The Early Christian Conception Of Christ Volume X

133446

CROWN THEOLOGICAL LIBRARY

VOL. X.

PFLEIDERER'S THE EARLY CHRISTIAN
CONCEPTION OF CHRIST

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THE EARLY

CHRISTIAN CONCEPTION
OF CHRIST

ITS SIGNIFICANCE AND VALUE
IN THE HISTORY OF RELIGION

EXPANDED FROM A LECTURE DELIVERED BEFORE THE

INTERNATIONAL THEOLOGICAL CONGRESS AT AMSTERDAM,

SEPTEMBER 1903

BY

OTTO PFLEIDERER

PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN

WILLIAMS & NORGATE

14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON
NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION ...... 7

I. CHRIST AS SON OF GOD . . . . .16

II. CHRIST AS CONQUEROR OF SATAN ... 49
III. CHRIST AS A WONDER-WORKER .... 63

IV, CHRIST AS THE CONQUEROR OF DEATH AND THE

LlFE-GlVER ....... 84

V. CHRIST AS THE KING OF KINGS AND LORD OF

LORDS ..... .134

CONCLUSION . . . . . . . .152

THE EARLY

CHRISTIAN CONCEPTION
OF CHRIST

INTRODUCTION

IT is to the great and abiding credit of the
scientific theology of the nineteenth century
that it has learned to distinguish between the
Christ of Faith and the man Jesus of history,
two entities which have been identified by
ecclesiastical dogma. By means of careful
and toilsome critical investigation it has been
shown how the dogma of the God-man
gradually took form, precipitated as it were
from the intermingling of religious ideas of
various origin with the reminiscences of the
early Church concerning the life of her Master.
An attempt has then been made, by means of

8 The Early Christian

separating away later accretions and by fall-
ing back upon the oldest historic sources, to
approach as nearly as possible to the historic
truth concerning the Founder of our religion,
and to present His form, in its simple human
grandeur and stripped of all mythical acces-
sories, as the ideal of a lofty and noble religious
hero worthy of the veneration of the mind
and heart of the modern world.

The value of this attempt is incontestable,
even though, upon calm reflection, one must
confess that many illusions are current as to
the significance of the results that have been
thus obtained. In glancing at the numerous
Lives of Christ, it is impossible to suppress the
question whether these attempts to reach the
basis of historical truth can ever result in
other than hypothetical conjecture whether
it is not true that the sharper the definition we
attempt to give to our portrait of the Founder,
the more we lose firm foothold upon historical
testimony and are carried aloft into the region
of ideal fiction. One can scarcely avoid

Conception of Christ 9

answering this question in the affirmative
when one glances at the vital differences in
the so-called historical results obtained by the
different authors of Lives of Christ. Can we
indeed expect that it should be otherwise, when
we reflect that the earliest records betray the
most evident tokens that in them history is
interwoven with ideal motives, whether of
legend or of apologetics or of dogmatic specu-
lation ? Jewish prophecy, Rabbinic teaching,
Oriental gnosis, and Greek philosophy had
already mingled their colours upon the palette
from which the portrait of Christ in the New
Testament Scriptures was painted. And so
all that can be determined with certainty from
these writings is only that conception of Christ
which was the object of the faith of the early
Christian communities and their teachers.
It is true that the reminiscences of the first
disciples concerning the life and death of their
Master have contributed a most important
element to this conception, which was from
the first very complicated and many-sided, an

io The Early Christian

element indeed which, although it formed the
nucleus round which all crystallised, was never-
theless only one element among many others.
But the question as to how much of the New
Testament conception of Christ is due to
genuine historical reminiscence, and how much
is derived from other sources, is a problem
which can never be solved with absolute
certainty.

How then does it come about that the eyes
of so many are blind to the recognition of a
fact so indisputable as this ? Without doubt
it is because of the supposition, which in these
days seems to be regarded as an axiom, that
intimate knowledge of Christianity stands and
falls with exact historical knowledge of the
personality of its Founder. But is not this
supposition again only an illusion? It is
evident that the Christian religion and the
Christian Church are based upon that early
belief in Christ to which the New Testament
and contemporary Christian literature bear
witness. This alone is the established fact,

Conception of Christ 1 1

which is in no way affected however the
answer to the question concerning the origin
of this belief may fall. It makes no difference
whether historical tradition concerning Jesus
of Nazareth has contributed more or less to
this belief, or whether this contribution has
been direct or indirect, or even which is of
course most improbable if it has contributed
nothing at all; the content of that belief,
and consequently the essential character of
Christianity, abide the same.

It follows therefore that scientific theology
cannot remain true to her function the
investigation of the nature of Christianity if,
instead of inquiring into the whole content
of the New Testament idea of Christ, she
emphasises only the phases of that conception
which are acceptable to the thought of to-day ;
if she overlooks all other phases and adds
much of her own invention in order to con-
struct an ideal of Christ in accord with
modern taste. Such procedure is in these
days most common and in great favour who

12 The Early Christian

is there that does not know the long succession
of romances commencing with Kenan's Life
of Jesus ? who does not commend Harnack's
Wliat is Christianity? It is true that these
works may claim a certain practical merit in
that they have been able to awaken interest
in religion and enthusiasm for moral ideals
among many of the indifferent. Only let us
guard ourselves from the great mistake of
imagining that the portraits of Christ drawn
in these works each differing in accordance
with the differing disposition of the author,
each besides more or less affected by modern
ideals represent the result of genuine historical
research, and bear to the ancient portrait the
relation of truth to falsehood. We must, in
all modesty and honour, allow that both the
modern and the ancient are alike creations
of the common religious spirit of their times ;
that they have sprung from the natural craving
of faith to fix and to illustrate the principle of
its life in a typical form. The distinction in
both corresponds to the difference of the times ;

Conception of Christ 13

in one case we have the simple epic of myth,
in the other the romance of sentiment and
reflection. To ask which of the two is the
more true were as useless as to ask the
same question concerning Homer's Odyssey
or Milton's Paradise Lost and Klopstock's
Messiah. To the men of old the Christ of
modern thought would have been incompre-
hensible and therefore untrue; while to the
mind of to-day simple faith in the antique
mythical epic is no longer possible. But
because we can no longer share in the simple
belief of ancient days and accept myth as
historical reality, are we therefore to regard
it as mere delusion and superstition? That
indeed would be an error, which, though it
was pardonable in the times of rationalism,
ought to be quite impossible for minds trained
in the historic method of the science of to-day.
Surely myths and the corresponding rites and
ceremonies in which the mythical idea finds
dramatic, free, living, and continuous presenta-
tion are by far the most original and forcible

14 The Early Christian

form of expression of the peculiar genius of
every religion, and are therefore of the greatest
significance for the investigator of the history
of religion ; they are in fact his ultimate
source of information.

But of course, if the import and significance
of the early Christian myths is to be under-
stood, these must be considered not simply
in the isolation of Christian tradition, but in
relationship with and in dependence upon
the myths and legends of universal religious
history. The sphere of comparative religion,
I am convinced, offers to the theology of the
twentieth century a rich field of labour, whose
culture will result in the clearing up of many
problems to which Biblical exegesis and criti-
cism have so far found no satisfactory solution.
By this means we shall come to a clearer
comprehension of the character of those
realistic conceptions and expressions of ancient
thought, which are so foreign to us moderns
that we always tend to refine them away to
mere symbolism ; and our eye for the psycho-

Conception of Christ 15

logical motives and the historical background
of legend will become keener. Of course we
stand to-day still in the very beginnings of a
science whose sphere is of such wide extent.
If in spite of this I venture to lay before you
a tentative experiment in its method in the
following investigation of the primitive con-
ception of Christ in the light of the history of
religion, I do so in hope of your kind for-
bearance, and with the intention of paying a
tribute of gratitude to the learned scholars
of Holland, who in this very science of
comparative religion stand pre-eminent in
merit in place of all others I mention only
our friend Tiele, whose name can never be
forgotten.

CHRIST AS THE SON OF GOD

FROM the very beginning it was the belief of
the Christian community that Jesus was the
Son of God, but as to the degree and the
significance of this Divine Sonship opinion
was at first very divided. We can distinguish
at least three meanings of the phrase " Son of
God," each of which has its parallels partly in
Jewish, partly in Gentile religious history.

1. According to the most ancient opinion,
the man Jesus Christ was raised to be the Son
of God by a divine act of adoption which was
at first connected with the Resurrection from
the dead and the Ascension to Heaven, and
afterwards with the voice from Heaven at the
Baptism, when by the descent of the Spirit

16

Christ the Son of God 17

He was endowed with miraculous Messianic
power. Accordingly " Son of God " did not
yet imply that His nature was supernatural,
but only that to Him had been given
the office and power of the Messiah, that is,
of the divinely appointed king of the people
of God.

2. But parallel with this view which pre-
vailed in the primitive Church there ran
another conception which already obtained a
footing in the Gentile Churches at a very
early date. It derived its origin from the
Apostle St Paul, who taught that Jesus was
the Son of God because a spiritual per-
sonality, pre-existing in Heaven, had become
incarnate in Him. This Christ-Spirit St
Paul had not yet of course thought of as
God, but as the peculiar first-born son and
express image of God, and moreover as the
archetype of mankind, the heavenly ideal
man (the second man from Heaven of 1 Cor.
xv. 47) who was destined from the beginning

to appear in earthly form that He might

8

1 8 The Early Christian

redeem mankind from the curse of sin, of
the law, of death. But the mediator of
redemption must have been already from
the beginning the mediator of creation;
hence He is called in the Epistle to the
Hebrews "the very image of the substance
of God, upholding all things by the word of
his power" (i. 3), and in the Epistle to the
Colossians, " the first-begotten of all creation,
in whom, and through whom, and to whom
all things have been created, in whom all
things consist" (i. 15 /). St John's Gospel
however closes and completes this cycle of
thought with the teaching that "the Logos,
which in the beginning was with God, and was
God, by whom all things were created, in
whom was the life and light of men," became
flesh in Jesus (i. 1^). Accordingly, Christ is
the Son of God no longer simply because of
the adoption and apotheosis of the man Jesus,
but because in Him has been perfected the in-
carnation of that divine nature, which as the
Logos, that is as the personal Word, had been

Conception of Christ 19

from the beginning of the world the mediator
of all divine revelation.

Finally these two conceptions of the incar-
nation of a God and of the apotheosis of a man
were combined in a third view, that Christ was
the Son of God because He was supernaturally
conceived by the Holy Ghost and born of the
Virgin Mary, and so, although human because
of His mother, He was yet Son of God in the
most complete physical sense of the word.
This view arose in the second century among
Christians of Gentile origin, and soon became
the most popular tradition. 1

To these separate ideas concerning the
Divine Sonship of Christ Jesus 2 close parallels

1 St Matt. i. 18-25 and St Luke i. 34 /. Only in these
two passages of the New Testament, the latter of which
does not probably belong to the original text, is this
tradition mentioned. It belongs therefore to the latest
elements of the New Testament conception of Christ.

2 For a more complete discussion and development of
the sketches of the New Testament conception of Christ,
both here and in the following pages, I refer once for all
to my book, Das Urchristentum, seine Schriften und Lehren,
2nd edit, 1902.

20 The Early Christian

are found partly in Judaism, partly and still
more completely in Gentile religious history.
The adoptionist theocratic idea of the
Divine Sonship of the Messiah can be clearly
traced back to the old Israelitish belief in the
intimate connection of the Davidic kingship
with Jahweh the nation's God, The prophetic
author of the Books of Samuel makes God say
to David, "To thy seed I will establish the
kingdom for ever. I will be his father, and
he shall be my son, so that if he commit
iniquity I will chasten him with the stripes of
the children of men. But my mercy shall not
depart from him, as I withdrew it from him
that went before thee ; rather thine house shall
be made sure for ever before me '" (2 Sam. vii.
13 ff.). Trusting in this covenant of Jahweh
with the royal house of David, the pious king
of the second Psalm, amid the hostile plottings
of the rulers of the world against Jahweh
and His anointed, finds consolation in the
certainty that God has set His king upon Sion,
and has said to him, " Thou art my son, to-

Conception of Christ 21

day have I begotten thee [i.e. established thee
as king]. Ask of me, and I will give thee the
nations for thine inheritance, and the uttermost
parts of the earth for thy possession. Thou
shalt break them with a sceptre of iron ; thou
shalt dash them in pieces like a potter's vessel "
(Ps. ii. 6 ff\}. In this sense the Jews hoped
for the anointed king of the happy future, the
Messiah, who, as Son of David, would be
therefore Son of God that is, His chosen and
beloved client and vassal. But besides this
adoptionist conception, which still prevails in
the Psalms of Solomon of the era of Pompey,
another conception makes its appearance in
the apocalyptic literature of later Judaism.
According to this conception, the Messiah
is no mere man, a son of David, but a
mysterious spirit - nature proceeding from
the secret places of the Heavens. In the
Similitudes of the Book of Enoch (the first
century B.C.) the Messiah is described as " the
Chosen One," "the Son of Man," who was
hidden with God before the world was, whose

22 The Early Christian

dominion endureth from eternity to eternity,
whose power abideth from generation to
generation, in whom dwelleth the spirit of
wisdom and might, who will judge the secret
things, and will execute vengeance on kings
and mighty men, but will deliver the Saints and
the righteous. Enoch (chap, xlv-li.). Also
in the Apocalypse of Ezra (chap, xiii.) the seer
perceives as it were a man rise out of the
sea and fly upon the clouds of Heaven; he
sees him destroy the armies of the enemy
with fire proceeding from his mouth, while he
releases the scattered Israelites from captivity
and leads them back to their native land.
This vision is then interpreted to the seer :
"This man rising from the midst of the sea
is he whom the Most High hath kept a great
season, by whom He will deliver His creation.
Like as one can neither seek out nor know what
is in the deep of the sea, even so can no man
upon earth see my Son, or those that be with
him, but until the time of his day " (i.e. of his
revelation as the world's Judge and Saviour)*

Conception of Christ 23

Accordingly the "deep of the sea," out of

which the Saviour the Son of God rises, seems

to be only a type of the mysterious secret

place where he is hidden from the beginning ;

we are not indeed told expressly that the place

is Heaven, but we may conclude this from the

words which tell of his "flying upon the

clouds of Heaven" (xiii. 3), and of "those

that be with him" (xiii. 52) at his coming,

which companions must be understood to be

either angels or righteous men of old days who

had been translated into Heaven to dwell with

the Son of God until the fulness of time (xiv. 9).

It is evident, therefore, that the Apocalypse

of Ezra, like the Parables of Enoch, regards

the coming Saviour as this Son of God

and Son of Man pre-existent in Heaven

until the time of His appearing. It is no

doubt difficult to reconcile this view with the

words of chap. xii. 32, where it is said that

the Christ will spring from the seed of David,

and of chap. vii. 29, " After these years [a rule

of four hundred years] shall my Son Christ die,

24 The Early Christian

and all that have the breath of life." It is
difficult to reconcile this discrepancy of state-
ment ; it can indeed only be explained by
supposing that the author of this Apocalypse
hesitated between the later conception of
Messiah as heavenly and pre-existent, and the
older view in which he was regarded as the
earth-born Son of David. The idea of an
incarnation of the heavenly Son of God and
Son of Man in the body of an earth-born son
of David, which would have united these two
conceptions which existed side by side in later
Judaistic thought, was never adopted in the
circles of Judaism ; but it suggested itself so
naturally that it is no matter of wonder that
in Christianity such a belief made its ap-
pearance at a very early date, indeed with
St Paul

The same significance which the heavenly
Son of God and Man has in the Apocalypses
of later Judaism is ascribed in the philosophy
of Alexandrian Judaism to a Mediating
Being, who is sometimes called "Wisdom,"

Conception of Christ 25

sometimes "Logos" (Reason and Word).
In the Book of the Wisdom of Solomon
(whose author was a Jew of Alexandria of
the first century B.C.) Wisdom is described as
a Spirit with God, yet distinct from Him,
mediating His revelation in the creation,
preservation, and government of the world,
partly person, partly subtile matter which
divisible as the air permeates the universe;
like the World-Spirit of Heraclitus and the
Stoics which was partly Universal Reason,
partly first material principle of existence
(Urstoff, Urfeuer), but related also to the
Archangel Vohu-mano (Good Thought) of
Zarathustrism, who stands by the side of
Ahura as the chief minister of his will, 1 This
Hellenistic hypostasis of the Divine Wisdom
is partly the metaphysic principle of the
creation and ordered existence of the universe,
partly the agent and mediating instrument
of the historical revelation of God in the

1 Cf. Stave, Einfluss des Parsismus auf das Judentum,
pp. 205 ffl

26 The Early Christian

religion of Israel, and above all in those pious
souls which she makes friends and children
of God and raises to eternal life in fellowship
with Him (Wisdom, iii. 1 ff., v. 16 ffi, vi.
12^). Thus in this conception the Judaso-
Hellenistic author has endeavoured to com-
bine the monistic speculations of Greek
philosophy with the positive faith in Revelation
which is the characteristic of Jewish theism.
The Alexandrian philosopher Philo l followed
in his footsteps. He bridged over the gulf
that yawned between the world of sense and
the infinitely lofty, unknowable, unnameable
God by means of "Powers," which he also
calls " Ideas " and " Angels," among which he
distinguishes six as chief, who, like the six
Amshaspands of the Zarathustric religion,
guard the throne of God and act as His
ministers in the government of the universe.
First among these mediatory " Powers " stands

1 I refer here to my discussion of Philo in Urchristentum,
2nd edit.., ii. 25-54, where will be found quoted the
passages of Philo upon which this sketch is based.

Conception of Christ 27

the " Logos," who also appears as the essential
source of the others, and accordingly as the
central mediator of all divine action and
revelation. Philo calls him "the eldest, the
first-born son of God, the oldest angel, the
beginning, the word and the name of God,
His image and the archetype of mankind."
As mediator of the divine revelation, he is
already concerned with the creation of the
world, partly as the idea of ideas after whose
pattern the universe is formed, partly as the
creative power by which all things are called
into existence. He is thus like the Platonic
idea the metaphysic principle of form,
and also the principle of existence like the
Logos of the Stoics ; but in distinction from
these philosophic principles the Logos of
Philo is also a self -existent, half -personal
mediator, the oldest creature of God, very
nearly allied to the archangels of the Jewish
and Persian religions. It is in this latter
character that he is the instrument of the
whole historical revelation of God in Israel,

28 The Early Christian

the active agent in all the theophanies of the
Old Testament those, for instance, of the
patriarchal history and more especially in
the giving of the Law by Moses, to whom the
Logos is brought into such close relationship
that the conception of incarnation is almost
suggested though it is never really taught.
But also the Manna the heavenly bread of
the wilderness, the water from the cloven
rock, the flame of fire in the cloud that
accompanied the camp of Israel, according to
Philo, were all manifestations of the Logos ;
and herein it is betrayed that the original
source of the conception lies in the animistic
ideas of early popular thought. As the World-
Reason of the Stoics was personified in Hermes
the messenger of the gods, and as in the
Egyptian god Thot l the magical creative word
of Ammon-Ra, in Vohu-mano the creative

1 Thot was identified by the Greeks with Hermes, and
the latter was, in Stoic theology, made the manifestation
of the divine wisdom. The relationship of this Logos-
Hermes with the Logos-Christ was already noticed by the
old apologists. Cf. Justin, ApoL, i. 21.

Conception of Christ 29

wisdom of Ahura, and in the Babylonian
Nabu the word of destiny of Marduk
took the form of divine mediating person-
alities, so in like manner Philo's Logos had
its origin in the identification of the personified
creative wisdom and revealing word of Jahweh
with the World-Reason of the Stoics ; thus it
combined within itself the attributes of the
principle of existence and thought, of the per-
sonal mediator of revelation, and of the ideal
man ; as son, image, and ambassador of God,
the Logos is also the high-priest, intercessor
for, and advocate (paraclete) of mankind.

