixpence. There was also an im-
pression of a die for the Shilling, in the collection of Dr. Clay,
of Manchester, England. Of the varieties of these pieces we
are not informed.

COINAGE FOR THE COLONY OF CANADA.

The French, who as early as 1504 enriched themselves by
the fisheries of Newfoundland, drew a chart of the Gulf of St.
Lawrence in 1506, explored the coast of North America in
1523 and 1524, and on July 12th, 1534. at a point near the
lesser inlet of Gaspe Bay, set up a lofty cross bearing a shield
with the lilies of France and an appropriate inscription, took
possession of the country and began the colonization of Cana-

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 139

da, which, they retained until, in 1763, that province was ceded
to England. In order to facilitate commerce in Canada, Louis
XIV, king of France, ordered, in 1670, the coinage of "a hun-
dred thousand livres worth of Louis of 15 sous, and 5 sous,
and Doubles of pure copper. These coins were of the same
value in weight and fineness with those of France. On the
silver Louis of 15 sous, and 5 sous, in place of Sit nomen Dom-
ini benedictum, there was Gloriam regni tui dicent, and on the
Doubles, Doubles de Z' Amerique Francoise" The silver Louis
of fifteen and five sous of this Coinage, were described by Le
Blanc, in his "Historic Treatise on the Coins of France,''
Paris, 1703, and said to be of the year' 1670, and familiar.
The Doubles or pieces of Two Deniers, on the contrary, were
noted as unknown coins, of which a more exact description
would be highly interesting.

While the record of the origin and character of these Coins
for Canada has been well preserved, the currency itself has be-
come, "except two or three specimens," quite extinct at least
in America. Diligent and careful collectors "have met with
but one denomination of the silver pieces that of five sous,"
and of these, but two specimens from slightly different dies.
Of the genuine copper Double, no specimen is known. Syl-
vester S. Crosby, Esq., in his valuable work, "The Early
Coins of America," Boston, 1875. describes a copy owned by
M. Jules Marcou, of Cambridge, Mass. The French authority
upon this coinage is Le Blanc's 'Traite Historique des Mon-
noyes de France,' published in Paris, 1703.

The Louis of five Sous. Two slightly different dies known.

Obverse : A bust of Louis XIV, facing right, laureated
above this a small figure of the sun. Legend : "LVD'XIIIT
D-G O F B- E T-NA V'BLX." '(Ludovicus XIIII Dei Grataie
Fran.~iae ct Navarre King), (Louis XIIII, by the Grace of God,
of France and Navarre King).

He verse : French coat-of-arms surmounted by a crown. Be-
neath tho shield the Paris Mint-mark A. Legend : "GLORIAM'
y* TRP DICENT 1670 5 " and a character of unknown

140 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

significance. Borders, milled ; Edge, plain. Silver; size, 13;
weight, 35 grains.

The Double of Two Deniers. Unknown.

Obverse: Device, thus "16 L 70." Above is a crown,
and beneath, the Mint-mark of Paris "A." Legend : "LVDO-
VICVS- Xllir D- GR- FRAN- ET- NAY-REX

Reverse: Inscription in four lines, "DE- LA MERIQVE*
FR ANCOISE " Under the legend the Mint- mark of Paris "A"
with fiver de Us at each side and one below it. Border, milled.
Copper; size, 14|.

ST. PATRICK'S'OR MARK NEWBY HALF-PENCE.

On November 19th, 1681, a party of emigrants from Dub-
lin, Ireland, consisting in part of one Mark Newby and his
family, arrived in the colony of New Jersey. This Newby
brought .with him a quantity of coins, which were called St.
Patrick's Half-pence; and as small money was exceedingly
scarce at the time, the authorities of New Jersey, on May
8th, 1682, passed an act "for the more convenient Payment of
small Sums," by which it was provided "That Mark Newbie's
half-pence, called Patricks half- pence, shall, from and after the
said Eighteenth Instant, pass for half-pence current pay of
this Province, provided he the said Mark, his Executors and
Administrators, shall and will change the said half-pence for
pay Equivalent, upon demand : and provided also, that no
Person or Persons be hereby obliged to take more than five
Shillings in one Payment."

The date and origin of these St. Patrick's or "Mark New-
bie's" Half- pence is unknown, and has been the cause of much
discussion without agreement. Whether they were coined
"by the Papists when they rebelled in Ireland, and massacred
the Protestants," "struck as medals," "minted for the Con-
federate Assembly," or "issued in Dublin sometime between
the Restoration (1660) and the year 1680," merely as private
tokens, is undecided. Considering the amount of them brought

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 141

over by Newby, it would seem that they originated not very
long before the date of his emigration in 1681.

This coinage is very irregular, of numerous types and va-
rieties, struck in various metals from similar dies, viz : silver,
copper, brass, and occasionally, as a proof probably, in lead.

St. Patrick's Halfpence. Large Size. Four Types. Six
Varieties.

ST. PATRICK'S HALF PENCE.

Obverse : A crowned king, kneeling, facing left, and play-
ing the harp. Above the harp is a crown. Legend: "FLO RE
AT REX" variously divided and punctuated on different dies.
The letters also vary in size on different specimens.

Reverse : St. Patrick with a trefoil in his hand and a crozier
in his left, surrounded by a crowd of people. To the left is a
shield, with three castles or six flaming alters. Legend: EC-
CE GREX" variously punctuated on different dies. Edges,
either milled or plain. Only specimens in copper known to be
extant. Size, 17 to 20 ; weight, 144 grains, or somewhat less.

St. Patrick's Half-pence. Small size. Twenty-two Types.
Twenty-three Varieties.

ST. PATRICK'S HALF PENCE.

142 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

Obverse : Similar to that of the larger-sized piece of thi*
coinage. Upon some specimens a bird appears, sometimes ac-
companied by three circles, all placed beneath the figure of the
king.

Reverse : St. Patrick, his right hand outstretched, banish-
ing serpents and reptiles, shown upon the ground. In his left
hand he carries a double or metropolitan cross ; at the ex-
treme right is a church. Legend: "QUIESCAT PLEBS"
variously punctuated on different dies. Edges, either milled or
plain. Silver and Copper; size, 16; weight, silver piece, 98
to 14-4 grains the copper piece, 98 grains.

The extreme irregularity of the silver pieces of this coinage
suggests the idea that they could hardly have been coined for
circulation as money, but rather struck for preservation as
medals. The copper coins were more regular, and better
adapted for use as currency, for which they were employed in
New Jersey from 1681 indefinitely afterwards, the coinage of
New Jersey, for its own use, not being established for more
than a century from that time.

PROPOSALS FOR COLONIAL COINAGES.

Notwithstanding the various plans and contrivances for a
supply of currency, the scarcity of small coin which inconve-
nienced the primitive settlers continued, and was a very great
hindcrance to minor business about the beginning of the
eighteenth century. As early as July 5th, 1700, John Fy-
sack laid before the British Board of Trade, a scheme for the
erection of a mint at some point in the English plantations
upon the continent of America. This plan failed to secure
the approval of the Board of Trade, but another was proposed,
May, 21, 1701, to the Lords of the Treasury, by J. Stanley Is.
Newton and Jn. Ellis, who suggested the coinage in England,
of " lialfe pence and pence of Copper, or a Mixed Metall, and
of halfe ye value the English Small Money is made," a special
issue to be struck for each of "Ye Severall Colony s." Being

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 143

submitted to the officers of the mint, this scheme was not fully
approved, and no action was taken to carry it into effect.
About the year 1715, a project was discussed for organizing
and establishing " a private Bank in New England," but this
was presently abandoned.

On July 14, 1748, Alexander Cuming, Bart., suggested that
a coinage of 200,000 sterling should be struck in the Tower
of London, to serve as the basis of a Provincial Bank for all
the British Plantations of America, to be a bank of issue, re-
deeming its bills, on demand, in gold and silver, the said bills
to be made current in all the colonies to the abolishment of
local issues of inferior value like those of New England and
Carolina, then sometime in use. This suggestion was regarded
as chimerical, being, perhaps, too honest and business-like, to
suit the grasping policy generally followed toward America by
the Lords of the British Treasury.

In 1754, Arthur Dobbs, Esq., then Governor of North
Carolina, asked official approval -for a coinage of copper
money for that colony, the pieces coined to be of the value of
two-pence, one penny, and an half penny Carolina currency,
which was one-fourth less value by denomination than the
British standard. The amount of this coinage was to be lim-
ited to fifty tons weight. Upon reference of this matter to
the officers of the mint, such a coinage was planned, to consist
one-fourth of two-pence, one-fourth of pennies, and one-half
of half-pence the half-pence were to be of such a size, that
sixty-one of them should weigh one pound avoirdupois, the
other pieces being made in proportion. The copper being de-
livered to the mint free of cost, was to be minted as described,
at the usual rate of five pence per pound, with an allowance
for necessary waste of one part in forty-five, or less, as should
be found actual in practice. The obverse of these coins were
to bear the king's effigies, and the legend GEORGIUS IJ.
REX, and on the reverse the arms of North Carolina inscribed
SEPT. CAROLINA, and in Exergue beneath the date of the
coinage.

144 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

After all, there is no evidence that any part of tho fifty
tons of small change thus arranged for was ever produced.

Still another effort was made to supply North Carolina
with minor coin, and on September 29th, 1786, it was reported
that Mr. Borel had completed his contract of coinage for that
state in Switzerland, to the amount of 30,0001. in silver and
copper, to be exchanged for the paper currency. No coin
struck under this contract can be found, and soon after tho
sole right of coinage was assumed by the Government of tho
United States.

On July 12, 1722, William Wood, of Wolverhampton, in
the county of Stafford, England, Esq., having been engaged
in experiments in metallurgy and coinage as early as I/ 77,
represented to George I, that he had "invented a certain com-
position or mixture, consisting partly of fine virgin silver,
partly of superfine brass, made of pure copper, and partly of
double-refined linck, otherwise called tutanaigne or spelter/'
In a mass of twenty ounces avoirdupois of Wood'j metal, ho
stated there should be one pennyweight Troy of virgin silver,
fifteen ounces avoirdupois of fine brass, and the rest of tho
speller described. Through the influence of the duchess of
Kendall, a frail beauty, a German baroness, who came to Eng-
land with George I before he was crowned, Wood obtained
letters patent, giving him a monopoly of coining "tokens," to
be used as currency in Ireland and in America. The emolu-
ments to arire from this coinage for Ireland, were given offi-
cially and directly to the duchess of Kendall; tho considera-
tion for the privilege of a like issue for America, doubtless
was paid the same royal favorite.

The patent granted Wood for America, was made to cover
his rights for fourteen years from the date of its issue, during
which term he might utter and disperse therein "Three Hun-
dred Tunns-" of the coinage thus authorized. Of this, two
hundred tons might issue the first four years, and ten tons
each year of the 'term thereafter. These coins, as authorized
by the king, were to go for "half pence, pence and Two

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. H5

peaces," and be made of such a size that twenty ounces avoir-
dupois of metal, should produce but sixty pence by actual
count, and of the other pieces a proportionate number, accord-
ing to their denominated value, or as elsewhere provided, "of
such a bigness that thirty Two pences, sixty pence, and one
hundred and twenty half pence, may weigh sixteen ounces
avoirdupois," the variation allowed the coiner being not more
than one penny in the above number, over or under. The
metal was to be of the composition stated, and of such a quali-
ty that when heated red hot it would spread thin under the
hammer without cracking, which test was to be applied to the
coins directly by persons authorized by the Commissioners of
the Treasury from time to time, and for the benefit of the
Comptroller so appointed; said William Wood was to pay
Two hundred pounds per Annum. The coinage was to bear
" on the one side the Effigies or Portraiture With the name or
Title of his Majestic " and on the other side " the ffigure of a
Crown With the Word America and the Tear of our lord and
any other marks or Addicions as may be proper." Counter-
feiting this coinage was forbidden under penalty of confisca-
tion of " the Tools or Instruments for making thereof," and
of the coins made in imitation of the genuine, the property to
accrue to William Wood or his representatives. In consid-
eration of these concessions, rights and privileges, William
Wood was to pay his Majesty the sum of one hundred pounds
per annum, over and above the amount paid the Comptroller
named. Having given security as required, William Wood
received a formal license, according to the terms of his con-
tract, and presently began operations in the business of Coin-
age upon an extensive scale.

There were several partners engaged in the manufacture of
this coinage ; the dies, which were quite numerous, were made
by Lammas, Standbroke and Harold, and the mintage done by
a drop press, the metal being struck while hot for the sake of
expedition in the work. The mint was established at the
French Change, in Hogg Lane, Seven Dials, London, England.
J

146 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

The first Comptroller of this Currency was Sir Isaac Newton,
but at his request Mr. Barton, his nephew, was presently ap-
pointed in his stead. The first attempt was a coinage for
America, in 1722; a Fmall issue of the same date was also
made for Ireland. Circumstances in America favored the in-
troduction of small coin at this time. So great was the scar-
city of minor currency, that the same year Massachusetts, by
an act which passed the House of Representatives at the ses-
sion of May, 1722, authorized the issue of bills of the denomi-
nation of a penny, two-pence and three-pence, the same to be
printed on parchment, to the amount in value of five hundred
pounds. These were to be issued in redemption of other bills
of the colony, which were to be burnt. There were to be :
'Forty Ihousand and One Pennies, to be Round, Twenty
Thousand Two Fences, Four Square, Thirteen Thousand
Three Hundred and Thirty-three [Three] Fences, Sex-angu-
lar." These bills were ordered to issue in sums not less than
twenty shillings ; to counterfeit them was punishable, in the
first instance, as forgery, and for the second offense, " as those
that Counterfeit the other Bills of this Province." Repre-
sentations of the proposed bills were drawn upon the copy of
the act, but in the engraving for the bills themselves some or-
naments were added. Great as the necessity was indicated by
the introduction of such a series of bills, " Mr. Wood's Copper
Money " was not well received in America. It was made a
cause of complaint that: "he had the Conscience to make
Thirteen Shillings out of a Pound of Brass." Although his
coinage was disliked by the Americans, Wood continued his
efforts to circulate the same, and as late as 1725, the officers of
his Majesty in Massachusetts, were directed to assist Mr. Wood
in the enjoyment of his privileges ; however, there is no rea-
son to suppose that his American business was ever a profita-
ble speculation.

Upon the appearance of Wood's coinage in Ireland, great
objections were at once raised to such a currency ; Dean Swift
was a leading spirit in arousing and keeping active the discon-

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 147

tent of the people. The matter became a subject of contro-
versy between Lord Carteret, the duke of Grafton, and Lord
Townsend, who passed the patent. Townsend complained
that Carteret slurred the duke of Grafton, flung dirt upon him,,
and made "somebody uneasy, for whose sake it (the patent)
was done." In consequence of this great disturbance, the king
reduced the amount of this coinage for Ireland from 100,000
to 40,000, but without appeasing the malcontents, who kept
up so strenuous an opposition, that in 1725, the king was glad
to purchase the privilege obtained from his Majesty through
the royal mistress, by settling a pension of 3,000 per annum
uoon "William Wood, the same to be continued and made pay-
able for the term of eight years. For this, three warrants for
1,000 each, were issued October 12-21, 1725; these were
made chargeable upon the establishment of Ireland, and thus
the people of that island were in effect fined for the disfavor
they had shown the new currency provided for them.

Although resigning for valuable consideration, his privi-
leges in Ireland, Wood still continued to prosecute his enter-
prise and assert his rights in America. As there had been a
large amount of coin struck for Ireland, and made uncurrent
there, it was afterwards shipped to America, where an effort
was made to introduce it into circulation, and where it became
known as "Wood's money," in distinction from the Rosa
Americana Series, coined especially for America. In the Ar-
chives of Massachusetts, is preserved an order from the duke
of Newcastle, dated "Whitehall 29th Oct.r 1725," directed to
the Governor of Massachusetts, ordering in the name of the
king of England, that Mr. William Wood should be protected,
encouraged and assisted in the legal exercise of the powers
and privileges granted him.

In 1733, other coins were struck, and a renewed endeavor
made in behalf of the interests of Mr. Wood, but the scarcity
of pieces of this date indicates a small coinage at the time, and
these may all have been pattern pieces. Thus ended a busi-
ness which having proved the ruin of some, and imposed hard-

148 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

ships upon many, seems to have been of small satisfaction to
any one, unless indeed the duchess of Kendall, for all the un-
easiness caused her by the reflections of Lord Carteret, had in
her receipts from Wood and his partners, substantial reason
to be well pleased. Although a large amount of coin was
struck under the patent granted William Woo'.l, the amount
actually put in circulation is unknown. The part of this cur-
rency struck for America is known as The Rosa Americana
Series, and on account of its historical interest, beauty of
design, style of execution and rarity, is very much desired by
antiquarians and numismatologists.

THE ROSA AMERICANA COINAGE.
The first supposed examples of this coinage, are several
pieces said to have been struck by William Wood, for pattern
pieces, as early as 1717. Of these, but five specimens, of three
denominations, exist. These rare coins are Two-pence, Pen-
nies, and a Half- Penny. As the Half- Penny was the largest
copper coin then used in England, the Two-Pence and Penny
indicate that the series must have been intended for an espe-
cial issue and circulation.

WOOD'S ROSA AMERICANA PATTERN PIECES. (?)

The Two-pence. Obverse: Well executed laureated head
of George I, facing right. Legend: "GEORGIVS'IhG M:B:
FR: ET-fl:REX-"

Reverse: The Roman numerals II surmounted by a crown,
above this on the border, the date 1717. Legend: "MAG-
BRIT-FRA-ET-HIBER-KEX:" The legend is between two
plain circles. Border, milled; Edge, plain. "Bath Metal" or
Wood's Composition. Size, 17 ; weight, 107 grains.

The Penny. No. 1. Obverse: Head of king George I, as
on the two-pence, but magnified. Legend : " GEORGVIS'D:G:
M:BRI:FRA: ET. HIB: REX'"

Reverse : The Roman numeral I, surmounted by a crown.
Legend: "DAT. PACEM'ET-NOUAS. PREBET. ET'AU-

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 149

GET-OPES." Border, beaded; Edge, plain. "Bath Metal."
Size, 16 J ; weight, 109 grains.

The Penny. No. 2. Obverse : As that of the Penny No. 1.

Reverse: Numeral "f," as on Penny No. 1, but at each side
of the same, a branch, the stems crossing beneath. Legend :
"BRVN: ET-LVN: DVX-SA:EOM:MI:ARC=THE:ET-PR:
ELEC." Border, beaded ; Edge, plain. "Bath Metal." Size,
16| ; weight, 109 grains.

It will be noted that these Pennies weigh two grains more
than the Two-pence, an odd fact indicating the experimental
nature of the coinage thus far.

The Half-pence. Obverse : Head of king George I, facing
right. Legend: "GEORGIVS REX-"

Reverse: u i" surmounted by a crown. Legend: "DAT 1
PACEM-ET-AUGET- OPES-" Border, milled; Edge, plain.
"Bath Metal." Size, 13 ; weight, 72 grains.

There is also an impression of the Penny No. 2, in brass.

AUTHORIZED ROSA AMERICANA COINAGE.

The regular authorized coinage by William Wood for
America and Ireland, began in 1722, and has been described
as the Penny, Half-penny and Farthing, but the value of the
various coins was fixed by the royal letters patent as "two-
pence, pence and half-pence."

THE TWO-PENCE OF 1722.
Four Types. Four Varieties.

EOSA AMERICANA Two- PENCE, 1722.

150

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

Obverse: Laureated head of king George I, facing right.
Legend : " GEORGIUS-D:G:MAG:BRI:FRA:ET-HIB:REX-"

Reverse : A full double rose ; from this project five barbed
points. Legend: "ROSA-AMERIClNA'1722-" in the field
over the rose, upon a label beneath the same " UTILE DULCI."
Border, beaded; Edge, plain. "Bath Metal." Size, 18 to 20;
weight, 255 grains.

Beside this principle type and variety of the Rosa Ameri-
cana Twopence, there are three others with the rose un-
crowned. One of these bears the date 1722, and two are with-
out date. The devices and legends of all three of them, are
the same as those of the Two-pence already described, except
slight variations in minor features or in punctuation. The
dateless pieces are respectively of size, 14 ; weight, 270 grains,
and size, 20 ; weight, 24 grains. The largest of these is called
the Iron Rosa Americana, although composed of pure copper.
The motto "UTILE DULCI" appears in the field of this
piece, and not upon a label, as is the case with the Two-pence
of the Rosa Americana Series dated 1722. The curious mis-
named "Iron Rosa Americana" is unique, its composition, ex-
tra size, and rudeness of execution indicate its character as a
trial piece.

THE PENNY OP 1722.

Thirty Types.
ous Dies.

Twenty-eight Varieties described. Numer-

ROSA AMERICANA PENNY, 1722.

Obverse: Laureated head of king George I, facing right
Legend : "GEORGIUS'DEI'GRATJ A-REX-"

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 151

Reverse : A fall double rose ; from this project five barbed
points. Legend: "ROSA AMERICANA- UTILE-DULGT
1722*.v" which encircles the piece. Border, beaded ; Edge,
plain. ''Bath Metal." Size, 16 to 18; weight, 139 grains.

THE HALF-PENNY OF 1722.
Eight Types. Eight Varieties.

ROSA AMERICANA HALF-PENNY, 1722.
Devices : Same as those of the Penny of this coinage. Le-
gends : Same import as those upon the Penny, but varied by
abbreviations and in punctuation. Border, beaded; Edge,
plain. "Bath Metal." Size, 13 to 14; weight, 75 grains.
First. Obverse: "GEORGIUS'DErGKATIA-REX-" Rare.
Reverse : "ROSA-AMERI:VTILE'DVLCri722-"
Second. Obverse: "GEORGIUS'D:G:REX." Quite rare.
Reverse: "ROSA-AMERI: UTILE-DULCH722-"
Third. Obverse: "GEORGIUS'DErGRATIA-REX-".
Reverse: " ROSA- AMERIC ANA- UTILE-DULCri722*"
The first and second of the Half-pennies here mentioned
are rare, especially the first. Of the third, there were six pair
of dies, from all of which varied impressions are retained.

ROSA AMERICANA TWO-PENCE, 1723.

Three Type?. Three Varieties. Ten Pair of Dies.

Obverse: Laureated head of king George I, facing right.
Legend : "GEORGIUS-D:G:MAG:BR1:FRA:ET'HIB:REX."

Reverse : A full double rose with barbs, surmounted by a
crown. Legend: ROSA-AMERICAN A-1723-" in the up-
per half of the field, and upon a label beneath the ro?e the
motto "UTILE-DULCI" Border, beaded ; Edge, plain. "Bath
Metal." Size, 19 to 21 ; weight, 220 grains.

152

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA,

ROSA AMERICANA PENNY, 1723.

Obverse: Laureated head of king George I, facing right.
Legend : "GEORGIUS-DEI-GRATIA-REX-"

Reverse : A full double rose with barbs, surmounted by a
crowii. Legend: "ROSA'AMERICANA-1723," upon a 'la-
bel beneath the rose, the motto " UTILE LULCI," the legend
almost encircling the device. Border, beaued; Edge, plain.
''Bath Metal." Size, 16 to 18 ; weight, 148 grains. There is
a unique specimen. Size, 20 ; weight, 148 grains.

THE HALF-PENNY OF 1723.
One Type. Two Varieties. Minor Differences,
and a half Pairs of Dies. Very scarce.

Eleven

EOSA AMERICANA HALF-PENNY, 1723. No. 1.
An extremely rare type and variety of this Half-penny
an uncrowned rose, as on those of 1722. One obverse
and two reverse dies.

Obverse: Legend: "GEORGIUS-DEI-GRATIA-REX-"
Reverse: EOSA- AMERICAN A v: UTILE-DULCri723 A:
Otherwise, in general, as other Half- pennies of the same series
and date. Size, 14; weight, 51 grains. The motto "UTILE
DULCI " is never sliown upon a label on the Pennies or Half-
pence which bear an uncrowned rose.

ROSA AMERICANA HALF-PENNY, 1723. No. 2.

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES.

153

The Eosa Americana Half- Penny of 1723 is usually of the
same device, legend and general features as the Penny of the
same series and date, but with minor differences not sufficient
to establish a variety. Size, 14 ; weight, 64 grains.

THE PENNY OF 1724.

Two Types. Two Varieties. Earely found.

Similar in design to the Penny of the same series dated 1723.

Obverse: "GEORGIUS- EEI'GRATIA-REX-"

Reverse: ROSA:AME RiCAJN A'1724 UTILE DULCI"
The cross upon the crown divides the word Americana.

In all this issue thus far described, the figure 1 resembles
the Roman letter J.

THE TWO-PENCE OF 1733.
One Type. One Variety.

ROSA AMERICANA TWO-PENCE, 1733.

Obverse : Laureated head of George II. facing left. Legend :
"GEORGIVS-I1-D-G-REX-"

Reverse : A rose branch, at its top a full blown rose, at the
left a stem bearing four leaves, another at the right having
three leaves and a bud. Legend : "ROSA AMER 1C ANA-
1733 - " Upon a scroll-formed label beneath the rose branch
appears the motto "UTILE DULCI" Border, beaded. Edge,
plain. "Bath Metal." Size, 18 to 21; weight, 266 grains.

But two specimens of this coin known, but there are beside
three impressions of the obverse die struck in steel.

154 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

THE ROSA SINE SPINA.

One Type. One Variety. Excessively rare.

This dateless coin, of uncertain origin, has been confounded
with the Rosa Americana Series, being sometimes mistaken
for the Two-pence of 1733, the reverse of which it somewhat
resembles.

Obverse: Laureated head of king George I facing right.
Legend : "GEORGIUS'DEI-GRATIA-REX-"

Reverse: A rose bush planted in the earth, bearing at the
top a full-blown rose; below are two stems, each bearing a
closed bud, and a bud half opened. Legend: U EOSA:SINE:
SPINA." Border, beaded; Size, 16 J; weight, 120 grains.

There are two coins, a medal, and the reverse of another
piece somewhat similar to the Rosa Sine Spina, and supposed
to belong to the same coinage. Obverse ; Almost identical
with the Rosa Sine Spina. Reverse : A sceptre and trident
crossed, interlaced wiih a three-looped cord, with pendant tas-
sels. Legend :REGIT.v VNVS # VTROGVh * The largest
coin is the only known specimen ; others may bo found in
Europe perhaps. Size, 17|; weight, 127 grains. The small
coin is described as half the size. The date of the metal re-
ferred to is 1628. Though diligently sought by all collectors
of coins struck in or for America, the Rosa Sine Spina is sel-
dom seen even in the best cabinets. But three or four can be
found in the United States.

LAWS OF PENNSYLVANIA.

The colony of Pennsylvania made no provision for a local
coinage, but the authorities passed a number of orders and
laws directed to the regulation of the value of copper coin,
and the abolition of base coin, as well as the severe punish-
ment of counterfeiters. In 1741, English Half- pence were de-
creed to pass at the rate of fifteen to the shilling. By this
means it was proposed to prevent the importation of great
quantities of these Half-pence, as had been the practice, to the

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 155

depletion of the province of large amounts of gold and silver
money. However, certain "uneasy and ill disposed Persons,"
were not content with .so high a valuation of the Half- pence,
and declining to receive them, were denounced by the Mayor
and Commonalty of Philadelphia as disturbers of the public
peace.

Any person convicted of counterfeiting any coin of gold or
silver in the province of Pennsylvania, was doomed to suffer
death without the benefit of clergy, and any person knowingly
passing such counterfeits, was on conviction thereof, to be
sentenced to stand in the pillory for the space of one hour,
having both their ears cut off and nailed to the pillory, and
beside, receive twenty-one lashes in public on the bare back,
and also pay one hundred pounds as a line, one-half to go to
the use of the Governor, and one half to the informer, with
costs and charges of prosecution assessed upon the convict.

In July 14th, 1781, the Supreme Executive Council of the
Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, issued a Proclamation pro-
hibiting the issue and circulation of base coin "in the simili-
tude of British half-pence, but much inferior in value and
weight to the genuine." From this cause, this coin was de-
preciated to the enhancement of the necessaries of life, and the
great distress of many, especially among the poorer classes.
Genuine British Half-pence, made at the Tower, were made
forty-eight to the pound. Those of the base sort were made
at Birmingham, England, seventy-two of them, or even more,
being minted from a pound of copper, which metal could at
that date be purchased in America for one-eighth of a dollar
a pound. Thus the base coinage was imposed upon the peo-
ple of the provinces, at about six times the intrinsic value of
the material from which the coins were produced. There was
no method by which to learn the amount of such currency
imported to the Confederated States of America during the
decade succeeding the war of the Revolution. Sundry ship-
ments were reported to the value of a thousand guineas each,
and it was stated that no packet arrived from England, wi;h-

156 DYE'S COIR ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

out some hundred weight of the base Half- pence. It was offi-
cially estimated that the loss to the country at large by this
"commerce of vile coin," was not less than thirty thousand
dollars per annum a very large sum for the times. In view
of these facts, and the consequent disappearance to a large ex-
tent, of standard coins of the more valuable metals, the subject
of a copper coinage of a national character was suggested at an
early date to the financiers of the country, and for action, to
the Congress of the American Confederation.

PROPOSED COINAGE FOR PENNSYLVANIA.
In April 5th, 1786, Thomas Smyth, Jr., and Thomas Har-
wood 3rd, citizens of Maryland, who represented themselves
as the owners of rich mines of silver and copper in that state,
offered a petition to the General Assembly of Pennsylvania,
asking an exclusive, yet limited right of coinage for the state,
the currency produced to be one-fourth as much silver as cop-
per, the coins of either metal to be equal in purity and weight
to any circulating at the time in America, the copper coins in
particular to be equal if not superior to those made at Tower
Hill, London. The petition was awarded a reading, but no
decided action was taken by the Assembly in the case, nor
does it appear that any subsequent effort was ever made to es-
tablish a coinage in the state of Pennsylvania.

COPPER COINAGE OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.

DESIGN FOR NEW HAMPSHIRE COPPER COIN.

The colony of New Hampshire considered the subject of
copper coinage about the time of the Declaration of Indepen-

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 157

dence by the American Eepublic. On the 13th of March,
1776, the House of Representatives of New Hampshire, ap-
pointed a committee to join a committee of the Honorable
Board, to confer upon the expediency of making copper coin.
It was reported expedient to make copper coin for the benefit
of small change, the Continental and other bills being so large.
It was recommended that one hundred and eight of the pro-
posed copper coin, should be made equal in value to "one
Spanish milled Dollar," and be struck from pure copper of the
weight of English Half- pence, to bear such device as the Gen-
eral Assembly might approve.

On the 28th of June, 1776, the House of Representatives
of New Hampshire, voted that the Treasurer of the colony
should receive in exchange for its Paper Bills, any quantity
of copper coin made in the colony, of the weight of five pen-
nyweight and ten grains each, not to exceed, however, 1000
lawful money in all. Three such copper coins were to be re-
ceived and paid for two-pence lawful money. The New
Hampshire copper coinage thus made current, was ordered to
bear on the Obverse "A Pine tree with the word American
liberty" and on the Reverse a harp, and the figures 1776.

MOULTON'S PATTERN PIECE..

Some years ago, a laborer, in removing a bank of earth in
Portsmouth, N. II., found an old copper coin, having on the
obverse a tree, and the date 1776, and on the reverse the le-
gend "AMERICAN LIBERTY," with an inscription " W. M.,"
presumably the initials of William Moulton, the person to
whom it was proposed to grant the right of coinage in New
Hampshire. The piece found was much defaced and corroded,

158 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

and is supposed to be a pattern piece struck by Moulton,
though not of the design suggested by the committee of -the
Assembly. Other pattern pieces were made as specified in
the report of the committee, of which one specimen struck
from dies, though worn, still is overweight, being of 155
grains.

ENGRAVED PATTERN PIECE

Another specimen was engraved, and is now much abraded.
Size, 18 ; weight, 127 grains.

Although the action noted was taken by the Assembly, and
the pattern pieces prepared as described, there remains no evi-
dence of a regular coinage for New Hampshire, and if any was
minted, the coinage must have been very limited, and little if
any of it found its way into circulation.

COPPER COINAGE OF VERMONT.

Though not one of the original thirteen states, and only ad-
mitted to the Union in 1791, Vermont was the first state to
issue a copper coinage upon its own authority. On June 10th,
1785, the House of Representatives of Vermont, then sitting
at the town of Norwich in that state, received and had read a
petition from Reuben Harmon, Jr., of the town of Rupert in
the county of Bennington, praying for leave to coin a quantity
of copper, which memorial was referred to a committee of
three, to meet a like committee from the Council and consider
the matter, and make a report of the facts and of their opinion
to the House.

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 159

On June 15th, 1785, a Bill was brought in, granting to
Reuben Harmon, Jr., the right of coining copper and provi-
ding regulations for the issue of the same. The bill passed
the same day, and by it Reuben Harmon, Jr., received the ex-
clusive right of coining copper in the state of Vermont for the
term of two years from July 1st, 1785, the pieces struck by
him to be of the weight of one-third of an ounce Troy each,
with such devices and mottoes, as should be agreed upon by
the committee of the Assembly. For the fullness of weight in
his coinage, and for the good and genuine quality of the metal
to be used therein, the said Reuben Ilarmon, Jr., was required
to give bonds, in the sum of five thousand pounds, with good
securities. On the 16th of June, 1785, the sureties of Reuben
lIarm<Dn, Jr., entered their names on his bond, and the busi-
ness of the mint was forwarded accordingly.

In. the course of the summer, the Representatives of Ver-
mont became informed that they had made their coin of a
o-reater weight than those circulating in the " United States

GO CJ

of America," (of which Union Vermont was not then a party),
and therefore, to prevent the deportation of their coinage, they,
on October 27th, 1785, passed an act providing that the coin
to be struck by Reuben Harmon, Jr., should weigh not less
than four pennyweight of fifteen grains each. The Treasurer
was to enter into a new bond with Harmon, but this appears
not to have been done, though the work of the Vermont Mint
was carried forward, as will hereafter be described.

Reuben Harmon, Jr., as stated by his grandson, came to
Vermont from Sandisfield, Mass., with his father, Reuben
Harmon, Sen., about the year 1760, and settled in the north-
east part of the town of Rupert, Bennington county, where he
became a man of considerable note and influence. He was a
delegate to the Independence Convention of 1776 in Vermont,
and a Representative to the Legislature of that state in 1780.
From 1780 to 1790, he was a justice of the peace, beside which
he filled several minor offices from time to time. In 1790, or
about that time, Harmon emigrated to " New Connecticut," in

160 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

the northern part of the state of Ohio, where he engaged in
making salt, at the "Salt Springs Tract" in Weathersfield
township, Trumbull county, which business he followed until
his death, October 29th, 1806, in the 56th year of his age.

The first mint in Vermont, was erected by Reuben Harmon,
Jr., in 1785, at a point on the bank of a stream called Mill-
brook, or Fillet river, three rods from his residence, in the
town of Rupert. The Mint-house stood a little east of the
main road, between the towns of Dorset and Pawlett, where a
dam was thrown across Fillet river, and a water wheel set to
drive the machinery to be used in the coinage. The building
erected was a story and a half high, of unpainted boards and
rough timber, and was about eighteen feet long, by about six-
teen feet wide. In the eastern end of this small structure, was
a furnace for melting copper, and machinery for rolling the in-
gots and bars of the same into sheets ; in the center stood a
machine for cutting the sheets into planchets, and in the west
part of the house, the press in which the coins were struck.
The machinery for working the metal was driven by the
water wheel, but the press for striking the coins was worked
by hand. The impression of the pieces was effected by means
of a large iron screw operated against a bearing in a heavy
timber framework, braced from above. This screw had long
arms on two opposite sides of its head, from these arms strong
ropes depended, and each of them being hauled in reverse di-
rection from the other by a stout man, the screw was raised
or driven down, at will.

Beside the two men actuating the screw in this manner,
another person was required to place the copper plauchets un-
der the die and watch the work. The press described, as
operated, could be made to produce some sixty impressions in
a minute, though thirty pieces per minute was the average
number struck when in regular operation. One of the parties
employed in working the press, was a person named "\Yilliam
Buel, a refugee from Connecticut, and a son of Abel Buel, of
New, Haven, in that state. The elder Buel was known in

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 161

Connecticut, where a private copper coinage began as early as
1737, as a die sinker and engraver as well as a general mechani-
cal genius ; to him are to be attributed a number of the de-
signs and dies for the early copper coinage of America. He
also invented a number of machines, and devices, by which he
became involved in pecuniary troubles, from which he was
not delivered even by his successful imitation and counter-
feiting of the Continental Bills of the Federal Congress, an en-
terprise which involved him in unpleasant consequences.

Abel Buel manufactured the "Sun-dial" or "Mind-Your-
Business" coppers, common about the close of the last century,
which he made at New Haven, Connecticut, from dies of his
own designing and engraving. William Buel was concerned
in the working of the mint belonging to his father, and may
subsequently have been engaged upon a private coinage of his
own. It seems that in consequence of his work as a coiner,
William Buel was obliged to expatriate himself from his na-
tive place, not through any apprehension of punishment by
the authorities of the commonwealth, for at that time they
gave no trouble to parties in his line of business, unless actual
counterfeiters, and in this William Buel was innocent. His
trouble was peculiar, but exceedingly serious, and originated
as follows : Having occasion to use aquafortis, he procured a
quantity from a druggist, which he undertook to carry home
in a jug. On his way, he was accosted by some Indians, who
insisted upon drinking from the jug, which they assumed was
full of rum.

Buel informed the Indians the contents of his jug were a
deadly poison. This the aborigines considered a ruse by Buel
to save his liquor, and forcibly took the jug from him. One
of the Indians drank some of the aquafortis, and of course
soon died a victim to his own ignorant rashness. The Indi-
ans, however, by their peculiar system of ethics and justice,
regarded Buel as guilty of having killed the poisoned Indian,
and they sought the coiner's life to appease the spirit of their
deceased comrade. Had Buel been aware that the system of
K

162 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

blood money obtained among the Indians, as with the ancient
Greeks, lie could have atoned for the accident by the disburse-
, ment of a few shillings. Otherwise, the Indians pursued Buel
with such pertinacity, that he was compelled to make good
his escape to the new and then unacknowledged state of
Vermont.

William Buel made his new residence i* the town of Ru-
pert, to which place he presently' removed the New Haven
manufactory of coppers, having taken with him the original
dies made by his father. It may have been that William
Buel first called the attention of Keuben Harmon, Jr., to the
matter of the coinage of copper as a business. At all events,
Harmon and Buel established a mint at Rupert, and there, as
is supposed, the New Haven u Sun-dial"and "Mind-Your-Busi-
ness" dies, were for a time more or less made use of, despite
the provisions of the Vermont law to the contrary in the act
of concession to Harmon. It is not probable any breach of
the law was intended, but Buel was allowed to strike his coins
at Rupert, as money of authorized issue in the state of Con-
necticut, to which state they may have been assumed to be
shipped. In fact, the political relations of the states, and the
customs regarding coinage, were both irregular and indefinite
at the time of the circumstances just related. Another work-
man in the Vermont Mint, as originally operated, was "Colonel
William Cooley," a die sinker, who had worked at the gold-
smith's trade in the city of New York, whence he removed to
Rupert, Vermont.

ORIGINAL COPPER COINAGE OF VERMONT.

The coin issued by Reuben Harmon, Jr., under the act
passed in his favor, October 27th, 1785, may be described as
follows :

THE VERMONT CENT OF 1785.

Four Types. Three Varieties. Two Pair of Dies.
Number 1. Obverse: A range of wooded mountains, from
behind which, to the right, the sun is rising. In the field

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES.

163

beneath stands a plough. Legend: " . VERMONTS.RES.
PUBLIC A-" Exergue: 1785

Reverse: An eye, enclosed in a small ring, surrounded by a
ciiele of thirteen stars. From the small circle spring twenty-
six rays, of which thirteen are long, one passing through each
space between the stars. Thirteen of the rays are short, one
between the body of each star and the center. Legend:
"STELLA.QUARTA .DECIMA ." Borders, beaded or milled;
Edge, plain. Copper; size, 17; weight, 111 grains.

VERMONT CENT, 1785.

Number 2. Obverse : Similar to that of No. 1, except the
Legend: ".VERMONTIS.RES.PUBLICA "

Reverse: Almost identical with that of No. 1. Copper;
size, 17; weight, 117 grains.

NumberS. Obverse: The Legend: "VERMONTIS RES'
PUBLIC A" encircles the device and the date; the sun in
the device is rising leftwards of a thickly-wooded hill; a
line divides the date from the device.

Reverse : The sun in the center, from which proceed fine
single-pointed rays of unequal length. Legend: "STELLA
QUARTA DECIMA." Unique specimen, in poor condition.

VERMONT CENT OF 1786. OLD STYLE,

164 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Number 1. Obverse: Device in general as that of No. 1 of
1785, but varying in details, both from the coinage of 1785
and in different dies of this piece of 1786. Legend: "VER-
MOXTENSIUM-RES-PUBLICA-" Exergue: 1786

Reverse : An eye in the center, encircled by a small ring
surrounded by thirteen stars; from the center proceed thir-
teen rays of many fine lines, running to a single point, which
pierce the spaces between the stars. Legend: "QUART A *
DECIMA-STELLA-"

COPPER COINAGE OF VERMONT. SECOND SERIES.

On October 23rd, 1786, Reuben Harmon, Jr., presented a
second petition to the General Assembly of Vermont, then
sitting at Rutland, asking that the privilege of coining copper
granted him for two years, should be extended for a further
term of ten years, or such a period as the Assembly should di-
rect, the coinage to be conducted under such regulations as
should be deemed expedient by the authorities.

Upon consideration, the Assembly ordered that the sole
privilege of coining copper in the state of Vermont, be granted
to Reuben Harmon, Jr., for the term of eight years from the
expiration of his first grant on the first day of July, 1786.
lie was required to give bond to the Treasurer, a-i in case of
the. former grant. The first three years the petitioner was to
enjoy his privilege free, and for the remaining five years, was
to pay two and one-half per centum of his coinage to the state.
It was ordered that thereafter, the device of the copper coin of
Vermont should be, "a head on one side, with the motto
'Auctoritale Vermontensium ' abridged ; on the reverse, a wo-
man representing the Genius of America, with the letters
INDE:ET:LIB: for "Independence and Liberty," the pieces
struck, to weigh not less than "four pennyweight, fifteen
grains each."

On February 23rd, 1787, the bond of Reuben Harmon, Jr.,
was made good, the operations of the Mint were continued, and
on. the 18th of the following April, its manager entered into a

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 165

new partnership, with a view to a large and widely-extended
business. ,

This new partnership, when fully made up, consisted often
men, viz : Reuben Harmon, Jr., William Coley, Elias Jackson,
Daniel Tan Yoorhis, Samuel Atlee, James F. Atlee, D. Brooks,
James Grier, James Giles, Thomas Machin. This Thomas
Machin was an Englishman, who came to America as an offi-
cer in the British service, sometime before the Revolution.
During the war for Independence, he entered the American
army as an engineer, and was employed by Congress in 1777,
in fortifying the Highlands of the Hudson, and stretching a
great chain across the river at West Point.

At the close of the war, Captain Machin located at Orange
Lake, New Grange, Ulster county, now the city of New burgh,
state of New York. Machin, or "Machen," as he was called
in the histories of the time, brought his skill as an engineer
into private service, and improved the natural features of
Orange Lake, so as to form, a considerable water power and
develop a valuable property. He created an artificial outlet
for the waters of the lake, and in 1784:, erected a building
known as "Machin's Mills," for the ostensible purpose of be-
ing used as a manufactory of "hardware." The real design
of Machin, and those with whom he became associated, was to
establish at Orange Lake, or Machin's Pond," an extensive
general Mint, for the common coinage of copper, either on
private account as tokens, medals and so forth, or of an au-
thorized currency, under contract by virtue of "any Grant for
Coinage of Money from the United States of America in Con-
gress Assembled or from the Legislature of any of the United
States."

On March 3rd, 1787, Thomas Machin petitioned the Assem-
ibly of New York for a grant, allowing him to coin copper in
that state, which was read and referred to a Committee, but
no concession was granted the petitioner.

The partnership formed for working the Mint at Orange
Lake, or "New Grange," was carefully organized, and as it ap-

166 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

pears the Vermont Mint became in some sort a part of tlie
concern. There was, however, no legal connection between
the two mints, the relation being only a, private business un-
derstanding and co-operation between the parties named as
partners. The manufacture of "hardware" at Machin's Mills,
was conducted with secresy, and generally looked upon with
suspicion, being regarded as wrong and illegal. Though not
very great in amount, the issues of the copper coinage of Ma-
chin & Co., were quite varied, and it is probable that many
pieces now regarded as Connecticut coins, or others of irregu-
lar character, with many spurious half-pence of George III,
are merely samples of counterfeits executed by them.

The Mint at New Grange was erected by Thomas Machin
on the east side of his pond, an eighth of a mile from the
shore, in 1784:. The machinery for making the copper plan-
chets to be coined, was much like that described as used in
Vermont; the press for striking the coin was, however, of a
somewhat different construction. "The coins were struck by
means of a large bar, loaded at each end with a ball weighing
some five hundred pounds, to which ropes were attached."
This bar must have been the lever for rotating the screw of
the press, and the heavy balls were intended to give momen-,
turn to the action of the same. Two men were required on
each side to haul the ropes, beside a fifth person to set the
planchets under the die. James F. Atlee is reported to have
been the practical overseer of the work of coinage, the articles
of partnership providing that, "Said Thomas Machin and
James F. Atlee shall equally manage and perform that part of
the trade which Concern the Coinage of Money and Manufac-
turing Hardware."

The machinery of Machin's Mills was capable of producing
about sixty pieces of coin per minute. The metal of which
the coins were struck, was procured by smelting old brass
cannon and mortars, the relics of the Revolution. The zinc
being parted from the brass by the action of the furnace, the
copper which came through the fire was worked into shape

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 167

for the use of the Mint. What amount of work was done un-
der the superintendence of James F. Atlee is not recorded in
full, but the business of Thomas Machin & Co., was not suc-
cessful in any great degree. But little seems to have been
done until the year 1789, when, according to Machin's papers,
some thousand pounds of copper was manufactured. The
next year there was a quarrel or disagreement among the nu-
merous partners, and notwithstanding the care and prolixity
with which the articles of partnership had been drawn, a tedi-
ous and expensive lawsuit was apprehended. To avoid this,
James F. Atlee suggested an equitable settlement by compro-
mise, and the Mint ceased operations in 1791, on the basis of
his suggestion as may be supposed. In 1792, the machinery
and appliances for coinage were removed from Machin's Mills.
The old coining press was subsequently used on board the
sloop "Newburgh," as part ballast, and in this way was car-
ried up and down the Hudson river, under command of Cap-
tain Isaac Belknap, for a number of years.

The dies used by Machin & Co., at New Grange, were made
by James F. Atlee. The inscriptions and devices of some of
tnem indicate they were to be used in producing a coinage in-
tended for circulation in Vermont. There is also good reason
to believe that the same Atlee executed some of the dies used
in striking the authorized coinage of Vermont issued by Ilarr
mon ; whether these were used at Rupert, as the law required,
or at Machin's Mills, in the state of New York, as might have
been convenient, is uncertain. Many of the coins of Machin
& Co., were irregular, and all of them unauthorized, being
coined in a place not legally recognized as a mint of is? ue.

COPPER COINAGE OF THOMAS MACHIN & CO.

No. 1. Obverse: A head almost identical with that upon
the more common coins. Legend: "GEORGIVS'III-REX-"

Reverse : The goddess of liberty, seated, facing left, an olive
branch extended in her right hand, the left hand supporting a
liberty staff. This reverse being common to coins attributed

168 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

to Vermont and to others supposed to belong to Connecticut.
Legend: " INDJi ET LIB " . Exergue: The date. Borders,
serrated or milled; Edges, plain. Copper: size, 16 to 18;
weight, from 120 grains to 154 grains.

No. 2. Obverse: A smaller head than No. 1. Legend:
"GEORGIVSIII.REX."

Reverse: Identical with that upon certain pieces described
as Connecticut coins similar to that of No. 1. Legend:
"INDE*ET*LIB*"

No. 3. Obverse: Ahead, facing right. Legend: "-fcAUC-
TORI. CONNECT

Reverse: From the same die as that of No. 2.

No. 4. Obverse : A head, facing left. Legend : :-: AUC-
TORI 3 :> CONNEC :v "

Reverse : From the same die as that of No. 2 and No. 3.

The Legislature of Vermont, by the terms of the second
grant made Reuben Harmon, Jr., as has been related, provided
for an entirely new series of coin, the devices, legends and
general features of which have been noted already. Whether
coined, according to the intent of the law, at the Vermont
Mint, at Rupert, in that state, or struck for Harmon by Ma-
chin & Co., at their hardware manufactory in the state-of New
York, the regular authorized coinage of Vermont was of the
following general description :

COPPER COINAGE OF VERMONT, 1786, 1787, 1788.

The "VERMONT CENT" of 1786. (New Series.) Three
Types. Three Varieties.

VERMONT CENT, 1786. NEW

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 169

Obverse: A head, facing right, or left. Legend: "AUC-

TORI SERMON," or "VERMON AUCTORI," variously

punctuated on different specimens.

Reverse : The goddess of liberty, seated, facing left, by her
side a circular shield, bearing four sheaves of grain. In her
right hand the figure tenders an olive branch, the left arm be-
ing upraised, the hand resting at the top of a long liberty
staff'. Legend: "INDE ET LIB" variously punctuated on
different specimens. Exergue : The date. Border, serrated ;
Edge, plain. Copper ; size, 16 to 17 ; weight, generally above
the Ic^al requirement of 111 grains ; average from 120 grains
to 141 grains.

The "VERMONT CENT" of 1787. Three Types. Three
Varieties.

Obverse: Similar in general to that of this coinage and
series for the preceding year.

Reverse : Variety numbers 1 ; .i.l 2, similar in general to
that of the preceding year, except a cross upon the shield.
Variety number 3, bears the word "BRITAN NIA" instead
of the leseml "INDE ET LIB."

VERMONT CENT, 17S8.

The "VERMONT CENT" of 1788. Six Types. Four Varie-
ties.

Obverse : Similar in general to that of this coinage and se-
ries for the preceding years. Variety number 4, has the le-
gend "INDE ET LIB" transposed so as to read, " * ET LIB *
*INDE" a remarkable deviation.

170 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

There are fourteen obverse, and fourteen reverse dies, noted
as having been used in the production of this coinage and se-
ries ; these were used from time to time in varied relations
and combinations, interchangeably, thus creating great diver-
sities and numerous differences in the coinage, not of especial
interest, aside from the studies of painstaking antiquarians.

Type No. 1, of 1786, is known as the "Baby Head," on ac-
count of the infantile appearance of the face. Nos. 2 and 3 of
the types of 1786, have heads much the same as those shown
upon the common types of the Connecticut cents of the same
period. The obverse die of 1786, was sometimes struck upon
pieces bearing a reverse of 1787. There was not an exceed-
ing diversity in the coinage of 1787, or in the general features
of that of 1778, except in the several rare issues from dies
wherein the legends were punctuated with stars. One of the
obverse dies of 1788, belonging to Connecticut, was used with
a Vermont reverse of the same year, an instance of irregularity
accounted for by what has been recorded as to the partnership
formed at the time between the several men employed in pro-
ducing coin in the name of different states, first one, then an-
other, and finally, probably in an illegal, or at least disorderly
manner, from dies of all these coinages, which, whilever they
could be made effective, were economically and promiscuously
used in the production of a mixed and heterogenious currency,
which, though at first a public convenience, owing to the con-
dition of the country then, subsequently depreciated and was
finally displaced by money issued by the United States.

COIN OF UNKNOWN ORIGIN.

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 171

The dies of the Vermont Mint, in common with those of
the Mints of other states, were not only used oddly in con-
junction with each other, but were struck upon other coins,
such as British half-pence and Nova Constellatios.

A very rare piece, the origin of which is unknown, has for
an obverse an impression of a Vermont type, and for a reverse,
that of the pattern piece called the "Immune Columbia," which
presents the goddess of liberty seated, facing right; her left
hand is fully extended, and in it is upheld the scales of justice;
in the right hand she grasps a flag, which depends from a lib-
erty staff, which is crowned by the liberty cap. Legend:
"IMMUNE COLUMBIA." Exergue: 1785. BoththeNova
Constellatios and the Immune Columbia, were early pattern
pieces, of which an account will be found in succeeding pages.

COPPER COINAGE OF CONNECTICUT.

The colony of Connecticut suffered, in common with the
rest of the British Provinces in America, from a scarcity of
currency, and like the others, sought to remedy the evil by an
issue of paper money. These bills, in common with those of
the rest of the provinces, rapidly depreciated, until in 1839,
one ounce of silver of the British standard, was valued at "28
shillings of them or any other of the New England old tenor
bills," all of which were "liable to grow worse and worse."
The coinage of copper was a subject of consideration in Con-
necticut at an early date, inasmuch as in Granby, then part of
the town of Simsbury, in the state of Connecticut, there Avas
from early times a considerable copper mine, productive of a
very fine quality- of that metal.

There seems to have been a peculiar currency used in Con-
necticut early in the seventeenth century, consisting of a kind
of coin of which the numismatologists of the present time are
entirely ignorant. It can only be stated that on May 25th,
1721, the Upper House of the General Assembly of Connecti-
cut, passed an act sent from the Lower House, ordering that
the coin called "black doggs" should pass at two-pence each.

172 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Although no such coin is known by the name, it is evident
from the value given the pieces, that they must have been of
copper, or of some composition consisting mostly of that metal.

The earliest coinage in Connecticut, of which there is an
historical record, was an unauthorized or private one, made
by John Iligley, of Gran by, of copper from ores dug on his own
premises, at "Copper Ilill," in that town, and struck during
the years 1737, 1738, 1739, about three years, though no speci-
mens of this coinage are to be found bearing the date of 1788.

The copper coins made by John Higley are called "The
Gran by or Iligley Tokens," and are finely executed. As the
authorities paid no attention to the production and circulation
of these tokens, it is presumable that a considerable amount
of them were issued, yet they are at present extremely rare,
their disappearance being accounted fcr, according to tradition,
by the fact that owing to the uncommon purity of the Con-
necticut copper, of which they were made, the "ETigley Cop-
pers" were largely used by the goldsmiths of the Colonial pe-
riod and subsequent years, to alloy the gold used by them in
their manufactures.

The "GRAXBY OR HIGLEY TOKENS," 1737 to 1739. No. 1,
1737. Two Types. One Variety. (A.)

GRANBY OR HIGLEY TOKEX, 1737.

Obverse: A deer, standing, facing left, occupying the whole
field. Legend: " |3T" TilE-VALVE'OF-THREE-PENCE."

Reverse: Three hammers, each bearing a crown. Legend:
" is CONNECT1CUT.1737. ^> "

No. 2. 1737. One Type. Two Varieties.

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 173

Obverse : A deer, standing, facing left, occupying the whole
field. Legend: f^~ " VALVE.ME.AS.YOU.PLEASE-^"
Exergue : The Koman numerals III upon a small scroll ; a lit-
tle crescent is shown below.

Reverse: Three hammers, each bearing a crown upon the
head. Legend: |^". "I.AM.GOOD.COPPER."s>- -<1737.

No. 3. No date. Three Types. One Variety.

GRANBY OR HIGLEY TOKEN.

Obverse : A deer, standing, facing left ; a crescent above in
the field. Legend: |^-"VALUE.ME.AS.YOU.PLEASE&"
Exergue: The Roman numerals III upon a small scroll; a
little crescent is shown below.

Reverse : A broad axe. Legend : 0""J. CUT.MY.W A Y.
THROUGH."

No. 4. 1739. One Type. One Variety.

Obverse : A deer, standing, facing left ; a crescent above in
the field. Legend: t^-"VALUE.ME.AS.YOU.PLEASE&"
Exergue: The Roman numerals III upon a small scroll; a
little crescent is shown below.

Reverse: A broad axe. Legend: "J. CUT. MY. WAY.
THROUGH. 1739."

All the Granby or Higley Tokens were made with beaded
or milled borders, and with plain edges. They varied in size
from 18 to 19, and in weight from 120 to 170 grains. There
were seven obverse and four reverse dies, which were com-
bined variously, the same obverse being used with different
reverse impressions, or one reverse with different obverse im-
pressions, producing odd pieces. The most common reverse
was the variety, bearing the broad axe, but no date. (No. 3.)

174 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

The coinage of his tokens having been effected without the
sanction of law, Iligley found trouble in putting them in cir-
culation at their nominal value. At first he stamped them as
worth three-pence, the colonial paper being depreciated, and
then, at loss to measure values by such a fluctuating standard,
and uncertain how his coinage would be received, he inscribed
upon his subsequent pieces the modest legend, " Va-lue.Me.As.
You.Please." To establish and extend the business of his
mint upon a more stable and regular basis, it appears that
Iligley sought assistance and co-operation outside the colony
in which he conducted his business, and that he and those who
became interested with him, undertook, through "Mr. John
Eead, of Boston, Gent.," to secure the authority of law for
their operations, and to make the copper product of their mint,
the monetary standard of the province.

Accordingly, on October loth, 1739, the said John Read ad-
dressed the General Court of Connecticut, then assembled in
New Ilaven, and in a Memorial and Petition, set forth the la-
mentable condition of the currency of New England, on ac-
count of the depreciation in the bills of the several colonies,
and inasmuch as for various reasons Connecticut stood fairly
with the British Court, he suggested the General Court should
obtain from the Crown -authority to effect a coinage of copper,
and establish a mint, thus providing a proper currency for the
colonists and developing the mines and natural resources of
the colony.

Confident of the favor of the Crown of England, Mr. Read
undertook, if the General Court would send an Agent to Lon-
don under his direction, to bear all the expense of the mission,
and only asked that in case of success in obtaining the patent
such as was desired, he and those concerned with him, should
have all the legitimate profit derived from the work of sup-
plying "the public with the much-needed coinage."

The currency proposed by Mr. Read, was to consist of Eng-
lish half-pence and farthings coined from Connecticut copper
of sterling value ; with these he proposed to redeem the out-

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 175

standing bills of Connecticut at maturity, issuing in the mean-
time, new bills only to replace those already in circulation.
Of the new bills and copper to be coined, he suggested a bank
should be created, which should pay its obligations and those
of the colony upon demand, in tho course of business, one-half
in the new bills, and one-half in copper money from the Con-
necticut Mint. In this way the petitioner argued, there would
be an immediate supply of money of intrinsic value, which
would be ever preserved in value "against all factors, stock-
jobbers and chances whatsoever." Thus, too, he expected to
induce the holders of silver money to give up hoarding the
same, and throw it into circulation, in common with the other
currencj'- of paper and copper, the whole to result greatly to
the comfort and relief of the people and the advantage of trade
and general industry.

No notice was at first taken of the memorial of Mr. Head,
and he wrote three letters, one after another, calling attention
to the matter ; his third letter was dated November 12th,
1739, and on the twenty- first of the same month, the Memo-
rial and Petition which he had presented five weeks before,
was first "corne to" in the order of business for consideration.
There is no evidence of the legislation desired by Mr. Read
and his partners, and subsequently, although private coinages
were continued in diflerent places, and a share of the coppers
produced were circulated in Connecticut, there is no further
record of any effort to establish an especial issue of coin for
that colony, as such.

The copper mine owned by John Higley, and from which
he obtained the metal used in the production of his copper
tokens, was situated about a mile and a half south of the prin-
cipal Simsbury copper mines, and was in the course of time
extensively worked. On October, 1773, the General Court of
Connecticut made the subterranean part of the Simsbury cop-
per mines a colonial goal and public workhouse, which was
afterwards known as Newgate Prison. To this prison for
some half a century thereafter, tho Courts of Connecticut sen-

176 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

tenced burglars, horse thieves, counterfeiters and the like
criminals. The mines, which were quite unprofitable as an
average business, were more unsatisfactory as a place of con-
finement; the buildings connected with them were three
times destroyed by fire, and revolts, violence and escapes were
of frequent occurrence. The unfortunate prisoners were em-
ployed in working the mines, and the discreditable establish-
ment was kept up until the year 1827, when a more humane
institution was founded upon modern principles in another
part of the state.

On October 18th, 1785, Samuel Bishop, James Hillhouse,
John Goodrich and Joseph Hopkins, presented a petition to
the "Honorable General Assembly of the state of Connecti-
cut," then "sitting at New Haven, in that state." These peti-
tioners, citizens of Connecticut, represented the existence of a
great and general scarcity of small coin in the state, to the ex-
cessive inconvenience of all orders of men, especially the la-
boring class, "in the article of making change," and further-
more, that both Englishmen and natives of the state were
counterfeiting in great abundance, coining and issuing a coin
much under weight, and endeavoring to impose the same upon
the public, to the discredit of the copper currency and the
damage of the commonwealth. In view of these facts, the
said Bishop, Hillhouse, Goodrich and Hopkins, proposed the
consideration of the expediency of a grant to them of the
right and power of establishing " a Mint in this State," to be
used for ten years by them, under superintendence of the As-
sembly in coining coppers of good metal of the standard and
weight of British half-pence, five per cent, of the coppers
coined by them to be paid into the Treasury of the state, in
consideration of the privilege granted them in making such
an issue current. Beside this, they asked that the coinage of
copper in the state, without permission of the Assembly,
should be punished as counterfeiting, according to the laws in
the case of an imitation of gold and silver money.

After discussion, the General Assembly, on ;ober 20th,

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 177

1785, finally passed a bill in form, granting the persons named
in the petition, the right to establish a mint in Connecticut to
manufacture coppers of the value of British half- pence, not to
exceed the amount of Ten Thousand Pounds lawful money,
the grant to continue during the pleasure of the General As-
sembly, but not exceeding five years, upon the terms named
in the petition, the coinage to be inspected by appointees of
the state, at the expense of the persons conducting the mint,
and not to issue without inspection. Nothing in the act was
to be construed so as to make the coppers a legal tender, "ex-
cept for the purpose of making even change, for any sum not
exceeding three shillings." This coinage was ordered to bear
the following impression or stamp, (viz), a man's head on the
one side, with a circumscription in the words or letters fol-
lowing, (viz), AVCTORI: CONNEC: and on the other side,
the Emblem of Liberty, with an olive branch in her hand,
with a circumscription in the words and figures following,
(viz), INDE:ET.LIB:1785.

On October 24th, 1785, the General Assembly of Connecti-
cut "Passed a Bill to prevent Coining Coppers without Li-
cence" by which it was enacted "that no person whatever
shall Coin or Manufacture any Copper Coin of any descrip-
tion or size without permission first had and obtained from
the General Assembly on pain of forfeiting for each oft'ence
the sum of one hundred pounds lawful Money which forfei-
ture shall be if sued for by a private person one Moiety there-
of to the use of the person prosecuting to Effect and the other
Moiety thereof to the Treasurer of this State to and for the
use of this State and shall be recoverable by Action of Debt
or Information before any Court proper to try the same ".
An attempt was subsequently made to prohibit the importa-
tion into Connecticut of any counterfeit coin, or any copper
coin, unless of a coinage authorized by the Congress of the
United States, or by some one of the States, and of equal value
to that coiaed in Connecticut by lawful authority. During
May, 1786 a bill passed the Lower House of Assembly, which

178 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

fixed the amount of prohibited coppers any person could at
one time bring into the state, at fifty pieces ; non-compliance
with the law to be punished by a fine of "Ten Pounds lawful
Money," all such coin so imported to be confiscated and dis-
posed of as counterfeit money. This bill failed to pass the
Upper House of Assembly, and the mixed and irregular cop-
per currency continued in circulation.

The dies for the Connecticut coppers were made by Abel
Buel. The work of coinage appears to have been made the
subject of a sub-contract to Samuel Broome and Jeremiah
Platt; these sub-contractors had formerly been merchants in
New York, and were said to be men of fortune. Broome and
Platt had a mint at a place now called Morris Cove, on the
light hand side of New Haven harbor, going up, at a point
about two miles above the light house. Thsre was another
mint at "Westville, at the foot of "West Eock, about two miles
inland from New Haven. The building at Morris Cove was
a small frame house, said to have been painted red. This
mint was in operation in 1788, and is described as making use
of "a powerful iron screw" for striking the coins, the whole
apparatus and establishment being doubtless much the same
as that described in use about the same time at Rupert, Ver-
mont, and by Machin and Company at New Grange, now New-
burgh, Ulster county state of New York.

CONNECTICUT COPPERS, 1785 TO 1788 INCLUSIVE.
The "CONNECTICUT CENT," 1785. Eight Types. Eight
Varieties.

CONNECTICUT CENT, 1785 MAILED BUST.

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 17i)

Obverse : A mailed bust, the head laureated, facing right or
left. Legend : "AUCTORI CONNEC," variously punctuated.

Reverse : The goddess of liberty, seated, facing left, by her
side a circular scrolled shield. In her right hand the figure
tenders an olive branch ; the left hand, being upraised, grasps
a liberty staff, near the top, which is surmounted by a liberty
cap. Legend: "INDE.ET LIB:" Exergue: 1785. Borders,
serrated or milled Edges, plain. Size, 17 to 18; weight, 132
to 153 grains.

CONNECTICUT CENT, 1785. MAILED BUST.

Some of the types and varieties of the coinage just described
are unique as specimens, some very rare, and others compara-
tively common.

The "CONNECTICUT CENT," 1786. Seven Types. Ten Va-
rieties.

CONNECTICUT CENT, 1786. MAILED BUST.

Obverse : Similar to that of this coinage for the preceding
year, except that the first five types have mailed busts, while
the other two are draped.

Reverse : Similar to that of this coinage for the preceding

180 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

year, except differences in punctuation of the legend. Weight,
116 to 173 grains.

CONNECTICUT CENT, 1786. ("HERCULES."; MAILED BUST.

Two pieces from dies classed as belonging to this coinage
of 1786, weigh respectively but 84 grains and 102 grains, and
on that account, and because of differences in execution as com-
pared to the rest of the issue, are suspected of being counterfeits.
While some of the genuine coins of 1786 are as noted, of but
116 grains, few have been found which do not reach the legal
weight of 144 grains, and a number are considerably heavier.

cL'T CENT, 1786. DRAPED BUST.
The "CONNECTICUT CENT," 1787. Forty-three Types.
Thirty-six Varieties.

CONNECTICUT CENT OF 1787. MAILED BUST.

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 181

Obverse : Similar in general to that of this coinage for the
two preceding years, except in the division and punctuation
of the legend, and the mis-spelling of the same in several in-
stances, the word "AUCTORI" being variously rendered in
different dies, as: "AUCIORI," "AUCTOBI," "AUCTOPI,"
or the legend made to read "AUCTORI CONNECT," or
"AUCTORI CONNFC." Fifteen of the types of 1787 bear
mailed busts, and twenty-eight types of the same year bear
draped busts, while the decoration of the different pieces with
star?, pheons, cinquefoils, fleurons mullets and the like pecu-
liarities, creates deviations too numerous and unimportant for
record in a general description.

Reverse : Similar in general to that of this coinage for the
two preceding years, except in the division, transposition, and
punctuation of the legend, and the mis-spelling of the same in
several instances, the words "INDE ET LIB" being variously
rendered in different dies, as: "INDE ETLIB," "ETLIB
INDE," "IND ET. LIB," " INDL ET LIB ,"
"INDE ETLIR," "INDE ET.LIR," "INDEETIIB, etc.,
with multiform decorations varied on the different pieces,
creating deviations too numerous and unimportani for present
notice "Weight, 117 to 184 grains.

CONNECTICUT CENT, 1787. DRAPED BUSTS.

One piece from a die classed as belonging to this coinage of
1787, weighs but 104 grains; it has a very small head upon
the obverse, and in execution resembles the coins of other
states more than the mintage of Connecticut. On account
of these peculiarities, this piece is supposed a counterfeit.

182 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

The "CONNECTICUT CENT" of 1788. Sixteen Types. Four-
teen Varieties.

CONNECTICUT CENT, 1788. MAILED BUST.

Obverse : Similar in general to that of this coinage for the
three preceding years, having deviations similar to those de-
scribed in the dies of 1787. In one case, the legend "AUC-
TORI CONNEC" is mis-spelled and made to read "AUC-
TORI CONNLC." Thirteen of the types of 1788 bear mailed
busts, and three types of the same year bear draped busts.

Reverse : Similar in general to that of this coinage for the
three preceding years, with somewhat similar deviations in
the division, orthography and punctuation of the legend, and
also in the heraldic details and decorations peculiar to the sev-
eral varieties. "Weight, 108 to 168 grains. (Average weight
less than any other year.)

One specimen of 1788, has an obverse identical with one of
1787 of Connecticut ; reverse the same as one of the coins of
Vermont. Another Connecticut coin of this year, has the
same reverse as the "GEORGIVS III- REX-" issue of Machin
& Co., from the mint established by them in the state of New
York.

CONNECTICUT CENT, 1788. DRAPED BUST.

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 183

Of this copper coinage of Connecticut, there were, according
to the best authorities and the most careful investigation of
the best collections of "Colonials," in 1785, eighteen obverse
and eight reverse dies ; in 1786, fifteen obverse and ten re-
verse dies ; in 1787, one hundred and eight obverse and fifty-
two reverse dies ; in 1788, twenty -three obverse and fourteen
reverse dies. One hundred and sixty-four obverse and eighty-
four reverse dies in all, for although according to the record,
this coinage was continued until 1789, no coins have been
found of this species bearing that date and the impress of the
Connecticut mint. These numerous dies were used inter-
changeably, in different combinations, one with another, some-
times those of different years being worked together, and as
has been noted, the dies of different mints appear in the coin-
age of different states, and in cases, upon pieces from private
unauthorized manufactories of coppers. Great trouble has
been taken to classify the copper coinage of Connecticut, but
the enumeration and description of the same has not been
made absolutely perfect; neither can the best experts dis-
criminate with certainty between the counterfeit and the gen-
uine.

In January, 1789, the General Assembly of Connecticut ap-
pointed a Committee to inquire into the condition and record-
of the mint of that state. This Committee met on the 7th of
April, 1789, and reported to the General Assembly at the ses-
sion held at Hartford the following May. The report of this
Committee gave a succinct history of the mint, reciting its
origin and organization, as well as giving a complete state-
ment of the several co-partnerships which had been formed to
carry on the business. The owners of the mint at that time,
were James Jar vis, 4-8 and 1-16 parts ; James Hillhouse, Esq.,
1-8 part; Mark Leavenworth, Esq., 1-8 part; Abel Buel, 1-8
part, and John Goodrich, 1-16 part. "Abel Buel" is reported
to have gone to Europe and left his rights in the copper coin-
age to his son Benjamin. The firm are said to have ceased
the coinage of coppers June 1st, 1787, but Benjamin Buel is

184 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

reported to be pursuing the business "and has Just began to
Stamp them.'' The Certificate of the three Inspectors showed
there had been inspected "twenty eight Thousand nine Hun-
dred and forty four Pounds weight of Coined Coppers," and
that there was still due the state, on account of the twentieth
part to it payable by law," sixty-one Pound & two o/.s. of
coined coppers" which were reckoned at "Eighteen Coppers
for One Shilling," making the amount due the state "Eight
Pound three Shillings."

For six weeks from September 10th, 1786, the mint, as ap-
peared by report of the Committee, had been leased to Mark
Leavenworth, Isaac Baldwin, and William Leavenworth, dur-
ing which time they made, according to their own statement,
blank coppers, which they had stamped in the city of New
York with various impressions, some few with that borne by
the Connecticut coins, or one resembling the same. On June
20th, 1789, the General Assembly passed a resolve suspending
the coinage to the end of the next session, the proprietors and
all persons interested in the mint to be notified to appear and
show reason why their grant of the right of coinage should
not cease ; and this seems to have been in effect the end of the
coinage of this mint for the state of Connecticut.

By the Constitution of 1787, the United States assumed the
exclusive right to coin money for the several states. On mo-
tion, during the session of the General Assembly of Connecti-
cut, December, 1790, the Treasurer was authorized and di-
rected to sell the copper coin belonging to the state for liqui-
dated notes, or securities of the state, provided he could obtain
two shillings of said notes or securities per pound weight for
said coppers. The same coppers still remaining unsold, and
James Jarvis being engaged upon an extensive contract to
coin copper cents according to act of the Congress" of the
United States, the General Assembly of Connecticut, during
the session of May, 1791, directed the State Treasurer to dis-
pose of the coppers in the Treasury, the property of the state,
to the best advantage, and make report of his proceedings in

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 185

said business, which being supposed to have been done, con-
cluded the action of Connecticut in the matter of a special and
local coinage.

COPPER COINAGE OF MASSACHUSETTS.

From a very early date, the industrious and commercial
colony of Massachusetts, gave almost constant attention to va-
rious projects for securing a supply of money, either of paper
bills, or coin of different metals. In Massachusetts, the only
colonial mint for silver was established, and for that colony
alone, as far as known, was a project for importing money
considered by its Legislature. This scheme was embodied in
a Memorial presented to the Senate of Massachusetts, March
17t.li, 1702-3, by "William Chalkhill, One of the Monyers of
llcr Majesties Mint in the Tower of London " then resident in
Boston. Chalkhill proposed to bring over "Ten Thousand
Pounds in Copper Money," the prices and values to be agreed
upon.

The Senate, having received the proposal of the Monyer,
appointed a Committee of three to meet a Committee of the
House of Representatives, in conference upon the subject.
The joint Committee favored the importation of 5000 in
pence, but their report was not concurred in, and the matter
being laid upon the table, went over to be considered at the " next
Court, if then offered." It does not appear from the subsequent
record, that the scheme was ever revived, and that which has
already been given, is all that is known regarding the matter.

Almost half a century later, a military adventure by Massa-
chusetts against the French at Cape Breton, Canada, caused
the importion of the largest sum of money in specie, known
to have been sent at one shipment to the British provinces in
America during the colonial period. The expenses incurred
by Massachusetts in the expedition to Cape Breton, were esti-
mated at 183, 6i9, 2s. 7|d. sterling, and, as the enterprise was
against a public enemy, the Parliament of Great Britain voted
the amount should be repaid the colony.

186 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Accordingly, on September 18th, 1749, the ship Mermaid,
commanded by Captain Montague, arrived in Boston harbor,
and William Bollan, Esq., one of the agents of the province,
having come in the said ship, laid before the Council of the
colony, a statement of his business, and an account of the
monies on the Mermaid fur the Treasury of Massachusetts,
from the Exchequer of England. "With the credit obtained
from the British Treasury, the agents of Massachusetts had
purchased six hundred and fifty ounces of silver coin, in milled
and pillar Spanish dollars and halves of the same, and ten tons
of British copper half- pence and farthings.

The authorities were somewhat troubled to find a place of
deposit for such a mass of money ; Ezekiel Lewis, Samuel
Danforth and Treasurer Foye were appointed to visit a house
owned by Foye, in King's street, to see if it were a fit place
for lodging the public money, and to treat with the tenant of
the premises, to secure her consent to remove. The house
was found desirable for the purpose, but the tenant refused to
remove, even to make room for a large amount of money, at
the request of "the Honorable the Great and General Court of
His Majesty's Province of the Massachusetts Bay in America."

There being thus "a lady in the case," the Council voted
that "a Brick Arch" should be built in the cellar of the resi-
dence of Treasurer Foye, to which the treasure on the Mer-
maid should be conveyed as soon as possible, and Samuel Dan
forth and Andrew Oliver were made the Treasurer's assist-
ants in the important business. By means of this specie, the
greater part of the bills of credit and paper money of Massa-
chusetts, were taken up and redeemed, and it is supposed that
the frequency of fine specimens of English half- pence and
farthings in America, dated 1749, may be accounted for by
this importation and disbursement. It cost over two hundred
pounds sterling to ship this money from England, to which
were added cost of freight on board the Mermaid, charges for
delivery, etc., probably as much more. The transaction bhows a
marked contrast to the business methods of the present day.

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 187

According to the record in the archives of the Senate of
Massachusetts, the first proposal for a copper coinage for that
colony, was made by Seth Eeed, of Uxbridge, Massachusetts,
"To the honorable the Senate and House of Eepresentatives
in General Court assembled," March, 1786. In the Senate,
March 9th, 1786, the same petition was read and left in
charge of a joint committee. Eeed represented that he could
obtain a considerable quantity of copper and silver from bodies
of ore within the United States, samples of the ores being in
his possession. By coining the metals named, the petitioner
supposed the public might be greatly benefitted, and the ne-
cessities of business better met, than by an emission of paper
currency. Aware that the development of the mines, and the
coinage, would involve great expense and much trouble, the
adventurer asked that the Commonwealth should save him
harmless in that particular, and grant him the exclusive right
of coinage in its jurisdiction, for such a time as may be deemed
necessary, or so long as he should meet in full the require-
ments of the Government in the matter.

On March 15th, 1786, a petition was presented by James
Swan to the Senate and House of Eepresentatives of Massa-
chusetts, for the right of coining money, but of copper only.
Swan asked leave to coin Twenty thousand pounds value in
copper, the size, fineness, and impression of the coin, to be de-
termined by the authorities, and the value determined by the
relation of the coin to the British half-pence or to the French
sols. The petitioner proposed to establish a mint at his own
cost, in Massachusetts, and on condition that all foreign copper
coin, of whatever denomination, should be declared illegal;
would pay into the Treasury of the Commonwealth five and
one-half per cent, on all the coin he should make. The bene-
fits to the public were urged as reasons for granting the peti-
tion, and the fact that a similar petition had been granted in
New Jersey and Connecticut, quoted as a good example.

The statement in regard to New Jersey, was somewhat pre-
mature, no action of that state in the matter having been made

188 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

subject of record, until May 23rd, 1786, more than five weeks
afterward. No attention seems to have been paid to this peti-
tion from James Swan, but the proposal of Seth Eeed was re-
ported upon by the Committee having the same in charge, on
March 24th, 1786, and it was recommended that the petitioner
be called upon for fuller particulars and larger samples of the
ores mentioned by him, with proof that the mines from which
they were taken were worked in Massachusetts, and that the
affair be referred over to the next General Court. The report
of the Committee was concurred in by the Senate and House
the same day.

Meantime, March 23rd, 17S6, another scheme was introduced,
and a Committee appointed to consider the subject of coining
a quantity of copper or silver money in behalf of the common-
wealth. This was referred for consideration to the Governor
and his Council, by whom the business was entrusted, to the
Lieut. Governor and Honble Mr. Adams, to confer with the
authors of the several petitions presented for the right of
coinage, consider the circumstances, and report. A thorough
investigation followed, and extensive negotiations with James
Swan were conducted. Mr. Gorham, one of the Delegates of
Massachusetts in the Congress of the United States, taking no-
tice, according to the newspapers, that proposals had been
made the Legislature of Massachusetts, relative to a cooper
coinage, informed the Governor that great inconvenience must
follow a separate coinage by the states, and moreover, that a
uniform coinage would soon be provided by Congress. In
view of the facts, the Governor suggested, under date of June
12th, 1786, that the proceedings to establish a mint in Massa-
chusetts should be suspended.

Notwithstanding the suggestion of the Governor, and the
advice of Mr. Gorham the Delegate, the business of the mint
of Massachusetts was forwarded, and on October 16th, 1786,
there was passed "Ax ACT for establishing a Mint for the
coinage of Gold, Silver and Copper." The United States in
Congress assembled, having on the 8th of August, 1786, regu-

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 189

lated the alloy and value of coin, as was stated in the preamble
of the Act, it was enacted that all the coin that should be
struck in the Mint of Massachusetts should "be of the same
weight, alloy and value, and each piece bear the same name, as
is by the said Resolve of Congress fixed and established. It
was further enacted that Sixty thousand dollars should be
coined in convenient proportions of cents and half cents, the
name of each to be stamped in the center thereof, each coin to
bear such inscriptions or devices as the Governor, with the
advice of Council, may think proper, the said coin, when
struck, to be received in all payments in the commonwealth.
The erection, equipment, and superintendence of the mint, was
committed tothe Governor and his Council, to report from
time to time to the General Court.

The Governor of Massachusetts nominated Captain "Joshua
Wetherle" a3 a person suitable to be employed in the mint,
and the Council advised that said "Wetherle" be appointed to
conduct the business of copper coinage for the commonwealth.
Captain Joshua Witherle (as he wrote the name), having be-
come Mint-master, there was weighed for delivery to him
from the cannon foundry at Bridgewater, on May 10th, 1787,
thirty-four hundred and thirty-four pounds of copper, and six
hundred and fifty weight of "sprews" of the same metal, the
property of the commonwealth ; and David Kingman and
Hugh Orr, the Committee appointed for the purpose, reported
that there was on hand fit to be used for coinage, "One Ten
Inch Mortar Two & half Do., four Cohorn Morters unfinished,
now on hand, also Two four pound Brass Cannon that are to
be run Over Again and a Ten Inch Mortar that failed in the
Casting Supposed to weigh 12 or 14: Cwt. together with a
Brass rack belonging to the Machine for boring Cannon, ".

On "Wednesday, June 27th, the Council advised that the de-
vices for the intended copper coinage, should "be the figure
of an indian with a bow & arrow & a star on one side, with
the word 'Commonwerlth,' the reverse a spread eagle with
the words 'of Massachusetts A. D. 1787' ". It will be

190 bYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

noted in the illustrated description of the copper coins of
Massachusetts on succeeding pages, that in the execution of
the dies from which the mintage was done, there was a varia-
tion from the design named by Council in the legend upon the
reverse, the word "of" being omitted, and "Massachusetts"
and the date alone inscribed.

The appointed superintendent of the second Massachusetts
Mint was the principal partner in the firm of Witherle & Co.,
coppersmiths, who had a shop on Kilby street, in the city of
Boston. Joshua Witherle lived upon a piece of land now oc-
cupied by buildings from Number 1132 to 114-i Washington
street, Boston. A short distance in the rear of his house,
once desciibed as 910 Washington street, Witherle erected
the building which was used as a mint-house. This was de-
scribed as of wood, one story high, about twenty feet wide by
forty feet long, and is said to have been put up before the mint
was proposed. The copper for the coinage, was cast into in-
gots at the mint in Boston, then carted to Dedham, Massachu-
setts, and rolled into plates at a mill there belonging to Joshua
Witherle, from which the metal ready for being struck into
planch ets or blanks for the coin, was carried back to Boston
and delivered again into the mint.

Though having buildings already put up for the business
of coinage, superintendent Witherle explained before the
Council on January 17th, 1788, that having received orders
in May, 1787, from Government, to erect the necessary build-
ings, and prepare machines for coining copper cents according
to law, he had immediately begun the work, and spared no
pains to procure every article which might be thought neces-
sary. Unfortunately, the iron furnaces, upon which he had
been obliged to depend, were "so nearly out of blast," that he
could not get patterns made for the rollers he needed, and was
at loss for sundry other articles. Unable to get such castings
as he desired, the Mint-master was compelled to have rollers
made of wrought iron, which, however, answered the purpose.

Another cause of great delay in the business, was the dim-

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 191

culty found in securing steel of a proper quality for making
the dies required for the coinage, which was, however, finally
accomplished. More time was lost in unsuccessful experi-
ments in casting copper in readiness for the rolling mill, the
metal being afterwards drawn, or forged into shape, under
trip hammers erected at Dedham.

Most of the dies for the second Massachusetts mint, were
made by Joseph Callender, of "Half Square State-Street,"
Boston, at a cost of 1, 4s. each. Of this, Superintendent
"Witherle made complaint as an excessive price, and subse-
quently made a contract with Jacob Perkins, of Newburyport,
Massachusetts, who was to receive for making the dies, one
per cent, of the coin struck from them. From peculiarities
in the impressions from the dies, it appears that Callender
made thirty-eight dies; his bill was 48, 12s. for making
thirty-nine dies and repairing three dies. There was but 3,
18s. lOd. paid to Jacob Perkins in all; how economical the
contract with him would have proved, had the same been con-
tinued, is uncertain ; the small amount received by him shows
he could have done but little comparatively in the service of
the mint.

The accounts of the copper coinage of Massachusetts show
there were 1048, 2s. 7d. in value of coppers coined, up to
January 21st, 1789, at an expense of 2249, 16s. 4d., a loss
to the commonwealth of 1201, 13s. 9d. 1 farthing. The
coinage seems to have been ended at this time. On June 17th,
1789, Joshua Witherle having been paid by a warrant on the
Treasury of Massachusetts, for "one thousand and seventy
pounds, ten shillings and three pence " his bonds as superin
tendent of the mint were cancelled. The buildings, machinery,
and facilities of the mint establishment were, upon his petition,
left in possession of Joshua "Witherle, for his use in private
business, he agreeing to properly take care of and upon de-
mand, duly account for the same.

On June 10, 1790, the copper cents in the Treasury of Mas-
sachusetts, were made current at one hundred and eight cents

192 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

for six shillings, or one dollar, of lawful money. No silver or
gold coins were struck at the second mint of Massachusetts,
and as the federal coinage soon made the manufacture of coin
by any state as needless, as it was declared unconstitutional, it
occurred to the Legislators of the Bay State, that they would
have done well to have heeded the suggestion of their Gov-
ernor, and suspended action regarding their state currency, in
deference to the proceedings of the Congress of the United
States.

COPPER COINS OF MASSACHUSETTS.

Obverse: A clothed Indian, standing, facing left, in his
right hand a bow, in his left an arrow. Legend : COMMON
WEALTH.

Reverse : A spread eagle, bearing a shield upon his breast,
inscribed with the denomination of the piece; his right talon
grasps an olive branch, and the left holds a bundle of arrows.
Legend: MASSACHUSETTS. In exergue, the date. Bor-
ders, milled ; Edge, plain.

The "Cent," 178T. Eight Types. Nine Varieties.

MASSACHUSETTS CENT, 1787.

Obverse: A clothed Indian, standing, facing left, in his
right hand a bow, in his left an arrow. Legend : COMMON -Jr
WEALTH.

Reverse : A spread eagle, a broad shield upon his breast, six
pales gules (upright), a chief azure (open or plain \ Upon the
chief, or upper part of the shield, the word CENT, in bold
Roman lettering. In exergue, beneath a heavy horizontal bar,

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES.

193

the date 1787. Borders, milled; Edge, plain. Size, 16| to
19 ; weight, 146 to 165 grains.

The "Half Cent," 1787. Six Types. Four Varieties.

MASSACHUSETTS HALF CENT, 1787.

Obverse: Same general description as the Cent of 1787.

Eeverse : Same in general as the Cent of 1787, except that the
shield upon some specimens, bears only HALF CENT. Borders,
milled; Edge, plain. Size, 15 to 15 ; weight, 75 to 83 grains.

The "Cent," 1788. Twelve Types. Thirteen Varieties.

MASSACHUSETTS CENT, 1788.

General description much the same as that of the Cent of the
same coinage for 1787.

The "Half Cent" 1788. One Type. Two Varieties.

MASSACHUSETTS HALF CENT, 1788.

Similar in general to the Half Cent of the same coinage of
the preceding year 1787. Weight, usually 76 grains.

194 DYE'S CO AY EX CYCLOPAEDIA.

The Copper Coinage of Massachusetts was, in comparison
with other colonial issues, quite regular, the several types and
varieties showing respectively but minor points of difference.
The superintendent of the mint, Joshua Witherle, was known
among his neighbors as "The Cent Maker." The archives of
Massachusetts contain a great number of documents relating to
the silver and copper coinage of the colony and state ; these
have been published by S. S. Crosby, at the suggestion of the
NEW ENGLAND NUMISMATIC AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY,
and give a very interesting account of the whole business, the
different schemes proposed by various parties, and the laws
enacted, the result and conclusion of all having been given
herein. Superintendent Witherle seems to have been a prac-
tical man and able mechanic, who achieved good results under
unfavorable circumstances. But for the establishment of the
United States Coinage, doubtless the metallic currency of Mas.
sachusetts would have become of great commercial importance,
a benefit to the people and a source of direct profit to the com-
monwealth in which it originated.

COPPER COINAGE OF NEW JERSEY.
During the tenth General Assembly of the State of New
Jersey, on Tuesday, May 23d, 1786, "The speaker laid before
the House proposals made by Walter Mould, Thomas Goadsby
and albion Cox, for striking a Copper Coin for the state of
New Jersey, which was read Whereupon Ordered, that
Messrs A. Clark, R. S. Smith, Sheppard, Marsh and Xicoll be
a Committee to Confer with the said Walter Mould Thomas
Goadsby and Albion Cox on the Subject of the said proposals
and report to the House the Terms they may agree upon."
On Wednesday, May 24th, 1786, the Committee to whom the
matter had been referred, reported to the Legislature of New
Jersey they held the conference for which they were appointed,
and that the petitioners proposed either to coin a sum in
coppers, not to exceed ten thousand pounds, and pay one-
( eleventh part to the state, or if permitted to coin any greater

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 195

sum, to pay the state one-tenth part of all sums issued without
depreciation of the currency to be created.

Such was the first recorded proposition for a copper coinage
in New Jersey. Massachusetts had already taken action upon
the petition of Seth Read for a similar privilege, March 9th,
1786, yet many of the copper coins of New Jersey were dated
1786, while no copper coin was struck in the Massachusetts
Mint until the year 1787. On Thursday, May 25, 1786, a pe-
tition for the privilege of making copper coin, was presented
to the Legislature of New Jersey, by one William Leddel, who
represented himself to be in possession of a considerable quan-
tity of copper, and the owner of sundry iron founderies. Un-
der the direction of the Legislature, Leddel proposed to coin
coppers equal in weight and quality to the best ever circulated
in the state, and pay the state every ninth copper and receive
the paper money of the state in exchange for others if desired.
The petitioner proposed to accept a design, and stated weight,
from the Legislature, and in five days return a sample of his
coinage.

However, the Legislature of New Jersey paid no particular
attention to the petition of William Leddel, and who he was,
or where his sundry iron founderies were situated, is alike un-
known. On June 1st, 1786, an act was passed by the Legisla-
ture of New Jersey, authorizing Walter Mould, Thomas
Goadsby and Albion Cox, to strike and coin in copper, for the
state, a sum equal in value to ten thousand pounds, at fifteen
coppers to the shilling. The coins were to be of pure copper,
to weigh six pennyweights and six grains each. They were
to be made in the state, of such device and impression as should
be directed by the Justices of the Supreme Court, or any one
of thorn. It was further provided that said coin should be
subject to alteration in value, by act of the Congress of the
United States.

Mould, Goadsby and Cox, were required to give bonds in
the sum of ten thousand pounds, for the faithful performance
of their duties in effecting the coinage proposed in full within

196 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

two years, and for the payment, by quarterly instalments, of
ten per cent. < f the coinage into the Treasury of the state.

Subsequently, a disagreement arose between Mould, and
Goadsby and Cox, in consequence of which the two last were
authorized by the Legislature to make two-thirds of the coin-
age by themselves, without prejudice to the rights of Mould
regarding the third part remaining. An act was passed June
4th, 1787, against the circulation in New Jersey of any cop-
pers other than those made within that state, or "struck by
the United States of America in Congress assembled," under
penalty of a forfeit of ten times the nominal value of the sum
or sums so offered in payment.

There were two mint-houses established in New Jersey un-
der the legislation just noted. One was in Morristown, and
the other at Elizabeth town. The Morristown Mint was lo-
cated in a residence once known as "Solitude," and afterwards
as the "Hollo way House." "Solitude" was the residence of
John Cleve Symmes, Chief Justice of the state of New Jersey,
and subsequently the home of a Mr. Ilolloway. The mint
here was carried on by Walter Mould, said to have been a
coiner of coppers at Birmingham, England, before his emigra-
tion to America. Mould, according to report, brought from
Birmingham, all the machines, tools, and appliances, for coin-
ing copper, and had only to secure new dies, set up his appa-
ratus, and proceed anew with his old business. In consequence
he avoided the difficulties which retarded the work of Mint-
master Witherle in Massachusetts, and, as has been noted, un-
der a later legislation, produced an earlier issue of coin.

The Elizabethtown Mint, was in a shed attached to a build-
ing once known as the "Old Armstrong House," in Water
street. The coinage there was carried on by a man named
Gilbert Rindle, as is supposed on account of Goadsby and Cox.
According to tradition, this mint was carried on for about two
years, as follows : A wooden box, several feet deep, was sunk
like a pit in the middle of the floor of the room ; in the center
of this, was an iron upright or anvil, bearing a die, the top of

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 197

which, was about even with the surface of the floor of the
room. Upon the floor, at one side of the pit, sat a workman,
his legs hanging down inside the same. lie took the blanks
from a box beside him, and placed them on the die, when the
stamp came down and made the impression, after which he
brushed the new copper off the die into the pit beneath. The
press was worked by two men, one at each end of an iron bar
nine or ten feet long, at the middle of which was a heavy per-
pendicular screw. The copper was brought to this place all
ready for stamping, and the coin taken away in kegs. The
good housewives of the neighborhood used to buy the coin
from the mint for paper money, "a bureau drawer nearly full
at a time," and pay them out for the ordinary small expenses
of their families.

A careful study of the lettering of the New Jersey Copper
Coinage, shows that many of the dies were made from the
same set of punches, and presumably by the same hand. The
same punches were used upon many of the dies cut for the
copper coinage of Vermont, and upon some of the dies for the
copper coinage of Connecticut. The inference from these facts
and some other indications, is, that there was a business con-
nection, more or less definite, between Reuben Harmon, Jr.,
of Rupert, Vermont; Machin & Co., of New Grange (New-
burgh), New York ; the owners of the Connecticut Mints at
New Haven ; other money manufacturers in the city of New
York, and Messrs. Mould, Goadsby aud Cox, of New Jersey.:
and furthermore, that James F. Atlee, the engraver and (lie
sinker, and perhaps other artists of his kind, were in the habit
of itinerating from one mint to another, as their services were
required. The Vermont Coins of 1787, were evidently, for
the most part, from dies made by Atlee the like may be
said of the same coinage for 1788 ; of many of the pieces indi-
cated as belonging to Connecticut; the Georgivs' III' Rex' of
Machin & Co., and various types of the copper coins of New
Jersey.

There was a coinage of New Jersey coppers said to have

.198

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

been carried on by a Mr. Hatfield, who assumed to have made
dies and struck the pieces in a barn below Elizabethtown, be-
ing assisted by a colored man. John Bailey, cutler, of the
city of New York, testified in August, 1789, that he had
coined "Jersey coppers previous to April loth, 1788:" by au-
thority derived from an Act of the State of New Jersey, enti-
tled, "An Act for the establishment of a Coinage of Copper
in that State, passed June the first, 1786." The copper coin-
age of New Jersey was not as regular as that of Massachusetts;
good and bad dies were in many cases used together, just as may
have suited the convenience of the operatives of the mint.

NEW JERSEY COPPER COIN 1786.

Obverse: A horse's head, facing right, upon an heraldic
wreath ; in the field, under this device, stands a plough. Le-
gend : NOVA C^ESARA. Exergue, the date 1736.

Reverse : A shield, to be described in the language of heral-
dry as, argent, six pales gules, a chief azure. Legend : " 4c E v
PLURIBUS * UNUM* Borders, serrated ; Edges, plain ;
size, 16 to 19 ; weight, 137 to 178 grains.

Of 1786, Eight Types. Eight Varieties.

NEW JERSEY COPPER COIN, 1787. LARGE SIZE,

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES.

199

General description of both Obverse and Reverse, same as
the pieces of this coinage for the year 1786. Size, 19 or less ;
weight, 165 grains or less.

NEW JERSEY COPPER COIN, 1787. SMALL SIZE.

General description same as of the larger piece. Size, 16 or
more ; weight, 108 grains or more.

Of 1787, Eleven Types. Ten Varieties.

NEW JERSEY COPPER COIN, 1788.

General description same as that of 'this coinage for the two
preceding years, except that the device of the horse's head
faces to the right in some of the dies of the obverse, and to
the left in others.

Of 1788, five Types. Five Varieties.

The Types and Varieties of the New Jersey Copper Coin-
age, are in a number of instances marked by decided and nota-
ble differences. On some of the obverses, three leaves appear
beneath the device of the horse's head ; upon some of the re-
verses, there are two crossed branches inscribed beneath the
shield. The legend NOVA C^ESARIA upon the various
obverses, is in general perfectly plain lettering, though some-
times punctuated with a period at the close. In some half-a-

200 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

dozen instances, the legend of the obverse is punctuated vari-
ously by quatrefoils, mullets, or stars, the legend upon the
reverses always ornamented and punctuated variously by simi-
lar characters. There are two obverses called "the dog" or
"the fox," on account of a small device struck upon them in
connection with the legend, but on good specimens, this device
is easily recognizable as the figure of a running horse. One
obverse has for a legend, the contraction E. PLURIBS UNUM,
punctuated with stars. An extremely rare variety is double
struck, and thus made to read E. PLUKIBUS UNUM, the R.
being mutilated. The device of the horse's head, facing left,
appears, as far as known from existing specimens, to have
been struck only upon the obverses of a part of the genuine
New Jersey Copper Coinage of 1788, but for the purpose of
defrauding collectors, some one has by engraving, or other ar-
tistic processes, reversed the horse's head, upon New Jersey
Copper Coins of both 1786 and 1787, making the device face
to the left, a deviation from common honesty, not a differen-
tation in the mintage of New Jersey. During the spring and
summer of 1787, the Congress of the United States ordered
the coinage of three hundred and forty-five tons of copper into
cents, as will presently be described, and the right of coinage
was the same year vested exclusively in the General Govern-
ment. In consequence, 'the New Jersey and other local mints
ceased operations. However, the multiform product of these
"copper shops" continued to circulate, with a great amount
of cheap coin imported from England. The most of the im-
ported coppers were said to have been made in Birmingham,
England, and were denominated "Birmingham coppers;" this
became corrupted to "Bungtown coppers," and as the mis-
cellaneous coinage of coppers was displaced by the authorized
CENT of the United States, and became depreciated, the
phrase "Not worth a Bungtown Copper," became proverbial.
Gradually, the whole coinage of coppers began to disap-
pear, and finally, as so much rubbish, they were swept from
circulation; their disappearance, however, was not complete

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 201

and final until during the suspension of specie payment in the
time of the war of the great rebellion.

PROPOSED COLONIAL COINAGES OF NEW YORK.

As early as 1661, an attempt was made by the Burgomas-
ters and Scepens of New Amsterdam, to establish a mint in
that city, now New York. An application was made by the
officers just named, to the Chamber of Directors of the West
India Company, at Amsterdam in Ilolland, for authority to
coin silver, but without success.

In the year 1672, an order was passed by the General Court
of Assizes in New York, for regulating the curren-jy of silver
coin in that state, which provided that a Boston shilling
should pass for one shilling, and "a good piece of Eight Span-
ish Coine, whether of Mexico Sevill or a pillar piece" for six
shillings. It was stated in the Massachusetts and New Hamp-
shire Advertiser, of March 29th, 1786, that New York, Con-
necticut, and Vermont, had authorized a coinage of copper, the
money being already in circulation, and that of New York es-
pecially, very fine in appearance. It is supposed that the
coins alluded to as belonging to New York, were the "Non
Virtute Vici" or the "Neo-Eboracencis" pieces of private
coinage then in circulation, and to be hereafter described
herein. There is neither record or specimen of coin, to show
that the state of New York authorized a copper coinage.

On February llth, 1787, petitions for the right to coin cop-
pers were presented to the Senate and Assembly of the state
of New York, by John Bailey, Ephraim Brasher, and Thomas
Machin. The matter was referred to a Committee, which re-
ported that there were various sorts of copper coin in circula-
tion in the country, which they described as:

"First. A few genuine British half- pence of George the
Second, and some of an earlier date, the impressions of which
are generally defaced.

"Secondly. A number of Irish half-pence, with a bust on
the one side, and a harp on the other.

202 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

"Thirdly. A very great number of pieces in imitation of
British half-pence, but much lighter, of inferior copper, and
badly executed.

"Fourthly. A very considerable number of coppers of
the kind that are made in the state of New Jersey.
Many of these are below the proper weight of the Jersey
coppers, and seem as if designed as a catch penny for this
market."

The Committee estimated that the coiners' profit on these
various pieces, was: On the British half- pence, 36 per cent;
on the Birmingham half-pence, 49 per cent ; on the Jersey
coppers, 54 per cent. The further consideration of the subject
was postponed. On April 20th, 1787, the Senate and Assem-
bly of New York passed an "Act to regulate the Circulation
of copper coin," which prohibited the passing of any coppers
in the state of New York, except those of pure copper, weigh-
ing one-third of an ounce avoirdupois, each, which were to
pass at the rate of twenty to the shilling of the lawful current
money of the state, and not otherwise. Any person to whom
uncurrent coppers were offered in payment, might seize and
retain the same, making complaint to any Justice of the peace
of the city or county. If the person tendering or passing
light or base coppers, was aware of their base character,
such person forfeited five times the sum offered, to the person
to whom they had tendered the same. On February 7th,
1788, the counterfeiting of gold or silver coin, was by special
enactment declared a felony punishable with death.

PATTERNS AND TOKENS.

The various coins to be described under this head, are Pat-
tern pieces of state mints, or of the Mint of the United States,
together with various other pieces of different coinages, many
of which are of an unknown origin.

THE CAROLINA AND NEW ENGLAND TOKENS.
As late as the year 1769, there was still preserved in the

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 203

Tower of London in England, the obverse and reverse dies of
a coin called the London Half-penny. The device upon the
obverse of this piece was an elephant, the head well down.
The reverse bore the arms of the city of London, around which
was inscribed the legend: GOD PEESEEVB LONDON."
The dies for this token were said to have been made by the
engraver Rotiers, of London. The purpose of this coinage is
unknown ; a hundred and thirty years ago, the issue was va-
riously stated to have been made "for the London Work-
house," struck while the plague raged in London, from Avhich
pestilence the inscription is supposed to be a prayer for de-
liverance ; or intended to be made current at Tangier in Africa,
but never set in circulation there.

Having furnished one seemingly unsolvable problem for the
antiquarian, the old obverse die bearing the device of an ele-
phant, was left to become the cause of still other unsatisfied
inquiries. During the reign of William and Mary, king and
queen of England, there appeared a new coin, which has been
called the "Carolina Cent," and said to have been issued in
the Carolina plantations. There were at least Two Types and
Two Varieties of these pieces. The more rare of these may
be described as follows :

Obverse : An elephant, standing, facing left.

Reverse : An inscription, in six lines, occupying the entire
field: "GOD: PRESERVE: CAROLINA: AND THE:
LORDS: PROPRIETERS 1694" Borders, milled; Edge,
plain ; size, 18| ; weight, 143 grains.

CAROLINA TOKEN.

204 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

This illustration is of the more common type and variety
of this coinage, the obverse being identical with that of the
"London Half-penny."

Obverse : An elephant, standing, facing left.

Reverse: An inscription, in six lines, occupying the entire
field, "GOD: PRESERVE: CAROLINA: AND THE:
LORDS: PROPRIETORS. 1694." Borders, milled: Edge,
plain; size, 17 to 18| ; weight, 130 to 162 grains.

The Carolina Tokens were struck in copper, and impress-
ions from the same dies are said to have been made in brass.
The obverses of the two pieces described are much the same ;
however, the tusks of the elephant on the first-named piece,
are short, while in the more common type, they are longer,
and approach the border of the coin very nearly. The die of
the first variety was recut to form the common reverse, the
last "E" in " PROPRIETERS " being altered to form an "O,"
changing, as may be noted, the orthography of the word. On
good specimens, the original "E" may be seen beneath the
overcut "O," proving the identity of the die.

NEW ENGLAND TOKEN.

Obverse : Same as that of the common type of the Carolina
Token of 1694, and from the same die as that and the "Lon-
don Halfpenny."

Reverse: An inscription, in five lines, occupying the whole
field, "GOD: PRESERVE: NEW: ENGLAND: 1694" Bor-
ders, milled ; Edge, plain. Copper ; size, 1S| ; weight, 133
and 236 grains.

The great irregularity in the weight of the Carolina and
New England Tokens, indicates they were coined as medallets,
or tokens, rather than for circulation as money. The coinage
is supposed to have been done in London, England, from
whence the issue found its way to America.

THE EARLIEST NEW YORK TOKEN.
A very rare piece, the only specimen of which was until

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 205

lately supposed to be preserved in Holland, but of which dur-
ing the last decade, several samples have been found and now
are extant in the United States, is called "The New York
Token," and being conjectured to have been struck about
1700 to 1706, is supposed to have been the earliest coinage for
that colony.

Obverse: An heraldic eagle, rudely engraved, displayed,
resting upon a branch, with a leaf at each end. Legend:
* NEW- YORKE- IN- AMEEICA * *&&>

Reverse : A group of palm, or other trees ; at the right, a
figure in flowing robes ; at the left, a smaller, semi-nude, run-
ning figure, with a bow in the left hand. From the shoulder
of this last figure, what appears to be a wing, but may have
been intended as drapery, projects, or floats, backward. Mr.
Crosby considers this figure a Cupid, and the draped one
Venus. They may have been designed for an Indian and a
squaw ; classical or aboriginal, all in relation to the coin being
a matter of speculative guesswork. Borders, milled; Edge,
plain; size, 13; weight, in brass, 55 grains.

There are specimens of this New York Token in lead, brass,
and perhaps in tin ; it was probably originated in Holland, for
circulation in New York, but never minted in any quantity.
Perhaps the scranny bird inscribed as the device of this coin,
was the primitive attempt to display the eagle as an American
emblem.

THE "NEW ENGLAND STIVER."

A token, supposed to have been minted in Holland, early
in the seventeenth century to furnish small change for the
use of Dutch Traders in New Amsterdam, now the city of
New York.

Obverse: Two lions, one above, facing left; one beneath,
inverted, facing right ; to the left of the lions * ; to the
right of them S Around all these, is inscribed a circle of
dashes, forming a deep milled border.

Reverse : An inscription, in four lines, NEW ENGLA ND
p{ The N's all reversed, the M inverted. Edge, plain; size,

206 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

12 ; weight, 37 grains. The style of work in this coin is the
only indication of the period of its issue.

THE GLOVCESTER TOKEN.

This piece, of an unknown origin, and without a history, is
believed to have been a pattern for a shilling to be issued by
Eichard Dawson, of Gloucester Co. (or Court House), Vir-
ginia. The only two specimens known, are both struck in
brass and quite imperfect.

Obverse : A large mullet ; the center and points are void.
Legend: "ETC," and indistinct letters, supposed to be,
"HARD," then "DAWSON- ANNO'DOM-1714.

Reverse: A house. Legend: "GLOVCESTER'CO.," and
indistinct letters, supposed to be, "HOUSE-", then "VIR-
GINIA-" Exergue: "XII" Borders, beaded; Edge, plain.
Brass. Size, 14 ; weight, 62 grains.

COLONIES

FRANCOISES

1722

LOUISIANA CENT.

In 1721, 1722 and 1767, various Copper Coins were struck in
Paris, France, for the use of the colonies of France; these
pieces are popularly known in the United States of America
as "Louisiana Cents," and as such, one is here presented, as
among the earlier coinages for America, yet not for a British
colony.

Obverse: The letter "L" in duplicate, crossing, saltierwise
surmounted by a crown. Legend : "SIT NOMEN. DOMINI
BENEDICTUM."

Reverse : An inscription, in four lines, occupying the field.
"COLONIES FRANCOISES 1722 H"

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES.

207

THE VIRGINIA HALF PENNY.

Among the pieces which, have been described by a distin-
guished English author as "Coins for* the Colonies," are those
called Virginia Ilalf- pennies ; they were struck in copper, with
specimens also in silver. There is no proof of the especial re-
lation of these coins to Virginia, and we have the authority
of Jefferson, as late as 1782 (Works, vol. 1, p. 136), for the
statement that, "In Virginia, coppers have never been in use." t
It is evident there was a considerable issue of these coins, but
they are not to be considered as having been the currency of
the colony for which they were named.

VIRGINIA HALF PENNY, 1773.

Obverse : Laureated bust of George III of England, facing
right. Legend: "GEORGIVS-III-REX-"

Reverse : An ornamental crowned shield, quartered and em-
blazoned with the arms of England and Scotland ; of France ;
of Ireland; of the Electorial dominions. Legend: "VIRGI
NIA divided by the shield. Above the shield 17 73
the crown dividing the figures. Border, milled ; Edge, plain ;
size, 15| to 17 ; weight, 110 to 123 grains, and in one variety,
sometimes called a "penny," 131 grains.

VIRGINIA HALF PENNY, 1774.

208 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Obverse : Laureated bust of George III of England, facing
right. Legend: "GEORGIVS'III DEI- GRATIA'"

Reverse: Similar to that of the same coinage for preceding
year, except the date 1774. Border, plain; Edge, plain; size,
16; weight, 84 grains.

There seem to have been about twenty pair of dies made use
of in striking these coins, but the coinage is quite regular, the
minor cifferenees of punctuation, spacing of letters and the like,
being considered insufficient to establish decided varieties.

MASSACHUSETTS PINE TREE COPPER, 1776.

Obverse : A pine tree, rooted in the earth ; to the left of
the trunk "1C ;" to the right of the same "L. M." Legend:
"MASSACIIUSET TS STATE," the top of the tree divi-
ding the first word.

Reverse: The goddess of liberty, facing left, seated upon a
globe ; in her left hand the staff of liberty ; the right hand is
extended, and upon it appears a liberty cap. At her feet rests
a very small dog. Legend: "LIBERTY AND VIRTUE."
Exergue: Beneath a heavy line "1776" Borders, milled;
Edge, plain ; size, 20 ; weight, 198 grains.

This piece is supposed to have been the first pattern for a
Massachusetts Cent. The specimen is considered unique, hav-
ing been dug up some years since. The " 1 C L. M " on the ob-
verse is probably an abbreviation of One Cent Lawful Money.

MASSACHUSETTS HALF PENNY (" JANUS COPPER ").

Obverse: A trifons device of three faces together, facing
left, front, and right. Legend: "STATE OF MASS A : 1 D

Reverse: The goddess of liberty, facing right, and bracing
backward against a globe, which appears to be slipping away
from under her; in her right hand she grasps a liberty staff,
in her left holds a liberty cap. At her feet rests a very small
dog. Leaend: "GODDESS LIBERTY." Exergue: Beneath

o *-> o

a heavy line " 1776 " Border, plain ; Edge, plain ; size, 15 ;
weight, 81 grains.

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES.

209

This specimen is doubtless unique, having been found
among the papers of Paul Revere, and supposed to be en-
graved by him for some private enterprise in connection with
the preceding " Pine Tree Copper."

"CONTINENTAL CURRENCY." Three Types. Three Varieties.

The u Congress in America" in 1776, is said to have issued
a coinage of tin and brass, specimens of which have been
found in silver. The design resembles very much that subse-
quently adopted for the first authorized coins of the United
States. This Continental Currency may be described as fol-
lows :

Obverse: Thirteen interlinked rings, the name of a state
being inscribed upon each ring. Legend: "AMERICA^ 1
CONGRESS'" inscribed upon a small circular label in the cen-
ter of the field. "Within the space enclosed by the label, is an
inscription, " WE ARE ONE," in three lines. The space be-
tween the legend and the thirteen rings, is filled by a glory of
short rays.

Reverse : A sun-dial, to the right of the center of the field,
surrounded by two parallel circles, one within the other. Be-
tween these circles, to the upper left of the field, appears a
small sphere, representing the sun, from which numerous rays
proceed toward the dial. Near the sun, and below the same,
between the circles, is inscribed the word "FuoiO." Beneath
the sun-dial is an inscription, " MIND YOUR OWN BUSINESS,"
H

210 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

in two lines. Outside both the circles and around the whole, the
Legend: "CONTINENTAL CURRENCY 1776." Borders,
beaded ; Edge, inscribed with ornamental leaf work ; size, 25 ;
weight, silver, 378 grains ; tin, 258 grains ; brass, 224 grains.

Specimens of this currency, in silver, have circulated as dol-
lars. The greatest number of impressions were made in tin.
Of specimens in brass and silver, but single pieces are known.
The specimens in tin are not very common. The types of this
coinage arc formed in part by differences in the rings on the
obverse, some of which are plain, some beaded, and some
partly cut into lines, the first style being most numerous ; the
two last have a comma under the N in the word "AMERI-
CA?." One type has the legend thus, "AMERICAN CON-
GRESS," and "N. RAMPS precedes "MASSAGES" in the
inscriptions on the rings. The first variety of the reverse is
as described and illustrated ; the second has for a legend only
"CONTINENTAL CURRENCY," the date 1776 being
omitted. Another, used with the last described obverse, has
the sun nearer the dial, and E. G. FECET in the inner circle
over the date. Beside the pieces of Continental Currency in
silver and brass, supposed to be unique, that having this last
reverse is most rare, the rest being neither very scarce, nor
yet common.

NON DEPENDENS STATUS.

The origin and history of this fine engraved pattern piece
are unknown; the specimen is interesting as perhaps -the
earliest presentation upon coin of the legend of an Independent
American state.

NON DEPENDENS STATUS

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 211

Obverse : A full bust, facing right ; flowing hair to the
shoulders. Upon the drapery of the bust a small oval shield
as an epaulet, emblazoned with a staff bearing a flag ; across
the staff, saltier wise, rests a naked sword. In each angle of
this device is displayed a fluer de lis. Upon the breast of the
bust is a head with spreading wings. Legend : " NON'DB-
PEN DENS-STATUS"

Reverse : An Indian, seated upon a globe, facing left ; nude,
except a cap or bandeau upon his head, and a feather tunio v
around the lower part of the body. In his extended right
hand he holds a bunch of tobacco : the left reaches behind
him and rests upon a shield, bearing the same emblems dis-
played upon the epaulets upon the bust on the obverse. Le-'
gend: "AMER 1C A" divided by the figure of the Indian.
Exergue: 1778. Border, plain; Edge, plain; size, 19.

Some coin dealers advertise the Non Dependens Status as
"a rare copper, worth $100,00."

CHALMERS' ANNAPOLIS TOKENS.

This Coinage was issued in 1783, by a goldsmith named L.
Chalmers, of Annapolis, Maryland, as a speculation on his
own private account. The denominations are shillings, six-
pences, and threepences, all now very rare, the smaller pieces
especially so.

THE CHALMERS' SHILLING. (UNIQUE).
Obverse : Equal to One Shi above this a branch, and be-
neath two clasped hands. Legend : " I. CHALMERS * AN-
NAPOLIS * 1783 O " Border, milled, in fine work.
. Reverse: A chain of twelve rings, in regular links; an-
other ring linked in the three lower links of the chain. From
the center of this sett of four rings, arises a liberty staff,
crowned by a cap, which is displayed at the center of the field.
Above the cap is an eye. There are mullets enclosed in each of
the eleven upper rings, and a mullet in the center of the field,
each side of the liberty cap. Border, beaded. Silver ; size, 13.

212 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA,

This piece is supposed to be unique, and at the sale of the
Mickley Collection, brought fifty, dollars.

THE CHALMERS' SHILLING. (VERY RARE).

Obverse: Clasped hands, inside a wreath. Legend: "I.
CHALMERS, ANNAPOLIS. #"

Reverse : Center, a heavy horizontal bar ; below, two doves,
a branch in their bills ; above the bar is horizontally extended
the figure of a serpent ; around the field is a fine circle, and
outside of this and against it a beaded ring. Legend:
' f $$ONE SHILLING & 1783." Border, milled; Edge,
milled. Silver ; size, 14| ; weight, C7 grains. There are two
slightly different dies of this reverse.

THE CHALMERS' SIXPENCE.

Obverse: Center, an open mullet, enclosed by a wreath.
Legend: "I- CIIALMERS.ANNAPOLIS."

Reverse: An ornately ornamental right-angled cross, at the
center of which are displayed two clasped hands. The perpen-
dicular arm of the cross has a crescent at either end and a
small ornament ; the horizontal arm has a star at either end ;
in each angle of the cross is displayed a leaf. Legend : " I. C.
SIX PENCE 1783." Border, milled ; Edge, milled. Silver;
size, 11 ; weight, 28 grains.

THE CHALMERS' THREEPENCE.

Obverse : Two hands, clasped. Legend : " I. CHALMERS .
ANNAP * "

Reverse : A branch, with buds or fruit, surrounded by a
wreath. Legend: "THREE * PENCE 1783." Border,
milled; Edge, milled; size, 8; weight, 12 grains.

At the date of the Chalmers' Coinage, it had become custo-
mary to cut silver dollars in halves, quarters, and eighths, for
change. The cutting was presently done so as to make five
pieces of a dollar, which were called quarters, or nine or ten
pieces called eighths. This abuse rendered the pieces so cut

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 213

uncurrent, and Chalmers, buying the bullion at a discount,
made his issue of underweight coin at a double advantage.

THE NOVA CONSTELLATIO PATTERNS.

Beside the remarkable issue of paper money during the war
for independence, the American Congress, as has been de-
scribed, was credited with the production of a " Continental
Currency" of tin in 1776. In 1781, the same body of legisla-
tors undertook to provide a general metallic currency for the
confederated states, of which they were the representatives.
To this end, Robert Morris, the distinguished Financier of the
Confederation, was directed to take the subject of an American
coinage and currency under consideration, and thereupon, as
soon as practicable, make his report.

On January 15th, 1782, Robert Morris made report to Con-
gress of a system of coinage suggested by Gouverneur Morris.
It had been found that the different coins which had circu-
lated in America had undergone such varied changes in value,
that hardly any could be considered a general standard. The
coin which most nearly served as such a standard, was found to
be the Spanish dollar. These dollars passed in Georgia at five
shillings, in North Carolina and New York at eight shillings,
in Virginia and the four Eastern states at six shillings, and in
all the other states except South Carolina at seven shillings
and sixpence, and in South Carolina at thirty-two shillings and
sixpence.

The money unit, to agree with all these different values ex-
cept that of South Carolina, was found in the fourteen hun.
drcd and fortieth part of the dollar the sixteen hundredth
part of a crown. A very small monetary unit was considered
an advantage to commerce, but it was not considered necessary
that this unit should be exactly represented in a coin, provided
its value were generally and precisely known. Two copper
coins were proposed, one of five units and one of eight units,
and it was suggested they might be called "Five" and " Eight"
accordingly. The money unit, as was stated, would be worth

214 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

one quarter of a grain of fine silver in coined money. Thence,
in a decimal ratio, one hundred units would be the lowest sil-
ver coin, supposed to be made of twenty-five grains of fine sil-
ver, to which might be added two grains of copper, making
the coin weigh one pennyweight and three grains. This coin
it was proposed to call a CENT. Five Cents were to make a
QUIXT, or five hundred units, and the coin representing this
denomination was to be of the same metal and fineness as the
Cent, and weigh five pennyweights and fifteen grains. Ten
Cents were to make a MARK, or one thousand units, represented
by a ; coin of the same metal and fineness as the Cent and
Quint, to weigh eleven pennyweights and six grains.

No immediate action was taken by Congress in relation to
this piece of business, yet the scheme was discussed repeatedly
and by such persons as Thomas Jefferson and his especial col-
leagues. Jefferson considered the monetary unit proposed by
Gouyerneur Morris, and approved by Robert Morris through
his report to Congress, too small. In this Robert Morris was,
according to the writings of Jefferson, brought in some mea-
sure to agree to, both considering that "the ease of adoption
with the people" was the thing to be a : med at. To meet the
views of Jefferson, Morris proposed the MARK as a unit, in-
stead of the fourteen hundred and fortieth part of a dollar, as
at first suggested. The Mark, according to the account given
by Jefferson, was worth about 4s, 2d. lawful money, or twenty-
five thirty-sixths of a dollar. As a monetary unit, Jefferson
proposed the .Dollar itself, and whether that or the Mark
should be so regarded, came to be the only question left be-
tween the two famous statesmen.

Various, plans were proposed by Robert Morris ; one of his
systems provides for a decimal coinage, of which the series
first proposed would have been issued as follows:

.Ten Quarters to make one penny ;

Ten Pence to make one "bill" or bit;

Ten Bits to make one dollar ;

Ten Dollars to make one crotvn.

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 215

The Quarter proposed as a unit was to be made of the
value of a quarter of a grain of pure silver, or one fourteen
hundred and fortieth part of a Spanish dollar. The Crown
was to have been coined of gold, the dollar of silver; the
penny must have been the smallest coin and presumably the
only one in copper, Robert Morris also proposed that other
coins than those named could be struck if required, but each
to contain an exact number of quarters. The names of the
coins he stated were arbitrary "like all other names" ; for ex-
ample, the word crown occurred from an idea of a design for
the gold piece to be as follows: "An Indian, with his bow
in his left hand, and in his right hand thirteen arrows, and
his right foot on a crown; the inscription, manus inimica
tyrannis." "The Financier of the Revolution " subsequently
changed this plan of his and made the unit of his new series
equal in value to twelve shillings and sixpence sterling, which
he called a pound.

Ten Doits to make one penny ;
Ten Pence to make one shilling ;
Ten Shillings to make one pound.

Such was to be the system of account ; the coins to repre-
sent the same were denominated

The Crown, of gold, of 1,200 Doits.
" Half Crown, " " 600 "
" Dollar, of silver, " 300 "
" Shilling, " " 100 "
" Groat, " " .20 "

" Doit, " " 1 "

There were other proposals made, the embodiment of which
is to be found in the American State Papers. Early in 1783,
or perhaps late in 1782, preparations were made for the "Mint
of North America." The business was entrusted by Robert
Morris to Benjamin Dudley. The die-sinkers and engravers
employed were Jacob Eckfield, John Swanwick, and A. Du-

216 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

bois. The first piece struck as an American coin, was one of
silver, which was delivered to Robert Morris by Dudley, April
2nd, 1783. Being urged at various times by Morris to hasten
the work upon the coins "to lay before Congress to establish
a Mint," Benjamin Dudley, on April 22nd, 17S3, "sent in sev-
eral Pieces of Money as patterns of the intended American
Coins." During July, it was proposed to buy a Minting
Press then in the city of New York, but Morris had become
doubtful of the immediate establishment of the mint, and iiot
only declined to purchase the Mint Press on account of the
Government, but advised Dudley to seek private employment.
On the 30th of August, 1783, the dies for coining in the
"American Mint" were delivered by Dudley to the Financier
of the Confederation. From these dies the coins here de-
scribed, and perhaps others, were produced.

The "Continental Currency," already described as having
been struck in tin and dated 1776, may be regarded as per-
haps the first attempt of the confederated states to establish a
national currency of coin ; however, the origin of the tin
coinage of 1776 is uncertain, although it bears the devices
and legends subsequently adopted for the Fugios as an issue
authorized by Congress. The Nova Constellatio Patterns,
though a few years later in date, are of surpassing interest,
not only on account of their great rarity, but as the original
evidence of the first well-recorded effort by Congress, to es-
tablish a general mint and metallic currency therefrom.

The "Mark." One Type. One Variety. (Unique.)

THE MARK.

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 217

Obverse: An eye, the center of a glory, thirteen points
cross, equidistant; a circle of as many stars. Legend: "NO-
VA CONSTELLATIO "

Reverse: "U S. 1.000" inscribed in two lines, a wreath sur-
rounding. Legend: "LIBERTAS- JUST1TIA- 1783-" Bor.
der, a wreath of leaves; Edge, leaf work. ' Silver; size, 21 ;
weight, 270 pro ins.

THE QUINT.

No. 1. Obverse: An eye, around which a narrow, plain,
circular field ; outside a glory, thirteen points cross, equidis-
tant; a circle of as many stars. Legend: "NOVA CON-
STELLATIO V "

Reverse: "U. S 500" inscribed in two lines, a wreath sur-
rounding. Legend: LIBERT AS- JUSTITIA'1783." Border,
beaded ; Edge, Icafwork.

No. 2. Obverse : Center, an eye, around which a glory,
thirteen points cross, equidistant ; a circle of as many stars ;
outside the stars, a plain raised ring. No legend.

Reverse : Similar to that already described. Border, beaded ;
Edge, leafwork. Silver; size, 16; weight, 110 grains.

The dies for the Mark are supposed to have been cut en-
tirely by hand, while those for the Quint were made in the
common way, by the use of punches. The entire coinage
from the dies of the Nova Constellatio patterns was extremely
limited, possibly but a single piece from each of them, merely
as specimens to lay before Congress. But three specimens are
known, a Mark and two Quints, and in 1875, all of them were
in the possession of S. S. Crosby, of Boston, Massachusetts.
The Mark and one of the Quints can be traced directly to the

218 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

possession of Hon. Charles Thomson, Secretary of the first
Congress. The reverse of the other Quint is from the same
die, hence, beyond doubt, genuine. A coin for the " Five,"

somewhat like the Quint, inscribed U. S. 5 ....

1783, was described in 1784, by Samuel Curwen ; there may,
however, still be "unknown specimens of the Eobert Morris
pattern pieces to be discovered.

During the year 1784, Jefferson, in behalf of a Committee
upon Coins and Currency, laid before Congress a report re-
commending the Spanish Dollar as the monetary unit, it being
in popular use, of convenient size, and capable of easy division.
Upon this basis, it was proposed to strike four coins, of value
as follows :

Ten Dollars, a gold coin.
One Dollar, a silver coin.
One-tenth of a Dollar, a silver coin.
One-hundreth of a Dollar, a copper coin.

The principles of this report, made by Jefferson, were adopted
in 1785, and in 1786, Congress made legal provision for a coin-
age on the decimal system, which still continues in the United
States and is coming into use throughout the world.

THE GEORGIVS TRUMPHO.

This token has occasioned varied conclusions; some con-
sider it as having been struck in honor of George Washington,
who, at the date given the piece, 1783, was indeed the tri-
umphant George, by virtue of success in winning the indepen-
dence of his country. Others suggest this piece relates to
George III of England, as the effigy upon the obverse resem-
bled him. The coinage was probably made from a die pro-
duced by using an old English hub, engraved with a head of
George III, the details of legend, date, etc., being added to suit
the fancy of the artist and the political circumstances of the
time and country. George III made a good enough George
"Washington to strike coppers with, as may have been thought,

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 219

just as in various instances the figure of Brittama made a use-
ful but rather disreputable-looking "goddess of liberty," "ge-
nius of Columbia," etc., etc.

Obverse : A laureated head, resembling George III, facing
right. Legend: "GEORGIVS'TKIUMPHO."

The goddess of Liberty, facing left ; before her is a frame-
work of thirteen bars, a fleur-de-lis at each corner of the same.
In her extended right hand the goddess holds an olive branch ;
her left is uplifted, supporting a liberty staff. Legend:
"VOCE POPOLL" Exergue: the date 1783. Borders,
milled; Edge, plain; size, 18; weight, 117 grains.

"Washington and Independence 1783." Five Types. Six
Varieties.

THE UNITY STATES CENT.

The early coinage created for pattern pieces, or as an irregu-
lar currency for general circulation in the United States ater
the establishment of the independence of the nation, was in
very many instances made to bear the portrait of Washington
as the most prominent republican citizen and statesman of the
era. That this device was not used on the coin of the United
States Government, was probably due to the repugnance of
Washington to allow an observance and custom tending, in
his opinion, to perpetuate monarchal institutions. The Wash-
ington coinage, or that of pieces bearing the likeness or the
name of Washington, is quite extensive ; a comparatively few
specimens are herein described, but these include some of the
earliest dates and most prominent, rare or interesting exam-
ples. A remarkable instance of a foreign coin, doubtless is-
sued for private speculation, is the so-called "unity Cent,"
supposed to have been made in France, the designers' ignor-
ance of the English language being supposed to account for
the character of the legend.

No. 1. Obverse: A large laureated bust of Washington,
draped, facing left. Legend: "WASHINGTON AND IN-
DEPENDENCE 1783."

Eeverse : Two olive branches, enwreathed, and an inscrip-

220 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

tion of "ONE CENT" Legend: "UNITY STATES OF
AMERICA " Exergue: 1-100 in two lines. Border milled;
Edge, plain; size, 17 J; weight, 114 grains.

No. 2. Obverse: Large laureated bust of Washington,
draped, facing left. Legend: "WASHINGTON & INDE-
PENDENCE-17S3-"

Reverse: The figure of a female, facing left, seated upon a
rock ; in her right hand in olive branch, her left supporting
a liberty staff, which bears a cap. Legend : " UNITED
STATES " Border, beaded ; Edge, generally plain ; size, 17 ;
weight, 128 grains.

Two dies of Obverse No. 2. The same number of dies of
this reverse ; minor differences of obverses. One reverse has
in the exergue T. W. I. E. S. Copper or brass. En-
grailed edges on some specimens.

No. 3. Obverse : A small bust of Washington, in uniform,
laureated, facing left, hair in a queue. Legend: "WASH-
INGTON & INDEPENDENCE-1783-"

Reverse: A figure of a female, facing left, seated upon a
rock ; right hand holds an olive branch, left, staff of liberty,
with cap. Legend: "UNITED STATES" Exergue: T.
W. I. E. S. Border, beaded; Edge, plain; size, 17J;
weight, 120 grains. Two obverse and three reverse dies.

THE DOUBLE HEAD WASHINGTON CENT.

A bust of Washington, in uniform, laureated, facing left,
hair in a queue. Legend: "WASHINGTON"

Reverse: A bust of Washington, in uniform, laureated,
facing left, hair in queue. Legend: "ONE CENT" Bor-
ders, beaded ; Edge, plain ; size, 17 ; weight, 124 grains.
As an ornament, an elongated star is inscribed under the
busts.

The only very rare Washington Cent yet described, is that
from one of the Washington & Independence dies of the type
bearing the small head; in it, the features are less prominent,
the expression unlike the rest of the series.

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 221

WASHINGTON THE GREAT D G.

Obverse : A ver j ugly head, facing to the right. Legend :
"WASHLNGTON-THE-GREAT-D-G." Border, serrated.

Reverse : A chain, with thirteen rings, the name of a state
within each ; inside the chain, upon the lower part of the cen-
tral field, the figures 84. Border, plain ; Edge, plain ; size,
16J ; weight, 102 grains.

The figures 84 described, are supposed to be part of 1784,
an abraded date. But two specimens of this coin arc extant,
and both of them are so badly defaced, that the actual date
can be determined from neither.

THE IMMUNE COLUMBIAS.

The finely-executed dies of the Immune Columbias, are sup-
posed to have been made by Thomas "Wyon, of Birmingham,
England. The obverses appear on the copper Nova Constel-
latios, and they were variously combined or muled with other
pieces, in gold, silver, and copper, as is hereafter described.

THE IMMUNE COLUMBIAS.

First Obverse: An eye, on a small, plain circular field'
from the outside of the field radiates a glory of thirteen blunt
points, crossing, "equidistant, the spaces between as many
stars in a circular constellation. Legend: "NOVA CON-
STELLATIO." Border, serrated.

Second Obverse : Same as the first, except that the points
of the rays in the glory are made somewhat finer, and the le-
gend is punctuated as here presented. "NOVA'CONSTEL-
LATIO * " Border, serrated.

222 DYE^S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Eeverse: The goddess of liberty, seated upon a paneled
cubic pedestal, facing right ; her left hand is well ex.
tended and balances the scales of justice. A short liberty
staff, crowned with a cap and bearing a flag, rests against her
right shoulder, and is supported by the right hand. Legend :
"IMMUNE COLUMBIA-" Exergue: The date 1785. Bor-
der, serrated ; Edge, plain or milled; size, 17; weight, gold.
128.8 grains ; silver, 92 grains ; copper, 148 grains.

This reverse was "muled" or used with the dies made by
Atlee for the Vermont coinage, and those for Machin & Co.,
already described. The work of Atlee was much inferior to
that of Wyon. How the Immune Columbia dies came in pos-
session of those who thus wore them out, is unknown. The
dies muled with the Immune Columbia are as follows :

Vermon Auctori.

Obverse : A laureated head, mailed bust, facing right. Le-
gend : "VERMON AUCTORI" Border, serrated: Edge,
plain; size, 16: weight, 106 grains.

Georgius * III- Rex.

Obverse : A laureated head, mailed bust, facing right : Le-
gend : "CEORCIVS * III-REX." Border, serrated; Edge,
plain; size, 16; weight, 129 grains.

The misspelling of the legend in this die, and on another
piece of work, indicates that the letter 4i G" was missing from
among the punches used by Atlee. lie sometimes struck the
"C" punch in a die and then engraved it into a "G." As
these muled or combination pieces may have been intended as
trial pieces, the engraver perhaps omitted to finish his work
in his usual manner. These pieces, bearing the Immune Co-
lumbia reverse, are all extremely rare. The specimen in gold
is supposed to be unique, and is in the Cabinet of the Mint at
Philadelphia. The obverse "NOVA CONSTELLATIO," re-
verse "IMMUNE COLUMBIA," struck on a guinea of one of
the Georges of England, is a thin piece, and somewhat abraded,
yet the legend of the guinea may be discerned beneath the
more recent impression of the "Immune." The piece is of

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 223

128.8 grains weight, the original weight having been 129.5
grains ; its present bullion value is computed by Mr. W. E.
Du Bois, Assayer of the Mint, at $5,05. Five specimens are
known in silver, all having the first described obverse and
milled edges ; an unique copper specimen exists of the same
description. Of the second obverse, eight copper specimens,
with plain edges, are known. The muled pieces, all of cop-
per, are perhaps even more rare than the others.

THE CONFEDERATES AND EXCELSIORS.

The Confederatios and Excelsiors, as they are called, are a
noteworthy and somewhat extensive series of varied coins,
the relation of which is not historically evident, though defi-
nite peculiarities in the different coins, show a common origin
for most of the dies in the work of the same hand, or at least
in the fact of their production from one set of punches under
direction of a single artist. .:

The best authorities conclude these dies were made by
Thomas Wyon, of Birmingham, England, and intended as
patterns for the coins of New Jersey, and for New York, and
some of the Washington pieces probably, to be adopted for
the coinage of the United States Mint. Most of the coinage
is supposed to have been done at Birmingham, but one of the
dies was, as it appears, brought to America and used in the
Mint of New Jersey, as a model for the making of other dies,
and subsequently, in 1777, to stamp a very few impressions,
of which but two are known to be extant.

CONFEDERATE AND IMMUNIS COLUMBIA

2:21 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

Confederatio First Obverse : A circular central field, size
8, covered with a cluster of large stars; around this device a
glory of fine rays, presenting a corrugated outline of twenty-
four points. Legend: "CONFEDERATIO- 1785'" Border,
serrated.

CONFEDERATIO AND INIMICA TYRANNLS.

Second Obverse: A circular central field, size 6, covered
with a cluster of thirteen saiall stars; around this device a
glory of fine rays, presenting a corrugated outline of sixteen
points. Legend: "CONFEDERATION 785'" Border, ser-
rated.

Reverse 1 : An Indian, standing beside an altar or pedestal,
his right foot upon a crown, an arrow in his right hand, a bow
in his left; at his back a quiver full of arrows. Legend:
"INIMICA TYRANNIS-AMERICA-" Border, serrated;
Edge, plain; size, 18; weight, 112 grains.

The coin bearing this reverse was found in digging up an
old drain at Berlin, Connecticut, in 1861.

Reverse 2 : Same device as the preceding reverse. Legend :
"INIMICA TYRANNIS-AMERICANA-" Border, serrated ;
Edge, plain; size, 18; weight, 147 to 153 grains.

The obverses and reverses already described, are supposed
to have been intended for each other originally, in the order
mentioned. Reverse 1 has been found with the first obverse
only; reverse 2 was struck with both the first and second
obverse.

Reverse 3 : Monogram, U S enclosed within a wreath. Le-
gend : "LIBERTAS ET JUSTITIA-1785-" Border, abraded

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 225

on the specimen; Edge, plain; size, 17; weight, 103 grains.

Reverse 4 : Head of Washington, facing right. Legend :
"GEN. WASHINGTON." Border, plain; Edge, plain; size,
18| ; weight, 134 grains.

Reverse 5 : An eagle, displayed, bearing on his breast a shield
argent, six pales gules, a chief azure ; right talon, a bundle of ar-
rows ; left talon, an olive branch ; about the head of the eagle,
thirteen stars. Legend: " * E- PLURIBUS UNUM'1786"
Border, plain ; Edge, pla*5n; size, 18 ; weight, 134 grains.

Reverse 6 : Goddess of liberty, seated upon a globe, facing
right ; in her extended left hand she balances the scales of
justice; with her right hand she supports the staff of liberty
bearing a flag and crowned with a cap. Legend: "1MMUNIS
COLUMBIA-" Exergue: "1786." Border, serrated ; Edge,
plain ; size, 18 ; weight, 160 grains.

Reverse 7 : A shield argent, six pales gules, a chief azure.
Legend : " * E * PLURIBUS * UNUM * " Border, ser-
rated ; Edge, plain ; size, 18 ; weight, 160 grains.

Reverse 8 : An eagle, displayed ; on his breast a shield ar-
gent ; six pales gules ; a chief azure ; in the right talon, an
olive branch, in the left, a bundle of arrows ; about the head
of the eagle, thirteen stars. Legend: "E- PLURIBUS
UNUM * * 1787 *" Border, milled; Edge, plain;
size, 18; weight, 114 grains.

THE NEW JERSEY IMMUNIS.

The Confederatio. First Obverse (large stars), was used
with the reverses 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.

The Confederatio. Second Obverse was used with Re-
verses 2 and 8.
o

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

Reverse 4 is shown on one specimen with Reverse 5, and
Reverse 6 is seen on another piece muled with Reverse 7.

Reverse 6 is found, but very rarely, muled with Reverse 7,
forming "TiiE NEW JERSEY IMMUNIS."

All the combinations described are of extreme rarity. The
weights given with the description of the reverses, are those
of pieces formed by the Confederatio obverses and the dies
mentioned.

The "New York Excelsiors." Two*Types. Two Varieties.

These pieces are called "The New York Excelsior Cents,"
though there is nothing in the device or legend to indicate
such a denomination. They are evidently associated with the
Confederatios and their varied reverses.

THE NEW YORK EXCELSIOR.

Obverse : Arms of the state of New York. Center, an oval
shield, upon which is shown the sun rising from behind a
range of hills, the sea in the foreground ; left Liberty, with
staff and cap ; right Justice, with sword and scales ; upon the
top of the shield a hemisphere, supporting an eagle, wings
outspread, facing left. In Exergue: "EXCELSIOR" Bor-
der, serrated; Edge, plain; size, 18; weight, 141 grains.

In the second Obverse of the Excelsiors, the eagle faces
right, which is the only prominent difference.

Reverse : The Excelsior Obverse nrst described (eagle facing
left), is coined with Reverse 8, of the Confederatios, which see.

The Excelsior Obverse last described (eagle facing right), is
coined with Reverse 8, of the Confederatios and the fol-
lowing :

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 227

Reverse 9 : A large eagle, displayed, a shield upon his
breast, argent six pales gules ; a chief azure ; right talon, a
bundle of arrows; left talon, an olive branch. About the
head of the eagle are thirteen stars. Legend : " * E * PLU-
RIBUS UNUM 1787 * " Border, serrated ; Edge,
plain; size, 18 J ; weight, 123 grains.

The wings of the eagle nearly touch the legend, the beak
widely open, the crest long and slender.

All these Excelsior combinations are quite rare ; of the last,
First Obverse and Reverse 9, very few specimens ; two or
more are known.

THE NON Vi VIRTUTE VICI,"ETC.

The coins called the "Non Vi Virtute Vici" (1786), Im-
munis Columbia (1787), Liber Natus Libertatem, and the
George Clinton (1787), appear to have l>een made from dies
engraved by Atlee, showing as they do the marks of the same
tools used upon the dies for Machin & Co., of New Grange,
New York, the Yermont Mint, at Rupert, Vermont, and the
Mint of New Jersey. In the account already given of the
Copper Coinage of Connecticut, it appears that the Connecti-
cut Mint was at one time rented by its owners to one Leaven-
worth and his partners, and that they coined planchets or
blanks at New Haven, which were struck in ihe city of New
York on their account, with dies belonging to said Leaven-
worth & Co., or those who did the mintage for them in New
York city. The coins mentioned by their legends in the be-
ginning of this paragraph, are supposed to be those produced
from the blanks thus made in Connecticut. The die for the
"Non Vi Virtute Vici" was, perhaps, a pattern made by Atlee
during the preparations for the establishment of the works of
Machin & Company, or quite probably, was produced by him
before the formation of the partnership, after the manner of
such artists, privately, on his own account, as an experimen-
tal piece, to be used when occasion should offer. The piece is
by some collectors classed among the Washington coinage, be-

228

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

cause the head upon the obverse bears a resemblance to the
portrait upon a number of the larger "Washington medals.

NON Yi YIRTUTE YICI.

Obverse : A bust, in uniform, facing right. Legend : " NON
VI YIRTUTE YICI "

Reverse: The goddess of liberty, seated upon a paneled
cubicular pedestal, the body upright, the left hand fully ex-
tended and balancing the scales of justice; the right hand
supports a liberty staff crowned with a cap ; the lower end of
the staff rests at the feet of the figure ; the cap is just back of
its shoulder, and very near the legend. Legend : " NEO-
EBORACENSIS." Exergue: 1786 Borders, serrated ; Edge,
plain; size, 19; weight, 117 grains.

IMMUXIS COLUMBIA (1787).

Obverse : The goddess of liberty, seated upon a globe, facing
right ; in her fully extended left haod she balances the scales
of justice ; the right hand supports a liberty staff, bearing a
flag and crowned with a cap. Legend : " IMMUNIS COLUM-
BIA" Exergue: 1787.

Reverse : An eagle, displayed ; right talon, an olive branch,
thirteen leaves ; left talon, thirteen arrows. Legend : " *

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 229

PLURIBUS * UKUM * " Borders, serrated ; Edge, plain ;
size, 16 J ; weight, 135 grains.
Uncommon not extremely rare.

THE NOVA CONSTELLATIO COPPERS.
This series of tokens is said to have been made at Bir-
mingham, England, from dies engraved by Thomas Wyon, of
that place, the coinage being on account, as is supposed,
of Gouverneur Morris, of New York, and intended for
circulation in America. Forty tons are reported to have
been struck from one die alone, and many more from an-
other. The series includes nine types and nine varieties,
moit of which are common, though some are very rare.
These Coppers bear date respectively 1783, 1785 and 1786,
as here described.

1. Obverse : An eye, around which a narrow, plain, circular
field ; outside a glory ; thirteen points cross, equidistant ; a
circle of as many stars. Legend: "NO Y A CONSTELLA-
TIO ".

Eeverse: "IT'S" large Roman characters; a wreath around
the field. Legend: LIBERTAS JUSTITIA'1783. Bor-
ders, milled, sometimes serrated ; Edge, plain; size, 16| to 18;
weight, 117 to 138 grains. Three Types. Three Varieties
of 1783.

2. Obverse : Same as preceding, except that the legend lacks
punctuation or ornament.

Reverse: Monogram "US" in script,. around which is a
wreath. Legend : "LIBERTAS ET JUSTITIA1785-" Bor-
ders, milled, sometimes serrated ; Edge, plain; size, 16 J to 18;
weight, 108 to 127 grains. Five Types. Five Varieties of
1783.

3. Obverse : Same as the preceding of 1785.

Reverse: Same as the preceding of 1785, except the change
of date to 1786. One Type. One Variety of 1786.

The types of these coins a few differences of note in the
form of the rays ; some are light, some heavy, some cuniform,

230 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

some blunt ; beside, the rays vary in the particular direction
in which they point. The reverses vary most in the punc-
tuation of the legend, the disposition of the leaves of the
wreath, and the sizes of the letters of the monogram " U S."
The rare pieces are mostly included in the coinage for 1785,
and 1786, though the first piece described, of 1783, is not
common.

THE BAR CENT, OR U S A COPPER.

This coin, presumed to have belonged to the same issue as
the Nova Constellatio Coppers, was probably made in Bir-
mingham, England, by Thomas "Wyon, for circulation in
America. The "USA" Copper was first passed as money in
the city of New York, in November, 1785. The device was
taken from an old Continental button, to which fact and the
light weight of the piece, has been attributed the disfavor
shown the coinage and the limited circulation given the same.

Obverse : Large Eoman "US A" in a monogram, on a plain
field.

Reverse : Thirteen horizontal bars. Border, serrated ; Edge,
plain ; size, 15 J ; weight, 85 grains. Two pairs of dies.

In the most common specimens, the top of the "N" in the
monogram near Jy touches the letter "A"; in the rare type,
there is considerable space at this point. A Bar Cent, size 15,
is extant, supposed by some to have been of the original coin-
age and intended for a Ilalf Cent, but on better authority, is
decided to be a recent imitation, or rather a modern novelty,
created, as supposed, to make a saleable variety.

GEORGE CLINTON.

Obverse : Bust of George Clinton, facing right. Legend :
"GEORGB * CLINTON * "

Reverse : Arms of the state of New York. Upon an oval
shield at the center is shown the sun rising from behind a
range of hills, the sea in the foreground ; left of the shield,
Justice, with sword and scales right, Liberty, with staff and

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 231

cap. Upon a hemisphere, above the shield, stands an eagle,
wings outspread, facing right. Exergue : 1787 ; beneath this,
next the border, "EXCELSIOR" Border, serrated; Edge,
plain ; size, 17 ; weight, 157 grains.
About a half-dozen specimens extant.

LIBER NATUS LIBERTATEM DEFENDO.

Obverse : An Indian, standing, crowned with feathers, and
facing left ; in his right hand he wields a tomahawk, his left
supports a bow, the end of which rests on the ground near
his feet ; over his right shoulder appears the top of a quiver
of arrows, which is borne upon his back. Legend: "LIBER
NATUS LIBERT ATEM DEFENDO *"

First Reverse : Identical with that of the George Clinton,
already described. "Weight, 127 grains.

Second Reverse : A hemisphere of the globe, marked bj
longitudinal and meridional lines ; upon this stands a large
heavy-bodied eagle, wings spread, somewhat drooping, beak
toward the right. Legend: "NEO-EBORACUS 1787 EX-
CELSIOR" Border, serrated ; Edge, plain; size, 17; weight,
153 grains.

Third Reverse : A bust of George III, facing right. Le-
gend: "CEORCIVSIIIREX"

This rendering of Georgius III Rex is doubtless from the
hand of Atlee, who seems to have lacked the letter "Gr"
among his punches, as already explained. All these pieces
are very rare, the one with .first reverse most common ; the
second reverse is found on but three or four pieces ; the coin
bearing the third reverse is considered unique.

BRASHER'S DOUBLOON.

Obverse: The sun rising from behind a range of moun-
tains, which fill the center of the field; at the foot of the
mountains, and in the foreground, appear the waves of the
sea; in the lower part of the field appears the inscrip-
tion "BRASHER": around all this is a beaded circle. Le-

232

gend: "NOVA
SIOR + "

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

EBORACA + COLUMBIA * EXCEL-

BRASHER'S DOUBLOON.

Reverse : An eagle, displayed ; on his breast is a shield ar-
gent, seven pales gules, a chief azure ; the right talon grasps
an olive branch, the left holds a bundle of arrows ; about the
head thirteen stars ; upon the right wing is an oval punch-
mark, showing the letters "E B." The device is encircled by
a formal wreath of leaves. Legend: "UNUM * E * PLU-
RIBUS * 1787*" Border, plain ; Edge, plain. Gold;
Size, 19 ; weight, 408 grains.

But four of these doubloons are known ; one of these is in
the Cabinet of the United States Mint at Philadelphia, the
other three in possession of private persons.

The "Nova Eboracs." Three Types. Three Varieties.

This coinage is supposed to have been produced in England
for circulation in New York or other parts of America. The
issue was not authorized by the state of New York, but proba-
bly originated as a private speculation with some English mer-
chant trading to New York.

NOVA EBORAC.

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 233

First Obverse : A bust, laureated and mailed, facing right.
Legend: *NOVA <fr EBORAO +."

Reverse : The goddess of liberty, seated upon a globe, facing
right ; beside, and somewhat behind her, is a shield, bearing
the arms of the state of New York ; in the left hand, an olive
branch ; the right hand is upraised and supports a liberty staff,
which is crdwned with a cap. Legend : " ^ VIRT ET'
LIB *" Exergue: 1787

Such is the description of the most common of these pieces;
the First Obverse was also used with Reverse showing the
figure of liberty, facing left, and the legend: " VIRT ET
LIB * "

The Second Obverse was made similar to the first, as de-
scribed, except a variation in the legend, thus : " + NOVA
EBORAC * "

The Reverse of this piece presents the goddess of liberty,
facing left, and the legend : " + VIRT. ET LIB. * "
A third obverse varies the legend to this form : " % NOVA
* EBORAC * "

On the Reverse with the Third Obverse, the figure of Lib-
erty faces left, and the legend is: " -b VIRT. ET. LIB -;- "

As to other details o these coins, the borders of the pieces
formed of the First Obverse, and the two Reverses used with
it, are sometimes slightly milled, but generally plain. Size,
16| ; weight, about 112 grains.

The Reverse with the Second Obverse, has a milled border.
Size, 17; weight, 120 grains.

The Third Obverse and its^ Reverse, have milled borders.
Weight, 120 to 142 grains.

The edges' of all these are plain. The first-named piece is
most corru&on, the rest more rare ; of the last, but three speci-
mens ard&now;n, all of late in the possession of private persons.
.'

< THE AUCTORI PLEBIS.

The Auctori Piebis is a token doubtless produced in Eng-
land for circulation in America.

234 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Obverse: A bust, laureated and draped, facing left. Le-
gend : AUCTORI * * PLEBIS * "

Reverse: The figure of a female, seated, left arm resting
upon an anchor, the right hand upon a globe, a lion at the feet.
Legend: " O INDEP: ET- LIBER * " Exergue, "1787"

This piece has been classed with the Connecticut coinage,
which it somewhat resembles. The device of the reverse ap-
pears upon three other English tokens. The legend of the
obveree is used upon another coinage, the device differing, the
date 1736, this last not intended for America.

THE KENTUCKY TOKENS.

This coinage, from two obverse and three reverse dies,
struck in copper and silver, is one of the most beautiful series
of all the tokens produced for use in America. The series
consists of the "Kentucky Triangle," or "Pyramid Token,''
so called, and of the pieces called "The Myddleton Tokens."

THE KENTUCKY TRIANGLE.

Obverse : A hand, grasping a scroll, bearing the inscription :
"OUR CAUSE IS JUST" Legend: "UNANIMITY IS
THE STRENGTH OF SOCIETY + "

Reverse : A triangular pyramid, formed of fifteen shining
stars united by rings, the initial of a state inscribed on each
star ; the star at the apex bears the letter "K " for Kentucky.
Legend: "E PLURIBUS UNUM * " Borders, milled. Size,
18 to 19| ; weight, 155 to 192 grains.

The edges of this piece are variously finished in different
specimens ; some are plain, some engrailed, and some lettered
with different inscriptions, as "PAYABLE IN LANCASTER LON-
DON OR BRISTOL" or "PAYABLE AT BEDWORTH," etc.

THE BALTIMORE TOWN THREEPENCE.
The history of the Baltimore Town Threepence is unknown.
It appears to have been a private issue by Standish Barry, and
takes its name from its legend, and the fact that it appeared in

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 235

Baltimore, Maryland, in 1790, and bears the denomination of
three-pence. The coin is remarkable from the precision of its
date, "JULY' 4- 90'" and it has been surmised that the piece
may have been issued in commemoration of some celebration
of the fourth of July in 1790 as an anniversary of American
Independence.

Obverse : A bust, draped in civilian dress, facing left, en-
closed by a plain circle. Legend: " BALTIMORE-TOWN-
JULY- 4- 90-"

Reverse : A plain circular field, bearing in two lines the in-
scription : THREE PENCE " underneath the lower line a
heavy dash. Legend : " STAN DISH-BARRY." interlaced
with a diagonal beaded network. Border, milled; Edge,

milled ; size. 9 ; weight, 13 grains.

THE MYDDELTON TOKENS.

Obverse: A figure, representing Hope, beside an anchor;
she presents two children to a female, the last extending her
right hand in reception of the charge ; the left hand supports
a liberty staff, which is crowned with a cap ; in front of the
figure with the staff is an olive branch and a wreath, to the
rear a cornucopia. Legend: "BRITISH SETTLEMENT
KENTUCKY " Exergue : " 1796."

First Reverse : Brittania, seated disconsolate amid the down-
cast emblems of her power, and facing left ; her head is bowed ;
she holds in her right hand an inverted spear, the head of
which penetrates the ground before her, as she bears heavily
upon it ; at her right side a bundle of fasces, or lictors' rods,
have fallen and lie prone ; near them the cap of Liberty lies
upon the earth, or may have been intended to be represented
as rising from it; upon the ground, before the figure, are the
scales of justice, upon which Brittania has set her left foot;
upon the scales and the ground is the sword of justice, but
with a broken blade ; the left arm of the figure rests heavily
upon a large shield, bearing the cross of the British ensigns.
Legend: " PAY ABLE BY P- F F MYDDELToN." Bor.

236 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

ders, milled ; Edge, plain ; size, 18 ; weight, silver, 175 grains ;
copper, 177 grains.

Second Reverse : Center a circular field, size 6, enclosed by
a fine plain line; upon the field an inscription in four lines:
"COPPER COMPANY OF UPPER CANADA" Legend:
"ONE HALF PENNY." Border, miUed ; Edge, plain. Cop-
per; size, 18; weight, 166 grains.

This reverse belongs to a different coinage, a token
intended for Canadian circulation, the obverse of which
bears a figure of Neptune reclining against an aqueduct,
with the legend: "FERTILITATEM DIVITIAS QUE
CIRCUMFERREMUS." the date being 1794 a very rare
piece.

The copper pieces of the Myddelton Tokens were intended
for circulation as money, but what value was put upon the
silver pieces is unknown.

THE MOTT TOKENS.

The first of the numerous trade tokens which have been
issued by the merchants, manufacturers and business men of
the United States, were those made in England for the firm
composed of William and John Mott, manufacturers of and
dealers in clocks, watches, and jewelry, of No. 240 Water
street, city of New York.

Obverse : An old-fashioned family mantle-tree clock, crowned
by the small figure of an eagle. Legend: "MOTTS, N. Y.
IMPORTERS DEALERS, MANUFACTURERS, OF GOLD
AND SILVER WARES."

Reverse: An eagle, wings spread, facing left, right
talon, an olive branch, left talon, three arrows; on the
breast a shield argent, six nales gules, a chief azure ; above
the bend of tha eagle the date 1789. Legend: "CilRO-
NOMKTERS, CLOLKS, WATCHES, JEWELRY, SIL-
VERWARE." Borders milled; Edc-e, generally plain,
though milled on some specimens. Size { 17 ; weight, 108
to 171 grains.

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 237'

THE TALBOT ALLUM & LEE TOKENS.

The second issue of tokens by American merchants, was
made by the firm of Talbot Allum & Lee, India Merchants, of
Number 241 Pearl Street, City of New York. The firm con-
sisted of William Talbot, "William Allum and James Lee,
from 1794 to 1796, when Lee retired ; the partnership of Al-
lum & Lee was dissolved in 1798. The firm circulated a
large quantity of coppers of various devices, all, however,
bearing the date 1794 or 1795, the coinage being executed in
England.

First Obverse: A ship, under sail, to the right, above
this: "NEW YORK" Legend: "TALBOT ALLUM & LEE.
ONE CENT

Reverse 1 : The goddess of Liberty, standing, facing front,
on the right a bale of merchandise; the right hand of the
goddess upholds a short liberty staff, which is crowned by a
cap; the left hand rests upon a ship's rudder. Legend:
"LIBERTY & COMMERCE. Exergue: "1794" Borders,
milled; Edge, lettered and ornamented "PAYABLE AT THE
STORE OF : : : : "

Second Obverse : A ship, under sail, to the right.

Legend: At THE STORE OF TALBOT ALLUM & LEE
NEW YORK. * "

Reverse 2 : The goddess of Liberty, as upon Reverse 1 :
Legend: "LIBERTY & COMMERCE" Exergue: "1795"
Borders, milled ; Edge, lettered : "WE PROMISE To PAY THE
BEARER ONE CENT." Size, 18 ; weight, 153 grains.

Of this coinage for 1794, there are specimens from four ob-
verse and two reverse dies. The most rare of the pieces of
coin, has a large & in both legends, and the name "NEW
YORK " is not inscribed above the ship. Of the coinage for
1795, but one pair of dies are known. The dies were cut at
Birmingham, England, the coins of 1795 being much less ex-
tensively manufactured.. These dies were muled with others
to produce coins not especially intended for circulation in
America.

238 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

THE FRANKLIN PRESS TOKEN.

The Franklin Press Token is assumed by the best authority
to be an English coinage ; the reference to the name and fame
of Franklin supposed to be intended by the legend, secures the
coin a place in American collections.

Obverse: An old-style printing press. Legend: "SIC
ORITUR DOCTRINA SURGETQUE LIBERTAS-" Ex-
ergue: "1794"

Reverse: An inscription : "PAYABLE AT THE FRANK-
LIN PRESS LONDON'" Borders, milled ; Edge, plain; size,
; weight, 120 grains.

THE WASHINGTON COINAGE.

The earliest of the pieces bearing the portrait and name of
Washington, was the "Unity Cent" of 1783, which for the
sake of chronological order, is, with the Double Head Wash-
ington Cent, and Washington The Great'D'G. described on
preceding pages.

The English origin of the Washington Cents, the coin-
age of a later date than 1783, is supposed to be demon-
strated by several trial pieces, one of which was procured
from the widow of an engraver arid die cutter named Uan-
cock, of Birmingham, England. The piece referred to was
struck from an unfinished obverse die of the Washington
Cents of 1791 ; the impression is on a planchet intended for a
Macclesfield half-penny, the reverse plain. Edge, inscribed
"PAYABLE AT MACCLESFIELD LIVERPOOL OR CONGLETON

There were also two other trial pieces, imported with a lot
of English tokens, one of Reverse 1 of 1791, the "Large Eagle
Cent," according to the description which follows* this para-
graph. The edge of this piece bore an inscription : "BERSHAM
BRADLEY WILLEY SNEDSHILL" another of Reverse 2 of 1791,
edge lettered: "PAYABLE AT THE WAREHOUSE OF THOS. &

ALEX. HUTCHINSON."

Dickeson's "American Numismatic Manual," Philadelphia,
J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1860, mentions the Washington Cents

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 239

of 1791, about to be illustrated and described, as: "the real
'Simon Pures,' which were gotten up as pattern pieces by
authority of the General Government, and which, we think,
we can establish to be such, beyond controversy."

WASHINGTON CENTS OF 1791.

THE LARGE EAGLE CENT.

First Obverse : Bust of Washington, in uniform, facing left,
hair in a queue. Legend: "WASHINGTON PRESIDENT
1791 "

Reverse 1 : A large eagle, displayed, bearing upon his breast
a shield argent, six pales gules ; from the beak of the eagle, on
either side, floats a scroll, inscribed: "UNUM E PLURIBUS"
right talon, an olive branch of thirteen leaves; left talon, thir-
teen arrows ; above the eagle, in the place of a legend : "ONE
CENT " Border, milled ; Edge, lettered : UNITED STATES OF
AMERICA X " Size, 19 ; weight, 194 grains.

Reverse 2 : A ship, under sail, to the right ; beneath the
ship are waves, and in the foreground two long branches }
crossed at their lower ends. In some specimens, the maintop
of the ship is disfigured by a break, creating the appearance
of a cap at mast head, with a piece of loose sail below. Le-
gend: "LIVERPOOL HALFPENNY" Border, milled;
Edge, inscribed: "PAYABLE IN ANGLESEY LONDON OR LIV-
ERPOOL X " Size, 18 ; wight, 138 grains.

The First Obverse, and Reverse 1, were used together to
make the coin called "The Large Eagle Cent," the most com-
mon of the Washington Cents dated after 1783. The same
Obverse, and Reverse 2, were used together to form a piece,

210 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

of which but four specimens are known to be in existence;
they are called the " Washington Liverpool Halfpennies."

THE SMALL EAGLE CENT.

Second Obverse : Bust of Washington, in uniform, facing left,
hair in a queue. Legend : "WASHINGTON PEESI DENT- 1 '

Eeverse 3 : A small eagle, displayed, upraised wings ; on
his breast a shield argent, six pales gules, a chief azure ; right
talon, an olive branch, eight leaves and three berries: left
talon, six arrows ; about 'the eagle's head are eight mullets ;
above these are clouds, filling the space from wing to wing ;
above the clouds are inscribed the words : "ONE CENT " un-
der the eagle is the date 1791. Borders, milled ; Edge, let-
tered: " UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ' X'" Size, 19 ; weight,
190 grains.

Reverse 4 : A ship, under sail, to the right. Legend :
"HALFPENNY" under the ship, waves, and in the fore-
ground, on a panel, the date 1793. Border, milled ; Edge, let-
tered: "PAYABLE IN ANGLESEY LONDON OR LIVERPOOL X "
Size, 19; weight, 163 grains.

The Second Obverse, with Reverse 3, is called "The Small
Eagle Cent," which is not as common as the large eagle va-
riety (Reverse 1); the Second Obverse, and Reverse 4, form
"The Ship Halfpenny," which is of the same rarity as The
Small Eagle Cent. An obverse, bearing the bust of George
III, facing left, with the legend "GEORGIVS III DEI GRA-
TIA " was used with Reverse 1, to form a medallet supposed
to be unique. Struck in copper. Size, 20; Border, beaded;
Edge, engrailed.

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES.
THE WASHINGTON CENTS OF 1792.

241

THE NAKED BUST OR ROMAN HEAD CENT.

First Obverse : A classical bust of "Washington, undraped,
facing right ; the head is encircled by a fillet, confining the
hair, which is cut short and is curly ; the fillet is tied at the
back of the head by a bow knot with long pendent ends. Le-
gend: "WASHINGTON PKESIDENT. 1792"

Eeverse 1 : A small eagle, displayed, wings upraised ; on
his breast a shield argent, six pales gules ; right talon, an olive
branch, fourteen leaves, six berries ; left talon, thirteen arrows i
about the head of the engle are six mullets, and above is the
word "CENT" Border, milled; Edge, plain, or inscribed:
" UNITED STATES OF AMERICA x X x " Size, 19 ;
weight, 198 grains. Some six or eight specimens only are
known.

SECOND OBVERSE, REVERSE 2, 1792.

Second Obverse : Bust of Washington, in uniform, facing
left, hair in a queue. Legend: "WASHINGTON PRESI
DENT 1792 "
p

242 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

Reverse 2 ; A large eagle, displayed, on the breast a j-hield
argent, six poles gules, a chief azure; in the beak a scroll, in-
scribed: "cxuii E PLURIBUS " ; right talon, an olive branch,
thirteen leaves and a berry ; left talon, thirteen arrows; above
the head of the eagle a voided star, above this, twelve like
stars are formed in an arch from wing to wing. Border,
milled; Edge, plain, or inscribed: "USTTED STATES OF AMERI
CA - X n Size, 19 : weight, copper, 180 ; silver, 187 ; gold,
252 grains.

The "Second Obverse, and Keverse 2, form an extremely
rare coin; impressions exist in gold, silver, and copper;
they -were perhaps struck in the various metals, with a
view to determine to which the dies would be best adapted.
The piece in gold is supposed unique ; the specimens in sil-
ver and those in copper are perhaps a half-dozen or more
of each.

Third Obverse; A bust of Washington, in uniform, lacing
left, hair in a queue. Legend: "GEO. WASHINGT
BORN VIRGINIA FEB. 11. 1732-"

Reverse 3: An Inscription: # GENERAL OF THE
AMERICAN ARMIES 1775 RESIGNED 1783 PRESI-
DENT OF THE UNITED STATES 17S9 " The in-
scription is in ten lines, the star being inscribed above all, and
the dash beneath the whole. Border, milled; Edge, plain;
size, 19 ; weight, 178 grains.

The Second and Third Obverses, and Reverse 3, were in-
tended for medallcts, but used with the dies of the First Ob-
verse, and Reverse 1. The Second Obverse is uncommon, but
the Third Obverse, and Reverse 3, are not very rare. They
are usually struck in copper, with plain edge. Piece', in cop-
per, are known, formed of the Second Obverse, and Reverse 3,
the edge lettered : "UXITED STATES OP AMERICA"
The Third Obverse, and Reverse 3, are used in a few extreme-
ly rare silver pieces. A single copper piece is struck from
(he Third Obverse, and Reverse 2. There are two dies of
Reverse 3.

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES.

FOURTH OBVERSE, REVERSE 4, 1792. .

Fourth Obverse : A bust of Washington, in uniform, facing
left, hair in a queue. Legend : "G . W ASHINGTON PEESI
DENT . I . 1792 "

Reverse 4 : A n eagle, displayed ; on his breast a shield ar-
gent, six pales gules, a chief azure ; right talon, an olive
branch, thirteen leaves ; left talon, thirteen arrows. Legend:
" UNITED STATES OF AMERICA "

This die is supposed to have been condemned, as indicated
by a chisel cut across the face of the impression.

REVERSE 5, 17U2.

Reverse 5 : An eagle, displayed, upraised wings, on the
breast a shield argent, seven pales gules, a chief azure; right
talon, an olive branch, fifteen leaves; left talon, six arrows;
about the head of the eacrle fifteen mullets. Legend:
".UNITEDSTATKSOF AMERICA." Border, milled ; Edge,
plain; size, 20 to 22; weight, copper, 220 to 273 grains; sil-
ver, 193 to 234 grains.

214 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Of the Fourth Obverse, and Reverse 4, used together, but
one specimen is known, and that is a coin in silver. The
Fourth Obverse, and Reverse 5, were used together to make
coins of both silver and copper ; both of these last arc rare,
the silver pieces being very rare. A specimen, the copper
formerly owned in Berlin, Prussia, had an edge ornamented
geometrically in circles and squares. The dies of the Fourth
Obverse, and Reverses 4 and 5, are believed to have been made
by one Peter Getz, of Lancaster, Pa., a very skillful though
self-taught mechanic and engraver, evidences of whose re-
markable genius still remain in the jewels of the Lancaster
Lodge of Masons, in a part of the apparatus of the United
States Mint, and elsewhere.

1
THE "GRATE" TOKEN.

Obverse : A bust of Washington, in uniform, facing right,
hair in a queue. Legend: "G. WASHINGTON. THE
FIRM FRIEND TO PEACE & HUMANITY C* "

Reverse: An open fire-place, with a grate. Legend:
"PAYABLE BY CLARK & HARRIS . 13 . WORMWOOD
$7 BISHOPSGATE. Exergue: " LONDON 1795" Border,
milled; Edge, engrailed ; size, 17|; weight, 144 grains.