Among Gentile peoples the idea of divine son-
ship was common and widespread, and that not
simply in the case of mythical characters, but
also in the case of historical personages of
eminence, more especially of rulers and sages.
In Egypt, from the earliest days up to the time
of the last Pharaohs, the king was regarded as
an incarnation of the deity ; l he was addressed
by the name of the great and merciful god

1 Wiedermann, Die agyptische Religion, pp. 92 /

30 The Early Christian

Horus, sacrifices were offered to him, prayer
was directed to him, and it was believed that
he himself fulfilled the prayer, or that he at
least presented it before the heavenly gods,
his fathers and mothers, with whom he lived
in unbroken intercourse ; indeed the Egyptian
kings actually oifered prayer to themselves,
or rather to the divine genius (Ka) incarnate
within themselves. For example we find
a prayer addressed to King Meneptah which
runs as follows: "Thou, O king, art the
perfect image of thy father the sun which rises
in the heavens. Thy beams pierce even into
the earth's secret recesses. Every place is full
of thy goodness. The words of thy lips are
law in every land. As thou restest in thy
palace thou hearest what is said in every
country. Thou hast millions of ears. Thine
eye is bright above all the stars of heaven, it
sees what is done in secret, O merciful lord,
creator of the breath of life ! " Also in Baby-
lon, 1 from the time of Sargon I., the founder of

1 Radau, Early History of Babylon, pp. 308 ffi

Conception of Christ 31

the empire, the kings were accounted emana-
tions of the Godhead ; Sargon's son Naramsin
called himself " God of Agade, lord of the orb
of heaven. " Afterwards for some time titles
of this description seem to have dropped out
of use. They return, however, with the kings
of the fourth dynasty of Ur, who all prefixed
to their names the sign for god (Dingir), built
temples to their own honour, set up their
statues in different sanctuaries, suffered sacrifice
to be offered to their genius, and established
the first and fifteenth days of every month
as festival days holy to themselves.

This belief in the divine descent of kings
was so firmly rooted in the Eastern mind that
it was transferred even to foreign conquerors
and rulers. When Alexander the Great had
conquered the Persian and Egyptian Empires,
he permitted himself to be styled the son of
the Egyptian god Ammon-Ra; and among
the inheritors of his empire his example was
followed by the kings of Egypt and partly
also by the kings of Syria. It was therefore

32 The Early Christian

natural that in later days the Eastern portion
of the Roman Empire should have preceded
the West in paying divine honours to the
emperors. In the East there was no hesitation
in worshipping with public rites the living
emperor as god, i.e. as an incarnation of the
Godhead, while in the West there was greater
reserve in this matter. 1 It is true that in Rome
since the time of Augustus divine honour was
ascribed to the " genius " of the emperor ; but
most of the emperors of the first century did
not dare to assign to themselves the title
of god. Only after their death were they
elevated to the throne of the gods and received
the title divus. Nor did the honour fall to
all without discrimination, but only to those
whom the Senate accounted worthy of this
apotheosis, this consecratio. And thus in
the West the divinity of the emperor signified
an apotheosis or elevation of the deceased to

1 Beurlier, Le culte imperial^ p. 52 ; Boissier, La religion
romame, i. 163. Cf. below (Section V.) the hymns to
Augustus.

Conception of Christ 33

divine honour because of his own personal
merit, while in the East it signified a real
incarnation of the deity in each living
emperor as such.

Most striking parallels to the account of
the virgin-birth of Christ are found in pagan
legend. Pythagoras was regarded by his
disciples as an incarnation of Apollo, or as
the son of that god. 1 Even in the lifetime
of Plato, as we learn from the funeral oration
pronounced by his nephew Speusippus, it was
commonly reported among the Athenians that
Perictione, the philosopher's mother, had con-
ceived him from the god Apollo before her

1 Jamblichus (De Vita Pyihagorica, chap, u.) recounts as
an ancient legend that Pythagoras was the son of Apollo
by Parthenis, the wife of Mnesarchus ; but he adds that
this story is not to be credited ; that rather the soul of
Pythagoras in a prior state of existence stood in the
closest relationship to Apollo, and by him had been sent
to mankind. But in chapter xix. we are told that
Pythagoras regarded himself as the human manifestation of
the god Apollo, who took human form in order that men
might not be so amazed and terrified by the divine glory
as to be unable to receive his teaching (of. St John i. 14,
and Barnabas v. 10).

34 The Early Christian

marriage with her husband. Hence the
Academy was wont to celebrate the memory
of its founder on the birthday of Apollo. It
was believed concerning Alexander the Great
that he was the son of Zeus, who had visited
his mother Olympias in the form of a serpent
before King Philip had consummated his
marriage with her. Among the Romans
Scipio Africanus and Augustus were regarded
as sons of Apollo. The Pythagorean teacher
and miracle- worker Apollonius of Tyana was
accounted by his countrymen a son of Zeus.
Simon Magus proclaimed himself to be more
than human, and to have been born from a virgin
mother. Tiie common motive of legends of
this kind, many of which were current in the
Graeco-Roman world, has been quite correctly
discerned by Origen (Contra Celsum, i. 37).
It was believed that a man endowed with
wisdom and power beyond the measure of
ordinary men must also have derived the
principle of bodily existence from a higher
and diviner seed. In an age which had as

Conception of Christ 35

yet no conception of natural laws, and whose
phantasy was nourished upon manifold tales
concerning demi-gods and sons of the gods,
it was most natural to explain a personality
of uncommon greatness by tracing back its
origin to a miraculous birth and divine
fatherhood.

But the most noteworthy parallel to the
Christian legend is afforded in the similar
legend of Buddhism, for here also the idea of the
incarnation of a heavenly pre-existent Being in
the historic founder is combined with the idea
of his virgin-birth. The legendary biography
of Buddha, Lalita Vistara which was trans-
lated into Chinese in 65 A.D., and is therefore
certainly pre-Christian, 1 begins with the
former life of the Buddha in heaven. Here
he appears in the assembly of the gods and
instructs them concerning "the law," i.e. the
saving and eternal truth. He then announces

1 Foucaux, Le Lahta Vistara, translated into French from
the Sanscrit, I. VIII My sketch and quotations are taken
from this translation, which is acknowledged to be the best.

36 The Early Christian

his purpose to descend into the womb of an
earthly woman and to be born as man, that he
may bring salvation to the world. The sons
of the gods embrace his feet, weeping as
they cry, " O noble man, if thou abidest not
here this dwelling-place of heaven will lose its
glory and brightness/' He, however, appoints
them a successor, and formally consecrates
him as a future candidate for the office of
Buddha by removing his own tiara and placing
it upon his head, saying, " O noble Man, it is
thou that after me wilt be clothed with the
perfect intelligence of a Buddha " (chap. v. ;
Foucaux's Trans., I. 40). Thus the technical
term for the heavenly nature of the Buddha,
which presupposes the individual incarnations,
is " Man " (Purusha) or " Great Man " (Maha-
purusha), also "Victorious Lord" (Cakravartin).
Whether these expressions imply some connec-
tion with the god Vishnu, as Senart thinks, 1
may be left undecided; what interests us is
the relationship of this conception with the

1 Senart, Essai sur la tegende du Buddha, chaps, i and ii.

Conception of Christ 37

Judaeo-apocalyptic term for the heavenly
pre-existent Messiah, "Son of Man" or
" Man " (Daniel vii. 13, Enoch and Ezra) ; with
the Pauline " second man from Heaven " ;
with the Gospel name for Messiah, "Son of
Man"; with the teaching of the Ophite
Gnostics concerning the threefold Godhead,
consisting of the First Man or Father, the
Second Man or Son, and the Holy Spirit or
the Mother of the Living (Irenaeus, Adv.
Hcereses, 1. 30); finally and more especially,
with the teaching of the Elkesaite Gnostics,
which also lies at the foundation of the
Clementine Homilies, in accordance with
which the heavenly Christ-Spirit, the king
of the world to come, first became man in
Adam, then in Enoch, Noah, Abraham,
Isaac, Jacob, Moses, and at last by a miracu-
lous virgin-birth in Jesus, while still further
embodiments of this Spirit are expected in
the future, in order that the world, sunk in
darkness, may again and again be delivered
by the true Prophecy (Hippolytus, Philoso-

38 The Early Christian

phumena, ix. 10 ; Epiphanius, Hcer., xxx. 53).
It is not yet possible to determine how
far the Indian doctrine of the incarnations
(avatars) of the "Great Man" in the en-
lightened teachers or Buddhas of different
epochs and the Judaeo-Christian doctrine of
the Man from Heaven are historically depen-
dent upon one another. I would only note
that the Elkesaite and Clementine doctrine
of the separate incarnations of the heavenly
Spirit in Adam, the patriarchs, and Jesus seems
to have such an astonishing likeness to the
Indian doctrine that one can scarcely doubt
that here at least is a case of direct connec-
tion; and such connection is the more
probable in that the Elkesaite Gnosis was
first taught by an Eastern Persian or Parthian
about the year 100 A.D., for at that time
India and Eastern Persia were in intimate
communication with one another. We do
not of course know how long before this
time Indian influences had worked their way
into Western Asia, and we must therefore

Conception of Christ 39

for the present confine ourselves to estab-
lishing the fact of the parallelism between
the Buddhist " Great Man " and the Judaso-
Christian " Son of Man " without attempting
to maintain that these ideas are historically
interdependent.

The legend of the Lalita Vistara proceeds
to relate how the queen Maya sought per-
mission from her husband, King Suddhodana
of Kapilavastu, to withdraw for a period from
wedded life, in order to practise in strict retire-
ment the life of an ascetic. During her fast
in the springtime, when the constellation
Puchya stood in the heavens, it came to pass
that she saw in her dream a white elephant
enter into her body, doing her no hurt. She
related the dream to her husband, who asked
of the augurs an interpretation. These pro-
phesied that great gladness was about to come
to them, for the queen would bear a son, who
would be either a mighty ruler or a perfect
saint, a Buddha and Saviour of the world.
When after ten months she had brought

40 The Early Christian

forth her son in a birth painless and undefiled,
the new-born child at once cried out with the
voice of a lion : " I am the noblest, the best
thing in the world 1 This is my last birth;
I will put an end to birth, to old age,
to sickness, to death!" At this instant the
earth quaked and heavenly music was heard,
a supernatural light filled all quarters of the
universe and put darkness to flight. All
creation was filled with the highest ecstasy of
joy, and was delivered from all the bonds of
passion and ignorance; the pain of the dis-
eased was relieved, hunger and thirst ceased,
the drunkards became sober, the insane came
to a right mind, the blind saw, the deaf heard,
the maimed were made whole, the poor be-
came rich, the bound were set at liberty, the
sufferings of every creature, even of those in
hell, came to an end. Then came the hosts
of the gods and spirits of heaven and paid
homage to the Buddha-child and his mother,
offering gifts, costly spices, garments and
ornaments ; the highest of the gods appeared

Conception of Christ 4,1

in the form of young Brahmins and uplifted a
psalm of praise : " Happy is the whole world,
for he is really born he who brings salva-
tion, the restorer of peace on earth. He has
appeared who by the glory of his merit will
dim sun and moon and chase darkness utterly
away. The blind see, the deaf hear, the
deranged come to reason. The vice inherent
in nature no longer vexes and disturbs, for the
whole universe is full of good will. Gods
and men can from henceforth approach one
another without enmity, for he is the leader
of their pilgrimage" (Lalita Fzstara, I. 78-
88). At that time there lived in the
Himalayas a great seer, Asita, who perceived
from wondrous signs in the heavens that a
prince was born of exalted destiny either as
a kingly ruler or as a saint and saviour. He
came to Kapilavastu, he entered into the
royal palace to see the new-born child, and
recognised upon him the thirty-two signs of
the "Great Man" (the incarnation of the
heavenly Buddha). After he had seen this,

42 The Early Christian

the seer Asita began to weep and sigh deeply.
When the king inquired whether he foresaw
some peril to the young prince Siddhartha,
he replied: "No; I weep not for him, but
for myself, because I am old and feeble ; but
this young prince will be clothed with the
perfect wisdom of a Buddha, and then for
the salvation and joy of the world as well as
of the gods will he teach the law whose
beginning, middle, and end is virtue in its
fullest, clearest sense will he set it in the
light. And when they have heard it from
his mouth, all creatures observing the laws of
their development will be completely delivered
from birth and old age, from disease and care,
from mourning, from pain and sufferings of all
kinds ; those that are inflamed with the fire of
passion will he refresh with the water of the
good Law ; those who are ensnared in darkness
and wander in the way of evil, he will lead
by the right way of salvation (Nirvana) \ those
who are bound by the chains of natural cor-
ruption will he release from their fetters ; in

Conception of Christ 43

the blind, whose eye is darkened by the thick
mist of ignorance, will he open the eye of
wisdom; countless creatures will he deliver
from the raging sea of this life and will guide
them and grant them entrance into Im-
mortality, As for us, we shall not live to
know this deliverer most precious ! For this
I weep and sigh, because I have no hope of
attaining to the deliverance from disease and
passion " (Lalita Vistara, I. 91-94).

No one can fail to be struck with the
manifest likeness of these Buddhist legends to
the story of the childhood of Jesus as related
in the Gospels, more especially in the Gospel
of St Luke. But we find also much that runs
parallel to the tale in St Luke ii. 41-52, con-
cerning the visit of Jesus to the Temple when
He was twelve years old. When the Prince
Siddhartha was brought into the school, his
superior knowledge of the whole sixty-four
writings of Indian wisdom astonished his
teachers and put them to the blush. Once
when he had gone into the fields to watch

44 The Early Christian

the work of tilling, 1 he fell into an ecstasy of
pious meditation under the shadow of a tree ;
five foreign sages or saints (richis) passed
that way, and perceived from the halo of
glory which streamed from the future Buddha
that he must be a son of a god, if not
the incarnation of the sun -god himself, and
they foretold his future career as teacher of
the law, as the light and saviour of the world.
In the meantime his absence was noticed at
home; when the king asked whither he had
gone, none could tell, and they began to
search for him everywhere. At last he was
found under the tree, whose shadow had not
moved during the whole day, surrounded by
the saints, bright with majestic light like the
moon amid the stars. To his father, trembling
at the sight, the son speaks with the voice of
Brahma, full of authority; "Cast aside thy

1 According to another version this happened at the
spnng festival, when the king was wont to draw the first
furrow with a golden plough. It was curiosity to see this
festival that tempted the nuise to leave the young prince
by himself.

Conception of Christ 45

ploughing, 1 O my father, and seek higher."
He thus blames his father's lack of higher
perception and aspiration, just as the youth-
ful Jesus acts towards His mother in St
Luke ii. 49. Thereupon he returned with his
father to the city and dwelt there, accom-
modating himself to the customs of the
world, yet in spirit busied with the thought
of his departure to become perfect and pure
existence (Buddha). Lalita V~istara, I. 115,
118-122.

How deeply the thought of continuous
incarnations of the divine spirit in historical
personages is rooted in the mind of the Asiatic
peoples is shown in the formation of the
religious sect of Babism in Persia 2 even in
the nineteenth century. Its founder, Mirza
Ali Mohammed, early in his life made his
appearance as an enthusiastic reformer of the

1 This presupposes that the ploughing ceremony of
the spring festival was the cause of the loss of the
child.

2 Gobineau, Les religions et les philosophies de VAsie
centrale,pp

46 The Early Christian

official Mohammedan religion and an impas-
sioned opponent of the degenerate hierarchy,
and soon gathered round him a large circle of
followers who regarded him with fanatical de-
votion and veneration. This took place in the
year 1844. The founder claimed unlimited
authority, and called himself the " Bab/' that
is, the "gate" through which alone a man
could come to the knowledge of God. He
believed that he was the highest embodiment
of the divine breath or word, whose former
manifestations had appeared in Abraham,
Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed. He taught
that all these divine messengers are alike, are
indeed really only different manifestations of
the same divine essence, in so far as they all
have God as their common and direct origin,
and are bound closer with Him and return
more quickly to Him than other men. All
that distinguishes them from one another is the
form of the divine manifestation, conditioned
in each case by the time of its appearance ;
just as Jesus was a reproduction of Moses in

Conception of Christ 47

accordance with the demands of a new era, so
the Bab is a reproduction of Mohammed. But
although he is for the time the highest mani-
festation of the divine spirit, yet he is not the
last manifestation ; he has successors as well as
predecessors. In this assured conviction the
Bab met a martyr's death with a calm and
joyful spirit, and prophesied that the spirit
of God which dwelt in him would immedi-
ately after his death pass to one of his
disciples " he whom God will show will
continue the work of Bab, and will free the
world from the unrighteousness which now
rules in it." As a matter of fact, the sect
continued to exist under new leaders after
the execution of the Bab at Tebriz in
1850, and has still in these days many
adherents. One of its later leaders, Beha,
who died at Acre in 1892, was regarded by
his adherents as an incarnation of the Deity,
and was even called "god" and "king or
creator of gods." 1 Another party raised a

1 Brown, The New History of the Bab, 1893, p. 359.

48 Christ the Son of God

protest against such immoderate and irrational
claims, thus affording an opportunity for the
discussion of the old question What is the
relation of the Divine essence to its human
form of manifestation ?

II

CHRIST AS THE CONQUEROR OF
SATAN

IT was from the beginning the conviction of
the Christian community that Christ was
manifested that He might destroy the works
of the devil. This faith came to expression
in many different forms:

1. Before His entrance upon His mission
Christ had victoriously withstood the tempta-
tions of Satan. According to the narratives
of the Evangelists St Matthew (chap. iv. 1-11)
and St Luke (chap. iv. 1-13), this moral
conflict between Christ and the devil com-
prised three assaults, in each of which Christ
by the mighty weapon of the Word of God
came off victorious ; at last, we are told, the
devil left Him (according to St Luke at

49 4

50 The Early Christian

least for a season), and the angels came and
ministered to Him (St Matt, iv, 11 ; St Luke
iv. 13 ; St Mark i. 13).

2. Christ proved His superiority to and His
conquest of the devil by driving out devils
from the possessed and the diseased (St Mark
iii 22 f. ; St Matt. xii. 24-29).

3. The time will come when Christ, at His
Second Coming to judge the world, will for
ever make an end of the power of Satan.
This final victory over the spirit of evil is in
the Revelation of St John divided into two acts :
The King of Kings descends from Heaven
with His host of angels ; by the sword which
proceeds from His mouth He subdues the
hostile, godless world-powers that are arrayed
against Him; then the devil is bound and
cast into the abyss of Hell, where he abides
in prison under lock and seal for a thousand
years. Until the end of these thousand years
Christ and the martyrs who have risen again
will reign ; then the devil will be loosed from
his prison, and will come forth to deceive

Conception of Christ 51

the nations of the earth, more especially Gog
and Magog, and will gather them together
to war against the saints ; but his hosts will
be destroyed by fire from Heaven, and Satan
himself will be cast into the lake of fire and
brimstone to be tormented for ever and ever
(Rev. xix. 11-xx. 10).

Parallels to the Gospel story of the Tempta-
tion are found in Buddhist and Iranian legends.
The Buddhist story is told in different versions.
The following is a summary of the discursive
narrative found in Lalita Fistara, chap. xxi. :
After Prince Siddhartha had left the palace
of his father and had lived as a monk for five
years, he betook himself to the tree of know-
ledge, that in deepest meditation he might
attain to perfect wisdom and Buddhahood. As
now Mara, the lord of carnal pleasure and all
evil, knew that his reign would be brought to
an end by Buddha, he summoned all his hosts
of evil spirits to war against his dangerous
enemy. They cast at him, as he sat under
the tree of knowledge, mountains and flames

52 The Early Christian

of fire and weapons of every kind, but all their
missiles turned into flowers falling at his feet,
or hanging in garlands on the tree above him.
Then the hostile demon, full of rage and spite,
spake to the Buddha: Arise, king's son, and
enjoy the kingdom, for by what merit hast thou
attained salvation (i.e. Buddhahood) ? Buddha
appealed to the countless sacrifices which he
had presented for the good of all creation in his
former states of existence ; he called upon the
earth to bear him witness. Amid earthquake
and terrific crashing the goddess of the earth
appeared and spake to him : It is indeed, O
Great Man, just as thou hast said ; but thou
thyself art become the highest thing in the
universe, though it includes even the gods.
Thereupon all the demons fled like jackals
before the roar of the lion. Now the fiend
called upon his daughters the Apsaras, and
commanded them to tempt the Buddha by
displaying all their charms before him. But
he abode insensible to all their allurements,
and taught them concerning the vanity and

Conception of Christ 53

peril of deceitful pleasure with such earnest-
ness that they withdrew in shame and
acknowledged the impregnability of his virtue
and the sublimity of his perfect wisdom.
Then drew near the good spirits of the tree of
knowledge and praised the victory of Buddha
over the fiend. Yet once again Mara returns
to the assault with the demand that Buddha
should yield to him, the lord of the air and
the visible world, since the goal of his endeavour
was too difficult to reach. Buddha however
answered : Art thou the lord of the air and the
visible world, so am I the lord of the law, and
I will attain to knowledge in spite of thee.
Thus the saint withstood the temptations of
the evil one ; thus in the face of all his terrors,
as well as of his allurements, he steadfastly
upheld his conviction of his high destiny
and his purpose to fulfil it by the way of
self-renunciation and knowledge; and thus
immediately afterwards, under the tree of
knowledge, he reached perfect enlightenment ;
he became "Buddha."