This is evidently an English token, of which two obverse
dies, and one die of the reverse are known. The impression
of the border is seldom seen on the specimens of this token,
the planchets used being too small for the dies.

LIBERTY AND SECURITY WASHINGTON COINS.

The several pieces- described under this head, are probably
pf English origin, but whether intended for medals or for cir-
culation as pennies, or half-pennies, is unknown.

First Obverse ; A bust of Washington, in uniform, facing
left, hair in a queue. Legend: "GEORGE WASHING
TON."

Reverse 1 : A shield argent, seven pales gules, impaling ar-
gent, fifteen mullets, five, four, three, two, one. Above the

BRITISH COLONIAL COINAGES. 2*5

shield is displayed an eagle, right talon, an olive branch, nine
leaves, two berries ; left talon, three arrows. Legend: "LIB-
ERTY AND SECURITY" Border, a plain double rinfc.;
Edge, lettered: "AN ASYLUM FOR THE OPPRESS'D OF ALL
NATIONS " J ss " Size, 21 ; weight, 300 grains.

This piece, though uncommon, is not rare.

Second Obverse : A bust of "Washington, in uniform, facing
right, hair in a queue. Legend: "-GEORGE WASHING
TON "

Reverse 2 : A shield, paly of sixteen argent and gules, im-
paling argent, fifteen mullets, five, four, three, two, one.
Above the shield is displayed an eagle, right talon, an olive
branch, eight leaves, four berries ; left talon, six arrows. Le-
gend: " - LIBERTY AND SECURITY o Exergue:
" 17 95 " divided by the point of the shield. Border, a plain!
circle, and outside of the same, milling. Edge, lettered: "A3*
ASYLUM FOR THE OPPRESS'D OF ALL NATIONS =: ! == " Size,

20|; weight, 310 grains.

This piece is extremely rare, but two specimens being
known.

Third Obverse: A bust of Washington, in uniform, facing
right, hair in a queue. Legend: "GEORGE WASHING
TON " Border, a plain circle, outside of the same, milling.

Reverse 3 : A shield argent, seven pales gules, impaling
azure, fifteen mullets, five, four, three, two, one. Above thfe
shie.d is displayed an eagle ; right talon, an olive branch, eight
leaves, ihrcc berries; left talon, six arrows. Legend: "LIB-
ERTY AND SECURITY" Exergue: "17 95" divided
by tho point of the shield. Border, milled; Edge, lettered
variously, generally: "PAYABLE AT LONDON LIVERPOOL oft
BRISTOL." Sometimes, but rarely: "BIRMINGHAM REDRUTH
& SWANSEA " and in one instance, of which but one specimen
remains: "AN ASYLUM FOR THE OPPRESS-D OF ALL NA-
TIONS X ' Border, milled ; size, 18 ; weight, 139 grains.

This piece, though not at all common, is not extremely
rare.

24G DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Reverse 3, is sometimes found muled with an "Irish Half
penny."

-Some of the dies described were left unfinished, inasmuch
as the pales of the shield, represented as gules, lack the fine
perpendicular lines which, in heraldry, are indicative of red.

"WASHINGTON MEDAL.

Obverse : A bust of Washington, in uniform, facing left,
hair in a queue. Legend: "WASHINGTON PRESIDENT
17^6" Border, A beaded circle, outside of which a glory.

Reverse : Identical with Reverse 4, of 1792, except the bor-
der, where a glory is introduced, as if extended over from the
obverse and turned in. Size, nearly 24.

The description of tins piece is taken from Snowden's
"Washington and National Medals." It is excessively rare,
or unique if not lost.

THE NORTH WALES WASHINGTON PIECE.

Obverse: A bust of Washington, in uniform, facing left,
hair in a queue. Legend : "GEORGEIVS WASHINGTON "

Reverse 1 : A harp, fronting left, upon which, a large
crown, surmounted by a star ; on each side of the base of the
harp, a star of six points. Legend: "NORTII WALES"
Border, plain ; Edge, generally plain, though one specimen is
is lettered : " PAYABLE IN LANCASTER LONDON OR BRISTOL "
i Reverse 2 : The same as Reverse 1, except that the stars
each side of the base of the harp, are small, and a fleur do lis
appears on the top of the crown, instead of the star.

Most of these pieces are of brass or composition ; the one
"Payable in Lancaster London or Bristol" is on a copper
planchct, weighing 143 grains. The only known impression
of Reverse 2, is abo in copper.

There are other Washington pieces than those here de-
scribed ; to include all the medals and coins which might thus
be classified, would be to form an extensive catalogue; the de-
scriptions preceding, are those of the Washington coinage of

UNITED STATES COINAGE THE FUGIOS. 247

the last century, evidently either struck as pattern pieces or
issued as money.

THE FUGIOS. TWENTY-SEVEN TYPES. TWENTY-FOUR
VARIETIES.

The Fugios were the first coinage made by authority of the
United States. There is but little on record concerning this
series of coppers, and the documents in relation to them, aside
from the Journal of Congress, cannot be found. The Con-
gressional Record states, that on "Saturday, April 21, 1787
fc % ifr *& The Committee, consisting of Mr. Johnson, Mr.
King, Mr. Pierce, Mr. Clark, and Mr. Petti t, to whom was re-
ferred a report of the Board of Treasury on certain proposals
for coining copper have reported,

"That the board of treasury be authorized to contract for
three hundred tons of copper coin of the federal s'tandard,
agreeably to the proposition of Mr. James Jarvis, provided
that the premium to be allowed to the United States on the
amount of copper coin contracted for be not less than fifteen
per cent. That it be coined at the expense of the contractor,
but under the inspection of an officer appointed and 'paid by
the United States; 'that the obligations to be given for the
payment of the copper coin to be delivered under such con-
tract be redeemable within seven years after the date thereof
with an option of discharging the same at an earlier period ;
that they bear an interest not exceeding six per cent per an-
num, and that the principal and interest accruing thereon be
payable within the United States; that the Avhole of tin-
monies arising from the said contract shall be sacredly appro-
priated and applied to the reduction of the domestic debt.

"A motion was made by Mr. Madison, seconded by Mr.
Few, to strike out the last clause, and on the question, shall
the last claure stand, viz that the whole of the monies &c, the
yeas & nays being required by Mr. Pettit, the question was
lost, and the clause was struck out."

After the clause was stricken out, the original article was

248 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

amended by inserting in the blank the word "twenty," and
instead of the rejected clause the following was inserted :

"That the whole of the aforesaid loan shall be sacredly ap-
propriated and applied to the reduction of the domestic debt
of the United States, and the premium thereon towards the
payment of the interest on the foreign debt." Thus amended
the bill was passed. The Journal shows that on

"Tuesday May 8, 1787. On Motion of Mr. King " it was :

"Resolved, That the board of treasury be and hereby are
authorized to dispose of the public copper on hand, either by
sale or contract for the coinage of the same, as they shall
judge most for the interests of the United States."

"Friday, July 6, 1787 * * * * * On the report of a
Committee, consisting of Mr. Pierce, Mr. Kean, and Mr. ITol-
ten, to whom was referred a letter of the llth May from the
board of* treasury :

Resolved, That the board of treasury direct the contractor
for the copper coinage to stamp on one side of each piece the
following device, viz : thirteen circles linked together, a small
circle in the middle, with the words 'United States,' round
it; and "in the center, the words 'We are one;' on the other
side of the same piece the following device, viz : a dial with
the hours expressed on the face of it ; a meridian sun above,
on one side of which is to be the word 'Fugio,' and on the
other the year in figures '1787' below the dial, the words
'Mind your Business.' "

On September 30, 1788, a Committee of inquiry, consisting
of Mr. Clark, Mr. Dane, Mr. Carrington, Mr. Bingham and
Mr. Williamson, appointed on finance, reported :

"There are two contracts made by the board of treasury
with James Jarvis, the one for coining three hundred tons of
copper of the federal standard, to be loaned to the United
States, together with an additional quantity of forty-five tons,
which he was to pay as a premium to the United States for
the privilege of coining ; no part of the contract hath been
fulfilled. A particular statement of this business, so far as re-

UNITED STATES COINAGE THE FUGIOS. 249

lates to the three 'hundred tons, has lately been reported to
Congress. It does not appear to your Committee that the
board were authorized to contract for the privilege of coining
forty-five tons as a premium, exclusive of the three hundred
mentioned in the act of Congress.

"The other contract with said Jarvis is for the sale of a
quantity of copper, amounting, as per account, to 71,174
pounds ; this the said Jarvis has received at the stipulated
price of eleven pence farthing, sterling, per pound, which he
contracted to pay in copper coin, of the federal standard, on or
before the last day of August 1788, now past ; of which but a
small part has been received. The remainder it is presumed,
the board of treasury will take effectual measures to recover

as soon as possible." and with this, strangely enough

ends the record of action upon this important business. Of
the amount of coin issued, and the time and manner of settle-
ment with Mr. Jarvis, there is no information to be had.
From the number of dies evidently used in creating the Fu-
gios, and the abundance of specimens still found, we may con-
clude the contracts were fulfilled according to the original
agreement.

When, as related' in the account of the Copper Coinage of
Connecticut, under the general head of "British Colonial
Coinages" herein, the General Assembly of the State of Con-
necticut, appointed in January 178 1 J, a Committee of inquiry
in relation to the mint at New Haven, and the said Committee
reported, April 7th, 1789, it was found that the owners of
that mint were: "James Jarvis 4-8 and 1-16 Parts James
Hillhouse Esq. 1-8 Part Mark Leavenworth Esqr. 1-8 Part
Abel Buel 1-8 Part and John Goodrich 1-16 Part ". The re-
port also states, that James Jarvis became ft part owner of the
Connecticut Mint in April 1786, by purchase from Pierpoint
Edwards and Elias Shipman of "2-8 Parts," and from Jona-
than Ingersol of "1-16 Part of Sd. Company's Right," and
that James Jarvis "Still Continued Sd. Business until Some
Time in the Summer following When want of Stock Obliged

250 DYE 'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

them to Desist." Furthermore about June 1st 1787, James
Jarvis is reported to have bought of Samuel Bishop and John
Goodrich, "2-8 Parts of Sd. Comp'ys Eight." which it may
be observed gave Jarvis one half, and one sixteenth, of the
stock of the Company, and the control of the mint and its
business, which he retained until 1789, as appears in the be-
ginning of this paragraph.

The coinage of Connecticut Coppers was reported by the
owners of the mint to have ceased about June 1st 1787, the
date of the last purchase of shares of the Company's stock by
James Jarvis, and the right to coin copper at the Connecticut
Mint, was suspended by Act of General Assembly of the state
June 20th 1789 and not renewed thereafter.

It will be noted that at the time of his last purchase of
stock in the Connecticut Mint, Jarvis had already made his
proposals to Congress to coin copper on account of the United
States, and must have been preparing to carry out the same,
according to the contract provided for by the Act of Congress
April 21, 1787, already quoted in this connection. The de-
vice being ordered July 6, 1787, it may be supposed Jarvis
proceeded with his coinage of the Fugios at New Haven, yet
on September 80, 1788, the Committee of Congress reported
"no part of the contract hath been fulfilled." Presumably,
the Fugios, though dated 1787, in conformity to the law
which authorized them, were mostly coined subsequent to that
year. Though generally reported to have been coined at New
Haven, altogether, the coinage for Jarvis was begun in the
city of New York, continued at New Haven, carried on at Ru-
pert, Vermont, probably also by Machin & Co., at Ne\vburgh,
N. Y., and indeed, in almost any, and every place in the
United States where facilities could be obtained. The dies
were made by Abel Duel, or "Bewil," as his name was spelt
in the reports of the Connecticut Mint, in which establish-
ment lie was, as may be noted in a preceding paragraph, the
owner of a 1-8 interest. The device ordered by Congress was
faithfully reproduced by Buel in his work upon the dies, and

UNITED STATES COINAGE THE FUGIO S. 251

is presented in the many specimens of the same still in exist-
ence, as follows :

FUGIO. FIRST OBVERSE. REVERSE 1.

First Obverse : Thirteen rings, linked in uniform order, as
by rotation, making an endless chain in circular form. Le-
gend: "UNITED STATES 9 n inscribed on a narrow
label around a small central field. Center : An inscription
" WE ARE ONE " in three lines.

Reverse 1 : A sun dial, above which appears the sun, with
many rays, shining upon the dial. Legend: " FLJGIO.
& 1787 $ " In the exergue, an inscription : " MIND YOUR
BUSINESS" in two lines. Border, milled ; Edge, plain; size,
17 to 18 ; weight, 126 to 178 grains.

THE FUGIO. SECOND OBVERSE. REVERSE 2.

Obverse: Similar to First Obverse, except that a star of
eight points is need in the punctuation of the legend.

Reverse 2 : Same as Reverse 1, except in the details of the
finish of iho face of the sun dial, and the variation in the
punctuation of the legend and inscription, as shown in the
(preceding illustration.

The types and varieties of the Fugios are generally created

252 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

by minor points of difference. On the obverse the words
UNITED STATES, are frequently changed to STATES UNITED.
In one die, of which but three impressions are known, the
word UNITED is inscribed in the upper part of the circular
label, and the word STATES appears in the lower part of the
same; specimens from another die, show the words UNITED
STATES divided by a star of eight points. The inscription WE
ARE ONE is differently placed and spaced on various pieces.
The reverses of the Fugios vary in the finish of the face of
the sun dial ; also in different punctuations of the legend and
inscription, and in the light or heavy engraving of the rays
of the sun. The coins were heavily struck; the illustration
of the First Reverse shows six figures in the field produced
by the rings showing through from the obverse ; this is com-
mon, and on many pieces the impression of the reverse shows
upon the obverse. The description thus far is of the regular
issue of this coinage.

THE FUGIO PATTERN PIECES.

With the regular authorized Fugio currency of the United
States, have been found a number of coins of like general
character, which, in the absence of positive information, are
regarded as pattern pieces.

First Obverse: Thirteen rings, interlinked, as by alterna-
tion of position, in a circle, a mullet enclosed in each ring.
Legend: "UNITED * STATES " inscribed upon a label,
borne by a large, open star, of thirteen triangular points, at
the middle of the field. In the center, an inscription : "WE

ARE ONE "

Second Obverse : Thirteen rings, linked in uniform order,
as by rotation, making an endless chain in circular form, the
name of a state inscribed on each ring. Legend: "AMERI
CAN CONGRESS'" upon a small circular label ; within the
label, nt the center, is an. eye ; from the outer edge of the label
radiates a glory of many rays, filling the space to the circle of
rings.

UNITED STATES COINAGE THE FUOIOS. 253

Third Obverse : Identical with Second Obverse, except the
eye in the center. These obverses are all rare, but two speci-
mens from each, some in silver and others in copper.

Fourth Obverse : Similar to Third Obverse, except that the
rajs of the glory extend into and nearly across the space in-
side the several rings.

Fifth Obverse : Thirteen rings, interlinked alternately, a
mullet in each ; in the field a large star, open at the center.

Sixth Obverse : Thirteen rings, linked in uniform order, as
by rotation, making an endless chain in circular form, the
name of a state inscribed on each ring. Legend: "AMERI-
CAN CONGRESS'" on a small circular label. In the center,
an inscription : "WE ARE ONE." The space between the legend
and the circle of rings is filled by a glory.

Reverse 1 ; A sun-dial ; above, the sun shining down upon
the dial. The field is plain.

Reverse 2 : A sun-dial ; above, the sun shining down upon
the dial. Legend: " FUGIO. * 8 1787 " Exergue:
" -m. MIND ^ YOUR ^ BUSINESS"

Reverse 3 A sun-dial; above, the sun shining down upon
the dial. Legend: "FUGIO . 1787-.." Exergue :" MIND

YOUR BUSINESS."

The First, Second, Third and Fourth Obverses have been
used with Reverse 1.

The First Obverse and the Fifth Obverse have been used
with Reverse 2. The first in silver and brass, the other in
silver only, as far as known. Specimens excessively rare or
unique.

The Sixth Obverse has been used with Reverse 3, upon
copper specimens. Excessively rare.

The die of Reverse 3 was used with the First and Second
Obverses of the regular authorized issue of the Fugios.

The pattern pieces were of the same size as the regular
issue, 17 to 18.

A number of dies of this coinage, were found at a store in
New Haven, Connecticut, once occupied by Browne & Platt,.

254 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

sometime the owners of the mint ; from thesa dies, restrikes
have been made ; on these the rings appear to be interlinked
in alternation of position, in a manner unlike that shown in
the illustrations herein given.

"The Fugios" ara so called by Mr. S. S. Crosby, of Boston,
in his work THE EAELY COINS OF AMERICA, an excellent au-
thority. They were generally known as the Franklin Cents,
otherwise as the Sun-dial Cents, the Pang Cents, and the Mind
Your Business Cents. It has been proposed by very respecta-
ble parties to denominate this coinage the Rittenhouse Cent.
The Scientist and Philosopher, David Rittenhouse, of Phila-
delphia, when only twenty-four years of age, adopted as his
mottoes the words "Tempus Fuyit" (Time Flies), and the
terse maxim *J/mc Your Business' 1 . The famous results of
his life, demonstrate his adherence to the rule of action thus
chosen by him.

In 1756, David Rittenhouse made an eight-day clock for
Mr. Barton, his brother-in-law, over the dial-plate of which
he engraved " Tempus Fugit" and beneath the same "Mind
Your Business " From this time-piece, these curt, sensible
phrases found their way to the Continental Bills of Credit, the
tin co : ns of the "Continental Currency," and the dies of the
Fugios, the first authorized coinage of the United States.

The various devices of the Continental Currency were much
admired for their appropriate significance; they were sup-
posed to be the designs of Judge Hopkinson, an intimate friend
of Rittenhouse.

The first coins struck for America, are supposed to have
been tncSommcr Island Shilling and Sixpence, the first-named
piece being known as the "Ilogge Penny." An account of
these pieces, is given in this volume, under the head of
"Bruish Colonial Coinages." The Ilogge Penny was issued
about the }'ear 1612. From that time on, the subject of a
currency, and the regulation of the value of various foreign
coins, was a matter of frequent consideration in the British
American Colonies. Laws in relation to the various forms

UNITED STATES COINAGETHE FUQIOS. 255

of money in use, were passed in Virginia as early as 1640 ; by
Virginia and Maryland in 1642 ; in Massachusetts the same
year, and afterwards in the different colonies. Virginia passed
a law for the establishment of a mint and the creation of a
coinage, November 20, 1645 ; Massachusetts passed a law of
the same kind, May 27th, 1652. The Virginian law was with-
out issue, but the Massachusetts coinage was effected. Mary-
land passed a law "concerning the setting up of a mint," May
1st, 1661, the coinage, however, being made for the colony, by
Lord Baltimore, in England, thereafter. New Hampshire
voted the consideration of a copper coinage, March 13, 1776,
the matter being afterward agreed upon, but never concluded.
Vermont authorized a coinage June 15, 1785 ; Connecticut
October 20, 1785, and New Jersey did the same, June 1st,
1786.

The Congress of the Confederated States of America, not
only issued paper money in large amounts for carrying on the
war against England for independence, but is credited with
having put forth a coinage of tin in 1776, described as the
" Continental Currency." Robert Morris, the " Financier of
the Revolution," made his report of a scheme for a National
Coinage to Congress on January 15, 1782, the sarns being
represented herein by the NOVA COXSTELLATIO PATTERNS.
The scheme presented by Morris not being adopted, the sub-
ject of a Coined Currency continued to be discussed in Con-
gress, and on Wednesday, July 6, 1785, that legislative body
considered the report cf a grand Committee on the subject of
a monetary unit, and resolved :

" That the money unit of the United States of America, be
one dollar.

" That the smallest coin be of copper, of which 200 shall
pass for one dollar.

" That the several pieces shall increase in a decimal ratio."

On August 8, 1786, the subject was further considered, and
the names and weights of the several coins of the United States
were specified, and the Board of Treasury ordered to report the

256

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

draft of a law to be passed for the establishment of a mint On
October 16, 1786, an "Ordinance for the establishment of the
Mint of the United States of America, and for regulating the
value and alloy of coins," was passed, as may be found in the
Journals of Congress. The adoption of the Constitution of the
United States in 1787, arrested all local issues, and vested the
sole right of coinage in the general government.

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD,

AND THE

The vast production of the precious metals in the "Western
Hemisphere since the American voyages of Columbus in the
year 1492, is the most remarkable phenomenon of the im-
portant facts of modern history.

Of the precious metals, gold, the earliest known and most
beautiful of all metallic substances, has been, and remains, of
the greatest commercial consequence.

The Private Coinage of Gold in the United States, is one of
the most noteworthy of all known mintages, though less ar-
tistic and varied than some series of classical origin, and lack-
ing the scientific accuracy and mechanical finish of the best
work of modern dates ; it is, notwithstanding, an evidence of
the richness of American geologic formations, an incident in
the establishment of art and civilization in a new land, and
later, as appearing in California, a result of the unequaled en-
terprise of a free and cosmopolitan people in the most extra-
ordinary natural and social conditions. It is proper then, that
in a work like the present, the history and description of this
coinage should be preceded by some brief notes upon the sub-
ject of gold in general, and a more particular account of the
gold regions of the United States.
Q (257)

258 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

Of Gold, it may be said, that it is not only "the earliest
known and most beautiful of all metallic substances," as has
already been stated, but it is also most widely disseminated,
and thoroughly diffused through various elements in multi-
form states and combinations. Gold has been found in all
quarters of the globe; no considerable region seems to be
without this metal in greater or less abundance. The earliest
supplies of gold were, it may be supposed, found in masses
now called "nuggets," which consist of metallic gold in a
natural state, mixed to a greater or less degree, with pebbles,
or fragments of rock, called "matrix," and blended with other
metals, or with different minerals. Gold is found otherwise
in small grains, in deposits called "placers," in varied forms
in "lodes" and "veins," and as "gold dust" mingled with the
sand and earth in many places. Common clay, such as un-
derlies the whole of the extensive city of Philadelphia, Penn-
sylvania, and which is used there for the general manufacture
of bricks for building, contains in many instances considera-
ble amounts of gold. The walls of the houses of Philadelphia
are supposed to contain many millions of dollars worth of su-
perfine gold embedded in the bricks of which the buildings
are constructed. It has been shown from chemical analysis
by Soustadt, that about a grain of gold is diffused in every
ton of sea water, and that the gold can be separated so as to
be recognized from a quantity of the water no more than
from one hundred and fifty to two hundred cubic centimetres.
Nevertheless, as universally as gold may in this manner be
traced, there are comparatively few localities where the labor
and expense of obtaining the same does not exceed the value
of the metal secured.

The symbol of gold, in chemistry, and among numisma-
tists, is Au, from Aurum, the Latin term for this metal. In
chemistry, the equivalent number of gold is 98.5, though in
the practice of many chemists, the same is expressed by the
double of this, the equivalent being written as 167. Gold is
the most ductile, the most malleable, and the only yellow

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 259

metal. The density of gold varies with the degree of com-
pression to which it may be subjected ; that of hammered gold
is from 19.258 to 19.4. Finely-divided gold, obtained by pre-
cipitation from its solution by sulphate of iron, has a specific
gravity of 20.72. Pure gold is about the softness of lead in
the same state, and the higher the degree of purity in the
gold, the greater the capacity of the metal for extension by
the processes of rolling, beating and wire-drawing. An ounce
of gold can be made to cover one hundred square feet of sur-
face ; leaf gold of this thickness transmits, if pure, green rays
of light, but if somewhat alloyed with silver, pale violet rays
are transmitted also. One grain of gold may be made to cover
a surface of from 56 to 56,3-4 square inches. Ordinary gold
leaf is made one two hundred thousandth of an inch in thick-
ness; the French leaf is but one two hnndred and eighty
thousandth of an inch thick, and in some cases of but one two
hundred and ninety thousandth of an inch thick, while speci-
mens have been made, of which 367,500 were required to make
a pile one inch high, or about 1200 leaves of gold to make
the thickness of a sheet of common printing paper. A grain
of gold can be drawn into a wire 500 feet in length. In gild-
ing silver, an ounce of gold may be extended to cover a wire
1300 miles in length, when the thickness of the gold is re-
duced so much, that three million, three hundred and eighty-
four thousand such films of metal would be required to make
a pile an inch high. The tenacity of gold, is less than that of
iron, copper, platinum, or silver. The experiments of Seck-
ingen are said to have demonstrated that a gold wire 0.078 of
an inch in diameter, is capable of supporting a weight of
150.07 Ibs. avoirdupois, without breaking. Upon more re-
cent authority, we are informed that a wire of gold 0.787, or
rather more than one thirty-sixth of an inch in diameter, will
support 150 pounds avoirdupois. After the conquest of Car-
thage, the ancient Romans used gold leaf upon various articles
of furniture, and ultimately, in an excess of extravagance,
gilded the ceilings of their apartments and halls. The gold

260 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

leaf used for this purpose, was by the writers of that age.
compared to a cobweb, and yet from their more definite state-
ments, we learn that it was about three times the thickness of
the common gold leaf used at the present time.

The thin leaf of pure gold, as has been stated, transmits
light of a green color ; heat changes the color of the same to a
ruby red, and finely-divided gold, under certain conditions,
imparts this to glass. The melting point of gold, has been
variously stated, at 1200 degrees Centigrade by Pouillet, at
1380 degrees Centigrade by Guyton de Morveau, and at 1425
degrees Centigrade by Daniells. From a comparison of the
results obtained by these different authorities, Reirnsdijk con-i
eludes the exact point at which gold fuses, is 1240 Centigrade.
Otherwise, the melting point of gold has been given at 2016
degrees Fahrenheit; at 2192 degrees, at 2518 degrees, and at
2590 degrees, of the same thermometrical scale. "When melted,
gold becomes of a bright bluish green color ; it expands more
than most metals in fusing, and in consequence contracts more
in cooling, and becoming solid again. Thus, although the
ductility, malleability, and considerable tenacity of gold, com-
bine with its fineness, beauty of color, and capacity for finish,
to fit it for the varied arts, and recommend it pre-eminently
for the'use of every mint, its action when fused in the crucible
or cooling in the mold, prevents the metal from being founded
or cast in any practical manner, except into blanks, ingots, or
similar masses, of a rude form and rounded outline.

Gold is remarkable for the long time during which it may
be submitted to a high degree of heat, without loss by vola-
tilization. Gasto Claveus placed an ounce of pure gold, in an
earthen vessel, in the furnace of a glass-house, where the heat
was sufficient to melt glass, and there the same was kept at
that heat for two months, but upon careful examination, the
gold was found to have lost nothing by the prolonged fusion.
Other experimenters, however, describe gold as somewhat
volatile under a higher and long-continued heat. When sub-
jected to the flame of the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe, gold wire

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 261

is dispersed in vapor ; the same result may be obtained by the
use of the heat of the rays of the sun concentrated by a pow-
erful convex lens, or by a strong current of electricity. As
the current from a powerful electric battery is made to pass
along a gold wire, vapors of the metal are produced which
may be collected upon a sheet of paper beneath the wire. The
paper, in such an experiment, will be stained a purplish brown
by the deposit of impalpable gold-dust ; if a sheet of silver be
used in the place of the paper, in the same way, a like deposit
will be formed upon the silver which may thus be gilded.
The primitive natural form of gold is that of a cubical crys-
tal. When gold is melted in a large quantity and made to
cool and resolidify slowly, cubical crystals sometimes appear,
and crystals of gold have been found in a state of nature in the
form of the regular octohedron.

Chemically, gold is not acted upon by the alkalies, nor by
any simple acid, except selenic acid ; neither is it affected by
the oxygen of the air, though long exposed to the same when
in a state of fusion. It is not affected by sulphur, but is dis-
solved by bromine and chlorine, or by any combination of
acids or different substances wherein free chlorine may be
found. Chlorine, as generated in chemical compounds, is a
powerful solvent of gold ; to this is due the potency upon gold
of the combination of 4 parts of hydrochloric acid and one
part of nitric acid, which is called aqua reyia. Gold can be
alloyed with most of the metals ; the addition of silver or of
copper increases the hardness of gold and fits it to endure the
wear to which the metal is subjected in coins and in articles
of jewelry or of plate. At the same time the tenacity of the
metal is increased, and it is rendered more fusible. Articles
of jewelry and such wares of red gold, are soldered with a
composition consisting of one part of copper to five of gold.
A solder for light-colored gold is made of four parts of gold
and one part of silver, or for a deeper shade, of one part cop-
per, one part silver and four parts of gold. Gold, when ob-
tained from chemical solution, is presented in a variety of

262 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

forms ; from a chlorine solution of gold may be obtained a
mass of peculiar nature, which by a process involving heating,
annealing, and other proper manipulation, becomes the "sponge
gold " used in dentistry. Gold can be welded coid, and sponge
gold, when properly prepared, is readily reduced to a perfectly
solid condition by a moderate amount of percussion or ham-
mering. Gold "plugs" have been found in the teeth of mum-
mies centuries on centuries since alive in Egypt, but we are
not aware the ancients had knowledge of such a form of gold
as is here described.

BINARY COMPOUNDS OF GOLD.

The atomic weight of gold has been given by various au-
thorities at 196.0, 193.2, 196.3, 196.5, and 196.67, the same
quantity of heat being required to produce a given change of
temperature in 7 grains of lithium, 56 of iron, 207 of lead, 108
of silver, or from 196.0 to 196.7 grains of gold. The most
important compounds of gold are

First. Oxide or Protoxide of Gold. Oxygen and gold unite,
but only by indirect chemical action. The oxide or protoxide
of gold is prepared by adding a solution of potash to one of
protochloride of gold ; a green powder is separated, which is
the oxide or protoxide named. It is an exceedingly unstable
compound. It consists of oxygen 8, gold 200.

Second. Peroxide or Teroxide of Gold. This may be ob-
tained by decomposing a solution of perchloride of gold, by
digesting it with a small excess of magnesia, and treating the
precipitate with diluted nitric acid. This oxide decomposes
\vhen exposed to daylight, and its oxygen is very readily ex-
pelled. It consists of oxygen 24, gold 200.

Third. Chlorine and Gold. These form two compounds.
Primarily, the Perchloride or Terchloride of Gold, which is
most readily obtained. For this gold may be digested in an
aqueous solution of chlorine, or it may be treated with nas-
cent chlorine, derived from aqua regia through the mutual
decomposition of nitric and hydrochloric acids. Gold is pre-

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 263

cipitated from this compound in a metallic state by the action
of light and various agents. It consists of chlorine 108, gold
200. Secondarily, the Protochloride of Gold, which may be
obtained by heating the perchloride to about 500 degrees
Fahrenheit in a porcelain vessel, and treating that which re-
mains with water. The result is a colorless saline mass, un-
alterable in the air, but instantly decomposed in boiling water.
It consists of chlorine 36, gold 200.

Fourth. Bromide of Gold. This may be obtained by dis-
solving gold in a mixture of hydrobromic and nitric acids and
evaporating the solution, when a deep red saline mass is left,
which is sometimes deposited in crystals, and is so intense in
color that one part of the same will tinge five thousand parts
of water.

Fifth. Sulphuret of Gold. This may be obtained by pass-
ing hydrosulphuric acid gas into a solution of perchloride of
gold. The result is a black powder, which if heated, at once
decomposes into sulphur and gold. It consists of sulphur 48,
gold 200.

Sixth. Phosphuret of Gold. This may be obtained by heat-
ing gold leaf and phosphorus in a vacuum, or by passing
phosphuretted hydrogen gas into a solution of chloride of
gold. The first process results in a grey substance of metallic
lustre, the second process produces a brownish powder. When
heated in the air it decomposes. The composition has not
been exactly determined.

Seventh. Iodide of Gold. This may be obtained by mixing
a solution of iodide of potassium with the solution of chloride
of gold. The result is a yellowish brown precipitate, insolu-
ble in cold water, soluble by alkaline solutions, and decom-
posing when heated. It should be boiled in water to separate
a probable excess of iodine, when it is estimated to consist
of iodine 126, gold 200.

Such are the principal binary compounds formed by the
union of gold with non-metallic elements. Neither azote or
hydrogen combine with gold in any form.

264 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

THE PRINCIPAL ALLOYS OF GOLD.

Most metallic substances combine with gold under proper
conditions by suitable manipulation, some more readily and
perfectly than others. Of the compounds of gold with the
metals of the alkalies and earths, such as potassium, calcium,
etc., there is no information.

First. Arsenic and Gold. This alloy is made by heating
gold leaf and arsenic together ; by a gentle heat the arsenic
vaporizes and combines with the gold. When one part of
arsenic is added to 900 parts of gold, the color of the metal
remains unchanged, but its malleability is destroyed. One
part of arsenic added to 240 parts of gold, renders the metal
grey and brittle. The alloy is readily decomposed by calcina-
tion.

Second. Tellurium and Gold. These occur in combination
in a state of nature, mixed also with a considerable portion
of lead ; the varieties of this natural alloy, are known as
"graphic tellurium," "yellow tellurium" and "black tellu-
rium."

Third. Antimony and Gold. These make an alloy of a
pale yellow color, with a fine grain. Gold loses its ductility
when combined with but one part in 1920 by weight of anti-
mony. The alloy is made by fusing the metals together. By
long-continued calcination in an open crucible, the antimony
may be entirely expelled and the alloy decomposed.

Fourth. Manganise and Gold. These make an alloy of a
yellowish color, which breaks readily under the hammer,
showing a spongy, coarse-grained substance.

Fifth. Zinc and Gold. These make an alloy of a pale
greenish color, like brass. The addition of small quantities
of zinc destroys the ductility of gold. The mixture of eleven
parts of gold and one part of zinc forms a brittle composition,
but large quantities of zinc may be added to gold and the duc-
tility of the metal still remain. An alloy of gold and copper,
with five-eighths of one per cent, of zinc, is perfectly ductile.

Sixth. Tin and Gold. These make an alloy of a very pale

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 265

whitish yellow color, which in bars of one-eighth of an. inch
thick may be easily bent, but when the bars are passed be-
tween rollers they break lengthwise into several pieces. The
fracture in such cases shows a fine grain, of a somewhat earth-
like appearance and pale yellowish-grey color. Gold alloyed
with one thirty-seventh part of tin, has been found sufficiently
ductile to be rolled and ftamped into coin if the metal be an-
nealed at a low temperature. In general, the alloys of tin and
gold are hard and brittle, the combination of the metals caus-
ing a contraction of their substance.

/Sixth. Iron and Gold. These make an alloy of a pale yel-
lowish grey color ; it is very ductile and may be rolled in bars
from the thickness of three-quarters of an inch to that of the
gold half ea^le. An alloy of eleven parts of gold and one part
of iron can be readily rolled without annealing. The density
of this last-named alloy is less than could be calculated from
that of the component metals.

Seventh. Nickel and Gold. These make an alloy of a rich
light-yellow color ; eleven parts of gold and one part of nickel
forms an alloy resembling fine brass ; with a greater propor-
tion of nickel the alloy becomes brittle, and when tested by
the hammer, breaks at once with a coarse-grained earthy
fracture.

Eiyhth. Cobalt and Gold. These make an alloy of a pale
dull yellow color, mixed with grey in the proportion of eleven
parts of gold to one of cobalt ; the alloy is brittle and breaks
with a fine-grained earthy fracture.

Ninth. Copper and Gold. These make an alloy of a hand-
some reddish yellow, the effect upon the color of the gold be-
ing very small in comparison with other alloys. The alloying
of gold with copper, diminishes the density, but increases the
hardness of the metal. English plate and jewelry of gold, are
manufactured of a fineness which varies from 375, 500, 625,
or 750, to 916.6; the alloy for this purpose is of copper and
silver, in different proportions. In France, the standards for
articles of jewelry manufactured from gold, are 750, 840, or

266 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

920. The Japanese make an alloy of 70 of copper to 30 of
gold, which they call Shi-ya-ku-Do, which being made into or-
naments and exposed to the air, becomes coated with an oxide
of an exceedingly fine and beautiful black color. An alloy of
from one part of copper and twenty-five of gold, to one part
of copper and fifty of gold, is used for making wire, though
gold may be spun when pure. The composition of various
solders for gold, has been stated in a preceding paragraph.
Manufactured articles of gold ware which contain a considera-
ble percentage of copper, are liable to tarnish by oxidation,
but the color may be restored by treating the surface with
ammonia. Copper is the most important alloy used with gold
to fit it to endure the wear to which it is subjected when made
into coin. The composition of the gold coin of Great Britian,
is one of copper to eleven of gold ; the specific gravity of this
alloy is 17.157, its fineness 916.6. Twenty pounds Troy of
standard British gold are coined into 934 sovereigns and one
half sovereign. The United States of America, and the na-
tions of "The Latin Convention" have established a standard
fineness of 900 for their gold coin, the alloy being of copper
with a small part of silver.

Tenth. Bismuth and Gold. These form a very brittle alloy
of a pale yellow color. If one part of bismuth be added to
1920 parts of gold, the metal is made brittle. Eight parts of
bismuth and ninety-two parts of gold, form a pale yellow and
brittle alloy.

Eleventh. Silver and Gold. These combine well, and form
a very ductile alloy of a very pale yellow color. Five parts
of silver in one hundred parts of gold, is sufficient to efioct a
decided change of color in the metal. Silver combines with
gold in a state of nature, forming electrum. The ancient Greeks
were familiar with this natural product; it contained from 20
to 40 parts of silver to 80 or 60 parts of gold. The rough
nuggets of electrum were often stamped by the Greeks to cre-
ate the original Lydian coins. The electrum analyzed by
Klaproth consisted of 64 parts of gold and 36 parts of silver,

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 267

almost the exact proportions of one chemical equivalent of
each metal. Later, Boussingault found the electrum from dif-
ferent South American placers to consist of very different pro-
portions of the metals, yet all were definite chemical com-
pounds.

Twelfth. Lead and Gold. These form a very brittle pale
alloy. One part of lead in 1219 parts of gold, is sufficient to
make the metal brittle ; the fumes of lead alone will destroy
the ductility of gold which may be exposed to them.

Thirteenth. Mercury and Gold. These combine with ex-
ceeding facility and form a soft white alloy called an amalyam,
which is extensively used in certain kinds of gilding. On ac-
count of its affinity for gold, mercury or quicksilver is much
used to separate gold from various substances found with the
metal in mining or during some process of manufacture. This
procedure is termed amalgamation.

Fourteenth. Platinum and Gold. These combine in every
proportion, making a pale fusible alloy. Two parts of platina
in 98 parts of gold is sufficient to sensibly affect the color of
the metal. The alloy of equal parts of platina and gold, makes
a ductile alloy almost the color of pure gold.

fifteenth. Palladium and Gold. These combine in every
proportion. Equal parts of palladium arid gold, make a grey
alloy more brittle than either of its constituent metals. One
part of palladium and four parts of gold makes a white, hard,
and yet ductile alloy.

Sixteenth. Rhodium and Gold. These, when combined in
the proportions of from 20 parts of rhodium to 80 of gold, or
25 of rhodium to 75 of gold, make a very ductile infusible al-
loy the color of gold.

Seventeenth. Iridium and Gold. When small quantities of
iridium are added to a mass of gold, the ductility of the gold
remains, notwithstanding the extreme hardness of iridium.
When the alloy is fused, the iridium falls to the bottom of the
vessel in which the melting is done ; the inference is that it
has simply been mixed with and disseminated through the

268 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

gold in particles, not forming a true alloy, and to this the pre-
servation of ductility in the gold is supposed to be due.

THE SALTS OF GOLD.

The salts of gold based upon the oxide, are obtained with
great difficulty; \vhen the peroxide of gold is dissolved in
nitric, acetic, or sulphuric acid, the result requires concentra-
tion, the acids are not saturated by the oxide, and the solu-
tions may all be decomposed by water. Where the peroxide
acts as an acid, but one of the salts of gold thus formed, pos-
sesses any remarkable properties ; this peroxide is soluble in
alkalies, potash and soda, but neither definite or crystalline
compounds have been formed. "When ammonia is added to a
solution of perchloride of gold, the water is decomposed and
a substance precipitated of a yellowish brown color, consisting
of the peroxide of gold in combination with a portion of the
ammonia. The product is called the ammoniuiet of gold, or
the aurate of ammonia; it is collected in a filter, and after be-
ing washed with a small quantity of water, dried at a tem-
perature of 212 degrees Fahrenheit. Upon the application of
heat, the ammoniuret of gold explodes violently, the gold be-
ing reduced to the metallic state ; water forms by union of the
oxygen in the oxide of gold, and the hydrogen of the ammo-
nia, azotic gas being simultaneously evolved. The ammoniu-
ret is supposed to consist of two equivalents of ammonia ancj
one of peroxide of gold. Some of the most permanent salts
of gold are the double chlorides. The sodio chloride is con-
sidered the most stable of all the salts of gold.

THE ANCIENT HISTORY OF GOLD.

The nature of gold, which is easily wrought into any form,
of a beautiful yellow color, and capable of a high and perma-
nent luster, has given that metal a remarkable value from the
earliest dates of history. When gold was first discovered,
used and preserved, is unknown, but prehistoric relics prove
the exceeding antiquity of various manufactures of this,

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 269

probably the first known of all the metals. There is but lit-
tle information in classical literature regarding the sources of
gold, or the methods by which it was procured.

In the first recorded ages, the Phoenicians and Egyptians
were well supplied with gold and various other metals. The
oldest known mines were those of the Egyptians, who ob-
tained gold, silver and copper in large quantities, from mines
opened by them upon both the Ethiopian and Arabian bor-
ders of their territories. In the Sinaitic desert, may still be
found traces of the ruins of mines, supposed to have been
operated by the ancient Egyptians. Articles of jewelry, and
vessels of gold, found in the tombs of Egypt, and drawings
still to be seen upon the walls of these depositories of the bo-
dies of the dead, prove the early people of that country, had
developed a great degree of perfection in the art of working
gold, even making use of the blow-pipe in an approved modern
form, sometime before the reign of that Pharoah, described in
the Bible as the friend and patron of the Hebrew Joseph.
The Hebrew scriptures make frequent mention of gold, both
for money and ornament ; it was recorded as part of the riches
of Abraham, some 2000 B. C. The Hebrew poets described
the process of refining gold by cupellation, as a common illus-
tration in their writings.

The Phoenicians, who occupied the coast of Syria from the
first dawn of history, obtained gold and iron, as well as other
metals, from Sardinia, and other islands of the Mediterranean
sea; they had also mines in Spain, and imported the ores of
tin from Britain. The Etrusci, a cultivated people, residents
of Italy, long before Rome was founded, perhaps 1000 or 1300
B.C., were experts in working gold; in Etruria, examples of
their art in this particular have been exhumed, of light and
beautiful workmanship, enriched with minute grains of gold
upon the surface. This style of art remained unrivalled until
Castellani rediscovered and revived the methods of the Etrus-
cian goldsmiths.

The Greeks of Athens worked rich gold mines in Thrace

270 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

and Thasos. Gold was produced in Thessaly, and Mt. Tmo-
lus, the source of the river Pactolus, now called the Sarabat,
and Mt. Sipylus, near Sardis, or Sardes, past which city the
Pactolug ran, were seamed with rich veins of gold. The Pac-
tolus, rising on the north side of Mt. Traolus, ran in a norther-
ly direction through Lydia, and emptied into the Uermus.
Though a small river, it bore from the region of its springs,
an immense amount of gold, which was taken from its sands
by the process of washing. Croesus gon of Alyattes, sole king
of Lydia, about 568 B. C., inherited great riches from his father,
to which, from the gold dust of the Pactolus, and from gold
mines he owned in Asia Minor, he continued to make vast ad-
ditions, until his boundless wealth became and still remains
proverbial. To a woman who saved him from assassination
by poison, Croesus is said to have raised a statue of gold fifty
feet in height.

In the mythological poetry of Greece, it was related that
one of the first kings of Phrygia, called Midas, obtained from
the god Bacchus, a gift, by virtue of which, whatever the king
touched turned to gold. "When it was found that even the
food of Midas, became metal in his hands, it was seen he was
in danger of starvation. In this unfortunate dilemma, the
king again applied to Bacchus and asked a modification of his
power, so as to save his life. Bacchus kindly told the sup-
pliant, to go and bathe in the waters of the Pactolus for relief.
This Midas at once did, and by the blessing of the god, found
that he could thereafter, handle the necessaries of life without
making gold of them, as he could still do of other things. But
an unexpected result followed the presence of Midas iu the
river ; he imparted his power to the water, thus dividing his
energy, when wonderful to tell, the sands of the Pactolus were
turned to gold, and though afterwards mixed with other de-
posits, were perpetually and eagerly sought for by those who
would be rich !

The gold mines which belonged to Crcesus, were worked in
the time of Xenophon, as described, about 400 B. C., but in the

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 271

days of Strabo, about the beginning of the Christian era, that
distinguished author wrote they were exhausted. At the
same date, the "golden sands" of the Pactolus had become too
scarce to repay/collection.

Ancient writers describe rich mines of gold in Arabia Fe-
lix, no traces of which remain. The tribes of northern Italy
obtained gold by washing the sands of the streams and certain
deposits. Britain formerly produced gold. The early Ro-
mans neglected mining, yet Rome under the Caesars, became
by conquest mistress of the metallic production of the world.
According to Pliny, the metallurgists of his time, used mer-
cury to separate the precious metals, and also in the process
of gilding. Vitruvius describes in detail, the method of amal-
gamation, by which in the days of Cassar and Augustus, gold
was recovered from cloth into which threads of that metal
had been wrought or woven.

Under the Roman republic, the mines were leased to per-
sons who employed numerous slaves, and worked the mineral
deposits with rapid and reckless wastefulness. From the first
Punic war to the Roman empire, there was in consequence an
immense production of metals, of gold among the rest, and
many mines became exhausted. Under the Roman empire,
the mines were placed in charge of regular officers of the gov-
ernment and managed with greater economy. A striking pic-
ture of ancient mining for gold, or other metals, is given in
the Bible, Job xxviii 1-11, and by Pliny in his Natural His-
tory xxxiii, 4.

After the third century of the Christian era, the production
of gold in the western Roman empire rapidly declined, and at
the end of the fifth century ceased entirety. The Byzantines
gradually gave up their mines to the Arabs, retaining those
of Asia Minor, Thrace and Greece longest of all finally, bar-
barism overran Europe, and during the dark ages of a thou-
sand years, literature, art and civilization were in eclipse.
Meantime, the Arabs, who from the earliest times, divided with
their neighbors the Phoenicians the most of the commerce of

272 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

the world, beginning their progress anew from the era of Ma-
hommed about A. D. 570, cultivated learning, grammer and
poetry with the arts ; made the conquest of the Moors in A.D.
700; with them invaded Spain A.I). 711 ; established them-
selves in Granada, and not only drew from Yemen, Africa,
and Spain itself, gold to support their magnificence and embel-
lish the Alhambra, but by intellectual vigor and industry en-
larged the sciences and inscribed forever upon the text books
of the world, the technical terms and characters of their re-
markable language.

GOLD IN MODERN TIMES.

With the revival of learning in Europe, the enterprise of
civilization and commerce was renewed, the spirit of discovery
was aroused, speculative thinking became active, imagination
was quickened, hope inspired, great undertakings were begun,
and presently a new world was discovered. The voyages of
Columbus and those who followed him to the Western Hem-
isphere, were attempted with a threefold object. First, as
originally by Columbus and the scholars who were his only
early and reliable friends, the glory and the perfection of learn-
ing, an increase of geographical knowledge ; secondly, as with
the pious Columbus, and the liberal among the ecclesiastics,
and part of the Spanish court, for the spread of the Christian
power and religion ; thirdly, last and greatest with most, and
potent in influence with all, for the discovery and collection
of gold, and silver, then considered the only actual and inte-
gral forms of wealth.

Returning from his first American voyage, that to the West
India islands in 1492, Columbus took back with him to the
Spanish court then at Barcelona in Spain, "rich and strange"
spoil from the lands he had discovered ; he was privileged to
present to the monarchs of his nation, Ferdinand and Isabella,
"the gold, the cotton, the parrots, the curious arms, the mys-
terious plants, the unknown birds and beasts, and the nine In-
dians he had brought with him for baptism," into the Chris-

AMERICAN AND OTHE& GOLD. 273

tian faith. During his second voyage in 149-4, Columbus ef-
fected a settlement upon Ilispaniola, now San Domingo, and
founded the mining camp of San Tomaso, in the gold fields of
that island. Although the Spanish voyagers and colonists had
been instructed from the throne of Spain to treat "well and
lovingly " the Indians, who, the monarchs assumed, were by
virtue of a grant from the Pope, their vassals, yet during the
absence of Columbus from Hispaniola, his officers so abused
the natives as to make enemies of them. Under the circum-
stances, it became necessary to subjugate the Indians or aban-
don the colony. The Spaniards quickly availed themselves
of this excuse for war. In the lighting which followed, the
Spaniards were successfully led by Bartholomew, the brother
of Columbus. The cacique Caonabo was captured by strata-
gem, five ship-loads of Indians were sent to Spain to be sold
as slaves, and a tribute imposed upon those who remained.
Thus the West Indian slave trade began, and thus began that
system of robbing the Indians by taxes, called repartimentos,
or ecomiendas, which, while bringing in one way and another,
large amounts of gold and silver to the conquerors, was con-
tinually made the instrument of cruel extortion and oppression
to the enslaved aborigines of all Spanish America.

After various voyages, Columbus in 1499 was in San Do-
mingo, in charge of his colony, which he had reduced to order ;
gold mining was actively carried on there at this time, under
his immediate direction, and so great was the product from
the same, and so encouraging the prospect in this pursuit, that
Columbus calculated, by the year 1502, the net revenue of
the crown of Spain from the San Domingo gold mines, would
be no less than 60,000,000 reals, or $7,500,000. But the sym-
pathies of Isabella the queen, had been aroused at the sight
of the ruined captive Indian girls among the slaves taken
to Spain by some of the adventurers, the enemies of Columbus
clamored against him, and Bobadilla was sent to supersede
him in office. On the arrival of this arrogant grandee, every-
thing was thrown into confusion, industry was checked, thede-
R

274 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

velopment of the gold mines ceased for the time, and Colum-
bus and his two brothers being stripped of power with every
insolence, were put in irons and straigh-tway shipped to Spain.

Kestored once more to his power and dignity, Columbus in
1502 discovered the mainland of the American continent, at
Honduras. Being driven by a heavy storm into the mouth
of a river, he gave the name of Bethlehem to the gulf-like
harbor he found, and effecting a landing there, soon learned
that gold was very plentiful, and undertook to open mines and
establish a colony upon the spot. In this, from various
causes, he failed, and the great discoverer, yet unfortunate
colonizer, soon after retired from 'action in America. But
he had already done more than enough to prove the actual
riches of the lands lie had made known to Europe, and to fire
the avaricious imagination of all Spain, and the rest of the
civilized world, with the most wild, and extravagant, and fatal
dreams of endless riches to be realized in the western El
Dorado.

The Spaniards who came to America immediately after Co-
lumbus, had no intention of becoming permanent residents,
and cared but little for colonizing the strange lands they
visited. It was the policy of the government of Spain to
Christianize and utilize the newly-claimed possessions of the
crown, but the desperate adventurers to whom for the most
part the execution of this purpose was entrusted, were princi-
pally controlled by private greed and ambition. Gold, or sil-
ver, was their only object. Instead of engaging in any un-
dertakings of ordinary industry, all of which were beyond
their comprehension and for which they had the utmost dis-
like, they merely sought to suddenly enrich themselves by
robbing the feeble and defenseless aborigines of the gold and
silver they had accumulated for centuries by simple means,
and which, though really considerable in amount, fell im-
mensely short of the monstrous estimates which had been
made by all the enthusiasts of Europe. "When Spanish ad-
venturers reached a new country, any unknown coast, their

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 276

first demand was for gold. If this was found abundant, n$
degree of hostility on the part of the natives, no deadliness of;
the climate, could drive them from the locality until they
learned, or at least heard, of more excessive riches in a farther
region. If no gold was found, nothing could detain them^
Auri rabida sitis a cultura Hispanos divertit, wrote Petru$
Martyrus, at the time, in the Novus Orbus of Grynaeus, p. 51L
To this spirit, and to the absurdly tyrannical rules and regu-
lations of the mother country, is to be attributed the slow an<J
unsatisfactory progress of the colonies of Spain, and, notwith-
standing their subsequent achievement of independence, many
of the evils which, despite considerable progress, still afflict
those countries.

Mexico was discovered by Grijalva, a lieutenant of Diego
Velasquez, governor of Cuba, in 1511, but no settlement was
attempted Chagrined at the lack pf enterprise shown bjc
Grijalva, Velasquez sent young Hernan, or Hernando, Cortesj
whom he had made alcade of St. lago in Cuba, to conques
Mexico. Cortes and his small force landed at Vera Crua,
where he received such rich presents from the natives, who,
regarded him and his men as gods, and was told of such opu r
lence in the country before him, that he and all his force be-i
came quite beside themselves with avarice and ambition.
They burned their ships behind them to make retreat impossic
ble and advanced upon the capital of the MontezUmas. After
ft series of most remarkable adventures, the city of Mexico
was taken, Montezuma captured and loaded with chains, his
ministers and officers burned alive, and the unfortunate auto-
crat of the Aztecs compelled to purchase a mere resemblanc^
of freedom by a ransom of 600,000 marks of pure gold and a
prodigious quantity of precious stones. . .. {

During the year 1524, Francisco Pizarro, a low bred, dest
perate, illiterate Spanish adventurer, while on. a voyage southr
ward from Panama, obtained a small amount of gold from th$
.natives of New Granada, and at the same time heard frorrj
those Indians of the rich empire of Peru. On a second voy.-

276 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

age, Pizarro plundered a small town on the San Juan, where
he obtained a considerable amount of gold, with which he un-
dertook to prepare for the exploration of Peru. In the early
summer of 1528, Pizarro landed at Seville in Spain ; with him
he brought several natives of Peru, a few llamas, and many
articles of Peruvian manufacture in gold and silver. Upon
landing, Pizarro was arrested for debt and imprisoned, but
upon application by his friends at court, his release was pro-
vided for, and he granted a hearing. The result of his repre-
sentations and exhibits was, that Pizarro was granted a royal
commission as governor and captain-general of Peru, with an
annual salary of 725,000 maravedis.

The conquest of Peru by Pizarro and his associates, was
characterized by the greatest rapacity, the most infamous
perfidy, and monstrous, horrible cruelty. When Atahualipa
or Ataba'lipa, the Peruvian Inca, had been captured by a dis-
honorable trick, he offered his kidnappers and jailers, as a ran-
som, to fill the apartment in which he was confined, described
as 22 feet long and 17 feet wide, with gold, as high as he could
reach, the Spaniard accepted the proposal, but after the tem-
ples and palaces of the vast empire had been stripped of their
ornaments, and contributions of gold paid to the amount, when
melted down, of more than $17,500,000 value, Pizarro, upon
a ne\v or baseless pretense, caused the royal captive to be put
to death the twenty-ninth of August, 1533.

By such ravages and extortions as those practised under
Columbus and liis successors in office, by Cortes, by Pizarro,
and others to whom reference might be made, the gold and
silver which the aboriginal Americans had gathered for gen-
erations and centuries, was in a few years acquired altogether
by those marauders from Europe who invaded peaceful coun-
tries with the name of Christ upon their lips, and the banner
of a civilized nation above their heads, with a pretended zeal
for religious truth, and yet left upon the minds of the com-
paratively innocent pagans and savages they intruded upon, a
.reasonable doubt, whether Christians were men or devils,

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 277

since a greed for gold, an aptitude for lies, and a thirst for
blood, seemed equal elements in their most cruel natures. For
interesting particulars as to the Peruvians and their country
under the government of the Incas, the reader is referred back
to the article "The Primitive Forms of Money," pages 38 to
42 inclusive, of this volume.

The American Indians of the Spanish colonies having been
subjugated, and robbed of their treasures, the adventurous Eu,-
ropeans who swarmed into the gold and silver-bearing regions
of the new world, diverted their skill and energy to the ofteij?
unproductive and frequently ruinous business of mining. A
few large fortunes made in the search for the precious metals,
excited the avaricious hopes of numbers, while the misfortunes
and disastrous failures, seemed to pass unnoted. In this way
the excessive and wild enthusiasm of adventure was kept alive,
and the prodigious over-statements as to the enormous riches
of American mines, made credible to the reckless gamblers
who sought and expected unheard of profits from them.

The mines were of course without machinery, but the In-
dians who had been enslaved, were compelled to labor in the
excavation of ores, or the washing of sands, and by thousands
degraded to mere beasts of burden, and worked to a cruel
death, bearing often from great depths, and for long distances,
by terrible passage ways and most difficult paths, the ores
upon their backs to places where they were operated upon bj
still other slaves for the separation of the metal. The really
vast product of the Spanish American colonies in gold an4
silver, was thus oblained at an incredible cost of human labor
and life. Ever since the establishment of these colonies, they
and the territories formed from them, have been largely prOr
ductive of the precious metals. Ilumboldt estimated the aver*
age yield of gold and silver in Peru at $5,300,000 a year. Of
late years very rich gold quartz, has been mined at Carabaya,
on Lake Titicaca, in Peru, and valuable deposits opened at
Caratal, in Venezuela, aud at St. Elie, in French Guinea, the
region of the "El Dorado" sought by Sir Walter Kaleigh of

278 DYVS COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

England, when in 1596 and again in 1617, he explored foi
gold the country along the Orinoco river, "the large, rich, and
beautiful empire of Guiana." The empire of Brazil has also
been productive of gold, and gold has been found thence north-
ward in considerable amounts, in the United States of Colum-
bia and all along the isthmus of Darien, not only in natural
position, but also in ancient places of concealment, among
ruins, and formed into idols which were buried in graves.

The search for gold was carried on all along the American
coast, as far north as Hudson's Bay and Frobisher's Straits,
where some kind* of pyrites or ore having been discovered, an
effort was made in 1578, to establish an English mining and ag-
ricultural colony in that frozen country. A dozen ship loads
of the supposed gold ore was taken to London, but history is
silent as to the result. The existence of gold in California,
was discovered by the expedition under Sir Francis Drake,
which sailed from England in 1577, and between that date and
1580, explored the Pacific coast of the western continents,
plundered various Spanish settlements, took possession of Cal-
ifornia in the name of queen Elizabeth of England and circum-
navigated the globe. In the account of California given by
Hakluyt, the historian of this expedition, the gold of that re-
gion was particularly noted. The gold placers of California,
were mentioned in the account of upper California by Loyola
Cavello, which was published in Spain in the year 1690. In
1721, Capt. Shelvocke wrote favorably of California, as a
probably rich gold field, and deposit of metals. The "Ilis-
torico-Geographical Dictionary" of Antonio Alcedo, which re-
fers to dates as early as 1786-'9, declares positively that Cali-
fornia contained an abundance of gold, of which lumps could
be found weighing from five to eight pounds each.
' Gold is said to have been discovered in Cabarrus county in
North Carolina in 1709, and subsequently small amounts of
placer gold, were found from time to time at various places
among the hills on the eastern side of the Appalachian moun-
tains, all the way from the Coosa river in Alabama, to the

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 279

shores of the Potomac. Nothing is known of the amount *f<
gold thus incidentally gathered, and as there was no regular
market for the sale of the metal, the gold fields of the southern
United States received but little attention until the second
quarter of the present century. In 1824, native gold from
the region already noted, began to appear among the deposits
at the United States Mint in Philadelphia, and the amount
presented increased so rapidly, that in five or six years it was
the principal supply of bullion for the gold coinage of the na-
tion. During the year 1825, a Mr. Barringer discovered a
gold vein in Montgomery county, North Carolina, and after-
wards other veins of like nature were found and worked in
various places in the same state, some of which were highly
productive. The veins of gold discovered in Virginia were,
however, more profitable than the average of those in North
Carolina, the coarse gold being more readily obtained from
the quartz through which it was conspicuously disseminated.
Subsequently, traces of gold were found in the states of Mary-
land, Pennsylvania and Vermont, but nowhere in the eastern
United States north of the Potomac river, except a small area
in Vermont, have the indications of gold been sufficiently en-
couraging to induce a practical mining exploration. North
of the St. Lawrence river, gold has been discovered and op-
erated for on the banks of the Chaudiere river, near the city
of Quebec, in Canada, and not far from Halifax, Nova Scotia,
there are veins of gold-bearing quartz which, though not ex-
tensive are rich, and have been worked with good average re-
sults for years.

In 1830, the first deposits of Georgia gold were made, their
amount being $212,000.

To revert briefly to the era preceding the discoveries by
Columbus, it may be stated that during the period from the
seventh to the fifteenth century, the metallurgists of Europe,
instead of making discoveries of new veins and deposits of
gold, to take the place of the ancient and exhausted sources
of supply, were, in accordance with the spirit of the dark and

280 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Superstitious age in which they lived, engaged in the bewil-
dering attempt to solve the secrets of alchemy, and by discov-
ering the philosopher's stone, enable themselves to transmute
fcaser metals to gold. Although moderh chemistry may be
laid to have had its origin in the studies of these men, and
philosophy owes them thanks for important suggestions, yet
they failed in the object of their countless and costly experi-
ments, leaving to Oriental nations, and to the Moors or the
Arabians, the practical progress of the world, and the general
working of its gold fields and silver mines. In consequence,
it was estimated that at the time of the voyages of Columbus
in 1492, the whole supply of gold and silver in the Old World,
exclusive of that held in the more or less unknown countries
of the Orient, had fallen to an amount to be valued at no more
than 34,000,000, while the supply obtained from year to
year was merely sufficient to make good the loss caused by
the abrasion of coin and other forms of destruction.

-. After Columbus, the enormous amounts of gold and silver
taken from America to Kurope, soon made good the lack of
supply from old sources, and, as in the classic days of Rome
gold had been reduced at one time one-third in value by over-
production, so at this time, the product of America exported
to Europe, much reduced the value of the precious metals there
in comparison with other thing.?, and caused the abandonment
of a number of gold fields and silver mines which had previous-
ly been worked with profit. From 1492 to 1500, the amount
of gold yearly shipped from America to Europe, was stated by
Humboldt to have been of the value of 52,000. Silver was
not received from America until 1519. The supply of gold
from America continued about the same until 1521, when upon
the conquest of Mexico, as has been noted, the precious metals,
especially silver, were secured in immensely larger quantities.

MODERN SOURCES OF GOLD ix THE OLD WORLD.
ITaving thus referred to the events which led to the dis-
covery and development of the American gold fields, after the

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 281

disappearance of the dark ages, and traced in rapid outline the
history of the production of gold in America, to as late a date
as 1S30, it is essential to a comprehensive understanding, that
a statement should be made of the modern sources of gold in
Asia, Europe, Africa and Australia, before giving an account
of the two great gold fields of the United States, and the pro-
duction of bullion from them for the last half century.

Of the production of gold in Asia, outside of the Russian
provinces, comparatively little can be precisely stated. ] >oubt-
less, there are Asiatic gold fields of importance which are
worked extensively, but it is only from the islands in the In-
dian archipelago that any considerable amount is forwarded
for general circulation. In China, gold is said to exist in four-
teen of the nineteen provinces ; the Chinese placers, nuggets,
and gold washings, form extensive sources of gold which have
long been known, but the government of China is said to dis-
courage the production of native gold, in carrying out pome
peculiar financial theory entertained by the rulers of the coun-
try. The gold-bearing formations of southern and central
China, are supposed to extend into Chinese Tartary to the
north, and so onward, and connect with those of eastern
Siberia.

The empire of Japan formerly exported large amounts of
gold, which was one of the chief articles of the trade carried
on by the Dutch and Portuguese, who for a long time monopo-
lised the foreign commerce of the country. It is stated by
Hildreth, that the value of the precious metals exported from
Japan, for two hundred years after 1540, must have been
worth some $200,000,000. The gold of the island of Ycsso,
or Yezo, occurs in fine scales, among the gravel :;long the
streams, and in deposits on the high terraces of the hillsides.
Extensive mines of gold and silver arc worked upon a large
vein of gold and silver-bearing ore on the island of S.vJo. The
gold regions of Yesso, or Yezo, were surveyed for the Tycoon
of Japan by Blake and Pumpelly in 1SC2 ; the estimated yield
of the island is but $25,000 in value per annum, 'ihe mines

282 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

of Sado employ 3,000 native miners, with modern machinery,
under English superintendents ; the yield of these mines was
formerly kept a state secret. Gold is much used in the arts
of Japan, for making fine bronzes, for gilding, and for inlaid
or overlaid work in metals. According to a Japanese author,
the amount of gold exported from Nagasaki, a principal port
of Japan, from the year 1611 to 1706, was valned at $68,000,-
000, silver being exported during the same time to the value
of $157,000,000. Like other Asiatic peoples, the Japanese
formerly placed a higher proportionate value upon silver in
relation to gold, than the nations of Europe and America, and
when, after the United States expedition to Japan in 1854,
that country was opened to foreign trade, speculators in bul-
lion were for a time enabled to profit largely by the purchase
of Japanese gold for Mexican and other silver. Since the po-
litical revolutions of the years 1868, 1869, 1870, 1871, Japan
has, through an entire change of her former jealous and re-
strictive policy, entered upon a marvelous progress. There is
a Japanese mint at Ozaka, with buildings, machinery and ap-
pliances in approved European style, which was of late under
English supervision. All the old gold and silver coinage or
Japan, has been called in, and with a part of the present proba-
ble increased product of the mines, is minted into coin upon a
decimal system, to be noted in proper place hereafter. For
the year ending July 31st, 1873, the Ozaka Mint issued $25,-
162,614. During the year 1372, $14,488,981 were coined in
gold, and from 1871 to 1873, $10,213,598 were coined in silver.
India produces but small quantities of gold, which are
gathered by the natives from washings earned on in the hills
of the south part of Bengal, or obtained from quartz veins of
modern discovery and considerable value in the district of
"Wynaad in the southern part of the presidency of Madras.
The island of Borneo in the East Indian or Malay archipelago,
is notably rich in minerals, diamonds and gold being the chief;
the diamonds occur in the beds of the rivers; the largest gem
ever found there weighed 367 carats. The Dutch have long

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 283

found an abundance of gold in Borneo, in Sarawak, and the
districts under their control, the yield being of small grains
from alluvial deposits. The existence of gold throughout the
island, in varying quantities, is asserted, and upon the river
Kapola, gold is found with irdn ores, sulphuret of antimonv
and diamonds. Gold is also reported among the products of
Thibet, Ceylon, Sumatra, Celebes, the Philippine islands and
other Asiatic regions of less importance, or concerning which
we have no reliable information.

Between Asia and Europe, lie the gold fields of the Russian
empire, which have not only supplied the finest known speci-
mens of native gold, but are more productive than any other
in the Old World. Most of the gold taken from Russian
sources, is from territories in Asia. The most important of
the old Russian gold-bearing districts are situated on the east-
ern slope of the Ural Mountains, around Miask, Kamensk,
Berezovsk, Nijne Tagilsk, and Bogoslowsk, covering more or
less completely, a region some six hundred miles long, from
51 to 61 degrees, North latitude. Outside of these limits, the
alluvial deposits of the Ural are continued northward to a vast
region without population, and south into the Cossack and the
Bashkir provinces. The richest of the Ural gold mines are
those of Smolensk, not far from Miask, and those of Ouspensk,
near Katchkar, 52 degrees North latitude.

The conquest of Siberia, the immense country of the Ural
and the Altai Mountains, was made for Russia in 1581 and a
few subsequent years. The Ural gold mines were discovered
about 1745, and thereafter other mineral riches being found,
geological explorations were finally made in a thorough and
scientific manner. Some of the Siberian washings and de-
posits of gold show traces of prehistoric workings. Yekater-
enburg, or Ekaterenburg, the principal city of the Ural gold
region, was founded by Peter the Great, emperor of Russia, in
1722 ; a few years since, this place was famous for its metals
vnd manufactures, and had an industrious population of from
about twenty-five to thirty thousand. At the same time over

284 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

fifty thousand men were employed in the varied mines of the
Ural mountain country. The produce of different metals,
minerals, and gems, was very large and valuable ; among these
platinum was mined near Yekaterenburg, the amount secured
each year being from eight to ten thousand pounds. Speci-
mens of gold found near Yekaterenburg showed upon analysis
a greater degree of fineness than any other known native gold.
In 100 parts there were : gold 98.96, silver 0.16, copper 0.35 ;
the specific gravity of the mass having been determined to be
19.099. In the Zarewo Alexandrowsk mine, in 1826, a nug-
get of native gold was found which weighed about twenty-
three pounds, and others were discovered of from two to four
pounds each.

The district of Miask contains the most valuable mines, and

there the largest nusrsiets have been found. In the Katchkar,

O ->G

very productive mines are worked, which are remarkable for'
yielding with the gold great numbers of pink topazes, emer-
alds, and other gems.

During the reign of Nikolai Pavlovitch (Nicholas I), em-
peror of all the Russias from 1825 to 1855, a new gold field,
as large as all France, was discovered in southern and eastern
Siberia, which has proved to be of greater richness than even
the old diggings and washings of the Ural Mountains. The
gold of this new field has been taken from crystalline rocks,
found in a system of low ridges which, springing from the
north slope of the great East and West extending chain of the
Altai Mountains, run northward into the provinces of Tomsk
and Yeniseisk. The working of these ridges, made Russia
the greatest gold -producing country in the world until the
discovery of California. In 1843, the Ural district produced
gold to the value of $2,500,000; the same year, the Altai
ridges yielded the same metal to the value of $11,000,000.
The average annual product of all the gold fields of Russia, is
estimated to be worth $15,000,000, or perhaps even more.
The produce of Russia in gold during 1865 was given as 69,-
600 Ibs. troy, $17,032,080.00 in value. The gross value of

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 285

the amount of gold secured in Russia since about 1745
to the present, may be estimated in round numbers at $700,-
000,000. The gold deposits of the Caucasus Mountains in
Southern Russia, between the Caspian and the Black Sea,
which were of classical notoriety and referred to in connection
with the mythical account of the expedition of Jason and the
Argonauts, are practically exhausted, the last attempt at
working them, having been abandoned in 1875.

In Europe, various great rivers, the Rhine, the Rhone, the
Danube, the Reuss, the Aar of Switzerland and other smaller
streams springing from crystalline rocks of the Alpine moun-
tain regions, and also the rivers which flow from the granitic
formations' in the center of France, deposit gold in their sands,
but in such exceedingly small quantities that the washing of
of the drift cannot be made profitable. The search for gold
in such deposits is, however, carried on at various places by
the gipsies or' by the peasants of the neighborhood at irregu-
lar seasons when lacking better employment. The results of
such operations are very small in proportion to the amount
of labor expended. Few of the sources of gold in Europe are
of importance compared with those in other parts of the world,
yet from historical reasons or from certain peculiarities, some
of them are worthy of note.

The grand duchy of Transylvania, forming part of the
lands of the Hungarian crown, is surrounded by the Carpa-
thian Mountains. The whole drainage flows to the Danube,
the chief rivers being the Aluta, Maros, Great Kokel, Little
Kokel, Bistritz, Szamos and the Koros. In all these and in
most of the smaller streams, gold is found more or less abun-
dant. A number of gold mines beside the washings mentioned,
are worked in Transylvania and have had the reputation of be-
ing very productive. The mines of Nagy-Ag and Zalatna in
the south-western part of Transylvania, produce a natural alloy
of tellurium and gold. At the Rathausberg mines, near Gas-
tein in the Austrian Alps, at an elevation of some 9,000 feet
above the level of the sea, there are mines of gold-bearing

286 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

quartz which, though of small importance at present, are, with
the mines at Zell in the province of Tyrol, famous as the places
where the system of amalgamation in mills was first developed.
It may also be noted that at Zell and at Bockstein in the prov-
ince of Salzburg, gold is practically obtained from poorer ores
than have ever been made to pay elsewhere. From the auri-
ferous pyrites, argentiferous mispickel, grey argentiferous
copper, and sulphuret of silver, contained in the quartz gangue
and argillaceous slates of these mines, gold has been separated
with a profit, when the per centage of metal obtained, was but
4, 6, or 15 parts of gold in 1,000,000 of the ore. With this,
however, is secured six or seven times this weight of silver,
of less than half the value of the gold. The gold mines of
Hungary are richer, and yield a considerable amount of gold.
The total product of the gold mines of Austria, has of late
years, averaged from 5,500 to 5,800 ounces, being from $113,-
685.00 to $119,886.00 in value.

In Italy, the ancients obtained gold from various localities.
For some time past, the Pestarena mines, a group of workings
on the Italian side of the Austrian Alps in the Val-Anzasca
and the Val Toppa above the Lago Maggiore, have yielded
from 2,t)00 or 3,000 ounces of gold, to be valued at from $41,-
310.00, to $62,010.00 each year. There is also a rich vein of
gold-bearing copper ore, a recent discovery, at Ollomont in the
Val d'Aosta. There are important gold mines in the Val An-
trona, and smaller ones in the Val Alagna, Val Sesia, and the
Val Novara. The chief gold mines of Lombardy are at Pes-
chiera and Minerva di Sotto. The total yield of all the gold
mines of Italy may be valued at about $100,000 each year.
Gold is found in but few places in Germany, and those situated
iu the Hartz mountains and in Savoy, produce but small quan-
tities.

Argentiferous galena is found among the minerals of Turkey
in Europe, but the amount of gold separated from Turkish
ores is small. The mineral resources of Turkey in Asia, are
quite undeveloped. Gold is not reported among the natural

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 287

resources of modern Greece. In Prussia, a very small quan-
tity of gold is produced. Gold is not reported among the pro-
ducts of Denmark. The scarcity of fuel in Norway, prevents
the development of mines ; iron ore is common, but no pro-
duction of gold is recorded. Gold has been found in small
quantities in the rich mineral districts of Sweden. Belgium,
though very rich in common 'minerals, produces little if any
gold. Holland has no mines, nor deposits of gold. No trace
of gold has been reported from Iceland. The rivers flowing
from the center of France, have as has already been noted, a
little gold in their sands, but the greater part of the small
amount of gold secured in France, is taken from the small
streams which rise among the Pyrenees between that country
and Spain. Gallicia in Spain, was a well-known gold field in
ancient times, but the veins and deposits are exhausted and
no other noteworthy source of supply has been discovered.
The small but famous kingdom of Portugal still yields a lim-
ited amount of gold.

During the occupation of Britain by the Romans, from B.C.
54 to-A.D. 420, veins of gold-bearing quartz were worked at
Ogofau near Llanpumpsant, in Carmarthenshire. In the time
of queen Elizabeth, from A.D. 1558 to A.D. 1603, gold was ob-
tained at the Leadhills in the south of Scotland, and within the
last hundred years gold has been collected in the granite district
of the county of Wicklow in Ireland, at the rate of $50,000
worth of the metal in two months. These deposits were worked
in 1876, but yielded only 4 ounces of gold, worth $82.68. In
ancient times, gold was gathered in the county of Cornwall,
England, and it is still sometimes found there in small pieces,
in the alluvial or stream- workings for tin, for the production
of which last-named rare metal, the locality has a world- wide
celebrity. Gold has also been found in recent years at Helms-
dale, Sutherlandshire, England, and is known to exist in the
English county of Devonshire. The largest nugget of gold
ever obtained in the British islands, weighed but three ounces.
The most productive British gold field has been found in a

288 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

district of an area of about 25 square miles in North "Wales ;
the mines of this Welsh district are still operated, but the pro-
duct has become very much diminished. During the year
1863, 5,300 ounces of gold were produced from gold-bearing
veins of quartz at the Vigra and Clogau mine, in the Lower
Silurian slates near Dolgelly. The product falling off presently,
the mine was closed ; but in 1875, the workings there were
resumed, and by the process then used, a profit was realized ;
288 ouncesof gold, worth $5,852.96, were secured in 1876, and in
1878, the mine produced 720 ounces of gold, worth $14,882.40.

Africa was in ancient times the principal source of the
known product of gold, and the continent is still rich in that
metal. The mines of Abyssinia and Nubia in the upper valley
of the Nile still produce a small quantity of gold, Nubia hav-
ing been the "land of gold" known by the old Egyptians.
Linant Bey describes very extensive ancient mines of gold in
the district of Attaki, or Allaki, on the Red Sea, about 120,
miles inland from the shore at Ras Elba, a headland midway
from Berenice to Sauwakin. These mines were known to the
Egyptians as early at least as the 12th dynasty of their politi-
cal chronology, which ended 2,851 B.C. During the reign of
Setee, or Seti I, king of Egypt, who died 1,288 B. C., at the
end of the 19th dynasty, wells were opened along the route
from the Nile to the district of Attaki, or Allaki, in order
that the even then ancient gold mines there, which had been
closed, should be reopened. These mines are supposed to be
those described by Diodorus Siculus, the voluminous author
of the Bibliotheca, who wrote about the beginning of the
Christian Era, and at Turin, Italy, there is a map of the route
from the Nile to these mines, which is considered the oldest
topographical document in existence. Other old mines of the
same character, were a few years ago discovered by the traveler
Burton, in the ancient land of Midian, on the eastern coast of
the Gulf of Alcaba.

During A.D. 1838, a traveler by the name of Russegger
passed through Nubia, and in the account of his explorations

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 289

stated that the mountain chain which extends across the in-
terior of Africa, from East North-east to West South-west,
with the streams that flowed from the same, contained gold
in undetermined quantities. There are placer deposits and
quartz veins of gold, in Sennar and southern Abyssinia.
There is also a gold-bearing region between Abyssinia and
Darfoor, and a gold district in Kordofan on the Upper Nile.
Gold is obtained in small quantities on the coast of Africa op-
posite the island of Madagascar. The greatest part of the gold
produced on the coasts of Africa, is brought from the western
side of the continent, being obtained from the mines of Barn-
book, south of the Senegal river, in the Kong Mountains, be-
tween Senegambia and Bambara, 55 degrees North latitude
and 67 degrees East longitude, which are the most important
sources of gold upon the continent.

In 1866, an elephant hunter named Hartley, and a traveling
German scientist by the name of Mauch, discovered extensive
gold fields in south Africa, between 17 degrees and 21 degrees
30 minutes South latitude, in the interior country, between
the Zambesi west of Tete, and the middle course of the Lim-
popo river. The mines are 350 miles from the Portuguese
settlement of Sofala, which is a port on the east coast of Africa,
at the mouth of the river Sofala, in the southern part of Mo-
zambique, latitude 23 degrees 57 minutes South, and longitude
36 degrees and 6 minutes East. Having been known to the
Portuguese since early in the 16th century as a place of export
for gold, Sofala is regarded by some, as theOphir from whence
the Hebrew king Solomon obtained the vast amount of gold
said to have been used in the construction of his temple.

The mines found by Hartley and Mauch are said to have
been known to the Portuguese in the 17th century. The re-
gion containing the gold, is an elevated table land of the Quat-
alamba Mountains, some 7,000 feet above the level of the sea,
chiefly occupied by the Matabele, part of the warlike tribe of
the Caffres. Extended over this table land, Hartley and Mauch
found glistening beds of white quartz rock, which upon exam-
B

290 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

ination proved to contain gold. Gold was also found by them
in the sands along the margin of the brooks of the country.
The chief gold fields of Africa are on the western coast ; the
unmanufactured part of the gold exported, has been mostly in
the form of dust, doubtless obtained by the negroes from allu-
vial washings. Such African gold dust, has long been famous
as an article of export from the gold coast of upper Guinea
and other points. Before the discovery of gold in California
and Australia, the gold fields of Guinea in the Kong Mountains
were esteemed an important source of supply. The discovery
of the south African gold fields attracted much attention, and
yet the production of gold in that part of the world has not
been, in view of developments elsewhere, of very great im-
portance. In recent years alluvial deposits in the Drakens-
berg Mountains of Transvaal, in the Leydenburg district, sit-
uated in 25 degrees South latitude, and 31 degrees East longi-
tude, have been successfully worked and gold produced in con-
siderable quantities, the form of the native metal being that
of coarse nuggetty gold of various sizes, up to masses of eleven
pounds in weight. It is difficult to form a correct estimate of
the gold produced in Africa at present. A few years since the
calculations of Birkmyre fixed the annual yield of African gold
at the inconsiderable quantity of 4,000 ounces, which was
valued at about $900,000. Though the precious metals do
not seem to be very generally distributed throughout Africa,
iron and copper are found in the tropical part of the terri-
tory. Livingstone focnd seams of coal along the Zambesi
river of south Mozambique, and salt is said to abound almost
everywhere on the continent. In 1867, extensive diamond
fields were discovered in the districts north of the Orange
river, about 28 degrees South latitude, from which many
stones of fine quality and large size have been obtained ; the dia-
mond "the Star of South Africa," found shortly after the open-
ing of the diggings, brought 11,500 sterling, or $55,964.75.
The probabilities are that with the increase of scientific
knowledge regarding the African continent, and with the

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 291

possible future progress and measurable civilization of its
people, new sources of gold may become known, and even
some of the old fields worked by improved methods to ad-
vantage. At present, some of the African nations and tribes,
though partly civilized in some respects, are quite unaware
of the intrinsic value of the precious metals as such. In his
recent highly interesting work upon "Moslem Egypt and
Christian Abyssinia," William McE. Dye, formerly of the
United States Army, and late Colonel of the Egyptian Staff,
in giving his original account of millitary service under the
Khedive, in his provinces and beyond their borders, as expe-
rienced by the American Staff, relates as an evidence of the
benighted state of the Abyssinians, "that thousands of dollars
in gold taken from them by the Egyptians who had fallen
into their hands, were thought by them to be of little value,"
and that "During the peace negotiations, certain Egyptians
took advantage of this ignorance by visiting Abyssinian camps
and speculating with them for gold. Two Maria Theresa
thalers, even one" (the thaler being worth but $1,11.7825 each),
"bought an Egyptian pound, or say five dollars."

Australia, the latest discovered of the great modern gold
fields, next demands attention precedent to a description of
the gold regions of the United States of America, since an ac-
count of the gold coinage of the latter country is to follow.

The great island formerly called New Holland, but now
classed as a continent, under the name of Australia, by most
geographers, forms a principal part of the Australasian
(South Asian), division of the globe. Situated at the an-
tipodes of the civilized portion of the world, this vast island
continent long remained an unknown territory, though the
existence of some such body of land was surmised by the an-
cient Phosnician sailors ; it was reported to Marco Polo by
the Chinese, and its shores may have been visited repeatedly
before definite information regarding the same became public.
The continent of Australia was probably known to the Portu-
guese by the name of Great Java early in the 16th century.

292 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Upon a map made by some Portuguese navigators which
bears date A.D. 1542, the position of Australia in the south-
ern ocean is marked by vague outlines indicating land found
thereabouts of unknown form and extent. Under the name
of Aiistralis Terra, Australia was mentioned by Cornelius
Wytfliet in 1598, as a country of vast extent, south of all
other lands, separated from New Guinea by a narrow strait,
and which, if explored, "would be regarded as a fifth part of
the world." The confusion of names given by the early navi-
gators to lands visited by them in the Australasian seas, ren-
ders it impossible to determine with accuracy when Australia
was discovered, or to whom the first voyage from any civil-
ized country to its shores is to be credited.