54 The Early Christian

The Persian legend also tells of a temptation
of the prophet Zarathustra by the evil spirit
Ahriman, who suggested to him the thought :
" Renounce the good law of the worshippers of
Mazda, and thou shalt win the power which
Zohak, the ruler of the nations, possessed."
But Zarathustra answered : " No, I will never
renounce the good law of the worshippers of
Mazda, though even my body, my life, and my
soul burst asunder; the word which Mazda
teaches is my weapon, my best weapon!" Nor
could the evil one withstand it. But as the final
conqueror of the Satanic empire of Ahriman,
the Iranian religion awaits a future deliverer
Soshyans, in whom one may almost recognise
a miraculous reappearance of Zarathustra him-
self, in that he is to be born of a virgin who
has conceived from the seed of Zarathustra
preserved in a well in which she bathes. 1
According to the expectation of the Iranian

1 Cf. Hubschmann, te Parsische Lehre vom Jenseits und
jungsten Gericht" in Jahrbucher fur prot. TheoL, 1879,
p. 234 ; and Bocklin, Die V&nvandtschaft derjudischckristlicken
mit der parsischen Eschatologie^ pp. 91 $

Conception of Christ 55

religion, the appearance of this "Victorious
Saviour" Soshyans will bring about the renewal
of the world and the resurrection. This con-
summation will be preceded by an insurrection
and conflict in the world of spirits. The
hostile dragon Dahak, which the hero Feridan
once conquered and bound in the mountain
Demavend, will break loose from his fetters
to bring evil upon the earth; but the hero
Keresaspa will wake from his long slumber
and will slay him. Then Soshyans will bring
about the resurrection of all men, and will
assign them their reward according to then-
works. The godless will be punished in Hell
for three days and three nights ; then all evil
will be destroyed in a universal conflagration ;
Ahura and his archangels will overthrow their
enemies, Ahriman and his evil spirits, in a
final battle, and these will be utterly consumed
in the metal melted by the great conflagration ;
while for the men who are purified Soshyans will
prepare the cup of immortality. This is the
description of the Last Things given in chap.

56 The Early Christian

xxx. of the Bundehesh, a theological treatise of
the time of the Sassanids. 1 But in an ancient
story of the Avesta, 2 Soshyans is already ex-
tolled as the conqueror of the evil spirits and as
the renewer of the universe : " Kingly glory will
cleave to Soshyans and his other friends, when
the world is transfigured, when it is delivered
from old age, from death, from decay and
corruption, so that it prospers and flourishes
continually, when all the dead rise again,
when all life becomes immortal, when the
world is restored at its wish, when pure good
takes up its endless abode here upon earth,
when also the lying spirit shall perish."

In chap. xii. of the Revelation of St John,
the Christian editor has handed down to us
a Jewish legend of a similar type. It tells of
the persecution of the infant Messiah by the
devil, who is afterwards defeated by the Arch-
angel Michael. This is a legend which is not
simply parallel to, but has its direct origin

1 Sacred Books of the East, V. ISO/.

2 Ibid., XXIII. 306.

Conception of Christ 57

in a heathen myth concerning the conflict
between the gods of light and darkness.
According to the tale of Greek mythology, 1
Leto, before she bore Apollo to Zeus, was
persecuted by the earth-dragon Python, who
sought to destroy the expected child, for an
oracle had threatened that the child if he lived
would bring mischief to Python. But the
wind-god Boreas caught up the persecuted
goddess and brought her to Poseidon, who
prepared for her a place of refuge on the
island of Ortygia, where the waves of the sea
hid her from the sight of the persecutor.
Here Leto gave birth to Apollo, who, even
on the fourth day after his birth, was so strong
that he slew the dragon Python on Mount
Parnassus. The wide diffusion of this myth
in Asia Minor is proved by coins bearing the
figure of Leto as a fugitive. In the syn-
cretistic circles of Jewish Hellenism it was

1 In Hyginus Fabulce (ed. Schmidt, p. 17). Dieterich,
Abraxas, pp. 177 j]. 3 was the first to bring to notice this
mythical background of Rev. xii.

58 The Early Christian

expounded as referring to the coining Messiah,
and in consequence naturally suffered some
transformation. The main outlines, of course,
remained the same : The persecution of the
heavenly child (Messiah) and his mother (the
ideal Israel) by the dragon (the devil), and
her escape upon the wings of the wind (an
eagle in the Jewish version) to a hidden
place in the desert (instead of the island
of the Greek story), and the part played
by the water-flood, though it is different in
each case ; but in the Jewish form of the
myth the defeat of the evil dragon is no longer
assigned to the Messianic child who is caught
up to God, but to the warlike Archangel
Michael, who, as the guardian angel of Israel,
plays to a certain extent the part of Messiah
in the spirit- world ; and besides the result
of this conflict in Heaven is not the final
destruction of the dragon he is only cast down
from Heaven to earth, where, having great
wrath, he for a short period continues his
hostility against the children of the woman

Conception of Christ 59

until the time comes that he is overthrown
by Messiah. The simple heathen myth con-
cerning the persecution and deliverance of the
infant sun-god and his speedy victory over
the hostile dragon of darkness, became more
complicated in its Jewish version, because the
final Messianic overthrow of the devil's reign
upon earth belonged to the future, and could
not therefore be assigned to the infant Messiah.
Accordingly the conflict, in the Jewish version,
must be divided into two acts, of which the first,
the heavenly prelude whose hero is Michael,
lies in the past, while the second, Messiah's
final victory, is still reserved for the future.
This Jewish form of the heathen myth rendered
its transference to Jesus the Christ in the
Christian Apocalypse the more simple, in that
He likewise is to be fully revealed as the con-
queror of Satan only at his Second Coming,
while in the meantime He is caught away to
the throne of God (by his ascension), safe
from the assaults of his enemies.
This myth, the root of the apocalyptic

60 The Early Christian

vision of Rev. xii, sends forth another shoot
in the legend concerning the persecution
and escape of the infant Christ in the second
chapter of St Matthew's Gospel. Here
the dragon of the myth, which became
the devil in Revelation, now becomes Herod,
the malignant king of the Jews, who plots
against the life of the infant Messiah and
commands the massacre of the innocents at
Bethlehem. Here also the mother escapes
with the child, not however into the wilderness,
but into Egypt, because the young Messiah
must be called forth from the same land
whence Israel once was led, that the word of
the prophet (Hosea xi. 1) might be fulfilled.
This legend has moreover many prototypes in
tales concerning the heroes of old in the ex-
posure of the infant Moses and his rescue by
the daughter of Pharaoh (Exodus ii.) ; in the
similar tale concerning Sargon, the son of
the Assyrian king, who was persecuted by his
uncle and exposed in an ark of reeds on the
river Euphrates, and was rescued and reared by

Conception of Christ 61

a water-carrier; 1 in the Indian myth con-
cerning the god-man Krishna (the incarnation
of the god Vishnu) and the malicious designs
against him of his uncle King Kansa, who
ordered all the children of the same age in
his land to be slain, but Krishna escaped to
certain poor shepherds who reared him. 2
Similarly Cyrus the young king of the
Persians ought to have been slain by the order
of his grandfather Astyages, but the shepherd
entrusted to do the deed spared the child and
brought him up as his own son. 3 Likewise
we are told that before the birth of Augustus,
because an oracle foretold the birth of a
king of Rome, the Senate decreed that
all males born that year should be slain, a
decree which was disobeyed by the parents
of Augustus. 4 But although all these legends
have their ultimate source in nature-myths of
the character of the Leto- Apollo myth, the

1 Smith, Early History of Babylon, p. 46.

2 Wheeler, History of India, I. 462 /

3 Herodotus,!. 108j^

4 Suetonius, Octavianus, 94.

62 The Conqueror of Satan

common motive of them all is easily recognised.
They all place in clear light the abounding
worth of the life of the great hero, by showing
that from the very first his existence was the
object of conflict between the powers of light
and darkness. The life of the infant must
declare as in a prelude what is to be the
life-work of the hero ; in it also must be seen
the victory of the divine principle of life and
light over the hostile powers of the world.

Ill

CHRIST AS A WONDER-WORKER

ALTHOUGH Jesus himself had repelled the
suggestion that He should work striking
miracles, and had sharply rebuked the desire
for these as a sign of a perverted mind (St
Mark viii. 11 f. ; St Matt. xvi. 1-4), it was not
possible but that the imagination of the faith-
ful should deck the form of Christ with a rich
garland of miracle. This was indeed the in-
evitable consequence of their belief in His
Messianic office and His divine sonship ; for the
Messiah of Jewish expectation must repeat and
surpass the wonders wrought by the men of
God in the Old Testament, and it seemed only
natural that the supernatural spirit, with which
the Son of God was filled or to which He

64 The Early Christian

owed His earthly existence, should declare
itself in supernatural power even during the
earthly life of Christ. The miracles of the
Gospel history may be divided into two
classes : miracles of knowledge and miracles
of power.

1. Miracles of knowledge :

(a) Wonderful insight into the heart of

man. (St John ii. 25.)

(b) Foreknowledge of the future.

(Prophecy of the Passion, the
Resurrection, and the Second
Coming.)

(c) Miraculous knowledge of events,

both past and present, happening
at a distance. (St John i. 48, iv.
17, xi. 14.)

2. Miracles of power :

(a) Driving devils from the possessed.

(b) Cures of other diseases.

(c) Raising the dead.

(d) Miraculous power over matter and

the forces of nature. (Multiply-

Conception of Christ 65

ing of the loaves, changing of
water into wine, stilling of the
storm.)

(e) Freedom from the limitations of
space and of material existence.
(Sudden disappearances and appear-
ances, passage through closed
doors, walking on the water,
Ascension into Heaven. St John
vi. 19 ffi ; St Luke xxiv. 31, 36,
51 ; St John xx. 19, 26.)
All these miracles find countless parallels in
the legends of pagan heroes and Christian
saints. Let us here select only a few in-
stances.

In Buddhist legend miracles of knowledge
play a prominent part. Buddha knows not
only his own previous births and lives with all
their details, but also possesses similar know-
ledge respecting others who come into con-
nection with him, he knows their merits and
demerits in their previous states of exist-
ence, and often explains conversion to his

5

66 The Early Christian

discipleship as being due to the influence of
merit gained in a previous life (this is the
form that the idea of predestination takes in
Indian thought). He also sees into the
thoughts of all creatures from the lowest to
the highest: "All that passes through your
soul is open before me. Others ye may deceive,
but me ye cannot deceive." 1 When however
at the beginning of his ministry, his opponents,
incited by the devil Mara, demanded of him
that he should prove his superiority to the
saints hitherto revered by miracles wrought
before the king and the people, he answered :
" I do not teach my disciples that they should
go and work miracles by means of super-
natural power before the Brahmins, but this
I teach them: Thus live, ye pious, that ye
hide your good works and show your sins." 2
Nevertheless, in the same context, the legend
proceeds to narrate how Buddha shamed and
overcame his obstinate opponents by a succes-

1 R. S. Hardy, Manual of Buddhism, p. 190.

2 Burnouf, Introduction a I'histoire du Buddhisme, pp. 151 ff.

Conception of Christ 67

sion of the most astounding miracles. When
the king, deceived by a false accusation, had
ordered the hands and feet of his innocent
brother to be cut off, Buddha heard from afar
the prayer of the sufferer, and at once sent his
favourite disciple to heal him by the repetition
of the sacred formularies of the Buddhist law.
Scarcely were the words spoken before the
body of the prince was made whole, while he
who was thus healed by Buddha's power at once
showed that he also possessed supernatural
powers, and entered into the discipleship of the
Master. We are further told how a fire broke
out in a house in which Buddha lodged, but
went out of itself without doing any damage ;
how Buddha by stamping on the ground
caused a fearful earthquake which shook all
quarters of the earth ; how the spirits of the
air rained flowers upon him and played for
him heavenly music ; how Buddha, when sunk
in deep meditation, elevated himself in the air,
and how as he soared in the region of light the
most wonderful flames of all colours streamed

68 The Early Christian

from, his body such scenes of transfiguration
occur again and again in the Buddhist
legends.

In the West the first centuries of the Roman
Empire were a period of the most extensive
and absolute belief in soothsaying and
miracle. The old tales of Heracles, Orpheus,
.^Dneas, Romulus, Asclepius, and Pythagoras
were related by poets and historians as tra-
ditional and therefore trustworthy histories,
and were further developed to suit the taste of
the readers. The historian Diodorus Siculus l
says of Hercules that this hero, as was
universally recorded, had spent his life in
enduring great trials and dangers, that by his
good deeds to mankind he might gain a share
in immortality, and the author gives a detailed
narrative of all the wondrous actions of
Hercules until his final ascension to Olympus
from the funeral pyre. Pausanias relates of
Asclepius 2 that he, the son of Apollo and

1 Hzst., i. 2, iv. 8-39.

2 Periegesis, ii. 26 /.

Conception of Christ 69

Coronis, was exposed as an infant by his grand-
father, and was discovered by a shepherd who
perceived from the brightness streaming from
the child's face that there was something
divine about him; whereupon the report spread
that this divine boy could heal the sick and
raise the dead. Again he relates that during a
pestilence Asclepius came to Rome in the form
of a serpent, and had continued his miracles
of healing there for a hundred years. Legend
also ascribes to him ten cases of raising the
dead; but because he called Glaucus, the
son of Minos, back to life, Jupiter smote
the great physician with a thunderbolt and
translated him to the gods. As the heavenly
god of healing he still carried on his work at
his sanctuaries, among which those at Epidaurus
and Rome were the most celebrated as the
resort of pilgrims. In the first centuries of
the empire he was accounted the kindest,
most humane of the gods ; from him help was
sought in all distress of body and soul; his
temples were crowded with the votive offerings

yo The Early Christian

and inscriptions of those who believed that they
had received help from him. We are even
told that he, like Serapis the Egyptian god
of healing, appeared in bodily form to many
sick folk.

The popular belief in miracle and super-
natural revelation found zealous championship
also among the philosophers of the Platonic
and Stoic, Neopythagorean and Neoplatonic
schools. They brought it into combination
with their own doctrine concerning divine
providence and mediating natures (daemons) ;
they understood how to employ its authority
as a fulcrum by which to promote their own
teaching. In these circles the old tales of
Pythagoras, the founder of the famous politico-
religious brotherhood, were cherished with
especial affection, and were developed so as to
present the ideal portrait of a prophet and
wonder-worker in whom were mingled the
human and the divine. According to the
biography of Jamblichus he was not simply a
son of Apollo but the bodily incarnation of that

Conception of Christ 71

god. Besides his wonderful prophetic insight
(for a knowledge of his previous states of
existence, reminding us of Buddha, is ascribed
to him) we are told of a number of most
astonishing miracles which he performed : that
he healed sick people, put an end to a pestilence
by means of magic, stilled the waves of the sea
and of rivers so that his disciples could safely
pass over them, while the spirit of the floods
greeted him by name in a voice clear and
audible to all ; also that on one and the same
day he was present with his disciples in two
places separated by land and sea (Metapontum
in Italy and Tauromenium in Sicily) the
same freedom from the limitations of space
which often occurs in the legends of Buddha.
But the Neopythagorean school was not
satisfied with glorifying their ideal of the
divinely human sage and wonder-worker in
the person of their ancient founder ; they must
see it take new form in the Pythagorean
Apollonius of Tyana (who died about 96 A.D.),
whose biography was written by the rheto-

72 The Early Christian

rician Philostratus at the command of the
Empress Julia Domna (about 220 A.D.). 1 The
author is able to relate a multitude of
miracles of knowledge and of power wrought
by his hero. He is said to have prophesied
divers events of the future, such as the
rebellion of Vindex against Nero, the short
reigns of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, the
death of Titus, a shipwreck, and so forth.
While in Ephesus he saw the assassination
of Domitian at Rome. As he was conversing
with friends he became suddenly silent, and
looking forth with a fixed stare he cried out :
" Strike him down, the tyrant ! " Then he
declared to his astonished friends : " Domitian
has just been slain." Soon afterwards the
news arrived that the assassination had taken
place at that very hour. Apollonius also
understood all the languages of mankind and
of animals, and knew even the secret thoughts

1 Cf. Baur's treatise, "Apollonius und Christus/' m
Abhandlungen sur Geschichte der alien Philosophic, ed, Zeller^
1876.

Conception of Christ 73

of men. He delivered the city of Ephesus
from a demon of pestilence, which he recognised
under the form of a poor beggar, whom he
ordered to be stoned, whereupon a large dog
was found under the stones. In Corinth he
unmasked a man-eating vampire in the bride
of one of his disciples. While he was
lecturing in Athens, his discourse was inter-
rupted by the insolent laughter of a young
man. Apollonius perceived that the youth
was possessed, and he ordered the demon to
depart and to give a visible sign of his
departure. Whereupon the demon said that
he would overturn the statue standing in the
hall. The statue began at once to move and
fell down, while the youth from that moment
was healed and remained in his right mind.
In Rome he met the funeral procession of a
young maiden mourned by her bridegroom; he
approached and bade the bearers stand still, as
he wished to dry the tears of the mourners.
All thought that he intended to speak some
words of consolation, but he took hold of

74 The Early Christian

the maiden and whispered over her some
mysterious words; she then arose, began to
speak, and returned to the house of her parents.
The father wished to give a considerable sum
of money as a sign of his gratitude for the
renewed life of his child. Apollonius however
would not receive it, but assigned it as a dower
for the bride. The biographer adds that he
leaves the question undetermined whether
this was a case of real resurrection from the
dead or whether the maiden only appeared to
be dead (the same dilemma which remains
open in the case of the New Testament stories
of the raising of the daughter of Jairus and
of the young man at Nain St Mark v. 41 f.
and St Luke vii. 12 ff.\ All these and
similar miracles of Apollonius were in their
aim altruistic and beneficent ; they ministered
to the deliverance of the sufferers from evil
of all kinds ; yet some are narrated which had
reference to the person of Apollonius himself
among others the following: When at the
command of Domitian he was cast, bound in

Conception of Christ 75

fetters, into prison, a friend asked him when
he would again be free. He answered: "I
give thee here a proof of my freedom," and
shook off his fetters and again of his own free
will replaced them. From this the disciple
perceived his supernatural power. This
miracle with its transparent symbolism the
superiority of the saint to all the power of a
hostile world reminds one of the miraculous
release of the Apostles St Peter and St Paul
from prison (Acts xii. 7, xvi. 26), and of the
overthrow of the Roman cohort in Gethse-
mane at the word of Jesus (St John xviii. 6).

The tales of miracles wrought by Christian
saints stand in line with these Pythagorean
legends. The apocryphal Acts of the Apostles
are full of the strangest miracles which they
are reported to have performed before the
heathen in proof of the truth of their preach-
ing. For instance, according to the Acts of
Peter, 1 that Apostle, when in Rome, drove out
of a young man a devil, which at its exit

1 Lipsius, Apocrypha Apostelgesckickten, II. 1.

76 The Early Christian

overthrew and broke into pieces a statue of
the emperor, but St Peter restored it again
by the magic spell of holy water. Further,
he brought a salted herring to life again, and
restored sight to several blind widows; he
caused a sucking infant to proclaim with the
voice of a man the judgment that was coming
upon Simon Magus, and by means of a dog
with a human voice he challenged him to a
contest in miracle. The magician volunteered
to raise a dead man to life, and made his
experiment upon a young man whom he had
slain by means of magic ; but he was only
partly successful, since the man immediately
died again. St Peter however, before the
eyes of the Roman people and the Prefect of
the city, raised three dead persons to new and
healthy life, and besides healed many who
were sick. And when Simon Magus wished
to trump all these miracles by causing himself
to ascend bodily into Heaven, his attempt
was brought to nought by the prayer of the
Apostle; as he soared aloft he fell to the

Conception of Christ 77

ground and was killed. Again, when Peter,
at the instigation of his friends, was about to
avoid martyrdom by flight, Christ met him near
the city gate. Peter asked him, "Whither
goest Thou ? " He answered, " To Rome, to
be crucified a second time." Peter at once
returned, was condemned to be crucified, and
in his humility begged that he might be
fastened to the cross head downwards. As
he thus hung crucified he comforted his
mourning friends with a discourse concern-
ing the mysteries of the cross, while angels
surrounded him bearing garlands of roses and
lilies. After his death he appeared oftentimes
to his friends, exhorting them to constancy,
and in a vision even to the Emperor Nero,
to whom he gave a sound thrashing and a
warning from henceforth to leave the Chris-
tians in peace. These reappearances of the
martyrs for the comfort and encouragement
of the sorrowing community form a very
frequent, one might say constant, trait in the
legends of the saints, and have no doubt a

78 The Early Christian

basis of fact in real psychical experiences
visions and hallucinations.

Let us select from the abundant miraculous
store of ecclesiastical legend two more instances
one from the time of the ancient Church, the
other from the Middle Ages. St Augustine,
in the last book of his work De Civitate Dei
(XXII. chap, viii.), propounds the question
why is it that miracles such as those narrated
in the Gospels no longer occur in these days ?
He answers because now they are no longer
so necessary as they were then, when they
were intended to incite the world to faith;
now, he who still requires a miracle in order
to believe is himself a miracle, since he refuses
to believe in spite of the acceptance of Christi-
anity by the whole world. But, he proceeds,
miracles are even now wrought in the name
of Christ, whether through the sacraments or
through the prayers or memorise of His saints;
only the miracles of to-day are not so well
known as those of the past. And then he
recounts a succession of stories of miracles

Conception of Christ 79

that had happened in his own time and partly
in his own immediate neighbourhood. In
Milan the bones of the martyrs Protasius and
Gervasius were discovered through a revelation
given to the Bishop Ambrose in a dream, and
at the festival that celebrated the discovery
a blind man received his sight in presence
of the whole congregation. In Carthage he
himself was eye-witness of a miracle per-
formed upon his host Innocentius, who was
suffering from a dangerous tumour for which
he was about to undergo a surgical operation ;
but he was suddenly cured in answer to the
fervent prayers of himself and his friends.
In the same city a woman suffering from
cancer of the breast was cured by a newly
baptised infant, who signed the diseased place
with the cross, the sign of Christ. A
physician suffering from gout was relieved of
his disease by baptism. Some sacred earth,
which had been brought to Carthage from the
sepulchre of Christ at Jerusalem, freed from
ghosts a haunted house in that city, and

8o The Early Christian

brought about the cure of a lame young man.
In Hippo a maiden was delivered from a
devil by being anointed with oil which a
priest, who was praying for her, had sanctified
with his tears. In the same town the prayer
of a poor cobbler to the Twenty Martyrs,
to whom Hippo paid special devotion, was
miraculously answered. He found on the
shore a large fish, and in its belly a gold ring ;
in this way the martyrs fulfilled his petition
for means to obtain clothing. At the festival
of the glorious martyr Stephen a blind woman
was healed by flowers which had been blessed
by the bishop. Flowers from the altar were laid
at the head of the bed of an eminent heathen
while he slept, and during the night he was
moved to accept the baptism which he had
hitherto constantly rej ected with scorn. A boy
who had been fatally injured by being run over
by an ox-wagon was brought to the shrine
of the martyr, and was at once restored to
perfect soundness of body. Lastly, the same
martyr raised several dead persons to life by

Conception of Christ 81

means of a garment sanctified by his relics,
which was spread over the dead bodies, or
when they were anointed with oil that had
been similarly consecrated, or when they were
brought to the holy place and prayer was offered

over them "Accordingly," concludes

St Augustine, "even in these days many
miracles occur which are wrought by the
same God who wrought those of which we
read in the Holy Scriptures, through whom
He wills and as He wills, only they are not
so well known/'

We turn now to the legends concerning St
Francis of Assisi, the founder of the Order of
Minorites or Franciscans, who died in the year
1226 A.D. Bonaventura, the general of the
Order, compiled an edition of the legends con-
cerning the saint, which was published as his
official biography in the year 1260 A.D. In
this book the author records a number of
miracles upon the evidence of the friends and
first disciples of the saint, who were, we may

suppose, eye-witnesses of the events. Francis

6

82 The Early Christian

kissed the sores of a leper and immediately
his leprosy vanished. In the wilderness he
and his companions were fed with bread from
heaven ; during a long voyage he nourished a
whole ship's crew from the contents of his
wallet, which was ever miraculously replenished.
Like Moses he brought water out of a rock,
and like Jesus he changed water into wine of
the best quality. Once when the brethren
were met together, the saint, who was absent
in the body, was seen hovering in the air and
blessing the assembly with outstretched hands.
St Francis was on terms of intimacy with the
animals. He preached to the birds, and they
listened to him attentively with outstretched
necks. Once while he was preaching some
swallows disturbed him with their noisy
chattering ; he bade them be silent, and at once
they were quiet. He exhorted a wolf to give
up slaughter ; the beast, placing his paw in the
saint's hand, vowed that he would reform, and
from that moment he became a tame, domesti-
cated animal. But most renowned of all is

Conception of Christ 83

the miracle of the stigmata. During the last
period of his life the saint is reported to have
borne in his hands, his feet, and his side the
five wounds of Jesus in the form of scars
which bled from time to time. The oldest
records give differing accounts of the details
of the origin and the nature of these stigmata;
and as time went on the legend of this miracle
developed until it related forty similarities
between the life of St Francis and that of
Jesus. Lastly, we are told of countless
miracles of healing, of raising from the dead,
of deliverance of shipwrecked sailors and others,
all wrought by the power of the saint after
his death. " So great was the veneration paid
to his memory that it was commonly said of
him : Exaudit quos non ipse audit Deus
he is thus more merciful than God Himself.
This sounds blasphemous, but it is only the
definite expression of the thought which lies
behind the whole cult of saints." 1

1 Hase, Kirchengeschzchte, II. 387.

IV

CHRIST AS THE CONQUEROR OF
DEATH AND THE LIFE-GIVER

CHEIST is to the community of the faithful
the Saviour because He has conquered death
and Hell,, has taken away the sting of death,
and has brought life and immortality to light
(1 Cor. xv. 55 f. ; 2 Tim. i. 10). In order to
understand this belief in its proper and original
significance, we must note that death for the
ancient world was not a natural occurrence,
but the result of the influence of supernatural
causes. It was regarded either as the judicial
penalty inflicted by an offended Deity and
that indeed upon the whole race of mankind
since Adam's fall (Rom. v. 12 ff.) or as the
work of daemonic powers that infected man

Christ the Life-Giver 85

with the fatal poison of disease and sin, and
thereby brought him under the power of Death,
who as ruler of the underworld held souls in
close bondage in his prison. Accordingly, the
deliverance from Death was brought about
partly by means of the propitiatory offering of
the vicarious death of the Son of God, who thus
reconciled sinful man with God, redeemed him
from the condemnation and curse of the law,
and brought him within the sphere of the
Divine Grace (Rom. iii 24 f. ; 2 Cor. v, 19
ff. ; Gal. i. 4, iii. 13) ; partly by means of the
cleansing power of His sacred blood, which
delivered mankind from the daemonic pollution
of sin and death (Heb. ix. 11 ff., x. 14, 22,
29) ; partly because by His own death and
resurrection He had deprived the lord of death,
the devil, and the Satanic angels of their
power over mankind (Heb. ii. 14; CoL ii.
15, i. 13 f. ; 1 John iii. 8). According to
the first and second views, the Resurrection of
Christ is the divine acknowledgment of the
propitiatory and purifying efficacy of His

86 The Early Christian

death ; according to the third view, the Resur-
rection and Ascension of Christ 1 are together a
practical proof of His victory over Death and
Hades, whereby Christ has become for us the
Prince of Life, its possessor, its surety, its
mediator (Acts iii. 15 ; Rev. i, 18 ; St John xi.
25, iii. 18 ft ; 1 Pet iii. 18ft ; Eph. iv. 8ft).

The means whereby the ascended Christ
imparts His life to His people are (1) faith
in His name, which includes its open confession
and invocation (Rom. x. 9 ft ; St John iii. 15
ft, xx. 31, xvi. 28/.); (2) baptism into His
name (Acts ii, 38) as a washing of regeneration
(Tit. iii. 5 ; St John iii. 5), a mystical purifica-
tion (1 Cor. vi. 11 ; Eph. v. 26), a participation
in Christ's death and resurrection (Rom. vi. 1
ft); (8) the eating and drinking of the Lord's
Supper (1 Cor. x. 16 ft, xi. 23 ff.\ St John
vi. Sift ; Rev. iii. 20, xix. 9).

In the history of religion many parallels are

1 The Ascension as the converse of the Descent into
Hades was originally one with the Resurrection; both
taken together express the exaltation of Christ into Heaven
from the realms of death.

Conception of Christ 87

found to all these traits of the New Testament
conception of Christ as the Saviour of the
world. The belief that the innocent sufferings
of the good form a vicarious sacrifice for the
benefit of sinners is found for the first time
in the exilic prophet Deutero-Isaiah (Is. liii.),
and from the time of the Maccabees onwards
it occupies a prominent position in the theology
of the Pharisees. The Hellenistic writing
known as the fourth book of the Maccabees
puts into the mouth of the dying heroes of the
Maccabean times the following prayer (vi. 29) :
"Make my blood a sacrifice of purification,
and accept my soul in the place of theirs (the
nation's)!" And in xvii. 22 we read: " By the
blood of those saints and by the sin-offering of
their death the Divine Providence has delivered
Israel." This conception of vicarious sacrifice
also dominated the popular notions concerning
animal sacrifices among the Jews as well as
among heathen peoples. On the one hand,
they were regarded as a substitute for and a
dramatic representation of an execution, and

88 The Early Christian

in so far as they implied a vicarious satisfaction
of the Divine Justice they ministered to the
re-establishment of the broken bond of relation-
ship between the community and the Divinity ;
on the other hand, as the most effective means
of purification (for the body and blood of
the sacred victim possessed powers peculiarly
sacred) they served to remove the impurity
which hinders communion with the Divinity. 1
Also among the Greeks propitiatory rites for
the appeasement of the anger of offended gods
and spirits are often found in conjunction with
rites of purification which aim at the removal
of daemonic pollution; both purposes are served
by the vicarious sacrifice of animals, and in
special instances even of human beings, whose
slaughter availed for the purification of the
state. 2 In Athens, at the spring festival in the
month Thargelion, two condemned criminals
were every year led in solemn procession

1 Robertson Smith, The Religion of the Semites, 2nd ed.,
pp. 319 ff.

2 Rohde, Psyche, pp. 247 /., 366 f. ; Frazer, The Golden
Bough, III. 125 /., II. 39 ff.

Conception of Christ 89

through the city and afterwards stoned or
burnt; in Abdera the same sacrifice was
offered yearly, and in Marseilles on the
occasion of any special public calamity. In
the Ionian cities of Asia Minor an animal
was generally substituted for a man, or the
slaughter was only performed symbolically
and replaced by blows with sacred twigs.
This substitution of an animal for a man in
the sin-offering is still plainly discernible in the
legends of the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham,
and of Iphigenia by Agamemnon. But this
custom of substitution did not everywhere
prevail among the heathen Semites* Even
in the period of the Israelitish kingdom the
Canaanites, as is well known, still sacrificed
their first-born to Moloch in the fire ; and the
prophets up to the time of Jeremiah were
obliged to wage a constant war with the
tendency to similar heathen abominations
even among the Israelites a proof how
deeply the conception of the necessity of
human propitiatory sacrifices was rooted in

90 The Early Christian

Semitic religion. And indeed the greater the
worth and the rank of the life which was
sacrificed, the more effectual was thought to
be the offering. According to ancient custom,
says Philo of Byblus, 1 in times of great danger
the ruler of a city or a nation must deliver his
beloved son to death on behalf of the whole
nation as a vicarious sacrifice to the offended
daemons, and the children thus sacrificed were
slain with mystic ceremonies. An example of
such a sacrifice of a king's son is given in
the story concerning the king of Moab in
2 Kings iii. 27. It is related of the Cartha-
ginians that they believed that their defeat
and siege by Agathocles (308 B.C.) were
brought about by the wrath of Baal, because
they had for a long time sacrificed to him
children of slaves instead of children of noble
family. They accordingly determined to pro-
pitiate their god by casting a hundred children
of their noblest families into the fiery cavern
of his brazen image, and this number was

1 Cf. Eusebius, Prcepar. Evang., iv. 16 (156d).

Conception of Christ 91

increased by three hundred more who volun-
tarily offered themselves for sacrifice. 1 Even
at the time of Tertullian 2 this horrible custom
was secretly practised by the Carthaginians in
spite of all the efforts of the Roman authorities
to suppress it. The idea that the sacrifice
of royal children had peculiar efficacy is con-
nected with that ancient Eastern belief that the
Divinity was incarnate in kings ; it was thus
a life divine, or at least allied to the Divine,
which was in such cases offered to the Divinity.
This brings us to the idea of the dying and
reviving god which lies at the root of the
mysteries.

In its original form this idea belongs to
the most ancient elements of the religious
legends and customs which arose from man's
yearly experience of the withering of vegetation
in autumn and its revival in spring. The child-
like fancy of primitive man has everywhere
regarded these natural phenomena as events in

1 Diodorus, xx. 14.

2 Apology, 6.

92 The Early Christian

the fateful history of the gods and spirits which
rule in nature. This belief has ever found
expression in corresponding religious rites of
sorrow and joy, rites which were not regarded
as empty symbols, but were supposed to exert
magical influence in preserving the divine life
in nature from the destruction which threatened
it every year and in helping forward its
victorious resurrection. Relics of this primitive
belief have been almost everywhere preserved
in popular customs in the driving forth of
winter and death at the spring festivals with
their May Queens, in the festivals of harvest
with their Corn-mothers or "Maidens" per-
sonifications of the Corn-spirit, and so forth. 1
However among the peoples of Asia Minor,
Egypt, and Greece these universal concep-
tions and customs have given rise to definite
myths of the death and return of a god whose

1 Details of these customs have been collected in
rich abundance by Frazer in T/ie Golden Bough, II.
chap, iii, 2 ff. The reader is also referred to this
book as an authority for the following remarks upon the
mysteries.

Conception of Christ 93

former history is realised and represented in
the rites of the yearly festivals. And when
in the later days of advancing civilisation
man's anxiety for the preservation of the life
of nature gave place to his need of a surety
for the preservation of the individual life after
death, then we find that those myths and
ceremonies which were originally concerned
only with the yearly death and revival of
vegetation that is, with the spirits and gods
which rule therein are now transformed into
symbols and sacraments of the mysteries by
which the pledge of the life to come is conveyed
to the initiated.

Behind the Egyptian mysteries of Isis lies
the myth of Osiris, who originally a god or
vegetation was slain by his brother Set the
demon of the withering heat of summer, and
since then rules in the underworld as king and
judge of the dead, and on earth lives again in
his son Horus who avenged his death upon his
adversary Set. This myth was celebrated by
a religious drama during the autumn festival,

94 The Early Christian

which lasted from the 17th to the 20th day
of the month Athyr (November). The first
day, the 17th the day of the death of Osiris,
was celebrated with rites of mourning, but the
third day, the 19th, was given up to joy, for on
this day, the third after the death, Osiris' body
was recovered by his sister and wife Isis. 1 Like-
wise at Byblus, in a spring festival, the death
of Adonis was first celebrated by the mourning
of women, and then on the next day his
resurrection and translation to heaven were
celebrated with shouts of joy. 2 According to
another version of the legend we learn that
Adonis, like Persephone, always spent one half
of the year in the underworld and the other
half in the upper world in renewed fellowship
with his beloved Aphrodite (Astarte). In
Phrygia, Attis, the lover of the "Great
Mother " Cybele, plays the part of Adonis in
Syria ; his festival was held at the time of the

1 Plutarch, Isis and Osiris, ed. Parthey, chaps, xiii.,
xxxix., and p. 235.

2 Lucian, De dea Syria, p. 6,

Conception of Christ 95

Spring Equinox, and lasted four days. First
the death of the god, the result of his self-
mutilation, was celebrated with songs of lamen-
tation, and was symbolically represented by
the chief priest, who scratched his arm and
offered the blood flowing from the wound as a
sacrifice, and by others who mutilated them-
selves and so followed in the footsteps of the
god. 1 Afterwards on the fourth day followed
the " Feast of Joy," in celebration of the resur-
rection of the god, when the priest anointed
the mouths of the mourners, speaking the
while the formula

Be of good cheer, ye pious ; as the god is saved,
So will salvation come to us from all our trials. 2

Essentially the same myth lies at the origin
of the mysteries of Demeter and Persephone ;
only in this case it is not a husband or lover
whose death the goddess bewails, but the
daughter whom Pluto, lord of the underworld,

1 Prudentius, Peristephanon, x. 1061-1075.

2 Finnicus Maternus, De errore prof an relig., chaps, in.,
xxii.

96 The Early Christian

has caught away from the flowery meadows l
into his realm of the shades. The myth relates
how she was sought for everywhere over land
and sea by her mother, how the sorrow of the
goddess checked all fruitful growth, how the
threatened danger of universal death by
famine moved Zeus to command her restora-
tion to her mother on the condition that she
spent one half of each year with her husband
in the underworld and the other half with her
mother in the world above. 2 The dramatic
representation of this history of the two
goddesses, especially of the mourning of
Demeter and her recovery of her daughter,
formed the subject of the Eleusinian mysteries.
These mysteries, no doubt, had as their original
aim the preservation and promotion of the
life of nature by symbolic magic; but later
under the influence of the Dionysio- Orphic
religion they attained to a loftier significance,

1 Thus Persephone, like her mother Ceres, is a personi-
fication of vegetation.

2 Firmicus Maternus, De errore profan. rehg., chap. via. ,
Hyginw Fabulce, 146; Ovid, Metamorp., v. 509-571.

Conception of Christ 97

and offered to the initiated the pledge of a
blissful life after death. Also Dionysus, like
Osiris, 1 with whom he is indeed identified by
the Greeks, belongs to those nature divinities
whose death and mutilation and following
revival to life are narrated in different versions
of the legends and are represented in the
corresponding mystic ceremonies. In these
rites the mutilation of the god was imitated in
the sacrifice of a bull, which was torn in pieces
by the teeth of the worshippers, who devoured
the bleeding flesh. Thus they partook of the
immortal life of the god, whose incarnation
the bull was accounted to be a mystic com-
munion in which the life and death of the god
were ever realised and appropriated afresh. 2

Nearly allied to these legends of the violent
death of a god are those which tell of the
voluntary descent of a god or hero into the
underworld and of his fortunate return there-

1 Plutarch, Isis and Osiris, chap xxxv. ; Firmlcus
Maternus, De errore prof an. reltg., chap. vi.

2 Clement of Alexandria, Protrept., L 12, 17 f.; cf.
Rohde, Psyche, SOI Jf. Frazer, The Golden Bough, II. 165.

7

98 The Early Christian

from. The most ancient of these is the Baby-
lonian myth of the descent of Istar 1 : In
order that she might restore her lover Tammuz
to life again, the goddess descends into the
" Land without Return/ 5 to fetch the water of
life. When she has arrived at the gate of the
underworld she imperiously demands admit-
tance of the porter, otherwise she threatens to
break down the doors of Hell and to restore to
the world above the spirits imprisoned therein.
Much against her will, the mistress of the
underworld grants Istar admittance "according
to the ancient laws," i.e. on the condition that,
at each of the seven gates she must pass, one
of her garments should be taken from her so
that she might enter into the underworld
quite naked, and that as soon as she arrived
she should be closely imprisoned and afflicted
with sixty diseases. As now the removal of
the goddess of fertility threatened to put
an end to all propagation of human and

1 Schrader, Hollenfahri der Istar, and by the same author,
Keihnschnften und das 4lte Testament, 2nd edit., 56l j^.

Conception of Christ 99

animal life, and thus to bring about the ex-
termination of the living creation (cf. the same
thought in the Demeter-myth above, pp. 95^),
Ea, the chief of the gods, created the hero
Assusunamir and sent him into the under-
world to deliver Istar. At the command of
this ambassador of the gods, the mistress of the
underworld released the imprisoned goddess,
ordered her to be sprinkled with the water of
life, and directed that her garments should be
returned to her at each of the seven gates
through which she again passed on her upward
journey. The poem then seems to conclude
with the narrative how Tammuz, the lover of
Istar, was washed in the water of life and
anointed with oil, and by this means restored
to life again ; whereupon the death-lament gives
place to the joyful tone of the pipes, accom-
panied by the loud rejoicing and merry-making
of the worshippers. We have here evidently
a description of a spring festival celebrated with
the same rites as those sacred to Osiris, Adonis,
Attis, and to Demeter and Persephone. A

ioo The Early Christian

descent-myth of the Mandasans, a Babylonian
Jewish sect, shows the closest relationship with
this Babylonian myth concerning I star. Here
the divine hero, Hibil-Ziwa, is called into
existence that he may descend into the under-
world to conquer the dragon of darkness, to
shut up in prison the princes of Hades, and to
deliver the spirits of the good and lead them
up into the world of light. 1 What Istar only
threatened to do is now really performed on
behalf of the good spirits by Hibil-Ziwa
the heroic ambassador of the gods the gates
of the underworld are broken, the dead are
delivered from their prison. Thus this
Mandaean myth forms the transition from
heathen to Gnostic Christian conceptions of
an allied character.