In 1606, a Portuguese named Lniz Yaez de Torres, com-
mander of a ship commissioned by the Spanish Government of
Peru, having with Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, discovered Espi-
ritu Santo, or the New Hebrides, sailed his vessel alone from
east to west and passed through the channel now called Torres
Strait, between the northernmost point of Australia, Cape
York, and Banks and Mulgrave islands off that coast. During
the same year, York peninsula was visited by a yacht called
the "Duyfhen," or "Dove," which had been sent out by the
Dutch from Bantam in Java, to explore part of the coast of
New Guinea. The captain of the Duyfhen, who "saw the
northern shore of the continent at a distance," considered the
land to which he came a portion of the not far distant island
of New Guinea. Other voyages followed; in 1616, under the
Dutch commander Dirk Ilartog; in 1618, by the "Pera" and
"Arnhem," Dutch vessels from Amboyana ; in 1622, by the
Leu win ; in 1627, by the "Guldene Zeepard," with Peter Nuyts
on his way to the embassy in Japan; in 1642 and 1614 by
Tasman; in 1697, by Vlamingh ; by an exploring expedi-
tion in 1705, and at different times by various Dutch traders,
until in one way and another, the Dutch had pretty thorough-
ly circumnavigated the island they named New Holland, and
had somewhat explored a number of points on the coast, but

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 293

whether they touched on the northern or the southern sea-
board of the newly-discovered land, they had to report the
country very generally of an uninviting appearance.

The famous English buccaneer and navigator, Captain Wil-
liam Dampier, landed on the coast of Australia in 1688, and
spent five weeks ashore at Roebuck Bay, on the North-west-
ern coast of western Australia. In 1699, Dampier visited
Australia under a commission from the English Admiralty,
and made explorations, of which he gave an account, but his
representations were not very encouraging. The voyages of
Captain Cook in the English expeditions from 1769 to 1777,
made the civilized world acquainted with Australia, New
Zealand, and Tasmania, and opened up the wonderful Aus-
tralasian lands to European enterprise. Captain Cook came
upon the mainland of Australia in April, 1770, at Gipps'
Land, Victoria, South latitude 30 degrees, East longitude 148
degrees and 53 minutes. Botany Bay was so called at that
time by Sir Joseph Banks, of Cook's expedition, on account
of the wonderful floral display he found upon the plains of
the country thereabouts. In 1788, the first English penal
settlement of Australia was established in New South Wales,
and the towns of Sydney and Port Jackson founded there.
About 1790 to 1800, the voyages of two Englishmen named
Bass and Flinders, begun on private account, and continued
with great courage and perseverance, added much to the
knowledge of Australian geography. Bass having died,
Flinders made a complete and detailed survey of the coast of
Australia, except the west and northwest portion. He was
captured by the French and kept seven years in Mauritius.

The shores of the province of Victoria were explored by
the English Captain Grant in 1800, who was followed in 1802
by Lieutenant Murray of the same country. In 1837, 1839,
and after the settlement at Swan river, after 1843, coast sur-
veys of west Australia were made for the British Government,
being commenced by II. M. S. the "Beagle" and continued by
Mr. Stokes and his party of assistants. This work was car-

294 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Tied on for the next three years by Baudin, Freycinct and
Flinders, and subsequently perfected by others. For twenty-
five years after the founding of Sydney and Port Jackson, the
settlers in New South Wales knew almost nothing of the
country, except a narrow strip some fifty miles wide between
the sea-coast and the Blue Mountains. This range of precipi-
tous mountains 3,400 feet high, intersected by abrupt ravines
1,500 feet deep, prevented travel to the back country until
1813, though several resolute attempts at a passage -were made.
From this time on, various well-equipped expeditions were
made into the interior of Australia, and much hardship en-
countered, while a number of valuable lives were sacrificed,
yet through the patronage of the Colonial Government, im-
portant geographical and topographical information was ac-
quired, the resources of the continent, especially in all the
eastern districts, were in part made known, and the area of
progress and civilization slowly extended.

The original design of the British Government was to make
Botany Bay and other points in Australia convict colonies.
The plan was acted upon there and at Sydney, New South
"Wales, on Van Diemen's Land, now called Tasmania, and at
King George's Sound. Owing to the opposition of the free
colonists who emigrated to these countries, the transportation
of convicts to New South "Wales was virtually suspended in
1839, and none were taken to Van Diemen's Land after 1853.
From 1821, the colony of New South Wales, though not rap-
idly settled, had made a fair start in free industrial progress.
The history of the convict colonies under almost irresponsible
military or naval governors, was full of the record of every
kind of abuse and vice. In 1821, the population of New
South Wales was 30,000, three-fourths of whom were con-
victs. Western Australia made slow progress, having ac-
quired a population of less than 4,000 at the period from 1835
to 1840. In 1839, there was a population of 45,000 convicts
and others in New South Wales, and yet in 1850, after the
sixty years of effort at English colonization, and though the

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 295

general progress of the country was noted as satisfactory, so
many discouraged emigrants had departed thence for the South
American coast and other lands, that in 1850, the entire popu-
lation of Australia was estimated at only fifty thousand per-
sons, of whom the greater number were adult males. Mean-
time, however, the trade of the country had increased, the an-
nual export of wool being about 45,000,000 pounds, various
productive mines of copper, iron, coal and other minerals had
been opened and considerably worked, while events were im-
pending which were destined not only to revolutionize at once
the condition of Australia, but to affect promptly and most
powerfully the permanent commercial, social, and political in-
terests, of the whole civilized world.

During the year 1839, Count Strzelecki discovered the ex-
istence of gold in the rocks of New South Wales, but as proba-
bly in duty bound, communicated the fact only to Sir George
Gipps, then Governor of that colony. There were 45,000
persons, of whom three-fourths at least were convicts, under
the immediate control of Sir George, and that official was ap-
prehensive that a general knowledge of the startling and im-
portant information gained by the Count, would be destructive
of discipline among that mixed and unreliable body of colo-
nists. At the request, or order, of the Governor, Count
Strzelecki postponed the publication of his discoveries, and
"discipline" of the old-fashioned sort, was yet for awnile con-
tinued in New South Wales.

No further trouble arose from the gold mines and deposits,
until 1841, when another geologist of New South Wales, the
Eeverend W. B. Clarke, following in the hidden footprints of
the silent Strzelecki, again found the Australian gold. Like
Strzelecki, and doubtless for the same reasons, Clarke reported
that which he had found to none but Sir George Gipps, and
upon Clark, as formerly upon the Count, the Governor strictly
enjoined silence regarding that matter. Having, as it would
seem, in carrying out that which he considered good policy,
done all he could to hinder the spread of scientific knowledge

296 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

under his jurisdiction, and to postpone the progress of Aus-
tralia, the Governor continued to govern. But science, in its
development and benign application to the wants of civilized
man, had already become too positive and too great, to admit
of the suppression of truth by official presumption of any kind
from any quarter, while its noble Professors were found too
patriotic, and too entirely philanthropic to permit themselves,
under any circumstances, to be long diverted from their legiti-
mate work.

Without, according to report, any full knowledge of what
had been done by the two explorers already named, the veteran
geologist Sir Kobert Murchison, of England, who had thor-
oughly and scientifically explored the auriferous region of the
gold-bearing Ural Mountains of Russia, reasoning upon what
had been made known concerning the peculiar geologic forma-
tion of Australia, in 1844, avowed his belief in the existence
of gold in that country, and made a prediction of its early
discovery. In 1846, Count Strzelecki submitted to Sir Rob-
ert Murchison a series of rock and mineral specimens which
had been gathered in South Australia, when the distinguished
explorer of the Ural at once recognized the resemblance of the
specimens presented him, to those he had found in the Rus-
sian gold fields, and declared they were demonstrative of the
abundance of gold he* had assumed existed in the localities
from which they were taken. Although unable to learn that
gold had ever been secured in any part of Australia, Murchi-
son was so certain that the precious metal existed there, and
could be raised with profit, that he caused a circular to be
printed and distributed among the miners of Cornwall, Eng-
land, urging them to emigrate to New South Wales and seek
for gold, in the same manner in which they had been accus-
tomed to secure tin and zinc from among the alluvial deposits
of the streams which flowed from their native hills.

Gold is said to have been discovered at Clunes, Yictoria, in
1850, and it is not impossible that the same and other metals
may have been found in other Australian localities, but if so,

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 297

the gold was in quantities too small to attract notice, or found
by persons too ignorant to appreciate the importance of the
knowledge probably gained by merest accident, as the Burra
Burra copper mines were discovered. In 1851, the farmers
of South Australia were prosperously turning up with the
plough the rich gold-bearing alluvium, and their millions of
sheep were grazing undisturbed above the most productive
veins of the precious metal; pebbles of gold-bearing quartz
were used to cover garden walks, and it is reported that a
graduate of the English University of Oxford ornamented the
walls of his Australian garden, by building into them masses
of white quartz, handsomely variegated with portions of the
unrecognized yellow metal.

It was, however, in the year 1851, that Mr. E. II. Har-
greaves returned to Australia from California, which last state
was then in the full rush of the wonderfully rapid develop-
ment of i.ts mineral and other resources. To the task of
Australian geologic exploration, Mr. Hargreaves applied him-
self with a zeal born of the land he had visited, and at once
began actively " prospecting," after the California method, near
Bathurst on the Macquarie river, New South Wales, where
gold was found in considerable quantities. A great excite-
ment ensued. The time dreaded by the conservative Gov-
ernor Gipps had come, and the old order of things in New
South Wales disappeared forever. But the worst anticipa-
tions were not realized. The Government at once proclaimed
its right of domain and possession over the newly-discovered
treasure, and began to grant license.s to persons who engaged
in digging for gold. The gold was soon traced along the range
of hills from Bathurst, both north and south, and discoveries
of deposits of surpassing richness were made in the colony of
Victoria, near the southern coast, seventy miles to the north-
west of Melbourne. By October, 1851, there were 7,000 men
working the new diggings at Ballarat near Mt. Buninyong, all
engaged upon a piece of ground less than a square mile in ex-
tent. In November, many of these removed to still richer de-

298 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

posits, which were opened around Mt. Alexander in the same
district. In this second field ten thousand men were sup-
posed to be at work before December, 1851, during which
month 63,300 ounces of gold, then valued at 3. 19s. 6d., or
$19.34.45 the ounce, worth at that time $1,224,506.85,
were sent to Melbourne. From Ballarat and Mt. Alexander
together, there were forwarded from September 30, 1851, to
December 31, 1851, 124,835 ounces of gold, and the whole
gold product of the colony of Victoria alone, for the time men-
tioned, was 345,146 ounces.

At this time began an emigration unmatched in the history
of the world, and which, putting all foresight and calculation
at defiance, notwithstanding the distance of Australia from
Europe and America, quickly supplied the various parts of
the Australasian continent with a most intelligent, energetic,
enterprising and very numerous population. In 1852, the
number of persons in the colony of Victoria, was more than
doubled by an immigration of 104,000 souls, and within a
year from the discovery of the gold at Bathurst, the European
population of Australia had increased to 250,000, having been
estimated, as has been noted, at but 50,000 in 1850. Esti-
mates were made in London that up to the close of the year
1852, the whole amount of gold exported from Victoria, was
valued at 16,000,000, or $77,864,000.00 and from New
South Wales during the same time to the value of 3,500,000,
or $17,032,750.00 or for fifteen months, about four times the
amount supposed to have been produced in the whole world
annually, for the five preceding years. The richest and largest
gold fields of Australia, were in the colony of Victoria, the
area of the mining region there, being about 725 square miles,
comprising the districts of Ballarat, Beechworth, Sandhurst,
Maryborough, Castlemaine, and Ararat

The Australian gold is obtained from three sources, shallow
placers, deep diggings and quartz veins. It is estimated that
some 2,000 quartz veins exist in the colony of Victoria alone,
and that these, which traverse the lower palaeozoic strata and

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 299

are associated with granitic and igneous rocks, are the primary
source of the whole of the gold found in that region. The
early Australian gold diggers, were provided only with the
simplest tools, and yet such was the richness of the placers,
that they obtained for a considerable season a large amount
of the precious metal they sought. After vast sums had been
taken in this way, the placers being much exhausted, and none
of equal productiveness discovered, resort was made to deeper
diggings, with more effective appliances, where a great return
for the labor expended was still realized. For a long time,
mining operations were not pushed into the veins between
the palaezoic rocks, known to be the original matrices of the
gold, the presumption being entertained, that the quantity of
metal decreased as the depth of the vein grew greater. Finally,
at the suggestion of Mr. Selwyn, colonial geologist for Victo-
ria, work was regularly and properly begun upon the quartz
veins, and mines have thus been operated in various places to
great depths,- and with good results. As far down as 600 feet
from the surface, no decrease of the product was noted. At
Cluncs. Victoria, the mines were over 1000 feet deep several
years since. The veins vary in thickness from a mere thread,
to 130 feet, the thinner veins yielding the largest percentage
of gold to the ton of ore. The placer deposits are from 100
to 400 feet thick ; they have yielded about double the amount
of gold taken from the quartz.

The geologic features of the Continent of Australia are very
simple ; they consist in outline of a vast interior concave table-
land of sandstone, with a surface area of 1,500,000 square
miles. The southern margin of this great plain, is a wall of
sandstone cliffs along the sea-coast. On the east, south-east,
west, and partly in the north, the interior plateau is bounded
by terraced ramparts of mountains. The formation of these,
according to locality, is of granite and syenite, or of sandstone
masses, torn assunder and mingled with basalt and trap. On
the west side of the continent, the mountains are from 1,000
to 3,000 feet high; at the southeast corner, the Australian

300 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

Alps are 7,000 feet high. On the north, in places, the sand-
stone cliffs along the coast are very lofty, the Alligator river
cutting them into gorges 3,800 feet deep.

It it assumed that Australia emerged from the sea, at a
comparatively recent geologic period, and for some time, the
unexplored interior was thought to be an immense lake. The
late Count Strzelecki, already mentioned as the original dis-
coverer of the gold of New South Wales, being the author of
the first scientific treatise upon the subject, in 1845, minutely
describes all the mountain ranges of New South Wales, and

from observations made from that region, all along the coast
to Wilson Promontory, the southernmost point -of Australia,
concludes that the continent and the island of Tasmania are
results of a similar volcanic upheaval. Tasmania certainly
presents the same mineral wealth characteristic of the conti-
nental strata, but it has not been so fully worked. The prin-
cipal Tasmanian gold mines are at Nine Mile Springs, Math-
inna, and Hellyer river. The geology of New Zealand resem-
bles that of Australia. Gold was first discovered in New
Zealand in 1843 ; further discoveries of the same kind were
made there in 1851, and mining operations on an extensive
scale were commenced in 1856. The rock veins and alluvial
deposits of gold in New Zealand, are deep and extensive like
those of Australia. The Australian gold has a higher color
and in a state of nature is finer than that of California. The
native Ballarat gold is 23.5 carats, or 979.166 fine; other
specimens from different places vary in quality, the poorest
being about 20 carats, or 833.333 fine. Much of the Ballarat
gold was in the form of nuggets, of which various specimens
were found weighing from 28 to 60 pounds troy each. In
1858, a nugget of gold was found at Ballarat, which weighed
2,217 ounces and 16 pennyweights, or about 185 pounds troy,
and which being exhibited in the Paris exposition of 1867,
was valued at nearly 10,000, or $48,665.00. A nugget from
the colony of Victoria was exhibited in London, which
weighed 146 pounds 3 pennyweights troy, and of which but

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 301

6 ounces were supposed to be matrix, or the rock of the vein.
The largest piece of gold ever found, is said to have been the
great Australian nugget known as the "Sarah Sands," -which
weighed 233 pounds and 4 ounces troy.

The International Exhibition of 1862, contained a gilded
pyramid ten feet square at its base, and forty-five feet high,
which represented the mass of gold exported from the Aus-
tralian colony of Victoria, from October 1st, 1851, to October
1st, 1861. The weight of such a column of solid gold, would
have been 26,162,432 ounces troy, which at an average esti-
mate in round numbers of 4, or $19.466 an ounce, would
have been worth 104,649,728, or $509,277,901.312.

Within twenty years from the discovery of gold by Ilar-
greaves in New South Wales, in 1851, Victoria exported 40,-
750,000 ounces of gold, and New South Wales during the
same time exported nearly 10,000,000 ounces of the same pre-
cious metal. Subsequent to the year 1860, the gold mines of
Queensland displayed increasing promise, and up to the close
of the year 1872, had yielded a little less than 1,000,000
ounces ; since then, workings have been opened at Palmer
river and other northern districts, from which good results
have been anticipated.

The total of bullion, gold and silver, in various forms, ex-
ported from Australia, after deducting imports thither, which
were chiefly intercolonial, varied during the fifteen years from
1858 to 1872, from 11,500,000, or $55,964,750.00 to 7,500,-
000, or $36,498,750.00. The average value of the gold export-
ed from Australia each year, from 1860, fifteen years, to 1875,
was 10,000,000, or $48,665,000.00, a total of 150,000,000,
or $729,975,000.00, for the period named. Up to 1875, the
colony of Victoria alone added gold to the value of 170,000,-
000, or $827,305,000.00, to the wealth of the world.

Australia being second only to the United States, of all the
countries of the globe, in the production of gold, its monetary
statistics are of great interest.

Mr. O. M. Spencer, the United States consul-general at Mel-

302 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

bourne, has communicated information of importance in rela-
tion to the production of the precious metals and the circula-
tion of the banks of Australia later than any officially pub-
lished in this country.

The gold mines of Australia are yielding a diminished an^
nual supply, the amount for 1877 being only about two-thirds
the production of 1873, and a still further reduction is re-
ported in the yield for 1878. The product for 1873, was
2,243,372 ounces, valued at $42,779,908, that for 1877, was
but 1,519,548 ounces, valued at $29,018,223, showing a de-
crease in five years of 723,824 ounces of gold produced, to be
valued at $13,761,685. During this period the net exports of
gold from Australia, although diminished, have not fallen off
in a ratio corresponding to the decrease of production, owing,
as is supposed by official experts, to the large stock of gold in
the country held over from former years.

The gold coined by the Australian Mint at Sydney, New
South "Wales, from 1855 to 1877, was of the value of $200,-
558,198.00. The following table shows the value of the gold,
coined at the Australian mints at Sydney, New South Wales, 1
and at Melbourne, Victoria, from 1872 to 1877, inclusive :

YEARS. SYDNEY MINT. MELBOURNE MINT.

1872 $ 9,698,935 $ 3,640,142

1873 7,122,637 3,659,608

1874 9,854,663 6,681,705

1875 10,326,713 9,187,952

1876 7,995,660 10,336,446

1877 7,737,735 7,236,4S6

52,806,393 40,742,339

Grand Total Australian Gold Coinage from

1872 to 1877, inclusive, $ 93,548,732

It may be of interest to state that for the 2,500,000 or
more people of Australia, March 31st, 1879, the circulation

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 303

of coin was equal to $38,275,913, and that of bank notes
was equal to $21,604,936, for which the banks held a special
reserve of $40,765,131.

In the year 1858, Australia had a population of 929,000, to
which if thdre be added that of Tasmania 82,500, and of New
Zealand 55,000, the European population of Australia is shown
to have been 1,066,500 persons. Meantime, the eight merino
sheep imported into Australia in 1793, had multiplied into
vast flocks, numbering in all more than 16,000,000 head, which
produced in 1857 over 54,738,718 pounds of wool. From that
time forward the progress of the settled portions of the coun-
try has been most marvelous, its civilization originnl and
unique, of rapid growth, founded on a basis of gold and enor-
mous mineral wealth, sustained by boundless agricultural re-
sources in a generally heathful climate, the grand work of a
cosmopolitan free people emulous of every good practical ex-
ample and aspiring to the pre-eminence and perfection of uni-
versal development.

AMERICAN GOLD.

The Spanish and other adventurers who, in search of slaves
and gold, visited the continent of America, for more than a
century after the voyages of Columbus, imagined they had
reached the eastern shores of India, the land of endless wealth
and unimaginable splendor, could they but find the great
center of its unknown but supposed civilization. For a long
time thereafter, the American seas were supposed to be an
archipelago, and that between the islands called ihe West In-
dies a waterway could be found to the Orient.

Even when settlements had been made upon the North
American coasts, the continent at its widest part was sup-
posed to be no more than three hundred and fifty miles
across, and every inlet and arm of the sea, every river and
bay, from the Gulf of Mexico to Davis' Strait in the regions
of the Arctic, was explored in search of the "north-west pas-
sage," a route to the Pacific, only found, by water, around the

304 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

far southern, stormy Cape Horn, opened up by the Railroads
across the isthmus of Darien to Panama, and from the great
Atlantic cities to San Francisco, or promised by way of the
projected interoceanic ship canal of Central America.

That bold navigators ascended the Delaware and the Schuyl-
kill rivers and landed near Fairmount Park, full of confidence
in their ability to sail onward by that route to the Pacific
ocean, that they ran their ships aground below Albany on the
Hudson river, sailed up the St. Lawrence and crossed Dud-
son's Bay in the same faith, now seems as absurd as it was
then true and deemed practical. But whatever miscalcula-
tions of geography or in navigation were made in those days
regarding America, as to the one principal idea animating
every voyager, explorer and colonist of the early days, there
was neither error or failure. The Spaniard sought for gold,
precious metals and gems, and these, through conquest, rapa-
city and by industry, he obtained in quantities to glut the
market of the world. Other nations of Europe sought in the
New World new lands, empire, independent states, liberty
and these too were secured. These achievements are of the
past, but still the mineral and metallic wealth of America has
increased with every generation, while the political and social
greatness of its nations exceed the highest aspirations of their
founders and offer nobler conditions of human existence, a
broader field of general happiness, than any recorded in his-
tory or extant elsewhere among men.

Reference has already been made to the stores of gold and
silver secured by Columbus and those who followed him, and
to the methods employed by them in the unfortunate coun-
tries they subdued, the development of mining by means of
slavery being the last of their operations. Ilaving now re-
viewed the modern sources of gold in Europe and enlarged
somewhat upon the discovery and production of the same
precious metal in Australia, it is proposed to note the present
gold-producing regions of all America and survey compre-
hensively, but more in detail, the gold fields of the United

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 305

States of America and their geologic connections. To secure
a popular understanding of the proposed statement, a short
and very general description of the grand American geologi-
cal system is necessary, and as such, is here presented.

America, formed into two great divisions connected by the
isthmus of Darien, reaches from the Arctic to the Antarctic
ocean, and on its central line, 70 degrees west longitude, extends
about 10,500 miles. From Labrador in the east, on the At-
lantic coast, to British Columbia in the west, on the shores of
the Pacific, in 51 degrees North latitude or thereabouts, the
distance across the continent is rather more than 3,000 miles.
Between Cape St. Eoque in Brazil, on the east, to Parina of
Peru, in the west, from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, in
5 degrees South latitude, the distance is also about 3,000 miles.
In its narrowest part, the isthmus of Darien, near 10 degrees
North latitude, is but thirty miles across.

The Isthmus of Darien, which throughout most of its ter-
ritories, is called Central America, divides the American con-
tinent into two nearly equal parts ; all that north of the isth-
mus, is known as North America, and all tliat south of the
isthmus, as South America. North America, with Green-
land, is estimated to contain an area of 8,000,000 square miles,
while Central and South America are set down as having an
area of 7,000,000 square miles. Estimates of the area of
America differ, however, some authorities stating the limit
of territory to be little more than 14,000,000 square miles,
while others will have it, that the continent, with Greenland,
is some 17,000,000 square miles, or even more, in extent The
area of America is about four times that of Europe, about a
third more than that of Africa, and some sixth-sevenths that
of Asia.

The geology of America is eminently noteworthy. The
oldest strata, crystalline rocks, consisting mostly of gneiss,
granite and trap, crop out from the region of the St. Law-
rence river and the great lakes, and characterize the vast sec-
tion which extends northward from that latitude to the Arctic
s

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

ocean. In North America, this formation lies on the western
slope of the Hocky Mountains, and of the Andes. It extends
from the North to the South about 1,500 miles, in this way,
is about 200 miles wide, and seldom more than 800 feet high.
The same strata extends over South America, in the east,
though in the valley of the Amazon, hidden under enormous
alluvial deposits. In the central portion of the continent, the
crystalline rocks dip under the Silurian strata, though found
free from superincumbent deposits, proving that even in the
Silurian age they formed dry land, and have been less dis-
turbed than most other formations.

The Silurian rocks, sandstone, limestone, slate, shale, etc.,
are divided into several periods, and are especially rich in va-
rious fossil remains. These strata dip beneath the Devonian,
which is in part overlaid with conglomerate rock. The
conglomerate forms the basis of the coal-bearing strata, oc-
cupying large districts in the state of Pennsylvania and the
valley of the Mississippi. When the carboniferous era came
to an end, the American continent, though nearly as large
as at present, was not anywhere much above the level of
the sea.

Since that comparatively modern geologic time, the various
lofty and extensive American ranges of mountains have ori-
ginated. These eminences were upheaved through the Silu-
rian, Devonian and carboniferous strata, dislocating the coals,
and upsetting the different layers of rock, which until that
time had remained horizontal. The precious metals are gen-
erally found, in places where the ancient rocks have been
broken through by volcanic forces, propelling vast quantities
of lava-like matter, subsequently hardening into the igneous
rocks. In the Appalachian Mountains, along the eastern coast
of North America, the volcanic fires have been extinguished
for ages, though rumors of subterranean noises, and of the

o * o *

occasional appearance of smoke far in the interior, continue
to excite curiosity. The metamorphosed Silurian and car-
boniferous rocks of Pennsylvania and New York, though

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 307

long supposed to be primary granite, are found, upon more
critical examination, to present proofs of volcanic action.

On the Pacific coast of the American continent, the whole
range of the Andes and Cordilleras mountains, from Chili to
the northern extremity of the coast in Alaska, contains a
number of large and active volcanoes, at greater or less dis-
tance from one another. "Within historical time, as related
to the American continent, the most intense volcanic action
has been manifested in Ecuador, within two or three degrees
of latitude of the equator. In this district is found the great
volcano of Cotopaxi, one of the two or three burning moun-
tains of the world known to be in a constant state of eruption.
In Ecuador, and nearly upon its line of latitude, though upon
the other side of the continent, have in recent years occurred
some of the most terrible and destructive earthquakes ever
known to mankind.

The extreme geogrnphical points of South America, are,
Cape Horn, latitude 55 degrees and 59 minutes South, longi-
tude 67 degrees 14 minutes West, and Cape Gallinas, latitude
12 degrees and 33 minutes North, longitude 71 degrees 30
minutes "West; Cape Saint Eoque, latitude 5 degrees and 28
minutes South, longitude 35 degrees and 16 minutes West,
and Parina Point, latitude 4 degrees and 45 minutes South,
longitude 81 degrees 26 minutes West. From Cape llorn, in
the Fuegian archipelago, within a few degrees of the Antarctic
ocean, to Cape Gallinas, west of gulf Maracaibo, on the shore
of the Caribbean sea, the distance overland, in a straight line,
almost directly under the 70th meridian of longitude, West,
is 4,550 miles. From Cape Saint Roque, westward to Parina
Point, is, as already stated, somewhat more than 3,000 miles.
The area of South America, is estimated at from 7,000,000 to
7,240,000 square miles.

The most remarkable physical feature of South America,
is the grand chain of the Andes or Cordillera mountains,
which extends along the whole Pacific or western coast, from
50 to 100 miles from the shore. This range, begins in the

308 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

.extreme south, not much above the level of the sea, present-
ing a few minor peaks upon certain rocky islands. From this
region, northward, the mountains gradually increase in height.
At a point near the Tropic of Capricorn, not far from the
northern boundary line of Chili, or between there and latitude
22 degrees South, the mountains widen toward the north, de-
. veloping a series of ridges mostly parallel to each other. The
range, along the shore, is almost unbroken, and forms the true.
Andes or the coast Cordillera. This line runs north through
Peru, Ecuador, and the United States of Colombia, and forms
the isthmus of Darien. From the main range of mountains
other censiderable chains of mountains extend eastward, and
to the north, one of the principle of them, reaching to the
shore of the Caribbean sea east of the gulf of Danen. This
.range, is divided into several almost parallel and equidistant
ridges, in the valleys of which the Atrato and Magdalena
livers gather their waters and flow north to the Caribbean
sea.

Owing to the general continuity of the Andes and their
nearness to the Pacific ocean, the westward-flowing rivers of
South America, though numerous, are unimportant, but, for
the same reason, the streams originating on the eastern side
of the same mountains, unite to form vast rivers which re-
ceive tributaries for thousands of miles, and like the Ama-
.zon, enter the Atlantic ocean, through gulf-like mouths too
.numerous for full exploration. 1 he ranges of highlands con-
nected with the Andes on the east, are far extended, and di-
vide the whole vast territory into a number of shallow basins,
of great extent, which determine the character of the country
and the course of its drainage.

The roots of the mountains are the home of the gold ; the
metal is brought to the surface by the action of the volcano;
the matrix of igneous rock in which the treasure is locked
and hidden, is broken by earthquake upheaval and disinteg-
rated by exposure to the weather; the mountain torrents
grind the auriferous boulders to fine fragments, the rivers

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 309

wash the pebbles into sand ; nuggets of gold are found among-
the foot hills, and the precious fine golden dust is carried
down the vallies the finer the farther and left by the cur-
rent to await the hand of man in countless widespread alia-*-
vial deposits.

Those who retain in mind the very general idea of Ameri-,
can geology presented in the few foregoing paragraphs, will
be able to form an intelligent comprehension of the causes of
the presence of gold, in the various localities now to be de-
scribed, as the sources in America, from which that metal has
been taken, and from which it is still obtained, in quantities,
varying from such as are too small to be of commercial im-
portance, or industrial profit, to others, so great, as to be un-
equalled in metallurgic records, the basis of numerous and:
enormous fortunes, the potent cause of mighty and rapid evo-
lutions in the commerce and progress of nations, and the agent
of most radical changes, in the currency of every country, the-
finance of the world.

The earliest colonies from Europe settling in America, were
located in the southern portion of the continent, and there the,
earliest discoveries of gold were made, in localities which still
continue to yield considerable amounts of the precious metals,.
yet, on account of the topographical character of the territo-
ries, from circumstances of climate, from political, social, and,
other causes, South America remains but partly explored, ita
resources slightly developed. Doubtless, in the future the ef-:
fects of past disorders will disappear, and in the general pro-,,
gress an increase in the produce of gold and other metals will,
take place.

The oldest and most important country of South America,
is Brazil; it occupies m;>re than two-fifths of the surface of
that division of the Western Hemisphere, and next to the
empire of Russia, has the most extensive contiguous territory
of any nation in the world, its coast-line extending on the At-
lantic nearly 4,000 miles. On April 25th, 1,500, Pedro Alva-
res Cabral took possession of the country now called Brazil,,

310 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

for king Emauuel of Portugal. The settlement of parts of
Brazil was almost immediate, the colonists engaging in the
very profitable commerce in dye-woods. The Portuguese have
ever since maintained their position in Brazil, and the govern-
ment of the country is to-day a Portuguese monarchy the
only American empire. About one-half of Brazil is covered
by hills, highlands and mountains. Mt. Itatiaiossu, north-
west of Rio Janeiro, is the highest Brazilian peak, being 10,-
300 feet high. The rivers of Brazil are numerous and large.
The geology of the country is too vastly varied to be noted in
detail here; its mineral riches are immense, comprising dia-
monds, sapphires, emeralds, euclases, rubies, topazes, aquama-
rines, zircon, gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, iron and other
gems, metals, and minerals. The largest diamond known, of
138J carats weight, was found on the river Abaete. The
yield of diamonds for the first century was worth al>out $20,-
000,000.

Brazilian gold is found in the metamorphic rocks, the drift
gravel, clay, and alluvial deposits. The richest formations are
clay slates, veined with gold-bearing quartz, the itacolumite
rocks with quartz gold veins, and the beds of iron ores called
itabirite and jacutinga. The province of Minas Geraes, which
abounds in gems, is also rich in gold, the most prolific mines
of that metal being worked near Ouro Preto, the gold being
taken from quartz veins which traverse the metamorphic
rocks, or found in a state of dissemination throughout iho
strata in a number of places. The mines of Cachoeira, Baliu,
and Qucbra Panella, of the Morro Velho in the valley of the
Rio das Velhas, yielded in 1849, $190,680 above the total cost
of operation. In 1861, there was a profit of $433,845; in
1865, $404,190, from which must, however, be taken a loss
of $/3,145, incurred for some reason during the preceding
year. These, mines are in English hands and worked by a
Stock Company, which pays a dividend of from 13 to 15 per
cent, on the capital invested. The mines of Gongo Soco, once
very profitable, are abanuoried. The gold of Minas Geraes,

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD, 311

when taken from veins in the alluvial soil, is generally asso-
ciated with platina and iridium ; the gold from other forma-
tions of the same district, is combined with tellurium and va-
rious other metals. It has been supposed that the gold mines
of Brazil were exhausted, but this is denied by a number of
good authorities, and a great yield of Brazilian gold is among
the possibilities of the future, dependent upon more extended
scientific exploration.

The Republic of Bolivia, lying between latitude 12 degrees
and 24 degrees South, and longitude 57 degrees 25 minutes
and 70 degrees 30 minutes West, is distinguished by its gi-
gantic mountains, which are a part of the Andes. The peaks
are Tacora, Tatasvaya, and Pomarapi, each about 21,700 feet
above the sea; Parinacocha, 22*030 feet above the sea; Gual-
latiu, 21,960 feet above the sea; Iquimo, Toroni, Yabricoya,
and the volcanic mountains Isluya and Sajama, all about 22,-
350 feet above the sea. With the exception of Mt. Aconca-
gua ia Chili, latitude 32 degrees 39 minutes South, longitude
70 West, 22,422 feet above the sea, the volcano Sajama or
Sahama, is the highest American peak. Though in the equa-
torial zone, all these mountains ascend above the limit of per-
petual snow. The rivers of Bolivia arc numerous, mostly the
same that flow far through Brazil to the Atlantic. Bolivia
has vast deposits of salt. The trachytic conglomerate rocks
are the principal feature of the geology of Bolivia, though
granite abounds in the eastern mountains of the Cordilleras.
Gneiss and porphyry are also found in certain localities, the
gneiss sometimes overlaid by foliated Silurian strata, in the
depressions of which are recent deposits of sedimentary char-
acter, containing fossils of colossial mammalia.

Gold is found in many parts of the mountain region of Bol-
ivia. Near Lake Titicaca ia north-western Bolivia, some-
where about latitude 16 degrees 30 minutes South, and longi-
tude 68 degrees West, stands the Nevado de Illimani, a moun-
tain of three peaks, the loftiest of which ascends to 21,150
feet above the level of the sea. From one of the crags at the

312 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

base of Mt. Illimani, a huge mass of native gold was riven by
a flash of lightning; this precious curiosity, was purchased at
an immense cost and sent to the museum of natural history at
Madrid, in Spain. The rivers flowing from the Cordillera
Real to the Beni, or its tributaries, all bring gold from the
mountains and deposit the same among the sands along their
banks. The vast yield of Bolivian silver, will be described in
a future page devoted to that metal. The national assembly
of Bolivia, in October, 1872, imposed an export duty of 20
cents per ounce on gold, 50 cents per mark on bar silver ; an
export duty of 4 per cent, is paid on good coin.

Between southern Bolivia and Brazil, lies the Republic of
Paraguay, extending from latitude 21 degrees 57 minutes, to
27 decrees 30 minutes South, and from longitude 54 decrees

o o o

33 minutes, to 58 degrees 40 minutes West, a territory at
present of but about 90,000 square miles. The face of the
country forms two great valleys, through which flow the
rivers. The elevated lands are in the north, nowhere over
2,500 feet above the sea ; the south of Paraguay is low, and
often swampy, the apparent detritus from the distant Andes.
There are iron ores in Paraguay, and copper has been found,
but gold has not, as far as known, been discovered.

To the .south of Brazil, and east of the Argentine Republic,
between latitude 30 degrees and 35 degrees South, and longi-
tude 53 degrees and 58 degrees 30 minutes "West, is the Banda
Oriental del Uruguay, or Republic of Uruguay ; its territo-
ries have a sea and gulf coast of 625 miles, and a land fron-
tier of but 450 miles. The interior is divided by numerous
ranges of forest hills, nowhere over 2,500 feet above the sea,
with countless streams which form many small rivers. The
mineral resources of this country are undeveloped, yet gold
has been found to a limited extent and mining enterprise is
increasing.

The Argentine Republic occupies that part of South
America between latitude 21 degrees and 41 degrees South,
and longitude 53 degrees and 71 degrees 17 minutes West.

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 313

The northern and western portion of this territory, is gener-
ally mountainous, being occupied by the outspurs of Chilian
Cordilleras. There are numerous active volcanoes along the
grand chain of the Andes, whose crest forms the western por-
tion of the Argentine Republic, and traces of former craters
are found, over a very broad section. A cone near Jujuy,
sends up every morning, a whirling spiralinc column of dust,
which rises to a great height, and spreads over the land for
many miles, according to the force and direction of the wind.
The Despoblado chain of mountains in the northern province
of Salta, between the Tropic of Capricorn and 25 degrees
South latitude, presents an elevation of 14,000 feet above the
level of the sea, while the highest summit of the Aconquaja
ranges, in the province of Catamarca, about latitude 27 de-
grees South and longitude 67 degrees West, is 17.000 feet
above the level of the sea.

The Argentine rivers are most extraordinary streams. The
principal, is the Rio de la Plata, or River Plate, as termed in
English, which drains the whole region from the valley of the
Amazon, to 85 degrees latitude South. The Plata is a river
of rivers, formed of the great Uruguay, Parana and Paraguay,
and up it and these branches or confluents, steamboat naviga-
tion is carried to great distances. Passengers are taken from
the Uruguayan port of Monteviedo, to (Juyaba in the Brazil-
ian province of Matto Grosso, a distance northward, of over
2,000 miles. At Monteviedo, the Plata is full 75 miles wide,
and at Buenos Ayres on the opposite and southern shore, yet
over 125 miles up the stream, the river is still 28 miles across.
The waters of the Plate, however, are shallow, and navigation
of the same is much obstructed by shoals and banks of mud.
The Uruguay forms part of the eastern Argentine boundary ;
between it and the Parana to the west, lies the province of
Entre Eios, with a surface divided between ridges of compara-
tively small elevation, great pampas or grassy plains, and
marshes surrounding lakes of various sizes, liable to very ex-
tensive overflow. The streams and waters of the Entrc llios

314 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

are always fresh, and in this distinguished from many streams
and lakes south of the Plata and west of the Parina.

The Rio Paraguay flowing from the territories of Brazil
and the Paraguayan Republic, on its way to the head-waters
of the Rio de la Plata, receives in its intermediate course, the
name of the Rio Parina. On the western bank of these rivers,
lies the province of the Grand Chaco, the surface of which, in
the riparian part of the valley, consists of broad pampas rising
to the west into a country of highlands and ridges, the foot-
hills of the mountains in the distance, west. The region of
the llio de la Plata, and the country west of its head-waters,
may be considered the indefinite boundary of two very dis-
similar geologic districts included in the Argentine territories.
The .northern section, west of the Grand Chaco, the valley of
the Parina and Paraguay, is as already noted, hilly and moun-
tainous, with out-cropping rocks of granite, gneiss, clay slate,
and almost every other variety of geologic formation, in a
confused mass of broken and disordered strata. South of the
line of the Rio de la Plata, all rocks have disappeared beneath
the surface, upon which for hundreds of miles, to the south,
and to the west from the Atlantic coast, not even a pebb!c can
be found. This section over 300,000 square miles in area,
may be regarded as one vast plain, subdivided by many water-
courses into vast pampas of one general geologic character, but
varied surface, deposits and vegetation. These pampas though
drained by numberless rivers, some of which disappear in the
earth, or lose themselves in marshes, are liable in the lower
parts to extensive inundations in the rainy season. In the
dry season, many of the pampajan rivers, marshes and lakes,
lose all their waters by rnpid evaporation, when their very
extensive beds present vast sheets or masses of dry salt, in de-
posits, varying from some which merely cover the ground, to
others over three feet in thickness.

Below the valley of the Rio do la Plata, in the southern
part of the province of Buenos Ay res, the hills called the
Tapalquen, Tandil and Vulcan, of uustratified granular quartz,

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 315

break through the formation of the pampas. The range ap-
pears on some maps as the "C. del Volean," ' : S. Ventaua," and
U S. Guamini," and extends from, the Atlantic at Cape Corren-
tes, near latitude 38 degrees South, south-westward 400 miles;
south and west again from these elevations, for some 380
miles, there are few crystalline rocks, and farther, into Pata-
gonia, the lowest stratified formation of the Andes appears in
a porphyritic formation. The grand feature of the Argentine
pampaean formation, which includes broadly the valley of the
Rio de la Plata, and to the north that of the Parana and Para-
guay, is calcareo-argillaceous conglomerate earth, the deposit
for ages of the largely-subsiding rivers, which have withdrawn
their waters in consequence of a gradual geologic upheaval of
the southern plains, to the height of 100 feet or more, an evo-
lution still going forward. The diluvial deposits of the pam-
pas consisting of detritus washed in cycles of time from the
wearing away of the Andes, is everywhere mixed with marine
and other fossils, and are considered by Darwin, as much a
matter of astonishment as the gigantic Andes themselves.

The Rio de la Plata, River Plate, or silver river, was so
called by the Spaniards, on account of the profusion of silver
ornaments, worn by the cannibal Payagua, Tim bus, and Guar-
anis Indians, who we:e discovered along its banks when the
ad venturers "from Spain, after the voyage thither of Juan Dias
de Soils in 1516, and of Magalhaens in 1519, undertook, un-
der the lattcr's command in 1527, the settlement of Buenos
Ay res and the exploration of the surrounding territories.
Various expeditions followed that under Magalhaens here
no'cd. One under Mcndoza, which entered the Plata in 1535,
was the largest and richest which ever left Europe for the
sho'cs of America. Extensive explorations for gold, and for
lines of communication, involved the Spaniards in numerous
and of.en disastrous conflicts with the Indians, sometimes end-
ing i i the extermination of the bands of Europeans, even when
mov ngin parties of over 200 men. The settlements at Buenos
Ay res were repeatedly broken up by hostile aborigines, and

316 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

it was not until 1580, and after an immense expenditure of
labor, treasure and blood, that the colony became firmly es-
tablished, and even then, the achievement was made in part
by compromise, alliance, and intermarriage of the European
adventurers and the native tribes, who as wandering bands,
still control an immense region, covering, with the exception
of limited areas, all the very sparsely inhabited country from
the extreme south over the Patagonian plains, the central part
of the pampas, and the middle part of the Grand Chaco, as well
as portions of Paraguay and Bolivia.

The Argentine Republic is principally a pastoral country,
though somewhat devoted to agriculture and a limited manu-
facturing industry. The mineral region is in the northwest ;
the resources of the various mines known to exist there are
vast, but hardly at all developed. The entire export of metals
in 1873, of copper and silver only, amounted to a value of but
$420,000. Gold exists among the mountains, between the
ridges, and along some of the streams, but a change in the
character of the population, and the permanent establishment
of social and political order, must precede the regular develop-
ment of the probably great but at present practically unex-
plored sources of supply of the precious metals, which the
early settlers expected to develop, centuries ago, beside the
broad-flowing Rio de la Plata.

That part of South America lying south of the Negro
river, which flows eastward in the region of the 40th degree,
latitude South, is called Patagonia. The territory ends with.
Cape Horn, 55 degrees 59 minutes latitude South. Patagonia
is about 475 miles wide, in the northern part, and gradually
narrows toward the Cape in which it ends; it is 1,050 miles
long, the 70th meridian, longitude West, running nearly along
its center. This country was discovered by Magalhaens in
1520, and received its name Palagonia, the country of the larye-
footed, from him, on account of the size of the foot-prints of
gigantic Indians found upon the shore. That part of Patago-
nia west of the Andes, which traverse the whole length of the

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 31T

country near the Pacific, belongs to Chili ; that east of the
mountains, is claimed by the Argentine Republic. The Andes
in Patagonia, rise gradually from mere ridges and hills at the
south, to Mts. Cay, Yantcles and Corcovado, the two last being
volcanoes on the Chilian border, and about 8,000 feet hio-h.

7 O

The head-waters of the Negro river, descend from a range of
mountain spurs from the Andes, which sweep in a curve across
Patagonia, from 41 degrees latitude South, northward, to the
river, then southeast to Valedes Peninsula on the Atlantic.
From the chain of curving highlands, the country descends in
a succession of geologic terraces toward the south, broken,
however, at various points by elevations, some of which rise
to 3,000 feet in height. The center of Patagonia is occupied
by a great desert of shingle, once the shore of the sea, which
as the land was upheaved, receded, leaving the stony frag-
ments washed smooth as they are now found.

The principal rivers of Patagonia rise east of the Andes,
and flow to the Atlantic; they are the Negro, Chupat, Sene-
gal, Desire, Chico, and Santa Cruz, the last being the most
important stream after the Negro, and navigable to Lake Vied-
ma, from which it falls. The mouth of the Santa Cruz, in
latitude 50 degrees South, is three miles wide, and there the
tide rises from 30 to 50 feet twice each 24 hours.

The geology of Patagonia is at once simple and interesting.
From the Argentine river Cobo Leubu or Colorado, which
flows into the Atlantic under the 40th parallel, latitude South,
to the valley of the Santa Cruz river, extends one great de-
posit, including immense numbers of remarkable tertiary fos-
sil shells, of supposed extinct species, among which appears
an oyster a foot or more in diameter. Near the southern por-
tion of this formation, the strata is fully 800 feet deep. The
beds just described, are overlaid by a recomposed soft stone,
of volcanic origin, yet containing gypsum, and having a chalk-
like appearance, and largely made up of the remains of infuso-
ria, of 30 or more forms, all of oceanic origin. These beds of
chalk-like pumiceous stone, are throughout capped with grav-

318 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

el, in masses forming the most extensive shingle surface known
in the world. The pebbles are well-rounded pieces of porphy-
ry, derived from the Andes. The formation makes the shin-
gle desert, and is estimated to be of an average width of 200
miles, the length over 800 miles, and the average depth of the
strata about fifty feet. The whole surface of Patagonia has
been raised by periodical upheavals from 300 to 400 feet, the
movement extending as has been noted in the description of
the Argentine Eepublic, to the shores of the Rio de la Plata.
The western mountains of Patagonia, are composed for the
most part, of the primitive rocks, of which the eastern slopes,
in the region of Lake Viedma, present immense disrupted and
displaced masses. Geologists assume the mineral resources of
Patagonia to be quite extensive and valuable, but the country
is in possession of a few thousand ferocious Indians and a few
colonists, and practically unexplored In 1874, gold was
found in the valleys of the Santa Cruz and Gallegos rivers,
but mining operations have been discontinued. In the Galle-
gos, diamonds have been discovered, resembling the gems of
Brazil; but an uninviting appearance, a severe climate, a gen-
erally desert surface, and a murderous, though scanty popula-
tion, have limited at once our knowledge of Patagonia and the

7 O O

development of such resources as may yet be discovered.

The Republic of Chili, or Chile, derives its name from the
Peruvian Indian word Tchile, meaning snow, which is always
seen upon the summits of its mountains. The territories of
Chili are a strip of mountain land from 40 to 200 miles wide,
extending south ward from 24 degrees latitude South, for 2,270
miles to Cape Horn, covering an area of 218,925 square miles.
The Andes, as a general system, extend in two parallel lines,
called Cordilleras, the entire length of Chili, though this out-
line is broken in places. The eastern range of mountains is
the most important, and is regarded as the true Andes; cen-
trally situated at intervals, is another mountain range, and
along the shore of the Pacific runs la cordillera de la costa,
the range of the coast. Ilowever, this structure varies ac-

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 319

cording to the region, and there are multitudes of detached
elevations, and numerous independent peaks. The mean ele-
vation of the mountains of Chili is variously estimated from
11,830 to 14,000 feet; the most of the principal cones arc vol-
canic, or have been eruptive within a recent period. Chili is
subject to frequent earthquakes, the slight ones, or shocks
called tcmllores, being most common, and harmless, yet alarm-
ing, since often followed by actual and destructive earthquakes
which are called terremotos, and are real movements of the land,
as the name implies. The space between the Cordilleras, is
occupied by table-lands, the elevation of which varies from
200 to 1,000 feet the altitude of the northern plateau known
as the desert of Atacama.

The loftiest Chilian mountain is the old and at present in-
active volcano Aconcagua, 22,422 feet above the sea. Alts.
Tupungato, 20,269 ; Llullaillaco, 21,000 ; Villarica, and San.
Jose, 18,150 or 20,000 feet above the sea, are intermittent vol-
canoes, as have been Mts. Peteroa, Llayma, Antuco, Ilanahue,
Chilian, Calbuco, Corcovado, Osomo, Yanteles, Minchinma-
dom, and a number of others, 23 volcanoes in all being recog-
nized. There are many mountains not volcanic of equal ele-
vation. There are ten well known passes, from the Pacific to
the Argentine Eepublic across Chili, besides others not so
favorable or well traveled. The pass called the Planchon,
6,000 feet above the sea, has been surveyed for a railroad.
The other passes range from an altitude of 1 1, 12, 14, 14,500
to 15,575 feet above the sea, at their summits. -These
passes are open only for a part of the year, six months or
more, and passable only for mules or llamas and men. The
western slope of the mountains is most difficult to ascend.

The rivers of Chili are numerous but short, and few of
them are navigable; they all fall from the mountains, and
when swollen with melted snows, discharge large streams of
water and immense quantities of alluvium into the Pacific
ocean ; in consequence, almost all of them are obstructed at
their mouths by considerable bars of sand and mud.

320 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

The Araucanian Indians of Chili, successfully maintained
their territories and independence against the Peruvian Incas
from A.D. 1433, and against the Spaniards who invaded the
country in 1535 or 1536, being engaged in sanguinary war
with the Europeans until 1722, when the Indians consented
to a treaty and continue citizens of the republic at present,
though a remnant of some 24,000 persons still occupy a prov-
ince south of Biobio, have their own chief and an indepen-
dent tribal form of government.

The territory of Chili is of exceeding interest to the geolo-
gist ; the nature of its formations have, however, been suffi-
ciently indicated for the present purpose, in that which has
been stated in the preceding paragraphs in relation to the
mountains of the Argentine Republic. Chili possesses im-
mense and very varied mineral wealth of gold, silver, copper,
lead, antimony, cobalt, zinc, nickel, bismuth, iron, coal, molyb-
denum and quicksilver, the different ores being found in all
the series of rocks between the granite and trachytic strata,
the last being barren in that country. Sulphur, salt, nitre,
alum, gypsum, limestone, and other minerals are abundant in
Chili.

Gold exists in Chili in very considerable quantities, though
less sought after there than copper and some other metals.
The gold-bearing veins of the mountains of Chili, run almost
parallel to the imperfect cleavage of the granite rocks among
which it is for the most part discovered. Certain Chilian
copper ores, generally associated with micaeous specular iron,
contain small quantities of gold. In some mines in Chili
having quartz veins running north and south, gold is found
mixed with a most remarkable variety of minerals, such as
galena, blende, copper and iron pyrites and the peroxide of
iron. Near Illapel about 31 degrees and 35 minutes latitude
South, are some very poor gold mines, which are worked in
the beds of the gypseous formation, the metal being taken
from the altered felspathic clay-slate alternate with the purple
porphyri tic conglomerate. Gold is also found in the province

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 321

of Magellan, the part of Chili lying along the western shores
of Patagonia. The principal mining districts are in the north
of Chili, but new discoveries are continually made elsewhere,
and the product of gold, being taken with other metals, must
continue or increase.

Between latitude 3 degrees and 20 minutes and 22 degrees
20 minutes South, and longitude about 67 degrees and 81 de-
grees and 26 minutes ^Vest, lies the almost rectangular terri-
tory of the republic of Peru. The western part of Peru lies
under the 70th meridian of longitude "West, and along this
line, from the river Loa in the south, to the junction of the
rivers Javary and Amazon in the north, is somewhat more
than 1,150 miles. The 70th meridian may be considered the
perpendicular line of a right-angled triangle, of which .the
northern boundary of Peru, running 650 miles from west to
east, about 5 degrees south of the equator, is the base, and the
Pacific shore 1,500 miles long, from Cape Blanco to the river
Loa, is the hypothenuse. The area included is about 500,000
square miles. For an account of the early history and con- ,
quest of Pern, the reader is referred to pages 275 and 276.

The Peruvian Andes traverse the entire country, from
north to south, in two separate ranges called the Cordillera
Oriental, or Andes proper, and the Cordillera Occidental, or
Coast range. North of the town of Pasco, in about latitude
11 degrees South, a third and still more easterly range arise?,
which, a little above the 9th degree, latitude South, subdivides ,
into three ranges. The Cordillera Occidental runs nearly north-
west, and follows the indentations of the Pacific coast from
which its steep ascents are some 20 to 50 miles inland. This
range is quite unbroken, though crossed by roads for men and
animals, and generally rises to 14,000 or 15,000 feet above the
level of the sea. The snow-line of Peru, is about 16,000 feet
above the level of the sea, so that but few summits are snow-
capped, and these are all, as far as known, in the range along
the coast. The passes of the Peruvian mountains, are among
the most elevated in the world. The road from Lima to Tar-

322 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

ma and Pasco, ascends to a height of 15,760 feet above the level
of the sea. The highest mountain in Peru, is the volcano Mis-
ti, in the department of Arequipa, and 20,300 feet above tho
level of the sea. The peaks of Pichu, Charcani, and the Pan
de Azucar, from 17,000 to 18,000 feet above the sea, are in
the same actively- volcanic district. In the 16th century, tho
old city of Arequipa, situated among these craters, was buried
under the ashes of an eruption from Mt. Misti. and subse-
quently rebuilt on its present site, seven miles further from
the volcano and toward the west. The tract of land desig-
nated as la costa, or the coast, lying between the Peruvian
Godillera Occidental and the Pacific, nowhere over fifty mile:i
wide, slopes to the sea with a very rapid and irregular descent,
the surface being broken by deep gullies dug out by the tor-
rents flowing from the mountains to the ocean. Though gen-
erally the beds of rivers, most of these gullies are dry tho
greater part of the year. The ridges between the rivers are
from ten to ninety miles wide and perfect deserts. Since its
occupation by man, the coast of Peru is supposed to have
been elevated by an interrupted upheaval some 85 or more
feet. The crest of the Cordillera Oriental, or proper Andes,
in Peru, is flattened into the table-land of Cuzco, having an
area of some 15,000 square miles and ranging from 11,500
feet in the south, to 12,500 feet in the north, above the sea.
The table-land of Pasco, north of Lima, is some 14,000 feet
above the sea, and but about 1,500 feet below the line of per-
petual snow. Some of the valleys enclosed by the Peruvian
mountains, are among the hottest localities in all the Ameri-
can countries of the tropics. Flowing from the Cordillera Occi-
dental on the eastern side, the rivers Maranon, Iluallaga and
Ucayali are important, as far as the Volume of their swift
waters is considered, they finding their way among the moun-
tains and joining the Amazon as the' chief tributaries of that
stream on its course to the Atlantic. The Apurimac, Uri-
bamba, Javary and Purus, are great rivers of the same region.
The eastern part of Peru'tlopes to the valley of the Amazon,

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 323

forming a country of dense forests in an unknown rainy re-
gion of torrid heat and tropic vegetation, inhabited by roving
or other Indians where not unpopulated.

The geology of Peru has not been thoroughly explored ex-
cept in certain limited fields of observation. One of the prom-
inent features of the whole territory, is the recurrence on the
coast, and in the interior, of tracts of red sandstone often ac-
companied by vast deposits of salt. Granite and porphyry
are the principal rocks of the coast and the highlands. Over
7,000 feet above the sea, and upwards, except the highest pla-
teaux, called paramos, the mountain country of Peru is denomi-
nated the sierra, a region of which trachyte, augite, porphyry"
and orite, are the principal rocks. Tbe great mountains of
Peru north of 8 degrees, latitude South, are all of trachyte.
The more elevated ground, bordering the valleys between Lake
Titicaca and the famous city of Cuzco, is chiefly clay slate;
in the neighborhood of the city of Arequipa, and between
there and Lake Titicaca, the soil is very largely of volcanic
origin. Peru has been famous for us mineral and metallic
wealth, especially in the precious metals, ever since its discov-
ery by the Spaniards under Pascual de Andagoya in 1522, and
its conquest by Pizarro from 1531 to 15-iO. Even before-
these dates, the country of the Incas was widely known among
the Indians for its abundance of gold and silver. In 1512, the
son of the Indian cacique Comogra, informed Vasco Nunez do
Balboa, then the governor of a small Spanish colony "in Dari-
en, that well to the south of his father's dominions, there was
a great country and a wonderful people, where gold was in the
most common use and considered of no more value than that
given to iron by the Spaniards. That country Balboa sought,
but failed to discover, yet the report of the Indian was subse-
quently learned to be at least founded on facts, as has been re-
lated in the early part of this article.

Gold is at present found in numerous places in Peru, and
almost all the mountain streams bring it down in small parti,
cles with their torrents, and form deposits in their sands, often:

324 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

of considerable richness. The mountains in almost every di-
rection present veins of gold, with silver and copper, and often
in quartz lodes. The gold mines of Caraba}-a are the most
important workings of the country. As numerous as the
sources of Peruvian gold are, the product of this metal has in
modern times been small compared to the common yield of
silver, an account of which will be given on a future page to be
devoted to that metal. Since 1836, the principal wealth of
Peru has been derived from the deposits of guano, and of
nitre, with which commodities part of its territories supera-
bound. Until a few years past, Peruvian mining has been in
a backward state, but the introduction of railroads and im-
proved machinery, with more modern processes, has brought
about a favorable change in that and many other branches of
industry. At present Peru, with Bolivia, against Chili, is
engaged in a protracted and ruinous war; what the conse-
quence to these countries, and the working of their mines, may
be, it is impossible to predict. There is no good rer.son, how-
ever, why Peru should not be for the future, as in the past,
one of the Avorld's wonders as a producer of silver, while,
as for ages, a fruitful, well-knowu and permanent source of
gold.

Ascending northward the Pacific coast of South America,
at 5 degrees 30 minutes latitude South, near the widest part
of the continent, we enter the territories of La Republica Del
Ecuador. The boundaries of Eucador, which derives its name
from its situation under the equator, are unsettled, and a large
part of the country unexplored, but it is generally considered
to be included between the latitude already named, and 1 de-
gree 30 minutes North, and longitude 69 degrees 52 minutes
and 80 degrees 35 minutes West. The extreme length of Ecua-
dor is about 740 miles, from east to west, and the breadth some
520 miles from south to north, or the reverse. Including the
Gallapagos islands, which lie under the equator (area 2,951
square miles), Ecuador presents a surface some 254,951 square
miles, or by planimetric calculation, 248.580 square miles, in

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 326

extent. The sinuous coast-line of this country, with, numer-
ous indentations, is over 700 miles long.

Ecuador has a more varied topography than any other
country in the world; nine-tenths of the whole region is oc-
cupied by immense snow-clad mountains, almost endless for-
ests, and wide-spread llanos, or savannas. The Andes cross
Ecuador from south to north. The range is divided, as in
Peru, into the Cordillera Occidental, or coast range, and the
Cordillera Oriental, or eastern mountains, which run parallel,
about 40 miles apart, and enclose for 300 miles an elevated
valley, which is divided by inferior ranges, and subdivided by
ridges into the plains of Quito, Am'bato, and Cuenca, and
smaller irregular sections. The western or Cordillera Occi-
dental, attains an elevation in the great volcano of Chimbo-
razo, of 21,422 feet above the sea, but the range has no other
point more than 17,500 feet above the coast. The Quito
plain is 9,500 feet above the sea, the Ambato plain 8.500, and
the Cuenca plain 7,800 feet above the sea. The Cordillera
Oriental, or eastern range, presents a number of grand peaks
and summits, more than 18,000 feet above the coast line.
Nowhere in the entire Andean system of mountains, are
the separate peaks so grandly developed as in the Euca-
dorian region. The single valley of Quito is- surrounded by
twenty volcanic mountains of great elevation and remarka-
bly perfect forms ; one is a perfect trunacated cone, another
a smooth and snow-covered grand dome, while others are
magnificent irregular crests, jagged and riven by the tremen-
dous volcanic forces to which they have been subjected for
cycles of time.

Beside the world-renowned Chimborazo, the Cordillera Occi-
dental in Ecuador, shows a dozen or more peaks from 1,500 to
1,960 feet above the snow line, which under the equator,
whereabout they are situated, is not less than 14,000 feet
above the level of the sea. In the Ecuadorian Cordillera Ori-
ental, about an equal number of similar mountains are found,
but of even greater elevation ; of these, Cayambi, a volcano

326 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

19,813 feet above the sea, is situated directly under the equa-
tor, and near 77 degrees 30 minutes longitude West, being
the only volcanic snow-capped peak without latitude. Mt.
Imbabura, between the Cordilleras, at the northern end of the
great central valley, is a volcano 15,029 feet above the sea, and
is celebrated for discharging vast quantities of mud and water.
Cotopaxi of the Cordillera Oriental, about 19,500 feet above
the level of the sea, is the highest volcano in the world. The
crater is always smoking, and from time to time .discharges
great quantities of pumice stone, the principal product of its
eruptions. Sangai, in the same range, is the most active and
violent volcano in existence. The whole Quito table-land, is
one vast volcanic hearth, underlaid by an ocean of lava, which
breaks forth sometimes from one outlet and sometimes from
another. Ecuador is pre-eminently the land of volcanoes ; ac-
tive or extinct craters are numerous and widespread. Earth-
quakes are common and have been terribly destructive. The
eastern part of Ecuador is crossed from west to south-east, by
numerous ranges of mountains, which continue to the banks
of the Maranon or Amazon, and slope down into the valley
of that river.

The rivers of Ecuador are numerous and many of them are
great streams. On the west, many independent rivers flow
from the Cordillera Occidental to the Pacific, while all the
drainage of the mountains east of the coast range descends,
often in sudden floods, by the channels of a number of important
tributaries to the Amazon. Many of the mountain rivers of
all sizes, have worn for themselves deep and extensive valleys.
In the walls and terraces of these valleys, and upon the sides,
of the mountains, may be found the grandest, but for the most
part unimproved, opportunities for geologio observation.
Granitic, gneissoid, and schistose rocks, are the principal ma-
terials of the bodies of the mountains ; along their sides are
found immense beds of gravel and volcanic debris, with a
number of vast, old and cold lava streams ; the mountain sum-
mits are capped with trachite and porphyry, rising in barren

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 327

desolation above the line of vegetation, and of perpetual snow
to fields inaccessible to the foot of man.'

With all the granduer of its geology and topography, and
the energy of its volcanic action, Ecuador is, as far as explored,
less richly supplied with mines and minerals than any other
country of South America. Silver, gold, iron, mercury, lead
tin, zinc, copper, antimony, manganese, alum, sulphur and salt,
are reported, but few of these have been found in sufficient
quantities to become of great industrial or commercial im-
portance. Gold, mixed with silver, has been procured for a
long time from the neighborhood of Zarume in the province
of Loja ; the gold mines of the elevated regions of the Cordil-
leras were abandoned long since. Gold is said to be washed
from the mountains by the greater part of the Ecudorian riv-
ers flowing to the Amazon, and is actually gathered by the*
Indians from the beds of the Napo and some of its confluents;
in the Canelos territory, and more especially from the Bobo-
naza. The Canelos gold in the native state is 22 carats or
938f fine, and that secured from the valley of the Napo
but 20 carats or 833J fine. The town of Azogues derives its
name from its quicksilver mines, and similar ores are mined
in the city of Loja. Nearly all the sources of quicksilver in
Ecuador, have been found unprofitable since the discovery of
that metal in California. Without unexpected discoveries,
the product of gold in Ecuador must continue quite unim-
portant. At present, the few gold mines operated, are all in
the mountains along the coast of the Pacific ocean.

To the north of Ecuador lies the territory of Estados Uni-
dos de Colombia, the Republic of the United States of Colom-
bia, extending from 2 degrees and 30 minutes, latitude South,
to 12 degrees 20 minutes, latitude North, and from 65 degrees
50 minutes to 83 degrees 5 minutes, longitude West. Colom-
bia consists of the confederated states of Antioquia, Bolivar,
Boyac't, Cauca, Cuninamarca, Magdalena, Panama, Santander,
and Tolima, and comprises a large part of the old Spanish
vice-royalty of New Granada.

328 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

The area of this country is about 500,000 square miles. It
has a coast line on the Atlantic, of more than 1,000 miles,
with an abundance of bays and natural harbors. The Pacific
coast line is less important, though of about equal extent, in-
dented with the great bay of Panama and possessing several
well-known seaports. The surface of Colombia is nearly
equally divided into mountain, valley and plain. The western
part is one of the most mountainous districts in the world.
The Andes in the south, near Ecuador, form an extensive pla-
teau, called the paramo of Vera Cruz, which has an elevation
of about 11,695 feet above the sea. From this paramo, the
mountains form three ranges, running north nearly parallel.
The Cordillera Occidental, or coast range, which here bears
the name of Cordillera de Choco, is the least remarkable, be-
ing of comparatively low elevation, and in places worn away
into what may be regarded as mere rounded hills. The Cor-
dillera de Choco is, however, the most extensive range, as at
latitude 7 degrees 30 minutes North, it turns to the north-
west and extends, almost unbrokenly, along the isthmus of
Panama. The central range, or Cordillera of Quindiu, is at
first the highest of the three, containing the snow-clad peaks
of Huila, Ruiz, and Tolima, the last being the highest of the
Andes north of the equator. In latitude 5 degrees 5 minutes
North, the Cordillera of Quindiu sinks below the snow line,
and some three degrees farther on, in the same direction, dis-
appears in the valley of the Magdalena river, about longitude
67 degrees West. The eastern range, called the Codillera de
la Suma Paz, takes a more north-easterly course than either
of tlie others. Between 7 degrees and 8 degrees, latitude
North, at the paramo of Pamplona, the eastern range divides
itself, the offshoot passing into the territory of Venzuela, and
the direct line keeping almost due north to Gallinas Point,
already noted as the northernmost land of South America. The
highest summits of the Cordillera de la Suma Paz, are the Alto
de el Trio, 9965, Boca del Morite, 12,735, and the Alto de el
Viejo, 12,965 feet above the level of the sea.

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 329

Eastward from the slopes of the Cordillera de la Suma Paz,
the surface of Colombia descends toward the valleys of the
Orinoco and Amazon rivers; the north-eastern district, as far
'south as the river Vichada, at about the center of Colombia,
is almost an unbroken plain, treeless, and, in the rainy season,
grassy, and an immense cattle pasture. Swamps occur, but
in the dry season, the plains are arid and sunburnt. South of
these llanos, the Columbian valleys are covered with great
tropical forests, often present considerable irregularity of sur-
face, and in many places are broken by variform steep rocks,
rising to some 300, 600, or more feet in height, above the
level of the local surface.

The eastern boundary of Colombia is formed in part by the
great river Orinoco, into which flow the rivers Guaviare,
Vichada, Meta, and many smaller streams. On the South, the
river Putumayo, which flows eastward, was considered the
boundary between Ecuador and Colombia, but on recent maps,
the line ascends the river Patia from the Pacific, and crosses
the Andes to descend the bed of the river Cagueta, Japura, or
Ilyapura, to the boundary in the east claimed by Brazil. The
other Colombian rivers flowing to the Amazon, are the Vau-
pes or Ucayari, and the Kio Negro, of which the Yaupes is a
tributary, and minor streams. Along the Pacific coast of Co-
lombia, south of latitude 5 degrees North, are many short
rivers and torrents flowing from the coast range, like the
streams on the same coast farther south, already described.
The greater part of the territories of Colombia are drained
northward into the Atlantic ocean, by way of the Caribbean
sea and the gulf of Darien. The principal river flowing north,
is the Magdalena, or Kio Grande, which rises in a small lake
called the Laguna del Buey, or Ox Lake, situated near the
boundary of Ecuador. The Magdalena crosses the whole of
Colombia along the great central valley between the Cordil-
lera of Quincliu and the Cordillera de la Suma Paz. On its
eastern bank, the Magdalena receives the rivers Sanza, Eio
Neiva, Cabrera, Prado, Fuzagasanga, Bogota, Carare, Ofen,

330 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Sagamoso, and Eio Cesar, all of which are considerable streams,
and some of which, in particular the Rio Cesar, are very noble
rivers. From the west, there flews into the Magdalena the
rivers La Plata, Paez, Saldana, Cuello, Guali, Samana or Miel,
Nare or Eio Negro, a number of minor streams, and that great
and almost coequal confluent, the Cauea. This last river rises
near Popayan, between the Cordillera de Choco and the Cor-
dillera of Quindiu, and flowing north in the valley formed by
these ranges of mountains, joins the Magdalena about 130
miles from the Caribbean sea. The Magdalena is a rapid
river, but is navigable for steamers to Honda, 5 degrees, lati-
tude North, or passable to Neiva, near latitude 3 degrees
North, something like 700 miles up the river, which is in
all some 850 miles in length. The river Cauca is, on an av-
erage, 1,750 feet higher than the Magdalena, and therefore
very rapid. Another grand and most interesting Colombian
river, is the Atrato, which rising on the western slopes of the
Cordillera de Choco, in latitude 5 degrees 20 minutes North,
flows 300 miles to the north, midway from this range to the
Pacific coast, until at the isthmus it breaks through the moun-
tains and falls with a mouth 1,000 feet wide and seventy feet
deep into the gulf of Darien. Ninety-six miles from its en-
trance into the gulf, the Atrato is 750 feet wide ; 180 miles
from the gulf the largest ships find an abundance of water in
this river ; at Quibdo, 220 miles from the gulf, the Atrato is
850 feet wide and from 8 to 20 feet in depth ; the fall of the
stream is but 3 inches to the mile, and steamboats can ascend
to Certigui, 252 miles from the gulf, while canoes continue
navigation still farther toward Popayan.

During the year 1788, or about that time, an enterprising
monk is said to have cut a canal from the Atrato, near Quib-
do, along a ravine called the Raspadura, across the lands inter-
mediate, to the river San Juan, which lapping the valley of
the Atrato, in latitude 5 degrees 20 minutes North, flows with
a navigable stream southward and eastward into the Pacific
ocean. The truth of this story is doubted, but it is not in-

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 88J.

credible ; Colombia has many stupendous ruins, built in free-
stone as early as the time of the Incas, and there are also pub-
lic works created by the energy of the old Spaniards who
ruled the land before its independence. Dr. L. D. Touslev,
now a physician in successful practice in Philadelphia, while
traveling and prospecting through the United States of Col-
umbia in 1857, came upon a canal made by the old Spaniards
for the transportation of troops while -Carthagena, having
been captured by the expedition under Sir Francis Drake
in 1585, was held by the English. This canal, some twenty-
four feet wide and eleven feet deep on an average, was opened
from a place called Calamar, situated on the Magdalena river, 89
miles from its mouth, to Carthagena, a large walled city, a sea-
port on the shore of the Caribbean sea, in the province of New
Granada. This canal was known to the people of the country
as the Dique, and yet, although after the expulsion or exter-
mination of tbe English, used for the transportation of goods,
had during the political disturbances been neglected, and when
first seen by Doctor Tousley, was overgrown with a mat of
floating vines peculiar to the swamps of the climate, forming
a safe bridge for the passage of mounted men. With charac-
teristic North American enterprise, Doctor Tousley purchased
this canal from the Colombian Government, and returning to
New York, fitted up a machine, with which, by the help of
the current, he freed the canal from the obstructing growth,
and in 1858 re-established boat, or bonyoe navigation, between
Calamar and Carthagena, and also in connection, a very profi-
table line of steamboats on the Magdalena river. The busi-
ness thus created was sold to an English corporation and is
still continued.

"While all the rest of the commercial world was seeking for
the northwest passage to India, Spain holding control of all
Central America, claimed an exclusive right to navigate the
southern seas. Fearful that a channel for ships would be
found somewhere across America, by which foreigners and
Protestants would pass to the Pacific, and encroach upon the

332 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

religiously-protected monopoly they claimed as their own, the
Spaniards became exceedingly jealous of those who sought to
explore their American rivers. So important was this matter
considered, and so well were the Spanish statesmen acquainted
with the wonderful topography and geography of their South
and Central American colonies, that as early as 1730, Philip
II, king of Spain, promulgated an edict, denouncing the pen-
alty of death upon all those who undertook the navigation of
the Atrato, its tributaries, or any of the rivers of the isthmus
of Central America. Needless as this pronunciamento was
found to be, its provisions were for some time kept in force ;
quite in keeping with the tyrannical and often absurd policy,
by which the government of Spain, in its eagerness to in-
crease its revenues, and aggrandize the royal power, contin-
ually sacrificed the interest of its colonists, hindered the devel-
opment of its vast foreign possessions, and finally, created the
industrial, social, and political conditions, which led to rebel-
lion, revolution, and the absolute independence of all the
South American Republics.

The geological features of Colombia are extraordinary and
complex. Traces abound everywhere of the most stupendous
earthquakes and floods, resulting in such a displacement, de-
rangement, and heterogeneous intermixture of the primitive
and sedimentary strata, as to be most perplexing to the ob-
server, and render even an outline classification almost impos-
sible. Great rivers, and even small streams, have in places
cut their channels through mountains of the hardest rock to
an immense depth. The bed of the stream of the Rio Minero
lies at the bottom of a chasm, a canyon, or valley of erosion
formed by the force of the current, to a depth of 10,650 feet.
Vast subsidences occur in the surface, and there are many
great caverns resplendent with glittering stalagmites. In other
localities, and often near the chasms and abysses described, im-
mense masses of rock have been upheaved, far above the gen-
eral level, over which they hang in toppling and impassable
grandeur. Wonderful changes have been wrought in parts

AMERICAN' AND OTHER GOLD. 333

of Colombia by fire and flood even within the past four or
five centuries ; the same volcanic causes are still active ; in
Batan, near Sogamoso, in the heart of the Andes, where the
elevation would indicate a temperature so low as to destroy any
but the hardiest growth, the soil is so much heated by sub-
terranean fires as to produce all the fruits of the tropic zone.
None can predict what may -occur in such a region at anv
time, to change the condition of the surface, or perhaps divert
the course of an important river.

The underlying formations of the geologic strata of Colom-
bia, are the igneous and metamorphic rocks, the great masses
of the mountain ranges being made up of gneiss, granite, por-
phyry, and basalt. In places, the Carboniferous strata have
been developed to a considerable extent, but are now to be ob-
served in a strange state of confusion, the consequence of some
unknown disturbance. The slopes of the Cordilleras are very
often covered by deep beds of gravel, while the valleys are
filled with various alluvial deposits of quite different periods.
From the boundaries of Costa Rica, midway of the great isth-
mus to the north, all along the borders of the Caribbean sea,
to the western line of Venezuela, the territories of Colombia
abound with rich gold-bearing alluvions of a very extensive
formation. There is probably no Colombian state that has
not at some point, or at many places, a soil containing gold in
quantities sufficient to pay for working. Among other dis-
tricts, those of Choco, Antioquia, Mariquita, Popayan, Pam-
plona, Ocana, and Bucaramanga, are said to have auriferous
beds of exceeding richness. The gold-bearing sands of Antio-
quia are reported to yield nearly as good results as those of
California. The washings for gold along the valley of the At-
rato river are extremely productive. The mining operations
of Colombia were, until of late, all carried on with the rudest
machinery, and yet gold has been secured in very considerable
quantities ; more would probably be done, but many of the
deposits of the northern valleys are in localities oppressed
with torrid heat and an unhealthy climate, where, as at Car-

334 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

thagena, the yellow fever is endemic, or native and peculiar to
the place, and the myriads of insects make life almost unen-
durable. Diamonds are found with the gold dust at Antio-
quia, and emeralds, amethysts, and other rare and precious
stones are procured from different localities. The emerald
mines of Muzo, in the state of Boyaca, among the mountains
of the Central Cordillera, in the valley of Tunja near Bogota,
are worked in a rude and careless manner, yet are the only
source of the genuine stone, and yield enough to supply the
constant demand for their product made from Europe and the
rest of the world.

Of all the abundant metals of Colombia, gold is most widely
diffused, and has been taken from the still prolific soil for ages.
Before the arrival of Europeans in South America the Span-
iards under Alonso de Ojeda reaching Colombia in 1499 and
1501 the native Indians of the region now included in Colom-
bia, made free use of gold. The Miuscas or Chibchas, a very
remarkable aboriginal tribe or people of the northern part of
South America, who located their government on the table-
lands of Bogota and Tunja, not only used gold for decorative
purposes in general, like the Quichuas to the south of them
under the rule of the Incas, but actually had money of gold,
cast in uniform pieces of exact weight, and everywhere cur-
rent. The gold produced in New Granada, now mostly in-
cluded in Colombia, was at one time a source of great revenue
to the Spanish government, thousands of Indians and of Ne-
groes being compelled as peons or slaves, to labor in gathering
the precious metal for the benefit of the crown. During re-
cent years, greater tranquility has obtained in Colombia;
transportation routes and roads have been multiplied and im-
proved, education has been encouraged, made compulsory for
the first time in America, and in part popularized ; meanwhile
industrial pursuits and commerce have made remarkable pro-
gress. The gold of Colombia is principally secured by wash-
ings of the sands and alluvial deposits, but hydraulic mining,
as practised in California, was introduced in 1870, and the hill

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 335

and valley workings for the precious metals are alike gradu-
ally being brought under a more systematic and scientific
method of operation. The state of Antioquia is the most im-
portant gold-producing region of Colombia ; 15,000 or more
men and women are employed in mining. The export of gold
and silver from the capital of Antioquia during the year 1875,
was valued at $2,403,241, the yield of more than eighty dif-
ferent lodes of the precious metals. Rich as the ores of Co-
lombia are, the mines, on account of the want of routes of
transportation, unfavorable climate, civil war and misgovern-
ment, have often been operated at a loss ; with the establish-
ment of the reforms already noted, better general results are
certain, and doubtless the United States of Columbia will con-
tinue, as their territories have been for centuries past, one of
the important gold- producing countries of the world.

North of Brazil, and east of the United States of Colombia,
between latitude 1 degree 8 minutes South, and 12 degrees 16
minutes North, and longitude 60 degrees and 73 degrees 17
minutes West, lies the country governed by the Republic of
Venezuela. The greatest length of Venezuela is about 900
miles, from east to west, and its greatest width, from north to
south, .770 miles; the area, including the islands of the coast,
has been variously estimated from 403,000 to 431,000 rquare
miles. The coast line from the boundary of British Guiana
on the southern shore of the main mouth of the river Orinoco,
runs in general west-north-west to Cape Chichibacoa, the north-
eastern extremity of the Goajira peninsula, to the west of the
mouth of the gulf of Maracaybo. The length of this general
line is some 1,584 miles, although to follow the shores of the
various bays and inlets, increases the distance to 2,000 miles.
Of this coast, but a tenth, or about 200 miles, is directly ex-
posed to the Atlantic ocean. From the Boca de Navios, the
principal mouth of the Orinoco, 65 miles wide, the coast runs
west-north-west, west of the British island of Trinidad, to the
shore of the gulf of Paria, a distance of some 200 miles. The
first 90 or 100 miles of this line, lies across the northern part

336 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

of the great delta of the Orinoco, and over very low lands,
part of which arc covered by the sea at high water.

The surface of the delta of the Orinoco is divided into many
islands formed of alluvial deposits, and is generally overgrown
with trees. The peninsula of Paria, between the Caribbean
sea and the gulf of Paria to the north, is a ridge of high rocks.
As far as Barcelona, near latitude 65 degrees West, the coast
continues rocky, though it becomes by degrees less elevated
and more even. To the west of Barcelona, the coast is low
and sandy, but at Cape Codera it rises into a rugged rocky pre-
cipitous wall, which forms the shore to the gulf of Triste.
To the west of the gulf of Triste, the beach is low and sandy,
broken by mangrove marshes, or rising into an occasional
bluff. The peninsula of Paraguana, east of the gulf of Mara-
caybo, is rocky, and the northern part of the coast of Goajira,
west of the gulf, to Cape Chichibacoa, presents an unbroken
perpendicular precipice of rock, of considerable elevation.
There are 71 islands along the coast of Yenczuela ; a few of
them are in the mouths of rivers, or in Lake Maracaybo, and
these are formed of deposited mud and sand ; but the greater
number are more or less off shore, and of volcanic origin.
The largest of the islands is called Margarita, and of itself
constitutes a state; the others are of less importance and some
quite small and unproductive. Venezuela has 32 seaports,
some of which are the finest harbors in the world.

Venezuela contains three mountain regions, which alto-
gether cover a territory of some 107,000 square miles. The
mountains, which are in the north-west, north-east, and south-
east portions of the country, form two separate systems. The
first is connected with the Andean range in Colombia. At
the paramo of Pamplona, in Columbia, west of the north-
western border of Venezuela, the mountains form a node or
knot, in latitude 7 degrees 15 minutes North, and longitude
73 degrees West. This knot of mountains divides ; the first
branch runs north, and under the name of the Sierra de Ocana,
reaches the boundary of Venezuela, in latitude 9 degrees

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 337

North. On the frontier, the range is called the Sierra de Pe-
rija, and under that name continues north to the peninsula of
Goajira, where its elevations are known as the Montes de
Oca. The Sierra de Perija, or the Montes de Oca, are no-
where over 5,000 feet above the level of the sea. The second
and principal branch from the Pamplona mountain node, re-
ceives the name of the Sierra Nevada de MeVida. and inclining

to the north-east, crosses the country about a hundred miles
south of Lake Maracaybo, with a mean elevation of 6,000 feet,
to terminate in the Sierra Costanera, the Venezuela coast
range, with a mean elevation of 4,800 feet, at longitude 68 de-
grees 30 minutes West. The Sierra Nevada de Merida com-
prises 31 summits over 10,000 feet high. The highest land
in Venezuela is found in two peaks of the Sierra Nevada, one
being described variously, as from 15,000 to 15,310, the other,
from 15,066 to 15,342 feet above the level of the sea, the only
points in the country above perpetual snow.

The second system of the mountains of Venezuela, is that
of the immense region, south and south east of the Orinoco
river. This district is occupied by the Parima, or Parime
mountains, and contains the Sierra de Pacaraima, which forms
part of t'he boundary of the country on the south. The sum-
rnit of the Parima is 7,608 feet in height, and beside Mt. Ma-
raguaca, which has an elevation of 8,151 feet above the level
of the sea, the range contains a great number of lofty summits.
There are also a number of isolated peaks in this most moun-
tainous section of Venezuela, chief of which, the Duida, stands
8,82 3 'feet above the level of the sea. The state of Guayna,
which comprehends that part of Venezuela south of the Orin-
oco river, is to a great extent an unknown region, difficult to
explore, and almost, as far as inhabited, the home of various
tribes of uncivilized Indians.

Venezuela is in general a very well watered country, with
the exception of some arid plains and table-lands, a number of
which are treeless deserts. There are many lakes and lagoons
in various portions of Venezuela; over 200 such bodies of

333 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

water fire known, and more, doubtless, remain undiscovered.
The lake Valencia, which the Indians call the Tacariqua, is
on the southern margin of the pleasant valley of Aragua, and
situated 1,599 feet above the sea; there are 22 islands in the
lake, and its waters are decreasing from evaporation. The
most important lagoon is the so-called Lake Maracaybo, in the
state of Zulia, and nearly 100 miles long. Lake Unare pro-
duces excellent salt. Lake Lagunillas in Me'rida, is famous
for yielding urao, called trona in commerce, which is the ses-
qui-carbonate of soda.