In the well-known hymn of the Naassene
(Ophite) Gnostics 2 a description is first given
of the manifold distress of the human soul ;
we are told how it wanders about in the laby-

1 Brandt, Die mandatscke Religion, pp. 213 fl., 191.

2 Hippolytus, Philosophumena, v 11.

Conception of Christ 101

rinth of the earthly life without finding any
outlet of escape. Therefore, the hymn pro-
ceeds, Christ, the heavenly spirit of salvation,
implored His Father : " Send me ! In
possession of the seals, let me descend, let me
wander through all the aeons and disclose
all secrets, let me make known the forms of
the gods and impart the hidden mystery of
the holy way called Gnosis." The Gnostic
scheme of salvation is therefore as follows :
The heavenly Christ-Spirit descends through
all space to deliver the souls imprisoned by
the Satanic powers of earth and of Hades, He
effects this deliverance by imparting a secret
knowledge of these powers, which gives the
soul authority over them ; just as, according to
the Wisdom of the Egyptians, the souls in the
life to come must protect themselves from
the malicious assaults of the demon powers
by their mastery of mystic names and formula?.
From the circles of syncretistic Gnosticism
this myth of the " Descent " passed also into
Catholic Christianity. It is often found in the

102 The Early Christian

apocryphal Gospels and Acts which were much
read in the first centuries ; for instance, in the
Gospel of Peter the risen Christ is asked by a
voice from Heaven : " Hast Thou preached
obedience to those that sleep ? " Whereupon
was heard the answer "Yes!" The meaning is
that Christ during the time between His death
and resurrection had descended into Hell, and
had revealed Himself to the world of spirits as
their victorious lord and master. How impor-
tant this conception was to the early Christians,
and with what joyful pride they gloried in
the superiority of Christianity to the allied
mysteries in this very point, may be seen from
the eloquent words of the ancient Christian
champion and apologist Firmicus Maternus I :
Whilst in the case of the heathen deities only
their death is known, but their resurrection
was neither prophesied beforehand nor testi-
fied by eye-witnesses, the Son of God has, on
the contrary, performed what He had before
promised "He has closed the gates of the

1 De erroreprofanarumreligionum, chaps, xxiiis. and xxiv.

Conception of Christ 103

realm of Hell and has broken the yoke of the
hard law of Death; in three days 1 has he
gathered together the flock of the righteous,
so that death shall no longer hold over them
baneful sway ; that their merit may not result
in endless hopelessness He has broken up the
eternal prison-house, its iron doors are fallen
at the bidding of Christ : see how the earth
trembled its very foundations quaked at the
presence of the Godhead of Christ ; the sun
sank in night before finishing its daily course,
and darkness veiled the round world. All the
elements were in tumult as Christ waged war

1 The "triduum" does not agree exactly with the
Gospel history, since between Good Friday afternoon
and the early morning of Easter Sunday come not 3 x 24
hours, but about 40. The expression tnduum is probably
chosen from reference to the Attis-Cybele festival, where on
the fourth day thus after three days the joyful festival
of the resurrection of the god succeeded to the mournful
celebration of his death. On the other hand, the Gospel
period agrees with that of the Osiris-Isis festival, where
the festival of joy on Athyr 19th followed upon the day of
mourning on Athyr 1 7th. Note in conclusion that the New
Testament Resurrection legend varies between "on the
third day " and " after three days," a most noteworthy
parallel.

IO4 Tfie Early Christian

against the tyranny of Death ; three long days
was the battle fought, until Death's evil forces
were overcome and routed. See how after
three days breaks a brighter day than has ever
been; with beams of heightened splendour
the sun pays homage to Christ the Almighty
God; the Godhead triumphs bringing salva-
tion ; the host of the righteous and of the saints
escorts His chariot of victory. Mortality cries
exultingly : ' O Death ! where is thy sting ? '
The advancing Saviour commands the opening
of the doors of Heaven : ' Open ye ! Open
ye ! break, ye everlasting bars ! Christ the
God hath crushed death beneath His feet and
calls mankind, His elect, to Heaven again.'
At once the heavenly watchmen recognise
the Son of God ; they see the booty won from
the conquered foe, and they remember the
ordinance of old ; they mingle their voices with
those ascending to Heaven and cry : ' Lift up
the gates, ye watchmen, that the King of Glory
may come in ! The Son has come home ; the
Father returns to Him the sceptre of the

Conception of Christ 105

kingdom, and grants Him a throne of equal
might, that He may reign and rule in the
eternal majesty of His Godhead/ "

Also in Grseco-Roman legend we find tales
of many kinds concerning descents into Hell
and ascents into Heaven. There is, first,
the old Homeric descent of Odysseus and
its development in accordance with growing
definiteness of conception concerning the life
beyond the grave. This was soon followed
by epic narratives concerning similar descents
of other heroes, 1 such as Theseus, Pirithous,
Orpheus, Heracles, ^Bneas, and Pythagoras.
Primitive legend, poetic fancy, and religious
speculation have all alike contributed their
share to the development of these tales. The
best known is the descent of the mythical
bard Orpheus, the prophet, the wondrous
physician, the sanctifying priest of legend,
from whom the Orphic sect professed to de-
rive their esoteric doctrine and secret rites
which served to deliver the soul from its
i Rohde, Psyche, pp. 278 ffl

io6 The Early Christian

corporeal prison and to raise it to immortal
life by imparting the knowledge of its higher
origin, by mystic initiation, and by ascetic
practice. In the writings ascribed to Orpheus
are found detailed descriptions of the next
world, its punishments and rewards, as they
were supposed to have been seen by the hero
on the occasion of his descent. The Greek
legends of descents into Hades are indeed
only concerned with the attainment of a
knowledge concerning the things of the next
world which might, under certain conditions,
serve to insure and secure the future life,
they do not tell of a direct conquest of the
powers of death. We can nevertheless trace
the beginning of the latter conception in the
legend concerning Heracles' victory over the
dog Cerberus the guardian of Hades.

Ascension myths are found in manifold
shapes. Some narrate a definite assumption of
a hero, either divine himself or a favourite of the
gods, into the realm of the blessed ; others tell
of a temporary ascension of a soul in a state of

Conception of Christ 107

ecstasy, in which it attains to the vision of the
stages and dangers of the way to Heaven
visions which served as patterns for escha-
tological narratives concerning the heavenly
voyage of pious souls after death. Hebrew
legend knows of only two assumptions : that
of Enoch, who "was taken up from earth"
and " translated to God " or " departed," and
that of Elijah, who ascended to Heaven in a
chariot of fire. 1 In Greek legend however
such assumptions are of very frequent occur-
rence, and take the differing form of a transla-
tion either to the Elysian fields, or to the isles
of the blessed, or to a cave, or to the top of
a mountain, or to the depths of the sea, or
lastly to the ideal mount of Olympus the
heaven of the gods. 2 According to the
original significance of these legends the whole
man, both body and soul, was directly trans-
lated into the other world of bliss, without

1 Genesis v. 24; Ecclesiasticus xliv. 16, xlix. 14;
Josephus, Anttq., I. ill. 4; 2 Kings ii. 11.

2 Further details will be found collected in Rohde's

io8 The Early Christian

passing through the gate of death ; but the
enlightened minds of later days could not rest
satisfied with the conception of a bodily ascen-
sion, as related for instance in the old legends
of Heracles and Romulus, and therefore con-
fined the ascension to the disembodied soul.
The legend of Heracles * is moreover in many
points of special and typical interest. He
is the son of Zeus and a human mother
Alcmene; throughout his life he must battle
with a hostile fate to which he was condemned
by the wrath of Hera ; he proves his divine
power in hard labours and conflicts, which for
the most part have as their aim the conquest
of hostile powers in this world and the next
(Cerberus) ; in particular he delivers Prome-
theus, the representative of humanity under
the curse of the gods, from the divine penalty,
from the chain and the vulture which daily
lacerated him; at last he voluntarily ascends
the funeral pyre, and thence he is raised im-

i Hyginus, Fabulce, pp. 29 ff. ; Diodorus Sic., Hist., iv.
8-39-

Conception of Christ 109

mediately to heaven to the side of Zeus ; he
drinks of the divine nectar, and thus becomes
partaker of immortal life. The legend could
imagine no other fitting end for a life
sprung from divine seed and approved in
conflict for the welfare of humanity. Yet
it is not only of mythical heroes of old
that this tale of an ascent into Heaven
is told; the same legendary honour is con-
ferred upon great men of history, for they
too are regarded as of divine descent.
" Since divine honours were paid to the kings
and queens of the Macedonian kingdoms
of the East beginning even with Alexander
the Great, men even dared to assert that
the divine ruler at the end of his earthly
existence is not dead, but has been caught up
by the Deity and still lives/' 1 Suetonius
(Julius, 88) relates of Caesar that after his
death he was raised to the rank of a god, not
simply by official decree, but also by popular
conviction; for during the games which

1 Rohde, Psyche, p. 663.

no The Early Christian

Augustus founded in his honour there blazed
for seven days in the heavens a comet which
was held to be the soul of C&sar translated
into Heaven. Likewise it was believed of
the Emperor Augustus that he had soared
into Heaven from the funeral pyre that
consumed his remains; a praetor indeed is
reported to have sworn that be saw the
image (the soul) of the emperor fly up to
Heaven (in later days it was customary at
the funeral of an emperor to release from the
pyre an eagle, which was supposed to bear
his soul to Heaven). This legend was not
merely an expression of courtly flattery, but
corresponded to the superstitious belief of the
times, as is clear from the fact that the same
tale is told and believed of other remarkable
men. Immediately after Peregrinus Proteus
had cast himself into the flames at Olympia,
in order that in death also he might be like
his exemplar Heracles, a trustworthy old man
testified that he had seen an eagle fly up to
Heaven out of the flames, and that the

Conception of Christ in

glorified Peregrinus had appeared to him
clothed in a white garment and with a gar-
land of victory on his head. Soon afterwards
he was worshipped as a god in the city of his
birth, 1 miracles of healing were wrought at his
temple, and people resorted thither to obtain
oracles. Likewise, in connection with the end
of the miracle-monger Apollonius of Tyana,
manifold tales are related of his mysterious
disappearance in the temple of Athene at
Lindus, or in that of Dictynna in Crete;
and his biographer Philostratus sees a proof
of his apotheosis in the fact that nowhere
on earth can a grave of Apollonius be
found.

I must omit the discussion of the conceptions
of the heavenly voyage of a soul in the state
of ecstasy, and of the similar conceptions
regarding departed souls in general, as they
are found in Jewish and Orphic apocalypses,
and in Gnostic, Mandaean, and Mithraic

1 According to Lucian's narrative, which is also corrobor-
ated by Athenagoras' Apology for the Christians^ chap, xxiii

ii2 The Early Christian

liturgies. 1 Such a discussion is too far
removed from my present theme; it belongs
rather to the sphere of comparative eschato-
logy and would prove a very fertile field of
inquiry. On the other hand, the primitive
faith in Christ as the prince and giver of
life is intimately connected with the concep-
tion that His life is imparted to His followers
through faith in His name, by baptism into
his name, and by partaking of His flesh and
blood in the Lord's Supper. Many parallels
to these three points are found in the history
of religion in the East and West,

In that very instructive work by W.
Heitmiiller, entitled Im Namen Jesu (Eine
sprac/i- undreligionsgeschichtliche Untersuchung
zum Neuen Testament speziel zur altchristlichen
Taufe, 1903), a great mass of material is
collected to illustrate the theory and practice
of "faith in the name" in Biblical and

1 Cf. Bousset, "Die Himmelsreise der Seele," in Archw
fur Rekgionswissenschaft, IV vols. n. and in; Dieterich,
*Eme Mithras-Liturgie, pp. 179 #.

Conception of Christ 113

profane religions. I must here content my-
self with a few striking extracts from this
book which bear upon my subject. In primi-
tive religion the name is not simply a word
or image, but it has a very real value ; it stands
in the closest mystic relationship with the
nature and fortune of its bearer, indeed it is
regarded as in a certain sense an independent
hypostasis of his essence and living energy.
A change of name implies a renewal of the
personality, its deliverance from the fate which
clings to the old name. A curse denounced
against the name of a man brings misfortune
to the man himself. He who knows and
pronounces the name of a god or demon has
power over the being itself which is named,
and can use this power for his own ends, for
good or evil, for offence or defence; hence
the employment of sacred or mystic names
in every description of sorcery. On the other
hand calling upon the name of a deity brings
the deity itself near to the petitioner, and binds

them together with a mystic bond, whereby

8

ii4 The Early Christian

the man is protected as by a charm against
all power of harm ; one " who is blessed in the
name of Jahweh," upon whom rests the pro-
tecting power of this God, he stands under
His safe guard. Assusunamir, the ambassador
of the gods, adjures the queen of the under-
world by the " names of the great gods," and
wrests from her the deliverance of Istar. By
the power of the signet ring inscribed with
the sacred name of darkness Hibil-Ziwa forces
a passage through the gates of the underworld.
By knowing and pronouncing the names of
the spirits which guard the gates of Heaven
the soul enforces admittance on its journey to
Heaven. 1 The king's son, in the Hymn of
the Soul in the Acts of Thomas, 2 by the name
of his father and his mother charms and
pacifies the serpent, gains possession of the
pearl which it guards, and so can now return
from exile (the life of earth) to his heavenly

1 Cf. Origen's description of the Orphic Gnosis (Con.
Cels.y vi. 30 jf.), and Hippolytus' description of the Gnosis
of the Naassenes (Philosophy v. 11 ; cf. above, pp. 100/.).

2 Lipsms, Apocrypke Apostelgeschickten, I. 293.

Conception of Christ 115

home. By imparting the knowledge of mystic
names the pledge of future bliss was afforded
to those initiated in the Eleusinian and Orphic
mysteries. In the Phrygian mysteries the
priests bore the name of the god Attis, in
order to identify themselves with him. So
also we read in the Leidener Zauber-PapymjLS,
II. 1 : " Thou art I and I am thou ; whatever I
say must come to pass, for I bear thy name
as an amulet in my heart; all the storms of
Styx will not overwhelm me ; nothing, whether
spirit or demon or any other horror of Hades,
will oppose me because of thy name which I
have in my soul, which I invoke ; hear me
then, O merciful one, in all things ; grant me
health proof against all bewitchment; grant
me happiness, prosperity, honour, victory,
power, lovableness ; hold in check the evil eye
of all my adversaries; grant me grace in all
my works." Though this prayer comes from
an incantation-papyrus, it can undoubtedly
serve as a classical expression of primitive

1 Dieterich, Abraxas, p. 196; Heitmuller, op. ctt., p. 214.

n6 The Early Christian

name-superstition, its mysticism and its magic.
"To believe in a sacred (divine) name" is
thus the same as to bear it in the heart, and
in consequence to be filled with the super-
natural forces which are possessed by the
owner of the name ; " to call upon the name "
is no mere speaking of words, but establishes
a vital connection with this supernatural energy,
so that it wonderfully manifests itself in the
world of experience and action. If we
transfer these conceptions to the sphere of
Christianity, then " faith in the name of Jesus
Christ" and "calling upon His name" also
signify a mystic connection with the very
nature of the Son of God, the Conqueror of
Satan and Death, the Saviour and Lord of
the Universe, and therewith an appropriation
of all the energies of life which are His
and proceed from Him. In Christianity the
mystical and magical characteristics of the
old name-superstition are by no means cast
off, they serve rather as the receptacle of
loftier spiritual experiences of real moral

Conception of Christ 117

and religious worth, they are morally en-
nobled.

The same is true also of Baptism into the
name of Jesus, only in this case the magical
power of the spoken name is reinforced by the
sacramental purifying and invigorating power
of water, which by the invocation of the sacred
name is charged, like an electric accumulator,
with supernatural energy. The idea which is
here in the background is connected with the
most elementary conceptions and customs of
the faith and ritual of every nation. We find
it expressed in its earliest form in the Descent-
myth of Istar. She descended to fetch " the
Water of Life" for the revival of Tammuz;
in the underworld she is smitten with sixty
diseases ; then at the command of the Queen
of Hades she is sprinkled by the nymphs of
the underworld with the Water of Life, and
is able to return safe and sound to the land of
the living ; then Tammuz is washed with the
life-giving water and restored to life. This
last episode of the myth was presented in

n8 The Early Christian

dramatic show during the summer festival of
the month Tammuz (June or July), when the
mourning women poured water over the image
of Tammuz. Likewise at the festival of Adonis
either plants or an image in human shape, both
representing the god, were cast into water, in
order to effect by this act of magic symbolism
the restoration to life of the god of fertility.
In the processions of the festival of Osiris a
vessel of water was always carried in front
in honour of the god, 1 indeed in Egypt water
was regarded as an effluence from Osiris, and
therefore a divine substance. These customs
of purification, met with everywhere, rest upon
the presupposition that it is the divine power
dwelling in water which serves to expel
demons and their baleful poison. For instance
among the Persians a man who is defiled by
touching a dead body is sprinkled with water
in order to expel the devil from him ; and the

1 Plutarch, Iris and Osiris, chap, xxxvi. Further examples
from popular customs are collected in Frazer's Golden Bough,
II. 120-126.

Conception of Christ 119

devil is supposed to retreat from each member
of the body as soon as it is touched by the
water, and at last to make his escape by the
toes of the left foot. 1 Again, among the Greeks
and Romans all who took part in a funeral
were accustomed afterwards to purify them-
selves in consecrated water from the defile-
ment they had contracted. But since from
the primitive standpoint of animism not only
disease and death but also sin and guilt were
regarded as due to daemonic defilement, so it
was believed that sprinkling with pure spring
water could also cleanse a man from sin and
guilt. 2 Ovid (Fasti, ii. 45) has satirised this
easy method of religious purification and can-
celling of guilt in the well-known verse

Ah, nimium faciles, qui tnstia crinrrina csedis
Fluminea tolli posse putetis aqua !

He is not however correct in his opinion that
the custom was derived from Greece alone, for
it was equally common in all parts of the world.

1 Chantepie de la Saussaye, Religionsgeschichte, 2nd edit ,
II. 191.

2 Rohde, Psyche, pp. S6l f.

J2O The Early Christian

Even in the third and fourth centuries we
find, in books of magic, prescriptions for puri-
fication which recommend water drawn from
three or seven springs as an effectual charm
against every ill of body or soul (in the case
of purification from the crime of murder water
must be drawn from fourteen springs). But
this divine power of water, which drives out
demons and counteracts their baleful infection,
exerts also an influence for good of a positive
kind. It is an instrument by which the soul
may be imbued with high spiritual powers,
and brought into the condition of prophetic
inspiration and ecstasy. Thus the Pythia, the
priestess of Apollo of Delphi, by drinking of
the Castalian spring was filled with the power
of the god (ez/0eo?) and inspired to give oracles.
In the ceremonies of the different mysteries,
the sacred ablutions served not only as a means
of purification, but also of imparting renewed
life; by their instrumentality men gained a
share in the immortal life of the deity, and
attained to a new birth. According to Ter-

Conception of Christ 121

tullian, 1 baptism in water formed part of the
initiation ceremonies of the mysteries of Eleusis,
of Isis, and of Mithras, in order to wash away
sin and as a symbol of the resurrection. In
the case of the mysteries of Isis this testimony
is corroborated by the description in Apuleius'
Metamorphoses (xi. 21, 23) : The initiation
ceremony consisted in a symbolic pilgrimage
to the land of death and a return to the light
a "new birth to the path of a new salva-
tion/' and so the day of initiation was called
"the sacred birthday." The initiated in the
mysteries of Mithras were called "new born
for eternity"; in a Mithras liturgy lately
published 2 the initiated worshipper prays:
" If it hath pleased you (the gods) to
grant me the birth to immortality, that I,
after the present distress which sorely afflicts
me, may gaze upon the immortal First Cause
with the immortal spirit and the immortal

1 De Bapttsmo, chap, v., and De Prcescriptione Hcer., chap.
40. In the mysteries of Mithras an <f imago resurrectionis "
is displayed.

2 Dietench, Eine Mithrashlurgie, pp. 5, IB, 15, 166.

122 The Early Christian

water, that I through the spirit may be born
again, and that in me purified by sacred rite
and delivered from guilt the Holy Spirit may

live and move Since this mere man

born from a mortal womb is this day newly
begotten by thee, since by the counsel of God,
marvellous in goodness, he, but one of many
thousands, has been called to immortality, he
aspires, he yearns to adore thee with all the

faculties that he but a man possesses

Hail to thee, Lord of Water, Founder of
the Earth, Ruler of the Spirit! Born again
I expire, in that I am being exalted and as I
am exalted I die ; born with the birth which
begets life I am delivered to death and go
the way, as thou hast instituted, as thou hast
ordained and constituted the Sacrament. " We
have here, as the editor of this liturgy justly
remarks, the clearest and most comprehensive
instance of the employment of the symbol
of death and new birth that we possess in
an ancient liturgic text; it has its nearest
analogy in the Pauline description of Baptism

Conception of Christ 123

as a symbolic communion with the Death
and Resurrection of Christ (Rom. vi.). No
wonder that this close relationship seemed so
astonishing to Tertullian and the other ancient
apologists that they could only explain it by
imagining a diabolical aping of Christian rites.
But that the true explanation is to be found
in the common principles of animism is most
clearly betrayed by Tertullian's own argument,
when he derives the saving power of Baptism
from the supernatural energy indwelling in
water since the Creation when the Spirit of
God brooded over the waters, an energy which
is restored and heightened by the invocation
of the name of Christ : " With the increase of
the grace of God water also acquired more
power; that which once healed ills of the
body now restores the soul ; that which worked
temporal good now renews to eternal life." 1
Baptism is thus the ethical fulfilment of the

1 Tertullian, De Baptismo, chap. v. Cf. the same
thoughts in the Clementine Homikes, xi. 22 J^., and among
the Elkesaite Gnostics, Epiph. Hcer., p. 53.

124 The Early Christian

old lustration ceremonies. Moreover we
have in the New Testament a clear proof of
the powerful influence which magical ideas still
exercised even upon the primitive Christian
conception of Baptism. For St Paul (1 Cor.
xv. 29) mentions without blame the custom
of the Corinthian Christians to be baptised for
the good of departed Mends, a practice which
has a close parallel in the Orphic supplication
for the souls of sinful forefathers, and in the
" deliverance and purification of living and
dead" by the Dionysic initiation, which is
promised by the Orphic priests. 1

The relationship which exists between
Baptism and the ancient lustration cere-
monies may also be shown to exist between
the Christian Supper of the Lord and
the ancient sacrificial feasts, whose funda-
mental idea is that the eating of sacred food
places a man in mystic communion with the
life of the deity. 2 We can also trace this

1 Plato, Rep., ii. 364; Rohde, Psyche, p. 420 /

2 Cf. Robertson Smith, Rehgion of the Semites, 2nd edit,
pp. 239 f.

Conception of Christ 125

conception back to the primitive mythology
of Babylon. 1 Adapa, the son of Ea, though
endowed by his father with extraordinary
wisdom, did not receive from him the gift of
eternal life. He might however have obtained
even this gift, and so have become fully like
unto the gods, if he had accepted the " Food of
Life " and the " Water of Life " offered to him
by Anu, the god of heaven ; but in obedience
to the counsel of Ea (who may have been
either mistrustful of Anu or jealous of Adapa)
he refused to partake of this divine food,
and so forever forfeited immortal life (just as
Adam and Eve forfeited the same gift because
at the instigation of the serpent they meddled
with the tree of knowledge, and therefore
were cast out of Paradise). The possession of
immortal life depends therefore upon tasting
the heavenly food of life, which belongs to the
gods and is under certain conditions imparted
by them to their favourites. By tasting nectar

1 Schrader-Zimmem, Die Keiknschnften und das Alte
Testament, pp. 520 f.

126 The Early Christian

and ambrosia, the food of the gods, Heracles
was received into the fellowship of the im-
mortals of Olympus, just as on the other hand
Persephone through tasting the fruit of the
underworld abides there imprisoned. The
eating of consecrated food, which is not simply
the symbol but also in mysterious fashion
the shrine of the life of the deity, has always
formed part of the ritual of every nation.
Upon this rests the sacramental significance
of the sacrificial feast; it effects a sacred
communion with the life of the deity, which
is contained in the flesh and blood of the victim
(itself an incarnation of the primitive nature-
deity), and is thus appropriated by those who
partake of them. Thus in the cult of Dionysus
a bull, which is regarded as an incarnation of
the god of fertility, is torn with the teeth and
its flesh eaten raw, 1 that by means of this
repetition of the sacrifice of the god himself
his divine life may be transferred to those who
partake in the ceremony. Often in place of

1 Cf. the quotations above, p. 97, note 2.

Conception of Christ 127

the real flesh a substitute in the form of a loaf
baked in the shape of the victim was eaten
sacramentally. 1 Such substitutes of various
forms for what was originally the flesh of the
victim seem to have been usual in the later
mysteries. For instance in the mysteries of
Attis he that was to be initiated declared, before
his admission into the innermost sanctuary,
that he had eaten from the drum and drunk
from the cymbal, and thus had become conse-
crated to Attis. We do not know what kind
of food and drink the postulant for initiation
partook from the ritual instruments of the
priest of Cybele, but we may certainly con-
clude, from the words which our authority
Firmicus Maternus adds to his description, 2
that we have represented here a sacramental
eating and drinking. " Wretched one ! " he
cries, "thou hast eaten poison and drunk of
the cup of death ! Meat of another kind it is

1 Many illustrative details from popular customs of
ancient and modern times are collected in Frazer, The
Golden Bough, ii. 260-300.

2 De errore prof, relig., chap, xviii.

128 The Early Christian

that confers life and salvation, that restores the
fainting, that calls back the wanderers, that
raises the fallen, that grants to the dying
the sign of endless immortality; seek the
bread and cup of Christ, that you may fill
your human nature with substance that is
immortal!" The comparison here is note-
worthy in a twofold aspect: in the first
place it shows that in both cases the funda-
mental idea is the same the sacramental
eating and drinking is a "medicine of im-
mortality and an antidote of death," words
in which Ignatius (Eph>, xx. 2) formulates the
Catholic view concerning the Lord's Supper, a
view which has also found drastic expression in
St John vi. 51-59 ; but in the second place it
shows that the Christian Sacrament works as a
moral remedy for the wandering and fallen
though the background of magic remains the
same, it is moralised in a Christian sense. The
same moral transformation is brought about
in the Gospel of St John by addition of
verse 63 to the description of the theory

Conception of Christ 129

of the Sacrament which has gone before.
To the mysteries of Mithras also, besides
the holy ablutions and the signing of the
forehead with a covenant sign, 1 there belonged
a sacred banquet of which only the initiated
of the higher degrees might partake. This
was regarded as an imitation of the meal
by which Mithras himself, according to the
legend, had sealed his covenant with the
sun-god Helios, In a relief which has come
down to us, 2 we see the two gods sitting side
by side on cushions, each with a cup in his
right hand, while before them is set a small
dish containing four small loaves, each marked
with crossed lines. On either side stand the
initiated wearing masks which represent the

1 It is uncertain whether the sign was made by branding
or by anointing with oil. Cf. Rev. xiii. l6f., xiv. 9: "the
sign of the beast upon the forehead or the hand " ; can
there be here a reference to the sign of Mithras ? And
could not also the expression in xiv. 10, "the wine of the
wrath of God which is mingled unmixed/* be suggested
by the cup of Mithras ?

2 Cumont, Textes et monuments relat. aux mysteres de
Mithra, I. 157 f.

9

130 The Early Christian

nature of Mithras under different attributes ;
they have thus " put on " the god in order to
place themselves in mystic communion with
him (cf. Gal. iv. 37, " ye have put on Christ ").
Justin (Apol. I. 66) relates of the banquet of
Mithras that " Bread and a cup full of water
were brought forward with some words of
blessing " ; and Tertullian 1 speaks of an offering
of bread and a symbol of the resurrection.
Both apologists regarded this rite as a
diabolical aping of the Christian Sacrament;
and in forming this opinion of theirs they
partly ignored the unquestionable priority of
the heathen to the Christian Sacrament in
point of time, and partly explained it by
assuming a prophetic anticipation on the part
of the demons. A noteworthy point of co-
incidence is found in the fact that in both
cases the same uncertainty exists concerning
the content of the cup, whether it contained

1 De Prcescr Hcer y chap. 40 : Mithras signat in frontibus
milites suos, celebrat et panis oblationem et imaginem
resurrectionis inducit

Conception of Christ 131

only water or also wine, for the original cup
of the Christian Sacrament did not always at
all events contain wine, for in the primitive
Christian love - feasts of the Acts of the
Apostles no mention is ever made of wine. 1
In the Corinthian community however
according to 1 Cor. xi. 21, celebration with
wine had become the custom, and had afforded
the Apostle Paul (who besides speaks never
of "the wine," but only of "the cup") a
welcome occasion for the mystical explanation
of the Lord's Supper as a communion not only
with the body but also with the blood of
Christ (1 Cor. x. 16). Though there is no
parallel in the banquet of Mithras to this
blood-symbolism of the Christian Sacrament,
one is certainly found in the blood-baptism of
the Taurobolians and the Criobolians which
belongs to the mysteries of Cybele, and
perhaps also of Mithras. These sacrifices of

1 See on this point Harnack, "Brot und Wasser, die
eucharistischen Elemente bei Justin " in Texten und Unter-
suchungen, VII., 1892.

132 The Early Christian

bulls and rams, when adopted into the cult of
Mithras, were evidently regarded as a sacra-
mental imitation of the sacrifice of the bull
which Mithras himself once offered for the
salvation of the world a sacrifice which is
represented in all pictorial monuments of
the cult of Mithras, wherein the bull may
be conceived as an incarnation of the god
himself, as is the case at all events in the
cult of Dionysus. As now the postulant
for initiation was sprinkled with the blood
of the slain bull or ram, 1 this blood-baptism
served him as a sacramental means of com-
munion with the death and life of the
god; and the thought of purification and
new birth by means of the sacramental
death-symbol, which according to the liturgy
quoted above was a fundamental conception
in the religion of Mithras, came in this
blood-baptism to very drastic expression. In
this connection we may call to mind the
Christian doctrine concerning cleansing and

1 Pmdentius, Perwtephanon, x. verses 1 008- J 050.

Conception of Christ 133

purification "by the blood of the Lamb" 1
(Rev. vii. 14).

1 In TO apvtov TO o-<ayyu.ei/oi/, an expression peculiar to
the Johannine Apocalypse, there seems to exist a connec-
tion, by no means remote,, with the Phrygian sacrifice of
the ram.

V

CHRIST AS THE KING OF KINGS
AND LORD OF LORDS

THIS apocalyptic name of Christ (Rev. xix.
16) denotes the dignity and might which is
ascrihed to Him by the faith of the Church.
It connotes: (1) lordship over the com-
munity of the faithful, whose " Head " Christ
is, as the Saviour who has established and
guarantees their salvation, as the Lawgiver
whose will is the rule of their life, and as the
Judge who one day will reward everyone
according to his works ; (2) lordship over the
universe, in that He is the mediator of its
creation, its government, its final perfection.

With these conceptions and titles of dignity
and lordship let us compare the following

134

Christ the King of Kings 135

parallels from different religious spheres.
The faith of the Buddhists in the greatness
of their founder is expressed in the most
extravagant terms. 1 He is called the joy
of the whole universe, the helper of the
helpless, a mine of grace, the god of gods, the
Brahman of the Brahmans, the unique saviour,
the truly compassionate, the royal preacher,
the bestower of the ambrosia of righteousness,
the father, helper, friend, treasure, jewel of
the universe; stronger than the strongest,
more merciful than the most merciful, fairer
than the fairest, more meritorious than the
most meritorious, mightier than the mightiest ;
he it is who grants to every creature,
though it only invokes his name or gives
a handful of rice as alms in his name, the
power to attain to salvation ; eye cannot see,
nor ear hear, nor mind conceive anything more
glorious and more worthy of worship than
Buddha. Again we quote some hymns from
the chapter of "Thanksgivings" in Lalita

1 Collected in Hardy's Manual of Buddhism, p. 360.

136 The Early Christian

Tistara (chap, xxiii.): "In the world of
created things, which through long ages was
plagued by the ills of natural corruption, thou
hast appeared, O king of physicians, who
deliverest us from all ills! At thy coming,
O leader ! unrest vanishes, and both men and
gods are filled with contentment. Thou, with
thy gentle, kindly heart, art the guardian, the
strong foundation, the head, the leader of the
universe ; thou art the best of physicians, who
bringest the perfect medicine, sure healing for
pain. High above all in thy charity and
compassion thou orderest the things of the
universe; high above all in thy austerity of
life and good works, self-sufficient, perfect in
purity, thou hast attained to perfection ; and
having thyself reached salvation, thou, as the
herald of the four truths, wilt also save the
rest of creation. The power of evil has been
subdued by wisdom, courage, and gentleness ;
thou hast attained this, the highest, the
immortal dignity, we greet thee as the
conqueror of the host of the deceiver [cf. St

Conception of Christ 137

John viii. 44]. Thou, whose word is without
fault, who, free from error and passion, hast
trodden the path of eternal life, thou art worthy
of honour and worship incomparable in heaven
and upon earth. Thou revivest gods and men
with thy words so clear and simple; by the
beams which stream from thee thou art the
conqueror of this universe, the lord of gods
and men. Thou hast appeared, Light of the
Law, Disperser of misery and ignorance,
overflowing with humility and majesty; sun,
moon, and fire shine no more in thy presence
before the abundance of thy imperishable glory.
Thou who teachest the knowledge of what is
true and what is false, thou guide of the soul
with voice most sweet, thou whose spirit is at
rest, whose senses are mastered, whose heart is
in perfect peace, thou who teachest what should
be taught, thou that instructest the assembly of
gods and men I greet thee, Sakyamuni, as the
greatest of men, as the miracle of the three
thousand worlds, to whom honour and worship
is due in heaven and on earth from gods and

138 The Early Christian

from men.'* Finally we quote the prayer of
a pious Buddhist l who, in the eleventh century
A.D., was compelled because of his religion to
flee from his fatherland : " Whether I live in
heaven or in hell, in the city of spirits or of
men, let my mind be ever set steadfastly upon
thee, for there is for me no other joy. Thou
art my father, my mother, my brother, my
sister ; thou art my true friend in danger, O my
beloved ! thou art my lord, my teacher which
impartest to me wisdom sweet as nectar.
Thou art my riches, my joy, my delight,
my greatness, my pride, my knowledge,
and my life; thou art my all, O omniscient
Buddha!" Where the pious soul rises in
prayer so fervent to the object of its faith by
whatsoever name it may be called the under-
standing scarcely dares to ask the prosaic
question, whether after all Buddha, since he
has entered into Nirvana, really exists, and

1 From The Proceedings of the Royal Asiatic Society of
Bengal, Feb. 1890, p. 127. I am indebted to Professor
Carpenter, of Oxford, for this quotation.

Conception of Christ 139

whether he is really omnipresent and omni-
scient, so as to be able to hear the prayers of
his devotees ? With the Buddhists, of course,
the historical founder of their communion is
only the temporal and transitory form in which
was manifested the eternal spirit of wisdom
and goodness, which came not once only, but
will ever return anew in visible manhood to
forward the work of salvation among men
who are ever in need of such assistance. It is
therefore this eternal spirit of salvation which
is really the object of the Buddhist faith ; but
the historic founder of the community, as the
most lofty manifestation of this spirit that
has hitherto appeared, is the form which
first presents itself, under which the eye of
adoring faith may conceive the invisible spirit.
But as, according to Buddhist hope and belief,
individual life in general, and in consequence
the life of its founder, reaches its final goal
in " Nirvana," which signifies either complete
annihilation or a rest and bliss that is abso-
lutely passive, so in Buddhist thought the

140 The Early Christian

historic founder cannot be conceived, with the
dogmatic distinctness of Christianity, as the
exalted lord who in divine omnipotence ever
rides his people. Nevertheless Buddha also
is, so far as the practical devotion of his
followers is concerned, the omnipresent and
abiding object of their trustful love ; a fact
which shows quite clearly that in this case, as
always, it is only the believing soul's need of a
human manifestation of the Eternal which has
naturally led to some kind of apotheosis of
the historical Saviour. It is just as natural
for faith to unify the limited human personality
with the eternal spiritual principle, as it is for
the understanding never to cease from drawing
a clear and sharp line of division between the
two. The resultant of these two tendencies,
like the diagonal in the parallelogram of
forces, is that wondrous form the God-man
of dogma.

Also from the mythology of polytheistic
religions we may adduce many analogies to
the kingship of Christ Marduk, the god of

Conception of Christ 141

Babylon, the first-born son of Ea, is called
" Lord of Lords and King of Kings " because
he completed the conquest of Chaos and the
creation of the world, and because he deter-
mines the lot of earthly kings. The latter
function is also assigned to Nabu, who carries
and writes the heavenly tablets of fate, and is
called likewise king and lord of the gods of
heaven and earth. 1 This god was no doubt
originally identical with Marduk, from whom
in later times he was differentiated as the
heavenly scribe, the patron of wisdom and
oracle, the Hermes and Thot of Babylon. In
Egypt after the foundation of the new empire
of Thebes, Ammon-Ra, the god of that city,
was worshipped as the mysterious * creator,
" The lord of the thrones of the universe and
the king of the gods," who unites in himself*
all the properties and powers of the other
deities. In the i*ealm of the dead however
the judge is Osiris, and at his side Thot acts

1 Schrader-Zimmem, Die Keilinschnften und das Alte
Testament, pp. 374 and 402.

142 The Early Christian

as the divine scribe, who, as the god of the
word of magic power, shared in the creation
of the world and became the patron of wisdom,
oracle, and magic ; he is in fact a kind of per-
sonification of the divine word of revelation
or Logos. In the Persian religion l Ahura-
Mazda is the wise lord, the creator, the
upholder and guardian of the universe ; at his
side as personifications of his two chief char-
acteristics, wisdom and righteousness, stand
the genii Vohu-mano, the "good thought"
(Logos), the first-created of the good spirits,
the mediator of creation and of the revelation
of the law, and the guardian of the gate
of heaven; and Asha-vahista, the genius of
righteousness, the guardian and minister of
the order and government of the universe,
the judge in the final judgment; then
Sraosha, the pure and victorious hero, the
conqueror of demons, the conductor and

1 Chantepie de la Saussaye, Rekgionsgeschichte, II.
Cumont, Textes et monuments relat am mysteres de Mithra,
I 240 ff \ Bocklem, Verwandtschafi der judisch-christlichen
mit der parsischen Esckatologie, p. 48 ff.

Conception of Christ 143

judge of souls, who also plays a chief part in
the last decisive conflict at the end of the
world ; and last of all, Mithras, the friendly
god of light and of truth, the champion
against demons and the guardian of the
pious, the judge of souls in the next world,
of whom it is said in an ancient hymn that
Ahura-Mazda created him of like greatness
and dignity with himself (i.e. his cult occupied
a position in the Persian religion rivalling that
of the highest god). As a "mediator" in
close connection with mankind, Mithras was
half-identified with the sun-god in that
religion which sprang from the intermingling
of Persian, Babylonian, and Phrygian ele-
ments, and in the mysteries he was wor-
shipped as the special saviour of the initiated.
Even in the creation of the world legend
assigns him a mediating part, for by means
of his cosmogonic sacrifice of a bull he
brought into being the germ of life in the
vegetable and animal world. Then he is also
the continual mediator of all salvation for his

144 The Early Christian

worshippers in this world and the next ; he is
their example and support in the conflict with
all Satanic powers; he is the leader and
guardian of faithful souls on their perilous
journey to heaven above. At the end of all
things he will effect the renewal of the world
by repeating his cosmogonic sacrifice ; he will
raise all the dead and prepare the cup of
immortality for the righteous. In the ritual
of Mithras Sunday was celebrated as the day
sacred to the sun-god, and the great festival
of the year was the celebration of the victory
of the returning sun at the winter solstice.
December 25th was the birthday of Sol
Invictus long before it became the birthday
of the Christian Saviour. How deeply the
worshipper of Mithras conceived and felt his
close relationship to his god may be seen from
the liturgy quoted above/ from which we may
further quote the following hymns: "Hail,
to thee, lord, mighty omnipotent king, greatest
of the gods, Helios, lord of heaven and earth,

1 Dieterichj Eine Mythraliturgie, pp 11, 15.

Conception of Christ 145

god of gods ; full of might is thy breath, full
of might is thy power ; lord, if it please thee,
mention me before the most high god who has
created and made thee ! " Next, one raised
into the presence of Mithras cries: "Lord
of my spirit, dwell with me in my soul, leave
me not! Hail, lord, ruler of water, founder
of the earth, master of the spirit 1 Lord, born
again I expire," etc. (see above, p. 122).