The rivers of Venezuela are numerous, and many of them
important as large navigable streams, though sometimes flow-
ing through an unexplored and mostly uninhabited country.
The Orinoco, the third in size of the rivers of South Ameri-
ca, is 1,500 miles long from its origin among the mountains
of the state of Guayana ; it drains an area of some 250,000
square miles, and after receiving the waters of more than 400
navigable rivers, enters the Atlantic ocean in vast volume
through 17 distinct mouths, the principal of which forms
a very turbulent bay sixty-five miles across. There are more
than 1,000 rivers in Venezuela, and only 12 of the number
have their origin beyond the limits of the republic. The
Caribbean sea, with the gulfs of Venezuela and Paria, receive
230 rivers, and 400 lesser, yet considerable streams. One hun-
dred perennial rivers flow into the lagoon of Maracaybo, and
in the rainy seasons, 400 other streams discharge themselves
into the same body of water. However, the great body of
water flowing from the territories of Venezuela, falls to the

Oronoco valley and so to the ocean. In the lower lands
* _ i

along the Oronoco, the Indians live in huts elevated on plat-
forms, and sometimes built in trees, in order to secure them-
selves from the great and not unfrequent inundations. Some
of these people seem half-amphibious in their manner of ex-
istence.

The geology of Venezuela has not been well explored, ex-
cept in certain districts which were more or less examined by

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 339

llumboldt and Schomburgk. The Sierra del Bergantin, and
the mountains in the north-west of the country, which are
connected with the Andes, as far east as about longitude 70
degrees West, are granitic ; the rocks of the Sierra Costanera
or Venezuela coast range are metamorphic; but the surface
rocks of the states of Falcon, and Zulia, in the north-west,
lying east and west of the lake and the gulf of Maracaybo,
are for the greater part of the carboniferous strata. The great
llanos or plains of the interior and south-east of Venezuela,
supposed to have once been the bed of a vast inland sea, have
an argillaceous surface, while beneath the clays and earths is
found a sub-stratum of Calcareous rocks. The islands off the
Venezuela coast present, in the structure of their rocks, traces
of their volcanic origin. The details of the geology of this
whole region await discovery and investigation.

Venezuela is one of the most notorious earthquake areas on
the globe ; considerable shocks are frequent, and actual earth-
quakes, or movements of the strata and surface of the earth,
quite common. These last, are often very disastrous, and
sometimes, terribly destructive and desolating. An earth-
quake which occurred in the month of February, 1610, de-
stroyed a number of towns in Tachira and Merida; another
taking place in October, 1796, laid the whole town of Cumna
in ruins ; but the most fearful convulsion of all, came on
March 26th, 1812, and with a horrible loss of life, utterly
overthrew the city of Caracas, which at the time had about
3,000 inhabitants.

The most eastern part of Venezuela, and the island Mar-
garita, were discovered by Columbus on his third voyage
during 1498. The next year, Ojeda, and Vespucci, explored
a large part of the coast, to which they gave the name of
Costa Firme, and Christobal Guerra made a voyage from Spain
to discover the commercial value of the new-found country.
The aboriginies of the islands and coast of Costa Firme, were
found to possess an abundance of pearls, taken from the bays,
and large quantities of gold, which last the Spaniards imag-

340 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

ined must have been obtained from excessively rich mines in
the interior. The Spaniards gave the name of Costa Firme,
to all the north-eastern part of South America; the present
name of Venezuela, was derived from the circumstance that
when the first explorers entered the gulf and lake of Mara-
caybo, they found an Indian village built upon platforms
supported above the water on piles or poles driven into the
bottom of the lake, as is now done by the aboriginies of the
Orinoco valley. The appearance of the Indian lake town, as
described, reminded the Spanish voyagers of the famous pile-
founded, canal-divided littoral Mediterranean city of Venice,
and in great good humor, they named the town over Jake
Maracaybo, Venezuela, which signifies, Little Venice; and
from this small beginning, this name became that of a great
territory, as at present ; the old title of Costa Firme, being
called to memory only by the firm and rock-bound shores of
a large part of the country.

The first European settlements in Venezuela, were at Gum-
ana in 1520, and at Coro in 1527. The emperor Charles V
at about this time, entrusted the whole northern part of Costa
Firme to a family of Augsburg merchants named Welser, who
held tho^e lands as a fief of the crown of Castile. The agents
of these merchants made great, but ill-directed efforts to obtain
gold, and about 1540, the precious metal was discovered at
several places on the coast, but the Welser's were ignorant of
the management of colonies, and their agents neglected every-
thing in their anxiety to kidnap the Indians, who being taken
from their homes were sold into slavery. In 1542, the Em-
peror of Spain resumed possession and direct control of all
Costa Firme, but the gold mines were found too poor to pay
the expenses of working, and the pearl fisheries, which had
for a time been productive, became exhausted. It was not
until 1634, when the Dutch took possession of the island of
Curacao, and began to cultivate cacao and indigo, and to smug-
gle the same f-orn the main-land, that the natural resources of
Venezuela came in part to be developed.

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 341

Diamonds have been found in Venezuela in the state of
Nueva Esparta, or Margarita; and in the state of Bolivar,
amethysts have been secured. In the great southern state of
Guayana, gold mines have been opened, and some of them are
still productive. The state of Bolivar, on the north of Vene-
zuela, contains gold in a number of places, and gold dust is
found in the sands of many of the rivers which in different
states flow into the Caribbean sea. Beside the gold, silver oo-
curs in several states, to be noted hereafter ; copper is abundant
in the Sierra Costanera along the sea shore, yet the mines
once productive, were of late unworked ; tin, zinc, lead, quick-
silver, antimony, and fine beds of iron are known, in various
parts of Venezuela; but owing to an ignorance of mineralogy
and mechanics, among the people, and to the frequency of po-
litical broils and disruptions in the country, the mines of Vene-
zuela are still in an undeveloped condition. "With the pro-
gress of the republic in civilization, industry and commerce,
now well begun, a larger yield of the various metals, gold in-
cluded, may be expected.

The territories of British, Dutch, and French Guiana, Guy-
ana, or Guayana, east of Venezuela, lying with a low muddy
shore on the Atlantic ocean, are more distinguished for their
remarkable topography and fertility, than for any known
mineral wealth. These Guianas extend from latitude de-
grees and 55 minutes, to latitude 8 degrees 40 minutes North,
and from the coast in longitude 51 degrees 30 minutes, to 61
degrees West, comprising an area of 195,000 square miles.
The coast line is 740 miles long ; the surface of the land along
shore, when drained and cultivated, sinksTl foot or more below
the level of the sea, from which it has to be permanently pro-
tected by dikes. Inland, the lowlands rise into grassy plains
or level forests, which rise into hills, succeeded by mountains,
some of which are very remarkable and picturesque, the high-
est point, Mt Roraima, being 7,500 feet above the sea, crowned
with an immense plateaux of rock, and presenting an exten-
sive precipice 1,500 feet high. Thus far, the principal im-

342 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

portance of Guiana in connection with the histo-y of gold, is
in the fact that it was visited by Sir Walter Raleigh in search
of that metal in 1595, and unsuccessfully explored by him for
mines of the same in 1617.

As a natural geographical division, Central America would
include all the narrow, devious portion of the continent which
lies between the isthmus of Tehuantepec, and the isthmus of
Darien, connecting North and South America. Politically,
Central America includes the five independent Republics of
Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, San Salvador, and Gautema-
la, the isthmus of Panama being regarded part of South Amer-
ica, since assigned to the United States of Colombia; while
the isthmus of Tehuantepec and the peninsula of Yucatan, are
made parts of North America, being incorporated with the
states of Mexico. By this arrangement, the limits of Central
America are fixed at latitude 7 degrees and at latitude 18 de-
grees North, and between longitude 82 degrees and 93 degrees
12 minutes West, a territory from 800 to 900 miles long, and
varying in the actual breadth of the lands included from 28 or
30 to some 300 miles, the area of the same being some 175,-
000 square miles.

The mountain ranges of Central America, are geologically
distinct from the Andes of South America, being of a different
age and general direction. The Andes may be considered as
ending at the neck of the Panama isthmus, where the Naipi
and Cupica valleys, reach from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and
are nowhere more than a few hundred feet above the level of
the sea. Most of the surface of the isthmus, between latitude
8 degrees and 9 degrees North, is less than 130 feet above the
sea, and the region, for a hundred or more miles in width,
must be regarded as a space between separate systems of high-
lands. The mountains of Central America, though described
as a chain, form numerous detached ranges, which are divided
into groups, each taking its uame from the locality wherein
it is situated. The mountain groups, present peaks from 3,000
to 11,000 feet in height above the level of the sea. There are

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 343

many volcanoes, among which those of Fuego and Agua are
respectively, 13,000 and 14,000 feet above the sea. During
the Tertiary period of geology, the Central American isthmus
was the bed of a broad strait, and so remained to the end of
the Pliocene, or to the commencement of the Post Pliocene
period and the occurrence of the upheaval. The geologic base
of Central America is a substratum of granite, gneiss, and
mica slate, while an abundance of basalt and other igneous
rocks, are scattered over the surface, and prove the intensity
of former volcanic action. The extended development of
trachytes indicates a still precedent age of volcanic eruptions,
during which fiery period, the greater part of the Tertiary
strata were changed to porphyritic rocks. Such at least is
the supposition, from the fact that the porphyries rest in Cen-
tral America upon the cretaceous limestones. The clays and
sandstones of the Cretaceous age have been metamorphosed
in many places, where they are now presented as granitic
rocks. The mineral wealth of Central America consists of
gold, silver, iron, lead, and mercury ; the mines of gold, silver,
and iron ai*e worked, bnt not extensively, and the principal
interest of the country is in the fact that it presents two or
three and possibly more practicable routes for an inter-oceanic
canal from the Atlantic to the Pacific, one or more of which
in the hands of Corporations now organized and active, may
soon become the channel of a vast commerce, which will
change the whole condition of that entire section of the Ameri-
can continent.

The territory of the independent state of Costa Eica, con-
tains many and great mountains, several of which are volcan-
ic. Earthquakes are common ; the town of Cartago was de-
stroyed by a very severe earthquake in 1841. Of the 21,495
square miles of land in Costa Rica, but 1,150 square miles are
under cultivation. The Atlantic slope of the country, is near-
ly covered with almost impenetrable forests, the abode of
many utterly uncivilized and often hostile Indians. The
Costa Eica country toward the Pacific, is more open, present-

344 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

ing wide savannahs or llanuras bordered bv accessible wood-
lands. The rivers of Costa Rica are numerous, but small, and
flow both into the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Costa Rica
has no manufactures worthy of note, but the country is rich
in minerals and metals; the mines have been less developed
than in some adjoining states. The gold mines of Costa Rica
have received more attention than any other metallic deposits r
and have been found very rich. The most important of these
are said to be the mines of Trinidad, four miles inland from
the seaport of Punta Arenas, and 1,200 feet above the sea, and
worked on a small scale by a company of Costa Ricaians. The
product of the mines of Trinidad is taken from quartz veins,
and is naturally about 17| carats, or about 729^ fine. Next to
the mines of Trinidad perhaps equal sometimes declared
superior, are the mines of the Cerro del Aguacate, in the
forest of Aguacate, between San Jose and the coast of the Pa-
cific. The Aguacate gold mines have been worked ever since
1821 ; they were recently owned by the Costa Rician corpora-
tion called "Compania de la Montana del Aguacate," which
although employing a poor method, in an imperfect manner,
secured good results. Another of the gold mines of these
mountain forests, is called the Sacra Familia, situated a slight
distance from the old workings previously noted, and 3,000
feet above the level of the sea. The mine of the Sacred Fam-
ily has two chief veins, one of galena, zinc and silver, with
grey copper ore-bearing silver ; the second is a lode of gold-
bearing quartz, resembling the veins wrought at the mines of
Trinidad. The Sacra Familia veins, worked on a small scale
by private persons, yield gold of about 15J carats, or 645 5-6
fine. The mines of the forest of Aguacate, were expected
to produce gold to the value of $10,000,000 during the year
1872. There certainly is gold in the great unexplored forests
of Costa Rica, and in time important discoveries of the pre-
cious metal in that section, would not surprise the geologist
or practical miner, but for the present, the climate, the popu-
lation; and the natural inaccessibility of the district, turn aside

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD 345

the course of the prospecting traveler to fields where greater
safety is sure, and equal success probable.

North of Costa Rica, the isthmus widens into the territo-
ries of the state of Nicaragua, which has an area of about 58,-
000 square miles, containing numerous highlands, many con-
siderable mountains, and a number of volcanoes of considera-
ble elevation. Of these, Chonco Yiejo rises to 6,266 above
the level of the sea, and Coseguina is celebrated from the fact
that though but 3,835 feet above the sea, during an eruption
in 1835, it scattered its ashes, over a circle 1,500 miles in di-
ameter. There are beside the great volcanoes, extinct and ac-
tive in Nicaragua, many small craters, mostly extinct, and nu-
merous vent holes, called infernillos, emitting smoke and sul-
phurous gases. The whole center of the territory has been a
field of intense former volcanic action and earthquake violence,
the force of which still remains in part, and is constantly more
or less exerted, among the rocky evidences of its former great
activity. The rivers of Nicaragua are numerous, and some of
them are as extensive as the country, and in part fit for navi-
gation of trie lighter kind. The Rio San Juan del Norte,
which flows from the lake of Nicaragua to the Atlantic ocean,
is passable for bongos and boats for its whole length of 120
miles, and has been made famous by the proposal to make it,
as the only possible channel, part of the inter-oceanic canal.

The region of Nicaragua of interest to the miner, lies among
the mountains in the northern part of the country ; there the
strata are in connection with the metalliferous ranges farther
north in the territories of Honduras. In the district of Sego-
via, the rocks are for the most part quartz and gneiss, over-
lain in many places by sharply-inclined contorted schists, con-
taining fine quartz veins. Unstratified beds of gravel, some
200 or 300 feet thick, are found near Ocotal ; they are princi-
pally composed of quartz sand, and contain many blocks of
quartz and talcose schist, which are riven into angular bould-
ers sometimes as much as fifteen feet in diameter. The great
mining center of Nicaragua is the gold field Chontales at Lib-

346 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

ertad, where over 300 different mines of gold have been dis-
covered, several of which were of late profitably managed by
English, German and French corporations. The gold of (Jhoii-
tales is taken from rich auriferous quartz lodes, lying in fis-
sure veins, mostly running from east to west, and cutting
almost vertically through beds of dolerite. The quartz lodes
vary in thickness from 1 to 17 feet, in a length of no more
than 100 yards. The gold procured here, is an eleclrum,
formed of about 3 parts of gold to 1 of silver. The gold lodes
are also found to contain, in places, sulphide of silver, per-
oxide of magnesia, peroxide of iron, sulphides of iron and of
copper, and occasionally ores of lead. There are several mines
of silver in Nicaragua, but slightly worked, to be noted in a
future page. Copper, iron, lead, tin and zinc, antimony and
quicksilver are among the metals of the country. Coal has
been found, but doubtless the full development of the mineral
wealth of the state depends upon the hoped-for progress of the
future.

To the north-west of Nicaragua, and between latitude 13
degrees 10 minutes and 16 degrees 5 minutes' North, and
longitude 83 degrees 12 minutes and 89 degrees 47 minutes
West, lie the territories of the republican state of Honduras.
The country is supposed to have derived its name from the
Spanish word hondura, meaning depth, on account of the deep
waters of the bay of Honduras. From the island of Guanaja,
or Bonacca, off the coast of Honduras in the Caribbean sea,
Columbus first saw the main-land of Central America during
his voyage in 1502. Honduras is 440 miles in length from
east to west, and its greatest breadth is 200 miles from north
to south ; the area of the country is about 50,000 square
miles. The Atlantic coast-line is continuous for 400 miles,
but the Pacific coast extends but 60 miles to where the ter-
ritory of San Salvador occupies the north-western shore of
the very commodious bay of Fonseca. Honduras compre-
hends the greater part of the mountain region of Central
America, the Sierra Madre, and the branches of that moun-

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 347

tain range occupy the western part of Honduras. The Sierra
Madre enters the country from Gautemalu, and at the moun-
tain node or knot of Merendon, divides into the range called
the Espiritu Santo, or the Grita, which having an average
elevation of 8,000 feet, ends in Mt. Omoa, 9,000 feet above the
sea on the shore of the bay of Honduras, near the 88th meri-
dian of longitude, and into a second range called the Pacaya
mountains, which taking a course more in general to the
south, ends in the g/oup of mountains called the Selaque, the
highest of which being also the highest land known in Hon-
duras, stands 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. There
are numerous minor ranges of mountains in the country, run-
ning in various directions, a number of them joined together
between the valleys of the principal rivers which flow to the
Caribbean sea. There are numerous mountain groups and
many wide table-lands and terraced plains. The Sulaco moun-
tains, are quite lofty, and from them streams descend to either
ocean. It is to be noted, although traces of former eruptions
are abundant in Honduras, the mountains of the country do
not display the present volcanic activity to be observed in
Central Nicaragua, in Gautemala, in San Salvador, and along
the Pacific coast elsewhere. The bay of Fonseca is, however,
supposed to be of volcanic origin.

The principal rivers of Honduras are the Segovia, Coco,
Oro, or Wanks ; the Ulna, formed by the Santiago and Hu-
muya and their tributaries, the Santa Barbara and Sulaco;
the "Rio Tinto ; the Patuca and its tributaries, among which
is the Guayape ; the Chamelican and other streams flowing to
the Atlantic. The Goascoran and Choluteca are two consid-
erable streams which empty into Fonseca Bay. Large tracts
of eastern Honduras are but partly explored, and considerable
districts of great beauty and fertility are inhabited only by
independent semi-civilized or savage Indians.

The geology of Honduras, though corresponding in gereral
to that'of the territories of Central America already described,
presents a great wealth of valuable marbles, minerals and

348 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

metals. Although the forests of the country have been a
source of great profit since the 16th century, the mines of
Honduras have been the most important of its industries.
Silver and gold are the most abundant metals found, the veins
and deposits of these metals discovered and worked here being
the richest of any known in all Central America. The silver
mines of Honduras are mostly in the south-western moun-
tains, while the gold is more abundant along the shores of
the Caribbean sea and the bay of Honduras, which form the
eastern coast. Many of the mines of Honduras were formerly
successfully worked by foreigners, Englishmen and others,
but of late, owing to the want of roads and the political dis-
orders, mining has much decreased. Few gold mines are now
operated, the most important and almost only ones open being
those of San Andres in the department of Gracias, and those
near Sail Juan Cantaranas in Tegucigalpa. There are abun-
dant and rich deposits of gold in the sands of various streams
in Honduras; extensive and very profitable washings for gold
dust are carried on along the banks of the rivers Guayape, Ja-
lan, and Guayambre. The portion of Honduras occupied by
Indians exclusively, is known to be rich in precious metals,
and it may be expected that in time the supply of bullion
from this country, reported at $600,000 value for the year
1872, may be much increased.

The extreme north-eastern corner of Central America for
an area of some 13,500 square miles, is a British colony under
the name of British Honduras, or the Balize. The surface of
this country is rough, but none of the many mountains present
an elevation of more than 4,000 feet above the level of the
sea. The principal rocks are of the primary or calcareous
strata. The forests yield an abundance of valuable wood and
lumber, which constitutes the greater part of the export trade.
The rivers are the Hondo, Balize, New River, Manatee, Sibun
and others. In the sands of some of the streams of British
Honduras, gold has been discovered, but the actual amount
hitherto secured is unknown.

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 349

The republic of Guatemala, or Gruatimala, occupies the lands
which lie between from latitude 13 degrees 42 minutes or 50
minutes, to latitude 18 degrees or 18 degrees 15 minutes North,
and from longitude 88 degrees or 88 degrees 14 minutes, to 93
degrees 5 minutes or 12 minutes South, the boundaries of the
country and of part of the adjoining states not being accurately
determined. The greatest length of Guatemala* is from north-
east to southwest 325 miles, and the greatest breadth about
300 miles, the area being about 40,777 square miles. The
eastern coast of Guatemala at the head of the bay or gulf of
Honduras, there some 50 miles wide, extends in a general but
irregular line toward the northwest, and is, with its indenta-
tions at Amatique Bay and elsewhere, some 75 miles long.
The western or Pacific coast, which forms a regular but slight-
ly convex line, also toward the north-west, is 175 or more
miles in extent. The country has neither been carefully ex-
plored or completely surveyed.

Guatemala is mountainous in the greater part of its ex-
tent, yet no continued range of mountains crosses its territo-
ries. The principal mountains of this region are in an irregu-
lar chain along the Pacific coast, generally from 40 to 45 miles
inland, having an average elevation of some 7,000 feet, but no-
where rising above the line of perpetual snow, or about 14,500
feet above the level of the sea. In the south-west these moun-
tains are called the Sierra de las Nubes, in the nonh west the
Sierra Madre, and at the boundary of the Mexican state of
Chiapas the mountains of Istatan. The table lands of the
Mexican state of Yucatan extend southwest into the territo-
ries of Guatemala, covering the greater part of the surface of
the country. Toward the coast along the Pacific, the elevated
surface descends rapidly, and its abrupt declivities present to
the sea the appearance of a continuous range of mountains,
the crest of the slope being moreover marked by a series of
volcanic elevations, a number of which are still active. The
elevated levels of Gautemala are not true plateaus such as are
found in Mexico, but broad valleys among the extremely va-

350 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

ried mountain slopes and terraces. From the Pacific coast, va-
rious ranges of greater or less extent extend toward the east,
among which the Sierra de Chama, of various local names, the
Sierra de Santa Cruz and the Sierra de las Minas, are noted.
The Sierra do Copan forms the boundary between Guatemala
and Honduras. The volcanoes of Gautemala are numerous
and in the same line with those of San Salvador and Nicara-
gua ; at the center of their greatest elevation and action, the
Volcano de Fuego, is the principal volcanic hearth of Central
America. Counting the extinct and active volcanoes of this
country, over 30 considerable craters are known. Among the
active volcanoes are Mts. Pacaya, on the southern shore of
lake Amitlan ; Volcan de Fuego, 12,821 feet above the sea, in
latitude 14: degrees 27 minutes 25 seconds North, which is in
a state of permanent eruption, discharging masses of lava and
smoke everyday; Atitlan, 11,849 feet above the sea; Que-
saltenango, 9,358 feet above the sea; Tajumulco, which was
in eruption during the earthquake of 1863, and most famous
of all, near the Volcan de Fuego, the Volcan de Agua, or
"Water volcano, 13,108 feet above the sea. This last-named
volcano is so called because in 1541 it discharged down its side
a deluge of water which destroyed the old city of Guatemala,
the ruins of which are now called Ciudad Vieja. This cata-
clysm is supposed to have been caused by the bursting of a
lake in the crater of the mountain. The mountain groups
which, forming parallel ridges, intersect, as has been described,
the eastern slope of the surface of Guatemala to the bay of
Honduras, are nowhere more than 500 or 600 feet above the
valleys which lie between them. In the volcanic district, the
table-land is some 5,000 feet above the sea.

Guatemala is a well-watered country. On the Pacific slope,
the rivers are numerous, but short, small and rapid. Of the
streams flowing eastward, there are some of considerable size
and importance. The Rio Grande, which flows into the Mo-
tagua, forms with that river a stream nearly 300 miles long,
navigable to within 90 miles of the capital. The Usumasiuta,

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 351

or Usumacinta, is 3 jO miles long, but not at all navigable for
craft of any importance. Ths Polochic, or Polochique, is a
beautiful stream 150 or more miles long, but too rapid for
navigation by anything but rafts and bongos. An immense
number of minor streams unite to form these principal rivers,
and in their rapid course convey from the mountains and up-
lands such an amount of alluvium as to form in several in-
stances bars and shoals at the mouth of the main rivers.

Neither the mountains or the rivers of Guatemala have
been fully explored, and the maps of the country in common
use are quite unreliable.

The geology of Guatemala has never been thoroughly ex-
amined ; the only authorities upon the subject are two French-
men, Dollfus and Montserrat, members of the great French
expedition sent out a dozen or more years ago to explore
Mexico and the adjacent regions. The report of these gentle-
men was published in Paris in 1868, and in it the savants
merely claim to have made a general and preliminary survey
of the Guatemalian strata. The basis rock of the district is
said to be granite, which with trachytes and various forms of
porpyry mixed with and overlain by the products of volcanic
action, forms the great body of the Sierra Madre mountains.
A curious natural feature of the volcanic region of Guatemala,
is to be observed in one of the many lakes of the country.
Lake Amatitlan, twelve miles long and three miles wide, sit-
uated near the town of the same name, is famous on account
of the large masses of pumice stone which lie upon its shores,
and of which, large pieces are constantly floating about on
the surface of the water.

The slope of country eastward from the Pacific coast range
to the Atlantic, exhibits an abundance of mica schists and cal-
careous formations, supposed to be sedimentary deposits of the
Jurassic period. From the crest of the Sierra Madre to the
Pacific, the abrupt declivity is covered with alluvium washed
from the summits and uplands. The bones of the mastadon
and elephant are to be found in places. The porphyritic

352 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

rocks determine the structure of the country. Some of the
strata are essentially metalliferous, and gold, silver, copper
and iron could be mined to a profit, yet Guatemala has no
mines of any considerable importance. Under the rule of the
Spaniards, some 40,000,000 pesos, $6,400,000, of silver were
secured at Alotepeque, where the mines are still worked,
but with less satisfactory results. There are extensive mines
of lead known in the departments of Huehuetenango, Vera
Paz and Totonicapan. The only working for lead of which
report is made, and the sole mining industry of Guatemala, is
carried on in the neighborhood of Chiautla in Totonicapan,
and chiefly by the Indians of that region.

The republic of San Salvador, one of the smallest indepen-
dent countries of the world, is the most populous state of
Central America, and has a better educated body of citizens
than any other member of the confederacy to which it belongs.
The territories of San Salvador lie between latitude 13 de-
grees and 14 degrees 80 minutes North, and longitude 87 de-
grees 30 minutes and 90 degrees 20 minutes "West, along the
Pacific coast about 160 miles, with an average breadth of from
40 to 50 miles, comprising an area which has been variously
estimated from 7,500 to 9,600 square miles. A narrow tract
of low fertile land, about 20 miles wide, formed of alluvial de-
posits from the interior, extends along the coast of San Salva-
dor for some 125 miles north-west of Fonseca Bay to the town
of Libertad, beyond which the surface becomes elevated and
irregular. The interior of the country is traversed through-
out its length by a chain of mountains formed of several short
ranges of moderate elevation. Some 12 or 15 miles from the
coast, there is a series of volcanoes, as follows : Apaneca, 5,826
feet ; Isalco, an unceasing volcano, 4,060 feet ; San Salvador,
7,376 feet; San Vicente, 7,500 feet; San Miguel, 6,680 feet;
Santa Ana, 6,615 feet; Cojutepeque, 5,700 feet; Tecapa, 5,200
feet; Usulutan, 4,250 feet; Chinameca, 4,750 feet; and Con-
chagua, 4,750 feet above the level of the sea. San Salvador
has frequently suffered from earthquakes.

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 353

The chief river of San Salvador is the Lempa, a deep but
rapid stream which rises in the lake of Giuja on the north-
eastern boundary of the state, and flows first east, then south,
for 150 miles in all, more or less, and empties into the Pacific
ocean some 60 miles north-west of the southern boundary of
the country. The only good seaport of San Salvador, is the
very safe and commodious harbor of La Union, on the western
shore of Fonseca Bay. Although San Salvador has a well-
endowed University, and compared to her sister states, a fairly-
educated population, a profitable agriculture and some manu-
factures, yet owing to political and social causes, the general
progress of the state has been hindered. The hills, highlands
and mountains of the country contain countless veins of vari-
ous metals, among which those of the precious kind are not
wanting; excellent iron ore is mined near Metapa, but the
rich lodes of silver are almost entirely neglected ; the product
of gold is too small to be known, and the mineral wealth of
the state quite undeveloped.

NORTH AMERICA.

The territory of North America presents the general form
of a triangle, extending from its apex in the south, at the
boundary line of Mexico; in latitude 15 degrees North, and.
about longitude 92 degrees 12 minutes West, from Greenwich,
to Boothia Felix in Bellot strait, latitude 71 degrees 55 min-
utes North, and longitude 92 degrees 25 minutes West, and
from Cape St. Charles on the coast of Labrador, in latitude
52 degrees 17 minutes North, and longitude 55 degrees 35
minutes West, to the Prince of Wales cape in Behring strait,
in latitude 65 degrees 30 minutes North, and longitude 167
degrees West. To the north of the mainland, the islands of
North America form an Arctic archipelago, which extends to-
ward the North Pole beyond the limits of present discovery. .
The area is estimated at from 7,400,000 to 8,657,500 square
miles. The eastern coast is indented by many great bays, and
extends along the main sea and around the shores of Hudson's
V

354 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Bay, the gulf of Mexico, and other smaller bodies of water,
from Barrow strait, above the 75th parallel of latitude North,
between longitude 90 degrees and 100 degrees West, to the
southern boundary of Mexico, on the Caribbean sea, in lati-
tude 18 degrees 30 minutes North, and longitude 88 degrees
West, a distance of 13,000 miles. The western or Pacific
coast of North America, extends from Barrow strait to the
southwestern corner of Mexico, in latitude 16 degrees North,
but on account of the regularity of the shore, and the absence
of any considerable gulfs or bays, it is but about 11,000 miles
long, making the entire coast line of North America 24,000
miles. If to this is added the shore lines of the adjacent
islands, the extent of coast is increased to about 29,969 miles.
The mountains of North America form three great systems,
which with their extended water sheds, divide the whole im-
mense region, into four vast hydrographical basins. These
discharge their rivers respectively into the Pacific, the Arctic,
the Atlantic, and the gulf of Mexico. Minor ranges of moun-
tains subdivide these basins into two or more parts each. As
a whole, the mountainous and the level regions of North
America, nearly equal each other in extent of surface. The
principal mountains are on the Pacific coast, and in general
terms may be said to extend the whole length of the territory.
To the main range, the old Spaniards gave the name of Sierra
Madre, and the whole system has been regarded as a continua-
tion of the Andes, but for reasons already given in the ac-
count of Central America, it may be considered a separate, yet
somewhat similar geologic structure. By English-speaking
people, the North American Sierra Madre or Mother Eange,
has been called the Rocky Mountains, which title is made to
cover in a somewhat indefinite manner, all the highlands of
the broken chain from the low valleys and plains extended
across the isthmus of Panama, to the extreme north in Alaska.
Specifically, the Rocky Mountains are included in the central
range in the United States and the British possessions. The
Rocky Mountains include several almost parallel ranges like

. AMERICAN AN!} OTHER GOLD. 355

the Andean Cordilleras. The average elevation is from 5,000
to 9,000 feet above the sea, but there are many lofty summits.
North of the gulf of Tehuantepec, in Mexico, in latitude 16
degrees North, and longitude 16 degrees "West, a mountain
range arises, which under the name of the Sierra Madre, ex-
tends northward, growing wide as it continues, to latitude %\
degrees North, covering, in a broken and irregular way, the
country from the gulf of Mexico to the Pacific ocean. The
highest peaks in Mexico are Mis. Orizaba, 17,809 feet; Cofre
de Perote, 14,310 feet; and Popocatapetl, or Popocatepetl, 17,-
744 feet above the sea. North of the 21st parallel of latitude,
the isolated peaks and table-lands of the Mexican mountains
are resolved into three connected chains forming the Cordillera
de Sonora, the Sierra Madre, and the Cordillera Oriental, which
continue into and cross the United States in three main ranges
known as the Sierra Nevadas, the Rocky Mountains, and the
Sierra Madre. In the United States, from latitude 35 degrees
to 40 degrees North, the Rocky Mountain* system is most ele-
vated ; there are many peaks more than l-i,000 feet above the
sea, and the passes between the summits are not more than
from 3,000 to 6,000 feet less in heighth. The Mount of the
Holy Cross in the Rocky Mountains, is 17,000 feet; the Big
Horn, 15,000 feet; and Mount Lincoln, 14,300 feet above the
sea. The Sierra Nevadas and Coast Range are united in the
Cascade mountains, which continue north near the Pacific
coast of British Columbia and end in Alaska ; the highest
peaks are Mt. Fair Weather, 14.735 feet, and Mt. St. Elias, in
latitude 60 degrees 17 minutes 35 seconds North, 17,900 feet
above the sea. In the United States territories of Utah, Wy-
oming, Idaho, and Montana, are several ranges, the Wasatch,
the Bitter Root, the Wind River, and Big Horn, known in gen-
eral as the Rocky Mountains, the grand chain continuing
north, aud under the name of the Chippewayan mountains,
crossing British America some 500 miles eastward from the
Pacific coast, forming the watershed west of the Mackenzie
river, and ending upon the coast of the Arctic ocean in lati-

356 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

tude 70 degrees North, and longitude 70 degrees West. The
Final and the Mogollon mountain ranges, are found in Ari-
zona ; the Sierra Madre crossing New Mexico, is in Colorado
broken into many short ranges and numerous famous peaks,
north-east of which, in Wyoming and Dakota, are found the
isolated groups of the Black Hills, beyond -which lies the
great valley of the Missouri river.

The mountains of North America which lie along the At-
lantic coast, from 50 to 200 miles from the sea, and thence in-
land, are included in the Appalachian system, consisting of
several parallel ridges which form the two main ranges of
mountains. The Appalachian mountains rise in the northern
part of the state of Alabama, in the United States, about lati-
tude 34 degrees North, and longitude 86 degrees West, from
the level of the local slope toward the gulf of Mexico, and ex-
tend to the north-east for 1,300 miles, ending at the promon-
tory of Gaspe on the gulf of St. Lawrence, about latitude 48
degrees 45 minutes North, and near longitude 65 degrees
West. The eastern range of the Appalachian system is
formed of the Blue Ridge of Georgia, North Carolina and
Virginia, the South mountains of Pennsylvania, the High-
lands of New York, and the Green mountains of Vermont.
The western range is formed of the Cumberland mountains of
Alabama, Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, West Virginia and
Pennsylvania, the Alleghany mountains, which run parallel
to the Cumberland mountains for almost their whole length,
and the Catskill and Adirondack mountains in the state of New
York. Between the two great Appalachian ranges, lies a
nearly continuous valley, called according to locality, the val.
ley of Tennessee, the great valley of Virginia, the Cumberland
valley, the valley of the Hudson river, and the valley of Lake
Champlain. The greatest elevation of the Appalachian moun-
tains is in their southern portion, whence northward they
gradually decline. The highest summit is Mitchell's peak in
North Carolina, 6,732 feet above the sea ; in the same section
are many points over 6,000 feet above the sea. Mount Wash-

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 357

ington in New Hampshire, one of an isolated group detached
from the Green mountains, is 6,285 feet above the sea. Mt.
Marsfield, the highest summit of the Green mountains, is 4,-
359 feet, and Mt. Marcy, the loftiest of the Adirondacks, 5,337
feet above the level of the sea. The entire Appalachian
ranges are broken across in places by gaps, low passes or val-
leys, through which rivers flow, canals have been dug, and
railways constructed, by means of which an active commerce
is readily maintained between the states of the Atlantic coast
and the gre^t region of the valley of the Mississippi river.

North of the gulf of St. Lawrence, the Appalachian system
of mountains is traced in a range called the Watchish, the
greatest height of which is but from 1,500 to 2,000 feet above
the level of the sea. Nevertheless, such is the severity of the
climate of Labrador, that the summits of the Watchish range
are covered with perpetual snow. "West of Hudson's Bay, a
range of mountains extends in a broken line from about lati-
tude 50 degrees North, to the shores of the Arctic ocean.
Still to the west is the great region of Lakes Winnipeg and
Manitoba and the valley of the Saskatchawan river ; north of
which, extended to the Rocky Mountains, is another lake
country containing Lakes Deer, Wollaston, and Athabasca, the
Great Slave Lake, Great Bear Lake, and the great Mackenzie
and other important semi- Arctic rivers. At a varying dis-
tance north of the 52nd parallel of latitude, the country be-
comes quite unfit for cultivation, and the geography of the
north part of the continent is better known to the hunter, the
fur-trader, and the Indian, than to tne rest of mankind.

From a district on the northern border of the United
States, east of the Rocky Mountains, and about latitude 50 de-
grees North, and longitude 30 degrees West, there gradually
arises a broad low swell of land which having no definite sum-
mit and seldom rising over 1,500 feet above the sea, extends
thence eastward. This upland is so broad and rises by such
moderate declivities, that the direction of its slope can be de-
termined in casual observation only by noting the direction of

353 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

the streams flowing across the surface. Before reaching the
head of Lake Superior somewhere about longitude 17 degrees
West, the elevated land divides into two broad ridges which
diverge to the north-east and south west, and form the basin
of the great lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and Onta-
rio, and connect with the highlands of the valley of the river
St. Lawrence, through which, after passing the falls of Niag-
ara, the waters of these lakes, the vast drainage of the center
of North America, are discharged into the Atlantic ocean.

North of the great lakos and of the river St. Lawrence, are
a numbe'r of short rivers which flow south into them, but
about 75 miles from the north shore of Lake Superior, there
are springs, the head- waters of rivers flowing north into Hud-
son Bay and toward the Arctic ocean. The watershed to-
ward the great lakes from the south, is very low, narrow and
inconsiderable. At the City of Chicago, in the state of Illi-
nois, 18 miles north of the southern end of Lake Michigan
and in latitude 41 degrees 50 minutes North, and longitude
87 degrees 33 minutes 40 seconds West from Greenwich, a
bayou or lagoon called the Chicago river extends about five-
eighths of a mile westward from the lake ; this body of water
then forms two branches, each about two miles long, extend-
ing the one toward the north-west, nearly parallel with the
lake shore, and the other south-west in the same manner, and
then west. This is the harbor of Chicago, the most impor-
tant grain port of the world. Into the harbor flow several
' sluggish streams by which the surface water of the adjoining
prairie was formerly gradually drained into the lake. From
the head of the south branch of Chicago river there was for-
merly a portage of only about three miles to the Illinois river,
and in seasons of high-water the Indians used to pass entirely
over this interval, paddling in their canoes. The Illinois and
Michigan canal was dug along this route 96 miles to La
Salle on the Illinois river. During the years from 1866 to
1870 inclusive, this canal, being 160 feet wide, was deepened
at a cost of $3,251,621, the highest level, 26 miles long, being

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 359

excavated with the bottom on a line 8| feet below the com*-
mon level of Lake Michigan. In consequence, the navigation
of the caual was improved, and more important and remarka-
ble, a current was created which keeps clean its own channel,
drains the harbor of Chicago, and carries its sewage, with the 1
waters of Lake Michigan, at the rate of a mile an hour, into
the Illinois river, to be borne by that stream and the rapid
Mississippi, into which it flows, onward even to the distant
gulf of Mexico. The south shore of Lake Erie is bolder and
in places well elevated, as at Cleveland, Ohio, yet it is nowhere
more than a hill ridge, but still is part of the slight barrier
which diverts the waters of half the territories of North
America, dividing them, as its gentle slopes may tend, to the
Arctic or Atlantic ocean, or to the gulf of Mexico.

The great rivers of North America, are the Missouri, the
Ohio river, and Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, the Mackenzie,
the Kwichpak, or Yukon, the Columbia river, the Colorado
river, and the Rio Grande del Norte. The Missouri and Mis-
sissippi form one great stream which flows from near the cen-
ter of North America, through one of the most remarkable
and extensive valleys in the world, southward into the gulf of
Mexico. The Missouri river (Mud river), rises in several
small streams among the Rocky Mountains near the bounda-
ries of Idaho and Montana, near latitude 116 degrees West:
The "Wisdom river, one of the principal streams which unite
to form the head-waters of the Missouri, rises within a mile of
the springs of Clark's Fork, a tributary of the Columbia river'.
The waters of Wisdom river entering the Missouri, flow
southward 2,988 miles into the Mississippi, and thence 1,286
miles into the gulf of Mexico. The distance from the conflu-
ence of the Wisdom, Jeflerson, Madison and Gallatin rivers,
which form the Missouri, to the gulf of Mexico, is 4,194 miles.
The waters of the springs of Clark's Fork flow into the Co-
lumbia river of Oregon, and westward for some 1,400 miles
into the Pacific ocean, in latitude 46 degrees 20 minutes North.
Thus a single square mile of land divides its drainage between

360 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

outlets which by the course of the streams are more than 4,000
miles apart.

The Ohio river, known as la belle riviere, to the early
French emigrants, is the largest branch of the Mississippi
flowing from the east. The Ohio is formed by the confluence
of the Monongahela and Alleghany rivers, at Pittsburgh, in
the state of Pennsylvania, in latitude 40 degrees 26 minutes
34 seconds North, and longitude 80 degrees 2 minutes 38 sec-
onds "West. The Alleghany river rises in Potter county,
Pennsylvania, near the southern boundary of the state of New
York, and at first flows north a few miles into the last-named
8tate, in about latitude 42 degrees 20 minutes North, and lon-
gitude 79 degrees West. At a point but 35 miles south of Lake
Erie, the Alleghany turns toward the south-west. In Penn-
sylvania, the Alleghany receives the waters of French Creek,
a, stream which is ascended by small steam-boats, to the town
of Waterford, but 14 miles from Lake Erie, the head-waters
of the Creek being still to the north, and very near the lake
shore. Small steam-boats also ascend the Alleghany river 240
miles to Olean, New York, about 45 miles from the head of
the stream. At the springs of the Alleghany river, there are
a few acres of land, the drainage of which flows, as chance, or
very slight irregularities of surface may determine, either
southward, by way of the Susquehanna river to Chesapeake
Bay ; northward, by way of the Genesee river into Lake On-
tario and the gulf of St. Lawrence ; or nearly west-south-west,
by way of the Alleghany, Ohio, and Mississippi rivers to the
gulf of Mexico. From the springs of the Alleghany to the
outlet of the Ohio into the Mississippi, at Cairo, in latitude
36 degrees 59 minutes, and longitude 89 degrees West from
Greenwich, by the course of the stream, is 1,260 miles ; the
length of the Ohio below Pittsburgh, is 975 miles ; its width
from 1,000 to 3,000 feet. In a direct line, the distance between
the points named, is about three-fifths of that traversed by the
tortuous rivers.

The area drained by the Ohio is the center of the eastern

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 361

part of the United States, a region some 214,000 or more
square miles in extent. The valley of the Ohio is in general
uniform, the rivers rolling smoothly through a mostly level
country, but having in some places eroded channels of some
depth in the limestone and other strata, the abrupt, sloping or
terraced walls of which, though seldom picturesque and never
grand, are yet of great geologic interest. From the extent of
surface drained, the Ohio is liable to great fluctuations in its
volume; the entire river rises 45 feet above low- water during
its floods, and its upper portion at such times increases in depth
50 and sometimes 60 feet. At the lowest stage of water, boats
come up no farther than Wheeling, West Virginia, 86 miles
below Pittsburgh. The Ohio is often frozen over in winter,
and for a number of weeks, according to the severity of the
season, navigation is obstructed by floating ice. At Louis-
ville, Kentucky, nearly 600 miles from Pittsburgh, the Ohio
river descends a rapid, or "falls," over limestone rocks, falling
for 2| miles some 27 feet, with a current of from one to three
miles an hour. These rapids are ascended by some of the
steam-boats, but there has long been a canal around them
which admits and passes steam-boats of 3,000 tons burthen.
The valley of the Ohio is extremely fertile, and is the scene
of an immense agriculture ; manufactures thrive there ; coal,
iron, and other mines are enormously productive; considera-
ble cities are frequent, and these, with other circumstances,
make the Ohio one of the most useful and important rivers of
North America.

The Mississippi river (Indian Miche-Sepe, Great River, or
Great Father of Waters), is in connection with the Missouri,
the longest river in the world, unless the Nile of Africa may
measure more. The Mississippi itself rises in a beautiful lake,
clear and deep, 7 miles long, and from one to three miles wide,
in latitude 47 degrees 14 minutes North, and longitude 95 de-
grees 2 minutes West. This lake was called Omoshkos Sag-
aigon by the Chippewa Indians, Lao la Biche by the French
traders, and Itasca by Schoolcraft, who saw it in 1832. Lake

362 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

Itasca is 1,675 feet above the level of the sea, and Us waters
flow rapidly south all the length of the Mississippi river for 2,-
616 miles into the gulf of Mexico. The Mississippi river re-
ceives through its many tributaries the drainage of about
1,350,000 square miles of territory, the various streams con-
tained therein having a navigable length of about 35,000
miles, varying with the stage of water.

The St. Lawrence river flows directly from the eastern out-
let of Lake Ontario eastward 750 miles to the gulf of St.
Lawrence. The St. Lawrence is 2| miles wide where it leaves
the lake, and more than 30 miles wide as it enters the gulf.
The early French geographers regarded the great lakes of
North America as part of the St. Lawrence river, and stated
its source to be the river Nipigon, on the- north side of Lake
Superior, or the St. Louis river, flowing into the south-west-
ern extremity of the same lake. From the head of either the
Nipigon or St. Louis rivers to the gulf of St. Lawrence, is
more than 2,000 miles. The St. Lawrence river drains a ter-
ritory of over 600,000 square miles, and its basin has been
calculated to contain "more than half of all the fresh water on
this planet" ; the recent discovery of the great African lakes
makes the conclusion doubtful, however. The St. Lawrence
river is navigable by sea-going vessels for 600 miles to the
city of Montreal. Above this point there are rapids, which
though descended safely by steam-boats drawing seven feet of
water, are very difficult of ascent even by the same boats ; in
consequence, canals have been constructed along the river, and
by these, as supposed to be completed and ready for use, the
summer of 1880, vessels of 270 feet of total length, with a
beam or width of 45 feet, and drawing from 12 feet to 14 feet
of water, can pass from Duluth, Minnesota, in latitude 46 de-
grees 48 minutes North, and longitude 92 degrees 6 minutes
West, or from Chicago, and without breaking bulk, convey
the grain and other produce of "the great North- West" to
any port in the world.

The Mackenzie river, named after Alexander Mackenzie,

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 363

who discovered it in 1789, flows from the Great Slave Lake
west, in latitude 60 degrees 30 minutes North, and longi-
tude 40 degrees West, and runs to the north-west 1,200 miles
to the Arctic ocean, which it enters through several mouths
in about latitude 69 degrees North, and longitude 60 degrees
West from Greenwich. The head-waters of the Mackenzie

river are really found in the springs of the Athabasca, Atha-
pesco, or Athapescow river, which rises in the Rocky Moun-
tains in latitude 52 degrees 10 minutes North, and longitude
about 40 degrees West, a short distance from the source of
the Columbia river of Oregon. From about the first of June,
the Mackenzie river is free from ice and navigable all summer
for small steam-boats from the Great Slave Lake to the Arctic
ocean. The row boats of the voyagers of the Hudson Bay
Company, ascend with but two portages the Mackenzie river
and its tributary, more than 2,000 miles from the Arctic ocean.
The Columbia or Oregon river, was discovered and navi-
gated in 1792, by Capt. Robert Gray, who crossed its- bar
in the ship Columbia Rediviva, of Boston, Mass, and gave the
name of his vessel to the rapid stream. This river was first
explored in 1804 and 1805, by Captains Lewis and Clarke, un-
der orders of the United States War Department. The Co-
lumbia river rises in Otter lake, on the westorn slope of the
Rocky Mountains, in latitude 50 degrees 30 minutes North,
and longitude 39 degrees West ; the river flows north-west,
west, and south into the United States, and so across Wash-
ington territory to latitude 46 degrees North, where on the
northern boundary of Oregon, it turns quite abruptly West,
and continuing that general course, forms the same boundary
to the Pacific ocean, which it enters after a course of over 1,-
200 miles in latitude about 46 degrees 15 minutes North, and
longitude 47 degrees West. Though of great volume, the
Columbia river has a very rapid current; the violence of its
flow expels the sea-water, and its waters are very little brack-
ish, even on the bar at its mouth. Ocean steamers, draining
less than 20 feet of water, can enter the Columbia river at low

364 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

tide and ascend the stream 115 miles to Vancouver. Small
steam-boats of 200 or 300 tons, ascend the river 165 miles to
the Cascades. Here, there is a portage by railroad for six
miles, when navigation is continued for 40 miles to the Dalles.
Above this, by means of portages around various falls and
rapids, the lighter kind of navigation is pushed northward
beyond the boundary of the United' States and to Upper Ar-
row lake, in latitude 50 degrees 30 minutes North. The Co-
lumbia river flows through a nearly wild and remarkable
country but partly known, and presents along its course among
the mountains, the most sublime and beautiful scenery.

The Colorado river, otherwise the Rio Colorado (Red River),
or Colorado river of the "West, formed by the confluence of
Green and Grand rivers in the south-eastern part of the terri-
tory of Utah, about latitude 38 degrees North, and longitude 33
degrees West, is in many respects a very remarkable stream.
The Colorado river is about 1,200 miles long, but its principal
tributary, the Green river, rises at Fremont's Peak on the bor-
ders of Wyoming territory, whence southwest to the gulf of
California is more than 2,000 miles. Between longitude 35
degrees and 38 degrees West, the Colorado river, as a mighty
torrent, forces its way across the line of the mountain ranges,
creating for some 200 miles a Grand Canon, gulch or ravine,
the nearly perpendicular walls of which are from 4,000 to
7,000 feet in heigh th above the water. There are other
Canons along the Colorado and its tributaries, of a tremendous
nature, but less important than the one described. The Grand
Canon of the Colorado has been passed on a raft, and by a
United States Government exploring party, but the under-
taking was found extremely difficult and most terribly dan-
gerous. The head of navigation for boats and barges on this
river is at Callville, 612 miles from its mouth.

The Rio Grande, Rio Grande del Norte, or Rio Bravo del
Norte, is a very singular river ; it rises in the south-western
part of the state of Colorado, between the mountain ranges of
La Plata and San Juan, about latitude 38 degrees North, and

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 365

longitude 30 degrees West, whence it flows with a general
south-eastern course to the gulf of Mexico, forming, east of the
30th meridian of longitude, the boundary between Texas and
Mexico. The entire length of the Rio Grande is estimated at
1,800 miles. The upper portion of the stream descends over
many ledges and cataracts ; the river lower down is obstructed
by numerous wooded islands and sand-banks ; small steamers
have, however, ascended the Rio Grande to Kingsbury's rap-
ids, about 450 miles from the gulf of Mexico. In April of
each year, the melted snows of the Sierra Madre begin to swell
the volume of this river, which is soon flooded. The waters
are at the highest early in May, and fall again in the later part
of June. Soon after, the bed of the Rio Grande is fordable,
almost anywhere above tide- water. The Rio Pecos, the most
important tributary of the Rio Grande, which in the spring is
a powerful river 700 miles long, presents at the dry season a
bed of dry rock or dust. These rivers flow through a rocky,
arid region for the most part, and even their valleys, from 1
to 4, or in places 10 or 15 miles wide, are fertile only when irri-
gated.

There are many other large rivers in North America, be-
side the principal ones already described. Among these may
be named the St. John, in New Brunswick ; the Kennebec,
Penobscot, and Androscoggin, in Maine; the Merrimac, in
New Hampshire; the Connecticut, flowing south across New
England ; the Hudson, in New York ; the Delaware, flowing
into Delaware Bay, between Pennsylvania and New Jersey ;
the Susquehanna, rising in New York, flowing across Penn-
sylvania and part of Maryland, to the Chesapeake Bay ; the
Potomac, between Maryland and Virginia; the James river,
in Virginia; the Tennessee, the Cumberland, and Wabash
rivers, tributaries to the Ohio ; the Red river, Arkansas river,
Des Moines river, and Minnesota river, flowing into the Mis-
sissippi; the Tombigbee, and Alabama rivers, in Alabama;
the St. John's river, in Florida ; the Chattahoochee river, be-
tween Georgia and Alabama; the Santee, and Great Pedee

366 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

rivers, in North and South Carolina ; and, west of the Missis-
sippi, in Mexico; and north in the Dominion of Canada, an
uncounted number of streams, large as these, but less famous
in history, and for the most part requiring no notice in this
very general statement.

"*To the geology of America, both North and South, refer-
ence has already been made in this essay, upon pages 305-6-7,
and brief as the account already given is, but little more can
be done regarding so vast and complex a subject, in the space
to which the matter must in this connection be confined, and
so with a mere glance across the continent, the student must
be referred to the numerous and well-known works of the
American geologists themselves, and the voluminous reports
of the various explorers. Only a protracted and thorough
study, can do even partial justice to the most interesting and
important subject, or to the elaborate works of those who
have applied themselves for many years to its investigation
and illustration. To the possibly careless, or preoccupied
reader, it may seem that so much as has already been given,
regarding the configuration, extent, and natural features of
North America, is not altogether necessary to an account of
American And Other Gold, under which head the whole de-
scription of the mountains, valleys, and rivers, of its vast ter-
ritories have been introduced. It must, however, be remem-
bered, that something more than mere statistical statement is
intended, and in the broad general geographical, topographical
and geological description, those who choose to read, may
gather the special information needed for an intelligent com-
prehension of the subject of the mineralogy of the country de-
scribed, and the natural causes which have operated to form
the varied mineral and metallic deposits the coal, iron, cop-
per, and other mines, the great veins of silver, and richest of
all, the superlatively productive gold fields of North America.

Crossing North America from the east, along the line of
latitude 39 degrees 57 minutes North, which runs along Chest-
nut street in the center of the city of Philadelphia (and through

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 367

the office of the publisher of this work), the geologic forma-
tions are discovered in the following order :

First. As in the state of New Jersey, and along the shore
of the Atlantic to the South : The Tertiary and Cretaceous
strata, the drift of adjacent mountains, or sedimentary matter
from receding seas.

Second. Gneiss rock, in geologic order underlying the Ter-
tiary and Cretaceous formations, and presented in the surface
of the Alleghany or Appalachiaa mountains, though covered
in parts by the New Red Sandstone.

Third. The Palezoic rocks, of the Silurian, Devonian, and
Carboniferous strata, "curiously bent into parallel folds with
synclinal and anticlinal axes, the crests of the latter forming
the ridges of the Alleghany mountains" which at their sum-
mits in central Pennsylvania, are 2,500 feet above the sea.
Upon these Palezoic rocks, rest the great Appalachian, Illi-
nois, and Michigan coal fields, covering an area of about 100,-
000 square miles, a large part of the territories from the Alle-
ghanies to the Mississippi river.

At Louisville, Kentucky, to the south of the line of obser-
vation we have chosen, and in latitude 38 degrees 3 minutes
North, and longitude 85 degrees 30 minutes West, the erosion
of the Ohio river has denuded the Palezoic rocks, which are
there presented in a manner equalled in very few places else-
where. Along the banks of the Ohio, and at Louisville in
particular, the rotten limestones which form "the Blue Grass
region of Kentucky," in the process of disintegration supply
the geologist with many remarkable fossils. Fine specimens
of Palezoic remains have often been taken at low water, from
the rocky shoals of the Ohio river at this city.

From the Mississippi westward along the original line of
observation, in or near the latitude of Philadelphia, through
Missouri, in the neighborhood of the town of St. Joseph, and
still west, near the northern boundary of Kansas, and across
Colorado, just north of the town of Denver, through Utah
west, passing north of the town of Nephi in that territory,

368 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

the Palezoic rocks continue, and are found in great mountain
folds, between which are broad areas of Triassic, Oolitic, Cre-
taceous and Tertiary beds.

The rocks of western Nevada and California, are mostly the
metamorphosed secondary strata, covered in part by Tertiary
sediments.

British America, north of the great lakes, shows an enor-
mous development of Laurentian and Iluronian rocks, which
are the oldest known geologic formations. The island of New-
foundland, and the Maritime provinces of the Dominion of
Canada, are formed of the Pre-Silurian, Silurian, Devonian,
Carboniferous, and Triassic rocks. The Carboniferous strata
there include bituminous coal-beds of considerable extent and
commercial importance.

Immediately west of the valley of the Mississippi, the Ozark
mountains present elevations of from 1,500 to 2,000 feet, the
geologic structure of which contains the same granitic, car-
boniferous and other higher forms of rocks as are found on
the opposite side of the great central North American basin,
a thousand miles to the east in the Alleghanies.

From that which has already been stated, regarding the
general character of North America, its configuration, moun-
tain structure, watersheds, lakes, rivers and geologic history
and development, the careful student will have inferred the
existence of two principal gold fields in this division of the
Western Hemisphere of the globe, the indications pointing
to the situation of these fields in the west, along the ranges of
mountains, or the beds of the rivers on the Pacific coast, and
in the east, in the region of the various highlands which, un-
der the general name of the Appalachian mountain?, stretch
along the borders of the Atlantic. And such is in fact the
position of the deposits of gold, the veins, the mines, the
"pockets" and other sources of that precious metal in North
America.

The western North American gold field, extends compre-
hensively over the whole mountain region west of the Mis-

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 369

sissippi river, and north of the isthmus of Tehuantepec, and
Yucatan, to the extreme northern line of Alaska, all along
the shore of the Pacific ocean and far eastward toward the in-
terior. The chief production of gold has, however, been from
limited districts of this great area, and in those districts are
found the oldest and most recent North American discoveries
of gold, as well as decidedly the most important sources of the
precious metals heretofore known, at least in modern times.

As to the abundance of gold found in the possession of the
Indians of the Pacific coast of all America, at the time of the
original Spanish explorations and conquest of the country,
after 1492, the reader will recall or refer to pages 272 to 280
of this article. In addition to the account there given, it may
be noted that the great architectural ruins of aboriginal edi-
fices abound in the region of southern Mexico, as well as in
the countries lying either side of the equator. Beginning by
wholesale extortion, and robbery of the Indian temples, pal-
aces, tombs, and other grand public buildings, the Spaniards
continued the strenuous search for gold by excavations amid
the ruins they considered it their Christian duty to aid slowly-
working time in creating. The amount of gold thus exhumed,
after the visible stores of the same had been exhausted, is, not-
withstanding the statistics of the Spanish officials, utterly un-
known, except in certain cases.

A single instance, may give some idea of the wealth, which
must have been obtained, by those who in earnest efforts to
annihilate the evidences of a high and benificent yet "heathen"
civilization, Christianize their slaves, and enrich themselves,
continued their work of Vandalism and rapine for generation
after generation, until even in the present, the search fur
treasure among the ruins of the central part of the American
continent is continued, and is sometimes successful. In 1577, a
Spanish explorer named Toledo, dug into one of the kuacas, or
vast pyramidal structures, tombs, or temple sites, of Northern
Peru, and from the excavation he made, obtained a quantity
of gold and silver valued at $4,450,284. The enthusiasm of
W

370 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

avarice aroused by this and similar discoveries, was such that
the mines and natural sources of gold in America were for a
time measurably neglected. Waiving the question of morals,
it is easier to overreach the weak and plunder the helpless,
than to create wealth.

Mexico, or in the language of the country, Estndos Unidos
de J/e/ico, derives its name from the Aztec word Mexitli. The
territories of the federal republic of Mexico are included be-
tween latitude 15 degrees and 32 degrees 42 minutes North,
and longitude 86 degrees and 117 degrees and 7 minutes West.
The shores of Mexico are bordered by a strip of low land of
sandy character some 30 miles wide, and seldom if ever over
1,000 feet above the sea. This tract appears to have been cov-
ered by the sea at a recent geologic age. Inland, immense
terraces arise to a vast table-land having an average elevation
of 8,000 feet. To the north, away from the seas, the table-
land extends far into the territories of the United States. The
journey from the city of Mexico to Santa Fe, some 1,200
miles, can be made over this flattened mountain crest, with
comfort and safety in a four-wheeled wagon. Mexico con-
tains, however, nearly a score of mountains from 9,041 to 17,-
540 feet above the sea. Ten of these principal peaks are vol-
canoes, four of which, namely : Popocatepetl, Orizaba, Toluca
and Iztaccihuatl, have summits from 1,705 to 3,540 feet above
the line of perpetual snow. The evidences of volcanic action
are most abundant in the south of Mexico ; the most active
crater is that of Mt. San Martin, or Tuxtla, near the town of
the same name in the state of Vera Cruz. This volcanoe is
crowned day and night with a column of flame, which con-
stantly ascends to such a height as to be visible far off shore
over the waters of the gulf of Mexico, forming thus a most
remarkable natural pharos, or light-house for the mariner ap-
proaching the dangerous coast.

Mexico, though discovered as early as 1517, by Francisco
Fernandez de Cordova, who visited the coast of Yucatan that
year, and known to the world as a country rich in metals and

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 371

minerals ever since Juan de Grijalva, in 1518, made a voyage
thither, explored in part the coast, opened friendly communi-
cation with the Aztecs and freighted a ship with gold, jewels,
and other treasure ; and controlled by Europeans since its con-
quest under Hernan or Hernando Cortes, or Cortez, 1519-
1521 ; has never been scientifically explored. The geology of
Mexico is but partly known. The extreme south of the coun-
try presents mountains composed for the greater part of por-
phyry, with limestone and clay slate, the last two formations
being least in extent, but most important, on account of con-
taining frequent veins of silver, copper and lead. The moun-
tains of the state of Oajaca, or Oaxaca, included between lati-
tude about 16 degrees to 21 degrees North, are mostly granite,
this form of rock being most conspicuous in the loftiest sum-
mits of these ranges. The great central table-land of Mexico,
already described, rests upon a substratum of granite, above
which are masses of porphyries containing rich veins of gold
and silver, the other superincumbent rocks consisting of bas-
altic lavas in immense fields, trachyte, clay slate, amygdaloid,
syenite, serpentine, dolorite, limestone and sandstone. Among
the rocks are many and large caverns, that of Cacahuamilpa
being considered the most extensive cave in the world.

"While an exploration and study of the geology of Mexico
has been neglected, it has been found a country of pre-eminent
mineral wealth ; so far as already known, the varied mineral
and metallic resources and products of Mexico, exceed those
of any country, not excepting even the famous riches of Peru.
Passing without further notice the valuable quarries of mar-
ble, alabaster, gypsum and rock salt, the deposits of sulphur,
the numerous small, almost entirely un worked beds of coal,
and the great number of wide-spread mineral springs, it may
be said that the base but useful metals abound in Mexico. Im-
mense masses of iron are found at Coalcoman, in the state of
Michoacan, and at Lagos, in the state of Jalisco. The Cerro
del Mercado, in the state of Durango, is one vast and solid
mass of mao-netic iron ore. In the Mexican states of Chihua-

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

hua, Sonora, Guanajuato, Mexico, Guerrero, Jalisco and Mich-
oacan, copper has been found in considerable quantities, gen-
erally in association with a greater or less amount of gold.
In the states of Jalisco and Michoacan, are ores of tin. Silver
abounds in practically illimitable quantities in many parts of
Mexico, and lead frequently is found in the same connection.
A farther reference to Mexican silver will appear upon a suc-
ceeding page. The richest ores of lead are in the state of
Oajaca, or Oaxaca. The Cinnabar, or red sulphuret of mercu-
ry, lias been discovered in many of the Mexican states. The
usefulness of mercury and its ores in the reduction of silver,
was first discovered in the sixteenth century by a Mexican
miner of Pachuca, by the name of Barlolome Medina. Since
then, the various uses of mercury have increased, and of late
immense quantities have been consumed in processes for se-
curing gold. In consequence, though new sources of supply
have been discovered in California, the price of mercury has
been high, and under the stimulation of a good demand, valu-
able mines of Mexican quicksilver have during recent years
been developed in the states of Morelos and Guerrero. The
states of Tlaxcala and Hidalgo have of late been found to con-
tain platinum, a metal almost as valuable as gold, and on ac-
count of its power of resisting heat and chemical action, ex-
tremely useful in the arts.

The Aztecs, a highly-civilized race of Indians, described in
part on page 38, who governed most of Mexico before the
advent of the Spaniards, found the placers of the country they
had conquered from still other Indians, abounding in gold, in
grains, coarse gold and nuggets ; these forms of the precious
metal were collected by primitive processes, but to vast
amounts. The silver being found for the most part in ores
too obdurate for very successful treatment by such simple
methods as were known to the Indians, was but little used by
them. In consequence, Mexico was first known in Europe as
a rich source of gold, but when improved machinery and more
scientific processes were brought to bear upon the ores of sil-

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 373

ver, the country was regarded by the capitalists of Europe as
almost one vast silver mine, and the yield of gold, though still
considerable, was found to be of minor importance. Ever
since, the coinage of gold in Mexico proper, has been small in
comparison with the vast number and value of silver pieces
issued by the numerous mints. The total product of the pre.-
cious metals in Mexico, since its discovery by the Spanish ad-
venturers, and up to 1880, is estimated at a value of $4,404,-
627,696, of which the Mexican mints had coined $2,151,58,1,-
961.81. In 1881, there were eleven mints in Mexico, coining
an average $21,644,261 each year, of which amount, an aver-
age of but $743,595 a yea,r was in gold. The product of gold
from Mexican mines during 1879, was officially estimated at a
value of $989,161.

In 1870, there were, beside workings for silver, 40 gold
mines in the state of Oajaca, or Oaxaca; in the state of Sono-
ra, there were at the same time 144 mines, yielding gold for
the most part, and beside 583 very rich mines in which work
was, nevertheless, suspended. Of late years, the gold mines of
the states of Guerrero, Mexico and Michoacan, have been made
profitable, the placers have become too much exhausted to
make rich returns to such manipulations as the Aztecs or
their immediate successors, the old Spaniards, employed, ye
with modern machinery and methods, a large yield and heavy
profit can be obtained from these and many other half- wrought
deposits. Vast as the yield of precious metals from Mexico
has been, hoAvever numerous the failures of rash foreign spec-
ulators in -the known mines of that country, there is every
reason to expect that with the maintainance of a stable gov-
ernment, and the general progress of the republic, still richer
mines of silver and gold may be discovered through geologic
exploration.

The state of California, lying between latitude 32 degrees
28 minutes and 42 degrees North, and longitude 114 degrees
30 minutes and 124 degrees 45 minutes West, bears the name
once applied by the Spaniards to the territories claimed by

374 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

them from about latitude 23 degrees North along the Pacific
coast outside of Mexico, and indefinitely east over the Great
.'Basin, and northward to the Arctic Circle. This name of Cal-
ifornia is supposed to have been derived from a Spanish ro-
mance published at Seville, Spain, in 1510, entitled Las Sergus
de Esplandian, or the Sugas of Esplandian, the son of Amadis
of Gaul. California is twice mentioned in this book, a portion
of which reads : "Know that on the right hand of the Indies,
there is an island called California, very near to the Terres-
trial Paradise, which was peopled by black women without
any men among them, because they were accustomed to live
after the manner of the Amazons. They were of strong and
hardened bodies, of ardent courage, and of great forces. The
island was the strongest in the world, from its steep rocks and
great cliffs. Their arms were all of gold, and so were the ca-
parisons of the wild beasts they rode" ; and elsewhere : " In
the island called California, are many griffins, on account of
the great savageness of the country, and the immense quantity
of wild game to be found there."

The name of California appears in the writings of Bernal
Diaz del Castillo, an officer in the army led by Cortes to the
conquest of Mexico, but in this case, the name was given
merely as that of a bay on the coast of the Pacific. Lower
California was first discovered in 1534, by Ximenes, a Spanish
explorer. The territories included in the present state of Cal-
ifornia, were discovered by a Portuguese named Juan Rodri-
guez Cabrillo, in 1542, at which time he was a navigator in
the Spanish service. Cabrillo explored the Pacific coast as
far north as Cape Mendoza, now called Cape Mendocino, in
latitude 40 degrees 30 minutes North. It is presumed that
the officers of Cortes,, or the discoverers named, being im-
pressed by what they believed to be the resemblance of the
country to the imaginary land described in the then popular
romance Las Seryus de Esplandian, gave the name of Califor-
nia to the regions so long known by the same. The Spanish
Americans continue to oall the peninsula lying west of the

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 370

gulf of California, Baja (Lower) California, the state of Cali-
fornia in the United State?, Alta (Upper) California, and the
two, Las Calif ornias (The Californias).

In 1578, Sir Francis Drake of England, being on a notori-
ous buccaneering expedition, and at the same time bent on
discovery, colonization, and the circumnavigation of the globe,
arrived off the western coast of 'North America, in latitude 37
degrees 59 minutes 5 seconds, and finding an anchorage for
his vessels in a body of water still palled Drake's Bay ; or
perhaps in the harbor of San Franciscd itself, made a landing.
Ignorant or regardless of the claims of the crown of Spain,
Drake assumed to take possession of the country in the name
of Queen Elizabeth of England, and to what he regarded as
the newly-discovered or rightfully-acquired territories around
his landing place, he gave the name of New Albion. There,
for a time, the expedition remained. The historian Hakluyt,
Secretary of Drake, makes particular mention of abundance
of gold to be found in New Albion, but the fleet under
Drake's command was loaded already with the spoils of Span-
ish towns and ships, and he was more eager to refit and re-
furnish his ships to find a safe way back to England, than
take time to make extensive explorations.

The Spaniards, whose success in America fired their im-
aginations with boundless expectations of sudden wealth,
came to consider every new country they discovered the true
El Dorado, found at last ; conceived the Californias to be im-
mensely rich in gold ; neither could they be petsuaded other-
wise, though of all the numerous expeditions thither in pur-
suit of the precious metals and gems, every one resulted in a
miserable failure. In 1602, General Sebastian Viscayno, un-
der orders from Philip III of Spain, explored the coast of Cal-
ifornia as far north as the bay of Monterey. However, for
the greater part of a century after this, California was sup-
posed to be an island, and for some time bore the name of
Islas Carolinas (Carolina Islands), in honor of Carlos, or
Charles II of Spain.

.,76 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

The first settlement in Lower California, was by the
Jesuit missionaries in 1683. The first settlement in Upper
California, was by the Franciscan Fathers at San Diego in
the year 1767. On October 2oth, 1769, a party from San
Diego, discovered and named the bay of San Francisco, be-
ing probably the first white men ever there. In 1776,
the Franciscans founded a mission at San Francisco, now
known as the Mission Dolores. Within a half century, the
Fathers of the Order of St. Francis, established more than a
score of missions in California. The conversion and civiliza-
tion of the Indians, was made to mean their reduction to ab-
ject bondage for the benefit of the Fathers and their depend-
ents. The Mission lands were extended to cover nearly all
the coast to latitude 39 degrees North. Some 20,000 Indians
were kept as slaves, worked, whipped, tortured, but few were
at all educated. The Missions were walled villages, defended
by the Indian farm slaves ; free-traders were expelled, though
there was a considerable commerce with Eussia.

The Franciscans made a monopoly of California, and pre-
serving their knowledge of the country, became enormously
wealthy, in stock of all kinds, in specie, in bullion, and in
gold and silver ornaments, statues, crucifixes, and the like,
displayed in their churches.

For a definite knowledge of the mountains, rivers, and other
geographical features of California, having relation to the pro-
duct of gold, reference must be made to that which has already
been stated hftrein, in the general description of North Ameri-
ca, and farther, to the various well-known works upon the
subject.

The geology of California is partly described in the "Geo-
logical Survey of California" and the "Progress of the Geo-
logical Survey, 1870-'71," works made up of the reports by
Professor Josiah Dwight Whitney, of Northampton, Massa-
chusetts, of a survey made under him, as State Geologist, by
authority of the state of California, from 1860 to 1874 ; beside
which scientific authority, there are many modern books on

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 377

California, by S. nittel, Franklin Tutliill, K. Buhl, Titus Fey
Cronise, Charles Nordhoff and others, which though of varied
purpose and private origin, still contain much of reliable in-
formation concerning the rocks, minerals, and metals of the
state. The special and elaborate works of Blake, Phillips,
Dana, Delmar, Davies, King, and other writers upon the subject
of gold, must also be studied.

The strata of California are of comparatively simple struc-
ture, belonging chiefly to the palaeozoic and tertiary periods,
the rocks being mostly granitic and of the secondary and ter-
tiary ages ; the secondary formations are found in the high
mountains, and the tertiary beds in the valleys.

The Sierra Nevada, or Snowy Range, consists of a number
of minor ranges, which form the grandest and most interest-
ing mountain system in the United States. This aggregation
of mountains, considered most comprehensively, covers the
eastern portion of California, for a breadth of about 75 or 100
miles, extending from Mt. San Jacinto, 600 miles northward,
to Mt. Shasta, an extinct volcano, 14,442 feet above the sea,
in Siskiyou county, and about latitude 41 degrees 15 minutes
North. More critically regarded, according to exact geologic
indications, the Sierra Nevada extends south from Mt. Shasta
but 450 miles. The central axis of the Sierra Nevada, and
almost the entire body of its mountains, in the south, are of
granite. The highest points of the Sierra, in the most ele-
vated section of the system, are all of granite. In the central
and northern region, there are a few high peaks of metamor-
phic rock, while numerous extinct volcanoes are found crowned
with volcanic matter, such as basalt and other lavas, brecca,
and heavy beds of ashes. The proof of very recent igneous
action is everywhere visible. Geysers and hot springs are nu-
merous, and earthquake shocks occasionally occur. The snow
falls on the Sierra Nevadas to the depth of 40 or 50 feet, and
though the torrents and rivers flowing from the heights where
it melts, have denuded the rocks and scored the mass of the
mountains with many deep ravines and great canons, yet much,

378 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

of it remains through the whole summer. Enormous glaciers
are thus formed, and the worn and rounded granite masses of
these ancient mountains, bear on their scarred faces, a record
of the tremendous force and long continued action of the vast
and ponderous weight of immense moving ice fields.

The flanks of the Sierra Nevada are covered by very heavy
bodies of metamorphic slates of secondary age. These rocks
are chiefly argillaceous, chloritic, and talcose formations, but
include a great variety of other metamorphic rocks in smaller
quantities and some large seemingly disconnected patches of
limestone. This limestone belt follows the line of direction
of the axis of the range, and except a few carboniferous fos-
sils found in. two or more localities in the extreme north 01
the state, is destitute of organic remains. In the southern
part of California, the limestones are metamorphosed and
often appear as marble. The slates which flank the Sierra
Nevada are auriferous, and in them occasional fossils have
been found near well-marked and productive veins of gold-
bearing quartz. These fossils of the slates are of the Jurassic
age, no silurian or devonian forms having been discovered in
the Sierra Nevada ranges. Triassic fossils have been found
in one locality of limited extent in Plumas county. The east-
ern ascent of the Sierra Nevada is short and precipitous, in
some places 1,000 feet to the mile, to an average elevation of
from 4,000 to 5,000 feet above the level of the sea. From the
crest whose highest peak is Mt. Whitney, 14,886 feet above
the sea, the Sierra Nevada slopes toward the west by com-
paratively easy descents of 300, 240, and 100 feet to the mile.
The western slope is marked here and there along the valleys
of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers by undisturbed
marine, tertiary and cretaceous strata.

The Californian Coast Ranges, along the Pacific, consist for
the principal part of cretaceous and tertiary marine strata,
the rocks being mostly sandstones and highly bituminous
shales. The cretaceous formation appears, most prominent in
the south ; above San Francisco the mountains become rougher

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 379

and more lofty, the rocks have been metamorphosed to a great
extent, and through these strata the granite has been uplifted.
Everything in the Coast Range indicates recent and very great
geologic disturbances, the effect of seismic forces. In certain
places in the Coast Range, large masses of strata, of the Plio-
cene age, have been found turned on edge. Elsewhere, in the
same range, the strata of the Miocene Tertiary age have been
upheaved, near to the perpendicular, by the protruding gran-
ite. However, the evidences of volcanic action at a late date,
are most noticeable in the north-eastern corner of the state,
among the Sierra Nevadas.

The mineralogy of California is to be noted for its simpli-
city. Of the 700 or more known mineral species, but about
100 are there to be found. The volcanic rocks of other coun-
tries abound in silicates, and their vein stones contain flour
spar and barytes, but in California these are of rare occur-
rence. The absence of Zeolites is another remarkable fact.
The minerals and metals mined for in California with success,
are very few, mostly gold, mercury, copper, and silver. Tin
is found in the Temescal Range of mountains, about 40 miles
south-east of Los Angeles, but the mines were abandoned.
Zinc and lead occur in sulphurets bearing small quantities of
the metals in gold-bearing quartz veins, which are worked
only for the gold. The iron ores of California are abundant,
but unavailable, for want of good and cheap fuel. There are
extensive deposits of lignite and imperfect coal in California,
but the only important mine is that at Monte Diablo, which
yielded some 175,000 tons a year. The coal raised at Monte
Diablo is used only for domestic fires, as it is highly sulphur-
ous and contains some 10 or 12 per cent, of water. Borax is
produced in California to the value of more than $400,000 a
year, and sulphur has been successfully mined, for the manu-
facture of acid.

The gold product of California will be considered at large
on immediately succeeding pages. Large amounts of money
have been expended in California in efforts to develop the

380 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

silver-bearing lodes of the state, but without any very great
success. The particulars regarding these silver mines will ap-
pear upon future pages devoted to that metal. Next to gold,
the most important metallic product of California has been
quicksilver, or mercury. Of this metal, so important in the
processes of amalgamation used for obtaining the precious
metals, there are mines in various parts of the world, notably
at Almaden, in Spain (which rich deposit was leased by the
Spanish government to the great Hebrew bankers the Roths-
childs); at Iclra, in Illyria, Austria; in the Palatinate of Ba-
varia; at Eipa, in Modena, Italy ; at the Vail' Alta, in Vene-
tia, Italy; at Montpellier, in France; in Chili; at lluancavel-
ica, and elsewhere, in Peru ; and in many localities in Mexico,
the present annual production of them all, being reported in
Paris, in 1867, at 3,123.120 pounds of the pure metal each
year, beside a large amount of cinnabar.

Quicksilver (argentum vivum, or hydraargyrum), or Mercu-
ry, was first discovered in California by the Indians, at a place
now known as New Almaden, 12 miles west of the town of
San Jose, Santa Clara county, the last-named place being 40
miles south-east of San Francisco. The aborigines used the
native product of the New Almaden deposit, as a pigment, and
so well pleased were they with the paint they were able to
produce, that they dug openings from fifty to sixty feet deep
into the mountain in search of it. During the year 1824 and
for some time afterward, the Spaniards attempted the working
of these New Almaden ores for silver. The New Almaden
mines are in the Coast Range, in a belt of altered cretaceous
slates, between beds of serpentine ; they were first operated
for quicksilver, by Captain Castillero, in 1845, The New
Almaden cinnabar is found in a series of irregular cavities,
without apparent connection. Though suspended during the
war, work at these mines was resumed in 1348. A company
of Mexicans and Englishmen, held the property from 1850 to
1858, when they were enjoined, pending legal proceedings,
regarding the title. Up to 1858, the whole value of the quick-

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 381

silver which had been taken from New Almaden, was reported
to the courts as having been worth $8,000,000, and in 1858,
when closed, the mine was said to be yielding quicksilver to
the value of $1,000,000 a year. The United States Attor-
ney then appraised the value of the mine and works at $15,-
000,000.

The entire amount of quicksilver taken from the New Al-
madcn mine alone, from September 80th, 1852, to December
31st, 1873, a period of 21 J years, was 573,150 flasks, of 76J
pounds each, or 43,845,975 pounds. During the time, the
Knriquita, another mine in the same neighborhood, produced
10,571 flasks of quicksilver, or 808,681 pounds ; making up
the amount to 44,654,656 pounds of the metal, taken from
these two deposits, during the given period. Beside the En-
riquita, there are the Providencia, and the Gaudalupe mines,
which have been worked near New Almaden. The New Idra
quicksilver mines in Fresno and Monterey counties, ninety
miles south of New Almaden, include the San Carlos, Aurora,
Idra, Molino, "Washington, Benada, and Yictorener workings,
and are of cinnabar in sandstone and slate. The Panoche
Grande quicksilver mine, also in Fresno county, the subject
of the "McGarrahan claim," is famous, in the records of the
courts, and of the journals of Congress. The Redington
quicksilver mine, near Knoxville, Lake county, presents a
formation similar to that of the New Almaden deposit, and
is one of the most important of the many deposits of cinnabar
in Napa and Lake counties north of San Francisco. In 1867,
California was reported as producing 3,960,000 pounds of
quicksilver of a total of 7,083,120 pounds produced by all
countries. In 1868, California produced 3,404,709 pounds of
quicksilver ; the yield for 1870 was 2,187,900 pounds ; that
for 1873 was from the New Almaden, 11,042 flasks; New
Idra, 7,600 flasks ; Redington, 4,200 flasks ; Great Western,
651 flasks ; Mahattan, 4,200 flasks ; Summit, 75 flasks ; Ameri-
^can, 128 flasks; Napa, 199 flasks; California, 995 flasks; Phce-
'nix, 880 flasks ; Washington, 197 flasks ; a total from all these

382 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

mines, of 26,588 flasks, containing 2,033,982 pounds. It may
be noted, that the New Almaden mine had fallen off, from an
annual yield of some 2,500,000 to 3,500,000 pounds, once
taken from them in a year, to but 844,713 pounds for 1873;
that notwithstanding, the total product had not decreased in
proportion ; that some mines formerly reported, are no longer
mentioned ; and that a number of new mines appear in the
list. The partial or total exhaustion of the old deposits of
quicksilver in California, up to 1870 and thereabouts, without
a cessation of demand for the metal, induced a rise in price.
During 1873, quicksilver could be sold in California at an
average price of one dollar a pound, and by the end of that
year, it had increased in value to one dollar and twenty cents
a pound ; the product of the state for the year must, there-
fore, have been worth about $2,250,000. The discovery and
development of the quicksilver mines of California, must be
regarded as of the greatest possible importance to the state.
It not only furnished an enormously valuable article of export
in the quicksilver itself, but by supplying the California gold
fields with the metal for amalgamation, freed the gold-mining
industry of the whole Pacific slope, and of the world, from an
oppressive monopoly-: thus enlarging the product of the pre-
cious metals.

The early Spanish adventurers and explorers for gold in
America, were not guided in their researches by the geologic
science which directs the prospector and miner in the same
fields in the present. When on his voyage of discovery,
Columbus arrived off the shores of Cuba, believing that he
had reached the Indies and saw the continental coast of Eastern
Asia, he made entry upon his journal "From the great heat
which I suffer, the country must be rich in gold." When Her-
nando de Grijalva, or "Grixalva," discovered the arid, rocky
peninsula of Old or Lower California ; he sailed up the Gulf
of California, the El Jfar de Cortez, Sea of Cortes, El Mar
Vermefo, the Red or Vermilion Sea, "the Adriatic of the Xew
World," along a coast belonging to a country counted the hot-

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 383

test part of North America, where the thermometer frequent-
ly indicates the high temperature of 100, 110, and even, as re-
ported, 140 degrees in the open air. If intense heat and ex-
cessive dryness were reliable indications of the presence of
gold, the peninsula of Old California should be superlatively
rich in that metal. But as has already been stated, every ex-
pedition into California for gold resulted in miserable failure
to the old Spaniards. From the time the Jesuits entered
Lower California as missionaries, and established the Mission
of Lo-eto in 1697, to their expulsion in 1767 to make way for
the rule of the Franciscans, followed by the Dominicans, and
down to 1822, during which time the rule of the Francis-
cans was gradually extended all along the Pacific coast of
Lower and Upper California, the whole region was governed
in a manner even more fatal to progress than Spanish colonial
management in general.