But while to the gods of the mysteries,
such as Mithras and Serapis, their worshippers
ascribed unlimited authority over nature and
the world of spirits for of course without this
power they would not be equipped for the
defence of their devotees it was only in the
government of the individual fortune of the
initiated in this world and the world to come
that a practical exhibition of this authority was
expected. The socio-ethical ideal of a renewal
and conquest of earthly humanity by the
victorious might of the heavenly Lord was
wanting in the mysteries. This ideal was

peculiar to Jewish Messianic belief, and at first,

10

146 The Early Christian

at all events, was confined within the limits of
Jewish hope for a future time of earthly bliss
for the nation. But as in the later Apocalypses
an ever-growing tendency to an expansion of
national limitations manifested itself, so this
ideal took the form of a universal kingdom
of God embracing all the nations of the earth.
In this widened form, for which Hellenism had
prepared the way, the social idea of a kingdom
of God realised in a renewed earth passed over
into the religion of Christ, and secured to it
from the very first its absolute superiority to the
individualistic faith of the various mysteries.
The Catholic faith in the kingdom of Christ
united in itself the two ideals, individual and
social, of religious hope and yearning : it gave
to the individual soul the pledge of perfec-
tion and salvation which was promised to the
devotees of Buddhism and the Grgeco-Oriental
mysteries ; it prophesied the social and moral
renewal and transfiguration of earthly humanity
into a city of God the hope of Judaeo- Hellenic
faith. It is manifest that the heavenly Lord

Conception of Christ 147

who guaranteed to his followers the fulfilment
of this twofold ideal was fully equipped for
the conquest of all other lords, and was alone
destined to universal sovereignty. His most
serious rival was not however Mithras, but the
Roman emperor, he who held the imperium
in the kingdom of earth. Individual heathen
might find a certain satisfaction for the par-
ticular needs of the pious soul in the cults
of their mysteries ; but another need equally
deep, the yearning of the nations for a new
social order in which righteousness, mercy, and
peace should rule, remained unsatisfied, and so
the hope of mankind, in spite of constant
disillusionment, clung the more tenaciously to
the earthly divinity upon the throne of the
Caesars. In an inscription discovered lately
at Priene, probably dating from the year
9 B.C., 1 we find the following hymn to the
Emperor Augustus : " This day [the birthday
of Augustus] has given a new aspect to the

1 Ed. by Mommsen and Wilamowitz in Das deutsche
arckaologische Institut, XXIII. part 3 ; it is translated and
discussed by Harnack in Die chustliche Welt, 1899, No. 51.

148 The Early Christian

whole world ; all things would have sunk in
ruin if the sun of universal joy had not risen
upon mankind in him now born. He judges
rightly who recognises in this day the beginning
of life and all its forces ; now at last the time
is gone which forced men to regret that they
were ever born. Providence, which governs
the living universe, has filled this man with
such gifts for the welfare of mankind that it
has sent him as a saviour to us and to the
coming generations ; he will put an end to
every feud, and work in all things a glorious
transformation. In his appearing the hopes
of our forefathers are fulfilled ; he has not only
surpassed all former benefactors of mankind,
but it is even impossible that a greater than he
should ever appear. The birthday of the god
has brought into the world the good tidings
(Evangel) which are bound up with him. A
new era must begin from his birth." Of like
tenor is an inscription from Halicarnassus 1 :

1 British Museum, No 994. Given also by Harnack in
Dze christltche Welt. See note on preceding page.

Conception of Christ 149

" The Deity for the joy of our life has brought
to men Csesar Augustus, who is the father of
his fatherland Rome the divine, and also the
paternal Zeus and saviour of the whole race
of mankind, whose providence has fulfilled
and surpassed the prayers of all men. For
land and sea rejoice in the gift of peace, cities
flourish in concord and wealth, every good
thing is present in abundance." Finally, we
may note a certain combination of Mithras-
worship and emperor-worship in the words
addressed to the Emperor Nero by the
Armenian king Tiridates, who accompanied by
magi had come to Rome : " I am thy slave,
my lord ; I am come to thee, my god, to adore
thee, even as Mithras." 1 From this it is seen
that the belief in the human incarnation of the
divinity in the Roman emperor, and the faith

1 Dio. Cassias, ed. Becker, ii. p, 253. Suetonius, Nero,
IS and 30. According to an interesting conjecture of
Dieterich (Zeitschnft fur neutestamentliche Wisseuschaft, III.
1 ff.), this historical event lies at the root of the Gospel
story of the adoration paid to the new-born king of the
Jews by the niagi (St Matt,, chap. ii.).

150 The Early Christian

in the spiritual saviour of the mysteries, not
only existed together on the soil of Asia
Minor, but even tended to amalgamate with
one another. But in face of the fundamental
difference between the separate objects of
the two faiths, this tendency, though it was
psychologically natural, could never come to
fulfilment in the sphere of heathenism. At
this supreme crisis of history, the demand for
a god, who should alike guarantee to the
individual soul deliverance in the world to
come and to society the earthly kingdom of
prosperity and peace, was already present in
the expectation and yearning of the nations ;
only the question remained whence should
come to them the assurance of its realisation ?
The answer was given in Catholic Christianity,
which united the Messianic king of the earthly
kingdom of God with the mystic conqueror
of death and dispenser of life in the one ideal
personality of the eternal Son of God, who
really became man, died, descended into Hell,
conquered death and Satan, victoriously rose

Conception of Christ 151

from the dead and ascended into Heaven, sits
at the right hand of God, and will come again
on the clouds of Heaven to judge the quick
and the dead. All these articles of belief are
to be found in the religious cults of the expiring
world of antiquity, here and there, in East and
West, in the manifold forms of Jewish Apoc-
alypse, of Oriental mysticism and Gnosis, of
Greek speculation and Roman Caesar- worship ;
there was still wanting only the single subject
for the synthesis of these predicates, the
nucleus round which this chaotic seething
mass of religious ideas could crystallise into a
new world of faith and hope for the present
life and that to come. This point of unity
was given in the person of Jesus, the Galilean
Saviour and King of the Jews, who by the
cross has become the Saviour of the World
and King of the all-embracing kingdom of
God.

CONCLUSION

As we survey the numerous points of like-
ness between the faith of the early Christians
and the religious ideas current in the world
around them, we can scarcely fail to be con-
vinced that Christianity could not have fallen
from Heaven as something quite new and
unique, but that it sprang up in the world
of those days as the ripe fruit of ages of
development and in a soil that was already
prepared. Now it is of course easily compre-
hensible that this new evolutionist method of
inquiry should have such a disturbing influence
upon many persons, conservatives as well as
critics, that they at once draw the most radical
conclusions, and imagine that Christianity is
robbed of its unique character and its abiding

152

Conclusion 153

worth because it appears to be nothing more
than a combination of ideas that had existed
for ages, and are nowadays altogether anti-
quated. But such conclusions are most hasty
and rash, and testify to the influence of
manifold errors, exaggerations, and crude
judgments whose discovery and refutation
ought to be the proper object of the calm
and enlightened investigation of the religious
historian. I can, at present, only permit
myself to make a few suggestions in this
direction.

Before all things, we must guard against
the constant practice of imagining that the in-
ward affinity of religious conceptions implies
a connection in their external history. It is
absolutely unjustifiable to argue from the
former to the latter, for in doing this we
overlook the fact that affinity of conceptions
is not necessarily explained by borrowing and
transmission from one sphere to another ; but
that from the same psychological causes, and
with like social conditions, conceptions similar

154 The Early Christian

in character may arise in different places
quite spontaneously and independently of one
another, and, indeed, have so arisen in number-
less instances. Where then it is proved
that certain conceptions are allied to one
another, we must always first inquire closely
whether their similarity is to be explained
from the working of similar causes, or whether
some kind of direct or indirect historical
connection may with probability be admitted.
But in the present state of our sciences of
archaeology and ethnology, the greatest cir-
cumspection in answering this question is
most earnestly recommended.

The assumption of historical connection,
whether direct or indirect, is only admissible
with some probability in such cases where
the similarity consists not simply in some
common conception or some chance coin-
cidence in expression, but extends to distinct
successions of details. Several examples of
this kind are to be found in the former
chapters. I refer to the points of similarity

Conception of Christ 155

between the history of the infancy in Buddhist
legend and in the Gospel of St Luke: the
supernatural birth, the hymn of the heavenly
hosts, the shining of light, the prophecy of a
pious seer, the adoration of the wise men,
and the parallels to the story of Jesus in
the Temple when He was twelve years old
(pp. 39-45) ; again I refer to the traits of the
Indian legend of Krishna which run parallel
to the narrative of St Matthew concerning
the persecution of the Christ-child by Herod
and the massacre of the infants at Bethlehem
(p. 61); to the parallels to the story of the
Temptation (pp. 51-53) ; to the date of the
Resurrection, "on the third day" in the
Egyptian Osiris-festival, or " after three days "
in the Phrygian Attis-festival (p. 103) ; to the
analogy of the apocalyptic purification by the
blood of the Lamb to the Phrygian purification
by the blood of the ram (pp. 132/) ; to the
Mithras sacrament with bread and cup, the
sign on the forehead, the Mithras festival on
Sunday and on December 25th as the birth-

156 The Early Christian

day of the god (pp. 129^ 144). In the face
of such successions of similar traits, the possi-
bility of historical interdependence must at
least be admitted; indeed, in some cases its
probability is to be presumed.

On the other hand, it would be a serious
error did one attempt to derive the general
conception of the Divine Sonship of Christ
from some definite pre-Christian legend; in-
deed in some sense or other this conception is
the common property of the religious humanity
of all ages ; in general, therefore, it has its
ultimate source in the depths of the religious
consciousness, in mankind's natural surmise
that we are of divine descent, a surmise which
has been everywhere awakened by the obser-
vation of the extraordinary gifts and deeds of
particular men, and therefore has at first been
connected with those elect heroes of knowledge
and power who stand as the representatives and
sureties of the close relationship of our common
human nature with the divine. Also the double
form in which the conception of divine son-

Conception of Christ 157

ship is found inside and outside Christianity
the apotheosis of the man and the incarna-
tion of the deity admits of a simple psycho-
logical explanation ; it is the result of two
distinct phases of mental outlook, both alike
true. In the one case the divine sonship, in
the sense of likeness to God, appears as the
ideal to be striven after and the destined goal
of human life ; in the other case, the possibility
of attaining to this ideal is seen to presuppose
a real supernatural power existing from the very
first in the soul, a divine instinct and definite
tendency of nature which can only be conceived
as the effect of the indwelling of a divine spirit.
Also parallels are found in heathen religions
to the idea of the God-man dying and rising
again (ascending into Heaven), analogies whose
roots reach back to the most primitive con-
ceptions of animism concerning the yearly
death and revival of the divine power of
life in nature. But the Christian myth is
not to be derived from this nature-myth,
because it has its most direct source in the

158 The Early Christian

historical fact of the death of Jesus, and the
following visions seen by His disciples.
Nevertheless those parallels are surely of
significance, in that they remind us that the
religious interpretation of those spiritual ex-
periences in the consciousness of the Christian
Church did not depend upon caprice or
accident, but was the expression of the same
eternal law whose sacred truth had impressed
itself upon mankind from the beginning
the law that the corn of wheat must die in
order to bring forth fruit, and that the Son of
Man must suffer that He may enter into His
glory (St John xii. 24/! ; St Luke xxiv. 25).
The kit motiv of the Christian drama of
Redemption, u Through Death to Life!" is
in some form or other foreshadowed in the
myths and ceremonies of many religions, and by
this very fact it is declared to be one of those
elementary fundamental truths which were not
expressed for the first time in the Christian
religion, though they were there revealed in
their purest, because ethical and spiritual, form.

Conception of Christ 159

And this brings us to a further point of
extreme importance in the comparative his-
tory of religion. In comparing two religions,
people constantly make the mistake of neglect-
ing their points of difference in the face of
their points of likeness, or at least of setting so
small a value upon the former that the higher
religion seems absolutely debased to the level
of the lower. 1 We have here in the case of
history a close parallel to that misuse of the
theory of evolution in natural science, in
accordance with which man is set upon the
same level as the ape as a mere variety
of the same species. Such errors contribute
greatly to discredit the just claim of the con-
ception of evolution. It is not, however, the
theory of evolution itself that is to blame for
these vagaries, but only its one-sided and
superficial employment by many empirics,
who seem to be ignorant of the fact that every

1 I instance the well-known Babel-Bibel lectures of
Dehtzsch. The best criticism of these is found in Gunkel's
work, Bdbylonien und die Religion Israels, 1903.

160 The Early Christian

new stage of development depends upon a
"creative synthesis/' which does not merely
mingle the old elements, but transforms them
absolutely, in that it brings them under the
operation of a new law, so that the new
development becomes indeed something quite
different from what the sum of its elements was
before. This general rule finds just its most
brilliant exemplification in the relation of
Christianity to the earlier religions from which
it has developed as their higher unity and
purer truth.

Primitive Christianity has transformed the
Jesus of history into the Christ of faith, in
that it has, after the manner of ancient
animism, objectified the impression which it
received of His life and death into a self-
existing Christ- Spirit, and has then in thought
identified this spirit with the heavenly Son of
Man of the Apocalypses and the Son of God
and Logos of Gnosis, and has finally brought
this eternal heavenly Being down to earth to
become man, to die, to return to Heaven, there

Conception of Christ 161

to share the throne and sovereignty of God
until His future Coming to judge the world.
In this divinely human drama of Redemption
the Christian faith attained to a form of ex-
pression, which, the closer its formal connection
with heathen myths, was only the more fitted
for the conquest of heathenism. But who can
fail to see that in this process the ancient forms
are made the receptacle of a content essentially
new, and accordingly acquire a much deeper
religious import and a much purer moral
significance than they ever had before? All
the fantastic spirits, divinities, and lords of
the religion of nature, and no less the earthly
deities on the throne of the Caesars, sank into
nothingness before the one Lord Christ, who
stands now " The Spirit," simply and absolutely
(1 Cor. iii. 17) because in His nature faith
perceives the consummation of all those
spiritual forces called into being by the im-
pression made upon the soul by the personality
of Jesus the perfection of what she feels to

be a new life from God, active and efficacious

11

1 62 The Early Christian

within herself. It matters not that this faith
in Christ the Lord, the Spirit, is again clothed
in the garment of antique mythology, and
finds sacramental expression in ceremonies
similar to the rites of heathenism, still in
nature and import this Christian faith and
ritual worship was something quite different
from its heathen analogues; for the ruling
principle, to which the ancient forms were
subjected, was no longer the succession of
life and death in nature, but a moral ideal
beheld in the life and death of Jesus the
ideal of sacred love which has compassion
upon the weary and heavy laden, which
seeks to become great not in lordship but
in service, and offers its life a sacrifice in
the cause of God and the brethren. This
ideal was no mere work of imagination like
the moral ideals of the Stoics, Platonists,
and Pythagoreans, which were fashioned by
philosophers for philosophers, and, therefore,
remained the subject of learned discussion,
without influence on the life of the people ; on

Conception of Christ 163

the contrary, it was actually manifested in the
life and death of an inspired prophet and
friend of the people. In His words and works,
and most of all in His death, it appealed in
simple, heart-piercing tones to all without
distinction to the wise and ignorant, to high
and low, to righteous and sinners. Nor did the
inspiring power of this ideal cease even with the
death of the Master ; rather it never released
its hold upon His followers; it continued its
work in their souls, forming the one indis-
soluble bond which bound them in communion
with Him and with one another, and assured
them of His never-ending life with, and on
behalf of, the community of the faithful.

It was only natural that this ideal, which
had been realised in the historic personality of
Jesus, should now be personified in an eternal
heavenly being, a son of God. Such personi-
fication was indeed quite in accordance with
the animistic thought of antiquity, wherein
all kinds of lively affections of the soul were
objectified as spirit-beings, and explained as

164 The Early Christian

the result of the operation of these beings in
and upon man. But there is also an abiding
truth in this animistic personification, if we
only understand how to translate the ancient
mythical language into the psychological
language of to-day. No one will deny that
an ideal is above the limitations of time and
coincides with no one of its historical mani-
festations ; but may not the love which
conquers the demon of selfishness, which
raises the individual soul above the narrow
world of self-interest, and in society trans-
forms the natural struggle for existence into
the endeavour to realise the moral solidarity
of all men may not this love be rightly
conceived as a supernatural power revealing
itself as a divine all-attracting force in the
souls of men, like the force of gravitation
in the material world ? In well-known words
Kant has recognised the revelation of God in
the laws of the starry firmament and in the
moral law of the heart ; but love is the fulfil-
ling of the law, since it transforms the external

Conception of Christ 165

compelling command into the free impulse
and active force of the heart ; why then may
we not perceive in love "the incarnation of
the divine Logos/' which was consummated not
once only, but ever comes to pass where love
unites the hearts of men and consecrates
society so that it becomes the kingdom of
God? And since love in its highest mani-
festation in self-sacrifice for the common good
is sure that it never loses, but only then
truly finds itself (St Mark vii. 35), so in
very deed that divinely human act of loving
self-sacrifice in service of the brethren is
the way to eternal life, and that drama of
Redemption, with its leit motiv, "Through
death to life ! Die and you shall live ! "
brings to typical expression an eternal truth
in the moral government of the world.

Still the question may be asked why
could not this moral ideal have been presented
in its simplicity, without the garment of myth,
in the teaching and example of Jesus ? Why,
that is, could not the Jesus of history instead

1 66 The Early Christian

of the Christ of faith have been made the sole
subject of Gospel preaching ? The answer is
twofold. In the first place, the Gospel
when preached in the heathen world, in order
that it might be understood, was compelled to
accommodate itself to the prevailing heathen
ideas, in short to the myths ; it could not
conquer the myths and ceremonies of the
religion of nature otherwise than by clothing
its new ethical ideal in the given forms and
transforming these from within. Moreover,
in the second place, we must not forget that
the historical Jesus, although He was the first
to be strongly inspired by the new spirit of
divine sonship and of love, and so has given
the mightiest impulse to its awakening and
its sovereignty in the hearts of men, was not
therefore solely the embodiment of this ideal
principle. This simply could not be ; for a
principle or ideal can never exactly coincide
with any individual manifestation in time
and space, but reaches far beyond and above
all these, a statement which is corroborated in

Conception of Christ 167

this particular case by careful examination of
the tradition of the Gospels. According to
these writings Jesus was a child of His times
and of His own people, He was subject to
the law of Moses, He shared the Messianic
hopes of His nation, in particular influenced
by the apocalyptic tendency of contemporary
Jewish thought He expected the near
approach of the end of the world and the
miraculous dawn of a new creation ; and this
apocalyptic tendency has left even upon His
moral teaching the impress indeed of its own
deep earnestness, but also of its spirit of ascetic
renunciation of the world in view of the
hereafter. Now it is simply self-evident that
neither the national and legal, nor the apoc-
alyptic and ascetic, side of the mind of Jesus
could become for all peoples and times an
object of religious belief and moral imitation.
It was therefore absolutely necessary that
the universal, eternal, and ideal import of His
personality should be delivered from the indi-
vidual and social limitations of its temporal

1 68 The Early Christian

manifestation, and as the real principle of
redemption should find concrete expression
in a form above the limitations of time. But
what other form could have been found than
the symbolic language of myth, of religious
fiction, whereby the fancy has in all ages
presented the world of the divine and eternal
in the tangible, yet supernatural, characters
and actions of miraculous story? The de-
liverance of the Christian idea from the rigid
fetters of Judaism was only possible at the
price of its investiture in the fluent forms of
myths and rites. And although these indeed
were in many ways connected with the ancient
forms of nature-religion, yet they had this great
compensating advantage, they were free from
that slavery to history which is the character-
istic of Judaism and every legal religion. The
divine action of the myths was indeed placed
in the past, but it was in itself an indefinite
fluid past which in the rites that interpreted
the myth was completely converted into a time-
less present, for the symbolic imitation of the

Conception of Christ 169

mythical history made of it an action ever new.
The sacraments had just the same significance
for the ancient church. They served to
abolish the time-form of the redemption myth,
in that they represented under symbolic signs
the eternal spiritual truth that lay hidden in the
myth the truth of the continuous incarnation
of God in the hearts of good men, and of the
continual thankoffering of the community
which in obedience and love offers itself to
God. 1

Accordingly myth and rite were certainly
the most suitable forms of expression for primi-
tive Christian belief. But they have much to
teach us also. They show us how we ought to
let history point the way above history to the
eternal and omnipresent God, who is a God of
the living and not of the dead ; they warn us to

1 Augustine, De Cimtate Dei, x. 6, 20 : Hoc est sacrificium
Christianorum : multi unum corpus in Christo. Hoc etiain
sacramento altaris frequentat ecclesia, quod in ea re, quam
offert, ipsa offeratur .... quae, cum ipsius capitis corpus
sit, se ipsam per ipsum offerre discit. Huic summo veroque
sacrificio cuncta sacnficia falsa cesserunt.