The downfall of Spanish power in Mexico came in 1822,
and the power of the Friars became rapidly less. About 1825,
emigration to California began, being mostly to the upper
part of the country, and year by year increased in volume.
The emigrants were firstly Mexicans, who were attracted by
the fine climate and fertile soil ; next American trappers, citi-
zens of the United States who entered the region from the
desert lands east of the Nevadas, and finding abundant game,
fine climate, fertile soil, and comparatively peaceful Indians,
remained and roamed the whole domain as if its independent
proprietors; to these were added Russians from Russian
America, now Alaska, who established a trading post called
Russ (Russia), and seemed ready to attempt the occupation of
the whole territory ; beside these, were constantly added to
the population numbers of sailors who escaped from merchant
vessels trading to California, or were left behind at their
own request, and adventurers of various kinds from almost
all countries, and finally, as the fame of the climate extended,
some invalids from the eastern United States, seeking relief
from pulmonary and other diseases.

384 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

The Mexican republic left the Californias in an almost inde-
pendent position politically; from 1822, for a series of years,
the usages, laws, institutions, and administration of that part
of the new federal Union were irregular and unsettled. There
was no great disturbance or violent anarchy, but individuals
took great liberties with the country, assumed on various pre-
tenses possession of lands, and without much regard for Mexi-
can jurisdiction kept their position, and conducted business
according to their personal sense of right, and with a special
view to their own interests and satisfaction. The Muscovites
descending from their possessions in America at this time, es-
tablished their town of fiuss upon Mexican territory, regard-
less of boundary lines, the citizens of the United States
"walked through the land as if it had been their own."
Speculators from Europe, and from New England, engrossed
most of the trade.

Black or Spanish cattle were introduced into Upper Califor-
nia in 1766 and increased rapidly, so that their hides and tallow
became in a few years the principal and almost only article of
export. By the year 1830, the Franciscans, beside other prop-
erty, owned over 300,000 of these animals, of which some 60,-
000 were killed each year. The Missions, where the Francis-
can Friars still kept up their establishments, were all within a
day's journey of the Pacific coast. The larger part of Upper
California was, even as late as 1836, not only an unexplored
country, but a region almost unvisited by white men. By
this time, the pearl fisheries, which had been carried on in the
El Mar de Cortez, Gulf of California, since the time of its first
navigation by Cortes, from whom it took its original name,
had become so far exhausted as to yield a value of less than
$500 a year. In 1836, there was a gold mine called the San
Antonio, in Lower California, the workings being some ten or
twelve miles north-west of the town of La Paz, the present
capital of the territory ; but the amount of gold secured was
inconsiderable, owing to the poverty of the vein. In Upper
California, a small silver mine was found east of San Ines, but

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 385

operations there were presently discontinued. Gold was also
found in one of the rivers flowing into the southern Tulare
Lake, but the amount was small, and as late as 1837, the wash-
ings for the gold dust of this deposit had not been found very
profitable. At this time the population of Lower California,
was supposed to be no more than 8,000 persons of all condi-
tions, whites and Indians. In Upper California, there were
6,000 or more whites, some 20,000 "converted," that is to say,
subjugated, domesticated, and enslaved Indians, and 100,000,
more or less, of aborigines, in numerous wild tribes speaking
many languages or dialects. The interior of the Californias
was known to be a dangerous and difficult country to traverse,
and the region of the Rio Colorado, and the great canons, was
justly famous as about the nearest approach to an uninhabita-
ble and impassable country, to be found in equal extent, any-
where on earth.

On the second dav of the montn of Juiv, 1839. a vessel was

*/ / I

stranded in the bay of Yerba Buena, by which accident, Col.
John Augustus Suter, or "Sutter," was landed upon the coast
of the present harbor of San Francisco. This distinguished
California pioneer, was born at Kandcrn, Baden, Germany, on
February 15, 1803. He was educated at the military school
of Bern, Switzerland, from which he graduated as an officer
of the Swiss army, and hence has been generally considered a
native of Switzerland. In 1834, Col. Suter emigrated to
America, and establishing himself as a trader at Santa Fe,
New Mexico, carried on for some time, a profitable business
with the trappers and Indians of the Far West. Hearing
from his customers favorable accounts of California, Col. Suter
crossed the Rocky Mountains in 1S38 ; went to Fort Vancou-
ver, Oregon, and took a further voyage to the Sandwich
islands, thence to Alaska, and southward along the coast of
the Pacific to the bay of San Francisco, where his vessel was
stranded, as has been already described. From Yerba Bucna,
Col. Suter penetrated the interior of California to the conflu-
ence of the American and Sacramento rivers, about 140 miles

386 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

east-north-east of San Francisco county, and under great diffi-
culties and discouragements, founded the earliest white settle-
ment made on the site now occupied by Sacramento city, Sac-
ramento county, the capital of California. Col. Suter, or
"Sutter," having become a naturalized American citizen, ob-
tained from the Mexican authorities in California, on account
of his settlement, and for the improvement of the country, a
grant of eleven square leagues of land, and upon it, in IS-il,
he built a fort which, with the grant around it, he called oSTc\v
Helvetia. The garrison of the fort was made up of a few
white men its owner and commander gathered around him,
the surrounding domain was occupied by Indians he took into
his service ; he was a man of great force of character, and this,
with his remote position, and the number of his adherents,
gave him great influence and importance. Col. Sutcr is said
to have bid independent defiance to the Mexican authorities
at times, and yet he was appointed by them Governor of the
northern frontier country of California, in which office he
served to the benefit of all concerned.

In 1841, gold was discovered in the southern part of Cali-
fornia, at a point near the San Fernando Mission, in an alluvial
deposit, where washings were carried on with moderate suc-
cess. "Without any especial reasons, other than those of climate,
soil and the general features of the country, and its probable
future, as an agricultural state, emigration to California had
become very popular with the bold pioneers who, year after
year, carried the western frontier of the civilization of the
United States, farther and farther toward the setting sun.
Impelled by a wonderful ppirit of enterprise, more than 5,000
persons crossed the terrible Sierras during the period from
1840 to 1845 inclusive, to make their homes in California.
The hardships of this tremendous journey, afoot, on horse-
back, or in wagons, over vast arid plains and across mighty
mountains, were often fatal. In. 1846, the party led by Cap-
tain Donner perished on the route, other companies were deci-
mated, some utterly destroyed, by thirst and starvation, or

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 887

overwhelmed amid the sudden snow storms of the Nevadas.
To such as made the journey, "Sutler's Fort," which had
meantime grown somewhat famous, became the first stopping-
place in California, and from that point, the emigrants dis-
persed, and settled according to circumstances and their own
inclinations. As might have been anticipated, the wealth and
prosperity of Governor John Augustus Suter rapidly in-
creased, until it fully equalled his very considerable social and
political prominence.

From about 1840, the relations between the governments of
the United States and of Mexico became more and more un-
settled. In October, 1842, Commodore Jones of the United
States navy, took the town of Monterey, a sea-port of Central
California, on the Pacific coast, and declared the state part of
the territory of the United States. Learning that war had
not begun, Commodore Jones apologized, and the next day
withdrew his forces. On February 28th, 1845, Texas was
admitted to be one of the United States. In defense of the
assumed boundary of Texas, the troops of the United States,
on May 8th, 1846, under Gen. Zachary Taylor, fought and
won, the battle of Palo Alto against the Mexican forces, and
immediately crossing the Eio Grande, began their famous
march "for the Halls of the Montezumas." On July 7, the
same year, Commodore John D. Sloat of the United States
navy, repeated the capture of the port of Monterey, California,
held so briefly by Commodore Jones in 1842. Again, Cali-
fornia was declared a territory of the United States, and now,
the proclamation was maintained, Commodore Sloat assuming
the office of Governor. On the 9th of July, San Francisco
was occupied by the United States troops. Meantime, a party
had been organized under Col. John C. Fremont, and the inde-
pendence of California from Mexico, proposed at Sonoma, July
5, 1846. On July 12, 1846, the troops of the United States
occupied Sutter's Fort. Various military operations against
Mexico followed in California and New Mexico, under Col.
John C. Fremont, Com. Robert F Stockton Gen. Stephen W.

388 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

Kearney, Col. Richard B. Mason, Capt. (after Maj. -Gen.) Henry
W. Halleck, and other officers of the United States. Out of a
possible white population of 10,000 in Upper California, some
7,500 were already in practical revolt against Mexican rule.
The occupation of California by the United States, was made
complete, and the whole region pacified by June, 1847. By
the treaty of Gaudalupe Hidalgo, signed during February,
1848, Mexico ceded California and New Mexico to the United
States, the latter power subsequently paying a very consid-
erable sum of money as compensation for part of the lands ac-
quired.

The army of the United States, during the war with Mex-
ico, contained a remarkable number of Mormons. These
Mormon soldiers became aware of the existence of gold in
California, and were known to have gathered more or less of
the precious metal from placers on the banks of streams where
they happened to be posted. Certain Mexicans and various
Indians also collected gold during the war, having, perhaps,
learned the business of the soldiers. Thus, the existence of
great gold fields in the mountain ranges of the western part of
North America, north of Mexico, believed in by the old Span-
iards from 1511 ; noted by Hakluyt, 1577-9 ; published by
the priest of San Jose, Loyola Cavcllo, 1690; by Capt. Shel-
vocke, 1721; by Antonio de Alcedo, 1786-9; recognized by
Prof. J. D. Dana, 1838-1842, and announced by Mr. Sloat, in
Hunt's Merchant's Magazine, April, 1847, became once more
a matter of rumor, with a number, and to an uncommunica-
tive few, a partly demonstrated fact. Still, there was no ex-
citement in relation to the subject, it being generally supposed
in the United States and in all Spanish-American countries,
that gold dust could be found in many places, but almost
always in such small quantities, as to make labor spent in col-
lecting it the very poorest kind of business.

While the diplomats and statesmen of the United States
and Mexico, in the great capitals, were negotiating the terms
of an international treaty, which was to change the map of

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 339

half a continent, and arrange the relations of scores of mil-
lions of men, a mere child, a little girl, at play beside a wild
stream of unexplored California, was fated to make an acci-
dental discovery, the consequences of which have done more
in the third of a century, to revolutionize the arts, commerce
and finance of the whole 'civilized world, than could have oth-
erwise been achieved in an age by the joint efforts of all the
great powers on earth. Among his other enterprises in Cali-
fornia at this time, Governor Suter, or "Sutter," haderectcda
mill, at a point on the American fork of the Sacramento river,
near the present town of Coloma, in El Dorado county. Dur-
ing the winter of 1848, the race-way of "Sutter's Mill" be-
came damaged by the freshets of the rainy season. On Feb-
ruary 9th, 1848, three Americans, of whom two were Mor-
mons, were at work repairing the race-way. The overseer of
the party was a man named Marshall, and with him he had
his little daughter, who amused herself with the pebbles she
found among the freshly-dug gravel. This little girl found a
considerable lump or nugget of gold in the race-way, and this
she presented to her father, as "a pretty stone."

Remarkable as this discovery was, it did not at first attract
very much attention, and the Mormons in particular, were
quite anxious to keep the facts from the knowledge of the pub-
lic. The motives of the Mormons, in seeking as they did at
this time and afterwards, to conceal the existence of gold in
territories where they might be, are only to be conjectured.
As their people had been subjected to intense hostility at Nau-
voo, Illinois, the Mormons in California may have been look-
ing for the site of a colony of "Latter Day Saints" ; their lead-
ers in their emigration that year to the Great Salt Lake Desert,
clearly foresaw the evil to be apprehended from an invasion
by a lawless horde of gold seekers, and imposed silence upon
their followers regarding the sources of gold then and there
discovered. As far as the personal interests of Suter, and
those immediately interested with the proprietor, were con-
cerned, the history of the events which succeeded show it

390 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

might have been well for them, if, for a time at least, they
had been as uncommunicative, concerning the gold as the
most secretive Mormon could have desired.

"The American Journal of Science" dated March, 1848,
contained a letter from the Rev. C ; S. Lyman, which stated
that: "Gold has been found recently on the Sacramento near
Sutter's Fort. It occurs in small masses in tha sands of a
new mill race, and is said to promise well." The news thus
communicated to the reading public spread rapidly, but it was
several months before any great number of active diggers
had reached the new gold field. By December, 1848, how-
ever, washing for gold was succssfully carried on all along the
foot hills of the Sierra, from the banks of the Tuolumne river,
latitude 37 degrees 40 minutes North, to the valley of the
Feather river, near latitude 40 degrees North, a distance of
more than 150 miles. The first of the gold-seekers from
abroad came from Mexico, from the South American Pacific
coast, and from the Sandwich islands, from the eastern United
States, and even from Europe and China.

As the results of the primitive operations of the pioneers
became known, an intense excitement was created which
swiftly extended across the mountains to the states upon the
Atlantic coast, and so over the entire continent, and presently
throughout the civilized world.

The position of Governor of California from May 31. 1847,
vO April 13, 1849, was held by Col. Richard B. Mason. Gov-
ernor Mason reported to the authorities of the United States,
that at the close of the year 1848, there were 4,000 men em-
ployed in working gold, with a daily product to the value of
from $30,000 to $50,000. The value of the gold secured
during 1848. was estimated at $10,000,000. During the spring
1849, an unparalleled rush of emigration to California began,
the emigrants making their way across the plains of the Great
American Desert, by way of the isthmus of Panama, and
around Cape Horn ; indeed, from each quarter of the globe
and by all lines of travel. It was estimated that during the

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 391

year 1849, over 100,000 men reached California, and that
among them were included representatives of every one ot
the United States. The yield of gold in California for 1849,
was valued at $40,000,000. The great tide of emigration
thus commenced, continued in great force for about five years.

In spite of the efforts of the defenders of American slavery,
California was admitted as a free state of the United States of
America, on September 9th, 1850. At the close of the year,
there were supposed to be 50,000 men in California digging
for gold. The yield of California gold for 1850, was valued
at $50,000,000. The pick, shovel, and pan, were the only
tools of the pioneers in California gold mining. The first
diggings were generally in the deposits made upon upturned
argillaceous slates. The gold was found in dust, grains, and
nuggets, throughout the body of the sand and gravel forming
the deposits, and in greater quantities entangled between the
edges of the underlying slates. So abundant was the gold,
that a large part of the product was picked out of the "pock-
ets, "crevices" and cavities of the bed-rock by hand, in the form
of coarse grains and nuggets, some of the last being quite
large. The early workings for gold in California, were mostly
along the rivers, particular attention being paid to the beds
of the streams. The process presently adopted for working a
river bed, was to erect a dam and divert the water of the
natural channel into wooden "flumes" extending along the
bank to a point of discharge some distance down the stream.
The bed of the river being thus left bare for a considerable
area, the sand and gravel which had accumulated there was
washed in the usual manner, with the pan, or by the help of
"cradles," "rockers," "long-toms," "sluices," and various in-
ventions and contrivances, such as might have beeu expected,
considering the business, the locality, and the intelligent ener-
gy directed to the search for gold.

The gulches and ravines down the sides of the canons, were
all worked over, whether containing streams or lying dry.
They were the earliest and richest of all the placer?, the gold

392 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

in them being, however, most unequally distributed. The
original operators upon the bars of the American, Yuba,
Feather and Stanislaus rivers, and the re.st of .the minor
streams in the center of the California gold field, sometimes
procured gold to the value of from one to five thousand dol-
lars a clay for each man. These fertile spots were, however,
of small extent, and when one was exhausted, another might
not be found for days, weeks, or, perhaps, months of time.
The gold veins of California were too obviously rich to re-
main unnoticed. Regular quartz mining was begun during
1851, at Spring Hill, in Amador county. During this year,
the gulches, ravines, and river bars, having been in part ex-
hausted, or being occupied, where still worth working ; unem-
ployed or dissatisfied miners extended their "prospecting" to
higher grounds, and soon discovered that the "high gravels,"
as they called the detrital tertiary deposits of the uplands, con-
tained gold, but not in an amount to pay for working by any
process then anywhere in use. Such was the condition of
affairs in California at the close of the year 1851. The gold
produced in the state that year, is estimated to have been
worth $55,000,000.

The year 1852, is remarkable in the annals of gold mining,
throughout the world, for during the same, the "high gravels"
and hills of California were attacked by the hydraulic process,
a system which puts into the hands of the miner an agent by
which the most incredible results have been accomplished.
The hydraulic process was invented in 1852, by E. E. Matte-
son, a native of the state of Connecticut, but at the time a
resident of Placer county, California. The original apparatus
of Matteson's hydraulic process, consisted of a barrel which
received water at an elevation of 40 feet above the gravel of
the deposit to be worked. From this barrel the water was
drawn through a hose of common cowhide having a diameter
of six inches, ending in a tin tube four feet long, the nozzle
of which had a bore of one inch. From this orifice the water
was discharged with a good deal of force, and being directed

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 393

against a bank of loose gravel, would disintegrate the strata
with some facility, and in the course of a day remove and wash
quite a respectable amount of material, always provided a con-
stant supply of water could be procured for the refilling of the
barrel. The material was carried away by the water through
a "sluice" over "riffles" and across transverse grooves filled
with mercury, and farther along over horizontal plates of
amalgamated copper. The management of the large amount
of gravel in the sluice required especial care; the gold being
brought in contact with the mercury, became amalgamated
therewith, and the mass being removed as occasion required,
was "cleaned up," the gold secured, and a part of the mercury
recovered. The hydraulic process was soon adopted for uni-
versal use where such a method alone was practical.

Great improvements were rapidly made, not in 1852 alone,
but during all the succeeding years, to the present date ; the
hydraulic system has been brought to its full development and
efficiency, quartz mining immensely extended, and the methods
for the extraction of gold from rocky ores are multiplied, and
finally, the process of chlorination introduced and improved.

In view of the interesting and important evolution in these
respects, and of the necessity of a connected statement of the
same herewith, a pause is here made in relating the remarka-
ble history of California, at the period of the discovery of its
gold deposits and mines, and the next few pages devoted to a
popular, succinct, and yet it is to be hoped sufficiently com-
prehensive account of the various methods and. apparatus
adopted, invented, and employed for the reduction of the ores
of gold, and the securing of the precious metals in that state,
and more or less throughout the world at large, during the
last third of a century.

The wooden flumes, canals and iron pipes brought into use as
aqueducts, in many places measure hundreds of miles in length
in one work. Water was often brought many miles from the
high streams of the Sierras in iron pipes from 22 to 30 inches
in diameter, which discharge their contents under a pressure of

394 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

100 to 300 or even 500 feet of "head" or height of column,
through a six-inch nozzle. With a head of 275 feet, such a
nozzle delivers 1,579 cubic feet of water every minute, more
than 1,600 pounds a second, with a velocity of 140 feet a sec-
ond. The nozzles are regulated and controlled by powerful
and ingenious special mechanism. The water, as it passes
from the nozzle, seems to the touch as rigid as a bar of pol-
ished steel. The discharge pipe is generally placed some 200
feet from the bank or hill to be operated upon, and yet the
stream of water strikes the base of the bank in the same solid
form, and bores its way into the mass with prodigious speed.

The hydraulic work goes on day and night without rest.
Ordinary gravels and earths are thus displaced as if by magic,
and the superincumbent masses come down in crashing land-
slides. Boulders hundred of pounds in weight are tossed to
the right and left like so many pebbles, small stones fly like
bullets, the fallen material, under the unintcrmitting force of
the mighty jet, breaks up, is swiftly disintegrated, and the
clays, earths, and gravels, in great volume, are borne on the
receding torrent into the sluiceways, and from these into the
tunnel or channel made to convey the waste out of the basin
of the deposit and away from the workings. Nothing but
obdurate "cements" and solid rock can resist the force of the
hydraulic jet, and when these are found unmanageable, resort
is had to blasting on a grand scale. To prepare the hard
ground for the action of the water, blasts of from 5 to 50 tons
of powder^or their equivalent in other explosives, are used.
In these upheavals of the strata, from one hundred to six hun-
dred kegs of powder are often fired at once, and in one instance
an artificial earthquake was produced by the simultaneous ex-
plosion of the powder filling two thousand kegs.

The sluiceways used with the hydraulic process are, as to
the principal of construction, similar in most respects to those
in smaller operations, but of course far more extensive, form-
ing a complete system extended for miles. Each mile of sluice,
is charged with from five to six hundred weight of mercury,

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 395

to which about one hundred pounds of that metal, must be
added daily, in at least two charges, to make good the constant
waste. In this way, a single working, may consume from
15,000 to 20,000 pounds of mercury in a single year. From
the upper part of the sluices, the mercury and gold in amal-
gamation are removed once in seven days ; farther down, the
amalgam is removed every fourteen days ; and far away, near
where the waste water enters the discharge tunnel, the mer-
cury lies unremoved, and gathers the constantly-escaping par-
ticles of gold for six months. The mercury is recovered from
the gold by distillation, a process attended with some loss o!
the quicksilver, however. Of the entire amount of gold con-
tained in the deposit, well-conducted hydraulic washings, un-
der favorable conditions, secure some 80 to 85 parts in tne
hundred. Thus, for every 80 or 85 ounces of gold, so pro-
duced, some 15 or 20 ounces are lost. Considering that in
hydraulic washings the whole mass of the deposit must be re-
moved, the result is very favorable. Taking the wages of tho
miner to be $1,00 each day, the cost of handling a cubic yard
of gravel may be estimated on an average, as follows : By the
pan, $20,00; by the rocker, $5,00; by the long-torn, $1,00;
with the hydraulic process five cents.

The capital required in extensive hydraulic washings is very
great. The bed-rock tunnels for carrying away the waste and
water, are sometimes thousands of feet long, and a number of
feet in diameter, the work of several years. The North Bloom-
field Company, in Nevada county, California, expended a few
years ago in ditches, reservoirs, and various water- works, over
a hundred miles in total length, the sum of $1,250,000. Their
water supply was abundant, and delivered through eight-inch
nozzles, under the pressure of a head of 500 feet. The waste-
water tunnel through the rim-rock enclosing the deposit, was
8,000 feet long, and part of the distance, 8 feet square. There
was supposed to be enough material in possession of this Com-
pany, to employ their facilities for many years. The hydrau-
lic process has renewed the value of many California placers,

396 DYKS COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

which before its application were regarded as worthless or ex-
hausted, and the same may be said of similar deposits which
have been treated by the same method in different parts of the
world. So tremendous have been the effects of this system
of working upon the uplands of certain districts of California,
that much litigation has been caused, the farmers, millers, and
others, occupying for many miles the banks of the rivers, in
the valleys, complaining of ruinous damages from the gravel
washed down, without intermission, from the hills.

In 1873-4, there were 775 mining ditches in California, with
an aggregate length of 4,863 miles, which carried a burthen
of 300,000,000 cubic feet of water each day. Some of this
water is used for mills, or irrigation, but the greater part is
employed for the hydraulic mining. These operations have
called into use the highest engineering skill. Miles of tunnels
have been created, under hills and mountains, to obtain the
requisite fall to a point where the debris could be left. As
the water-works are immensely expensive, the erection and
maintenance of the aqueducts has in many cases been assumed
by independent corporations, by which the miners are supplied
with water upon terms regulated by the "inch, "that is to say,
so much for the amount taken through an opening a certain
number of inches in diameter under a given pressure or "head."

In hydraulic mining, three things are essential : auriferous
deposits of great extent ; abundance of water, at high press-
ure ; and great space of lower ground, on which to leave the
waste material. Where these conditions can be secured, a few
cents' worth of gold from each ton of earth, can be made to
afford a handsome profit. The yield of the material worked
by the hydraulic process, varies in different places, and the
cost of the operation depends much upon the nature of the
deposit. The La Grange Hydraulic Mining Company, washed
683,244 cubic yards of earth, at a cost of $0.0 '38 each, with an
average yield of $0.066 for each yard. In Placer county, 43,-
000,000 cubic yards of earth were profitably washed, with an
average yield of less than five cents to the yard. In Tuba,

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 397

county, 25,000,000 cubic yards of earth, were washed, with an
average yield of $0.26 the yard. In Nevada county, 16,000,-
000 cubic yards of earth were washed, with an average yield
of $0.30 the yard.

Hydraulic mining in California, was supposed to have ap-
proximated its maximum during the year 1878. Evidence
given before the courts at Marysville, Sacramento county,
during July and August of that year, in the suits brought for
damages from the wash and debris of certain mines, made it safe
to assume that the hydraulic, drift, placer, and river minin
operations in California, yielded an amount of gold worth
$12,000,000 or more. It was estimated that this yield would
slowly increase, until about 1883, when it was expected to
reach the value of $15,000,000 each year. The gravel chan-
nels were well known, and mostly owned and held by corpo-
rations having large capital. Nearly or quite all the availa-
ble water supply for working these gravels, was owned by
these same corporations, as were also the points from which
tunnels could have been made by which to reach the bottom
gravels, and through which, to get rid of waste water and dirt.

One of these Hydraulic Companies had been engaged for
more than ten years from the time of its organization, buying
mining claims and constructing their works. Another Com-
pany of the same kind, had been engaged for seven years in
like preparations. Each of these Corporations constructed
immense reservoirs, which were finished in October, 1878 ;
one of them had a dam 100 feet high and held 1,000,000,000
cubic feet of water ; the other was formed by a dam 145 feet
high, but was of less area, having a capacity of but 800,000,-
000 cubic feet. These Companies constructed altogether 120
miles of canals, over the very rough country on the western
slope of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, from these reservoirs
to their mines. The canals cost from $8,500 to $10,000 each
mile, more than $1,000,000 in all. These systems of water-
works were expected to supply an average of 90,000,000 gal-
lons of water a day through all seasons. The same Compa-

398 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

nies constructed four deep tunnels, varying from 3,000 to
8,000 feet in length, at a cost of from $40 to $60 per foot.

Commencing in 1866, the preparatory work, of these Corpo-
rations was carried steadily forward until the autumn of 1878,
when the whole was completed, the cost of all having been
about $4,000,000 in gold coin exclusive of interest. From the
mines to be developed by them, an income of $1,000,000 a
year was expected, for from fifty to seventy-five years. The
California deposits ^.to be worked by "hydraulicing" are very-
extensive, still there is a limit to the gravels found in favora-
ble situations. The gravel channel of "The Big Blue Lead"
has been traced for sixty miles, the depth of the bed being
some three. hundred feet. The most practical operators con-
clude that the product of all the gravel gold mines of Califor-
nia will never exceed $15,000,000 a year, but that they can
be depended upon fo;- such results for a hundred years or
more.

The territory of .Montana also contains hundreds of square
miles of deep gold-bearing drift sands, some of which are now
being washed with good results. The hydraulic process has
been used in Australia for a number of years, and of late in-
troduced into Russia. The lofty Sierras of California, with
their numerous swift torrents, present great advantages for
hydraulic workings. The highest underground mines and
hydraulic works in the world, are in Rio Grande county-, Col-
orado, where the Little Annie and Summit diggings, are
worked at an elevation of eleven thousand feet, and twelve
thousand feet, respectively, above the sea. "What effect the
present method of working "deep diggings" by hydraulic ap-
pliances, may have upon the future supply of gold throughout
the world, cannot be estimated. It is certain that gold in
quantities beyond all calculation, may be found in endless
masses of un worked drift, and that the "tailings" and refuse
of countless old roughly -wrought placers, may be made to
yield a profit once more. Considering the vast capital already
invested, the skill and energy exhibited, and the average profit

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 399

obtained, he would be rash indeed, who assumed to even ap-
proximately forecast the grand inevitable result.

Nearly all of the seven or eight billions of dollars' worth of
gold, supposed to have been taken from the earth by man,
though originally developed from fissures and veins, was,
down to the development of quartz; mining in .California, taken
from drift, and the deposits of river bottoms. In. primitive
times, only the simplest machinery was used for washing the
clays and sands ; the hard lumps were broken with stones or
clubs, and the dirt, when dry, was winnowed, the residuum
being washed in bowls or pans. From the presence of large
stone troughs and vessels among the ruins of ancient mines,
it is inferred that the men of early ages, who had a knowledge
of mercury, used the process of amalgamation. In the time
of Pliny, A. D. 50, there was evidently more or less working
of veins of gold; the arrastre, still used in some Spanish-
American operations, a revolving stone dragged by animals
around a hard-rock basin, or driven like the wheel in a brick-
yard, was then in use. After the discovery of Brazil in 1500,
and the finding of the gold in 1577, washings were carried on
for a hundred years; in 1680, the amount of gold thus far ob-
tained, was but $1,000,000. The rocks of Brazil wer.e first
practically worked for gold about 1725, on the property now
owned by the St. John del Key Company, but the results of
repeated undertakings were ruinous, until 1830, when rude
stamping machines made of wood were erected, and a profit
was secured.

During the year 1823, and afterwards, earnest efforts at
mining the solid rocks, were made in Russia; more than sixty
different mines of that kind were opened, but after a time work
was stopped on all of them, principally for want of any proper
means of reduction for such obdurate ores.

The vein formations of California, traverse strata of the
Jurassic and triassic ages, the quartz lodes or ledges being
found among crystalline slates, interbedded with porphyritic
iand serpentine rocks in sections, the whole being imposed

400 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

upon, or resting against the center of granitic and gneissic
rocks of the mountains, and presenting upon the surface a se-
ries of ridges arranged on a line parallel with the main course
of the Sierra Nevadas. There are various theories regarding
the origin of veins, fissures, and lodes of gold, among which
those of Le Conte, Dana, Davies, and Sir R. Murchison are
most notable.

Le Conte considers the evidence conclusive, that the aurif-
erous quartz veins of California, have been deposited from
hot alkaline solutions, and that the metallic sulphides in con-
nection, had the same origin, the solvent of the gold having
been the sulphate of iron. Where gold is found in pure
quartz, without the sulphide, it is supposed it may have been
in alkaline solution as silicate of gold. The theory of Dana
corresponds somewhat with that already presented. This dis-
tinguished geologist considers the origin of gold veins as little
understood. The veins occur in the hydromica, chloritic, and
argillaceous slates, of imperfect crystallization, and not in the
fully crystallized mica, schist, and gneiss. The quartz veins
occur among the fissures of the selmi crystallized slates, having
been formed during the metamorphic changes of a moderately-
heated earthquake era.

The mineral ingredients of the rocks, dissolved by intensely-
heated ascending subterranean vapors, or by the heated waters
resting upon them, formed alkaline or silicious solutions, which
dissolving the gold with which it came in contact, carried the
same laterally or downward and deposited the metal in the
fissures it infiltrated, in the form of strings, crystals and
grains. The goM-bearing pyrite of the vein, is crystallized
under the same circumstances. The formation of veins of
gold, in the manner supposed by Le Conte and Dana, would
have been the work of an indefinite time, and how the fissures
of the rocks were kept open during that age of changes, is not
explained.

The theory of Davies is, that the quartz beds and veins of
gold, are formed by the segregation of the finely-disseminated

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 401

gold sparsely found in the schists or slates of a steatitic, tal-
cose, and chloritic nature, and the granite and green-stone
rocks of the geologic horizon of the Lingula flags, and the beds
below, the most productive rocks being found at what in
North Wales is the junction of the lower and upper carnbrian
strata, the whole of the gold-bearing rocks lying below the
carboniferous group, and being of the same age and like con-
dition the world over.

Sir E. Murchison propounds the Silurian Theory, in which
he declares the structure of the different countries notable on
account of their product of gold, is similar, and that the Silu-
rian age of geologic formation, is the true era for the develop-
ment of those "constants in nature" whichever since mark
the condition, relation and presentation of gold.

This theory has been contradicted, or perhaps made more
comprehensive, by subsequently-discovered facts, and reason-
ing upon the same ; but every theory has its opponents ; we
are only certain that there are gold veins, that they may be
discovered and estimated by scientific observation of geologic
indications, and that when properly worked, by approved
methods, a business profit can generally be realized.

As a common rule, the most productive veins are those con-
taining gold-bearing sulphides. The veins occurring in hard
white quartz free from sulphides, present the gold for the
most part in flakes, or small grains, visible to the naked eye.
The gold is sometimes found in such veins, in considerable
masses of high purity, but the average yield of the rock sel-
dom pays for working.

As has been stated already, the regular working of quartz
veins in California, began at Spring Hill, Amador county,
during 1851 ; since then, the growth of that business has been
very great ; several thousand lodes have been worked to a
profit in the United States, and one hundred thousand veins
are said to have been described upon the records of Colorado.

In Australia, more than two thousand five hundred and
fifty one auriferous reefs, or. veins, have been worked, extend-

402 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

ing over an area of eight hundred and eighty square miles,
part of a vast gold belt one thousand miles long. The Ural
regions of Russia offer an area for similar operations, extend-
ing for about two millions of square miles.

The Appalachian gold field, on the North American coast
of the Atlantic, covers an area of one thousand square miles,
and the gold-bearing territory of California is as large as the
entire state of New York.

Most of the auriferous veins of California, are principally
composed of white or bluish quartz, containing some two per
cent, of sulphurets, chiefly ordinary iron pyrites, and occa-
sionally a small amount of galena and blende. There are
about 1,000,000 tons of quartz rock worked annually in Cali-
fornia, yielding from six to fifteen, to twenty, twenty-five, or
more dollars per ton, with an average of about twenty dollars
worth of gold in each ton, though taking account of losses in
working, it is doubtful whether more than fifteen dollars
worth of gold are secured on the average from each ton of
rock. The cost of working these rocks includes : Mining, per
ton, $5.75; Milling, $2,00. Total, $7,75 per ton. In narrow
veins with great masses of waste rock, this expense would be
increased. The proportion of gold saved to the amount actu-
ally in the rock, is a point under discussion. Some estimates
allow a waste of twenty-five, some thirty, and some thirty-five
percent., and Paul, in Raymond's Report of 1872, declares the
mills of California were not working to save gold and silver,
but to crush rock, not more than forty per cent, of the gold
contained being secured. The greatest waste is known to pass
in finely-comminuted particles of gold, so infinitesimal as not
to precipitate in standing distilled water in less than five or
ten minutes.

The gold-bearing quartz veins of California are of all
widths, up to thirty feet, and have been explored to a depth
of over two thousand feet, and extend below indefinitely.
The Mother Lode, the great vein of California, has an esti-
mated length of from eighty to one hundred miles. The au-

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 403

riferous quartz of the California veins is treated by pulver-
ization in the stamp mill; by concentration of the product
thus obtained; by oxidation, and extraction.

The first stamping mill was imported into California from;
England, during the year 1849 or 1850. The machine was
mostly of wood, a number of upright beams shod with iron,
arranged to be alternately elevated and let fall with force into
pot-shaped mortars. This apparatus has since been so much
modified, and so entirely improved, that the five thousand
and upwards of stamps in use in California in 1870, repre-
senting a capital of $4,800,000 invested in the machinery of
mines, might have been considered California inventions. It
may be stated that at the same time California contained four
hundred and twenty arrastres the cost of which increased the
amount invested for appliances in this connection to $5,500,-
000. The entire structure of the latest improved stamp mill,
is of iron or steel resting upon a foundation which may be of
timber. The side pieces and stays may also be of wood. The
stamps are heavy upright plungers of iron, upon which ad-
justable tappits are keyed fast, to be operated by cams arranged
upon a horizontal shaft. The lower end of the upright plung-
ers bear solid stamp heads with removable shoes. The plunger
and its several attachments, weighs from three hundred to a
thousand pounds, usually from six hundred to six hundred
and fifty pounds.

The horizontal shaft when set in motion revolves with the
cams, and these working under the tappits, lift the plungers
one after another to a distance of nine inches or less ; from this
elevation the plunger, armed with the stamp head, descend^
by its own weight, and may be driven to deliver a hundred
blows per minute. Five of these stamps are arranged together
and form a "battery," the whole working in a deep enclosed
iron trough or mortar, upon five iron dies arranged upon the
thick bottom of the same. The trough has an opening at the
back, through which it is "fed," and an orifice or gateway ia
front, from which its contents are discharged. The opening

404 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

through which the discharge takes place is covered with a
piece of perforated iron, or with an iron wire screen.

The ore or rock having been broken into moderately small
pieces, bj the hammer, or a crushing machine, is shoveled
into the trough and duly charged with water and with mer-
cury. Being brought upon the surface of the dies, the mass
of material is subjected to the operation of the stamps which
fall upon the rock with great violence until it is broken,
crushed, and finely pulverized. The pounding and grinding
goes on, until the contents of the trough are thoroughly re-
duced to a kind of pulp, more or less of the gold contained in
the rock in grains or in dissemination is liberated, and being
brought in contact with the mercury, a more or less perfect
amalgamation follows. Amalgamated plates of copper are ar-
ranged in the battery at the discharge place, and sometimes at
the back under the feed gate. These plates, and the key-holes
of the stamp heads, collect a large part of the amalgam.

As the pulp is discharged from the trough, it is made to fall
upon other amalgamated copper plates set at a gentle incline.
As the watery mercurial mass moves slowly over these sur-
faces, it imparts a share of amalgam to them. From these
copper plates, the flow is conducted to the point of final dis-
charge, or if worthy of further treatment, is carried through
a second pulverization and amalgamation, or subjected to the
action of a variety of devices to effect what is termed concen-
tration.

The method of concentration first used, was by passing the
flow over hides, the hair, or the wool side up. The hides or skins
were superseded by a blanket made especially for the purpose,
and the blanket still remains one of the principal devices for
retaining and saving the heaviest of the particles of amalgam
and gold, which escaping from the trough would otherwise
be lost among the "tailings" of the mill, as the debris created
by its operation is called. Numerous and ingenious devices
have been created to receive the flow from the stamp mill and
collect the fine gold dust, amalgam, and the free sphericles of

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 405

mercury, which would otherwise be borne away and carried
down the stream.

The losses incurred in treating gold-bearing rock in the
stamp mill, and farther, otherwise, as described already, are
due to the state of atomic subdivision in which the gold ex-
ists, or to which it is reduced, and to the presence of sulphides
in the ores. The action of the sulphides "sickens or fouls"
the mercury, and perhaps coats the particles of gold with a
kind of oxide, anyway, the process of amalgamation or blend-
ing of the mercury and gold is prevented, more or less ; the
gold floats away with the sulphides, and the mercury losing
its affinity for the precious metal, becomes incoherent, forms
in part into independent globules covered with a repellant
film of mercurial sulphide, and, rolling with the current, gets
away down stream also.

The methods of concentration where water is used, are in-
ventions created in Europe for treating poor ores, especially
those of Germany and Prussia, and have about exhausted hu-
man ingenuity; still, new arrangements have been made in
. America, involving similar principles of action, while others
have been developed upon an entirely different system, with
dry air as a medium of operation.

The presence of more than three per cent, of sulphides in
an ore of gold, becomes a demonstrable cause of trouble and
loss, which increases with the proportion of sulphurization
found in the material upon which amalgamation is attempted.
The ores of California are comparatively free from sulphides,
but in Colorado great difficulty and damage has been caused
by them. To obviate these, American ingenuity has been
fertile in devices, the object of all being the desulphurization
of the ores, a dead- roast, with the intent of a complete oxida-
tion of all base metals, the metallicization of whatever silver
may be found, or its reduction to a chloride by the use of salt,
leaving the gold in a state of nature as a metallic crystalline
dust. The reverberatory furnace was first employed for this
purpose, anri, with modern improvements, is still preferred for

406 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

special work ; it is expensive, however, and costly regarding
fuel and labor. The various furnaces having revolving cylin-
ders, working the ores automatically, next came into use. The
Stetefeldt furnace for chloridizing silver ores, consisted of a
heated shaft, down which the pulverized ores, mixed with
salt, were sifted. Each contrivance seems to have some spe-
cial merit, and all are subject to similar general defects. The
great want is some cheap effectual method of getting rid of
refuse, otherwise, of concentrating the value of the ore, before
the most practical treatment. .

Supposing the sulphides changed to oxides, by some one of
the many patented or other devices offered for use, the ores
are next finely ground, and formerly, were then considered
fit for amalgamation for the extraction of the gold. Owing
to imperfect oxidation, or an incomplete desulphurization of
the ore, the piocess of amalgamation of the roast thus pre-
pared has not in general been entirely successful. The failures
ithe process so far as already described, created the necessity
^extraction by smelting. There are numerous smelting fur-
naces* now in operation among the western gold mines, and on
the Pacific coast, the ores containing copper, silver and gold
are treated by themselves, while argentiferous galena and gold
are smelted in a different furnace. The cost of the apparatus
for smelting is great, and the expenses in working are heavy.
The various smelting Companies charge the miner from about
thirty dollars a ton, to one hundred dollars a ton, according to
locality and the value of the product secured from the concen-
trates operated upon. Before smelting, the ores are culled or
selected by hand, or otherwise separated, and then in general
concentrated after the methods already stated. This involves
much labor, and still the final result is very unsatisfactory to
the intelligent practical miner and a matter of reproach to the
science of the expert.

The first waste of metal involved in the process by the
stamp mill, is by "float gold" washed away in free but invisi-
ble particles ; the loss by this cause is estimated as high as

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 407

twenty per cent, of the amount saved by amalgamation. The
second waste arises from the passing away of particles of gold
in imperfectly pulverized rock. Where the greatest possible
care has been taken, a loss of ten per cent, of the gold con-
tained in the rock is estimated. In Australia, on ores pro-
ducing but $6,52 worth of gold per ton, an average loss of
$1,56 per ton was attributable to this cause. The third and
greatest waste, results from the presence of the sulphides in
the ore. Presuming the value of the best ores, as worked at
the most carefully-conducted mines of California, to be $29,00
per ton, and the average yield $14,00 to $15,00 per ton, the
loss by sulphides is estimated at an average of $6,00 for each
ton of ore milled in the state. In Colorado, where the assayed
value of the ore has been stated at from $32,97 to $37,97 a
ton, the possible loss by mill treatment has been estimated as
high as $22,00 on each ton.

The demonstration of such results, or even the reasonable
suspicion of their possibility, was sufficient to stimulate inves-
tigation to the utmost, and make ultimate improvement by
new inventions almost certain. It has long been generally
known, that, as described on page 258 of this essay, gold could
be detected and captured by chemical analysis and assay, when,
as in the experiments of Soustadt upon sea water, the amount
of the precious metal present was but about a grain in a ton.
The want of the miner, is a process, which, while saving ap-
proximately, the amount of gold shown by analysis to exist
in the ore, shall yet be so cheap, as to cost but a very
moderate per centage of the gross income derived from the
mine.

Upon the preceding page 261, in reference to the solvents of
gold, it is stated that the metal "is not acted upon by the alka-
lies, nor by any simple acid, except selenic acid, neither is it
affected by the oxygen of the air, though long exposed to the
same when in a state of fusion. It is not affected by sulphur,
but is dissolved by bromine and chlorine, or by any combina-
tion of acids or different substances wherein free chlorine may

408 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

be found. Chlorine, as generated in chemical compounds, is a
powerful solvent of gold."

A practical knowledge of these elementary facts in the
chemistry of gold, was first applied to the treatment of ores
by "chlorination" by Professor Plattner, at the mines at
Reichenstein, Silesia, in 1851. The material operated upon,
then and there, was arsenide waste, containing a small amount
of gold. The success of Plattner's original operations, called
attention to his method, and led to experiments and modifica-
tions of his system, but none of the primary radical innova-
tions came into general use.

About 1868, when extraction by smelting was first applied
to the ores of Colorado, Professor Deetken of San Francispo,
California, began the demonstration of a method of securing
gold by chlorination of the pulverized ores of that state. This
he presently made practical in Grass valley, California, since
which, chlorination works have been erected in many places,
the process being until recently, with few modifications, that
first applied by the original inventor, Professor Plattner, to
the auriferous arsenical wastes at Reichenstein. Under proper
management, this process, with most auriferous sulphides,
gives good uniform results, and when worked for gold alone,
is cheaper than smelting. Practical reasons have limited the
application of the original method of chlorination to "concen-
trates," or prepared selected separated portions of the ore,
from which the bulk of the waste rock has been discharged.
Chlorination works are now established at separate mines, or
in localities where the concentrates can be obtained conveni-
ently from several mills. Large works of this kind under the
original system, have not been attempted, their success being
considered doubtful.

The original Plattner Process of Chlorination may be con-
sidered as the type of the chlorine process, the apparatus and
mode of operation being somewhat as follows: There is pro-
vided a tank, vat or cistern, of proper size, having a per-
forated false bottom, and a close removable cover. Upon the

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 409

false bottom of the tank, in some one of a number of ways
used, a filter is made, and upon this, the prepared concentrates,
having been cooled and moistened with water, are lightly sift-
ed, until the tank is full. The apparatus includes a chamber
or generator made of lead, in which chlorine gas is produced
from the decomposition of salt (chloride of sodium), and the
peroxide of manganese, by sulphuric acid, or from the perox-
ide and hydro-chloric acid. The chlorine gas being passed
through water, to purify it from hydro-chloric acid, enters;
leaden pipes, which conduct it to the space between the true
and false bottoms of the tank, and under the mass of concen-
trates. The gas ascends through the perforations of the false
bottom, and through the filter, and in from fifteen to forty
hours permeates the mass above. Whenever the mass has
become saturated with the gas, the odor of chlorine will be
perceived at the top of the tank ; the cover of the same is then
secured in place, and closely luted or sealed, and pure water is
introduced, until the mass of concentrates is flooded.

The action of the chlorine gas having changed the fine par-
ticles of gold in the concentrates, to a soluble terchloride of
gold, the water dissolves the same, and the aqueous solution
is presently drawn off' into vats; fresh water is then added to
the mass of concentrates in the tank, and the leaching con-
tinued until the water drawn off yields no trace of gold to
chemical tests. To the dilute aqueous solution of terchloride
of gold thus obtained, a precipitant is carefully added ; for this
purpose a variety of reagents or substances are used, among
which are the prepared solution of sulphate of iron, or com-
mon copperas ; the sub. chloride of arsenic; sulphurous acid ;
sulphuretted hydrogen; phosphorous; iron; copper; zinc;
mercury ; charcoal ; sawdust ; leather, etc. Extended and ex-
haustive experiments by expert metallurgists, have shown
that the successful extraction of gold from concentrates of its
ores-by chlorination, is dependent upon the nature of the ore,
a thorough and proper preparation of the concentrates, and
skillful manipulation in the various steps of the process. The

410 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

sulphur and arsenic of the sulphides and arsenides which may
be found in the ores and their concentrates, must be com-
pletely driven off by heat ; the roast being continued until the
metals are perfectly transformed into oxides, the chemical
combination of the mass broken up, and the gold left in its
native condition as a free metal.

If sulphides and soluble sulphates of the metals are allowed
to remain in the materials operated upon by chlorine gas, they
are transformed into chlorides, and the chlorine gas being ab-
sorbed, is wasted. The chlorides may also evolve sulphui-
etted hydrogen gas, which would cast down the dissolved gold
so as to cause a loss of the same in the mass. The sulphides
produce chloride of sulphur, hydro-chloric and sulphuric acids
are then produced by reactions, the acids attack the oxides,
and the metallic salts created descend with the dissolved gold
as cast down by the sulphates, the whole forming an impure
precipitate. The chlorine gas must be freed from hydro-
chloric acid, or the metallic oxides are taken into solution;
sulphuretted hydrogen would be evolved from undecomposed
sulphides, if present, and the dissolved gold descend and be
lost in the mass.

The restrictive objections to the use of this otherwise un-
equalled process have been, the care arid expense of such a
preparation of the ores and roast of the concentrates, as is ab-
solutely requisite; the time needed to effect the chlorination
of even a moderate mass ; the amount of pure water which
must be used ; the great number and size of the tanks and vats
to be erected for any considerable working, and the great space
occupied by a most cumbersome establishment.

For many years, the cost of the necessary acids prevented
the economical separation of gold in Australia, until the diffi-
culty was overcome by the introduction and adoption of a
chlorine process, invented by Mr. F. Bowyer Miller, formerly
one of the assayers of the Sydney branch of the Royal Mint,
and in 1880, superintendent of the bullion office at Melbourne,
By Miller's process, the gold is rendered tough and the silver

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 411

is separated and becomes a valuable source of revenue. The
process has the additional advantage of rapid operation ; un-
der the other known methods of refining, much time was lost,
but a few hours now suffices for the treatment of the largest
parcels. Eighteen thousand ounces of gold, have been refined
and delivered for work in one working day. The plant -re-
quired for this operation is of the simplest kind, and the
chemical agents used are of the most inexpensive character.
Information in regard to this process, was communicated to
the Secretary of the Treasury of the United States, by 0. M.
Spencer, Consul-General at Melbourne-.

In regard to this Australian process, Mr. Wm. E. Du Bois,
Assayer of the United States Mint at Philadelphia, informs
the writer that : " The chlorine-parting process was abundantly
tested at the U. S. Mint in Philadelphia, some years ago, by
the inventor, and elicited warm approbation from the opera-
tive officers there.

" It was evident, however, that it was not well adapted to the
most of the gold ores of the United States, on account of their
being argentiferous, in a considerable degree; while for the
gold mines of Australia, where the gold is of a high grade,
containing but little silver, it was just the thing they wanted.
For auriferous silver, such as Nevada produces mainly, it is
not suited at all. The nitric process, and especially the sul-
phuric, continue therefore to be used at the U. S. mints, and
private refineries generally. It seems not necessary to give
here the chemical reasons for the difference."

With a view to remedying the defects of the Plattner process
of chlorination, or at least of adapting the same to a wider
range of operation, Dr. J. Ilowell Mears of Philadelphia, madd
a series of experiments which resulted in what is claimed to
be an original discovery, and device of surpassing importance.
The new method of working developed by Dr. Mears, is styled
the Mears-Plattner Process. For this process, Tho Clears
Chlorination Company of Philadelphia, claim "the locking-up
of hitherto uncontrolled power, subjecting it to order, method,

412 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

and measure, the harnessing of it to disciplined effort for per-
fecting in one hour a duty which, at will, required from twen-
ty to forty hours." They farther state: "The merit of the
discovery rests in this condensed and increased force of dis-
ciplined work, vastly accelerating perfect results. The scope
of labor thus opened embraces the large portion of the aurifer-
ous ores, which may now be handled cheaply and conveniently
without waste in the residues." " Briefly stated, the Mears
improvement derives form and force from compressed chlorine
confined in a revolving cylinder containing the auriferous
roast mass. The advantages consist in an expedited action, an
important contracting of the operating area and appliances,
therefore great economy in material, in handling, and in out-
lay for plant ; to which is added a close, if not closer extrac-
tion of metal than by the old free range process according to
Plattner."

Chlorine gas for operations by the Mears-Plattner Process
is generated in the usual manner. From the generator, the
gas is passed into a metallic gasometer lined with lead, and
thence is forced by a pump into a strong reservoir. In place
of the tank formerly used, there is a chlorinator, formed of
"a cylinder of iron lined with lead, the cylinder revolving on
trunions centered on the heads and resting on boxes firmly
seated on the iron frame support, one trunion being hollow,
to which the connecting pipe is adjusted. Central on the
periphery of the cylinder a man hole is fitted with an adjusta-
ble cover. All assailable parts are protected with sheet- lead,
and the parts firmly bolted together and capable to resist a
pressure much greater than the working maximum, and indi-
cated by an attached pressure guage."

The ores, or concentrates, to be operated upon by the appara-
tus just described, are submitted to the same thorough prepara-
tion required for the original Plattner process; being "dead-
sweet roasted," they are placed in the cylinder just described,
to the amount of two thousand pounds weight ; to this charge,
one hundred and twenty-five gallons of pure water are added,

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 413

and the cylinder revolved until a thorough mixture has been
effected. The air is then exhausted from the cylinder, to pre-
vent adulteration of the chlorine, and the chlorine gas is ad-
mitted from the reservoir until the guage indicates the requi-
site pressure ; the gas is then shut off, and the cylinder kept
revolving from thirty minutes to an hour. By this time, the
gold contained is thoroughly dissolved, the gas remaining is
discharged, either back into the gasometer, by force of the
pump for reuse, or forward, escaping into another and newly-
charged cylinder, where being reinforced from the gasometer,
it helps to chloridize another ton of material.

The man-hole is then opened and the contents of the cylin-
der are dumped through the hole into cars with bottoms ar-
ranged as a filter ; pure water is added, and the leaching car-
ried on and the solution conducted to a precipitating vat, until
the wash shows no trace of gold to chemical test. The pre-
cipitation may be effected by sulphate of iron, or charcoal. If
the sulphate is used, it is added to the contents of the vat un-
til the solution shows no change of color when a few drops of
the sulphate in preparation are added to a sample quantity
from the vat. If charcoal is used, the solution must be care-
fully filtrated through several successive barrels, properly
filled with the coal in a pulverized state until all the gold is
saved. If a precipitate be made with sulphate of iron, the
substance cast down must be washed and purified by dilute
sulphuric acid, and when mixed with borax, or other suitable
flux, smelted and run into ingots of gold. When the precipi-
tate is made in charcoal, a rich carbon concentrate is obtained,
which must be dried and carefully burned to ashes ; these are
then to be washed, and the gold which remains, smelted into
an ingot as in the other process.

Chlorination by use of the revolving cylinder, is also effect-
ed in a second method: The charge of dead-roast is placed in
the cylinder, with a definite amount of chloride of lime, and
the proper proportion of sulphuric acid. The man-hole is
then secured, and the cylinder made to revolve, when the evo-

414 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

lution of chlorine gas is at once made evident by the pressure
indicated upon the dial of the guage; the maximum pressure
is at once attained, but decreases gradually to the completion
of the process. The subsequent treatment of the mass is the
same as in the former instance. By evolving the chlorine
gas in the cylinder, it is made to operate in the nascent state,
under pressure, with mechanical agitation; this modification
of the method of Dr. Hears, was first used for tests in the lab-
oratory ; then for working trials, and finally in a large way,
working tons of ore daily in an entirely satisfactory manner.

The Mears Plattner Process is in use at the Yadkin Gold
Mine and Reduction Works, North Carolina, and from those
concerned, the report is made, that : "these simple progressive,
and systematic operations serve to extract and put in the form
of bullion, the entire auric contents of the dead-roast, seldom
leaving beyond a trace not over fifty cents per ton if the
operation has been conducted with the care that the syste-
matic conduct of the process demands and makes easy. In an
establishment working several tons of dead-roast continuously,
thus exhausting the powers of the chlorine needed for keeping
up the pressure, only, or mainly that absorbed by the water is
wasted. The cost of a quantity absolutely required for dis-
solving the gold, bears about the relation of twenty five cents
to $240 in gold bullion.

The Mears Chlorinatioa Company, as at present advised,
recommend no special means for claiming the irregular quan-
tity of silver and copper chloridized in their process when em-
ployed for the gold. Special information upon this subject is
promised, but thus far those using the chlorine process for
gold, are left to their choice of the already-known methods
for the chlorides of silver and copper produced. It ia claimed
that in North Carolina, where labor is cheap, chlorination,
with the reuse of gas, can be made for one dollar per one ton
of ore ; the cost of mining and milling may be from $3.00 to
$5,00, making a total expense for operation, of from four to six
dollars per ton, under favorable circumstances.

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 415

The Company estimated that by an increased outlay of $2,75
per ton. substituting their method of chlorination, for the mill
process, a present annual industrial loss of bullion worth $4,-
500,000, might be saved in the state of California, and the
profits of the mine owners and operators increased by $5,75
on each ton of ore, a net gam to them of $2,375,000 each year.

According to a further calculation, by the same Company,
if the average cost of milling and smelting the ores of Colora-
do, were increased in the same way, by from seventy-five cents
10 a dollar a ton, there would result an industrial saving of
$15,00 a ton, or $2,250,000 worth of bullion annually in the
state, and an increased profit to the mine owners and operators
of more than $14,00 per ton, or in all over $2,100,000 each
year. These figures indicate an estimated possible increase in
the yield of bullion in these two states, of some $6,750,000
value each year, and an enlargement of profits by the sum of
about $4,475,000 each year.

Even an approximation to such results, would doubtless
make chlorination. by such a method, the working process of
the world for the future,' in ores adapted to the same, and re-
sult in an almost incalculable increase of the general yield of
bullion

To resume in chronological order the record of events which
from 1848 to 1852, and thereafter until now, have marked the
development of California as the great gold field of the world,
it may here incidentally be stated, that the social and political
phenomena observable in that territory during the first few
years of the time noted, were quite as extraordinary and mar-
vellous as the altogether unprecedented product of gold, mer-
cury, and other metallic wealth.

The acquisition of California by the United States, is the
subject of one of the most remarkable pages of American
history , the details of the matter, however, have never been
made public. It seems to have been assumed among that class
of politicians who considered it the "manifest destiny" of the
United States to overrun the continent, that such a territory

416 DYKS COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

as California was found to be, ought to be absorbed. Whether
the acquisition of California was in consequence of the war
with Mexico, or the war with Mexico precipitated to facilitate
the acquisition of California, might be made a topic for dis-
cussion. There seems to have been some "sharp practice," as
well as a good deal of hard fighting, involved. It was evident
Mexico could not maintain her power in California, against
the intrigues of France and England, and the Government of
the United States was determined to hold sway from ocean to
ocean, and never permit the nullification of the "Monroe doc-
trine" by the establishment of new European colonies on its
western frontier.

Emigration, revolution, conquest, peaceable possession, de-
velopment such was the programme, and rapidly and effect-
ually the whole order was carried to complete success.

In 1846, Colonel John C. Fremont was conveniently on the
Pacific coast, conducting a scientific exploration; verbal in-
structions were sent to him from Washington, in consequence
of which he and his followers, as already stated on a former
page, declared the independence of California. Some fighting
and much disorder in California, followed, but the territory
was ceded to the United States in 1848, the people adopted a
Constitution October 13, 1849, and California became one of
the United States September 9th, 1850. The events of these
years as connected with the mining of gold, and other inci-
dental affairs, have been related in this writing. To the po-
litical and social developments of the time, among an excita-
ble, motley, heterogeneous, polyglot population, a few para-
graphs should now be given.

In 1852, California contained a population of about 250,000
persons, by far the larger portion of whom were males. More
than 100,000 of these were miners, men in the prime of life,
deprived of the direct influence of women, children, home and
regular society, in a country with but inadequate provision
for the enforcement of the common law. All of these men
were energetic, daring, reckless, earning an average of more

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 417

tnan $8,00 a day, and mad with a thirst for more gold ; beside
which it is to be remembered that many of them were desper-
adoes capable of any crime. Gambling and other forms of
robbery, were quickly developed, and social vices of every
kind multiplied and flourished. Theft and murder were com-
mon occurrences in the streets of San Francisco, in which city
whole squares of buildings, of one kind and another, were de-
voted to the use of gamesters and their confederates in swind-
ling and debauchery. Rogues and ruffians were sheltered in-
stead of being punished by the courts.

In spite of the most earnest and even death -dealing opposi-
tion of some of the better citizens, the highest offices of the
state were seized by the worst of men through open and un-
blushing frauds, and the whole machinery of government
prostituted to the rapacity and arrogance of an organized
banditti. '

In May, 1855, the Vigilance Committee (instituted in 1851),
was revived, and for eight months held sway in San Francis-
co ; they arrested, they tried, they banished, they hung ob-
noxious characters with an illegal and yet discriminating pro-
cedure. Absolute and extraordinary as their doings were, the
one prominent mistake charged against the Vigilance Com-
mittee, in the dispassionate chronicles of the era is, that they
liberated one of the Justices of the Supreme Court of the State
whom they brought before them for trial his subsequent
course having proved his ill-desert of the mercy shown him.
The people of California, residents of the state before the dis-
covery of gold there, were of necessity unsettled, or as might
be said, overturned and carried away, by the rush of strange
men and incredible events during 1848 and the succeeding
years, and the dislocation was not always to their advantage.
The case of Co'onel or General John Augustus Suter, of Sut-
ler's Fort, a sketch of whose career may be found on page 885
is an instance in proof. From his vast landed estate, received
by grant from the Mexican government, Suter, as Governor
of that part of the territories of Mexico, became, bv lumber-
z

418 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

ing, trading, and cattle raising, a man of great wealth. When
the authority of the United States became established in Cali-
fornia, the former Mexican Governor was made an akalde, or
justice of the peace, and an Indian agent.

"General Sutter" could then, according to law, dispense jus-
tice to others, but the event proved he was powerless to obtain
the same for himself. He was the agent of a great govern-
ment in its dealings with the Indians, but presently unable to
find even an Indian, willing to act as an agent of his. Strange-
ly enough, the discovery which showed that the many broad
acres of "New Helvetia" were not only fertile soil, but part
of the richest gold field in the world, proved the signal of ruin
to their owner !

The garrison of Sutter's Fort deserted ; the laborers in the
fields, among the herds, and at the mill, abandoned their em-
ployment ; Sutter's land was overrun by gold-digging multi-
tudes, who heedless of grants, deeds, or any proof of proprie-
tary rights whatever, "squatted upon the ground" and paid
neither rent nor royalty ; crops disappeared, cattle and sheep
went the way of all beef and mutton, in the presence of an
army of hungry men, uncounted, un weighed, and unpaid for;
horses were stolen, all kinds of property appropriated, a great
establishment was broken up, its proprietor maltreated and
despoiled. The most persistent subsequent effort failed to ob-
tain a reinstatement for General Sutter or anything from the
state of California, beyond a repayment of the taxes paid by
him for the benefit of the state, upon the lands of which he
was dispossessed. In 1865, or thereabouts, Gen. Sutter left
California, and finally settled at Litiz, Lancaster county, Pa.
He died at Washington, D. C., Friday, June 18th, 1880. His
faithful wife, eighty years of age, followed him to the life be-
yond, seven months after his decease.

However, none of ,.iese things are to be recorded to the un-
qualified disparagement of the persons immediately concerned,
or of the condemnation of the entire state, where the descend-
ants of many of them now live most prosperous and honora-

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD, 419

ble lives. "Mexican grants" in the days of revolution arid
conquest in California, were considered an uncertain and du-
bious tenure of land, the circumstances were unprecedented,
events uncontrolable, the excitement fearful. It was a time
and place where men might almost be allowed to plead insan-
ity, at the bar of public opinion, in excuse for their collective
misdemeanors. The people of California had in 1857, a pub-
lic debt of $12,163,090 for the state and the counties. The
entire revenue raised by taxation to meet the entire debt, was
$1,152,234, four-fifths from property and one-fifth persona).
The prompt payment of the debt was demanded ; when, the
question of repudiation being raised, the popular vote was
for payment, 57,661 for repudiation, 16,970 and the credit
and honor of the state were preserved. This was not a dis*
honest people.

That the Legislature of California should have found grace,
even for the seemingly scanty measure of justice done General
Sutter, may seem more to their credit, when the defects of
such bodies the world over are taken into consideration, and
note is made of the positive statement made by his surviving
friends, that the venerable claimant persistently and stubborn-
ly refused .the expenditure of a single dollar for purposes of
bribery and corruption.

The vicissitudes of life in California, have largely depended
upon the temper of the people, but are nearly all traceable tox
the various findings of gold. Nothing was ever quite good
enough for the original California miners. They had an idea
that somewhere, among the almost inaccessible mountains, or
across vast barren plains, there would be found the home of
the gold ; a center or focus of the precious metal, vastly riche*
than any deposit ever found, or any vein ever opened. It wa*
the old Spaniards dream of El Dorado over again in the nine-
teenth century !

The miners lived in a fever of excitement; sometimes a
special frenzy would break out upon the report of some lucky
strike here or there, and leaving good work and prospect*,

420 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

away they would rush, pell-mell, by thousands, for some dis-
tant uewly-reported locality, perhaps merely mentioned in tho
newspapers. Many would perish from hardship on the way,
and often the new field would prove barren, and the adven-
turers repent their enterprising journey, in poverty and rags,
until perhaps, the "strapped" gold digger somewhere met "pay-
dirt" once more. Such was the Kern-river fever of 1855, and
the "Frazer- river rush" of 1858; this last involving an emi-
gration of some 20,000 men, of whom few were even moder-
ately successful, while ail suffered beyond description, nearly
all were made totally destitute, and many died.

Such unexampled and sudden shiftings of masses of popu-
lation, even when the object of such a journey was attained,
was necessarily fatal to stable local enterprise and common in-
dustries, the excitement as to new gold fields, in more than
one instance quite depopulating one district, and as suddenly
creating settlements and trade in another. The partial ex-
haustion of the placers, and the more or less complete explor-
iation of the country, have put an end to the ways and meth-
ods of " the pioneers of forty-nine."

Gold mining, with great capital, and by scentific methods, is
now one, and but one, of the great regular and prosperous in-
dustries of fertile, salubrious, California, and yet, though united
with the east by railroads, and with Europe and Asia by lines
of steamers, the growth of the state in proportion has been
comparatively slow for the last twenty years, amounting in
1880, to no more than 861,686 persons, an increase of 304,439
since 1870, or 54.3 per ceot. in ten years. In 1872, the gold
produced in California, was estimated at a value of $20,000,00 ;
which was reduced by 1879, according to official estimate, to"
but $17,600,000; the greater part of this, being from perma-
nent sources of supply, something like the same amount may
probably be relied upon for many years.

To the north of California, from 42 degrees to 46 degrees
18 minutes, North latitude, and from longitude 116 degrees 33
minutes to 124 degrees 25 minutes, West from Greenwich,

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 421

lies the state of Oregon. This region, having an area of 95 -
274 square miles, is divided by the Cascade and Blue Moun-
tains, into Western, Middle, and Eastern sections. The Cas-
cade Mountains, are a continuation of the Sierra Nevada range,
and are situated about 110 miles from the Pacific; they have
an average elevation of from 6,000 to 7,000 feet, above which
rise the peaks of Mount Hood, from 11,025 to 11,225 feet;
Mt. Mclaughlin, or Pitt, 11,000 feet ; Mount Jefferson, 10,200
feet; the Three Sisters, 9,420 feet ; Diamond Peak, nearly the
same elevation, and Mt. Thielsen, 8,500 feet above the level of
the sea. The rivers are large, rapid, and numerous, but most-
ly unnavigable, the Columbia, already described on pages 363
and 364, being the most important.

Oregon was discovered by De Fuca, a Greek pilot, in 1592,
and, as far as maritime discovery gave a title, originally be-
longed to Spain. Other powers subsequently laid claim to
portions of the territory, and different parties made small at-
tempts at settlements. Emigrants from the United States, be-
gan to arrive in 1832 ; a missionary colony was established
in 1834, of which Dr. Marcus Whitman, and the Rev. Mr.
Spalding were in charge. The wives of these two leaders,
were the first white women to cross "the plains" from the
United States, and their children the first born to citizens
of the United States in Oregon.

Oregon was formally made part of the United States, by
treaty with Great Britain in 1846 ; a territorial government
was organized by Act of August 14, 1848, and established in
1849 ; the territory became one of the United States in 1859.
The progress of Oregon has been slow, although accelerated
by very favorable land laws, since 1850, but it yet remains
one of the least, if not the very least, populated of the United
States.

A large part of the eastern section of Oregon, has been sub-
jected to recent volcanic action, of immense violence. This
part of the country is seamed by canons or "canyons," oftezi
1,500 or more feet in depth, the sides of which are wonderful

422 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

exhibitions of the strata, and demonstrations in the science of
geology hardly to be found elsewhere. Here, as in Califor-
nia, ancient Cretaceous beds are found, with abundant marine
fossil shells in keeping, the marine fossils of Oregon being
generally perfect in form, and yet filled with concretions,
Chalcedony or calcareous spar mostly. Above the Cretaceous
strata, are found the Lower Tertiary rocks, filled with fossil
leaves, from plants of both the tropical and temperate zone ;
palms, yews, giant ferns, oak leaves and acorns. In these
rocks, are also many fossil bones, including two species of
rhinoceros, four species of a kind of camel-tapir called Oredon,
tapirs, peccaries, and tKe remains of a horse-like animal, the
Orohtppus. Upon the Lower Oregonian Tertiary, rest the
products of volcanic discharge, an overflow of lava, deposits
of mud, and beds of ashes, all of great extent.

lu Eastern Oregon, earthquakes have upheaved isolated
cones, and created dike-formed ridges of secondary rock, the
chasms being filled with lava, or with tertiary sediments. In
the same section, are mountains of amygdaloid, hills of igneous
conglomerate, and, along the rivers, remarkable columnar
basaltic cliffs.

The northern part of the central section of Oregon, is occu-
pied by the valleys of the John Day's and Des Chutes rivers,
and thereabouts the Cretaceous formation predominates. Oil
the hill sides at the Dalles, of the Columbia river, near the
mouth of the Des Chutes, boulders of gray and red granite are
found. A considerable part of the southern portion of this
central section, east of the Cascade Mountains, and south of
the 44th parallel, is covered by the tertiary strata.

The Blue Mountains, and the Coast range, are alike of
Ezoic formation. The Cascade Mountains, which rise be-
tween these ranges, are volcanic, with traces of recent action ;
which is also traditional among the Indians. Along the Paci-
fic coast, there is a narrow tertiary region. The valley of the
Williamette river, and the head- waters of the Umpqua, occupy
from north to south, the central part of the section between

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 423

the Cascade and Coast ranges. To the north, this interval ia
in part basaltic, showing 'upright walls. Midway of the Wil-
liamette valley, is a district of igneous debris, where black-
trap is common ; and south of this, are thin layers of lime-
stone, with fossil two-valved shells, then granite in place, and
southward still, a development of basalt. The prevailing rock,
however, is trap. The head of the valley of the Williamette
river, shows a light clayey sandstone. The Umpqua river, in
the south-western part of Oregon, rises in a tertiary district
west of the Cascade Mountains, and flowing in its lower course,
in part through carboniferous formations, enters the Pacific
ocean.

The state of Oregon is rich in meta s and minerals, but its
resources are very imperfectly developed; the mines are of
gold, silver, copper, iron, coal, and lead, the ores of most of
these metals being not only abundant but rich. Copper ia
found in ores and in solid ledges ; iron ores are of superior
quality, and exist in almost every part of the state ; the coal
is lignitic, and may be taken in large quantities, in many
places, from beds of great thickness. A large amount of coal
is already exported from mines on the shores of Coos Baj.
Limestone, granite, marble, sandstone, slate, syenite and other
stones fit for building, may be obtained generally, though most
abundant in the west. Steattite or soap-stone, is found in the
region of the Klamath Lakes; clays for brickmaking or pot-
tery are plenty ; the inexhaustible sands of the sea coast make
excellent glass, and there are a number of springs in Western
Oregon yielding large amounts of good salt.

Gold exists in the sands of the Pacific shore of Northern
California and south western Oregon, and is taken thence by
washing. The deposits have been brought down the rivers,
or derived from auriferous bluffs undermined by the waves of
the sea. The shore sands of Coos Bay are washed for gold,
but neither there nor along the shore of the open sea are the
operations permanent at any definite point, the precious metal
being washed hither and thither along the coast, according to

424 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

currents, winds and weather, as affecting the waves which
strike upon the land. Gold-placer deposits were discovered
in Jackson and Josephine counties of Oregon in 1851, and
have been worked ever since, and are estimated to have yield-
ed some $23,000,000 or more worth of gold. Gold mining is
carried on in Douglas county ; but the most important gold
field of Oregon, is to the east of the Cascade Mountains, on
the upper branches of John Day's rivqr, and in the valleys of
the Burnt and Powder rivers. These last deposits were dis-
covered in 1861. Since 1862, extensive placers and quartz
lodes, have been worked in Grant and Baker counties, the
production of which, until recent dates, was estimated at $1,-
600,000 worth of gold each } 7 ear. Some of the silver ores of
Oregon, yield from $150 to $300 worth of silver for every
ton ; silver is found in all the quartz ledges, but the silver
mines are in general undeveloped. The annual product of
gold in Oregon, was at one time estimated to be worth $2,000,-
000 a 3'ear, but the reports of 1880, credit the territory with
a deposit of gold valued at but $583,365.34. It is probable
the increase of population, and the more thorough exploration
of the territory, with the introduction of the improved and
extensive methods of operation, will increase the present pro-
duct and maintain the same for an indefinite period.

Washington Territory, which lies to the north of Ore-
gon, has a somewhat similar geologic formation, and ex-
tends to the boundary of British Columbia, latitude 49 degrees
North. Gold was discovered in this territory, east of the
Cascade Mountains, in 1858. The Columbia river flows
southward across the eastern section of Washington Terri-
tory, and its bars and the shoals of the streams which flow
into it, have been profitably worked for gold, the greatest
yield being obtained from placers in the north-east, above
Priest rapids, and in the neighborhood of Fort Colville. It
has been estimated that down to 1868, gold to the value of
$10,000,000 had been taken in the territory, but this is con-
sidered an over-statement by some authorities. Since 1868,

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 425

the yield has steadily decreased, the average product of gold
for a number of years, being no more than $300,000 worth
each year. In 1875, the product of gold was valued at $82,-
000, and in 1880, but $34,529.24 was deposited This indi-
cates the exhaustion of the placers, -but what a more thorough
exploration of the country, or the regular working of the
strata by modern scientific methods may produce, remains to
be discovered.

The general geologic indications, already noted, as observed
in California and Oregon, characterize' the adjoining states and
territories, marking them as one vast gold field and silver-
mining territory, all the domain of the United States around
the Rocky Mountains, being more or less productive of the
precious metals.

The territory of Arizona, between the Rocky Mountains
and the Sierra Nevadas, from latitude 31 degrees 37 minutes
to 37 degrees North, and between longitude 109 degrees to
114 degrees 25 minutes "West from Greenwich, comprising
113,916 square miles, or 72,906,240 acres, an area nearly as
large as the states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Delaware and Maryland combined, is, throughout its whole
extent, one of the richest mineral regions of the world.

The surface of Arizona is mountainous, and the territory
is crossed by the Rio Colorado, which as already described on
page 364, flows through an almost impassable region. The
remains of primitive tools and traces of aboriginal workings
found in the mines of Arizona, lead to the supposition that
the Aztecs of Mexico, there secured the gold of which they
were robbed by Cortes and his followers, and that in Arizona
was located the country of gold to which the Indians of
America were in the habit of referring the invading Europe-
ans. The mineral wealth of Arizona was known to the old
Spaniards, and very profitable gold and silver mines, some of
which are still worked, were opened there over 200 years ago.
The mountains of Central and Southern Arizona, nearly all
contain lodes of gold, as well as an abundance of silver and

426 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

other metals. The auriferous ores of Central Arizona have
yielded a value of from $25 to $100 worth of gold to the ton.
Placer deposits of gold have been discovered in every part of
Arizona, but no one of them has been sufficiently extensive
to become famous under the circumstances.

Notwithstanding the richness of the mines of Arizona, the
yield of the precious metals from them has been small ; the
roughness of much of the country, the want of means of
transportation, the lack of fuel, the scarcity of water, in places,
the terrible heat of some parts, the unreliability of labor, and
more than all, the deadly hostility of the native Indians, and
the lawlessness of renegade Mexicans and other desperadoes,
have formed an array of difficulties and dangers which have
almost prohibited industrial enterprise. On account of the
conditions described, many of the old mines, though still un-
exhausted, have been abandoned, and the working of those
since discovered excessively hindered.

The total amount of bullion produced in Arizona in 1868, is
estimated at a value of $250,000 ; in 1869, $1000,000 ; in 1870,
$800,000. In 1880, Arizona had deposited $2,256,742 worth
of gold, and silver to the value of $4,373,459. The future of
Arizonian mining is most promising; some other fields have
become exhausted, or are fully occupied, the territory has be-
come better known, the Indians are less formidable, the laws
of the United States prevail, canals are being made for water,
railroads constnicted, and the development of the natural re-
sources of Arizona seems certain.

To the north of Arizona, lies the territory of Utah, extend-
ing to latitude 42 degrees North. The chief geologic strata
of Utah, are the cretaceous, triassic, Jurassic, tertiary, eozoic,
alluvial, Cambrian, and silurian. The Rio Colorado and its
tributaries drain the eastern part of the territory. In the
south-west, Sevier Lake receives several rivers, but has no
outlet; the Great Salt Lake in the north-west, contains 22 per
centum of salt, a brine wherein no fish can live. The Wah-
satch Mountains of Utah, attain at a number of points, an ele-

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 427

vation of from ten to thirteen thousand feet above the sea,
rising from a plain some four to BIX thousand feet above the
ocean level. The topographic features of Utah, are remarka-
ble ; the rivers run through canons from 2,000 to 5,000 feet
deep, and the surface of the country is largely occupied by arid
barren alkaline deserts.

Utah was settled by the Mormons, whose pioneers, under
Brigham Young, reached the region of Salt Lake July 24,
18-47, the main body of emigrants arriving in the fall of 1848,
but a few weeks before the discovery of gold at Sutter's Fort
in California. The Mormon leaders discouraged mining, and
stimulated agriculture, which, through irrigation and great
industry, was made very productive. In consequence, no
known discoveries of the mineral wealth of Utah took place,
until 1858, when argentiferous galena was discovered in
Beaver county. From the Beaver county ores, the Mormons
extracted a large amount of mixed metal, which they regarded
and used as lead, being ignorant of the presence of the silver.
Silver lead ores were discovered in Bingham canon, in the
Oquirrh range of mountains of Utah, in 1863, by a party of
Californians. For want of proper treatment of the ores, and
the lack of available transportation, the attempts made to work
these deposits were unprofitable.

Gulch mining for gold, began in Bingham canon in 1868,
and was continued, over a limited area, for several years. In
1868-9, the gold taken in Utah, was valued at $600,000 ; in
1870, at $300,000; in 1871, at $221,000; in 1872, at $100,-
000; in 1873, at $52,426; in 1874, at $92,093; in 1875, at
$181,765. Meantime, silver had been mined to the value of
$15,925,485. During 1879, Utah produced gold to the value
of $575,000, and silver worth $6,250,000. Judging from sta-
tistics, and the known conditions of the territory, it may be
assumed, that the mineralogical record of Utah, may yet be-
come as remarkable as its social and political history.

Westward of Utah, and of Northern Arizona, between these
territories and California, is the state of Nevada, covering an

428 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

area of 104,125 square miles. The greater part of this state,
is included in the Great American Basin, a vast depression or
valley, lying between the Sierra Nevadas on the west, the
Wahsatch Mountains on the east, and cross ranges to the
north and south. The average elevation of the basin is some
4,000 feet above the sea, but it contains mountains which rise
from 1,000 to 8,000 feet above the general level, and thus
present peaks from 5,000 to 12,000 feet above the sea. The
Great American Basin, contains an area of about 92,125 square
miles, and yet has no outlet for its drainage. The numerous
and considerable rivers, which flow from the mountains in
this section of Nevada, discharge their waters into lakes, or in
many cases disappear in "sinks" into the earth. Some of the
rivers enter the earth, and after a subterranean course for
some distance, reappear in pools, and may then again become
visible streams, flow into some lake, or disperse their waters
and finally be lost. The rapid evaporation of the dry season
in Nevada, exhausts many of the shallow lakes, the beds of
some of them becoming arid alkaline plains for the time ; but
a return of the rains, and the melting of the snows, fills the
streams with torrents, and expands the pools and lakes, into
floods and inundations.

The numerous mountains'of Nevada, are of volcanic origin,
and present abundant traces of intense and recent action ; how-
ever, no eruption is known to have taken place during the
last hundred years. The surface of the valleys and plains, is
mainly composed of the results of prolonged erosion from the
mountains, and presents tertiary, quarternary, and alluvial de-
posits, often of great depth.

The gold of Nevada, is generally found in combination with
silver. In the western part of the state, in the region of the
Ilumboldt river, and Walker Lake, true gold quartz veins
have been discovered, and are expected to yield well. In the
Antelope district, Churchhill county ; in the Tuscarora dis-
trict, whence rises the Owyhee river ; in the Gold Mountain
district, Esmeralda county ; in Sacramento district ; in the

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 429

Sierra, as well as in Humboldt county, and at some mines
elsewhere, the gold is the most important metal.

The percentage of gold in various argentiferous ores of Ne-
vada, has been found to vary from one-fifth to more than one-
half of the entire amount of metal contained. In the famous
Comstock lode, on the eastern slope of Mt. Davidson, in Storey
county, in part under the towns of Virginia City and Gold
Hill, the richest vein of silver in Nevada, or perhaps in the
world, the gold forms about one-third of the value taken from
the ore, the silver making the other two-thirds. The propor-
tion of gold found, increases as the silver mines are worked
downwards, much free gold being found in the ore veins of
the deepest mines. The recently-finished Sutro tunnel, drains
the Comstock lode to a depth of 3,000 feet. The amount of
gold taken in Nevada, was first noted in 1861, at a value of
$600,000; in 1862, the amount was $2,500,000; in 1863,
$4,000,000 ; in 1864, $5,000,000 ; the aggregate of the next
five years was $21,250,000; in 1872, $6,000,000; in 1873,
$10,000,000 ; in 1875, $10,000,000. In 1879, the gold pro-
duced in Nevada, was estimated at $9,000,000, and the silver at
$12,560,000.

Down to 1875, the Comstock mines had produced an
amount of bullion valued at $169,000,000, of which about
$56,333,333 may be supposed to have been gold. Since 1871,
the bullion product of Nevada, has exceeded that of California,
but as the principal value is silver, further notice is postponed
to a page devoted to that metal.

The territory of Idaho, situated between 42 degrees and 49
degrees North, and longitude 111 degrees and 117 degrees 10
minutes West from Greenwich, has for its north-eastern
boundary the line of the Conor d Alenc, or Bitter Eoot Moun-
tains, by which its area is narrowed in the north, to a width
of no more than forty-eight miles, the southern boundary line
extending from east to west a distance of 308 miles. The
area of this irregular tract, is 86,294 square miles, or 55,228,-
160 square acres. Nearly all of Idaho lies in the basin of the

DYE'S COIN 'ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Upper Columbia River, being generally mountainous, and
containing an abundance of minerals and metals. Gold and
silver-bearing rocks are found in many localities, and gold-
dust deposits are numerous.

The first discovery of gold m this territory, was made in
1852, on the Pend d Oreille, or "Pond Orvilles," a river of
Kootenai county, in the extreme north, of the territory, near
the lake bearing the same name as the stream. There was
but a small yield of gold from the Pend d Oreille region, and
no profitable mining of gold in the territory until 1860, when
it was discovered in placer deposits on Oro Fino creek, a
stream flowing into the Clearwater river.

Gold-mines were found in the Boise basin, Boise county,
near the center of the territory, in 1862. The Owyhee mines,
in the south-western part of the territory, south of Smoke
river, in Owyhee county, and mostly on Jordan creek, were
discovered in 1863. Since, gold and silver mines have been
opened in every county of Idaho, the precious metals being
everywhere found on the upper waters of the rivers.

The most important quartz mines, are in the central and
south-western part of the territory. The richest of these are
the Owyhee veins, in which silver is the predominating metal.
The most productive of the other quartz mines, are those of
Boise basin, an elliptical depressed area 25 miles long, from
north to south, and 18 miles wide from east to west. The
quartz veins of Kootenai county are extensive, and many
quartz mills are in operation in that district. The most im-
portant placers, are those of Boise basin, and those lying along
the upper streams of the Salmon and Clearwater rivers and
their confluents, in Shoshone, Kez Perces, Idaho and Lemhi
counties.

The bullion taken in Idaho, iip to 1868, was valued at $45,-
000,000 ; by June 30, 1876, this amount is estimated to have
been increased to more than $77,000,000, but the statistical
data upon which these conclusions are based, are confessedly
imperfect. For the year ended June 30, 1880, the Director of

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 431

the Mint reports a deposit of gold from Idaho to the value
of $510,546.73. Hydraulic mining having been introduced
there for a number of years, the exhaustion of the principal
placers of gold already begun must proceed rapidly, but the
increase in the number of quartz gold mines, and the exten-
sion operations upon the auriferous rocks, will, it is supposed,
be sufficient to keep up the supply of gold, while the yield of
silver, to be noted hereafter, may increase.

Eastward of Idaho, to longitude 104 degrees West from
Greenwich, and, except a small area in the south-west, above
the 45th parallel of latitude North, is the territory of Mon-
tana, the Toy-a-be Shock up, or "Land of the Mountains" of
the Snake Indians. This territory was made up of a large sec-
tion set off from Idaho during May, 1864, and a tract of about
2,000 square miles in the south-west, taken in 1873 from Dakota.

The Couer d Alene, or Bitter Root Mountains, are partly in
Idaho, and partly in Montana; the Rocky Mountains cross
the western part of the last nearly from north to south, and
the eastern part of the territory is occupied by several ranges
of less extent and elevation. The mountains of this region are
not as rugged as those farther south, and yet they contain
many peaks of great magnitude, and present some of the most
sublime and beautiful scenery known in the world. The ter-
ritory is very well supplied with rivers, and has an immense
amount of available water power, though irrigation is neces-
sary to agriculture in some places.

The geologic formation of Montana is complex and irregular;
the region of the Rocky Mountains presents igneous rocks
of basalt, granite, and different metamorphic formations. The
central part of the territory shows the effect of earthquakes,
in the disturbed and contorted forms of various silurian, trias-
sic, and Jurassic strata. The eastern part of the country, is
silurian, cretaceous, and tertiary. About the head-waters of
the Missouri and Yellowstone rivers, are numerous geysers
and hot springs, indicative of igneous action still going on in
the fiery caverns beneath the surface.

432 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

The metamorpliic rocks of Montana, contain large amounts
of gold, and the precious metals, combined, or practically sepa-
rate, are found in every part of the territory. Gold was first
discovered there in placer deposits during the year 1852, at lati-
tude 47 degrees North, between longitude 113 and 114 degrees
West from Greenwich, on a branch of Hell Gate river, now
called Gold creek, but no mining was done until late in 1861.
Further discoveries of gold placers were made from 50 to 80
miles south-east of Gold creek, on the upper streams of Hell
Gate river, in Deer Lodge valley. One of the earliest diggings
was in Alder Gulch, the site of the. Capital, Virginia City,
Madison county. The gold field around Bannock City, Beaver
Head county, in the south-west of the territory, was discovered
in 1861. Not long after gold was discovered on the present
site of the town of Helena, in Lewis and Clark county, the
placer becoming known as Last Chance Gulch. Other dis-
coveries of gold deposits followed in many places ; gold was
found in a number of quartz veins, and silver mines were
opened. So numerous were discoveries of this kind about that
time, that the miners in an actual embarrasment of riches,
often left one well-paying placer and migrated to another sup-
posed to be richer.

The same scenes and experiences already described as having
been observable in California, were repeated in Montana.

The discovery of gold induced a great emigration ; the only
available means of transportation were steamboats voyaging
an immense distance up the Missouri river to Fort Benton, or
otherwise, by wagon trains or pack mules, over a vast country
almost absolutely without the vestige of a road. There was
little or no agriculture in the territory, and following the sud-
den increase of population, a want of provisions was soon felt.
There was fortunately an ample supply of good beef, and upon
this alone the miners subsisted during the first winter; flour
for bread, which was all reserved for the women and children,
was sold at this time at the rate of one hundred dollars in gold
for a sack holding one hundred pounds. Of course, these ex-

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 433

treme hardships and famine prices measurably disappeared
with the subsequent seasons, yet the opening of the Montana
gold field was for sometime a work which, for natural and un-
avoidable reasons, was attended with incredible suffering.

Up to the date of the discovery of gold therein, Montana
had been known, chiefly as a place of resort for hunters and
trappers ; the opening of the mines hastened the partial colo-
nization of the territory. Considerable settlements were soon
made in Deer Lodge valley ; at Confederate Gulch the town
of Diamond City sprang up. When the diggings were opened
at Alder Gulch, upon the site of the present town of Virginia
City, the prospect of gold in unlimited amounts was reasona-
bly entertained.

By 1877, gold to the value of over $25,000,000 had been
taken from Alder Gulch, and although much exhausted by
constant working, part of the deposit was still operated upon
to a fair profit. The diggings in Last Chance Gulch, at Ilelena,
were still richer.

The first quartz mill in Montana, was put up early in the
year 1863. As the actual resources of the territory came to
be understood, the extreme excitement first created became
modified, the business of mining was extended to silver, iron,
and coal, the great industry of the territory was carried on
with energy and success, but more quietly and skillfully, and
without the extravagant expectations of profit so often re-
alized in the beginning.

The bullion produced in Montana in 1862, has been esti-
mated at a value of $500,000 ; by 1866, the yield of the same
had reached its maximum, and was worth for that year $16,-
500,000 ; it fell off rapidly after 1868, being worth but $1,000,-
000 in 1874. Up to 1875, the total yield of bullion from Mon-
tana, was valued at $120,901,386. Of this amount, much the
larger part was gold. The silver < produced in Montana in
1872, was valued at only $351,944,' and in 1873, at $176,500.
The census of 1870, credited Montana with 683 gold mines,
which may be multiplied almost indefinitely. The iuaccessi-
2A

434 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

bility of this remote region, is the great reason an even larger
development has not been reached. The Northern Pacific
Railroad, delayed but not abandoned, will in a few years cross
Montana, and then, with more reliable communications, an
importation of machinery, a settlement of the country, and an
extension of mining enterprises may be considered certain.

The territory of Dakota lies between latitude 41 degrees
40 minutes and 49 degrees North latitude, and longitude 96
degrees 25 minutes and 104 degrees West from Greenwich.
This district is 414 miles long, by 360 miles wide, and con-
tains an area of 148,932 square miles, or 95,315,840 acres.
The Missouri river crosses Dakota from southeast to north-
west; a number of other important rivers flow to the Mis-
souri ; there are many small streams and numerous lakes, the
country being in general well watered. The great surface
features of Dakota, are large elevated plains, from which arise
abrupt elevations of 500 to 1,500 feet above the local level.
Mort of the surface rocks are of the cretaceous or still more
recent formations. The notable exceptions are in the valley
of the Red river, along the north-western boundary of the
territory, where the Silurian strata are indicated by salt
springs ; and in the Black Dills, on the western boundary, un-
der the 44th parallel of latitude North, where are found the
developments of earlier geologic systems.

The survey of Dakota has not been completed, nor its min-
eralogical resources even approximately reported. Gold has
been discovered and worked for with success in the Black
Hills, and it is expected that Dakota will in time become a
very productive general mining district.

The state of Nebraska, lying south of Dakota as far as the
40th parallel of latitude North, presents the general aspect of
a vast plain sloping eastward to the Missouri valley. The
geologic strata are the upper carboniferous, the permian, and
cretaceous, according to locality, the state containing very lit-
tle gold or silver, a small amount of good coal, and but little
other mineral wealth, except salt, which as obtained from the

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 435

salt springs of Lancaster county by solar evaporation, yields
to chemical analysis 98 3-10 per centum of pure chloride of
sodium, the purest common salt in the world.

The territory of Wyoming, lying between latitude 41 de-
grees and 45 degrees North, and longitude 104 degrees and
111 degrees West from Greenwich, is a part of the Rocky
Mountain region, being crossed by the Medicine Bow, Green
River, and Wind River ranges, and containing in the north
the Big Horn Mountains, and on the north-eastern border part
of the Black Hills. Fremont's Peak, near the center of the
territory, is 13,570 feet above the level of the sea. The fa-
mous reservation of the Yellow Stone National Park, one of
the most remarkable geologic districts in the world, is mostly
included in the north-west corner of Wyoming.

The production of gold in Wyoming has been limited td a
comparatively small result. The Great South Pass, over the
Wind River Mountains, about latitude 42 degrees 15 minutes'
North, and longitude 109 degrees 20 minutes West from
Greenwich, Iving 7489 feet above the level of the sea, was

" / O

used by the Pony Express Companies, as part of the route to
California, before the construction of the Pacific railroads.
About twelve miles north of this pass, in Sweetwater county y
gold was discovered, and in this Sweetwater district, gulch
diggings of small extent, have been developed. la the same
neighborhood, a considerable number of gold-bearing quarta
veins were also found, and a few of them have been worked 1
with good results, for a short time each.

Laramie Peak, in Albany county, about latitude 42 degrees-
15 minutes North, and longitude 105 degrees and 30 minutesr
West from Greenwich, a mountain 10,000 feet above the level
of the sea, is the center of a range of mountains containing;
gold. The slopes of the Medicine Bow Mountains, in Albany
and Carbon counties, have been successfully prospected and
worked for the precious metals. The mountains west of Lar*
amie City yield gold, and mines of the same have been opened
near the town itself. There had been received from Wyo-

436 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

mlng, at the various mints and assay offices of the United States
Government, down to June 30, 1875, an amount of gold valued
at $174,146.69. There was received from the same territory,
at the same places of deposit, during the fiscal year 1876, gold
to the value of $18,419.66; during 1878, $52,921.02 ; during
1879, $27,255.85 ; during 1880, $17,320.70. The total amount
of gold received as above stated, down to June 30, 1880, was
valued at $728,760.33 ; the total amount of silver received to
the same date having been valued at $11,793.86. "What
amount of the precious metals taken from \Vyoming, passed
down to this time, through the hands of private assayers and
refiners into use in the arts and manufactures, or was exported,
would, as in the case of other territories or states, be difficult
to determine.

The state of Colorado, comprising the most elevated por-
tion of the Rocky Mountain region, is situated between lati-
tude 37 degrees and 41 degrees North, and longitude 102 de-
grees and 109 degrees "West from Greenwich, covering an area
of 104,500 square miles, or 66,880,000 acres. The center of
Colorado is the watershed of the continent, the Rocky Moun-
tains in that section presenting an average elevation of some
10,000 feet above the sea, with numerous peaks which rise
three thousand, four thousand, or five thousand feet above
this altitude. From Mount Lincoln, in the north-west of the
central region of Colorado, having a total elevation of 14,000
feet, there are visible 200 mountain tops, some 13,000 feet
above the sea, and 25 more quite as high as that from which
the observation is taken. The Rocky Mountains cross Colo-
rado nearly north and south west of the center of the state, in
three almost parallel ranges. The eastern line of mountains
is called the Front or Colorado range, west of this is the Park
range, west of the Park range, and south of Mount Lincoln, is
the line of the Sierra Madre, and between the two, below Dake
county, the Sah watch Mountains. The Sierra do la Platte
range runs westward from the Sierra Madre, just above the
38th parallel of latitude North.

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 437

The rivers of Colorado are large and numerous, flowing be-
yond its borders to the north, south, east, and west. Several
of the rivers of greatest importance rise in remarkable great
valjeys, or basins, called parks, between the mountains, aH
supposed to have been the bottoms of lakes previous to an
ancient era of volcanic action, the traces of which are most
noticeable in the elevated country to the west.

The main range of mountains is composed of gneissic, gran-
itic and similar rocks, and these also form the main body of
the mountains to the east. The short intersecting ranges
which bound the parks on the north and south, abound in
boulder drift; the parks themselves have a sub-stratum of
sedimentary rocks, with beds of gypsum in places, and a num-
ber of salt springs. The eastern portion of Colorado is in gen-
eral an elevated rolling prairie, rising from east to west. In
the east are cretaceous rocks with alluvial deposits; while un-
der the surface of the section, and along the foot hills west of
the plains, are very wide carboniferous beds, often thirty feet
deep, containing an unlimited supply of good coal of various
kinds, often lying in immediate proximity to an abundance of
magnetic and hematite iron ores.

The first organized attempt at an exploration of Colorado,
was made by a band of civilized Cherokee Indians in 1857,
but they were met and driven back by the nomadic wild tribes
of the country. In 1858, explorations of the region formerly
known as " The Great American Desert," were made by two
parties, one from Georgia and one from Lawrence, in Kansas.
Both of there companies claimed to have discovered gold in
deposits which paid for working, in several valleys near Pike's
Peak, a mountain 14,000 feet above the sea, discovered by Gen.
Zebulon M. Pike during the year 1806, in latitude 38 degrees
and 50 minutes North, and longitude 105 degrees West from
Greenwich, and now included in the western part of El Paso
county, Colorado. However, the first really remunerative
workings for gold in the Pike's Peak district, were in rich
deposits discovered in May, 1859, fifty miles north-west of the

438 DYE-S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Peak, at the base of the Colorado Mountains, near the sources
of Clear Creek. There gold was rapidly secured in great
quantities, and a great excitement and rush of emigration fol-
lowed. The name of Pike's Peak was made to cover all cen-
tral Colorado for a time, and to reach the district incredible
hardships wero endured by many. The emigrants being un-
provided with provisions or other requisites for the dangerous
and prolonged journey they undertook, often died a miserable
death by the way y or arrived at the end ,)f their long and te-
dious pilgrimage on the verge of starvation. But the gold
was there, for those who reached the placers and could find
^strength to work, and so the peril and disaster were forgotten,
and new adventurers constantly pushed on to share the good
luck of the fortunate among those who had preceded them.

In 1860, Colorado, though without any organic local govern-
ment, had a population of 35,000 persons, of whom by far the
greater portion were males; its territorial organization was
effected by Act of Congress in February, 1861. The Colora-
do gold placers first found, were rapidly exhausted, but it was
meantime discovered that gold also existed most abundantly
in lodes or fissure veins, running in general from south-west
to north-east, but forming groups a mile or two wide, and two
or more miles long each, made up at the surface, of numerous
complicated veins involved in an intricate network. These
lodes and the placers were ascertained to be more or less fre-
quent and extensive throughout a belt some 50 miles wide,
lying across the center of the territory from north to south.

At the same time silver was discovered, with the gold, or in
.rich deposits of surface or galena ores, at many places, in dif-
ferent parts of the central zone described. The bright pros-
pects first entertained by the gold miners of Colorado, were
.not immediately realized. There was gold in plenty, the ores
assaying in bulk from thirty to forty dollars the ton, but the
precious metal was held in a form not familiar to those who
handled the ores, being generally combined with copper and
sulphur, or with iron in the condition of pyrites. The cop-

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 439

per and iron sulphurets were mostly found together, the iron
generally most abundant, but the copper under such circum-
stances always carrying most gold. The successful practical
treatment of such ores was a perplexing problem, and so re-
mains, though of late better understood'. At first, the diffi-
culty of extracting the gold from Colorado ores was so great
as to lead to an utter abandonment of many veins, and general
discouragement among operators. The growth of the terri-
tory was in consequence very slow for several years.

Regardless, however, of its mineral wealth, and the trouble-
some ores of gold, Colorado was found well worthy the con-
sideration of the emigrant, stock raiser, or farmer, and a con-
siderable number of such persons, with their attendant me-
chanics and traders, gradually found their way into the state
and quietly settled there. During this time, the fame of the
gold of Pike's Peak and the surrounding country, had become
general, and a great amount of enterprise, money, invention,
skill, and tireless industry, were brought to bear upon the
vexatious problem of how to profitably secure the same. The
results of these efforts were generally discouraging, often ruin-
ous to those who undertook them, but it was not in the na-
ture of the people of the United States, to allow themselves to
be baffled by any obstacle less than an impossibility. The
failure of the many, was the education of the few, and less
care was taken to count the life, money, and energy wasted
in sometimes unscientific experiments, than to speculate upon
the riches awaiting those who, by a cheap and rapid process,
should separate from the ores, even approximately, the amount
of gold they were, by careful and very costly chemical analy-
sis, demonstrated to contain.

According to Le Conte : "Gold originally existed in quartz
veins usually associated with metallic sulphides, particularly
the sulphide of iron (pyrites). If the pyrites be dissolved in
nitric acid, the gold is left as minute threads and crystals scat-
tered through the pyrites. Now, when such a vein is exposed
to meteoric (' meteorological Pertaining to the atmosphere

440 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

and its phenomena ' EDITOR), agencies, the pyrites are oxi-
dized, partly as soluble sulphate and carried away, and partly
as insoluble reddish peroxide of iron, which remains. The
quartz-vein stone is, therefore, left in a honey-comb condition
by the removal of the pyrites, and more commonly stained of
a rusty color by the peroxide. Among the cells of this rusty
cellular quartz, the gold is found in minute sharp grains, evi-
dently left by the removal of the pyrites. Hence, in an au-
riferous quartz vein, along the outcrop to a depth of thirty to
sixty feet, gold is found free in small grains among the cellu-
lar quartz, but below the reach of these agencies it is enclosed
in the undecomposed pyrites."

This statement seems to have been demonstrated in the
quartz veins of Colorado ; there the free gold was found near
the surface, and as in the ores of Nevada, described on page
429 ; the proportion of gold found, increased as the mines were
worked downwards. But in Colorado, the greater amount of
gold found by chemical analysis to exist in the deepest por-
tions of the veins, was too intimately combined with the sul-
phides and locked in the rock to be secured by ordinary pro-
cesses, and the percentage of loss in working, from the causes
already detailed on pages 405 and 415, increased with the
depth of the mine. Thus a Colorado gold-bearing quartz-
vein ore, when taken from the surface, might yield to chemi-
cal analysis, some thirty dollars worth of gold per ton ; the
same vein at six hundred feet below the surface, would yield
a very much greater amount of gold to the same analysis.
The surface ore would return, to practical methods, that is to
say, to processes adapted to general use, some twenty or more
dollars worth of gold to each ton of ore operated upon. Sup-
posing the cost of the process to have been eight or even ten
dollars per ton, it would seem evident that all was needed, was
enough of such ore to keep the stamps in operation, to insure
the boundless wealth of those who wrought them. How much
more brilliant was the prospect, when it came to be considered,
that the quartz veins extended to a great depth, and might be

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 441

relied upon to double, or even more increase the amount of
gold per ton contained in them, as they grew deeper ? But
what was the disappointment, when it was found in many such
cases, that the greatest practical result was obtained only from
ores which had for ages been subject to the action of the
weather and atmosphere, and that the ores from below, though
chemically considered, growing richer and richer as they were
taken from greater depths, grew more and more obdurate and
unmanageable, until they no more returned the cost of the
process employed upon them.

To produce in a day by art, results like those brought
about by exposure to natural agencies for age after age, to
break do\vn, comminute, desulphurize, and separate such ores,
has been the object of numerous inventions and costly de-
vices; improvements have been made, some of which have
already been noted in this writing as used elsewhere, experi-
ments are still carried on, and apparatuses yet incomplete,
will, as is assumed by- their makers, give much more favora-
ble results than any yet attained. The gold produced in Col-
orado during the year 1880, exceeded, according to the Cir-
cular of Wells, Fargo & Company, that produced in 1879, by
no less than the value of $6,871,474, and this chiefly from the
Leadville district. The base bullion shipped from Leadville,
during January, 1881, was estimated at 2,625 tons, worth $817,-
000, beside refined bullion to the value of $65,000, an aggregate
of $882,000 for the month. The population of Colorado, given
as 35,000 persons in 1860, had increased to but 39,864 in 1870 ;
by 1880, this had enlarged to 174,649 persons, a growth during
the last ten years of 154,785, or at the rate of 388.9 per centum,
showing a much more rapid proportionate development, than
any other state or territory of the United States for the same
time. Doubtless, in this case, the progress of the past decade,
may be accepted as a reasonable forecast of the future, and Col-
orado be considered for years to come, the reliable source of an
increasing yield of gold, and hereafter, one of the great agri-
cultural and manufacturing states of the productive west.

442 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

A part of the lands acquired by the United States by con-
quest and by purchase from Mexico, was the tract included
between 31 degrees 20 minutes and 37 minutes latitude North,
and 103 degrees 2 minutes and 109 degrees 2 minutes longi-
tude West from Greenwich, an area of 121,201 square miles,
or 77,568,640 acres, comprised in the territory still known as
New Mexico. The boundaries of this territory of the United
States originally included the whole of Arizona and parts each
of Colorado and Nevada. The general surface.of Ne\v Mexico
forms part of the vast elevated plain upon which rise the
ranges of the Rocky Mountain system which includes the
Sierra Madre. This table land slopes toward the south, the
average elevation decreasing across the territory in the course
of 390 to 400 miles from 6,000 or 8,000 to 3,000 or "8,500 feet'
above the sea. Scattered upon the surface are numerous high
or moderately elevated mountain ranges and hundreds of sum-
mits connected or detached. Of these, the highest known are
Mount Taylor of the Zuni range district, in latitude 35 degrees
North, and longitude 108 degrees "West from Greenwich, and
Topped Peak, in the Zuni range at the north-western part of the
territory, each of these mountains rising to an altitude of about
10,000 feet above the general level of the adjacent plateaus, and
in all some 15,000 or 16,000 feet above the sea. These, and
other peaks less elevated, are covered with perpetual snow.

The mountain ranges of New Mexico, all being parts of the
Rocky Mountains, tend in general from north to south, but
diverge to east or west in certain sections. These ranges are
called variously the Gaudalupe, the Sacramento, the Organ
Mountains, the "White, or Sierra a Blanco, the Hueca, the
Capitana, the Sierra San Mateo, the Zuni, the Sierra del Datil,
the Sierra Mimbres, the San Juan, the Mogollon, the Pina-
leno, the Peloncito, the Chiricahua, the Sierra de Chusca, and
other local names. The general name of Sierra Madre is ap-
plied to several ranges in the west, while the central chain is
known in common as the Rocky Mountains. The south-west
of New Mexico is occupied by a desert called El LLano Esta-

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 443

cado, or the Staked Plains. The great river called the Rio
Grande del Norte, which rises in San Luis Park, Colorado,
above the 38th parallel of latitude North, flows southwardly
through the central section of New Mexico and entirely across
the territory ; this, and its tributary the Pecos, rising a little
north-west of the intersection of the 36th parallel of latitude
North, and the 105th meridian of longitude West from Green-
wich, and also flowing southward beyond the boundary, are
the principal rivers of New Mexico. Neither of these rivers
are navigable within this territory.

The eastern and central parts of New Mexico have not as
yet been perfectly explored, and the western region beyond
the Sierra Madre, contains considerable districts which are
practically an unknown country. To the east of the 105th
meridian west from Greenwich and of the Pecos river, the
surface of the territory descends gradually eastward, toward
the Mississippi valley and slopes to the south in the direction
of the gulf of Mexico

The surface rocks of the great table land of this territory
are mostly of the tertiary and lower Cretaceous formations.
The mountains between the Eio Grande and Pecos rivers, are
principally of syenitic rocks which have been thrust upwards
through palaeozoic sandstones and carboniferous limestones.
The sandstones and limestones are intersected by dikes of por-
phyry and traversed by mineral lodes. The plateau of the
Sierra Madre in the west and south-west of the territory, rests
upon Ezoic rocks, and these -jnake up the basic body of the
Sierra Madre and Rocky Mountain ranges. The summits of
the mountains are, however, as has been noted, metamorphic
formations, mostly porphyry, trap and basalt. On the northern
boundary of New Mexico, west of the Rio Grande, and some
75 miles wide toward the south, is a volcanic region. Mount
Taylor, already described, is the center of a volcanic area, and
the Mai Pais (Bad Country), east of the Rio Grande, above
and below latitude 33 degrees North, is covered with lava,
volcanic sand, and salt marshes. Extensive horizontal beds

444 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

of lava, spread over sandstone strata, are remarkable features
of the geology of New Mexico. The lava and igneous rocks
of the volcanic districts just described, indicate an era of vol-
canic action which ended but a few hundred years ago. Many
of the rivers of New Mexico have formed canons, in the depths
of which they still continue to flow. The sides of these can-
ons sometimes show beds of coal in positions to admit of
mining. The sandstones of the central mesas, or table moun-
tains, contain beds of lignite and of bituminous coal several
feet thick, between layers of shales, fire-clay, and ores of iron.
Such, beds exist in many localities, but in volcanic areas, as
in the Placiere Mountains, where porphyry has been formed
and igneous action brought to bear upon the coal bearing
strata, the carboniferous beds have been completely changed
into an excellent quality of anthracite. The central plateau
and the country west of the Rio Grande, contain variegated
marls and beds of gypsum, salt and iron are abundant, copper
ores are plentiful and very rich, and New Mexico, for nearly
two and a half centuries, has been known to Europeans as a
country prolific of silver and gold.

The discovery of gold in New Mexico, as in Arizona, was
prehistoric. When in 1492, Columbus reached the West In-
dian islands, New Mexico contained a large semi-civilized popu-
lation, who cultivated the soil, manufactured cotton and woolen
goods, worked the metals and builded houses of great size and
several stories high, with walls of stone, of which the ruins
still remain, with other traces of their occupancy and im-
provement of the country. The remnants of the once great
Indian population of the territory, are found in the citizens of
nineteen Pueblos, or Indian villages, who now number some
7,000 persons, and own a half million or more dollars worth
of property. These Pueblo Indians, though hindered from
voting, are really citizens of the United States and Christians,
in a manner, and yet follow the same methods of life described
as peculiar to them and their country for the past three cen-
turies.

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 445

New Mexico is from 1,000 to 1,500 miles from the landing
places of the Spaniards who.invaded Mexico, and hundreds of
miles from any possible approach by shipping, even via the
gulf of California, and yet the fellow-countrymen of Grijalva
and Cortes had forced their way into the heart of the territory,
almost a hundred years before the English settled in New Eng-
land. The men who survived the disastrous expedition to
Florida under Pamfilo de Narvaez, in 1528, were led into New
Mexico by Alvar Nunez, in 1537 or earlier ; the result of their
observations there was made known to the viceroy of Mexico.
An expedition to New Mexico under Marco de Niza, was made
in 1539, which was followed by another under Coronado in
1540 ; this last crossed the entire territory, as is proved by
the description given of the same by Castaneda, the historian
who accompanied the party of exploration.

The name of New Mexico was given to the newly-discov-
ered country, in or about 1581, when an expedition led thither
by Capt. Francisco de Bonillo, first made known its great min-
eral and metallic riches. About this time, a Franciscan mis-
sionary, by the name of Augustin Euiz, undertook to convert
the Indians of New Mexico, but lost his life at their hands.
In 1592, two partially successful efforts were made to plant
colonies of Spaniards in. New Mexico, and Don Antonio Espejo
having been made Commandante,. entered the province with a
body of armed men. No great measure of success followed,
and in 1595, or 1599, the viceroy of Mexico sent Juan de
Onate to take possession of New Mexico in the name of Spain,
and found colonies, establish missions, and maintain forts in
the new province.

The administration of Onate was considered most success-
ful; the missions were established, the forts were built, the
colonies grew apace; by dint of powder and persuasion, the
Indians were conquered and converted, or in the case of the
wild tribes, driven into the deserts ; placers of gold dust and
veins of silver were discovered ; mines were opened ; diggings
developed; the Christianized Indians were enslaved, and un-

446 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

der cruel taskmasters perished in great numbers, through
hardships and overwork, in securing the precious metals for
those who, full of professions of the religion of Jesus, mani-
fested an avarice would have shamed any Pagan, and a cru-
elty might have been the inspiration of a fiend.

The Pueblo Indians were very patient, but their sufferings
became too much for human endurance, and they made re-
peated attempts at revolt. At length, in 160, they regained
their freedom, and drove the Spaniards from most of their
country. All the northern part of New Mexico was held by
the Indians until 1698, when the Spaniards, having already
been several times defeated, reconquered the entire region;
obtaining, however, but a portion of their former power over
the natives, and this was exercised with greater moderation
and humanity. In 1822, Mexico, and New Mexico, declared
their independence of Spain, when New Mexico became a
Mexican state. As such, it was invaded by United States
troops in 1846, and in 1348 ceded to the United States by the
treaty of Gaudalupe Hidalgo. New Mexico was organized as
a territory of the United States Sept. 9, 1850. Slavery was
recognized by the territorial legislature in 1859, but abolished
at the suggestion of Gen. E. R. S. Canby, of the United States
army, in 1881, which Act emancipated the Indian peons, put-
ting an end to a local system of serfdom which had existed
for two hundred and fifty years.

During the year 1S62, New Mexico was the scene of some
severe fighting between Confederate troops under Gen. H. F.
Sibley, and the forces of the United States Government under
Gen. E. R. S. Canby. Finally, the plots of those recreant offi-
cers, who sought to deliver the territory to the Confederacy,
were circumvented, and Gen. Sibley withdrew, having lost half
his command in killed, wounded and prisoners ; he declaring
the territory not worth one fourth of the cost.

The subsequent growth of New Mexico was slow, and
though several times before Congress for admission to the
Union, it has failed to become a state. The population of

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 447

this territory in 1850, numbered 61,547; in 1860, it was re-
ported as 93,516 ; and in 1870, at 91,874, of whom nine-tenths
were supposed to be Mexicans. The Census of 1880, gives
New Mexico a population of 118,430, and, as b considerable
emigration thither has taken place, the proportion of residents
other than Mexicans has increased. In addition to the vari-
ous returns just noted, the territory has contained some 20,-
000 Indians, outside of the several tribes.

The Indians of New Mexico are at once of the most peace-
able, and of the most murderous description. The Pueblos,
who live in great communistic edifices, are inoffensive and in-
dustrious, while the Comanches and Apaches are notorious
for their ferocity. The raids and plundering expeditions of
the last two tribes, the difficulty in securing clear titles to land,
and the scarcity of water in some sections, have operated to-
gether to hinder the development of mines and check every
other form of industry. As these obstacles are gradually over-
come, a great impetus is given to progress, new mines are
opened in every direction, settlements multiply, or increase,
and furnish a market for the produce of adjoining states.
The most important sources of gold in New Mexico, are the
Moreno district in the north part of the territory, on the east-
ern slope of the Rocky Mountains, in Colfax county ; that of
Pinos Altos, in Grant county, south of the Zuni Mountains ;
and the Old and New Placeres Mountains, along the course of
the Rio del Norte, in Santa Fe and Bernalillo counties. The
Sierra Blanco, Jicarilla, Carrizo, and Patos Mountains of Lin-
coln county, and the Magdalena Mountains of Socooro county,
also contain productive gold mines. There are beside, dig-'
gings in Taos county, and in Rio Arriba county, in the region
of Santa Fe. In fact, there are placers, such as most of those
already named, more or less rich, known in various parts of
the territory, too numerous for record here, and new discov-
eries add largely to the number.

Five years ago, the quartz gold-bearing veins of New Mex-
ico were worked at some few points, but to a limited extent.

448 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

The ores then worked were such as yield from 50 to 75, or
sometimes $100 per ton ; they were less obdurate and refrac-
tory than those of Colorado, already described, yielding easily
and readily to proper treatment, and returning a large per-
centage of their contents of precious metal as a result of the
process. In 1870, New Mexico was reported to be producing
gold to the value of $343,250 each year. In 1874, the yearly
product of gold in the territory, was officially estimated to
have been worth $500,000 each year for several years. Mean-
time, the production of silver, copper, lead and coal became
more and more important.

Since the opening of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe
Railroad across the interior of New Mexico, the development
of the territory has been remarkably stimulated. The exist-
ence of immense deposits of mineral, rich in the precious metals,
has, according to current report, already been abundantly proved
by the recent researches of mineralogists whose reputations
in principal mining districts of the west, has been such that
their statements can be considered authentic. The interchange
of mining property from the original "locaters" to eastern
capitalists and various corporations for large sums of money,
even before any considerable work had been done, is held by
local writers of the territory to prove that the value of the
mines has not been overestimated.

The Pinos Altos mining district of Grant county, is de-
scribed as the only part of New Mexico where gulch mining
has been carried on to any great extent. The four principal
ravines where work has been done, are Bear creek, Whisky
creek, San Domingo creek and Atlantic creek, beside which
are hundreds of side ravines emptying into them. These ra-
vines can be worked the year round with rockers, by which
the miners can always make wages, and in the rainy season
extensive and profitable operations can be carried on. The
veins of a characteristic locality of this district, are represented
as being all true fissure, never "pinching out" ; at the depth
of from 50 to 100 feet the ore changes from a free oxide to

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 449

pyrites, under which, as is supposed, pyritous sulphides are
to be found. The deepest work yet done in these veins, is
less than 150 feet below the surface, where the pyrites are
found, and as these cannot be reduced with an arrastra, the
apparatus still in use, the diggings are for the time carried no
farther downward. The general leads carry silver, though
only gold has been taken out, large amounts of silver having
been washed away into the Gila river, as no attempt has ever
been made to save it. One of the recently-opened gold mines
of New Mexico, is described as follows in the last issue (Feb-
ruary 26, 1881), of a trusted periodical devoted to mines and
mining: "A tunnel was run into the claim, in the direction
that it was expected the lead took. But after getting in fifty
or sixty feet, it was found that the dip was altogether differ-
ent, and the tunnel was run at right angles to the direction
first taken. A cross-cut was made twelve feet in one direction
and fifteen in another. In this chamber there is gold to the
right of you, gold over head, and gold under foot. You can-
not put up your hand anywhere without covering the measure.
Holding up a light, the walls fairly glisten with gold. A shaft
has been sunk, and fifteen feet above the chamber is the same
rich ore, as gleams and glistens on the roof of the chamber.

It is no wonder that the owners, , hold the price at $750,-

000. In fact, it is estimated there .is more than that amount
in sight, as the lowest-grade ore will run as high as $500 to
the ton." A specimen of this ore, said to have been chipped
off, 44 feet down the shaft just described, is almost a nugget
of gold. .

There was deposited in the Unite! States Mints and Assay
Offices, during the fiscal year 1881, gold from New Mexico to k
the value of $91,037.28. Making all necessary allowance, for
the bias toward exaggeration, self-interest, local pride, or san-
guine enthusiasm may cause in the reports of the mines of
New Mexico, it is evident that the territory, one of the dis-
tricts first occupied by white men in the interior of the Ameri-
can continent, and where some of the oldest mines of the West-
2B

450 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

ern Hemisphere are still productive, is, with the adjoining ter-
ritory of Arizona, to become anew the scene of adventure,
speculation and enterprise in pursuit of the precious and other
metals.

Doubtless, mistakes will be made by the reckless, and losses,
incurred by the unwary, but it is considered certain that un-
der the stable control of the United States, with an infusion
of a varied emigration, the advent of railroads, and the appli-
cation of new methods and perfected machinery to old, and
new, reliable sources of mineral wealth, the settlement and
progress of the whole section will be rapid, judicious invest-
ments there be made profitable, local industry rewarded, and
the world's supply of gold and silver largely augmented there-
by year after year for a long time to come.

Besides its mines, New Mexico, though generally counted
a total desert, by those who derive their misinformation from
certain text books of a generation ago, has a capacity for stock
raising, farming and fruit culture not at all to be despised.
Thousands of acres of tillable land need no irrigation ; there
are already choice vineyards, the grapes from which make
splendid wines. As in California, a great amount of land can
be made fruitful by an available supply of water ; moreover,
the climate is generally very healthful. Since the introduc-
tion of railroads into New Mexico, stock raising there has in-
creased very rapidly, yet few "Americans" have penetrated
the agricultural districts of the territory; when they have
done so, and made application of their capital, their improved
machinery, skill, and energy to the arable soil, they will find
a ready and well-paying local market for their produce, and
create in many parts of that section of country, cattle ranges,
plantations, and farms, as valuable as an" lands elsewhere used
for a similar purpose.

The state of Kansas, named after an Indian tribe of the Da-
kota family, occupies the territory between 37 degrees and 40
degrees latitude North, and longitude 94 degrees 40 minutes
and 102 decrees "West from Greenwich. On the east of this

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 451

tract, the strata are of the carboniferous system ; the most of
the surface of this section is occupied by upper carboniferous
formations, and includes all the abundant coal measures of the-
state ; the lower carboniferous strata, are presented at the sur-
face, only in the south-cast corner of Kansas. Further west^
the permian, the triassic, and the cretaceous formations suc-
ceed each other, the last extending west into Colorado, and to
the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains, The mines of Kansas
are rich in coal, with which they supply several adjacent
states and territories ; there are large quantities of very pure
salt in crystalized beds and springs ; otherwise, the minerals
of the district are, as far as known, unimportant ; the precious
metals have not been found in the state, and the geology of
Kansas, though rich in fossils and underlying a fertile soil,
gives no promise of future discoveries there of gold and
silver.

The Indian Territory, lying south of Kansas to latitude 33,
degrees 35 minutes North, presents a geological development
which somewhat resembles that of Kansas; the Indians lo-
cated there on reservations, as wards of the United States,
farm some of the land. No mines have been opened, and the
precious metals are probably absent.

The great state of Texas, lying south of the Indian terri-
tory, and south and east from New Mexico, north of the Rio
Grande del Norte, to the gulf of Mexico, presents every kind of
soil and variety of surface. The whole country slopes gradu-
ally upward from the great gulf, on the south-east, to the
L Lano Estacado or Staked Plain, which occupies the large
part of the west and north-west of the state. The gulf coast
is alluvial, the region back from the shore tertiary, and the
higher western lands cretaceous in formation. There are also
minor districts of palaeozoic, carboniferous, silurian, Jurassic,
triassic, and ezoic rocks. The mineralogy of Texas is but lit-
tle known. Gold has not been mined in the state, in any no-
table quantity ; the workable placers and veins, if in exist-
ence, remain to be discovered. The north-west of the state,

452 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

contains large quantities of argentiferous galena, yielding a
large percentage of silver. Copper abounds in exceedingly
rich veins and peculiar lodes, iron ores exist in large amounts,
of good quality, convenient to vast beds of coal of various
kinds. There are other minerals of commercial value and ex-
tensive tracts of timber in the state, which already crossed by
railroads, is evidently destined to eventually become the home
of a vast and prosperous population.

Of the states forming the western bank of the Mississippi
river, Minnesota alone is known to contain gold in quantities
likely to pay for the working of diggings or mines. Gold has
been discovered in "White county, Arkansas, but not in such
quantities and conditions as to pay for the labor required to
obtain it. Missouri contains gold only in the drift sands of
its rivers ; the placers, as far as known, are not rich enough
to repay the trouble of washing. In the state of Minnesota,
gold and silver are found in but moderately profitable work-
ings, on the shores of Yermillion lake ; the country around,
however, is reported to be so wild, that these deposits are not
worked. The geology of the state of Minnesota, as far as ex-
plored, indicates the possibility of other and perhaps richer
sources of the precious metals yet to be found therein. The
state of Wisconsin, on the east of the Mississippi river, and
between lakes Superior and Michigan, contains but very small
quantities of gold and silver, these being found in a metallic
condition.

"With these notes upon the sources of gold around the head-
waters of the Mississippi river, and the country west of the
great lakes, ends the general survey of the Eocky Mountain
gold field, as far as it is included in the United States. An
account of the gold-bearing districts of the British portion of
North America, is reserved for a future page. The vast sec-
tion of the mineral lands of the United States already described
herein, mostly presents its mines'of the precious metals in a
manner indicative of their origin in, and connection with, the
same vast mountain system. The most noteworthy apparant

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 453

exception to this general rule, is found in the mines of the
Black Hills, in Dakota, to which reference has been made ou
page 434 of this volume.

The Black Hills country, lying in tne south-west portion of
the territory of Dakota, upon the head-waters of the Cheyenne
river, between the north and south forks of the same, is a re-
cently-discovered source of gold, which on account of its ex-
ceptional peculiarities, and very considerable fruitfulness, must
be somewhat especially described, before the consideration of
the resources of the great west is concluded. These "Dills"
are really mountains of moderate elevation, yet not a part of
the great mineral ranges upon which the mines of Idaho, Mon-
tana, Nevada, California and the West are principally located.
They are instead, an isolated group of highlands, standing in
a region Almost a plain. Among these eminences, gold has
been found throughout a district of some sixty miles or more
in length from north to south, and some fifteen or twenty
miles in width. There are two kinds of ore bodies in this
field, the first, cement deposits, like placer mines, lying hori-
zontal, in conformity, or nearly so, with the surface, and found
all over the country.

These deposits are sometimes found in large masses, often.
thirty, forty, or fifty feet thick, sometimes containing gold to
the value of three or four dollars per ton, arid sometimes
yielding fifty dollars from the same amount of ore. Some of
the cement deposits are quite extensive arid of great value.
The worth of any known deposit can be closely estimated, and
many of them are large enough to each employ a forty-stamp
mill for a score of years. The deposits lie upon a bed of slate,
and are frequently covered by a cap of porphyritio rocks.
The materials of the deposits are quartz gravel, and a kind of
cement, conglomerated and fused together; this matrix is
generally easily pulverized, but occasionally is hard as gran-
ite. The ores are quite free and easily milled, and the gold
which is found therein in coarser and heavier particles and
grains than in the fissure veins, is easily saved.

454 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

The quartz gold-bearing lodes of the Black mils, are re-
garded by Professor Jenny as "fissure veins following the
stratification of the slates, with a strike of North 30 degrees
West, and a dip of 51 degrees north-east. The walls are
usually chlorite slate or a hard green chloritic quartzite, which
by oxidation and surface decomposition, forms the hard brown
'iron rock 7 of the mines. The wall rock is very solid and
compact." The ore of some of the veins is described as a mix-
ture of ferruginous quartz with decomposed chloritic slate,
which mills freely and allows the gold to be easily saved. The
ores of the Black Hills' veins are, with but few exceptions, of
alow grade, yielding from eight to twenty-two dollars the ton.
The fissure veins of the whole belt are, as a general thing, very
wide and uniform. One cut of the vein of the Deadwood
mine, is 100 feet across, and similar lodes elsewhere show a
widih of 160 feet. The ore pays for milling all the way from
the surface down, the whole of the ore and crevice material
returning a profit. The ore being perfectly free, according to
report, from base metals, the cost of reducing the products f
the mill to bullion is comparatively small. The cost of mining
and milling the average Black Hills' ore, is estimated by a
resident observer, at three dollars a ton.

An 80 stamp mill, crushing ores yielding five dollars a ton,
is said to be able to make a profit of $300 each working day,
upon ores yielding $9, $12, $16, and even $22 the ton ; the
cost of milling does not increase in proportion, and the profits
are assumed to be very great. The water supply of the Black
Hills' gold field, is copious, constant and reliable ; in fact, some
of the stamps are very economically run by water power.
The first quartz mill erected in the Black Hills' gold l>elt,
commenced work upon the ore, January 1st, 1876. In 1879,
there*were over 5,000 quartz-mining locations recorded in the
different districts, with 52 stamp mills of from 5 to 120 stamps
each, with an aggregate of 1,120 stamps in successful opera-
tion. There were more than twenty prominently-developed
mines in the Hills at the date specified, many of which were

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 455

yielding handsomely; producing, according to an estimate
made in the district, an amount of gold each month, worth
about $600,000.

Various sums, such as $20,000, $50,000, $70,000, $80,000,
$100,000, $120,000, and in one case, $400,000, have been paid
by capitalists of New York and San Francisco for a gold mine
in the Black Hills' belt, and the profits, even upon such large
investments, have in many cases been very satisfactory. It
has been stated that there was not for three years a single
mining failure in the Black Hills, where honest and careful
management was devoted to the enterprise. The owners of
mills in this district, though using no elaborate machinery,
claim to save by ordinary process, seventy-five per cent, of the
gold existing in the ores submitted to their working. All
circumstances considered, the holders of Black Hills' property,
the era of wild speculation having passed, feel justified in an-
ticipating a high and long-continued prosperity for their gold-
producing region of country, and invite capital and emigra-
tion accordingly.

The yield of the Rocky Mountain gold field, + .he net product
of the states and territories west of the Missoun river, accord-
ing to the statement of Wells, Fargo & Company has been as
follows :

1870 $ 33,750,000

1871 - - - 34,398,000

1872 . 38,177,395

1873 - - - 39,206,558
1874 38,466,488

1875 - - - 39,968,194

1876 .... 42,886,935

1877 .... 44,880,223

1878 ... . 37,576,030

1879 .... 31,470,262
1680 32,559,067

Total, for eleven years, $ 413,239,152

456 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

During the year 1880, the product of California showed an
increase of $579,579 in gold, and a decrease in silver of $360,-
873. Nevada showed a total falling off in gold and silver of
$6,966,093 ; the yield from the Comstock being only $5,312,-
592, as against $8,830,562, in 1879 a decrease of $3,517,970.
The product of Eureka District was $4,639,025, as against $5,-
859,261 in 1879 a decrease of $1,220,236. Utah showed an
increase of $982,074. Colorado shows an increase of $6,871,-
474 over the product of 1879, chiefly from Leadville District.
Dakota shows an increase of $914,094. Arizona showed a
notable increase of her gold product during the year. Ac-
cording to the Report of lion. Horatio C. Burchard, Director
of the United States Mint for 1880, the diminished production
of gold and silver on the Pacific coast, has sensibly affected
both the amount of deposits and coinage of the San Francisco
Mint, the amount struck at that establishment having been
$13,OCO,000 less of gold, and $6,000,000 less of silver, during
the fiscal year 1880, than for the same period two years before.
The time for enormous returns from newly -discovered placers,
or from the rapid collection of nuggets from any source, in the
Rocky Mountain region, seems to have passed ; it remains to
be seen whether regular hydraulic mining applied to the high
gravels of that part of the continent, and the extended work-
ing of the various apparently inexhaustible veins of gold-
bearing rock west of the Mississippi, by improved methods,
will not maintain the present yield of gold and silver there,
or perhaps increase the same, making the return of the pre-
cious metals thence, as regular, reliable, and permanent, as it
has been remarkably abundant and vastly valuable.

The second great gold field of North America, is centered
in the Appalachian Mountains along the Atlantic coast, and
may be regarded as containing all the sources of gold known
upon the northern part of the American continent east of the
90th meridian of longitude West from Greenwich, the line of
the Mississippi river and the great lakes, and south of the
river St. Lawrence. For a general account of the Appala-

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 457

chian Mountains, and of the geology of the principal gold-
bearing districts within, or contiguous, to their several ranges,
reference may be made to pages 356 and 857 of this .volume.
Traces of ancient gold mines have been discovered in the
southern part of the Atlantic coast gold field, and from relics
and other indications, it has been assumed these old workings
were opened by some of the Spaniards who entered Florida
under Hernando De Soto in 1539, and subsequently sought
for the precious metals in various directions. The earliest
recorded discovery of gold in the Appalachian region, was
made in a district now known as Cabarrus county, in the
state of North Carolina. The gold was first found there in
the form of a nugget, weighing 28 pounds, and said to have
been of the shape and size of an ordinary domestic smoothing
iron. After the finding of this nugget, there was more or
less prospecting for gold in the district from which it had
been taken, and a number of placers, and possibly a few veins,
were worked irregularly, in a primitive manner, for a number
of years. The gold secured by these primitive operations
having been sold in a number of places, for various purposes,
no record of the product was kept, and the amount of the
same is therefore unknown. Gold has been obtained at vari-
ous places all along the Appalachian ranges, and westward in
Tennessee, yet althougli known for a hundred and eighty
years, and more, and lying in an accessible country, with an
enterprising and numerous population, and worked persist-
ently, the Atlantic coast gold field, has not been found, either
in the magnitude of its deposits, or the amount of gold pro-
duced, comparable with the rich auriferous developments west
of the Mississippi valley.

The principal portion of the Appalachian gold field, is in-
cluded in Georgia, Alabama, South Carolina, Isorth Carolina,
Tennessee, and Virginia ; there is no continuous belt of gold-
producing placers or lodes in the section named, but there are
numerous auriferous tracts at intervals, and these, though
often many miles apart, are generally situated parallel to each

458 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

other. The veins of the southern portion of the Appalachian
gold field, are mostly placed in rocks of a granitic nature, and
in diorite, a kind of hornblend ; all of the rocks containing
gold-bearing veins in this section, being often discovered in a
state of decomposition, to the depth of some two hundred feet.
The gold veins of this district are also found in the various
slates, notably those of a talcose, micaceous, chloritic, and
hornblendic character. In the state of North Carolina, a belt
of crystalline slates like those named, may be traced through
several counties ; to the east of this, is a belt of hornblendic
rock, and to the west is another belt, of granite. The rela-
tions of the gold of South Carolina, are similar to those already
noted here. Steatitic strata are frequently found near the gold
mines of this last state, the veins of gold-bearing ore being
often cut and thrown into irregularity, by dikes of intruding
rocks of varied natures. Ihe general bearing of the common
lodes is north-east and south-west, with a dip toward the north-
west, yet their course is not at all uniform, being directed to
various points, and the veins often tortuous and much dis-
placed by faults.

The veins having a highly crystalline quartz gangue, gen-
erally abound in iron pyrites; in these, pyritous copper is
generally found at some distance from the surface. In nearly
all such cases, the amount of gold to be found in the lode, de-
creases as the quantity of copper contained increases; the
copper to be had, however, is not sufficient to pay for mining
and separation, and the gold having, perhaps, almost disap-
peared, the workings are, of necessity, abandoned. The most
of the gold secured from deposits and lodes on the Atlantic
seaboard, or within a distance of about three hundred miles
from the eastern coast of North America, has been obtained
from a tract lying in the states named in the preceding para-
graph, and of very irregular width, but in some places more
than seventy-five miles across.

The greatest amount of gold produced in any eastern state
of the United States, has been taken from North Carolina,

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 459

where two principal auriferous belts are to be observed, cross-
ing the state in a south-west and north-east course. One of
these belts passes through Mecklenburg, Cabarrus, Eowan,
Davidson, Guilford and Gas well counties. The second belt is
further to the west, lying from ten to twenty miles from the
base of the Blue Eidge range of mountains, and at a greater
general elevation than the first or eastern belt ; the placer de-
posits of the western belt, are richest, and most extensive,
continuing through Rutherford, McDowell and Burke coun-
ties.

The state of Georgia, also presents two auriferous belts, the
ranges of gold deposits, being separated by a district of rocks
entirely free from gold. The quartz veins of the region de-
scribed, resemble those of California, the gold being found in
them in free coarse grains, or finely disseminated through
masses of sulphuret of iron or of copper. Most of the gold
taken from the region of the Appalachian Mountains, has
been found in placer deposits, the value and practicability of
the veins and lodes in the rocks, when under ordinary pro-
Cess, seeming to increase according to their position within
certain limits toward the north.

In Virginia, gold veins are found extending through Fau-
quier, Culpepper, Louisa, Fluvianna, Buckingham, and a num-
ber of adjacent counties. In the ore from Virginian veins,
the gold has been found in a more visible form than in the
average of those mined further south, and more readily sepa-
rable ; the richness of the ores has been quite variable and un-
certain, yet the production of gold from the same, has at times
been very large ; the average statement of the metal taken,
and of time and money expended, is nevertheless unfavorable ;
however, some of these mines still continue to be operated to
a greater or less extent.

As might be inferred from the geognostical developments
and relations of the country, gold has been discovered in the
state of Maryland ; also in Pennsylvania, and in the states of
Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine; but except certain

460 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

operations in Vermont, carried on over a small district, dur-
ing the year 1859, no part of these states has been found to
contain such an exhibit of gold, as would warrant the trouble
and expense of proper mining explorations for the discovery
of the precious metals.

Having given the preceding general statement regarding the
principal features of the Appalachian gold field, it is requisite,
before noting the auriferous characteristics of some districts of
the provinces of the Dominion of Canada, and parts of the
British Possessions in North America, to review, briefly, the
eastern part of the United States, and give, state by state, in
geographical order, somewhat more in detail as concerns each
locality, an account of each, in relation to the subject of gold
and its production. So old, well known and populous are
these states, that the matter of their location, outline, area and
history, may be supposed well enough known by those of even
average education; their geological structure has been suffi-
ciently noted in general remarks already given herein, or hav-
ing been explored and recorded, may be found in the common
text books and treatises. It is then to the gold, and the strata
containing the same in the states of the region named, that the
next succeeding paragraphs are to be more especially devoted.

The state of Florida, lying between the Atlantic ocean and
the gulf of Mexico, and south of latitude 31 degrees North, is
made up entirely of alluvial and diluvial formations ; few val-
uable minerals are found ; the rocks are shell conglomerates
of marine origin, the soil often very fertile, but as might be
expected, no gold has been found in Florida.

The state of Mississippi, east of the river of the same name,
to longitude 88 degrees 7 minutes and 91 seconds West from
Greenwich, and south of the 35th meridian of latitude North,
to the gulf of Mexico, is occupied by carboniferous, cretaceous,
tertiary, and post-tertiary strata ; the mineral resources of the
district are inconsiderable, and there are no deposits of the
precious metals known in the state.

The state of Alabama, includes the territory lying east of

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 461

Mississippi, to longitude 85 degrees and 10 minutes West from
Greenwich. This state has a coast on the gulf of Mexico, at
the south-west corner of its territories, of some sixty miles or
more, indented, however, by Mobile Bay. The rest of the
state is bounded on the south by Florida. The southern por-
tion of Alabama, is occupied by alluvial, diluvial, and tertiary
formations; the "Cotton-Belt" region, 102 miles wide on the
west and 60 on the east, in the central section, is underlaid with
Jurassic limestone, and contains some chalk; the eastern and
north-eastern district is occupied by the eozoic rocks of the
Appalachian mountain system. These primitive rocks are
found in parts of Lee, Chambers, Tallapoosa, and Randolph
counties ; to the west, and north north-west of these, are car-
boniferous beds, and westward still again, a belt of palaeozoic
rock. The extreme northern part of Alabama, is a limestone
region, and part of the valley of the river Tennessee.

Alabama, is one of the richest mining and mineral regions
of the world ; its metallic wealth consists of gold, silver, cop-
per, iron and lead ; beside which are valuable mineral beds,
containing coal of various kinds and good quality, syenite,
soapstone, arsenical ores, vivianite, carite, caleite, dolomite
and crystaline quartz. There are also clays fit for pottery,
chinaware, fire-brick, or crucibles ; good limestone of different
kinds, manganese, valuable sulphates, and building stone ; in-
cluding granite, slate, white marble, and variegated marble ;
also, lithographic stone, and red ochre. The marbles of Ala-
bama, equal any in America. The most important mines of
the state, are those producing iron ; the most valuable mineral
product is coal. The coal and iron of Alabama, are inex-
haustible, and of surpassing excellence ; as they are found in
close proximity, and near the lines of railroads, the state pre-
sents every condition for manufacturing the best of iron in
the greatest quantities, at the lowest possible price.

The gold of Alabama, was first found in Randolph county
during 1836, and other discoveries followed, the auriferous
mines made known and worked, often containing a small per-

462 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

centage of silver. The greatest yield from these mines, was
from 1836 to 1859, during which period the gold produced
was valued at about $200,000. Up to June 30, 1872, there
had been deposited at the United States Mints and Assay
Offices, gold from Alabama, to the value of $213,750.66. The
amount of gold thus deposited, from the same state, during
the fiscal year ending June 30, 1880, was valued at 752.79,
and the total amount of gold so received, from the same, to
that date, at $219,872.95. The gold mines of Alabama, are
of small importance, when compared with the sources of wealth
contained in the coal measures and iron mines of the state;
they are, however, of interest in the present writing, as the
south-western extremity of the very extensive Appalachian
gold field to be described.

Eastward of Alabama, and north of Florida, lies the state of
Georgia, which being bounded on the north-east by South
Carolina, extends on the south-east to the Atlantic ocean.
The territory of the state presents three distinct belts of dif-
ferent elevation, and dissimilar climate. Geologically de-
scribed, the coast region is a district of sand, often but a few
feet above the sea, imposed upon the rocks of the lowest ter-
tiary, eocene, or modern tertiary rocks, with clays and calca-
rious beds, over metamorphic slates and gneiss, with occa-
sional outcroppings of the cretaceous strata. This belt ex-
tends inland, with a gradual ascent, to about the center of the
state; where, on a line nearly parallel with the sea coast, the
primary formations are developed in hills of granitic and pal-
aeozoic rock. From this line of hills, a metamorphic and silu-
rian belt extends northward for about 150 miles, rising to a
still more elevated plateau of eozoic formation, some sixty,
seventy or more miles wide, which reaches to the northern
boundary of the state among the southern spurs of the Ap-
palachian ranges of mountains.

Gold was discovered in the northern geologic district of
Georgia, in Ilabersham count}', in 1829, or 1831, aud has
since been taken from veins and alluvial deposits found in

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD, 463

almost every county north of the center of the state, and lying
east of the western base of the mountains which extend into
the same from the north. Georgia, has been regarded as the
El Dorado sought by the Spaniards who invaded Florida be-
fore 1540. In Nacooche valley of this state, the remains of an
Indian gold- mining village, of very early times, consisting of
thirty-eight low-timber houses, were found buried nine feet
below the surface of the ground. "What time passed after the
Indians left these mines, before the precious metal was re-
discovered in the same region, by the white settlers, as already
stated, is quite unknown.

Before gold was found in California in 1848, the placers in
the northern counties of Georgia, had been profitably worked
for many years. The branch of the United States Mint es-
tablished at Dahlonega, Lumpkin county, Georgia, in 1837,
coined during the year 1853, an amount of gold, mostly pro-
duced in Georgia, to the value of nearly $500,000. This mint
was kept in operation for 24 years, or until 1861, and during
that period coined gold to the value of $6,121,919, the most of
the bullion thus used having been produced in the state in
which the mint was located. The production of gold in Geor-
gia, down to 1838, was estimated to have been 800,000 ounces,
worth about $14,500,000. From 1838 to 1849, the gold pro-
duced in the same state was estimated at 200,000 ounces, worth
about $3,726,000.

From the year 1852, the production of gold in Georgia,
rapidly decreased, until in 1870 but five mines were worked in
the state, the annual yield from them all being valued at but
$29,780. The principal gold-producing area of Georgia, is
comprised in Lumpkin, Habersham, Forsyth and Hall coun-
ties, the metal being taken from the alluvium of the streams,
and the quartz rocks of the hills. The gold received from
Georgia, at the United States Mints and Assay Offices, during
the fiscal year ending June 30, 1880, was valued at $89,831.08,
and the aggregate value of the gold thus deposited from the
opening of the mines of the state, to the date last mentioned,

464 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

was valued at $7,693,082.03, with a remarkably small amount
of silver, to the value of only $458,20, the product, as thus
stated, indicating the nature of the sources from which the
gold has been taken.

Eastward from Georgia to the Atlantic ocean, lies the state
of South Carolina. The coast region of this state for about
thirty miles inland from the sea, is an alluvial or quartenary
formation ; to the west of the coast region, is a tertiary belt
some sixty or eighty miles wide ; beyond this, to the west, is
a district of mixed silurian and eozoic rocks, while on the ex-
treme western border of the state, the primitive eozoic appears
in rugged mountainous grandeur. The state of South Caro-
lina, contains many rich but mostly undeveloped mineral and
metallic deposits and veins. The gold-bearing rocks extend
through the north-west corner of the state, the metal being
found in Abbeville, Edgefield, Lancaster, Pickens, Sparten-
burg, Union and York counties. There are mines in Abbe-
ville, Edgefield and Union counties, which have produced large
amounts of gold. The Dorn mines in the years before the war,
sometimes yielded gold to the value of $200,000 each year.

The first deposit of gold received at the United States Mint,
from South Carolina, was made in 1827, and was valued at
$3,500. The aggregate of such deposits from the same state,
from the opening of its mines, down to the close of the fiscal
year ending June 30, 1876, was valued at $1,381,518.13. The
gold from South Carolina deposited in the United States Mints
and Assay Offices, during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1880,
was valued at $11,861.70, and the aggregate of all such de-
posits from the same state, to the date last mentioned, was
valued at $1,401,845.30. The value of the silver so received,
during the period named, was reported at but $30.44.

The territories of the state of North Carolina, are included
between latitude 33 degrees 49 minutes 45 seconds and 36 de-
grees 33 minutes North, and between longitude 75 degrees 25
minutes and 84 degrees 30 minutes West from Greenwich.
The boundaries of the state are irregular in form, the eastern

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 465

district fronting on the Atlantic ocean, and including various
sounds. The region of the coast in this state, is marked by a
heavy deposit of sand spread over tertiary, cretaceous eocene
and miocene formations of rock. One-half the surface of the
state is comprised in the quarternary formations, which cover
a belt from 100 to 125 miles wide, parallel with the coast.
The midland region of the state, for some 125 miles in width,
is metamorphic and granitic ; the common rock of this belt is
a kind of gray granite, destitute of gold. There have been dis-
coveries of gold in Franklin county, of this section, however.
On the extreme western border of North Carolina, there is
another granite belt some 10 to 14 miles wide, containing nu-
merous trap dikes, deposits of minerals and veins of gold.

The general mineral resources of North Carolina, are enor-
mously great, consisting mainly of beds of coal, very pure ores
of iron and mines of the precious metals. The development
of the gold fields of North Carolina, may be considered pre-
historic, or at least as having been an occurrence of which no
authentic record has been preserved. A few years ago, a se-
ries of heavy freshets overflowed the valleys of the Catawba,
Yadkin, and Dan rivers in this state, and in washing away the
soil of the bottom lands, laid bare a large number of curious
and most interesting relics ; among these, were human skele-
tons, burial urns, different implements and vessels of stone, ar-
ticles of pottery ware and wrought copper, weapons and orna-
ments for the person. In the mountain regions of North
Carolina, in various places are ancient mines of an unknown
age and doubtful origin. The most important of the ancient
mines is in Cherokee county, in the extreme south-western
corner of the state ; this mine consists of a perpendicular shaft
one hundred feet deep, lined throughout with timber, the work
upon the same having been done in a skillful manner, beside
which, there is a horizontal tunnel driven from the base of the
hill to meet the bottom of the shaft. These various worts
are supposed to have been of Spanish origin, and may have
been in existence for three hundred and forty years.
2C

466 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

The gold deposits and auriferous veins of the southernmost
region of the Appalachian Mountain system, having, as is sup-
posed, been known to the Indians, and worked by them and
the early Spanish adventurers, were rediscovered before the
opening of the present century, in Cabarrus county, North
Carolina. Somewhere about a century ago, according to tra-
dition, the nugget weighing 28 pounds, described on page 457
of this volume, was found in the county last named. The
value and nature of this specimen, is said to have been un-
known to the finder, who, after keeping it for some years, sold
it for a few cents "to one wise enough to remain reticent upon
the subject." A second nugget was discovered in the same
county during the year 1799, by a person named Reed, near
what was afterwards known as the Reed mine; this Reecl nug-
get weighed thirty-seven pounds, Troy, and with its discovery
began the active search for the precious metal in the vicinity.
In 1829, a nugget weighing ten pounds was found in this dis-
trict, and before 1830, one hundred pounds or more of gold
was secured in the form of nuggets, each more than a pound
in weight.

Gold placers and deposits were opened over a large district
of North Carolina lying on both sides of the Blue Ridge range
of mountains, where they were successfully worked from an
early date; these mining operations were quite extensive, but
the exact product of the same cannot now be determined.
Gold is very extensively distributed through the whole moun-
tain region of this state, being found ; first, in loose quartz
gravel or grits, immediately below the surface ; second, in
stratified layers of the same age as the rock which bears them ;
third, as crevice gold, among the joints, seams and crevices of
the rocks ; fourth, in irregular veins with quartz and the sul-
phurets of iron or of copper. The gold veins of North Caro-
lina were discovered by a man named Barrenger, in Montgom-
ery county, during the year 1825. The richest gold mine in
the United States, before 1848, when the precious metal was
discovered in California, was in Rowan county, North Caro-

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 467

lina, some of the earth taken from the deposit yielding gold
to the value of $500 from each bushel. This mine was
worked from 1840 or 1842, for a considerable time, when it
became flooded, having produced in all, gold to the value of
some $3,000,000. Beside the celebrated mine here described,
regular gold-bearing veins have been worked in North Caro-
lina, located in Davidson, Cabarrus, Stanley, Montgomery, and
Mecklenburg counties, where irregular gold-bearing veins also
exist, and where surface deposits of free gold have been found ;
the same may be said, but in less degree, of Catawba, Ran-
dolph, Union and Franklin counties.

In the vicinity of the Reed mine, in Cabarrus county, as
already related, many fine nuggets and specimens were col-
lected from the surface, or from shallow diggings, a long time
before operations were begun upon the mine. In addition to
the gold-producing localities already named in North Carolina,
the same metal has been discovered in Anson, Burke, Clay,
Cleaveland, Gaston, Guilford, Jackson, Lincoln, McDowell,
Moore, Nash, Polk, and Yancey counties. There was former-
ly a branch of the United States Mint at Charlotte, Mecklen-
burg county, North Carolina, but it is now merely an assay
office. The gold deposited in the United Mints and Assay
Offices, to the close of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1874,
was valued at $10,090,656. The gold so deposited, from th
same source, during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1870, waa
valued at $85,659.57, and the aggregate of all such deposits to
that date, at $10,613,351.10. Quite recently, the Mears Platt^
ner Process of Chlorination, has been practiced at the Yadkitt
Gold Mine and Reduction Works in North Carolina, and fa-
vorable reports of the results are published. Considering the
non-argentiferous nature of the ores found in the state, the
use of some such process may be the means of an increase ia
the production of gold, not only in North Carolina, but pos-
sibly all along the Atlantic slope, wherever the precious metai
has been obtained.

West of North Carolina, to the bank of the Mississippi

468 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

river, extends the state of Tennessee, a region of varied geo-
logic formation, rich in coal, iron, marble, and numerous
other metals and minerals of a valuable nature, the certain
sources of great wealth to the future population of this as yet
undeveloped state. Gold has been found in Tennessee, in quartz
veins in the enormous development of the Lower Silurian
strata proper, which marks the region of the Unaka Moun-
tains in the eastern part of the state, but the amount of the
precious metal to be secured, has not been sufficient to make
these mines a source of profit.

North of Tennessee, to the Ohio river, lies the state of Ken-
tucky ; the geology of this state is made up of the various
formations developed elsewhere in the valley of the Missis-
sippi ; the caves and fossils of the sub-carboniferous district
of the state, are very remarkable, the coal mines of the state
rank in quantity and quality next to those of Pennsylvania,
and the amount of iron ore to be had, of good quality, is not
exceeded by the deposits of any state. Gold is not reported
among the metals found in Kentucky.

The state of Illinois, is bounded on the south, and the south-
east by the Ohio river, and west by the Mississippi river ; it
extends north to latitude 42 degrees and 30 minutes, and east-
ward to the line of Indiana, in longitude 87 degrees and 35
minutes. Illinois, has been described in general as one great
coal field; the larger part of the surface is included in the
carboniferous formation, but there are districts presenting
other strata. The coal measures of this state are not all fit
for practical mining, but there are immense deposits of good
coal convenient for working and transportation. The coal
measures contain iron ores in places, but these are principally
valuable for admixture with other ores mined outside of the
state.

There is a small lead-bearing district in Jo Daviess county,
in the north-west corner of Illinois. The galena is argentif-
erous, and is an important product. Gold is not usually reck-
oned among the metals of Illinois, yet it has been found in

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 469

small quantities among the gravels of the river bottoms
there.

The state of Indiana, lying east of Illinois to longitude 84
degrees 49 minutes West from Greenwich, is part of the same
great coal-bearing region including the last-named state and
Kentucky. The "block-coal" of Indiana, which, exists in
great abundance and is easily mined, is almost entirely free
from sulphur and phosphorus, and hence a superior fuel for
manufacturing iron, excelling even charcoal in this respect.
As in Illinois, the river gravels of Indiana, contain some gold
in places, but the scanty supply of gold dust and grains of
these states, lies uncared for in the unprofitable gravels, among
the numerous sure sources of wealth found in the vast coal
measures, in various other mines, and in the generally ex-
ceedingly fertile soil.

The state of Ohio extends eastward from Indiana to longi-
tude 80 degrees and 34 minutes West from Greenwich, and is
bounded on the north by the Great Lakes, and on the south
by the Ohio river. The geology of Ohio includes the lower
and upper silurian, the devonian and carboniferous strata, with
developments of the quarternary formation in deposits of
drift of various kinds. The most important of the many
mineral resources of this state is coal, which resembling ia
some fields the coal of Indiana, is used in connection with the
abundant ferruginous ores of Ohio, in different manufactures
of iron. The several kinds of rocks in the state, supply an
abundance of valuable stones for building, and many other
economic purposes. The primitive or eozoic rocks are be-
neath the surface in Ohio, and neither veins or deposits of
gold have been discovered in the state.

The state of West Virginia, was set off from Virginia, in
1863. The territory of this new state is very irregular in
form ; it is bounded on the north-west by Ohio, and on the
north-north-east and east-north-east by Pennsylvania and
Maryland, on the east-south-east and south by Virginia, and
on thfi south-west by Virginia and Kentucky. Including part

470 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

of the Appalachian valley, an extensive section of the western
slope of the Alleghany range of mountains, and a portion of
the upper regions of the Ohio valley, the state of West Vir-
ginia, has a varied geological structure in general conformity
with the already-described formation peculiar to the several
natural districts named to which its territories belong. Most
of the surface of West Virginia, is mountainous and hilly,
but the eozoic rocks appear only in the eastern boundary of
Jefferson county, in the extreme eastern point of the state.
The Alleghany coal field covers the principal part of the ter-
ritories of West Virginia ; the area of the coal lands in the
state, is some 15,000 square miles, and some of the mines are
unsurpassed. Salt, iron, stone, marble, and a variety of val-
uable minerals are found in the same region, but so far as its
deposits, veins and mines have been surveyed, the existence of
gold is not noted.

Virginia, one of the original thirteen states of the United
States, is bounded on the west and north-west by Kentucky
and West Virginia, on the north and north-east by Maryland,
on the east by the Cherapeake bay and the Atlantic ocean,
and on the south by North Carolina and Tennessee. Vir-
ginia, though parted from a portion of its former territories,
is still a large state, containing in all an area of some 45,000
square miles 27,201,000 acres. The tide-water section of
Virginia, like the same portion of the states south of it, is of
the quarternary and alluvial formation ; the low plains of the
peninsulas are of the pliocene or upper tertiary order ; the
next higher lands, well up toward the head of the various
bays, is iniocene or middle tertiary, with beds of sand, gravel,
marl and pebbles; inland from this terrace, for fifteen or
twenty miles, the surface presents indications of the eocene or
lower tertiary strata in various colored marls, different kinds
of clays and numerous fossils. The central region of Vir-
ginia, is principally of eozoic structure, the rocks mostly
crystaline, and in places containing gold-bearing veins of
quartz. The western part of Virginia, lies among the Ap-

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 471

palachian mountain ranges, and presents a varied geologic view,
including limestones, and lower silurian, upper silurian, devoni-
an, sub-carboniferous, and carboniferous rocks and deposits.

The gold of Virginia, has been found in a central belt some
twenty miles wide, extending from the region of the District
of Columbia, to the south-west, on a general line with the
ranges of mountains for about two hundred miles, to Halifax
Court House, and nearly across the state. A great number of
mines have been opened in this district, principally in Fau-
quier, Culpepper, Spottsylvania, Orange, Fluvanna, Bucking-
ham, and some adjacent counties. The gold-bearing rocks of
Virginia, are argentiferous, the percentage of silver being
greatest in the veins located in the chloritic slates. The gold
product of Virginia, has at times been quite large, but during
other periods, on account of the unevenness and comparative
poverty of the ore taken from the veins, much less, the whole
working making an uncertain, fluctuating, and, on the average,
unprofitable business. Some of the gold mines in Virginia,
are still worked with moderate success, the yield of gold from
the state, showing an increase of about ten per cent, of the to-
tal product each year for several years past. What the future
profits of the same may become, through more extensive op-
erations by probably improved processes, remains to be de-
termined hereafter by actual experiment and practical demon-
stration.

The first deposit of gold from Virginia, received at the
United States Mint, was made in 1829, and valued at $2,500.
The total amount of gold from the same state, deposited at the
United States Mints and Assay Offices, to the close of the fiscal
year ending June 30, 1876, was valued at $1,638,593.13, the
amount of gold so deposited for that particular Centennial
year, having been valued at $3,323.49. During the year 1880,
the amount of gold from Virginia, deposited at the United
States Mints and Assay Offices, was valued at $9,322.07, and
the total amount so deposited to the close of the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1880, was valued at $1,672,667.70.

472 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

To the north and north-east of Virginia, between 37 degrees
53 minutes and 39 degrees 44 minutes latitude North, and 75
degrees 2 minutes and 79 degrees 30 minutes longitude "West
from Greenwich, lies the state of Maryland, including a terri-
tory which, in the variety of its geological formations and
mineral products, is one of the most remarkable districts of
the United States. It is sufficient here to remark, that the
strata and deposits of Maryland, are in general extensions of
those found in the adjoining states, modified by the irregu-
larities of the coast line, as formed by the indentations of the
bays and arms of the sea. Traces of gold have been found at
various points, in that part of Maryland adjoining the central
belt of Virginia, and the precious metal has been secured in
the state to a small amount. The gold from Maryland, depos-
ited at the United States Mints and Assay Offices, to the close
of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1876, was valued at $402,12,
being the total gold product of the state to the present time.

The business of prospecting and mining for gold in North
Carolina, became notable as early as the year 1804. The first
deposits of gold of domestic production, received at the United
States Mint, was made during the year 1824. Up to the year
1827, North Carolina, was the only considerable source of gold
known to exist in the United States. The aggregate value of
the gold produced in that state, to the date named, was esti-
mated at $110,000. In 1829, South Carolina, deposited gold
to the value of $3,500, and Virginia, did the same to the value
of $2,500. In 1830, Georgia, deposited gold to the value of
$212,000, and the gold produced in the United States, became
for a time sufficient to meet the national demand for coinage.
The total amount of gold produced in the states, already de-
scribed as part of the gold field of the Atlantic slope of the
United States, to the close of the fiscal year ending June 30,
1876, was valued at $20,769,997.60. Down to the close of the
fiscal year 1880, the product of the same section had increased
to a value of $21,470,614.50, a considerable sum, when consid-
ered by itself, but a trifle, in comparison with the vast outfit

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 473

of the Rocky Mountain mines, and but little more than half
the annual gold product of the United States, for the past few
years.

The northern portion of the Appalachian mountain system,
covers all that part of the United States eastward of the main
stream of the Ohio river, and northward from the latitude of
the city of "Washington, and beyond extends into the Domin-
ion of Canada. This region includes the states of Maryland,
Delaware, Pennsylvania, New York, Connecticut, Massachu-
setts, Rhode Island, Vermont, New Hampshire and Maine,
with the Eastern and Maritime provinces of Canada. The
whole of this section of the continent is one vast gold field,
the precious metal being very generally distributed through-
out its territories, in deposits and veins in numerous localities.
The gold-bearing gravels, clays, and ore veins, or lodes of free
gold, found in this the north-eastern Atlantic coast gold field,
are widely separated one from another, and vary greatly in
their richness, from beds and rocks which show mere traces
of gold, discoverable only by chemical analysis, to mines and
washings which yield a sufficient return of the metal for the
labor expended upon them, to create a reliable and remunera-
tive business. Some account of the points where gold has
been found, and of the localities where the same has been
worked for, in the north-eastern part of the United States,
will be given in a few of the succeeding paragraphs.

The very small amount of gold produced in the state of
Maryland, has already been noted herein on page 472, the
same being included in the general estimate made of the
quantity of the metal deposited in the several United States
mints and assay offices, from the southern states.

The state of Delaware, lying east of Maryland, and along
Delaware bay, from which body of water the state received its
name, presents a district of small extent, marked in general by
the same geologic features which appear in the shore lands and
coast regions to the southward of its boundaries. The only-
important metallic product of Delaware, is iron, and this is

474 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

made in moderate quantities from the bog ores found at vari-
ous places in the state.

The great state of Pennsylvania, extending from 39 degrees
43 minutes to 42 degrees latitude North, and from 74 degrees
40 minutes to 80 degrees 36 minutes longitude West from
Greenwich, is one of the most important mineral regions of
the world, and one of the most interesting geologic districts
of the American continent. The greatness of the mineral and
metallic resources of this state, and the vast development
already attained by the numerous industries founded upon
them, have made the products of the same of incalculable
commercial and economic importance. The most valuable
mineral products of Pennsylvania, are the different anthracite
and bituminous coals. There are about 25,000,000 tons of
excellent anthracite coal mined in the state each year, with a
constantly-increasing amount of bituminous coal, amounting
at a recent date, to some 6,000,000 tons during a similar pe-
riod. The state contains no iron in a native condition, but
has mines of every variety of iron ore, and it is from these,
has been made nearly one-half of all the iron produced ia the
United States. In addition to the sources of wealth already
named, Pennsylvania is the great center of the world's supply
of petroleum. This article is measured in barrels of 40 gal-
lons each, and of such, the production for the last few years
has been as follows : 1875, 8,787,506 ; 1876, 9,175,906 ; 1877,
13,490,171 ; 1873, 15,165,462 ; 1879, 19,741,661. The state
also contains almost every known mineral, but none of them
except those already described, have been found of any con-
siderable economic value.

Gold, silver, copper, tin, and native sulphur, exist in Penn-
sylvania, in various places and relations, but neither of them
have as yet repaid the trouble of working the deposits. Ac-
cording to estimates made by chemical experts, the peculiar
clay which at the delta of the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers
underlies the surface of the county of Philadelphia, contains
gold in dissemination, valued at more than $1,000,000,000,

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 475

beside an enormous amount contained in that portion of
this clay already excavated and incorporated into brick, of
which most of the va^t number of walls and buildings in the
city of Philadelphia are made. It is, however, estimated upon
the same scientific authority, that the wages of men employed
in extracting gold from the auriferous Philadelphia clays, at
fifty cents a day, would consume the entire amount of gold
which could be obtained by their labor ; inasmuch as the to-
tal amount of gold contained in the material to be operated
upon, is but the value of three cents to the cubic foot. The
silver veins of Pennsylvania, would it is assumed, afford a
better profit than the gold-bearing clays, at least in some lo-
calities, but nowhere could they be so managed, as to make
operations upon the argentiferous ores of the state a safe and
profitable business.

The state of New Jersey, lies along the Atlantic coast east-
ward of Delaware bay and river, and south of the boundary
line of New York. The southern part of this state, is made
up of tertiary deposits and drift, with cretaceous beds and fos-
sils of varied origin; in the middle section of the state, sec-
ondary rocks appear, and in the north, are gneissoid and grani-
tic strata, with highlands of moderate elevation. The impor-
tant mineral products of this district, are iron and zinc ores,
gold and silver never having been discovered in workable
quantities.

The very irregular tract of country lying between 40 de-
grees 29 minutes 40 seconds and 45 degrees minutes 42 sec-
onds latitude North, and 71 degrees 51 minutes and 79 de-
grees 45 minutes 54 seconds longitude West from Greenwich,
is included in the state of New York. Across this state, the
Appalachian mountain system extends in ranges of different
names, presenting modified and varying geologic features.
The mountains of New York are not lofty, rising to an eleva-
tion of but 1,000 to 1,700 feet above the sea along the banks
of the Hudson river, and to 6,000 feet above the sea in the
northern central region of the Adirondack range. The Uigh-

476 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

lands of the Hudson, are derived from a range of moderate
elevations extending northward from the territories of New
Jersey ; the structure of these Highlands is of gneissoid and
granitic rocks, distinct from the metamorphic formations upon
either side of them. The Adirondack Mountains are of about
the same geologic constitution as the Highlands of the Hud-
son, while the Shawangunk and Catskill ranges of mountains
are geologically the true representatives of the Appalachian
strata which are outspread in Pennsylvania, and southward
thence. The state of New York, presents peculiar geologic
features ; in certain districts, nearly every formation is shown,
from the most ancient eozoic rocks, to the most modern sedi-
ments ; yet the entire carboniferous strata, the upper devonian,
the permian, and Jurassic formations are everywhere wanting.
The Jower tertiary deposits occur but in very limited areas ;
there are traces of anthracite coal in layers of a few inches
deep, but no true coal measures; the most important mining
product of the state is iron ; galena, or lead ore, is obtained in
St. Lawrence county in large quantities ; zinc, copper, arsenic,
manganese, barytes, strontian, and alum, are reported among
the minerals found in this district, but none of them have
been made a source of any notable profit. Vast quantities of
salt have been taken from the springs along the line of the
Onondaga salt group, mostly in Onondaga county ; there is
also an abundance of gypsum, water-lime, building-stone, and
other economic materials, imbedded in the generally very fer-
tile soil of this state, and from the surface flow numerous
valuable mineral springs. With the numerous and fruitful
sources of wealth already named, and a most extensive com-
merce, the citizens of New York make themselves content in
prosperity, gold and silver being unknown among the pro-
ducts of the state, though perhaps existing in mere auriferous
and argentiferous traces among the rocks.

The New England states of Connecticut, Rhode Island, Mas-
sachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, form a geo-
logic district especially marked by the granitic, gneissoid, met-

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 477

amorphic, and crystaline formations ; the details of the local
features of the strata of this region are not essential in this
connection ; moreover, the states have long been settled, and
their geologic features have, in general, been carefully sur-
veyed and well described, throughout their comparatively
limited area. ,

No considerable amount of gold has been found in Connec-
ticut, but traces of the metal have been reported ; a branch of
the oldest known copper mine, worked by English hands in
the United States, was opened at Granby, in Connecticut, and
from this mine copper was obtained for a colonial coinage, is-
sued as early as 1736, as related on pages 172 and 173 of this
volume. The iron of Connecticut taken from the Salisbury
mine, was used during the American Eevolution by the Gov-
ernment of the United States for the manufacture of cannon
found to be of very superior strength and endurance ; of this
iron, the great chain was made which was stretched across the
Hudson river at "West Point, and the same metal was applied
to the general purposes of the army and navy during the en-
tire war. Beside copper and iron, the state of Connecticut con-
tains ores of lead of an argentiferous nature, but the amount
of silver which may have been obtained from them is un-
known, none appearing to have been deposited at the United
States Mints and Assay Offices.

The small state of Rhode Island, contains beds of anthracite
coal, of even greater extent than those of Pennsylvania, but
the state is not a gold-bearing area. The coal of Rhode Island,
is, at the surface, of rather inferior quality, but improves very
much as the mine is made deeper ; a considerable amount of
this coal is raised each year.

Gold was discovered a few years since in Essex county,
Massachusetts, and mining was begun in an enterprising man-
ner ; the reports of deposits at the United Mints and Assay
Offices, make, however, no mention of gold from Massachu-
setts.

The talcose slates of Vermont, contain numerous deposits of

478 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

hematite iron ore, and at Chittenden, productive mines of
manganese ; at Plymouth, and several other places in the state,
gold has been found in the same slate formation. Some gold
has been secured from the auriferous veins of Vermont, but
the mines have not, as a whole, repaid the labor and expense
of working, and are now unproductive. Of gold from the
state of Vermont, there was deposited in the United States
Mints and Assay Offices, to the close of the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1880, the value of $10,981.27, a small item, when
compared with the worth of the marble and slate which, since
1844 and 1845, have been taken from the then-discovered
quarries at Rutland and Fairhaven, in the same state.