12

i yo Conclusion

free ourselves from the fatal ban of historicism,
which seeks God's revelation only in the records
of a dead past, and thus loses the power of
finding it in the living present. Why seek ye
the living among the dead ? He is not here.
He is risen ! But go hence to your brethren ;
there will ye see Him ! We are to behold
the living Christ-Spirit, this ever indwelling
divine principle of mankind, everywhere
where the souls of men open themselves to
the knowledge of every truth, where hearts
glow with enthusiasm for all that is good,
where love fulfils its daily offering of self-
sacrifice for the good of the community, where
there is conflict and suffering for the cause
of justice and righteousness in society, where
there is faith in the continual coming of God's
kingdom among us, and where in this faith
the world is overcome.

PRINTED BY NETLL AND 00 , LTD , EDINBURGH.

A Catalogue

of

Williams & Norgate's

Publications

Divisions of the Catalogue

PAGE

I. THEOLOGY 3

II. PHILOSOPHY, PSYCHOLOGY 29

III. ORIENTAL LANGUAGES, LITERATURE, AND HISTORY , 34

IV. PHILOLOGY, MODERN LANGUAGES . . . 39
V. SCIENCE, MEDICINE, CHEMISTRY, ETC, ... 46

VI. BIOGRAPHY, ARCHAEOLOGY, LITERATURE, MISCEL-
LANEOUS .... . .56

FULL INDEX OVER PAGE

London

Williams & Norgate

14 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, W.C,
1904

INDEX.

Abyssinia, Shihab alDin, 37
Adam and Eve, Book of, Malan, 36
Alcyomum, Liverpool Marine Biol C

Mems , 50
Alga, Cooke, 47

Amenca, Creation Myths of, Curtzn, 57
Anarchy and Law, Brewster, 29
Anatomy, Cleland, 47 , Cunningham

Memoirs, 48 , Lockwood, 51 , Spal-

teJtoh, 54
Anthropology, Prehistoric, Avebury, 56 ,

Engelhardt) 57 , Laing, 59 , Reli-

quite Aquitamcee, 59.
Apocalypse, Sleek, 8 , Clark, 16
Apostles and Apostolic Tunes, Dob-

schutz, 4, Hausrath, 18 , Weiz-

sacker, 7 , Zcller, o
Statutes of, edit G Horner, 26
Apostolic Succession, Clark, 16
Arabic, Chrestomathy, Brunnow, 34
Grammar, Sean, 37.
Koran, 36
Poetry, Faizullah Bhai, 35 , Z-^<z//, 36 ,

Noldeke, 36
Ascidia, Liverpool Marine Biol Mems ,

So
Assyrian, Dictionary, Muss-Arnolt, 36,

Noms, 36

Grammar, Dehtzsch, 34
Language, Dehtzsch, 34
Assynology, Brown, 56 , Dehtzsch, 10,

34 , Evans, 35 , Sayce, 13 , Schroder,

9

Astigmatic Tests, /Vwj/, 52 , Snellen,^
Astronomy, Cunningham Mems , V,

48 ; Memoirs of Roy Astronom
Soc , 62.

Augustine, St., Confessions of, Harnack,

18

Babylonia, .rci Assynology.
Belief, Religious, #?, 13
Beneficence, Negative and Positive,
Spencer, Principles of Ethics, II ,
3 r
Bible, 15

&i &<? Testament
Beliefs about, Savage, 23
For Beginners, Hojbps, 20
Hebrew Texts, 18
Hihtory of Text, JF^ 27
Plants, Hens low, 19.
Biology, Bastion, 46 , Liverpool Marine

BioL Mems , 50 , Spencer, 31
Botany, Bentham and Hooker, 46,
Church, 47 , Cooke, 47 , Grevillea,

49 , /0r <j/"'&? Linnean Soc , 49 ,
Moore, 51 , Prior, 52

Brain, Cunningham Mems , VII , 48
Buddha, Buddhism, Daoids, 12 , Hardy,

35 , Oldenberg, 37
Calculus, Harnack, 49
Canons of Athanasius, 7>jttf d^ 7V<*j

.9^ , 38
Cardium, Liverpool Mann? Biol Mems ,

50

Celtic, ^ Insh.

Stokes, 43 , Sullivan, 44

Heathendom, Rhys, 13
Ceremonial Institutions, Spencer, Pnnc

of Sociology, II , 31
Chaldee, Grammar, Tfe^ttf, 38

Lexicon, Puerst, 35

Chemistry, Berzehus, 46 , Dittmar^ 48 ,
Faraday, 49 , Wrf jy^, 49

Hindu, J?ay, 52
Chnst, Life of, JiT^w, 8

No Product of Evolution, Henslow, 19

Study of, Robinson, 24

Teaching of, Harnack, 6, n

The Universal, Beaid, 15
Christianity, Evolution of, Gr//, 17

History of, 5/zwr, 8 , Dobschute, 4 ,
Harnack, 6, n, 18 , Ha-usrath, 8,
18 , Johnson, 20 , Mackay, 22 ,
#^r&, 3

in Talmud, Herford, 19

Liberal, Revtlle, n

Roots of, Martineau, 22

Simplest form of, Drummond, 13

Spread of, Harnack, 5

What is? Harnack, 6, 11.
Church, Catholic, Renan, 13

Christian, ^5/Kwr, 8, C/#r/, 16, Z?/?Z>-

schutz, 4 , Hatch, 13 , Wernle, 3
Codex Palatmo-Vaticanus, 2W<3? Z,^-

zfww, III , 44
Codium, Liverpool Marine Biol Mems ,

51

Coleoptera, Murray, 51
Communion of Christian with God, Herr-

mann, 19

Comte, Spencer, 32
Constellations, Primitive, Brown, 56
Cornish, Stokes, 43
Creed, Christian Creed. 16
Crown Theological Library, 10
Culture, Thoughts on, Smith, 25
Cuneiform, Characters, Smith, 37

Inscriptions, Schrader, 9
Daniel, Pnnce, 23
Danish Dictionary, Larsen, 42 , Rosing,

Darwinism, Schurman, 30
Denmark, Engelhardt, 57
Doctrine and Principle, a*4? f 15
Dogma, History of, Harnack, 5

of Virgin Birth, Lobstein, 10
Domestic Institutions, Spencer, Prmc.

of Sociology, 1 , 31
Duck Tribes, Morphology of, Cunnmr-

,,

Dutch, Cape, Oordt, 42 ; Werner, 45
Dynamics, Cunnmg:Jiam Mems , IV . 48.

Chemical, ?>W/ -ff^ 49
Ecclesiastes, Taylor, 26
Ecclesiastical Institutions, Spencer,

Prmc of Sociology, III . 31, 32
of Holland, Wicksteed, 28
Echinus, Liverpool Marine Biol Mems ,
So

INDEX -continued.

Economy, Political, Mackenzie, 30
Education, Herbert, 58 , Spencer, 32.
Educational Works, see Special Cata-

logue

Egypt, Kehgion of, Renouf, 13
Egyptian Antiquities, Sharps, 37

Grammar, Erman, 35
English Language, Neglect of, Wyld,

Enoch, Book of, Gill, 17
Epidemiology, Trans of EptdetmoZog

Ethics, and Religion, Martineau, 22
Data of, Spencer, Principles of E , I ,

Induction of, Spencer, Principles of E ,

1 j 3 1

Kantian, Schutman, 30
of Evolution, Schumian, 30
of Individual Life, Spencer. Principles

ofE ,1 ,31
of Reason, Laurie, 29
Principles of, Spencer, 31
Ethnology, Cunmtigha.ni Mentis , X , 48
Evolution, Spencer, 31, 32

of the Idea of God, D'Almella, 12
of Religious Thought, D'Alviella, 15
Exodus, Hoerning, 19
Ezekial, Mosheh ben Shesheth, 22
Faith, Herrmann, 12 , Rix, 24 ; Wim-

mer, 28

Ferns, Moore, 51
Flinders Petne Papyri, Cunningham

Mews , VIII , IX , 48
Flora of Edinburgh, Sonntag, 54
French, Boielle, 40 , Deltas, 41 ,
41 , Hugo, 41, 42 , Roget, 43 ,
Special Education Catalogue
Literature, Roget, 43

, also

and
Hooker, 46
Genesis, Hebrew Texts, 18, 35 , Wnght,

C H H,&

Geography, Ancient, Kiepert, 58
Geometry, Spencer, W G , 54
German, Grammar, Weisse, 44

Literature, Nibelungenhed, 42 ,
Phillip, 43

Novels, A rtny Series, 30
Germany, March?, 59
God, Idea of, D'Alviella, 12
Gospel, First, Plain Commentary, 23

Fourth, Drummond, 17 , Taylor, 26
Gospels, Lost and Hostile, Gould, 18

Old and New Certainty, Robinson^ 24

Testimony, Voysey, 27
Greek, Modern, Zonipohdes, 45
Gymnastics, Medical, Schreber, 53
Health, Herbert, 49, 57,
Hebrew, Biblical, Kennedy^ 35

Language, Dehtzsch, 34

Lexicon, Fuerst^ 35

Scriptures, Sharpe, 25.

Synonyms, Kennedy* 35

Text of O.T.,
Text, 18, 35.

, 27.

Hebrews, History of, Kittel, 6 , Peters,

12 , Sharpe, 25

Religion of, Kuenen, 9 , Montefiore, 13.
Heterogenesis, Bastion, 46
Hibbert Lectures, 12, 13
Hymns, yowj, 20
Icelandic, Lilja, 42 , F^TZ Glums Saga,

Dictionary, Zoega, 45.

Grammar, Baytdon, 40
Individualism, Herbert, 57, Spencer,

Man z/ State, 32,
Irish, Atkinson, 40, .5<70/& of Ballymote,

40 , j?<?^ <2/" Leinster, 41 , Hogan,

41 , Leabhar Breac, 42 , Leabhar
na H-Uidhn, 42 , O'Grady, 42 ,
Stokes, 43, TW^ Lectures, 44,
Yellow Book ofLecan, 45

Isaiah, Diettrich, 34 , Hebrew Texts, 18,

:sraelf 5 His;

itory of, Kittel, 6 , Peters, 23 ,

Sharps, 25
Religion of, Kuenen, 9

Axciigiwii wu, jf\n-cnnrt t y

m Egypt, Wright, G H B , 28
Jeremiah, Mosheh ben Shetheth, 22
Jesus, Life of, Hopps, 20 , Keim, 8
The Real, Vickers, 27
Times of, Hausrath, 8
SVtf a/f <? Christ
Job, Book of, w<z/4 8 ; Hebrew Text,

18, 35 , Wn^*, G ff ,*B
Rabbinical Comment on, TVatf 6*

TV/xitf- 5"^ , 38
Justice, Spencer, Pnnc of Ethics, II ,

31, 32

Kant, Schurman, 30
Kindergarten, Goldammer, 57
Labour, Harrison, 57 ; Sckloss, 59 ,

Vynne, 60
Leabhar Breac, 42 , Atkinson, 40 ,

Hogan, 41

Leprosy, Abraham, 46
Lives of the Saints, Hogan, 41
Logarithms, Bruhns, 47 ; Sang, 53 ,

London Library Catalogue, 57
Lumbar Curve, Cunningham Mems ,

II, 4 8

Mahabharata, Sorensen, 38
Malaria, Annett, 46 , 2fcyetf, 46 , Dutton,

48 , Meins of Liverpool School of

Tropical Medicine, 51 , wffaw, 52,

53 , Stephens, 55
Maori, Dictionary, Williams, 45

Manual, Maori, 42.
Materialism, Marhneau, 22
Mathematics, Harnack, 49 , Spencer ; 54

& <z&<7 Logarithms
Mediaeval Thought, /to/?, 23
Mesca Ulad, Todd Lectures, 1 , 44.
Metaphysics, Laune, 29
Mexico, Religions of, Rfoille, 13.
Micah, Book of, Taylor, 26
Microscopy, Journal of the Roy. Micro

Soc , 49, Jownal of the Quekett

Micro Clvb t 50

Midrash, Christianity m, Herford, xg
Mineral Systems, Chapman^ 47.

I N DEX continued .

Monasticism, Hamack, 18.
Mosquitoes, Mews of Liverpool School

of Trop Medicine, 51
Mythology, American, Curim, 57

Greek, .Brown, 56 , Si Clair, 59

Northern, Stephens, 60
Myxomycetes, Cooke, 47
Natural Selection, Spencer, 32
Nautical Terms, Delbos, 41.
Nennms, The Irish, Hogan, 41
New Guinea, Cunningham M ems ,X , 48
New Testament, see Testament, 26
New Testament Tunes, Hausrath, 8, 18
Nitidularia, Murray ', 51
Norwegian Dictionary, Larsen, 42 ,

Rosing, 43

Ophthalmic Tests, Pray, 52 , Snellen, 54
Origins, Christian, Johnson, 20

of Religion, Hibbert Lectures, 12, 13
Pali, Dtyavamsa, 34 , Milanda Panho,
36 , Vinaya Pitakam, 38.

Handbook, Frankfurter, 35

Miscellany, 37

Paul, St , .Saswr, 8 , Pfleiderer, 9
Persian Grammar, Platts, 37
Peru, Religions of, Reville, 13
Philo Judaeus, Drummond, 29
Philosophy, 29

and Experience, Hodgson, 29

Jewish Alexandrian, Drummond, 29

of Religion, Pfleiderer, 9

Reorganisation of, Hodgson, 29

Religion of, Pemn, 23

Synthetic, Collins, 29 , Spencer, 31.
Phyflotaxis, Church, 47
Plague, Boghurst. 46.
Political Institutions, Spencer, Pnnc. of

Sociology, II , 31

Prayers, Common Prayer, 16 , Hopps,
20 , Jones, 21 ; Personal, 23 , .S#<
&r, 24 ; 7V Services, 26 , Vizard,
27 , Voysey, 27

Prehistoric Man, Aveoury, 56 , Engel-
hardt, 57 , Laing, 59 , Reliquiae
Aquitanicff^ 57.
Professional Institutions, LS>5wtfr,Princ

of Sociology, III , 31
Profit-sharing, Schloss, 59
Prophets of O.T., Ewald, 8
Protestant Faith, Hermann^ 12;

Reville, ii

Proverhs, Book of, Malan, 22
Psalms, Hebrew Texts, 18, 33

and Canticles, 7V Services, 26

Commentary, Ewald, 8
Psychology, ^f^, 30, Scripture, 30,

of Belief, A/fc&r, 30

Pnnciples of, Spencer, 31
Reconciliation, Henslow, 19
Reformation, Beard, 12.
Religion, Grounds and Principles,

Wnght, 28
History of, Kuenen, 9,
of Philosophy, Pemn, 23
Philosophy of. Pfleiderer,
' son, Smith, ^,

o Christianity, History of.

13

:ipies or, spencer, 31

^ of, Spencer, 32.

n, Song of, R&oille, 24

Place Ethical Society, Conway,

Religions, National and Universal,

K-uenen, 21

of Authority, Sabatier, 4.
Resurrection, Macan, 22, Marchant,

22
Reviews and Periodical Publications,

61

Rigveda, ffW/w, 38
Rome, Renan, 13

Runes, Kermode, 58 , Stephens, 60.
Ruth, Wnght, C H H,&
Sanitation, in Cape Coast Town, Taylor,

in Para, .Afater, 52
Sanscrit, Abhidhanaratnamala, 34 ,

Sorensen, 38

Self-Aid, in War, Canerhitt, 47.
Sermons, Beard, 15 , Broadbent, 16 ;

Hopps, 20 , Martyn, 22
Services, Common Prayer, 16 , Jones, 21 ;

7V Sennces, 26.
Silva Gadehca, O'Grady, 42
Social Dynamics, Mackenzie, 30

Statics, Spencer, 32.
Sociology, Descriptive, Spencer, 32

Pnnciples of, Spencer, 31

Study of, vT '
Solomon, Soi
South Place

16

Spanish Dictionary, Velasquez, 44
Spinal Cord, j5rrtf, 46.
Sternum, Paterson, 52
Storms, Piddington, 52
Sun Heat, Cunningham Mems , III., 48.
Synac, Bernstein, 34 , Diettrich, 34 ;

Noldeke, 36

Taal, Afrikander, <?<?#, 42 , Werner, 45.
Talmud, Christianity in, Herford, 19.
Tennyson, ,fi7&7, 57 , W^&T, 60
Testament, New, Commentary, Protes-
tant Commentary ', 9

Notes on, Skarpe, 25

Textual Criticism, Nestle, ^

Times, Hausrath, 8, 18

,<?<? &<? Gospels.

Testament, Old, Cuneiform Inscriptions,
Schroder, 9

Literature of, Kautzsch, 21
Test Types, Pray, 52 ; Snellen, 54.
Theism, Voysey, 27
Theological Translation Library, 3.
Theology, Analysis of, /'z.gg-, 17

History of, Pfleiderer, g
Truth, Search for, Horton, 20.
Trypanosomiasis, Dutton, 48

Virgm Birth, Lobstein, 10

Weissmann, Spencer, 32

Woman's Labour, Englishwoman's
Review, 57 , Harrison, 57 , Vynne,
60
Suffrage, Blackburn, 56

Yellow Fever, Durham, 48.

Zoology, Fasciculi Matayenses, 49;
Journal of the Linnean Soc., 49 ;
Liverpool Marine Biology Com-
mittee Mems , 50.

Williams & Norgate's
Catalogue of Publications.

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CHRISTIAN LIFE IN THE APOSTOLIC AGE. By Ernst
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account we have seen in short compass of these most important discoveries "
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" It is long since any book on Biblical Archaeology could claim to be more
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ghtful

by any thoughtful reader. We believe that most readers will be

delighted with the book as a description, romantic m its realism, of actual dis-
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Christian Commonwealth.

Vol. II. THE VIRGIN BIRTH OF CHRIST : An Historical
and Critical Essay By Paul Lobstein, Professor of Dogmatics
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" It should be added that Lobstein falls behind np one of those who have
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Vol. III. MY STRUGGLE FOR LIGHT : Confessions of a
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" Well worth translating and adding to the Crown Theological Library. It
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"This is a notable and vital book, full of keen thought and sweet with the
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Vol. IV. LIBERAL CHRISTIANITY: Its Origin, Nature, and
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Th6ologie Protestante de 1'Umversite" de Paris Translated and
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Vol. VII. EARLY HEBREW STORY A Study of the Origin,
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Vol. VIII BIBLE PROBLEMS AND THE NEW
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Interpretation in the University of Oxford, and Canon of Rochester.
Vol. IX. THE DOCTRINE OF THE ATONEMENT AND
ITS HISTORICAL EVOLUTION, and RELIGION AND
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THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CONCEPTION OF CHRIST:
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RHYS DAVIDS (Prof. T. W.). ON INDIAN BUDDHISM.

RfeVILLE (Prof. A.). ON THE ANCIENT RELIGIONS

OF MEXICO AND PERU.
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SAYCE (Prof. A. H.). ON THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT
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D'ALVIELLA (Count G.). ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF

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RENAN (E.). THE INFLUENCE OF THE INSTITU-
TIONS, THOUGHT, AND CULTURE OF ROME ON
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BEARD (C.). THE REFORMATION IN ITS RELATION
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PFLEIDERER (Prof. O.). THE INFLUENCE OF THE
APOSTLE PAUL ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF
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HATCH (Dr. E.). INFLUENCE OF GREEK IDEAS AND
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MONTEFIORE (C. G.). ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF
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OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS.

Christianity and Present-Lay Problems.

UPTON (Prof. C. B.). THE BASES OF RELIGIOUS
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DRUMMOND (Principal JAS.). VIA, VERITAS, VITA.
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DAVIDS (T. W. RHYS). LECTURES ON SOME
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DELITZSCH (F.). BABEL AND BIBLE. Two Lectures
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DRIVER (S. R.). See Mosheh ben Shesheth, p 22.

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EWALD (H.). COMMENTARY ON THE PROPHETS
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HATCH (Rev. Dr.). LECTURES ON THE INFLUENCE
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HAUSRATH (Prof. A.). HISTORY OF THE NEW
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HENSLOW (Rev. G.). THE ARGUMENT OF ADAPTA-
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