The almost entirely inland state of New Hampshire, lying
to the eastward of Vermont, presents for some twenty to
thirty miles inland from its but eighteen miles of sea-coast, a
low, level and partly marshy tract, but the remainder of the
surface of the state, is broken and mountainous. The ranges
and peaks of this district, belong to the Appalachian system ;
the greater part of the mountains are of eozoic formation, or
of archiac rocks ; the surface rocks of the whole region, are in
general granite, gneiss, mica, quartz, etc., with narrow areas
of the lower silurian rocks along the valleys of the Connecti-
cut and Merrimac rivers, and near the sea-coast, intersected by
tertiary and quaternary deposits. The area of New Hamp-
shire, 13 occupied by an Appalachian plateau, from 800 to 1,500
feet above the level of the sea, from which, at irregular inter-
vals, arise numerous more or less isolated summits. The av-
erage elevation of the state, is some 1,200 feet above the level
of the sea, and the mountains included in its territory, are,
with the single exception of the Black Mountains of North
Carolina, the highest of the Appalachians, or of any moun-
tains in the United States along the Atlantic coast. The
White Mountains of New Hampshire, contain several lofty
summits, and numerous peaks, of considerable elevation, are
scattered all over the surface of the state. Among these,
Mount Washington rises to a h eighth of 6,285.4 feet above the

AMERICAN AND OTHER GOLD. 479

level of the sea, while, from its summit, may be seen Mount
Clay, Mount Adams, Mount Jefferson, and Mount Madison,
standing, respectively, at an elevation of 5,553, 5,714, 5,794,
and 5,365 feet above the coast line. Other peaks elsewhere,
present an almost equal average altitude; a number of these,
from their detached position and peculiar form, appearing
much higher.

New Hampshire contains veins and beds of the ores of im-
portant rnetals, and of valuable minerals, but the metals pro-
duced from them have not been the source of any great
wealth. Gold has been mined in the state, by two companies,
whose works were still carried on at a recent date. The
gold-bearing rocks are of quartz, located in the town of Lis-
bon. The total yield of gold from the quartz mills at Lisbon,
and from the entire state, since they were first put in opera-
tion, was estimated in 1375, to have been worth $30,000, and
that amount of the same is said to have been sold to the
United States Mint. According, however, to the Official Re-
port of the Director of the Mint, for the fiscal year en-ling
June 80, 1880, the total amount of gold received from New
Hampshire, by the United States Mints and Assay Offices, to
this last date, was valued at but $11,020.55. The amount of
gold produced in the state each year, for several years past,
cannot have been worth more than a few hundred dollars.
The iron ores of New Hampshire, are not a source of profit,
but its quarries produce an abundance of fine granite, and
other valuable minerals are obtained at various points.

The state of Maine, formerly a district of Massachusetts, is
the easternmost portion of the United States; the geologic
formations of this north-eastern region, are almost exclusively
of the eozoic and silurian rocks; the metamorphic strata
found in tins area, abound in minerals of very interesting,
and, in some instances, valuable character. The mountains of
Maine are of the Appalachian system ; they are not so lofty as
the summits noted in New Hampshire, but of considerable ele-
vation, standing in groups, with no appearance of ranges in

480 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

regular order. There are traces of gold in Maine, but the
precious metals are not mentioned in the reports of the in-
dustrial products of the state ; the metallic ores of iron, lead,
tin, copper, zinc, etc., of that section, receive but slight atten-
tion from any one but the geologist ; the minerals, among
which are marbles, slates, granites, limestones, and materials
for the manufacture of copperas and sulphur, are quarried
with much success; the granite of Maine is durable, and be-
ing found in great and perfect masses, is sometimes moved
from the strata in flawless blocks, weighing a hundred or
more tons each ; there is an abundance of excellent roofing-
slate found in the state, and the limestones of Thomaston, sup-
ply an enormous amount of the best lime, which is an impor-
tant article of general export. The town of Paris, in Oxford
county, Maine, is celebrated for the beautiful colored tourma-
lines, a kind of valuable silicious stone obtained there. The
mineralogical cabinets of Europe, are adorned with beryls of
unequalled size, taken from among those procured in the state
of Maine. These stones are regarded as a sub-species of em-
erald, are of a greenish hue, and .often quite handsome. From
the north of Maine, the mountain wilderness extends eastward
and northward into the Dominion of Canada, and it is with a
rapid yet authentic statement of the sources of gold in the vast
territories included in the Canadian domain, and the other
British provinces in North America, this chapter upon
American And Other Gold is to be concluded.

COINS OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES.

ABYSSINIA.

No coins are minted in Abyssinia. Large payments are
made in ingots of gold, which are weighed by the "Wakea" or
Abyssinian ounce, equal to 400 grains Troy. For small pay-
ments, salt bars are used; about 80 of which are valued at a
Wakea of gold. This salt is as white as snow and as hard as a
rock. They dig it out of the mountain " Softa," and carry it
into the Emperor's store-houses, where they shape it into bars,
which they call "Amoule;" or into half bars, which are de-
nominated as "Courman" Each bar is required to be at least
half a Pic long (= 13| inches) and one-ninth of a Pic in breadth
and thickness (= 3 inches). Glass beads, also, of all colors,
perfect and broken, pass for small change, and are called "or-
jookes" of which 2,760 are current for one Maria Theresia
Thaler of 1780 = to $1.03 cents, United States value.

The Abyssinians not having a coinage of their own, used up
to within the past twenty years the Venetian Zecchini or Se-
quins as gold currency (= to $2.30 cents, gold). Austria has
coined gold Zecchini (Sequins) in Venice, for the Levant trade
especially, up to 1823.

As silver currency, the Imperial Maria Theresia Tlmlers of
1780 are still in circulation. These are called by the natives
"Patakas or Pataks" Austria, up to this day, has continued
to coin these Maria Theresia Thalers with the old stamp and
the year number, 1780. Weight: 433.080. Fineness: 833.333.
Value: $1.03.300. During the war with King Theodore of
Abyssinia, and England, the English Government was obliged
2D (481)

482 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

to have the "Maria Theresia Thaler" coined in Austria, to meet
her war expenses in Africa. At Massuah or Massowah, the
principal port of Abyssinia, Spanish Dollars are also current.

ARABIA.

In Arabia, at the present time, mostly the Persian, Turkish,
East India, and some European coins are current; but their
prices constantly fluctuate : they are much higher during the
Monsoon than after it, as there is less want of specie when all
the foreign ships are gone. The Turkish coins, however, have
a fixed value, though the Arabian and foreign merchants, in
their dealings with strangers, will generally rate them something
above their legal value.

The monies coined now are: 1. Commassees, which contain
but little silver; they are used in small payments, and generally
pass at 60 for a Spanish Dollar; but their value varies often, so
that sometimes 80, sometimes no more than 40 of them are given
for a dollar. 2. The Carat, a small coin, the seventh part of a
Commassee.

In Bussorah, near the Persian Gulf, accounts are kept in
Mamoodis of 10 Danims, or 100 Flouches. 100 Mamoodis
make 1 Toman of Persia = $5.85 cents, United States gold.
It must be borne in mind, however, that there are the real and
the imaginary Toman and Mamoodi, the latter being only about
three-fourths of the value of the former.

In Mocha accounts are kept in Piasters of 80 Caveers. This
Piaster is also an imaginary coin, but most payments are now
made in Spanish Dollars, 100 of which pass for 121J Arabian
Piastres, which gives the value of the imaginary Piaster equal
to 92 cents, United States gold.

Large payments are often made in gold and silver ingots, and
are weighed by the Cheki of 100 Miscals, or 150 drams; a Mis-
cal weighs 72 grains Troy. A Miscal of the finest gold is worth
about 22 J Mamoodis; gold less fine, in proportion. A Cheki

ARABIA.

483

of 100 Miscals, or 150 drams of fine silver, is worth 180 Ma*-
moodis; hence, the Mamoodi = 3j grains of fine gold, or 40
grains of fine silver, or aboirt 10 cents, United States value.

In Mocha they often use the old standard for weighing the
gold and silver ingots, namely, by the V.akia weight of 10
Coffalas, or 160 Carats; 24 Carats make a Miscal, and 1| Va-
kia, a Beak. 100 Spanish Dollars weigh 87 Vakias; thus the
Vakia weighs 1 ounce Troy weight nearly.

In former years the "Larin" was used as currency: this was
a silver wire, about an inch in length, doubled up and flattened
on the inner side to receive the impression of some Arabic
characters; it has of late become very scarce as circulating me-
dium, but is still used as money of account.

RIJKSDAALER OP THE NETHERLANDS, 1813.

The Dutch Rijksdaaler of 1813 is called by the Arabs
"Abukesb," and is much current among (hem; the impression
of the lion being so very bad, that they take it for a dog, and
so call it Abukesb, being dog in their language.

Payments in wheat and barley is considered current, and
eagerly accepted; but if in Tambak, an inferior sort of tobaccoy
much dissatisfaction is expressed. In the interior the trade I*
carried on chiefly in barter, and at the seaports and the principal
cities, by cash payments. Credit is obtained with difficulty j
hence, no Arabian merchant can contract debts which he is un-
able to pay, and consequently there are no mercantile failure*

484 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

in speculations such as daily occur among other nations. The
old Arabian coins are devoid of effigies, and bear only inscrip-
tions in Taleek.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

The Argentine Republic, a confederation of several South
American States, has produced, since 1545, the time of its dis-
covery, over two thousand million dollars worth of silver bul-
lion.

Formerly the province of Potosi was included within its
limits, and it was from this silver-producing district that it first
acquired the appellation of " La Plata," and afterward that of
the "Argentine Republic." August llth, 1825, j separation of
several States, under the leadership of General Simon Bolivar,
took place; and with it went the province and the famous Mint
of Potosi.

The principal Mint of the Republic is now located at Rioja,
capital of the State of Rioja. The Mint marie is, therefore, now
"R. A.," and sometimes only the initial " R." Some of the
coins prior to 1825 bear the Mint mark of Potosi; namely:
"P.," "P. S.," and often a monogram of "P. T. S.," artisti-
cally entwined.

GOLD COINS OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

1. Doubloon, of 1828. Obverse : a Sun, the Argentine
mountain of Potosi. Legend : " PROVINCIAS DE RIO DE LA
PLATA" (Provinces of the river Plata). Exergue: "1828."
Reverse : The arms of the Confederacy, with martial emblems.
Weight: 418 grains. Fineness: 815. Value: $15.51.

2. Doubloon, of 1830; also called Onza de Oro (one ounce
of gold), of 8 Escudos or 26 Piasters. Obverse: Sun, full face,

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 486

with 32 rays radiating. Legend : " PROVINCIAS DEL BIO DE
LA PLATA." Exergue : a star.

DOUBLOON OF 1830.

Reverse: The arras of the Confederacy with martial em-
blems, saltier wise; beneath, a drum. Legend: "EN UNION Y
LIBERTAD, R. A. (the Mint mark of Rioja), P. 8 s." (8 Escu-
dos.) Exergue: "1830." Weight: 418 grains. Fineness:
815. Value: $15.51.

3. In 1836, General Rosas, Governor of Buenos Ay res, or-
dered some "Rosas Doubloons" to be struck at the branch
Mint of Buenos Ayres. Device similar to the two previous
ones, only with the addition of " ROSAS " on the Obverse and
"POR LA LIGA LITORAL SERA FELiz, 1836." (For this littoral
league, meaning Buenos Ayres, be prosperous.}

4. The Quarter Onza de Oro of 2 Escudos, same device as
No. 1 and 2, only reduced in proportion to size. Weight:
104. 168 grains. Fineness : 870. Value: $4.01.

SILVER COINS OF THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

1. Peso, Piaster or Dollar of the Potosi Mint. Obverse: A
sun with 32 rays. Legend : " PROVINCIAS DEL RIO DE LA
PLATA." Exergue : A star. Reverse : The arms of the Con-
federation, with martial emblems, saltier wise. Legend : " EN
UNION Y LIBERTAD. (In Union and Liberty.} P. T. S." in a
monogram. (The Mint mark of Potosi.) Exergue: "1813."
Weight: 416.009 grains. Fineness: 900. Value: $1.00.

436

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

2. Peso, Piaster or Dollar of the Rioja Mint. Obverse:
Same as No. 1.

PESO OR PIASTER.

iReverse : The arms of the Confederation, surrounded by a
wreath. Left, "8." Right, "R." Legend: "EN UNION Y
WBERTAD, RA. P." Exergue : "1832." Weight: 416.009
grains. Fineness: 900. Value: $1.00.

3. Peso, Piaster or Dollar of the Rioja Mint. Obverse:
Same as No. 1 and 2.

Reverse: Same as No. 1, except beneath the martial arms,
saltier wise, three cannon balls, instead of the drum, as in the

PESO OR PIASTER.

No. 2 silver coins. Weight: 416.009 grains. Fineness: 900.
Value: $1.00.

4. The Half Dollar of the Potosi and Rioja Mints. Ob-
verse: Same as the Dollar of the Potosi Mint.

Reverse : Same, with the exception of " 4 " to the left, and

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

487

HALF DOLLARS OF THE POTOSI AND RIOJA MINTS.

" R " to the right. Weight : 206.792 grains. Fineness : 900.
Value : 47 cents.

5. The Half Dollar of "Rosas" of the Buenos Ayres branch
Mint. Obverse: Same as No. 1.

Reverse: The arms of the Confederacy with martial emblems,
saltier wise. Legend : " ETERNO LOOR AL RESTAURAD. RO-
SAS." (Eternal Glory to Vie Restorer Rosas.} Exergue: A
star.

HALF DOLLAR OF BOSAS.

TWO REAL PIECES.

6. The Two Real pieces of the Rioja and Buenos Ayretj
Mints are similar in devices and legends as .the Peso.

48S DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

The Buenos Ay res Mint bears the letter "B" as mark.
Weight: 103.396 grains. Fineness: 900. Value: $0.23.500.

In 1827, the National Bank of Buenos Ay res issued a Ten
Decim. silver token. Obverse: A phoenix encircled by a band.
Keverse: "10 Decim." inscribed upon a shield, inclosed by a
laurel wreath. Legend : "BANCO NACIONAL" .... "BUENOS
AYRES." Exergue: "1827," Value, nominal, 8 cents.

EMPIRE OF AUSTRIA.

When the French Revolution (1789) began to convulse Eu-
rope, the reigning monarch, Francis II., who ruled over what

AUSTRIAN MONEY.

is now known as the Empire of Austria, was the titular Em-
peror of Germany; and his dominion comprised the Archduchy

AUSTRIA. 489

of Austria and its dependent provinces, the Kingdom of Hun-
gary, the Duchy of Milan or Loinbardy, and the Low Countries,
now known as Belgium.

Austria receives its title from its position in Europe, namely,
"Oester," meaning Eastern, and "Reich," country the Eastern
Country or " Oesterreich."

For each of these four regions there was a distinct coinage.
The Austrian was known by its double-headed eagle; the Hun-
garian by the images of the Virgin and Child ; the Lombard-
Venice by its shield, quartered with eagles and serpents; and
the Belgian by the X shaped St. Andrew's cross, profusely or-
namented. In 1789 the Austrians were momentarily expelled
from the Low Countries or Belgium; but in 1790 their- rule
was again restored. November 1st, 1792, the French entered
Belgium, and September 30th, 1795, the Low Countries were
annexed to France; and the coinage of Belgium under Austrian
rule ceased. Near the same time Lombardy also passed into
other hands, and a second class of the imperial Austrian coin
was for a time suspended.

In 1804 the ancient German Empire was dissolved. Francis
II., Emperor of Germany, became Francis I., Emperor of
Austria, and the stately Legend of "R. i. s. A." (Romanorum
Imperator, Semper Augustus, meaning, Roman Emperor, Ever
August), gave place to "Emperor of Austria."

At the pacification of Europe in 1815, Lombardy, with
Venice annexed, reverted to Austria; and soon after a new
monetary system was decreed for that country. In 1859, at
the peace of Villa-Franca, Austria ceded Lombardy to Sardinia,
and in 1866, Venice to France, which in turn incorporated the
same with Italy.

The coins of Austria of the present day, therefore, bear only
the inscription : "D. G. AUSTRIAE IMPERATOR. HUNGAR. BOHEM.
GAL. LOD. ILL. REX." (Dei Gratia Austria Imperator, Hun-
gar iae, Sohemiae, Galizia, Ladomiria, Illiria Rex, meaning: By
the grace of God, Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary, Bohe-
ia, Gattida, Ladomiria, and Illyria.}

490 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

GOLD COINS OF AUSTRIA.
1. Quadruple Ducat or Piece of four Ducats. Obverse:

QUADRUPLE DUCAT OF FERDINAND I.

Laureated bust of Ferdinand I. Legend : " FERD. I. D. o.
AUSTR. IMP. HUNG. BOH. R. H. N. v." (Ferdinand L, Dei.
Gratiac. Austriae. Imperator. Hungariae. Bohemiae. Rex.
Hetmriae. Napoli. Venitiae, meaning: Ferdinand I., by the grace
of God, Emperor of Austria, King of Hungary and Bohemia,
Tuscany, Naples, Venice.)
Reverse: Imperial double-headed eagle of Austria. Legend :

REX. LOME. ET. VEN. DALM. GAL. LOD. ILL. A. A. 1840. (Rex

Lombardi et Venitiae, Dalmatiae, Galiciae, Ladomirae, lUyriae,
Archidux Austriae; meaning : King of Lombardy and Venice,
Dalmatia, Galicia, Ladomira, Illyria, Archduke of Austria.)
Exergue: "c 4 o;" meaning: 4 Ducats. Weight: 215.450
grains. Fineness: 986.111. Value: $9.14.5019.

2. Quadruple Ducat of Francis Joseph I. Obverse: Lau-
reated bust of Francis Joseph I., dressed in ermine, and be-
decked with four order chains and the golden fleece. Legend :
"FRANC. JQS. i. D. G. AVSTRIAE IMPERATOR." (Francis Joseph
L, by the grace of God, Emperor of Austria.)

Reverse: Double-headed Austrian eagle, crowned with three
crowns, in the dexter talon sword and sceptre; and in the sin-
i-ter tilon, imperial globe surmounted by the Coptic cross. Le-
Jjrcad : "lIVNGAR. BOHEM. GAL. LOD. ILL. REX. A. A. 1871."

AUSTRIA. 491

(Hungariae. Bohemiae. Galiciae. Ladomirae, lUyriae. Rex.
Archidux. Austriae; meaning: King of Hungary, Bohemia,
Galicia y Ladomira, Ittyria, Archduke of Austria.) Exergue :

QUADRUPLE DUCAT OF FRANCIS JOSEPH I.

"4," meaning, 4 Ducats. Weight: 215.450 grains. Fineness:
986.111. Value: $9.14.5019.

3. The old Brabant Sovereign. Obverse : Head of Charles
VI. Legend : "CAROLUS vi., D. o. R. IMP. s. A. GE. HIE. HV.
BO. REX." (Carolus VI., Dei Gratiae, Romanus Imperator,
Semper Augustus, Germaniae, Hierosolymae, Hungariae, Bohe-
miae, Rex; meaning : Charles VI., by the grace of God, Roman
Emperor, ever August, King of Germany, Jerusalem, Hungary
and Bohemia.

Reverse : The arms of Austria on a St. Andrew's Cross.
Legend : "ARCH. AUS. DUX. BURG. BRAB. c. FL." (Archidux

BRABANT SOVEREIGN OF 1783.

Austriae, Dux Burgundiae, Brabantiae, Comes Flandriae;
meaning : Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Brabant,

492

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Count of Flanders.) Exergue: Date of the year of issue*
Weight: 171.468 grains. Fineness: 916.667. Value: $6.76,

4. Old Brabant Sovereign of Joseph II. Obverse : Head
of Joseph II., with inscription of Obverse of coin No. 3.

Reverse: Same as the previous one, with the exception of the
Exergue, "1766." Weight: 171. 468 grains. Fineness: 916.667.
Value: $6.76.

5. Sovereign of Ferdinand I. Obverse : Head laureated of
Ferdinand I. Legend : " FEED i., D. G. AVSTRIAE IMP. HUN.
BOH. R. H. N. v."

SOVEREIGN OF FERDINAND I.

Reverse: Austrian double eagle. Legend: "REX LOMB. ET
VEN. DALM. GAL. LOD. ILL. A. A., 1838." Weight: 171.468
grains. Fineness: 916.667. Value: $6.76.

6. Double Ducat of Hungary. Obverse: Full length figure
of Maria Theresia, crowned. The imperial globe in the left
hand; the initial "K" (Kremnitz) at one side, and "B" (Bohe-
mia) at the other. Legend : " M. THER. D. G. R. I. G. H. B. R.
A. A. D. B. c. T." (Maria Theresia, Dei Gratiae, Regina Illy-
riaefialieiae, Bohemiae, Ragusa, Ar^-hidudssa Austriae, Ducissa

DOUBLE DUCAT OF HUNGARY.

JZurgundiae, Comes Tyrolae; meaning: Maria Theresia by the
grace of God, Queen of Illyria, Galicda, Hungary, Boliemia,

AUSTRIA. 493

Ragusa, Archduchess of Austria, Duchess of Burgundy, Countess
of Tyrol.} Exergue: "2" (meaning: 2 Ducats.)

Reverse : Virgin and Child in the centre of rays ; beneath a
small shield crowned. Legend: " HUNGARIAE, 1765. PA-
TRONA REGNI." (Reigning Patron of Hungary.) Weight:
107.716 grains. Fineness ; 989.583. Value : $4.59.2758.

7. Half Sovereigns. Obverse: Same as the Sovereigns.
Reverse : Same as the Sovereigns, with the exception of the

Exergues, with their respective dates of issue. Weight: 87.439
grains each. Fineness: 900. Value: $3.38.6172.

8. Ducat of Joseph II. Obverse : Same as coin No. 4, with
inscription of Obverse coin No. 3 ; proportionate to size.

Reverse: Double-headed eagle. Legend: "AR. AU. DUX. BU.
M. P. TRAN. co. TYR., 1776." (Archidux Amtriae, Dux. Bur-
gundiae, Moraviae, Poloniae, Transylvaniae, Comes Tyrol; mean-
ing : Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Moravia, Po-

DUCAT OF JOSEPH II.

land, Tmnsylvania, Count of Tyrol.) Weight: 53.858 grains.
Fineness: 986.111. Value: $2.29.1310.

9. Hungarian Ducat, or Ducat of Kremnitz. Obverse:
Laureated head of Francis I. Legend : " FRANCISCUS I., D. Q.

DUCAT OF KREMNITZ.

AVSTRIAE IMPERATOR." (Francis L, by the grace of God, Em-
peror of Austria.}

Reverse: Virgin and Child in the centre of rays. Legend:

494 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

"s. MARIA, MATER DEI, PATRON A HVNG, 1835." (Saint Maria,
Mother of God, Patron of Hungaria.) Weight : 53.858 grains.
Fineness: 986.111. Value: $2.29.1310.

10. Four Florins piece. Obverse: Laureated head of Francis
Joseph I. Legend : " FRANCISCUS JOSEPHUS i., D. Q. IMPEB-
ET REX." Exergue : A Rosette.

POUR FLORINS OR TEN FRANCS OF FRANCIS JOSEPH I.

Reverse: Double-headed imperial eagle of Austria, crowned
with three crowns. Legend: "IMPERIVM AUSTRIACVM." Left
of the double eagle "4 FL." (4 Florins.) Right: "10 PR." (10
Francs.) Date below. Weight: 49.765. Fineness: 900.
Value: $1.93.

11. Crown or "Krone" of Francis Joseph I., of 1859. Ob-
verse: Laureated head of Francis Joseph I. Legend: "FRANZ

JOSEPH I., V. G. G. KAISER VON OESTERREICH." (Franz Joseph
I., Von Gottes Gnaden Kaiser Von Oesterreich ; meaning:
Francis Joseph I., by the grace of God, Emperor of Austria.)
Reverse: "1 KRONE, 1859," in three lines; (1 Crown, 1859),
surrounded by a wreath of oak leaves. Legend: "VEREINS
MUNZE." (Convention money.) Exergue: "50 EIN PFUND."
(50 to make one pound.) Weight: 171.468 grains. Fineness:
900. Value: -$6.64.5814.

12. Half Crown of Francis Joseph I., 1858. Obverse:
Same as No. 11. Reverse: Same as No. 11, with exception of
Exergue: "100 EIN PFUND." (One hundred to make one
pound.) Weight: 85.734 grains. Fineness: 900. Value:
$3.32.2907.

13. Ducat of Francis Joseph I., 1860. Obverse: Laureated
head of Francis Joseph I. Legend : "PRANCIS JOSEPH I., D. G.
AUSTRIA E IMPERATOR." (Francis Joseph I., by the grace of
God, Emperor of Austria.) Reverse: "HUNG. BOH. LOMB. ET.
VEN. ILL. GAL. LOD. REX, 1860." (Hungarian. Bohemiae.

A I'STRIA. 495

Lombardiae. et. Venitiae. Illiriae.Galiciae. Lodomiriae.) Weight:
53.858 grains. Fineness: 986.111. Value: $2.28.6241.

SILVER COINS OF AUSTRIA.

The Silver Coinage, prior to the "Convention of the German
Powers," 1857, embraced six denominations: 1. The Reichs-
thaler. 2. The Gulden (Florin) or half the Reichsthaler, and
consisted of 60 Kreutzers; (meaning, Crosses, from "Kreutz"
Cross.) 3. The piece of Twenty Kreutzers, which is one-third
of the "Gulden" or Florin; and 4th, 5th and 6th the pieces of
Ten, Five and Three Kreutzers. These two first ones were
coined according to the standard adopted in 1753, known as the
"Convention" rate; namely: 833.333 fine silver ; the balance
only 583 fine or "Billon."

On the 24th of January, 1857, a Convention was concluded
between the principal German States, by which a new coinage
was established. It was agreed that the half of one Kilo-
gramme, or 500 Grammes, equal to 7717.5 Troy grains, should
serve as the standard Pfund (pound) to be called "Zollpfund"
at the Mints of all the States, who were parties to the Conven-
tion. Of the current silver coins there were to be five denomi-
nations: 1. The pieces of two Gulden or Florins. 2. The
Gulden or one Florin piece; both to be 900 fine; the former to
be coined at the rate of 20J, and the latter at 40J pieces to the
"Zollpfund " of standard silver. 3. The Quarter Florin, 520
fine, 93 f fi 5 pieces to the "Zollpfund." 4. The Ten New Kreut-
zers Piece, 500 fine, 250 pieces to the "Zollpfu-nd." 5. The
Five New Kreutzers Piece, 375 fine, and 375 pieces to the
"Zollpfund."

1. Maria Theresia Kronen Thaler (Crown Dollar of Maria
Theresia.) Obverse: Bust of Empress and Queen Maria
Theresia. Legend: "MA: THERESIA. D: G: REG: HUN: BO:"
(Maria Theresia, Dei Gratiae, Regina, Hungariae, Bohemia* ;
meaning : Maria Theresia, by the grace of God, Queen of Hun-
gary and Bohemia.)

Reverse: Full length figure of Virgin and Child, sceptre in

496

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

dexter, surrounded by numerous rays. "K" on the left of Vir-
gin (meaning: Kremnitz for Hungary), and "B" on the right

MARIA THERESIA CROWN DOLLAR.

(meaning: Bohemia?) Legend: "s. MARIA, MATER DEI PA-
TRONA, HUNG., 1742." (Saint Maria, Mother of God, Patron
of Hungary?) Weight: 454.899 grains. Fineness: 868.056.
Value: $1.11.7825.

2. Crown Dollar of Francis I., 1747. Obverse: Bust of
Francis I. Legend: " FRANCIS D. GRATIA. ROMAN. IMPERAT.
s. A." (Francis, by the grace of God, Roman Emperor ever
August..)

Reverse: Double-headed imperial Austrian eagle, a shield
upon his breast, surmounted by' a small crown, a larger one

CROWN DOLLAR OF FRANCIS I.

above the two heads of the eagle ; dexter talon, a sword ;
sinister, a sceptre. Legend : " IN. TE. DOMINE. SPERAVI. Pisis

AUSTRIA.

497

1747." (Jn Thee! God, we trust.) This coin is out of circula-
tion, no exact weight, fineuess or value can be given.

3. Convention Thaler of Joseph II. Obverse : A crowned
shield, supported by two angels; beneath, a palm and olive
branch crossed. Legend : " JOS. II. J>. G. E. IMP. s. A. o. H. B.
REX. A. A. D. B. & L." (Josephus II., Dei Gratiae, Romanorum
Imperator, semper Augustus Germaniae, Hungarian, Bohemiae,
Rex Archidux Austriae, Dux Burgundiae and Lotharingiae ;
meaning: Joseph II., by the Grace of God, Roman Emperor
ever August, King of Germany, Hungary, Bohemia, Archduke
of Austria, Duke of Burgundy and Lorraine.}

Reverse: "AD NORMAM CONVENT, 1766." Legend: "ARCHID
AUST. D. BURG. MARGGR. BURGOViAE." (Archduke of Austria,
Duke of Burgundy, Margrave of Burgovia.} Around the outer
edge of the coin : " VIRTUTE ET EXEMPLO." (By virtue and
example.} This coin being long ago out of circulation, the

CONVENTION DOLLAR.

weight and fineness cannot be given with exactness. The in-
trinsic value is estimated at from 97 cents to 1.00, but it com-
mands a high premium among numismatists.

4. Crown Thaler of Francis I. Obverse: Double-headed
eagle of Austria, surrounded by the order chnin of the
Golden Fleece. Sceptre, in dexter talon, and imperial globe
in sinister. Legend : " FRANCIS D. GRATIA. ROMAN. IMPERAT.
s. A." (Francis, by the Grace of God, Roman Emperor ever

August.}
2E

498 DTK'S COIX ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Reverse: St. Andrew's Gross, surmounted by an imperial
crown, with crown in each angle, tight and left; beneath, the
golden fleece. Legend : "GERM. JERO. HEX. LOTH. BAR. MAG.
HET. DUX. 1756." Out of circulation for over fifty years.
Intrinsic value estimated at $1.02. At a high premium with
nnrakmatist&

&. Brabant Crown Thaler of Joseph IL Obverse: Head
lanreated. Legend: "JOEL. n. D. G. R, I. a. A. GE. HT. BO. REX."
(Jbaepft IL, by the Graff of God, Roman Emperor ever Ampul,
Kimg of Germany, Hutxgary, Bohemia.

Reverse: Double-headed Austrian eagle, quartered shield
upon its breast, surmounted by a large crown. Legend:
"ABCH. AUST. wrx. BURG. COM. FLASDL 1768/* (AreUUbe
9J Atutria^ Dmk of B*rymmdy, Com* of Hmden.) Intrinsic
value: $1.02.

BKABA9T CROWS DOLLA R OF JOSEPH H.

6. Maria Tberesia Thaler, also called the "Levant Thaler
or Dollar." This coin, although nearly one hundred yean
old, is still issued by the Austrian Government, with the date
"1780," for the African teade. It is the famous Pataka or
Fatak of Abyssinia, described on page 481. During the Abys-
sinian war between England and King Tbeodor, of Abyssinia,
tfce British Government, unable to pass its gold coins in Africa,
where gold is only used as ornament, was obliged to have
recourse to the Mate f Austria, for the coinage of the Mark

AUSTRIA. 499

Obverse : Bust of Maria Theresia, rather full face, and quite
in contrast with cot on page 496. A veil is thrown over the

MARIA THEEESIA THALER, OR DOLLAR OF 1780 AND SINCE.

back part of her hair, which is fastened by a tiara. Legend :
" M. THERESIA. D. G. R. IMP. HU. BO. REG." (Maria Thtresia,
by the Grace of Gbd, Empress of Austria, Queen of Hungary
and Bohemia.)

Reverse: Double-headed eagle of Austria, with one large
crown above. Legend : "ARCHID. AUST. rex BURGUNDY, co.
TYROL. 1780x ." (Archduchess of Austria, Ihichtss of Bur-
gundy, Countess of Tyrol, 1780x.) Weight: 433.080 grains.
Fineness: 833.333. Value: $1.03.

7. Crown, or Kronen Thaler of Francis II. Obverse:

CROWN THALER OP FRANCIS H.
Head of Francis II. Legend : " FRASC, n. D. Q. B, L 8. A.

GER. HIE, HVN. BOH. REX,"

500

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Reverse : St. Andrew's Cross, with three crowns in the three
respective angles. The order of the Golden Fleece suspended
from the middle of cross. Legend : "ARCII. AUST. DUX. BVRO.
LOTH. BRAB. COM. FLAN. 1795." Weight: 454.899 grains.
Fineness: 868.056. Value: $1.11.7824.

8. Species or Conventions-Thaler of 1839. Obverse : Lau-
reated head of Ferdinand I. Legend : " FEED. i. D. G. AVST.

IMP. HVNG. BOH. B. H. N. V."

SPECIES THALER OF FERDINAND I.

Reverse: Double-headed Austrian imperial eagle, with three
crowns. A shield upon its breast, the order of the Golden
Fleece suspended around it; dexter talon, a sword and sceptre;
left talon, the imperial globe, surmounted by the Coptic cross.
Legend : " REX. LOME. ET. VEN. DALM. GAL. LOD. ILL. A. A.
1839." Weight: 433.080 grains. Fineness: 833.333. Value:
$1.02.1458.

CROWN THALER OF LEOPOLD II.

9. Crown, or Kronen Thaler of Leopold II. Obverse:

AUSTRIA. sol

Laureated head of Leopold II. Legend : " LEOPOLD n. D. Q.

R. I. 8. A. GER. HIE. HVN. BOH. REX."

Reverse: Double-headed Austrian Eagle. Legend : "ARCH.

AUST. DUX. BURG. BRAB. COM. FLAND. 1790." Weight:

454.899 grains. Fineness : 868.056. Value: $1. 11.7824.

10. Thaler of Joseph II., 1781. Obverse: Laureated bust
of Joseph II. Legend : " JOSEPH n. D. G. R. IMP. s. AUG. G. H.

ET. B. REX. A. A."

THALER OP JOSEPH II.

Reverse : Crowned and quartered shield of Lombardy, two
eagles and two serpents, one in each corner, surrounded by
palm and laurel branches, crossed. Legend: "MEDIOLANI ET
MANTUA DUX." (Duke of Milan and Mantua, 1782.) Intrinsic
value about 89 cents, but being out of circulation, has a greater
value with numismatists.

11. Two Gulden or Florins piece of the Archduke Johann,
of Austria.

During the troubles of 1848, in Europe, and after the flight
of the Emperor of Austria from Vienna, a National Assembly
met at Frankfort-on-the-Main, in May, 1848, and determined
upon the reorganization of Germany into one integral empire,
excluding the German possessions of Austria, and offering the
imperial crown to Frederic William IV., the then King of
Prussia. This movement was set on foot and headed by the
Austrian Archduke, Johann, who was, in consequence, made
the Administrator, bv the Assembly.

502 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

This coin of the Archduke Johann, of Austria, bears the
following inscriptions. Obverse: " ERZHERZOG JOHANN VON
OESTERREICH," inscribed in four lines. Beneath is a palm and
laurel branch, crossed. Legend: "ERWAHLT ZUM REICHS-

VERWESER TJBER DEUTSCHLAND D. 29 JUNI, 1848." (Elected

as Administrator over Germany the 29& of June, 1848.)

/TERZHERZOG
j% JOHANN , *

VON
^OESTERREICH^

TWO FLORINS OF ARCHDUKE JOHANN, OF AUSTRIA.

Reverse : Double-headed Austrian eagle. Legend : " CON-

gTITUIRENDE VERSAMMLUNG I. D. F. STADT FRANKFURT, 18

MAI, 1848." (Constitutional Assembly in the free city of Frank-
fort, the 18th May, 1848.) Around the edge: "ZWEI
GULDEN." (Tito Gulden or Florins.) Weight : 327.335 grains.
Fineness: 900. Value: $0.83.3894.

1*2. Two Gulden Piece of Francis Joseph I., 1859. Ob-
verse : Laureated head of Francis Joseph I. Legend :

" FRANC. JOS. I. D. G. AVSTRIAE IMPERATOR." Reverse :

Double-headed Austrian eagle. Legend : " HUNG. BOH. LOME.
ET. VEN. GAL. LOD. ILL. REX. A. A. 1859." Exergue : "2
PL." (two florins.) Weight: 381.04 grains. Fineness: 900.
Value: $0.91.0766.

13. Vereins-Thaler of 1| Gulden or Florin of Francis
Joseph I., 1858. Obverse: Laureated head of Francis
Joseph I. Legend : " FRANZ JOSEPH i. v. G. G. KAISER VON
OESTERREICH." Reverse : Double-headed Austrian eagle.
Legend : " BIN VEREINS THALER, xxx EIN PFUND FEIN."
(One Convention Thaler or Dollar, thirty to make one pound fine

AUSTRIA. 503

silver.) Exergue: "1858." Weight: 285.776 grains. Fine-
ness: 900. Value: $0.72.7441.

14. Half Reichs Thaler of Joseph II. Obverse: Laureated
head of Joseph II. Legend : " jos. n. D. G. R. i. s. A. GE. HU.
BO. REX." (Joseph IL, by the Grace, of God, Roman Emveror
ever August, King of Germany, Hungary, Bohemia.)

HALF REICHS THALER OF JOSEPH IL

Reverse : Double-headed Austrian eagle. Legend : " AR-
CHID. AUST. DUX. BURG. co. TYR. 1774." (Archduke of
Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Count of Tyrol.) Weight:
216.540 grains. Fineness : 833.333. Value: $0.50.6927.

15. Half Reichs Thaler of Joseph II. Obverse : Laureated
head of Joseph II.

HALF REICHS THALER OF JOSEPH II.

Reverse: A crowned shield, two angels supporting the
crown ; a palm and laurel branch, crossed beneath. Legend :

" JOS. II. D. G. R. IMP. S. A. G. H. B. REX. A. A. D. B. & L.' 1

(Joseph IL, by the Grace of God, Roman Emperor ever August,

504 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

King of Germany, Hungary and Bohemia, Archduke of Aus-
tria, Duke of Burgundy and Lorraine.) Weight: 216.540
grains. Fineness; 833.333. Value: $0.50.6927.

16. Half Crown of Maria Theresia. Obverse: St. Andrew's
Cross, with crown in each of the four angles. Legend: "MAR.

THERESIA. D. G. R. IMP. GERM . HUNG. BOH. REG. X." (Maria

Theresia, by the Grace of God } Roman Empress, Queen of Ger-
many, Hungary, Bohemia.)

HALF CROWN OF MARIA THERESIA,

Reverse: Austrian eagle. Legend: "ARCH. AUST. DUC.
BURG. BRAB. COM. FLAND." Weight : 227.449 grains. Fine-
ness : 868.056. Value: $0.55.7625.

17. Quarter Crown of Leopold II. Obverse: Bust lau-
reated head of Leopold II. Legend : " LEOP. D. G. R. I. s. A.

GER. HIE. HUN. BOH. REX."

ARTER CROWN OF LEOPOLD II.

Reverse : St. Andrew's Cross, with the badge of the Golden
Fleece suspended from the centre. A large crown above and
a smaller one in the left and right angle of the cross. Legend:

AUSTRIA.

505

"ARCH. AVST. DUX. BVRG. LOTH. BRAB. COM. FLAN. 1790."
Weight : 127 grains. Fineness : 875. Value: $0.26.750.

18. Gulden, or Florin of Francis Joseph I., 1859. Obverse:
Laureated head of Francis Joseph I. Legend : FRANC. JOS. I.
D. G. AVSTRIAE. IMPERATOR." Reverse : Double-headed
Austrian eagle. Legend : " HUNG. BOH. LOME. ET. YEN. GAL.
LOD. ILL. REX. A. A. 1859." Exergue : " 1 FL." (1 florin.)
Weight: 190.52 grains. Fineness : 900. Value : $0.48.G50.

19. Gulden of Hungary. Obverse: Bust of Joseph II.

Legend : " JOS. II. D. G. R. IMP. S. A. G. H. B. REX. A. A."

GULDEN, OR FLORIN OF JOSEPH II.

Reverse: Virgin and Child. Legend: "s. MARIA MATER
DEI PATRONA HUNG. 1786 X." Weight: 227.449 grains.
Fineness: 868.056. Value: $0.55.7625.

20. Hungarian Florin, since 1869. Obverse: Laureated

HUNGARIAN FLORIN.

head of Francis Joseph I. Legend : " FERENCZ JOZSEF A.
CSASZAR." (Francis Joseph /., Austrian Emperor.)

Reverse : Shield of Hungary, two cherubiras supporting a

506 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

crown; beneath the shield, laurel branches crossed. Legend:
" MAGYAR ORSZAO. AP. KiRALYA. 1869." (Hungarian Chief,
crowned King.) Exergue: "1 FL." (1 Florin.) Weight:
190.56. Fineness: 900. Value: $0.48.60.

21. Lombardo-Venetia Austrian Lira. Obverse: Laure-
ated head of Ferdinand I. Legend: " FERD. I. D. a. AUSTRIAE

IMPERATOR."

LOMBARDO-VENETIA AUSTRIAN LIRA.

Reverse: Double-headed Austrian eagle with three crowns,
upon his breast the Austrian Lombardo- Venetian shield. Dex-
ter talon: Sword. Sinister talon: Imperial globe. Legend:
" LOME. ET. VEN. REX. A. A." (King of Lombardy and Venice,
Archduke of Austria. 1839.) Exergue: "LIRA AUSTRIACA."
(Austrian Lira.) Weight: 66.820 grains. Fineness: 900.
Value: $0.17.2354.

22. Half Austrian Lira of Lombardy and Venice. Ob-
verse: Laureated head of Francis I. Legend: "FRANCISCUS
I. D. G. AUSTRIAE IMPERATOR." Reverse: Shield of Austria,
Lombardy and Venice surmounted by a large imperial crown.
Legend: "LOME. ET. VEN. REX. A. A. 1824." Exergue: "
LIRA." Weight: 33.410 grains. Fineness: 900. Value:
^0.08.6177.

QUARTER LIRA OF LOMBARDY.

23. Quarter Lira of Lombardy. Obverse: Bust of Francis
I. Legend : " FRANCISCUS i. D. Q. AVSTRIAE IMPERATOR."

AUSTRIA. 507

Reverse: Shield quartered, surmounted by an imperial crown.
Legend: "LOME. ET. VEN. REX. A. A. 1822." "Weight: 16.705
grains. Fineness: 900. Value: $0.04.3088.

BILLON MONEY OF AUSTRIA.

1. Zwanziger of Francis I. (20 Kreutzers or Florin.)
Obverse: Head of Francis I. Legend: "FRANC. I. D. G. B. i.

8. A. GERM. HV. BO. REX."

ZWANZIGER OF FRANCIS I.

Reverse : Austrian imperial shield, surmounted by a crown.
Legend: "ARCH. AUS. DUX. BURG. BRAB. c. F. L." Exergue:
"1751." Weight: 103.118 grains. Fineness : 583.333. Value:
$0.17.2354.

2. Zwanziger of Tyrol, 1809. Issued during the struggle
of Andreas Hofer, the Tyrolian patriot, against Napoleon I.
Obverse: Single-headed eagle, facing to the left, a crown upon
its head, encircled by a laurel chaplet. Legend: "GEFURST-
LICHE GRAFSCHAFT TIROL." (Princely earldom of Tyrol.)
Reverse: "20 KREUTZER" inscribed in two lines; underneath
a laurel and olive branch. Legend: "NACH DEM. CONVEN-
TIONS FUSS." (In conformity with the conventional money rate.}
Exergue: "1809" between two rosettes. Weight: 103.118
grains. Fineness: 583.333. Value: $0.17.2354.

3. Zwanziger of Leopold II. Obverse: Double-headed
eagle, upon its breast the imperial globe surmounted by a large
cross and a crown. Legend : "LEOPOLD D. G. BOM. IMP. SEMP.
AUG."

508 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

Reverse: Virgin and child. Legend: "s. MARIA. MATER

ZWANZIGER OF LEOPOLD II.

DEI PATRONA HVNGARIAE. 1791." Weight: 103.118. Fine-
ness: 583.333. Value: $0.17.2354.

4. Zwanziger of Francis II. Obverse: Double-headed im-
perial Austrian eagle. Right talon : Sceptre. Left talon :
Sword ; underneath " 1797." Legend: " FRANCISCUS II. D. G.

ROM. IMP. SEMP. AUGUST."

ZWANZIGER OF FRANCIS II.

Reverse : A shield quartered, a shield of smaller size upon
it, both crowned. Legend: "ARCH. AUS. DUX. BURG. BRAB.
c. F." Weight: 103.118.. Fineness: 583.333. Value:
$0.17.2354.

5. Zwanziger of Francis I. Obverse: Laureated head of
Francis II., surrounded by branches of laurel leaves, tied with
a ribbon in a bow. Legend: "FRANCISCUS I. D. G. AUST. IM-
PERATOR." Reverse: Austrian double-headed imperial eagle.
Dexter talon: Sword and sceptre. Sinister talon: Imperial
globe. Legend : " HUN. BOH. LOMB. VEN. GAL. ILL. REX.
1811." Exergue: "20" in a scroll; left an olive branch;

AUSTRIA. 509

right a palm branch. Weight: 103.118 grains. Fineness-
583.333. Value: 0.17.2354.

6. Zvvanziger of Ferdinand I. 1840. Obverse: Laureated

head of Ferdinand I. Legend : "FESD. i. D. a. AVSTB. IMP.

HVNG. BOH. REX. H. N. V."

ZWANZIGER OF FERDINAND I.

Reverse : Double-headed eagle, crowned with three crowns.
Dexter talon : Sword and sceptre. Sinister : Imperial globe.
Legend: "REX. LOME. ET. YEN. DALM. GAL. LOD. ILL. A. A.
1840." Weight: 103.1 18 grains. Fineness: 583.333. Value:
80.17.2354.

7. Zwanziger of Francis I. Obverse : Head of Francis I.
Legend : " FRANCISCUS i. D. G. AVSTR. IMPERATOR."

ZWANZIGER OF FRANCIS I.

Reverse: Virgin and child. Legend: "s. MARIA MATER
DEI PATRONA HVNG. 1834." Exergue : "20." Weight:
103.118 grains. Fineness : 583.333. Value: $0.17.2354.

8. Zehner of Maria Theresia. (10 Kreutzer or Florin.)
Obverse: Head of Maria Theresia, surrounded by a laurel and
palm branch, crossed at the end and tied with a ribbon in a bow.
Legend : "M. THERESIA. D. G. R. IMP. GE. HU. BO. REG." Re-
verse : Virgin and child surrounded by rays of glory ; at her

610 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

feet an altar, upon it the figure "10;" left a laurel branch,
right a palm branch. Legend: "PATRON. REGNI. HUNGARIA
1765." Weight: 60.155 grains. Fineness: 500. Value,
$0.08.6177.

9. Zehner of Joseph II. Obverse: Head of Joseph II.
Legend : " JOS. n. D. G. R. I. s. A."

ZEHNER OF JOSEPH H.

Reverse : Austrian double-headed eagle. Legend : " VIRTUTE.
ET EXEMPLO. 1768." Exergue : "10 "in a scroll. Weight:
60.155 grains. Fineness: 500. Value, $0.08.6177.

10. Ten Neu-Kreutzer, or Ten New Kreutzer Piece. Ob-
verse : Head of Francis Joseph I. Legend : " FRANZ JOSEPH i.,
V. G. G., KAISER VON OESTERREicH." Reverse : A large
figure "10," surmounted by an imperial crown. Legend:
" SCHEIDE MUNZE." (Subsidiary coin.) Exergue : A laurel
and palm branch, above the same "1859." Weight: 30.864
grains. Fineness: 500. Value: $0.04.3088.

11. Six Kreutzer Piece of Francis Joseph I. Obverse:
Shield, upon it a double-headed Austrian eagle ; a crown sur-
mounting it. Legend : " K. K. OESTERREICHISCHE SCHEIDE-
MUNZE." (Kaiserliche Koenigliche Oesterreichische Scheide-
munze; meaning: Imperial Royal Austrian Subsidiary coin.)
Reverse: "6" "Kreutzer . , 1859," inscribed 1 in four
lines. Weight: 29.46 grains. Fineness: 437.500. Value:
$0.03.5485.

12. Five Kreutzer Piece of Ferdinand I. Obverse: Head
Ferdinand I. Legend: "FEUD, i., D. G., AVSTR. IMP. HVNG.

BOH. R. H. N. V."

AUSTRIA. 511

Reverse: Double-headed Austrian eagle. Legend: "REX

LOM., ET. VKN. DALM. GAL. LOD. ILL. A. A., 1839." Exergue:

FIVE KREUTZERS OF FERDINAND I.

" 5." Weight : 34.367 grains. Fineness : 437.500. Value :
$0.04.3088.

13. Five Neu-Kreutzer, or Five New Kreutzer Piece.
Obverse : Head of Francis Joseph I. Legend : " FRANZ

JOSEPH I., V. G. G., KAISER VON OESTERREICH." Reverse :

a large figure 5 surmounted by a crown. Legend: "SCHEIDE
MUNZE." Exergue : Laurel and palm branch, crossed and
tied with a ribbon in a bow; above it, "A, 1859." Weight:
20.570 grains. Fineness: 375. Value: $0.02.0277.

14. Three Kreutzer Piece of Ferdinand I. Obverse : Head
of Ferdinand I. Legend : " FERD. i., D. G., AVSTR., IMP.
HVNG. BOH. R. H. N. v." Reverse: Double-headed eagle,
crowned with three crowns. Dexter talon : Sword and sceptre.
Sinister talon : Imperial globe. A large figure " 3 " in a
shield upon the breast of the eagle. Legend : " REX, LOME., ET.
YEN. DALM. GAL. LOD. ILL. A. A., 1840." Weight: 22.25
grains. Fineness: 343.75. Value: $0.02.2812.

BRONZE COINS OF AUSTRIA.

The Bronze Coins of Austria consist of 95 per cent, of copper
and 5 per cent. tin. They are of the new standard rate ; dividing
the Gulden or Florin into 100 equal parts.

1. The Four Kreutzer Piece, bearing the inscription: "4"
"KREUTZER" in two lines. Weight: 201.59 grains. Value:
$0.01.600.

2. The Three Kreutzer Piece, inscription "3" "KREUT-
ZER." Weight: 151.1 7 grains. Value: $0.01.200.

512 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

3. The Two Kreutzer Piece, inscription " 2 " " KREUTZER."
Weight: 100.78 grains. Value: $0.00.800.

4. The One Kreutzer Piece, inscription " 1 " "KREUTZER."
Weight: 50.39 grains. Value: $0.00.400.

5. The Half Kreutzer Piece, inscription " " " KREUTZER."
Weight: 25.195 grains. Value: $0.00.200.

6. The Quarter Kreutzer Piece, inscription "J" "KREUT-
ZER." Weight: 12.597 grains. Value: $0.00.100.

BELGIUM.

This country was anciently the territory of the Belgae, who
were conquered by Julius Caesar, 47 B. C., and in modern
times was formerly known as Flanders. In 1598, Philip II.,
of Spain, ceded it to Austria. In 1621, it fell hack into the
hands of Philip IV., King of Spain, where it remained subject
to Spanish rule, till 1713. By the treaty of Utrecht, it was
apportioned to Austria. In 1785 it was incorporated with
France. In 1815 it became part of Holland. In May, 1830,
disregarding six hundred and forty petitions, the government
of Holland enacted a new law of the press. Officials holding
Belgic opinions were dismissed. The public mind was in a
state of excitement, which was raised to its highest pitch of
intensity by the revolution of July, 1830, in Paris. At length,
on August 25th, 1830, during the performance of Auber's
"Massaniello," at the Grand Opera House of Brussels, the
insurrectionary spirit was aroused into action by the music.
The theatre was rapidly emptied, the office of the National
newspaper, the Dutch government organ, was sacked, the
armorers' shops broken open, and barricades were erected. On
August 28th, 1830, a Congress of citizens assembled in the
Hotel de Ville, at Brussels, asking for reform. The King of
Holland, William I., received them at the Hague, but
refused to pledge himself to anything while under menace of
force ; yet promised an early consideration of the matter.

BELGIUM. 513

This answer gave still greater dissatisfaction. On January
31st, 1831, the independence of Belgium was acknowledged,
and the nation was established as a Kingdom under Leo-
'pold I.

The coinage of Belgium, since 1598, is mostly Austrian,
bearing the names and titles of the sovereigns, as Archdukes
of Austria and Dukes of Burgundy, Lorraine, Brabant and
Counts of Flanders, and is fully described under the head of
Austria, from page 495 to page 508 of this work. No coins wero
issued by Belgium after its conquest by the French, 1795 to
1815. From 1815 to 1831, the Belgian coins were issued under
the coinage laws of Holland. In 1831, the first of the present
series of Belgium appeared with the head and Legend of
" LEOPOLD, PREMIER Roi DBS BELGEs" (Leopold /., King of the
Belgians), and "L'UNION FAIT LA FORCE." (In Union there is
Strength.} The coinage from 1749 to 1795 included the gold
"Sovereign" or Sovereign of 171.468 grains, and 916.667
fineness. The silver crown, known as the Brabant Crown of
456 grains and 872 fine. The Kronen Thaler, or Crown
Dollar of 454.899 grains and 868.056 fine.

In 1790, a new coinage of gold and silver pieces, called
" Lions," was projected by a Congress of Belgian Provinces ;
but was only partially carried into effect. The gold pieces were
917 fine, and the silver ones of 875 fineness. Of the "Silver
Lions" several pieces were struck and circulated, but recalled
soon after. The "Gold Lions " were mere pattern pieces, found
in the Museums of Europe, and of interest only to the numis-
matists.

The standard of Belgium has been and still is double, name-
ly, Gold and Silver. The weight of pure metal in the gold
coins, as compared with that in the silver legal tender coins, of
the same denomination, is fixed by law at 1 to 15|, making the
legal value of the gold coins 15| times that of the silver coins
of the same weight and fineness. The legal tender gold and
silver coinages have the same degree of fineness; that is, nine-
tenths, or 900 of pure metal to one-tenth or 100 of alloy.
2F

514 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

In addition to the legal tender coins of gold and silver, there
was established on the 23d of December, 1865, between France,
Italy, Switzerland and Belgium, by the "Quadripartite Conven-
tion," a subsidiary silver coinage of less intrinsic value than the
legal tender silver coinage of the like denomination. In this
new subsidiary coinage the weight of the pieces was left the
same as that of the corresponding legal tender silver coinage;
but the fineness was reduced to 835 pure metal and 165 of alloy.
The legal weight of pure metal in the subsidiary silver coins is
thus fixed at about 14f times the weight of pure metal in the
gold coins of like denomination. In this "Quadripartite Con-
vention of 1865," a provision for an interchange of subsidiary
coin to a limited extent is fixed upon the following basis: "To
the citizens of the country issuing it, this silver coin is a legal-
tender for 50 francs ($9.65), and for taxes up to 100 francs
($19.30), in Belgium, France, Italy and Switzerland."

The Franc of Belgium, both gold and silver, is divided into
100 Centimes.

GOLD COINS OF BELGIUM.
1. The Souverain, or Sovereign of 1749 and 1766.

SOUVERAINS ISSUED UNDER AUSTRIAN RULE.

For weight, fineness and value, see page 491.

2. Half SouveraSn of 1750, 1752 and 1797.
For weight, fineness and value, see page 493.

3. The Gold Lion of the Belgian Revolution of 1790. Ob-
verse: A Lion, rampant, supporting a shield, with the word
" LIBERTAS " (Liberty) upon it. Legend : " DOMINI EST REG-

BELGIUM. 515

NUM" (meaning: The Kingdom is the Lords). Exergue: 1790.
Reverse: A Sun, surrounded by eleven shields, bearing the

HALF SOUVERAINS ISSUED UNDER AUSTRIAN RULE.

arms of the different Belgian provinces. Legend: "ET IPSB
DOMINABITUR GENiTUM " (meaning: and He Himself shall
Reign over the Nations).

This coin having never circulated as money, its exact weight
and fineness cannot be given with precision. The pattern pieces
were struck of 916.667 fineness, although generally understood
to be 917 fine. Value entirely nominal at about $6.50. Among
numismatists, this coin brings a very high premium.

4. Ducat of the Belgian Provinces, under Holland's rule.
Obverse: a full length figure of a knight in armor; dexter hand,
a drawn sword ; in the other, a bunch of arrows tied with a rib-
bon, the ends loosely floating. At the left of the Knight, "18,"
and right, "15," changing this date with every new year's issue.
Legend: "CONCORDIA RES PARVAE. CRESCUNT." (Small thing*
increase by concord.) Reverse : " MO. ORD. PROVIN. FOEDEB.
BELG. AD. LEG. IMPERIL" (Moneta ordinarea provinciarum foe*

DUCAT OF THE BELGIANS OF 1825.

deratarum Belgicarum ad legem Imperil; meaning: the ordinary
coin of the Confederated Belgic Provinces, according to the la*
of the Empire; referring to the German Empire, standard of 67

C1C DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

Ducats to the Mark, fine gold of Cologne.) Weight : 03.92
grains. Fineness: 983. Value: S2.28.3706.

6. Ducat of the Belgians of 1825. Obverse : Same as No. 4,
changing only the date of issue to "1825." Legend: "B. CON-

CORDIA RES PARVAE CRESCUNT X ."

Reverse : Similar to No. 4. Weight : 53.92 grains. Fine-
ness: 983. Value: $2.28.3706.

6. Forty Francs Piece of Leopold I. Obverse : Laureated
head of Leopold I. Legend : " LEOPOLD PREMIER ROI DES
BELGES." (Leopold the first King of tfie Belgians.) Reverse :
"40 FRANCS, 1835," inscribed in three lines, the whole enclosed
in a heavy wreath of oak. Around the edge: "DIEU PROTEGE
LA BELGIQUE." (God protect* Belgium.) Weight: 199.1235
grains. Fineness: 900. Value: $7.72.

7. Twenty-five Francs Piece of Leopold I. Obverse: Head
of Leopold I. Legend : "LEOPOLD PREMIER ROI DES BELGES."

Reverse: The Coat of Arms of Belgium, above it the Legend :
"I/UNION FAIT LA FORCE." (In Union there is Strength.) Un-
derneath : "7.915," "900 M" (meaning: 7.915 grammes in
weight, and 900-1000 fine). Exergue: "1848." Weight:
122.146 grains. Fineness: 900. Value: $4.82 J.

In 1848, there appeared, also, another Twenty-five Francs
Piece. Obverse : Same as No. 7. The Reverse, bearing the
Coat of Arms of Belgium ; but the Legend above : " L' UNION
FAIT LA FORCE" removed, and " 25 FRANCS," inserted instead.
To the left of the shield as Legend: "900 M," and to the right:
"G. 7.915." Exergue: "1848." Weight: 122.146 grains.
Fineness: 900. Value: $4.82J.

8. Twenty Francs Piece of Leopold I. Obverse: Laureated
head of Leopold I. Legend : "LEOPOLD PREMIER ROI DES
BELGES." Reverse: "20 FRANCS, 1835," inscribed in three
lines, enclosed by a heavy wreath of oak leaves. Weight :
99.561 grains. Fineness: 900. Value: $3.86.

9. Twenty Francs Piece of Leopold I. Obverse : Head of
Leopold I. Legend : " LEOPOLD PREMIER ROI DES BELGES."
Reverse : " 20 FRANCS, 1 862." Branches of oak leaves surround

BELGIUM. 617

the inscription. Weight: 99.561 grains. Fineness: 900.
Value: 3.86.

10. Twenty Francs Piece of Leopold II. Obverse : Head
of Leopold II. Legend : " LEOPOLD n. ROI DES BELGES."

TWENTY FRANCS OP LEOPOLD II.

Reverse: Coat of Arms of Belgium. Legend: "L'UNIOTT
FAIT LA FORCE." Exergue : "20 FR." Weight: 99.561
grains. Fineness: 900. Value: $3.86.

11. Ten Francs Piece of Leopold I. Obverse: Head of Leo-
pold I. Legend : " LEOPOLD PREMIER ROI DES BELGES." Re-
verse : Coat of Arms of Belgium. Legend : " L'UNION FAIT
LA FORCE." Exergue: "1849." At the left side of coat of
arms: "10," and at the right: " F," underneath : "o. 3.166,"
and "900 M." Weight: 48.858 grains. Fineness: 900.
Value: $1.93.

12. Ten Francs Piece of Leopold II., same as No. 11, wi&
the exception of Obverse having the head of Leopold II., in-
stead of his father, Leopold I. Weight: 48.858 grains. Fine-
ness: 900. Value: $1.93.

SILVER COINS OF BELGIUM.

1. Belgae-Austrian Reichs Thaler of 1618. Obverse: Busts
of Albertus and Elisabet. Legend : "ALBERTVS ET ELISABET.

DEI. GRATIA. 16-18."

Reverse: TNVO lions supporting a shield, the crown resting
upon their bowed heads ; badge of the golden fleece beneath.
Legend : "ARCH. AVST. DUCES. BVRG. BRAB. z." Intrinsic value
about $1.05 ; but being out of circulation for nearly two hun-

518

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

dred years, this coin commands a very high premium among
collectors of coins.

BELGAE-AUSTRIAN BIX DOLLAR OF 1618.

2. Kronen Thalere of Belgium, under Austrian Government,
For description, weight, fineness and value, see page 498.

CROWN DOLLARS OP BELGIUM, 1756 TO 1795.

3. Silver Lion of the Belgian Revolution of 1790. Obverse:
A lion rampant, supporting a shield, with "LIBERTAS," upon
it. Legend: "DOMINI EST REGNUM." (The Kingdom is the
Lord's.) Exergue: "1790."

Reverse : A sun, with eleven escutcheons of the Belgic Pro-
vinces round it. Legend : " ET IPSE DOMINABITVR GENTIVM."
(And He Himself shall reign over the Nations.) Around the

BELGIUM. 519

outer edge : "QUID FORTIUS LEONE." ( What is stronger than the

Lion?) Intrinsic value abo.ut $1.05; but out of circulation
for many years, it brings a high premium.

FIVE FRANCS OF LEOPOLD L

4. Five Francs Piece of Leopold L, of 1835. Obverse: Lau-
reated head of Leopold I. Legend : " LEOPOLD PREMIER ROI

DES BELGES."

Reverse: "5" "Francs" "1835" inscribed upon the field
in three lines, surrounded by a heavy wreath of oak leaves.
Around the edge "DIEU PROTEGE LA BELGIQUE." (God Pro-
tects Belgium.} Weight: 385.808 grains. Fineness: 900.
Value: $0.96 J.

5. Five Francs Piece of 1849. Obverse: Head of Leopold

520

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

I. Legend : "LEOPOLD PREMIER ROI DES BELGES." Reverse:
Crowned shield, with a lion rampant upon the same. Left of
shield "5" and to the right "F" (meaning: five francs), sur-
rounded by two branches of laurel leaves, crossed and tied at
the ends with a ribbon in a bow. Legend : " L'UNION FAIT LA
FORCE." Exergue: "1849." Weight: 385.808 grains. Fine-
ness: 900. Value: $0.96.

6. Five Francs Piece of Leopold II. Obverse : Head of
Leopold II., full beard. Legend: "LEOPOLD n. ROI DES
BELGES."

FIVE FRANCS OF LEOPOLD II.

Reverse : Same as No. 5, with the exception of the Exergue:
"1869." Weight : 385.808 grains. Fineness: 900. Value:
$0.96|.

7. Two and a half Francs Piece of Leopold I. Obverse :
Head of Leopold I. Legend : " LEOPOLD PREMIER ROI DES

BELGES."

TWO AND A HALF FRANCS OF LEOPOLD I.

Reverse: Crowned shield, a lion rampant upon the same;

BELGIUM. 52i

left of it 2," and to the right F," surrounded by two
branches of oak leaves, crossed at the end and tied with a
ribbon in a bow. Legend: "L'UNION FAIT LA FORCE." Ex-
ergue: "1848." Around the edge: " DIEU PROTEGE LA BEL-
GIQUE." Weight: 192.904 grains. Fineness: 900. Value-

8. Two Francs Piece of Leopold I., of 1834. Obverse:
Laureated head of Leopold I. Legend: "LEOPOLD PREMIER
ROI DES BELGES." Reverse: "2" "Francs" "1834," inscribed
upon the field in three lines, surrounded by a heavy wreath
of oak leaves. Weight: 154.323 grains. Fineness: 900.
Value: $0.38.6.

9. Two Francs Piece of Leopold I., of 1849. Obverse:
Head of Leopold I. Legend : " LEOPOLD PREMIER ROI DES
BELGES." Reverse: Crowned shield, a lion rampant upon the
same; to the left of it "2," and to the right "F," surrounded
by two branches of oak leaves, crossed at the ends and tied with
a ribbon in a bow. Legend : "L'UNION FAIT LA FORCE." Ex-
ergue: "1849." Weight: 154.323 grains. Fineness: 900.
Value: $0.38.6.

10. Two Francs Piece of Leopold II., of 1869. Obverse:
Head of Leopold II. Legend : " LEOPOLD n. ROI DES BEL-
GES." Reverse: Crowned shield with lion rampant; rest same
as No. 9, with the exception of the Exergue changed to "1869,"
and ever since with the date of the year of issue. Weight :
154.323 grains. Fineness: 835. Value: $0.36.

11. Franc of Leopold I., of 1835. Obverse: Laureated
head of Leopold I. Legend : " LEOPOLD PREMIER ROI DES
BELGES." Reverse: "1" "FRANC" "1835," inscribed upon
the field in three lines, and surrounded by a heavy wreath of
oak leaves. Weight: 77.161 grains. Fineness : 900. Value:
$0.19.3.

12. Franc of Leopold L, of 1849. Obverse: Head of Leo-
pold I. Legend: "LEOPOLD PREMIER ROI DES BELGES."
Reverse : Crowned shield, a lion rampant upon the same ; to
the left of it " 1 " and to the right "F." Legend : " L'UNION

522 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

FAIT LA FORCE." Exergue : " 1849." Weight : 77.161 grains.
Fineness : 900. Value : $0.19.3.

13. Franc of Leopold II. Obverse: Head of Leopold II.
Legend : " LEOPOLD n., KOI DES BELGES." Reverse : Crowned
shield, a lion rampant upon the same; left of it "1," and to
the right "F," surrounded by branches of laurel leaves,
crossed at the end and tied with a ribbon in a bow. Legend :
"L'UN-ION FAIT LA FORCE." Exergue: tl 1869," and ever
since changed to the date of the year of issue. Weight : 77.161
grains. Fineness : 835. Value : 18 cents.

14. Half Franc of Leopold I., of 1835. Obverse : Laureated
head of Leopold I. Legend : " LEOPOLD PREMIER ROI DES
BELGES."

HALF FRANC OF LEOPOLD I.

Reverse: " J " "FRANC" "1835." Wreath of oak leaves
surrounding the same. Weight : 38.580 grains. Fineness :
900. Value: 00.09.65.

15. Half Franc of Leopold I. of 1849. Obverse: Head
of Leopold I. Legend : " LEOPOLD PREMIER ROI DES
BELGES." Reverse: Crowned shield, a lion rampant upon the
same ; to the left of it " J," to the right " F," surrounded by
two branches of laurel leaves, crossed and tied at the ends \vith
a ribbon in a bow. Legend: " L'UNION FAIT LA FORCE."
Exergue: "1849." Weight: 38.580 grains. Fineness: 900.
Value : $0.09.65,

16. Half Franc of Leopold II. of 1869. Same as the above
with the exception of Leopold II. substituted for "Leopold
Premier." Weight : 38.580 grains. Fineness: 835. Value:
$0.09.

17. Quarter Franc of Leopold I. of 1835. Same as the
Half Franc piece No. 14, with the exception of " " is sub-

BELGIUM. 523

stituted for the "" on the Reverse. Weight: 19.29 grains.
Fineness: 900. Value: $0.04.825.

18. Quarter Franc of Leopold I. of 1849. Same as the
Half Franc piece No. 15, with the exception of u \" is substi-
tuted for the a |" on the Reverse. Weight: 19.29 grains.
Fineness: 900. Value: $0.04.825. The above two Quarter
Franc pieces, by act of Legislature in 1853, were withdrawn
from circulation, and have become very scarce, and in demand
with collectors of coin, commanding a high premium.

19. Twenty Centimes of Leopold I. of 1853. Obverse:
Head of Leopold I. Legend : " LEOPOLD PREMIER ROI DES
BELGES." Reverse: Crowned shield, a lion rampant upon the
same ; left of it " 20," and to the right " C," surrounded by
branches of laurel leaves, crossed and tied at the ends.
Exergue: "1853." Weight: 15.432 grains. Fineness: 900.
Value: $0.03.86.

This Twenty Centimes Piece is no longer coined in silver,
and is melted as fast as it returns into the Treasury ; in a few
years it will be out of circulation entirely.

COPPER COINS OF BELGIUM.

The Copper Coins of Belgium are no longer coined, and
those still remaining in circulation are of the reign of Leo-
pold I., the father of the present reigning King of the Bel-
gians.

1. The Ten Centimes Piece. Obverse: A large ornamental
"L," surmounted by a Crown. Legend: "10 CENTIMES."
Reverse: a Lion seated, holding a tablet, with the inscription,
"CONSTITUTION BELGE, 1831." Legend: "L'UNIONFAIT LA.
FORCE." Weight: 154.320 grains. Value: $0.01.93.

2. The Five Centimes Piece. Same as Ho. 1, with the ex-
ception of the Legend: "5 CENTIMES." Weight: 77.160
grains. Value: $0.00.965.

3. The Two Centimes Piece. Same as No. 1, with the ex-
ception of the Legend: "2 CENTIMES." Weight: 30.864.
Value: $0.00.386.

524

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

4. The One Centime Piece. Same as No. 1, with the excep-
tion of the Legend: "1 CENTIME." Weight: 15.432. Value:
$0.00.193.

NICKEL COINS OF BELGIUM.

1. Twenty Centimes Piece of Leopold I. Obverse: Head
of Leopold I., facing to the right ; a raised circle around it.
Legend: "LEOPOLD I., ROI DES BELGES." Exergue: "1861"
between two stars.

TWETTTY CENTIMES OP LEOPOLD I.

Reverse: A Lion, rampant, surrounded by a raised circle.
Legend: "L'UNION FAIT LA FORCE." Exergue: "20 C." be-
tween two stars. Weight: 108.026 grains. Value: $0.03.86.
Composition, 25 parts Nickel and 75 parts Copper.

2. Twenty Centimes of Leopold II. Same as No." 1, with
the exception of the head of Leopold II. and the Legend:
"LEOPOLD n. ROI DES BELGES." Weight and value the same
as No. 1.

3. Ten Centimes of Leopold I. Obverse: A large "10"
inscribed upon the field, which has sunken figures; under-
neath "CENTIMES " also in sunken letters ; beneath is a star sunk
in the field, which has a grained surface. Legend: "LEOPOLD
PREMIER ROI DES BELGES." Exergue : A Rosette.

TEN CENTIMES OF LEOPOLD I.

Reverse: Same us No. 1 and No. 2, only the field is grained

BELGIUM. 525

and the Exergue is changed to the date of issue. Weight
69.445. Value: $0.01.93.

4. The Ten Centimes of Leopold II., issued now, have the
same devices as No. 3. Weight: 69.445. Value: $0.01.93.

5. The Five Centimes of Leopold I. Same devices as No.
3, with the exception of the inscription on the Obverse, a " 5 "

FIVE CENTIMES OP LEOPOLD I.

takes the place of the figure "10." Weight: 46.297 grains.
Value: $0.00.965.

6. The Five Centimes of Leopold II. Same devices as No.
6. Weight: 46.297 grains. Value $0.00.965.

BOLIVIA

Belonged formerly to Spain and afterwards to Peru ; de-
clared its Independence, August 6th, and took the name of
Republic of Bolivia, in honor of General Simon Bolivar, its
Liberator, August llth, 1825.

Prior to 1826, Spanish and Peruvian money was in general
circulation ; although not banished by laws, very little of for-
eign money finds its way into Bolivia now, owing to its sub-
sidiary coins having been debased to the standard of Billon, or
666 fine.

Under the first issue of 1827, the gold coins were 870 fine,
and have continued so; although but sparingly coined.

The silver coinage was. started at 900 fine, and continued so
until 1851; when up to 1859, the standard "Peso de Plata"
was 902.778 fine. In 1860 and 1861 some of the "Pesos de
Plata," notwithstanding the mint mark of " 10 DS., 20 as.,"

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

were found upon assay to be only 898 fine, instead of 902.778,
as implied by 10 Denaros, 20 Granos. Besides the variation
in fineness, the Peso de Plata underwent a reduction in weight
from 417 grains Troy down to 306 grains Troy; and have
continued ever since to vary in fineness and weight to such a
marked degree that their true value cannot be given with pre-
cision. The money of account of Bolivia is the " Peso Corri-
ente," or current Dollar, divided into " 8 Reales Corrientes,"
or 8 current Reals. The " Peso de Plata," or Silver Dollar, is
also divided into " 8 Reales de Plata," or silver ; but of late
years both Reals have been abandoned, and the " Peso Corri-
ente," as well as the " Peso de Plata," are divided into 100
Centesimos.

The " Peso de Plata" is always at a premium; usually " 16
Pesos de Plata " are equal to " 17 Pesos Corrientes." Outside of
Bolivia these coins find but little currency, being issued by the
Bolivian mint below the legal standard ; their home circulation
is thus maintained. The Bolivian "Escudo, or Scudo," is
equal to two " Pesos de Plata."

GOLD COINS OF BOLIVIA.

1. Onza de Oro, or Doblon (Doubloon) of 8 Escudos, of 1 6
Pesos de Plata, or 17 Pesos Corrientes. Obverse: Bust of Bol-
ivar, in military uniform, with his name inscribed beneath.

ONZA DE ORO, OR DOUBLOON OP BOLIVIA.

Legend : " LIBRE FOR LA CONSTITUCION." (Free by or through
the Constitution.}

BOLIVIA. 527

Reverse : The mountain of Potosi, above which the sun is
rising; at the left of the mountain, and at the foot of it a Llama,
and to the right a sheaf of wheat, from behind which three leaves
are protruding ; beneath the whole, six stars. Legend : " RE-
PUBLICA BOLIVIANA" (Bolivian Republic). Exergue : Monogram
of the Mint-mark of Potosi; an involution of the letters: "p.
T. s." "8s" (meaning: 8 Escudos or 16 Dollars), the date of
the year of issue, and the initials of the master of the Mint; as
in the above cut, "L, M.," which of course vary frequently.
Weight: 416.503 grains. Fineness: 870. Value: $16.33.5722.

2. Half Doubloon of Four Escudos. Devices on the Obverse
and Reverse, similar to No. 1, only in proportion to size. On
the Exergue of Reverse, instead of 8 Escudos is " 4 s." Weight :
208.2515. Fineness: 870. Value: $8.16.7861.

3. One-fourth of a Doubloon of Two Escudos. Devices
similar to No. 1, only Exergue on Reverse: "2 s.," instead of
"8s." Weight: 104.1257. Fineness : 870. Value: $4.08-
.3930.

4. One-eighth of a Doubloon of One Escudo. Devices sim-
ilar to No. 1.

ONE-EIGHTH OF A DOUBLOON OF BOLIVIA.

Exergue on Reverse : " 1 s.," instead of " 8 s./' as in No. 1.
Weight: 52.0628. Fineness: 870. Value: $2.04.1965.

SILVER COINS OF BOLIVIA.

1. Peso or Piaster of 1838. Obverse: Laureated bust of
General Bolivar, facing to the right, in military uniform, with
his name inscribed beneath. Legend : " LIBRE FOR LA CON-

STITUCION."

Reverse : A tree, beneath which are reposing two Llamas :
above are six stars in an arch. Legend : " REPUBLICA BOLI-

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.
VIANA." Exergue : Monogram of Mint-mark of Potosi. " 8

PESO OR PIASTER OF BOLIVIA.

.R," "1838." "L. M.," the Mint-master's initials. Weight:
417 grains. Fineness : 900. Value: $1.00.21.

2. Peso or Piaster of 1851, called also the Peso of 8 Reales
de Plata. Obverse : Head of Bolivar facing to the left, with
his name inscribed beneath. Legend : " LIBRE POR LA CON-
STITUCION." Reverse: A tree, beneath which are reposing two
Llamas, left of tree, "10;" meaning: "10" Denaros, and to
the right "20;" meaning: "20" Granos in fineness. Above
the tree nine stars in an arch. Legend : " REPUBLICA BOLIVI-
ANA." Exergue : The monogram of Mint-mark of Potosi,
" 1851," and the initials of the Mint-master, "F. M." Weight:
416.503 grains. Fineness : 902.778. Value: $1.06.4634.

3. Peso or Piaster of 1859. Obverse: Laureated head of
Bolivar, facing to the left, with his name inscribed beneath.
Legend : " LIBRE POR LA CONSTITUCION." Exergue : " PESO
.400 GS." (Piaster of 400 granus or grains.) The grains men-
tioned on this piaster are understood to be Spanish grains, not
grains Troy. Their equivalent in Troy weight is 308 grains;
but upon carefully submitting this Peso to test, it is found to be
only of 306 grains. Reverse: A tree, beneath which are two
Llamas; nine stars in an arch above the tree. Legend: " RE-
PUBLICA BOLIVIANA." Exergue: Mint-mark of Potosi. "10
D. 20 GS.," and the date of issue. Here again the fineness is
expressed by 10 Denaros and 20 Granos, equal to 902.778 fine,

BOLIVIA. 529

while in reality the coin is only of 10 Denaros, 18J Granos,
equal to 898 fine. Considering the above, we must give the
true 'weight of 306 grains, and the fineness :898. Value:
$0.78.0529.

4. In 1861, a new Peso was struck ; it varies only in the de-
vice on the Reverse, where the " 10 DS. 20 GS." are removed
from the Exergue, and placed to the left and right of the re-
posing Llamas. Weight : 306 grains. Fineness : 898. Value:
$0.78.0529.

5. In 1872, a new Peso made its appearance, the device sam
as No. 2, only "10 D 20 GS," is omitted from the Reverse, and
the date changed to the year of issue. This new Peso, or Dolla?
is claimed to be of the same weight and fineness as the Fivd
Francs Piece of France, and the coin tested was found to be of
385.750 grains and 900 fine, and its value : $0.96.5. But even
this is no guarantee, for the Mint of Potosi is only too famous
for variations.

BILLON MONEY OF BOLIVIA.

1. The Half Peso, or Piaster of Four Reales Plata, at first
coined of full weight and fineness, but of this coin no traces are
left. The present Half Peso de Plata (meaning: true silver) is
nothing more than Billon of 666 silver and 334 parts of alloy;
mostly copper. Obverse: Bust of General Bolivar in military
uniform, facing to the right. Legend: "A su LIBEKTADOR

SIMON BOLIVAR."

HALF PESO OF FOUR REALS.

Reverse: Same as the Peso No. 1. Exergue: "1827."
2G

530 DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPEDIA.

Weight: 208.012 grains. Fineness: 666. Value nominal,
four Reals or fifty Centesimos; actual intrinsic value: $0.39-
.0382.

2. Half Peso of 1830, as called, of Four Reals de Plata; but
with no more right than the afore-mentioned. Obverse : Lau-
reated bust of Bolivar. Legend: "LIBRE FOR LA CONSTITU-

dON."

HALF PESO OF 1830.

Reverse: Same as the Peso No. 1, only in proportion to size.
Weight: 208 grains. Fineness: 666. Forced value fifty Cen-
tesimos or four Reals; intrinsic value: $0.39.0354.

3. Half Peso of 1846. Obverse: Laureated head of Bolivar,
facing to the left. Legend: "LIBRE POR LA CONSTITUCION."
Reverse : A tree, Llamas beneath ; nine stars in an arch above.
Legend : " REPUBLICA BOLIVIAN A." Exergue : Monogram of
Mint of Potosi, date of issue, and Mint-master's initials.
Weight: 208.012 grains. Fineness: 666. Value: $0.39.0382,
intrinsic; forced value, fifty Centesimos.

4. Half Peso of 1850. Obverse: Bust of Belzu. Legend:

"M. Y. BELZU PRESIDENTS CONSTITUCIO : DE BOLIVIA." (M.

Y. Belzu, Constitutional President of Bolivia.} Exergue : " 1 850."
Reverse: Hercules, with his club, treading upon a hydra-headed
dragon. Legend : " LA FUERZA NATIONAL TRIUMFO DE LA
ANARQUIA" (The National Fwce Triumphs over Anarchy).
The weight and fineness of this piece, which was coined for
about six years, varies so much that we omit the same, and give
only the average value of assayed coins at 34^ cents.

.5. In 1856, the coinage of the old Bolivar Half Peso was

BOLIVIA. 531

again resumed, and although Lenares, Cordova and De Acha
have struck coins similar to the above described No, 4, we must
omit them, for they were, after all, mere tokens or^nedals having
a fictitious value and forced circulation. The Half Peso of
1856, and after, bear again the well-known head of Bolivar;
and the Reverse, the tree, Llamas and nine stars. Exergue:
changing the date of issue and the Mint-master's initials.
Weight: 208.012 grains. Fineness: 666. Value: $0.39.0382.
6. The Quarter Peso of two Reales de Plata, but in reality,
Billon. Obverse : Laureated bust of Bolivar, facing to the right.
Legend : " LIBRE FOR LA CONSTITUCION."

QUARTER PESO OF TWO REALE8.

Reverse: Same as Peso No. 1, only in proportion to size.

Weight: 103.983 grains. Fineness: 666. Value forced,
two Reals of twenty-five Centesimos. Intrinsic value: $0.19-
.5166.

7. The Eighth of a Peso, or One Real. Obverse: Bust of
Bolivar, in military uniform, facing to the right Legend:

" LIBRE FOR LA OONSTITUCION."

ONE-EIGHTH OF A PESO OR ONE REAL.

Reverse: Same as Peso No. 1, only in proportion to size.
Weight: 51.991 grains. Fineness: 666. Value forced, on
Real or 12 Centesimos. Intrinsic value: $0.09.7583.

532

DYE'S COIN ENCYCLOPAEDIA.

8. One-sixteenth of a Peso. Obverse and Reverse: Same as
the Peso No. 1, only in proportion to size. Weight: 25.463
grains. Fineness : 666. Forced value, 6 Centesimos. In-
trinsic value : $0.04.8156.

BRAZIL.

IMPERIAL MINT AT RIO JANEIRO.

Brazil was discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese,
who was driven upon its coast by a tempest in 1500. He called
it the Land of the Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently named
Brazil on account of its red wood. From 1500 to 1821 it was
a province of Portugal, and its coins those of Portugal. In
1807 the French, under Napoleon I., having seized Portugal,
the royal family and most of the nobles fled to Brazil. All the
Portuguese coins from 1807 to 1821 were coined in Brazil.

BRAZIL. 533

In 1821 King Joannes VI., of Portugal, returned to Lisbon,
leaving his son Dora Pedro as regent. At the breaking out of
the revolution in 1822 Dom Pedro threw himself into the ranks
of the "Independent Party," and was soon proclaimed Emperor
of Brazil, taking the title of Petrus I., by the Grace of God Con-
stitutional Emperor and perpetual Defender of Brazil.

In 1831 Dom Pedro abdicated in favor of his son Dom
Pedro, then in his sixth year, who ascended the throne as Doin
Pedro II., but was not crowned till 1841, when he became of
age.

The Rei is an imaginary unit, simply money of account; no
coin of so small a denomination is coined. 20 Reis make 1
Vintem; 80 Reis = 1 Tostao or Testoon ; 320 Reis = 1 Pa-
taca ; 400 Reis = 1 Crusado ; 480 Reis = 1 Sello or Noun
Crusado; 1000 Reis = 1 Milreis, and written 1 || 000; thcbe
parallel lines are one of several different symbols to indicate the
place of thousands; 1000 Milreis = 1 Con to de Reis, and written
1 : 000 1) 000, the colon indicating the place of millions; 1000
Contos = 1 Con to de Conto, and written 1.000 : 000 || 000, the
full point taking the place of thousands of millions. Fo